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INTRODUCTION
TO THE
origiNAL DELINEATIONS,
TOPOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL, AND DESCRIPTIVE,
INTITU LED
THE BEAUTIEs of
&
* …
%
%
3.
England and Wales.
COMPRISING
OBSERVATIONS ON THE HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES OF THE BRITONS ; THE
RoMANS IN BRITAN : THE ANGLO-SAxons; THE ANGLo-DANES ; *
AND THE ANGLO-NORMANS :
T(3 G. ET H E R W ITH
Remarks on the Progress of Ecclesiastical, Military, and
Domestic Architecture in Succeeding Ages.
By J. NORRIS BREWER.
“To be the Heralds of our Country’s fame,
Our first ambition, and our dearest aim.”
Gouch.
LO N DO N :
painted for J. Hahn is ; Long MAN AND co, ; J. walker; R. Baldwin;
sh eawood AND co. ; John cunder ; B. And R. chosby AND co.,
J. cut hell ; J. AND J. Richandson ; ca del L AND DAvies; c. ANP
J. RivingtoN : AND G. cow IE AND co. - sº
1818.



to the memory or His Grace,
. HUGH, w ..
3Duke of £orthumberland,
&c. &c. &c. .
THIS INTRODUCTORY VOLUME .
BEAUTIES or ENGLAND AND WALEs,
FORMING THE courterios or That work, is Inscribed º
WITH PROFOUND VENERATION.
THIS Volume was patronised by His
Grace ; and, by permission long since anyarded,
nas to have been honoured nith the sanction of
his ILLUSTRrous NAME as its Patron. — The
whole of its contents display the transitory na-
ture of earthly glory. Alas ! the page of In-
scription is woefully emphatic. Between the
intention and the act, the noblest work of God—
a GooD MAN–passed from the earth !
Praise cannot nomy be deemed adula-
tion / The nºriter, therefore, indulges in freedom
of eapression ; and INSCRIBES THIS Work To
THE MEMORY OF A NoHLEMAN niho sustained
the true dignity of his Rank by the Courtesy of
Ž w the

iv % DEDICATION.
the complete Gentleman ; nihose VIRTUEs mere
superior to the trials of every age ; nºko presented
in YouTH a model for the affluent and ennobled,
by the disdain of enervating pleasures, and the
dedication of his talents to the most arduous field
in nºbich his Country required evertion ; whose
PRIME or MANHooD was equally useful in the
Senate, and admirable in the evenplary practice
of social duties ; and n:ho, in the retirement of
AdvancED AND DEcLINING LIFE, inspirited
patriotic effort by PRECEPT, as before by Ex-
AMPLE, solacing the pains of decrepit seclusion
by the eacercise of benevolence, and the encourage-
ment of the Literature and the Arts of that
Country which his whole personal Career was
calculated to adorn.
-º-º: To the Memory of such a Nobleman,
HUGH, DUKE of North UMBERLAND, this
> Work, a humble Tribute to his lamented Funeral-
Monument, is inscribed by -
&
J. NoHRIs BREWER.
º

To THE
#tautits of englant amb &iales.
IN concluding this extensive work, the Pub-
lisher and Proprietors repeat the sentiments. ex-
pressed on the completion of the first volume.—
They await the decision of the Public, with con-
fidence, intermingled with fear. The former is
the offspring of the unceasing solicitude bestowed
on every part of the undertaking; the latter of
the occasional inaccuracies, and deterioration of
embellishment, which, even with the most sedu-
lous attention, seem hardly possible to be avoided
in a performance of this description.
The time for professions is now passed. The
work, in a complete state, is in the hands of the
Subscribers; and must, from its own character,
evince the sincerity of every avowal formerly w
made. But, in adverting to this circumstance,
and whilst consigning the volumes to a reliance
on their intrinsic merits, the Proprietors would
beg leave respectfully to observe that their duty
. ... . .” consisted

vi preface
consisted in selecting, and duly seconding the
exertions of, literary men and artists. After the
performance of such an obligation to the Sub-
scribers and to themselves, on the part of the
Proprietors, the opinions of the reader and con-
noisseur in the arts must apply to the respective
writers, draughtsmen, and engravers. And it is
hoped, that the efforts of all concerned have been
equally zealous and able; and have gratified the
expectations of those who have supported the
undertaking.
Whilst speaking of this work, viewed as a
whole, the Publisher reverts to those observations
which he submitted on the completion of the
Beauties of England and Wales as far as re-
garded the county surveys, and independent of
the present volume, comprising an Essay intro-
ductory to the prosecution of Topographical re-
searches, and to the study of our National An-
tiquities. ; :
“It will be readily admitted by the candid of
every class, and especially by those conversant in
topographical investigation, that some errors and
xz- oversights are unavoidable in every department *ś
of a work so multifarious in its notices, and pub-
lished with periodical expedition. These casual
faults will plead, it is hoped, their own excuse
with the liberal; and it is confidently presumed
that no topographical work, equally comprehen-
sive,

to The n e Auties of ENGLAND AND w ALEs. vii
sive, has appeared with less numerous inaccura-
cies in a first edition. % .
“If the same scale of comparison may be al-
lowed, the Publisher would beg permission to
suggest, in regard to such Subscribers as have
complained of the length of time employed in the
progress of the BEAUTIEs of ENGLAND, that it
is believed a work so comprehensive, founded on
actual and minute survey, was never written,
printed, and produced to the Public, in a shorter
period, although this has been retarded, in many
of its parts, by circumstances peculiarly unpro-
pitious.”
The Subscribers and the Public are entitled to
a full explanation of the rise and progress of a
work which has received extensive patronage,
and has, assuredly, conduced in a memorable de-
gree towards rendering an object of fashionable
pursuit that species of research, which, until late
years, was considered destitute of interest to all
but the dull explorer of pedigrees, and the melan-
choly and tasteless examiner of ruinous masses of .
stone, who venerated such fragments only because
they were old.—Without undue assumption, it may
be asserted, that the BEAUTIEs of ENGLAND AND
WALEs have performed the laudable task of ame-
liorating much that was repugnant in the crust
of antiquity; have shewn that even the discussion
of pedigrees may become a delightful source of
information,

viii - PREFACE
information to the general reader, by extracting,
and holding forth to notice, names little known,
but connected with interesting passages in the
story of past days; and have proved that ponde-
rous masses of monastic or castellated stone, nearly
shapeless through age, and overgrown with ivy,
are often fraught with tales of touching emphasis.
They have endeavoured to render it familiar
with the polite, as well as the erudite, that no ex-
panse of British ground is so steril as to want a
claim on the feelings and taste of the investigator,
who combines the shades of past scenery with
present appearances. It has, indeed, been their
aim to prove that the walk of Topographical Li-
terature is not calculated for confinement to the
dry indiscriminate antiquary and the genealogist;
but that the description of a particular place may
be rendered the inspiriting centre of intelligence
at once various, amusing, and instructive ; unit-
ing the beauties of natural history, and the pro-
gress of science and the arts, with a display of
the last noble result of cultivated nature—moral
and intellectual excellence,
the first nine volumes; and its known influence
on the topographical literature of the age; are
thus explained in a letter from Mr. Britton to the
Editor of this Introductory volume. . . . . .
Letter

To THE BEAUTIEs of ENGLAND AND w A Les. ix
Letter from J. Britton, Esq., F.S.A. to Mr. J. Norris Brewer.
. . . . . In compliance with your wishes, I will
endeavour to furnish some account of the origin and early progress
of the BEAUTies of ENGLAND *ND Wales ;—point out the
manner in which that work was originally conducted, and furnish
you with the names of most of those gentlemen who afforded
myself and Mr. Brayley literary information towards the comple-
tion of the first nine Volumes, Volume Eleven, and a portion of the
Fifteenth. A statement of this kind appears to be not only due to
the patrons of the Work, but an essentially component pat of it.
I am the more desirous of being particular on these subjects,
and of recording certain facts in the Volume you are now print-
ing, as I am well aware, that both myself and my early co-
adjutor have been implicated in the errors of other persons, with
whom we were never directly or indirectly connected. Believe
me, my dear Sir, though I am eager to justify myself for what
is done,—guard against erroneous conclusions,—and furnish the
future Topographer and Biographer with accurate data respecting
a large and popular publication, I do not wish to traduce any of
its editors, authors, or publishers; or make a statement that is
not strictly applicable to the contents, and execution of the
Work. From the experience you have had in collecting and
writing the accounts of Oxfordshire, Warwickshire, and Middle-
sex, you must be well aware of the extreme difficulty of obtain-
ing correct information on many subjects which you may be de-
sirous of explaining ;—of the incompetency of some to afford com-
munication;–of the indolence and apathy of others;–of the re-
served pride of certain persons, and contemptuous conduct of others.
These are only some of the unpleasantries we have had to encoun-
ter:—hence the experienced topographer and acute critic should
exercise much lenity in estimating the contents of a work like the
present, which embraces such a vast valiety of subjects, of places,
persons, and things ;—many of which, from the limits which we ori-
ginally prescribed to ourselves, could only be briefly noticed, not
. * ... ſº ºx ºn . illustrated


X : ... ſº PREE A C E
illustrated in detail. At the commencement of this publication,
we were certainly much too concise, indeed on many subjects
wholly silent. As the work advanced we acquired not only more
knowledge of general chorography and antiquities, but also learnt
what was required by the topographical reader; and what was
essential towards the completion of the publication. Anxious to
satisfy the one, and effect the other, we extended our views,
eagerly sought for original information,-visited nearly every
town and principal place in each county,+obtained original
communications from many distinguished persons, as will be
shewn in a subsequent list,-analized and compared every
topographical work that had been published,— and indeed
zealously endeavoured to render the work, not only satisfac-
tory and creditable to ourselves, but to the critical reader, and
to the country. As conducive to this end, we sought a new
style of embellishment; in which accuracy of representation
should be combined with picturesque effect: in which the young
draftsman and engraver, should have an opportunity of display-
ing their respective talents, and vie with each other in the career
of fame.—A new era in topographical literature, as you will readily
admit, has been created since the commencement of this century—
for, before the BEAUTIEs of ENGLAND appeared, the generality of
county histories, and antiquarian works were rather disfigured than
adorned by their embellishments. A few of the old draftsmen and
engravers are, however, entitled to respect and praise. Hollar,
Loggan, and Burghers, have bequeathed us many interesting
views of buildings, monuments, stained g ass, &c.: but many of º:
the works, even of these artists, are very inaccurate; and from the
obvious reason, that the engravers were not sufficiently remunerated
for their skill and time. The old bird’s-eye views, by Kip, Knyſ,
&c. and the Views, by S. and N. Buck, are highly useful and
interesting; but this class of embellishment is at present “out of
fashion.” The “cuts,” as they are sometimes called, contained in
Grose’s “Antiquities,” and those copied from them, are only to-
lerable in the very infancy of literature and art, and may be re-
garded as approaching to caricatures in topography. Gilpin's
* W1GWS
To the beauties of Engla ND AND wales. xi
views in his various “Tours,” have a certain degree of prettiness and
picturesque effect: but they have no one quality of accuracy, nor
do they deserve to be classed with topographical embellishments.
They may amuse the young masters and misses of drawing schools,
but unfortunately they lead to slightness and a neglect of fidelity.
In Pennant's works, and Cordiner's Antiquities of Scotland,”
there are some respectable prints. Dr. STUKELEY, in his volumes
on ‘Stonehenge,” and ‘Abury,” and in his “Itinerarium Curiosum,”
was the first topographical antiquary that furnished plans and
sections of buildings, &c.; and these are now become eminently
interesting and valuable. But for his prints of Avebury, or
Abury, as he calls it, we should not have known the magnitude
and arrangement of that vast druidical or aboriginal monument.
By these and his descriptions, we are enabled to ascertain the
immense extent, and unique arrangement, of that mighty work;
which the Goths, of modern times, have almost destroyed.* To
my respected, but visionary countryman, John AUBREY, we are
also indebted for much curious information on the state of many anti-
quities, before Stukeley’s time. The topographical works of Dug-
dale, Plot, Carew, Lambard, Burton, and Thoroton, are truly valu-
able and curious. The first engravings, however, of interest, in our
times, were Hearne and Byrne’s ‘Antiquities of Great Britain;' and
these have since been succeeded by a list of works too numerous
to be particularised here; but the greater part of which have ori-
ginated from the Beauries of England ; some in opposition to
it; some from emulation; and others from a spirit of enquiry, and
love of the subject, which grew up with the progress of that
work. Among other topographical publications, which have thus
courted public patronage, and some of which have conferred ho-
* . . . nour
* A view of this village is given in the account of Wiltshire, Vol. xv.
merely to shew a few of the upright stones : but to attain an accurate know-
ledge of the whole temple, in its pristine and perfect state, it is necessary to
display it by ground-plans, and different geometrical views. This I propose
to do in my third Volume of the “Beauties of Wiltshire,” which is ready for
2 the press, and will speedily be produced. -
xii PR EFACE
nour on their respective authors and districts, I feel much plea-
sure in noticing the following:— . .
“The History of the County Palatine and City of Chester,”
now publishing it folio, by GeoRee ORMERod, Esq., M.A. and
F.S.A. is a very valuable and interesting specimen of topography.
This gentleman communicated much useful and original informa-
tion relating to Lancashire, and generously presented a plate of
the collegiate church at Manchester. In one of his letters to me,
dated September 3, 1807, he thus judiciously remarks on the
character of the present work. “I always considered your
“Beauties’ as not intended to enter into deep disquisitions ap-
plicable only to the antiquary, or addressed merely to the local
vanity of certain county inhabitants; but, as a popular work for
general entertainment and utility, a focus to collect the rays of
scattered information.”
“Cantabrigia Depicta,” by Messrs. Harraden and Son, one
Vol. 4to, with several plates. “A History and Description of
Cornwall,” now publishing in 4to. by F. Hitchins, Esq. and S.
Drewe, of St. Austle. The latter gentleman visited some places
in Cornwall, with me, in 1804; and also communicated several
long and interesting letters on the manners, customs, habits, &c.
of the miners of that county. A “ History and Illustration of
St. George's Chapel, Windsor,” by William Herbert, and F.
Nash, folio. A “History of Islington,” by Mr. Nelson, one
Vol. 4to, “The History of the Inns of Court and Chancery,”
by W. Herbert, one Vol. 4to, and 8vo. “ The History and
Antiquities of the County of Northampton,” by G. Baker.
This worthy and zealous topographer has announced the above
work to be comprised in ſour Vols. folio: and I am enabled, from
personal knowledge, to say, that his collections are vast; and that
he is assiduous and indefatigable in accumulating and analising
an extensive mass of ulaterials. He very kindly furnished much
original information towards the account of Northamptonshire, in
the eleventh Volume of this work.- An Account and Illus-
trations of the Isle of Wight, one Vol. 8vo.—“ The Southern
sº º sº
Coast .
ro The BEAUTIEs of ENGLAN D AN I w A LRs. xiii
*.
Coast of England,” now publishing in 4to, Numbers.—“ The
Thames, with Graphic Illustrations,” two Wols, 4to. and 8vo.
produced by Messrs. W. and G. Cooke, and so highly cre-
ditable to their professional talents, would probably never have
appeared but from the excitement and example of the Beauties
of England, for which work, both those excellent Engravers
executed some of the early plates. It is a pleasing circumstance
to the true lover of topography, to contemplate such eminent
literary and graphic publications, and to know that the taste for,
and the landable rivalry displayed in them, have originated in a
work, which was as humble and unassuming in its origin, as the
authors were in circumstances and pretensions. -
Respecting the embellishments of this work, it is proper to
remark, that, both myself and Mr. Brayley, wished to give sub-
jects of Antiquities more frequently than they were adopted,
knowing that such prints were more particularly required by
the purchasers;–but this was objected to by the Publisher, who
preferred seats and wood-scenery, considering these the principal
beauties of the country. From this circumstance, arose the
“Architectural Antiquities,” and Antiquarian Cabinet,” the
first of which has been completed in four Vols. 4to. with 270
Plates. The latter work was commenced by Mr. Brayley, and
is finished in ten Vols. 18mo. with above 400 Plates. :
After the death of the original Publisher, I was requested by
the respectable Publisher of this Volume, to write the account of
Wiltshire, my native county, to form part of the Fifteenth Vo-
lume of the present work; and this portion of the Beauties, I can
refer to with some degree of confidence and pleasure, as consist-
ing almost wholly of original information, and being the result
of personal inquiry and examination. - * ,
“The Beauties of England And Wales,” in title and plan,
originated in “the Beauties of Wiltshire,” two volumes,” which
I published in 1801, in conjunction with Messrs. Vernor and Hood,
º booksellers
" I must remark, however, that those volumes have little pretensions to
topographical

xiv. º P REFA C E
booksellers, of the Poultry. At that time, I believe, there was not
an original topographical work published respecting England,
generally, excepting, indeed, the “Magna Britannia,” in six
volumes, quarto. There was also “A Description of England
and Wales,” in ten volumes, 12mo, 1769, and some folio
works, called “ Boswell's Antiquities,” and “ British Travellers,”
chiefly copied from “Grose's Antiquities,” and published with
fictitious names, which are only entitled to notice here, to guard
the young topographer; as I am justified in saying they are hasty
and illiterate compilations, without any attempt at originality, or
comparative examination. Like the blinded horse in a mill, each
compiler followed the other in plodding, thoughtless, unvaried
succession; and thus error upon error has been repeated, and
absurdity after absurdity disseminated. “The Antiquities of
England and Wales,” &c. by Grose, 1772, 1776, only embraced
a few objects in the wide range of English topography. It had,
however, been popular, and that led the Publishers of the “Beau-
ties” to anticipate equal success in a new publication, which should
embrace all the essential ingredients of Grose's work, also of Cam-
den’s “Britannia,” and be combined with whatever was interesting
in the recent local histories, agricultural surveys, general tours, &c.
as well as include such original information as could be obtained.
Mr. Hood, the acting partner of the firm above-mentioned, readily
agreed to take a principal share in our newly-projected work ;
and Mr. Brayley and myself commenced a general tour over En-
gland and Wales, in June, 1800. The first Number, devoted to
Bedfordshire, was published in April, 1801; and from that time
& . till

topographical or antiquarian merit. They were written under very unfa.
vourable and depressing circumstances, and in referring to them, I wish to
obtain the most favourable and candid construction from the topographical cri-
tic. Mr. Gough, in the Gentleman's Magazine, wrote some harsh, but I be-
lieve, just strictures on them. A third volume, to conclude the work, and
embrace accounts of such places as are not noticed in the two volumes, is now
ready for the press, and I trust is not only better written, but more strictly
topographical than the former. º, %.
TO THE B E A UT1 ES OF ENGLAN ID AN D W A LES, XV
till the conclusion of the Sixth Volume, the publication was con-
tinued in our joint names, and with our united co-operation, and
exertion. The Numbers, however, did not appear in regular pe-
riodical succession; which occasioned frequent disputes between
the Publisher and the authors; and probably dissatisfied some of
the most eager readers—It should, however, be remembered that
the work was not intended to be a mere compilation, nor is it com-
posed of select extracts, as the absurdity of its title of “Beauties,”
has been supposed to intimate:*—a large portion of it is original
matter, and the parts derived from printed authorities, were care-
fully analised investigated and acknowledged. This, indeed, must
to the topographical reader, and to those who will give themselves
the trouble of comparing the particular account of any place, or
county, with preceding works. In explanation of one of the de-
lays of publication, Mr. Brayley penned the following address for
the wrapper of No. X. * 3: ; *
“The present Number has been delayed partly in consequence
of my own indisposition, and partly by the absence of Mr.
Britton, who, for the sole purpose of obtaining original and ac-
curate information, undertook, in the most inclement season of the
year, [Dec. 1801] to make a journey through the counties of Corn-
wall and Devon, in the former of which he is yet pursuing his
researches. It is our most ardent wish to render THE BEAUTIes
of ENGLAND AND WALEs, as original, as correct, and as inte-
resting, as any work of a similar nature, and limits, that can ever
issue from the press. If, therefore, from the delay of promised
communications, (and this is not one of the least inconveniences
- - - - we
* The title of “Beauties or ENGLAND,” &c. was retained in deference
to the wishes of the Publisher; but the authors were so fully sensible of the
inadequacy of that phrase to explain the nature of the work, that they after-
wards subjoined the words “Ohio INAL Delineations, Topographical, His-
torical, and Descriptive,” as a secondary title, and more illustrative of its con
tents. The title of “Beauties of England,” &c. had been previously adopt-
ed in two or three superficial and slight works, which will be enumerated in a
subsequent page. - < - -
xvi e REF Act.
we have to combat,) from indisposition, or, from the time whicſ,
necessarily elapses in procuring genuine materials, by journeys to
different parts of the kingdom, the publication should at any fu-
ture time, as in this case, be unavoidably protracted, we trust-
that our Subscribers will pardon the delay; and the more espe-
cially, because it will never be resorted to, but when it tends to
increase the accuracy of the work”, , ,
The first six Volumes have been jointly executed by Mr. Bray-
ley and myself; and it is but justice to state, that the greatest -
portion of their literary composition was from the pen of that
gentleman, who, with much care and exertion, endeavoured to
render them accurate and original. The principal travelling, cor- .
respondence, labour of accumulating books, documents, direction
of draughtsmen, engravers, and some other necessary. vocations.
chiefly devolved on me; and I felt it a pleasure and duty to pro-
secute my task with zeal and assiduity. At the close of the sixth
volume it was deemed expedient that each of us should undertake
to write and conduct a Volume alternately; and, by arrangement,
- the counties of Hertford, Huntingdon, and Kent, devolved on Mr. >
Brayley, for Vol. VII, ; whilst Lancashire, Leicestershire, and
Lincolnshire, came under my direction, for Vol. VIII. . The former
counties having extended to two Volumes, mine was numbered IX.
In the prosecution of this Volume, I was actuated by a favourite
maxim, that the writer and reader should perfectly understand
each other; that there should be no reserve or ambiguity in the
former, nor suspicion or doubt with the latter. A mutual cor-
diality and confidence should exist, and then the one would pur-
sue his labours with comfort and pleasure to himself, whilst the
other would read with additional advantage and delight: besides,
in an extensive work, like the present, the author must calculate
on the communications of intelligent correspondents ; who will
not be likely to write freely and fully, unless they are confident
that their favours will be properly a preciated and applied. I
therefore stated my views and opinions as to the characteristics
º




to the B E AUT, as of EN & LAND AND walks. xvii
sº
of “the Beauties of England,” in the following terms, in a cir-
cular letter, to many gentlemen of the counties just named.
“Brevity, perspicuity, and selection, are the most essential
desiderata in the present work: which is not intended to inform
the veteran antiquary and topographer, but rather to instruct and
please the general reader. It is not to be considered merely as a
dry, dull, chronicle of facts, but a popular History and Descrip-
tion of the Cities, Towns, Chief Seats, and ANTIquities;
with the Natural and Antificial Curiosties of every county.
Its province is to give a pleasing and ſainiliar picture of the geo-
graphy, statistics, and national peculiarities of England, in the
aggregate, and of its parochial characteristics in particular.
Such is the idea I have formed of what the work ought to be,
and it will be my aim to render the topographical accounts of
Lancashire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, &c. conformable to this
standard.” . . . . * ,
In regard to that portion of Middlesex, or rather of LoNDoN,
which was written by Mr. Brayley, and in the general work is
styled the First and Second Parts of Volume X. but which ac-
tually constitute Volumes in themselves—Mr. Brayley has de-
sired me to say, “ that (with one exception) the only gen-
tleman from whom he obtained any particular written informa-
tion, was his respected friend, Thomas Fisher, Esq. For,
whatever else appears in those Volumes, up to page 720, of
the Second Part, was principally obtained by his own labour,
and his own researches. Much oral information, however, Waſ,
procured during his progress through London, from divers gen-
tlemen, who declined having their names publicly noticed. º
“The account of Huntingdonshine was likewise drawn up,
chiefly, from his own notes; from the Latin Histories of Ramsey -
Abbey and Ely, published by Gale, in the Decem Scriptores;
and from what has been called the “Cotton Manuscript,’ pre-
served among Baker's Collections, in the University Library, at
Cambridge.” . . . . . --
On reviewing the commencement, and early progress of this'
work, I cannot but feel greatly astonished at its rapid success
* …, b and
xviſt * ::3% *R EFA C F.
and popularity; at the number and variety of correspondents
and friends it called forth from several counties, and at the in-
tuence it produced on topographical literature. This astonish-
ment, however, chiefly arises from a knowledge that both myself
and my co-adjutor were unknown in the republic of letters—were
in very humble stations of life, and consequently without the
influence or connexion, calculated to produce those effects. Yet
thus circumscribed, we gradually and imperceptibly extended
our sphere of communication—increased the reputation and sale
of the work, by improving its contents, and by demonstrating a
disposition to be sincere, and to impart all the information that
was communicated. .
Having thus, my dear Sir, detailed all such particulars as
ºccur to me to be material for publication, I would also furnish
you with correctious and additious to the volumes already referred
to ; but fear that this task would impel you to extend your in-
troductory remarks much beyond the prescribed limits.-At first,
as already noticed, we were very brief; but, in the course of fif-
teen years, I have made so many additions to each county, that
1 should feel extreme difficulty in selecting from the mass such
materials as would be deemed requisite by the general reader,
and still not be regarded as too prolix for supplementary matter.
Many corrections are already printed in the errata to each Volume.
The Introductory Volume, to which it is proposed to annex
this statement, I have reason to believe, will be useful and inte-
resting. It is essential to the work, and it was always our inten.
stion to have written a preliminary memoir; but, in our calculations,
concerning the accounts of Bedfordshire, Berkshire, and Bucking-
hamshire, we were certainly much deceived by supposing that such
a review would make only about half as much again as the letter-
press o : those counties, and thus constitu !e a portion of the firs
W .:3-
olume, . You have very properly decid º on tº ak ing it a dis tifict
e.
Believe me yours, very truly, .
ast 24, 1817. %











to the B E A uties of England AND w ALEs. xix
The principal circumstances connected with
the design and early progress of this undertaking,
are explained with equal candour and accuracy in
the preceding comprehensive letter. Such parti-
culars relating to its subsequent procedure, as are
necessary to be communicated to the Subscribers,
may be stated in the following terms. ... "
3. 3 Or the decease of Mr. Hood, which occurred
in the year 1811, when not more than ten Vo-
lumes and a few Numbers had appeared, his
cessor declined the future management of the
»rk; and that difficult task was undertaken by
Mr. Harris, the present Publisher, in attention to
e general wish of the remaining proprietors.
In the performance of a duty implicating so many
objects, and depending on so great a variety of
co-adjutors, he has not failed to meet with many
But, conscious of using indefatigable exertions to
hasten, as much as was possi ble, without hurrying,
the completion; and equally conscious of adopting
every measure which appeared to promise benefit
ance of the Subscribers, and trusts that the work,
in its general character, is executed consistently
with their wishes. Lºu ſº ºved ºn 9
His exertions would have been unavailing with-
out the co-operation of the other proprietors. He














Yx - r REF Ace
feels it necessary and desirable to observe, that
one sentiment alone has prevailed among the
whole of those concerned in the property of this
publication. Viewing it as a work calculated to
meet with national encouragement, and to form a
legitimate source of topographical information in
ages subsequent to its first appearance, they de-
termined on considering expense as a secondary
object, and on procuring the best local intelli-
gence which pecuniary liberality could command.
It is requisite to state explicitly the different per-
sons who have assisted in the principal divisions of
the work, while under the management of the pre-
sent Publisher. On the secession of Mr. Britton
and Mr. Brayley, several writers were engaged to
investigate and describe different counties. The
following enumeration shews the gentlemen em-
ployed for respective districts:– * . . . . .
* * º Comprising Northumberland Rev. John Hodgson.
"Wol. 12. Nottinghamshire - - - - F. C. Laird. .
) Oxfordshire - - - - - - J. Norris Brewer.
Rutlandshire - - - - - F. C. Laird.
} Comprising Shropshire, So- \
. Vol. 13. A mersetshire, and Stafford- y Rev. J. Nightingale.
shire - - - - -
Comprising Suffolk, Surre
and Sussex - - - . * . . . . .
Comprising Warwickshire - J; Norris Brewer.
* & W iltshire `... - * * * ** * iro; - John Britton, F.S.A •
Vol. 15. A "*" - . . … ... " a ' ' ' ' '
"", "º Westmorland -, -ij-, -, -, Rev. John Hodgson.
§
: º gº ºf , in ºn º x.
Vol. 14. s {f rederic Shoberl.
*** * º, Worcestershire, - - x - 32. F. C. Laird. & w
Vol. 16. Yorkshire - - - - - - J. Biglaid. º
*Vol. 17. North Wales - - - - - - - Rev. J. Evans.
Wol. 18. South Wales - - - - - Rev. T. Rees, F.S.A.
The




ro Th E B F AU ti Es or ENG LAND AND WALEs. xxi
The completion of the Tenth Volume must be
explained by the following brief statement.—This
Volume consists of five Parts, and comprises the
History of London and W estminster, together with
that of the county of Middlesex. The eighteen
first Numbers, (ending at page 720, of the Second
Part,) were written by Mr. Brayley. It then be-
came desirable to request other assistance; and
the task of finishing the topographical account of
London and Westminster was undertaken by the
Rev. J. Nightingale. The Part comprising de-
lineations of Middlesex, as a county separate from
the metropolis, was written by Mr. J. Norris
Brewer, and contains a notice of every parish in
that county.—It is presumed that the Public will
duly appreciate the difficulty of continuing the
pages relating to London and Westminster, on
a plan not laid down by the writer.”
;
In regard to the embellishments, the Publisher
can truly aver, that engravers of the greatest emi-
nence, or promise, have been anxiously sought
- - *. after,
. The above five Parts, or Volumes, of the “Beauties or
ENGLAND, are published separately, under the following title:
“London and Middlesex; or an Historical, Commercial, and
* Descriptive Survey of the Metropolis of Great Britain, including
sketches of its Envirous, aud a Topographical Account of the
most remarkable Places in the above County. Illustrated with
Engravings.” The price of the Work, in boards, is 6l. 5s, small
paper; and large paper, 10l. - :
zzii PR EFACE
after, and their exertions liberally remunerated.
He trusts, therefore, that the Plates will be found
generally executed with due talent and fidelity.
On finally taking leave of the Subscribers to
this Work, and (on the present occasion) of its
numerous friends, the Publisher and Proprietors
have the sincere gratification arising from a con-
sciousness of having endeavoured to realize every
promise held forth at the commencement of the
concern, with the exception of a List of the Sub-
scribers. This promise was made in the infancy
of the undertaking ; and the subsequent extension
of patronage, and alterations proceeding from the
great length of time employed in its completion;
will, it is confidently hoped, plead a sufficient apo-
logy for the abandonment of such a part of the
original design. . . . . . . º
That very arduous part of the promised con-
tents, an INTRoduction, comprising “a Review
of British, Roman, and Saxon History,” has been
performed, at an expense of time and labour to
which the size of the Volume is by no means cor-
The Subscribers will recollect that the Intro-
ductory. Essay was originally intended to form part
of the first Volume, but that its execution was de-
ferred, on account of “the length of time, and ex-
tensive reading, necessary to the full investigation.
and arrangement of the numerous and complex sub-
. . . . . . . . . º: * , ject
• * *
; : * * *... -



to the sea ur. Es or eNº LAN p AND wales. Xxiii
jects it involves.”—It is hoped that the same
causes of delay will obtain an excuse for its late
appearance, when consigned to the hand of a writer
unconnected with the work in its early stages. But
he has great plea sure in acknowled ging the Fiendly .
COInduct of M. R. BRITTo N, who has, on every 0C-
casion, afforded with most obliging liberality, such
information as was requested concerning the plan
on which it was originally intended that the Intro-
duction should be executed; and has, also, favour-
ed the author with the loan of several rare books.
It was observed, in a former address to the Sub-
scribers, that “The publication of THE BEAU-
TiEs of ENGLAND AND WALEs, in a series of
detached parts, rendered unavoidable a vast num,
ber of allusions to the state of the country in pre-
ceding times; and to the manners and endowments
of the inhabitants, and the prevailing laws, institu-
tions, and arts at different periods of history. To
have elucidated these on every occurrence would
have led to innumerable repetitions ; and entirely
to omit all elucidation would leave the Work much
less compl ete and satisfacto ry than the Proprietors
were desirous it should ultimately remain in the
hands of their Subscribers. Necessity, therefore, has
combined with inclination in throw
ing together, as
uctory matter, whatever is of general appli-
- . * *
tºº. . . . . . . . . .
“Advertisement on the completion of the first Volume of the
Beauties of England and Wales. :
b 4


















xxiv. PREFA C E -
| Such terms of explanation, however, scarcely
apply to the whole of the desiderata which became
obvious on a more mature consideration of the sub-
ject. The requisite topics of disquisition in a com-
plete introduction to the study of English and
Welsh Topography, were, indeed, found to be so
multifarious, that it remained only to make a selec-
tion of the classes imperatively demanding notice.
In prosecuting this choice of subjects, the Edi-
tor has been guided by an estimate of the objects
most frequently occurring in topographical re-
searches, andleast illustrated by remarks to be found,
in a condensed form, in books easily attainable.
He has, therefore, selected, as primary objects of
attention, those subjects of antiquarian enquiry
which form so large and interesting a portion of the
“Beauties;” and concerning which the most sa-
tisfactory information is scattered in many weighty,
recondite, and very expensive works.
In the execution of his task he has abstained, in
general practice, from the delivery of individual
opinion; and has considered it his duty to present
a digest of the remarks afforded by the most judi-
as writers upon every subject chosen for discus-
ºsion.—Thus endeavou ring to render “the Intro-
duction to the Beauties,” a brief summary of anti-
quarian observations on such topics as appeared to
be most essential in topographical inv estigations.
If the reader should deem his pages deficient in
that relief which springs from anecdote, and which
. hās


to the n e Auties of ENGLAND AND wales. xxy
has been cultivated in our County delineations, he
is requested to recollect that the unavoidable limits
of the Introduction prevented much attention to
incidental remark, or studied ornament; and that
the first, great object of the Editor was the con-
veyance of information. In attempting this office, it
has been his endeavour to facilitate as much as pos-
sible the study of antiquities, by rendering the ap-
proaches easy ; and by referring, in the margin, to
works of most ready intelligence, while more ab-
struse authorities are left for notice in the appended
list of Books treating on the collective topography
and antiquities of this countr tº
Anxious to avail himself of the opportunity pre-
sented by the Introductory Wol ume, the Editor,
under the direction of the Publisher, has collected
from the writers of several counties some addi-
tional corrections, together with a few particulars
of intelligence obtained since the pro duction of
their respective volumes, or calculated to supply -
omissions almost inevitable to the celerity of pe-
riodical publication, sº ºn ºn noººo
º
hiſ It has likewise been judged desirable to inserti
this volume, summaries of the population, acco ~.
ing to the returns made under the authority of Par-
liament in the year 1811, for all such counties as
were described in “the Beauties' before the pu b-
lication of those returns. Thus, as far as was at-
tainable, the Proprietors have endeavoured to ren-
der their work applicable, in every important
. 3 point,









xxvi PR EFA C E
point, to the existing state of topographical cir-
cumstances. - - .
A truly pleasing duty remains to be performed.
—The names of those noblemen and gentlemen
who favoured this publication with the contribution
of Plates; who honoured the different editors with
a correspondence on the subject of topographical
information; or otherwise facilitated the execution
of these Historical and Descriptive Delineations
of England and Wales; have often been noticed,
during the progress of the work, only on such su-
pernumerary leaves as were liable to be destroyed
on the binding of the volumes in a complete form.
—A grateful sense of respect to these liberal pa-
trons of the undertaking, imperatively demands
that their names should be now collected, and pre-
sented to the remembrance of the Subscribers and
the Public, in pages which, from situation, are likely
to be as durable as those improved by the intelli-
!ence that they afforded. In addition to the tie of
gratitude, it cannot fail of being desirable to exhi-
bit the degree of favour obtained in the execution
of so extensive a topographical work, as a mark of
the superior liberality of the present age, compared
with those in which similar investigations we
with greater difficulty, carried into effec - - --
. It is req isite, however, that the editors should
place a faithful record in the annals of topogº aphy;
and it must not be concealed that, in nearly every
- county,
** . . . . . .













To rh E BEAUTIEs of ENGLAND AND w A LEs. Xxvii
county, some partial discouragement occurred, from
the prejudices or indifference of individuals, whose
situation in life should have rendered them superior
to misapprehension or literary apathy. Insensible
themselves to the pleasures arising from such a
pursuit, these persons forgot that their station and
opportunities imposed it as a social duty that they
should aid in the gratification of others, through
the medium of a publication intended for general
perusal.—Peace be with the indifferent' and long
may their honours of office, or manorial posses-
sions, lend tranquillity to their slumbers! The
contumelious are left to the misery inflicted by in-
jurious folly, without one wish for an augmentation
of its pangs. * . . . . .
The list of those who favoured the work with
local information and graphic contributions, is
honourable to the LITERARY SPIRIT of the age,
and is justly a subject of gratification and pride
with the persons on whom the obligations were:
more particularly bestowed.
The editor of the INTRoduction inserted a
request for communications on antiquarian subjects,
of a local character, but admitting of a general
applieation, in the Gentleman's Magazine, and
other eligible periodical publications. This ad-
dress was answered, in a solitary but valuable in-
stance, by THoMAs WALFord, Esq. F. A. S. of
Birdbrook, *
Essex; whose politeness of manner
rendered





xxviii PRIZ FA C E
rendered additionally pleasing the opinions which
he communicated on the subjects of crypts, and
the round towers of churches. * . . . . . . . . . . . . * : " " . . . . .
But the personal applications of the same edi-
tor were attended with a degree of success en-
titled to his lasting gratitude. It is with sincere
pleasure that he acknowledges the assistance of
the REv. T. LEMAN, of Bath, since the name of
this gentleman must necessarily bestow importance
on those pages which underwent his revision. To
Mr. Leman this work is indebted for the drawings
of the two. maps by which it is illustrated. The
first exhibiting the situation of the different tribes
of Britain, with their towns and trackways, as they
existed at the first invasion of Caesar; and the se-
cond containing a display of Roman stations and
roads. . . . . . . .
It is here necessary to explain that the latter map
is formed on one, from a drawing by the Rev. T.
Leman, inserted in Mr. Hatcher's edition of Rich-
ard of Cirencester; to which are added, in the pre-
sent publication, numerous discoveries made since
the appearance of that work.-The Proprietors are
greatly obliged by Mr. Hatcher having permitted
them to profit by his engraving, in every particular
x useful to the artist employed by themselves, , , ,
That part of the letter-press which relates to
the geography of ancient Britain, is chiefly formed
on intelligence conveyed by Mr. Leman; and it
-: *r |S.

To The B E A UT 1 Es of E N g LAN p AND wa les. Xxix
*The above acknowledgme # * * g. º
of assistance received by the Editor of the Intro-
º
c
is to be regretted that the limits of the Introduc-
tion prevented the editor from availing himself
more largely of the rich stores of information un-
reservedly laid open by so profound and judicious
an antiquary. All that is of principal value in
the remarks on the construction, and charasteristi-
cal features, of Roman roads, likewise proceeded
from information and corrections afforded by the
same gentleman. . . . . . . ;
The Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of
CLoyNE, is particularly requested to permit the
Editor to return thanks for marks of polite atten-
tion, which were circumscribed only by his diffi-
dence in intruding on time so truly valuable as
that of his Lordship.
To Jo HN NiCHols, Esq. F.A.S. he is indebt-
ed for the loan of several estimable books, and for
facilities afforded to various objects of enquiry. º
Materials for the article on the Civil Divisions
and Laws of the Anglo-Saxon S, Were furnished, by
a gentleman whose professional pursuits should
render him capable of communicating valuable in-
formation on those subjects. " ":
its express the extent
pt that he was aided in forming the
; : * * * iting on the topography and anti-
uities of England collectively, by Mr. W. Up-
q
acquaintance
%









XXX - PR EFACE
acquaintance with all such publications is proved
by his useful and curious work, intituled, A Biblio-
graphical Account of the principal Works relating
to English Topography.
The following PLATEs were given to the Au-
thors in the course of the publication, and again
presented to the Public, in addition to the
usual number of Plates promised in the condi-
tions.” - -
Views of PLA ces - GIVEN BY
Coleshill - - - - Berks The Earl of Radnor º
Stow - - - - - Bucks. The Marquis of Buckingham
Stoke Park - -, - Bucks John Penn, Esq. ºn ºf
Powderham Castle - Devon (Two Views) Lord Courtney,
& 3 & 3, ...”. & ; (by the favour of Mr. Craig)
Fulford House- - Devon Baldwin Fulford, Esq.
Oxton House - - - 'Devon Rev. J. Swete º
Wolford Lodge - - Devon General Simcoe . * º
Willersley Castle - - Derbysh. Richard Arkwright, Esq.
Gosfield Hall - - - Essex % (Two Views) The Marquis of
Buckingham
Hermitage at Whitley Essex Thomas Walford, Esq.
Belchamp Hall - - Essex Rev. Samuel Raymond
Audley End - - - Essex Lord Braybrooke
Cuffnells - - - - Hants Right Hon. George Rose
Colney House- - - Hertford George Anderson, Esq. ...
Quarry Hill - - - Kent James Burton, Est. :: * tº
Jnterior of Rochester ,
} Kent Thomas Fisher, Esq. * … . . ºf
Lancaster - - - - Lancash. John Dent, Esq. º. ºº
Live
*
-
-
• This list is communicated tº the Editor of the Introductory volums by








to THE B F AUTI Es of ENGLAN n AND w A Les. xxxi
3. Views of PLAces Given by
Liverpool Commer-)
cial Buildings - }
Liverpool Town Hall Lancash. Do.
º: º º Lancash. Earl of Wilton,
Collegiate Church, }
Manchester - -
Lancash. Corporation of Liverpool
Lancash. George Ormerod, Esq.
A list of correspondents relating to the first
NINE VoluntEs, and to Woluwe. THE ELE-
vKNTH, was enclosed with the letter from Mr.
Britton, already submitted to the reader. The
Editor has taken the freedom of introducing it
in this place, with the view of affording, as far as
was practicable, a collective and unbroken record
of the p incipal contri butors of literary, or local,
information to the Beauties of England and Wales,
in all their parts. ºf
Prefixed to Mr. Britton's list, is the follo ring
observation: —“The warmest acknowledgments
of myself and Mr. Brayley are due to the noble-
men and gentlemen recorded in the following list,
as well as to many others who expressly desired
that their names might not be made public; yet
who, nevertheless, communicated much valuable
information.” ". . . . . . .
The Earl of Harcourt"
Sir Richard C. Hoare, Bart.
Sir Henry Englefield,
John Dent, Esq. ,
Edward King, Esq."
The Rev. Thomas L sman
. . . The Rev. John Whitakers .
The Rev. James Ingram, Saxon
| Professor of Oxford
* The Rev. James Dallaway
§ 3. * :.. The











xxxii
reef Ace
The Rev. P. Lathbury
The Rev. Henry White
The Rev. T. D. Fosbrooke
The Rev. Stebbing Shaw
The Rev. P. Parsons
H. Faulkner, Esq.
Robert Southey, Esq.
I. P. Picard, Esq.
William Hainper, Esq.
William Alexander, Esq.
Mr. Edward Dayes
Mr. Thomas Sharp .
Mr. Henry Kirk White
Mr. William Cunnington
Mr. Thomas Marden
...-esº-
Bedfordshire.
The Duke of Bedford
Earl of Upper Ossory
Rev. John Markham
Rev. Thomas Orlebar
Marsh
Edward Chapman, Jun. Esq.
Robert Salmon, Esq.
Theed Pearse, Esq.
George Arnald, Esq.
BERKSHIRE.
The Earl of Malmesbury
Earl of Radnor
Rev. Clement Cruttwell
Rev. Dr. Brown
Rev. — Warrington
Rev. J. Shephan
Benjamin West, Esq. P.R.A.
John Man, Esq.
George Cumberland, Esq.
Matthew Robinson, Esq.
Mr. Jarman
Mr. Legge
Henry Ellis, Esq.
The Marquis of B ackingham
Dr. Kennedy
Dr. Herschell
John Penn, Esq.
J. O. Oldham, Esq.
Thomas D. T. Drake, Esq.
CAMBRIDGESHIRE,
Rev. Dr. Elliston
Dr. Craven
Dr. Cory
Dr. Morgan .
Henry Turner, B. D.
J. Shaw .
Mr. Luke, B. D.
Mr, Buck, A. M.
Francis Sheepshanks.
Cooper Williams
Mr. Fisher
J.K. Miller, Esq. Trinity College
|—— Marshall, Esq.; , ,
| | Henry Andrews, Esq. ,
Mann Hutchesson, Esq. º
Edward Stanley, Esq.
Mr. Custance
Messrs. I. K. and J. Baldrey
Mr. John Griffith a º
Mr. John Deighton § 3.3
Mr. R. Harraden
eheships.

% ** *
To THE BEAUTI Es OF ENGLAND AND WAL ES. XXXIll
CHESHIRE.
Sir Richard C. Hoare, Bart.
Rev. Hugh Cholmondely
Holland Watson, Esq.
Edward Dayes, Esq.
hu Thomas Stanley, Esq. |
John y, :- º ... Mr. Lonsdale
, sº Mrs. Wallace
Mr. Broster sº *
CORNWALL.
Lord Elliott
Lord de Dunstanville
Dr. Cardew
Dr. Philip
Rev. Mr. Lyne
Mr. Tosse
John Whitaker
R. Polwhele
J. Foster
Mal. Hitchins
Mr. Penwarne
– Tope
— Hennek
— Howell
Gilbert
Colonel Rodd
Lieutenant-Governor Melville
Captain Oats
Jos. Vivian, Esq.
Captain James
Mr. William Drewe
John Coles, Esq.
John Stackhouse, Esq.
T. R. Underwood, Esq.
William Davey, Esq.
Captain William Jenkin
John Feltham, Esq.
William Rashleigh, Esq.
Charles Rashleigh, Esq.
John Rogers, Esq.
CUMBERLAND.
Rev. Jonathan Boucher
Robert Warwick, Esq.
Mr. Jollie
Mr. Clarke
DERbyshire.
Sir Robert Wilmot
| Dr. Sleath
. Dr. R. Forester
| Rev. Richard Ward
George Buxton
Stebbing Shaw
| Hayman Rooke, Esq.
| Richard Arkwright, Esq.
| Mr. Richard Brown
| Charles Hurt, Esq.
| Thomas Blore, Esq.
| White Watson, Esq.
| Nicholas Cresswell, Esq.
| W. Bray, Esq. F.A.S.
| William Strutt, Esq.
Samuel Oldknow, Esq.
Mr. H. Moore
| Mr. Abraham Dale
| Mr. Jer. Royse
| Mr. William Platt
|Mr. W. H. Wayne
DEVONSHIRE.
Lord Clifford
Philip Rashleigh, Esq. M .P. Lord Courtney
| Lord Borringdon
s G
Sir
xxxiv.
PRE, FA CE
Sir Lawrence Palk, Bart.
Sir Bouchier Wray, Bart.
Sir William Cockburn, Bart.
General Simcoe
Colonel Orchard
Rev. John Bidlake
Rev. J. Swete,
Rev. R. Polwhele
Rev. Mr. Froude
Rev. C. Rochel
Rev. Mr. Hayne
Rev. Dr. Watkins
Martin Durnsford, Esq.
William Davey, Esq.
Baldwin Fulford, Esq.
James Northcote, Esq.
Mr. B. Haydon
Mr. H. J. Johns
William Kennaway, Esq.
John Feltham, Esq.
William Jackson, Esq.
Edward Strong, Esq.
Mr. Edward Upham
dorsetshire.
Rev. Mr. Moore
Henry Ellis, Esq.
William Bryant, Esq.
Thomas Wild, Esq.
Mr. William Upham
Mr. Frampton ºn
DURHAM.
R v. John Brewster
Rev. J. Allason
William Turner
W. Walker
Thomas Wilson, Esq.
|
——Johnson, Esq.
-— Atkinson, Esq.
William Hutchinson, Esq.
| David Stephenson, Esq.
Thomas White, Esq.
| William Russel, Esq.
| William Blackburn, Esq.
Mr. Wilkinson
Mr. Graham
Mr. John Hodgsoue
Mr. Moss
Miss H. Weatherburn
ESSEX,
The Marquis of Buckingham
Lord Braybrooke
Sir George Beaumont, Bart.
Rev. Samuel Raymond
Rev. James Ward
Rev. I. Thurloe
Thomas Walford, Esq.
Thomas Hills, Esq.
John Conyers, Esq. ...
Benjamin Strutt, Esq.
Lewis Magendie, Esq.
GLoucestershire.
Rev. James Dallaway
Rev. J. Evans.
|Mr. Dyde, author of History of
Tewksbury
HAMIPS H1 R E.
|Earl Temple
|Earl of Carnarvon
Lord Bolton ; : 3 &
Lord Rivers
Sir Henry B. St. John Mild.
may, Bart. . .
The
To the B E Aur Es of E N G L AND AND w A Les. xxxv.
The Right Hon. George Rose
The Rev. Jos. Jefferson
The Rev. J. Poulter
P. C. Methuen, Esq.
Richard Bull, Esq.
John Ridding, Esq.
Alexander Hammond, Esq.
Mr. Buller
Mr. Thompson
HEREFORDSHIRE.
The Rev. Mr. Lacy
The Rev. John Webb
Richard P. Knight, Esq.
Uvedale Price, Esq.
I. P. Malcolm, Esq. F.S.A.
Mr. Allen, Jun.
HERTS.
Earl of Clarendon
Earl of Essex
Lord Viscount Grimston
Countess Dowager Spencer
I. B. Picard, Esq.
George Anderson, Esq.
James Brown, Esq.
Thomas Blore, Esq.
Thomas Fisher, Esq.
Robert Williams, Esq.
Mr. Silvester Harding
KENT.
Earl of Darnley . . . ;
Admiral Lord Keith, K. B.
Lord Rokeby
General Harris
Major-General Ford
Sir E. Brydges, Bart. K. Jo
Dr. Lord
Dr. S. F. Simmons, F.S.A.
Rev. Mark Noble, F.S.A.
Rev. J. Lyon
Rev. Philip Parsons
Robert Foote, Esq.
|William Hammond, Esq.
| Thomas Fisher, Esq.
J. M. Fector, Esq.
Edward Hasted Esq. F.R.S.
Mr. Allen Grebell
Mr. W. H. King
Cholmley Dering, Esq.
LAN CASHIRE.
Earl of Radnor
Earl of Wilton
Lord Bolton * }
Sir Richard Clayton, Bart.
Lady Ann Hamilton
Rev. Dr. Whitaker
Rev. Thomas Starkie
Rev. John Gresswell
Rev. J. Harper
Colonel Stanley
J. H. Markland, Esq.
George Ormerod, Esq.
John Dent, Esq.
E. Wilbraham Bootle, Esq. M.P.
John Blackburne, Esq. M. P.
Willian Roscoe, Esq. ,
Holland Watson, Esq.
|John Townley, Esq.
J. Oldknow, Esq.
Matthew Gregson, Esq.
George Bullock, Esq.
James Lonsdale, Esq. N.
c 2 J. Foster
xxxvi
P 1: F, FA C E
J. Foster, Esq. ,
John Rennie, Esq.
Thomas Lister Parker, Esq.
John Dalton, Esq.
John Hodson, Esq. M. P.
Edward Holme, M.D.
Mr. William Close
Jos. Gandy, Esq.
Mr. Joseph Aston
LINcolNSHIRE.
Lord Brownlow
Lord Yarborough
Sir William Earl Welby, Bart.
Dr. Johnson &
Rev. V. P. Littlehales
Rev. Caley Illingworth
Charles Tatham, Esq.
George Anderson, Esq.
John Rennie, Esq.
William Brand, Esq.
Octavius Gilchrist, Esq.
Mrs. Pauncefort
Edmund Turnor, Esq.
Mr. William Sheppard
Mr. E. J. Willson
Mr. T. Espin
Norfolk.
Sir Jacob Astley, Bart. M. P.
Dr. Sayers .
The Rev. J. Astley .
The Rev. Edward Edwards
The Rev. Robert Ford
The Rev. Robert Forby
The Rev. J. Homfray
The Rev. J. Richards s
William Stevenson, Esq.
John Corry, Esq. Jun.
Lee Warner, Esq.
John A. Repton, Esq.
Edward Jorningham, Esq.
Dawson Turner, Esq.
NORTHAMPTONSH 1 RE.
Earl of Northampton
Earl of Upper Ossory
Octavius Gilchrist, Esq.
Thomas Blore, Esq.
Robert Henson, Esq.
George Baker, Iºsq.
John Nichols, Esq.
wiltshi RE.
The Marquis of Lansdown
Earl of Radnor
Lord Bishop of Salisbury
Sir Richard C. Hoare, Bart.
R. G. Long, Esq. M.P.
Colonel Houlton
| The Rev. Archdeacon Coxe
Dr. Fowler
Dr. Maton
The Rev. Dr. Popham
| Rev. W. L. Bowles §
James Ingram
Thomas Methuen
Edward Duke
Thomas Leman
Joseph Hunter
Samuel Greetheed
Francis Astley
William Crowe
Francis Shurray
. T. D. Rosbrooke
ro the beauties or england AND wales, xxxvii.
Rev. T. D. Fosbrooke
Rev. Charles Mayo
William Beckford, Esq.
Ralph Gaby, Esq.
Robert Sadler, Esq.
William Scrope, Esq.
Walter Coleman, Esq.
John Thomas Mayne, Esq.
Barnard Dickinson, Esq.
Robert Holford, Esq.
John Bennett, Esq.
Charles Tatham, Esq.
John Rock Grosett, Esq.
Paul C. Methuen, Esq.
Thomas Timbrell, Esq.
| John Pitt, Esq. M. P.
Mr. Richard Harris
Mr. Crocker %
Mr. Cunnington
With the last-named county terminates the list
of contributors communicated by Mr. Britton.
The correspondents of several subsequent Editors,
or those who particularly favoured their enquiries,
are thus gratefully enumerated; and, in regard
to some counties, acknowledgments are due to
noblemen and gentlemen whose name the Editor
of the Introductory Volume has not the oppor-
tunity of recording.
MIDDLESEX, .
(The County separate from
London) comprised in one
Volume, written by Mr. J.
Norris Brewer.
His Grace the DUKE of North-
UMBeltland * 9. . . . .
The Right Hon. Lord North-
wick . . . §
The Right Hon. Sir Joseph
Banks, Bart. K.B.,
Rev. Henry Drury
Edmund Dwyer
George Byng, Esq. M.P.
John Walker, Esq,
George Gostling, Esq.
Josiah Boydell, Esq.
Thomas Willan, Esq.
James Hall, Esq.
Edward Hogg, Esq.
J. W. Freshfield, Esq.
John Nichols, Esq.
Thomas Fisher, Esq. -
J. J. Park, Esq. author of the
History of Hampstead
Mr. Faulkner, author of the
Histories of Chelsea and
Fulham ºne ºf . . . .
Mr. Nelson, author of the His-
tory of Islington
NORTH-
xxxviii.
preface
NoRTHUMBERLAND.
R. SPEARMAN, Esq.
W. Heron, Esq.
Dr. Patterson
Mr. John Adamson
Mr. John Murray
Mr. John Chaloner
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE.
Rev. Archdeacon Eyre
Rev. John Staunton, D.D.
J. Stretton, Esq.
Mr. G. Stretton
Jonathan Acklom, Esq.
Messrs. Taylor and Ridge
OXFORDSHIRE.
John Atkyns Wright, Esq. M.P.
The Rev. Dr. Mavor
The Rev. Bulkeley Bandinel,
M.A. Keeper of the Bodleian
Library
The Rev. E. G. Walford, chap-
laim to the Earl of Guilford. |
The Rev. W. Woolston
A. E. Howman
'The Editor of the “
| The Rev.– Pritchard
J. Joyce
– Nash
T. Ellis,
C. Winstanley
|Thomas Hall, Esq. Harpsden
Court . *
John Hanscomb, Esq. Bell
Hatch.
Richard Davis, Esq. Grove
Cottage, topographer to his
Majesty > -
James Taylor, Esq. wargrave. t
Henry Hakewill, Esq.
Mr. R. P. Culham, Henley
Mr. John Hollier, Thame
Mr. D. Moore, Thame
Mr. J. Badcock, Watlington
The Rev. J. Francis, of Bur-
ford, communicated some in-
formation relating to that
town and its neighbourhood
RUTLANDSHIRE.
Thomas Barker, Esq.
Beauties” for SHRor-
SHIRE, SoMERSETsIIIRE, and STAFFoºds HIRE,
thus collectively enumerates the principal corre-
spondents in regard to those parts of the work.
The Rev. Hugh Owen, M.A.
Rev. Joshua Toulmin, D.D.
Right Rev. Dr. John Milner,
Vicar Apostolic of the Mid-
land District
*
Mr. D. Parkes, of Shrewsbury
J. F. M. Dovaston, Esq.
M. Wood, Esq. º
John Hulme, M. D.
William Sneyd, Esq. .
- - wan-
TO THE B E A UT1 ES OF ENGLAND AND WA L ES
xxxix

wARwicksHIRE.
The Earl of Warwick
The Earl of Craven
Rev. Dr. Parr
Rev. John Kendall
F. Parker Newdigate, Esq.
Mr. John Nickson, of Coventry
Henry Hakewill, Esq.
R. B. Wheler, Esq. author of
“the History and Antiquities
of Stratford upon Avon”
J. Roe, Esq. of Warwick,
Messrs. Beilby and Knott, of
Birmingham
WESTMORLAND.
Right Hon. Earl of Lonsdale
Rev. George Barrington
Dr. Robinson
John Waller
J. L. Leech, M.A.
J. Pearson
Edmund Law
Robert Smirke, Esq.
Mrs. Atkinson
Matthew Atkinson, Esq.
George Gibson, Esq.
Alderman Pennington, of Ken-
dal .
Mr. Harrison, of Kendal .
Mr. Hutton, of the Museum,
Keswick . .
worcesTERsh IRE.
The Lady Viscountess Beau-
| Colonel Wroughton
| Colonel Wrightson
ł Colonel Vavasour
YorksHIRE.
The late Duke of Devonshire
The Earl of Carlisle
Lord Grantham
| Right Hon. John Smith
Hon. William Stourton
Very Rev. the Dean of Peter-
borough
Very Rev. the Dean of Ripon
Sir Henry Vavasour, Bart.
Sir Francis Wood, Bart.
Sir Thomas White, Bart.
Sir John Lawson, Bart.
| Charles S. Duncombe, Esq.
| Thomas Thompson, Esq. M.P.
| Henry B. Barnard, Esq.
| Mr. Alderman Peacock, York
Marmaduke Constable Maxwell,
Esq. of Everingham
Marmaduke Constable, Esq. of
Wassand .
T. Hinderwell, Esq.
Edward Topham, Esq.
J. H. Maw, Esq.
Brian Cook, Esq.
*
T. Clarridge, Esq.
John Lee, Esq. . . . . . .
Christopher Alderson, Esq. oil
Thomas Langhorne, Esq.
T. F. Billam, Esq.
– Grey, Esq.
* Billam, M.D. . . . .”
William Payne, Esq.
ohamp
Rev. Francis Wrangham, F.R.S.
George Dixon
: Mr.
PR EFACE
Rev. J. Io-n
— Clarkson
R. Affleck
P. Inchbald
R. Tomlinson
R. Powel
John Buckworth
D. Jenkins
R. Patrick
T. Fox
F. Twigg
S. Benades
Mr. Hargrove
Boothroyd
B. Clarkson
Rhodes
Turner
Bell
Farrer
Rodford
John Clapham
Halfpenny -
Mr. Heurtley
Major
Bielby
Swinyear
Brewerton
Peck
King
Hornsey
W. Parkin
Justice
Hardy
Wallis
Bolland
Sheardown
Walker
SOUTH WALES.
| Thomas Johnes, Esq. of Ha-
fod, M.P. -
Sir William Paxton, of Mid-
dleton Hall.
Dr. Davies, of Caermarthen
Richard Philips, Esq.
The death of the Rev. John Evans, Editor of
the Seventeenth Volume of the BEAUTIEs, com-
prising an account of North WALEs, has de-
prived us of an opportunity of recording the
names of those gentlemen who afforded informa-
tion in regard to that division of the principality.

THE PUBLISHER's
ADDRESS
. . to the . ..
subscribers, AND THE PUBLIC,
on THE completion of the 2.
Beauties of England and Wales.
THE completion of this arduous and extensive undertaking
appears to demand an address from the Publisher; and he gladly
embraces the opportunity, anxious to return thanks for many
encouraging and judicious communications, and desirous of stating
* relating to the management and progress of the
Oſk,


In consequence of the death of Mr. Hood, which happened
in the year 1811, when not more than 10 Volumes, and a few
Numbers, had appeared, and his successor not feeling inclined
to continue it, the Publisher who now addresses the Subscribers,
was induced to undertake the management, in attention to
the general wish of the remaining Proprietors. In the per-
formance of a duty implicating so many objects, and depend-
ing on so great a variety of coadjutors as the persons engaged in
the different departments of such a Work, he has not failed to
meet with many circumstances productive of delay and perplexity.
But, conscious of using indefatigable exertions to hasten, as
much as was possible without hurrying, the completion; and
equally conscious of adopting every measure which appeared to
promise benefit to the publication; he relies on the candid ap-
provance of the Subscribers, and trusts that the Work, in its
general character, is executed consistently with their wishes.
His exertions would have been unavailing without the co-ope-
ration of the other Proprietors. He feels it necessary and desir-
able to observe, that one sentiment alone has prevailed among the
whole of those concerned in the property of this publication.—
Viewing it as a work calculated to meet with national encourage-
ment, and to form a legitimate source of topographical informa-
: : & tion
ADDREss.

tion in ages subsequent to its first appearance, they determined
on considering expense as a secondary object, and on procuring
the best local intelligence which pecuniary liberality could com-
mand. . # , , ... < .
It will be readily admitted by the candid of every class, and
especially by those versant in topographical investigation, that
some errors and oversights are unavoidable in every department
of a Work so multifarious in its notices, and published with
periodical expedition. These casual faults will plead, it is hoped,
their own excuse with the liberal; and it is confidently presumed
that no topographical work, equally comprehensive, has appeared
with less numerous inaccuracies in a first edition. -
If the same scale of comparison may be allowed, the Publisher
would beg to suggest, in regard to such subscribers as have com-
plained of the length of time employed in the progress of The
Beautifs of ENGLAND, that it is believed a work so comprehen-
sive, founded on actual and minute survey, was never written,
!". and produced to the public, in a shorter period, although
this has been retarded in many of its parts by circumstances pe-
culiarly unpropitious. § x:

It is felt desirable to state explicitly the different persons who
have assisted in the principal divisions of the Work, while under
the management of the present Publisher. On the secession of
Mr. Britton and Mr. Brayley, several writers were engaged to
investigate and describe different counties. If, amongst the va-
rious authors, a dissimilarity of style is perceptible, it is believed
that they will be found unanimous in a zealous endeavour to
render the Work satisfactory as a compendium of topographical
information. The following enumeration shews the gentlemen
engaged for respective Counties: . . . . . . . . .


( Comprising Northumberland Rev. Mr. Hodgson.
Vol. 12. Oxfordshire - - - - Mr. J. Norris Brewer.
( Rutlandshire - - - - Mr. Laird. -
(Cºmprising Shropshire, So-
Vol. 13. & mersetshire, and sºn. J. Nightingale.
shire - - - - - -

Vol. 14. tº: sums '; Mr. Shober.
ſºng Warwickshire Mr. J. Norris Brewer.
Vol. 15, 3 Wiltshire - - - - - Mr. John Britton, F.S.A.
§ t Westmorland * - - - Rev. Mr. Hodgson. w
vol. 16. Yorkshire - - - - - Mr. Bigland.
Vol. 17. North Wales - - - - Rev. J. Evans. . . .
vol. 1s. South Wales - - - - Rev. T. Rees, F.S.A.
The completion of the Tenth Volume must be explained #..
following brief statement: This Volume consists of five Parts,
and comprises the History of London and Westminster, together
with that of the County of Middlesex. The eighteen first Num-
bers (ending at page 720, of the Second Part,) were written by
Mr. Brayley. It then became desirable to request other assist.
ance; and the task of finishing the topographical account of
London and Westminster was undertaken by the Rev. Mr.
Nightingale. The Part, containing an account of Middle-
sex, as a county separate from the metropolis, was written by
Mr. J. Norris Brewer. It is presumed that the public will duly
appreciate the difficulty of continuing the portion of the Work
relating to London and Westminster, on a plan not laid down by
the writer; and, with this consideration in remembrance, will
deem the labours of the Continuator to be satisfactory. The
Volume appropriated to Middlesex contains a notice of every
parish in that county.* r . :. . . g
The Drawings from which Engravings have been made, during
the management of the present Publisher, have been ...;
executed by Mr. J. P. Neale; and he has pleasure in being able
to assert, with confidence, that each drawing was made on the
spot which it represents, and was performed with requisite deli- &
beration and care. ... . . . . . . . . . .
... In regard to the Engravings after those designs, he beg
to observe, that artists of good capacity, have been anxiously
sought after, and their exertions, liberal'y remunerated. He
trusts, therefore, that the Plates will be found generally executed
with fidelity. &:- § . &
The Publisher has little more to add, in regard to the general
conduct of the Work, but that he hopes and believes every pro-
3. r Inise
* The above five Parts, or Volumes, of the “Beauties or England,”
are published separately, under the following title, “ London and Middle-
* : or an Historical, Commercial, and Descriptive Survey of the Metropolis
ºf Great Britain, including Sketches of its Environs, and a Topographical
Account of the most remarkable Places in the above County. 'Illustrated
with, Engravings”. The price of the Work in boards is 6t, 5... small paper;
and large paper 10l. . § . -

mise which was held forward in the original Prospectus, is now
satisfactorily fulfilled, with an exception of the INTRoduction.
The publication of The BEAUTies of ENGLAND AND WAles,
in a series of detached parts, has rendered unavoidable a vast
number of allusions to the state of the country in preceding
times; and to the manners and endowments of the inhabitants,
and the prevailing laws, institutions, and arts at different periods
of history. To have elucidated these on every occurrence would
have led to innumerable repetitions; and entirely to omit all
elucidation would leave the Work much less complete and satis-
factory than the Proprietors were desirous it should ultimately
remain in the hands of their Subscribers. Necessity, therefore,
has combined with inclination in throwing together, as Intro-
ductory matter, whatever is of general application. This very
desirable part of the undertaking is now in an advanced stage of
preparation, and will speedily be published in a volume, contain-
ing about twenty-four sheets of letter-press.
In conclusion, the Proprietors wish respectfully to observe,
that upwards of Fifty Thousand Pounds have been expended on
this Work, and their chance of remuneration entirely depends on
Subscribers completing their sets, unless they have recourse to
a plan which has been often suggested to them,--that of dividing
the remaining copies of the Work, and selling them in separate
Counties. But they would reluctantly adopt such a measure, as
it must prevent very numerous persons, who have subscribed to
the publication in different stages, from procuring at any period
such Volumes, or Numbers, as may be wanting to render their
sets complete. They consequently request, on the principle of
mutual accommodation, that such Subscribers as are deficient in
arts of the Work, and are desirous of supplying that deficiency,
ºiſ. pleased to do so with as little delay as may be conve-
corner of St. Paul's, July 1, 1816.



















INTRODUCTION,
&c. &c.
*
WNGLAND and Wales comprehend such parts of the island of
"A Great Britain, as are south of the Cheviot Hills, and an
arbitrary line drawn from Solway Firth to the river Tweed. These
districts are finely diversified in character; and partake, in the
Cambrian, or western division, of the mountainous rude grandeur
of the tracts to the north of the line of boundary. In other direc-
tions they are rich in a graceful succession of hill and vale; the
former being in partial instances only too steep for cultivation,
and the lowlands almost invariably fertile, or capable of respond-
ing to the efforts of the Agriculturalist.
England is famed for an abundance of wood, distributed in orna-
mental proportions; and numerous rivers afford great facilities of
inland navigation, whilst their diffusive and winding courses are
favourable to the picturesque adornment of the country. Although,
the metals deemed precious are rarely found in England or Wales,
those which are useful to the real wants of man are discovered
in salutary plenty; and have, from the earliest recorded period,
formed a source of moral energy to the Briton, by propelling him
to exertions of industry, and by leading him to habits of Com-
mercial interchange. . .
But, however estimable may be the natural capacities of a
country, its real beauties are to be sought in the progress of
mind amongst its inhabitants. The source of opulence is but the
B auxiliary
2 . 1 N T R O DUCTION
#
auxiliary of intellect.–In the following brief review of circum-
stances generally connected with the topography of South Bri-
tain and Cambria, I shall make it my pleasing task to direct, at
every possible opportunity, the attention of the reader to such
events as appear to illustrate the Data of national advancement
in morals, science, or taste; convinced that a majestic ruin, or
modern uninjured work of art, depends for leading interest on a
knowledge of the spirit which induced the erection of the decay-
ing structure, or which preserves the existing fabric.
The island of Great Britain, of which England and Wales con-
stitute the predominating parts, extends from fifty to fifty-eight
and a half degrees of north latitude; and is, consequently, about
500 geographical miles in length. Its greatest breadth is found
between the Land's End, Cornwall, and the North Foreland, in
Kent; and is, in this direction, 320 geographical miles. In
British miles the length is computed at 580, and the extreme
breadth at 370.
This is the most considerable island of Europe, and approaches,
in general outline, towards the form of a triangle. The circuit of
the three sides, allowing for the devious character of the coast,
is, by a free estimate, supposed to be about 1800 miles.
England, including Wales, is situated between 50° and 56°
north latitude. The greatest length from south to north is about
400 miles; and the extent in square miles is computed at 49,450.*
England is bounded on the east by the German ocean; on the
south by the English Channel; on the west by St. George’s
Channel; and is divided from Scotland, on the north, by the
river Tweed, the Cheviot Hills, and that artificial line before
noticed, which proceeds from the Cheviot Hills to the south-
west, and meets the Firth of Solway.
This island was originally termed Albion; a name which ap-
. . pears
* This statement of the extent and contents of Great Britain, is chiefly
founded on Pinkerton's Modern Geography, collated with other authori-
to english AND welsH Topo GRAPHY 3
pears to have been an usual Celtic term for heights or eminences,
and is reasonably thought to have been bestowed on it by the
Gauls of the opposite shore, from a contemplation of the tall
cliffs which rise to the view of those who inhabit the coast in the
neighbourhood of Calais.” &
The name of BRIt Ain was substituted for the original mode of
designation at a very early period, and probably soon after the
first settlement of inhabitants in the island. The conjectures of
antiquaries concerning the etymology of this term are extremely
numerous.—Camden, with the diffidence usual"to a man of true
genius, when he feels that probable surmise is all that can be
offered, submits it as possible that the first syllable, or radical
part of the appellation, alludes to the custom of the inhabitants
painting their bodies in various colours and devices. But it is not
by any means clear that the word Brit, or Brith properly implies
painted in the Celtic.
Bochart, having recourse to the Greek name of this island, is
willing to derive it from Baratanac; which, in the Phoenician
tongue, signifies a land of Tin.
I pass unnoticed the surmises of various minor writers, and
state the opinions of Borlase + and Whitaker, f as those which
appear most ingenious, while they partake least of fancy. On ...
viewing the usual character of the whole range of primary local
appellations, it may be rationally believed, with Dr. Borlase,
that the word Brit, or Brith, signifies some circumstance relating
to natural situation, rather than to any thing so variable as cus-
tom or manner. The idea of the disjunction of this country from
Gaul would be necessarily a prevailing feature in the considera-
tion of those who resided on the Continent, and of those who
- B 2 - boldly
* Wide Hist. of Manchester, Vol. I. p. 10. octavo edit. (to which edition
of Mr. Whitaker's work, I, likewise, refer on every subsequent occasion,
""less the contrary be noticed;) and Genuine Hist, of the Britons asserted,
p. 91. et seq. **
* Wide Antiquities of Cornwall, Chap. 1. -
# Hist, of Manchester, Vol. I. p. 10–12; and Genuine Hist, of the Bri-
tons asserted, p. 29–32, 71–74, 91–93, 95—10s,
***
º #
**.*.*
3 *
&: .. 2
4 - NT Ro Ductio N.
boldly quitted its security and first colonized the shores of Albion.
Hence, an etymon expressive of the circumstance of separation
may be sought for with propriety; and such a mode of explaining
the term is readily found.
According to Whitaker, the appellation of Britain was first
applied to the inhabitants rather than to the region; and the
radical part of the term is derived from a Celtic word, primarily
denoting separation and division. The same intelligent writer
observes that the original word appears to have been equally pro-
nounced Brict, Brit, and Brioth; Breact, Breac, and Brig; and
is still retained in the Welsh Brith, and the Irish Breact, any
thing divided or striped. “Britis enlarged into Brit-on, or Brit-
an, in the plural, and Brit-an-ec in the relative adjective; and so
forms the appellation Brit-on-es, Brit-an-i, and Brit-anic-i; as
Brig, in the plural, is altered into Brig-an, and Brig-ant, and
forms the denomination Brig-ant-es.” x .
This argument as to the derivation of the second name by
which our island was distinguished, is not offered to the reader
of these pages as probably conclusive, but as one that is quite
problematical. Still, it appears the more plausible amongst the
great variety of conjectures.— It must be added that the appella-
tion of Britain was not anciently peculiar to the island primarily
denominated Albion, but was common to many of the smaller
neighbouring isles; and it may be remarked that several writers,

foreign and native, notice it as a felicitous circumstance that the
parent-island retains to the existing day the name by which it
was known in the first period of its credible history, while almost
every other country has lost its early appellation.
The comparatively modern term of England, by which the
south part of Britain is now distinguished, is derived from the
- Angles, a people ascribed to different parts of the north of Ger-
. thany, but who, at the era of the Saxon invasion, were resident
. x <. x th
• * Hist, of Manchester, p. 14.
T H E B R1 to Ns. 5
in the district of Anglen, in the duchy of Sleswick.” They were
among the most numerous and bold of the successful German in-
vaders; but, according to the conjecture of a modern writer, “the
Ecclesiastical history of Bede, which was written in that part of
the country, that was possessed by the Angli, contributed greatly
to the extension and general acceptation of the modern name.”
There is not any solid authority for believing that Egbert arbi-
trarily abolished the distinctions between the Saxons, Jutes, and
Angli, and commanded that the island should thenceforward be
called England. -
A compendious statement of the opinions of different etymolo-
gists, respecting the probable derivation of the names of CAM-
BRIA, and WAles, usually given to that part of Britain which is
situated to the west of the rivers Severn and Dee, is presented in
the preliminary pages of the seventeenth volume of this work,+
*
THE ANCIENT BRITONs.
The period at which Britain was first peopled, and the district
from which its population proceeded, are subjects entirely open
to the conjectures of the inquisitive. In common with most other
nations, the British possesses no record as to its original ; but
pseudo-historians have risen as abundantly in this as in other
countries, to shape chimere from obscurity, and to allure by
fable where fact is wanting. No instruction can be conveyed by
an analysis of such extravagant representations; and it appears
that little entertainment is implicated in wild tales respecting
“Bruto, or Brito, of Trojan extraction, great grandson of Æneas,
B 3 who
• Vide Turner's Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. i. p. 58 ; and Camden's
Introduction. - . . . . . > * -
* Wide Beauties, Vol. XVII. p. 1–4––According to the Welsh Triads,
three names, of a different etymology to those noticed above, were bestowed,
at different periods, on the island of Britain. See these presumed appella-
tions mentioned, p. 7. note.


6 1 NTR oduction.
who having by birth and by accident, destroyed both the one and
the other of his parents, fled his native shore; and, after various
exploits in Gaul, arrived with his Trojan compeers in this coun-
try, then inhabited by giants, whose chieftain, Gogmagog, he over-
threw, and left his own name to the conquered island.” But such
is the narration presented by Geoffrey of Monmouth, in the
reign of Henry the Second.* The story was treated with con-
tempt by the reflecting, even of his own era; but did not fail
to gain, in different modifications, some popular credit through
the medium of subsequent monkish and superstitious writers.
According to the most rational hypothesis, and that which is re-
ceived as probable by the majority of modern judicious writers, this
island was first peopled from the neighbouring shores of Gaul. The
similitude of manners, language, and religion, which is known
to have existed between the two countries, in the century pre-
vious to the Christian era, is in itself an argument of considera-
ble force. A further argument is deducible from the presumed
similarity of name to be discovered between the two nations. It
appears that Gaul was inhabited, at a very early period, by two
branches of the Cimmerians, both of which nations often partook,
in usual acceptation, of the specific term bestowed on each. These
were the Cimbri, frequently denominated the Cimmerii, Cumri,
or Gumri; and the Celtie. The latter name prevailed amongst
themselves, even when they were denominated Gael by the
Romans. The appellation of Cimbri is thought to be still per-
ceptible in the term Cymry (colloquially pronounced Kumri) ap-
plied to themselves by the Welsh; whilst that of Gathel, or
Gael, is retained by the highlanders of Scotland.t
- . - The
'• Nennius, who was an abbot of Bangor in the seventh century, likewise
gave, at the earlier period in which he flourished, the pedigree of the fanciful
King Bruto, which he traced up to Jupiter himself.
* The historical Triads of the Welsh, describe Britain as being first peopled
by the “ nation of the Cymry,” and colonized at different periods. Re-
specting the testiuony of these very curious Triads, and the contents of those
º, . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * : * ~ * - - - $. . which

THE BRITON S. 7
The encroachments of Belgic tribes on the Celtae, and their
share in the ancient possession of the island, will be noticed in a
future page. . . -
The compulsory brevity of a writer who treats on the first popu-
lation of Britain, a subject naturally obscure, will create no sur-
prise, and perhaps little regret.” It may be lamented that an op-
pressive paucity of legitimate information prevails concerning the
history of the early inhabitants of the island, and the state of
B 4 their
which relate to the early history of Britain, I present an extract from a judi.
cious modern historian : “It may not be improper to state, in one view, all
that the Welsh traditions doliver of the ancient inhabitants of the island.
How far individuals may cluse to accredit them, is a matter for their own dis-
cretion to determine. But in the mean time, they ought to be preserved
from absolute oblivion. 3. .
“According to the Welsh Triads, while the island was uninhabited by
human colonies, and was full of bears, wolves, beavers, and a peculiar kind
of wild cattle, it had the name of Clas Merddhin. In this state, Hy Cadarn
led the first colony of Cymry to it, of whom some went to Bretagne. It
then acquired the name of Y vél Ynys, the Honey laland. In the course of
time Prydain, the son of Aedd the Great, reigned in it, and from him it
was called Ynys Prydain, the isle of Prydain, which is its present denomi-
nation in Welsh, and which the Greeks and Romans seem to have extended
into Britannia. It was afterwards visited by two foreign tribes, of Kimme-
rian origin, the Lloegrwys, from Gwasgwyn, or Gascony; and the Brython,
from Llydaw, or Bretagne. Both of these were peaceable colonists. The
Lloegrwys impressed their name upon a large portion of the island At sub-
sequent periods other people have come with inore or less violence. The
Romans; the Gwyddyl Ficti (the Picts) to Alban, or Scotland, on the part
which lies nearest to the Baltic; the Celyddon (Caledonians) to the north
parts of the island; the Gwyddy! to other parts of Scotland; the Corraniaid.
from Pwyll (perhaps Poland) to the Humber; the men of Galedin, or
Flanders, to Wyth; the Saxons ; and the Llychlynians, or Northmen.”—
Turner's Hist. of the Anglo-Saxons. Vol I. pp. 14, 15. -
* The reader who is desirous of investigating more deeply a subject so
recondite, is referred to some ingenious speculatious in Turner's introduc. ...w
tion to the history of the Anglo-Saxons; and to three letters from the Rev.
Samuel Greatheed, respecting the origin of the inhabitants of the British
islauds ; Archaeologia, Vol. XVI.
8 INTRo Duction.
their moral attainments, manners, arts, and manufactures, before
these took a new bias from the victories of the Roman arms. But
the manners of all nations in an infantile state of society, have
so near an approximation, with an allowance for the slight dif-
ſerence of colouring imparted by external circumstances, that
probably neither philosophy nor mere curiosity sustains any seri-
ous deprivation by this sterility of intelligence. 2
A narration of the wars carried on by rival Clans, affords but
little interest when the very names of the parties are preserved
with difficulty by antiquarian care; and in the tangible remains of
the early British tribes we have still emphatical monuments of
their warlike spirit, mingled with indications of such rudeness
in works of art as might be expected from a people little conver-
sant with commerce, and not united under that salutary result of
mature congregation, one consolidated head of government.
Our knowledge of the internal polity, of the customs, and even
of the geographical circumstances, of the early Britons, commences
with the Roman invasion of the island. The Druids, who, in their
various classes, engrossed of the learning of those ages first
known in British history, and who were the chroniclers of events,
used no other than an oral method of record. Thus we rest for
solid information, concerning the first periods of our national story,
on Roman and Greek writers; and chiefly on Julius Cæsar and
Tacitus. Fortunately for literature, those authors were possessed
of minds equally comprehensive and acute. Although vanity, and
motives of personal interest, may have induced the ambitious
Caesar to have partially misrepresented some circumstances con-
nected with the dubious success of his own arms, his statements
in other respects are unloubtedly veracious. The elegant and
judicious Tacitus either personally visited Britain in the first cen-
tury, or obtained intelligence from his father-in-law, Agricola.
To these great writers of antiquity, assisted chiefly by some
Greek authors, whose assertions must often be regarded as of a
questionable character, because seldom founded on actual investi-
gation, all modern historians are indebted for the foundati n on
which

The Britons. -3 & 9
which they build, when treating of the manners of the early
In aid of the sober methodical writer, who presents as credible
only that which he finds stated in specific terms, there have oc-
curred in recent years, some authors of a bold and inquisitive dis-
position, who have endeavoured to bestow illumination on the
gloom of our early annals, and to supply the deficiencies of the
scanty pages, by ineans of probable deduction. Like Goguet,
they insist on national arts and manners undergoing a logical
process; and while, by an acceptable inference, they aver that
the people who used chariots must have been acquainted with
various branches of mechanical knowledge, they advert to the
practices of art connected with such an usage, and contend that
the country could not, at its interior, have been in the first state
of rudeness, since there must have been roads, probably improved
by the labour of the hand, to render the carriage a vehicle capa-
ble of easy transit.—Foremost amongst these writers stands Mr.
Whitaker, whose history of Manchester is an Essay on the early
History of Britain at large. If received with caution, his inge-
nious work is eminently useful, as he not only elicits, by a ra. *
tional pursuit of argument, many novelties of intelligence, but
In the following remarks on the probable condition of the early
Britons, I first notice circumstances generally connected with the
geographical positions and relations of the different tribes; and
afterwards present, in a very succinct form, such observations on
their religion, customs, polity, and progress in arts and manuſac-
tures, as appear to be necessary for an illustration of their ves-
tiges, both moral and tangible. - N.
It has been observed that the patriarchal form of government,
in its simple state, has never been of long duration in any coun-
try; for as independent families increased in number, they gradu-
ally approached nearer to each other; and disputes respecting
boundaries, as naturally united several into one tribe or clan, as
the tribes, by alliances and intermarriages, Were afterwards con-
; . & . solidated

10 - 1 NTR opu CTION.
solidated into petty states, under one head or leader. At what
precise period such changes took place in Britain, or in what
other modes originated its forms of government, it would be futile
to enquire; but the existence of many different tribes, or clans,
was evidently the state of society at the date of the Roman in-
vasion. •
The primary guide in endeavours towards ascertaining the geo-
graphy of Britain at the earliest recorded period, is Ptolemy of
Alexandria, the great Geographer, Mathematician, and Astro-
nomer, who flourished towards the middle of the second century,
under the Emperors, Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius.
His description of this island is concise and merely geographical,
but is of high interest as being composed at so early a period of
the Roman ascendancy, and while the British nations, even in the
conquered districts, still retained their ancient names and marks
of distinction. It will, however, be observed that the writings of
1°tolemy contain many important errors, and he has fallen into
some mistakes which affect the whole of his British geography.
But these inaccuracies are obvious to correction; and it is as-
serted by Horsley that “the order in which he disposes the
towns, rivers, and other places, particularly those on the coast,
almost equals for usefulness, the distances in the Itinerary, and
the order in the Notitia.”* In appropriating particular districts,
by means of the distances in this Geographer, it is further ob-
served by Horsley “that when the coast is once settled it will be
proper to consider the relative situation of the towns, with res-
pect to it, in order to fix them likewise. And when we are sure
- : - of
* Horsley's Britannia Romana, p. 356.—This opinion appears to be ex-
pressed in terms too strongly favourable. A modern writer, of considerable
experience and judgment, observes that “Ptolemy's method of settling the
positions of his towns by longitude and latitude, promises information nearly
equal to the Itinerary ; but a very little acquaintance with his Geography,
will soon convince any one that it is of no use. The position of no town can
* be determined with certainty, on the authority of this learned AEgyptian
alone.” Reynolds, on the Itinerary of Antoninus, p. 35. -

THE BRitons. 11
of any one or two counties which belong to * people, from the
towns mentioned as being among them, we may guess what other
neighbouring counties have probably belonged to the same people,
either by observing what were most likely to be the boundaries, or
by other collateral evidences.” * . . . . . . . . . . . "
On the foundation of this venerable writer alone, aided by the
calculations of ingenuity, were formed the most acceptable plans
respecting the locality of the various British tribes which existed
in his time, until the discovery of the work of Richard of Ciren-
cester, a monk of Westminster, who flourished in the latter part
of the 14th century.t But the geographical information convey-
ed by this industrious monk’s “Description of Britain,” and by
his illustrative map, is considered more valuable than the crude
outline of Ptolemy, by some of the most intelligent antiquaries
of the present day, and such as have directed a particular atten-
tion to the antiquities of the early Britons. In the preface to
Mr. Hatcher's edition of Richard of Cirencester, it is said, that
“ the most superficial view of the map will suffice to convince us
of its superior accuracy, not only to the early draughts fabricated
from the observations recorded by Ptolemy, but even to those of
his best commentators. In the geographieal description of the
different tribes, our author has taken his groundwork from Pto-
lemy, or those from whom Ptolemy derived his information.
'But if he drew his groundwork from the AEgyptian geographer,
he has made such additions and changes as show a later, more
correct, and more particular knowledge of the country. He has
amended a glaring error which Ptolemy committed, in throwing
the Northern part of the island to the East, and another in placing
Ireland at too great a distance from Britain. He has also drawn
up his account of the different states in a more distinct and re-
gular form, has mentioned a few additional tribes, omitted others,
. and
* Britannia Romana, p. 356.
t A more particular account of the work of Richard of Cirencester, is
given in the “List of Books,” appended to this Introduction.

12 Introduction.
Ix. Cassii
writers.”*
The information afforded by this curious work, is used, in con- 3.
junction with that of Ptolemy, and his most judicious commen-
tators, in the following brief statement of the political divisions
of those parts of Great Britain, now denominated England and
Wales, during the sway of the nations who possessed this island
previous to the establishment of the Roman power.
The map of ancient Britain, which accompanies this section
of our work, exhibits, as nearly as can be ascertained, the si-
tuation of each tribe, both Celtic and Belgic, at the period
of Julius cæsar's first invasion of this Island.t The
principal
• Preface to Mr. Hatcher's edition of Richard of Cirencester, Lond. 1809.
* The propriety of such an assertion will be readily admitted, when it is
observed, that this map was engraved after a drawing by the Rev. Thomas
Leman, of Bath, whose deep researches into British antiquities are evinced
in papers contributed to several county histories, and other works. The map
here presented contains all the improvements in the geography of ancient
Britain, suggested by Richard of Cirencester. :- 3.
The following enumeration of the different Celtic and Belgic tribes, and
of the British towns, will be found useful for reference, while, at the same time,
it explains the contents of the map. The Roman characters prefixed to the
Cºlte, and the Arabic to the Belge, correspond with similar characters and
figures in the body of the map. The figures prefixed to the towns of the Bri.
tons, likewise correspond with prefixed figures in the map; and in the under-
written enumeration is shewn the connexion of each respective town with the
British trackways, or roads.
Celtic Tribes, XXII. 'Belgic Triars, 7.
I. Bibroci \ 1. Cantii .
II. Segontiaci i 2. Rhemi, or Regni.
III. Durotriges | º 3. Belgae proper
. Iv. Carnabii }Senones. 4. Morini
V. Cimbri i 5. Damnonii
VI. Haedui 6, Attrebates.
VII. Ancalites J 7. Trinobantes
e local boundaries, not alluded to by other
x. Iceni ~. .




º - = |
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ºugliº - ºf … º Lt. R I * º lſ. N
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- - --~~
*ared fºom º
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vº Tirostas LEMAN.
sº 77 eaſºwenpanºe ºniº 54.
- - wºe ºne sºat the first Invasion of
Caesar. The party w/owedwººſae are whº
- - were Aºazºº ºne ºr the ºre -
| | º/ - -- --- - - | º º ºn *we:www.arhad been *
| ſº - - * * * º \º the Bºar. Zºe Roman and traße -
- | | l -- == - - - . -- º º *** a ºue wºrſ, ºrder and
- = º º º º º º ºs. º. *A*ſ in the letter-prº.
- - - - - - - - º --- - - -
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º 53 -
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5 Long west felºndon 4
ººº-ºº-ºº-ºººººº- - - - - - -
- Aºazzy ZZººZººZºrºrº Zºrºz - - - Neeler-strand
- - - - - -
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The aritons.
principal towns of each pett
y nation, are likewise marked; and
are accompanied & by figures which refer to a statement of their
ancient and modern names. Thus, the purpose of particular in-
X, Iceni Cenomanni
. xi. Iceni Coritani {
XII. Cainabii
XIII. Brigantes
XIV. Parisii
XV. Voluntii Y
XVI. Sistuntii (
XVII. Ottadini
XVIII. Gadeni
XIX. Silures (
-xx. Dimecia,
XXI. Ordovices
XXII. Cangiani
On the South Wat Li No Street.
1. Rhutupis, Itichborough
2, 10urovernum, Canterbury
3. Durobrivae, Rochester
4. N oviomagus, Holwood Hill
5. Trinobantum, London
6. Verolam, Verulam
7. Durocobrivae, Maiden Bower,
near Dunstable
8. Benonis, Claychester
9, Etocetum, Wall
10. Uriconium, Wroxeter
11. Mediolanum, Clawdd Goch
1%. Segontium, Caer Segont
13. Holyhead
On the Nonth Watling street.
14. Bremeniuin, Riechester
15. Epiacum, Lunchester
16. Vinovium, Binchester
17. Cataractonis, catterick
18. Olicana, Ilkley .
19. Cambodunum, slack
29. Deva, Chester
13, Holyhead
formation
we
BRITISH TOWNS.
On the Ixen I el D ST Resr.
21. Ad Taum, Taesborough
7. Durocebriva, Maiden Bower
22. Sorbiodunum, Old Sarum
23. Iberium, Bere
24. Durinum, Maiden castle
25. Isca, Exeter
26. Tamara, on the Tamar
27. Voluba, on the Fowey
28, Cenia, on the Fal
ON The Ryk N1 eln Street.
29. . . . . Chester-le-Street
16. Vinovium
w 17. Cataractonis
30. Isurium, Aldborough
. 9. Etocetum.
31. Alauna, Alcester, Warwickshire
32. Ariconium, Berry Hill, near Ross
33. Gobannium, Abergavenny
34. Maridunum, Caermarthen
35, Menapia, near St. David's.
On the Ermyn Strker.
16, Winovium
17. Cataractouis





formation will be best gratified by a reference to a map so com-
prehensively arranged. But, with a view of facilitating the re-
searches of the reader, I present an enumeration, and general
notice of the tribes which formed the population of Britain, pre-
vious to the conquests effected by the Romans, and whose appel-
lations so often occur in various pages of the “ Beauties of En-
gland and Wales.” …' -
Before we enter on such an examination, it is, however, neces-
sary
17. Cataractonis 44. Ratae, Leicester
30. Isurium 8. Benonis
36, Ehuracum, York : 41. Corinium
37. Petuaria, Brough 45. Aquae Sulis, Bath
38. Lindum, Lincoln # - 46. Ischalis, Ilchester
39. Durnomagus, Castor 47. Moridunum, Seaton
5. Trinobantum.
4. Noviomagus - ON THE UPPER SALTwAY
40. Anderida Portus, Pevensey 48. Salina, Droitwich
| 49. Venta Belgarum, Winchester
ON THE IKEMAN STREET. * - a "
50. Clausentum, Bittern
º 7. Durocobrivac
41. Corinium, Cirencester
42. Venta Silurum, Caerwent
43. Isca, Caerleon
34. Maridunum
35. Menapia
ON THE WEste RN TRAckway.
51. Luguballium, Carlisle
52. Coccium, Blackrode
- 48. Salinoe
53. Branogena, Worcester
54. Glevum, Gloucester -
55. Uxella, near Bridgewater
25, Isca
On The Foss E.
38. Lindum
Other British Towns, not immediately on the foregoing Track-
ways, but mentioned by Richard of Cirencester.
- Portus Magnus, Portchester 64. Camalodunum, Lewden.
56. Regentium, Chichester 65. Lovantium, Llanio
57. Halangium, Carnbre. --- 66. Magna, Kentchester
58. Musidum, near Stratton 67. Branogenium, near Lentwarden
59. Artavia, Hartland Point | 68. Camboricum, Cambridge y
60. Termolus, Molland 69. Rerigonium, Ribchester
61. Lemanis, Stutfall castle 70. Portus Felix, at the mouth of the s
62. Dubris, Dover # Humber. -
63. Regulbium, Reculver 71. Galacum.
* .






the BR1To Ns. 15
sary to remind the reader, that these large portions of the island,
though inhabited by various tribes, were really peopled by two
nations only ; the aboriginal, or Celtic inhabitants, and the
Belgae. - . & º
The geographical line of distinction between the Celtic and
Belgic settlers, at the date of Caesar's first invasion, is carefully
marked in the annexed map ; but, in order to present a more
perspicuous view of the effects of the Belgic invasion of Britain,
as connected with the locality and future history of the abori-
ginal inhabitants, it may be observed, that the Celts, who had,
at an early period, occupied all such parts of Britain as lay to
the south of the Thames, from the coast of Kent to the extre-
mity of Cornwall, were distinguished by the general name of
Senones.* The respective tribes of the people, thus recognised
by a general appellation, were named:—I. The Bibroci, who
occupied the counties of Kent, Sussex, and Surrey, and part of
Berks. II. The Segontiaci, dwelling in Hampshire and Berk-
shire. III. The Durotriges, in Dorsetshire. IV. The Carnabii,
and V. The Cimbri, seated in Devonshire, Cornwall, and part of
Somersetshire. VI. The Haedui, in Somersetshire, Gloucester-
shire, and Wilts. VII. The Ancalites, who possessed a small
district, partly on the south of the river Thames, near Henley.
Concerning the above tribes may be submitted the following
particulars. . .
The BibRocit are said, by Richard of Cirencester, to have
inhabited Bibrocum, Regentium, and Noviomagus. The site
of the first-named place, (the Bibracte of the Itinerary) is un-
certain. Regentium is placed at Chichester, and Noviomagus at
Hokwood Hill. ... ."
The SegontiAcIf were seated in the north-west part of Hamp-
. 3.2 * . . . . . . . . . . shire,
• Richard of Cirencester, p. 37, Hatcher's edit, and remark by the Rev. z
Thomas Leman. & . # , ; ; , ;
* The Bibroci are mentioned in the Beauties for Berkshire, p. 83.
† For some account of the Segontiaci, see Beauties for Hants, p. 5, and for
Berks, p. 83. º 'º
16 introduction.
shire, and in a part of Berks on the south-west; having for their
chief city Windonis. º
The territory of the Durotriges" comprised the present
county of Dorset, and their capital was Durinum, (Maiden cas-
tie, near Dorchester.) z -:
The CARNAB11t occupied the north-and west of Cornwall, to
the Land's end; having for their chief cities Musidum, and Ha-
langium; the former supposed to have stood near Stratton, and
the last at Carnbre. .
The CIMBR1 possessed the south-west part of Somerset, and
the north of Devon. Their principal towns were Termolus
(uncertain as to site) and Artavia (probably near Hartland-
point.) x- ~~
The HEduit occupied the whole of Somersetshire, except
the south-west corner, together with a part of the south of Glou-
cestershire, and of the north-west of Wilts. Their chief towns
were Ischalis, (Ilchester) Avalonia, (Glastonbury) and Aquae
Sulis, (Bath.) . ... <
The remaining Celtic tribes of Britain were distinguished by
the following appellations, and were distributed over the island
in the following manner, at the date of Caesar's first invasion.
The Catleuchlani, or CAtieuclani, consisted of two tribes,
which were denominated Dobuni and Cassii; and their domi-
nions extended from the Severn to the German Ocean. .
of these, the Dobuniſ (termed Boduni, by Dio) are placed
by ancient geographers in the counties of Oxford, Gloucester,
and Worcester. In the “Beauties” for Oxfordshire, it is sug-
gested, that the appellation of Dobuni signifies a race possessing
*… lands
& * See the Durotriges noticed, Beauties for Dorsetshire, p. 321.
+ The Carnabii of Cornwall are noticed in the Beauties for that county, p.
: The Hedui are mentioned in the Beauties for Wilts, p. 5. .
|The Dobuni are noticed in the Beauties for Oxfordshire, p.2–6; and
for Gloucestershire, p. 497.
$ in regard to their exact lines of territory, it is said, in the notes on Ris
. ... . . . chard

THE BRITON S. w. 17
lands on river-sides, a people who are stream-borderers. It is
obvious, that a name, if derived from allusions to locality, would
be bestowed on a tribe from its primary circumstances of inha-
bitation; and it is probable, that the Dobuni first took posses-
sion of the lowlands of these districts, and consequently were
dwellers in the vicinity of such great streams as formed distin-
guishing features in the character of surrounding country. Co-
rinium, Cirencester in Gloucestershire, was their capital.
The Cassii” appear to have occupied the tract of country
now divided into the counties of Hertford, Bedford, Buckingham,
Middlesex, and Essex; having their principal town at Verola-
mium, (St. Alban’s.) ×
To the north of the Thames dwelt the people known by the
general name of Ice N1,t divided into two tribes, termed the Iceni
magni, or Cenomanni; and the Iceni Coritani. .
The territory of the Iceni Magni is said, in a note on Richard
of Cirencester, “to have stretched from the Stour to the north
of the Nen and the Ouse, possibly to the Welland; and, on the
west, to the boundaries of the Carnabii and Dobuni.” A precise
definition of the extent of territory possessed by this, or any other
of the British tribes, would appear to be of little importance, un-
less connected with some historical incident, or illustrative of a
Peculiarity in custom or manner, as displayed in tangible vestiges.
According to the opinions usually received, the Iceni Magni are
believed to have been the ancient inhabitants of the present coun-
ties of Huntingdon, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk, and part of
Northamptonshire. They had for their capital, Taesborough, in
º C Norfolk,
chard of Cirencester, that “they were bounded on the west by the Severn,
*the south by the Thames, on the east by the Charwell, and on the north
by the Carnabii,” Richard of Ciren. Edit. 1809, p. 46.
* See the Cassii noticed in the Beauties for Hertfordshire, p. 5; for Bed-
fordshire, p. 1; and for Buckinghamshire, p. 276.
• ***atements of many particulars relating to the Iceni, see Beauties for
* p. 325–326; for Cambridgeshire, p. 3–1 ; and for Not-
I8 I NTRO DUCTION.
Norfolk, which the Romans removed afterwards to Castor, near
Norwich. - -
The Iceni CoriTAN1,” or, as they are often termed the Cor-
Iceni, appear chiefly to have inhabited the counties of Lincoln,
Leicester, Nottingham, Derby, and Rutland, with the remaining
part of Northamptonshire. Their chief city was Raga, or Ratae
(Leicester). - ...
The original Celtic population of the district now termed Wales,
will be mentioned in a future page; and I, therefore, proceed to-
wards the north, in which direction, to the westward of the Cor-
itani, were seated the CARNAB11, or CoRNAVII,t whose territo-
ries are believed to have extended over a great part of the fol-
lowing counties:–Warwickshire, Worcestershire, Staffordshire,
Shropshire, and Cheshire. (The remainder of the two former of
these counties appears to have been possessed by a tribe which is
termed Huiccii, by Bede, but is called Jugantes, by Tacitus,
, and whose name is now commonly written Wiccii.) The metro-
polis of the Carnabii was Uriconium (Wroxeter.)
To the north of the Carnabii and the Coritani, were situated
the Brigantes,t who constituted the most numerous and power-
ful of the British nations, at the time of the Roman invasion.—
Their dominions extended over the present counties of Durham,
York, Westmoreland, Cumberland, and Lancaster. But parts of
the western border of this great territory were occupied by two
tribes, of distinct appellations, although subject to the government
• The Coritani are noticed in the Beauties for Rutlandshire, p. 4; for
Leicestershire, p. 313; for Nottinghamshire, p. 2; and for Derbyshire,
p. 291. … * * * ---
+ For notices of the Carnabii, or Cornavii, see Beauties for Warwickshire,
p. 3–3; for Worcestershire, p. 3–5; for Staffordshire, p. 717–719; and
for Cheshire, p. 183–184. . - -
º # For notices of the tribe termed Brigantes, see Beauties for Durham,
p. 5–6; for Yorkshire, p. 1–8.; and 668–669; for Westmoreland, p. 1 ; for
Cumberland, p. 3–5; and for Lancashire, p. 5–7. The Sistuntii and the
Volantii are noticed in the same pages, with an exception of those for York-
shire. -
the Britons. 19
of the Brigantes. These were entitled the voluntil and sis-
Tuntil." The interest created by their names, is, however, very
slight, as the most important events connected with their story must
be sought in the annals of the Brigantes. This latter potent and
predominating tribe owned numerous towns, the principal of which
was Isurium (Aldborough, near Boroughbridge.)
In addition to the above particulars respecting Brigantia, it
must be observed, that a people termed the Panism are mention-
ed, both by Richard and Ptolemy, as living in that district which
is now termed the East Riding of York. But it is conjectured
by Baxter, Whitaker, and other modern writers, that the Parisii
did not constitute a separate tribe, and were merely the Cangi,
or herdsmen of the Brigantes. It is certain, that they were sub-
ordinate to that powerful nation; and if they had not been se-
parately noticed by early geographers, the historian would be
quite indifferent as to their identity and presumed characteris-
tics. Their only town, according to Ptolemy, was called Pe-
tuaria (Brough on the Humber) although a second, termed Portus
Felix, is noticed by Richard of Cirencester, which, probably,
was situated near the mouth of that river. g
The most northern tribes of the country now denominated En-
gland were the Ottapinif and the GADENI, who held such parts
of the counties of Northumberland and Cumberland as are north of
the Tyne; and the domains of the former are supposed to have
extended into Scotland, as far as the extremity of Lothian; thus
comprising a long and fine extent of sea-coast. Ptolemy, to
. c 2 whose
* The geographical positions of these tribes are marked in the annexed
map ; and the following observations concerning their exact limits, together
with those of the Brigantes, are presented in the notes on Richard of Ciren-
cester, p. 51. The territory of the Brigantes proper, “stretched from the
bounds of the Parisii, northward to the Tine; and from the Humber and
Don to the mountains of Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland. To the
Vºluntil belonged the western part of Lancashire; and to the sistanti, the
west of Westmoreland and Cumberland, as far as the Wall.” .
* The tribe termed Ottadini, is noticed in the Beauties for Northumber-
land, p. 1–2. ź . 3.

20 introduction.
whose geography we are chiefly indebted for our knowedge of
this people, describes them as possessing two principal towns,
named Bremenium,” and Curia. On the testimony of Richard,
the former is believed to have been the capital of the Ottadimi,
and is known to have occupied the site of Riechester, eight miles
north of Risingham. # §
The aboriginal population of WALES is noticed, at some
Jength, in the pages which are introductory to the account of
Cambria, forming part of the “Beauties”. But the respective ter-
ritorial possessions of each tribe, are defined in terms so brief, yet
perspicuous, in the following passages, that, with the permission
of their learned author, I present them, as the most desirable
means of communicating concise information on this head.
“The Silures, with their two dependent tribes, the Dimecia,
and the Ordovices, possessed all the country to the west of the
Severn and the Dee, together with the island of Anglesey.
“Of these territories, the Dimecia had the counties of Pem-
broke, Cardigan, and Caermarthen; while the Silures possessed
all the rest of South Wales, as well as such parts of England as
lay to the west of the Severn, and to the south of the Teme.
The Ordovices occupied all North Wales, as well as all the coun-
try to the north of the Teme, and to the west of the Severn and
the Dee, except a small tract of country to the west of Bangor and
Pwlwelly-bay, which belonged, together with the isle of Angle-
sey, to their subordinale clan, the Cangiani.f.”
After a long possession of this island, throughout all its most
fertile districts, the original Celtic inhabitants were compelled to
admit as participators in so fair a territory, the Belgie, a Teu-
tonic people (and the common parent of the Romans, the Saxons,
• See some curious particulars relating to the site and remains of this ah-
sient city, in the Beauties for Northumberland, p. 149–153. .
+ vide Beauties, Vol. XVII. p. 5-6. %
. * Note on Tichard of Cirencester, by the Rev. Thomas Lemań.
THE BRITONS.' 21
the Danes, and the Normans,)" who are supposed to have first mi-
grated into Britain, about three centuries previous to the arrival
of Caesar. These invaders speedily effected a settlement in the
southern and western parts of Britain; and, in process of time,
extended their conquests from the shores of Kent, to the extre-
mity of Cornwall. At the date of the first invasion of Julius
Caesar, the Belgae, thus settled in Britain, consisted of the fol-
lowing seven colonies:—1. the Cantii, of Kent; 2. the Regni,
or Rhemi, of Surrey and Sussex; 3. the Proper Belgae, of
Hampshire and Wiltshire; 4. the Attrebates, of Hampshire and
Berkshire; 5. the Morini, of Dorsetshire; 6. the Damnonii,
of Devonshire and Cornwall; and 7, the Trinobantes, of Essex
and Herts. . . . . ;
Thus, the before-mentioned Celtic inhabitants of the southern
and western parts of Britain, were expelled by the following
Belgic colonies: the Cantii, who gained possession of all the
country, from the mouth of the Thames to the Rother; the
Regni, or Rhemi, who extended their conquests from thence to
the western borders of Sussex; the Belgae proper, who over-ran
all the country westward, to the banks of the Stour in Dorset-
shire; the Morini, who continued their conquests to the Ax; the
Damnonii, who subdued the whole remainder of country on
the west, to the banks of the Fal; the Attrebates, who drove the
Segontiaci from the banks of the Thames; and the Trinobantes,
who, crossing the Thames, and invading the Eastern Cassii, ex-
tended their conquests to the Stour, and the middle of Hertford-
shire.f - -
C 3 A more
+ g
* See Remarks on the Early inhabitants of Britain, History of Hertford-
shire, Vol. I. p. 12. - - . *
+ Genuine Hist. of the Britons asserted, p. 63–65.
3. From this statement of Belgic conquests must be excepted, “a confined
territory, which was left to the Segontiuci, under its capital Wendomis; and
the mountains of Somersetshire, Cornwall, and Devon, all which still re-
mained possessed by the Carnabii and the Cimbri.” History of Hertford-
shire, p. 11. - w -
22 INTRODUCTION.
A more particular account of the geographical circumstances of
each Belgic tribe, at the date of Caesar's first invasion, may,
however, be desirable. *
The Cantil " inhabited the country which is now termed
Kent; and their territories comprised the whole of that county,
with the exception of a small district that belonged to the Regni.
They are described by Caesar as the most civilized of all the Bri-
tons, and as differing but very little in their manners from their
brethren in Gaul. Their capital was Durovernum (Canter-
bury.) § … 3.
The REGNI, or RhEM1,f occupied the sea coast from Rye
Harbour, on the border of Sussex, and the whole interior of that
county, together with Surrey, a small part of Hants and Berks,
and a very trifling portion of Kent. Noviomagus, written Neo-
magus by Ptolemy, (Holwood hill) was their metropolis.
The territories of the Belgæ proper comprehended the
greater part of Hampshire and Wiltshire; other parts being still
retained by the Celtic Segontiaci. Certain portions of Wiltshire,
are, however, supposed by some writers to have been occupied
by the tribe denominated CEANg1,f nearly at the period of the
invasion
* For a notice of the Cantii, and of some historical events relating to that
people, see Beauties for Kent, p. 406, et seq. •
t See the Regni noticed in the Beauties for Sussex, p. 23; and for Sur-
rey, p. 30. . -
t The Cangi, Ceangi, or Cangani (for these terms are usually supposed to
be descriptive of the same people,) are mentioned by Tacitus, as dwelling
near the sea “which looks towards Ireland.” Camden is inclined to place
them either in Somersetshire or Cheshire; but traces of the appellation by
which they are known, may be discovered in various other counties. Some
modern antiquaries, of whom Baxter (vide Gloss. Brit.) and Whitaker (vide
Hist. of Manchester) are the principal, suppose that the Cangi were not a
distinct tribe, but merely such of the youth of different British nations, as
were employed in watching the herds and flocks. Persons engaged in such
a duty would be armed, for the defence of their herds from the attack of
rival Clans, or from the ferocity of beasts of prey; and as they were proba-
THE BR1TON S. 23
invasion under Julius Caesar: and the people thus described, to-
gether with the Attrebates, are conjectured by other antiquaries
to have possessed a part of that county, so late as the date of the
invasion under Claudius. - % •
In the above statement of the possessions of the Belgæ proper,"
I have followed the account of Richard of Cirencester, as illus-
trated by the able notes of Mr. Leman. The towns unquestiona-
bly belonging to this people are noticed in the annexed Map.
Venta + (Winchester) which Richard mentions as a “noble city,”
was their capital.—In regard to the name by which this tribe is
distinguished, it may be observed that they are often termed the
Proper Belga by modern historians and antiquaries, in contra-
distinction either from such colonies of the same stock, as had
obtained an earlier footing, and had effected an intermingled set-
tlement with Celtic tribes more towards the interior of south Bri-
tain; or from such nations as were conquered by the Belgic arms,
and were become tributary. > 8. … . . * *
The Morini,f having subdued the Durotriges, who origi-
mally possessed Dorsetshire, fixed themselves in that district;
and their territory is believed to have comprehended the whole of
the present county. Their capital was Dunium, or Durinum
(Maiden Castle, near Dorchester, which last place was subse-
quently the Roman station.) * . . .
C 4 s: The
bly considerable in number, they might venture on opposing the Romans, at
least when those enemies appeared only in straggling parties.—Such is the
hypothesis of the above writers; and considering the frequency, and the
dissimilarity of situation, in which traces of the Cangi or Ceangi occur, the
conjecture certainly wears an air of probability.—For some remarks on this
subject, see Beauties for Cheshire, p. 184–185; and for Wilts, p. 5–6.
* For some notice of the Belgae, and their possessions, see Beauties for
Hampshire, p. 5–6; for Wiltshire, p. 5–7 : and for Somersetshire, p. 339
—340. . . 3.
* The capital of the Celtic tribe, the Segontiaci, before the invasion of the
Belg” was at Old Winchester, which the Belge removed to the present site
of New Winchester. º
* The Morini are mentioned in the Beauties for Dorsetshire, p. 321.
24 1NTRoduction.
The DAMNoN11, or DANMonii,” occupied Devonshire, and
the south-east part of Cornwall; having for their metropolis, Isca
(Exeter.) . . Ž
The ATTREBA tes, or AttheBAT11,+ possessed the north-east
part of Hampshire, and the south and north-east parts of the
county of Berks; (the remaining parts of those districts being re-
tained by the Segontiaci.) The only town mentioned by Ptolemy
as belonging to this tribe, is termed Nalcua by that writer;
which is generally agreed to have been the same with the Calleva
of Antoninus, and the Calleba of Richard. Much uncertainty
has prevailed as to the probable site of this town, the capital of
the Attrebates. But, in the commentary on Richard's Itinerary,
strong arguments are adduced for ascribing it to Silchester, that
venerable spot which now presents so impressive an outline of a
vast Roman city, deserted by inhabitants, and remote from the
track of all travellers, except those led by curiosity to examine
its massy and extensive walls. * . .
To the north of the Cantii and of the Thames, were seated the
TRINoBANTEs, or TRINov ANTes, f who inhabited the districts
now denominated Middlesex and Essex, together with a part of
Hertfordshire; having Trinobantum, or Trinovantum (after-
wards better known by the names of Londinium and Augusta) for
their capital. § According to Mr. Whitaker, and his opinion
has a great appearance of correctness, the Trinobantes were no
other
* For many particulars respecting the Damnonii and their possessions, see
Beauties for Cornwall, p. 311, et seq; and Beauties for Devonshire, p. 5.
* The Attrebates are mentioned in the Beauties for Berkshire, p. 83–84.
# The Trinobantes are noticed in the Beauties for London and Middlesex,
p. 1; and for Essex, p. 243, - .
$ It is observed by Mr. Whitaker (Hist, of Manchester, Vol. I. p. 100.
notes) that “ Ptolemy, who places the Cantii in all the south of Middlesex,
fixes the Trinoantes in Essex only. But as the Trinoantes, according to
Richard, p. 23, &c. once resided in Middlesex, Ptolemy's account of the
Cantii and Trinoantes was taken from records of two different dates, and
ought, therefore, to be referred to different periods.” .
| Hist, of Manchester, Vol. II. p. 205,
THE BRYTON S. 25
other than a branch of the Cantii, which spread over all Middle-
sex and Essex, and, as “Novantes, or Newcomers, into Mid-
dlesex, had their fortress distinguished by the appellation of
Tre-Norantum, or the town of the Novantes.” It may, how-
ever, be observed that an etymology of this term, quite different
from that given by Mr. Whitaker, is presented in that page of
the Beauties of England, to which I have referred for some fur-
ther particulars concerning these ancient inhabitants of Mid-
dlesex. . - .
In concluding this brief geographical survey of the population
of ancient Britain, it is desirable to remind the reader that we
shall certainly fall into a considerable error, if we believe that the
present boundary marks of the different counties afford a close re-
semblance to those of the kingdoms, or petty states, into which
Britain was divided before the interference of the Romans.—In
forming an estimate of the probable limits of such territories, we,
perhaps, find the best guide in a careful consideration of natural
circumstances. Rivers and ranges of mountains formed lines of
natural boundary, which, in most instances, must have been
adopted by a rude people, and which do, in fact, constitute the
limits of many countries in the present improved state of society.
A mode of calculation on the extent of territory possessed by each
British tribe, formed on such a consideration of imperative natural
circumstances, will be obvious in many of the remarks submit-
ted in the preceding pages. r .
The reader who compares the above statements, concerning the
territories of the various British tribes, with the accounts of those w
petty nations prefixed to respective portions of the Beauties of
England and Wales, will not neglect to held in remembrance that
the Map of ancient Britain, and the observations by which it is
accompanied, apply entirely to one period, the first invasion of
the island under Julius Caesar. Such a view was chosen, on the
principle of its embracing the point of history most useful and
interesting to the English and Welsh topographer.
A perusal of the ſoregoing historical Analysis, and a reference
. to
26 1NTRODUCTION.
to the tables of division between the Celtic and Belgic tribes, will
enable the reader to detect any casual errors of appropriation into
which the editors of this work may have fallen, whilst merely en-
gaged in the description of a particular district.
Each of the numerous small states mentioned above, whether
Celtic or Belgic, constituted a separate monarchy, the right of suc-
cession to which was of an hereditary nature. Thus divided into
distinct communities, each under its respective head, the whole
of the Britons were evidently in that state of society which im-
mediately succeeds to the patriarchal, when they were first called
to defend their country against so potent an enemy as the
Romans. Their want of general unanimity is noticed, by seve-
ral Roman and Greek writers, as one of the great causes of their
want of success in opposing the Roman invasion. But, notwith-
standing the remarks of those writers, it is certain that the Bri-
tish tribes were accustomed to unite their forces under one leader,
on the advance of a common enemy. This officer appears, how-
ever, to have been merely a military commander-in-chief, and
was one of the British kings, created, on the approach of danger,
Pendragon, or commandant over the other allied sovereigns.
Such were Cassivellaunus and Caractacus. . ... *
As we are not informed of any difference between the political
constitution, the religious ceremonials, and prevailing laws, of
the Celtic and Belgic Britons, the following observations on
these subjects, apply to them collectively, as forming the
population of this island at the date of the Roman inva-
sion.
It is believed that the power of the respective British Kings
was far from being arbitrary or extensive; and that the chief civil
duties of the state, including the privileges of forming and ad-
ministering laws, were wested in the ministers of religion.
The members of this potent priesthood, are known by the gene-
ral name of DRUIDs; but they are described, on the testimony of
ancient writers, as being divided into three classes, appropriated
to different branches of learning, and engaged in performing dis-
… - tilict
THE BRIT ON S. 27
tinct offices. These three classes are usually denominated Bards,
Druids, and Faids.” Some of the peculiar duties of each class,
together with the nature of the religion which they taught, and
many of its ceremonials, may be thus stated, on the authority of
contemporary Roman and Greek writers.
The Bards exercised the office of historical and genealogical
poets. The Druids, who were far more numerous than either of
the other classes, performed the principal offices of religion;
whilst the Faids were the religious poets and presumptive pro-
phets of the association. They composed hymns in honour of
the Gods, which they chanted on sacred occasions; and devised
such pretended revelations as were calculated to impress the mul-
titude with reverence and awe.
Many of the Druids appear to have lived in fraternities, near
the temple which they served; thus resembling, in one habit of
familiar life, the monastic churchmen of succeeding ages. It is
probable that they preserved celibacy; but it is believed that they
were not on that account, entirely deprived of female society.
The softer sex, ever conspicuous for a tender zeal of piety,
claimed a participation in the honours of the priesthood; and they
were ſound useful auxiliaries in the pageants of superstitious de-
votion. These druidesses are said to have been also divided into
three classes, and those of the upper order were much esteemed
by the people, for their pretended skill in divination and pro-
phecy. Their numbers were considerable, and their zeal un-
bounded. It will be recollected that when Suetonius invaded the
Isle of Anglesey, numerous bands of these consecrated females
were seen hurrying along the ranks of the British army, bearing
flaming
* Bard braynt, Derwydd, and Owydd. See Beauties for Wales, (Vol.
XVII) p. 35–It must be noticed that, in the opinion of many Welsh anti-
quaries, the Druidical or Bardic system, consisted of classes whose duties
they thus appropriate : the Bard proper attended to philosophy and poetry;
the Druid was the minister of religion; and the ovate was the mechanic and
anist. See a dissertation on the Bardic system and institutions, in the intro-
duction to Owen's Translations of the Elegies of Llywarch Hên.

28 1 NTRODUCTION.
flaming torches in their hands, and with wild gestures and dis-
hevelled hair, imprecating the wrath of heaven on the sacrile-
gious foe. %
Very little is known concerning the secret doctrines and fun-
damental principles of Druidism. The common policy of those
who endeavour to subjugate the human mind by superstitious
practices, throws a veil of mystical obscurity over the engines of
the base attempt; and the Druids adopted a method of secrecy
most perniciously effectual, by religiously prohibiting the use of
letters amongst their association. From the few remarks con-
tained in Roman and Greek writers who have treated on this
subject, it is evident that they taught the doctrine of the immor-
tality of the soul; but, according to Caesar and Diodorus, they
publicly instilled the notion of the transmigration of the spirit
into other bodies. :-
It is not improbable that the Druids secretly cherished a pure
and simple belief in the existence of one God, the great Creator
of themselves and all around, above, and beneath them; but as
the emoluments of their brotherhood were derived from the blind
veneration of bigotry, they raised a long train of phantasies for
the delusion and amusement of the human imagination. Under
their influence, the Briton was induced to worship the sun, the
moon, and the minor luminaries of the heavens; streams were
deified by them, and honoured with devotional rites; warlike
Princes were exalted after death to the rank of gods.
In a religious system calculated to stimulate and render pro-
fitable the mundane hopes and fears of mankind, offerings, sacri-
fices, and the practices of augury and divination, would necessarily
form primary objects of attention; and the want of simplicity in
the mode of faith would, as naturally, be attended with a studied
solemnity of ceremonials.-The Druids held it unlawful to adore
the Gods within walls and under roofs. Their places of wor-
ship were invariably in the open air, and covered only by the
canopy of the heavens. Here they formed huge temples, (if such
a terin may be bestowed on their religious structures.) consisting
THE BRITONS. 99
of ranges of unhewn stone, which enclosed a circular area. To
increase the solemn effect of the scene, by conducting the devotee
to the vicinity of the altar through mysterious gloom and deep
tranquillity, their stupendous temples were usually surrounded
with thick groves of oak; and even the majestic trees of which
these groves were composed, were consecrated by druidical super-
stition, and associated with the attributes of divinity. When the
priests performed religious ceremonies, they wore garlands of oak-
leaves. The misletoe which grew on these sacred trees was re-
garded with particular reverence, and was gathered for religious
purposes with much pomp and ceremony. On this important oc-
casion, as we are told by Pliny, one of the Druids, clothed in
white, ascended the tree, and with a knife of gold cut the pre-
cious branch, which was received into a sagum of pure white.
Sacrifices and a banquet concluded the festival. &
The wild and gloomy spot of druidical worship was sometimes
surrounded by a ditch and a vallum of earth; and was often chosen
on an eminence, as such a situation allowed a free view of the
heavenly bodies. It is probable that religious ceremonies were
performed daily in these sacred recesses; and it is known that
the Druids held certain fixed festivals. The sixth day of every
moon (from which day the Britons dated the commencement of
the lunar month,) was appropriated to devotion; and several an-
nual festivals were observed with great solemnity. On all occa-
sions of public danger, or triumph, the rude grandeur of this
captivating but perverse religion, was exerted to its greatest pos-
sible extent. &
Frequent sacrifices formed an essential part of the Druidical
superstition. The living creatures sacrificed to the gods by these
priests, were sometimes entirely consumed by fire upon the altar;
but more frequently a portion only was thus offered in oblation,
and the remainder was divided between the officiating Druid, and
the person who presented the sacrifice. Unhappily the victims
were uot always of a kind which allowed of such an innoxious
participation. In the early stages of heathenism, most nations
alſº
30 . introduction.
are found guilty of a species of barbarity, which can proceed only
from a mistaken notion of the temper of the Deity, formed on the
scale of human feelings, by the worst and most tyrannous of man-
kind. Nations, famed in the progress of their history for polite-
ness and humanity, have, at an early period, endeavoured to ren-
der propitious the gods of their own fabrication, by staining their
altars with votive human blood; and this excess of cruelty was
practised with religious fervour by the British Druids. It is said
that offenders against the law were usually chosen for this hor-
rid purpose; but it appears that, if criminals were not at hand,
such of the innocent as were abject and unfriended, were sacri-
ficed without scruple. A recollection of this practice is desirable,
as it is connected with those vestiges of Druidical antiquity which
will be briefly noticed in an ensuing page; but for a detailed ac-
count of the sanguinary custom, I willingly refer the reader to
the regular historians of Druidism, or to the sources whence they
chiefly acquire intelligence, the writings of Pliny, Caesar, Strabo,
and Diodorus Siculus. ..
Owing to the deep secrecy of their consultations, and their
prohibition of the use of letters, it is quite impossible to prove, at
present, the extent or varieties of intelligence possessed by the
British Druids; but the Roman and Greek writers bear ample
testimony to their knowledge and erudition. Their private schools
formed a kind of university for the youth of Gaul. Their skill in
astronomy and natural philosophy is admitted by the most polish-
ed of contemporary writers; and it is said that their systems in
various branches of learning were of so complex, if not profound
a nature, that a student would employ twenty years in obtaining
a complete knowledge of them.* . §
To
* The Theological doctrines of the Druids, together with their systems of
morals and philosophy, and other lessons in art and science, were delivered
in s multitude of verses, which it must needs take a long time to impress on
the memory of the learner. Some relics of these have been supposed to exist
in the Historical Triads, published in the Welsh Archaiology—clad in robes
. of

THE BRITON 8, 31
To pass unnoticed the proficiency which they are believed to
have attained in Astronomy, Geography, Geometry, and Meta-
physics, it may be observed, that their skill in mechanics is evi-
dent from those stupendous vestiges of their religious structures,
which remain to the present day, subjects of admiration with the
most ingenious. w
That they were acquainted with the science of legislation has
been already mentioned; but we have few opportunities of ascer-
taining their talents in this important branch of knowledge. As
the laws of the Britons were not written, but were formed into
verses, and preserved by the Druids, all who endeavour to pre-
sent a view of them are compelled to call largely upon the aid
of probable conjecture. . . . . . . . .
We may, however, notwithstanding the probable amalgama-
tion of the customs of the Britons, with those of invading nations,
still discover some distinct points in the modern doctrines of our
English law, which, from their great affinity and resemblance to
the Druidical tenets and discipline, are fairly referable to a Bri-
tish original. Among these may be first mentioned, the very
motion of an oral, unwritten law, such as is, in its elementary
principles, the common law of England, containing the grand.
fundamental rules of our legal polity; which being delivered from
age to age, by custom and tradition merely, would appear to be
primarily derived from the practice of the Druids. .
A less equivocal remain of the British institutions, is to be
found in the partible quality of lands, by the custom of Gavel-
kind, which still obtains in many parts of England, and was the
universal course of descent in Wales, until the reign of Henry
the Eighth. & . 3.
To these, likewise, may be added the ancient division of the
goods of an intestate between his widow and children, or next
2. § of
of white, and mounted on a slight eminence, the Druids probably poured
forth such verses, while instructing crowded congregations of Britons in - the
‘anciful tenets of their religion. .* § ... :: w


32 INTRODUCTION.
of kin; which has been revived by the statute of distribu-
tions. 3× … ” . . . -
The tenure of lands in Gavelkind, the most important of the
British legal remains, exists principally in the county of Kent,
although it is to be found in certain portions of many other coun-
ties; and was probably, in ancient times, the general custom of
the realm.” The principal distinguishing properties of this
tenure are, that the tenant is of age sufficient to aliene his estate
by feoffment at fifteen;f that the estate does not escheat in case
of attainder and execution for felony, according to an ancient
maxim “the father to the bough, the son to the plough ;”f and
(which is by far the most important deviation from the general
rule of modern law,) that the lands descend not to any one son
only, by right of primogeniture or otherwise, but to all the sons
together; a course of descent formerly the most usual through-
out the whole of England, varied only by the customs of particu-
lar districts. -
The state of the useful arts amongst the various British tribes,
together with their commerce, customs in war, and familiar habits,
before the interference of the Romans, are necessarily subjects of
curiosity and interest. -
In presenting remarks on these topics, it would be desirable to
distinguish, in every particular, between the primeval Celtic in-
habitants, and the more recent migrators from Gaul, the Belgae.
But, even if such a minute discrimination were attainable, it is
probable that many variations of custom to be noticed between
these settlers in Britain at dissimilar periods, were inconsequen-
tial in the history of human manners, as they proceeded chiefly,
or entirely, from the effects of different stages of civilization on
people who entertained the same national opinions.S. The great
§§ - circular
* Blackstone's Comm. Vol. II. p. 84. Seld. Analect. l. 2. c. 7.
f Ibid.—Lamb, Peramb. 614. # Ibid.—Lamb. 634.
i $. In support of such a remark, it may be observed that Mr. Whitaker.
after a mature consideration of the accounts transmitted by ancient writers.
thua
T H E B R1T ON 8. 33
circular temple of the primeval inhabitants was consistent with
the fundamental religious principles of the Belgºe, and was
adopted by them, as is believed, with no other alteration than
such as regarded artificial improvement. Caesar, although he
notices the superior civility of the Belgae, states no distinction
between their religion, or political constitution, and those of the
inland Celtic tribes. Succeeding ancient writers usually describe
the various petty nations, whether Celtic or Belgic, under the
general name of Britons. ź
Viewed in this light, as tribes possessing the same forms of re-
ligion and of government, but dissimilar in their respective stages
of progress towards refinement, we shall find that the Belgée in-
troduced to this island some arts calculated to afford them a
marked pre-eminence in commercial pursuit and personal comfort.
But, whilst admitting the superior polish of the Belge, and their
greater knowledge of arts, both useful and ornamental, we must
not, with a hasty boldness of contrast, suppose that the primeval
and inland tribes were quite ignorant of the arts which render life .
D . . . . . decent,
- {
thus delivers his opinion concerning the probable similarity of national fea-
tures between the Celtze and the Belge. “Nor was the difference great in
itself, betwixt the Britons and the Belgae. They both constructed their edi-
fices in the same manner, used the same stated pieces of brass or iron bullion
for money, had the same fondness for keeping poultry and hares about their
houses, and the same aversion to seeing them upon their tables. And they
both painted their bodies, both threw off their cloaths in the hour of battle,
both suffered the hair of their head to grow to a great length, both shaved all
but the upper lip, both had wives in common, and both prosecuted their wars
on the same principles. In all these particulars, the great and principal
strokes of the national character, the Belge and Britons universally agreed.
Several of the latter likewise concurred with the former, in their attention to
agriculture, and in wearing garments of woollen. - And the only distinction
betwixt them was one, which was no difference of manners at all; that the
Britons, being dislodged from that side of the island which was immediately
cºntiguous to Gaul and Spain, and the only part of it which was visited by
**reign traders, were no longer able to pursue the commerce which they
had previously carried on, and were obliged to resign it up to the Belga,”
Genuine Hist, of the Britons asserted, p. 84–85. .

34 I NTRODUCTION,
decent, or were destitute of a system of commercial interchange,
calculated to enhance the value of their natural possessions.
Trackways, remote from the utmost frontier of Belgic encroach-
ment, penetrated the inland recesses of Britain through the terri-
tories of all her tribes; and that the Celtae possessed a foreign
commerce, however limited, is well known. x * : * : , : " :
The great characteristical line of distinction, between the first
settlers in Britain and those of a more recent date, consisted,
according to the account transmitted by Caesar, in the practice
of agriculture; which was introduced to Britain by the Belgae,
and was successfully cultivated by that people in their portions
of the island. This useful art (the adoption of which, assuredly,
constitutes an important era in the rise of civilization) would ap-
. pear, from the commentary of Caesar, to have been chiefly con-
fined to the south-western coast, and, consequently, to districts
inhabited by Belgic Britons. The inland, or Celtic tribes, ac-
cording to that commentary, despised agriculture, but were ac-
tively engaged in pasturage; through the exercise of which art
they supported themselves, using chiefly as food, milk, and the
produce of their numerous cattle. r
With agriculture, the source of national wealth, and thence of
growing refinement in manners, it appears that the Belgae intro-
duoed to our island a manufacture, essential to the comfort of man
in a rude state, and of primary importance as he ascends in the
scale of civilization. This was the manufacture of woollen cloths,
which has since proved of so much importance to this country, as
to have been emphatically styled the “source of all its riches,
and the basis of all its power.” At the era of Caesar’s invasion,
the common use of garments, composed of manufactured wool,
was confined to the Belgic Britons. But a mode of dress, at
once eminently productive of comfort and comparative elegance,
was not likely to be restricted for ages to any particular tribes;
and it does, in fact, appear that the Celtic chieftains had adopted
the use of woollen vestures, when they first became known to the
~ - Such

T H E B R H TO NS. $5
such an usage was, however, limited to chieftains, and other
persons of power and distinction. Caesar, speaking in general
terms, describes the Britons in the interior parts (the Celtae) as
being clothed “in the hides of animals;” the first and inost ua-
tural resource of man, when attempting to defend himself against
the inclemency, or vicissitudes of the seasons. & .
Such appear to be the most important points in which the
Celts and Belge were dissimilar. The towns of both pos-
sessed the same rude character; and we are not informed of
any marked difference between their scattered habitations, whe-
ther adapted to the chieftain, the agriculturist, or the pastoral
farmer. -
In presenting a view of the manners and customs of the popu-
lation of Britain, when the island was first invaded by the Ro-
mans, much, therefore, must be of general application. Where a
peculiarity is traced to a particular people, it will be carefully
noticed in the following pages.
That the Britons possessed numerous towns is shewn by our
map of ancient Britain, and the explanation of its contents.
These, however, were of a very rude character, and were used
only as places of retreat in times of war and danger. It is said,
by Caesar, that “what the Britons call a town, is a tract of
woody country, surrounded by a mound and ditch, for the se-
curity of themselves and their cattle against the incursions of
their enemies.” § . . . .
But the account transmitted by that writer is far from con-
veying a just notion of the whole of the British towns, or forti-
fied places. Many of these retreats were constructed on the brow
of a promontory, when the character of country afforded such a
natural advantage. The distinguishing marks of the British
town, whether placed in the lowlands, and protected by mo-
rasses and prostrate trees; or situated on a lofty elevation, and
*fended by rude ditches or banks; will be noticed at greater
length, in the pages which treat of existing traces of British an-
tiquities. &
D 2 The

36 1 NTR o D UCTION.
The domestic buildings of the Britons demand but little ob-
servation. We may readily suppose that some of the rudest
settlers in this country, in the early stages of their residence,
secured themselves from the frequent changes, and casual seve-
rity of the climate, in excavated recesses. But such savage and
gloomy retreats would chiefly be used by mankind while depending
for sustenance on the spoils of the chaee, and contented with
initating, in a mild season, the leafy den of the beast of the thicket.
Caesar describes the country of the Belgic Britons, at the date of his
invasion, as being well-provided with houses, which resembled
those of Gaul. They were, therefore, of a circular shape, and
composed of wood, with a high tapering roof, having an aperture
at the top for the emission of smoke. From the testimony of
other writers, it would appear that the habitations of the Celtic
tribes were nearly of a similar description. The round, or oblong
ground-form, with a conical roofing, is, indeed, the character of
building almost invariable with the early stages of society; and
evidently proceeds from the rude, but natural, practice of enclosing
an area with tall erect limbs of timber, inclining at the summit
towards a common centre. In the pages which treat concerning
vestiges of the ancient Britons, it will be shewn that some relics
are still remaining, which are believed to exhibit foundations of
their dwellings; and which, if admitted as such, will evince that
some of their habitations, though simple, and of small dimensions,
were designed ſor durability. x
A correct idea of the comforts which the Britons were enabled
to assemble round then in their rude habitations, can be gained
only from an examination of their progress in the arts, and their
commercial opportunities. :
That there was a period at which the inhabitants of Britain
were ignorant of the art of working metals, would appear to be
evident ſrom the numerous instruments, formed of stone and flint,
which have been found in many parts of the island.* This igno-
3. . . . . . . . . . . . § 3 * . . . . . . x- Tanee
*See many of these discoveries noticed in the Beauties for Wiltshire, under
the article, BA R Rowse §
T H E B R l'TON S. 37
rance is common to every nation in the first stage of society;
but the Britons speedily discovered the mineral treasures which
lay plentifully embosomed in various districts of their country,
and they progressively acquired the talent of refining and ren-
dering a portion of them amenable to use. Tin, long esteemed
the most valuable production of this island, was exported by the
Celtic Britons, through many ages antecedent to the encroach-
ments of the Belgae. r . … . .
The discovery of this valuable metal, induced the visits of
foreign merchants, and led to a series of commercial interchanges
highly important in the annals of early Britain. The first na-
tion which opened a trade with the inhabitants of this island,
was, undoubtedly, the Phoenician. That enterprising people,
the founders of navigation, and of extensive commerce, are sup-
posed to have commenced a trade with Britain, about 600 years
before the Christian era. Tin was the first great article of British
exportation; and this metal the Phoenicians procured in large
quantities from the Scilly islands, then denominated the Cassi-
terides. * . .3 r
The Phºenicians enjoyed an exclusive trade with this country,
for nearly three centuries;* when they reluctantly admitted the
Greeks to a participation in their advantageous traffic. From
such a competition of purchasers, the Britons derived consider-
able benefit; and the great mart for the arrangement of exports
and imports, was removed from the obscure Cassiterides, and
fixed, as some believe, in the isle of Wight.t .” 2.
We have not any direct authorities for ascertaining the nature
of the articles given in exchange for their tin, by the Phoenicians,
to the first Celtic traders of Britain. A conjecture may, how-
ever, be drawn from the state of the foreign trade cultivated by
D 3 the
**** *one notice of the connexion between the Britons and Phoenicians,
in the Beauties for Devonshire, p. 38; and for Cornwall, p. 338–339.
+ An examination of different opinious, as to whether the Isle of Wight is
really the Ictis of Diodorus Siculus, and was, consequently, the great British
*** for tin, is presented in the Beauties for Hampshire, p. 332–33. : .. 3
38 INTRODUCTION.
the Britons, when the Belgae shared in the population of the
island, and at the time of the Roman invasion under Claudius.
Tin then continued to be the chief article of exportation; but
lead, the skins of animals, both wild and tame, together with nu-
merous other commodities, are mentioned among the exports of
Britain. The human being, reduced to slavery, and estimated
merely as an animal, was also an object of barter. In exchange
for such articles of traffic, the Britons imported salt, earthen-
ware, and brass, both wrought, and in bullion.
It would thus appear that the islanders derived but few addi-
tions to their comforts from their foreign commerce. It is cer-
tain that they waited at home for opportunities of barter; and it
is quite doubtful whether they possessed barks of sufficient mag-
nitude for extensive voyages, if they had been actuated by a spi-
rit of bold commercial enterprise. Such of their vessels as were
noticed by Caesar, were merely open boats, framed of light tim-
bers, ribbed with hurdle-work, and lined with hides.”
Brass, or copper; was the favourite metal with the Britons,
whether of Celtic or Belgic extraction, as with all ancient na-
tions in their early ages,t and was entirely imported by them,
although they understood the art of working it, and constructed
from it various implements. That their military weapons, swords,
battle-axes, spears, and arrow-heads, were chiefly formed of cop-
per or brass, is manifest, from the numerous relics found in dif-
ſerent parts of the island, and preserved in the cabinets of the
curious. From these it appears that they often mixed an ex-
traordinary quantity of lead with the primary metal.
Iron, the most useful of all metals, and that which Nature has
spread through most regions in the greatest abundance, is still .
g”. the
* Boats similar to those described by Caesar, are still used on the rivers of
Wales, and are denominated Corracles, in English. The Welsh term this
species of boat, Cwn. See Beauties for Wales, Vol. XVII. p. 8, &c.
* For the general use of brass, or eopper, in the manufacture of offensive
arms, amongst the ancients, see Goguet's Origin of Laws, Arts, &c. Vol. I.
P, 157–159; and Wol. II, p. 266. .
the BRITONs. 39
the most difficult of discovery; and is rendered forgeable by a
process peculiarly complicated and tedious. Small quantities of
this metal were imported from the continent, both by the Celtic
and Belgic Britons, until a short time before the descent of
Caesar; when some mines were opened, and worked upon a small
scale, by the latter people. It is believed that gold and silver
were not known to be natural productions of the island, when it
was first visited by Caesar; but it would appear that these me-
tals were discovered soon after that period, as Tacitus and Strabo
mention both amongst the riches which Britain possessed to re-
ward her conquerors. If not dug and worked in Britain, it is pro-
bable that these precious metals had been long imported in small
quantities from Gaul, either in bullion, or wrought into various
ornaments. That many ornamental particulars of pure gold
formed a part of the elevated Briton's personal decorations, is
evident, from the discoveries made on opening barrows, or funeral
tumuli. w.
The art of the potter is one so necessary and so simple, that it
can scarcely be supposed unknown to a nation which practised
pasturage, and used as food the milk of its kine. That the Bri-
tons were acquainted with this art, is proved by vessels found in
places of burial, and in other earth-works, assuredly British.”
But the rude character of these specimens shews that they had
made little Progress in refining on the manufacture. They had,
also, vessels formed of native amber; but, it would appear, from
the investigation of funeral deposits, that these were very rare,
and held in great value. 2. . x . .
From the simplicity of construction and arrangement observ-
able in their houses, it would seem probable that the Britons had
little skill in works appertaining to the carpenter and turner;
but we shall find that they possessed war-chariots so well con-
** and neatly executed, as to obtain the admiration of their
Polished invaders, the Romans. It may readily be supposed
- D 4 that
. . see some specimens of British pottery casualJ. noticed in the Beauties for
Wiltshire, p. 229, and 310,

40 introduction.
that the chief efforts of a people continually exposed to internal
warfare, would be directed towards the construction of military
vehicles and implements; but, where many tools were possessed,
and an efficient mode of using them was well known, it is un-
likely that the exercise of opportunity and talent should be con-
fined to one branch of such essential arts. Accordingly, we find on
several of the coins of Cunobeline, minted between the first and
second great Roman invasions, the representation of seats, or
chairs, provided with backs, and mounted on four supporters.
This circumstance is trivial, and is mentioned only to counteract
a notion conveyed by some historical writers, under the influence
of which it might be supposed that the inhabitants of ancient
Britain, collectively, were in the first stage of savage life, and
quite unacquainted with the means of domestic accommodation.
In addition to articles formed of wood, their tables were furnished
with numerous utensils made of osiers, delicately intertwined.
In this species of basket work they so greatly excelled, that arti-
cles manufactured by them, were afterwards exported to Rome,
where they were much admired, and admitted to the boards of
the elevated and fashionable. -
Having thus collected such scanty materials as credible his-
tory affords, for a description of the Briton’s residence, and for an
estimate of its probable contents, it is desirable to examine into
the state of his personal appearance and habiliments.
The most acceptable of the Roman and Greek writers, concur
in describing it as a custom of Britain for the inhabitants to
paint their bodies, although they offer somewhat dissimilar ac-
counts concerning the mode in which this species of decoration
was practised. Caesar and Pliny mention the Britons as stain-
ing their skins with one uniform colour, the dye of Glastum, or
Woad; and they notice this custom as common to both sexes.
Other ancient authors describe the painting as being of a more
artificial character, and as consisting of various figures and de- º:
vices, punctured on the skin; the blue stain of the Woad forming
the ground-tint of this strange tissue of imagery. It is probable
4. that
THE BRITON'S r 41
that both accounts may be reconciled with correctness, and that
the great bulk of the population used the cheaper uniform colour,
while the upper orders indulged in the ostentation of figured
punctures, either more or less elaborate and varied as might suit
their temper and finances. : - .
The existence of this practice evidently implies an original
necessity, or custom, of exposing the person free from attire.
But it has been already shewn that such an exposure was no
longer compulsory, when the island was first visited by the
Romans, although it appears to have been still practised in time
of battle.* Both the Celtic and Belgic tribes were then clothed;
the former chiefly in skins, and the latter wholly in garments of
woollen cloth. As cloth is not mentioned amongst the articles
imported by the Britons, there is confident reason for believing
that the art of manufacturing it was introduced by the Belgoe.
The cloths at that time manufactured in Gaul, and probably in
Britain, were of a coarse and homely texture; but that most in
request was composed of wool, dyed in several different colours,
which being spun into yarn, was woven chequer-wise. Thus fall-
ing into parti-coloured squares, the fabric bore a close resem-
blance to the cloth still partially used in the highlands of Scot-
land, and known by the name of Tartan plaid. .
It has been observed, in a previous page, that the comparative
luxury of woollen garments was not entirely confined to the
Belgic tribes, when the island first became known to the Romans.
The chieftains, and other distinguished persons among the Celtae,
appear to have relinquished the rude garbs of their ancestors, and
to have adopted a more comfortable and more ornamental species
of attire. Their improved mode of dress is thus described by the
lively pen of Mr. Whitaker;4 and as the description is, in many
N. &: leading
* It is observed by Mr. Whitaker, that the highlanders have “ retained
this practice, in part, to the present times; as late as the battle of Killi-
cranky, throwing off their plaids and short coats, and fighting in their shirts.”
§
Hist, of Manchester, vol. I. p. 300.
* Hist. of Manchester, Vol. i. p. 300-302.
42 1NTRODUCTION.
leading particulars, supported by the testimony of ancient writers,
it may be perused as a curious delineation of ancient costume,
founded on credible hints of intelligence, but enlarged with a con-
siderable license of comparison and probable conjecture.
“The trunk of the body was covered with a jacket, which the
Britons called a Cota, and we denominate a waistcoat. It was
plaided, and open before; had long sleeves extending to the hands;
and reached itself to the middle. And below this began the
trowsers, which were called Braccae, Brages, or Breeches, by
the Britons, wrapped loosely round the thighs and legs, and ter-
minated at the ancles. These also were plaided, as their name
intimates; Brac signifying a parti-coloured object, and the upper
garment of the highlanders being therefore denominated Breac,
and Breacan, to this day. .
“Over these was a looser garment, denominated, formerly, by
the Gauls a sack, and by the Irish, lately, a mantle. This was
equally plaided, and was of a thick strong contexture. And it
was fastened upon the body with buttons, and bound round the
waist with a girdle. The former appear to have been placed one
upon either shoulder, where the highlanders use a sort of pins at
present; and are seen distinctly on the coins of several British
monarchs. The latter, which is frequently used to this day by
the highlanders, also appears upon British coins, and seems to
have been particularly ornamented, as in the Roman triumph
over Caractacus his phalerae made a part of the splendid shew.
“ Round the neck was a large chain, which hung down upon
the breast; and on the middle, or second finger of both hands
was a ring. The ornamental chains of Caractacus were exhibit-
ed with his phalerae in the procession at Rome, and both were
made of gold among the chiefs, and of iron among their followers.
They had shoes upon their feet, which were the same, assuredly,
with the buskins that were used within these five centuries in
Wales, and with the light flat brogues, that are worn to this day
by some of the Irish and highlanders; and, like them, were made
of a raw cow-hide, that had the hair turned outwards. And they
. Wore
THE BRITON S. 43
were round bonnets on their heads. This remarkable dre" ºf *
British ancestors, seems to have been equally the attire of the
men and women among the nobles of Britain.”
It is difficult to form a just estimate of the moral qualities and
familiar manners of a people so remote, from the pages of those
who have noticed them but briefly; who visited them as enemies
or conquerors; and who pertinaciously affected to consider them,
whether of Celtic or Belgic origin, as mere barbarians. They
are described by the Greek and Roman writers, as being Proud
and vain-glorious; rash in resolve, and prone to passionate
bursts of anger. In alleviation of such censure, it may be re-
marked that their pride was blended with patriotism, and that
their warmth of temper was sustained and rendered respectable
by an ardent courage, ever ready for action, in support of their
princes, and in defence of their country.
The most important circumstance connected with the oeconomy
of civil life, is a due regulation of the commerce between the
sexes. Many writers have presented rather minute descriptions
of the marriage ceremonials of the Britons, and of the engage-
ments entered into by the parties concerned. But their accounts
rest entirely on a presumed analogy of manners between the
ancient Germans and the Britons; on the poems of Ossian; and
on the laws of Howel Dha. It is obvious, that conjecture is here
allowed too large a scope for the purposes of legitimate history.
Julius Caesar affords the first acceptable authority on the sub-
ject, and he writes to the following effect: “Ten or twelve per-
sons, who are commonly near relations, as fathers, sons, and
brothers, all have their wives in common. But the children are
presumed to belong to the man to whom the mother was mar-
. ried.”
* The dress of the British Princess, Boadicia, is described by Dio, as “a
tunick of various colours, long and plaited, over which she had a large and
thick mantle. This was her common dress, which she wore at all times.”-
Many articles of personal ornament amongst the Britons are noticed in future
Pages, under the subject of Barrows, Cairns, and Funeral Reliques.


44 INTRODUCTION.
ried.” This assertion is corroborated by the testimony of Dio,
and other ancient writers. .
A statement so unfavourable to the morals of our ancestors, has
naturally been treated with scepticism by many authors. Dr.
Henry, one of the most respectable of those who hesitate in re-
ceiving as correct the accounts transmitted by the ancients, ob-
serves “that it is very probable Caesar, Dio, and others, were de-
ceived by appearances, and were led to entertain this opinion of
the promiscuous intercourse of the sexes among the Britons, by
noticing the promiscuous manner in which they lived, and parti-
cularly in which they slept. The houses of the Britons were
not, like ours at present, or those of the Romans in those times,
divided into several distinct apartments; but consisted of one
large circular room, or hall, with a fire in the middle, around
which the whole family and visitants, men, women, and chil-
dren, slept on the floor, in one continued bed of straw or rushes.
This excited unfavourable suspicions in the minds of strangers,
accustomed to a more decent manner of living; but these sus-
picions were probably without foundation. For the ancient Ger-
mans, who were in many respects extremely like the ancient
Britons, and lived in the same crowded and promiscuous manner,
were remarkable for their chastity and conjugal fidelity.”+
An argument in favour of the connubial good morals of the
Britons, has, likewise, been drawn from the poems of Ossian;
but the examiner will, perhaps, look with more consideration on
the instance of Queen Cartismandua, who incurred the universal
indignation of the Brigantes, for her inconstancy to her husband,
and preference of her armour-bearer.f But, still, these argu-
ments are far from conclusive, when opposed by the positive as-
sertion of so judicious an investigator as Caesar. In regard to
Cartismandua, it may be readily supposed that an unusual re-
. . . & Ser We
• Cesar, de Bel. Gal. i. 5, c. 14. .
+ Henry's Hist, of England. Ž Vol. II, p. 304–305,
# Wide Tacit. Hist, l. 3. c. 45. .
THE BR l'TON S. 45
serve was expected in the person of a queen, and that the popular
indignation was heightened by the alien meanness of her com-
panion in guilt. Although it has been found impossible to exone-
rate entirely the character of the Britons from this degrading.
imputation, we may easily imagine that a custom so offensive
to the simplicity of nature, was not held in universal practice.
Genuine delicacy would, perforce, find its way to some bosoms;
admiration and esteem would individuate affection, even amongst
the half-civilized; and paternal love, one of the deepest and
noblest feelings of the human breast, would prohibit the indul-
gence of an intercourse so grossly promiscuous, amongst the more
respectable classes of society. .
Thus, even if the Druidical laws sanctioned a disgusting licen-
tiousness of manners, we may suppose that only families of little
consideration and repute took full advantage of the freedom al-
lowed. It will be remembered that the laws of the Koran per-
mit a mussulman to have a plurality of wives, and as many con-
cubines as his fortune will maintain; but only a comparative few,
branded with ill-fame for libertinism, seek gratification from the
indulgence. . 33 * : *.
The art in which the Britons chiefly excelled, was that of war.
The division of their country into numerous small principalities,
produced continual struggles, which rendered a skill in the
science of defence and attack, not only desirable but of vital
necessity. They were, accordingly, trained to the practice of
arms from the first dawn of adolescence; and the priests, who
held so potent a tyranny over their feelings and understanding,
encouraged them to believe that the fearless warrior was the
character most acceptable to the gods. As the Britons were
chiefly viewed when in a warlike attitude by the illustrious au-
thor, whose cominentary forms the ground-work of the history of
their manners; and as the enquiries of subsequent Roman writers
were principally (from the complexion of the times) directed to
the military circumstances of the island; we are enabled to pre-
sent a more full and satisfactory picture of the Briton, when
armed
t
46 INTRODUCTION,
armed for battle, than when engaged in civil, and more valuable
avocations. • z
Although there is reason to believe that the population of
ancient Britain was far from being extensive, yet, as society,
lependent of the priesthood, was confined to two ranks, the
chieftain and his retainer; and as only few were employed in
useful arts and manufactures; the armies poured forth on a pub-
lic emergency, were unexpectedly strong in numbers; for nearly
all who were capable of bearing arms were liable, and were ready,
to appear with them in the field. It is evident that the army of
the ancient Britons was not divided into distinct legions, but
that each particular clan fought round the person, and under the
direction of its immediate chieftain. These chiefs obeyed the
commands of the king of their petty state; and, on great occa-
sions, the assembled kings employed their forces according to
the will of the Pendragon, or head of the confederacy.
The troops consisted of infantry, cavalry, and warriors who
fought from chariots.
The infantry, as is usual with the military of most nations,
formed the chief strength of the army. They possessed no de-
fensive armour, except small, and generally round, shields. Their
offensive weapons were swords of copper, or brass, long, broad,
and without points, which were attached to the right side, and
suspended from a belt or chain, thrown over the left shoulder.
Round the body was a girdle, sustaining a short dirk or dagger,
also of copper, or brass. Some bore a spear, armed at the point
with copper, which was used occasionally as a missile weapon;
and others were armed with bows and arrows.” In the use of
these latter weapons the Belgae appear to have been peculiarly
expert, as Caesar dwells with emphasis on the annoyance which
* To this list of weapons used by the ancient British infantry, may be
added the battle-axe, if indeed those instruments so frequently found in dif-
ferent parts of the island, and termed Celts by antiquaries, were intended
for purposes of hostility. §

THE BRITON S. 47
his troops experienced from the darts of those who opposed his in-
vasion. At the butt-end of the spear was often placed a ball of
brass, charged with stones, or pieces of metal, and intended to
startle horses with its noise. The whole of the troops threw
aside their garments, and disclosed full to the enemy their painted
bodies, before they entered on action. .
The cavalry were mounted on horses of a diminutive breed,
but swift in motion, and equally spirited and hardy. If figures
exhibited on British coins may be received as conclusive evidence,
the riders were not provided with saddles of any description.
They were armed with shields; swords resembling those of the
infantry; and long spears. :-
The war-chariots” formed the most remarkable feature in the
military arrangement of the Britons, and were found, even by
the firmest phalanx of the Romans, to be vehicles of tremendous
operation. These were of two kinds, both having two wheels
and being drawn by two horses. The chariots of the most de-
structive character were armed with sharp blades, or scythes,
and hooks; and were driven furiously upon the ranks of an enemy,
destroying or maiming all who unsuccessfully endeavoured to in-
terrupt their progress.
The war-chariots of the second class contained the chieftains,
- - and
* The use of military chariots among the Britons appears to have been
derived from the Gauls; but the custom was almost entirely laid aside on
the continent, previous to Caesar's invasion of Britain. Mr. Polwhele, how-
ever, (Hist. of Devon. p. 174–176.) is of opinion that the practice was in-
troduced to the Gauls by the Britons. Conjecture, rather than proof, is
chiefly adduced by those who argue either on the side of Mr. Polwhele, or
with the opposite party. In regard to the construction and character of these
chariots, it may be remarked that Mr. King (Munimenta Antiq. Vol. I.
Chap. 1.) endeavours to degrade them to a level with the little, low, cart,
or truck, still used in many parts of Wales. If it be allowed that he is, in
some respects, supported by probability, as to the cars used by the ancient
Britons for purposes of traffic, we cannot suppose that the war-cars, which
alarmed the Roman veterans, were such contemptible carriages.
48 INTRODUCTION.
and most honourable persons in command, who east their darts
around, while they inspirited the respective troops to energy in
the fight. The skilful mode in which the British charioteers
conducted the assault, and managed their horses, is described by
Caesar, in words to the following effect: “They first drive their
chariots on all sides, and throw their darts; often, by the noise
of the wheels and horses, putting the foremost ranks of the enemy
into disorder. When they have forced their way into the midst
of the cavalry, they quit their chariots, and fight on foot. Mean-
while, the drivers retire a little from the combat, and place them-
selves in reserve, to favour the retreat of the warriors, should
they be too much oppressed by the enemy. Thus, in action, they
perform the part both of nimble cavalry and of stable infantry;
and by practice they have arrived at such expertness, that in the
most steep and difficult places they can stop their horses, when
at full speed, turn them which way they please, run along the
pole, rest on the harness, and throw themselves back into their
chariots with surprising dexterity.” -- -
It is allowed by Caesar, that the most hardy of his veteran
troops were disconcerted by this mode of attack; and, if we may
rely on the testimony of the same writer, the number of the
chariots used in war was truly formidable, Caesar asserts that
no less than four thousand war chariots were retained by Cassi-
vellaunus, after that prince, hopeless of success in the field, had
disbanded the remainder of his forces. ... . . . )
The accounts which have descended to us from their enemies,
the Romans, afford sufficient evidence of the personal courage,
discretion, and skill of the British chiefs. They usually chose
their ground, with great judgment, on the ascent of a hill: and
profited to the utmost in their operations, by a superior knowledge
of the country which they defended. In drawing up their troops,
(as we are informed by Tacitus) they commonly placed the in-
fantry in the centre, in several lines and in distinct corps; each
* . - division
• Cesar de Bel. Gal. 1. 4. c. 33.
The BR1To Ns. 49
division of warriors, consisting of the members of one clan, coin-
manded by its chieftain. . . . . " §
These bodies of infantry were so disposed that they could with
ease support and relieve each other, as exigency might de-
mand. 3: . . . ~ . &
The cavalry and chariots were stationed on either side, with
small detached parties spreading along the front of the line;
and this part of the army, rushing forwards on a signal, com-
menced the action, encouraged by the war-cry of the whole
power. . . & .
Accustomed to a limited theatre of warfare, amidst woodlands
and morasses, with rival and contiguous tribes, the British com-
manders evinced a consummate skill in the arts of stratagein
and surprise. . . . . . . .
On such arts, indeed, depended their best hope, when they
were opposed by the veteran legions. Their valour, however
great, and their tactics, though far from contemptible, were not
sufficient to enable them to cope in the open field with the supe-
rior arms and refined discipline of the Romans. . W--M. -
The hasty and predatory character of the warfare to which
they had been alone accustomed, likewise precluded a knowledge
in one essential branch of military science. This was the art of
fortification; which they appear to have practised only in the
instance of the barriers that they constructed around their
towns, or stationary places of retreat in times of public danger. .
After allowing these deficiencies, even in the dreadful art
in which they chiefly excelled, it is evident that the Bri-
tons, collectively, possessed more than the untutored tumul-
tuary valour ascribed to them by many writers. The skill
in stratagem and retreat displayed by the Belgic Britons,
greatly perplexed, if it did not entirely baffle, the illustrious
Caesar, one of the most consummate generals of Rome, the vic-
torious mistress of so many nations. And in after ages of that
contest whence we date the commencement of our national
annals, the arts of the Romans assisted, in no mean degree, the
E SūCGégs
1N TRO DUCT 10 N.
success of their arms over the general population of Britain.—
| Such a triumph renders even subjugation attractive; but still
it must not be forgotten that, after a struggle of more than four
centuries, the conquerors of the continent left a portion of this is-
land unsubdued, and sacred to rude but honest and indignant
patriotism. &
It is to be feared that the above brief sketch of the political
eonstitution, the theology, and the customs and manners, of the
ancient Britons, will prove inadequate to the gratification of the
eurious. But it would be difficult to extend an account of the in-
habitants of Britain, at the time of the Roman invasion, to a
much greater length, on solid ground. It has been observed by
Dr. Johnson that “all which is really known of the ancient state
of this island, is contained in a few pages;” and such appears to
be indeed the fact, if we adhere to what has been said, deter-
minately of ancient Britain, by those who wrote from actual ob-
servation, or from contemporary intelligence. If we were at-
lowed to argue from analogy, and to ascribe, unreservedly, to the
Celtae and Belgae of Britain, the manners of kindred tribes on the
eontinent, a more copious detail might be presented without any
great effort. But it must ever be dangerous to the interests of
truth, to apply partieular instances from general remarks.
I might, likewise, have added much to these delineations,
and have imparted to them many touches truly attractive, iſ I
had chosen to lean on the authority of the poems ascribed to
Ossian. But it would appear that poems, only verbally trans-
mitted, and known to South Britain through the medium of a
free translation only, cannot be safely adopted as materials for
3. legitimate history of manners, unless when they directly agree
with the assertions of ancient historical writers; and in such
instances their testimony, except as to the mere purpose of em.
bellishment, must be superfluous. 3.
Some minor particulars relating to the customs of the ancient
Britons, will be elicited from an examination of their rude, but
venerable

BRIT is H ANTIQUIT les. 51
venerable remains, which are strewed over the less cultivated
parts of the island, in impressive abundance. x
To an investigation of these I now proceed; and direct the
notice of the reader to those earthy mounds and outlines, which
mark the site of inhabitation at an earlier period than is recog-
nised by the pages of British history ; to massy vestiges of
Druidical rites, which would mock the assaults of time, if un-
aided by the more destructive agency of the irreverent human
§§ hand; and to the antiquarian labours of those who have removed
the incumbent load of earth from the Briton’s rude cell of se.
pulture, and have disclosed the reliques of his form, together
with the simple, but emphatic, memorials placed beside him in the
grave by the fanciful piety of an obsolete superstition.
BRitish Towns--Vestiges of HABITATIONs—ExcAvA-
TIONs.--The towns of the Britons contained no buildings that
were likely to meet the eye of distant posterity. It has been
already noticed, that, according to Caesar, these towns consisted
of mean huts for human inhabitation, and sheds for cattle, which
were placed in the midst of a thick wood, and fortified by a high
bank and a ditch-But although the buildings of the British
towns were not calculated for long duration, the vallum and
fosse, where not interrupted by the hand of future settlers, would
remain as land-marks of former population, through very distant
ages. Such appear to be those called Ambresbury-banks, near
Copped Hall, in Essex, which are thus described by a careful
investigator: “This intrenchment was formerly in the very heart
of the forest, and is of an irregular figure, rather longest from
east to west, and on a gentle declivity to the south-east. It
contains near twelve acres, and is surrounded by a ditch and high
bank, much worn down by time; though, where there are angles,
they are still very bold and high. There are no regular openings,
like gateways or entrances.” ‘. .
… E 2 . But
* Gough's Camden, Edit. 1789. Vol. II, p. 49, and Pi. I. fg. 4; and
Beauties for Essex, p. 431–432. * * * …
52 1NTR on Uctro N.
But it would appear that the description of a British town, as
transmitted by Caesar, applies chiefly to the dwellings of such
tribes as inhabited the lowlands of Britain. As security was the
primary object studied by the Britons in constructing a town,
we may readily believe that the nations which occupied the more
mountainous districts of the island, chose the site of their places
of retreat on the summit of elevations, difficult of access, and
commanding extensive views. Accordingly, we find in several
parts of Wales, and in Cornwall,” in Lancashire, Shropshire,f
Canbridgeshire,f Herefordshire, and other counties of England,
the remains of castrametations on tall precipitate hill tops, which
are confidently believed to have been the fastnesses, or towns of
retreat, constructed by the ancient inhabitants of the island.
These fastnesses enclose a considerable area, and are of an
irregular form, the outlines complying with the natural shape of
the hill on which they are constructed. Where the sides are
not defended by precipices, they are guarded by several ditches,
and by ramparts, either of earth or of stones, worked without
the use of mortar. They have sometimes only one, but more
frequently have two entrances. One of the inost important of
these strong holds may desirably be adduced in this place, as a
specimen of their prevailing character, since it is situated, ac-
cording to the remark of Mr. King, “on a spot that could not
but be an object of the utmost attention to the original inhabi-
tants of those territories, which afterwards were deemed distinctly
England and Wales, from the very division here formed.” This
is now termed the Herefordshire Beacon, and is reared on the
summit of one of the highest of the Malvern ridge of hills. The
area of the castrametation comprises an irregular oblong, of 175
feet by 110 feet, and is surrounded by a steep and lofty vallum
. . . of
• Beauties for Cornwall, p. 500–501. , :
t Beauties for Shropshire, p. 266—267, (and for a more copious notice of
Hên Dinas, the presumed British fastness in Shropshire, see King's Muni-
menta Antiqua, Vol. I.)
f Beauties for Cambridgeshire, p. 130–131.
BRIT is H ANT19 U1th Es. 53
ef stones and earth, and by a deep ditch on the outside. Attach-
ed to the principal area, are two outworks, of considerable ex-
tent, situated lower on the sides of the hill. Each of these en-
closes a plain, probably intended for the reception of cattle in
times of exigency and retreat; and both are artificially connected
by a narrow slip of land, secured by a bank and ditch. The ac-
clivity of the hill, in its approach towards the summit, is guarded
by several rude, but formidable, banks and ditches.” x.
The above description is far from disagreeing with the account
given of many British fortresses by Tacitus;+ and the whole
arrangement of the castrametation, at once rude, bold, and cun-
ning, would appear to be consistent with the character evinced
by the ancient Britons in politics and in war. While, in general.
eharacteristics, these elevated places of retreat and defence are
thus attributable to the Britons, it may be observed that there is
not any other people to whom their first construction can be
rationally appropriated, although they may, in successive ages,
have been used by various hostile parties. . :
From encampments known to have been constructed by the
Romans, Saxons, and Danes, it is evident that these vestiges
do not bear any resemblance to their modes of fortification; and
thence it may be safely inferred that they were formed only by
the hands of those who first used the soil, and who, in the rude-
ness of an early age of inilitary tactics, sought, and found,
security for their families and their herds, on the loftiest points
of neighbouring elevations, where nature supplied the conscious
deficiences of art. . r
In addition to other arguments for the British original of these
hill fortresses, it must be observed, that within the area of many
of them are still remaining the foundations of numerous cells, or
E 3 2. places
* See a more extended notice of this curious fortress, in the Beauties
for Herefordshire, p. 597–599; and in King's Munimenta Antiqua,
Vol. I. . &
1 Annal, lib. XII. sect. 33.
54 w 1 N T R O DUCTION.
places of habitation,” which are generally circular, or oval, as
was usual with the dwellings of the Britons. The mere exist-
ence of such relics would appear to prove that the fortresses
were intended for the regular accommodation of a tribe, com-
bining both sexes and whole families, rather than for the tempo-
rary reception and defence of a band of warriors.
A curious species of earth work, supposed to form a part of
the vestigia of civil life amongst the ancient Britons, now claims
notice. I allude to the subterraneous pits and caverns which are
found near Guildford, in Surrey;t at Royston, in Hertford-
shire;f near Crayford, in Kent;S and many other places.
These are often descended into by means of a pit, or well, and
are sometimes entered on a level, through the side of a hill.
Within, they are of a different magnitude and description, Some
having only one spacious apartment, but, they are generally
divided into several rooms. Many writers contend that these
excavations were made by the Saxons, in imitation of the cus-
tom of their German ancestors, as described by Tacitus; but
Mr. King, who has bestowed great labour on the consideration of
this subject, thus delivers a contrary opinion: “If we consider
how much superior the other Saxon modes of fortification appear,
it seems much more reasonable to conclude that they were first
* . formed
* See an instance of these remains in the Beauties for Cornwall, p. 500–
501. It may be here observed, that vestiges of scattered, round, small
houses, supposed to be British, occur in several recluse parts of England
and Wales. Many of these are found on Dartmoor, in Devonshire, (See
Polwhele’s Hist, of Devon. p. 142–143; and Beauties for Devon. p. 23s
—234.)
+ Beauties for Surrey, p. 257.
$ Beauties for Herts, p. 181—183; where this excavation is supposed to
have been used as an oratory ; but, from its mode of construction, Mr. King,
in his Munimenta Antiqua, argues that it was originally formed by the Bri-
ions, as a hiding place, or as a repository of grain. . 4.
§ Beauties for Kent, p. 552–553–Curious specimens of subterranean
works, probably designed for similar purposes, likewise occur in Cornwall.
See also Beauties for Essex, p. 484, 2: … •
3. |
BRITish ANT19 Ulties. 55
formed by the Britons, in conformity to the most ancient usages
of mankind. Diodorus Siculus expressly tells us, that the Bri-
tons did lay up their corn in subterranean repositories, from .
whence the ancient people used to take a certain portion every 3.
day, and having dried and bruised the grains, made a kind of
food thereof, for immediate use.”* g
Whilst we admit the authority of Diodorus Siculus, and con-
clude that these caverns were subsequently used as repositories
of corn by the agricultural Britons, it appears probable that they
were originally constructed as hiding-places in time of war;
such a mode of secretion being almost invariably adopted by all
nations in the infancy of society, and being, indeed, learned
from the wild beasts of prey around them, who evaded the hunter
by stealing to deep and gloomy caves. .
Thus, the towns, and most durable domestic retreats, of a peo- .
ple in the early rudeness of national manners, are connected with
stratagems of war, and are illustrative of their proficiency in the
art of fortification. In the instances of their towns, we chiefly,
or entirely, find specimens of British intrenchments, and other
military works. Their mode of warfare, until they improved
their tactics by a communication with the Romans, was of a pre-
datory and decisive character, that rarely allowed time for tle
formation of incidental fortified encampments.
LINEs of Bound ARY, AND Roads.-South Britain is in-
tersected, in many districts, by extensive lines of ditches and ad-
jacent embankments, which are interesting subjects of enquiry,
although they have been rarely favoured with antiquarian inves-
tigation. Where these are noticed, they are often attributed to
the Romans or Saxons; but it would appear that they are fre-
quently ascribed to those successful invaders, in a loose, incon-
siderate, manner. The great Dyke which formed for many ages
the line of boundary between England and Wales, is recognised
by history, and is known to have been constructed by off, King
* King's Munimenta Antique, vol. I. p. 48. . . . .
tº

56 INTRo Duction.
of Mercia; but the dykes and embankments which are not ac-
knowledged by regular history, and possess no name but the
fanciful epithet bestowed by neighbouring villagers, are more
frequent in the less cultivated parts of the island than is gene-
rally supposed, and may be often ascribed to the ancient Britons,
on the most secure ground which probable conjecture has to
offer.—The line of embanked dyke in Wiltshire, termed Bokerly
ditch, “issues from the site of an extensive British town;” and
Grime’s Dyke, in Oxfordshire, is crossed by a Roman road.t
The most stupendous of these ancient boundary lines, is that
called Wansdike, which is 80 miles in length, and is still visi-
blé for more than three parts of that extent. This deep ditch and
lofty vallum, are supposed to have formed the line of demarka-
tion between the Belgae and the aboriginal Britons,f although
afterwards in part adopted by the Anglo-Saxons. .
It is supposed that some further vestiges of the early Britons,
connected with durable impressions made on the soil for the pur-
poses of civil polity, may be found in the traces of ancient BRI-
Tish Roads, or TRAckways, still existing. It may certainly
be inferred, without an unwarrantable freedom of conjecture, that
the people so familiarly acquainted with the use of chariots, and
engaged in commercial pursuits, which rendered necessary a cor-
respondence between the interior parts of the country and the
coast, could not be destitute of roads, so carefully amended as to
assume a permanent character. That such indeed existed, and
were in many instances adopted by the Romans, is uniformly
admitted by those antiquaries who unite the labours of local in-
vestigation with the erudite researches of the etymologist.
. . . . . . . . . * These
* Beauties ſor Wilts, p. 224.
+ Beauties for Oxfordshire, p. 13. See, also, the instance of a ditch,
“ which, towards the middle, has been filled up, for the Icknield Way to
pass over it,” in the Beauties for Cambridgeshire, p. 139. rº. .
* ... : ºf vide Beauties for Wilts, p. 718, and Collinson's Introduction to the
History and Antiquities of the county of Somerset,
BRITIs H ANT19 Ulties. 57
* #
• These British roads” (to use the words of a writer, who has
attentively examined the subjects on which he treats) “are so
totally distinct from the Roman causeways, which succeeded
them, that it is surprising so many persons should confound these
works of the rude inhabitants of the island, with those perhaps of
the most enlightened military nation that ever appeared in the
world; for the British roads were merely driftways, running
through the woods, or winding on the sides of the hills, and
made only for their petty commerce of cattle and slaves. Un-
like the military labours of their successors, they were hardly
ever drawn in straight lines; were not regularly attended by
tumuli, or barrows; were never raised; and had a peculiar fea-
ture, the reason of which is not known, of being divided during
their course into several branches, running parallel with the
bearing of the original road.” To which it may be added, that
they do not lead to Roman towns, or notice such towns, except
when placed on the sites of British fortresses. s
The course of the British trackways, according to the investi-
gations of the judicious antiquary above quoted, are carefully
marked in our map of ancient Britain; and such towns of the
Britons, as are known to have stood on those roads, are enume-
rated in the marginal table of contents, by which the map is ac-
companied.t It may, however, be desirable to notice briefly,
in this place, the presumed course of each known British road,
or trackway, in relation to the modern political divisions of coun-
try, and the present names of places. By the indulgence of the
editor of Richard of Cirencester, f I am enabled to do this in the
words
• History of Hertfordshire, p. 8. (from a communication of the Rev. T.
Leman.) *... 3 r. x * . . . -
* In noticing the towns of the Britons, it will be recollected that ninety-
two of their capital towns are commemorated by historians, but the names of
only eighty-eight have been preserved. x . º
# Mr. Hatcher, to whom the antiquarian world is greatly indebted for his
excellent edition of the Description of Britain, &c. by Richard of Cirences,
ter, with “a Commentary on the Itinerary.”
58 INTRO DUCTION.
words of a recent commentary on that work, enlarged, in one
particular, by the learned contributor of that portion of the com-
mentary. . .
“ The WATLING STREET, or Irish road, consisted of two
branches, northern and southern. & 2 ... : :-
“ The south-eastern branch of the Watling Street, proceeded
from Richborough, on the coast of Kent, to Canterbury; and
from thence, nearly in the line of the present turnpike, towards
Rochester. It left that city to the right, passed the Medway by
a ford, and ran almost straight, through Lord Darnley's park, to
Southfleet. It bent to the left to avoid the marshes near Lon-
don, continued along a road, now lost, to Holwood Hill, the
capital of the Rhemi, and then followed the course of the pre-
sent road to London.—Having crossed the Thames, it ran by
Edgeware to Verulam; and from thence, with the present great
Irish road, through Dunstable and Towcester to Weedon. Hence,
instead of bending to the left, with the present turnpike, it pro-
ceeded straight by Dovebridge, High Cross, Fazeley, Wall, and
Wellington, to Wroxeter. It then passed the Severn, and con-
tinued by Rowton, Pen y Pont, and Bala, to Tommen y Mawr,
where it divided into two branches. One ran by Bath-Kellert
to Caernarvon and A nglesea; the other by Dolwyddelan, through
the mountains to the banks of the Menai, where it joined the
north-eastern branch (which will be presently described,) and
ended at Holy Head, the great port of the Irish.
“ The north-eastern branch of the Watling Street, coming
from the interior of Scotland, by Cramond and Jedburgh, enters
England at Chew Green, and continues by Riechester to Cor-
bridge. There, crossing the Tyne, it ran through Ebchester,
Lanchester, and Binchester, and passed the Tees by a ford,
near Pierce Bridge. Hence it went by Catterick, Newton,
Masham, and Kirby Malside to Ilkley, and near Halifax to
Manchester. Over the moors, between these two last places,
it is called the Devil’s Causeway. From Manchester, where it
passed the Mersey, it proceeded by Street, Northwich, Chester,
& ‘ Caerhun,
naitish ANT19t, it es. : 59
Caerhun, and over the mountains to Aber, where it fell into the
south-western branch, in its course to Holy Head.
“ The IcKNIELD STREET, or road of the Iceni, proceeds from
the coast near Great Yarmouth, Passing through Taesborough,
it runs by Icklingham and Newmarket, and, skirting the chain of
hills which stretches through Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire,
Buckinghamshire, and Oxfordshire, continues by Bournbridge to
Icoldon and Royston, (where it intersects the Ermyn Street.)
Thence it proceeds by Baldock, over Wilbury Hill, to Dunstable
(where it crosses the Watling Street,) Tring, Wendover, Els-
borough, near Richborough, Chinnor, Watlington, Woodcote,
and Goring; and, passing the Thames at Streatly, throws off a
collateral branch, which will be noticed under the name of the
Ridgeway. From hence it proceeded, as Stukeley imagined,
by Aldworth, Newbury Street, Ashmansworth, Tangley, and
Tidworth, to Old Sarum. Thence by the two Stratfords, aCTOSS
Vernditch Chase, Woodyates Inn, the Gussages, Badbury,
Shapwick, Woodhay Castle, Maiden Castle, Eggardon, Ax-
minster, Honiton, Exeter, Totness, &c. to the land’s End.
“ The collateral branch called the RidgewAY, ran from
Streatly along the hills, by Cuckhamsley Hill, Whitehorse Hill,
and Ashbury, towards Abury; from whence its course is unknown.
Possibly it ran towards Glastonbury. From Elworthy barrows,
above Taunton, it passes south-westerly into Devonshire; and
from Stretton into Cornwall, it kept along the ridge of hills to
Redruth and the land's End.
“ RYKNIELD STREET, or street of the Upper Iceni, said to
begin at the mouth of the Tyne, ran by Chester le Street to Bin-
chester, where it joined the Watling Street, and continued with
it to Catterick. Then, bearing more easterly, it ran with the
present great northern road to within two miles of Borough
Bridge, where it left the turnpike to the right, and crossed the
Eure to Aldborough. From thence it went by Coptgrave, Rib-
ston, Spofforth, through Stokeld Park, to Thorner, Medley,
Poleby, Bolton, Graesborough, Holme, Great Brook near Tre-
. - town,
60 introduction.
town, Chesterfield, Alfreton, Little Chester, Egginton, to Bur-
ton, and Wall, (where it crossed the Watling Street.) Thence
through Sutton Colfield, to Birmingham, King’s Norton, Al-
chester, Bitford, Sedgebarrow, Tewkesbury, Glocester, Berry
Hill, Herefordshire; and probably by Abergavenny, Brecon,
Landilo, and Caermarthen to St. David's. -
“ The ERMyN Street came from the eastern side of Scot-
land, and, crossing the Tweed, west of Berwick, ran near
Wooler, Hedgely, Brumpton, Brinkburn, Netherwitten, Hart-
burn, and Rial, to Corbridge, where it joined the North Wat-
ling Street. Passing with that way the two great rivers, the
Tyne and the Tees, it continued to Catterick, where it divided
into two branches. . -
“ The western branch went with the Ryknield Street, as far
as Aldborough, and then, leaving that way to the right, pro-
ceeded by Little Ousebourn, to Helensford, over Bramham
Heath, to Aberford, Castleford, Houghton, Stapleton, Adwick,
Doncaster, Bawtry, and probably by Tuxford, Southwell, and
over the Trent to Thorp, (where it passed the Foss) Staunton,
and Stainby, where it joined the eastern branch. w
“ This latter branch ran from Catterick by North Allerton,
Thirsk, Easingwold, Stanford Bridge, Market Weighton and
South Cave, and, crossing the Humber, continued by Wintring-
ham, Lincoln, and Ancaster, to near Witham, when it was re-
united with the western branch above mentioned. Both continued
to Brig Casterton, near Stamford, Chesterton, Stilton, Godman-
chester, Royston (where it crossed the Icknield Street,) Bunt-
ingford, Puckeridge, Ware Park, west of Broxbourn, Cheshunt,
Enfield, Wood Green, and London. Here it again divided into
two branches. The more westerly went by Darking, Coldhar-
bour, Stone Street, and Pulborough to Chichester; while the
easterly was continued by Bromley, Holwood Hill, Tunbridge
Wells, Wadhurst, Mayfield, and Eastbourn to Pevensey.
“ IKEMAN STREET, appears to have passed from the eastern
side of the island, probably by Bedford, Newport Pagnel, Stony
* - - Stratford,
B R1T 1sh ANTI QUITIES. 61
Stratford, and Buckingham (or, as others think, by Fenny Strat-
ford and Winsborough,) to Alcester. It then ran by Kirkling-
ton, Woodstock, Stonefield, Astall, and Coln St. Alwin's to
Cirencester, Rodmarton, Cherrington, Bagspath and Symonds'
Hall. From thence it is said to be continued by Cromehall
to Aust, where, passing the Severn, it probably ran through
Caerwent, Caerleon, and along the coast by Caerdiff, Neath,
and Lwghor, to Caermarthen, and the Irish port at St. David’s.”
The Foss WAY, although adopted through the whole of its
course by the Romans, was first, probably, a British road, as it
forms a connection between so many of the British towns. It
took its rise on the north eastern coast of Lincolnshire, and ran
through Lindum, Lincoln; Rata, Leicester; Benomis, Clay-
chester; Corinium, Cirencester; Aquae Sulis, Bath; and Is-
chalis, Ilchester; to the great British port of Seaton, in Devon-
shire.” - - -
“The UPPER SALT-way, which appears to have been the
communication between the sea coast of Lincolnshire, and the
salt-mines at Droitwich, is first known as leading from the neigh-
bourhood of Stainsfield, towards Paunton and Denton; and then
running not far from Saltby and Croxton, is continued straight
by Warmby and Grimston, to Sedgehill on the Foss. Here it
appears to bear towards Barrow, on the Soar; and crossing
Charnwood Forest, is again seen at Stretton, on the borders of
Warwickshire, from whence it is easily traced to Birmingham,
and over the Lickey to Droitwich. > -
“The Lower Salt-way is little known, although the parts
here described have been actually traced. It came from Droit-
wich, crossed Worcestershire, under the name of the Salt-way, ,
appears to have passed the Avon, somewhere below Evesham,
tended towards the chain of hills above Sudeley Castle, where it
is still visible, attended by tumuli as it runs by Hawling.
Thence it proceeds to Northleach, where it crossed the Foss, in
- - 3. º, its
- * MS, communication of the Rev. T. Leman.

62. INTRo Duction.
its way to Coln St. Aldwin’s, on the ll:eman Street, and led to
the sea coast of Hampshire. -
“In many places are vestiges of a continued road skirting the
western side of the island, in the same manner as the Ermyn
Street did the eastern, of which parts were never adopted by the
Romans. There is great reason to suppose it British, because it
connects many of the British towns. It appears to have com-
menced on the coast of Devon, perhaps not far from the mouth of
the Ex, and to have gone by Exeter, Taunton, Bridgewater,
Bristol, Gloucester, Kidderminster, Claverley, Weston, High
Offley, Betley, Middlewich, Northwich, Warrington, Preston,
and Lancaster. Here probably dividing into two branches, one
ran by Kendal, Penrith, and Carlisle, to the extreme parts of
the island, while the other passed, by Kirby Lonsdale and Orton,
to Kirby Thure, from whence it continued, under the name of
the Maiden-way, by the wall and Bewcastle, into the interior
parts of Scotland. f -
“Besides these, and the separate communications between
the different towns, there is reason to imagine that a general
road ran round the whole coast of the island, parts of which have
been observed near the southern coast of Dorsetshire, particularly
from Abbotsbury to the isle of Purbeck; likewise in Hampshire,
along Portsdown Hill; and from Old Winchester through Sus-
sex, on the tops of the hills between Midhurst and Chichester,
to Arundel and Brighthelmstone. Also in Essex, from Maldon
to Colchester; and in Suffolk by Stretford, Ipswich, Stretford,
and Blythburg, to the banks of the Yar. In Lincolnshire are
two branches, one running clearly from Tattersal, by Horncas-
tle, Ludford, Stainton, Caistor, and Somerby; and a second,
nearer the coast, from Lowth towards Brocklesby, and both
tending to the passage of the Humber, not far from Barton.
Also along the principal part of the coast through Yorkshire,
Durham, and Northumberland. On the western side of the is-
land, it appears to have passed on the hills which skirt the
- * 3. 3. northern
BRIT is H. ANTiguities. 63
northern coast of Devonshire and somersetshire, and possibly
might be traced through Wales and towards Scotland.”
British Coins.—The labours of the antiquary are seldom
In Ore judiciously directed than to the investigation of coins,
which at once act as the genuine links of history, and exhibit the
state of several arts, in the specific nature and the preparation of
the material, and in the character of the device, and degree of
skill with which the die is cut and the impress made.
It would appear, from the testimony of Caesar, and the ab-
sence of any direct and tangible proof to the contrary, that both
the aboriginal and Belgic Britons were destitute of minted money,
at the period of that great commander's invasion of the island.t
It is believed that pieces of brass and iron bullion, unstamped,
and rated by their weight, were then used as the medium of
z traffic.
• Commentary on the Itinerary of Richard of Cirencester, Edit. 1809. p.
11 1-117. -
# The passage of Caesar, on this subject, is so worded as to admit of a
doubt, in the opinion of some persons, as to whether the brass money of the
Britons was minted, or was mere bullion, valued by weight. . Those who
adopt a reading to the former effect, cannot adduce any corroborative cir-
cumstance founded on fact; and it certainly would appear unlikely that the
people who were so rude as to use unstamped iron for money, should at the
same time be so refined as to submit their brass to the process of the mint-
master. Dr. Plot, in his natural History of Oxfordshire; Dr. Borlase, in
his Antiquities of Cornwall; and Mr. Polwhele, in his History of Devon;
argue for the probability of the Britons possessing coins, both of gold and
silver, before the Roman invasien, although in parts of the island with which
Caesar had no opportunity of becoming acquainted. But it is obvious that a
circulating monied medium of traffic is seldom confined to the bounds of one
particular state, and is the most difficult of all circumstances to hide from the
knowledge of an interested investigator. It may be remarked that the use
of unstamped iron for money among the Britons, is not noticed, as an ex-
isting custom, by any writer subsequent to Caesar. So rude a practice must
be supposed likely to discontinue shortly after the superior. convenience of
small minted money was ascertained; and such appears to have been the
fact, if we allow the first British coinage to have taken place between the
dates of the two Roman invasions, & . . .


64 . introduction.
traffic. Large quantities of the latter, approaching to a square
shape, and having a hole in the centre, as if for the purpose of
stringing them for the convenience of the trader, have been found
in Cornwall, and are supposed to be the iron money of the
Britons.” % * . .
But the era of Caesar’s invasion was, in every respect, memo-
rable to Britain. His expedition led to a more extended corres-
pondence between the islanders and the inhabitants of the con-
tinent; and the increase of trade, and expansion of views, de-
rived from that communication, are evident in the circumstance
of several mints being speedily erected by the former people;
the active and commercial Belgae setting the laudable example.
The chief British coins which have been discovered, and may
be considered as genuine, were struck during the years which
intervened between the first invasion under Caesar, and the second
and more decisive by direction of Claudius. The earliest authen-
ticated coins, which have been found, are those of Cunobeline,t
who lived from the reign of Augustus to that of Caligula. It ap-
pears that shortly after the art was introduced by the Belgae, it
was eagerly adopted by the principal Celtic sovereigns; and
several public depositaries, and numerous private antiquarian
cabinets, contain coins bearing impresses ascribed to various
British states. - -
British coins are usually of gold, silver, and brass. In some,
the gold is minted without any alloy; but, in most, both the
gold and silver are much debased. Some coins attributed to the
Britons, are devoid of any inscription, and are merely stamped
with the figures of animals, together with unintelligible devices.
These were, probably, of the earliest Celtic mintage. But in
* ,, . . . . ») : - r general
* Specimens of the perforated iron plates discovered in Cornwall, are en-
graved in Dr. Borlase's Antiquities of that county, and again in Gough's
edition of the Britannia. - - -
* See an “Essay on the coins of Cunobeline,” &c. by Samuel Pegge A. M.
in which work thirty nine of those coins are engraved.
BR1tish AN119 unties. . 65
general they bear on the face a regal bust, with an inscription;
and on the reverse an emblematical device, accompanied also by
a legend. In shape they are round, and sometimes flat, but
often disked, or concave on one side and convex on the other. -
The costume of the ancient British kings, as to their diadem;
a portion of attire; and instruments of war and command;
is curiously exhibited by their coins. The reverse of those
which are of the rudest mintage, often presents an indistinct
mass of small implements, or ornaments, unknown as to real
name and use. But in the more refined, a mixture of allusions
to Roman manners is frequently perceptible. On the reverse of
such, are often seen the Janus, the Sphinx, (the favourite de-
vice of Augustus,) the Centaur, and the Pegasus. From the
. OCCurrenC6 of these figures, it is satisfactorily argued, that the
art of minting was introduced to Britain by practitioners from the
Roman continent. In confirmation of this opinion it may be ob-
served, that some of the inscriptions are latinized; and the Roman
alphabet is used in the legends of all.
The coins of Cunobeline, who is supposed to be the first Bri-
tish sovereign that established a mint, are the most curious, as
well as the most numerous, that have been discovered; and have
consequently attracted the greatest share of antiquarian notice.—-
These coins are of gold, silver, and brass or copper; with an
alloy of lead or tin. They are all circular, and most have a
slight convexity of form. . . . . . . . .
The style of execution, though far from elegant, is still res-
pectable. On the obverse of many is seen the head of the king,
under whose auspices the coins were issued. Others have, on
the face or obverse, various emblematical devices, as a horse
(the animal most valued by the Britons, from its useful qualities
in war, and likewise a symbol of the sun, a British Deity;) the -
two faced Janus, supposed to allude to the increasing civilization tº
of the country; a griffin; and an ear of corn.—On the reverse
part of the same coins is presented a great variety of symbolical
designs, as a winged female figure, supposed to be Victory; a
•


66 1NTRo Duction.
pegasus; horses in various modes of action, and with many al-
lusive accompaniments (that of a hand sustaining a truncheon
being one;) Apollo playing on the harp; a hog and a tree; a
workman coining money, several pieces of which appear on the
ground. >
The legend, or inscription, presents the name of the king,
Cunobeline, variously spelt and in dissimilar modes of abbrevia-
tion, together with the Roman letters CAMV. CAM. (the place
at which the coin was minted, Camulodunum) VER. (Verula-
mium;) and NOVANIT. or NO. NOVANE, and NOVA. (sup-
posed to signify the capital of the Trinovantes.)
In addition to the above abbreviated words, the British coins,
and especially those of Cunobeline, often present an inscription
which has given rise to much antiquarian discussion. This is
the word TASC, or TASCIO, sometimes written with a varia-
tion in the last syllable, but uniformly similar in the first, ex-
cept in one instance, where it is thus spelt, TACIO. w .
It is not desirable to enter on an investigation of the respec-
tive opinions of the different writers, who have deemed the pro-
bable meaning of this word deserving of laborious enquiry. The
conjectures of two may suffice; the first a professed numismatic
essayist, and the latter an antiquarian critic of no ordinary attain-
ments. Mr. Pegge * supposes that the word is the nominal,
designation, either personal or national, of the Roman-gallic
maint master under whose direction the coins were produced: but
Mr. Whitaker + observes “that the word occurs too frequently to
be that of a mere mint master, however honoured;” and he cou-
siders it “to be nothing more than the British and official appel-
lation of the king whose coins exhibit the inscription, and to
signify only the Leader.” In pursuit of this idea, he examines
inte the presumed source of the word, and remarks that “ Tus,
Twis, Tos, and Toschich mean the beginning, or head, of any
3. . . . . . . . ... " - thing,
• Essay on the coins of Cunobeline, &c. r
+ Hist, of Manchester, 2nd, edit. Vol. II, p. 7–12.

B Ritish Antiguities. 67.
thing, in the Irish language; and that Tuiseach, and Taoiseach,
are the Irish appellatives for a commander, to this day.” From
the latter word he imagines the Tasc of the British coins to pro-
ceed. If this mode of explanation be accepted, the Tase of the
British answers to the Rea of the Latin inscriptions.
It is quite impossible to form, at this period, a satisfactory
estimate of the quantity of money in circulation, while the privi-
lege of coining was possessed by the native princes; but, from
the numerous pieces, of a dissimilar mintage, issued by Cunobe-
line alone, it is probable that the amount was far from inconsider-
able. The comparatively small quantity discoverable in subse-
quent remote ages, is no proof of an original deficiency, as the
circulation of money issued by British princes was severely
prohibited by the Romans, after they gained an ascendant in the
island. w
The subject of British coins has been treated with some con-
tempt, by an able numismatic writer;" and, assuredly, the study
of them is less captivating than that of the medals of nations
more brilliant in exploit, and favoured more largely with the
notice of historians. Still, it is capable of affording rational satis-
faction to the investigator of statistics, and to the antiquary–The
authenticity of the greater number of the coins ascribed to the
Britons is unquestionable. Many have been found among monu-
ments decidedly British; and, in legend and symbolical embel-
lishment, they plainly evince their original. t. As evidences of
the progressive data of the arts among the ancient inhabitants of
Britain, they are truly valuable; and they are curious, from the
sircumstance of exhibiting, in unequivocal outlines, many parli-
F 2 culars
* Mr. Clarke, in a letter to Mr. Bowyer, quoted by Gough, in a note to Con.
jectures on British coins, in the Britannia.
+ Specimens of British coins, exhibiting a great variety of impressions, are
engraved in Speed; in Camden's Britannia (a corrected plate being intro-
duced in Mr. Gough's edition;) in Borlase's Antiq. of Cornwall; in Mr.
(afterwards Dr) Pegge's Essay on the “coins of Cunobeline,” &e.

6s 1NT Roduction.
culars of the costume of a people, whose manners are little known,
and have been too often misrepresented by such superficial histo-
rians, as have neglected to unite the researches of the antiquary
with the common place task of collating lettered authorities.
Circles composed or Stones.—In several parts of Eng-
land; in nearly every division of Wales; in Scotland; and in
many other parts of the British islands; are to be seen circles
of unwrought, upright stones, which are commonly recognised
under the name of Druidical Temples.* These curious vestiges
of antiquity are usually found on spots naturally elevated; and
one structure often consists of several circles, either concentric,
lateral, or in some other mode of disposal indicating an attention
to mathematical regularity of arrangement. Similar monuments
with those of Britain, and equally void of appropriation in the
page of history, are to be seen in Iceland, Norway, Scandinavia,
and various parts of Germany. In Sweden, Denmark, and the
Western Isles, circles of stone are also frequent. : , ,
Amongst other arguments for the great antiquity of these
monuments in Britain, it is observed, that in some instances
they are crossed and injured by Roman Ways; a proof that all
reverence for the object of their original destination, was lost
before the construction of those roads. Circles of stone appear,
indeed, to have been used in the performance of religious and
judicial ceremonies, by the most remote nations of antiquity;f
* , , , , , N. and,
• Circles of upright stones occur in the following English counties: Corn-
wall (in which county, Beauties, p. 387, see the Hurlers, an extensive Druidi.
cal monument;) Cumberland (Long Meg and her daughters, p. 146.) Derby-
shire; Devonshire; Dorsetshire; Oxfordshire (Rollrich, p. 500. et seq.)
Somersetshire (Stanton-Drew, p. 629.) Westmorland; Wiltshire (the cele-
brated works of Avebury and Stonehenge) Curious circles of stone are
abundantly spread throughout both North and South Wales. Relics of the
Druids, which are truly interesting, are found in Anglesea, the ancient Mona,
aud the final retreat of the Druidical priests. -
* See a dissertation on the high antiquity of this usage, Munimenta Anti-
and, Vol. i. P. 133, et scq.
British Antiquities. 69
and, under the prevalence of that similarity of manners, which
may be traced between nearly all countries in the infancy of
society, they were probably constructed by the earliest ministers
of the Druidical religion. That many of the vestiges which are
still superior to the wear of centuries, and the more destructive
assaults of human contumely and avarice, were existing in very
high ages of British antiquity, seems evident from the contents of
those numerous barrows, which are usually found in the vicinity .
of circles of stone, and which appear to have been placed in
their proximity from motives of reverence and piety.
Although the whole of these monuments possess a striking
simplicity of character, they are yet decidedly different in many
component particulars. Frequently they are surrounded with a
ditch and a vallum, the latter forming the boundary, or being on
the outer side. The number of stones is far from being uniform,
and in some instances is not more than nine. Dr. Borlase ob-
serves, that the greatest number which has reached his notice
is seventy-seven;” and he adds, that “the difference in number
was not owing to chance, but either to some established rules
observed in the construction of these monuments, or referring to,
and expressive of, the erudition of those ages. In some places
we find them oftener of the number twelve than of any other num-
ber; either in honour to the twelve superior deities, or to some
national custom of twelve persons of authority, meeting there in
council upon important affairs.”t
The same writer (who has, perhaps, considered the subject
more attentively than any other antiquary, and who certainly
ranks among the best authorities for this species of information,)
thus notices the plans most prevalent among these monuments;
and, on comparing his account with the statements in the “Beau-
. F 3 ties,”
•To leave unnoticed the stupendous monuments of A vebury and Stone.
henge, it may be observed, that the circle, termed Grey Yands (noticed in
the Beauties for Cumberland, p. 136–137.) consists of tighty-eight stoires,

70 introduction.
ties,” respecting iſ rent stone circles existing in various parts of
England and Wales, it appears to present a view of their usual
peculiarities of character, equally comprehensive and concise:
“The figure of these monuments is either simple or compounded.
Of the first kind are exact circles, elliptical or semicircular. The
construction of these is not always the same, some having their
circumference marked with large separate stones only; others
having ridges of small stones intermixed, and sometimes walls,
serving to render the inclosure more compleat. Other circular
monuments have their figure more complex and varied, consist-
ing not only of a circle, but of other distinguishing properties.
In, or near, the centre of some, stands a stone, taller than the
rest; in the middle of others is a Kistvaen, whilst a Cromlech
distinguishes the centre of some circles. Some have only one
line of stones in their circumference; and others have two ; some
circles are adjacent, some contiguous, and some include, and
some intersect each other. Frequently urns” (skeletons, and
other funeral deposits) “are found in or near them; and these
circles are of very different dimensions. Some are curiously
erected on geometrical plans, the chief entrances facing the car-
dinal points of the heavens. Some have avenues leading to them,
placed exactly north and south, with detached stones, sometimes
in straight lines to the east and west, sometimes triangular: all
evidences of more than common exactness and design.”
In ascribing to these various circles their respective objects
of destination, great room is allowed for the speculations of in-
genuity; as it is only by a comparison with the alledged customs
of other countries, in remote ages, that conjecture is here formed
on ground in the least degree satisfactory. That many were in-
tended for religious ceremonials, and that circles of stone formed,
indeed, the uniform temples of the Druids (although enveloped
in masses of oak, all but equally sacred with themselves) is ex-
* . tremely
• Borlase's Antiq. of Cornwall, p. 192–193. This extract of Dr. Bor-
life's valuable publication is in several places altered and abridged, to suit
the purpose of the present work. º - 3: 3 . . . . s






aritish antiquities. 71 °
tremely probable, from analogy of manners. Such appear to
have been of Patriarchal usage in the very first recorded ages;
and, from its mode of construction, this rude, but venerable.
species of temple, was, assuredly, well adapted to the tenets of
the Druids, who maintained, among other opinions indicative of
much grandeur of conception, that the Gods were not to be confined
within walls, but were to be worshipped on a spot quite open to
the heavens, though separated from profane interference. In
confirmation of the very rational conjecture that numerous stony
circles found in different parts of this island, were used for reli-
gious purposes, it may be observed that in the area of many are º
discoverable the remains of a Cromlech, or other kind of fabric
appearing to have served as an altar, although it is by no means
evident that the circles in which such vestiges are found were
used for a sepulchral purpose. g. . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . . . . . ;
But that circles of stone were exclusively devoted to religious.
uses is quite unlikely, and may, indeed, be denied on a tenable
foundation. In attention to that comparison of national manners
which is noticed above, it may be observed that the monuments con-
structed in a Patriarchal age, and at first dedicated simply to religi-
ous duties, afterwards became the seats of justice and national coun-
cil. That a similar union of great solemnities WaS adopted in re-
gard to the British temples, will appear highly probable, when
it is remembered that the priests were also the legislators of the
state, and that they sedulously laboured to inculcate a belief of
the law proceeding immediately from the Deity, through them-,
selves his ministers. The place of council was probably, also,
that of election and inauguration.
It may be remarked, that some traces of the custom of judicial *
officers sitting on stones, placed in a circular manner, is noticed
by Martin in his “ Description of the Western Isles;” and, -
concerning the election and inauguration of princes in such cir-
F 4 ; : . . . . * . . cles,
… x. • “In the Holm, as they call it, in Shetland, there are four great stones,
"Pon which sat the judge, clerk, and other officers of the court.” Martin's
*escription of the Western Isles.

.72 *'.
introduction.
cles, it is observed by the historian of Cornwall, on the authority
of Wormius, that “the custom of chusing princes, by nobles,
standing in a circle upon rocks” (or rather upon stones) “is said
to have remained among the northern nations till the reign of
Charles the Fourth, and the Golden Bull, A. D. 1356. Some of
these northern circles have a large stone in the middle; as the
monument near Upsal, in Sweden, on which Ericus was made
King of Sweden, no longer since than the year 1396.”*
If we are content to illustrate the subject of these curious an-
tiquities by the manners of other countries, we shall find an ap-
s
propriation for the leading particulars of many circles which are
supposed to have been arranged for civil purposes; and on this
head may be submitted the following remarks: “When assemblies
for council, judicature, and election, were convened, it was the
custom either to stand by, or to stand upon, or, thirdly, to sit
upon, stones placed round a circular area; and each of these dif.
ferent positions of the body, required a peculiar arrangement of
the stones. In the first case, whilst any election or decree was
. depending, or any solemn compact to be confirmed, the principal
º persons concerned stood each by his pillar; and, where a middle
stone was erected in the circle, there stood the prince, or gene-
ral elect. This seems to be a very ancient custom, and is spoken
of, as such, before the Babylonish captivity. . . . . . .
“ It was also the custom to stand upon stones placed in a cir-
cular manner, and shaped for that purpose, as so many pedestals
to elevate the nobles above the level of the rest ; consequently,
such stones (however rude) were of different shape, and are, there-
fore, carefully to be distinguished from the abovementioned
columnar stones erect, by the side of which the king and princi.
pal persons stood, and upon which it cannot be supposed that any
one ever intended to stand. Where we find stones of this kind
and
• Borlase, p. 205, apud Wormius, p. 88,90. Vestiges of the inaugura-
× tion stone are noticed in the Western Isles, by Martin, in his description, &c,
p. 241; and by King, Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. I. p. 147.
B R it SH ANT1 QUIT i Es. w 73
and order, we may pronounce them merely elective, consultory,
and judicial, as never intended for the rites of worship.”
Besides the above important purposes, it is supposed that
many of these circular monuments of stone were adapted to other
uses, the most estimable of which was the advancement of the
science of Astronomy. It is well known that the Druids of Bri-
tain are believed, on the testimony of Caesar, “to have taught
many things to their scholars concerning the stars, and their
motion.”f From the frequency with which circles constructed
by the Druids are placed on elevated and open tracts; and from
the circumstance of many being apparently formed on geometrical
plans, it has been rationally conjectured that these spherical tem-
ples were often used by the learned priests of the early Britons,
as theatres of study, and schools in which they imparted astrono-
mical knowledge.f
It has been frequently ascertained that interments were made
within these sacred circles; but that they were not places of or-
dinary sepulture is evident, as it is unusual to find within them
the relics of numerous funeral deposits. Persons favoured with
interment on a spot so sacred, had possibly been dignificd minis.
ters of religion and dispensers of law.
3.
But circles, probably designed for religious and civil purposes,
were not uniformly constructed in so laborious a manner as those
. noticed above. It is remarked by Sir R. C. Hoare that many
earth-works, of a circular form, are dispersed about the downs of
º Wiltshire,
* Antiq. of Cornwall, p. 20.4—205.
+ Caesar, De Bel. Gal. lib. VI. sect. 13.
n King's Munimenta Antiqua (p. 139–143) are many remarks on this
subject, in the course of which the author strains ingenuity of conjecture to
so great a length, as to say that there is ground for fuirly suspecting that, in .
many instances, the stones of Druidical circles were placed so as to answer
the purpose of rude astronomical instruments. Mr. Chapple, likewise, con-
. jectures that erections of stone were used by the Druids for many refined pur-
P* “onnected with the science of Astronomy. In Polwhelč, Devonshir,

are some judicious observations, in reply to the latter writer,
74 1 NTRODUCTION.
Wiltshire, and chiefly on high and commanding situations.
“The slightness of the vallum and ditch that surround them, as
well as the smallness of their area, clearly indicate them not to
have been constructed for any military purpose, but most proba-
bly for some civil or religious object. In countries abounding
with stone, as in Wales and Cornwall, the circle was defined by
rude upright stones; but on chalk hills, where nature produces
nothing larger than a flint, or an occasional sarsen-stone, the
circle is described by a bank and ditch.” . . . . . . . . . º
| Such appear to be the most important observations presented
hy authors, who have bestowed particular attention on the sub-
ject of those mysterious circles which are calculated to excite so
much curiosty. In regard to the ages in which they were con-
structed, it has been shewn that some are ascertained to have ex-
isted prior to the Roman ascendancy in this island; and, from
the similarity which prevails as to general feature, there is fair
reason for supposing that all are to be attributed to the hands of
the Britons. The occurrence of such monuments in parts of Ger-
many, in Scandinavia, Norway, &c. perhaps merely shews that
the people of those countries derived similar usages with the Bri-
tons, from the same common ancestors. These circles in Britain
have sometimes been supposed the work of the Danes; but they
are often seen in districts which the Danes never visited: and it
is observed by Mr. King + that we might, on as rational grounds,
suppose the circular monuments in Deumark to be the works of
the Britons. - . :
But not any of the above remarks apply, in a satisfactory man-
ner, to the two most distinguished ruins of structures composed
of rude stone. The interesting and far-famed vestiges of the
§ . . . stupendous
* Hist, of Ancient wilts. Part I. p. 18. . . . . .
+ Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. I. p. 153.-The following are the principal
works consulted in regard to the above article on circles of upright stones:
Borlase's Antiq. of Cornwall. Rowlands' Mona Antiqua. Dr. Stukeley's
works. King's Munimenta Antiqua. Sir R. C. Hoare's Ancient Wiltshire.
Polwhele's History of Devonshire.


B Ritish ANT19 Ulties. 75.
stupendous monuments of Avebury and Stonehenge, have uni-
formly derided the labours and the ſancies of those who have en-
deavoured to investigate their original, and to direct the examiner
to their pristine appropriation. The numerous writers who have
treated on the subject of these impressive relics, leave it involved
in a mysterious cloud, that imparts additional solemnity to the
silent gloom in which the monuments are themselves enveloped.
For a compendious statement of various surmises regarding the
date of their erection, and their intended purpose, I refer the
reader to the Beauties for Wiltshire;” and confine myself to ob-
serving that the most judicious writers agree in referring both
monuments to the Britous, although probably erected at periods
widely dissimilar. Their amplitude of proportions, and superior
dignity of character, suggest the idea of their being intended as
metropolitan places of assembly,t although the nature of the con-
vocation is unknown, and lost, probably for ever, in the deep
shades which have fallen over the more intricate and curious parts
of the customs and manners of the ancient inhabitants of this is-
land. . . . . .
Rocking Stones, and Analogous phenomeNA.—In Corn-
wall, Devonshire, Wales, and other parts of South Britain,
abounding in craggy rocks, and in the various rude but grand
productions of nature incidental to a calcareous soil in the neigh-
bourhood of the ocean, there are found many surprising works
which appear to hesitate between nature and art, and are proba-
bly indebted to both. Whilst investigating such districts, par-
ticular care is necessary to restrain the imagination, that creative
: faculty
* Beauties for Wilts, under the articles of Avebury and Stonehenge. * * *.3
* Although the population of Britain is described as being divided into
numerous tribes, or petty states, one form of religion º prevailed amongst all,
as an establishment; and it is believed that the ministers of that religi on
were all subject to one arch priest or Druid. The priests appear, also, to
have been the legal arbiters of the country. It seems far from unlikely that
the whole of the British nations might resort, for final appeal, both in civil
and religious cases, to one or more great universal courts.


76 Introduction.
faculty which “gives to airy nothing a local habitation and a
name;” for nature, incumbered, as it would appear, with the
tumultuary vestiges of some remote convulsion, often assumes
fantastic and imposing shapes, which an ardent mind, intent on
the advancement of a favourite hypothesis, may readily shape
into the delusive reliques of an unknown idolatry.
But, although there is reason to apprehend that some anti-
quaries have been occasionally seduced into misconceptions, by
the ardour with which they indulged in a chosen pursuit,” it is
still evident that, in many instances, the curious eccentricities
of nature were improved, and then rendered instruments of super-
stition, by the ministers of a long forgotten religion. As there
is not the slightest reason for believing that such works were
undertaken either by the Romans, Saxons, or Danes, they may
be securely attributed to the Britons; but as the use of the Tool
must have been adopted, it is evident that they were performed
in the later and more degenerate days of Druidism, when the
strictness of the law was lost in an increase of meretricious blan-
dishment and stratagem.
The most important of these presumed reliques of Druidical
superstition may be classed under the following appellations:
The Logan, or Rocking stone;f by which term is to be
. . understood
* See some remarks on this subject in the Beauties for Cornwall, p. 453,
509, &c. & . .
+ These curious stones are to be seen in several parts of Britain. Ex-
3. amples occur in the Beauties for Cumberland, p. 180; and for Cornwall,
p. 497-8. -
in Playfair's Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory, p. 395–7, are pre-
sented some ingenious remarks, intended to shew that the phenomenon of the
Rocking stone is often, though possibly not always, merely the curious re-
sult of a natural cause ; and that many of these presumed Druidical works
are, in fact, “nothing else than stones, which have been subjected to the
universal law of wasting and decay, in such peculiar circumstances, as nearly
to bring about an equilibrium of that stable kind, which when slightly dis-
turbed, re-establishes itself.” : * : * ~ *
* . .”. ... . . . . Although
BR1Tish ANT1 QUIT i Es. 77
understood astone, generally of immense bulk and weight, placed
on so small a centre, and in so exact an equilibrium, that it
moves to a certain degree with the application of a very small
power, as the touch of the hand; but which could not be thrown
down by any common force. Although these may, in some in-
stances, have required little assistance from art, it appears that
much labour has been frequently bestowed to render narrow the
basis on which the Logan depends, and thereby to produce the
The Rock-idol is the name bestowed by Dr. Borlase on seve-
ral craggs of rock, which exhibit such peculiar features of gran-
deur and singularity, as to have been probably selected for super-
stitious uses by the priests of the ancient Britons. Among the
most curious of these may be noticed the Cheese-Wring, which
is a natural combination of eight rade stones, rising one above
another to the height of thirty-two feet, and having a very slen-
der bearing between the third and fourth stones. On the top .
were two hollows, or basins, one of which remains. An en-
graving of this curious pile is presented in the Beauties for Corn-
wall. . . .
Dr. Borlase supposes artificial Rock-basins,f and various
. - marks
* Although many rocking-stones may, perhaps, be entirely the works of
nature,there is little room for doubting but that art was employed in completing
the effect of others. It may be noticed that there are several instances in
which the tool has evidently been employed on large masses of rock, as if for
the purpose of producing the Logan, although the work is leſ. incomplete. 3
t By the term Rock-busin is understood the hollow indentations often
found on the tops of rocks in Cornwall, and sometimes in other districts; and
which are supposed to have been used by the Druids. In the Beauties for
Cornwall, the editor of that portion of the work, noticing the excavations de-
nominated Rock-Basins, at Carn-breh Hill, observes that they “exist in such
numbers, in all situations, as utterly to exclude the hand of man from the
great mass; and, therefore, to make some natural, though unknown, process
most probable in all.” Vide, Beauties for Cornwall, p. 509. But, in the
Beauties for Derbyshire, p. 500, a rock-basin is noticed, “which evidently




appears to have been cut with a tool.”
78. INTRODUCTION.
marks of superstitious labour, to be discoverable on many other
curious knolls of rock; but it is possible that the indentations
taken for artificial traces of a mysterious mode of religious wor-
ship, are often merely the works of nature. the deities of
the Druids might be worshipped under the set
(the emblems of firmness, durability, and p
ever, quite probable; as a similar superstition can be traced
amongst many nations, and as a reverence for the supposed
sanctity of certain rocks and stones has been evinced, in a faint
degree, by the Irish and Welsh in ages not very remote.*
The same antiquarian writer describes another species of stu-
pendous stone work, which he is disposed to consider as rock-
deities of the Britons. These are termed, in Cornwall, Toll-
men, from the Cornish words Toll, a hole, and Maen, a stone.
They consist of “a large orbicular stone, supported by two
stones, between which there is a passage.”f The incumbent
mass is of a prodigious size, and was probably placed on the
subjacent rocks by some great natural convulsion, though the
passage beneath may, perhaps, have been assisted by art, and
the whole adopted for some use of priestcraft.
I pass the more quickly over these supposed vestiges of a
rude superstition, as it is quite impossible to ascertain, with any
resemblance of precision, their destined use or appropriation. Not
that the conjectures of ingenuity are wanting; but, in this in-
stance, they impart little interest to the subject on which they
are employed. The Rocking-stones may have been used in divi-
nation, or in imposing on the multitude, by an indication of divine
assent or repulsion; and Rock-basins may have been appropri-
ated to the preservation of lustral water; or to the reception of
the blood of victims; or to the retention of libations. But all
-- - these
* For more extended remarks on this subject, see Borlase's Antiq, of Corn-
wall, p. 170. - - #
+ Borlase's Antiquities of Cornwall.—See a description of a celebrated and
very curious Tollmen, in the Beauties for Cornwall, p. 453–4.


BRIT is H ANT19 Ulti Es. 79
these vestiges are as open to the unsatisfactory chimera of
faney, as the hoar which frost spreads over vegetation, or the
mimic-alps of an autumnal sky; since we are necessarily involved
in the gloom of entire ignorance, respecting the particular forms
and rituals of an unlettered superstition, of so very remote an
existence,
Cromlechs."—The Cromlech is a rude monument, consist-
ing of several huge upright stones, which act as supporters to a
stone placed nearly horizontally. The number of upright stones
is very frequently three; but by no means determinately so; and
is often not less than six. In a few instances the supporters are
still more numerous. The stone forming the top, or covering,
is generally of a swelling form; approaching to convexity; and is
almost invariably placed in a position more or less shelving.
Cromlechs are usually found on spots which are elevated by
nature; and are sometimes raised on Carnedds, or hillocks of an
artificial construction. Two are occasionally united, or nearly
so; and several may be often seen in the close vicinity of each
other, and near sepulchral barrows or carnedds. They, likewise,
occur in the midst, or on the edge, of circles of stones arranged
by the hand of art. That these are hiefly, if not uniformly,
monuments of the early Britons is scarcely to be disputed;t
and that they were connected with the rituals of the Druidical reli-
gion would appear to be probable, from the frequency with which
they occur in the neighbourhood of vestiges which can be ration- -.
ally attributed only to the Druids.
* Many of these curious monuments are noticed in different volumes of
the Beauties, and particularly in those for Cornwall, Devonshire, and Wales. -
A Cromlech in Cornwall forms the Vignette to the second volume of the
Beauties; and one in Devonshire to the fourth volume.
+ Mr. Gough has advanced many arguments in support of a notion that
the Cromlechs of Britain were of Danish workmanship; but it is truly re-
marked in the Beauties for Cornwall, p. 389 (not) that many of these monu-º
ments exist in the most hidden recesses of the Welsh mountains; districts
which the Danes never penet ated. ; : " : . . w * º, . . .
* . . ~3.





80 . 1 NTRODUCTION.
Considerable difference of opinion has prevailed, as to the pur-
pose for which Cromlechs were designed. Dr. Borlase, and
several other writers of much reputation, believe them to have
been intended as sepulchres; and the former observes “that the
supporters, as well as covering stone, are no more than the sug-
gestion of the common universal sense of nankind; which was,
first, on every side to fence and surround the dead body from the
violences of weather, and from the rage of enemies; and, in the
next place, by the grandeur of its construction to do honour to the
memory of the dead. Our altar-tombs, at this day, are but a more
diminutive and regular Cromleh.” When found at the centre,
or on the border of, a sacred circus, the same writer supposes
the Cromlech to have “formed the sepulchre of one of the chief
priests, or druids, who presided in that district; or of some
prince, a favourite of that order.” § 3. .
While Dr. Borlase is decided in believing these monuments to
be sepulchral, he admits it as likely that they afterwards be-
came the scenes of the “ Parentalia, or where divine honours
were paid, and sacrifices performed to the manes of the dead;”
but he contends that those rites must have been celebrated at some
distance from the Cromlech, as that monument, from the want
of sufficient size, and the inclined position of its upper stone,
could not have been conveniently used for sacrificial fires.
Mr. King and Mr. Rowlands agree in supposing that Crom-
lechs, although, perhaps, often connected with the commemora-
tion of the distinguished dead, were not themselves intended for
sepulchres; but rather, in such instances, for altars of oblation.
In regard to the larger Cromlechs, of which several specimeſis
are noticed in the “Beauties,” Mr. King suggests a conjectural
appropriation, which, if not convincing, is assuredly ingenious.
From the conspicuous site on which they are usually placed, and
from the readiness with which the flow of blood might be traced
on a slab of stone, large and sloping as is the covering stone of
3. * . . . . these

* Antiq ol Cornwall, p. 228,
B Ritish ANtiguities. 8 tº
these Cromlechs, he supposes that they were the altars on which
human victims were sacrificed, in dreadful attempts at divina-
tion. 3. # . & . . . .
However chimerical such an appropriation of the larger Crom-
lechs may be deemed by some readers, there appear fair grounds
for supposing that this species of monument, in general, was in-
tended for sacrificial, rather than for sepulchral purposes; and
that the Cromlech was strictly an altar.” From the nature of
its construction, unless very great constituent portions have been
removed from every known Cromlech throughout the kingdom,
it could not afford, within its chest-like interior, protection for
the deceased human body, either from the insults of an enemy or
the inclemency of the weather. The cavity formed by the up-
right and incumbent stonesis, likewise, often dissimilar in shape;
and, in the instance of the Cromlech termed Kitt's Cotty House,
in Kent, is divided, by the position of the middle-upright, into
the resemblance of two cells, but neither of them sufficiently
large to receive the body of a man at full length. On the other
hand, the interior of a well known Cromlech near Dyffrin House,
in Glamorganshire, is not less than seventeen feet in length, and
thirteen feet in width. While the interior is thus unsuited to
the purpose of secure sepulture, I must think that the incumbent
slab almost declares its object, and is precisely adapted to the
solemnization of animal sacrifice.
But that Cromlechs were frequently, though perhaps not uni-
formly, connected with commemorations in honour of the dead,
appears highly probable, from their so frequently occurring in
the immediate neighbourhood of Barrows, or Cairns, evidently x
G funereal;


* On a subject entirely open to the exercise of conjecture, the remarks of
Tradition may not be unworthy of notice.—A Cromlech in the midst of a
circle of stones, in the Isle of Arran (Scotland) is asserted, by the thinly &
spread and stationary inhabitants of that lonely district, to have been the
place “on which the ancient inhabitants burnt their sacrifices in the time of
the heathens.” See Martin's Description of the Western Isles, p. 220.
Beauties for South Wales, p. 662. ~.
*.
*
82 1NTRoduction.
funereal; or in some instances forming, indeed, the apex of such
tumuli; and the slanting position in which the covering stone,
with very few exceptions, is systematically placed, would appear
to be well calculated for the slaughter of animals whose stream-
iug blood was sacrificed to the shade of the deceased chieftain,
priest, or warrior. Beneath, or in the close neighbourhood of
some few Cromlechs, bones have been discovered; but this does
not appear to indicate decidedly that even such Cromlechs were
raised as funeral monuments; since we may readily believe it
Hikely that pious hands would place the remains of the priest,
or of the earnest devotee, near the altar of his faith and religious
rituals.
Upright Stones, single or NUMeRous, but not cir-
eulan –In many parts of England and Wales are found, in an
erect position, very massy and high stones, either singly or two
or three together; and, from their unhewn rudeness and solid cha-
racter, together with the absence of all tradition concerning them,
many of these are supposed to have been raised by the ancient
Britons. The custom of commemorating events of distinguished
importance by similar natural pillars, is ascertained to have ex-
isted in the very first ages of society; and is so simple and ob-
vious a mode of celebration, that we may readily believe it te
have been practised by the same early Britons who raised the
Carnedd to the memory of the dead, and worshipped the deity
in the midst of a stony circle. . -- ..
An instance of the single stone, probably of British erection,
and as likely to be commemorative of some important occurrenee,
may be noticed at Rudston, in the East Riding of Yorkshire.
This pillaris not less than twenty-four feet in height, five feet ten
inches in breadth, and two feet three inches in thickness. Three
stones, probably erected by the Britons on a similar occasion, occur
at Trelech, in Monmouthshire,” and may be adduced as aspecimen.
. . ‘. . ; of
& These stones are noticed in the Beauties for Monmouthshire, p. 156—7.
3: . The
BRITIs H ANT10 U it es. 83
of the monument consisting of several pillars. These are of un-
equal height, the tallest being 15 feet above the ground; and
they stand too nearly in a right line to have formed part of a
circle used for religious purposes.
But, although not constituting portions of a temple, there is
reason for believing that large erect stones, placed artificially in
the ground, may have been regarded with religious reverence by
the ancient Britons, and may, indeed, have been worshipped by
them, as representatives of their fanciful gods. A similar species
of idolatry is known to have prevailed in the earliest ages of
mankind;" and a superstitious regard for these rude monuments
(the probable relique of idolatrous veneration) is ascertained to
have existed amongst the inhabitants of Britain, even in the
seventh century.f - - .
It is, likewise, probable that single stones were often erected
as memorials of civil contracts; but the investigator may be some-
times misled if he hastily attribute such erections to a solemn
purpose, whether religious or civil, as many of the ponderous
stones often seen on heaths, in fields, or by the road side, were,
possibly, placed as mere boundary marks; and, perhaps, in
ages long subsequent to those now under discussion.
BARRows; CAIRNs; AND Funeral Reliques of the AN-
cient BRitons.—The funeral monuments of the earliest ages
of society, are calculated, by their simplicity of construction, to
survive the sculptured stone, and engraved brass, of periods more
The editor of that part of the Beauties describes the three stones as being pro-
bably “set up as sepulchral memorials, or to designate a place of Druidical
worship.” w
* See Antiq. of Cornwall, p. 162; and Mona Antiqua, p. 52. º, sº
* Borlase's Antiquities, &c. p. 162–163. It is believed that the early
Christian missionaries often compounded with the prejudices of the Pagan
Britons. Unable to dissuade them from viewing these shapeless, ponderous,
stones as objects demanding reverence, the Christian ministers embellished
he rude emblems of divinity with the figure of the cross, and thus piously ,
diverted the adoration of the heathen into a more sacred channel, "
84 INT R O DUCTION.
refined. These we know to have consisted, amongst many na-
tions, of heaps of stones, or earth, raised over the body of
the deceased; and such we find, from unequivocal testimony, to
have been the practice with the ancient Britons. -
On many of the downs, the inoors, and other waste lands of
Britain, hitherto deemed repulsive to the labours of the agricul-
turalist, are still existing barrows, or tumuli, which sometimes
meet the eye in melancholy solitude, but which, in other districts,
are piled around in an emphatical profusion, and impart to the
surface a wavy roughness, fraught with the truly impressive story
of days long past, and otherwise beyond the reach of record.—
Beneath these rude heaps lie buried the ancient inhabitants of the
island - - - -
The tumuli, or barrows, found in England and Wales* vary
much in shape and size, as well as in situation. The greatest
variety is, perhaps, to be seen in the neighbourhood of Stone-
henge; and Sir R. Colt Hoare t describes the peculiarities of
the most prominent, and divides them into classes, in the fol-
lowing manner.
The Long Barrows “differ considerably in their structure as
well as dimensions; some of them resemble an egg, cut in two
lengthways, and the convex side placed uppermost; some are
almost of a triangular form; whilst others are thrown up in a
long ridge, of a nearly equal breadth at each end; but we find,
more generally, one end of these barrows broader than the other,
and that broad end pointing towards the east: we also more fre-
quently find them placed on elevated situations, and standing
singly; though in some groups is seen one long barrow intro-
: duced
* These tumuli are noticed in many parts of the Beauties. Some of the
most curious occur in the volumes for Cornwall; Derbyshire; Dorsetshire;
Hampshire; Lincolnshire; Kent; and Wiltshire. Cairns, or Carnedds, are
frequently described in the Beauties for Northumberland, and for Wales.
+ Hist. of Ancient Wilts. Part I. Introduction. In the same place are
presented engravings of the most curious varieties of funeral tumuli, existing
in thc above neighbourhood.
British ANT19 UIti Es. '85
duced amongst the others.” The contents of this description of
barrow, attest it to be of the highest antiquity amongst those re-
maining in Britain. *.
The Tumulus which appears to be most frequently found is
termed, by Sir R. Hoare, the Bowl Barrow, from its obtuse
rotundity of form; and is sometimes surrounded by a slight
ditch. - -
The Bell Barrow, “from its elegance of form seems to have
been a refinement on the Bowl barrow.” It abounds in the
neighbourhood of Stonehenge. * * -
The Druid Barrow (so named by Dr. Stukeley, and divided
into two classes by Sir R. Hoare) was supposed, by the former
writer, to have belonged to the ministers of religion amongst the
early British ; but Sir Richard has “strong reason for supposing
that these tumuli were appropriated to the female tribes. The
outward vallum, with the ditch within, is most beautifully mould-
ed: in the area we sometimes see one, two, or three mounds,
which, in most instances, have been found to contain diminutive
articles, such as small cups,” &c. -
The Pond Barrow presents a curious and inexplicable variety.
It differs entirely from the others, and resembles an excavation
made for a pond, being circular and surrounded by a vallum, but
having no protuberance within the area, which is perfectly level.
Several of this species of barrow have been dug into, but neither
sepulchral remains, nor any other indication of the purpose for
which they were designed, has yet been discovered.
The Twin Barrow is by no means of common occurrence, and
contains, as is denoted by its name, two tumuli inclosed within
the same circle. We may suppose that two persons closely
united by inclination, or by ties of blood, were here interred,
The small Comic Barrow is seen in many parts of the island;
and it is observed Mr. Douglas, in his elaborate work, intituled
Nenia Britannica, “that these tumuli are generally found on bar-
ren ground, as commons and moors. When discovered on culti-
wated land, their cones, or congeries, have been levelled by til-

86 I NTRO DUCTION.
lage; and it is only by a casual discovery with the plough, that
the contents of such interiments have been found.” These bar-
rows seldom exceed 33 feet in diameter, and are raised of earth.
They are generally surrounded with a narrow trench. The cist
in which the body was deposited is of an unequal depth, de-
pending, probably, on the dignity of the deceased, and the sump-
tuousness of his funeral. ~
The Broad Barrow resembles, in a great degree, the Bowl
Barrow, but is considerably broader and flatter at the top.
Although the above classification of barrows, and description
of their shape, are chiefly founded on observations made in one
part of England, it appears that they present a satisfactory com-
pendium of those most usually discovered throughout the whole
of England and Wales. The material is generally earth alone;
earth mixed with stones; or stones only, heaped together with-
out any other art than that necessary to impart a decided charac-
ter to the shape of the tumulus. Instances of this latter kind
often occur in Northumberland, and in Wales. It may be de-
sirable to remind the reader that tumuli, thus composed of loose
stones, are termed Cairns, or Carnedds, in contradistinction from
such earthy mounds as are denominated Barrows. 3. *
In point of size, these funeral heaps are as various as in shape.
The largest, which often stand alone in solitary grandeur, but
are sometimes seen towering in rude majesty over a far-spread
group, are of stately proportions, and must have been raised at a
very great cost of labour. Of this class the prodigious elevation
termed Silbury Hill may be adduced as a specimen, which is of
the following dimensions: 560 feet in diameter at the base;
170 feet in perpendicular height; and 105 feet in diameter,
at the top.t The smallest are not more than 13 feet in diame-
ter f
In
* Nenia Britannica, p. 1–2. :
+ Beauties for wilts, p. 716, and Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. I. article Sil.
bury Hill,
; Nonia Britannica, p. 1.
British ANti Quities. 87
In regard to the nation by which the great majority of these
tumuli were formed, it is observed by Mr. King, that “there is
very great reason to believe that almost all the Barrows and
Cairns we have in this island are British; and that even those
which were heaped up in Roman times, and where Roman in-
signia have been found, were the sepultures not of Romans, but
of British officers, or chieftains, in Roman service.”
Since the period at which this opinion was delivered, various
fresh data have occurred, from the careful industry with which
numerous barrows have been opened in several districts, but par-
ticularly in Wiltshire; and the result of each investigation tends
towards its establishment for correctness. It must, however, be
remarked that in many instances a subsequent deposit occurs,
which produces vestigia of much later times, and is sometimes
mistaken for the original interment. It is also evident, as is ob-
served by Mr. Whitaker,t that the custom of raising barrows
over the deceased, survived the introduction of Christianity, That
it continued among many of the Britons after the departure of
the Romans is also unquestionable; and, perhaps, it was not en-
tirely relinquished before the middle of the eighth century, at
which time Cuthbert, Archbishop of Canterbury, obtained leave
to make cemeteries within cities.: The small earthy mound
still heaped over the remains of those who had trodden a hum-
ble path in life, is evidently a diminutive representative of the
ancient barrow.
The burial places of the earliest Britons form the leading sub-
ject of the present enquiry. That these have been discovered in
many parts of the island is evinced by the rude character, and
peculiar construction, of many implements found in the vicinity
- G 4 - of
Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. I. p. 267.
+ History of Manchester, Vol. II. p. 140. -
t Some remarks concerning the period at which cemeteries were probably
first annexed to places of Christian worship, are presented in the section
which treats of Anglo-Saxon modes of burial. ź . . . . . . . .”
88 - i Ntroduction.
of the bones, or ashes. It is highly probable that the greater
number of the barrows in Wiltshire are raised over the remains
of the early Celtic inhabitants of the island; but no industry of
research has enabled any enquirer to ascribe distinct ranges of
tumuli, in any county, to a particular tribe, or to a precise his-
...torical era. s . . .
It is observed by Mr. Whitaker, that “the mode of interment
among the primitive Britons, and the primitive Gauls, was either
by consigning the remains entire and undefaced to the ground,
or by previously reducing them into ashes. The former is un-
doubtedly the most natural and obvious, and must, therefore,
have been the original form of sepulture in the world. The lat-
ter is evidently a refinement upon the other, introduced at first,
in all probability, to prevent any accidental indignities, or to
preclude any deliberate outrages upon the venerable remains of
the dead.”* ? & . . . * . . . . . . . . .
It is satisfactorily proved, by investigations of tumuli in vari-
ous parts of this island, that the above statement is correct, in
regard to the customs prevailing among the Britons; and, on this
subject, the purpose of information will be best answered by an
abridged extract of Sir R. Colt Hoare's History of ancient Wilt-
shire: “From the researches made in our British tumuli we have
every reason to suppose that the two ceremonies of burying the
body entire, and of reducing it to ashes by fire, prevailed at the
same time. In each of these ceremonies we distinguish a variety
in the particular mode adopted. In the first we have frequently
found the body deposited within a cist, with the legs and knees
drawn up, and the head placed towards the north. This I con-
ceive to be the most ancient form of burial. .
“ The second mode of burying the body entire, is proved to be
of a much later period, by the articles deposited with the human
remains. In this case we find the bodies extended at full length,
the
• History of Manchester, Vol. II, p. 139,
3 RTT is ti A N T 19 U1 TI E S. 89
the heads placed at random, in a variety of directions, and in-
struments of iron accompanying them. -
“ Two modes of cremation seem also to have been adopted;
at first the body was burnt, the ashes and bones collected, and
deposited on the floor of the barrow, or in a cist excavated in the
native chalk. This, being the most simple, was, probably, the
most primitive custom practised by the ancient Britons. The
funeral urn in which the ashes of the dead were secured, was the
refinement of a later age. The bones when burnt were collected
and placed within the urn, which was deposited, with its mouth
downwards, in a cist cut in the chalk. Sometimes we have
found them with their mouth upwards : but these instances are
not very common: we have also frequently found remains of the
linen cloth, which enveloped the bones, and a little brass pin
which secured them. .33% - -
“ Of these different modes of interment I am of opinion that
the one of burying the body entire, with the legs gathered up,
was the most ancient; that the custom of cremation succeeded,
and prevailed with the former; and that the mode of burying
the body entire, and extended at full length, was of the latest
adoption.” - 3
The barrows of England and Wales exhibit, at the interior, a
considerable dissimilarity of construction, as will be supposed
likely from their outward variety of character, from the different
tribes to which they belonged, and from the different ages in
which they were constructed, even when decidedly British, and
probably anterior to the Roman invasion. Some barrows of large
dimensions are described as possessing a gallery, or passage,
formed of large stones, which leads to a Kistvaen, or to several
Kistvaens, or small roofed places of sepulture. As a specimen
of this description of tumulus, may be noticed the barrow termed
Pairy's Toote, at no great distance from Bath.f
º But -
• History of Ancient Wilts. Introduction, p. 34.
+ Vide King's Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. I. p. 293–294; and Gear.
Mag. Vol. LIX, p. 392. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ •2 . . ...;
90 1NTRO DUCT 1 ON.
But the interior of the greater number is arranged with more
simplicity. In some few instances the earth, or material of which
the tumulus is formed, is found in a mass, incumbent on the fune-
ral deposit; but more frequently the remains of the deceased
were placed in a Kistvaen, or chest, composed of several large
slabs of stone, set upright, and protected at the top by a larger
slab placed horizontally; or merely in a Cist, by which term
may be understood an excavation cut in the soil, or chalk, on
which the tumulus is raised. Subsequent interments are fre-
quently discovered, and often bear evident marks of having taken
place at a period not very distant from the first deposit. Thus,
many tumuli acted, probably, as family places of burial.
The skeleton of the ancient Briton, or his inurned ashes, are
sometimes found without any article of accompaniment: but there
usually are discovered numerous memorials of the simplicity of
manners, and superstitious fancies, which prevailed among those
who performed his funeral rites.
Mr. Whitaker observes, “that a just, but wildly devious, be-
lief in the immortality of the soul induced the Gauls and Britons
to bury many particulars with the body, which the deceased re-
garded in his life;” and the truth of this remark is evinced by
the disclosure of the sepulchral remains of the latter people. We
here find the military arms of the deceased, sometimes half con-
sumed by the flames of the funeral pile; the horn of the stag, or
the tusk of the boar, emblems of his success in the chace; the
bones of his horse, his dog, and those of other animals favoured
by him in his life, or deemed worthy sacrifices to his shade.
The Urns discovered in the contiguity of the remains of the
ancient Britons appear, from their rudeness of form, to have
been made before the use of the turner’s lathe was known, and
are divided by Sir R. C. Hoare into three classes:#—The Large
Urn, in which the bones of the deceased when burned were de-
.” - posited.
• History of Manchester, Vol. II. p. 141–2.
* Introduction to History of Ancient Wilts. p. 25.
B R1T is H ANT19 UITIES. 91
posited. A second kind, different from the above, both in shape
and design, which are nost frequently found with skeletons.
and placed at the head or feet. It is observed by Sir Richard
Hoare, that “a very ancient custom prevailed, and even still is
practised amongst savage nations, of depositing articles of food
with the dead;” and, as he thinks that the Britons very pro-
bably destined these vases for the same purpose, he denominates
them Drinking Cups. “They are always neatly ornamented
with varied patterns, and hold about a quart in measure.” The
third species of vase is of smaller proportions, and is often fan-
tastic in its shape and ornaments. These latter vessels are fe-
quently perforated on the sides; and the investigator of the Wilt-
shire tumuli is inclined to suppose that “they were filled with
balsams and precious ointinents, and suspended over the funeral
pile.” - -
Amongst the most curious articles, after the above enumera-
tion, may be noticed lance-heads and daggers of brass; stone
celts,” in great abundance; arrow-heads, of stone, of flint, and
of bone; various personal ornaments, of pure gold, of coloured
stone, and of bone; beads of amber, of jet, of glass, and horn;
brass pins; and the adder-stone, or anguinum, to which it is
said the Druids attached a great superstitious value.
Besides
* The reader may be reminded that the article which antiquaries gene-
rally attribute to the Celtae, and therefore term a Celt (for want of a more
specific appellation) is an instrument of a wedge-like form, usually of stone,
or of brass, or copper. Although antiquaries agree as to the name, they
differ nuch concerning the purpose for which these instruments were proba-
bly designed. Some suppose them to be no other than a species of chissel; .
others think that they were used as sacrificial implements, or as axe-heads for
more homely purposes; while a third party believes them to have formed the
blade of the British battle-axe. There are engravings of Celts in several of
our county histories; and a plate, representing a considerable variety of spe-
cimens, is inserted in Gough's edition of Camden's Britannia (Edit. 1806.)
It is understood that Mr. Brition has collected materials for a dissertation on
these and other relics of British antiquity, and proposes to publish a volume
on the subject, introductory to his work intituled Architectural Antiquities.

92 INTROI) UCTION.
Besides the tumuli thus appropriated to the inhumation of in-
dividuals, or of distinct families, it inay be observed, in this
place, that it has been frequent, in most ages, for a heap of
earth to be raised over the promiscuous remains of the less emi-
ment among those who perish on the field of battle.” These
BATTLE BARRows are easily distinguished from undoubted
British tumuli, by the vast number of bones which they con-
‘tain.
BRITAIN SUBJECT TO THE ROMANs.
A new era in the history of Britain commences at the date of
the Roman invasion of the island. Scenes of bloodshed, truly
lamentable as they relate to the struggles between brave inde-
pendent tribes, and a foreign enemy stimulated to conquest by
ambition alone, usher to notice this period of history; but the
achievements of the sword are so quickly followed by the pro-
gress of those arts which civilize mankind and dignify human ex-
istence, that we are tempted to forget the penalties accruing
from subjugation, and to view, in the success of the invader,
only the progressive triumph of refinement over degrading rude-
ness. ~ .
I conduct with alacrity the reader to a brief examination of
this Historical Era; and, as a necessary subject of preliminary
discussion, I present a succinct account of the military opera-
tions of the Romans in this country, from the date of the first
invasion under Caesar, to the period at which, in a military capa-
city, they finally quitted Britain. .
Julius Caesar, who had long prosecuted a war in Gaul for the
extension of the Roman empire, directed his ambitious views to-
..s ~ wards
º: * This custom has descended even to the times of our fathers; three bar-
rows were raised over the remains of the slain on the field of Culloden, se
lately as the year 1746, 3. .” >
TRAN's Act 1 o N s of the Ro M AN's 1N BRITA IN. 93.
wards the neighbouring island of Britain, even whilst his en-
tire success in Gaul was uncertain. He effected his first landing,
according to the calculation of Dr. Halley, on the 26th of
August, in the year 55 before the commencement of the Chris-
tian Era. Without oblaining any important advantage, he quit-
ted the island after a stay of little more than three weeks; hast-
ened, as himself insinuates, by an apprehension of the quick ap-
proach of winter. N. 3 *
In the spring of the succeeding year (A. A. C. 54.) Caesar,
who had been making great preparations in Gaul for such an
undertaking during the winter, again invaded Britain, and with
a formidable power. His army consisted of five legions of infan-
try, and two thousand cavalry; and was transported in a fleet of
more than eight hundred ships. The Britons had before ineffec-
tually struggled to prevent his landing; but they now waited his
approach on some rising ground, at the distance of several miles
from the coast, and endeavoured to profit by the natural strength
of the country, and their knowledge of its recesses. They had
prepared for internal defence with vigour and discretion, having
placed the sole conduct of the war in the hands of an individual
prince, Cassivellaunus, or Cassibellinus. ºr-
This general directed the efforts of the Britons with admira-
ble skill, and his army on several occasions displayed great
valour; but a want of lasting unanimity amongst the confede.
rated States, rendered unavailing the wisdom of the chief and
the courage of the soldier. The capital of Cassivellaunus fell a
prey to the enemy ; and this brave prince was under the neces.
sity of suing for peace, and of consenting that Britain should pay
a yearly tribute to the Romans, and should deliver hostages, as
pledges of good faith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . §
Thus ended Caesar's second campaign in Britain, during which
he did not penetrate farther into the interior of the country than
Werolam, the capital of Cassivellaunus. He re-embarked for
Gaul in the latter part of the month of September, in the same
year in which he entered the island; and it is evident that he
~~ . . made
94 - INTRO DUCTION.
made no greater a progress towards the conquest of Britain, than
consisted in bloodshed and ravage amongst a few of its most ex-
posed states, as he raised no fort, nor left any military force to
exact that obedience, which would appear to be inferred from the
obligation of paying tribute, into which a part had entered in the
name of the whole.* #
When relieved from the second hostile visit of Julius Caesar,
Britain remained free from invasion for the term of ninety-seven
years. During this period the island continued nominally tribu-
tary to Rome, and an occasional interchange of friendly circum-
stances appears to have existed between the two countries. But
the Romans, in their pride of empire, looked with repugnance
on an intercourse with any people who were not the slaves of
their authority. They often threatened hostility, for the pur-
pose of subjugation; and, in the year of the Christian Era 43,
they commenced a war, destined to produce events highly curious
and important in the British annals. º -
In this year, Aulus Plautius, by command of the Emperor
Claudius, led from Gaul into Britain an army which consisted of
four
* A new, and very ingenious, view of the political arts practised by Casar,
in regard to his invasion of Britain, is presented in the history of Hertford-
shire, under the article of “Early Inhabitants.” It is there observed that
Caesar, “having conquered the whole of the Belgic tribes of Gaul, was pro-
bably glad of so favourable an excuse as that of protecting the Celtic nations
against the Belgae of Britain, to extend his dominions over a new world,
though he condescends, himself, to give a better reason, riz. that of punish-
ing the Britons (meaning, evidently, the Belgic Britons) for the assistance they
had sent his enemies on the continent, who, were, indeed, their relations and
countrymen. And this explains, at the same time, the alliance which the
Celts, on their side, were so rcady to make with him against the common
enemy.” ** .
In another page of the same work, it is observed that “the object of the
invasion is plainly proved, by the strong circumstance of the Celtic nations
alone (the Iceni Magni, the Segontiaci, the Ancalites, the Bibroci, and the
Cassii) who inhabited the country the most open to the irruptions of the
Belgæ, immediately sending embassadors to Caesar.” &
TRANs Actio N s of THE ROMANs 1N B Rrt Al N. 95
four legions, with their auxiliaries and cavalry. Vespasian (after-
wards Emperor) was appointed second in command; and in this
situation gave the first proof of his extraordinary talents. If we
may credit Suetonius, he ſought thirty battles, in all of which
he was victorious, and took more than twenty towns.
The Britons, divided by faction, and, perhaps, not sufficiently
aware of the serious intention of the enemy, failed to take suit-
able measures for the defence of their coast. But Caractacus and
Togodumnus, the sons of the deceased King Cunobeline, em-
bodied their respective subjects, and opposed the Romans in
several battles. They sustained defeat, and Togodumnus was
slain ; but the Britous still remained in arms, and offered no pro-
posals of peace or submission.
The Emperor Claudius soon after arrived in Britain, and took
the command of the army. He stayed for a short term only, but
received the submissions of several princes, and appointed Aulus
Plautius governor of the new province. Plautius is reported to
have conducted the whole of the war with much success; but his
victories appear to have produced little permanent benefit to the
design of the invaders. -
Ostorius Scapula was named governor of the Roman pro-
vince in Britain, in the year 50. When he arrived at his com-
mand, it appears that the more patriotic of the Britons were so
far from a state of terror and retreat, that they were engaged in
committing acts of devastation on the nations which had formed
alliances with the Romans. He commenced his administration
with equal bravery and policy. He defeated the predatory Bri-
tons with considerable slaughter; and, as a mean of protecting
the province from future incursions, he constructed a chain of
forts along the northern border of the province, which appears to
have been then formed by the rivers Severn, Upper (or Warwick-
shire) Avon,” and Nen, or Nyne. But an additional measure of
precaution
* In the passage of Tacitus, which forms the authority for this historical as-
: sertion,
96 - INTRoDU crio N.
precaution adopted by Ostorius, that of ordering the inhabitants
of every suspected district to surrender their arms, led to a re-
volt; during which the Iceni, assisted by some neighbouring na-
tions, hazarded a battle, and were overthrown.* …
The government of Ostorius was of short duration, but prolific
of memorable events. The Silures, under the conduct of the
renowned Caractacus, made a desperate struggle for the preser-
vation of their liberty, in the year 51. At this time was fought
that celebrated battle in which Caractacus was utterly defeated.
He retired for shelter to the court of Carlismandua, Queen of
the Brigantes, by whom he was betrayed to the Conqueror.
His native majesty of demeanour, when afterwards exposed at
Rome, as a captive, in chains, and preceded by his enslaved
family, has often employed the efforts of the pen and pencil.
Ostorius Scapula died in Britain, in the year 52; and Clau-
dius appointed Aulus Didius as his successor in the government
of
sertion, the rivers noticed in connection with the line of forts drawn by Os-
torius, are the Antona and the Severn. Mr. Whitaker (Hist. of Manchester,
Vol. II. p. 259 and note) advances strong reasons for supposing that the river
now termed the Upper Avon is the Antona of Tacitus. w
* The suggestions towards a history of Roman and British politics, in the
early stages of the Roman invasion of this island, are thus continued in the
erudite work, of which I have ventured (p. 94 note,) to give a previous short
extract. “The Celts, whose eyes had been shut to the interested plans of
their Roman allies, had assisted Vespasian actively in the reduction of the
Belgic power in the west; but began to be alarmed when they saw Ostorius,
under the pretence of defending then against any farther encroachment of .
that people, erecting posts in their own territories. These, at the commence-
ment, they regarded, perhaps, only as detached works; but they were
awakened to their own danger when they saw, by the continuation of the line
efforts from the mouth of the Nen towards the banks of the Severn, how com-
pletely the two great tribes of the Iceni would be divided from each other,
and how, by the intersection of Saltways, the Ryknield, the Fosse, the Wat-
ling, and the Ermin Streets, their artful enemies had cut off all connection
between the natives of the northern and those of the southern part of the
island. The ſceni, therefore, flew to arms.” Hist, of Hertfordshire. Artis
cle “Early Inhabitants.” ---
TRANs Actions of the no MAN's 1N BritAi N. 97
of the British province. The Silures, notwithstanding the loss
they had sustained, continued to oppose the Romans with un-
daunted bravery; and they now gained for a leader Venusius,
who had married the infamous Cartismandua. This woman was
alike faithless to every trust. Her breach of fidelity towards
her husband, which was evinced in the most open manner, led
to a division of family interest and a civil war. The Romans
fomented the quarrel, and lent aid to the queen ; but not any
events of great historical importance occurred in the progress of
this war. Didius continued Propraetor during the short remainder
of the reign of Claudius, and for the first three years of Nero,
his successor in the empire. . 2:
In regard to the chief military operations of his government,
he appears to have found sufficient employment in endeavours to
restrain the incursions of the enemy. * . . . ..
Veranius succeeded Aulus Didius, but died in less than one
year after his arrival, without performing any action worthy of
record. . a : .
Suetonius Paulinus, one of the most celebrated generals of
that age, was then appointed to the government. Encouraged
by some victories which he obtained over different tribes, he in-
vaded, in the year 61, the Isle of Anglesey, a district rendered
sacred, in the opinion of the Britons, by the residence of the
Archdruid, and which afforded an asylum to the fugitive enemies
of the Roman government. The circumstances attending his
triumph over the army which opposed him in Anglesey, are
stated in that part of the “Beauties” which treats of North
Wales.” We there find, [and the assertion is supported by the
authority of Tacitus,) that, by order of Suetonius, the sacred
groves were cut down, the altars demolished, and many of the
Druids were burned in their own fires. . .
While Suetonius was engaged in this conquest, an important
war broke out on the continent of Britain. Prasutagus, King of
H 3. . . . . . . ; the
"Beauties for North Wales, p. 143–144, apud Tacit Annal.
98. . 1 Ntroduction
the Iceni, lately deceased, had adopted the narrow policy of en-
deavouring to secure the safety of his own family and kingdom,
in neglect of the interests of the common cause. In pursuit of
this object, he named, in his last will, the emperor as his joint-
heir with his own two daughters. The Romans, who appear to
have largely partaken at this period of the sanguinary and licen-
tious character of their emperor, Nero, committed the most
cruel outrages in consequence of this bequest. The Iceni re-
paired to arms, under the conduct of Boadicia, widow of Prasu-
tagus; and were joined by the Trinobantes, and some other
states, who were almost equally aggrieved by the tyranny of the
Roman officers and soldiers. In the absence of Suetonius, the
allied nations destroyed the settlement of Camulodunum; and,
shortly after, encountered and defeated the ninth legion. On
receiving intelligence of this formidable revolt, Suetonius march-
ed his army to London, which city, though not honoured with
the title of a colony, was populous and wealthy. He shortly,
however, quitted this place, and, the Britons entering it, under
the command of Boadicia, put such of the inhabitants as remain-
ed to the sword. Verulamium (St. Albans) afterwards expe-
rienced the same dreadful visitation; and the British army, greatly
increased in numbers, and flushed with success, sought the
Romans, with a determination totry the issue of a contest in the
open field. At this period, A. D. 61, was fought the battle so
greatly distinguished in the annals of Britain for the heroic con-
duct of Boadicia, who, finding that the tumultuary valour of her
numerous army was not able to cope with the military skill of
the legions, preferred death to slavery, and put an end to her
miseries by poison. . ~ .
Though much weakened by the defeat which they sustained
under Boadicia, the Britons still remained in arms; and, about
the end of this year, or in the early part of the year 62, Sueto-
nius was finally recalled. Between the date of his recal and the
commencement of the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, the suc-
cessive governors of Britain were named Petronius Turpilianus ;
- - > & ; 2. Trehellius
TRANS ACTIONS OF THE ROMANS 1 N BRIT AIN. 99
Trebellius Marinus; and Vectius Bolanus. Each was inac-
tive; and this want of enterprise must be chiefly attributed to the
distrac politics at Rome.
ranquillity of the Britons terminated soon
aſter the accession of Vespasian to the imperial throne. Peti-
lius Cerealis was the first governor appointed by this Emperor;
and, in the year 72, or 73, the Romans under his command
º
made war upon the numerous and powerful tribe of the Brigan-
tes, which they subdued, after several sanguinary battles.
Julius Frontinus, who succeeded to the government in the
year 75, carried the Roman arms against the Silures; an enemy
difficult of conquest, from the situation of their country, and
from their native valour and love of liberty. This brave nation
which had often been foremost in opposing the invader, was at
length compelled by Frontinus to submit to the power of Rome.
A bright era now occurs in the annals of the Roman connec-
tion with Britain. The sword had hitherto been used as the un-
disguised instrument of ambition and avarice. A great general
and wise politician arises at this period, and permanently secures
the various triumphs of his arms, by introducing the arts of
polished life to the usage of the Britons, and by teaching them
to forget the opprobium of subjugation while emulous of imi-
tating the manners of their conquerors. This was Julius Agri-
cola, personally felicitous in having his actions recorded by
Tacitus, one of the most eloquent historians of antiquity; famous
in adding a large part of Britain to the map of the empire;
and glorious in the clemency of his administration.
Agricola entered upon the government of Britain, late in the
summer of the year 78. He found the troops retired into quar-
ters; for, up to this period, the war had been prosecuted in fair.
weather only, and the winter passed in pleasures unconnected
with the great object of the invaders. But Agricola perceived
the necessity of unremitting efforts against nations which did not
ſail to recover speedily from defeat; and he immediately drew
together a chosen part of his army, and penetrated the country:
c H 2 * of:
t




100 INTRo Duction.
:
i
of the Ordovices, who had recently manifested a hostile spirit.
On these people he inflicted a severe and admonitory vengeance;
:
and then proceeded to secure the victory formerly obtained by
Suetonius in the Isle of Mona (Anglesey.) As he was not pro-
vided with barks, he selected the lighter divisions of the auxili-
aries, and caused them to swim over the narrowest part of the
Channel. The Britons, confounded by the unexpected bold-
ness of this measure, surrendered the island without resist-
all Ce. : - . % .
In the months of deep winter which succeeded the above mili-
tary operations, this able commander was still labouring at the
aim of conquest, by endeavours to produce a sympathy of taste
and habit between the tributary and their invaders. On the same
system he acted, invariably, during the whole of his govern-
ment; thus forming, by the introduction of Roman manners and
arts, an epoch more important in the annals of the invasion,
than any nominal extension of empire produced by the mere
achievements of the sword. x-
In the ensuing campaign, A. D. 79, Agricola conducted the
Roman arms northward, and reduced several British nations to
obedience. The names of these tribes are not mentioned by
Tacitus, the historian on whose authority this part of history de-
pends; but it is observed by Mr. Whitaker, “ that the only Bri-
tons who now remained unconquered by the Romans, within the
present kingdom of England, were such of the Carnabii as in-
habited Cheshire; the Sistuntii; the Volantii; and a part of the
Gadeni and Ottadini, beyond both. These, therefore, the three
first of these at least, were the nations which Agricola attacked
in his second campaign, and the names of which his historian
unaccountably suppresses.”—To secure these conquests, he
built a number of fortresses, which are supposed to have stood
oil, or near, the tract where Hadrian's rampart, and the wall of
Severus,
• Hist, of Manchester, vol. I, p.40.
TRANs actions of the Romans in Britain. 101
Severus, were afterwards erected; namely, from Solway Firth to
the river Tyne. 3. -
Agricola made five other campaigns in Britain; but as these
were directed against the Caledonians, an examination of them
is not essential to the present work. It may, however, be ob-
served that although he obtained several victories over that hardy
people, he was unable to effect their entire conquest. For the
security of such encroachments as he was enabled to make on
their country, he advanced his line of fortifications still farther
north, and formed a chain of forts across the narrow neck of land
which separates the Firths of Forth and Clyde. In his two last
Caledonian expeditions he was attended by his fleet, which now
for the first time, sailed completely round Britain;–a voyage of
discovery which, perhaps, produced as much subject of conver-
sation and wonder, as the circumnavigation of the globe at a more
:*
recent period. - -
Agricola was recalled from Britain in the year 85. We have
seen that he considerably extended the geographical bounds of
the empire; and, by the mildness and wisdom of his government,
he laid the foundation of a permanent obedience to the Roman
sway in the south of Britain, now termed ENGLAND. From
the time of his administration, is to be dated a great alteration in
the manners of the inhabitants of this district. Roman learning,
customs, and fashions met with favour among the conquered; and
the adoption of these produced a sociability of intercourse, and
a growing unity of interests. While Agricola held command in
Britain, three successive emperors filled the throne of Rome;
Vespasian; Titus; and Domitian. He was succeeded in the
government of the British province by Sallustius Lucullus, of
whom little is said, but that he invented a lance of a new form,
and that he was put to death, by the tyrant Domitian, for be-
stowing on this weapon the name of the Lucullean Lance. -
So imperfectly are the actions of the Romans in Britain re-
corded by their historians, that we are ignorant of the particular
transactions which took place during the reign of the Emperor
h 3 Nerva,
102 1NThoduction.
Nerva, and that of his successor Trajan; and even of the names
of the officers who were then appointed governors of this pro"
vince. It is hinted, in general terms, by one writer of anti-
quity, that the Britons, during those reigns, bore the yoke with
impatience; and, indeed, it can scarcely be supposed that they
were yet sufficiently familiar with slavery to submit to the vary-
ing humours of fresh commanders, without partial opposition.
But this spirit of repugnance was displayed with so little vio-
lence, that, under the direction of the Emperor Trajan, impor-
tant steps were taken for the improvement of the internal polity
bf the country. This great emperor was ever intent on works of
public benefit; and it is probable that several of the roads, which
so materially conduced to the good order of the province, and
which have left such impressive vestiges for the admiration of
posterity, were formed during his reign.
Hadrian acceded to the imperial power, on the death of Tra-
jan, in the year 117. Julius Severus was governor of Britain
in the early part of his reign, and was succeeded by Priscus Li-
cinius.—This Emperor visited Britain in person, but not for the
purpose of extending the limits of the province by force of arms.
His chief view, in personally investigating this, in conjunction
with other provinces of the empire, was such a careful examina-
tion into the state of civil and military affairs as might assist in
preserving peace on a secure basis. In pursuit of this noble ob-
ject, he caused a wall of earth to be raised, as an additional de-
fence of the south and conquered part of Britain against its north-
ern and unsubdued neighbours.” This rampart extended from
the mouth of the river Tyne on the east, to the Solway Firth
on the west, nearly occupying the line of Agricola’s first chain
of forts. º .
* - In
* In a note on the Itinerary of Richard of Cirencester (Mr. Hatcher's
Edit. p. 52.) it is judiciously observed that this rampart of earth was, evi-
dently, nothing more than a line, intended to obstruct the passage bf an
enemy between the stations, which constituted the real defences of the
frontier. . %
*
%
TRANSACTI ens OF THE ROMAN's 1N BRITAIN. 103
In the reign of Antoninus Pius, which commenced A. D. 138,
Lollius Urbicus was governor of Britain ; an able general, and
one who was compelled by circumstances to exercise his talents
with activity. The Caledonians in the vicinity of Hadrian's
wall provoked a war; and Lollius, after defeating in several en-
gagements the Maeatae, a tribe which inhabited the level coun-
try near the wall, built a strong rampart farther northward, and
between the Firths of Forth and Clyde. §: . .
Similar commotions on the borders of the wall occurred in the
reign of the succeeding Emperor, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus;
but they were quelled, without great difficulty, by his lieutenant,
Calpurnius Agricola; and the south of Britain happily remained
in a state of tranquillity, the inhabitants intermingling with the
Romans by slow but sure degrees, and adopting their arts and
polish in the same progress. %
The rampart erected in the reign of Antoninus Pius proved so
inefficient a barrier, that the Caledonians broke through it early
in the reign of Commodus, who succeeded Marcus Aurelius;
and being joined by the Maeatae, committed great depredations
upon the Roman province, Ulpius Marcellus, a general of
great vigilance and bravery, was now appointed governor of Bri-
tain; and he defeated the confederate nations in several battles.
His success exposed him to the jealousy of his tyrannical master,
and he was abruptly recalled. The names of his immediate suc-
cessors are not known; but it appears that they partook of the
vicious imbecility which prevailed at the court of Rome. Their
incapacity produced great dissatisfaction amongst the legions;
and it is observable that the Roman army in Britain had now be-
come so formidable, from its long continuance in the province,
that it ventured to send a deputation to the Emperor, remon-
strating on the ill conduct of the person who had the direction of
military affairs, and who, in the exercise of his function, recom-
mended these unworthy officers. Their complaints met with
attention; and Pertinar, who was afterwards Emperor, was
3:... 8 § H 4 sent
104 # INTRoduction.
sent to Britain, for the purpose of redressing the alleged
grievances. .”
Pertinax met with great difficulties in restoring contented dis-
cipline among the tumultuous soldiery, but he, at length, in
some measure, succeeded; and then resigned the government, as
is believed, to Clodius Albinus, who possessed this command in
the latter part of the reign of Commodus, and throughout the two
following short and troubled reigns.
On the death of the Emperor Didius Julianus, this general
ventured to contend for the diadem. He assumed in Britain the
insignia of empire, and led an army, consisting of British Romans
and Romanized Britons, to the Continent, where he hazarded a
battle, but was defeated, and subsequently destroyed himself in
despair; thus leaving L. Septimius Severus in undisputed pos-
session of the throne. & .
The northern Britons did not fail to take advantage of the neg-
lected state of the province, during these struggles for individual
power. The Caledonians and Maeatae made destructive incur-
sions on the south, where the interest of the Britons was now
completely united with that of their conquerors. Severus quickly
reinforced the army of Britain, and bestowed the command on
Virius Lupus; but the troops were either so deficient in number
or in subordination, that Lupus felt it expedient to purchase the
retreat of the enemy by a large sum of money. Such a peace
was not likely to be durable. The incursions were repeated in
several successive years, with all the ferocity incidental to a
border-war; and the Emperor Severus repaired to Britain, in
person, about the year 207. At this time he was aged, and
afflicted with disease; but he entered on the war with alacrity,
for the love of military glory lent a youthful ardour even to his
latest exertions. In the present undertaking, he is said to have
been additionally stimulated by a wish ſor removing from the
dissolute pleasures of Roine his two sons, Caracalla and Geta.
Both these Princes attended him in his expedition; and the
- * events

TRAN's Act 1 on s of Til E. Ro MANs 1N BRITA 1 N, 105
events of this imperial visit are of considerable emphasis and
renown in the annals of Roman operations in Britain.
Severus deputed the government of South Britain to Gela, his
youngest son; and proceeded against the allied northern nations,
at the head of a formidable army. He passed the wall of
Hadrian; and, notwithstanding the natural difficulties presented
by the country, and the pernicious opposition of the enemy, who
declined meeting him in the open field, but often decoyed his
troops into destructive ambushes, he penetrated into the heart of
Caledonia, and compelled the inhabitants to sue for peace; which
was granted to them only on condition of their relinquishing a
portion of territory, and delivering up their arms.
After concluding this peace, Severus marched his army into
the northern parts of the Roman province; and it was now that
he carried into execution a great and memorable work, some ves-
tiges of which still remain to proclaim his activity, perseverance,
and grandeur of views.-Convinced of the inefficiency of Hadrian's
rampart of earth, he employed the soldiery in erecting a wall of
solid stone, defended by numerous stations for the residence of
garrisons; massy towers for the annoyance of assailants; and
intervening watch turrets, in which sentinels maintained a regu-
lar guard of observation. This wall ran nearly parallel with
Hadrian's rampart, at a small distance towards the north; and
was in height fifteen feet, and eight or nine feet in breadth. Its
length was rather less than seventy four Roman miles; and the
whole of this stupendous work, the greatest effort of Roman
skill and industry in Britain, is believed to have been completed
in two years.”
The exertious of the Emperor Severus are more forcibly en-
titled to admiration, from the oppressive character of the circum-
stances, both meutal and bodily, under which he laboured.—
Tortured
* For a statement of many opposite opinions, in regard to the history of
the wall attributed to Severus, the reader is referred to the Beauties for
Northumberland, p. 2–7. .”
106 . INTRODUCTION,
Tortured and enfeebled by the gout, he was unable to ride on
horseback, and was carried in a litter throughout the arduous
northern marches of his troops; whilst even the waning remnant
of his life was in continual danger from the machinations of his
own son, Caracalla. He died at York, in the year 211, broken
hearted, even in the midst of such glory as he most dearly
prized, that of victory. . .
The empire was now divided between Caracalla and Geta.
These youthful Emperors returned to Rome, shortly after the de-
cease of Severus; and from the period of their departure, until
the year 284, very little is known concerning the political trans-
actions in Britain. A happy paucity of information' since the
writers on whose testimony these ages of history depend, be-
lieved their duty to consist only in chronicling scenes of turbu-
lence and bloodshed. &. . r
This long season of tranquillity experienced an interruption
soon after the accession of Dioclesian to the imperial throne, in
the year last mentioned; and the circumstances connected with
the war which then took place are highly worthy of notice.
Dioclesian admitted, as his companion in the cares and honours
of government, Maximianus Herculius. The empire, though
divided, was judged to be still too extensive and unwieldy for the
ruling power; and two assistants were adopted, under the title
of Caesars. The persons thus elevated were named Constantius
(often termed Constantius Chlorus) and Galerius Maarimianus.
The first efforts of these Emperors, in regard to the Britons,
were directed against the piratical Franks and Saxons, who not
only captured numerous inerchant vessels, but often had the
temerity to land on the coast, and plunder the inhabitants. For
the protection of the seas against these marauders, the Roman
government assembled a powerful fleet in the harbour of Bou-
logne, and bestowed the command on Carausius, an able naval
officer, but a man of a faithless and ambitious disposition. When
the misconduct of Carausius was ascertained, and it was dis-
covered that he appropriated to his own use the spoil of which
z • he
TRAN's Actions of the Roy ANs 1N BRITAIN. 107
he divested the pirates, orders were issued for him to be put to
death. But he escaped from this danger; and, having an abso-
lute sway over the fleet, sailed for Britain, where he boldly as-
sumed the ensigns of government, and prevailed on the army to
support him in his pretensions. The era was propitious, as the
Emperors were then perplexed by various distant wars; and the
possession of the fleet was a circumstance of preponderating in-
fluence in favour of the usurper. He was allowed the title of
Emperor, and was permitted to retain uninterrupted dominion for
several years.-In this event we first meet with an endeavour to
disjoin the province of Britannia Romana from the parent govern-
ment; and we find that so daring a measure was adopted only by
the man who discovered the true defensible strength of the coun-
try to consist in its maritime capacities. It is memorable, like-
wise, that Carausius, in this distracted state of affairs, formed
an alliance with the Franks and Saxons; thus introducing the
latter people to a close acquaintance with the island on which
they afterwards performed a distinguished part.
On a partition of the Roman empire, or rather of the duties of
administration, which took place, in the year 292, between the
four princes who were united in the government, all the pro-
vinces to the west of the Alps were allotted to Constantius, who
shortly directed his attention towards the recovery of Britain.
But this was a task of considerable difficulty, as the usurper
had strengthened his fleet to an unprecedented degree, during
his quiet sway over the resources of the island; and was, like-
wise, possessed of several important places in contiguous parts
of the Continent. Constantius succeeded in wresting from him
Boulogne, so formidable on account of its harbour; and com-
menced, with great activity, the building of ships in different
ports of Gaul. While these preparations were in progress, affairs
took a new aspect, in consequence of the assassination of Carau-
sius; which act was perpetrated at York, in the year 293, by .
Allectus, a confidefitial officer of the rebel chief. The murderer
immediately assumed the purple of Empire and the government
. - ef
108 INTRODUCTION.
of Britain; of which he remained possessed, without disturbance,
for nearly three years. r.
The series of operations which led to the discomfiture of Al-
lectus, and the restoration of Britain to the pale of the Empire,
is developed with some difficulty, as it chiefly rests for elucida-
tion on the pages of the panegyrist, Eumenius. The following
brief statement appears to comprise the more important of the in-
cidents there narrated.—Unwilling to stake the hazard of the
war on a battle at sea, Constantius divided his armament into
two squadrons, one of which was commanded by himself, and the
other by Asclepiodotus, the captain of his guards. Although
Constantius first put to sea, the squadron commanded by his cap-
tain effected the earliestlanding. This division passed unnoticed,
in a thick fog, the fleet of Allectus, which lay off the Isle of
Wight; and its leader debarked his troops on the neighbouring
coast of Britain. He then burned his ships, that they might not
fall into the hands of the enemy. -
Allectus, aware that the only chance of success depended on
promptitude of action, hastened to the attack of the Roman army.
But his troops consisted chiefly of auxiliaries, and he is said to
have evinced little judgment in the mode of leading them to bat-
tle. He was defeated and slain. Constantius, in the meantime,
landed his force without opposition, and was marching to the
succour of Asclepiodotus, when he received the welcome intelli-
gence of that officer’s success, and the death of Allectus. This
one battle terminated the war, except that a body of Franks and
Saxons, principally composed of those who had escaped from the
field of action, entered London, for the purpose of plundering
that city before they quitted the island. But some ships of Con-
stantius, which appear to have missed a direct passage, in con-
sequence of storms or fogs, proceeded up the Thames at this
critical juncture; and the tioops, disembarking, slaughtered great
numbers of the plunderers, and preserved the city from threaten-
ed devastation. . .
The usurpation of Carausius commenced in the year 287; and
. .* he
TRAN sactio Ns of Tii e Ro MANs IN BRITAl N. 109
he was assassinated in 293. Allectus, his successor, maintained
the title of Emperor, and exercised government in Britain, for
about three years. It is asserted by Eumenius that the Britons
were decidedly averse to the sway of these usurpers, and that
they viewed the restoration of the legitimate Roman government
with correspondent sentiments of pleasure. This statement will
be considered as quite probable, when we reflect on the intermix-
ture of interests, and even of social ties, which must have taken
place during the numerous years of peace that the province hap-
pily experienced previous to the accession of Dioclesian. The
Roman military in Britain appear to have snatched, with illusive
ardour, at the new hope of independence of the empire, when it
was presented by Carausius; but they evidently found, by the ex-
perience of nearly ten years, that such a state of separation was
far from desirable.—Allectus could not depend on the swords of
the Legions, and was supported by Mercenaries, (by Franks and
Saxons chiefly) in the single battle which terminated this bold
rebellion. It would, indeed, appear, from succeeding events,
that the Roman army in Britain was, in these ages, so nearly in
a state of colonization, as to look with distaste on turbulence
and ambitious enterprise; whilst the Britons, to the south of
the wall of Severus, attached to the conquerors by a love of
their arts, and by a growing affinity of manners, viewed the
great city of the empire as a golden spot of promise and de-
light. . .” . *… .
Dioclesian and Maximian resigned the imperial dignity about
the year 304; and were succeeded by their Caesars, Constantius
and Galerius. On the division of government which followed
this occurrence, Britain was allotted to Constantius, who resided
in this island, and died at York in the year 306.
Constantine the Great, the son and successor of Constantius
Chlorus,” was in the city of York at the time of his father's
z. . º death,
w • Constantine was the son of Constantius, by Iſelena, the first wife of
that Emperor. Many writers assert that Helena was a native of Britain;
same
1 10 INTRo Duction.
death, and he there commenced his bright and auspicious reign;
a memorable epoch in the history of Europe at large The mili-
tary events connected with the sway of Constantine in Britain
are happily few in number, and are confined to a short-lived
war, on the borders of the wall, with the Maeatae, and the Caledo-
nians, who, from about this time, are generally described under
the names of Picts and Scots. When these contests were termi-
nated, by the submission of the refractory tribes, a general peace
prevailed throughout the province for the remainder of Constan-
tine's long reign. The blessings of this tranquil era were in-
calculably augmented by the aid which the governing power af-
ſorded to the cause of Christianity; and, through that medium,
to an improvement in the morals and manners of the Britons.
Constantine died on the 22d of May, A. D. 337.
After the death of this successful ruler, the provinces of the
empire were divided between his three sons, Constantine, Con-
stans, and Constantius. Britain, together with Gaul, Spain, and
part of Germany, became the portion of Constantine, the eldest
of these princes; but he was so far dissatisfied with the arrange-
ment, that he entered on active hostilities, and, in the year 340,
invaded the territories of his brother Constans, but fell into an
ambush near Aquileia, and was slain, together with a great part
ºf his army. Constans then seized on his dominions, and thus
obtained the governinent of the whole of the western provinces.
He passed into Britain in the year 343, for the purpose of chas-
tising the Scots and Picts, who had renewed their ancient depre-
dations to the south of the wall; and, if the flattering testimony
of medals might be received as satisfactory evidence, it would
appear that he inflicted a dreadful and very memorable vengeance
Oil
some supposing her to be the daughter of a British King, and others that she
was of a mean origin, and was the mistress of Constantius. Several of these
writers affirm that her illustrious son, Constantine, was also born in Britain;
but it may be observed that neither of the above assertions is corroborated
by the testimony of contemporary authors. See these questions amply dis-
cussed in Morant's Hist, of Colchester, B. I. p. 28–34. -
TRANs Actions of THE ROMANS IN BRITAIN. l l 1
on the northern tribes. But these passports to fame must be re-
garded with suspicion, in the latter ages of the empire; and it is
observable that Firmicus, who was sufficiently inclined to notice
the most attractive points of commendation in regard to this
Emperor, confines his encomium to a topic which will appear at
present little worthy of ardent admiration. In words, to the fol-
lowing effect, he celebrates the voyage of Constans from Gaul
to Britain, at a season when the wind might be expected to blow
hard, and the water to be rough : “In winter (which never had
been, nor will be done again) your oars triumphed over the swel-
ling, furious, waves of the British ocean.” w
Constans, who committed many acts of tyranny, and person-
ally sank the prey of frivolous pleasures, was murdered on the
continent, in the year 350, through a conspiracy among his prin-
cipal officers, with Magnentius, one of their own number, but
of British extraction, at their head. The western parts of the
empire, including Britain, submitted to the successful factious
leader; but Constantius, Emperor of the East, the youngest son
of Constantine the Great, speedily marched to revenge the death
of his brother. Magnentius was defeated, in a sanguinary en-
gagement, near Mursa, in Pannonia; and, subsequently, quit-
ted his life and pretensions, by self-destruction, at Lyons, in the
month of August, 353. .
The whole of the Roman empire thus fell under the sway of
Constantius, who deputed the administration of affairs in Bri.
tain to several successive governors, or vicars, as they were then
termed. The only military occurrences of this reign, in which
the British province was implicated, relate to incursions of the
Scots and Picts. Some formidable irruptions of these people
took place in the year 360. Julian, termed the Apostate, who
was afterwards Emperor, was then intrusted with the govern-
ment of the western parts of the empire. He sent Lupicinus,
with some well chosen troops, to the assistance of the impe-
rial army; and the insurgents, who had plunder for their only
. . . object,

112 introduction.
object, quickly retired; hut had the triumph of securing their
booty.
During the short reign of the Emperor Julian, and that of his
successor Jovian, the inhabitants of South Britain remained free
from any serious disturbance; but we now approach the ages in
which the Roman sway in Britain is seen gradually declining;
and the day is not far distant in which that great people volun-
tarily relinquish the ascendancy which had been so long pre-
served with wisdom of action, although the unjustifiable motive
of lust of power appears to have operated as the prevailing incen-
tive. . . -
The circumstances which led to this declension, and ultimate
fall, of power, are too well known, to require minute notice in
the present page. We have seen that the empire had long been
found too extensive for a single ruler; and that, like attenuated
gold, what it obtained in glitter it lost in solidity.—Pressed,
nearly on all sides, by those whom it had subjugated in its florid
vigour, the Roman government was no longer able to bestow de-
liberate attention on this distant province. Its armies in Bri-
tain grew restless of control; the Franks and Saxons, enemies
rising into power on the decrepitude of Italy, assailed the shores
nearest to Gaul, and most exposed to their piracies; while the
Britons, artfully trained by their conquerors to habits of peace,
except in such instances as were useful to the supply of the
Roman levies, were quite unable to defend themselves in the
state of allegiance to which they were, probably, well inclined.
It is matter of surprise that, in this situation of affairs, the
Roman military in Britain did not strenuously endeavour to esta-
blish an independent government. But it appears, from the
tenour of history, that they refrained from making any serious
efforts towards the attainment of such an object.
When Valentinian and his brother Valens ascended the im-
perial throne, in 364; the province of Britain was subject to
threatening irruptions. On the maritime parts of the south it
was plundered by the Franks and Saxons; whilst the north was
. oppressed
TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROM A N S IN BR1TA N. l I 3
oppressed by a more severe visitation. In the latter direction,
the Scots, Picts, and Attacotti, acquiring fresh ardour from the
known exigencies of the empire, carried their iucursive ravages
to a greater extent than on any previous occasion; and not only
opposed the Romans in the open field, but obtained some advan-
tages, and slew two of their Generals. These ferocious tribes
continued to plunder the province, with impunity, for three
successive years. The Emperor Valentinian then sent a consi-
derable army to the relief of South Britain, under the com-
mand of Theodosius, one of the most successful Generals of that
age. . .
Theodosius was appointed governor of Britain, in the year
367; and his conduct in this high office was equally applauded
by the imperial court and by the tributary inhabitants. On his
arrival he ſound that the enemy had penetrated as far as London,
then termed Augusta, and had there seized a great booty and
many prisoners. He divided his troops into distinct parties;
and falling upon the northern marauders, thus incumbered with
spoil, he compelled them to take to flight, and to abandon the
fruits of their expedition. He then set the prisoners at liberty;
and, after restoring the greater part of the redeemed spoil to its
lawful owners, entered London in just and honourable triumph.
He now solicited the presence of Civilis, a person of talent and
integrity; who was accordingly sent, with the authority of
Praefect in Britain, to take charge of the administration of civil
affairs. Dulcitius, an officer of tried courage, was commissioned,
nearly at the same time, to assist him in the command of the
army. It is worthy of observation that many Roman officers
and soldiers had joined in the ravages of the northern tribes,
during the late confused season. The greater number of these,
however, returned to their duty, on a proclamation being issued
by the General, promising pardon to all who surrendered within
a limited time. . º
Theodosius took the field early in the succeeding year; and,
after encountering some opposition, forced the enemy to retire to
* 3. r the
* & ºš
1 14 I N T R 6) DUCTION,
the north of the wall of Severus. Anxious to restore the Roman
territory to its ancient dignity, he pursued the fugitives still
further, and drove them beyond the rampart erected in the reign :
of Antoninus Pius; which frontier he repaired with considerable
labour. % %
The remaining acts of this able General and wise governor,
were chiefly directed towards the internal regulation of the coun-
try which he had thus rescued from the devastating hands of its
northern foes. Under his direction, many fortified places, which
had sunk into neglect during the security of a long peace, were
restored to a defensible character; and he encouraged and as-
sisted the Provincials in a repair of the numerous towns which
had experienced damage from the late incursions. He, like-
wise, corrected many abuses in the mode of levying taxes, and
materially improved the internal polity and condition of the pro-
vince. Theodosius quitted Britain in the year 369, honoured
with the approbation of the Emperor, and rewarded by the
blessings of the people to whom he was so eminent a bene-
factor. &
A profound tranquillity prevailed in Britain for several years
subsequent to the departure of the above celebrated commander;
but this happy interval of bloodshed was interrupted by an event
so disastrous, that the inhabitants felt its ill effects through many
successive ages.—Gratian, the son of Valentinian, ascended
the imperial throne in the year 375, and admitted to a nominal
share in the supremacy, his brother, then not more than four
or five years of age, under the title of Valentinian the Second.
But, finding himself unequal to the task of governing the whole
of the dilated empire, in a period so prolific of difficulties and
convulsions, he associated with himself and his puerile coadjutor,
Theodosius, son of the General of that name who obtained great re-
nown in Britain. The exaltation of this officer took place in 379;
* but the measure was so displeasing to the ambitious temper of
Marimus, a General whose valour was well known in Britain,
that the latter disdained allegiance, and assumed the purple in this
island,
TRAN's Actions of the Rom AN's 1N BRIT Al N. 115
island, A. D. 381. Maximus had married the daughter of a
British chief, and was, in other respects, so acceptable to the
natives, that they warmly attached themselves to his cause.
Their zeal of adherence was soon called into active exercise—
Not contented with the usurped government of a province, Maxi-
mus aspired to the possession of the whole western empire; and
he assembled a powerful army for this great struggle. The Bri-
tish youth flocked to his standard with so much alacrity, that,
when he landed his army near the mouth of the Rhine, he is
emphatically said to have possessed in his ranks the flower and
strength of Britain. % :-
His first efforts were eminently successful. The Emperor
Gratian was betrayed by his troops, and was slain while seeking
safety in flight. Maximus then declared Victor, (his son by
the British lady whom he had married) his partner in the impe-
rial purple; and thus bound the Britons, who now first move
with distinction in a martial character beneath the Roman stand-
ard, still more closely to the interests of his family. But the
prosperity of the usurper and his auxiliaries was only short lived.
Theodosius, who ruled the eastern part of the empire, hastened
to the succour of his colleague in the throne; and Maximus,
after experiencing two signal defeats, was betrayed by his own
veteran soldiers, and put to death by the conqueror. %
The Britons were not present at the two engagements which
decided the fortune of their chosen leader, having been sent into
Gaul, under the conduct of Victor, their youthful countryman.
But they were speedily attacked, and were defeated with the
loss of their General. In this calamitous situation, in a foreign
country, exposed to a triumphant enemy, and without ships to
convey them home, the fugitive adventurers were so fortunate as
to meet with a friendly reception in Armorica, and considerable
numbers of them settled there.
The absence of the Romans and their ambitious General, af-
ſorded a favourable opportunity to the numerous tribes of free-
booters, who were constantly on the alert for depredation. The
. • I 2 * : province
116 I NTR O DUCTION.
province was, consequently, assailed by sea and by land. But
a vigorous administration of affairs under Theodosius, now sole
Emperor, produced a restoration of tranquillity.
Theodosius (usually termed the Great) died in the year 395,
and bequeathed the empire to his two sons, Arcadius and Hono-
rius; the western division being allotted to the latter. Each of
these Princes was young; and Honorius, who was not more than
eleven years of age, was consigned by his dying father to the
care of Stilicho, a man of Vandal origin, but much favoured by
the deceased Emperor, to whom he had proved a faithful and able
officer. Stilicho, although at length suspected of sinister ambi-
tious views, executed his high office, for some time, with strict
honour. In regard to the military department of his duty, as
counected with this island, he reinforced the army of Britain,
and preserved the province from the inroads of the Scots and
Picts, with much discretion and success. His conduct in this
particular is warmly praised by his poetical panegyrist, Clau-
dian.* * 3 :
But the time speedily arrived at which the arms of Rome
proved insufficient for the preservation of the imperial city; and,
in such a season of imbecility and distress, the distant provinces
could scarcely entertain a rational hope of succour. The Goths,
the Vandals, and other barbarous nations, who had served the
Romans as allies in the late struggles to preserve the consis-
tency of the enormous empire, perceiving the growing weakness
of the former masters of the world, aspired, under the conduct of
Alaric, to the pillage and destruction of Rome itself. :
I take pleasure in passing unnoticed the political cabals, and
contests for individual ascendancy, in neglect of the public good,
amidst which the Roman splendour sank to utter decay. It is
quite unnecessary to specify, by name, the adventurers who, in
quick
• Claud. in laud. Stil. See the verses quoted in the Introduction to Cam-
den's Britannia, Article Romans in Britain ; in Henry's History of Dri-
tain, &c. &c. .”
TRAN's Actions of the Romans IN BRITA. N. 117
quick and fragile succession, assumed the purple; except as to a
few instances connected with the chronological order of events in
Britain, and in which the interests of the inhabitants were imme-
diately implicated. The age of heroic enterprise in the Roman
province of Britain was now extinct; and the mere antiquary,
and the philosophical student of history, look with equal indiſ-
ference on Emperors who achieved no victories to be recorded by
medals, and performed no action illustrative of excellence in
talent or moral virtue.
Although opposed by many competitors in different parts of
his vast dominions, Honorius remained invested with the chief
authority until his decease in the year 423. The dangers to
which Rome was exposed by the approach of the barbarians, led
to the recal of the additional forces which had been sent into
Britain by direction of Stilicho; and this unavoidable measure
was followed by an irruption of the Scots and Picts. The
Roman soldiers stationed in this island, disdainful of allegiance
to a court which could not render them assistance, now elected
as Emperor an officer termed Marcus. But this shadowy
monarch soon fell, through the agency of the very faction to
which he owed his elevation; and the soldiery then invested all
officer named Gratian with the same dangerous honours. Gra-
tian possessed a nominal reign in Britain for about four months
of the year 408. He was then deposed and murdered; and the
command of the army, together with the imperial purple, was
bestowed, by a military election, on Constantine, who is said
to have been chosen on account of his affinity of name with Con-
stantine the Great. . . . . .
This Constantine, who was elected Emperor by the Roman
army in Britain appears to have been a man of sufficient cou-
rage, and possessed of an enterprising spirit. He recruited
his army with the most hardy of the British youth, whom he
speedily trained to the exercise of arms. But, instead of lead-
ing his restless forces against the Scots and Picts, a measure
which would have found them full employment, and might have
I 3 ultimately
118 INTRoduction.
ultimately secured to him the possession of imperial sway in
Britain, he conducted them into Gaul, where he contended for the
pernicious trophy of unbounded dominion. His efforts were, for a
short time, attended with success; but the delusive commencement
of his enterprise was followed by quick andfatal reverses. He was
opposed by his own General, Gerontius; and his army was
broken, and himself captured and put to death, in the year 411.
We are now arrived at a period of the British annals which
has afforded a subject for some historical scepticism, and critical
discussion. The narration of events connected with the Roman
sway in Britain has chiefly depended, through several of the
preceding sections, on the testimony of Zosimus. But we are
now forsaken by that guide; and the remaining particulars, re-
lating to the history of this island, until the era of the Saxon
invasion, rely on authorities which are far from conveying entire
satisfaction, as they are not of a contemporary date. The most
ancient historiographer of this period is Gildas, who wrote in the
sixth century. The venerable Bede gives extracts of his work;
and labours, but without success, to illustrate it by chronologi-
cal reduction. Nennius, who wrote in the seventh century, af.
fords little that is acceptable; and the production of Geoffrey
has been styled by some a British romance, and was considered
as such, even by the critics of an age much less disposed to
scepticism in history than the present.
& The authority of such writers is, certainly, of so doubtful a
nature as to demand great severity of inquisition; but it has
been deemed acceptable by many modern historians, and I, there-
fore, present a succinct narration, founded on the testimouy of
Gildas and Bede; but shall afterwards notice the critical remarks
of a recent very intelligent author. .
According to the statement of the former annalists, the Bri-
lish province, weakened at every point, now returned to the
obedience of the Emperor Honorius. Some troops were sent
from Rome, in the succeeding year, for a reinstatement of good
order; but they were speedily recalled, to assist in defending
N. x. the
TRAN'sACTIONS OF THE ROMAN S IN BRIT AIN. l 19
*
the interior of the empire against its barbarous assailants; and
the Scots and Picts, who foresaw the fall of South Britain, and
waited with eagerness to seize on the riches of its cultivated
lands and numerous buildings, then rushed forwards, under the
hope of meeting with an easy prey. But Romanized Britain
was not yet weakened to extremity. Although deprived of a
regular army, the Roman veterans who were connected with the
islanders by intermarriage, by the possession of estate, and by
habits of long. residence, were so numerous, and so well dis-
posed to fight in defence of their homes and property, that a for-
midable stand was made against the invaders; and they were
ultimately repulsed, with loss. A
These Roman settlers appear to have derived much assistance
from the South Britons, in the opposition thus successfully inade
to the advance of the northern tribes. But it had been the uni-
form policy of the Romans to remove, as recruits of their armies
in distant provinces, such of the tributaries as they trained to
the use of arms; and it must be recollected that Britain had
lately been drained of extraordinary numbers of its youth, by the
foreign expeditions of the usurpers, Maximus and Constantine.
The native population was, therefore, incapable of vigorous and
lasting resistance. The northern enemies, on the contrary,
were in possession of a youthful military power, bred to war as a
trade, and which had never passed beneath the yoke of a con-
queror. The irruptions of these hardy and necessitous warriors
were repeated through several successive years; and the Roman
government was so far from being able to render assistance, that
the Emperor Honorius resigned all claim to the allegiance of the
provincials, and left them to defend their own cause. The
greater part of the British-Romans, convinced of their want of
strength to preserve their possessions in tranquillity, now relin-
quished their lands; and, carrying with them their money and
most valuable moveables, repaired to the eontinent.
Thus abandoned even by the domiciliated portion of their con-
querors, and left without either civil or military government,
I 4 the
120 3 & I NTRODUCTION.
the Britons are described as constituting, at this juncture, a timid,
disorderly multitude, ready to become an easy prey to the first
bold invader. The Scots and Picts, as might be expected, took
advantage of their helpless situation; and, passing the Firths
of Forth and Clyde, plundered the contiguous districts. In this
melancholy condition, the Britons supplicated assistance of Rome;
and the Emperor Honorius, now more at leisure, in consequence
of some successes over the Goths, and probably calculating on the
benefits to be derived from future levies of recruits, if the islanders
remained tributary, acceded to their petition, and sent a legion
to their aid. The Roman arms were again victorious on the
theatre of former exploit. The Scots and Picts were compelled
to retire with precipitation and great loss. The triumphant legion
having thus honourably performed its allotted task, returned to
the continent before the expiration of the year in which it en-
tered Britain;– the year 416. - < x.
The departure of the veterans was the signal for fresh com-
motions. Eager for spoil, the tribes to the north of Antoninus's
wall again passed the boundary, penetrated the province, and
spread the miseries of sword and fire in their progress. Inca-
pable of self defence, the Britons, as before, looked for succour
to the head of the empire. The embassadors who now approach-
ed the Emperor are said to have appeared before him with rent
garments, and other voluntary tokens of humiliation and dis-
tress. Their intreaties met with attention, and a legion Was
sent to the aid of South Britain, under the command of Gallio of
Ravenna. , w … w ; :
It was again proved that the tribes of the north, so formidable
to the South Britons in these ages, were unable to cope with the
Roman veterans. Their straggling, predatory bands were de-
feated with great slaughter; and the survivors fled to their woods
and Inountainous fastnesses, in dismay. After clearing the south
from these ferocious invaders, the legion remained nearly two
years in Britain, for the purpose of contributing, by instruction
- 3. and
TRAN's Actions of the Rom ANs IN BRITAIN, 121
and active assistance, all practicable aid to the future security of
the inhabitants. 3. * * w
In pursuit of this object, Gallio, convinced that the wall of
Antoninus was an insufficient barrier, and that a diminution of
territory must be desirable to a weak people, directed that the
whole of Valentia (or the space between the walls) should be re-
signed to the northern nations. The wall of Severus he ordered
to be thoroughly repaired, with stone; and this work was per-
formed by the united labours of the legion and the Britons of the
south. Having completed the defensible state of the frontier in
this direction, he built many forts, and towers of observation, on
the coasts towards the south; as that part of the island was often
infested by the piratical visits of the Franks and Saxons. He
then impressed on the Britons, so long the tributaries of Rome,
and still her willing adherents, a knowledge of the military tac-
tics which had enabled a single legion to render them efficient
assistance; and, having performed these friendly offices, he ex-
horted them to exert the courage of free men, and to rely, as
such, on their own efforts, since no further assistance could be
expected from the distracted government of their former masters.
In the leading particulars of the above narration, Gildas and
Bede are followed by Camden, and by several modern writers,
amongst whom may be noticed Dr. Henry; but Mr. Turner, in
the history of the Anglo-Saxons, dissents from the propriety of
an appeal to the “querulous” Gildas, and takes a very different
view of the affairs of this important era. According to Mr.
Turner, the Britons were so far from renewing a timid allegiance
to Honorius, after the death of Constantine, that, “ in this ex-
tremity, they displayed a magnanimous character; they remem-
bered the ancient independence of the island, and their brave
ancestors, who still lived ennobled in the verses of their hards;
they armed themselves, threw off the foreign yoke, deposed the
imperial magistrates, proclaimed their insular independence, and,
with the successful valour of youthful liberty and endangered
existence, they drove the fierce invaders” (barbarians, stimu-
* - lated
122 - 1 NTRODUCT16) N.
lated to the invasion of Gaul and Britain by the traitorous Geron-
tius,) “from their cities.
“Thus,” continues Mr. Turner, “ the authentic history from
407, is, that the barbarians, excited by Gerontius, burst in ter-
ror upon Gaul and Britain; that Constantine could give no help,
because his troops were in Spain; that Honorius could send none,
because Alaric was overpowering Italy; that the Britons, thus
abandoned, armed themselves, declared their country indepen-
dent, and drove the barbaric invaders from their cities; that
Honorius sent letters to the British states, exhorting them to
protect themselves; and that the Romans never again recovered
the possession of the island.”
It is justly noticed by the above historian, that the narrative
of Gildas consists chiefly of declamation, and that the declaimer
is less entitled to notice as he has stated nothing concerning the
Emperors, or regular succession of transactions, after Maximus;
but, as the operating point of his own remarks is founded on in-
dividual opinion, ideas of a contrary tendency may, perhaps, arise
in the mind of some readers.
Mr. Turner appears to consider it as granted that the Britons
were desirous of severing their country from a connexion with
Rome, although he admits that they had, in times very briefly
precedent, supplicated succour from the empire; and had, indeed,
been accustomed to rely for defence on its soldiers, Such a re-
liance was, in truth, almost unavoidable, when we remember
that the policy of the Romans denied military exercise to all pro-
vincials, except such as they wished to attach to the legions of
the empire on foreign service. - -
It is very probable that the taxes exacted by the Romans were
oppressively heavy; and it is certainly natural for a people pos- .
sessed of emergetic habits, and conscious of sufficient resources,
to aspire after, and to seek, independence on foreign control.
But it does not distinctly appear that the South Britons were
actuated
* Turner's Hist, of the Argo saxons, Wol. I, p. 77.
TRANs Actio N s of T H E R O MAN's 1N BR 1 TAIN. 123
actuated by so noble an energy; and, if destitute of a thirst after
liberty, from an inspiriting sense of the moral value of that bless-
ing, they were likely, in common prudence, to consider indepen-
dence as a source of national danger, rather than a public advan-
tage. Harassed by the Saxons, the Francs, and other piratical
invaders; and convinced, by long experience, of the evils to be
apprehended from the ferocious incursions of the Scots and Picts;
a people trained to habits of peace would, politically, court the
aid of some warlike, patronising state.
Such was, indubitably, the conduct of the Britons at this trying
period. It is not denied that they supplicated assistance from
Rome; and, in the absence of any positive proof to the contrary,
it will, perhaps, be deemed likely that they obtained it, and that
they were greatly indebted to the experienced troops of the em-
pire for the expulsion of their barbarous foes. There had pre-
viously occurred many favourable opportunities, from the weak-
ness of the Roman power in Britain, if the inhabitants had been
desirous of throwing off that “yoke,” which, in the effeminacy
of their pacific habits, they appear to have deemed necessary for
their safety.
In regard to that “deposition of the imperial magistrates,”
which is noticed by Mr. Turner, it must be recollected that these
officers were appointed by Constantine; and that the removal of
them was, therefore, far from indicating a determination not to
acknowledge allegiance to the lawful Emperor. It does not ap-
pear that we have any direct evidence of the defection of the
Britons; and, considering their peaceful habits; their dangerous
situation, in regard to surrounding warlike and hostile nations s
and their various motives for desiring a continued connexion with
a people supposed to be capable of affording protection, and to
whom they were attached from ties of intermarriage, and from a
long nurtured similarity of customs; the reader will, probably, con-
clude that they were abandoned to their affliction, rather than
that they seceded in triumph.
I must not, however, quit a subject on which I differ in opinion
124 . INTRODUCTION.
with so respectable an authority as the historian of the Anglo-
Saxons, without observing that Mr. Turner, in a subsequent
chapter, allows it to be possible that the statement of Gildas is
correct, if applied, not to South Britain at large, but merely to
particular districts. The following are the words in which he
admits this possibility:—“We can conceive, that when the
strength of the country was not directed to its protection, but
was wasted in civil conflicts, the hostilities of the Picts and
Scots may have met with much success; not opposed by the
ſorce of the whole island, but by the local power of the particular
civitas, or district invaded, they may have defeated the opposi-
tion, and desolated the land of the northern borders: with equal
success, from the same cause, the western regions of Britain may
have been plundered by the Scots, and the southern by the
Saxons. Some of the maritime states, abandoned by their more
powerful countrymen, may have sought the aid of Ætius, as
they afterwards accepted that of the Saxons; but we think the
account of Gildas applicable only to particular districts, and not
to the whole island.” -->
It is uniformly supposed, by writers best entitled to credit,
that the Romans finally quitted Britain in the year of the Chris-
tian aera 446; which was five hundred and one years after their
first descent upon the island, and four hundred and three years
after their first settlement in the country.f
From the above compendious view of the military operations
of the Romans in Britain, it will appear that their greatest diffi-
culties in effecting a settlement in this island, occurred in the
first stages of their ambitious enterprise. And, from this circum-
stance, it may be justly inferred, that their ultimate success de-
pended more on the efforts of mind than on the exercise of the
Sword.
It
s • Turner's Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. I. p. 86.
º * See some conclusive remarks on this subject in Whitaker's History of
Manchester, 4to, edit. Vol. II.; and Horsley's Britaunia Romana, p. 75.
ROMAN DIVISIONS OF BRIT AI N. 125
It is not expedient to enter, in this place, on the forms and
minute regulations of the government which the Romans esta-
blished in Britain; but it may be observed, that the leading
principle in their disposal of power throughout the provinces, as
in the parent-state, consisted in a union of the civil and military
authorities under one great executive head.
3. The Political Divisions of the Roman territories in Britain
demand more explicit notice.* .. § .
In the early steps of the Roman ascendancy in Britain, the
subdued parts were simply divided by the conquerors into two
districts, termed the Upper and the Lower. Antiquarian writers
(for to that class of authors the discussion of this subject is now
confined) differ as to the portions of the island comprehended in
those terms. Camden considers the higher part of Britain to
signify the southern, and the lower the northern; supposing the
line of demarkation to lie about the Humber, or Mersey. Mr.
Horsley reverses this plan, on the authority of Caesar, who ex-
pressly calls the southern the lower, Mr. Whitaker, in contra-
diction to both, asserts that “the true division is into eastern and
western, the legions at Caerleon and Chester being placed by
Dio in the higher Britain, and that at York in the lower; and Pliny
placing Ireland super Britanniam. Roman Britain,” Mr. Whit-
aker further observes, “is naturally broken into east and west;
a chain of hills running from the highlands of Scotland, and join-
ing to the peak of Derby, the moorlands of Staffordshire, Edge-
hill in Warwickshire, and the Chiltern in Buckinghamshire.”4.
I leave unnoticed the periods at which subdivisions occurred,
and the policy which dictated them; and present a statement
of the districts into which Britain was allotted by the Romans,
when in the plenitude of their power, in respect to this island.
3. Britain, when the Romans attained their utmost landmark of -
& 3. . . * - territory,
• Allusions to these are of frequent occurrence, in such pages of the
“Beauties of England and Wales,” as treat of the general history of parti-
cular districts, or counties. * * : . . . . . , & .
. . . . Hist, of Manchester, Vol. I. p. 98. (note.) . § 3. . . ;
126 % introduction.
territory, was divided into six provinces; but one of these (en-
titled Vespasiana) consisted of districts beyond the rampart of
Antoninus, and was held by an uncertain tenure, on account of
the refractory dispositions of the northern tribes. It was finally
relinquished by Caracalla. • * . . . . . . . . .
Roman-Britain, as to the parts which were subject to the en-
tire ascendant of the Romans, and were contentedly influenced by
their laws, and pervaded by their customs, was divided into five
provinces, which were thus named:
BRITANNIA PRIMA.
BRITANNIA Secund A.
Flavia (or Flavia Cesariensis.)
Maxima (or Maxima Cesariensis.)
VALENTIA.
Britannia Prima comprehended all the country that lies to the
south of the Thames, to the east of the Severn, and to the south
of a line drawn from Cricklade, or its vicinity, upon the one side,
to Berkeley, or its neighbourhood, on the other; and included,
according to Mr. Whitaker, “eleven nations of the Britons, and
contained about thirty-six stations.”—The following English
counties were comprised in this division of Roman-Britain:
Kent; Sussex; Surrey; Berks; Hants; Wilts; Dorset; Somer-
set; Devon; and Cornwall. . . .
Britannia Secunda consisted of the country beyond, or to the
west, of the rivers Severn and Dee; and contained three tribes
of the Britons, and about twenty stations.# The counties of
Hereford and Monmouth, and the whole of Cambria, or North
and South Wales, were comprehended in this province,
Flavia, or Flavia Caesariensis, comprised all the central
* . . . . . regions
• Hist. of Manchester, Vol. I. p. 92.
t For the number of original tribes and stations, presumed to have been in-
cluded in this province, I am indebted, as in the former instance, to Mr.
Whitaker, whose statements are founded on those of Richard of Cirencester,
Ro MAN Divisto NS OF BRIT Al N. 127
º -
regions of the island, being limited by the two above named pro-
vinces on the south and west, and by the rivers Humber, Don,
and Mersey, upon the north. It included, according to the his-
torian of Manchester, about eight tribes, and fifty stations. The
great extent of this province is best explained by an enumeration
of the counties into which it is now divided:--Middlesex; Essex;
Suffolk; Norfolk; Cambridge; Huntingdon ; Northampton;
Bedford; Herts; Buckingham; Oxford; Gloucester; Warwick;
Worcester; Stafford; Shropshire; Cheshire; Derby; Notting-
ham; Lincoln; Rutland; and Leicester.
Marima, (or Marima Caesariensis) was bounded by the two
seas on the east and west; by the wall of Severus on the north;
and by the rivers Humber, Don, and Mersey, on the south. It
comprised three tribes, and about thirty stations, besides the line
of forts at the wall.—Maxima is now divided into the counties
of Lancaster; York; Durham ; Westmoreland ; and Cumber-
land. :
Valentia comprehended the whole of the country between the
two walls, and contained five tribes, with ten stations. The only
parts of the province of Valentia that require notice, in a topo-
graphical survey of England and Wales, are the large and fine
district now denominated Northumberland, and a small portion
of Cumberland. : . . .
The Towns established by the Romans in Britain were divided
into four classes: Municipal; Colonial; towns under the Latian
law; and Stipendiary towns. tº
The Municipium ranked highest in the scale of civil privi.
leges, and was, indeed, favoured with a degree of freedom not
to be expected in the city of a conquered country, and which was
bestowed with a cautious hand, but with an exquisite refinement
of policy. The constituent character of this class of settlements
is satisfactorily ex pressed in the following excerpt:—“ Municipia
were towns whose inhabitants possessed, in general, all the
rights of Roman citizens, except those which could not be en-
joyed without an actual residence at Rome. They followed their
own laws and customs, and had the option of adopting or reject.
ing
128 1 N T R O DUCTION,
ing those of Rome.” It will be readily supposed that Muni--
cipia were chiefly occupied by Roman inhabitants. Two cities
of this description are mentioned by Richard: Verulamium (St.
Alban’s) and Eburacum (York.) .
It was the good policy of the Romans, to plant colonies in
every country successfully visited by their arms. These settle-
ments were of different kinds, each distinct class being entitled
to dissimilar rights and privileges; but we are destitute of infor-
mation concerning the rank occupied by those of our own country.
In regard to the general character, and beneficial tendency, of
such establishments, it has been observed, “that the soldiers
were thereby rendered more eager to make conquests, of which
they hoped to enjoy a share: the veterans were at once rewarded
for their past services at a very small expence, and engaged to
perform new services in defence of the state, in order to preserve
their own properties: the city of Rome, and other cities of Italy,
were relieved from time to time of their superfluous inhabitants,
who were dangerous at home but useful in the colonies: the
Roman language, laws, manners, and arts, were introduced into
the conquered countries, which were thereby improved and
adorned, as well as secured and defended.”f & 4
The first Roman colony in Britain, was fixed by Claudius at
Camulodunum (Colchester;) and eight others were subsequently
planted, at Richborough, London, Gloucester, Bath, Caerleon,
Cambridge, Lincoln, and Chester. It will be noticed that bodies
of colonized soldiery were, thus, carefully placed along the eastern
and western sides of the island. º
Ten cities under the Latian law are named by Richard of
Cirencester. In the valuable commentary on the work of Richard,
it is observed, that “the Latian law consisted of the privileges
- granted to the ancient inhabitants of Latium. These are not
c. * - - - - distinctly
* Rosini Antiq. Rom. b. x. c. 23, as quoted in Hatcher's edition of the
linerary, &c. of Richard of Cirencester. x ..
+ Henry's Hist, of Great Britain, Vol. I. p. 341.
Rox. AN Divisio Ns of BRITAIN. , 129
distinctly known; but appear principally to have been the right
of following their own laws, an exemption from the edicts of the
Roman Praetor, and the option of adopting the laws and customs
of Rome.” . < w %
The ten cities which are said by Richard to have been favoured
with the communication of the Jus Latii, are Durnomagus
(Castor on Nen) Cataractonis (Catteric) Cambodunum (Slack)
Coccium (Blackrode) Lugubalia (Carlisle) Ptorotone (Burg-
head) Victoria (Dealgin Ross) Theodosia (Dumbarton) Corinum
(Cirencester) Sorbiodunum (Old Sarum.) §
Stipendiary towns were such as paid their taxes in money, in
contradistinction from those which gave a certain portion of the
produce of the soil, and were called Vectigales.t. Richard enu-
merates twelve stipendiary towns: Venta Silurum (Caerwent)
Venta Belgarum (Winchester) Venta Icenorum (Castor, near
Norwich) Segontium (Caer Segont) Maridunum (Caermarthen)
Rata (Leicester) Cantiopolis (Canterbury) Durinum (Dorches-
ter) Isca ( Exeter) Bremenium (Riechester, Northumberland)
Windonum (possibly Egbury Camp, Hants) and Durobriva (Ro-
chester.) . . 3'-- .
Such were the classes into which the Romans divided their
towns in Britain; and the thirty-three instances of various kinds
given above, are mentioned by Richard of Cirencester, as those
which were most celebrated and conspicuous. - But he informs us
that the total number of important towns in Romanized Britain,
was not less than ninety-two; and there is reason to believe that
it was indeed much greater. Mr. Whitaker asserts that “ Bri-
tain, from the southern sea to the firths of Forth and Cluyd, at
the close of the first century, possessed a hundred and forty
towns in all.”f Richard expressly observes that he has comme-
morated only such as were greatly distinguished. . .
3: ; 3 : K The

* Hatcher's edit. of Richard of Cirencester, p.68. apud Rosini.
* Rosini, as quoted in the commentary on Richard of Cirencester, p. 69,
# Hist, of Manchester, vol. I. p. 322. . . & .33. . . . . . § 3 ;...& 3
130 - 1Ntroduction.
The progressive advantages derived by the Britons, from this
intermixture of population with their polished invaders, are un-
questionable, and truly splendid; although, as a nation, they
were subject to some humiliation and to many penalties. We
view, indeed, the progress of mind in every step of the conquer-
ing legions; and, whilst contemplating so attractive a picture,
subjugation itself loses all deformity of aspect.
Inspirited by the lessons of Roman industry, the inhabitants
even of deep inland districts now placed their neglected soil under
the operation of the plough; and so successful were the efforts
of agricultural labour, that Britain soon exported, annually,
large quantities of corn, and assisted greatly in supplying with
grain the Roman armies on the continent.
The manufacturing arts accompanied the cultivation of the Bri-
tish soil; and commerce received a new and powerful impulse.
Fresh ports were opened; and the Briton, aroused from the
slumber of sylvan inactivity, was instructed in the natural wealth
and mercantile capacities of his country. -
Induced, by precept and example, to prefer social interchange
to sullen and ferocious seclusion, he quitted by slow degrees his
gloomy embowered retreat, and entered on the joys and confi-
dence of busy congregation. The city arose on the site of dark
woodland huts; and the Briton was courted, even by his con-
querors, to become its inmate. º
The motive which suggested this persuasion towards urbanity,
might be merely political and selfish; but its instruments of
action were noble, for they consisted in a communication of such
arts as dignify life, and render society desirable, by exhibiting
its courtesies. . º
The Roman language, and its stores of literary treasure, were
imparted to the rude natives of Britain with sedulous care; and
thus, with an abruptness almost unprecedented in the annals of
nations, a profound ignorance of letters received, at once, the
illumination of the highest efforts of philosophy and correct taste.
With the literature of Italy was introduced a relish for the elegant
, , , indolence
RO MAN ID 1 W 1 S I O N S OF BRIT Al N. | Sl
indolence of the portico and the bath; a fondness for delicate at:
tire; and a love of those social parties in which eloquence, clas-
sical learning, and the graces of personal deportment, obtained
opportunities of exercise and distinction. ...: ' ' .
A transition so speedy resembles the change of scenery in his-
trionic exhibition. The Britons, indeed, by their quick adop-
tion of the refined notions of their conquerors, would appear to
have avoided the tedious process of many stages usual with the
cultivation of the human mind; and to have passed, at once,
from the gloom of barbarous life to a familiarity with that standard
mass of lettered intelligence, which forms the proudest acquisi-
tion of the scholar at the present day. .
These rapid improvements in art and science, were necessarily
productive of a striking change in the general face of the coun-
try. Large tracts were cleared of their unprofitable burthen of
thickly matted trees; and the increasing towns and villages were
rendered easy of communication by lines of solid road, formed in
attention to the principle of those great military highways, which,
under the guidance of the Romans, intersected the island in vari-
ous directions, and which will shortly meet with particular notice,
as the most distinguished vestiges of this important era. It will
be readily supposed that the domestic architecture introduced by
the Romans communicated hints for improvement in the British
style of building; whilst public edifices for legislative purposes
now first adorned the cities of the Britons. . x
With the familiar customs of the Romans was adopted, by a
great part of the conquered inhabitants of this island, their sys-
tem of theology; and the vast circular temple, placed deeply in
the mysterious sanctity of thick woods, was now abandoned for
temples of hewn stone, situated in the midst of towns, and deco-
rated with sculptured devices. This first remove from an ex- .
treme rudeness of divine worship, was quickly succeeded by the
introduction of Christianity. The enlightening beams of this
beneficent religion were communicated to Britain, according to
the opinions of those who have most attentively considered the
182 Introduction.
subject, before the close of the first century. Their diffusion,
however, was gradual; and the poverty of the early Christians
debarred them from adorning the country with edifices propor-
tioned in splendour to their religious zeal. The chief, or, per-
haps, the only tangible religious relics of this era, which have
descended to the present day, are connected with the votive piety
of heathen Rome.
ROMAN ANtiquities IN BRITAIN."
Roman stations, AND CAMPs of various KINDs.—Inde-
pendant of a consideration of their roads, the most important
vestiges
* The contents of the map which accompanies this section of our work, are
briefly explained by a table of references. In that table it is shewn that each
of the Roman roads mentioned in the Itinerary of Richard of Cirencester,
together with numerous recent discoveries of roads not noticed either by
Richard or Antonine, are laid down, and expressed by lines of a different
character and colour. A reference is, also, afforded to such Stations as
are mentioned by Richard; and to many stations, and camps, not noticed by
that useful writer. The whole is the result of actual investigation, chiefly
made by the Rev. Thomas Leman, to whom this work is indebted for a con-
tribution of the original drawing, containing such discoveries as have been
made since the appearance of Mr. Hatcher's edition of Richard of Ciren-
cester. . . . . . . .
It is confidently presumed that a satisfactory view is thus presented of such
vestiges of Romanized Britain, as have been ascertained to exist, at the pre-
sent day, by positive local examination. .
sº In addition to the explanation contained in the table of reference, it is
necessary to present an enumeration of the stations laid down in the map ;
and to attach to each its Roman name, according to the opinion of the anti-
quary by whom the design for the map is contributed. … . . . . . . . . .
I first enumerate the stations mentioned by Richard of Cirencester; and
. subsequently, present an enumeration of such stations and camps as are not
mentioned by Richard;—prefixing to each the figure by which it is corres-
. pondently denoted in the body of the map. But it will be observed (as is
explained in the table of reference) that the stations mentioned by Richard
are marked, in the map, with Italic figure; whilst those not mentioned by




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rom AN ANtiguities in Britain.
13s
vestiges of the Romans consist in the remains of their casirame-
tations, which are seen in many parts of this island, and curiously
K 3
vary
Richard (and to which, in the following list, are prefixed Roman characters.)
are designated, in the map, by Upright, or Print figures. The last mentioned
list is classed in counties, ranged alphabetically, in attention to the plan
adopted in describing counties in the Beauties of England and Wales.
Stations mentioned by Richard of Cirencester.
1 Rhutupis, Richborough
2 Durovernum, Canterbury
3 Durosevum, Ospring
4. Durobriva, Rochester
5 Londinium, London
6 Sulomagus, Brockley hill,
7 Verulamium, Verulam
8 Forum Diana, Dunstable
9 Magiovinium, near Fenny Strat-
10 Lactorodum, Towcester
11 Isanta Varia, Burntwalls
12 Tripontium, near Lilburn
13 Benonis, High Cross .
14 Manduessedum, Manceter
15 Etocetum, Wall
16 Pennocrucium, on the Peak
17 Uxaconium, Red hill, Okenyate
18 Uriconium, Wroxeter
19 Banchorium, Banchor
20 Deva, Chester
21 Varis, near Pont Ryffin
22 Conovium, Cuer Hán
23 Segontium, Caer Segont
24 Hereri Mons, Tommen Y Mur
25 Mediolanum, Clawdd Goch
26 Rutunium, Rowton
27 Durositum, near Rumford
28 Cesaromagus, near Chelmsford
* Canonium, near Kelvedon
mulodunum, Colchester
31 Sturius Amnis, on the Stour :
32 Cambretonium
33 Sitomagus
34 Venta Cenom, Castor near Nor-
wich
35 Camboricum, Cambridge
36 Durolispons, Godmanchester
37 Durnomagus, Castor 2:
38 Isinnis, Ancaster
39 Lindum, Lincoln
40 Argolicum, Littleborough
41 Danum, Doncaster
42 Legiolium, Castleford
43 Eburacum, York
44 Isurium, Aldborough
45 Cattaracton, Catterick
46 Ad Tisam, Pierce Bridge
47 Vinovium, Binchester
48 Epiacum, Lanchester
49 Ad Murum, Halton Chester
50 Alauna Amnis, on the Coquet
51 Tueda Flumen, on the Tweed
52 Ad Vallum, The Wall
54 Ad fines, Chew Green .
55 Bremenium, Riechester
56 Corstopitum, Corbridge
57 Windomora, Ebchester
58 Derventio, near Stamford bridge
mºrough head






134
* . . -
introduction.
vary in strength, and care of construction, from the temporary
earth-work thrown up in haste, and perhaps within sight of the
enemy,
61 Calcaria, Tadcaster
62 Cambodunum, Slack
63 AIancunium, Manchester .
64 Fines Maxima et Flavie, Stret- -
ford .
65 Condate, Kinderton
66 Portus Sistuntiorum, Freckleton
67 Rerigonium, Ribchester
68 Alpes Peninos, Burrens
69 Alicana, Ilkley
70 Lataris, Bowes
71 Wataris, Brough
72 Brovonacis, Kirby Thur
73 Worreda, Plumpton Wull
74 Luguballia, Carlisle
75 Trimontium, Birrenswork hill
76 Gadanica
77 Corium
78 Alauna, Kier
79 Lindum, Ardoch .
80 Vittoria, Dealgin Ross
81 Ad Hiernam, Strageth
82 Orrea, on the Tay above Perth
83 Ad Tavum, neur Jnvergowrie
84 Ad AEsicam, Brechin on South
Esk s a
35 Ad Tinam, Fordun
86 Devana, Norman Dykes
87 Ad Itunam, Glentmailin on the
Ithun - -- - - -
88 Ad Montem Grampium, near
Knock hill < .
89 Ad Selinam, on the Cullen, near
Deskford *
90 Tuessis, on the Spey, near Rellie
9. Ptorolone, Burgh head ||
|
!
120 Cunetio, Fully farm, near Murl-
123 Bibracte
--- 92 Varis, Fores x
93 Ad Tuessim, Crondall on Spey
94 Tamea, Braemar castle
95 Barra castle on lla
96 In Medio, Inchstuthill
97 Brocavinocis, Brougham
98 Ad Alaunam, Lancaster
99 Coccium, Blackrode
100 Mediolanum, Chesterton
101 Salinae, Droitwich
102 Glevum, Gloucester
103 Corinum, Cirencester
104 Aquae Sulis, Bath
105 Ad Aquas, probably Wells
106 Ad Uxellam, probably Bridge-
*. water -
107 Isca, Eaeter
108 Ad Abonam, Bitton
109 Ad Sabrinam, Sea Mills
110 Statio Trajectus, Severn side
111 Venta Silurum, Caerwent
112 Isca Colonia, Caerleon
113 Tibia Amnis, on the Taaf
114 Bovium, Ewenny
115 Nidum, Neath
} 116 Leucarum, perhaps Lughor
117 Ad Vigesimum, Castle Flemish
118. Ad Menapiam, St. David's
119 Verlucio, Highfield near Sandy
lane ->
borough
121 Spinae, Spene
12% Calleba, Silchester
1x4
ultrum, Usk . . -
*º 125 Gobannium,





Rom AN ANT19 ulties N BRITAIN.
135
enemy, to the regular station, guarded by walls which have, in
some instances, proved triumphant over the assault of more than
K 4
sixteen
125 Gobannium, Abergavenny
126 Magna, Kentchester
127 Branogenium, near Lentwardine
128 Blestium, Monmouth
129 Sariconium, Berry hill
130 Ad Antonam, on the Avon
131 Alauna, Alcester .
132 —— Chesterton
133 Ratis, Leicester
134 Venroinentum, Willoughby
135 Margidunum, Eust Bridgeford
136 Ad Pontein, near Thorpe
137 Crococolana, Brugh
138 Windomis, near St. Mary Bourne
139 Wenta Belgarum, Winchester
140 Ad Lapidem, Stoneham
141 Clausentum, Bittern, near South-
ampton
142 Portus Magnus, Portchester
143 Regnum, Chichester
144 Ad Decimum, on the Arun
145 Anderida Portus, Pevensey
146 Ad Lemanum, on the Rother
147 Lemanianus Portus, Lymne
148 Dubrae, Dover
149 Regulbium, Reculver
150 Madus, on the Medway
151 Wagnaca, Barkfields in South-
fleet ź . . X.
152 Noviomagus, Halwood hill
153 Brige, near Broughton
154 Sorbiodunum, Old Sarum
155 Venta Geladia, Gussage Cow
Down
156 Durnovaria, Dorchester
157 Moridunum, Seaton
158 Durius Amnis, on the Dart
159 Tamara, on the Tamair
160 Voluba, on the Fowey.
161 Coenia, on the Fal
162 Sylva Anderida, East Bourne
163 Ad Fines, Brougham
164 In Medio
165 Ad Abum, Winterton
166 Ad Petuariam, Brough
167 Ad Fines, Temple Brough on the
. Don &
168 ——Tapton hill, near Ches-
terfield 23.
169 near Penkridge
170 Derventio, Little Chester
171 Ad Trivouan, Berry farm in
Branston 3 : *
172 Brinavis, Black Ground neur
Chipping Norton
173 Ælia Castra, Alcester, Oxford-
shire
174 Dorocina, Dorchester, Oxford-
shire
175 Tamesis, on the Thames
Stations and Camps, not mentioned by Richard of Cirencester.
Bedfordshire
I Sandy
Berkshire,
II Lawrence Waltham
III Roundabout, near Bagshot
| W Shelford
r Buckinghamshire.
IV Chipping Wycombe
Cambridgeshire.
ntroduction.
t --
sixteen centuries.—The remains of these places of defence are of
such high antiquarian interest, and are so frequently noticed in
- Cornwall.
VI Bossens, in St. Erth
VII near Stratton
Cumberland.
vill at Moresby
IX - – Ellenborough
X — Pap Castle
XI — Old Carlisle
XII – Whitbarrow
XIII Bew Castle
XIV Netherby
xv Liddle Mount #
XVI at Castlesteeds, in Cas-
the Sowerby
XVII
- Mawbrugh
XVIII – Ponsonby
X1X – Whitestones
XX. - Eskmeal
XXI - Cuningarth
XXII — Kirkland
XXIII — Hardknot
- Bainscar
xxiv.
§ Derbyshire.
- XXV Buxton.
XXVI Brugh
XXVII, Melendra Castle
XXVIII at Parwick
XXIX — Chesterfield
XXX – Pentrich
XXXI Countesbury - - - -
XXXII Hembury Fort
º – º
Dorsetshire.
XXXIII Isle of Portland
XXXIV St. Anne's hill, west of
Christchurch
XXXV Poundbury
XLII
XLVII
º L Newton
| LVIII Taeborough
almost
*...*
* Durham.
xxxvi South Shields
XXXVII Chester le Street
Esser.
XXXVIII near Sturmere
XXXIX Dunmow.
XL Chesterford
XLI Harwich -
On the Blackwater
Gloucestershire.
XLIII Bourton on the water
XLIV Dornton -
XLV Lydney
XLVI near Cross-hands
near Dowdeswell
- Hampshire.
XLVIII Buckland, near Lymington
Herefordshire.
XLIX Brandon camp, near Lent-
wardine .
Huntingdonshire
Lancashire.
LI Colne .
LII Overborough
LIII near Rochdale
Leicestershire.
LIV Medbourn
Lv Ratby
Lincolnshire.
LVI Ludford
LVII Horncastle
LIX Caistor



Roman ANT19 Ulti ES 1 N BRITAIN.
137
% near Lawshall
almost every volume of the “Beauties of England and Wales,”
that it appears desirable to present a comprehensive view of the
modes
LIX Caistor -
LX. Brancaster
LXI Castle Acre
Northamptonshire.
LXII Irchester
LXIII Wadenhoe
LXIV Cottestock
LXV Woodford
LXVI Cotton Mill
Northumberland.
LXVII whitley Castle
LXVIII
on the river Reed
Nottinghamshire.
LXIX Southwell
LXX Combs
Oxfordshire. ,
LXXI Stonefield
Rutland.
LXXII Brig Casterton
Shropshire.
LXXIII Chesterton
Somersetshire.
LXXIV Ilchester (Ischalis)
LXXV near Burrington
Staffordshire.
LXXVI Rocester
Suffolk.
IXXVII Ixworth º
LXXVIII Icklingham
LXXIX Burgh Castle
LXXX Creeting
LXXXII
| LXXXV
Sussex.
LXXXIII Rowlands Castle
LXXXIV near Pulborough
near Portslade
Westmorland.
LXXXVI watercrook
LXXXVII Ambleside
Wiltshire. ; ,
LXXXVIII Woodyates Inn
LXXXIX Wanborough Nythe
XC Easton Grey
Worcestershire.
XCI Worcester
- Yorkshire.
XCII At Addle
XCIII Maiden Castle, on Stain.
In OTC
XCIV near Pickering
xcv —— Whitby
xcVI — Askrig
wars.
XCVII Holyhead, Isle of Anglesey
XCVIII near Beaumaris,
Anglesey * . . . .
XCIX C. Gai, near Bala, Merion-
ethshire -
C Penalt, near Machynlleth
CI Caer Sws, Montgomeryshire
CII Guer, near Montgomery
CIII Flint x
CIW Caergwrle, Flintshire
CW Holt, Denbighshire
CVI. On the Y than, Radnorshire * -
CVII Llanio-isau, Cardiganshire
CVIII Llanvair-ar-y-brin, Caermar-
thenshire
QIX Gaer,
138 12NTRODUCTION.
modes of constructing and occupying a fortress amongst the
Romans, together with many other particulars, calculated to
convey clear ideas of the character and history of Roman stations
in Britain. z * 2.
The term Station applies to such castra stativa, or fixed
camps, as were used for the permanent quarters of detachments
of the Roman forces. Horsley observes, “ that the word statio
is used in Caesar, Tacitus, and other good writers, for the duty
of soldiers upon guard, or for the men that were employed in this
duty. But, in the later times, it is, by a metonymy, applied
to the fort, or place, where the soldiers lodged, or were on their
duty.” This mode of confining the meaning of the word to a
fortress, instead of extending it to a town, as is usual with many
writers, is approved by Mr. Reynolds (Introduction to the Itine-
rary of Antoninus, p. 9.) But an indistinctness in the reception
of the term appears still to prevail. It is certain that, in some
instances, the castrametation remained peculiarly appropriated to
the troops in garrison, while a town, in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the fortress, was gradually formed by the buildings
raised for the purposes of traffic and security. But, in many
other examples, the stationary castrum itself afforded a place of
residence to the trader who sought commerce and protection from
the military; and thus, in itself, became a town or city.—It
. § seems
CIX Gaer. near Brecon CXVII Walwick Chesters
CX Cwm du, Brecknockshire CXVIII Carrowbrugh
CxI near Newcastle, Caer- CXIX House-steeds
. marthenshire . CXX Little Chesters
**a-- ~~~ r"----- . , CXXI Great Chesters
Stations and Camps, on, and ºxxiſ.”
near, the walls of Antonine cxxiii purgeºid
and Severus. CXXIV Cambeckfort
CXII Cousins house CXXV Watchcross
CXIIl Newcastle | CXXVI Stanwick
-CXIV Benwel hill CXXVII Burgh .
CXV Rutchester CXXVIII Drumburgh
CXVI Halton Chesters CXXIX Boulness

ro MAN ANTIQUITI E's 1N BRITAIN. 139
*
seems probable that such intermingled circumstances of inhabita-
tion, within the walls of a fortress, chiefly occurred in camps like
Silchester, formed on the spacious, but irregular, site of a Bri-
tish settlement. 3
It is well known that the Romans, in all their wars, were par-
ticularly careful, and evinced great judgment, in the choice of
the site on which they encamped their troops. The skill with
which they improved on the natural strength of the situation
chosen on these occasions, is sufficiently evident from the se-
curity with which their armies reposed, in the interior of so many
hostile countries. -
The Roman camps are usually divided into two classes; Castra
hyberna, and Castra aestiva. The former, which were merely,
in the first instance, designed for the winter quarters of the in-
vading army, were often adopted as stationary, or garrison, posts,
when the district in which they were situated became tributary.
These were sometimes placed on the site of British settlements;
in which case, the irregularity of form that prevailed amongst the
Britons, who chiefly looked to natural advantages for the attain-
ment of local strength, was preserved by the more scientific
Romans.” But, in camps originally laid out by themselves, the
figure was, almost invariably, square or oblong; sometimes
having the augles obtuse, or rounded off. When a deviation oc-
curs from this form of castrametation, the cause will be obvious,
in some very peculiar circumstance of natural strength, or con-
venience, which is gained by the partial sacrifice of regularity.
º . - In
* It is observed by Mr. Whitaker (Hist, of Manchester, Vol. I. p. 44.)
that the fact of Roman towns being frequently placed on the site of British
fortresses, “ is abundantly shewn by the British names of the stations in the
Roman Itineraries; near three fourths of the stations bearing British names,
and thereby evincing themselves to be erected upon the sites of British for-
tresses. The latter were generally planted upon such ground as an intimate
knowledge of the country recommended; and such, therefore, as the policy
of the Romans could not but approve.”—Instances of irregularity of form,
obviously arising from the adoption of a British site by the Romans, may
be noticed in Silchester, Kentchester, Bath, Canterbury, &e.
140 . INTRODUCTION,
In respect to the usual character of the site chosen for Roman
encampments, the following remarks of Horsley may be received
as satisfactory: “There is nothing that the Romans seem to
have had a greater regard to, than the convenience of a river,
and perhaps, too, the additional strength which it afforded. For
the benefit of the meridian sun, which they must need who came
from so much warmer a climate, they usually had their stations
and outbuildings on the north side of the rivers, and on a gentle
declivity. In some instances they chose higher ground, for dry-
ness and prospect. And, as oft as they could, they seem willing
to have joined these together.” *: .
From these circumstances of configuration and locality of site,
the Roman camp, as to its general character, may be readily
distinguished from that of the other nations connected, in a mili-
tary capacity, with this island. In a subsequent page it will be
shewn that the castrametations formed by the Romans were fre-
quently adopted, and altered, by the different invading powers
which succeeded that people in an ascendancy over the British.
But, still, the remains of Roman castra, free from marks of
innovation, and venerable in the ruinous character imparted by
abandonment and time only, occur in nearly every part of Bri-
tain.-The antiquary regards them with curious attention; nor
are the pleasures of such a contemplation confined to him who
values the relics of other days, merely because they are antiqui-
ties. The splendour of Roman story has awakened many of the
nobler sensations in the mind of the general student. It became
familiar with us in the class books of our boyhood, and mixed
with our early sympathies. There are few who view, for the
first time, a castrametation assuredly Roman, without a thrill of
exquisite pleasure at beholding, free from the necessity of foreign
travel, a memorial of the people who spread civilization in the
same progress with victory, and bestowed a knowledge of the
• Horsley. Brit. Rom, p. 109–110.
Rom AN ANT19 ulties 1N BRIT AIN. 141
useful and elegant arts, as a compensation for the severities in-
flicted by their arms. -
The following extract of Josephus may not be unacceptable to
the ardent views of such an examiner, since it traces the cas-
trum of the Romans, even to the halt of the legion which might
form an intrenchment for the security of a Cesar, or an Agri-
cola, in the repose of adventurous marches.-It, indeed, peo-
ples to the imagination such extensive works, now dreary, and
overgrown with wild shrubs or moss; and conveys, in vivid
imagery, distinct notions of the general bustle which prevailed
at taking possession of the camp, and of the excellent order with
which affairs were afterwards disposed: . &
“As soon as the Romans have marched into an enemy’s land,
they do not begin to fight, till they have walled their camp
about; nor is the fence they raise, rashly made, or uneven.
Nor do they all abide in it: nor do those that are in it take
their places at random. If it happens that the ground is uneven,
it is first levelled. Their camp is square by measure; and car-
penters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect
their buildings for them. . . .
“As for what is within the camp, it is set apart for tents;
but the outward circumference hath the resemblance to a wall;
and is adorned with towers at equal distances; whilst, between
the towers, stand the engines for throwing arrows, and darts,
and for slinging stones; and there they lay all other engines
that can annoy the enemy, all ready for their several opera-
“They also erect four gates, one at every side of the circum-
ference; and those large enough for the entrance of beasts, and
wide enough for making excursions, if occasion should require.
They divide the camp within into streets, very conveniently;
and place the tents of the commanders in the middle: but, in
the midst of all, is the General’s own tent, in the nature of a
temple. x. -
“In short, the whole appears to be a city, built on a sudden;
§: . - with
142 . 1NTRO DUCTION.
with its market place, and place for handicraft trades; and with
seats (or stations) for the officers, superior and inferior: where,
if any differences arise, their causes are heard and determined.
“The camp, and all that is in it, is encompassed with a wall;
and that sooner than one would imagine;—by the multitude and
the skill of the labourers. And a trench is drawn round the
whole, whose depth is four cubits, (i.e. six feet,) and its breadth
equal. .
“ They live together in the camp, by companies. And each
company hath its wood, and corn, and water, brought to it as is
needful. And they neither sup nor dine as they please them-
selves singly; but all together. . &
“When they are to go out of their camp, the trumpet gives
a sound: and instantly they take down their tents, and all is
made ready for their march. When the trumpet sounds again,
they lay their baggage suddenly upon their mules, and other
beasts of burden, and stand as at a place of starting, ready to
march. At the same time setting fire to their camp.—And when
the trumpet sounds a third time, a crier, standing at the Gene-
ral’s right hand, asks them thrice, whether they are ready. On
which they, all lifting up their right hands, answer, we are
ready; and march forth directly, without noise, and keeping
their ranks.”*
In addition to the lively, but general, terms of the above de-
scription, it is desirable to examine into the particular arrange-
ment of the Roman camps; and to complete, as far as may be
practicable, the mournful pleasure arising from a contemplation
of such ruined works, by stating the modes in which the out-
lines were fortified, and the interior divided and occupied.
The regular and great stationary camp was encompassed by
• º - a lofty
* King, apud Josephus de Bello Jud. lib, III, cap. 5 sec. 1, 2, 3,4, and 5.
It will be obvious that this description more immediately applies to the tem-
porary camps formed by the Romans on their marches; but it elucidates,
in a curious and satisfactory manner, many of the operations usual with them
in the general commencement of military works. #
Rom AN ANT19 UITIES IN BRIT Al N. 143
a lofty and massive wall, composed of stone, or of mingled stone,
flint, and brick; and was further defended by a deep single, or
double fosse. A correct idea of the general character of the wall
surrounding such a castrum, may be formed from the following
notice of a portion still remaining at Richborough, in Kent,
one of the best preserved, and most curious, of these military
vestiges: “On approaching the ruins the eye is struck with the
magnificent appearance of the north-eastern wall, which is, on
the outside, in some parts near 30 feet high from the ground,
and in many others about 23. Its thickness at bottom is in gene-
ral from 11 to 12 feet; but it is, in some parts, even 13 feet.
A manifest proof that they did not, in those days, build by so
regular and exact a rule as has been the custom in modern times.”
Its contents, also, are a proof of the same fact:—For it is con-
structed, indeed, of regular facings of alternate rows of squared
stone and brick on the two outside surfaces; but, within, be-
tween these two uprights, it is composed merely of chalk, rub-
ble, and flints, flung in carelessly, with cement, or mortar,
spread over them at proper distances, so as to sink into the whole
mass; in which respect it exactly resembles walls constructed by
the Romans in many other places. .
“ The outside of this wall is very beautiful to the eye, as well
as magnificent. It is composed (as far as now remains) in gene-
ral, of seven great and fair distinct rows of stone, each of them
very nearly four feet thick:—and each of them consisting, in
general, of seven courses of separate stones. *
“ These great courses of stone are separated from each other
by six smaller courses of bricks, composed each merely of a dou-
ble row of bricks, that are about an inch and a half, or an inch
and three quarters in thickness, but are of very different breadths,
from eight inches to a foot; and of very different lengths, some
being fourteen, some sixteen inches long, and some seventeen
and
* It may be observed that the Romans were quite neglectful of minute
Precision in disposing the form and lines of their camps. The sides are often
of an unequal length; and not straight, or set square.
144 INTRODUCTION.
and an half. A variation of dimensions to be met with in other
Roman structures.—In the old wall of Verulam was a brick very
nearly two feet in length; and there is one at Dover near three
feet in length.”* - - - * * . . .3
On the line of massy wall by which the camps were enclosed,
are sometimes discovered the foundations, or remains, of circular
towers. These frequently occur at the angles, or on each side
of the gate. But it may be observed that the towers usually ap-
pear to have been added to the walls after their first erection;
and it is probable that the generality of Roman stations in Bri-
tain were originally constructed without such means of defence.
The number, position, and names of the Gates of Roman
camps are indistinctly stated by ancient writers; and this want
of perspicuity has given rise to considerable differences of opi-
nion amongst the moderns.t. In number they appear to have
been four: the Praetorian gate, which was situated in the front.
- - 2. of
* Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. II. p. 6—7–8. It will be recollected that
Roman bricks vary in composition as well as in dimensions. The colour of
some is a fine deep red, throughout the whole substance; and these, per-
haps, are the most prevalent. Others are red only on the outside, and ex-
hibit a less valuable blue material within. Some are yellow. It is observed
that the clay of which they are composed is generally found to be finely tem-
pered, and well kneaded and burnt. A table, shewing various sizes of
Roman bricks discovered in this country, according to the respective state-
ments of several modern anthors, is given in Archaeologia, Vol. II. p. 185.
+ In the following view of the arrangement of a Roman camp, I have
adopted the outline of General Roy, so well known as an experienced engi-
neer and judicious antiquarian writer. For opinions directly in opposition
to this received plan, the reader is referred to Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. II.
p. 13; 143, &c. The whole subject is, indeed, obscure ; and is even yet
. quite open to discussion. In prefacing his plan of a Roman camp, as pre-
sented in the “Military Antiquities,” General Roy observes, “that, as
- Polybius is silent with regard to the number, names, and situation of the
gates, recourse has been had to Livy and Vegetius; and the plan accord-
ingly formed in the manner that seemed most consistent with what all the
three have related of it." Mil. Antiquities, p. 46. - -
Ro MAN ANT19 U1tles IN BRITAIN. 145
of the camp; the Decuman gate, which was on the opposite
side to the Praetorian, and derived its name from its width, or .
capacity of allowing ten men to march through it abreast;" and
the two Principal gates, which were situated one on each side
of the oblong encampment, and were not of equal importance with
the Decuman, but probably derived their name from their situa-
tion at the extremities of the principal street of the camp.
The camp, thus formed in outline, and entered by four conve-
nient gates, was internally arranged with great judgment and
care. The accounts handed down by Polybius, and other con-
temporary historians, have been discussed, with some difference
of view, but with equal zeal and industry, by General Roy and
by Mr. King. From the digested statements of these writers,
compared with each other, and elucidated by appeals to their au-
thorities, may be presented, with a confident probability of accu-
racy, the following particulars. -
When the outlines were complete, the standard, or eagle, was
raised on the spot chosen by the General as the site of his tent;
which was usually placed on the highest ground, for the purpose
of convenient inspection and command. The staff of the standard
was the ruling point of admeasurement; and around it was marked
off a square piece of ground, assigned for the occupation of the
consul, or general, and styled the Praetorium, from the Latin
custom of bestowing the title of Praetor on general officers. Ac-
cording to General Roy, each side of this square space was two
hundred feet, or one hundred feet from the centre; but Mr. King
contends, and with considerable force of argument, that the
L - . Pretorium
* Such appears to be the fact, in the opinion of the majority of writers.
General Roy (Military Antiquities, p. 50.) supposes, on the contrary, that
the Decuman Gate acquired its name from the circumstance of the offenders
being led through it for punishment, when any particular corps, or number
of soldiers, was decimated, or punished in the instance of every tenth man,
in consequence of misbehaviour in the field, or other disorderly conduct.
* Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain; and Munimenta Anti-
qua, Vol. II, .” 3 . *...* . . ... . . ;
HA6 . INTRO Duction.
Praetorium was, in fact, four hundred feet square. The Praeto-
rium contained the consul’s tent, with a neighbouring Sacellum,
and Augurale;” and a parade, or court, for the assembling of
the officers. In forming it, particular care was taken that the
four sides should be parallel to the front, rear, and two flanks of
the camp. # §§ r
A line was then drawn before the Praetorium, and parallel to
it, at the distance of fifty feet, running entirely across the camp.
Within this boundary, to the right and left of the Praetorium,
were placed the tents of the twelve tribunes, six on each side;
the space between their tents being occupied by their horses and
attendants. Beyond the tribunes, and equally divided on each
side, were placed the tents of the twelve praefects of the allies.
The tents of all these officers were so pitched, as to have the
main body of the legions in their front.
Beyond this line, or, rather, beyond the fronts of the above
tents, at the distance of one hundred feet, was drawn another
Hine, to the whole breadth of the camp; and the interval between
both, formed the chief street of the camp (called Principia, or
Principalis) having the principal gates at its two extremities.
This street was levelled with great care; and here the whole
army was mustered previous to a march.
Leading in a straight direction, from the central point of the
front of the Praetorium through the body of the camp, was con-
structed another street, fifty feet in width. On the sides of this
street were placed the Roman cavalry; those of the first, or
eldest, legion being on the right, and those of the second, or
3. youngest,
" It is curious to observe that, in numerous instances, a Christian church
is found to have been erected on, or near, that part of the site of Roman
camps formerly occupied by the Praetorium, and probably engrossing more
particularly the portion once appropriated to Pagan rites of worship. The
first Cathedral of St. Paul's in London, “ was built nearly on the spot where
must have been the Roman Praetorian camp; and this has continued to be
the situation of all the three succeeding Metropolitan fabrics, to the preseas
time.” Parentalia, p. 271. . .
Ro MAN ANT19 UIT I E's 1N BRIT A1 N. 147
youngest, on the left. Each troop occupied a space one hun-
dred feet in breadth, and extending one hundred feet along the
street; and every maniple of foot (that part of the army being
encamped directly behind the cavalry) was, likewise, allowed one
hundred feet in length for its accommodation, reckoning by the
line of the principal street.
At the distance of five hundred feet (the space occupied by
five troops, or maniples) from the Principia, ran, parallel with
that great thoroughfare, a street fifty feet in width, which
stretched across the whole encampment, and was called Quintana.
Beyond this intersecting way, were placed the other five troops
and maniples; and their last line formed the extremity of the
camp. . 3. -
On the right and left of the Triarii (the veteran foot, en-
camped behind the cavalry of their respective legions) two streets,
each fifty feet broad, extended from the principia to the front of
the camp, or that part most distant from the Pratorium.” On
L 2 zº s' the
* So indistinctly known are many particulars concerning the Roman art of
castrametation, that modern writers differ in opinion as to which must be
termed the front, and which the rear of the camp.–In defence of the plan
adopted above, General Roy (Military Antiquities, p. 47.) presents the fol-
lowing, among other remarks:– > -
“With respect to the front of the camp, Polybius expressly says that the
tents of the tribunes were pitched so as to have the praetorium behind, and
all the rest of the camp, that is to say the whole body of the army, before
them; on which account that side where the legions were placed, was called
the front. In tracing the five direct streets, he says that they began at that
space, of one hundred feet in breadth; before the tents of the tribunes (the
principal street) and ended at what was called the front of the camp. In
assigning the quarters for the extraordinary foot, he tells us that they were
placed behind the extraordinary cavalry, fronting towards the intrenchment
and rear of the camp. From all which, it is very plain that Polybius under-
stood that side to be the front of the camp, where the bodies of the legions
were placed, and that opposite to it, behind the praetorium, quaestorium, &c.
to be the rear.” * - . ... . . . . .
This opinion of General Roy is strongly coutroverted by Mr. King (Muni-
* - Inenta,
148 introduction.
the sides of these streets were placed the Principes, who were
double in number to the Triarii, and had, therefore, a space
allowed them, one hundred feet in breadth as well as in length.
On the right and left of the Principes, looking outwards, were
stationed the Hastati, who being of the same numbers were al-
lowed the same extent of ground. This latter division of the
army fronted two other, and more outward, streets; each being
fifty feet broad, and running to the whole length of the encamp-
nient. .
On the opposite sides of the above streets, were quartered the
cavalry of the allies. These are well known to have been thrice
the number of the Roman cavalry; but, as one-third part of them
was stationed near the Praetorium, there remained, on each side,
no more than six hundred of the allied horse, who appear to
have been usually encamped in double maniples; and to each
division occupied by them two hundred feet in depth was, there-
fore, appropriated. . %
Contiguous to their own cavalry, but with their front towards
the vallum, or rampart, of the intrenchment, were stationed the
allied foot;" who were equal in number to the Romans; but, as
Oile
menta Antiq, Vol. II, p. 14, 15, note ;) but, although he offers some inge-
nious comments on the mode in which the General renders Polybius, and on
some instances of ancient history which he adduces in illustration of his argu-
Fuents, the reader will, probably, remain unshaken in an adherence to the
former writer, if he carefully examine the authorities on which the argument
must definitively rest.—It is curiously observed by General Roy (p. 50, of
the same section which contains the above extract) that, “So much of the
Roman method is yet retained by all nations, that, in encamping their troops,
the private men are constantly placed in the front; behind them the subal-
terns; then the captains; and, in the rear of these, the field officers.”
* According to General Roy, the horse and foot of the allies were en-
camped back to back, without any intervening street. Mr. King, on the
contrary, supposes that a regular street, 50 ſeet in breadth, was formed be-
tween these bodies of troops on either wing. Thus, the former writer, makes.
five streets only to have passed through the camp, from front to rear; while,
* . lſº
Ro MAN ANTIQUIT I Its IN BRITA IN. 149
one fifth part of them (together with the above-named portion of
the horse) was encamped near the Praetorium, they had no more
than the breadth of two hundred feet allowed them in this place.
And it is evident, that such a space was just equal to that allowed
to the Hastati, and Principes, of the Roman legions. At the
head of their respective troops and maniples, were placed the
tents of the centurions, which tents faced the streets. .
Having thus disposed of the area to the front of the Praetorium,
it remains to notice the distribution of ground on the right, left,
and rear of that part of the camp.
It is plainly evinced by the description of Polybius, that im-
mediately behind the Praetorium ran a street 100 feet broad,
which proceeded entirely across the camp, and was parallel with
the tents of the Tribunes. Between this street and the Tribunes'
tents, it is evident that there was a space of the same breadth with
the Praetorium, ou each side; and it appears that those spaces
were occupied in the following manner. On one side was formed
an area, termed the Market-place by some writers; but, perhaps,
with more propriety, styled the Forum by others; for we are
certainly to consider this area as the place in which public busi-
ness was transacted and justice administered, rather than as a
mart for the disposal of edible articles. On the opposite side of
the Praetorium, was a quarter assigned to the Quaestor; and near
him, were the repositories of arms, clothing, and provisions.
L 3 Beyond
in the opinion of the latter, the number of ways which passed in that direc-
tion was seven. This difference will be perceived, on referring to the engraved
plans of Polybian Roman camps, in their respective works. Except as to the
exercise of speculative ingenuity, both writers depend on the testimony of
Polybius, whose words on this subject have been variously translated. Ac-
cording to Mr. King, “the plain translation is simply—all the five ways being
Jinished—which onl y implies all the five ways belonging to the legion itself:—
and this even leads us to conclude that there were, also, other ways, or streets,
- belonging to the allied troops;–or, at lease
The reader will, perhaps, be of opinion, that the liberty of conjectural con-
clusion is the utmost result to which these words are subject, if strained be-
yond the simplicity of their actual import.
%
tº leaves us at liberty to do so.”—

150 INTRODUCTION.
Beyond these places of public use were quartered the Ablecti, or
select horse of the allies, forming the consul’s guard; together
with the Evocati, and volunteer horse. Still further distant,
were placed the Evocati, and volunteer foot; and, at the extre-
mity of the whole body, and with their front towards the in-
trenchment, were stationed the select foot of the allies, likewise
making the guard of the consul. . .
From the central part of the Pretorium, a street, 50 feet in
width, was carried in a direct line to the neighbouring gate,
which, according to the above plan, we must term the Decuman
gate. . . . . . * * .
On both sides of this street were encamped the extraordinary
horse of the allies; and behind them, or nearer to the intrench-
ment, were placed the extraordinary foot of the same division of
the army. The stations of these forces were on the rear of the
whole camp, and the spaces which remained, on their right and
left, were appropriated to the lodging and accommodation of such
strangers as the various business of policy, or war, might lead to
visit the army.
Thus were the inmates of the Roman castrum disposed;” and
between the tents and the intrenchments, on each side of the
camp, was left a space of 200 Roman feet. It is stated by Ge-
meral Roy, “that this esplanade was of great use, not only for the
easy going out, and coming in, of the legions, and their forming
readily behind the rampart for its defence; but, likewise, for
placing the cattle, and booty of all kinds, taken from the enemy,
which was guarded there during the night. By this means, too,
the troops in camp were farther removed from the enemy's
darts.”f ‘. . . . . .3.3
In regard to the particulars of individual allotment, it appears,
2. from
• In some instances, the lines of street laid down by the Romans are still
perceptible, in the thoroughfa es of the English city or town. In no place is
this more evident, than in Chester, which city produces numerous other curious
vestiges of a Roman arrangement. See Beauties for Cheshire, p. 195, et seq.
1 Roy's Military Antiquities, p. 45.


Ro MAN ANT1 guiti ES IN BRIT AIN. 151
from that curious fragment of Hyginus which has much assisted
in explaining many circumstances of the Roman art of castra-
metation, and which was first introduced to the general notice of
British antiquaries by General Roy,” that for every tent a space
of ten feet was allowed, with the addition of a foot, all round
for the convenience of pitching it. To this was added a space, of
equal length with the tent, and five feet in breadth, for the deposit
of arms; and a space of the same length, and nine feet in breadth,
for the bat-horses. One of these tents was usually allotted to
eight men. 2. . >
The following circumstances, although of no striking import-
ance, may be noticed, as they assist in bestowing animation on
our ideas of the Roman encampment. One maniple of the
Triarii, succeeded by others in regular turn, constantly watched
round the General's tent. Four soldiers, placed two before and
two behind, attended as a guard of state, the tent of each Tri-
bune; and the tents of the Praeſects were attended by a similar
guard, amongst the allies. The entrenchments of the camp were
constantly watched by the Velites; and ten of the same light
and agile soldiers held guard at every gate. To preserve on the
alert the whole of those who watched the camp, four soldiers, cho-
sen from the Equites, went the rounds, one at every watch; and
this surveyor of the guard commenced his duty on the sounding of
a trumpet at the tent of the first centurion of the Triarii, and took
with him some companions in arms, to bear witness to the truth
of the report which he made to the Tribunes on the following
morning. .
The above description of a Roman castrametation applies to
the consular camp, for two legions, with their auxiliaries, amount-
ing in the whole to about 19,200 men; and the account of its in-
ternal arrangement is according to the Polybian mode of encamp-
ment, or that which prevailed in early ages, conspicuous for vi-
gorous simplicity of tactics, and strictness of discipline. 3.
L 4. A method
sº
* Military Antiquities, No. II. p. 176.
152 . 1 NTRO DUCTION
A method of encamping, which differs from the above in many
particulars, afterwards grew into practice, and has been handed
down to posterity by Hyginus, who lived under the Emperors
Trajan and Hadrian. A variation, as to external form, observ-
able in this latter system, is chiefly referable to such lines of in-
trenchments as were made for the use of the temporary camp;
but many dissimilarities of internal organization apply to the re-
gular station as well as to the hasty earth-work. It is observed
by General Roy,” “that, in the time of Marius, the military
affairs of the Romans, no doubt, suffered a very considerable
change. How far this immediately affected their ancient system
of castrametation it is impossible to determine; perhaps, at first,
the difference in this respect was not very great, and though the
distinction by maniples of hastati, principes, and triarii, might
have wholly ceased, yet the entire cohorts might, for a long time
after, have preserved their position in the camp.” .
Between that period, however, and the ages of mature impe-
rial power in which Hyginus lived, it is certain that further, and
more important alterations had taken place. To pass over various
minutiae respecting the disposal of the troops, it may be sufficient
to notice the following circumstances, which affect the size and
the proportions of the Roman castrametation. -
Hyginus describes a complete imperial army, as consisting of
three legions with their auxiliaries; and, consequently, the camp for
its reception was divided into three parts. These were not exactly
of an equal length, but each extended to the whole width of the
area. The Hyginian camp, (or that which prevailed in the time
of Hyginus, and is described by him) differs from the Polybian,
in general features of outline; it usually being, instead of nearly,
or quite square, one-third more in length than in width. The
length of an imperial camp for three legions is stated by Hyginus
to be 2400 feet; and the width 1600 feet. When the camp was
longer than this proportion, it was termed Classica, “ because,
• Military Antiq. p. 177.
RoMAN ANT19 U1tlES IN BRITAIN. 153
then, the ordinary signal given by the buccinum, or bugle-horn,
at the front of the praetorium, could with difficulty be heard at the
decuman gate; and, therefore, a general charge, or sounding of
all the martial music together, seems to have become necessary.”
The Hyginian camp is rounded at the angles, or corners.
In regard to the fortifications, the ditch was five feet broad at
top, and three feet deep. The rampart is described as being
eight feet broad, and six feet high; so that the soldiers (as is
observed by General Roy) who were drawn up along the work for
its defence, appear to have stood only one and a half, or two feet at
most, above the common surface of the ground; having a small pa-
rapet, or breast-work, before them. The gates were usually four in
number, as was the practice with the Polybian camps; but when the
imperial army, on a great occasion of the state, consisted of five
or six legions, two additional gates were formed at the ends of
the quintan street. In this description of camp, the principal
street was 60 feet broad, as was, also, the praetorian street. The
quintan street was 30 feet in width; and a thoroughfare of similar
dimensions, termed the sagular street, ran completely round the
camp. But the width of the two latter streets was increased to
40 feet, in the instance of the army exceeding the number of
three legions. The interval between the tents and the intrench-
ment on the exterior of the camp, was 60 feet broad in every
direction; and it may be here observed that, in this mode of en-
camping, the legionary troops were generally placed nearest to
the rampart. . * . . . ~
The Hyginian camp differs, in a marked manner, from the Poly-
bian, in respect to the situation of the Praetorium; which, in this form
of encampment, was very long and narrow, and was placed nearly
the centre of the general area, with the Forum and the Quaesto-
rium immediately below it, and the Sacellum and Augurale in its
front. The Praetorium was not less than 720 feet in length, and
was sometimes as much as 220 feet in width. "
| Such appear to be the leading particulars of dissimilarity be-
tween the Polybian and the Hyginian, or the consular and im-
154 1NTRODUCTION.
perial modes of encamping; and the above brief account of a
large exemplar of each class will apply, in general character-
istics, to the less capacious imitations which were formed, in va-
rious degrees of size, for smaller bodies of troops, as expediency
might demand. The superior simplicity which prevails in the
design of the more early camp, will be obvious on the slightest
view; and it must be remembered that military discipline so
greatly declined among the Romans, for some time previous to
the fall of the empire, that Vegetius, writing in the fourth cen-
tury, does not scruple to assert, that not only was the custom of
fortifying a camp laid aside, but the very method of doing it en-
tirely lost.* - %
From the notice already taken of the Roman castrum, may be
deduced a general notion of its internal organization, in regard to
the distribution of troops, and the system of discipline by which
the camp was regulated. Respecting such as were adopted for
stations, some few remarks have been submitted in a previous
page, and it is now desirable to make some additions to what has
been there said.
Immediately on subduing a fresh tribe, or petty British nation,
these judicious conquerors fortified such primary posts as were
well suited to the purpose of their futnre operations; and esta-
blished secondary posts, to secure a line of communication. It
has been already remarked that the sites of British towns
were frequently adopted for the use of the Roman station; and,
in other instances, the castrum for the abode of the conquering
troops, was often placed in the close neighbourhood of such an-
cient towns. Where the British site was adopted, the irregula-
rity of outline remained, although strengthened by the Roman
art of fortification; and it is still in many places discernible, and
imparts a decided character to this species of Roman town. But,
when these celebrated planters of military population aeted free
from the restraint of a previous outline, they bestowed on the
- ?--- - : ... . * ... } , new
‘Introduction to the Itinerary of Antoninus, by the Rev. T. Reynolds, p. 10.
Ro MAN ANT19 UITIES IN BRIT AIN. 155
new town their favourite shape of castrametation, and uniformly
made it square, or oblong.”
In ascertaining the precise locality of such Roman stations and
towns as were distributed throughout Britain, we have for our
principal guides the Itineraries of Antoninus and Richard,t
From the Itineraries alone we are, indeed, enabled to trace with
any resemblance of accuracy, the sites of many Roman settle-
ments in this island; and it may not only prove interesting, but
appears to be indispensably necessary, to present some observa-
tions concerning the methods usually adopted in fixing the sites
of the towns specified in those curious works.
The writers who first cultivated, in this country, a taste for
the study of antiquities, relied on a mode of ascertaining the
sites of Roman towns, which is proved, by more mature consi-
deration, to be unsatisfactory, if not supported by circumstances
of a less disputable character. With them, the resemblance of a
name was deemed of primary and arbitrary importance; and an
explanation of names to suit the evident, or conjectural, circum-
stances of locality, was, likewise, esteemed a criterion of predo-
minating influence, where an actual resemblance of letters and
sound could not be discovered. The errors arising from this sys-
tem have been clearly proved; and the mistakes of Camden, who,
under the guidance of such a persuasion, places Camulodunum at
Maldon, and Ad-Pontem at Paunton, may be noticed, as instances
of its precariousness, if not of its entire fallacy.
In regard to the modern name by which a place of known an-
tiquity is distinguished, it may, however, be received as a stand-
ard of frequent, and almost of general, operation, that where the
word Chester, Caster, or Cester, occurs, either as the whole, or
- *S
* Specimens of regular Roman towns may be seen in Colchester, i 'inches-
ter, Caerleon, Caerwent, &c. .
* To the information conveyed by the Itineraries must be added that
of the Notitia Imperii, and the Chorography of the Anonymous Ravennas;
both which works are noticed in our List of Books connected generally with
England and Wales, ... - ... -- ----
156 - I N T R O DUCTION,
as the part of an appellation, it declares that town to have been
fortified and inhabited by the Romans. It is certain, that the
Saxons, likewise, often preserved the first syllable, or more, of
the Roman name, with a termination of their own.” Even the
partial coincidence of name will, therefore, be admitted as fair
and desirable collateral evidence; but, for primary groundwork of
information, the judicious enquirer will look to other sources.
That the Roman towns in Britain were numerous, and of con-
siderable celebrity, is sufficiently evinced by the Itineraries; and
there is reason for supposing that they were, in fact, much more
numerous than is generally believed. But it will appear far from
surprising that, comparatively, few local vestiges, even of the
names by which the majority of such towns were distinguished,
should have been preserved until the revival of learning, when
we remember the savage ferocity with which the Roman cities
were razed, and annihilated, by the nations which succeeded to
that ascendancy over the Britons, which was so long possessed
by the imperial government.f -
So comprehensive was the policy, and so persevering the in-
dustry, of the Romans, that these towns, however numerous they
may be supposed, were all united and rendered easy of access by
- - lines
* See observations to this effect in Nichols's Leicestershire, Wol, I. p. 148;
and in Reynolds's Introduction to the Itinerary, &c. p. 58.-In the latter work
are given numerous instances of such a practice among the Saxons.
+ In a note, by the Bishop of Cloyne, on the introduction to Reynolds's
edition of the itinerary of Antoninus, occur the following remarks, concerning
the spirit which generally pervaded the tribes who triumphed over the arms
of Rome —“The barbarian conquerors of the Roman provinces destroyed
the cities, defaced the works of art, and even seem in some instances to have
cut up the roads. When the strong and flourishing city of Aquileia was taken,
it was immediately levelled with the ground, and the triumphant barbarian
boasted that, in three days after its capture, he had gallopped his horse, with-
out stumbling, over the spot where the town had stood. The wonder is, then,
that we find such evident traces of many of the Roman towns in Britain at
this day, not that some have intirely disappeared. Several of these towns
shew marks of fire in their ruins.”—Iter. Britanniarum, &c. p. 32.
Ro MAN ANT19 Ulties 1N BRIT AIN. 157
lines of solid road. The existence of a Roman town, therefore,
implies that of a contiguous Roman thoroughfare. Frequently,
the town is situated on the direct line of the road; whilst, in
other instances, the road deviates from the straight course so in-
variably pursued by the Romans, without the occurrence of such
an inducement, or the intervention of great natural obstacles; or
throws off a branch for the purpose of a communication with
the town. But the want of discernible vestiges of a Roman
road, near the site of a town supposed to have been occupied
by that people, is no positive argument against the identity of
such a site; on account of the alterations in thoroughfares effect-
ed by many successive ages, and in consideration of our defective
knowledge of the number and direction of the numerous roads
constructed by the Romans. This exception, however, does not
relate to the usual situation of the chief military posts. It will
be found that the regular stations are, in general, placed on the
great roads, at nearly equal distances; which, in the majority of
stages, do not exceed twenty miles, the length of a single march.
It does not appear necessary to state, in this Introduction, the
whole of the different criteria, for ascertaining, according to rules
best approved by experience, the locality of such towns, or sta-
tions, as are noticed in the Itineraries of Antoninus and Richard.
Those rules may be seen very judiciously enumerated, and ex-
plained, in the commentaries on the respective Itineraries, pub-
lished by the Rev. Thomas Reynolds and by Mr. Hatcher; but it
may be here observed, in attention to a remark contained in the
latter work, that, “ after the Romans had established their power,
and completed their system of internal communication, they, un-
doubtedly, lessened the number of their garrisons, to avoid either
too great a division of their force, or to reduce that part of it
which was necessarily stationary.” Hence, we may sometimes
consider the direction of the road, and the general distance, ** as
sufficient data for determining a station, or stations, either when
they were situated between two considerable fortified points, or
when covered by others on every side; because it is probable
* ... . . . . . . ::: * > * such
158 1NT Roduction.
such posts were merely temporary, and were dilapidated, or de-
molished, even before the decline of the Roman power.”
The distance must, indeed, be received as the chief standard
of consideration, in researches concerning the site of the Itine-
rary towns, as it is almost the only clue to discovery afforded by
those works. But the most interesting, and, perhaps, the only
indubitable proof of an ancient Roman town or station (if not of
the temporary and deserted kind noticed above) certainly consists
in the discovery of antiquities, of a Roman original. In nume-
rous instances are seen remains of the wall which surrounded the
town, or of the baths and other buildings used by the inhabit-
ants; and fragments of brick and tile are often strewed, in surpris-
ing abundance, over the ploughed field where once stood the Roman
city This is particularly the case at Silchester, in Hampshire;
it may be here remarked that the high preservation and great
extent of the walls, together with the luxuriant existence of
various scattered denotations of former dwellings, combine to ren-
der Silchester one of the most impressive instances of a depopu-
lated and forsaken Roman station, that is, perhaps, to be found
amidst the ruins of this once-mighty empire.—Such vestiges as
are there seen (including coins, which are found in great numbers
on almost every spot occupied for a length of time by the Ro-
mans; and inhumed urns, the repositories of the ashes of the
colonists,) are often necessary to the entire conviction of the ju-
dicious enquirer, while the contemplation of them forms the most
pleasing reward of his labours. . - .
The usual character of such Roman antiquities as are most
frequently discovered, will meet with brief notice in a subse-
quent page; but it must be observed, in this place, that, whilst
we consider the occurrence of such antiquities to be nearly the
sole undoubted proof of the former existence of a Roman town,
it is to be remembered that the mere discovery of a bath, a pave-
ment, or other vestiges of domestic life, does not absolutely
. . . . argue
* Commentary on the Itin, of Richard, &c. Edit. 1809, p. 106.





Ro MAN ANT19 UITIES IN BRITAl N. 159
argue that a town formerly stood on such a spot; as the Roman
officers were accustomed to indulge that taste for rural scenery,
so conspicuous among the most polished of their countrymen,
by the construction of villas, in recluse, but picturesque, si-
tuations. . :
The subject of such circumstances as usually denote the site of
a town, formed or adopted by the Romans, may be closed with
the following observations from the pen of Mr. Reynolds: “Re-
mains of Roman military works are very common;–their sta-
tions, or winter-quarters, adjoining to several principal towns;
and their summer-camps, upon hills, or elevated situations, near
them. In someplaces, the former remain to this day, very visible
from their old intrenchments; but, in others, their ancient forms
are obliterated by the British, and Saxon, or Norman, castles
which generally occupy a part of the site of them. An ancient
castle, or the ruins of one, seems very good probable proof that
a Roman station may have first occupied the same ground; at
least, in such towns as are known to have existed in those
times.”* .
Having thus endeavoured to convey a distinct idea of the cha-
racter of the great stationary town, when arranged for lasting
occupation, and secured by walls and massy turrets, it remains
to notice such EARTH-works as were indubitably constructed by
the Romans, for military purposes. These are of frequent oc-
currence in most parts of the island, and are readily distinguish-
ed by their shape (the square, or oblong, constantly used by
Romans, unless circumstances of natural strength, or conve-
nience, induced a partial deviation) and by the other pecu-
liarities of fortification, noticed in previous pages as being usual
with the Romans. z .
It will, indeed, create little surprise to find so frequently these
vestiges of Roman earthen-ramparts, when we remember that it
was the invariable practice of their armies to enclose themselves
: within
* Ite: Britanniarum, p. 56.
160 1NTRoduction.
within an intrenchment, consisting of a rampart and ditch, wher-
ever they halted, when in an enemy's country, if only for a
single night. It is unquestionable, likewise, that some of
their military stations were fortified simply by earth-works and
palisades. - - . . . .
In regard to strength of intrenchment, the camps of the Ro-
mans exhibit a considerable variety; the cause of which may
be readily supposed to arise from the degree of danger appre-
hended. It is observed by General Roy, that the castra.
in which the Romans made no great stay, have, in gene-
ral, “only a weak intrenchment, the ditch being about eight
feet broad, and six feet deep; with a parapet behind it, four or
five feet in height. . The camps of a more lasting nature, in .
which they continued for a considerable space of time together,
and perhaps even used again and again, have a broader and
deeper ditch, and a rampart proportionably stronger.”
But the castrametations of the Romans are, in some instances,
of a character not comprehended in either of the above descrip-
tions. The most prominent and curious variations consist of
camps in which the want of natural strength, on certain exposed
sides, is remedied by the formation of multiplied fosses of a great,
depth, with ramparts of a correspondent height between them ;f
and of such small earth-works as are found on elevated, or open,
situations, near other Roman military works, and are confidently
supposed to have acted as posts of observation, being thence.
termed exploratory camps. º
- Mr. Whitaker observes, on the authority of Vegetius,t that
the Romans appear to have frequently constructed small fort-
resses in the vicinity of their stations, for the protection of their.
- - -. . . cattle,
* - * Military Antiq. p. 42. . . . .
+ These deviations from common practice chiefly occur in camps formed
by Agricola, in the north. Wide the plates, and erudite letter press accem-
paniment, in General Roy's work on the Military Antiquities of the Romans.
f Hist, of Manchester, Vol. I, p. 231, et seq. apud Vegetius, lib. iii.
º:






Roman Antiguities 1N BRITA. N.
eattle in the pastures, and the security and accommodation of
their convoys on the roads. This remark, founded as it is on
the testimony of Vegetius, may enable the investigator to ac-
count for the remains of small works, near thoseof a large
Roman camp, when so situated as to render it improbable that
they originally formed part of a castrametation used for explora-
tory purposes. tº . . . . . .
The most stupendous military vestige of the Romans in this
island, falls under no head of classification, and is equally pecu-
liar, surprising, and magnificent.—It will be readily apprehend-
ed that I allude to the rampart usually denominated the wall of
Severus;" that strong and lofty barrier, which the Romans con-
structed from sea to sea, as a protection for the allied inhabi-
tants of the south against the ferocious, unconquered, tribes of the
north. This great line of defence extends from the mouth of the
river Tyne, on the east, to Solway firth, on the west; and, in
its progress over the long tract of intervening country, formerly
exhibited curious instances of the Roman art of fortification, in
regular stations, guarded by walls and ditches; and in castella
and turrets, placed along the wall at given distances. It is now
rapidly approaching to a state of utter demolition. Its turrets
and castella are no more; but the site of these, and of the sta-
tions, is often discernible, from an inequality in the surface, or
an occasional trace of foundation. A Roman road accompanied
this great work. . . . . . . . . -
Roman Roads.—Conspicuous in every branch of political
economy, the Romans eviuced peculiar grandeur of design, and
unrivalled skill and industry, in the construction of their roads.
Aware that the progress of civilization, through its several de-
grees, even to the last refinements of politeness, depended greatly
. - * - … . .
* For a description of the wall of Severus, and some particulars respect- ..
ing its history, the reader is referred to the Beauties for the counties of Nor-
thumberland and Cum º rland. , , , sº º






162 INTRopuction.
on a facility of interchange, they, in an early age, and with an
obvious policy, rendered communicatiou easy in the neighbour-
hood of the seat of empire. In succeeding periods it became a
‘point of family competition to impart grandeur to these great
channels of traffic; and the name of a benefactor was united with
the beauty and durable character of the thoroughfare which was
constructed by his liberality. Such were the well known Appian
and Flaminian ways. 3
. This great people were actuated by the same spirit of policy,
in the organization of their foreign conquests.-Oſten disregarded
even by their own historians, the precise steps and extent of
their victories would, perhaps, be little known to modern ages,
if they had not marked the advancement of their sway by roads,
evidently formed with so much patient labour as to evince a se-
curity of inhabitation. In no province of that powerful empire
which once engrossed the whole of the European world, are the
vestiges of these great works more frequent than in Britain.
They are discovered in every district of the island that was visit-
ed by the imperial arms; and, whilst they point to the extent
and locality of the Roman population in Britain, they afford
documents equally interesting to the antiquary and the histo-
I’lan. . . . . . º:
It has been found impossible to ascertain the exact periods at
which these roads were constructed. Dr. Stukeley conjectures
that the Ermyn (or, as he terms it, the Hermen) street was
that first formed; and he attributes the work to the reign of .
Nero;" while Horsley contends that most of the military ways
in Britain were probably laid down by Agricola;+ and in such
an opinion the latter ingenious author has been followed by many
antiquarian writers. But it would certainly appear to be likely
that the first road adapted to military passage, by the Romans in
Britain, was that which led from Richborough, on the track of
the British Watling Street, to London; as that road presents the
. 3. x line
*
• Irin, eur. p. 6. + Brit. Rom. p. 337,



Roman ANT19 U1t I Es JN BRIT Al N. 163
line of their earliest victories in this island. Accessions of road
were probably made by different commanders, on the attainment
of new conquests; and, thus, each successful legate is entitled to
a portion of the merit, arising from the completion of works so
great and regular. .
The disputable priority of the Roman station or its attached
road, has also constituted a subject of antiquarian discussion,
and is thus noticed by Mr. Whitaker: “In a country like this,
where forests must have risen, and morasses have spread, be-
twixt station and station, roads must have been nearly as neces-
sary as stations, and were certainly, therefore, nearly cotempo-
rary with them. As the Romans prosecuted their conquests
within the island, they must, also, have multiplied their stations,
and extended their roads. The statious were certainly prior, and
the roads were the channels of communication between them.
Many of the stations must have necessarily commenced during
the very conquest of the country; and all of them at the conclu-
sion of it. And the roads could not have been constructed till
the first, or second, summer after both.” -
It has been already observed, in my notice of the vestiges of
the early Britons, that several British roads were adopted by the
Romans, and improved by that people, according to the modes
of their greater experience and superior skill. The principal of
these have been enumerated in that section of the work; but,
when we reinember the great number of British towns which were:
retained by the Romans, and fortified by them as stations or set-
tlements, we may readily believe that many roads, now supposed
to be purely Roman, were really formed in the line of previous
British trackways. If it were possible for this conjecture to be
satisfactorily authenticated, the result would be curious and highly
interesting; as it would tend towards the enlargement of our
notions, respecting the civil arrangements of the first known in-
habitants of this island. :^
M 2 - The
* Hist. of Manchester, Wol. I. p. 118.



164 rRTRoduction.
* The most distinguished and estimable feature in the arrange-
ment of roads made by the Romans, is their continuance in a
direct course, or in as straight a line, from place to place, as
natural circumstances will permit. The Romans worked with
the hand of conquest, and private objections were of little avail
when preferred by the tributary. The unenclosed state of Bri-
tain, at least in districts remote from the southern coast, like-
wise favoured the attainment of such a directness of course, with-
out any important injury to the possessions of a tribe, or of in-
dividuals.—But the claims, or feelings, of discomfited nations
were of little consideration with the invaders, while laying out
the track of such great military thoroughfares, as were intended
to assist in completing the task of subjugation. All but such
natural obstacles as were quite superior to the efforts of human
skill and labour, yielded to their perseverance: and we find (to
use the words of a writer whose remark is founded on actual in-
vestigation)" that all Roman roads run invariably in a straight
line, except where they meet with some local impediment, such
as a steep mountain or a deep ravine; or where they bend out of
their general direction, to approach or leave a station, or to throw
off some vicinal road.”*
* It will be readily apprehended that extraordinary labour was
bestowed on the construction of roads, which have proved so
durable—The Roman military road in Britain, consisted of an
artificial fabric, composed of chalk, pebble-stones, or gravel,
raised to a considerable height above the level of the natural soil.
These materials were often brought from a distant traet of coun-
try; and instances are yet to be seen of the road rising to the
height of ten feet, in a crest of emphatical but deserted grandeur.
The occurrence of so great an elevation was most frequent on
heaths, covered with low, stubbed, (or pollard) oaks; and it is
conjectured by an ingenious writer on the subject of Roman anti-
% 3. . .
* Rev. Mr. Leman, on the Roman roads, &c. Introduction to Nichols's
Nist of Leicestershire, p. 149. . . . .


RoMAN ANT19 Uhtres IN BRIT A1 N. 165
quities, that such was the aspect of a great part of Britain, in
the early periods of the Roman ascendancy; and that the forest
trees in the vicinity of a great military theroughfare, were thus
decapitated to facilitate the security of an army on its march, by
revealing the recesses of the surrounding country, and precluding
the danger of surprise.* - sº
The most considerable of the Roman ways were paved with
stones; but it would not appear to be likely, as is conjectured
by Mr. Whitaker, that none, except such as were so paved,
were intended for the transit of carts and waggons. Where the
surface did not consist of large paving stones, it was composed
of gravel; and the durability of the road was greatly assisted
by excellent drains, disposed with much care and judgment.
From the preceding observations, the reader will scarcely ſai
to imbibe a favourable idea, as to the skill and perseverance ex-
ercised by the Romans, in the construction of their principal
mediums of communication. But it is desirable to notice some
objections which have been made to this persuasion, especially
as they proceed from so respectable a pen as that of the historian
of Manchester. * -: - - --> º'
After asserting that the chief excellence of the Roman roads
consists in the directness of their course, Mr. Whitaker observes
that these roads “appear not to have been constructed upon the
most sensible principles, in general.” In support of this opi-
nion, he notices certain points of two roads in Iancashire, in one
of which the road is “a mere coat of sand and gravel, the sand
very copious, and the gravel weak, and not compacted together
º
º º
** No motive, but that of obtaining a view of the adjacent tract of coun-
try, and thereby preventing the danger of a sudden attack from ambushed
natives, has been ascribed as the probable cause of the Romans raising their
rºads to so great a height, even on a firm soil not subject to floods. Vide
remarks on Roman roads, prefixed to the Hist, of Hertfordshire. " ... …”
+ For more copious information concerning the construction of Roman
roads, the reader is referred to Bergier's Histoire Des Grands Chemins De
L’ Empire Romain, §e, > - º -


1NTropuction.
with any incorporated cement.” In the other instance, the
ź inly a heap of loose earth and rock, laid together in a
compression from the surface. Such,” continues Mr. Whitaker,
“could never have been designed for the passage of the cart and
waggon, as they must soon have been furrowed to the bottom by
the wheels, or crushed into the ground by the load, and rendered
absolutely impassable by either. But for these rough services
they were not intended.—Both of them, though the one was con-
structed for the great western way into the north, and the other
was the line of communication between Chester and York, were
plainly intended merely for the walker, the rider, and the beast
“ The only roads that seem to have been designed for the
waggon and the cart, are such as were regularly paved with
boulders. But as this alleviates not the censure upon the nar-
rowness of the roads, so the paving of them is obviously an awk-
ward expedient at the best. And this appears sufficiently from
those boasted remains of the Romans, the Appian and Flaminian
ways, in Italy, which are so intolerably rough and hard that the
travellers, as often as they can, turn off from them, and journey
along the tracks at their borders.”*
The circumstance of many of the Roman roads in Britain
having continued to the present time, and some in excellent pre-
servation, Mr. Whitaker supposes to have arisen chiefly “from
the early desertion of such particular roads by the Britons and
Saxons; new ways being laid, for new reasons, to the same
towns; or the towns being destroyed, and the ways unfrequented.”
He concludes his objections in the following words: “But had
they been always laid in right lines, always constructed with a
sufficient breadth, and never paved with stone; had the mate-
rials been bound together by some incorporated cement; and had
they been all calculated to receive carts and bear waggons, they
must
• Hist. of Manchester, p. 228.










roMAN ANTiguities in aritain. 167
sust still be acknowledged to have one essential defect in them.
They almost constantly crossed the rivers of the island, not at
bridges, but at slallows, or fords, some of which nature had
planted, and others art supplied. And, in this state of the roads,
the travelling upon them must £ave been infinitely precarious,
regulated by the rains and controuled by the floods.” .
These opinions are entitled to respectful consideration, as they
proceed from a writer who is often eminently judicious in his re-
marks. But it would appear that Mr. Whitaker, when treating
generally of Roman roads, hazarded theoretical speculations
founded on local and circumscribed inspection.—Deriving my in-
formation from a learned correspondent, who has personally in-
vestigated the principal Roman roads throughout Britain, and
who has greatly assisted in elucidating this branch of antiquarian
research,t I venture to assert, with boldness, that it was scarcely
possible for more skill and judgment to have been displayed in
such works, than were evinced by the Roman engineers, in draw-
ing the line to avoid all local inconvenience, or in completing
the road when the outline was thus carefully formed. Mr. Whita.
ker’s objection, as to the want of compactness in construction,
may, perhaps, have arisen from the notice of some particular
point, in which the road was not completed according to the ori-
ginal intention; or, as is more probable, from the view of a tract
where the surface had been removed by innovation. That the
principal roads were, originally, of great width, is unquestion-
able, although, in many instances, they have been made narrow
by the depredations of those who have removed the soil from
both sides; as may be clearly perceived in the Foss-way near
* Hist, of Mauchester, p. 229. Dr. Stukeley (Itin. Cur. p.r.º.) views this
Presumed defect in so different a light, that he praises the Romans “for
making few bridges, as liable to decay, and for laying fords with great skill
and labour, many of which remain firm to this day.”
* The Rev. Thomas Leman, whose literary favours I have already fre-
quently acknowledged.






168 introduction.
Bath.-It may be observed, that the Appian and Flaminian ways,
were rough, only when out of repair, and neglected. . . .
But in no part of his objections has Mr. Whitaker fallen into a
: grea . r error, than when he asserts that the Roman ways crossed
rivers at Fords only, and not by Bridges. It is observed by .
the accurate examiner to whom I am indebted for the points of
r this reply to the remarks of Mr. Whitaker, that his investiga-
tions have produced only one instance in which there is an ap-
pearance of having been originally a ford, and not a bridge;
and, even in this instance, a doubt remains as to whether that
which appeared to be an artificial ford, might not have been the
foundation of a bridge.—The bridges having been destroyed by
the barbarians, who succeeded to the Romans, we may readily
suppose that the people who still continued the course of such
mutilated roads, turned to the next ford; and, hence, the com-
pulsory deviation may have been mistaken for the original track.
Instances of such an unavoidable dereliction of ancient pathway, a
may be seen on the road from Sarum to Dorchester, and on the
road from Cambridge towards the banks of the Nen.
It must be noticed, as a curious and strongly marked feature, ..
#
the sides of their great roads in Britain. These “are found on
every eminence in the line of road, unless they have been since
destroyed; and, generally, the two successive ones in sight of
each. other (as the direction, probably, by which the engineer
orig inally laid out the road) as well as at all those places where
any vicinal road branched off from the great street, or paved
way, to some dependant camp or inferior station,” “. . . .
It will be seen, from the notices presented in different volumes
of the Beauties of England and Wales, that the present state of
the Roman roads varies much in different counties. - Extensive
vestiges of the bold round causeway, which was constructed
along the principal lines of these ways, are still perceptible in
. . many
* Observations on the Roman roads in Leicestershire, &c.
*.

RoMAN ANtiourties in Britain. 169.
many parts of the island; while, in others, all traces are oblite-
rated by the operation of the plough; or all marks of Roman
workmanship are lost, in the alternate traffic and repairs of suc-
cessive ages.—In tracts, however, where the ridge has been re-
moved, but the road deserted as a channel of traffic, the former
line of transit is frequently discovered, by the failure of the corn,
or grass; and, on penetrating the soil, to the depth of a foot or
more, the ancient paving is often found, in a massy bed beneath,
the reach of the husbandman's ploughshare. ºr
Whilst enumerating the most prominent marks by which the
remains of Roman roads are generally to be distinguished, it may
be desirable to present the following observation of the writer to
whose discrimination I am so greatly indebted in several pre-
ceding pages.—In regard to the investigator of Roman ways,
who is intent on tracing the line, or continuation, of a particular
read, “great caution must be used, lest the person should be
misled by roads having the same name with the one he is
exploring; as generally all roads, or lanes, leading to such
- general road, are called by the name of the great road, or
street, itself. Thus, at Leicester, the lane which leads to the
Foss is called the Foss; thus, at Cireneester, the great road
which comes from Winchester by Wanborough, in the part near
Cirencester [through which the Foss itself passes] is called
The Foss Road, though in a contrary direction from the gene-
ral bearing of the Foss. And the same road near Winchester
is called the Ikenield Street, though in a quite contr ry bear-
ing to that great British way, because it led to it. Many
other instances may be given, because such mistakes exist about
every station.”
It may also be noticed that the lines of the great public Roman
roads are generally accompanied by towns, or villages, bearing g
names significative of their former situation on a well-known and
important highway; as Stretton, Stratford, Streatley, &c. or
' ' ' ' appellations'
* Rev. Thomas Leman on Roman roads, &c. Nichols's Leicestershire,






introduction.
ppellations compounded of the word Street, or Strat, and ano-
ther name, as Ufford Street; or of the British word Sarn, as
Sharnford, or Sharneote. gº . . . . . . . . .
It is said by Camden, on the authority of Ulpian and Fronti-
mus, that the Romans gave to the great roads the name of Viae
consulares, Praetoriae, Militares, Publicac, Cursus publici, and
Actus; or consular, praetorian, military, and public ways. A
oncise definition of their distinctive character is presented by a
modern writer in the succeeding words: “ They were, in fact,
the public roads of those times, and distinguished from the com-
mon roads, by being formed, and covered with proper materials
of different kinds for the convenience of travellers, as our present
public roads are.” - - : - . .”
Besides the great public ways, formed and preserved under the
care of the Roman government, minor, or Vicinal, roads, lead-
ing between respective military stations and towns, intersected
this island in every direction. Many of these have been traced
by antiquarian zeal, and the course of the most important is
noticed in different volumes of the “Beauties,” and is delineated
in our map; but it is observed by the Bishop of Cloyne, in
a note on the History of Leicestershire, that Roman Britain
probably contained many more roads, as well as towns, than
has been generally imagined. And such would, indeed, ap-
pear to be the fact.—When it is remembered that we depend
for our notions of the Roman population of Britain, or at least
for our estimate of the chief Roman stations and towns, on the
itineraries of writers who do not profess to penetrate and display
the whole of Roman Britain; we may believe, without scruple,
that we ordinarily imbibe a deficient idea of the number of
Roman towns, and places of inhabitation, in this island. The
remains of multifarious Roman residences, in places remote from
tracts, noticed by the itineraries, indeed prove this fact, without
any labour at correlative demonstration. And, since we know
the value placed by this active and polished people on a facility
of communication, we may justly conclude that their roads
equally
ºi º















Roman Antiguities in aritain. 171
equally exceeded in number the common standard of calculation;
and that many ways really originated with the Romans, which
now bear few decisive marks of their customary mode of con-
ºwnw tion. ºf -
Four of the great public, or military, ways of the Romans,
were distinguished above the others at a very early period. The
laws of Edward the Confessor comprehend regulations concern-
ing the four great highways named “ Watling-Strete, Foss,
Ikemield-Strete, and Erming-Strete;” and it has been gene-
rally supposed by historians that the above legal enumeration
acted safely as a guide to the antiquary, and that Britain was,
in fact, intersected by four principal roads only, each of which
formed one long single line across the island.
But it is evident, on a more minute investigation, that such -
an opinion was founded on too narrow a principle. Mr. Rey-
molds, in his introduction to the Itinerary of Antoninus, in-
creases the number to six, and is willing “ to describe them,
not as consisting of single lines only, but as dividing them-
selves into several branches, each of which it is not only natural,
but very convenient, to consider under the general name which
has hitherto been confined to a single line.”—But, if the work
of this pleasing commentator had resulted from ocular examina-
tion, rather than from ingenious theory, he would have found
cause for believing that even the augmented number which he
has adopted, is much too limited.
It is, indeed, proved by the labours of those judicious anti- º
quaries who have, in late years, directed their attention to this
interesting pursuit, and have profited by opportunity and leisure,
in reducing the argument to the only satisfactory test [that of
personal investigation] that it must be futile to name any defi-
nite number of principal roads; as positive traces of such, with
remains of attendant stations, are discovered in various direc-
tions unknown to theoretical writers, and quite distinct from the
- $ Iter Britanniarum, &c. p. 68.

172 Introduction.
four great ways rendered celebrated by the laws of Edward the
Confessor.” There is, likewise, fair reason for supposing that,
from the late period at which this branch of antiquarian enquiry
has been seriously and judiciously adopted, many such roads
ust have been obliterated by the increasing cultivation of the
§
tº
It s not necessary to attempt, in this place, the arduous task
of ascertaining the progress of these numerous causeways, through
the particular districts of the island which they visited, in their
straight and bold course. Their frequent appearance, in various
parts of every county, is noticed in the respective volumes of the
- ies of England and Wales; and to those pages, aided by
Beauties o
our map of Roman Britain, the reader is referred for more mi-
nute information concerning their present state and probable
2% p earing." ſº º º º º ; : ; ; ;& • . . . . : * * * *
"But it is desirable to offer a few observations, in regard to
those roads of Roman construction, which have fortuitously ob-
• a sºlº a pre-eminent celebrity, and are rendered familiar, as
to name, by the notice which they have received from the
laws of Edward the Uonfessor, and by the attention of early
It will be remembered that the Romans, in forming their roads
throughout this island, usually adopted the trackways of the
ancient British inhabitants, as to the leading objects of their des-
tination, although they improved on their course, by straighten-
ing the winding lines of their precursors. It may, indeed, be
received as unquestionable, that nearly all the principal British
ways were adopted by the Romans, with the exceptions of the
eastern part of the Icknield Street, and the Saltways—Thus,
three of the great “streets”f mentioned in the laws of the Con-
* The correctness of this assertion will not be denied, on an inspection
of the map of Roman roads and stations in Britain, attached to this section
of our work. #
+ The Roman roads are termed Stratae, or Streets, by Bede ; and the
term has been adopted by succeeding writers.













Rom AN ANT19 ulties in BRITAIN. 173
fessor, and thence treated with so much distinction by antiqua-
rian writers, were, assuredly, raised in the line of previous.
British thoroughfares; and I have already noticed the probability
of the fourth [the Foss] having also been first laid out by the
original possessors of the country.—Many particulars, as to the
course of these roads, and their connexion with the towns of an-
cient Britain, and with some principal stations of the country,
when under the Roman sway, may, therefore, be obtained by a
reference to the account of British Trackways, given in a pre-
vious section, tº . "
It cannot be recollected, without surprise, that the real length
of the Roman mile has not been ascertained, by any of the
numerous learned persons who have bestowed attention on that
subject. So utter is the wreck of that empire, which once mea-
sured all Europe with its own foot and pace, and divided king-
doms by the arbitrary marks on its standard rule!
Arbuthnot, in his comparison of ancient and modern measure rº,
has adopted the opinion of several previous writers of eminence,
and considers the proportion between the old Roman mile and
the English mile, as 967 to 1000. General Roy supposes that
eleven English miles will make 108 feet more than twelve
Roman. Burton, on the contrary, thought the Roman ſoot, or
standard measure of length, larger than the English–Drawing
his estimate of the Roman mile from the distances noticed be-
tween different towns by Antoninus, as compared with the mea-
sures of the present time, Mr. Reynolds, in his Introduction to
the Itinerary of Antoninus, conjectures that the ancient Ro § an
mile, and the modern English, were, in fact, measures ---
same length. "º ... º ... . . . . . . . º gº sº nº º
It will obviously occur to the reader, that the point in dis-
pute might be decided in a simple and easy manner, by m
suring the distance between two milliary columns on any know
º
wn
Roman road. But it is to be lamented that such a mode of deci-
sion has hitherto proved impracticable, in regard to this island.
So far from the existence of two Roman mile stones having been
ascertained







174 % 1Nt Roductio N.
scertained, in their original situations, on the same road, only
one has been found on a site accurately known to have been that
which it first occupied. This is the milliary discovered near
Leicester, and noticed in the Beauties for that county.”
The destruction of these curious road-marks of Roman mea-
urement, has not been so general in France and Italy. Many
illiary columns still exist in those countries; and it is observed,
in the Commentary on the Itinerary of Richard, that Danville
has adduced three instances in Languedoc, in which the d -
tances between them, when accurately measured, afford an aver-
age of 754 toises and two feet. This result is confirmed by a
comparison with the Roman foot, still preserved in the capitol;
“but, unfortunately, such a mensuration does not lessen the dif.
ficulties of the English antiquary; for the distance between any
two of our known stations, if measured by this standard, dis-
agrees, in almost every instance, with the numbers of the Itine-
raries. Different conjectures have been advanced, to solve this
difficulty. One, supported by the respectable opinion of Horsley,
is, that the Romans measured only the horizontal distance, with-
out regarding the inequalities of the surface; or that the space
belween station and station was ascertained from maps accurately
constructed. This idea receives some support, from a fact ac-
knowledged by every British antiquary, namely, that the Itine-
rary miles bear a regular proportion to the English miles on
plains, but fall short of them in hilly grounds.”t .2% . . . . …?
After a notice of military antiquities, the chief vestiges of the
Romans in Britain may be classed under the following heads:
Thaces of Domestic STRuctures, including Tessel-
lated Pavements; Coins; Altars; and other inscribed
Stones, and pieces of Sculpture ; Sepulchnes, and
FUNERAL Wessels. - .
* Beauties ſor Leicestershire, P. 333–385. see, also, * Essay on this
Milliary, by the Rev. G. Ashby, in the introductory volume of Nichols's Hist-
of Leicestershire. . . . . . . . . 3. - .
- * Commentary on the Itinerary of Richard, p. 108.




















RoMAN ANT19 UITIES 1 N BRITA 1 N. !? 6
An extensive dissertation on each of these classes of Roman
antiquities, is incompatible with the scheme of this Introduction;
but I present some succinct remarks, calculated to convey general
notions respecting the whole; and append a reference to soue
few pages of the “Beauties,” containing a description of inter-
esting specimens.
When we contemplate the great labour bestowed by the
Romans on those public ways throughout Britain, which they
either entirely constructed, or adopted and improved; and re-
member the massy character of the walls by which many of their
settlements were surrounded; we are induced to suppose that
vestiges of Roman grandeur, connected with religious ceremony,
with the official solemnities of Inagisterial decisiou, or even such
as relate merely to domestic architecture, must be frequently
discovered in an island which they so long victoriously occupied.
But enquiry disappoints this expectation. In fact, scarcely any
relics of their great public edifices, commen surate with our ideas
of Roman magnificence, now exist, or are satisfactorily noticed
in antiquarian record; while the vestiges of their domestic archi-
tecture are chiefly confined to indistinct traces of the ground
plan, and some few particulars of internal arrangement.
This paucity of tangible vestigia, or defect in circumstances
of ocular demonstration, is considered, by many writers on the
subject of the Roman occupation of this island, not to imply a
probable deficiency in actual grandeur. But others have viewed
it as a fair cause of scepticism; and Mr. King, in his Munimenta
Antiqua, has ventured on a protest of unequivocal disbelief.
This antiquary coutends, that if the Romans had really con-
structed in Britain many splendid structures of stone and brick,
“some other distinguished fragments must have remained, as
well as those few that have, from time to time, actually been
discovered, at Bath; or preserved at Dover; or at Leicester;
or in the walls of the Castra at Richborough, Portchester, and
Pevensey; or near the great wall of Severus.” .
The
* King's Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. II. p. 16?.



176 1NTRod UCT16N.
a The same mode of reasoning is adopted by Mr. Essex, who
remarks, “ that it may be doubted whether all that has been said
of those fine structures which in the Roman times adorned Bri-
tain be true; there being no remains of temples or porticos, nor
of the bases, shafts, or capitals of the columns which once
adorned them.” #
*It is scarcely necessary to observe that Mr. King, although
always a writer of considerable research, and often of great dis-
crimination, was subject to the guidance of certain favourite no-
tions, which were so firinly impressed on his mind, that he la-
boured, on sentiment, to humble or to exalt, according as the
subject of discussion clashed, or coincided, with his prevalent
feeling. The degradation of the pagan Romans was, probably,
with such a writer, an achievement gratifying to conscience; and
the relish which he had imbibed in his youth for classical ele-
sance, in vain interposed a persuasive towards moderation. ^ 3
It is, however, probable that the Roman structures in Britain
were much inferior to such as may be expected by the enquirer,
who forms his ideas of Roman magnificence on a consideration
of the buildings which adorned the seat of empire. The Romans
inhabited Britain as a foreign colony; and those who expatriated
for its colonization were chiefly of the military profession. As-
suredly, it was not to such a spot that the distinguished Roman
artist would repair for the exercise of his skill. But the con-
querors occupied the southern parts of the island for so long a
term, and were so intent on evincing to the Britons a due notion
of their superiority in the elegancies of life, that it would be
with difficulty we supposed no structures, at once of imposing
splendour and probable durability, were raised by them, in dis-
tricts contentedly subject to their sway.
A reference to writers who flourished in the ages of Roman .
ascendancy, or in periods not far distant, is obviously desirable
iu the adjustment of a contrariety of opinions on this subject.
º s Archwologia, Vol. IV. p. 79.




Rom AN ANT19 ulties, IN BRIT Al N. . 177
Such opportunities of appeal are not frequent, but the information
derived is of considerable weight. ... . . . . .
Tacitus, when noticing the prodigies which were said to have
preceded the destruction of Camulodunum, the first Roman co-
lony in Britain, mentions the fall of the statue of Victory, in
the hall of public business; and the dismal cries which were
heard in the theatre. The temple of Claudius, in this devoted
city, is noticed in a subsequent passage of the “Annals,” as a
building of great eminence ; and it is well known to have been of
sufficient dimensions and strength, to induce the garrison to take
shelter there from the assault of Boadicia and her numerous
army. . . . . . . .
The same writer informs us, that Agricola anxious to commu-
nicate Roman customs to the Britons, instructed and assisted
them “in the building of houses, temples, courts, and market-
places. By praising the diligent, and reproaching the indolent,
he excited so great an emulation among the Britons, that, after
they had erected all those necessary edifices in their towns, they
proceeded to build others merely for ornament and pleasure; as
porticos, galleries, baths, banquetting-houses, &c.”* ºn
The testimony of Giraldus Cambrensis, although it bears re-
ference to so low a date as the reign of Henry the Second, is entitled
to attentive consideration. In atopographical notice of Caerleon,
he observes that “this city was handsomely built of brick by the
Romans; and many vestiges of its former splendour may yet be
seen. Immense palaces, ornamented with gilded roofs, in imita-
tion of Roman magnificence; a tower of prodigious size; re-
markable hot-baths, relics of temples; and theatres enclosed
within fine walls, parts of which remain standing. You will find
on all sides, both within and without the circuit of the walls,
subterraneous vaults and aqueducts; and, what I think worthy of
notice, stoves, contrived with wonderful art, to transmit the heat
insensibly through narrow tubes.”t
• Tacit. Vita Agric. e. 21.
* Translation of Giralda, by Sir R. Colt Hoare, Vol. I. p. 103-4.


INTRoduction.
marked characte
the positive former existence of splendid vestiges, which have
now entirely disappeared.: . . . . . . .
The wear of years, and the destructive assaults of sordid hands,
*Aceount of Roman Antiquities at Woodchester, by Samuel Lyso
: A curiousins
and of the a
Mr. King supposes the descriptive terms of Giraldus to be
founded on a comparison between the buildings of the Romans
and those of the “rude, unpolished, Britons;” and while he al-
lows the superiority of the former, he still considers them not to
have risen above a mediocri
teum, or tower of prodigious size, mentioned by Giraldus, he
believes to have been not properly of Roman construction, but
some great round keep, more likely to have been the work of the
ity of character. The turrin gigan-
Normans.”
On the other hand, Mr. Lyon. considers the account handed
down by Giraldus to be of considerable importance; and observes
that “there is reason to believe very considerable remains of the
Roman buildings in Britain existed as late as the reign of Henry
the Second, when the greater part of them were destroyed for
the purpose of erecting churches, castles, and other edifices, out
of their materials; many of them had, doubtless, been before de-
stroyed, for the same purpose, by the Normans.”t ,-
Although Mr. King may, possibly, be correct when he supposes
the great tower at Caerleon to have been in reality, a Norman
keep, we still find, in the memorable description of Giraldus, a
notice of fragmentary buildings which, from their strongly-
r, were unquestionably Roman. Here we trace
almost
& ...,
• Muniment. Antiqua, vol. ii. p. 1st.
instance of the known existence of important Roman buildings,
of the almost total absence of ornamented vestigia, occurs in a Discourse
Mr. Gale, inserted in the Philosophical Transactions, Vol. XXX.-The
object of this essay is the eemmunication of intelligence respecting two in-
scriptions found at Lanchester, in the bishopric of Durham; and it appears,
from one of these, that Gordian the Third erected balneum cum basilica. But
undistinguished “great heaps of rubbish and ruins,” only, were found in the
vicinity of this commemorative inscription.












Ro MAN ANTIQUITIEs 1N BRIT AI N. 179
almost insensible in operation (but, however slow, still more
fatal in effect than the conquering battle-axe and firebrand) must,
in themselves, have proved sufficient to annihilate the rich frag-
ments of a host of Roman cities, in the course of thirteen-cen-
turies. From these causes we find the walls and the roads of the
Romans decomposed through the greater part of their tracks.
and the materials gone, far beyond the keen eye of antiquarian
research. This effect has taken place, even in situations of little
traffic; and the superior injuries likely to have been inflicted on
more busy spots, will be readily admitted. Independent of a sys-
tem of destruction so slow in progress, the ruin produced by the
severity of the barbarous tribes which conquered the Roman pro-
vinces, was often overwhelming and complete.—The savage To-
tila, after taking Rome, was prepared with engines for the an-
nihilation even of the imperial city itself; and was prevented from
carrying such a design into execution, only by the generous re-
monstrances of Belisarius, * . . . ;
For actual intelligence of the Romans having constructed nu-
merous magnificent buildings in Britain, it is certain that we
chiefly depend on the assertions of Tacitus. But the natural
probability of the circumstance is so great, as almost to amount
to rational conviction. In regard to the disappearance of nearly
all fragments of such edifices, the following remark may, perhaps,
be deemed of some weight.—The principal connexion of the Ro-
mans with this island, was, through many ages, of a military
cast; and we have still several instances remaining of the great
strength with which they constructed their fortifications. When
we reflect on the large number of their military works, so
strong and well-calculated to brave the assaults of time, which
have yielded to petty depredation, and are no more; we may rea-
dily imagine that the vestiges of buildings for civil purposes,
were not likely to survive the shock of so many centuries, but
have lost their character under the hands of the mason, or have
sunk to entire obliteration in the wear of more sordid uses.
Nor are we entirely destitute of proofs, that edifices of con-
;3 N 2 siderable





18e INTRouverion.
siderable splendour were really erected by the Romans in this island.
At Bath [Aquae Sulis] have been discovered, and are there pre-
served with due care, many fragments of decorated stone buildings,
consisting of parts of columns, pediments, cornices, friezes, &c.
The most considerable portions of these are supposed to have
belonged to two temples, of much architectural elegance; one
being of the Corinthian order.” Few disputants will contend for
the probability of such structures being confined to one Roman
station, however great its inportance. w
The discoveries made at Woodchester prove that the Romans
used columns, and various sculptured ornaments, even in their
provincial domestic architecture. The remains of building there
developed, would appear to proclaim, decisively, the substantial
and superb eharacter of the Romo-British villa of a superior class.
Accident has, likewise, disclosed the fragments of other villae,
though of a less important description; and we are justified in
believing, with the judicious illustrator of the antiquities at
Woodchester, that the plans of many more might yet be traced,
although their superstructures are defaced in Britain, beyond the
example of any other province of the Roman empire.t
* * * *
…
TRAces of Domestic Structures, INcluding Tessel-
Lated Pavements.—It will be perceived, from the above re-
marks, that few vestiges of the domestic buildings of the Romans,
evineing an attractive degree of splendour, are recorded to have
been discovered on the site of their principal cities and towns in Bri-
tain. The remains hitherto known to have been disclosed, are, in-
deed, chiefly confined to mutilated hypocausts and lessellated pave-
• *
- sº -- -
ments.
* See an account of these interesting vestiges, in a publication by Mr. S.
Lysons, intituled “R. mains of two Temples, and other Roman Antiquities,
discovered at Bath;" also in Warner's “History of Bath,” &c. In the for-
º, i e restored elevations of those parts of the buildings to which the
relate .. .
- han domestie architecture, in Mr.
Lysons's account of Roman Antiquities at Woodchester, &c.
-












ro MAN ANtiquities in BRItalN. 181
ments. The encroachments of subsequent buildings, have pre-
cluded all hope of ascertaining the extent and character of even
one domus, or town-dwelling, throu ghout the whole of the cities
formerly occupied by the Romans; and the principal traces of their
domestic structures are discovered in places at a considerable dis-
tance from their stations. . . . . .
In sequestered situations—in the sheltered valley, or on the
well-wooded brow of upland—are often found vestigia of domes-
tic buildings, unquestionably formed and inhabited by that po-
lished people. The Romans, from the time of Lucullus, down
to the days of their descendants now living, have evinced a
partiality for occasional abodes, of a retired and rural character.
Such a taste appears to have been conspicuous in the Roman
officers who commanded in Britain; and the remains of many
of their villae have been discovered, in the recent ages favourable
to antiquarian record. . . . . . . . . . . .
Several modern writers have used much labour to prove that
the country seats of the Romans, in Britain, were of a character
far from agreeing with our prevalent ideas, respecting the ha-
bitual magnificence of that people.” And it would appear pro-
bable that many of the rural dwellings, constructed only for the
purpose of occasional retirement, in a remote province of the
empire, might not be raised with laborious care, or formed of
the most durable materials. Mr. King argues that these build-
ings were only light fabrics of wood, as the tessellated pave-
inents so frequently found entire amongst their ruins, must, in-
evitably, have been destroyed by the fall and havoc of any
weighty substance, when the superstructure was violently razed
º Foremost amongst such writers is Mr. King, who petulantly observes
“ That in most instances,a Roman Questor, or Tribune, sitting in his tºga, n
his movable sella, in a room paved with dull, dark, and, at best, ill-looking mo-
saic work, did not, after all, appear with much more real splendour, as to any
advantages from the refinements of civilized life, than an old Scotch Laird, in
the Highands, sitting in his pluid, on a joint-stool, or on a chair of not much bet-
ter construction, in the corner of his rough, rude, castle-tower " Maui.
menta Antiqua, Vol. II, p. 164.
&


182 introduction.
to the ground. Without entering into speculative calculations
concerning the general probability of such an effect, it may be
observed that some of the Roman ville in Britain were certainly
form ed in a more substantial manner. At Woodchester, in Glou-
cestershire, [slightly noticed in a previous page] have been re-
vealed, to the height of three and four feet from the ſoundation,
the fragments of massy walls, constructed of squared stones.
Amongst the interesting ruins of the same building, were found
the remains of stone columns, and of statues which had enriched
the principal apartments.” Similar instances of the discovery of
foundations of solid wall, on the site of a Roman villa, are, no-
ticed in many pages of the Beauties of England. . ...
* From an examination of the several accounts of the traces of
man villae discovered in this island, it would appear to be likely
that such buildings were not more than one story high. The
rooms, although often large, were seldom of such proportions as
are deemed elegant by the moderns; but they were, in many
instances, ornamented with considerable Care, the walls of the
long passages and chief rooms being covered with stucco, and
painted in fresco.—Marks of destruction by fire have been fre-
quently ascertained in these domestic ruins.
It is certain that the Romans varied the form of their ha-
bilations, in attention to the climate and situation in which they
resided; but the view of a Romo-British villa may be supposed
to convey a correct idea of the general character of their domestic
* . . . . . . ºr ºf . . . . . ºlº sist
... • An account of the antiquities discovered at woodchester is presented in
the “ Beauties” for Gloucester, p. 572, et seq. The remains of other Roman
villas, of considerable interest, are noticed in the following volumes of the
“Beauties.” Lincolnshire, p. 658–9 ; Northamptonshire, p. 6; ibid. p.
207; Nottinghamshire, p. 396–8 ; North Wales, p. 475; South Wales, p.
*The domus and villa, or town and country-house, although unquestionably












Rom AN ANT19 uitles 1N BRIT Al N.
sist of spacious halls, extensive porticos, and open courts, runni
through the centre of the structure, with suites of rooms branching
out on either side. The dimensions of the site occupied by a
single distinguished villa were very great, and such as render
easy of comprehension the correctness of Seneca, when he ob-
serves that the villa of an elevated Roman had the appearance of
a camp, rather than of a country-seat. º º ºr
As vestiges of these villae [memorials of the domestic habits
of those who once ruled all Europe!] are noticed in many parts
of the Beauties of England, it may not be undesirable to emu-
merate the principal apartments into which the residence of a
Roman of the upper class was divided, and the uses to which
they were applied. tº
The chief rooms were denominated Triclinia; Caemationes;
CEci; Cubicula; Balnearea; Exedra ; and Pinacotheca. The
halls, porticos, and courts, were distinguished by the names of
Westibula : Atria; Peristylia; Tablina; Cavadia, or C
GEdium; Porticus; and Cryptoporticus. * : * *
The Triclinium, or triclinia, was the dining-room. * *
The Coenatio appears to have been a smaller eating, or supper-
The deci were large saloons, often adorned with columns, and
used for the purposes of dignified entertainments.
The Cubicula were bedchambers, sº º: , , ,
The baths [balnearea] of the Romans, were constructed with
much care; and, connected with these luxurious appendages of their
villae, may be noticed the Apodyterium, which was a kind of
dressing-room; and the Laconicum, or as it was sometimes called
Assa, or Calida sudatio, which was intended ent rely for ****
Purpose of sweating. Both these apartments adjoined the Tepi
darium, or warm bath. ſº wº
* but differently distributed. In the town-house the atrium was placed
next to the gate of entrance; in the country-house the peristylium, and next
to it the atrium, surrounded by a paved portico, Newton's Vitruv. Wol, I,










Exedra, were large rooms, which are supposed to have
ounded with seats, and used for conversational pur-
ses. º. • * * * * * * * * * *
The Pinacotheca were picture-rooms; and Vitruvius, directs
them to be made of an ample magnitude, nº loº
The halls, courts, and porticos, formed distinguished portions
of the Roman villa. After passing the vestibule, the visitor
entered the Peristylium, which was a large court, or area, sur-
rounded by a colonnade. Beyond this division of the structure
was the Atrium, or hall; which was surrounded by a paved por-
tico. The Tablinum is thought to have been a place appropriated
to the preservation of the family records.” The Cavadia appear
to have been sometimes large halls, and sometimes open courts,
in the interior parts of the house, communicating with several
suites of rooms, and in many respects resembling the airiat
The Porticus is well known to have been an open parade, orna-
mented with pillars, and used for the exercise of walking. The
Crypto-porticus was an enclosed gallery, in which the Romans
walked, and took other exercise, during inclement seasons. ,
- The houses of the Romans, from the time of Nero, were
chiefly warmed by Hypocausts, or subterraneous flues, with fun-
nels through the walls. It is observed by Mr. King, that “these
hypocausts, with their flues, for the conveyance of heat, were
of two kinds: sometimes they were constructed of small pillars,
either square or round, a little more than two feet high, and
placed sometimes about one foot asunder, and sometimes nearer,
supporting the tiles or stones, on which was laid the cement for
forming the tessellated floor of the apartment;-and sometimes
they were constructed of flat stones, or of tiles, laid one upon
another, ea H. H rojecling a little further than that under it, and,
by §§ that means forming something like an arch, so as to have the
pace of each flue between them much narrower at the top than at
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . - the
* Newton's Vitruvius, p. 136.
- Roman Antiquities at Woodchester, p. 17, , , , ,


















Ro MAN ANTIQUITIEs 1N BRITA IN. 185:
the bottom, leaving, indeed, not more than six inches at the
top, on which either a tile, or flat stone, was laid across, as the
first foundation, either for a stucco, or tessellated pavement. tº
“When the pillars were of brick,” those that were square were
composed of flat bricks [about eight or nine inches square] laid
one upon another, with mortar between;—and those that were
round were composed sometimes of flat round tiles, laid just in the
same manner, and sometimes of semicircular tiles placed two in
each row, with their flat edges put together, only so as to have
the joining of the two tiles in one row, placed alternately at right
angles with the joining of those immediately beneath them.4.”
The Romans also warmed their houses by means of brasiers
OT chaffing-dishes, and camini. The latter word has by some
writers been supposed to signify a fire-place, with a chimney,
like those of modern dwellings. But no such erection has been
hitherto discovered among the remains of a Roman building. tº
Tessellated pavements have been discovered in many parts of
this island. § The Romans greatly delighted in this species of
ornamented floor, which succeeded, as we are informed by Pliny,
to the old painted pavements, which had their origin in Greece.
So desirable was this mosaic work considered in the arrangement
- . . . . .
º
* Brick was the material most frequently used; but in many instances the
pillars are found to have been formed of hewn stone. - tº .
Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. II, p. 183—The same writer obse ---------- *- : - - - - --------
many inconsiderate antiquaries have been accustomed to attribute every h
pocaust, when the discovery of such a relic took place, to a Roman º:
whereas many unquestionably appertained to dwelling apartments. *
* Wide Roman Antiquities at Woodchester, p. 8, and the authorities there
quoted. . . . r tº º
9 Discoveries of tessellated pavement are noticed in numerous volumes of
the Beauties of England and Wales. The undermentioned pages contain
*criptions of curious specimens; Dorsetshire, p. 511–514; Essex, p. 325;
Gloucestershire, p. 572, et seq; ibid, 598; Leicestershire, p. 332; Lincoln-
* p. 679; London and Middlesex, vol. I. p. 95–97; Monmouthshire,
P.171-172; Northamptonshire, p. 216; Oxfordshire, p. 425–6; Wilt-
shire, P. $16–17; ibid, P. 698.










INTRODUCTION,
buildings as were inhabited by the elevated and wealthy,
considerable quantities of tesserae [the small dies of which
lavement is composed] formed a part of the baggage of a
regular army, and were laid down in the principal apartments of
itorium. * . s
The tesserte which compose the majority of such mosaic pave-
ments as are discovered in Britain, are, in general, nearly cubes,
of about half an inch square. But they are by no means inva-
riably of that size. Some, which, are of mere brick, and were
used for the coarse work of ordinary apartments, are considerably
larger; while others are of very small dimensions, and were em-
ployed in filling up the minute parts of such pavements as were
worked with laborious care and delicacy. They are of various
colours; and, in many instances, appear to have been formed
of stones dug from the neighbourhood of the building in which
they were placed, with the addition only of small dies of brick,
to produce a strong shade of red, and of a hard calcarious stone,
of a bright white hue, bearing some resemblance to Palombino
The tesserae, or dies, were embedded in cement, and placed
on prepared strata of different kinds, [as rubble-stones; or blend-
ed sand, clay, and loose pieces of brick;] with brick-work for the
foundation of the whole.
*The mosaic-work was disposed in a great variety of patterns,
which sometimes consisted merely of ornamental involutions, as
the vitruvian scroll, the labyrinth-fret, and the guilloche; but were
more freq uently descriptive of heathen deities, or other allegori-
cal figures allusive to war, love, and the pleasures of the chace.
The ex cution of the figures is usually very coarse; and an
elegance of taste is chiefly displayed in such mosaic pavements
as consist of fanciful ornaments, unconnected with attempts to
Inscriptions have been frequently found on tessellated pavements
in several other parts of Europe,buthave been only rarely discover-
edin Britain. The first discovery of this nature was made by Mr.
& *** * * * * * * * Lysons,









Roman Antiquities 1N BRIT AIN. 187
Lysons, at Woodchester; and the same gentleman has been so
fortunate as to reveal, for the gratification of the antiquary,a
second inscription in mosaic-work, at Frampton, in Dorsetshire.
that neither of these inscriptions contains any reference to the
dates at which the respective ville were erected, or to the per-
sons by whom they were occupied. tº
mong the
most interesting vestiges of the ascendancy of that great nation,
in Britain. These relics, indeed, constitute a distinguished ine-
morial of the former sway and busy population of the Romans,
in all places which were included within the bounds of their
mighty empire; and are found in great abundance, by the opera-
tion of the plough, or spade, either scattered loosely through
the soil, or reposited for security in urns and other receptacles.
he
Roman Coins.—The coins of the Romaus rank a
They are, also, frequently dug from a concealment amidst
foundations of buildings.
The exuberance with which they are discovered in Britain, is ma-
nifested by very numerous pages of the “Beauties;” but it is evi-
dent that the topographer, whilst confining his enquiries to En-
gland and Wales, is chiefly concerned with such as bear an imme-
diate relation to our native island; and these will be found to be only
few in number. It may, however, be desirable to remind the
reader of some circumstances generally connected with the coin-
age of Rome; as the collecting of medals forms one of the most
elegant branches of antiquarian employment.
In regard to the material of which they are fabricated, Roman
coins are chiefly of three sorts; brass, or copper; silver; and
gold." The first material was that of earl iest use, and long re-
& 3 . -- mained
“Many coins are found of lead, iron, or copper, finely plated with gold QI’
silver, and are evidently the performance of Roman forgers. That coins le-
gitimately composed of lead were very anciently in circulation at Rome, is,
however, unquestionable; but only few are discovered with imperial impres.
*ions, and those are supposed to have been mere trial-pieces, ;


188, introduction.
mained the sole metal of which the money of the Romans was
Somposed; but silver and gold were both adopted, more than two
enu ore the Christian era. . . . .
* In shape they are roundish, but seldom perfectly circular; and,
in point of size,they vary from a diameter of three inches, to that
of one-fourth of an inch. Those of the larger size are termed
medallions. The brass imperial coins, which are by far the more
numerous, are of three sizes, large, middle, and small;" the
distinctions, as to size, being ascertained by the size of the
head stamped on the obverse, rather than by the breadth and
thickness of the coin itself. The large brass, as vestiges of an-
tiquity, are considered the most valuable of all Roman coins, on
account of the great size of the portraits and figures, and the
beauty of the types and the execution.—The class of coins term-
ed middle brass, is found in the greatest numbers, but is much
inferior to the first size, in interest and in elegance of workman-
ship. The series of the small brass comprises many very curious
and estimable coins.
Little discrimination is now made between the brass and copper
coins of the Romans, although, when used as a circulating me-
dium of traffic, the brass was considered to be double in value
to the copper. This want of attention arises from that fine rust
which is peculiar to these metals, when reposited in particular
soils, and in which the best specimens of ancient brass and
copper coins are beautifully encased. This rust is of various co-
lours, and, when really produced by time, is as hard as the
metal itself, and acts as a natural varnish, which preserves the
most delicate touches of the impression, more effectually than
could have been done by any artificial means.
The silver imperial coins are so numerous and complete, that
; : . . . . . they
º such are the classes into which they are arbitrarily divided; the large,
being about the size of our crown, and the middle that of our half-crown;
while the small comprehends all brass coins not larger than our shilling. But
it will be noticed that the brass coinage of Rome gradually declines in size
from the time of Severus."º º tº






Rom AN ANtiquities in BritAIN. 189,
they are not held in extraordinary esteem by the fastidious me--
dallist. Coins in this metal, are frequently dug up with large.
spots of green, blue, or red rust; all of which are injurious to
the value of the specimen, They, likewise, from lying in a soil,
subject to particular vapours, acquire a yellow tarnish, which has
deceptively inclined many persons to suppose that they had been
gilt. The Roman silver was generally alloyed, for the purpose of
hardening it.
The imperial coins of gold are deemed so truly precious, that
the purity of the metal is one of the least considerations in es-
timating their value. We here see the arts of medallic invention
and execution carried to an admirable height; and the metal is
highly favourable to the perpetuation of such exquisite work-
manship, as it is superior to all rust, except the iron-mould ac-
quired from lying in a soil impregnated with iron.
The impress on all these classes of coins is interesting equally
to the historian, the antiquary, and the general lover of science.
Before I bestow on this subject a few brief notices, the reader
may be reminded, in the lively and elegant words of Addison,
“that, formerly, there was no difference between money and,
medals. An old Roman had his purse full of the same pieces
that we now preserve in cabinets. As soon as an emperor had
done any thing remarkable, it was immediately stamped on a
coin, and became current through his whole dominions. It was
a pretty contrivance to spread abroad the virtues of an Emperor,
and make his actions circulate. A fresh coin was a kind of
a gazette, that published the latest news of the empire.” "
Until the time of Julius Cæsar, the portrait of a living per-
sonage had never been stamped upon a Roman coin; but, from
that period downwards, the medals of the empire present a gra-
tifying succession of portraits, often of exquisite workmanship,
"Dialogue on Medals, Bishop Hurd's edit. p. 489—Medallions are ordi.
§ suily supposed to act as an exception to this remark, but Mr. Pinkerton
*oubts whether many medallions might not have been circulated as
# money
Wide Essay on Medals. , ºf

introduction.
and evincing, in the strength of their character, a probable close-
mess of resemblance. On the coins of the upper empire,” the
ed in profile, a style of representation well adapted
face is exhibite
to the dimensions of a medal; but, in those of the lower Empe-
rors, this custom was frequently abandoned; and here, to use the
. . . . . . . . lance of broad Gothic
satirical words of Addison, “you find abund
faces, like so many fall moons, on the side of a coin.”
While the obverse is enriched with the portrait of a Roman
Emperor, [then, in reality, the monarch presiding over all Eu-
rope] the reve presents a device, finely emblematic, or com-
memorative of some event of importance to the Roman nation,
and thence to the civilized world at large. We here find repre-
sented, and often with great beauty, deities, and personifications -
allusive to peculiar virtues presumed to be displayed by the Em-
perors, or by the people subject to their rule. Any extension of
the empire, or victory conducive to that event, was promptly
stamped upon a coin, to gratify the patriotic pride of the Roman
citizens, and to blazon to posterity, the achievements of their
armies.f Nor were military actions alone deemed worthy of
notice upon the coinage; any great work of an honourable
peace obtained a place on these lasting medallic tablets;
rºll ----.
and the
reWerse
* The reader may be reminded that the era termed the Upper Empire, is
considered to have commenced under Julius Caesar, and to have ended about
the year of Christian reckoning, 260. The lower empire embraces a period
of near 1200 years, and terminates at the capture of Constantinople. All the
imperial medals, till the time of the Palaeologi, are deemed antique. .
+ Mr. Addison, (Dialogues on Medals, &c., espatiates, at some extent, on
the judgment shewn by the ancients, in causing the record of great events,
for the information of posterity, to be stamped on brass and copper, as the
less valuable metals in common esteem, rather than on gold and silver, which
are so tempting to the destructive hand of avarice. Although similar devices
were impressed on the more precious substances, it is indeed sufficiently evi-
dent that not any opportunity was neglected of perpetuating actions of re-
nown, by commemorating them on coins likely to be valuable with future
ages for the device and legend, rather than for the intrinsic value of the
meta l. &











Ro MAN ANtreuities IN BritAIN. 191.
reverse of many coins was thought to be satisfactory and com-
plete, when it presented an image of security, as the ſortified
gateway observable on several which relate to Britain. º
The legends are remarkable for a sententious brevity, for an
amplitude and grandeur of meaning expressed with least
possible expenditure of words. In these, and in the device, it
will searcely be doubted but that a flattery, most contradictory
to sober truth, often prevailed; and few will avoid a smile on
seeing Caligula and Nero styled the fathers of their country, and
Vitellius the restorer of the city of Rome. Still, in many in-
stances, the Roman medals would appear to present an honest
echo of public approbation; and it will readily be allowed that
they are greatly assistant to history, in regard to the arrange-
ment of events, dates, and biographical particulars.
It has been observed that the Roman coins bearing an immediate
relation to Britain, are comparatively few in number. Camden
[who must be considered, as to efficiency of intelligence, th
the leas
* ... : é:
C
parent of British topographical history] has presented a series,
into which, according to the remark of Mr. Gough, “he has ad-
mitted several coins, which have no other relation to Britain than
that the Emperors to whom they belong had something to do
here.” Mr. Walker, in Bishop Gibson’s edition of the Bri-
tannia, has added six more; but still, if such a criterion be re-
ceived as the standard of adoption, it is certain that even such an
addition is much smaller than might be made, with superior in-
dustry or opportunities. Mr. Gough, in his edition of Camden,
gives a plate, which “professes to exhibit only such Roman
coins as bear any evident marks of relation to this country.”
The coins presented in Mr. Gough’s plate are twenty eight in
number; but, certainly, do not comprehend all which have areal
and immediate relation to British affairs. > § . . . Š
It is remarkable that we have only one colonial coin of Bri-
tain. As engraved by Camden, this single instance belongs to
• Gough's Edit of Camden, p. 11a, º,






192 introduction.
Claudius; and, according to that writer, we learn from the in-
scription “that Claudius was, for some success in Britain, in
the 12th year of his reign, saluted Imperator the 18th time;
and that a colony was then settled at Camulodunum.” On the
reverse is the device of a man driving a cow and a bull, in allu-
sion to the Roman custom of marking the site of the walls of an
intended settlement, by a plough drawn by a cow and a bull,
Medals, allusive to Britain, occur in each of the three metals
used in the Roman coinage. Among these will be noticed a .
coin of Claudius, who is termed by Roman authors the conqueror
of Britain. This coin is rare in gold, and is still less frequently
found in silver. The bust of the Emperor is adorned with the
laurel crown. On the reverse is the inscription De BRITANNis,
and a triumphal arch, with trophies; “which Vaillant refers to
his expedition hither, A. U. C. 796, A. D.43; and his pompous
triumph over the Britons, for which the arch here represented
was erected to him, in the 9th region of Rome, in his 6th tribu-
nate, A. U. C. 799, A. D. 46.”f Over the arch is the statue
of the Emperor, on horseback, between two trophies of British
arms.
Many of the other coins relating to Britain, were also struck
in commemoration of victories obtained by different Emperors, or
their Generals; as Antoninus Pius, Commodus, Caracalla, and
Severus. On the reverse of these are seen various emblems of
triumph; as a winged figure of victory, sustaining a palm branch
and shield, and sitting on the shields of the conquered Britons;
º , , two
* Mr. Gou t (Edit. of Britannia ; notes on Roman coins) observes, that
he has not been able to find where Camden and Burton met with this coin,
It ha not been turned up at Malden, or Colchester; nor is it mentioned by 2}
Vaillant, Patin, or occo. The same writer adds, “that Claudius's 12th
tribunate answers to his being the 26th time Imperator; not, as Camden
reads it, 18, in a character unusual on coins.” .”
t Notes on the Roman coins in Gough's edit. of Camden; where see an
engraving of this curious medal. . . . . #





Roman Antiquities in Britain. 198
two winged Victories, writing on a shield hung to a palm-tree,
and two captives below, with their hands tied behind them.
Sometimes, two triumphs are celebrated on the reverse of one
coin; as in the instance of a medal struck by Commodus, where
a figure is represented sitting, and holding two trophies, one in
each hand.
But the coins most interesting, from their connexion with our
native country, are those which contain a personification of Bri-
tannia. Several such coins are preserved; and it is highly
curious to enquire into the characteristics with which the polished
Romans would invest our island, and the degree of esteem in
which they held this country, on a scale of comparison with their
other provinces.
The enquiry is by no means gratifying to national vanity, or
even satisfactory to fair patriotic prepossession. On the Roman
medals, every other province is emblematically complimented for
some circumstance of natural wealth, or of artificial produce.
Thus, Africa is quoiffed with the elephant's head, and attended by
the bull, and by other emblems allusive to wealth in agriculture.
The fruitfulness of Egypt is denoted by a basket of wheat;
while Spain supports an olive branch; and Gaul is declared to
be rich in flocks, by an attendant sheep. And all these figures
are of a graceful form, and are in soft, pacific, attitudes.
But Britain is represented with no encouraging token of rich-
ness of staple, or urbanity of manners. In a medal of Antoninus'
Pius, noticed by Addison, she is seated upon a globe, which
stands in water, “probably to denote that she is mistress of a
new world, separate from that which the Romans had before
conquered, by the interposition of the sea.” In her hand she
quered province, on another coin of the same Emperor,t she
* Both of these medals are engraved in the plate Nunni Romani, Tab. iii.
of Gibson's Camden. One is also engraved, and both are noticed, in Gough's .
edition of the same work. - - ... . . . . . . * ... ºº

194 1NTRo Duction.
is sitting upon a rock, with a spear and shield, to attest her
military disposition; but, still, with a Roman ensign in her
hand, the badge of subjugation. It will, likewise, be observed
that she is so thinly and penuriously clad, as to approach to a
state of semi-nudity; while the other figures are enwrapped in
robes of comfort and value. She is, also, destitute of the grace
and gentleness conspicuous in personifications of the other pro-
vinees. & ...’
But the reader will recollect that the conquests of Antoninus
Pius, in regard to which these coins were undoubtedly struck,
related to the north of Britain; and the extreme poverty of aspect
in the personification, therefore, applies chiefly to districts which
few designers of medals, even in more prosperous ages, would
think of representing by a figure very warmly clad, and pro-


vided with a cornucopie. . . . . . . . .
On a very rare brass coin of Claudius, the titular conqueror of
the south, the personification of Britain bears in the left hand a
hasin, which is supposed to contain pearls; but it is remarkable,
that, when the same coin occurs in gold, this basin, with its sup-
posed offering of natural treasure, is omitted.—Still, in the
medals of Claudius, and of Hadrian [whose knowledge of Britain
was confined to the same southern part of the island] we see Bri-
tannia in a more comely attire than in those of Antoninus, al-
though she still bears marks of poverty, when compared with the
well-dressed female forms, representing other provinces.
to speak in the language of a Medallist, the Britannias [or
eoins presenting personifications of our country] are very scarce
and valuable. Mr. Pinkerton, in his judicious “Essay on
Medals,” has engraved ten of these coins; and it does not ap-
pear that above four more exist; neither of which varies much
from those represented in his work, and described, as to their
leading features, in the present pages.
Amongst the medals relating to Britain, which are admitted
into a Roman series, none have caused so much discussion as
those of Carausius and Allectus. The story of these successive
. º .. usurpers


Ro MAN ANti Quitles 1N BRIT A1 N.
usurpers of imperial power, has been briefly noticed in our som-
pendium of historical events relating to the ascendancy of the
Romans in Britain; and allusions to it occur in several pages of
the “Beauties.” Carausius is the fav --- ite hero of many
Medallists; and his reign [certainly an era of some consequence
in the naval annals of Britain] affords numerous curious and rare
medals, particularly in the small brass; but the cool investiga-
tor will, perhaps, deem the labours mis-spent, which have ex-
tended through several volumes, in enquiries concerning the
medallic history of this adventurous Emperor, even when the
name of his wife, Oriuna, is added to the sum of interest.f
The curiosity is naturally excited, as to the cause of the great
abundance in which Roman coins are found, in the various situa-
tions noticed in a previous page; and I must own that, in my
opinion, not any conjectures yet presented are fully satisfactory.
buried in the earth, it has been supposed that it was
tice with the Romans to hoard their money in such a situation,
* * * *
• The leading particulars of this eventful story are stated in the haul,
for Oxfordshire, p. 386.
t It is observed by Mr. Gough that the subject of Carausius and his coins
has been exhausted in the following works: “Histoire de Carausius, Empe.
dallic History of Carausius, 1757, and 1759,” 2 vols. 4 to. His “ Palaeo,
graphia Britannica, No. III. On oriuna, wife of Carausins, 1752." 4
“Two Dissertations on Carausius, Emperor of Britain, together with that o
his supposed wife and son; a third, also, of him and his successor Alle.
with a letter to Dr. Stukeley on the first volume of his Histo º . . . . . . . .
4to, and “Further observations on Carausius and oriums, 1756.
The two last were by Dr. Kennedy, physician to the Middlesex hospital, whi
Possessed a collection of the coins of Carausius, amounting to 456 specim
***hich were of fine silver. The controversy was closed by an
mous history of Carausius, or “an examination of what had been advanced
0Il that subject by Genebrier and Stukeley, &c. 1762” 4to.—In Gough's
* of Camden, Plate Roman coins, are engraved two of the coins of
*rausius, from a plate in the work of Dr. Kennedy.
*






















introduction.
and the following two lines of Horace are adduced in support of
the supposition: ~
Quidjuvat immensum te Argenti Pondus, et Auri
Furtin defossa timidum deponere Terra 2 . :
& 3:. . . .s % , ; ; & . at. Lib. I. Sat. I.
# , º,
z *
It is observed, that the servant in the Gospel, who did not
trade with the talent entrusted to him, went and digged in the
earth, and hid his Lord's money. The following remark appears
of considerable weight, in respect to the discovery of vessels
containing coins in subterranean situations: “Among the mili-
tary, it seems likely that the method of burying money would
be pursued in general; for, as the Roman forces were paid in
duration would occasion such an accumulation of this ponderous
coin, as could not be carried about by the soldier, with any con-
venience, in his numerous excursive marches. The surest mode,
therefore, of securing his treasure until he returned to his garri-
son, would be to deposit it in a spot known only to himself.
But, as it frequently happened that these veterans died before
they had an opportunity of revisiting their hoards, the know-
ledge of them would be necessarily lost with their owners, and
they would continue in the places where they were originally
d *posited, until accident, or curiosity, again brought them to
Camden attributes the abundance in which these coins are
found, to the imperial edict which prohibited the melting down
It may be safely supposed, that the whole of the Roman
money discovered in Britain, was not actually left in the soil, or
in other places of secretion, by the Romans themselves. Ken-
net [in general so judicious in his remarks] is certainly subject
% :::::::: ::... & g **ś, ź. . & .3-----> . N-- X.
§ . . ; # 3. . ºº & . . . ; # ºg %. :::::::::: § 3 ; ; ... . ; §: ;
% a. * * * * * * tº sº tº 3.
* Iter Britanniarum, &c. p. 35.












Roman ANT19 UItſ ps. IN BRIT AIN. 19 º
to error, according to all probability of conjecture, when, in his
“Parochial Antiquities,” he surmises that these invaders, at
their final departure from Britain, buried their money in the
ground, under the hope of returning and regaining it. The
omens of disjunction were too decisive to allow of our believing
that they could descend to such a weakness, especi illy when we
remember the slow progress with which those indications had
advanced towards a crisis. , ; : º
But the circulation of Roman money in Britain, did not cease
with the departure of the warlike and predominating people
under whose influence its was minted. In its natural course, as a :
medium of traffic under a government long deemed secure, it had
penetrated every recess of the British province, and formed
equally the hoard of the artificer, busbandman, and merchant.
That it prevailed as a currency for many years after the Romans.
abandoned Britain, would a ppear to be unquestionable 3. and a 3.
considerable proportion of the secreted masses of money, or
scattered gleanings of Roman coin, found in many parts of the
island, may, perhaps, with a rationality of conclusion, be re-
ferred to the fruitless precaution, or the terrified negligence,
of the Britons, when their towns were threatened by northern
invaders; or were involved, by their assault, in a smoking
º
Among other opinions, it has been thought that the Romans.
left large quantities of their money in different places, “as in-
contestible proofs of the once Roman greatness, and undeniable
memorials of the immensity of their dominions.”—In aid of such
a notion, it may be remarked, that much the greater number of
the coins thus discovered are of copper. . . . º.
rary of Antoniums, as a conjecture of the Bishop of Cloyne,
“that the barbarians who destroyed the towns did not know, or
despised, the use of copper money; and therefore left it among
the ruins.” This opinion is supported, by observing that “the
Roman coins found on the site of desolated towns, are chiefly
o 3 copper,








. . . . . ; 1NTRon UcTio N.
he surface of the ruined t * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is nº
these causes may have assisted in producing the
ncontestible fact, of Roman money being almost daily found
nerally scattered equally
in such abundance, as to convey an assurance of a very large
circulation of specie during the ascendant of that people in Bri-
tain. But it will be obvious, that such of the ascribed causes
as appear most efficacious, are adopted on conjecture only, how-
ever ingenious those conjectures may be deemed. . . .
* ALTARs, AND other Inscribed Stones, AND pieces of
Sculpture.—We have good authority for believing that the
Romans introduced, with a liberal, if not with a judicious hand,
he art of sculpture to the conquered districts of this island. It
is well known that they were extremely fond of adorning with
statues, both the public and private buildings of the imperial
city, in the first and second centuries; and mutilated vestiges of
such circumstances of decoration have been often found in Bri-
the numerous statues of heathen deities, connected with religious
temples, which were remaining, even at the date at which he
That the Romans sedulously introduced statues of their fanci-
ful deities, during their efforts to eradicate the religion of the
Druids, may, indeed, be readily imagined; and that ornamental
tues were frequently placed in their principal private build-
vident from fragments discovered on several occasions,
and particularly from those found at Woodchester, in Glouces-
tershire. . « . . . &.32% . . .';* * * - 2.
It must necessari
essarily be supposed that such pieces of sculpture
are used in ornamenting great public buildings, or the prin.
mansions of the affluent and tasteful, were procured from
uperial city. But it is unquestionable that many sculptors
* Gilda. Hist, c. 2.


























Ro MAN ANT1 Quiti ES IN BRIT AIN.
from Rome practised their art in this country, during the more
settled ages of the Roman domination over Britain. It is to be
regretted that only few specimens, of either kind, are known to
exist at the present time.” The introduction of Christianity led
to the destruction of images designed for heathen worship; and
the relics of such statues as adorned the private domus, or villa,
are comparatively few in number, and are generally of indifferent
execution. Those who are anxious to uphold the dignity of
Roman art in all its circumstances, may imagine that the in-
waders removed the most valuable works of the statuary, when
they finally quitted the island; but the less impassioned will,
perhaps, believe that the refined arts, even when stimulated by
the wishes of Roman voluptuousness, languished on the soil of
this distant province; and that Britain was not constituted the
depositary of any costly and transcendant works in the sculptor's
department of talent, whilst subject to the military sway of the
It is, at any rate, certain that the principal remains of Roman
sculpture in Britain, consist of figures cut in Basso and Alto
Relievo, on altars and various monuments. Some few of these
exhibit an indication of taste and skill; but the greater number
are equally coarse in design and execution. tº
The intention and usual character of altars, and other inscribed
* , , , , , . . . . . . . O 4 stones,
. Leland, writing in the reign of Henry the Eighth, notices vario spieces
of sculpture at Bath, which had been rescued from the ruins of the build-
ings to which they originally appertained, and were then inserted in the
city walls. Some interesting discoveries of Roman antiquities, comprising
a fine head in bronze (supposed to be that of Apollo) have since oc urred at
the same place, and are mentioned in the Beauties Somersetshire, p. 362
º
º, ºr • º . º º, sº * , º **
-366. One of the most elegant specimens of Roman proficiency in th
fine arts, that have been discovered in this country, was found at Ribche
in the year 1796. This is a helmet of Bronze, “ ornamented with basso-
* relievos, representing armed men, with horses, &c. in various attitudes of
skirmishing.” An account of this discovery is inserted in the Vetusta 1 ſon •
*ents, the Archæologia, the Beauties for Lancashire, p. 152, &c. º,












stones, are comprehensively stated by Mr. Horsley, in words te
the following effect:—“The occasions on which the Romans
acted inscriptions were various. Many altars, with their
proper inscriptions upon them, were consecrated for sacrifice.
Such are the votive altars, upon many of which we meet with the
words pro salute, that is, for the preservation, or welfare, of the
emperor, or some other person, or of the parties themselves who
dedicated these altars. ; . . . . . . . . º,
“There are other inscriptions which proceeded not from any
act of devotion, but were erected upon various occasions; such
are honorary monuments, in compliment to the emperor or some
other great person, especially after any success or victory ob-
tained. And, sometimes, such inscriptions were erected upon
finishing some considerable work, or a part of it. Of this kind
are the centurial inscriptions,” placed in Severus's wall, and
those inscriptions found upon the wall in Scotland.
“Altars are generally inscribed to gods and goddesses; and
sometimes to the emperors. A great number of these, in Bri-
tain, are inscribed to several of the principal gods of the Romans;
but many, likewise, to local deities, or such as were supposed to
preside over particular places. In honorary monuments and in-
scriptions, the emperors are often complimented in the most ser-
vile manner, and sometimes deified. But some inscriptions are
only set up as memorials of finishing a considerable work, or
public structure, and directed to no person.”t &
"It will be recollected that the custom of raising commemorative
* Inscriptions erected by the legionary cohorts, or their centuries, and
thence termed centurial by Mr. Horsley.
* It is justly observed by Mr. Horsley, that “inscriptions were erected by
bersons of all ranks and degrees in the army, from the highest officers dow nº
to the common soldiers. The commanders and governors of forts, more espe-
cially, pleased themselves with perpetuating their names, by such monu-
ments. But we have many inscriptions, also, by other tribunes; and seve-
ral by whole legions, or their vexillations; and many others by cohorts and
their centurions.”—Bit. Rom. p. 131, . .










Roman ANT19 Ulties. IN BRITAIN.
inscriptions prevailed chiefly in the time of the later emperors.
Dr. Fleetwood, speaking of the antiquities of the Roman empire
generally, observes “that, amongst the many thousand inscrip-
tions to the succeeding emperors, we have scarce six or seven to
Julius Caesar, though all their exploits put together scarce equal-
led those of Julius Caesar alone.” And thus, in regard to the
Roman antiquities of Britain in particular, it is stated by Mr.
Horsley, “that, notwithstanding the descent of Julius Caesar,
the exploits and conquests of Claudius and Vespasian in this is-
land, and the wars that were carried on here under some others
who succeeded them, yet we have not one inscription in Britain,
that undoubtedl y belongs to any of the first twelve Caesars.
Hadrian is the first emperor whose name occurs in any of our
British inscriptions; and we have but very few of his, although
he built a rampart quite across the country; and the few erected
to him are simple and short. In the following reigns, especially
under some of the Antonines, they become more numerous, as
well as more pompous; but, after the reign of Constantine the
Great, when the Roman power began to decline, they very much
decrease again. No emperor's names are mentioned in any in-
scriptions after that reign; nor the names of consuls, or any
other determinate dates.”* ºf 3 3.
Roman Sepulchnes, AND Funeral Vessels.-Sepulchral
vestiges of the Romans have been discovered in several arts of
Britain; and the vessels in which they sometimes deposited the
ashes of the deceased, together with other articles relating to
their funeral ceremonies, form some of the most interesting speci-
men;
.* Britannia Romana, Beok II, chap. 1 and 11.-It will be observed that
few Roman inscriptions have been discovered in the south and east, or south-
east parts of this island. The principal altars and inscriptions, which have
hitherto appeared, have been found in Monmouthshire; the northern coun-
ties of England; and near the wall in Scotland.—The county of Northum-
tland is particularly rich in Roman antiquities. . . . . . . . . .”
º'
*






mens of ancient cus .
or in the cabinets of curious individuals.” ::
- It is clearly ascertained that the Romans used, at the same
time, the two different modes of consuming the body by fire, and
of burying it entire. The former custom chiefly prevailed; but
instances of both methods of funeral deposit have been found in
+a; in althasºn. iny great abundance. It is observed by
stom which are contained in public depositaries,
Britain, althoug
Mr. Douglas that the “burial places of the Romans, in this
kingdom, are very rarely discovered, owing to their custom of
interring the dead at no great distance from their stations, by
the side of the public road, and in such situations as have been
occupied by a succeeding people to modern times. Their princi-
pal towns and cities are the actual residence of the present gene-
ration; hence, through the various changes of different people
and different customs, their traces have been long destroyed; and
it is now only to accident we are indebted for the few remains
which this country has preserved.”+ . :-
a The situation of the burial places of the Romans is explained
in the above extract. Their prevailing characteristics and pecu-
liarities might furnish subject for numerous pages, which could
scarcely fail to be curious and interesting, as such a comprehen-
sive statement is not, I believe, presented, at a single view, in
any English publication. x .”
In regard to the external marks by which the burial place of
he Romans may be distinguished from that of any other nation
connected with this island, it would appear that we have no
direct evidence of their ever constructing barrows over the re-
º main
• Sepulchral vestiges of the Romans are noticed in various parts of the
Beauties of England. Some interesting discoveries occur in the following
p. 671; 689; 1016; 1164; (and other places in the same county, men-
tioned in the inder, under the head of Roman Antiquities;) for Lincolnshire,
p. 599–600; ibid. 640; for Lancashire, p. 53-4; for London and Mid-
dlesex, Vol.I. p. 86–91; for Oxfordshire, p. 462–4; for Yorkshire, p. 671.
+ Nenia Britannica, p. 142.














Ro MAN ANT19 unties IN BRIT AIN.
mains of the deceased, except such as were raised over the pro-
miscuous bodies of those who fell in battle; a custom which has
been traced, in a previous page, down to the time of our fathers,
and which has been practised by nearly all nations at different
In opposition to such a remark, it may, however, be noticed
that many articles, apparently of Roman workmanship, have been
found, in conjunction with human remains, beneath tumuli in
Britain. But the following passage of an author who has inves-
tigated the subject of funeral tumuli with laborious care, will,
perhaps, account in a satisfactory way for such contradictory ap-
pearances: “Where Roman insignia have been found, we have
very, great reason to believe that the barrow, or cairn, was the
sepulture, not of Romans, but of British officers, or chieftains,
in the Roman service.—We do not find that the Romans ever
raised barrows over the sepulchres or ashes of their great men,
either in Italy or in any other part of the world; and, therefore,
there can be no proper authority for supposing them to have done
so in this country.”* † - . . . . .
It is certain that sepulchres, decidedly Roman, and such as
may be adduced as specimens the most strongly marked, are dis-
covered, without the least indication of any super-incumbent
barrow. The general exterior characteristics of a Roman place
of interment in Britain, would appear to consist simply of the
plain grave, with one or more stone pillars, bearing an inscrip-
tion, and sometimes a sculptured device. Roman sepulchral in-
scriptions on stone have, indeed, been found in most parts of this
island which are visited by a Roman road, although they most
frequently occur in the vicinity of a known station. These are
generally, though not invariably, inscriptions to military men;
and the stones are sometimes charged with the effigies of the de-
. & X.
* º ºs º ºr
"Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. I. p. 267.
º, ºn
+ The letters D. M. or the words Dis Manibus, constantly occur in the
º 3 . . . . . . . . . . . .'; … * fu







. The aspect exhibited by the interior, necessarily depends on
the nature of the solemnities practised at the funeral. When cre-
mation, or burning, was used on the decease of distinguished
persons, it will be recollected that the body was placed on a
couch, or bed, and burned upon a pile composed of light and
resinous wood. As it was thought that the ghosts delighted in
blood, a number of beasts were killed, and thrown upon the pile,
to accompany the human body through the process of the flames.
Various presents were also cast into the fire, by surrounding
relatives; and military persons had usually their arms burned
with them. When the pile was burned down, they extinguished
the remains of the fire by sprinkling wine, that the bones and
ashes might be collected with greater ease. These last frag-
ments of mortality were then carefully gathered, and placed in
the urn, which was immediately consigned to the sepulchre.
. It will scarcely be deemed superfluous to have reminded the
reader of these particulars, as it is necessary to hold them in close
remembrance while noticing the interior of a Roman burial place.
The urn, containing the human ashes, was deposited upon a
pavement within the sepulchre; and round it were placed several
vessels, of different size and shape, which were usually of earthen-
ware, but were sometimes of metal, or of glass.
Among these may be noticed Paterae, or broad bowls, which
were used in sacrifices to receive the blood of victims, and in
which were placed the consecrated meats offered to the gods, or
the wine and other liquors used as libations at funerals. Vessels,
; : termed
* . .”
ºf 2
funeral inscriptions of the Romans. On this subject Mr. Ward communicated
to Mr. Horsley the following remarks: “The ancients were not agreed in.
their opinions concerning the Dii Manes; some taking them for the same as
the dei inferi; others for the ghosts of persons deceased; and others, again,
for the same as the genii, or familiar spirits, which attended persons from,
their birth, through this world into the next. When they are mentioned.
upon inscriptions, they sometimes seem to be taken for the ghost of the de-
ceased person to whom the monument is erected, and at other times nºt”.
Britannia Romai *& .* : * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . §
na, p. 199,




Ro MAN ANT19 Ulties 1N BRITAIN. 205
termed Lachrymatories by many antiquaries, are found with the
above, and are frequently accompanied by a spoon. It is usually
supposed that these vessels were intended to contain lachrymal
offerings; and some persons have conjectured that the spoons
were used in catching such tears as were designed for preserva-
tion. Mr. Douglas, in the work already quoted, considers both
these surmises to be of a fanciful character, and contends that no
safe authority can be found in any ancient writer for concluding
that the vessels were applied to such purposes. Many sepulchral
vessels he conceives to have contained milk, which the ancients
believed congenial to the nutriment of the manes. The same
author adds, that, when the sacrifices to the inferia were in a
great measure interdicted or restrained, the custom of depositing
with the dead, unguents, milk, beans, and lettuce, most proba-
bly supplied the place. . . . . . -

It is a fact, unfortunate to the antiquary, that few ancient
authors mention the vessels interred by the Romans with the
dead; but, in the opinion of the most judicious modern writers,
they were applied both to the uses of libation and lustral purifi-
cation:—Wine, milk, blood, and pulse of various kinds being
used in the former rites; and water, gums, and oil, in the
latter.”
. . . . When
º º *:: * * * : * º'
% * The following passage of the Nenia, with an attached remark by Mr.
Gough, is worthy of attention in this place: “Though the autients are not
explicit in the actual deposit of the vessels with the body, they particularly
express the nature of the liquors, unguents, balsams, and viands, which were
used in the sepulchral ordinances; and it should be from these facts, corro-
borated with the discovery of the vessels in their sepulchres, that a decided
opinion can be formed on any particular species of interments; and also by
the forms of the vessels, to what uses they might be applied.”—“At this ap-
plication of these vessels” (adds Mr. Gough) “it seems to me we should stop,
and not suppose them intended to contain provisions of any kind for the dead,
which is not warranted by any discovery that I recollect, though the naulum
Charentis, or piece of money, is.”—Sepulchral Mons. Vol. II, Introduction,

1 NTRoD UcTION.
Yody was buried entire, it appears that the same
ls, with the exception only of the urn to contain ashes, were
Mlaced beside it in the tomb. º
* The walls of the Ro ised of
le at Chatham hill, in Kent. The parts then excavated, ex-
ibited a wall, 30 feetin length, “intersected by three apartments,
with their walls.” One of these apartments was complete, an
was nine feet three inches by seven feet three inches. The walls
an the inside were covered with fine white plaster, “on which
were painted stripes of black and red.”* ºn
A Roman sepulchre, discovered at York, was about 250 yards.
from the wall of that city, and was in the form of an oblong room,
with a ridged roof, covered with hollow Roman tiles. “Each
side consisted of three large tiles, if they may be so called, of a
beautiful red.” This tomb was about three feet and a half long,
within; and contained several urns, all standing on a tiled pave-
The above two examples may convey satisfactory ideas of the
usual character of the public and private sepulchres of the Romans,
when the practice of cremation was adopted. In regard to such
as were designed for the reception of numerous entire bodies, an
instance occurs in the “Beauties of England” for Oxfordshire.
The burial vault there mentioned, is said to have been, in the
part which was explored, 20 feet in length, and 18 feet in width;
the height was eight feet from “the planking stones.” The human
remains were laid in partitions of a dissimilar width, which crossed
the vault from east to west, and were built with Roman red tiles,
about eight inches and a half square. The partitions were two
feet and a half deep, and were generally about the width of our
modern graves. Small basins of black Roman pottery, which
had probably contained milk, honey, wine, &c. were found in
" Nenia Britannica, p. 140.
* Gough's Sepulchral Monuments, part I, p. 25.
%


















THE ANGLO-SAX ON S. 207
several of the recesses; and the Roman ash-urn, of red earthen-
ware, was, likewise, discovered “among the rubbish.” There
were two tiers of sepulchral recesses; and, above, was a range
of planking-tiles, covered with mortar and sand, to the thickness
of about two inches, in which was set tessellated work, supposed
to have formed the flooring of a temple.* ſº gº
The Romans appear to have used, in Britain, stone coffins
for interment; as in several instances such have been found, con-
taining bones accompanied by urns, or funeral vessels, apparently
Roman. The earliest of these stone coffins were constructed in a
rude manner, and out of numerous slabs of stone; but the im-
provement of forming the coffin out of one stone, by the labour of
the mallet and tool, was speedily introduced, and generally
adopted by the affluent. Brick coffins, or sarcophagi, also were
used by the Romans at a very early period; and coffins of burnt
clay, assigned to the same people, have been found in this is-
When cremation ceased, on the introduction of Christianity,
the believing Romans, together with the Romanized and con-
verted Britons, would necessarily, as is observed by Mr. Gough,
“ betake themselves to the use of Sarcophagi, (or coffins) and,
probably, of various kinds, stone, marble, lead, &c.”f They
would, likewise, now first place the body in a position due east
and west; and, thus, bestow an unequivocal mark of distinction
between the funeral deposits of the earliest Roman inhabitants of
this island, and their Christian successors.
is
THE ANGLO-SAXONS.
- On the secession of the Romans from this fertile island, --8 w
3: - - ×
"See a more extended account of this discovery in the Beauties for ox-
fordshire, p. 464–4. The particulars, as there presented, were communi-
cated to the writer of the present “Introduction,” by the Rev. Mr. Nash,
the resident clergyman of Great Tew, in which parish the burial place was
situated. : w ... -- yº
* Sepulchral Monuments, part I. p. 27.




1NTRo DUCTion.
affluent in natural capacities, and admirably calculated for the
reception of an independent population, when those who inhabit
it know the great lesson of remaining compact in patriotic prin-
ciple, and true to themselves; it is well known that the Britons
failed to recover secure possession of their native soil, and, at
length, lost even their national appellation in the sovereign name
of new conquerors. •
. The Saxons, who now appear on the busy stage of our island-
annals, approach in barbarism the most ferocious and disgusting.
But, as the scenes of narration proceed, their fierceness mellows
into a resemblance of the firin, temperate courage, worthy of the
warrior who uses arms chiefly for the defence of his altar, his
fellow-citizens, and his home; whilst, from the rude germ of
that ardent temper which impelled them to prefer a life of for-
tuitous, predatory adventure, to the patient cultivation of their
natural soil, arises an expansive genius, eminent for legislative
wisdom, and a zeal of piety, which, although sometimes fantas-
tic in its operation, is gradually serviceable to morals and
manners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Saxons, indeed, have, in many points, a stronger claim
on our attention than any of the other nations of our varied an-
cestry. Traces of their sound judgment in political ceconomy
are visible in the existing divisions of our island; and the wis-
dom of their laws still lives, and sustains their memory, in
numerous portions of that valuable code of jurisprudence, which
is the foundation of an Englishman's most rational pride of
country. &:
It is not necessary to trace, in the present work, the pro-
gressive steps by which this people obtained a knowledge of the
British coast.—They had long, in conjunction with the Francs,
maintained a course of piratical depredations, injurious to several
provinces of the Roman empire; and they were augmented, in
numbers and power, in the fourth century, by a confederation
with many small states, whose nominal distinctions were lost in
the Saxon name. But the only allies of the Saxons, connected
*** - . . . . º żº £ tº 1ſº



the Anglo-saxons. £09
in an important degree with the history of Britain, were the Jutes
and Angles. It is concisely stated by Mr. Turner, the intelli-
gent historian of these eventful periods, that, “as the boundaries
of the Saxon states enlarged with their leagues, they embraced
the population between the Elbe and the Weser; from the Weser
they reached to the Ems; and, still augmenting, they diffused
themselves to the Rhine, with varying latitude. The Jutes in-
habited Jutland; or, rather, that part of it which was formerly
& called South Jutland. At the era of the Saxon invasion, the
Angles were resident in the district of Anglen, in the dutchy of
Sleswick.” . . . . .
The internal state of Britain, at the first entry of that rude
people who were destined to become its conquerors, merely by
force of arms, and with a striking inferiority of numbers, is a
subject worthy of attentive investigation. But this troubled
period, in common with most others of our early history, is des.
titute of satisfactory contemporary annalists ; and the deficiency,
as usual, is ordinarily supplied by ingenious conjectures, aided.
by hints contained in extravagant and incredible monkish writers.
I have already ventured to deem it probable that our British
ancestors, long accustomed to the profound peace attendant on
subjugation, and trained, upon principle, to enjoy the enervating
pleasures of tranquillity, viewed with reluctance the final depar-
ture of the protecting Romans. The miserable state into which
they are confidently presumed to have fallen, when left to the
exercise of their own discretion and energies, is, assuredly, an
argument in favour of the correctness of such a conclusion.—
England and Wales, according to the conjectures of the inge-
nidus, founded on suggestions contained in the most acceptable
remaining authorities, were divided, when abandoned by the
Romans, into about thirty independent civitates; which, on the
deposition of their respective officers of Roman appointment, natu-
rally assumed the form of so many republics. Mr. Turner, writing
º P of
- & 2, ... ** 3.
• Hist, ofthe Anglo-Saxons, vol.I. p. 57–58.

210 Introduction,
of this period, observes that “independent Britain contained
many independent republics, or civitates; each of these was
governed by chief magistrates, or duumviri, a senate, subordi-
nate officers called decurions, an inferior senate called curia,
with other necessary officers. The ecclesiastical concerns were
regulated by a bishop in each, whose power sometimes extended
into lay concerns.”* s > - - -
v. But such a form of constituent power was not calculated for
duration. When the principles of government reverted to their
elements, it is probable that the descendants of ancient petty kings
would prefer their long-neglected claims; and, if such claimants
were wanting, ambition alone may be named as a sufficient motive
to agitate temporary officers towards the destruction of a crowd
of imbecile republics.-Whatever might be the instrumentality,
the existence of civil discord, caused by numerous usurpers of
regal power, would appear to be unquestionable. Gildas, the
most useful historian of this era, remarks that “the country,
though weak against its foreign enemies, was brave and uncon-
querable in civil warfare. Kings were appointed, but not by
God; they who were more cruel than the rest, attained to the
highest dignity.” - -- - Af
The distresses thus produced to the people of South Britain, by
the secession of the Romans, were, surely, more grievous than
any severity of taxes which their imperial masters were accus-
tomed to inflict; and these miseries were aggravated by a cause
which should have taught the usurpers the expediency of union.
The Scots and Picts, who had with difficulty becn confined to
their chearless moors and barren uplands, even by the Roman
arms, now penetrated the fertile districts of the south; and,
while weak pretenders were struggling for ephemeral sovereignty,
they, with a more serious aim, plundered the people of the vital
source of regal power. It was in this state of Britain that the
Saxons, who had so often appeared as pirates on our coast, but
- - had
* Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. I, p. 85.

THE ANGLo-S Axons. 21 I
had rarely dared to view the interior of the island, first took a
secure footing, as auxiliaries,
The mode of their approach, and the insignificancy of their
early numbers, are calculated to surprise the examiner, when he
contemplates, with a rapid eye, the stupendous character of future
events; unless he hold in careful remembrance the numerous his-
torical circumstances, of vast importance, which have sprung
from an original apparently as inefficient. ; : : : .
Whilst South Britain was severely afflicted by civil warfare,
it appears that three Saxon vessels arrived on the British coast;
but whether with a piratical intention, or by one of those acci-
dents peculiarly incidental to a sea voyage at this period, cannot
be ascertained. Their crews were conducted by Hengist and
Horsa, who had the imposing distinction of being termed de-
scendants of Woden. Ebbsfleet, in the Isle of Thanet, near
Richborough, was the place at which they anchored.* .
It has been observed that, “if we estimate the number of
these Saxons from the size of the Danish vessels in a subse-
quent age, they could not exceed three hundred men.”f But
even so small a band of warriors were deemed friends of import-
ance by the distracted Britons; and they were eagerly courted
to assist in opposing the northern invaders. To so low a stage
of degradation was Britain reduced by internal dissensions!
All that immediately followed is involved in a deep mist, most
deceptive and perplexing. We are told that the leaders of the
Saxons advised the invitation of more of their countrymen; and
that the British king, under whose auspices they fought, aS-
sented to such a measure. Camden, in his dissertation on this
era, has presented an excerpt of Wittichind, who describes the
embassadors of the Britons as addressing the more warlike
Saxous in a strain unusually abject and impolitic. But Camden
would appear to consider Wittichind as a questionable authority;
. p 2 - and,
* See Beauties for Kent, p. 990–991.
A Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. I. p. 90.
212 1NTRobuction.
and, by modern writers, his assertions are treated with still less
respect.” Whatever might be the mode of address, it is be-
lieved that a summons was given, and it is known that more
Saxons speedily arrived. . . .
| Successful against the Picts and Scots, although, from the
smallness of their numbers, probably on a limited theatre of war-
fare, the Saxons soon turned their arms on the nation whose
allies they were deemed. 2. .
A melancholy series of conflicts now commenced. Milton has
been censured for terming the transactions of these sanguinary
periods, as uninteresting as the conflicts of wolves and kites;
but, truly, so little of mind is evinced in the various contests
antecedent to the consolidation of the most potent Anglo-Saxon
states under one supreme head, that the opinion of Milton would
appear objectionable as to harshness of expression, rather than
as to serious import. The battles of an Alexander, or a Caesar,
force us to admire while we shudder; so much of the imposing
quality termed heroism was displayed by those great generals.
But the Saxons of England, whether fighting against the natives,
or turning their arms on their own associates, were so mercenary
aud cruel in their object, that we look in vain for a hero to soften,
and render tolerable, the annals of bloodshed, by any incidental
action of a splendid character.
If a gleam of light and interest enliven this dark picture, it
arises from the opposition made by the most courageous of the
British tribes, or petty nations, to the early incursions of the
invader. We here meet with the achievements of an Arthur,
renowned in the works of minstrels and fabulous historians. But

• Mr. Turner (Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. I. p. 91) observes that
wittichind, “ though a Saxon himself, appears to have been completely
ignºrant of the Saxon antiquities.” In a note to the same page it is re-
marked, that Wittichind, (the biographer of his contemporary, Otho,
who died in 979) knew nothing of the Saxons prior to their entering Thu-
rin gia.
THE AN GLO-SAY ON S. 213
the real patriotic and warlike merits of this prince, are so dis-
figured by the exaggerations of his romantic chroniclers, that we
read with doubt the narration even of his methodised and more
credible exploits. All that renders his actions peculiarly attrac-
tive, is poetical blandishment. . . . .
The struggles of a people, divided in interests as were the
Britons, proved, however, so lamentably ineffectual, that, in the
year 455, the sixth year after the arrival of Hengist, that leader
succeeded in establishing the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Kent.—l
leave unnoticed the chronology and detail of battles, which are
of little importance in topographical researches, except as to ves-
tiges of intrenchments, or interest arising from locality; and
proceed to state the result of these conflicts, in the entire occu-
pancy of England by its hardy invaders, whose various clans pro-
gressively divided the country into several petty kingdoms.
The extent of territory possessed by such chieftains as erected
kingdoms in those parts of the island which yielded to their arms,
fluctuated so much, in ensuing scenes of contention, that a gene-
ral idea of the division of Britain among its conquerors, is, per-
haps, best conveyed by the following statement of archbishop
Usher, respecting the various parts into which the Saxons and
their confederates spread themselves. . . . . . . . . . . . -
The JUTEs possessed Kent, the Isle of Wight, and that part
of the coast of Hampshire which fronts it. . . . .
The SAxons were distinguished from their situation, into
South Saxons, who peopled Sussex. :
# *
East Saxons, who were in Essex, Middlesex, and the south
part of Hertfordshire.
West Saxons, in Surrey, Hampshire (the coast of the Jutes
excepted,) Berks, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and that part
of Cornwall which the Britons were unable to retain.
The Angles were divided into
East Angles, in Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, the Isle of
Ely, and (it should seem) part of Bedfordshire, º
P 3 .

214 INTRODUCTION.
MIDDLE ANGLEs, in Leicestershire, which appertained to
Mercia. - . . . . . . . . .
The Mercians, divided by the Trent into
South Mercians, in the counties of Lincoln, Northamp-
ton, Rutland, Huntingdon, the north parts of Bedfordshire and
Hertfordshire, Bucks, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Warwick-
shire, Worcestershire, Herefordshire, Staffordshire, and Shrop-
North MERCIANs, in the counties of Chester, Derby, and
Nottingham. ; : * x - - º:

The NonTHUMBRIANs, who were, -
º- The Delhi,” in Lancaster, York, Westmoreland, Cumber-
land, and Durham. - * : :
The Bernicians,” in Northumberland, and the south of Scot-
land, between the Tweed and the Firth of Forth.
In addition to this statement may be presented the following
seheme of the Anglo-Saxon states, as drawn up by Camden:
The kingdom of Kent 4. The coi *
contained......... * * * * * * } e county of {Kent.
The kingdom of Sussex, or the } The counties of
{ Sussex.
SouTH-SAxons, contained.... ) -
Surrey.
rNorfolk.
"...”; tı..….. "...
U the Isle of Ely.
The
* In explanation of these terms, it may be ebserved that such part of Bri-
tain between the Humber and the Clyde, as was nearest to the Humber, was
called Deiſgr by the ancient natives; and, after its conquest by the Saxons,
was named Deira—North of this tract was Bryneich, which term was altered,
by the Saxon conquerors, to Bernicia.
THE ANGLO-SAxo Ns. 215
Devon. "
The kingdom of Wessex, or the , ------, } pore * * *
* --- s------- --------a } The counties of { Somerset.”
West SAxons, contained....... . I war:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | Wilts.
Hants.
| Lancaster.
| Durham. ||
| Cumberland. , º
The kingdom of Northum- N - . . . . . ---, sº sº a º
g * . } The counties of < Westmorland. . .
werland contained......... i ºr . . . . . . .
x |º
and Scotland, to
the Frith of
* * * ſº.
Middlesex, and
The kingdom of Essex, or the } The counties of i .
East-Saxons, contained.... }. part of Hert-
. Unfordshire,
Gloucester.
Hereford.
Worcester.
Warwick.
Leicester.
Rutland.
"Northampton.
! Lincoln. "
. | Huntingdon. "
The kingdom of Mercia, R a. > º § - º º
**** The counties of 3 Buckingham, nºt
š' . . . . . . . . . . .3:? . . | Oxford. . . . . .
| Stafford.
| Derby.
Shropshire. g
| Chester, and the part
of Hertfordshire,
not comprised in:
the kingdom of the
East-Saxons.
P 4 It



216 3. 1NTRon UCTION.
It is the practice of most historians to describe England, when
divided into separate kingdoms by its Saxon conquerors, as con-
sisting of seven states, named, (as is shewn in the above scheme
of Camden) Wessex, or the kingdom of the West-Saxons;
Sussex, or the kingdom of the South-Saxons; Kent; Essex, or
the kingdom of the East and Middle-Saxons; East Anglia;
Mercia; and Northumberland. : x
But the propriety of thus allotting to an Hectarchy the terri-
tories of the Saxons in Britain, is denied by the judicious author
to whose researches every subsequent writer on this era of his-
tory must be greatly indebted. It is observed by Mr. Turner,
“that, when all the kingdoms were settled, they formed an
octarchy. Ella, supporting his invasion in Sussex, like Hen-
gist in Kent, made a Saxon duarchy before the year 500. When
Cerdic erected the state of Wessex, in 519, a triarchy appeared.
East-Anglia made it a tetrarchy; Essex a pentarchy. The suc-
eess of Ida, after 547, having established a sovereignty of Angles
in Bernicia, the island beheld an hexarchy. When the northern
Ella penetrated, in 560, southward of the Tees, his kingdom of
Deira produced an heptarchy. In 586, the Angles, branching
from Deira into the regions south of the Humber, the state of
Mercia completed an Anglo-Saxon octarchy. As the Anglo-
Saxons warred with each other, sometimes one state was for a
time absorbed by another, sometimes after an interval it emerged
again. If that term ought to be used which expresses the com-
plete establishment of the Anglo-Saxons, it should be octar-
chy; if not, then the denomination must vary as the tide of con-
From the above s itement of the great length of time between
the foundation of the first and the last of the Anglo-Saxon
petty kingdoms, it will be observed that, with the exercise of
f 2 armS,
• Hist, of Anglo-Saxons, Vol I. p. 128. The reader who is desirous of
further investigation, is reminded that many critical remarks on the Saxon
Geography of this island are presented in Mr. Whitaker's Hist, of Mauches.
ter, 4to, edit. Vol. II. Chap. IV, &c,
#


The Anglo-saxons. 217
arms, as drawn forth by progressive exigencies, the Britons had
gradually renewed their warlike habits. The invaders, indeed,
were for many years so few in number, that the entire conquest
of the island must have been an object remote from their most
sanguine views of success; and the slow process of their conquests,
must, necessarily, have favoured the acquirement of military,
science amongst the people invaded. *
Many of the Britons who had experienced, in a pre-eminent
degree, a renovation of that ancient independent spirit which
enabled the islanders successfully to oppose the first invasion of
Caesar, now retired into WAles; and were elieared in their hope
of better days by the consoling prophecies of their bards;-songs
which still live, and cause a legendary vein to mingle with the
course of genuine history. Here, they gallantly struggled to
the last for possession of the soil, and displayed a skill in their
courage which must have been attended with success, if exerted
at an earlier period, and supported by unanimity among the other
British tribes. In regard to these Cambro-Britons, it is finely
observed by the author whom I have frequently quoted in late
pages, that “the Cymry maintained the unequal conflict against
the Anglo-Saxons with wonderful bravery, and did not lose the
sovereignty of their country, until the improvements of their con-
querors made the conquest a blessing.” º
When relieved from the desultory opposition of the great majo-
rity of the Britons, the petty Saxon kings, whose element was
war, turned their arms upon each other; and, so early as the
year 568, commences a fresh series of bloodshed, still less inter-
esting than the preceding contests between ferocious invaders and .
their courageous, but ill-governed opponents.
It is not requisite, in the present examination of such marked
historical eras-as have a peculiar bearing on the pursuits of the
topographer, that we should enter on a minute notice of the
events which led to a consolidation of the Saxon octarchy under
one supreme head. Private ambition, severely afflictive in its
hour of immediate action, here conduced, as has been often seen
* * * * ºf .º.
º º, º 'º in" :

218 : * 1 NTRODUCTION.
in other states, to eventual and permanent good. Throughout
the 7th and 8th centuries, the Anglo-Saxon divisions of Britain
vacillated, in dreadful agitation, as to number and extent. In
the former period, the mutations were generally from an heptar-
chy to an hexarchy. The 8th century beheld it contracting to-
wards a triarchy. The enterprising reigns of Ethelbald and
Offa, prepared the way for superior dignity; and, in the year.
800, the celebrated Egbert, destined to subdue the octarchy of
the Anglo-Saxons, ascended the throne of Wessex.-Mercia and
Wessex had long been greatly increasing in power, and engross-
ing rule over the other states. Under the government of Egbert,
the latter gained the entire ascendant, and the whole of England
became tributary to his sceptre.* *
In this stage of our brief outline of the progress of the Anglo-
Saxon dominion, down to the date at which it shone with the
greatest lustre, and communicated lasting impressions to the
laws which regulate society, and to the arts which adorn the
aspect of the country, it is necessary to observe that the reign of
* The popular tale of Egbert commanding this island to be called Eng-
land, and procuring himself to be crowned, and styled king of England, is
said by Mr. Turner (Hist, of the Angl. Sax. Vol. I. p. 183) to be not intitled
to our belief–In support of this opinion, it is observed in the above work, that,
although if such an act had taken place, the legal title of Egbert and his suc-
cessors would have been Rex Anglorum, yet neither he nor his successors, till
after Alfred, ever used it. All these sovereigns signed themselves kings of the
West-Saxons—“Egbert did not establish the monarchy of England; he as-
serted the predominance of Wessex over the others, whom he defeated or
made tributary; but he did not incorporate East-Anglia, Mercia, or Nor-
thumbria. It was the Danish sword which destroyed these kingdoms, and,
thereby, made Alfred the monarcha of the Saxons. Accordingly, Alfred is
called primus monarcha by some. But, in strict truth, the monarchy of
England must not even be attributed to him; because a Danish sovereign
ivided the island with him. It was Athelstan, who destroyed the Danish
y, who may, with the greatest propriety, be intitled primus monar-
*..
º?” .
a Anglorum;’ and, accordingly, he is intimated as possessing that distinc-
tion, by Alured of Beverly. .






THE ANGLO-SAX ON S. 219
Egbert is the period at which the DANEs first became formida-
ble, as piratical invaders of England. tº . . . .
- These Northmen first landed, as cursory pirates, in the year
787. They increased their depredations in following years;
and, at length, gained so firm a footing, that they wrested the
crown from its Saxon possessors. The eras succeeding to the reign
of Egbert, down to the extinction of the Saxon sway, are pain-
fully embarrassed by the wars and convulsions consequent on such
an oscillation of power. But, as our object consists in a notice of
the effect of each predominating nation upon the arts and manners
of this country, considered as a theatre of action on which inter-
esting wrecks still exist for topographical examination, I attend
the Saxons to their plenitude of power, and leave to a future sec-
tion some succinct remarks on the operations of the Danes, and
the vestiges of their influence in Britain. . . .
Although there is reason to conclude, from the remarks quoted
in the preceding page, that historians have not been correct in
awarding to Egbert the title of first king of all England, it is
certain that, from the date of his reign, the kingdom of the
West-Saxons retained an actual supremacy, highly beneficial to
the interests of the country at large, and especially favourable to
its advancement in magnificence.—The progress of those arts
which adorn the soil with embellished structures, and afford the
most pleasing subjects of antiquarian research, was severely in-
terrupted, in the 9th century, by the wars proceeding from fre-
quent Danish invasions. But this era is rendered of deep interest,
in every point of view, by the reign of the Great Alfred, whose
wisdom and excellent taste imparted a new bias of refinement to
the English, and induced consequences, interesting to every
class of enquirers respecting our national and local history.º
In the reign of Alfred, which commenced in 871, and termi.
nated, after a memorable variety of fortune, in 900, or 901, we
be hol, º the rise of the Anglo-Saxon glory; and it continued in
meridian splendour until the decease of Edgar. This latter
sovereign died in 975.




220 INTRODUCTION,
The year of his death may be noticed as the date at which be-
gan the decline of the Anglo-Saxon greatness. Edward, his
youthful successor, shortly fell a victim to the cruelty and ambi-
tion of a step-mother; and in the time of Ethelred, second on
the throne after the powerful Edgar, the foreign Danes, who had
long refrained from molesting England, renewed their incursions;
and were so successful as to lay the foundation of a new monarchy
in this island. Edmund (surnamed Ironside, from his hardihood)
the illegitimate son of Ethelred, was only in possession of a crown
divided with the Danish Canute, at his death in 1016. After
an interruption from the Danish ascendancy, Edward the Con-
fessor, son of the same Ethelred, mounted the throne in 1041.
The reign of this prince is of some importance with the antiquary,
but is deserving of little respect from the general historian. In
the person of Harold the Second, who was slain in opposing
William, Duke of Normandy, in the year 1066, we behold the
last of the Anglo-Saxon kings. .
Before we enter on a notice of the architectural, and other
antiquities, ascribed to the Anglo-Saxon ages, it appears desirable
to present some remarks concerning such regulations of the civil
polity adopted by that people, as still operate on the political and
ecclesiastical divisions of the country. It may be equally accept-
able to add a succinct review of such parts of their legal code, as
assist in conveying explicit ideas of the state of society, when the
castle, whose presumed ruins are shortly to be examined, was
erected for the protection of the Anglo-Saxon sovereign or noble,
and the ecclesiastical structure founded, as a monument of his
piety. Much difficulty occurs in appropriating, with a security
of correctness, such architectural remains to these obscure ages.
The vestiges of their civil regulations are less equivocal, and do,
indeed, constitute a species of moral antiquities, which the judi-
apher and antiquary can scarcely fail to deem worthy
cious topogr
of attentive consideration. tº
* These subjects may be treated under the heads of, “The Anglo-
sº tº . - . . . . . . . . . . Saxon
º, º º
*::::::... &




Anglo-saxon civil Divisions of England. 221
Saxon Civil Divisions of England;” and, “Remarks on the
Laws of the Anglo-Saxons.” . sº
On the Anglo-Saxon civil divisions of England.—
The division of England into tythings, hundreds, and counties,
has been generally attributed to Alfred. But this supposition
appears to be erroneous, as the tything and shire existed in Bri-
tain some ages before the reign of that illustrious monarch, and
are recognised by the laws of Ina, king of the West Saxons, be-
fore the close of the seventh century. It is probable that they
formed part of the polity brought from Germany, by the Saxons,
as they appear to have existed at an early period among the
Francs, and other contemporary nations.” .
The circumstance of so judicious a civil division of territory
being almost universally added to the other glories of Alfred,
will be easily accounted for, if we depend on the assertion of
Ingulphus, whose authority is accepted by Sir William Dugdale,f
and other writers. It is said by Ingulphus, that Alfred compiled
a survey similar to that afterwards produced by order of the
Norman Conqueror, in which the lands of the kingdom were first
regularly classed in their respective shires and hundreds. This
work is believed to have existed at Winchester, on the advent
of the Normans, but is since lost. That Ahired reduced the
political divisions to more regular order, and perhaps completed
the arrangement of neglected or disputed portions of his domi-
nions, appear to be the conclusions arising from an investigation
of the authorities on this subject. In order to revive a clear idea
of the nature of these several divisions, it may be desirable to
take a cursory view of each.

* That hundreds existed among the Germans, may be gathered from Taci-
tus, who, in his work de morib, Germ. describes a hundred-court with great
§§ 3. ... : :". * Pref, to Antiquities of Warwickshire.
222 -- 1NTRODUCTION.
*
- consisted of an association of ten free-men,
ders, answerable for each other." By this institu-
tion every free master of a family became a Friborg, or frank-
pledge, to the government, for the good and peaceable be-
haviour of all the persons within it; a measure which is assert-
ed by our ancient historians to have been necessary, for “that,
by example of the Danes, the natural inhabitants were greedy
of spoil, so that no man could passe to and fro in safety, with-
out defensive weapons.”f That public outrages would be very
frequent among a people inured to war, and torn by petty con-
tentions and predatory incursions, will be readily imagined.
This may be supposed to have led to the method of insuring peace
by the formation of tythings. The Friborg, thus, not only gave
security for his own behaviour, but had nine neighbouring masters
of families for his sponsors. Over these ten householders, thus
associated, was appointed a Dean, or Tything man, who received
their recognizances, and held a court for the regulation of his
district.f * ... . . .
The
* Tythings, towns, and vills, are used as synonimous terms. In process of
time, by the increase of inhabitants, there arose small appendages to these
towns, called hamlets; and the distinctions of entire vills, demi-vills, and
hamlets, are noticed so early as 14. Edward I. (Blackst. Gomm, Vol. I. p.
115.) Sir Henry Spelman considers that an entire vill consisted of ten free-
men, or frank-pledges; demi-vills of five; and hamlets of less than five.
(Gloss. 274.) ; : . . . . . . ;
+ Dugd. Warw, after Will. Malms. f. 24. a. n. 40.
# It is maintained by Mr. Whitaker (Hist. Manch. Vol. II. p. 113, et seq.)
that the Friborg of the Saxons was not the master of a common family, but
the proprietor of a lordship, or the chieftain of a township, of which all the
inhabitants were his servants, engaged in the ministries of his house, or em-
ployed in the care of his cattle, or lands. From Mr. Whitaker's reasoning on
this subject, which is pursued with much ingenuity, he would wish to infer
that the Saxon tything was nothing more than the manor of the present days,
of which the ten families that were incorporated into the deanery, became
the ten lordships. The seignior of a tything would, thus, become what the
- lord




ANGLo-Saxon civil Divisions or ENGLAN d. 223
. The southern parts of England were further divided into hun-
dreds. A hundred was formed by the incorporation often tyth-
ings. These, it may be supposed, originally contained at least
one hundred (which, in Saxon numeration, means 120°) free
householders, who were respectively enrolled in the different
decennaries. That the hundreds were originally regulated by the
population, may be with certainty inferred from the great number
of hundreds in the counties first peopled by the Saxons. Thus,
when Domesday was compiled, Kent and Sussex each contained
more than sixty hundreds, as they still continue to do. While,
in Lancashire, a county comprising a greater area than either,
there are no more than six hundreds; and, in Cheshire, only
seven. This irregularity in the distribution of territory, is, in-
deed, perceptible throughout the whole kingdom.t
The
lord of a manor continues to be, the one regent and justiciary of the district,
and his court the one tribunal for the manor. The manerial judicature is,
certainly, denominated The view of Frankpledge, and the Tything-court.
: * * * * * * Wide Domesday Book, Vol. I. In Civ. Linc.
* The irregularity is so great, that, while several hundreds do not exceed
a square mile in area, nor a population of 1000 persons, the hundreds of
Lancash ire average at 300 square miles in area, and one of them (Salford
hundred) includes at present a population of 250,000. To remedy this
striking irregularity, an attempt was made, in the reign of Henry the Eighth,
by ordaining Divisions (called, also, limits, or circuits) the existence of
which is more or less manifest in most of the English counties. These divi-
sions seem to have been formed by a junction of small, or a partition of
large, hundreds, as was required by each particular case. To reform ancient
customs, which have been long associated with the occurrences of common
life, is, however, an inconvenient task. An instance of this occurs in Wales,
weveral of the counties of which principality were erected, by act of Parlia-
ment, in 1535; and the ancient districts called Cantreſs and Commots were
altered into hundreds, by virtue of a commission under the great seal. This
alteration met, however, with much unexpected difficulty; and, although
extended periods were allowed for its taking effect, yet the new counties and
undreds exhibit more instances of indistinct boundary, that is, of parishes :
and townships not conterminous with the county or hundred, than do the
. ancient








224 1NT Rob UCTION.
The hundred was governed by an officer who at stated periods
held in it the hundred court for the trial of causes, subject, how-
ever, to the control of the king's courts. At this period the cus-
tom of rendering the hundred responsible for robberies com-
ited between snu and sun, is believed to have had its origin.
In the northern counties, formerly so much exposed to hostile
nvasion, a distinct division of territory was adopted in the
place of hundreds, under the names of wards and wapen-
A Shire, or County, is composed of an indefinite number of hun-
dreds. Shire is a Saxon word signifying a division. The term
County, (Comitatus) is unquestionably derived from Comes, the
count of the Francs; an officer of similar jurisdiction with the earl,
(eorl) oralderman, (ealdorman) of the Saxons, to whom the govern-
ment of the shire was entrusted.t This government the earl usu-
ally exercised by his deputy, called the sheriff, shrieve, or shire-
reeve.; The precise time at which the Saxonsintroduced the divi-
sion by counties into England, is unknown; but such a division cer-
. . -> tainly
ancient counties; while the remembrance of the abolished Cantrefs and Com-
mots, still occasionally creates some confusion. (Prel. Observ. Pop. Abstract
* The latter division is thought to have acquired its name from the custom
of the inhabitants assembled together at a public meeting, confirming their
union with the governor, by touching his weapon, or lance. tº
t It frequently occurs that portions of a county are separated from the
main body, and insulated by the surrounding shires. This is supposed to
have arisen from their originally belonging, before the limits of counties were
*D.
olutely settled, to some powerful person, whose residence was far dis-
tant; and which, therefore, in old assessments, were rated in the county
where his mansion lay. These lands continuing so taxed, became a reputed
part of that shire. The same observation may be applied to insulated por-
tions of parishes and hundreds. Dugd. Warw. p. 441, 556.
# In the Saxon times the Bishop sate in the county court with the earl, and
in the shrieves-turn with the shrieve, as he did also with the lord of the hun-
dred in the hundred court. Preſ, Dugd. Warw, &c.





ANG Lo-saxon civil divisions of ENGLAND. 225
existed during the Heptarchy, and, therefore, long anterior to
the reign of Alfred. . . . .
An intermediate division between the shire and the hundred,
arose in some counties, as the districts termed Lathes in Kent,
and Rapes in Sussex, each of which contains several hundreds.
These subordinate divisions had formerly their separate officers,
called lathe-reeves and rape-reeves. The division of a county
into three of these intermediate jurisdictions, introduced the dis-
tinction of Trithings, which still subsist in the county of York,
under the corrupted appellation of Ridings. * * *
While treating of the divisions of England in the Saxon period,
it may not be irrelevant to make a few observations on that divi-
sion termed a parish, which, in regard to this country, owes its
origin to the same era. The precise date at which this ecclesi-
astical division was first introduced, is involved in equal uncer- º
tainty with the civil distribution of the country. While arch-
bishop Parker and Camden attribute the measure to archbishop
Honorius, about the year 636, Sir Henry Hobart f coi iders
that parishes were first erected by the council of Lateran, which
was held in 1179. The truth seems to be, that they were gra-
dually formed as Christianity spread itself in the island; and
they appear to have been originally co-extensive with manors.
It is observed by Blackstone, on the authority of Selden, that, ,
in the early ages of Christianity, there “was no appropriation
of ecclesiastical dues to any particular church; but every man
is 3 Q was
The number of counties in England and Wales has varied at different
times. They are, at present, forty in England, and twelve in Wales, of
these, three are called counties palatine, viz. Chester, Durham, and Lan-
caster. Several cities and towns are counties corporate, possessing grants of
the privilege of forming counties of themselves. Of this description are
twelve cities and five towns. The cities are London, Chester,
try, Canterbury, Exeter, Gloucester, Litchfield, Lincoln, Norwich, Worcester,
and York. The towns are Kingston-upon-Hull, Nottingham, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, Pool, and Southampton. - º tº ºr
-- Hob. 296, Blackst. Vol. I, p. 112.
º
Bristol, Coven-










226 1 NTRoduction.
was at liberty to contribute his tithes to whatever priest or church
he pleased, provided only that he did it to some; or, if he made no
special appointment, or appropriation, thereof, they were paid
into the hands of the bishop, whose duty it was to distribute
them among the clergy, and for other pious purposes, according
The laws of king Edgar, which were promulgated about the
60, clearly recognise the existence of established parochial
districts,t and direct that the tithes of land should be paid to the
church of the parish in which they are situate , Churches, for
the accommodation of their tenants, were, assuredly, built by
the great proprietors of land, as civilization and security were
added to the blessings arising from a conversion to Christianity.
Hence, parishes were formed: and thus (in the first instance
from the operation of the laws of Edgar) churches were endowed.:
These divisions are, therefore, of divers limits and extent, usually
varying with the property of the lord who first built the church,
and endowed it with the tithes of his manor, or manors.5 Some
. districts
* Comment. vol. I. Seld, of tith. 9.4. &c.
By the term Parish may be understood “ that circuit of ground which is
mitted. to the charge of one parson, or vicar, or other minister, having
. of souls therein.” Comment. Vol. I. p. 110. In the early ages of
Christianity, the terms parish and diocese appear to have had a similar ap-
# This may account for the circumstance of an ancient church being gene-
rally found near the manor house. The distinction of Mother churches oc.
curs as early as the laws of king Edgar, or about the year 960. It appears
that any lord who possessed a private chapel within his demesnes, having a
Cemetery, or consecrated place of burial, might allot one third of his
tythes to the maintenance of the officiating minister. Hob. c. 2. Blackst.
Vol. I, p. 112. .
$ In the northern counties, thirty or forty square miles is no unusual area
of a parish. Parishes, in the north, average at seven or eight times the area
of those in the southern counties. The limits of the country parishes, from
the conflicting rights of tythe-owners, and the perambulations ordained by
the canon law, seem to have been speedily ascertained, and appear to be














on the laws of the Anglo-Saxons.
districts still remain extra-parochial, having originally possessed
no peculiar appropriation of tythes.” tº
On the Laws of the Anglo-Saxons.—The legal code
introduced by the Anglo-Saxons is deserving of peculiar alten-
tion in this place, as it forms the basis of the laws prevailing
through each division of history that will be subsequently noticed;
and is, in itself, an object of great interest and curiosity, tºº,
It has been observed, and with apparent justice, that to our
Saxon ancestors we may consider ourselves indebted for the spirit
of liberty and independance that has since characterised the inha-
bitants of this island; and which, by regarding with a jealous
eye the prerogatives of the crown, has produced a judicious mix-
ture of freedom and authority, that has gradually established
rule of conduct to their ancestors for ma is, uppears ºvu ut:
universally allowed. tº This seems to have been the case with all
the northern nations who over-rau, and subdued, the different
provinces of the Roman empire. The acquaintance with letters
produced by their successful irruptions into more favoured climes,
enabled them to reduce their traditional customs into writin
. s:
nearly the same as now established, in the Taratio Ecclesiastica, compiled it
the reign of king Edward the First, A. D. 1888–1292. This observation
will not, however, apply to the town parishes ; which, from increase of
population, and other causes, were, in former times, continually varying ir
number and extent. The number of parishes and parochial chapel
in England and Wales, is stated at 10,674. Popul. Abstr. 1811.
"These districts are usually found to have been the site of religious houses
•r of ancient castles, whose owners may be supposed, in rude times, to have
resisted any interference with their authority within the limits of their resi-
dence. Pop. Ab. 1811. . .
t Introduction to Bawdwen's Translat. Domesday, p.7. s §
# Tacit, de morib, German, c. 19. Henry's Hist, Brit. Vol. III, p. 389.


































-and this emanation from one common source, has caused a striking
similarity to prevail between the ancient laws of all the states
formed by the permanent establishment of those warlike tribes.”
, by insensible degrees, variations between the
* * r respec-
ws; “yet held they all an uniformity in substance, differ-
ing rather in their mulcts than in their canon; that is, in the
quantity of fines and amercements, than in the course and frame
of justice.”f
tº The intelligent eye of Alfred, which surveyed the remotest
corner of his newly cemented kingdom, perceived the inconveni-
ences resulting from these discrepancies in its municipal regula-
tions; and having completed the arrangement of its internal divi-
isions, he reduced the customs of the several provinces to a gene-
ral standard, by compiling his Dome-book, or liber judicialis.
court-baron,
*
This he appears to have digested for the use of the
hundred and county-court, the court-leet, and sheriff's-tourn;
tribunals established by Alfred, for the local distribution of jus-
tice, but which were all subject to the inspection and control of
the king's own courts, which were then itinerant, being held in
the royal palace, and attending the person of the king in his pro-
gresses through his dominions.f . This invaluable work, the pre-
servation of which would have thrown such desired light on the
institutions of that early period, is said to have been extant so
late as the reign of Edward the Fourth, an age in which, from
the invention of the art of printing, it was likely to be handed
down to posterity; but, amid the civil contentions which then
convulsed the kingdom, it unfortunately disappeared.
The irruptions, and ultimate establishment, of the Danes in
* England, introduced new customs, and caused the code of the
celebrated
" vide Lind. Cod. Leg. Antiq, Wilkins Leges Saxon. Hen. Hist. Vol. III.
p. 389. … {
* Reliquae. Spelman. p. 49.
tº Blackstone's Comm. Vol. IV. p. 411,















on Tii E LAws of the ANG Lo-s AxoMs. 229
celebrated Alfred to fall into disuse in many parts. About the
beginning of the eleventh century, there appear to have been
three distinct systems of laws prevailing in different districts:
the Mercen-lage, or Mercian laws, which were observed in
many of the midland counties, and those bordering on the princi-
pality of Wales, and which, therefore, possibly contained many
of the ancient customs of the Britons; the West-Saaron-lage, or
laws of the West-Saxons, which obtained in the southern and
western counties of the island, from Kent to Devonshire, and
were, probably, the same as the laws of Alfred, being the muni-
cipal law of that portion of the kingdom, including Berkshire,
the seat of his peculiar residence; and the Dane-lage, or Danish
law, which was maintained in the rest of the midland counties,
and, also, on the eastern coast, the part most exposed to the
visits of that piratical people.* a
From these various discrepant customs, the compilation of one
uniform law, or digest of laws, was commenced by king Edgar,
and completed by king Edward the Confessor; which appears to
have been little more than a new edition, or fresh promulgatio
of Alfred's code, or Dome-book, with such additions and im-
provements as the experience of a century and a half had sug-
gested; particularly by the incorporation of many of the British,
or Mercian, customs, and the most approved of those introduced
by the Danes. These were the laws so fondly cherished by our
ancestors in succeeding ages, and which subsequent princes so gº.
often promised to keep and restore, in order to obtain popularity
when pressed by foreign emergencies or domestic discontents.f." 3.
A great portion of those maxims and rules of law, which, at
. . . . . . g Q 3 tº present,
l
" Hale's Hist. Comm. Law, 55. Blackst. Comm. Vol. i. p. 65. It must
be observed, that the above opinion, as to a diversity of laws obtaining in
three distinct districts, is controverted by Bishop Nicholson; who contends,
in the preface to Wilkins's edition of the Saxon laws, that the “word. lage,
mistaken by the Norman writers for their ley, or loi, in reality signifies dius, .
-QI jurisdiction.” . . º ... . .”
* Blackst. Comm, Vol. 1 p. 66, Ib. Vol. IV. p. 412.











present, constitute the common law of England, may, with con-
fidence, be attributed to the Anglo-Saxon era. It has been, in-
deed, contended that they are wholly derived from the Britons;*
but, although this is, unquestionably, the case with some, as has
been observed in a former page,t yet the customs of those differ-
ent nations which successively established themselves in the island,
were necessarily incorporated with them. The pertinacity with
which the descendants of the Britons clung to the Saxon institu-
tions, in opposition to the innovations introduced by the Nor-
mans at the conquest, would induce the belief that they formed
the foundation of that common law, which it became the pride and
boast of succeeding ages to maintain. *
The Witena-gemot of the Saxons, comprising the principal
landed proprietors of the kingdom, was the supreme assembly of
the state; combining, like our present House of Lords, the legis-
lative and judicial capacities. The qualifications for sitting in
this august assembly, are allowed to have consisted in territorial
possessions; and it is generally considered that forty hides of land
constituted an eligibility; yet whether that property entitled
persons to a seat in the gemot, or only qualified them to be elected
by their peers, as their representatives there, is now involved
in impenetrable obscurity.f Thus much concerning them is cer-
tain, that they not only assisted the monarch with their counsel,
in cases of state exigency, but their consent was necessary to the
validity or promulgation of the laws, as all the remaining laws
of that period profess to have been enacted with their concurrence. Š
What were the leading characteristics of these regulations, it may
be interesting briefly to examine.
That wise institution, and invaluable privilege, the Trial by
Jury, is referable to the Saxon period, although it cannot be
precisely ascertained at what time it was first introduced. In-
deed,
. . . . .
• Fortescue. c. 17. + Vide ante. p. 31–32.
; Turner's Hist. Angl. Sax. vol. II, p. 220, et seq. * . . . .


on the LAws of the AN Glo-saxons. 231
deed, it would seem probable, that this mode of trial was adopted
by gradual and imperceptible degrees; as its origin may be
traced to a principle in use at a very early date. When a man
was accused of any crime, it was a judicial custom of the Saxons,
that he might clear himself, if he could procure a certain number
of persons to come forward and swear that they believed him
guiltless of the allegation. These persons so produced, were
called compurgators, and appear to have been literally juratores;
and the veredictum sworn to by them, so far determined the case
as to acquit the prisoner. Although the custom of acquittal by
compurgators, has been doubted, by some writers, to have been
the origin of juries," yet they appear so nearly to resemble a
jury in its early and rude shape, that, perhaps, we may safely as-
sign that judicious and inestimable institution to this remote
origin.f That the trial by jury existed at the time of the Con-
quest, is not disputed.
The custom of acquittal by compurgators, who were originally
produced, or nominated, by the party accused, made it necessary
to attach inviolable sanctity to the obligation of an oath; and we,
consequently, find that oaths were administered in the most
solemn and impressive manner, both in respect to the place of
administering, and the form of words and ceremonies used; yet,
even these circumstances, so likely to produce a deep impres-
sion on the imagination, in an age of ignorance and superstition,
did not prevent the frequent occurrence of perjury,; although
that crime was punished with great severity,
* As the power of the church gradually advanced, new forms of
judicial proceedings were introduced by its crafty ministers; and
the sanctity of the proceedings, aided by the difficulty of pro-
curing a sufficient number of compurgators for the purpose of ac-
§º. . . . . . . . . . Q 4 quittal,
• Henry's Hist. Brit. vol. III. p. 424. r
* See an extended inquiry into this subject, and various documents illus-
trative of the gradual improvement of the custom of acquittal by compurgs-
tors, in Turner's Hist. Angl. Sax. Vol. II, p. 271, et seq.
# Hen. Hist, Vol. III, p. 426. §: 3: nº º


232 introduction.
quittal, which, in some cases, were required to be very numer-
ous, frequently induced the accused to appeal to Heaven for proof
of their innocence, which introduced the custom of Trial by Or-
deal. Of this mode of trial there were several kinds, of which the
most common were the ordeal of the cross; the ordeal of the cors-
ned; the ordeal of cold water; the ordeal of hot water; and the
ordeal of hot iron.” These several modes of trial were preceded by
various superstitious solemnities; and while they were popular, the
trials by jurators were of unfrequent occurrence; but as men began
to perceive the futility of such blind appeals to Heaven, the legal
tribunals became more resorted to, and juries II, Ore frequent.t .
The laws of succession to property were such as appear most
consonant to the natural wishes and desires of mankind; chil-
dren were the heirs of their fathers. When the children were all
sons, the property was equally divided among them, and the
same rule obtained when they were all daughters; but the pro-
portions in which it descended, if there were children of both
sexes, is not clearly ascertained. When a man died without
children, his nearest relations inherited his possessions; and, in
default of heirs, the whole fell to the king. This, however, was
only in the instance of those who died intestate, the testamentary
bequest of property being allowed, under certain restrictions, in
the more advanced periods of the Anglo-Saxon era.f The cus-
tom of inheritance by Borough-english, in which the : youngest
son was the heir, to the exclusion of the rest, is, also, said to
have prevailed in some districts during the Saxon times.5
The Matrimonial laws of the Anglo-Saxons were calculated
to prevent unequal, or imprudent, contracts. For this purpose
every woman was considered to be under the legal guardianship
of some man, who was termed her Mundbora, and no act of
s . . § 3 - ? . hers
* For a particular description of these several ordeals, see Henry's Hist,
Brit. Vol. III. p. 428, et seq. . .
Turner's Hist, Angl. Sax. Vol. II. p. 275.
# Wilkins. Leges. Saxon. p. 266. Hen. Hist, Vol. III, £,401–40s.
$ Turner's Angl, Sax, Vol. II. p. 181. . . .

on the laws of the Anglo-Saxons. 288
hers was valid, without his consent. On her marriage, her
mundbora received a pecuniary recompense for his ward, in the
shape of a present, of an amount limited by her rank, which
was called her mede, or price; and if any one were rash
enough to commit the crime of mundbreach, by marrying a
woman without the consent of her guardian, he a º uired no
legal authority over his wife, or any of her goods, by such a
marriage. The husband, on his marriage, rec ived from the
friends of his bride a considerable present, in furniture, arms, cat-
tle, or money, according to the circumstances of her family,
which was called faderſium (father-giſt;) but was bound, on the
first morning of their marriage, to present her with a morgoengife,
or morning-giſt, the amount of which was also limited by law,
and which became the separate property of the wife.” º
Whilst the rights of the female part of the community were
thus protected, their connubial fidelity was enforced by severe
penalties,f and even the breach of decorum was signally pun-
ished; it being a rule of Anglo-Saxon law, that if a. widow should
marry, within twelvemonths after the decease of her. husband,
she should forfeit her morgen-gift, and all the property derived
from her first marriage;f a rule that appears to have influenced
the period, which is considered, at the present day, as the test
of a decorous exhibition of grief.
The great leading principle in the penal laws of the Anglo-
Saxons, even in offences of the most flagrant nature, appears to
have been, rather the compensation of the injury sustained, than
the punishment of the crime. For this purpose, every man had a .
fixed value, in proportion to his rank, which was called his were,
or were-gyld; and the destroyer of his life was punished by the
payment of this were to his family or relations. In addition to x
this, he was also compelled to pay a certain pecuniary compe
• Wilkins. p. 147. Hen. Hist. Vol. III. p. 396.397, &c,
* Wilkins. p. 2,3. Turner, Vol. II. p. 253–255,
* Wilkins, 145, Turner, Wol, II, p. 88,


234 1NTroduction.
sation, called his wite, to the chief magistrate presiding over the
di strict, for the loss which the community had sustained.* The
pecuniary commutation of crime appears extraordinary, in the
view of a more enlightened age; yet, perhaps, among a people
ined to war, and accustomed to behold the terrors of death
with undaunted firmness, the evils of poverty were more dreaded
than the infliction of capital punishment. , , , , . . . .
This scale of recompence pervaded the whole of their regula-
tions respecting personal injuries; and the price of wounds in-
flicted on different parts of the body, was fixed with microscopic
precision. *...
Besides the were, or personal valuation, which secured the in-
dividual from violence, and fixed the amount of punishment for
any offence committed by him, his domestic peace was, also,
guarded by a mundbyrd, or right of protection, possessed by
every one for mutual benefit. The price of its violation was pro-
portioned to the rank of the patron. This privilege appears to
be the principle of that doctrine still so fondly adhered to; namely,
that every man’s house is his castle.f º
The mode of punishment by pecuniary mulets, it will be sup-
posed was favourable to the wealthy part of the community, who
could afford to gratify their private revenge, without fear of other
inconvenience than payment of the customary amercement; while
the absolutely abject and needy escaped with impunity. We,
consequently, find that although they were the most popular of
the legal punishments, they were, in process of time, discovered
to be ineffectual, and others were enacted. Among these appear
most of the punishments inflicted at the present day, together
with some which could only be allowed to exist in a barbarous
and uncivilized state.:
Theft was considered by the Anglo-Saxons, as a crime of
* wilkins, p. 2, 3, Turner, Vol. ii. p. 241.
* Turner, Vol. II. p. 257. .
# Turner's Angl. Sax, Vol. II, p.269,

on ANG Lo-s Axon ANT19 U1tres.
great enormity; and, in many instances, was punished by the
amputation of the hand and foot, and even by death. In the reign
of Ethelstan, a principle was introduced which still prevails, by
an enactment that no one should lose his life for stealing less than
twelve pence.* #. . .
Among the institutions of this period, which have continued to
the present time, may be noticed the system of giving securities,
or bail, to answer an accusation; which custom appears to have
been coeval with the Saxon nation. This system was, indeed,
subsequently carried by them to a burthensome and degrading
height; not being confined to those who were accused of crime,
but extending to the whole community, who thus gave surety to
answer anticipated criminality. This object was effected by the
division of England into counties, hundreds, and tithings, and
by the direction that every man should belong to some tithing
or hundred; which divisions were pledged to the preservation of
the public peace, and were answerable for the conduct of their
inhabitants. The system of placing all the people under borh, or
bail, the origin of which is attributed to Alfred, is first clearly
enforced in the laws of Edgar. º
From this brief review of the laws of our Saxon ancestors, it
3. will appear that, although they partook of that imperfec ion
which is inseparable from all human institutions, and which may
expected peculiarly to characterise the regulations of an un-
lettered age, yet that they contained, in many instances, prin-
ciples which have influenced, in no mean degree, the laws of
the present more enlightened period.
on ANGLo-sAxon ANTIQUITIES.
MILITARY ANTiourties of The Anglo-Saxons.--Previous
to any remarks on the prevailing characteristics of such military
* & structures
* Wilkins, P. 70, Turner, vol. II. pºss. &: ... :





236 1 NTRODUCTION. : :
structures as are believed to have been raised by the Anglo-
Saxons, it should be observed that Mr. King, in his elaborate
work, intituled Munimenta Antiqua, expatiates, at some length,
on the probability of several castles of stone, still remaining in this
country, being really the work of ages anterior to the Saxon in-
vasion. The greater number of such fortresses he supposes either
to have been constructed by “ Phºenician settlers, or some other
foreigners from the east;” or, otherwise, by Britons situated in
such parts as were visited by the Phoenicians at a very early date,
and who had acquired the plan and art of building conspicuous in
such strong holds, by “conversing” with the foreign merchants
who visited their coasts. . º
In support of an opinion so new and bold, Mr. King presents
numerous remarks on the resemblance, which he believes may be
ascertained, between these buildings, and those intended for
similar purposes of defence and security in Syria, Media, and
Persia; and he justly notices their entire disagreement with the
plan and customary dimensions of castellated fortresses raised by
the Romans, or any subsequent invaders of this island. x
Launceston Castle, in Cornwall,” may be mentioned as an
instance of the buildings thus supposed by Mr. King to be of
ancient British origin, and described by him as being imitative
ef the eastern manner-This castle is placed on a conical hill,
of great height; but the keep is of small dimensions, being, in-
deed, not more than eighteen feet and an half in diameter, within.
This part of the building (its prominent and most important
feature) is round; and the walls are, at least, ten feet in thick-
ness. The keep is surrounded by three concentrie walls of stone;
and there was formerly a fourth wall, placed at the foot of the
circular rock on which the castle stands. Beyond this fourth
wall are still visible the remains of another strong wall, and a
great surrounding ditch. But this latter. rampart has been re-
g paired at different periods, and, perhaps, did not form part of
• This building is described in the Beauties for Cornwall, p. 358-300.



on AN Glo-saxon ANTiouities. *297
the original design. In its present state it appears to have bee
finally completed by the Normans, with several towers and a gate,
strictly in the Anglo-Norman mode of military architecture.
That this castle, so boldly and laboriously placed on the top'
of an immense conical hill, and differing in its principal features
from any known military work of the various invaders of Britain,
was possibly constructed by British inhabitants of the island,
may be allowed without any great concession of faith. Its pre-
sumed similitude with the modes practised by eastern builders, is
a curious subject of speculation, but one that is not likely ever
to produce any other than an hypothetical conclusion. And,
even if the similitude be ascertained, it will, perhaps, be found
to exist only in such general and elementary particulars, as were
likely to be common to all nations, at the same stage of society,
and practising, in a general way, the same modes of assault and
defence. ºn tº
A second instance of an imitation of eastern architecture, ac-
cording to the conjecture of Mr. King, may be noticed at
Brynllys, or Brunless castle, in Brecknockshire, South-WAles.”
In this instance it is observable that the tower is not placed, as
at Launceston, upon a high rocky hill, there being, indeed, none
such, naturally formed, near the spot; but has, in its own structure,
as is likewise found in some other ancient buildings in this is-
land (and, according to Mr. King, in Syria) the “appearance
of a little artificial mount formed of stone; and a little rise of
ground beneath.” - º
In both the buildings noticed above, as well as in most of the
ancient castellated structures of England and Wales, innovations
have been made by occupiers in succeeding ages,
º * …
sº º #. . ; º,
• See this castle noticed, together with critical remarks on the opinion of
Mr. King, in the Beauties for South Wales, p. 123, et seq.-The author of
that part of the work offers some observations, in opposition to a conjecture
of Mr. King respecting indistinct arches in this castle, which are entitled to
§
deliberate attention, as they are founded on an investigation of many build-
ings in recluse parts of Wales. - <&
4%







%38 introduction.
separa ed from the work of the original builder,
ion to the marked styles prevailing in subsequent
~ Phrygians, the Medians, and the Phoenicians, are
not the only builders supposed by Mr. King to have been imi-
tated by the Britons, in structures wh ich still remain, although
in a ruined condition, to attest their ingenuity and industry
This writer conjectures that works of the Britons, imitative of
Roman architecture, are still to be discovered in several parts of
the island. . . . .
Conspicuous among these is the castle of Carn-breh, in Corn-
wall, which Dr. Borlase believes to have been in part a British
building, and which Mr. King supposes, from many other cir-
cumstances “besides its old arches, and the sort of squareness
of its towers, to have been a work of the Britons, constructed in
haste, in imitation of Roman works, and, probably, just after
the island had been deserted by the Romans.”
This castle stands on a rocky knoll, and the foundation of the
building is laid on an irr *gular ledge of vast rocks, whose sur-
faces are very uneven, one part being much higher than the other.
"The rocks are not contiguous; and, in consequence of this cir-
cumstance, the architect contrived as many rude arches from
rock to rock as would be sufficient to support the connecting wall
above. The whole edifice, consequently, becomes distorted.
It consists of two small, ill-joined, towers, intended, indeed,
to appear as square, but neither of which in reality is so; and
is placed in a most oblique and awkward direction, on as-
count of the irregularity of the rocky ſoundation. One of the
towers, an ancient one, has three stories;” and, in the same part
of the building, is a large square window, at a great height. In
other parts, the walls “are pierced with small square holes, or
a sort of rude loops, to descry an enemy, and to discharge arrows.”f
140—Carn-breh castle is briefly noticed in the Beauties for

















Some remains of fortresses occur in Wales, which Mr. King
likewise attributes to a British imitation of the Roman mode of
architecture. These principally consist of a structure called
Castell Corn, lochon, or. Co rºws ºrkon, which, is situated on the
summit of a high rock, “about a mile from the Dolgellen road,
on the way leading up to Snowdon;” and remains of fortifica-
tion at Caerleon, in ancient Wales.
The opinions of Mr. King, respecting a seeming imitation of
the style of various early nations, to be o served in numerous
militaryal tiquities of England and W 'ales, are, probat ly, no
more than fanciful pursuits of an argument ſounded on the simi-
larity to be ascertained in the rude works of nearly all countries.
We may, however, with safety, deem it likely that there are
still to be seen vestiges of fortified buildings constructed by the
Britons, while they preserved their national name and partial in-
praised by ancient writers; and it is recorded that many were
taken to assist in foreign works by Maximus and Honorius.--To
wave a consideration of earlier ages, it would appear probable
that the princes who obtained sway in different parts of the is-
land, might call into exercise the useful talent so well attested,
during their opposition to the progressive encroachments of the
It is very certain that the high antiquity of a castle is rather
argued than disproved, by the silence of our earliest topographi-
cal writers respecting its original. Leland and Camden, cautious
in the infancy of their science, appear to have been guided en-
tirely by written documents, in an estimate concerning the foun-
dation of a structure; and, where a building was beyond 3. the
reach
Cornwall, p. 510–On a still more elevated part of Carn-breh hi
ture denominated the old castle, which, from its circular form, limited di.
3& mensions, and other circumstances, Mr. King, indulging a favourite hypo-
thesis, supposes to have been erected by the Britons, at a still earlier period,
*nd in attention to the Phanician style of building.



















º r, and left i it.
Fortified buildings of stone, ascribed to the Britons in early
s, are usually found in situations exposed to little danger of
plunder. It may be presumed, without hesitation, that the as-
saults of mere freebooters were not likely to be destructive of the
main body of the fabric. The demolition of so compact a hill of
stone would, perhaps, be a work of more labour than even the
raising of it; and appears, in fact, to have been seldom prac-
tised. In many instances there are still remaining, almost en-
tire, towers, and different parts of castles, evidently very ancient,
which are stated in history to have been levelled with the ground.
History speaks in general terms, and the labours of the topo-
grapher had not commenced when the firebrand was placed to those
castles.—When a fortress is said, by early writers, to have been
destroyed, we are, probably, to understand no more than that
the interior floorings, and other works formed of wood, were con-
sumed by fire, and the fortifications dismantled.* # 3 gº … ºg
It would be highly satisfactory if we could believe, without one
remote scruple, that vestiges of castellated buildings, reared by
the Britons in very early ages, are still in existence. But it is
obvious that no demonstration can possibly be afforded, and that
no date can securely be ascribed to a ruin, when its only claim
uperior antiquity consists in such a peculiarity of style, aS
irreconcilable even with the varieties of architecture ascer-
ained to have occurred at any known period.t
When
• For the propriety of this remark, see Beauties for Bedfordshire, p. 6.
we there find that when Bedford castle was besieged, in the reign of Henry
the Third, the miners set fire to the Tower; and when the smoke burst out,
and cracks appeared in the tower, the besieged surrendered. A castle which
would appear from history to have been destroyed more than once, but the
keep of which is still remaining, is noticed in the Beauties for Northumber-
t For an account of several castles supposed to exhibit marks of British
i & . r architecture,























on ANG Lo-SAX ON ANT1 QUITIES. 241.
When entering upon the subject of castles constructed in Bri-
tain by the Saxon part of our ancestors, we descend to a period
less involved in doubt; since the Saxons (although borrowing
many ideas from Roman works, and greatly profiting by the
modes of British workmen) introduced a style of architecture
which is intermingled with the discriminating marks of other
fashions, only in the instance of those who succeeded them in
an ascendancy over the Britons. . . . .
But so much obscurity prevails in regard to the manners and
the transactions of the early and unlettered Saxon ages, that
it is difficult to ascertain the period at which castellated edi-
fices were first raised in Britain by this people. It would, how-
ever, appear to be certain that they constructed castles of stone
during the division of this country into various small kingdoms.
This is inferred by the complaint of Alfred, who lamented “that
there were but few castles in England, before his time.” The
assertions of various writers of considerable antiquity might be
adduced, in support of such an opinion. Matthew of Westmin-
ster observes that Ida, king of Northumberland, built a castle at
Bamborough, about the year of the Christian era 548 ; and Bede
describes an assault made on a castle at the same place, between
the years 642 and 655, by Penda, king of Mercia.”
The authorities above quoted, joined to the high probability of
the circumstance, will, perhaps, be deemed satisfactory; and it
may be admitted that castles of stone were really built, for the
united purposes of defence and regal splendour, in the slow pro-
gress of the various Saxon states in Britain towards an hectar-, .
tº R. chy,
architecture, see Beauties for Monmouthshire, p. 63 (White Castle;) p. 68
(Scenfreth;) and p. 71 (Grosmont.) » >
* That castles were built in this country by the Saxons, before the year : .
740, is evident from the words of Pope Boniface, who, in that year, com.
plains to Archbishop Cuthbert, that the religious were compelled to perform
“rvile offices, in assisting to build castles. Spelman Concil. Tom, I. p.287.
*} - - &
& -- - - - - - - - **. - - * * -
º * : * * . . . . " . . . . . * . * . . . º # *::: *, *, * * 3. 4, - tº 33.
*… . . . . ; : -- ; - - - - . . . º.º. * - ... "…º. * &. - -
- *: - 3.3 > … * … . . * - . . . . . . . . . .
242 1NTRODUCTION.
chy, or octarchy. More dificulty is found in ascertaining whe-
ther any remains of such buildings now exist. We are here un-
aided by record, and must depend for data of calculation on
evidences of style, which are unfortunately few and preca-
ºrious.
Amongst the criteria by which the most ancient castles of Eng-
hand are usually distinguished by antiquaries, may be noticed the
following.—Such buildings, whether square or round, are of
limited dimensions; and a want of refined art in the science of de-
fence is compensated by a very great thickness in the walls. Few
loops are seen; and those not constructed in the accurate manner
of the Anglo-Normans. Neither traces of the Portcullis, nor of
Machicolations, occur in the original part of such structures;
and no wells (supposed to be intended for the purpose of drawing
up military machines) are found within the walls, although they
are of so massy a character.
In consideration of these, and other evidences of great anti-
quity, while marks of Saxon architecture are supposed to be
apparent, Mr. King, in his curious work on the ancient mu-
mitions of this island, does not hesitate to attribute several
eastles to an Anglo-Saxon era, previous to the consolidation
of the different small kingdoms. The principal structures as-
cribed by that writer to so remote an original, are the castles of
Guildford; Castleton; and Bamburgh; * or rather the keeps
those ancient buildings, since it is unquestionable that, in
each instance, great additions have been made in succeeding
ages, and chiefly by the Normans, who are so conspicuous in
the annals of the military architecture of Britain, for imparting
security to their precarious tenure of the country by construct-
ing strong holds, and improving such as they adopted.
The keep of Guildford castle, [which is now almost the only
- remaining
* See these castles noticed in the Beautics for Surrey, p. 255; for Derby-
shire, p. 460; and for Northumberland, p. 203. -



ON A N G LO-SAxo N ANT19 Ulti Rs. 243
remaining part of that structure] is, perhaps, the most curious
of the examples stated by Mr. King, and certainly displays the
most decided characteristics. It must be confessed that its ex-
istence in the time of the Anglo-Saxon petty Kings, can be
argued on the ground of conjectured interual evidence only;
but its antiquity is known to be very great, and is traced by
historical testimony to the year 1035, at which time was per-
formed here a lamentable tragedy, under the direction of Earl
Godwin. This building has been described, in general terms, in
the “Beauties” for Surrey ; where is, likewise, presented a
summary of such parts of its history as have been preserved
by writing. But, as it appears to afford a specimen of early
Anglo-Saxon military architecture, it will scarcely be thought
superfluous to state, in this place, its prevailing features, as no-
ticed by an author, whose limits were less circumscribed than
those of the editor of the “Beauties” for Surrey.
The keep tower of this presumed old Saxon palace stands on
the brow of a steep hill, and appears to have been surrounded
with a small inner court, the wall of which is not in any part
more than 22 feet distant from the tower. The keep is of a
square form, and the space within is only about 26 feet by 24.
The walls are, in general, about ten feet in thickness; and,
“very unlike those that are either Roman or Norman, are con-
structed partly of squared chalk, partly of flint, and partly of
sand-stone, cut in the form of Roman bricks; and in many parts
placed in triple rows, alternately with rows of flints: in imita-
tion of Roman work;-but still more conspicuously placed in
rows of herring-bone work.”-The internal corners of the apart-
R 2 : ments
* By the term herring-bone work, as used in masonry, is understood courses
of stones laid angularly. The earliest period at which this mode was prac-
tised is not correctly known; but it is supposed to have been introduced by"
the Saxons. It is not, however, peculiar to buildings ascribed to the Anglo-
Saxons. Instances of this practice in later ages are noticed by Mr. Essex,
Archwologia, Vol. IV. p. 101,–Where herring-bone work is of brick, it is
well
344 1 NTRODUCTION.
ments within are finished, in some parts, merely with squared
chalk. The external corners of the tower, and a space in the
middle part of each front, five feet four inches wide, were cased
with squared stone, very much resembling casings of Caen stone,
[in the same manner as appears in several other Saxon buildings.]
—Some Roman bricks, or, perhaps, rather Saxon bricks, made in
imitation of such as were Roman, are seen in the lower parts of
the building, especially on the north side; and some thin, evi-
dently Saxon, bricks, appear in the windows, though they are
now partly mixed with bricks of reparation since the time of
Henry the Sixth ;-and though there appears, on the south side,
an original Saxon window, altogether of stone, as if such was
the construction of all the windows at first.” &
The great portal of entrance appears to have been at a height
not less than 15 feet from the ground; and the ascent was, pro-
bably, by a steep flight of steps on the outside.
The interior was divided into three apartments, or stories, with
a vault, or dungeon, beneath.
The ground-floor was of a truly chearless character, and was
solely adapted to security, without the most remote attention to
comfort of inhabitation. On three sides are arches, leading to
small loops in the wall, at a great height, and having “exceed-
ing steep steps, but without any hanging arches for the stopping
of missile weapons, as in the structure of Norman castles; and,
except in these three parts, the walls are perfectly smooth and
entire, so that it is evident there could be no communication with
the room above, unless by some trap-door in the floor of timber;
nor could this room have any light or air, except from the small
loops.”
The supposed portal of entrance opened to the floor above;
and it is observable that there are here no traces of a portcullis,
“such means of defence having not been invented when this cas-
tle
well described by Mr. Strutt (Manners and Customs, Vol. I.) as a row of flat
bricks, set obliquely from the right to the left, succeeded by an oblique row
from the left to the right. -
o N ANG Lo-s Axo N ANT19 UITI Es. 248.
tle was built.”—On the right hand of this entrance, is a small
and remarkable chamber in the wall, which is lighted by two
very small loop windows. In this apartment are still to be seen
four seats, formed in the wall, and adorned with pillars, “having.
[in the opinion of Mr. King] truly Saxon capitals, and circular
ornamental arches above.” On the left hand of the great entrance
is another doorway, which led to a small chamber, or closet; and,
at no great distance, is an arch leading by a passage on one side
to a staircase, which went quite to the top of the tower, and was
lighted by loops in the outer wall. Although the rooms into
which this floor was divided, must necessarily have been very
small, it appears that the principal apartment was at least 20
feet in height. w
In such lineaments of the third floor as are still be discovered
in the walls, appear four recesses, leading to four great windows,
which command an extensive view of the surrounding country.
Here is, also, found an arched doorway, leading to a small closet
in the wall, in which are still evident two large machicolations,”
hanging over the side of the castle, and which appear to be di-
rectly over the door of the dungeon already secured with dreadful
care, and situated at a great depth beneath. The state apart-
ment in this upper division of the fortress, must have been more
than 15 feet high; and it is remarkable that in this part of the
building there are not any remains of doorways leading to more
than one closet, or small chamber, in the wall.
Such are the remains of those parts of Guildford castle, which,
from their style of architecture, have been attributed to the An-
glo-Saxons. It is, however, probable that, even in the time of
the earliest Anglo-Saxon possessors of this fortress, buildings of
a less solid character, and possibly of wood, were constructed
in the area between the surrounding wall and the keep, for the
wº R 3 accommodation
* It is observed by Mr. King, in his “Sequel to the Observations on An-
cient Castles,” that these machicolations “were undeubtedly added in latter
ages.”
*
246 I NTRO DUCTION
accommodation of such attendants as their safety, if not their
love of pomp, rendered necessary.
The genius of the great Alfred impelled him to an improve-
ment of the national architecture in all its branches; and his
dangerous struggles with the Danes caused him to bestow par-
ticular attention on the increase in number and strength of forti-
fied buildings. It is not, however, known that the keep of any
castle raised during his reign, is now remaining. The noble
augmentation of magnitude, and improved mode of military ar-
chitecture, which he introduced, are mentioned by several early
writers; and King Edward the Elder, the warlike son and suc-
cessor of Alfred, is stated to have formed numerous fortresses, in
attention to the advice of his illustrious father.” Relics of
these are probably still to be seen in many places; but the alte-
rations effected in subsequent ages have so far obliterated the
traces of original character, that no instance remains as a satis-
factory specimen of the style pursued in castellated structures
erected under his direction, or that of his memorable sister,
Ethelfleda, Queen of Mercia.
In
.* The principal of these, and the policy which induced their erection, are
thus noticed in Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons : “As the Danes pos-
sessed the north of England, from the Humber to the Tweed, and the eastern
districts, from the Ouse to the sea, Edward protected his own frontiers by a
line of fortresses.—The position of these fortresses demonstrates their utility.
Wigmore, in Herefordshire; Bridgnorth and Cherbury, in Shropshire; Edes-
bury, in Cheshire; and Stafford and Wedesborough, in Staffordshire; were
well chosen to coerce the Welsh upon the western limits. Runcorne and Thel-
wall, in Cheshire, and Bakewell, in Derbyshire, answered the double purpose
of awing Wales, and of protecting that part of the north frontier of Mercia
from the incursions of the Northumbrian Danes. Manchester, Tamworth, in
Staffordshire, Leicester, Nottingham, and Warwick, assisted to strengthen
Mercia on this northern frontier; and Stamford, Towcester, Bedford, Hart-
ford, Colchester, Witham, and Malden, presented a strong boundary of de-
fence against the hostilities of the East Anglian Danes. The three last cities,
placed in a country which Edward's power had extorted, watched three rivers,
important for their affording an easy debarkation from foreign parts.”—Hist.
of the Anglo-Saxons, Wol. I. p. 336.
o N A N G Lo-s Axon ANTIQUIT1 ts. £47
In the opinion of several antiquarian writers, we may, how-
ever, look to the mutilated castle of Colchester, for an imper-
fect example of fortresses raised in the time of Edward the
Elder; and, certainly, tuany parts of this building are very
unlike the usual manner of the Normans, although other divisions
were undoubtedly erected by that people, º * … : , ; * : ,
The castle of Colchester is built on an elevated spot, and is
constructed in the form of a parallelogram, of large dimensions.”
Its walls [composed of stone, flint, and Roman bricks] are of a
great thickness, and exhibit considerable traces of that style of
masonry, which is termed herring-bone work. The more an-
cient parts of this curious structure appear to have been ori-
ginally lighted by loop-holes, which were constructed in a man-
ner much less skilful than is observable in most castles of a later
date. .
A deceased industrious and careful antiquary asserts that instances
of the groundwork of Anglo-Saxon castles, constructed by Ed-
ward the Elder, are still plainly visible at Malden and at Wit-
Ham, both in Essex. From the account of these, as presented
in his work, it appears that the keep was placed on a slight arti-
ficial elevation, or low flat hill. The general form of the ground-
work is round. The keep was encompassed by a thick wall; and
around the whole work was a deep broad ditch, and “a strong
vallum of earth, on which was built an exterior wall, turretted
after the Roman fashion.” + .
It is contended by some writers, that from Norwich castle, a
building “raised in the eleventh century, by command of King
Canute,”f we are enabled to form the most just ideas of the
R 4 castellated
* For an account of the present appearance of this structure, see Beauties
for Essex, p. 308, et seq.; and for many critical remarks concerning its pro-
bable Anglo-Saxon original, see Archaeologia, Vol. IV. p. 406—409. An en-
graved view of Colchester castle is presented in the Beauties for Essex.
Strutt's Manners and Customs, Vol. I. p. 24–25. In opposition to the -
above, it will be observed that, in the Beauties for Essex, the earthworks at
Malden and at Witham are supposed to be remaius of mere encampments.
# For arguments as to the propriety of ascribing the date of this building
{4}
248 . introduction.
castellated architecture of the Anglo-Saxons, in its days of ma-
ture splendour. Although this structure is said to have been
raised under a sovereign of Danish extraction, it may be pre-
sumed that he employed Anglo-Saxon architects; and that he
adopted Anglo-Saxon modes, if this building be indeed his, is
sufficiently evident.
Norwich castle is now used, with additions, as a gaol for the
county in which it stands, and has lately undergone alterations
injurious to its beauty and former architectural character. The
keep, or great tower, is square, and is, in extent, 110 feet
3 inches, by 92 feet 10 inches; the height to the top of the
battlements being rather more than 69 feet. This spacious
building is placed on a natural elevation; and, from the base-
ment story upwards, consists of three stories. The exterior of
the basement division is faced with rough flint, and is destitute
of ornament. But from this story upwards, the outside is faced
with stone, and adorned with semi-circular arches, laboriously
worked, and, in the greater part, intended merely for the pur-
pose of embellishment. On three sides were “very magnificent
windows, at a great height, being on the floor where the prin-
cipal and state-apartments were situated;” which, together with
the subordinate rooms, appear to have been numerous, and of
large dimensions. - - .
In regard to the outworks, and other modes of defence used in
this building, it is difficult to separate the traces of such as were
formed by the presumed original builder, from those added in
subsequent, Norman, ages. But, if we may trust to the guid-
ance of a writer who has attentively examined the whole of the
remains, the keep, or great tower of this castle, was surrounded
by three wide ditches, of a circular form, each having on the
inner side a wall of defence. According to the same antiquary,

to the reign of Canute, and for a more extended description, see Archaeologia,
Vol. iv.; ibid, Vol. XII, and Beauties for Norfolk, p. 121–122.
• Archeol, Vol. IV. p. 401,
on ANG Lo-s Axon ANT1 QUITIEs.
249
the area of the whole castle, including the three ditches by
which it was circumscribed, could not contain less than 23 acres;
and the principal entrance was approached by means of stone
bridges, thrown over the vallums, one of which [“probably the
same that was originally built by the Anglo-Saxons”] still re-
mains.” sº & . . . % .
From the above limited remarks it is hoped that a general idea
may be formed of the supposed state of military architecture in
this country, and of its distinguishing characteristics, during the
long and eventful sway of the Saxons. In presenting an alleged
specimen of each most important era, it has been observed that no
researches have hitherto succeeded in affixing a certain date to any
conspicuous example of Anglo-Saxon fortification. But a re-
ference to the arguments advanced in support of the appropri-
ation which I have adopted, is appended to each instance, for a
satisfaction of the reader; and, if he admit that those arguments
are valid, he will from these few examples, and the less circum-
scribed description of each, contained in the respective volumes
of the Beauties of England, acquire an outline of intelligence
which may, at least, act as a guide to local, or more particular,
investigations.
The subject of Anglo-Saxon architectural antiquities is, how-
ever, involved in much perplexity. In the absence of positive
dates, and generally unassisted even by useful historical hints
towards intelligence, the antiquary has a field widely open to
conjectural appropriation, which often seduces his fancy at the
expense of his judgment, and betrays him into the labyrinth of
untenable hypothesis. The shades of distinction between the
known Anglo-Norman, and the presumed Anglo-Saxon styles,
are so few and indefinite, that, most frequently, no conclusion
can be drawn entirely satisfactory to the dispassionate enquirer.
In this state of incertitude, many modern writers, intent on
. . . . . . . . . . " adopting
* Mr. Wilkins's Essay towards a History of Norwich castle, &c. Archwol.
Vol. XII. • ' *, . 3. . . .

250 INTRO DUCTION.
adopting the side of disputation most likely to be accredited, as
it evidently partakes least of boldness, and is calculated to save
much trouble of enquiry and consideration, apply, without scru-
ple, an Anglo-Norman date to every building that appears to
fluctuate between the received characteristics of the two styles,
or which is, indeed, beyond the reach of record, although not
analogous in its architectural character to any indubitable An-
glo-Norman example. Such strains of decision are the fashions
of antiquarianism ; and should be received with due caution,
whether the temper of the period or of the writer, may lead to
fanciful hypothesis on the one hand, or to a rejection of all that
is not clearly demonstrable on the other.
Military EARTHworks of the Anglo-Saxons. - Al-
though there is reason for believing that the Saxons, at no very
advanced period of their ascendancy in this island, constructed
eastles of stone, it is unquestionable that many of those rude
vestiges in the soil, which consist of embankments, ditches, and
other marks of secure encampment, must be attributed to the
same people. Such works, indeed, have been formed by every
nation connected with the internal wars of this country; by the
Romans, as already noticed; and not only by the Saxons, Danes,
and Normans, in succeeding ages of military contention, but by
those engaged in the civil wars of ages less distant, involving the
disastrous struggles of the seventeenth century.
It will not be doubted but that each party, of whatever nation
or interest, eagerly took advantage of the earth-works formed
by previous armies, when circumstances favoured such an op-
portunity; and effected alterations suited to its own modes
of warfare. Such innovations were frequently made by the
Saxons; and thence arises a confusion of features, in the ves-
tiges of many temporary camps, which much perplexes, and
sometimes misleads, the examiner.—As an usual criterion, it may
be observed that such earthworks of the Anglo-Saxons as relate
to the defensive outlines of encampments, are generally far from
x . strong,

on ANG Lo-saxon ANT19 Ulties. 251.
strong, and incline towards a circular form, where no natural
circumstances promised a fortuitous advantage by the use of a
different and indeterminate shape. But such circumstances fre-
quently occurred; and a great irregularity of outward lines is
observable in many camps ascribed to this people.
An account of a distinguished specimen of earthworks, apper-
taining to an Anglo-Saxon encampment, may convey a more
distinct idea of the general character of such vestiges, than an
endeavour to detail their ordinary features by more diffuse re-
marks, not founded on a particular point of observation. The
remains of encampment to which I direct the notice of the
reader, are situated at Eaton, in Bedfordshire, and are thus
described by the pen of a curious investigator: “The form of
the camp, though very irregular, approaches somewhat to that of
a semicircle, having the river Ouse for its diameter. It is on
all sides, except on this diametrical side next the river, sur-
rounded by two complete ditches: the outermost fosse being
more perfect than usual, and the innermost exceeding deep.
And there being a pretty broad plain level space between the
two; higher than the adjacent country. Whilst, within the in-
nermost fosse, not only the interior vallum, but also the whole
space of ground, rises higher still ; quite contrary to the ap-
pearance of any Roman camps: and, not far from the middle,
rather approaching towards the south-east corner, next the river,
is a sort of mount, raised considerably above all the rest, which
commands the whole adjacent level country. There are not four
entrances, as in Roman camps; but one only ; and that narrow,
and passing straight forward over both ditches on the west side,
opposite to the river.” ~ 3.
It will not be supposed that each of these marks of distinction
is peculiar to the whole of the vestiges of Saxon encampment
remaining in England. Such remains are, indeed, destitute of
any
* Muaimenta Antiqua, Vol. III. p. 265–Leland and Camden erroneously
term thºse earthworks the vestiges of a castle. …

252 1NTRon Uction.
any unequivocal characteristics, unless [to use the words of the
author quoted above] it be “their having only one entrance, and
that they are neither so strongly situated, nor so well protected,
as the hill fortresses of the Britons; nor so uniform in their
figure, or regular in the construction of their works, as those
of the Romans.” To which it may be added, that double in-
trenchments frequently occur in encampments attributed to the
Anglo-Saxons, with a satisfactory air of probability.
ON THE EccLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE of The ANGLo-
Saxons.”—So indistinct were the perceptions of those writers
who first cultivated the science of architectural antiquities in
this country, that it was, through several successions of authors,
received as a sage and tenable opinion, that the churches of the
Anglo-Saxons were low mean buildings, usually composed of
... < * :. . . . timber ;
* Investigations concerning the history and characteristies of the different
ancient styles of ecclesiastical architecture observable in this island, are fre-
quently much perplexed by a want of definite terms, uniformly received as
expressing the respective modes prevailing at distinct eras. The absurd term
of Gothic, is by many writers applied to all styles of architecture anciently
adopted in Britain, except the Grecian. That term is, however, chiefly used
in regard to the pointed style; and will, therefore, meet with a more extend-
ed enquiry, and a more decisive mark of reprobation, in a future page.
- In respect to the subject of the present section, much confusion has been
caused, by a neglect of precision in several writers, who have applied the
term ** Saxon,” to all classes of church-architecture in England and Wales,
contradistinguished from the pointed style, by circular-headed windows and
doorways. With such writers, the buildings of the Anglo-Normans are
“Saxon,” because they partake of the leading characteristics of that style
which prevailed in England for many ages antecedent to the Norman Con-
quest. The attainment of knowledge is greatly retarded by this neglect of
classification. In the present work, the term of Anglo-Saxon applies, exclu-
sively, to buildings erected in this island, by the Saxons, whilst possessed of
sovereign power. It, therefore, comprehends all edifices constructed between
the conversion of the Saxons, A. D. 597, and the Norman conquest, A. D.
1066; with an exception of the short intervening reigns of the three Anglo-
Danish Kings. - .

on ANG Lo-s Axon ANT19 UiTi Es. 253
timber; and that, if, in rare instances, they were formed of
stone, they, still, were destitute of columns and arches: the
stone-work consisting merely of upright walls. z
Such an opinion has been long discarded; but, as it stands
copied in many writers of a high name [and of deserved repute,
in regard to the discussion of other subjects] the origin of this
mistaken view of Anglo-Saxon architecture, and the decisive ar-
guments of those by whom it was corrected, demand an analysis
in the present pages.
These erroneous notions appear to have originated with Mr.
Sommer, who, in his work on the Antiquities of Canterbury,”
presumes that, “ before the Norman advent, most of our monaste-
ries and church-buildings were of wood.” The authorities
which he gives for such a presumption, are, a certain charter of
King Edgar, granted about the year 974; and the writings of
the well-meaning, but comparatively modern historian, Stow.
The charter of King Edgar relates to the abbey of Malmsbury;
and, in that instrument, the King uses words which may be thus
translated: “The sacred monasteries of my realm, to the sight
are nothing but worm-eaten, and rotten, timber and boards.”
The intelligence which Stow afforded to Mr. Somner, chiefly
regards the rebuilding of the cathedral church of St. Paul, after
the fire of 1087. According to Stow, “ Mauritius, then bishop,
began, therefore, the new foundation of a new church of St.
Paul; a work that men of that time judged would never have
been finished, it was to them so wonderful for length and breadth;
as, also, the same was builded upon arches (or vaults) of stone,
for defence of fire; which was a manner of work before that
time unknown to the people of this nation, and then brought
from the French; and the stone was fetched from Caen, in Nor-
mandy.” Stow, also, instances the church of St. Mary Bow, in
London, “built much about the same time and manner; that is, on
arches of stone; and was, therefore, called New Mary church,
z 9T
*Antiquities of Canterbury, p. 86,
1 NTRODUCTION,
or St. Mary-le-Bow ; as Stratford Bridge being the first built
with arches of stone, was therefore called Stratford-le-Bow.”
Mr. Somner, contented with the authority of this recent chro-
ts, that “this, doubtless, is that new kind of archi-
tecture which the continuer of Bede (whose words Malmesbury
hath taken up) intends, where, speaking of the Normans' in-
come, he saith, “You may, observe every where, in villages
churches, and in cities and villages, monasteries, erected with a
new kind of architecture.”
The same writer on antiquities presents a confirmation of his
opinion, when treating of the age of the eastern part of the
'bury cathedral, by saying, “ that he dares con-
stantly, and confidently, deny it to be elder than the Norman
conquest; because of the building it upon arches, a form of
architecture, though in use with, and among, the Romans long
before, yet, after their departure, not used here in England till
the Normans brought it over with them from France.”
Such are the passages which appear to have influenced Mr.
Staveley,” Mr. T. Warton,t and the author of “Ornaments of
Churches considered;” together with several writers of less po-
pularity and importance. . . .
The merit of first correcting so great an error in the history of
architecture, belongs to the Rev. J. Bentham, who very ably
discusses this subject, in the celebrated fifth section of his His-
tory of the Cathedral Church of Ely. The following observa-
tions comprise the point of his arguments, together with some
corroborative remarks by more recent authors.
The disputable passage, noticed above, as occurring in one
of the charters of King Edgar, is supposed by Mr. Bentham
“to mean no more than that the churches, and monasteries,
were, in general, so much decayed, that the roofs were unc
vered, or bare, to the timber; and the beams rotted by ne
and
* Staveley’s History of Churches in England.
*Observations on the Fairy Queen of Spenser.

















on AN Glo-Saxon Antiquities. 255
and grown over with moss; and not that they were made wholly
of wood.”* .
It is, however, clear, from the writings of Venerable Bede,
and is not denied by any modern author, that many churches
were constructed by the Anglo-Saxons, of oaken planks, or
even of wattles, thatched with reeds. Such buildings were
give place to more substantial edifices, or were included in those
more permanent structures; as in the instance of a chapel, on
the site of the present church of St. Peter, at York; which
chapel, or oratory, was hastily built of wood, for the purpose
of baptizing Edwin, King of Northumberland, in the year 627.
But it may be readily apprehended that, in every early age,
when society was thinly-spread, and the resources upon which
ecclesiastical architecture depended, proceeded chiefly from the
bounty of individuals, many churches, not designed for a tem-
porary purpose, would be composed of materials so ordinary
and cheap. Several such are noticed by ancient writers; and
it may be observed that a church, thus rudely formed, althoug
the date of its erection be unknown, is still remaining at Green-
sted, near Ongar, in Essex. + * , º,
But that churches built of stone were contemporary with fa-
brics so rude and slight, is sufficiently evinced by authentic
history. In regard to the opportunities which the Anglo-
Saxons possessed of acquiring some knowledge in the art of ar-
chitecture, even in the earliest stage of their supremacy in this
island, it is remarked by Mr. Bentham, “that, at the time the
Saxons were converted, the art of constructing arches and vault-
ings, and of supporting stone edifices by columns, was well
known among them; they had many instances of such kind of
buildings before them, in the churches and other public edifices
erected in the times of the R stant
*
mans. For, notwit
* History of the Cathedral Church of Ely, p. 16.
* See Beauties for Essex, p. 425. A view of this building is presented in
Vetusta Monumenta, Vol. II, plate 7.















256 INTRODUCTION,
havoc that had been made of the Christian churches by the Picts
and Scots, and by the Saxons themselves, some of them were
then in being. Bede mentions two in the city of Canterbury :
that dedicated to St. Martin, on the east side of the city, wherein
Queen Bertha performed her devotions, and which Augustin and
his companions made use of at their first coming; and the other,
that which the king, after his conversion, gave to Augustin, and
which he repaired and dedicated to our blessed Saviour, and made
it his archiepiscopal see. Besides these two ancient Roman
churches, it is likely there were others of the same age, in dif-
ferent parts of the kingdom, which were then repaired and re-
stored to their former use.” . . . . . .
There is cause for supposing that several of the principal
churches erected shortly after the conversion of Ethelbert, A. D.
561, were constructed of stone. Such a supposition, however,
rests for credibility on an inference deduced from the words of
Bede (the sole ancient and real authority,) rather than on those
words themselves. In treating of the buildings of an age shortly
subsequent, that venerable historian is more explicit; and in-
forms us, that the church of St. Peter's, at York, which in-
cluded the wooden chapel before-noticed, was a spacious and mag-
nificent fabric, “ of stone.” This first stone church at York,
was erected shortly after the baptism of King Edwin, in the
year 627. . .
Other churches, built in, or near, the time of Bede, are, like-
wise, expressly stated by him to have been built of stone. The
structure concerning which he writes most fully, is the church
of St. Peter, in the monastery of Wearmouth; the spot on which
he was educated, and near which he passed the whole of a life,
saintly in the esteem of his contemporaries, and truly useful in
the regard of posterity. “This church was built by the famous
Benedict Biscopius. In the year 675, this abbat went over into
France, to engage workmen to build his church after the Roman
Inannel?
* History of Ely Cathedral,p. 17–1 a
o N AN Glo-S Axon ANT19 Uitles. 257
manner (as it is there called,) and brought them over with him
for that purpose. He prosecuted this work with extraordinary
zeal and diligence; insomuch that, within the compass of a year
after the foundations were laid, he caused the roof to be put on,
and divine service to be performed in it. Afterwards, when the
building was nearly finished, he sent over to France for arti-
ficers skilled in the mystery of making glass [an art till that time
unknown to the inhabitants of Britain,) to glaze the windows
both of the porticos and the principal parts of the church; which
work they not only executed, but taught the English nation that
most useful art.”* , , ,
We do not entirely rest for historical intelligence, concerning
churches of stone built by the Anglo-Saxons, on the venerable
Bede; and it is observable, that, in another author, equally en-
titled to credit, both pillars and arches are expressly mentioned.
Eddius, the contemporary of Bede, and the biographer of Wil-
frid, bishop of York, mentions the conventual church of Rippon,
in Yorkshire, and the cathedral church of Hexham, in Nor-
thumberland, as foundations of the bishop whose life he nar-
rates. z
The church of Hexham is described as being one of the most
magnificent fabrics of the age in which it was erected; as a build-
ing, indeed, that “ was not to be paralleled on this side the
Alps.” It was founded in the year 674; and Eddius mentions
“its deepness in the ground, with rooms founded of stones, ad-
mirably polished; but having, above ground, one room of many
parts, supported on various columns, and on many underground
chapels; yet possessing a wonderful length and height of walls;
;: ... “‘. . . S and,
* History of Ely Cathedral, p. 20–21.-The introduction of Glass at this
period, as noticed in the above excerpt, will not escape the notice of the
- reader. Before the erection of this church, under the direction of Benedict,
the windows of the most costly buildings were filled with “ fine linen cloth, or
latticed wood work.” Turner's Hist, of the Anglo Saxons, Vol. II. p. 416.
Malmsb, 149. . , ºr
258 introduction.
and, by various passages winding in lines, carried along spiral
stairs, sometimes up, sometimes down.”*
This church is more especially curious, and deserving of notice,
as it afforded a subject of remark to an Anglo-Norman writer,
who flourished about one century after the conquest, and in
whose time the building was still remaining, although in a de-
.. cay ing state. Richard, prior of Hexham, the Anglo-Norman
to whom I allude, after mentioning the “crypts, and oratories
subterraneous, with winding passages to them,” informs us “that
the walls were of immense length and height, supported on
columns of squared, varied, well-polished stones, and divided
into three stories.” He adds, “that the walls themselves, with
the capitals of those columns by which the walls were supported,
as, also, the coved ceiling of the sanctuary, Wilfrid decorated
with histories, statues, and various figures, projecting in sculp-
ture from the stone, with the grateful variety of pictures, and
& with the wonderful beauty of colours. He, also, surrounded the
very body of the church with chapels lateral and subterraneous,
on every side; which, with wonderſul and inexplicable artifice,
he separated, by walls and spiral stairs, above and below. In
the very stairs, and upon them, he caused to be made of stone,
º ways of ascent, places of landing, and a variety of windings,
some up, some down; yet, so artificially, that an innumerable
multitude of men might be there, and stand all about the very
body of the church, yet not be visible to any that were below
In a commentary on the above excerpt, Mr. Whitaker remarks,
that this delineation of an Anglo-Saxon church, “reminds us
: ºf . . . . . r strongly

• Eddius, e. xxii. -- as translated in whitaker's Cathedral History of Corn-
wall, Vol. I. p. 114. The passage is differently, but, as it would appear,

less faithfully rendered by Mr. Bentham, p. 21–22, of the History of Ely
Cathedral. . : … ... * * * : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º.º. " i ≤ . . . . . .
Richard Priori, Hagust lib. 1;-as translated by Mr. Whitaker, cathe.
dral History of Cornwall, Vol. I. p. 116–117. <: º
on ANGLo-Saxon ANT19UITI Es. 259
strongly of the subterraneous crypts, with oratories in them, of
our late cathedral of St. Paul’s, with Jesus chapel and St. Faith's.
church in the crowds,” under it; or of our present cathedral of
Canterbury, with its ‘under-croft,’ and Walloon church, be-
low.”* . . .
Many other instances of churches known to have been built of
stone by the Anglo-Saxons, might be adduced, on the testimony
of ancient writers, who had an opportunity of examining such
fabrics. Those noticed above are sufficient to establish the fact -
of that people having constructed sacred edifices composed of
stone; a circumstance which indolence in research, alone, could
have suffered any author to place in a questionable point of
View. . . . . 3. . .
It may, however, be proper to state, in attention to the re-
mark of Mr. Bentham, that “one of the most complete Saxon
churches, of which we have any authentic information, is that of
St. Peter, in York, as it was rebuilt about the middle of the 8th
century,” in consequence of an injury which the former structure
experienced, from accidental fire, in the year 741. The church,
as then restored by Albert, archbishop of York, is curiously
described by the learned Alcuin, who was one of the principal
architects employed in that work. “From his description,”
writes Mr. Bentham, “ in which the principal members and re-
quisites of a complete and finished edifice are expressed, pillars,
arches, vaulted roofs, windows, porticos, galleries, and variety
of altars, with their proper ornaments and decorations, the reader
will, in some measure, be able to form a judgment of the whole;
and be apt to conclude that architecture was carried, in that age,
to some considerable degree of perfection.”f
* Cathedral History of Cornwall, Vol. 1, p. 119.
t Bentham's Ely, p. 25–26. In the same place is presented an extract
of Alcuin's poem, De Pontificibus et sanctis Ecclesia. Ebor. published by Dr.
Gale, in 1691. The descriptive lines are thus translated, in the fourth
"olume of King's Munimenta Antiqua, p. 164,
- In
& !

260 introduction.
We are sanctioned, by the concurrent opinions of many judi-
cious writers, in believing that church architecture flourished in
its greatest lustre, amongst the Anglo-Saxons, at the latter part
of the seventh century, when it was zealously patronized by Wil-
frid, archbishop of York. Many monasteries were founded, and
churches erected, in ages shortly succeeding; but, in the ninth
century, the incursions of the Danes not only suspended the pro-
gress of architectural improvement, but caused the destruction
of numerous edifices, reared in times of national prosperity, and
calculated for a long duration, if left free from human assault.
The great Alfred, like a good genius sent to console suffering
humanity, arose amidst this storm of frightful contention; and
endeavoured to restore men to their duty and to themselves, by
reviving a veneration for religious observances, and by encou-
raging literature and the arts. But the continual public trou-
bles of his reign, unhappily debarred him from bestowing largely
those inspiriting beams of patronage on ecclesiastical architecture
to which he was, unquestionably, well-inclined. It is, however,
stated that “he encouraged the repairing of churches, founded
two monasteries, and restored some others.” *
The reigns shortly succeeding that of Alfred, were, like his
own, of too troubled a complexion to allow of a deliberate atten-
tionto religious buildings. . . .
-> In this great Prelate's time, this Church of ſame,
A finished, consecrated pile became :
By him alone, begun, completed, blest :
Where, by high Arches, mighty Columns prest,
And glitt’ring roofs, of well-wrought timber form’d,
And Windows fair, with nicest art adorn'd,
Render the whole both awful, and sublime,
And long to be admir'd in future time.
Full many Porticos surrounding all; - - - - - - -
º where the sun's rays in all directions ſalſ; ,
º And thirty Altars, each adorn'd with art, ..:”
Give lustre to the whole, and every part.

on AN Glo-saxo N ANTIQUIti Es. 261
Edgar possessed the throne in an age more settled, and favour-
able to the cultivation of sacred and ornamental architecture.
His opportunities were chiefly employed in the indulgence of
personal pomp, and gaudy parade;” but the influence of arch-
bishop Dunstan, and the consequent prevalence of Benedictine
institutions, were, certainly, productive of a memorable atten-
tion to the advancement of the architectural art. Several monas-
teries were now founded; and many, which had been destroyed
or injured, by the Danes, were refounded or repaired.
Mr. Bentham, in treating of ecclesiastical buildings erected
in the reign of Edgar, observes that, by the accounts which we
have of his monastic foundations and repairs, “it appears that
some new improvements in architecture had lately been made, or
were, about that time, introduced.”f * :
A discussion concerning the probable nature of these improve-
ments, occupies many pages in the works of several writers on
the subject of our ancient architecture. ,
It is less to be regretted that the limits of the present under-
taking prevent a minute examination of the arguments of these
various writers, as the object of their enquiries is but in a ſaint
degree connected with such supposed vestiges of the Anglo-
Saxons as demand primary attention. Mr. Bentham imagines
those improvements in architecture which are referable to the
time of Edgar, or years shortly previous, to consist in the cru-
ciform mode of ground-plan, with high towers raised above the
roof. In support of this conjecture, he affirms that, in such de-
scriptive accounts as we have remaining, of the more ancient
Saxon churches, “not a word occurs by which it can be inferred
that they had either cross buildings, or high towers; but, as far
as we can judge, were mostly square,f or rather oblong, build-
& S 3 ings;
* See Turner's Hist. of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. I. p.403. .
* History of Ely Cathedral, p. 28. . tº .
: “ St. Peter's at York, begun by King Edwin, A. D. 627, is particularly
reported by Bede to have been of that form.” Bedae Hist, Eccl. lib. ii,
cap. 14. & i . . . .
262 INT noduction.
ings; and generally turned circular at the east end;" in form,
nearly, if not exactly, resembling the basilicae, or courts of
justice, in great cities throughout the Roman empire.”t Such,
Mr. Bentham conceives, was the general form of our oldest Saxon
churches. . .” - * .
This opinion, as to the late period at which the cruciform plan
of building was introduced amongst the Anglo-Saxons, is warmly
controverted by several very respectable writers. Mr. Whitaker
opposes to it the description presented by Eadmer, of “that
church which the Romans built, within the city of Canterbury,
and which, afterwards, became the cathedral of all England,
under the Saxons.”f The descriptive statement of Eadmer [as
copied by Gervase] does, indeed, appear to imply that this very
ancient metropolitical church, possessed north and south tran-
septs, each being surmounted by a tower. ź
Dr. Milner § unites with Mr. Whitaker, in opposing the above
opinion of the historian of Ely cathedral; and observes, that
“it would, certainly, be strange if that form which had been
adopted in the east, in Italy, and in France, during so many
prior ages, should not have made its way into England, during
four hundred years after its conversion.” This writer adduces a
fresh instante of the use of transepts in English churches, at a
&... . . . . “. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.É. much
* “An ancient church at Abbendon, built about the year 675, by Heane,
the first Abbot of that place, was an oblong building, 120 feet in length;
and, what is singular, was of a circular form on the west, as well as on the
east.” Monast. Angl. Vol. I. p. 98.
+ Hist. of the Cathedral church of Ely, p. 29. º
+ Cathedral History of Cornwall, Vol. II, chap. vi. sect. ii; where see
the original passage, of Gervase from Eadmer. * 3: “ . , 3
5 Treatise on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England during the Mid-
dle ages, p. 31–33. . .
| See arguments respecting these positions, in the notes to Dr. Milner's
Treatise, p. 32. Some remarks on the same subject, are, also, presented in
Mr. Whittington's Historical Survey of the Ecclesiastical Antiquities of France,
Chap. 1, . .
oN AN Glo-saxon Antiquities. 263.
much earlier period than is noticed by Mr. Bentham; and one
that is of greater weight than the example given above, as the
building was erected under the direction of an Anglo-Saxon pre-
late. This is the church of St. Mary, at Hexham, which was
built by St. Wilfrid, in the seventh century. Richard, prior of
Hexham, describes the above church, “as being furnished with
a tower, of a round or cupola form, from which four porticos, or
aisles, proceeded.”
The second novelty [that of high towers, raised above the
roof] which Mr. Bentham supposes to have been introduced.
about the time of King Edgar, is partly implicated in the fore-
going remarks; but, as the subject is curious, and involves par-
ticulars, interesting in regard to the churches of every period,
it demands some further observation.—It is mentioned by Mr.
Bentham, as being “highly probable,” that the use of bells
gave occasion to the introduction of church towers; and such we,
may readily suppose to have been the fact. Speedily found to
be appendages elegant as well as useful, they were, however,
multiplied in the same building, for the purposes of symmetry
and ornament. From the extracts and references presented.
above, it is probable that the reader will accord with those who
oppugn the conjectural opinion of Mr. Bentham, respecting.
dates; and will believe that towers, the great ornaments of so,
many existing churches, were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons.
shortly after their conversion.* . . . . . .
: S 4 It,
* The history of Bells, as used in collecting a congregation to Divine ser-
vice, is involved in some obscurity. Mr. Whitaker, in the section and chap-
ter already quoted, displays great learning in shewing that bells were in fre-
Quent use among the Romans; and were, probably, introduced by them to
the Britons, during their sway over this island. Their first adaptation to the
uses of the Anglo-Saxon church, is not so clearly to be ascertained, from writ-
ten testimony. Dr. Milner (Ecclesiastical Architecture of the Middle ages,
P. 34) observes “that the use of small bells (nole) in this country, if we
may credit William of Malmsbury, may be traced as high as the fifth century.
264 INTRO DUCTION.
It is mentioned by Mr. Turner, as a circumstance not to be
doubted, “ that the Anglo-Saxons had some sort of architecture
in use before they invaded Britain. The temple which Char-
lemagne destroyed at Eresberg, in the eighth century, is described
in terms which imply at least greatness.” But that they were
indebted to Rome, for that mode of building with stone, which
forms the object of the present enquiry, would appear to be
satisfactorily ascertained. - ***
It will be recollected that the art of architecture, in Rome,
is generally allowed to have been cultivated with the greatest suc-
cess during the reign of Augustus; from which period it sank to
decline, amidst a meretricious profusion of ornament; and hastily
fell into utter degradation. Mr. Whittington observes that the
“ Palace of Dioclesian, at Spalatro, affords a striking proof of
the debasement of the art, at the end of the third century; in-
deed, in many parts of that vast and costly structure, are to be
discovered the first traces of that barbarous style of building,
which is now known to us by the names of Lombard and Saxon.”+
In this degraded state of the architectural art, the noblest
ancient structures of Rome were considered merely as a fund of
materials for the use of new buildings. Columns, architraves,
and the various ornamental parts of ancient and truly elegant
edifices, were now employed in such fresh erections, with an en-
tire disregard of symmetry, and even of common architectural
laws. Columns were often furnished with capitals and bases of
dissimilar orders; and any defieiencies of ornament were supplied
by the crude fancies of the new builders; who may be termed
masons, rather than architects, Several instances of churches
* . - at

And it is clear from Bede, that even those of the larger kind (campana) alch
as sounded in the air, and called a numerous congregation to Divine service,
were employed in England as early as the year 680, being that in which the
Abbess Hilda died.” . . . .
* Hist, of the Anglo Saxons, Vol. II. p. 411. -
* Egglesiastical Antiquities of France, p. 2, and Appendix,

on A N G Lo-sAxon ANT1 QUITI Es. 265°
at Rome, constructed in this barbarous manner, are specified in
the works mentioned below.” ºn
An imitation of this debased Roman style, appears to have
prevailed in the early churches of every other Christian country
of Europe. The opportunities which the Anglo-Saxons pos-
sessed of imitating the Romans in architectural fashion, are suffi-
ciently obvious. Independant of examples possibly afforded by
buildings still remaining in Britain, they were directed and as-
sisted by those missionaries from Rome, who repaired to this is-
land in the seventh century;+ and their subsequent intercourse
with that city, upon ecclesiastical affairs, enabled them to ac-
quire an intimate knowledge of the modes used by the Romans,
in constructing sacred edifices. . . . . .
In regard to the fact of the derivation of the Anglo-Saxon
style from the Romans, Dr. Milner affords the following obser-
vation: “ The well-known Saxon mouldings, the chevron, or
zig-zag ; the billet; the cable; the embattled fret; the lozenge;
the corbel table; and a variety of such other ornaments, as are
supposed to be peculiar to Saxon architecture, will be found, on
close examination, to have had their architypes in some or other
of the buildings, medals, tessellated pavements, or sepulchres,
of Italy, before they were adopted by our ancestors.”f º
Whilst admitting that the Anglo-Saxon style was formed on
an imitation of the methods prevailing in Rome, we must not,
however, forget that in these, as well as in future ages, the .
architects of our most splendid sacred structures are to be found
in native ecclesiastics. x * * * * * *
* For a compendious review of the incongruous and tasteless modes which
marked the architecture of Rome, in its debased state, see Whittington's Ec-
clesiastical Antiquities of France; and Hawkins (Hist, of the origin of Gothie
architecture) after Ciampini, Vetera Monimenta, Vol. I. &c.
* See Milner's Ecclesiastical Architecture of the Middle ages, p. 21.
(after Bede, l. ii. c. 14.) . r. . . . . . " .
# Ecclesiastical Architecture of the Middle ages, p. 26–27. Examples
*represented in a note on the latter page.

266 NTRODUCTion.
Some general ideas respecting the form, and divisions, of the
principal cathedral and conventual churches of the Anglo-Saxons,
may be obtained from the collated remarks presented in previous
pages. Ideas of the same general kind may, likewise, easily
be conveyed, in regard to the character of that style of architec-
which is denominated Anglo-Saxon; but, we shall find, that it
is more difficult to assign to the same mode its shades of distinc-
tion from that which was afterwards used by the Anglo-Normans.
The subjoined extract of the History of Ely Cathedral, may
not be unacceptable, as it concisely recapitulates the form and
component parts of an Anglo-Saxon church, while it affords some
hints concerning the decisive marks of that style of architecture
which is the subject of our enquiry:—“The general plan and dis-
position of all the principal parts, in the latter Saxon and earliest
Norman churches, was the same: the chief entrance was at the
west end into the nave; at the upper end of that was a cross,
with the arms of it extending north and south, and the head (in
which was the choir) towards the east, ending usually in a semi-
circular forin: and, in the centre of the cross, was a lower; ano-
ther was frequently added (and sometimes two, for the sake of
ornament, or symmetry,) to contain the bells; the nave, and
often the whole building, was encompassed with inner porticos;
the pillars were round, square, or angular, and very strong and
massive; the arches and heads of the doors and windows were
all of them circular.” - . . . . .
It is sufficiently ascertained, from the necessary accordance of
the architecture of the Anglo-Saxons with that of the other Chris-
tian countries of Europe, as being derived from the same common
source of imitation (the debased Roman) that the heavy eircular
mode, above noticed, was its leading characteristic. If additional
proofs be required, they may be found in the representations of
churches presented on coins, and in the illuminations of manuscripts.
The following more minute particulars are collected from writers,
. . . . . . . . . . . who
• Hist, aſ Ely Cathedral, p. 32.
on A N G Lo-s Axo N ANT1 QUIT I Es. 267
who argue from existing buildings, attributed by themselves to our
Saxon progenitors; and it is probable that these may be safely
admitted as characteristical features, even though the struc-
tures, whence the inferences are drawn, should be of a later date;
as it is generally agreed that the first ecclesiastical buildings of
the Anglo-Normans were erected with few deviations, as to ar-
chitectural fashion, from those of their Saxon precursors. 1.
Arguing upon such examples, it appears, that, from the thick-
ness of their walls, which rendered such aids unnecessary, the
Anglo-Saxon buildings were constructed without buttresses. The
windows were comparatively small, and without mullions. The
columns possessed a studied variety; and the same intentional
want of uniformity is observable in more minute ornaments.”
Many of their arches, occupying conspicuous situations, (and
particularly those at the west end of churches) were elaborately
embellished, in a rude but impressive style. Such ornaments as
are of most frequent occurrence on supposed Anglo-Saxon arches,
are thus noticed by Mr. Bentham:—“the chevron work, or
zig-zag moulding, the most common of any ; the embattled frette,
a kind of ornament formed by a single round moulding, traversing
the face of the arch, making its returns and crossings always at
right angles, so forming the intermediate spaces into squares,
alternately open above and below; the triangular frette, where
the same kind of moulding at every return forms the side of an
equilateral triangle, and, consequently, encloses the intermedi-
ate spaces in that figure; the nail-head, resembling the heads of
great nails, driven in at regular distances.”t ºn
It is scarcely necessary to observe, that, in this “ order of
architecture,” we must not look for niches and tabernacles; as
the Anglo-Saxons, assuredly, did not introduce statues, as orna-



* It is possible that the fondness for variety, observable in what has been
termed the “Anglo-Saxon order of architecture,” proceeded from an absurd
imitation of those churches at Rome, which were composed of dissimilar por-
tions of more ancient structures. . . * * , º
. * Hist. of Ely Cathedral, p. 34–35:
268 introduction.
ments to the outer part of their sacred buildings. It is, however,
believed that the capitals of their columns often comprised rude
representations of the human, and other natural forms; and that
the portals of their churches were frequently ornamented with
pieces of carving, in bas-relief. …
But the most industrious antiquary treads upon uncertain ground,
when investigating this subject, with a view of making direct
applications, and drawing determinate inferences. Although
many churches are popularly attributed to an Anglo-Saxon era;
and are fairly open to enquiry and conjecture, from the evidence
of their great antiquity, and the absence of all contradictory
record; it is still to be regretted that there is not any remaining
ecclesiastical building, which can be ascribed to the Anglo-
Saxons, upon clear and decisive authority.
It must necessarily be believed that few religious edifices,
built previously to the conquest, are now in existence. The
Normans evidently possessed grander views than that race of
monarchs which they supplanted. Whether superior piety, or
the indulgence of more magnificent notions, might be the cause,
it is certain that they either entirely rebuilt, or greatly improved,
the whole of our Cathedral, and the principal conventual churches,
within a century after they obtained domination over the island.
Thus, an entire specimen of Anglo-Saxon sacred architecture
must be sought in the reinote village, where the Saxon Thane
was allowed to retain possession, or where the estate formed part
of the numerous domains of a Norman lord, who fixed his resi-
dence on some more favoured spot. But the busy hand of Nor-
man improvement penetrated very obscure recesses. That spirit
which induced the Anglo-Norman prelates to rebuild the more
important churches, led to an emulation among the nobles of the
new dynasty. They appear to have taken a pious pride, in dis-
playing a comparative grandeur of ecclesiastical architecture,
throughout their respective domains; thus attesting, in a lauda-
ble manner, their superiority in art, taste, and resources, over
the subdued Saxons. Malmsbury, who lived in the twelfth
& 3 ; , , : « - - century,

4.
on ANGLo-s Axo N ANTI QUATI Es.
century, observes [as was partly noticed in a previous page]
that the erection of churches, by the Normans, shortly after
their arrival, was not confined to cities and towns, but prevailed
in villages. The same information is, also, conveyed by other
ancient writers. º *
It is, certainly, far from improbable that some few churches,
constructed by the Anglo-Saxons in recluse situations, may still
be in existence. We have seen that their style of building was
frequently calculated for duration; and we know that some small
churches, which must have been erected by the Normans at an
early period of their ascendancy, [if, indeed, they be not of a
higher date] are now remaining, and free from any serious dila-
pidation. º : º
But we may with more certainty presume that many parts of
Anglo-Saxon structures still exist, although intermixed with pre-
dominating buildings, often of a much later erection. If such are
to be found, it would appear that they must be looked for chiefly,
in door-cases;" or in massy pillars, sometimes supporting arches
* probably
* Enriched door-cases of stone, exhibiting all the peculiarities commonly
attributed to the style of the Anglo-Saxons, are frequently seen, inserted in
the buildings of churches, which, in almost every other part, or, perhaps,
with no other exception, are of the later, and pointed, style of architecture.
It would appear that some motive of peculiar reverence induced the restorers
of ecclesiastical structures to preserve these curious and interesting vestiges
of the ancient building. Mr. Staveley (Hist. of churches, p. 160.) mentions it
being as probable, “that civil business was sometimes transacted at the south
door of churches.” And this conjecture is confirmed by the following pas-
sage in an ancient writer:—Eadmer, describing the cathedral church of Can-
terbury, says, that, “of two towers, at the middle of the length of this cathe-
dral, one, on the south, had, in its side, the principal door of the church;
which door is often mentioned, by name, in the laws of our ancient kings;
by which laws it is decreed, that even all suits of the whole realm, which
cannot be legally determined in hundred or county courts, or certainly de-
cided in the king's own court, must have their determination here, as in the
highest court of the king.” (Cathedral Hist. of Cornwall, Vol. I. p. 151.
§§

270 1NT Roduction.
probably constructed by the Normans, and, in other instances,
sustaining incongruous arches of the pointed style; or in the
gloomy crypts seen beneath many ancient churches.” -
Gervase, 1292, Twisden.) It, likewise, appears that smaller occasional
courts were held at the doors of country churches. (Ibid, p. 155, note, and
the authority there quoted)—We are informed by Blomefield's History of
Norwich, that it was customary, formerly, for “a couple who were to be
married, to be placed at the church door, where the priest used to join their
hands, and perform the greatest part of the matrimonial office; it was here
that the husband endowed his wife with the portion, or dowry, contracted
for; which was, therefore, called dos ad ostium eeclesia, or the dowry at the
church door.” Chaucer describes his “Wiſe of Bath,” as receiving her hus-
bands at “the church dore.”—The preservation of round-headed door-cases,
in re-edified buildings, is not peculiar to this country. The author of the
ornaments of churches considered (p. 91. note) observes, “that an old door,
with a round arch, and hatched mouldings, is remaining in the cathedral of
Liege,” although the other parts of that structure are entirely of the pointed
order. . . . . . . . - &
* Concerning the intended purpose of the crypts remaining beneath many
ancient churches, and those which are sometimes found, without any exist-
ing superstructure, numerous conjectures have been formed ;. the majority of
which appear to be entitled to little consideration. From the extract of
Richard, Prior of Hexham, given in a previous page (p. 258) it will be seen
that the Saxons constructed “chapels, and oratories subterraneous,” beneath
their principal churches. ->
A learned and ingenious correspondent suggests the probability of many
crypts being originally designed for sanctuaries ; and presents the following
observations. * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
“ It appears that crypts were formed much more frequently during the
Saxon and Danish dynasties, than after those eras. In subsequent times, the
chancel of every church became a sanctuary; and in the teign of Henry the
Seventh, even the churchyards protected, for a prescribed term, persons ac-
cused of any crime, except treason, &c. and this privilege was not abolished
until the reign of James the First. ... .
“ In the barbarous ages of the Saxons and Danes, persons of consequence,
and even some of the nobility, occasionally fled to these sanctuaries; where
they were concealed from the rage of the injured family, until their crimes
were atoned for. By which means, sanctuaries afforded a considerable reve.
y. " Intiff





on ANGLo-s Axo N ANTIQUIT1 Es.
Destitute of positive data, whence to form analogical inferences,
the decision of the examiner must, however, be made with great
caution; since the utmost result of his judgment can amount
only to ingenious conjectural appropriation. % - . . . . ;
In the above outline of opinion, I have been actuated by a per-
suasion that we have not direct testimony for believing any
known remaining building to have been erected in an Anglo-Saxon
age, Bolder writers, and perhaps more luminous guides, inculcate
different precepts. In the current annals of antiquarianism,
numerous fabrics are either wholly, or in part, received, with-
out hesitation, as relics of ages anterior to the conquest. But
it would appear, that, when forming such a conclusion in regard
to conventual churches, (the only buildings of our Saxon ances-
tors, concerning which we possess a resemblance of legitimate
record) the enquirer is often misled, by a dependance on the
date at which the institution was founded.—A modern writer
justly observes, that “Charters of foundation are insufficientevi-
dence in such cases; because new endowments were formed, or
grafted on former; and later erections were, raised on the sites of
preceding buildings.” .
Whilst
nue to the clergy. We may readily suppose that no expense would be spared
in the architectural decoration of buildings appropriated to so lucrative a
use; and, accordingly, they are often found to be enriched with fine groined
arches, whilst the supporting pillars are highly ornamented with grotesque
devices; particularly in the instance of the crypt beneath St. Peter's church,
at Oxford. . ź tº
“That crypts were, in later times, used as cemeteries, is very probable:
but that they were not uniformly designed for such a purpose, is evident .
from a curious small crypt, now beneath a house on the west side of the mat-
ket-cross, at Clare, in Suffolk; which is, in dimensions of ground plan, 20
feet by 17; with the roof supported by a single pillar, in the centre, similar
to a chapter-house. In the instance of this crypt, it would have been im-
practicable for a grave to have been dug, without danger to the foundation
of the pillar; the space being only six feet from the base of the pillar to the
*ion of the wall." Ms. communication of Thomas Walford, Esq.
F. A. S. : º
• Architectural Antiquities, vol.III. p. 23.
&




272 1NTRODUCTION.
Whilst admitting the propriety of this remark, we enter on
the difficulty of distinguishing between architectural works of the
Saxons and Normans, in this country; since the buildings often
attributed to the dynasty of the former, are found, on careful in-
vestigation, to resemble, even in many particulars of minute
ornament, existing structures, which may be ascribed, on satis-
factory grounds, to succeeding Anglo-Norman ages. -
The dates at which churches were erected, are sometimes as-
certained by inscriptions. Such memorials are not very unusual,
in buildings raised after the conquest; but they are truly rare,
as regards the Anglo-Saxon ages, except in instances where
they have evidently been composed in more recent times. Dr.
Pegge, in his Sylloge of Ancient Inscriptions, notices only four;
which occur at Jarrow, in the county palatine of Durham;”
Kirkdale, in Yorkshire; Aldbrough, in Holderness; and Post-
ling, in Kent.: But these buildings do not present any decided
architectural remains, in the style believed to have prevailed
at the dates indicated by the inscriptions. . . . . . . .
In a work like the present, which is not intended to be merely
the vehicle of individual opinion, but is designed to convey a brief
analysis of what has been adduced on each subject, by antiqua-
rian authors of eminent credit, it is required that some notice
should be taken of the criteria usually adopted by such as venture
to draw a line between the architectural style under consideration,
and that of the Normans, as practised in Britain. With two excep-
tions (the writings of Mr. Millers and Mr. King) such remarks are
of a fugitive, irregular, character, and may be concisely stated.
It is generally agreed that the churches of the Anglo-Saxons
were inferior in size to those of their successors; and it may,
- certainly,
** Mr. Hutchinson (Hist, of Durham, Vol. II.) supposes the inscription at
Jarrow, to be really nore modern than the time of the Anglo-Saxens. See,


also, Beauties for Durham, p. 172. º
+ See this inscription noticed, likewise, Archæol. Vol. V. p. 188. et seq;
t This inscription has now disappeared. See Beauties for Kent, p. 1124.
on Anglo-saxon Antiquities. 273
certainly, be presumed that, if any still remain in those retired
situations, where alone they can be supposed to'exist, they are
of very limited proportions, ºn
Dr. Milner asserts that they may, in part, be distinguished by
“ the coarseness of the work;” and we have been told, by Mr.
Staveley,t “that the Saxons made their churches generally with
descents into them, whereas the Normans, contrarily, made theirs
with ascents.” But this latter observation is noticed, chiefly
that it may be corrected. Dr. Ducarel, writing concerning some
of the most ancient churches which he examined, in Normandy,
states, “that the entrance into such churches, is always, by a de-
scent of three or four steps;”f and that the Normans used the
same method in Britain, is evinced by many churches, now as-
certained to have been erected under their patronage. .
Dr. Milner believes that “ certain low cones, which frequently
cover the towers, and flank the corners of the buildings,” are
peculiar marks of this style of architecture. It would appear
that he forms such an opinion, on the occurrence of these conical
cappings at the east end of St. Peter's, Oxford.
According to Mr. Dallaway, “the principal discrimination be-
tween the Saxon and the Norman styles, appears to be, that of
much larger dimensions, in every part; plain, but more lofty,
vaulting; circular pillars of greater diameter; the round arches,
and the capitals, having ornamental carvings much more elabo-
rate and various, adapted to them.”|
In the twelfth volume of Archaeologia, are some diffuse remarks
concerning distinctions between these two styles, from the pen of
Mr. Wilkins; and, as what he has written has met with consider-
able notice, I present the following extract. ºn tº º,
“The Saxons supported their arches, which separated the
• Architecture of the Middle ages, p. 28. sº %
* History of churches, &c. p. 151. 3.
$ Anglo-Norman Antiq. p. 97.
$ Architecture of the Middle ages, p. 28. ... . . . . . . . *
# Observations on English Architecture, p. 19. . .





274 1 NTRomuction.
aisles, by a single column, or rather pier, which was circular,
octangular, or hexangular, in the plan; whereas the Norman
architects supported theirs, in general, with extremely massive
piers, ornamented on their sides and angles with upright small
columns; and sometimes they intermixed them with round piers,
like the Saxons, as may be seen in Ely, Norwich, Peterborough,
and other cathedrals. They differed widely, however, from the
Roman proportions; and the Normans increased the difference,
as is shewn by the following comparison: * . . .
8Axon PRoPortions.
& * , , ,
. * - - - - Diameters. Height.
º Ft. Inc. Ft. Inc. diam.
Piers to the chancel at º 3 3 13 0 =
in Suffolk........................ }
Width of the arches ..................3 diameters.
Piers to the conventual *} 2 4 14 2 = 6+2
at Ely............................. % * . . .
0 = 4
Width of the arches..................3 diameters.
‘... *. -
2.3 x * -
*** * *-* * - --
- º, a
- - Norman Proportions.
Piers in Norwich Cathedral........7 3 14 6 = a
width of the arches..................2 diameters. . . . . . . . . .
The same proportions may be observed in Ely, Peterborough,
and other Norman buildings.”
Mr. Millers presents the following, among other presumed
“Characteristics of the Saxon style.”—In regard to form and
extent, it may be questioned “whether their churches were ever
higher than one tier of arches, and a range of windows above.
Richard, Prior of Hexham, speaks of three stories, which im-
plies another tier of arches; but if he is rightly so understood,
this seems an exception from a general rule, for the church of
Hexham is spoken of by all writers who mention it, as the glory
- : ; : . . . . . . . . . . . sº of
‘. . . . §
... } ...:
• Archeol, vol.xii. p. 15°.

o N ANG LO-SAxo N ANTIQUITIES. 275
of Saxon churches in the seventh century.” The arches, Mr.
Millers describes as being, “frequently very plain—sometimes
decorated with various sorts of mouldings, not only on the face,
but in the sofit, which, in some instances (as in the ruins at
Ely) is entirely occupied by them—double, triple, or quadruple,
each resting on two columns, and generally faced with a different
moulding, which is frequently double; so that, upon the whole,
there are six or eight concentric semicircles of them ; and, as
each semicircle projects somewhat beyond the next, a moulding
is placed under the projecting parts, usually the same as that
upon the face of it.” : .
After noticing the various shapes of columns supposed to be
Saxon, the same writer mentions them as being “strong and
short, in proportion to the span of the arch—the circumference
often equal to the height—the capitals indented with fissures of
different lengths, forms, and directions; the divisions thus formed,
variously sloped off, or hollowed out towards the top-sometimes
decorated with rude imitations of some correspondent member, of
a Grecian order, as leaves, or volutes—and in these ornaments
much, and even sportive, variety is displayed; only opposite
ones being commonly alike.”
The windows, according to Mr. Millers, “are sometimes so
very small, that they are rather narrow loops than windows,
about three feet high, and six or eight inches wide, expanding
inwards through the thickness of the wall. The roof, vaulted.
The very few remains of Saxon vaulting” (says Mr. Millers)
“are mostly in crypts, as at York and Winchester.” As to
ornaments, “the Saxon churches seem to have been bare of
decoration, excepting what has been before mentioned to hav
been sometimes, even profusely, bestowed on the art
colun ns.” : . . . bº %.
Mr. King has devoted to a consideration of Anglo-Saxon ec-
º Description of the Cathedral church of Ely, &c. by George Millers,
M. A. Article “Characteristics of the Saxon style.” º ſº º sº gº º 'º " ft gº




276 introduction.
clesiastical architecture, the fourth volume of his large and costly
work, intituled Munimenta Antiqua. It would appear that this
writer is chiefly valuable, as an investigator and a guide, when
exploring the castellated remains of antiquity, and presenting the
& fruits of a research, where prepossession, and an over-ruling zeal,
have little opportunity of exercise. There is reason to fear that
his fancy prevailed over his judgment, to the serious injury of
his undertaking, when he directed his attention to the ecclesias-
tical architecture of those obscure ages which preceded the Nor-
man conquest. . .”
A brief exposition of his notions, respecting the gradations of
style which he believes to be evinced by remaining Anglo-Saxon
ecclesiastical buildings, and the characteristical marks of each
determinate mode, is presented in the following words, which act
as a sort of corollary to this portion of this work.
“It may be observed, as a new, and though obvious, yet
hitherto unnoticed, circumstance, that Saxon Ecclesiastical Ar-
chitecture may, most justly, be considered as having had three
very different stages, and periods of its existence; namely :
1. The early Saron, or dawning Saxon.
2. The full Saron, or perfect Saxon.
3. The declining Saxon, or last Saxon ; liable to be
confounded with the Norman. 3.
“And the criteria, by which buildings, belonging to these
several periods, may be distinguished, are very remarkable.
“ The first, and earliest Saxon architecture, in churches,
draws our attention by the multitude of the minute, and de-
signedly varied ornaments, of the several parts—A characteris-
tic specimen of which may be seen in Barfreston church, in Kent.
“The second kind, appears more bold, and in a more noble
style, with less numerous ornaments:—but still with much variety
in the adornments;–of which there are most striking instances,
in the cathedral of Christ church, in Oxford;—and in Canute's
great Gate at St. Edmund's Bury, in Suffolk.
. . . . . . “And

on anglo-saxon antiquities. 277
“And the third, and last kind, is manifested, both by its
clumsy, stately magnificence, on a greater scale, and in greater
proportions;–and by its having cast off so much of varied orna-
ment, that it is difficult to be distinguished from the first plain
Norman; saving that the first Norman had still larger propor-
tions.—And the specimens at Southwell, and Waltham, are suf-
ficident to elucidate this fact. g . . . . . . . . . . . §
“ The first species of Saron Architecture, continued from the
conversion of Egbert, King of Kent, about A. D. 598; and from
the first building of Archbishop Theodore's churches; to the time
of King Alfred, about A. D. 872. . . . . .
“The second species of Saaon Architecture, continued from
the days of Alfred, through those of King Canute; and till the
time of the first Harold, about 1036. . . .
“And the last species of Saaron Architecture, continued from
that time, to the Conquest.”
It is almost superfluous to observe, that the above bold classifi-
cation of styles is ingenious rather than useful, since it rests upon
a presumptive appropriation of dates to specified buildings, con-
cerning the real time of whose erection we do not possess legiti-
mate intelligence. Some minute criteria for distinguishing the
architecture of the Anglo-Saxons (according to the system of Mr.
King) are scattered through various pages of the same laborious
work. The principal of these are subjoined; but it will be ob-
vious that they are, in the greater part, liable to a similar ob-
jection with his division of supposed Anglo-Saxon structures into
regular classes.
Mr. King considers the primary mark of distinction, between
most churches of Saxon and Norman architecture, to consist in
the comparatively small dinensions of the former, not only as to
general ground-plan, but in regard to the proportions of the
doors and windows. He, also, believes the Anglo-Saxon archi-
tects to be deficient in elegance of design; and the masons to be
fless skilful in execution. , , ſº
- . . . . . T 3 . The
* Munimcata Antiqua, Vol. IV, p. 241–242,
278 . . . . . . NTRODUCTION.
The following peculiarities are noticed by him, as affording
characteristical distinctions of early Sawon arches. : ".
“ 1. A studied diversity of ornament, in the capitals of the
supporting pillars, on each side the arch; instead of exact uni-
formity. . -
“2. A transom stone, (or transom stones,) most usually filling
up the semi-circular part of the arch, as if to support it on the
inside; and generally resting on the pillars at the two ends.
“ 3. The supporting pillars, placed standing inwards, and
somewhat nearer to each other than the whole diameter of the
arch; and so as to support, with their capitals, both the inward
transom stone, as well as the ends of the arch.
“4. A loaded variety of ornaments, on the mouldings of the
arch; and often in very small compartments.-And a great variety
of mouldings, besides the indented moulding. - -
“5. Yet, in general, a very plain simple kind of impost
moulding, resting on the capitals of the pillars, for the support
of the arch.” * . . . . . . r
Mr. King adds, that “all these five peculiarities are some-
times (though not often) found united together in the same door-
case, or window; and are, ever, so truly characteristic, that hardly
any Sawon doorway is found without one or two of them com-
bined.” He does not, however, contend that these peculiar orna.
ments w continued invariably to be used, “just in the º same sort
of fashion, quite till the Norman conquest; or that, immediately
afterwards, they went entirely out of use. Now-and-then, they
were somewhat imitated by the Normans; but in such a manner,
that they may easily be distinguished by a discerning eye; both
by the larger proportion of the several parts, and by an evident
introduction of corresponding ornaments, on each side, instead
of the Saxon diversity.” . . .
#
Confident in his appropriation of styles, Mr. King presents the
following long catalogue of “Saron mouldings.” of these, he
says, “that only the plainest, and most simple, and, in general,
* Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. IV. p. 78–79,


on ANG Lo-S Axo N ANT19 UIT1 Es.
279
only the cheveron zig-zag, or the triple indented moulding, were
ever imitated, or at all used, by the Normans.”

The double-leaf moulding.
The cheveron, or zig-zag mould-
ing. …
The triple indented moulding.
The triangular frette moulding.
The enriched triangular mould-
The embattled frette moulding.
The labyrinth moulding.
The lozenge moulding.
The enriched lozenge, or enrich-
ed frette moulding.
The rose moulding.
The trefoil leaf moulding.
The scroll foliage moulding.
The enriched quaterfoil mould-
ing. § 3. “ . . ;
The mere scroll moulding.
The starry moulding.
The bead moulding.
The nobbed moulding.
º The nail-head moulding.
The billet moulding.
The double billet moulding.
| The square billet moulding.
| The hatched moulding.
The incrusted moulding.
The scribbled moulding.
The cable, or twisted moulding.
The braided moulding,

The crossed circle moulding.
The sun-flower moulding,
The reticulated moulding.
The chequer moulding.
The cross pointed moulding,
The spear point moulding.
The head moulding.
The heart moulding. t
The wedge moulding.
| The nebule moulding.
The over-lapping moulding. ...; 3:
The corbel table.t
As a necessary appendage to this section of our enquiries, I
submit an enumeration of the principal churches, and parts of
ecclesiastical buildings, (independent of door-cases) which many
writers are accustomed to ascribe to the Anglo-Saxons. These
supposed examples are chiefly selected from Dr. Ducarel's Anglo-
Norman Antiquities; Mr. King's Munimenta Antiqua (volume
fourth;) Mr. Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons; Mr. Car-
ter's Ancient Architecture; and the Archæologia.
Avington church, Berks. Stewkly church, Buckingham-
shire. Dinton church, Bucks. Remains of the Conventual
* Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. Iv. p. 84–85. -
A plate, containing delineations of these mouldings, is given in Muni.
menta Antiqua, Vol. IV. . N. .
280 .. ---> 1NTRODUCTION.,
church at Ely, CAMBRidgeshire. Warwick church, near Car-
lisle, in CUMBERLANd. Melbourne church, Derbyshire. Stud-
land church, Donsetshire. Church of Waltham Abbey, Essex.
Greensted church, Essex. Church at Tewkesbury, Glouces-
Tenshine. Church of Bishop's Cleeve, Gloucestershire. Parts
of Rumsey church, HAMPshire. Part of St. Alban's abbey
church, HERtfordshire. Church of St. Michael, at the same
place. Barfreston church, Kent. The Undercroft of Canter-
bury Cathedral. Remains of the west front of the abbey church
of St. Augustine's monastery, Canterbury. The church of Crowle,
Lincolnshire. Church of Southwell, NoTTINGHAMsHIRE.
Part of the cathedral, Oxford. Part of St. Peter's in the
East, Oxford. Iffley church, Oxfordshire. Tickencote church,
Rutlandshire. Part of the church of Hales-Owen, Shkop-
shire; and St. Kenelm's chapel there. Tutbury church; Star-
roadshire. Chapel at Orford, in Suffolk, Church of New
Shoreham, Sussex. Parts of the monastery at Pershore, WoR-
CESTERSHIRE. The undercroft of Worcester Cathedral. The
chapel of St. Mary in Criptis, in York Cathedral. Adel church
near Leeds, Yorkshire. The crypt of Lestingeham church, York.
"shire. ||
ON The Modes of Sepulture PRActised by the AN-
glo-Saxons.—That the Saxons, in common with other northern
nations, at one period burnt their dead, is unquestionable; and
that it was also their custom occasionally to erect barrows, or
tumuli, over the ashes, or the body, of the deceased, is equally
certain. Many barrows still remain in Lower Saxony, to attest
the truth of this latter assertion.* , º
It would, however, appear to be likely that the Saxons, in
their rude state, paid little attention to dignity of sepulture,
except on particular occasions, Tacitus, speaking of the Ger-
mans (and thence, relatively, of the Saxons) describes them as
- tlespising what they deemed the fruitless ambition of magnificent
. .. 2. funerals,
* Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. I. p. 287, after Brown's travels through Gar-
many, T, 146, 4to, - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

on AN Glo-S Axon ANT19 UIT1 Es. 281
funerals, except as to instances of extraordinary public regret
In such distinguished acts of sepulture, the warrior's horse, and
probably his arms, together with funeral urns, were deposited in
the vicinage of his remains. . . . . . . . . . . .
From these remarks it would seem to be probable that barrows
constructed by the Saxons, in their rude state, and during the
first ages of their settlement in this island, should still be found,
although not of frequent occurrence. . . . . º
But it is certain that no large barrow has been proved, on in-
vestigation, to contain indicia of Saxon interment. It is ob-
served by Mr. King, that, with the exception of the tumulus in
Yorkshire, ascribed to Hengist, there is not one instance, as far
as his knowledge reached, of even a satisfactory traditionary
record concerning an existing barrow raised to the memory of an
Anglo-Saxon King.” We may, perhaps, believe that the Anglo-
Saxons wanted security and leisure for the construction of such
immense barrows as have been attributed to them by some writers,
whilst they were engaged in the wars which continually prevailed
previous to their conversion and the consolidation of their petty
states. It must, at any rate, be received as indubitable, that the .
result of actual research, in every division of the island, tends to- -
wards proving that all the larger barrows, (commemorative of indi-
vidual, or ſamily, sepulture) and the generality of every other class,
now remaining in England, are of ancient British formation.t
Mr. Douglas, in his elaborate and ingenious work, intituled .
enia Hritannica, supposes that, in many instances, small bar-
rows placed in clusters must be ascribed to the Anglo-Saxons.
The researches of Mr. Douglas are principally confined to Kent.
ed
• Munimenta Antiqua, p. 269. The tumulus ascribed to Hengist is notic
in the Beauties for Yorkshire, p. 873. …: . f
It has been observed, in a previous page, that Battle barrows, or those
raised over heaps of the slain on fields of battle, have been used in all ages.
Such barrows are not invariable appendages to fields of ancient military
action, but they are sometimes found near spots where battles between the
asons and Danes are historically, or traditionally, said to have taken place.





282 INTRO BUCTION.
At Sibertswold, Barham-downs, Chartham, Chatham, Ash, and
other parts of that county, he prosecuted laborious investi gations.
The most curious of his discoveries are detailed in his work, and
are illustrated by prints. In the barrows which he examined he
often found the human skeleton, accompanied by arms appear-
ing to be Saxon; as the shield, small and orbicular, with a boss
in the centre, like that of the Saxon foot soldier, as represented
in illuminated manuscripts; spear-heads, swords, and axes, equally
corresponding with weapons described in Anglo-Saxon drawings.
In the same cists were also discovered urns, and various earthen
vessels. Articles of female ornament were found in other bar-
In the course of his investigations, Mr. Douglas believes that
he has discovered relics of the Saxon custom of burning the body,
as well as instances of entire interment. And it is probable
that both modes might be practised by the Saxons in Bri-
tain. For the ultimate result of his diffuse opinions, the reader,
desirous of pursuing an entangled subject through the readiest
channel, is referred to those parts of the Nenia Britannica which
the author terms Observations ; Argument; Historic Relation;
and General conclusion.
The researches of the modern historian of the Anglo-Saxons
afford us the following particulars of information: “The custom
of interring the body had become established at the aera when
their history began to be recorded by their Christian clergy, and
was never discontinued. . "
“ Their common coffins were wood; the more costly were stone,
Thus, a nun who had been buried in a wooden coffin was after-
wards placed in one of stone.” Their kings were interred in
stone coffins;f they were buried in linen;f and the clergy in
their vestinents.”$ - * : * : . . . . . ;
Cuthbert,
Bede, i.iv. c. 19. Ibid. c. iv. 3 Ibid. c. 19.
$ Ibid, p. 261.-As quoted in Turner's Hist, ºf the Anglo-Sarons, Tol. II.
p. 154. : º:






on ANGLO-S Axon ANT19 U171 E.S. 283
Cuthbert, Archbishop of Canterbury, obtained permission,
about the year 750, for cemeteries to be made within cities; and,
from this circumstance, it has been frequently supposed that places
of burial, since termed church yards, were then first formed around
places of worship. But the propriety of such an opinion is ques-
tioned by Mr. Whitaker; and his reasons for a contrary belief
are stated below." . . . . .
It became, at an early period, the custom of the English to
bury within churches. This practice was soon carried to so un-
desirable an extent, that it was first restricted to those whose
lives were known to have been acceptable to God; and after-
wards to ecclesiastics, or laymen deserving of such a distinction
by actions eminently righteous. It will scarcely be doubted but
that, in appreciating the merit of the deceased laity, any bene-
factions to the church were deemed acts of especial righteous-
ness. All former tombs in churches were now directed to be
made level with the pavement; and, if the tombs were so numer-
. . . . . z % º, OUIS
* “The custom of placing coemeteries around our churches, in England, is
asserted by all our antiquaries to have been originally introduced by Cuth-
bert, Archbishop of Canterbury, about the year 750. But they are as much
mistaken in this, as I have already shewn them to be in many other particu-
lars. And the churchyard was every where laid out, at the time when the
parish church was erected, among the kingdoms of the Heptarchy. The
churches in France had coeueteries about them, as early as 595, And those
in England had them equally, as early as the period of their own construc-
tion. The very first that was built by the Saxons in the kingdom, that of St.
Peter and St. Paul, without the city ot Canterbury, had an inclosure for se-
pulture about it; and the very first apostle of the Saxons, the pious and wor-
thy Augustin, was actually buried within it. In sixteen years only after the
conversion of the Northumbrians, the church of Lindisfarne appears encircled
with its coemetery; and the head of Oswald, the slain monarch of the king-
‘dom, and the body of Aidan, the bishop of the diocess, were equally inter.
red there. And even the country church of St. Michael, distant about a mile
and a half from Hexham, had a coemetery around it as early as 685.” Hist.
§
of Manchester, Vol. II. p. 411, 4to, edit.

284. INTRODUCTION.
ous or important as to render such a measure difficult of execu-
tion, the altar was removed to a spot less incumbered.*
It would appear to be probable that the Anglo-Saxons, although
possessed of sufficient sculptural art, were not accustomed, in .
general usage, to place figures imitative of the human form, even
on the tombs of the most distinguished deceased;t and it is cer-
tain that no well authenticated monumental effigies, of Saxon con-
struction, is now remaining. On this subject may be cited the
following remarks of Mr. Lethieullier: “During the time of our
Saxon ancestors I am apt to think few or no monuments of this
sort were erected; at least, being usually placed in the churches
belonging to the greater abbeys, they felt the stroke of the general
dissolution; and scarce any have fallen within my observation,
or are, I believe, extant. Those we meet with for the kings of
that race, such as Ina at Wells, Osric at Gloucester, Sebba and
Ethelbert, which were in St. Paul’s, or wherever else they oc-
cur, are undoubtedly cenotaphs, erected in later ages by the
several abbeys and convents of which they were founders, in
gratitude to benefactors so generous.”f .
Mr. Goughs enlarges on the above opinion, and presents many
observations on the palpable want of antiquity in several monu-
ments scattered throughout different parts of England, which are,
by local guides and heedless examiners, attributed to an Anglo-
Saxon era. We may, indeed, readily believe that the piety Or
policy of monks in later ages, induced the erection of monuments,
with fanciful representations of their founders, or benefactors.
The most judicious writers agree with Mr. Gough in considering
all sepulchral monuments, supposed to commemorate persons
who flourished before the conquest, to be at least of dubious au-
thority. * . . . . . . . -
" See Wilk. Leg, Auglo-Sax. p. 179, p. 84; and Turner's Anglo-Saxon
History, Vol. II, p. 154—155. -- -
+ Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. IV. p. 192.
t Archwol. Vol. II. p. 293.
; Sepulchral monuments, Vol. I. Introduction.
º
on ANGLo-saxoN ANT12UITI es.
ON ANglo-Saxon Coins.—There are few subjects of histo-
rical enquiry more deeply involved in darkness and perplexity,
than the coinage of the Anglo-Saxons. So entirely is this the
case, that the most laborious investigators are still unable to de-
cide whether certain terms, expressing a standard medium of in-
terchange among the Anglo-Saxons, be intended to signify a
real coin, or a determinate weight of precious metal, equivalent
to a specified number of lawful coins. Our object, in the pre-
sent place, consists chiefly in such remarks as explain the cha-
racter of existing coins of the various Anglo-Saxon potentates;
but allusions to the more obscure denominations of the represen-
tative medium, used in important as well as ordinary transac-
tions, are so frequent in many volumes of the “Beauties of Eng-
land,” that a few brief, preliminary observations appear to be in-
dispensable. . . . -
It is sufficiently evident that money was coined by the Anglo-
Saxons during the Heptarchy, or Octarchy, and in every reign
afterwards; but there is room for doubting whether they pos-
sessed a coinage before their invasion of Britain, and conversion
to Christianity.” ºr ºn
In Domesday-book, the payments to be rendered are stated in
pounds, shillings, pence, and farthings. But several other terms
were used in valuing money amongst the Anglo-Saxons. The
whole of these, whether relating to actual coins, or a nominal
substitute for a specific aggregate, are comprehended in the
under-written enumeration, which commences with the highest
º
ºw
"Turner's Hist. of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. II. p. 130. In a subsequent
page of the same volume, Mr. Turner presents the following observation s
“That the Anglo-Saxons did not use coined money before the Roman eccle-
siastics introduced the custom, is an idea somewhat warranted by the expres- -
*ion they applied to coin. This was mynet, a coiu ; and from this mynetian,
to coin, and mynetere, a person coining. These words are, obviously, the
Latin moneta and mºnetarius; and it usually happens that when one º:
nation borrows such a term from another, they are indebted to the same
*ource for the knowledge of the thing which it designates.”



986 - - 1NT R O DUCTION.
Anglo-Saxon name for money, and ends with the lowest: The
Pound; the Mark; the Mancus; the Ora; the Scyllinga, or
Shilling ; the Thrymsa ; the Pening, or Penny ; the Sceatta,
Soaett, or Sceat ; the Helfling ; the Feorthling ; the Styca.
That the Anglo-Saxon Pound, like that of the present time,
was a denomination of money, and not a coin, will be supposed
without any effort at demonstration. But the value of their
pound, in other estimated sums, or in actual coins, has been much
disputed, and is still an unsettled question. It is evident, from
Domesday, that, in the time of Edward the Confessor, a pound
consisted of twenty shillings, and a shilling of twelve pence.
According to a passage in the Mercian laws, it appears that the
pound in Mercia contained sixty shillings.” Several authors,
however, contend that the pound consisted of forty-eight shillings
only.t To reconcile these diversities of opinion, it has been sug-
gested that the value of the shilling varied in different ages. But
such suggestions are more plausible than satisfactory, as there is
reason to believe that the shilling was, in fact, merely a nominal
sum, like the pound. - zºº
The Mark was an imaginary sum of money, introduced to
English modes of reckoning by the Danes; and is believed, by
some authors, to have been equivalent to half a pound in weight.
By others it is supposed to have signified the value of eight
ounces.; - s . . . . . . .
The Mancus is often mentioned in Anglo-Saxon charters,
wills, and other documents; and, in describing its relative value,
it is often termed the mancus of gold. No coin answering to
this character is known to exist; and it seems probable that the
- . mancus,
Sert. Ep. p. 111. &c. - - º
t As Camden, Spelman, and Fleetwood. - -
+ Various authorities for these respective opinions are cited in Henry's
Hist. of Britain, Vol. IV. p. 258-262; and Turner's Hist, of the Anglo-
Saxons, Vol. II. p. 127. - - * :
• Turner's Hist, of the Anglo-Saxon, Vol. II, p. 135, apud Hickes, Dis.
*

o N ANG Lo-S Axon ANT19 Ulti Es. 287
#
mancus, like the pound, was merely a weight, and nominal re-
presentative of a specific quantity of the circulating medium.**
The Ora appears to have been a denomination of money, in-
troduced by the Danes, and is stated by Stiernhoëkt to have
been the eighth part of a mark. The ora is the name for money,
used in the Danish compact with Edward.;
The Scyllinga, or shilling, often occurs in the laws, and other
writings, of the Anglo-Saxons, but is unknown as a coin; and
is supposed by Mr. Turner, “to have been a quantity of silver,
which, when coined, yielded five of the larger pennies, and
twelve of the smaller.”$
The Thrymsa is a species of money sometimes mentioned in
Anglo-Saxon laws, but so utterly unknown to historians and all-
tiquaries, that some have supposed it equal in value to three
Saxon shillings, and others equal only to one Saxon penny.
The erudite author of the Anglo-Saxon history, quotes a pas-
sage which seems to express that the thrymsa and the sceatta
were the same. & ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Helfling and the Feorthling, which are occasionally
noticed in Saxon writings, were undoubtedly copper monies, ".
The Sceatta, the Pening, or Penny, and the Styca, require
more extended remarks.
I have already observed that a perplexity, hitherto inextrica-
ble, prevails in regard to the money of the Anglo-Saxons; and
its influence is still felt, when we attempt to appropriate names,
. . . . ; ; ; ; ;
*
* Some opinions favouring the idea of the mancus being really a coin, are
adduced in Dr. Henry's Hist, of Britain, Vol. IV. p. 262, et seq. Argu-
ments on the contrary side, are advanced in Mr. Turner's Hist, of the Anglo-
Saxons, article Money; and the conclusions of the latter writer are strength-
ened by the tenour of Mr. Pinkerton's remarks, in his Essay on Medals,
Vol. II,
* As quoted by Dr. Henry, Hist, of Britain, Vol. IV, p. 265.
# Turner, Vol. II. p. 127. a nº lºº
$ Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. Il, p. 132.
| Ibid, p. 136, -



28s. § INTRODUCTIO N.
although, in the instances under consideration, written docu-
ments are in some measure illustrated by existing contemporary
The term Scaett, or Sceat, occurs in the earliest Anglº-Saxon
laws, as a small definite quantity of money; and is considered
by Mr. Turner as having “been mostly used to express money,
generally.” That author.believes the word to have meant a
“definite piece of metal, originally in the uncoined state;” and
supposes “the sceat and the scyllinga to have been the names of
the Saxon money in the Pagan times, before the Roman and
French ecclesiastics had taught them the art of coining.” Ac-
cording to an ingenious calculation, presented in the same page,
“the value of the scat, in the time of Æthelbert, would appea
to have been the twentieth part of a shilling.”
. Descending, in the process of his narration, to a date three
centuries later, Mr. Turner observes that the sceatta now appears
to resemble in value one of the smaller Anglo-Saxon pennies.
He then enables the future writer on numismatics to present an
opinion, which, although hypothetical, is highly worthy of con-
sideration; namely, that the sceat was the smaller penny, and
the pening, properly so called, was the larger one. .
The Pening, or Penny, was the standard coin of the Anglo-
Saxons; and that by which they frequently reckoned, although
the art of numeration was simplified by various nominal values.
It is indicated, in the preceding paragraph, that there were two
kinds of pennies, the greater and the less; and this would ap-
pear to be proved by a passage in the laws of Alfred, where it
is directed that “the violation of a man's borg should be compen-
sated by five pounds, narra peninga, of the larger pennies.”f
The Styca was a small coin of copper, or billon, (base metal)
worth about half a farthing. It is only ascertained to have pre-
. . . vailed
º Hist. of the Anglo-Saxons, Wol. II. P. 132. .” §
+ Ibid. Wel. II, p. 127,


o N AN Glo-S Axo N ANT1 QUIT I Es.
vailed in Northumbria, and in the later period of that king-
dom.” . º
Such are the names for money which occur in the writings of
the Anglo-Saxons; in their laws, charters, wills, and other sur-
viving documents. But, in forming the above explanatory enu-
ineration, I have avoided to notice many speculative opinions of
incidental writers on this dark subject; and have principally ad-
hered, in the outline of my brief remarks, to the guidance of Mr.
Turner, in his Anglo-Saxon history, and Mr. Pinkerton, in his
Essay on Medals. On the same authorities, aided by some per-
sonal opportunities of intelligence, I submit to the reader the
following observations.
Notwithstanding various endeavours to establish a persuasion
of gold coins having been issued by Anglo-Saxon potentates, it
is certain that not any have been discovered, under such circum-
stances as to become recorded, and known to the public. We
may, therefore, venture to presume, in the present state of infor-
mation, that no such coins existed, especially when we recollect
the numerous specimens of silver money which have descended
to our time, without any peculiar effort at preservation, or zeal
of research. It is, however, clear, from a passage in Bede,
translated by King Alfred, that the historian and the king were
both acquainted with coins of gold. To profit by the words of
Mr. Turner, “it, certainly, can be hardly doubted that when
gold coins circulated in other parts of Europe, some from the
different countries would find their way into England. The use
of the word aureos, in the Historia Eliensis, implies gold coin;
and that coins called Aurei were circulated in Europe, is evident
from the journal of the monks who travelled from Italy to Egypt,
in the ninth or tenth century.”f tº
Although we have no proof that the Anglo-Saxons Aused gold
* Pinkerton’s Essay on Medals, Vol. II. . . . . . .
* The itinerary of these monks is still extant, and is noticed in the History
•f the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. I. p. 318–19, x


290 i NTRO DUCTION.
in coinage, it is certain that they possessed considerable quanti-
ties of that metal; and their deeds and wills prove that it con-
tinually formed the medium of their purchases and gifts. Mr.
Turner is of opinion that gold was used as a valuable represen-
tative, in an uncoined state; and is inclined to believe that sil-
ver, also, was sometimes negotiated in the same way. After a care-
ful investigation of the subject, the same respectable writer “con-
siders the two sorts of pennies as the only coins of the Anglo-
Saxons, above their copper coinage; and is induced to regard all
their other denominations of money, as weighed or settled quan-
tities of uncoined metal.”* -
Whether the above conclusions be deemed satisfactory or not,
it may be received as unquestionable that the existing Anglo-
Saxon coins are confined to the Soeatta or Penny, and the Styca.
Mr. Pinkerton, in his ingenious and useful Essay on Medals, for-
bears to enquire deeply concerning the intricate subject of the
Anglo-Saxon coinage; but his section on their existing coins is
calculated to convey much judicious information. -
Previous to submitting any intelligence afforded by his work, it
is necessary to observe that several ecclesiastical persons, as well
as the king, and, also, certain towns, had the privilege of a
mint. A statement of many of these privileged persons and
places, chiefly collected from Wilkins,t and from the record of
ay, is presented in the second volume of the history of
the Anglo-Saxons,f - w
In regard to the character of the silver Sceattas, or early Saxon
pennies, as to the inscriptions and impresses which they bear, it
is observed by Mr. Pinkerton that they latterly have legends, but
at first only rude figures of serpents, &c. and sometimes one or
two letters. “Skeattas were struck in Kent, and the other early
heptarchic states, from the sixth to the eighth century, or from
; : about
• Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. II, p. 130.
º 4 wilkins, Leg. Anglo-Sax. - -
; Vide, Turner's Anglo-Saxons, Vol. II. p. 137–8.

o N ANG Lo-s Axon ANT19 Ulties.
about the year 500, till 700. Most of the skeattas, as appears
from their symbols, were struck in the Pagan times.”
Those larger pennies of silver, noticed in the laws of Alfred,
have been frequently discovered. Mr. Pinkerton informs us,
that “no heptarchic pennies occur till after the year 700. These
pennies are, therefore, almost all of the eighth century, or from
700 till 832, when Egbert terminated the seven kingdoms,” or
rather, the octarchy. “The heptarchie pennies are of Edbert
the Second; Cuthred, and Baldred of Kent; Edmund and Ethel-
stan of the East Angles; Eadwald, and Offa of Mercia and Quin-
red his queen; with Egbert, Kenwulf, Biornulf, Ludica, Bert-
wulf, Bughred, and Ceolwulf, all kings of Mercia: likewise
Ethelweard, and Beorhtric of the West Saxons: besides the
archbishops of Canterbury, Janbert, and Athileard.” :
Mr. Pinkerton justly observes, that “it is a vulgar error to
suppose Egbert, 832, either first king, or really king, of all
England; yet he and his descendants were chief monarchs;
though petty kingdoms existed till 959; and some of their coins
are found, as of Sihtric and Anlaf of Northumbria.
“The coins of the chief monarchs, present almost a complete
series, from Egbert 832, to Edgar 959; after whom there are
only kings of all England. Ethelbald, 857, is the only chief
monarch of whom there are no coins; and there are none of Ed-
mund Ironside. Most of them bear rude portraits, and the re-
verses are sometimes curious and interesting. Some have views
of cathedrals, and other buildings; particularly one of Edward
the Elder, A. D. 900, has the cathedral of York, with three
rows of windows, round arched. Coins of Anlaf, king of Nor-
thumbria, have the famous raven, the Danish ensign; and those
of other princes have often curious reverses, and great variety.
The inscriptions are, also, sometimes curious; as, on Egbert's
. U 2 coins
• It will be observed that two of the kingdoms of the Octarchy are not
known to have possessed coins; those of the South Saxons and the East
Saxons. x

292 1 NT Ro D UcTION.
coins, Sawonvm for Anglorum, and on Ethelwulf's Savoniorum.
Pennies of Athelstan bear Rex tot, brit or Totius Britanniae;
probably struck after his defeating Constantin, king of Scot-
land. x- . ºx &
“ Ecclesiastic coins appear of the archbishops of Canterbury,
Wulfred, A. D. 804; Ceolnoth, 830; Plegmund, 889. Till
Athelstan, 925, we have only names of moneyers, except on a
few coins of his predecessors, Alfred and Edward the First;
where we find the towns added; a practice general after Athel-
stan’s time.” * *
It has been already observed that the Styca is a very small
coin of hillon (base metal) or of copper, known only in Nor-
thumbria. Specimens are engraved in the first plate of the second
volume of Mr. Pinkerton’s “Essay,” and in Mr. Gough's edition
of the Britannia.t -
THE ANGLO-DANES.
In reviewing the history of Britain through its early ages, the
patriotic and respectable vanity of the native is continually hurt
by decisive proofs of the inhabitants wanting capacity, whatever
their change of state, to defend themselves from foreign assault,
º and
- * Pinkerton's Essay on Medals, Vol. II. p. 64–66.
+ Ten plates of Anglo-Saxon coins are engraved in Hickes, Vol. III. with
brief illustrations by Sir Andrew Fountaine. Many of these are, however,
duplicates; and it appears that Sir Andrew read the legends with little
"truth or certainty.” In Gibson's first edition of Camden's Britannia are four
plates, and in his second edition five plates. But the coins in these tables
“ have been incorrectly copied, and irregularly classed; and several German
and other coins have got in among the Saxon.” In Gough's edition of Camden
is engraved, “a series of such Saxon coins whose gensineness may be de-
pended upon, in the order of succession, both of kings and prelates, in the
several divisions of the Heptarchy, and after the Heptarchy to the Conquest.

comprehending a period from A. D. 758, to A. D. 1096.”
•
THE ANG Lo-DAN Es. 203
and to preserve the insular character of their government. Al-
though subject, in retrospective view, to the severest censurer
attendant on unprovoked aggression, the Roman and the Saxon
invaders of this country are still venerable in the esteem of the
historian. But we seek in vain for a palliative of the severities
inflicted by the encroachments of the Danes. Frigid in rela-
tion to the arts, zealous only when intent on bloodshed, this
race of invaders would be regarded with unmitigated repugnance,
even by the modern, dispassionate examiner of history, if the
memory of one great Anglo-Danish king, CANUte, did not in-
terpose some transient gleams of intelligence and splendour.
In regard to the name by which these invaders are usually
recognised, it is remarked by a modern writer, that, “although
popular language, seldom accurate, has given the denomination
of Danes to the invaders of England, they were composed of
the nations who lived in the regions now known by the general
appellations of Sweden and Norway, as well as of the inhabitants
of Zealand and Jutland.” 3.
But 'the Danes, assuredly, were leaders in the most destruc-
tive of these invasions from the north; and that they were the
most successful of the various bands of assailants is evident, as a
new, though a short-lifed, dynasty in Britain was established in
their line. - & ( , --, *.
It has been observed, in a previous page, that the first visit of
these piratical invaders occurred in the year 787. But they did
not effect a settlement in Britain until the reign of the Anglo-
Saxon King, Ethelred. Shortly after the commencement of
this disastrous reign, and in the year 866, a confederacy of
northern foes arrived on our shores, with intentions more seri-
ously injurious than the casual ravages of a free-booting incur-
sion. The political state of the country unhappily favoured
their enterprize. Weakened by a division into four distinct go-
vernments, the natural resources of the island were still further
enfeebled by party dissensions and individual struggles for
U 3 : it
~, *
1 NTRODUCTION,
It was soon obvious that the Danish leaders fought for domi-
nion as well as for plunder; and, in the year which succeeded
the date of their invasion, they assumed, by right of conquest,
the sceptre of Northumbria. Penetrating with sword and fire
through several rich counties, and destroying the pious works of
ages as they proceeded, the Danes conquered East-Anglia, and
usurped its crown, in 870. Their efforts towards further con-
quests were vigorously opposed by the West-Saxons; but Mer-
cia shortly submitted to their sway; and thus was England
divided between two powers, those of the King of Wessex and
the government established by the Northmen.
We are now arrived at the memorable reign of Alfred; and
the varied events of this era, relating to the wars between the
Anglo-Saxons and the Danes, are sufficiently detailed in the
histories of the country at large. In the course of these con-
flicts, many of the principal cities and towns of England expe-
rienced calamitous visits from the sanguinary opponents; and,
from this cause, the topographer is often led to a more attentive
consideration of undecisive skirmishes, than is necessary to-
wards a comprehension of such marked events as are of real in-
terest, and of conspicuous weight, in the annals of the island.—
For a reference concerning these, I necessarily refer to the pages
of regular historians, and to the “Beauties of England” for re-
spective counties; but not without observing that, in numerous
instances, the original authorities are so deficient, or indistinct,
that many statements of the most judicious modern writers are
unavoidably founded on ingenious calculation.—The result of
these conflicts, as to the degree and extent of the Danish preva-
lence in Britain, is our immediate object. : &
After the mysterious seclusion of Alfred, in the year 878, it
is well known that he obtained considerable advantages over the
Danes; but so remote were these favourable operations from the
entire discomfiture of the invaders, that even Alfred admitted the
enemies of himself and of his native soil to a participation in the
government of the island. The lines of demarkation between
3. - • these

TH R A N G LO-DANES. 905
these divided dominions, on the restoration of Alfred, are thus
noticed by Mr. Turner, in the History of the Anglo-Saxons:
“Alfred having permitted Godrun to colonize East-Anglia, the
limits of their respective territories were settled by a treaty
which still exists. By the first article the boundary was placed
in the Thames, the river Lea to its source, and Watling Street
to the Ouse. The spaces thus marked contained Norfolk; Suf-
folk; Cambridgeshire; Essex; part of Hertfordshire; part of
Bedfordshire; and a little of Huntingdonshire. These regions
were subjected to Godrun, and were filled with Danes, Nor-
thumbria was afterwards put under Guthred, who governed
Deira; and Egbert ruled in Bernicia. 3.
“ The sovereignty of Mercia, on the defeat of the Danes, fell
into the power of Alfred. He did not, however, avowedly in-
corporate it with Wessex. He discontinued its regal honors,
and constituted Ethelred its military commander, to whom he
aſterwards married his daughter, Ethelfleda, when her age per-
mitted.”* 2. .
Contrary to the expectation which might rationally be formed,
on a calculation of events at this distant period, the Danes, thus
allowed to settle in England, assumed, for an interval of some
length, a pacific aspect, and cultivated in quiet the more useful
of such arts as endear a stationary life. But the troubles of King
Alfred's public career did not end with his restoration. Fresh
invasions from the north speedily occurred; and the Danes of
Northumbria and East-Anglia, although passive in the instance
of a first invitation from their marauding countrymen, united their
efforts towards the utter subversion of the Anglo-Saxon govern-
ment with those of the powerful Hastings. It will be recollect-
ed that Hastings was the most formidable and pernicious dis-
turber of England in the latter years of King Alfred. The war-
fare between this leader and the great king of the Anglo-Saxons,
adds an historical interest to many spots in various parts of
U 4 Britain,
* Hist, of the Anglo Saxons, Vol. I. p. 266–7,
£96 w INTRonuction.
Britain, now that time has softened down the horrors of blood-
shed, and has caused feeling to give place to curiosity. -
During the reign of Edward the Elder, which commenced in
901, and terminated in 924, the Anglicised Danes waged fre-
quent wars with his power; but this able descendant of Alfred
triumphed over their hostility. The lines of fortification by
which he guarded the frontier of his dominions, has already been
noticed.* ... • - -:
Athelstan ascended the throne in 924. The power of the
Anglo-Danes had experienced a sensible diminution in the pre-
ceding reign; and a dreadful conflict, which took place in the
time of this sovereign, accelerated their complete subjugation.
The Northumbrians, however, revolted in the year 941, when
Edmund the Elder occupied the Anglo-Saxon throne, and ob-
tained a distinguished victory; but the death of Anlaf, their
leader and inspiriting genius, which occurred at a period briefly
subsequent, restored tranquillity, through the medium of their
entire submission. Profiting by this fortuitous circumstance,
Edmund terminated what has been justly styled “the danger-
ous independence” of the towns of Derby, Leicester, Notting-
ham, Stamford, and Lincoln. These five settlements, situated
on the northern frontiers of Mercia and East Anglia, had been
long occupied by the Danes; but were now peopled with Saxons,
through the policy of Edmund. . . . .
After a long cessatjon of hostilities between the rival nations,
during which the Anglo-Danes appear to have mixed contentedly
with their neighbours, in a progressive amalgamation of society,
the Northmen again appeared on the British coast, as invaders
intent on deliberate aggression, in the reign of Ethelred, sur-
named the Unready, which commenced in the year 978. We
now approach the period of the Danish ascendant in this island;
and the steps of progression are marked, as is usual with these
. ... - dark.
*P vide Ante, p. 246, note.
The AN Glo-DANEs.
dark ages, by perfidy, profuse bloodshed, and every concomitant
crime contained in the black catalogue of human error.
The forces with which the Danes commenced their hostile ope-
rations in this reign, were not sufficiently numerous to have pro-
duced serious and lasting consequences, if they had been op-
posed by a ruler of military capacity, supported by faithful sub-
jects. But Ethelred was dilatory to a proverb; and exposed his
fatal want of ability to preside over a state, by almost invariably
selecting commanders who traitorously abandoned his cause, and
either connived at the approaches of the enemy, or joined the in-
vading power. The Danes, therefore, ravaged with little oppo-
sition; and a temporary cessation of hostilities was repeatedly
purchased by the worst of all possible means,—a bribe, in the
shape of ransom, for the degraded people and property of an is-
land so strong in natural resources as Britain' , º
This country was free from the terror of a northern armament
in the year 1002; and at this period an event took place which
is so frequently mentioned in topographical writings, that it re-
quires some notice in the present page. It will be readily sup-
posed that I allude to the massacre of the Danes, which was
effected by order of the Anglo-Saxon government, on the 13th
of November in this year. Those ancient authors who form the
most acceptable authorities for the narration of this dreadful in-
eident, vary in regard to several particulars, of considerable im-
portance. From a comparison of their evidence it is found im-
practicable to ascertain the extent of the slaughter, or the pre-
cise classes involved in destruction. We can scarcely, however,
believe that the families of those Danes who were permitted in
preceding reigns to colonize various parts of Britain, were now
sentenced to assassination; since they must have intermingled,
in the course of many years, so closely with the Saxon setters,
as nearly to form one people, in regard to the ties of blood and
friendship. .
Whatever might be the primary intention, it is certain that
the wives and children of many of the Danes perished in this
. dreadful

1NTRobuction.
dreadful massacre; and among these were Gunhilda, the sister of
Swein, or Svein, King of Denmark, and her family. The death
of this lady, who had married an English earl, had received
Christianity, and was the pledge of Danish peace, has naturally
afforded a marked point of lamentation with every historian of the
Anglo-Saxons; and such an event, as naturally, produced a dread-
ful retaliation on the part of her relatives and countrymen.
. Swein, the brother of the murdered lady, soon invaded Eng-
land, and ravaged the unhappy country, with a spirit of venge-
ance quite commensurate with the cruel injury sustained by his
family and friends. The local effects of his revenge are noticed
in many parts of the Beauties of England; and I take pleasure
in believing that a detail of devastations so afflictive is, there-
fore, unnecessary in the present portion of our work. In the
event, the efforts of the Danes succeeded in subverting the
Anglo-Saxon monarchy.—Sixteen counties of England were sur-
rendered to their sway, in the year 1010; and, three years after-
wards, the success of Swein, and the retirement of Ethelred
into Normandy, enabled the former prince to ascend the throne.
His death, which oceurred in the year following his eleva-
tion, led to a diversion in favour of Ethelred; but that imbecile
king died in 1016, and left his son, the brave Edmund, to strug-
gle with Canute, heir to the first Danish king of England.
The short reign of this gallant prinee, Edmund, surnamed
Ironside, was one calamitous scene of warfare between the con-
tending parties; and on his decease, Canute obtained uncon-
tested dominion over the country so long possessed by the Anglo-
Saxons. : -
The jealous severity of this king in the early stages of his ac-
cession to power, and the sanguinary measures which he adopted
for the security of his individual sway, are well known, and
cause disgust to mix with the admiration enforced by some
actions in more mature life, and during his firmer possession of
the throne. The life of Canute, as connected with the history
of the English monarchy, may, with justice, be divided into
• tW0.

the Anglo-Danes.
two eras:—that in which he was compelled by surrounding cir-
cumstances to deem himself merely the Danish conqueror of a
rich country; and the subsequent more settled period, at which
he recognised entirely his association with the people who yielded
to his sway, and endeavoured to promote the prosperity of his
subjects, from a feeling so much endeared by lengthened con-
nexion that it partook of patriotic favour.
- The errors of his first years of sovereignty may be safely as-
cribed to the barbarous character of his education; and, as they
were chiefly personal, the topographer leaves them to the blended
censure and pity of the philosophical historian. In succeeding
years, and in the latter era of his sway, he became so completely
the patron of those whom he governed, that the manners of the
age were evidently influenced by his taste and opinions.—His
piety, however fanciful, and disfigured by the prevailing super-
stition, now becomes an object of careful enquiry with the ex-
aminer into ecclesiastical antiquities; and he is found to be emi-
nent for a reverence of monastical and other religious establish-
ments; thus affording a sudden and strange instance of improve-
ment on the character of the Danes, who, in every age of his-
tory hitherto noticed, have appeared only as the destroyers of
edifices venerable for beauty as well as sacred from appropria-
tion. # .
It is impossible to quit the name of Canute, in the present
section, without observing that, from certain marked incidents,
trivial in immediate operation, and of little account with the poli-
tician, it has obtained more permanent glory than could be de-
rived from the successful issue of many deep closet stratagems, or
sanguinary battles.—The most conspicuous of these is the well
attested fact of his unfolding to himself and his surrounding cour-
tiers a lesson of temperance in prosperity, by placing himself in
his chair of state on the sea coast,” when the waves were flowing
. - . - towards
* In the neighbourhood of Southampton. See Beauties for Hampshire,
p. 131–3, - c.

300: 1NTRo Duction. "
towards the shore; and there commanding the waters' not to wet
his foot, since his attendants endeavoured to persuade him that
he was lord of all which he beheld.—An action so simple, and’
yet so grand, evinces an habitual effort at self-correction, which
entitles Canute to the surname of GREAT, and assists in re-
deeming the Danish dynasty from the abhorrence of more intel-'
lectual ages. . . . . . .
The crown of England was worn by only two succeeding sove-
reigns of the Danish line; Harold and Hardicanute. The lat-
ter king died in 1040. r % . . . . . . . . . ;
ON The MILITARY ARchitecture of The ANGLe-DANEs.-
The native barbarity of these invaders from the north, and the
precarious tenure by which they held their fluctuating portions
of territory in Britain, previous to the investiture of Canute
with regal dignity, forbid us to expect that permanent works of
art, even relating to the science of defence, and the furtherance
of security, were constructed by them at an earlier date than that
period. The field occupied by the Danes affords, indeed, little
gratification to the enquirer into the antiquities of this island.
Except for the purpose of an attempt towards satisfactory regu-
larity of arrangement, the chief works of this era might, per-
haps, with propriety, be involved in a continuation of Anglo-
Saxon manners and style; for, although during twenty-four years
the throne was filled by Danish sovereigns, each king of this
line was contented with following the modes of his Saxon prede-
cessors; and few, if any, novelties of architectural disposal were
introduced under their patronage. .
The author of “Northern Antiquities” describes the fortresses.
of the ancient Danes, as being “rude castles, situate on the
summit of rocks, and rendered inaccessible by thick mis-shapen
walls.” It is observable that this fondness for choosing a lofty
natural elevation, as the site of a castle of defence [the most
obvious assistant of security in the early ages of military art]
prevailed among the Danes in the brightest period of their as-
. . ~. cendancy
THE AN GLO-DAN ES. soi
cendancy in Britain. Canute the Great is believed to have built
several castles, of large dimensions and equal strength. The
Castle of Norwich, which is situated on a natural mount, is
the most distinguished of the erections supposed to have been
made during his reign. This building, a splendid example of
the architectural manner ascribed to the Anglo-Saxons, has been
already noticed; and it may, probably without any great danger
of error, be received as a specimen of the principal fortified struc-
tures raised by the Danes. Canute, as it would appear, although
uniformly indulging his native partiality for an elevated site, wisely
adopted the military architecture of the people over whom he had
triumphed, conscious that it was far superior to the rude modes
of his northern countrymen, and that his success was greatly
owing to the infrequency of such formidable structures.”
Military EARTH-works of THE DANEs.—That the Danes,
although predatory and rapid in their modes of warfare, until
they obtained a regular settlement in this country, constructed,
in numerous instances, ſortifications of earth-work, for the defence
of their camps, is evinced by the writings of ancient historians;
and it is observed, in the History of the Anglo-Saxons, that
the facility with which they raised such as even the great Alfred
did not dare to assault, affords a fair presumption for attributing
to them considerable military skill.f . . . . . ;
Instances of camps, which, from their local connection with
accounts in history of battles between the Danes, and Saxons,
are ascribed to the former people, are of frequent occurrence in
the southern parts of this kingdom, where such contests chiefly
prevailed. But it is difficult to distinguish between the encamp.
ments of the two opposed parties. It would, however, appear
* . . . . . . . . . - that,
• See some scattered remarks on the subject of Anglo-Danish castles, in
Mr. King's sequel to his observations on ancient castles, Archæol. vol. VI.
Mr. Wilkins's Essay towards a history of Norwich castle, &c. Archæol. Vok
XII. and Strutt's Manners and Customs, &c. Vol. I. .
+ Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. I, p. 281.

INTRO DUCTION,
that, unless accidental circumstances induced the adoption of at
irregular form, the Danes, like the Saxons, constructed their
camps of a circular shape, and protected them by a broad and
leep ditch.* It may be presumed that, in attention to their
early national habits, they formed their camps on elevated spots,
and, probably, on the brow of a hill, where such a site was at-
tainable;t but, in such situations, great care must be used in
discriminating between the intrenchments of the Britons and
those of northern invaders.
After the remarks which have been already presented, it will
be necessarily supposed that little can be said respecting the
efforts of the Anglo-Dames in Ecclesiastical Architectuar.
These invaders, indeed, are noticed in history, rather as the de-
stroyers, than the founders, of sacred buildings. They entered
Britain in a state of pagan, rapacious barbarity; and even such
was the national condition of the Saxons, when they first wielded
arms in this country. The Saxons attained a long period of
secure possession; and their improvement in the arts of civiliza-
tion was proportioned to the extent of their influence over the
resources of the island. The dynasty of the Danes was of brief
duration; and the years in which the sword lay sheathed were
truly few. Hence, perhaps, from want of opportunity, rather
than from a national ineptitude to amelioration of manners, they
descend to us merely in the character of barbarians, who were
the scourge of the land, and the enemies of established social
order. ... *s . .
When the Danes, in a pagan state, first effected serious ir.
ruptions in Britain, they unhappily directed their chief atten.
tion to the monastic establishments, as places affording the greatest
promise
* See a Danish camp described in the Beauties for Berkshire, p. 135–6.
For further (although brief) remarks on the camps of the Anglo-Danes, the
reader is referred to Archaeologia, Vol. VIII.
* Archeol. Vol. VI, p. 257.




the ANG Lo-DANEs.
promise of booty. The general examiner of history, shudders
over the recital of enormities practised in the course of these de-
vastations. But the antiquary has less reason for regret [as far
as the buildings may be concerned] since we have sufficient
cause for believing that the more enlarged views of the Normans
would have produced, at a future period, a demolition no less
entire, in regard to the sac red structures of the Anglo-Saxons,
although the work of destruction might have been performed with
pacific sentiments. :- sº
It can scarcely be presumed that numerous [if any] places of
Christian worship were erected by the Anglo-Danes, previous to
the accession of Canute to regal power. Those Danes who set-
tled by treaty in East Anglia and Northumberland, appear to have
been nominal Christians only. Their public accordance in the
established religious ceremonies of the country, was an article of
stipulation; and, like most such terms of political agreement,
was preserved during expediency, and no longer. On the death
of the great Alfred, they endeavoured to shake off their political
allegiance and their religious conformity. But the strong mea-
sures of Edward the Elder having, at length, rendered their
military efforts unavailing, they resumed an attention to the
religious rites of the kingdom,-as by law established. Those
frequent regulations, framed in synods held in the 10th century,
against the exercise of pagan ceremonies, would appear to be
directed particularly towards the Danish nominal members of the
Anglo-Saxon church. . . .
King Canute, profiting by a period of comparative repose; and,
probably, actuated at once by pious zeal and political wisdom;
inculcated the necessity of conformance to that beneficent system
of religion, which has ever been found salutary to the morals
of the man and the fidelity of the subject. He, indeed, be-
came conspicuous for religious ardour;-cherished, we will pre-
sume, in the simplicity of a true faith, but displayed according
to the fantastical modes of the era in which he flourished. . .
He made a journey to Rome, as himself, says, “for the re-
. . . . . . . . demption







frn TRODUCTION.
demption of his sins, and the welfare of his subjects.” Whe-
ther he acquired, in this travel to the papal city, any informa-
tion for an improvement of the Ecclesiastical Architecture of
England, must remain doubtful. But we are told that he be-
+came a patron of monastic foundations, and that many churches
were built under his sanction;–these manifestations of pious sen-
timent, being chiefly evinced on the spots signalised by former
battles between the Danes and the Saxons. … *
Little intelligence, concerning supposed remains of such struc-
tures, is presented even by the holdest and most conjectural
writers.—Mr. King supposes that the fine gateway and tower at
St. Edmund’s Bury, denominated St. James's tower, or Church-
gate, is part of the building erected at that place under the aus-
pices of Canute. This opinion, however, is controverted in
Mr. Britton’s “Architectural Antiquities;” where the stately
structure in question is said to have been probably raised by Ab-
bot Baldwin, in the time of William the First; or, otherwise,
by “Radulphus and Hervaeus, the sacrists, about A. D. 1121,
or 1130.”f Not any documents are preserved, to render the
opinion of either writer decisive.—The above gateway and lofty
tower, at St. Edmund’s Bury, afford fine specimens of the heavy,
circular, style of architecture.
The reigns of Harold and Hardicanute were too short, and of
too unsettled a complexion, to allow of our believing that eccle-
siastical architecture met with opportunities of efficient encou-
ragement from those sovereigns. &
... We have, indeed, no sound authority for concluding that the
sacred architecture of this country experienced any important
change, during that short period of national prosperity, the latter
part of “the great” Canute's reign; and thus the style ascribed
- * . . . . . . . to
• Turner's Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. i. p. 440, and the authority
there quoted, ( a letter of Canute; the substance of which is stated in Matt.
West. 407, and elsewhere.) . . . . . . . . . . . .”
+ Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. IV. p. 188, , . . . .
... t Architectural Antiquities, Vol. III, p. 78.



THE ANG 1,0-DAN £S. 305
to the Anglo-Saxons, may, in the present stage of information,
be applied to buildings erected during the Danish dynasty.—But,
in popular apprehension, the churches of the Anglo-Danes pos-
sessed one peculiar feature, which requires notice. #
Attached to several English parochial churches, are seen
Round Towers, which a current tradition attributes to the peo-
ple whose possible vestiges are now under consideration. .
These circular towers of churches, are not confined to any par-
ticular county, or district. They are found, thinly scattered,
in many parts of England; but they abound chiefly in the coun-
ties of Norfolk and Suffolk." Although simple in design, and
of rude construction, they afford a subject of enquiry not desti-
tute of interest, and one, perhaps, which is worthy of more
extended antiquarian notice than can be bestowed in this work.
As far as can be ascertained from printed authorities [aided
by a correspondence commenced by the present writer, for the
purpose of acquiring information on the subject] these round
towers are uniformly constructed of rough materials, and such as
could be easily procured;— whole flints, stones, chalk, and other
coarse ingredients, imbedded in mortar. The walls are gene-
rally of a great thickness, but gradually diminish in substance,
as they ascend; and the towers, as now remaining, are seldom
of an equal height with the square towers of churches, raised by
skilful workinen, under the auspices of affluent and liberal found-
ers. They are, usually, attached to small churches; and are
not uniformly situated at the west end;—an instance of which
deviation from prevalent custom may be noticed at Tooting, in
Surrey, where is a circular tower, on the north side of the paro-
chial church. - & . . . .
It is not easy to ascertain the origin of the very common per-
suasion, that these round towers are exclusively the works of
X the
* See several specimens noticed in the Beauties for Norfolk, p. 48–49.
In Suffolk, they principally occur in the northern parts, upon the borders of
Norfolk • • 3, ºr
306. INTRoDUCTION.
the Danes; unless from their frequent occurrence in the Danish
district of East Anglia. It is certain that no ancient towers of
this description are existing in the northern countries, whence
those invaders proceeded; and we have no authority for be-
lieving that the Anglo-Danes peculiarly affected the circular
form in any of their buildings. Tradition is here unsupported,
even by creditable correlative argument; and it would appear
that the judicious enquirer has considerable difficulties to en-
counter, when endeavouring to distinguish the ages in which
these towers were probably constructed.
Their high antiquity must be allowed by all. Their rude and
artless character, evinces an early date. But we have few criteria
for ascertaining the period at which they were raised. The em-
bellished pointed arch never occurs, except when evidently an
insertion made at a date subsequent to that of the original build-
ing.” Even the ornamented circular style [or debased Roman]
is rarely apparent, although it is by no means uncommon to find
their simple narrow openings, or windows, having semi-circu-
lar heads, -
In numerous instances, and particularly as to those which
occur in the county of Suffolk, these massive round towers of
churches, are lighted by narrow apertures only, which resemble
loops, or arrow-slits. e - -
Thus deriding all calculation as to the date of their erection,
such towers must be left to the conjectures of the ingenious.
We have, assuredly, no rational grounds for ascribing them ex-
- : • clusively
* The following curious feature in the round tower of the church of By-
chamwell, Norfolk, is noticed in the Beauties for that county p. 49.-In
this tower,” are four pointed apertures, the arched parts of which, and the
sides, are formed by plain squared stones; and the former are disposed in
the shape of an acute triangle.” These loops, or windows, appear to be
eoeval with the original building; and the editor observes, in a note, “that
siasilar arches are to be seen in the ancient entrance gateway to Rougemout
çastle, at Exeter.” - - - - -
+ M.S. communication of Mr. J. Raw, of Ipswich,


THE ANGLO-DAN ES.
clusively to the Danes; who, probably, adopted the architectural
fashions of the Anglo-Saxons, together with a profession of
their mode of faith; and they occur in counties which are far
distant from those districts in which the Danes were allowed to
settle, previous to the establishment of a regal dynasty in their
line. > -
Wherever may be their due station in the scale of antiquity,
it would appear that the round towers of churches are, in the
greater number of instances, of a very remote date. Consider-
ing the great thickness of their rude walls, and the circumstance
of their apertures [in the lower part, and in the original con-
struction] being chiefly confined to narrow loops, apparently cal-
culated for no purposes except those of admitting air, and afford-
ing means for a discharge of missive weapons; I would suggest
it as being probable that they were designed, like some churches
on the borders of England and Scotland, for defence against the
sudden attack of marauding parties, in ages exposed to internal
warfare and frequent predatory invasion; or, perhaps, against the
interference of those who were hostile to the rituals of early con-
verts to Christianity. - º:
ON THE Modes of SEPULTURE PRActised by The ANGLo-
DANEs.-The numerous barrows, or tumuli, dispersed over many
parts of this island, have naturally given rise to various conjec-
tures and fanciful efforts at appropriation. Gloomy, from their
known connexion with funeral customs; and mysterious, through
the absence of all outward denotation concerning the ages in which
they were constructed; these earthy memorials have attracted .
much popular notice, in the forms of indeterminate tradition, and
wild romantic legend.
The wondering peasant has ever shewn a fondness for attri-
buting snch monuments to the Dunes ; and many antiquarian
writers have been contented with echoing the opinion of the pea-
santry. But it would appear that the vulgar apprehension on
this subject is founded upon floating traditions, which, though
X 2 3. curious,

I NTRODUCTION,
curious, are in most instances delusive. It is probable that the
terror conveyed to the English by the predatory inroads of the
Danes, was so deeply impressed, that it has descended, in re-
verberations, even to ages near the present; and thence has pro-
ceeded a habit of ascribing these melancholy emblems of death
and desolation, indiscriminately, to the invaders once so much
dreaded. N. * x
From whatever cause such traditional nodes of appropriation
have arisen, it is evident that they are frequently futile and de-
ceptive. It has been already observed that the generality of
tumuli in Britain, appear, on investigation, to have been raised
by the Britons themselves. Every research, hitherto effected,
assists in proving that the Danes, less than any other people
connected with the former population of this country, have a
claim to participate with the Briton in his rude, but ponderous
and impressive, house of sepulture. .
It is, however, certain that the Danes, in common with other
northern nations, were accustomed to raise tumuli over the re-
mains of the deceased. Many funeral barrows still exist in Den-
mark. But the age of these is by no means accurately ascer-
tained; as the native writers on the antiquities of that country
are defective in legitimate and unequivocal intelligence.*
. > * We
• Mr. Gough presents the following remarks on Danish modes of burial,
and on the barrows remaining in that country :-" The practice of burning
the bodies was introduced among the Danes by Odin, not long before the
Christian aera. This age is called Bruna Olld, or the age of burning; in
which barrows were raised over the ashes, as well as afterwards over the
bodies themselves. In the succeeding period, called Hoigold, or Hoelst tiid,
or the age of heights or conic hills, the practice of burning was net left off,
though it had ceased before their expedition into Britain; and sooner, as a
general custom. . .
“The barrows in Denmark differ in size, roundness, various and distinct
rows of stones. The ruder sort are of earth only, or for generals and officers
with one circle of stones round the base. In the more improved ages, they
added larger stones on the top and sides, as well as round the bottom; and
. . SQIſle
%

T H E ANG LO-DANES. 309
We can scarcely suppose that these invaders possessed suffi-
cient security and leisure to erect any of the larger barrows of
Britain [works so laborious and stupendous !] while engaged
in unremitting warfare with the more ancient possessors of the
soil; and it is certain that we have no internal demonstra-
tion of their having constructed such tumuli, in contradiction
to the opinion which may be thus formed on rational conjecture.
Many antiquarian writers, relying implicitly on tradition, have
ascribed more particularly to the Danes those small barrows in
clusters which are found in several parts of this island. Such
tumuli have formed objects of careful research with Mr. Douglas;
and that gentleman has not discovered any document whatever to
render it likely that they were raised by the Dames.* The same
writer observes “that the Danes, in the 7th century, adopted
Runic inscriptions on their places of sepulture; and as these bar-
rows in clusters evidently attest that the inhabitants existed in
a peaceable state, there would have been a great probability that
some remains of paganism, with their inscriptions, would occa-
sionally have been discovered.”f None such, however, have re-
warded the utmost industry of the examiner. . . . . . . . * *
It is, indeed, a surprising circumstance in the annals of anti-
quarian pursuits, that where so much has been surmised, and ira-
ditionally reported to exist, so little should have been discovered
to illustrate the propriety of conjecture.
In Mr. Wallace’s Description of the Isles of Orkney, it is
said that “In the links of Tramabie, where the sand was blown
away, were found graves, in one of which was a man lying,
with his sword on the one hand and a Danish axe on the other.”
in similar graves were discovered combs, knives, and often the
. . . . . . : X 3 bones
some of the former inscribed. Those of an oblong shape, and flatter, sur-
rounded by large stones (the biggest at the end) Wormius considered as re-
ceptacles of a whole family.” Sepulchral Mons. Vol. II. p. 47–48,
§ * Nenia Britannica, Passim. * Ibid. p. 124. .
310 Introduction.
bones of dogs, which had been buried with the human remains.”
Such, probably, was the character of interments usual among
the first Danish piratical invaders of Britain.
It is observed by the author of Munimenta Antiqua, that, not-
withstanding the great variety of diffuse traditional tales respect-
ing the formation of barrows by the Danes, no tradition ascribes a
barrow to any particular Danish king, except in the instance of
Hubba, who is said to have been buried near the village of Ap-
pledore, in Devonshire.t. The sea, many years back, swept
away this funeral mount, with all its vestigia.
Few observations can be offered, relating to the marks by which
it is supposed that the sepulture of this people in Britain may be
distinguished. It will, however, be recollected that the Danes are
confidently believed to have disused, as a general practice, the cus-
tom of burning the dead, before their expedition into this country;
although, in the instances of those deemed particular heroes, the
body might probably be exposed to the operation of fire previous to
burial. Such persons were heroes with their own party only, and
were sanguinary spoliators in the esteem of discomfited opponents.
Affectionate respect, if such a feeling may be attributed to ac-
complices in rapine, therefore rendered its best tribute by placing
fire beneath the deceased warrior's frame; thus removing it, by a
destructive flame, from the impotent vengeance of the aggrieved.
Presuming on the correctness of the above remarks, f it will
be obvious that where we find urns, containing ashes; or any
vestiges of the human body, having undergone cremation; we
must
* Some barrows in the Links of Skail were opened, about the year 1772,
under the direction of Sir Joseph (then Mr.) Banks; but not any vestige was
discovered which enabled the examiner to attribute the interment to any part
ticular people. See Archæol. Vol. III. p. 276. .
t Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. I. p. 269; and Beauties for Devonshire, p.
261–2. & -
: For an illustration of their probable correctness, see Nenia Britannica,
Seetion Observations, with the authorities there quoted; and Gough's Sepul-
chral Mons, Vol. II. Introduction. Ž
The A N G Lo-DANEs. , 311
must entertain great diffidence in ascribing the sepulchral deposit
to Danish hands. According to Wormius, the Danes, in their
own country, when they buried in large barrows, placed all the
most valuable ornaments of the deceased in the vicinity of his
remains. , z sº r
After what has been said in previous sections, it is nearly
superfluous to observe that battle barrows were probably raised
by the Danes, in common with other nations. Such emphatical
monuments of desolating contention [which call forth a shudder
of unmixed repugnance, now that time has caused the victor's
laurels to wither, and his harvest of plunder is all consumed] are
to be seen in many parts of this country; and, in frequent in-
stances, they were undoubtedly raised by the Danes, after bat-
tles with the rival Saxons and harassed Britons. :
It has been already suggested that not any authenticated se-
pulchral monument of the Anglo-Danes, subsequent to their con-
version to Christianity, is now existing. &
On the Coins of the ANglo-Danes.—The coinage of
the Anglo-Danes requires only a short notice. The English
penny continued to be the standard coin of the realm,” and each
of the Anglo-Danish sovereigns issued coins, Those of Canute
are of the most frequent occurrence. It is observed by Mr.
X 4 North,
* It may be observed in this place, that the series of English pennies ex-
tends, almost without any failure, from the reign of Egbert to the present
time. Mr. Pinkerton remarks that the “Norman conquest made no altera-
tion in the English penny, the only coin. William the First, even bears,
sometimes, the same reverses with Harold the Usurper, his predecessor.
The old English penny, or Anglicus, was a coin celebrated all over Europe
in the middle ages. In neatness of fabrie, such as then was, and in purity
of metal, it is superior even to Italian and French coins of the period.” Pin-
kerton on Medals, Vol. II. p. 66. Old English historians inform us that
the lay barons had the privilege of coining. But there are not any coins dis.
tinguished by a baronial title, or peculiar mark, although the coins of En-
glish bishops are frequently seen. . &
312 INTRODUCTION.
North, “ that no king that ever reigned in England coined in
more different places than Canute. Keder gives 26 cities and
towns. Whether this proceeded from the pride of the Dane, or
was granted to many towns to procure their affection, cannot be
determined. The privilege of coining was not quite free and un-
paid for.” 3.
Mr. Gough, who presents the above quotation, adds that the
greatest number of coins of Canute extant in any cabinet, was
formerly believed to be those enumerated by Keder, amounting
to seventy. “In the summer of 1774, however, above three
hundred came to light, with many silver fibulae, in two cow-
horns, in a great moss about two miles from Kirkwall, in Ork-
ney. The bulk of them became the property of Thomas Dundas,
Esq. of Castlecary; and 42 specimens of the varieties as to place,
were engraved in a Catalogue of Coins of Canute, published on
that occasion.”
The coins of Harold the First, and Hardicanute, are of con-
siderable rarity. Specimens of the coins issued by each of the
Anglo-Danish monarchs are engraved in the Saxon tables of
Hickes, Gibson, and Gough, already noticed under the head of
Anglo-Saron Coins.
It has been observed in a former page,f that the Danes intro-
duced to England the two denominations of money termed the
Mark and the Ora; and the relative value of these representa.
tives of coin is explained in the same place.
In concluding my brief hints towards information concerning
the coins of the ancient Britons; the Romans in connexion with
Britain; the Anglo-Saxons; and the Anglo-Danes; it is neces-
sary to observe that not any coin bearing the head of a Welsh
prince, or which can in any respect be supposed to have
issued
* Article Saxon Coins, Gough's Edition of Camden's Britannia, p. 117,
t Wide Ante, p. 285–286,
THE ANG Lo-DANEs. . 3.13
issued from the mint of a prince of that country, is known to be
extant.”
This is a curious and surprising circumstance, as it would ap-
pear from many of their laws that Welsh princes, coeval with the
Anglo-Saxon dynasty, did actually coin money. It is observed
by Dr. Henry't that, “by one of these laws, the coining of money
is declared to be one of the four unalienable prerogatives of the
kings of Wales;f a ridiculous declaration if it was known that
no money was ever coined in Wales. The kings of England im-
posed a certain tribute on the kings of Wales, part of which was
to be paid in money; which they never would have done if they
had known that these princes had no money of their own. The
salaries of the great officers in the courts of the kings of Wales
were paid in money; and the prices of all commodities were
rated, by the laws of Wales, in money. §
“The smallness of the number of these Welsh coins; the in-
juries of time, wars and revolutions; and the long subjection of
that country to the crown of England; are the true reasons why
all these coins have disappeared, though it is not impossible that
some of them may yet be discovered.”
Although such remarks appear to be the best that can be pre-
sented, they are certainly far from satisfactory. That money
circulated in Wales, at an early period, is evident from the
Welsh laws; and it will be an extremely interesting occurrence
to the numismatic antiquary, when a coin shall be found, to
prove
• With this fact collectors are well acquainted. For a remark, proving
the justice of such an assertion, see Archaeol. Vol. I. p. 282. - - -
+ History of Britain, 8vo. edit. Vol. IV. p. 283—4.
# Leges Wallicae, p. 71. . … ? . * . . . . . . .
$ In addition to these remarks of Dr. Henry, it may be observed that “the
Welsh laws of Hoel dda use punt, or pund, as one of their terms for money.
They have, also, the word ariant, which means literally silver, and ceiniawg;
both these seem to imply a penny. See Wotton's Leges Wallica, p. 16, 20,
21, 27. Their word for a coin is bath.” Turner's Anglo-Saxons, Vol. II,
p. 135. . º
314 1NTRonuction.
prove that such money really issued from the mint of a native
prince. w 3. .
the Anglo-Normans.
The death of Edward the Confessor, without issue, led to dis-
putes concerning a succession to the English crown, which ren-
dered the country once more an attractive field of enterprize to
bold and ambitious neighbours. A powerful prince, equally cou-
rageous and aspiring, was close at hand; and he established, by
the exercise of the sword, a new and lasting dynasty in another
foreign line. . .
As the settlement of the Normans in this island, and the intro-
duction of their influence over manners, arts, and laws, are sub-
jects of great interest with the topographer, it may not be super-
fluous to remind the reader, in this place, of the origin and pre-
vious circumstances of these successful invaders, the latest
contributors to the parent-stock of the present population of
England. . |
Shortly after the commencement of the 10th century, Rollo, or
Rolfr, a Norwegian chieftain, joined in the invasions to which
France was then subject from the ferocious tribes of the north,
and conducted his assault with so much bravery and skill that
Charles the Simple, who then reigned in France, appeased his
hostility by ceding to him a considerable tract of country. The
district thus presented as a peace offering to his ambition, con-
sisted of “all the maritime country from the river Andelle, three
leagues above Rouen, to the Epte, which passes by Gournay,
Gisors and St. Clair; and also the country beyond the Seine.
This cession comprehended all that country between the sea,
Brittany, and the Maine.”
. Rollo
• Turner's Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol I, p. 46s–3; and the autho-
rity there quoted. . &
THE ANGLO-N OR MAN $, x S15
Rollo now embraced the Christian religion; and his power and
reputation were so considerable, that the king bestowed on him
his daughter in marriage. The territory relinquished in favour
of this successful adventurer, shortly assumed the name of Nor-
mandy; and, at no distant date, became conspicuous for the
good-order, as well as the energy and persevering spirit, of its
inhabitants. Rollo, indeed, proved eminently worthy of his ex-
altation. He augmented the population of his infant state, by
inviting foreigners to settle there; and enacted wise laws for
their security, and for the encouragement of industry among
every class of his subjects. Intent on founding a durable go-
vernment over a civilized and improving people, he likewise re-
built the cities and the churches which had been reduced to a
state of ruin by the previous ravages of his idolatrous followers.
Influenced by so wise and benignant a genius, the inhabitants
of Normandy gradually quitted their barbarous propensities and
manners. In succeeding generations they emulated the polish of
their paramount neighbours; and appear to have taken pride in
being accounted Frenchmen, while they sedulously cultivated an
affinity to that people in language and customs.
Rollo, the founder of this provincial government, died in the
year 931; and, after four intermediate reigns, William, des.
timed to conquer England, acceded to the ducal throne. .
On the death of Edward the Confessor, William, Duke of
Normandy, preferred a claim to the Anglo-Saxon sceptre, in op-
position to Harold, the son of Godwin; who took advantage of
his residence in England at the time of the king's decease, and
ascended the throne. The families of both competitors were
connubially allied to the late monarch; and both had been ad-
mitted by him to habits of familiarity. William, who had en-
tertained him in Normandy, and had visited him in England on
most friendly terms, asserted that he had received a direct nomina-
tion as his successor. But the sword,and not a claim founded on pro-
mise, or testamentary appointment, was calculated to advance his
object; and to this decisive tribunal he promptly appealed,
. . The

316 - INTRODUCTION.
The progressive circumstances, and the final event, of the
battle of Hastings, are too well known for repetition. This me-
morable battle, unquestionably the most important that ever took
place on British ground, was fought on the 14th of October,
1066; and was rendered so determinate in result, by the death
of Harold, and by the subsequent inertion of the great majority
of the English, that William was crowned, at Westminster, on
the Christmas-day of the same year. Without entering into poli-
tical calculations concerning causes and effects, it is, at any rate,
pleasing to view a great revolution produced with so little blood-
shed, in an age prodigal of human life when ambition was weighed
against mercy. . -
It would be trite to expatiate largely on the importance of the
events attendant on the triumphant accession of William to the
crown of England. Every section in the history of Britain for
many succeeding ages, whether civil, military, or religious;
whether appertaining to arts, customs, or manners; is affected
by this great era in our annals, either through immediate or re-
lative operation; and, in most instances, assuredly in a benefi-
cial way. Contemplated in a general and national point of view,
the Norman conquest introduced to this country a spirit of com-
merce, by facilitating the approach to continental markets, and
by conducting foreign merchants to our exchange. To the upper
classes it imparted a degree of politeness, before unknown or dis-
dained; and, amongst every division of the people, it renovated
habits of piety, which had become dormant in the iron ages of
civil commotion and sanguinary rapine. In the government of
William we see an efficiency of ruling power, so wisely though
severely knit together, that all parties are united by interest in
the support of the throne. - -
The effects of the conquest on such circumstances as are pre-
sumed to be of leading interest with the reader of the present
work, are numerous and truly important. The great accession
to our stock of national architecture, will be noticed in the
pages which present remarks on the most conspicuous ves-
*::- tiges
the Anglo-Nor MANs. 317
tiges of buildings constructed by the Anglo-Normans. In this
place, some attention is required to the changes produced by the
new government in the state of society.
The prevailing feature in the innovations effected by the Nor-
man sway, will be found to consist in the introduction of the
system of Feudal tenure. In regard to those laws which regu-
late the familiar occurrences of life, and are unconnected with
the tenure of what may be termed natural property [the soil and
its inartificial appurtenances] the conqueror usually suffered the
enactments of Saxon legislation to remain in force. Some laws
promulgated at this period are evidently of Norman origin, and
were introduced to England by the invaders, in attention to their
previous habits of life; while other novel enactments appear to
have been purely the offspring of temporary conviction and expe-
diency. But, independent of the system of feudal tenure, the
principal changes effected in the morals and manners of the peo-
ple were produced by example, rather than by the coercion or in-
citement of legal interference.* x 3 a
The Feudal System, by which term is to be understood a form
of tenure that admits the idea of the sovereign being proprietor
of all the lands in his dominions, and the holders under which
are, accordingly, subject to the payment or performance of cer-
tain direct services to the crown; existed, as to effect, in the
§: * , ; time
10 For proofs of the correctness of these remarks, see Turner's Hist, of Eng-
land, Vol. I; and Bawdwen's Introduction to the translation of Domesday.
But it will be observed, that if most of the laws remained the same, the
form of judicial proceedings experienced considerable alteration.—As the
judges and pleaders in the courts of England were now almost invariably
Normans, the Norman, or French, language was both spoken and written --
in law-transactions.—As a circumstance of some curiosity, it may be recol-
lected that the confirmation of deeds and charters by seals of wax, impressed
on the document, or appended to it, was now commonly substituted for the
Anglo-Saxon mode of using the sign of the cross, as a confirmatory appendage,
to the subscription of a witness.-See some remarks on the modes of sub-..
scribing to Anglo-Saxon charters, and other instruments, Archaeol. Vol. K.
p. 232, -
31s . 1NT Robuction.
time of the Anglo-Saxons; since most proprietors of land were
then bound, as such, to attend the king in military expeditions,
besides rendering other minor duties. When the wealth and
power of the country were entirely vested in the land-holders,
and the science of government was in its infancy, an exaction
of military service, proportioned to the extent of landed pro-
perty, was, perhaps, necessary to the safety and well-being of the
state. But even this groundwork and foundation of feudal cus-
toms, was, in some instances, relinquished by the Anglo-Saxon
kings; and the minor burthens to which land was subjected
under their sway, were shiefly such as were essential to public
welfare; namely, assistance in the constructing and repairing of
three kinds of buildings: bridges; fortresses; and defensive
walls. The above three services have been termed by later
writers the trinoda necessitas.-William the first increased the
duties, and directed their effect more peculiarly to the support of
the crown, through various descending ramifications; thus com-
pleting the system of feudal tenure, according to the mode of the
duchy over which he had ruled from childhood. .”
Unhappily, this rigid establishment of feudal customs was a
matter that, at the time of its imposition, required little discus-
sion among the English. The numerous forfeitures consequent
on the battle of Hastings, and various. subsequent but partial
revolts, placed a great proportion of the lands of England in
the hands of the conqueror; and the possessions thus revolving
to the crown were bestowed, with tyrannous munificence, on
William's Norman followers.” .
It
• The eonqueror appears to have bestowed on the Earl of Mortain 793
manors; on the Bishop of Baieux 439 manors; and on many other Nor-
mans, possessions almost equally extensive. Unless we suppose that these
great lords possessed paramount seigniory over many of the manors -
zéept the military service of the under-tenant,
in his wars, and the wardship of minor
. # . heirs;








the Anglo-Normans. 319
It is observed by Blackstone, that the introduction of feudal
tenures into England by King William “does not seem to have
been effected immediately after the conquest, nor by the mere
arbitrary will and power of the conqueror; but to have been
gradually established by the Norman barons, and others, in such
forfeited lands as they received from the gift of the conqueror,
and afterwards universally consented to by the great council of
the nation, long after his title was established.” Whether
this statement be entirely correct or not, it is unquestionable
that the institution of military feudal services, according to the
Norman mode, promised, in the early simplicity of the design,
to afford a strong mean of national defence, with little attendant
penalty or inconvenience; and it was, therefore, agreed to by a
great council convened for that purpose. x
But in after-ages, when property passed from the hands of
those who willingly submitted to the feudal yoke, and when suc-
ceeding monarchs took an inordinate advantage of their preroga-
tive, the establishment of feudal tenure, with its various ser-
vices and prestations, was found to be a grievance of inealculable
magnitude. Nor were the calamities of this system confined to
those who held directly of the crown. They extended to all
classes which possessed landed property; for the baron exacted
from his vassals the same duties in the limited sphere of his own
estate, which himself rendered to royalty; and even the vassals
of the baron sometimes granted subinfeudations, in strict atten-
tion to the same plan. Thus, in its involutions, the system of
feudal tenure inflicted a degrading taint of slavery upon the landed
proprietor of every rank, which, although lessened in the reign
of John, was, perhaps, finally abolished only at the great revo-
lution of 1688. x . . . º, "
In this state of society, it was natural that many sighs should
… . . . . .” . . be
heirs; their wealth and power must have been inordinate, beyond all com-
Parison with disproportionate rank in any other age. . . . . . . .
* Blackstone's Comment. Vol. II. p. 48.






320 INTRODUCTION.
be heaved after the comparative liberty enjoyed under the Anglo-
Saxon monarchs. But these unavoidable aspirations were con-
fined to the classes above noticed; to those who had a share, by
deed, in the property of their native soil. No sigh was due
from the lower part of the community, which constituted its
great bulk. They were abject and despised under the Saxons;
and the Normans could treat them no worse.
The penalties inflicted by the complete establishment of the
feudal system were severe; but many of its forms and ceremo-
nials probably imparted a real benefit to society, at this dreary.
juncture in the animals of Britain, by encouraging a competition.
in polish of manners and appearance, through the medium of
periodical public solemnities. The vigour of the government,
the growth of commerce, and the increase of social habits, were
likewise favourable to the cultivation of art and science. Learn-
ing now arose from the cloud by which it had been long op-
pressed. William the First is celebrated as an encourager of
literature; and his wish to advance the interests of letters must
have been greatly facilitated by the numerous monastic establish-
ments, which were founded in the years shortly succeeding his
accession to the crown. Aided by the affluent leisure of such
societies, learning, although confined almost exclusively to the
clergy, experienced a revival in this reign, from which it never
afterwards sank to entire neglect.
The manners of the superior classes were much altered at this
period, and were certainly raised a step in refinement and res-
pectability, by the spirit of Chivalry which the Normans intro-
duced to our island. However fantastical in some points of ope-
ration, this animating principle involved lessons of morality, and
inculcated a high sense of honour, which must have greatly as-
sisted in humanizing the disposition of a people accustomed, al-
most beyond the reach of tradition, to view a prostrate foe as the
destined victim of the sword, and to connect the idea of blood-
shed with that of rapine. The pomp of arms attendant on the
pursuits of chivalry, and the romantic devotion for the fair sex
& * 3: . evinced
THE ANGLo-Nor MANs. S21
evinced by those who aspired after its distinctions, may appear
trivial to the phlegmatic examiner of history; but they were, as-
suredly, of great importance in stimulating the youth to warlike
habits, and in softening their temper in the hour of spoliation.
The recollection of these scenes, so fanciful, and gallant in dis-
play, may sometimes occur when we contemplate the rugged
fragments of a Norman castle; and may, at least, bestow a harm-
less prism of animation on the deserted neighbourhood. ' *
In the same page with chivalry may be noticed the trial by
Judicial combat, a mode of determining differences introduced
to England at a similar period by the Normans. According to
the tenour of this irrational appeal to Heaven for an immediate
manifestation of its omniscience, the person worsted in legal
duel was pronounced guilty, by supposed divine decision; and,
if he survived, was subjected to the penalty affixed by human
laws to his crime. As such a prompt, mysterious, and martial
mode of trial was well suited to the superstitious, yet bold, cha-
racter of the age, it soon grew into public esteem, and was not
only resorted to in cases of alleged treachery, or military default,
but became a frequent practice in civil disputes. -
This solemnity was performed in the presence of the king, i
the combatants were immediate vassals of the crown; or, other-
wise, in that of the baron to whom the contending parties owed
homage. If the accuser were vanquished, he was liable to the
same punishment which, on a contrary issue, would have fallen
upon the defendant; but a discretionary power of mitigating, or
remitting, this penalty, formed a part of the sovereign's preroga-
tive. In civil cases, the victor in the duel was the gainer of the
cause.
Many persons, such as priests; the sick and mutilated;
the young under twenty, and the old above sixty years of age;
were exempted from the necessity of resorting to this mode
of decision. But all the exempted parties had the option of em-
ploying champions to fight in their behalf; and many adopted so
strange a mode of substitution, contented to receive an indication
- Y of
322 1NTRoduction.
of the will of Heaven through the wounds, or safety, of a person
interested in the case only by the payment which he received for
the hazard of his blood. :
One of the most memorable events in the reign of William the
Conqueror, as it relates to a gratification of the inquisitive spirit
of future ages, and in some instances still affects the tenure of
property, was the compilation of the record termed Domesday;*
which was begun in the year 1080, and completed in the year
1086.
In my notice of the customs and the legal code of the Anglo-
Saxons, I have reminded the reader that a book of this nature,
since lost, was compiled, about the year 900, under the direc-
tion of King Alfred. The loss of the survey effected by order
of that great king and wise legislator, is a matter of unavoidable
regret with the antiquary. The record made in the reign of
William the First, is still extant; and from this invaluable source
we obtain the first authentic account of the political divisions of
England, and of the real state of the face of the country, in the
latter Anglo-Saxon and in the early Anglo-Norman ages. The
conditions of society, and various particulars respecting the man-
ners of the people, may likewise be collected from the same au-
thority.
The legal utility of this record, in many ages following the
commencement of the Anglo-Norman dynasty, must have been
incalculably great: and still “what manor is ancient demesne,
and what is not, is determinable by Domesday alone.”+ Its
value, as an historical document, with the enquirer into the de-
grees of society and their customs; the political divisions of
England; the aspect of the country; and numerous statistical
particulars, in the 11th century; cannot be too highly appre-
ciated at the existing period.; .
; : « : The
* The word Domesday is of Saxon original, and signifies the book of judi-
eial verdict—Domesday Book illustrated by Kelham, p. 9.
* Ibid, p. 7. after Burrow's Reports, Vol. II. p. 1048.
# Some further account of the Record called Domesday is given in the
List of Books appended to this “Introduction.”
T H E A N G L O-N OR MAN S. . 323
The pernicious act of King William the First, in separating
the ecclesiastical and the civil courts, is a circumstance of so much
influence in topographical history, that it requires a brief notice
in this place. It is well known that every baron, during the
early feudal ages, possessed the privilege of dispensing judgment
to the tenants within his own domain, even to the dreadful extent
of inflicting capital punishment. Prelates, abbots and priors,
who held baronies of the crown, were, likewise, invested with
the same power.
In addition to these local and peculiar seats of justice, each
county had its court, over which the earl of that district pre-
sided; for the title of earl then involved official duties, both
military and civil. In reward of the exercise of his judicial capa-
city in the court of his county, the earl received the third penny
of all the dues, amerciaments and profits there arising.” This
was necessarily a court of great importance. The bishop of the
diocese sat with the earl, and all the principal ecclesiastics and
freeholders of the county were constrained to attend.
But King William, about the year 1085, separated the eccle-
siastical from the civil part of these county courts, directing that
all causes relating to the church should be tried in courts con-
sisting entirely of the clergy. It has been observed, on the au-
thority of Blackstone,f that, in consequence of this regulation,
“ the crown and mitre were set at variance. The ecclesiastical
courts, by putting themselves under the immediate protection of
the pope, formed the clergy into a separate state under a foreign
sovereign; which was productive of infinite mischief and dis-
orders.” 6
The ecclesiastical courts now erected were three in number:-
the archdeacon’s ; the bishop's court, or consistory; and the
archbishop’s court, beyond which an appeal was permitted to
the pope. - w
; Y 2 . The
* Wide Selden’s Titles of Honour, &c.
+ Blackstone's Comment. Book 3. c. 5.
324 INTRoduction.
The evils produced by this separation of the religious and civil
authorities were felt through many succeeding ages, in the viola-
tions of social justice committed with impunity by the dissolute
part of the clergy, and in the interdicts, excommunications, and
other censures, imposed by the courts formed of ecclesiastics.
The modes of tenure introduced at the era of the Norman con-
quest, or growing into use as consequences of the system of go-
vernment, and regulation of property, then adopted, involve seve-
ral terms which demand observation. Such are the words Honour
and Barony, concerning the exact meaning of which a consider-
able misapprehension often prevails.
It is remarked by Mr. Madox, in Baronia Anglica, that, “ Fn
ancient times, the word Honor usually signified the lordship or
fee of an earl, and the lordship or fee of a baron. But, in pro-
cess of time, honor and barony came to be used as words of the
same import. An honor, then, was the fee, or seigneury, of an
earl, or baron; relieving of the crown of England.”*
. . In
* Baronia Anglica, p. 2–In the reign of Henry the Eighth a new species
ef Honour was created, in the instance of certain manors belonging to the
crown. These were the manors of Ampthill, Hampton Court, and Grafton.
But although they might, by the exercise bf the royal power, acquire some
of the properties of an honour, in being composed of several manors united
together, and possessing a capital seat; yet they were incorrectly styled
honours, as they had not previously constituted baronies, or the capital seats
of baronies. It is observed by Madox (Baron. Angli. p. 9.) “ that the essen-
tial and distinguishing property of an honor, vested in the king, was to be a
Barony escheated;” which was not the case with the above-named manors,
and they were consequently nominal, rather than proper, honours.-The ex-
istence of other nominal honours, which partake still less of the original mean-
ing of the term, is noticed and explained in the following passage of Black-
stone (Comment. Vol. II. p. 90–91, 8vo, edit.) “In the early times of our
legal constitution, the king's greater barons, who had a large extent of ter-
ritory, held under the crown, granted out frequently smaller manors to in-
ferior persons, to be holden of themselves; which do, therefore, now con-
tinue to be held under a superior lord, who is called, in such cases, the lord
~ 3. . paramount.
The Anglo-Norm ANs. $25
In speaking concerning baronies, we should hold distinctly in
semembrance that the same word is sometimes used to express
two different circumstances of possession; viz. the land-barony
and the titular barony. In addition to what is said above, con-
cerning the former, it may be added from Madox, that “a Land-
Honor, or barony, is so called because it was annexed and united
to land. It was bounded by a determinate extent of ground, like
as a manor, liberty, or ferme, was bounded.
“ There were in England certain honors which were often
called by Norman, or other foreign names; that is to say, some-
times by the English, and sometimes by the foreign name. This
happened when the same person was lord of an honor in Nor-
mandy, or some other foreign country, and also of an honor in
England.” Mr. Madox mentions, as an instance of this prac-
tice, that “ the Earl of Britanny was lord of the honor of Bri-
tanny, in France, and also of the honor of Richmond, in Eng-
land; whence, the honor of Richmond was sometimes called by
the foreign name, the honor of Britanny, or the Honor of the
Earl of Britanny.” The recollection of this practice will often
be found useful by the reader of the “Beauties of England.”
The Titular baronies of this country are well described in the
following paragraph, which, likewise, presents some conjectures
concerning their origin and ancient characteristics: “The ori-
ginal and antiquity of baronies have occasioned great inquiries
among our English antiquaries. The most probable opinion
seems to be, that they were the same with our present lords of
manors; to which the name of court baron [which is the lord's
court, and incident to every manor] gives some countenance.*
Y 3 It
paramount over all these manors; and his seignory is frequently termed an
honour, not a manor; especially if it hath belonged to an ancient feudal
baron, or hath been at any time in the hands of the crown.” .
* “Lords of manors, who had granted to others, by subinfeudation, part
of that estate which they held of the king, would necessarily be barons; but
it does not follow, conversely, that a baron was of necessity a lord of a
. . manor s
326 INTRODUCTION.
It may be collected from King John's magna charta, that origi-
nally all lords of manors, or barons, that held of the king in
capite, had seats in the great council, or parliament: till, about
the reign of that prince, the conflux of them became so large
and troublesome, that the king was obliged to divide them, and
summon only the greater barons in person; leaving the small
ones to be summoned by the sheriff, and [as it is said] to sit by
representation in another house; which gave rise to the separa-
tion of the two houses of Parliament. By degrees, the title
came to be confined to the greater barons, or lords of Parliament
only; and there were no other barons among the peerage but
such as were summoned by writ, in respect of the tenure of their
lands or baronies, till Richard the Second first made it a mere
title of honour, by conferring it on divers persons by his letters
patent.” # .
The spiritual lords, consisting of two archbishops and twenty-
four bishops, are considered as holding certain ancient baronies
under the king. William the Conqueror changed the spiritual
tenure of frank-almoign, or free alms, under which mitred eccle-
siastics held their lands during the Anglo-Saxon dynasty, into
the feudal tenure by barony. “This subjected their estates to
all civil charges and assessments, from which they were before
exempt. But, in right of succession to those baronies, which
were unalienable from their respective dignities, the bishops, and
abbots, were allowed their seats in the House of Lords.”f
In explanation of a term which often occurs when speaking of
landed property subsequent to the Norman conquest, the reader
may be reminded that, on the introduction of the feudal law in
its
manor; for the king's tenant, who retained all the estate granted him, and
alienated no part of it, would certainly be as complete a baron as a lord of
a manor.” Note to Blackstone's Comment. edit, 14th, by Edward Chris-
tian, Esq. , -
* Blackstone's Comment. Vol. I. p. 399,
+ Ibid, p. 156,
ANG Lo-N or MAN ANTI QUIT I Es. 327
its full extent of rigour, the whole of the lands in this kingdom
were divided into what were called knight’s fees. This division
obviously originated in the institution of tenure by knight's ser-
vice. In constituting such a tenure, a certain portion of land
was necessary, which was termed a knight’s fee. But the best
writers differ as to whether the requisite fee of a knight was neces-
sarily determinate in quantity, or otherwise. The measure of a
knight's fee is said by Blackstone to have been estimated, in the
third year of the reign of Edward the First, “at twelve plough-
lands; and its value [though it varied with the times] in the
reigns of Edward the First and Edward the Second, was stated
at 201 per annum.” - N.
On the contrary, Mr. Selden contends “that a knight’s fee
did not consist of land of a fixed extent, or value; but was as
much as the king was pleased to grant upon the condition of
having the service of one knight;" and this opinion is considered
as the more probable by Mr. Christian, in a note on the above
passage in the “Commentaries.”
The service due from a person holding a whole fee by knight's
service, consisted in attending his lord to the wars for forty days
in every year, if called upon. In consequence of the subdivi-
sions of property, we find frequent mention of the half, or frac-
tional proportion of a knight’s fee. In these cases the service
due was divided between the participators in the land; the person
holding half a knight's fee performing twenty days service.—The
number of knight’s fees into which England was divided, is usu-
ally believed to have been about sixty thousand.t
§.
ON THE MILITARY ARchitectURE OF THE ANGLo-Non-
MANs.-Although many ſortified buildings of stone had been
Y 4 raised
• Blackstone's Comment. Vol. II. p. 62, and the authorities there quoted.
+ Vide Selden's Titles of Honour, &c.—For many remarks on the proba-
ble number of knight's fees in England, the reader is referred to Madºx's
Baronia Anglica, Book I. Chap. 2.
328 #. 1NTRODUCTION.
raised by Alfred and his successors, the inadequacy of these to
the defence of the country was obvious at the accession of Wil-
liam the First; and by that warlike and politic king, the erection
of additional castellated structures was constituted one of the
first cares of his new government. The prodigious power vested
in a conqueror's hands rendered his plan easy of execution. He
not only built, by public aid, strong castles in the principal
towns within the royal demesnes,” but stimulated the nobles whose
possessions were derived from his pleasure, to construct similar
fortresses on their respective estates; for the great object of his
policy was necessarily directed to an effect of immediate opera-
tion,-the security of the Anglo-Norman government against the
discontents of his native English subjects. The evils arising
from such a phalanx of strong holds, vested in barons who might
not always be obedient to the crown, were to be felt at a future
day. .
In this spirit of politieal intention he was imitated by his im-
mediate successors; amongst whom William Rufus is said by
ancient writers to have exceeded even his father in a fondness for
erecting castles of defence.
As the feudal system acquired strength, the number of castles
increased; and when the exigencies of the crown no longer de-
manded an augmentation of strong holds for the defence of the
state, ambition amongst the barons acted as a sufficient induce-
ment. Disputes concerning a succession to the crown likewise
favoured this increase of defensible retreats. Whilst the dignity
of the throne was tarnished by party-conflict, and the interests of
the people lay quite neglected, numerous castles were raised by
the partizans of each contending faction.—The troubled reign of
. - Stephen
* Royal castles, from the earliest period at which such fortresses are recog-
mised, were erected and preserved in repair at the public expense. It will
be recollected that this duty formed one of the three obligations imposed
wpon all lands in the Anglo-Saxon times, usually termed the trinoda neces-
situs. 3.
AN Glo-Nor MAN ANT19 UITI Rs. 329
Stephen is the era most conspicuous for the erection of such for-
tresses, although less architectural skill is displayed in his build-
ings than in those of many other ages. --
In the present section, our attention will be confined to such
castles as strictly evince a style introduced by the Normans;
and will, therefore, be limited to structures erected shortly after
the conquest. For more complex modes of military architecture
were speedily adopted, which may be noticed with greater pro-
priety in future pages. # .
While discussing this part of our subject, it appears desirable
to adopt, in some measure, the arrangement of an antiquarian
writer whose works are of great utility in such investigations,
if the authenticated portion be carefully separated from that which
partakes of fancy, or hypothesis, Mr. King, in the “Sequel to
his Observations on Ancient Castles,” divides the determinate
military architecture of the Anglo-Normans into two classes;
that which they practised in such structures as were raised by
William the First, for the purpose of immediate defence; and
the more artificial mode which was afterwards introduced, and is
supposed to have been carried to its greatest perfection, by Bishop
Gundulph. : : ' ... 3
Concerning the first Anglo-Norman style, it is observed by
the same antiquary, “that the Normans, magnificent as they
were, seem, at first, to have entered this country with ideas of
fortification quite different from, and inferior to, those of the
Saxons; though they afterwards adopted the latter, and even
greatly improved upon them. .
“Their first castles, and their first style of architecture, are
almost every where to be distinguished. Descended from the
Danes, they still retained Danish ideas, and considered the high
mount as the most essential part of a fortress. The high insulated
hill, as the basis of a round tower, is characteristic of all the
Jirst Norman castles.”f - -. .
In
* Archaeol, Wol, WI. # Aſchºol. Wol, WI. P. 257.
336) INTRobuction.
In illustration of the correctness of these remarks, may be
noticed remains of such structures at York,” Lincoln,t Tickhill
in Yorkshire, t and Tunbridge. § These examples are selected,
as each has afforded a subject of observation to the author above
quoted; but vestiges of other castles, possessing the same gene-
ral characteristics, occur in different parts of this country, and
are described in respective portions of the “Beauties of England
and Wales.” .*
The keep of Lincoln castle, which was built by order of Wil-
liam the First, in the early part of his reign, was nearly round,
and was situated on a high artificial mount, the summit of which
it almost entirely covered. In the instance of York, the keep
was excluded from the castle area; but here, at Lincoln, “the
walls enclosing the whole circuit of the fortress were made to
ascend on each side the slope, and to join to the great tower;
which was, in other respects, in consequence of the steepness of
the hill, and its talus, equally inaccessible, both from within the
castle-area and from without, except by a steep flight of steps,
and a draw-bridge over a ditch.”
It is observable that in this, and other fortifications constructed
at nearly the same period, the chief reliance for defence was placed
on the massy character of the walls, and the steepness of the
artificial hill on which the great tower was raised; for, in seve-
ral instances, the principal portal is found level with the ground,
and not elevated on the side of the wall, as was the practice of
ages better skilled in the science of defence.
Besides the keep [or citadel of the fortress, containing the
rooms of state residence] there was at Lincoln, another tower, of
smaller proportions, also placed on an artificial mount, and com-
municating with the former by means of a covered way. The
- outer
* Beauties for Yorkshire, p. 236.
+ —— Lincolnshire, p. 647.
# —— Yorkshire, p. 839,
§ — — Kent, p. 1386.
ANG Lo-N or MAN ANTrg U1T1 Es. 33 lº
outer walls of the castle enclose a very large area; but so many
alterations have been effected by later ages, in these parts of the
works, that such vestiges as are really of an early Norman date
cannot be distinguished with accuracy. . . .
Although it has been deemed expedient to divide variations
of the style introduced by the Anglo-Normans into determi-
nate classes, it must not be imagined that either of those dis-
tinct modes had a precise and definite term of prevalence. A de-
fective fashion might find imitators after a better manner was in-
troduced; and, in regard to these Norman plans of military archi-
tecture, if we suppose that which was first used to have been the
chosen practice of the Normans in their own country, we may
readily believe that chieftains, newly settling in England, in an
after-age, might bring with them a national partiality, and might
raise structures in the first Anglo-Norman mode, in neglect of
the improvements introduced since that fashion was rejected by
the majority. -
Indeed, no attempt can be more futile than that of seeking to
ascertain the exact age of any pile, whether religious, military,
or domestic, merely from its agreement in certain particulars of
architectural disposal with other buildings, concerning which the
date of erection is positively ascertained. There are reasons for
supposing that such a method of calculation may with more safety
be applied to the early and middle ages of English history than
to those more recent; but fancy, caprice, necessity, and many
other inducements, must have caused deviations from the best
and most frequent modes, in every era.
Thus, many castles, erected at a date subsequent to the early
part of the first William’s reign, are found to display the manner
noticed in the above pages as being introduced at that period.
Among these may be mentioned the castle of Tunbridge, which
appears to have been built after the completion of the record
termed Domesday, and, probably, not before the time of Wil-
liam Rufus. Yet we here view a retrocessive adoption of the
style first used by the Anglo-Normans; for the original keep,
332 INTRO DUCTION.
and Principal part of the fortress, consisted of a spacious and
strong, oblong tower, situated on the summit of a high artificial
mount. The additions made by succeeding builders,” together
with the dilapidations effected by the wear of ages, and the taste-
less severity of persons through whose possession the estate has
passed in modern times, have caused an inextricable confusion to
prevail in regard to the outworks; but it appears that the keep
and dependant area were originally protected by lines of massy
wall, and deep ditches, which were supplied with water by skil-
ful and laborious contrivances. w .
It is the laudable practice of many popular antiquarian writers
of the present day, to avoid an indulgence in hypothetical calcu-
lation, and to adhere only to plain and unequivocal matter of fact.
Such a mode of enquiry cannot be too highly commended, while
it simply rests on the firm basis with which it commenced, and
does not, in its progress, endeavour to discourage, by ridicule
without argument, the efforts of the more excursive to illustrate
doubtful circumstances by the rational aid of general analogy.
The usual futility of attempts to ascertain precise dates of erec-
tion, by an affinity of architectural arrangement, has been already
pointed out.—It would, however, appear that we may with secu-
rity place reliance on the above appropriation of style, as the
dates of several buildings there noticed are ascertained on sound
historical testimony. . ... ."
And with the same confidence we proceed to an examination of
the second, or improved, Anglo-Norman style; for it is known
that the fortifications of the castle of Rochester were begun under
the direction of Bishop Gundulph, about the year 1088; and it is
probable that the greater part was completed according to his
& plans
• The tower of entrance is the addition most worthy of notice. This is an
extensive building, flanked by round towers, and containing many spacious
apartments. From the character of its ornaments, it is supposed that this
part of the castle was erected about the reign of John, or that of Henry the
Third, and it forms an instance of the Gatehouse, which is so distinguished a
feature in many castles constructed in the Middle ages.
ANG Lo-N or MAN ANTIQu Iti es. 333
plans, and under his care. The improvements which had taken
place in military architecture are here obvious, and of high
interest. But it is not to be supposed that the whole were first
introduced in this instance. Each had, unquestionably, been for
some years in that progressive state which is incidental to works
of art in their approach towards perfection; and relics of ante-
rior and less refined efforts, similar as to intention, are probably
still to be noticed in several parts of England. x
Intent on raising such fortresses as might effectually supply a
necessity long felt in Britain, and at once assist in defending the
state against foreign and factious assailants, King William the
First, and his successor, carefully selected persons most renowned
for architectural skill, and directed their attention towards the
construction of castles of defence. The peculiar talent of Gun-
dulph, and the general character of the improvements which
are ascribed to him, are well explained in the following pas-
sage. 3 .
“Amongst other persons whom William employed and con-
sulted in the advancement of his favourite plan, was Gundulph,
Bishop of Rochester. This extraordinary genius began to reason
with more acuteness upon the subject than any architect had done
before: and determined to unite together all the excellencies of
former structures, [both those of Alfred's castles, and those of the
great round towers of his own countrymen:] and to add many
new inventions; for the sake of increasing not only the security,
but also the magnificence of these piles. His mode of building
was immediately so greatly admired, and so soon came into
fashion; that although the prejudice in favour of the old plan,
long continued amongst the Normans; and many castles were
still daily built according to it; yet many also, in the very
same age, and even in the very same years, were erected on
Gundulph's. it 3.
“He determined to get rid of the aukward labour of raising
high artificial mounts, by way of defending the entrance and ap-
Proach to the keep; despised the inconvenience of the central
. well
334 1NTRO DUCTION.
well, for the purpose of affording air, and light, in the round
towers; and saw many defects even in the great castles of Alfred;
especially in their want of inward defence to the loop holes in
the lower apartments, and in the unguarded design of their great
windows above. In short, to him appears clearly to be due, the
honor of the invention of the noble high elevated portal, so com-
pleatly defended by draw-bridges, gates, and portcullises, [all
placed in the most judicious manner] in lieu of the high mount;
the invention of the mode of properly defending loop holes; the
invention of wells, concealed in the walls, for the purpose of
drawing up timbers; the improvement of the manner in which
galleries of communication were constructed in the walls; and
other judicious devices, with regard to the situation of staircases,
and an improved mode of constructing even the very dungeons.
“The noble proportions, and disposition of the state apart-
ments, was also another excellence in Gundulph's keeps; as
well as the stately mode of approach, and ascent to them.”
The castle of Rochester is the latest effort of Bishop Gun-
dulph in castellated architecture; and it presents a fine and vene-
rable instance of his skill, as the whole of the improvements
known to have been introduced by him are here assembled in one
impressive display.
This castle is so amply described in the Beauties of England
for Kent,f that a notice of its leading characteristics, as a stand-
ard of comparison with the modes of other eras, must be all that
is required in the present place.
Rochester castle is situated near the brow of a natural emi-
nence, which rises abruptly from the river Medway; and its
principal tower, or keep, is of extensive proportions, and of a
quadrangular form. Thus situated, the river formed on one side
a line of defence, without labour or expense. In other directions
the
* Sequel to Observations on Ancient Castles, :Archæol. Vol. VI. p. 295-6.
* Beauties for Kent, p. 623–628.
3. -
Anglo-Norman Antiquities. 335
the keep was secured by strong outworks and deep fossae; and
had, around it, a large area for the use of the garrison.
The outward walls formed an irregular parallellogram, of about
300 feet in length; and were strengthened by several square and
round towers, embrazured, and provided with loop holes and
machicolations. The shape of these towers was, however, not
uniformly confined to the two modes noticed above; as the re-
mains of one that was of a semicircular form are still to be seen
in the south-east angle of the outward walls; and it would, in-
deed, appear from many instances that the Anglo-Normans, gene-
rally, did not adhere to any particular fashion in constructing the
towers of their outworks; but introduced, inºhe same structure,
the square, the round, and the polygonal.”
The methods adopted for the protection of the garrison in time
of close siege, and after the outworks should be taken, displayed
many ingenious refinements on the science of defence.
In regard to the exterior aspect of the great tower, or keep,
there were on the ground-floor, no windows, and only a few loop
holes; which were not much more than six inches square. The
story above was, likewise, lighted merely by loop holes. But
the third story, containing the rooms of state, was accommodated
with “magnificent windows,” which, however, were placed high
in the lofty apartments, for the purpose of security against wea-
pons discharged from without. º . .
Various devices to mislead the assaults of an enemy, by de-
ceptively exhibiting an appearance of exterior weakness, where,
in fact, lay the greatest strength of the citadel, are conspicuous
in this tower. But similar efforts at deception are visible in cas-
. . . … tles
• The outworks of Rochester castle were certainly much injured, and are
said by Holinshed “to have been thrown down,” when the fortress was be- 3.
sieged in the reign of John. It is believed, however, that they were restored
according to the original design. Even if they were rebuilt in a different
taste, such a circumstance does not affect the propriety of the above assertion
respecting the various shapes used by the Normans in minor towers of the
same structure. § -

336 INTRODUCTION.
tles attributed by several writers to an earlier date; and are sup-
posed, by those authors, to have been invented by the Anglo-
Saxons. . 3. :
The dungeon for the reception of prisoners (that invariable and
dreadful portion of every ancient castle in this country) was con-
structed beneath the small square tower adjoining the body of the
keep; and was descended by means of a very narrow and steep
flight of steps, cut in the wall. Air was admitted to this dreary
receptacle only by an aperture in the roof, which was secured
with a falling, or trap-door; and it is likely that the prisoners
were often introduced to their cell through that secret doorway,
and were suppliedºwith provisions through the same medium of
communication. - .
The entrance to the keep was adapted to the double purpose of
state and security, and consisted of a grand portal, at a con-
siderable height from the ground; which was ascended by a stair-
case, that went partly round two of the fronts of the castle on the
outside. Before this portal could be entered, there was a draw-
bridge to be passed, and also a strong gate. Nor did the grand
portal lead immediately to the keep, but was merely the entrance
of a small adjoining tower, the whole of which might be demo-
lished “without any material injury to the body of the castle.”
Beyond this tower, which acted as a kind of vestibule, was the
real entrance to the keep; and both these portals were guarded
by portcullises as well as by strong gates. There was no other
inode of ingress or egress, except that afforded by a small sally-
port, or narrow doorway, situated directly under the drawbridge,
at a considerable height from the ground: aud careful provision
was made that in case the entrance thus strongly guarded should
be forced, admission to the recesses of the keep should still be
attained only with great difficulty and danger. .
There are, within the massy walls of this castle, three square
wells, which open at the bottom on the ground-floor, and are car-
ried to the top of the structure, having, in their ascent, branches
of passage leading to galleries on the two upper floors. It is
- believed
A N Glo-No RMAN ANT19 Ulties. 357
believed that such cellular passages within walls, first occur in
castles constructed by Bishop Gundulph, or in attention to his
designs; and the use for which they were intended has led to
much conjecture and discussion. It has been hastily supposed
by some persons that they were “made merely for the purpose of
drying the stone-work.” But it is forcibly observed in reply,
that they are much larger than would be necessary for such an in-
tention, and “ that they are, in fact, very ill-adapted to it, because
they open inwards and not outwards.” Their real use cannot be
ascertained beyond controversial limits. But, according to the
most ingenious surmise which has hitherto been made towards
their appropriation, they were designed “for the easy convey-
ance of the great engines of war into the several apartments, and
up to the top of the castle.” º
Such were the improvements introduced in the latter years of
William the First, and in the early part of his successor’s reign.
Modes so judicious, at once combining an increase in the secu-
rity and stateliness of a fortified residence, were necessarily adopt-
ed by many of the powerful and discriminating. Several castles,
evincing an imitation of Gundulph’s methods, are described in the
“Beauties of England.” The following may be mentioned, as
having chiefly engaged antiquarian notice : — Canterbury;
Dover; Ludlow ;f Richmond, in Yorkshire; and Hedingham,
in Essex.f . Ž
1 must be allowed to repeat that, although the above classifi.
cation of styles will be found, as I believe, to afford characteristics
of the majority of great castles erected shortly after the conquest,
it is by no means descriptive of the whole of the castellated struc-
tures raised in those years. A departure from the prevalent out-
. Z. º 3. . .33 lines
* See arguments concerning the design of these passages, Archaeol. Vol. ?
PV, p. 384; ibid, Vol. VI. p. 296. . . . . . . . . .
t Two views of Ludlow castle are presented in the Beauties for Shrop-
shire. . r
The Beauties for Essex contain an engraved view of Hedingham
eastrº. .
338 … INTRO DUCTION.
lines of both modes, assuredly occurs in several remaining build-
ings. But, still, the rise, and the frequent adoption in this
country, of the two methods of military architecture mentioned
above, are proved by the dates of the buildings there adduced as
respective examples; and it will be seen, in the succeeding sec-
tion, that the general principles of these two Anglo-Norman
styles (the early and rude, and the later and improved,) prevailed
through several ages, although many subordinate particulars
underwent alterations, from changes in the modes of warfare,
and an increased sociability and refinement of manners.
THE MIXED, on IRREGULAR, Military ARchitecTURE OF
The Anglo-Normans.--The variable nodes of castellation which
grew into use with the military architects who succeeded to Bishop
Gundulph and his strict imitators, admit of no definite classifica-
tion, as to a marked style of defensive arrangement existing at a
positive date, until we arrive at an age far distant, the martial,
but more polite, and prosperous reign of Edward the First.
Although the methods of fortification, and the customs prevail-
ing in regard to a disposal of the enclosed buildings, experienced
no important change during those numerous intervening years, it
was otherwise with such parts of the castellated structure as ad-
mitted a display of minor architectural fashion. The introduc-
tion of the pointed, or English style, supplanted in the princi-
pal divisions, even of such harsh buildings, the circular-headed
windows and doorways which had been so long in use; and it is,
therefore, evidently desirable to apply the term of Anglo-Nor-
man to the majority of castellated, as well as religious buildings,
from the time of the Conquest until the accession of Richard the
First. The succeeding pages will shew that such a consideration
presents almost the sole inducement for distinguishing the mili-
tary architecture of the periods now under notice, from those
which subsequently occur, before the introduction of a more noble
siyle by the first Edward. § .
It has been already suggested that the evil long felt by Eng-
* . . . . . . . . . land,
AN Glo-Nor MAN ANT19 UIT1 Es. 339
land, in a want of castles of stone strongly fortified, was carefully
remedied by William the Conqueror and his immediate successors.
But it is the common lot of human effort to produce no benefit
without an intermixture of penalty. The erection of many royal
castles, built by means of public contribution, and defended by
national soldiery, was evidently a felicitous step towards the in-
dependence and security of the island. William the First, how-
ever, had an aim more selfish, blended with the advancement of
the national prosperity. In the same course of policy he was
followed by his sons; and the barons,” thus stimulated, produced
an assemblage of fortresses eventually dangerous to the reigning
power, and most certainly injurious to the comforts, and fair pri-
vileges, of the inferior classes of society. .
The active and military disposition of the Anglo-Normans is
forcibly evinced by the celerity with which they raised fortifica-
tions so numerous and so massive, in a country lamentably defi-
cient in artificial means of defence previous to their invasion.
The great and good Alfred complained that he had few fortresses
of stone to defend his upright government against the predatory
Danes; and the crown, perhaps, finally passed from an Anglo-
Saxon dynasty, through the same national poverty in castellated
resources. Yet, before the termination of the 12th century, we
find that the busy population of England, under the sway of the
Normans, had so far loaded the island with fortified piles of stone,
. > Z 2 that
• The reader will recollect that a residence in strong castles was not con-
fined to the lay-barons, but that prelates also constructed such edifices, and
dwelt there, in a resemblance of military severity. This, however, appears
to have been contrary to the canons of the church; but was only a natural
consequence of that Anglo-Norman regulation, which compelled the bishops
and abbots to serve the state in a military capacity, although by proxy.
An idea of the usual residence of a bishop, in the Anglo-Norman ages,
may be formed from the ancient part of Durham castle, noticed in the Beau-
ties for that county, p. 60; and from the ruins of Lawhaden castle, described
in the Beauties for South Wales, p. 806. ... <
349 introductio N.
that the whole kingdom is said, in the Saxon chronicle, “to have
been covered with castles.”
This figurative expression is less extravagant than it appears
to be at the first glance, when we reflect on the comparative scan-
tiness of population, and the small division of land cleared for the
use of agriculture. Populated England, as it would then appear
on a map, was, perhaps, not more than one-fourth the size of the
present cultivated portion of country; and over those narrow
tracts of busy scenery, interspersed amongst deep and wide masses
of woodland, were spread, in the latter days of King Stephen, no
less than eleven hundred and fifteen castles.”
When the standard laws of the realm were ill-defined, and the
great court of appeal, or that in which the king presided in person,
was ambulatory, and difficult of access; the evils proceeding from
the licentious conduct, even of the garrisons of royal castles, were
found to be vexatious and oppressive. But these formed only a
small part of the grievances arising from an inordinate multipli-
cation of strong holds. -
Very considerable power was vested in the hands of each par-
ticular baron, by the nature of the feudal system; and, in the
troubled times which shortly succeeded to the introduction of that
mode of tenure in its complete form by the Normans, these great
landholders assumed on the privilege which was granted to them.
by the crown, of administering the law within their immediate
territories, and violated justice with impunity, in attention only
to their own interests, or the dictates of their passions. Secure
in their fastnesses of stone, they often derided even the sove-
reign's retributive threats; and the crown, too weak for the real
good of the country, passed unnoticed their local tyranny and
aggressions, while assured of their loyalty, and calculating on
the aid to be afforded by their castles in a day of need. The
afflictions of the subordinate classes of society, when castles were
so numerous, and their possessors so little restrained by legal
. . maxima
* Grose, apud Registrum Prioratus de Dunstaple, &c.
A N Glo-N or MAN ANT19 UITI es. 341
maxims of justice and forbearance, are mentioned in emphatical
terms by many ancient historians, and may be readily apprehend-
ed without an extract of those writers.” . . . . . . . . .
The political dangers arising from such a multitude of ſortresses
(the nurseries of civil war.) placed in the hands of potent and fac-
tious subjects, speedily alarmed the ruling power. In the treaty
between King Stephen and Henry, Duke of Normandy (after-
wards Henry the Second,) it was agreed that all castles erected
within a certain period, should be razed to the ground; and
many were, in consequence, utterly destroyed. When Henry
acceded to the throne, several other castles shared the same fate;
and he prohibited all persons from erecting such fortified build-
ings without an especial licence from the crown. The same ne-
cessity of permission from the sovereign, or a power delegated by
him, prevailed through numerous succeeding reigns, as is obvi-
ous in many pages of the Beauties of England and Wales, where
(in treating of the date of a castellated structure) it is observed
that the founder obtained the king's licence to fortify his resi-
dence.’t * . . . . ź * .”
Z 3 - In
* Whilst noticing the injuries which the property, and the domestic peace,
of the laborious classes appear to have sustained from the tyranny of rapa-
cious and sensual chieftains, who were indifferent to remonstranco when
shielded by massy lines of fortification, it must be observed that the castle
of the baron afforded to the trader and artizan some occasional protection.—
Markets and fairs were exposed to considerable danger in these turbulent
times, from open rapine, or covert but determinate injustice. By a law of
William the First, it was decreed that all fairs and markets should be kept
“in fortified cities, towns, or castles.” Although this law had, probably,
for its chief object a careful collection of the royal tolls, the security afforded
by the castle, and the redress to be there obtained in cases of dispute, were
circumstances of great public advantage. > . -
* The Bishop of Durham, as possessing a Palatine right, had the privilege
of granting licenses to fortify; and it is supposed, but I believe not proved,
*hat the same power was possessed by other Palatine nobles. A translation
from
342 & 1 N T R O DUCTION.
In the above remarks we view the evils arising from the exist-
ence of fortified piles (so massy and well-contrived, that, before
the use of gunpowder, they were nearly impregnable) when they
were diverted from their original purpose, and, instead of bar-
riers of national defence, became the mere seats of barons, and
the protection of local tyranny.—A view so severe, and confined
to the repulsive side, would be calculated to add fresh tints of
gloom and terror to the rugged fragments of those ancient struc-
tures; and might induce us to reflect, with unmixed pleasure, Orl
the events which have dismantled their towers, and robbed their
halls of almost every relic of tenantry. But there are circum-
stances connected with the hours in which the battlements were
perfect, and the courts and passages thronged with population,
that demand regret, at least through one short minute, for their
present dilapidated condition. r .
Although a petty tyranny, of dreadful local influence, dis-
figured some of these abodes, and renders them still hateful to
contemplation, the valorous and renowned, the Percys and Tal-
bots of history, resided in others; and who will not be gratified
to reflect that the walls within which they dwelt are still remain-
ing,
from the French, of a licence to “embattle and crenalate,” granted by the
Bishop of Durham, is presented in the Beauties for that county, p. 228.
Few licenses to construct castles occur after the reign of Edward the Third.
one, however, granted by Richard the Second, is noticed in the preface to
Grose's Antiquities; and two further instances of similar licenses, obtained
in the same reign, are mentioned in the Beauties of England for the county
of Durham, and will be specified in subsequent pages of this “Introduc-
tion.” ... 3 - . .
It is observed in the Beauties for Norfolk (p, 276.) that Sir Edmund
Bedingfield obtained a grant, or patent, of King Edward the Fourth, in the
year 1482, to build his manor-house, termed Oaburgh Hall, with towers, bat-
tiements."machicolations, &c. This building is a fine specimen of the castel-
lated muſsion. 3. w - º:
The privilege of erecting a mansion, without a licence from the crown,
pr authorities thence appointed, did not exist until the reign of Henry the
Eighth, x * - #
ANG lo-Nor MAN ANT1 guiti Es. 343.
ing, the monuments of their hospitable dignity! Those ruined
structures which we now behold, scattered in deserted magnifi-
cence (the striking emblems of mortal evanescence!) when new,
and the boast of their respective counties, formed the schools of
chivalry, and were the theatres of courtesy, wit, and wisdom,
through a long succession of ages. If attentively examined,
their remains present the best criteria for forming a judgment of
the progress of manners and customs, in periods little illumined
by the tomes of the historian.
Whilst security alone was the object of the chieftain, we have
seen that the keep of his sullen retreat was as contracted, insu-
lated, and chearless, as were his own notions of enjoyment.
When each baron’s castle became a court of chivalry, the select
and most noble youth of the land resorted to it, and here acted as
pages, until by trials of skill and exercises of hardihood, chiefly
performed in the neighbourhood of the same military edifice, they
proved themselves worthy to receive the honour of knighthood.
The softer manners of the age were connected with such a pro-
bationary service. Many noble, or well-dowered, females, were
wards* to the great barons possessing such castles; and in the
hours of festivity both sexes were mingled. The banquet and
the dance, in such society, were lessons of gallant courtesy to
the youthful page; and when we reflect on such scenes, while
viewing these fabrics, now abandoned and lonely , we may remem-
ber that some of the few bright virtues of the iron and unlettered
ages, emanated from a deference towards the weaker sex, here
carefully cultivated. - º
Whilst we recollect the pompous manners ascribed to the lords
of such structures; their chivalric celebrations, their long ranks
of retainers, and the numerous youth of both sexes protected in
- Z 4 * . . . . . . . . their

* The minor heirs of all noble or affluent deceased vassals of the crown,
were wards of the king, during the strict prevalence of the feudal system ;
and the management of the estates belonging to such minors was a source of
considerable profit to the royal revenue. The person of the ward was com-
mitted to the guardianship of some distinguished, and favourite courtier.
344. INTRO DUCT10 N.
their halls, as pages or as wards; we naturally enquire concern-
ing the situation of those “halls” (on which tradition and fancy
have bestowed so much splendour;) and of the “bowers” in which
the noble inmates of the castle reposed. . . . . .
In reply to enquiries so natural, it must be observed that if we
form an estimate of the imagiuary needs and luxuries of life, in
the middle ages, from the factitious wants or enjoyments of
modern society, we shall certainly argue on most deceptive data.
Grandeur and luxury are well known to be words of a comparative
meaning. Homer's heroes and princesses were both grand and
luxurious, in the esteem of the commonalty, three thousand years
back; and the middle classes of society, at the present day, have
an amplitude of apartment, and a delicacy of provision, unknown
to persons of exalted rank in ages when even tables and arras-
hangings were moved as valuables, and the softest form reposed
upon sheets spread over straw. In calculating upon the halls and
chambers required, in the early and middle centuries of English
history, for the splendid reception of a large and noble family,
we must not neglect to bear in remembrance this progressive
change of manners. . . . . . . .
But, although our notions of splendour are so entirely compa-
rative, it is still certain that the large retinues of wealthy and
stately barons could not receive even bare accommodation in such
structures as now remain, the sole monuments of their domestic
habits.--It would appear to be unquestionable that the apartments
in the keep tower were considered as principal rooms of state, from
the earliest period down to the latest date at which defensible cas-
tles were inhabited by their noble owners. But it is equally un-
doubted that numerous buildings for the exercise of hospitality,
and the reception of attendants, were constructed in the vicinity
qf the keep, so as to be defended by the strongest outworks of for-
tification, in the Så Iſle early ages; and were much augmented and
t The habitual piety of the Normans led to the introduction of a gratiſy-
luğ
*
ANG Lo-No R MAN ANTIQUITIEs. 345
It is presumed that such buildings, in the earliest ages of cas-
tellated architecture (as regards this country) were merely wooden
fabrics; and we have not relics to prove that, even in the reigns
now under consideration, they were uniformly constructed of more
durable materials. Until the truly splendid style of castellation
introduced by the Edwards, these additional buildings appear,
indeed, to have been considered as mere excrescences of the struc-
ture; and such, unquestionably, they were, while, from the con-
vulsed state of the country, the fortress was in continual danger
of attack, and was chiefly viewed as a fortified encampment.—
Yet, in these extraneous erections, many grand celebrations were
probably held; and here must have sojourned such retainers and
affianced friends as could not possibly be accommodated within the
narrow limits of the keep. ºn
The period at which these auxiliary edifices were first con-
structed of stone, has not been ascertained in a manner completely
satisfactory; but it has been thought, and, perhaps, with cor-
rectness, that they were first partially built in so firm a mode in
the reign of Henry the First.” Although formed of stone, they
were, in general, not calculated for very long duration; and,
ing appendage to castles of great extent and magnificence -A chapel, often
of capacious dimensions, and constructed in a manner equally solid and ele-
gant, was now deemed necessary to the completion of a noble residence.
Instances of such buildings, raised by Anglo-Norman barons, within the em-
battled walls of a !castle-area, or base-court, may be noticed at Oxford
(Beauties for Oxfordshire, p. 74–5) and at Ludlow (Beauties for Shrop.
shire, p. 251.) A part of the latter chapel is still remaining, and is repre-
sented in an engraving, inserted in the Beauties of England for Shropshire—
Bishop Gundulph erected, in the Tower of London, “a chapel 55 feet long,
with a nave and aisles; the former 15 feet broad.”
* Wide Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. III. p. 166, and the authority there
quoted. Some instances in which these buildings, intended for state and
convenience, and evidently forming parts of the structure unconnected with
fortification, still remain, but in a dilapidated condition, occur in the Beau-
ties of England for the following counties : —Gloucestershire, p. 719 ; Hamp-
Fhire, P. 208; Monmouthshire, p. 143; 174; and 177. .
346 - INTRODUCTION,
when they were deserted, they, in most instances, sank a ready
prey to the wear of seasons, and the hands of sordid spoliators.
The keep, meanwhile, intended for defence, with a slight inter-
mixture of stately arrangement, remained superior to all vicissi-
tudes of weather; and has been often seen to deride the efforts of
those who were desirous of reducing it to the ground, for the pur-
pose of profiting by its materials. . . . . .
The reign of Stephen is that most celebrated for the erection of
castles, during the prevalence of what I have ventured to term
the mixed Anglo-Norman style of military architecture. An ex-
ample of that date is, therefore, presented, as being most likely
to convey useful hints of information to the examiner into the cas-
tellated antiquities of the 12th century. #
The castle of Newark, in Nottinghamshire,” is believed to
have been erected by Alexander, the “munificent bishop of Lin-
coln;” who, in order to expiate the seeming offence of his fond-
ness for military architecture, built the same number of monas-
teries as castles, and filled them with religious societies. This cas-
tie is now in a state of confused ruin; but here, as in many other
fortresses, the original and most important parts of the structure
still exist, while many additions in later ages have sunk under
the inroads of time, and scarcely left a fragment to denote their
character. : #
The remains of this building exhibit “a part of the enclosure
of a large area, which was an oblong square, situated on an high
bank by the side of the river Trent.” The entrance, was, pro-
bably, on a fortified line of the area which is now demolished;
but the original keep, undoubtedly the chief place of residence,
yet remains, and appears to have been placed near the centre of
one of the ends of that oblong square which formed the boundary of
- ; : - - - w the
* Beauties for Nottinghamshire, p. 233, with an engraved view. The
castle of Tiverton, in Devonshire, as described in the Beauties for that county
(p. 287–9) presents, in some of its parts, an interesting specimen of the
style of eastellation in the reign of Henry the First.
A N G LO-N or MAN ANT19 U1ſ 1 Es.
the fortification. This building, like the defensive outworks, is
of an oblong form, and consists of three stories. On the ground-
floor are two rooms, neither of which is lighted either by window
or loop-hole. Beneath one of these lower rooms was a well for
water; and a recess, still preserved, appears to have led down
to a close and dismal dungeon. -
The next apartment above, was the first principal room; and,
here, “the entrance was by a covered way from the adjoining
wall, similar to that of an old Norman castle, the passage being
a winding one, by which admission is gained into a small vesti-
bule, wherein still are only two narrow lights, like loop-holes;
but from hence, by an arched doorway, is a passage to the guard.
room, which has two fine arched windows.” . . . . . . . .
The grand staircase of the keep commences on this floor, and
leads to the state-apartments, which are situated immediately
above. These were not of extensive dimensions, and were of a
chill aspect. The principal room, however, was lighted by a
large window, now in ruins, but which appears to have been of a
very splendid character.—An outer staircase proceeded from the
base of the inner court, straight to the battlements and top of
the building, having no communication with the apartments of
the keep.
At one angle of the oblong outline of fortification, is still re-
maining a tower, of smaller proportions than the keep, with ex-
tremely thick walls, pierced for loops; and it is probable that a
similar tower was originally situated at each corner of the for-
In regard to the arts of fortification here practised, it appears
that mock arches were constructed on the exterior, for the pur-
pose of deception, as in several castles already noticed; while,
in other respects, the buildings exhibit a mixture of the style in-
troduced by the early Normans, with that of the more scientific
mode carried to so great a degree of perfection by Bishop Gun-
dulph. Still, the whole ſortress would appear to be ill-designed,
if compared with prominent examples either of the one style or
- - the

348 1NTRoduction.
the other; and such is often the character of castles erected in
King Stephen’s reign; many of which were built in haste, and
with little evidence of refined skill. , , , , , , , , ,
The purpose of such structures being chiefly that of defence in
the prosecution of party-quarrels, they may almost be considered
as mere ſortified camps; and we, consequently, see little attention
paid to splendour, or even commodiousness, of internal arrange-
ment, except, in the latter instance, for the accommodation of
the military. In succeeding ages, when the times, although still
of a troubled complexion, allowed longer intervals of peace, and
more rational hopes of security, large additions were frequently
made to those castellated structures which became fixed seats of
baronial residence. Vestiges of such additional buildings must be
discriminated with a careful eye from the plan of the original for-
tress. Such an augmentation is evident here at Newark, in the
relics of a great hall, constructed at one of the angles of the out-
ward fortification, and extending far into the base-court; having,
beneath, a curious arched vault, supported by a row of pillars in
the middle, with loops and embrasures on the side towards the
river which flows at the base of these ruins. i
The three following may be noticed amongst the strongest cas-
tles erected in the reign of Stephen; Norham, in Northumber-
land;* Sheriff-Hutton, in Yorkshire;t and Brancepeth, in the
county palatine of Durham;f which latter fortress is believed to
have been built in the early part of Stephen’s reign.
The persons most distinguished in history, for the erection of
castellated structures, in the reigns of Henry the First, and
Stephen, like the illustrious architect of the ages immediately
preceding, were ecclesiastics, and of mitred dignity. # These
were Roger, Bishop of Sarum, and his nephew, Alexander,
Bishop of Lincoln. The works in military architecture of the
. . . . . . . former
- * * *
• Beauties for Northumberland, p. 25.
+ —— Yorkshire, p. 249.
} --- Durham, p. 200,
ANGLo-N or MAN ANT19 U1th Es. 349
former celebrated prelate are commemorated by several historians,
and particularly by William of Malmsbury, a contemporary writer.
Unlike Bishop Gundulph, his great predecessor in architectural
renown, the structures which he erected were intended for the
residence of himself; for the aggrandisement of political strength,
and the gratification of personal ambition. He is said to have
built, or to have much enlarged, the castles of Malmsbury, De-
vizes, Sherborne, and Sarum. The above historian describes
these buildings as being “ erected at vast cost, and with sur-
passing beauty; the courses of stone being so correctly laid, that
the joint deceives the eye, and leads it to imagine that the whole
wall is composed of a single block.” - º
In a comment on this passage, presented in Mr. Britton’s Ar-
shitectural Antiquities, it is observed, “that as such a pecu-
liarity of construction was, at that time, an object of admiration
and surprise, we may infer that the mechanical art of masonry
was then advanced to a state of excellence which was before un-
known. In an age of almost perpetual warfare, strength in build-
ings is the first object of consideration; and this appears to have
been the chief characteristic of the early Norman structures; but,
during the reign of Henry the First, something like beauty and
decoration was aimed at; and the notice which William of Malms-
bury takes of the buildings erected by Bishop Poor, clearly in-
dicates that some novelty, or extraordinary improvement, was
manifested in the architecture of that age.” § .
The structures on which is founded the ſame of Bishop Roger,
as a builder of military edifices, are (with an exception of Sher-
borne, of which a ruined part remains) so utterly destroyed, that .
we are unable to appreciate justly the commendation bestowed by
William of Malmsbury, his contemporary. But, according to
Dr. Maton, as quoted in the Beauties for Dorsetshire, “the cas-
tle of Sherborne was, in every respect, correspondent to the de-
scription,” given by that ancient historian; “ as we may per-
+ ceive,

* Architectural Antiquities, Vol. II, p. 4.
350 INTRODUCTION,
ceive, even from its ruins.” It is, therefore, probable that an
improvement in the art of masonry was introduced to such of the
most costly structures of these periods, as were erected in years
least exposed to factious trouble. 3.
We have a specimen of the works of Alexander, Bishop of Lin-
coln, in the castle of Newark, already described. N.
In the present stage of our work, whilst viewing the castel-
lated structures of this country chiefly as ſortifications, it may be
desirable to present an explanation of the terms used in de-
scribing several component parts of the keep and outworks.
Such a section, although superfluous to many readers, may yet
be acceptable to others, and can scarcely prove uninteresting to
any. º: - • . - w; N. .
The keep (in some instances called the dungeon, and, in others,
emphatically styled the tower) was the strongest part of the cas-
tle; and, consequently, formed the great dependance of the gar-
rison in time of close siege. It was, indeed, the citadel of the
fortress. Here were constructed the apartments in which the
lord and his family resided; and, in early times, all the rooms
intended for purposes of state and hospitality were, likewise, con-
tained in the same isolated and limited part of the fortress. Al-
though these rooms maintained a superior dignity in the esteem
-: : x of
* Observations on the Western Counties, as quoted in the Beauties for
Dorsetshire, p. 502. . . ×.
+ In M r. Dallaway’s “ Observations on English Architecture,” is the fol-
lowing remark, which it may be amusing to quote, in illustration of a term
sometimes bestowed on the chief tower of an ancient castellated structure —
“Amid the ruins of castles, we are frequently shown those of one called the
“Maiden Tower,” as in Lord Surrey's sonnet, at Windsor castle:
“With eyes cast up into the mayden's tower,”
Warton, in a note on this word, very satisfactorily proves that it did not
refer to the habitation of the fair sex, or to the tower's having never been
taken, but simply a corruption of the old French “ magne,” or “mayne,”
great. Hist, Engl. Poet, Vol. III, p. 13,

AN Glo-Norman ANT19 U1ties. 351
of later ages, additional halls, (as has been previously observed)
unconnected with the massy outlines of the keep, were erected,
as society attained a greater polish and more enlarged notions of
enjoyinent. - * . . . . . . -
The keep was commonly situated near the centre of the forti-
fied works; but not invariably so. Instances in which this custom
was neglected, and the keep was placed in a line with the exte-
rior walls, occur in several pages of the Beauties of England.”
The outward form chiefly prevailing in this part of the castle, at
different eras, is noticed in the respective sections of these re-
marks on the progress of military architecture.
In the improved state of the science of fortification, the entrance
to the citadel, or last retreat of the garrison, was guarded by
portcullises,f as impervious to assault as were the ponderous walls
of the structure; or by machicolations, f from which, destructive
- weights,
* It is observable that the keep at Portchester, Goodrich, Castleton, and
several other fortresses ascribed by some antiquaries to an ante-Norman date,
stands close to the outward wall of the castle. -
# The portcullis is believed to have been first introduced to the military
architecture of this country, in the instance of early Norman castles. The
nature of this machine is almost too well known for repetition; but it may be
observed that the herse, or portcullis, was a strong grating of timber, fenced
with iron, and made to slide up and down in a groove of solid stone work,
within the arch of the portal. The bottom was furnished with sharp iron
spikes, designed to strike into the ground, for the sake of greater firmness and
solidity, and also to break or destroy whatever should be under it, when it
was let fall. The groove in which it rested was always contrived so deep in
the stone work, that it could not be removed by assailants without pulling
down the whole wall—See Archeol. Vol. IV. p. 370.
# Machicolations “over gates, are small projections, supported by brackets,
having open intervals at the bottom, through which melted lead and stones
were thrown down on the heads of the assailants; and, likewise, large weights
fastened to ropes or chains, by which, after they had taken effect, they were
retracted by the besieged.” Grose, preface to the Antiq. of England and
Wales.—It must be added that machicolations were not always projecting
works, but sometimes consisted of rows of square holes in the vaulting of
portals,



S52 × . INTRODUCTION.
weights, or heated fluids, were precipitated on the heads of those
who endeavoured to force a passage. a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The walls of the keep were chiefly designed for protection,
through a massiveness of character which derided assault before
the use of artillery. Their few embrasures, or loops, for the dis-
charge of arrows, were calculated for the annoyance, rather than
the discomfiture of an enemy. The great theatre of active de-
§§ fence was situated on the top of the castle, where a platform was
§ generally constructed, with an embattled parapet; and, from this
elevated spot, the defendants discharged swarms of darts, or loads
of weighty stones, by means of various engines. . . .
The dungeon, or prison, of the castle, was a comfortless sub-
terranean cell, usually, but not uniformly constructed immediately
beneath the keep-tower. At Rochester we find it placed under
a smaller tower, which adjoins the keep; and in the castles of
Warkworth, Northumberland; and Spofford, Yorkshire; two
former seats of the noble family of Percy, the repulsive cell de-
signed for the incarceration of offenders, is situated beneath a
tower entirely detached from the main body of the structure, or
that inhabited by the baron and his family. º . .
Whilst mentioning the dungeons of ancient castles, (which
have by some persons been confounded with the whole keep) it
is desirable to remind the reader, that, although grants for cas-
tles to become state-prisons were usual in the early Norman ages,
we are not to understand that, in consequence of such a grant,
the whole castle became a prison. The fact appears to be, that,
by virtue of this permission from the crown, “the usual dungeon
of the castle was, by royal authority, appointed to be a public
and privileged prison at all times; whereas the dungeons of other
castles were permitted to be used as such only in time of war,
and it was unlawful at other times to confine any persons therein.
But the upper apartments of these keep towers, in which the
portals, used, as is stated above, for pouting down heated sand, melted lead.
and other destructive articles, 3
THE Anglo-n orm A NS, - 353
dungeons were, continued, in both cases, to be constantly used as
state apartments, for the residence of the lord of the mansion,
notwithstanding the prison underneath. And hence, perhaps,
arose the practice, in early times, of committing state prisoners
to the custody of different lords at pleasure; which custom was
continued even to the time of Elizabeth, when the origin of it
was forgotten.” -
The outworks, however formidable, being the weaker parts of
a castle, and those, from many causes, most subject to demolition,
they in few, if in any, instances retain to the present day the
precise features of their original construction. The great varie-
ties of form observable in the ground-plans of ancient castles,
will be obvious on an inspection of those pages of the “Beauties”
which treat of such structures. Natural circumstances, and the
excursions of caprice, often operated so largely on the architect's
design, that it is, indeed, impossible to present any single ex-
ample, as a satisfactory illustration of the mode used in the dis-
tribution of the outline and attendant works. -
The following remarks on this head may not be unacceptable.
It would appear that the Anglo-Saxons constantly affected the
circular form, in regard to exterior lines of defence, where such a
method was not denied by imperative natural circumstances; and
encompassed the keep with concentric walls. The Anglo-Nor-
mans were more variable, and introduced many bold novelties of
style in the disposal of their outworks.—The ſortified area attend-
ant on the keep of most castles, of a date not earlier than the ad-
vent of the Normans, may, however, in general terms, be stated
as consisting of two divisions, named the outer and inner ballia.
On the extremity of the works was a circumambient ditch,t
2 A uniformly
* Archeol. vol. IV. p. 403; and Munimenta Antiqua, Vol. III. p. 251.
* Ditch, moat, fosse, or vallum. These various terms are used to express a
hollow space on the outside of walls, or ramparts. Archaeol. Vol. XII, p.
146. When the ditch was dry, there were, sometimes, subterraneous pas-
sages, through which the cavalry could sally, Grose's Preface to Antiq, of
England and Wales. … -- - - - -
354 1 NTRODUCTION,
uniformly filled with water, when such a circumstance was attain-
able; but a ditch, or fosse, was still formed, even if it remained
The most prominent part of the architectural fortification was
ermed the Barbican, or Barbacan; which may be succinctly
described as a “ small tower, for the station of an advanced guard,
placed just before the outward gate of the castle-yard, or bal-
lium.” Mr. Grose, in the preface to his Antiquities of England
and Wales, quotes “diverse authors,” in regard to the meaning
of the word Barbican, and the use to which this part of a castle
was assigned; who “all agree that it was a watch-tower, for
the purpose of descrying an enemy at a greater distance.”+
But such an opinion appears liable to this objection:-the bar-
ican, as usually described, was a small tower, of much less alti-
tude than the keep; and, therefore, was not nearly so well cal-
culated for the discovery of an enemy approaching in the distance.
If we reject the probability of it being designed as a tower of ob-
servation, we can scarcely believe that it was intended as a seri-
ous addition to the strong defensible character of the fortress; for
it appears to have been of an inconsiderable size, and, as it was
often protruded beyond the ditch, must be more easy of assault
than the towers on the mural line protected by that wide and deep
vallum. Possibly it was, in most instances, rather an appendage
of honour to the castle; the spot for receiving stately announce-
ments, and returning auswers, by voice of herald. But, at the
same time, it, assuredly, acted as a protecting cover to the en-
trance; although, if its customary situation, and comparative
strength, be accurately described, it must have been of little avail
on the occurrence of a regular siege. . . .
The barbican, if placed beyond the outward ditch, was united
to the main parts of the fortress by a bridge of stone, in early
; :: * : Y. - - - - & ages;
r . • Archeol. Vol. vi. p. 308. “ . . . .
t Antiq. of England º ld Wales, 4to, edit, p. 9.



the Anglo-Normans. 355.
ages; and by a drawbridge afterwards." When the moat was
thus crossed, the outer ballium was entered through an embat-
tled gateway, usually flanked by two strong towers. The walls
encompassing the ballia were embattled, crenellated, or garratted
(each of which terms has the same signification in military archi"
tecture) and were provided, on the inner side, with a footway
(terre pleiney for defendants, ascended by flights of steps at con-
venient distances. The walls were, likewise, commonly strength-
ened by towers, well placed for a command of the intervening lines
of rampart. w .
In such terms may be described the general character of astrong
hold, used as a dignified residence. Many varieties are notice .
in different volumes of the Beauties of England and Wales, and . .
such as are important, in distinguishing between the modes of
different eras, are cited in appropriate sections of this introduc-
The various machines used in the attack and defence of these
massy fortresses, are enumerated and described in Grose's Mili-
tary Antiquities, and in the preface to the same author's Anti-
quities of England and Wales. The researches of that writer
were so peculiarly directed to the ancient military history of Bri-
tain, that the following extract, from different parts of his latter
work, briefly exhibiting the modes of conducting a siege, before
the invention of artillery, must necessarily be considered as a de
sirable appendage to the above descriptive and explanatory re-
“The method of attack and defence of fortified places, prac-
tised by our ancestors before, and even some time after, the in-
vention of gunpowder, was much after the manner of the Romans;
* It appears to be unquestionable that the moats round our oldest castles
were crossed by bridges of stone, such occur in the very ancient castle of
Norwich; and may be noticed, among other instances, at Castle Rising,
Norfolk, (Beauties for Norfolk, p. 301–2) a building either of Anglo-Saxon,
* early Anglo-Norman original. Drawbridges were a refinement in fortifica-
tion, which only tardily grew into use.






356 introduction.
most of the same machines being mad
º e use of, thougli some of
them under different names. . . . . . . .
“ They had their engines for throwing stones and darts, of
different weights and sizes; the greater answering to our batter-
ing cannon and mortars; the smaller to our field-pieces. These
were distinguished by the appellations of balista; catapulta; es-
pringals; terbuchets; mangonas; mangonels; bricolles; the
petrary; the matafunda ; and the warwolf.
“ For approaching the walls, they had their moveable towers,
by which the besiegers were not only covered, but their height,
commanding the ramparts, enabled them to see the garrison, who
were otherwise hid by the parapet. For passing the ditch, they
had the catus, and sow, machines answering to the pluteus, and
vinea, or testudo and musculus, of the Romans: the ram was
sometimes, but not commonly, used. . . §
“ Mines, too, were frequently practised. These were either
subterraneous passages into some unfrequented part of the for-
tress; or else made with an intent, as at present, to throw down
the wall. Countermines were also in use; and the engineers of
those days were not unacquainted with artificial fireworks.
“The progressive steps taken in attacking fortified places,
and the methods opposed thereto, as anciently practised, were,
allowing for the difference of engines, Inuch the same as at pre-
sent. In small towns, or castles, the assailants threw up IMO
. works; but, having hurdles, or large shields, called pavais,
borne before them, advanced to the counterscarp; here, some
with arrows, slings, and cross bows, attempted to drive the be-
sieged from the ramparts; and others brought fascines to form a
passage over the ditch, if wet, and scaling-ladders to mount the
walls. The besieged, on their part, attempted to keep the enemy
at a distance, by a superior discharge of their missive weapons;
to burn the fascines brought to fill up the ditch; or to break, or
overturn, the scaling-ladders. I larger places, or strong CaS-
- tles, lines of circumvallation and contravallation were construct-
- ed; the former to prevent any attack or succour from without;
3. w .” and
T H E ANG Lo-N OR MAN S. : 857
and the latter to secure them from the sallies of the besieged.
In both these, small wooden towers were often erected, at proper
distances, called bristegia, or rather tristegia, from their having
three floors, or stages.
“When the garrison of the place was numerous, and a vigor.
ous resistance expected, they often formed a blockade, by en-
closing it with lines, strengthened by large forts, and sometimes
even a kind of town. Of the first, there is an instance in the
reign of Stephen; when that king, being unable to take by force
the strong eastle of Wallingford, surrounded it with a line,
strengthened by forts, the principal of which he called the castle
of Craumer; he also cut off the passage of the garrison over the
Thames, by erecting a strong fort at the head of the bridge. It
was, however, held by Brier Fitz Comte, till relieved by Henry
the Second, then Duke of Normandy; who, on notice of the
danger of this important place, set out from France, encamped
before it, and, encompassing these works with a line of circum-
vallation, to prevent Stephen from succouring them, besieged the
besiegers. This brought on the conference and peace between
those two princes. The latter is mentioned by Froissart, as prac-
tised by King Edward the Third, at the siege of Calais; where,
not content with blocking it up by sea, and making lines on the
Downs, and at the bridge of Nieulay, he also built a kind of
city of timber about the place besieged; where, says that author,
there were palaces and houses, laid out in regular streets: it had
its markets on Wednesdays and Fridays, merceries, shambles,
and cloth-warehouses, and all sorts of necessaries, which were.
brought from England and Flanders: in fine, every convenience
was there to be had for money.
“ It seems doubtful whether any thing like approaches were
carried on. It is more probable, that the besiegers took the op-
portunity of the night to bring their engines and machines as near
the walls as possible: batteries were then formed, and covered
with an epaulement. * .
“The mangonels and petraries began uow to batter the walls,
2 A 3 r and
358 INTRODUCTION.
and the working parties to make the passage into the ditch, car-
rying hurdles and fascines, which, with their bucklers, served
to shield them in their approach. They were supported by a
number of archers, covered with large targets, arrow-proof, held
by men particularly appointed for that service. These archers,
by, shooting into the crenelles, and other openings, scoured the
Marapet, and protected the workmen in their retreat for fresh
fascines. . . r
º “An easy descent being formed into the ditch, the cattus, or
sow, was pushed forwards, where the men, under cover, filled up
and levelled a passage for the moveable tower; which being thrust
close to the walls, the archers, on the different stages, kept a
constant discharge of darts, arrows, and stones; the miners be-
gan to sap the wall, or it was battered with the ram. When the
mine was finished, the props were set on fire: during the confu-
sion occasioned by the falling of the part mined, which was com-
monly a tower, the assault was given, and the breach stormed.
if there were more works, these operations were repeated. Where
no moveable tower was used, both mines were made, and the ram
worked under the cattus and sow.
“On the other hand, the besieged opposed, for their defence,
flights of darts, and large stones, shot from their en gines; with
arrows and quarrels from their cross bows; sallies, wherein they
attempted to burn or demolish the machines of their enemies; and
mines under their moveable towers, in order to overthrow them.
Upon the cattus and sow they threw monstrous weights, to break,
“ Upon the front attacked, they placed sacks, filled with wool,
which were loosely suspended from the wall; and, to break the
stroke of the ram, besides this, divers other contrivances were
invented; such as nippers, worked by a crane, for seizing it;
and, sometimes, they let fall upon it a huge beam, fastened with
chains to two strong levers.” … & : .
* Preſa 3 to Grose's Antiq. of England and Wales.




THE ANG I, O-N OR MAN S.
| Such are the most important particulars collected by Mr. Grose,
in regard to the modes of attack and defence practised while the
ancient ſortresses of this island constituted the great strength, and
dependance, of its factious barons. The length of time required
for such tedious operations on the part of the besiegers, when the
services of the military were limited in duration, was a circum-
stance highly favourable to the defensive party; and, when we
remember the massy character of the walls, and the elevated
situation of the keep, in inany of the ancient castles, we may
readily believe that they were nearly impregnable to open assault,
conducted in such methods. In respect to the stronger castles,
the contending parties, indeed, appear to have chiefly depended,
for a result, on the capability of procuring sustenance. A want
of aliment for the garrison, more frequently led to the surrender
of a distinguished ancient fortress, than the havoc produced by
the engines of its assailants, - - :. . . . . . .
ON THE Ecclesi Astical Architecture of THE ANGLo-
Normans.”—The Anglo-Norman style in ecclesiastical archi-
- 2 A 4 tecture
* The term of Awolo-Norman is presumed, in this “Introduction,” to
be applicable to all buildings erected in the reigns of William the First and
Second, Henry the First, Stephen, and Henry the Second; or from the year
1966, to 1189. ^
In ascribing to the Anglo-Norman style, the above date of prevalence, I
have adopted the plan suggested by “A sketch of a Nomenclature of Ancient
Architecture,” presented in the first volume of Mr. Brittoli's Architectural
Antiquities. Much difference of opinion, however, prevails as to the period
at which this style of architecture may be said to have ceased, as a fashion.
Mr. Bentham (Hist, of Ely Cathedral, p. 34) seems inclined to restrict it to
narrower limits; but “thinks we may venture to say,” that the circular mode
“was universally used by the Anglo-Normans to the end of King Henry the
First's reign,” Dr. Milner (letter to the editor of Taylor's Gothic Essays,
P. 13.) considers the pointed style “ to have properly begun in the reign of
our first Plantagenet,” Henry the Second. Mr. Millers, on the sontrary
(Description
. º “ . . * * * - . •. *:::

360 ºr NTRoduction.
tecture is, necessarily, a subject of curious enquiry and high in-
terest. Notwithstanding the vicissitudes of many centuries; the
rapine of those who followed in the wake of reformation; and the
changes effected by fashion, or, rather, the improvements arising
from a new creation in architectural manner, at once more scien-
tific, captivating, and august; numerous magnificent vestiges of
this commanding style are still remaining, in nearly every divi-
sion of England, and in several parts of Wales. -
In those splendid examples, on which the pride and talent o
the conquerors lavished their resources—the cathedral edifices of
this country—the relics of Anglo-Norman architecture are min-
gled with the light, and more beautiful, innovations of the pointed
mode. `s … w . . .
The monastic buildings of the Anglo-Normans (subject, in at
least an equal degree, to the same intermixture) have nearly dis-
appeared, even as sinking antiquities. Bereſt of their endow-
ments by the reforming spirit of Henry the Eighth, the build-
ings connected with religious foundations, which that arbitrary
prince bestowed on greedy courtiers, as rewards for their acqui-
escence in his measures, or sold, for the gratification of his own
avarice, were quickly despoiled of such constituent parts as were
necessary to their preservation. Many of these desecrated struc-
tures were disjointed, for the value of their materials; parts of
- . SOIſle
(Description of Ely Cathedral, p. 17) extends the prevalence of Anglo-Nor-
II]all architecture to the end of Richard the First's reign.
It will be obvious that no line of demarkation can be drawn with so nice a
hand, as to exclude the last instance of the circular style, and embrace the
earliest display of pointed architecture. Arches of the peaked, or pointed,
character were, assuredly, blended with those of the more ancient form in
numerous structures, long before the light and pointed mode obtained pre-
a inant favour, and was methodised into any resemblance of an architectu-
ral order. But it would appear that the heavy, circular, style of the Saxons
and Normans was disused in buildings of leading importance, and discarded
as a national fashion, sufficiently near the time noticed above, for any pur-
pose connected with general enquiry. * as
The ANG Lo-Nor MANs.
some few were altered, and converted into dwellings for gentry
subservient to the will of the monarch; and others, tenantless
and friendless, were left to moulder quietly into dissolution; their
materials affording help to the agricultural builder, or to the
mender of the roads, as occasion might demand.
In some instances, however, these deserted remains have proved
too massive for fortuitous efforts at demolition; or have escaped,
through accidental forbearance, arising, perhaps, from a linger-
ing feeling of ancient piety at first, and (although rarely) from
antiquarian reverence afterwards. Such fragments unite with the
crumbling masses of dismantled castles, in adorning this coun-
try, above all others, with ruinous but impressive memorials of
the manners of past ages. Pictorial in the irregular beauty of
their decay, they at once elevate the imagination and instruct the
understanding. Enriched with these half-extinct works of art,
the landscape imparts a lesson of pensive morality; and the build-
ingsraised by superstition, teach, in the august spectacle of their
progressive dissolution, a sound practical knowledge of the in-
stability of all forms, modes, and institutions, which depend Oil
human art or power.
Parochial churches, free from the dangerous honour of a colle-
giate endowment, were happily beyond the reach, or beneath
the aim, of these reformists; and they present, in some instances,
unaltered and uninjured specimens of the Anglo-Norman style;
though, in humble and obscure buildings, the date of erection
can rarely be ascertained with satisfactory precision. sº
It has been already stated, on the authority of William of
Malmsbury,” (and that of other ancient historians might be cited
to the same effect) that the Normans, on gaining possession of .
the sovereignty of this kingdom, ostentatiously displayed their
pious zeal by erecting numerous churches and monasteries, not
only in cities and populous towns, but in recluse villages. The
same writer. adds that the custom of 3. expressing religious fervour 3:
by

1 NTRODUCTION.
by founding a church or monastic house, prevailed in so eminent
a degree, “that a rich man would have imagined he had lived in
vain, if he had not left such an illustrious monument of his piety
and munificence,”
In the pride of their superiority over the Saxons of England,
as to magnificent notions, and a more careſul cultivation of the
arts, (results, probably, of happier political circumstances) the
Normans not only enriched this island with numerous structures
of a new foundation, but supplanted with fresh edifices many ec-
clesiastical buildings of their predecessors, which had little need
of substitution, as far as regarded intrinsic promise of durability.
Influenced by this pride, in conjunction with their ardent zeal of
piety, they affixed the marks of their massy vast architecture, to
nearly every principal religious foundation throughout the con-
quered kingdom. “It is observable,” says Mr. Bentham, “that
: . . . . . . .x all
* The zeal with which the affluent contributed towards the erection of ec-
•lesiastical buildings, and the means used for inciting a spirit of pious emu-
lation, are curiously detailed in the history of Croyland Abbey, Lincolnshire.
From this history it appears that Joffred, Abbot of Croyland, under whose
auspices the monastery was rebuilt, in the twelfth century, obtained of the
Archbishops of Canterbury and York, remission of a third part of all pen-
ances for irregularity of conduct, in favour of those who contributed to that
pious undertaking. The most eloquent of his monks were dispatched, to re-
quest assistance in foreign countries, as well as in every part of Britain that
promised a probability of succour; and large contributions were raised by
means of those persuasive emissaries. But the day appointed for the cere-
mony of laying the first stone, afforded the great harvest of Benefaction,
This propitious day was rendered holy in popular esteem, as the festival of
the saintly virgins Pepetua and Felicitas. Multitudes of all ranks assembled;
for devotion, pageantry, and feasting were blended in the ceremonials.
When mass was ended, the abbot laid the first stone at the east end; and a
stone towards the building was afterwards deposited by every affluent friend,
together with a sum of money; a grant of land, tithes, or church-patronage;
or a promise of materials towards the completion of the structure. The abbot
then spread his blessing over the heads of the contributors, and invited the
whole to a sumptuous repast. It is said that not less than five thousand per-
sons were present at these solemnities. §



THE ANGLO-NOR MANs. s63
all our cathedral, and most of the abbey churches, were either
wholly rebuilt, or greatly improved, within less than a century
after the conquest; and all of them by Normans, introduced into
this kingdom; as will evidently appear on examining the his-
tory of their several foundations.” Those cathedrals, and other
churches, which retain to the present day conspicuous marks of
Norman design and execution, will be enumerated in future
pages. . .
Although there is no room for doubt as to the mode of archi-
lecture in which the majority of these ecclesiastical buildings
were erected, it has been supposed that there was cause for
questioning whether it accorded, even in many important charac-
teristics, with the early manner of the Anglo-Saxons. But it is
- * - allowed
* The following note by Mr. Bentham, although not appended, in his
work, to the above passage, affords some hints of information which may be
useful in the present section of our enquiries: “ The Saxon way of building
was, as is observed by Sir Christopher Wren, very strong. There were many
cathedral and conventual churches of that kind, at the time of the conquest,
which might, therefore, probably have continued to this day, had they not
been pulled down, or suffered to run to ruin by neglect; one principal cause
of which was the removal of the bishops' sees (some of which had been placed
in villages, or small towns) to cities and more populous places, by the coun-
cil of London, A. D. 1078. This occasioned the old Saxon cathedrals in the
deserted sees to be neglected, andfall to decay.” (History of Ely cathedral,
p. 31.)—Independent of the above cause, we may readily admit that the sub-
stitution of Norman structures for those erected by the Saxons, did notabsolute-
ly imply the unsuitable meanness of such discarded buildings, when we remem-
ber that the more extensive and magnificent piles raised by the Normans were
subsequently destroyed, or altered, in their turn, to give place to a new
mode of architecture. Contributions towards such erections, and an observ-
ance of their procedure, assisted in keeping vivid the religious spirit of the
laity. New buildings were certainly honourable to all ecclesiasticsconcerned,
and, perhaps, profitable to some. An augmentation of structure was gene.
rally attended by an extension of funds, for the support of sacerdotal dignity.
It is said that parts of cathedrals, upon the continent, have been designedly
left unfinished, with a view of perpetuating a fiveliness of attention to the
interests of the church, • * : . . . . . . . . . -"" -
• : %


364 Introduction.
allowed that the same method of building was practised in this
island, even before the advent of the Normans, it being intro-
duced by King Edward the Confessor, who passed much time in
Normandy, and was greatly attached to the manners of that
country. . 3.
William of Malmsbury, who wrote in the 12th century, and
finishes his historical work with the reign of Stephen, describes
Edward the Confessor, as having introduced, in the instance of
the abbey church of Westminster, “a new style of building;” and
Matthew Paris, who died in the year 1259, repeats this assertion.
Both authorities add, that the style then exhibited was adopted
by many subsequent builders of churches, and the former men-
tions it as the manner prevailing in his own time. 3%
This intelligence has caused some perplexity to the investi-
gators of our ancient architecture. From a description of the ab-
bey church of Westminster, as erected in the reign of Edward
the Confessor, which is said to be copied from an ancient manu-
script, it would appear that the structure possessed no peculiarity
of ground-plan or elevation.” Indeed the testimony of such a
manuscript is scarcely necessary, since we have abundant in-
stances of the mode of ecclesiastical architecture prevailing in
the early part of the 12th century, with which the building in
question is expressly said to have assimilated by one of the au-
thorities noticed above. . . . .
The ecclesiastical architecture then in fashion, was of the heavy
circular kind, deviating in few particulars from that which we are
accustomed to consider as the style that prevailed in this country
previous to the reign of Edward the Confessor.
Many intelligent writers concur in an endeavour to account for
the ambiguous intimation contained in William of Malmsbury
and Matthew Paris, by supposing that the novelty introduced to
-- the church-architecture of this country, by Edward the Confes-
. . . . . . S0ſ,
* The original Latin, together with a translation, is given in Hawkins's
History of the Origin of Gothic Architecture, p. 108-9.
THE ANGLO-NORMAN S.
sor, consisted only in an increase of dimensions, and consequent
stateliness of character. However insufficient such a method of
explanation may be deemed by the rigid enquirer, it is certainly
difficult to elicit a solution more satisfactory.
It is said by Mr. Hawkins, that “ an augmentation of dimen-
sions can, by no mode of reasoning whatever, be termed a new
style of architecture, or even a new mode of composition or build-
ing; and no rational man would ever think of affirming, that the
churches of St. Peter, at Rome, and St. Paul, at London, were
of different styles, because they were not of the same size.”
But some license of phraseology must be allowed to persons, pro-
bably intent on a mode of expression complimentary to the exist-
ing dynasty. An enlargement of dimensions, and attendant in-
crease of architectural display, in the sacred structures of every
populous neighbourhood, were manifest throughout the kingdom,
in the time of William of Malmsbury; and the accession of al-
most universal dignity of proportions, might, perhaps, warraut
the term of novelty, even though the ground-plan and the orna.
mental arrangement retained the same character, or were subject
to only few alterations. 3.3 ºf .
Mr. Millers, a pleasing writer on the propitious subject of Ely
cathedral, presents the following remarks and objection:—“ En-
larged dimension is the only criterion which has been established,
between the Saxon and Norman styles. It has been thought too
vague, and certainly is so ; for it is perceptible only in large edi-
fices, such as cathedral and conventual churches, which have
transepts, side aisles, and arches, tier above tier. But there are
many parish churches, built in the Norman age, which, from the
simplicity of their form, and the smallness of their dimensions,
have been taken for Saxon buildings; and which having none of
the grander Norman features, it is extremely difficult to discri.
minate.”—Such small parochial churches, in recluse situations,
act, however, merely as exceptions to a positive rule; and Mr.
§ {... º. . . . º ſº, : . . . . . * ! Millers
• History of the origin of Gothic Architecture, p. 113.

366. 1NTRODUCTION,
Millers himself coinci
ing, in the same page, that “the Normans were fond of stateli-
ness and magnificence, and though they retained the other eha-
racteristics of the Saxon style, by this amplification of dimen-
sions, they made such a striking change as might justly be en-
titled to the denomination which it received at its first introduc-
tion among our Saxon ancestors, of “a new kind of architec-
A writer in the Archaeologia,t “submits (with great deference
to the Society of Antiquaries,) whether the novum genus dedi-
ficandi of William of Malmesbury, applied to the architecture
of the Conqueror's reign, does not imply something more than
extent and magnificence; and whether, to complete the idea of a
new style, we ought not to take in the pointed arch and Gothic
ornaments P’’ The answer is obvious, as it is contained in every
building known to have been erected in the time of the Con-
queror. : -
It will be recollected that the Normans of Duke William's
time, although confessedly one of the most warlike, enterprising,
and polite nations, then existing in Europe, did not evince any
peculiar spirit of magnificence in thus enlarging the size of sa-
cred structures. The practice of such an augmentation was ge-
neral upon the continent, in the eleventh century; and it is pro-
bable that the inhabitants of Britain were precluded from parti-
cipating in the improvement, solely by the distracted state of
their country, until a temporary calm was afforded by the reign of
Edward the Confessor.:
des with the prevailing opinion, by observ-
In
• Description of the cathedral church of Ely, &c. by G. Millers, M.A. p. 26.
+ Mr. Ledwich, Archaeol. Vol. VIII. p. 193.
t The tenth century had proved generally unfavourable to the progress of
the arts. It is said that ecclesiastical architecture experienced, on the conti-
ment, a signal interruption during that period, in consequence of a strange
delusion which subdued the understanding of the great mass of the people.-
“It was believed,” [writes Mr. Whittington, in his Histerical Survey, “that



the ANG LO-N OR MAN S.
In our examination of the ecclesiastical architecture of the
Anglo-Saxons, we have seen that the style prevalent throughout
all Europe was nearly similar in the same ages; and would
pear to have been universally copied [with progressive variations,
incidental to national temper, or advancement in art] from the
architectural fashion observable in the churches of Rome, the
emporium of all kinds of intelligence in those dark centuries.
The heterogeneous character of this debased mode, in which the
mason worked up, in one building, the discordant fragments of
diverse noble structures, is likewise noticed in that preceding
section. . . tº
Imitating from the same source, it appears that the Normans,
previous to their triumphant migration into Britain, had no ob-
vious dissimilarity in architectural manner from the Anglo-
Saxons, or from any other coeval Christian nation. It would
be very gratifying to ascertain, from positive data, any peculi-
arities,
# * : *
the thousand years mentioned in the Apocalypse, would be completed at the
close of the tenth century, and that the end of the world would happen at
that time. So strong and so general was this impression, that scarcely a single.
building of note was undertaken during this period; and the churches already.
erected, were suffered to fall into decay.”
We can scarcely suppose that such a fantastical persuasion was alone suffi.
cient to produce a total disregard of the arts through several successive ages;
but the neglect of church architecture in those years is unquestionable. Ac-
quiring vigour from temporary interruption and apathy, the spirit of architectu-
ralimprovement certainly burst forth, with very memorable splendour, shortly,
after the expiration of the year so much dreaded as that of mundane dissolu-
tion—The information on this head afforded by a contemporary Benedictine
monk, is thus agreeably conveyed by the author quoted above.—“The Chris-
tians at the beginning of the eleventh century, relieved from their mistaken
apprehensions, hastened to rebuild and repair their ecclesiastical structures:
the various cities and provinces, especially of France, vied with each other,
on this occasion, in a display of enthusiastic devotion. On all sides new and
more stately edifices of religion arose; and the world, according to the ex-
pression of a contemporary writer, seeming to cast off its ancient appearance,
every where put on a white mantle of churches.” Whittington's Historical
Survey, &c. p. 46, Glaber Rodulphi Hist, lib, iii. c. 4.









368 1NTRO DUCTION,
liarities, however minute, in buildings erected by the Normans
in their own country before their invasion of this island. The
most laborious writer produced by this nation, on the architectural.
antiquities of Normandy, is Dr. Ducarel; and his work, in the
absence of one more completely satisfactory, has met with much.
antiquarian notice. … - a . . . . . .
It is stated by Dr. Ducarel, that the circular arch, with a cor-
respondent massiveness of general character, prevails throughout
the most ancient ecclesiastical buildings of Normandy. The cha-
pel of St. Thomas l'Abbatu he supposes to be the oldest struc-
ture which he inspected; concerning the date of which no records
are preserved. This chapel furnishes a solitary instance [as
far as regards Dr. Ducarel's observations] of a richly ornamented
style of sacred architecture in Normandy. He describes the
pillars of the interior as differing much from all others which he
noticed in that country. The capitals are “ ornamented with the
figures of imaginary animals,” and display a studied diversity.
But the ornamented style conspicuous in this ancient building,
he believes to have been discarded before the period of the Nor-
man conquest of England. A short time previous to that event,
“ the Normans seem to have entirely disused what, till then, they
had considered as ornaments, and which were still retained by the
Saxons. From thenceſorward they used the round-arch, with
mouldings divested of all ornaments whatsoever, except occa-
sionally a zig-zag, which they sometimes introduced.”
The abbey of St. Stephen, at Caen, was founded by William
the Conqueror; and that of the Holy Trinity, in the same city,
by his Queen, Matilda. The churches appertaining to these
foundations are adduced by Dr. Ducarel, and by subsequent au-
thors, as the most strongly-marked and important examples of
the architectural fashion of Normandy, in the latter years of the
eleventh century. w 2.
Both these buildings are of noble dimensions, “ and sufficiently
shew,
* Anglo-Norman Antiquities, p. 102.
ANG Lo-N or MAN ANTIQUITIES.
shew, by their good proportion, that the architect was a perfect
master in his profession. All the arches of these two churches,
as well those which form the doors and windows, as those which
divide the nave from the aisles, are round, excepting only the
arches of the inside of the choir of the church of St. Stephen,
which having been greatly damaged by the Calvinists in 1562,
has since been repaired, and the arches thereof made pointed,
according to the manner of the time in which it was repaired.
The plain round arch may, therefore, be deemed the fashion of
the Conqueror's age, and agreeable to the simplicity then used.
It is further observable, that neither of the two abbey-churches
of St. Stephen and the Trinity have any kind of ornaments about
them.”* . .
The church of St. Stephen, above-mentioned, was commenced
under the direction of Lanfranc, afterwards Archbishop of Can-
terbury. “The body of this church,” says Dr. Ducarel, “is a
plain stone edifice, entirely free from ornaments of any sort, either
within or without. It is built in the form of a cross; and the in-
side consists of a nave and two side aisles, separated by two rows
of pillars, surmounted with semicircular arches. The tops of all
the windows, and doors, of the church, are, likewise of the same
form. The middle part of the inside of the transept very much
resembles the work of the cross part of the abbey-church of St. .
Alban's, in Hertfordshire, having the same kind of little arched
work towards the top.”t . . . . . . . . . .
The abbey of the Holy Trinity “ was ſounded for Benedictine
nuns, by the Duchess Matilda, about the same time that Duke
William began to erect that of St. Stephen. In the year 1082,
she endowed it with so much munificence, that William de Poi- .
tiers makes no scruple of saying that she enriched the church . .
much more than any King, or Emperor, had ever done in the pre- .
ceding times. The church of this abbey is a plain neat building,
* Anglo-Norman Antiquities, p. 102–10s.
, , t Ibid. p. 51. º. . . . . . . "



370 I NTRO DUCTION.
both within and without, and entirely free from Gothic orna-
ments.”* & :
Mr. Whittington, writing concerning the architecture practised
by the Normans on the continent, observes that the “Saxon
churches of England were inferior in elevation, massiveness, and
magnitude, to those of the Normans, and the Norman mode dif-
fered considerably from that which was adopted in the neigh-
bourhood of Paris, and further to the south. The Norman
churches were in some instances larger, but exhibited a greater
rudeness of design and execution. The columns, in particular,
were without symmetry, and shewed but little skill in the art of
sculpture, while those of the French artists, whose taste had
been improved by the remains of Roman architecture, frequently
imitated with success the Corinthian capital, and sometimes the
elassical proportions. Both styles are wholly deficient in cor-
rectness of taste; but the barbarous massiveness of a Norman
structure has a more decided air of originality, and its rudeness,
when on a large scale, serves greatly to enhance the sublimity of
its effect.”f . . -
The above descriptions of churches erected in their own coun-
try by the Normans, however deficient in minuteness of detail,
will be found useful in a critical examination of Anglo-Norman
buildings, and particularly as regards those structures which were
raised shortly after the Conquest.
In discussing this subject, I first present the most important
remarks of judicious writers illustrative of the general character
of Anglo-Norman architecture, and shall afterwards notice their
endeavours towards an appropriation of distinct varieties in this
mode to respective eras. . .
In regard to general character, it may be mentioned, as a
succinct manual of remembrance, that the style in architecture
& which
* Anglo-Norman Antiquities, p. 62–63. In the same work are given
engravings of the west front of the church of St. Stephen, and of the west
front and the interior of the church of the Holy Trinity. , , , , , , ,
f Historical Survey, &c, p. 55–56.
A N Glo-Nor MAN ANT1 guities. $71.
which is best designated by the term of Anglo-Norman, is marked
by the uniform prevalence of the semicircular arch; by massy
columns, standing on a strong plinth, or [according to Bentham
and Warton,] having “a kind of regular base and capital,” which
are usually square, the latter being in many instances left quite
plain, but, in others, ornamented with foliage, or various repre-
sentations of natural subjects; by the massive contours of the
mouldings; and by walls of great thickness, without any very
prominent buttresses. .
It has been already suggested that one distinguishing mark of
the Anglo-Norman churches, when compared with those described
as having existed in the island previous to the Conquest, con-
sists in the magnitude and grandeur of their dimensions. Al-
though some of the principal churches raised during the Saxon
sway over this country, were far from being of a humble and con-
fined character, it is unquestionable that the Norman rebuilders
enlarged on the plan of these structures, in attention to that spi-
rit which had prevailed so generally on the continent in the 11th
century. In numerous cathedrals, which display an evidence of
Norman design, we have ocular proofs of the grandeur of their
architectural views. The vestiges of several conventual churches
[once secondary in magnificence only to those cathedrals] afford
the same conviction, even in their ruins. * , .
2 B 2 In
* The augmentation of dimensions; the form; and the usual procedure in
building, the churches of this era, are thus noticed by Mr. Bentham –" The
works of the Normans were large, sumptuous, and magnificent; of great length
and breadth, and carried up to a proportionable height, with two and some-
times three ranges of pillars one over another, of different dimensions, con-
nected together by various arches [all of them circularl; forming thereby a
lower and upper portico, and over them a gallery; and on the outside three
tiers of windows. In the centre was a lofty strong tower, and sometimes On 6
or two more added at the west end, the front of which generally extended
beyond the side aisles of the nave, or body, of the church. º
“The observation made on rebuilding St. Paul's, in King William Rufus's
time, after the fire of London, in 1086, by Mauritius, Bishop of that see, viz.
# . & . . * That
372 1NT Ro Duction.
#
In every proportion of component feature, the style of the An-
glo-Normans was consonant to their augmentation of ground-
plan. Their principal buildings do not present a magnitudinous
assemblage of small parts, but a ponderous vast whole, from
which all ideas of littleness are excluded in every particular.—
However rude in design or execution may be deemed these eccle-
siastical structures, they assuredly possess a sublimity of effect,
which is rarely equalled in buildings more skilfully planned, and
of a more beautiful character. . . * * * x -
This sublimity was heightened, in many churches of the Anglo-
Normans, by a twilight gloom, which would appear to have been
studiously cultivated. Their windows, few and narrow, were ill-
calculated to illuminate the edifice sufficiently for the purposes of
the officiating priests. . It is, therefore, probable that the mys-
terious sanctity of ancient ceremonials was rendered additionally
impressive, in such churches, by the use of lighted tapers, even
in the performance of mid-day service.*
The
‘That the plan was so extensive, and the design so great, that most people
who lived at that time censured it as a rash undertaking, and judged that it
never would be accomplished;" is in some measure applicable to most of the
churches begun by the Normans.--Their plan was, indeed, great and noble,
and they laid out their whole design at first; scarcely, we may imagine,
with a view of ever living to see it completed in their lifetime : their way,
therefore, was usually to begin at the east end, or the choir part; when that
was finished, and covered in, the church was often consecrated ; and the re-
mainder carried on as far as they were able, and then left to their successors
to be completed.” Bentham's Hist. of Ely cathedral, p. 33–4.
* Mr. Whitaker, in his “ Cathedral of Cornwall historically surveyed,”
observes, that, in most of our oldest churches, the “officiating divine must
generally have gone through the service by that shadowy sort of illumination,
which candles awfully diffuse over the evening service of our great churches
in winter;” and he supports such an opinion by the following historical col- .
lections.--" This practice began very early in the temples of Christianity;
an express mention being made by some canons, [which from their spirit, or
from their age, or from both, were thought worthy to be denominated apos.
telical, and are certainly some of the most ancient among Christians] of ‘the
oil
Anglo-Nor MAN ANT1 guities. 373.
The arches of an ancient edifice usually form the primary sub-
jects of curious investigation. Those constructed by the Anglo-
Normans, on the interior of a building, are chiefly characterised
by plainness and simplicity; relying for effect, as it would ap-
pear, on the comparative magnitude of their proportions. But
this is far from being of uniform application. Ornament is be-
stowed on many with a liberal hand; and the arches of entrance
to their ecclesiastical buildings were, in the great majority of in-
stances, richly adorned with all the circumstances of embellish-
ment which ingenuity could then devise, or art reduce to prac-
tice.* &
2 B 3 The
oil for the lamp,' even in the service of the eucharist. We, accordingly, see
Conrad, the prior of Christchurch in Canterbury, as early as 1108-9, giving
to the cathedral a candlestick of wonderful greatness, composed of brass;
having three branches upon one side, with three upon the other, all issuing
from their proper stem in the middle; and so being capable of admitting
seven wax lights into it.’ This had only one range of receptacles for candles’
and was not suspended by a chain, but raised upon a pillar, and so had one
receptacle in the centre. But others had three ranges, like our present chan-
deliers, yet still raised upon a pillar, and still having one receptacle in the
centre. Thus, in the chapel at Glastonbury abbey, besides the Easter can-
dle, 1208 lbs, in weight, besides four other sorts of candles, a quarter of a
pound, half a pound, a whole pound, and three pounds each; there was a
candlestick of three ranges, the lowest holding ten candles, but all holding
twenty-five, each half a pound in weight; and on certain festivals ‘all the
ranges' were lighted, with ‘the middle candle at the top of them.” x Cathedral
Hist, of Cornwall, Vol. I. p. 176—177 ; and the authorities there quoted. .
" Amongst the most splendid Anglo-Norman arches of entrance, must be
noticed that at the west front of Rochester cathedral, constructed, as is be-
lieved, after the design of Bishop Gundulph. The numerous mouldings of
this fine arch are all “decorated with sculptures; the principal of them repre-
senting twisted branches, and curled leaves, with a variety of small animals,
and human heads, in rich open-work.” A more extended description is pre-
..ented in the Beauties for Kent, p. 659–640. The Norman doorways at
Glastonbury, Malmsbury, and Castle Acre priory, Norfolk, are also distin
guished and curious specimens. §
Mr. Millers [in his Description of the Cathedral Church of Ely, states it,
f & 85
374 1 NTRo Duction.
The columns in Anglo-Norman buildings are uniformly so
massive as to appear in themselves a load to the foundation, even
while they act as the supports of a superstructure. But, al-
though thus invariably of a ponderous character, they are greatly
dissimilar in form. Mr. Millers [enlarging, from various sources,
on the remarks of Mr. Bentham] describes them as “huge
massive piers,” consisting, “ sometimes, but seldom, of a simple
shaft, and that cylindrical, hexagonal, or octagonal ; and, in
general, spirally fluted, or adorned with lozenges, net-work, &c.
in alt, or bass, relief.” The same writer adds, “ that they are
most frequently of a compound form; the body of the pier being
sometimes of a rectilinear, sometimes of a curvilinear form, and,
on two or more sides of it, various portions of columns, or of flat
pillars applied to and worked up with it—sometimes four stout
round columns joined together, with or without angular parts
appearing between each two—or square, with a small round co-
lumn at each corner—in short, the variety of form very great,
and that in the same range—the capitals frequently plain—the
most usual ornament is a sort of volute—in some instances
flowers, leaves, shells, human heads, or animals — they can
scarcely be said to have a regular base, but stand on a strong
plinth, accommodated to the shape of the pier.”
- . w The
as the result of his observations, that the arches of the Normans were of “far
greater amplitude than those of the Saxons—with less minute ornament—but
frequently bounded by a single moulding—sometimes indeed by more—but
often none at all—sofft always plain.” r -
“In the second tier,” continues the same writer, while treating of Anglo-
Norman buildings, “there are sometimes two smaller equal arches under one
larger, with a column of moderate size [or even comparatively slender] be.
tween them. >. .* z º
“In the third tier, generally three together, the middle one higher and
broader than the others, and opened for a window; all the three occupying a
3. space equal to the span of a lower arch.” Description of Ely Cathedral, &c.
* Ibid.
ANGLo-Nor MAN ANT19 Ulties. 875
The above comprehensive remarks will be found useful in the
instance of local investigation; and some observations respecting
the workmanship, and the principle on which columns were con-
structed by Anglo-Norman architects, will be presented in pages
shortly ensuing. . ~
Although many Anglo-Norman churches display, in their more
conspicuous divisions, a considerable degree of ornament, the art
of sculpture rendered only rude tributes towards their embellish-
ment. No statues adorn the exterior of buildings erected at this
era.” These, with canopied niches, and attendant luxuriancies
of decoration, were reserved for a more splendid, if not more
august, style of architecture.—Pieces of sculpture in relief, are,
however, very frequent; and especially over doorways.--It will
be recollected that they consist of various subjects;—a supposed
personification of the divinity—a representation of the saviour,
the holy virgin, and numerous scriptural figures—allegorical de-
vices, allusive to sacred writ—whole figures of men and animals,
masques, chimerae, and many unintelligible creations of fancy.
The whole are badly executed; and, in some instances, the coarse-
.ness of the age is exhibited, and perpetuated, by a neglect of
decency in the representations. Carved faces occur on arches, or
as capitals of pilasters. .
... Mr. Bentham observes that escutcheons of arms, so common in
the ecclesiastical buildings of succeeding ages, “are hardly, if
ever, seen in these fabrics.”t -
... The roofs are concisely and well described, as being gene-
rally vaulted with stone; the groining strong and plain, without
tracery; “but the groins, sometimes, laced on one, or both,
sides, with a moulding.”f z
. 2 B 4 The
# * The bodies of two pillars, which assist in supporting the arch over the
west entrance at Rochester cathedral, are wrought into whole length statues,
supposed to be those of Henry the First and his Queen Matilda. But these
curious regal supporters can scarcely be said to act as an exception to the
fidelity of the above remark. .
Hist, of Ely Cathedral, p.35 Millers, p. 24.
376 l NT RODUCTION.
: The towers of Anglo-Norman structures are of low, or rather
(to use a homely, but expressive, term) of short and thick pro-
portions-square and massive;—and they retain these characteris-
tics even in the noblest instances of cathedral buildings. The in-
troduction of towers among the Anglo-Saxons has been already
noticed; and those first erected by the Normans, in England,
probably differed in few particulars, except that of augmented
magnitude. . §
Mr. Bentham remarks, that “the towers and turrets of churches
built by the Normans, in the first century after their coming,
were covered as platforms, with battlements, or plain parapet
walls; some of them, indeed, we now see finished with pinnacles
or spires; which were additions since the modern style of
pointed arches prevailed; for before we meet with none.”
It has been stated in a previous section that, even in several
Anglo-Saxon churches, towers were speedily raised for ornament
merely, although, at first, that part of a church was probably in-
tended solely for the reception of bells. A striking increase of
ornamental character was imparted, by the Normans, to the towers
of many churches. Some information concerning this improve-
ment is satisfactorily conveyed by Mr. Warton:-" The towers in
Saxon cathedrals,t were not, always, iniended for bells; they
were,” often, “calculated to produce the effect of the louvre, or
open lantern, in the inside; and, on this account, were origi-
nally continued open, almost to the covering. It is generally
supposed that the tower of Winchester cathedral, which is re-
markably thick and short, was left as the foundation for a pro-
jected spire; but this idea never entered into the plan of the
w architect.
* Hist of Ely Cathedral, p. 39–40.-Mr. Bentham adds that one of the
earliest spires of which we have any account “is that of old St. Paul's, finish-
ed in the year 1222.” This spire was of timber, covered with lead; “but,
not long after, they began to build them of stone, and to finish all their but-
tresses in the same manner.” . * : * : - :
t By this term Mr. Warton evidently means cathedrals erected by the
N. r.uans, in what he calls the Saron style. . . . . . & . . . . . ; . .
ANG Lo-No R MAN ANT1 QUIT, Es. 377.
architect. Nearly the whole inside of this tower was formerly.
seen from below; and, for that reason, its side arches, or win-
dows, of the first story at least, are artificially wrought and orna-
mented. With this sole effect in view, the builder saw no neces-
sity to carry it higher. Many other examples might be pointed
out. This gave the idea for the beautiful lanterns at Peterborough
The following observations of writers whose opinions have ob-
tained considerable attention, demand notice in this place, as
they afford some particulars, not devoid of interest, concerning
the ornaments and construction of Anglo-Norman edifices.
It has been already stated, in my remarks on the ecclesiastical
§ architecture
* Observations on the Fairy Queen of Spenser, Vol. II. p. 195.—In the
Cathedral History of Cornwall, Vol. II. p. 178–9, Mr. Whitaker affords
some remarks, in corroboration of the propriety of the above mode of ex-
plaining the “source and origin of lanterns in our cathedrals.” The architec-
tural character of that fine" open' and ornamented portion of a church-tower,
which has been, for many ages, denominated a lantern, is briefly explained
in the Beauties for Cambridgeshire, article Ely Cathedral. It may not be un-
desirable to observe, in this page, that lanterns of open stone work, erected on
loſty church towers, of a more recent date than the Anglo-Norman era, are
supposed by some writers, to have been intended to hold lights, in aid of
the traveller. In Mr. Britton's Architectural Antiquities (Vol. IV. p. 118–
119) are the following remarks concerning this part of the steeple of Boston
church, Lincolnshire. “The lantern, I have no doubt, was intended to be
lighted at night, for a sea mark. The church of All Saints, at York, has a
lantern very much resembling this of Boston ; and tradition tells us that
antiently a large lamp hung in it, which was lighted in the night time, as a
mark for travellers to aim at, in their passage, over the immense forest of
Galtres, to this city. There is still the hook of the pulley on which the lamp
hung in the steeple.’ Drake's York, p. 292. And Stow tells us, that the
steeple of Bow church, in Cheapside, finished about 1516, had five lan-
terns; ‘to wit, one at each corner, and one on the top, in the middle upon
the arches.' . It seemeth that the lanthorns on the top of this steeple were
meant to have been glazed, and lights in them to have been placed nightly
in the winter; whereby travellers to the city might have the better sight
thereof, and not miss their way.” Survey, p. 542, .

378 -> INTRODUCTION.
architecture of the Anglo-Saxons,” that, in their arches and
piers, the Normans are believed by Mr. Wilkins to have differed
from the Romans still more widely than their Saxon precursors.
In the extract there presented, this popular writer in the archaeo-
logia conjectures the height of the Saxon column to be from four
to six diameters, while that of the Norman, in the instances
which he produces, is only two diameters. It is, however, ap-
prehended that such an estimate respecting the height of the
columns, or piers, in Anglo-Norman buildings, will not admit of
general application.t
Proceeding in an examination of the architectural characteris-
tics of the Anglo-Normans, Mr. Wilkins observes that “the
semicircular and intersected arches, the zig-zag ornament, the
billet moulding, hatched-work, and various other species of orna-
ment were still continued; and, though architecture cannot be
said to have improved on the Saxon manner, either in lightness
or in execution; yet, in magnitude of design, the Normans far
exceeded their predecessors. The buttress of this style varies
extremely from the Gothic” (or pointed) “which succeeded it;
they are broad and flat on the surface, without ornament, unless
a torus on the angles, which is sometimes to be met with, may
be called such. The buttress, even in large buildings, seldom
projects more than seventeen or eighteen inches. -
“ The only mouldings used, both by the Saxon and Norman
architects, were the torus, the scotia or reversed torus, the ca-
vetto or hollow moulding, and a kind of chamfered fascia, which
latter was generally used for imposts or abacuses to their capitals.
These mouldings were combined, more or less, for the various
purposes of forming arches, imposts, cornices, bases, &c., The
cina recta, the cima reversa, the ovolo or quarter round, the
planiere,
• Vide Ante, p. 274.
* See some remarks on this subject, with a notice of a deviation from the
scale proposed by Mr. Wilkins, in the description, &c. of Ely Cathedral, by
George Millers, M.A. p. 27.
AN Glo-Nor MAN ANT1 QUIT. Es. 379.
planiere, and other regular Grecian mouldings, cornices, friezes,
&c. which compose the entablature, are never to be met with in
the Saxon or Norman fabrics. Yet their builders were more fond
of variety, for it may be frequently observed in a range of columns
there are as many different capitals.”
The few constituent forms of mouldings used by Anglo-Nor-
man architects, are scientifically mentioned in the above extract.
The varieties of ornamental combination are, however, very great.
Distinctive names are applied to many; but others have not re-
ceived an appellation, either from architectural or antiquarian
writers. . . . . . . . . . . . . ; º
We have seen, in a previous section, that Mr. King ventures
to make an extensive enumeration of ornamental mouldings, sup-
posed by himself to be peculiar to such buildings, in the circular,
massive, style, as were erected by the Anglo-Saxons.t. In such
a hardihood of designation the author of Munimenta Antiqua
stands, I believe, single and unsupported. His precursors and
followers in the investigation of our ancient architecture, appear
to admit, that most, iſ not all, the mouldings observable in those
rare and curious remains which many would fain believe to be of
Saxon construction (and which, perhaps, are so) may be found
in structures of an authentic Norman origin.
The reader has already been presented with a statement of the
principal decorated mouldings, which, in the opinion of Mr. Bent-
ham, may be found in remains of Anglo-Saxon architecture.
These, it will be recollected, are described under the names of
the chevron-work, or zig-zag; the embattled frette; the trian-
gular frette; and the nail head. The same are well-known to
be common in Anglo-Norman buildings; and, in conjunction with
those noticed in the following page, comprise the mouldings
ehiefly prevailing in churches erected under Norman patronage in
this country. : .
* Archaeol. vol. XII, p. 160. .
* Wide Ante, p. 278,
380 INTRODUCTION.
The Billeted moulding, which has many varieties. An idea
of its ordinary form may be obtained, by supposing that a cylinder
“should be cut into small pieces, of equal length, and these
stuck on, alternately, round the face of the arches; as in the
choir of Peterborough; at St. Cross; and round the windows of
the upper tier on the outside of the nave at Ely. This ornament
was often used” (as also were others common to the circular
style) “for a fascia, -band, or fillet, round the outside of build-
ings.” The Corbel tuble, “ consisting of a series of small
arches, without pillars, but with heads of men and animals,
serving instead of corbels, or brackets, to support them; which
they placed below the parapet, projecting over the upper, and
sometimes the middle, tier of windows.” The Hatched mould-
ing was used both on the faces of the arches, and for a fascia on
the outside. It appears “as if cut with the point of an ax, at
regular distances, and so left rough.” The Nebule may be de-
scribed as a projection terminating by an undulating line. Ex-
amples are frequent; one, sufficiently conspicuous, is named by
Mr. Bentham, as occurring “under the upper range of windows at
Peterborough.” - - - - . # -
Among the ornaments of Anglo-Norman buildings may be
noticed “ranges of arches, which occur where there was nothing
to support, and were intended to fill up void spaces, interior or
exterior, and relieve a uniformity that might prove unpleasing.”
These are very common on the west front, and on the inside
of north and south walls; and they “sometimes intersect each
other, and so produce those compartments which are believed by
several writers to have given the first hint of the pointed arch.”
Mr. Millers, (whose descriptive terms I have adopted in this
paragraph) observes that the mouldings most frequently used
by the Normans were the chevron work, or zig-zag; the em-
battled frette; the triangular frette; the nail-head; the billet;
the
- " Hist, of Ely Cathedral, p. 35.
Anglo-Norman Antiquities. 381
the cable; the hatched; the lozenge; the wavey; the pellet
moulding; and the nebule.* ,
In an ingenious essay on “The Antiquity, and the different
modes of, brick and stone buildings in England,” by the late
Mr. Essex, are presented many remarks on the Anglo-Norman
methods of constructing the walls, and other parts of large
buildings. An abridged statement of the principal of these ob-
servations, can scarcely fail of being acceptable.
In Norman churches, where large pillars are used, “the outer
facings are generally composed of squared stones, laid in regu-
lar courses, and the middle filled with cement.f Such were the
pillars in the old cathedral of St. Paul, in London, and those of
Ely, Peterborough, and many others of that age; and the outer
walls of these churches are of the same sort of masonry, the mid-
dle of them being filled with cement between two faces of squared
stones, or, an outside facing of squared stones, and a facing of
flat rough stones within. But, where they built with pillars of
smaller diameters, they used squared stones, which made a regu-
lar bond through every course. This was practised by the
Romans, and called by Vitruvius Insertum.” It was used, also,
according to Mr. Essex, by “Saxon builders, in round and octan-
gular pillars in the conventual church at Ely, and in other
places; and it is frequently found in buildings erected soon after
the Conquest; and when arch buttresses were introduced, they
generally constructed them with this sort of masonry, being the
strongest and most beautiful.”
It is observable that in most of the Norman [and, as Mr. Fºssex
believes, in all Saxon buildings] “ the walls, pillars, and arches
are composed of such small stones, that the courses seldom ex-
• Observations on English church architecture, in a description of the
Cathedral church of Ely, &c, by George Millers, M. A. .
+ An attempt was made, some years back, to flute several of the pillars in
Gloucester cathedral, when it was discovered that they were filled up, on
the inside, only with loose irregular stones. Gough's additions to Camden,
Wol. I. p. 271. .

382 3. 1NTRODUCTION."
§
eeed seven or eight inches, and very often we find then less, not-
withstanding they could procure larger stones, though they sel-
dom used them, but for bases or capitals to their pillars, or for
some particular parts of their work, where they thought large
stones were necessary.” The Norman modes of construction are,
in almost every variety, referable to a Roman origin; and, in the
above instance, their builders evidently followed the standard
direction of Vitruvius,
Among those several kinds of masonry “which were intro-
duced by the Romans themselves, or by foreigners who were
brought hither to build after the Roman manner, is that called
opus reticulatum, (or network.) The beauty of this work arose
from the form of the stones, which were perfectly square; and
from the disposition of them, which was diagonal; and the joints
appearing like the meshes of a net, it thence acquired its name,
But the disposition of the stones, for which it was chiefly admired,
being contrary to nature and reason, soon discovered its want of .
strength. Therefore, the Saxon and Norman masons, knowing
its defects, used it only as an ornament in their frontons, and
filling of arches. Examples of which may be seen at Lincoln,
Ely, Peterborough, Rochester, and other Norman buildings:
but it was quite laid aside before the time of Henry the Third.”
It is remarked by Mr. Essex, that the Normans frequently
raised large buildings with pebbles only; and, sometimes, with
pebbles intermixed with rag-stones. Of these he has noticed
three sorts. “The first is that of pebbles only; the outside of
the wall being laid in regular courses, with stones of nearly the
same bigness; and the angles of the wall strengthened with
squared stones. The next is with pebbles and rags, having the
angles fortified with squared stones, about two feet high, and six
or seven inches square, which were tied into the wall by flat
square stones about six or seven inches thick, laid on the top of
them.” This appears to have been the prevailing mode of build-
ing in Cambridgeshire, in the time of William Ruſus; and may
be seen in the church of St. Giles, in Cambridge, and in the
. . towgſ
Anglo-Norman ANTIQUlties. 383
tower of St. Benedict's church. The third sort of masonry, com-
posed of pebbles and rag-stones, “has two or three feet of peb-
bles, or rags, laid regularly; and above them several courses
of rag-stones, laid angularly, or in manner of herring-bone
work.” . . . . . . is
. A mode of building so rough and coarse, required a coat of
plaister to render it pleasing to the eye. i:
Accordingly, we find “that those small churches, and other
buildings, which were constructed in this manner, were always
plaistered on the inside, and frequently on the outside, with a
composition of lime and sand;” the remains of which may be
traced in many Norman churches, together with such as Mr.
Essex attributes to the Saxons; and, also, in some that are more
modern.-" In churches which were built, in the eleventh cen-
tury, with wall-tiles, after the Roman manner, the walls, pil-
lars, and arches, , were finished, within and without, with the
same kind of plaistering, or stucco; as may be seen in the
ancient parts of the abbey church of St. Alban’s.”
Such leading characteristics of Anglo-Norman architecture, as
are essential towards a discrimination between this mode and the
fashion by which it was succeeded, are stated, it is hoped with
sufficient perspicuity, in the course of the above remarks. It is
unquestionable that the massy, cumbrous, and vast style of the
Normans, underwent several changes, as to paucity or abund-
ance in ornament—application of mouldings to arches—and
various minute circumstances of decoration—before it was sup-
planted by that light and beautiful mode which met with univer-
sal adoption when once a finished example was exhibited, be-
cause it allowed unbounded excursions of taste and fancy in ages
prolific of architectural genius;—then the great auxiliary of
sacerdotal dignity, and even of religion itself.
. & . The
... • Remarks on the Antiquity, &c. of brick and stone buildings in: Ent-
land, Archaeol. Wol. IV. - &
584 introduction.
The study of architectural antiquities is still in its infancy in
this country. Much has been written upon this topic, in a gene-
ral way; but, in the works of those who first laboriously and
heavily pursued antiquarian knowledge, we find a lamentable
neglect of such enquiries concerning the peculiarities of buildings,
as might assist in displaying the temper, manners, and profici-
ency in the arts, of determinate remote ages.
* Leland, although possessed of a fine taste, was led, by the
peculiarity of the times, to bestow his principal attention on the
manuscripts contained in religious houses,—treasures of curiosity
which he saw falling into destruction, and some knowledge con-
cerning which he endeavoured to preserve, as the best offering
that he could present to posterity. * . . .
Camden, in his vast undertaking, had at once (as is observed
by Bishop Gibson) “to remove the rubbish, lay the foundation,
and raise the fabric,” of a chorographical history of Britain.
When we consider the comprehensive nature of his design, and
the difficulties under which he laboured in forming a solid ground-
work of information, we can scarcely be surprised at finding that
he entirely declined dissertations on the architecture of those
ancient and splendid structures which were spread around him in
his travels. But this is a matter worthy of deep regret; as
an august host of buildings, now almost deprived of distinguish-
ing features by the dilapidation of “evil days,” were then scarcely
The bulk of our early county histories are truly described by
Mr. Gough, as consisting of “incorrect pedigrees, futile etymo-
logies, verbose disquisitions, crowds of epitaphs, lists of land-
holders, and such farrago, thrown together without method, un-
animated by reflections, and delivered in the most uncouth and
horrid style;” their authors having, “trodden only in mazes
overgrown with thorns, neglecting the flowery paths with which
the wilderness of obscurity is diversified.” &
The pursuits of that learned body to which the country natu-
" . . . . . . . . .* . . . . . . . . . rally
worn into the character of ruins. - -
** British Topography, Preface, p. 21, 22.
ANC lo-NortMAN ANT10U ITI Es. 385
rally looks for information on this subject, the society of Anti-
quaries, have only in years comparatively recent, been seriously
addressed to enquiries concerning the history and characteristics
of our ancient architecture. .
Bentham, Gray, and Warton afford
perhaps, the free and elegant pen of Horace Walpole (Earl of
Orford) greatly assisted in rendering objects of emulation in the
esteem of the polite, as well as the erudite, ºn
• Aided by such incitements, the investigation o cient
architecture of this island has been adopted, on the only judicious
principle, and one that was too long neglected,—that of local,
scientific, enquiry, and an appropriation of styles upon the se-
cure basis of analogy, proceeding from data of unquestionable
authority. Much may be expected from the exertion of talent so
well directed, if sustained by public encouragement. But this
union of energy and judgment is only of late occurrence; and it
must be repeated, that a knowledge of the architectural anti-
quities of this country is still of an infantile and unintelligent
growth. º -
A variety of styles, in regard to the character and disposal of
ornaments, if not sufficiently distinguished to admit of a posi-
tive classification, is observable in the ecclesiastical buildings of
the Anglo-Normans. The appropriation of these to respective
ages must depend on such a careful investigation, and comparison
of the mouldings of arches, and other particulars of architectural
decoration, as is not known to have been yet carried into effect.
An attempt of this kind could be executed only in a regular and
extensive work of art, and will scarcely be expected in a volume
embracing so many topics as the present. While subject to the
want of a satisfactory dissertation, the following remarks may act
as useful outlines of information. - º º º *
If we rely on that statement of Dr. Ducarel, which is noticed
in previous pages of this section, we shall find cause for believing
that the architectural style prevailing in the early part of the
conqueror's age, was marked by great plainness; the heavy round
+ * .. 2 C - arches,





386 > 1 NTRo Ductio N.
arches, and the narrow windows, of the two buildings of st.
Stephen and the Holy Trinity at Caen, having few enriched
‘mouldings; and all other parts of those structures, both within
and on the exterior, being destitute of sculptural decorations.
*But th inference arising from the above intelligence conveyed
by Dr. Ducarel, must by no means be wrought into a rule of
severe application, in regard to the first buildings of the Nor-
mans in this country. It is, however, to be ascertained that
such structures were sometimes of a plainer description than those
raised in succeeding years; an instance of which may be remarked
in the chapel of St. John, in the Tower of London.*
* The observations of two writers, whose opinions upon this sub-
ject are rendered of additional value by their professional pursuits,
may be adduced, in illustration of the procedure of Anglo-Nor-
man architectural taste in early ages. . . . . .
* “In the eleventh century,” writes Mr. Wilkins (unfortunately
using terms of too general a character, for the wishes and pur-
pose of the critical enquirer) “some alterations in the Saxon
style of architecture took place. They were introduced by the
Normans, and were executed in a very rough massive way at
first; but, in a short time they became more expert workmen.
We find them improving in their workmanship until the middle
• This curious chapel was erected for King William the First, by Bishop
Gundulph. It is distinguished by massive simplicity; the arches, and every
part of the building, except the capitals of some of the columns, being en-
tirely destitute of ornament.
The weighty columns are uniformly round and plain ; their plinths square
and unornamented. The capitals are all square, but are not entirely similar.
in any other respect. Their studied want of uniformity is, however, less
striking than in many other Anglo-Norman structures, and ornament is be:
stowed on them with a very rigid hand. The cross is the embellishment most
frequent ; and that holy emblem is displayed on the capitals of many succes.
sive columns. * . § º
" The capitals partaking most freely of decoration are those two which are
opposed to each other, at the western termination of the structure. These
have the cable moulding; a narrow billet; and a lozenge moulding.
*
ANGLo-Norman ANT19 Ulties.
of the 12th century, in almost every province in the kingdom,
particularly at Rochester under the superintendance of Bishop
Gundulph, whose skill and expertness in masonry caused it there
to be styled Gundulph's Architecture. Ernulph, a native of
France, soon after the death of Gundulph, was promoted to the
abbacy of Peterborough. He, also, became proficient in this
style of building; and various specimens of his taste are still
to be seen at Rochester, Canterbury, Peterborough, &c.” . .
Mr. J. A. Repton, in a contribution towards Mr. Britton's His-
tory and Antiquities of the Cathedral church of Norwich, re-
marks that “the style called Norman is well known by the
semicircular arches, the square-headed capitals and bases of the
columns, and the massive contour of the mouldings. The archi-,
tecture of the Saxons and the early Normans, (that is, from the
time of the Conquest to Henry the First,) is extremely massive;
not only in the general design of the building, but also in the
detail of mouldings, &c. Soon after the reign of Henry the
First, the heavy character of the Norman style began gradually
to partake of more elegant forms: the capitals of the columns be-
came lighter, though with bolder projections; the Inouldings of
the arches and cornices were more delicately finished; the bead
Inouldings began to change their massive ſorins, and towards the
reigns of Henry the Second, and Richard the First, they were
ornamented with fillets and ogees; the hollow mouldings were
more open; the square shape of the abacus of the capital of
columns was changed, by degrees, into the octangular, or cir-
cular, forms, while the contour of the arch-mouldings began to
lose their square outline, and to sweep round with the shape of
the columns.”t
An instance of the early Anglo-Norman mode, together with
an exception from the prevalence of a uniform style in the same
. . . . . . - 2 C 2 age,
• Essay towards a History of the Venta Icenorum of the Romans, &c.
Archaeol. Vol. XII. ź.
3. * Britton's History and Antiquities of Norwich Cathedral, p. 28.






*
ºf ºz. . . .
# * * . .”
age, is afforded in the following continuation of Mr. Repton's ob.
servations:—“The earliest part of Norwich Cathedral, begun
about the reign of William Rufus, still retains its cumbrous and
massive character; and the same style is continued through the
nave, although raised in the reign of Henry the First. This
seems to have been done to preserve uniformity in the whole
building. It should be observed, however, that the plaimess
or the richness of a building is no proof of its antiquity; because
the same Bishop (Herbert, consecrated in 1094,) who founded
this cathedral, adopted the plain and massive style, as being ap:
plicable to a structure on a great scale; but, on the contrary, in
erecting the monks' houses (commonly called the dormitory) a
small building of nearly the same date as the cathedral, he dis-
: played a considerable degree of taste in the richness and light-
mess of design.” . . . . . . . . .
* Mr. Burdon, in a letter to the author of the “Architectural
Antiquities,” supposes that “it is not very difficult to distin-
guish three different kinds of the NorMAN ARchitec-
tune." The early, which began before the Conquest, and of
* which Waltham, Durham, &c. are specimens; the middle, which
is the style of Peterborough, Malmsbury, &c. and the latter,
which is that of Lincoln, the eloir of Canterbury, &c.”f
This scheme appears to be worthy of attention; but the opi-
nions of its author are not sufficiently defined to admit of useful
application. It is, however, founded on a principle which all
local and historical examination proves to be correct:-that the
architecture of the Anglo-Normans progressively increased in
ornament and skilfulness of execution: the whole detail of em.
bellishments becoming less weighty and rude in each new age,
aid gradually ameliorating towards the delicacy of the pointed
style, and its attendant crowd of luxuriant beauties. -
... } ; :
* . . . . . . . .
*
That
*
** Britton's History and Antiquities of Norwich cathedral, p 28, with a
reference to Archaeologia, Vol. XV. * : 3. }
* * Architectural Antiquities, Vol. III, p. 46,"


AN Glo-N or MAN ANT1 QUIT I Es.
That the exchange of the heavy circular arch for that of the
light, graceful, and pointed form, was not a circumstance of ab-
rupt transition, but proceeded at first with reluctant steps and
an intermixture of styles, is sufficiently evident, although seve-
ral authors have insinuated to the contrary. The following pas-
sage in Mr. Bentham's History of the Cathedral church of Ely,
is open to such an interpretation :-" It cannot be expected that
we should be able to enumerate all the decorations which the
Saxons and Normans made use of, for they designed variety in
the choice of them; but a judicious antiquarian, who has made
the prevailing modes of architecture in distant times his study
will be able to form very probable conjectures concerning the
age of most of these ancient structures; the alterations that have
been made in them, since their first erection, will often discover
themselves to his eye. Perhaps the most usual change he will
find in then is in the form of the windows; for, in many of our
oldest churches, I mean such as were built within the first age
after the Conquest, the windows, which were originally round-
headed, have since been altered for others of a more modern date,
with pointed arches. Instances of this kind are numerous, and
may often be discovered, by examining the courses of the stone-
work about them: unless the outward face of the building was
new cased at the time of their insertion, as it sometimes happen-
ed: without attending to this, we shall be at a loss to account
for that mixture of round and pointed arches we often meet with
in the same building.” . . . tº
That such alterations were frequent, is undoubted; and the
above extract affords a criterion for distinguishing the result of
innovation from the design of the first builder. But the pointed
arch appears in the original parts of structures where Anglo-
Norman features have determinately the ascendant, long before
that mode of architecture of which it forms a characteristic, was
& 2 C 3, methodised
sº
• Hist, of Ely Cathedral, p. 35–3





390 ; : 1NT Roduction.
methodised into a system, and can be denominated a style. And
this fact is noticed by Mr. Bentham, in a subsequent page.”
The exact date at which arches of a pointed construction were
first used, is a subject unsettled by antiquarian discussion, and is
of little importance in the present section of our work. In regard
to their character and disposal, where intermingled with the pre-
dominating circular style, I profit by the words of Mr. Millers:—
Before the end of the period usually ascribed to the Anglo-Nor-
man mode, and even early in it, “ some instances are found of
pointed arches—they are sparingly introduced-one or more tiers
of them appear at the top of a building, all the lower ones being
round—sometimes they are alternate—sometimes one is inserted,
capriciously as it were, among several round—they are, for the
, most part, obtusely, but, in some instances, even sharply pointed
—but are always wide—standing on heavy columns, or garnished
with mouldings, or both.-There was a third sort of arch, some-
times, but very rarely, occurring. It is called the horse-shoe
arch, and is an arc of a circle somewhat greater than the semi-
circle.”+ - . w
To which it may be added, that these pointed arches, origi-
nally interspersed in buildings of the circular style, are usually
ornamented with the zig-zag, or other mouldings characteristie
of the architectural fashion which preceded the English.
Instances of this intermixture of dissimilar arches may be
noticed in the under-named buildings, among many others;
church of St. Cross, near Winchester, erected about 1130;
Temple Church, London, 1172; Malmsbury Abbey Church,
Wiltshire; Landaf Cathedral; and Lanthoni Abbey, Monmouth-
shire. It may be observed, that the same mixture of arches oc-
w - * ... < *, *, ... . . . . . Cul's
* Wide, History of the Cathedral church of Ely, p st:
* + Description of the Cathedral church of Ely, &c. by George Millers, M. A.
p. 22.-The ovate flat arch was sometimes used by the Anglo-Normans, as
in the instance of the western entrance to the church of Harrow-on-the-Hill,
Middlesex, built by Archbishop Lanfranc.
A N Glo-Nor MAN ANT19 UITI es.
surs in the church of Bafreston, Kent, which Mr. King, a
several other writers, have attributed to the Saxon era.
During this struggle between the two forms, it would appear
that the architects of buildings then re ing, frequently dis-,
played incongruous arches, for the purpose of exhibiting their
comparative merits to pu blic notice. The final issue of the con-
test will shortly be stated, together with the magnificent effect
QIn ecclesiastical architecture, of the triumph obtained by scien-
tific lightness over rude solidity. ºn bol %
In the absence of any decisive criteria for appropriating varia-
º
tions in Anglo-Norman architecture to determinate. ages, the
object of the investigator inay be, in a great measure, advanced,
by an enumeration of some principal structures which exhibit
characteristics of this style. To facilitate, enquiry, the date of
erection will be affixed, where attainable, to each building cited.
as a conspicuous example. tº
Such a catalogue of these works (often stupendot s, and al-
most uniformly evincing a grandeur of views) must be properly,
introduced by an observation respecting the station in life of the
architects to whom they are chiefly ascribed. The reader, will
recollect, to the honour of a race of ecclesiastics, often named,
with exceptless, overwhelming, obloquy by the inconsiderate,
that the great architects of the Anglo-Norman ages are to be %
found in the lists of dignified clergy. Several of the most dis-
tinguished may be thus noticed, from a statement made by Mr.
Dallaway : . . . . . . . .
“We have the following enumeration of Norman bishops, who
were either architects themselves, or under whose auspices ar-
chitecture flourished. Gundulph of Rochester (1077-1107.)
Mauritius of London (1086-1108) built old St. Paul's cathedral.
Roger of Salisbury (1107-1140,) the Cathedral at Old Sarum.
Ernulf of Rochester (1115-1125) completed bishop Gundulph's
work there. They were both monks of Bee, in Normandy.
Alexander of Lincoln (1123.1147) rebuilt his Cathedral. Henry
of Blois, bishop of Winchester (1129-1169,) a most celebrated
- % 2. C 4. wººl " . trellite %
tº gº
* } º { º:






392. . 1NT Ro DU cT1 on.
architect, built the conventual churches of St. Cross and Rum-
sey, in Hampshire ; and, lastly, Roger, archbishop of York
(1154-1181,) where none of his work remains. By these archi-
tects the Norman manner was progressively brought to perfec-
tion in England; and it will be easily supposed, that the im-
provements made by any of them were adopted in succession.”
To the above list must be added the names of Lanfranc, con-
spicuous for his works at Canterbury; Thomas, equally cele-
brated at York; Walkelin, at Winchester; Remigius, at Lin-
coln; William, at Durham; Robert, at Hereford; Herbert, at
Norwich; and St. Anselm, at Chester.
The Cathedral churches of England, although much altered
by the innovations (munificent, and often gatifying) of succeed-
ing ages, still exhibit the most satisfactory specimens of the
style at present under consideration. The sublimity of Anglo-
Norman architecture was, indeed, displayed in these edifices to
its utmost height; and it impresses reverence, even in mutilation,
and now that the general effect for which the designer laboured,
is no more . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mr. Bentham observes, that “there is, perhaps, hardly any
one of our Cathedral churches, of the early Norman style (marked
by round arches and large pillars) remaining entire, though they
were all originally so built; but specimens of it may still be seen
in most of them. The greatest parts of the cathedrals of Dur-
ham; Carlisle; Chester; Peterborough ; Norwich ; Rochester;
Chichester; Oxford; Worcester; Wells; and Hereford; the
tower and transept of Winchester; the nave of Gloucester; the
nave and transept of Ely; the two towers of Exeter; some re-
mains in the middle of the west front of Lincoln, with the lower
parts of the two towers there; in Canterbury, great part of the
choir, formerly called Comrade's choir (more ornamented than
usual); the two towers, called St. Gregory 's and St. Anselm's,
and the north-west tower, of the same church.-York and Lich-
* Dallaway's English Architecture, p. 20.
AN Glo-Nor MAN ANtiguities. 393
field have had all their parts so entirely rebuilt, at separate times,
since the disuse of round arches, that little, or nothing, of the
old Norman work appears in them at this day. The present
Cathedral church of Salisbury is the only one that never had any
mixture of this early Norman style in its composition.”
The above extract is presented, as it forms a useful compen-
dium of information-concerning the cathedrals in which vestiges
of Anglo-Norman architecture are most conspicuous. In the
subjoined Table of Examples, the Anglo-Norman parts of
necessary to the design of Mr. Beutham’s work, together with
... "
the probable dates of erection, as afforded by the most accept-
able authorities. - -> n º ºf a ºw
My enumeration of Cathedrals exhibiting specimens of this
style, is followed by that of some Parochial churches (several
of which were formerly conventual,) and of the principal Ruins of
Monastic structures which have so far survived the ravages of
interest and ignorance, as to retain a melancholy memorial ol
their founders, in traces of the architectural style which pre-
vailed when those generous persons flourished in rude but vene.
rable pomp, and expended what hospitality could spare, in adorn.
ing the land with tributes of fanciful piety. § 3.
In regard to that part of the annexed list which relates to
Parochial churches, it will be obvious that we have, very rarely,
an opportunity of ascertaining the precise date of erection, on
written testimony. The periods of foundation, repair, and addi-
tion, in such buildings as were connected with monastic institu.
tions, were frequently chronicled by inmates of the estab ish-
ment; but the structure raised by the manorial lord had no de-
voted pen to record its architectural history. The date of erec.
tion is, therefore, usually presumptive; and calculations con-
cerning it proceed from an analogy of style with superior edifices,
whose origin is authenticated. A ray of information, however,
IS
• Hut of Ely Cathedral, p.s















1NTRODUCTION. . . . .
is sometimes derived from commemorative inscriptions, attached
to the buildings. Many of these, recording the foundation and
consecration, are collected in Pegge’s “Sylloge of Remaining
. Inscriptions.” article “second series, beginning at the Norman
Conquest.” .
The reader will perceive that a few instances only are adduced.
It will not be supposed that this Table of Enumeration is intend.
ed to present a view of the whole Anglo-Norman ecclesiastical
antiquities remaining in England.-A selection has been made of
such specimens as are most amply noticed in the “ Beauties.”
Frequently, parts only of the buildings cited, contain Anglo-
Norman vestiges; but those instances in which circular door-
3% ways alone remain, are not mentioned. These are numerous in
every district; and some remarks have already been submitted,
concerning the probable cause of their preservation.* The ex-
amples of Parochial churches are arranged in counties, enumerated
alphabetically, in attention to the mode observed in describing
the “Beauties of Eugland and Wales.”
Several Norman churches may, unquestionably, be found
amongst those attributed by some writers to the Anglo-Saxons,
and which are mentioned as buildings thus conjecturally ascribed,
in a previous section. Where there appear strong reasons for
º appropriating. such structures to the era under notice, those
, churel is are again cited. This, however, has been done only
upon grounds which appeared to be secure. Thus, the church
of Iffley, in Oxfordshire, is said, by Mr. Warton't to have been
built by a bishop of Lincoln, in the 12th century; but, as his
authority for such an assertion cannot be discovered, I have not
adduced that building as a positive example of Anglo-Norman
architecture.—St. Peter's in the East, one of the most curious
ancient ornaments of Oxford (a city so rich in subjects of anti-
quarian investigation,) is supposed, by a recent writer in a work
g&
&
* Wide Ante, p. 269–270, note.
* History of Kiddington, p. 4.



An Glo-Norman ANT1 QUITIEs.
of high respectability, to be probably referable" to the Norman
* But, in my brief index to such buildings in the circular
entioned in the “Beauties,” I deem it desirable to
state this church of St. Peter, as a building quite open to the
enquiries of the ingenious ºf ºº º
CATHEDRAL CHURCHES, Exhibiting REMAINs
- of ANGLo-Norman ARCHITECTURE.
Bristol.—The Chapter-house, and Elder Lady Chapel (a
structure on the north side of the Cathedral) present vestiges of
the original edifice, begun about the year 1160. Beauties for
. Somersetshire, p. 664-669, with an engraved view.” nº sº.
Canterbury.—The tower on the north-west appears to have
been built by Archbishop Lanfranc, between the years 1070 and
1089; but has experienced some alteration. A rich display of
Norman architecture, ascribed to the same period, commences in
the vicinity of St. Michael’s chapel, which adjoins the south
transept. The “side walls of the aisles of the choir, as well as
parts of the east transept, are of Norman architecture, and un-
questionably formed part of Lanfranc's Cathedral, though they
are somewhat obscured by alterations in the pointed style.” The
groining of the roof, in the north aisle, is of the time of Hellry
the Second, and is ornamented with zig-zag mouldings. Other
parts of this magnificent building, still retaining traces of Anglo-
Norman architecture, are noticed in the description presented in
the Beauties for Kent, p. 830–875, ºn º
Carlisle.—The nave and transept exhibit some massive re-
§ 3. §
* Such pages of the Beauties of England as are referred to, in regard to
each Cathedral mentioned in this list, contain a description of that build-
ing. Some additional particulars, concerning the dates of erection, &c. are,
in several instances, collected from other sources. It is possible that defi.
ciencies and errors may be discovered; but, where they do not proceed
from a want of research or care, the indulgence of the reader is confidently
expected. • * * * * * * * * *












INTRODUCTION. . . . . . .
mains, supposed to be of the latter part of the 11th century,
Beauties for Cumberland, p. 85–89, with an engraved view. .
ºf Chichesten.—Although this structure suffered by fire, about
e-year 1187, it affords an interesting example of the archi-
tecture of all earlier period. The more ancient parts are of a
plain and weighty character, and are believed to have been
Durham.—This fine and impressive fabric presents, through-
out the whole of its most important parts, instructive remains
of Norman architecture. It was founded in 1093, and the walls
were completed, nearly to the roof, before the year 1133. Beau-
Ely.—The great western tower, up to the first battlements,
was built by Bishop Ridel, who died in 1189. The transepts are
of the reign of Henry the First. The nave and its aisles, “ex-
eept the windows of the second tier, and those of the lower, all
but three on the south side, are in the Anglo-Norman style, and
were” chiefly finished, as is believed, in the year 1174.”
Beauties for Cambridgeshire, p. 161–164, with an engraved
view. tº * . . . . . . . . . . .
Exeter.—The towerst were erected by Bishop Warlewast,
between the years 1100 and 1128. Some alterations, however,
have been effected in the north tower. Architectural remains,
probably of the same age, may be seen in the transepts; but the
later pointed mode is greatly preponderant in this structure.
Beauties for Devonshire, p. 54-72. . * . . . . . . . . . .
Gloucesten.—The lower part of the nave, the aisles round
the choir, and the crypt, are believed to have been erected be-
* ::: ... ...: ::... : ºn * . . . . . . ; .” % £, tween
• Description of Ely cathedral, &c. by G. Millers, M. A. In the same
work are noticed several less important parts of Ely Cathedral, which are
also in the Anglo-Norman style. . §:… & 3. . . . %. 3 & 3 z. . ; ; ; 3
* Two views of the towers of Exeter cathedral are given in the Beauties
for Devonshire.







ANG lo-Nor MAN ANT19 Uities.
tween the years 1058 and 1104. Beauties for Gloucestershire,
p. 639–550, with an engraving. * * * * * * *
Hereford.—This cathedral, although much altered in the
modes of various eras, presents considerable specimens of the
latter part of the eleventh, and the early years of the twelfth
centuries. The Anglo-Norman divisions of this structure were
commenced shortly after the year 1079, and were nearly com-
pleted before 1115. Beauties for Herefordshire, p. 458–476,
with an engraved view. ºld ºf a sºn ºn 1 s ºf
Lincoln.—Owing to accident from fire, and other more ordi-
nary causes, producing a great commixture of styles, there is
much difficulty in appropriating the ancient portions of this build-
ing to distinct ages; but, antidst the splendour of renovation and
improvement, are still to be seen many parts, probably erected
between the years 1086 and 1147. The ſoundations were laid
in the former year, but the structure was greatly injured by fire,
about 1127. The lower division of the centre of the grand
western front, affords an example of highly-ornamented Anglo-
Norman architecture.” Beauties for Lincolnshire, p. 627.
Norwich.-The east end; the choir and its aisles; the cha-
pels of Jesus and St. Luke; and the transepts; are ascribed to
the date of 1096. The nave and its aisles, to that of 1122.
Beauties for Norfolk, p 147–158. -
Oxford.-The Anglo-Norman parts of this edifice were pro-
bably erected between the years I; 11 and 1190, or in years
nearly circumscribed by those dates. Beauties for Oxfordshire,
p. 138–142, with a print. * * *:::... ." ... :
PETERBorough.-The choir, with its aisles, from the circular
extremity at the east, to the commencement of the transept on
the west, was begun in 1118, and completed in 1143. The
transept was erected between the years 1155, and 1177. The
*º : **
º
* An engraved view of the western front of this cathedral is given in the
Beauties for Lincolnshire.








1 NTRODUCTION.
lave and its aisles, to the termination of the pillars which di-
vide the nave and side aisles on the west, are believed to have
been built between the years 1177 and 1198. Beauties for Nor-
thamptonshire, p. 234–236, with a print.
Rochester.—Great parts of the nave, and the west front, te,
gether with the tower between the transepts on the north side,
were built by Bishop Gundulph, who died in the year 1108. The
west front is a splendid instance of Anglo-Norman architec-
ture. The ruins of the chapter-house exhibit a style rather later.
This building was erected by Bishop Ernulph, who died in 1124.
Beauties for Kent, p. 639–653, with views of the west door, and
of the interior, - - . . .
Wells.—Parts of the nave and choir. Beauties for Somerset-
shire, p. 484–487, with a view of the interior.
WinchestER.-The tower and transepts are Anglo-Norman
works, and were completed in 1093. Many windows of the tran-
septs, however, have been altered in various fashions. The tower
is a fine and interesting specimen. Beauties for Hampshire,
p. 49–81, with a print. . . . . .
Worcester.—The choir, and several other parts which exhi-
bit traces of the circular style, are believed to have been erected
between 1084 and 1089. Beauties for Worcestershire, p. 61–83.
-mº ºm-
PAROCHIAL CHURCHES, ExhibiTING REMAINS
OF ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.
. . . .
BEIDFORD SHIRE.
Time of Erection. Noticed in the Beauties.
ble. * † “. * * * * * * * * * * º: • * * } -
Elstow church, part of) tº
...}ri. Will.i. {*.*.
ºis, ! “... 1 131-5 “. ** } P. 19–23, with 3. print.
#
res e º sees •
cAMBRIDGESHIRE.










Anglo-Nor MAN ANT19 ulties.
CAMBRIDGESHIRE.
Time of Erection. Noticed in the Beauties.
St. Sepulchre's, Cam-Y p...i. ------- A
bi; , I circular X Pº º P. 102–104.
part * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * O ~ enry ** * * * * .
The church of Stunt- : ,” “ …' ... *
ney, and the chapel of
Sterebridge, in this
county, are good spe-
cimens of the Anglo-
Norman style; but
are not noticed in the
Beauties for Cam-
bridgeshire, on ac-
count of the narrow
limits to which that
division of the work
is confined.
CHESHIRE.
* While noticing this building, it appears desirable to offer a few remarks -
on the subject of Round Churches, of which we have, in England, four ex-
amples remaining almost perfect:-St. Sepulchre's church, Cambridge; St.
Sepulchre's church, Northampton; the Temple church, London; and the
church of Little Maplested, Esser. §
A vulgar opinion long prevailed, that these curious structures were the works x
of the Jews! Enquirers into the history of our ancient architecture were dis. §
abused of such a notion by the late Mr. Essex, who published an essay on the
subject of round churches, in the sixth volume of the Archaeologia. A more
comprehensive dissertation has since been produced by Mr. Britton, in the
first volume of his Architectural Antiquities, together with additional remarks
by an ingenious correspondent of that gentleman, Charles Clarke, Esq., F.S.A.
In regard to the mistake of attributing these buildings to the Jews, Mr.
Essex observes, that “ their temple at Jerusalem was not of the circular form,
neither was the tabernacle of Moses; nor do we find the modern Jews affect
that figure in building their synagogues. It has, however, been generally
supposed, that the round church at Cambridge, that at Northampton, and
some others, were built for synagogues by the Jews, while they were per-
mitted to dwell in those places; but, as no probable reason can be assigned
for this supposition, and I think it is very certain that the Jews, who were
settled in Cambridge, had their synagogue, and probably dwelled together,
in a part of the town now called the Jewry, so we may reasonably conclude,
the round churches we find in other parts of this kingdom were not built by


º 1 NTRo Duction. . . . . .
CHESHIRE,
* , , , , , , “. . Time of Erection. º Noticed in the Beauties.
St. John’s Chester. • * “. ... • * * * * * * * * * * * * * “....” º P. 220–221 2 with a print.
* . .
CORNWALL,
º . »
Church of St.German’s - - *
#; ~}":- 379, with a
of Cornwall............
. . . . . *
I) ORSETSHIRE,
. . . º, º
Wimborne minster.….} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {r. . – 424, with a
Sherborne church.....................................P. 503–506. º
º -> --- DURHAM.
the Jews for synagogues, whatever the places may be called in which they
stand.” . . . . . . . . . . . . § . . . . . . . . . º …
... It is uniformly admitted by the above, and other intelligent writers, that
the church of the Holy Sepulchre, at Jerusalem, was the archetype of these
circular churches in England. Some cdifices of this description [as, particu-
larly, the Temple church, at London] were undoubtedly erected by the
Knights Templars, “who were originally instituted, and stationed, at the
church of the Holy Sepulchre,” being charged with the protection of Chris.
tian pilgrims against the Saracens. Mr. Clarke, however, thinks it possible
to shew that two, at least, and those the most early of the examples noticed
above, “were not erected by the Templars, or at all connected with that
order of knighthood.”
The buildings to which he refers, are the churches of St. Sepulchre, at
Northampton and at Cambridge. These we find to be parochial, and vicar-
ages, and to be entered as such in Ecton's Thesaurus. “It would be diffi.
cult,” says Mr. Clarke, “to account for the round churches above noticed,
if ever, they belonged to houses of Knights-Templars, becoming parochial
and appropriated before the dissolution of that order, considering how seldom
any of the monasteries have been reserved for that purpose; or, if possessed
of the right of patronage, that a vicarage should be ordained in favour of an-
other house.” º -
. This writer, therefore, supposes that the churches in question were built
by affluent crusaders, in imitation of that of the Holy Sepulchre, or Resur-
e 2 rection ;
ºf . . . . .


ANG Lo-Nor MAN ANT19 ulties. 401
DURHAM,
. Time of Erection. Noticed in the Beauties.
*...Wºl. } … (r. 13.
C UTC “... “... • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * •
ESSEX,
waltham abbey church}… } P. .#T 42, with a
Gloucestershire.
Abbey church of
Tewkesbury. This .
interesting structure} . The reign of {P. 694 – 701, with a
is ascribed, by Bishop V Henry I............ / print.
Littleton, to º .
Elkstone church * * * * * * * * * * * * * “.......................P. 671–672. ~
Bishop's Cleve church..............................P. 681–682.


rection; and he presents the following historical notices, in defence of such
an opinion.—“Simon St. Liz is said to have re-edified the town of Northamp-
ton, which was burnt by the Danes, and lay in ruins for some time after the
Conquest. About the year 1084, he repaired the priory of St. Andrew, near
his castle in that town, of which he was the Earl, and endowed, and reple-
nished it with Cluniac monks. To this priory we find the church of St. Se-
pulchre presented by Simon St. Liz, or Seinliz, second Earl of Northampton,
upon his return from the crusade. He died in 1141. The right of patronage,
thus granted to the monks, could only have been possessed by this Simon, in
consequence of himself, or one of his ancestors, having been the founder of
the church, as within a demesne of his own. This is evident from the cus-
toms of those times, when it was also common to present such right to the
religious houses, ſo the sake of its being better exercised. And, from what
we have seen of the ardour of the first crusaders, it is highly probable that
he was himself the builder of this edifice, in imitation of the church of the
Resurrection—A like train of circumstances attends the round church at
Cambridge, a more ancient structure than that at Northampton.” See many
further remarks on the character and history of round churches, in Britton's
Architectural Antiquities, Vol. I. A view of the interior of the Temple
church, London, is presented in the “Beauties” for London and Middle-
Sex, . . - . . . . . . . . º.º.
2 D Hampshire.
402 INTRODUCTION.
HAMPSHIRE.
P ; : h . h C #. of *W. Noticed in the Beauties.
riory church at Christ- N Reign of William .
. * * * * * º º: P. 211–217.
Abbey church at Rom-Y -
sey. Mr. Warton
mentions this .
ing, as “one of the I . N. - .
most complete mo- {*.*.*.*. P. 223 — 226, with a
numents he can re-i century print.
collect,” of the Nor- y”.
man style. It was
built by Henry de
Blois “..................J
s
HEREFORD SHIRE.
Leominster church,
[such parts as escap- -
ed conflagration -: in w” see e s see e s e s e º a e s is a e s p s is P. 569–571.
1700) “. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.
HERTFoRD shire.
Conventual church of
St. Alhan's [many - ~}r. 67—90, with a print.
parts] • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * § . :
- cº of Hemel tº { tº e º a tº e s is e º t e º 'º t e º t d tº $ tº * {P. 131—132.
Hemsted...............' .
- ‘. . of Kensworth.................................P. 149.
HUNTING Donshire.
* Hartford church.........................…....”. 475–476. -
Church of Hemming- ? … ~ —.
- ford Grey.............. ; e e º s e º is e º is e º º a tº e º 'º º º ... } P. 478 479. *
—- of Warboys...................... ............". 502–503.
. -- - of Offord d’Ar- } * * * “.... t * … } P. 572.
* . .
cy • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
"KENT.
Church of *}”: between }
' [chancel] .............. W. the years 1125, 3 P. 596.
and 1 137 * † tº e º º ſº tº º -
- — of Gillingham. tº t tº “......................”.P. 68 1–682, ă.
‘. . . . . Church

AN Glo-Nor MAN ANT19 unties. 403
Time of Erection. Noticed in the Beauties.
Church of Borden........................... ** * * * * ...P. 692–693.
** of Davington “..................... ......P. 743-744. -
* of Badlesmere...................... .........P. 750–751, .
Chapel of Harbledown..............................P. 752.
Church of St. Nicholas..............................P. 952–953.
** of Mar ate......... “.....................P. 961–963,
of St. Peter's.................................P. 967–968.
of St. Lawrence..............................P. 984.
of Minster [ap- -


º an An- . … -------
glo-Saxon founda-l - -
tion, contains some fr’” “"“” “ . . . . . . . . . ; P. 989–990.
curious remains of
the circular style] ....
— of St. Marga-
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
ret's, or St. Marga-
ret at Cliffe............
— of St. Mary’s,
Dover..................
* of Barfreston * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
— of Patricks- w -
bourne [resembling
that of Barfreston, in X-....................... & P. 1097–1099.
several architectural º
features]...............
of ythe......................................P. 1 117–1 119.
Limne church..........................................P. 1 137. -
Eynesford church.....................................P. 1343.
.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
P.
P. 1060–1061.
P. 1082–1083.
LIN colNshi RE.t
Stow church ......Latter part of 11th century...P. 666–669.
Clee church........ “..................................P. 691—692.
2 D 2 Leicester-
* This church is included in my previous enumeration of ecclesiastical
buildings attributed by some writers to the Anglo-Saxons; but, in the Beau-
ties for Kent, it is judiciously observed, that, “from the exuberance of its
ornaments, and the peculiarities attending them, together with the form of
some of its arches, it may, with greater probability of truth, be classed
among those of our Norman edifices which were built in the times immediately
preceding the general adoption of the pointed style.” Some very ingenious
remarks on the architectural character of this celebrated church, are pre-
sented in the fourth volume of Britton's Architectural Antiquities. -
* Many churches in this county, besides those noticed in the present page
as curious examples, afford instances of the circular style of architecture.
* * : ". . . . . ; -- The
404 1 Ntroductio N.
Leicestershire.
--- Time of Erection. Noticed in the Beauties.
Church of St. Nicholas, \ --- : P. 348
Leicester............... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * i.e. º. i.
— of St. Mary, in R ź & . t ſº
the same town •,•,• }~ { P. 349, with 3. print.
> . . . Middlesex.
Temple church, #3 ...1172 to 1185..... Part iv. p. 691–2,
; with a print.
. Ibid. Part. III. p. 431,
439, 443, with a print.
don [circular part]...
Church of St. Bartho-
lomew the Great, in
West Smithfield......
}*:::: for London,
Reign of Henry º
NORFOLK.”
* * J. R Founded in the $ D 315.
Binham priory church. } reign of Henry I. { P. 315.
Church at Castle Rising.............................. # 303.
Attleburgh church tº º ſº tº ſº tº : tº # * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * rº-º. with d
Church of Gillingham ( p a . * .
St. Mary's, near Bec- iſ e º e s e º e s w a e º e o e s a e s a see e P. * and 202, with d
cles...................... - prin *
Wymondham church... “........................“P. 258. x -: - º
Chug " of Št. Mag") Founded in the
ret's, at Lynn, for- reign of William K. P. 293, with a print. ,
merly appertaining ( f
to a priory............. Ru US . . . . . . . . . . . . .
North AMPTONSHIRE. W.
St. Peter’s, N *} Reign of William } P. 126–128
ton ...................... the Conqueror.
2. .
sº } .... 11 10 to 1 180.... } P. 128--129.
N. . NORTH-
The following are described in the Beauties for Lincolnshire, and are referred
to under the article “ Churches,” in the index –Long Sutton ; Crowle;
Washingborough; Fiskerton; and St. Peter, at Gowt
* Examples of ecclesiastical buildings in the circular style, are very nu.
merous in this county. “ of thirty-five churches [four of them in ruins] in
the rural deanery of Finchani alone, fifteen contain indisputable remains of
Saxon, or Norman architecture.” The above list comprises such only a 5 are
described in the Beauties for Norfolk. - -
+ This county produces many specimens of the circular style in parochial
. churches,
A N Glo-Norman ANti QUIT I es. 405
NORTHUMBERLAND,
Time of Erection. Noticed in the Beauties.
St. Andrew’s church, } * * * “. # * * * * * * * * * * P. 57–58.
Newcastle............ Reigns of H I. : P. 161 – 164, with .
- . Reigns of Henry I. W. P. 161 – With a
church of Healm.... } . Henry II... & print. º
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE,
Southwell Minster.…....P. 257–262. . §:
RUTLAND.
Church of Empingham..............................P. 95, with a print.
(parts of chancel).... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ***** * * * * . # *. *
— of Little Caster-R Probably the reign P, 111
ton, (north aisle)...... } of Henry II. tº nº º ſº tº
SHROPSHIRE,
Remains of the Abbey .
church of Shrews- * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * P. 90-92, with a print.
... bury ....................
Church of St. Mary, {r. 100-105, with a
Shrewsbury.....:::... ; “ , print.
Parish church of Wen- “..............“ P. 202.
OCK * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Church of Shiffnal............ tº º is sº º is sº in a º ſº tº ſº tº º is tº º ...P. 304.
SOMERSETSH1 RE.
Church of Stokecourcy.............................P. 585–586.
staffordshire. :
Church of Church- A P. 874.
Eaton................... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* of Tamworth.................................P. 824-325. .
. 2 D 3 SUFFOLK.
churches, besides those noticed as conspicuous instances. Among such must
be mentioned the churches of Castor; Burnack; Earls-Barton; Barnwell;
Twywell, and Sprittºn. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
406 w 1NTRO DUCTION.
suffolk.”
Time of Erection. Noticed in the Beauties,
Church of All Saints, S r .
Dunwich. This curi-
ous specimen of the w
circular style is term- : . . - *
ed Saxon by . Mr. J. P. 338–339, with a
Wilkins, Archaeol. X- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - print.
Vol. XII. Its pre- 3 ×
sent ruinous state is
noticed in the Beau-
ties....................... l
SUSSEX.
Steyning churcht”; “º. 101. ſh
. 99 — 100, with a
New Shoreham church. } “”. tº it tº º tº º print.
WARWICKSHIRE.
Church of Beaudesert................................P. 273.
. wiltshire.
* This county affords several specimens of Anglo-Norman ecclesiastical
architecture. The following churches are noticed by Mr. Wilkins, in the
twelfth volume of Archaeologia: Westall; Cookley; Walpole; Mettingham;
Herringfleet; and Gisleham. In the same volume are engraved detailed
specimens of various parts of those structures; geometrical plans, and sectional
forms of the mouldings, &c.
+ Mr. Warton (Hist, of Kiddington, edit. 2nd p. 4. and note) presents
some observations respecting this church which it may be desirable to tran-
scribe;—“The old Norman built parochial churches seldom consisted of
more than one aisle, or pace. The most curious one with aisles that I recol-
lect, I mean as complete in its first plan, although small, is the church of
Steyning, Sussex. The middle aisle has on each side four Norman round
arches, zig-zagged, surmounted with as many round headed small windows.
The two side aisles are much, and disproportionately, lower, as was the cus-
tom. The roof is of raſter.” In the Beauties for Sussex, the church of Steyn.
ing is said to be in the Saaon style. This is one of the numerous misrepre-
sentations arising from the want of a clear and established Nomenclature of
our ancient architecture. . & -
ANG Lo-Nor MAN ANT19 UITIES.
wiltshire.
Time of Erection. Noticed in the Beauties.
St. John's church, Pºl Probably in the
P. 425-428, with a
vizes, (chancel,tower, X rejº *º-º-º: }
and transept) ......... reign of Henry I. -
St. Mary’s church, De-R Probably soon after & P. 428-439.
vizes, º the Conquest. A * : " "
Church of Kington—N * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;
Malmsbury Abbey | ſ
P. 376–577.
church, (already
noticed as an instance
of the declining Nor- 12th century
man, in which the .
circular and pointed
modes are blended), J § . gº º ż
Church of Little *} *** * * * * * * * * # * * * * * * * * * * w P. 692. . * . . . ; - :- . .
#
W. In * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
3 p. 603–613.
Avebur church................................. ......P. 714-715.
Calne C urch “............................... .........P. 537–538. - -
worcestershire.
Church of Eastham...................................P. 283. w
. of Stockton...................................P. 285.
Remains of *::::::: ſ
man architecture are
evident in several pa- | - P, 107–109. º
|
Church of Holt.... *** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ............P. 196. * @ . . . . . ...
P. 304 – 309, with a
print.
rochial churches in
the city of Worces-
ter * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
*...* of Malvem.....} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Yorkshi RE.”
Parts of Ripon *:::::"Fº 685–689.
— of Halifax (some N Probably in the {t 740–750
parts). * * * * * ... . . . . . . ... } reign of Henry I. P. 79 750. º
. . 2 D 4 ... . . Trinity
* This large and fine county contains numerous specimens of Anglo-Nor-
man architecture; but the difficulty of compressing various particulars of in-
formation into the comparatively small compass necessarily prescribed by
the design of the “Beauties of England,” has prevented the author from en-
tering into minute architectural disquisitions.


408 1NTRODUCTION,
Time of Erection. Noticed in the Beauties.
eign of Henry I. { P. 817–818.
Church of St. George, R Supposed of the {r. 849 – 850, with a
Doncaster (eastend). 5 age of William I. print.
Trinity church, "Shef-
}.} y }R
MONASTIC RUINs ExHIBITING TRACES OF ANGLo-Norman
ARCHITECTURE.
Llanercost Priory, - {r. 124 – 126, with a
CUMBERLAND....... } * † tº º iſ º ºs º ºs º º ſº e º is a gº tº º º ſº tº tº º rint. . > .
St. Botolph's Priory, 1103–1116 P. 315 – 317, with a
Colchester, Essex... ºv. { rint.
St. Augustine’s Abbey, . {r. 882 – 889, with a
Canterbury, #;} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * print. .
Horton Priory, Kent,................................P. 1131.
Croyland Abbey, LiN- Probaby
§º. 1113- 1 150. {P. 745 –749. >
Priory of St. Leonard’s, .
near Stamford, Lin- ~}r. 797.
1:...” * * * * * * * * * tº º is tº º tº
anthony Abbey, 3. P. 80–85, with two en-
w Mºvº. 12th century { graving. .
Castle Acre Priory, Part 1085 {r. 300 - 301, with a
Norfolk .*.* — 1 148. . rint.
Walsingham Priory, 1061 P. 312 – 314, with a
Norfolk, (part)...... - { print.
Binham Priory, s: Probably in the ;

reign of Henry I. P. 315, with a print.
fol # * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Lindisfarnemonastery,” . N.
B sº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * P. 228–230.
Brinkburn Priory, Nor-
thumberland sº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {P 190.
Priory of º Greater part in the 5 P. 80 – 87, with a
Northumberland..... § 12th century. { print.
Chapter-house of Wen. D. .
lock Priory, : 1080. }r. 200.
SHIRR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .*
Buildwas.Abbey,Shrop-Y 1 135 probably $ P. 193 – 195, with a
º to 1160. } rint.
Haughmond Abbey, } . P, 179 – 182, with a
Shropshire............. . ~~~~} print.
Mon ASTie
* According to a correction appended to the fourth volume of Britton's
Architectural Antiquities, Lindisfarne should be described as situated in the
sounty of Durham. - .
Anelo-Norman Antiquities.
MONASTIC RUINS, EXHIBITING TRACES OF ANGLO-
NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.
s . Time of Erection. Noticed in the Beauties.
Glastonbury Abbey, ) *-* ( ź
s::::::: &. P toº, about (p. 502, with a print.
_Joseph’s chapel)...... -- . . . . . .
Kirkstall Abbey, } 1153, probably to { P. 798 – 801, with a
Yorkshire........... . | 190 º print. . . . . ;
• * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
The ecclesiastical architecture of WALES so closely assimi-
lates, in progressive character and improvement, with that of
England, that it scarcely requires separate notice in an endea-
vour to investigate the rise and history of the different styles of
building obseryable in this island. On the subject of such an
approximation, Sir Richard C. Hoare (our most judicious writer
on the antiquities of this truly interesting principality) affords the
subjoined comprehensive remarks:—“From the affinity of Eng-
land to Wales, architecture seems to have been nearly upon a
level in each kingdom; for as a particular species of this art rose
up with us in England, imitations were very soon introduced
into the neighbouring principality. This circumstance need not
create much surprise, when we consider the near connexion that
took place between the two countries, when ourancestors sojourned
with the Welsh, we will not say, as absolute conquerors, but as
authoritative visitors. Hence it becomes evident, how so great
a similarity in architecture should prevail in both regions, though
ever divided in private sentiments, if not in public professions;
for in Cambria we find the same mode of design, the same de-
grees of fine workmanship, the same decorative display, and the
same good taste. Indeed, did we not know how the hearts of
each peopled land were estranged by an original and deep-rooted
hatred, we might, in considering the near-joined principle of art
in each country, conclude, that in the pursuit of documents to
illustrate this our architectural system, we traversed one and the
- Although
# Hoare's Giraldus, Vol. II. p. 411. .

410 1 NTRODUCTION.
Although the above observations embrace the whole procedure
of sacred architecture in ages subsequent to the Norman Con-
quest, and are chiefly directed to the buildings of South Wales,
they may be applied particularly to the style denominated Anglo-
Norman, and are equally correct in regard to both divisions of
the principality. . # * :
To the reasons assigned by Sir R. Hoare for that accordance
of architectural features, which is to be observed between the
ecclesiastical structures of England and Wales, it may be added,
that such buildings in both countries were probably erected by
the same workmen. When we consider the state of society, and
of the arts, in the ages under examination, we are warranted in
presuming that fraternities of masons (or of architects, as the as-
sociated builders of a period not very distant are termed by Sir
Christopher Wren") travelled for employment through contiguous
countries; and either executed the designs of ingenious clergy-
men and monks, or presented patterns of previous works for
their selection and adoption. The universal deference to the
pontiff of Rome, led to a unity of interests and fashions between
many nations, which were unhappily at variance in political
feelings. .
Remains of that style of architecture which was practised by
the Anglo-Normans are to be seen in three of the Cathedral
churches of Wales:—Bangor, St. David's, and Landaff. In all
these instances they are intermixed with the architecture of vari-
ous succeeding dates: and the ancient parts of the two latter
cathedrals are in a lamentable state of decay, or dilapidation.
Few parochial churches in the principality exhibit traces of
the circular style. Those of Ewenny,'t and Margan,f are,
, , , -- however,
* Parentalia, p. 306. The remarks of Sir Christopher Wren, on this
topic, are noticed more largely in that part of the present work which treats
on the pointed, or English, style of architecture. . ~
f Beauties for South Wales, p. 684–5.
ºf Ibid, p. 704–5.
O N T H E PRO C E D U R E OF THE ARTS. 411.
however, very conspicuous and interesting examples of this
mode. . . . * * * ‘.
The monastic architecture of each division of the principality,
is now chiefly reduced to lingering masses of ruin, too far de-
faced to allow of any minute discrimination respecting former ar-
chitectural character. The round arch prevails among the few
ruinous fragments of the once-splendid abbey of Strata Florida,
and is, perhaps, more conspicuous in these decaying relics, than
in the remains of any other monastic edifice throughout the whole
of Wales.* r º
ON THE PROCEDURE OF THE ARTS MOST CLOSELY
CONNECTED WITH TOPOGRAPHICAL INVESTIGA-
TION, FROM THE PERIOD OF ANGLO-NORMAN
ARCHITECTURE TO THE REIGN OF JAMES THE
FIRST’. w .
In the preceding sections I have submitted some materials,
and opinions, towards information concerning those great eras in
the history of Britain, which are of peculiar importance with the
Topographer, as they involve political divisions of the country,
and produce separate classes of very interesting antiquities. The
changes in the aspect of our island, and the revolutions in art,
science, and manners, effected by the successive invasions of the
Romans, Saxons, and Normans, were indeed striking and me-
morable. - - - - - -
How abrupt the transition from the Briton's chearless hut, il-
lumined by no ray of refinement, to the villa of the polished,
luxurious, Roman, decorated with sculpture, and provided with
porticos and baths! How great the change in the military cha-
racter
* The abbey of Strata Florida (¥strad Fflur) is noticed in the Beauties for
South Wales, p. 472—477. A beautiful arched gateway, still remaining
among these ruins, forms the vignette to that volume of the Beauties,
412 INTRODUCTION.
racter of the country, when we compare the Briton’s rude eas-
trametation with the scientific, well-arranged, camp of his con-
querors! , -z - -
. But nearly every work of art fell beneath the rapacious en-
croachments of the Saxons. The temples of Britain, and her
novel pride of domestic architecture, were alike swept away by
barbarians intent only on aggrandizement for the gratification of
a sordid sensuality. º
Recovering, by slow degrees, from the coarse, ruinous, com-
plexion inflicted by the Pagan-Saxons, we find the island re-
gaining a comparative resemblance of wealth and architectural
adorminent, under their Christian descendants. Her fields are
tilled by settled husbandmen; cities arise, organised with politi-
eal wisdom, and governed by salutary laws; castles of stone, al-
though few in number, crown some hills, or protect interspersed
regions of cultivated low-land; churches, at once durable and
ornamental, proclaim, in every principal town, the advancement
of religious feeling, with contented social order for its attendant;
massive but humble walls.
The efforts of population were still weak, and the spots en-
riched by art were few, and dispersed over a wide and chill ex-
panse of forest and morass; like casual rays of sunshine in a
vast profound of gloomy sky. . . . . .
The scene was greatly enlivened, if not much ameliorated, by
the enterprising spirit of the Normans. Many deep, thick,
woods (the dank harbours of beasts of prey) fell beneath those
habits of industry which they stimulated equally by precept and
example. Under the Norman sway, baronial castles, with all
the pompous glitter of chivalric parade, gave animation to re-
cesses buried, until that time, in profound quiet, sublime in the
wildness of nature rather than attractive in her simplicity.
Churches, the fair works of piety, raised their stately fronts in
districts then first deemed worthy of architectural ornament; and
- monastic
MILITARY AND Dom Estic ARCH1 recT U R E. 413
monastic piles spread the influence of splendid superstition, over
vales the most rural and sequestered. * . . . . . .
In descending from this date, we happily quit the last era in
which a great and marked alteration has been effected in the as-
pect of the island, as relates to the fashion of architecture, in
consequence of the introduction of a foreign dynasty. The revo-
lutions in art to be noticed in our future pages, are produced by
the inhabitants of Britain, coalesced as one great uation from the
various stocks of invading powers, amalgamated with parts of the
original population, and now first taking pride in the name of
EnglishMEN, and becoming famous as such in the annals of war
and science. . 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . %
It would be gratifying to enter into an examination of various
effects, produced through the whole range of the useful and orna-
mental arts, by this union of population, in the course of the cen-
turies now to be noticed. But the scheme of the present work,
and its limits, equally confine the writer to such circumstances as
are of most obvious importance in Topographical Researches.
Architecture, —Castellated, Domestic, and Ecclesiastical—is,
therefore, constituted our leading article in the section which is
to ensue; and an investigation of the procedure of this one noble
art, will implicate remarks on several other topics, connected
with an historical review of the national taste and manners in
those successive ages.
ON THE subject of CAstellated Structures, From the
close of The ANglo-Norman ERA of ARchitecture,
to the time at which fortified buildings ceased
to be constructed as Dwellings, in England and
WAles; including some REMARKs on the characten
of succeeding MANsions, To The END of The REIGN
of JAMEs The FIRST.
Up is much to be regretted that the subject of castellated ar-
chitectare,
.#
414 INTRODUCTION.
chitecture, assuredly one of the most curious topics of anti-
quarian enquiry, since it is so intimately blended with a history
of the customs and manners of many ages which are left in great
obscurity by the scanty and ill-directed labours of contemporary
historical writers, should have met with serious attention at a
period too late for investigations completely satisfactory. The
propriety of this remark will be admitted, when it is observed
that there is great difficulty in finding a decisive specimen of the
castellated style which prevailed between the reign of Stephen
and that of Edward the First.
If we adopt the conclusions of Mr. King,” we may, however,
consider the keep of Knaresborough Castle to present an ex-
ample of the mode which obtained in the time of Henry the
Third. The castle of Knaresborough is described in the “Beau-
ties” for Yorkshire, where we are told that its site comprised
“ near two acres and a half within the walls, and that the walls
were flanked with eleven towers; which, with several other build-
ings in the different wards, afforded convenience and accommoda-
tion for a numerous garrison.” - a
The respectable author of that portion of the Beauties of Eng-
land, cites, as an authority, a modern historian of Knaresborough,
according to whom, “a part of the principal tower still remain-
ing, appears to have been built about the time of Edward the
Third;” but I confess that I deem the opinion of Mr. King to be
the more acceptable, and would rather, with that writer, suppose
the keep to have been erected about the time of the third Henry.
I shall speedily shew that the style which prevailed in the reign
of Edward the Third, according to all known examples, was of a
character far more capacious and magnificent; while it is equally
unlikely, from many architectural particulars,f that the tower
was of a date earlier than the reign of Henry the Third, as is
stated
* Archaeol. Vol. VI. -
+ Beauties for Yorkshire, p. 636, et seq. {
# Sec Archaeol. Vol. VI. p. 322.
M1LITARY AND DOM ESTIC A R C H IT ECTURE. 416
stated by Camden, who ascribes it, “ on report,” to the time of
William the Conqueror. .
Knaresborough castle was placed on a natural elevation, pre-
cipitous in one part, and affording great facilities of security in
others. The shape of the keep was an oblong square, having,
at one angle, a tower, which exhibits outwardly a circular form;
and, at another, a tower, of flat and square proportions. The
wall, even in the weakest part, is about ten feet thick; and the
angular towers are evidently intended for deceptions, and are en-
tirely solid. On one front is a lofty pointed aperture, which was
much enriched, and is, by some examiners, supposed to have
been a window, but which Mr. King believes to have formed the
grand way of entrance.* In the disposal of the principal rooms
of the keep there are not any peculiarities, except such as arise
from local circumstances. But it may be observed that they were
of limited proportions,t and few in number, although there is rea-
son to believe that they were richly ornamented, from “the re-
mains of an exceeding fine arched roof of stone-work.”
Beeston Castle, noticed in the Beauties for Cheshire, f is sup-
posed to present a further example of castellated buildings con-
structed in the reign of Henry the Third; but is now in a ruinous
condition. This was a massy and extensive pile, erected, as is
believed, about the year 1220, by Randle Blundeville, Earl of
Chester. The fortress was placed on the crest of a lofty insu-
lated rock, and the mural lines enclosed an outer and an inner
area, to the extent of “four or five acres.” The outer wall was
fortified by many round towers; and the entrance was guarded,
on each side, by a tower, also of a circular form. Strong and
judicious precautions of defence are evident in every division of
x - the
. : • Archæol. Vol. VI. p. 323, et seq.
t “ The second story was entirely taken up by the ante-chamber and state-
room, commonly called the king's chamber; each room appearing to have
been about sixteen feet square.” Beauties for Yorkshire, p. 639, 3.
- + Beauties for Cheshire, p. 243.
416 1 NTRODUCTION,
the ponderous ruins; for the efforts of the architect appear to have
been chiefly directed to military arrangement.
King Edward the First, undoubtedly one of the greatest mo-
narchs that have filled the English throne, introduced to this
country a new mode of castellated architecture, splendid and vast
as his own comprehensive mind, and suited to that amelioration
of manners which he appears to have cultivated with memorable
success and lasting influence. This grand style of military ar-
chitecture involves, in the original design of the fortification,
those numerous apartments which in earlier periods were inde-
pendent of the embattled works, and were raised, like tents or
huts within lines of Roman castrametation,-not defensible in
themselves, and probably intended to be demolished by the gar-
rison, on the occurrence of a close siege. . . . ;
Instances of this more refined and superior mode of building,
in which the fortress and the palace are united in one systematic
and extensive erection, are conspicuous in the castles of Caer-
narvon and Conway,+those formidable, yet splendid, structures,
which were once the terror of the Welsh, and now afford them
cause of admiration. Once the badges of subjugation, they now
stand the venerable monuments of a union of interests, conducive
to the happiness of both countries. The general character of
these august fabrics is too well known to render a description of
their 9atlines, or their peculiarities of internal disposition, neces-
sary in the present place.* It is more desirable to trace the
effect of such royal examples on the taste of the nation at large,
as evinced in the construction of private baronial dwellings.
Edward the First granted to many of his subjects a licence to
embattle their seats of residence; and the increasing seeurity,
sociability, and polish of the times, caused his mode of architec-
... . . . . . . . - ture
• A description of Conway castle is presented in Vol. XVII of the Beau-
ties of England and Wales, p. 466; and of Caernarvon castle, Vol. XVII,
p. 353. & … .
MILITARY AND Dom Est IC ARCHITECTURE. 417
ture to be nationally adopted. After the date of this reign we
do not find the Norman methods of castellation in use, or even
that mixed and irregular style which succeeded to the manner in-
troduced in the ages of William the First, and his regal succes-
sor. A gloomy and massive keep, whether insulated near the
centre of multiplied mural lines, or placed boldly in the range of
the works which protected the base-court, no longer constitutes
the principal feature of a castle. In imitation of the great Welsh
castles of Edward the First, the English baron now endeavoured
to unite comparative grandeur and convenience of domestic ar-
rangement, with fortified security. His efforts were at first
rude; but they slowly moved forwards in improvement through
the two next reigns; in the latter of which this combination of
martial outline and interior splendour was carried to a magnifi-
cent height, and to the utinost point of perfection which it ever
attained in this country. - -
It has been already sufficiently shewn, that, in the present
dilapidated state of castellated buildings, it is very difficult to
select a satisfactory example of the style of any determinate era.
When such structures were forsaken as habitations, all-records
concerning their original were usually disregarded by their res-
pective proprietors; and, where the history of a building has
been partially preserved, we often find such massy piles, when .
not raised for the purpose of immediate defence, to have been the
work of different generations, and to display in their several parts
a consequent mixture of fashions. But the castle of Harewood,
in Yorkshire, will probably be received as a ſair specimen of
the general character of English castles erected in the time of
Edward the First. -
On the site of the present ruined structure there stood, un-
questionably, a castle in more ancient times; and some part of .
the walls of such a former building may be still remaining; but
we have good reasons for believing that, with such exceptions,
the whole of the edifice, in its present form, was built about the
-- - -- - º 2 E. tº º * ºn time ...
- ; : # *
418 • I NTRO DUCTION.
time of Edward the First, although not internally completed till
the reign of Edward the Third.* . -
-The ruins of Harewood castle are situated on a lofty natural
hill; and it does not appear that there were any lines of fortifica-
tion beyond the buildings intended for residence. This structure
was quite irregular in shape, and occupied a large plot of ground.
The grand entrance was through two portals, sufficiently lofty to
admit a man on horseback, and guarded by vast portcullises.
There was not any area, or court, within the structure, the whole
of the ground-plan being occupied by apartments, the principal
of which were of spacious proportions. At two of the angles were
oblong towers, each having four apartments, one above another,
provided with a fire-place and a window. Within the substance
of one part of the castle-walls are seen galleries, like those of
Bishop Gundulph's towers; and in another part occur wells or
cavities, supposed to have been designed for the conveyance of
military engines and stores to the upper division of the works.
But, whilst noticing these latter particulars, it must hot be for-
gotten that some parts of the walls were probably constructed at
a period much earlier than the reign of Edward the First, al-
though it is believed that a new form, and that which is still de-
noted by ruinous outlines, was then bestowed on the build-
ing.f - - - -
This mode of castellation, which emanated from the ruling
genius on the throne, was happily suited to the wishes of ages
immediately succeeding. The progress of refinement in domestic
manners, so often impeded in the earlier stages of history by a
want of security against foreign assault, and by the constitutional
weakness of the governing power, was henceforwards slow but
certain; and met with no interruption, except such as was pro-
duced by civil contests, which were, in the greater part, not
* , - - agitated
* See Archaeol. Vol. VI. p. 329–The castle of Harewood is briefly
noticed in the Beauties for Yorkshire, p. 718–720.
... + A second specimen of the style introduced by Edward the First, is mea-
‘tioned in the Beautics for Lincolnshire, p. 754,
MILITARY AND Domestic Architecture. 419
agitated on a public principle, but were rather struggles arising
from private interests and prejudices.
Numerous buildings were altered during the reigns of Edward
the First, and his successor, in attention to the noble fashion in-
troduced by the former king. Many such instances may occur to
the examiner; and the confusion of modes, arising from the exist-
ence, in the same structure, of the Norman keep, and those con-
venient towers and inner halls, which were first blended with a
fortification in the time of this great sovereign, will cause some
perplexity, unless it be remembered that such alterations are
known to have been frequent, and probably were much more
usual than has been authenticated. : - .
In the reign of Edward the Third, the castellated edifices of
this country made a still nearer approach to the character of the
modern palace and mansion. The chivalric exercises of the lists
were now followed by the courtly dance and domestic pageant.
The buildings intended for the residence of the king and his
nobles, were, accordingly, rendered suitable to such habits.
The apartments used for stately retirement and pompous recrea-
tion were increased and enlarged, while the fortified parts would
sometimes appear to be designed for defence against a sudden as-
sault, rather than a regular siege.* º
2. 2 E 2 Windsor
• The improvements which gradually took place in the interior of cas.
tles, are briefly noticed by several modern writers, drawing their intel-
ligence from ancient authorities. Mr. Dallaway (observations on English
Architecture, p. 100—101.) observes that “during the middle centuries
after the Conquest, when the plans of mere defence were rendered subser-
vient to those of comfortable habitation within the walls of a castle, a certain
degree of splendour in the internal decoration and furniture soon followed.
“The walls of the state chambers were covered with wainscot, painted in
fresco upon the pannels, or hung with arras or tapestry. In the numerous
castellated palaces of our early sovereigns, were apartments so ornamented,
as is clearly shown in ancient evidences. At Warwick was a memorable suit
. & of
420 INTR on Uctio N.
Windsor Castle, erected by Edward the Third, as his favourite
place of residence, is an obvious instance of the grand ideas
formed by himself and his architect, respecting the appropriate
dwelling of a king of England in the 14th century. This building
is now so entirely altered, by the additions made in various ages
(frequently incongruous, though magnificent) that it is almost
impracticable to form a correct idea of its aspect, when inhabited
by the warlike and chivalrous reſounder of the structure.
It must be well known to the reader of the Beauties of Eng-
land, that Windsor castle was rebuilt on the site of a fortress
raised by William the Conqueror. In examining such parts of
the edifice as are of the date of King Edward the Third, it is
necessary to hold this circumstance in remembrance; for we here
find
of arras, upon which were represented the achievements of the valorous Earl
of Warwick, Sir Guy, whose legend was familiar to our old poets. Nor did
the halls remain without their share of ornament. Armorial bearings in
stained glass were not unfrequent, at least in the great bay-window ; and,
at the solemn feasts, moveable tapestry was placed behind the high table
“ Sculpture, however rude, was admitted at an earlier period, either over
the machicolation of the gates, in the grotesque figures used as water-spouts,
in escocheons, or effigies of some heroic individual. Over the grand entrance
into Caernarvon castle, is the statue of Edward the First, standing in the act
of drawing his sword, and an attitude of defiance. Carvings, introduced as
architectural embellishments, were, in many instances, finished with no less
perſection than in church buildings.” - -
Mach information concerning the paintings which enriched the walls of
royal and noble castellated structures, in the Middle ages, is contained in
Walpole's Anecdotes of Painting, and in Warton's History of Poetry, Vol. II.
—From the “Dream” of Chaucer it would appear that such circumstances of
embellishment were not confined to the castles of the sovereign and nobility,
but were adopted, also, in the chambers of dwellings belonging to private
gentlemen. The poet, when roused from his dream, found all the gay
in tigery of fancy vanished, and saw nothing,
“Save on the wals old portraiture
Of horsemen, haukis, and houndis,
And hurt dere all full of woundis.”
M1 LITARY AND Do M ESTIC A R C H ITECTURE. 421
find a round tower, or keep, which, unquestionably, was not a
form of building in much use at that time. This circular tower
(formerly termed the round table, as we are informed by Stow)
appears to have been rebuilt in the original Norman form by king
Edward, before he obtained the professional interference of the
ingenious Wykeham; and was, perhaps, re-erected in that dis-
carded shape, through a veneration for the ancient castle in which
the king was born. º -
Although the general disposition of the works is rendered ob-
scure by numerous alterations, there are sufficient traces of the
outline remaining, to convince the examiner that, in this regal
edifice, were combined the apartments and offices of an extensive
palace, with the harsh exterior of a strong embattled fortress. 3.
The number of castles built in periods subsequent to the com-
mencement of the 14th century were few, compared with those
erected in earlier ages, when the feudal lords possessed greator
strength, from the relative weakness of the crown. The instances
of castellated architecture, illustrative of the mode prevailing in
this century, are, therefore, chiefly to be derived from alterations
effected in more ancient structures; and, in such improvements,
the magnificence of the third Edward's era is, indeed, reflected
in lineaments more durable and emphatic than “records on brass,”
since they form some of the most impressive ancient ornaments of
this country, so fertile in subjects gratifying to those who have
a taste for enquiring into the manners of ages long since past, and
best recollected through the medium of such tangible and unequi-
vocal monuments. w 3.
The finest instance of a structure altered according to the man-
ner thus greatly improved in the reign of Edward the Third, is to
be found in ALN wick castle, the splendid and principal seat of
ſis Grace the Duke of Northumberland; which, with the excep-
tion of the regal castellated palace of Windsor, is, assuredly, the
most magnificent castle in Great Britain that is inhabited at the
present day.
This august pile is believed to comprise some parts of a for-
* * - 2 E 3 - tress
422 . . INTRODUCTION.
tress erected in an Anglo-Saxon age, but was chiefly rebuilt in
the 14th century. The barony of Alnwick was purchased by
Henry, Lord Percy, in the year 1309; and by that nobleman,
and his immediate successors, a structure was progressively
N. raised, which was suited to the fashion of the times, and to the
splendour in which they lived.
Alnwick castle is seated on a fine elevation, which rises gra-
dually from the south side of the river Alne. The keep, or cita-
del, is of vast magnitude, and attains much of the picturesque of
architecture from “fair semi-circular towers,” which protect and
adorn it on every side.
The castle-area is divided into three courts, entered through
gateways formed in lofty towers, embattled, and defended with
portcullises. Attached to the portal that constitutes the entrance
of the inner ward, and appears to be of Anglo-Saxon architec-
ture, are two octangular towers, charged with a series of escut-
cheons, which supplies the place of an inscription, and proves
that these additional buildings were erected about the year
1350.
The interior, even as it stood before recent splendid alterations,
was evidently adapted to the exercise of a princely hospitality;
and evinced, in its arrangement, a slow but determinate increase
in polish of manners and social eonfidence.* .
. , Commanding
* Many particulars relating to the state of this noble castle in the 16th
century, are published in “A description of Alnwick Castle, taken from
an autient survey of divers of the possessions of the Right Honourable
the Earl of Northumberland, made about the year 1567, by George
Clarkeson, surveyor of all his lordship's lands, and other the said earl's
officers.” This curious document (which is preserved amongst the evidences
of his Grace the Duke of Northumberland) is printed, by permission, in
Grose's Antiquities of England and Wales, Vol. III. and in Hutchinson's
View of Northumberland, &c. Vol. II. The whole is highly worthy of peru-
sal, by those who are desirous of acquiring an intimate knowledge of the
architectural arrangements of the 14th century. . :-
Military ANd Do M estic ARchitecture. 428
Commanding precautions of outward defence were, however,
deemed necessary to the grandeur, as well as to the security, of
the edifice. The whole of the castle-area is encompassed … by
walls, which are flanked with sixteen lofty towers and turrets.
But ornament is interspersed, even amongst features of military
harshness. Distributed along the battlements, are seen numer-
ous sculptured figures, which are chiefly those of warriors in atti-
tudes of defence. r
Although Alnwick castle was re-edified by the first Duke and
Duchess of Northumberland, and is now arranged in a style of
internal magnificence, suited to the dignified uses of the illustri-
ous family in modern times, the whole pile, in its general exte-
rior character and disposal, presents a fine memorial of the mode.
of castellated architecture prevailing during the ages in which a
great extent of buildings, and numerous apartments designed for
stately pleasure, were blended with strong outlines of martial
defence. The hand of restoration was here guided by an admira-
ble correctness of taste, and veneration of antiquity.
Amongst other castles, altered in attention to the improved
ideas of domestic accommodation and internal splendour, which
prevailed in the time of the Edwards, may be noticed those of
Warwick,” Berkeley,t and Kenilworth. It will, however, be
observed that many additions, of a still later date, have been made
to each of those structures. The latter is now in a state of for-
saken ruin, but still presents many strongly-marked indications
of the style of the 14th century, which will be found at once
useful and gratifying to the arshitectural antiquary. .
Some buildings, of less magnitude than those noticed above,
may be desirably adduced as examples of the style prevailing at
the same era; since they are free from the intermixture of pre-
. 2 E 4 & vious
• Beauties for Warwickshire, p. 210.
+ +--— Gloucestershire, p. 723.
§ –— Warwickshire, p. 34-43,
424 I NTRODU CTION.
vious modes, and exhibit more closely the character of baronial
dwellings of a customary size. * x
Spofford Castle, in Yorkshire, a mansion deserted many
ages back, and now in ruins, is confidently believed to have been
erected about the reign of Edward the Third.t . ‘. . .
This structure is of an oblong form, having at one angle a small
tower of the same shape, beneath which was a cell, or dungeon,
probably designed for the reception of prisoners. The principal
entrance was near this angular tower, and was narrow and small,
but placed on the level of the ground. The lower rooms were
lighted only by loop-holes, with the exception of one large win-
dow, which, however, was a sufficient point of weakness to ren-
der nugatory all attempts at permanent defence. ... x
In the present dilapidated state of this abandoned structure, it
is difficult to ascertain the order of the different apartments.
- . But
* The following remarks, on the subject of baronial castles of the Middle
ages, are presented by Mr. Dallaway in his Observations on English Archi-
tecture.--" In the reign of Edward the Third, some attempts were made to
render castles habitable, and even magnificent. Many of his barons, who
had acquired wealth by the ranson of prisoners taken in the fields of Poitiers
and Cressy, were proud to apply it to the decoration and enlargement of
their castles; and the splendid example the king had shown at Windsor, ex-
cited in them 3. rivalry of imitation. jº
“The aera of this improvement extended itself from this reign to the close
of the contention between the houses of York and Lancaster. Within this
period we may date the erection, or renovation, of the grandest castellated
structures of which this kingdom could once boast; and whose venerable
ruins are the most characteristick features of the English landscape. About
... this time, turrets, and hanging galleries, over the salient angles and the
gateways, very various in their design, were added to the ruder architecture
of impregnable strength, and (particularly in the Welsh counties) conical
buttresses were applied to round towers, reaching to more than half their
height, and spreading at the base like a modern bastion. By these additions
the ruins are rendered extremely picturesque.” Dallaway's Observations on
English Architecture, p. 95–96. . .
+ Archaeol. Vol. VI. p. 337.--This castle is noticed in the Beauties for
Yorkshire, p. 633. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . #.
MILITARY AND Do M Estic ARCH ITECTURE. 425
But they appear to have been few in number, whilst those of lead-
ing consequence were of spacious dimensions. The great hall,
situated directly above the principal divisions of the ground-floor,
was not less than 75 feel in length, and 36 feet in breadth. This
noble room, the seat of unlimited hospitality, is lighted by lofty,
pointed windows, and is entered by two spacious doors, also of a
pointed form.—So constructed, it is evident that it could not be
intended for serious and lasting defence. The whole building,
indeed, displays the characteristics of a grand, but rude, man-
sion, indeterminate in feature, and hesitating between hospitable
confidence and armed precaution. , º,
Naworth Castle, in Cumberland, which appears to have been
built in the reign of Edward the Third, by Ranulphus Dacre,
“ chiefly consists of two large square towers, united by other
buildings, and enclosing a quadrangular court.” This struc-
ture, as is observed by Mr. King,'t “has still more of the auk-
ward attempt of introducing convenience and magnificence, and
still less of the cautious provisions for munition and defence,”
than other buildings ascribed to the same reign. The interior
contains a vast number of apartments; some few of which are
spacious, but all gloomy and ill-contrived. Although it is pro-
bable that alterations have been effected in the disposal of many
of these rooms, the general character of the building is an inter-
esting specimen of the architectural mode of the age in which
it is believed to have been erected. Situated on the borders, and
consequently much exposed to danger, this edifice must be
amongst the last in which precautions of sullen security were
sacrificed to fashion and a growing amenity of manners; yet,
even here, we find the dismal and isolated keep abandoned, and
ranges of apartments occupying the place of former embattled
mural lines,f -- -
Hever
** Beauties for Cumberland, p. 120. t Archeol. vol. VI.
t The interior of this very curious building exhibits numerous contrivances .
426 1 NTRO DUCTION.
Hever Castle, in Kent, presents another instance of castellated
buildings erected in the reign of Edward the Third; and dis-
plays, in its general character, a similar improvement in social
arrangement, blended with decided efforts at exterior defence.
This structure is surrounded by a moat, crossed by a drawbridge;
and the “entrance gateway, which consists of a centre, flanked
by round towers, is embattled and strongly machicolated, and is
also defended by a portcullis.”* The inuer buildings, however,
unlike those of early Anglo-Norman castles, or of the mixed
style immediately succeeding, “form a quadrangle, enclosing a
court.” • s: . . . . .”
Not any architectural deviations of importance can be ascer-
tained in castles erected, or altered, in the succeeding reign
(that of Richard the Second;) which period presents the latest
examples of buildings strictly entitled to such a denomination.
A very few instances will, therefore, be sufficient for the satis-
faction of the enquirer. - - - r .
Bolton Castle, in Yorkshire, is said, by Leland, to have been
built by Richard, Lord Scrope, in the time of King Richard the
Second. This was a stately pile, seated on an eminence. The
whole building surrounded an open court, “and was disposed in
the form of a parallelogram, with square towers at each extreme
angle. A small tower rose near the centres of the north and
south sides.”f There were three ways of entrance; and the
* ..., .. # 3 >. w - whole
of defence and retreat from the incursions of “moss-troopers,” or other
marauding foes. The whole internal arrangement, indeed, seems “ chiefly
calculated to keep an enemy out, or elude his vigilance should he happen to
get in. Its hiding-holes are numerous; but it seems probable that many
of its close recesses are even now unknown.” The staircases are winding,
dark, and narrow; and long successions of doors, opening to the more re-
tired apartments, are strongly plated with iron.
- ----- * Beauties for Kent, p. 1315.
t Arch Antiqs. Vol. IV. p. 155-According to Leland, this castle was
“a makynge XVIII yeres; and the chargys of the buyldinge cam, by yere,
to 1000 marks.” .
MILITARY AND Domestic Architecture. 427
whole building appears to have been destitute of those defensive
precautions adopted in earlier specimens of castellation, and some-
times evident, in parts of other castellated edifices erected, or
altered, in this reign.
The castle of Lumley, in the county of Durham" was origi-
nally constructed in the reign of Edward the First; but was
altered, under a licence of fortification granted by Richard the
Second, and Bishop Skirlaw, in the year 1389. It is difficult
to distinguish, in this instance, between the works of different
ages; but strong preparations for defence are apparent in many
parts, intermingled with extensive and sumptuous ranges of
domestic apartments. The buildings are situated on an elevated
spot, and form a quadrangle, enclosing an area, and protected,
at each angle, by octagonal machicolated turrets. The project-
ing gateway is, likewise, commanded by turrets and a machico-
lated gallery; and it is ascertained, by armorial sculpture, that
this gateway underwent alteration by Sir Ralph Lumley, in the
reign of Richard the Second. Three stories of apartments, in the
east front, being that on which is placed the above gateway, have
mullioned windows, guarded with iron. . . . .
A second instance of a baronial castle, altered according to the
style of this reign, occurs in the eastle of Raby, likewise in the
county of Durham.; But, in this noble pile, the marks of alter- #.
ation in the time of King Richard are still more obscurely inter-
mixed with buildings of much greater antiquity, and with subse-
quent improvements. In many parts, however, it still displays
the modes prevailing about the year 1379, when John de Nevill,
Earl of Westmoreland, obtained a licence “to make a castle of his
manor of Raby, and to embattle and crenellate its towers.” The
strong, embattled, towers, either renovated, or entirely con-
structed, by that earl, are numerous. But the decisive traces of
- - r: the
* Beauties for Durham, p. 189; with an engraving.
+ Printed, by mistake, in the Beauties for Durham, 1329.
f Beauties for Durham, p. 237. . . .
42s INTRODUCTION.
the era in which he flourished, are most conspicuous in rude, but
grand, efforts towards an increase of internal convenience and
splendour. The ground-plan of the outworks is, probably, of a
much more ancient date. x -.
Thus reluctantly did the custom of living in massy fastnesses,
which defied party-competition, and rendered an individual al-
most superior to the reigning law of the land, pass away from
nobles long accustomed to feudal manners, and intent on exact-
ing, with arbitrary interest, from the middle classes and the com-
monalty, those dues of homage, and more solid advantages, which
themselves rendered to the crown. §
It is believed that we have not any remaining specimen of a
building, really entitled to the name of castle, and intended for a
noble dwelling, that was erected at a date subsequent to the
reign of Richard the Second. Various circumstances accele-
rated the disuse of such structures, as places of residence for the
noble and wealthy—The increase of urbanity and refinement,
attendant on the progressive substitution of commerce for chivalry,
as the great dependance of the nation, must have created a dispo-
sition towards the relinquishment of such dreary and isolated re-
cesses of stone. The same bias of national temper, necessarily
produced, although by slow degrees, a more settled state of pub-
lic affairs, favourable to the indulgence of the growing taste and
enlarged liberality of sentiment. r &
But one obvious circumstance is, in itself, of sufficient weight
to account for the abandonment of fortification, according to the
ancient methods, without a reference to causes more conjectural
and obscure.—The whole mode of warfare experienced so entire a
change by the introduction of gunpowder and artillery, that the
duplicated ramparts, with their crenelles and turrets, and even the
massy walls of the keep, although proof to the cattus or the bat-
tering ram, were no longer secure guards against the assault of a
determined foe.” … .
Te
* A different opinion prevailed for a short time during the reign of Henry
- 2. ' the
MILITARY AND Dom Estic Architectur E. 429
To this inducement may, perhaps, be added (as an offspring of
the substitution of commerce for chivalry) the increase of our
naval strength, and consequent accession of security from foreign
invasion. . . . . . .
From such causes conjoined, no baronial seats, regularly for-
tified, were erected in ages succeeding the time of Richard the
Second; and those already existing were gradually abandoned,
except in casual times of public trouble. .
In the sanguinary struggles between the rival houses of York
and Lancaster, the more ancient and massy of these strong holds
were often subjects of contention and enterprise. They afterwards
returned to a happy state of neglect as fortifications; from which
they were disastrously called in the 17th century.-It appears,
that, in the year 1636, a commission was issued, appointing
Lieutenant-Colonel Coningsby “ commissary-general of, and for,
all the castles and fortifications in England and Wales.” The
express object of this measure has not, however, been ascertained.
During the calamitous civil war (painful in every point of view!)
which brought the generous, but misguided, career of Charles to
a fatal conclusion, many ancient castles were garrisoned, and de-
fended, by the respective contending parties.
When the king’s cause was lost, several of these structures
(equally venerable and curious!) were dismantled, or utterly de-
stroyed, by order of Parliament. Since that date, the inroads'
of dilapidation have been much more than commensurate with the
progress of time. A busy and increasing commercial population
has demolished, without scruple, many fragments of such cas-
. -> . . tellated
*
the Eighth. By that monarch were erected in haste, and, as it would al-
most appear, in trepidation, several fortresses for the defence of the coast
against invasion. An instance of these block-houses is noticed in the Beau-
ties for Sussex, p. 199. The building there described (Winchelsea, or Cam-
ber Castle) is a satisfactory example of the whole of the fortresses constructed
by Henry the Eighth, with a view of protecting the coast. They usually
consist of a large circular tower, with outworks, sometimes comprising sm ller
towers of the same form, - 3 : .
480 1NTRODUCTION. . .
< tellated structures as were supposed to interfere with its specula-
tions in local improvement. In more secluded situations, the
havoc has sometimes been equally complete. The agriculturalist,
and the repairer of the highways, have, in too many instances,
profited by such remains of these august fabrics as were remote
from busy haunts; and thus has proceeded a gradual work of de-
struction, in which time and weather [the agents most readily
named, and to which the devastation is usually attributed] have,
in reality, had little share. But the hand of antiquarian taste has
interposed in late years, and has preserved from entire demoli-
tion numerous relics, threatened by ignorance and avarice. Such
vestiges are likely to remain for many centuries, if they meet
with a similar protection. It is, however, chiefly as ruins that
we view these monuments of ancient baronial grandeur. Few
castles, that were the heads of baronies in years shortly follow-
ing the Norman Conquest, are now in a habitable state; al-
though, perhaps, often renovated in different descending ages.
To the indeterminate style last noticed, in which irregular pre-
cautions of defence were blended with efforts towards internal am-
plitude and convenience, succeeded a mode of architecture purely
domestic as to its uses, although exhibiting partially the aspect
of castellation.—Long accustomed to associate an idea of suited
grandeur of residence with that of a threatening military outline,
our ancestors, when they relinquished the fortress as a baronial
seat, erected in its place an ostentatious kind of fabric, which
must be described as a castellated house.* . . . .
From their want of massive solidity, few of these buildings re-
main at the present day, even in ruins; and most have been en-
tirely rased to the ground, and supplanted by mansions, which,
in their turn, have also yielded to time and fashion, and are now
* . . . . . . . .” º either
* One of the strongest buildings of this description, if, indeed, it properly
fall under such a class, was Raglan castle, Monmouthshire; memorable for
the gallant defence made by the Marquis of Worcester against the Parliamen-
tarians. Wide Beauties for Monmouthshire, p. 150, et seq. tº
MILITARY AN B Do Mestic Architectuas. 431
either destroyed, or defaced by spruce modern fittings-up. The
ancient castellated house affords a subject of antiquarian enquiry,
very curious in regard to the manners of several obscure ages;
and we are fortunate in having a specimen, free from important
innovation, although much neglected, in Haddon-Hall, Derby-
shire. & 3 : x: . "
The venerable mansion thus denominated,” is seated on th
brow of a sleep hill; and its lofty turrets and embattlements, when
viewed from a distance, give it the appearance of a regular and
strong fortress. But, on a closer inspection, these indications
of defensible arrangement are ſound to be fallacious, and in-
tended merely for ornament. The whole of the structure is
open to approach, and designed, through all its interior, for the
purposes of family accommodation, and rude, but generous, hos-
pitality. . . . .
The buildings surround two paved quadrangular courts; and
the various apartments into which they are divided are extremely
numerous, but are devoid of elegance, and even of convenience.
The great hall, situated in the principal, or outward, court, was,
evidently, the public dining room of the mansion; and has a
raised floor at the upper end, for the baronial family and their
most distinguished guests. Over one side, and, likewise, over
a skreen at the lower end, is a gallery, supported on pillars.
The rooms appropriated to the domestic retirement of the heads
of the family, were few, and of a dreary character. Independent
of a vast assemblage of offices, and chambers, for that numerous
throng of retainers supposed necessary to the dignity of the esta-
blishment, the chief apartment, after a notice of the hall, is a
gallery, 110 feet in length, and 17 feet in width, occupying one
entire side of the second court. y . .
All the principal rooms, with an exception of the gallery, were
* : ; hung
º, • For a more extended account of Haddon hall, or house, see Beauties
for Derbyshire, p. 494; and Archæologia, Vol. VI. in which latter work is
a ground-plan of the building. .
INTRODUCTION.
hung with loose arras; and the doors were uniformly concealed
behind the hangings. This practice, however, must not be en-
tirely attributed to fashion, or a love of ornament. Such a thick
and warm skreen was necessary to protect the inmates of those
apartments from the chill streams of air, which otherwise pene-
trated the most close recesses of such vast and ill-contrived
buildings. * . . ." . :
This spacious mansion comprised within its courts a chapel,t
having two side aisles, in one of which were placed long oaken
benches for the domestics. Two “large high pews, on each side
the body of the structure, and reaching from the middle nearly
as far as the altar,” were appropriated to the use of the family.
Most buildings so extensive are the works of several ages.
The oldest part of Haddon Hall [a tower over the gateway, on
the east side of the upper quadrangle] is believed to have been
erected about the reign of Edward the Third; and the chapel is
of the time of Henry the Sixth. But not any part of the building
is of a later date than the 17th century; and the whole may *Cer-
tainly be received, in outline, as an example of the castellated
domestic style which succeeded to the declined mode of actual
castellation, finally abandoned soon after the reign of Richard the
Amongst those few remaining buildings which partake of the above
character, may be noticed the mansion termed Hampton court,
#
lº
• An idea of the rude character of carpenter's, or joiner's work, even in
the most splendid mansions of the 16th century, may be formed from a pas-
sage in Laneham's account of Queen Elizabeth's memorable visit to Kenil-
worth castle. This writer, who was a servant in waiting, observes “that if
the councell sit, and I take a lystenar, or a pryer-in, at the chinks, or at
the Lok-hole, I am by-and-by in the bones of him.” x ..
3. + In this chapel is an old stone font; a circumstance worthy of notice, as
fonts for the administration of the baptismal sacrament rarely occur in private
chapels. The ancient chapel of Westenhanger, Kent, was likewise provided
with a font. SeeBeauties for Kent, p. 1135. -


M1 LITARY AND DO MEs.TIC AR (; H 11 Ect URE. 433,
in the county of Hereford.* This structure was erected in the
reign of Henry the Fourth, and surrounds a quadrangular court,
having a grand tower of entrance in the centre of the principal
front, and a smaller tower at each extremity.” It is observable
that, in this instance, the gateway is machicolated, and “deeply
embattled,” although, in general character, the other parts of
the building were not calculated for a lasting defence. The in-
terior contains many spacious apartments. . . . . . .
Owburgh Hall, in the county of Norfolk,+ also presents curi-
ous lineaments of the style imitative of castellation, mingled with
the open arrangements of confidential intercourse. This build-
ing, which surrounded a square court, was encompassed by a
moat, and was entered by an embattled tower gateway, that still
remains, nearly in its original state, and exhibits a conspicuous
instance of the parade of fortification, without the real means of
permanent resistance.: ºr
Traces of the same style of architecture may, likewise, be ob.
served in the ruins of Nether Hall, Essex; $ a brick mansion,
which originally surrounded a quadrangular court.
In the instance of these curious piles we may satisfactorily
notice the rise of a fashion in domestic architecture; but the pro-
gress of such a mode towards the next determinate stage of archi-
tectural fashion, is nearly lost in the ruin to which defenceless
noble dwellings were subject, from causes already stated; to which
may be added the ravages effected in the calamitous war between
the rival roses. - -- - :
It is, liowever, to be ascertained that such arts of building as
were conducive to interior convenience and comfort, moved on-
wards with creditable success; and that a great improvement
* Beauties for Herefordshire, p. 576, et seq. with an engraved view.
t Beauties for Norfolk, p. 276, et seq.
f An engraved view of the “Tower gateway” of Oxburgh Hall is inserted
in Britton's Architectural Antiquities, Vol. II. . - .
$ The ruinous remains of Nether Hall are described in the Beauties for
Essex, p. 428–9. -
434 . . . . . intropuction.
took place in the arrangement and embellishments of the state
apartments of a mansion, before the expiration of the 15th century.
Many parts of the capacious seat termed Knole, or Knowle,
near Seven-Oaks, in Kent,” were built by Thomas Bourchier,
Archbishop of Canterbury, about the time of Edward the Fourth;
and the buildings attributed to that prelate display ostentatious
and futile marks of imitative castellation, while a still greater
attention is paid to the refinements of secure social-intercourse
than is to be observed at Haddon. … …
- The remaining great hall of the house constructed by a citizen
of London, Sir John Crosby, who built for his residence Crosby
Place, in the latter part of the 15th century, is an interesting
-specimen of the costly ornaments bestowed on the interior of state
rooms, in mansions of that date. . . . . . . . . .
. To such irregular, but vast, piles as those of Haddon-house
and Knowle, succeeded the capacious quadrangular mansions of
the time of Henry the Eighth. An excellent example of this
style of building was lately to be seen in Cowdray-house, Sus-
sea ºf and although that building is now in a state of ruin,
through the devastation of an accidental fire, its original charac-
ter may still be traced in the extensive remains. x
The ruins of Thornbury Castle, in Gloucestershire,f present
-a fine memorial of the ornamented style introduced at this era.
The eastle of Thornbury was begun by Edward Stafford, Duke
of Buckingham; but was left unfinished, in consequence of the
fall and decapitation of that nobleman, in the year 1522.
... A splendid specimen of the same style ofarchitecture is, like-
wise, remaining, in the instance of Hengrave Hall, Suffolk. §
The coutemporary palaces of Richmond and Nonsuch exist
anly in description and graphic delineation; but, in the ancient
. r .3 . parts
* Beauties for Kent, p. 1826. .
º t —— Sussex, p. 59.
* * . - - Gloucestershire, § p. 725. ~
“s —— Suffolk, p. 124–5. Two fine engravings of this building
are given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities, Vol. II. a ‘’






Military and domestic Architecture. 485.
parts of Hampton-court, Middlesex,” we have a memorable and
striking specimen of the character of building, which the magnifi.
cent Wolsey esteemed desirable for a palatial residence. We here,
see several courts, uniformly of a quadrangular shape, rising
gressively, from subordinate chambers with a plain exterior, to
spacious suites, highly embellished on the front towards, the courts.
The most sumptuous parts of Wolsey’s structure are no more;
but it appears that the gloomy character of the ancient castellated,
house was studiously avoided in their arrangement; and that the
halls and galleries, designed for state and festivity, were calcu-
lated to display with advantage that splendour of domestic decor.
ration in which he took an ostentatious delight.
Thereign of Elizabeth presents the next great era in the pron.
gress of domestic architecture.t. Very numerous mansions were:
then constructed; and the slightest topographical researches will,
be sufficient to convince us that many of these still remain, as,
-magnificent and grateful monuments of the affluence and security,
of that renowned period in our national annals. In the mansions,
of Queen Elizabeth’s days, and those of James the First, a great.
amplitude of dimensions would appear to be the first object in,
request; and, secondary only to a pride in extensive site, is con-
spicuous a fondness for multiplied ornaments on the exterior.
The most stately of these palaces are marked by numerous tur-
rets, carved parapets, decorated portals, and enriched corridores.
In the disposal of these embellishments, little correctness of
taste is displayed; and a poverty of invention is often united
with a mixture of styles, peculiarly disgraceful to the charac r. -
of an age in which the chief efforts of architectural talent we l,
directed towards domestic edifices.
An imported Italian fashion had been for some time gaining on.
2 F 2 public
* Beauties for the county of Middlesex, p. 446–482.
t Although so many splendid structures were erected in this reign, it is
remarkable that but little is known concerning the architects respectively.
employed. The same observation also applies to the reign of Henry the
º . .
"Eighth.






436 . . . . . NT Ro DUCTio N.
public, notice. This consisted of defective imitations of Grecialt
and Roman architecture, which were intermixed with various
non-descript. novelties of style, in a manner truly puerile and
offensive. The protector Somerset had adopted this strange
union of dissimilar moles, in his London palace, lately taken
down to give way to the public building erected by Sir W. Cham-
bers; and it progressively grew into a national fashion, of which
many instances remain, discreditably produced by the best archi-
tects in the times of Elizabeth and James the First.* .
The interior of these noble, but ill-designed dwellings, pre-
sents numerous stately rooms, large in proportions and very lofty.
On their capacious dimensions, indeed, they chiefly depend for
admiration. Destitute of the fine carved ceilings, rich in tracery
and pendants, which adorn some domestic buildings erected in
the previous century, and in the time of Henry the Eighth, these
rooms are usually finished with little labour and less elegance.
But, in the arrangement of the apartments, there is evident a
preparation for extensive social intercourse, more refined than
that of ages in which greater cost was bestowed on the few prin-
cipal rooms; although a want of comfort will be discovered by
* . . . . '' . .3 the
* Mr. Warton, in his observations on Spenser's Fairy Queen, takes occa-
sion to say that, “although the Roman or Grecian architecture did not begin
to prevail in England till the time of Inigo Jones, yet our communication
with the Italians, and our imitation of their manners, produced some speci-
. mens of that style much earlier.” After noticing Somerset House, in the
Strand, Mr. Warton observes that the monument of Bishop Gardiner, in
winchester cathedral, made in the reign of Mary, about 1555, is decorated
with Ionic pillars. “ However, most of the great buildings of Queen Eliza-
beth's reign have a style peculiar to themselves, both in form and finishing;
where, though much of the old Gothic is retained, and great part of the new
taste is adopted, yet neither predominates ; while both, thus distinctly
blended. compose a fantastic species hardy reducible to any class or name.
One of its characteristics is the affectation of large and lofty windows; where
says Bacon, you shall have sometimes fair houses so full of glass that one can
so tell where to become to be out of the sun,” . . . . .

...' . - • , :- 3 * : *. wº, º kº. "
M1 LITARY AND Do M Estic ARchitecture. 437
the examiner who is accustomed to the delicate accommodations
of a modern mansion.
. The following remarks concerning several characteristics of
noble domestic structures, commencing with the reign of Henry
the Eighth, and ending with that of James the First, are worthy
of attention, as they proceed from a writer who was an archi-
tect by profession, and who had taken advantage of every profes-
sional opportunity to investigate the architectural antiquities of
his country. ; - - &
“The brick buildings of the age of Henry the Eighth, may be
distinguished, by being chequered with glazed bricks, of a darker
colour than the rest of the fronts, which were generally built with
bricks of a deep red, very hard and well burnt. The window-
frames were sometimes of stone; but very often of bricks, mould-
ed on purpose, and covered with strong plaister of stucco imi-
tating stone. During the reigns of Queen Mary and Queen Elii
zabeth, the ornaments of Grecian architecture, which were in-
troduced in the time of Henry the Seventh, were frequently ini-
tated in burnt clay; and with them they laced the fronts of their
houses, and covered the shafts of their chimnies, in the same
manner as those which were executed in stone on Somerset-house
in the Strand. For this purpose a variety of fantastical figures
were invented, in which the Grecian and Gothic ornaments were
often absurdly mixed together; and in this manner they were
used till the time of James the First, when they began to make
plainer shafts to their chimnies, and those moulded bricks were
laid aside: but in this and the preceding reign the buildings in
general were badly executed, many of the walls being little better >
than rubbish between two thin shells of brick; and some of them.
were filled with small rough stones, mixed with clay instead of
mortar, and others with turves or peat, such as common people use
for fuel in those places where wood and coals are scarce.”* 3.
* * * * * 2 F 3 Amongst
Mr. Essex. Archaeol. Vol. 1 V. p. 107.
introduction.
Amongst the most splendid mansions erected in the reigns of
Queen Elizabeth and James the First, may be noticed Burleigh,
in Northamptonshire;” Hardwick Hall, in Derbyshire;t Audley
House, Essex;f Longleat, in Wiltshire;5 and Holland House,
Middlesex, - 3. . . . . . . ;
The above, however, are merely adduced as satisfactory ex-
amples of the prevailing modes. Instances of s umptuous do mestic .
buildings, constructed in these reigns, occur much too frequently
in the different volumes of the “ Beauties,” to allow of an at-
tempt towards a collective enumeration.
The castellated structures of WALES, and its domestic build-
ings, of the more important and ornamental classes, are so nearly
similar to those of England, as far as regards remaining exam-
ples, that they scarcely demand distinct notice, in this place.
in the progress of the present enquiry, several buildings, situated
in Wales, have been cited, as satisfactory instances in an at-
tempt towards the elucidation of marked peculiarities of style,
prevailing in-determinate stages of the history of military archi-
tecture. A few general reiharks may be added."
- It
3. • Beauties for Northamptonshire, p. 23r.
+ —— Derbyshire, p. 542. -
* —— Essex, p. 390.
*5 ——Wiltshire, p. 293. a ... ?
* — the county of Middlesex, p. 136. - -
*I some valuable observations, respecting the Military Architecture of
Wales, are afforded by Sir Richard C. Hoare. The following excerpt can-
not fail of being acceptable to the reader. —“welsh castles may be divided
into three classes; the original British, situated on high and almost inacces:
sible mountains, such as Carn Madrºn near Nelyn, and Corndochon near
Bala, --- in North Wales; and Crug Howel above the vill age of Crickhowel in
South Wales, with numerous others dispersed about the hills in each princi-
pality, bearing the same characteristic features of rude and remote antiquity.
The vulgar name of Cottiau Gwyddelod, or huts of the wild men, attributed
tº them by the natives, arose probably from their mode of construction;






MILITARY AND Romestic ARchitecture.
It has been said, by a late writer on the castellated antiquities
of Wales, [the Hon. Daines Barrington, in the first volume of
Archaeologia} that all the principal castles of that country were
2 F. 4 rebuilt
being excavations made in the ground and rock, and surrounded by an in-
closure of loose stones. .
“ Under the next head I shall place those that were constructed with stone,
and cemented with mortar, and placed on less eminent situations. These are,
very similar in their plans, having generally an outwork, and an artificial,
mound of earth as a citadel 3. instances of these are seen at Pencadair and,
Lanpeder in South Wales. These appear to me to be the castles recorded in
the Welsh Chronicle, as having been so frequently destroyed, and so fre-
quently rebuilt; and I am inclined to think that they were chiefly con-
structed with wood, otherwise they never could have been restored and re-
fortified in the very short time specified in the Welsh annals. 3.
“After the subjugation of Glamorganshire by the Normans, and the set-
tlement of the Flemings in the Principality; a new and far more sumptuous.
mode of building was introduced; of which we see many fine examples in the
castles of Cardiff, Kidwelly, Pembroke, Cilgarran, &c. &c. The contrast
between the second and third classes may be seen at Hav, where the tumulus.
and site of the Welsh castle, and the ruins of the subsequent Norman for-
tress, are still visible. -
“A great improvement was afterwards made in military architecture by.
King Edward the First, who at the same time that he shewed his good policy
in erecting the stately castles of Conwy, Caernarvon, and Harlech, as bul-
warks against the Welsh, displayed his good taste and knowledge in military
architecture. The picturesque superiority of these buildings is owing to the
introduction of small turrets arising from the larger, by which the heavy
castellated mass of masonry receives great additional lightness and -ele-
gance.” ... . . . . . . . . .
These passages are extracted from Sir Richard C. Hoare's edition of the
Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin, &c. Vol. II. p. 401–3. It is probable
that the learned and elegant editor may be correct in supposing that Welsh
castles, like those of Pencadair and Lampeder, were chiefly constructed of
wood ; but the reader will recollect that, in page 240, of this “Introduc'
tion,” some reasons are adduced for believing that early chroniclers were often
guilty of misrepresentation, in stating castles to be utterly destroyed, when, .
in fact, only the ſortifications were dismantled, and the interior rendered far ; , ;
some time uninhabitable. §

440 . . . . . . . . . . ºr NTRoduction. * . . . . . . . .
rebuilt by King Ed ward the First, or about his time; and that
the Welsh, while under their own princes, wanted money, skill,
and even a sufficiency of workmen, for the erection of extensive
and substantial edifices. Assertions of so sweeping and except-
less a description, are generally proved erroneous by subsequent
careful investigation. That the most splendid, and powerful cas-
tles in Wales were erected by that king, or in imitation of his
style, will scarcely be denied; but the remains of many fortified
buildings, of great strength and magnitude, are found in almost
every division of the principality, which, on data arising from
historical testimony, and from evidence oſ architectural charac-
ter, must be assigned to periods long antecedent to the reign of
Edward. . . . . . . . 3
Amongst the numerous ruins that add picturesque beauty to
the heights and passes of this fine country, occur the remains of
fortresses, which, from the absence of all record, are possibly of
a British origin;” while there are reasons for supposing that
parts of structures equally remote in date, were often worked into
the stronger castles erected by arbitrary Norman lords. -
The castles, either wholly constructed, or re-edified, in Wales,
by the Anglo-Normans, previous to the reign of Edward the
First, were, unquestionably, possessed of formidable strength,
and, in many instances, were of magnificent dimensions. Those
of Cardiffit Pembroke,f and Kidwelly, S. may be adduced as
proofs of the justice of these assertions.
But it is sufficiently obvious that, during the numerous wars
, " Mr. King's conjectures respecting the imitations of various early styles
observable in some remaining Welsh buildings, are slightly noticed in my
remarks on the military architecture of the Anglo Saxons. The opinious of a
writer so fond of hypothesis as Mr. King, must, however, be received with
much caution. A rich field of antiquarian enquiry is still open, in regard to
the ruins of ancient castles in Wales.
4 Beauties for South Wales, p. 614. . . . .
# –— South Wales, p. 798. . . . .
§ –—— South Wales, p. 371,
! .
. . . . . . . ;

pointed, or English, style of Architecture. 441
in which the principality was engaged, its fortresses were exposed
to frequent partial demolition; and, consequently, we often see
a restitution of parts, sometimes with additional fortifications, in
the modes of various subsequent ages. Many of these renova-
tions and improvements, undoubtedly took place in the reign of
Edward the First; and to the military architecture of his era
must be frequently attributed a portion of the splendid outworks,
which now, amalgamated in one mass of ruin, are blended, by
the cursory observer, with the original keep, of a date far more
distant.
It appears that, in particular instances, these additions of for-
tification were continued even down to the reign of Henry the
Seventh.' And, when the necessity for defence happily ceased to
exist, the style of castellated domestic architecture was adopted
in this country, as well as in England. " " '
In the Beauties for Wales are, also, described several exam-
ples of that noble character of mansion which succeeded to the
ostentation of an embattled aspect, without interior means of de-
fence; and which, under Elizabeth and James the First, formed
the secure and capacious residence of the courteous baron, and
hospitable country gentleman of the first order.
oN THE POINTED, or ENGLISH, style of
EcclesiastiCAL ARCHITECTURE.
The pointed style of architecture is a grateful subject of inves-
tigation with those who employ a tasteful leisure from more seri-
ous studies, in enquiries concerning the antiquities of England
and Wales. Its importance with the architect by profession is ° 3.
so truly great, and so very obvious, that it would scarcely be
r necessary to advert to this circumstance, if we did not perceive *
the neglect with which it is treated, or the mistaken view in which
it is contemplated, through the medium of those incongruous
fabrics—heterogeneous and deformed, whether massy or flimsy—
. . * . . . . . . . . . . .” which


442 1NTRODUCTION.
which are too often raised in modern days, and are nominally at-
tributed by their builders to this style. . . ;
* Notwithstanding the virulence and declamation of those who
were engaged in reviving Grecian architecture, the pointed mode
ef building remains the great boast of English art. It cannot be
traced to any servility of imitation. Its origin may be disputed;
the powerful rivalry of a neighbouring country may not be denied;
but no cavils of fastidious writers have succeeded in shewing the
prototype of our great national instances of excellence in this
style. Wherever the first suggestion might arise, some of the
fairest and most stupendous examples are to be found in the coun-
tries, to a consideration of whose antiquities these pages are in-
tended to act as an introduction. This mode of architecture was,
undoubtedly, the pride of our ancestry—the favourite child of art
on which they lavished indulgence.—And the structures erected in
this style are equally the pride of the existing period; since, in
the assemblage of their several perfections, they present the sin-
gle surprising instance in which the middle ages were enabled to
produce an excellence in the ornamental arts, independant of all
imitation of the sublime simplicity of Greece and Rome.
It would be superfluous to dwell long on the ſascinating influence
of this style of architecture, which may appear, at the first view,
to be wild and devious, but which was, in fact, artificially pro-
gressive, and moved onwards in degrees of embellishment, as
regularly as the classical orders. - :
Its scientific claims to admiration will meet with some remark
in a future page; and its interest with the topographer needs
car e insisted upon in this, or any other place.—The
examiner of any cathedral instance of English architecture; of
our principal parochial churches; our highly-wrought chapels;
or those few great collegiate churches which escaped the inju-
rious hand of persons intrusted with the task of reformation; will
necessarily imbibe an ardent desire of becoming acquainted with
the rise of a style in architecture, so impressive, and well-suited
to the inspiration of seismu religious ſeeling. . . .
* : * * * > The
#.






pointed, or ENGL1sh, style of ARCHITECTURE. 443
ief information required by such an examiner appears to
beinplicated in remarks on the following heads:—the origin of this
architectural mode; the principles of art which are employed in
producing so grand an effect, and such an involuntary awe in the
spectator; the progressive advancement of the architect, in a prac-
tice of his novel study, from simplici ty to fulness, from abundance
to fantastical superfluity of decoration; and the architectonic
marks by which the date of a structure may usually be recognised.
The principal divisions into which this section is arranged, will,
consequently, be adapted to these presumed wishes for informa-
tion in the reader. But it is to be regretted that in such an
essay, by whatever pen it might be performed, much must be
left subject to incertitude. It will speedily be shewn that the
origin of this style—the architectural prodigy of Europe!—is
quite open to conjecture; and that the principles of art by which
its practitioners assuredly were regulated, are so little known,
that many persons have not scrupled to doubt whether they really
worked on any elementary and ruling system.
The opinions of the most acceptable writers shall be stated, in
regard to each head of discussion; and some examples be given
of the style prevailing in the several reigns between those of
Henry the Second, and Henry the Eighth; together with a
reference to those parts of the Beauties of England and Wales in
which such examples are noticed, and a brief outline of intelligence,
concerning the general characteristics of style which distinguish
the respective chronological classes. . . . ; :
This pleasing task must necessarily commence with some re-
marks on the variety of appellations bestowed, by different
writers, on this architectural mode.
In preceding sections, appropriated to discussions respecting
different styles of our ancient architecture, I have found occasion
to regret the want of such a rational Nomenclature as might sim.
plify the study of architectural antiquities. The investigation
ºf these is, indeed, involved, at present, in a painful labyrinth,






444 ; : . . . . . INTRo DUCTION.
repulsive to the polite or desultory student, from such a want of
specific terms, or landmarks of intelligence. . . . ."
The inconvenience experienced by the enquirer, from the ap-
plication of the term Saxon to all buildings in the circular style,
has been already noticed. But the indiscriminate use of the ap-
pellation of Gothie, is productive of a more serious impediment
to the acquisition of correct knowledge. So various is the ap-
plication of this term, that it is attended with no distinct idea;
and I feel assured that the reader of the present page, will find
difficulty in anticipating the point of bearing in which its use
shall be censured by the writer. . # * : .
The term of Gothic was first bestowed on some species of ec-
clesiastical architecture, as an epithet of obloquy; and was in-
tended to signify its supposed barbarous deviation from the
Grecian or Roman modes, not to imply its procedure from the
Goths, who, in fact, possessed no national mode of architecture,
and, when in Italy, profited by Italian artists. c
Once admitted as a term, its vituperative intention would be
forgotten, if its designation were unequivocal. But, not being
derived from any characteristical attributes of style, it has been
applied, with a laxity amounting to very blainable carelessness,
to all modes of architecture not Grecian or Roman, either collec-
tively or particularly, as favoured the indolence of respective
writers. Such a want of attention to the first principle which
should be used in efforts to convey intelligence,—that of employ-
ing no word which does not communicate a clear and positive
idea—has led to a confusion in the essays of many writers upon
this subject, which renders their works nearly useless. It would
be easy to name these instances; and, unfortunately, such an
enumeration would implicate works recently published.” -
‘. . . . . . . Although
** For the justice of these assertions I refer the reader to the great majority
of publications on the ancient architecture of England. After labouring in
the perplexed pages of such works, we must be greatly surprised to find the
following remarks proceed from the pen of Mr. Kerrich.--"In later times it
. has
roint FD, or ENG Lish, style of Architecture. 445
§
Although it is very difficult to comprehend what many writers
understand by the word Gothic, I believe that, most usually, the
pointed style is intended by that term. This, however, is by no
means uniformly the case. Several early authors comprise, under
the class of Gothic buildings, those erected by the Saxons and
Normans in this country;-and, perhaps, the writers of a modern
date may mean the same, so obscure, and even contradictory, are
their intimations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indifferent as to a phrase, so that it convey a distinct meaning,
it becomes a duty on succeeding writers to adopt some Nomen-
clature that may have fair sense for its basis, and may afford
luminous and decisive ideas.
In support of the term which I have used in describing that
light and graceful mode of architecture, which intervened be-
tween the heavy circular style, and the partial revival of the
Grecian in the 16th century, I present an opinion published in a
work sanctioned by the Society of Antiquaries;–an account of
Durham cathedral, with plans, elevations, &c. of that struc-
ture. r . . . . . . . .
“It is much to be wished that the word Gothic should not be
used in speaking of the architecture of England, from the thir-
. . . ... : :" & 3. . . . .'; ... 3 . . . . & teenth
has been the custom to restrain the term Gothic to this light style only” (the
pointed) “and it has long been so called. That name was received all over
Europe, and was so well established, and every body understood, and knew
so exactly what it meant, that it really does appear to be a great pity people.
would not rest contented with it. It answered completely all the purposes. .
of language ; and much confusion has been caused of late, by the introduc-
tion, and unsteady use, of new and dubious names; and a vast deal has been
written, which might have well been spared.” º
It is curious that Mr. Kerrich affords a confutation of his own position, in:
the course of the notes and illustrations attached to the same essay. In one
of his illustrative plates, we find a range of examples, in the circular (Anglo-
. Saxon, or Anglo Norman) style of architecture, which he denominates the Old

Gothic of the Middle Ages. Parallel with it, is a class of pointed architecture,
which he terms simply, Gothic.—See Observations on Gothic Architecture,
&e. by T. Kerrich, M. A. Archæologia, Vol. XVI. * . . . . . . . 3: ... “ . . .
teenth to the sixteenth century. The term tends to give false
ideas on the subject, and originates with the Italian writers of
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; who applied the exprest
*~ La Maniera Gotica,’ in contempt, to all the works of art.
iddle ages, > : --- . . . . .”
“ From these writers it was borrowed by Sir Christopher Wren,
the first English writer who has applied it to English architecture,
There is very little doubt that the light and elegant style of build.
ing, whose principal and characteristic feature is the high-point-
ed arch struck from two centres, was invented in this country :
it is certain that it was here brought to its highest state of per-
ſection; and the testimonies of other countries, whose national
traditions ascribe their most beautiful churches to English artists
adds great weight to this assertion, and peculiar propriety to
the term English, now proposed to be substituted to the word
Gothic. - -- -
“ The architecture used by the Saxons is very properly called
Saxon. The improvements introduced after the Norman Con-
- quest, justify the application of Norman to the edifices of that
period. The nation assumed a new character about the time of
Henry the Second. The language, properly called English, was
then formed; and an architecture, founded on the Norman and
Saxon, but extremely different from both, was invented by En-
- * glish artists: it is, surely, equally just and proper to distinguish
this style by the honourable appellation of English.”
It would appear that the Society of Antiquaries, on mature re-
flection, are not disposed to warrant the promulgation of the
above, as their decided opinion, in its complete tenour; but, as
far as an application of terms is implicated, there can scarcely be,
cause for disavowal.—It is clear that the architects who designed
those structures in the pointed style, which so greatly assist in
adorning our island with monuments of art, did not themselves
bestow any distinctive name on their novel mode. Its term of
designation with posterity must, therefore, proceed from certain
- º- mar - wed - arehi º ictural º chº racteristics, º, oT - r *** , * & * ** s i. s: Al appel;









Pointed, or eNGL1sh, style of Architecture. 447
lation of the people under whose patronage it was commenced and
carried to its utmost height of perfection in this country.—The
peculiarity most obvious to notice, in this light, delicate, slyle,
is the general teudency of its component parts to the Pointed,
or pyramidical, form; while the term ENGLISH may be applied,
with as strict propriety, to the architecture practised by the
English, as the appellations of Saxon and Norman have been
already to the structures erected by the Saxons and Normans of
Britain. It will be evident that the use of such a term is, in
each instance, really far from implying that the mode was invent-
ed by the people whose name it bears; but is merely intended ta
discriminate the historical era at which it was practised—the
dynasty by which it was adopted. . . . .
. The origin, and EARLY history, of the Pointed, or English,
style, are involved in a mysterious cloud, which no attempts have
hitherto succeeded in removing, and under whose gloomy in-
fluence they will probably for ever remain. The strange oblivion
attending the introduction and cultivation of so fine and unique a
mode of architecture, is, in some measure, explained by a con-
sideration of the character and circumstances of the persons en- .
gaged in erecting buildings during the centuries in which it
flourished.
It would appear that associations of architects and workmen
had been long in the habit of traversing various countries, for the
purpose of undertaking the construction of ecclesiastical edifices,
according to the most approved methods of each prevalent style,
or fashion. These associated parties of masons met with peculiar
favour from the Pope, towards the close of the 12th century.
Bands of “architects and artists,” of various national ex aut º,
were then incorporated by the holy father, and were endowed with
many great and exclusive privileges. Among the advantages ob-
tained by them at that time, was an authoritative grant of per-
mission to fix their own prices of labour, subject, perhaps, to
some regulations enacted in papal chapter. This arbitrary pri-
vilege, which exempted such artists from the operation of the
* . . . .3, & & statutes



- º oflabourers prevailing in !ngland, remained in force
until the reign of Henry the Sixth;” but it will appear that they
assumed little on so comprehensive an indulgence, and were as
moderate in demands of remuneration as they were transcendant
in professional skill. The persons thus incorporated, and stimu-
lated to exertion by such valuable endowments, were termed, in
England, Free and Accepted Masons. º!, “º º
Many particulars concerning this fraternity, of some import-
ance to the present enquiry, are transmitted by Sir Christopher
Wren, who was, for many years, the grand master and ruling
genius of that wreck, or mimickry, of the institution, which ex-
isted in his time; and was a man likely, from professional cu-
. riosity, to examine all its remaining records. , , , , ; ; ; ,
Sir Christopher Wren, after noticing the indulgences granted
to these builders by the Pope, observes that they “styled them-
selves Free Masons, and ranged from one nation to another, as
they found churches to build (for very many in those ages were
every where in building, through piety or emulation.) Their
government was regular; and where they fixed near the building
in hand, they, made a camp of huts. A surveyor governed in
chief; every tenth man was called a warden, and overlooked each
nine; the gentlemen of the neighbourhood, either out of charity,
or commutation of penance, gave the materials and carriages.
Those who have seen the exact accounts in records, of the charge
of the fabrics of some of our cathedrals, near four hundred years.
old, cannot but have a great esteem for their ceconomy, and ad-
mire how soon they erected such lofty structures.
“ Indeed, great height they thought the greatest magnificence;
few stones were used but what a man might carry up a ladder, on
his back, from scaffold to scaffold, though they had pullies and
spoked wheels upon occasion; but, having rejected cornices, they
had no need of great engines; stone upon stone was easily piled
up
• Easy by Governor Pownal, Arches vol. Ix.










Poi Nted, or en a lish, style OF ARCH itecture. 44
was in
ore, the pride of their wor &
up to great heights; there
pinnacles and steeples. x .
“ In this they essentially differed from the Roman way, who
laid all their mouldings horizontally, which made the best per-
spective: the Gothic way, on the contrary, carried all their
mouldings perpendicular; so that the ground-work being settled,
they had nothing else to do but to spire all up as they could.
Thus, they made their pillars of a bundle of little torus's, which
divided into more when they came to the roof; and then these
torus's split into many small ones; and, traversing one anot º
gave occasion to the tracery work (as they call it) of which this
society were the inventors. They used the sharp-pointed arch,
which would rise with little centering, required lighter key-stones,
andless butment, and yet would bear another row of double
arches, rising from the key-stone; by diversifying of which,
they erected eminent structures, such as the steeples of Vienna,
In different pages of the “Parentalia,” from which work the
above extract is made, Sir Christopher Wren indicates that the
practice of the pointed style of architecture, exclusively apper-
tained to the fraternity of Free-Masons. And the inference thus
arising, is the chief article of information which he conveys.
His distaste towards the attractive style used by this skilful asso-
ciation, is sufficiently known. It would appear that he could not
fathom the rules of art by which their works were governed, and
politically affected to despise that which he wanted inve ñtion to
To a contemptuous neglect of enquiry, or to an affectatic
more reprehensible, must be attributed the excursive
led him to Vienna and Strasbour ſº when he might *
fin ir examples on English ground, executed from t e designs of
English artists.
While we recollect that the cultivation of the pointed style.
Fret-Masons, we shall be less surprised at the mystery in which
. . . . . . 2 G the
º




















450 introduction.
the early history of this beautiful order of architecture is involved.
The associated architects and artificers so denominated naturally
made a secret of those rules of art which produced a lucrative
- monopoly. And such an intention was carried into effect with
comparative ease, in unlettered ages, when war was the great
… employment of the chieftain, and of his adhereuts throughout
s nearly all classes of the laity. The same spirit has been evinced
in more recent ages, in regard to the cultivation of other arts;
and has been rendered futile, only by the enterprising and com-
mercial temper of an advanced state of society. --
The mysterious and secret practices of the free and accepted
masons have descended, by tradition, to their united represen-
tatives of the present day, and are wrought into a proverb by the
vulgar. That they possessed written documents, illustrative of .
those surprising principles of art by which they produced archi-
tectural effects so consistent and impressive, will scarcely be
denied. Intent on a love of privacy, and indignant at the neg-
lect into which their science was fallen, it is probable that many
of these documents were destroyed by the masons, on the revival
of Grecian architecture. We are distinctly told by Preston,
that “many of the fraternity’s records, of the time of Charles
the Second, and preceding reigns, were lost at the revolution;
and that not a few were too hastily burnt, at a later date, by
•. some scrupulous brothers, from a fear of making discoveries pre-
- judicial to masonry.” The import of these writings is involved,
- perhaps for ever, in that profound obscurity so much cherished
by the association. It is probable, however, that they contained
little or no intelligence respecting those valuable secrets of art
which were once so profitable to the brethren, and concerning
- which we now enquire with such earnest and rational solicitude.
That no illustrative papers remained in the time of Sir Christo-
pher Wren is evident, from his silence; and is still more appa-
rent, from the absurdities into which he fell when he endeavoured
to imitate the works of his “ accepted” predecessors. - º ºr
To the above cause may be attributed a portion of the deep ob-
- - - - - - scurity,
Pointed, or ENGLISH, style of ARchitecture. 461
scurity in which are buried all circumstances relating to the
scarcely sufficient to account, on satisfactory grounds, for the º
whole of this mysterious gloom. The share which English ec-,
clesiastics possessed, in the design and execution of many noble.
and existing buildings, cannot be forgotten. It is probable that
writings, truly useful to the subject in question, were destroyed
at the reformation of religion in this country. But it is sur-
prising that similar papers, implicated in that history of the pro-sº
cess of respective monastical buildings, which was preserved in --
almost every religious house, have not been brought forward in
countries where no such indiscriminate havoc was performed, º -
either from the abused spirit of religious reform, or by the de-
structive operation of civil contest, through the long procedure
of many inquisitive ages. * -
% *
}
Various other suggestions might be added, calculated to in-
crease the surprise of the enquirer, when he finds that so little is
known concerning the history of an architectural style, which
obtained encouragement and admiration, for several active cen-
turies, throughout the most distinguished districts of Europe.
But, as no facts are to be afforded, I proceed to a statement, and
brief examination, of the opinions of those who have formed in-
genious theories upon a subject left in so much obscurity, by
ages which worked for posterity, rather than wrote for its gra-,
In stating the various systems of such writers as are eminently
entitled to consideration, it is desirable to divide them, as nearly
as may be practicable, into three classes; those which derive
the pointed style from an immediate observance, and imitation,
of natural combinations; others, which take a narrower range,
and seek no farther than to ascribe the English adoption of this
mode to a copy of foreign architecture; and, finally, such as
attribute it to native English growth, arising from accidental
circumstances. - . . . . . ~ : . . . " -
- 2 G 2 Dr.


452 1NTRobuction.
Dr. Warburton, at a period when little enquiry had taker
place concerning the origin and characteristics of pointed archi-
tecture, published an opinion, which he would now probably have
s ppressed, but which requires attention, as it seduced into error
several very respectable writers nearly contemporary with its
author. This opinion he expresses in the following terms: "
“When the Goths had conquered Spain, and the genial
warmth of the climate, and the religion of the old inhabitants,
had ripened their wits and inflamed their mistaken piety, (both
kept in exercise by the neighbourhoºd of the Saracens, through
emulation of their service, and aversion to their superstition) they
& strue & out a new species of architecture, unknown to Greece and
Rome. For this northern people, having been accustomed, during
the gloom of paganism, to worship the Deity in groves, (a prac-
tice common to all nations) when their new religion required
covered edifices, they ingeniously projected to make them re-
semble groves, as nearly as the distance of architecture would
permit; at once indulging their old prejudices, and providing for
their present conveniences, by a cool receptacle in a sultry
climate; and with what skill and success they executed their
project, by the assistance of Saracen architects, whose exotic
style of building very luckily suited their purpose, appears from
hence, that no attentive observer ever viewed a regular avenue
of welf.rown trees, intermixing their branches overhead, but is
presently put in mind of the long visto through a Gothic cathe-
dral.”
In regard to the historical part of this statement, it has been
observed that the Goths and Vandals, who entered Spain in the
year 409, did not acquire “a new religion from the old inhabi.
tants,” as they had previously adopted Christianity, though
under an Arian form. The Moorish Saracens did not enter
Spain till the year 712; and they preserved a regular state of
hostility against the Christian Spaniards, whom they restrained
§§ {
* Note, ty Warburton, on the fourth Moral Essay of Pope.









Por NTED, or eN GLISH, style of ARCHITECTURE. 453
to the mountains of Asturias. His dates also are too early for
the origin of this style in Europe, as it is sufficiently evident
that a different mode was practised in all Christian countries for
several centuries afterwards. sº
If considered without relation to any particular people, the
effect produced by an avenue of tall luxuriant trees, interming-
ling in the upper branches, may still, with seme persons, be
supposed likely to lave afforded an useful suggestion to the pro-
jectors of this style, who certainly had sufficient boldness of
genius to resort to nature for a prototype. But the utmost ex
tent of this system is far from affording even a conjectural origin
to any other departments of the pointed style than the arch, and,
perhaps, the groined roof. “ After all’ '(observes Dr. Milner) “ the
intersection of tracery work is nearly the only circumstance in
which the pointed style resembles the intermixing boughs of
trees growing together. The ribs of a groin do not grow smaller,
as they extend themselves, like vegetable shoots; nor do the
latter, when they cross each other, form large knobs, like the
bosses of architecture. Again, the trunk which supports the
boughs is generally a simple upright, not a cluster of supporters:
nor has it anything resembling either capitals or bases.”
The investigators of our ancient architecture and its history,
have been presented with a curious and highly-wrought theory,
from the pen of Sir James Hall, Bart. This ingenious anti-
quary, referring to those principles whence all the works of true
genius take their data, observes that “the combination of art
with nature, of which we see the most perfect example in the
Corinthian capital, produces what are called Architectonic forms,
in which the variety of nature being subjected to the regularity
of art, the work acquires that peculiar character, which, in a
natural object, or in its entire representation, we consider as
• Ecclesiastical architecture of the Middle ages, p. 67–68. See also
some extensive and judicious remarks on the deficiencies of Dr. Warburton's
theory, in Sir James Hall's Essay on the origin of Gothic Architecture, &c.
p. 89–90. . -




454 1NTRoduction.
offensive, under the name of formality; but which, in architec-
- ture, we admire as a beauty, under the name of symmetry.”
º, Occupied with this view of the probable origin of the pointed
style, in whatever district of the globe the invention might have
occurred, he was accidentally induced to attribute it to an imita-
tion of small simple buildings, composed of willow rods. He
worked experimentally on his new idea, and found, that, from
an artificial combination of such rods, united with the effects pro-
duced on them “by time and the course of nature,” even the most
intricate forms of this elaborate style might be reduced, in the
view of a theorist, to the simplicity of their original state.
A casual thought, incidentally conceived, and expressed with-
out a view to its consequences, but which tends towards the same
- speculation, occurs in the following words of Grose; “ a number
of boughs, stuck into the ground opposite to each other, and tied
together at top, in order to form a bower, exactly describe the
pointed arch.” ".
searching in history for supports of his theory, Sir James
Hall notices several early religious buildings, which are expressly
said to have been made of rods. Such were the first little church
of Durham, and the celebrated old church of Glastonbury. f
Thus is it ascertained that two of the most ancient churches in
- this country were composed of wicker-work; and it is equally
certain that the buildings in question were regarded with very
peculiar reverence, in ages far descending from the high date of
their foundation. Sir James Hall has sufficiently profited by
this historical aid, in stating it as being likely that a pious pos-
terity would endeavour to preserve the peculiar forms of such
churches, by representing them in stone; “ and this attempt,
when carried into execution, being found to produce a beautiful
effect, it is not unreasonable to suppose that the idea should be-
come a favourite one, and, being followed out by successive re-
finements, might give birth to a new style of architecture.’ 2
. . . . . . . . . There
* Antiq. of England and Wales, , 75. ×
- Iq. or ra , p. 7
poi NTED, or ENGLISH, style of Architecture. 455
There is a very obvious objection, on historical calculations, to
the probable truth of this theory. Between the foundation of
the above two wicker-churches, and the appearance of the pointed
style; there intervened the circular, or Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-
Norman modes of architecture. The author presents some in-
genious thoughts for the removal of this argumentative obstruc-
tion, and such as may be worthy of much attention, when ad-
vanced in support of a theory. But it is not necessary to state
them in the present page, as they are quite unconnected with
historical deduction.
In his elaborate, yet amusing, work, Sir James Hall has satis-
factorily proved that it is possible to imitate from the sinuous
willow, with the aid of the axe, or knife, and the operations of
nature, the most simple and the most complex constituent parts
of pointed architecture. Those divisions of his work which are
not more immediately devoted to the advancement of a favourite
system, contain great information on the subject of the ancient
architecture of England. w . . .
At the head of those who attribute the pointed style to a foreign
derivation, must be noticed Sir Christopher Wren ; and, as his
thoughts upon this subject have had great influence with many
succeeding writers, it is evidently desirable to present them, in
the present place, without any material abridgment.
“ He was of opinion that what we now vulgarly call Gothic,
ought properly and truly to be named Saracenic architecture, re-
fined by the Christians; which, first of all, began in the east,
after the fall of the Greek empire, by the prodigious success of
those people that adhered to Mahomet's doctrine, who, out of
zeal to their religion, built mosques, caravanseras, and sepul-
chres, wherever they came. , &
“These they contrived of a round form, because they would
not imitate the Christian figure of a cross, nor the old Greek
manner, which they thought to be idolatrous ; and, for that
reason, all sculpture became offensive to them. . . x
& 2 G 4 . . . . . . “ They
456 . . introduction... .
*
“. They, then fell on a new mode, of their own invention,
though it might have been expected with better sense, consider-
ing the Arabians wanted not geometricians in that age, nor the
Moors, who translated all the most useful old Greek books. As
they propagated their religion with great diligence, so they built
mosques in all their conquered cities in haste. The quarries of
great marble, by which the vanquished nations of Syria, Egypt,
and all the east, had been supplied with columns, architraves, ,
and great stones, were now deserted. The Saracens were, there-
fore, necessitated to accommodate their architecture to such
materials, whether marble or free stone, as every country readily
afforded. They thought columns and heavy cornices, imperti-
ment, and might be omitted; and, affecting the round form for
mosques, they elevated cupolas, in some instances with grace
enou gh. - - * +
“The holy wars gave the Christians who had been there, an
idea of the Saracen works, which were afterwards, by them,
imitated in the west; and they refined upon it every day as they
proceeded in building churches. The Italians (among whom were
yet some Greek refugees,) and with them, French, Germans,
and Flemings, joined into a fraternity of architects, procuring
papal bulls for their encouragement, and particular privileges.”
It is not made evident that Sir Christopher Wren had any.
foundation for the above opinion respecting the Saracenic origin
of this style, except ingenious theoretical surmises. The ar-
chitects who practised this fine order, were far from applying to
it any appellation which betrayed a tradition of their having
derived their prototype from the east. The pointed manner of
building was by them termed simply the new work, or style.*
If the testimony of some painted windows, represented by Mont-
- - - - - - " - - - - faucon,

* Wren's Parentalia, Some further remarks afforded by Sir Christopher
Wren, but not immediately connected with a system respecting the origin of
the pointed, or English, style, have been presented in those previous pages
which treat on the fraternity of Free Masons.
4 Essay by Governor Pownall, Archaeol, Vol. IX.
*
Point ED, or ENG lish, sty I: E of Architecture. 457
§
considerable argument in favour of the idea that no such tradi-
tion existed amongst the early practitioners in this style.—
These painted windows occur in the church of St. Denis, near
Paris; and are said, by Montfaucon, to have been executed
under the direction of Abbot Suger, in W140. “We have
here,” observes Dr. Milner, “a continued series of the first
crusade, in which a great number of arches are seen, but in
none of them is there the least appearance of the point.”
The theory of Sir Christopher Wren (for such it must, at pre-
sent, be entitled) has met with much forcible opposition from seve-
ral learned quarters. Numerous writers, commencing with Mr. .
Bentham, t deny, on the authority of travellers who have visited
the east, that there are traces of this style to be perceived in the
Holy Land, except in one church at Acre, which is thought to
have been built by an European Christian; and in some casual
pointed arches. + . . . . . . . . . . 3. * * . . . . . . . . . . . . &
But the opinions respecting the existence of buildings in the
pointed style, in other parts of the east, are more contrary ;
and the arguments of those on the stronger side are less de-
The noble editor of the posthumous work of the Rev. G. D.
§
Whittington, asserts, tº that, “if a line be drawn from the north
of the Euxine, through Constantinople to Egypt, we shall dis-
cover, in every country to the eastward of this boundary, frequent
examples of the pointed" arch, accompanied with the slender
proportions of Gothic architecture. In Asia Minor, Syria, Ara.
bia, Persia; from the neighbourhood of the Caspian, through
the wilds of Tartary; in the various kingdoms, and throughout
the whole extent of, India; and even to the furthest limits of
3. § . . . .3 * : * ~ * * * * * * *, º Chi na.”
• Ecclesiastical architecture ofthe Midt 3, ... : : ..
- . + Hist, of Ely Cathedral, p. 38. ...:
# Remarks by Lord Aberdeen, in the Preface to whittington's Historical
Survey, &c.
le ages, p. 87.




458 Introduction.
China.” His lordship adds, that “it is true we are unable, for
the most part, to ascertain the precise dates of these buildings;”
but he considers this to be, in reality, “not very important,
it being sufficient to state the fact of their comparative anti-
* The same noble writer, however, admits that it is not easy to
direct the enquirer to such buildings, constructed in the style
under consideration, as are indubitably of a date anterior to the
appearance of the pointed mode in the west. .
This impediment to the reception of an opinion favouring the
eastern extraction of the pointed order, his lordship accounts for
by a summary of observations, condensed under three heads.
He first mentions “the scantiness of authentic record of par-
ticulars relating to these subjects amongst oriental nations, and
the difficulty of attaining to a knowledge of such as may exist,
by most of those who engage in this enquiry.”
This remark is followed by a notice of the frequent destructive
wars, and revolutions, of the east, which have frequently en-
tailed the same fate on works of art, and utility, that attended
the princes and chiefs of the states subverted. This cause “must
of necessity, have greatly diminished the number of architectural
specimens, especially those of early date.” . . . * * ,
In the third division of his summary, Lord Aberdeen remarks
“ that the people of the east, with whom we are best acquainted,
sacrificed, in a considerable degree, their peculiar and less
durable mode of building to that which they found adopted and .x
established by the Greeks. Thus, after the conquest of Con-
stantinople, every mosque was constructed in imitation of the
church of Santa Sophia; and the massive pile of Justinian, with
the addition of their own lofty and slender minarets, has served
as a model in the exercise of the piety and magnificence of each
- : succeeding sultan. Before the conquest of the metropolis, the
same practice seems to have been prevalent; and, in their pre-
vious acquisition of many cities of the empire, the Christian
edifices were converted to the purpose of Mahommedan worship.”
. :- 3. Notwithstanding

Pointed, or eNe Lish, style of ARCHITECTURE. 459
2.
of the misshapen minarets, and obelisks, which the Mahometans
Notwithstanding the operation of these, and other causes, he be-
lieves “that there still exist facts to render the notion for which
he contends, highly probable in the eyes of those who are con-
tent to view it without the medium of prejudice, or established
system.” º - - -
In appreciating the tendency of the above positions, it will be
first observed by the reader, that, according to the information
conveyed by Pocock, Norden, Shaw, Le Bruyn, and other tra-
wellers, there are not, at present, to be discovered any positive
traces of the pointed order of architecture (except the church of
Acre, already cited,) in the Holy Land, or other countries fre-
quented by the crusaders. If those writers may be depended on,
the disappearance of all such buildings, if they really once ex-
isted, with the exception of the church at Acre, is scarcely ac-
' counted for, in a satisfactory way, by any arguments presented
in the work so ably transmitted to the public by Lord Aber-
deen. * * , ,
'. It is the professed intention of the present undertaking, to
compare the opinions of different wri ters, and thus to present
the reader of the Beauties of England, with the result of the in-
vestigations, and speculative enquiries, of the most useful and
approved antiquaries, on each chosen subject of discussion. In
opposition to the remarks of Mr Whittington and his noble
editor, I, therefore, place those of Dr. Milner, who observes that
these ingenious writers have surveyed the architecture of the
east by means of prints only; and he adds, that they inspected
such illustrative documents “with different eyes from those of
all former writers and travellers.”
* In pursuit of arguments to support this assertion, the follow-
ing observations occur in different pages of his treatise on the
architecture of the Middle ages.—It is difficult to conceive upon
what grounds a writer asserts that frequent buildings, to the east
of a line drawn from the north of the Euxine through Constan
finople to Egypt, display the pointed style, “except on account
add

1NTRODUCTION.
add to their mosques, for the conveniency of calling upon the
heople, from them, to come to prayers, as they reject the use of
ells.” The dates of these erections are not known; nor is it
of consequence to this enquiry that ibey should be ascertained.
l Thus much, however, we know, that the edifice of St. Sophia,
ht Constantinople, erected in the seventh century (acknowledged
to have been the model of the Mahometans since they became
masters of it, in the 15th century, in building their mosques) has
neither a pointed arch nor a pinnacle, in the whole of its ori-
ginal work.”
In Persia “we find, indeed, the pointed arch, in a few bridges,
and other public buildings; but we have no records to attest the
date of any of these ; and we have, otherwise, sufficient reason
to believe them to be posterior, not only to Gengis Khan, in
the 13th century, but, also, to Tamerlane, in the 15th; both of
whom swept off from that country all its monuments.” .
In India, observes Dr. Milner, “there are several mauso-
leums, and other buildings, with the einquefoil arch, and other
decorations, which might seem to belong to the latest order of
the pointed style. But these are, confessedly, of a very recent
date.” There is no account at all of the building of the temple
of Madura, which, also, has some resemblance with our pointed
architecture.t. It appears, however, not to be very ancient.
The original style of India, as it appears in their stupendous ex-
cavations, and other ancient works, is much the same with the
primitive style of Egypt.” . .
Notwithstanding the decisive strain of the above observations,
I am induced to believe, from the intelligence of those who have
visited different eastern countries, that a curious field of enquiry
is still open, in regard to the ancient architecture of many of those
districts. It will be evident that our present deductions are
chiefly made from the accounts presented by travellers who had
a multiplicity of objects in view, many of which were of greater
- - z importance
tºº
* See Daniel's Indian views. 4. Rid.







pointed, on English, style of Architecture. 461
importance than a disquisition, merely curious, in regard to a
mysterious passage in the history of a single art, however noble.
Clearer ideas upon this subject may be attained, if the day should
ever arrive in which an antiquary, who had one object alone in
eonsideration, returns from the east, with accurate drawings, and
written descriptions, of the buildings which are there largely
distributed, certainly without known record, but sometimes
evineing, in many architectural particulars, very great and inter-
esting antiquity.
The subject of the architecture of the east, as supposed to be
connected with the adaptation of the pointed style to English
buildings, will be slightly resumed in a future page; but I can-
not avoid noticing, in the present place, a remark of Dr. Milner,
which, although of a subordinate import, still appears to be too
ingenious for neglect. §
This learned writer draws an inference from history, as to the
improbability of the pointed style proceeding from information
conveyed through the crusaders, by comparing the date of the first
crusade with the appearance of this mode, and by a notice of
persons who had previously visited the Holy Land. ...
The first crusade commenced in 1096, and terminated, by the
conquest of Jerusalem, in 1099. Assuredly, the pointed order
of architecture was not known in England for many years after
the latter date; yet numerous splendid buildings were erected,
at almost unlimited expense, between that time and the pre-
sumed period of its adoption, or invention.—Gundulph, the
memorable ecclesiastical architect of Rochester cathedral, of the
chapel in the Tower of London, and several other structures,
* had made a journey of devotion to the Holy Land” (in com-
pany with William, who afterwards became Archbishop of Rouen,
and was, himself, one of the architects of its cathedral) a little
before the first crusade; and, ofs cou rse, surveyed the buildings
§f that country at his leisure. Yet, in vain do we examine his
- - subsisting

• Monach. Roffen vit, Gund. Aug. Sac. p. 214.
462 introduction.
subsisting works at Rochester and in London, for an arch, a pil-
lar, or a moulding, in the style under consideration.” º
On the other hand, the opinions of Sir Christopher Wren have
lately been vindicated by Mr. Haggitt, in the second of “Two
Letters,” both of which display mnch industry of remark and
great erudition. This writer, among other instances favouring
the possibility of the pointed style being derived from the east.
states the occurrence of pointed arches, accompanied with in-
scriptions in the Cuphic character, which is supposed to have
fallen into disuse since the tenth century. The importance of
this information is obvious, as it would appear to supply the
place of circumstantial record, and to prove, according to the
extent of Mr. Haggitt's observations, that the characteristical
arch of this order existed in the east, previous to the date of the
Crusades. - -
The next theory to be noticed, is marked by considerable in-
genuity, but has still less foundation in distinguishable proba-
bility of fact, than that of Sir Christopher Wren. Mr. Murphy,
in the Introduction to his history, plans, and elevations of the
church of Batalha, supposes that the whole system of Pointed,
or English, architecture is founded on attention to a pyramidal
form of structure; and thus ascribes its origin to Egypt. .
The characteristical arch of this style he considers as not
governing the composition, but as following in the general order
of things; not as a cause, but as a concomitant part.—“If we
take,” observes Mr. Murphy, “a comprehensive view of any of
these structures externally, we shall perceive that not only the
arch, but every vertical part of the whole superstructure, termi-
nates in a point;” and he adds that the general form, if viewed
from any of the principal entrances, “will be found to have a
pyramidical tendency.”

These positions are illustrated by a notice of the component
parts of such edifices. “Each of the buttresses and turrets are
& . . . . . crowned
* Ecclesiastical architecture of the Middle ages, p. 56.
Pointed, or eNe L1sh, style of Architecture. 463
crowned with a small pyramid. If niches are introduced, they
are crowned with a pyramidical canopy. The arches of the doors
and windows terminate in a point; and every little necessary
ornament, which encircles the whole, has a pointed or angular
tendency. Spires, pinnacles, and pointed arches are always
found to accompany each other; and clearly imply a system
founded on the principles of the pyramid.” & º
According to this theory, the arch in such buildings, as is in-
timated above, “was made pointed, because no other form could
have been introduced, with equal propriety, in a pyramidal figure,
to answer the different purposes of uniformity, fitness, and strength;
and its origin must, consequently, be attributed not to accident
but to ordination.” w
The cause to which Mr. Murphy assigns this alleged imita-
tion of the pyramid in Christian structures, is curious, and is
captivating from its novelty and boldness. He observes that
spires were introduced in the 12th century, about the time that
the practice of burying in churches became general over Europe;
and he supposes that the pyramidal form of the spire, was used
as the denotation of a church comprising a cemetery. This re-
presentation he imagines to have been borrowed “ from the
ancient Egyptians, who placed the pyramid over their ceme-
teries, as denoting the soul under the emblem of a flame of fire,
(whence it is supposed to derive its origin) thus to testify their
belief of its immortality.” ~ *
If we separate the architectural part of this system from the
ingenuity of its allusion to the customs of the Egyptians and *
other ancient nations, we shall find that it is scarcely sufficient
to account for many leading peculiarities of the pointed style, inde-
pendent of a general tendency to the pyramidal figure. In such a
point of view, (as has been remarked by a recent critical writer)
pediments and gable-ends,which must have been coeval with build-
ing itself, in every age and country, “may be called the parents
of pointed architecture, with more apparent reason than the pyra-
mids.” However alluring may prove the notions of Mr. Murphy,
- . º respecting
respecting the origin of the spire, (that germ, according to his
system, of all the splendid and intricate varieties of this style)
it may appear probable to many persons, that such an elevated
feature of our ancient churches was merely designed, in the sim-
plicity of its first intention, to act as a guide to the place of wor-
ship, when rural roads, throughout the whole country, were
devious, and rendered more obscure by thick masses of forest and
woodland. .
Governor Pownall, in an essay inserted in the ninth volume
of Archaeologia, appears to believe that the principle of the
pointed style was derived from vaulted ceilings of stone, executed
in imitation of timber-work; and from other erections, composed
of timber, which he attributes to the north, and terms Teutonic. º
Mr. Knight* asserts “that the style of architecture which we
call cathedral or monastic Gothic, is manifestly a corruption of
the sacred architecture of the Greeks or Romans, by a mixture
of the Moorish or Saracenesque, which is formed out of a combi-
nation of Egyptian, Persian, and Hindoo.” *
Mr. Hawkinst believes that “the Gothic style was not wholly
an original invention, or discovery of forms before unknown.”
On the contrary, he thinks that it was “rather a combination of
a variety of peculiarities, which had, at different periods, been
separately introduced into the then existing style of architecture,
and a judicious adaptation of each to the others.”—This truly
surprising and felicitous combination, he supposes to have first
appeared in France, and to have been thence “transplanted to"
Italy, England, and other countries.
The claim of Italy to structures in the pointed style, of a very
early date, was brought forwards, with much confidence of accu-
racy, some few years back, by Mr. Smirke; but a judicious an-
tiquary, Sir Henry Englefield, detected the error into which this
. ... 3 ; , ; * . . gentleman
* Enquiry into the principles of Taste.
t History of the Origin of Gothic architecture.


Pointed, or English, style of Architecture.
gentleman had fallen, and proved that he had mistaken subse-
quent alterations for parts of the original buildings.”
The writers who contend for the English origin of pointed ar-
chitecture, and ascribe its invention to incidental causes, spring-
ing from the natural procedure of the arts, are equally numerous
and respectable with those who are described above as maintain-
ing a contrary opinion.
Mr. Bentham, intent only on the acquisition of truth, and pur-
suing his object with correspondent simplicity and plain sense,
admits “that he has not met with any satisfactory account of the
origin of pointed arches; when invented or where first taken
notice of;” but adds, that “some have imagined they might
possibly have taken their rise from those arcades we see in the
early Norman, or Saxon buildings, on walls, where the wide
semi-circular arches cross and intersect each other, and form,
thereby, at their intersection, exactly a narrow and sharp-point-
ed arch.”f & º -
This opinion has been adopted by Dr. Milner, who has greatly
enlarged upon the hint thus afforded, and has worked it into a
regular theory, which is deserving of careful attention, equally
from the public notice which it has obtained, and from its in-
trinsic merits. . . . . - * . . . . . . º
The system of Dr. Milner has appeared in various forms of
publication, but is most copiously presented in the second volume
of the History of Winchester, and in the work intituled A Trea-
tise on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England during the
Middle ages. tº . . . . ;
The positions maintained by this author are as follow: z
First, that the whole style of Pointed architecture, with all
2 H . its
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * Archaeol. Vol. XV. ; : . . . . . . . . . . ;
+ History of Ely Cathedral—It is observable that Sir James Hall (Essay
on Gothic architecture, p. 91,) mentions Mr. Bentham as having informed
'him (Sir James) that he received this suggestion concerning the origin of
pointed arches, from “Mr. Gray, the poet,” •

1Ntroduction.
its members and embellishments, grew, by degrees, out of the
simple pointed arch, between the latter end of the 12th and the
early part of the 14th centuries. .. .
Secondly, that the pointed arch, itself, was discovered by ob-
serving the happy effect of those intersecting semi-circular
arches with which the architects of the latter end of the 11th,
and the beginning of the 12th centuries, were accustomed to
ornament all their principal ecclesiastical edifices.
Thirdly, that we are indebted, both for the rise an
gress of pointed architecture, to our own ancestors.
Such is, in abridged terms, Dr. Milner's own analysis of his
system; but an examination of it will, perhaps, most desirably
commence with a notice of his second position. He observes that
one of the architectural ornaments most commonly used by the
Anglo-Normans, was the arcade, or series of arches, with which
some of their buildings were plentifully enriched. These arcades
were diversified inany ways; and one of the varieties consisted
in making the semi-circular arches intersect each other in the
middle. “The part thus intersected, formed a new kind of arch,
of more graceful appearance, and far better calculated to give an
idea of height than the semi-circular arch: for every one must
be convinced that a pyramid, or obelisk, from its aspiring form,
appears to be taller than the diameter of a semicircle, when both
d the pro-
are of the same measure. - -
“The pointed arch, thus formed, appeared, at first, a mere
•rnament in basso relievo, but was soon to be seen in alto relievo x
over niches and recesses, in the inside of churches; as in the
remains of the cathedral of Canterbury, and in the abbey-churches
of Glastonbury and Romsey.” It is probable, as this writer be-
lieves, that the first open pointed arches, in Europe, “were the
twenty windows constructed by that great patron of architecture,
Henry de Blois, in the choir of the church of St. Cross, near
Winchester; which structure he certainly raised between the
years 1132 and 1136.” These consist of openings, made in the
intersected parts of semi-circular arches which cross each other.
The

pointed, or EN Glish, style of Architecture. 46.
The ocular evidence of this, “taken along with the ascertained
date of the work,” is (in the opinion of Dr. Milner) “a suff-
cient proof that to the accidental Norman ornament of intersect-
ing arcades, we are indebted for the invention of pointed arches
and pointed architecture.—As the above mentioned prelate pro-
ceeded in his building from the east, or choir, end (which, on all
such occasions, was first erected, and rendered fit for divine
service) to the transept, the tower, and the nave of the church,
he made many other pointed arches, some of them obtusely,
others acutely pointed.” . º
In the above extract is seen the opinion of Dr. Milner, as to
the period at which the pointed arch was introduced to the archi-
tecture of this country. The claim which he has preferred in
regard to Henry de Blois, has been disputed by several writers;
but this is a subject of minor interest, and only in a slight de-
gree implicated in that system respecting the rise of the pointed
order, which is involved in a notice of his first position." '
After several perusals of Dr. Milner’s writings on this subject,
it appears that the following condensed passages present a sum-
mary of what he advances, in support of an opinion that the
whole style of pointed architecture grew by degrees out of its
claracteristical arch.
“It is matter of evidence that the pointed arch was used in
England, a considerable time before any other member which is
now considered as belonging to the pointed style.” ‘’”
When the Normans first used intersecting arcades, they were,
probably, not aware of the happy effect produced by such an in-
tersection, in forming the pointed arch, until De Blois, having
resolved to ornament the whole sanctuary of his church with
these intersecting semicircles, after richly embellishing th sm
with mouldi ngs and pellet ornaments, conceived the idea of open-
ing them, . by way of windows; which at once produced a series
of highly-pointed arches. “Pleased with the effect o' this first
essay at the east end, we may suppose that he tried the effect of
that form in various other windows and arches, which we find,
2 : " 'º , & 2 H 2 amongst




468 introduction.
amongst many of a similar date that are circular, in various parts
of the same church and tower. However that may be, and where-
ever the pointed arch was first produced, its gradual ascent natu-
rally led to a long and narrow form of window and arch, instead
of the broad circular ones which had hitherto obtained; and these
required that the pillars on which they rested, or which were
placed at their sides, by way of ornament, should be proportion-
ably tall and slender.” * -
The arches. and windows being in general very narrow, at this
early period of using the pointed arch, “ as we see in the ruins
of Hyde Abbey, built within thirty years after St. Cross; in the
refectory of Beaulieu, raised by King John; and in the inside of
the tower of St. Cross; it became necessary, sometimes, to place
two of these windows close to each other, which, not unfrequently,
stood under one common arch, as may be discovered in different
parts of De Lucy’s work in Winchester cathedral, executed in
the reign of King John, and in the lower tire of the windows in
the church of Netley Abbey.—This disposition of two lights,
occasioning a dead space between their heads, a trefoil, or qua-
trefoil, one of the simplest and most ancient kind of ornaments,
was introduced between them. The happy effect of this simple
ornament caused the upper part of it to be introduced into the
heads of the arches themselves; so that there is hardl y a small
{
arch, or the resemblance of an arch of any kind, from the days of
is not ornamented in this manner.
º |
Edward the Second, down to those of Henry the Eighth, which
“ The trefoil, by an easy addition, became a cinquefoil; and
being made use of in circles and squares, produced fans and
Catherine's wheels. In like manner, large east and west win-
dows beginning w obtain about the reign of Edward the First,
required that they should have numerous divisions or mullions,
- which, as well as the ribs and transoms of the vaulting, began
to ramify into a great variety of tracery, according to the archi.
tect's taste; being all of them uniformly ornamented with the
trefoil, or cinquefoil, head.” * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º. º. º
From

From the same presumed compulsory propriety of adoption, in
sonsequence of the use of the pointed arch, Dr. Milner aesounts
for the canopies which surmount exterior arches; for pinnacles 3
and for spires, the growth of those ornamental finishings of but-
tresses.”
The opinion noticed by Bentham, and thus enlarged by Dr.
Milner, is supported by Mr. Carter, as far as regards the deri-
vation of the pointed mode from intersecting arches, and its En-
glish origin and growth.t . .
Sir Richard Hoare, also, contends for the probable truth of
the same theory. In his Essay on the Progress of Architecture,
appended to the second volume of his edition of Giraldus, this
writer presents engravings of subjects, calculated, as he thinks,
“to confirm and elucidate the system, which, indeed, now gains
ground in general belief, that the pointed arch mode of archi-
tecture most assuredly had its first formation in our island, and
from so fortunate a circumstance as the intersection of two semi-
circular arches.” The subjects which Sir Richard Hoare has
inserted in his work, are selected from St. David's cathedral.—
In a succeeding page he more explicitly unfolds his opinions, by
laying it down as a position, “that the pointed order had no
other source than that of a regular and progressive course from
one mode of design to that of another.”
Amongst those who advocate the European origin of this style
may be noticed Mr. Saunders,t who derives the pointed mode
of building from the prior practice of vaulting; which, as he be-
lieves, in its gradual progress towards strength and beauty, in-
plicated the formation of pointed arches on the sides of the
groined vaulting, and thereby established the principles of
pointed architecture. r. !... . . . . . . ;
Pol NT Ep, or EN Glf's H, sty 1, E of ARCH 11 Ecºr U R E.
2 H 8 this
* The above is a brief compendium of the system formed by Dr. Milner;
and, although it faithfully conveys his meaning, is, from its compressed
form, injurious to his elegance of diction. For intelligence more completely
satisfactory, the reader is referred to the works noticed in the text.
t Ancient Architecture of England, Part I. : Archaol, vol. xvii, >

470 introduction.
This opinion agrees with that of the late ingenious Mr. Essex,
as noticed by Mr. Kerrich, in an essay published in the sixteenth
volume of Archaeologia. He believed, says the latter gentle-
man, “that the Gothic architects were induced, or rather driven
to, the use of the pointed arch, by their practice of vaulting
upon bows, and sometimes covering, with such vaults, spaces
which were irregular; that is, not square, but longer in one
dimension than the other.” - - -
Mr. Kerrich, who presents the above opinion of a writer well
known, and equally respected by most antiquarian readers, him-
self considers all investigation concerning. the period at which
this style was invented, as a hopeless, if not nugatory, enquiry.
His conjectures are, accordingly, elicited incidentally, and not
given in a systematic form. Thus casually introduced, they re-
quire only brief notice, and they chiefly refer to the origin of the
characteristical arch of this order.
He appears inclined to attribute the invention of pointed ar-
chitecture to the English; but, contrary to the opinions of most
other writers, who look for the rise of this style in a refinement
of art, he, in one place, supposes that even the ignorance and
want of skill in the artificers of the Middle ages, may have con-
tributed to the formation of this novel mode. Thus, he surmises
that rude workmen may, through accident, have “stumbled on”
the pointed arch, among others deviating from the semi-circle,
and their vanity have induced them to set it forth, merely as
something new.
In another page he affords more gratification, and suggests it
as being possible that this form might be taken from a figure pro-
duced by two equal circles cutting each other in their centres;
which was frequently used to circumscribe the representation of
our Saviour, over the doors of “Saxon and Norman churches;”
and also in episcopal and conventual seals. - -
Mr. Wilkins, in a communication - inserted in the fourteenth
volume of Archæologia, presents some remarks, which favour the
ºpinions of those who deem it likely that the transition of “.
- 1rom

Po1 NTEP, OR EN 6 LisH, style or Arch itecture. 471
from the massy and circular to the slender and pointed, arose
simply from a progressive movement of the art of architecture .
towards refinement and beauty. The principal observations
which he submits on this subject, are comprised in the following
If we examine many of the deviations of this (the English)
style “from the Norman, we shall find that they are not so con-
siderable as are apt to be imagined; for instance, the division of
the windows of Gothic structures by mullions, is not peculiar to
that style. We find, in some Norman buildings, the windows
separated into two lights by a column as a mullion. In the
eloister at Norwich, which is early Gothic, columns alone are
used for the same purpose, and the heads of these lights are cir-
cular, but have the addition of the cuspſoliation ; in many other
instances the column is still used, jointly with some other
mouldings. :
“The clustered columns, so conspicuous in this species of
architecture, do not vary, very considerably, from the Saxon
and Norman, in which it was not unusual to place smaller
columns round the principal pier: that part of the pier which
appeared between the columns is now formed into mouldings, and
the number of these smaller columns increased. Perhaps, the re-
sult of a more particular enquiry into the differences subsisting
between the Norman and Gothic styles, might satisfy us that we
need not go to Palestine or Germany for authority to account
for the origin of the latter.”
Lord Orford (Walpoliana, volume second) maintains that this
style of architecture appears to bespeak an amplification of the
minute, not a diminution of the great; and conjectures that
shrines for reliques were the prototypes of churches. But this
conjecture is scarcely deserving of notice, in the present sec-
tion of our enquiries, as it merely removes the point of investiga-
tion, and leaves us to seek for the origin of the invention among
the designers of shrines. In his Anecdotes of Painting, the same
writer is inclined to consider the pointed style, merely in the

472 introduction.
light of an improvement upon previous degradations of Roman -
architecture. - - - - -z .
| Such are the most important opinions presented by various
authors, on a subject that needs no mystery to add to its interest
with the enquirer into the architectural antiquities of this count
try, or those of several other parts of Europe. It is unpleasantly
obvious that each writer presents a theory alone, and none afford
a clue to legitimate historical information, or gratify us with
actual discovery. While temperately contented with the repu-
tation of forming a system, all are entitled to consideration; but
where individual opinion is the sole basis of literary production,
we expect liberality of sentiment to solace the want of determi-
nate intelligence. . .
The best duty of the present writer has been performed, in pre-
senting these various opinions in a compressed form; since no
attainable path of research holds forth the promise of unexplored
fact, to supply the place of ingenious conjecture. A very few
remarks, of a general tendency, may be subjoined.
The form of the pointed arch, to which feature of the English
style the chief attention of many writers has been directed, was,
unquestionably, known long before its adaptation to a peculiar
and consistent order of architecture. It has been observed that .
the embryo of this arch is to be seen in the inclined stones over
the entrance into the great pyramid at Ghize, in Egypt, and
in buildings of the Chinese.” 2 * *
Mr. Hawkinst justly remarks that “the mode of striking the
§
: ;
curves for the pointed arch as a geometrical form, is clearly
pointed out in the first proposition or problem of Euclid, in
. -- which
* In Stevenson's supplement to Bentham's history of Ely cathedral, notes,
p. 27, it is observed that “forms very similar to a pointed arch will be found
in plate 81, of stewart's Ruins of Balbec. Plate 20, of Denon's Travels in
Upper and Lower Egypt. over the entry of the galleries of the pyramids
ºf Cheops. In Chinese buildings; and in Revelry's Justinian's Aqueduct.
' ' ' + History of the origin of Gothic architecture, p. 98.

pointed, or English, style or Architecture. 473
which he gives the mode of describing an equilateral triangle
upon a given finite straight line.” Whoever had demonstrated
this problem, must, therefore, have drawn the arch in question.
It will be recollected that Euclid lived rather more than three-
centuries before the Christian era.
Although we thus clearly ascertain a period at which the prin-
ciples of the pointed arch might be known equally to the scholar
and the architect, there is great difficulty in discovering the first
ages in which such an acquisition of knowledge was practically
applied by the latter.
In Horsley’s Britannia Romana, are representations of several -
Roman sepulchral stones, displaying arches of this form; and
the authority of these has been insisted on, with great earnest-
ness, by Mr. Whitaker, in his Cathedral History of Cornwall;”
but it is proved that the draughtsman who assisted Mr. Horsley ..
was inaccurate in one instance, and the evidence of others is
therefore suspicious. The mistake to which I allude, occurs in
Britannia Romana, Middlesex, p. 192. The stone there en-
graved is preserved in the Arundelian collection, at Oxford; and
Sir Richard Hoare shews that the arch is round, not pointed.
He states that it was “carefully examined and drawn by Mr.
Carter;” and an engraving from the drawing made by that anti- -
quary, is inserted amongst the inscriptions in Sir Richard Hoare's
Introduction to the Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin.
• The reader may find a long train of learned, but unsatisfactory, specu-
lations concerning the early use of the pointed arch by Roman builders, in
the second section of the second chapter of this romantic piece of antiquarian
writing, Mr. Whitaker there brings forward the church of St. Martin's, at
Canterbury, as an undoubted specimen of Roman architecture in Britain;.
but the fallacy of this opinion is explained in the Beauties for Kent, p. 908–
909; where is presented a description of that building—After expatiating on
the gat eway at Antinopolis, and the entrance to the chapel of the - Holy
Sep lehre at Jerusalem, s he, with great confidence, describes “the peaked, º
arch as being diffused by the Romans along Roman Judea, teman Egypt,
'Roman Spain, and Roman Britain.” … --

474 - Introduction.
It would be difficult to name, with certainty, the existence of
a pointed arch, in European buildings, of an earlier date than
those indications of such arches exhibited by the semi-circular,
intersecting, arcades already noticed. We are not entirely des-
titute of authority for believing that arcades of this description
were used, as ornaments, by the Romans in Britain;" and it is
uniformly admitted, by the most judicious writers, that they pre-
sent the first resemblance of the pointed arch in the European
architecture of the Middle ages, however different may be the
opinions of such authors, concerning the derivation of the pointed
style, as a methodised order. x - > -->
The great error of several writers who have formed theories on
the subject of this style, appears to consist in the direction of
their notice to parts, without viewing the whole as a surprising
adaptation of architectural rules to the production of a new gene-
ral effect. Thus, one seeks to ascribe the origin of the pointed
arch to a foreign soil, and rests contented if he think that he has
established his position; while another (and a writer of great
taste and ingenuity) has satisfied himself with bringing the slen-
der pillars, and spiral ornaments, from the east, and suggests
that the pointed arch was exported from Europe, in return.
It would certainly appear to be doubtful, from the evidence
at present adduced, whether the first hints of this novel mode of
architecture were not brought from the east, by the crusaders.
But, if thence derived, the idea must have been crude, and of so
little avail, as scarcely to authorize us in believing that this style,
as practised in Europe, was, in its grand principles of ordina-
tion, adopted from that country. The classes of pointed archi-
tecture in England are well known to be various, and appear to
- - - grow
• In the Gentleman's Magazine for 1801, p. 1161, is a description by
R. Uvedale, accompanied by an engraving, of a Roman tesselated pave-
ment, which was discovered at Louth, in Lincolnshire. “ It is composed of
aircular compartments, one of which is ornamented with a series ºf columns
and intersecting arches.” See, also, Britton's Architectural Antiquities,
Wol. I. article St. Botolph's priory church, % - ". . . . . . . *" º ż


Point ED, or ENGL1s H, sty LE of ARCHITECTURE. 475
grow out of each other, in a kind of natural succession. We
here see the arcade of intersecting semi-circles, followed by an
intermixture of the pointed with the semi-circular arch. The
point then prevails, and becomes the characteristic of the whole
structure. In this first determinate stage of our style, simpli-
city, almost amounting to a studied rejection of ornament, is
eonspicuous throughout the principal features. Progressive deco-
rations take place in succeeding ages, until fancy, indulged in its
excursions, ranges with meretricious freedom. It is difficult to
imagine which parts of a style so various, were produced by a
literal imitation of a manner prevailing in the east.—In whatever
part of Europe might originate this invention, or improvement on
an adopted idea, it must, assuredly, be deemed probable that a
gradation in art, nearly partaking of the stages conjectured by
Dr. Milner, marked its procedure. It can hardly be assumed
that this style of architecture, wherever it arose, was not matured
into those existing forms of beauty which adorn the west, by
European fancy and judgment. ſº
But even the admission of this merit in the artists of Christen-
dom, implicates a consideration of the question in another form.—
Not only is it placed in doubt, by different writers, whether this
style originated in Europe, from a simple architectural combina-
tion, but the particular European country in which it was first
encouraged, and in which it attained a priority of excellence, is,
likewise, made a subject of discussion.
It was long allowed that England was entitled to claim this
distinguished honour; but Mr. Whittington and Mr. Hawkins
dispute the justice of such a claim, and bring forward an exten-
sive catalogue of dates to prove anterior efforts on the part of
FRANce; and of rich specimens, to shew her superiority in ex- .
cellence. It may be argued that the first are probably liable to
many of those errors into which topographers have frequently .
fallen, when endeavouring to appropriate portions of ancient
buildings in England to respective architects and eras. The
alleged transcendency in beauty of the Frene structures, is,
sº * : * : evidently,

476 . * , 1 NTRODUCTION.
evidently, a matter of opinion; but the instances cited are quite
sufficient to prove a diversity of national taste in ornamental par-
ticulars, while they exhibit the same geometrical ordination of
method, in the buildings of both countries. : º
Indeed it may appear probable, on one view of the subject,
that there is less cause of rivalry between the two nations, than
is suggested by the above writers. If we may rely on the accu-
racy of my previous statement (founded, chiefly, on the autho-
rity of Sir Christopher Wren) respecting the general agency
throughout Europe of the Society of Free Masons, England and
France could scarcely have cause for any national contest, as to
precedence in art, so far as regarded the leading features of con-
temporary ecclesiastical structures. According to the informa-
tion there conveyed, bands of masons (designers, or architects,
as well as workmen) incorporated and encouraged by the Pope,
visited every Christian country in which affluence allowed great
churches to be erected. By them the new works were executed;
and the same general principles were, therefore, in practice, at
the same time, throughout the most prosperous districts of
Europe.
The great distinguishing CHARACTERistics of the Pointed,
or English, style of architecture, may be stated as consisting in
clustered pillars, of slender but variable proportions; pointed
arches, formed by the segments of two intersecting circles; and
very prominent buttresses, usually terminating in turrets, or
spires. But numerous minor characteristical features are in-
volved in an account of the various fashions to which this style
was subject, in its progress from chaste simplicity to a gorgeous
redundancy of embellishment, calculated to surprise rather than
to gratify. And these less important distinguishing marks will
meet with as much notice as my limits will allow, in future
pages, appropriated to a consideration of those progressive varie-
ties of style. . . . . . . . .
The advocates of Grecian architecture have, in some instances,
. . . . . . . . . . - taken
pointed, or ENglish, style of Architecture. 477
taken illiberal pains in endeavours to degrade the English style
by opprobrious epithets, rather than by arguments directed to
the judgment and taste. Thus, Vasari, in the Introduction to
his Lives of the Painters, describes “ such cursed fabrics as in-
festing the face of the earth;” and Mr. Evelyn mentions them
as “congestions of heavy, dark, melancholy and monkish piles,
without any just proportion, use, or beauty.”
It appears that the former writer was not enabled by travel to
form his opinion of this style from any other buildings, in the
pointed manner, than those of Italy; which, according to Sir
James Hall, are very inferior to those of the rest of Europe.
But Mr. Evelyn, who is followed in the same tone by Sir Chris-
topher Wren, made his rash and indiscriminate assertion in the
face of structures so august yet simple, and displaying such a
consummate skill in execution, that the epithets in which he in-
dulges revert to his own obloquy, and will brand him for centu-
ries as a writer deficient in good taste, or warped by prejudice,
The opinions of numerous architectural and scientific writers
might be opposed to the above petulant declamation. The re-
marks of one such author may be sufficient, and these are se-
lected because they are evidently the result of cool reflection;
whilst the praise bestowed is rendered more valuable by an ad-
mission of partial defects. - * - -- tº
“ When we consider,” says Mr. Murphy, “ the difficulty that
the architects of these edifices had to contend with, from the
ignorance of the times, and the debased state of every art and
science, we must confess they had more merit than is generally
allowed them;" for, notwithstanding these powerful barriers,
their works discover signs of mathematical knowledge, of philo- -

* Sir William Chambers observes “ that to those usually called Gothic
architects, we are indebted for the first considerable improvements in con-
struction; there is a lightness in their works, an art and boldness of execu-
tion, to which the ancients never arrived, and which the moderns compre-
hend and imitate with difficulty.” Sir W. Chambers on Civil Architecture,
edit. 34, p. 24. -->
478 INTRoduction.
sophical penetration, and of religious sentiments, which future
generations may, perhaps, seek for in vain, in the productions of
the architects of this enlightened age. 4
“ The earliest specimens of this manner of building in Eng-
land were, I believe, finished about the beginning of the 13th
century; and though, perhaps, not constructed in imitation of
any ancient models, were carried to a greater pitch of excellence
in less time than history records of any other species of archi-
tecture; and may be mentioned as remarkable instances of the
vigorous exertions of the human mind, in the early stages of an
art. It must, however, be expected that some defects are to be
found in these edifices, as perfection, in any art, is a plant of
slow growth. But if this mode of building had still continued
to be cultivated, with that ardour which marked its progress in
this country, a little before the period of its final dissolution;
improved by the assemblage of various scattered perfections, and
graced by emanations from the kindred arts, what excellence
might we not reasonably expect to have seen it brought to, when
the excrescences, and inelegancies, of ruder times, would have
been lopped off by the hand of taste.”
But we do not require the opinions of the scientific and pro-
- fessional, to convince us of the real beauty of these structures,
or the appropriate religious influence of this style on the mind
of the spectator. Insensible must be that man who bows not
before the sacred spirit of the place, and refrains from a thrill
of grateful awe, when standing amidst the long indeterminate
aisles of a cathedral of this order, and contemplating the mys-
terious sublimity of its features, displayed in finely intermingled
light and shade, or indistinct in solemn gloom. When thus
situated, we own that the building is calculated to concentrate
the thoughts, engross the feelings, and inspire ideas of sublime
•xpansion and majestic power.—To enforce such impressions
Wąs.
• Murphy's Elevations, &c. of the church at Batalla. Introductory Dis.
course, p. 3. -: . . .

pointed, or english, style of Architecture. 479
was the great object of the architect's study; and his best meed
is our admission of being susceptible to them. . .
This influence over the imagination is the peculiar attribute
of the style in question, and must have proved an agent of incon-
ceivable strength in the hands of the ecclesiastics of unlettered
ages. The mind can scarcely picture a more august spectacle
than all edifice of this class, when the interior (on which the
great efforts of the architect and sculptor were bestowed) was
arranged in its full splendour by superstitious wealth —its
statues erect in canopied niches; its altars perfect; its sumptuous.
shrines preserved as objects of reverence and pilgrimage.
But that bright revolution in the human mind, which has
wrested from these vast and intricate piles the adventitious in-
fluence which they gained through the reveries of superstition,
has left them in possession of a power over the fancy, only less.
arbitrary than that attained by such a pernicious medium. They
are, indeed, calculated for religion, under all forms; and differ-
ence of opinion becomes trivial, for a time, amidst the sublimity
of temples so well suited to the adoration of Omnipotence.
It is otherwise with Grecian architecture. While we admire
its application to civil purposes, the heart gainsays all classical
prepossession, and owns that it wants power to fix the mind in -
hushed solemnity, and raise the imagination for devotional pur-
poses. Lord Orford appears to have been merely intent on pro-
r ducing an elegant sentence, and neglected the religious inten-
tion of such structures, when he said that “A Gothic cathedral
strikes one like the enthusiasm of poetry; St. Paul’s like the
good sense of prose.” * —Exaltation of fancy is ennobled by the
sanction of correct judgment, when we yield ourselves to the
dominion of the place, and forget the world in the pleasing awe
inspired by the former sacred pile. For the superior effect of
English architecture on the imagination, and its consequent ten-
dency to produce elevated religious sentiments, a safe appeal
. may
. Works of the Earl of Orford, Vol. IV, Article, Detached Thoughts.
489 1NTRo Duction.
may be made to the great and definitive criteria of merit in such
works of art:—the feelings of those who enter as casual specta-
tors only, and depend for a frame of mind on the character of the
scene which they contemplate. - -
Some ingenious theoretical calculations have been made, to
explain the principles on which the above effects are produced,
to so eminent a degree, in churches of this description. The
most interesting remarks are presented by Dr. Milner.” This
author reminds his reader, on the authority of Mr. Burke, that
height and length are amongst the primary sources of the sub-
lime; and it is well known that these are the proportions chiefly
affected by the architects of ancient English structures appro-
priated to a religious purpose. An artificial height and length
are, also, produced by the peculiarities of this style; “for the
aspiring form of the pointed arches, the lofty pediments, and
the tapering pinnacles with which our cathedrals are adorned,
contribute, perhaps, still more to give an idea of height than
their real elevation. In like manner, the perspective of uni-
form columns, ribs, and arches, repeated at equal distances, as
they are seen in the aisles of those fabrics, produces an artificial
infinite in the mind of the spectator.” On the same principle,
Dr. Milner believes the effect of cathedral buildings in this
style to be greatly augmented by the variety of their constituent
parts, and the progressive manner in which these are revealed to
the spectator; while all subordinate divisions converge to the
choir and sanctuary, as to their centre.t } %
* § - In
* Letter from the Rev. John Milner, MI. A. F. S. A. to Mr. Taylor, pre-
fixed to Essays on Gothic Architecture, published by the latter gentleman.
# The following observations of Sir James Hall, concerning the different
degrees of distance at which structures in the Grecian and English styles may
be viewed to the greatest advantage, are worthy of the 1eader's attention :-
“In order to do justice to a building of the Grecian style, it is necessary to
look at it from a noderate distance; so far off, that the whole may be taken
in at one view, and so near, as to allow all the parts to be distinctly seen.
Such
rol NTED, or ENGL1sh, style of Architecture. 481
In some hasty, but valuable, hints towards the plan of a regu-
lar history of this architectural style, contained in a letter of
Lord Orford, and printed in Mr. Nichols's Literary Anecdotes,”
it is said that in such a work there should be “Observations on
the art, proportion, and method of building, and the reasons ob-
served by the Gothic architects for what they did.” ,
This is a literary desideratum, which, as I have already sug-
gested, no industry has hitherto been enabled satisfactorily to
supply. It will be recollected that the disappearance of writings
on the principles and rules of this order, is chiefly ascribed to two
causes. The probable destruction of such papers by the Free-
Masons, which is the first of the reasons alleged, has been noticed
in a previous page; and the suppression of monasteries is likely
to have been equally fatal to many similar manuscripts in this
country. The contents of conventual libraries were then co
signed to the flames, or to sordid uses, with indiscriminate seve-
2 I * rity.
Such a view is the most trying for the Gothic, as in that manner the but-
tresses, which the Gothic architects have in vain endeavoured altogether to
disguise, appear heavy and awkward. The fault too with which Sir C.
Wren reproaches the Free Masons, of overloading their abutments, in this
view occasions a detriment to the general effect of the edifice; for the side
aisles being made large, and their windows approaching to an equality with
those of the nave, the height of the building is to the view divided into two,
Z : .
&
and its unity of plan destroyed. # * : * : * . . . º . . . . .
* The beauty and variety of the Grecian style, which reside in the de-
tails of execution, are lost in the distant view ; and the edifice then exhibits
the dull and abrupt appearance of its timber original, in its rude and unor-
namented state. - 3. * : * ~ *
“A distant view is most favourable to the Gothic style; for its form being
boldly varied and strongly characterized in the general plan, produces its
full effect, as far as the eye can reach. The fault above mentioned is not
observable at a distance, the whole being united in one grand effect; and
the spire, a very principal ornament of the style, thus presents its best ap-
pearance, as it rises from every village, and diversifies the uniformity of a
fertile plain.” Essay on Gothic architecture by Sir James Hall, Bart. p. 146
* Literary Anecdotes, &c. Vol. IV. p. 707.

482 - 1NT Roduction.
rity. Among the manuscripts which perished on this barbarous
consummation of a rational triumph, we cannot doubt but that
many were on the subject of architecture, when we remember the
zeal with which the art was cultivated by numerous erudite ec-
clesiastics. These causes, perhaps, sufficiently account for the
loss of such documents in England. But the conventual libra-
ries of France experienced no destructive visitation, for several
ages after the history of pointed architecture attracted some
curiosity. Respecting these we are told, that “in France there
were accurate details of ecclesiastical architecture, in MSS. col-
lected from conventual archives, which have been either printed
by their antiquaries, or were carefully preserved before the re-
volution.” No important information, however, concerning
the principles of pointed architecture, is obtained from such
writings as have been published by the antiquaries of that
country.
Mystery, like the Gordian knot, may be severed by a bold
hand when it cannot be disentangled. Unable to discover any
written principles, Mr. Knight,t therefore, suggests that the
architects who used the pointed style, were, in fact, not govern-
ed by any rules, or principles of ordination, but attended “to
effect only.” The improbability of this conjecture, if extended
to its utmost import, must be denied by all who reflect on the
constituent uniformity preserved in this style, although it passed,
to use the words of Sir James Hall, “ through a multitude of
hands, eager to outdo their predecessors and their rivals, by the
novelty, as well as by the elegance, of their compositions.”f
Even architects, while, doubtless, perplexed to meet with un-
fathomable obscurity, have not attempted to deny the existence
of a ruling system, beeause it eluded their detection.—“From
the observations which I have made, at various times, on these
churches,”
* Dallaway's observations on English Architecture, p. 44
* * 4 Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste.
t Sir James Hall on Gothic architecture, p. 107.

Pol NTED, o R ENGLISH, sty. LE of ARCHITECTURE. 483
churches,” writes Mr. Murphy, “I am led to suppose that the
general configuration, internally, was usually designed agreeable
to some definite rules, or proportions, notwithstanding the com-
ponent quantities were not invariably distributed, in every edi-
fice, in the same comparative degree of relation, but were modi-
fied according to local circumstances, or the architect's concep-
tion of optical effects.” w.
The above remarks of Mr. Murphy may be thought to convey
a fair notion of the degree of scientific restraint to which ancient
architects were subject, in the use of this order. It is possible
that some elucidative manuscript may yet be discovered in a
foreign library; and it is imperative on the architects of the pre-
sent day, since imitations of the pointed style are now so greatly
encouraged, to apply themselves to an investigation of the purest
models, with a view of retrieving the rules on which such build-
ings were constructed, and by an attention to which, alone, they
can become respectable, except as mere copyists. :
Some curious observations on this subject have lately been
communicated to the public by Mr. Hawkins, in his “History
of the Origin of Gothic Architecture.” This writer brings for-
ward certain particulars of information conveyed by an architect
named Caesar Caesarianus, in notes appended to a translation of
Vitruvius, printed in the year 1521. The annotator, in an en-
deavour to explain more fully some passages of Vitruvius, says,
“ that when a building is to be erected, a design or drawing of
the intended edifice is to be made by measure, which is called a
sketch; and that afterwards a model should be constructed, by
which the principal parts of the edifice are to be regulated.”
After mentioning other circumstances connected with the process,
he adds “that the Germant architects pursued this method in
the church of Milan, the symmetry of which is regulated by the
length.” -
2 I 2 . The
* Plans, elevations, &c. of the church of Batalha, p. 17,
* Pointed architecture was frequently termed German in the 16th century

484 1NT Roduction.
The church of Milan appears to have been built in 1387; and
Caesar Caesarianus gives a plan of the structure,” together with a
wood cut of its orthography (or elevation) and another cut, of the
same description, containing the scenographict representation of
that edifice. These cuts exhibit the geometrical principles on
which respective parts of the building are said to have been de-
signed. . . ; : *
For particulars concerning the rules promulgated by the above
writer, the reader is necessarily referred to the publication of
Mr. Hawkins. The future enquirer into the principles of this
style will, assuredly, find them worthy of careful consideration,
however insufficient to explain the whole of the system which
forms the object of his research. . -
Mr. Hawkins has collected, and stated in his work, many of
those varieties of proportion which are observable in the arches
and columns of buildings erected in this mode: but he observes
“that the proportions of Gothic architecture, as it is termed,
may, still, perhaps, in some instances be found to approach
nearer to those of Grecian than persons little acquainted with the
subject would be inclined to suppose, or the advocates for this
last-mentioned style be disposed to admit.” In a subsequent
page he contends “ that in every Gothic cathedral as yet known,
the extent from north to south of the two transepts, including
the width of the choir, if divided into ten, as Vitruvius directs,
would exactly give the distribution of the whole. Three arches
form the north, and three the south transept; the other four
give the breadth from one transept to the other. One division
of the four being taken for each of the side-aisles of the nave,
r gº and
• The explanatory title which C. Caesarianus affixes to his plan is thus
translated by Mr. Hawkins : “The plan of the foundation of a sacred build-
ing, with columns at a distance asunder, constructed after the German man.
ner, by means of a triangle and square, like that which is now to be seen
at Milan.”
t By the term Scenography is generally understood a perspective view of
the sont and side of an edifice,
rol Nºt Ed, or ENG lish, style of ARchitecture. 485.
and two left for its centre walk, the complete distribution of the
nave is also given.” - . . . . .
Whilst noticing the relative proportions of buildings in this
style of architecture, it may be desirable to cite the following
remarks of Browne Willis, although unconnected with any pre-
sumed similitude of arrangement between the works of Grecian
and ancient English architects:
“In most of the stately abbies, the height was equal to the
breadth of the body and side-aisles; º
“The steeple and towers were frequently built equal in
height to the length of the whole fabric, or rather the cross-
aisle from north to south, as is the case in Bristol, Chester, and
St. David’s ; -
“The cross-aisles often extended half the length of the whole
fabric, as did the nave or western part, viz. from the great door
at the west-end to the lower great pillars that supported the
steeple; ~
“And the side-aisles were just half the breadth and height
of the nave, insomuch that both added together exactly answer-
ed it.”* , - 2 sº
Several modern writers have attempted to simplify the study
of Pointed, or English, architecture, by dividing its specimens
into Distinct classes. But it is to be regretted that the
terms respectively adopted by these authors, partake of that want
of uniformity which is so perplexing to the enquirer, in regar
to the great distinguishing appellation of this style. ,
Among the earliest attempts to divide the pointed style into
determinate classes, must be mentioned that of Mr. Warton, in
his well-known Observations on the Fairy Queen of Spenser.
This writer describes those first rude attempts in pointed archi-
2 I 3
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º. tº º, .
3. tº . . . .
. B. Willis's History of Mitred Abbies, &c. Vol. II. Pref. p. 8-1 am not
• aware that the merit of the remarks thus extracted, has been ascertained by
actual re-measurement,


486 1NTR opuction.
tecture, which immediately succeeded to the Anglo-Norman mode,
as a “ sort of Gothic-Saxon.” The character of buildings to
which he alludes will be noticed in a subsequent page; but he
certainly errs (as has been remarked by several commentators) in
placing the cathedral of Salisbury in such a class.
The pointed style, when formed by successive efforts into an
acceptable order, he divides into three classes, which he thus
denominates: - º . .
The Absolute Gothic ; “which began with ramified win-
dows of an enlarged dimension, divided into several lights, and
branched out at the top into a multiplicity of whimsical shapes
and compartments, after the year 1300.” Of this fashion he
tonsiders the body of Winchester cathedral to afford a just idea.
The ORNAMENTAL Gothic ; of which he names, for examples,
the choir of St. Mary’s church at Warwick; the roof of the divi-
nity school at Oxford; and the chapel of King's College, Cam-
bridge. - :
The Florid Gothic; of which the chapel of St. George at
Windsor, and the chapel of Henry the Seventh at Westminster,
are conspicuous specimens. ." - -
Mr. Britton, in the judicious “Sketch 'of a Nomenclature of
Ancient Architecture,” contained in the first volume of his Ar-
chitectural Antiquities, proposes to divide the pointed style into
three classes, which he thus designates, and appropriates to res-
pective dates and reigns: º g
English, from 1189 to 1272, embracing the reigns of Richard
the First, John, and Henry the Third. º
Decorated English, from 1272 to 1461, including the reigns
of Edward the First, Second, and Third; Richard the Second;
and Henry the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth. . .
Highly decorated, or Florid English, from 1461, to 1509,
including the reigns of Edward the Fourth and Fifth, Richard
the Third, and Henry the Seventh. - -
“From this era,” observes Mr. Britton, “we lose sight of all
style and congruity; and publick buildings erected during the
. * . . . " reigns
pointe D, or ENGLISH, style of ARchitecture. 487.
reigns of Henry the Eighth, Elizabeth, and James the First, may
be characterized by the terms of Debased English, or Anglo-
Italian.” . .
Dr. Milner" also considers the vicissitudes of fashion in point-
ed architecture, to have led to the formation of three perceptible
orders in this style, “as distinct from each other as are the orders
of Grecian architecture, having their respective members, orna-
ments, and proportions; though the essential and characteristi-
cal difference among them consists in the degree of angle formed
by the pointed arch.”f .. .
The First Order, that of the acute arch, he considers to have
been perfected before the end of the twelfth century, and to have
eontinued till near the conclusion of the thirteenth century. Ex-
ample, interior of the east end of Canterbury cathedral.
The Second Order, Dr. Milner terms that of the perfect, or,
equilateral arch; but adds, in an explanatory note, that “it is
not meant that all the arches of this second order are of the pro-
portion in question; it is sufficient that they come near to it, and
are all elegantly turned.” He states this order as prevailing
from the disuse of the former, till after the middle of the fifteenth
century. Example, interior of York minster.
The Third Order, or that of the obtuse arch, obtained from
the date at which the preceding was rejected, down to the mid-
dle of the sixteenth century, when the style itself was exploded.
Example, chapel of Henry the Seventh, Westminster. -
2 I 4 Mr. Dallaway
* Treatise on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England during the Mid-
dle ages. º
t Antiquaries are not decided as to the propriety of such a criterion in en-
deavours to ascertain the age of an erection. Mr. J. A. Repton, in a letter to
Mr. Britton, printed in the fourth volume of Architectural Antiquities, asserts
that he has “ communicated a paper to the Society of Antiquaries, oontaining
observations on the progress of English architecture from the Conquest to the
reign of Henry the Eighth, elucidated by drawings of capitals, arch-mouldings,
•ornices, &c. by which it will be shewn that the shape of the arch alone is not
to be depended on, to point out tha dates of buildings.” This paper is not yet.
given to the public. . . -

488 1 NTRODUCTION.
Mr. Dallawayº divides the pointed style into four classes,
which he thus names, and applies as to dates of prevalence:
Lancet Arch Gothic, from 1220 to 1300. -:
Pure Gothic, from 1300 to 1400. .
Ornamented Gothic, from 1400 to 1460.
Florid Gothic, from 1460 to the close.
Mr. Millers, in some observations prefixed to his Description
of the Cathedral church of Ely, presents a “Sketch of the Cha-
racteristics of English church Architecture,” containing the fol-
lowing scheme of division in regard to this style:
EARLY English; from 1200 to 1300, comprehending the
reigns of John, Henry the Third, and Edward the First.
ORNAMENTED ENGL1sh; from 1300 to 1460, comprehend-
ing a small part of the reign of Edward the First, and those of
Edward the Second, Edward the Third, Richard the Second,
Henry the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth. . .
Florid ENGLISH; from 1460 to 1537, the dissolution of re-
ligious houses; comprehending the reigns of Edward the Fourth,
and Fifth, Richard the Third, Henry the Seventh and Eighth.
Notwithstanding a disagreement as to the application of terms
and dates of prevalence, it will be observed that nearly the whole
of the above writers coincide in believing that English architec-
ture is amenable to three divisions in point of character; and it is
presumed that an illustration of the justness of such an opinion
will be afforded by the examples and remarks presented in suc
ceeding pages. . -
Convinced that the terms applied by Mr. Britton are suffici-
ently appropriate and expressive, I have on the present, as on
other occasions, adopted his Nomenclature (with one slight alter-
ation, suggested by Mr. Millers) and shall proceed to a brief
statement of the characteristical features of these three fashions,
. . . . # 6t
" Observations on English Architecture,
Point ED, or ENGL1s H, STYLE of Arch 1tectur E. 489
or orders. To the description of each style will be appended an
enumeration of specimens, placed under the reigns embraced by
the era of its prevalence, together with occasional observations
on peculiarities that have been ascertained in such stages of its
progress. -
But it will be evident, on examination, that no architectural
fashion has grown suddenly into general use. All, indeed, have
gained on public notice and approbation by progressive steps;
and a consequent intermixture of modes is often seen, in such
buildings as were erected in those unpropitious years which inter-
vened between the rejection of one style and the adoption of ano-
ther. The necessity of bearing this fact in recollection, has been
suggested to the reader in my remarks on the architecture of the
Anglo-Normans. But the preservation of a consistent chronolo-
gical link, requires that it should be again presented to his con-
sideration, and should be here applied to ages immediately pre-
ceding the entire establishment of this new mode. * * * *
It will be observed that the following list of examples com-
mences with the reign in which the pointed style is usually be-
lieved to have first assumed the appearance of a separate and uni-
form order. But it has been shewn that the characteristical arch
of this style was introduced at a date considerably anterior. The
indeterminate mode which obtained in consequence of such a par-
tial and immethodical use of the pointed form, is obviously that
species of architecture which Mr. Warton, most inappropriately,
denominates Gothic-Saxon. It will be recollected that the arches
in such buildings are very irregular and rude; in some instances
extremely acute, and in others ungracefully obtuse; while the
pillars, and many other architectural members, commonly retain
the fashion of the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman eras. • *
We have seen that, according to the opinion of Dr. Milner,
the pointed arch was first used in the ecclesiastical architecture
of this country, towards the close of Henry the First's reign.
Buildings in which this arch was exhibited were frequent in the
reigns of Stephen and Henry the Second. Parts of the follow-


* • ing
490 Introduction.
ing structures are characteristical of the style often practised in
these reigns, and are curious instances of imperfect struggles
towards the formation of a new and harmonious architectural
order. Buildwas Abbey, Shropshire, begun about the year
1135; remains of the Priory Church, Dunstable, reign of Ste-
phen; Abbey church, Romsey, Hants; Lanthoni Abbey, Mon-
mouthshire, founded in 1136. To these English examples may be
added part of the north side of the nave of St. David's cathedral,
South Wales, and the north side of the choir of the same struct
It will also be remembered that, in fixing the era at which the
pointed style may be considered as commencing in this country,
that period is adopted at which it grew into so decided a prefer-
ence as to prevail in the great majority of instances. This cir-
cumstance of disposal will be allowed its due weight, when the
reader perceives that the choir and chancel of Canterbury cathe-
dral are not included by the date to which the establishinent of
pointed architecture is here ascribed. The east end of this cathe-
dral is, indeed, a nearer approach to the purity of the first point-
ed order than occurs in any other known building of its era. This
division of the structure was erected between the years 1175 and
1180; and presents a regular succession of acutely pointed arches,
on the sides and in the groining of the roof; but the columns are
plain and weighty, their capitals hearing a meretricious resem-
blance of the Corinthian order; and various mouldings, apper-
& taining to the circular mode, being introduced in different parts
of the building. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 * : *%
Of a style nearly similar, but less decidedly approximating to
the consistency of the first uniform pointed order, is the circular
part of the Temple church, London. From these two edifices
may be derived a distinct idea of the improved architecture grow-
ing into use in the latter part of the reign of Henry the Second,
and clearly indicating the designs which were in action for the
formation of an architectural system in which the pointed man-

Point ED, OR ENGL1s H, sty LE of Arch IT ecTUR E. 491
ner should be marked, throughout, with collateral features suited
to its own peculiar character. w - :
CHARACTERISTICS AND ExAMPLEs of THE
EARLY ENGLISH STYLE, PREVAILING IN
THE REIGNs of Rich ARD THE FIRST ;
JoBN; AND HENRY THE THIRD.
That result of architectural effort to which we have been mak-
ing slow approaches, stands exemplified in many surviving build-
ings, which are equally venerable as the first instances of a con-
sistent order in the new style, and admirable for their harmony
of arrangement and simple beauty.
A refined taste and consummate judgment had been working
on the crude, scattered, elements of pointed architecture. The
ignorant or indolent have recourse to excessive ornament, in the
first essay towards producing beauty in a novel walk of art. That
elevation of mind must be formed on a close study of nature and
sound mathematical knowledge, which prefers simplicity to de-
coration, and seeks the gratification of the spectator without
raising his wonder—Such was the dignified view of the archi-
tects who formed the first order of the pointed style; and they
were fortunate in raising monuments to their own fame, as dura-
ble as they are free from ostentation.
The Early English style is denoted by the comparative plain- §
ness of its chief constituent parts, and by an uniformity, chaste
as to conception, but which in some instances, when applied to
the interior of large buildings, is productive of an effect border-
ing on offence through the operation of monotony. In the greater
number of buildings in this mode, we are, however, permanently
gratified by the unity and harmony which prevail; and an ele-
gant lightness of proportions renders the whole peculiarly at-
The most important characteristical marks of this style consist
in the acute form of its arches; its slender pillars of marble, sur-

492 1NTRoduction.
rounded with shafts of the same material, slightly detached, the
whole uniting beneath one capital; and its windows long and
narrow, assuming the form usually denominated the lancet-shape.
—But the reader will be most desirably reminded of the criteria
by which the early English style is ascertained, through a de-
scriptive statement of its principal architectural features, sepa-
rately considered. -
The ARches used in this first class of English architecture
were of narrow proportions, and sharply pointed. In large struc-
tures, where a second tier is introduced, opening to the triforium,
two or more arches are united under one, with trefoil or cinque-
foil heads; and arches with the same kind of finishing sometimes
occur in other parts of the building. z
The Columns are slender, and are surrounded with detached
shafts of marble,” united at the base; and each, according to Mr.
Bentham, “having a capital richly adorned with foliage, which
together, in a cluster, form one elegant capital for the whole
pillar.” This description would appear to be sufficiently ex-
- i pressive,
... • Some remarks of Mr. Essex afford considerable information on the sub-
ject of the marble used in buildings of this architectural class—After stating
that no important changes occurred in the art of construction until the era
now under notice, he observes that, “ in the middle of the 12th century,
many alterations were made in the style of architecture, and the bases and
eapitals of the pillars, and very often the pillars themselves, surrounded with
small shafts, were made of marble highly polished. Marble was used for
these purposes until the latter end of Edward the Second's reign, though the
other parts of buildings were executed with common stones, of moderate di-
mensions, and laid in the same manner as in the preceding ages. But in
the following reign we find that marble was much neglected (either on ac-
count of the great labour required in cutting and polishing, or because they
found that the fine polish that was given it was not of long continuance;) and
before the end of Edward the Third's reign it was quite disused. The mar-
ble used for the above-mentioned purposes was brought from quarries near
Petworth, in Sussex, or from the Isle of Purbec. It is commonly of a grey-
isl colour, with a shade of green; and, being full of small shells filled with
spar, it appears speckled with small white spots.” Archaol, Vol. IV,
º:
p. 104.
pointed, or ENGLISH, style of ARchitecture. 493
pressive, if it be added that the capitals thus uniting under one
head, were not invariably adorned with rich foliage, but were
sometimes conspicuous for simplicity of decoration. #
The Roofs are vaulted; and the groining, in early instances,
consists only of simple intersecting ribs, or cross-springers. In
later examples of this class, we, however, find the vaultings more
ornamented; the springers are increased in number, and the line
of their intersection is adorned with carved flowers and various
devices. The material of which the vaulting was composed, de-
pended much on the natural produce of the neighbourhood in
which the edifice was constructed. Mr. Bentham observes that
the builders “generally chose to make it of chalk, for its light-
ness; but the arches and principal ribs were” (usually) “ of free-
stone.” x . w - -
It has been already concisely stated that the windows are
of a narrow oblong form, and pointed like a lancet. They are
sometimes seen in one opening, forming a single light; in which
mode they often occur in the chancels of small parochial churches,
and may be presumed to indicate the earliest stage of this archi-
tectural class. But, in edifices on which greater labour was be-
stowed, and which form the standard criteria of this order, the
same lancet windows were multiplied, and adorned with addi-
tional characteristics.” We here find two, or as frequently three,
united, and forming together that simple and pleasing window by
which the finest examples of this order are immediately recog-
nised. The union of three lancet openings, the central being
higher than those placed laterally, is the prevailing window in
* . . many
* Mr. Bentham remarks that “the order and disposition of the windows
varied in some measure according to the stories of which the building con-
sisted; in one of three stories, the uppermost had commonly three windows
within the compass of every arch, the centre one being higher than those on
each side; the middle tire or story had two within the same space ; and the
lowest only one window, usually divided by a pillar or mullion, and often
ºrnamented on the top with a trefoil, single rose, or some such simple dece-
ration.” Hist, of Ely Cathedral, p. 40, .

494 introduction.
many of the noblest structures of the third Henry's reign, where
two, or more, of these arches are placed together, under one
larger arch, the vacant space between their heads is filled with a
trefoil, quatrefoil, or cinquefoil. They were often ornamented,
both on the inside and on the exterior, with slender shafts (com-
monly of marble) having capitals enriched with foliage.
It may be necessary to add some few remarks concerning the
ORNAMENTs used in this order of pointed architecture.--Where
these are introduced, they are usually designed with much ele-
gance of taste, and are often well executed. The mouldings dis-
played in the circumference of arches, and on columns or pilasters,
are generally formed of a combination of leaves or flowers. Small
statues in niches were placed in various parts of the interior; and
larger statues on the west or east fronts, in niches formed by an
very prominent, and were sometimes surmounted with crocketted
pinnacles.
Previous to the commencement of an enumeration of several
ecclesiastical structures, which illustrate the above observations,
and afford specimens of this first class of English architecture, it
is desirable to submit some remarks which apply to each subse-
quent series as well as to the present. -
It will be apparent that only a few instances are noticed where
many possibly might be adduced. This, however, will scarcely
be viewed as a subject of regret with the reader, or as an act of
reprehensible omission in the writer, when it is recollected that
buildings in the English style, of a coeval date, generally evince
a striking uniformity in every architectural particular. The cause
of this unquestionable similarity is not distinctly known, but the
following conjecture is submitted with some confidence.—The
free-masons, who appear to have been the general agents in
sacred architecture throughout this and other European countries,
were likely to advise the regular adoption ofthe same plan which
they had successfully practised in certain memorable instances;
g
pointed, or ENGL1sh, style of Architecture. 495
and the interference of those ecclesiastics who studied architec-
ture and had attained a proficiency in the art, was not calculated,
as we may safely presume, to induce an important deviation from
any great standard example, unless on the occurrence of a master-
genius, whose boldness of invention was rendered authoritative
by influence of rank and depth of pecuniary resources. The rare
existence of such a combination of talent and power, inevitably
produced a new era in the art. The structure suggested by so
dignified an architect would necessarily be of the first class, as
to extent and grandeur; and would, as naturally, find imitators
in the projectors of minor buildings, and advocates in the arti-
ficers with whom its novelties had become familiar and approved
by successful operation. } 3.
If this conjectural explanation should be deemed unsatisfactory,
we may find more elaborate attempts at solution in several
modern writers. As an example of these, some remarks of Mr.
Britton, in the third volume of his Architectural Antiquities, are
presented to the notice of the reader: “Wherever monastic esta-
blishments were fixed, there architecture was studied, and every
new church rose up in strict accordance with the new style, and
novel inventions of the age. Buildings of a coeval date generally
display an uniformity of design and ornament. We are thus in-
deed to suppose that a regular system of communication was esta-
‘blished among the ecclesiastical community, and that every in-
vention in architecture, as well as all new regulations in monas-
tic economy, either emanated from a centre,—from a governing
power-or was submitted to that power for sanction and autho-
rity. The Pope, we know, was the supreme head and ruler of
the one, and it does not appear improbable, in supposing him to
have been the law-giver, or licencer of the other. The free-
masons or architects, as well as the provincial abbots, might
deem it requisite, perhaps it was imperious, to consult their all-
powerful master respecting every novelty, or innovation, which
either might wish to see introduced.”
* Architectural Antiquities, vol.III. P. 48;

496 . Introduction.
This decided uniformity of style in all ecclesiastical buildings
which are accurately traced to their date of erection, is a sub-
ject of some gratulation with the antiquarian examiner, as the
same want of written documents that has been lamented in pre-
vious sections, frequently prevails in the ages now under con-
sideration. Even where monastic records have survived the in-
juries of time and the destructive ordeal of reformation, they are
often found to contain little intelligence, as to the dates at which
particular parts of respective buildings were erected. The archi-
tectural history of cathedrals is, in many instances, developed
with conclusive authenticity; and our most satisfactory examples
are, therefore, derived from those edifices, which, at once illus-
trate the progress of art and exhibit its most splendid and hap-
piest efforts. Parochial churches were usually built by degrees, .
from the pious offerings of manorial lords, or other neighbouring
residents. Direct memorials of such progressive labours, arising
from private benefaction, cannot be expected to occur in great
frequency, .. . . . . . . . . . .
As the use of letters grew more common, we, however, find
auxiliaries of information that were but little known in periods
antecedent to the commencement of the pointed style. The
dates at which churches in this mode were built, and the names
of the founder and contributors, are sometimes ascertained by at-
tached inscriptions, expressly commemorating the erection and
consecration;” or by laudatory passages in epitaphs on such de-
: %. 3 WOut
• As some obscurity prevails, in regard to the time at which churches
were usually consecrated, the following remarks of Mr. Pegge may be ac-
ceptable to the reader;-" Churches were not always immediately conse- &
crated upon erection, for Otto, the legate, in the very first of his canons,
A. D. 1238, observes, that he himself had seen, and had heard from many,
that there had been great neglect in the consecration of churches; that seve-
ral of them, and even some cathedrals, had not been consecrated, though
built of old; wherefore he ordained, that all cathedral, conventual, and
parochial churches, which had their walls perfected, should be consecrated.
. . . by
Point ED, or ENGLISH, style of ARCHITECTURE. 497
vout persons. Armorial allusions, sculptured on the spandrils of
arches, carved on roofs, or emblazoned in windows of stained
glass, likewise assist in perpetuating the memory of those who
imparted aid to the erection, or restoration, of an edifice; and
thus often conduct to the discovery of positive dates. The intro-
duction of such heraldic memorials was frequent in the fifteenth
century, but was by no means confined to that era. .
It may not be superfluous to remind the reader that the richest,
most delicate and elaborate efforts of artists in the English style,
are exhibited in the ornamental parts of small chapels and orato-
ries, and in the decorations of tombs; the most costly instances
of which last fabrics invariably display, in beautiful miniature'
delineation, the peculiar fashion, and select ornaments, of the
ages in which they were constructed.
ECCLESIASTICAL STRUCTURES DISPLAYING THE
EARLY ENGLISH STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE.
REIGN of Rich ARD THE FIRST, FROM 1189 to 1199.
Noticed in the Beauties.
North side of the westtransept of *: Kent, P. 642.
ter cathedral................................
The chapel of the Holy Trinity at Can-Y .
terbury, which has windows in the
lancet shape, appears to have been
completed about the commencement
of this reign. See Archæol. Vol. XI. I
P. 367, and “............. “.......….......] º . * . . . .
--- ..? 2 K. . Upper
Kent, P. 796.
by their diocesan, or some other person authorized by him, within two
years. And it is certain that, in pursuance of this ordinance, many dedica-
tions actually ensued. But still I an of opinion that, in a common way,
dedications were solemnized as soon as conveniently could be after the com-
pletion of the fabrics; and, in general, the dedication or consecration, where
that can be known, necessarily implies an erection to have been perfected be
fore that date, except in case of a re-edification.” Pegge's Sylloge of Ancient
Inscriptions, &c. p. 1-4. . . . *
498 - 1. NTRODUCTION.
s Noticed in the Beauties.
Upper transept and choir incoln ,
pp p oir of *} Lincolnshire, P. 632–3.
cathedral.................................... -
Part of the nave and aisles of Peter-
borough cathedral........................ } Northamptonshire, P.235.
A
Reign of John. FROM 1199 to 1216.
vestibule at the entrance, termed the
Galilee, of Ely cathedral............... 5
Parts of the east end of Winchester
Cambridgeshire, P. 162.
cathedral............... - Hampshire, P. 51–52.
Remains of Beaulieu Abbey, including )
the former refectory, now used as :
parish church...............................
Choir and upper transept of *]
cathedral, partly in this reign, bººk Kent, P. 643–645, with
|
Hampshire, P. 194–198.
finished in that of Henry the Third: a print.
the style uniform...........................
Parts of the nave and central tower of * tº: .
. . . . . - - Lincolnshire, P. 633.
Lincoln cathedral........................ -
Reign of HENRY THE THIRD. FROM 1216 ro 1272.
The long reign of this king, although clouded by sanguinary
civil contests, and thenee unfavourable to the cultivation of many :
useful arts, is conspicuous for the munificent patronage bestowed
on ecclesiastical architecture. Few of the Middle ages were
more prolific of moral and political turpitude; and the supersti-
tious humour of the period led affluent criminals to seek an ex-
piation of offence against Heaven and mankind, by the founda-
tion of structures devoted to mediatory religious ceremonies— .
The emulative spirit of the times, when once aroused into action, *
was not confined to monastic or collegiate institutions, but was
honourably exercised in the erection and improvement of splen-
did cathedral and other churches. The pointed order of archi-
tecture had now attained so enthusiastic a degree of approbation,
3% - & that
Pointed, or English, style of Architecture. 499
that the labours of the architect were not restricted to entire
buildings in the new style, but the more weighty and objection-
able parts of numerous existing buildings were taken down, and re-
edified in the prevailing mode. This may be particularly re-
marked in the eastern, and more sacred, portions of many re-
maining edifices. -
It has been stated that some changes, implicating an increase
of ornament, are observable in the vaulting of buildings erected
in this lengthened reign. Some other variations are also percepti-
ble, and require notice. The chief of these relate to the windows,
and are exemplified in the Abbey church of Westminster. “The
design of this building,” as is remarked by Mr. Carter, “gives a
style peculiar to the period; and immediately succeeded that
mode of work made use of in the erection of Salisbury cathedral,
perfected in the early part of Henry’s sovereignty. The transi-
tion from the Salisbury to the Westminster style was not, how-
ever, marked by any extraordinary change: the alterations were
few, and not very obtrusive, they occurring principally in the
windows. At Salisbury the windows are given plain in their open-
ings (excepting those to the side aisles in the west front, shew-
ing mullions and tracery, and which were inserted, probably,
some time after;) while the windows at Westminster contain both
mullions and tracery. The mouldings of each pile had not much
variation; and battlements seem, about this period, to have been
introduced, at the latter place, in room of the parapet so charac-
teristic at the former.” § -
The windows to which the above writer refers, have the cinque-
foil introduced in their heads; and those which light the trifo-
rium externally, consist of a triple cinquefoil under a pointed -
arch. - - - - 3. . . . . . . . .”
It may not be undesirable to observe that painted or stained
* glass, for the use of church windows in England, is believed to
have been introduced, or at least so frequently adopted as to con-
w 2 K 2. tº: stitute
* Carter's Ancient Architecture of England, Part II, p. 1. “
560 1NT to Ductio N.
stitute an era, about the time of Henry the Third.” Mr. Carter,
in the elaborate work quoted above, presents a print containing
specimens of painted glass from the cathedrals of Canterbury and
Salisbury, and observes that they comprise nearly all the known
relics of such glass relating to this period. He adds, that it will
be evident, from the examples adduced, “ that the openings of
windows, either single or double, by means of mullions 'and
tracery, were filled in with lead work, run into geometrical forms;
which forms were enriched with an infinity of paintings of orna-
ments and small figures.” Such appears to have been the gene-
ral character of window-glazing in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, where stained glass was introduced.
Numerous examples might be cited, of the architectural style
which prevailed in this reign. The under-named are unques-
tionably the most splendid instances, while they promise to be
completely satisfactory, as they respectively display those small
shades of variation noticed in the preceding page. x.
Cambridgeshire, P. 162–
163. - .
Noticed in the Beauties.
Presbytery of Ely cathedral, used as -
the choir. Erected between the
years 1235 and 1252.É...................
Westminster Abbey church, begun in S
1245; completed, as to the works of
this reign, about the year 1269. The
north transept, and part of the adjoin-
ing work, have experienced little alter- Westminster, with several
ation, except that the great Catha- prints.
rine-wheel window of the transept is
believed to have been enlarged to its
present dimensions at a subsequent
period.: ..................................... J
;3 The
- Ornaments of churches . considered, p. 94; and Bentham's Ely, p. 40.
For some conjectural opinions as to the use of stained glass among the An-
glo-Saxons and Anglo-Normans, see Stevenson's supplement to the latter
work, notes, p. 29–31.
+ Millers’ El y. # See Carter's Ancient Architecture of England, Part RI.
pointed, or ENGL1sh, style of Architecture. 501
The tower and western front of wº Somersetshire, P. 485.
Cathedral................................. • *
Salisbury Cathedral. This edifice is in-Y
estimable as an architectural specimen,
since it has not experienced any im-
portant alterations in the main work, -
except from the addition of the two $.
upper divisions of the tower, and the º
lofty spire. This cathedral was be.
gun in 1220, and finished, with the
above exceptions, in 1258..............J
The transept of Worcester Cathedral......Worcestershire, P.61–83.
The south transept of York º
erected about 1228 ; and the north X- Yorkshire, P. 212–21 4.
transept of the same structure, erected | ſ
about 1260.................................. J
Wiltshire, P. 166–167,
with a print.
CHARACTERISTICS AND EXAMPLES OF THE DEco-
RATED ENGLISH STYLE, PREVAILING IN THE
REIGNs of EDWARD THE FIRST, SECOND, AND
THIRD ; Rich ARD THE SECOND ; AND HENRY
THE FOURTH, FIFTH, AND SIXTH. % …
The procedure of English, or Pointed, architecture through
the numerous reigns embraced by the present section, was marked
by several subordinate variations, the most important of which
will be noticed under the heads of the respective reigns in which
they are ascertained to have occurred. But, notwithstanding
such minor vicissitudes of fashion, the architecture of this coun-
try may be accurately described as assuming the character of a
new order in the reign of the first Edward, and as retaining the
great distinctive lineaments of its novel complexion, until years
502 1 Ntroduction.
nearly bordering on the date mentioned above as that at which
it yielded to less judicious efforts of taste in the art of design.
After a due allowance of all the merits of its first order—lovely
in simplicity, and permanently attractive without the labour of
embellishment—it must be admitted that the pointed style was
not calculated for a final residence in a stage so plain and unas-
suming. It was susceptible of greater powers of captivation,
before that line should be passed which divides the rectitude of
exalted imagination and the imbecile vagaries of wanton fancy.
This fine and commanding intermediate rank, is possessed by the
architectural order that is denominated the Decorated English.
On a consideration of the reigns to which the prevalence of
this mode is ascribed, it will be found that many of the noblest
and most admired structures which adorn our island, constitute
examples of this class. In such buildings we view the polished
result of a chaste but rich fancy, acting on geometrical princi-
ples of ordination; and, as far as we have the test of example to
regulate opinion, we behold in these edifices the highest point of
beauty that is within the attainment of the English style. It is,
indeed, evident that the architects with whom the principles of
this style were equally familiar by precept and example, have
never transcended in magnificence of display the sacred build-
ings erected while our great king, the third Edward, sustained
the English sceptre; or in consistent splendour of decoration the
piles raised during the reign of our sixth Henry—the pious,
meek, patron of every undertaking that wore an air of sanctity.
The order of Decorated English architecture may be said, in
general terms, to be distinguished by the following marks.-The
expansive scale of its windows, which, in the best ages of this
style, display the pointed form in most just and beautiful
proportions; and, under all its variations, are divided into seve-
ral lights, having the heads adorned, but not crowded, with
tracery work.-The unity of its columns, which in earlier ages
consisted of many slender, detached shafts-The increased rich-
mass of the vaulting; which important part of the interior re-
.# 4 tained,
roi NTED, or ENGL1s H, style of ARCHITE cºt URE. 50.
tained, as we have seen, much simplicity even in the most dig-
nified buildings of the preceding class—The introduction of
tabernacle work, and plentiful, but not superfluous, ornaments;
comprising various graceful, but, in many instances, nameless
particulars of embellishment, on those parts of the inside and
exterior which were left plain by the architects of the previous
era.-Such are its general characteristics; but I shall endeavour
in the present, as in the former section, to aid the purpose of
enquiry by a digested enumeration of the most applicable re-
marks that have been made concerning each principal architee-
tural member.
The ARches of this order exhibit a considerable degree of
variation, but are uniformly less acute and more open. That
which approached the nearest to perfection of any pointed arch,
and which prevailed in many buildings constructed during the
sway of the three early Edwards, was “formed by segments of a
circle, including an equilateral triangle, from the imposts to the
crown of the arch.” In subsequent reigns the arch becomes
lower, and consequently loses a portion of symmetry and beauty.
In the 14th century, arches of the ogee shape, formed of four
segments of circles contrasted, were very common; and are said,
in the Beauties for Wiltshire,f and in Lysons’s Gloucestershire
Antiquities, to have prevailed especially in the tombs of the
crusaders. & . . . . . .
The Columns are satisfactorily mentioned by Mr. Bentham,
as having “retained something of their general form already
described,f that is, as an assemblage of small pillars or shafts;
but these decorations were now not detached, or separate from the
body of the column, but made part of it; and, being closely
united and wrought up together, formed one entire firm, slender,
2 K 4 r and
: * Milner’s Letter, p. 23. . . . * . . * *
* Beauties for Wiltshire, p. 665. Gloucestershire Antiquities, p. 3, and
; See article Columns, section Early English style, in previous pages ºf
this .” Introduction. x


504 1NTRo Duction.
and elegant column.” The reader will recollect that it has
been stated in the preceding section, on the authority of Mr.
Essex, that marble was almost universally employed in the con-
struction of pillars in great buildings, until the latter end of the
reign of Edward the Second; but was only partially used by the
architects of Edward the Third’s time, and was quite rejected
before the termination of that historical era. . . . .
In regard to the Roof, the vaulting, in common with every
other part, became greatly more decorated. The ribs branched
out into a kind of tracery work, and divided the vault into numer-
ous angular compartments, ornamented at the intersections with
carved heads, foliated orbs, and various devices having an his-
torical or legendary allusion. . . . .
The WINDows form so important and obvious a feature in every
division of English architecture, that they require particular
notice. It has been suggested above, that the windows of the ,
node now under discussion present several varieties of form; but
these changes are, in a great degree, implicated in what has
been already said respecting the arches of this order; and will
meet with some farther attention in the remarks occasionally in-
troduced under the heads of respective reigns. In general charac-
ter, to use the words of Dr. Milner, “the window no longer con-
sisted of an arch divided by a mullion into two, and surmounted
with a single or triple circle, or quatrefoil, but was now portioned
out by mullions and transoms, or cross bars, into four, five, six,
and sometimes into nine bays, or days, as the separate lights of
a window were called; and their heads were diversified by tracery
work into a variety of 2rchitectural designs, and particularly into
the form of flowers.”f
A striking increase of beauty in structures of this class is de-
rived from the large east and west windows, which constitute
Prominent characteristics. These vast and magnificent openings
grew

* Hist. of Ely Cathedral, p. 41.
t Esclesiastieal Architecture of the Middle ages, P. 105–10s,
rounted, or English, style of Architectur E. 505
grew into general use at an early period of the present mode, and
frequently occupied nearly the whole width of the nave, some-
times commencing near the level of the floor, and rising almost
as high as the vaulting. It will be evident that a glare of light,
objectionable to the utility of the edifice, would have proceeded
from such spacious windows, and that their disproportionate size
would have been liable to a strong objection, if a sister art had
not been at hand to aid the architect in the production of new
beauties.—In these windows we behold, disposed with lavish
munificence, the attractive and appropriate splendour of painted
glass, conducive to the intended object of the structure by illus-
trating passages of sacred history, revealing tales of saints and
martyrs, and perpetuating, in the rude portraiture of the times,
the effigies of kings, prelates, and founders. The fascinating
influence of these storied windows, even in intellectual ages,
when the sanctity once attached to the fabulous parts of their nar-
ration is forgotten, or remembered only with a smile, is acknow-
ledged by every spectator of taste and feeling. : ºº ' ' , ,
The adoption of eastern windows appears to have first occurred
in the 13th century, and led to an alteration in the form of that
part of the church; but the practice of constructing windows of
large dimensions, both in the more sacred part and at the western
extremity, obtained so much estimation in the early part of the
era now under notice, that we find them frequently introduced as
alterations of ancient structures, which were otherwise allowed
to remain nearly in their original state.
The numerous but not redundant ORNAMENTs of this architec-
tural class, although in general disposed with much felicity
3. were, perhaps, not designed in so elegant a taste as those of the
preceding era. The capitals of the clustered columns were often
richly foliated, and the arches of windows “ were invariably
adorned with one or more cusps on each side of the head; so as
to form trefoils, cinquefoils, &c.” Where pediments were
& raised
• Ecclesiastical Architecture of the Middle age, p. 104.


INTRODUCTION.
raised over arches they were uniformly purſled, or adorned with
those representations of foliage termed crockets. The arches,
thus surtuounted with architectural decoration, were also accom-
panied by pinnacles, constantly purſled, and crowned with a
finial, or flower. Many new mouldings occur in this order; and
rows of small ornamental arches are frequently seen. The niches,
which remained plain, or subject to little ornament, in the pre-
vious mode, were now richly embellished; and, together with
tabernacles (or niches of a more elaborate display) were con-
structed with an unsparing hand, and filled with statues, in many
instances executed with considerable spirit. The sculpture of
this style was sometimes meretriciously enriched with painting
and gilding; and similar efforts towards the production of a
superb effect occurred in other ornamental parts of edifices.
. Many of the above particulars apply to the exterior, as well
as to the internal parts of a structure. In regard to the former
division of the building, it may be further observed that the
arches of doorways were usually much enriched with crockets
and other decorations. The buttresses were often ornamented
with tracery-work and statuary, and terminated in pinnacles, de-
corated with crockets and a finial, as already described. Spires
grew into frequent use in the early years of this era. Well cal-
culated for popular admiration, from the subject of wonder con-
nected with their aspiring height, their introduction was hailed
with enthusiastic applause.—The retired village church, enwrap-
ped in woodland, or situated amongst soft rural scenery, ac-
quired a pleasing and consonant addition in the light unassuming
proportions of this new feature: the sacred structure of the city,
or great town, was, perhaps, more suitably adorned by the less
elevated but commanding tower.
• EccLESIASTICAL

Pointed, or English, style of Architecture. 507
EcclesiasticAL STRUCTURES DISPLAYING
THE DECORATED ENGLISH STYLE of
ARCHITECTURE.
REIGN of EDw ARD THE FIRST, From 1972 To 1307.
The rise of every architectural style is so entirely progres-
sive, that, although the date of its perfection may usually be as-
certained with sufficient certainty, it is often difficult to distin-
guish the exact years of its commencement. Thus, the archi-
tecture of the early part of this reign has a great similitude to
that which obtained in the time of Henry the Third. It is, how-
ever, believed that the narrow lancet-shaped window without
mullions, and its correspondent architectural lineaments, were
rarely used after the year 1300. The prevailing windows, in the
mature and in the latter years of this king, and throughout the
whole reign of Edward the Second, were more expanded, but of
less elegant proportions, than those constructed in the time of
the third Edward—the Augustan age of pointed architecture.
The crosses erected by Edward the First, to the memory of
Eleanor, his beloved consort, who died in 1290, display the ex-
treme richness of the tracery and tabernacle work which were,
about this time, added to the embellishments of church-architec-
ture.” And these splendid examples, perhaps, much facilitated
the universal adoption of such ornamental particulars.
. . Noticed in the Beauties.
Several parts of Ereter Cathedral. The Y . .
transepts were formed in the early
part of this reign. The choir (begun
Devonshire, P.61–72.
in 1138,) was finished in 1309..........J. . z.
St.
* Three only of the numerous crosses of memorial erected by King Ed-
ward, upon this occasion, are now remaining. These are situated at Ged-
dington, Northamptonshire; at Northampton, or rathef in the vicinity of
that town; and at Waltham, Herts. An engraved view of each is contained
in the Beautics of England.

308 1NTroduction.
w Noticed in the Beauties.
St. Ethelbert's Gatehouse, in the pre-)
cinct of Norwich Cathedral, erected
about 1275. The cloister of the same
cathedral also presents a curious ex-
ample of the architecture of this reign.
“The groinings, and even the details
of the columns and of the rib mould-
ings, throughout the whole four sides
of the quadrangle,” are in the style
of Edward the First. The eastern
part of the cloister, “ having trefoil
openings within triangles,” is of the
same character.”...........................J w ----- ... --
The Lady chapel of Litchfield Cathe- } Staffordshire, P. 792 and
799. z
| Norfolk, p. 150, 151, and
158. : .
dral...........................................
The nave of York Minster, begun ..]
the year 1290, and completed in the -
next reign, according to the original }. Yorkshire, P. 213–215.
design. A fine and satisfactory spe- .
cimen........................................ J
Reign of Edward THE Second, from 1307 to 1327.
The style of Ecclesiastical Architecture throughout this reign
was the same, in its leading features, as in the latter years of
King Edward the First. It would, therefore, be superfluous to
enumerate specimens which afford only a continuation of a mode
already explained and illustrated.
REIGN or EDw ARD THE Tamp, from 1327 To 1377.
In closing an attentive review of the architecture of this bright
era in our national annals, it is observed by Mr. Carter “that the
. art
• A judicious account of the cloister to this cathedral church, with en-
graved views, is given in the Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain,
Wol. III, . z x
For NTED, OR ENGL1s H, st Y LE OF ARCHITECTURE. 509
art was then in its highest degree of perfection; the plans and
elevations were on the grandest scale; the proportions just; the
decorations ample and majestic; and the enrichments splendid
and beautiful beyond all former precedent.” The same writer
likewise notices some leading characteristics of this fine style, in
words to the following effect:-The proportions of doorways and
windows are rendered more consonant to geometrical rule. The
mullions and tracery of the windows “run out in the most de-
lightful and elegant manner. The buttresses become one of the
principal features, from their infinity of parts and high embellish-
ment. The parapets, or breast works, on the walls, are changed
into battlements with perforated compartments. The clusters of
columns to all situations are masoned in one solid mass in their
several courses, without bands; the shafts rising from base to
capital in a clear and uninterrupted line.” The groins present
tracery, compartments, &c. “ and it should appear that the great
aim of the architects, at this period, was to embellish the faces
and lines of their structures in the most brilliant and luxurious
manner,” as many particulars in the interiors were gilded and
painted in various colours. 3. -
# * * . - Noticed in the Beauties.
The Octagon and Lantern of Ely Cathe-l - - - É% ... : , ; , ;
dral, completed in 1342. The St. . . . . . . . . . .
Mary chapel of the same building, - Cºlº 163-
3. . … . . . . . . . . . . . ``' 165, with a print.
now used as a parochial church, erect- ‘’’’ ‘’’
ed between the years 1321 and 1349. J . . . . . . . . . .
Choir of Carlisle Cathedral..................Cumberland, P. 85.
Part of the South Transept, parts of the l …
North Transept, choir and cloisters, X-
Gloucester Cathedral.....................]
*:::::::::::::::::: ****
3: ...” Gloucestershire, P . 539–
547.
• Ancient Architecture of England, Part IId, p. 14. -. . . . . .x
, t Engraved as specimens of this reign, in Carter's Ancient Architecture of
516 f NTRO btſ CTION,
- Noticed in the Beauties.
Parts of the church of St. Mary Redcliffe, } Somersetshire, P. 870–
- Bristol....................................... 672. -
Choir of the church of St. Mary, War- ) Warwickshire, P. 197-
*******) 199. * : *
St. Stephen's chapel, Westminster, now) -
the House of Commons, and de- |
prived of its ancient architectural cha- -
racter, was one of the most splendid } Westminster.
instances of sacred buildings erected
in this reign. It was begun by King |
Edward the Third, in the year 1348... J
REIGN of Richard THE Second, FRoM 1377 to 1399.
Few deviations of importance from the previous mode are
noticed as occurring in this reign, except that the pointed arch,
in many instances, now began to droop in height, or depart from
those regular triangular proportions which constituted its purest
and most beautiful form. -
- |
Wykeham's work, comprising great part
of the nave, Winchester Cathedral...
college at minelater, founded by R. Ibid, P. 81–85.
Wykeham................................... - -
Nave, chapter-house, and part of the
cloisters, Canterbury Cathedral....... -
Some remains at New College, Oxford....Oxfordshire, P. 178–188.
An elegant specimen of the architecture . s
of this reign is afforded by the tower
and spire of St. Michael's church, Warwickshire, P.127, with-
* -- a print.
Coventry; begun 1373, completed |
1395 • ess as a es e e º e º e º Oe a see e º a • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
} Hampshire, P. 53–56.
} Kent, P. 834, 872-3.
REIGN of HENRY THE FourTH, FROM 1399 to 1413; AND
Reign of HENRY THE FIFTH, FROM 1413 to 1422.
No variations in ecclesiastical architecture, re.
ſuiring notice
iri

pointed, or ENGL1sh, style of Architect URE. 511.
in a work treating on general characteristics, are distinguishable
in these martial reigns. An enumeration of examples is, there-
fore, unnecessary.
REIGN of Henry The Sixth, From 1422 To 1461.
In this reign the decorated style of English architecture pro-
ceeded to the verge of that redundance in embellishment, which
constitutes a new era in the progress of the art. The line of
boundary, however, is not passed. The ornaments are disposed
with a judicious as well as munificent hand; and extreme light-
ness is united with that solidity necessary to an effect at once
august and fascinating. The wonderful skill in construction dis-
played at this era, and the delicaey with which the ornamental
particulars were executed, rendered superfluous the aids of paint
and gold-leaf. But, while these adjuncts of magnificence were
in a great measure abandoned by the architect and mason, painted
glass was retained, and was found a powerful assistant in the
production of that splendour of effect for which all possible means
were exercised, consistent with a refinement in art and purity of
taste. Many superb buildings remain,” to evince the height of
decorative excellence attained by the pointed style immediately
previous to the rise of that fondness for exuberant ornament,
which led to a neglect of symmetry, and deprived our sacred ar-
chitecture of a great portion of the impressive air of solemnity
invariably cultivated in more early ages.
* { - - The
* Mr. Dallaway mentions it, “as a singular fact, that, during the com-
motions between the houses of York and Lancaster, and their adherents, so
prejudicial to the progress of the arts of civilization, architecture in Eng:
land flourished in a greater degree. The superior ecclesiastics were confined
to their cloisters, as few of them had taken an active part in the dispute; and
some of the fairest structures which remain, arose in consequence of wealth
accumulated by instigating the noble and affluent to contribute to the general
emulation of splendid churches, built under their own inspection.” Obser-
vations on English Architecture, p. 37–38, . . . . . . . . . .
512 r NTR opuction.
Reign of HENRY THE SixTH continued.
The chapel of King's College, Cam- {*. 48–60.
bridge....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 with a print. º
Beaufort's Chantry, Winchester Cathe. : . . . º.º. º. º. º. º. º.
dral..…. -
The chapel of the Virgin, * Kent, P. 840.
Cathedral...................................
The Divinity School, Oxford...............Oxfordshire, P. 231-232.
The Beauchamp chapel, at Warwick......Warwickshire, P.201 –205.
} Hampshire, P. 7a. •
* * * *
CHARACTERISTICS AND EXAMPLES OF THE FLORID,
or HIGHLY-DECORATED ENGLISH STYLE, PRE-
v.ALLING IN THE REIGNS OF EDWARD THE
FourTH, AND FIFTH Richard THE THIRD ;
AND HENRY THE SEVENTH. * * : * ~ * * * * * *

The English style of architecture, which had arisen in digni-
fied simplicity, and, in its mature ages, was marked by a degree -
of sublimity at once awful and attractive, assumed 3. fresh cha- º
racter of beauty before that period at which (“ doom'd to hide its
banish’d head”)* it yielded to the encroachments of false refine- :
ment, and left no efficient substitute, for sacred purposes. . . .
‘…. - - Emulousº

: : -
• The Florid English style of architecture is calculated to elicit effusions
of poetry. The following lines have been frequently cited, but their merit -

prevents repetition from becoming tedious:—“Doom'd to hide her banish’d
For ever, Gothick architecture fled—
Forewarn'd she left in one most beauteous place
Her pendent roof, her windows' branchy grace,
Pillars of cluster'd reeds, and tracery of lace.”
Fosbrooke's Economy of Monastick

roi NTED, or ENGLISH, style of ARCHITECTURE. 513
Emulous of novelty, and convinced, as we may infer, that
grandeur, on principles strictly chaste, had been carried to the
greatest attainable elevation by the mode perfected in the time
of Edward the Third, and which we have denominated the Deco-
rated English, the architects of this era produced a variation in
the pointed style, striking, original, and magnificent.
Those who have critically examined the progress of our an-
cient architecture, maintain that its advancement towards perfec-
tion, and its tendency to decline and disrepute, are denoted by
the degree of elevation possessed by its great distinctive feature,
the pointed arch. Such a position would, indeed, appear to be
incontrovertible, however seductive may prove the minute em-
bellishments, and dazzling the general splendour, of its last stage,
the Florid style. It has been observed that, notwithstanding
“ the architects of these ages displayed more art and more pro-
fessional science than their predecessors, they did this at the ex-
pence of the characteristical excellence of the style itself which
they built in. They consulted more their own reputation than
the proper effect of their works. The spectator, in viewing these
was amazed at the sight of huge masses of stone, called pendent
capitals, hanging in the air, which, instead of supporting the
vast groins in which they are fixed, are supported by them. But
this taste betrayed a disregard for the aspiring arch, the curva-
ture of which was henceforward discernible at its springing,
rather than at its point. Ingenuity more than sublimity was
now affected, and curiosity more than devotion gratified.”
But, whilst we deplore the want of an august temperance of
display in structures of this class, the fancy is enchanted by the
variety of combinations; the judgment is overpowered by the superb,
profusion of enrichments' Magnificence, ingenuity, and deli-
cacy, the alleged characteristics of this order of buildings, are,
indeed, presented in so captivating a form that the mind is filled
- - - - - 2 L - by
Ecclesiastical Architecture of England during the Middle ages, p. is
-114. - 3. .
514 NTro Duction.
by the gorgeous scene; and we recollect without displeasure the
hyperbolical remark so often repeated, that the work would seem
to have been knit together by the fingers of angels.” -- r
The Florid, or Highly-Decorated, English style is chiefly
marked by the depressed, obtuse, form of its arches; its large
wide windows, divided by numerous mullions, and ornamented
with an intricate redundance of tracery; the inexpressible rich-
ness of its vaulting, over which the most delicate fret-work is
thrown, “like a web of embroidery,” interspersed with ponder-
ous and highly-wrought pendent capitals; and by the profusion
of tracery-work, sculpture, armorial devices, and other orna-
mental particulars which embellish every part of the structure.
The lineaments of this style are so peculiar and strongly-
marked, that it is scarcely necessary to enter on an individual
notice of the principal architectural members. This, however,
is done, in attention to the custom adopted in the two preceding
sections.—Intended to act as a manual of remembrance, repeti-
tions may be pardoned in such a delineation of characteristics.
The ARches, as has been mentioned, are wide, and flat, or
obtuse. . . . .
The Roof has been briefly noticed as displaying a scene of
unparalled splendour and delicacy. The ribs of the vaulting,
which had before been large, and apparently intended to add to
the strength and support of the groins, were now divided into
numerous parts, and enriched with a profusion of armorial cog-
nizances, badges, rebuses, and various sculptured devices. Clus-
ters of pendent ornaments, resembling stalactites, or, to use the
words of Mr. Bentham, “the works nature sometimes forms in
caves and grottos,” hang down from these elaborate roofs, and
“impart to them an air of imposing beauty. x
WINDows.-The point of the arch flat; the window extremely
wide,
ward's London Spy—The whole passage in this enthusiastic author
stands thus: “ Henry the Seventh’s chapel is the wonder of the universe,
to far exceeding human ability that it appears knit together by the fingers of
angels, under the direction of omnipotence.” 3& a . . . . .
g
Po INTED, or ENGLISH, style of ARCHITECTURE. 515
wide, and descending low. The mullions numerous, and the
upper division of the window filled with many small compart-
ments, often having trefoil heads. The great multiplication of
windows affords a prominent characteristic of this style.
The ORNAMENTs of this architectural class were distributed
in gorgeous profusion. The most estimable consist of numerous
statues of kings, queens, saints, prelates and other persons. The
abundant niches, tabernacles, canopies, pedestals, tracery, fasciae,
and pendents, are of the most elaborate workmanship, and are
usually finished with exquisite delicacy. With ostentation con-
sonant to the general arrangement of the building, armorial bear-
ings and family devices are introduced to a great excess.
Painting and gilding were frequently employed, to heighten the
magnificent character of the whole.—In the unique instance of
Henry the Seventh’s chapel, the ornaments of the exterior are
almost as plentifully disposed as those of the interior.
ECCLESIASTICAL STRUCTURES DISPLAYING THE
FLORID, or HIGHLY-DECORATED, ENGLISH
STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE.
Reign of Edward The FourTH, FROM 1461 To 1483.
- Noticed in the Beauties.
The most splendid example is afforded … -
by St. George's chapel, Windsor.
This structure is the work of several
reigns; but the design, and greater 3. * *
part, of the present edifice are gene- } Berkshire, P. 243-254. .
rally attributed to Richard Beau- | -
champ, Bishop of Salisbury, who was
appointed master and surveyor of the
works by King Edward the Fourth. }
, Church of Honiton, greatly enlarged,
and ornamented with its curious -Devonshire, P. 300.
screen, in this reign….J - --
. . 2 L 2 Parts
516 intaoduction.
w Noticed in the Beauties.
Parts of the church of Charing, in- .
a . - } Kent, P. 1217.
cluding the tower................ • * * * * * * * * *
Church of St. Lawrence, Norwich.........Norfolk, P. 162.
Chapel on the bridge of ſºakefield, built)
by King Edward the Fourth, in me ! :
mory of his father, and those of his ;-Yorkshire, P. 804-805.
JParty who fell in the battle at that
place • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
REIGN of EDwARD The Fifth, 1483; AND Reign or .
Richa RD THE THIRD; Fitem 1483 to 1485.
The first of these reigns is merely nominal; and the latter was
too short and troubled to afford any distinguishable change in the
national style of architecture. . -
Reign of HENRY THE SEventh, FROM 1485 to 1509.
The Florid, or Highly-Decorated, English style, in the pleni-
tude of its costly and elaborate characteristics, is chiefly exem-
plified in chapels, regal, mortuary, and attached to churches; and
in porches, monuments, screens, thrones and stalls. It is re-
marked by Mr. Dallaway that “there is, perhaps, no parish
church which exhibits a complete specimen of this style, in all
its parts.” : . : - •
Many parochial churches, evincing the broad lineaments of the
.." Florid style, were, however, erected in the present reign. Mr.
Warton observes “ that most of the churches in Somersetshire,
which are remarkably elegant, are in the style of the Florid
Gothie. The reason is this: Somersetshire, in the civil wars
between York and Lancaster, was strongly and entirely attached
to the Lancastrian party. In reward for this service, Henry the
Seventh, when he came to the crown, rebuilt their churches,
The tower of Gloucester cathedral, and the towers of the churches
. . . . . X- at
* observations on English architecture, p. 56.
Point ED, or ENG lish, style or Architecture. 517
at Taunton and Glastonbury, and of a parochial church at wells,
are conspicuous examples of this fashion.” The same writer adds,
“that most of the churches of this reign are known, besides other
distinctions, by latticed battlements, and broad open windows.”—
Mr. Lysons, in the volume of Magna Britannia for Cornwall, ob-
serves “that the greater part of the churches in that county,
appear to have been rebuilt in the 15th, and succeeding century.”
The following remark of Mr. Essex may not be unacceptable
in this place. After stating that there were but few alterations
in the constructive methods of building with stone, from the
reign of Henry the Third until the introduction of Grecian ar-
chitecture, Mr. Essex observes that, “about the times of Henry
the Seventh and Henry the Eighth, it was customary to chequer -
the fronts of brick and stone buildings with black flints, some-
times in regular square figures, and sometimes intermixed with
stone, in imitation of open Gothic work. Many of those were
neatly executed, and still have a tolerably good effect; as may
be seen in several fine towers of churches in various parts of the
kingdom, particularly in Norfolk and Suffolk, where this fashion
greatly prevailed a little before the Reformation.”—It is, how-
ever, sufficiently ascertained that the use of flints, disposed nearly
in the manner described above, on the facings of ecclesiastical
structures, although prevalent in the reigns noticed by Mr.
Essex, is by no means confined to those eras, but occurs in
buildings of a much earlier date.t.
*. - - Noticed in the Beauties.
Bishop Alcock's chapel, Ely Cathedral....Cambridgeshire, P. 163–4.
Church of Walden, (finished in the -
reign of Henry the º iº e º º º e .. } Essex, P. 387–388.
The Lady chapel, Gloucester Cathedral.
To this building the date of 1499. is
ascribed, in the account of Glouces- } Gloucestershire, P. 544–5.
ter cathedral published by the Society |
of Antiquaries..........….......... J
2 L 3 Parts
* Archaeol. Wol. IV. 1 See Beauties for Norfolk, p. 51–52. -
* - - - ... 3 * & & *
518 INTRO DUCTION.
Noticed in the Beauties.
Gloucestershire, P. 608–
611, with a print.
Parts of the church of Cirencester ....
Chantry of Bishop Waynflete, Winches-
ter Cathedral...............................
5 sº * * -
******3oºra-se
Church of Dunster, built by Henry the Y
Seventh, as a memorial of the active * -
services rendered by the inhabitants of X-Somersetshire, P. 568.
that place in the battle of Bosworth...)
The chapel of King Henry the º %
commenced in this reign, and exe- º
cuted according to the design then went.
formed....................................... J
}
} Hampshire, P. 72–73.
}
Worcestershire, P. 304–
curd. of Great Makan tº e º 'º - ~~~~ } 309. With a print.
Aſter the reign of Henry the Seventh, the pointed style of
architecture declined rapidly in excellence, and soon fell into
entire disuse. With the dissolution of religious houses was re-
jected the mode in which it had been so long customary to erect
the buildings appertaining to such foundations. The Italian ar-
tists, whose prejudice against this style has been already noticed,
were unquestionably instrumental in accelerating its downfal;
but the incongruous mixtures of irregular and ill-executed imi-
tations of the Grecian orders with the declining English, was a
proof of barbarity in taste more deplorable than that which
Vasari anathematized in those who raised the works called Ger.
man, in Italy, as has been remarked in a previous page. This
base commixture, and degradation even of the relics of a fine
and venerable mode of architecture (further polluted by the addi-
tion of numerous absurd devices) remained in practice until the
Grecian style, in its purity, was revived by the mature judgment
of Inigo Jones, in the time of Charles the First, -
One of the last buildings, approaching to the character of pure
x. . . . . .” - English,
>
sr. PULc HR AL Monu MENTs. & 8 5.19.
English, that was erected in the time of Henry the Eighth, is
the Abbey church of Bath, completed in 1532. Lord Orford ob-
serves that he recollects no later instance of the unmixed Gothis
(or English) than the tomb of Archbishop Warham, at Canter-
bury. This monument was constructed soon after the year
moticed above as that in which the Abbey church of Bath was
finished. . ~ * . . . . . . . . . . . .
SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS.
The sepulchral monuments of England and Wales present a
subject of too much interest with the topographer, to remain en-
tirely unnoticed in this “Introduction.” But a satisfactory essay
on the history of monuments raised to the memory of the dead,
including remarks on the various habiliments of the corpse; on
the different kinds of coffins; on the architectural variations in
the monuments of different ages; on the peculiarities of dress ex-
hibited in the figures; and on the progress of the arts, as con-
nected with the sculptural embellishments of these mournful, but
gratifying, memorials; would occupy more pages than those de-
dicated to the whole multifarious matter of our introductory
volume. These topics are largely discussed, and illustrated, in
the elaborate work of Mr. Gough.” From that laborious pro-
duction, aided in some instances by the brief notices of Mr.
Grose;t by the remarks of Mr. Lethieullier;t by various other
papers in the Archeologia; and by the information contained in
the Beauties of England and Wales; are collected the following
hints toward intelligence; which are chiefly designed to act as
criteria, enabling the reader to distinguish between the probable
• Gough's Sepulchral Monuments, &c. Wide List of Books treating gene-
rally of England and Wales. * --
* Grose's Addenda to º his preface to the Antiq. of England and Wales.
520 INTRODUCTION.
ages of such undated interments, or sepulchral memorials, as
may fall under his observation.
. The modes of burial prevailing among the different nations
which effected a settlement in Britain, previous to the Norman
Conquest, have been already noticed; and it has been stated, in
those earlier sections of this work, that coffins of stone were
sometimes used by the Romans, and frequently by the Anglo-
Saxons. From the time of the conversion of the latter people,
to the reign of Henry the Eighth,” stone-coffins appear to have
been much used in every age; and they have been found in
nearly every part of England. Nor would it seem that they
were confined to persons of particular sanctity or eminence; but
were used in all interments where the expense was disregarded.
Coffins made of lead, and of wood, are also believed to have
been used by the Romans in Britain, and by the Anglo-Saxons.#
But the earliest recorded instance of the use of a wooden coffin,
in this country, is that of King Arthur, as noticed by Giraldus;
who describes it as having consisted of an entire trunk of oak,
hollowed to receive the body. x- - .
The manner in which bodies have been dressed, or shrouded,
for the grave, is more various than the materials of the coffin in
which they were deposited; and we are generally unable to as-
certain, with any resemblance of accuracy, the date of an inter-
ment by the character of the materials in which the corpse is
wrapped. Through many ages subsequent to the Norman Con-
quest, if not in earlier periods, the remains of the illustrious dead
were often enclosed in leather, which is sometimes described aS
being gilt. This species of encasement is, however, more fre-
quently mentioned as consisting of the mere skin of an animal.
Thus, Henry the First, is said to have been “sewed up in a
bull’s skin;” and his daughter, the Empress Maud, to have
& . been
• In some few curious instances, stone-coffins have been used much later.
Sir William Dugdale and his lady are buried “ in stone coffins, each made
… in two parts.” Dugdale's Warwickshire, by Dr. Thomas, Vol. II. p. 1046.
f Sepulchral Monuments, Introduction, p. 39, et seq, Turner's Hist, of
the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. II, &c. w
sepulch R AL Monu MENTs. 521
been “wrapt up in an ox’s hide.” But the body of a deceased
royal personage was sometimes enwrapped in a manner very dif-
ferent from the above. The remains of Sebba, an Anglo-Saxon
sovereign, were discovered in St. Paul’s, as we are informed by
Dugdale, “curiously embalmed with sweet odours, and clothed
in rich robes.” The corpse of Edward the First was richly
habited, and adorned with the royal mantle, or pall, of crimson
satin. - & • 3.
It is well known that priests were generally buried in their
sacred habits; but this custom was not entirely confined to eccle-
siastics. The garb of a priest was often coveted by the dying,
as a fanciful proof of sanctity. It will be remembered that
King John was, by his own desire, buried in a monk’s cowl.
Mr. Gough observes “that the paten and chalice were buried
with ecclesiastical persons of common rank, as well as with
prelates and presidents of religious societies. The chalice and
paten commonly went together, though the latter is sometimes
described as the cover of the former, and in some graves is miss-
ing, being more liable to decay. It is most probable that all
these vessels, so interred, being rather emblematical of the pro-
fession of the party, than his private property (for it is not to
be supposed that the parish would part with their communion
plate) were made of meaner metal, silvered over; as the rings
interred with prelates were gilt. The chalice, though found
in the coffins of bishops, never appears on their monuments.”f
It has been stated, in a previous section, that few, if any,
sepulchral monuments, now remaining in this country, are of an
earlier date than the Norman Conquest. The number is not con-
siderable of those which occur between that era and the time of
Henry the Third, although it would seem probable that many
were erected in the intervening ages. They become more fre-
quent in the reigns of the two first Edwards; and are very
numerous
* Dugdale's Hist, of St. Paul's, p. 48. -
+ Sepulchral Monuments, Vol. I. Introduction. .
522 INTRoduction.
numerous in the reign of Edward the Third; from which time
the number continually augments as we approach the existing 3.
period. . . .
. Respecting the fashions of sepulchral monuments, as prevail-
ing in different ages, a memoir was drawn up by the late Mau-
rice Johnson, Esq. founder of the Literary Society of Spalding,
which demands attention, as it is much commended by Mr.
Gough, and is transcribed by him, in the preface to his volumi-
nous work on sepulchres in Britain. <
Mr. Johnson divides the tombs of this country into eight forms.
The first form may be described as the prismatic tomb, plain on
the top; and is thus noticed by Mr. Johnson: “Before the evil *
practice of burying in churches became general, and the arts of
designing were restored, our ancestors, if of fortune sufficient to
afford it, were interred in stone coffins, the bottom part being of
one large stone, sufficient to receive the corpse. The form of
the lid, or upper part, varied with the times, as arts were re-
trieved. The lid of the most ancient was in the form of a prism,
or triangular; and though they be now generally under ground,
originally only the bottom part, or that which contained the
corpse, was so; and the lid, or covering stone, was seen above
ground.” . -
The second form retains the prismatic lid, with the addition
of carving on that part. * : * . . . . .
The third form is described as the table monument, support-
ing effigies, or sculpture; and appears to have succeeded, at a
very early period, to the prismatic tomb, in regard to the burial
of distinguished personages.—It is supposed by Mr. Johnson,
that, “about the beginning of the 13th century, if they did not
place the effigies on a monument, they left off raising the upper
stone to a point, and only carried it up some part of the way,
with some decoration on the plain top; as is shewn by an old
cross fleury of Archbishop Langton, made about 1233. Of this
form were tables, set in pillars on feet; as Archbishop Sewal's,
in York cathedral, A. D. 1258.” × ..
is EPU1.cHRA 1, Mo NUM ENTs. 523
. The fourth form is mentioned under the head of tombs with
testoons, or arches over them.—The testoon, or tester, was de-
signed to shield from dust, or other descending injurious matter,
the costly sculpture and various ornaments of splendid table, or
altar, monuments. This protecting coverlet was probably first
introduced about the beginning of the 14th century, when the
arts connected with monumental commemoration emerged from
long obscurity, and met with much encouragement from the first
Edward. The earliest testoons were flat, and in a straight line;”
as, indeed, were many, even down to the 15th century; but an
improvement soon occurred, in the substitution of the arch, for
this weighty flatness, and straight formality of outline. “The
obtuse point of the arch was usually decorated, at top, with
foliage-work, all the way up the sides, and a large fleur de
foliage over the summit; and images of the wife, children, and
other relations of the party, together with saints, or sovereigns,
and benefactors, about the table, on the sides; and much paint-
ing and gilding were now bestowed on the sculpture, though of
marble, or copper.”—Instances of this description of monument,
erected in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, may be seen in
many cathedral, and other churches. .
The fifth form of tombs, according to the arrangement of Mr.
Johnson, involves the curious subject of sepulchral chapels. The
rise of these he traces to the inconvenience proceeding from the
augmentation, in size and number, of those tombs surmounted
*
with arches of stone, which succeeded to the first monuments
protected by testoons, or testers. The chief information con-
veyed by his remarks, may be expressed in the following terms :
—When the arched monuments were so much enlarged, as to in-
cumber, and take up too much room, even in the most spacious
eathedral and conventual churches, a method was devised for
palliating
* Instances of the early testoon may be seen in many royal and noble
monuments. It is observed by Mr. Gough, “that the testers of Henry the
Third; Eleanor; Philippa; and Richard the Second; are of wood, painted
with the Deity, saints, and angels, on their ceiling.” --
524 r: INTRoduction.
palliating the inconvenience, by annexing chapels to such monu-
ments; “having doors out of the side aisles of the churches, and
being open to the church, only secluded by iron work.” But
these, again, produced fresh deſorinities; “having an extraor-
dinary ill effect, and spoiling the view on the outside.” In
chapels of this description, lie King Henry the Fifth, at West-
minster; King Edward the Fourth at Windsor; and Bishop Rus-
sell, and Archbishop Longland, in Lincoln cathedral.
“ But those great men,” continues Mr. Johnson, “avoided
this error, and well consulted for, and, increased the beauty of
these venerable piles, who added such chapels for the reception
of themselves, and their relations, or friends, at the east end of
them; that division from the cross aisle being much too short for
the nave, and well admitting it. Thus, King Henry the Seventh’s
sumptuous chapel, added to Westminster Abbey, greatly, in-
creases the beauty of that pile. Sometimes the effect is well.
enough when running parallel in the choir, as that of Humphrey,
the good Duke of Gloucester, at St. Alban's; the sumptuous
chapel of Richard Beauchamp, at Warwick; and of Arthur,
prince of Wales, at Worcester.” . -
From the above remarks we perceive that sepulchral chapels
were not always additions to the outline of a building, but were
sometimes distinct erections within the church.* In most of
these chapels, however situated, mass was celebrated, in honour
of a patron saint, whose image was placed at the head, over.
the tomb; and they were endowed with masses for the soul of
the deceased.
The sixth form consists of the monumental stone, inlaid with
brass. Such monuments are well known to be extremely com-
mon; and the brasses are, sometimes, elaborately worked and
highly wrought. . . . . . . º
The age at which inscriptions in brass were first introduced,
§ is
" Such are the chapels of Bishop Wykeham, at Winchester; and Edward
the Black Prince, at Canterbury. × . . ... * * *
sepulchral, Mo Nu Ments. 525
is a subject of interesting enquiry. Mr. Lethieullier * observes,
“that either avarice, or an over-zealous aversion to some words
in the inscription, has robbed most grave-stones of the brass
which adorned them, and left the less room for certainty when
this fashion began.” The same antiquary had neither seen, nor
read, of many brasses earlier than the 14th century; and con-
cludes his remarks in the following words: “Upon the whole,
where we have not a positive date, I should hardly guess any
brass plate I met with to be older than 1350; and few so old.
But, from about 1380, they grew in common use; and remained
so, even to King James the First’s time. Only, after the reign
of Edward the Sixth, we find the old Gothic square letter changed
3. . into
* Archaeol. Vol. II. p. 297.—Brasses are so easy of removal, that, being
of a determinate, although small, value, they have experienced great depre-
dation. The agents of reformation, in the 16th century, seized, as testi-
monials of popery, every article that could be converted into money. Many
instances of the sale of monumental brasses, at the dissolution of religious
houses, are presented in the preface to “Sepulchral, Monuments,” p. 120;
and more may be seen in different county-histories. w & t
In commissions issued by Edward the Sixth, the visitors of respective coun-
ties are explicitly directed “to sell by weight all parcels, or pieces, of
metal, except the metal of the great bell and saint bell.” This cruel per-
mission remained in force (although suspended during the reign of Mary)
until that proclamation of Queen Elizabeth which forbade such “slander-
ous desolations,” under severe penalties (see the proclamation, in Fuller's
Church History, Cent. 16, Book 9, p. 66.)
Considering that such acts of spoliation were legally sanctioned for seve-
ral years, it is surprising that so many fine and weighty brasses were spared.
The contumelious fanatics of the 17th century, wrested, with a rufian- .
hand, the brass from many stones which the reverential feeling of the re-
formers had suffered to remain. , , # -
It is well known that the same religious bigots committed many injuries on
monuments which contained no brass. In regard to paintings on glass, it
will be remembered that they were sometimes prevailed on to rest contented
with merely destroying the head of the saint, or other memorable personage,
represented on a window. Many instances will probably occur to the
reader, in which transparent glass is now substituted for the part then de-
molished. - . . . . . . . . .
526 1NTRoduction.
into the Roman round hand; and the phrase Orate pro anima,
universally omitted.”
It appears, however, that monumental inscriptions, inlaid in
brass, are of higher antiquity than is supposed by the above
writer. Mr. Gough” adduces several instances of brasses in the
thirteenth century. “ The capital letters, whether Saxon or
Gothic, or a mixture of both, occur about the close of that century,
and continue through the reigns of the three Edwards, at least.
These letters were cut deep in the stone; and brass, or lead,
poured into them; which having been picked, or worn out, the
cavities retain a bold and legible impression in many parish
churches in Hertfordshire, and elsewhere.” But the traces of
inscriptions in metal, of an earlier date than the 14th century,
are quite ruinous and obscure. The oldest sepulchral brass,
entire and well-preserved, that had fallen under the inspection of
Mr. Gough, was of the year 1308.f. In consequence of the late-
ness of the ages in which brasses came into use, we rarely meet
with cross-legged figures in monumental decorations composed of
that metal. . z. 33
The seventh form comprises all monuments, either let into, or
fired against, the walls, or pillars, of churches. This prac-
tice appears to have chiefly grown into use since the reformation.
In many of these monuments, erected in the time of Edward the
Sixth, and the three succeeding reigns, we find the same strange
and discordant mixture of the Grecian with the ancient English
mode of architecture, that was frequent in sacred and domestic
edifices. % . .
The eighth form, Mr. Johnson describes as consisting of de-
tached buildings, erected to preserve the remains of the dead, or
their memory. Such detached erections are net very frequent
in this country. As instances, may be noticed the spacious and
costly buildings at Castle Howard, Yorkshire; and at Brocklesby
. * --- - : park,
* Sepulchral Mons. vol. I. Introduction, p. 6.
t Ibid. p. 101.
s EPULch RAL Mon U M ENTs. 527
park, Lincolnshire; both of which are described in the Beau-
ties of England.* x § ; : ... *
In some instances of ancient monumental commemoration, the
locality of interment is an object deserving of attention.—The-
porch appears to have been a spot frequently appropriated to the
sepulture of the founder of a religious structure.—Thus we are
told that Leofric, Earl of Mercia, and his countess Godiva, were
buried in the porches of the abbey church at Coventry, which
they had founded. According to Mr. Pennant, it was a custo-
mary act of devotion “for all persons, on their entrance into
churches and religious houses, to pray for the souls of the
founders and benefactors.”f The observations of Mr. Pennant
are too often amusing, rather than instructive. We are not in-
formed of his authority for the above remark; but it is certain
that many ceremonies of the ancient religion were performed in
the porches of churches; and that such parts of the structure
were formerly regarded with peculiar reverence.f. The image of
the virgin, or patron-saint, which was often placed over the
porch, might, perhaps, add a fanciful sanctity to this division
of the building. . . .
Although there are several instances in which founders and
benefactors were buried in the church porch, we are not, as is
observed by Mr. Gough, to suppose that every ancient slab, now
to be seen in such a situation, is in its original place; “as many
circumstances have occasioned the removal of such monuments.”
The heads of religious houses were commonly buried in their
chapter-houses, or their cloisters; and rectors, or vicars, in the
close vicinity of the altar, or in the chancel of the church to
which they belonged. Chaplains and chantry priests were usu-
ally buried in their respective chapels. “ Lords of manors,
patrons, and founders were often interred in the chancel; and
... 2 3 * . - sometimes,
e. Beauties for Yorkshire, p. 261; and for Lin colnshire, p. 686.
Tour in Wales, Vol. I, p. 245, --
# Wide ante, p. 269, note,
528 1NTRopuetion.
sometimes, though not so frequently, within the rails.” The
monuments of founders were likewise placed beneath an arch,
inserted in the north or south wall. Mr. Gough observes that
“there is pretty good authority for referring those monuments,
whose situation within the substance of the walls of churches, or
chancels, makes it highly probable that they must have been
coeval with them, to founders, or refounders, of the several
churches, or parts of churches, where they are seen. Of this,
the churches in Hertfordshire and Essex afford many instances.”
It would seem likely that the cumbent figure on tombs, ori-
ginated in the figures carved in low relief on the lids of coffins. -
These were often half-lengths, or heads and feet, or heads only.
But it is observable that such partial figures are not, invariably,
of high antiquity.i. ---
The following remarks, by Mr. Gough, are equally useful and
interesting.—“A curious question arises, as to how far the effi-
gies on tombs are te be considered as portraits. That this is
the case on our regal monuments, there seems no doubt. They
discover a superiority of style which bespeaks resemblance. This
may hold, also, with respect to particular monuments of lords,
or prelates, after the 13th century. Dr. Stukeley thought all
the statues of Queen Eleanor copies of each other, and of her
real features. The same may be said of many elegant statues on
the fronts, or sides, of churches; and Hearne affirms that the
Virgin Mary was copied from the Queens of the time. But, in
earlier ages, the knights, the crusaders, the abbots, and the
bishops, are too uniform and rude, to mean any thing more than
a human figure.”f - - ---
; It
- * Sepulchral Mons. Vol. I. Introduction, p. 88.
t See several exceptions to the usual high antiquity of such figures noticed
in Gough's Sepulchral Mons. Vol. I. Introduction, p. 97. .
t Ibid.—The material of which such statues were composed was chiefly
stone, of various kinds. Figures in alabaster are also frequent. Mr. Gough
remarks that effigies formed of various marbles seem to have grown into dis-
use after the thirteenth century. Cumbent figures continued in fashion until
late in the 17th century.
s EPULch RAL M on UM ENTs. 529
* It is observed by Mr. Gough, that, “among the innumerable
instances of figures on tombs, very few variations of attitude
occur.” From different pages of the same writer, in conjunction
with the other authorities used in forming this article, may,
however, be collected the following useful particulars of intelli-
gence. - -
Prelates are sometimes distinguished by lifting up the right
hand, and extending the two first fingers, to give the benedic-
tion; though they, as frequently, have their hands joined and
elevated. . - º
Although, in early monuments, the character of the figure is
usually destitute of animation, some few attitudes are varied to
a comparative degree of lightness and elegance; as those of some
knights in the Temple church, and other places, who are de-
scribed in the attitude of drawing their swords. * : *
Figures sculptured in the sixteenth century, often “support
their head in the right hand: an attitude taken from the Greek
and Roman monuments.” -
- Instances of the lady being placed at the right hand of the man,
are not so unusual as has been supposed by some writers. Dr.
Salmon accounts for this circumstance, by presuming that the
lady was an heiress. This, however, is scarcely of uniform ap-
plication. Mr. Gough observes that “Richard the Second’s
queen, at Westminster, takes the right hand of her husband;
as, also, does Henry the Fourth’s queen at Canterbury.”
‘'The kneeling attitude (except to the cross) does not appear
to have been introduced, either on stone or brass, before the re-
formation. The infant in swaddling clothes, or in a cradle, was
first represented on monuments, at the same date.
Figures on tombs, with the legs crossed, are well known to be
of frequent occurrence; but the motive for placing them in that
attitude is not correctly ascertained. An opinion formerly pre-
váiled that all persons thus commemorated were of the order of .
Knights Templars. This persuasion, like many other fancies in
regard to the customs of antiquity, has been discarded by those
- 2 M who
530 1NT Rod U cºrio N.
who have carefully investigated the sources of popular opinioir.
We do not appear to have any direct authority for believing that
the Knights Templars were, as members of that order, “buried
in such an attitude,” as is suggested by Mr. Lethieullier;* and
it is certain that numerous cross-legged monumental figures com-
memorate persons who were neither templars nor hospitallers.
It is known that many of the persons thus peculiarly comme-
morated, had been engaged in the crusades of the eleventh and
two succeeding centuries; and we may, thence, inſer with safety,
that, in other instances, where the history of the deceased is
unknown, but where neither the habit nor badge of the Templars
is displayed, the monuinents were erected to persons distinguished
by a share in the same romantic undertakings. º
It is believed that the actual performance of the engagement
was not necessary, for this monumental distinction; but that the
mere vow of bearing arms against the infidels who possessed the
holy land was deemed sufficient. Whilst such enterprises were
fashionable, a cross-legged effigies was, undoubtedly, considered
an honour necessary to the preservation of dignity in every ancient
family; and it appears that, at one period, if not at others, the
Pope was willing to absolve reluctant crusaders from the per-
formance of their vow, in the instance of their contributing a sum
of money, to be administered for the benefit of the Christian
cause, through his hands.
Persons who survived the order of templars, and the rage of the
crusades, likewise appear to have been commemorated with the
distinction of a cross-legged effigies. Many such instances are
presented by Mr. Gough;t and this practice deserves especial
remeinbrance with the topographical examiner. —It will not be
forgotten
# * Archaeol. Vol. II p. 291–800.
t Sepulchral Mons. Vol. I. Introduction, &c. p. 96.-The first crusade was
commenced in the year 1096; and the seventh and last in the year 1270,
The Knights Templars were instituted A. D. 1118; and the order was dis-
swived, A. D. 1313. 3- -
s E PUlch R AL Mo NUM ENTs. 581
forgotten that those who, by a lengthened life, would appear,
on a comparison of dates, to be unconnected with the dissolved
order, or the latest crusade, were sometimes honoured with a me-
morial of their former distinction, or religious zeal, by a monu-
mental allusion to their early duties, engagements, or exploits.
Vows of repairing to the Holy Land, with a crusading pur-
pose, were also made in years long subsequent to the actual pro-
secution of a crusade. Of this we have an instance in Sir Walter
Malbysse, of the county of York, who mortgaged his estate, to
raise money for a crusade, in the year 1366. A recollection of
this circumstance will enable us to account for several cross-
legged figures, on tombs of the latter part of the 14th century.* .
It is probable that a vow of going to the Holy Land, in pil-
grimage, also entitled a person to an effigies of this description.
Such appears likely to have been the circumstance with females,
who, in some few instances, are thus represented on their monu- "
ments. It is, however, known that many ladies attended their
husbands in the expeditions of the crusaders. According to Mr.
Grose,f such ladies had their arms crossed on their bosoms;
but that writer was not enabled to present a specimen of such a
practice. º . . . . . -- - &
Some persons went to the crusades as proxies for others; in
which case it appears probable that both parties were represented
by cross-legged figures. . . . . . . . . . .
At the feet of cumbent statues are frequently placed the repre-
sentations of animals, as lions, bears, or dogs; or of imaginary
chimerae, as dragons and griffins. In many instances the figures
so placed are the family supporters;f as was, perhaps, univer-
2 M 2 sally
• A curious instance of a monumental figure of this description, erected in
a much later age, is noticed in the Beauties for Suffolk, p. 404; where it is
said that Sir Richard Jernegan, gentleman of the privy chamber to King
Henry the Eighth, is “ represented cross-legged, in imitation of the Knights
Templars.” - . . . . -
+ Grose, Addendu to Preface, p. 31.
# Some instances are adduced by Mr. Gough, Sepulchral Mons. Vol. I.
Introduction, p. 123, &c.
532 § I NTRO DUCTION.
sally the case after the reformation: and, sometimes, they are
rebuses of the name; as in the example of two hares at the feet
of Bishop Harewell, at Wells. - .
Lions at the feet of effigies are explained by several writers as
emblems of vigilance and courage; but Mr. Gough “doubts this
etymology, and rather inclines to think the practice derived from
an allusion to the words in Psalm XCI. 13. ‘Thou shall tread
upon the lion and the adder; and the young lion and the dragon
shalt thou trample under feet.” . . . . . -
No animal is more frequently introduced than the dog. Al-
though such an opinion is not sanctioned by many writers on the
subject of sepulchral monuments, it is obvious to suppose that
this animal might often be chosen on account of its reputation
for watchfulness and fidelity. Mr. Gough suggests, that, when
at the feet of ladies, they may only allude to their favourite lap-
dogs; and he adds, “that knights, and nobles may have them
at their feet as the companions of their sports, or as symbols of
their rank. The greyhound is introduced in pictures of cere-
monials, from the Bayeux tapestry, to the Champ de drap d'or.”*
The custom of placing sculptured animals at the feet of monu-
mental statues, was not abandoned before the middle of the 17th
century. One of the latest instances occurs in the monument of
Lionel Cranfield, Earl of Middlesex, who died A. D. 1645.
Monumental figures carved in wood, and of full-length pro-
portions, are sometimes seen, though not frequently. The use
of this material has not been proved to ascertain the age at
. which the monument was erected. That some, however, are of
eonsiderable antiquity is evident from the cross-legged altitude
in which the figures are represented. > -
* The oldest funeral inseriptions, after those on stone cippi,
were on leaden plates; of which that in Arthur’s coffin may be
deemed the earliest instance.” Some few examples of this prac-
tice have been found, bearing date in the eleventh and twelfth
. . . . . . % - centuries.
* Sepulchral Mons. Vol. I. Introduction, p. 125.
sepulchral Monu MENTs. 533
centuries. It was customary, in the reign of Henry the Third,
to fasten plates of lead, with inscriptions, on the breasts of the
parties interred. & - . . . . .
It is almost superfluous to remind the reader that the repre-
sentation of the cross was not confined to the tombs of the
religious by profession. The variety of monumental crosses,
both in stone and brass, is exceedingly great. Four plates, con-
taining curious specimens, reduced into classes, are presented by
Mr. Gough. … - - - -
Among the most remarkable monuments in English churches,
may be noticed those which represent, on the upper story of an
altar tomb, the deceased in the natural features of healthful
life; and, in the lower compartment, reveal the mournful figure
of an enshrouded skeleton, or emaciated, decaying, human body.
These monuments have given rise to many idle tales with
modern vergers and sextons, and to some conjectures, equally
idle, among persons likely to possess superior intelligence. But
it is evident that they are merely intended to exhibit, with in-
structive emphasis, the change of appearance effected by the
common lot of mortality. Such moral, but dreary, sculptural
devices were chiefly raised to ecclesiastics. . . ;
The following observations are selected from the Addenda te
Mr. Grose's preface, (compared with Mr. Lethieullier's remarks,
and those of Mr. Gough, on which they are chiefly ſounded) as
they may, in some measure, assist the examiner in ascertaining
the age of obscure sepulchral vestiges: -
“Those monuments ornamented with circular and intersecting
arches, are usually of greater antiquity than those having pointed
ones, described by the intersection of two circles; and these are
more ancient than those low pointed arches described from four
centres; the latter being scarcely older than the reign of King
Henry the Seventh.
“ In figures of armed knights, those with the mail armour,
and cylindrical helmets flat at the top, are always older than
those with plate armour and a head-piece, having a visor and
- 2 M 3 r bever.
534 INTRODUCTION.
bever. The radiating hair, curling inwards towards the head, is
a mark of a monument of the 13th or 14th century.
“ A monument adorned with armorial bearings cannot be older
than the latter end of the eleventh century, as arms were not
used in England before that period. Mr. Gale says, not before
the year 1147; Mr. Edmonson places the introduction of them
before the commencement of the tenth century: the medium as
stated above may, perhaps, be nearer the truth than either.
“ The first instance of quartering arms by any subject, was
given by John Hastings, Earl of Pembroke, following the ex-
ample of King Edward the Third;” therefore monuments adorned
with different quarterings must be posterior to that period.
“ Monuments, with supporters to coats of arms, mark them to
have been erected since the time of King Richard the Second,
that prince being the first who used them.
“ Till the time of Henry the Third, the heads of the peers
were not adorned with coronets. John of Eltham, second son
of King Edward the Second, who died A. D. 1334, and is buried
in Westminster Abbey, has on a coronet with leaves, and is the
most ancient of its kind. .
“Where the arms of France contain only three fleurs de lis,
or lilies, the monument has been erected since the reign of
King Henry the Fifth; before that time they were semeč with
those flowers. ... . . . x. x
“Those monuments on which the heads of the cumbent figures
are supported by pillows, or cushions, are prior to the 16th cen-
tury; after that period, mats were represented as used for that
purpose.”f § .
Amongst
* Mr. Gough (on the authority of Habingdon, MS. in Nash's Worcester-
shire, II. 143) observes that few persons in England quartered arms before
t Addenda to Grose's preface to his Antiquities of England and Wales—
The well-known “Rules for sepulchral monuments,” given in Anselme's
“Palais de l'Honneur,” and often reprinted by English authors, would
§ . . . # greatly
s EPULCH R AL Mon U M ENTs. 585
Amongst the curious remains of ages disfigured by religious
bigotry, shRINEs hold a conspicuous place. These have been
concisely defined as the sepulchres of the saints; and, as such,
they were at once ornamental and profitable to a religious es:
tablishment. . . . . . . . .
It will be recollected that canonization had virtually its rise
in Pagan Rome; and was a remote offspring of that disgusting
policy, and tyranny over the prostrate human intellect, which
induced the deification of the Roman emperors. The first Chris-
tian saint is supposed to have been Suibert, canonized by Leo
the Third, in the 9th century; and the last Englishman thus
distinguished (according to Fuller) was Thomas Cantilupe,
Bishop of Hereford, who died in 1282. -
The bones and other reliques of canonized persons were ex-
hibited by the religious, as objects deserving of reverence—and
of rich offerings. Shrines were provided for the reception of these
remains; and the sanctified fragments were carried in proces-
sion, on marked days, for the amazement of such of the vulgar
as were poor, and for the allurement of such as were affluênt.
It would appear, that, by the term shrine, we are to under-
stand the ſixed monument of the saint, which was usually placed
above (i.e. behind) the high altar. This was an erection of con-
siderable magnificence, and generally of rich stone-work, en-
closing the body, or other reliques, of the respective saint. The
enclosed and portable parts of shrines, containing the bones and
reliques, were denominated Feretra;" and these were carried in &x.
2 M 4 procession,
greatly assist in enabling the examiner to ascertain the intention of any variety
in the attitude, or disposal, of monumental figures of the chivalric ages, if
their fidelity could be relied on. But it is believed that if those rules were,
in fict, ever observed, their operation was confined to the continent. .
* It is observed by Mr. Gough (Sepulchral Mons. Vol. II. Introduction,
p. 194,) that “we should carefully distinguish between ſeretories, contain-
ing the whole body, and portable only on anniversaries of the saints, or grand 3.
occasious; and shrines, though sometimes. called ſeretre, portable, and
$36 introduction.
procession, on the anniversary of the saint’s day and on other
grand celebrations. - . - -
Some of the principal shrines now remaining (although divested
of their ſeretories, and more solid treasures) are those of Edward
the Confessor, at Westminster; Bishop Cantilupe, at Hereford;
of St. David, (now ruinous) in the cathedral of St. David's; of
St. Werburgh, (mutilated) at Chester; and of St. Frideswide, at
Oxford. These are costly monuments of stone, with the excep-
tion of St. Frideswide's, the material of which is wood.
The portable part of the shrine was, indeed, often enclosed by
an encasement of wood; as in the instance of Becket’s shrine at
Canterbury, where we are told “ the wooden case, being drawn
up by cords, discovered one of gold, whose riches were inestima-
ble. Gold was the least valuable article amid the display and
lustre of rare jewels; some of so large dimensions as to exceed
a goose's egg.” . * *
The modes of revealing the shrine of a saint, and of receiving
offerings on ordinary occasions, are shewn in the following pas-
sage respecting the shrine of St. Cuthbert, at Durham.—
* 3 “Among
made of wood, and covered with enamelled plates of metal of various, and
small proportions, and containing a single relique of a particular saint, or
various reliques of different ones.”—These latter shrines may, with propriety,
be denominated reliquaries; and were generally placed round the upper
and high altar of the church to which they appertained. One of these, for-
merly in the possession of Mr. Astle, is engraved in the Vetusta Monu-
menta.
* Sepulchral Mons. Vol. II. Introduction, p. 183—4. We may readily
suppose that the gems, and other valuables, appertaining to shrines, were
Agreatly over-rated by ordinary observers. Dart, describing the shrine of
Edward the Confessor, observes that “ over the stone work is a frame of
wainscot, said in times past to have been curiously plated with gold, and
adorned with precious stones; the frame is very neat and regular, but seems
never to have been covered ; and as for the jewels that adorned it, they are
still there; for, on the pilasters between the arches, is a kind of mosaic work of
stained glass, a customary ornament at that time.” Därt's History of St.
Peter's Westminster, Vol. II. p. 24. - *
sepulch RAL Mon UMENTs. 537
“Among the officers of the church were a master and keeper of
the feretory, who was also vice prior; and when any men of
honour or worship were disposed to offer their petitions to God
and St. Cuthbert, or to offer at his shrine, if they requested to
have it drawn, or to see it, the clerk of the feretory gave notice
to his master, who brought the keys of the shrine, giving them
to his clerk to open it; his office was to stand by and see it
drawn. It was always drawn up in mattins time, when Te
Deum was singing; or in high mass time, or at evening song,
when Magnificat was sung; and when they had made their
prayers, and did offer any thing, if it were gold, silver, or
jewels, it was instantly hung on the shrine; and if it was any
other thing, as a unicorn’s horn, elephant’s tooth, or such like,
it was hung within the feretory, at the end of the shrine; and,
when their prayers were ended, the clerk let down the cover
thereof, and locked it at every corner, returning the keys to the
vice prior.” - -
It is said by Dart,t “that the customs in enshrining were
very different. Sometimes the coffin was placed level with the
surface of the earth; sometimes upon it; and sometimes IN
Altum. The first was for men of exemplary piety, who had
suffered no more for religion than what self-denial, self-imposed
severities and abstinence required; the other for men of more
early example, and was first a custom, as in the case of Cuth-
bert before he was sainted, and others, but afterwards grew a
favour to saints of the second rank; the elevated body was
usually for such who had suffered martyrdom for religion.”—It
must, however, be observed that no ancient authorities are
given for the above assertions.
It is found impracticable to present in these pages such an #
examination of the fashions prevailing at different periods, in
regard to armour and attire, as might assist the topographer in
x . . . . researches
* Rites of Durham, p. 117, 118, &c.
* Hist. of St. Peter's Westminster, Vol. II. p. 24.
538 . 1N TRO 1) UCTION.
researches amongst the sepulchral monuments of England and
Wales. This is to be regretted, as the figures on such monu-
ments may be deemed, for several ages previous to the familiar
use of the art of painting, the historical portraits of our ances-
try; and are, as such, the clear, though unintended, chronicles
of the modes of dress prevailing at their respective dates. An
attempt towards the performance of such a task would be useless
and contemptible, if not full at every point. Restrained, by the
unavoidable limits of the work, from presenting comprehensive and
satisfactory remarks on this subject, it is the duty of the writer
(as the best substitute for detailed intelligence) to remind the
reader of the places in which the desired information may be
obtained.
The principal annalists of Great Britain were merely the
chroniclers of battles, the registrars of royal births and deaths,
and the investigators of political intrigue, until Dr. Henry arose,
to shew that the people, and the progress of arts, customs, and
manners, were entitled to a large share of the historian's notice.
In the judicious “History of Great Britain,” written by Dr.
Henry, are presented some remarks on the modes of dress pre-
vailing amongst the inhabitants of this island, from the earliest
period to the latest on which he treats. His dissertations are
well-adapted to the purpose of general history, but are not
sufficiently precise and minute for the gratification of the anti-
quarian reader. :
The observations of Mr. Granger, in his “ Biographical his-
tory of England,” are still less satisfactory: a deficiency which
is almost reprehensible, when his numerous opportunities of in-
telligence are duly considered. w
Mr. Strutt affords some judicious, but limited remarks.”
Each of these writers preceded Mr. Gough; and all are ren-
dered of secondary importance by his great work on “ Sepul-
chral Monuments.” In the magnitude of such an undertaking
- z many
* In works noticed in the List of Books appended to these pages.
SEPU L CHR AL MONUMENTS. 539
many errors must necessarily occur; but, for a rich fund of in-
formation concerning all the varieties of regal ornaments, and
those appertaining to the nobility; armour, and knightly appen-
dages; fashions in apparel, and the numerous circumstances re-
lating to dress, as exhibited in monumental sculpture; the reader
is referred, with confidence, to the introductory discourses pre-
fixed to the first and second volumes of Mr. Gough's valuable
publication. Detailed examples of each custom, there stated in
general terms, are afforded by the monuments illustrated and de-
scribed in the body of the work. & -
In concluding these ANTIQUARIAN SKETCHES, it would ap-
pear that the writer cannot do better than to apply to each sec-
tion the tenour of the preceding paragraphs. He has endea-
voured to compress within determinate limits as much informa-
tion as was attainable; and where the subject under discussion
required more extended or minute remarks, he has availed him-
self of the research connected with his labours, to direct the at-
- tention of the reader to more elaborate and fertile sources of in-
telligence. -
END OF THE INTRODUCTIon.
A LIST
The PRINCIPAL Books which TREAT on the Topography
AND ANT1auities of ENGLAND collectively; AND or
works illustrating THE PROGRESS OF THE ARTs Most
IMPORTANT IN TOPOGRAPHICAL REs EARCHES, AND OTHER-
WISE AFFORDING MATERIALS TO THE LOCAL HISTORIAN.
*.* Lists of such Books as are illustrative of the History and Antiquities
“ of WALES in general,” are appended to the 17th and 18th volumes of this
work.
CATALOGUES OF TOPOGRAPHY.
The ENGLISH Topog RAPHER; or, An Historical Account (as far
as can be collected from printed Books and Manuscripts) of all the
Pieces that have been written relating to the Antiquities, Natural
History, or Topographical Description of any Part of England.
Alphabetically digested, and illustrated with the Draughts of seve-
ral very curious old Seals, exactly engraven from their respective
Originals. By an impartial Hand. (Dr. Rawlinson.) Octavo.
Lond. 1720. . .” -
Bibliotheca Topographica Anglicana : A Catalogue of Books on En-
glish Topography, by Jo. WoRRALL. Duodecimo. Lond. 1736.
British Topography: or an Historical Account of what has been done
for illustrating the Topographical Antiquities of Great Britain and
Ireland. In Two Volumes. By Richard Gough, Esq. With
Plates, 2uarto. Lond. 1780.
Catalogue of the Books relating to British Topography, and Saxon
and Northern Literature, bequeathed to the Bodleian Library in
the Year 1799, by Richard Gough, Esq. F. S. A. 2uarto.
Oxford, 1814. ; : .
Catalogue of Books relating to the History and Topography of Eng-
land, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. By Sir Rich ARD Colºr
HoARE, Bart. Compiled from his Library at Stourhead, Wilt-
shire. Octavo. London: Printed by W. Bulmer and Co. 1815.
*** The impression of this valuable work is restricted to
Twenty-five. ... ;
A Bibliographical Account of the Principal Works relating to En-
glish Topography, (being a complete collation of each volume:
stating the quantity of Letter Press, Lists of the Plates and of such
Pedigrees as are not incorporated in the Letter press, and intended
as a guide to Collectors of Works on the Antiquities and Local
History of England.). By William Upcott, of the London In-
stitution. In Three Volumes. Octavo. Lond. 1818. -
Lives of Topographers and Antiquaries who have written concerning
the Antiquities of England, with (Twenty-six) Portraits of the
Authors, and a complete List of their Works, so far as they relate
to the Topography of this Kingdom; together with a List of
& Portraits,
List of Books, &c. 541
Portraits, Monuments, Views, and other Prints contained in each
Work; with Remarks that may enable the Collector to know when
the Works are complete. É, J. P. Malcolm, Esq. F. S. A.
£uarto. Lond. 1815. - .
INDICES VILLARES, GAZETTEERs, ETC.
The Theatre of the Empire of Great Britaine; presenting an exact
Geography of the Kingdomes of England, Scotland, Ireland, and
the Iles adjoyning; with the Shires, Hundreds, Cities, and Shire-
Townes within the Kingdome of England, divided and described
by John SPEED. Folio. Lond. 1611, or 1650. -
Pillare Anglicum; or, A View of the Towns of England, Collected
by the Appointment of Sir Henry Spelman, Knt. 2uarto.
Lond. 1656, or 1678. . .x: º …
*...* Inserted in Gibson's Edition of Spelman's English Works.
A Book of the Names of all the Parishes, Market Towns, Villages,
Hamlets, and smallest Places in England and Wales, alphabetically
set down as they be in every Shire; with the Names of the Hun-
dreds in which they are, and how many Towns there are in every
Hundred; with Maps of the Counties, by Jacob VAN LAUGEREN.
Small 2uarto. Lond. 1657; republished in 1668. -
Inder Willaris: or, An Exact Register, alphabetically digested, of
all the Cities, Market Towns, Parishes, Villages, the Hundred,
Lath, Rape, Ward, Wapentake, or other Division of each County;
the Bishoprick, Deaneries, Churches, Chappels, Hospitals, with
the Rectories and Vicarages in England and Wales, and their re-
spective Valuations in the King’s Boºks. The private Seats of the
King, Nobility, Gentry, &c. By John ADAMs, of the Inner Tem-
ple. The Third Edition; with a Map. Folio. 1700.
Dictionarium Angliſe Topographicum et Historicum : An Alphabe-
tical Description of the chief Places in England and Wales; with
an Account of the most memorable Events which have distin-
guished them. By the celebrated Antiquary WILLIAM La MBARDE,
formerly of Lincoln's Inn, Esq. and Author of “The Perambula-
tion of Kent.” Now first published from a Manuscript under the
Author's own Hand. Portrait by Wertue. Quarto. Lond. 1730.
England's Gazetteer; or An Accurate Description of all the Cities,
Towns, and Villages of the Kingdom. In three volumes. Vol. I.
and II. contain a Dictionary of the Cities, Corporations, Market
Towns, and the most noted Villages, their distance from London,
with their distance or bearing from the next market town, or well
known place. Vol. III. a new Index Villaris, or alphabetical regis-
ter of the less noted villages. This work includes all the chief
harbours, bays, forests, hills, mines, medicinal springs, moors, and
other curiosities both of nature and art; and not only takes notice.
of most of the manors and seats in the kingdom, both ancient and
present; but also points out the old military ways, camps, castles,
and other remarkable ruins of Roman, Danish, and Saxon anti-
quity; and particularly shews the estates that were formerly A.

542 L1st OF Books, &c.
land. In Three Volumes. By Stephen Whatley. Lond. 1750– 1,
Duodecimo. - .
In the Gent. Mag. Feb. 1768, is a two-page view of all the counties
of England and Wales; with the archbishopricks and bishopricks,
and their valuation; the circumference, acres, hundreds, parishes,
market towns, number of houses, members, chief town, latitude
longitude, distance from London, market days, air, soil, and
II WerS.
The Complete Gazetteer of England and Wales; or, an accurate
Description of all the Cities, Towns, and Villages in the Kingdom;
shewing their Situations, Manufactures, Trades, Market, Fairs,
Customs, Privileges, Principal Buildings, Charitable and other
Foundations, &c. and their distances from London: with a De-
scriptive Account of every County, their Boundaries, Extent,
Natural Produce, &c. including the Chief Harbours, Bays, Rivers,
Canals, Forests, Mines, Hills, Wales, and Medicinal Springs; with
other curiosities both of Nature and Art, pointing out the Military
Ways, Camps, Castles, and other remains of Roman, Danish, and
Saxon Antiquity. Two Volumes. Lond. 1775.” Duodecimo.
England's Gazetteer : by PHILIP Luckombe. Three Volumes.
Duodecimo. Lond. 1790. < * , -
An Account of the several Cities and Market Towns in England and
Wales; describing the Antiquities, Curiosities, and Manufacture
carried on at each Place, the Days that the Markets are kept on,
the number of Parliament men sent from each City, &c. and the
computed and measured miles from London, alphabetically digest-
ed. Octavo. London: printed for S. Bladon.
A New Index Villaris for England and Wales. 2uarto. Lond.
1804. - .
A Topographical Dictionary of England; exhibiting the names of the
several Cities, Towns, Parishes, Tythings, Townships, and Ham-
lets, with the County and Division of the County, to which they
respectively belong. The Valuation and Patrons of Egclesiastical
Benefices and the Tutelary Saint of each Church. —The resident
Population, according to the Returns made to Parliament in 1801;
and the Amount of the Parochial Assessments, according to the
Returns made to Parliament, in 1803. –The Distance and Bearing.
of every Place from the nearest Post Office, and from the County
Town.— Market and Fairs. — Members of Parliament, and Corpo-
rations.— Free Schools. – Petty Sessions, and Assizes.—To which
is added Miscellaneous information respecting Monastic Founda-
tions, and other matters of Local History. Collected from the
most Authentic Documents, and arranged in Alphabetical Order.
In Two Volumes. By Nicholas CARLISLE, Fellow and Secre-
tary of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Quarto. Loud.
1808. - %
Gazetteer of England and Wales; containing the Statistics, Agricul-
ture, and Mineralogy of the Counties; the History, Antiquities,
Curiosities, Manufactures, Trade, Commerce, Fairs, Markets,
Charitable and other Institutions; Population and Elective #.
. : Chl's CŞ
List of Books, &c. º 543
blete
Inder Villaris, with the Bearings and Distance of each Village and
Mansion from the nearest Market Town. Illustrated by two
large Maps, descriptive of the Roads and inland Navigation. By
Thomas Ports. Octavo. Lond, 1810. :
A Topographical Dictionary of the United Kingdom; compiled from
Parliamentary and other authentic Documents and Authorities;
containing Geographical, Topographical, and Statistical Accounts
of every District, Object, and Place in England, Wales, Scot-
land, and Ireland, and the various small Islands dependant on the
British Empire. Accompanied by Forty-six Maps drawn purposely
for this Work on an original Plan. By BENJAMIN Pitts CAPPER,
Esq. Octavo. Lond. 1813. . -
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ENGLAND.
The Description of Britayne and Irelond, taken out of the Poli.
cronicon, finished (by Caxton) 18 Aug. 1480, 20 Edw. IV. A
little Folio Tract at the end of Caxton’s “Chronicles of Eng-
land.”
Historical Description of the Island of Brittaine; with a Briefe re-
hersal of the Nature and Qualities of the People of England, and
such Commodities as are to be found in the same : comprehended
in three books and written by W. H. (William Harrison,) Chap-
lain, to Sir William Brook, Lord-Warden of the Cinque-Ports;
prefixed to both Editions of Holinshed’s Chronicle, 1577 and
1587, Folio. § 3
BRITANNIA: sive florentissimorum Regnorum, Angliae, Scotiae, et
Hibernia, et Insularum adjacentium ex intima Antiquitate Choro-
graphia Descriptio. Authore GUL CAMDENo. Lond. 1586 and
1587. Octavo.—Reprinted in 2warto in 1590, 1594, and 1600.
—In Folio, at London, in 1607, and at Amsterdam in 1648 and
1659. 3 * * 3 *
Britain: or A Chorographicall Description of the most flourishing
Kingdoms of England, Scotland, and the Islands adjoining, out
of the Depth of Antiquity; beautified with Maps of the several
Shires of England. Written first in Latin by William Camden,
and translated into English by Phile Mon Holland, Dr. in Phy-
sic. Folio. Lond. 1610 and 1637. . .
Britannia: or, A Chorographical Description of Great Britain and
Ireland, together with the adjacent Islands. Written in Latin by
William CAMDEN, Clarenceux King at Arms; and translated
into English, with Additions and Improvements, by EDMUND
Gibson, D.D. late Lord Bishop of London. This Fourth Edition
is printed from a Copy of 1722, left corrected by the Bishop for
the Press. In Two Volumes. Folio. Lond. 1772,
*** Originally printed in One Volume, folio, in 1695; in Two
Volumes in 1722 and 1753. .
Britannia: or, A Geographical Description of the flourishing. King-
doms of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and the Islands adjacent,
' ' ' ... . - from .
chises of the Cities, Towns, and Boroughs; including a com

544 List of books, &e.
from the earliest Antiquity. By William CAMDEN. Translated
from the Edition published by the Author in MDcvii. Enlarged
by the latest Discoveries by Richard Gou GH, F. A. and R. S. S.
In Three Volumes. Illustrated with Maps and other Copper-
ſº Folio. Lond. 1789.-Reprinted in Four Volumes in
1806. - -:
A Discoverie of certaine Errours published in print in the much com-
mended Britannia, 1594, very preiudicial to the Discentes and
Successions of the auncient Nobilitie of this Realme. By Ralphe
BRooke, Yorke Herault at Armes. To which are added the
learned Mr. Camden’s Answer to this Book; and Mr. Brooke's
Reply. Now first published from an original Manuscript in the
Library of John Anstis, Esq. Garter King at Arms. Portrait of
the Author, and the Monument of Camden. Quarto. Lond. 1724.
A satisfactory, and curious, account of Ralph Brooke's invidious
publication is contained in the Life of Camden by Mr. Gough,
prefixed to his edition of the Britannia.-Originally printed in 1599
in Quarto. . . ." w. - * : . .
Descriptio Britanniæ, Scotia, Hybernia, et Orchadum, ex libro Pauli
Jovii, episcopi Nucer. de Imperiis et Gentibus cogniti Orbis, cum
ejus operis prohoemio, ad Alexandrum Farnesium Card. ampliss.
2uarto. Venet. 1548, and Bas. 1561, duodecimo.

Magnæ Britannia Deliciae seu Insularum et Regnorum quae Magna,
Britanniae nomine, et sereniss. Regis Jacobi, &c. imperio hodie com-
prehenduntur, Descriptio: ex variis auctoribus collecta, et reliqua-
rum Europae Nationum jam ante editis Deliciis addita. (Auctore
GAsp. EUs.) Duodecimo. Colon. 1613. - ---- - -
Rutgeri H FRMANNIDAE Britannia Magna, sive .#. Scotiae,
Hibernia, et adjacentium Insularum Geographico-Historica De-
scriptio. Duodecimo. Amstel. 1661. ... " -
Poly-Olbion: or, A Chorographicall Description of all the Tracts,
Rivers, Mountaines, Forests, and other Parts of this renowned Isle
of Great Britaine; with Intermixture of the most remarkable Stories,
Antiquities, Wonders, Rarityes, Pleasures, and Commodities of
the same. Digested in a Poem by Michael DRAYToN, Esq.
Folio. London: Printed for M. Lownes, J. Browne, J. Helme,
J. Busbie, 1613. With a Frontispiece, whole-length Portrait of
Henry, Prince of Wales, engraved by William Hole, and Maps.
To the Second Edition, 1622, were added Twelve Books, describing
the East and North Parts of the Island. Reprinted in a folio Edi-
tion of Drayton's Works in 1748, and in an octavo Edition in Four
Volumes, in 1753. . . . .
In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, 1617, fol. Part III. Book, III. c.
3, 4, 5, are descriptions of England, Scotland, and Ireland, in
single chapters each. The last, with his History of the Affairs
of Ireland from 1599 to 1603, was Reprinted at Dublin, 1735, in
Two Volumes. Octavo.
The History of the Worthies of England, Endeavoured by º:




List of Books, &c. > 545
Fulles, D.D. With a Portrait of the Author, by D. Loggan.
- Folio. Lond. 1662. . . . g
An Abridgement and Continuation was published in octavo in 1684,
intitled “Anglorum Speculum; or The Worthies of England in
Church and State, by G. S.” 3 & * *: 2
*** The original Work was reprinted in Two Volumes, quarto,
in 1811, with a few explanatory Notes, by John Nichols, F.A.S. .
In the Philosophical Transactions, No. 352, p. 589, and in the Pro-
aemium of his “Belgium Britannicum,” 1719, is Dr. William Mus-
grave's Latin Dissertation “ de Britannia quondom paene insula.”
Magna Britannia et Hibernia, Antiqua et Nova; or A New Survey
ºf Great Britain; wherein to the Topographical Account given by
Mr. Cambden, and the late Editors of his Britannia, is added a
more large History, not only of the Cities, Boroughs, Towns, and
Parishes mentioned by them, but also of many other Places of
Note, and Antiquities since discovered. Collected and composed
by an impartial Hand. In Six Volumes. 2uarto. Lond. in the
Savoy, 1720–1731.
ENGLANd Described: or The several Counties and Shires thereof
briefly handled; some Things also premised, to set forth the Glory
of this Nation. By Edward LÉigh, Esq. Master of Arts of
Magdalen Hall, in Oxford. Octavo. Lond. 1659.
G. Hussey’s “Memorabilia Mundi; or, Choice Memoirs of the
History and Description of the World, 1670, 12mo, is more than
half employed in the Description of England and Ireland. , ,
BRITANNIA: or, A Geographical, Description of the Kingdoms of
England, Scotland, and Ireland, with the Isles and Territories
thereunto belonging. By Richard Blome. Folio. Lond. 1673.





England's Remarques; giving an exact Account of the several Shires,
&c. Duodecimo. 1678, 1682. . . . . . .
ANGLIA REDIviva; being a full Description of all the Shires, Cities,
principal Towns and Rivers in England; with some useful Qbser-
vations concerning what is most remarkable, whether in relation to
their Antiquity, Situation, Buildings, Traffick, or Inhabitants.
Collected by Mr. DuNSTAR. Duodecimo. Lond. 1699.
Britannia Baconica: or, the Natural Rarities of England, Scotland,
and Wales, according as they are to be found in every Shire: his-
torically related, according to the Precepts of the Lord Bacon;
and the Causes of many of them philosophically attempted : by
J. Childrey. Small octavo. Lond, 166i.
Firma Burgi: or, An Historical Essay concerning the Cities, Towns,
and Boroughs of England; taken from Records. By Thomas.
ºt...". His Majesty’s Historiographer. Folio. Lond.
British Curiosities in Art and Nature; giving an Account of Rarities
both ancient and modern; viz. Monuments, Monasteries, Priories,
Frieries, Nunneries, Colleges, Hospitals, Walls, Roman Camps,"
Garrisons, Highways, Coins, * Urns, Pavements of §:
2 * > 3 & 2 N QTk,


tº * list or sooks, &c.

Work, Temples, Churches, Bridges, Kings Palaces, Noblemen’s
Seats, &c. To which is added a very useful Scheme, containing a
brief Account of the State of each County in England at one View,
curiously engraved, and printed on a Sheet, to fold up or put in a
Frame. Duodecimo. Lond. 1728. * - .
New Description of England and Wales, with the Adjacent Islands,
ºc. with many. Historical and Critical Renmarks, and a New and
Correct set of Maps of each County, their Roads, and Distances;
their Margins adorned with a great variety of very remarkable
- Antiquities, By Herkian Moll. Folio. F724.
New Survey of England; wherein the Defects of Camden are sup-
plied, and the Errors of his Followers remarked; the Opinions
of our Antiquaries compared; the Roman Military Ways traced;
and the Station settled according to the Itinerary, without º
the Figures; with some Natural History of each County. By N.
Salsion. In Two Volumes. Octavo. Plates. Lond., 173i.
The Agreeable Historian; or Complete English Traveller; giving a
Geographical Description of every County in Great Britain, with
the Antiquities of the same. By SAMUEL SIMPson. In Three
Volumes. Octavo. Pond. 1746. . . . .
The English Traveller, giving a Description of those Parts of Great
Britain called England and Wales, &c. In Three Volumes, 12mo.
Printed for T. #. in Dogwell-court, White-Fryars, Fleet
Street, 1746. . N. w r
Bh the First Volume of “A Complete System of Geography with
Maps by E. Bowen, in Two Volumes. Folio. 1747, is a De-
scription of Great Britain and Ireland, with many particulars not
usually inserted in such General Surveys. . &
A New Description of all the Counties in England and Wales, the
6th Edition, 1752.” 12mo, principally for Roads, Carriages, and
Fairs. . . . . . . . .
The Beauties of England, divided into their Respective Counties.
England and Wales described in a Series of Letters, by W. Tol-
DeRvy. With Plates. Octavo. Lond. 1762. .
The Beauties of England, or a Comprehensive View of the Chief
Villages, Market Towns, and Cities, Antiquities, Remains of
Palaces, Monasteries, Camps, and Castles; the two Universities;
London and Westminster; divided into their Respective Counties,
and intended as a Travelling Pocket Companion, pointing out
whatever is curious both in Art and Nature, 1763,” 12mo. A
New Edition in 1767. . . . . . . .
England Illustrated: or, A Compendium of the Natural History,
Geography, Topography, and Antiquities, Ecclesiastical and Civil,
of England and Wales; with Maps of the several Counties, and
Engravings of many Remains of Antiquity, remarkable, Buildings,
and principal Towns. In Two Volumes. 2uarto. Lond, 1764.
“A Description of England and Wales: containing a particular º:
3. . . . . - count




List of Books, &c. 547

count of each County; with its Antiquities, Curiosities, Situation,
Extent, Climate, Rivers, Lakes, Mineral Waters, Soils, Fossils,
Caverns, Plants, and Minerals, Agriculture, Civil and Ecclesiasti-
cal Divisions, Cities, Towns, Palaces, Seats, Corporations, Mar-
kets, Fairs, Manufactures, and Trade; with the Antiquities, Sieges,
and Remarkable Battles fought in every County; and the Lives of
the Illustrious Men each has Produced. Embellished with Two
Hundred and Forty Copper Plates of Palaces, Castles, Cathedrals;
the Ruins of Roman and Saxon Buildings; and of Abbeys, Monas-
teries, and other Religious Houses; besides a variety of Cuts of
Urns, Inscrptions, and other Antiquities. In Twelve Volumes,
~ 12mo, Lond. 1769, 1770. - . . .
England Displayed: being a New, Complete, and Accurate Survey,
and Description of England and Wales. By P. Russel and Owen
PRice, 1769.” Folio. . . . . . . . . . . .
The Complete English Traveller; or a New Survey and Descrip-
, tion of England and Wales. Containing a full Account of what-
ever is Curious and Entertaining in the several Counties of Eng-
land and Wales; the Isles of Man, Jersey, and other Islands adjoin-
ing to, and dependent on, the Crown of Great Britain.” By
NATHANIEL SPEN cer. Folio. ºr .
“An Essay Explaining the Mode of jº a Useful Work en-
titled, A New Description of England and Wales, as a Continua-
tion and Illustration of Cambden, 12mo.”. 1772. . . . . . . . .
Britannia Curiosa: or, A. Description of the most remarkable Curi-
osities of the Island of Great Britain. In Six Volumes. Octavo.
Lond. 1777. - r º ... . . ;- º * , º *
England Delineated: or, A Geographical Description of every
County in England and Wales; with a concise Account of its most
important Products, Natural and Artificial. With outline Maps
of all the Counties. By John AIKIN, M.D. Small Octavo. Lond.
1795. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Beauties of England. In Two Volumes. Plates. Octavo.
Lond. 1776. . . , , , , , , , , , ºr ºf . . . . .
A New Display of the Beauties of England r or, A. Description of
the most elegant or magnificent Public Edifices, Royal Palaces,
is Noblemen’s and Gentlemen's sº.º. atural
pr Artificial, in the different Parts of the Kingdom. , Adorned
with a Variety of Copper Plate Cuts newly Engraved. In Two
Volumes. Octavo. —London: Printed for R, Goadby and Co.
1787. . . . . . . . . . . * †,
Beauties of England and Wales, in a Descriptive View of each
County. By Philip LuckoMBE. In Two Volumes. Duodecimo.
The BEAuties of ENGLAND AND WALEs ; or Delineations, Topo-
graphical, Historical, and Descriptive, of each Cour


#

&

# * *


lished with more than Seven Hundred Engravings. In Twenty-six
. Volumes, Octavo. Lond. 1801–1817. . . . . .
*...* There are LaRoe Paper copies of this work.
: 2 N 2 - g There
848 List of books, &c.
'Remains concerning Britaine: their Languages, Names, Surnames,
Allusions, Anagrammes, Armories, Monies, Empresses, Apparell,
Artillarie, Wise Speeches, Proverbs, Poesies, and Epitaphs. Writ-
ten by William CAMDEN, Esq. Clarenceux King of Armes, sur-
named the Learned. The Fifth Impression, with many rare Anti-
quities never before imprinted, by the Industry and Care of John
Philipot. Somerset Herald. Portrait. Quarto. Lond. 1636,
1637.—The preceding Editions are 1614, 1623, 1629.
Archaeologia Britannica; giving some Account additional to what
has been hitherto published, of the Languages, Histories, and
Customs of the original Inhabitants of Great Britain; from Col-
lections and Observations in Travels through Wales, Cornwall,
Bas-Bretagne, Ireland, and Scotland. By Edward Lhuyd, M.A.
of Jesus College, Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford.
Vol. I. Glossography. Folio. Oxford, 1707.
Letters, Essays, and other Tracts illustrating the Antiquities of Great
Britain and Ireland; together with many curious Discoveries of the
Affinity betwixt the Language of the Americans and the Ancient
Britons to the Greek and Latin, &c.; also Specimens of the Cel-
tic, Welsh, Irish, Saxon, and American flanguages. By the Rev.
Dr. MALcolME. Octavo. Edinb. 1738, and Lond. 1744. 3 *
Joannis Lelandi, Antiquarii de Rebus Britannicis Collectanea: ex
Autographis descripsit ediditgue THo. HEARNIUs, A.M., Oxoni-
ensis, qui et Appendicem subjecit, totumque Opus (in VI Volu-
mina distributum). Notis et Indice adornavit. Octavo. Oxonii,
1715. —Reprinted in 1774. i - .
Select Papers relating to English Antiquities, published from the
Originals. By John Ives. With Plates. 2uarto. 1773.
€ollectanea Curiosa; or Miscellaneous Tracts relating to the His,
tory and Antiquities of England and Ireland, the Universities of
Oxford and Cambridge, and a variety of other Subjects, chiefly
collected, and now first published from the Manuscripts of Arch.
bishop Sancroft; given to the Bodleian Library by the late Bishop
Tanner. In Two Volumes. Octavo. Oxford, 1781. . .
An Account of the Ancient Division of the English Nation into
Hundreds and Tithings. By GRAN ville SHARP. Octavo. Lond.
1784. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Archæologia: or Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Antiquity. Pub-
fished by the Society of Antiquaries of London. Vol. I-XVIII.
Quarto. Lond. 1770–1816.
Index to the First Fifteen Volumes of Archæologia. Printed by
Order of the Society of Antiquaries of London, 2d of March,
1809. By Nicholas CARLISLE, Secretary. 2narto. Lond.
1809. . .
Petusta Monumenta: gua ad Rerum Britannicarum Memoriam con-
servandam Societas Antiquariorum Lon dini sumptu suo eaenda cu-
ravit. Four Volumes. Folio. 1747, 1789, 1796, 1817.
List of Books, &c. :- 549.
An Index to the First Three Volumes of the Wetusta Monumenta.
By Nicholas CARLISLE, Secretary. Folio. Lond. 1810.
The ANTIQUARIAN RepertoRY; A Miscellaneous Assemblage of
Topography, History, Biography, Customs, and Manners; intended
to illustraté and preserve several valuable Remains of old Times.
Chiefly compiled by or under the Direction of FRANCIs Grose,
Esq. F. R. & A.S. Thomas Astle, Esq. F.R. & A.S. and other
eminent Antiquaries. Adorned with numerous Views, Portraits,
and Monuments. A New Edition, with a great many valuable
Additions. In Four Volumes. 2uarto. Lond. 1807, 1808, and
1809. x -
*** Originally printed in Four Volumes quarto, in 1775.
Miscellanies, Antiquarian and Historical, by F. SAYERs, M. D.
Octavo. Norwich, 1805. . ,
Bibliotheca Topographica Britannica: comprehending Añtiquities in
various Counties in England and Wales. In Ten Volumes.
Edited by John Nichols. F.A.S. 2uarto. Lond, 1780–
1809. w
'The Topographer, for the Years 1789, 1790, and 1791; contain-
ing a variety of original Articles illustrative of the Local History
and Antiquities of England; particularly in the History and De-
scription of ancient and eminent Seats and Styles of Architecture;
in the Preservation of curious Monumental Inscriptions; in the Ge-
nealogies and Anecdotes of famous Families; in Disquisitions upon :
remarkable Tenures, and in the Delineation of the Face of Coun-
tries. Embellished with Engravings. In Four Volumes. Octavo.
Lond. 1789–1791. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Topographer; containing a Variety of original Articles, illustrative
of the Local History aud Antiquities of this Kingdom. Wit
Forty-two Plates. 2uarto. Lond. 1791. . . .
Topographical Miscellanies, (being a Continuation of the Topogra-
pher;) containing Ancient Histories, and Modern Descriptions, ºf
Mansions, Churches, Monuments and Families, with many En-
gravings, particularly of Ancient Architecture throughout Eng-
land. Vol. I. being portions of the History of Sussex, Kent, Hamp-
shire, Berkshire, Cambridgeshire, Oxfordshire, Staffordshire, and


Derbyshire. With Plates. Quarto. Lond. 1792.
A Topographical Survey of the Counties of Hants, Wilts, Dorset,
Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, commonly called the Western
Circuit. Embellished with Maps of the several Counties, taken
from actual Surveys. By WiLLIAM Tun Nicliff, Land Surveyor.
Octavo. Salisbury, 1791. . . . .

A Restoration of the ancient Modes of bestowing Names on the
l{ivers, Hills, Vallies, Plains, and Settlements of Britain; recorded
in no Author. Exemplified in the Derivations of Roman-British,
and later Denominations of Districts, Names of the principal
Towns, and Appellations of the Features of Nature; from which
º 2 N 3 3. § nearly'
550 LIST OF Books, &c.
nearly all the Explanations given to these Terms by Verstegan,
Skinner, Vallancey, Bryant, Borlase, Whitaker, Pryce, Macpher-
son, and other Etymologists, are shewn to be unfounded. By G.
Dyek (of Exeter.) Octavo. Exeter; printed for the Author.
A General Account of all the Rivers of Note in Great Britain;.
with their several Courses, their peculiar Characters, the Counties
through which they flow, and the entire Sea Coast of our Island;
concluding with a minute Description of the Thames, and its vari-
ous auxiliary Streams. By HENRY SKRINE, Esq., LL.B. of War-
ley in Somersetshire. Octavo. Lond, 1801.
Illustrations of the Manners, and Expences of ancient Times in Eng-
land, in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries, de-
duced from the Accompts of Churchwardens and other authentic
Documents, collected from various Parts of the Kingdom, with
explanatory Notes, 2uarto. Lond. 1797. ź. . . .”
Fragmenta Antiquitatis: or Ancient, Tenures of Land, and
jocular Customs of Manors, originally published by THoMAs
Blou NT, Esq. of the Inner Temple; enlarged and corrected by
Josiah Beckwith, Gent. F.A.S.; with considerable Additions
from authentic Sources by Hercules MALEBysse Beckwith.
2uarto. Lond, 1815. . . . . . -->
*...* Originally printed in 1679, and reprinted in 1784, octavo.
Observations on Popular Antiquities; chiefly illustrating the oriº
of our vulgar Customs, Ceremonies, and Superstitions. By
John BRAND, M.A. Fellow and Secretary of the Society of Anti-
Quaries of London, Arranged and revised, with Additions, by
Hen Ry ELLls, F.R.S. Sec. S.A. Keeper of the Manuscripts in
the British Museum. In Two Volumes. 2uarto. Lond. 1813.
*** Originally printed in one volume octavo,
A Provincial Glossary; with a Collegtion of Local Proverbs and
Popular Superstitions. By FRANCIs GRose, Esq., F.A.S., Octavo.
Lond. 1787. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "
The State of the Prisons in England and Wales; with preliminary
Observations, and an Account of some Foreign Prisons and Hos-
pitals. By John HowARD, F.R.S. The Third Edition, 2warto.
"arrington, 1784. . . . . . . . . .
State of Prisons in England, Scotland, and Wales, extending to vari-
ous Places therein assigned, not för the Debtor only but for the
Felons also, and other less criminal Offeſſiders: Together with some
useful Documents, Observations, and Remarks, adapted to ex-
plain and improve the Condition of Prisoners in general. By
James Neild, Esq. ºutirto, Lond, 1812. , $ 3 & 2 × .< *ś , , .
ITINERARIES
AND Toufis THROUGH PARTs
The Laboryouse Journey and Serche of John Leylande, for Englandes
Antiquitees, geuen of hyun as a newe years gy ſte to Kynge Hº:
. . - the

List of Books, &c. 551:
the viii. in the xxxvii. yeare of his Reygne, with Declaracyons
enlarged; by Johan. BALé. Duodecimo, Lond. 1549.-Re-
printed at Oxford in the Lives of Leland, Hearne, and Wood, in
1772; at the same Time a considerable Number were printed se-
parately. - - - *.
* The Peregrination of Dr. Andrew Boarde,” printed by Hearne at
the end of Benedictus Abbas, 1735, p. 764, from .*.*. in the
Hand-Writing of Lawrence Noel, in the possession of T. Lam-
barde, of Sevenoak, Kent. * . . . . . . . ." s
The Itinerary of John Leland the Antiquary. Published from the
original MS. in the Bodleian Library by Thomas Hearne, M.A.
i.". Volumes, Octavo. Oxford, 1710–1712.-Reprinted at
Oxford, in 1745 and 1768-9. . . . .
Itinerarium Germania, Gallia, Angliae, Italia, scriptum a PAULo
HENTzNero; cum Indice Locorum, Rerum atq."Verborum Me-
morabilium. Quarto. Breslæ, 1627.
A Journey into England. By PAUL HENTzNER, in the Year
MDxcviii. Printed at Strawberry Hill, 1757. Duodecimo. Re-
rinted at the private Press of T. E. Willians, Reading, 1807.
ifty copies only. 2uarto. . . . .
Hineraria Symonis Simeonis et Willielmi de Worcestre: quibus ac-
cedit Tractatus de Metro, in quo traduntur Regulae a Scriptoribus
medii AFvi in Versibus Leoninis observatae. #"...";
in Bibliotheca Coll. Corp. Christi, Cantab. asservatis primus eruit
ediditgue Jacobus NASMITH, A.M.S.A.S. ejusdemgue Collegii.
nuper Socius. Royal Octavo. Cantab. 1778. -
Guyde for English Travailers, shewing in general how far one Citie
and many Shire-Townes in England are distant from other; toge-
ther with the Shires in particular, and the chiefe Townes in every
of them. By John Norden. Folio. Lond. 1625.
Select Remains (Itineraries and Letters) of the learned John RAY,
M.A.F.R.S.; with his Life, by the late William Derham, D.D.
Canon of Windsor, and F.R.S. Published by George Scott,
M.A. and F.R.S. Portrait. Octavo. Lond, 1760. . . .
An Historical Account of Mr. Rogers's Three Years Travels over
England and Wales; giving a trne and exact Description of all
the chiefest Cities, Towns, and Corporations in England, Domi-
nion of Wales, and Town of Berwick-upon-Twede; together with
the Antiquities and Places of Admiration, Cathedrals, Churches of
Note, in any cº; Town, or Place in each County. With a Map.
Small Octavo. ond. 1694.—Reprinted in 1697. &
*...* A surreptitious copy of Brome's Travels.-Gough. º, tº
Travels over º Scotland, and Wales; giving a true and exact
Description of the chiefest Cities, Towns, and Corporations; toge-
ther with the Antiquities of divers other Places, the most famous
Cathedrals, and other eminent Structures; of several remarkable
£aves and Wells; with many other diverting Passages never be-,
* : * : * . . . . º * : * * 2 N . 4 º ºg cº- * , ºfare
%
*

$52 list of Books, &c,
%
fore published. By James Brome, M.A. Rector of Cheriton in
Kent. Octavo, Lond. 1726. —Originally printed in 1700.
Itinerarium Curiosum : or, An Account of the Antiquities and re-
markable -Curiosities in Nature and Art, observed in Travels
through Great Britain. Illustrated with Copper-plates. By WIL-
LIAM STUKELEY, M.D.F.R. and A.S. The Second Edition, with.
large Additions. In Two Volumes. Folio. , Lond. 1776. Ori-
ginally printed in One Volume in 1724, and reprinted in Two
Volumes in 1817. z - • .”
A Yº. to England; containing many Things relating to the State
of Learning, Religion, and other Curiosities of that Kingdom, by
Mons. Sorbiere; as also Observations on the same Voyage, by
Dr. Thomas SPRAT, F.R.S. and now Lord Bishop of Rochester.
Translated from the French. Octavo. Lond. 1709.
Drunken Barnaby’s Four Journies to the North of England, in Latin
and English Metre. First Edition (circa 1640) with Frontispiece
by Marshall: reprinted in 1716, 1723, 1774, and 1805. Duodecimo.
A Tour through the whole Island of Great Britain, divided in Cir-
cuits or Journies; giving a particular and diverting Account of
whatever is curious and worth Observation; with useful Observa-
tions upon the whole. (By DANIEL Defoe.) . In Three Volumes.
Octavo. Lond. 1724-7. Originally printed in One Volume,
octavo, 1714.—An Eighth Edition, with large Additions, by
Samuel Richardson, Printer, and the Rev. Mr. Kimber, was pub-
lished in Four Volumes 12mo, in 1777.
The Comical Pilgrim's Travels lºgº England, Wales, Scotland,
and Ireland. Qctavo, Lond. 1722. . . . . . . .
Journey through England and Scotland. By Jo. MACKAY. In
Three Volumes. Octavo, Lond, 1722-3. &
* *
A Tour through Parts of England, Scotland, and Wales, in 1778;
in a Series of Letters, by Richard Jose pH SULiv AN, Esq. Second
Edition, corrected and enlarged. In Two Volumes. Octavo.
1785.--Originally printed in Quarto, in 1780.
A Tour to the West of England in 1788, by the Rev. S. SHAw, M.A.
Prospects and Observations, on a Tour in England and Scotland,
Natural, OEconomical, and Literary. By Thomas Newte, Esq.
With Twenty-four Plates. 2uarto. Lond. 1792.
A Tour through the South of England, Wales, and Part of Ire-
land, made during the Summer of 1791. Plates. Octavo. Lond,
Eccentric Excursions in England and Wales, with One Hundred
Sketches of Character and Country, by G. Woodward. 2uarto,
Lond, 1796. ' ' ' ' ' ' '
* Observations relative chiefly to the Natural History, Picturesque
Scenery, and Antiquities of the Western Counties of England;
made in the Years 1794 and 1796. Illustrated by a Mineralogical
Map and Sixteen Views in Aqua-tint sy Alken. By William


List of Books, &c. 553
* George MAton, M.A. Fellow of the Linnaean Society. Two
Volumes. Octavo. Salisbury, 1797.
Observations on the Western Parts of England, relative chiefly to
Picturesque Beauty. To which are added, a few Remarks on the
Picturesque Beauties of the Isle of Wight. By William Gilpin,
M.A. Prebendary of Salisbury, and Vicar of Boldre in New Forest,
near Lymington. Plates. Octavo. Lond. 1798. * A
Observations on the Coasts of Hampshire, Sussex, and Kent, rela-
tive chiefly to Picturesque Beauty, made in the Summer of the
Year 1774. By the late WILLIAM Gilpin, M.A. Plates. Octavo.
Lond. #º. º.º. the two preceding Articles were printed
in Quarto. - º: * & : . . ;
Observations on several Parts of the Counties of Cambridge, Norfolk,
Suffolk, and Essex; also on several Parts of North Wales, relative
chiefly to Picturesque Beauty, in Two Tours, the former made in
the Year 1769, the latter in the Year 1773. By WILLIAM Gilpin,
M.A. Plates. Octavo. Lond. 1809.
A Walk through some of the Western Counties of England, by the
Rev. Richard WARNER of Bath. Plates. Octavo. ".
1800. * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Tour through the whole Island of Great Britain, divided into Jour-
neys; interspersed , with useful Observations; particularly calcu-
lated for the Use of those who are desirous of travelling over Eng-
land and Scotland. By the Rev. C. CRUttwell, Author of the
Universal Gazetteer. In Six Volumes. With coloured Maps.
Small Octavo. Lond. 1801.
Observations on a Tour through almost the whole of England, and
a considerable Part of Scotland, in a Series of Letters addressed
to a large Number of intelligent and respectable Friends by Mr.
ſºlºis, In Two Volumes. With Plates. Quarto.
London, 1801. . . . .
A Tour through the Northern Counties of England, and the Borders
of Scotland. By the Rev. Richard WARNER. In Two Volumes.
With Plates, Octavo. 1802. . -
The Traveller's Guide: or English Itinerary. By W. C. Oulton,
Esq. In Two Volumes. With Plates. ’sº Octava. Lond.
Summer Excursions through Parts of Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire,
Warwickshire, &c. and South Wales. By Miss E. I. Spence.
In Two Volumes. Duodecimo. Lond. 1809, ºn º
Observations and Remarks during Four Excursions made to various
Parts of Great Britain in the Years 1810 and 1811; viz. I. From
London to the Land's End in Cornwall. II. From London to Lan-
caster. III. From London to Edinburgh; and IV. From Lon-
don to Swansea. Performed by Land, by Sea, by various Mod
of Conveyance, and partly in the pedestrian Style. By
CaRiess Webb. Octavo." Lond. 1812.
British Tourists; or Traveller's Pocket Companion through E
%
ngland,
Wales,


554 List of Boeks, &c.
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland; comprehendin the most celebrated
modern and recent Tours in the British Islands, with several origi-
mals. By William Mavor, LL.D. Third Edition, enlarged.
In Six Volumes. With Maps. Duodecimo. Lond, 1814.
PUBLIC RECoRDs.
A short Account of some Particulars concerning Domesday Book,
with a view to promote its being published. By a Member of the
Society of Antiquaries of London. (P. C. Webb.) Quarto.
Lond. 1756. . - :
A short Account of Danegeld; with some further Particulars relatin
to William the Conqueror's Survey. (By P. C. W.E.B.E.) 2uartó.
Lond. 1756. - . - - -->
Domesday Book:-seu Liber Censualis Willelmi Primi Regis An-
gliae inter Archivos Regni in Domo Capitulari Westmonasterii
asservatus. (The Survey of England, made by Order of K. Wil-
liam I. in 1080-1086.) Two Volumes. Folio, Londini, 1783.
Ilibri Censualis vocati Domesday Book, Additamenta ex Codic. An-
tiquiss. Exon' Domesday. Inquisitio Eliensis. Liber Winton’.
Boldon Book. Folio. 1816. " -. : ". . . .
Libri Censualis vocati Domesday Book, Indices. Accessit Disser-
tatio Generalis de Ratione hujusce Libri. Folio. 1816.
Domesday Book has been translated by the late Rev. WILLIAM
*. Bawdwen,* B.A., Vicar of Hopton Pagnell, and Curate of Frick-
ley-cum-Clayton, Co. York; and Two Volumes were published in
his Life-time in Quarto.—Vol. I. (1809) containing the County of
York, Amounderness Lonsdale and Furness in Lancashire, and such
Parts of Westmoreland and Cumberland as are contained in the
Survey: also the Counties of Derby, Nottingham, Rutland, and
Lincoln; with an Introduction, Glossary, and Indexes.—Vol. II.
(1812) containing the Counties of Middlesex, Hertford, Bucking-
ham, Oxford, and Gloucester. . - .
King Alfred, about the year 900, composed a book of this nature,
j. extant at Winchester at the coming-in of the Conqueror,
but is since lost. The incomparable record of Domesday was be-
gun, by order of William the Conqueror, in the year i080, and
completed in the year 1086. It is comprised in two volumes, one
a large folio, the other a quario. The first begins with Kent, and
ends with Lincolnshire; the quarto volume contains the counties of
Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk. The counties of Northumberland,
Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham are not described;
neither is Lancashire, under its proper title; but Furness, and the
northern part of the county, as well as the south of Westmoreland,
with part of Cumberland, is included within the West riding of
Yorkshire; and that part of Lancashire which lies between the rivers
Ribble and Mersey, and which, at the time of the Survey, com:
• He died sept. 14, Isis.

List of Books, &c. 555

prehended six hundreds, is described in Cheshire; and part of
Rutlandshire is described in the counties of Northampton and Lin-
The description is generally thus:—How many hides, or carucates,
the land is gelded or taxed at? whose it was in the time of King Ed-
ward (the Confessor º) who the present owner, and the sub-tenants?
what, and how much, arable land, meadow, pasture, and wood there
is? how much in demesne, how much in tenancy, and what num-
ber of ploughs it will keep? what mills and fishings how many
freemen, sockmen, co-liberti, cotarii, bordarii, radmanni, radche-
mistres, villans, maid-servants, and bondmen there are 2 in some
counties, what young cattle, sheep, working-horses, &c. are upon
the land? ... . many hogs the wood will support? sometimes,
what churches there are, and how many priests or parsons what
customary rents, prestations, and services, are to be paid and ren-
dered out of the lands what has been added to the manor, what
withheld from it, and by whom 3, what land is waste? what the
whole was let for in the time of King Edward, and what the net
rent; whether it was too dear rented, or might be improved But
all entries in this book are not alike, they being more or less exact
and particular in some counties than others, according to the care,
diligence, and industry of the commissioners, and scribes.—(In-
troduction to Domesday Book illustrated.)
Domesday Book illustrated; containing an Account of that ancient
Record; as also of the Tenants in Capite or Serjeanty therein men-
tioned; and a Translation of the difficult Passages, with occasional
Notes; an Explanation of the Terms, Abbreviations, and Names
of Foreign Abbies; and an alphabetical Table of the Tenants in
Capite or Serjeanty in the several Counties contained in that Sur-
vey. By Robert KELHAM, of Lincoln's Inn, Author of the Nor-
man Dictionary. Octavo, Lond. 1788.
Formulare Anglicanum; or, A Collection of ancient Charters and,
Instruments of divers Kinds, taken from the Originals, placed
under several Heads, and deduced (in a Series according to the
Order of Time) from the Norman Conquest to the End of the
Reign of King Henry VIII. (ByThomas Madox, Esq. Folio.
Lond. 1702. . . . . , , , , , . . . . . . .
Sir Robert Cotton'






's Abridgment of the Records, (Rolls of Parlia-
ment) in the Tower of London, from the Reign of K. Edward II.
unto K. Richard III. 'of all Parliaments holden in each King's
Reign, &c. published by W. Prynne. Folio. Lond. 1657 or
1679, the last being only a reprinted Title page. . . .
3. * * *
# 8. § 3 r
Calendars of the ancient Charters, &c. and of the Welch and Scotish
Rolls, now remaining in the Tower of London; as also Calendars
of all the Treaties of Peace, &c. entered into by the Kings of Eng-
land with those of Scotland; and of sundry Letters and public In-
struments relating to that .."; now in the Chapter House at
Westminster: Together with Catalogues of the Records brought to
Berwick from §. Treasury at Edinburgh, and of those which
were removed to different Parts of Scotland by Order of King Ed-
ward J. &c. To which are added Memoranda concerning the *
- : Blºº

$56 tist or sooks, &c.
fairs of Ireland, extracted from the Tower Records. To the whole
is prefixed an Introduction, giving some Account of the State of
the Public Records, from the Conquest to the present Time. (By
Sir Jos. Ayloffe.) 2uarto. Lond. 1772.
An Index to the Records, with Directions to the several Places where
they are to be found; with a List of the Latin Sir-names and Names
of Places, as they are written in the old Records, explained by the.
moderu Names; with a Chronological Table of the Kings Reigns
and Parliaments, &c. by — STRAchey. Octavo. 1739. "
Index to Records called the Originalia and Memoranda, on the Lord
Treasurer’s Remembrancer's Side of the Exchequer; extracted
from the Records and from the MSS. of Mr. Tayleure, Mr.
Madox, and Mr. Chapman, formerly Officers in that Office, con.
taining all the Grants of Abbey Lands and other Property, granted
by the Crown, from the Beginning of the Reign of Henry VIII.
to the End of Queen Anne; also Inrollments of Charters, Grants,
and Patents to several Religious Houses; and to Cities, Boroughs,
Towns, Companies, Colleges, and other Public Institutions, from
the earliest Period, &c. By Edward Jones, Inner Temple. In
Two Volumes. Folio. Lond, 1793-95. º
Reports from the Select Committee appointed to enquire into the
State of the Public Records of the Kingdom; with an Analysis of
the principal Matters in the various Reedrds, Rolls, instruments,
&c. preserved in the several Public Repositories. Folio. Lond.
1800. "º -
Commissions and Abstract of º Reports of the Commissioners
on the Public Records of the Kingdom; with a Statement of the
Measures executed, or now in Progress under the Authority thereof.
Folio. Lond. 1806. 3.
Calendarium Rotulorum Patentium in Turri Londinensi, Folio.
1802.
Taxatio Ecclesiastica Angliae et Wallia, auctoritate P. Nicholai IV.
circa A.D. 1291. Folio. 1802. -
Calendarium Rotulorum, Chartarum et Inquisitionum ad quod Dam-
num. Temp. Reg. Joann. ad Hen. VI. Folio. 1803.
Rotulorum Originalium in Curia Scaccarii Abbreviatio temporibus
Regum Henrici III. Edwardi I. II, III. Two Volumes. Folio.
1805, 1810. , , ; ; ;
Calendarium Inquisitionum post Mortem sive Escatarum, temp.
Hen. III. Ed. I. Ed. II. et Ed. III. Two Volumes. Folio.
1806, 1808. . . .
Tesla de Nevill; sive Liber Feodorum in Curia Scaccarii, temp.


Hen. III. et Ed. I. Folio. 1807, ... g . . . . . . . . .
Nomarum Inquisitiones in Curia Scaccarii, temp. Regis Edw. III.
<&
Folio. 1807.
Valor Ecclesiasticus tempore Henrici VIII, auctoritate regia institutas.
$
Placitorum
list or books, &c. 55%
Placitorum in Domo, Capitulari,Westmonasteriensi aaservatorum
Abbreviatio temporibus Regum Richardi I., Johannis, Henrici
III., Edwardi I. et II. Folio. 1810. .
Inquisitionum ad Capellani Domini Regis retornatorum, quae in
publicis Archiviis Scotiae adhuc servantur, Abbreviatio. hree
olumes. Folio. 1811, 1816. s
Rotuli Hundredorum temp. Henrici III. et Edwardi I, in Turri
Londinensi, et in Curia receptae Scaccarii, Westm. asservati.
Tom. I. Folio. 1812. ... . .- . ºf
Rotuli Scotia in Turri Londinensiet in Domo Capitulari Westmo-
nasteriensi asservati, temporibus Regum Angliae Edwardi I.
Edwardi II., Edwardi III. Vol. I. Folio. 1814.
Reports of the Commissioners on the State and Condition of the
Woods, Forests. and Land Revenue of the Crown. Two Wo-
lumes. Folio. 1787–1809. -
Abstracts of the Answers and Returns made pursuant to an Act for
taking an Account of the Population of England, Wales, and
Scotland in 1801 and 1811. Three Volumes. Folio. Lond.
1802, 1812.
Copies of Memorials or Statements of Charitable Donations delivered
in to the several Offices of the Clerks of the Peace of the several
Counties or Ridings, or Cities or Towns being Counties of them-
selves, in England and Wales, in pursuance of an Act of the 52d
of George III. intituled “An Act for the registering and securing
Charitable Donations.” Folio, 1815. - -

EARLY BRITISH HISTORY."
Many bold and curious opinions on the history
and antiquities of this
era, are contained in the first book of the History of Manchester,
by the Rev. John WhitAker.
De Anglorum Gentis origine disceptatio; Authore Roberto She-
| RINGHAMo. Octavo. Cant. 1670.
Belgium Brittanicum in quo illius Limites, Fluvii, Urbes, Via Mili-
tares, Populus, Lingua, Dii, Monumenta, aliaque per multa clarius
& uberius exponuntur. Auctore GUIL. Musgrave, M. D. Praefixa
est Dissertatio, De Brittannia quondam pene Insula. . In Four
Volumes. Octavo. Isca Dunmoniorum. 1719-20.
Introduction to the History of Great Britain and Ireland; on the
Origin of the Ancient Britons, Scotch, Irish, and Anglo-Saxons,
including their Character, Manners, and Customs. By JAMEs
MacPherson. 2uarto, Lond. 1773.


* Several works containing allusions to the history, manners, and customs
of the Britons, arenoticed in the subsequent chronological classes, to which
they bear a more immediate refereuce ; uore particularly under the glass of
Roman Geography of Britain. . . . . . . . 3.
55s List of Books, &e.
The Genuine History of the Britons Asserted against Mr. Mac-
pherson. By the Rev. Mr. Whitaker, Author of the Histor
of Manchester. The Second Edition, corrected. Octavo. #.
1773. . . . $ & x
The British History, translated into English from the Latin of
Jeffery of Monmouth, with a large Preface concerning the Autho-
rity of the History. By Aaron Thompson, late of Queen’s
College, Oxon. Octavo. Lond. 1718. :- . . . . . . . . "
Johannis Rossi Britannica, sive de Regibus veteris Britanniæ usque ad
exitium Gentis, & Saxorum imperium, Historia versibus expressa.
Duodecimo. Franc. 1607. ‘. . . . . . . . r
Sketch of the Early History of the Cymry, or Ancient Britons,
from the year 700, before Christ, to A. D. 500. By the Rev.
P. Roberts, A. M. Author of an Harmony of the Epistles, &c.
octavo. Lond. 1803.
Celtic Researches, on the Origin, Traditions, and Language of the
Ancient Britons; with some Introductory Sketches, on $.
- Society. By Edward Davies, Curate of Olveston, Glouces-
shire. Royal Octavo. Lond. 1804.
Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, in Antiquities, concerning the
most Noble and Renowned English Nation. By the Study and
Travail of Richard VerstEGAN. Plates. 2uarto. Antwerp.
Printed by Robert Bruney, 1605. . . . . .
Antiqua Restaurata; a Concise Historical Account of the Ancient
Druids, shewing their Civil and Religious. Governments, Cere-
monies, Groves, Derivations, and Etymologies, categorically
deduced: with Biographical Sketches. Also the remains of
Druidical Antiquity, in England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and
France. By Jacob Des Mouliss. Octavo. Lond. 1794.
Antiquities Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall,
consisting of several Essays on the First Inhabitants, Druid---
Superstition, Customs, and Remains of the most remote Antiquity
in Britain, and the British Isles, exemplified and proved by
Monuments now extant in Cornwall and the Scilly Islands, with
a Vocabulary of the Cornu-British Language. By WILLIAM
Borlase, L. L. D. F. R. S. Rector of Ludgvan. Plates. Folio,
Lond. 1769.
A Complete View of the Manners, Customs, Arms, Habits, &c.
of the Inhabitants of England, from the arrival of the Saxons to
the present Time: with a Short Account of the Britons, during the
Government of the Romans. By Joseph STRUTT. In Three
Volumes. Quarto. Lond, 1775-6.
The Chronicle of Eagland : or a History of the Ancient Britons
and Saxons: from the arrival of Julius Caesar to the Norman Con-
quest. By Joseph STRUTT. In Two Volumes. 2uarto. Lond.
- 1777-8. ºr
The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England from the earliest
period to the present time, in which are represented most of the
popular Diversions. By Joseph STRUTT. £uarto, 1801.
. * - A Compleat





Jilst or Books, &c., #59
A Compleat View of the Dress and Habits of the People of England,
, from the establishment of the Saxons in Britain to the present # ime.
..To which is prefixed an Introduction, containing a General De-
scription of the Ancient Habits in Use among Mankind, from
the earliest period of time to the conclusion of the Seventh Cen-
ºs- º: * Joseph Strutt. In Two Volumes. 2uarto. Lond.
Before the discovery of the Itinerary of Richard of Cirencester, in
the middle of the 18th century, the only works which had descended
to us respecting the Roman stations and the Roman roads within
this island, were the Geography of Ptolemy; the Itinerary of
Antoninus; the Imperial Notitia; the Anonymous Chorography :
and the Tabula Peutingeriana. ź e
The Notitia “is a list of the several military and civil officers and
magistrates, in the Eastern and Western Empires, lower than the
reigns of Arcadius and Honorius; written, probably, towards the
end of the #. Theodosius's reign, or about 445, when the
bulk of the Roman forces was stationed on the Kentish coast, against
the Saxon invaders, and on the Northern barrier, per lineam valli.
It seems to have been transcribed from the Latercula, or Registers
of State.” See Gough, British Topography, Vol. I. P. 8.
The Chorography of Britain, by the anonymous geographer of
Ravenna, is a work of less utility than the preceding, and has been
termed “ a mere confused catalogue of hard names”; but a con-
jecture of Dr. Mason may be thought to reduce it to some kind of
consistency. He supposes “ that the names have been taken from
some map, which Ravennas began at the south-west corner, pro-
ceeding east and across the kingdom; still in the main advancing
northwardly; by which means some are twice over, and, no doubt,
many omitted.” The author of this work, and the time at which it
was composed, are equally involved in doubt. See Horsley, Brit.
§º, P. 489, and Reynolds, Introduction to Iter Britanniarum,”
The Tabula Peutingeriana is “a parchment roll, above twenty-
two feet long, and one broad, on which were traced the stages, or
mansions, for the Roman army throughout the empire; and bears
great resemblance to our surveys of roads by Ogilby. It is an
Itinerary, or Routier, in a form for carriage, exhibiting, as well as
such a size would permit, the roads, and distances of the principal
places. Some judicious critics date it in the reign of Theodosius
the Great; and suppose Antonine's Itinerary was copied from such
a table.” See Gough's British Topography, Vol. I. P.6, where is
given a statement of the different editions through which the above
table has passed. * . . . . . . . . . ;
RoMAN GEogRAPHY of BRITAIN.
Antonini Iter Britanniarum Commentariis illustratum Thoma Gale,
‘S.T. P. nuper Decani Eber. Opus posthumum. Revisit, auxit,
edidit R. G(ale). Accessit Anonymi Ravennatis Britanniæ Cho-
. ... ". . 3 # 3:. . . . . . § 3 & 3. . . . . $4.3% & 3. 3. . . ; * * : * * * -- 3: rographia,

$60 list or books, &c.

%
rographia, cum Autographo Regis Gallia, Ms”, et Codice Watf
caſio collata: adjiciuntur Conjecturae plurimae, cum Nominibus
£ocorum Anglićis, quotguot iis assignari potuerint. 2uarto.
Londini, 1709.
Vetera Romanorum Itineraria, sive Antonini Augusti Itinerarium,
cum integris Jos. Simleri, Hieron. Surita, et And. Schotti
Notis. Itinerarium Hierosolyimitanum ; et Hieroclis Grammatici
Synecdemus; curante Petro Wesselingio, quiet suas addidit Ad-
notationes. 2uarto. Amstel. 1735.
A Commentary on Antoninus his Itinerary, or Journies of the Ro-
mane Empire, so far as it concerneth Britain. By WiLLIAM
BURton, Batchelor of Lawes. With a Chorographicall Map of
the several Stations; and Indexes to the whole Work. Portrait
and Map by Hollar. Folio Lond. 1658. s. & . . . . ."
Iter Britanniarum; or that part of the Itinerary of Antoninus which
relates to Britain, with a new Comment by the Rev. Thomas
Reynolds, A. M. Rector of Bowden Parva, Northamptonshire.
Two Maps, 2uarto. London, 1799.
The above curious work, namely the Itinerary of Antoninus, “has
preserved some account of most of the provinces belonging to the
Roman empire; not taking them in any regular succession, nor
yet giving a full description of any of them; but it contains so
many particulars relating to the ancient geography of the different
countries with which it is concerned, that it has always held a place
in the first class .."; the valuable productions which have come
down to us from the Roman times.” ". . . . . .



In its manner it very much resembles the books of roads published
in this kingdom for the assistance and direction of travellers, “ ex-
cept that it only mentions towns of some consequence. Like the
section of a road-work, an Iter begins at some town of prime note,
and passes through several other towns, some of equal, some of less
consequence, to another of the first rank.” The distances between
each down are laid down in Roman miles. §

This work is believed by Mr. Reynolds, and by many other antiquaries,
to have been composed in the latter years of the Emperor Hadrian,
by Antoninus Pius, adopted son and successor of that Emperor,<
See Reynolds's Introduction to Iter Britanniarum.
Britannicarum Gentium Historiae Antiquae Scriptores Tres: Ricar-
dus Corinensis, Gildas Badonicus, Nennius Banchorensis. Recen-
suit Notisque et Indice auxit Carolus Bertramus, Societatis An-
tiquorum Londinensis Socius, &c. Octavo. Havnia, impensis.
Editoris, 1757. With a Frontispiece and Folded Map, dedicated
to Dr. Stukeley, drawn and engraved by the Editor, intituled
“ Mappa Britanniae Faciei Romanæ secundum fidem Monumen-
torum perveterum depicta.”
An Account of Richard of Cirencester, Monk of Westminster, and
of his Works; with his antient Map of Roman Brittain, and the
Itinerary thereof. Read at the Antiquarian Society, March 18th,
1756. By William Stukeley, M. D. Rector of St. George,
queensure wart, London, irº. "...
*** * * : * ~ *, *, *… . . . . . . . . . .” - ex . . . . . . . . . . . ** He



list of Books, &c. 2, 361
The Description of Britain : translated from Richard of Cirencester;
with the original Treatise de Situ Britannia, and a Commentary
on the Itinerary. By Mr. HATcher. Illustrated with Two Maps,
and a Fac-Simile of the MS. of Richard of Cirencester. Octato.
Lond, 1809. 4. . 2.
This valuable work is the compilation of Richard, usually termed
Richard of Cirencester, from the place of his birth ; who was a
monk of St. Peter’s, Westminster, and flourished from the middle
to the latter end of the 14th century. The MS. was discovered
at Copenhagen, by Mr. Bertrain, an English gentleman, in the
year 1747, and was published by him, at the request of Dr.
Stukeley. The author states the Itinerary to have been collected
by himself, “from some remains of º, which had been drawn
up by the authority of a certain Roman general, and left by him
for the use of succeeding ages.” . From circumstances of internal
evidence, Mr. Whitaker (Hist. of Manchester, vol. i. 8vo. p. 85-6)
believes the Itinerary to have been made after the year [38, and
before the year 170. The Itinera of Richard (eighteen in number)
unite to form an entire Itinerary, “more extensive in its design,”
observes Mr. Hatcher, “ and more complete in its execution,
than that which bears the name of Antonine; correcting it when
they differ, and confirming it when they agree; and containing the
names of above sixty posts and towns before unknown.” The
antiquarian public is much indebted to the last-named gentleman for
his excellent edition of this work, with a truly valuable commen-
tary on the Itinerary, from the pen of the Rev. Thomas Leman.





Britannia Romana ; or the Roman Antiquities in Britain; viz. Coins,
Camps, and Publick Roads. By John Pointer, M.A. Chap-
lain of Merton College in Oxford, and Rector of Slapton in
Northampionshire. Octavo. Oxford, 1724.
A Survey of the Roman Antiquities in some of the Midland Coun-
ties of England. By N. SalMon. Octavo. Lond. 1726. 33
Roman Stations in Britain, according to the Imperial ſtinerary, upon
the Watling Street, Ermine Street, Ikening or Via ad Icianos, so
far as any of these Roads lead through the following Counties:
Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Bed-
fordshire, Middlesex. By N. SalMon. Octavo, Lond. 1726.
Britannia Romana; or, The Roman Antiquities of Britain, in Three
Böoks. To which are added a Chronological Table, and Indexes
to the Inscriptions and Sculptures, after the manner of Gruter
and Reinesius; also Geographical Indexes both of the Latin and
English Names of the Roman Places in Britain, and a General
Index to the Work. The whole illustrated with above an hun-
dred Copper plates. By John Horsley, M. A. and F.R.S.
Folio. London, 1732.
An analysis of the above valuable work, and a list of the plates which



it contains, is given in “Savage's Librarian,” vol. i.
The Military Antiquities of the Ronyans in North Britain, and par-
ticularly their ancient System of Castrametation, illustrated from,
Westiges of the Camps of Agricola existing there; hence his
* * x 2 O - March
562 L13T of Books, &c.
March from South into North Britain is in some degree traced :
comprehending also a Treatise, wherein the ancient Geography
of that part of the Island is rectified chiefly by the Lights fur-
nished by Richard of Cirencester: together with a Description
of the Wall of Antoninus Pius, commonly called Grime's Dyke.
To which is added an Appendix, containing detached Pieces;
the whole being accompanied with Maps of the Country, and
Plans of the Camps and Stations. By the late William Roy,
F. R. S. F. S. A. Major-General of his Majesty’s Forces, Deputy
Quarter-master-general, and Colonel of the Thirtieth Regiment
of Foot. Published by the Order and at the Expence of the So-
ciety of Antiquaries, London. Folio, London, 1793.
Dissertatio de Monumentis, quibusdan, Romanis in Boreale Magn.
Britann. parte detectis, $2uarto. Edinb. 1731. -
Glossarium Antiquitatum Britannicarum, sive Syllabus Etymologi-
cus Antiquitatum Veteris Britanniae atque Ibernia, temporibus
Romanorum. Auctore WILLIELMo BAxter, Cornavio, Scholas
Merciariorum Praefecto. Accedunt Viri Cl. D. Edwardi Luidii, Ci-
meliarchae Ashmol. Oxon. de Fluviorum. Montium, Urbium, &c.
in Britannia Nominibus, Adversaria Posthuma. Editio Secunda.
Portrait by G. Wertue. Octavo. Lond. 1733.
ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGEO-NOR MAN HISTORY AND
ANTIQUITIES.
Chronicon Saxonicum, seu Annales Rerum in Anglia praecipue
gestarum, a Christo nato ad Annum usque MCLIV. deducti,
ac jam denum Latinitate doñati, cum Indice Rerum Chronolo-
*gico : accedunt Regulae ad investigandas Nominum Locorum
origines, et Nominum Locorum ac Virorum in Chronico Memo-
ratorum explicatio. Opera et Studio EDMUND1 Gibson, A. B.
e Collegio Reginae. 2uarto. Oxonii. 1692. -
The History of the Anglo-Saxons, from their first appearance above
the Elbe, to the death of Egbert: with a Map of their Ancient
territory. By SHARoS TURNER. In Four Volumes. Octavo.
Lond. 1799–1805. Reprinted and enlarged in Two Volumes
$2uarto in 1807. , , . . .
The Second Book of Whitaker’s History of Manchester is virtually
a Treatise upon'the political division of Britain, and upon the arts,
manners, and general history of this Country at large while under
the sway of the Anglo-Saxons. . . . . .
The Anglo-Saxon Version, from the Historian Osorius. By ALFRED
The Great : together with an English Translation from the
Anglo-Saxon. Octavo. Lond. 1773, w
*
Ecſesiastical History of the Britons and Saxons. By the Rev. John
Da NIEL. Octavo, 1815. . . . §
A Discourse on the Bookland and Folkland of the Saxons. Octavo.
Cambridge, 1775. ; : * * *
A Dissertation on the Folcland and Boelande of the Saxons. Quarto.
# .
A Series
List of books, &e 563
A Series of Dissertations on some elegant and very valuable Anglo-
Saxon Remains : with a Preface, wherein the question, Whether
the Sarons coined any Gold or not, is candidly debated with Mr.
North. By SAMUEL Peg Ge, A. M. 2uarto. Lond. 1756.
Anglo-Norman Antiquities considered, in a Tour through part of
§. by Doctor DucAREL, Illustrated with Twenty-
four Copper-plates. Folio, 1767. ' ' ,
The History of the Royal Abbey of Bec, near Rouen in Normandy,
by Dom. John Bourger, Benedictine Monk of the Congrega-
tion of St. Maur in the said House, and F. S. A. of London.
Translated from the French. Sinall Octaco. Lond. 1779.
Baronia Anglica; an History of Land Honours and Baronies, and
of Tenure in Capite, verified by Records. By Thomas MADox
Esq. Folio. Lond. 1741. . . . . ~ . . . .
The History and Antiquities of the Exchequer of the Kings of Elig-
laud in two periods: to wit, .*.*N. Conquest to the
end of the reign of K. John ; and from the end of the reign of
K. John to the end of the reign of Edward II. taken from Re-
cords. By Thomas MADox. Folio. Lond. 1711. Likewise
in Two Volumes in 2warto, 1769. . . . . .”. . . . . .
Index to Madox’s History of the Exchequer, serving as a Glossary
to illustrate the original of Families and Customs, and the Anti-
quities of England. Folio. Lond. 1741. . . . . .
gº # .
An Essay towards a General History of Feudal Property in Great
Britain, by John DALRYMele. Octavo, Lond, 1757. .
EccLESIASTICAL Topography,

The History of Churches in England; wherein is shewn the Time,
Means, and Mapner of Founding, Building, and Endowing of
Churches, both Cathedral and Rural, with their Furniture and
Appendages. The Second Edition, with Improvements. By
Thomas Staveley, Esq, Author of the English Horseleech.
Octavo. Lond. 1773. . . . . . . . . .
A Survey of the Cathedrals of York, Durham, Carlisle, Chester,
M. i.i. Hereford, Worcester, Gloucester, Bristol, Lin-
coln, Ely, Oxford, Peterborough, Canterbury, Rochester, Lon-
don, Winchester, Chichester, Norwich, Salisbury, Wells, Exeter,
St. David's, Landaff, Bangor, and St. Asaph ; containing an His-
tory of their Foundations, Builders, ancient Monuments and In-
scriptions; Endowments, Alienations, Sales of Lands, Patron-
ages, ; Dates of Consecration, Admission, Preferments, Deaths,
Burials, and Epitaphs of the Bishops, Deans, Precentors, Chancel.
lors, Treasurers, Subdeans, Archdeacons, and Prebendaries, in
every Stall belonging to them ; with an exact Account of all the
Churches and Chapels in each Diocese distinguished under their
proper Archdeaconries and Deanries; to what Saints dedicated,
Xho Patrons of them, and to what Religious Houses appropriated.
The whole extracted from numerous Čollections out of the Re.
... . . .33. . . 2 O 2 . gisters




564 LIST of Books, &e.
gisters of every particular See, old Wills, Records in the Tower
and Rolls Chapel. Illustrated with Thirty-two Plates. In Three
Volumes; including the “Parochiale Anglicanum ; or the Names
of all the Churches and Chapels within the Dioceses of Canter-
bury, Rochester, London, Winchester, Chichester, Norwich, Sa-
lisbury, Wells, Exeter, St. David’s, Landaff, Bangor, and St.
Asaph, distinguished under their proper Archdeaconries and
Deanries; with an Account of most of their Dedications, their
Patrons, and to what Religious Houses the Appropriations be-
longed. 1733.” By Brown E. Willis, Esq. 2uarto. Lond. 1727–
1733, or 1742. … . . .
The Cathedral Antiquities of England; or, An Historichal Archi.
tectural, and Graphical Illustration of the English Cathedral
Churches. By John BRITtoN, F. S. A. Medium and Imperial
2uarto.—Publishing in Parts.
History and Antiquities of the Cathedral Churches of Great Britain.
Illustrated with a Series of highly-finished Engravings, exhibiting
general and particular Views, Ground Plans, and all the Architec-
tural Features and Ornaments in the various Styles of Building
used in our Feclesiastical Edifices. By JAMEs Store R, To be
compieted in Four Volumes. Three of which are already published.
Demy and Royal Octaco. Lond. 1815–17.
“A book of the valuations of all the Ecclesiastical preferments in
England and Wales, &c. Lond. 1680.” Octavo. -
Palor Beneficiorum; or *}º of all Ecclesiastical prefermeats
in º and Wales. To which is added, a callection of choice
presedents relating to Ecclesiastical affairs. Lond. 1695.” 12mo,

The State of the Proceedings of the Corporation of Governors of the
bounty of Queen Anne for the augmentation of the maintenance of
the poor clergy, giving a particular account of their constitution,
benefactions, and augmentations, with directions to such as desire
to become benefactors to so pious and charitable a work. The
Second Edition, with a continuation to Christiaas, 1720. Lond.
1721. Octavo. * *
The Clergyman’s Intelligencer; or, A compleat alphabetical List
of all the Patrons in England and Wales, with the bignities,
Livings, and Benefices in their Gift, and their Valuation annexed.
To which is added, an alphabetical Index of all the Benefices, and
the pages in which they are to be found. Octavo. Lond, 1745.
Thesaurus Rerum Ecclesiasticarum ; being an Account of the Valu-
ations of all the Ecclesiastical Benefices in England and Wales,
as they now, stand charged with, or lately were discharged from,
the Payment of First Fruits and Tenths. To which are added,
the Names of the Patrons and the Dedications of the Churches;
with an Account of Procurations and Synodals, extracted from
the Records of Henry VIII., &c. By John. Eeros, late Re-
ceiver:General of the Tenths of the Clergy. The Third Edition :
wherein the Appropriations, Dedications, and Patronages of the
Churches have been revised, corrected, and placed in regular
Qrder, under their respective Archdeaconries; with numerous
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * - Additions.

11st of Books, &c. 565
Additions, by Browne Willis, LL.D. To which is added
A complete Alphabetical Index. 2uarto. Lond. 1763. Origi-
nally printed in octavo in 1718, under the Title of “Liber Valorum
et Decimarum.” z & &
iber Regis; vel Thesaurus Rerum Ecclesiasticarum . By Joh N
Bacon, Esq. Receiver of the First Fruits. With an Appendix ;
containing proper Directions and Precedents relating to Presen-
'tations, Institutions, Inductions, Dispensations, &c. and a com-
plete alphabetical Index. 2uarto. Lond. 1786.
hesaurus Ecclesiasticus: An improved Edition of the “Liber Palo-
rum;” containing an Account of the Valuation of all the Livings
in England and Wales, their Charge in the King's Book, respective
Patrons, &c. With an Appendix. By the Rev. John Lloyd,
A. B. late of Jesus College, Oxford. Octavo, Lond. 1788.
The Arms of all the Archbishopricks, Bishopricks, and Deaneries,
in England and Wales; ...”in the Paternal Coat Armour
of each respective Prelate and Dean, alphabetically digested; by
WILLIAM Jackson.” Two Sheets. . -
Thirty-two Views of all the Cathedral Churches in England and
Wales, with the Collegiate Churches; also a short Account of
each and Arms on. Eight Plates. Printed for R. SAYER. Others
by J. HARRIs. - -
A Sylloge of the Remaining Authentic Inscriptions relative to the
Erection of our English Churches; embellished with a number of
Copper-plates, exhibiting Fac-Similies of some of the most mate-
rial. By the Rev. SAMUEL Peg GE, A.M. London, 1787.
Quarto. In Nichols's Bibliotheca Topog. Britannica.
- MONASTICAL HISTORY.
Monasticon Anglicanum, sive Pandectae Coenobiorum Benedictino-
rum, Cluniacensium, Cisterciensium, Carthusianorum, a Primor-
diis ad eorum usque Dissolutionem, ex MSS. Cod. ad Monasteria
olim pertinantibus: Archivis Turrium Londinensis, Eboracensis;
curiarum Scaccarii, augmentationum ; Bibliothecis Bodleianā:
Hattoniana, aliisque digesti per Roger UM Dodsworth, Eborac.
GULIELMUM DUG DALE, Warwic. Tribus Voluminis. Folio.
Lond. 1655, 1661, 1673. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.


The first Volume was reprinted with large Additions in 1682.
Monasticon Anglicanum; or, The History of the ancient Abbieš
and other Monasteries, Hospitals, Cathedrals and Collegiate
Churches, in England and Wales, with divers French, Irish, and
Scotch Monasteries formerly relating to England. Collected, and
published in Latin º Sir Willi AM DUG Dale, Knt. late Garter
King of Arms. In Three Volumes, and now epitomized in Eng-
lish, Page by Page, With Sculptures of the several Religious
Habits. (Abridged by John Wright, Author of the History of
the County of Rutland.) Folio. Lond. 1693,
Monasticon *ś or, The History of the ancient Abbies,
Monasteries, Hospitals, Cathedral and Collegiate Churches, with
their Dependencies, in England and Wales: also of all such
. . . . . 2 O 3 Scotch




866 sT of Books, &c. tº
Scotch, Irish, and French Monasteries as did in any manner re-
late to those in England; containing a full Collection of all that
is necessary to be known concerning the Abbey Lands and their
Revenues; with a particular Account of their Foundations,
Grants, and Donations, collected from original MSS., the Re-
cords in the Tower of London, at York, and in the Court of
Exchequer and Augmentation Office; as also the famous Libra-
ries of Bodley, King's College, Camb: the Benedictine College
at Doway, Arundel, Cotton, Selden, Hatton, &c. Illustrated
with the original Cuts of the Cathedral and Collegiate Churches,
and the Habits of the Religious and Military Orders. First pub-
lished in Latin by Sir William DUGDAle, Knt. late Garter
Principal King at Arms. To which are now added exact Cata-
logues of the Bishops of the several Dioceses to the Year 1717.
The whole corrected and supplied with many useful Additions by
an eminent Hand. Folio. Lond. 1718.
The History of the antient Abbeys, Monasteries, Hospitals, Cathe.
ºral and Collegiate Churches, being Two additional Volumes to
Sir William Dugdale’s Monasticon Anglicanum; containing the
Original and first Establishment of all the Religious Orders that
ever were in Great Britain; being those of the Benedictines, Clu-
niacks, Cistercians, Regular Canons of St. Augustin, Carthu-
sians, Gilbertins, Trinitarians, Premonstratenses, and Canons of
the Holy Sepulchre, treated of in the Monasticon Anglicanum;
as also of the Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, Augustinian
Friers, Regular Canons of Arroasia, Brigittins, Monks of Fonte-
vraud, of Savigni, and of Tiron, Crouched Friers, Friers of Pe-
nance, or of the Sack, and º not spoken of by Sir
William Dugdale and Mr. Dodsworth. The Foundations of their
several Monasteries, &c. By John Stevens, Gent. In Two
Volumes. Folio. Lond, 1722-1723. .
Dugdale's Monasticon Anglicanum : A new Edition of the whole
Work, including Stevens's Continuation, is now publishing in
Folio, with very considerable Additions and Improvements from
the Library, of the Society of Antiquaries, the Records in the
Tower, the Augmentation Office, and various inedited MSS. in
the British and Ashmolean Museums, and other authentic Sources.

By John CALEY, Esq. Keeper of the Records in the Augmenta-
tion Office; Henry Ellis. Esq. Keeper of the MSS. in the Bri-
tish Museum ; and the Rev. BULKEley BANDINEl, M. A. Keeper
of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. . . . . .
The first Catalogue of our Religious Houses was drawn up by
Burton, or Leland, published in Speed's History, and translated
into Latin at the end of Harpsfield's Church History.
Monastichon Britanicum ; or, a Historicall Narration of the first
Founding and flourishing State of the antient Monasteries, . Re-
ligious Rules and Orders of Great Brittaine, in the Tymes of the
Brittaines and primitive Church of the Saxons, Collected out
of most authentick Authors, Lieger Books, and Manuscripts. By
that learned Antiquary R. B. (Richare BRoughton.) "Octavo.
. Notif: a
List of books, &c. 567
Notitia Monastica : or, An Account of all the Abbies, Priories, and
Houses of Friers, formerly in England and Wales; and also of
all the Colleges and Hospitals founded before A.D., M.D.s.l.. . By
the Right Rev. Dr. Thomas Tanner, late Lord Bishop of St.
Asaph. Published A.D. Moccxliv, by John Tanner, M.A. Vicar
of Lowestoft in Suffolk, and Precentor of the Cathedral Church
of St. Asaph: and now reprinted with many Additions by JAMEs
NASMITH, M.A. Rector of Snalewell in Cambridgeshire, and
Chaplain to the Rt. Hon. John Earl of Buckinghamshire, , Por-
trait by G. Vertue. Folio. Camb. 1787. Originally printed in one
voluine octavo in 1695. * - 4.
A Summary of all, the Religious Houses in England and Wales, with
their Titles and Valuations at the time of their Dissolution, and a
Calculation of what they might be worth at this Day; together
with an Appendix concerning the several Religious Orders that
prevailed in this Kingdom. Octavo. Lond. 1717.
An History of the Mitred Parliamentary Abbies and Conventual
Cathedral Churches: shewing the Times of their respective Foun-
dations, and what Alterations they have undergone; with some
Descriptions of the Monuments, and Dimensions of their Build-
ings; together with a Catalogue of their Abbots, Priors, &c.
By BRowNE WIllis, Esq. In Two Volumes Octavo. Lond.
1718, 1719. . . . . . . . . .
Collectanea Anglo Minoritica : or, a Collection of the Antiquities
of the English Franciscans, or Friers Minors. commonly call’d
Gray Friers. In Two Parts. With an Appendix concerning the
English Nuns of the Order of St. Clare. By A. PARKINson.
2uarto. Lond. 1726.
British Monachism: or, Manners and Customs of the Monks and
Nuns of England. To which are added, I. Peregrinatorium Re-
ligiosum ; or Manners and Customs of antient Pilgrims. II. Con-
suetudinal of Anchorets and Hermits. l II. Account of the Con-
tinentes, or Women who had made Vows of Chastity. IV. Four
Select Poems, in various stiles. By Thomas Dudley Fosbrooke,
M.A. F.S.A., With Plates. 2uarto. Lond, 1817, Originally
published in Two Volumes, octavo, in 1802. ' ' " .
Some Account of the Alien Priories, and of such Lands as they are
known to have possessed in England and Wales. Collected from
the MSS. of John Warburton, Esq. and Dr. Ducarel. A new
Edition, in Two Volumes. Illustrated with Plates. Small oc-
tavo, Lond. 1786. < .
Memoirs of the Antiquities of Great Britain; with an Account of
Monasteries, Monks, &c. Plates. Octago. Lond, 1723.
SEPULCHRAL HISTORY. . . .
Ancient Fvnerall Monvments within the Vnited Monarchic of Great
{-, Brittaine, Ireland, and the Islands' adjacent, with the dissolued
Monasteries therein contained : their Founders, and what eminent
Persons have beene in the same interred. Composed by the


º 3,
** . . . .
son list of sooks, &c.
London, 1631. Reprinted in 2uarto in 1767. & x
*** Although we are indebted to Weever for the preservation
of numerous ancient epitaphs of considerable interest, he is
proved by many which remain at present, to have often copied
very inaccurately. Many epitaphs given by him seem to
have existed only in the records of religious houses. It was
common for monks to pen such spontaneous effusions in ho-
- nour of benefactors of their house.
Monumenta Anglicana; being Inscriptions on the Monuments of
several eminent Persons deceased in or since the Year 1650, to the
End of the Year 1718; deduced into a Series of Time by way of
Annals. By John Le Neve, Gent. Five Volumes. Octavo.
Loud. 1717, 1718, and 1719.
Sepulchral Memorials in Great Britain applied to illustrate the His-
tory of Families, Manners, Habits, and Arts at the different Periods
from the Norman Conquest to the Seventeenth Century; with in-
troductory. Observations. (By Richard Gough, Esq., F.S.A.)
Three Volumes usually bound in Five. Plates. Folio. Lond.
Studie and Trauels of John Weever, with an Index. Foliº.
1786–1796. . -
Menia Britannica: or, A Sepulchral History of Great Britain, from
the earliest Period to its general Conversion to Christianity. In-
cluding a complete Series of the British, Roman, and Saxon Se-
pulchral Rites and Ceremonies, with the Contents of several Hun-
dred Burial Places opened under a careful Inspection of the Author;
tending to illustrate the early Part of, and to fix on a more unques-
tionable Criterion for the Study of Antiquity. To which are added
Observations on the Celtic, British, Röman, and Danish Barrows
discovered in Great Britain. By the Rev. JAMEs Douglas, F.A.S.
Plates. Folio. Lond. 1793.
Illustration of the Tumuli or ancient Barrows; exhibiting the Princi.
es which determined the Magnitude and Position of each, and
their systematic Connection with other Vestiges ofº Antiquity.
By Thomas STackhouse. With a folded Sketch of Barrows.
Octavo. Lond, fºot. . . . . . . . . . . .
ples which determined the M.
Monumental Effigies of Great Britain; consisting of Etchings from
Figures executed by the Sculptor, and introduced into our Cathe.
drals and Churches as Memorials of the Dead, from the Norman
§º to the Reign of K. Henry the Ei hth. Drawn and etched
by C. A. Stothard, Jun. 2uarto. Now in course of publica-
tion, 1817. . . . . . . . . .
ARCHITECTURAL ANTIquities, GRAphic
ILLUSTRATIONS, ETC. --
observations on English Architecture, Military, Ecclesiastical , and
£ivil, compared with similar Buildings on the Continent; includ;
'ing a critical Itinerary of Oxford and Cambridge; also Historical



irst of hooks, &c. 569
Notices of Stained Glass, Ornamental Gardening, &c. with Chro-
hological Tables, and Dimensions of Cathedrals and Conventual
Churches. By the Rev. James Dallaway, M.B.F.S.A., “Royal
Octavo. -Lond. 1806. . . . . . . . . .
An History of the Origin and Establishment of Gothic Architecture;
comprehending also an Account from his own Writings of Caesar
Qaesarianus, the first professed Commentator on Vitruvius, and of
his Translation of that Author; an Investigation of the Principles
and Proportion of that Style of Architecture called the Gothic;
and an Inquiry into the Mode of Painting upon and Staining Glass,
as practised in the Ecclesiastical Structures of the Middle Ages.
By John Sid Ney Hawkins, F.A.S. Illustrated with Eleven
Plates. Royal Octavo. Lond. 1813. º
An Essay on the Origin, History, and Principles of Gothic Archi-
tecture. By Sir JAMEs Hall, Bart, with Sixty Plates of select
Examples. Imperial 2uario. Lond, 1813. . . . .
Essays on Gothic Architecture. By the Rev. T. WAR.To N, Rev.
J. BENTHAM, Capt. GRose, and Rev. J. MILNER. Iſlustrated
with Twelve Plates of Ornaments, &c. selected from Ancient
Buildings; calculated to exhibit the various Styles of different
Periods. The Third Edition; with a List of the Cathedrals of
England and their Dimensions. Octavo. Lond. 1808.
Plans, Elevations, Sections and Views of the Church of Batalha,
in the Province of Estremadura in Portugal, with the History and
Description by Fr. Luis De Sousa, with Remarks. To which is
prefixed an Introductory Discourse on the Principles of Gothic
Architecture, % James Murphy, Architect. 'ſº with
Twenty-seven Plates. Folio. Lond, 1795.
Specimens of Gothic Architecture, consisting of Doors, Windows,
Buttresses, Pinnacles, &c. with the Measurements, selected from
Ancient Buildings at Oxford and other places. , Drawn and etched
on Sixty-one Plates. By F. Mackenzie and A. Pugin, 2Marta.
Specimens of Gothic Ornaments selected from the Parish Church of
Lavenham in Suffolk; on Forty Plates. Quarto. Lond, 1796.
Two Letters to a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, on the Sub-
ject of Gothic Architecture. By the Rev. J. Haggirr. Royal
An Historical Survey of the Ecclesiastical Antiquities of France,
with a view to illustrate the Rise and Progress of Gothic Architec-
ture in Europe. By the late Rev. G. D. Whittington of Cam-
bridge. With a Frontispiece of the Façade of the Cathedral Church
at Rheimes. Royal Octavo, Lond 1811. , . 3.
Repton’s Fragments on the º and Practice of Landscape Gar-
dening contains Remarks on “Gothic Architecture” …,
A Treatise on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England during
Middle Ages, with Fen illustrative Plates. By th %




570 List of books, &c.
The Rev. G. Millers in his Description of Ely Cathedral has given
“A Sketch of the principal Characteristics of English Church Ar-
chitecture, in the several ages into which it is usually divided;
with a few Introductory Remarks to the whole; and subjøined
to each Part, an Enumeration of the Specimens now to be seen at
Ely, of the Work of that Age to which it relates.”
Appended to Sir Richard Colt Hoare's translation of Giraldus Cam-
brensis is a Dissertation on the Progress of the Architecture of
Britain, with illustrative Plates. *
Observations on the Varieties of Architecture, used in the Structure
of Parish Churches: To which is added a Description of the Cha-
racteristics of the Saxon, Norman, and pointed Arch Styles; List
of Churches now remaining, built by the Saxons; an Account of
Bishops and others who were Architects; and the contemporary
Architecture of the various Periods. By JAMEs SAVAGE. Octavo,
77 pages, Lond. 1812. -
Munimenta Antiqua; or, Observations on ancient Castles; including
Remarks on the whole Progress of Architecture, Ecclesiastical as
well as Military, in Great Britain ; and on the corresponding
Changes in Manners, Laws, and Customs; tending both to illus-
trate Modern History, and to elucidate many interesting Passages
in various ancient Classic Authors. By Edward KING, Esq.
F.R.S. and A.S. In Four Volumes. Folio. Lond. 1799, 180i,
1804, and 1805. - > r # * ...
The Ancient Architecture of England.—The Orders of Architecture
during the British, Roman, Saxon, and Norman Æras. By Joh N.
CARTER, F.A. S. Architect. Folio. , Lond. 1795-1816–Twenty-
eight Numbers, forming the First Volume, and Seven Numbers of
the Second, are the only portions of the work published.
The Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain represented and illus-
, trated in a Series of Views, Elevations, Plans, Sections, and De-
tails of various ancient English Edifices; with Historical and De-
scriptive Accounts of each. º Joh N BRIt'ro N, F.S.A. In Four
Volumes. Medium quarto. Lond. 1807–1814. . .
. A List of the principal Castles and Monasteries in Great Britain. By
James Moore, Esq. F.A.S. Octavo. Loud. 1798. . . .
The Antiquities of England and Wales. By FRANcis GRose, Esq.
F.A.S. with Supplement. In Six Volumes. Imperial quarto.
Lond. 1773–1777. . z
Beauties of Antiquity; or Remnants of Feudal Splendour and Monas-
tic Times. By J. Hassell. Engraved in Aquatinta. In Two
Parts. Royal octavo. Lond. 1807.

Monastic and Baronial Remains, with other interesting Fragments of
Antiquity, in England, Wales, and Scotland. By G. J. PARKYNs,
Esq. In Twº Volumes. Plates. Royal octavo. Lond. 1816.



English Connoisseur; containing an Account of whatever is curious
in Painting, Sculpture, &c. in the Palaces and Seats of the Nobility.
&
. In Two Volumes. Duodecimo, Lond. 1766. . .
# , º,
&
S peci mens
List of books, &c. S. 571

Specimens of the ancient Sculpture and Painting now remaining in
this Kingdom, from the earliest Period to the Reign of Henry VIII.
consisting of Statues, Basso-relievos, Brasses, &c. Paintings on Glass
and on Walls, &c. A Description of each Subject, some of which
by Gentlemen of literary Abilities, and well versed in the Antiqui-
ties of this Kingdom, whose Names are prefixed to their Essays.
This Work is designed to shew the Rise and Progress of Sculpture
and Painting in England: to explain obscure and doubtful Parts of
History, and preserve the Portraits of great and eminent Person-
ages. The Drawings made from the original Subjects, and en-
graved by Joh N CARTER. In Two Volumes. Folio. Lond.
1780--1787. . . . . .
Engravings of the principal Mosaic Pavements, which have been dis-
covered in the course of the last and present Centuries, in various
Parts of Great Britain; also Engravings of several Subjects in Stained
Glass, in the Windows of the Cathedrals of York, Lincoln, &c.
Each impression is accurately coloured after the original Subject of
the respective Plates, by William Fowler of Winterton, in the
County of Lincoln. Folio. * ... . .3 .
The Antiquaries Museum; illustrating the ancient Architecture,
Painting, and Sculpture of Great Britain, from the Time of the
Saxons to the Introduction of the Grecian and Roman Architecture
by Inigo Jones, in the Reign of King James I. By Jacob SchNEB-
BELIE, Draughtsman to the Society of Antiquaries of London.
&uarto. Lond. 1791. ... 3 s . . ; ; º
Telics of Antiquity: or Remains of Ancient Sculpture in Great Bri-
tain; with Descriptive Sketches. By J. ProuT. 2uarto and Im-
perial quarto. Lond. 1812. º ". . .
The Antiquarian and Topographical Cabinet; containing Five hun-
dred Views of the nost interesting Objects of Curiosity in Great
Britain, accompanied with Letter-press Descriptions. In Ten
Volumes. Drawn and Engraved by J. STORER and J. GREIG.
Foolscap and demy octavo. Lond. 1806-1812. x
Ancient Reliques; or, Delineations of Monastic, Castellated, and
Domestic Architecture, and other interesting Subjects; with His-
torical and Descriptive Sketches. Drawn and engraved by JAMEs
Storer and J. GREIG. In Two Volumes. Foolscap and demy
octavo. Lond. 1812.
The Antiquarian Itinerary; comprising Specimens of Architecture,
Monastic, Castellated, and Domestic; with other Vestiges of An-
tiquity in Great Britain; accompanied by Descriptions. Foolscap
octavo. 1817.-Now in course of publication in Monthly Num-
bers, of which there are copies in Demy octavo.
Border Antiquities of England and Scotland; comprising Specimens
of Architecture and Sculpture, and other Vestiges of former Ages;
accompanied by Descriptions, together with Illustrations, of re-
tº markable Incidents in Border History and Tradition. By WALTER
Scott, Esq. Illustrated by nearly One hundred Engravings of
the most interesting. Subjects of Antiquity still remaining on the
Bordèrs. In Two Volumes. Quarto. Lond. 1817. -
º 2. Buck’s

572 LIST OF BOOKS, &c.
Buck's Antiquities; or Venerable Remains of above 400 Castles,
Monasteries, Palaces, &c. &c. in England and Wales, with near
100 Views of Cities and chief Towns. By Messrs. SAMUEL and
NATH ANIEL Bock, who were employed upwards of Thirty-two
Years in the Undertaking. In Three Volumes. Folio. Lond.
1774. Portraits in Mezzotinto of the two Brothers are prefixed.
*** Originally printed in Sixthin Volumes.
England Delineated: being One hundred and fifty-two Views of an-
cient Buildings, Ruins, Cities, &c. with Letter-press Descriptions.
ln Two Volumes. Royal octavo. 1804. .
Antiquities of Great Britain, illustrated in Views of Monasteries, Cas-
tles, and Churches now existing. Engraved by WILLIAM BYRNE
from Drawings made by Thomas Hearne. In Two Volumes.
Oblong folio. Lond. 1786–1807.
Collection of One hundred and twenty Views of ancient Buildings in
England, drawn and etched by J. CARTER. In Six Volumes.
Duodecime. Lond, 1786. w
Vitruvius Britannicus: or, The British Architect; containing the
Plans, Elevations, and Sections of the regular Buildings, both
public and private, in Great Britain, with Variety of new De-
signs. With three hundred Plates, engraven by the best Hands,
and drawn either from the Buildings themselves, or the original De-
signs of the Architects. By Cole N CAMPBELL, John Woolfe,
and JAMEs GANDon. In Five Volumes. Folio. Lond. 1715,
1717, 1725, 1767, and 1771. ... 3 .
The New Vitruvius Britannicus; consisting of Plans and Elevations
of Modern Buildings, public and private, erected in Great Britain
by the most celebrated Architects, engraven on LXXII Plates from
original Drawings, by GeoRGE Richardson, Architect. Folio.
Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Noblemen and Gentlemen's Houses;
also of Stabling, Bridges, public and private, Temples and other
Garden Buildings, executed in the Counties of Derby, Durham,
Lincoln, Middlesex, Northumberland, Nottingham, York, Essex,
Wilts, Hertford, Suffolk, Salop, and Surrey. By JAMEs PAINE,
Architect. In Two Volumes, with 176 Plates. Folio. Lond.
1783.
Plans, Elevations, and Sections of º executed in the Coun-
ties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Yorkshire, Wiltshire, Warwickshire,
Staffordshire, Somersetshire, &c. by John SoANE, Architect, on

47 Plates. Folio, Lond, 1789. . . . . . . . * ... 2
Plans and Views of Buildings executed in England and Scotland, in
the Castellated and other Styles. By R. LUGAR, Architect. En-
graved in Aquatinta on Thirty-two Plates. Royal quarto. Lond.
Britannia Illustrata ; or Views of several of the Queen's Palaces, as
also of the principal Seats of the Nobility and Gentry, drawn by .
L. KNyff, and engraved by J. Kip, Bapeslabe, &c,. Four
Volumes. Folio. Lond. 1709–1736. th

List of Books, &c. 573
*.* The two first Volumes were published with a French Title,
by Joseph Smith, near Exeter Change, and republished in
The Virtuosis Museum; containing Select Views in England, Scot-
land, and Ireland. Drawn by P. Sandby, Esq. R.A. Oblong
quarto. Lond. 1778.—Afterwards republished under the follow-
ing Title: -
A Collection of One Hundred and Fifty Select Views in England,
Scotland, and Ireland. Drawn by P, SANDBY, Esq. R.A. In
Two Volumes. Oblong quarto. 1781. . - 3.
The Seats of the Nobility and Gentry, in a Colllection of the most
interesting and picturesque Views, engraved 3. W. Watts, from
rawings by the most eminent Artists; with Descriptions of each
View. Oblong quarto. Lond. 1779–1786.
Select Views in Great Britain, engraved by S. MIDDIMAN, from
Pictures and Drawings ". most eminent Artists; with Descrip-
tions. Oblong quarto. Lond. 1784–1813.
Picturesque Views and Antiquities of Great Britain, engraved by S.
MIDDIMAN. 2uarto. . - - -
Select Views of the principal Seats of the Nº. Gentry in
England and Wales from original Pictures and Drawings. En-
graved by William Angus, Oblong quarto. Lond. 1787.
Picturesque Views of the principal Seats of the Nobility and Gentry
in England and Wales, with their Descriptions. Oblong quarto.
Lond. 1787-8. . . . . .
Delices de la Grande Bretagne: being Engravings of English Land-
scapes after the %. Painters. By WILLIAM BIRch,
Enamel Painter, Hampstead Heath. Oblong quarto, Lond. 1791,
New Print Magazine; being Views of Gentlemen's Seats in England
The Copper-plate Magazine: ... ººgº. ;
comprising all the most interesting Views in England, Scotland,
Ireland, and Wales. Engraved by J. Walker, &c. In Five
Volumes. Oblong quarto, Lond.
The Itinerant: A Select Collection of interesting and picturesque
Views in Great Britain and Ireland. Folio. Lond. 1799,
Picturesque Views of Churches and other Buildings, from original
Drawings by J. C. Barrow, F.S.A., Engraved in Aquatinta by
G. J. Parkins. Folio. Lond. Not completed.
A Descriptive and Historical Account of various Palaces and Public
Buildings, English and Foreign; with Biographical Notices of
their Founders or Builders, and other eminent Persons. With
Plates. By James Norris Brewer. 2uarto. Lond. 1810.
Picturesque Scenery of Great Britain, by P. J. De Loutheanourg,
in Colours. Large folio. Lond, 1801. . . . . .
The Romantic .*.* Scenery of
Drywings made expressly for this Undertaking by P. J. DE
* LouthERBourg,






sy4 List of Books, &c.
. Loutherbourg, Esq. R.A. with Historical and Descriptive Ac-
counts of the several Places, of which Views are given, engraved
by. William Pickett, and coloured by John Clack. Large
- COINs.
Essay on the Coins of Cunobelin. By Dr. Samuel Pegge. 2uarto.
Lond. 1766. . ;
Dissertation upon the Tascia, or Legend on the Coins of Cunobelin.
and others by Jo HN PETTING AL, D.D. 2uarto. 1763. In the
Archaeologia. .
Twenty-three Plates of British Coins. By William Stukeley, M.D.
and published by FleMiN G. 2uarto. -
The Medallic History of Marcus Aurelius Valerius Carausius, Em-
W. in Britain. By William STUKEley, M.D. In Two
olumes. 2uarto. Lond. 1757. 3. . ..
Dissertation on the Coins of the Emperor Carausius. By Patrick
Ken NEDY. 2uarto. Lond. 1756. ~ : -
Dissertation upon Oriuna, said to be Empress or Queen of England,
the su jº Wife of Carausius, Monarch and Emperor of Britain,
who reigned in the Time of Diocletian the great persecutor of Chris-
tians. j with the Coin of Oriuna, and several others most .
remarkable of Carausius, hitherto not made public. By PATRick
Ken Neuv. 2uarto. 1751. -
The Connexion of the Roman, Saxon, and English Coins, deduced
from Observations on the Saxon Weights and Money. By WIL-
LIAM CLARKE, M.A. Rector of Buxted, and Residentiary of Chi-
chester. 2uarto. Lond. 1767. :
A Catalogue of the Coins of Canute, King of Denmark and England:
with Specimens. 2uarto. Lond. 1777.
Numismata Anglo-Saxoncia et Anglo-Danica breviter Illustrata ab
ANDREA. Fountaine, Esq., Aur. Plates. Folio. Oxon. 1705.
In the Third part of Hickes's Thesaurus.
An Historical Account of English Money, from the Conquest to the
present Times; including those of Scotland, from the Union of the
two Kingdoms in King James I. The Second Edition, by Stephen
MARTIN LEAKE, Esq., Clarenceux King of Arms. Octavo. Lond,
1745. Reprinted in 1793. . . . . .
Remarks on the Coinage of England, from the Earliest to the pre-
sent Times. To which is added an Appendix, containing Obser-
vations upon the Ancient Roman Coinage, and a Description of .
some Medals and Coins found near Nottingham. By WALTER

r 3. .
MERRey. Octavo. Nottingham, 1794,
Annals of the Coinage of Britain and its dependencies, from the
earliest º of Authentic History, to the end of the Fiftieth
ear of the Reign of his present Majesty King George III. By the
Rev. Rogers Ruding, B.D. Vicar of Maldon in Surrey, F.S.A.
&c. In Four Volumes, -2uarto, Lond, 1817. . . . . . . .
. . . . - Archbishop
List of books, &c. 575
Archbishop $harpe's observations on the Coinage of England: with
his Letter to Mr. Thoresby, 1698–99. Plate. 2uarto. Lond.
1785. In the Sixth Volume of the Bibliotheca Topog. Britannica.
Twelve Plates of English Silver Coins from the Norman Conquest to
Henry the Eighth inclusive, with a calculation of their respective
values and short observations upon each plate. By Robert
Withy and John Ryall. 2uarto. Lond. 1756. . . . . §
Tables of English Silver and Gold Coins; first published by Martin
Folkes, Esq. and now reprinted with Plates and Explanations by
• the Society of Antiquaries. 2uarto, Lond. 1763. .
Snelling's (Thomas) Works: viz. & . #
1. View of the Gold Coin and Coinage of England from Henry the
Third to the present Time. Plates. 2warto. 1763.
3. View of the Silver Coin and Coinage of England, from the Nor-
man Conquest to the present Time. Plates. 2uarto, 1762.
3. View of the Copper Coin and Coinage of England, including the
Leaden, Tin, and Laton Tokens made by Tradesmen during the
Reigns of Elizabeth and James I, the Farthing Tokens of James I.
and Charles I. those of Towns and Corporations under the Com-
monwealth and Charles II. and the Tin Farthings and Halfpence of
Charles II. James II. and Willam and Mary. Plates. 2uarto,
1766. . . . . . .
4. View of the Origin, Nature, and Use of Jettons or Counters; es-
pecially those commonly known by the name of Black Money and
Abbey Pieces. Plates. 2uarto, 1769.
5. View of the Silver Coin and §§§ Scotland, from Alexander
the First to the Union of the Two Kingdoms. Plates, Quarto.
1774.
6. Miscellaneous Views of the Coins struck by English Princes in
France, Counterfeit Sterlings, Coins struck by the East India Com-
pany, those in the West India Colonies, and in the Isle of Man;
also of Pattern Pieces for Gold and Silver Coins, and Gold Nobles
struck Abroad in ſmitation of English, Plates. The above pieces
are usually bound in One Volume. -2uarto. 1769.
Snelling's Seventy-two Plates of Gold and Silver Coin, with their
Weight, Fineness, and Value. Royal octavo.
An Assemblage of Coins fabricated by Authority of the Archbishops
of Canterbury. By SAMuel Pecce, M.A. 2uarto. 1772.
Two Dissertations upon the Mint, and Coins of Durham. By the
Rev. MARK Nobie. Plates. 2uarto. Birm, 1780.
A Series of above Two Hundred Anglo-Gallic, or Norman and Aqui-
tain Coins of the Ancient Kings of England; exhibited in sixteen
Copper plates, and illustrated in Twelve Letters, addressed to the
Society of Antiquaries of London and several of its Members. By -
ANDRew, Coltge DucARel, L.L.D. and F.S.A. To which is
added, a Map of the Ancient Dominions of the Kings of E
in France, with some adjacent Countries. Portrait, 2n
tº . . . . . . … ... . A Treatise
tº






576. List or sooks, &c.
A Treatise on the Coins of the Realm; in a Letter to the King. By
Charles Earl of Liverpool. 2uarto. Oxford, 1805.
An Essay on Medals: or an Introduction to the knowledge of Ancient
and Modern Coins and Medals: especially those of Greece, Rome,
and Britain. By John PINKERTox. In Two Volumes. Octavo.
An Éxplanation of Dassier's Medals of the Sovereigns of Englands
with six plates of the Medals. By CHARLEs PYE of Birmingham.
Oblong 2uarto. 1797.
The Medallic History of England to the Revolution. With Forty
Plates. 2uarto. Lond. 1790. - -
The Metallick History of the Reigns of King William III, and
Queen Mary, Queen Anne, and King George H. being a Series
of near Four Hundred Medals, with the explication of the Devises,
Inscriptions, and Legends, on which are represented the Alliances, .
Battles, Sieges, Treaties of Peace, Expeditions, and all other re-
markable Events during the above mentioned Reigns. Folio.
º Lond. 1747. Usually bound with Rapin’s History islaº
Medals, Coins, and Great Seals (of England,) Impression from the
elaborate Works of Thomas Simon, chief Engraver of the Mint,
to King Charles I. to the Commonwealth, the Lord Protector
Cromwell, and in the Reign of King Charles II. to 1665. By
George Vertue. 2uarto. Lond. iT53, -
A Series of English Medals, engraved and published by Francis -
PERRY. 2uarto. Lond, 1762,
Provincial Copper Coins or Tokens issued between the years 1787 and
1796, engraved by Charles Pye of Birmingham from the Originals
in his own possession. Roya Octavo and Quarto. -- Birm. 1795.
The Virtuoso's Companion and (Provincial) Coin Collectors Guide,
by M. Denton. In Eight Volumes. Duodecimo. Lond. 1795–
An Arrangement of Provincial Coins, Tokens, and Medalets, issued.
in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Čolº, within the last Twenty
years, from the Farthing to the Penny size. By James Conper,
(of Ipswich.) Octavo. Ipswich, 1798. 3' . . .
Provincial Coins and Tokens issued from the year 1787 to the year
1801. Engraved by Charles Pye, Birmingham. Quarte. Bir-
ingham, 1801.
The Climate of Great Britain: or, Remarks on the Change it has
undergone, *. within the last Fifty Years. By John
Williams, Esq. Octavo. Lond. 1806.
Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum, continens Vegetabilia, Ani-,
malia et Fossilia, in hac Insula reperta inchoatus. Authore CHRIS"
Tophoro MERRett, M.D. Diodecimo. Lond. 1667.
The Naumºnd Topºlia, Huws ºf Erºſ ºf
º scription
#





List of Books, &c. & 577
scription of each particular County, in regard to the curious Pro-
ductions of Nature and Art. Illustrated *}. Map of each County,
and Sculptures of Natural Curiosities. By BENJAMIN MARTIN.
• In Two Volumes. Octavo. Lond. 1759, 1763.
Synopsis of the Natural History of Great Britain and Ireland; con-
taining a systematic Arrangement and concise Description of all the
Animals, Vegetables, and Fossils which have hitherto been dis-
covered in these Kingdoms. By John BerkenhouT, M.D. In
Two Volumes. Small octavo. Dond, 1789.
ENGLISH BOTANY.
Historical and Biographical Sketches of the Fº of Botany in
England. By Rich ARD, Pulteney, M.D.F.R.S. In Two
Volumes. Octavo, Lond. 1790. .
Phytologia Britannica, Natalesexhibens indigenarum Stirpium sponte
ºntium. Auctore Gulielmo Howe. Duodecimo. Lond,
The Garden of Eden, or an Accurate Description of all Flowers and ,
Fruits now growing in England; with particular Rules how to ad-
vance their Nature and Growth, as well in Seeds or Herbs, as the
secret ordering of Trees and Plants. In Two Parts. By that
Learned and great Observer Sir Hugh Plat, Knt., Lond. 1653.
12mo, 1655. the 5th 1659, the 6th 1675. 12mo, . . . . .
An Index of Plants that are in the “Phytologia Britannica” is an-
nexed to R. Lovel’s “Enchiridion Britannicum.” Duodecimo.
Oxon. 1659, 1665. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The British Physician: or, The Nature and Virtues of English Plants,
exactly describing such Plants as grow naturally in the Land, with
their several Names in Greek, Latin, or English. By lobe RT
Turner, Duodecimo, Lond, 1664.
Catalogus Plantarum Angie, et Insularum adjacentium; tum indi-
#. tum in Agris passim cultas complectens. Auctore Johanna
Ajö... Editio Secunda. With Two Plates. Octavo. Lond.
Fasciculus Stirpium Britannicarum, post editum. Plantarum Angliae
Catalogum observatarum. Auctore Johan. RAjo. Octavo. Lond.
Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum, in qua tum Nota, Gene-
rum characteristica traduntur, turn Species singulae breviter de-
scribuntur. Auctore Johan, RAJo, Editio Tertia. With Twenty-
#
four Plates. Octavo, Lond. 1724, * . ; ,
hº Britannici Raji Catalogus, cum Iconibus: (A Catalogue of
4r. Ray's English Herbal, illustrated with Figures.) By f.
Petive R. Folio. Lond. 1711. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .”
A Synopsis of British Plants, in Mr. Ray's Method; with their C
racters, Descriptions, Places of Growth, Time of Flowering, and
º: Virtues, according to the most accurate Observati
ź
*****Autºgºllºwſha Bounkalpº,
* Illustrated


575 List of Books, &c.
Illustrated with several Figures. By John Wilson. Octavo. New
castle, 1744. & . * . . . . ; &
Specimen Botanicum, quo Plantarum plurium rariorum Angliae indi-
genarum Loci natales illustrantur. Auctore J. Buackston E,
Pharm. Duodecimo, Lond. 1746.
§§§
44edicina Britannica: or A Treatise on such Physical Plants as are
... generally to be found in the Fields or Gardens in Great Britain;
containing a particular Account of their Nature, Virtues, and
§: By Thomas Short, of Sheffield, M.D. Octavo. Lond.
1746. 3.
The British Herbal; containing a complete History of the Plants
and Trees which are Natives of Britain, or cultivated here for
Use, or commonly raised for their Beauty; disposed in an easy
• and natural Method, with their Descriptions at large, &c. By
Johs HILL, M.D. With (Seventy-five coloured) Plates. Fo ió.
Lond. 1756. 3. ... < . - \
Flora Britannica: sive Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum;
sistens Arbores et Herbas, indigenas et in Agris cultas, in Classes
et Ordines, Genera et Species redactas secundum Systema Sexuale.
Tabulis a neis illustrata: post tertiam editionem Synopseos Raianae
opere Dilienii concinnatam, nuncaue primum ad celeberrimi Caroli
Linnaei Methodum disposita. Auctore Johan N. Hill, M.D.
Octavo, Lond. 1760. º:-
Herbarium Britannicum, exhibens Plantas. Britanniae indigenas, se-
cundum Meth9dum Floralem noyam digestas. Auctore JoANN.
Hill, M.D. With Plates. Two Volumes. Octavo. Lond. 1769,
Virtues of British Herbs; with the History, Description, and Figures
of the several Kinds, &c. By John Hill, M.D. Octavo. Lond.
Florae Anglica, Specimen, imperfectum et ineditum, Anno 1774, in-
- choatum. Auctore T. G. CULLUM, Baroneto. Octavo.
A Generic and Specific Description of British Plants; translated from
the Genera et Species Plantarum of the celebrated Linnaeus. With
Notes and Observations by JAMEs JENKINSoN. Octavo. Kendal,
- 1775. . . . . . .
Select Collection of the most beautiful Flowers which blow in the
open Air of Great Britain; on One Hundred Plates, coloured from
Nature. By George Edwards. Folio. Lond. 1775.
The British Flora, by Stephen Robson. Octavo. York, 1777.
Flora Britannica Indigena: or One Hundred and Sixty-eight Plates
of the Indigenous Plants of Great Britain, by John WALcott.
Octavo. Bath, 1778.
Enghiridion. Botanicum, complectens Characteres Genericos et Spe-
cificos Plantarum per Insulas Britannicas sponte nascentium, ex
Linnaeo aliisque desumptos. Auctore. Arthuro BRoughton.
9etazo. Loud. 1782.
. JAcosi

List of Books, &c, 579
Jacobi Dickson Fasciculus Plantarum Cryptogamicarum Britanniae.
2uarto. Lond. 1785–1801. … 3.
Flora Anglica : exhibens Plantas per Regnum Britanniae sponte cres-
centes, distributas secundum Systema Sexuale. Auctore Gui.
HUDson, R.S.S. et Pharm. Lond. With Plates. Octavo. Lond.
Synopsis Plantarum Insulis Britannicis Indigenarum; curante J.
SYMons, A.B. Soc. Linn. Soc. Duodecimo, Lond. 1798.
British Flora: or, A Linnean Arrangement of British Plants. In Two
Parts. By John Hull. Octavo, Manchester, 1799.
British Garden: A Descriptive Catalogue of hardy Plants, indige-
nous or cultivated, in the Climate of Great Britain. By the Rt.
Hon. Lady CHARLoTTE MURRAY. In Two Volumes. Octavo.
Lond. 1799. >
Flora Britannica. Auctore Jacobo Edvardo Smith, M.D. In Three
Volumes. Octavo. Lond. 1800. ~ * . . . . .
Compendium Flora Britannicæ, ab Classe Monandria usque ad Syn-
genesiam inclusam, à J. E. SMITH, M.D. Soc. Linneana Praeside.
Small octavo. Lond, 1816. - . .
A Systematic Arrangement of British Plants: with an easy Introduc-
tion to the Study of Botany. By WILLIAM WITHERing, M.D.
Illustrated by Copper-plates. In Four Volumes. Octavo. Lond.
1801, or Birm. 1812. : , ſº 3 *
The Botanist's Guide through England and Wales. By Dawson
ºur NER, F.L.S., &c. and L. W. DiLlwyn, F.R.S. &c. In Two
&
Volumes. Small Octavo. 1805. -
English Botany; or, Coloured Figures of British Plants, with their
essential Characters, Synonyms, and Places of Growth. To which
will be added occasional Remarks. By JAMEs. Sowerby, F.L.S.
and (Sir) JAMEs EDwARD SMITH, M.D. F.R.S. Thirty-six
Volumes, containing 2592 Plates, with General Indexes. Royal
Octavo, Lond. 1790–1814. . .
Silva : or, A Discourse of Forest Trees, and the Propagation of Tim-
ber in His Majesty’s 1)ominions; together with an Historical Ac-
count of the Sacredness and Use of Standing Groves. To which
is added the Terra: A Philosophical Discourse of Earth. By
John EvelyN, Esq., F.R.S., with Notes by A. HUNTER, M.D.
F.R.S. L. and E. The Third Edition. In Two Volumes. Royal
2uarto. Plates. York, 1776 and 1801. . . . .
Woodland Companion: or, Brief Description of British Trees. By
John AIKIN, M.D. With Plates. Octavo. 1802. . .
Pomona Britannica: being a Collection of Specimens of the most
esteemed Fruits at present cultivated in this Country. By George
BRooksHAw. Elephant 2uarto. Lond. 1817.-Now in course
of publication, to be completed in Twelve Parts.
Pomona Londinensis ; containing Coloured Representations of the
best Fruits cultivated in the British Gardens: with Descriptions, in
which the Author is assisted by the President and Members of the
2 P 2 § x. Horticultura.


586 List or books, &c.
\
Horticultural Society. By William Hooker, F.H.S. Imperial
$2uarto.
Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London; with Plates.
$2uarto. Lond. 1812–1817. §
Account of the different Kinds of Grasses propagated in England, for
the Improvement of Corn and Pasture Lands, Lawns, and Walks.
By Richak D North. Octavo. Lond. 1760. yº
Practical Observations on British Grasses. By William Curtis.
Octavo. - : -
Gramina Pascua : or, A Collection of Specimens of the common Pas-
ture Grasses, with their Linnaean and English Names, Descriptions,
and Remarks. By G. Sway Ng. Folio. Bristol, 1790. -
Gramina Britannica: or Representations of the British Grasses.
By J. L. KNAPP, F.L.S. Coloured Plates. 2uarto. Lond.
1804. - . , º - **
An Account of the English Nightshades and their Effects. By Wil-
liam Bromfield. Doudecimo. Lond. 1757. .
Nereis Britannica: or, A. Botannical Description of British Marine
Plants, in Latin and English. By John Stackhouse, Fsq. Folio.
Bath, 1795–1801.
A Synopsis of the British Fuci. By DAwson TuRN er, A.M. Mein-
ber of the Imperial Academy Naturae Curiosorum, of the Linnaean
Society of London, and of the Physical Society of Gottingen. In
Two Volumes. Duodecimo. Loud. 1802.
British Confervat ; or Coloured Figures and Descriptions of the
British Plants referred by Botanists to the Genus Conferva. B
Lewis WesTo N Dillwyn, F.R.S. and F.L.S. 2warto. Lond.
Filices Britannicæ : An History of the British Proper Ferns; with
plain and accurate Descriptions, and New Figures of all the Spe-
cies and Varieties, taken from an immediate and careful Inspection
of the Plants in their Natural State. By JAMEs Bolton of Hali-
fax. In Two Parts. 2uarto. Leeds and Huddersfield, 1785-
1790. * -

British Jungermannia : being a History and Description, with co-
loured Figures, of each Species of the Genus and microscopical
Analyses of the Parts. By WILLIAM Jackson HookER, Esq.
Fellow of the Royal, Antiquarian, and linnaean Societies, and
Member of the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh. 2warto and
Folio. Yarmouth, 1816.
Muscologia Britannica; containing the Mosses of Great Britain and
Ireland, systematically Arranged and Described; with Plates illus-

trative of the Characters of the Genera and Species. By WILLIAM
Jackson Hooker, F.R.S.A.S. L.S. and Member of the Werne-
an Society of Edinburgh, and Thomas TAYLOR, M.D. M.R.I.A.
and F.L.S. and Fellow of the King and Queen's College of Phy-
sicians of Ireland, Octavo, London: 1818. - -
* * .
MINERALs
list of Books, &c. .531
MiNERALS AND FOSSILS.
The Mineral Kingdom of Great Britain Displayed. By M. Stringer.
Octavo. Lond. 1713. w . . . .
British Mineralogy; or Coloured Figures to elucidate the Mineralogy
of Great Britain. By JAMEs Sowerby, F.L.S. G.S. W.S. In
Five Volumes. Royal octavo. Lond. 1803–1817.
Specimens of British Minerals, selected from the Cabinet of PHILIP
RASHLEIGH, of Menabilly, in the County of Cornwall, Esq. M. P.
with general Descriptions of each Article. In Two Parts. Coloured
Plates. Quarto. Lond, 1797, 1802. .
Observations on the Earths, Rocks, Stones, aud Minerals for some
Miles about. Bristol. By Edward Owen. Duodecimo, Ilond.
1754. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Observations relative to the Mineralogical and Chemical History of
the Fossils of Cornwall. By MARTIN HENRY KLAPRoth. Oc-
tavo. Lond. 1789. .
Fodina Regales; or, The History, Laws, and Places of the chief
Mines and Mineral Works in England, Wales, and the English
Pale in Ireland; as also of the Mint and Money: with a Clavis,
explaining some difficult Words relating to Mines, &c. By Sir
John Pettus, Knt. Folio. Lond. 1670. -
Observations on the different Strata of Earths and Minerals ; more
particularly of such as are found in the Coal Mines of Great Bri-
tain. By John STRAchey, F.R.S. With Plates, 2uarto.
Lond. 1727. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An Attempt towards a Natural History of the Fossils of England,
in a Catalogue of the English Fossils in the Collection of John
Woodward. In Two Volumes. Octavo. Lond. 1729.
Lithophylacii Britannici Ichnographia; sive Lapidum aliorumq :
Fossilium Britannicorum singulari Figura insignium, quotguot
hactenus vel ipse invenit, vel ab Amicis accepit, Distributio clas-
sica.—Auctore, EDv. LUIDE. Octavo. Lond. 1699.-A Second
Edition, with Additions, was published at Oxford in 1760, octavo,
by Mr. Huddesford. * . . . . . . . . .

MINERAL waters.

CARoll ClaRomoNtil Doct. Med... nob. Lotharingi, de Aere,
Locis, et Aquis Terra Anglia: deque Morbis Anglorum verna-
culis; cum Observationibus Ratiecińatione et curandi Methode

-> 3. * . . § . . .
illustratis. Duodecimo, Lond, 1672, 2 --
De Fontibus Medicatis Anglia. Auctore MART. List FR, Octato.
Lond, 1684. x - :
a P 3 *::: The
582 List or books, &c.
The Natural History of the Chalybeate and Purging Waters of En-
gland, with their particular Essays and Uses: to which are added
some Observations on the Bath Waters in Somersetshire, By
BeNJAMIN ALLEN, M. B. Duodecimo. Lond. 1699.
The Natural History of the Mineral Waters of Great Britain. By
BENJAMIN Allen, M.B. Octavo. 1711. ... &-
An Essay towards a Natural, Experimental, and Medicinal History
of the principal Mineral Waters of Cumberland, Northumber-
land, Westmoreland, Bishoprick of Durham, Lancashire, Che-
shire, Staffordshire, Shropshire, Worcestershire, Gloucestershire,
Warwickshire, Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, and Nottingham-
shire: particularly those of Neville-Holt, Cheltenham, Weather-
slack, Hartlepool, Astrope, Cartmell, &c. To which is added a
Discourse on Cold and Tepid Bathing, and a Table of all the
Warm Waters in England, and most of the Cold Baths from
Carlisle to Gloucester and Oxford. By Thomas Short, M.D.
2uarto. Sheffield, 1740. ;s.
A General Treatise on various cold Mineral Waters in England, but
more particularly on those at Harrowgate, Thorp-Arch, Dorst-Hill,
Wigglesworth, Neville-Holt, and others of the like nature: with
their principles, virtues, and uses. By THoMAs Short, M.D.
Octavo. Lond. 1765. - - -
A Methodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters, comprehending the most
celebrated Medicinal Waters, both Cold and Hot, of Great Bri-
tain, Ireland, &c. By John RUtty, M.D. Quarto. Lond.
i.757. • -
Natural History of the principal Mineral Waters of Great Britain and
Ireland. By Jo. Eliot. Duodecimo. Lond. 1789. -
A Treatise on the Chemical History and Medical Powers of the most
eelebrated Mineral Waters. By William SAUNDERs, M.D. F.R.S.,
Octavo, Lond. 1805. 2 * *

PoliticAL ECONOMY, AGRICULTURE, &c.
An Introduction to the Study of Political Economy. By D. Boi-
LEAU. Octavo. 1811.
An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, being an Essay
on the Science of Domestic Policy in Free Nations: in which are
particularly considered Population, Agriculture, Trade, Industry,
Money, Coin, Interest, Circulation, Banks, Exchange, Public
Credit, and Taxes. By Sir JAMEs STEUART, Bart. In Two
Volumes. 2warto, Lond. 1767.
Political Survey of Great Britain; being a Series of Reflections on
the Situation, Lands, inhabitants, Revenues, Colonies, and Corn-
Smerce of this Island. By Joh N CAMP bell, L.L.D. In Two
Volumes. Quarto, Lond. 1774. •
- Treatise
List of Books, &c. % 583

§ 3. r x . y . . . . . ; : . & * . . . . . . tº sº .
'freatise on the Wealth, Power, and Resources of the British Empire,
in every quarter of the World : with Observations on the National
Resources for the beneficial Employment of a redundant Popula-
tion, &c. Illustrated by copious Statistical Tables, constructed
on a new Plan, and exhibiting a collected View of the different
subjects discussed in this Work. By P. Colquhou N, L.L.D.
The Second Edition. Royal 2uarto. Lond. 1815.
A Chronological Account of Commerce and ‘...; in Great Bri-
tain, from the Restoration to 1810, distinguishing the Years of War
and Peace. By GEORGE CHALMERs, Esq. on a Shect. 1810.
Statistical Account of the Population and Cultivation of England and,
Wales. By BENJAMIN Pitts CAPPER. Octavo. Lond. 1801.
Chronicon Preciosum: an Account of English Money, the Price of
Corn, and other Commodities, for the last 600 years. By Bishop
FLEETwooD., Octavo. Lond. 1745. i -
The State of the Poor; or the History of the Labouring Classes in
England, from the Conquest to the present Time : together with,
Parochial Reports relative to the Administration of Workhouses
and Houses of Industry; the State of Friendly Societies, and other
Public Institutions, with a large Appendix. By SIR FREDERick
MoRTon FDEN, Bart. In Three Volumes. 2uarto. Lond. 1797.
Treatise of Indigence: exhibiting a General View of the National
Tesources for productive Labour: with propositions for anneliorat-
ing the Condition of the Poor. By P. Colquhou N, L.L.D.
69ctavo. Lond. 1806. r: y
The State of AGRICULTURE throughout England, together with nu-
merous statistical particulars, highly curious and valuable to the
Historian and Chorographer, is copiously discussed in the Sur-
veys made under the direction of the Board of Agriculture.—
These Works have been individually noticed in the lists of books
appended to the respective volumes of The Beauties of England.
The Utility of Agricultural Knowledge illustrated : with an Account
of an Institution formed for Agricultural Pupils in Oxfordshire.
Octavo. 1809. r -:
The Code of Agriculture; including Observations on Gardens,
Orchards, Woods, and Plantations. By the Right Hon. Sir
Joh N SiN.cLAIR, Bart. with Plates. octavo. 1817.
Communications to the Board of Agriculture: on subjects relative
to the Husbandry and Internal lmprovement of the Country ; in
Seven Volumes. 2uarto. Lond, 1797–1811. * . . . . .
The Advantages which have resulted from the Establishment of the
Board of Agriculture, being the substance of a Lecture read to
that Institution, May 26, 1809. By the Secretary to the Board.
(Arthur Young, Esq.) octavo. 1809. , .
Tracts on Practical Agriculture and Gardening: with a Chronolo-
ical Catalogue of English Authors on Agriculture, Botany, Gar- .
dening, &c. By Richard Weston. Octavo, Lond. 1773.
* . . . . . . . . x. 2 P 4 Political
584 list of Books, &c.
Political Arithmetic: containing Observatious on the present State of
Great Britain: and the Principles of her Policy in the Encourage-
#. of Agriculture. By ARTHUR YoUNG, Esq. Octavo. Lond.
1774. . . . .
END or List of Books.
APPEND}X
APPENDIX
#
BEAUTIES OF ENGLAND AND WALES,
INTENDED To supply some omissions, AND TO AFFORD ADDI-
TIONAL CORRECTIONS TO SEVERAL COUNTIES.
# -
It was the ardent wish of the Proprietors to present, in this
promised Appendix, supplementary matter more satisfactory, and a
more complete table of corrections for the different counties, than
it has been found practicable to collect. In the letter rom Mr.
Britton, inserted in the general preface to the “Beauties,” very
just and sufficient reasons are alleged for the silence of the Editors
of the early volumes. It is, indeed, to be much regretted that,
from various causes, for which no individual conductor of the work
is responsible, so great a disparity should exist between the extent of .
description embraced by several early volumes, and those produced
in more advanced stages of this publication. -
In regard to the Counties executed under the direction of the pre-
sent publisher, due exertions have been made to procure from the
respective Editors, in conjunction with many gentlemen interested
in particular districts, materials to supply any important omissions,
or to correct any serious errors.
Some additional intelligence is thus afforded; but if the reader, in-
dulging in partiality for a spot familiar to himself, should be induced
to complain that many objects are still unnoticed, he is requested to
recollect that it is the professed intention of this work to give a
Selection only of topographical subjects. The labours of complete
historical detail, and indiscriminate survey, appertain to the regu-
kar and voluminous county-historian alone. It is, however, too
likely that many interesting objects have been overlooked, or injudi-
ciously neglected, even in the ºnost ample of our delineations. For
such omissions the Editors must throw themselves on the indulgence
of the Public.
Summaries of the Population, according to the returns made under
the act passed in the year 1811, for all such counties as were described
before that period, are here presented; and it is presumed that they
constitute an article of information particularly acceptable and useful.
#
586 APPENDIX.
BEDFORDSHIRE.
suMMARY OF THE Population of BEDFORDSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
Houses. OCCUPATIONS. Persons,
} g # #5 § | . . ; ; Že x
$ 3.: ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ‘s 3
Hundreds, &c. # #3 #### #: ###### #;
un reds, &c. # 5- *śā; =## #### # #&
Barford.............. 815 | 11 || 674 || 183 || 32 || 4402
Biggleswade........] 1261 31 979 || 353 86 6426
Clifton .............. +: 736 15 632 183 27 3993 .
Flitt .................. 1644 25 1 141 424 263 8597
º ...} 1861 45 1293 611 173 9892
Stodden * * * * * * * * * * * * 829 6 706 127 36 4263 º
Willey............... J341 12 972 517 61 7160 :
|Wixamtree.........! 892 3 808 || 166 73 || 5153 ||
Local militia em- ) - 3. : sº.
31, 1811....... '- > .
Totals............... 1328d 219 9431 || 4155 | 1341 70213

º
BERKSHIRE,
APPENDIX. 587
BERKSHIRE,
suMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF BERKSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
Houses. Toccº Torºs. TTEERsons.
ro & 3 #5 g ## lºg • , 3 :
nº... à liliğ|######| #
Hundreds, &c. 3 53 ||3: $.3 a £ 3 |=# 5 # 3 # 33
mates, we # = |*### =#3 ######| **
|Beynhurst..............] 484 || 17 | 396 || 97 4t 2942
* Bray..................... 512 6 294 156 75 ; 2604
|Charlton ..............| 484 || 6 || 438 | 66 31 2724 .
Compton........... ...] 424 || 7 || 350 91 25 2212
!Cookham ............. 819 27 || 455 288 || 141 4.184 |
Faircross ............... 1268 28 || 1142 214 || 97 6743 |
Farringdon ............ 579 27 || 417 | 174 69. 3224
Ganfield ...............] 543 || 6 || 499 || 74 40 2894 |
Hormer ................ 567 || 9 || 519 || 94 | 62 3245
|Kintbury Eagle ...... 1878 57 | 1309 || 475 || 251 9424
|Lambourn ............] 527 || 2 | 408 * 2674
Moreton............... 1072 23 943 172 49 5286 |
Ock ....................] 1179 30 946 || 177 | 154 5734 |
|Reading ............... 1457 ||32 || 1 185 380 92 || 7802 .
Ripplesmere ..........] 569 15 310 119 || 451 3230
8
9
6
Shrivenham .......... 815 15 || 784 - 135 | 53 4620
$onning ...............] 930 26 || 372 298 || 130 4951 - ||
TTheale ............... ..] 917 22 || 796 || 147 || 98. 5131
|Wantage............... 1283 40 || 822 || 494 80 6577
Wargrave .............| 484 || 15 || 336 || 148 || 87 2807 |
Borough of Abingdon 993 20 144 801 216 4801
Town of Newbury...] 995 || 29 || 24 || 701 || 311 4898
Borough of Reading 1945 58 154 1595 || 532 10788
Borough of Wal- - * .
lingford .......... | 363 17 76 280 58 1901
Borough of Windsor | 1017 29 99 || 3 || 9 || 819 6155
Local Militia º
bodied, May 17, X | — | – || — — 726
1811............... &
Totals ...... * * * * * * * * * * * * 22104 (563 |13409 7584. 4058 1 18277
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.


APPENDIX,
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE,
SUMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
g
|
3.
| THouses. occupations. PERSON S.
Hundreds, &c. * º .# # 55; # # s: |g ####: s #
"* | # | # ####|###|####| #
# 5* |}}##|### F#####| 3:
Ashendon. 1832 22 | 1868 || 293 || 56 || 1026.
Aylesbury........... 2682 55 |2373 625 72 14494 |
Buckingham........ 1420 20 1330 250 5 16 8150 I.
Burnham............ 2916 || 61 | 1632 || 1305 || 279 15521 |,
|Cottesloe............ 2441 || 41 1691 || 903 449 13940
Desborough........ 3222 71 || 1585 1169 || 808 16814 |
|Newport............ 4289 94 | 2008 2296 481 20871 ||
Stoke •. • . . . * * * * * * * * * 1829 59 1. 17 750 - 371 10965 - z
Borough of I * : *.
Local militia em- is --. |
| bodied, May — — | – | — — 201 ||
‘. 12, 1817....... , ,-i, 2 | 2. - - * , '. - . -
|Totals................loºp 457 laggs | 8424 284, ſmºol
eAMBRIDGESHIRE.

APPENDIX. 589
CAMBRIDGESHIRE.
$UMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.

Houses occupations. |PERsons.
--- , le H = # 1 g : :3; 2 ºf . *
.º: # E H .55 § 5 |53; ; ; ; 7: 3
- +3 ##|####|*:: #####| #;
- # = Fäää|=}= Egg Hä” ==
Armingford............ 720 841 || 148 36 4887
|Chesterton.............! 493 498 || 1.46 22 3097
3
3
()
I
O
9
l
24
8
9
f
4
4
Cheveley...............] 373 || 2 s
Chilford................ 657 | 19 || 610 185 84 4140 ||
2 - . . º
2
2
6
4
3
8
l
8
()
3
Hendish................] 310
|Longstow .............. 604 -
orthstow ............. 453 || 2 || 475 78 29 2853
apworth............... 751 10 || 694 || 1 10 132 4250
Radfield................] 576 15 550 | 123 | 30 3542 |
Staine ...................] 558 12 || 470 99 || || 89 3227 . I
Staploe ................. 1336 22 || 1 || 14 || 335 136 | 7351
Thriplow............... 585 | 6 || 584 152 42 || 3603 ||
Wetherley.............] 532 || 7 || 588 82 38 3076
hittlesford,..........] 388 || 7 || 444 99. 9. 2376
#. of Ely;.............] 5977 95 || 4213 1558 || 1159 || 32443 ||
Borough and Uni-) || || -- . . ... 3 -
versity of dº 1991 26 80 | 1600 644 || 11108 ||
bridge............. - : … . . . . . º. -- " - - - - - - - - - ------- ~~ +” I . . . . . . . .
City of Ely............ 928 22 406 || 262 276 4249
bodied, May 17,
Local Militia º:
1817 tº e º & © tº tº ºn tº it tº º ſº ºn 9
Totals.…..liz232 357 ||2831|| 5303 || 3888 honog
CHESHIRE,
$90 APPENDIX.
CHESHIRE.
*
SUMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF CHESHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.

f HOUSES occupations.TTPERSONs:
3. . ſ. • # = { * | *-es
: Hundreds, &c. É #3 |# ### #äg ###### § 3
sº º, Eğ |55 ; ; ; ; ; 5 ||3: E.g.: #|- 3 3 -
# |55 |3}}##| ||23 =#####| #:
- 3. 3 $3 # ag|=== *i; a #9 H as
Broxton.................] 2399 |45 1809 || 399 || 433 || 13651 |
Bucklow................] 5929 |105 || 3034 2562 710 || 32403
Eddisbury..............] 3725 || 78 2524 || 813 764 20761
Macclesfield...........[12520 479 || 2653 |10057 || 705 || 70623
Nantwich...............] 3480 || 85 2382 | 1207 || 323 19568
|Northwich.............] 5160 |171 1885 2774 7 || 26541
Wirrall.................. 2160 | 66 1468 || 477 320 | 11579
City of Chester.......] 3296 ||61|| 397 2296 || 1052 | 16140
Tºº Mº 2518 |49 244 2458 26 | 12299
Local Militia em-j || ||
1811............... |
Totals...................[41187 lizaglić396 |23043 || 5063. % 227031 l
cornwAEL.
CORNWALL.
% *
SUMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF CORNWALL,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.

HOUSES occupations. PERSON S.
• E. p. 2', 1 & 2. * * o
--- * # * * . . ; É" | ## l; #3; # sº ‘: º,
| # ##| ###| ### 153% .3, 2 #
Hundreds, &c. - # ## #: ºš já## gå
East..................... 4386 171. 2545 1098 || 1756 26908
Kirrier.................. 6238 229 2511 | 1992 2923 || 35497
Lesnewth .............. 1191 86 906 277 118 6466
Penwith ...............] 9352 212 2366 2774 || 5123 50323
Powder ................] 7298 || 286 3087 | 2001 || 3332 40445
Pyder................... d 3377 138 1898 - 857 :-- 1121 - 18949.
Stratton ................] 1212 | : 1068 265 22 | 6857
Trigg ........... ........] 1588 74 1298 || 442 166 || 19414 |
|. ā’īāī 2002 || 133| 1633 651 || 587 | 14284
Launceston ...... 26, 7| 141 170 42 1798
Town of Falmouth. 465 || 13 10 || 427 580 || 3933 ||
Local Militia em- . . . - . . .
bodied, sº * : * I sº- sº- 1833
1817. ............ º:
Totals ........... tº º 'º tº º tº º 137971 [1400|17465 [10954 15770 |216667
cuMBERLAND,
s32 APPENDIX.
CUMBERLAND.
SUMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF CUMBERLAND.
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
Houses. occupations. ºr
|
i
f
;
§
|Et.
.iÉ
i
:
f
i3.
;
;
i
;
l
H
!. .
É
º
|
| above Darwent. . . . . . & ::. . . . . . . . . . .
|Allerdale Ward º 3934 || 71 || 1934 1254 1235 | 21089 |
| low Darwent.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cumberland Ward... 3037 |121 | 1530 1156 600 15095 ||
|Eskdale Ward......... 3366 || 65||2386 || 1013 || 453 || 19379 |
|Leath Ward...........] 3606 | 68 ||2377 || 1132 996 || 20599 |
|City of Carlisle.......] 1658 || 5 || || '134 2301 || 394 | 12531 ||
Town of Whitehaven | 1940 |34 || 12 || 1577 784 || 101.06 ||
|Local Militia emº | | | | | . . .
bodied, May, X | — | – | — — —- || 1745 ||
1817..... ... } ...w .” . . * . . N. . & . . . . . . . ; ; * t
ITotals................... 24002 |550 |10868 (11448 || 6074 |133744 |
*.
****
1612 || 33200 |
2
5
9
s
3
O
5
DERBYSHIRE.




APPENDIx.
593
DERBYSHIRE.
suMMARY OF THE POPULATION of DERBYSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
— Houses SECUFTIONS.
. , ###| | | | |##. #
Hundreds, &c. # | #3 || BI|| #g |#####
+: ##|####| *=#| | #####|
# 5* |&###| = g { }; ; ; ; 3.
* * =< | T = | 3 s a #5
Appletree. ............] 4904 || 87 2709 || 1944 590
Highpeake............. 7179 |347 || 2610 || 2899 1902.
Morleston and Lit- ? <= i a lot as a.
*::::::...}| sº |A|230|3001 || 636
Repton and Gresley. 2988 || 58 1787 925 4+ 1 .
carsdale............... 8284 (284 || 3379 || 3:03: 21.79.
Wirksworth............}.4104-164 1567.| 1571 1167.
Borough of Derby...|2644 || 42 || 95: 2382 447 * * *
Local Militia em- | . . . .
bodied, May 20, X| — | – — — — . 2257
º 1811............... c * ... . . .
Totals...................]35658"|119tli4283)13825 | 7332, 185487.
3 Q
DEVONSHIRE,



APPENDrx.
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
DEVONSHIRE.
suMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF DEvoNSHIRE,
Hundreds, &c.
* &ill Oton * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
T
Black Torrington....
Budleigh...............
* * * * * 4. ..
Cliston..................
Coleridge...............
}.
#. minster. * * * * * * s e s s s a •
r remington • * * * * * * * * * * .
--- artland e tº tº º ºt “. ... • * *
- Hemyock * * * * * * * * * ... *
| Lifton tº º ſº º ... • * * * * * * * * * * *
|Qttery, St. Mary.....
|Plympton
ºlº tº “..........."
Shebbear...............
º Sherwill ................
|Stanborough...........
HTawton, North
| with Winkley... §
|Teingbridge...........
'Tiverton................
{Witheridge............
ºº:::::::;
|City and º
of Exeter... • * * * * *
mouth and su-
burbs........ • * * * * * ,
Local Militia em-l
bodied, May,
| 1811...............
|Axminster.............!
Braunton “......... :
|Colyton • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ºf
| Çrediton ... • . . . . . . . . . . . •l
| Ermington tº º “. . . . • * * *|
H. r alberton. • * * * * * * * * * * * :
º a ridge...............!
|Haytor..... • * * * * * * * * * * * ..f
Moulton, South • * * * * *
{Tavistock..............]
? | 1988 |
1820 |
HOUSES. º.
OCCUPATION S.
PERSON S.
|
i
#
i
i
;
i
—
:
:
i
º
i
|
§
??
* * * º, ºr
*
#
I
;
i
;
106]
2661
3392
507
2708 ||
2508
2130
1408
2516
1208 ||
49ā
ºn 659 | i.
3439 |
932 + 2
1225
1973
662
1374
1467
3723
i 172 |
2030 || |
554
1337
609 ||
2879 |
5436
2141
#.
405
| 1582 |
749
.*
* 651:
474
1308
479
1524
1142
505
128
21 14
65
*
º, ſº º, . . . ; *...,
*. 4. º:2. 4. j ‘.
T
ofa's * * * * * * * * e º 'º e º 'ºt ºf ºr tº a
62318
2475
123 || ||
686 |
1795
989 |
975
| 1 || 42 .
772 |
540 |
1116 ||
| 1811.
il 45 |
i 1474
259 |
156
;
;
1146
122
1227
| | 19.
393
| 1057
613
1385
2898
5
()
9.
| 33 l
298 ||
536
914
192
- 1 15
406 ||
342 |
534 |
286 |
545
343 |
793
| 1 || 4 |
799 |
508
1039 |
809
366
7859
2
º
;
185
6
5
8
524
17
504
244
140
145
666
158
40
168
1076
50
132
208
357
461
583
48.
122
142
120
16]
78
680
141 l
3684
135
202
l 1394
5864
15049
14287
2763
16529
1307|
| 6687
2690.
3970
| 19406
9710 2 :
| 10552
. . . 2880 ||
&
| 9045 |
3275
12285
17473 ||
6088
10648.
8671
i
5778
56060
4530
| 10606 .
11269
7461
7749.
20049 |
18896
30977
33044
I 5394
383308
{
DORSETSHIRE,












APPENDIX.
DORSETSHIRE.
suMMARY of the population of DoRSETSHIRE,
As published by Authority qf Parliament in 1811. "
occupations. TPersons.]
H
O
º
s
E.
S
s
Hundreds, &c.
ſ*
ſ
|
ºi
:
i
i
:
t
#
º
;
3
()
3
i
!
:
t
|Blandford, North.....]
893I
&
. 34 | 183 || 4801
|Blandford, South..... 2 102 || 59 . . . . . . .33. 303 || 10477
|Bridport................ 3633 || 15 || 2434 315 20030
|Cerne................... 1194 || 53 || 1048 || 322 74 | 6600
|Dorchester............ 3020 |106 || 1967 || 754 716 || 15980 |
Šíº. Ea...] §ºso || 3 ||3:4 || 7 || 65|| | tº
Shaston, West,.......| 1374 29 || 938 || 508 || 158 ' || 7692
Sherborne..............] 1006 || 44 || 852 267 75 5644
|Sturminster............ 1645 || 42 || 1017 55 1 || 384 || 9338
|Town of Blandford... 431 || 12 || 12 || 605 || > 35 | 2425
|...}} df º, 512 || 7 || 20 || 600 || 51 3567,
3orough of Dor- \ | 357 || 7 || 33 of as I okas
- †...} 337 || 7 º as 268 || 178 | ass
*...*.*.*.*| 342 || 4 || 37| 20, 145 || 190s
Bºš
;
}
|
%
t
º
| bury.... *...}| 559 |28 || 123 || 266 236 || 2635
Town of Sherborné, 575 || 2 || 179 || 411 || 129 || 3370
|*.*.*.*| 372 | to is 209 los | 1,09
|_ ham............... W H
|Borough of Wey-D | | | | | | - - . . .” a
| mouth and Mel-X | 886 || 19 || 7 || 711 || 412 || 4732 - ||
.."; | | | N. |
Town and County \ | os — inao as is
|º.;|10:9 |*||—|loss || 7 | Asia
4232 lizać93
|Totals...................b3210 B4 ligg32 9607
a Q a DURHAM.

&Q& APPENDIX.
DURHAM.
suMMARY OF THE PopULATION of THE county of DURHAM,
-----
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
|
t
- - 1
occur ATIONs. . . . FERsons.
#! .
i.
t
t
},
H
O
w
s
E
S
i
i
;
i
ſ *
-*
i
|
:
;
;
:
I
;
#
.j:-
ſ
j
i
Wards, &c.
40
2
4
69
62
7
Chºº. Twº.T.T.T.T. ſ\ſ).
dº Diºn, #|9974 369 2941 |7600 -
arlington Ward, . 207 1 || 31 ºn ſº 39001
Eº Pº - 7f84 109 2971 also 255.8 -
*R. ", !! 3370 lila | 1585 |2831|| 1091 22594
Two Íñivisions' } 3870 | 12 1585 2231 1091 22 94.
Stockton Ward, } -
Two Divisions j 3414 104 tº 1092 || 931 tº
Islandshire............. 1264 || 49 || 485 412 || 714 6832
Norhamshire..........| 733 41 || 438 | 186 141 3524
City of Durham......! 932 || 24 || 144 927 424 6763
Town of Sunderland 1662 22 19 1496 2023 12289 |
|Local Militia, º | . | | |
1811............... : . - - ; :
|
Totals.................lºngs solºss Toº liºn lizzº-
3.
ESSEX


APPENDix.
ESSEX.
suMMARY or THE PopULATION OF ESSEX,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
*r-º-º-º:
H
O
U
S
E
S
occurations.
TFERsons.]
Hundreds, &c.
H
i
#
i
i
i
|
;
:
i
i
;
|
I
;
|Barstable...............
|Becontree..............
|Chafford ...............
Chelmsford............
Clavering ..............
|Dengie.................
|Dunmow...............
e
|Harlow ................
|Havering- atte-
| Bower.............
º Hinckford .............
|Lexden.................
Ongar................ •. .
|Rochford............
|Tendring...............
|Thurstable.............
Uttlesford..............
Waltham *........ * * * * * *
Witham................
chester............
Borough of Har-l
wich............... $
Borough of Maldon.
Town of Saffron-
Walden...........
Local Militia em-
bodied, May,
: 1811...............
§
|Freshwell..............] .
...] 1 133
. instree... sºe sº sº sº sº’sº
|Borough of Čolº
{
1715
4377
1479
3758
590
1259
1936
5654
2901
1905
... 1658
2592
777
1779
970
506 || ".
136
34
121
15
52
27
50
42
20
32
15
33 ||
29 || 1:
32 ||
37 ||
1739
21 | 1
564
505
669
45
57
1()
381 |
0
553
1152
178
290
215
I
5
330
w £g
2
()
1
614
22254 |
| 3296 ||
| 10336 |
5372 |
| 29814 |
451 1
| 8997
| 3732 ||
2679 |
| 3403 ||
ſ
i
--~~~~.
;
j96i |
7199
12544 ||
Totals........... …
42829.
*
2
10.
| 4 || 82
8944
2 Q 3
GloucestER.





$9s
GLOUCESTERSHIRE.
suMMARY OF THE Population of Gloucestershire,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
* , Hundreds, &e. º
i
Hºly “..........
Bisley ..................
Botloe..................
#. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Briavells, St. ..........
Brightwells Barrow
Cheltenham...........
Pleeve..................
Xrowthorne and {
º Minety............
Dudstone and ;
King’s Barton...
? %.
Kiftsgate...............
Langley, and &
Swineshead...... ;
tº e º 'º º ſº tº * * * * * *
*uckle-church
* * * * * *
fewkesbury.
• * * * * * * * *
|Whitstone.............
City of Bristol, , )
with Barton Regis !
Borough of Ciren-
cester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
{City of Gloucester
Borough of
Tewkesbury “”.
! lidesloe • •. “ • * * . . . . . . .i
Deerhurst • * * * * *** * * * * *|
Grumbald’s Ash......]
Henbury . i. • * * * * * * * * * * *~
Lancaster, Duchy of,
- Rapsgate •. ſº “. *******i.
* I' hornbury ... . . . . . . . •.l.
. . Ž ibalstone. • . . . . . . • * * * * * :
FWestminster ..........]
---
1080
839
1798
299
975
622 ||
40 |
380
2330 ||
|264 |
15
2806
#
jºo
1949
§ . iigab |435-
. *Hundred : . * “... • *. . . . . . ſº º -
902
1509
HOUSES.
f
i
OCCUPATIONS.
Persons.]
wº
i
;
i
i
:
:
i
i
l
i
i
;
f
... 1329 |
677.| 2.
06 ||
1082 || 2
704 || |
* ** . . &
{
13
788
| 412
126
4|| 1
37
22 15 6
| 1594
176
280
145
34
| 141 ||
140 |
| 366 ||
79 |
| 1958 tº
H 333
|- 154
| 1312
wº: º . ; # * * * : ; ; § 2.
... § - 3. * 3: . . . . . g . :
& 3 & ! } . . . . . . .
6
2
7.
378
:
i
180
8
392
63
*
4649
3243
8473
tº *86 * . .
216
2408
8070
4637 |
12799:
1878 |
ºff tº 13652:
3939 *
3989,
4540
8280
4820
htotals..................B.2042
20782. 29988
11322
gºal
1444 l l
| 57.10
ºf 4243-
| 1 1565
6249 |
9734 |
§
3303 ||
tº 3553
5833 |
979 |
| " 4953 |
255514
HAMPSHIRE'



APPENDIX.
HAMPSHIRE.
WE are happy in being enabled to add to our description of this
county, a notice of the following seats.
Heron, or Hern Court, the seat of the Earl of Malmesbury
(Lord Lieutenant of this county) is situated in the rich and fertile val-
key leading from Wimborne to Christ-church, about four miles distant
to the north-west from the last-mentioned town. The mansion is
placed in an elbow formed by the river Stour, and is supposed to de-
rive its appellation from this circumstance of locality; Hern being
Saxon for an angle, or corner.
The present noble possessor inherited this place and property fro *
his relation, Mr. Hooper; to whose family it had belonged for up-
wards of two centuries. . §
The house, which is upon a large and substantial scale, has been
nearly rebuilt by Lord Malmesbury; part of the north front (which
has been raised one story) being all that remains of the former str ig :
ture. A veneration for the original character, of the mansion as,
however, been evinced in this work of re-edification. The style of
domestic architecture that prevailed during the reigns of Elizabeth and
James the First, is still preserved in every principal feature:—a lauda-
ble example of respect for ancestry, and of correctness in taste, which
it is hoped will find imitators in those who may alter and renovate
ancient family buildings in adjacent districts. |
. . 8. ... ?
The library of this capacious residence contains a highly-valuable
collection of books and maps. º That these are sele cted with an ex-
cellent judgment will scarcely be doubted, when the literary talents
of the present Earl and his celebrated father (James Harris, Esq; who
euriched the republic of letters with the work intituled HERMEs) are
held in due remembrance. . . . . . .# … .
In this seat are also preserved many fine paintings, the principal o
which are enumerated in the Beauties of England for Berkshire,
under the article of Park Place.” x- ...
see Beautic for Berkshire, p. 184—ier.










600 APPENDIX.
A very extensive range of plantations covers the adjoining hills;
and the examiner cannot fail to notice a fishing-cottage of unusual at-
traction, which is placed on the margin of the river Avon, and is a.
desirable appendage to the property that surrounds this mansion.
Beech House is the residence of John Proctor Anderdon, Esq.
formerly an eminent West India merchant. The house has received
its name from a venerable beech of majestic dimensions, “the last of
its fellows,” which stands near it. The situation is upon the south-
western verge of the New Forest, within a few miles of the sea; from
the shore of which the country rises with a gentle ascent to the south-
ern front of the house. This is also the case with the wood and field-
scenery upon the western side; and, by this favourable disposition,
the eye is enabled to range over landscapes remarkable for their in-
terest, variety, and beauty. . . . .
These circumstances have gradually led the successive proprietors
of the estate to bestow on it the importance which it now possesses;
and, by degrees, to enlarge the scanty dimensions of a game-keeper’s
cottage to the extent necessary for a convenient mansion. Such
alterations, however, had been conducted with very little attention to
picturesque effect until the summer of | 1816, when the present owner,
under the direction of Mr. Stedman Whitwell, an architect of consi-
derable taste and rising eminence, made a most rapid and successful
transformation. The finished appearance which the house now pos-
sesses, is carefully adapted to the surrounding scenery, and is distin-
guished by its simplicity, propriety, and harmony. ... &
The interior is remarkable for a collection of paintings by the great
masters, which have been selected by their present possessor, as the
most valuable that long study, ample means, and sound judgment
could procure. The following list will call up some delightful recol-
lections to the mind of the connoisseur * > . . . . . . . . . .
In the Flemish, or Dining Room, amongst others, are
A landscape and village-feast by Teniers, in his finest manner;-
* …, stag-hu nt by Wouvermans, remarkably beautiful ;-engraved,
A sea view, with rocks, a scene in Norway, by William Pander-
welde; a chef-d'oeuvre.
A brisk
APPENDIX. col
Abrisk gale, by the same. - . . . . . ;
A landscape and figures, by Wynants, one of his finest speci-
mens.
The triumph of Pomona,—numerous figures in a fine landscape,
by Rubens, heretofore in the possession of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and
the companion-picture to Lord Grosvenor's Judgment of Paris. It
has been universally admired as one of the most finished and beauti-
ful performances of this great master, and certainly has never been
surpassed in colouring. :
Cattle and figures, in a landscape, by Cuyp. .
A landscape, with two horses, &c. by Paul Potter. There are
several etchings, by the master himself, of the first designs for this
picture, as well of the whole when finished.
A landscape and cows, by Paul Potter, beautifully engraved.
A traveller's halt, and fine landscape by Wouvermans, also en-
graved. . . ...
A mill and waterfall, in a landscape, by Ruysdale; of a larger size
than usual, and of an excellence never surpassed by this master. 3.
A large landscape by Teniers, with cattle and various figures; the
chief of which are Christ and his disciples, going to Emmaus. This
picture, which is of the highest celebrity, was brought from the Escu-
rial in Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; ; ; ; ;
Cupid, with a broken bow, in a landscape, by Sir Joshua Reynolds. º
It has always been called “ the English Corregio,” and is a very
beautiful specimen of the superior talents of this great artist. < ... . . -
In the Italian, or Drawing Room, are,

Monte Palace;—on pannel. - #: . . . . . . .';* * * :
The baptism of Christ by St. John, with a landscape by Murillio:
formerly in the possession of Mr. Matthew Bryan. . . .
The three Marys at the Tomb, a beautiful landscape by Francesco
Mola, formerly in the possession of Dr. Chauncey, and engraved in
Mr. Forster's collection of celebrated pictures.
Christ taken from the cross, with various figures in a landscape, by
Ludovico Caracci; a beautiful easel picture, N. 3. g.:":3:
A magnificent landscape, with figures, by Domenichino, six feet.
long; engraved. This picture has ever excited the highest degree of
-: - admiration
admiration with artists, connoiseurs, and others; and perhaps is.
scarcely inferior to any, of the same class, in Europe.
St. Francis, by Andrea Sacchi, an exquisite pendant to the Ludo-
vico Caracci. . . . .
* The Madonna, and two holy children on the ground, with flowers
and a landscape, by Leonardo da Vinci. An undoubted, and beautiful.
picture of this very rare master; three feet six inches by two feet six
inches, on pannel. It came from the Palazzo Pitti, and was purchased
by the present proprietor at a very large price. . . . .
The Madonna, child, and St. John, with a landscape by Fra. Barto-
lomeo, on pannel; a companion to, and nearly the same size as, the
last. The original design for this picture, in chalk upon paper, is in
the possession of the President of the Royal Academy.
The Madonna, child, St. John, and St. Joseph, by Andrea del
&arto, on pannel. This undoubted and charming picture was long in
the possession of a noble family, from whom it passed into the hands
The triumph of David, by Guercino, one of his very finest works.
It consists of seven figures, and is six feet long. It was purchased in
Rome by the late Mr. Head (on the approach of the French army)
from a palace in which it was originally painted, and has been copied,
for the purpose of being engraved in Tresham and Tomkins' work
“The British Gallery of Paintings.” There is, already. an old mezzo-
tinto engraving of it.
The salutation of Mary and Elizabeth, with other figures, in a
landscape by Sebastian del Piombo. This picture, so long, so highly,
and so justly celebrated, was brought into this country by the late
Mr. Beckford. It has been finely copied in enamel by Mr. Bone,
and several times engraved. * * *
In the library and other rooms, are pi
& . . ctures by Murillio, Nicolo
Poussin, Nicolo del Abbati, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and some very
beautiful works in oil from Mrs. Anderdon's own pencil.
The entrances to the estate have been marked with lodges, of an
appropriate character; and the grounds are receiving daily additional
proofs of tasteful culture. - * . . . . .
Buckbrook places the residence of George Purvi, Esq. who was
* - - - - - - - secretary






APPENDIX. 503,
secretary to Earl St. Vincent, while that Admiral blockaded Cadiz.
The house was built by Mr. Purvis in the years 1799 and 1800, on a
spot (then an open field) commanding pleasing views over the adja-
cent country. When that gentleman purchased the estate which com-
prises the site of the present handsome dwelling, it possessed a man-
sion, which occupied lower ground, on the opposite, or southern, side
of the road.—This building has undergone considerable alterations,
and is now distinguished by the name of Blackbrook Cottage. The
whole of the estate was purchased by Mr. Purvis of Col. Hammond,
of the North Hants Regiment of Militia. *
HAMPSHIRE
• * * * * ~ * * * * s * . . . . ; » as ºr “. . . A ;
suMMARY of THE POPULATION of HAMPSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
! . | Houses. occupations. Persons.]
f* * , tº º º *
| . . . . . . T
Alton, North..........] '2092 || 47 1486 || 575°
Alton, South.......... 889; 17 || 3: 723, 325
Andover................ 4168 93 2608 1162 -
Basingstoke ...........] 4197 || 78 || 3232 1026 || 63
: awley'................; '3083 || 54. 2386 | *3| 1 ſº tº Acy tº
* †. ingsclere.......... ..., 271 tº 44 || 2:106", % 55 43; hº 80 || |
New-Forest, East.... 2963 ||73 || 1697, 846, 767 || 1
New-Forest, West... 2990 |128 1741 | # 416 || 1
Pºrtsºnº,......... 6279 |129 |º | 1839||
$: of Wight.......... 4323 || 55 2669 || 1518; 779 |2
****, ºla..., la, , , , ! ...,] ...
of Portsea........ \| | | | || “. . . . . . . . . . . r
mouth and Town
Town and ...}}| isºs 63 | 165 || 1485 || 419
i
i
t
i
|
i
i
;
T º
4---
8
6
i
-|º
ſ
of Southampton. º i < , , ; ; ,l,” tº . ~ ; ; l.c. . . . . . ;
- City of . Winches- #. . . . . . * * * * : , , , , ; --- ‘ī; º; ) (, ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
| ter and S oke Li- - i. 1087 ; 36 68 949| | | | 307 67 0: , , i.
- bert is tº tº e s tº s ºr * * * * * * | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *... -- ~ * * * *
Local "Militia em- * - 942
bodied, May 16, § º,
H 1811 .............."
His is , -- %.
oals..................113210 103021401 lisog4 | 11491 lºsoso |
… . ; HEREFORDSHIRE.
; : * - . . . .” - * * * *
tº . ~ : *** * * * * * * : * I & * : * : *. . . . - . . . . . . . . . .

604 APPENDIX.
HEREFORDSHIRE.
suMMARY of THE POPULATION of HEREFORDSnIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
Houses. occupations. Persons.
# s: |# t H3-e o ºf . . . . * §
3 | #3; #555 ##g |######| = 3
hundred, sº | # |##|####| ###|#####| ##
undreds, &c. 53 (55 ; ; I e g : P = a + £º Ç
* tº: to → ...} : t: 5 : 3 |< 5 3 O £49-
- - * 5 ă: tº & as- -
Broxash.............. • “ 2071 81 l 433 10496
Ewyas-Lacy .......... 684 77 | 108 ' ' || 325,7 %
9799
6033
4721
11227
7928
788.1
4792
|Greytree •- - - - - . . . . . . . . . 2020 79. - 582 wº
|Grimsworth ........... 1253. 49
Huntington .......... I 9.4| 33
Radlow • , . . . . tº º 'º e º e tº e º gº º 2065 71 º 1561 493
Stretford ............... 1520 71 || 1 172| 408
Webtree ............... % 1492 43 - 1301 266
|Wigmore............... 942 23 785, 166 |
W. wigwe," 2302, 5 I || 1455|| 723 | 316 11184,
Wormelow, Lower ... tº . - - 3 - “... ... : * . . . Hº sº. º. ºf .
and Upper....... } 1666 61 || 1327 347 | 86 | seal
|City of Hereford.....] 1583| 85 º 922 || 572 | 7306
|Local *::::: | | | | | | |
l
:
i
:
:
i
| bodied, May 21, X] — — — — 818
| 1811...............) 3.
|rotals..................] 18572724 || 1259) 5044 || 2438 || 9,073
w -Fºr
HERTFORDSHIRE,









APPENDIX.
605
HERTFORDSHIRE.
SUMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF HERTFORDSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
HOUSEs.
OCCUPATIONS.
PERSON S.
Hundreds, &c.
|
i
#
* *
t (i) * N.
* & 1- C
go 8 c 5 * 2: .. # 5 - 3 #
12 º'r B || Tº c as irº s º ż 13 gº
º: T ~ : sº tº sº. * 3: ... :
8 º'S', ſº º tº º, ºr ºf º º
####| = g3 |#####5
* * * * * C w
3 c. bſ tº E < *; 3 c c.
© ºf tº: & 9.5 T
i
!
Broadwater............
Cashio ............ * * * * * *
Dacorum...............!
Edwintree..............
Hertford...... ........
Hitchin and Pirton...
Odsey ..................
Borough of Hertford.
Borough of St., \
Albans............ ſl
Local Militia em-
bodied, May 17,
1811 ...............
Braughin. . . . . . . . . . . . se of
4354
1506
1 || || 5.
}
2586 ||
2460
3658
;
105.
1935
1529
51.
30
25
592
610 | 11
24
| 122.
3
0
()
1351 |
1672
2 178. º
2682 1505 ||
1286 || 311.
1000 || 715,
838, 603.
751. º
3
354
733
464
149
396
218
278
242
420
l
;
º
37í
118 264
| 14077
13033
20335 |
22525
7524
10335/
7732
5743
3900
3653
2797,
Totals...... • * * * * * * • . . . . .
..lºosa;
436
ingos ſº
3
HUNTINGDONSHIR
suMMARY of THE Population of HUNTINGDoNSHIRE,
As published by
Authority of Parliament in 1811.
ź 2 Hundreds, &c. . . . .
Houses. occupations. PERsons.[
§ #3 |#5, #| #3; ######| #
# 5* |&#3 #| = g { |######| #3
ſº 3. ‘5 a.3 - 5 & 3,3 F.
*
Leightonstone.........
Norman-Cross # tº tº # is is º is
Toseland...............
Borough of *}
Hustingstone..........|
2338
1443 j :
1251 |
2084
450
2
l
| 1019
i
:
618 |
350 |
283
663
291
5
1789.
I
0
9
2
;
!
1443
18
277
213
13249
7427
1 1192
2397
ing UI) - - - - - - - - - * … º
Totals............. tº º º •s •
7566
153
5361 l 2205 | 1242
.. agaos"
KENT,


suMMARY OF THE Population of KENT,
KENT.
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811. .
3. *.*.*.*
H
O
U
;
:
S
OCCUPATIONS.
Hundreds, &c.
|
ſ
#
i
|
i
=#
i
ſ
!
i
;
i
;
i
l
Lathe of St. Au- )
3. º
Ay esford ... “.........
Scray....................
Shepway ........... ...
º;
City of Canterbury.
Town of Chatham
and City of Ro-
| chester............ }
Town of Deptford
and Town of
Greenwich.......
Town and Cinque
Port of Dover..
stone • * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Port of Sand-
wich............... .
Town of Woolwich.
Local Militia em-
bodied, May,
1811...............
10193
10922
10 152
... 2093
} 1780
Borough of *} º-
Town and Cinque) ||
$|
—
360
243
148
102
241
106
79
3786
9127
3713
5778 125
1706 || 39
517
2296
65
- 437
º
º
6
7012
5939 |
2274
5205
508
| 333
304 |
174 |
13
kº,
65
50 |
2
5
5
2
3952
4034 |
979 |
3037 |
1194
1158
31 10
4415 |
998
942 |
244
2539
1115
39
3
7
2164 -
2242
1347 228
2525
624
3567
490
179
1844 |
PERSON 5.
|
62063.
1671
27996
Totals... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* —r & &
27.077
LANCASHIRE.


LANCASHIRE.
suMMARY OF THE POPULATION of LANcASHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament 1811.
º Hundreds, &c.
occupations.
i
F
;
i
|
Ei
;
!
:|
i
i
i
i
sº • * * * * * * * • * *
, North of
ds... • * * * * *
* * 3-> w
il S • * *** * * *
tº; * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Fou
|Town of Manchester
Borough of Wigan...
|Local Militia em D
| bodied, May,
:
i
f
}| 3
, South º | a
Borough dſſancastell
Borough of Liverpoolſ I
9.
3
2
1811 • “........
5|T
;
;
| 16903
| 123137 |
9247 I
| 1334 || 98.573 ||
;: | 1 4060
48297
i 10149
36715
1869. I
4035.
- Totals ...“ … ſº tº is º is .
1442834269
114522
828309.
Leicestrashika











APPENDIX.
LEICESTERSHIRE.
SUMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF LEICESTERSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
<º- HOUSES OCCUPATIONS. FERSONS:
º ( ; ; ; ; * # | ##|####| ### *śāg ##| g :
Hundreds, &c. # 5-c #: É =# ## ă iſ #5 &&.
. # * = | - & 9 F 3 *
|Framland...............] 2527 | 50l 1571, 798] 326 | 12936
Gartree................. 3160 102 1478. 1387. 442 14697
Goscote, East......... 3276 || 7 || 1655 1284. 470 15705 ||
orough of Leicester 4609 || 74 4090. 355 || 23146
Local Militia em- x
bodied, May 15, I — I — I — I — * 957 |
w 1811............... 2 . . . . .
Totals..................booig | 63d 11700 17027' 2753 150419 |
LINcoLN




LINCOLNSHIRE.
&
SUMMARY OF THE PopULATION OF LIN COLNSHIRE.
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
HOUSES, OCCUPATION 5. PERSON S.
3 || 3 || 5 = 3 # 3 c E ####, ‘ā ā
f * ... Tº - > 1 tº º sº. ºf 3 “º * : *. *
3 E L || 3 > 3 = | * : B | > 3 > 9 g : 5 :
Wapentakes, &c. º: =#|####| * * : * = #### 3 º
Tº: 5* + 2 + š, ; ; ; 3 = E 5 ºr ºf C H pº
* = ~ ºf I - E •c 3 3.5 a-
}.} : : º -- . . ºf ſº 3. ; :
PARTs of Holland. . |
Elloe • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - *I, 41.45 109 2664 3. ! 174 ; : * * 664 20320
Kirton ............... ...] 2255 34|| 1531 || 407 473 1 1493
Shirbeck............... 900; 20 588 || 108 || 260 4298
Borough of Boston...] 1772| 65| 166 907 || 738 || 8180 ğ.
PArts of Kesteve N. . : !
Aswardhurn............ 1026. 22 825 || 235 || 46 5 144 |
Aveland ...............] 1449| 2 || 952 467 | 225 7687
Beltisloe ...............! 992 15| 766 || 21 1 || 1 | 1 5 134
Boothby-Graffo....... I 127 27| 923 | 184 || 121 5876
Flexweil ............... 859 20, 508 || 286 || 108 4365
Langoe................. 930 9| 841 159 || 58 5288
Loveden................] 1245. 19 992 || 258 || 142 6427
Ness.................... 1004|| 2 || 537 | 206 || 363 || 5376
Winnibriggs & Threo 837| 1 || 607 || 158 165 4359 tº
Borough of Gran ) | | | | | | | | |
than, with the X | 1529| 27 638 | 668 || 390 7766 ||
| Soke ............. } | | .. i. . . . . ; . . .
|Borough of Stanford| 798 221 136 627 | 133 || 4582
PARTs of LINDs Ey. - : : ſº
11| 609 | 128 38 3645
Aslacoe ::..............|- 696 ~ -
$oke of Bolingbroke 1392: 39| 1003 || 325 || 175 - 7089
Bradley-Haverstoe ... 1699| 76 1237 || 622 || 141 8537
|Hºnºred of Calee tº 1550 Al 1925 anil Laz laziz
" worth ............ $ -----|--~~~T-----|-------I - , , , ,
Candleshoe ........... 1164; 16| 967 || 232 || 133 6099
Corringham ........... 229 || 97, 848 848 || 7 | 1 10414
Gartree.................; 964] 27| 886 151 79 5387 |
Hundred of Hill...... 472| || 5 | 403. 102. 45 2694
Soke of Horncastle... 1293 33| 847 || 415 8 | 6395
Lawress... ............. 1080] 22 710 | 192 || 260 5611 |
º º 2033| 76|| | 126 || 489 || 674 10629
Ludborot;gh...........| 215] 2 207 19 , ) 2 . 1095 ||
Manley ................ 3631|| 72; 2723 862 428 17612
Walshcroft ............ 1016. 20) 882 217 65 5474
Weil..................... 437 13: 370 90 19 2217
Wraggoe ............... 895) 13: 723 156 || 134 5094
Yarborough .......... 2859, 58] 1973 || 913 298 14576
|Qity of Lincoln ...... 1813| 26, 468 1117 | 392 || 8861
Local Militia * \ . - , |
bodied, May, X | — | – || – || – | 2410
išii ......... § .
Totals .......... ........I 46368||1099/29881 |13184 || 7839 || 237891
2 R. MIDDLESEX.













slo APPENDix.
MIDDLESEX.
(The County separate from the Metropolis.)
"THE following corrections are submitted, in regard to th part of
the work; and it gives the Editor peculiar satisfaction to believe
that no errors of greater importance demand notice. Much, undoubt-
edly, might be added to the topographical delineations of nearly
every parish; but, as the Editor is not aware of any serious omis-
sions, he necessarily forbears to present, in this Appendix, any other
additional matter than some few supplementary hints of intelligence.
Page 109, note, for “compaigns,” read “campaigns.”
Hollas D-House, P. 136–146. From an old volume of archi-
tectural drawings, by John Thorpe, now in the possession of J. Soane,
Esq. Architect, “it appears that Holland House was designed by
that artist for Sir Walter Cope, who ther possessed the property.”
Hn our notice of the busts which oruament the gilt room, for “ Don Gas-
par Melchor de Savellanos,” read Don Gaspar Melchor de Jovelanos;
and add to the enumeration of busts, those of Ariosto and Buonaparte.
In our description (P. 145.) of a picture in this mansion, representing
the late C. J. Fox, when a boy, with two ladies; for “Lady Mary
Lenox,” read Lady Sarah Lenor. To the principal portraits in the
Library, add that of the late Earl of Stanhope, by Opie, bequeathed
by that nobleman to the present Lord Holland. The full length of
the present Lady Holland is by Romney. It should be observed that
the chief library at Holland-House is of rather larger dimensions than
we have stated; it being 109 feet in length. "
Page 148, line 15, dele the comma between the words “Warwick”
and “Holland.”
Page 315, note; for “principal,” read “ The principal,
Page 398, line 24, dele the word “all.” .
Page 399, line 12, for “ ancient English,” read the ancient
English. .
*Page 411, line 28, for “Bouchier,” read Bourchier. " ;
Page 421, line 15, for “Simplicicus,” read simplicius.
As the poetical Register of the parish of Twickenham, written
by Horace Walpole. (Earl of Orford) and mentioned in a note on
the Beauties for this county, Page 424, contains many curious local
...; ; allusions,

APPENDIX. ell
allusions, and is at the same time little known, it is presumed that
the reader will deem it a desirable article to be introduced in the
present place.
THE PARISH REGISTER or TwickenHAM,
Written about 1758.
WHERE silver Thames round Twit’nam meads
His winding current sweetly leads;
Twit’nam, the Muses’ fav’rite seat;
Twit’nam, the Graces' lov’d retreat;
There polish’d Essex (1) wont to sport,
The pride and victim of a court 1
There Bacon (2) tun'd the grateful lyre,
To soothe Eliza's haughty ire;
—Ah! happy had no meaner strain.
Than friendship’s dash’d his mighty vein
Twit’nam, where Hyde (3) majestic sage,
Retir’d from folly's frantic stage,
While his vast soul was hung on tenters
To mend the world, and vex dissenters:
Twitnam, where frolic Wharton (4) revel’d,
Where Montague (5) with locks dishevel’d,
(Conflict of dirt and warmth divine).
Invok'd—and scandaliz'd the nine:
Where Pope in moral music spoke
To th’ anguish’d soul of Bolingbroke,
And whisper’d, how true genius errs,
Preferring joys that pow'r conſers;
Bliss, never to great minds arising : … ??? ::, .x: * :
From ruling worlds, but from despising:
- . . . . . . 2 R3.
(1) Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex,
(2) Sir Francis Bacon. º
3. (3) Lord . Clarendon. * * ,”,
(4) The Duke of Wharton. &
(5) Lady Mary Wortley Montague.


six APPENDIX.
'Where Fielding (1) met his bunter muse,
And, as they quaff'd the fiery juice,
Droll Nature stamp'd each lucky hit
With unimaginable wit:
Where Suffolk (2) sought the peaceful scene,
Resigning Richmond to the queen,
And all the glory, all the teasing,
Of pleasing one not worth the pleasing:
Where Fanny, (3) ever-blooming fair,
Ejaculates the graceful pray’r,
And 'scap'd from sense, with nonsense smit,
For Whitfield’s cant leaves Stanhope’s (4) wit:
Amid this choir of sounding names -
Of statesmen, bards, and beauteous dames,
Shall the last trifler of the throng
Enroll his own such names among?
—Oh! no—Enough if I consign
To lasting types their notes divine:
Enough, if Strawberry’s humble hill
The title-page of ſame shall fill.”
George Deare, the promising but short-liſed sculptor, noticed in
the account of the residence of George Gostling, Esq. at Whitton,
(Page 431–432.) is thus commemorated in Dr. Clarke's Travels,
part Second, section Second, page 12–" Eleanor, wife of Edward
the First, sucking the poison out of her husband’s arm, is the work
of George Deare, who, at a very early period of life, attained to a
surprising degree of perfection in sculpture and design. He died,
a few years ago, at Rome, at the very time when the first proofs of
his genius began to obtain the patronage necessary for its full deve-
lopment. The particular work alluded to is a bas relief, executed
in the marble of Carrara. It was purchased by Sir Corbet Corbet,
an English baronet, and belongs now to his collection. This brief
allusion to a young artist, who would have been an honour to his
country,
(1) Henry Fielding, Author of Tom Jones, &c. &c. &c.
(2) Henrietta Hobart, Countess of Suffolk.
(8) Lady Fanny Shirley.
(4) Philip Stanhope, Earl of Chesterfield.
* Works of H. Walpole, Earl of Orford, vol. IV, P, sga—388.
APPENDIX. Gls
sountry, is, perhaps, the only biographical document concerning
him likely to be made public.” -
Page 626.—It will be seen, from an enumeration of many Roman
stations, inserted at Page 133 of the INTRoduction To THE Beau-
Ties oF ENGLAND AND WALEs, that the station Sulomagus is placed
by the most judicious modern antiquaries at Brockley-Hill. “The
Romans,” writes Mr. Leman, (Hist. of Hertfordshire, article Early
Inhabitants, P. 15.) “ built on the scattered town, or towns, of Sul-
lionac (for there appear, from the extent of the remains to have been
more than one British post there) the new fortress of Sulomagus.”
Page 653, line 9, for “Lanfrance,” read Lanfrane. º *
Page 680, note, for “Cassivallan,” read Cassivelaun.
The subjoined learned and satisfactory remarks, on the subject of
the ancient embankment and ditch noticed in the “Beauties” for
this county, P. 677, cannot fail of being particularly accept-
able to the reader. They are extracted from an article contributed
by the Rev. T. Leman to the first volume of Mr. Clutterbuck's
History of Hertfordshire, published since the completion of the
“Beauties” for Middlesex.
“Although the distinction between the lines of separation of the
Celtic and Belgic tribes are more evidently seen in Dorsetshire and
Wiltshire, yet marks sufficiently plain of both of them, may be still
discovered within the confines of Hertfordshire. Thus, the faint
traces of a bank and ditch, running north of the brick-kiln on
Harrow Weald Common, and on the left of the road from Harrow
* to Elstree, having its bank to the north, and its ditch to the south,
is certainly one of the boundaries of the primeval Celts, the Cassii,
connecting their post of Sullionac, with the river Colne, and forming
one of the southern lines of defence of their territories; while the
more substantial work which joins it to the east, and crosses, so
visibly, the road from Harrow to Watford, near Oxhey-lane, is, as
evidently, a Belgic work, raised, probably, on the traces of the
former by this more powerful people, when they crossed the Thames,
and invading the dominions of the Cassii, placed it as a boundary to
their first conquests. This may be concluded from the ditch of this
fortified line being invariably to the south, and its bank towards the
north, which proves it to be the work of a people attacking from
the southern quarter.” . . . . . . . . . * , -
º
*
* * *

2 R 3 MONMoUTHSHIRE.
614 APPENDIX.
M ONMoUTHSHIRE,
suMMARY or THE Population of MonMoUTHSHIRE,
4. published by Authority •, of Parliament in 1811.
H | Houses. occupations. TFERSONA
; Hundreds, &c.
f
|
i
|
i
i
:
:
;
!
i
|
;
i
si
º
#
;
§
| 14745 ||
9075 |
: Abergavenny.......... 2937 80 || 1 121 | 4.
* * * 182 6565
Ragland................ 1334|| 67 || 921 | * -
Skenfreth .............. 708 || 39 573 || 70 & 3370 |
s Usk.................. •..! 1662 50 s 935 444 410. i , , .7681 | ||
|...";|*|". 1150 1555 279 16269
rough of Mon-R | 661 1A 1 1/6 || 3a º 2 Eno I
*:::::...}| 36|| 1 || 146||37 || 232 3503
|Local Militia em- } | | | | | | ; , . . . . . . . . . .
5
;
;
:
l
:
:
70
| bodied, May 13, $1 — | – | — — — 919
º t
17....... tºº ſººº e º 'º
Totals...................ſºgºbºlº ſºlºis Fººl







NORFOLK.
SUMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF NORFOLK,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
TTCUTGGETFTWTFTWA

* t * -
* 1. - 4. ** C -- o
•c t tº 3.5 : J & = .. 5 §§ bº ,
Hundreds, &c. 32 * 3 |# 5 - 5 || 5 § 3 ; ; * = & 3 : &
% 3. 3. * * *C. - e- § 3. 5 tº º 'º a 3 * * *
º: £ E ## #: § ##### 3 # 4
Tº: - :* -> → - c "c ºf I- * tº Q
~ ####| =# F####" “k
5
4
6
I
2
5
Blofield................. 692 22
Brothercross...........! 675 | 15 147 |
º * tº dº º tº tº dº is tº * * * * 2201 || 43 652
-- 13
6
15
12
l
:
;
:
5
3.
ll
:
i
3
9
4
Clavering............. 793 13 || | 53 H #. | 5267 |
l l 53 || - -
8
5
8
0
l
Depwade...............] I 152 || 6 zº º - s
Diss.................... 1092 || 15 || 728 || 341 461 7736
|Earsham............... 1042 882 | 392 190 | 7378 |
Erpingham, North.| 1455 27 | 973 || 417 248 7654 ||
Erpingham, South... 2132 22 || 1649 582 289 11612 |
Eynesford.......... .... 1418 17 | 1223 424 || 145 || $452 |
Flegg, East............ 439 | 4 354 67 64 2291 |
Flegg, West...........] 509 || 6 || 453 90 93 2969 |
Forehoe................] 1692 || 24 || | 181 | 689 136 || 10263 ||
Freebridge:Lynn..... 140l 15 1375 323 123 8834 |
º 1427 42 1325 || 257 | 71 || 7957 |
Gallow................. l 139 || 12 || 944 || 347 | 121 67
Greenhoe, North.... 1688 37 907 || 535 401 . . . . . ;
Greenhoe, South.....} 1314 28 1169 || 377 || 1 13 || 7
º: .............. 903 || 10 || 725 182 19 5052,
3uilt Cross............] 769 || 8 || 614 || 393 || || 108 || 5695
Happing............... 890 18 || 787 268 || 46 52 10 |
Henstead...............| 706 || 4 || 650 Aks 1 || 56 | 4069 |
Holt..................... 1575 52 || 1061 || 448 + 928 – 27771 - |"
Humble Yard........ , 561 || 9 || 620 | 1.49 47 | 4076
|Launditch ............. 1483 19 1418 || 376 155 9596 .
Loddon.................] 843 || 5 || 817 | 262 83 || 5685
Mitford.................| 1371 12 1053 610 || 107 | 8950
Shropham........... ...] 1080 19 || 966 || 313 74 6675
Smithdon............... 1061 || 24 916 || 278 172 || 6281
|Taversham ............ 821 | 16 || 771 216 75 || 5360
Tunstead...............| 1613 ||37 1161 503 || 199 84.19
Walsham...............] 675 10 || 527 173 38 3633
Wayland.......... 830 9 | 849 191 51 || 5414
º *}| 2199 ||19| 67 || 1376 | 887 10259
City of Norwich..... 8336 |185 388 8410 879 37256
Borough of Tºº 513 15 56 || 287 | 186 || 2450
|Borough o arº ll as as l on 1 on l 1 a as 1 -o--
. tº...} 3486 |90 27 | 1964 1814 | 17977
|Local Militia º | | || || ||
:
;
i
:
>4
* * * * *
7,
S
º bodied, May,
# , 1811............... -
Totals............... ...[fºliºpºgosºſº ſooºo
2 R 4 NorthAMPTONSHIRE,
616
APPENDIX.
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
A valuable Correspondent in Northamptonshire has favoured the
Editor with the following corrections of the account of that district,
as presented in the eleventh volume of this work.
P. 41.
Ibid.
P. 42.
Ibid.
Ibid.
P. 48.
P. 49.
Ibid.
v. 50.
l
I
l
. l.
l
l
P. 47.
:
:
2.
3
7-
... 2
1
•
1. 23.
1. 19.
1. 23.
l. 24.
P. 46, in Table,
1. 17.
- 1. 19.
1, 28.
l, 2.
1. 32: &c.
8. &c.
1. 11.
4. n. & p. 5. l. 1.for “Moreton” r. Morton
for “Stanwich” r. Stammick
for “Ralph” r. Hugh
for “Coltesbrook” r. Cottesbrook
for “ Mrs. Wright” r. Mrs. Wight
for “Coltingham” r, Cottingham
omit l. 15. #: -
for “ Hollywell” r. Hollowell
for “Kilmarsh” r. Kelmarsh
for “Blencour” r. Blencowe
for “ Brian” r. Bruern
for “height” r. top - -
the Union Canal is completed; and the Har-
borough to Stamford Canal abandoned
for “ northern” r. western * . . ;
omit “ and at the same town,” &c.
for “Spritton” r. Spratton
for “Archologia” r. Archaeologia
for “ Welingborough” r. Wellingborough
for “Warnford” r. Wansford
Nassaburgh Hundred is omitted
for “Lodagrins” r. Leodegarius
omit ‘ and spire”
for “altar tomb” r. slab
for “ altar tomb” r. slab
for “ Crawfords” r. Cranfords
for “who’’ r. whose ancestor
the cross has been destroyed many years
P. 32.
APPENDIX. 617
i
d
71
Ibid.
89.
93.
i
Ibid.
P. 97.
P. 98.
P. 102.
Ibid.
P. 108.
Ibid.
P. 109
P. 110
P. l 11.
P. 112.
Ibid.
P. 122.
P. 124.
P. 132.
Ibid.
80.
82.
85.
88.
. 95.
:
-
l
g
I
º
l.
1. 7
º
4.
for “ Anly” r. Onley
for “Henry the third” r. Henry the fifth
add—and when of
for “Wyde” r. Wylde
after “in another part” add—on an altar tomb
for “several of which are” r. one of which is
for “ Morilli” r. Morillo *
omit “ But”—and for “ well” r. ill
for “is” r, was - |
Mr. Wodhull is since dead.
for “second” r. subsequent
for “of” r. on
omit “except”
omit “formerly”
for “ that name” r. Easton Neston
for “lately the r. the temporary
for “ Leveson Simon” r. Leveson Vernon
for “related” r. reported
for “ the "r. this
omit “ yard” -
for “several monumental records”
r. inscriptions on flat stones
omit “ and tutor to Lord Henry Petty”
for Huntingbroke” r. Hinchingbroke, the late
Earl of Sandwich
1. 10. & 13, for “Abingdon” r. Abington
l. 16.
!. 26.
l. 14. ... . .
for “Blackwell” r. Backwell
for “O’Brian” r. O'Brien
for “Haselrig’’ r. Hesilrigge
for “150,000l. r. 50,000l.
after “ St. John” r. for women
I. 15. & 16, omit “for the brethren,”—and “for the ce-
brothers”— ~
and add :-This Hospital is governed by a
master and two co-brothers, or chaplains, who
are appointed by him. The Master himself
is appointed by the Bishop, and has a
house in the adjoining grounds, but is non-
resident. ºf ,
Ibid.

618
Ibid.
P. 135.
l. 26.
1. 25.
1, 31 & 32.
1. 29.
l. 2.
l. 7.
I. 9,
1. 5.
I. 27.
l. 28.
omit “or Underwood.”
The monument here described is at Maidwell,
not Orendon . . .
after “inscription” r. in the chancel of Oxen-
for “Woolhage” r. Woolphage
omit “fine”.
after “Hospital” r. for women -
the Moravian chapel is converted into a Bel-
lian, or National, School, and the Methodists
have lately erected a large and handsome
chapel. . •r
for “Paradise” r. or new ... .
“two’’ r. one-the other has
tinued some years.
for “or” r. of ->
“Bramley” r. Brampton
“Darlington” r. Dallington
“birthplace” r. residence
after “ In” r, the parish of
been discon-
for “ Delvesheath” r. Dyves's Heath
the 2d. paragraph, should have followed
the 2d. paragraph in the preceding page.
for “fine” r. small r
after “Blanquefort” r. and Earl of Fever-
sham. : .
for “ East Haddon” r. West Haddon
“Standford”'r. Stanford
“Cold Ashby” r. Cottesbrook
omit “handsome”
for “Barfoot” r. Barford 3.
after “Rothwell” r. and Thorpe Underwood
for “ Nicoles” r. Nic ls
The Rev. Peter Whalley was born at Rugby, , sº
in Warwickshire, and had no other connection
with Ecton, than holding the living for about º
twelve months (1762-3.)—He was Vicar of
Sepulchre's in Northampton, several
years.
P, 179,
APPENDIX. 619
P, 179,
P, 185.
P. 186.
P, 189.
Ibid.
P. 192.
193.
194.
195.
198.
201.
203.
208.
. 210.
§
i
P. 213.
P. 216.
l.l.§wº,**&
1
l. 14.
l. 16, &c.
note.
l. 12.
i. 23.
l. 24.
l, 26.
:
8
tº *
l. 23.
1. 22 — 27.
of chronology this sentence should be transfer-
P. 221 •. º; zº
p. 222,
P. 238,
for “Batley” r. Battey
omit “bearing a cube at top, and on the four
sides are carved in stone, different figures em-
blematic of the crucifixion.”
for “Lambath” r. Lambeth
Mr. Cumberland was born at Cambridge,
whilst his mother was on a visit to her father,
the celebrated Dr. Bentley. He, however,
spent his early years with his parents at Stanwick.
for “ Barton Lattimer" r, Burton Latimer
“ Irthingborough” to Irthlingborough
Bishop Henchman was born at Burton Lati-
mer, in the house of the Rev. Owen Owens,
Rector of that place; his mother being sister
to Mr. Owens' second wife, and daughter to
Robert Grifith, of Caernarvon, Esq.”
for “Cranford Bridge” r. Cranford Hall
* is"’ r. was . . . . . -
“Hicklins” r. Hickling
omit “other” §
- for “Wilberstone” r. Wilbarston ; : *ś
“late the residence” r. the residence of the late
for “Clapton” r. Clopton
Barnwell Castle was never in possession of
the Montacutes. It was purchased of Beren-
ger le Moyne by the Abbot of Ramsey; and,
after the dissolution, was granted to Sir Ed-
ward Montagu.
“In the reign” to “windows.” In point.
red to the next page, and precede ſº Edward
the Fourth.”
for “ Naseburgh Hundred' * r. Nassaburgh
Hundred .
for “ Aleswort” r. Ay
ylesworth
“Earl of Burleigh” r. Earl of Exeter.
NORTHAMPTON.
* Bishop Kennet's MSS. and Restitute, vol. II.

e20
APPENDIX.
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
suMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF NoFTHAMPTONSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811. º

| HOUSES OCCUPATIONS. persons.
: -5 t tº # = § v $º #: SP br &
Hundreds, &c. # #3 |####| #g |######| = 3
E 5-s *##: =#ā Fääs =9| Ha-
(Chipping-Warden ... 818 13 601 || 206 61 3889
|Cleley ..................] 1174 24 672 429 215 5802
(Corby..................] 1976 42 870 || 781 || 420 9270
Fawsley ................] 2244 54 || 1238 | 897 || 332 11208
Greens-Norton...... ...] 921 | 16 || 674 307 52 4216
|Guilsborough......... 1719 29 || 910 | 890 175 8405
Hamfordshoe ......... 1324 12 521 | 890 77 6957
Higham-Ferrers...... 1230 || 7 || 624 593 188 6627
|Huxloe.................] 21 13 38 1086 1063 1 11 10090
|Kings-Sutton.......... 2010 || 32 1460 562 198 99.25
Navisford .............. 402 || 9 || 247 | 158 | 36 1988
Nobottle Grove......] 1440 ||34 || 806 392 3.18 7053.
Orlingbury ...........} 912 25 593 316 79 4341
Polebrook.............. 668 22 342 359 66 3520
|ººl ...............] I 449 || 35 | 808 || 584 1 14 6532
Spelhoe................! 966 | | | | 573 ſ 290 140 4669
|Towcester........ .....] 834 || 25 || 455 | 407 137 4058.
|Willybrook............] 972 24 619 323 | 84 4640
. §§§ 1409 || 29 940 || 396 182 6934
orough of North- Kos I on o º *
ampton |Nº|iºn 24 . 29 1421 an & 8427
“...}| so | 9 || 219 sº | as sº
Liberty of Peter- ~ | . . . . ~~. gº &
º 1341 25 948 321 275 7029
|Local Militia em-) :
* , bodied, May, X | — — — — — | 2099
ſºil.......) . . . . . ." .
|Totals...................128318 |539 [15235 [12100 3525 || 141353
NORTHUMBERLAND,
APPENDIx. ori
NoFTHUMBERLAND.
The Editor of this very interesting county has transmitted the fol.
lowing corrections and additions. -
P. 9. I. 30. read Lindisfarne.
P. 15. I. 15. read Allendale; and line 17, read Thocker-
r § Žngton. i
P. 23. 1. 28. for “ 16000” read 1600.
P. 25. l. 5. after Smelting, add:—Edward the Fourth, by
letters patent, dated March 23, 1449, granted to his brother, Richard,
Duke of Gloucester; Henry, Earl of Northumberland; and others;
the mines of Blanchland, called Shilden; of Alston-Moor, called
Fetchers; the mines of Cumberland; and the copper mines near
Richmond, in Yorkshire. The old works at Shilden have been very
extensive, as the rubbish-heaps in the line of the vein, called the old
Shilden vein, largely testify : but they had been carried to no great
depth. It has, indeed, been proved by very recent trials that the
veins in this place are unproductive of lead, at great depths. Messrs.
Hall and Puller, erected here a steam engine by Bolton and Watt, 3.
few years since, the cylinder of which was 70 inches in diameter, and
which, by keeping the mine free from water, enabled them to pierce
the veins as far as the great limestone stratum: but their hopes were
not realized : they found ore, but in very small quantities. Similar
trials at Bilden and Ramshaw were attended by immense loss of capi-
tal. The Strata which the four veins at Shilden intersect, consist of
alternating beds of silecious sandstone, and a black aluminous schist.
There is, also, one stratum of limestone called the Fell-top limestone;
and the Great limestone, which is the lowest stratum that has been
penetrated, near Blanchland. The ore is uniformly found in the sand-
stone strata, in two of which it is accompanied with an abundance of
beautiful species of chalcedony, some in the form of breccia; and
others of incrustations, the concentric coatings of which are of great
variety of shades. 3.
P. 39. l. 12. dele “the' before “ historians.” ... . . . . .
622 appendix.
P. 48. I. 12. for “September,” read November.
P. 53. note* l. 1. “ 1717,” read 1317. .
P. 54. 1. 30. “ vaulted; it is’ &c. read vaulted is &c.
P. 78. 1, 19. dele from “and &c.” to family; and add.—
- C. W. Bigge, Esq. of Lindon House, sold
the large brick house here to William Clarke,
Esq. the proprietor of Belford, who resides in
it; and the stone house is occupied by Thomas
Hanway Bigge, Esq, brother of Mr. Bigge;
-- .” . of Lindon. .
P. 73, at reference,t for “p. assim,” read passim.
P. 100. 1. 29. ' “Roger,” read Robert.
P. 120. i. 14, after Shewingsheels, add: on the sixth of July,
1816, John Blenkinsop Carlson, Esq. of Blenkinsop Castle, presented
various articles of antiquity discovered within his manor of Blenkinsop,
tothe Antiquarian Society of Newcastle-upon-Tyne; and, among them,
a fine tablet, bearing the following very interesting inscription te
- Ceres. . .
IMMINET. LEONI. VIRGO. CAELES
Ti. Sitv, spicifer A. iv.STi. IN
VENTRIX. VRBIVM. ConDITRIx.
Exqvis MvMERIBvs. NossE con
TIGIT DEOS ERGO EADEM MATER DivvM
PAX VIRTVS CERES DEA SYRIA .
LANCE VITAM ET IVRA PENSITANS
IN CAELO visv M SYRIA SIDVS EDI
DIT LIBYAE COLENDVM INDE
CVNCTI DIDICIMVs
ITA INTELLEXIT NVMINE INDvcTVs
TVO MARCVS CAECILIVs Do .
NATINVs. MILITANS TRIBVNVs .
IN PRAEFECTO DONo PRINCIPIs
It will be observed that this inscription consists often verses, of the
same kind as those in which the comedies of Terence are written.
The Rev. G. S. Faber, author of The Origin of the Idolatry of the
Pagans, has given a very learned explanation of this curious docu-
ment in the Archæologia Åliana; but his paper is too long for inser-
- - tion

tion in this place, and is incapable of abridgment. The following
extract is the introductory paragraph of Mr. Faber's paper:-
“Marcus Caecilius, the author of the curious inscription to Ceres,
-- lately discovered at Caervoran, on the Roman wall, identifies that
.* Goddess with the Zodaical constellation Virgo: and, both in this
identification, and in the character which he ascribes to her, he dis-
plays an intimate acquaintance with the old Theological notions of the
• Gentiles.” z * : * , . . . .”
P. 134. I. 28. for “EO” read TO and dele the paragraph be-
ginning, “ concerning this” &c. and ending “pius et justus:”
and insert the following in its place: it is observable of this inscription
that it mentions an Emperor of Rome, who was grandson of Severus;
the Second Ala of the Astures; a person of the name of Marius Vale-
rius; the presence of a prefect called Septimius Nilus; and refers to
something that, having been injured by time, had been rebuilt, and
dedicated on the third of the kalends of November, when Gratus aud
Seleucus were consuls. ...: > -º . . .
Heliogabalus was grandson of Maesa, thesister of Severus, and styled
himself DIVI SEVERI NEPOS. He began to reign in 218, and
was slain on the tenth of March, 222. Gratus and Seleucus were con-
suls in 221: this inscription, was, therefore, made on the thirtieth of
October in that year, and refers to Heliogabalus. After the death of
an Emperor who was hated, his name and titles were often erased
from public monuments; a practice which accounts for the mutila-
tions in this inscription. r
The Notitia Imperii, a record that mentions transactions which oc-
curred after the reign of Theodosius the First, and, consequently,
after 375, enumerates the names of eighteen cities per lineam Walli:
and particularizes the rank of the officers, and the names of the seve-
ral divisions of the Roman army, by which they were garrisoned. In
the sixth of these cities, which it calls Cilurnum, and which answers
to Walwick Chesters, it places the prefect of the second wing of the
Asti (Prafectus Ala secunde Asturum Cilurno.) The coincidence,
therefore, between this inscription and the Notitia, clearly proves that
the ancient name of Walwick Chesters was Cilurnum. A similar
. agreement exists between the Notitia and inscriptions found at the
stations at Benwell; Halton Chesters; Carrowbrugh; House Steads:



624 APPENDIX.
Little Chesters; Burdoswald ; and other stations on the line of the
wall. 3. .” .
The Astures were a people of Spain. The first Ala of them was
quartered at Benwell, and, in an inscription belonging to that place,
is called Ala prima Hispanorum Asturum, and is coupled with the
name of Gordian. An inscription discovered at Æsica, or Great Ches-
ters, on the wall, also mentions the second cohort of the Astures; but
the Notitia says, cohors prima Asturum AEsica. # * * *
The Alae were auxiliary cavalry, and each of them consisted of
four or five hundred horse, and was divided into ten turma, or troops.
I conceive that the term vetustate referred to some edifice that had
fallen into decay. The first Ala of the Astures rebuilt a temple at
Benwell, in the time of Gordian; and the second cohort of the same
people re-edified a ruined granary, from the ground, at Great Ches-
ters, in the time of Alexander Severus. The Emperor Gordian also
rebuilt certain decayed barracks and magazines at Lanchester; and I
apprehend that the inscription in the crypt at Hexham, which has
HORR ...... upon it, relates to the repairs of some granary. It is
worthy of remark, that all these repairs were done nearly about the
same time ; and, I think, the term vetustate conlapsa, fallen together
by time, implies that these edifices had acquired a considerable age
at the time they were rebuilt. . & .
Perhaps, the repairs which this inscription records, were done by
some part of the second Ala of the Astures, the name of which was in
the plural number; and the four last lines, when perfect, stood in
some such manner as the following. The titles and offices of this
Emperor may be seen in several inscriptions in Gruter, and other
authors. º . . . . . .
ALA.. II. Astvº. TEMPLVM. VETVSTATE. conLAPSVM. RESTITv
ERVNT. PER. MARIVM. VALERIVM. LEG. AvG. PRPR.
INSTANTE, SEPTIMIONILO. PRAEF. ALAB II. ASTvrt
DEDICATVM, III. KAL, Novem. GRATO ET SELEvco Coss.
In Horsley's Britannia Romana, and in Gough's Camden, there
are copies of two inscriptions of this kind, found at Lanchester; in
both of which the names of the propraetor and the prefect are in this
mode of Phraseology. I have inserted templum to agree with dedi.
eatum, supposing, that the flattery of the times had complimented this
. execrable
“execrable Emperor and priest of the sun, with some title of divinity,
and dedicated a temple to him. * # ºr º
P. 137, after line 19, add:—In 1811 an act was passed “for erect-
ing five distinct rectories and parishes within the rectory and parish of
Simonburn, and for separating the same from the rectory and parish
of Simonburn ; and for providing parish churches, churchyards, and
pa ionage houses for the same; and for restraining the commissioners
and governors of the Royal Hospital for seamen at Greenwich, from
presenting to the rectory of Simonburn, or the said new rectories, any
other persons than chaplains in the Royal Navy.”t In consequence
!of the above act, this parish has been divided into the several parishes
of Simonburn; Wark; Bellingham ; Thornegburn; Falstone; and
Greystead. A Chapel of Ease to Simonburn, and a parsonage house,
have been built at Humshaugh; new churches and parsonages at Wark,
Thornegburn, and Greystead; and a new parsonage at Falstone.
P, 139, line 24, dele formerly the residence of a famous border chief-
‘ain, and add:—it was wholly built by his Grace the late Duke of Nor-
thumberland. It stands on the brink of a steep, smooth, green bank,
formerly called Humphrey's Knough, and situated between the North
Tyne and the Keelder, where they unite. Its form is quadrangular,
and it is castellated in the front, which has a prospect far down the
North Tyne, and towards the mountain called Bewshaugh. Pearl.
Fell, fantastically crowned with, four rude pillars of stone (set up
by Shepherds, and called Pikes) towers up behind it; and fine old
woods of birch, alder, hawthorn, &c. give it a majestic appearance.
Large plantations of larch, oak, fir, and a great variety of other kinds.
of forest trees, have lately been made in its neighbourhood. A bridge
has also been built here, over the Keelder, within these few years.
Some yards to the north of the castle, four rings, and two round
pieces of bronze, clumsil y soldered together with a whitish metal, were
discovered, by the earth being washed from about them by the water
of an open drain. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kennel Park is a tract of ground of a roundish form, about three
milesin diameter, and divided into two parts by the North Tyne. The
part of it situated on the south side of the river is the property of Sir
2 S., John
* See Archæo. ACliana, Vol. I. p. 29.
+ Preamble to the act, 51 Geo. III. c. 194,



626 APPENDIx.
John Swinburne: that on the north belongs to his Grace the Duke of
Northumberland, and Col. Reed. The lines of its ancient fences can
be seen from almost every part of it. We have met with no account
of its ancient possessors. In several parts of it, mounds of earth have
been thrown across the dells, for the purpose, as tradition informs us,
of damming back the streamlets, and forming ponds, in which the
deer might save themselves when pursued by dogs. Within it, at the
head of Sunny rigg, is a circular ditch, inclosing an area of about five
yards in diameter, with seats on its outside cut out of the earth. It is
called Arthur's Round Table. In former times the district of North
Tindale abounded with red deer; and numerous horns of that animal
are often found here, especially on the banks of the Keelder, after
floods. . .. 4
P. 139. 1. 31. after forests add:—In the district between Tyne-
head and Bellingham there are several circular entrenchments, on the
banks of the North Tyne, which we suppose to be the remains of
fortified villages of the ancient Britons. They go by the name of
camps: and were, probably, sometimes used as such, during the
border wars. The first of these camps that we noticed is on a place
which is covered with wood, and called Bell's Hunkin: it is on the
south side of the Tyne, about a mile above Keelder Castle, forms an
area of about 60 yards in diameter, and is defended by a vast vallum
of rough, unhewn stones. There are several square and circular lines
within it, which, apparently, are the foundations of buildings. The
next of these camps is about a mile further down the river, in Hitch-
hill Wood; it is very similar to that on Bell's Hunkin, excepting that
much of the stone of its vallum has been taken away. The third is
on Lowey Knough's, about a mile from the last, is about forty yards
in diameter, and has a vallum of earth, which at present is rather
faint. The fourth is on Harpney-rigg on Lewis-burn, very perfect,
thirty yards in diameter, and covered with wood. Still lower down,
on hellhaugh-moor, is a fifth, also very perfect, and about thirty
yards over. All these remains are about 300 yards from the river;
on the north side of which each of them has a corresponding camp.
There is one on Ryan's Hill, opposite to that on Bell's Hunkin,
sixty yards across; its mound is of earth, and very ſaint. Another is
opposite to Hitch-hill, on Camp Rigg, and is fifty yards over : its
vallum is of stones; but the greater part of it removed. Many small,

AppENDIx. car
hand-millstones were found in it, and spear heads, and other pieces of
iron, much corroded. The next in succession, on the north side, is
over against Lowey Knough's camp, on Hol's Knough, fifty yards in
diameter, its vallum being of earth, and still very discernible. That
termed Baredales is fifty yards in diameter, its vallum is of earth, and
still very apparent; but it is a little below its corresponding camp on
Harpney-rigg. And the lowest one of this series, that we noticed, is
on Hawk's Knough, in Kennel Park, opposite that on Wellhaugh,
fifty yards in diameter, its vallum of earth, but much defaced.
There is, also, a circular camp, formed of earth and stones, on the
southern margin of the North Tyne, in a birch wood not far from
Eals; and one on Knopping-Holm-hill, opposite to Tarset Castle, the
lines of which are faint. Bellingham was, probably, the site of a
Roman station. It commands a view of the passes into Scotland, both
by the North Tyne and the Rede. We have observed no traces of
Roman antiquities on the North Tyne above it. Immediately below,
it there is a square camp, on Garret Hut; another on Reedswood º
bank; and a third near Nook mill; all of which have deep ditches.
The two last are upon Dodd-heaps, on Hareshaw common.
Iron mines have been wrought in this district in ancient times, as
appears by heaps of the Scoria of that metal, still to be seen by the
road side, in a plantation a little to the north of Mounces, and on the
hills to the east of Hawkhope. Coal is abundant kere. That at
Plashets is the property of his Grace the Duke of Northumberland,
It is of excellent quality, and is contained in a bed nearly six feet.
thick. Another bed appears in an estate belonging to Greenwich,
Hospital, at Greenheugh; and the estates of Sir J. E. Swinburne,
Bart, at Shilburne, and of Dixon Brown, Esq. at Hawkhope, contain,
coal in great plenty.
• There is a large table at Keelder Castle, made out of a pine tree,
which the river Keelder, in a flood, exposed on its banks in Black,
cleugh. The tree was of a great size, remarkably sound and perfect;
and, on the under side, its bark remained, and was three inches.
thick. About fifteen years since, the shepherds set fire to the heath.
on a hill a little to the south of a place called Yarrow. The weather.
was very dry, and the fire communicated to an extensive peat-moss,
in the dry parts of which it made great ravages, and exposed the re-,
ź
mains of an ancient forest of pine, part of which had evidently been
2 S 2 burnt
628 APPENDIX.
burnt down, and the rest overturned by a west wind. The people of
the neighbourhood go to this place, called the Fir-tree-moss, for wood
for ladders, &c. and make the torches of it, which they use in taking
salmon with fish-spears in the night, as this sort of wood is remarkably
inflammable. . . . … . . . &
A very curious Saxon inscription was discovered in 1810, by the
late Rev. James Wood, minister of the Scotch chapel at Falstone, in
a farm called Hawkhope-hill, which belongs to Thomas Ridley, Esq.
of Park-end. Near the spot where the discovery was made, “Ruins”
are marked in Armstrong's Map of Northumberland. Mr. Wood
gave the inscription, with an account of its discovery, to the New-
castle-upon-Tyne Antiquarian Society, who have published an en-
graving of it, in the first volume of their Transactions. It is much
obliterated, and no explanation of it has hitherto been published.
The stone which bears it, appears to have been a part of the capital
of some Saxon column, or some such ornament.
Mr. Wood, in his account of this inscription, observes: that “ with-
in the bounds of this chapelry of Falstone, and its immediate vicinity,
there are some houses consisting of very thick walls, with stone vaults
below, which have evidently been erected for the purpose of defend-
ing the possessors of them, and their cattle, against the depredations
of the neighbouring Moss-troopers. Here, too, are some remains of
ancient castles; but we have no authentic account concerning them,
and tradition is not to be depended upon. Wonderful stories, indeed,
are told of them. Tarset hall, for instance, on the north side of the
Tyne, and Dalley Castle, on the south, may be about a mile dis.
tant; and there is, they say, between the two a subterraneous road cut
out, even below the bed of the river. Less than half a century ago,
vulgar superstition, it is reported, has been so quick sighted as to dis-
cern horses and chariots driving between these two old castles at
midnight.”*
P. 157 after the 9th line add:–On the middle of Fallowfield Fell,
there is a long ridge of sandstone rocks, one of which, called “The
H'ritten Cragg, bears this inscription: PETRA FLAVI CARAN-
TINI—The Cragg of Flavus Carantinus.t. . . . .
P, 181,
• Archalogia Eliana, vol. i. p. 104.
t Ibid. Vol. I, p. 126.
APPENDix. '629
P. 181, line 31, for “were,” read are; and line 32, for “shrub-
beries,” read plantations of fir. .
P. 188, after line 17, insert:-Woodhorn is the name of a parish,
the church of which is a vicarage dedicated to St. Mary, and in the ad-
vowson of the Bishop of Durham. Its rectory was appropriated to
the priory of Tinmouth. Formerly it had under it the chapels of
Widdrington and Horton, which were separated from it in 1768.
Neubiggengg; Wodehorn, with Linmuwe and Hirst, its members?
Haliwell, Lynton, Ellington, with Creswell and Hayden, its mem-
bers; were in the time of Edward the First, parcels of the barony of
Hugh de Baliol. Newbiggen has a small harbour and granaries, from
which grain is shipped, in vessels of about 60 tons burden; and ships
can ride in the bay here in seven or eight ſathoms of water. Its chapel
is dedicated to St. Bartholomew, and annexed to Woodhorn; in
former times it has had three aisles, only the middle one of which re-
mains at present; and this contains the effigy of a “Knight Templar.”
The village is much resorted to as a bathing place; but is chiefly in-
habited by fishermen. In January, 1808, the crews of five boats,
consisting of nineteen men, belonging to this place, and to Blythe and
Hartley, perished at sea, by a sudden tempest from the North-East.
The sum of 17011, was voluntarily subscribed, chiefly in Newcastle
and its neighbourhood, for the relief of their widows, orphans, and de-
pendants, consisting of 90 persons. ...
P. 201, for “third,” read second.
P. 207, after line 5, add:—Budle is a small village standing above
a fine sandy bay, on the north side of the mouth of Warn-burn, which
§: &
is a safe harbour for ships of about 50 tons. The shores of Budlebay
produce abundance of cockles. Here are large granaries, and mills,
called Warn-Mills, from their being situated on the river Warn, which,
probably, had its name from the circumstance of having water mills
upon it in the Saxon ages; the word 2vern in Swedish, and 2uern in
English, signifying a mill. By the Testa de Nevil we are informed that
the two villages Bodle and Spinlestan, with the mill of Warnet, were
given to Eustace, the son of John, by King Henry the First; and
that his successor, Eustace de Vesey, held them in the reign of
Edward the First. A part of Budle belonged to the three daughters
of Sir George Bonies, of Streatlan Castle, in the county of Durham,
in 14 Char. I. In 1663, it was the property of Lady Forster and Mr.
-x 2 S 3 . Richard
*

630 APPENDix.
Richard Forster, of Newham ; and at present it belongs to Grieve Smith,
Esq. From Budle bay there are high and bold remains of a Roman
way towards Alnwick; from whence it probably passed to the Devil's
Causeway by Lemmington. × &;
P. 210, line 9, after castle, add:—and is now, jure uroris, the
property of Sir M. Masterman Sykes, Bart. of Sledmere in York-
shire. * , , §
P. 213, line 24, for “Henry,” read, Sir Henry Liddle, Bart.
P. 215, line 14, for “family” read Roddams. . .
P. 217, after line 21, add :=Fowbury ToweR was the seat of
William de Folebyr, who in 1273 held Folebyr, Caldmerton, and
Hesibrigg, by one knight's fee, of the old Feoffment of the barony of
Vescy. In 1416, Robert de Folebery was a representative in Parlia-
ment of this county. “On Trinity Sunday, 1524, 500 Scotsmen
passed the Tweed at different fords, and lay in hollow grounds
near the highway, with a view of intercepting the traders and others
going to Berwick Fair. They took nuch spoil, and made many
prisoners; but being attacked near Brankston by a body of English-
men, who gathered on the alarm, and were joined by the young
Lord of Fowberry, at the head of 100 light horse, a fierce skirmish
ensued, in which the Scots were defeated; and in their flight 300
of them taken.” In 1532, The Scots plundered this place. |In
1663 it was the property of William Strother, Esq. of Kirknewton;
but charged upon “Mr. Hearon of Fowbery” in the rental for
raising the train-bands. In 1741, John Strother Kerr, Esq. of Fow.
berry, was sheriff for this . county. At present this place is the resi-
dence and property of Matthew Culley, Esq. who purchased it of Sir
Francis Blake, Bart. . . . .
NorthumberLAND.
" Rid. Bord. Hist, p. 520.


APPENDIx, 631
D.
*
NoFTHUMBERLAN
suMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF Northu MBERLAND,
rº
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
– TT houses. occupations. Persons.
|
*…
}
wards, kc. .
; -
É
ſ
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i
;
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;
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ſ
i
f
—
i
4
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4
4
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8
6
6
3
1025 .
1734 5475 || 3855 49766
O
Bambrough............| 1778 |
Castle................... 8109 || 25%
Joquetdale............ 3302 | 165. 1801 || 996 || 1179 18703
Glendale............... 2007 || 55 1321 494 || 36. 10698
Morpeth............... 2133 159 1175 976 || 488 || 1 1783
Tindale................. 6790 || 268; 3704 2022 || 2006 || 37215
own and º | | | . . . .
2
5
2
3
6
9
of the Town of * * -> | 16. | ke .
Berwick-upon- º .# 21 169 w 521 | mw |
* Tweed. • * * * * * * * * * * - *** . . > || **
Town and County ) | | | | | | | | | | | }
! of the Town of (laiga as 16 ºnks son or.
| Newcastle-upon ! 316, 10: 16 |*| 1990 ºss,
Tyne........ “. ... is . . . . . . . . . . . . * * . . . ; ; * . . . ." . . . "
. . . ;
3.
A. : ; ; ;
tº “º - ---
º Totals. • * * * * * ..-- • * * * * * * 2825 8 -
- *-------ºr-mºs
:
------- --- g
* .
2 S 4 NoTTINGHAMSHIRE.




692 APPENDIX.
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE.
In a supplementary paper furnished by the editor of the Beauties
for this county, he observes that “it cannot be denied but that much
might be added to the account of a district so important in extent and
in population. Of what is written there is little, however, that re-
quires correction, in regard to fact; and, where speculation has been
hazarded, the editor fears not the charge of presumption when he
| claims the authority of recent events, to justify the principles assumed
in reference to general polity.”
The names of the principal gentlemen who contributed information
to this portion of the work, have been already enumerated;" but it
should be added, that, “for the interesting account of Stanton, the
| public are indebted to the pen of the very intelligent and Rev. Dr.
Sranton ; the editor's note to that account requires, however, a
slight correction.— Although the Stanton famil y of Ireland are there
said ‘to be a younger branch of the family,’ yet we are assured by
that gentleman that there, in fact, exists no relationship whatever.
“ In the description of Stoke-upon-Trent, and the account of the
battle fought there in the reign of Henry the Seventh, much stress is
laid upon the extraordinary discovery at Minster Lovel, recorded by
Gough in his edition of Camden, as connected with a passage in
Bacon's history of that reign. * Since that was written, we have perused
the account of Oxfordshire in the present work, the editor of which
seems to consider Mr. Gough as having been imposed upont To.
enter into the controversy, here, is needless;–the reader will judge
for himself of the general probabilities on both sides. *
“It is also proper, in this place, to notice a slight mistake of the
Engraver with respect to the plate of the “Excavations,” which are
there said to be at Sneinton, but are really in the park near the coa-
fluence of the Lene and Trent.”

. . .
ºt º




NoTTINGHAMSHIRE,
• Sce Beauties for Nottinghamshire, and the General Preface.
* See Beauties for Oxfordshire, p. 507–508.
APPENDIx. 633
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE.
SUMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF NOTTINGHAMSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.

, ºr # * : * :
|Tºº. ICECUFºº FEEN"
&:. ...?
#
!
!
§
* . . . . . . Hundreds, &c.
&
& # -
x.
|hunºº, OR, WA- " . . .
| PENTAKE of BAS-
Hatfield Division.....] 3001 || 64 1902 || 886 265 || 14602 º'
# North Clay Division 1730 || 54 || 1010 || 676, lº, 179, -8484 |
South Clay Division ||1314 || 23 || 1046 || 268 || 64 6183 ||
Bingham, North ) || | | | | | | | || ". . . . . " |
|- and South Divi-X-| 1951 26 1352 || 569 || || 144 || 10042
º _sions......... “... * * : * * * ". . . . . º, li " . . . . . . . . . .
|Broxtow, North l | | | | | | | | |
| and South Divi. #| 7922 20 1796 || 6295 344 || 491.18
sions.............." . . . | , , , , ,
Newark, North }
and South Divi-
sions...............
|Rushcliffe, North
and South Divis
% -- sions,..............
i
t
i
3 i
|
|
|
:
i
i
º#s
:i:
|
:
-
|
Liberty of South- . - - - -
iſ well and Scrooby
Thurgarton, # -
1726 49 || 1091 |,466 || 237 8602
and South Divi-
‘l sions...............
Borough of New-
ark-upon-Trent
Town and County
| of the Town of
Nottingham....."
|Local Militia em-
| bodied, May,
#3 1811...............
2864 || 36||1685 | 104 220 | 1319s
1483 || 9 || 388 983 224 7a36
6514 |287| 110 | 6815 305 | 3a;3
hººl 954,2293 |18928 2293 Iggoo .
OXFORDSHIRE,
634 APPENDIX.
oxFordshire.
The Editor regrets that his delineations of this county should have
been restricted, by unavoidable causes, to limits too likely to prove
unsatisfactory to some partial inhabitants. An account of the university
of Oxford necessarily engrossed so large a portion of his allotted pages,
as to leave little room for historical discussions, ordescriptivestatements,
respecting many circumstances and places, of minor, although of unques'
tionable, interest. It is felt desirable to remind the reader that he investi-
gated ground untrodden by the laborious and patient county historian,
*whilst prosecuting his researches in this district. Such an inconvenience
hestates in palliation of any possible errors; but he has the satisfaction of
observing that a scrutiny rather more rigorous than might be expected,
has, hitherto, failed in discovering any serious inaccuracies. . . . .
His unprinted collections are numerous, as he resided for many
years on the border of Oxfordshire; but he cannot suppose that they
would be acceptable in an Appendix, embracing notes upon many dif-
ferent counties. All corrections that have appeared to be strictly neces-
sary, are here made; and some few additional remarks are presented.
- Page 2, line 19, for “ Dr. Whitaker,” read the Rev. J. Whitaker.
The ancient British tribe termed the Dobuni, (see p. 2–6) is noticed
with more mature consideration in the “Introduction” to the Beauties,
article “ The Ancient Britons.” wº
Page 8–9; to the Roman stations in Oxfordshire, add Stonefield.
Wide “Introduction,” and the attached map.
Page 9–10; on further consideration, there appears reason for sup-
posing that Astal Barrow, and other similar tumuli, were of British,
rather than of Roman construction, as is conjectured by Dr. Plot.
* Page 10–13. The remains of Roman roads are accurately laid
down in the map annexed to the “ Introduction.”
Page 139–140. Mr. Gough, in his elaborate work on Sepulchral
Monuments, thus notices the curious shrine mentioned in these pages:
—“The shrine of St. Frideswide, in the north aisle of Christchurch,
Xford, of which there is an aquatiata print lately executed by Mr.
Roberts, portrait painter to the Duke of Clarence, is a rich piece of
§ 3. 3." - . . Gothic

Gothic wood work; but as the altar-tomb under it has on its slab the
brassless figures of a man and woman, I cannot help surmising, that it
has been removed from its own original station. Browne Willis, whe
notices these figures, does not remove my scruples by observing that
“they were said to be in memory of Didanus and Saffrida, her pa-
*rents; which Didanus, being a petty King in these parts, built the
“tiunnery in the eighth century, and made his daughter first abbess.”
* Sepulchral Mons. Vol. II. Introduction, p. 188. x
'Page 237–238. Clarendon PRINTING-House. The following
twork was lately printed and published, by order of the Clarendon
trustees: “Religion and Policy, and the countenance and assistance
“each should give to the other, &c. By Edward, Earl of Clarendon,
Lord High Chancellor of England, and Chancellor of the University
*of Oxford.” The advertisement respecting this publication involves
“some particulars deserving of notice. “Henry, Wiscount Cornbury,
who was called up to the House of Peers by the title of Lord Hyde,
in the life-time of his father, Henry, Earl of Rochester, by a codicil
* to his will, dated August 10, 1751, left, divers MSS. of his great
* grandfather, Edward, Earl of Clarendon, to trustees, with a direction
that the money to arise from the sale or publication thereof should be
employed “as a beginning of a fund for supporting a menage, or aca-
demy for riding and other useful exercises in Oxford; a plan of this
sort having been also recommended by Lord Clarendon, in his Dia-
logue on Education. .. x ...:-
.**Eord Cornbury dying before his father, this bequest did not not
take effect. But Catherine, one of the daughters of Henry, Earl of
Rochester, and late:Duchess Dowager of Queensberry, whose property
these MSS. became, afterwards by deed gave them, together with all
the monies which had arisen or might arise from the sale or publication
of them, to Dr. Robert Drummond, then Archbishop of York, Wil-
liam, then Earl of Mansfield, and Dr. William Markham, then Bishop
-ef Chester, upon trust for the like purposes as those expressed by Lord
Hyde in his codicil. º 'º nº -
“The present trustees having found the above unpublished work
amongst these MSS. have proceeded, in the execution of their trust,
to publish it.” . - ; ; ; ; ; 3. … 3
Page 252.—The greater part of St. Mary's College is still re-
tuaining, although now converted into stables, a meeting-house for
* 3: . . ; < Methodists,

... APPENDIX.
Methodists, &e. It may be added , that very considerable architectu-
ral remains, appearing to be those of a monastic structure, and now
"used as livery stables, are to be seen opposite to Magdalen church.
These, we believe, are not noticed by any writer on the antiquities of
Page 256–259. Although it is duly mentioned, in a preceding
section, that King Richard the First was born at Oxford, he should be
again noticed as a native in the above pages. The following names
may also be added to our enumeration of distinguished natives of this
city. Dr. Charles D'Avenant, son of Sir William D'Avenant, well
known from his political writings; Barten Holyday; Hilliam Joyner,
or Lyde: Gerard Langbaine, author of “A new Catalogue of English
Plays,” &c.; Samuel Welles ; and Dr. Edward Wootton. , ,
Nuneham CourtNav, P.277-Those three large portions of
the tapestry maps, which formerly lined the hall at Weston, in War-
wickshire, and were presented to the late Earl Harcourt by the Hon.
H. Walpole, were afterwards given by that polished and amiable no-
ºbleman to an antiquary, whose acquaintance he had courted through a
love of literature—the late Richard Gough, Esq. The same maps
formed part of the articles which Mr. Gough, by his last will, directed
to “be placed in the Bodleian Library, in a building adjoining to the
Picture Gallery, known by the name of the Antiquaries' Closet.”—
Nuneham-Courtenay was visited by the Editor of the Beauties for
Oxfordshire, in the absence of the noble proprietor of the domain.
The tapestry-room was then locked-up, and was the only apartment
in the mansion, likely to contain objects of public interest, that was not
minutely inspected in the course of an examination resumed in three
different days. The account of the tapestry-room, as it stands in the
Beauties, was derived from a M.S. Catalogue raisonné, preserved at
Nuneham-Courtenay. . . . . . . . . . .
º Thame ... P. 288-301. I n the summer of 1816, on, digging in a
close, situated, in the liberty of Priest-End, now in the occupation of
Mr. Joseph Howland, were found, “ some teeth, of a very large
size, supposed to be those of the Mammoth,” which are preserved
by Mr. David Moore, of Thame. Fossil bones of various kinds
are frequently found on digging gravel in the immediate vicinity of
this place; several curious specimens of which are, likewise, in the
* . . . . . . . .” On




APPENDIX.
On the 2d of May, 1817, a calamitous fire occurred.in this town,
between the hours of one and two in the afternoon, which consumed
the pleasant residence of the above-named gentleman, together with
fourteen other houses. º º - º
Dorchester.—The bridge at this place, which is stated (at page
379) to have been in a state of progress when our account of Oxfordshire
was produced, was opened for carriages, in the month of July, 1815.
The new structure is thus noticed in a communication to the Gentle-
man's Magazine:– “ Its length is a quarter of a mile, wanting eight
yards; its breadth thirty feet. Part of this length is, in summer,
apparently useless, as the ample centre arch is then capacious enough
to admit the whole of the stream; but the winter-rains swell this
stream to a considerable river, which, overflowing its banks, inun-
dates the meadows on each side its channel. The completion of the
new bridge was the signal for removing the old one; which was
effected so rapidly, that in December, 1815, scarce a vestige re-
mained.”—Gent. Mag. for July, 1816, p. 297, with an engraved
view of the New Bridge.
Page 425. A more recent discovery has occurred in the neigh-
bourhood of the Roman vestiges here mentioned. This took place
in the year 1813, and succeeding years; and consists of a Roman
villa, of an extensive character, situated in the parish of North-
Leigh, and distant about one mile and a half from the former disco-
very. Fortunately for the antiquarian public, the present interesting
relics have met with the protection of the liberal and judicious.
Buildings have been erected over those parts which contain tesselated
Henry Hakewill, Esq. architect. From a “Plan” published by
this gentleman, it appears that the present discoveries comprehend
a quadrangle, of irregular dimensions, having a crypto-porticus r ound
three of its sides. The greatest length of the quadrangle is 212 feet
8 inches; and the greatest width 167 feet. We are informed that
a circumstantial account of the remains of this villa is in the press, and
will soon be published.
Page 426, line 10, for “Antiquary,” read Antiquarian.
Kippington, P. 453. In our list of the principal books re-
lating to this couuty, we have omitted to notice the following work
connected

638. APPENDIX.
connected with the above parish: “Specimen of a History of Ox-
fordshire, by T. Warton,” one thin quarto volume, lately reprinted
by Nichols and Son. This very judicious and elegant “Specimen,” º,
contains the History of the Parish of Kiddington. . . . . .
* DEDDINGton, P. 465–470. In the year 1744 was published
d 6 The Life and Adventures of Matthew Bishop, of Deddington, in
Oxfordshire. Containing an account of several actions by Sea:
Battles, and Sieges by Land; in which he was present from 1701 to
1711, interspersed with many curious Incidents, entertaining Conver-
sations, and judicious Reflections.” It has been deemed desirable to
notice this publication, with which the Editor of the Beauties for
Oxfordshire was not acquainted when he wrote the account of the
town of Deddington, although Matthew Bishop is by, no means a
native calculated to add important interest to the biography of the
place which is said to have afforded him birth. According to the
anecdotes which he relates of himself, Mr. Bishop left Deddington,
the place of his nativity, in the year 1701; and repaired to the house
of a relation in Kent. Being of a rambling disposition, he shortly
afterwards entered on a seafaring life; and, from the date of his first
quitting shore, commences a series of adventures, which are of little
interest in themselves, and are related in very homely terms. --
P. 471, line 31, for “Berford,” read Burford. º a
Burford. P. 472–478. It must be obvious that in all extensive.
topographical enquiries, occasional reliance must be placed on the
testimony of individuals, selected as the most desirable sources of
information, on account of a long residence on the spot under inves-
tigation, joined to an appearance of respectable impartiality. The
most careful discrimination, however, is sometimes subject to error
in the choice of informants ; and a lengthened residence would, in
SOme cases, be necessary to enable the enquirer to separate the dic-
tates of party-feeling from temperate and candid intelligence. It
would give us sincere regret if, in a cursory allusion to the presumed,
ill-management of certain charities attached to this town, we have
been misled by the supposed impartial person from whom we derived
information. ź.
P. 473. The picture of Sir Thomas More and family, in the
possession of the truly-respectable owner of the Priory, Burford, is
supposed not to be the work of Holbein.
3. Ibid,
APPENDIX. 680
Ibid. for “ Bassau,” read Bassan. - . . . . . . . . . . .
P. 475, line 13, between the words “from,” and “ in,” insert
being. ~ - . . . . . . . .
P. 480, line 9, dele the word “ that.” -
P. 483, line 17, between the words “ younger,” and “ of,” insert
P. 485, Witney is distant ten miles from Oxford.
P. 488, line 7, from bottom, for “ 1456,” read 1656.
| P: 492. The passage beginning with the words “ In this part of
the county,” and ending with the words “ part of Berks,” may be
amended as follows:–In this part of the county are three parishes
completely isolated; namely, hidford, Shilton, and Langford.--
Widford forms a part of Gloucestershire; and the churches of Shilton
and Langford, as far as regards ecclesiastical government, are deemed
to be in Oxfordshire; but, in all civil matters, these parishes are
considered as being in Berkshire,
. Since the publication of the “Beauties” for Oxfordshire, there
has appeared a well-written and satisfactory work, intituled the
History and Antiquities of Bicester, a Market-town in Oxford.
shire,” &c. &c. by John Dunkin. One volume octavo. This
pleasing work, (to which is added a reprint of the whole of Kennett's
Glossary,) can scarcely fail of being peculiarly acceptable to the
inhabitants of a county so little illustrated by topographical labours.”
- P. 536. Dele the passage beginning “Dr. Stukeley,” and ending
“Caversfield.”
exroRDSHIRE,
OXFORDSHIRE.
suMMARY OF THE Population of oxroRDSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 181 1.
. . . . .
- * : * : * : *.
~,
HOUSES,
occupations.
Hundreds, &e.
ºf sºlº
!
i
i
~x.
!
º|$
:
i
2S.#.
i
Bampton......... ...“
Banbury • * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Binfield................
Bloxham ...............
Chadlington • * * * * * * * * *
Dorchester ............
Lewknor • * * * * * - - - - - - • * *
Pirton • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Ploughley. “..........
Thame..................
Bullington.............|
Ewelme • * * * * * * * * * * * * • “
Lah tree ‘.............
1.
;
:
|Liberty of Oxford....
|Local Militia em-
bodied, May,
Oxford.......!
181 I “.......... .
3705
l 1919.
RUTLANDSHIRE.









APPENDIX
641
RUTLANDSHIRE.
Respecting this county the editor observes “that there is little to
correct. It may be proper, however, to add to the list of Errata,
that in page 70, “fears is,” should have been printed, fears are.
The editor, likewise, begs to acknowledge that he was subject to
error when he stated Henry Duke of Gloucester, son of Charles the
First, to have died in his father's life-time; whereas he lived until
the Restoration, and was, indeed, an interesting, though very young
personage to the friends of Royalty during the Interregnum.” r
RUTLANDSHIRE.
suMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF RUTLANDSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.

— Houses. º occupations. * persons:
Hundreds, &c. . . § # = g 555 # # É - # # ## s #
- # 3; ####| ###|######| 3:
|- # |5"|Hää|=########| 3:
Alstoe................... 692 | 13 428 198 141 3563
East..................... 578 - 6 426 * 153 49 2959
Martinsley......... ... 677 16 || 305 || 282 135 3274
Oakham Soke.........! 72 l l 28 || 412 || 235 1 15 3384
Wrandike..............} 657 || 14 || 454 160 65 3200
Totals... sº tº ſº e º tº º Q tº º ... * * * 3325 77 2025 1028 - 505 16380
2 T SOMERSETSHIRE.
642 APPENDIX,
SOMERSETSHIRE.
A correspondent, who has paid much attention to the progress of the
“Beauties of England,” suggests the following additions and correc-
tions to the topographical account of the CITY OF BRistol.
Since the Thirteenth Volume of this Work, including Somerset-
shire, was published, the above-named great commercial city has un-
dergone several alterations and improvements. The avenues of trees
on the College Green are now cut down, and the green is surrounded
by a light and ornamental iron railing. A substantial iron railing, com-
bining neatness with security, is also erecting on the banks of the river
Frome. The introduction of Gas has met with considerable favour;
and preparations are Imaking to render this beautiful mode of illumina-
tion an object of general utility. In regard to an augmentation of
public buildings, it may be observed that three new places of worship
have been constructed for the use of dissenters from the established
church, each having a ſront composed of free-stone. The assemblies
(noticed at page 694) have been for some years removed to a more
elegant building, in the neighbouring village of Clifton.
The Editor of the Beauties for Somersetshire, writing, at page 687,
concerning the Merchants’ hall, has fallen into some errors, which
must be thus corrected :-There are only two plain stone vases in re-
cesses or niches, one on either side of the door; nor is there any globe,
or armillary sphere. In the outer hall is only one portrait, that of the
late Edward Colston, Esq. In the great room of the council-house,
however, are several portraits; and, over the fire-place of the inner
hall, the merchants' arms are “finely carved in wood, and appro-
priately coloured.” In an inner room is a model of the Medea fri-
gate, built at Bristol in 1778.
The following correction is of essential importance.—At page 690,
dele from line 1, beginning at the words “The expenses,” to the end
of the paragraph terminating at line 18, with the words “full rigged;”
and insert, The works proceeded with rapidity, and the sum of 500,000l.
was expended. The foundations of the present two iron bridges across
the harbour were laid: one being on the Ereter, the other on the Lon-
don road. Unfortunately, in January, 1806, the iron ribs of the latter
gave way, after the work was considerably advanced ; but the injury
was soon repaired, `.
SUFFOLK.
APPENDIX. 643
SUFFOLK.
We are favoured by a correspondent with the following corrections
in regard to this county, - -
Page 7, line 5, for “Saxfield,” read Laxfield.
9,
18,
109,
136,
5, add 1796.
10, for “ Charlsfield,” read Charsfield.
14, for “Claggett,” read Clagett.
in two instances for “ Hollis,” read Holles.
144, note, for “Cordwell,” read Cordell.
159, line 3, from bottom, for “ Alto,” read Basso.
160,
169,
176,
176,
180,
182,
216,
318,
265,
37h
3, from bottom, for Ossington,” read Assington.
5, after Sir Harry Parker, Bart. add, he died January
15, 1812, -
7, for “Robert,” read Richard.
19, for “June,” read May 18th, 1775.
16, for “North,” read South.
2, from bottom, for “Rochester,” read Lincoln.
last paragraph. To the account of “the Rev. Tho-
mas Harmer,” add he died at Wattesfield, in
Blackbourn hundred. . . . . . . . . .
after “Hac tamen,” read post partum 19, (viz.
Jiliorum 13, filiarum autem 6) et anhelationem, &c.
instead of “post partum XIX. Filiorum et XIII.
Filiarum,”
18, for “ 1668,” read 1688.
8, from bottom, insert and between “Rendlesham,
Sudborne;” and for “and Alford,” read with
Orford. .
2T2 SUFFOLK.
644 - APPENDIX.
SUFFOLK.
suMMARY OF THE PopULATION of suffolk.
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.

HOUSES OCCUPATIONS. persons.
} . . . . . . + 1 . ... à a # 1 rº tº 5 tº o tº . . .
Hundreds, &c. & # 3.3 gäää #3 & # ##### $ 3
. . . . . . . . . . . à |##|####| #########| #3
: E = | E ºf 5 9 F : 5 [- - E + $3 5 :
# |5* |####| 3: * : #####| £3.
* a -a - 5 & 9-
Babergh ................] 3353 55 2389 || 1300 352 19079
§. 1560 | 15 || 1365 486 402 | 1 | 166
Blything................ 2844 47 2487 966 461 20278
º 1751 | 16 || 1465 515 163 ! 0715
Carlford.......... '......] 739 9 828 174 47 5 137
Colneis * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , , 477 7 ... 466 161 58. 3584 r
Cosford. • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1433 25 | 1 || 16 i 501. 164 - - 851 1
Hartesmere............] 2337 22 1860 || 790 257 14665
'Hoxne..................] 1740 || 17 | 1814 || 618 || 143 || 13588
Hackford......... ...... 1514 || 35 | 1143 || 446 389. 9537
kiſſ; 1787 40 | 1010 || 965 260 1 1422
|Mutford and Lo- or & º } -
! . thingland • * * * * * * * * } 2125 * 47. 963 921 *... tº 465 # . . . 11612
Plomesgate............ 1342 12 || 1080 531 247 | 9033 .
Risbridge...............] 1958 42 | 1672 || 609 || 239 12365
Samford................} 1397 5 || 1354 || 382 | 1.42 9305
|Stow..................... 1092 || 23 || 804 || 406 || 159 | 6650
Thedwestry............ 1240 || 19 || 1 | 73 354 || 1 19 7684 ||
Thingoe................| 749 || 6 || 856 || || 10 48 || 5273
"Thredling.............. 382 || 1 || 330 || 172 ( 12 2559
ſº 761 || 13 || 770 |. 322 97 6017
|Borough of Bur * - *. - * ** * wº
St. ...} 1474 30 | 164 966 551 7986
Borough of ſpswich. 2733 99 || 193 2083 826 13670,
Borough º's...; 570 18 40 597 165 3471 .
| Totals......... ..........[37227 (624 (26406 || 5180 6048 (234211
SURREY.
SURREY.
We have great pleasure in supplying an important omission, which,
probably in the celerity of periodical composition, escaped the notice
of the Editor of the “Beauties” for the county of Surrey.-The parish
of BARNEs is, on many accounts, of inferior interest to few in this
county, yet it has been unfortunately overlooked; and we now
anxiously endeavour to remedy such a deficiency, by presenting the
following historical and descriptive pages. %
Barnes is described in the record termed Domesday, under the title
of Berne, in the hundred of Brixistan (Brixton) as belonging to the
church of St. Paul's; and the property of the manor is still vested in
the canons of that church. w º, . . . . .
The parish is bounded on the north by the river Thames; on the
east and south by Putney; and on the west by Mortlake. This parish
is said by Mr. Lysons” to contain about 900 acres of land, of which
nearly two-thirds are arable, including garden-ground; there being of
the latter about 125 acres, besides what is cultivated by farmers for
garden-crops.-In the Abstract of Answers and Returns made under
the population act for the year 1811, the total number of persons
dwelling in the parish of Barnes is stated to be 994. * * *
In the general review of parochial districts, our attention is first, and
most naturally, attracted to the parish church; since we there often
view the authentic records of extinct, as well as of existing, families
connected with the neighbourhood.—The church of Barnes evinces
considerable antiquity; and is supposed, by the author of the Environs
of London, to have been erected about the time of Richard the First.
It has, however, experienced many alterations. The windows in the
north wall of the chancel are in their original state, and are narrow and
pointed; but those in the south wall, and in the nave, are of a later
date. The tower, [which is square, and built of brick, while the walls
in other parts of the structure are chiefly of stone and flint,) “was erect-
'ed, probably, about the end of the 15th century, if not Dh uch later.”t
The most ancient monument recorded as once existing in this
~~~~…~ * : * ~ * ~ * ~ 2 T 3 church,
* Environs of London, 2nd Edit. Wol. 1. p. 7.
# Ibid. Wol, I. p. 11, :
646 APPENDIX.
church, was to the memory of hilliam Millebourne, Esq. who died
An. 1415. This consisted of a figure in brass, upon a slab; and was
situated near the communion table, before the chancel was new-floored.
The effigy represented a man in armour, bearing a dagger on his right,
and a long sword on his left side; his hands uplifted, and his head
guarded by a pointed helmet. The monument bore the following
*
inscription:—
Hic jacet Willielmus Milleburne Armiger, qui obiit in die
Sancte Luce Evangeliste, a Dom. MCCCCXV.
Quisquis eris qui transieris, sta, perlege, plora,
Sum quod eris, fueram quodes, pro me precor ora.
Mr. Lysons has preserved the memory of this brass by an engrav-
ing;* and Mr. Bray mentions an old house on Barnes-green as be-
longing to the family of Milbourne, who continued in this parish until
the reign of Henry the Eighth. ~ -
Few amongst the monuments of a more recent date are deserving
of particular notice. The best, in point of execution, is one by
Hickey, erected to the memory of Sir Richard Hoare, of Barn Elms,
the first baronet of that family; who died 11th of October, 1787, and
was buried here. The connexion of the family of Hoare with this
parish, will be stated in a page briefly ensuing. . . . . e.
On the outside of the church, in the south wall, is a small tablet of
stone, to the memory of Edward Rose, citizen of London, who died
in July, 1653. This humble tablet obtains frequent, notice, on ac-
count of a singular donation, by which the deceased endeavoured to
preserve his name in lasting remembrance. The citizen here buried,
directed that rose-trees should be planted against the wall on each side
of his commemorative tablet; and bequeathed the sum of 20l., to the
poor of the parish of Barnes, upon condition that the churchwardens
should keep in repair the paling which protects this fanciful planta-
The parish of Barnes constitutes a rectory, under the patronage of
- . . . . . , , , , , the
• The above engraving is omitted in the second edition of the Environs of
London; which edition is, in many respects, inferior to the first.
+ Hist. af Surrey, Vol. III. p. 316.
APPENDIX. 647
the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's; and it may be observed that
several of the rectors have been promoted to the episcopal bench.
The chief topographical interest of this parish is connected with the
tenants of its manorial property.—The manor of BARN Elms, as we
are informed by Sir William Dugdale, in his history of St. Paul’s,
was granted to the canons of that church by King Athelstan, and was
usually let by them upon long leases. In 1467, Sir John Saye and
others were joint-lessees. Thomas Thwayte, Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer, possessed the lease in the year 1480; and was succeeded, in
1505, by Sir Henry Wyat, in whose family it remained for half a
century. The remainder of Sir Henry Wyat’s lease was bought by
Thomas Smith, Esq. who was in possession of it in 1567; soon
after which date it became the property of the celebrated Sir Francis
Walsingham, who selected the mansion of Barn Elms as his country
retirement from the fatigues of arduous state employment. Y:13
At this seat Sir Francis Walsingham was honoured with three visits
of his royal mistress, Queen Elizabeth. These took place in the years
1585, 1588, and 1589. In regard to the latter visit, the following
notice occurs in a letter of Lord Talbot to his father, the Earl of
Shrewsbury : “This daye (May 26, 1589.) her malie goethe to Barn-
ellmes, where she is purposed to tarry all day, tomorrow being Tews-
day; and on Wednesday to return to Whytehall agayne. I am ap-
poynted among the rest to attende her malie to Barn-ellmes. I pray
God my diligent attendance there, may procure me a gracious aun-
swere in my suite at her return; for while she is ther, nothinge may
be moved but matter of delyghte, and to content her; which is the
only cause of her going thither.”* : * > . . . . .
It appears that, previous to this visit, Queen Elizabeth had taken
the lease herself, after the expiration of that granted to Sir Henry
Wyat; and that she bestowed it upon Sir Francis Walsingham, and
his heirs, by letters patent, in the twenty-first year of her reign.
But Sir Francis did not long enjoy the royal gift; for he died in the
following year; and, notwithstanding his numerous opportunities of
aggrandizement, he died in such impoverished circumstances as to be
buried (at St. Paul's) in the most private matter, at the expense of
his friends !! -: N. §
* Lodge's Illustrations of British History, vol. II. p. 596."
* Stow's Annals—For the character of Sir Francis Walsingham, see Lloyd's
State Worthies, Vol, I. p. 398, &c
648 APPENDIX.
The only surviving daughter of Sir Francis was married to three
very illustrious characters:*—Sir Philip Sydney; the Earl of Essex;
and the Earl of Clanrickard : the second of whom, so well known,
and so much pitied for his misfortunes, resided frequently at Barn
Elms.—Lady Walsingham, relict of Sir Francis died, at this seat, on
the 19th of June, 1602; and, according to the annalist Stowe, was
buried in a private manner, near her husband, in St. Paul’s Cathe-
dral. < .
It appears that Sir Henry Wyat’s lease of Barn Elms commenced
on the 1st of March, 19. Hen. VII. (1504) and, extending to the
long term of 96 years, terminated in 1600. In the year 1639, the
manor was demised to John Cartwright; and, when the church lands
were exposed to sale by order of Parliament, the house and land were
purchased by Mr. Cartwright, and the manor by Richard Shute, Esq.
In 1659, the house and gardens at Barn Elms, with a small propor-
tion of land, were advertised to be lett On the restoration, the
Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's regained their former possessions;
and the Cartwright family continued to be their lessees, until the mid-
dle of the 18th century. .
While the estate was leased to the family of Cartwright, it appears
that the mansion afforded a retirement to the Poet Cowley, whose
anxiety to escape from the turmoil of busy society, and to woo the
muse in her most sequ estered haunts, has been emphatically comme-
morated, and is well known. This moral poet and amiable man re-
sided at Barn Elms for a short time only ; and his death has been
attributed to the lingering effects of a fever contracted on this spot.
His biographer, Spratt, says that, “out of haste to be gone out of
the tumult and noise of the city, he had not prepared so healthful a
situation as he might have done, if he had made a more leisurable
3. .. . choice:
* Mr. Lysons (Environs of London, Vol. I. p. 8) says that this lady had
“ the singular good fortune of being wife to three of the most accomplished
men of the age.” But in such a mode of calculation few persons will agree
with that writer. Her Ladyship's fortune would, assuredly, have been more
felicitous, if she had enjoyed a permanent union with only one of those dis-
tinguished characters. . . . . * . . . .
; t Mercurius Politicus, May, 5, 1659. .
? A raised terrace-walk, flanked by fine trees, still retains the name of
€owley's walk. * , ; - - . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX. - 649
choice: of this he soon began to find the inconvenience at Barn Elms,
where he was afflicted with a dangerous and lingering fever.”—He
afterwards removed to Chertsey, where he died at the Porch-house,
28th of July, 1667. -: w . . . . . ;
In this era of the property, whilst the lease was held by the Cart-
wrights, the house was also tenanted by the celebrated Heydegger,
master of the revels to King George the Second; of whom Mr. Lysons
has recorded the following anecdote:– “The late king gave him
notice that he would sup with him one evening, and that he should
come from Richmond by water. It was Heydegger's profession to
invent novel amusements; and he was resolved to surprise his Majesty
with a specimen of his art. The king's attendants, who were in the
Secret, contrived that he should not arrive at Barn Elms, before night,
and it was with some difficulty, that he found his way up the avenue
which led to the house. When he came to the door, all was dark;
and he began to be very angry, that Heydegger, to whom he had
given notice of his intended visit, should be so ill prepared for his re-
ception. Heydegger suffered his Majesty to vent his anger, and af.
fected to make some awkward apologies, when in an instant, the
house and avenues were in a blaze of light, a great number of lamps
having been so disposed, as to communicate with each other, and to
be lit at the same instant. The king laughed heartily at the device,
and went away much pleased with his entertainment.”* *
In the year 1750, the lands, house, and manor of Barn Elms, were
purchased by Sir Richard Hoare, of William Cartwright, Esq. of
whom he had previously rented the estate for the term of ten years.
The above-mentioned Sir Richard Hoare was the second son of Henry
Hoare, of Stourhead, in the county of Wilts, Esq. He served the
office of sheriff for the city of London, in the years 1740-1;t and was
knighted on the 31st of October, 1745; in which memorable year of
the rebellion he was chosen Lord Mayor for the city of London. He
died on the 12th of October, 1754; and was buried in the family vault
at St. Dunstan’s.
He
. * Environs of London, Vol. I. part I. p. 9–10. ... ;
* This Sir Richard left a curious journal of his shrievalty, in his own hand-
writing; of which Sir Richard Colt Hoare, Bart, his descendant, has lately
printed a limited number of copies. . . .
656 APPENDIX.
He was succeeded in his property at Barn Elms by his eldest son,
Richard, who was created a Baronet on the 10th of June, 1786; and
died at Bath, on the 11th of October, 1787; leaving the house and
estate at Barn Elms to his widow. Her Ladyship died on the 10th of
September, 1800; and, on that event, the property descended, by
will, to Henry Hugh, the eldest son of the aforesaid Sir Richard
by his second marriage with Francis Ann, daughter of Richard
Acland, Esq. who still makes it his occasional residence.
Barn ELMs, distant five miles from Hyde Park Corner, rather
deserves the title of a country seat than that of a villa. The attached
grounds comprise above 600 acres of land; and being surrounded,
nearly on three sides, by the river Thames, possess the combined
advantages of rural beauty and perfect retirement. In point of seclu-
sion, this seat was, indeed, well-suited to the pensive temper of the
poet Cowley; for one foot-path only, leading from the river to the
village of Barnes, intersects its peaceful and elegant demesne. A
row of fine elm-trees decorates its borders on the River Thames;
and the house is approached through a venerable avenue. The man-
sion is built with brick; and was considerably enlarged, and im-
proved, by the late Sir Richard Hoare, Bart. in the year 1771.
Amongst several good pictures preserved in this seat, must be noticed
two of the largest and finest landscapes of Gasper Poussin. & N
The gardens at the back of the house are well laid out, and are º,
enriched by much fine wood, and a large ornamental sheet of water.
It may be here remarked that the soil of this domain is naturally dry,
and that the place does not, from any circumstance, appear to deserve
the inputation of unhealthiness, ascribed to it by the biographer of
Cowley. . …
It is impossible to quit our notice of Barn Elms, and the truly
respectable family to which the estate belongs, without reminding the
reader that Sir R. Colt Hoare, the second baronet, and elder brother
to the present possessor, Henry Hugh Hoare, Esq. is distinguished
by his literary attainments and productions. On this subject it may
be desirable to cite the “Beauties” for Wiltshire : “To this gentle-
man the literary and antiquarian world is indebted for some very useful
and interesting works; and as they are mostly of a topographical
nature, they particularly demand our notice here. They consist
of a Translation of the tour, &c. of Giraldus Cambrensis, through
r 3. Wales,
APPENDIX.
Wales, two vols, 4to.; A Tour in Ireland, one vol. 8vo.; and
The Ancient History of South Wiltshire, folio. In thus
appropriating his leisure, and a part of his fortune, Sir Richard must
derive much rational pleasure ; at the same time he is entitled to the
thanks of every topographer and antiquary.” §§ 3.
The parish of Barnes has, at different times, afforded a residence
to the following well-known characters in the annals of literature
and the arts: Henry Fielding,'t unquestionably the best English
novelist; Handel, the Shakspeare of musicians; and Wandrebank,
the painter. . w
Hughes wrote a short poem intituled “ Barn-elms,” which is
printed in his works. *:3&
A celebrated Club, once held at Barn-Elms, likewise demands atten-
tion.—Of the KIT-cAT CLUB we have all heard; but its history was
little known, until collected and presented by Mr. Bray, to whose
work: we are indebted for the following particulars. This club
derived its name from a person called Christopher Cat, who was
either a pastry-cook or a tavern-keeper, and supplied the members
with delicious mutton-pies at the original place of their meeting, in
London.
Tonson, the bookseller, while secretary to the club of Kit-cats,
caused the meetings to be transferred to a house belonging to himself
at Barn-Elms; and built a handsome room for the accommodation of
the members. The portrait of each member was painted by Sir
Godfrey Kneller; but the apartment not being sufficiently large to
receive half-length pictures, a shorter canvas (36 inches by 28 in
. width) was adopted; and hence proceeded the technical term of
Kit-cat size, so generally known as to its application. Prints in
mezzotinto were scraped from the original pictures, by Faber, be-
tween the years 1730 and 1736; and are published in one volume,
containing forty-three plates, which commemorate the following
personages: + ‘. . ; - x g; "
1. Sir
. Beauties of Wiltshire, p. 274, note.
# Two other villages near London ( Twickenham and Ealing) are men-
tioned in the “Beauties” for Middlesex, as having been favoured with the
temporary residence of this witty writer and deep student of human nature.
History of Surrey, Vol. III.

652
APPENDIX.
|
:
:
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21
22.
23.
24.
25.
27.
28.
29.
30
*
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
. Sir Godfrey Kneller.
. Charles, Duke of Somerset.
. Charles Lenox, second Duke of Richmond, K. G.
. Charles Fitzroy, second Duke of Grafton, K. G.
. William Cavendish, second Duke of Devonshire, K. G.
. John, Duke of Marlborough, the celebrated General, K. G.
. John, second Duke of Mountague, K. G. ->
. Evelyn, Duke of Kingston, K.G.
. Thomas Pelham Holles, Duke of Newcastle, K. G.
. Charles Mountague, Duke of Manchester.
. Lionel Cranfield Sackville, Earl of Dorset, K. G.
. Thomas Wharton, Marquis of Wharton.
. Theophilus Hastings, Earl of Huntingdon.
. Charles Sackville, Earl of Dorset, K. G.
Algernon Capel, second Earl of Essex.
Charles Howard, Earl of Carlisle.
Richard Boyle, Earl of Burlington, K. G.
James Berkeley, Earl of Berkeley, KG.
Richard Lumley, Earl of Scarborough, K. G.
Francis, Earl of Godolphin.
Charles Mountagu, Earl of Halifax, K. G.
James, Earl Stanhope,
Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilmington, K. G.
Richard Temple, Viscount Cobham.
Charles Mohun, fifth and last Lord Mohun.
. Charles Cornwallis, fourth Lord Cornwallis.
John Vaughan, Earl of Carbery.
John Sommers, Baron of Evesham.
Richard Boyle, Viscount Shannon. .
Sir Robert Walpole, the celebrated Minister of State, after-
wards Earl of Orford. 3. .
Sir John Vanbrugh, the Architect, &c,
Sir Samuel Garth, M. D.
Sir Richard Steele.
John Tidcomb, Esq.
William Pulteney, Esq.
Joseph Addison, Esq.
George Stepney, Esq.
38. Abraham
APPENDIX, sis
38. Abraham Stanyan, Esq.
39. John Dormer, Esq.
40. Edmund Dunch, Esq.
41. William Walsh, Esq.
42. William Congreve, Esq. º
43. Charles Dartiguenave, Esq. a celebrated epicure, recorded
by Pope in his Satires, and by Lord Lyttelton in his Dia-
logues. -
44. Thomas Hopkins, Esq.
45. Edward Hopkins, Esq.
46. Arthur Mainwaring, Esq.
47. Jacob Tonson.*
This interesting series of portraits, comprising the most illustrious
statesmen and authors of that age, were bequeathed by Mr. Tonson
to his nephew, Jacob ; on whose decease they became the property
of his brother, Richard, of Water-Oakley, near Windsor, who re-
moved them to that place; and they now belong to William Baker,
Esq. late M. P. for the county of Hertford, whose father married
the eldest daughter of Jacob, nephew of the original secretary to the
Kit-cat Club, Mr. Jacob Tonson, the bookseller, who died in 1736.
* Many curious particular, respecting the characters of the above cele-
brated members of the Kit-cat Club, are collected in Mr. Bray's History of
Surrey, Wol, III. Article Barnes. - * . . . . ... $, $ ' ' wº. " ' ' " ---

664 APPENDIX.
SURREY.
suMMARY OF THE POPULATION of SURREY,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
wº- Houses. Toccupations. Fº
| # |##|####|##, Hää, ä a
Hundreds, &c. # ## #### Ez; ſºft gº 3 :
# 5” & 335| 5 #3 Fää. #5, #3:
a 2-3 as g 3.5 a.
Blackheath.| 1113 | 29 792 | 263 251 6597
Brixton.................|24050 887| 2122 |17510 | 12477 136656
Copthorne ............ 1367 || 37| 702 || 471 411 8239
Effingham ............. 197 | 154 41 20 - 1 186
Elmbridge............. 1065 || 48 426 || 335 408 6019
Farnham ............... 1174 29 693 || 441 154 6753
jºins ............ 1473 30 391 || 69, 96 8554
Godley ................. 1852 * : 77 1069 464 439 10430 *
Kingston ...............! 2200 || 75|| 454 || 1 188 909 13390 |
| |Reigate ................} 1666 || 35 1005 || 466 229 8588
Tandridge ............. 1281 27 1026 319 || 120 7657
Wallington ............] 3078 44 1271 1343 || 823 17881
Woking ..............., | 1637 || 36|| 1 || 10 || 384 26S 8816
Wotton tº e º ſº * * * * * , sº tº e º s 984 25 540 300 : 258 5678
Borough of Guildford| 495 || 15, 46 434 116 2974
Bºgº º 11802 294. 116 |10510 || 8003 || 72119
ILocal Militia em-5 | | | | | | ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
| bodied, May, X | — — — — — 2314
. 1817. ............ .
Totals ..................|55434 |1690,12417 |35160 | 24982 || 323851 |

*
Sussex
APPENDIX. 655
SUSSEX.
$UMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF SUSSEX,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.

| Houses. occupations. PERSON S.
; : - § • He o H . tizº ºr of <-------
" Rapes, &c. 32 * +5 # $: E E = ? ###### 3 #
! # |5° F###|sis #####| #3.
Arundel. * G & º e g tº ſº ......] 3624 89 || 3064 1209 517 24276
É. 3700 (233 || 2527 1227 507 22777
Chichester.............| 4151 |123 3105 || 1 161 590 || 24200
astings................ 5268 13() 3657 1885 996 34826 >
Lewes..................] 2932 || 56 2371 || 828 342 | 18659
|Pevensey...............] 5833 |126 || 4812 || 1743 516 || 38217
|City of Chichester... 1083 ||32 || 72 803 || 4 || || 6425
º; 893 29 || 112 || 597 || 549 6221
"own o righ- & .
tºnio. 2077 30. 61 | 1301 || 1054 12012
Local Militia em- )| .
bodied, May !
1811...............
Totals..................lºg ſingliºs loºsal 5482 h90083.
WARWICKSHIRE:
656 APPENDIX.
WARWICKSHIRE.
Restrained, by the limits of this Appendix, from introducing
fresh topographical delineations respecting a county so rich, through-
out nearly all its divisions, in local history and antiquities, it remains
to present such corrections of the descriptive sketches already made,
as have occurred on an attentive revisal, or have been suggested by
gentlemen residing in the county, in consequence of letters circulated
for that purpose. - -- {
*
Page20. Since the publication of the “Beauties” for Warwickshire,
the STRATFor D CANAL has been brought to Stratford, and completed.
At this town it joins the Avon, and opens a communication with the
Bristol Channel. The first boat passed out of the Canal into the Avon,
on the 24th of June, 1816. º § º
Page 28, (and p. 265) WRoxhALL House is now inhabited by Chris-
topher Wren, Esq. its proprietor, who has completed the alterations
and repairs of this mansion. -
Page 38, line 10, for “slight,” read flight.
Page 42. The great hall of Kenilworth Castle is situated in the
Lancaster, not in the “Leicester,” buildings. We have observed
that the lake, which formerly ornamented three sides of this castle,
is “now nearly dried up:”—the site is, at present, meadow-land.
Page 44, note, for “ 1662,” read 1642. -
Page 52, line 13, after “William Lord Craven,” add, afterwards
Earl.
Page 54, line 17, for “Houthorst,” read Honthorst. The same
correction is necessary in the note to the same page; and again, at
page 57, line 2.
Page 56, line 4, from bottom, for Miereveld, read Mirevelt.
Page 57. BINLEY church was erected by the late Lord Craven.
The Earldom became extinct on the death of the first possessor, and
was renewed in the person of the present peer.
- ~ Page
APPENDIx. 657
Page 57. Mr. Wagstaffe, here mentioned, was son of the more
celebrated Thomas Wagstaffe, eminent as a writer on the side of roy-
alty in the 17th century. He is said by Chalmers to have “died at
Rome, Dec. 3, 1770, aged 78. Mr. Nichols has preserved some
jeux d'esprits, and some epitaphs written by him; and there is a let.
ter of his to Hearne, the antiquary, in the “letters written by Emi-
nent Persons,’ published at Oxford in 1813.” .
Page 66. Allesley Park is the property, but not at present the
residence, of the Rev. J. Neale.
Page 81, line 22, for “Lilly,” read J.ely. - g
Page 98. Although the freeholders of “the county of the city of
Coventry” do not, at present, vote on the election of representatives
of the county of Warwick, they presume that they have a right to
that privilege. 2-
Page 99, line 5. The fillet attached to the small antique figure
mentioned in this page, is of an indistinct character, and has been
thought to resemble laurel rather than “wheat.”
Page 119, line 8, from bottom, for “ 1744,” read 1644.
Page 127. The most ancient part of St. Michael’s church is the
East end. * . &
Page 128, line 20, for “t s” read St. § , ,
Page 131. The term of “plain” is, perhaps, scarcely applicable
to the interior of St. John's church; which is interesting to the architec-
tural antiquary, as a specimen of the style that prevailed in the reign
of Edward III.
Page 136, line 1, for “Richard Scrope,” read Richard Crosby.
Page 137, line 2, from bottom, not I.H.S. in Roman letter, but
the Hebrew characters. #
Page 142. The mayor has not any elevated seat in the Old Coun-
cil-house, as would appear to be suggested by the descriptive terms
used in this page. . t : . .
Page 156. The building still preserved near Spon-bridge, but
now converted into ordinary habitations, was not the hospital founded
by an Earl of Chester for the reception of lepers; which stood without
the suburbs, and is now completely destroyed. • *
Page 180. The injudicious intelligence afforded by an inhabitant
of Warwickshire, led us to misrepresent the works which were in
progress at Westos during our researches in this county. We have
2 U - great
ºf APPENDIX.
great pleasure in stating that those operations were intended for the re-
pair, and not for the demolition, of this ancient and interesting family
residence. ; : &
. Page 181. To the account of the Cotswold Games, add that thers
is, in the works of Sir William D'Avenant (ſolio, p. 236) a Poem
“ In celebration of the yearly preserver of the Games Costwald.”
— 197. Church of St. Many, Warwick. In the Parentalia.
p. 342, amongst “Designs of Buildings” made by Sir Christopher
Wren, are the following entries:-" Designs for the parochial church
at Warwick, after the fire of the town in 1694; not executed. Ortho-
graphy of the Tower of the parochial church of St. Mary at War-
wick, erected after an unsuccessful attempt in execution of a defective
prior design by other hands.” The above unexecuted “Designs”
are among the drawings by Sir Christopher Wren, now preserved in
the library of All Souls’ College, Oxford. .2%
-: — 217. An inaccuracy occurs in describing the contents of the
Gallery of Armour, at Warwick Castle. It is plate armour, no
“mail,” that is there preserved. .
It may, likewise, be remarked, that the armour formerly ascribed
to the legendary champion, Guy, is not kept in Caesar's tower, but
in a room in the gateway, or porter's lodge. . . . . ...:
— 219, and other pages, in which the name of the proprietor of
Guy's Cliff occurs, for “Bertie Greathead, Esq.” read Bertie
— 222; The inscription at Blacklow-Hill is proved, by the
form of the letters, to have been cut at a date much less remote than
the event which it commemorates. It is, also, observable, that
Gaveston was beheaded in 1312, not in 1311, as is stated in the
inscription.
The engraving inserted in our work, under the title of “Part of
Warwick,” is not noticed in the letter-press of the “ Beauties” for
this county. We now supply that omission, by observing that the
spacious domestic structure shewn on the left, is the residence of one
of the proprietors of the very extensive Worsted Manufactory. In
the distance, on the right, is seen the tower of St. Mary’s church.
WESTMORELAND.

APPENDIX.
westMoRELAND.
StjMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF THE COUNTY OF
- WESTMORELAND.
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.

WoRCESTERSHIRE,
} º Houses ::::::::::::::HTT. H.
---- - --> - *— I
* , ~~ * . ##|####| || 5 = 3 ||3 iſ 5.25%| 3 3
- Wards, &c. 3 FE 3 º żºł | c. 3 |E = 5.5 §§ C ºr -.
| “. # |*|*###| ########| ** |
East Ward ............[2464 || 57| 1617 | 614 400 12431
|Kendal Ward.........! 2719 || 1 || || 1548 || 998 || 275 13674 |
ſºlº Ward.......] 774 ; 27. 469 || 296 102 4170
West Ward ........... 1283 || 76, 949 || 265 164 6604
Town of Kirkby- - C. #. - }
Kendal ........... } 1496 || || 30 697 982 750s
|Local Militia em-
bodied, May X | — | – || — | – || — 1538.
1811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - * - - --
* Totals ......... • * * *** * > . 8736 283| 461 3. 2870 l 923 ºg
s U &
66e APPENDIX.
WorcesTERSHIRE.
THE Editor of this County presents the following supplementary
remarks. X-
“. It is but an act of justice, to state that, since the publication of
this portion of the work, information has been derived from a most
respectable source, regarding the church at Inkborough, on the
eastern side of this county, of which, on the authority of Nash, con-
firmed by enquiry, it was stated that it is “an ancient parish church
falling fast to decay,” &c. It is a pleasure to observe that such an
assertion is erroneous, as far as regards its decay, it being now in
most excellent repair, both within and without ; and, by the judi-
cious zeal and attention of the Vicar, and Parishioners, it is not in
that respect exceeded by any church in the diocese. Dr. Nash,
alluding to a monument of the Savage family, says, that as the whole
chapel in which it is situated was ready to fall, he had taken care
to engrave the monument before it fell to pieces; since his time,
however, owing to the care of the Vicar, and the liberality of the
parish, this ancient and venerable sepulchral memorial has been se-
dulously protected from the weather; and this at a very considerable
expence, the descendants of the family refusing to contribute to.
wards so laudable an act. . 3.
“ In another part of our Survey the title of Piscount has been inad-
vertently given to Lord Beauchamp: but the title is now raised to an
Earldom.”
As a trifling addition to the list of errata, in p. 105, for “deters”
read deter.
The Editor of this “ Appendix,” has, likewise, been favoured
with some corrections, and useful additions, to the account of Wor-
cestershire, which proceeded from an anonymous correspondent.
Although not enabled to present the name of this contributor, the
Editor has reason to believe that he is a gentleman of high respecta-
bility, and intimately acquainted with those parts of the county con-
cerning which he has obliged the work with information to the follow-
ing effect.
º “ REDDITCH (page 203.) is said to be remarkable only for a fair
tºº
he'd in August, but it must be added that the place is the great seat
- ef
APPENDIX. & 661
of the Needle manufactory, many hundred. persons being employed
in this manufacture, which is so extremely curious as to deserve the
notice of all those who may visit that part of the county. An inter-
esting detail of the principal manipulations for the production of
needles may be seen in Rees’s Cyclopedia. Article NEED le. Vol.
XXIV. Part II. An amusing account of the manner in which the
manufacture of pins and needles was introduced into Great Britain,
will be found in Mr. Parkes's Chemical Essays, Vol. V. page 255.
Note 247. - &
- “... In treating of Swin For D, page 229, the name of the place
should have been printed OLD Swin for D, this being its usual deno-
mination, to distinguish it from a considerable village about three or
four miles distant, called King Swinford. To the notice of the
Hospital endowed by Thomas Foley, Esq. an ancestor of the present
Lord Foley, it may be added that this is not a receptacle for invalids,
as the name seems to import, but an establishment for the education of
sixty poor boys, who are clothed, lodged, and boarded in the house
of the Institution. This excellent man was also the founder of the
Presbyterian Society at Stourbridge, which was for several years
superintended by his domestic chaplain, a Mr. Flower. The number
of deserving tradesmen in the neighbouring towns, who were educated
at this Hospital, bear ample testimony to the utility of the esta-
blishment.--See Priestley's Appeal on the Riots in Birmingham, Part
II. page 197. - w * : .
Under the article Stour BRIDGE it should be inserted that, besides
the library at the free-school, there is also a very valuable public li-
brary, which was established about the year 1788, by the industry and
zeal of Mr. Samuel Parkes, the author of several well-known chemical
works, who was formerly an inhabitant of this town, and president of
the society. This society, which at the time of its formation had the
honour of enrolling the Earl of Stamford, Viscount Dudley and Ward,
the late Lord Littleton, and most of the clergy and gentlemen of the
neighbourhood in the list of its members, has continued to the present
ime in a very flourishing and prosperous state. As continual aug-
mentations are making to this library, by the annual subscriptions of
the proprietors, it promises, in a course of years, to become a very
valuable acquisition to the town and its vicinity.
“Under the article Duplky, it should be noticed that the manu"
- 2 U 3 facture
* -
; . . . . . . .
652. APPENDIX.
facture of nails is one of the staple trades of the town and neighbour-
hood. In this trade the iron is furnished by persons called Nail fac-
tors, and the workmen form it into nails in their own cottages. Many
hundred persons are employed here in this manufactory. Last year
the venerable old church was taken down, and a new church is in-
tended to be erected on the same site.
“In speaking of the town of KidderMINster, notice is taken of
the church, and of the attention which has been paid to “Gothic.”
effect in the repairs and alterations which were made some years ago
in this noble structure of antiquity. To that account we are desirous
of adding that the whole of this work was done under the direction of
the late Mr. Johnson, architect, of Worcester; a man of great taste and
judgment. At that time the church was entirely new pewed, and a new
gallery erected, the whole being formed of the most beautiful N orway
bak, and executed in a style at once elegant and substantial. The same
*ngenious architect was also employed, about the same time, to erect a
new chapel for the dissenters of Stourbridge, in the lower part of the
High Street, which is also pewed with Norway oak in the same beau-
tiful manner. . - . . . . . - * . . ź
“In recurring to the account of Kidderminster, where it is stated,
* that there is here a very considerable society of Presbyterian dis-
senters, the descendants of Baxter's pupils,” it may be added that
there is also a society of Unitarian dissenters in the town, which com-
prises some of its most opulent and respectable inhabitants. Respect-
ing the belief in witchcraft, in which it is said the ancestors of the pre-
sent race of natives indulged, this cannot perhaps be wondered at, when
it is recollected that Baxter, their famous teacher, wrote in defence of
the doctrines of possession and witchcraft. Some curious particulars
respecting this singular person, may be seen in the Biographical Die-
tionary, Vol. II. p. 167. In Granger's Biographical History of
England, Vol. HI. p. 331. In The History of his own Life and
Times; and in the volumes of the Monthly Repository of Theo-
logy, &c. &
“In the account of the biography of Kidderminster, after giving some
account of Richard de Kedermyster and Richard Baxter, it is stated that
“In modern times, we must not omit Mr. Parkes, the ingenious author
of the Chemical Catechism,” but this gentleman was, in fact, neither
born at Kidderminster, nor ever was a resident in that town. The in-
3- dividual
APPENDIX.
dividual in question is the son of a respectable tradesman of Stour-
bridge, where he resided with his father, during the first 30 years of
his life; and there it was that he acquired a taste for literature, having
for several years been president of a highly respectable reading society
in that town, and afterwards president of the library society, as already
mentioned. Our preceding informant probably fell into the error,
from the circumstance of Mr. Parkes's father having, some years be-
fore his death, retired to Kidderminster, where he died a few years
ago, at an advanced age. . . . ;
“Under Wolverley Pakish, the name of J. Knight, Esq. is men-
tioned as a “gentleman who has been of considerable service to agri-
culture, by his spirited experimental mode of husbandry;” and he
must be further noticed as a manufacturer of bar iron, of which he
and his ancestors have been some of the most considerable manufac-
turers which this country has produced. Of so much consequence as
an iron-master was this gentleman considered, that for many years the
body of manufacturers consented to his firing the price of bar-iron at
the periodical meetings of the principal people of the trade, which
were held quarterly at Stourbridge, Wolverhampton, and Birming-
“In speaking of Mr. Baskerville (page 247) it is said that “he was
buried at his own express desire, within his own grounds.” This was
owing to his dislike of the ceremony of consecrating ground for the
purpose of interment. Mr. Baskerville was unfortunately a disbeliever
in Christianity; but we are assured that he always treated those from
whom he differed in opinion, with modesty and deference.” ---
a U wordEstershire.

APPENDIX.
WORCESTERSHIRE.
SUMMARY OF THE POPULATION OF WORCESTERSHIRE,
As published by Authority of Parliament in 1811.
* House. Toccupations. person.
* g tº . , ºr
--> g 2, E = 3 * * ; : ; 2 ºf . * *
3. § #... [* * ... = | # 3 g : , ; 2.É £ o 2
: #3; # ºf #35 |533.p.3%; a 3
nº &c. # 5* ####| 3: ###### āş
. . jº t *: cºf º * > … •- %
Blackenhurst..........! 604 || 14 || 461 148 20 2991
Doddingtree........... 2928 ||107 | 1883 || 1243 360 156}.5
Halfshire...... .........|| 0 135 |273 ſ 2543 || 7444 1021 52899
Oswaldslow............ 699 l 137 5037 2037 787 37429
Pershore................! 4480 | 127 3233 | 1233 506 23089
Borough of Droitwich 423 || 1 || || 92 || 161 309 2079
ºf Eveshan, 674 || 1 || || 313 339 62 3068
Town of Kidder- - .
minster............ 1546 60 89 1569 79 8038
City of Worcester.... 2425 | 64 167 2691 297 13814
Local Militia ... N lº
bodied, May, $ — — — — 1524
isii .............) % -
Totals ............. ...ldO206 |804 ||38|18 || 16865, 3441 160546
|
Yorkshire.

APPENDIX.
YorksHIRE.
The editor of the “Beauties” for this county, submits the following
list of corrections, in addition to those already presented at the end of
Volume XVI.
Page 18, line is, for “Barrow's camps,” read Barrow's camp.
21, 20, for “Ethelbald,” read Ethelbert: 2. '
26, 10, omit “effect and.” -
58, 1, for “in,” read on.
64, 24, for “ or,” read and.
109, note, for “Usher Primrod,” read Usher Primord.
129, line 4, for “ Edward,” read Edwin. * ,
129, 5, for “ foreign,” read foreigners.
236, 3, for “superstructors,” read superstructures.
243, 6, for “ Flaccus Albinus,” read Flaccus Alcuinus.
246, note, for “Sir Robert,” read St. Robert.
260, line 7, for Johannes,” read Johannis.
261, 6, omit “great.”
320, 10, for “and,” read but.
357, 8, for “Wotham,” read Hotham.
369, 2, for “ Matton,” read Malton. -
139, 15, for “novesque,” read novisque.
339, 10, for “Richard,” read Richard the First.
367, 13, for “William,” read William Allason.
362, 12, for “330,” read 320.
394, 8, omit the word “ago.”
433, 7, and 8, for Castrorum,” read Castorum.
534, 2, for “ 1672,” read 1665.
. 578, 15, for “whole course, read old course.”
579, for “Skifton, read Skipton.
685, 2, for “ 607,” read 1607.
733, 6, for “ north side,” read south side,
778, 2, for “volumns,” read columns.
Page

APPENDIX,
Page 790, line 11, for “ 1677,” read 1777.
872, 2, omit “and.”
872, 23, for steep,” read deep.
532, 13, for “and,” read but.
879, 2, for “on the great Roman road,” read wear the
great Roman road.
$49, 4, for “twelve miles south-west from Thorne,” fead
ten miles south-west from Thorne,
The enumeration of Market-Towns 1N THE East-Riding,
which should have preceded the list of “Gentlemens' Seats,” has
been accidentally omitted. The following market-towns are situated
in this district: 3 . . .
Bridlington : | South Cave
Hornsea (now little used) Market Weighton
Patrington | Driffield .
Hedon Polklington
Beverley * : . . . .
WALEs.


WALES.
suMMARY OF THE POPULATION or wales,
y
As published by Authority of Parliament in 181 1.
*No er APPEN pix.
. . 3. -w sº - *
HOUSES OCCUPATIONS. PERSON S.
º +} |. * ###| ##, a #3; # , s:
Counties, - # º .# # ### 3: s #g ### : # ă .
# = }}##| =#|:#####| **
Anglesey...............] 7183 || 108! 3376 || 1433 || 877 37045
Brecon.................. . 7555 354 46 7 2239 - . | 0 || 3 37735
- Cardigan............... . 96.39, .# 155 3 5864 3. 19 i 3 3519 50260
Carmarthen............|14856 || 333 98.78 || 3255 949 || 77217
Jarnarvon.............] 9.369 154 6667 || 2687 | 833 || 49336
. "lint............ * * * * * * * * * 88 i 6 i | 55 4086 3 3009 . 2645 465 18 *
|Glamorgan............[17017 741| 82.17 | 7915 2563 35067
Montgomery..........} 9349 || 174| 6369 3164 772 || 51931
Pembroke.............[12463 |400|7|189 2848 2900 60615 |
Radnor • * * * * * * * * * * *** - - - 4046 3. I 19 294 i 843 584 20900 ºf
| *…l. 1939sbogs|72846; id 20866. Jil 1788







ºr INDEX, a
INDEX
TO
INTRODUCTORY volume.
A.
Agriculture introduced to
Britain by the Belgae, 34.
much improved, by the Ro-
mans, 130.
Agricola, Julius, the first who in-
troduced the arts of polished
life into Britain, 99; makes
five campaigns against the Ca-
*
5
ledonians, 101.
Allectus, a confidential officer of
Carausius, assumes the govern-
... ment of Britain, 107; defeated |
by Constantius, 108.
Alderman, office of, derived from
the Saxons, 224. .
Altars of the Druids, where si-
tuated, 29 ; human sacrifices
made on them, 30; erected by
the Romans in Britain, 200; ge-
nerally inscribed to gods and
oddesses, ib. x . . . .
Anglesey, Isle of, conqu
the Romans, 97.
A
º: *
ered by
NGLo-Saxons, 207—292; civil
divisions of England, 221–
227; laws, 227—235; mili-
tary antiquities, 235–250 ;
earth-works, 250-252; eccle-
| Antiquities,
siastical architecture, 252—280;
modes of sepulture, 280–284;
coins, 285–292.
AN Glo-DAN es, 292-314; mili-
tary architecture, 300–301 ;
military earth-works, 301–
302; ecclesiastical architecture,
302–307; modes of sepulture,
307–311; coins, 311-314.
ANGLo-Normans, 314–411 ;
military architecture, 327–359;
ecclesiastical architecture, 359–
395; cathedral churches exhibit
ing remains of Anglo-Norman
architecture, 395–408; monas-
tic ruins, 409–411. -
British, 51–92:
towns—vestiges of habitations
—excavations, 51—55 ; lines
of boundary and roads, 55–63;
coins, 63–68 ; circles Com-
º posed of stones, 68–75; rock-
ing stones, and analogous phe-
nomena, 75–79: cromlechs,
79–82; upright-stones, single
or numerous, but not circular,
82, 83; barrows, cairns, and
funeral reliques of the Ancient
Britons, 83–92.

Antiquities,
INDEX.


Antiquities, Roman, in Britain,
132—207; stations and c amps
of various kinds, 132–161;
roads, 161–180; traces of
domestic structures, including ||
tessellated pavements, 180–
187; coins, 187, 198; altars
and other inscribed stones, and i
pieces of sculpture, 198–201;
sepulchres and funeral vessels,
201–207. -
–250 ; military earth-works,
250—252; ecclesiastical archi-
tecture, 252—280 ; modes of
sepulture, 280–284; coins,
28 5–292. * 3. % -
, Anglo-Norman, 369–
411 ; ecclesiastical architecture,
359–395; cathedral churches,
395–408; monastic ruins, 409
—411.
Arms, escutcheons of, seldom seen
in the ecclesiastical edifices of
the Anglo-Normans, 375; the
first instance of quartering, by
a subject, given by John Hast-
ings, Earl of Pembroke, 534;
Richard II, the first prince
who used supporters, ib.
Arts, progress of, connected with
topographical investigation,from
, the period of Anglo-Norman
architecture to the reign of
James I. 41.1—519.
—, one of the most elegant
specimens of Roman profici-
ency in, discovered at Ribches-
ter, 199, Note. -
Arch, Anglo-Saxon, 267; point-
ed, various theories as to its
Architecture, ecclesiastical, An-
lo-Saxon, 252–280; Anglo-
anish, 302—307;
Norman, 359–411.
§:
*-
style of, 441—519; early Eng-
lish, 491–501 ; decorated Eng- ||
, Anglo-Saxon, 235—
292; military antiquities, 235
Anglo- |
, pointed, or English I
Architecture, military, Anglo-
Saxon, 235–249; (..." à-
nish, 300–301 ; Anglo-Nor-
man, 327–359; castellated
structures subsequent to the An-
glo-Norman era, 413–430.
—, domestic, Roman, 180
—185; castellated, and other
mansions, from the close of the
Anglo-Norman era, to the end
of the reign of James I. 413–
B.
Bail, or security, origin of, attri-
buted to King Alfred, 235.
| Barrows, ancient British, 84–92;
Anglo-Danish, 307–31 l ; An-
glo-Saxon, 281, 282. .
Baronies, various opinions as to
their origin, 324–326.
Barbican, or barbacan, opinions
of various authors as to its use,
354. #
Bards. See DRUIDs.
Bedfordshire, summary of the po-
pulation, 586. - -
Belgic tribes enumerated, 12, 13;
º modes of dress described,
1. -
Bells, their origin, as used in
churches, not precisely known,
263, Note.
Berkshire, summary of the popu-
lation, 587. - -
Books, List of the principal
works treating on the #. i-
phy and Antiquities of É.
collectively, 540–584, viz,
Catalogues of Topography, 540,
541. Indices Pillares, Gazet-
teers, &c. 541–543. General
Description of England, 543–
554. Public Records, 554–
557. Early British History,
557-559. Roman Geography
of Britain, 559–562. Anglo-
Saxon and Anglo-Norman His-
tory and Antiquities, 562,-

lish style, 501—512; florid, or
highly-decorated English style,
5 12–519. -
563. Ecclesiastical Topogra-
#: 563—565. Monastical
istor ulchral
Y2 565–567, Se
listory,
& 3 .º. $67,568. Architec-
tural Antiquities, &c. 568
w. 574. Coins, 574—576. Natu-
* .
ral History, ib. English Botany, I
577–580. Minerals and Fossils.
581. Mineral Waters, ib, Po
litical Economy, Agriculture,
&c. 582–584.
Britain, Ancient, its boundaries, l. • .
Castles, royal, preserved in repair
! ; dimensions, 2; etymology
of its name, 3; fancifully sup-
posed to have been peopled by
the Trojans, 6; i. of,
10; subject to the
201; political divisions under
the Romans, 125-132; poli- |
tical divisions under the Anglo-
Saxons, 213–216; civil divi-
sions under the *.
221–227; present division into
caunties, 225, Nata.
Britons, Ancient, no authentie
records of their origin, 5 ; their
various tribes enumerated, 12. I
Note. x
Buckinghamshire, summary of the
population, 588.
Gairns of the Britons described,
86, 87. r
Cambridgeshire, summary of the
population, 589.
Camps, Roman, is8–161 ; An-
& #.”. 251, 252; Anglo-
Qanute the Great, anecdote of,
299; supposed to have erected
Norwich castle, 301 : makes a
journey to Rome, 304; three
hundred of his coins found, 3.12.
Candles, their early use in the
service of the church, 372; ex-
traordinary size of one used
at Glastonbury, ib. Note.
Carausius, appointed to the com-
inand of the Roman fleet, 106;
condemned to death, 107; as-
* * * # * : * *
omans, 93— |
tain, ib.; assassinated at York,
ib.; celebrated in medallic his-
tory, 195. . . x-
Caractacus, son of King Cuno-
beline, unsuccessfully opposes
the Romans, 95; retires for
shelter to the court of Queen
Cartismandua, 96; betrayed to
the conqueror, ib.
at the
Note.
-, baronial, their
parts described. 3. *
Celtae, their various tribes enu-
merated, 12, 13; mede of dress
described, 41–43.
Chariots, war, the most remark-
able feature in the military ar-
langements of the Britons, 47;
four thousand retained by Cas-
sivellaunus after having disband-
ed the remainder of his forces,
apels first attached to fortified
castles by the Normans, 344.
Note; sepulchral, described by
public expense, 328.
different
| Cheshire, summary of the popu-
| lation, 590. . .
Churches, exhibiting remains of
Anglo-Norman architecture,
395–408; cathedral, 395–398;
parochial, 398–408; monastic,
—, round, in England, vul-
garly supposed to have been
erected by the Jews, 399. Note.
Claudius, the Emperor, called by
Roman authors the eonqueror
of Britain, 192; his medals de
scribed, ib. . . .
Cloth, the art of manufacturing
it, introduced by the Belgæ, 4ſ.
Coffins of wood, the earliest re-
corded instance of their use,
520 ; of lead, ib, ; of stone,
described by Mr. Johnson, 522.
Coins, British, 63–68; Roman,
187–198; Anglo-Saxon, 285-
§§
*
the government of Bri-]
. §§ \,
292; Anglo-Danish, 3, 1–314.
x: º Combat,










ºf e
Gombat, judicial, first introduced
by the Normans, 32 l ; cere.
mony noticed ib.
in what it consisted, 37–39.
Constantine, elected Emperor by
the Roman army in Britain,
17; captured and put to death
by Gerontius, 1 18.
£oronets not worn by peers till
the 13th century, 534.
Cornwall, summary of the popu-
lation, 591.
£ostume, of the Celtz, 41–43;
of the ancient British kings, 65.
8. or shire, its origin, 224.
remation, Inode of, as per-
formed by the ancient Britons,
88–89. § {
Cromlechs, 79–82; commonly
intended for sacrificial pur.
poses,81; but frequently con-
nected with commemorations in
honour of the dead, ib.
Crusaders, supposed to have been
allowed the privilege of cross-
legged eſfigies, 536; many at-
tended by their ladies in expe-
ditions to the Holy Land, 531.
Crypts, supposed to have been
originally designed for sanctua-
rigs, 270. Note: ; used in later
times as cemeteries, ib. |
Cumberland, summary of the
population, 592.
Cunobeline, the first British sove-
reign that established a mint, 65.
Banes, SEE ANGlo-DANEs.
Decuman Gate, derivation of its
name, 145. -
Per Ryshire, summary of the
population, 593. 2 : : :
Devonshire, sumt ary of the
population, 594, . . . . .
20me-book, or liber judicialis,
. compiled by King Alfred, 228;
Commerce of the ancient Britons,
re-published, with additions, *
|
Dorsetshire, summary of the
. divided into three classes,
27; their religious tenets na-
ticed, 28–30. 3 : . . . . . . . . .
Dungeon, or prison, of an an-
cient castle, description of, 352.
Durham, summary of the popu
lation, 596. : nº ºr
Earth works, Roman, 159–161 ;
Anglo-Saxon, 250–252; Ag:
... glo-Danish, 301–302.
Egbert, subdues the octarchy o
the sº º: Fºr
neously styled King of M
land, i. } te. s ng-
England, geographical position
of, and contents in square miles,
2; civil divisions of, under the
Anglo-Saxons, 221–227.
Engines, military, for attack and
efence, described, 356,
Essex, summary of the popula-
tion, 597.
Excavations, º of
the ancient Britons, 54; sup-
jed to have been used as de-
positories of corn, 55. ,
. . . . . . F. ;:
Faids, See Druins.
Ferogity, remarkable instance of,
in the destruction of Aquileia,
Feudal system introduced by the
F §: filesociº
Free Masons, origin of the Society
so called, 447-449. .
Friborg, , office of, 222; consi.
dered by Mr. Whitaker as the
º of a lordship, ib.
Gallis a Baram, ºntº the
assistance










672
INDEX.
assistance of the British, 120;
defeats the northern tribes, and |
* the wall of Severus,
1.
Gavelkind, the custom of, de-
_scribed, 32. …
Glass, the art of making, not
known in England before the
seventh century, 257. -
- Painted, first used in
churches about the time of
Henry the Third, 499; de-
faced by the fanatics of the 17th
century, 525, Note.
Gloucestershire, summary of the
population, 598.
Gothic, See ARchitecture,
PoinTED STYLE.
Gunhilda, sister of Swein, King
of . Denmark, massacred by
order of the Anglo-Saxons,
ciº
undulph, bishop, employed by
King Whi. %3 ; º
a new style of military archi-
tecture, 334.
H.
Hadrian, accedes to the imperial
power, 102; visits Britain in
person, and causes a wall to be
raised as a protection for its
Southern boundaries, ib.
rections to, 599–603; Heron,
, or Hern Court, the seat of the
Earl of Malmsbury, 599;
Beech House, the residence of
paintings described, 601–602;
summary of the population,
603. *
Hengist, arrives in Britain, 211;
establishes the Anglo-Saxon
. of Kent, 213.
Herefordshire, summary of the
population, 604.
Hertfordshire, summary of the -
. Lanterns of open stone work,
population, 605. *
Hundred, a division of land first
!
}
introduced by the Saxons, 223;
its great irregularity, ib. Note.
Huntingdonshire, summary of
the population, 605.
Inscriptions, funeral, earliest
known dates of those on brass,
524–526; that in King Ar-
thur's coffin, the earliest known
on lead, 532. *
, on churches, date
of erection, or repair, sometimes.
ascertained thereby, 272.
—, military, erected by
the Romans, 199—201. .
J.
Joffred, Abbot of Croyland, ob-
tains a remission of penances
for those who contributed to
the building of that monastery,
362.
Jury, trial by, its origin, 230-
232. ;
K.
Keep, or tower, of a baronial
castle, its use described, 350.
Kent, summary of the popula-
tion, 606. .
Knight’s fee, a division of land,
Hamlets, their origin, 222, Note.
Hampshire, additions and cor-

327; its origin, ib.
L.
Laws, British, 31–32.
- —-, Anglo-Saxon, 227—235;
John P. Anderdon, Esq. 600; ;
first reduced to a regular stand-
ard by King Alfred, 228 ; trial
by jury, 230; succession to
property, 232; matrimonial,
233; penal, 233, 234; secu-
rity, or bail, 235.
—-, Anglo-Norman, 317 —

327 ; feudal, 317; judicial
combat, 321 ; courts of justice,
323; baronial, 324.
their origin, 377, Note. . .
Lancashire,
INDEx.
67
N. * *
Lancashire, summary of the popu-I
lation, 607,
eicestershire, summary of the
population, 608.
Licences, for the constructing of
castles, granted by Henry the
Second, 341 ; by the Bishop
of Durham, ibid. note; in the
reign of Richard the Second,
342, note. .
Lincolnshire, summary of the
population, 609.
Logan, or Rocking stone,
scription of, 76, 77.
M.
de-
Marriage, different opinions con- ;
cerning the customs of, among
the ancient Britons, 43.
, Anglo-Saxon laws re-
lating to, 232. .
*
Matilda, Duchess of Normandy,
munificently endows the abbey
of the Holy Trinity, 369.
Maximus, marries the daughter
of a British chief, 1 15 ; assumes
the government of Britain, 114;
defeats the Emperor Gratian,
ib.; betrayed by his own sol-
diers, and put to death by
Theodosius, ib. 3. ". . . . º.º.
Medals, SEE Corns.
Middlesex, additions and correc.
tions to the county of, 610—
613; poetical Register of the
parish of Twickenham, 61 1,
612; George Deare, the sculp.
tor, ib.; embankment and ditch
on the border of Harrow Weald,
613. . . .
Mile, Roman, opinions concern-
ing, 173, 174. "
Monmouthshire, summary of the
population, 614.
Monuments, Sepulchral, 519–
539; manner of burial in, 520
—522; their various fashions de-
scribed, 522–527; frequent-
ly erected in the church porch,
ib.; how far their sculptured
effigies may be considered as
portraits, 538; various attitudes
of effigies described, 529–531,
figures of animals, how intro-
duced, 531, 532; figures carv-
ed in wood, ib. ; funeral in-
scriptions, 533; representation'
of the cross, by whom used,
ib.; various modes of bearing
arms, 533, 534; shrines, 535
—537. SEE Sepulchres. :
Meney, the coining of, one of
the unalienable prerogatives of
the kings of Wales, 313. See
Coins. -
Mouldings, Saxon, enumeration
of, by Mr. King, 279.
N.
Norfolk, summary of the popu-
lation, 615. . . . . .
Normans, See ANGLo - Nok-
Northamptonshire, corrections to,
616–619; summary of popu-
lation, 620. . . . .
Northumberland, additions and
corrections to the 'county of,
621–631; copper mines, no-
tice of, 621 ; Roman in-
scription, discovered at Blen-
kinsop, 622; further remarks
on the Roman in cri ption
noticed in the Beauties for
Northumberland, 623, 624;
Kennel Park, 626; military
entrenchments supposed to
have been formed
cientBritons,
the property of his Grace t
Duke of Northumberland, ib.
inscription discovered at Hawk- 3.
hope hill, 628; Budle, village
of, 629; Fowbury Tower, th
seat of Sir Francis Blake, B.
630; summary of the popul
lation, 631. . . . .
Nottinghamshire, corrections to,
632; summary of the popula-
tion, 633. * -
Ordeal, trial by, 232.
2 X .
Oriuna,







- tory, 195. ,
Oxfordshire,
of St. Frideswide, GI
, church, 634; Clarendon Print-
ing house, 635 ; tapestry-map
uneham-Courtney, 636;
| Dorchester bridge, account of
its completion, 637; vestiges |
f a Roman villa discovered at 1
North-Leigh, 637; summary | % . . . . .
w | Romans in Britain, transactions
of a
of the population, 640. ,
'aintings and tapestry used for the
ornamenting of rooms in the
middle ages, 420, Note. . . .
avement, tessellated, first used in
by the Romans, 185;
Paul’s, St. Cathedral of, erected
nearly
P praetorium, 146, Note.
Britain, 225; its origin, 226.
Paters, or
pan interments, 204,
Pendragon, or military command-
er-in-chief, 26; office of, held
by Cassivelaunus and Caracta-
Oriuna, wife of Carausius, her ſº
life recorded in medallic his
additions and cor- º
rections to, 634–640; shrine ||
Christ- |
forming it describ-
on the site of a Roman
Parish, an ecclesiastical division of
broad bowls, their use
EX.
r
R.
*Richard the Second, the first
prince who used supporters to
his arms, 534. §
Roads, British, 13,
Roman, 161—174.
Rollo, a Norwegian chieftain, in-
vades France, 314; embraces
the Christian religion, and
founds the kingdom of Nor-
mandy, 315. º
14, 56–63;
of, 92–124; Julius Caesar in-
vades Britain, 92; opposed by
Cassivellaunus, 93 ; Agricoſa
enters upon the government,
99; reduces several British na-
tions to obedience, 100; An-
toninus Pius erects a strong
rampart to the north of Ha-
drian's wall, 103; Carausius
endeavours to disjoin the pro-
vince of Britannia Romana from
the parent state, 107; Theodo.
ius appointed governor, 113;
defeats the Scots, Picts, &c.
114; Gallio, supposed to defeat
the northern tribes, 120 ; and
to repair the wall of Severus,
121 ; Romans finally quit Bri-
tain, ib: ; different opinions
concerning that event, ib. 124.
. Rutlandshire, corrections to, 641;
first traders with
lis, or herse, first intro-
by the Normans, 351,
its use, ib.
summary of the population, ib.
S.
4. Sacrifices, nature of druidical, 29;
ulation of ancient Britain, said t
d to have been made on a
cromlech, in the Isle of Arran,
Saxons. See ANglo-Saxons.
said
| Sculpture of the Romans, 198–
291 ; of the Anglo Saxons,284;
Pottery, the art of making, known
... to the ancient Britons, 39.
º *r on > lº castl .
s. See Dun-j
Anglo Normans, 375 ;
5, Roman, 201–207 ;
X. 280–284 ; An-
, 519–539.










































INDEx.
Severus reinforces the army of
Britain, 104; bestows the com-
mand on Virius Lupus, ib. ; }
defeats the Caledonians, and
erects a wall of stone for the
protection of the Roman pro-
vince, 105. X
Sbrines, used as fixed monuments
of the saints, 535 ; modes of re-
vealing them. and receiving
... offerings, 536; enumeration of
several now remaining, ib.
Somersetshire, corrections to, 642.
Spires, church, that of old St.
Paul's the earliest of which we
have any authentic account,
376, Note; Mr. Murphy's opi-
nion as to their origin, 463.
Standard, or eagle of the Romans, a
145; its staff used as a point of
admeasurement in forming their
camps, ib. * ...
Stations, Roman, in Britain, 132–
Stones, circles composed of, 68–
75; rocking, 75–79; upright,
single or numerous, but not cir-
cular, 82, 83; inscribed, 198—
201. …
Suibert, canonized, by Leo the
Third, supposed to have been
the first Christian saint, 535.
Suffolk, corrections to the county
of,643; summary of the popu
lation, 644. ... ." -
Surrey, additions and corrections
to the county of 645–654; }
Barnes, parish of, 645; bº
aries, ib.: church, ib. ; mo-
numents, 646; manor of Barn
Elms, granted to the canons of
St. Paul's church by King
Athelstan, 647.; visited by
Queen Elizabeth, ib.; Barn
- Ełms, mansion of, the residence
anecdote of the celebrated º •
Sir
& of Cowley the poet, 648; curious |
: #. 649; purchased by
Richard Hoare, ib. ; Sir Ri-
chard Colt Hoare, brother
tice of his works, 651 ; Kit-cat
Club, meetings of formerly
held at Barn Ém. . enu-
meration of portraits, 652,
653; summary of the popula-
tion, 654.
Sussex, summary of the popula-
tion, 655. . . . . . . .
Swein, King of Denmark, invades
England, 298; defeats. Ethel-
red, and ascends the throne, ib,
T.
Theodosius, appointed Governor
of Britain, I (3; restores the
Roman territory in Britain to
its ancient dignity, 114. ,
14, 35, 51,
Towns, British, 13, $.”... ..…. $." * * : * : . . . .
138; 156–
52; Roman, 128–
159. . . . . . ... -
Towers, those of churches suppos-
ed to have been introduced about
the time of King Edgar, 263;
improved by , the Normans,
• 376; described, ib.
Triads, Welsh, their account of
the origin of Britain, 6, Note.
Tything, first institution of, erro-
neously attributed to King Al
fred, 221; recognised by the
laws of King Ina, in the se-
venth century, ib.; in what it
consisted, 222.
Vault, burial, of the Romans, ,
aceount of one discovered in ,
Oxfordshire, 206, ºr r
Villa, description of a Romo. Bri-
tish, 182--185.
tons, 90,91. 3 * * *...* ºzº &













w.
William, Duke of Normandy,
Wales, ecclesiastical architecture |
of, 409–411 ; castellated, 438 ||
-441; summary of the popu- |
lation, 667.
Walls, Roman, erected by the
Emperors Severus and Hadrian, ;
102; 105 ; ; 161.
Warwicksh
–658. § .
War, mode of, as practised by the
Britons, 46;
Cattus or sow, 358.
Westmoreland, summary of the
wº." 659.
Windows, church, stained glass
first used in, about the time of
Henry the Third, 499.
sh ire, corrections to, 656. -
sº chariots, 48; va.
rious engines for attack and ||
defence, 355 ; mines, 356 ; }
claims the British crown, 315;
gains the battle of Hastings,
316; crowned at Westminster,
ib. ; causes to be compiled the
record called Domesday, 322;
separates the ecclesiastical from
the civil courts, 323.
Witena-gemot, or supreme as-
sembly of the state, 230 ; qua-
lifications for sitting in, ib.,
Worcestershire, additions and cor-
rections to, 660—664; church
of Inkborough, 660; Stour-
bridge, public library at, 661 ;
summary of the population,664.
Y.
Yorkshire, additions and correc-
tions to, 665,666; enumeration:
of market-towns, ib.
*
coRRECTIONS RELATING To The MAPs.
3. Map of the Celtic
The following British towns are
and Belgic Tribes,
inserted in the map, but are not
enumerated in the list of British towns contained in the letter-press:-
Calleva, Silchester. ,
Banchorium, Banchor.
Vindomis, near St.
Bibrocum.
Avalonia, Glastonbury.
Map of the Roman Roads. .
The sites of the stations marked Numbers 32, 33, and 123, in the list
Mary Bourne.
ź
of Roman stations contained in the letter-press, are still uncertain
and, consequently, could not be noticed in the map.
The station, Ad
;
Herts.
noticed in the letter-press; for “Brougham,”
Pontes, is not mentioned in the letter-press, but is
inserted in the map, at Staines, in Middlesex; its site being confidently
attributed to that place.
At page 138, of the letter-press, for “Stations and Campson, and
Inear,
kº.º.º.º.
on and near the &
tº dº *** DiſtscTions
e map of the Celtic and Belgic tribes to face p
|
e map of the Roman roads to face page 133.
º . . * --->izz.:----. . . ~.
the Walls of Antonine and Severus,” read Stations and Camps
Wall of Severus. . . . . "
for the Bindar. .
age 13.