1,040,721 =º-º. --- * *-**** * 84.95 A lo'+ | :ſ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [[[[III]]||U|W. :- ºx. 2 #ĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒĒ#ffffĒ### mos, º AERispeninsºn a fiſſiſſiſi JUACJAGENACAULUMO.U.NUXºCº'Cº'ſ Vº ∞ √≠ ≤ ∞， ∞, ∞, ∞, ∞, ∞; ∞, ∞， ∞， ∞; ∞, ∞， ∞; ∞， ∞ ºf - wº tº ºr CN º º Ee- Tºrºnºminimummºnlimitmilliºn º |Yarallel (3rammat $eries A WELSH GRAMMAR FO R S CHOOLS AEASAE D ON THE PRINCIPLES AAWD REQUA' FM/AEAVZS OF ZTAZA, GA2.4///l/A 7/CAA. SOCMA 7"Y BY E. ANWYL, M.A., OxON. Professor of Welsh at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth; - I ate Classical Scholar of Oriel College, Oxford : Vice-Chairman of the Central Welsh Board for Intermiediate Education PART I –ACCIDENCE ſ Li tº § 3-r $º D. EI) ITION LONDON : SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO. LTD NEW YORK : THE MACM ILLAN CO. I907 This book is now published by Messrs. George Allen & Company, Ltd. 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P R E F A C E THE present Welsh Grammar is designed to meet a long-felt want both for a short practical grammar of the language, and for a condensed and systematic summary of the results of Modern Comparative Grammar as applied to the study of Welsh. The Author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to previous Welsh Grammars, and to the Report of the Committee upon Welsh Orthography, as well as to the writings of Zeuss, Rhys and other Celtic philologists. To Prof. Sonnenschein, the General Editor of the Parallel Grammar Series, the Author feels that he is specially indebted for the cordial and willing aid which he has given at all stages of the book's progress. The Author's best thanks are more- over due to Prof. Rhys, Prof. Powel, and Prof. John Morris Jones for their many valuable suggestions and aid in the correction of proof-sheets. To Prof. Rhys' lectures on the Mabinogion at Oxford the author owes his first scientific introduction to Welsh Philology, and many a conversation with him and with Profs. Powel and Morris Jones has been of valuable service in the composition of the present work. E, ANWYL. ABERYSTwyTH, Movember 1, 1897. The Author has availed himself of the opportunity of a Second Edition, which has been called for almost immediately on publi- cation, to make a few corrections and additions. MXecember 15th, 1897. E. A. C O N T E N T S PAGE INTRODUCTION . * * s *} º § º o • I ACCIDENCE © ſº tº * º & tº & © º . 18 PARTS OF SPEECH . e © & © sº º © º . I 8 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES : º § º * o e & • 18 Number of Nouns . © © & © * º © º • I9 Plural of Nouns . e e * º e & tº º • 20 Plural of Adjectives º o º © º ſº o e • 24 Gender of Nouns . & & wº º e © & & . 26 Comparison of Adjectives . & º º º tº & • 30 NUMERALS (ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBs). e º © © • 32 PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES CONNECTED THEREwitH . Q • 34 Personal. º e D e e e º e º Q • 34 Possessive tº wº & © o O tº © 9 Q • 35 Demonstrative * º © © (º © * º © • 36 Interrogative and Indefinite . tº ºs g e tº e . 38 Relative . º tº º e º ſº º º & gº • 39 Definitive & § º © º © iº Q g © • 40 ADVERBS . º {} & • & º º º e © • 4C VERBS tº © & Q o º G e Q e o • 4 I The verb wyf. © & § o & & © e o • 44 $ 3 ,, dysgaf . º © Ö © G & tº º . 48 Contracted Verbs . & $ g º & º ſº º . 5 I The Verb-noun , • * & o e e tº º • 54 Irregular Verbs ſº tº de * > º g º O o • 57 QUESTIONS AND NEGATIONS . tº © tº tº tº © . 69 PREPOSITIONS . o & e o e º º g º • 7 I APPENDIX e o e & e • & e e e Q º 75 QUANT1ty. e º & º o 0. tº & gº © O 75 INITIAL MUTATION . º tº © o g & g º . 76 SPELLING . º & º e e tº ſe º e g • 70 INTRODUCTION. 1 Welsh belongs to the Celtic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. 2 The Celtic branch falls into two groups:– 1. The Goidelic, consisting of Erse or Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx Gaelic. 2 The Brythonic, consisting of Welsh, Breton, and Cornish (now extinct). 3 The languages within each of these groups resemble one another closely, but the two groups themselves, in spite of their kinship, present many important points of difference. N.B.-The Welsh with which this grammar deals is that of the Modern Literary language. 2 WELSA GRAMMAR 4 Alphabet. A (a) F (ef) Ll (ell) . S (es) B (bi) Ff (eff) M (em) T (ti) C (ec) G (eg) N (en) Th (eth) Ch (ech) Ng (eng.) O (o) U (u) D (di) H (aitsh or hi) P (pi) W (w) Dd (edd) I (i) Ph (ffi) g Y (y) E (e) L (el) R (er) OBS.–In the Welsh settlement in Patagonia, V is frequently used for F, and F for Ff. On Sounds. A. INDIVIDUAL SOUNDS. Letters are signs or symbols representing sounds. - In Welsh, the symbols used in the written language represent the sounds of the spoken language far more accurately than in English : ch, da, ff, ng, ll, ph and th, being counted for this purpose as single letters. Welsh may, therefore, to all intents and purposes, be said to be phonetically written. The only letters which have more than one sound are e, u, and y :-e has, in some diphthongs, the sound of y,” in others the sound of u + ; y has, under certain circumstances, the sound of u + ; and both u and y have in some words the sound of i. . Classification of Sounds. Articulate sounds are of two kinds – I. Vowel Sounds, produced by vibration of the vocal chords, accompanied by the articulation proper to each vowel. II. Consonant Sounds, produced by means of the lips (Labials), teeth (Dentals), palate (Palatals), throat or back part of the palate (Gutturals), tongue (Linguals), nose (Nasals), or some combination of these parts, with or without vibration of the edges of the vocal chords. * In North Wales only. AVTRODUCTION" 3 Comparative Table of Welsh and English Sounds. (a) Simple Wowel Sounds, (b) Consonant Sounds. ENGLISH - Sounds. WELSH ExAMPLEs. ENGLISH WELSH ExAMPLEs. Sou Nos. ExAMPLEs. ExAMPLEs. ch e - Ž mämma | Short in mäm 3 - - * - - £3 pay pen Uſ) - - - 3 (ii.) Half- Long in Sön 3 º } (in some ceffyl an open to P- dialects) O : # (good gwr :-) *:: 2 could cath w; - e - C P. ( loch achos 2 rüle, fool | Long in swn - º (nearly) #, low #. O s w w \f UD Wantin 2.W. º good | Short in Ilwm % : ( roW g) er W. -> - H 3 y rhaw . c.-\’ * h º H misèry Short in fyddlon Oſ, (wanting) º cº, ſº - H 2 3 3. * > < 5 3 nghael P o - L in fy tfº Iºl Iſl § - ciirl ong in ty Voiced byd dyn ger gWr º Voiceless phen, ffydd thäd, Sél eisio chath § : sº - Sibilants. Voiced gwyn fyd ddyn iaith Uſ) H º * - - º: Voiceless” mhen nhād - nghāth - - nion(? 3-5 .., | 3 || Voiced myd myn ºnio (?) ngWr à 2. 3 || 3 | . = |s Voiceless” llāw, rhāw % Voiced lăw, rāw º * The voiceless liquids are pronounced with considerable consonantal force, and the strong emission of breath which accompanies them gives them a spirant character. AV7'RO DUCT/OAV 7 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 B. SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH. 1. Speech consists, as a rule, not of isolated words or sounds, but of groups of words, or more properly, “breath-groups —i.e. a certain number of words connected by sense and uttered in one breath. The unit of connected speech is then, not the word, but the word-group ; e.g., in English, “what-do-you-want P’ 2. It must be remembered that in any language the same word has at least two pronunciations : (1) when isolated or empha- sized ; (2) when used in ordinary connected speech : e.g. fy becomes fy and even y in colloquial Welsh, as in 'ymhón, my /tead. 3. In many languages, form (2) of a given word differs from form (1) in its ending; but, in the Celtic languages, Welsh included, it is the beginning of a word that changes. 4. The laws which regulate these changes will be given under ‘Initial Mutation.” $ 57, etc., and Appendix, I. ARTICULATION. Care should be taken to pronounce the vowels, even of un- accented syllables, clearly. The consonants should be pro- nounced somewhat more lightly than in English, yet with perfect distinctness. The long vowels are never diphthongized as they are in English. 2. AccENT (TONIC). (a) Word Accent. 1. The Accent or Tonic Accent is the stress laid upon a par- ticular syllable in a word. As in English, the Accent may be Principal () or Secondary (), or the syllable may be unaccented: e.g. bendigédig, di-lywódraeth. 2. The Principal Accent, in Welsh, almost invariably falls on the last syllable but one. This syllable is generally called the penult or penultima; the syllable before it is called the ante- penultima, and the last syllable the ultima. NoTE.—Some small words (except when emphatic) have no accent : e.g. a, yr, y, yn, fy, dy, etc. If joined for purposes of accentuation to the word which follows it, such a word is called žroclitic; if joined to the word which precedes it, it is called enclitic, 8 WAE/ASA/ GA2AA/MAR 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Words Accented on the Zast Syllable. The accent falls on the last syllable:— I. In words whose last syllable is the result of contraction : e.g. ymdrói (for dró-i); Cymråeg (for -á-eg); bywhänt (for -há-ant). 2. In some words the first syllable of which is ys- or ym-: e.g. ystén, ystänc, ymlyn, ymwél. 3. In the emphatic reduplicated pronouns, myfi, tydf, * etc. 4. In some combinations of prepositions with nouns: e.g. heblów, islāw, drachéfn. 5, In, some English words, as apël, appeal, and sometimes in dyléd, debt. Words Accented on the Zast Syllable but Zwo. These are:— 1. Words in which an w, the remnant of the Old Brythonic termination, -uos, -uń, -uon, has become a separate syllable : e.g. méddw-dod, gwéddw-dod, bédw-lwyn. In spoken Welsh w in such words is frequently elided. 2. Words ending in 1 and r after b, d, or g. Here 1 and r are practically treated as vowels, or as consonants accompanied by a very slight vowel sound: e.g. bānadl, ffénestr. In spoken Welsh they are often elided. e.g. perig (for perygl), ffenest (for fenestr). 3. Certain words borrowed from English, which preserve the English accent : e.g. mélodi, hēresi, philosophi. - Aſ before the Accented Sy//able. I. When the syllable before that which bears the accent ends in a vowel, or in m, n, ng, or r, the accented vowel is often pre- ceded by h : e.g. cenhédloedd, ohérwydd, cynghanedd. 2. As this takes place somewhat irregularly and dialectally, care should be taken to observe carefully in what words h is thus used. N.B.-For the same use of h before individual words see § 68. The Accent in Compound Words. I. Most compound words are accented regularly : e.g. trymlais, blínfyd. * Rarely myfi, tydi, etc., AVTRO/DUCTIOAV 9 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 2. In some compounds, chiefly those having for their first element a prepositional prefix, the component parts have not per- fectly coalesced, and the prefix in consequence bears a strong secondary accent : e.g. Cyn-lywydd, di-Íldio, rhāg-arwefniad, cyd- fyned. (b) Group-Accent. 1. Owing to the tendency in Welsh to rhythmical intonation, the correct pronunciation of breath-groups is not easily acquired. 2. This intonation varies very considerably with different dis- tricts, but it usually causes the last syllable of a breath-group to be pronounced with a higher tone than the rest, while the chief stress-accent of the group tends to fall upon the last accented syllable. (c) Thought-Accent, The Thought-Accent is the stress or emphasis laid upon a word or syllable, in order to bring out the meaning of the sentence. It corresponds to italics in print : e.g. Dengys ef wybodaeth, ond ei frawd amwy bodaeth. “He shows knowledge, but his brother lack of knowledge.’ 3. WoRD BINDING, (a) Within the breath-group, which is the unit of speech, there is no perceptible pause. Word binding of this kind is common to English and Welsh. (b) In Welsh, however, the close connexion of the words which form a breath-group, has caused the initial consonants of many words to undergo phonetic changes similar to those which have taken place in individual words : e.g. Old Welsh o pen, from a head, has become o ben ; just as Old Welsh, aper, estuary, has become aber. (c) These changes of initial consonants, which play a very important part in Welsh, as in the other Celtic languages, will be given under “Initial Mutations.” $$ 57, 58, 59, etc. NOTE.-In their origin, these changes were phonetic, but, as is often the case, the working of analogy has played an important part in determining their modern employment. : : : º : ‘. ; : IO l/E/C.S.Aſ GACA ////A/C 45 46 47 PHONETIC LAWS AND TENDENCIES. Changes of sound in language are due— A. To phonetic causes proper, depending upon the mechanism of the organs of speech and hearing. These causes mainly operate in bringing about assimilation : (a) Of vowels to vowels, (b) of vowels to consonants, (c) of consonants to vowels, (d) of consonants to con- sonants, all with a view to economy of effort. B. To mental causes, whereby one sound is sometimes sub- stituted for another, when some real or fancied analogy seems to require it, mainly in order to bring about greater regularity. The mind continually tries to classify the facts of language, namely, sounds and forms, on the basis of certain characteristics, which they have in common. The basis of this classification often changes, so that what was regular under the old classification may be irregular under the new, and hence a frequent tendency to bring that which is irregular into accordance with rule. Vowel-Changes. The vowel-changes which take place in Welsh may be seen from the following tables:— 1. Change due to the influence of the vowel of the following syllable. SOUNDS. EXAMPLES. à é nant nentydd 5 y 35 gardd gerddi ã ë Cân ceni, ău yi mäen meini 3.W. ëw täW teWi : : : : : AVT/(2O/O UCZYOAV II 2. Change due to the influence of a lost vowel à. SOUNDS. EXAMPLES. ii ë byr ber W Ö tryWm. trom 3. Change due to the influence of a lost consonantal i. SOUNDS. EXAMPLEs. ă ãi bychan bychain ă êi sarff seirff ău ãi mäen main é ti hēn hyn Ö ti porth pyrth Öu Wul Öen wyn (óu) (äu) (tröed) (träed) 4. Change in one vowel due to change in that following it. Sounds. EXAMPLES. ă é dafad defaid W y cwmwl Cymylau 5. Change due to the simplification of a diphthong in an unaccented syllable. SOUNDS. EXAMPLES. ău ë caffael caffel âw ö marchawg marchog êi ū busteich bustych I 2 - WE/ESA GRAMMA R 48 49 50 6. Change due to the addition of an ending. SOUNDs. - EXAMPLES. à 8% plant plent-yn à ă mân man-ach € ë gwén gwen-u Ö Ö mör mor-oedd W y bwroid byrdd-au il y ffydd ffydd-lon ãi yi main mein-ach ău yu haul heul-iau âu yu mäes meus-ydd ăw Ö llawr llor-io ūw ū buwch buch-od ūw yw lly w llyw-ydd Wu || Wu bwyd bwyd-o NOTE I.—In words borrowed from Latin accented a has become àw, and later ö ; é has become wy ; close 6 has become u : e.g. ymherawdr (imperator), cardod (carität-em), cwyr (céra), urdd (Ördo). NOTE 2. —The terminations of borrowed Latin words, like the termina- tions of old Brythonic words, have now been lost in Welsh. Consonant-Changes. I. The consonant-changes of Welsh are mostly those of mutes, when preceded and followed by continuous letters, either in individual words or in breath-groups. They arise from a tendency to preserve an unbroken continuity of sound within the word or breath-group. For example, a voiceless sound may be- come voiced, when it stands between two vowels, i.e. the vibration of the vocal chords continues, while the consonant is being articulated. If the mute be already voiced, it tends to pass into the corresponding spirant, i.e. instead of momentarily stop- ping the flow of breath, as is done in the case of a mute, we allow the flow to continue. 2. The consonant-changes of Welsh should be carefully ob- served, not only because they illustrate the phonetic tendencies of the language, but also on account of their practical application in the formation of compound words and in initial mutation. 3. These changes can often be conveniently illustrated by means of words borrowed from Latin during the Roman occupa- tion of Britain. * Only when the ending contains the vowel i or y. See § 47, 1. JAW /'A'O/DUC 7/ON I3 A. Assimilation of Mutes to Continuous Letters. I. To vowels. SOUNDS. EXAMPLES. P b capistrum cebystr t d pater pader C g locus llóg b f taberna tafarn d dol prüdens prüdd § (lost) Sagitta såeth pp ff cippus cyff pt th captus căeth Ct th doctus dóeth CC ch peccatum pechod 2. To spirants. SOUNDS. EXAMPLES. p ph is * pen ei phen t th is tafod ei thafod C ch is calon ei Chalon 3. To nasals. SOUNDS. EXAMPLES. mp mh tempor- tymhort Int nh contend- cynhent 11C ngh cancell- canghellf mb mm ambiguus ammeuf nd I]]] candéla cannwyll ng-g ng angelus angel * The precise sound of this sibilant is uncertain. It has now been every- where assimilated. - # h in these words is now frequently omitted, except on the addition of an ending, when the syllable which it introduces becomes accented. : Now frequently written ameu. I4 WE/ESA/ GA2AM//AA’ 52 4. To l (lingual). SOUNDS. EXAMPLES. lp lff Alpinus Elphin lc lch calc- calch lb lf gilbinº gylfin ld Il Caldărium callawr ,, lld, llt sol(i)d- (swlld) swllt 5. To r (lingual). SOUNDS. EXAMPLES. rp rft serpens Sarff rt rth part-em parth rC reh al’Ca. arch rb rf turba torf rd rold Ördo urdd | rg ri argentum arian B. Other Changes. 1. m has become f : e.g. rémus, rhwyf, oar. It , , llt: e.g. altum, allt (also ll: e.g. altäre, allawr). lm , 75 lf: e.g. palma, palf. Tim 2, ,, rf: e.g. arma, arf. rl , ,, rll : e.g. iarl : iarll. Iſln, , , ,, fin : e.g. lam:(i)na, llafm. thb , thp : e.g. daethpwyd for daethbwyd. 33 2. f has been lost in plü for pluff ,, , , ,, llāw , llāwf. ,, , , , Cāel , cafel. dd , , , , , rhoi, rhoddi. 3. By dissimilation we have caffel for cafel. 4. Initial v has become gwin Welsh: e.g. gwener from vener-is. * Old Welsh. + The loss of final f is one of the most marked characteristics of the colloquial Welsh of N. Wales. AVZ RO/DUCTION I5 53 54 55 56 57 Consonant Changes in Compound Words. If the first element of a Compound be that which gives it its distinctive meaning—in other words, if it be of the nature of an attribute—the initial letter of the second element undergoes the changes described in § 51, A, I. 2. The second element of some few compounds undergoes the changes described in § 51, A, 2. 3. These changes, due originally to purely phonetic causes, are now treated as signs of composition, and must be made when- ever a new compound is formed : e.g. arf-bais, coat of arms (from pais); gwerth-wr, seller (from gwr); palas-dy, palace (from ty). 4. The spirant change is shown in dy-chryn, terror; tra-chas, exceedingly hateful, and a few more words. NOTE. —For the purpose of composition the voiceless sounds Il and rh are often voiced to 1 and r. Consonant Changes in Breath-Groups (Initial Mutation). The Consonant changes which take place in breath-groups are analogous to those which, in course of time, have taken place in individual words and in the first element of compounds. These changes, like those of individual words and compounds, are, in their origin, the result of purely phonetic causes, operating when the consonant at the beginning of a word included in a breath-group followed and was followed by a continuous letter. This would occur for instance in the case of an adjective following a fem. noun ending in a. I6 WE/ASH GA2AA/MA R TABLE OF INITIAL MUTATIONS. 58| I. The unchanged consonant is called the Radical. 59| 2. Mutations, from the point of view of sound-change, are of three types, Voiced, Spirant and Nasal. 60 EXAMPLES. SOUNDS. RADICAL. VOICED. SPIRANT. NASAL. p pren bren phren mhren t täd dād thäd nhād C Calm gam cham ngham b baich - faich maich d dyn ddyn myn 8 gWr AWr * ngWr 11 llais lais rh rhés réS Iſl Iſla II] fam Employment of the Initial Mutations. 61 (a) Certain types of mutation correspond in usage to each other : The ‘spirant mutation’ in the case of b, d, g and m cor- responds in usage to the “voiced mutation in the case of p, t, c, ll and rh. 62] , (b) Where p, t, c undergo the ‘spirant mutation,’ b, d, g, ll, rh, m, undergo no change.t 63 (c) Where p, t, c, b, d, g undergo the ‘nasal mutation, ll, rh and m undergo no change. Mutation of p, t, c into b, d, g; of b, d, g into f, dd, – ; of 11 and rh into 1 and r ; of m into f. 64| This is the most common form of mutation, and is commonly known as the soft mutation; for a list of the cases where it occurs, see Appendix (Initial Mutations). 65. The following points should be noted at the outset:— (1) After a verb or noun (including the verb-noun) a pronoun is mutated. * The sound here lost resembled the soft “g’ of German. + Except after ni, na, not : here b, d, g become f, dd, -; ll, rh, m become l, r, f. INTRODUCTION 17 66 67 68 69 70 71 (2) After adjectives (including ordinal numbers, possessive adjectives 2nd s. and 3rd S. (masc.), some indefinite adjectives and the interrogative adjective), a noun is mutated. (3) After a parenthesis a word is mutated. (4) After a finite verb the object-noun is mutated, the subject- noun is not. - (5) After a noun fem, sing., an adjective is mutated, after a noun maSc. sing, it is not. (6) After the definite article a noun fem. sing. is mutated, a noun maSG. Sing. is not. (7) After a verb the object-noun is mutated, after a verb-noun it is not. - (8) After the pre-verbal particle a, a verb is mutated, after y it is not. * (9) After the predicate particle yn a noun or adjective is mutated. Mutation of p, t, c into ph, th, ch. This occurs :- - 1. After tri (masc.), three ; chwä, six ; ei (fem.), her. 2. After trä, exceeding/y, in the case of adjectives and verbs, and after ni, nã, not, in the case of verbs. 3. After the prepositions a”, tua, gyda, efo, with. 4. After the conjunctions a”, and; nã, mor, than ; 6 (=os), if Mutation of p, t, c into mh, mh, ngh : of b, d, g into m, n, ng This occurs :— I. After the poss, adj. fy, my : e.g. fy mhen (fr. pen, head). 2. After the numerals, pum, Saith, Wyth, maw, deng, ugain, can ; in the case of diwrnod, day; blynedd and blvydd, year. 3. In nouns after the preposition yn, in. Prefixing of h to initial Vowels. This process, which is analogous to the insertion of h before the accented syllable in an individual word (see $34), occurs as follows:— I. In nouns following the poss, adjectives 'm, ei (fem.), ein, eu (but not eich): e.g. ei henw, her name ; eu hysbryd, their spirit. 2. In verbs following the postvocalic acc. pers, pron. 'i : e.g. fe 'i hewyllysioda, he willed it. 3. In ugain, twenty, when used in compound numerals after the preposition ar, on : e.g. triar hugain, £7e/enty-three. NOTE.-It is by this process that we have the form pa ham P why? i.e. pa am P for what? lit. what for? * The preposition a, ag, and the conjunction a, ac, are in origin the same word. C I8 WEA.S.H. GRAMMA Ae 72 73 74 ACCIDENCE. ACCIDENCE is the part of grammar which tells how words are declined (nouns, adjectives, pronouns), compared (adjectives), or conjugated (verbs). Declension of nouns and adjectives in Welsh is limited to the formation of Singulars (in the case of nouns only), Plurals and Feminines. To some prepositions pronominal suffixes are added. OBS.—The Definite Article, yr, y, will be found under “Demonstrative Adjectives,” $ 145. Caution.—In parsing, each word should be parsed separately. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 1. Welsh nouns and adjectives have two Numbers—the Sin- gular and the Plural—but no Case-endings, 2. The relations conveyed in Latin, and at one time in Welsh, by the Genitive, are now mainly expressed by putting the noun (uninflected) immediately after the noun on which it depends. 3. Other relations conveyed by the Genitive, as well as those conveyed by the Dative or Ablative, are expressed by using a preposition. The Nominative and Accusative are alike in form. OBS.—The adjective generally follows the noun in Welsh. See Syntax, $ 337. N.B.—Note carefully under pronouns, verbs and prepositions the use made of the noun in supplementing the pronominal, verbal and prepositional forms. A CC//DEAVCAE I9 75 76 77 78 79 Number in Welsh Nouns. Welsh, in the case of nouns, has two modes of expressing number – “. (i) Where objects are most familiarly known in their collective aspect; in this case, the collective noun, treated in Syntax as a plural, is the undeclined form, and the singular is formed from it by adding a singular ending. (ii) Where objects are best known individually ; in this case the singular is the undeclined form, and the plural is formed from it, either by internal cha, , of vowel or by the addition of a plural ending. º, Formation of the Singular from the Collective Noun. I. The singular is formed from the collective by adding the ending -yn to form singulars masc. : -en to form singulars fem. Some collective nouns have a masc. singular, others a feminine singular. ſ 2. On adding a singular ending, the vowels of the collective form must undergo the changes necessary when an ending is added. See § 47, 1, 6. : - Examples —adar, birds, ader-yn ; plant, children, plent-yn ; gwěllt, grass, gwellt-yn, blade of grass; #d, corn, yā-em, a grain of corn ; plii, feathers, plu-en; sér, stars, ser-en; mêllt, lightning, mellt-en, a ſlash of lightning. NOTE I.—The singular and the collective forms sometimes differ in meaning: e.g. Caws, cheese, cos-yn, “a cheese.’ ſ - NOTE 2. —To some singulars of this type, nd collective form corresponds; such singulars generally form plurals, for which see $86. | Formation of the Plural of Nouns and Adjectives from the Singular. Nouns and Adjectives, which have plural forms, form them either — (i) By internal change of vowel ; e.g. sant, saint, pl. saint; bychan, small, pl. bychain, or (ii) By the addition of a plural ending e.g. long, ship, pl. long-au; du, black, pl. du-On. NOTE.-Most adjectives have no plurals, and the singular form, even of adjectives which have plurals, is not unfrequently used with plural nouns. See Syntax, $ 336. º 2O l/A.A.S.Aſ GACAA/MAA’ PLURAL OF NOUNS. I. Internal Change of Vowel. 80. This internal change of vowel is due to the influence of a lost ending of an “i’ character. It occurs— , (a) In an accented syllable, in monosyllabic nouns. (b) In an unaccented syllable, in disyllabic nouns. (a) In an accented syllable. Sounds. . ExAMPLEs. ă ãi Sant saint à êi Sarff seirff ă ãi brän brain ău ãi drãen drain . Ö ū ffon ffyn Ö ôi lló lloi Öu wu Cröen crwyn w Wü gwr gwyr (b) In an unaccented syllable. ; SOUNDS. EXAMPLES. | ă ãi dafad defaid ă ū* || bustach bustych ë tº + . cyllell cyllyll w ū | asgwrn esgyrn NOTE. I.-Like defaid are formed the plurals of many derivative nouns in ad, and -iad. - NOTE 2. —ty, house, makes plur. tai; tröed, foot, pl. trāed. NOTE 3. –a is changed into e in deſaid and esgyrn on account of the change in the vowel of the final * See § 47, 4. i * Before ch, dr, ll, n, rch. f Not unfrequently i. \ \, t ACC/DENCE 2 I 81 82 83 84 '85 II. Addition of a Plural Ending. The following are the plural endings “ in most common use — -au (and -iau); -on (and -ion); -aid and -iaid; -oedd, -ydd; -i ; -od : e.g. pen, head, pl. penn-au; helbul, trouble, pl. helbul-on ; Cesar, Caesar, pl. Cesar-iaid; mor, sea, pl. mor-oedd ; afon, river, pl. afon-ydd ; gardd, garden, pl. gerdd-i ; llêw, Zion, pl. llew-od. NOTE. I. —When a plural-ending is added to nouns containing certain vowels or diphthongs, these sounds must change according to the rules given under “Phonetic Laws and Tendencies, Vowel Changes,” $47, 1, 6. e.g. nant, Örook, pl. nent-ydd ; såer, carpenter, pl. seir-i ; bwrdd, table, pl. byrdd-au. NOTE 2. —In the following forms, the root vowel appears in the plural—. celanedd (S. celain, corpse); dannedd (S. daint and dant, tooth); dagrau (S. deigr, tear); gwragedd (S. gwraig, woman); lladron (S. lleidr, thieſ); nadroedd or nadredd (S. neidr, snake); rhianedd (S. rhiain and rhian, maident). NOTE 3. –cawg, ewer, has pl. cowg-iau ; angel, angel, pl. angyl-ion ; blynedd, year, pl. blynydd-au ; meddiant, possession, pl. meddiamm-au; crafanc, claw, pl. crafang-au. Change of Stem in the Plural. Some nouns add the plural ending, not to the ordinary singular form, but to a derivative of it :— - (a) To a noun of cognate form and similar meaning. (b) To a verbal moun, formed from the singular by adding -ad or -iad. (c) To the singular form with an adjectival ending. Examples — (a) cam, step, pl. camr-au; chwäer, sister, pl. chwiorydd ; dychryn, terror, pl. dychrynfe-ydd ; nés, night, pl. nosweith-iau. (b) can, song, pl. caniad-au ; addurn, ornament, pl. addurn- iad-au ; (c) Cristion, Christian, pl. Cristionog-ion ; gwlāw, rain, pl. gwlawog-ydd ; gräs, grace, pl. grasus-au. -º- * The plural endings were originally the stem endings of the old Brythonic declensions, which, on the loss of the case-endings, served to distinguish the plural forms of many words from the singular. When, in course of time, these stem-endings were mistaken for plural endings proper, they were employed to form new plurals. + In some cases the vowel change has taken place in the singular form ; e.g. §. Modern Welsh haul, sun, pl. heuliau, had the form “heul” in Mediaeval elsh. 22 WEA.S.Aſ GACA////AA’ 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 Plural of Nouns in -yn and -en. RULE –Substitute the required plural-ending for the singular- ending -yn or -en : e.g. difer-yn, drop, pl. difer-ion ; cwning-en, 7-abbit, pl. cwning-od; meddw-yn, drunkard, pl. meddw-on. Plural of Compound Nouns. Compound mouns, in which the element that gives them their distinctive meaning comes first, are made plural by giving its plural form to their second element :— e.g. gwerth-Wr, seller, pl. gwerth-wyr (like gwyr); trig-fan, dwelling-place, pl. trig-fanmau (like mannau). NOTE. –i of the suffix -iwr is dropped in the plural, but where it is part of the root as in ysbi-wr, say, it is kept. Nouns with Double Plural Formations. lló, calf, pl. lloiau (also lloi); neges, errand, pl. negeseuau (also negesau); can, song, pl. caneuom (and caniadau); gwās, servant, pl. gweision; mab, son, pl. meibion. Nouns with Two Plurals. The following are the most important — 1. Without difference of meaning.—blwyddyn, year, pl. blyn- yddoedd and blynyddau; castell, castle, pl. cestyll and castelli; mynydd, mountain, pl. mynyddoedd and mynyddau; plwyf, parish, pl. plwyfi and plwyfydd ; tref, town, pl. trefi and trefydd. 2. With difference of meaning.—bron, Öreast and hillside, pl. bronnau breasts, bronnydd, hillsides; cynghor, counse! and counci/; pl. cynghorion, counsels, cynghorau, councils; llwyth, tribe and load, pl. llwythau, tribes, llwythi, Zoads. Nouns used in the Plural only. ymysgaroedd, entrails; gwartheg, cattle; cyfreidiau, needs; teleidion, charºns ; ceinion, beauties. Anomalous Plurals. brawd, brother, pl. brodyr ; Cefnder, first cousin, pl. Cefndyr ; cyfyrder, cousin once removed, pl. cyfyrdyr ; ewythr, uncle, pl. ewythredd; modryb, aunt, pl. modrybedd” ; cyfnither, female cousin, pl. cyfnitherod; ewin, ſinger nail, pl. ewinedd; daint (or dant), tooth, pl. dannedd; bys, ſinger, pl. bysedd; Cár, relative, jºriend, pl. ceraint ; göf, smith, pl. gofaint ; nai, nephew, pl. neiaint ; nith, niece, pl. nithoedd ; yoh, ox, pl. yohent ; merch, girl, daughter, pl. merched; pryſ, worm, insect, pl. pryfed; ci, dog, pl. cwm. * N. Wales modrabedd. f Also yohain. A CC//DAEAVCAE 23 93 94 95 96 Employment of the Chief Plural Endings. au and iau, the most living plural endings in modern Welsh, are used to form the plural :— (a) Of most names of implements, articles of furniture, diet, dress, etc., whose plurals are not formed by internal change of vowel. (b) Of derivatives in -aid, -der, -did, -dod, -edd, -yd, -aeth; -ad and -iad (forming verbal nouns); also of feminines (denoting instruments) in -adur, -ur, -in, -nc. oedd forms the plural of many nouns denoting:— (a) The larger divisions of time: e.g. blynyddoedd, years; cannifoedd, centuries; oesoedd, ages, (b) The larger divisions of land: e.g. ardaloedd, districts; tiroedd, lands; bydoedd, worlds. (c) The larger classes of natural phenomena: e.g. moroedd, seas; gwyntoedd, winds ; tymhestloedd, storms. (d) The larger divisions of numbers: e.g. cannoedd, hum- dreds ; miloedd, thousands. (e) large masses of people : e.g. pobloedd, peoples ; lluoedd, hosts ; byddinoedd, armies. on and ion form the plural :— (a) Of many nouns denoting the more painful personal experiences: e.g. helbulom, troubles; treialon, trials ; clefydon, diseases. (b) Of many abstract nouns denoting such ideas as cynghorion, counsels ; rhybuddion, warnings; esgusion, excuses ; bendithion, Ö/essings ; melldithion, curses, etc. (c) Of many adjectives used as mouns: e.g. cyfoethogion, rich ; tıodion, poor. (d) Of derivatives in -ai, -og, -or, -ydd denoting persons: e.g. gwestai, guest, pl. gwesteion ; marchog, knight, pl. marchogion; drysor, door-keeper, pl. drysorion; ysgrifenydd, secretary, pl. ysgrifenyddion. (e) Of nouns denoting persons and certain classes of per- sons: e.g. dynion, men ; meibion, youths ; trigolion, inhabitants ; apostoliom, apostles. ydd forms the plural — (a) Of nouns ending in -fa : e.g. llosgfa, conſ!ogration, pi, llosgfeydd ; porfa, pasture, pl. porfeydd. (b) Of many nouns denoting objects seen in a landscape : e.g. afonydd, rivers ; fosydd, ditches ; magwyrydd, stone wal/s without mortar; rhosydd, moors 24 WEZSH GRAMMAR 97 98 (c) Of some other nouns: e.g. diodydd, drinks ; byydydd, foods. - od is mostly used for the plural of nouns denoting animals: e.g. camelod, camels ; llwynogod, foxes ; llygod, mice; pysgod, fish. Also in eilunod, idols; llebanod, ſouts; Ffrancod, Frenchmen ; Gwyddelod, Irishmen. aid and iaid form the plural:— (a) Of many adjectives used as nouns : e.g. trueiniaid, wretched ones; gweiniaid, Ze'eak ones. (b) Of nouns in -ad, -iad, -adur, -ur, (denoting persons): e.g. ceidwad, keeper, ceidwaid; pechadur, sinner, pechaduriaid. (c) Of nouns denoting religion, nationality, proper names : e.g. Protestaniaid, Profesſants ; Syriaid, Syrians ; Cesariaid, Caesars. N.B.—llaw, hand, has no plural; dwylaw, dwylo, two hands, is in all cases used instead. PLURAL OF ADJECTIVES. 99| Adjectives, which have plurals, form them as nouns do — (a) By internal change of vowel. (b) By adding a plural-ending to the masculine singular. NOTE. —On adding a plural-ending, care must be taken to change the vowels of the word according to the rules given under Phonetic Laws and Tendencies, Vowel-changes, § 47, 6. a becomes ei; e.g. dall, blind, pl. deillion. (a) By Internal Change of Vowel. 1. In accented syllables. | SOUND. EXAMPLES. ă êi hardd heirdd 23 35 llall lleill 2. In an unaccented syllable. | SOUNDS. EXAMPLES. 3. ãi buan buain à ti cadarn cedyrn | (before rn) ë iſ caled celyd A CC//DAEAVC/E 25 B. Plural formed by adding a Plural-ending. RULE –Add -ion. After br, dr, gr, thr, u, w, add -on. Note 1. –tew, fat, pl. tewion ; glew, strong, pl. glewion ; gwan, weak, pl. gweiniaid. NotE 2. —Derivative adjectives ending in -edig, -og, -ol, -us, usually form a plural only when used as nouns. Feminine of Nouns and Adjectives. FORMATION OF FEMININE OF NOUNS. 1001 GENERAL RULE –Add -es ; if the masc. sing, end in -yn, change -yn to -en : e.g. dyn, man, dynes, zºoman ; asyn, ass, asen, she-ass. * Note.—lleidr, thief, has fem, lladrones; Sais, Englishman, fem. Saegnes. 101. The following pairs of words denoting Persons, Male and Female, should be noted. MASCULINE. MEANING. FEMININE. MEANING. bachgen boy geneth girl brawd brother chwäer såsfer Cefnder cousin cyfnither cousin chwegrwn father-in-laze, chwegr mother-in-law dāw son-in-Zaze, gwāudd daughter-in-laze, ewythr wncle modryb azzºtt gwās mazz-Séz'zam! morwyn maid-servant gWr husband gwraig wife 3? 772 (272 5 y 72/07/10/2 māb son merch daughter nai nephezw nith niece täd father mann mother taid, grandfather nain , grandmother tadcü 3 2 mamgü 5 y 26 WE/LSAH GAA/MMAA' 102 103 104 105 106 FORMATION OF FEMININE OF ADJECTIVES. Most adjectives have no feminine form, and the growing tendency is to use the masculine for both genders. With a few exceptions, the adjectives which have feminine forms are monosyl- lables containing the vowels y and W. N.B.-Feminine forms are used in the singular only. 1. GENERAL RULE :—Change y to e ; w to 0. (See § 47, 2). e.g. Cryſ, strong, fem. Créf; llwm, Öare, fem. llom. 2. Similarly —brych, speckled ; byr, short ; gwlyb, wet ; gwyn, white; gwyrdd, green ; llym, sharp ; syth, straight ; sych, dry ; Crwm, stooping ; Crwn, round; dwfn, deep ; thws, preſſy; and a few others. 3. Also the compounds. –pengrych, curly-headed; talgrych, tal/ and curly-headed; hirgrwn, el/úſical ; pendrwm, top heavy ; pengrwn, round head. 4. One adjective brith, speckled, has fem. braith. 5. The disyllabic adjectives :—bychan, small, and melyn, yellow, have fem. bechan and melen respectively; tywyll, dark, sometimes has fem. tywell. Gender of Nouns. I. In Welsh there are two genders,” Masculine and Feminine: 2. There is no Neuter, and very few nouns are common. In the following paragraphs on Gender — Masculine nouns are printed in Clarendon type. Feminine nouns are printed in italics. To discover the gender of a noun, ask:- I. DOES THE NOUN DENOTE A PERSON ? If so :—Nouns that denote a Male person are Masculine: Nouns that denote a Female person are Feminine : e.g. cigydd, ‘butcher’; bachgen, ‘boy’; geneth, ‘girl’; morzwyn, ‘maiden.’ By this rule we are able to simplify all other rules, by first ex- cluding from consideration the nouns that denote persons. perthynas, ‘relation,’ cyfyrder, ‘cousin once removed,’ and some adjectives used as nouns, are of common gender, i.e. masculine or ſemº...ine according to their application. * Care must be taken not to confuse grammatical gender (of nouns), with sex (of persons or animals). A CC//D/E/VCAE 27 OBS. I.-The above rule of Natural Gender does not apply to collective nouns : e.g. y ſyddin, ‘the army '; y werin, ‘the com- mon people,' y gymnulleiºfa, ‘the congregation.” Since these do not denote “a male person,” or “a female person,” their gender follows the rules for sexless things given below. OBS. 2.-baban, “infant,” plentyn, ‘child,’ tyst, “witness,’ are masculine whether denoting a male or female. OBS. 3.-Certain abstract nouns, used to denote persons, have their own gender, irrespective of their application : e.g. meichiau, ‘surety '; cydnabod, “acquaintance’; mawrhydi, ‘majesty'; anglwyddiaeth, ‘lordship.’ 107| II. If the noun does not denote a person, then ask : DOES THE NOUN DENOTE A SExLESS THING P If so, its gender will generally depend upon its form. The main rules and exceptions are given 1n $$ Io9–I I I. 108 There are some classes of nouns, chiefly proper names of sexless things, in which the gender is determined, not by the form, but by the meaning of the word. . (a) Proper names of Rivers are mostly feminine (corresponding to the gender of afon, “river’): e.g. Y Ddyfrdwy, “the Dee.’ (b) Proper names of Days of the Week, Months, Seasons, Winds, Car- dinal Points are masculine, corresponding to the gender of dydd, ‘day’; mis, ‘month'; tymor, ‘season '; gwynt, “wind”; respect- ively. (c) Proper names of Feasts are masculine : e.g. y Pāsg, ‘Easter’; y Sulg-, wyn, ‘Whitsuntide'; y Grawys, ‘Lent’; y Nadolig, ‘Christmas.’ (d) Proper names of Parishes, Towns, Cities, Countries are feminine, corresponding to the gender of Zlan, ‘church'; tref, “town'; dimas, ‘city’; and gzwlād, ‘country,’ respectively. . (e) Proper names of letters of the alphabet are feminine, (f) Nouns denoting kinds of wood (not trees) are gasculine, correspond- ing to the gender of prem, wood. 28 WELSAE GRAMMA R 109 110 Rules for Nouns Denoting Sexless Things. All indeclinable parts of speech used as nouns (except names of letters of the alphabet), including all verb-nouns are masculine: e.g. yr Os, ‘the “if”’; y bwyta, “the eating.” Also adjec- tives denoting colour, ideas, numbers, and language used as nouns:– e.g. y melyn, ‘the yellow’; y gwir, ‘the true’; y pedwar, ‘the four'; Cymråeg da, ‘good Welsh '; but y Gymråeg (fem.), ‘the Welsh language,’ corresponding to the gender of iaith, ‘language.’ For determining the gender of nouns denoting sexless things by their form, the following rules may be given :— RULE 1.-Simple nouns of one syllable having as their vowel or diphthong, a, ā, ae, ai, au, aw, aw are masculine. RULE 2.—Simple nouns of one syllable having as their vowel or diphthong, ei, i, i, iw, u, ü, w, w, wy, wy, y, y, are masculine. RULE 3.—Simple nouns of one syllable having as their vowel or diphthong, o, ö, äe, e, e are feminine. RULE 4.—Simple nouns of two syllables, whose last vowel is a, W, u, or y, are masculine, RULE 5.—Simple nouns of two syllables, whose last vowel is ai, e, o, zºly, are feminine. RULE 6.-Derivative nouns, ending in -ad (-iad), -ăd (-hād), -adur, -ai, -amt, -aint, -deb, -der, -did (-dyd), -dod, -dra, -edd, -i, -iaint, -ineb, -ioni, -ni, -rwydd, -ur (and -yr), -wch, -wy, are maš- culine. RULE 7.-Derivative nouns, ending in -ach, -aeth, (-iaeth), -ain, -as, -eč, -ed, -el/, -em, fa, -iar, -ig, -in, -og, are feminine. RULE 8.—Derivative nouns ending in -aid, -an, -od, have the same gender as the nouns to which the ending is added. ch it gives a special meaning: e.g. colomendy lit, dove-house ; mammaeth, nurse, lit. nursing- A CC/DEAVCE - 29 111 112 113 (a) Exceptions to Rule I.-arch, barn, flame, glan, lamp, llam, faſt , Čáth, cóid, cón, gzwlād, llāth, rhäff; cder, sāeth, de/, craith, fair, iaith, llain, maid, plaid, sail ; awr, dawn, dawns, gwawr ; llāw, rházy. (b) Exceptions to Rule 2. —cist, glºn, gwig , punt : clist; gºuyrth gwyst/; ſºydd, jë j clayd, cityn, fºrwyn, gay!, hidyl, hityr, 7thwyd. (c) Exceptions to Rule 3. —corn, corph, gogr, of m, porth (gate); clod, cóf, gró, tró, módd, nôd; crüen, Öed, túes, tróed; cefn, edn, elw, gwerth, mefl, merth, pen, serch ; bâdd, gwéllt, gwrés, llé, lléd, mēdd, mēl. (a) Exceptions to Rule 4.—crafanc, talar, daear, dinas, czuppam," ardd- wrºt erºhyg!, ynys, engya!; natur, Aladzcz", gweſies. (e) Exceptions to Rule 5. —enaid, aberth, amser, angem, (camwedd), (car- tref), castell, cawell, halen, hanes, pared, bore, preseb; (anwyd), awyr, (gorchwyl), (gwobrwy), (cyfrwy). (f) Exception to Rule 6.-gaſwad. (g) Exceptions to Rule 7.—prymedigaeth, darfodedigaeth, gwasamaeth. III.-1. If the noun denotes neither a person nor a sexless thing, ask lastly : DOES THE NOUN DENOTE A KIND OF ANIMALP (i.e. one of the lower animals). If so, remember that names of animals in Welsh, are rarely, if ever, of common gender, being either masculine or feminine : e.g. eryr, ‘eagle' is masculine ; colomen, “dove' is feminine. - 2. In the case of some animals there are pairs of mouns to denote the male and the female respectively: e.g. adiad, ‘drake,’ Azelyaden, “duck’; carw, hydd, ‘stag,' evig, “hind ’; hwrdd, ‘ram,’ daſad, “sheep ’; ceiliog, “cock,” iãr, ‘hen.’ 3. Where it is necessary to denote the sex, it may be indicated by adding gwrryw, ‘male,' benyw, ‘female'; the name of the animal preserving its own gender, as indicated by the mutation, if it be feminine, (or non-mutation, if it be masculine) of the initial letter of the adjective : e.g. cdth wrryw, eryr benyw. Diminutive Nouns. The endings added to the singular to form diminutive nouns are -am, -ig, -yn, -Cyn ; to the plural, -ach and -0s. e.g. dynan (com. gend.) ‘little person '; oenig, ‘little lamb’: dernyn, ‘little piece'; bryncyn, ‘little hill’; dynionach (com. gend.), ‘poor mortals' (fr. dynion); plantos, ‘little children' (fr. plant); gwrageddos, ‘poor women' (fr. gwragedd). - “sºm- * In the Welsh translation of the Bible cwppan is masculine. 30 WE/SAE GRAMMAR r 115 114 6): Comparison of Adjectives. I. In addition to the Comparative proper, and the Superlative, there is in Welsh a Comparative of Equality, of the same mean- ing as the Positive in English preceded by so, as or hozº : e.g. wynedyw, so white is it; wyned a'r eira, as white as the snow; Wyned yayw How white it is / 2. The usual endings are :– (a) For Comp. of equality, -ed : (b) For Compar. proper, ach: (c) For Superlative, -af: e.g. du, black ; du-ed, as black ; du-ach, blacker; du-af, à/ackest. e.g. main, slender, meinach"; trym, heavy, trymach. -iaf. NOTE. I.-If the positive end in b, d, g (alone or followed by a liquid), these sounds are changed respectively into p, t, c, in both comparatives and the Superlatives: e.g. gwlyb, wet, gwlyped, gwlypach, gwlypaf; hagr, ugly, hacraf. NOTE 2. —If the last syllable of the positive have a1, aw, or w, these must be changed respectively into ei, o, or y (see Phonetic Laws and Tendencies, § 47, NOTE 3. —Sometimes (especially after -dd), -ach, -ed, -af, become -iach, In the following adjectives, -ed, forming the Compar. of Equality, and -af, forming the Superlative, are added to the Comparative form, in which the old Brythonic comparative ending -iós (= Latin -ior, -ius) has now been lost. NOTE. –agos, hawdd and ieuanc may also be compared regularly. Positive|*.*|†. *...* ...". Meaning i. Meaning agos nigh nés nearer | nesed as near nesaf nearest bāch small llai smaller lleied as smal/| lleiaf sma//es/ buan szeiſ? | Cynt sooner | Cynted as soon cyntaf soones? drWg bad |gwāeth zworse |gwaethed as bad |gwaethaf worst hawdd easy haws easier hawsed as easy hawsaf | easiest hēn o/d hyn older hyned as old hynaf e/desz isel Zozo, iS /ozeer ised as Jozº isaf loze/est uchel high uwch higher uched as high uchaf highest ieuanct young iau younger ieuaf youngest hiri long hwy longer hwyaf longest mawri large | mwy larger mwyaf largest form. * Where the diphthong is “ai' the change has, historically, taken place in the positive “Main ' stands for Mediaeval “nhein.’ # Ieuanc, hir, mawr, have Comp. of Equality ieuenged, hired, cymmaint, respectively. A CCIDENCE 3 I 116 117 118 119 120 NOTE. I.-dā, good, has Comp.gwell, better; Superl. goreu, best. Compar. of Equality, daëd or cystal, as well. In goreu, the Superlative ending has probably been lost. NOTE 2. —gwerthfawr, zaluable, has Comp. of Equality, gwerthfawroced, as valuable, Comp. gwerthfawrocach, more zaluable ; gwerthfawrocaf, most zaluable. NOTE 3. —The Comparative of equality was originally an abstract noun in -ed. By its use in such expressions as gwelwch hardded y wiãd, lit. see the beauty of the country, it came to be considered as meaning ‘mor hardd,’ and was gradually employed accordingly. From the nouns blåen, point; diwedd, end; Öl, track ; pen, /head; are formed the Superlatives blaenaf, first; diweddaf, last; Olaf, last of a/Z; pennaf, chief; respectively. The Compar, trèch, stronger, Superl. trechaf, strongest ; and the Superlative eithaf, furthest; have no corresponding Positive forms. REMARKS. 1. As well as by means of the bare Comp. of Equality (rarely used alone), as–as may be expressed as follows:— (a) By means of the Comp. of Equality preceded by cyn or can, and followed by a . e.g. cyn wyned a'r eira, as zwhite as the snow. (b) By means of cy-, cyf., cys-, cyn-, prefixed to certain Y1Oll]].S : e.g. cyhyd, as long (fr. hyd, length); cyfled, as broad (fr. lléd, breadth); cystal, as well (fr. tal, pay- ment); Cymmaint, as large, (fr. maint, size); cynddrwg, as bad (fr. drwg, evil). In cyfuwch, as high, cyf-, is prefixed to the Comparative uwch, higher. (c) In the case of words which do not take -ed, by means of the Positive preceded by mor, as : e.g. mor fendithiol a'r goleu, as blessed as the light. 2. Where no Comparative or Superlative form exists, mwy, | more and mvyaf, most, put before the Positive, are used to express the Compar. and the Superl. respectively. e.g. mwy gobeithiol, more hopeful ; mwyaf gobeithiol, most hopeful. 3. Note the following expressions —y cyntaf a'r diweddaf, the first and the last; y blaenaf a'r olaſ, the former and the latter; y gwyr mwyaf eu clod, the men of most fame; po fivyaf-mwyaf Öll, the more—the more ; o hymny yu fivy, by so much the more. º s *m-mºº ;. I 3 . : CARDINAL. ORDINAL. CARDINAL. ORDINAL. tl]]. cyntaf, unfed. tri }-ar bvmthe dau (m.), dwy (f.) ail, eilfed. 18 }; -by g deunawfed tri º tair (f.) trydydd (m.), trydedd (f.) deu-naw edwar (m.), pedair (f.)|ped werydd (m.), pedwaredd(f, ped war edwerydd P pump, . p y º (f.) 19| pedair }-ar-bymtheg º: -ar-bymtheg chwech, chwö" chweched 2O ugain ugeinfed Saith Seithfed 2 I un-ar-hugain unfed-ar-hugain wyth wythfed 3O deg-ar-hugain degfed-ar-hugain nāw nawfed 35 pyrmtheg-ar-hugain pymthegfed-ar-hugain deg degfed 36 un-ar-bymtheg-ar hugain unfed-ar-bymtheg-ar-hugain un-ar-ddeg unfed-ar-ddeg 4O deugain deugeinfed deuddeg deuddegfed 4. I º ... tri trydydd - O eg-a-deugain egfed-a-deugain tair }-ariddeg º }-a-ddeg ; triugain *j edwar ped werydd O deg-a-thriugain degfed-a-thriugain ; }-ariddeg pedwaredd -ar-ddeg § pedwar ugain ped war j pyrmtheg pymthegfed 90 deg-a-phed war-ugain degfed-a-phed war ugain un-ar-bymtheg unfed-ar-bymtheg IOO cant, can" canfed dau-ar-bymtheg eilfed-ar-bymtheg IOOO mil milfed myrdd IOOOO myrddiwn * The forms pum, chwe, can are employed when a noun immediately follows the numeral. A CC/DACAVCE 33 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 I. A moun immediately following the cardinal numeral is put in the singular : - e.g. ped war dyn, four men ; in the compounds triwyr, three men, seithwyr, seven men, the noun is in the plural. 2. A noun qualified by a composite cardinal number contain- ing two separate numbers, or any composite ordinal number is placed after the first number : e.g. un dyn ar ddég, elezen men ; y trydydd dyn ar ddég ar hugain, the thirty-third man. 3. If the cardinal number contain more than two numbers, the preposition o, from, may be placed between it and the noun : e.g. triar ddeg ar hugain oddynion, thirty-three men. 4. cyntaf, first, is never used in combination with other numerals : in such combinations unfed is used. 5. dég, ugain, cant, mil (f.), when used as mouns, have the plurals, degau, ugeimiau, cannoedd, miloedd, respectively. 6. Cardinals are used for ordinals, (I) of pages and hymns (2) of years (in dates): - e.g. tudalen cant ac ugain, page I2O ; y flwyddyn pedwar cant, the year 4oo. - Caution.-The initial mutations which take place after numbers should be carefully noted. See Appendix (Initial Mutations). Cardinal Numbers used with Possessive Adjectives. Note the use of the possessive adjective in the following expres- sions —ni ein dau, tri, tair, etc., we two, three, etc., chwi eich dau, tri, tair, etc., you two, three, etc. For the third person ill is used. Similarly fy hun, human. See § 139, note. e.g. hwy ill tri, they three: in this expression ill trioedd is sometimes used. Note the following adverbs and adverbial expressions— 1. Unwaith, dwywaith, teirgwaith, etc., once, twice, thrice, etc. 2. Yn gyntaf, yn ail, yn drydydd, etc., firstly, second/y, third/V, etc. 3. Arunwaith, at once. º 4. Y tro cyntaf, yr ail dro (or eſltro), y trydydd tro, the first, second, third time. Ar ddwy waith, ar ddeudro, 2n two attempás. . Yn awr aceilwaith, mozy and them. . Bob yn unac un, one by onze. . Bob yn ddau, bob yn dri, etc., two by two, three by three, etc. . Bob yn ail, alternately. i 34 WELSH GRAMMAR PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES CONNECTED THEREWITH. (See also Syntax, §§ 561-589.) Personal Pronouns. 1301 I. Personal Pronouns in Welsh are of four kinds. (a) Postvocalic (acc.), used before the verb after certain words ending in a vowel. (5) Simple. (c) Redupli- cated Emphatic. (d) Conjunctive. 131| 2. The Conjunctive is used to express—“I also,' ‘thou also,’ ‘ he also,” etc. 132. 3. For b, c, d, the nom. and acc. are alike in form. OBS.—A Conjunctive and Emphatic form is occasionally found e.g. my finnau, tydithau, etc. FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON. THIRD PERSON. a | S.’m P. ºn S. 7th P, 'ch |S. 'i (M. and F.). P. 'u (M. and F.) -- tºº tºº º éf (M.) * * * * b | mi Ill ti chwi hi (F.) hwy, hwynt *ms myfi nymi tydi |chwychwi efé, (M.) hwwnthw C 1 \º Wyn. * hyhi (F.) y y d|minmau | minmau | tithaul chwithau yntau (M.) hwythau hithau (F.) 133 NOTE I.—efe stands for ef-ef. As a formal personal pronoun with verbs of all persons and numbers, the form fe is used : see § 194, and Appendix to Syntax. e.g. fe welodd y dyn, the man saw, lit. there saw, i.e. the man. Similarly e is used for ef in poetry. 134. NOTE 2.—The Nom. ‘I,’ ‘thou,” “he,” etc. is not usually expressed unless emphatic. See Syntax, §§ 561-568. - 135 NOTE 3.—myſ, tydi, efe, etc. in the nom. are now chiefly used with verbs in the 3rd pers. Sing., in such sentences as—myfi yw, it is I; efe oedd yno, it was he that was there; tydia alwodd, it was you who called. See Syntax, § 319, and Appendix to Syntax. A CCIDENCE 35 136|| If the accus, pronoun is emphasized, in addition to the pro- noun before the verb, a simple personal pronoun is added after it : in this case i is used for fi. See Syntax, §§ 565, 566. e.g. fe ºth welais, ‘I saw thee'; fe ºth welais di, ‘I saw thee.’ Similarly, fe ºth welais dithau, ‘I saw thee : also.” *137| Pronouns governed by prepositions are, in many cases, de- noted by pronominal suffixes attached to such prepositions. See §§ 292-296: - e.g. ataf, to me; drostynt, over them. 138] The pronoun of the 2nd pers, sing. ti is used in addressing the Deity, a very intimate friend, a child, or an animal. But, except to the Deity or to an animal, the growing tendency is to use chwi. 139| There is in Welsh no reflexive pronoun. As substitutes, the nouns S. hin,” hunan, self, P. hunain, selves, qualified by a poss. adj., are used : e.g. fy hun, myself; ein humain, ourse/ves. NOTE.-Several verbs have a reflexive form, made by prefixing the prepo- sition ym, another form of am, “around.’ Sometimes, as in ymladdaf, I fight, this form has a reciprocal meaning : e.g. golchaf, ‘I wash ’; ym-olchaf, ‘I wash myself.” Possessive Pronouns. 140] Instead of a pronoun the noun eiddo, property, with pronominal suffixes, preceded by the article is used. Similarly the number in preceded by a possessive adj. and followed by a simple personal pronoun, referring to a singular; the noun rhai to a plural, and the noun eiddo either to a singular or a plural. SINGULAR. PLURAL. yr eiddof, mine yr eiddom, ours yr eiddot, thine yr eiddoch, yours yr eiddo, his yr eiddynt, theirs. yr eiddi, hers Also fy uni, fy rhai i, mine, dy un di, dy raidi, thine , etc. NotE I.-For emphasis a pers. pron, may be added : e.g. yr eiddo ef, his. NoTE 2. —Eiddo is now often used for S. 3 fem. * Probably the numeral un, one, with ‘h' prefixed, used as a noun. Com- pare the Breton un, unan; see § 128. 36 WAE/SAEI GRAMMA R Possessive Adjectives. 141. These are of two kinds : (a) Postvocalic, (b) Normal. The postvocalic forms are used after words ending in a vowel (if no pause intervene). SINGULAR. PLURAL. POSTVOCALIC. NORMAL. POST VOCALIC. NORMAL. 'm fy,” my 'n ein, our 'th dy,” ſhy 'ch eich, your 'i, 'w ei, his, her 'u', 'w eu, their 142| NOTE I.—The form S. and P. 3, 'w, is only used after the prep. i, into: e.g. i*w, into his, her, their. 143 NOTE 2.-For emphasis a personal pron. may be added after the noun : e.g. dy liin di, ‘thy likeness.’ See Syntax, §§ 568, 569. 144 NOTE 3.−A poss. adj. agrees in gender with the noun to which it refers. Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns. yr, y. (The Definite Article.) (See also Syntax, $$ 581-589.) 145 yr (before vowels and h), y (before consonants): e.g. yr achos, the cause : y gwaith, the work. 146 When, however, after words ending in a vowel, the y of yr is elided, the form ºr is used, even before consonants +: e.g. o'r ty, from f/he house. 147| NOTE.-Before consonantal w, y is used : e.g. y wraig, the woman. 5 5 5 § is yr , : e.g. yr iechyd, the health. (a) hwn, this. (b) hwnnw, that. 148 SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. hwn (M.) hwmmw (M.) - hon (F.) hyn honno (F.) hymny hyn (indecl.) hynny (indecl). - Not E. —hyn and hymny (S.) are used with péth, thing. See Syntax, $580. e.g. y peth hym, this thing ; y peth hymny, that thing. This use is parallel to the dialect use of hyn in y mynydd hyn, this mountain. * Occasionally mau and tau are found for my and thy; e.g. y llyfr mau, my book y ty tau, thy house. + This is a survival from the Old Welsh use of ir (= yr) before both vowels and consonants. A CC/DEAVCAE 37 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 1. When used as adjectives, hwn and hwnmw follow the noun preceded by the definite article : e.g. y wraig hon, this woman ; y dynion hymny, those men. 2. To express a demonstrative adjective of the 1st, 2nd or 3rd person, for hwn, hwnnw, are substituted the adverbs, yma, here; yna, ‘there (near you)"; acw, yonder: e.g. y dyn yna, ‘this man (near me)”; y dyn yna, ‘that man (near you)”; y dyn acw, ‘the man yonder.’ 3. acw is also sometimes used idiomatically for the demonstrat- ive of the 1st pers. : e.g. y ty acw, “that house of mine.’ 4. hwn and hwnnW, hyn and hymny, are used as demonstrat- ive pronouns. The plural then is y rhai hym, y rhai hymny. As pronouns, hyn and hymny in the singular correspond to the neuter demonstrative pronoun of other languages. 5. To form demonstrative pronouns of the Ist, 2nd, and 3rd person, yma, yna, acw are added to hwn, hon, hym in the singular : e.g. hwnyma, “this one (m.)”; honyna, ‘that one (f.)”; hynacw, ‘that thing (yonder).’ In the plural the adverb is substituted for hyn after rhai: e.g. y rhai yma, yna, acW. 6. rhai is in Origin a sing, noun, being Latin ‘greg-em,’ acc. of ‘grex,’ fock, borrowed. arall, pl. ereill. As adjective, arall means another, other: e.g. dyn arall, another man ; y dyn arall, the other man. As pron. arall, means another ; ereill, others. y naill—y llall. 1. This pair of words means, the one—the other; pl. y naill—y Ileill, y naill is both demonstr. adj. and pron. ; y llall a pro- noun only, the corresponding adjective being arall, used after the noun preceded by the article. 2. ‘ One another’ is expressed by the plural possessive adjec- tives, ein, eich, eu, with gilydd, the mutated form of an old noun cilydd, companion ; for Ist, 2nd and 3rd pers, respectively: e.g. ein gilydd, eich gilydd, eu gilydd. NOTE. –Eigilydd (sing.), corresponding to his fellow, in such an expression as each his ſe/low, was the original form, but was mistaken for ‘eu gilydd.” 38 WE/ESA/ GAA/MMA R 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective. 1. (a) Interrogative pronoun, pwy P who 2 (b) Interrogative adjective, pā P what ? 2. (a) “Whose "is expressed by putting pwy after the noun: e.g. Whose book 2 llyfr pWy? (b) The interrogative pronoun = English what P is expressed by pabēth P or bêth P lit., what thing 3 How many ? by pa Sawl? pa gynnifer P How much 3 by pa faint P* 3. What kind 2 is expressed by pa fäth P paryW P 4. p wy and pa are used for both genders and numbers. Examples : typwy yayw P whose house is it 2 pwy ywf who is he 2 pa dy yw P which house is it 2 beth yw P what is it 2 pa fath yw? what Kind is it 2 pa ryw ddyn Öedd P what kind of man 7&as /he £ Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives. (See also Syntax, § 579.) I. méb, some one, dim, something, are used in negative sentences as pronouns: e.g. ni welais neb, / saw no one ; ni chefais ddim, Z got nothing. In questions and answers neb and dim are used without the negative : e.g. A oedd neb yno P Nac oedd, neb ; Was no one there 2 AVo, no one, 2. neb followed by rhyw is used in negative sentences to denote ‘no–at al/’: e.g. neb rhyw daynion, no men at all. N.B.-dim is also used as an adjective in negative sentences: e.g. mi chefais ddim bvyd, Z got no food. In questions and answers the negative is usually omitted : e.g. A oes dim lle P Nacoes, ddim. Is there no room 3 AVo, 720726. 3. In affirmative sentences the adjective rhyw denotes some : e.g. rhyw daynion, some man ; rhywbeth, some thing. 4. Where some means “a portion of,” it is expressed by péth : e.g. peth goleu, some light. 5. To express the pronouns, some one, some ; S. rhywun, some one, P. rhywrai, some, are used. NOTE.-Historically, dim and rhyw, like peth, are nouns, and the noun following them was put in the genitive case. * Pa gynnifer and pa ſaint are followed by the prep. o. A CCIDENCE 39 167 168 169 Relative Pronouns. (See Syntax, §§ 570-578 and Appendix.) In idiomatic Welsh a relative clause is frequently expressed without a relative pronoun to introduce it. In this case the verb is generally preceded, in affirmative clauses, by one of the pre-verbal particles a or yr (y); a when the Relative Pronoun, if expressed, would be the Subject or the Object of a finite verb, yr (y) in all other cases. (The form yr is that employed before vowels and h): e.g. y dyn a aeth, the man who went ; y ty a welais, the house which Z saw ; y dyn y gwelais ei dy, the man z0/hose house / sazº. - OBs.—The origin of ‘a’ and ‘yr (y)' is wrapt in considerable obscurity. ‘a’ may possibly be the Welsh equivalent of the Irish relative pronoun a n, but it should be noted that there is in Welsh no trace of the nasal. As for its employment, it is noticeable that in Mediaeval Welsh it was often employed where we should now use yr (y). For the use of a relative clause without a relative pronoun, compare Irish, where the verb is often preceded by ro- or do- in such clauses. N.B.-Usually, where in English the relative is governed by a preposition or a verb-noun, the construction described in § 167 is employed, the verb being preceded by the pre-verbal particle yr (y), while the required preposition or verb-noun is placed at the end of the relative clause ; the preposition with a pronominal suffix, the verb-noun qualified by a possessive adjective, agreeing in person, number and gender with the antecedent of the relative: similarly a noun following 20/hose in English : e.g. y ty yr euthum iddo, the house into which I went. ,, ,, yr , i'vy adeiladu, the house to build which A zwent. - ,, , , y gwelais ei do, the house zwhose roof Z sazy. ,, , y , ei adeiladu, the house the building of zeyhich Z sazey. The place of single relative forms is largely supplied by means of the combinations yr hyn (S. m.), yr hon (S. f.), y rhai (P. com.); y neb, y Sawl, zwho, Zehoever; pyvy bymnag, whosoever, beth bymnag, whatsoever. (For the use of these forms, see Syntax, §§ 573-578.) OBS.–In such a sentence as ‘gwelais yr hwn a geisiwch,' I saw the one whom you seek, the use of ‘yr hwn' seems to have arisen through the substitution of a demonstrative pronoun for a noun in such an expression as ‘gwelais y gwr a geisiwch,' I saw the man whom you seek. Hence, in its origin, “yr hwn' 40 WELSH GRAMMAR 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 is no more a relative pronoun than ‘y gwr' would be. Still, the confusion of thought which has obscured its origin and which has led Welshmen to regard it in course of time as a relative pronoun has many parallels in the history of language, and is a factor which must constantly be taken into account in studying linguistic development. The confusion of thought in question took place the more easily as ‘yr hwn' was not employed, as time went on, except in conjunction with relative clauses. The interrogative adjective pa, in the combination pa—bynnag, is separated from bymnag by the noun : e.g. paddyn bymnag, zwhat man soever. bymnag may be a mutated form of py mag? who not £ hence pwy bymnag means who 2 zyńo not ; pa dayn bymnag, zwhat man 2 zwho mož 2 OBS. I.-a is frequently omitted, but the omission of yr (y) is I’are. OBS. 2.-In Negative Clauses, nā, not (sometimes mi) is sub- stituted for a, yr, y. Caution.—Each word in these expressions should be parsed separately, in order to make their history clear. Definitive Adjectives and Pronouns. 1. ‘Self' in “myself,’ ‘thyself,' etc., when used as a definite pronoun is expressed by means of the nouns him, human, self, pl. hunain, selves, preceded by the required possessive adjectives: See § 139. e.g. dy hun, Zhyself; ein hunain, ourselves. 2. ‘The same ' is expressed by yr in : e.g. the same men, yr tin dynion. ADVERBS. 1. There are in Welsh no adverbs derived from adjectives by adding a suffix as in English. An English adverb like happily is expressed in Welsh by putting before the required adjective the word yn, used also to introduce a predicate noun or adjective. e.g. dedwydd, happy, yn daedwydd, haſ/ºi/y; dedwyddach, happier; yn daedwyddach, more happily; dedwyddaf, happiest ; yn diedwyddaf, most happily. 2. The comparative of equality is the same both as an adjective and as an adverb. 3. Note the following expressions—gwéllwell, better and better; gwáethwaeth, worse and worse; lléilai, less and less; mwyfwy, greater and greater. A CC//DAAWCAE 4I VERBS. 1771 The Welsh verb has — (a) Two Voices *:— The Active conjugated with distinct personal suffixes for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person, singular and plural. The Passive conjugated with one suffix for all persons, singu- lar and plural. 178 NOTE. —The Passive Voice in Welsh appears to have been originally a form s of the verb expressing merely the occurrence of a given action, leaving its sub- ject unexpressed. The object of the action—in present day Welsh, to all, intents and purposes, the subject of the Passive Voice—was put in the Accusa- tive Case. That the Welsh linguistic consciousness of the present day tends to look upon what was originally the object of a verb with subject unexpressed, as the subject of a verb in the Passive Voice, seems to be indicated by the fact that the initial letter of the word in question, like that of the subject of an Active Verb, undergoes no mutation, whereas the initial letter of the object of a verb, whether noun or pronoun, always does. With pronouns, however, the older construction is quite clear in the use of the accus. postvocalic form of the pers. pron. after certain words ending in a vowel: e.g. fe’m gwelir, Z ame ſeen, lit, there 2s seeing (in respect fo) me, by the side of gwelir fi. The old impersonal use, too, is exemplified in the case of intransitive verbs like Wyf, I am ; deuaf, I come; af, I go. 179| (b) Three Moods:—Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative. 1801 (c) Four Simple Tenses of the Indicative.† NAME OF WELSH TENSE. # 5 ſ he learns * # { /he is ſearning } dysg Present. tº a ſ he learn? dysgodd Aorist. 3 : 3 he was learning dysgai Past Imperfect. *H ! he had learnt dysgasai Pluperfect. NOTE. —In the irregular verb Wyf, Z am, and its compounds, we have also a Present Habitual and a Past Imperfect Habitual : e.g. byddaf, I am wonzá to be ; byddwm, Z was wont to be. 181| The name Aorist is short for Past Aorist (= Past Indefinite). 182| The name Pluperfect is short for Past Perfect. 183 The Future is the same in form as the Present. In the verb wyf and its compounds, it has the same form as the Present Habitual: and in the case of other verbs also the Pres. Habitual (see Compound Tenses, below) may be used as Future. See Syntax, $$ 480-483. - * Many verbs acquire a reflexive and some a reciprocal sense by the pre- fixing of the prep, ym = am, around. Cf. § 139, and Syntax, §§ 463-466. f For the use of these forms, see Syntax, §§ 467, 525. 42 V/A. Z.S// GA’A///l/A/C 184 185 186 187 By means of the verb wyf and the verb-noun preceded by the prepositions yn, in, or wedi, after, the following Compound Tenses are formed :- NAME OF WELSH TENSE. , ſhe is learning mae yn dysgu Present Con- : tinuous. F he is zvont to ſearn bydd yn dysgu Present Habit- * - ual. § /he has learnſ mae wedi dysgu Perfect. - ; Åe has been learning bu yn dysgu Perfect Con- \ - - t1nll OllS. ſhe was learning yr oedd yn dysgu Past Imperfect ſi Continuous. à |/he used to /eazºn byddai yn dysgu Past Imperfect H. Habitual. à /he had learn? yr oedd wedi dysgu Pluperfect. a he had been ſearning (buasai yn dysgu)* Pluperfect l Continuous. : ; ſhe will have learnt bydd wedi dysgu Future Perfect. B = {he will have been bydd wedi bodyn dysgu Future Perfect E* { learning Continuous. The Present Habitual, bydd yn dysgu, is also used as a Future. NotE. – Carefully observe the future aspect often given in Welsh to the Past Imperfect and Pluperfect. For example, just as the present form dysg may mean he will learn, so the Past Imperfect dysgai may mean he would learn, and the Pluperfect dysgasai he would have learnt. The latter is the most common meaning of the simple Pluperfect form in Modern Welsh. See Syntax, §§ 467, 469, 501, 52.I. For the use of the compound tenses, see Syntax, §§ 475, 477, 494, 496, 515, 517, 523, 524. Caution.—In parsing, it is important to parse the component parts of the compound tenses separately. See Syntax, §§ 524,525. * See Syntax, § 503. A CCIDENCE 43 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 (d) Two Numbers (Singular and Plural). (e) Three Persons in each number, corresponding to the three persons of pronouns. From the verb-stem are also formed— (a) The verb-noun (indeclinable), dysgu, learning. (b) The verb-adjective, dysgedig, learned, erudite; (dysgadwy), that can be ſearnt. OBS. I.-The verb-adjective is used only as an attribute. In the case of most verbs it does not exist. See Syntax, $$ 557-560. OBS. 2.-The Welsh language has now no participles. To form participle-equivalents, the verb-noun governed by prepositions is used. See Syntax, $$ 546-556. Caution.—In order to illustrate the structure of the participle- equivalents, the component parts should be parsed separately. Tenses of the Subjunctive. The Subjunctive has only one simple tense—the Present: * e.g. dysgwyf, Z may learn. For the Past Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, the Past Imperfect and Pluperfect Indicative are used, in all verbs except wyf and cáf. See Syntax, §§ 355, 526. NOTE.—The Welsh verb is frequently preceded by one of the following proclitics:–fe (mi) (see § 133); a, yr (y). See Syntax, Appendix. I. fe (in the spoken Welsh of N. Wales, mi), is often used before the verb at the beginning of a sentence; e.g. fe redodd y dyn, the man ran. 2. a. is used when the subject or the object of the sentence is put first for the sake of emphasis; e.g. dyn a dilaeth (it is) a man who came : a man came. 3. yr (before a vowel), y (before a consonant) are used:— (a) before forms of Wyf Pres. (cont.), Past Imperf (cont.), Pers. and Impers. at the beginning of a sentence; e.g. yr wyfyma, I am here. (b) before forms of Wyf (auxiliary), when the verb-noun is placed first; e.g. gweithio y bum, I have been working. (c) before all verbs when an adverb, or a noun governed by a preposi- tion is placed first, for emphasis; e.g. yma y gwelaf, here I see. (d) after many prepositions used as conjunctions; e.g. cyn yr af, before I go. * This form was often employed in Mediaeval Welsh as a Future Indicative. 44 195a Wyſ, “I am –Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. JAVAD/CA 7TWJZZ. FRESENT. Wyf, yowyf, I am Wyt, yowyt, thou art mäe, Čes, Sydd, sy, yw,” he is ym, yaym, we are ych, yaych, you are mäent, ynt, yaynt, they are PAST IMPERFECT. PRESENT HABITUAL AND FUTURE. byddaf, I am byddi, thou art | S or bydd, he is S |Z shall be, byddwn, we are s ſhou wil/ byddwch, you are] § be, etc. byddant, they are PAST IMPERFECT HABITUAL. oeddwm, Z Zwas oeddit, thou Zvast Öedd, yaoedd, he 70/as oeddym, we were oeddych, you were oeddynt, they were byddwn, Z Zeas byddit, ſhow was: byddai, he Zeas byddem, we were byddech, you zwere byddent, they zwere zeront to be AOR IST AND PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. büm, Z Zeas or have been buost, Zhou Zvast or has been bū, he was or has been buom, 70/€ 70/€7% Or buoch, ** { have been buont, buant, they buaswn, Z /had been buasit, thou hads# been buasai, he had been buasem, we had been buasech, you had been buasent, they had been SUA/UWCZYVAE. PRESENT. PAST IMPERFECT. byddwyf, by yf, Z be byddych, bych,+ thou be byddo, bo, he be byddom, bom, we be byddoch, béch, you be byddont, bont, they be Same as Past Imperf. Habitual Indic. or contracted— bawn, I were bāet (bait), thou wert bäe (bai), he were bāem, we were bāech, you Ze'ere båent, they were A/AAA’ A 7TWI/AE. S. 2. bydd, be ; 3. bydded, ſet | P. Same as Pres. Indic. Hab. /izzy, be VAZA'A'-AVO UAV. böd, being * Also yayw. † byddot, bot and béch are sometimes found. tº- 45 Wyf, ‘ I am '—Impersonal Forms. 195b MAV/D/CA 7TW VA’, PRESENT, PRESENT HABITUAL AND FUTURE. ys, yays byddys, byddis or byddir PAST IMPERFECT. PAST IMPERFECT HABITUAL. oeddid - byddid AORIST AND PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. buwyd buasid or buesid SUB/UAVCTIVE (PREs.) AAWD SUB/UAVCTIVE (PAST IMPER- JMAEA, AEA 7TW WAE. FECT). bydder baid (also same as Past Imperfect Indic. Habitual) 196 NOTE.—These Impersonal forms are used mainly in forming Compound tenses, in order to denote the fact that such and such an action has occurred, is occurring, or will occur, without making any unnecessary statement as to its agent or agents, when these are already familiar to the person to whom the statement is made : e.g. in announcing the time of a funeral (fe fyddys yn cychwyn oddiwrth y ty am dri Ó'r glöch), the start from the house will be made at three o'clock. Wyf, ‘I am '—its Compound Tenses. 1971 Since wyf is itself the auxiliary, its Compound Tenses are, as far as possible, avoided in good literary Welsh. REMARKS. 1981 I. For the use of măe, Öes, sydd, yw (ydyw) ydynt, see Syntax, §§ 484-490. 199| 2. With ped (= pe), iſ, bawn, etc., contract into petáwn, petáet, petáe, petáem, petáech, petáent. 200| 3. Similarly ped fuaswn, etc., becomes petaswn, etc. 201| 4. For Past Imperf. P. 1, 2, 3, oedd-em, -ech, -ent are used. 202 OBS.—The following forms are sometimes found:—Pres. Indic. S. I. yttwyf, etc.; S. 2. wyd, ydwyd, yttwyd : Past Imperf. Indic. S. I. yttoeddwm, etc.: Past Imperf. Habitual P. 1, 2, 3, byddym, -ych, -ynt: Past Imperf. Subjunctive P. 1, 2, 3, beym, beych, beynt: Imperative S. 3, bid. 46 WE/ESAE GACAA/MAR 203 204 205 206 207 FORMS OF THE VERB. A verb-form consists of two parts : I The stem, i.e. the part from which comes a whole group of forms : e.g. dysg-, in dysg-u, dysg-ais, dysg-ai. 2. The ending, i.e. the part which varies in different forms coming from the same stem : e.g. -ed, -ais, -ai from dysg-. NOTE.-In most endings we can distinguish (a) the final consonant which forms the suffix proper, which is probably pronominal in origin, (b) the connecting vowel: e.g. dysg-w-m, where m is the consonantal suffix, w the connecting vowel. The simple forms of the verb come from two stems and fall into two groups — A. Personal Forms. I. From the Present Stem come— Present (= Future Present Present Indicative } Subjunctive } Imperative } Past Imperfect Aorist - Indicative } Indicative (sing, only) } 2. From the Past Stem come— Aorist Indicative (plural only) || Pluperfect Indicative. B. Impersonal Forms, I. From the Present Stem come— Present (= Future) } Present } Present } Indicative Subjunctive Imperative Past Imperfect Aorist Indicative Indicative 2. From the Past Stem comes the Pluperfect Indicative. These stems may be illustrated as follows:– (a) Pres. Indic. S. 1, giving Present Stem, dysg-af, I learn ; (b) Aorist Indic. P. I, giving Past Stem, dysg-as-om, we learnt. Connecting Wowels and Diphthongs. (a) The connecting vowels and diphthongs should be carefully noted. (b) Welsh had originally, like Greek and Latin, different con- jugations, each with its characteristic vowel, but, owing to the fusion of these into one conjugation, some endings now preserve the characteristic vowel of one conjugation, others of another. A CC//DAEAVCAE 47 208a. Table of Endings—Personal Forms and Verb-Noun and Adjectives. IZVZ)/CA ZTV VA. PRESENT AND FUTURE. AORIST. S. . † : • 5 S. : º: * Added to e +-2 4–2 , - - 3. (No ending)* ! : º 3. -O -dd Pres. Stem. - P. I. -W-n r: ; - - - ºr 2. -w-ch # * . . . . Added to ſº $– , -U - 3. -a-nt Pl- 3. -a. -nt Past Stem. PAST IMPERFECT. PLU PERFECT. S. I. -W -n à S. I. -W-n º -i -t, I Q $2 _i -4. | O 2. -i -t * ºf 2. -i -t | 8 # 3. —all "3 + 3. -8.1 Tº 5 P. i. e -m (3 #; P. 1. -e-m (; ; 2. -e-ch Vā ā 2. -ech 33 3. -e -nt P+ 3. -e-nt SUB/UNCTIVE (PRES.). S. I.-Wy-f; 2. -y-ch, -e-ch; 3 -o P. I. -0-m; 2. -0-ch; 3. -o-nt A/AAA’ A 7TWIZAZ. S. 2. (No ending)* ; 3. -e-d P. Same as Pres. Indic. VAEA’A-AWO UAV. VERA-AZ2/ECTIVES. Sometimes consisting of Pres. Stem only, sometimes with an ending added. -edig -adwy * Sometimes the ending -a is used. For Pres. Ind. S. 3, -ith in N. Wales and -iff in S. Wales are often used in colloquial Welsh. 48 WAE/.S// GA2A ////AA’ Table of Endings –Impersonal Forms 208b AWD/CA ZTV VAZ. Present AND Future. AORIST. -i-r (added to Pres, stem) -wy-d (added to Pres, stem) PAST IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. i-d- (added to Pres, stem) -i-d (added to Past stem) SUA/UAWCT/WE (PRES.) AAVZ) /MPERATIVE. -6–I’ REMARKS. I. In the suffix -nt, t is sometimes omitted in poetry. 2. The following forms are also sometimes found : (a) For Past Imperf. Indic. P. I, 2, 3, forms in -ym, -ych, -ynt. (b) ,, Aorist , , S: 3, , , , -t, -th, -as, -es, -is, -wys. (c) , ,, P. I, 2, 3, , , , , -asam, -esoch, -esont. (d) Pluperfect ,, P. I, 2, 3, , , , , -esym, -esych, -esynt. (e) Pres. Subjunctive S. 2, , , , , -ych. (f) * > . 3 5 S. 3, , , ; ; * Wy. (g) Aorist Indic. (Impers.) , , , , -ed, -ad, -s.” (h) Imperative S. 3, ,, , -awt, -awd. (i) Pres. (Impers.) ,, , , -otor, -itor, -ator. * In llās, was slain : e.g. pan las Crist, when Christ was slain. Dysg-af, ‘ I learn'—Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. 209a - AVZ)/CA 7TWWE. PRESENT AND FUTURE. AORIST. dysg-af - dysg-ais dysg-i dysg-aist dysg dysg-odd dysg-wn dysgaS-0m dysg-wch dysgas-Och dysg-ant *. dysgas-ant A CC/DENCE 49 PAST IMPERFECT. PLU PERFECT, dysg wn dysgas-wn dysg-it dysgas-it dysg-ai dysgas-ai dysg-em dysgas-em dysg-ech dysgas-ech dysg-ent dysgas-ent Rºº. SUA/UWCT/WE (PREs.). P. I. dysg-om ; 2. dysg-och; 3. dysg-Ont S. I. dysg-Wyf; 2. dysg-ych, dysg-ech; 3. dysg-o IMPERATIVE. P. Same as Pres. Indic. (Also P. 3. dysg-ent.) S. 2. dysg, dysg-a; 3. dysg-ed VAZA’A-AWO UAV. dysg-u Dysg-af, ‘ I learn '-Impersonal Forms. AVD/CATI W.E. PRESENT AND FUTURE. AORIST. dysg-ir dysg-Wyd, dysg-ed PAST IMPERFECT. - PLUPERFECT. dysg-id dysgas-id, dysges-id SUAyvycz IVE (Pres) AND IMPERATIVE. dysg-er 50 WAE/LSA GA2.4////AA’ 210 211 212 213 214 Change of Wowel in the Stem, If the last syllable of the Stem, present or past, have the vowel a it is changed to e (e.g. in car-, caras-)— (a) In Pres. Indic. S. and P. 2 : e.g. cer-i, thou loves#; cer-woh, you loze. (b) In Aorist Indic. S, 1, 2 : e.g. cer-ais, / /ozed; cer-aist, thou lovedst. (c) In Past Imperf. Indic. S. 2: e.g. cer-it, thou Zvast loving. (d) In Pluperf. Indic. S. 2 : e.g. cares-it, thou had'st loved. (e) In Pres. Indic. (Impers.): e.g. cer-ir, one loves, there is loving. (f) In Past Imperf. Indic. (Impers.): e.g. cer-id, one Zozed, there zwas loving. (g) In Pluperf. Indic. (Impers.) : e.g. cares-id, one had loved, Zhere had been Joving. Formation of Pres. Indic. S. 3. RULES : I. If the last syllable of the Present Stem have o or e substitute y : e.g. -clo-, -cly ; coll-, Cyll; dod-, dyd ; fro-, ffy; golch-, gylch ; llosg-, llysg; rhodd-, rhydd ; torr-, tyrr; tro-, try ; ateb-, etyb ; gwared-, gweryd; cyffro-, cyffry; cyfod-, * cyfyd; deffro-, deffry; diffodd-, diffydd. 2. In disyllabic present stems having a or o in the last syl- lable but one, on making the change described in Rule I, for a or o substitute e : e.g. gwrandaw-, gwrendy; taraw-, tery; gosod, gesyd; aros, erys ; gwared, gweryd; ateb, etyb. 3. In monosyllabic present stems having a as their vowel, for a substitute ai or ei. (N.B. —Stems like cadw-, ending in w, are counted as mono- syllabic): e.g. saf-, Saif ; par-, pair; tafl-, teifi ; Cadw-, ceidw ; galw-, geilw ; dal-, deil. 4. In disyllabic present stems having a for their last vowel, before consonants, change a to ei, elsewhere to y : e.g. gwahardd-, gweheirdd ; para-, pery; byyta-, byyty; atal- also makes etyl. * The contracted form of the pres, stem cod- makes pres, Ind. S. 3 cwyd. ACC/DEAVCA. 5.I 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 REMARKS. I. In gwant, he pierced ; cant, he sang ; cymerth, he ſook, we have remains of an old Aorist in -t (corresponding to the -t preterite of Irish). 2. gWel-, see, clyw-, hear, tal-, pay, have Past stems, gwels-, clyws-, tals-, 3. Occasionally the Pres. Subj. of a verb is employed like the Greek Optative to express wish : e.g. gwel-wyf, may / see / 4. In some verbs whose present stems end in l, m, air, id, yg, iW, a consonantal i is inserted before endings other than i, and before -as- of the past stem : e.g. dal-, dal-iaf, dal-iasom ; arwain-, arwein-iaf, arwein- iaSom ; Cynnyg-, cynnyg-iaf, cynnyg-iaSom ; erfyn-, erfyn-iaf, erfyn-iasom. To the contrary, tal-af. 5. To the verb-noun bywrw, casting, corresponds the present stem bvri-, past stem bvrias-. 6. From taw-, be silent, comes Pres. Indic. S. 3, tau, he is silent. OBS.—Forms like macco (Pres. Subj. S. 3. Pers.) and maccer (Pres. Subj. Impers.) of magaf, I nurse, have arisen from mag-ho and mag-her, respectively; ho and her being the regular forms of these suffixes in Med. Welsh. Contracted Verbs. In conjugating the verbs clyw-, hear; taw-, be silent, where two w”s would otherwise come together, one is usually dropped: e.g. Pres. Indic. P. I, Clywn, Zwe hear, for clyw-wn. Similarly in the case of ciniaw-, dine ; galw-, ca/Z; gwrandaw-, ſisten ; enw-, name. The contractions of verbs whose present stems end in 6- or hā will be seen from the following paradigms (pp. 52, 53). NOTE.-The forms enclosed in brackets are uncontracted. 52 223a. 223b Stems in Ó–Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. AVZ) VCA 7TW WAE. PRESENT AND FUTURE. AORIST. tröf, I turn trois troi troist try trödd troWn troisom * trowch troisoch trönt troisant PAST IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. trOWn troiswn º tröet (troit) troisit tröe troisai tröem troisem tröech troisech tröent troisent SCWA/UWCZZ VE (PREs.). S. I. (tröwyf); 2. (tröech) | P. 3. trónt JA/AEAEA 7TWIVAE. S. 2. tro; 3. (tröed) tróed P. Same as Present Indic. VEA’A-AWO OVAW. troi Stems in Ó—Impersonal Forms. AV/D/CA 7TWIZA. PRESENT AND FUTURE. AORIST. troir (tröwyd), trowd, tröed PAST IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. troid troisid # SUA/UWCTIVE (PREs.) AND IMPERATIVE. (tröer) * For tro-ysom, etc.; tro-yswn, etc.; tro-ysid, etc. 53 Stems in ha-Personal Forms and Verb-Noun 224a. JAVZ)/CA 7'ſ WAE. PRESENT AND FUTURE. AORIST. cryfhäf, I strengthen (cryf héais) cryſhéi (cryſheaist) cryfhä (cryfhäodd) cryfhäwn cryfhäsom cryſhéwch cryfhásoch cryfhänt cryfhäsant PAST IMPERFECT, PLU PERFECT. cryfhäwn cryfhäswn cryſhéit cryfhäsit cryfhäi cryfhäsai cryſhāem cryſhāsem cryſháech cryfhäsech cryfhäent cryfhäsent SUA/UAVCT/VE (PREs.) (cryfhäwyf) JA/AEAEA2A 7TM VAZ. S. 2. cryfhá; 3. cryfhäed P. Same as Pres. Indic. (cry fináed) VAZA’A-AWO UAV. cryfhäu Stems in ha—Impersonal Forms. 224b AV/D/CA 7TM VE. PRESENT AND FUTURE. AORIST. cryfhéir (cryfhäwyd) cryfhäed PAST IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT cryfhéid cryfhäsid SUA/UWCTIVE (PREs.) AND /MPERATIVE (cryſhāér) 54 WAZ Z.S.F. G. RA////AA’ 225 226 227 228 229 Expression of the Passive. 1. To express the Passive, the impersonal forms of the verb are employed. - 2. If the subject of the passive verb in English be a personal pronoun, the pronoun can be expressed in Welsh in two ways— (a) After certain words ending in a vowel, such as na, fe, oni, y, by means of the postvocalic accus. form, immediately preceding the impersonal form of the verb : e.g. fe’m gwelir, I am seen ; lit: there is seeing (in respect fo) me. - (b) By means of the simple form of the personal pronoun placed immediately after the verb: e.g. gwelir fi, / am seen. 3. Form (a) makes it highly probable that the apparent subject of a passive verb in Welsh is, in its origin, the object of an impersonal verb with subject unexpressed. 4. In colloquial Welsh, which tends far more than the literary language to employ compound forms, the verb caf, I obtain, governing a verb-noun qualified by possessive adjectives, is largely used to express the passive : - e.g. yr wyf yn cael fy mlino, =fe 'm blinir or blinir fi, I am froubled, (ſit. I am getting my troubling.) - OBS.–For the use of the verb-noun qualified by possessive adjectives, see $ 24I, and Syntax, §§ 544, 545. - The Verb-Noun. The Verb-noun, answering partly in usage to the gerund, partly to the infinitive of other languages, is treated in the Celtic lan- guages much more like a noun than it is, for example, in Latin or even in English (see Syntax, §§ 536-549). For instance, in the parent Celtic speech, a noun depending on a verb-noun was put, not in the accusative, but in the genitive case, and hence it is, that the initial letter of a noun “governed by a verb-noun, like that of a noun depending on a noun, is unchanged, while that of the object of a verb changes. (See Initial Mutations, $ 61): e.g. Clywais gån, Z heard a song; Wedi clywed cán, after hearing a song. NOTE:-The Welsh construction in such an expression, for example, as drWy ddarllen llyfr, by reading a book, corresponded more closely in its origin to such a phrase as ‘by the reading of a book,” than to the Latin construction ‘legendo librum,' or the English “by reading a book.” The Genitive in question would correspond to the Objective Genitive. See Syntax, § 346b. A CC//DEAVCE 55 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 Endings of the Werb-Noun. In some cases the verb-noun is identical in form with the present stem : e.g. newid, changing; byw, living ; Cynnull, gathering. In many cases, however, the verb-noun is formed by adding to the present-stem an ending, sometimes terminating in a con- Sonant, but usually consisting of one of the vowels, a, i, o (or io), u. These present stems are frequently identical in form with nouns or adjectives. RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF VERB-NOUNS. RULES : I. Present stems having in their last syllable, au, iw, wy, and some with i, u and ai, take 0 . e.g. lif-0, ſlowing; heul-o, shining (used of the sun); briw-0, Aurting ; mwyd-o, soaking ; twyll-0, deceiving ; hud-0, enticing, 2. Many present-stems having in their last syllable ei (fr. ai), y or u (when pronounced as i), take -io (with consonantal i) : e.g. seil-io, founding ; gwib-io, darting; ffug-io, feigning ; lliw-io, colouring ; gwyl-io, zwatching. 3. Present stems, whose last syllable has the vowel 0 or the diphthong oe, or which end in w, take i : e.g. llog-i, hiring ; Crog-i, /anging ; poer-i, Spitting ; Oer-i, growing cold; sylw-i, observing ; also cyflawn-i, fu/. filling. - On the contrary, hoel-io, mailing ; coel-io, beſieving. 4. Most present stems having in the last syllable vowels or diphthongs other than those enumerated, take u, but i is not uncommon after syllables with e or ei: e.g. tynn-u, drawing ; Crynn-u, frembling ; penn-u, aftoºn?- ing ; on the contrary, med-i, reaſing ; per-i, causing ; gen-i, being born ; gwein-i, serving ; gwaedd-i (pro- nounced gweidd-i), shouting. 5. Many causative and inceptive verbs derived from mouns and adjectives take the ending hau: e.g. dyfr—hau, watering ; dydd-hau, becoming daylight; llwfr- hau, becoming fºnid. 6. Some verb-nouns denoting to gather derived from plural and collective nouns denoting fruits, etc., take the ending a e.g. afaleu-a, gaſ/lering aſſ/es ; cneu-a, gathering nuts. Simi- larly, cardot-a, begging ; ceinioc-a, collecting £ence ; and also bwyt-a, eating. * 56 - WAE ZSA/ GA’A////AA’ 238 239 240 241 Other endings of the verb-noun are—an (ian) and fan, found in a few frequentative verbs ; ed (ied); aim ; eg; yll: e.g. seſyll-ian, Zoitering ; hed-fan, howering ; clyw-ed, hearing ; ystyr-ied, considering ; llef-ain, crying ; rhed-eg, run- ning ; ehed-eg, flying ; Sefyll, standing. The present stem ysgydw-, shake, has the verb-noun, ysgwyd ; the present stem chwardd-, laugh, has the verb-noun chwerth-in; the present stem diang-, escape, has the verb-noun dianc, The Werb-Noun after Prepositions. The verb-noun governed by prepositions is extensively em- ployed in Welsh, to supply the place of participles, and to form phrases equivalent in meaning to temporal, final, concessive and other clauses. (See Syntax 346b): e.g. yn dyfod, gan dayfod, coming; wedi dyfod, having come; ar ddyfod, about to come ; dan dayfod, while coming ; erbyn dyfod, by the time that (he) came ; er dyfod, though (he) came. In these and similar phrases, in order to indicate who or what performs the action implied in the verb-noun, two forms of ex- pression are used :- (a) As in ‘wedi (i'r-dyn) dāyfod,’ ‘wedi (i-mi) dayfod,” where the required noun or pronoun preceded by the prepo- sition i, fo, is inserted between the preposition governing the verb-noun and the verb-noun which it governs. - (b) As in ‘wedi-dyfod o'r dyn,’ ‘wedi-dyfod ohonof,’ where the required noun or pronoun is introduced by the preposition o, from, and placed after the verb-noun. Caution.—In parsing expressions of this kind each word should be parsed separately. - NotE I.—If the agent of the action expressed by the verb-noun is denoted by a pronoun, the possessive adjective may also be employed : e.g. wedi ei ddyfod, after he came, lit. after his coming ; wedi ei hwyrhau hi, after it had become late. NotE 2. —The verb-noun qualified by a poss. adj. and governed by the prep. wedi, after, is frequently used to express the équivalent of the English perfect participle passive: e.g. mae y dyn wedi ei ladd, the man has been killed, lit., the man is after his #37/ing. A CCIDENCE - 57 242 243 244 245 246 247 Irregular Verbs. These may be classified as follows— 1. Compounds of Wyf, illustrated by their verb-nouns, thus— (a) Prepositional, can-fod, perceiving; han-fod, existing; dar. fod, ending ; gor-fod, overcoming ; cyfar-fod, meeting. For Can, han, gor, see Syntax, $$ 446, 449, 45o. (b) Adjectival, ad-na-bod, Ånowing [Latin, cognoscere]; cyd- ma-bod, recognizing ; gwy-bod, knowing [Latin, scire]; cly-bod, hearing. OBS.–Ad-na-, is for ad-gna- ; gna- being the same root as ywo- in Gk. yi-yvá-orko; and gno- in Latin co-gno-sco : gwy-, is for gwydd-, the same root as Latin vid-eo, Gk. i8-6v for Fuč-6v ; cly- is the same root as Greek KAi-o, ſo hear. Similarly cyd-na- for cyd-gna-. N.B.-In the compounds böd becomes böd. 2. Verbs from old stems in ag-(-og) [Latin ag-O, Greek áy-o] and el- [Gk. ÉA-6éïv] : Pres. Ind. S. 1, a-f (à contr. from ag-a), A go; Pres. Subj. S. 1, el-wyſ, / may go ; d-eu-af, d-ö-f (6 contr. fr. -ogo-), Z come ; d-el-wyſ, / may come ; gwn-à-f, Z make (à for aga-) gwn-el-wyf, I may make. 3. Two verbs which in some forms omit the last consonants of the present stem, and in others make it voiceless, namely, căf, / obtain (present stem caf-, and in some forms caff-); rhoddaf, Z give (present stem rhodd-, occasionally rhoth-); also arhosaf, Z wait, present stem aros-, which occasionally omits S.* e.g. Pres. Ind. P. I, cawn, we obtain ; rhown, we give. Pres. Ind. S. I, arhö-af, I remain. Pres. Subj. S. 3, caffo, he may obtain ; (rhotho), he may gzzle. 4, dygaf, I bring, and adolwyn, (obs.) beseeching, in which the final consonant of the stem dwg- is obscured in the verb-noun. dwyn makes Aorist S. 3. diig. adolwyn is now used only in the Imperative S. 2. attolwg, pray ? From attolwg has been formed a new verb attolyg-u, beseeching, with regular conjugation. 5. piau (impers.) it belongs ; mäes, give / hwde, receive / (used only in the Imperative, S. 2); meddaf, I say ; ebe, he says (both used in introducing quotations); tawr (impers.), it matters ; dylwn, Z ought (used in Past Imperf. and Pluperf only). 6. The nouns rhaid, necessity; dichon, sufficiency ; which are treated partially as verbs. * The history of this apparent omission probably is, that a new method of conjugation based upon the verb-noun aros has been developed. 58 WE/ASA/ GMCA ////AA' 248 249 250 251 252 253 Compounds of ‘wyf.' A. PREPOSITIONAL. I. can-fod.—This verb is treated throughout as a compound of Wyf: similarly, dar-gan-fod, to discover. e.g. Pres, and Fut. Indic. S. 1, can-fyddaf, I ferceive or shall perceive; Past. Imperf. S. 1, can-fyddwin; Past Imperf. (Impers.), can-fyddid ; Aorist Ind., cén-fum. The following forms were once used :—Pres. Ind. S. 1, can-wyf; S. 3, cen- yw; Past Imperf. S. 3, can-oedd, older canh-0edd. 2. han-fod.—The verb-noun here given is now used only as an abstract noun, meaning essence. This verb is occasionally used in Past Imperf. S. 3, han-oedd, he was descended; Pres. Subj. S. 2, hen-ffych hail / han-oedd having been mistaken for han-odd, Aorist S. 3 of a stem han-, a verb-noun han-u has been formed, and the stem han- is conjugated regularly like dysg-. 3. dar-fod. This verb is conjugated as a compound of wyf: e.g. Pres, and Fut. Indic. S. 1, dar-fyddaf ; Past Imperf. S. 1, dar-fyddwm ; (Impers.) dar-fyddid. The following forms were once used :-Pres. Ind. S. 1, dar-wyf; S. 3, der- yw; Past Imperf. S. 3, dar-Oedd; Pres. Subj. S. 1, dar-ffwyf; Past Imperf. Subjunctive S. 3, dar-fai ; Imperative, S. 3, der-fid. 4. gor-fod.—This verb is conjugated mainly as a compound of wyf: e.g. Pres. and Fut. Indic. S. 1, gor-fyddaf; Past Imperfec S. 1, gor-fyddwm. The following forms were once used : Pres. Ind. S. 1, gor-wyf; S. 3, gor yw; Pres. Subj. S. I, gor-ffwyf; Past. Imperf. Subj. S. 3, gor-fai, OBS.—gorfod is now largely used to express the idea of obliga tlon : e.g. in such an expression as ‘yr wyfyn gorfod,' 2 am obliged though literally this sentence should mean, / am com- felling, or overcoming. The sentence in question is probably a condensed form of ‘yr wyf yn fy ngorfod,” I am being compelled. The original forma- tion of gor-fod having been forgotten, a new verb- noun gor-fodi, to compel, has been formed, with regular conjugation : e.g. gorfodir fi, Z am compelled. A CCIDENCE 59 254 5. cyfar-fod.—This verb has Present and Future Indic. S. 1, cyf-ar-fydd-af, etc.; Past Imperfect S. 1, cyf-ar-fyddwm, etc.; Aorist S. 1, cyf-ar-fum, like bum. The remaining forms in use are conjugated like Wyf. NOTE.-The forms canwyſ, etc., hanwyf, etc., darwyf, etc., gorwyſ, etc., were mostly used with Perfect meaning, possibly on the analogy of the Perfect forms of āf, deuaf and gwnāf. B. A.DJECTIVAL. ad-na-bod, cyd-na-bod, gwy-bod, cly-bod. 255 I. ad-na-bod, ćnowing [Latin, cognoscere]. adnabod is treated partly as a compound of wyf, partly as a regular verb from present-stem adwaem-. AVZ)/CA ZY VE (PREs. not FUT.). SUA/UWCZYVAE (PRES.). adwaen (also adwen) adwaen-Wyf, etc., also adna- adwaem-ost byddwyf, and contracted edwyn adna-pwyf adwaen-om adne-pych adwaen-och adma-po adwaen-ant adma-pom adna-poch adne-pynt NoTE. I.-The other forms are conjugated like Wyf: e.g. Fut, adna-byddaf; but, in addition, we have, from adwaen-, Past Imperf., adwaen-wn ; (Impers.) adwaen-id; Aorist Jndic. S. 3, adwaen-odd : Pres. Indic. (Impers.) advaen-ir; Aorist (Impers.), adwaen-wyd ; Pres. Subj. and Imperative (Impers.), adwaen-er. NOTE 2.-For Past Imperf. Indic. (Pers.) S. 3, advaen-ad was at one time used. NoTE 3.—adwaen is probably an old Perfect form. 2. cyd-na-bod, recognizing. 256 cydmabod is conjugated as a compound of Wyf: Pres, and Fut. Ind. cydna-byddaf, etc. Aorist Indic. S. 1, cydná-bum. 6O WAE/SAſ GA2A/MMAA’ 3. gwy-bod, knowing [Latin, scire]. 257 gwybod is treated mainly as a compound of wyf, but partly as a regular verb from present stem gwydd-. JAVZ)/CA 77 VE (PREs, not FUT.). SUA/UWCT/WE (PRES.). gwn gwy-byddwyf, etc., also con- gwydd-Ost tracted, gwy-pwyf, etc. gWyr gwydd-om gwydd-Och gwydd-ant NotE I.--The remaining tenses are conjugated like Wyf: e.g. Fut. Indic. gwy-byddaf; but, in addition, we have—Past Imperf. Indic, gwydd-wn; (Impers.) gwydd-id ; Pres. Indic. (Impers.) gwydd-ir, gwydd-ys, or gwydd-is (also contracted into gwys). NOTE 2.—For Past Imperf. Ind. S. 3, gwydd-iad was at one time used. 4. Cly-bod, hearing. 258 (a) cly-bod, the verb-noun (rare), is now used only as an abstract noun, meaning hearing. (b) The following forms parallel to this verb-noun are used side by side with the regular forms from clyw-, hear-— Aorist Indic. S. and P. 1, 2, 3, cly-büm, -biost, -bu, -biom, -büoch, -buont- or búant. NOTE.--From the stem cly- comes the only remnant of the old Reduplicated Perfect in Welsh, namely, the obsolete Perf. S. 3, cigleu (cigle), he has heard. From this stem also came an Imper. S. 2, de-gle, hear. Verbs containing the roots ag- (og-), and el-. . ãf, I go ; deuaf, / come ; gwmāf, I make. 259 The verb-nouns are—myned, going ; dyfod, död, coming; gwneyd or gwneuthur, making. (For myned, mynd is also used.) (a) The present stems of these verbs are— a-; e.g. ā-f (= a-af) el- : e.g. el-wyf d-eu- : e.g. d-eu-af (d- for dy-) d-el-; e.g. d-el-wyf gwn-ā- : e.g. gwnā-f (=gwn-a-af) gwn-el-; e.g. gwn-el-wyf. (b) The past stems of these verbs are aeth-: e.g. euth-um els- : e.g. els-id d-aeth- : e.g. d-euth-um d-els- : e.g. d-els-id gWn-aeth- : e.g. gwn-euth-um gwn-els- : e.g. gwn-els-id. 260 ãf, deuaf, gwnāf--Personal Forms. 6I JAWAD/CA 7T/ WAE. PRESENT AND FUTURE. ãf deu-af or d6ſ gwn-āf ei deu-i or doi gwn-ei ă, Él dāw, dēl gwn-ā, gwn-él 3.WIl deu-Wn or down gwn-awn ewch deu-wch or dowch gwn-ewch ânt deu-ant or dùnt gwn-ānt PAST IMPERFECT. awm, also el-wn, deu-Wn, etc., down gwn-awn, also gwnel- etc. (reg.) -wn, etc. (reg.) ait, or āet del-wn, etc., doit, or gwn-ait, or gwn-āet döet ãi, or āe (reg.) dói, or gwn-āi, or gwn-āe döe ãem döem gwn-āem ãech döech gwn-áech ãent döent gwn-āent AORIST. - PLUPERFECT. S. 3. fieth, dàeth, gwn-āeth S. I. -um aeth euth- 2. -Ost - deuth- P. I. -om daeth- |-- etc. (reg.) gwn-euth- || 2. -och gwnaeth- 3. –ant SUB/UAVCTIVE (PRESENT). el- del- }-wyf, etc. (reg.) gwnel- A/A2A2/8A ZTA VAZ. - S. 2. (dös) * S. 2. (ty-red #) S. 2. gwn-ā 3. aed ; el-ed. S. 3. deu-ed del-ed S. 3. gwn-āed gwn-el- döed ed (P. as Pres. Indic)(Pluralf as Pres Indic.) (Plural as Pres. Indic.) * dos is of doubtful origin. † P. 2. dewch is often found. t ty-red is the Imper. rhéd, run, with prefix dy: d being hardened to t. 62 WAE/LSAT GRAMMA R 261 ãf, deuaf, gwnāf-Impersonal Forms. AV/)/CA TY WAE. PRESENT AND FUTURE. eir deu-ir gwn-eir. PAST IMPERFECT. eid or elid |deuid, del-id, or doid gwn-eid, or gwn-elid AORIST. ãed or * deuwyd or daeth- gwn-āed or gwn-aeth- pWyd pwyd PLUPERFECT. aeth- or els- daeth- or dels- }a gwn-aeth- or gwnels- SUB/UNCTIVE. el- del- –6].' gwn-el- NOTE I.—The forms él, dél and gwnél have arisen by the loss of the suffix from elo, delo, gwnelo, respectively. In Modern Welsh they are seldom employed except to express the Future Indicative, but in Mediaeval Welsh they were constantly employed as Subjunctives also. NOTE 2.-In the forms aeth-pwyd, daeth-pwyd, and gwnaeth-pwyd, pvyd, with hardening of b to p (cf. § 52), stands for by yo, a contracted form of bu-wyd, Aorist and Perfect Impersonal of Wyf. Compare the Mediaeval Welsh form, ducpwyt, was led ; gorucpwyt, was made ; gwanpwyt, was pierced; dywespwyt (for dywed-pwyt) was said. A CC/ADAEAVCAE 63 262 OBS. I.-The forms àeth, dàeth, gwnāeth, are probably old deponent perfect participles, which have served as bases for the Aorist forms S. 1, euth-um, S. 2, euth-ost, on the analogy of blim, buost. OBS. 2.-In addition to the forms already given, the following may be noted— (a) Perfect forms—from äf: Perf. S. 1, edd-wyf; 2, edd- wyd ; 3, edd-yw. ,, gwn-āf: Perf. S. 1, gwn-edd-wyf; 3, gwn-edd-yw. ,, deu-af: Perf. S. 3, dodd-yw, doth yw, dedd-yw. (b) Pluperfect forms—from af: Pluperf. S. 3, ath-oedd. ,, deu-af : Pluperf. S. 3, dath-oedd ,, gwn-āf: Pluperf.S. 3, gwnath-Oedd. } } , (Impers.), gwnath-oeddid. (c) Aorist forms—corresponding to dy-fod, are the Aorist forms—S. 3, dy-fu, P. 3, dy-buant, OBS. 3.−In the forms edd-yw, dodd-yw (doth-yw), gwn-edd-yw, ath-oedd, dath-oedd, gwn-ath-oedd, and gwn-ath-oeddid, we have in single words, forms which are periphrastic : The last syllable in each case clearly consists of S. 3, Pres, and Past Imperf. of Wyf. The first syllable appears to be an old participle, but its precise original form is not certain. Verbs onitting the last consonant of the Present- Stem. cãf, Z obtain ; rhoddaf, I give ; arhosaf, I remain. In the verbs câf and rhoddaf, the assimilation of a consonant coming between two vowels has been carried to a point further than is normally the case in Welsh with b and d, but regular in the case of g, until at last the consonant has disappeared. In these two verbs, by the side of the phenomenon just described, we have also the contrary phenomenon of dissimilation, whereby, for example, caf-el has become caff-el (also caff-ael). 64 263 264 Căf—Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. //V/)/CA ZY WAE. PRESENT AND FUTURE. AORIST. căf cef-ais, (cés) cei or cai, ceff-i cef-aist, (cést) caiff caf-odd, Cădd, caf-as, cas Cal Włl C2 WS-Olſ) cewch Caws-och Cânt CaWS-21)t PAST IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. cawn . Caws-wn, etc. (reg.) cait, ceit or caet căi or cae Càem cáech Càent SUB/UNCTIVE. PRESENT. PAST IMPERFECT. caff-wyſ, etc. (reg.) Same as Past Imperf. Indic. also caff-wn, etc. A/PAEAEA 7/VAZ. S. 3. caed, caff-ed P. 3. cant VERB-MOUN, cael, caffael, (caffel). Căf—lmpersonal Forms. AZVZ)/CA 7TW WAE. PRESENT AND FUTURE. AORIST. ceir, ceff-ir cáed, caf-wyd (cahat, cahad) PAST IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. ceid caws-id SUB/UNCTIVE. PRESENT. PAST IMPERFECT. caff-er Same as Past Imperfoct In- dic., also ceff-id AA/AEA. RA 7TW WAE. caff-er - A CC/D EAVCA. 65 265 266 Rhoddaf-Personal Forms and verb-Noun. (The forms given in this and the following paradigm are found side by side with forms regularly conjugated). - IZVD/CATIVE. PRESENT AND FUTURE. AORIST. rhöf rhois rhoi rhoist rhy, dy-ry rhödd, rhöes rhown rhois-om * rhowch rhois-och rhönt rhois-ant PAST IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. rhown rhois-wn,” etc. (reg.) rhoit, rhöet rhôi, rhöe rhöem rhöech rhöent AMAZACA 7TWIZE. S. 2. rhö, dy-ro ; 3. rhöed P. Same as Pres. Indic. VERB-MO UAV. rhoi Rhoddaf-lmpersonal Forms. AWO/CA ZTV Vºl. PRESENT, AORIST. rhoir rhöed, rhowd PAST IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. rhoid rhois-id * OBS. —For Pres. Subj. S. 3, rhotho is found, illustrating the process by which the corresponding form caffo from caf-, has been produced. * These forms are for rho-ysom, etc.; rho-yswn, etc.; rho-ysid, etc. F 66 WE/LSAE GRAMMAR 267 268 269 270 271 272 Arhosaf. In this verb, when the accent falls upon -os, it is usually pre- ceded by h : e.g. Pres. Indic. S. 1, ar-hos-af. The following forms, with omission * of s, are sometimes found —Pres. Ind. S. 3, ery ; Past Imperf., arhown, arhöit, arhôi (Öe), etc., like trown ; Imperative S. 2, aro, in cyf-aro. Dygaf and Adolwyn. The peculiarities of these verbs have been already explained, § 245. OBS.—The old auxiliary goruc, gorug, he did, is an Aorist S. 3 of this forma- tion. Piau. 1. (a) piau, used impersonally to express it belongs, is em- ployed as follows— sº g 1 l * #:...}} ... .º.º., biº-Zººm. • * : *** - 5 - 3 3 J } ozºnes?, etc. à) Who owns f is expressed by pwy biau P % A noun may take the place of the pronoun : e.g. Ieuan biau, Zeuan ozons. - 2. For the other tenses, one of the following compound forms is placed after the pronoun, For Past Imperf. Continuous, Öedd 53 25 55 Habitual, fyddai ,, Future, fydd º g ,, Aorist, #. piau or biau 55 Pluperfect, fuasai ,, Pres. Subjunctive, fö or fyddo e.g. mi oedd biau, / owned. Möes and Hwde. möes, give ; hwde, accepſ, are used only in the Imperative S. 2, möes; P. 2, moesweh ; S. 2, hwde; P. 2, hwdiwch. Meddaf and Ebe. I. meddaf, I say, and ebe, he said, are employed in introducing quotations. * The omission is probably only apparent. See § 224, Note, A CC//OAAWCAE 67 273 274 275 276 2. meddaf is conjugated in Pres, and Past Imperf. Indic. for all persons and numbers, 3. ebe (also found as ebai, ebr, ebra) is used in Past Imperf. Indic. S. 3 only. NOTE.—In Mediaeval Welsh the form heb yr was used as two separate words, yr having been mistaken for the definite article: hebyr, the correct spelling, is an old deponent form ending in -r, Tawr or Dawr (lmpersonal). dawr is found in ni’m dawr, it does not matter to me. From the intensive form di-ddawr, come the common words, dy-ddor-ol, interesting; dy-ddor-deb, interest. NOTE.-In Mediaeval Welsh a personal form, dorwn, I should care, was also employed. Dylwn, ‘I ought.’ dylwn, used only in the Past Imperf, and Pluperfect to express obligation, takes a verb-noun as its direct object: e.g. Niddylai fyned, he oughſ not to go. Niddylasai fyned, he ought not to have gone. NOTE.-In Mediaeval Welsh a present form, dylyaf, was also employed. Rhaid and Dichon. rhaid, necessity, and dichon (= digon), sufficiency, are in reality nouns, but, owing to the omission of yw in the expressions, ‘rhaid yw,’ ‘dichon yw,' they are treated partly as if they were imper- sonal verbs. For instance, like verbs, they may be preceded by the negative adverbs, nſ, nā, moč. Rhaid. I. In sentences denoting present time, rhaid may be used either alone, or in conjunction with yw: e.g. rhaid i mi fyned, or, rhaid yw i mi fyned, / must go : lit. going is a necessity for me : the predicate-noun rhaid being put first in the sentence for the sake of em- phasis. 2. For the Past Imperfect and other tenses, three forms of expression are possible : e.g. (for Past Imperf.) rhaid oedd ; yr oedd yn rhaid; yr oedd raid. - 3. Negative sentences are expressed as follows:– Pres. Indic, ni raid ; Past Imperf, nid oedd raid ; and simi- larly with other tenses, : : .. e e tº ©, tº © e º a : : ; 3. g : : 68 WAE/LSAT GRAAM/MAA' Dichon. 277 1. Dichon is employed— (a) In affirmative statements to express the possibility that something took place (in the Pres. Indic., with or without yw). (b) In negative sentences and questions, to denote the impossibility, or to question the possibility that some- thing should take place. N.B.-The construction is the same as that of rhaid. § 276. e.g. dichon i mi fyned, it is possible that I went. ni daichon i mi fyned, it is not possible for me to go. A daichon i mi fyned? is it fossible for me to go Ż 2. Tenses other than the Present Indicative are expressed by using a form of Wyf in the tense required : e.g. dichon oedd, etc., it was possible, etc.; nid oedd dichon. 3. Instead of the construction with the preposition i given above (e.g. dichon i mi, it is possible for me), dichon is also not un- frequently found followed or preceded by a subject” : e.g. A daichon frydd ei gadw eff Cam faith save him 2 Pwy a daichon sefyll P Who can stand 2 Verbs denoting phases of the weather, etc. 278 I. Such verbs have as their subject the simple personal pro- noun hi, S. 3, Feminine: See Syntax, § 316. e.g. y mae hiyn gwlawio, if rains. ,, , , ,, Öer, it is cold. 2. hi is also used in such impersonal expressions as:— y mae hiyn hawdd siarad, it is easy to faż. Some tendencies shown in the modern treatment - of the verb. 279 In colloquial Welsh, and also, to no small extent, in Literary Welsh, in spite of its conservative instincts, there is now a strong analytical tendency, owing to which the conjugation of the verb tends to be modelled on a new basis, by means of auxiliaries, as a rule either taking a verb-noun as their direct object or followed by a verb-noun governed by a preposition ; SO that, for example, the Pluperfect: Indicative is now almost entirely supplanted by the corresponding compound expression. See Syntax, §§ 472, 525. * In this construction a form dichyn was at one time frequently employed. + When employed to express I had ; thou hadst, etc. o 49 : o e e e * º : : : ; e º e --> º A CC/DEAVCA: 69 280 For this purpose the following verbs are largely used as auxiliaries:– (a) caf, ‘I get,’ ‘I obtain,’ —to express the passive voice, with a verb-noun as its direct object. e.g. cafoddei weled, he was seen, lit., he obtained his seeing. (b) gallaf, ‘ I am able'; medraf, ‘ I am able,” with a verb- noun as direct object, and also dichon, “it is possible, to express a kind of potential mood : e.g. nis gallaf fyned; ni fedraf fyned; mid oes dichon i mi fyned, I cannot go. (For the construction of dichon see §§ 276, 277.) (c) gwnäf, ‘I do,”—with a verb-noun as direct object, to express an imperative mood : e.g. gwmewch frysio, do make haste, lit., make a hastening. (d) wyf, followed by a verb-noun governed by a preposition to form compound tenses as shown in § 184. (e) gwmāf, with a verb-noun as direct object, to express an aorist and a future : e.g. Wnaethost ti fyn’d am drö P Zid you go for a walk 3 Wnewch chwi aros yno yn hir P Will you sſay there long 2 (f) darfu, in Aorist S. 3; followed by i mi, i ti, iddo, etc., and a verb-noun as subject to express a perfect : e.g. A diarfu i ti orphen P. Have you finished 2 lit., Has a finishing faken place for you ? - 281 OBS.–In writing Welsh, these analytical modes of expression should be used sparingly, and only for the purpose of expressing shades of meaning which the simple forms cannot easily express. 282 CAUTION.—-Parse the component parts separately. See Syntax, §§ 524, 525. . QUESTIONS AND NEGATIONS. I. Questions. 283| 1. In Welsh the emphatic word is usually placed first in the Sentence; this applies to questions as well as to statements. 2. If the emphasis fall on the verb, the interrogative particle 1S al, . - e.g. A whaethost ti hynny ? Oid you do ſhał Ż 3. If the emphasis fall on some other word, the interrogative particle is ai: n e.g. Ai dyn welodd y bachgen P Was it a man that the boy saw 2 Aiyno y mae efe? /s if there that he is Ž 4. The particles a and ai are not unfrequently omitted. 7o WELSH GRAMMA R 284 285 286 287 II. Negations. The negative adverb (= not) is-- I. In negative statements, mid before vowels, ni before con Sonants. See Syntax, §§ 590, 593-596. 2. In answers * to questions and in prohibitions, mac before vowels, nä before consonants. 3. With the Subjunctive m a.d before With the Indicative in indirect statements vowels, nā be- In temporal, causal, Consecutive, concessive, ſ fore conson- final, and hypothetical clauses antS. * OBS.--—Before c, g, t, d, in 1 and 3, nis and nas are often used.* 4. To negative a verb-noun, the verb-noun peidio, ceasing, is employed, with or without the preposition a, ag: e.g. gwell peidio a rhuthro gwell peidio rhuthro For the use of the negatives, see also Syntax, §§ 590-597. # is beffer zeof to 2-24sh. III. Negative Questions, In Negative Questions, oni, onid, onis are used as interrogative particles. Where some word other than the verb begins the question onid alone is used. - e.g. 0ni fu efe yno P Onid y dyn oedd yno P Was he not there 2 Was it not the man that was there / ANSWERS. ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ are expressed as follows:— I. In answers to questions introduced by ai, by Íe, yes; mage, no. 2. , , 5 y 3 2 2 3 ,, a, the form of answer depends upon the tense of the verb :— (a) If the verb of the question (auxiliary or other) be in the Aorist, yes is expressed by då ; no by nãddo. (b) In all other cases the verb of the question (auxiliary or other), with the required change of person, must be repeated in the answer: - e.g. A weli di y ty? Gwelaf; do you see the house ! I do, yes. A ydwyt ti yn gweithio? Nac ydwyf. Are you zºorking 2 I am not, no. - N.B.-The negative in these answers is nāc before vowels, ma before consonants. * Chiefly before forms of wyf, such as wyf, yawyf, oes, oedd, ydoedd. t The ‘s’ of nis and nas is an old postvocalic pers. pron. S. and P. 3. A CC/D EAVCAE 7 I 288 289 290 291 PREPOSITIONS. I. The simple prepositions in Welsh fall into two main classes :— (a) those to which pronominal suffixes can be added: e.g. dros, over; droS-0-f, over me. (b) those to which pronominal suffixes cannot be added. Class A, with pronominal suffixes. am, about ar, 07. at, fowards er, for the sake (of) gan, with, by heb, zwithouf hyd, as far as -i, to, into - 0,” out of, from rhag, before, from before rhwng, &etzween - tan, dan, under -tros, dros, ozer trWy, drwy, through wrth, to, close by yn, in Class B, without pronominal suffixes. cyn, before (of time) er, since ger, by, near gerfydd, by heibio, past is, &e/ozy mewn, in myn, āy (in asseverations) uwch, aboze NOTE. –Is and uwch are the com- parative forms of the adjectives isel and uchel ; mewn is an old noun meaning middle, while heibio is an adverb used as a preposition. 2. In addition to the simple prepositions, Welsh has several compound prepositions consisting of two or more prepositions combined together : e.g. am-dan; O-ddi-ar; O-ddi-am-dan. 3. There are also several prepositional expressions, consisting of prepositions in construction with nouns: e.g. ger llaw, near ; lit. by the hand (of)—: O achos, on account (of); lit. from the cause (of). 4. In some cases the nouns forming part of these prepositional expressions are no longer used separately : e.g. plegid [Latin, ‘placitum'] in O blegid, because (of); pyn (the old Dative form of pen) in er-byn, against. CAUTION.—The component words of such expressions should be parsed separately. * o in combination with suffixes takes the form ohon-. 5 3 5 * ,, other prepositions takes the form oddi- =o-i-di, compounded of o and an old prep, di, from. 72 WAE/ASA/ GACAA/A/AA’ 292 Combination of Prepositions with Pronominal Suffixes. - I. In the Celtic, as in the Semitic languages, pronominal suffixes are added to prepositions: e.g. wrth, by ; wrthyf, by me. - 2. These pronominal suffixes in Welsh bear a marked resem- blance to those used in the conjugation of the verb. 3. The Connecting vowels or diphthongs in each case should be carefully noted, and compared with those of the verb. 4. The suffixes for S. I are, -af, -of, -yf: e.g. at-af, to me ; heb-of, without me; wrth-yf, by me. I. at-af, to me. 2. heb-of, zwithout me. 293 S. I. at-a-f P. I. at-0-m S. I. heb-0-f P. I. heb-0-m 2. at-a-t 2. at-0-ch 2, heb-0-t- 2. heb-0-ch 3. (m.) at-0 3. at-y-mt 3. (m.) heb-dd-o 3. heb-dd-y-nt 3. (f) at-i - 3. (f.) heb-dd-i 3. wrth-yf, by me. S. I. wrth-y-f P. I. wrth-y-m 2. wrth-y-t 2. wrth-y-ch 3. (m.) wrth-0 3. wrth-y-nt 3. (f) wrth-i 294 (a) Like at-af we have dan-af, ar-n-af (fr. ar, on, with n inserted). (b) Like heb-of we have rhag-of, rhyng-of, er-of, yn-of, tros-of, trw-of, o-hon-of, (hyd-of). (c) Like wrth-yf we have genn-yf. REMARKS. 295 I. For rhyng-of, yn-of, tros-of, we have also rhyng-wyf, yn-Wyf, tros-wyf. 2. tros-of makes S. 3 (m.) tros-t-o, (f) tros-t-i, P. 3, tros-t-ynt. 3. trw-of makes trw-of, trw-ot, trywy-dd-o, trywy-dd-i, trw-om, try- och, trywy-dd-ynt. 4. genn-yf makes genn-yf, genn-yt, gan-dd-o, gan-dd-i, genn-ym, genn-ych, gan-da-ynt. For S. 3, are sometimes found gan-th-0, gen-th-i, for P. 3, gan-th-ynt. A CC/ADA.AWCAE 73 296 297 298 5. i, info, makes S. 3 (m.) i-dd-o, (f) i-dd-i, P. 3, i-dd-ynt. For the other forms, in place of the suffixes proper, the personal pro- nouns, mi, ti, ni, chwi are used for S. and P. I and º either separately or as enclitics: , e.g. ſmi, ſti, ini, ſchwi. OBS.–The final i of these combinations is often elided, and we have the forms im, it, in, iwch : e.g. nos dāwch, good night = nos da iwch, good night to you. Nouns used as Prepositions. Achos, cause, used as a preposition, meaning on account (of); Serch, affection, used as a preposition, meaning in spite (of), are employed in construction with verb-nouns: - e.g. achos iddo fyned, on accounſ of his going, because /le went. Serch , ,, in Søife of his going, though he went. These nouns are probably old ablatives. Prepositional Expressions. I. The following is a list of common prepositional expressions, the second part of which is a noun. am ben, ozer o blegid, on account (of) ar ben, upon o herwydd , 9) argyfer, over against ogylch, around ar hyd, along O amgylch, around ar draws, across o dieutu, about ar Öl, after O gwmpas, around ar warthaf, dozen ºfton oran, for the matter (of) er myyn, for the sake (oſ)” uwch ben, above er gwaethaf, in spite (of) uwch läw , ger bron, in front (of) wrth läw, near ger llāw, near yn erbyn, against heb läw, besides yng ngwydd, in the presence (of) is läw, beneath yng nghylch, about i blith, into the midst (of) ym mhen, at the end (of) ifysg , 29 ym mhlīth, among o fläen, before ym mysg, among o fewn, within yn Öl, after o achos, on account (of) * Note that ‘of’ in this and similar cases has nothing to correspond to it in the Welsh prepositional expression, but is implied in the gemitive relation of the noun following the expression to the noun contained in the expression. 74 WELSAE GRAMMA R 299 300 2. The noun which followed one of these prepositional expres- ‘sions was originally put in the genitive. 3. Such phrases as “on account of me, thee, etc.,’ are expressed as follows: O'm plegid, o'th blegid, etc., where 'm, 'th, are the post- vocalic possessive adjectives. 4. Similarly, ger dy fron, in front of thee; ar ei ol, after him. 5. With ger llaw, heb law, is law, uwch law, wrth law, the Con- struction with possessive adjectives is not employed, but in its place the preposition i, in one of its pronominal combinations, is used : e.g. ger llaw imi or im', near me. is law iddi, beneath her. CAUTION.—The component words of these prepositional ex- pressions should be parsed separately. For the meanings of prepositions, see Syntax, $$ 388-452. Prepositions governing Verb-Nouns. For the various expressions formed by means of prepositions governing verb-nouns, see Syntax (Part II. of this Grammar), §§ 346a, 346b, 546-556. Conjunctions. Conjunctions belong not to Accidence but to Syntax, and will be found in Part II. of this Grammar (§§ 314, 346,” etc.). A P P E N D IX. I. ON SOUNDS. Quantity. 1. Simple vowels and the first vowels of diphthongs in Welsh may be either long or short. 2. A diphthong is counted long when its first vowel is long. 3. The second vowel of a true diphthong is always short. 4. A simple vowel or the first vowel of a diphthong in Welsh is never long except— (i.) in a monosyllable. (ii.) in the accented final syllable of a polysyllabic word. (iii.) in an accented syllable, whose vowel is immediately followed by a vowel or h. (iv.) in certain prefixes such as di- and tra- when they have a strong Secondary accent. Quantity of simple vowels in monosyllables and accented final syllables. 1. The vowels of monosyllables ending in more than one con- sonant are short : e.g. plant, pant, porth, parth, wrth, cant : Except in North Wales, in the case of words ending in st, sb (sp), Sg, llt: e.g. clist, gwisg, Cösb, mēllt. 2. The vowels of monosyllables ending in the voiceless mutes p, t, c.; in the nasals m, ng ; and in the voiceless lingual ll are short : Except—ym, we are ; bom, we may be ; bot, thou mayest be; ôll and höll ; and, in South Wales, most monosyllables ending in ll. 3. The vowels of monosyllables ending in the voiced mutes b, d, g; in the voiceless spirants, ff, th, ch ; in the voiced spirants f, dd, and in the sibilant s are long. N.B.-In North Wales, prepositions and conjunctions of this form are generally short : e.g. heb, ag. 4. If a monosyllable end in a vowel, the vowel is long. NOTE.-The only exceptions are a few unemphatic proclitics, a, y, fy, dy, etc., in connected speech. When emphasized these are pronounced long. 5. If a monosyllable end in l, n, or r, its vowel may be long or short ; in words of this type, if the vowel be i or u, it is long, except in prin and pin; if the vowel be a, e, o, w, y, there is no rule for determining its quantity. '75 76 MVAE/ASH GRAMMAR Quantity of the first vowels of diphthongs in monosyllables and accented final syllables. I. In monosyllables and accented final syllables, the first vowels of the diphthongs ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ey, aw, ew, iw, ow, uw, yw, are short : e.g. sain, ein, troi, crynhoi, haul, gweu, dweyd, clawdd, mewn, rhiw, trown, duw, llyw. N.B.—In North Wales, a and e in aw and ew, when not followed by a consonant, are pronounced long : e.g. rhāw, téw ; also the diphthongs ài, Öi (äe, Če), in the forms * - gwnāi, trói (= trôai), also written tröe, gwnāe, and pronounced tróu and gwnău in North Wales. 2. In similar cases a, o, w in the diphthongs ae, oe, wy are long. The ‘Epenthetic * Wowel.” I. Where a word which is monosyllabic or accented on the last syllable ends in a consonant + 1, n, or r (or in some words in m borrowed from English), the final consonant tends to form a separate syllable. 2. Since Welsh, in contradistinction to English, requires in the final syllable a distinct vowel, the final syllable formed by l, n, or r receives a distinct vowel-sound, through the repetition of the vowel of the preceding syllable : e.g. budr becomes budur : pobl, pobol. 3. If the accented syllable preceding the consonantal combina- tions in question contain a diphthong, the second vowel of the diphthong (in its written form) is repeated as an epenthetic vowel : e.g. brwydr becomes brwydyr ; hoedl becomes hoedel. N.B.-In North but not in South Wales, words ending in fl, fri and fr remain monosyllabic. Initial Mutation of Consonants. Initial mutations, in point of usage, are of three types— A. The change of p, t, c into b, d, g; of b, d, g into f, dd, -; of ll, rh into l, r ; of m into f. (The “soft' mutation.) B. The change of p, t, c into ph, th, ch. (Thé aspirate’ mutation.) C. The change of p, t, c into mh, nh, ngh, of b, d, g into m, n, ng. (The “nasal' mutation.) { * - º - * - º This vowel is also known by its Sanskrit name “swarabhakti ' vowel. A CCIDENCE 77 tº sºme ºssºms ºss-esº- Type A. (The “soft' mutation.) This is the most common type of initial mutation in Welsh, and occurs— I. In a word following a parenthesis: e.g. gwelwyd (yn y lle) rai dynion ; wedi (i mi) fyned. 2. In address: e.g. gyfeillion hoff, dear friends. 3. In the second element of word-groups of the following forms :— (a) x + noun. b) noun + x. % x + verb. (d) verb + x. (e) x + adjective. (a) x + noun. In this case x may be:— (1) a proper name, when followed by an aga omen: e.g. Dafydd frenin, /)avid ſhe king. (2) the common nouns, eglwys, teml, ty, teyrnas, before Duw ; ty and eglwys before Mair and Dewi ; llan before names of SalníS. (3) an adjective in the positive or the superlative degree ; to- gether with ambell, aml, rhyw, and its compounds amryw, cyfryw, __unrhyw; dy, 'th, ei (masc.); på ; yr hwn ; dau; dwy’; y fäth and pa fath; and—before mouns fem. sing only—in and the ordinal numbers. - - * * (4) the definite article y, before nouns fem, sing, only. (5) the word yn, used to introduce a predicate-noun. (6) one of the prepositions am, ar, at, gan, heb, hyd, i, tan (dan), tros (dros), tryy (drwy), Ö, wrth. (7) one of the adverbs dyma,” dyna, dacw. (8) an interjection. (b) noun + x. In this case x may be— (1) an adjective (or a noun used as an adjective) after a noun fem, sing, only : e.g. dynes ddu, allt göed. (2) a personal pronoun: e.g. dy lyfr di. * dyma, dyna, dacw, stand for wel di yma, see thou here ; wel di yna, see thou there ; wel di acw, see thou yonder ; respectively. 78 WELSH GRAMMAR (3) an adverb, modifying an adjective which qualifies a noun fem. sing. : - e.g. y ddynes dra hardd. (c) x + yerb. In this case x may be— (1) the interrogative particle a e.g. A dilaw P will he come 3 (2) the pre-verbal particle a . e.g. ddydd a ddaw, a day that zeyi/Z come. - (3) a personal pronoun (where a is omitted). e.g. ti redodd oreu. (4) a noun (where a is omitted): e.g. John gafodd y wobr. (5) an adjective used as an adverb: e.g. syn fyfyriai. (6) the adverbs ni, na (mot), oni, only before verbs beginning zeith ö, d, g, ſl, rh, m : e.g. ni ddaw, he will not come. (7) the conjunction pan, z0/ien : e.g. pan ddaw, when he comes. (d) verb + x. In this case x may be— (I) a personal pronoun : e.g. gwelodd fi, he saw me. (2) a noun or verb-noun as object : e.g. ceisiodd droi, he tried ſo fürſt. (3) a noun or verb-noun as subject, only after oes S. 3. Pres. Zndic. of bod: e.g. nid oes ddyn, there is not a man. (4) a predicate-noun or predicate-adjective after forms of Wyf. (5) words denoting duration, point of time, distance and measure : e.g. aeth filltir, he went a mile. (e) x + adjective. In this case x may be— (1) a noun fem. sing. : e.g. dynes dda, a good zºoman. (2) the definite article before an adjective qualifying a moun fem. sing. : e.g. y fvynaf ferch, the gentlest maiden. - (3) one of the adverbs go, rhy, and (except as a general rule usually before ll and rh) piir, cyn, mor: e.g. go lawn, rather fu// (4) the word yn, introducing a predicate-adjective or an ad- jective used as an adverb : e.g. yn dda, well. •. NOTE. I.--After eithr, ond, onid, oddieithr, oddigerth, namyn and heblaw, bod and darfod often undergo mutation of type A. NOTE 2. —After ni and na mutation in the case of forms of wyf is optional. NOTE 3.-The word yn used to introduce predicate nouns and adjectives, and ºeuve used as adverbs is possibly a remnant of the old Brythonic article. - A CCIDENCE 79 Type B. (The ‘aspirate’ mutation.) This type of mutation occurs in a few word-groups as follows:— (1) after the conjunctions a, and ; na, nor, than ; o, if (2) 3 y prepositions a, gyda, tua, efo, with. --(3) 2 3 possessive adjective ei (fem.). (4) , cardinal numbers(tri and chwe. (5) $ 9 adverb trä. Type C. (The “nasal' mutation.) This type of mutation occurs in a few word-groups as follows:— (1) after the possessive adjective fy, my (older fyn). (2) 2 3 preposition yn, in (except in the case of the verb- noun). - (3) after the cardinal numbers, saith, wyth, nāw, deng, deu- ddeng, ugain, can, when followed by diwrnod, blynedd, blwydd. II. ON SPELLING. Some difference of opinion still exists with regard to Welsh spelling, especially in the matter of doubling consonants. It is impossible to formulate entirely satisfactory rules on this subject, because the practice even of good writers varies very considerably. The Orthographical Committee of the Welsh Language Society in its Report (Welsh National Press Co., Carnarvon, 1893) re- commends doubling only in the case of n and r in accented syllables, and then only in cases where the n or r closes the accented syllable. As it is not always easy to determine the correct division into syllables, the student will do well to avoid doubling these consonants except where it is the universal practice of good writers to double them. OBS.—When an ending is added to a word terminating in n or r whose vowel is short, the n or r is often doubled. N.B.—In Welsh a consonant following an accented vowel is not pronounced with so much force as a consonant in a corre- sponding position in English. UNjiVº. . . . . . º.º. APR 27 iglº |Yarallel Grammar $5eries. EDITOR : E. A. SONNENSCHEIN, D.LITT., Oxon., PROFESSOR OF CLASSICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM. PUBLISHERs: Messrs. Swan SONNENSCHEIN & Co., LTD., 25 High Street, Bloomsbury, London; THE MACMILLAN Co., New York. “Almost every grammatical system has its “rationale, capable of being comprehended by the mind, if the mind is kept steadily to it, and of serving as a clue to the facts ; but . . . every One of the grammars. following a different system, the student masters the rationale of none of them, ; and in consequence, after all his labour, he often ends by possessing of the science of grammar nothing but a heap of terms jumbled together in inea-tricable confusion.”—MATTHEW ARNOLD. Uniformity of Terminology and Uniformity of Classification are the distinguishing marks of this series; all the Grammars are constructed on the same plan, and the same terminology is used to describe identical grammatical features in different languages. The terminology employed is such as to command general accept- ance, having been accepted and approved by the Grammatical Society—a society which was formed in 1886 for the express purpose of drawing up a scheme suitable for use in teaching different languages side by side, and which numbered among its members many eminent teachers from all parts of the United Kingdom and America. The principle of selection is that the easisting Stock of grammatical terms is sufficient for its purpose, if used economically; and the editor has been able to carry out his scheme without the introduction of new or unfamiliar terms. Those who are acquainted with the chaos which has hitherto reigned, and the bewilderment which is caused to pupils by the gratuitous use of two or three different terms where one would suffice, will appreciate the labour which has been devoted to the simplification of terminology in the series. But the editor and his collaborateurs have not limited themselves to a reform of terminology. Far more than this has been done. The whole classification of the facts of language for the purposes of Syntax has been rendered more scientific, and at the same time more intelligible, by the adoption of a common point of view ; and much attention has been given to the concise and accurate statement of rules, and to the exclusion or subordination of minutiae that merely burden without enlightening the pupil. . The principle of Uniformity in Grammar, first carried out in the Parallel Grammar Series, has been formally approved and adopted by so high an authority as the German Ministry of Education (Lehrpláne und Lehraufgaben, Easter, 1892): its soundness, both 2 scientific and practical, may therefore be regarded as thoroughly established. The progress of the idea on the Continent is fully set forth in an article by DR. HoRNEMANN in Rein's Encyclopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik (1898, vol. v., p. 232, ff.), where the move- ment is associated with the names of Vogt, EICHNER, WALDECK, MANGOLD, HARRE, VoILBRECHT, HEIL and SCHMIDT, SEEGER, BANNER and REINHARDT. The two last named have produced parallel syntaxes of French and Latin (1895 and 1896) for the “Reform- gymnasium ” at Frankfort. Holland has now its parallel grammars of Greek and Latin by Dr. H. Wolt.JER (1892 and 1894); France its Grammaire Comparée du Grec et du Latin by Dr. O. RIEMANN and Dr. H. GOELZER. But at present England is the only country which possesses a complete series of grammars in which these principles are carried out. The Grammars are accompanied by a series of READERS AND wºrrºrs. each in a single volume, based on the following princi- ples:— 1. The Reader is the centre of instruction. Each passage in it is designed (i.) to have a unity and interest of its own, sufficient to engage the attention of the pupil; (ii.) to exhibit, so far as circum- stances permit, one dominant grammatical feature. Forms which cannot be understood grammatically without more knowledge than the pupil possesses at a particular stage are not altogether excluded, but they are treated as isolated words, and are simply translated (without grammatical explanation) in the Vocabulary or Preparations. The Reader thus lends itself to the methodical learning and practising of grammar. Grammatical facts presented in concrete form in an interesting context are easily understood and remembered, and form the basis of that more complete and systematic knowledge which can only be acquired from a Grammar. 2. The Writer is based upon the subject matter and vocabulary of the Reader, and gives systematic practice in the dominant gram- matical feature under consideration. The pupil is early introduced to the writing of continuous passages ; these are at first built up out of separate sentences of easy construction, but gradually assume the character of connected prose in the proper sense of the term. No meaningless sentences or fragments of sentences are employed. Reading, Writing and Grammar thus go hand in hand, and the knowledge acquired in each department is immediately utilised in the others. In this point, too, the system worked out by the Editor and his collaborateurs coincides in all its essential features with the best results of foreign experience. 3. The courses are so arranged as to present to the pupil the im- portant before the unimportant, the less difficult before the more 3 difficult. Grammatical details are reserved until the main outline of grammar has been mastered. 4. The terminology and classifications of the Parallel Grammars are employed throughout the Readers and Writers. The method briefly indicated above is here applied to all the languages ordinarily taught in schools, the teaching of which may thus be organised and concentrated on a uniform basis. § For list of the Grammars and Readers in the Series see pp. 7-15. SELECT OPINIONS ON THE SERIES AS A WHOLE. “One of the most pressing needs of the day, in view of the multi- plication of school subjects and the increased strain which it puts upon the pupil, is concentration and simplification in the methods of teaching. What we have lost in extension we must gain in intention, as the logicians would say, And among the attempts which are being made to meet this demand, a high place must be accorded to the movement started in this country some years ago for unifica- tion in the field of grammar teaching. Grammars are many, but grammar is one; that is to say, though the varieties of usage in different languages are infinitely numerous, it is possible to treat them from a common point of view—to classify them on the basis of a common Scheme of analysis and terminology. The gain to the teacher ought to be enormous. Instead of re-classifying the facts of syntax for each separate language according to the Sweet will of the framers of individual grammars, a single classification serves for all the languages to be learned ; and this scheme, by repetition in connexion with each new language studied, becomes part and parcel of the mental outfit of the pupil—a solid rock on which he stands firm in face of the bewildering complexities of human speech, The old method involved a continual re-adjustment of the register; and its evils were many, as Matthew Arnold recognized. In our own hime a serious attempt has been made to remedy its defects in Professor Sonnenschein's Parallel Grammar Series.”—Literature, 10th Feb., 1900. “We have for some years been using the Parallel Grammars and Readers and Writers intended to be studied along with them. We were led to introduce these text-books from a sense of the sound- ness of the educational principles on which they were based ; experience has now taught us to value them also for the care and consistency with which these principles are carried out. We are convinced that it is an incalculable gain to the cause of systematic instruction in our school that we are using books which enable us to 4 preserve uniformity in the grammar teaching of the languages, as well as to connect coherently translation and composition with this grammar teaching.”—The Rev. A. JAMSON SMITH, M.A., Headmaster of K.E.S., Camp Hill, Birmingham. “The Parallel Grammars, English, Latin, Greek, French and German, have been used without interruption in this school, each from the time of its publication. These grammars are acknowledged to be in the front rank as regards scholarship, and they have also the merits of clearness and compactness. The Parallel Method is important as leading to a real grasp of principles and economizing the learner's time. The result of using the Parallel Grammars exclusively has in the case of this school been altogether satisfactory, and where pupils of linguistic talent were concerned, admirably successful.”—EDITH HASTINGs, Headmistress of the Wimbledon High School for Girls. “After recommending the Parallel Grammar Series in many quarters, I cannot remember any one who was disappointed, or to whom the working out of the same system through various languages did not come as something of a revelation, for which they were intensely grateful. I am sure that no teacher who had once tried the effect of their arrangement of Conditional Sentences as against the traditional arrangement could be blind to the superiority of the former.”—W. H. SECKER, M.A., Oxon., Aysgarth School, Yorkshire. “There can be no doubt that this system, if it can be satisfactorily carried out, will save much time to the teacher and much perplexity to the pupil.”—P. GILES, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of Emmanuel College, and Reader in Comparative Philology in the University of Cambridge (Classical Review). “This attempt deserves all encouragement. It marks a new departure, and is a real advance. Any one of these grammars may be used separately by student or teacher. They may be used with still greater advantage in combination.”—The late H. NETTLESHIP, Corpus Professor of Latin in the University of Oxford. “The recognition of the fact that the fundamental principles of grammar are common to all languages constitutes a conspicuous merit of Sonnenschein's Parallel Grammar Series.”—Professor FREDERIC SPENCER, in his Chapters on the Aims and Practice of Teaching . 88). (p £ 6 } welcome the new series of Parallel Grammars as a real advance in the direction of clear thought, brevity, so far as brevity is possible, and riddance of that superfluous naughtiness which refuses to call the same things by the same names.”—C. CoIBECK, M.A., Assistant Master at Harrow (Journal of Education). “I fully approve of your attempt to introduce something like 5 harmony into the teaching of ancient and modern languages, and heartily sympathise with the object you have in view.”—The late Rev. H. A. Hold EN, M.A., LL.D., Examiner in London University. “The series of Parallel Grammars is the first attempt to get rid of the perplexities and misunderstandings arising from the inconsistent terminology employed in the grammars of different languages.”—The Rev. J. B. MAYOR, Litt.D., late Editor of the Classical Review. “The idea and principles of this series thoroughly commend themselves to me.”—F. CHATTERTON RICHARDs, M.A., Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford, late Professor of Greek in University College, Cardiff. “It is with more than an ordinary sense of appreciation that we notice this really remarkable series of books. The very conception of so novel and difficult an enterprise would in itself be noteworthy. But the conception has been carried out with such signal skill and care, that the result may be said, with no exaggeration, to constitute an epoch in the history of our educational literature. These gram- mars will, in fact, convert what has been a perplexed wandering through a tangled forest into a secure journey through a well-mapped- out country.”—Birmingham Daily Gazette. “The adoption of uniform methods of teaching must result in an enormous saving of time and energy for both teachers and taught.”— Catholic Times. “We have had frequent occasion to express our opinion of the various volumes in this very useful series, and of the general features which characterise them all; their spirit and system are now so well known to all teachers that it is hardly necessary to repeat those observations. The principle of familiarising a pupil with passages for translation before he has mastered many details of grammar, of bringing him to a knowledge of rules through the language from which experience collects them, rather than equipping him with a mass of words and forms long before he meets them in the literature —this principle is gradually growing to be more and more widely acknowledged as a Sound one. “Few can doubt the very great advantage of having some general principles established, which can be illustrated in different languages, either by way of similarity or contrast. It is on this system of proceeding from the known to the unknown that the Parallel Gram- mar Series is based.”—Educational Review. FOREIGN OPINIONS ON THE SERIES AS A WHOLE. “This Series is unique in character, so far as I know. We in Germany have nothing similar. At the Berlin School Conference 6 (December, 1890) Schiller spoke on the point, maintaining that we ought to have Parallel Grammars, in connexion with the question how instruction might be simplified by improvements in method. The new Prussian Scheme of Instruction of 1891 lays it down that ‘in the choice of a Latin Grammar attention should be paid to its being not too different in its whole plan and construction from the Greek Grammar which is to be used side by side with it’ (p. 23); and again, ‘in the choice of an English and French grammar, care should be taken that they are not too different in their plan and construction, and that the terminology be here the same as in other languages' (p. 37). Though the term ‘Parallel Grammars’ is not here employed, yet the idea is the same as that which lies at the basis of the admirable Parallel Grammar Series, edited by Sonnen- schein. It is his merit to have been the first to carry out with brilliant Success the principle of simplifying grammatical terminology, and, above all, of employing the same terminology in all the languages learned in schools. In my pamphlet called Solved and Unsolved Problems of Method (Berlin, Springer, 1892), I declared the question of Parallel Grammars still unsolved for Germany, and assigned to Sonnenschein the credit of having solved it for England. I now repeat what I there said. We in Germany have only to take the English Parallel Grammar Series as a model, and to learn from Sonnenschein how to construct a similar series for our own country. He has shown that parallelism involves no revolution in terminology, but, on the contrary, that it is possible to make the old established terms serve the purpose, if they be properly and economically used. The whole system is excellent, and may be most warmly recommended to the attention of all those who are interested in the production of a series of Parallel Grammars.”—W. MANGOLD, Ph.D., Professor in the Askanisches Gymnasium, Berlin (Translated). r “An Organic unity of Grammars, such as Sonnenschein's series, is as yet lacking in Germany, although it would indisputably be of great service.”—Dr. J. SITZLER, in Wochenschrift für Klassische Philologie (Translated). “A year ago I expressed my unqualified approval of the Parallel Grammar Series ; since then my admiration for it has only increased, in proportion as I have more fully understood the principles on which it is based and their application. Mr. Sonnenschein has deserved well of his country in taking the initiative in this work, which he has succeeded in carrying to a happy issue. Shall we ever have a similar series for our own country? That day, the teaching of languages will have taken an immense step forward.”—Dr. J. KEELHoF, Pro- fessor at the Athénée Royal, Tongres, Belgium, in Revue de l'instruction publique (Translated). 7 GREEK. GREEK GRAMMAR. By Prof. E. A. SoNNENSCHEIN, D.Litt., Oxon., University of Birmingham. 4s. 6d. ; or (separately), Acci. dence (including Supplement on irregularities in Declension and Comparison), 28. ; Supplement alone, 6d. ; Syntaa, 2s. 6d. “I hold and have often expressed the opinion, that for Attic Accidence and Syntax yours is absolutely the best school grammar extant.”—GILBERT MURRAY, M.A., LL.D., late Professor of Greek in the University of Glasgow. have found it singularly interesting, admirable in clearness and throwing real light (as it seems to me) on some perplexing points of Syntax.”—S. H. BUTCHER, M.A., LL.D., D.Litt., late Professor of Greek in the University of Edinburgh. “This is far the best Greek Accidence that I have ever had to deal with ; the conspectus of the Verbs, each on its own page, is admirable.”—The Rev. E. D. STONE, M.A., of Broadstairs, late Assistant Master at Eton College. “Superior to anything of the kind I have as yet used or seen.”—W. G. RUSH- BROOKE, LL.M., Cantab., Headmaster of St. Olave's School, London, S.E. “Admirably clear in its arrangement, and, at the same time, comprehensive in its scope. All that is unimportant and exceptional is duly subordinated to the typical and normal forms. The work deserves to be extensively used in all English-speaking countries.”—J. E. SANDYs, Litt.D., Public Orator in the Uni- versity of Cambridge. “Admirable both in design and execution: it ought to have a tremendous circulation.”—W. PETERSoN, M.A., Oxon., LL.D., Principal of the MacGill Uni- versity, Montreal. ' “Admirably adapted for teaching purposes. The information is presented in a manner at once lucid and exact, and the student who advances to more elabor- ate works will find that he has nothing to unlearn.”—P. GILEs, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of Emmanuel College, and Reader in Comparative Philology in the University of Cambridge. “Excellent both in plan and execution. It has the advantage of others in being simple, to the point, and running on a broad gauge line that suits all the cognate languages.”—J. Y. SARGENT, M.A., late Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen. College, Oxford. “Distinctly the best Greek Grammar I know for daily use. It is wonderful to find so much information contained in a book of such small bulk, and yet Fº in an interesting form. It is an admirable piece of work and a constant elp to the University teacher.”—G. R. Scott, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Merton College, Oxford. “The Greek Grammar º: and Syntaa) has been in use here for eleven years, and we wish to say that we have found it invaluable as combining the most recent results of research into pure Attic forms with an admirable arrangement for practical teaching. Its method and completeness, we have no hesitation in saying, render it superior to any other Greek Grammar for school purposes. The list of irregular verbs and the appendix on accents have proved especially useful.” —F. J. R. HENDY, M.A., Headmaster, W. L. BUNTING, M.A., E. H. FURNESS, M.A., Classical Masters at Bromsgrove School (1904). “It is just the sort of book I believe in for school use. It groups the essentials in convenient order, without verbiage. It deals with facts. It throws the usual 8 into strong relief, and subordinates the exceptional. It utilises the knowledge of grammar already attained by the pupil.”—B. I. WHEELER, President of the University of California, U.S.A. “I find the Accidence a marvel of compactness. I am a thorough believer in this method of teaching Greek Grammar to beginners. No wonder Greek studies have to fight their way, when boys are set to learning long lists of exceptions at the outset. The Syntaa, is just the thing that is wanted. I am not a disciple of parallelism as seen in some tables of comparison, where everything is sacrificed to a wooden uniformity; but I am in favour of parallel syntax when you naturally apply what Latin you know to what Greek you are learning to know. You have certainly hit the mean.”—H. WEIR SMYTH, Ph.D., Professor of Greek in Harvard University, U.S.A. - “The best book of the kind with which the present reviewer is familiar. . . . Its method is that of the future. The Accidence combines completeness and accuracy in such a way as to make it indispensable to teacher and learner alike The Syntaa, marks a new departure from accepted routine: too much praise cannot be bestowed on the method adopted and the excellent manner in which it has been developed in detail. Its framework is a krijua is &et, admitting of improvement without substantial alteration.”—The Rev. J. DoNow AN, M.A., late Professor of Classics in Stonyhurst College (Classical Review). “It is no exaggeration to say that the position of this book is quite unique. . . . For brevity, lucidity, general accuracy, and consistency of opinion, we know of no book on Greek Syntax in English that can be compared to this. Having used the Accidence ourselves for the purpose of practical teaching, we can testify still more strongly to its value. One of its superlative merits is that a student can use it without the aid of a teacher to explain the explanation, and yet, with all this clearness and conciseness, there is a fulness of information which leaves nothing to be desired on any important point.”—Educational Review. “Subordination of detail, clearness of outline, brevity and accuracy in rules— of these a surfeit is impossible, and they are well realised. In Syntaa, induction has superseded deduction: a group of examples followed, not preceded, by the rule is an excellent inversion of the old system.”—Preparatory Schools Review. A PARALLEL OF GREEK AND LATIN SYNTAX. By C. H. ST. L. RUSSELL, M.A., Assistant Master at Clifton College. 3s.6d. “The leading idea of the work is to present, in columns side by side, the idioms of the two tongues. The provision of a chapter on English Syntax is a welcome proof that common sense is at length obtaining vogue in the teaching of the Classics.”—Birmingham Daily Post. FIRST GREEK READER AND WRITER. By J. E. SANDys, Litt.D., Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. 2s. 6d “A most valuable addition to the series. Our examination enables us to say that the matter of this volume is most judiciously chosen and arranged, the difficulties carefully graduated, and the exercises much more interesting than is usual in such books. We can warmly recommend its accuracy, careful arrange- ment and admirable simplicity.”—Educational Review. “Carefully graduated.”—Guardian. “A distinct improvement on the usual style.”—University Correspondence. 9 LATIN. LATIN GRAMMAR. By Prof. E. A. SONNENSCHEIN, D.Litt., Oxon., University of Birmingham. 38. ; or (separately), Accidence, 1s. 6d. ; Syntaa, 13. 6d. “The Latin Accidence of the Parallel Grammar Series is in use throughout King Edward's School, Birmingham, and the Greek Accidence on the Classical side. I am distinctly of opinion that one and the same Accidence should be prescribed in every school for all forms learning the language, and that the Parallel Grammar Accidences are the right ones to prescribe. Grammatical curiosities are relegated to their proper place, and the normal inflexions of the languages are presented in a clear and orderly manner without sacrificing practical convenience to the supposed requirements of Scientific philology. When the Greek and the Latin Accidence of this series are used side by side, the further economy effected by the parallel system is realized.”—R. CARY GILSON, M.A., Headmaster of the Schools of King Edward VI. in Birmingham, late Assistant Master at Harrow, and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. “It is all that might be expected of so accomplished a scholar.”—The late H. NETTLESHIP, Corpus Professor of Latin in the University of Oxford. “A valuable book. The information is conveyed in language at once fierse and lucid; good judgment has been shown in the selection of matter as well as in its presentment ; and great care has been taken about the terminology—an important point.”—J. S. REID, Litt.D., Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. “I consider this Latin Grammar excellent, on account both of the lucidity of its arrangement, which makes it easy to learn, and of the soundness of its principles, which ensures that there is nothing to unlearn.”—S. G. OWEN, M.A., Censor and Classical Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. “The whole book is characterised by admirable simplicity. . . . It would be difficult to imagine a more pleasant task for a teacher than to have an intelligen class before him, with this book in his hands.”—Education. • “A student brought up upon the set of grammars to which this one belongs could not fail to have fundamental grammatical ideas very clearly and firmly fixed in his mind.”—W. G. HALE, Head Professor of Latin in the University of Chicago (Classical Review). “The best Latin Grammar I have seen.”—J. MACLEOD, I.S.O., late H.M.I.S., Elgin. FIRST LATIN READER AND WRITER. By C. M. Dix, M.A., Oxon. 28. “The best of all the elementary books for teaching Latin with which I am acquainted.”—The late Rev. R. H. QUICK, M.A. “May be safely recommended to those who appreciate the importance of not deferring translation till the system of grammar is mastered: it is simple, sound and practical.”—Education. SECOND LATIN READER AND WRITER. By C. M. Dix, M.A. 1s. 6d. “Makes a very favourable impression, both as a bit of teaching, and as a Latin grammatical work.”—Guardian. 10 THIRD LATIN READER AND WRITER. By C. M. Dix, M.A. 2s. “Carries out the principle of this excellent series with remarkable skill. The whole book deserves praise for its variety, liveliness, and workable character.”— Educational Review. “Admirably constructed.”—Glasgow Herald. FOURTH LATIN READER AND WRITER (“LIVY LES- SONS”). By J. C. NICOL, M.A., Cantab., late Fellow of Trinity Hall, Headmaster of Portsmouth Grammar School, and the Rev. J. HUNTER SMITH, M.A., Oxon., late Assistant Master in King Edward’s School, Birmingham. 2s. “The selections are good, the notes are useful, and the eighteen pages of ‘exercises for translation,’ are attractive in subject and style.”— Guardian. “Eminently interesting.”—School Board Chronicle. ENGLISH. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By J. HALL, M.A., Headmaster of the Hulme Grammar School, Manchester; Miss A. J. CoopFR, F.C.P. ; and the EDITOR OF THE SERIES. 2s. ; or (separately), Accidence, 18. ; Analysts and Syntaa, 1s. “English appears to lend itself well to the general plan of the series. Both Accidence and Analysis and Syntaa, have been compiled with careful reference to the highest authorities, and arranged in a manner at onee logical and attractive.” —Education. “Strikingly fresh and clear and sound.”—Educational Times. “It is a real pleasure to be able to recommend this work heartily.”—Private Schoolmaster. ADVANCED ENGLISH SYNTAX. By C. T. ONIONs, M.A. Lond., of the Staff of the Oxford English Dictionary. Second Edition, revised, 2s. 6d. “To our thinking ,the most attractive and useful volume yet contributed to the ‘Parallel Grammar Series'. . . . [The] sections on Parataxis and Hypotaxis are particularly instructive and happily treated. . . . It has strong claims to a place on the shelves of every teacher of English who really takes an interest in his subject.”—Guardian. “We must admit that this book is, in many respects, an admirable work, and one that many teachers might derive much benefit from. We do not know of any other work published in England which gives so complete, and, in many respects, so good, an account of English syntax.”—Secondary Education, ENGLISH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES. Part I., by Miss M. A. WooDs. 18. Part II., by Miss A. J. CoopFR, F.C.P. 18. “The definitions are terse and clear, and the examples, of which there are a great number, seem to be skilfully selected.”—University Correspondent. “The collection of examples for analysis (Part II.), by Miss Cooper, will be a most effective instrument in the hands of any teacher of English.”—Education. 11 STEPS TO ENGLISH PARSING AND ANALYSIS. By Miss E. M. RAMSAY and Miss C. L. RAMSAY. Vol. I., Elementary, 1s. 6d. Vol. II., Further Ea:ercises, 1s. 6d. - . “An admirable collection of exercises constructed on principles the practice of which means the destruction of learning grammar by rote.”—Glasgow Herald. “May do much to introduce more satisfactory methods for the early teaching of English.”—Modern Languages. “Cannot fail to aid in achieving the chief end of education—the development of the learner's intelligence.”—Literary World. . “A class that had worked through this book would find Latin prose much easier than when taught in the ordinary way.”—Preparatory Schools' Review. “A carefully designed and thoughtfully written manual, which can be honestly recommended.”—The Teacher's Aid. “Many of the stories are intrinsically interesting and may render the associations of grammar more pleasant than some children find them.”—School- master. “Carefully graded to suit the pupil’s progress.”—Educational Review. FRENCH. FRENCH GRAMMAR. By L. M. MoRIARTY, M.A., Oxon., Assistant Master at Harrow ; late Professor of French in King's College, London. 3s., or (Separately), Accidence, 1s. 6d. ; Syntaa!, 1s. 6d. “Especial praise must be given to Prof. Moriarty's thoughtful and original book on French Accidence. It has the merit of being the first French Grammar for English use that puts the use of the “Conditional' in its true light.”—H. BRADLEY (Academy). “Mr. Moriarty's application of the Parallel Grammar programme to French is carried out in a masterly fashion.”—Journal of Education. “We have tested the rules and index by every means known to us, and they have stood the test exceedingly well.”—Guardian. “Commends itself by the admirable clearness of every part ; the best results. may be confidently expected.”—Glasgow Herald. PREPARATORY FRENCH COURSE. By Miss A. M. ZwhiFEL, 1s. 6d. New edition, revised and largely re-written, 1903. “A capital book for beginners. . . . The exercises form connected narratives —a decidedly good feature—and the grammatical facts selected are suited to the capacities of young learners.”—Guardian. “The lessons seem characterised by clearness of principle, careful graduation: of matter, and fulness of exercises.”—Schoolmaster. “The work of an able teacher.”—Modern Languages. “Cannot fail to be of the greatest utility.”—Glasgow Herald. 12 FIRST FRENCH READER AND writeR. By R. J. Morich, late Assistant Master at Clifton, and W. S. LYON, M.A., Oxon. 28. § For Revised Edition of this Work, see below. “To say that it is the best with which we are acquainted would be less than fair to it, for it would imply a comparison, whereas it stands alone, and has the merit of introducing a system so natural, and so evidently the best, that one can only wonder that it has never been worked out before.”—Glasgow Herald. Just published.—NEW FIRST FRENCH READER AND WRITER. By Professor R. J. MoRICH, University of Graz. 2s SECOND FRENCH READER AND WRITER. By Professor P. E. E. BARBIER, University College, Cardiff, 2s. “The plan [of basing exercises in writing upon the subject matter and vocabulary of the Reader] is one which cannot be too highly recommended.”— Guardian. “The Writer consists of simple sentences founded on the Reader, a plan of which we have often expressed our approval.”—Journal of Education. “The somewhat complicated task of blending grammar, translation and composition together has been ably performed by M. Barbier, whose little volume we warmly recommend as an excellent exponent of an intelligent system.”— Glasgow Herald. THIRD FRENCH READER AND WRITER. By L. BARBE, B.A., Headmaster of the Modern Language Department in the Glasgow Academy. 28. “The passages are skilfully selected to illustrate special points of Syntax explained in the Grammar.”—Guardian. “M. Barbé has performed his task in a very satisfactory way.”—Scholastic Globe. “A well-selected series of most interesting extracts from the best modern authors. The English extracts for translation into French are exceedingly skil- ful adaptations.”—Glasgow Herald. Just published.—ADVANCED FRENCH COMPOSITION. By H. E. BERTHON, Hon. M.A., Oxon., Taylorian Teacher of French in the University of Oxford, and C. T. ONIONs, M.A., Lond. 2s. 6d. 13 GERMAN. GERMAN GRAMMAR. By Prof. KUNO MEYER, Ph.D., University of Liverpool. 38.; or (separately), Accidence, 13. 6d. ; Syntaa, 18. 6d. “Clear, precise and practical, and very inviting to the eye.”—Journal of Education. “Uniformly good.”—Education. “The German Syntaa, is an excellent and scholarly piece of work.”— Guardian. - “Great care has evidently been bestowed on the Accidence.”—The late Professor H. NETTLESHIP (Athenaeum). “Dr. Meyer ist mit seiner Arbeit aus der grossen Masse unverdaulicher deutscher Schulbücher für Engländer einen tåchtigen Schritt hervorgetireten.”— Im Ausland. FIRST GERMAN READER AND WRITER. By the EDITOR of THE SERIES. 1s. 6d. “It would be difficult to give too high praise to this book as a book for young beginners. In method, arrangement, selection of pieces, and in clearness of print, it is just what an elementary Reader and exercise book should be. We know several teachers who are using it, and who entirely endorse our opinion.”— Modern Language Monthly. “An admirable bit of work, the pieces chosen being all very simple without being dull or foolish.”—Journal of Education. - “Fulfils in almost every respect the conditions of a perfect class book for junior pupils in German.”—Practical Teacher. SECOND GERMAN READER AND WRITER: By the Rev. W. S. MACGowAN, M.A., LL.D., Principal of St. Andrew's College, Grahamstown, Cape Colony. 28. “Dr. Macgowan has done his part with the same thoroughness as Professor Sonnenschein.”—Journal of Education. . “The plan of these Readers and Writers has our entire approval.”—Guardian. “There can be no doubt whatever that it (retranslation) materially assists the learner, especially when it is practised in so clear and skilful a way as in this book.”—Education. THIRD GERMAN READER AND WRITER. By Prof. GEORG FIEDIER, Ph.D., University of Birmingham. 2s. “Sure to be welcomed by teachers and pupils alike, for it will lessen the labour of both, without, in any sense, encouraging careless or slovenly work.”— Glasgow Herald. “Fully worthy to take a place in this admirable series.”—Modern Languages. “The English-German Vocabulary is written on very sensible lines, and at once commends itself.”—Guardian. “An additional advantage is that all the passages refer to matters of German history or legend, thus, in some degree, interesting the student in the history as well as the language of Germany.”—Bookseller. “A well-designed course.”—Scotsman. 14 FOURTH GERMAN WRITER. By R. GoRpoN RouTH, M.A., Oxon., Modern Language Master in Bromsgrove School. 2s. “This text-book appears in the well-known Parallel Grammar Series. The passages are, on the whole, well chosen, and are for the most part of an historical ºre. We have nothing but praise for this well-planned text-book.”—Teacher's In preparation.—ADVANCED GERMAN COMPOSITION. By Prof. KUNO MEYER, Ph.D., University of Liverpool. SPANISH, WELSH, DANO-NORWEGIAN. SPANHSH GRAMMAR. By H. BUTLER CLARKE, M.A., Oxon., Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, late Taylorian Teacher of Spanish. 4s. 6d. . “These books follow the admirable plan laid down for this series by Professor E. A. Sonnenschein. They are thoroughly and carefully done, and will prove of the highest service.”—Scotsman. “Altogether it would be difficult to find two better books to put into the hands of a learner.”—Glasgow Herald. “The well-known method of the series is faithfully adhered to throughout these works, which are likely to prove serviceable for private students as well as for schools,”—Daily Chronicle. FIRST SPANISH READER AND WRITER. By H. BUTLEB CLARKE, M.A. 2s. “For this book we have nothing but praise.”—Literary World. WELSH GRAMMAR, By Prof. E. ANwyſ, M.A., Oxon., Uny versity College, Aberystwyth. 5s. ; or (separately), Accidence, 2s. 6d. ; Syntaa, 2s. 6d. - - “To look for defects in the work of such a capable man as the author is a hopeless task. . . . The work is as perfect as any grammar can well be, and Students of Welsh in our secondary schools and colleges will hail its appearance with sincere gratification.”—Western Mail (Leading Article). “It seems very clear as well as concise.”—D. B. MoMRO, M.A., Provost of Oriel College, Oxford, “It seems to me to be most scholarly, and will give a great impetus to the scientific teaching and understanding of Welsh.”—T. E. ELLIS, M.P. 15 FIRST WELSH READER. By Prof. E. ANwyL, M.A., and Rev. M. H. Jon Es. 2s. 6d. DANO-NORWEGIAN READER. With Grammatical Outline. By J. Y. SARGENT, M.A., Oxon., late Fellow and Tutor of Mag- dalen College, Oxford. 3s. 6d. “The prose pieces have been selected with much care and judgment, and the English version is both literal and accurate. . . . Altogether the book seems admirably fitted to fulfil its object, and may be safely recommended.”—Guardian. “English students of Danish and Norwegian will find their efforts greatly lightened by this book.”—Liverpool Post. “A good idea well carried out.”—Educational Review. #3; Singie Copies of any volume will be sent post free to any teacher on receipt of half its published price. KEYS to the Latin and German Readers and Writers may be had by teachers on direct application to the publishers. # 965 LONDON : SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO., Lºrp. NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN CO. * |||||||||| THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN \ - - º \", \ . A C : . . . . . . ſ : ...... . . . . " ( - \ • * * \ |- ! --. ~ * f º * *.x >>. - º - ſ *: ; # * º: * ... * * ºf º -º ... : - . . . . . . . ; º.º. . . . . . ‘. . . ." kº, ſº tº - º: * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * s' ". . . * g. ſº a sº : * * ... º.º.º. * : "... ſº ºf . º.º." * *** * * * * * * ** - º. 3 # ºf