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1 851
2132
Τ THE EXPOSITION
OF
1851;
OR,
VIEWS OF THE INDUSTRY,
THE SCIENCE, AND THE GOVERNMENT,
OF ENGLAND.
BY
CHARLES BABBAGE, ESQ.
CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF MORAL SCIENCES
OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE.
SECOND EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1851.
PRE FACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION.
ENGLAND has invited the civilized world to meet
in its great commercial centre; asking it, in friendly
rivalry, to display for the common advantage of all,
those objects which each country derives from the
gifts of nature, and on which it confers additional
utility by processes of industrial art.
This invitation, universally accepted, will bring
from every quarter a multitude of people greater
than has yet assembled in any western city: these
welcome visitors will enjoy more time and oppor-
tunity for observation than has ever been afforded
on any previous occasion. The statesman and the
philosopher, the manufacturer and the merchant,
and all enlightened observers of human nature,
may avail themselves of the opportunity afforded
by their visit to this Diorama of the Peaceful Arts,
)
vi
PREFACE.
*
for taking a more correct view of the industry,
the science, the institutions, and the government of
this country. One object of these pages is, to sug-
gest to such inquirers the agency of those deeper-
seated and less obvious causes which can be detected
only by lengthened observation, and to supply them
with a key to explain many of the otherwise incom-
prehensible characteristics of England.
Who, for instance, could have conceived that
England, after making unexampled efforts for the
adoption of “ Free Trade,” should be the first
nation to prohibit * its very basis,“ competition,"
at the world's great bazaar?
This country is fortunate in having on the West-
ern Continent, a great nation derived from the same
common stock, speaking the same language, sharing
the same feelings, but fortunately not partaking
the same prejudices. Proud of the only ancestry
which is not contemptible, it glories in the genius
and the virtues of our common forefathers, and in
its young ambition now strives in science and in
literature, to prove itself their worthy descendants-
,
—
our own generous rivals.
2
* See Chapter on Prices.
PREFACE.
vii
Separated from us by an intervening ocean, the
judgment of America is not obscured by the repul-
sion or the fascination of personal manners,—by the
tales of jealous rivals or enthusiastic friends. It can
thus, as it were, anticipate for us the decision of
pos-
terity upon the reputation of those English writers
who have never visited her shores. Many foreigners
speaking other tongues, whose researches in indus-
trial, economical, and physical science, have con-
ferred honour on their own country, now visit
ours. These and their congenial spirits throughout
the world, sit in judgment on the prejudices of
England, and will, if I mistake not, find ample
reason to agree with the Danish statesman in the
opinion,--that great nations are often governed by
very small people.
England has invited the judgment of the world
upon its Arts and its Industry ;-science appeals
to the same tribunal against its ingratitude and its
injustice.
Several friends whose esteem I prize, have urged
me to avoid everything personal,—some even to
suppress this volume.
I value their friendship,
whilst I reject their counsel. In illustrating the
viii
PREFACE.
position of science in this country, it would have
been affectation not to have mentioned the Calcu-
lating Engines. Who else could have fully known,
- who else would have fully told their history?
It has been suggested to me that, to select
individual examples for illustration, is personality.
To have made general charges without them,
would have been termed vague, and would certainly
have been useless. It still however appears to me
that a single illustration in each case, would cause the
least pain, and might yet be sufficient for the purpose.
If it is thought otherwise the remedy is easy.
The facts stated in the following pages are not
drawn from any violation of the confidences of
private society : those whose names are mentioned,
are paid by the nation, and therefore responsible to
their employers. Against them I have no personal
feeling; their official acts are necessarily mentioned
as parts of the system to which they belong.
The remark most frequently made has been, “ that
the publication of this volume will do me injury.”
This opinion is indeed a severer censure on the
conduct of the government than any I have myself
pronounced. I do not agree in it, for I know of
PREFACE.
ix
no injury within the power of those who have never
given me a single occasion for gratitude.
Bad men always hate those they have injured ;-
Good or great men, when they have discovered that
they have been unjust, always more than repair
the injury they have committed.
Those who, from an acquaintance with the case,
can truly interpret this volume, will know that I
have abstained ; they will see that I possess the
power, though not the disposition, to avenge injury.
But the same spirit which has carried me through
difficulties few have encountered, at the expense of
sacrifices which I hope fewer may ever be called
upon to make, forbids me tamely to submit to
injustice.
The reader of these pages will observe that I
have exposed with an unsparing pen the dishonesty
of party. The modes employed by it to “ dis-
credit" and intimidate an honest man are various.
If he agree with them in a principle, but differ
in its application, he is called “crotchety." If he
cannot be induced by sophistry to vote with them
against his sense of right, he is called “imprac-
ticable.” If, when passed over in the appointment
> >
X
PREFACE.
to some office for which he is qualified by know-
ledge and entitled by position, he complain of the
neglect; notwithstanding he continues to vote with
his party, he is called a “ disappointed man.” If,
however, he has energy, and is backed by great
political or professional interest, he may
then secure
a present peerage for himself, his wife, or his
relative, with a promise of better treatment when
anything desirable becomes vacant.
At last, having discovered that his party are sin-
cere and united only in their desire to retain office;
if his arguments admit of no refutation,-if his
perception of right can be obscured by no sophistry,
-if he can himself be cajoled by no flattery,
seduced by no advantage, deterred by no intimi-
dation, from expressing his real opinion upon the
merits of his party : then, although he may sup-
port them whenever they are true to their prin-
ciples, yet he is pronounced a “ cantankerous
fellow.” Thus bad names are coined by worse*
men to destroy honest people; as the madness of
innocent dogs arises from the cry of insanity raised
by their villanous pursuers.
“ A bad old woman making a worse will."-BYRON.
*
PREFACE.
xi
>
The merit of the original conception of the
present Exposition is insignificant in comparison
with that of the efforts by which it was carried out,
and with the importance of its practical results.
To have seen from afar its effects on the improve-
ment, the wealth, and the happiness of the people—
to have seized the fit moment, when, by the right
use of the influence of an exalted station, it was
possible to overcome the deeply-rooted prejudices of
the upper classes—to remove the still more formid-
able, because latent, impediments of party-gene-
rously to have undertaken great responsibility, and
with indefatigable labour to have endeavoured to
make the best out of the only materials at hand,
these are endowments of no ordinary kind.
To move in any rank of society an exception to
its general rules, is a very difficult, and if accom-
panied by the consciousness of the situation, a very
painful position to a reflecting mind.
Whatever may be the cause, whether exalted
rank, unbounded wealth, surpassing beauty, or un-
rivalled wit,—the renown of daring deeds, the
magic of a world-wide fame; to all within those
narrow limits the dangers and the penalties are
xii
PREFACE.
great. Each exists an isolated spirit ; each, un-
consciously imprisoned within its crystal globe, per-
ceives the colours of all external objects modified
by those tints imparted to them by its own sur-
rounding sphere. No change of view can teach
it to rectify this partial judgment; throughout its
earthward course the same undying rainbow
attends to the last its parent drop.
Rarely indeed can some deep-searching mind,
after long comparison, perceive the real colours of
those translucent shells which encompass kindred
spirits; and thus at length enable him to achrom-
atise the medium which surrounds his own. To
one who has thus rectified the colour-blindness"
of his intellectual vision, how deep the sympathy he
feels for those still involved in that hopeless obscu-
rity from which he has himself escaped. None
can so justly appreciate that sense of loneliness,
that solitude of mind, which surrounds unquestioned
eminence on its lofty throne ;-none, therefore, can
make so large an allowance for its errors ;--none
so skilfully assist in guiding its hazardous career.
The triumph of the industrial arts will advance
the cause of civilization more rapidly than its
PREFACE.
xiii
warmest advocates could have hoped, and con-
tribute to the permanent prosperity and strength of
the country, far more than the most splendid vic-
tories of successful war. The influences thus
engendered, the arts thus developed, will long
continue to shed their beneficent effects over
countries more extensive than those which the
sceptre of England rules.
P.S.-The greater part of this Work was in
type some time previous to the opening of the
Exposition :-it would be of no interest to the
public to explain the cause of this delay.
NOTE ADDED TO THE SECOND EDITION.
It has been suggested to me that, without some
explanation, the Author of this Volume might
appear to have reserved his opinions on the subject
of the Exposition, until it was too late for the
Commission to make use of them. This was not
the case.
xiv
PREFACE.
1
Being fully aware of the importance of such
exhibitions, and having myself, many years before,
endeavoured to connect them with the British
Association, I hailed the announcement of the plan
as one calculated to produce the most extensive
good. At that period I was in Paris, and both
abroad and at home I have uniformly spoken of
the Exposition with the highest approbation.
On one or two points I differed entirely from
the opinion of those to whom its management was
confided. The questions of the site of the building,
and of affixing prices to articles exhibited, were the
most important of them. I took the earliest oppor-
tunity of expressing strongly my views on those
subjects to several personal friends who were
members of that Commission, nor did I ever fail to
communicate through the fittest channel any
circumstance I became acquainted with which might
advance its interests.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION
PAGE
1
CHAPTER II.
ERROR RESPECTING THE INTERCHANGE OF COMMODITIES
7
CHAPTER III.
OF SOCIETIES
12
CHAPTER IV.
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851 .
26
CHAPTER V.
OBJECT AND USE OF THE EXPOSITION
42
CHAPTER VI.
LIMITS
48
CHAPTER VII.
SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING
55
CHAPTER VIII.
PRICES
64
xvi
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IX.
PRIZES
PAGE
99
CHAPTER X.
JURIES, ETC.
. 112
CHAPTER XI.
ULTERIOR OBJECTS
. 125
CHAPTER XII.
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE
149
CHAPTER XIII.
CALCULATING ENGINES
173
CHAPTER XIV.
PositioN OF SCIENCE
· 189
.
.
CHAPTER XV.
THE PRESS
202
.
CHAPTER XVI.
PARTY
209
CHAPTER XVII.
REWARDS OF MERIT
220
APPENDIX.
THE ELEVENTH CHAPTER OF MR. WELD'S HISTORY OF THE
Royal SOCIETY
251
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
ONE of the most frequent sources of mistaken
views in economical science, arises from confound-
ing the nature of universal with that of general
principles.
§ Universal principles, such as the fact that
every number ending with the figure five is itself
divisible by five, rarely occur except in the exact
sciences. Universal principles are those which do
not admit of a single exception.
General principles are those which are much
more frequently obeyed than violated. Thus it is
generally true that men will be governed by what
they believe to be their interest. Yet it is certainly
true that many individuals will at times be governed
by their passions, others by their caprice, others by
entirely benevolent motives : but all these classes
together, form so small a portion of mankind, that
it would be unsafe in any inquiry to neglect the
B
2
INTRODUCTION.
great principle of self-interest. Notwithstanding,
however, all the exceptions we may meet with, it
is impossible to take any just views of society
without the admission of general principles, and on
such grounds they will be used in these pages.
Self-interest, combined in various degrees with
knowledge, assumes the most diversified forms. It
excites our contempt or raises our admiration,
according to the littleness or the greatness of the
object it pursues—according to the temporary or the
more distant advantages it seeks. On the one hand,
it governs the minister of a party on his doubtful
eminence, whilst on the other it guides the enlight-
ened statesman to the object of his distant ambition.
Again, it is admitted as a general principle that
each man is the best judge of his own wants and of
his own interest. Now although many individuals, ,
and even whole classes of society, have at times
been thought by more enlightened men to have
formed erroneous opinions as to their true interest,
yet, when it is remembered, that every man must
see many views of his own case, and must know
many facts connected with it, which he has not
communicated even to his most confidential adviser,
those who have had most experience are most in-
clined to believe that the exceptions are much less
frequent than at first sight would appear.
Another source of erroneous opinions arises from
neglecting causes apparently insignificant.
INTRODUCTION.
3
In taking a comprehensive view of any subject,
it is very desirable to throw into the shade all its
minor points; but in estimating the consequences
of
any set of facts, there is another condition which
must be fulfilled, before we can arrive at accurate
conclusions. If we are about to neglect a cause
on account of its apparent insignificance, it is essen-
tial that it should not be one of frequent recur-
rence. Thus, if a labourer inconsiderately lift his
shovel but an inch or two more than is necessary
to throw its load into his barrow, although the
exertion of force is trivial in each instance, its
repeated occurrence during the whole day, will
produce at its conclusion a very sensible difference
either in fatigue or in the amount of the work
done. Napoleon is said to have remarked of La-
place, when he was Minister of the Interior, that
he was too much occupied with considering les
infiniment petites. To dwell upon small affairs
which are isolated, is not the province of a states-
man ;
but to integrate the effect of their constant
recurrence is worthy of the greatest.
One of the most important processes in all in-
quiry, is to divide the subject to be considered
into as many different questions as it will admit
of, and then to examine each separately, or in other
words to suppose that each single cause successively
varies whilst all the others remain constant.
But this most obvious doctrine of common sense
B 2
2
INTRODUCTION.
great principle of self-interest. Notwithstanding,
however, all the exceptions we may meet with, it
is impossible to take any just views of society
without the admission of general principles, and on
such grounds they will be used in these pages.
Self-interest, combined in various degrees with
knowledge, assumes the most diversified forms. It
excites our contempt or raises our admiration,
according to the littleness or the greatness of the
object it pursues—according to the temporary or the
more distant advantages it seeks. On the one hand,
it governs the minister of a party on his doubtful
eminence, whilst on the other it guides the enlight-
ened statesman to the object of his distant ambition.
Again, it is admitted as a general principle that
each man is the best judge of his own wants and of
his own interest. Now although many individuals,
and even whole classes of society, have at times
been thought by more enlightened men to have
formed erroneous opinions as to their true interest,
yet, when it is remembered, that every man must
see many views of his own case, and must know
many facts connected with it, which he has not
communicated even to his most confidential adviser,
those who have had most experience are most in-
clined to believe that the exceptions are much
frequent than at first sight would appear
Another source of erroneous opis
neglecting causes apparently in

INTRODUCTION.
8
In taking a comprehensive view of any subject,
it is very desirable to throw into the shade all its
minor points ; but in estimating the consequences
of any set of facts, there is another condition which
must be fulfilled, before we can arrive at accurate
conclusions. If we are about to neglect a cause
on account of its apparent insignificance, it is essen-
tial that it should not be one of frequent recur-
rence. Thus, if a labourer inconsiderately lift his
shovel but an inch or two more than is necessary
to throw its load into his barrow, although the
exertion of force is trivial in each instance, its
repeated occurrence during the whole day, will
produce at its conclusion a very sensible difference
either in fatigue or in the amount of the work
done. Napoleon is said to have remarked of La-
place, when he was Minister of the Interior, that
he was too much occupied with considering les
infiniment petites. To dwell upon small affairs
which are isolated, is not the province of a states-
'o integrate the effect of their constant
worth of the greatest.
portant processes in all in-
subject to be considered
ť questions as it will admit
rately, or in other
use successively
onstant.
of common sense
man
rec
the r
4
INTRODUCTION.
>
has frequently been contested in questions of
economical science, and has been often character-
ized as theoretical, and as entirely inapplicable to the
affairs of life. It is certain that
very
little
pro-
gress can be made in any subject without this aid,
and it is hopeless for those whose minds are
incapable of mastering the simpler questions, ever
to institute successfully an investigation into their
united action.
A familiar illustration will explain this better.
Two men are making an excavation, removing the
earth in the usual way with spades and wheelbarrows.
One of these men, Q., does more work than his
companion P., and if an inquiry is made, Why is
this so ? the usual reply would be that Q. is either
stronger, more active, or more skilful than P.
Now it is the third of these qualifications which
is the most important, because if Q. were inferior
even both in strength and in activity, he might yet
by means of his skill perform a greater quantity
of work without fatigue.
He might have ascertained that a given weight of
earth raised at each shovelfull, together with a
certain number of shovelfulls per hour, would be
more advantageous for his strength than any other
such combination.
That a shovel of a certain weight, size, and form
would fatigue him less than those of a different
construction,
INTRODUCTION.
5
That if its handle were two or three inches longer
than he required, its additional weight would at the
end of the day have been uselessly lifted many hun-
dred times.
That if each spadefull of earth were lifted but an
inch or two above the barrow beyond what was
necessary, a still greater waste of force would arise.
That if the barrow itself had its wheel at a dis-
tance beyond the centre of its load, it would be
more fatiguing to draw.
That if the barrow had upright sides, it would
require more exertion to turn out its load than if
its sides were much inclined.
Thus although Q. might have less strength and
less activity than P., he might yet by skill and
practice, have arrived at some combination of these
tools which should enable him with less fatigue
to do more daily work than P.
But in order to have arrived at this degree of
skill, Q. must when a boy have been taught to
examine separately the consequences of any defect
or inconvenience in the parts of the tools he was
to use in after life, or in the modes of using them.
If not so taught, he must have arrived at the
same knowledge by the slower and more painful
effort of his own reflections.
In either case he would be able to communicate
his knowledge to his friends or his children ; and if
circumstances induced or obliged him to enter upon
7
6
INTRODUCTION.
a new trade, he would naturally apply those prin-
ciples to his new tools. Indeed, whatever subject
might be presented to a mind thus trained, such
habits of inquiry would most probably be applied
to its examination. Thus, by the early education of
his reasoning faculties on the trade by which he is
to subsist, he would not only render his own labour
more productive, but would have his mind better
prepared for the reception of other truths.
CHAPTER II.
ERROR RESPECTING THE INTERCHANGE OF
COMMODITIES.
THERE exists in society a widely-spread error
relating to the very principle of that interchange
of property between individuals which is usually
called a bargain. It is almost always supposed
that one party is a gainer whilst the other is a loser.
Indeed, by those whose reasoning on the subject
has been limited to this single view of the question,
it is with some plausibility maintained, that since
the quantity of the commodities interchanged is in
no case augmented by the bargain, the gain of one
party can be accomplished only by an equal loss on
the part of the other.
The insufficiency of this reasoning depends upon
the truth of the principle that each party, being the
best judge of the pleasure or advantage he can derive
from the possession of a thing, himself decides that
in his own case it will be increased by the exchange.
It may, however, be asked, How does it happen
8
ERROR RESPECTING THE
that the sum of two commodities so exchanged has
a greater value after the exchange than before ? or
in other words, Whence has the profit arisen ?-is
there any third party at whose expense it has been
acquired ? The answer is—that there is another
source which almost always either directly or in-
directly contributes towards this profit. The advan-
tage is most frequently won by industry and
knowledge from nature herself.
$ The following illustration, which happens also
to be a tolerable approach to truth, will explain
this principle more clearly :-
It is found by experience that the upper-leather
of Boots made in France, is better and more
durable than the upper-leather manufactured in
England. On the other hand, it is found that the
leather prepared in England for the soles of boots
is less permeable by water, and more durable than
that made in France.
Let us suppose that in each country a pair of
boots will endure twelve months' continual wear ;
after which time they are thrown aside.
In England the destruction of the boots will
arise from that of the upper-leather, whilst in France
it will be caused by that of the sole. Let us also
suppose that the upper-leather of France will wear
three months longer than the French soles, and
reciprocally that the soles of England will wear three
months longer than the English upper-leather.
INTERCHANGE OF COMMODITIES.
9
Under these circumstances, it is clear that if the
inhabitants of each country insist on making their
boots entirely with the produce of their own tan-
neries, the average duration of a pair of boots both
in France and in England will be twelve months.
Let us assume, for the sake of simplicity, that in
each country the upper-leather and the soles have
the same value. Then it is equally clear, if England
were to give to France a million pair of soles in
exchange for a million pair of French upper-leathers,
that one million of the inhabitants of each nation
would find their boots last during fifteen instead
of twelve months.
This prolonged duration of their boots would
not have been acquired by any sacrifice on either
side : the exchange is here for the common and
great advantage of both.
This probably arises from the joint action of many
causes. The animals which in each country supply
the hides, may either from breed, from food, or
from climate be best adapted to produce that kind
of leather in which each country excels. The
water, the bark, or the climate peculiar to each
country, may then contribute its share to the same
effect. Again, the industry, the skill, and the
knowledge of the people employed, as well as the
character of the population and the distribution of
its capital, may also have its influence on these
results,
If we pursue this illustration one stage further,
10
ERROR RESPECTING THE
it will appear that it is our interest not only that
we should make these exchanges with France, but
that she should also make exchanges with other
countries than our own.
Let us suppose that France, having a larger
population than England, required for its annual
consumption two million pair of boots, and also
that she possessed no other commodities which we
required. Under these circumstances there could
be no further direct interchange of leather, and
France would possess a million pair of upper-leathers
beyond our demand. But it is clear that if France
could exchange these upper-leathers for the wools
or any other produce of Germany which we might
require, she would not only gain the additional
duration of three months for her own extra million
pair of boots, but would also enrich us by the
advantage which we should derive from the exchange
of the strong hides of England for the produce trans-
mitted to us from Germany.
The general result of all those inquiries of which
only the slightest sketch has now been attempted, is
that—the free and unlimited exchange of commodi-
ties between nations, contributes to the advantage
and the wealth of all ;—that this benefit arises from
no sacrifice on the part of one nation for the
profit of another ; but that the sum of the produc-
tive powers of man is by these means, without any
,
increased labour, largely augmented throughout the
world ;-that this increment is won partly by
.
INTERCHANGE OF COMMODITIES.
11
the suppression of ignorance and fraud, and partly
by the united effects of industry, of skill, and of
science, in compelling nature to minister to the
wants of man.
All who admit the truth of these principles, must
feel an earnest desire to support every effort which
may assist in their dissemination amongst the
masses of mankind. Education is the earliest, and
the most effective aid ; but it must be secular educa-
tion. It must be the education of the faculties of
each child, with reference to the wants of his future
course of life. The religion of the uneducated and
unenlightened man, even when true, partakes of the
nature of superstition, and instruction in religious
truth alone will not be enough: his mind must be
opened and informed on other subjects also. He
who by observation and inquiry has arrived at the
conviction that any line of conduct which is dis-
honest towards his neighbour, will most probably
prove unprofitable to himself in this world, will
surely have a strong additional motive to guard
him in the hour of temptation from those courses
which his religion teaches him will incur punish-
ment in a future state.
:
CHAPTER III.
OF SOCIETIES,
Associations for occasional discussion, of men
pursuing the same or similar studies, have long
been found advantageous for the inter-commu-
nication of the difficulties, the doubts, and the
discoveries of students. In more recent times,
when each art has gradually connected itself with
the sciences on which its success depends, the
importance of these meetings has become obvious
to the manufacturer, although in this country it
may not yet have become apparent to the states-
man.
The Academia del Cimento, the Royal Society of
London and the Academy of Sciences at Paris, have
had a long series of imitators in the principal cities
of the civilized world. The increasing extension of
science and the wants of its cultivators, have led
them to subdivide their pursuits and to form
Societies specially devoted to each separate subject.
$ These learned bodies, however, are of a sta-
tionary character, located for convenience in some
OF SOCIETIES.
13
capital or large city. With the advance of civili-
zation new wants arose, and Professor Oken of
Munich, feeling the great advantage of periodical
meetings of the cultivators of the natural sciences,
organized an annual assemblage of German natural-
ists to be held successively in each of the great
cities of Germany, thus rendering the field of
friendly intercourse and of scientific observation
much more easily accessible to all who felt an in-
terest in their common object.
Although the earliest meetings were small,*
their value was soon perceived, and the cultivators
of other sciences more or less connected with
natural history, were gradually admitted, to the
manifest advantage of all parties, until at the great
meeting in 1828 at Berlin, the physical sciences
themselves possessed their fair share of eminent
representatives. But another important improve-
ment had already commenced : foreigners were
admitted to this German union, and amongst
upwards of four hundred members, although nearly
thirty were aliens in language and in country, they
were welcomed with the warmest kindness by their
enlightened friends.
Baron Alexander Humboldt, the President of
the Association, in his inaugural address proclaimed
its principle in the following words ::
May those excellent persons, who, deterred
* The first was held at Leipsic in 1822.
60
14
OF SOCIETIES.
66
<6
“ neither by the perils of the sea nor of the land,
“ have hastened to our meeting from Sweden,
from Norway, from Denmark, from Holland, from
England, and from Poland, point out the way
“ to other strangers in succeeding years, so that
by turns every part of Germany may enjoy the
“ effects of scientific communication with the differ-
“ent nations of Europe.”
At that meeting a map of Europe was published
on which were conspicuously indicated those towns
and countries only, which had sent representatives
to this congress of intellect. On that map Austria
figured an intellectual desert, not because her philo-
sophers were less industrious in the researches of
science, less acute in combining into laws the facts
they had ascertained, nor in any way unworthy of
sitting amongst the congregated talent of their own
or of other races : but because the government of
the country, more ignorant of its interest than the
philosophers were of theirs, refused them passports.
§ A few years afterwards, the light of truth
having penetrated official heads, the learned of
Europe, to the credit of the Austrian government,
were invited and hospitably entertained at Vienna.
The stability of the great empire which welcomed
them, was not shaken by their patient and acute
discussions : and it was at last perceived that unless
when depressed by neglect or persecution, philo-
sophers possess in their own departments subjects
OF SOCIETIES.
15
of far more animating and delightful interest than
the unstable and inconclusive discussions of politics.
Sweden sent thirteen representatives to the meet-
ing at Berlin in 1828, Denmark seven, Poland
three, Holland two. Russia, France, England and
Naples each sent one.
Ø An account of this scientific congress at Berlin
was published in 1829 in the Edinburgh Journal of
Science. It was communicated by the author of
these pages to Sir David Brewster. In the number
of the same Journal for April, 1831, is an account
by J. F. W. Johnstone, Esq., of the meeting of
this scientific Congress, at. Hamburgh, in Septem-
ber, 1830. Sir David Brewster, in conjunction
with the late secretary of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, Sir J. Robison, and the Rev. William
Vernon Harcourt, and several other cultivators of
science, resolved on attempting to organize a similar
institution in Great Britain. The difficulties as
well as the advantages of this undertaking were
then discussed. In Prussia the social position of
men of science is quite different from that which
they occupy in England. In Prussia the sovereign
was aware of the value of science to his country,
and was therefore induced to support it by an
enlightened patriotism as well as by a generous
ambition. In England science is pursued by no
powerful profession which can aid or thwart
the measures of the minister of the day. He is,
2
16
OF SOCIETIES.
therefore, indifferent to its progress, and is usually
incapable of distinguishing the charlatan from the
philosopher.
Ø In 1831 the first meeting of the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science was held at
York. It was proposed by those who undertook its
management, that each succeeding meeting should
be held in some large city or town at a considerable
distance from that which received it in the previous
year, and that after its objects had become well
understood by the public, it should complete its
cycle by holding a meeting in the metropolis. But
it was soon felt that in order to influence public
opinion, it was necessary that it should combine
larger interests than were yet enlisted in its cause.
Such at that time was the state of education
in England, that amongst the influential classes,
country gentlemen, lawyers, members of parlia-
ment, peers, &c., few were found qualified for, or
even capable of taking any interest in the then
existing Sections of the British Association.
Accident fortunately supplied an occasion for
remedying, at least partially, this defect. The
opportunity occurred at the meeting at Cambridge
in 1833, and was instantly seized upon, although
in a somewhat irregular manner. Professor Quetelet
had been deputed by the Belgian government to
attend the third meeting of the British Association.
The varied knowledge and enthusiastic love of
a
OF SOCIETIES.
17
L
science possessed by M. Quetelet, might have quali-
fied him to take part in any of its sections, but it
so happened that he had brought over with him
some highly interesting statistical documents which
unfortunately could find a reception in none.
Under these circumstances, a gentleman * who fully
understood their value invited a few of his private
friends most interested in that subject to meet
M. Quetelet in his own rooms in college, for the
purpose of talking over this valuable budget. The
author of these pages was one of those thus
honoured. He perceived the advantage that might
be taken of the accident, and immediately suggested
to his friend that the invitation should be extended
to all those known to be interested in statistical
inquiries, and that those present should at once
form themselves into a Statistical Section, and then
apply to the council for a bill of indemnity for the
irregularity. The plan being unanimously approved
of, it was immediately acted upon, and before the
termination of the meeting a Statistical Section was
not only recognised by the Association, but was
as fully attended as even the most popular of the
other sections.
At the concluding meeting of the Statistical
Section at Cambridge it was resolved, that a more
permanent body was necessary to carry out the
* The Rev. Richard Jones, Professor of Political Economy
at Hailey bury.
с
18
OF SOCIETIES.
views and wishes of the section, and it was agreed
to establish a Statistical Society in London.
The author of these pages was deputed to carry
out those arrangements which terminated in its
establishment.
The more pressing difficulty being thus removed,
the principle of extending the basis of the Asso-
ciation so as to unite the interests of various classes,
was steadily and unremittingly pursued. The
Physical and Mathematical Section was divided,
and a new section, that of the practical application
of mechanical science, or Civil Engineering, was
formed. The next step was very important, but
more difficult to accomplish. It was proposed by
an exhibition of the raw produce, the processes,
,
and the instruments for the production of manu-
factured goods, to unite in the same common
interest, not only all the consumers, but all those
who contributed to the production, or even to the
distribution of wealth.
The numerous foreigners who flocked to these
annual meetings of the British Association, might,
it was naturally thought, be induced to bring over
with them new instruments of science, or objects of
art and industry, the produce of their respective
countries. Whilst thus giving, and receiving in
return new ideas and valuable information, the
commercial interchanges between different nations
would necessarily be augmented by the steadily
OF SOCIETIES.
19
L
increasing knowledge of the wants of each, and
by the peaceful rivalry of all.
The first exhibition of this kind took place at
Newcastle in 1938. The number of exhibitors
was not large, but it was hoped that with time and
encouragement this commencement might lead to
much more extensive expositions of more general
utility. It was followed by another on an enlarged
scale, held at Birmingham in the succeeding year,
after which it was discontinued.
The following extracts from a letter addressed
by the Author to the Members of the British Asso-
ciation, were printed in 1839 :-
My reasons for not resigning the trusteeship
“ of the British Association at Newcastle were, that
by retaining it until the following meeting, I
“ should give the Society more time to select my
successor; and that by remaining on the council
until the meeting at Birmingham, I might be
“ enabled to assist more effectually in the arrange-
“ment of the collections relating to the mechanical
arts, which it was anticipated would be amongst
“ the largest yet called forth by the British
“ Association."
“ The real merits of the British Association
“ have been misunderstood by the superficial; but
;
it possesses in its bearings upon the pecuniary
“ interests of large masses of the community a
power and an influence which nothing but great
>
c 2
20
OF SOCIETIES.
"misconduct can destroy. Look at the manu-
“ facturers of produce and of machinery, flocking
“ to our annual meeting to interchange their ideas,
enlightening their practical experience by the
reasonings of science, and returning laden with
“ the seeds of permanent ameliorations in their
“ establishments. Look at the exhibitions of the
productions of our factories, and say whether the
" humblest shopkeeper has not an interest in the
“ existence of that body which gives publicity to
" the objects in which he deals, and which spreads
them so largely before the eyes of those who can
appreciate their merit, as well as of those who
“ are likely to become consumers.”
“ These are material interests permanently en-
gaged in our cause by the strongest ties--those
“ of mutual advantage, ceniented by reciprocity of
kindly feelings.”
This is not the place to discuss the causes
which have led to the present state of things. It
is sufficient here to observe, that if the views of
those who originally organized the British Asso-
ciation, had been supported both from within and
from without, in the manner which so important a
project in the history of science deserved, the
Exhibition of 1851 would have found itself led
by the science of the country, prepared by long
experience on a smaller scale, yet under very various
circumstances, to guide with some reasonable pro-
66
>
OF SOCIETIES.
21
2
spect of success that gigantic undertaking, and to
elicit from it the many invaluable services it might
be expected to render to civilization.
Its legislative department would not have been
committed to the guidance of a body of men, all
of them respectable, and some, indeed, eminent in
their several lines, but entirely inexperienced in the
conduct and arrangement of any such undertaking
-persons, all of them amiable and excellent in
their private capacity, yet who have exhibited in
their corporate union an entire ignorance of the
great principle on which alone such expositions
rest,—and who, contrary to the advice and the
remonstrance of the best informed, have forbidden
the most important quality by which men judge
of commodities, their Price, from being attached to
the objects on which their judgment is to be
pronounced.
Ý Long, however, before the origin of these
itinerant societies, the voice of the statesmen of
other countries, and the popular voice in England,
had called into existence societies for the promotion
of the arts connected with commerce and manufac-
tures. In France, the “ Conservatoire des Arts et
Metiers” was established. In England the Society
of Arts has endured above a century. Its novelty
and utility caused it to flourish for a time: its
seat in the metropolis of a people whose wealth
and power arise entirely from the unbending energy
L
а
22
OF SOCIETIES.
with which they apply themselves to advance the
arts and to extend commerce, added to its powers. .
Yet, even with these advantages, that Society has
never risen to the position it deserved, and has
for years been languishing in premature decay.
Lately, indeed, a powerful impulse has been com-
municated to its proceedings, but even the pre-
sidency of the Prince-Consort has not yet raised it
to its due position in the public opinion.
The causes of this state of things are not remote.
The position of the Royal and of other societies
is equally influenced by them. Although inti-
mately connected with the greatest interests of the
country, they can offer to those who give their time
or intellect to advance such objects, neither wealth
nor rank-neither place nor patronage. They con-
stitute no distinct combination of men into a power-
ful class, like the Bar, the Navy, or the Army: they
are of no party, and finally, they are not fashionable.
It is true that the discoveries which such societies
profess to reward, are in many
instances the source
of wealth to the few who, fortunately for themselves,
possess those other qualities necessary for its acqui-
sition, but which are so rarely united with genius.
It is also true that wealth once acquired, will, if dis-
creetly employed, certainly lead its possessor to all
those other things, equally coveted as the great prizes
in the lottery of life by the Bar, the Military, and
even by the Church. Nor is this to be regretted,
OF SOCIETIES.
23
seeing that the aristocracy of this country thus
fortunately receives fresh blood and renewed in-
tellect by adopting into its class the sagacious
merchant, or the skilful fabricator of a princely
fortune: the time, may thus be postponed when
the accident of birth will no longer be admitted
as a fit qualification for a legislator. But even
here it is the wealth of the aspirant that wins the
position, not the integrity and sagacity of the man.
In France the government itself took the lead in
directing an institution for the advancement of the
arts. In 1795 it established the Conservatoire des
Arts et Metiers, in which are deposited an extensive
collection of drawings, models, and machines em-
ployed in the various manufactures of the nation.
Subsequently, ten professors were attached to
this institution, to lecture gratuitously on those
sciences more immediately connected with arts and
manufactures. One of these devotes himself ex-
clusively to the explanation of machinery in actual
employment. There are also lectures on descriptive
geometry, and on mechanical drawing. The ex-
pense of this establishment is about 6,0001. a-year.
The government of France perceived at a still
earlier period the advantages which would result
from the juxtaposition, at proper intervals of time,
in one large building, of selected specimens of all
the produce of the national industry, and in 1798
the first of these periodic meetings was held at the
1
a
24
OF SOCIETIES.
expense of the government. During upwards of
half a century, at intervals of about five years,
France, uninterrupted by the many changes in the
form of its government, has continued to main-
tain these valuable expositions with increasing
success and advantage. Prussia and Belgium also
have adopted the plan of holding these meetings.
But if the principles on which they rest are well
founded, it is clear that they are applicable to a
still wider field : and that as in the Associations of
science, cultivators from all nations are invited
to be present, so in the Exhibition of the produc-
tions of industry the general advantage of mankind
is most advanced by the joint contributions of the
whole industrial world.
♡ These views have long been felt and expressed,
not merely by men of speculation, but by those
who take a practical part in the affairs of life.
Enlightened French statesmen had long been
aware of the advantage of this species of com-
petition, and only abstained from proposing it until
the conviction of the nation justified the foresight
of its chiefs.
At length it was thought that the time had
arrived for ascertaining more correctly the general
opinion. Previously, therefore, to making the
necessary arrangements for the Exposition at Paris
in 1849, the Minister of Commerce sent circulars
to the several Chambers of Commerce throughout
OF SOCIETIES.
25
France, in order to ascertain whether it was the
general opinion that foreign productions should be
admitted to the competition.
The opinion of the public was not, however,
sufficiently advanced to justify the undertaking ;
and considering the political situation of the country,
the government wisely abstained from a measure
which was not yet entirely in unison with the
feelings of the people.
Thus it has happened that it was reserved for
Great Britain, the country most interested in the
cause, though the latest to adopt it, unprepared
by any previous experience at once to attempt this
vast enterprise.
CHAPTER IV.
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
♡ It is not now necessary to inquire minutely
into the origin of the present Exposition. It is
sufficient to state that it appears to have been pro-
posed by some members of the Society of Arts, who
urged it on the attention of Prince Albert.
The magnitude of the undertaking, and the great
principles on which it rested, seem not to have
been fully understood, and the public were very
imperfectly prepared either to appreciate its ad-
vantages or to contribute to its support. A capi-
talist was therefore sought, and found willing to
undertake the risk of the speculation, and terms
were agreed upon, by which £20,000 was advanced
for distribution in prizes, one of which was to
amount to £5,000. This contract contained some
singular stipulations, and formed the basis of the
proceedings for several months. It contained also
a clause by which, on certain conditions, it might
be cancelled within a limited time.
In order to carry out this undertaking, it was
a
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
27
proposed that a Royal Commission should be issued,
over which, of course, Prince Albert should preside.
As soon as these views became publicly known,
they excited great discussion, and were the subject
of much criticism.
The Ministers could not of course commit them-
selves by publicly avowing their disapprobation of an
undertaking commenced under such high auspices.
It might, however, readily have been foreseen that
they would be averse to such a scheme, because
whilst it was sure to give them a great deal of
trouble, it would afford them no compensation in
the shape of patronage.
Those, however, who usually reflect and retail
the opinions of the Government, were by no means
silent; at first it was said to be Utopian, then ridi-
culous, then, in the slang of official life, it was
pooh-poohed ;” at a later period, when great pub-
lic meetings had been held, and when public
dinners began to give it an English character, the
best speech which has yet been made on the subject,
containing the far-sighted views of a statesman,
was ridiculed as full of German notions, by cox-
combs whose intellect was as defective as their fore-
sight, and whose selfishness was more remarkable
than either.
Another class of persons, the Belgravians, though
actuated by the same motives, were induced to join
in the outcry for other reasons. As soon as it be-
>
28
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
came known that the locality of the building would
be the southern side of Hyde Park, they represented
that the park would be destroyed, and become
utterly useless. As if a building covering twenty
acres out of above three hundred and twenty, could
prevent the people from enjoying air and exercise
on the remaining three hundred.
Again, it was asserted that by cutting down a
few trees within the limits assigned to the building,
the park would be desolated; the shady walks de-
stroyed; whilst all the while there was a goodly
stock of timber, old and young, abounding in the
other three hundred acres. Before this absurd
delusion could be removed from the public mind,
all the plans were made specially to conform then-
selves to the enclosure of these miserable trees. It
was not discovered until after the Crystal Palace
was completed, that several of them were on
the verge of extinction, and that all would
probably perish by exposure under such unusual
conditions. Some of the most decrepit and most
inconveniently situated trees have now been cut
down.
♡ The Belgravians found out other causes of
complaint. They could not tolerate the mass of
plebeians of all nations who would traverse their
sacred square, and they threatened to spoil the
London season by going out of town. When it was
suggested to them, that in these days of agricultural
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
29
distress, if they left town they might console them-
selves by letting their houses at a high price, they
refused to be consoled.
The Belgravians next consulted their “medicine-
men,” who, seeing that they wanted to be frightened,
suggested to them that some foreigners were dirty,
-that dirt in some cases causes disease. The Bel-
gravian mind immediately made the inference that
the foreigners would bring with them the plague;
then they dwelt on sanitary measures, and on the
danger to the public, until they themselves became
nearly insane.
It was then suggested that the foreigners might
become assassins by night,-or take military pos-
session of London by day. Their tradesmen too,
who hated the scheme, and knew the humour of
their customers, assured them that trade would be
entirely ruined; whilst at the same time, it was
whispered that many of them had sent large orders
to France for goods to be exhibited at the Crystal
Palace, and afterwards to be sold to their capricious
customers, either as French, or as English surpassing
French, just as the whim of the moment might
cause a demand for the one or the other.
This opposition of the inhabitants of Belgravia
increased as the preparations for the opening of the
Exposition advanced. The working classes had
been favourable to the scheme from the commence-
ment, and a knowledge of its advantages seems
30
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
I
to have advanced slowly in society from below
upwards.
That the inhabitants of this fashionable quarter
were necessarily exposed to some inconveniences
cannot be denied. Their much-frequented riding
ground was for a time interfered with, but they
should have remembered that although the public
at large paid for the maintenance of the park, the
greatest portion of its advantages were enjoyed by
those residing nearest to it.
Under these circumstances they ought to have
been well content to forego for a time these trifling
advantages, and to suffer with a good grace the
little temporary inconveniences resulting from a
plan which was unrivalled for the advancement
of the arts of peace, and calculated not only to
benefit our own country, but to contribute to the
civilization of the world.
Notwithstanding much opposition and many
prophecies of failure, a Royal Commission was at
last appointed. It consisted almost exclusively of
members of parliament, and of persons holding
official situations. It was stated that not more
than two of its members had ever seen a foreign
exposition, and although it included many men
distinguished in other departments of knowledge,
there was scarcely one whose name was known to
the nations we invited as at all eminent in that
over which the Commission presided.
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
31
In England, a commissioner, however small his
acquaintance with the subject, is always deemed
fully competent in virtue of his appointment. The
light in which this places us in the opinion of other
nations is by no means flattering to our national
vanity. It has been admirably described by an
accomplished Italian resident amongst us in lan-
guage which an Englishman might be proud to
own, and with a degree of moral courage which
few Englishmen would dare to exert on such a
subject. *
It was easy to perceive that when so great a
mass of people in distant quarters of the world
was set in motion for such an object, it would be
impossible to draw back, and that its own momen-
tum would carry on the scheme.
Ś That the Prince who took so strong an interest
in it, and who saw so clearly and so far beyond the
horizon which limited the view of those by whom
he was surrounded, should become its chief, was
quite natural. There are, however, circumstances
in the state of society in this country, and in the
constitution of human nature itself, which render it
almost impossible to have unfettered discussion
when a person of that exalted rank takes the chair
at the meetings of a Committee.
* “What shall we do with the Glass Palace ? By Spiridione
Gambardella.” London : Aylott & Jones, Paternoster-row.
The speech of the rash “commander of the Channel fleet”
(page 9) is worthy of the pen of the celebrated wit who
bestowed that appointment.
a
:
32
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
These objections are entirely unconnected with
the individual person, and if any amount of good
feeling and skill in such a Chairman could remove
the difficulty, we have fortunately had amongst us
several Princes who might easily have accomplished
it. But the forms of society forbid in the presence
of princes that full and free discussion by which
alone the united knowledge of a Committee can
be brought into play. Debates must take place
and divisions occur : otherwise some individual
may take upon himself to assume what either is,
or appears to him to be, the sense of the meeting :
this is much more frequently simply the expression
of his own views. Thus, perhaps, he prevents the
statement of his opinion by some timid man, which
is possibly worth more than that of all the rest of
the Committee.
Again : in Committees presided over by persons
of this elevated rank, it is not an uncommon occur-
rence for some member, anxious for the success of
his own views, privately to hint in conversation with
other members, that these are the wishes of their
President.
To these objections, which are generally true,
there is, however, one exception. When the Chair-
man is eminently conversant with the subject, while
at the same time the minds of the Committee are
like a sheet of blank paper,—the best course that
can then be pursued is to allow the Chairman to
interpret the sense of the Committee.
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
33
The first act of the Commission was most judi-
cious. It was to annul the contract with the
capitalist who had undertaken the building and the
commercial management of the Exhibition. It is
to be regretted, however, that the actual amount of
compensation which he was to receive, was not
finally settled at the time. The subsequent extent
of the undertaking having exceeded that which
was originally contemplated, may render this a
question of some difficulty.
The next step was to appeal to the public for
subscriptions to carry on the plan. For this object
delegates were sent to many of the large towns,
some of whom, not possessing more knowledge of
the subject than the Commissioners themselves, and
having none of their tact, nearly caused the failure
of the whole scheme.
The knowledge and good sense, however, of the
working and manufacturing classes, supplied the
deficiencies of these missionaries, and the subject
became popular amongst them.
indeed, many exceptions even amongst these
classes. Those whose business had been long
established, and who were manufacturing as largely
as their capital would admit, had no reason to seek
additional publicity for the sale of their produce.
Upon them the Exposition would impose only
trouble and expense, without any corresponding
advantage.
There were,
D
34
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
Others who possessed machinery of peculiar
powers of production, or for the fabrication of
curious products, were unwilling to expose these
singular and costly machines to the eyes of their
rivals from all countries. The produce of such ma-
chines being generally novelties, they found a ready
sale for it, and therefore had no reason to seek the
Exhibition as the means of publicity.
The extent of the demand for space at the Exhi-
bition, has been as was naturally to be expected, so
great, that it was quite unnecessary to press any
person to exhibit who was not fully aware that it
was for his own interest to do so.
With respect to the subscriptions, there are some
observations which it may be useful to make for the
sake of all subscribers to future schemes. It is said
that the total amount subscribed is nearly 90,0001.
of which only about 60,0001. have been paid.
No subscription ought ever to be advertised
until it has been actually paid. It is quite unjusti-
fiable to employ the money of bona fide subscribers
in paying for advertisements to gratify the vanity
of those, who are ambitious of appearing large
donors, and who are yet so mean as to decline
fulfilling their pledges.
This practice has, unfortunately, of late years
been too prevalent. Persons of rank and position
in the country have condescended to allow their
names to appear in lists, for subscriptions which
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
35
they never intended to pay, the effect of which has
been to decoy others who trusted to their respect-
ability and truth. The public in future will do
well to abstain from subscribing to any list, how-
ever respectable the names may apparently be, unless
it is distinctly stated that the subscriptions adver-
tised have really been paid.
In the present case it would be a further waste
of money to advertise the defaulters: but the Com-
mission have a remedy, and they owe it to the
genuine subscribers. Let a circular be sent to
each defaulter, announcing that unless his sub-
scription is paid by a certain day, his name will be
returned to the clerk of the Black list, who has
directions to make an alphabetical index of defaulters,
several copies of which will be exposed to the public
in various parts of the Crystal Palace during the
whole time of the exhibition.
If public opinion were fully ripe for such a vast
industrial undertaking, it ought to be entirely self-
supporting. This seems to have been the opinion
of the Commission, and with every wish to assist
that object, and every desire to make allowances
for the want of all past experience on the subject,
a few remarks may be made which may promote
the interests of some future Exposition, even though
unavailing for the present.
The first question is necessarily the position of
the building, and the facilities for access and egress.
D 2
36
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851..
As this question is discussed in Chapter VII.,
it is sufficient here to state, that the amount
received from the admission of the public will very
much depend upon this point. On the other hand,
the difficulty and expense of conveying the things
exhibited, will not be very different in different
localities. This arises from the fact that if a
package has to be taken from a boat, a ship, or
a railway, and to be conveyed by cart to the locality
at which it is to be exhibited, the expense and the
danger of injury will be but very slightly increased,
whether it is carted an additional quarter of a mile,
or mile, or even a still greater distance.
Another very important question arises as to the
price of admission to the Exhibition. There is no
doubt, that if it were entirely free to the public, it
would be almost entirely useless. Nor is it less cer-
tain that various prices ought to be charged on differ--
ent days. The Commission seem to have made a
fair selection for the commencement of the ex-
periment. Perhaps it would have been better to allow
Saturday to be one of the cheapest days of ssion,
because in many workshops the journ leave
their work at an earlier hour on that
nacritice of the half day's work, they hen be
,
able to spend a considerable portion y in ex
amining those objects in which the
l'erhaps on a future occasion
of admission as the following
Very
by the
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
37
productive. After the exceptional days at the com-
mencement, occupying the first fortnight, the
admission might be charged thus :-
July
Aug.
8. d.
S. d.
May
S. d.
1 0
10 0
5 0
2 6
10
1 0
Mon.
Tues..
Wednes.
Thurs.
Frid.
Sat.
June
8. d.
1 0
5 0
2 6
10
1 0
10
1 0
2 6
1 6
1 0
1 0
0 6
.
Sept.
8. d.
0 6
1 6
10
0 6
06
0 3
06
20
1 0
10
06
06
Oct.
3. d.
0 3
10
0 6
0 3
0 3
0 3
.
.
.
.
.
.
The principle of this scale is, that each week day
shall gradually diminish in actual price, but shall
always preserve its relative price. Thus Tuesday is
always the day of dearest admission, Wednesday of
the next dearest, whilst Saturday is always the day
of cheap admission. These periods might be distri-
buted by weeks instead of months.
Whatever arrangement is made as to the price of
admission, it is of very great importance that the
number of visitors at the various prices should be
noted and recorded for future use. It will inttear
be v Portunate if knowledge so important for any
sir casion Tould not be registered and
n

is pu
72
ce should
IL DE
self-
še w
pa
thomblio
38
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
each hour, when the clock strikes, each gate-keeper
should enter in a book the number indicated by his
register. Such a collection of facts, extending over
the whole time of the Exposition, would not only
be invaluable for any future one, but would furnish
materials for other important inquiries.
The general state of the weather, which of course
would have a powerful influence, might be known
from other registers : but it would be advisable
that at the end of each day some note were made
of the general state of the weather at the Crystal
Palace itself.
After the first of these Expositions it seems
probable that their advantages will become so well
known, that it may be quite possible to let out the
stalls to exhibitors under certain conditions. Fo-
reigners might still be admitted to exhibit without
payment, because the expense of carriage would
more than compensate for the rent.
Some stalls might be granted without rent by
the Commissioners, the peculiar circumstances of
each case having been considered. Again, other
stalls, or at least other means of exhibition, might
be accorded to those who contributed articles of
actual use in the building ; as for example, a large
striking clock, a steam-engine to drive the machi-
nery or to supply the fountains.
Other means might be readily devised of increas-
ing the receipts, giving at the same time increased
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
39
convenience to the public. Thus, from the great
extent of the building, and from the crowd, it may
become difficult to pass easily from one part of the
building to another. Now if the stalls were placed
back to back along the centre of the great longi-
tudinal avenues, a railway formed of wooden planks
placed edgeways might be raised above the middle
of them at a height of about eight feet, which
would interfere but little with the stalls.
On this open railway cars mounted on wheels
bound with india-rubber, * in order to avoid all noise,
might travel at the rate of from one to two or per-
haps three miles an hour. These cars might have
luxurious cushions, and hold parties of different
numbers. One line in a side aisle, the “express, ”
might be devoted entirely to conveying passengers
from one end to the other at the rate of three
miles an hour, setting down at six or more inter-
mediate stations : the payment might be one
penny, or perhaps, on grand days, two or three
pence. The other lines should take parties slowly
along, so as to allow time to see the crowd below
and the wonders of the exhibition, which might be
rendered more distinct by means of opera glasses.
Each trip might occupy twenty minutes or half an
hour, and be charged threepence, sixpence, or a
shilling, according to the price of admission on that
* Or the rails themselves might have grooves lined with
vulcanized india-rubber,
40
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
day. By these means multitudes of ladies, chil-
dren, and even of men, relieved from bodily fatigue,
might be able to acquire knowledge or derive plea-
sure, which without these resources it would be
impossible for them to enjoy.
It is probable that the light iron framing of such
cars might be provided gratuitously by some exhi-
bitors, and the spring cushions and ornamental
drapery might be supplied by others, in considera-
tion of the advertisement thus afforded of the pur-
veyor's taste and skill.
The chariots of these railways should be drawn by
means of a rope connected with the motive
power.
If dumb railways are not thought expedient,
small galleries at least might be made to which
admission should be obtained by a small payment,
so that those who wanted to traverse quickly from
one part to another of the building, might thus, by
avoiding the crowd, save time.
Umbrellas, and sticks, and great coats might be
taken charge of by ticket on payment of one half-
penny. Also, any visitor might be allowed to deposit
on his departure a bag containing his catalogue,
note-book, or any articles which it might be in-
convenient to him to take home with him each day,
as is customary at the railway stations,
Other accommodations will suggest themselves,
to be provided on the payment of a very small
fee; for example, soap and water and a clean towel
ORIGIN OF THE EXPOSITION OF 1851.
41
may be very desirable to some visitors, especially
to those who may examine the machinery.
It is probable that there may occasionally occur
large crowds pressing for admittance. It may be
worth while to consider whether in such cases an
additional reserved entrance might not be opened,
through which ladies and children, and men whom
age or indisposition has deprived of the physical
force requisite for encountering a crowd, might be
allowed to pass on the farther payment, say of six-
pence or a shilling
If it were possible to have a similar reserved
enclosure close to the building, in which carriages
might remain on payment of a small fee, much
inconvenience would be saved to some of the
visitors, and some advantage would result to those
who did not avail themselves of it, in consequence
of the diminished line of carriages at the public
entrances.
CHAPTER V.
OBJECT AND USE OF THE EXPOSITION.
The approaching Exposition is considered by
many as a great and splendid show, calculated to
give pleasure and excitement to hundreds of thou-
sands of persons. Even in this sense it would be
beneficial, for it is always important that the plea-
sures of the people should be productive of some
advance in their tastes and information. But its
great and paramount value depends on other
causes. Its object may be most concisely expressed
by stating that,
The Exposition is calculated to promote and
increase the free interchange of raw materials and
nanufactured commodities between all the nations
of the earth.
Its object is not the exclusive benefit of England,
and if
any
such mistaken view is still entertained,
it may without hesitation be stated that it would be
impossible by any mode of management to accom-
plish so selfish an object.
It is the interest of every people, that all other
OBJECT AND USE OF THE EXPOSITION.
43
nations should advance in knowledge, in industrial
skill, in taste, and in science. The advances made
in the two latter subjects acquire permanent exist-
ence only through the publicity given to their enun-
ciation and discussion. Refining and elevating all
by whom they are received, new principles in taste
or in science, as soon as they are accepted as truths,
become the universal property of mankind.
In whatever distant country any man devises
means of diminishing the cost of production of the
commodity he deals in, the following effects will
result
He will make larger profits than usual.
He will then diminish his price in order to get
more customers.
His rivals in trade now find it necessary to
undersell him in order to get back their customers.
Whilst this competition goes on, the price of the
commodity falls, a larger consumption takes place
and new purchasers will arise, which for a time
checks the fall.
Ultimately, his rivals in the trade either remove
their capital into other lines of business, or adopt
the improved process.
In the mean time the first discoverer will, if
a prudent and industrious man, have realized a con-
siderable capital, for he will be fully aware that in
the present state of science no monopoly can be
permanent. He will rather seek for a succession
44
OBJECT AND USE OF THE EXPOSITION.
of moderate improvements, which exciting no imme-
diate inquiry or rivalry, shall increase the average
per centage of his profits, thus constantly keeping
his manufactory one, or at the utmost, only two
steps in advance of his competitors.
When in consequence of such an improvement,
a reduced price and an enlarged demand has arisen
in his own country, the manufacturer will naturally
make inquiries whether at this diminished price
other countries may not be induced to become
purchasers. If this is the case, the fact of their
free interchange with him proves that they can
acquire his commodity at a less cost than they can
themselves produce it.
But although the Exposition itself could not and
ought not to have been attempted for the sole
benefit of this country, it is almost certain that
England will reap the greatest share of its advan-
tages. This will arise from the more extended
system of her commerce, and from the habits of
her people. The profits of the merchant, other
circumstances being equal, depend upon the amount
of his capital. Similarly, the knowledge brought
back by the traveller in foreign countries, or derived
from his observation in his own, will mainly depend
on the stock of information he carried with him to
give in exchange.
Ś To arrive at those principles by which the
Exposition ought to be regulated, it becomes neces-
OBJECT AND USE OF THE EXPOSITION,
45
J
sary to examine the nature and extent of the
interests involved.
In all interchanges there are three distinct parties
concerned
The Consumer,
The Middle-man,
The Producer.
The overwhelming superiority both in amount of
capital and in the number of the first of these
classes, the Consumer, is at once apparent, and
ought throughout the inquiry to be steadily borne
in mind. In fact, each individual of the other two
classes is necessarily a member of the first; for all
men are consumers, and as such their common bond
of interest is to purchase every thing in the cheapest
market.
$ The class. Producer is equally indispensable
for the purposes of exchange, but its number is
much more limited. The interest of each individual
producer is, that he should sell his own produce at
as dear a price as possible, whilst he purchases that
of all other producers as cheaply as he can.
The class Producer, therefore, is not only compa-
ratively small, but has really a very divided interest,
arising only from the difference between the
per-
sonal and the class interest of the individual.
The class Middle-man is more extensive, com-
prising merchants, brokers, factors, wholesale and
retail shopkeepers, hawkers, &c. The profits of this
a
46
OBJECT AND USE OF THE EXPOSITION.
class are generally regarded by the public with some
degree of suspicion. It is often thought that their
profits are exorbitant. But in truth this is not
frequently the case. The division of employments
necessarily produces middle-men, and the public in
the long run obtain the articles they require with
more convenience and economy, and at a less fluc-
tuating price, than it would be without such agency.
.
But the number of intermediate agents in any com-
merce is itself subject to change, in different trades
and at various times : it is quite possible that these
changes may not have taken place with sufficient
promptitude, and thus the public may have suffered
for a time either by an excess or a defect in the
number of middle-men.
The interests of middle-men are, individually,
the same as those of consumers. As a class, the
extension of commerce is for their advantage,
because they are paid according to the amount of
exchanges made. But they have also another and a
very powerful interest. They fear that if the public
were acquainted with the manufacturing price of
articles, it would consider the difference between
that and the selling price as a tax imposed by the
middle-man upon the consumer. The middle-man
therefore has a direct interest in preventing the
public from arriving at a knowledge of the prices
charged by the original manufacturer. It is also
the interest of the middle-man that the manufacturer
OBJECT AND CS2 SF 181-01
*
should not know the 7.2 F. ili pruuuut siis
by retail : but, as it is music to
prevent this, few are* *. Erneut are made.
☆ It appears, there juterests of these
classes may be thus sun
Consumers, including every human being, has •
a strong interest in the freest competition as Di...
ducing the lowest price.
Producers have an interest in selling their py
in the dearest market, and therefor the
competition. But they have no advantag.
it at the highest price: because a lie. In
the extent of the sale. Their Obates
profit on each article, muitipik i '
sold, shall be the greatest possi.
Middle-men, although usuar mye
:uty,
tion, have yet a direct interes. -
is his
ution by
1
ile
arts and those
cice some of the
l'e not yet generally
what all lace not pro-
I according to this view
le fine arts.
Cxhibition some beautiful ex-
sace amongst the productions of
as well as of our own. They are made
E
CHAPTER VI.
LIMITS.
One of the great difficulties in exhibiting together
samples of the produce and the industry of the
world, must obviously be the magnitude and con-
sequent expense of any building capable of con-
taining such an exposition. In order to do this
most effectively, and to secure the greatest amount
of
space
for the primary object, it became necessary
to lay down principles within the limits of which
the objects exhibited should be confined. No real
difficulty opposed the definition of this boundary,
even if a liberal interpretation were admitted.
The Fine arts and the Industrial arts, although
of the highest importance each to the other, are
separated by a sufficiently definite line of demarca-
tion, even at the points at which they most nearly
approach. The characteristic of the fine arts is, that
each example is an individual—the production of
individual taste, and executed by individual hands;
the produce of the fine arts is therefore necessarily
LIMITS.
49
costly. The characteristic of the industrial arts is,
that each example is but one of a multitude, -
generated according to the same law, by tools or
machines, (in the largest sense of those terms,) and
moved with unerring precision by the application
of physical force. Their produce is consequently
cheap
The fine arts idealize nature by generalizing from
its individual objects: the industrial arts realize
identity by the unbounded use of the principle of
copying
The union of the two, enlarging vastly the utility
of both, enables art to be appreciated and genius
to be admired by millions whom its single produc-
tions would never reach; whilst the producer in
return, elevated by the continual presence of the
multiplied reproductions of the highest beauty,
acquires a new source of pleasure, and feels his
own mechanical art raised in his estimation by
such an alliance.
This distinction between the fine arts and those
of industry, would appear to place some of the
latter in a class to which they are not yet generally
admitted. It might seem that all lace not pro-
duced by machinery, must according to this view
be admitted amongst the fine arts.
There are in the Exhibition some beautiful ex-
amples of such lace amongst the productions of
other countries as well as of our own. They are made
E
50
LIMITS.
by the united labour of many women.
The cost of
a piece of lace will consist of—
1.-—The remuneration to the artist who designs
the pattern.
2.- The cost of the raw material.
3.—The cost of the labour of a large number of
women working on it for many months. .
Let us compare this with the cost of a piece of
statuary, which is undoubtedly of a much higher
class of art; it will consist of :-
1.-The remuneration to the artist who makes
the model.
2.-The cost of the raw material.
3.— The cost of labour by assistants in cutting
the block to the pattern of the model.
4.-Finishing the statue by the artist himself.
In lace-making the skill of the artist is required
only for the production of the first example. Every
succeeding copy is made by mere labour : each copy
may be considered as an individual, and will cost
the same amount of time.
In sculpture the three first processes are quite
analogous to those in lace-making. But the
fourth process requires the taste and judgment
of the artist. It is this which causes it to
retain its rank amongst the fine arts, whilst lace-
making must still be classed amongst the indus-
trial.
Here we may observe the strong analogy which
LIMITS.
51
con-
unites these very different processes. If we,
tinue the examination we shall find other resem-
blances, and by contrasting sculpture with lace
made by machinery, we shall see in the very nature
of their production, the wide interval which separates
the industrial from the fine arts.
In the making both of lace and of statues, the
remuneration to the artists can only be reduced by
producing a larger number of them through more
extended education. The expense of the raw mate-
rial is small in both. The expense of labour in lace-
making is very large, and it is perhaps considerable
also in sculpture. The discovery of more convenient
localities yielding marble, may make some diminu-
tion in its cost; and the improved manufacture of
thread may slightly reduce the price of lace. A
reduction in the price of labour may to a very
moderate extent reduce the cost of the raw mate-
rial of both. But it is evident that any very great
reduction is not to be expected.
Let us now contrast this possible reduction with
the past history of some industrial art. The plain
lace made at Nottingham, called patent net,
will
supply us with a good example. In the year
1813 that lace was sold in the piece at the rate of
21s. a-yard. At the present time lace of the same
kind, but of a better quality, is sold under the
same circumstances at 3d. per yard. Thus, in less
than forty years the price of the industrial produce
E 2
52
LIMITS.
has diminished to one eighty-fourth part of its
original price.
The fine arts, already possessing a building and
an exhibition of their own, which usually opens on
the same day as that proposed for the opening
of the Palace of Industry, it seems difficult at first
to imagine why the limited space disposable within
the latter edifice should be occupied by any portion
of a subject exclusively belonging to the fine arts.
Yet it has been decided that Sculpture shall be
admitted but Painting rejected.*
Supposing both departments of art to be equally
excluded, there would still be a propriety, and
even almost a necessity to admit some examples of
each. New tools used by the sculptor, suppose for
preparing the block, might require an example of
their mode of application ; whilst the effects pro-
duced on the surface of the marble by other tools,
could only be shown by comparative specimens.
Machinery of a very beautiful kind has been
contrived for copying accurately, on a reduced or
an enlarged scale, both medals and statues. The
Venus de Medici itself could not be justly ex-
cluded from a purely industrial exhibition, — if
* Since this was written, the beautiful effect produced by
sculpture in the Crystal Palace has fully justified the decision
of the Commission. In fact, the only real objection to the
admission either of sculpture or painting arises from the extent
of space required.
LIMITS.
53
a
placed in the centre of a series diminishing on the
one side to a statuette of a foot high, and increasing
on the other to a figure double her own height.
Such a series, though fairly introduced as an illus-
tration of industrial art, would, indeed, itself be
highly interesting to the fine arts, as exhibiting the
effect of change of magnitude, when the propor-
tions remain identical.
Enamel painting would be excluded as belonging
to the fine arts, but every painting on porcelain
partakes in fact of the nature of an enamel paint-
ing. A service of porcelain would of course be
admitted as a specimen of mechanical art, how-
ever highly it might be adorned by this form of
painting
New modes of engraving might be exhibited,
analogous, for example, to that by which medals
are so beautifully represented. There are several
new methods of surface printing for multiplying
original designs. In all such cases it would be
very desirable to place before the eye of the
spectator, the originals from which the copies were
derived, and it might also add to the utility and
interest of the Exposition, even to exhibit other
forms of engraving of the same subject, for the
sake of comparison.
The instruments by which daguerreotypes and
talbotypes are produced, would assuredly claim a
place; so also might a collection of their results.
54
LIMITS.
It would also be instructive that some of these
productions should be accompanied by the original
forms or paintings from which they were copied.
The general rule, therefore, might be, that spe-
cimens of the fine arts should not be admitted by
themselves; but that they should not be excluded,-
as illustrations,—either of the use of some tool or
instrument by which their own production might
be assisted,—or as forming parts or decorations of
objects of the industrial arts,—or for the sake of
comparison with the copies or imitations of them
produced by these latter arts.
-
CHAPTER VII.
SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING.
The questions connected with the construction
of the building, were surrounded with considerable
difficulties, even to the best informed. It should be
capable of containing specimens, not merely of all
the manufactured products of the world, but also of
all the raw materials now used, and even of such,
as being presented to the attention of competent
persons, might probably become useful hereafter.
The site of such a building, its fitness for its
purpose, and the cost of its construction, were the
chief points to be considered.
Its situation especially was the most important,
because that circumstance would greatly influence
the number of persons visiting the Exposition, and
therefore the amount of the receipts out of which
the building was to be paid for.
The first principle which should guide the choice
of a site, is obviously the convenience of visitors; and
a little observation, or a moderate share of common
sense, will show how the principle should be applied.
56
SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING.
It is known to all those who have observed the
course of crowds of human beings going to and re-
turning from some centre of attraction, that if the
spot on which the assemblage is to take place is
subject to our choice, much of the difficulty of
the arrangements will be removed.
Other circumstances being equal, that site is the
best which admits of the greatest number of inde-
pendent channels by which the multitude can
arrive and retire. The means of access should be
so arranged that various divisions of the visitors
would, according to the quarter in which they
reside, naturally take each its own most convenient
course, without the necessity of any instruction
from police or attendants.
Various sites had been proposed. Hyde Park;—
;
the Regent's Park ;-Primrose Hill, still more dis-
tant;fields on the south side of the Thames in-
tended to form Battersea Park.
It is fortunate that neither of the two latter
was chosen, although they had many advocates :
for in all probability the receipts would have been
diminished by at least a third, if not by a half.
Various situations were pointed out in Hyde
Park. One on the north nearly facing Hyde Park
Gardens--one on the south nearly opposite the
Barracks; this latter was ultimately chosen.
Ø But a different position may be pointed out
which combines so many advantages that it is much
SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING.
57
access.
to be regretted it was not placed at the disposal
of the Commission.
The distance between Cumberland Gate and the
gate at Hyde Park Corner, is about 1,300 yards, or
nearly three quarters of a mile. On the eastern
side of the park, adjoining Park Lane, there is a
narrow strip occupied by plantations, the circular
reservoir and gardens.
On the open ground adjacent to this strip, but
rather nearer to Cumberland Gate, the Crystal
Palace might advantageously have been placed. Its
length being nearly 629 yards, each end would have
been about 350 yards from the two great roads of
This site would have possessed the follow-
ing advantages :-
1. Its distance from the north or south en-
trance of the park would, for the average of
visitors, have been considerably less than
that of the present site.
To persons standing at Hyde Park Corner or
at Cumberland Gate, the respective ends of
the building would have appeared, from its
great elevation, almost close to them.
2. There are very few trees upon it, and those
few are still young.
3. It is the highest ground in the park, and
could, therefore, be better drained.
In its present position the building can scarcely
be seen from either of those positions. It is above
58
SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING.
half a mile from Hyde Park Corner : whilst it is three
a
quarters of a mile by footpath, and nearly a mile and
a half by carriage drive from Cumberland Gate.
The large majority of visitors from the north and
the south will enter the park through these two ap-
proaches. The average distance, therefore, which
each will have to travel in the park, will be nearly
three quarters of a mile.
Yards.
The distance of the nearest end of the
present building from Hyde Park
Corner is about
940
From Cumberland Gate is, by footpath,
about
1560
Ditto, by carriage, about
2490
The distance of the end of the proposed
site from Hyde Park Corner, is about 375
Ditto, from Cumberland Gate
375
If we consider how many persons might have
entered close to a building thus placed, through
Grosvenor and Stanhope Gates, or through any tem-
porary ones near them, it will be perceived that this
average distance would in fact be much diminished.
Supposing that an equal number of visitors arrive
by each approach, we have some means of approxi-
mating to one portion of the inconvenience and
loss which the public will suffer from its present
position.
SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING.
59
In the first place the number of visitors has been
variously estimated from one to seven millions.
Let us suppose it to be four millions. Each of
these four million visitors will, on an average, have
to travel one mile and a quarter more than would
have been necessary to go to and return from the
Exposition. Thus five millions of miles will be
uselessly traversed. If the expense of transport
were one penny a-mile, and the value of time on
an average four shillings a-day, the account would
run thus-
2,000,000 persons travel 1mile.
1,000,000
6)3,000,000 miles at six miles per hour.
10)500,000 hours.
48.=}l.)50,000 days of ten hours each.
10,0001. value of lost time.
A similar calculation of the time lost by 2,000,000
persons travelling three miles an hour would give
13,3331.
The expense of travelling at 1d. per mile of the
first 2,000,000, who travel in carriages, gives—
12)3,000,000 miles.
20)250,000
12,5001. cost of carr. of two millions 12 mile each.
10,0001. cost of time of ditto.
13,333l. cost of time of two millions at 1 mile each.
35,8331. total loss.

60
SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING.
In this estimate the price of one penny a-mile may
perhaps be thought high, especially when it is
known that many will go on foot, others in omni-
bus, others in their own carriages : but in order to
remain the same number of hours in the present
building, from the extra time required to visit it, it
will be necessary for many persons to spend one
additional day in London, which could scarcely be
done under twenty pence even by the poorest visitor.
The allowance of six miles an hour for travelling
in omnibus or carriage, considering the stoppages
of the one, and the crowd on the single road of
approach for both, will be admitted to be moderate.
The rate of four shillings per day, or twenty-four
shillings per week, as the value of the time of the
visitors, will probably be thought less than its
average value.
There can be no doubt that under these disad-
vantages the actual site must cause the loss of a
large number of visitors, w}
uld have partaken
of the enjoyment in the mo
purable position.
The amount of pure loss thu ed by the visitors
as a class, must be withdra
m the sum they
intended to expend on their
One of the earliest a the Commissi
was to advertise for plans Iding suita
their purpose.
Certain principles wer own.
be temporary in its charac
ho
C
SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING.
61
mical in its cost-it should be fire-proof or nearly
so—it should be built and fit for use in an incon-
ceivably short time, and capable of being removed
in still less.
A lithographed plan of the ground assigned for
it, was circulated for the use of all who chose to
make suggestions, or to compete for the prizes
offered for the most approved designs; this insured
a certain amount of uniformity in scale, which ren-
dered comparison easier. Although, from neces-
sity, a very short time could be allowed for
preparation, yet 240 designs for the building were
offered.
These were exhibited to the public at the apart-
ments of the Society of Arts; a certain number of
them were selected as worthy of praise, and some
as deserving more substantial rewards.
There appears to have existed from the beginning
the public mind, not only in England but on the
inent, a belief that the Commissioners would
pe very rigid preting their rules. This
probably
by the sudden and un-
ked-for with of the large prizes that had
een promise
oublic at
commencement.
According ous pls ed to vie with
each oth
down by the
Com
ward were not
the
cent v
in order to give
the fr
have been expe-

ng the
se seler
62
SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING.
dient, previously to examining their merits, to have
rejected all which grossly violated the conditions
proposed by the Commission.
Beautiful plans might be suggested for magnifi-
cent buildings, if the designers were alike reckless
of cost and of time of construction, and those who
had honestly confined themselves to the prescribed
conditions felt, with some reason, aggrieved at
finding the violators of them applauded and
rewarded.
Although there was, in the opinion of the Com-
missioners, much of beauty and genius, and many
suggestions of value, yet none of the plans ap-
proached their own idea of what was requisite. It
was therefore resolved that the Commission should
itself originate one, availing themselves of the hints
contained in these plans.
In the mean time, Mr. Paxton, who had devised
and successfully carried out a new kind of architec-
ture, the chief material of which was glass, came to
their assistance. He drew the plans of his singular
design, and was fortunate enough to find in Messrs.
Fox and Henderson a firm capable of supplying all
those mechanical details necessary for its success,
and even of contracting to execute the work in a
period of time so short that it will probably long
remain unrivalled in the art of construction.
The Commission accepted this offer, and the
present beautiful building arose as if by magic.
SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING.
63
Amongst all the curious and singular products which
the taste, the skill, the industry of the world, have
confided to the judgment of England, there will
be found within that crystal envelope, few whose
manufacture can claim a higher share of our
admiration than that palace itself, which shelters
these splendid results of advanced civilization.
The building itself was regularly manufactured.
Simple in its construction, and requiring the multi-
plied repetition of few parts, its fabrication was
contrived with consummate skill. The internal
economy with which its parts were made and put
together on the spot was itself a most instructive
study.
* The reader will find very interesting details and drawings
of this manufacture in the “Illustrated London News,” and in
the “Expositor."
CHAPTER VIII.
PRICES.
a
The great mass of consumers are always anxious
to know the price of a commodity. To them it is
the most essential consideration in a purchase. The
thoughtless rich care little about the price, and
those who don't intend to pay, care still less about
it. The most knowing of this latter class, indeed,
often deceive the vigilance of honest tradesmen by
affecting a peculiar earnestness about cheapness.
It is quite true that many well-known articles in
great demand have a certain market price, and some
a certain fixed price; as for instance, a penny roll.
In this latter case the judgment of the purchaser
is directed to its size, or its goodness, or to both
those qualities together.
♡ It may be useful to trace out the course of
purchases by retail, and to show the fine gradations
of impediment which are insensibly interposed be-
tween the vendor and consumer, as obstacles to a
full examination of the article by the latter. Of
course neither an article of daily consumption ought
PRICES.
65
to be taken as an example, nor yet one immediately
wanted by a consumer, whose time is so valuable
a
that it would be cheaper to go into the first shop
he finds and purchase it at any price.
Let us suppose that a lady having some leisure
goes out in search of a fan. She passes several
shops in which they may or may not be kept for
sale.
She sees some fans in a shop window, but as
they are not open she passes on, intending to return
to them if she cannot suit herself elsewhere.
A few doors beyond there are some fans open,
but none of them exactly suit her taste, and she
does not like to give the owner of the shop the
trouble of opening a number of fans, none of which
may please her.
In the next street she sees in the window of
a shop some fans, which are open. One of these
appears to suit her, but there is no price marked on
it. She does not like to go into the shop and
examine more minutely whether the subtle imple-
ment she requires has sufficient strength to with-
stand its ball-room trials, lest it may be too ex-
pensive for her purse.
A short distance beyond another set of opened
fans present themselves to her notice in the window
of another shop, each of them with its price dis-
tinctly marked upon it. One of these the hesitat-
ing lady prefers, a little, to the last she had
F
66
PRICES.
>
approved, and she resolves to enter this shop
and examine the fan. But perceiving before she
enters, that there is no attendant in the shop, she
thinks the mistress may be at dinner, or have gone
up stairs to her baby, and she says to herself, “ It
is of no consequence ; I will not disturb her now.'
Still passing onward she finds a shop in the
window of which is a pretty fan, although not quite
so good as the last, and within there sits the shop-
keeper—but the door is shut.
Although the fan was not the most suitable the
lady had seen, yet had that door been open, she
,
would have entered, hoping that the fans exposed
in the window were samples of classes kept in store
within.
At last she finds all these impediments removed;
a fan that will nearly suit her lies open in the
window, with its price clearly marked, an attendant
is in the shop, and the door is hospitably open. She
enters and examines it, and finding it well made,
asks whether there are others of the same class of
pattern, to which the reply is that it is the only one
remaining Upon this she purchases the fan,
although had she entered several of the former
shops, she might have found fans both more exactly
suited to her taste and at a less price. The
marking has decided her choice. It is not to be
imagined that all, or even the greater part of these
impediments, ever occurred to one person at the
PRICES.
67
7.
same time: but there are few who have not at
different times felt the effects of most of them.
☆ It is said that ladies by education and birth
occasionally amuse themselves by entering shops
and giving interminable trouble, having no inten-
tion of making any purchase. This doubtlessly is
a libel.
§ Several other minor impediments deter purcha-
sers from some shops, and incline them to frequent
others; amongst these may be mentioned an over
officiousness in the attendants to recommend to the
attention of the purchaser other articles than those
he requires. This pressure to induce purchases is
peculiarly offensive, and drives away the best
customers.
The absence of a marked price upon an article,
tends to defeat the effect of competition, as well as
to produce loss of time both to consumer and
vendor. It is therefore, to a certain extent, a cause
of increase of price.
Its effect is to cause the same article to be sold
at different prices in the same neighbourhood, thus
counteracting that uniformity of price at consider-
able distances, which is consequent upon rapid and
cheap communication.
As the extent to which this is carried even in a
great city, may not be known, the following occur-
rence will afford an illustration :
A gentleman wishing to make the light of his
v
F 2
68
PRICES.
reading lamp approach more nearly to day-light,
looked out for a lamp-glass of a blue tint. Having
a
observed one of the wished-for colour in a shop
window marked at ls. 6d. he purchased it. After
a considerable trial he was so satisfied with the
comfort it afforded to his eyes, that he wished to
have other lamps in his house similarly furnished.
On returning to the shop at which the blue globe
was purchased, he found that its proprietor had
retired, and his successor was in a different line of
business. Seeing in the window of another shop
in his own neighbourhood, a coloured globe of the
same size, he entered and inquired the price. To
his great surprise the price was stated to be 38. ;
and on asking if any reduction would be made if
he took a dozen or two, the answer was that in that
case the lowest price would be half-a-crown each.
This naturally led him to suppose that the cheap-
ness of the first glass arose from the accident of its
proprietor being about to retire from business, and
he therefore decided upon confining his indulgence
in the luxury of white light to his single reading
lamp. One day, however, he accidentally saw in
another shop window a similar globe of blue glass.
On inquiring within, he was informed that its price
was ls., and that the price per dozen was lls.
Under these new circumstances he provided a
blue globe for every lamp in his house.
Now it is necessary to observe that these glasses,
PRICES.
69
charged at 38., 1s. 6d., and 1s., were offered for
sale at three different shops not distant from each
other a mile and a half, and were not only of the
same size, weight, shade of colour and quality of
glass, but had each the same maker's stamp upon
them, and may possibly have been taken from the
same pot of glass. It is remarkable also that the
cheapest glass globe, although exposed in the shop
window, had no price attached to it.
§ It is obvious, if it were the custom invariably
to mark the price upon each article exposed for sale,
that such unreasonable differences of price in the
same article could not exist. It is certain that, if the
Royal Commissioners were to consult the dealer
who charged 3s. for an article sold by his neighbour
at 1s., they would be informed that it would
be absolutely ruinous to have prices affixed to
articles exhibited. Such a tradesman would assure
them, and with perfect truth, that it would entirely
destroy his trade. But if he cannot live upon the
ordinary profits of capital employed in his trade,
are the unwary public to pay two hundred per
cent. beyond the market price, in order to support
a tradesman unfit for his business? If, on the
other hand, the Commissioners were to ask the
opinion of the tradesman who sold the glass at ls.,
he undoubtedly would not object to the general
practice of affixing prices to each article. The
opinion of the vendor of the glass at ls. 6d. was
a
70
PRICES.
sufficiently expressed by its being attached to that
article.
There are several causes assigned for the
admitted repugnance of shopkeepers to allow the
price of any article they sell
article they sell to be marked
be marked upon it.
It is broadly asserted that the public, being
unable to judge of the article, will be guided too
much by the cheapness of its money price, neglect-
ing its other qualities, and will thus be induced to
purchase worthless things.
It is always somewhat suspicious when the ven-
dor volunteers to take care of the interest of the
purchaser. It reverses the decision of the common
sense of mankind, expressed in the ancient proverb,
“caveat emptor.” Besides, it is by no means true
that the public are so ignorant or incapable of
appreciating all those other qualities. In some
articles the difficulty is undoubtedly great, whilst in
others it may require time to be spent in their ex-
amination even by those who are as conversant with
the articles as the vendor himself. But why should
the time of both parties be wasted by an examina-
tion, when the price may be such as to preclude its
purchase, whatever may be its other merits ?
☆ Of all the various qualities which contribute to
the excellence of any given article, that which it is
most easy to ascertain—that which it is impossible
to falsify--and that without the exact knowledge of
which no purchase can possibly be made, is the
PRICES.
71
persons in
very one which it is wished to withhold from the
knowledge of the purchaser, until through the art
of the vendor, the finer feelings of the customer
induce him to think himself in some measure
committed to purchase that of which he does not
entirely approve.
It is from circumstances like these, that the pre-
judice against retail dealers arises and is confirmed
in the public mind. There is no reason why that
class should not be as highly respected as the pos-
sessors of extensive domains. To deserve that
respect they have only to insist upon all
their employment abstaining from the slightest de-
ception in serving their customers; to which rule it
would be desirable to add, that the leading mem-
bers of each trade should unite in discountenancing
those who are guilty of any
such practices.
§ The effect upon the sale of an article by the
absence of its price may be illustrated by another
example. Some years ago a large bazaar was held
for some charitable object at the Hanover Square
Rooms. It was patronised by the highest rank,
and the beauty of the fair shopkeepers was even
more attractive than the wares they had to dispose
of. A collector thought this a favourable opportu-
nity of adding to his collection a vase of porphyry :
having paid the admission fee of 58., he en-
tered, and soon perceived some beautiful speci-
mens of the object he desired. Having looked
7 2
PRICES.
at them for some time, he selected in his mind
one which he would willingly have purchased
if it were within the limit (107.) which he had
assigned for the gratification of his taste. There
was, however, no price attached to any of the vases,
,
and fearing that they were all beyond his means, he
reluctantly departed without the wished-for acqui-
sition. It happened that he mentioned in the
course of the next year the circumstance to a frien
who was acquainted with the history of the vase in
question. The vase for which he would willingly
have given 101. was not sold at that bazaar, but
some time after it appeared at a less fashionable
bazaar and was sold for 51.
§ Most of those who visit the Exposition will
each according to their means wish to retain some
memorial of it. Many will have been economising
during the previous year in order to purchase some
object of utility or of pleasure either for their own
use or to take back as remembrances to their family
and friends. It would be very difficult amidst the
vast variety of attractions, even if the price of each
were marked upon it, to select the most desirable
article within those limits of expense to which each
purchaser is confined. But by forbidding the
marking of prices, this difficulty is converted into
an impossibility. The first step according to the
decree of the Commissioners, would be to go round
and ask the price of at least a hundred, if not
PRICES.
73
a
a thousand articles. These must be written down
by each inquirer unless the Exhibitors supply him
with printed lists. Even if he make a selection out of
these, it is a hundred to one that some other article
in the enormous collection would, if he had known
its price, have pleased him better.
♡ If we examine the history of the earlier stages
of society, we shall see the constant tendency of its
institutions to facilitate the mutual exchange of
commodities between its members, and to remove
every obstacle impeding their interchange. When
the population was thinly scattered over the coun-
try, the possessor of a fowl, wanting a pound of
butter, was obliged to go some distance to a neigh-
bour either to purchase the butter or to get it
in exchange for the fowl. But it would have cost
him more time than the worth of the butter if he
had visited several neighbours to find out where
it was the cheapest. To remedy this inconvenience,
market days were established in the villages and
towns at more or less frequent intervals. On
these occasions each farmer sent one of the family
to the periodic market, who sold the produce of the
farm and purchased whatever might be required of
their neighbours, who were each represented by
one of their own family at that common market.
Itinerant vendors of various manufactured articles
flocked to these markets because they there met their
customers with less loss of time and less fatigue.
1
i.
1
11
ELL%
第
​pl
=
为
​=

PRICES.
73
a
a thousand articles. These must be written down
by each inquirer unless the Exhibitors supply him
with printed lists. Even if he make a selection out of
these, it is a hundred to one that some other article
in the enormous collection would, if he had known
its price, have pleased him better.
Ø If we examine the history of the earlier stages
of society, we shall see the constant tendency of its
institutions to facilitate the mutual exchange of
commodities between its members, and to remove
every obstacle impeding their interchange. When
the population was thinly scattered over the coun-
try, the possessor of a fowl, wanting a pound of
a
butter, was obliged to go some distance to a neigh-
bour either to purchase the butter or to get it
in exchange for the fowl. But it would have cost
him more time than the worth of the butter if he
had visited several neighbours to find out where
it was the cheapest. To remedy this inconvenience,
market days were established in the villages and
to at more
frequent intervals. On
t
asions ea r sent one of the family
riodic m
'e produce of the
d purcha
be required of
eighbou
represented by
their
y
mmon market.
int ve
ar
factured articles
d tot
у
there met their
ner:
ad less fatigue.

10
ет
w
CS
OS
74
PRICES.
Whilst these hawkers thus gained on the one
hand, it must be admitted that they lost on the
other those occasionally extravagant profits some-
times levied on the necessities of their isolated cus-
tomers. But on the whole they derived from their
trade a more regular rate of profit, because the
competition side by side of rival goods and rival
prices, rendered that profit much less fluctuating.
Their greatest gain, however, arose from the time
saved by all parties, which largely increased the
consumption of their respective articles of produce.
When towns became enlarged, the same prin-
ciple of mutual interest led to the selection of par-
ticular streets or quarters of the town by particular
trades. In many cities on the continent, the jewel-
lers, as well as some other trades, still occupy
entire streets by themselves.
The next step seems to have been to hold
a general exchange in a fixed spot at certain
periodic times. This was necessary for the mer-
chants and larger dealers, and for international
exchanges. In great cities this was again sub-
divided into various branches of business, as—The
Corn Exchange - The Coal Exchange, &c.
§ At these marts a class of men called brokers
arose, whose business it was to sell on commission
for the producers, and to purchase on commission
for the merchants or other middle men.
The economy of time produced by this arrange-
PRICES.
75
ment is very great. Let us suppose an exchange
or bazaar attended by a hundred purchasers and
a hundred sellers. Each purchaser, in order to
become fully acquainted with the state of the
market, must ask at least two questions of each
seller
1st. What is the price ?
2d. What quantity have you for sale at that
price?
This alone gives rise to twenty thousand questions.
If, on the other hand, a broker is employed, each
of the two hundred persons who constitute the
market, will have to answer those two questions
only to his own broker; consequently, there will
only be four hundred such questions. If there are
twenty brokers, these may meet together at the
market, and each stating his commissions both for
purchase and for sale, a list may be immediately
formed by which the state of the market as to supply
and demand becomes known, and in the event of
there being but litt!e difference in the quality of the
articles, it becomes easy for the brokers to arrange
the requisite exchanges at prices which are equitable
for all parties.
Ś Great, however, as this advantage is, it is small
compared with another which we shall now consider.
When a bargain is made directly by the two indivi-
duals interested in it, there usually occurs on both
sides an attempt to appear more or less indifferent
76
PRICES.
about it, in order to secure advantageous terms.
Thus price is made to depend partly upon the
personal feelings and qualities of the parties, and
the less impulsive and more sagacious will gain
considerable advantage over the hasty and inexpe-
rienced. A certain degree also of misrepresentation
often occurs, and the price demanded is frequently
greater than that which the seller is willing to take :
thus the quantity of time consumed by parties
themselves in bargaining, is always much greater
than that in which their brokers can do the busi-
ness for them on more advantageous terms.
Again : the broker has an interest in effecting
sales, because he is paid in proportion to their
amount. But he has no interest in favouring one
class of his customers more than another: his
profits depend entirely upon his knowledge, his
industry, and his integrity. The necessity of the
intervening broker arises from the imperfections of
mankind, and when rigidly honest his services are
invaluable. If one party is perfectly aware of all
circumstances relating to the state of the market,
he has no need of any broker, because he can
acquire no new information : on the other hand,
those who treat with him may as well save them-
selves the expense of a broker, because nothing can
be communicated on the subject which is not
already known.
When these principles, which are found to pre-
:
PRICES.
77
vail in large transactions, are applied to the retail
concerns of everyday life, the intervention of the
broker is not required. This arises from the multi-
tude of the transactions, the smallness of the indi-
vidual amount of each, and the immense variety of
the articles of exchange.
ſ Another class of middle-men now come into
existence, namely, Shopkeepers. The evils already
pointed out still exist. One of the questions, it is
true, need not be asked, for the quantity of an
article held by a retail dealer, is usually much larger
than the wants of any individual customer ; but
the question of price still remains. The removal
of all these difficulties may be accomplished by the
adoption of one simple plan—let the price be
affixed to each article.
Other advantages result from the publicity thus
given to price. Many who would not otherwise in-
quire the price, thinking it might be above their
means, will now become purchasers. Others, not
themselves intending to purchase, may incidentally
cause their friends to purchase by quoting the prices
they have seen affixed to certain articles. Others
again, may be induced by the cheapness of an article
to purchase it for uses for which it was not originally
intended, -as, for instance, a beautiful chintz for
papering a room.
Ø In almost all works of industry, whatever
may be the kind of excellence of an article ex-
78
PRICES.
hibited, it is possible to produce one of greater
excellence.
Take for instance a sheet of window-glass ; its
size might be adduced as the ground of excellence.
The beautiful process of “flashing" by which it is
made, is preceded by another in which the workman
blows a large globe of glass. The size of the ex-
panded flat circle of glass, called a “table,” depends
on the magnitude of this sphere, which again is
limited by the power of the workman's lungs. But
when larger tables were wanted, an observant work-
man found that if his mouth had been previously
washed out with water, a greater sphere was pro-
duced. In fact, a small portion of the water, carried
over with his breath, became converted into steam
by the heat, and thus increased the pressure within.
This led to a new limit, and there can be no doubt
that by means of expensive mechanical contrivances,
still larger spheres might be blown.
Ý Now the whole merit of any such new process,
in the eye of the manufacturer, would depend on
the price at which the produce could be sold.
The same principle prevails in almost all works
of the civil engineer. With the talent now existing
in that profession, scarcely any undertaking is im-
possible. The real and most important limitation
is the price of execution.
$ In the fine arts also the ultimate object still is
the acquisition by the public of the productions
PRICES.
79
:
submitted to their examination. If, however, the
price is not stated, it may happen that a person of
moderate means, more capable of appreciating a
work of art than richer men, might be prevented
from acquiring it by a feeling of delicacy. For not
liking to ask the price, and thinking probably that
it is beyond his means, the object may be sold to a
richer competitor at a lower price than he would
himself willingly have given.
This consequence of the absence of price is in-
jurious both to art and to artists: it occasionally
removes from the field of competition the best
judges of real merit. It is true that in several
professions a certain delicacy respecting money
matters exists which is wanting in others. Medical
men and artists are peculiarly subject to its influ-
ence; but it is not reported of any lawyer that he
ever refused a fee, and it is recorded of some Se-
cretary of the Admiralty that he claimed a quarter
of a year's war salary, on account of the two days
interruption of peace by the combat of Algiers.
Another result of the prices not being marked
upon objects is, that the public are unable to form
any just estimate of their commercial value; conse-
;
quently, no proper public opinion arises to assist
the juries in their decisions. This is a matter of
considerable importance: the duty of a juror at an
exposition is quite different from that of a juror in
a legal question. It is the business of the Indus-
80
PRICES.
trial juror to avail himself of the knowledge and the
observations of all around him. Much of what he
thus hears he may be able himself to verify by
examination or experiment, and thus public opinion
will be more matured, and the decisions of the
juries have greater weight.
§ Many of the qualities of the articles exhibited
can only be ascertained by use, or even by their
destruction. In such cases a single sample would
often be purchased if it had its price affixed to it.
Another class, small indeed in number, but
important from its functions, suffers the greatest
inconvenience from the absence of price. Those
engaged in studying the commercial and economical
relations of various manufactures, either for the
gratification of their own tastes or for the instruc-
tion of the public, are entirely deprived of the most
important element of their reasonings.
If every article had its price affixed, many rela-
tions would strike the eye of an experienced ob-
server which might lead him to further inquiries,
and probably to the most interesting results. But
it is quite impossible for him to write to any con-
siderable portion of 15,000 expositors for their list
of prices, or even to go round and ask for it in the
building itself.
Price in many cases offers at once a verification
of the truth of other statements. Thus, to a person
conversant with the subjects,
PRICES.
81
J
The low price of an article might prove that it had
been manufactured in some mode entirely different
from that usually practised. This would lead to
an examination of it, in order to discover the im-
proved process.
The price of an article compared with its weight,
might prove that the metal of which it is made
could not be genuine.
The price of a woven fabric, added to a know-
ledge of its breadth and substance, even without its
weight, might in many cases effectually disprove
the statement of its being entirely made of wool, or
hạir, or flax, or silk, as the case might be.
The exchange of commodities between those to
whom such exchanges may be desirable, being the
great and ultimate object of the Exposition, every
circumstance that can give publicity to the things
exhibited, should be most carefully attended to.
The price in money is the most important element in
every bargain ; to omit it, is not less absurd than to
represent a tragedy without its hero, or to paint a
portrait without a nose.
It commits a double error: for it withholds the
only test by which the comparative value of things
can be known, and it puts aside the greatest of all
interests, that of the consumer, in order to favour
a small and particular class--the middle-men.
The composition of that Commission must be
most extraordinary, where an error so contrary to
G
82
PRICES.
the principles and so fatal to the objects of the
Exposition, could have been committed. It is not
too late to apply at least a partial remedy to the
evil, and it is scarcely credible that those with
whom it rests, can remain unconscious of the mis-
take into which they have been led.
§ At the eighth meeting of the Commissioners,
on the 28th Feb. 1850, further conditions and
limitations were submitted to them by Col. Reid,
one of which was-
3
“A price may be attached to the objects exhibited, and
the objects, if sold, may be marked ; but no sales will be
permitted within the building."
This judicious recommendation was, however,
not adopted, for on the 11th April, 1850, the follow-
ing rule was published
“ The Exhibition being intended for the purposes of display
only, and not for those of sale. ...
“For the same reason the Commissioners have decided that
the prices are not to be affixed to the articles exhibited.”
Several strong remonstrances were addressed to
the Commissioners against the rule forbidding the
affixing prices to the articles exhibited. Efforts
were made both in public and through private
representations to some of its individual members,
by persons competent to advise, and anxious for
the success of a great and meritorious under-
taking
PRICES.
83
In the report of the Leeds Committee to the
Commissioners the following passage occurs :-
“ They are, further, most strongly of opinion that the
statement of price is essential, if the Exhibition is to be of any
real utility. To the manufacturer or merchant price will be
the test of comparative value and excellence in the majority
of cases; and the inspection of particular fabrics, especially
the products of other districts or countries, for the purposes
of information or improvement, will be of no avail to them if
price as well as style and finish is not before them.”
From the secretary to the Hamburg Commission
a communication was received stating that,
“ In consequence of the decision of the Commissioners with
respect to the prohibition to attach prices, it is the opinion that
there will be an incurable deficiency in the Exhibition.”
"
From the Central Danish Commission a letter
was sent, stating that
“By reason of the regulation of Her Majesty's Com-
missioners that prices may not be attached to articles sent for
exhibition, and Danish goods being chiefly remarkable for
their cheapness, a space of about 450 square ft. will be sufficient
for Denmark.”
The Chevalier Bunsen transmitted a despatch from
the Prussian government, objecting to the decision
of the Commissioners which prohibits the affixing of
prices to articles exhibited.
On the 14th November, 1850, an answer to
this letter was approved, and ordered to be sent to
all foreign commissioners.
The following are extracts :-
G2
84
PRICES.
“ The arguments advanced by you in favour of authorizing
the affixing of prices to the articles exhibited, have received
the maturest consideration of Her Majesty's Commissioners,
who are fully sensible of the great importance of the
subject.
“ At the same time, every wish is felt on their part, to give
to each exhibitor the benefit to be derived by him from the
knowledge on the part of the public, of the cheapness of the
articles exhibited by him. They feel, however, as they have
already intimated, that by allowing the affixing of the actual
prices to articles themselves, they should be making themselves
responsible for the accuracy of those prices in all instances, and
they would not consider themselves warranted in assuming this
responsibility in the case of an Exhibition of the productions
of all the nations in the world (however perfect may be the ma-
chinery in an individual country, like Prussia, for ensuring that
accuracy, and for preventing the liability to deception). But
Her Majesty's Commissioners authorize the attachment of a
notice to those Goods, of which the merit consists in the low
price at which they can be produced, to the effect that they
are exhibited for cheapness, and they have made it a condition
that all persons making this claim must send the prices in an
invoice to the Commissioners, who will instruct the juries to
make this an essential element in their determination of
their awards."
The Decision No. 16 was then altered as
follows:
“Prices are not to be affixed to the articles exhibited,
although the articles may be marked as shown for economy of
production. But as the cost at which articles can be pro-
duced will, in some cases, enter into the question of the
distribution of rewards, the Commissioners, or the persons
intrusted with the adjudication of the rewards, may have to
make inquiries, and possibly to take evidence, upon the sub-
ject; still they do not consider it expedient to affix a note of
PRICES.
85
the price to the articles displayed. When the Exhibitor
considers the merit of his article to consist in its cheapness,
and founds a claim on this ground, he must state the price in
the invoice sent to the Commissioners."
This rule is a model specimen of what
very
clever
men united in a large committee can assent to.
The first and last sentences of the oracular
writing pronounce that-
Prices must not be affixed to any article ex-
hibited for the judgment of the public, even though
there should be no other reason for exhibiting it
than its price.
The intervening sentence reveals to us that even
Commissioners may in some cases be themselves
unable to judge without a knowledge of the price
that it may perchance be so important that they
must take evidence upon it. Yet, with a very
flattering deference to the sagacity of the public,
they seem to think it can, without that information,
form as good an opinion as their own.
It may be remarked that the permission to ask
of the attendant the price of an article, on which
much stress has been laid, depends on several con-
tingencies, namely :—that every article has an at-
tendant;— that he is at all times at his post ;-and
also that he knows its price.
It is admitted that the Commissioners wish “ to
give each exhibitor the benefit to be derived by
him from the knowledge [of price] on the part of
“ the public," and also that the public cannot judge
66
86
PRICES.
without that information, and yet, with singular
inconsistency, they forbid the simplest and most
natural mode of accomplishing this object, placing
in fact an impediment in the way of their own
wishes.
The only argument which is urged in favour of
this rule, occurs in the reply to the Prussian appli.
cation, in which it is stated, “after the maturest
“ consideration on the part of Her Majesty's Com-
missioners,” they feel “ that by allowing the affix-
ing the actual price to the articles themselves,
they should be making themselves responsible for
“ the accuracy of those prices in all instances.”
This singular timidity in fact involves the Commis-
sioners in far larger responsibility, since according
to their own argument they admit that they are
“ responsible” for any statement they “ allow” the
exhibitors to make; it follows, therefore, that any
statement they command the exhibitors to attach to
the articles exposed must be still more firmly
guaranteed by the Commissioners.
But they have very rightly ordered that every
article shall have attached to it a statement of the
reason for which it is exhibited. Consequently they
guarantee the statements made by exhibitors.
If, therefore, a piece of calico is exhibited entirely
for the sake of the permanence of the beautiful
colour with which it is dyed, the beauty it is true
may be evident to the eye, but the merit will consist
PRICES.
87
wholly in the permanence. If this is stated by the
exhibitor, the Commissioners themselves are re-
sponsible for its truth.
Again, some beautiful damasked fabric is ex-
hibited; the only merit consists in its being made
entirely of flax. This statement must be appended,
or there is no use in exbibiting it; but if stated,
the Commissioners are responsible that there is no
silk intermixed : multitudes of similar cases might
be adduced.
But the truth is, that no such responsibility as
that which they have assumed, ought to be placed
on the Commissioners ; their duty is sufficiently
arduous, and their previous experience very limited.
A certain per centage of error and accident, will
necessarily occur, even to the most highly informed,
and if they industriously exercise the knowledge
they may acquire in carrying on this undertaking,
the public ought to be grateful for their labours-
to assist them in carrying out their regulations, and
remonstrate strongly only when their rules violate
the very foundations of those principles on which the
whole advantage of the Exposition rests.
Nothing could have been more simple than to
have repudiated any such guarantee, and to have
,
left the public to trust to the integrity and honour
of the exhibitors, which, considering the danger and
facility of detection, would have been a sufficient
security. The Royal, and almost all other scientific
88
PRICES.
or,
Societies, place at the head of each volume a
distinct declaration that their authors alone are
responsible, both for the facts as well as for the
reasonings contained in their respective memoirs.
♡ If the alternative were proposed, Shall the rule
rigidly laid down be ?
“No article shall have its price marked on
it"
“Every article must have its price marked upon
“it,”—the disadvantages would be far less under the
latter rule. The essential principle of the Exposition
being the increase of commerce and the exchange
of commodities, it might even be contended that
sales should be permitted on the premises. The
chief objection to this arises from the impediments
it might offer to the free access of visitors to the
examination of the articles exhibited.
Means, however, might be suggested by which
that objection would be considerably removed. It
might, for instance, be permitted to all those ex-
hibitors of articles of moderate size, that they
should bring in with them each morning a sufficient
number of such articles, done up in paper ready to
be delivered to the purchaser on his handing over
the money price. This would apply to a large
number of articles, as shawls, dresses, &c.
In other articles, sold by weight, packets might
be previously made up of various weights, as one
pound, three pounds, six pounds, &c. In those
PRICES.
S9
sold by length, parcels of fixed numbers of yards
might be prepared.
If this system were still thought to be inconveni-
ent from causing crowds in particular. spots, it
might be permitted to the attendants to take orders
for articles to be sent home in the evening, and
paid for either at the time or on delivery.
It is quite certain that under either of these con-
ditions a much larger quantity of merchandize
would be sold immediately.
Many would purchase on the spot who could
never return for that purpose, or who were on the
point of leaving London, and much trouble would
be saved to a large class of purchasers.
The effect of the purchases made in the earlier
days of the Exposition, would act as so many ad-
vertisements to attract visitors on the succeeding
days; some articles thus purchased would pro-
bably be sent into the country by friends, and
others be taken home by visitors, and many addi-
tional country visitors would thus be attracted
before the end of the season.
Another and a very important advantage would
also accrue from such an arrangement. The manu-
facturers acquire their knowledge of the demand
for their productions from the factors and agents;
these again from the shopkeepers who sell by retail
to the public. Under the proposed circumstances,
this knowledge would be acquired much more
90
PRICES.
rapidly, and in the course of the first two or three
weeks the opinion of the public would be known
upon all the articles of most popular demand.
Upon the whole, the best plan seems to be that
the rule should be
Every article must have its price attached.”
The exception should be exemptions granted by
officers of the Commission, and the ground of those
exemptions should be stated on the respective
articles.
At the Exposition at Paris, in 1849, the general
rule was that upon each article its price should be
marked. Certain exceptions occurred, and in two
instances the writer of these pages wishing to pur-
chase specimens, although assisted most willingly
by M. Le Dieu, the indefatigable head of the
management always present on the spot, was un-
able, after some correspondence and much inquiry,
to purchase or obtain samples of the objects he
desired.
Ś Perhaps the best way of complying with the
rules of the Commissioners, and yet giving the
public what they tacitly admit the public will de-
mand, would be that the exhibitor should fix on
each of his articles, in a conspicuous manner, a
letter or a number, * and that he should have on the
* As by one of the rules each separate article exhibited
must have a number, the same numbers might be used in the
bills.
PRICES.
91
>
printed bill or card of address all the correspond-
ing numbers or letters, and opposite to each the
price at which it was to be sold at his warehouse
or place of business. Each expositor
Each expositor might have a
quantity of these addresses hung up or placed upon
his stall, with an indication to the public that they
were at liberty to take away these cards or bills.
It may be worth while to make a few observa-
tions on the reasons which probably influenced and
misled the Commission on so important a point.
The tradesmen of London had been unduly and
rather indelicately pressed to subscribe towards the
Exposition; many were compelled to subscribe
against their wishes. They saw few or none of the
advantages which would accrue to them from it,
and they believed, (erroneously,) that it would in-
undate the country with foreign and cheaper articles
that would supplant their own trade.
It was thought that, when the public became
acquainted with the wholesale as well as with the
retail price of articles, such knowledge would lead
to a reduction of the retail profits. The public,
it was argued, would be reluctant to make a fair
allowance for the various items which contribute
to swell the amount of the difference between the
wholesale and retail price of commodities.
§ It may be useful then to state broadly the prin-
ciple, that it is greatly for the advantage of the
public, both as regards economy of time and of
92
PRICES.
>
?
money, that there should always exist a sufficient
number of middle-men of various orders.
The shopkeeper, who is the one in immediate
contact with the public, and therefore liable to
the greatest misrepresentation, has, amongst others,
the following expenses to add to the cost of
production, which must necessarily increase the
retail price :
1. Commission to broker or other middle-man.
2. Cost of carriage from manufactory to shop.
3. Rent of shop itself, and perhaps, also of a
warehouse.
4. Insurance of stock against fire.
5. Attendants to sell in shop.
6. Sending goods home to purchasers.
7. Expense of paper, string, &c. for packing
goods delivered.
8. Loss by plunder of servants.
9. Expense of taking stock to diminish this loss.
10. Goods soiled or injured by exposing to sale.
11. Goods going out of fashion, cheapened by
improved manufacture, or superseded by new in-
ventions.
12. Giving long credit.
13. Bad debts.
14. Payment for his own personal services, as
retail trader.
15. Interest on capital employed.
Admitting, however, that these grounds fully
PRICES.
93
account for a large difference between the wholesale
and retail price, they will by no means justify
several practices which are too frequent at some
shops at the west end of the town.
Different prices for the very same article are
often demanded by retail tradesmen, according to
the supposed position of the purchaser. Fish, for
example, which varies much in price, and is at
times very cheap, will seldom be found charged in
the household bill much below the average price,
unless the housekeeper is honest and looks sharply
after the matter. Few circumstances more annoy
a customer or are more injurious to the tradesman
than this offence of having two prices.
When the same prices are charged equally to all
customers, it often happens that it is much higher in
the western than in less fashionable localities. This ·
may arise from a vicious system of giving credit,
and the extra price is necessary to compensate for
risk of loss, and of capital lying unproductive. The
effect, however, is injurious to the tradesman
many of those who pay ready money and would
therefore be his best customers, desert the shop.
Those whose means are small, go to a greater
distance for the daily or weekly purchases; whilst
those possessed of larger incomes, purchase the
same articles, not only at a cheaper shop in the
city but in larger quantities, and therefore more
nearly at the wholesale price.
94
PRICES.
Our foreign visitors naturally ask how it hap-
pened that in the country of Adam Smith so
strange a mistake could have been made : they
inquire why none of the eminent disciples of that
school were placed on the Commission ? They will
learn with surprise that our Minister of Commerce
took, as befitted his office, an active part in it;
that the great economist, to whose profound views
and extensive experience in monetary affairs more
than one minister has been indebted, was also a
member; that even the apostle of free trade him-
self, whose successful exertions have been crowned
with merited reward, sat on the same commission;
and yet that the talents, the knowledge, and the
eloquence of such men, failed to convince the un-
derstandings of their colleagues, who, in violation
of the first principles of “ Free trade,” deliberately
raised an obstacle against competition.
Since the first edition of this work was printed,
the Crystal Palace has been filled by the industry
and peopled by the nations of the earth. The
fears of the ignorant, the hopes of the selfish, the
vaticinations of the shallow, have proved alike
groundless. Opinions expressed by the few who
were competent to judge, which were then scouted
as the ravings of visionaries, have now become
realized as facts.
However great the admitted advantages result-
ing from the Exposition have been, still it has failed
PRICES.
95
to produce anything like the information which it
was calculated to afford. Many of those who most
rejoice in its success regret that so much perse-
verance and energy have not, owing to one fatal
error, been permitted to accomplish the full amount
of good which they so well deserved to have achieved.
The public have now had ample opportunity of
forming their own opinion upon the question of
price; and they are almost unanimous in their
decision that without having the price on the
articles they examine, the collection is of little
intrinsic use to them, although it is a very agreeable
and splendid show.
No attempt to answer the arguments on that
question contained in the first edition of this work
has yet reached me. An entirely different reason
has now been assigned for the omission of price.
It is asserted that the shopkeepers of London
persuaded the Commissioners that if prices were
permitted to be fixed upon articles, they, the
shopkeepers, would destroy the Exhibition, by not
exhibiting anything themselves, and by their de-
termination ruin the producer, if, by affixing prices
to his produce, he should expose the “secrets of
trade."
One of the proverbs most frequently appealed to
is – deprecation of protection by one's friends :
few cases have ever occurred in which its applica-
tion is more necessary.
>
96
PRICES.
These friends thus maintain that the reason for
forbidding prices to be placed upon articles, stated
by the Commissioners to have been arrived at after
mature consideration, and officially communicated
by them to foreign governments,- was not the real
reason.
The motive of the rule laid down by the Com-
mission seems to have been a conscientious wish
not to mislead the public, and was at most only an
error of judgment.
The friends of the Commission, however, have
imputed to them a line of conduct which, to use
the mildest form of expression, is highly undignified,
and have suggested that they were driven to the
adoption of the rule by fears which were absurd.
Some of the fashionable shopkeepers at the
West-end may have endeavoured to alarm their
too credulous customers by holding out such ex-
aggerated estimates of their own power ; but the
mass of London tradesmen are a shrewder race, and
estimate more truly their own influence. They
well know, in the present state of rapid communica-
tion throughout the land, that any such attempt must
necessarily fail. Imagine for a moment the present
race of butchers attempting to starve London by
combining to withhold meat. The utmost they
could accomplish, if so inclined, would be to put
their customers to some small and temporary inconve-
nience, at the expense of certain ruin to themselves.
1
PRICES.
97
The practical effect of forbidding prices has been
very unfortunate.
The great and meritorious
efforts by which the plan has been carried out,
have been shorn of much of their utility. A build-
ing of half the size, containing only articles each
of which had attached to it a short and clear state-
ment of the grounds on which it was exhibited,
and the price at which it could be acquired, would
have conveyed far more instruction to the public,
and have been far more effective for the promotion
of commerce, thus fulfilling much more completely
the two great objects of the Exposition.
To reply that prices may be obtained on inquiry,
betrays a childish ignorance of the whole subject.
It is practically impossible to obtain the required
information ; and those who have made the effort,
have found that even in the cases where an atten-
dant is present to explain the articles, he is often
entirely ignorant of their price.
The effect of the absence of price on visitors is
a source of painful annoyance to themselves, and of
loss to the manufacturers and shopkeepers, from
whom they would otherwise have purchased largely.
Foreigners are so sensible of this defect, that
they have in many instances printed priced cata-
logues of their own articles. Their interpretation
of our refusal to allow prices to be affixed is, that
we are unable to compete with other nations in
economy of production.
н
98
PRICES.
i
The philosopher and the economist, by whose
researches and comparisons the public might have
been instructed, wander through the lofty avenues
and splendid galleries of the Crystal Palace, tan-
talized by expectations, raised but to be disap-
pointed. They at last are compelled to abandon
their mission in hopeless despair, wilfully deprived,
by the managers of this industrial feast, of that
information on which all their conclusions must
ultimately rest.
1
1
CHAPTER IX.
PRIZES.
The great feature of the original plan of the
Exposition was to give large prizes. One, at least,
was to have been 5,0001., and the whole amount of
them 20,0001.
The anticipation of these prizes gave hope and
industry to thousands : means were examined and
measures taken by many a workman, at the expense
of great personal sacrifices, to enable him to com-
plete a model of some favourite scheme, by which
he might hope to win one amongst the many pecu-
niary prizes, and thus be repaid at least for a
portion of his efforts.
The announcement on the Continent of these
liberal arrangements was received with unbounded
astonishment and admiration. The magnitude of
the great prize seemed to foreigners incredible, and
the liberality of offering it to the competing world,
was altogether beyond their conception of the
character assigned to us as a nation.
It was certainly very unfortunate that such an
н2
100
PRIZES.
announcement should have been made and then
withdrawn. But as the question will probably
arise again, it may be useful for some future occa-
sion to inquire now into the principles on which
pecuniary prizes should be awarded.
Science, literature, and industrial art are in
some measure subject to the same laws in the
distribution of pecuniary rewards. It is desirable
that such prizes should be given to those objects
only which, possessing very considerable merit and
utility, are of such a nature as not to repay the first
inventors.
Ś One effect of such rewards would be to increase
very much the number of minds engaged in making
inventions. This itself is a matter of more impor-
tance than might at first be thought, as will be
shown on some future occasion in examining the
question of monopoly.
The inventor, the capitalist, and the manufacturer
of articles are usually distinct persons. Of these
the inventor is generally the least rewarded. The
capitalist and the manufacturer can almost always
make their own way to wealth, and if successful
their reward is usually large, and almost always
greater even than the highest prize which could be
offered by the managers of such an Exhibition as is
now contemplated.
If it were a condition for obtaining a prize that
no patent should be taken out, then the prize may
PRIZES.
101
be considered as the purchase money of the patent
for the use of the public. If a patent is desired by
the inventor, a medal or an honorary prize might
be given, with the addition in certain cases of a
reward in money.
a
Perhaps an enumeration of some objects which
might become fit subjects for prizes, may best illus-
trate these views.
Ś One of the inventions most important to a class
of highly skilled workmen (engineers) would be
a small motive power,-ranging perhaps from the
force of half a man, to that of two horses, which might
commence as well as cease its action at a moment's
notice, require no expense of time for its manage-
ment, and be of moderate price both in original
cost and in daily expense. A small steam-engine
does not fulfil these conditions. In a town where
water is supplied at high-pressure, a cylinder and a
portion of apparatus similar to that of a high-pres-
sure engine, would fully answer the conditions, if
the water could be supplied at a moderate price.
Such a source of power would in many cases be in-
valuable to men just rising from the class of jour-
neyman to that of master. It might also be of
great use to many small masters in various trades.
If the cost per day were even somewhat greater
than that of steam for an equal extent of power,
it would yet be on the whole much cheaper,
because it would never consume power without doing
102
PRIZES.
work. It might be applied to small planing and
drilling machines, to lathes, to grindstones, grind-
ing mills, mangling, and to a great variety of other
purposes.
♡ In all large workshops a separate tool, or
rather machine, is used for each process, and this
contributes to the economy of the produce. But
many masters in a small way are unable to afford
such an expense, not having sufficient work for the
full employment of any one machine.
Of this class are many jobbing masters who live
by repairing machines. Such also are that class of
masters who make models of the inventions of
others and carry out for them their mechanical
speculations. To these two classes, that of amateur
engineers may be added.
The lathe with its sliding rest is the basis of
their stock. With this they can drill, and with the
addition of a few wheels can cut screws. The
further addition of a vertical slide will enable them
to plane small pieces of metal by means of facing
cutters on the mandril. By other additions the
teeth of wheels may also be cut, and in some rare
cases, a lathe may be converted into a small planing
,
machine. The loss of time in making the changes
necessary to enable the lathe to fulfil all these
different functions, necessarily confines its use to
the peculiar classes alluded to above, but to make
these changes is often less expensive than to be
J
PRIZES
103
2
obliged continually to send to larger workshops
where the heavier portion of their work can be
executed. It would certainly be desirable, if some
good plan cannot be devised for bringing the whole of
such operations within the reach of one machine of
moderate price, that at least a system should be
devised for combining them in two separate machines.
Some readers may possibly think such combina-
tions as have been mentioned, too minute and special
for the subject of a prize: but when it is con-
sidered that they bear upon the interests of one of
the best classes of workmen, and how important it
is for the welfare of the community that skill, in-
dustry, and intelligence should be assisted in their
efforts to rise in the social scale, these details will
be excused.
The improvements which have been made in
the economy of working voltaic batteries, lead to the
expectation that they may be employed as sources
of artificial light. Although the light thus ob-
tained is not yet sufficiently steady for general
use, it may possibly become available for light-
houses.
Galvanic light offers some advantages for this
purpose on account of its intensity and of the
facility it affords for darkening and restoring the
light, by breaking and renewing the galvanic
circuit.
But it would be possible to adapt the same
v
104
PRIZES.
principle of occultations to ordinary lighthouses.
It would only be necessary to apply mechanism
which should periodically pull down an opaque
shade over the glass cylinders of the argand burners.
This should be instantaneously thrown back by a
spring. A series of obscurations corresponding to
the digits of any number, and separated by any in-
tervals, might thus be continually repeated.
Ready means might thus be supplied of clearly
distinguishing one light-house from another. For
it would be necessary to denote the
light-houses on any coast by different numbers.
Any digit might be expressed by an equivalent
number of occultations and restorations of the light:
thus-
this purpose
1
0.0
2
0.0.0
3
9
0.0.0.0, &c., 0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0
Again, the character of the digit might be in-
dicated by occultations preceded and followed, by
shorter or longer intervals of light.
At the commencement, the first digit of any
number, might be distinguished by a previous
uniform continuance of the light during ten or
twenty seconds, whilst the separation of each digit
from the next in order might be denoted by a
short pause of two or three or more seconds.
Thus, if the number of a light-house were 253 :
after a cessation of any obscuration during ten
PRIZES.
105
seconds, two occultations should follow each other
at intervals of about a second. A pause should
then occur during three seconds, after which five
occultations should occur, at intervals of one
second, as before. Another
Another pause of three seconds
must then happen, and be succeeded by three
other occultations occurring at intervals of one
second each ; after which ten seconds must elapse
.;
before the cycle thus described is repeated.
These might be thus represented :-
2 hundreds. 5 tens.
3 units.
0000000000-0000:0:0:0:0:000.00.0000000000
Thus, at about every half minute the number
of the lighthouse would be repeated.
In this manner any number under 1,000 may be
expressed in less than one minute; since the largest,
999, would require
.
For each digit 9, or in all
Two short pauses between the digits
One long long pause at end of the number
Seconds.
. 27
6
. 10
一
​43
Every light-house, therefore, would be continually
repeating its own number.
It would contribute still more to prevent mistakes,
if the light-houses on a coast were not numbered
in succession ; for should any mistake be made in
counting the obscurations, it would most probably
106
PRIZES.
be detected if the digits of the numbers of the
light-houses on the same part of the coast were as
different as possible.
}
Lighthouse numbered in succession-
234 235 236 237
238
Ditto irregularly-
142 324
581
787
612
a
If a mistake of a single obscuration were made in
the units of the number 237, and it had been counted
236, this observation might, until repeated, mislead
the sailor, and induce him to suppose himself opposite
the preceding light-house. On the contrary, if the
irregular mode of numbering were adopted, the
mistake of 786 for 787 could not mislead, because
the seven in the hundreds place would point out
the error.
It would, however, be better to have
the figure in the tens' place also different in any
two light-houses so near that a possibility of mistake
is likely to occur. The general benefit which would
result to all maritime nations, renders the practical
application of these principles a peculiarly fit sub-
ject for a prize.
Since the first edition of this work was published,
an occulting light has been exhibited for about
three weeks, representing during each night the
constant repetition of one of the following num-
bers, 136, 227, 354, 432.
As might easily have been anticipated, its effect
7
PRIZES.
107
)
was quite satisfactory in determining those num-
bers. At about a distance of a quarter of a mile,
its occultations were even more distinct than at
shorter distances.
Successive improvements have occurred, until it
now seems desirable to revise and simplify the light-
houses of the world, by making them speak one
universal language, intelligible even to the com-
monest capacity. No time could be more favour-
able than the present for establishing an inter-
national system of signals, founded on numbers,
and adapted to the wants and convenience of all
nations. The following brief outline of such a
plan requires, therefore, no apology.
The present modes of identifying lighthouses
are by
1. The colour of the lights.
2. The number, distance, and relative position of
the lights exhibited.
3. The variations in colour or intensity, or in
the time during which the lights are par-
tially or totally obscured, compared with
that during which they are visible.
4. By striking bells or gongs in foggy weather.
There are around the coasts of Great Britain
about 290 light-houses and light-ships. They
exhibit nearly 390 lights. Of these, about one
hundred lights are coloured, chiefly red. Fifty-five
108
PRIZES.
J
are revolving lights, varying in their periods from
five seconds to four minutes. In foggy weather
fifteen of these toll bells, and thirty-three strike
gongs. It is proposed to abolish all the revolving
lights, and to retain white light, to distinguish by
its occultations the number of the light-house which
it is destined to indicate.
With respect to those lighthouses which indicate
ports, next to the information as to the name of the
port, the most important question is the depth of
water at its entrance. This may be given by
allowing the occultations of the white light to
indicate the number of the port, after which a
glass of green or of any other colour being inter-
posed, the number of occultations mark the
number of feet of the depth of water at the
time.
A float in a well, to which the tide has access by
a small aperture, will serve the double purpose of
raising the weight that drives the mechanism for
occulting, and of prescribing, according to the
height of the tide in feet, the corresponding
number of occultations of the green light.
Thus a constant alternation will go on during
the whole night of repetitions of the number of the
port, by occultations of white light, and of the
number of feet which indicate the depth of water
at its entrance, by green light.
There are certain cases of obscuration of lights
PRIZES.
109
by fog in which bells and gongs are continually
sounded. These convey information of danger,
but do not identify its position.
The same
principle which gives numerical accuracy to light-
houses, and even the same mechanism, may be
made to operate during fogs with equal effect on
sounds. Thus, by striking the gong the requisite
,
number of times to indicate the hundreds, the
tens, and the units denoting the light, allowing,
of course, the usual pauses and the same long
intervals, the number of the light-house or light-
ship may be known as quickly and as certainly by
means of bells, or gongs, or other sounds, as by
the occultations of its light.
It may be worth examining what musical notes
are heard at the greatest distances through fogs,
and the sounds of what instruments penetrate
farthest amidst the roar of winds and waves. The
shrill whistle of the steam carriage should be tried
against the deep tones of the organ and the loud
noise of the trumpet. The most powerful sounds
produced by air require but little physical force
for their generation; and whenever the directions
in which it is necessary to give warning are known,
the sounds employed may be concentrated by re-
flectors, in the same manner as light.
The depth of water at the entrance of harbours
may easily be indicated in the day-time by a tide-
telegraph governed by the same float which produces
110
PRIZES.
the occultations during the night. Its form may be
as below,
in which the arms projecting on the left side
indicate the tens; those on the right side the
units. The long arm for the fifth saves trouble
in counting These arms must be movable on
centres within the mast, and must be governed by
cams connected with the float, so as to indicate at
any time the state of the tide. If it were found
necessary to distinguish light-houses during the
day, then signs expressing their permanent numbers
might be painted upon them, or fixed to masts
rising out of each. The right side of the telegraph
might, if required, be used as a day telegraph for
communicating with vessels.
By means of such light-houses it would be easy
to convey telegraphic messages either to vessels in
distress, or for other purposes. It would simply
be required to use the light itself or a subsidiary
one to indicate a series of numbers corresponding
PRIZES.
111
1
1
to those in some known Telegraphic Dictionary.
No danger of any mistake could arise during the
few minutes thus employed, because any other
vessel on counting the succession of obscurations
would not only perceive that the light-house was
telegraphing, but would also know the object of
the message. A small apparatus might easily be
.
contrived for the use of vessels, by which they
might ask any questions necessary for their safety.
Such means for ships sailing in company, or even
for fleets, might enable them to proceed on their
voyage during the night, and to communicate any
orders even with greater facility than in the day,
Sir David Brewster proposed in the Edinburgh
Philosophical Transactions a plan for distinguishing
light-houses by optical means. The light trans-
mitted through a thin film, when analysed by
a prism, appears either single, or subdivided into
two, three, four or more parts. Light-houses, there-
fore, might thus be distinguished from one another
numerically
CHAPTER X.
JURIES, ETC.
A CLEAR statement of the principles on which
each jury is to award prizes, should be placed
before them. These principles ought to be well
discussed, and in that discussion manufacturers
should be invited to take a part.
The first object of the jury should be to lay
down rules by which these principles are to be
carried out. Each class of the subjects to be
rewarded will have its own rules.
They will
generally be few in number, and capable of being
expressed in few words: some of these are suggested
below, but merely by way of example.
One of the most general rules will indicate
the means by which the jury can ascertain the fact,
that the material of the manufacture under con-
sideration is truly the substance it is represented
to be.
For instance : some woven fabric is examined,
professing to be made either entirely of wool, or
wholly of flax. It may be quite true that ex-
JURIES, ETC.
113
perienced manufacturers and dealers, are able to
detect any adulteration of either material by ad-
mixture with the other. But statements of facts
made on authority, never possess the same weight
with the public as those which are accompanied
by information enabling any individual among that
public to verify the fact for himself.
The form of the fibre as shown by the microscope
is one test. A more simple one is to burn some
fibres in the flame of a candle. Every fibre which,
when thus treated, produces the smell of burnt
feathers, is animal matter of some kind, as wool,
silk, horse-hair, &c. The burnt fibres of hemp,
flax, cotton, and other vegetable matters have a
totally different scent; a fact of which any one
may readily assure himself by making the ex-
periment.
It may perhaps be necessary in some cases to
wash the fabric under examination, lest in what is
termed the "getting up for the market,' some
animal matter or size might mislead. But the jury
ought to be acquainted with all such difficulties, and
they should state the method they took for investi-
gating them.
The microscope is of great use in the detection
of adulterations in most vegetable substances.
ģ Every object produced is subject to certain
defects, and possessed of certain excellences : these
should be clearly enumerated. Whenever such
I
114
ETC.
JURIES,
:
>
statements are expressed by numbers, the informa-
tion will be more satisfactory.
Thus, in cutting tools, as applied to various
metals, it is very important that the angle at which
the tool is applied, should be stated : it is also
necessary to state the angle which the edge of the
tool receiving the shaving cut off, makes with the
surface cut. The velocity of the tool in cutting
should be stated, also the names of the fluids, if
any, used in cutting
The durability of woven fabrics, as well as of
a great variety of other manufactured articles,
is a most essential quality, on which, combined
with the price, their chief value to the customer
depends.
It is very desirable that the jury should find
satisfactory means of testing this most important
character, which is not discernible, even by the
most curious and instructed spectator.
The knowledge of the weight required for tear-
ing asunder any woven fabric, as a ribbon, a stay-
lace, tape, &c., together with the breaking weight of
their individual threads, and the number of these
threads in an inch, may in some cases be very
valuable, especially in coarse articles, such as sail-
cloth, sacking, &c.
In other cases, the articles may be submitted to
twenty or thirty washings and dryings, during
which it may repeatedly be examined. The greatest
>
JURIES, ETC.
115
change will most frequently occur on the first
washing, which removes the dressing.
In many articles the durability of different
parts varies considerably. In some cases one part
will wear out, if replaced, many times before the
remainder of the article is at all injured by use.
In all such cases the jury should adopt such rules
as the following :-
Examine the durability of each part, and also
the difficulty and the expense of replacing it when
injured.
Examine also, for the same purpose, what parts
are most exposed to injury or destruction by
accident.
Examine also the relative expense of putting the
article in a working state when first purchased and
brought home.
These rules will be best understood by an illus-
tration. Let us suppose a jury to be examining the
relative merits of several cottage stoves for cook-
ing Of course the first inquiry will be as to
which admits of the best performance of the ope-
rations of
Boiling,
Baking,
Stewing,
Supply of hot water,
Roasting,
Ironing,
Broiling,
&c.
The cost of the fuel must not only be given,
but also its weight, because the price of fuel varies
a
I 2
116
JURIES, ETC.
in different localities. The capability of using
different sorts of fuel in the several stoves, and the
amount of fuel so consumed for its equivalent of
coal, should also be stated.
These and other comparative inquiries having
been made, the durability of that part of the stove
which is subjected to the direct action of the burn-
ing fuel, must be examined. It will be made either
of iron or of earthenware; and the relative merit of
the various stoves will, as far as this point is con-
cerned,consist in the facility and economy with which
such parts can be removed, and the corresponding
new parts be purchased and replaced in their proper
position. It is always desirable for the consumer
that the vendors of such articles should keep a stock
of the parts liable to wear out, and that the latter
should undertake to replace them at a fixed price.
Those parts of the stove which project so as to be
liable to accidental blows, and those which from their
more constant use are much exposed to accident,
as the hinges and the latches of doors, should then
be examined. These, if of cast-iron or other brittle
material, and constituting part of the substance of
the door, should be sufficiently strong to resist
fracture : if they are attached to it by rivets or
otherwise, they will be lighter and stronger when
made of wrought-iron.
The last inquiry is into the expense of fixing the
stove for use.
It may be set in brickwork, within
JURIES,
117
ETC.
the chimney, in which case it will require a brick-
layer and a large mass of materials in the shape of
bricks and mortar, and possibly of stone. Or it
may stand on its own base containing its own ash-pit.
and by means of a small iron pipe the smoke may
be conveyed into a flue. In this case almost any
workman with bammer and chisel and a small
quantity of mortar or cement, can fix it ready for
use.
Again, the stop-cock for the water-cistern may be
either hard-soldered, riveted, or screwed in. If the
latter, it can easily be unscrewed or reground when
necessary. The same remark applies to the leaden
supply-pipe; it may be connected by soldering, or
by a union joint. In the former case these parts
will require the aid not only of the tinman or copper-
smith, but also of the plumber.
♡ The expense of repairing a machine does not in
all cases depend on the cost of the part replaced, or
even on the actual cost of replacing that part alone.
It often happened in the earlier days of loco-
motive engines, that the expense of some small
reparation necessary to keep the machine in good
working order, did not amount to ten shillings;
whilst the expense of removing and replacing other
parts, without which the workman could not get at
the defective part, amounted to fifty or eighty shil-
lings, or even to a still larger sum.
Thus facility of getting at all the parts of an
a
118
JURIES, ETC.
Ś
?
engine for the purposes of repair, or even of exami-
nation, is one of the advantages which the broad
possesses over the narrow gauge.
In many articles exposed to great or sudden
force, and to much wear and tear, it is very
de-
sirable that if any breakage occur, it should happen
at that point where the consequences would be the
least dangerous to the persons using it, and the
reparation of it least expensive.
During a series of experiments made by the
author in 1839, on the Great Western Railway, it
was necessary, amongst a variety of other curves, to
cause a pen to draw upon long rolls of paper the
curve described by the centre of a carriage, pro-
jected on the plane of the road.
When everything
is in proper order, this line ought to be parallel to,
and in the middle between the two rails. But it is
well known that instead of answering these condi-
tions, it often describes a serpentine curve, arising
from that snake-like motion of a train which the
carriages acquire by rolling alternately towards each
rail, until they are checked by the flanges pressing
against it.
To accomplish the drawing of the line above-
mentioned, it was necessary to have depending
from the carriage, a very stout jointed wooden arm,
terminating in an iron shoe with a steel projection.
This shoe was, by a powerful spring, pressed close
to the rail in the middle point between the two side
JURIES, ETC.
119
a
wheels of the carriage, and by a communication
with the pen the required curve was described.
But such an apparatus was exposed to very
rough work, and, in fact, was generally broken
three or four times during each experimental jour-
ney. If the broken part had fallen between the
wheel and the rail, it might have caused a serious
accident. To prevent this the following precautions
were taken
The wooden arm was strengthened with thin
strips of iron, except at one part about an inch
long. At this part of the wood a small notch was
cut with a saw. The lower portion had a strong
iron eye fixed into it, which was connected loosely
to a hook by a rope passing through a hole in the
middle of the carriage.
Whenever the apparatus broke, it was always at
the notch. The position of the loose rope holding
the broken part was such, that the tendency was
immediately to drag it into the middle of the road
under the centre of the carriage. This at once re-
moved it from interference with the wheels. The
pen describing the curve soon gave notice by ceas-
ing to move laterally, that the arm was broken ;
on which one of the assistants immediately took
hold of the loose rope, and pulling the broken
fragment close up to the bottom of the carriage,
prevented the possibility of any further danger.
♡ If each jury were to explain concisely the
120
JURIES, ETC.
means employed by them to examine the qualities
of each class of objects submitted to them, much
valuable information would result. A collection of
these rules for the judgment or verification of
articles, if reduced into order, and published in a
small compass, by a competent person, at the close
of the Exposition, would be invaluable to the
public. The result would be beneficial to all honest
tradesmen, and injurious only to the fradulent.
Such means when put into the hands of the public
would soon enable it to distinguish the genuine
from the sophisticated articles, and to select those
which in point of excellence and durability are best
suited to the means or wants of the purchaser. *
The increased knowledge of the public would be
felt by the retail dealers, and would make them
more anxious to obtain excellent and durable goods
from the manufacturer.
♡ Several of the papers issued by the Commis-
sion bear honourable testimony to the sagacity
of those who composed them. They treat the
persons addressed as reasoning men, explaining
to them the results contemplated : thus whilst
offering their own most strenuous exertions, they
admit that these would' scarcely prove effective
without the co-operation of the public in a plan
devised for the common advantage of all.
* Several valuable papers containing rules of this kind
have lately appeared in the Lancet.
JURIES, ETC.
121
In former days had there been water-fowl in our
parks, some such notice as this would have been
placarded :-
“Whoever throws stones at, or frightens these
“birds, shall be prosecuted with the utmost severity
“ of the law."
In the present day we read the much more
effective address,
“ These birds are recommended to the protection
“ of the public.”
However ragged the coat of the passer-by, his
feelings not his fears are addressed, and his pride
is gratified by being appointed as it were a tempo-
rary trustee for the safety of his feathered friends.
The advantage of acting upon this principle is not
confined merely to its direct efficiency for its pur-
pose. A still more important benefit remains
latent, one which never ought to be lost sight of in
the enactment or the administration of laws.
It enlists public opinion in favour of law and of
order. *
.
* The ancient law of rendering the hundred responsible for
damages done by a mob, is founded on this principle. It is so
important, that the reader will, perhaps, pardon another illus-
tration.
Amongst boys as amongst men, a degree of pugnacity ex-
ists, to the annoyance of the more quiet portion. This was
checked at a certain school by giving full permission to the
boys to fight whenever they liked, and at the same time pre-
scribing certain simple rules for the combat, as follows :-
.
122
JURIES, ETC.
Thus aiding the prevention, the detection, and
the punishment of offenders, it renders the inter-
ference of the police far less necessary, and when
called for, more effective.
This principle might perhaps be applied with
advantage to the admission under regulations of
certain classes of skilled workmen by means of
tickets, for a limited number of days.
Most effective assistance might be rendered both
to the police and to the attendants at the Exposi-
tion by the following plan :-Allow a certain
.
1. When two boys wish to fight, they must inform the
chief usher of their wish.
2. He must appoint a time for the combat, not sooner
than three, nor more than six hours, after the notice.
3. At the appointed time, if the lads are still desirous of
the contest, the chief usher must take the pugnacious
ones to an enclosure, where they cannot be seen by
their comrades. He then desires them to fight
until they are tired, he standing by to see fair play.
4. Any boy present or assisting at an illegal fight will be
punished.
The consequence is that their honour or their ill-humour is
soon satisfied. No party is made, to back them ; no friends
call out to them, “Give it him, Tom !” “At him, Jack !”
Their pugnacity is not, as it has been in some instances
at public schools, unnaturally excited by the stimulus either
of betting or of brandy.
After long experience, it was found that quarrels rarely
arrived at a fight. It was the interest of all the rest of the
school to make some just and amicable arrangement.
JURIES, ETC.
123
number of persons, in whom the executive can
repose confidence,-generally master manufacturers
or employers,—the privilege of recommending a
small number of their best and most regular
workmen or assistants, to whom should be
granted tickets of admission, subject to the fol-
lowing conditions :-
1. Tickets of admission shall be granted for
periods of from three to any greater number of
days. Some tickets being for the first three days
of each week, or otherwise, as may be convenient.
2. They shall either be gratuitous or obtainable
by a small payment.
3. Each ticket-holder shall wear the ticket by a
string from the button of his coat, or as may be
arranged.
4. He shall, when required by the police or at-
tendants, assist in any duty they may desire for the
safety or general convenience of the expositors.
5. Whenever he observes any irregularity, or
has reason to believe that thieves or improper
persons have obtained admission, he is to inform
the nearest policeman.
6. Whenever he observes any machine or any
object exhibited, to be out of order, or in danger
of being injured, or its parts misplaced, he is to
communicate the fact to the nearest attendant, who
will refer him to the proper superintendent of that
department. He will explain the defect he has
124
JURIES, ETC.
persons,
pointed out, and if asked by the superintendent, he
is to put it in order, or suggest to him some other
person then present, who may be better able to
complete the reparation.
7. Each master should be required to pledge
his word that he will only recommend trustworthy
Each workman admitted might simply
be required to give his word of honour that he
would assist.
These regulations ought to be printed and stuck
up in various parts of the building.
It would, indeed, be desirable to have a certain
number of boards placed in the most public parts
of the Exposition, on which should be fixed and
properly classified all rules, and other information
useful to the public. Also notices as to prices and
hours of visiting the Exposition might from time
to time be affixed. Each board ought also to have
a plan of the ground-floor and galleries of the
building, on which the names of the different sub-
jects and countries occupying the various parts,
might be readily ascertained by the visitors.
CHAPTER XI.
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
>
BESIDES those universal advantages which will
result, in a greater or less degree, to every nation
maintaining friendly intercourse with its neighbours,
there are others arising from the Exposition, which
may be secured by a little industry and small ex-
pense, if timely thought is bestowed upon them.
.
There are also opportunities for advancing several
kindred subjects to which it may be useful to
allude.
The most obvious is the facility it will afford of
making extensive collections of examples of the pre-
sent state of many industrial products.* All woven
manufactures, for example, might be arranged in
books. A small piece of each article being pasted
in, might be followed by a short statement of the
various facts relating to it—as, for example, a piece
of plain cambric-
* The French chamber has devoted 50,000 francs to the
purchase of specimens.-(Illustrated News, 23. Feb. 1851.)
1
126
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
PLAIN CAMBRIC. (Date.)
Woven in a -loom, at- -by
Number of threads in warp.
of weft, in ten inches length.
Breadth of piece in inches.
Length of piece in yards.
Weight per square yard.
Price per yard retail.
-piece of
—yards, as sold by the manufacturer.
,
Coloured woven goods might be similarly ar-
ranged as regards colour, and the note connected
with them ought to contain the name and locality
of the dyer, and also the nature of the dye used.
Such volumes would hereafter become highly in-
structive, and save many costly experiments. But
it will be necessary to provide against, or to
allow for the fading of the colouring matter. This
could be done only by preserving some portion of
it unchanged by time or exposure. Woven fabrics
will not supply this test, but another department
of manufacture would, if properly treated, give by
the permanence of its colours, invaluable aid not
only to many arts, but also to the naturalist and
the man of science.
T'he enamel colours used on porcelain, have
the permanent character required. Different manu-
factories excel in different colours. The first step
therefore would be to invite each manufacturer to
send tablets of porcelain of a given size, on which
are to be painted a number of small squares, con-
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
127
.
1
taining all the pure colours he employs. Besides
these squares, a certain number of other squares
should contain two or more combinations of these
colours, two by two, or in such proportions as are
usually employed.
The comparison of these tablets would indicate
where the purest and most useful porcelain colours
could be obtained. The next step would be that
a small committee of manufacturers and men of
science, should decide on the number of combina-
tions and shades of colour it might be desirable to
bring together as permanent and standard objects
of reference.
The different makers of porcelain should then
each receive an order for a certain number of
tablets containing those colours in which they
respectively excel. Each small square should be
numbered. A sufficient quantity of the proper
materials constituting each colour, should then be
mixed in the proper proportion, and applied at the
same time, to the same number on each tablet ;
and these tablets should be exposed to the fire
under as nearly as possible the same circumstances
of heat, and for the same length of time.
Thus an extensive system of unchangeable
colours might be obtained, and if 500 sets were
made, they might be distributed in all the great cities
and universities of the world. It might perhaps
be found that certain colours were deficient, and
!
1
128
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
this would of course stimulate discovery by making
known the want. Thus, in the course of upwards
of twenty-five years, during which the author has
been collecting on a small scale, such tablets of
colours, he has been unable to meet with any speci-
men of an enamel colour at all approaching to the
pure scarlet of the common geranium.
The utility of such sets of standard colours
would be very great, enabling all nations to speak
a language regarding colour at once accurate and
universal. It might serve as the starting point and
the test of many analogous collections of materials
tinted by colours of more transitory duration,
whose relative degree of fixity might thus be
measured : as silks, cottons, linens, woollens, lea-
ther, paper, and many other materials.
There are two coloured substances which seem
to promise a higher degree of permanence than
those just mentioned-sealing-wax and glass. For
these admit of the renewal of their surfaces by
grinding, in case atmospheric or external causes
should have altered or impaired the superficial
colour.
A collection of small squares of sealing-wax
would be cheaper, and might if duly verified by
comparison with the porcelain standard be in many
cases a useful instrument. Glass also might supply
a suit of transparent colours of great interest.
complete collection of the enamel colours us

ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
129
1
1
the mosaic work made at Rome would also be
instructive.
§ Perhaps the most important advantage which
such an Exposition can confer, is to instruct the
consumer in the art of judging of the character of
the commodity he is about to purchase. Besides
the money we pay in return for the skill, labour,
and capital expended in producing each article we
purchase ; a further, and often a very considerable
sum is paid in order to assure us that it possesses
those qualities which the vendor has asserted.
This is called the cost of verification; in some
cases, as in that of white sugar, it is very small,
for almost every one can see by its external cha-
racter the degree of goodness of that article. In
other cases nothing less than a whole life spent in
acquiring a knowledge of his subject, can be of any
avail, as in the case of the purchase of a field.
The verification of the fact that the vendor has
really the right to sell it, can, in many cases, be
arrived at only by a profound chancery-lawyer, and
sometimes requires an expense even beyond the
value of the field itself.
When the er has been convinced that he
sdge of dne
article, he usually
at
reputation of
only
n this case he
or, who ought
selecting good
.
רד
1
들
​pays
ret
130
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
articles from the manufacturer or merchant, and
for his integrity in not taking advantage of the
ignorance of his customer.
It may be contended that it is cheaper for the
purchaser to pay for the use of the skill and in-
tegrity of the vendor than to spend his own
time in acquiring the same skill; and in many
instances this is true. Still, however, the integrity
remains to be paid for, and if simple and ready
modes of verification were more generally known,
a very large portion of this loss of time would be
saved.
In all those articles which are easily verified the
retail price varies but little ; whilst on those that
are difficult to verify, the price of the same article,
although apparently of the same quality, will be
found to vary considerably at different shops.
.
The duties of the various juries who will examine
and recommend the articles for which prizes are to
be awarded, will require much consideration. It
cannot be expected, even after long experience
through several successive expositions, that it would
be possible to form a jury which should satisfy
every exhibitor. Much, however, may be done,
even at the first, by a sincere desire to arrive at
just conclusions, and by an earnest endeavour to
inform the public of the principles, and to point out
the observations, which have led their judgment to
the decisions at which they may arrive. Each of the
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
131
purely mechanical arts is allied to one or more of
the sciences; almost all their various processes are
amenable to, and explicable by known laws; it is
possible for him who is a perfect master of his own
craft, so to explain them without technical terms,
and in the language of common sense, that most
persons of tolerably liberal education, and possess-
ing a fair average intellect, may not only under-
stand the effect produced, but admire the ingenuity
by which it was attained.
It is of great importance that an effort should
be made to remove that veil of mystery which un-
fortunately, even in minds otherwise well instructed,
often shrouds the principles on which perfection in
manufactures, in science, and still more remarkably
in the fine arts, depends. These principles neverthe-
less are founded immutably on the nature of the
material world around us, as well as upon our own
internal feelings. Those which regulate taste are as
general, although its rules are not so precise, as those
which relate to physics. Nor need it be dreaded
that a knowledge of the grounds of that admiration
which works of genius ever command from culti-
vated minds, should diminish the pleasure derived
from their contemplation.
Show to the student some mechanism effecting
results apparently beyond the reach of the art, and
he becomes impressed with the immense distance
between his own intelligence and that which con-
K 2
132
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
trived it. Explain to him the simple means and
the beautiful combinations by which it is effected,
you
then raise him in his own estimation, and the stu-
dious disciple thus instructed, will ultimately arrive
at the conclusion that the only distance which is
really immense, is that existing between the perfec-
tion of the highest work of human skill and the
simplest of the productions of nature.
In questions relating to taste the subject matter
is so idealized, that the enthusiastic and the timid
equally. dread its contact with the more sober
powers of reasoning, lest the process of analysis
should disenchant its visionary scenes, and dissolve
the unreal basis of their delight. Taste the most per-
fect, without a knowledge of the principles on which
it rests, resembles the barren instinct of animals :
like them, it gathers but little improvement from
experience, and like them it perishes with the ex-
tinction of the individual life; its labours leave no
inheritance to its race.
Taste united with an intimate knowledge of its
principles, and still more if conjoined with the
power of eliminating from the fleeting relations
amongst the objects of its attention, those resem-
blances which, when sufficiently multiplied and
defined, lead up to the discovery of higher general.
izations, confers upon its enviable possessor a double
source of happiness ; it adds the delight of an intel-
lectual triumph to those romantic feelings which are
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
133
excited by the beautiful, the lovely, or the sublime
in Nature, or which are suggested by the most
perfect representations of art.
The comprehension of the cause of our pleasure ren-
ders us more acute to perceive those elements which
conduce to its existence, to trace their connexion,
to estimate their amount, to mould into form, and
to call up for the happiness of others and of our-
selves, their endless combinations.
There is, however, for that rare union of judg-
ment, imagination, and taste, which we call genius,
when each exists in due proportion and in rich
abundance, a yet higher object, a still nobler am-
bition. To have given to mankind those models,
which, after twenty centuries, still rivet their atten-
tion, commanding unbounded admiration and
defying rivalry; is indeed a splendid achieve-
ment, justly repaid by the undying fame which
accompanies the names of those benefactors to
mankind.
But great as undoubtedly our gratitude ought to
be for such gifts, it is trifling compared with that
which civilized society would owe to him, who
should instruct us in the principles that guided the
intellect as well as the hands, of those by whom
such immortal works were executed.
In the fine arts, and in the arts of industry, as
well as in the pursuits of science, the highest
department of each is that of the discovery of
134
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
principles, and the invention of methods. To in-
vestigate the laws by which human intellect picks
with caution its uncertain track through those
obscure and outlying regions of our knowledge
which separate the known and the certain from
the unknown ;-to teach us how to cast as it were
an intellectual and temporary connecting line across
that chasm, by which a new truth is separated from
the old-confident that when arrested by that
isolated truth it will have fixed itself upon one solid
point, amidst a floating chaos of error, --confident
also that, when once the fixity of that single point
has been assured, it is always possible, however
formidable the task, to link it by innumerable ties
to established knowledge, and thus to fill up the
intervening space even to the very boundary of its
enlarged domain :— to achieve such a conquest in
any science surpasses all other discoveries, for it
supplies tools for the use of intellect, and enlarges
the limits and the powers of human reason.
Ý One of the great advantages of the Exposition
will arise from the interchange of kindly feelings
between the inhabitants of foreign countries and our
own. The classes who visit us will consist neither
of the very elevated nor of the very low. They
will all of them, probably, possess more instruction
and information than the average of their class
amongst their countrymen : consequently they will
consist of persons the most likely to derive instruc-
.
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
135
tion from their visit, and therefore to return home
with pleasing impressions.
It has been found on the continent that the
periodic unions of men of science have had an excel-
lent effect in removing jealousies and establishing
friendships. It has not unfrequently happened
that two philosophers have met in such societies,
and have entered into discussions which have enabled
each to appreciate more justly the talent of the
other, before one of them was aware that he
had formerly criticised a work of his new friend, in
terms which their present good understanding would
effectually prevent him from repeating.
The experience we have had of the visit of the
National Guard of Paris, strongly confirms this view.
It brought out the better feelings of our nature
towards our neighbours, and all classes took their
share in endeavouring to make those visits agreeable.
On their return home, the feeling excited by the
visit was conveyed far beyond the actual visitors;
and it has left on the population of Paris a perma-
nent advance in good will towards Englishmen.
Ś Several objects may be suggested whose dis-
cussion would be of the greatest importance for the
advancement of the industrial arts, but which are
not within the scope of the Exhibition. There are,
however, other places of meeting where some of
these might be discussed. The Society of Civil
Engineers might entertain some inquiries, whilst
136
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
the Statistical Society would be the most appropriate
place for others.
A few of these objects may be shortly alluded to.
$ The law of patents is, perhaps, one of the most
interesting as well as of the most difficult questions.
Amongst our visitors, doubtless, there will be several
who have studied the subject in their own country
and who might assist us by their information and
experience.
Ś We have another law—that of partnership-
which presents greater obstacles to the advance of
the mechanical arts than even the defective state of
the patent law. In England, whoever enters into a
partnership, however small a share of the profits he is
to receive, yet his whole fortune becomes responsible
for any losses. In most other countries there are
a class of partnerships called anonymous, or en com-
mandite, in which persons willing to risk only
a limited sum are entirely relieved of all further
responsibility.
The effect of our English system is highly unfa-
vourable to inventors. It prevents in all but a few
cases a small capital from being raised by the joint
contributions of persons more immediately acquainted
with the character and prospects of the inventor,
and who are in that respect best fitted to measure
the chance of his success.
A far greater impediment, however, arises from
its entirely preventing a considerable quantity of
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
137
If part-
capital from being directed to inventions. Its
operation may be thus explained.
There exist in this country a great number
of
persons of manufacturing and commercial habits,
whose knowledge of men is considerable, and whose
judgment of the capabilities of a proposed scheme
or invention, is cautious and judicious.
Persons of this description often possess capital, or
such credit as easily to command its use.
nerships could be entered into, in which the liability
was limited, many persons so circumstanced would
naturally use their skill and knowledge in selecting
a certain number of schemes, in each of which they
would embark a small sum. By thus spreading
a
the risks over an extensive field, the profits to the
capitalist would be much more certain : whilst many
an excellent invention now lost for want of capital
to carry it out, would thus enrich its inventor and
benefit the country.
Connected with the subject of patents is another,
which is of some consequence to the public. Many
of those capable of improving the arts by new inven-
tions, have no desire to secure their discoveries by
patent and thus to render them profitable to them-
selves, but are willing to give the public the entire
advantage.
Now it is supposed that, if an inventor, under
the existing law, publishes the drawings of an
engine which has not actually been constructed,
a
133
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
1
machine-maker might make the machine, take out
a patent for it, and supply the public to the exclu-
sion even of tbe inventor himself.
If the invention is a purely mechanical con-
trivance, it is quite possible with mere drawings and
with the aid of the Mechanical Notation to demon-
strate the possibility of its construction and of all
its movements, with the same certainty as that with
which a proposition in Euclid is proved.
It seems then desirable, that some mode of
publication should be arranged by which the public
should really enjoy the gifts which science may
present without risking monopoly by an interloper.
The subject of co-operation is one of the great-
est importance, and like many other social questions
neither its principles nor its limits seem to be clearly
understood. It is of the utmost importance that
the masses should be enlightened on a subject so
exciting, and bearing so directly on their interests.
But until it has been further investigated, and
numerous instances having a practical connexion
with its principles have been collected, it is hopeless
to attempt a popular treatment of the subject. It
would be highly desirable that those of our foreign
visitors who have at all studied that most important
question, should communicate to us the results of
their experience.
ỹ The Mechanical Notation to which a slight allu-
sion has been made, is a system of signs by

ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
139
1
all machinery may be perfectly described even without
the necessity of any explanation in words. It forms
in fact an universal language, which will be, when
generally employed, capable of being read by every
people, just as the Arabic numerals are at present.
It has now been in use for more than twenty-five
years, during which time many improvements and
additions have been made. A considerable portion of
it was published in 1826.* Amongst the subsequent
additions there is one called the Mechanical Alpha-
bet, which consists of very simple but expressive
signs placed above those letters of the alphabet used
to express certain parts of machinery. Possibly from
100 to 200 of such signs may be required. Now
before any publication is made of those already used,
it is of the greatest importance that they should be
thoroughly revised, and that practical mechanicians
familiar with every branch of the art, should contri-
bute information respecting the requirements in their
different departments. Those also who are most ex-
perienced in the art of mechanical drawing, ought to
confer together respecting the new rules according
to which drawings should have letters attached
to the
parts of the machinery they represent.
ersality language is of such
that
be quite mischievous
publis
y other than
der
· Exposition
A
ין
2
1
140
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
of 1851 furnishes an opportunity for such a re-
vision.
Considerable discussion has arisen respecting
the ultimate fate of the Crystal Palace. Three ques-
tions have been agitated
1. Shall it be pulled down ?
2. Shall it be removed to another locality ?
3. To what uses can the building be applied if
it is retained ?
Public opinion has undergone a great revolution
since the opening of the Exhibition ; but however
strongly it may now be expressed, it ought not to
interfere with public faith. If, after all the pro-
testations and pledges of the Commission, that
the building was to be of temporary duration, it
should be permitted to remain permanently in its
present locality, little faith will be given in future
to the promises of public bodies. The pledge con-
tained in the document by which the Commission
was appointed, viz. that 20,0001. should be given
in prizes, has neither been redeemed nor forgotten ;
and the treatment of the income-tax by the successive
political parties has added little to the respect with
which official promises are regarded.
If the country had originally maintained its un-
doubted right to use its own parks for its own
purposes, the building might then have remained;
but the inhabitants of Belgravia, having raised a
violent opposition to the selection of that locality,
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
141
were only pacified on receiving the strongest as-
surances that the building should be removed after
it had fulfilled its original purpose.
In justice
therefore to them, it must be taken down.
The second question, Shall the Crystal Palace be
removed ? is by no means decided by the answer
given to the first. It would be perfectly consistent
with good faith to remove it to any other part of
the park not contiguous to Belgrave Square.
The third question, therefore, To what uses can
the building be applied ? must now be examined,
in order to arrive at a definitive decision upon the
second.
A wish seems to be very generally entertained
for the preservation of the building; and various
uses have been suggested to which it might be
advantageously applied.
Mr. Paxton wishes to convert it into a winter
garden.
M. Gambardella, in his highly interesting pam-
phlet, “ What shall we do with the Glass Palace ?”*
has proposed to have within its walls alternately
exhibitions of painting and of sculpture.
Permanent galleries of the fine arts have also
been proposed.
Collections of the industrial arts, and models,
have also been suggested.
A portion of it might also be appropriated to the
* Published by Aylott and Jones, Paternoster Row.
142
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
building of several theatres for lectures, of various
sizes, capable of containing from 100 to 2,000
persons.
The great principle to be borne in mind is, that,
whatever the future destination of the building, it
must be self-supporting. The best and most certain
test of its utility to the public is furnished by the
fact of their being willing to pay for the enjoyments
it affords them.
The plan of having a considerable portion of the
building devoted to a winter garden would supply
a great want in our wet and uncertain climate.
The temperature ought not to be high, so that
exercise might be taken under shelter. No dogs,
horses, or carriages ought to be admitted.
A large portion of those residing in the imme-
diate neighbourhood would subscribe, and also many
who possessed carriages. But the number of sub-
scribers would depend chiefly on the position chosen
for the building. In its present locality, the preju-
dices of the wealthier class would be increased by the
injustice of retaining it in violation of the strongest
pledges, and it would probably have a very limited
number of subscribers.
Perhaps it might be desirable to add reading-
rooms for newspapers and for the periodical litera-
ture of the day. Subscriptions to these might be
either for limited periods, or even for a single day.
A refreshment-room, also, would be required.
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
143
If, however, the building were removed to the
situation proposed in the seventh chapter of this
volume, it would be accessible to a much larger
number of subscribers. Its two ends being then
placed at a small distance from the two great
thoroughfares passing Hyde Park Corner and the
Marble Arch, a large number of its visitors would
arrive by the omnibuses which pass each of those
well-frequented localities.
Space might readily be found either for periodical
or permanent galleries of painting and of sculpture.
An objection has been made to the former, namely,
that the light in the glass palace is not fit for the
exhibition of paintings. It is singular that it should
not have occurred to such objectors that this is
almost the only building in which, from its very
nature, there exists the most unlimited control over
both the quantity and the direction of light that
may be required.
The profit to be derived from this part of the
establishment will, as in the former questions, de-
pend greatly on the situation of the building.
Another plan, mentioned in the first edition of
this work, was, to have collections of the produce
and manufactures exhibited on the present occasion.
Few applications of the building would be more ap-
propriate, and scarcely any could be more useful,
than this. Fortunately, the Executive Committee
have undertaken the task, and it cannot be doubted
1
144
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
One or
>
that the exhibitors will willingly lighten their labour
by giving every assistance in their power.
two suggestions may here be offered, for the purpose
of impressing on the exhibitors at future Expositions
the great importance of attaching to each object a
brief and condensed account of facts connected with
it. In the article of raw materials there will not be
much difficulty, as there are many instances of excel-
lence in that department. The case of drugs from
Liverpool is a good illustration. Their price, however,
is omitted, because it was forbidden. In the per-
manent collection, this most important element will,
of course, occupy its proper place. It might also
be useful to give the date of the first importation
of each drug, and the first application to its various
The quantity, also, of the chemical element
on which its use is founded contained in a given
weight of the substance would, if known, be highly
interesting: as, for instance, the quantity of quinine
in a given weight of bark.
In making a collection of machines, there is some
fear of occupying a very large space without a cor-
responding advantage. A lace frame, making in
one breadth of fifteen feet from sixty to a hundred
repetitions of the same lace, would, commercially
speaking, be the most advantageous ; but such a
frame with only ten repetitions would be more
useful for instruction. The various self-acting mules,
also, would easily fill a large room.
Perhaps the
uses.
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
145
.
mens.
collection might be confined to working models :
these might be made, from time to time, to replace
the larger machines, and funds for that purpose
might be derived from the payments of the visitors
both to the exhibition and to the lectures which
ought to be given to explain the collection.
In making a collection of specimens of manu-
factured articles, as well as of produce, it would in
many cases add little to the expense if a sufficient
quantity were purchased to divide into many samples.
Thus, the collections of foreign countries and of our
own cities might be enriched by authentic speci-
This view applies more particularly to col-
lections of woven fabrics.
A well authenticated collection of cotton, flax,
wool, and silk, in the raw state, through all their
successive stages of manufacture, up to the woven
fabrics of which they constitute the basis, if ac-
companied by the prices of each at intervals of
ten years during the last century, would furnish
inaterials of the most valuable kind, and would
greatly aid the economist, the statesman, and the
philosopher, in discovering and putting to the
test the principles connected with their several
inquiries.
It is not necessary, or even desirable, that this
collection should consist of articles of fancy : it
ought to be composed of all those fabrics which,
although at first rare and costly, have ultimately
*
>
:
L
146
UTTERIOR OBJECTS.
a
become objects of habitual consumption by large
classes of the community.
Another purpose of great importance to which a
portion of such a building might be applied, is the
construction of convenient theatres for the delivery
of lectures, and for the discussion of questions of
interest. The want of such buildings in the western
part of the metropolis has long been felt, and acts
injuriously on the progress of knowledge.
In the present state of society, oral statements of
the great principles which govern it, illustrated by
striking facts drawn with judgment from varied
sources, would, if delivered with ability and good
taste, attract large audiences. Even science itself
might be rendered popular by such means. Yet if any
highly gifted person, qualified for such a task, were
willing to devote to the subject the time necessary
to assure the success of his efforts, he would now be
stopped at the very threshold, for he could find no
convenient theatre in any part of the west of
London, which he could hire for the delivery of
such a course of lectures.
The only theatre capable of holding 1,000
persons, is that of the Royal Institution in Al-
bemarle Street. Let us suppose the lecturer
capable of attracting 1,000 subscribers, each willing
to pay a sovereign for a short course of lectures.
How would the sum thus raised be divided ? He
could lecture at that theatre only by the permission
ULTERIOR OBJECTS,
147
of the Managers, who would scarcely pay him more
than 1001. for the course. The 1,0001. therefore,
which the public would willingly pay for the
instruction they received would be thus divided :-
To the intellect which charmed them . £100
To the rent of the room in which they listened. 900
.
£1,000
At present,
If the 9001. were the remuneration of the creative
mind, and the 1001. were the payment for the use
of the room and the necessary attendants, the
information of several classes of society would be
far other than it now is, and the status of the
lecturer would be entirely altered.
however great the talent of the instructor, his
position is not exactly that which the interests of
society demand. The term, itinerant lecturer,
has long been one of reproach, and even now it
is not thought quite dignified in a gentleman to
give a lecture for money. The reason is obvious :
nothing is thought respectable in England which
does not produce wealth. Any shrewd and un-
scrupulous fellow, who swindles on a gigantic
scale, will, if he succeed, be immediately received
with welcome into what is called the best society.
Neither wit nor talent are necessary for his ad-
mission : if, indeed, he be horridly vulgar, a few
(1) It is far from the author's intention to reproach in the
slightest degree the Managers of that most valuable Institution.
Every member having a right to be present at every lecture,
it is not in their power to do otherwise.
L2
148
ULTERIOR OBJECTS.
additional hundreds of thousands will procure him
absolution in fashionable eyes, even for that most
deadly sin.
Enable the instructor to receive his due portion
of that reward which the public are willing to
pay, and he too will become rich, and therefore
eminently respectable. With this increased remu-
neration, minds of a higher order will be attracted
to the study of the most difficult of arts,—that of
teaching ; and the time will arrive when accom-
plished, enlightened, and independent men may earn
from five to ten thousand a-year without courting
a constituency for parliamentary influence, or a
minister for justice to merit he is incapable of
appreciating
Such results, however, demand the use of con-
venient theatres of various sizes, placed in situations
easily accessible.
It appears then that, on every ground which has
been considered, the utility of the Crystal Palace
will depend almost entirely on the situation chosen
for its ultimate position.
Looking at the question in a purely commercial
view, considering the difficulty of access from the
north to its present locality; contrasting it with the
facility of access from every quarter in the site pro-
posed; it is not too much to presume that its
revenue would be so greatly enlarged by the re-
moval, that it would justify an expenditure of forty
or even of fifty thousand pounds.
F
)
CHAPTER XII.
1
I
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
SEVERAL causes have justly lowered the position
of science in England. The conduct of the Royal
Society, and of men of science themselves, has
equally contributed to this result. In a work
on the Decline of Science* in 1830, I exposed the
wretched mismanagement of the Royal Society, but
not until in conjunction with Wollaston and other
eminent men, I had found the inutility of every effort
we made to improve it from within. Our reform
bill stands recorded upon the minutes of the coun-
cil, with the signatures of Wollaston, of Young, of
Herschel, and of others whose names ought to have
commanded respect: but it was defeated by an in-
genious manœuvre.
The facts stated in the work alluded to, have never
been disputed: one answerf only having, as far as
* Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, and on
some of its Causes. 1830.
† A small pamphlet, the production of an amiable and
excellent foreign philosopher, cannot be considered an answer :
since it did not contradict the facts, and only answered opinions
on science, which were not maintained in that book.
150
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
I am aware, ever been attempted to any part of that
volume. It appeared in the Annals of Philosophy,
and was first mentioned to me by the late Francis
Baily, F.R.S. Not having then seen it, I inquired
whether he thought any reply necessary; his answer
was,
No: it is a full admission of the truth of
your statement."
$ In France the body who elect to offices in the
Institute, are men of the highest intellectual attain-
ments, whose suffrage it is an honour to receive,
and who, during the existence of the monarchy,
constituted one amongst the classes out of whom
Peers of France were selected.
In England, out of about 800 Fellows of the
Royal Society, the greater part of them know
nothing of science, and of course their votes swamp
those of the members most competent to pronounce
opinions. The new mode of admitting fellows of
the Royal Society, has had a good effect in improv-
ing the qualification of those adınitted; but unfor-
tunately, its operation is so slow that it will be
many years before the Society is relieved from its
incumbrances.
g In the Academy of Sciences at Paris, the office
of Secretary is an object of ambition even to men of
the highest scientific attainments. It is usually
held by persons of the greatest eminence, who are
themselves at the same time carrying out original
inquiries on subjects connected with their official
>
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
151
1
a
a
vi
duties. It is sufficient to cite the names of De-
lambre, of Fourier, of Cuvier, and of Arago.
In England the Secretary of the Royal Society
of London occupies no such position. To some of
our most eminent men, it may, when young,
have
been an object of ambition to hold it for a few
years :
but considering the very moderate pay of 1001.
a-year, and how considerable a portion of time must
be occupied by its duties if conscientiously fulfilled,
it is rare that any man of original talent and inde-
pendent feeling will join in the intrigues by which
it is too frequently obtained.
In consequence of this state of things, the
officers of the Royal Society are most frequently
third or fourth-rate men, who not having sufficient
occupation in their own professions, seek the office
as a means of adding to their income. Or, they may
be, in some cases, military men, who being paid by
the public for other duties, are glad to get relieved
from them without the loss of their emoluments,
Persons holding offices in the Royal Society ought
by their scientific eminence to confer dignity on
their office : instead of acquiring a position in the
world by its acceptance.
Again, the justice of the decisions of the Council
in awarding their medals, has been publicly im-
peached. A very few years since, a general meeting
of the Society was summoned on the requisition of
several of its members, to inquire into the circum-
152
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
N
;
stances attending the award of certain Royal medals.
It was admitted by the President that there had
been considerable irregularities in some of the
awards, and the Council only escaped a vote of
censure in
consequence
of some little want of
management in those who proposed it.
During this discussion one of the Fellows of the
Royal Society got up, and remarked that although
this case was very bad, it became trifling when
compared with the circumstances attending the very
first award of the Royal medals; for on that occa-
sion the Council had wilfully violated the laws they
had themselves established for their distribution,
and that on his formally demonstrating the facts by
reference to their own minutes, they with singular
consistency refused to alter their unfair and unjust
decision.
§ Difficulties of another kind arise respecting
the Presidents of Societies. When the office of
President is really or practically a permanent one,
it is very difficult to carry on the business of the
Society if the President is a person of exalted rank,
or if he do not permanently reside in London.
In either case it usually happens that a secretary
or treasurer, or other officer who is resident, insen.
sibly becomes the means of communication with
the President, who is naturally anxious to be ac-
quainted with the feelings and wishes of the body
over which he presides. The most honest officer
a
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
153
can scarcely fail to have some little bias towards his
own opinions : he will naturally mix more with
those who approve of, than with those who differ
from them, and will consequently, although perhaps
unintentionally, communicate to the President a
one-sided view of his own, as the dominant opinion
of the Society.
The President, on the other hand, however really
anxious he may be to introduce any amendments
which he conceives advantageous for the Society,
will naturally doubt their policy if informed that
they are not in unison with the opinions of the
body. He will communicate with his treasurer,
secretary, or other officer, and almost always express
his concurrence in the course proposed to him as
being the most agreeable to the body at large.
The officer, receiving such a reply, will naturally
mention at the Council the opinions of the Presi-
dent. He may even from good nature allow the
Council to think that the President himself origi-
nated the views he only adopted because he believed
them to be those of the Society.
Under such circumstances, it is difficult to oppose
the expressed wishes of the absent President, and
strangely enough, without any intentional deceit,
President, Council, and Society are supposed to be
unanimous in doing what each by itself thinks
inexpedient.
§ It is true that by great kindness, good sense,
154
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
and decision of character, the Prince or absent
President may in some cases mitigate or prevent
these evils. Such cases, however, are the excep-
tion, not the rule.
In a work containing views on the state of
science in England, foreigners at least will expect
that I should take some notice of my own calcu-
lating engines.
I had hoped that the history of the transactions
between myself and the government respecting them,
as related in the eleventh chapter of the History of
the Royal Society by Mr. Weld, together with the
two criticisms on that work in the Athenæum,*
would have rendered any further explanation on
my part unnecessary. Many persons, however,
who admit these as fully explaining the part I was
compelled to take, have at the same time expressed
to me their doubts that some occult agency was at
work to prejudice the government, and have asked
who were its scientific advisers on such an impor-
tant subject, during the long period in which the
Difference Engine was in abeyance.
♡ I have not been blind to the passions and in-
terests of men. My own pursuits were of such a
character that they interfered with those of none of
my colleagues in the paths of science; and perhaps
I may have trusted too much to this circumstance
as exempting me from rivalry and jealousy.
* Athenæum, 14 Oct. 1848, and 16 Dec. 1848.
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
155
7
As a reformer both in science and in politics, I
knew that I should excite enmity in the minds of
some honest men, and also in those of many other
persons who dreaded inquiry into jobs not yet ex-
posed. When I published the Decline of Science, in
1830, I certainly was not aware how many would
include themselves in the latter class : but had I
foreseen it, I should not have altered my course.
To have met and to have defeated intrigue by
watchfulness, might not have been a difficult task,
but it would have required too great a sacrifice of
time devoted to far higher objects. It was, more-
over, an occupation for which I had little taste.
The time, however, has now arrived when, having
given up all expectation of constructing the Analy-
tical Engine from the drawings which I had caused
to be made at very great expense, I think it right
to state the result of my own observations, and
especially to point out the facts that have come to
light to confirm them. These, if they do not open
the
eyes of some, who, having been themselves de-
ceived, have done me injustice, will at all events
be of use for the future, and may save the young
and inexperienced enthusiast of science from em-
barking in undertakings, honourable to the coun-
try, but ruinous to himself.
It has often been remarked, that an event in
itself trivial sometimes leads to results with wh
it seems to have no conceivable connexion.
156
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
?
A beaver constructing his dwelling on the plateau
of the Andes, may have turned the course of a river,
which otherwise would shortly have joined the Pa-
cific, into a valley through which, after lengthened
wanderings, it now flows into the Atlantic Ocean.
So, by some strange combination of circum-
stances, a quarrel in which I had no part, and
with whose origin I am unacquainted, seems to
have had an unanticipated effect in impeding the
construction of the Calculating Engines.
At the time of the foundation of the Astronomi-
cal Society, Sir James South, whose observatory
and whose house were hospitably open to every
cultivator of astronomy, was on terms of intimate
friendship with almost all of those persons at that
period most eminent in science. It is sufficient to
mention the names of Wollaston and Davy, and to
add that when the late Mr. Fallows was appointed
Astronomer at the Cape, although previously a
stranger, he became for several months the guest
of Sir James South, who assisted him in acquiring
that practical knowledge of instruments so neces-
sary
in his new avocation. *
Ø In 1829 Sir James South was elected President
Sir James South, in conjunction with Sir John Herschel,
completed the examination of 380 double and triple stars; a
work for which the authors were awarded the great Astrono-
mical prize of the Institute of France in 1825, and the Medal
of the Astronomical Society of London in 1826.
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
157
.
of the Astronomical Society. It now appears, how-
ever, that previously to this appointment, a party
had been formed adverse to Sir J. South, which
party, with the view of thwarting him, placed in
the office of Secretary the Rev. Richard Sheep-
shanks, Fellow of Trinity Coll., Cambridge.*
In March, 1831, the Board of Visitors of the
Royal Observatory of Greenwich, met at the Admi-
ralty, to consider the propriety of separating the
dụties of Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac
from those of Astronomer Royal. The new arrange-
ment was advocated, amongst others, by ŞirJ. South,
and after some discussion, in which Capt. Beaufort
and myself took part, it was ultimately carried. As
we were leaving the meeting-room, Mr. Sheep-
shanks addressing me said: “I am determined to
"put down Sir James South, and if you and other
respectable men will give him your support, I
“ will put you down.” He at the same time told
me he “intended to put Captain Beaufort down.'
During the course of 1832, it was found that
the large equatorial mounting which had been con-
trived and executed by Troughton, for his friend
Sir J. South's twelve-inch object-glass, was an
entire failure. This produced at the time a differ-
ence between two friends who esteemed each other
highly, and who had been for years united by
“ When he (Sir J. S.] was elected President, I [Rev. R. S.]
was elected Secretary to keep him in order."
158
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
L
reciprocal acts of kindness in ties of “very inti-
mate” friendship Well acquainted myself with
the character of the parties, and the circumstances
of the case, I have not the slightest doubt that this
unfortunate affair might easily, by the exertions of
judicious friends, have terminated in the entire
restoration of their former friendship. But this
was a course which the Rev. R. Sheepshanks took
effectual means to prevent. Having himself a
personal” quarrel with Sir James South, he
“ offered” his services to assist Messrs. Troughton
and Simms. He “ offered to go
himself to exa-
mine the instrument in Sir J. South's observa-
tory, and “ got his friend, Professor Airy, to go
with
him” for the purpose of remedying the defects of
the Equatorial
Notwithstanding he was told by Mr. Simms that
“ Sir J. South had declared that no person could
“have been pitched upon more obnoxious than your-
“self," he still persevered in obtruding himself
into Sir J. South's observatory as the agent of
Troughton and Simms, until it was at last dis-
covered that no after contrivances or expense could
correct the errors of an instrument itself radically
defective in principle.
It may readily be supposed that the continuance
for months of these visits by Mr. Sheepshanks and
Professor Airy, and the irritating correspondence
consequent upon them, which, though nominally
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
159
that of Troughton and Simms, was really " directed
by” the Rev. R. Sheepshanks, destroyed all hope
of a reconciliation. The parties then had recourse
to the Court of King's Bench, and it was curious
to observe the vigour and energy with which the
Rev. R. Sheepshanks applied himself to the exercise
of his earlier studies. *
Having volunteered his services to Messrs.
Troughton and Simms-he "wrote every letter "
for them during the subsequent law-suit-he acted
for them in all the various characters of “
“ friend”
and “ adviser”—of “ workman” and “ agent”-of
attorney” and “counsel ;”-he made an affi-
davit" in the case--became a witness himself and
undertook to intimidate witnesses on the opposite
side.
This latter performance is fortunately rare in
*England, and is so remarkable that it is necessary
to give some account of the proceedings.
Not wishing to become involved in so disagree-
able a case, I had refused to be a witness on the
part of Sir J. South. Having, however, had some
conversation on the subject with the late Lord
Abinger (then Mr. Scarlett), he represented to me
that my evidence was essential for the justice of the
* At an earlier period of his life, his studies were directed
towards the profession of the law.
+ On the 19th July, 1836, at the 23d meeting under the
Arbitrator, the Rev. R. Sheepshanks cross-examined Mr.
Savage the Architect.
160
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
a
66
case, and upon that ground I reluctantly waived my
objection to appear as a witness.
Having been examined in chief on the seventeenth
day of the Arbitration, I remained in the room a
few minutes after the Arbitrator had left it.
The Rev. R. Sheepshanks, the only other person
then present, addressing me said, “ it was necessary
“ to discredit me because I had supported Sir J.
“ South." ” He added that "he would, at a future
time, attack me publicly on another subject, on
account of the part I had taken in this matter.”
The remembrance of his former threats more
than four years before at the Visitation at the Ad-
miralty, added to the knowledge of the unremitting
perseverance with which he had carried on his hos-
tility to Sir J. South, satisfied me that it would be
unsafe for the cause of truth, and possibly injurious
to myself, if I were not to take measures for making
known the nature of the weapons which the Rev.
R. Sheepshanks was employing. As he had ven-
tured, after my having given evidence on oath, to
threaten me with injury, with the hope of inducing
me to modify that evidence on cross-examination, it
appeared to me probable that he might have been
tampering with the evidence of other witnesses in
the same cause, who from their position or circum-
stances in life, might be compelled by the fear of
his vengeance to shape their evidence so as to adapt
it to his views.
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
161
The Rev. R. Sheepshanks discovered on reflec-
tion no impropriety in this course of intimidating
witnesses, or of attacking those who could not be
induced to take up his own private quarrels. He
thus defended both.
“I think it allowable to throw down the gauntlet
" in this manner.
“ I have another ground of dispute with Captain
Beaufort, and certainly intend to put him down."
The gallant Admiral has survived many a danger-
ous day, and needs not the pen of a friend to
protect his honest and well-earned fame.
The reader may perhaps be astonished at the
statement made in the preceding pages, and feel
disposed to consider it an ex parte statement. It
is entirely an ex parte statement: it is not neces-
sary for its support that the reader should give
credence even to that small part of it which appears
to rest on my own evidence before the Arbitrator.
The whole of it is founded entirely on the testimony
of the Rev. R. Sheepshanks himself. Every state-
ment of those which are marked as quotations was
either elicited from him on his cross-examination,
or in the few instances in which it came from
myself, its correctness was confirmed by his subse-
quent admission or re-statement. After
After my state-
ment, and the Rev. R. Sheepshanks' reply to it,
the Arbitrator addressing him said-
“With respect to the matter of fact, you agree?"
M
162
INTRIGUES OE SCIENCE.
3
a
Rev. R. Sheepshanks. “Yes, we agree as to the
“ matter of fact."
Professor Airy, who was afterwards appointed
Astronomer Royal, had long before become as deeply
engaged as his friend Mr. Sheepshanks in this most
unfortunate quarrel. Years of aggravating delay and
discussion resulted from the procrastinated refer-
ence, and at length one of the parties, Mr. Trough-
ton, being dead, a decision not satisfactory to either
was given in December 1833. But the inextin-
guishable desire “to put down Sir James South”
survived the lawsuit which was only used as a
means, and reappeared from time to time through
the aid of the press, in forcible but somewhat
unmeasured charges and recriminations between
the Astronomer Royal, the Rev. R. Sheepshanks
and others on the one side, and the astronomer of
Campden Hill on the other.
It was a curious though a very painful study, to
observe from time to time the various consequences
of this feud.
Against those men of science who refused to
forsake their ancient social relations with Sir James
South, a system of disparagement was maintained
which could not fail in the course of time to produce
its effects. The avowed object of the party of which
the Rev. R. Sheepshanks was the organ, was, in his
own expressive words, to discredit and put down every
respectable person who supported Sir J. South.
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
163
It was melancholy to observe the gradual change
in the expression of opinions by some of those
qualified from their knowledge to guide the opinion
of the public. Intimidated at first into silence; the
uncontradicted assertions of those around them
then got possession of their minds, until at length,
without any new examination, they were flattered
into an acquiescence in, if not indeed into the
expression of, opinions entirely opposite to their
former ones. These new views were doubtless con-
veyed by their flatterers to other ears, and thus the
process of “discrediting every respectable person"
opposed to them, was carried on under the autho-
rity of honourable names.
One after another almost all Sir James South's
old friends and acquaintance amongst men of science
only, however, were alienated from him.
One man was alarmed by the fear that some
inaccuracies in his astronomical publications should
be severely criticised. Of another it was hinted
that his mathematics were all wrong, and might be
7
shown up.
Those who were timid feared the anger of the-
dominant party; those who were young might
have their prospects blighted by even appearing
in friendly relations with him who supported the
unequal conflict ; those who were
those who were old loved
repose, and found it easiest to appear to side with
the most numerous party; whilst those who saw
M 2
1
1
164
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
through the whole of it, had better things where-
with to occupy their minds, than to attend to such
affairs.
It is obvious to all who have observed society
that such a system of " discrediting” carried on for
a series of years, especially against one too much
occupied or too proud to expose it, must end in
establishing the set of opinions propagated by the
party. Honest and even tolerably well-informed
persons, will at length be misled, and be found to
adopt them.
Opinions thus propagated must have had their
influence widely spread, and unless those members
of the various administrations with whom decisions
relative to the Difference Engine rested, had been
either highly skilled in mathematical science, or
deeply read in human nature, it would have been
almost impossible for them not to have been
misled,
The former qualification is unnecessary;
the
latter is indispensable for a statesman. Of the
eight Prime-ministers with whom I have had com-
munications relativ the Difference Engine, one
only personally
it; doubtless not with
the view of
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on of the Rev.
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"attack me on another
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mer Royal's own statement, he
r on all scientific subjects. The
166
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
the employment of an additional computer."—Astron. Royal,
Rep. June 1841, p. 7.
“On former occasions I have avowed without scruple that
“I do not consider the Royal Observatory as a mere isolated
“place for the conduct of Astronomical observations. I consider
“it a part, perhaps the most important part, of the scientific
“institutions of this country.”—P. 18.
“ In concluding this long report, I have been uniformly
supported by the confidence of the government.” — Astron.
Royal, Rep. June 1844, p. 20.
The following extract of a letter from the Astro-
nomer Royal to the late Sir Robert Peel, shows
that his time was so occupied with the labours of
the Railway Gauge Commission, that he was
unable to draw up a memorial which he had him-
self proposed, even though it related to an astrono-
mical subject-our colonial observatories.
“I have been so closely employed on
the papers of the Railway Gauge Commission, that it has been
impossible for me to draw up a memorial before the present
time.
“ April 16th, 1846.
"To the Right Hon. Sir Robert Peel, Bart., &c.”
"By the giving opinions on subjects of railways and other
mechanical matters referred to me by Government, it has
appeared that our energies are not wholly absorbed in the
mere Astronomy of the Observatory.”—Astron. Royal, Rep.
June 1846, p. 10.
(N.B. The italics do not occur in the original quotations.)
Now it is evident from these extracts from
Reports of the Astronomer Royal to the Board of
Visitors and from other facts, that he wishes bimself
*
*
*
*
*
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
-167
حر
7
to be considered the general referee of Government
in all scientific questions.
The office of Astronomer Royal is one of great
importance: it requires the undivided energy and
talents of one person, and great as Mr. Airy's
abilities undoubtedly are, yet it is highly injudicious
to divert them from their legitimate object,—the
direction of the many arduous duties of the establish-
ment over which he presides.
During many years I have frequently found, in
my communications with members of Government
on subjects connected with the Calculating Engines,
difficulties on their part which remained entirely
unexplained;--unseen obstacles which were never
alluded to, but whose existence could not be
doubted.
Although frequently warned by personal friends
that it was unwise to neglect such machinations as
those which I have, at length, been reluctantly
compelled to expose ; yet I was unwilling for a
long time to believe that they were directed against
myself.
I have now traced the connexion of the Rev.
R. Sheepshanks, (who had avowed his determination
“to discredit me,” and also to "attack me on another
subject at a future time,") through his friend the
Astronomer Royal, with the Government. Accord-
ing to the Astronomer Royal's own statement, he
was their adviser on all scientific subjects. The
7
168–
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE,
سا
Government had no other official adviser, and would
scarcely have ventured to decide upon points con-
nected with some of the most profound questions
of mathematics, on their own responsibility.
There are, I am aware, other channels than those
of official reports, by which the Government may
have been influenced. I do not, therefore, expect
to find any formal report denying the practical
utility of the Calculating Engines, or the possi-
bility of constructing them.
If there is any such, I claim as a matter of
justice, that it be published. The Difference
Engine and the Analytical Engine, are questions of
pure science. If the Astronomer Royal has main-
tained that they are either useless or impracticable,
then the grounds of that opinion must have been
stated, and, if published, the solidity of those
grounds might be examined.
It now becomes necessary to take a very brief
review of the conduct of Government with respect
to the Difference Engine. Having contrived and
executed a small model of a Difference Engine,
I published a very short account of it in a letter
to Sir Humphry Davy, in the year 1822. At
the wish of the Government I undertook to con-
struct for them an engine on a much larger scale,
which should print its results. I continued to work
at this Engine until 1834, refusing in the mean
time other sources of profitable occupation, amongst
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
169
which was an office of about 2,5001. a-year.
Circumstances over which I had no control then
caused the work to be suspended.
After eight years of repeated applications, and
of the most harassing delay, at the end of 1842
the Government arrived at the resolution of giving
up the completion of the Difference Engine, on the
alleged ground of its expense.
In the mean time, new views had opened out to
me the prospect of performing purely algebraic
operations by means of mechanism. To arrive at
so entirely unexpected a result I deemed worthy of
any sacrifice, and accordingly spared no expense in
procuring every subsidiary assistance which could
enable me to attain it. Each successive difficulty
was met by new contrivances, and at last I found
that I had surmounted all the great difficulties of
the question, and had made drawings of each dis-
tinct department of the Analytical Engine.
Having expended upwards of 20,0001. on the
experiments and inquiries which had led me to
these results, it would not have been prudent to
attempt the construction of such an engine. I
thought, however, that there were several offices
in the appointment of Government for which I was
qualified, and to which, under the circumstances,
I had some claim. I hoped if I had obtained one
of these, by fulfilling its laborious duties for a few
years, and by allowing the whole salary to accumu-
170
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
late, that I might then have been able to retire, and
adding the money thus earned to my own private
resources, that I might yet have enough of life and
energy left to execute the Analytical Engine, and
thus complete one of the great objects of my
ambition.
Having neither asked nor been offered any
acknowledgment for all the sacrifices I had made,
I felt that I had some just claims to one of these
appointments. Every application was unsuccessful ;
whatever may have been the reasons, the conduct
of Government has been exactly that which might
have been expected had they been the allies or the
dupes of the party which thought it necessary,
from enmity to Sir James South, to “discredit”
the author of the Analytical Engine.
One only of the many reports which were circu-
lated, I thought it worth while to contradict, and
that cost me more trouble, and wasted more of my
time, than the refutation of the calumny was worth.
It was boldly and perseveringly stated that I had
received from the Government a large pecuniary
reward for my services. The fact was, not merely
that I never did receive any such reward, but that
I was almost constantly advancing money to pay
the engineer who was constructing the Engine for
the Government, before I had myself received the
amount of his bills from the Treasury.
On tracing up these rumours, they
, wew
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
171
found to arise from a species of dishonesty very
difficult to convict. Thus one person circulated
them widely; when asked for the grounds of the
charge, he referred to certain Parliamentary Papers,
and affected to believe that the sums paid for the
workmen were paid to the inventor : of course he
could no longer safely propagate the falsehood.
Another then took up the tale, until he was met br
the same question, when he not only expressed liin
delight at being informed of the truth, but half
convinced his indignant, though credulous anditor,
that he would assist in propagating the correction
Thus the assertion was continually repeated, until
honourable and upright men, who had been te
ceived and discovered the deception, were so
frequent in society, that it became dangerous
the character of the traducers to contine
circulation of the calumny.
Even since the first edition of this
appeared, one of these calummes Tas
revived, in the statement that
The reason why the Government and
of the original Difference Engme
fused to finish it, and wished them
Engine No. 2.
An attempt's been made
a qurtation

adus-
ols,
those arts
172
INTRIGUES OF SCIENCE.
a
as the causes of the discontinuance of No. 1, which
was given up in 1843. This charge too is made in
the face of a distinct denial by Mr. Babbage that the
late Sir Robert Peel could have been influenced by
any such supposed wish, because he had in his posses-
sion a written disavowal of it from Mr. B. himself; it
is also made in the teeth of the very words used by
the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who, in his letter
to Mr. B. regretting the necessity of giving it up,
assigns as its cause " the expense.' Both these
latter statements had been already published in
1848.
CHAPTER XIII.
CALCULATING ENGINES.
7
It is not a bad definition of man to describe
him as a tool-making animal. His earliest contri-
vances to support uncivilized life, were tools of the
simplest and rudest construction. His latest
achievements in the substitution of machinery, not
merely for the skill of the human hand, but for the
relief of the human intellect, are founded on the use
of tools of a still higher order.
The successful construction of all machinery
depends on the perfection of the tools employed,
and whoever is a master in the art of tool-making
possesses the key to the construction of all ma-
chines.
The Crystal Palace, and all its splendid contents,
owe their existence to tools as the physical means :
- to intellect as the guiding power, developed
equally on works of industry or on objects of taste.
The contrivance and the construction of tools,
must therefore ever stand at the head of the indus-
trial arts.
The next stage in the advancement of those arts
174
CALCULATING ENGINES.
:
is equally necessary to the progress of each. It
is the art of drawing. Here, however, a diver-
gence commences: the drawings of the artist are
entirely different from those of the mechanician.
The drawings of the latter are Geometrical projec-
tions, and are of vast importance in all mechanism.
The resources of mechanical drawing have not yet
been sufficiently explored : with the great advance
now making in machinery, it will become necessary
to assist its powers by practical yet philosophical
rules for expressing still more clearly by signs and
by the letters themselves the mutual relations of
the parts of a machine.
As we advance towards machinery for more com-
plicated objects, other demands arise, without satis-
fying which our further course is absolutely stopped.
It becomes necessary to see at a glance, not only
every successive movement of each amongst thou-
sands of different parts, but also to scrutinize all
contemporaneous actions. This gave rise to the
Mechanical Notation, a language of signs, which,
although invented for one subject, is of so compre-
hensive a nature as to be applicable to many. If
the whole of the facts relating to a naval or military
battle were known, the mechanical notation would
assist the description of it quite as much as it would
that of any complicated engine.
This brief sketch has been given partly with the
view of more distinctly directing attention to an
CALCULATING ENGINES.
175
important point in which England excels all other
countries—the art of contriving and making tools ;
an art which has been continually forced upon my
own observation in the contrivance and construction
of the Calculating Engines.
When the first idea of inventing mechanical
means for the calculation of all classes of astro-
nomical and arithmetical tables, occurred to me, I
,
contented myself with making simple drawings,
and with forming a small model of a few parts.
But when I understood it to be the wish of the
Government that a large engine should be con-
structed, a very serious question presented itself for
consideration :-
Is the present state of the art of making
machinery sufficiently advanced to enable me to
execute the multiplied and highly complicated
movements required for the Difference Engine ?
After examining all the resources of existing
workshops, I came to the conclusion that, in order
to succeed, it would become necessary to advance
the art of construction itself. I trusted with some
confidence that those studies which had enabled me
to contrive mechanism for new wants, would be
equally useful for the invention of new tools, or of
other methods of employing the old.
During the many years the construction of the
Difference Engine was carried on, the following
course was adopted. After each drawing had been
176
CALCULATING ENGINES.
by the
made, a new inquiry was instituted to determine
the mechanical means by which the several parts
were to be formed. Frequently sketches, or new
drawings, were made, for the purpose of construct-
ing the tools or mechanical arrangements thus
contrived. This process often elicited some simpler
mode of construction, and thus the original con-
trivances were improved. In the mean time, many
workmen of the highest skill were constantly
employed in making the tools, and afterwards in
using them for the construction of parts of the
engine. The knowledge thus acquired
workmen, matured in many cases by their own
experience, and often perhaps improved by their
own sagacity, was thus in time disseminated widely
throughout other workshops. Several of the most
enlightened employers and constructors of ma-
chinery, who have themselves contributed to its
advance, have expressed to me their opinion that if
the Calculating Engine itself had entirely failed, the
money expended by Government in the attempt to
make it, would be well repaid by the advancement it
had caused in the art of mechanical construction.
It is somewhat singular, that whilst I had antici-
pated the difficulties of construction, I had not
foreseen a far greater difficulty, which, however,
was surmounted by the invention of the Mechanical
Notation.
The state of the Difference Engine at the time
CALCULATING ENGINES.
177
:
i
it was abandoned by the Government, was as
follows: A considerable portion of it had been
made; a part (about sixteen figures) was put
together; and the drawings, the whole of which are
now in the Museum of King's College at Somerset
House, were far advanced. Upon this engine the
Government expended about £17,000.
The drawings of the Analytical Engine have been
made entirely at my own cost: I instituted a long
series of experiments for the purpose of reducing
the expense of its construction to limits which
might be within the means I could myself afford to
supply. I am now resigned to the necessity of
abstaining from its construction, and feel indisposed
even to finish the drawings of one of its many
general plans. As a slight idea of the state of the
drawings may be interesting to some of my readers,
I shall refer to a few of the great divisions of the
subject
ARITHMETICAL ADDITION. · About a dozen
plans of different mechanical movements have been
drawn. The last is of the very simplest order.
CARRIAGE OF TENS.--A larger number of draw-
ings have been made of modes of carrying tens.
They form two classes, in one of which the carriage
takes place successively; in the other it. occurs
simultaneously, as will be more fully explained at
the end of this chapter.
MULTIPLYING BY TENS.—This is a very important
N
178
CALCULATING ENGINES.
1
process, though not difficult to contrive. Three
modes are drawn; the difficulties are chiefly those of
construction, and the most recent experiments now
enable me to use the simplest form.
Digit COUNTING APPARATUS.-It is necessary
that the machine should count the digits of the
numbers it multiplies and divides, and that it should
combine these properly with the number of deci-
mals used. This is by no means so easy as
the former operation : two or three systems of con-
trivances have been drawn.
COUNTING APPARATUS.--This is an apparatus of
a much more general order, for treating the indices
of functions and for the determination of the repeti-
tions and movements of the Jacquard cards, on which
the Algebraic developments of functions depend.
Two or three such mechanisms have been drawn.
SELECTORS.—The object of the system of con-
trivances thus named, is to choose in the operation
of Arithmetical division the proper multiple to be
subtracted; this is one of the most difficult parts
of the engine, and several different plans have been
drawn. The one at last adopted is, considering the
object, tolerably simple. Although division is an
inverse operation, it is possible to perform it entirely
by mechanism without any tentative process.
REGISTERING APPARATUS.—This is necessary in
division to record the quotient as it arises. It is
simple, and different plans have been drawn.
-
CALCULATING ENGINES.
179
ALGEBRAIC SIGNS.—The means of combining
these are very simple, and have been drawn.
PASSAGE THROUGH ZERO AND INFINITY.—This
is one of the most important parts of the Engine,
since it may lead to a totally different action upon
a
the formulæ employed. The mechanism is much
simpler than might have been expected, and is
drawn and fully explained by notations.
BARRELS AND DRUMS.— These are contrivances
for grouping together certain mechanical actions
often required; they are occasionally under the
direction of the cards ; sometimes they guide them-
selves, and sometimes their own guidance is inter-
fered with by the Zero Apparatus.
GROUPINGS.—These are drawings of several of
the contrivances before described, united together
in various forms. Many drawings of them exist.
GENERAL Plans. — Drawings of all the parts
PLANS ·
necessary for the Analytical Engine have been made
in many forms. No less than thirty different general
plans for connecting them together, have been
devised and partially drawn; one or two are far
advanced. No. 25 was lithographed at Paris in
1840. These have been superseded by simpler or
more powerful combinations, and the last and most
simple has only been sketched.
A large number of Mechanical Notations exist,
showing the movements of these several parts,
and also explaining the processes of arithmetic and
N 2
180
CALCULATING ENGINES.
algebra to which they relate. One amongst them,
for the process of division, covers nearly thirty large
folio sheets.
About twenty years after I had commenced the
first Difference Engine, and after the greater part
of these drawings had been completed, I found
that almost every contrivance in it had been super-
seded by new and more simple mechanism, which
the construction of the Analytical Engine had
rendered necessary.
Under these circumstances
I made drawings of an entirely new Difference
Engine. The drawings, both for the calculating
and the printing parts, amounting in number to
twenty-four, are completed. They are accompanied
by the necessary mechanical notations, and by an
index of letters to the drawings ; so that although
there is as yet no description in words, there is
effectively such a description by signs, that this
new Difference Engine might be constructed from
them.
Amongst the difficulties which surrounded the
idea of the construction of an Engine for developing
Analytical formulæ, there were some which seemed
insuperable if not impossible, not merely to the com-
mon understandings of well-informed persons, but
even to the more practised intellect of some of the
greatest masters of that science which the machine
was intended to control. It still seemed, after much
discussion, at least highly doubtful whether such
CALCULATING ENGINES.
181
formulæ could ever be brought within the grasp
of
mechanism.
I have met in the course of my inquiries with
four cases of obstacles presenting the appearance
of impossibilities. As these form a very interesting
chapter in the history of the human mind, and are
on the one hand connected with some of the
simplest elements of mechanism, and on the other
with some of the highest principles of philosophy,
I shall endeavour to explain them in a short, and,
I hope, somewhat popular manner, to those who
have a very moderate share of mathematical know-
ledge. Those of my readers to whom they may
not be sufficiently interesting, will, I hope, excuse
the interruption, and pass on to the succeeding
chapters.
ỹ The first difficulty arose at an early stage of the
Analytical Engine. The mechanism necessary to
add one number to another, if the carriage of the
tens be neglected, is very simple. Various modes had
been devised and drawings of about a dozen contri-
vances for carrying the tens had been made. The
same general principle pervaded all of them. Each
figure wheel when receiving addition, in the act of
passing from nine to ten caused a lever to be put
aside. An axis with arms arranged spirally upon it
then revolved, and commencing with the lowest
figure replaced successively those levers which might
have been put aside during the addition. This
182
CALCULATING ENGINES.
replacing action upon the levers caused unity to be
added to the figure wheel next above. The nume-
rical example below will illustrate the process.
597,999
}
201,001
Numbers to be added.
798,990 Sum without any carriage.
1 Puts aside lever acting on tens.
798,900 First spiral arm adds tens and
1 puts aside the next lever.
798,000 Second spiral arm adds hundreds, and
1
puts aside the next lever.
799,000 Third spiral arm adds thousands.
Now there is in this mechanism a certain analogy
with the act of memory. The lever thrust aside
by the passage of the tens, is the equivalent of the
note of an event made in the memory, whilst the
spiral arın, acting at an after time upon the lever
put aside, in some measure resembles the endeavours
made to recollect a fact.
It will be observed that in these modes of
carrying, the action must be successive. Supposing
a number to consist of thirty places of figures, each
of which is a nine, then if any other number of
thirty figures be added to it, since the addition of
each figure to the corresponding one takes place at
the same time, the whole addition will only occupy
nine units of time. But since the number added
may be unity, the carriages may possibly amount
CALCULATING ENGINES.
....
183
a
to twenty-nine. Consequently the time of making
the carriages may be more than three times as long
as that required for addition.
The time thus occupied was, it is true, very
considerably shortened in the Difference Engine :
but when the Analytical Engine was to be con-
trived, it became essentially necessary to diminish
it still further. After much time fruitlessly ex-
pended in many contrivances and drawings, a very
different principle, which seemed indeed at first to
be impossible, suggested itself.
It is evident that whenever a carriage is conveyed
to the figure above, if that figure happen to be a nine,
a new carriage must then take place, and so on as
far as the nines extend. Now the principle sought
to be expressed in mechanism amounted to this.
1st. That a lever should be put aside, as before,
on the passage of a figure-wheel from nine to ten.
2d. That the engine should then ascertain the
position of all those nines which by carriage would
ultimately become zero, and give notice of new
carriages ; that, foreseeing those events, it should
anticipate the result by making all the carriages
simultaneously.
This was at last accomplished, and
ferent mechanical contrivances fulfilling these condi-
tions were drawn. The former part of this mecha-
nism bears an analogy to memory, the latter to
foresight. The apparatus remembers as it were,
;
many dif-
184
CALCULATING ENGINES.
one set of events, the transits from nine to ten :
examines what nines are found in certain critical
places : then, in consequence of the concurrence of
these events, acts at once so as to anticipate other
actions that would have happened at a more distant
period, had less artificial means been used.
Ø The second apparent impossibility seemed to
present far greater difficulty. Fortunately it was
not one of immediate practical importance, although
as a question of philosophical inquiry it possessed
the highest interest. I had frequently discussed
with Mrs. Somerville and my highly gifted
friend the late Professor M‘Cullagh of Dublin,
the question whether it was possible that we
should be able to treat algebraic formulæ by
means of machinery. The result of many in-
quiries led to the conclusion, that if not really
impossible, it was almost hopeless. The first dif-
ficulty was that of representing an indefinite num-
ber in a machine of finite size. It was readily
admitted that if a machine afforded means of
operating on all numbers under twenty places of
figures, then that any number, or an indefinite
number, of less than twenty places or figures might
be represented by it. But such number will not
be really indefinite. It would be possible to make
a machine capable of operating upon numbers of
forty, sixty, or one hundred places of figures : still,
however, a limit must at last be reached, and the
CALCULATING ENGINES.
185
numbers represented would not be really indefinite.
After lengthened consideration of this subject, the
solution of the difficulty was discovered; and it
presented the appearance of reasoning in a circle.
Algebraical operations in their most general form
cannot be carried on by machinery without the
capability of expressing indefinite constants. On
the other hand, the only way of arriving at the
expression of an indefinite constant, was through
the intervention of Algebra itself.
This is not a fit place to enter into the detail
of the means employed, further than to observe,
that it was found possible to evade the difficulty,
by connecting indefinite number with the infinite in
time instead of with the infinite in space.
The solution of this difficulty being found, and
the discovery of another principle having been made,
namely—that the nature of a function might be
indicated by its position—algebra, in all its most
abstract forms, was placed completely within the
reach of mechanism.
§ The third difficulty that presented itself was
one which I had long before anticipated. It
was proposed to me nearly at the same time by
three of the most eminent cultivators of analysis
then existing, M. Jacobi, M. Bessel, and Professor
M'Cullagh, who were examining the drawings of
the Analytical Engine. The question they proposed
was this :—How would the Analytical Engine be
186
CALCULATING ENGINES.
able to treat calculations in which the use of tables
of logarithms, sines, &c. or any other tabular num-
bers should be required ?
My reply was, that as at the time logarithms
were invented, it became necessary to remodel the
whole of the formulæ of Trigonometry, in order to
adapt it to the new instrument of calculation : so
when the Analytical Engine is made, it will be
desirable to transform all formulæ containing tabu-
lar numbers into others better adapted to the use
of such a machine. This, I replied, is the answer I
give to you as mathematicians; but I added, that
for others less skilled in our science, I had another
answer: namely-
That the engine might be so arranged that where-
ever tabular numbers of any kind, occurred in a for-
mula given it to compute, it would on arriving at
any required tabular number, as for instance, if it
required the logarithm of 1207, stop itself, and ring
a bell to call the attendant, who would find written
at a certain part of the machine “ Wanted log. of
1207." The attendant would then fetch from
tables previously computed by the engine, the loga-
rithm it required, and placing it in the proper
place, would lift a detent, permitting the engine to
continue its work.
The next step of the engine, on receiving the
tabular number (in this case the logarithm of 1207)
would be to verify the fact of its being really that
í
a
CALCULATING ENGINES.
187
logarithm. In case no mistake had been made by
the attendant, the engine would use the given
tabular number, and go on with its work until
some other tabular number were required, when
the same process would be repeated. If, however,
any mistake had been made by the attendant, and
a wrong logarithm had been accidentally given to
the engine, it would have discovered the mistake,
and have rung a louder bell to call the attention of
its guide, who on looking at the proper place,
would see a plate above the logarithm he had just
put in with the word “ wrong" engraven upon it.
By such means it would be perfectly possible to
make all calculations requiring tabular numbers,
without the chance of error.
Although such a plan does not seem absolutely
impossible, it has always excited, in those in-
formed of it for the first time, the greatest surprise.
How, it has been often asked, does it happen if the
engine knows when the wrong logarithm is offered
to it, that it does not also know the right one; and
if so, what is the necessity of having recourse to the
attendant to supply it? The solution of this difficulty
is accomplished by the very simplest means.
The fourth of the apparent impossibilities to
which I have referred, involves a condition of so
extraordinary a nature that even the most fastidious
inquirer into the powers of the Analytical Engine
could scarcely require it to fulfil.
188
CALCULATING ENGINES.
.
Knowing the kind of objections that my coun-
trymen make to this invention, I proposed to
myself this inquiry
Is it possible so to construct the Analytical
Engine, that after the cards representing the
formulæ and numbers are put into it, and the handle
is turned, the following condition shall be ful-
filled ?
The attendant shall stop the machine in the
middle of its work, whenever he chooses, and as
often as he pleases. At each stoppage he shall
examine all the figure wheels, and if he can,
without breaking the machine, move any of them
to other figures, he shall be at liberty to do so.
Thus he may from time to time, falsify as many
numbers as he pleases. Yet notwithstanding
this, the final calculation and all the interme-
diate steps shall be entirely free from error. I
have succeeded in fulfilling this condition by means
of a principle in itself very simple. It may add
somewhat, though not very much, to the amount of
mechanism required;
uired; in many parts of the eng
the principle has been already carried out. I by
no means think such a plan necessary, although
wherever it can be accomplished without expense it
ought to be adopted.
CHAPTER XIV.
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
J
SCIENCE in England is not a profession : its
cultivators are scarcely recognised even as a class.
Our language itself contains no single term by
which their occupation can be expressed. We
borrow a foreign word [Savant] from another
country whose high ambition it is to advance
science, and whose deeper policy, in accord with
more generous feelings, gives to the intellectual
labourer reward and honour, in return for services
which crown the nation with imperishable renown,
and ultimately enrich the human race.
The first question which presents itself to a
government desirous of advancing science, is to
consider what departments of knowledge it is im-
portant that it should reward. This is a point
upon which much misunderstanding prevails, and
with regard to which interested parties have studi-
ously endeavoured to delude the public.
As the fund which can be applied to this pur-
190
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
pose even by a generous nation, is moderate, the
first limitation of its application ought naturally to
be,—to confine it to those discoveries which are
from their very nature not immediately capable of
becoming a source of profit.
One of the most common errors, is to reward
persons who have merely acquired an extensive
knowledge of various departments of science, but
who have neither extended its boundaries by new
methods, nor added new principles to its theories.
Ø An analogous mistake often occurs to wealthy
and benevolent persons residing in the country,
who, finding in the son of their village blacksmith
or other artificer, some great aptitude for figures,
immediately conclude that if properly trained and
then sent to College, he will turn out a great
mathematician. Now although in very rare in-
stances such cases may have occurred, the general
result is quite different. The lad thus selected,
if as is usually the case he is somewhat above the
average intellect, will under such favourable circum-
stances probably acquire a considerable knowledge
of science, and become a very respectable member
of society. But if the benevolent person who thus
totally changed the position in life of this young
man, had first made inquiries at our national schools,
he would probably have found several out of every
hundred scholars, capable under similar treatment of
acquiring a still larger amount of that knowledge.
1
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
191
Ś With the increasing extension of science the
labour of some of its details becomes excessive, and
those who are able to afford the expense, gladly
employ computers to relieve them from the more
irksome portions of their toil. The reduction of
astronomical and meteorological observations are of
this kind. When once the formulæ to be used are
decided upon, and a skeleton form is ruled or printed
and a system of checks is devised, the remaining
work may be executed by persons of very moderate
attainments. This may be extended to the con-
putation of the orbits of planets, of comets, and of
double stars, and such assistance may usually be
had on very moderate terms. In more extensive
operations, the liability to error from the want
of sufficient checks, and the great tediousness and
even uncertainty of the result must remain, until
mechanism shall entirely relieve the mind from
these difficulties.
§ Let us now consider what is the present situation
of men of science in England.
The estimate which is formed of the social
position of any class of society, depends mainly
upon the answer to these two questions :-
What are the salaries of the highest offices to
which the most successful may aspire ?
What are the honorary distinctions which the
most eminent can attain ?
Offices of a strictly scientific nature are few, and
192
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
.
their salaries are generally of small amount :
amongst these there are-
A few of the professorships at our universities.
The Astronomer Royal.
The Astronomers of some of our Colonial Obser-
vatories.
The Master of Mechanics to the Queen.
The Conductor of the Nautical Almanac.
The Director of the Museum of Economical
Geology and of the Geological Survey.
Various officers of the same institution.
Some of the officers in the Natural History de-
partment of the British Museum.
The most valuable of these, that of Astronomer
Royal, receives about 1,3001. a-year, including a
pension of 3001.
Thus there is amongst this class one solitary
prize of at the utmost 1,3001. a-year, and that is
confined to one department of science.
Offices for which men of science are at least as
fit as any other persons, are numerous, though they
are very rarely attained by those who pursue it.
.
1
It may, perhaps, have been expected that the
recent appointment of Sir John Herschel to the Mas-
tership of the Mint, should have been noticed in the
previous list. But until the motives which dictated
it are known, I have no observation to make, except
that it is gratifying to me to find that the great
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
193
principle of the “claims of science," for which I
have all my life been contending, has been thus as
it were, unconsciously admitted by the minister :
and had the accident of birth placed me in his
position, the appointment would have been the same,
although the motives for it might have been dif-
ferent.
Let us now turn to the honorary distinctions
which await science. During the eleven years of
the present reign, one solitary instance is to be
found of a baronetcy given for science, and that too
occurred only at a festival (the coronation) at which
baronetages and peerages were showered upon
those whose sole claim was founded on the mere
support of party.
During the same interval, about half a dozen of
those who cultivate science, have been knighted.
It appears then that the highest position a man
of science can attain, and that but very rarely, is a
baronetcy; that the highest salary is about 1,0001.
a-year. When this is compared with the most suc-
.
cessful prizes in the army, the navy, the church, or
the bar, it shows at once the inferior position occu-
pied by science.
Connected with the navy is an office which ought
to be held by a person eminently uniting science
with practical skill. The Surveyor-General of the
Navy has to decide upon questions of the greatest
difficulty. The mathematical theories and inquiries
on which the various qualities of sailing vessels and
'
0
194
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
a
steamers depend, are of the most complicated kind,
and are not even yet sufficiently advanced to serve
as secure and absolute guides. Yet without a know..
ledge of their present state, and a power of ad-
vancing those theories, it is hopeless to expect the
greatest and most valuable additions to the science
of naval architecture. This can only be accom-
plished by one who combines a great facility in
applying such portions of them as admit of it, to
the practical facts which experience is continually
bringing to light.
The talent for commanding a fleet is by no
means rare: the most successful in that line may
attain fortune, the peerage, and a large pension.
The talent for investigating the laws regulating the
forms of ships, is of the very rarest order. Even if
its possessor should happen to be of the naval pro-
fession, his greatest reward could only extend to
knighthood, and a thousand a-year during the tenure
of an office of great labour. Of course, naval men
having the requisite talents, would never turn them
into so unprofitable a direction : yet it would be
difficult to say how many millions of money have
been, and continue to be, uselessly expended for
want of that knowledge.
Amongst those situations in the appointment of
the government, there are many in which a know-
ledge of various branches of science is highly useful.
A considerable number of these are filled by officers
of engineers, artillery, and other corps of the army
а
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
195
and of the navy. Thus those whose service is
already paid for by the country, are excused from
doing their ordinary duty, and are paid again for
doing another and perhaps a more agreeable duty.
Under the delusive plea that military and civil
engineering are the same science, military engineers
have been placed in situations for which they were
unfit, and civil engineers have been excluded, to
the injury of that profession, and to the much
greater damage of the country. The Ordnance
Magnetical Observatories will furnish an example
of the economy which, it is pretended, results from
such arrangements.
Some ten or twelve years ago, it was proposed by
Humboldt. that various governments should esta-
blish magnetical observatories at different points on
the earth's surface, so chosen that by the united
information thus obtained, we might arrive at more
accurate and correct ideas of the state of the earth's
magnetism. That plan has been pursued with
great advantage to science. A magnetical observa-
tory was built at Greenwich, and continuous ob-
servations were made which have been reduced and
published annually under the direction of the
Astronomer Royal. The expense* of the Magnetic
and Meteoric Observatory, excluding that portion
of the Astronomer Royal's salary which may be
* See App. to Rept. of Select Com. on Misc. Expenditure,
p. 222.
0 2
196
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
considered due to his services in the direction of
this department, but including the whole of the
making and recording the observations themselves,
is 7201. annually.
There are other magnetical observatories in seve-
ral of our colonies in which observations are made.
These observations appear to be sent for reduction
to an establishment at Woolwich, under the super-
intendence of Colonel Sabine.
Now the first and most obvious course would
have been to have employed an additional number
of computers at Greenwich, who should use the
same formulæ and methods of reduction. This
would ensure perfect uniformity, and would appa-
rently be the most economical plan.
The course that is actually pursued is to have
a separate establishment at Woolwich, with an
officer, and several non-commissioned officers on
extra pay, so that the account stands thus :-*
£ d.
One officer, extra pay
182 10 0
One non-commissioned officer, ditto .
27 7 6
Three non-commissioned officers, ditto
68 8 9
Contingent, not exceeding
200 0 0
Apparent expense
£478 6 3
But to this must be added-
The full pay of Lieut.-Colonel
300 0 5
273 15 0
Carried forward
£1,052 1 8
* See p. 221 App. to Rept. on Misc. Expenditure, p. 348
(543) II.
s.
His extra pay
.
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
197
Brought forward
Full pay of one officer, if a Captain .
Ditto one non-commissioned ditto*
Ditto three ditto ditto
£ 8. d.
1,052 1
8
192 16 3
20 0 0
50 0 0
.
.
Real expense
£ s.
£1,314 17 11
In the estimate for civil service for 1850+ the
following items occur :-
d.
Extra pay to Colonel Sabine, Royal Artillery,
for services in connexion with the Magnetic
and Meteorological Observations, for ten years,
from 7th May, 1839, to 7th May, 1849, at
158. a-day.
2,739 15 0
Deduct 38. 4d. per day granted him from 1st
June, 1841, to 7th May, 1848, as compensa-
tion for loss of command pay
434 8 0
.
.
.
.
£2,305 7 0
This certainly requires an explanation. Here is
an officer not doing the services of his profession,
who it seems has been allowed a compensation for
what he might have received if he had rendered
those services : notwithstanding which, at the end
of ten years, he claims and is allowed the above sum
of £2,305 78. for services the payment of which
it would seem by this account was never con-
templated during those ten years.
* The pay of the non-commissioned officers has been
assumed as somewhat less by ten per cent. than their extra
pay.
† See p. 41, App. to Rept. on Misc. Expenditure, p. 848,
(268) IV.
198
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
It is also to be remarked that Colonel Sabine
does not reside at Woolwich, where the only
effective portion of the work is carried on.
But to return to our argument: it is singular
that even the principles on which science ought
to be rewarded, are not entirely settled.
Should all equally great discoveries be rewarded
in the same way, without regard to the different
positions in society which the discoverers occupy?
If this principle were admitted, the rewards must
be very large, or there would be none for the
higher classes of society.
Of all steps in the social scale, that which first
elevates a man into the class of Gentlemen is by far
the greatest. In this country, where the differences
of rank are great, there is fortunately, until we
approach royalty, no absolute line of demarcation
between any classes, except the one alluded to;
even the peerage to a private gentleman is not so
great an advance.
It is without doubt very desirable that all classes
should contribute to the intellectual advancement of
the country. But unless different advantages are
proposed to different classes, it is not possible to
apply any general stimulus to all.
§ Those who maintain that science is its own
reward, cannot have remarked the vicious circle in
which they reason. The delight derived from dis-
3
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
i
199
covery is indeed a high intellectual reward, but the
force of this maxim is only known practically to
those who have already advanced in the career of
discovery: it can, therefore, never direct the inquirer
into that line. All men are subject to the same
feelings and passions. It is assuredly true that
men of wealth and rank will be happier if they
cultivate their faculties, and add to the amount of
human knowledge: but they cannot be aware of
this truth until they are considerably advanced,
consequently it cannot have induced them to com-
mence this cultivation.
But it is for the interest of those who are
the consumers of knowledge, that all other minds
should be induced to advance it: therefore it is
our interest to place even before the highest classes,
at the commencement of their career, motives for its
pursuit. Having raised such expectations, justice
requires us to fulfil them; nor can we regret that
the advantages derived from the course into which
we have invited them, should have proved beneficial
to them beyond even the limits of our prediction.
It is of the very nature of knowledge that the re-
condite and apparently useless acquisition of to-day,
becomes part of the popular food of a succeeding
generation. Thus the nobleman who spends his
wealth in constructing unrivalled instruments, and
his nights in scrutinizing with them the remotest
boundaries of space into which human vision has
200
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
yet penetrated, is preparing a source of pleasure
and happiness for the descendants of those very
peasants whom his practical skill in engineering
has raised by his own instructions above the ranks
in which he originally found them,
♡ Another question has been raised, but not yet
answered, respecting those pensions which have
been awarded for scientific discoveries. A certain
definite limit has been fixed by practice, which has
never yet been exceeded in pensions assigned to
science. The sum of three hundred a-year, the
maximum of reward to science, is almost the min-
imum of reward for other services.
The most important question is, Whether these
pensions are given as the reward of scientific ser-
vices rendered to the country, or as charity to
enlightened and studious persons who happen to
be poor? In the one case, they are an honour
which a philosopher may be proud of receiving from
his country : in the other, they are no more than a
higher order of pauper relief, which an independent
gentleman can scarcely condescend to accept.
Another important question, though of a different
nature, also arises here. Are these pensions, thus
small in amount, fit to be offered to those who, in
order to arrive at their discoveries, have themselves
in some cases spent out of their own private for-
tune, sums far larger than the fee simple of the
rewards thus offered to them.
.
POSITION OF SCIENCE.
201
Is it just that the same rewards should be given
to persons filling well-endowed scientific offices,
supplied with all the means of discovery which
the most perfect · art can produce, as to other
philosophers, who, at the expense of their own
personal comfort and perhaps of the interests of
their family, have purchased the costly means by
which they have succeeded in equally improving
their several departments of science ?
For the honour and the advancement of science,
it is necessary that these questions should be dis-
tinctly answered. It is to be hoped that some
independent member of parliament will at last press
them in a manner which no ministerial shuffling
can evade.
CHAPTER XV.
THE PRESS.
sense.
>
Some of the principles for the discovery of truth,
professed and acted upon by those who administer
the laws of England, and by those who practice
in its courts, are certainly repugnant to the first
impressions and feelings of honest men, if not
also to common
It is, therefore, abso-
lutely necessary, in order to remove these impres-
sions, to state the ground on which those principles
are defended. That ground may be shortly ex-
pressed thus-
It has been found by long experience that it is
more for the advantage of truth and justice that
professional men should be stimulated by fees and
the hope of advancement, to put forward or conceal
every fact, to advance, withhold, or oppose every
inference and argument, solely as it may be of
advantage to the party by whom they are employed.
It is also stated that the public are aware of
this convention, and, therefore, are not deceived by
the speeches of the advocate.
THE PRESS.
203
Without asking whether the long experience
alluded to has ever been fortified by the trial and
the failure of an opposite course, it may be at once
stated that this mode of arriving at truth is con-
trary to the result of long experience in matters of
science. In all discussions on those subjects, it is
found far more conducive to truth, if either party
in discussing a mooted point discover in his own
argument a flaw, unobserved by his opponent, that
he should immediately point it out, and that they
should both apply their minds to repair it, and if
unsuccessful, admit it. The same course is pursued
with regard to facts ; every circumstance, however
apparently remote, is contributed by both inquirers
to the common stock, without the slightest care as
to its bearings on one or the other side of the
question. Facts thus conveyed for the first time
to the mind of one of the parties, often recall to his
memory analogous facts, and thus the materials
of reasoning or of induction become largely in-
creased.
Ś § To this supposed legal principle, it may be
fairly objected that it is entirely a theoretical view.
To be convinced of this it is enough to appeal to
every man who has ever sat on a jury or heard one
addressed by counsel. He well knows that the very
first effort of the learned advocate is to attempt to
persuade the jury that he is no advocate at all.
This line is sustained throughout his address, and
204
THE PRESS.
his great object is to convince them that he him-
self personally believes both the facts to which his
witnesses testify, and the inferences he adduces
from their evidence. The more skilful the advocate,
the more he endeavours to persuade the jury that
he is merely an impartial observer, assisting them
in arriving at a just conclusion.
The effects of long habit in thus mystifying less
practised reasoners, cannot fail to be injurious to
the moral character of the man. Take a case of
title to property, on which a barrister is consulted.
Suppose the holder has no right whatever to it, yet
will the barrister by every means his knowledge
and ingenuity can suggest, help his client to rob
some other person of his property. It is useless to
say that in such circumstances the attorney con-
ceals certain facts of his case, and does not put the
facts to the counsel in this plain way. On such
occasions the most skilful counsel are always em-
ployed, and they are certainly competent, if they
choose it, to ascertain the real state of the case. In
criminal cases such attempts to mislead juries are
still more reprehensible.
§ If the principle now discussed is sound, it
is capable of application to another subject—the
press. But strangely enough, lawyers, more than
any other class, abuse the press because it treats
its subject commercially, and refuse to admit that
rule in the case of editors of newspapers, which
THE PRESS.
205
G
they claim as a sanction for themselves. A little
examination, however, will show that the conduct
of the press is much more defensible than that of
the bar.
The public require a daily account of all facts con-
nected with politics and the institutions of the
country ; it also demands analyses, discussions, and
;
opinions on the bearings of all such facts upon its
interests. As opinions amongst the public are
often much opposed to, or widely different from
each other, it is clear that this demand cannot be
satisfied without many newspapers. Now, looking
solely to the commercial profit arising from its sale,
it is tolerably certain that some one paper supported
by greater capital, and conducted with greater skill,
will endeavour to represent the opinions of the
largest class of those who purchase these sheets of
diurnal information. The first place being thus
occupied, other journals will arise to represent the
opinions of smaller, yet, perhaps, of powerful classes.
Thus the opinions of all parties, and, in some
measure, their relative strength, become known to
each other. This is an end much to be desired.
If the opinions of the public change, those
of the leading journal must of course follow,
even though they are directly opposed to those ad-
vocated by it a few days before. Such a change
undoubtedly shocks the feelings of many who
remain constant to their own views, and cases often
>
206
TNE PRESS.
occur in which these latter give up their usual paper. .
It must, however, be admitted that there are few
political or economical questions on which one side
is morally right, the other morally wrong. That
a given man has or has not got possession of an-
other man's estate, that a man has or has not com-
mitted a murder or other crime, must, in most
cases, be well known to his counsel; if in either
case the wrong-doer escapes punishment, an injury
is done to society. But whether a given line of
policy or a given law, is more or less beneficial or
even injurious to the State, is generally dependent
on so many causes that very few are able to
foresee their consequences with tolerable certainty.
The most general and unsophisticated opinion is,
that no man is justified in advocating, even when
unpaid, doctrines in which he does not himself be-
lieve. With respect to the press, it is possible
that the writer of the second article may be a
different individual from the person who wrote the
first article ; but even were he the same person, the
bar at least have no right to find fault with
him.
Ś
The press then may advantageously be con-
sidered as expressing the opinions of classes, not of
individuals. It has greatly improved in the last
quarter of a century, in consequence of the general
improvement of all classes.
There is now also fortunately established a certain
a
THE PRESS.
207
professional feeling amongst its members that reports
of speeches, or of facts, ought to be rigidly exact.
Abstracts of speeches will occasionally be coloured
not by additions, but by selections or omissions,
according to the side of the question advocated by
the writer. Yet even here the more popular papers
are careful to do justice to all parties. It is the
more important that this latter rule should be
admitted as a principle, because, from the great
length of the debates themselves, they are rarely
read by persons much occupied, except when ques-
tions of great interest occur.
To such persons an impartial abstract is in-
valuable.
In the leading articles greater latitude is al-
lowable. These, if the theory which has been ex-
plained is admitted, are avowedly the expressions
of the opinion of its customers. The power of the
press is undoubtedly great, yet it is bound by the
strongest ties of interest not to abuse that power.
It is clearly its interest to seem consistent, and
consequently to employ, at almost any expense, the
best means of ascertaining the opinions of the
country before they are publicly expressed. Having
attained this knowledge, it will get the credit of
appearing to lead public opinion.
Its powers of doing good when honestly con-
ducted, are yet larger than its powers of mischief.
Yet even here its power is of necessity limited. It
208
THE PRESS.
1
1
cannot advocate even the best course of policy on
any important subject unless it is tolerably certain
that it will succeed in convincing its customers that
it is really the best. It ought not to advocate that
best course, because the falling off of its subscribers
might then disable it from as effectually assisting
the second best. It, however, neither ought, nor is
it ultimately its interest, to conceal those opinions
from its subscribers.
The
power
it
possesses, of exposing knaves and
swindlers, by means of its correspondents, and of
sending highly intelligent commissioners from time
to time to inquire personally into the situation of
various classes of the population, are of great value,
and could only be exercised by a wealthy as well
as by a powerful press.
a
CHAPTER XVI.
PARTY.
" Of all the tyrannies that molest this terrestrial scene
perhaps there is none so arbitrary, so extravagant, or so
grotesque as the tyranny of party. There is none that so
frequently subjects the wise to the caprices of the fool, and
the good to the designs of the knave.”—The Times, Dec. 1850,
There are two great principles of government
which divide the opinions of mankind.
1st. Unchangeableness; or, “Let things alone :"*
-the law of the Medes and Persians.
2d. Progress; or, the continual advancement
of mankind in the improvement of their Institu-
tions.
- No number of persons sufficiently extensive to
deserve the name of a class, have ever advocated
the principle of Retrocession. Some few enthu-
siasts have indeed believed in a golden age, and
have advocated the pastoral, or even the hunting
life. These, however, were not persons capable of
collecting, examining, and weighing the evidence on
which alone an opinion on the comparative happi-
ness of people existing in a savage or in a civilized
state of life can justly be formed.
P
1
1
210
PARTY.
A larger number exist, the admirers of the past,
each perhaps the worshipper of his own peculiar
age. Had he lived in those times, enjoying only the
ordinary capacity he now possesses, but endowed
with all the increased knowledge of the present day,
he might then have attained a position more commen-
surate with his wishes, though quite disproportioned
to the industry of his exertions or the calibre of
his intellect.
$ In our own country, "the wisdom of our an-
cestors" is with some the hackneyed theme of
unbounded admiration.
Our ancestors were generally wise and sagacious
men : they applied their energies and their know-
ledge, as far as it went, to their existing wants and
necessities. Those amongst them who deserved
that character, would, if questioned, have expressed
in language the precept to which their deeds con-
formed. Availing themselves gratefully of all the
knowledge bequeathed to them by their prede-
cessors, they struggled to advance it for their own
and their children's benefit, and thus they might
have counselled every generation to their latest
posterity :-
“You have received from us, tested by many trials,
“ the treasured knowledge, gathered under difficulty
" and danger, of our country's experience.”
“Let the great object of each generation be to
purify that body of knowledge from its partial
PARTY.
211
.
errors, to add to it the greatest amount of new
•“ truths.
“Remember that accumulated knowledge, like
“accumulated capital, increases at compound inte-
“ rest : but it differs from the accumulation of
capital in this; that the increase of knowledge
produces a more rapid rate of progress, whilst the
" accumulation of capital leads to a lower rate of
“ interest. Capital thus checks its own accumula-
“tion: knowledge thus accelerates it own advance.
“ Each generation, therefore, to deserve comparison
“ with its predecessor, is bound to add much more
largely to the common stock than that which it
immediately succeeds.
§ A question has not unfrequently been proposed
by those who apply their foresight to remote rather
than to immediate objects-
“What will become of our posterity when our
< coal-fields are exhausted ?”
The best answer to this question is, that when
that distant day arrives, if our posterity, with the
accumulated knowledge of centuries, shall have
failed to find any substitute for coal in the many
other sources of heat which nature supplies, they
will then deserve to be frost-bitten.
☆ It is remarkable that the great parties adopt
opposite principles in pursuance of the same line of
reasoning
The advocates of things as they are, wish to stop
7
P 2
212
PARTY
>
all change, in order to prevent revolution. Those
who inculcate continual progress, support it, be-
cause it makes all changes gradual, and thus, in
their opinion, it prevents revolution.
It is by sudden changes in laws and institutions
that the greatest misery is inflicted on mankind.
Those gradual changes which are spread over a con-
siderable period are foreseen, and men make pre-
paration beforehand to accommodate themselves to
the new but expected circumstances.
If the changes effected by the Reform Bill, had been
spread over the ten preceding and ten subsequent
years, few will deny that it would have been a better
measure, and more effective for its purpose. T'he
experience derived from its earlier changes would
then have been available for its later uses. The perti-
nacity, however, with which all reform was resisted,
led to such a state of affairs, that after the refusal to
transfer the franchise from East Retford, revolution
was averted only by vast and immediate concession.
Ś The terms Tory and Whig had been the
watchwords of these two parties, until, at last, the
public lost all confidence in either. With the in-
creasing wealth of the country, and with the greater
application of observation, of reasoning, and of
science, to its many arts and manufactures, a vast
increase has been produced in the numbers, the
power, and the influence of the middle classes.
Many individuals who have raised themselves by
PARTY.
213
their intellect and industry into this class, have been
so fully impressed with the advantages of previous
training, that they have made efforts to give their
children an education more extensive and more
liberal than any which, until lately, our universities
had attempted to supply.
It is to the growth of this class, which includes
men possessing from 5001. to 5,0001. a-year, that
we are indebted for much of the strength which
public opinion now exerts upon the ininistry of the
day. Notwithstanding the vast influence of wealth
and of rank throughout the country, there are still
amongst these middle classes, thousands whose
moderation renders them rich; who, therefore, can
afford to be honest, and whose approbation is
neither to be purchased by wealth, nor won by the
seductions of rank and of fashionable life.
Such men, on all public questions, influence
widely and justly the opinions of those around
them. There are such in the House of Commons;
and, with the extension of knowledge, many more
will be added to their number.
Thus the very weakness of an administration may
possibly become an advantage, since it thus becomes
impossible for government to carry any measure
entirely opposed to the calm good sense of the
people. This, however, admits of one excepted
If a party to advance its own interests will
pander to some strong passion, to some prejudice
case.
214
PARTY.
a
--
1
of ignorance or of bigotry, it may for a time succeed,
though it will ultimately lose in character.
In the meantime, the people have found out that
Party is made use of only for the aggrandizement
of a few families; that it has degenerated into a
clique, banded together for mercenary purposes,
without enthusiasm or genius to compensate for its
meanness, and with little of talent to palliate its
want of integrity.
The reign of party, however, verges towards its
end; the supplies on which it feeds are sapped
by economical reform. That almost all places under
Government are greatly overpaid admits of no denial.
The demand for them is notoriously great, and it is
equally notorious that nothing but the strongest poli-
tical interest has any chance in the contest for them.
The government of England is nominally a
limited monarchy, but practically almost an oli-
garchy. A large number of its appointments are
shared by a few families, into which some daring
and unscrupulous intruders occasionally force their
way, by opposition which it is easier to quell by
place than to answer by argument: or into which
less gifted and more cunning supporters sometimes
obtain an entrance by a judicious alliance.
♡ It is strongly asserted that government cannot
go on without party. That those who maintain
this opinion are incapable of so conducting it, must
be at once admitted.
PARTY,
215
Without, however, entering into the debateable
question of the limits of party, it is sufficient
to state another principle, which no honest man
will deny, and then to leave to the advocates of
party to reconcile it with their doctrine.
It is morally wrong to endeavour to convince any
one of the truth of an opinion in which the advocate
himself does not believe.
If this principle were practically acted upon,
how much of the valuable time of both Houses of
Parliament would be saved! In looking over a
debate, or still better, a division, the private
opinions of many of the speakers are often well
known by their friends to be quite at variance with
the doctrines they advocated in their speeches.
The quasi-honesty of those who admit the truth in
private, is however venial, when compared with the
hypocrisy of those who are equally false on both
occasions.
Party, then, as it practically exists, is one of the
evils of the political state of England.
The remedy must come partly from the reduction
of temptation, by diminishing the salaries of all
those places and appointments for which there is
such immense competition ; partly from the effect
of public opinion; and ultimately, to a far greater
extent, when any sincere desire exists to restrain it,
from improved methods of distributing patronage.
But one defect seems almost always to accom-
216
PARTY.
I
а
pany a high state of civilization, namely,-a great
deficiency of moral courage in large classes of per-
sons; who from knowledge and position ought
rightly to contribute their share to the formation
and expression of public opinion. The first evil
which this produces, is an excessive zeal and energy
in a few of those who are most strongly convinced.
These bear the brunt of the attacks of all who
are interested in the support of abuses. If, un-
happily, they are not independent in fortune as
well as in spirit, these, the forlorn hope of reform,
are sure ultimately to be trampled upon and de-
stroyed by the jobbers—they die with ruined
fortunes and broken hearts.
Many of those who shared their opinions, and
urged on their enthusiasm, but who warily abstained
from expressing their own thoughts in public, now
venture to avow those principles, to which opinion
has at length advanced: these reap the rewards
won by the energies and sacrifices of their martyred
friends. For such, the epithet the poet applied to
Bacon is not unfit :
.“ the wisest - meanest of mankind.”— POPE.
A very serious evil arises from this timidity in
expressing opinions. The whole state of society
presents a counterfeit surface,-no man knows how
many or how few really share his opinions : its
whole fabric is in a state of unstable equilibrium ;
a
PARTY,
217
it is liable at every moment to most unlooked-for
changes, from accidents apparently trivial.
The following is one amongst many examples
which might have been selected of the different
standard with which Party measures services ren-
dered to the public by those within and those
without its own limits.
In the year 1847, when some millions of English
money were sent over to save the people of Ireland
from perishing by famine, it became necessary to
organize a system of accounts and of regulations,
for the direction of those officers who were sent
over for the purpose of personally superintending
the distribution of this relief.
These arrangements were made by the Assistant
Secretary of the Treasury, Sir C. T--, K.C.B.,
at extra hours; but it does not appear how many
months he was so employed.
The office at that time held by this gentleman,
was one for which he received a salary of £2,500 per
annum; and certainly this liberal salary ought to
have commanded the devotion of his whole time, if
necessary, to the public service. It would seem
that some application was made from the Treasury,
and that Lord John Russell acceded to it with un-
wonted liberality. He gave the remuneration in a
manner thought unconstitutional by several eminent
members of the House of Commons, and to an
extent justly considered extravagant by the public.
218
PARTY.
The following extracts from Hansard will explain
the matter.
i
>
“ The Chancellor of the Exchequer. With regard to Sir
C.T—, the case was an exceptional one ; but his services on
the extraordinary emergency alluded to were so very great
that it had been thought right to make a Treasury minute,
awarding him £2,500. The item would be found in the
• Civil Contingencies ’ laid before the House.
“Mr. Disraeli, --while readily acknowledging the great
services rendered by this gentleman, could not forget that the
Order of the Bath had been conferred upon him—a reward
bestowed
upon him as for services which could not be paid by a
pecuniary grant. The vote of £2,500 was surely conceived in
rather bad taste; and a preux chevalier like Sir C. T-
bearing his blushing honours, might well be supposed to recoil
from receiving an extra year's salary.
“ Mr. Gladstone-condemned the conduct of Government
in this matter. It was their duty to have submitted a vote
to the House, not to have taken on themselves to reward a
public servant. If there was one rule connected with the
public service which more than any other ought to be scrupu-
lously observed, it was this, that the salary of a public officer,
more especially if he were of high rank, ought to cover all
the services he might be called upon to render. Any depar-
ture from this rule must be dangerous.
“ Lord John Russell said, that the Government thought the
services of Sir C. T-- were deserving of reward.
“Mr. Goulburn.—According to all precedent, the House of
Commons ought to have fixed the amount of Sir C. T.'s remu-
neration.
“ Lord John Russell.—Sir C. T- stated in his evidence
that he worked three hours before breakfast; that he then went
to the Treasury, where he worked all day; and that the pres-
sure upon himn was such that he wondered that he had been
able to get through it alive."-Hansard, Vol. 101, p. 138,
1848. Supply, 14th Aug. 1848.
PARTY.
219
There appears to be some indistinctness as to
the fund out of which this 2,5001. was taken.
Compare Hansard with Questions 1693 and 1696
of the Report on Miscellaneous Expenditure.
No mode of keeping accounts, however, will
alter the fact ; that if the famine had not occurred,
neither would the 2,5001. have been required ;
consequently, that sum was part of the whole
amount our humanity cost us.
The liberality of the Minister to the Assistant
Secretary of the Treasury, may be explained by
stating that he was the brother-in-law of a Cabinet
Minister
There was another gentleman at least equal in
talent to the Assistant Secretary, whose services
were gratuitous, who, at the risk of his health, was
actively engaged on the spot in superintending the
distribution of the relief. To him the Government
thought it sufficient to give the Companionship of
the Bath, whilst the Assistant Secretary was made
a Commander of that Order.
CHAPTER XVII.
REWARDS
OF
MERIT.
The personal distinctions in the gift of the
Government of this country consist of the following
five orders of knighthood :-
NAME.
NO. OF MEMBERS.
GRAND
KNIGHT
COM.
COMP.
CROSS.
The Garter
The Thistle
St. Patrick
The Bath
Military -
Civil
St. George and St Michael -
25
16
16
50
25
-
{
102
50
20
525
200
25
15
147
172
750
Of these, the first three are restricted, with few
and rare exceptions, to persons of a certain rank-
including earls, and those above them. The num-
ber of these, with the addition of three sons for
each duke, and of the eldest sons of marquesses,
amounts to about four hundred and fifty. Amongst
this favoured class fifty-seven ribbons may be con-
ferred; so that about one-eighth of the class enjoy
the decoration.
;
REWARDS OF MERIT.
221
These ribbons, although much sought after by
the class amongst which they are distributed, are
more correctly appreciated by the public at large.
With some illustrious and honourable exceptions,
they are usually given by those in power to their
party supporters. They have also occasionally been
employed by the minister of the day, as induce-
ments to persuade his friends to postpone incon-
venient questions, to the agitation of which they
had been publicly pledged.
An amusing and characteristic anecdote respect-
ing one of these Orders, the Garter, is related of a
late Premier At à time' when several of these
“ baubles” had fallen vacant, and been judiciously
given away by the discreet minister, a friend asked
him, why he had not retained a Garter for himself?
to which he wittily replied, “Why, the fact is, I
" don't see the use of a man's bribing himself.”
The order of St. Michael and St. George was
instituted for the Ionian Islands, and is usually
given, after a certain time of service, to the Lord
High Commissioner, to the Commanders-in-Chief
of the Mediterranean fleet, and to other
per-
sons connected with the public service in those
quarters.
Thus England has, practically, only one order of
merit ; and, singularly enough, with the exception
of a few civil crosses of the first-class almost in-
variably given for diplomatic service, until lately,
a
222
REWARDS OF MERIT.
prepares the
that order was not accessible to any other than
military merit.
Ø In countries, however, which we fondly flattered
ourselves were less advanced in civilization than our
own, the vulgar notion of paying homage to brute
force has long been superseded by a more just
appreciation of the elements of military glory.
Nations even the most ambitious of this species of
renown, have admitted that physical prowess, that
recklessness of personal danger, form but the smallest
amongst those qualities which contribute to military
success.
It is now felt and admitted, that it is the civil
capacity of the great commander which
way for his military triumphs; that his knowledge
of human nature enables him to select the fittest
agents, and to place them in the situations best
adapted to their powers; that his intimate acquaint-
ance with all the accessaries which contribute to the
health and comfort of his troops, enables him to
sustain their moral and physical energy. It has
been seen that he must have studied and properly
estimated the character of his foes as well as of his
allies, and have made himself acquainted with the
personal character of the chiefs of both; and still fur-
ther, that he must have scrutinized the secret mo-
tives which regulated their respective governments.
When directly engaged in the operations of con-
tending armies occupying a wide extent of country,
REWARDS OF MERIT.
223
he must be able, with rapid glance, to ascertain the
force it is possible to concentrate upon each of many
points in any given time, and the greater or less
chance of failing in the attempt. He must also
be able to foresee, with something more than con-
jecture, what amount of the enemy's force can be
brought to the same spot in the same and in
different times. With these elements he must.
undertake one of the most difficult of mental tasks,
that of classifying and grouping the innumerable
combinations to which either party may have
recourse for purposes of attack or defence. Out of
the multitude of such combinations, which might
baffle by their simple enumeration the strongest
memory, throwing aside the less important, he must
be able to discover, to fix his attention, and to act
upon the most favourable. Finally, when the course
*thus selected baving been pursued, and perhaps
partially carried out, is found to be entirely deranged
by one of those many chances inseparable from
such operations, then, in the midst of action, he
must be able suddenly to organise a different
system of operations, new to all other minds, yet
possibly although unconsciously, anticipated by his
own.
>
The genius that can meet and overcome such
difficulties must be intellectual, and would, under
different circumstances, have been distinguished
in many a different career.
224
REWARDS OF MERIT.
Nor even would it be very surprising that such
a commander, estimating justly the extent of his
own powers, and conscious of having planned the
best combinations of which his mind is capable,
should, having issued his orders, calmly lie down
on the eve of the approaching conflict, and find in
sleep that bodily restoration so indispensable to the
full exercise of his faculties in the mighty struggle
about to ensue.
It is not uninteresting to observe in society the
opinions of its different classes respecting honours
conferred on science. Military and naval men,
especially the most eminent, feel that genius is
limited by no profession, and themselves sympa-
thizing with it, would gladly hail as brothers in
the same distinction, the philosopher and the poet.
With lawyers the case is reversed; genius dwells
not in their courts : industry and acuteness, mono-
polised by one absorbing professional subject, ex-
clude larger views; and ribbons not being amongst
the honoraria of their own profession, they repro-
bate their application to science. To this there are,
however, some noble exceptions. Amongst the
brightest ornaments of their own profession, men
are to be found of larger experience and more
extended views than it often produces, who are
themselves qualified to have become discoverers
in other sciences. It is much to be regretted when
such powers are applied to the mere administration,
.
REWARDS OF MERIT.
225
.
instead of to the reformation, of the laws of their
country.
It is difficult to pronounce on the opinion of
the ministers of our Church as a body: one
:
portion of them, by far the least informed, protests
against anything which can advance the honour
and the interests of science, because, in their
limited and mistaken view, science is adverse to
religion. This is not the place to argue that great
question. It is sufficient to remark, that the best-
informed and most enlightened men of all creeds
and pursuits, agree that truth can never damage
truth, and that every truth is allied indissolubly
by chains more or less circuitous with all other
truths; whilst error, at every step we make in its
diffusion, becomes not only wider apart and more
discordant from all truths, but has also the addi-
tional chance of destruction from all rival errors.
All established religions are, and must be in
practice, political engines—they have all a strong
tendency to self-aggrandisement. Our own is by no
means exempt from this very natural infirmity.
The Church has been reproached with endeavour-
ing to appropriate to itself all those professorships
in our Universities which are connected with science:
it is however certain that the larger portion of these
ill-remunerated offices have been filled by clergymen.
But a much graver charge attaches itself, if not
to our clergy, certainly to those who have the dis-
;
Q
226
REWARDS OF MERIT.
tribution of ecclesiastical patronage. The richest
Church in the world maintains that its funds are
quite insufficient for the purposes of religion, and
that our working clergy are ill-paid, and church
accommodation insufficient. It calls therefore upon
the nation to endow it with larger funds, and yet,
while reluctant to sacrifice its own superfluities, it
approves of its rich sinecures being given to re-
ward, -not the professional service of its indefati-
gable parochial clergy, but those of its members
who, having devoted the greater part of their time
to scientific researches, have political or private
interest enough to obtain such advancement.
But this mode of rewarding merit is neither
creditable to the Church nor advantageous to science.
It tempts into the Church talents which some of its
distinguished members maintain to be naturally of
a disqualifying, if not of an antagonistic nature to
the pursuits of religion; whilst, on the other hand,
it makes a most unjust and arbitrary distinction
amongst men of science themselves. It precludes
those who cannot conscientiously subscribe to
Articles, at once conflicting and incomprehensible,
from the acquisition of that preferment and that
position in society, which thus in many cases, must
be conferred on less scrupulous, and certainly less
distinguished inquirers into the works of nature.
As the honorary distinctions of orders of knight-
hood are not usually bestowed on the clerical
REWARDS OF MERIT.
227
profession, its members generally profess to enter-
tain a great contempt for them, and pronounce
them unfit for the recognition of scientific merit.
The want of an order for the reward of civil
service, having been publicly commented upon, the
question was at last forced upon the attention of
the government. A plan was drawn up for the
reformation of the Order of the Bath, and amongst
the qualifications for its civil grades the word science
was for the first time introduced. The draft, how-
ever, remained in the office, and the intention, if
such it were, of the Tories was not followed out.
On the advent of the Whigs to office, they seized
upon so plausible an opportunity for gaining
popularity, whilst in reality they were serving their
own purposes. They proceeded to reconstruct the
Order of the Bath, making two divisions, the Mili-
tary and the Civil, each of which consisted of three
classes.
On the 25th May, 1847, there appeared in the
Gazette letters patent under the great seal recon-
stituting the Order of the Bath. It was announced
that it should consist of two divisions, the Military
and the Civil ; each division comprising three
classes. This memorable document was accom-
panied by certain regulations as to the number
of each class of the knights, followed by a new set
of thirty-seven statutes, which it declares “shall
henceforth be inviolably observed and kept within
Q 2
228
REWARDS OF MERIT.
66
66
66
“ the said Order.” But throughout these “in-
violable” statutes, scientific merit is not even men-
tioned as a qualification.
In the Civil branch of the Order the qualifica-
tion for the first class is prescribed by the eighth
statute, and the tenth and twelfth statutes dis-
tinctly refer to the same. The only qualification
to be found in the statutes applicable to either of
the three civil classes, is when, referring to the first
class of the order, it is stated that-
No persons shall be nominated thereto, or to
“ either of the other two civil divisions of this
Order, who shall not by their personal services to
our crown, or by the performance of public duties,
“ have merited our royal favour.
The first of these two qualifications includes the
services in the household of the Sovereign. Now
although it
may be agreeable, and may even be
thought desirable, that the head of the State should
have means of occasionally conferring distinction
v.pon those of its subjects in personal attendance
upon it, who have undertaken and accomplished
duties beyond the immediate sphere of those for
which they are paid in money and by position, yet
such claims are personal, not national claims. The
lord-in-waiting who has been the agreeable cicerone
of some foreign prince, may well be contented
with the diamond ring, the costly tabatière, or the
flattering miniature, eclipsed only by the brilliants
REWARDS OF MERIT.
229
surrounding it, which recall to his memory those
hours of idleness. If the prince be also a sovereign,
he may add to these gratifications, that of conferring
a ribbon as a further return for the empressement
with which the polished official has fulfilled the
duties of his office. Under such circumstances he
will easily acquire permission to wear that distinc-
tion in his own country: a permission which would
be refused by government to the author of the most
splendid scientific discovery which might shed a
lustre over the age in which he lives.
If such decorations are desirable for such ser-
vices, let them be confined to one or to all of the
four other orders: but let one national order at least
be consecrated to real merit.
The only other class who are qualified by the
Statutes for the honours of the Bath, are “those
who by the performance of public duties have
merited our favour.” This may indeed include
every person who holds office, but it is clear that
the intention was to exclude everybody not already
receiving pay from the public.
It has been suggested that a different conclusion
may be inferred from the tenth paragraph of the
prefatory matter to these statutes, in which the
following words occur :-
“To the due distribution of rewards amongst
“ such of our faithful subjects as are now or shall
hereafter become eminently distinguished by their
a
230
REWARDS OF MERIT.
loyalty and merit in the military or civil service
“ of us, our heirs, and successors, or shall other-
“ wise have merited our favour.”
These latter words are certainly placed with some
skill, to furnish a loophole for escape, if public
opinion should scout the limited range to which the
gratitude of the country would thus be confined by
a party, who differ only from the Tories in affecting
an admiration for knowledge which they do not feel.
It must, however, be observed that this is a mere
statement, and that no such words occur in any
statute. Besides, those who maintain that the party
in power when these statutes were issued, intended
that science or any other kind of unpaid civil merit,
should be susceptible of reward by the Order of the
Bath, except it also received pay from the country,
must at the same time admit that during the four
years in which that party has distributed those
honours, England has not furnished one single
instance of any other than a paid official having
been thought sufficiently distinguished to deserve
the honour.
The public recollect with sufficient disgust the
professions of both parties respecting science and
literature, when the “pension list” was revised in
1838. The claims of science and of literature were
then with affected generosity put forward by party,
while the true object was to save for their own
advantage as large a pension list as they could. That
REWARDS OF MERIT.
231
object once attained, a different view of those claims
was taken, as we see by its results, of which
a searching analysis must at no distant day be made.
The statements uttered in both Houses even
during the last session, by members of the present
administration, have been so extraordinary, that the
public are compelled to look beyond the plain
English meaning of words, and to withhold their
confidence until they have examined them with the
scrutiny of a casuist. It is not therefore surprising
that those who interpret statutes issued by such
parties, should suspect the existence of latent
meanings.
Dismissing this point, however, the obvious in-
terpretation of the statutes of the Bath is that no
one is qualified to become a member who has not
been actually in the service of the country, that is,
who has not already been paid for his labours.
The real intention of the concoctors of this scheme
is too evident to be concealed. They hoped, by
bestowing the Order in few and rare cases on some
public servants who had made exertions beyond those
of their class, or sacrifices beyond necessity, to get
credit for a generosity to which they are strangers,
whilst the real object was to secure for their own
party and supporters the largest possible share of
the patronage.
The advantages they promised themselves from
the present arrangement were these :
232
REWARDS OF MERIT.
1st. By confining the Order of the Bath to
officials, ihey limited the number of competitors.
2d. They thus limited it to a class which con-
tained already a large proportion of their own
friends and of the friends of their opponents.
3d. This plan enabled them, by putting into
office their own connexions, persons perhaps of
very ordinary abilities, ultimately to push them into
the upper departments, and then on pretence of
extraordinary service to give them these honours.
4th. It enabled them also to make way for such
connexions, by tempting those above them, whether
friends or opponents, to retire on the receipt of one
or other of the decorations of the Bath.
It is not to be denied that such rewards, fairly
and judiciously given for great and extraordinary
services, might furnish fit motives for extraordinary
exertions. But if honours are to be given to every
chief of an office or head of a department, after
more or less service in proportion to the extent
of his political interest, or to every minister we
send abroad, without regard to the success of his
mission ; and if promotion in the Order is to depend
on the time during which they have been members
of it, then the Bath will no longer be the reward
of great exertions or of brilliant talent, but of
seniority and routine. Its crimson ribbon will thus
cease to distinguish civil merit, and become the
appropriate reward of red-tape mediocrity.
REWARDS OF MERIT.
233
It has been suggested that a new order of
knighthood should be created, for the purpose of
rewarding scientific and literary merit. This plan
is entirely inadmissible : there are already five
Orders of English Knights, and the new Order
would, as the most recent creation, be inferior in
rank to those now existing. It would, therefore,
necessarily fix science at a low point in the social
scale.
If it were adopted, the numerous members of the
Order of the Bath would then look down upon and
disparage the new Order; whilst, on the other
hand, if great discoveries in science were admitted
as claims to its honours, every member of the Order
of the Bath would be interested in defending his
scientific brethren.
Much discussion has lately arisen respecting
the payment of persons in the employment of
government. The economists have lately had a
committee of the House of Commons, in which
they have in some instances damaged a good cause
by want of information. Their enemies will doubt.
less take advantage of their ignorance, and seem
not unwilling to have allowed them to fall into
these mistakes.
Those who contend that persons in office are
under-paid, generally maintain the doctrine that the
holder of every office ought to receive enough to
support him, without any assistance from private
>
234
REWARDS OF MERIT.
fortune, in that position of society which others in
the same or similar offices occupy.
This
may be true for some of the higher stations,
where great talents and industry are essential; but
these offices are the exceptions. To maintain this
doctrine is to assert, that the government must
pay such a salary to every employé as to be able
to choose out of the whole number of persons
existing in the country, those most capable of
filling that office. Now in every country where
capital has at all accumulated, there will always
be a sufficient number of persons, having some
amount of private fortune, who will be able and
willing to fill all the ordinary offices requiring no
very special talent, for a much smaller sum than
their average expenditure would require. This
more limited class is yet sufficiently large for the
government to select from. The competition of
capital with labour leads to this result.
The inducements to office under government
are many, in addition to that of its salary.
1st. The salary itself generally increases with the
time of service.
2d. There is usually a retiring pension after a
certain time of service, or in case of accidental
incapacity.
3d. There is the chance of promotion by political
interest, or perchance from skill and industry dis-
played in office.
REWARDS OF MERIT,
235
a
a
4th. Some incapable head of a department may
want a clever fellow to do the work for which he is
himself either too idle or too ignorant.
5th. There is the chance of being promoted, in
order to make a vacancy for some one below who
has more influence.
6th. Then there are the great prizes,-few in-
deed, but very great when occurring to those
without the accidents of birth or interest. It is
possible that a clerk commencing at a salary of 801.
may ultimately attain a seat in the cabinet, and
then the peerage is open to him.
Admitting that there are several cases in which
offices are considerably underpaid, no answer has
yet been given to the great argument arising from
supply and demand. It is an admitted fact, that
for
every office under government, and for every
grade in the army and navy, the number of fitting
,
candidates on each vacancy is very large, and the
political and family interest set at work to acquire
it, is very great. This can arise only from those
offices being overpaid, not by the actual money
payment, but by combining that form of remune-
ration with position in society, and other advantages
to which they lead. If this be the case, it is quite
unnecessary to add any new inducement-such as
the decoration of the Bath to those so circum-
stanced, unless it be indeed for very extraordinary
services.
236
REWARDS OF MERIT.
Another indication of over-payment is to be
found in the fact, that in several professions such
offices are matter of sale and purchase. They
are so avowedly both in the Church and in the
Army.
The Whigs, afraid of intellect when combined
with independence, have, during their temporary
and tolerated possession of office, confined the new
honours the country has to bestow, to those persons
only who can be influenced by the hope of promo-
tion,-namely, to those already occupying office.
If a distinction is to be made amongst scientific
men, let us inquire whether those who fill the few
public situations reserved for science and paid by
the country, ought to be eligible rather than those
whose equally successful contributions to science
have been given without any such advantage.
To enable any individual in the present day to
enlarge the bounds of science by original discovery,
he must be content to sacrifice his whole time and
energies to that object. It is true that a consider-
able or even a great knowledge of certain sciences,
and possibly the power of making some additions
to them, may co-exist in a few instances with the
qualifications liecessary for other employments.
Such attainments are highly creditable to those
officials who so employ their leisure without neglect-
ing their official duties. But the more successful
their scientific discoveries, the greater must be the
REWARDS OF MERIT.
237
regret that the whole power of such intelligence
cannot be directed to one subject.
The various sciences have, it is true, such rela-
tions to each other, that few can be cultivated to
any great advantage without some acquaintance
with those sciences intimately connected with the
favourite pursuit. But if it is admitted that all
inquiries into Nature and her laws, are directly
beneficial to the arts and commerce of the country,
it is, in a national point of view, eminently
impolitic not to secure for science that division of
labour which so remarkably contributes to the pro-
gress of all other subjects.
In addition to the unbounded occupation of time
and thought, necessary for the most effective employ-
ment of mind in the path of original discovery, there
are far other requisites. In some sciences, many
laborious transcriptions, in others still more labo-
rious arithmetical computations, are required ; in
l
others, abstruse and complicated although known
and regulated algebraical processes, must be gone
through; in others, drawings of the most compli-
cated description must be executed with almost over-
whelming labour ; in others, extensive experiments
must be made. Again, in some, where mechanical
means must be contrived for new and intellectual
processes, it may be necessary even to invent
and make new tools for the purpose of bringing
mechanical art itself up to that degree of perfec-
238
REWARDS OF MERIT.
tion which science demands. Although the con-
triving and directing mind engaged in researches
that require such aids, ought undoubtedly to be
united with a physical structure capable itself of
accomplishing each and all that such pursuits re-
quire, yet it is often impossible that one human
frame, however hardy, can sustain that labour :
time itself would be wanting, limited as it ever
must be by the duration of one human life.
Yet if the powers of that mind and that frame
have been rightly cultivated, and if the want of
pecuniary means do not prevent their exercise, it is
quite possible, by proper aid, to concentrate in one
life the accumulated labour of many. Assistants of
various degrees of manual and mental skill may be
employed, the economical organization of their
labour may be arranged. The most perfect effect
of such an establishment can only be attained when
the presiding head is never employed except on
work for which money could procure no substi-
tute, and when each assistant is devoted to work
of the highest kind which he can successfully
execute.
He who directs a scientific establishment for the
Government, has all these means provided for him,
and is himself paid, though not always liberally, for
his own labours. He is to be deemed qualified for
the order of the Bath.
He who sacrifices profession and that position to
REWARDS OF MERIT.
239
which its most successful members usually attain,
who spends a fortune in purchasing that assistance
which alone can render his power effective, and has
spent his life in cultivating highly that power for
the advancement of science, is deemed by his coun-
try, however great his success, disqualified for the
Order of the Bath.
But it is not the sound and wholesome part of
the country—it is not the people of England who
have arrived at this conclusion ;-it is the insolence
of power,-it is the meanness of party,—it is the
selfishness of a clique.
The spirit which dictated a limitation equally
opposed to every generous feeling and to every
statesman-like view, is consistent only with such
influences. When the ministry founded that new
source of patronage, it sought to acquire for itself
a kind of popularity amongst its adherents. Had
it admitted intellectual merit, it would have ob-
tained popularity for the Crown from an enlightened
nation. But the interests of party are transitory,
those of the sovereign permanent: it is the interest
of party to be ever jealous of the personal popu-
larity of the Crown.
In thus excluding from its honours one class of
the intelligence of the country, did it never occur to
the short-sighted minister who planned this arrange-
ment, that some portion of the talents thus insulted,
might be driven to other inquiries which it would
>
240
REWARDS OF MERIT.
neither be easy to answer nor even expedient to
discuss ?
A party which first refuses to science the means
of acquiring competence,then excludes it from
personal honours because it has already been denied
official position, and which refuses it hereditary
rank, because it has not devoted itself to the acqui-
sition of wealth, will naturally cause questions to
be raised as to the expediency of different forms of
government.
Of what class, it will naturally be asked, are the
persons who have made such laws ?
Is the possession of hereditary rank at all neces-
sary for the government of the country ?
?
At a distant period, and under a less complicated
form of society, the obvious disadvantages of ap-
pointing a legislator for life from the accident of his
birth, instead of the fitness of his talents, might
have been tolerated under the influence of force.
It has since been consecrated by established usage,
and some of its evils mitigated by the continual
infusion of fresh blood into decaying stocks. But
at the present day, and amidst the multiplied
relations of highly civilized life, the question
whether an upper chamber ought to be hereditary,
or appointed only for life, is one upon which nations
as well as philosophers, avowedly disagree.
In a very few years this great question will
come to be more thoroughly investigated, and
REWARDS OF MERIT.
241
a
those who now advocate the continuance of ex-
isting institutions, will then have enough on their
hands, without rashly forcing, by injustice and
insult, both talent and interest into the ranks of
their opponents.
At present it is sufficient to call attention to a
statement often made, that a chamber of Peers for
life is incompatible with the existence of a limited
monarchy. This, like many other party dogmas, is
a mere gratuitous assertion, put forward to alarm
the timid who have experienced the advantages and
are anxious for the continuance of that form of
government.
Various opinions have been advanced, and are
current in society, concerning the proper reward
for those whose science adds to the boundaries of
human knowledge, and certain principles are held
by the occupiers of high political office, to which
it
may
be well to advert.
Some of these persons have themselves acquired
a smattering of one science, political economy, and
thus they reason :—They are informed that it is a
highly agreeable occupation to make discoveries,
and although it is known that it costs years of
labour and study to acquire that power, yet it is
found that many persons are willing to indulge in
this luxury, and are generally disposed to publish
the results of their discoveries. Since, therefore,
the public can get the benefit of the knowledge for
7
R
242
REWARDS OF MERIT.
nothing, it would be very extravagant in the
stewards of the public to pay anything for it.
But it seems not to have been observed by these
reasoners, that although all discoveries are of value
to the country, yet the time at which they become
practically useful occurs at very different, and often
at distant periods. It might also be suggested to
them, that the discoverers of the great principles
of nature are very rarely the persons most capable
of applying them to practice. It is also clear
that the acquisition of money was not one of their
objects in devoting themselves to such unprofitable
pursuits.
Under such circumstances, if the Government
neither encourage science by pecuniary nor by
honorary reward, it is most probable that the dis-
coveries which are made, will occur in its more
recondite recesses ; and as the only recompense
obtained is the intellectual pleasure felt in the pur-
suit, the greater part of the discoveries made will
be of the most abstract kind.
This tendency is still further sed by the
fact that the far larger number of e who culti-
vate science, are precluded from tition by the
expense necessary for the pur
more practical branches. Th
highly inte!
tual and exciting, --all the d its of +
mathematics, for example,
tive economy of the expen

many of its
REWARDS OF MERIT.
243
1
And yet it may happen that immense sums might
have been saved to the nation, if the efforts of
competent men had been applied to reform the
domestic economy or rather the domestic extrava-
gance of many of our public establishments, instead
of expending them more agreeably though less profit-
ably, on the interpretation of an almost impossible
cypher, or the still more interesting discovery of
relations amongst new orders of imaginary quan-
tities.
How often has the question been asked by per-
sons seeking a profitable investment of their capital,
Will such a canal or railroad pay? This is really
an indefinite question, and admits of no one answer
applicable to all cases. It may, for example, in
some particular instance, be tolerably certain that
at the end of the first four years, if the shares are
sold, and the account closed, there will be an
entire loss of half the principal, and all interest
during that time. If the shares are not sold until
end of eilt years, they will produce a return
the orig pital, together with a profit of
per
f, however, those shares were
ained u
end of twelve years, they might,
en sol
ce a re' the original eapital,
gether profit
whole
N
bviou
Ser the ques
tid
that

er cent desting the
244
REWARDS OF MERIT.
depend on the capital possessed by the purchaser
and on the period of time during which he can afford
to abstain from its use. The purchaser who could
not abstain from the use of the interest of
his money for four years might be ruined, whilst
he who could abstain for twelve, might be greatly
enriched. But a wealthy country is generally better
able to abstain than any commercial firm, and the
investment in discoveries becoming productive at a
distant time, will be of far more advantage to a
nation than to individuals.
A certain number of persons maintain the
opinion, that if men of science became rich they
would become idle, and that it is expedient to
starve them into discovery. Such persons may
perhaps have been misled by arguing from a
supposed analogy with some other profession. But
the pleasure of science arises from the exertion,
not from the inactivity of the mind.
Others, and a very large number, hold that
science is of so sublime a nature, that it ought to be
above all sublunary rewards ;- they maintain that
it is beneath its dignity to wish for the wealth or
the honours awarded to success in other pursuits ;
—that ribbons and titles are quite unworthy of
the ambition of those who are searching into the
truths of nature.
When men state a principle, the best test of their
sincerity is to be found in their application of it.
REWARDS OF MERIT.
245
We may ourselves utterly repudiate a principle, and
yet be unable to show that it is not sincerely
believed by those who assert its authority. Man
cannot dive into the mind of his fellow-man, and
witness the internal conviction he asserts; but he
can always examine the fairness with which he
applies that principle.
Now, if the lofty dignity of science is such that
it is, from its very nature, incompatible with
wealth-if decorations and titles are entirely un-
worthy of its legitimate ambition,—then, as a
necessary consequence, all pursuits of a higher
order are still more absolutely excluded from such
vanities.
Is it consistent, therefore, with these opinions, to
maintain that the Ministers of a Christian Church,
who interpret to us the word of God, should receive
payment for their labour, rank for their exertions,
and, in some instances, even the very
ribbons*
so
* The following dignitaries of the Church wear decorations
of Orders of Knighthood.
Archbishop of Armagh. Bishop of Oxford.
Archbishop of Dublin. Dean of Westminster.
Dean of St. Patrick.
The vestments of the Bishop of Oxford throw into the
shade those even of Roman Catholic prelates.
“ The said prelate shall have and wear for his habit, a
“ mantle of crimson velvet, lined with white taffeta, richly
guarded with the Sovereign's badges and cognizances, and
upon his right shoulder an escutcheon of the arms of the
246
REWARDS OF MERIT.
2
contemned: whilst those who make us intimately
acquainted with the works of the Almighty, who
discover to us the laws which he has impressed on
matter, and thus add to the physical comfort, the
intellectual pleasure, and the religious feeling of
mankind, should be compelled to exercise those rare
endowments, only by the sacrifice of fortune and
the renunciation of all those enjoyments, rewards,
and honours, which the ministers even of the purest
creed receive without reproach ?
But these are the opinions of the shallow and
the thoughtless. The pursuits of mind may modify,
they can never obliterate the instincts, the feelings,
or the passions of man.
The consciousness of power, and the conviction
of its successful exertion, exist undiminished by the
neglect or the ingratitude of the country he inhabits.
The certainty that a future age will repair the in-
justice of the present, and the knowledge that the
more distant the day of reparation, the more he has
oatstripped the efforts of his cotemporaries, may
well sustain him against the sneers of the ignorant,
or the jealousy of rivals.
It is possible that in some rare instance such a
man may feel personally little ambition to attain
what all others covet; still, however, he may be
“ Order, within a garter, and the lace of his mantle shall be
66
" of blue silk, interwoven with gold.”-History of British
—
Orders of Knighthood, by Sir Harris Nicolas, p. 430.
REWARDS OF MERIT.
247
a
bound by other ties which link him inseparably to
the present.
He may look with fond and affectionate gratitude
on her whose maternal care watched over the dan-
gers of his childhood; who trained his infant mind,
and with her own mild power, checking the rash
vigour of his youthful days, remained ever the
faithful and respected counsellor of his riper age.
To gladden the declining years of her who with
more than prophetic inspiration, foresaw as woman
only can, the distant fame of her beloved offspring,
he may well be forgiven the desire for some out-
ward mark of his country's approbation.
If such a relative were wanting, there might yet
survive another parent whose less enthusiastic tem-
perament had ever repressed those fond anticipa-
tions of maternal affection, but who now in the
ripeness of his honoured age, might be compelled,
with faltering accents, to admit that the voice
of the country confirmed the predictions of the
mother.
Perhaps another and yet dearer friend might exist,
the partner of his daily cares, the witness of his un-
ceasing toil; whose youthful mind, cultivated by his
skill, rewards with enduring affection those efforts
which called into existence her own latent and un-
suspected powers. When driven by exhausted means
and injured health almost to despair of the achieve-
ment of his life's great object-when the brain
248
REWARDS OF MERIT.
itself reels beneath the weight its own ambition
has imposed, and the world's neglect aggravates
the throbbings of an overtasked frame, an angel
spirit sits beside his couch ministering with gentlest
skill to every wish, watching with anxious thought
till renovated nature shall admit of bolder counsels,
then points the way to hope, herself the guardian
of his deathless fame.
The fool may sneer, the worldly-wise may smile,
the heartless laugh,—the saint may moralize, the
bigot preach : there dwells not within the deep
recesses of the human heart one sentiment more
powerful, more exalted, or more pure than these.
That man is not a statesman, who is unaware of
the strength of these powerful excitements to
human action. Cold and incapable of such senti-
ments himself,—no grasp of intellect enables him
to infer their existence, and thus to supply the
deficiencies of his own, by an insight into the hearts
of others.
That man is a fool, not a statesman, who know-
ing their strength, hesitates to avail himself of it
for the benefit of his country and of mankind.
But if there should arise a man conscious of their
power, who yet should dare to use it for the pur-
poses of party, that man will combine in his character
the not incongruous mixture of statesman and of
knave. A statesman he may be, if he can penetrate
into the character of men, and can divine the action
REWARDS OF MERIT.
249
a
of human motives upon the masses, as well as on
the individuals of his race. With such knowledge,
and with the talent that its possession implies, he
cannot be a fool ; except indeed, in as far as he is
entitled to credit for that limited amount of folly
which is inseparably attached to him in his other
character of knave. It is possible that he may
be
successful in his day; it is certain that he will
ultimately be found out and disgraced in the eyes
of posterity. His name may remain a beacon for a
time, until some greater or more recent knave
supersedes his example, and thus consigns him to
oblivion.
It is not then the gaudy ribbon, the brilliant star,
the titled name, that have intrinsic charms for him
who dedicates his genius to the search for truth.
How large a portion of his real greatness, even of his
most splendid discoveries, would he not willingly
sacrifice to confer on those he loves that exquisite
happiness, which arises only when hidden but long-
cherished convictions, entertained diffidently from
the consciousness of partial affection, receive at
length their final confirmation by that decision
which national acknowledgment can alone com-
mand !
Appendir.
THE
ELEVENTH CHAPTER
OF THE
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
BY
C. R. WELD, ESQ.
ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,
REPRINTED WITH THE PERMISSION OF THE PROPRIETOR.
EXTRACT FROM WELD'S
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
CHAPTER XI.
The Society receive & Letter from the Treasury respecting Mr.
Babbage's Calculating Machine-Letter from Mr. Babbage to
Sir H. Davy-A Committee appointed to consider Mr. Babbage's
Plan—They Report in favour of it, Mr. Babbage has an interview
with the Chancellor of the Exchequer-Government advance
1,5001.- Difference-Engine commenced - Mr. Babbage gives all his
labour gratuitously-Advice of the Society again requested-Mr.
Babbage's Statement—Committee appointed to inspect the Engine
-Their Report—Heavy Expenses not met by the Treasury-
Meeting of Mr. Babbage's personal friends Their Report-
Duke of Wellington inspects the Works — His Grace recom-
mends the Treasury to make further Payments—Letter from
Mr. Babbage to the Treasury - Communication from the Trea-
sury to the Council — Referred to a Committee — Report of
Committee—They recommend the Works to be removed to the
vicinity of Mr. Babbage's Residence-Government act on the
Recommendation-Fire-pooof Buildings erected— Misunderstand.
ing with Mr. Clement-Works stopped-Mr. Babbage discovers
new principles which supersede those connected with the Dif-
ference Engine—He requests an interview with Lord Melbourne-
Letter to M. Quetelet explaining the principles of Analytical-
Engine—Mr. Babbage visits Turin-M. Menabrea's account of the
Engine-Translated with Notes by Lady Lovelace-Mr. Babbage
applies to Government for their Determination Letter from the
Chancellor of the Exchequer—Mr. Babbage's Answer--Government
resolve not to proceed with the Engine-Mr. Babbage has an
interview with Sir R. Peel—Difference Engine placed in the
Museum of King's College - Present State of the Analytical-
Engine.
1820-25.
N the 1st April, 1823, a letter was received from
the Treasury, requesting the Council to take into
consideration a plan which had been submitted to
Government by Mr. Babbage, for “ applying machinery
0
254
(1820—25.
EXTRACT FROM WELD's
a
to the purposes of calculating and printing mathematical
tables ;” and the Lords of the Treasury further desired
to be favoured with the opinion of the Royal Society
on the merits and utility of this invention'."
This is the earliest allusion to the celebrated Calcu-
lating Engine of Mr. Babbage, in the records of the
Society. But the invention had been brought before
them in the previous year by a letter from Mr. Babbage
to Sir H. Davy, dated July 3, 1822, in which he gives
some account of a small model of his engine for calcu-
lating differences, which “ produced figures at the rate
of 44 a minute, and performed with rapidity and preci-
sion all those calculations for which it was designed.”
He then proceeds to enumerate various tables which
the machine was adapted to calculate, and concludes:
“I am aware that these statements may perhaps be
viewed as something more than Utopian, and that the
philosophers of Laputa may be called up to dispute my
* In the following account of the Difference and Analytical Engines,
besides the MS. documents in the Archives of the Royal Society, I have
derived very valuable information from an unpublished statement
drawn up by Mr. Babbage, which he has been so kind as to place in my
hands. The original documents which are in Mr. Babbage's possession,
and which are referred to, I have myself examined.
2 The idea of a Calculating Engine is not new. The celebrated
Pascal constructed a machine for executing the ordinary operations of
arithmetic, a description of which will be found in the Encycl. Méthod.,
and in the Works of Pascal, Tom. IV. p. 7, Paris, 1819. In his Pensées
he says, alluding to this Engine: “ La machine arithmétique fait des
effets qui approchent plus de la pensée que tout ce que font les animaux ;
mais elle ne fait rien qui puisse faire dire qu'elle a de la volonté comme
les animaux.” Subsequently, Leibnitz invented a machine by which,
says Mr. De Morgan, “ arithmetic computations could be made.”
Polenus, a learned and ingenious Italian, invented a machine by which
multiplication was performed and mechanical contrivances for per-
forming particular arithmetical processes were made about a century
ago, but they were merely modifications of Pascal's. These Engines
were very different to Mr. Babbage's Difference-Engine.
3 This letter was printed and published in July, 1822.
1820255
_25-
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
.]
claim to originality. Should such be the case, I hope
the resemblance will be found to adhere to the nature
of the subject, rather than to the manner in which it
has been treated. Conscious from my own experience
of the difficulty of convincing those who are but little
skilled in mathematical knowledge, of the possibility of
making a machine which shall perform calculations, I
was naturally anxious, in introducing it to the public,
to appeal to the testimony of one so distinguished in
the records of British science“. Induced by a convic-
tion of the great utility of such engines, to withdraw
for some time my attention from a subject on which it
has been engaged during several years, and which pos-
sesses charms of a higher order, I have now arrived at
a point where success is no longer doubtful. It must,
however, be attained at a very considerable expense,
which would not probably be replaced by the works it
might produce for a long period of time, and which is
an undertaking I should feel unwilling to commence, as
altogether foreign to my habits and pursuits.
The Council appointed a Committee to take Mr.
Babbage's plan into consideration, which was composed
of the following gentlemen : Sir H. Davy, Mr. Brande,
Mr. Combe, Mr. Baily, Mr. (now Sir Mark Isambard)
Brunel, Major (now General) Colby, Mr. Davies Gil-
bert, Mr. (now Sir John) Herschel, Captain Kater,
Mr. Pond (Astronomer-Royal), Dr. Wollaston, and
Dr. Young. On the 1st May, 1823, the Committee
reported: “ That it appears that Mr. Babbage has dis-
played great talents and ingenuity in the construction
of his machine for computation, which the Committee
think fully adequate to the attainment of the objects
"
4 Sir H. Davy had witnessed and expressed his admiration of the
performances of the Engine.
256
(1820—25.
EXTRACT FROM WELD's
proposed by the inventor, and that they consider Mr.
Babbage as highly deserving of public encouragement
in the prosecution of his arduous undertaking."
This Report was transmitted to the Lords of the
Treasury, by whom it was, with Mr. Babbage's letter
to Sir H. Davy, printed and laid before Parliamento.
In July, 1823, Mr. Babbage had an interview with
the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Robinson (now
Earl of Ripon), to ascertain if it were the wish of
Government that he should construct a large engine of
the kind, which would also print the results it calculated.
Unfortunately, no Minute of that conversation was
made at the time, nor was any sufficiently distinct un-
derstanding arrived at, as it afterwards appeared that a
contrary impression was left on the mind of either
party? Mr. Babbage's conviction was, that whatever
might be the labour and difficulty of the undertaking,
the engine itself would, of course, become the property
of the Government, which had paid for its construction.
Soon after this interview with the Chancellor of the
Exchequer, a letter was sent from the Treasury to the
Royal Society, informing them that the Lords of the
“had directed the issue of 1,5007. to Mr. Bab-
bage, to enable him to bring his invention to perfection,
in the manner recommended.”
These words " in the manner recommended,” can refer
Treasury
$ I am informed upon good authority, that Dr. Young differed in
opinion from his colleagues. Without doubting that an engine could
be made, he conceived that it would be far more useful to invest the
probable cost of constructing such a calculating machine as was pro-
posed, in the funds, and apply the dividends to paying calculators.
6 Parliamentary Paper, No. 370, 1823.
7 Mr. Babbage very justly observes, that had the mutual relations of
the two parties, and the details of the plans then adopted, been clearly
defined, there is little doubt but that the Difference Engine would long
since have existed.
1820—25.]
257
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
only to the previous recommendation by the Royal
Society ; but it does not appear from their Report, that
any plan, terms, or conditions had been pointed out.
Towards the end of July, 1823, Mr. Babbage took
measures for the construction of the present Difference-
Engine", and it was regularly proceeded with for four
years.
And here it is right to state, that Mr. Babbage gave
his mental labour gratuitously, and that from first to
last he has not derived any emolument whatever from
Government. Sectional, and other drawings, of the
most delicate nature had to be made; tools to be formed
expressly to meet mechanical difficulties; and workmen
to be educated in the practical knowledge necessary in
the construction of the machine. The mechanical de-
partment was placed under the management of Mr.
Clement, a draughtsman of great ability, and a practi-
cal mechanic of the highest order. Money was ad-
vanced from time to time by the Treasury, the accounts
furnished by the engineer undergoing the examination
of auditors', and passing through the hands of Mr.
>
8 It will be desirable to distinguish between,
1. The small Model of the Original or Difference-Engine.
2. The Difference Engine itself, belonging to the Government, a
part only of which has been put together.
3. The designs for another Engine called the Analytical-
Engine,
9 Sir R. Peel distinctly admitted this in the House of Commons in
March, 1843.
10 A curious anecdote is related illustrative of the great perfection to
which Mr. Clement was in the habit of bringing machinery. He
received an order from America to construct a large screw in the best
possible manner, and he accordingly made one with the greatest mathe-
matical accuracy. But his hill amounted to some hundreds of pounds,
which completely staggered the American, who never calculated upon
paying more than 201. at the utmost for the screw. The matter was
referred to arbitrators, who gave an opinion in favour of Mr. Clement.
11 They were Messrs. Brunel, Donkin, and Field.
S
258
[1820—25.
EXTRACT FROM WELD's
Babbage. Thus years elapsed, and public attention
became at length directed to the fact, that a large sum
had been expended upon the construction of the engine,
which was not completed. Again the advice of the
Royal Society was solicited.
In December, 1828, Government begged the Council
“to institute such enquiries as would enable them to
report upon the state to which it (the machine) had
then arrived; and also whether the progress made in
its construction confirmed them in the opinion which
they had formerly expressed, that it would ultimately
prove adequate to the important object which it was
intended to attain.”
Accompanying this communication was a statement
from Mr. Babbage of the condition of the engine, in
which he says:
“ The machine has required a longer time and greater
expense than was anticipated, and Mr. Babbage has already
expended about 6,0001. on this object. The work is now in
a state of considerable forwardness, numerous and large draw-
ings of it have been made, and much of the mechanism has
been executed, and many workmen are occupied daily in its
completion."
A Committee was appointed by the Council, con-
sisting of Mr. Gilbert (President), Dr. Roget, Captain
Sabine, Sir John Herschel, Mr. Baily, Mr. Brunel,
Captain Kater, Mr. Donkin, Mr. Penn, Mr. Rennie,
Mr. Barton, and Mr. Warburton. 12
They minutely inspected the drawings, tools, and
the parts of the engine then executed, and drew up a
report, “ declining to consider the principle on which
the practicability of the machinery depends, and of the
a
12 Colonel Sabine informs me, that Dr. Whewell was afterwards added
to the Committee.
1820-25.]
259
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
public utility of the object which it proposes to attain ;
because they considered the former fully admitted, and
the latter obvious to all who consider the immense
advantage of accurate numerical tables in all matters of
calculation, which it is professedly the object of the
engine to calculate and print with perfect accuracy."
They further stated, that “ the progress made was
as great as could be expected, considering the numerous
difficulties to be overcome; and lastly, that they had
no hesitation in giving it as their opinion, that the
engine was likely to fulfil the expectations entertained
of it by its inventor."
The Council adopted the Report, expressing their
trust, that while Mr. Babbage's mind was intently
occupied on an undertaking likely to do so much
honour to his country, he might be relieved as much
as possible from all other sources of anxiety.
It is clear that the Council of the Royal Society
regarded Mr. Babbage's engine, as it then existed, in a
favourable light, and were sanguine respecting its
satisfactory completion.
Government acted on the foregoing Report; funds
were advanced, the machinery was declared national
property, and the works were continued. But there
was evidently a misgiving on the part of the Lords of
the Treasury, for the official payments soon failed to
meet the heavy and increasing expenses incurred by
Mr. Babbage.
Under these circumstances, by the advice of Mr.
Wolryche Whitmore (Mr. Babbage's brother-in-law),
a meeting of Mr. Babbage's personal friends was held
on the 12th of May, 1829. It consisted of:-
The Duke of Somerset, F.R.S.,
Lord Ashley, M.P.,
Sir John Franklin, Capt. R.N., F.R.S.,
s 2
260
(1820—25.
EXTRACT FROM WELD's
Mr. Wolryche Whitmore, M.P.,
Dr. Fitton, F.R.S.,
Mr. Francis Baily, F.R.S.,
Sir John Herschel, F.R.S.
They drew up the annexed Report :-
“ May 12, 1829.
“ The attention of the undersigned personal friends of
Mr. Babbage having been called by him to the actual state
of his Machine for Calculating and Printing Mathematical
Tables; and to his relation to the Government on the one
hand, and to the Engineers and workmen employed by him
in its execution on the other, declare themselves satisfied,
from his statements and from the documents they have
perused, of the following facts.
“ That Mr. Babbage was originally induced to take up
the
work on its present extensive scale, by an understanding on
his part, that it was the wish of Government he should do so,
and by an advance of 1,5001. in the outset, with a full
impression on his mind that such further advances would be
made as the progress of the work should require, and as
should secure him from ultimate loss.
“ That the public and scientific importance of the Engine
has been acknowledged, in a Report of a Committee of the
Royal Society, made at the time of its first receiving the
sanction of His Majesty's Government, and that its actual
state of progress is such, as in the opinion of the most
eminent Engineers and other Members of the Royal Society,
as detailed in a further Report of a Committee of that body,
to warrant their impression of the moral certainty of its
success, should funds not be wanting for its completion.
“ That it appears, that Mr. Babbage's actual expenditure
has amounted to nearly 7,0001. and that the whole sum
advanced to him by the Government is 3,0001.
“ That Mr. Babbage has devoted, from the commencement
of his arduous undertaking, the most assiduous and anxious
attention to the work in hand, to the injury of his health,
and the neglect and refusal of other profitable occupations.
“ That a very large expense still remains to be incurred,
to the probable amount of at least 4,0001., as far as he can
1820—25.]
261
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
a
foresee, before the Engine can be completed; but that Mr.
Babbage's private fortune is not such as, in their opinion, to
justify the sacrifices he must make in completing it without
further and effectual assistance from Government; taking
into consideration not only his own interest, but that of his
family dependent on him.
“ Under these circumstances, it is their opinion that a full
and speedy representation of the case ought to be made to
Government, and that in the most direct manner by a personal
application to his Grace the Duke of Wellington.
“ And that in case of such application proving unsuccessful
in procuring effectual and adequate assistance, they must
regard Mr. Babbage as no longer called on-considering the
pecuniary and personal sacrifices he will then have made;
considering the entire and bona fide expenditure of all that
he will have received from the public purse on the object of
its destination, and considering the moral certainty to which
it is at length by his exertions reduced—as no longer called
on to go on with an undertaking which may prove the
destruction of his health, and the great injury, if not the
ruin of his fortune.
“ That it is their opinion that Mr. W. Whitmore and
Mr. Herschel should request an interview with the Duke of
Wellington for the purpose of making this representation.
.
(Signed,)
“ SOMERSET.
ASHLEY.
“ John FRANKLIN.
“ W. W. WHITMORE.
“ WM. HENRY FITTON.
“ FRANCIS BAILY.
“ J. F. W. HERSCHEL."
In consequence of what passed at this interview, ,
which took place as suggested, the Duke of Wellington,
accompanied by the Chancellor of the Exchequer (Mr.
Goulburn) and Lord Ashley, inspected the model of
the engine, the drawings, and parts in progress. The
Duke recommended that a grant of 3,000). should be
made towards the completion of the machine, which
was duly paid by the Treasury.
262
(1820-25.
EXTRACT FROM WELD's
In the mean time, difficulties of another kind arose.
The engineer, who had constructed the Engine under
Mr. Babbage's directions, had delivered his bills in
such a state, that it was impossible to judge how far
the charges were just and reasonable; and although
Mr. Babbage had paid several thousand pounds, there
yet remained a considerable balance, which could not
be liquidated until the accounts had been examined,
and the charges approved by professional engineers.
With a view of drawing attention to these charges,
Mr. Babbage addressed the following letter to the
Chancellor of the Exchequer :-
“ Dorset Street, 21 December, 1830.
“ MY LORD,
"I beg to call your Lordship's attention to
the enclosed account 13 of the expenses of the Machine for
calculating and printing mathematical tables, by which it
appears that a sum of 5921. 4s. 8d. remained due to myself
upon the last account, and that a further sum of nearly 6001.
has since become due to Mr. Clement.
“ It is for the payment of this latter sum that I wish to
call your Lordship's attention. Mr. Maudslay, one of the
engineers appointed by the Government to examine the bills
of Mr. Clement, having been unable from illness to attend,
his report has been delayed, and Mr. Clement informs me
that should the money remain unpaid much longer, he shall
£ 8. d.
600 0 0
521 16 9
. 4,775 15 3
730 12 8
13 Expense to end of 1824
Ditto
1827
Mr. Clement's Bills to June, 1827
Ditto, 9th May, 1829
9
Deduct old tools sold
6,628 4 8
36 0 0
6,592 4 8
Mr. Clement's Bill to December, 1830, about 600 0
0
7,1924 8
1820—25.]
263
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
be obliged, from want of funds, to discharge some of the
workmen ; an event which I need not inform your Lordship
would be very prejudicial to the progress of the machine.
“ Another point which I wish to submit to your attention,
when your Lordship shall have had leisure to examine per-
sonally the present state of the works, is, that since it is
absolutely necessary to find additional room for the erection
of the machine, it becomes a matter of serious consideration
whether it would not contribute to the speedier completion of
the machine, and also to economy in expenditure, to remove
the works to the neighbourhood of my own residence.
“ I have, &c.
“ C. BABBAGE.”
66
The receipt of this letter caused the Treasury to
make the following communication to the Secretary of
the Royal Society:-
SIR,
“ Treasury, 24 December, 1830.
« The Lords Commissioners of H. M. Treasury,
having had under their consideration a letter from Mr.
Babbage, containing an account of the expense which has
been incurred in the construction of the Machine for calculat-
ing and printing mathematical tables, amounting to the sum
of 7,1921. 4s. 8d., and requesting an advance of 6001. to
defray a part of that expense; I am commanded by their
Lordships to refer you to the Report of the Council of the
Royal Society dated 16th February, 1829, which entirely
satisfied their Lordships of the propriety of supporting Mr.
Babbage in the construction of this machine, and to state
that advances to the amount of 6,0001. have been made on
this account, and that directions have been given for a further
advance of 6001.
“I am also to acquaint you, that the Machine is the pro-
perty of Government, and consequently my Lords propose to
defray the further expense necessary for its completion. I am
further to request you will move the Council of the Royal
Society to cause the machine to be inspected, and to favour
my Lords with their opinion whether the work is proceeding
a
264
(1820-25.
EXTRACT FROM WELD's
in a satisfactory manner, and without unnecessary expense,
and what further sum may probably be necessary for com-
pleting it.
“ I am, &c.
“ The Secretary, Royal Society."
« J. STEWART.
The consideration of this letter was referred to the
same Committee which had previously been appointed
for a similar purpose, with the addition of Sir John
Lubbock and Mr. Troughton.
Again the Committee met 14 Mr. Babbage, at No. 21,
Prospect Place, Lambeth (where the construction of
the engine was carried on), and minutely inspected the
machinery and drawings.
Their Report embodied the whole facts of the case:-
the workmanship of the various parts of the machine
was declared to have been executed with the greatest
possible degree of perfection, and the pains taken to
verify the charges on the part of the Government alto-
gether satisfactory. It was recommended that the
vacancy occasioned by the decease of Mr. Maudslay,
who had been appointed to inspect the accounts, should
be filled up by another engineer, conversant with the
execution of machinery, and the value thereof. With
respect to the suggested removal of the workshops
nearer to Mr. Babbage's residence, the Committee gave
their entire concurrence, on the ground that greater
expedition would thereby be attained in carrying on
the work, and that it was highly essential to secure all
the machinery and drawings in fire-proof premises,
without delay. A plot of ground held on lease by
Mr. Babbage, adjacent to his garden at the back of his
a
14 I have a letter of Sir J. Herschel's before me, expressing his regret
at being unable to attend on this occasion, but that his faith in the
engine and its inventor remained unshaken.
1820—25.]
265
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
house in Dorset Street, was recommended as a desirable
site for the contemplated erections, of which the plans
and estimates had been submitted to the Committee.
The framers of the Report stated in conclusion that :-
“ Such an arrangement would be eminently conducive to
the speedy and economical completion of the Machine, as well
as to the effectual working and employment of the same, after
it shall have been completed.
" That as to the sum which
may
be
necessary
pleting the Engine, they attach hereto the estimate of Mr.
for com-
Brunel." 15
The Report, with Mr. Brunel's estimate, were sent
to the Treasury on the 13th April, 1831: and having
been approved by a Committee of practical engineers
appointed by Government, the latter acted on the
recommendations which it contained. The piece of
ground adjoining Mr. Babbage's garden was taken, and
a fire-proof building erected, designed to contain the
plans and drawings, and also the engine when com-
pleted. But new and unforeseen difficulties arose.
When about 17,0001. had been expended, further
progress was arrested on account of a misunderstanding
15 Mr. Brunel's estimate appears in the following letter to Mr.
Warburton:-
“DEAR SIR,
“Feb. 28, 1831.
“ HAVING taken in consideration the erection of the
proposed shops, the removal of the machinery, the accommodation for
it, and also for the maker ; having also taken into consideration the
further completion of the drawings, and the ultimate accomplishment
of the Engine until it is capable of producing plates for printing;
though I feel confident that the sum of 8,0001. will be ample to realize
the objects that are contemplated, I should nevertheless recommend
that the Government be advised to provide for the sum of 12,0001. by
way of estimate, and that the yearly sum required, exclusive of the
sum requisite for the buildings and removal (say 2,0001.), will not
exceed from 2,0001. to 2,5001.
I am, &c.
“ Henry Warburton, Esq.”
“ M. I. BRUNEL."
266
(1820 – 25.
EXTRACT FROM WELD's
with Mr. Clement, who made the most extravagant
demands as compensation for carrying on the construc-
tion of the engine in the new buildings. These demands
could not be satisfied with proper regard to the justice
due to Government. Mr. Clement accordingly with-
drew from the undertaking, and carried with him all
the valuable tools that had been used in the work; a
proceeding the more unfortunate, as many of them had
been invented expressly to meet the unusual forms and
combinations arising out of the novel construction.
An offer was made to surrender the tools, for a given
sum, which was declined, and the works came to a
stand-still. But other circumstances interposed to pre-
vent the completion of the original design.
During the suspension of the works, Mr. Babbage
had been deprived of the use of his own drawings.
Having in the meanwhile naturally speculated upon
the general principles on which machinery for calcu-
lation might be constructed, a principle of an entirely
new kind occurred to him, the power of which over the
most complicated arithmetical operations seemed nearly
unbounded. This was the executing of analytical ope-
rations by means of an analytical-engine. On re-
examining his drawings, when returned to him by the
engineer, the new principle appeared to be limited only
by the extent of the mechanism it might require.
The invention of simpler mechanical means for per-
forming the elementary operations of the engine, now
derived a far greater importance than it had hitherto
possessed ; and should such simplifications be discovered,
16 This Mr. Clement had a legal right to do. Startling as it may
appear to the unprofessional reader, it is nevertheless the fact, that
engineers and mechanics possess the right of property to all tools that
they have constructed, although the cost of construction has been
defrayed by their employers.
1820—25.]
267
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
it seemed difficult to anticipate, or even to over-estimate,
the vast results which might be attained.
These new views acquired additional importance
from their bearings upon the engine already partly
executed for the Government; for, if such simplifi-
cations should be discovered, it might happen that
the Analytical-Engine would execute with greater
rapidity the calculations for which the Difference-
Engine was intended; or that the Difference-Engine
would itself be superseded by a far simpler mode of
construction.
Though these views might perhaps at that period have
appeared visionary, they have subsequently been com-
pletely realized. To have allowed the construction of
the Difference Engine to be resumed, while these new
conceptions were withheld from the Government, would
have been improper; yet the state of uncertainty in
which those views were then necessarily involved, ren-
dered any written communication respecting their pro-
bable bearing on that engine, a task of very great
difficulty. It therefore appeared to Mr. Babbage, that
the most straightforward course was to ask for an inter-
view with the head of the Government, and to com-
municate to him the exact state of the case.
On the 26th September, 1834, Mr. Babbage requested
an audience of Lord Melbourne, for the purpose of
placing these views before him; his Lordship acceded
to the request, but from some cause the interview was
postponed ; and soon after, the ministry went out of
office, without the desired conference having taken
place.
The duration of the Duke of Wellington's admini-
stration was short; and no decision on the subject of
the Difference-Engine was obtained.
268
[1820-25
EXTRACT FROM WELD's
a
In May, 1835, Mr. Babbage announced in a letter 17
to M. Quetelet, which was laid before the Academy of
Sciences at Brussels, that he had “ for six months been
engaged in making the drawings of a new calculating
engine of far greater power than the first.” “I am
myself astonished,” says Mr. Babbage, “ at the power
I have been enabled to give to this machine; a year
ago I should not have believed this result possible.
This machine is intended to contain a hundred variables,
or numbers susceptible of changing, and each of these
numbers may consist of twenty-five figures. The
greatest difficulties of the invention have already been
surmounted, and the plans will be finished in a few
months."
Subsequently to the date of this letter, Mr. Babbage
visited Turin, where he explained to Baron Plana,
M. Menabrea, and several other distinguished philo-
sophers of that city, the mathematical principles of his
Analytical-Engine, and also the drawings and engravings
of the more curious mechanical contrivances, by which
those principles were to be carried into effect. M.
Menabrea, with Mr. Babbage's consent, published the
information which he had received in the 41st volume
of the Bibliothèque Universelle de Génère. The article is
remarkable as giving the first account of the Analytical-
Engine." An English translation, with copious ori-
>
18
17 Mr. Babbage informs me, that this letter was intended only as a
private comunication.
18 In the Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, Mr. Babbage has employed
various arguments deduced from the Analytical-Engine, which afford
some idea of its powers. See second edition. In 1838, several copies of
plans of this new engine, engraved on wood, were circulated amongst
Mr. Babbage's friends at the Meeting of the British Association at
Newcastle.
In 1840, Mr. Babbage had one of his general plans of the Analytical-
Engine lithographed at Paris.
1820—25.]
269
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
19
a
ginal notes, made by a lady of distinguished rank and
talent,'' was published in the third volume of Taylor's
Scientific Memoirs.
But it did not contain all the information respecting
the Difference-Engine that was desirable, and Mr.
Babbage was consequently led to communicate a short
article upon this subject to the Philosophical Magazine,
which is inserted in the 23rd volume20
The more
comprehensive statements and official documents which
Mr. Babbage has placed at my disposal renders it un-
necessary to do more than allude to that article.
For nine years, that is, from the year 1833, when the
construction of the Difference-Engine was suspended,
until 1842, no decision respecting the machine was
arrived at, although Mr. Babbage made several applica-
tions to Government on the subject.
On the 21st October, 1838, he wrote to the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer, stating that the question he
wished to have settled was :- -" Whether the Govern-
ment required him to superintend the completion of the
Difference-Engine, which had been suspended during
20
66
19 I am authorized by Lord Lovelace to say, that the translator is
Lady Lovelace.
The Difference Engine could only tabulate, and was incapable by
its nature of developing; the Analytical-Engine was intended to either
tabulate or develop.” The Difference Engine is the embodying of one
particular and very limited set of operations, the Analytical-Engine, the
embodying of the science of operations. The distinctive characteristic
of the Analytical-Engine, is the introduction into it of the principle
which Jacquard devised for regulating by means of punched cards the
most complicated patterns in the fabrication of brocaded stuffs.
Nothing of the sort exists in the Difference-Engine. We may say most
aptly, that the Analytical-Engine weares Algebraical patterns, just as
the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves !”-Note to translation of
Menabrea's Memoir. The 59th volume of the Edinburgh Review con-
tains an able and elaborate article upon the Difference-Engine, written
by Dr. Lardner.
270
(1820—25.
EXTRACT FROM WELD's
the last five years, according to the original plan and
principle, or whether they intended to discontinue it
altogether.” This letter produced no result. Time
wore on, and Sir Robert Peel became Prime Minister.
This was in 1841. Up to the termination of the
Parliamentary Session in 1842, Mr. Babbage had re-
ceived no other communication on the subject than a
note from Sir George Clerk (Secretary to the Treasury),
written in January of that year, stating that he feared
the pressing official duties of Sir Robert Peel would
prevent him turning his attention to the matter for
some days.
Having availed himself of several private channels
for recalling the question to Sir Robert Peel's at-
tention without effect, Mr. Babbage, on the 8th of
October, 1842, again wrote to him, requesting an early
decision.
At last Mr. Babbage received the following letter:
" Douning Street, Nov. 3, 1842.
“ MY DEAR SIR,
« The Solicitor-General has informed me
that you are most anxious to have an early and decided
answer as to the determination of the Government with
respect to the completion of your Calculating Engine. I
accordingly took the earliest opportunity of communicating
with Sir R. Peel on the subject.
“ We both regret the necessity of abandoning the comple-
tion of a Machine on which so much scientific ingenuity and
labour have been bestowed. But on the other hand, the
expense which would be necessary in order to render it either
satisfactory to yourself, or generally useful, appears on the
lowest calculation so far to exceed what we should be justified
in incurring, that we consider ourselves as having no other
alternative.
“ We trust that by withdrawing all claim on the part of
the Government to the Machine as at present constructed, and
1820—25.]
271
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
by placing it at your entire disposal, we may, to a degree,
assist
your
future exertions in the cause of science.
I am, &c.
" Charles Babbage, Esq."
“ HENRY GOULBURN.
“ P.S. Sir R. Peel begs me to add, that as I have under-
taken to express to you our joint opinion on this matter,
he trusts you will excuse his not separately replying to the
letter, which you addressed to him on the subject a short
time since."
To this letter Mr. Babbage replied as follows:
66
“ Dorset Street, Nov. 6, 1842.
“ MY DEAR SIR,
I beg to acknowledge the receipt of
your letter of the 3rd of Nov., containing your own and Sir
Robert Peel's decision respecting the Engine for calculating
and printing mathematical tables by means of Differences,
the construction of which has been suspended about eight
years.
“You inform me that both regret the necessity of abandon-
ing the completion of the Engine, but that not feeling justi-
fied in incurring the large expense which it may probably
require, you have no other alternative.
“ You also offer, on the part of Government, to withdraw
all claim in the Machine as at present constructed, and to
place it at my entire disposal, with the view of assisting my
future exertions in the cause of science.
“ The drawings and the parts of the Machine already
executed are, as you are aware, the absolute property of
Government, and I have no claim whatever to them.
“ Whilst I thank you for the feeling which that offer
manifests, I must, under all the circumstances, decline accept-
ing it.
“ I am,
&c.
6 C. BABBAGE.”
Mr. Babbage had an interview with Sir R. Peel
subsequently to the date of the foregoing letter: the
272
(1820—25.
EXTRACT FROM WELD's
result was, however, entirely unsatisfactory; and thus,
with the communication from the then Chancellor of
the Exchequer, terminated an engagement which had
existed upwards of twenty years, during which period
it is due to Mr. Babbage to state, that he refused more
than one highly desirable and profitable situation”, in
order that he might give his whole time and thoughts to
the fulfilment of the contract, which he considered him-
self to have entered into with the Government.
With respect to the Difference-Engine little remains
to be added. In 1843, an application was made to
Government, by the Trustees of King's College, Lon-
don, to allow the Engine, as it existed, to be removed
to the museum of that institution. The request was
complied with; and the Engine, enclosed within a glass
case, now stands nearly in the centre of the Museum.
It is capable of calculating to five figures, and two
orders of differences, and performs the work with abso-
lute precision ; but no portion whatever of printing
machinery, which was one of the great objects in the
construction of the Engine, exists. All the drawings
of the machinery and other contrivances are also in
King's College.
Before closing this Chapter, it will not be out of
place to put upon record the state of the Analytical-
Engine at this period (1848).
Mechanical Notations have been made, both of the
actions of detached parts, and of the general action of
the whole, which cover about four or five hundred large
folio sheets of paper.
The original rough sketches are contained in about
21 Mr. Babbage has shown me letters by which it appears that he
declined offices of great emolument, the acceptance of which would have
interfered with his labours upon the Difference-Engine.
1820—25.]
273
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
five volumes. There are upwards of one hundred large
drawings. No part of the construction of the Analyti-
cal-Engine has yet been commenced. A long series of
experiments have, however, been made upon the art of
shaping metals; and the tools to be employed for that
purpose have been discussed, and many drawings of
them prepared. The great object of these inquiries
and experiments is, on the one hand, by simplifying the
construction as much as possible, and on the other, by
contriving new and cheaper means of execution, ulti-
mately to reduce the expense within those limits which
a private individual may command.
T
The annexed Review of the Eleventh Chapter of
MR. WELD's History of the Royal SOCIETY, by Pro-
fessor DE MORGAN, has been reprinted with his per-
mission, and that of the Editor, verbatim, from the
Athenæum of October 14th, 1848.
Three Notes at the foot of the pages have been
added for the purpose of explanation.
These are followed by the remarks upon them,
reprinted from the " Athenceum" of 16th December, 1848.
T 2
1
PROFESSOR DE MORGAN's REVIEW of WELD's
History of the Royal SOCIETY.
THE ATHENÆUM.
LONDON, SATURDAY, OCTOBER 14, 1848.
MR. BABBAGE'S CALCULATING MACHINE.
In our review of Mr. Weld's “History of the Royal
Society,” [ante, p. 621,] we noted that one chapter was
devoted to the history of the celebrated undertaking
above named. This chapter is taken from materials
furnished by Mr. Babbage himself, all the documents
having undergone the inspection of Mr. Weld. Of
recent publications on the subject it may be well to
note-1. A short account of the transactions with the
Government, communicated by Mr. Babbage to the
Philosophical Magazine for September, 1843. 2. A
sketch of the Analytical Engine (on which Mr. Babbage
is now at work, that commenced by the Government
being the Difference Engine) written in Italian by
Menabrea, and translated, with notes (and a list of all
previous publications), by the Countess of Lovelace
(August 1843). The statements put forward by Mr.
Babbage have thus been in substance before the public
for five years, without contradiction : for though the
account (No. 1) was not signed, it was stated to be
from authority, allowed to pass as such by the Editors
278
PROFESSOR DE MORGAN'S REVIEW.
of the magazine, and generally understood to emanate
from Mr. Babbage. We are then bound to take this
first statement as admitted by Government, more espe-
cially after the publication by Mr. Weld, avowedly
made from the documents furnished by Mr. Babbage
himself: and assuredly we understand Mr. Weld as
conceiving himself to be distinctly informed by Mr.
Babbage, that all documents of any importance had
been communicated.
The heads of the public history of the Difference
Engine are as follows:-In April, 1823, the Govern-
ment requested the opinion of the Royal Society on
Mr. Babbage's plan for “ applying machinery to the
purposes of calculating and printing mathematical
tables.” The Royal Society reported favourably, that
the machine was “fully adequate to the objects pro-
posed,”-and this report was laid before Parliament.
In July, Mr. Babbage had an interview with the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer (Earl of Ripon) to ascertain
if Government would wish him to construct for printing
as well as calculating. There is no minute of this con-
versation, and the parties have different memories upon
it. But soon after, the Treasury informs the Royal
Society that 1,5001. was to be issued to Mr. Babbage
“to enable him to bring his invention to perfection, in
the manner recommended.” Mr. Weld remarks that
no plan had been pointed out; but it must be noticed
that the original application was for an opinion upon
calculating and printing, that the opinion spoke of the
full adequacy of the plan for the objects proposed, and
that the final determination of the Government was
to proceed as recommended. Unless there were a previous
understanding that all documents should either speak
with the verbal completeness of an indictment or be
wholly void, it is clear that the Government determined
PROFESSOR DE MORGAN'S REVIEW.
279
1
to assist Mr Babbage in realizing the full invention,
and told him so.'
The work went on for four years, under advances of
money from time to time: the funds were applied by
Mr. Babbage, and the accounts were audited by Messrs.
Brunel, Donkin, and Field. We suppose that Govern-
ment did not exceed the proposed advance of 1,5001. ;
but this is not expressly stated. In December, 1828,
Government applied again to the Royal Society to
report upon the state, progress, and prospects of the
machine. Mr. Babbage at the same time stated that
he had expended 6,0001.--meaning, we suppose, 4,5001.
over and above the Government advance. A Com-
mittee, consisting of Messrs. Gilbert, Roget, Sabine,
Herschel, Baily, Brunel (the elder), Kater, Donkin,
Penn, Rennie, Barton, Warburton, declined to report
on practicability or utility, considering both as fully
established, and reported that, the difficulties con-
sidered, the progress was as great as could be expected,
and that the engine was likely to fulfil the expectations
of its inventor. On this report the Government made
further advances, and the machine was declared national
property. But the official payments soon failed: and
Mr. Babbage called a meeting of private friends, in
May 1829, who, on the representation that he had then
advanced 4,0001. himself, in addition to the Govern-
ment advance of 3,0001., advised him strongly not to
proceed without adequate help from the Government.
1
By the words “no plan,” the reviewer here evidently refers to the
mechanical and mathematical plan, on the fitness of which the Royal
Society had already, as he observes, made a report. Mr. Weld, on the
other hand, refers to the mutual relations of the two parties, Mr. Bab-
bage and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, relative to the expenses and
even to the ownership of the Difference-Engine, as appears by the foot-
noie (7) at page 256.
C. B,
280
PROFESSOR DE MORGAN'S REVIEW.
"
On this representation, the Duke of Wellington, Mr.
Goulburn, and Lord Ashley inspected what there was
to show, and the Treasury advanced 3,000). more.
In
December 1830, nearly 6001. was still due to Mr.
Babbage,“ upon the last account,” and that sum to the
superintendent, Mr. Clement.
The Treasury gave
directions for the advance of 6001. to pay Mr. Clement,
and desired a fresh inspection and opinion from the
Royal Society. The Committee above named (with
the addition of Sir J. Lubbock and Mr. Troughton)
reported (April 1831) as favourably as before on every
point, and recommended attention to Mr. Babbage's
suggestion that the workshops should be removed to the
neighbourhood of his residence. With regard to pro-
bable expense, they subjoined Mr. Brunel's estimate
that 8,0001. additional would be sufficient; but recom-
mending that the Government be advised to provide
for 12,0001. by way of estimate. A piece of
adjoining Mr. Babbage's garden was taken, and a fire-
proof building was erected. When about 17,0001. had
been expended altogether, further progress was arrested
by the extravagant demands made by Mr. Clement, as
compensation for carrying on the construction in the
new buildings. These were out of the question : and
Mr. Clement withdrew, taking with him all the tools
which had been used, many of which had been invented
for the occasion. For it is the law that engineers and
mechanics possess the right of property in all tools they
have constructed, even though the cost of construction
may have been defrayed by their employers. A special
agreement ought, the reader will say, to have been
made as to these tools; but whether the neglect is to
be charged on Mr. Babbage, or on the Government,
those must say who feel able. As it very seldom
happens that the employer furnishes tools, it is easy to
ground
PROFESSOR DE MORGAN'S REVIEW.
281
see how the necessity for a special agreement may have
escaped the notice of all parties.
So far all is intelligible enough, and no blame
attaches to either side, at least that we can venture to
impute. But now the question divides in a curious
way. While the works were suspended, Mr. Babbage
reconsidered the whole question, and invented what he
calls the Analytical Engine,—which we will take, on his
word and Menabrea's publication, derived from his
communications, to be immensely superior to the Differ-
ence Engine. To resume the latter, while Government
was unacquainted with these new and more simple
conceptions, would have been improper; to write on
unfinished speculations would have been difficult. Mr.
Babbage therefore (September 1834) requested a per-
sonal interview with Lord Melbourne; which was
agreed to,--but before it took place the ministry was
dissolved. From this time until 1842 Mr. Babbage
made applications to the various administrations, which
remained unanswered ; until at last, in November, 1842,
a letter from Mr. Goulburn, in answer to a new appli-
cation, informed Mr. Babbage that the Government
intended to discontinue the project on the ground of
expense.
In the meanwhile Mr. Babbage incurred severe cen-
sure in scientific circles, as being himself the cause of
the delay. It was asserted that he had compromised
the Royal Society, which had so strongly recommended
his project to the Government. It was pretty generally
believed that the delay arose from his determination
that the Government should take up the new engine
and abandon the old one.
But, until the statement made by him shall be proved
either false or defective, it must stand that the Govern-
ment never returned any answer to the question-Shall
282
PROFESSOR DE MORGAN'S REVIEW.
the new engine be constructed, or shall the old one be
proceeded with? We are of opinion that they ought
to have required him to proceed with the old one.
They ought to have said—The public can only judge
by results : how well satisfied soever men of science
may be that the new machine is immeasurably superior
to the old one, society at large will never comprehend
the abandonment of a scheme on which so much has
been expended; they will say-What if, in constructing
No. 2, No. 3 should be discovered, as much superior to
No. 2 as No. 2 is to No. 1! And if Mr. Babbage had
declined to proceed with his first project, when thus
urged, it is our opinion that he would have richly
deserved a very harsh censure.
And of this we are
sure, that if Government had allowed him to finish the
first machine, and he had done so with success, the
House of Commons would willingly have granted money
for the second,-aye, and for the third and fourth, if he
had invented them. But the Government itself pre-
vented the matter from coming to any such issue. It
is possible that Sir R. Peel and Mr. Goulburn allowed
Mr. Babbage's well-known wish' to abandon the first
plan in favour of the new one to influence their decision.
It may be that they were startled at finding that
17,000l. expended upon one project was only the
precursor of another. If so, we think they put them-
selves in the wrong by not fastening on Mr. Babbage
the alternative of either proceeding with the exist-
ing construction, or taking the entire responsibility
of refusal upon himself. As the matter now stands,
and unless Mr. Babbage can be refuted, the answer to
the question why he did not proceed is, that during the
1 It is scarcely possible that this supposed wish could have influenced
Sir Robert Peel, because he had before him a written disavowal of it
from Mr. Babbage himself.
C. B.
PROFESSOR DE MORGAN'S REVIEW.
283
eight years in which he had to bear the blame of the
delay he could not procure even the attention of the
Government, much less any decision on the course to
be taken.
It is generally understood that Mr. Babbage is
determined to proceed with the Analytical Engine,
gradually, and at his own expense; and that the draw-
ings are in a state of great forwardness. According to
Mr. Babbage himself, many experiments have been
made with the object “on the one hand, by simplifying
“the construction as much as possible, and on the
other, by contriving new and cheaper means of execu-
“ tion, ultimately to reduce the expense within those
“ limits which a private individual may command.”
In looking at all the circumstances of this statement,
we regret its divided responsibility. Mr. Weld has
seen Mr. Babbage's documents. Should he have made
an insufficient selection, who is to blame? Mr. Weld
says, “I have derived very valuable information from
an unpublished statement drawn up by Mr. Babbage,
“ which he has been so kind as to place in my hands.
“ The original documents, which are in Mr. Babbage's
“ possession, and which are referred to, I have myself
“ examined." From all this we should conclude that if
Mr. Weld had omitted anything material, or fallen into
any misconception, Mr. Babbage would before this have
set it right. But it would be more satisfactory if we
had Mr. Babbage's own acceptance of the statement
thus made, as being that on which he is content to rest
liis case; at least until some specific counter-statement
should demand more detail of explanation. Continued
silence will be tantamount to such acceptance.
There is also one piece of information which must
be drawn out before the case can be finally adjudicated.
We stand thus:--Scientific rumour states that Mr.
66
284
PROFESSOR DE MORGAN'S REVIEW.
-
Babbage compelled the Government to give him up by
demanding permission to abandon the Difference Engine
and substitute the Analytical Engine. To this, in the
formal point of view, Mr. Babbage has fully answered,
by showing that the Government never communicated
to him that it was their pleasure he should proceed on
the plan originally contemplated. The question now
remains—Did Mr. Babbage, or did he not, in the
several unanswered applications which he made to the
Ministry, press the claims of the new machine and the
abandonment of the old ? If so, did he do it in such
a manner as to give to understand, or make apparent,
that he would not consent to recommence operations at
the point of relinquishment? The “ several applica-
tions " which were made from 1833 to 1838 are not
particularized, much less described as to contents. But,
in October 1838, Mr. Babbage wrote to the Chancellor
of the Exchequer, stating, to use Mr. Weld's words,
that “the question he wished to have settled” was,
whether the Government required him to superintend
the completion of the Difference Engine according to
the original plan and principle, or whether they intended
to discontinue it altogether. Now the words quoted are
very like the idiom a person would employ who had in
his mind that up to that time some other question had
been among those proposed for discussion. And it is
worthy of note that all the communications are un-
described until we come to the one of October 1838;
which shows that then at least, whether before or not,
Mr. Babbage had put the question on the right issue.
Of what tenor, then, were the undescribed applica-
tions? If of the same as that of October 1838, Mr.
Babbage stands quite clear; but if they were such as
1 The two following will sufficiently explain them :- On the 23d
December, 1834, Mr. Babbage addressed a statement to the Duke of
A
PROFESSOR DE MORGAN'S REVIEW.
285
fairly to give rise to the rumour above mentioned, then
it must be said, that though he had every disposition to
get wrong, Government always prevented him by block-
ing his path with an error of its own. But in any case
it is to be remembered, that for the last four years of
unanswered application Mr. Babbage stood upon the
right ground; and also that the rumoured refusal to
proceed never was made.
The public, we think, has a right to explanation
from the Government, and to further explanation from
Mr. Babbage. Sir R. Peel turned it off with a joke
in the House of Commons. He recommended that
the machine should be set to calculate the time at
which it would be of use. He ought rather to have
advised that it should be set to compute the number of
applications which might remain unanswered before a
Minister, if the subject were not one which might affect
his parliamentary power. If it had done this, it would
have shown that its usefulness had commenced.
Wellington, pointing out the only plans which, in his opinion, could be
pursued for terminating the questions relative to the Difference Engine,
namely:
First, the Government might desire Mr. Babbage to continue the
construction of the Engine in the hands of the person who has hitherto
been employed in making it.
Secondly, the Government might wish to know whether any other
person could be substituted for the engineer at present employed to
continue the construction ; a course which was possible.
Thirdly, the Government might (although he did not presume that
they would) substitute some person to superintend the completion of
the Engine instead of Mr. Babbage himself.
Fourthly, the Government might be disposed to give up the under-
taking entirely.
A letter to Sir R. Peel from Mr. Babbage, dated 7th April, 1835, and
enclosing the above plans, concludes thus :
“ The delays and difficulties of years will, I hope, excuse my express-
ing a wish that I may at length be relieved from them by an early
decision of the Government on the question.”
C. B.
From the ATHENÆUM of SATURDAY, Dec. 16th, 1848.
1
MR. BABbage has reprinted, for private circulation,
Mr. Weld's chapter on his Calculating Machine, and has
appended to it our review of that chapter (see ante, p.
1029] with three short foot-notes. The first of these
is on a point immaterial to the issue; the second and
third contain distinct statements of fact from Mr.
Babbage, in reference to our comments upon his pro-
ceedings and those of the Government. Our readers
will remember that from September 1834 to November
1842, Mr. Babbage could not procure the attention of
the Government to the state of the engine, on which
17,0001. had been spent; and that, about the beginning
of that period, Mr. Babbage had invented the new
engine, which he called the Analytical Engine. And
further, they will remember that all notion of the
possibility of blame having been justly incurred by
Mr. Babbage rested, in our comment, upon the hypo-
thesis that he had put his wish to abandon the Differ-
ence Engine and substitute the Analytical Engine before
the Government in such a form as to give them a right
to suppose that he was unwilling to proceed with the
former. On our remark that it is possible that Sir R.
Peel and Mr. Goulburn allowed his well-known wish
to influence their decision, Mr. Babbage observes :-
“ It is scarcely possible that this supposed wish could
1 We said in that review that Menabrea's Memoir was in Italian :-
we should have said French.
MR. BABBAGE'S CALCULATING MACHINE.
287
66
1.0.1.
Ebas
Test
and
01.
ber
00
“ have influenced Sir Robert Peel, because he had
" before him a written disavowal of it from Mr. Bab-
bage himself.”
Again, of the first half of the period of unanswered
application Mr. Weld gives no account, as to the tenor
of the applications therein made to the Government:
though he shows by documents that during the second
half Mr. Babbage, to repeat our own phrase,
66 stood
upon the right ground.” And thereupon we expressed
our opinion that the public had a right to explanation
from the Government, and to further explanation from
Mr. Babbage. This further explanation Mr. Babbage
now gives, in the following words; among which we
insert some bracketed comments :-
“ The two following [applications made to the Govern-
“ment] will sufficiently explain them (the undescribed
applications of the first half of the period of unan-
“swered application] :-On the 23rd December, 1834,
“ Mr. Babbage addressed a statement to the Duke of
Wellington, pointing out the only [the reader will
“ remark this word only] plans which in his opinion
“could be pursued for terminating the questions rela-
“ tive to the Difference Engine, namely–First, the
“ Government might desire Mr. Babbage to continue
“ the construction of the engine in the hands of the
person who has hitherto been employed in making it.
Secondly, the Government might wish to know whether
sich
ing
em
ni
the
br
20-
66
tre
any other person could be substituted for the engineer
“ at present employed to continue the construction-a
which was possible. Thirdly, the Government
might (although he did not presume that they would)
“ substitute some person to superintend the completion
“ of the engine instead of Mr. Babbage himself. Fourthly,
“ the Government might be disposed to give up the
“undertaking entirely.” A letter to Sir Robert Peel
That
course
R.
b
288
MR. BABBAGE's CALCULATING MACHINE.
from Mr. Babbage, dated the 7th of April, 1835, and
enclosing the above plans, concludes thus: “ The delays
“ and difficulties of years will, I hope, excuse my ex-
pressing a wish that I may at length be relieved from
“ them by an early decision of the Government on the
“ question."
From the above it appears that at the end of 1834,
Mr. Babbage-though then so full of the new engine,
that in September he had asked an audience of Lord
Melbourne, to communicate the exact state of the case,
and to request, of course, his consideration of the ques-
tion whether the new engine should or should not take
the place of the old one-began his applications to the
Government with distinct reference to the old engine,
and to the question of its completion or abandonment.
Certainly the first of the two applications was not well
timed, for it was made when the Duke of Wellington
held all the seals, and a Government courier was hunt-
ing Sir Robert Peel all over Italy, to tell him to come
home quick and be Prime Minister.
But it was
repeated to Sir Robert Peel in the April following,
when the latter was also in official possession of the
previous letter.
Mr. Babbage having thus filled up the only lacuna
which the public press has brought to his notice, we
can but repeat that those who would impute to him the
blame of the failure of Government to complete his
Calculating Machine must begin by proving his state-
ment to be false or defective. In 1835 he complains to
the Government of “ delays and difficulties,” which he
implies to be mainly caused by the Government, and
he gets no answer whatever to repeated applications,
until 1843. Those who have propagated the rumours
that his conduct was the cause of the delay, and that
he compromised his friends in the Royal Society, who
MR. BABBAGE'S CALCULATING MACHINE.
289
had aided in bringing him under the notice of the
Government, are bound to abstain in future, or to show
cause.
We end by a quotation from Mr. Weld, which we
abstained from giving so long as we supposed that the
discontinuance of the Calculating Machine might be, in
any degree, Mr. Babbage's fault. “ Mr. Babbage has
shown me letters, by which it appears that he declined
offices of great emolument, the acceptance of which
would have interfered with his labours upon the
Difference Engine.”
THE END.
U
WORKS BY CHARLES BABBAGE, ESQ.
THE EXPOSITION OF 1851;
OR,
VIEWS OF THE INDUSTRY, THE SCIENCE, AND THE
GOVERNMENT OF ENGLAND.
8vo. 1851. Price 68.6d.
THE ECONOMY
OF
MACHINERY AND MANUFACTURES.
Fourth Edition, enlarged. Price 6s.
TABLE OF
LOGARITHMS OF THE NATURAL NUMBERS
FROM 1 TO 108,000.
Royal 8vo. Price 6s. on coloured paper.
THE NINTH BRIDGEWATER TREATISE.
Second Edition. Price 9s. 6d.
THOUGHTS
ON THE PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION,
WITH REFERENCE TO
A PROPERTY TAX AND ITS EXCEPTIONS
8vo. 1848. Second Edition, 1851. Price 1s.
OBSERVATIONS
ON
THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND,
AND ON SOME OF ITS CAUSES.
8vo. Price 78. 6d. 4to. Price 158. 1830.
A very few Copies of the 4to Edition only remain.
PUBLISHED BY JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
Several applications having been made to the Author and to his Pub-
lishers, for detached Papers which he has from time to time printed,
he takes this opportunity of giving a list of those Papers, with
references to the Works in which they may be found.
1. The Preface ; jointly with Sir John
Memoirs of the Ana-
Herschel.
lytical Society. 4to.
2. On Continued Products.
Cambridge, 1813.
3. An Essay towards the Calculus of Functions.—Phil. Trans. 1815.
4. An Essay towards the Calculus of Functions, Part 2.-Phil. Trans.
1816. p. 179.
5. Demonstrations of some of Dr. Matthew Stewart's General Theo-
rems, to which is added an Account of some New Properties of the
Circle.-Roy. Inst. Jour. 1816. Vol. i. p. 6.
6. Observations on the Analogy which subsists between the Calculus
of Functions and other branches of Analysis.—Phil. Trans. 1817. p. 179.
7. Solution of some Problems by means of the Calculus of Functions.
-Roy. Inst. Jour. 1817. p. 371.
8. Note respecting Elimination.-Roy. Inst. Jour. 1817. p. 355.
9. An Account of Euler's Method of solving a Problem relating to
the Knight's Move at Chess.—Roy. Inst. Jour. 1817. p. 72.
10. On some new Methods of Investigating the Sums of several
Classes of Infinite Series. — Phil. Trans. 1819. p. 249.
11. Demonstration of a Theorem relating to Prime Numbers.—Edin.
Phil. Jour. 1819. p. 46.
12. An Examination of some Questions connected with Games of
Chance. Trans. of Roy. Soc. of Edin. 1820. Vol. ix. p. 153.
13. Observations on the Notation employed in the Calculus of
Functions.— Trans. of Cam. Phil. Soc. 1820. Vol. i. p. 63.
14. On the Application of Analysis, &c. to the Discovery of Local
Theorems and Porisms.—Trans. of Roy. Soc. of Edin. Vol. ix. p 337.
1820.
15. Translation of the Differential and
These two works were exe.
Integral Calculus of La Croix, 1 vol. 1816. cuted in conjunction with
the Rev. G. Peacock (Dean
16. Examples to the Differential and of Ely) and Sir John Her-
Integral Calculus. 2 vols. 8vo. 1820.
schel, Bart.
17. Examples of the Solution of Functional Equations. Extracted
from the preceding. 8vo. 1820.
18. A Letter to Sir H. Davy, P.R.S. on the Application of Machinery
to the purpose of calculating and printing Mathematical Tables. — 4to.
July, 1822.
19. Note respecting the Application of Machinery to the Calculation
of Mathematical Tables.-Memoirs of the Astron. Soc. June, 1822.
Vol. i. p. 309.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR,
20. Observations on the application of Machinery to the Computations
of Mathematical Tables, Dec. 1822.-Memoirs of Astron. Soc. 1824.
Vol. i. p. 311.
21. On the Theoretical Principles of the Machinery for calculating
Tables.Brewster's Edin. Jour. of Science. Vol. viii. p. 122. 1823.
22. On the Determination of the General Term of a new Class of
Infinite Series.--Trans. Cam. Phil. Soc. 1824. Vol. ii. p. 218.
23. Observations on the Measurement of Heights by the Barometer.
-Brewster's Edin. Jour. of Science, 1824. p. 85.
24. Account of the repetition of M. Arago's Experiments on the
Magnetism manifested by various substances during Rotation. By C.
Babbage, Esq. and Sir John Herschel.-Phil. Trans. 1825. p. 467.
25. On the Diving Bell.—Ency. Metrop. 4to. 1826.
26. On Electric and Magnetic Rotation.- Phil. Trans. 1826. Vol.
ii. p. 494.
27. On a method of expressing by Signs the Action of Machinery.-
Phil. Trans. 1826. ii. p. 250.
28. On the Influence of Signs in Mathematical Reasoning.-Trans.
Cam. Phil. Soc. 1826. Vol. ii. p. 218.
29. A Comparative View of the different Institutions for the Assurance
of Life. 1 vol. 8vo. 1826. German Translation. Weimar, 1827.
30. On Notation.—Edinburgh Encyclopedia. 4to.
31. On Porisms.—Edinburgh Encyclopedia. 4to.
32. A Table of the Logarithms of the Natural Numbers, from 1 to
108,000. Stereotyped. 1 vol. 8vo. 1826.
33. Three editions on coloured paper, with the Preface and Instruc-
tions translated into German and Hungarian, by Mr. Chs. Nagy, have
been published at Pest and Vienna. 1834.
34. Notice respecting some Errors common to many Tables of Loga-
rithms.-Mem. Astron. Soc. 4to. 1827. Vol. iii. p. 65.
35. Essay on the general Principles which regulate the Application
of Machinery.- Ency. Metrop. 4to. 1829.
36. Letter to T. P. Courtenay on the Proportion of Births of the two
Sexes amongst Legitimate and Îllegitimate Children.—Brewster's Edin.
Journ. of Science. Vol. ii. p. 85. 1829.
37. Note on the Description of Mammalia.—Ed. Journal of Science,
1829. Vol. i. p. 187. Ferussac Bull. vol. xxv. p. 296.
38. Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, and on some
of its Causes. 4to. and 8vo. 1830.
39. Sketch of the Philosophical Characters of Dr. Wollaston and Sir
H. Davy. Extracted from the Decline of Science. 1830.
40. Specimen of Logarithmic Tables, printed with different coloured
inks and on variously-coloured papers, in twenty-one volumes 8vo.
London. 1831.
The object of this Work, of which one single copy only was printed, is to ascertain
by experiment the tints of the paper and colours of the inks least fatiguing to the
eye.
One hundred and fifty-one variously-coloured papers were chosen, and the same
two pages of my stereotype Table of Logarithms were printed upon them in inks of
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
Several applications having been made to the Author and to his Pub-
lishers, for detached Papers which he has from time to time printed,
he takes this opportunity of giving a list of those Papers, with
references to the Works in which they may be found.
}
1. The Preface; jointly with Sir John Memoirs of the Ana-
Herschel
lytical Society. 4to.
2. On Continued Products.
Cambridge, 1813.
3. An Essay towards the Calculus of Functions.-Phil. Trans. 1815.
4. An Essay towards the Calculus of Functions, Part 2.-Phil. Trans.
1816. p. 179.
5. Demonstrations of some of Dr. Matthew Stewart's General Theo-
rems, to which is added an Account of some New Properties of the
Circle.—Roy. Inst. Jour. 1816. Vol. i. p. 6.
6. Observations on the Analogy which subsists between the Calculus
of Functions and other branches of Analysis.-Phil. Trans. 1817. p. 179.
7. Solution of some Problems by means of the Calculus of Functions.
-Roy. Inst. Jour. 1817. p. 371.
8. Note respecting Elimination.-Roy. Inst. Jour. 1817. p. 355.
9. An Account of Euler's Method of solving a Problem relating to
the Knight's Move at Chess.—Roy. Inst. Jour. 1817. p. 72.
10. On some new Methods of Investigating the Sums of several
Classes of Infinite Series.- Phil. Trans. 1819. p. 249.
11. Demonstration of a Theorem relating to Prime Numbers.--Edin.
Phil. Jour. 1819. p. 46.
12. An Examination of some Questions connected with Games
Chance.-Trans. of Roy. Soc. of Edin. 1820. Vol. ix. p. 153.
13. Observations on the Notation employed in the Calcul:
Functions.—Trans. of Cam. Phil. Soc. 1820. Vol. i. p. 63.
14. On the Application of Analysis, &c. to the Discovery
Theorems and Porisms.—Trans. of Roy. Soc. of Edin. Vol.
1820.
15. Translation of the Differential and
Integral Calculus of La Croix, 1 vol. 1816. cuted in
16. Examples to the Differential and of Ely)
Integral Calculus. 2 vols. 8vo. 1820.
17. Examples of the Solution of Functional F
from the preceding. 8vo. 1820.
18. A Letter to Sir H. Davy, P.R.S. on the
to
purpose of calculating and printing
July, 1822.
19. Note respecting the Applicati
of Mathematical Tables.-Memo
Vol. i. p. 309.
These two w
the Rev.
schel,
LONDON
31.
→
IOOL BOOKS.
MEDICINE.
TURE,
Y.
of W
G THE REIGN
4to, 20s. each. (Pub-
THE POPES OF
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** CESTID
Womenem inter
I die
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I.
Y OF PRUSSIA, AND
BRANDENBURGH. From the
ER GORDON, 3 vols. 8vo, 368.
tyork have done it every justice,
is a guarantee of its value and
many new lights upon points of
sei interest."-Literary Gazette.
XIV.
STORY OF SERVIA AND
EVOLUTION. From the German.
necond Edition. Map. 8vo, 158.
required, and worthily takes its place by
L's POPES OF ROME, BY MRS. AUSTIN."
5.
地​。
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RS AND CUSTOMS OF THE
EGYPTIANS. By SIR GARDNER WILKINSON.
son. Plates, 5 vols. 8vo, 41. 4s.
ardner Wilkinson has done more to make the
of the Pharaohs known to us moderns than any
borary writer."-Athenæum.
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ORÆ ÆGYPTIACÆ; OR, THE CHRONOLOGY
ANCIENT EGYPT; discovered from Astronomical and
roglyphic records upon its monuments, including many
tes found in coeval inscriptions. By R, STUART POOLE.
Plates. 8vo.
XVII.
HISTORY OF INDIA, THE HINDOO
AND MAKOMMEDAN PERIODS. By the Hon. MOUNTSTUART
ELPHINSTONE. Third Edition. Map. 8vo, 188.
A work of the greatest authority and learning-one of
the latest and most valuable works on the Eastern Empire."
-Sir Robert Peel.
been
le
le
XVUI
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HISTORY OF THE SIKHS, FROM THE
IAHON
ORIGIN OF THE NATION TO THE BATTLE OF THE SUTLEJ.
By Capt. J. D. CUNNINGHAM. Maps. 8vo, 158.
" The first connected narrative of the Sikhs, with any pre-
tension to historical dignity, and is really an excellent
d to the supplement to the history by Elphinstone."--Examiner.
870, 6s.
HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY, from the
IIE SUC- Birth of Christ to the Extinction of Paganism in the
ond Edition. Roman Empire. By Rev. H. H. MILMAN, Dean of St. Paul's.
3 vols. 8vo, 36s.
singularly well- “A safe book for all to read. The divine origin of Chris-
s, and lively.".
tianity, and the authority of the Holy Scriptures, are every.
where maintained." - Dr. Murdoch.
XX.
I'HE SECOND;
HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY IN
E Correspondence. CEYLON. Its Introduction and Progress under the
Post 8vo, 6s. 6d.
Portuguese, Dutch, British, and American Missions.
value.”-Spectator. By SIR ENERSON TENNENT. Woodcuts. 8vo. 148.
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10--1688. By M. Guizot. JESUITS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. From
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XXI.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
:
the following colours:-light blue, dark blue, light green, dark green, olive, yellow,
light red, dark red, purple, and black.
Each of these twenty volumes contains papers of the same colour, numbered in the
same order, and there are two volumes printed with each kind of ink.
The twenty-first volume contains metallic printing of the same specimen in gold,
silver, and copper, upon vellum and on variously-coloured papers.
For the same purpose, about thirty-five copies of the complete table of logarithms
were printed on thick drawing paper of various tints.
An account of this work may be found in the Edin. Journ. of Science (Brewster's,)
1832. Vol. vi. p. 144.
41. Economy of Manufactures and Machinery. 8vo. 1832.
There are many editions and also American reprints, and several Translations
of this work into German, French, Italian, and Spanish, &c.
42. Letter to Sir David Brewster, on the Advantage of a Collection
of the Constants of Nature and Art.-Brewster's Edin. Journ. of
Science. 1832. Vol. vi. p. 334. Reprinted by order of the British
Association for the Promotion of Science. Cambridge, 1833. See also
pp. 484, 490, Report of the Third Meeting of the British Association.
43. Barometrical Observations, made at the Fall of the Staubbach,
by Sir John Herschel, Bart. and C. Babbage, Esq.-Brewster's Edin.
Journ. of Science. Vól. vi. p. 224. 1832.
44. Observations on the Temple of Serapis, at Pozzuoli, near Naples ;
with an attempt to explain the causes of the frequent elevation and
depression of large portions of the earth's surface in remote periods, and
to prove that those causes continue in action at the present time. Read
at Geological Society, 12 March, 1834. See Abstract Proceedings of
Geol. Soc. 1846.
45. Reprint of the same, with Supplemental Conjectures on the Phy-
sical State of the Surface of the Moon. 1847.
46. Letter from Mr. Abraham Sharpe to Mr. J. Crosthwait, Hoxton.
2 Feb. 1721–22. Decyphered by Mr. Babbage. See Life of Flamsteed,
by Mr. F. Baily. Appendix, pp. 348, 390. 1835.
47. The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise. 8vo. May, 1837; Second
Edition, Jan. 1838.
48. On some Impressions in Sandstone.- Proceedings of Geological
Society. Vol. ii. p. 439. Ditto, Phil. Mag. Ser. 3. Vol. x. p. 474.
1837.
49. Note on the Boracic Acid Works in Tuscany.-Murray's Hand-
book of Central Italy. First Edition, p. 178. 1843.
50. On the Principles of Tools for Turning and Planing Metals,
by Charles Babbage. Printed in the Appendix of Vol. ii. Holtzapffe]
Turning and Mechanical Manipulation. 1846.
51. Thoughts on the Principles of Taxation, with reference to a Pro-
perty Tax and its Exceptions. 8vo. 1848 ; Second Edition, 1851. 1s.
An Italian translation of the first edition, with notes, was published at Turin.
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52. The Exposition of 1851 ; or, Views of the Industry, the Science,
and the Government of England. 68. 6d. Second Edition, 1851.
53. Laws of Mechanical Notation. Privately printed for distribution.
1851.
R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL.
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Mr. Murray's List of Works.
CONTAINING
HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES.
HAND-BOOKS FOR TRAVELLERS.
CLASSICAL AND SCHOOL BOOKS.
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RELIGIOUS WORKS AND THEOLOGY. ART, SCIENCE, AND MEDICINE.
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GENERAL LITERATURE,
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NATURAL HISTORY.
THE HOME AND COLONIAL LIBRARY.
HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES.
I
XI.
IT.
XV.
XVI.
GIBBON'S DECLINE AND FALL OF THE STATE PAPERS DURING THE REIGN
ROMAN EMPIRE. Edited by Rev. H.H. MILMAN, Dean or KING HENRY VIII. 5 vols. 4to, 20s. each. (Pub-
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MEMOIRS OF THE HOUSE OF BRANDENBURGH. From the
PERIOD TO THE END OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. By
German. By SIR ALEXANDER GORDON. 3 vols. 8vo, 368.
GEORGE GROTE. Second Edition. Maps. Vols. 1 to 8.
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2 vols. 8vo, 248. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES. 8vo, 108. 6d.
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HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the Peace dates found in coeval inscriptions. By R. Stuart POOLE.
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HISTORY OF INDIA,—THE HINDOO
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Examiner.
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VII.
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MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.- Biography.
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XXIII.
XXVII.
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COUNT OF THE COURTS OF LONDON AND VIENNA in the 17th From the German. By LORD ELLESMERE. Map. Post 8vo. 98.
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SECOND CAMPAIGN OF RADETZKY
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v.
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BIOGRAPHY AND MEMOIRS.
I.
A MEMOIR OF BISHOP STANLEY. With LIFE OF THE GREAT LORD CLIVE.
his Addresses and Charges. By Rev. A. P. STANLEY, 8vo. By Rev. G. R. GLEIG. Post 8vo, 6s.
“A worthy addition to the best of our popular
biographies.”—Spectator.
LORD HERVEY'S MEMOIRS OF THE
REIGN OF GEORGE II. AND QUEEN CAROLINE.
LETTERS AND JOURNALS OF GENERAL
Edited by Mr. CROKER. Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo, 368.
SIR HUDSON LOWE. Revealing the true History
“The greatest accession to our English historical literature
since the publication of Pepys's Diary and WALPOLE's of Napoleon at St. Helena. Portrait. 3 vols. 8vo. (in
MEMOIRS.'-Athenæum.
preparation.)
LORD SIDMOUTH'S LIFE. By the DEAN BOSWELL'S LIFE OF JOHNSON. Edited
OF NORWICH. Portraits. 3 vols. 8vo, 42s.
by Mr. CROKER. New and Cheaper Edition. Complete
“A book which, for its individual subject, and the asto- in one Volume. Portraits. Royal 8vo. 158.
nishing importance of the events it commemorates, is A new and thoroughly revised edition of Boswell, in one
exceeded by no work that has appeared.”-Morning Post. octavo volume-and with really a good index."-Athenæum.
IV.
XIV.
MEMOIRS OF THE HOUSES OF MEMOIRS OF SIR FOWELL BUXTON.
CRAWFURD AND BELCARRES; OR, LIVES OF THE With his CORRESPONDENCE. By CHARLES Buxton.
LINDSAYS. By LORD LINDSAY, 3 vols. 8vo, 36s.
Fourth Edition. Portrait. 8vo, 168.; or Post 8vo, 8s. 60.
“ One of the very best specimens
of Family History that “ One of the most thoroughly well-written pieces of
our language affords."- Quarterly Review,
biography that has issued from the modern press."-Evan-
gelical Mugazine.
LIVES OF THE LORD CHANCELLORS
OF ENGLAND, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO 1838. By compiled from Authentic Sources.
LIFE AND LETTERS OF JOHN CALVIN.
By T. H. DYER.
LORD CAMPBELL. Third Edition. 7 vols. 8vo, 51. 2s.
Portrait. 8vo, 158.
“ A work of sterling merit--one of very great labour, of
richly diversified interest."- Quarterly Review.
LIFE OF LOUIS PRINCE OF CONDÉ
LIVES OF THE CHIEF JUSTICES OF (surnamed the Great). By LORD MAHON. Post 8vo, 6s.
ENGLAND, FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TILL THE DEATH
OF LORD MANSFIELD. By LORD CAMPBELL. 2 vols. 8vo, 308. LIFE OF BELISARIUS. By LORD Mahon.
Second Edition. Map. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
LIFE OF LORD CHANCELLOR ELDON,
and his CORRESPONDENCE. By HORACE Twiss. SIR JOHN BARROW'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY.
Third Edition. Portrait. 2 vols. Post 8vo, 218.
From Early Life to Advanced Age. Portrait. 8vo, 16s.
“ Ought to be in the library of every lawyer, statesman, “ Here is another pleasant English book to be added to
and English gentleman."-Bluck wood.
the Englishman's library.”-Atheneum.
LIFE OF SIR SAMUEL ROMILLY. LIVES OF JOHN BUNYAN AND OLIVER
With his DIARY AND CORRESPONDENCE. By CROMWELL. By ROBERT SOUTHEY. Post 8vo, 28. 6d.
his Sons. Third Edition. Portrait. 2 vols. fcp. 8vo, 12s. “Admirably written lives."-Yorkshireman.
XVI.
-
VI.
XVII,
VII.
XVIII.
VIII.
XIX
LIVES OF THE CONTEMPORARIES LIFE OF SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. Ву
OF THE LORD CHANCELLOR CLARENDON, JOHN BARROW. Post 8vo, 2s. 60.
Illustrative of Portraits in his Gallery With an
Introduction, containing a Descriptive Catalogue of the THE NAVAL WORTHIES OF QUEEN
Pictures and an account of the origin of the Collection. ELIZABETH'S REIGN. By John BARROW. 8vo, 14s.
By LADY THERESA LEWIS. 2 vols. 8vo.
XXII.
x.
LIFE OF GENERAL LORD HILL.
MEMOIR OF ROBERT PLUMER WARD, Rev. Edwin Sidney. Second Edition. Portrait. 8vo, 12s.
By
With HIS CORRESPONDENCE AND DIARIES. By
" There is no military memoir which we should so gladly
Ilon, EDMUND PHIPPS, Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo, 288. place in the hands of a youthful soldier.”—Dublin U. Mag.
IX.
xx.
XXI.
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.-Voyages and Travels.
3
XXXII.
XXIII.
LIFE OF SIR THOMAS MUNRO.
G.R. GLEIG. Post 8vo, 6s.
By Rev.
LIVES OF MAHOMET AND HIS
SUCCESSORS. BY WASHINGTON IRVING. 2 vols, 8vo, 21s.
XXIV.
XXXIII.
XXV.
XXXV.
LIFE OF SIR DAVID WILKIE; With his LIFE OF GENERAL WASHINGTON. By
Letters and Journals. By ALLAN CUNNINGHAM. Portrait.
WASHINGTON IRVING. 8vo. Nearly Ready.
3 vols. 8vo, 428.
XXXIV.
LIFE OF THOMAS STOTHARD, With
LIFE OF ADMIRAL SIR P. DURHAM.
Personal Reminiscences. By MRS. BRAY. Woodcuts. 4to. By Capt. A. MURRAY. 8vo, 5s.6d.
XXVI.
LIFE AND VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS LIVES OF GALILEO, TYCHO BRAHE,
and his Companions. By WASHINGTON IRVING. Third AND KEPLER. By Sir D. BREWSTER. Second Edition
Edition. Maps. 3 vols. 8vo, 31s. 6d.
Fcap. 8vo, 4s. 6d.
XXVII.
XXXVI,
LIFE OF OLIVER GOLDSMITH. By
MEMOIR OF WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D.
WASHINGTON IRVING. Post 8vo, 6s.
(THE GEOLOGIST.) By John PHILLIPS, F.R.S. 8vo, 78. 6d.
“This excellent and very entertaining life."-Morning
Herald.
LIFE OF JAMES WATT. By M. ARAGO.
XXVIII.
LIFE AND LETTERS OF LORD BYRON. From the French, by J. P. MUIRHEAD, M.A. 8vo, 8s.6d.
By THOMAS MOORE. New and Cheaper Edition.
XXXVIII.
Portraits. Complete in One Volume, Royal 8vo. 128.
A NAVAL BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY
OF ALL LIVING OFFICERS. By W. R. O'BYRNE.
LIFE OF ROBERT BURNS, By J. G. Royal 8vo, 428.
XXXIX.
LOCKHART. Fifth Edition, Fcap. 8vo, 38.
MEMOIR OF LORD SYDENHAM. By
LIFE OF REV. GEORGE CRABBE. By G. P. Scrope, M.P. Second Edition. Portrait. 8vo, 9s. 6d.
his Son. Portraits. Fcap. 8vo, 4s.
XL.
EARL DUDLEY'S LETTERS TO THE
SHORT LIVES OF THE BRITISH POETS. LATE BISHOP OF LLANDAFF. Second Edition.
By THOMAS CAMPBELL. Post 8vo, 6s.
Portrait. 8vo, 10s. 6d.
XXXVII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
III.
X.
IV.
VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.
India and China,
SKETCHES OF PERSIA. By Major
A JOURNEY THROUGH INDIA.
By the General SiR JOHN MALCOLM. Post 8vo, 6s.
late BISHOP HEBER. 2 vols., post 8vo, 12s.
“The Persians are here presented with all the interest
“We envy those who read these charming Journals for but without the caricature of our amusing friend Hajji
the first time."-Examiner.
Baba."-Quarterly Review.
II.
LETTERS FROM MADRAS; or, LIFE THE STRAITS OF MALACCA, PENANG,
IN INDIA. By a LADY. Post Evo, 28. 6d.
“A welcome addition to our store of literary entertain-
MALACCA, AND SINGAPORE. By Lieut. NEWBOLD, 2 vols.
ment,'-Britannia.
8vo, 26s.
HINDOSTAN, Geographically, statistically,
THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF
and historically described. By WALTER HAMILTON.
INDIA. By Rev. CHARLES ACLAND. Post 8vo, 28. 6d.
Maps. 2 vols. 4to, 41. 148. 6d.
“ Written in an easy unaffected style : and the sketches
which it gives of European life and manners under an
eastern sun must interest all who have friends in India,
and who would like to know how they pass their days.”- THE COURT OF CHINA, in the service of the Emperor.
THIRTEEN YEARS' RESIDENCE AT
The Theologian.
By FATHER RIPA. Post 8vo, 2s. 6d.
LADY SALE'S JOURNAL IN AFFGHAN-
“As interesting a work as any that has appeared, not
excepting Borrow's Bible in Spain."-Spectator.
ISTAN. Eighth Edition. Post 8vo, 12s.
“The journal of one whose very name lightens up the
eye, and gladdens the spirit-of one, whose story shall
THE NORTHERN PROVINCES OF CHINA.
the good man tell his son'—the journal of our high. With a Visit to the Tea and Cotton Countries. By
minded, noble countrywoman, Lady Sale.”—Athenæum,
ROBERT FORTUNE. Second Edition. Plates. 8vo, 15s.
“ This is a genuine book-as full of interest and amuse-
A JOURNAL OF A RESIDENCE IN ment as it is empty of pretences at fine writing. A traveller
CABOOL. By SiR ALEXANDER BURNES. Second Edition. befell him in pursuit thereof, and modestly but earnestly
XI.
V.
with an object, who naturally details the adventures which
Plates. 8vo, 188.
"The charm of the book is its buoyant style. Personal writes, is as welcome as an old friend or a true witness."
character, domestic scenes, and oriental manners are
painted with vivacity, ease, and lightness of touch.”-
NOTICES ON CHINA, and our Recent
Spectator.
Commercial Intercourse. By Sir GEORGE STAUNTON,
VOYAGE UP THE INDUS
8vo. 98.
TO THE Third Edition.
SOURCE OF THE RIVER OXUS, by Kabul and
Badakhshan. By Lieut. John Woon. Map. 8vo, 148.
SIX MONTHS WITH THE CHINESE
"The valuable geographical details which Lieut. Wood
EXPEDITION. By LORD JOCELYN. Sixth Edition.
bas collected, and his clear sketches of society, render his Fcap. 8vo, 58, 6d.
volume one of the most agreeable and instructive of its "Lord Jocelyn supplies us with some striking facts and
class."-Athenæum,
unknown particulars." -Literary Gazette.
XII.
VI.
XIII.
4
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.-Voyages and Travels.
XIV.
XXV.
XV.
6
XXVII.
XVII.
THE EVENTS OF THE CLOSING CAM- A VISIT TO THE IONIAN ISLANDS,
PAIGN IN CHINA. With OPERATIONS in YANG-TZE- ATHENS, AND THE MOREA. By EDWARD GIFFARD.
Kiang, and TREATY of NANKING. By Capt. Loch. Map. Plates. Post 8vo, 12s.
Post 8vo, 8s. 6d.
“Mr. Giffard's work is very creditable to its author."-
“The sketches of Chinese character are the most striking Quarterly Review.
and the most graphic we have met with."-Naval and
XXVI.
Military Gazette.
ADVENTURES IN THE LIBYAN DE-
JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. Described SERT. By BAYLE St. John. Post 8vo, 2s. 6d.
from the Accounts of Recent Dutch Travellers. Post 8vo, “The writer has described his journey with the most
98. 6d.
charming ease and simplicity, presenting the reader with a
Containing all the information about Japan which has few pictures, rapidly dashed off and full of interest.
heen obtained ; well arranged and well put together.”— Bentley's Miscellany.
Literary Gazeite.
XVI.
VISITS TO THE MONASTERIES OF THE
LATEST EVENTS IN BORNEO ; from the LEVANT. By Hon. ROBERT CURZON. Third Edition.
Journals of SIR JAMES BROOKE. Edited by CAPT. MUNDY, Woodcuts. Post 8vo, 158.
R.N. Plates. 2 vols. 8vo, 32s.
“We hazard little in prophesying that Mr. Curzon's
“Those who have watched through Captain Keppell's work will be more popular than any other recent set of
pages, the establishment of the strange dominion of the Oriental descriptions, except Mr. Kingslake's; and however
solitary English adventurer, will recognise with satisfaction that remarkable writer may claim the superiority in wit,
in Captain Mundy's continuation of the narrative, the evi. point, and artistical finish, we should not be surprised if the
dence of its healthful progress and the confirmation of those respectable oddity of Mr. Curzon's objects and fancies
impressions of the character of Sir James Brooke, and the should be sufficient to win fully equal acceptance for his
value of his achievements, which we and all derived from the Visits."- Quarterly Review.
work of Captain Mundy's predecessor."- Quarterly Keview.
XXVIII.
RESEARCHES IN ASIA MINOR, PONTUS,
Africa.
AND ARMENIA. By WILLIAM I. HANILTON. Plates.
2 vols. 8vo, 38s.
FIVE YEARS' SPORTING ADVENTURES
“ Mr. Hamilton's archæological researches, and his nar.
IN THE FAR INTERIOR OF SOUTH AFRICA ; rative in general, have our warmest commendations."-
With the various Modes of Hunting the Wild Beasts of Atheneum.
the Deserts and Forests. By R. GORDON CUMMING.
Turkey, Egypt, and Syria.
Second Edition. Woodcuts. 2 vols. post 8vo, 24s.
XVIII.
A VOYAGE TO THE MAURITIUS, THE
TRAVELS IN TURKEY, During the Years
1847-8. By CHARLES MACFARLANE. 2 vols. 8vo, 288.
CAPE OF Good Hope, and St. HELENA. By Author of
“ PADDIANA." Post 8vo. 98. sd.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
RESIDENCE AT THE CAPE OF GOOD With an Account of a Visit to the Chaldean Christians
HOPE. With Notes on the Natural History and Native By Austen H. LAYARD. Fourth Edition. Plates 2 vols.
of Kurdistan, and the Yezedis or Devil Worshippers, &c.
Tribes. By C. J. F. BUNBURY. Woodcuts. Post 8yo, 98.
8vo, 368.
“ The statesman who may be called upon to discuss or
decide upon the public affairs of the Cape, the emigrant ther with reference to the wonderful discoveries it describes,
“ The most extraordinary work of the present age, whe-
who may contemplate removing his cares thither, the
curious inquirer who would know the rights of what has
its remarkable verification of our early biblical historv, or of
given rise to so much controversy, will find Mr. Bunbury the talent, courage, and perseverance of its author."- Times.
an intelligent and candid guide.” – Examiner.
LAYARD'S MONUMENTS OF NINEVEH.
WESTERN BARBARY, ITS WILD Illustrated by upwards of One Hundred Engravings, from
TRIBES AND SAVAGE ANIMALS. By DRUMMOND Drawings made on the spot. In a Portfolio. Imperial,
HAY. Post 8vo, 28. 60.
101. 108.; or Colombier, 141. 148.
“A new and highly interesting work." Greenock
* Following up Mr. Layard's very interesting work, de-
Advertiser.
scriptive of the excavations at Nimroud and Konyunjik,
A RESIDENCE IN SIERRA
this folio of above a hundred engravings reveals more dis-
LEONE, tinctly to us the long-buried forms and secrets of the primeval
described from a JOURNAL kept on the Spot. By world. It is a splendid performance."- Literary Gazette.
a LADY. Edited by Mrs. NORTON. Post 8vo, 6s.
“A most animated and sprightly picture of the state of PALACES OF NINEVEH AND PER-
society at Sierra Leone, the point and cleverness of which is, SEPOLIS RESTORED ; an Essay on Ancient Assyrian
we apprebend, to be placed to the credit of the talented
editor, fully as much as to that of the original writer of the and Persian Architecture. By JAMES FERGUSSON. Wood-
letters."-john Bull.
cuts, 8vo.
XXIX.
XXX.
XIX.
XXXI.
XX.
XXI.
XXXII.
XXII.
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
PERSONAL NARRATIVE OF AN EN. TRAVELS IN EGYPT, NUBIA, SYRIA,
GLISHMAN DOMESTICATED IN ABYSSINIA. By
AND THE HOLY LAND. By Captains IRBY and
MANSFIELD PARKYNS. Plates. 8vo. (In preparation.)
MANGLES, Post 8vo, 28. 6d.
“ One of the most interesting and popular works of the
Mediterranean, and Asia Minor.
present century.”- Aberdeen Journal.
XXIII.
ATHENS AND ATTICA; A JOURNAL of a CAIRO, PETRA, AND DAMASCUS;
RESIDENCE there; With Fac-Similes of the Ancient from Notes made during a Tour in those Countries. By
Writings on the Walls of Pompeii. By Rev. Dr. John G. KINNEAR. Post 8vo, 9s. 6d.
WORDSWORTH. 2nd Edition. Plates. 8vo, 14s. 6d.
“Mr. Kinnear writes extremely well, and his descriptions
proclaim him a good observer."'-Examiner.
A FIRST AND SECOND EXCURSION IN
Xxxv.
JOURNEY THROUGH ARABIA PETRÆA
ASIA MINOR AND LYCIA. By SIR CHARLES FELLOWS.
AND MOUNT SINAI, to the EXCAVATED CITY OF PETRA.
Second Edition. Plates. 2 vols. Impl. 8vo, 70s.
“ Our author has discovered eleven ancient Lycian cities, By M. LEON DE LABORDE. Second Edition. Plates. 8vo,
and has allowed the learned world to perceive that Lycia 185.
has a mine of antiquarian treasures, of which he has only "A publication of extreme value and interest."- British
scraped the surface."- Athenæum.
Critic.
XXIV.
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.-Voyages and Travels.
5
XXXVII.
XLVIII.
8vo, 12s.
on
Polynesia and the South Seas.
North America and West Indies.
XXXVI.
XLVII.
VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY AND RE-
А CHRONOLOGICAL ACCOUNT OF
SEARCH TO THE SOUTH POLE; 1839-43.
By SIR VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY TO THE ARCTIC REGIONS,
JAMES CLARK Ross, R.N. Plates 2 vols. 8vo, 368.
From the earliest period. By Sir John BARROW. Maps.
“ The extracts we have given will speak better than we
2 vols. 8vo. 278.
could for the plain, modest, and manly taste of the author “ Records of enterprise and endurance, of resolute
-which seems entirely worthy of his high professional cha- perseverance, and of moral and physical courage, which we
racter and signal services."- Quarterly Review.
take to be peculiar to English seamen, and to make one
proud of the name of Englishman.”—Examiner.
TYPEE AND OM00; or, The MARQUESAS
ISLANDERS. By HERMANN MELVILLE. 2 vols. post
A FIRST AND SECOND VISIT TO
NORTH AMERICA, with Observations
the
“ The book is excellent, quite first-rate."--Blackwood. United States,
Canada, and Nova Scotia. By
“ Since the joyous moment when we first read Robinson SIR CHARLES Lyell. 2nd Edition. 4 vols. post 8vo, 398.
rusoe, and believed it all, and wondered all the more
because we believed, we have not met with so bewitching a
“Sir C. Lyell visited America not merely as a man of
work as this narrative of Herman Melville's." --John Bull.
science or a philosopher, but as a man of sense and of the
world, eminently imbued with qualifications to constitute
XXXVIII.
him an astute observer.”- Literary Gazelte.
RECOLLECTIONS OF BUSH LIFE IN
XLIX.
AUSTRALIA, during a Residence of Eight Years in the TOUR THROUGH THE SLAVE STATES,
Interior. By H. W. HAYGARTH, Post 8vo, 28. 6d.
from the River Potomac, to Texas and the Frontiers of
“ Lively, graphic, descriptive of man, animals, nature, Mexico. By G. W. FEATHERSTONHAUGH. Plates. 2 vols.
and society; and with sufficient incident to animate the nar.
8vo, 26s.
rative, it possesses the interest of romantic fiction."-Spect.
“ The notices of the natural history, and the mines, are
XXXIX.
novel and interesting; and his pictures of the heroes of the
NOTES AND SKETCHES OF NEW SOUTH bowie knife are remarkably characteristic and entertaining."
WALES. By Mrs. MEREDITH.
-- New Monthly Magazine.
Post 8vo. 28. 60.
“ Mrs. Meredith is a pleasant unaffected writer; and the
book derives interest from being a lady's view of New VOYAGE TO TEXAS AND THE GULF
South Wales."-Spectator.
L.
OF MEXICO. By Mrs. Houstoun. 2 vols. post 8vo, 21s.
“ The information contained in this admirable work will
THE WORKING MAN'S HAND-BOOK TO be very important to those who have an idea of settling
SOUTH AUSTRALIA. By G. B. WILKINSON. Map. 16mo, abroad.”—Times.
1s. 60.
“Mr. Wilkinson's book is by many degrees the best in FOREST SCENES AND INCIDENTS IN
a practical sense we have seen.”-Morning Advertiser.
CANADA. By Sir GEORGE HEAD. Second Edition.
Post 8vo, 108.
NEW ZEALAND. With some Account of
the Beginning of the British Colonisation of the Island.
LETTERS FROM CANADA AND THE
By E. J. WAKEFIELD. With Map. 2 vols. 8vo, 28s.
UNITED STATES. By J.R. GODLEY, 2 vols. post 8vo, 16s.
“ The most complete and continuous history of British
“Here is at least one English book of which the Ameri.
Colonisation in New Zealand which has appeared.”-Speet. cans cannot reasonably complain."-Atheneum.
Central and South America.
LIII.
MEMOIRS OF A CHURCH MISSIONARY
XLII.
VISITS TO CENTRAL AMERICA AND IN CANADA. By Rev. J. ABBOTT. Post 8vo, 28. 6d.
YUCATAN. By John L. STEPHENS. A New Edition.
“The little work before us is a genuine account of what
Post 8vo. Nearly Ready.
a missionary's life is now in Canada. Under an invented
name, it is the story of the writer's own experience, told in
“ These delightful volumes! It is grievous to quit a store
a straightforward and unaffected manner, with considerable
so brimful to overflowing of what we like best."-Athenæum.
power of description.”- Guardian.
XL.
LI.
XLI.
LII.
XLIII.
LIV.
LV.
XLIV.
LVI.
MEXICO AND THE ROCKY MOUN-
EXCURSIONS IN NEWFOUNDLAND.
TAINS. By GEORGE F. Ruxton. Post 8vo, 6s.
“ A capital book, alike attractive for its narrative of travel, By J. B. JUKES. Map. 2 vols. post 8vo, 21s.
The Cod Fishery-Fog Banks–Sealing Expedition, &c.
with its hardships and incidents, for its pictures of scenery
and society, for the direct information it imparts as to
Mexico and the incidental glimpses it gives us of the Ame.
ricans and their armies in Mexico."-Spectator.
THE JOURNAL OF A RESIDENCE IN
THE WEST INDIES. By M. G. LEWIS. Post 8vo, 2s. 6d.
“ These amusing stories of actual Jamaica life."-
JOURNEYS ACROSS THE PAMPAS. By Quarterly Review.
SIR FRANCIS HEAD. Post 8vo, 28. 6d.
“ This book has all the interest of a novel "-Eclectic Rev.
Europe.
XLV.
VOYAGE OF A NATURALIST ROUND Sixteen Months upon the Continent of Europe. Post 8vo
DATES AND DISTANCES; or, a Tour of
THE WORLD. By CHARLES DARWIN. Post 8vo, 8s. 6d.
8. ба.
“ The author is a first-rate landscape painter, and the
dreariest solitudes are made to teem with interest."-
Quurterly Review.
DALMATIA AND MONTENEGRO; WITH
A JOURNEY TO MOSTAR IN HERTZEGOVINA, AND REMARKS
A VOYAGE UP THE RIVER AMAZON, ON THE SLAVONIC Nations. By Sir GARDNER WILKINSON.
AND A VISIT TO PARA. By WILLIAM H. EDWARDS.
Plates. 2 vols. 8vo, 42s.
Post 8vo, 2s. 6d.
“The work is illustrated by numerous woodcuts, which
“ Full of novelty; we can hardly open a page which has are striking, and well executed. The information which it
not its picture for the general observer, and its product for contains is varied and useful, whilst its interest is greatly
those who, like Sir Joseph Banks, look on the earth as one enhanced by its appositeness to contemporary events,'-
vast museum,”-Atheneum.
Morning Chronicle.
LVU.
XLVI.
6
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.-Domostio Economy.
1
LIX.
LXVIIT.
LXI.
LXV.
LVIII.
THE CITIES AND CEMETERIES OF
A RIDE ON HORSEBACK FROM FRANCE
ETRURIA ; or, The extant Local Monuments of Etruscan TO SWITZERLAND. By A LADY. 2 vols. post 8vo. 21s.
Art. By GEORGE DENNIS. Plates. 2 vols. 8vo. 428.
LXVI.
" A valuable storehouse of classical and antiquarian lore THE BIBLE IN SPAIN; or, The Journeys,
to every scholar; and the most general reader must be at-
tracted by their pleasant, though somewhat discursive style. Adventures, and Imprisonments of an Englishman in the
In this respect Mr. Dennis's book reminds us not a little of Peninsula. By GEORGE BORROW. New Edition. Post
Mr. Ford's very entertaining HAND-BOOK FOR Srain.”- | 8vo, 6s.
Edinburgh Review.
“Mr. Borrow has come out as an English Author of high
mark. We are reminded of Gil Blas, in the narratives of
RUSSIA IN EUROPE AND THE URAL this pious, single-hearted man.”—Quarterly Review.
MOUNTAINS; Geologically Illustrated. By SiR .R.
LXVII.
MURCHISON, G.C.S. Plates. 2 vols. royal 4to.
THE GYPSIES OF SPAIN; Their Manners,
Many admirable memoirs have resulted from these Customs, Religion and Language. By GEORGE BORROW.
excursions; but the crowning triumph is the great work
before us.
It is impossible, by extract, to convey an idea New Edition. Post 8vo, 6s.
of the value of its contents."-Atheneum.
“A curious, a very curious work, and contains some of
the most singular, yet authentic descriptions of the gipsy
LX,
DOMESTIC MANNERS OF THE RUSSIANS. Gazette.
race which have ever been given to the public."-Literary
Described from a Year's Residence in that country. By
Rev. R. L. VENABLES, M.A. Post 8vo, 9s. 6d.
GATHERINGS FROM SPAIN. By RICHARD
FORD. Post 8vo, 6s.
LETTERS FROM THE SHORES OF THE
“ The best English book, beyond comparison, that ever
BALTIC. By A LADY. Post 8vo, 28. 6d.
has appeared for the illustration, not merely of the general
“A series of charming descriptions. The style is full of topography and local curiosities, but of the national cha-
ease and freshness."- Examiner.
racter and manners of Spain.”- Quarterly Review.
LXII.
NORWAY AND HER LAPLANDERS; PORTUGAL, GALLICIA, AND THE BASQUE
With Hints to the Salmon Fisher. By John MILFORD. PROVINCES. By LORD CARNARVON.
Third Edition.
8vo, 108. 6d.
Post 8vo, 6s.
“A pleasant book, on a very pleasant subject: the obser- “This is a very remarkable work. It is not only a graphic
vation of an accomplished and good-natured man.”- description of the face of the country, and an impartial and
Examiner,
sagacious account of the moral and political condition of
LXIII.
Spain and Portugal; but it relates also a series of personal
HUNGARY AND TRANSYLVANIA. With adventures and perils, very unusual in modern Europe."-
Remarks on their Condition, Social, Political, and Eco- Quarterly Review.
nomical. By John PAGET. 2nd Edition. Plates. 2 vols.
LXX.
PEDESTRIAN WANDERINGS IN
8vo, 24s.
THE
“Mr. Paget never suffers our interest to flag, and appears Woodcuts. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
FRENCH AND SPANISH PYRENEES. By T, CLIFTON PARIS.
to have made himself accurately acquainted, not only with
the localities and traditions of the country, but with its “ Contain better descriptive passages, strikingly pic-
whole history and institutions."-Quarterly Review. turesque, and without the least strain and effort, than we
recollect in any book of the same light pretension."-
LXIV.
Examiner,
TOUR IN AUSTRIAN LOMBARDY,
TYROL, AND BAVARIA, By John BARROW. Wood- A PHYSICIAN'S HOLIDAY, or A Month
cuts. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
in Switzerland during the Summer of 1848. By John
"Agreeably written, faithful, and minute.".--Atheneum. FORBES, M.D. 2nd Ellition. Plates. Post 8vo. 88. 6d.
LXIX.
LXXI.
DOMESTIC AND RURAL ECONOMY.
IV.
1
v.
MODERN DOMESTIC COOKERY, Founded THE DOVECOTE AND THE AVIARY;
on Principles of Economy and Practice, and adapted for The Natural History of Pigeons and other Domestic Birds
PRIVATE FAMILIES. Based on the work by Mrs. RUNDELL, in a Captive State. By Rev. E. S. Dixon. Woodcuts.
but most carefully revised and corrected to the present Fcap. 8vo.
time. By a Lady. Fcap. 8vo. 6s.
“The most PRACTICALLY USEFUL BOOK we ever met
II.
PRACTICAL HINTS ON DECORATIVE
with."-British Critic.
NEEDLEWORK, containing minute directions as to the
*** Of this work upwards of 200,000 copies have been sold. choice of materials, and the best methods of employing
them for Canvas or Tapestry Work. By Miss LAMBERT.
Woodcuts. 16mo, 18. 6d.
FAMILY RECEIPT-BOOK ; A Collection of
1000 valuable Receipts. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 5s. 6d. MY KNITTING-BOOK. By Miss LAMBERT.
"A large quantity of truly valuable matter." —British Woodcuts. 2 Parts. 16mo, 3s.
Critic.
MY CROCHET SAMPLER. By Miss
PLAIN INSTRUCTIONS IN GARDENING Lambert. Woodcuts. 2 Parts. 16m0, 4s.
FOR LADIES; with a Calendar of Operations and
Directions for every Month. By MRS. LOUDON. 8th Edition.
CHURCH NEEDLEWORK,
Woodcuts. Fcap. 8vo, 58.
With Practical Remarks on its Preparation and Arrange-
"A most useful and agreeable Manual."-Salopian ment. By Miss LAMBERT. With numerous Engravings.
Journal.
Post 8vo, 9s.6d.
VI.
VII.
III.
VIII.
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.-Hand-Books for Travellers,
7
3.
>
MURRAY'S HAND-BOOKS
FOR TRAVELLERS ABROAD AND READERS AT HOME.
Giving detailed and precise Information respecting Steamers, Passports, Moneys, Guides, and Servants,
with Directions for Travellers, and Hints for Tours.
1.
16.
HAND-BOOK OF TRAVEL-TALK; or, Con- HAND-BOOK FOR ENGLAND AND
versations in English, German, French, and Italian. WALES. Giving an account of the most remarkable
18mo, 58.
Places and most frequented Roads and Railways in Eng-
2.
land_describing the objects calculated to interest strangers
HAND-BOOK FOR NORTH GERMANY, and passing travellers, showing how they may be accessible
the RHINE, HOLLAND, BELGIUM, and PRUSSIA. with the least expenditure of time and money. With
Map. Post 8vo, 12s.
Maps and Plans. Post 8vo.-Nearly Ready.
HAND-BOOK FOR SOUTH GERMANY,
17.
HAND-BOOK FOR DEVON AND CORN.
the TYROL BAVARIA-AUSTRIA-SALZBURG and
the DANUBE, from ULM to the BLACK SEA. Map.
WALL. Maps. Post 8vo, 6s.
Post 8vo, 12s.
18.
4.
HAND-BOOK FOR LONDON-PAST AND
HAND-BOOK OF PAINTING-THE PRESENT. Alphabetically arranged to facilitate refe-
GERMAN, FLEMISH, AND DUTCH SCHOOLS. From rence. By PETER CUNNINGHAN, F.S.A. A new and tho.
the German of KUGLER. Edited, with Notes, by Sir roughly revised edition, with an Index of Names. Post
EDMUND HEAD. Post 8vo, 128.
8vo, 16s.
5.
“A Dictionary in which any huilding, street, institution,
HAND-BOOK FOR SWITZERLAND, or other particular of London may be looked out and found,
ALPS of SAVOY and PIEDMONT. Map. Post 8vo, 108.
with its whereabouts, its history, nature, contents, inhabi.
tants, changes and modifications, and subjoined, any pas-
6.
sages that contain facts, dates, allusions, or anecdotes illus-
HAND-BOOK FOR NORTHERN ITALY, trative of it.”—Quarterly Review.
FLORENCE, SARDINIA, GENOA, THE RIVIERA,
19.
VENICE, LOMBARDY, and TUSCANY. Map. Post
HAND-BOOK OF LONDON-AS IT IS.
8vo, 12s.
A complete Pocket Guide to all the Sights, Public Build-
7.
HAND-BOOK FOR CENTRAL ITALY, Visitors and Foreigners. 16no. Nearly Ready.
ings, Places of Amusement, &c., with Useful Hints for
ROME, the PAPAL STATES, and CITIES of ETRURIA.
Maps. Post 8vo, 16s.
"By the help of MURRAY the veriest cockney, the greenest
schoolboy, and the meekest country clergyman, may leave
8.
HAND-BOOK FOR SOUTHERN ITALY, through all Europe comfortably, cheaply, and expeditiously.
his counter, his school, or his parsonage, and make his way
SICILY, AND NAPLES. Map. Post 8vo. (Preparing.) We are not aware of any London guides that would give the
foreigner such an entire command of this metropolis, as
9.
Galignani's gives to the Englishman in Paris. What we
HAND - BOOK OF PAINTING THE want, however, is something more compendious. When
ITALIAN SCHOOLS. From the German of KUGLER. MURRAY tells us the price of a good dinner, a bottle of vin
Edited, with Notes, by Sir Charles Eastlake. Illustrated ordinaire, and a bed, and other details of every city, and
almost every great hotel on the Continent, we do not see
with 100 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 248.
how such information should fail to be acceptable to our
10.
benighted visitors next summer."-Times, Dec. 21st. 1850.
HAND-BOOK FOR SPAIN, ANDALUSIA,
20.
RONDA, GRENADA, MURCIA, VALENCIA, CATA-
LONJA, ESTREMADURA, LEON, GALLICIA, THE LONDON. Arranged Alphabetically, with hints for Ex-
HAND-BOOK FOR THE ENVIRONS OF
ASTURIAS, THE CASTILES, THE BASQUES, ARRA-
cursions by Railway, Steamboat, and Road. By PETER
GON, PYRENEES, and NAVARRE. Maps. Post 8vo, 168.
CUNNINGHAM. Post 8vo. In Preparation,
11.
21.
HAND-BOOK FOR FRANCE, THE
HAND-BOOK TO THE PICTURE GAL-
PYRENEES, BRITTANY, the RIVERS LOIRE,
SEINE, RHONE, and GARONNE, FRENCH ALPS, phical, and Critical Notices. By Mrs. Jameson. Post
LERIES in and near London. With Historical, Biogra-
DAUPHINE, and PROVENCE. Maps. Post 8vo, 128.
8vo, 10s.
12.
22.
HAND-BOOK OF PAINTING-THE HAND-BOOK FOR WINDSOR AND
SPANISH AND FRENCH SCHOOLS. By Sir EDMUND WESTMINSTER ABBEY. Woodcuts. Fcap. 8vo, 2s.6d.
HEAD. Post 8vo, 12s.
each,
13.
23.
HAND-BOOK FOR MALTA AND THE
HAND-BOOK OF CHRONOLOGY, Alpha-
EAST, the IONIAN ISLANDS, TURKEY, ASIA betically arranged, as a book of easy reference. 8vo.
MINOR, and CONSTANTINOPLE. Maps. Post 8vo, 158.
24.
14.
MURRAY'S OFFICIAL HAND - BOOK,
HAND-BOOK FOR EGYPT.-THE NILE, Being an Authentic Directory to the Public Offices :
ALEXANDRIA, CAIRO, the PYRAMIDS, MOUNT giving a detailed and Historical Account of the duties
SINAI, and THEBES. Map. 155.
attached to the various Departments of the Government,
including the Queen and her Household, the Royal
15.
Family, Legislature, Cabinet Ministers, Public Offices,
HAND-BOOK FOR NORTH EUROPE, Law Courts; with the names of the Heads of Departments,
DENMARK, NORWAY, SWEDEN, RUSSIA, and Members of both Houses of Parliament, &c. &c. Post 8vo.
FINLAND. Maps and Plans. 2 vols. Post 8vo, 248. Nearly Ready.
4
L
085
8
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.-Theology.
RELIGIOUS WORKS, THEOLOGY, &c.
XIV.
XV.
II.
XVI.
THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER; SUGGESTIONS TO THE THEOLOGICAL
with 1000 Illustrations, Borders, Initial Letters, Vignettes, STUDENT UNDER PRESENT DIFFICULTIES. By
&c. New Edition. Medium 8vo, 218.
the DEAN OF CARLISLE. Post 8vo, 6s. 6d.
“ The most elaborate copy of the Liturgy ever executed.
A noble devotional volume and fitting Christian manual.”
-Times.
THE CONTROVERSY OF FAITH : Being
THE BOOK OF THE CHURCH ;
Advice to CANDIDATES FOR HOLY ORDERS. By Rxv. C.
DODGSON. 12mo, 3s.
With Notes containing References to the Authorities, and
an Index. By ROBERT SOUTHEY, LL.D. Sixth Edition.
8vo, 12s.
SERMONS PREACHED IN THE CHAPEL
“A most interesting sketch of a subject which, to the gene. of HARROW SCHOOL. By Rev. C. J. VAUGHAN, D.D.
rality of readers, is almost unknown; and as it cannot fail Head Master. 8vo, 108.6d.
to be popular, from the beauty of its execution, will, I trust,
have the effeit of turning the attention of many persons,
“ The sermons now before us are addressed specifically to
who have hitherto heen indifferent to such matters, through the boys of the public school; and parents will find them
ignorance, to the nature of the dangers which this country a valuable family possession."-Christian Observer.
has escaped, and the blessings of various kinds which have
XVII.
been secured to it, through the National Church Establish-
ment."--Archbishop Howley to the Author.
NINE NEW SERMONS PREACHED AT HAR-
ROW SCHOOL. By Rev. C. J. VAUGHAN, D.D. Fcap.
CATHOLIC SAFEGUARDS AGAINST THE 8vo, 5s.
CHURCH OF ROME, selected from the works of eminent
Divines of the 17th Century. By Rev. James BROGDEN. BISHOP HEBER'S PARISH SERMONS;
Second Edition. With Preface and Index. 3 vols. 8vo.
On the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle, for every Sun-
“A Selection of the ablest discourses on the errors of the day in the Year. Sixth Edition. 2 vols. post 8vo, 168.
Church of Rome."-Bishop of London's Charge.
:
III.
XVIII.
IV.
XIX.
18. -
XX.
VI.
XXI.
VII.
XXII.
VIII.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE LITURGY
REMARKS ON ENGLISH CHURCHES,
AND RITUAL OF THE CHURCH. By Rev. JANES and on rendering Sepulchral Memorials subservient to
BROGDEN. 3 vols. post 8vo, 278.
“ A most valuable addition to every churchman's library." | Edition. Woodcuts. Fcap. 8vo, 6s. 6d.
pious and Christian Uses. By J. H. MAKKLAND. Fourth
-Bishop of Exeter's Churge.
“One of the most important steps made lately in the
v.
restoration of a sound and efficient church-system among
FRIENDLY AND SEASONABLE ADVICE
."- Quarterly Review.
TO THE ROMAN CATHOLICS OF ENGLAND. By
DEAN COMBER. A New Edition. Edited by the Rev.
DR. Hook. Fcap. 8vo, 38.
ON THE REVERENCE DUE TO HOLY
PLACES. By J. H. MARKLAND. Third Edition. Wood-
THE THREE REFORMATIONS ; LUTHE- cuts. Fcap. 8vo, 2s.
RAN, Roman, and ANGLICAN. By Rev. DR. Hook. Third
Edition. 8vo, 3s.
FAMILY PRAYERS, ARRANGED FROM
THE LITURGY. By Right Hon. W. E. GLADSTONE,
ON THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 12mo, 28. 6d.
By the Rev. HENRY EDWARD MANNING. Second Edition.
8vo, 108.6d.
A MANUAL OF FAMILY PRAYER ;
arranged on a board so as to save the trouble of turning
SERMONS ON THE LEADING DOCTRINES the pages backwards and forwards. 8vo, 28.
AND DUTIES TAUGHT BY THE CHURCH OF
ENGLAND. By the DEAN OF NORWICH. 2 vols. 8vo, 218.
XXUT.
THE ROMAUNT VERSION OF THE GOSPEL
ON THE DOCTRINE OF THE INCAR- OF ST. JOHN; originally in Use among the Old Wal-
denses. Edited by Rev. W. S. GILLY, D.D. 8vo, 5s. 6d.
NATION. By ARCHDEACON WILBERFORCE. 3rd Edition.
8vo, 12s.
XXIV.
PSALMS AND HYMNS. Adapted to the
ON THE DOCTRINE OF HOLY BAPTISM. various Solemnities of the Church. By Rev. W. B.HOLLAND,
By ARCHDEACON WILBERFORCE. 3rd Edition. 8vo, 78. 6d. 24mo, Is. 6d.
XXV.
SERMONS ON THE NEW BIRTH OF THE LAWS RELATING TO SUNDAYS,
MAN'S NATURE. By ARCHDEACON WILBERFORCE. HOLIDAYS, and DAYS OF FASTING. By E. V. NEALE.
8vo, 8s.
Fcap. 8vo, 9s. 61.
“An excellent handmaid to Nelson on Fasts and
UNDESIGNED SCRIPTURAL COINCI- Festivals.'"-British Magazine.
DENCES. A TEST OF THEIR VERACITY. By Rev. J.J. Blunt.
Third Edition. 8vo, 9s.
- Whoever has read Dr. Paley's Horæ Pauline, will find With Illustrations of Scripture Prophecy. By ASAHEL
THE NESTORIANS, OR LOST TRIBES,
this volume conducted with scarcely inferior ability and
Bucceas." -John Bull.
GRANT, M.D. Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 6s.
“An important accession to our stores of geographical
THE EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY; knowledge."-Church of England Review.
or, DIALOGUES BETWEEN A BRAHMIN AND A CHRISTIAN.
By Rev. WILLIAM SEWELL, B.D., Exeter College, Oxford. SERMONS FOR CHILDREN. By Mrs.
Fcap. 8vo, 78. 60.
MARKHAM. Second Edition. 12mo, 3s.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XXVI.
XIII.
XXVII.
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.-Poetry, the Drama, &c.
9
POETRY, THE DRAMA, &c.
I
I.
II.
II.
III.
IV.
IV.
V.
(Copyright Editions of Lord Byron's Works.)
REV. GEORGE CRABBE'S LIFE AND
LORD BYRON'S LIFE AND LETTERS. Notes and Illustrations. Copyright and Cheaper Edition.
POETICAL WORKS, collected, and arranged with all the
Collected and arranged, with all the Notes and Illustra- Plates. 8 vols. fcap. 8vo. 245.
tions. New Library Edition. Plates. 6 vols. fcap. 8vo. 188.
CRABBE'S LIFE AND POEMS. Com-
LORD BYRON'S LIFE AND LETTERS. plete in One Volume. New and Cheaper Edition. Por-
Complete in One Volume. New and cheaper edition.
trait and Vignette. Royal 8vo. 108. 6d.
Portraits. Royal 8vo. 128.
III.
POPE'S LIFE AND POETICAL WORKS.
A New Edition, with Notes, an Original Life, and nume-
LORD BYRON'S POETICAL WORKS. rous Unpublished Letters of Pope and his contemporaries.
Collected and arranged with all the Notes and Illustra- Edited by MR. CROKER. Portraits. 8vo.
tions. New Library Edition. Plates. 10 vols. fcap. 8vo.
30s.
SPECIMENS OF THE BRITISH POETS.
With Biographical and Critical Notices, and an Essay on
Third Edition.
LORD BYRON'S POETICAL WORKS. English Poetry. By THOMAS CAMPBELL.
One Volume. Royal 8vo, 158.
Pocket Edition. Vignettes, 10 vols. 18mo, 2s. 6d. each.
“Rich in exquisite examples of English poetry, and
suggestive of delightful thoughts beyond any volume in the
V.
language.”-Atlas.
LORD BYRON'S POETICAL WORKS.
Complete in One Volume. New and Cheaper Edition. BISHOP HEBER'S POETICAL WORKS.
Portrait and Vignette. Royal 8vo. 128.
Fourth Edition. Portrait. Fcap. 8vo, 78. 60.
“ Bishop Heber has taken a graceful station among the
VI.
favoured bards of the day."- Literury Gazette.
LORD BYRON'S CHILDE HAROLD.
VI.
New Edition. Illustrated with Portrait and 60 Vignette
DEAN MILMAN'S POETICAL WORKS.
Engravings. 8vo. 21s.
Including the Fall of Jerusalem-Samor, Martyr of
Antioch, &c. Second Edition. Plates. 3 vols. fcap.
VII,
8vo, 18s.
LORD BYRON'S CHILDE HAROLD.
Vignette. 24mo, 28. 6d.
ALLAN CUNNINGHAM'S POEMS AND
SONGS. Woodcuts. 24mo, 28. 6d.
VIII.
“The works of the most tender and pathetic of the Scot-
LORD BYRON'S TALES AND POEMS. tish minstrels, in a cheap and elegant form.”—Blackwood.
1. GIAOUR.
6. BEPPO.
2. BRIDE OF ABYDOS. 7. MAZEPPA,
LIFE AND WORKS OF HORACE. Edited,
3. CORSAIR.
8. ISLAND.
with Notes, by DEAN MILMAN. Illustrated with Statues,
4. LARA.
9. PARISINA.
Gems, Vignettes, &c., from the antique. 300 Woodcuts.
5. SIEGE OF CORINTH. 10. PRISONER OF CHILLON. Medium 8vo, 428.
Vignettes. 2 vols. 24mo, 58.
ANCIENT SPANISH BALLADS. Trans-
lated by J. G. LOCKHART. With Titles, Borders, and Wood-
LORD BYRON'S MISCELLANIES. cuts. 4to, 42s.
Vignettes. 3 vols. 24mo, 78. 6d.
“A more appropriately as well as beautifully embellished
volume never was offered to the world."- Edinburgh Review,
_
VII.
VIII.
IX,
IX.
X.
X,
LORD BYRON'S DON JUAN. Vignettes.
REJECTED ADDRESSES. By JAMES and
2 vols. 24mo, 58.
HORACE SMITH. Twenty-second Edition. With Biographi.
cal Notices. Portraits. Fcap. 8vo. 58.
XI.
XI.
LORD BYRON'S DRAMAS.
SPECIMENS OF ITALIAN SONNETS,
From the most celebrated Poets, with Translations. By
Rev. CHARLES STRONG, M.A. 8vo, 68,
1. MANFRED.
3. Two FOSCARI.
2. MARINO FALIERO. 6. DEPORMED TRANSFORMED.
3. HEAVEN AND EARTH. 7. Cain,
4. SARDANAPALUS. 8. WERNER.
Vignettes. 2 vols. 24mo, 5s.
XIT.
TRANSLATIONS FROM THE SWEDISH
Poems of ESAIAS TEGNER, and from the German of
SCHILLER. By H. DRINKWATER BETHUNE. Post 8vo, 128.
XIII.
No edition of LORD BYRON'S WORKS is
FRAGMENTS FROM GERMAN PROSE
COMPLETE, except it be published by Mr. MURRAY, WRITERS. By Sarah Austin. Post 8vo, 10s.
he alone being sole proprietor of all Copyright. “A delightful volume."-Athenæum.
10
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.-Instruction.
WORKS ADAPTED FOR YOUNG PERSONS.
1.
XII.
MARKHAM'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. PHILOSOPHY IN SPORT MADE SCIENCE
From the First Invasion by the Romans, to the Reign IN EARNEST ; or, Natural Philosophy inculcated by the
of Queen Victoria. New Edition. Woodcuts. 12mo, 78. 6d. Toys and Sports of Youth. Sixth Edition. Woodcuts.
Fcap. 8vo, 88.
MARKHAM'S HISTORY OF FRANCE.
“We know of no other book which so charmingly blends
From the Conquest by the Gauls, to the Death of Louis- published in our time more entitled to praise." – Examiner.
amusement with instruction. No juvenile book has been
Philippe. New Edition. Woodcuts. 12mo, 78. 6d.
Jl.
XIII.
III.
XV.
V.
XVI.
By
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
VIII.
MARKHAM'S HISTORY OF GERMANY.
WALKS AND TALKS; A STORY-BOOK
FOR CHILDREN. By AUNT IDA. Woodcuts. 16mo, 58.
From the Invasion by Marius, to the Battle of Leipsic.
Woodcuts. 12mo, 78. 60.
XIV.
IV.
LOCKHART'S HISTORY OF THE LATE
MARKHAM’S HISTORY OF ROME AND WAR : with Sketches of Nelson, Wellington, and
GREECE, Woodcuts. 12mo. In Preparation.
Napoleon. 18mo, 28. 6d.
“ MRS. MARKHAM'S HISTORIES are constructed on
a plan which we think well chosen, and we are glad to find
that they are so popular, for they cannot be too strongly ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY. By Rev.
recommended, as adapted for youth.”- Journal of Edu-
GEORGE FISHER, Head Master of Greenwich Naval
cation.
Schools. Third Edition. 18mo, 38.
LITTLE ARTHUR'S HISTORY OF ENG-
LAND. By Lady CALLCOTT. Fifteenth Edition. Woodcuts.
FIRST PRINCIPLES OF ALGEBRA.
18mo. 2s. 60.
Rev. GEORGE FISHER. Third Edition. 18mo, 38.
“ Lady Callcott's style is of the right kind; earnest and
simple."--Examiner,
VI.
CROKER'S STORIES FOR CHILDREN,
GOSPEL STORIES FOR CHILDREN.
FROM THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Fourteenth
An attempt to render intelligible the Chief Events of the
Edition. Woodcuts,
Life of Our Saviour. Second Edition. 18mo, 38. 60.
16mo, 58.
“ This skilful performance of Mr. Croker's suggested the
plan of Sir Walter Scott's Tales of a Grandfather.'
Quarterly Review.
SERMONS FOR CHILDREN.
VI!.
By Mrs. MARKHAM. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 3s,
CROKER'S PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY
FOR CHILDREN. Fourth Edition. 18mo, ls. 6d.
“The best elementary book on the subject.”—Quarterly In English, French, Italian, and German. For Daily Use.
SENTENCES FROM THE PROVERBS.
Review,
By A LADY. 16mo, 3$. 6d.
ÆSOP'S FABLES. A New VERSION, chiefly “ The design of this volume is excellent."-Atlas.
from Original Sources, by Rev. THOMAS JAMES. With
Woodcuts by John TENNIEL. Post 8vo, 168.
THE ARABIAN NIGHTS. Translated for
“Mr. James has made a judicious selection of the Fables
themselves, and of the version to be taken as his text: bis Family Reading, and illustrated with 600 Woodcuts, by
translation is at once close and free; the wood engravings Harvey. Third Edition. 3 vols. Post 8vo, 188.
are among the triumphs of art."-Spectator,
THE FAIRY RING. A Collection of TALES
BERTHA'S JOURNAL DURING A VISIT and Stories for Young Persons. With Illustrations by
IN ENGLAND. With a variety of Information, arranged Richard DOYLE. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 78. 6d.
for every Day. Seventh Edition. 12mo, 78. 6d.
“ I am reading 'Bertha' with the utmost avidity: I can fairy lore. Nicely illustrated by Mr. Richard Doyle, who
“ Rare news for young people-whole sacksful of new
scarcely take my attention from this, the best of all juvenile has lived a long time in Fairy Land, and knows all about
compilations."- Rev. George Crubbe.
it."-Examiner.
« An excellent little work."- Cupt. Basil Hall.
“ Three dozen legends, many among them pointed with
that humorous wisdom which none appreciate better than
THE HEIRESS IN HER MINORITY ; OR, children, make up a month's entertainment of charming
THE PROGRESS OF CHARACTER. By the Author of “Bertha's quality."-Atheneum.
Journal.” 2 vols. 12mo, 18s.
XX.
XXI.
IX.
"
X.
“The Author has endeavoured, in the following pages, to
trace the steps by which the power of self-control may be
PUSS IN BOOTS ; SUITED to the tastes of
practically developed in a young and ardent mind when LITTLE and GROWN CHILDREN. By OTTO SPECKTER. With
brought under the influence of high and noble motives ; and Illustrations. 16mo, 5s.
further, to show how materially the happiness of the indi-
“ Twelve designs full of excellent humour."-Examiner.
vidual is enlarged by turning it from the selfish indolence
of pride to the active and habitual exercise of the faculties
“Complete pictures, and tell the story with dramatic
force."-Spectutor.
in endeavouring to acquire useful and varied knowledge."
Preface.
XXIII.
THE CHARMED ROE; or, THE STORY OF THE
JESSE'S NATURAL HISTORY FOR LITTLE BROTHER AND SISTER. By OTTO SPECKTER. With
SCHOOLS. With Anecdotes of the Sagacity and Instinct | Illustrations. 16mo, 5s.
of Animals. Seventh Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 6s. 6d.
“A book for kindly remembrances."'-Literary Gazette.
XXI.
XI.
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.-School Books, &c.
11
CLASSICAL AND SCHOOL BOOKS.
I.
I.
II.
III.
II.
IV.
V.
I.
VI.
II.
VII.
VIII.
Dr. Smith's School Dictionaries.
HORACE, A NEW EDITION OF
THE Text.
With 300
A NEW CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF Edited, with a Life. By DEAN Milman.
Vignettes from the Antique. 8vo, 428.
BIOGRAPHY, MYTHOLOGY, AND GEOGRAPHY,
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. Edited by WM. SMITH,
LL.D. One volume 8vo, 21s.
ANTHOLOGIA POLYGLOTTA; OR, A
“It is cast and arranged principally for schools; and else: SELECTION OF VERSIONS, chiefly from the Greek Antho-
where, as well as there, will be quite invaluable, we should logy. By Rev. Henry WELLESLEY, D.D. 8vo, 15s.
think. It pushes for ever from his stool our well-remem-
bered school friend, Lempriere.”– Examiner.
MULLER'S DORIANS ; Translated by Tuf-
A DICTIONARY OF ANTIQUITIES, NELL and LEWIS. Second Edition. Maps. 2 vols. 8vo, 26s.
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. Abridged from the larger
work. By DR. SMITH. With 200 Woodcuts. 16mo, 10s. 6d.
“ Drawn up in a clear and concise style, and weeded of BUTTMAN'S LEXILOGUS; A Critical Ex-
those references and speculative matters which tend so amination of the Meaning and Etymology of Passages
much to confuse the student who is not far advanced. It is in Greek Writers. Translated, with Notes, by FISHLAKE.
a most valuable addition to our school literature."-Cam-
Third Edition. 8vo. 14s.
bridge Chronicle.
BUTTMAN'S GREEK VERBS; With all
Dr. Smith's Larger Dictionaries.
the Tenses-their Formation, Meaning, and Usage, accom-
panied by an Index. Translated, with Notes, by FISHLAKE.
DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN | Second Edition. 8vo, 78. 6d.
ANTIQUITIES. Second Edition, revised and enlarged.
With 500 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo. 21. 28.
CARMICHAEL'S GREEK VERBS. Their
“ A work much wanted, will be invaluable to the young FORMATIONS, IRREGULARITIES, AND DEFECTS. Second Edi-
student, and as a book of reference will be most acceptable tion. Post 8vo, 8s. 61.
on the library table of every scholar."- Quarterly Review.
DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN MITCHELL'S PLAYS OF ARISTOPHANES.
BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY. 3 vols. Royal 8vo, With English Notes. 8vo. CLOUDS. 108.-2. FROGS. 158.
51. 158. 6d.
“ The only Classical Dictionary with any pretensions to
the name, in our language ; and, as such, it must form part
THE AGAMEMNON AND CHOEPHORE
of the library of every student who desires to become ac- OF ASCHYLUS. With Notes, by Rev. Dr. PEILE.
quainted with the mind of antiquity."-Atheneum, Second Edition. 8vo, 9s. each.
DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN
IX.
GEOGRAPHY. With an Atlas. Royal 8vo. In Pre-
HASE'S ANCIENT GREEKS ;
paration.
THEIR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIFE, MANNERS, AND Cus-
Translated from the German. Fcap. 8vo, 58. 6d.
Riddle's Latin Dictionaries.
INTRODUCTIONS TO THE GREEK CLAS.
A COPIOUS AND CRITICAL LATIN-SIC POETS. By H. N. COLERIDGE. Third Edition.
ENGLISH LEXICON, founded on the German-Latin 12mo, 5s.6d.
Dictionaries of William Freund. By Rev. J. E. RIDDLE.
post 4to, 50s.
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. By Thos. B. Shaw. Post 8vo, 12s.
A COPIOUS AND CRITICAL ENGLISH-
LATIN LEXICON. Founded on the German-Latin Dic-
KING EDWARD! VIth's LATIN GRAM-
tionary of Dr. Georges. By Rev. J. E. RIDDLE, and Rev,
T. K. ARNOLD.
MAR; or, An Introduction to the Latin Tongue, for the
8vo, 258.
Use of Schools. Seventh Edition. 12mo, 3s. 6d.
A LATIN-ENGLISH AND ENGLISH-
XIII.
LATIN DICTIONARY, For the use of Colleges and KING EDWARD VIth's LATIN ACCI.
Schools. Chiefly from the German. By Rev. J. E. RIDDLE. DENCE; OR, Elements of the Latin Tongue, for the
New Edition. 8vo, 318, 6d.
Use of Junior Classes. 12mo, 28.
The two Dictionaries separately:— The English-Latin
Dictionary, 10s. 6d.; the Latin-English Dictionary, 218.
ENGLISH NOTES FOR LATIN ELEGIACS.
IV.
YOUNG SCHOLAR'S LATIN-ENGLISH Designed for early proficients in the Art of Latin Versifica-
AND ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY; being
tion. By Rev. W. OXENHAM. Second Edition. 12mo, 4s.
abridgment of the above work. By Rev. J. E. RIDDLE,
xv.
New Edition. Square 12mo, 12s.
A GREEK GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS.
The two Dictionaries separately :-The Latin-English Abridged from MATTHIÆ by BLOMFIELD. Seventh
Dictionary, 78.; the English-Latin Dictionary, 58. 6d.
Edition, revised by EDWARDS. 12mo, 38.
DIAMOND LAT.-ENG. DICTIONARY.
XVI.
A Guide to the Meaning, Quantity, and Accentuation GREEK ACCIDENCE FOR JUNIOR
of Latin Classical Words. By Rev. J. E. RIDDLE. New CLASSES. Abridged from MATTHIÆ by BLOMFIELD.
Edition. Royal 32mo, 4s.
Fourth Edition, revised by EDWARDS. 12mo, 28.
III.
TOMS.
X.
1.
XI.
U.
XU.
III.
XIV.
an
v.
12
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.-Art, Solence, &c.
ART, SCIENCE, AND MEDICINE.
I.
XV.
II.
XVII.
N.
XVIII.
AND
IN
THE ANATOMY OF EXPRESSION AS THE CONNEXION OF THE PHYSICAL
CONNECTED WITH THE FINE ARTS. By the SCIENCES. By MARY SOMERVILLE. Eighth Edition.
late SiR CHARLES BELL. Fourth Edition. Plates. Im- Plates. Fcap. 8vo, 10s. 6d.
perial 8vo, 218.
“Should be placed in the hands of every youth the
“The artist, the writer of fiction, the dramatist, the man moment he has mastered the general rudiments of educa.
of taste, will receive the present work with gratitude, and tion."- Quarterly Review.
peruse it with a lively and increasing interest and delight."
XVI.
- Christian Remembrancer.
A MANUAL OF SCIENTIFIC ENQUIRY,
For the Use of Travellers. Edited by Sir J. HERSCHEL,
TREASURES OF ART IN GREAT BRI. Bart. 2nd Edition. Maps. Post 8vo.
TAIN. Being an account of the Chief Collections of Paint-
“ Will be found an admirable book for its express object,
ings, Sculpture, MSS., Miniatures, &c. &c., in this country and may be used advantageously by all travellers, and
By Dr WAAGEN. 2 vols. 8vo.
perused with interest at home.”-Spectatur.
HUMBOLDT’S COSMOS. A Physical De-
SKETCHES OF THE HISTORY OF scription of the Universe. Translated by Col. and Mrs.
CHRISTIAN ART. By LORD LINDSAY. 3 vols. 8vo. 31s. 6d. SABINE, Seventh Edition. 3 vols. Post 8vo.
“ As a contribution to the History of Art, Lord Lindsay's
work is unquestionably the most valuable which has yet
HUMBOLDT'S ASPECTS OF NATURE
appeared in England.”-Quarterly Review.
IN DIFFERENT LANDS
DIFFERENT CLIMATES,
IV.
XX.
VI.
VII.
Translated by Col. and Mrs. SABINE. 2 vols. Post 8vo, 5s.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE LITERATURE
“ Here we have the authorised editions' translated at
OF THE FINE ARTS. By SIR CHARLES EASTLAKE. the wish of the author, who has, moreover, read a great
8vo. 128.
portion of the proof-sheets.”—Spectutur.
v.
XIX.
KUGLER'S HISTORY OF PAINTING-
THE ECONOMY OF MACHINERY AND
(THE SCHOOLS OF ITALY). Edited, with Notes. MANUFACTURES. BY CHARLES BABBAGE. Fourth
By SiR CHARLES EASTLAKE. Second Edition. Illus- Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 6s.
trated with 100 Woodcuts. 2 vols. Post 8vo, 248.
NINTH BRIDGEWATER TREATISE.
KUGLER'S HISTORY OF PAINTING-
By CHARLES BABBAGE. Second Edition. 8vo, 98. 6d.
XXI.
(THE GERMAN, FLEMISH, & DUTCH SCHOOLS).
TABLE OF THE LOGARITHMS OF THE
Edited, with Notes, by Sir EDMUND HEAD. Post 8vo, 125.
NATURAL NUMBERS from 1 to 108000. By CHARLES
BABBAGE. Second Edition. Royal 8vo, 6s.
HISTORY OF PAINTING-(THE SPANISH
XXII.
AND FRENCH SCHOOLS). By SIR EDMUND HEAD. FACTS TO ASSIST THE MEMORY, IN
Post 8vo, 12s.
VARIOUS SCIENCES. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 6s. 6d.
“ These volumes present us with a view of the schools of
XXIII.
painting, and we recommend them as very candid and
NAVAL GUNNERY ; FOR THE Use of Offi-
excellent productions.”- Literary Guzelte.
CERS AND THE TRAINING OF SEAMEN GUNNERS. By SiR
AN ENCYCLOPÆDIA OF THE ARTS OF HOWARD DOUGLAS, Bart. 3rd Edition revised. Plates. 8vo.
THE MIDDLE AGES. By the Monk THEOPHILUS.
ON STEAM WARFARE AND NAVAL
Translated, with Notes, by ROBERT HENDRIE. 8vo, 218.
SHELL-FIRING. With the present state of the Naval
THE ARTS OF PAINTING IN OIL AND Force of all Maritime Nations. By Sır HOWARD DOUGLAS.
8vo. (In preparation.)
ON GLASS, and other styles described in several un-
XXV.
published Manuscripts. With Notes by Mrs. MERRIFIELD.
PRACTICAL SURVEYING. By G. D. BURR,
2 vols. 8vo, 248.
of Sandhurst. Second Edition. Woodcuts. Post 8vo, 78.6d.
XXVI.
HISTORY OF MODERN POTTERY
BRITISH ASSOCIATION REPORTS.
AND PORCELAIN. By JOSEPH MARRYAT. With Plates 1831-32, 138. 6d. 1833, 12s. 1834, 158. 1837, 138. 6d.
and Woodcuts. 8vo, 31s. 6d., or India, Proof, mounted on
1836, 12s. 1837, 168. 6d. 1838, 158. 1839, 138. 6d.
large paper, 4to. 51. 58.
1840, 158. 1841, 138. 6d. 1842, 108. 6d. 1843, 12s.
1844, 208. 1845, 128. 1846, 158. 1847, 188. 1848, 9s.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT POTTERY: EGYP. 1849, 108. 8vo.
TIAN, ASIATIC, GREEK, ROMAN, ETRUSCAN, AND
SIR JAMES CLARK ON THE SANATIVE
CELTIC. By SAMUEL BIRCH, Esq. Plates. 8vo. (Nearly INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Fourth Ed. Post 8vo,10s.6d.
ready.)
XXVIII.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE ; Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 68. 6d.
SIR HENRY HALFORD'S ESSAYS.
or, An Enquiry into the Romanesque and Pointed Styles,
XXIX.
with Notices of some of the principal Buildings on which
DR. MAYO ON THE PATHOLOGY OF
it is founded. By THOMAS INKERSLEY. 8vo, 128.
THE HUMAN MIND. Fcap. 8vo, 58. 6d.
CORRESPONDENCE OF JAMES WATT,
DR. ABERCROMBIE ON DISEASES OF
ON HIS DISCOVERY OF THE THEORY OF THE COMPOSITION OF
THE STOMACH. Third Edition, Fcap. 8vo, 6s.
WATER. By J. P. MUIRHEAD. Portrait. 8vo, 108. 6d.
DR. GOOCH ON THE MOST IMPORTANT
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By MARY DISEASES OF WOMEN. Second Edition. 8vo, 128,
SOMERVILLE. 3rd Edition. Portrait. 2 vols. Fcap. 8vo, 12s.
XXXII.
“We have followed Mrs. Somerville through her intellec- DR. FERGUSON'S ESSAYS ON
tual journey over the globe, delighted and improved by her
instruction.'-North British Review.
PUERPERAL FEVER. Post svo, 98. 6d.
VIII.
XXIV
IX.
XI.
XXVII.
XII.
XIII.
XXX,
XXXI.
XIV.
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.-General Literature.
13
GENERAL LITERATURE. .
1.
11.
IV.
V.
XXI.
LITERARY HISTORY OF EUROPE. THE STORY OF THE BATTLE OF
By HENRY HALLAM. Third Edition. 3 vols. 8vo, 36s. WATERLOO. By Rev. G. R. GLEIG. Post 8vo, 6s.
XXII.
HISTORY OF SPANISH LITERATURE, AN ESSAY ON ENGLISH POETRY. With
With Criticisms and Biographical Notices. By GEORGE Notices of the Poets. By THOMAS CAMPBELL. Post 8vo, 6s.
TICKNOR. 3 vols. 8vo, 428.
XXIII.
III.
CAMPAIGNS AT WASHINGTON AND
ENGLAND AS IT IS: Political, Social, and NEW ORLEANS. By Rev. G R. GLEIG. Post 8vo, 2s.6d.
Industrial, in the middle of the 19th Century. By
XXIV.
WM. JOHNSTON. 2 vols. Post 8vo, 18s.
SIR ROBERT SALE'S BRIGADE IN
AFFGHANISTAN. By Rev. G. R. GLKIG. Post 8vo, 28.64.
THE DEFENCELESS STATE OF GREAT
XXV.
BRITAIN, By SIR FRANCIS HEAD, Bart. Post 8vo, 12s. THE WAYSIDE CROSS. A Tale of the
Carlist War. By Capt. E. A. MILMAN. Post 8vo, 28. 6d.
THE EMIGRANT. By SiR FRANCIS B
VI.
VII.
VIII.
XXVI.
HEAD. Fifth Edition. Post 8vo, 12s.
LIVONIAN TALES. BY THE AUTHOR OF
“ LETTERS FROM THE BALTIC." Post 8vo, 28. 60.
THE NORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY. THE
XXVII.
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, and CONWAY TUBULAR BRIDGES. BRACEBRIDGE HALL. BY WASHINGTON
By AUTHOR of “BUBBLES." Post 8vo, 28. 6d.
IRVING. Post 8vo, 6s.
XXVITI.
LAVENGRO ; · THE SCHOLAR, THE GIPSY, THE AMBER-WITCH: a TRIAL for WITCH-
AND PRIEST. By GEORGE BORROW. Portrait. 3 vols.
CRAFT, Translated by Lady Duff GORDON, Post 8vo, 28.6d.
post 8vo.
XXIX.
THE FRENCH IN ALGIERS. Translated
REMARKABLE CRIMES AND TRIALS. by Lady Duff GORDON. Post 8vo, 2s.6d.
From the German. By Lady DUFF GORDON. 8vo, 12s.
XXX
“Forms the most interesting specimen existing in our
language."-Law Magazine.
TALES OF A TRAVELLER. By Wash-
INGTON IRVING. Post 8vo, 6s.
IX.
CONTRASTS OF FOREIGN AND ENGLISH
XXXI.
THE AUTIOBIOGRAPHY OF HENRY
SOCIETY; or, Records and Recollections of a Residence
in various parts of the Continent, and England. By STEFFENS. Post 8vo, 2s.6d.
Mks. AUSTIN. 2 vols. Post 8vo. (In preparation.)
XXXII.
LAW OF NAVAL COURTS MARTIAL,
X.
108. 60.
HORTENSIUS. An Historical Essay on the By WILLIAM HICKMAN, R.N. 8vo.
Office and Duties of an Advocate. By WILLIAM FORSYTH.
A PLEA FOR PEASANT PROPRIETORS
Post 8vo, 12s.
IN IRELAND. By W. T. THORNTON. Post 8vo, 78. 6d.
CONSOLATION IN TRAVEL ; or, The Last
XXXIV.
ENGLISH MISRULE AND IRISH MIS-
Days of a Philosopher. By Sir HUMPHRY DAVY. Fifth
Edition. Woodcuts. Fcap. 8vo. 68.
DEEDS. By AUBREY DE VEKE. 2nd Edit. Post 8vo, 78. 6d.
SPECIMENS OF THE TABLE-TALK OF
THE SAXON IN IRELAND; or, the Rambles
S.T. COLERIDGE. Third Edition. Portrait. Fcap. 8vo. 6s.
of an Englishman in search of a Settlement in that
Country With Map. Post 8vo.
XIII.
XXXVI.
HAWKSTONE; A Tale of England in 18—. PROGRESSION BY ANTAGONISM. A
Third Edition. 2 vols. fcap. 8vo, 128.
THEORY. By LORD LINDSAY.
8vo, 6s.
XIV.
OUTLINES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.
RICARDO'S POLITICAL WORKS. With
By THOMAS B. SHAW. Post 8vo, 128.
a Biographical Sketch. By J. R. McCULLOCH. 8vo, 168.
XXXVIII.
VISITS TO SPOTS OF INTEREST. By
PROGRESS OF THE NATION, in its
EDWARD JESSE. Woodcuts. Post 8vo, 12s.
various Social and Economical Relations. By G. R.
PORTER. 3rd Edition. 8vo. 24s.
NOTES FROM LIFE AND FROM BOOKS.
XXXIX
By HENRY TAYLOR. Third Edition. 2 vols. post 8vo, 158.
THE QUARTERLY REVIEW. 8vo, 6s.
PHILOSOPHY OF THE MORALFEELINGS.
HART'S ARMY LIST. (Published Quarterly.)
By JOHN ABERCROMBIE, M.D. Eighth Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 48. 8vo, 5s.
XVIII.
ON THE INTELLECTUAL POWERS. ROYAL NAVY LIST. (Published Quar-
By JOHN ABERCROMBIE, M.D. Thirteenth Edition. terly.) 16mo, 2s. 6d.
Fcap. 8vo, 6s. 6d.
THE NAUTICAL ALMANACK, 8vo, 5s.
ON ENGLISH ETYMOLOGIES.
By H.
XLUI.
Fox TALBOT, F.R.S. 8vo, 12s.
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.
8vo, 10s.
ESSAYS ON THE CONDUCT OF LIFE:
XLIV.
AND MORAL NATURE OF MAN. By GEORGE LONG,
ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNAL,
2 vols. post 8vo, 128.
AVO. 28. 6d.
XXXIII.
XI.
XXXV.
XII.
XXXVII.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XL.
XLI.
XLII.
XIX.
XX.
14
MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF BOOKS.—Natural History, Sporting, &c.
NATURAL HISTORY, SPORTING, &c.
1.
XI.
XII.
X.
PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY; or, The FIELD SPORTS OF FRANCE ; or, Hunting,
Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inbabitants. By Shooting, and Fishing on the Continent. By RODERICK
SIR CHARLES LYELL. Eighth Edition. Woodcuts. 8vo, 185. O'CONNOR. Woodcuts. 12mo, 78. 6d.
“Should be read by every one who takes an interest
in this rising branch of Natural History.”—Jameson's
FIELD NOTES OF A SPORTSMAN AND
Journal.
NATURALIST IN SUTHERLAND.
II.
By CHARLES ST.
John. Woodcuts. 2 vols. post 8vo, 188.
A MANUAL OF ELEMENTARY GEO-
LOGY; or, The Ancient Changes of the Earth and its
Inhabitants. By SIR CHARLES LYELL. Third Edition,
WILD SPORTS AND NATURAL HISTORY
revised, Woodcuts. 1 vol. 8vo. 128.
OF THE HIGHLANDS. By CHARLES ST. John. Post
8vo, 6s.
III.
“ The work is full of interest from beginning to end.
GEOLOGY OF RUSSIA IN EUROPE AND Next to Mr. Scrope's Days of Deer-Stalking, and Salmon-
THE URAL MOUNTAINS. By Sir R. MURCHISON, Fishing, we have met with no author who writes more
agreeably on those subjects than Mr. St. John.”—Times.
G.C.S. With Coloured Map, Tables, Woodcuts, &c.
“ The descriptions are worthy of Scott, from their clear-
2 vols. royal 4to, 8l. 88.
ness and power."-Britannia.
“ The publication of this system forms an epoch in geolo-
XIII.
gical research. . . The author has developed the first broad
outlines of a new system of classification, capable of effect-
THE ROCKS AND RIVERS OF SCOTLAND,
irg for geology what the natural system of Jussieu had containing Angling, Eagle Shooting, Wild Goat Stalking,
effected for botany. It is a work which must necessarily &c. By John COLQUHOUN. Post &vo, 6s. 6d.
become a standard for geologists." - Spectator.
" This book belongs to a class of which recent years have
“The impulse given to geology by the publication of the given us what is now almost a little library. Mr. Colquhoun,
• Silurian System, cannot be too highly appreciated. The we believe, was the first (with one exception) who occupied
author at once took his place in the foremost rank of geo: | this field of letters : assuredly he has been not its least suc-
logists. But his energy did not permit him to rest satisfied cessful cultivator. He enjoys one great advantage over
with the accomplishment of so noble a labour. Determined nearly all his compeers, in that he is 'native, and to the
to compare and confirm, he followed out in foreign lands manner born.'"- Edinburgh Evening Courant.
the research which he had so successfully commenced at
home. Many admirable memoirs have resulted from bis
XIV.
excursions ; but the crowning triumph is the great work DAYS OF DEER-STALKING IN THE
before us."-Atheneum.
FOREST OF ATHOLL. By WILLIAM SCROPE, F.L.S.
Third Edition. Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 20s.
THE GEOLOGY OF THE YORKSHIRE
“ Brief and imperfect as the preceding abstract is, we
COAST AND THE MOUNTAIN-LIMESTONE DIS- think that it will fully justify the high praise we have
TRICT. By John PHILLIPS. Plates. 2 vols. 4to, 84s.
bestowed on this work, and induce our readers to sit down
to the luxurious repast from which we have risen.".
Edinburgh Review.
THE INVISIBLE WORLD, AS REVEALED
BY THE MICROSCOPE; or, THOUGHTS ON ANIMALCULES.
IV.
v.
DAYS AND NIGHTS OF SALMON
By G. A. MANTELL. Second Edition. Plates. 16mo. 68. FISHING IN THE TWEED. By WILLIAM SCROPE,
“The object of this volume is in the highest degree com-
F.L.S. Plates. Royal 8vo, 425.
mendable. There is no branch of science more interesting,
“The fisherman will find in this volume abundance of
none whose revelations are more wonderful, than that instruction in his art; the naturalist a large addition to his
which unfolds the forms and nature of minute creatures. knowledge ; and the general reader a fund of adventure and
Dr. Mantell's idea is a happy one."-Chambers's Journal. agreeable and exciting narrative.”—The Critic.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
VII.
VI.
SALMONIA, OR DAYS OF FLY FISHING.
JOURNAL OF A NATURALIST.
By SiR HUMPHRY DAVY. Fourth Edition. Woodcuts.
Fourth Edition, with Woodcuts. Post 8vo, 9s. 6d.
Fcap. 8vo. 6s.
“A book that ought to find its way into every rural
drawing-room in the kingdom.”-Quarterly Review.
DOG-BREAKING ; the most Expeditious,
Certain, and Easy Method. By LIEUT-COL. HUTCHINSON.
NATURAL SYSTEM OF PLANTS; or, 2nd Edition. Woodcuts. Fcap. 8vo, 78.6d.
A POPULAR INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY. By Mrs. LOUDON. “A more opportune, a pleasanter, a more useful book to
Second Edition. Woodcuts. Fcap. 8vo, 6s.
the sportsman than this has not been published for many
“To any one who wishes to comprehend the names and thing he writes about dog. breaking may be relied on.”-
a day. The author is a practical man, and almost every.
nature of plants, this charming volume can be safely recom-
Bell's Life.
niended."
."-Spectator.
XVIII.
VIII.
MAXIMS AND HINTS FOR AN ANGLER,
MUCK MANUAL FOR FARMERS. WITH THE MISERIES OF FISHING. By RICHARD
A Treatise on the Nature and Value of Manures. By F. PENN, F.R.S. Second Edition. Plates. Fcap. 8vo, 5s.
FALKNER. Second Edition, with a Glossary. Fcap. 8vo.
“They have the air of novelty, and charm by their preg-
“Addressed to the practical farmer, and written as such nant brevity, sly sarcasm, and oily raciness."-Quarterly
books ought to be."-Bell's Messenger.
Review,
“A valuable work for farmers.'' - British Farmer's
Magazine.
ON IMPROVEMENT IN FARMING ; or,
WHAT OUGHT LANDLORDS AND FARMERS TO
THE CHASE-THE TURF- -AND THE ROAD. DO? By Philip Pusey, M.P. Reprinted from the
By NIMROD. Plates. New Edition. Post 8vo, 6s.
Royal Agricultural Journal. 8vo. 18.
XIX.
IX.
MR. MURRAY'S HOME AND COLONIAL LIBRARY.
15
А
PERMANENT LIBRARY OF ENTERTAINMENT.
Post 8vo, price 2s. 6d. each Part (or Two Parts as a Volume), price 68. in cloth.
MURRAY'S HOME AND COLONIAL LIBRARY,
COMPLETE IN 37 VOLUMES,
This Series of attractive and useful works, by approved authors, was designed to furnish the HIGHEST LITERATURE
of the day, at the lowest possible price, and was commenced in consequence of the Acts which had passed the British
Parliament for the protection of Copyright, and the rights of British authors and publishers, by the entire exclusion
both in GREAT BRITAIN and HER COLONIES, of foreign pirated editions; and the volumes have been issued at a price
which places them within the means not only of the Colonists, but also of the less wealthy classes at home, who thus
benefited by the widening of the market for our literature.
The aim of the Publisher has been to produce a Series of Works as entertaining as romances, but conveying at
the same time sound information.
LIST OF WORKS INCLUDED IN THE SERIES.
1)
Vol. 1.
Vol. 10.
BORROW'S BIBLE IN SPAIN.
FRENCH IN ALGIERS.
“There is no taking leave of a book like this."- Athenæum. “Of romantic and absorbing interest."— Northern Whig.
Vols. 2 and 3.
BISHOP HEBER'S JOURNAL IN INDIA. HISTORY OF THE FALL OF THE JESUITS.
"A candid and moderate work."-Cheltenham Journal,
“ One of the most delightful books in the language.”
Quarterly Review.
Vol. 4,
Vol. 11.
IRBY AND MANGLES' TRAVELS.
BRACEBRIDGE HALL.
“ Irby and Mangles' interesting Travels."-Lit. Gazette.
“The most charming work ever written by Washington
Irving."-Cambridge Chronicle.
DRINKWATER'S SIEGE OF GIBRALTAR.
“Truly a legend of the United Services.”—U. S. Magazine.
Vol. 12. Price 8s. 60.
Vol. 5.
DARWIN'S VOYAGE OF A NATURALIST.
HAY'S MOROCCO AND THE MOORS. “ Mr. Darwin is a first-rate landscape painter.”
"A highly interesting work.”—Greenock Advertiser.
Quarterly Review,
Vol. 13.
LETTERS FROM THE BALTIC.
LORD MAHON'S LIFE OF CONDE.
“A series of charming descriptions.”—Examiner.
Vol. 6.
"A very skilful and interesting narrative."
Quarterly Review.
THE AMBER WITCH.
Vol. 14.
"Nothing has so absorbed our interest."- Quar Rev.
BORROW'S GYPSIES IN SPAIN.
SOUTHEY'S CROMWELL AND BUNYAN.
"These singularly attractive pages. "-Literary Gazette.
“Southey's admirably written lives."- Yorkshireman.
Vol. 15.
Vol. 7.
THE MARQUESAS ISLANDS. By HER-
MRS. MEREDITH'S NEW SOUTH WALES.
NANN MELVILLE,
“Impressions recorded with fidelity.”—Newcastle Courant.
“ This book is excellent-quite first-rate."-Blackwood.
LIFE OF SIR FRANCIS DRAKE.
Vol. 16.
“Mr. Barrow has enriched our biographical literature.”
Edinburgh Review. LIVONIAN TALES. BY A LADY.
Vol. 8.
“We like these Livonian Tales much." --Atheneum.
THE COURT OF CHINA. By FATHER RIPA.
*As curious a book as any that has appeared.”-Spectator.
THE MISSIONARY IN CANADA.
" Reminds one of the “VICAR OF Wakefield.'
LEWIS'S RESIDENCE IN THE WEST
Morning Post.
INDIES.
Vol. 17.
“ These highly amusing stories."-Quarterly Review.
SALE'S BRIGADE IN AFFGHANISTAN.
Vol. 9.
“ One of the noblest records of military adventures.”
SKETCHES IN PERSIA. By SIR JOHN
Morning Chronicle.
MALCOLM.
LETTERS FROM MADRAS. BY A LADY,
“ Has all the interest of our amusing friend Hajji Baba."
Quarterly Review, “A welcome addition to our literary store."--Britannia.
16
MR. MURRAY'S HOME AND COLONIAL LIBRARY.
Vol. 18.
Vol. 28.
HIGHLAND SPORTS. BY CHARLES Sr. John. GLEIG'S LIFE OF ROBERT LORD CLIVE.
“ We would not desire a more pleasant companion."
“One of the best popular biographies."--Spectator.
Morning Post.
Vol. 29.
Vol. 19
HAYGARTH'S BUSH LIFE IN AUSTRALIA.
PAMPAS JOURNEYS. By Sir F. B. HEAD. "Descriptive of man, animals, nature, and society."
Spectator.
“ Has all the interest of a novel.” – Eclectic Review,
STEFFENS'S ADVENTURES ON THE
THE TWO SIEGES OF VIENNA. ROAD TO PARIS.
“A valuable collection to history."-Athenæum. “ Original, and amusing in its style and conduct."
Literary Gazette.
Vol. 20.
Vol 30.
FORD'S GATHERINGS FROM SPAIN. TALES OF A TRAVELLER. By WASHINGTON
“ The best book on Spain that has ever appeared."
IRVING.
Quarterly Review. “ Furnishes food for delectable entertainment."
Vol. 21.
Literary Gazette.
Vol. 31.
SKETCHES OF GERMAN LIFE.
CAMPBELL'S LIVES OF THE BRITISH
“A work deserving much attention.”—Atheneum.
POETS.
Vol. 22.
“The rise, advance, and the fluctuations of English
poetry.”-Sun.
THE SOUTH SEAS. By HERMANN MEL.
Vol. 32.
VILLE.
LORD MAHON'S HISTORICAL ESSAYS
“ A companion after our own hearts."-Times.
Selected from Contributions to the Quarterly Review.
Vol. 23.
Vol. 33.
GLEIG'S BATTLE OF WATERLOO.
STOKERS AND POKERS, HIGH-WAYS
“This account is instinct with spirit.”- Literary Gazette. AND DRY-WAYS.
Vol. 24.
“A very graphic and effective series of sketches."-
Examiner.
EDWARDS'S VOYAGE UP THE AMAZON.
“This book is full of novelty.”-Athenaum.
THE LIBYAN DESERT. By BAYLE ST. John.
“A most picturesque and agreeable description."
WAYSIDE CROSS. By CAPTAIN MILMAN.
Morning Herald,
“A spirited and interesting little story."-Atheneum.
Vol. 34.
LETTERS FROM SIERRA LEONE. By a
Vol. 25.
LADY.
ACLAND'S POPULAR ACCOUNT OF
“A most animated and sprightly picture." - John Bull.
INDIA.
Vol. 35.
"Must interest all who have friends in India."
Theologian. GLEIG'S LIFE OF SIR THOMAS MUNRO.
GLEIG'S CAMPAIGNS AT WASHINGTON.
“ The highly interesting contents of Mr. Gleig's work.”
Quarterly Review.
“The Personal Narrative of an eye-witness.”—Times.
Vol. 36. Price 88. 6d.
Vol. 26.
MEMOIRS OF SIR FOWELL BUXTON,
RUXTON'S ADVENTURES IN MEXICO.
By his Son.
“A thoroughly well-written biography."
“Full of interest and adventure.”-Atheneum.
Evangelical Magazine,
Vol. 37.
Vol. 27.
OLIVER GOLDSMITH. By WASHINGTON
PORTUGAL AND GALLICIA. By LORD IRVING.
CARNARVON.
“This excellent and entertaining life."
“A very remarkable work."-Quarterly Review.
Morning Herald.
»
The “ HOME AND COLONIAL LIBRARY” having been sustained during a period of Six years with unabated
success, Mr. Murray, anxious to guard against the objection of overloading the subscribers with too large and
cumbrous a series of books of one size, decided on concluding the work with its thirty-seventh volume. He is thus
enabled to offer to the public a compact and portable work, the bulk of which does not exceed the compass of a single
shelf, or of one trunk, suited for all classes and all climates of which the interest, value, and popularity is not likely
to be impaired by lapse of time.
At the same time, the large circulation of the “Home and Colonial Library," and the continued demand for back
numbers, convince him that there is an unabated desire on the part of the public for reading, at once cheap, popular,
and instructive; he is therefore preparing speedily to put forth a New Library, which, though equally portable, shall
be even more elegant in typography than the last, and shall surpass, or at least maintain, its literary value and
general attraction.
Uniform with the above Series.
HUMBOLDT'S COSMOS. (Sabine's authorised Edition.) 3 vols. post 8vo.
HUMBOLDT'S ASPECTS OF NATURE. (Sabine's authorised Edition.) 2 vols. post 8vo.
BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WATEFRIARS.
!

THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
GRADUATE LIBRARY
DATE DUE
1194
APR 2
NOV 13 1982
AAPR 15 RECD
8 1996
JAN 0 2 1991

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