おおお​おおお​お​さる
​WILLIAM S POMEROY.
さお
​
1817
SCIENTIA
ARTES
LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
EL PLURIOUS UMUNT
VERITAS
TUEBOR
51-QUE RIS PENINSULAM AMOENAM
CIRCUMSPICE
THE GIFT OF
Clements Library
爨
​3
800
C266
ܪܕܐܪ ܐ ܚܟܡܬܐ ܫܐܠܠ ܬܘ

ESSAY ON LANGUAGE,
AS CONNECTED WITH THE
Faculties of the Mind,
AND AS APPLIED TO
THINGS IN NATURE AND ART.
SOCIA MENTIS LINGUA.
amiel
BY WILLIAM S. CARDELL.
NEW-YORK.
CHARLES WILEY, No. 3 WALL-STREET.
1825.
?
T
1
ESSAY ON LANGUAGE,
AS CONNECTED WITH THE
Faculties of the Mind,
AND AS APPLIED TO
TINNGS IN NATURE AND ART.
SOCIA MENTIS LINGUA.
smisl
BY WILLIAM S. CARDELL.
NEW-YORK.
CHARLES WILEY, No. 3 WALL-STREET.
1825.
Southern District of New-York, ss.
BE
E IT REMEMBERED, That on the sixteenth day of February, A. D.
1825, in the forty-ninth year of the Independence of the United States
of America, William S Cardell, of the said District, has deposited in this
office the title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words
following, to wit:
"Essay on Language, as connected with the Faculties of the Mind, and as
applied to things in Nature and Art. Socia mentis lingua. By William S.
Cardell "
In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled,
"An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps,
Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during
the times therein mentioned." And also to an Act, entitled "an Act,
supplementary to an Act, entitled an Act for the encouragement ofLearning,
by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and pro-
prietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending
the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical
and other prints
99
JAMES DILL, Clerk of the Southern District of New-York.
J. SEYMOUR, PRINTER, JOHN-STREET.
+
"
1
1
1
Gift
Cements lib.
7.-27.39
CONTENTS.
34
Introductory dissertation,
1
General view of language as intimately combined with
the mental powers, the instruction and welfare of na-
tions, and the whole social and commercial intercourse
of rational beings,
25.
Structure of speech in its earliest known forms, deduced
from the nature and wants of man, and the condition of
savage life,
way
Brief bistory of the progress of letters, from the time of
their invention, with a slight notice of the changes to
which language has been subjected from political and
moral causes,
13
General character of the English language, and its his-
tory, from the invasion of England by Julius Cesar, to
the present time,
24
Philosophic exposition of speech in its practical adapta-
tion to the purposes of life,
Elementary principles and definitions,
39
Classification of words,
44
Naines of things grammatically considered,
ib.
do. do. philosophically do.
ib.
Pronouns or substitutes,
62
Words of relation and description, adjectives,
66
Actions or affirmations-verbs,
107
Logic and philosophic elucidation of moods and tenses, 121
Etymons and practical explanations of the words errone-
ously called auxiliaries,
138
Verb to be,
141
Participles always adjectives by use,
165
Contractions in terms and in construction,
ib.
Adverbs,
178
Conjunctions,
180
Prepositions,
182
Irregular articolations called interjections,
184
Structure of sentences,
185
Lessons in parsing, grammatical,
187
do. dos philosophic,
193
Specimens giving a slight view of the changes in language, 194
Examples of errors in practice,
203

1817
V
SCIENTIA
ARTES
VERITAS
LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
TCEBOR
SIQUE RIS-PENINSULAM AMEENAM
CIRCUMSPICE
WIDU 0.0.0.0.0
THE GIFT OF
Clements Library
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是
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1
ESSAY ON LANGUAGE,
AS COXNECTED WITH THE
Faculties of the Mind,
AND AS APPLIED TO
THINGS IN NATURE AND ART.
SOCIA MENTIS LINGUA.
aniel
BY WILLIAM S. CARDELL.
1
NEW-YORK.
CHARLES WILEY, No. 3 WALL-STREET.
1825.
,
Southern District of New-York, ss.
E IT REMEMBERED, That on the sixteenth day of February, 1. D
of America, William s Cardell, of the said District, has deposited in this
office the title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words
following, to wit :
“Essay on Language, as connected with the Faculties of the Mind, and as
anplied to things in Nature and Art. Socia mentis lingua. By William S.
Cardell "
lo conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled,
"An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps,
Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during
the times therein mentioned." And also to ao Act, entitled "an Act,
supplementary to an Act, entitled an Act for the encouragement of Learning,
by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and pro-
prietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending
the benefits thereof to the
arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical
and other prints"
JAMES DILL, Clerk of the Southern District of New-York.
3. SEYMOUR, PRINTER, JOHN-STREET.
Gift
Clements lib.
7:27:39
CONTENTS.
moral causes,
7-
Introductory dissertation,
1
General view of language as intimately combined with.
the mental powers, the instruction and welfare of na-
tions, and the whole social and commercial intercourse
of rational beings,
26.
Structure of speech in its earliest known forms, deduced
from the nature and wants of man, and the condition of
savage life,
ny
Brief history of the progress of letters, from the time of
their invention, with a slight notice of the changes to
which language has been subjected from political and
13
General character of the English language, and its bis-
tory, from the invasion of England by Julius Cesar, to
the present time,
24
Philosophic exposition of speech in its practical adapta-
tion to the purposes of life,
34
Elementary principles and definitions,
39
Classification of words,
44
Nanes of things grammatically considered,
ib.
do. do. philosophically do.
ib.
Pronouns or substitutes,
62
Words of relation and description, adjectives,
66
Actions or affirmations-verbs,
107
Logic and philosophic elucidation of moods and tenses, 121
Etymons and practical explanations of the words errone-
ously called auxiliaries,
138
Verb to be,
141
Participles always adjectives by use,
165
Contractions in terms and in construction,
ib.
Adverbs,
178
Conjunctions,
180
Prepositions,
182
Irregular articolations called interjections,
184
Structure of sentences,
185
Lessons in parsing, grammatical,
187
do.
dos philosophic,
193
Specimens giving a slight view of the changes in language, 194
Examples of errors in practice,
203
1
집
​PREFACE.
This Essay is not offered as a finished work
;
though the opinions advanced have not been hastily
adopted, and it is believed they are substantially
correct. The writer is sensible he has not done
justice to his own principles; and the work would
not-have been made public, with all its present
defects, if other arduous and indispensable engage-
ments had not precluded the hope of devoting
attention to this volume, for a considerable time to
come.
A few preliminary ideas will indicate the general
design of this treatise, and will show that, however
its doctrines may differ from those heretofore taught,
they are not advanced without regard to existing
facts.
Language, the chief instrument of all knowledge,
must itself be the subject of interesting inquiry on
scientific principles. Instead of treating words as
the theme of contempt, and explaining them accor-
ding to the metaphysics of the twelfth century, it is
time that the modes of investigation, adopted in
other philosophic researches should be applied to
the structure of speech. A comprehensive plan of
induction was attempted; and as the proper means
to be employed for this purpose, a careful attention
Vi
PREFACE.
was given to etymology; to the comparison of va-
rious languages, in the literal, transitive, idiomatic,
and figurative meanings of words; and to the best
systems of logic and mental philosophy, compared
with the consciousness of what is passing in the
mind. The evidence which limited means could
draw from these sources, was constantly referred
to the civil and moral history; the physical and
social condition, of man, in relation to which, all
language is formed.
This volume may be regarded as a sketch of
general principles, rather than a set of special
rules. It is addressed chiefly to the reasoning fac-
ulties ; not to the memory, as an arbitrary form of
words; and is, in its general plan, purposely con-
fined to the plain and literal modes of speech.
The author has, in practice; witnessed its
effects in expanding and invigorating the minds of
the young'; in leading to habits of philosophic scru-
tiny, and to the application of language to its legi-
timate purposes.
If it should be thought, by some, that too much
freedom is used, in this work, in speaking of the
prevailing course of instruction in language, it is
not from intentional want of candor; but from de-
liberate conviction, that a large portion of what is re-
ceived as the exposition of speech, is alike opposed
to fact, to science, and to common sense : for under
no other name, but that of grammar, could such
PREFACE.
vi
gross inconsistencies be admitted in schools of the
present day, and pass for instruction. .
а
The real principles of speech are simple, beauti-
ful, and extensive in their application, to a degree
which must excite the admiration of every enlight-
ened investigator. How could it be supposed that
a nation of plain men could agree in the adoption
and use of a form of speech, the essential rules of
which should bear any considerable resemblance to
the artificial, perplexing, contradictory, and imprac-
ticable, systems taught in colleges and schools ?
It may be asked, then, why England and other
nations of Europe, with all their wealth, enterprise,
and general intelligence, should, in this particular
branch of learning, adhere to a theory which is re-
ally so absurd. In this, as in other instances of hu-
man imperfection, it is more easy to adduce a par-
allel than to offer a justification. The mind may
be unsuspectingly led to great extravagance, by
the influence of commanding anthority; and doc-
trines, which, according to the institutions of a coun-
try, would expose an individual to contempt, or
lead him to the stake, are received without ques-
tion, when sancti ned by tribunals of acknow-
ledged pre-eminence.
Why, it may be asked, did Egypt, the instruct-
ress of nations, bow to dogs and bulls, with the
reverential awe due to the living God? Why
were Greece and Rome, in their proudest days, the
viii
PREFACE.
slaves of a lunatic mythology; the degraded attend-
ants on soothsayers and gladiators ? and why does
Spain, at this age of the world, and after what
Spain has been, choose to lie down at a tyrant's
feet, and solicit the chains and tortures of a dun-
geon ?
>
Should this Essay, in its crude outline, be favor-
ably received, a second volume will be printed, de-
signed to exemplify the principles of figurative lan-
guage, in connexion with logic and rhetoric; natu-
ral and moral philosophy; including a slight view
of the appropriate influence of a national tongue,
on public literature, sentiments, pursuits, and char-
acter.
1
ESSAY ON LANGUAGE.
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
1. LANGUAGE has been long considered as e
subject of great interest, and has occupied the
ablest writers among most civilized nations. Yet,
after all the learning employed in its investigation,
a slight research will show, that most of the con-
tradictory systems which have been proposed are
radically defective, and that much remains to be
done. It is not expected that the expositions
about to be offered will be free from defect. The
intention is to present, in a new point of view, a
branch of learning deeply interesting to the lite-
rary world, and particularly to the American
States, under existing circumstances.
2. The plan of the present treatise differs, pro-
bably, from what has been attempted in any coun-
try. The ideas advanced will vary in several
important particulars from the received doctrines
of the schools, and the prejudices of inwrought
sentiment. Novelty, however, is not sought for
the sake of innovation. The leading object is
simple philosophic truth.
1
1
ESSAY ON LANGUAGE,
AS COXNECTED WITH THE
Faculties of the Mind,
AND AS APPLIED TO
THINGS IN NATURE AND ART.
SOCIA MENTIS LINGUA.
amil
BY WILLIAM S. CARDELL.
NEW-YORK.
CHARLES WILEY, No. 3 WALL-STREET.
1825.
B4825. In or
Southern District of New-Yorke, ss.
(EMBERED, That on the sixteenth day of February, A. D.
of America, William s Cardell, of the said District, has deposited in this
office the title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words
following, to wit :
“Essay on Language, as connected with the Faculties of the Mind, and as
applied to things io Nature and Art. Socia mentis lingua. By William S.
Cardell'
lo conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled,
“An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps,
Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during
the times therein mentioned." And also to an Act, entitled "an Act,
supplementary to an Act, entitled
an Act for the encouragement of learning,
by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and pro-
prietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending
the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical
and other pripts "
JAMES DILL, Clerk of the Southern District of New-York.
3. SEYMOUR, PRINTER, JOHN-STREET.
다​.
lemonts lib.
7:27:39
CONTENTS.
DUT
.
-
07-31
Introductory dissertation,
1
General view of language as intimately combined with.
the mental powers, the instruction and welfare of na-
tions, and the whole social and commercial intercourse
of rational beings,
26.
Structure of speech in its earliest known forms, deduced
from the nature and wants of man, and the condition of
savage life,
honey
Brief history of the progress of letters, from the time of
their invention, with a slight notice of the changes to
which language has been subjected from political and
moral causes,
13
General character of the English language, and its his-
tory, from the invasion of England by Julius Cesar, to
the present time,
24
Philosophic exposition of speech in its practical adapta-
tion to the purposes of life,
34
Elementary principles and definitions,
39
Classification of words,
44
Naines of things grammatically considered,
ib.
do. do. philosophically do.
ib.
Pronouns or substitutes,
62
Words of relation and description, adjectives,
66
Actions or affirmations--verbs,
107
Logic and philosophic elucidation of moods and tenses, 121
Etymons and practical explanations of the words errone-
ously called auxiliaries,
138
Verb to be,
141
Participles always adjectives by use,
165
Contractions in terms and in construction,
ib.
Adverbs,
178
Conjunctions,
180
Prepositions,
182
Irregular articnlations called interjections,
184
Structure of sentences,
185
Lessons in parsing, grammatical,
187
do. dos philosophic,
193
Specimens giving a slight view of the changes in language, 194
Examples of errors in practice,
203
www办​办​gswww山阳​办
​PREFACE.
This Essay is not offered as a finished work ;
though the opinions advanced have not been hastily
adopted, and it is believed they are substantially
correct. The writer is sensible he has not done
justice to his own principles; and the work would
not-have been made public, with all its present
defects, if other arduous and indispensable engage-
ments had not precluded the hope of devoting
attention to this volume, for a considerable time to
come.
A few preliminary ideas will indicate the general
design of this treatise, and will show that, however
its doctrines may differ from those heretofore taught,
they are not advanced without regard to existing
facts.
Language, the chief instrument of all knowledge,
must itself be the subject of interesting inquiry on
scientific principles. Instead of treating words as
the theme of contempt, and explaining them accor-
ding to the metaphysics of the twelfth century, it is
time that the modes of investigation, adopted in
other philosophic researches should be applied to
the structure of speech. A comprehensive plan of
induction was attempted; and as the proper means
to be employed for this purpose, a careful attention
VI
PREFACE.
was given to etymology; to the comparison of va-
rious languages, in the literal, transitive, idiomatic,
and figurative meanings of words; and to the best
systems of logic and mental philosophy, compared
with the consciousness of what is passing in the
mind. The evidence which limited means could
draw from these sources, was constantly referred
to the civil and moral history; the physical and
social condition, of man, in relation to which, all
language is formed.
This volume may be regarded as a sketch of
general principles, rather than a set of special
rules. It is addressed chiefly to the reasoning fac-
ulties ; not to the memory, as an arbitrary form of
words; and is, in its general plan, purposely con-
fined to the plain and literal modes of speech.
The author has, in practice; witnessed its
effects in expanding and invigorating the minds of
the young'; in leading to habits of philosophic scru-
tiny, and to the application of language to its legi-
timate purposes.
If it should be thought, by some, that too much
freedom is used, in this work, in speaking of the
prevailing course of instruction in language, it is
not from intentional want of candor; but from de-
liberate conviction, that a large portion of what is re-
ceived as the exposition of speech, is alike opposed
to fact, to science, and to common sense : for under
no other name, but that of grammar, could such
PREFACE.
vii
gross inconsistencies be admitted in schools of the
present day, and pass for instruction.
The real principles of speech are simple, beauti-
ful, and extensive in their application, to a degree
which must excite the admiration of every enlight-
ened investigator. How could it be supposed that
a nation of plain men could agree in the adoption
and use of a form of speech, the essential rules of
which should bear any considerable resemblance to
the artificial, perplexing, contradictory, and imprac-
ticable, systems taught in colleges and schools ?
It may be asked, then, why England and other
nations of Europe, with all their wealth, enterprise,
and general intelligence, should, in this particular
branch of learning, adhere to a theory which is re-
ally so absurd. In this, as in other instances of hu-
man imperfection, it is more easy to adduce a par-
allel than to offer a justification. The mind may
be unsuspectingly led to great extravagance, by
the influence of commanding anthority; and doc.
trines, which, according to the institutions of a coun-
try, would expose an individual to contempt, or
lead him to the stake, are received without ques-
tion, when sancti: ned by tribunals of acknow-
ledged pre-eminence.
Why, it may be asked, did Egypt, the instruct-
ress of nations, bow to dogs and bulls, with the
reverential awe due to the living God? Why
were Greece and Rome, in their proudest days, the
viji
PREFACE.
slaves of a lunatic mythology; the degraded attend-
;
ants on soothsayers and gladiators ? and why does
Spain, at this age of the world, and after what
Spain has been, choose to lie down at a tyrant's
feet, and solicit the chains and tortures of a dun-
geon ?
Should this Essay, in its crude outline, be favor-
ably received, a second volume will be printed, de-
signed to exemplify the principles of figurative lan-
guage, in connexion with logic and rhetoric; natu-
sal and moral philosophy; including a slight view
of the appropriate influence of a national tongue,
on public literature, sentiments, pursuits, and char-
acter.
ESSAY ON LANGUAGE.
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
1. LANGUAGE has been long considered as a
subject of great interest, and has occupied the
ablest writers among most civilized nations. Yet,
after all the learning employed in its investigation,
a slight research will show, that most of the con-
tradictory systems which have been proposed are
radically defective, and that much remains to be
done. It is not expected that the expositions
about to be offered will be free from defect. The
intention is to present, in a new point of view, a
branch of learning deeply interesting to the lite-
rary world, and particularly to the American
States, under existing circumstances.
2. The plan of the present treatise differs, pro-
bably, from what has been attempted in any coun-
try. The ideas advanced will vary in several
important particulars from the received doctrines
of the schools, and the prejudices of inwrought
sentiment. Novelty, however, is not sought for
the sake of innovation. The leading object is
simple philosophic truth.
1
2
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
3. Many obvious difficulties are presented in
connexion with such an undertaking. If the
principles advanced should be considered just, it
may not be easy to make them entertaining, and
reconcile them to the prejudices resulting from a
different course of instruction. These difficulties,
however, do not consist in the want of interest in
the nature of language itself, but in the want of
skill properly to explain it.
SO
4. Among persons of more conceit than intelli-
gence, it is not uncommon to hear the study of
language represented as being, under almost any
form, a dull and frivolous pursuit. It may
be
to those whose attention is confined to arbitrary
rules, founded on the mere forms of words : but
when we consider the faculty of speech as the dis-
tinguishing gift of the Creator to our race: as
inwoven with all the wants, enjoyments, and im-
provements of man: as the index to the progress
of society from barbarism to refinement, and of its
downward course through luxury, imbecility, and
crime to the depths of national degradation; con-
templating the structure of speech as blended with
the whole internal organization of society; with
instruction, laws, religious sentiments, moral con-
duct, and babits of thought; when we consider it
as the means of the Christian's present consolation
and future hope, and still extend our views to the
faculty of speech as the medium of social bliss for
superior intelligences in an eternal world : what
benighted man, rejecting the bounty of his Maker,
shall come forward and say that the study of lan-
guage is dull, or low, or unprofitable ?
5. Speech is to mind what action is to animal
bodies. Its improvement is the improvement of
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
our intellectual nature, and a duty to God who
gave it.
6. As a subject of philosophic contemplation,
and as parts of physiological or anatomical
science, the structure and use of the organs of
speech are among the most wonderful of the
Creator's works. There is, perhaps, no exercise
of mechanical skill among men equal to what is
produced in the organs of speech in rapid utter-
ance. The precision with which definite sounds.
are produced, in all their various complication,
almost without the consciousness of effort; the
nice distinctions, which are so infallibly preserved,
by variations almost inconceivably minute, render
the human articulation, to those capable of attend-
ing to its principles, an unceasing theme of admi-
ration. Yet, the learned Dugald Stewart justly
observes : “ Many authors have spoken of the
wonderful mechanism of speech; but none has
hitherto attended to the far more wonderful mne-
chanism which it puts into action, behind the
How wonderful indeed are those com-
plex and subtile springs of thought, which every
one feels himself to possess : whence originate the
distinctive powers and glory of man; but which
no acumen in philosophy has yet been able to
explain. An attention to the intimate connexion
between ideas and words will exhibit something of
that wonderful influence which language exerts
over our inmost sentiments and strongest associa-
tions.
scene."
7. The dispute of the mental philosophers whe-
ther ideas are innate, intuitive, or wholly acquired
through the medium of the senses, has no neces-
sary connexion with the structure of language.
Whether the rational faculties have their seat in
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
the medullary substance of the brain or not, there
is no need of stopping to inquire. The position
assumed as the foundation of the present treatise
is, that whatever may be the origin of our ideas,
there is no possibility of constructing elementary
language, to transmit them from one person to
an other, but by reference to sensible objects, con-
sentiently known. This is a leading principle, to
which our general train of reasoning will refer, and
which, suitably attended to, will explain many of
the seeming mysteries of speech.
8. Most of the philosophers who have attempted
to explain the wonderful structure of the human
intellect, have been evidently entangled by the
false theories of language, and though some of
them have been aware of the difficulty, they have
not attempted to apply the remedy. Mr. Locke
has many allusions to the absurd and mistaken sys-
tems of the professed writers on language ; but,
when he attempts to particularize, shows that he is
himself grossly misled by the errors of false teach-
ing.
9. This truly great philosopher, adopting the
doctrine which he had been taught, that a large
portion of the English language lay beyond the
reach of practical investigation, yet too clear-sight-
ed to suppose numerous words used without mean-
ing, introduces the following remarks. “ The'par-
ticles' are all marks of some action or intimation of
the mind, and therefore, to understand them right-
ly, the several views, postures, stands, turns, limita-
tions, and exceptions, and several other thoughts of
the mind, for which we have either none, or very
difficult names, are diligently to be studied.”
If Mr. Locke had even suspected, what is the
"unequivocal fact, that these marks of actions or in-
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
5
timations of the mind, are names of sensible objects,
or of obvious actions, with direct reference to things
in the material world, capable of being traced to
their origin, and clearly defined as nouns and
verbs, his comprehensive intellect would hardly
have been satisfied with the metaphysical approx-
imation to which his views were so mistakingly
confined. A deeper and broader knowledge of
comparative etymology, would have led him, in-
stead of studying the meanings of words in the un-
seen stands, limitations, and exceptions of the mind,
to seek them in the real views, postures, and turns,
of the early framers of speech.
10. Lord Bacon, speaking of the advancement
of learning, says-" And lastly, let us consider the
false appearances that are imposed upon us, by
words, which are framed and applied according to
the conceit and capacities of the vulgar sort: and
although we think we govern our words, and pre-
scribe it well-loquendum ut vulgus, sentiendum ut
sapientes;* yet certain it is, that words, as a Tar-
tar's bow, do shoot back upon the understanding
of the wisest, and mightily entangle and pervert
the judgment. So as it is almost necessary in all
controversies and disputations, to imitate the wis-
dom of the mathematicians, in setting down in the
very beginning, the definitions of our words and
terms, that others may know how we accept and
understand them, and whether they concur with us
or no. For it cometh to pass, that we are sure to
end there where we ought to have begun, which is
in questions and differences about words."
Profiting therefore by the suggestions of so able
a counsellor, we shall lay down a few elementary
*Speaking as the vulgar, thinking as the wise.
1*
6
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
principles, as the general foundation for a course.
of reasoning
:
1. As far as possible the regions of mere con-
jecture will be avoided. To Lord Monboddo
and the learned Dr. Wilkins may be left the fine-
wrought theories, respecting the first name which
an untutored savage would give to bread: or what
a language might be made by a nation of philoso-
phers, taking it from its elements. These are sup-
positions which can never be brought to the test of
experiment. Neither will it be profitable to dwell
on a useless inquiry whether language was the im-
mediate gift of the Creator to man, or, like his
other faculties, left to his own industry to improve.
One thing, however, may be observed respecting
an opinion which has been sustained with unne-
cessary zeal. If at the creation any portion of lan-
guage was directly communicated to man by his
Maker, it must have been such a language as was
suited to his then condition, and consequently very
different from the speech of a numerous society, with
all its complex regulations.
12. In perusing the most elaborate works on lan-
guage, we are some times struck with what may
be considered a waste of learning, employed with
very little of practical good sense.
Volumes are
filled with disquisitions which are of no importance,
or which can lead to no beneficial result. Though
we may say with Chancellor Bacon, that "know-
ledge is power," and add, that its general increase
is the advancement of our nature, yet there are in-
stances in which it is best for men to content them-
selves with that share of information which they can
easily acquire. In the facetious question, whether
the little children in the ancient city of Athens cried
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
7
when they were whipped, it seems better to admit the
fact from the inferences of common sense, and the
ordinary principles of human nature, than to make
a troublesome search for proofs in antiquated books,
13. Persons of requisite intelligence can hardly
fail to perceive how much the labor of study is sim-
plified by ascertaining the true elements of each
subject, and the just principles of their combina-
tion. With this suitable preparation, the whole
way 'becomes pleasant; and the want of this has
led to much confusion in treatises on grammar.
14. Explanations will be made with special re-
ference to the English language. As far as possi-
ble awkward pretensions to learning will be avoid-
ed; and where allusions are occasionally made to
the tongues of other nations, it will be for the sake
of supplying facts, and of illustrating rules by com-
parison; for though we may not fully agree with
the Emperor Charles V., that “As* many lan-
guages as a man understands, so many times he is a
man;" yet there is much of truth in the observation
of Ascham, “Even as a hawke fleeth not hie with
one wing, even so a man reacheth not to excellency
with one tongue.” This remark applies particu-
larly to those philosophic principles of language,
the proper understanding of which depends on a
comprehensive view of human speech, in its gen-
eral nature, and its comparative merits and de-
fects.
15. Language, in the nature of its expression,
has a three-fold relation to man: the sensations of
* Autant de langues que l'homme sait parler autant de
fois il est homme.. Charles V. as quoted by Brantam.
8
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
the body, the affections of the heart, and the ope-
rations of the understanding; in other words, there
are these three kinds of excitement, action, or instru-
mentality, by which ideas are interchanged be-
tween one percipient being and an other.
16. The bodily sensations are manifested, per-
haps, in some degree, by all organized beings.
The writhing or the groans of pain, the cries of
hunger, and other evidences of feeling, are mani-
fested in different modes and degrees by most ani-
mals. The young bird raising its open mouth for
food, is the natural indication of corporeal want.
Man has the various bodily sensations and their
outward signs, in common with brutes, and has
some expressions of sensation which they have not :
of these are laughter and weeping. This class of
signs is the lowest in order, least extensive in ap-
plication, and most remote in its nature from con-
ventional language.
а
17. It is doubtful whether any portion of what
we understand as the affections of the heart, can
properly be ascribed to inferior animals. The at-
tachment of brutes for their young, is a wise ordina-
tion of Providence for the preservation of the spe-
cies : but it extends no farther than is necessary for
this specific purpose. The fidelity of a dog for his
master, is the instinct or attribute of his nature ;
and this obsequious trustiness is as readily subser-
vient to the highwayman or pirate, as to the person
of most upright conduct.
It is only in the human species, that the moral
and social affections assume their expressive signs,
and become an intelligible and powerful language.
The indications of sentiment assume a variety of
forms, as they appear in the countenance, attitudes,
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
9
and gestures. The dejection of sorrow, the smile
of joy, the scowl of contempt, the frown of anger,
are a universal language, read and understood
alike by all nations. These natural signs may ex-
ist, independent of conventional language; but they
generally concur with it, and add greatly to its force.
These natural signs of mental feeling. are capable
of being refined and extended, to a considerable de-
gree, as in the ancient pantomimes, and appear to
be more or less practised by all nations. The open
arms of friendship, the fist clenched in anger, and
a multitude of others, are of this class.
18. An attentive investigation will show, that
there is no way in which the individual mind can,
within itself, to any extent, combine its ideas, but
by the intervention of words. Every process of
the reasoning powers, beyond the immediate per-
ception of sensible objects, depends on the struc-
ture of speech, and in a great degree, according
to the excellence of this chief instrument of all
mental operations, will be the means of personal
improvement, of the social transmission of
thought, and the elevation of national character.
From this, it may be laid down as a broad prin-
ciple, that no individual can make great advances
in intellectual improvement, beyond the bounds of
a ready formed language, as the necessary means
of his progress. . The ideas, therefore, as well as
the vocabulary of the savage, are necessarily limi-
ted ; but his words being comparatively few, are
often repeated, and become familiar by use. They
are also generally expressive, for they have imme-
diate relation to objects of sense ; and it is farther
observable, that where vocal language is restricted.
men have recourse to violent and significant ges-
ticulations to remedy its defects.
viii
PREFACE.
slaves of a lunatic mythology; the degraded attend-
ants on soothsayers and gladiators ? and why does
Spain, at this age of the world, and after what
Spain has been, choose to lie down at a tyrant's
feet, and solicit the chains and tortures of a dun-
geon ?
Should this Essay, in its crude outline, be favor-
ably received, a second volume will be printed, de-
signed to exemplify the principles of figurative lan-
guage, in connexion with logic and rhetoric; natu-
ral and moral philosophy; including a slight view
of the appropriate influence of a national tongue,
on public literature, sentiments, pursuits, and char-
acter.
1
ESSAY ON LANGUAGE.
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
1. LANGUAGE has been long considered as a
subject of great interest, and has occupied the
ablest writers among most civilized nations. Yet,
after all the learning employed in its investigation,
a slight research will show, that most of the con-
tradictory systems which have been proposed are
radically defective, and that much remains to be
done.
It is not expected that the expositions
about to be offered will be free from defect. The
intention is to present, in a new point of view, a
branch of learning deeply interesting to the lite-
rary world, and particularly to the American
States, under existing circumstances.
2. The plan of the present treatise differs, pro-
bably, from what has been attempted in any coun-
The ideas advanced will vary in several
important particulars from the received doctrines
of the schools, and the prejudices of inwrought
sentiment. Novelty, however, is not sought for
the sake of innovation. The leading object is
simple philosophic truth.
2
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
3. Many obvious difficulties are presented in
connexion with such an undertaking. If the
principles advanced should be considered just, it
may not be easy to make them entertaining, and
reconcile them to the prejudices resulting from a
different course of instruction. These difficulties,
however, do not consist in the want of interest in
the nature of language itself, but in the want of
skill properly to explain it.
4. Among persons of more conceit than intelli-
gence, it is not uncommon to hear the study of
language represented as being, under almost any
form, a dull and frivolous pursuit. It may be so
to those whose attention is confined to arbitrary
rules, founded on the mere forms of words : but
when we consider the faculty of speech as the dis-
tinguishing gift of the Creator to our race: as
inwoven with all the wants, enjoyments, and im-
provements of man: as the index to the progress
of society from barbarism to refinement, and of its
downward course through luxury, imbecility, and
crime to the depths of national degradation; con-
templating the structure of speech as blended with
the whole internal organization of society; with
instruction, laws, religious sentiments, moral con-
duct, and babits of thought; when we consider it
as the means of the Christian's present consolation
and future hope, and still extend our views to the
faculty of speech as the medium of social bliss for
superior intelligences in an eternal world : what
benighted man, rejecting the bounty of his Maker,
shall come forward and say that the study of lan-
guage is dull, or low, or unprofitable ?
5. Specch is to mind what action is to anima!
bodies. Its improvement is the improvement of
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
3
our intellectual nature, and a duty to God who
gave it,
6. As a subject of philosophic' contemplation,
and as parts of physiological or anatomical
science, the structure and use of the organs of
speech are among the most wonderful of the
Creator's works. There is, perhaps, no exercise
of mechanical skill among men equal to what is
produced in the organs of speech in rapid utter-
ance. The precision with which definite sounds
are produced, in all their various complication,
almost without the consciousness of effort; the
nice distinctions, which are so infallibly preserved,
by variations almost inconceivably minute, render
the human articulation, to those capable of attend-
ing to its principles, an unceasing theme of admi-
ration. Yet, the learned Dugald Stewart justly
observes : “ Many authors have spoken of the
wonderful mechanism of speech; but none .has
hitherto attended to the far more wonderful me-
chanism which it puts into action, behind the
scene." How wonderful indeed are those com-
plex and subtile springs of thought, which every
one feels himself to possess': whence originate the
distinctive powers and glory of man; but which
no acumen in philosophy has yet been able to
explain. An attention to the intimate connexion
between ideas and words will exhibit something of
that wonderful influence which language exerts
over our inmost sentiments and strongest associa-
tions.
7. The dispute of the mental philosophers whe-
ther ideas are innate, intuitive, or wholly acquired
through the medium of the senses, has no neces-
sary connexion with the structure of language.
Whether the rational faculties have their seat in
PREFACE.
given to etymology; to the comparison of va-
rious languages, in the literal, transitive, idiomatic,
and figurative meanings of words; and to the best
systems of logic and mental philosophy, compared
with the consciousness of what is passing in the
mind. The evidence which limited means could
draw from these sources, was constantly referred
to the civil and moral history; the physical and
social condition, of man, in relation to which, all
language is formed.
This volume may be regarded as a sketch of
general principles, rather than a set of special
rules. It is addressed chiefly to the reasoning fac-
ulties; not to the memory, as an arbitrary form of
words; and is, in its general plan, purposely con-
fined to the plain and literal modes of speech.
The author has, in practice; witnessed its
effects in expanding and invigorating the minds of
the young'; in leading to habits of philosophic scru-
tiny, and to the application of language to its legi-
timate purposes.
If it should be thought, by some, that too much
freedom is used, in this work, in speaking of the
prevailing course of instruction in language, it is
not from intentional want of candor; but from de-
liberate conviction, that a large portion of what is re-
ceived as the exposition of speech, is alike opposed
to fact, to science, and to common sense : for under
no other name, but that of grammar, could such
0
学
​泰国
​SE
27
C
A-
臺
​3
“需​“三
​3.
3
viii
PREFACE.
slaves of a lunatic mythology; the degraded attend-
ants on soothsayers and gladiators ? and why does
Spain, at this age of the world, and after what
Spain has been, choose to lie down at a tyrant's
feet, and solicit the chains and tortures of a dun-
a
geon ?
Should this Essay, in its crude outline, be favor-
ably received, a second volume will be printed, de-
signed to exemplify the principles of figurative lan-
guage, in connexion with logic and rhetoric; natu-
sal and moral philosophy; including a slight view
of the appropriate influence of a national tongue,
on public literature, sentiments, pursuits, and char-
acter.
1
ESSAY ON LANGUAGE.
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
1. Language has been long considered as a
subject of great interest, and has occupied the
ablest writers among most civilized nations. Yet,
after all the learning employed in its investigation,
a slight research will show, that most of the con-
tradictory systems which have been proposed are
radically defective, and that much remains to be
done. It is not expected that the expositions
about to be offered will be free from defect. The
intention is to present, in a new point of view, a
branch of learning deeply interesting to the lite-
rary world, and particularly to the American
States, under existing circumstances.
2. The plan of the present treatise differs, pro-
bably, from what has been attempted in any coun-
The ideas advanced will vary in several
important particulars from the received doctrines
of the schools, and the prejudices of inwrought
sentiment. Novelty, however, is not sought for
the sake of innovation. The leading object is
simple philosophic truth.
2
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
3. Many obvious difficulties are presented in
connexion with such an undertaking. If the
principles advanced should be considered just, it
may not be easy to make them entertaining, and
reconcile them to the prejudices resulting from a
different course of instruction. These difficulties,
however, do not consist in the want of interest in
the nature of language itself, but in the want of
skill properly to explain it.
4. Among persons of more conceit than intelli-
gence, it is not uncommon to hear the study of
language represented as being, under almost any
form, a dull and frivolous pursuit. It may be so
to those whose attention is confined to arbitrary
rules, founded on the mere forms of words : but
when we consider the faculty of speech as the dis-
tinguishing gift of the Creator to our race: as
inwoven with all the wants, enjoyments, and im-
provements of man: as the index to the progress
of society from barbarism to refinement, and of its
downward course through luxury, imbecility, and
crime to the depths of national degradation; con-
templating the structure of speech as blended with
the whole internal organization of society; with
instruction, laws, religious sentiments, moral con-
duct, and babits of thought; when we consider it
as the means of the Christian's present consolation
and future hope, and still extend our views to the
faculty of speech as the medium of social bliss for
superior intelligences in an eternal world : what
benighted man, rejecting the bounty of his Maker,
shall come forward and say that the study of lan-
guage is dull, or low, or unprofitable ?
>
5. Speech is to mind what action is to animal
bodies. Its improvement is the improvement of
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
2
our intellectual nature, and a duty to God who
gave it.
6. As a subject of philosophic contemplation,
and as parts of physiological or anatomical
science, the structure and use of the organs of
speech are among the most wonderful of the
Creator's works. There is, perhaps, no exercise
of mechanical skill among men equal to what is
produced in the organs of speech in rapid utter-
ance. The precision with which definite sounds.
are produced, in all their various complication,
almost without the consciousness of effort; the
nice distinctions, which are so infallibly preserved,
by variations almost inconceivably minute, render
the human articulation, to those capable of attend-
ing to its principles, an unceasing theme of admi-
ration. Yet, the learned Dugald Stewart justly
observes: “ Many authors have spoken of the
wonderful mechanism of speech; but none has
hitherto attended to the far more wonderful me-
chanism which it puts into action, behind the
scene." How wonderful indeed are those com-
plex and subtile springs of thought, which every
one feels himself to possess : whence originate the
distinctive powers and glory of man; but which
no acumen in philosophy has yet been able to
explain. An attention to the intimate connexion
between ideas and words will exhibit something of
that wonderful influence which language exerts
over our inmost sentiments and strongest associa-
tions.
7. The dispute of the metal philosophers whe-
ther ideas are innate, intuitive, or wholly acquired
through the medium of the senses, has no neces-
sary connexion with the structure of language.
Whether the rational faculties have their seat in
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
the medullary substance of the brain or not, there
is no need of stopping to inquire. The position
assumed as the foundation of the present treatise
is, that whatever may be the origin of our ideas,
there is no possibility of constructing elementary
language, to transmit them from one person to
an other, but by reference to sensible objects, con-
sentiently known. This is a leading principle, to
which our general train of reasoning will refer, and
which, suitably attended to, will explain many of
the seeming mysteries of speech.
8. Most of the philosophers who have attempted
to explain the wonderful structure of the human
intellect, have been evidently entangled by the
false theories of language, and though some of
them have been aware of the difficulty, they have
not attempted to apply the remedy. Mr. Locke
has
many
allusions to the absurd and mistaken sys-
tems of the professed writers on language ; but
when he attempts to particularize, shows that he is
himself grossly misled by the errors of ſalse teach-
ing.
9. This truly great philosopher, adopting the
doctrine which he had been taught, that a large
portion of the English language lay beyond the
reach of practical investigation, et too clear-sight-
ed to suppose númerous words used without mean-
ing, introduces the following remarks. “ The'par-
ticles' are all marks of some action or intimation of
the mind, and therefore, to understand them right-
ly, the several views, postures, stands, turns, limita-
tions, and exceptions, and several other thoughts of
the mind, for which we have either none, or very
difficult names, are diligently to be studied.”
If Mr. Locke had even suspected, what is the
inequivocal fact, that these marks of actions or in-
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
5
>
timations of the mind, are names of sensible objects,
or of obvious actions, with direct reference to things
in the material world, capable of being traced to
their origin, and clearly defined as nouns and
verbs, bis comprehensive intellect would hardly
have been satisfied with the metaphysical approx-
imation to which his views were so mistakingly
confined. A deeper and broader knowledge of
comparative etymology, would have led him, in-
stead of studying the meanings of words in the un-
seen stands, limitations, and exceptions of the mind,
to seek them in the real views, postures, and turns,
of the early framers of speech.
10. Lord Bacon, speaking of the advancement
of learning, says-—"And lastly, let us consider the
false appearances that are imposed upon us, by
words, which are framed and applied according to
the conceit and capacities of the vulgar sort : and
although we think we govern our words, and pre-
scribe it well-loquendum ut vulgus, sentiendum ut
sapientes ;* yet certain it is, that words, as a Tar-
tar's bow, do shoot back upon the understanding
of the wisest, and mightily entangle and pervert
the judgment. So as it is alınost necessary in all
controversies and disputations, to imitate the wis-
dom of the mathematicians, in setting down in the
very beginning, the definitions of our words and
terms, that others may know how we accept and
understand them, and whether they concur with us
For it cometh to pass, that we are sure to
end there where we ought to have begun, which is
in questions and differences about words."
Profiting therefore by the suggestions of so able
a counsellor, we shall lay down a few elementary
or no.
* Speaking as the vulgar, thioking as the wise.
1*
8
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
the body, the affections of the heart, and the ope-
rations of the understanding; in other words, there
are these three kinds of excitement, action, or instru-
mentality, by which ideas are interchanged be-
tween one percipient being and an other.
16. The bodily sensations are manifested, per-
haps, in some degree, by all organized beings.
The writhing or the groans of pain, the cries of
hunger, and other evidences of feeling, are mani-
fested in different modes and degrees by most ani-
mals. The young bird raising its open mouth for
food, is the natural indication of corporeal want.
Man has the various bodily sensations and their
outward signs, in common with brutes, and has
some expressions of sensation which they have not :
of these are laughter and weeping. This class of
signs is the lowest in order, least extensive in ap-
plication, and most remote in its nature from con-
ventional language.
17. It is doubtful whether any portion of what
we understand as the affections of the heart, can
properly be ascribed to inferior animals. The at-
tachment of brutes for their young, is a wise ordina-
tion of Providence for the preservation of the spe-
cies : but it extends no farther than is necessary for
this specific purpose. The fidelity of a dog for his
master, is the instinct or attribute of his nature ;
and this obsequious trustiness is as readily subser-
vient to the highwayman or pirate, as to the person
of most upright conduct.
It is only in the human species, that the moral
and social affections assume their expressive signs,
and become an intelligible and powerful language.
The indications of sentiment assume a variety of
forms, as they appear in the countenance, attitudes,
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
9
and gestures. The dejection of sorrow, the smile
of joy, the scowl of contempt, the frown of anger,
are a universal language, read and understood
alike by all nations. These natural signs may ex-
ist, independent of conventional language; but they
generally concur with it, and add greatly to its force.
These natural signs of mental feeling. are capable
of being refined and extended, to a considerable de-
gree, as in the ancient pantomimes, and appear to
be more or less practised by all nations. The open
arms of friendship, the fist clenched in anger, and
a multitude of others, are of this class.
18. An attentive investigation will show, that
there is no way in which the individual mind can,
within itself, to any extent, combine its ideas, but
by the intervention of words. Every process of
the reasoning powers, beyond the immediate per-
ception of sensible objects, depends on the struc-
ture of speech, and in a great degree, according
to the excellence of this chief instrument of all
mental operations, will be the means of personal
improvement, of the social transmission
,
of
thought, and the elevation of national character.
From this, it may be laid down as a broad prin-
ciple, that no individual can make great advances
in intellectual improvement, beyond the bounds of
a ready formed language, as the necessary means
of his progress. The ideas, therefore, as well as
the vocabulary of the savage, are necessarily limi-
ted; but his words being comparatively few, are
often repeated, and become familiar by use. They
are also generally expressive, for they have imme-
diate relation to objects of sense ; and it is farther
observable, that where vocal language is restricted.
men have recourse to violent and significant ges-
ticulations to remedy its defects.
10
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
1
19. The cultivation of the mental powers de-
pends chiefly on social institutions ; but all esta-
blishments of a public nature are very closely
connected with the individual intelligence in which
they originate, and on which their maintenance
must necessarily depend. It is the reciprocity of
action and reaction, at every step, and these two
principles cannot long be greatly out of propor-
tion to each other. Such is the nature of man,
that no government can far extend its influence and
power, without laws, religious doctrines, or rules
of moral conduct, contained in some written form.
The union and consequent elevation of large com-
munities, depend on the concentration of the pub-
lic sentiment. All people, ignorant of writing,
are, by necessary consequence, divided into small
tribes, and can make but a slow progress in civili-
zation. The consistency and elevation of public
sentiment, for any length of time, depend on ed-
ucation in some form or other; but instruction is
not likely to acquire much system or extent, while
left to depend wholly on oral communication. It
is with propriety, therefore, that the knowledge of
letters is generally recognized by philosopbic wri-
ters, as the first important advance in the career of
social refinement, and all nations destitute of writ-
ten records characterized as barbarian.
20. Written as well as spoken language, is exceed-
ingly important to man, in his social condition;
and the unlettered tenants of the forest must, at
times, strongly feel the want of some means to ex-
tend their ideas beyond the immediate objects
around them.
21. Many evidences exist of the proneness
men to devise visible signs in aid of oral language;
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
11
and of all the systems of this kind, none can com-
pare with the Egyptian hieroglyphics, either for
systematic skill, or for the extent of their appli-
cation.
22. The Egyptians possessed extraordinary ad.
vantages for their peculiar system of writing. The
astonishing fertility of their country furnished an
easy means of livelihood, to a vast population.
The numerous body of priests were, by their large
landed revenues, freed in a great degree, from pe-
cuniary care, while they held sufficient political
influence to inspire them with ambition. Though
their hieroglyphics must have been extremely com-
plicated and unwieldy, compared with modern let-
ters, yet it appears to have been, for the initiated
class, the great business of life, and means of dis-
tinction, to become exceedingly familiar with their
principles and use. Under these special, favore
ing circumstances, it is less wonderful that Egypt,
with a cumbrous form of written language, rose to
great comparative excellence in arts, sciences, po-
Jicy, and laws.
23. There is one kind of advancement, how.
ever, to which the system of hieroglyphics, must,
from its nature, have opposed an absolute barrier.
The Egyptians, with this species of writing, could
not have excelled in works of a high order of ge-
nius and taste. Accordingly, we find they are not
credited by their cotemporaries, or immediate suc-
cessors,
for any thing of this nature.
And again,
if a few individuals of extraordinary intellectual
powers could have produced a masterly perform-
ance, in poetry or oratory, it could not have been
transmitted to posterity, through a medium of wri-
ting unintelligible to all subsequent ages. All,
12
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
>
therefore, which we are able to learn of this in-
teresting nation, is from others, and not from their
own writers. Our information concerning them is
a partial detail of prominent facts, in science, his-
tory, and civil policy; but extends not to their in-
ternal intercourse, their turns of expression, moral
feeling, and social habits of life ; for these could
only have been learned from their own books.
24. And here it is proper to call the reader's at-
tention, for a moment, to the important philoso-
phic difference, between all hieroglyphic or arbi-
trary characters, and the letters which représent
elementary sounds and their combinations, as em-
ployed by the civilized world at the present day.
25. It is a general law, that in all subjects of
human inquiry, their principles may be easily un-
derstood and effectually applied, in proportion as
their elements are few and simple. The system of
Egyptian hieroglyphics must have been one with
which it required a large portion of human life to
become familiar; because their original elements
must have been very numerous, and liable to great
variations, on metaphysical principles.
26. The system of writing, with our ordinary
letters, is, on the contrary, reducible to complete
mathematical calculation. This is a most impor-
tant fact in the science of language, and was re-
markably exemplified during the late war in Eu-
rope. When the struggle for power was at its
height, and kingdoms were the stake contested, it
became an object of vast importance to transmit
intelligence, with the greatest possible secresy.
The ablest men were employed to write in charac-
ters, which, without the proper key, should defy
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
13
all human talent to read. These letters were in-
tercepted, in several instances, forwarded to the
French emperor, and handed over to the mathe-
maticians to decipher. By assuming any lan-
guage, at discretion, selecting a single character of
the mysterious document, and proceeding by re-
peated trials, they ascertained what letter it was,
by its relative position in words. Having found
one, the next became more easy, and so on pro-
gressively, through each subsequent approxima-
tion.
27. To Cadmus of Phenicia is generally as-
cribed the immortal honor of inventing the let-
ters; a device of more importance in human af-
fairs than any other, for which our race has ever
been indebted to an individual. It is proper, how-
ever, to observe, that this subject is one on which
learned men are far from being universally agreed.
It is maintained by some that the letters introduced
into Syria by Cadmus, and thence into Greece,
bad been in use, in India, for a long time previous.
The Phenician letters were at first sixteen in num-
ber. They were soon introduced into most of the
neighboring countries, and were considerably
modified, according to the fancy of the different
people, or from unavoidable circumstances. Their
number was also soon increased.
plication appears to have been, at first, exceed-
ingly limited, both from the want of skill in their
use, and of the necessary materials on which they
could be employed
Their ap-
28. A new era now dawned on the world, and
instead of mere oral traditions, greatly perverted
in the transmission, the chief events were recorded
on tables of marble, lead, or brass.
To these suc-
2
14
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
ceeded parchment, the papyrus of Egypt, and the
inner bark of trees, as the first crude materials in
the composition of books... The splendor in-
creased. Poets and orators arose ; till all which
was great in conception, brilliant in action, or at-
tractive in moral feeling, found advocates to record
and transinit them, as models for imitation, to ad-
miring posterity. These early productions are
now lost, with the exception of a very small num-
ber ; but those few will never be lost, while man-
kind continue to cherish genius, or hold in honor
the most striking models of human character. If
these writings were not intrinsically excellent,
they would still be of vast interest, as the intellec-
tual records of our race, at a time so reinote, and
under circumstances so different from the present
condition of the world.
29. Of all the writings which have been trans-
mitted to us, through the long train of ages, the
book of Job is generally allowed to be of the
greatest antiquity. The locality and the writer of
this work are unknown ; but the character of its
style is of an extraordinary cast. Independent of its
theology, the energy of thought, the original and
bold imagery, the development of the early hu-
man character, displayed in this book, render it one
of the most interesting pieces of composition, any
where to be found. To whatever time or place it
may be referred, it must have been written where
written language had previously made very consi-
derable progress. Whatever doubts may exist on
other points, the book of Job itself affords evi-
'dence, that at the time of its composition, more
than one kind of writing was known; for in the
19th chapter, we read the following passage : “O
that my words were now written.
O that they
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION,
15
*
were printed in a book! that they were graven
with an iron pen, and lead, in the rock for ever."
30. One of the immediate consequences of
written language, was to increase the sphere of ci-
vilization; to give greater extension and system to
governments; and to subject the mere personal
strength of men, like that of horses and elephants,
to the higher powers of intellect.
One set of writers attribute the first letters to
Moses, either as his own invention, or as divinely
communicated to him, for the purpose of writing
the ten commandments. They allege, in support
of this presumption, that the commandments, as
written by the Jews, contain all the letters of the
Hebrew alphabet, except the teth. An other argu-
ment offered by these writers, in favor of their po-
sition, is the supposed fact that no book was
previously written; but they appear to have over-
looked the 21st chapter of Numbers, where we
read: "Wherefore it is said, in the book of the
wars of the Lord, what he did in the Red Sea, and
in the brooks of Arnon, and at the stream of the
brooks that goeth down to the dwelling of Ar, and
leaneth upon the border of Moab."
Wherever the letters may have been invented,
there appears to be no doubt that among those
who early adopted their use, were particularly the
Chaldeans and the Jews. The languages of these
two nations were doubtless of common origin.
Large specimens of both, in their early forms, are
still preserved. They were very similar, in the
mode of writing, from the right hand to the left,
in the form of letters employed, and in their gram-
matical structure.
31. There is one important quality of the mind,
16
INTRODUCTORY, DISSERTATION.
which is to be particularly noticed, in attending to
language, under any of its forms. There is, every
where, an aptitude in human talent, to conform
to the necessity of circumstances.
Our species,
destitute of the best means of prosecuting desira-
ble objects, resort to expedients, and acquire a de-
gree of skill, which, without the trial, would seem
beyond the compass of human power. A person
deprived of sight or hearing, arrives at an acute-
ness in the exercise of his remaining senses, which
excites the admiration of beholders. These prin-
ciples apply, in a considerable degree, among a
people destitute of written language. A great
variety of devices have, at different times, been
adopted, to remedy a want, which, in every
unlet-
tered community, must be severely felt. In addi-
tion to the various accounts handed down from
antiquity, on this subject, the native Americans
furnish many examples of recent date.
9
32. The emblematic paintings, the knots in
strings, and various symbolic characters, among
the Mexicans and Peruvians, displayed a consider-
able degree of mental refinement. Picture writing,
in some form, has prevailed in nearly every age ;
and the present written languages of China and
Japan are hieroglyphic, to a considerable extent,
and not entirely arbitrary, as has been represented,
in their structure and modifications.
The hieroglyphics of Egypt, from a common
principle, must have had a tendency to retard the im-
mediate adoption and progress of letters. This
previous system of theirs must have been of course
combined with their settled habits and prejudices.
Being inade familiar by use, they would not be
likely to reject it, for a new system, though it might
be one iutrinsically better. For some reasons of
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
17-
this kind, it doubtless happened that the Coptic
alphabet was one of the latest formed, of any
among the contiguous nations. It is probable
also that the habits gained from hieroglyphic wri-
ting, tended to increase this Egyptian alphabet to
the inconvenient number of two hundred and
two letters, a large proportion of them represent-
ing syllables, instead of elementary sounds.
33. An other fact is very important, as explain-
ing an extensive principle, running through the
first forms of written language. The Syrians,
and most of the contiguous nations, looked to the
Egyptians, as teachers, in most of the sciences then
known; and their communications to others were
almost entirely through the medium of hieroglyph-
ics. This system very naturally extended its influ-
ence to letter writing, as is strikingly shown in the
names given to the alphabetic characters, and
their adaptation, on hieroglyphic principles, to the
great leading words in various ancient tongues.
Thus all the names of the letters themselves, in
these languages, were pre-existing, significant
words. Aleph in Hebrew, and Alpha in Greek,
were only a modification of the same noun, and
signified leader, precursor, chief. This first letter
was also the number one, and represented the gen-
eral idea of unity. In composition it entered into
the name of the Deity, of light, wisdom, priority,
and being in general. The other characters used
in the early writings were also alphabetic and hie-
roglyphic at the same time.
34. Among nations destitute of any kind of
writing, various devices are used, to aid the me-
mory in preserving the knowledge of events.
Among the ancient nations, the conditions of trea-
2*
13
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION,
ties were 'recited before large bodies of people ;
remarkable formalities were used to give them so-
leninity, and such standing monuments were erect-
ed, as might serve to keep them in remembrance..
The old became the teachers and guides of the
young; for the wise Author of Nature, here, as in
all the dispensations of his providence, left not his
rational creatures without some means of instruc-
tion. Those who had passed the vigor of man-
hood, delighted in recounting the scenes of former
days, which were listened to with delight, by the
eager curiosity of the young. Specimens of rude
carving were resorted to, as memorials of impor-
tant events. Under such circumstances, mere oral
language acquires a form and consistency, of
which, reasoning upon abstract principles, we
should hardly conceive it capable. All these op-
erative causes were necessary to secure the far-
ther progress of human improvement; for consid-
erable advances must have been made, in lan-
guage and mental cultivation, before men could
invent an alphabet and bring it into use.
35. The instruction to be gained from the in-
tellectual contrivances of savage life, is a very in-
teresting theme to the mental philosopher. Among
the Indians of North America, it is common, in
complex transactions, for the chief orator to 'recite
the conditions, article by article, and on the state-
ment of each, to deliver a string of wampum, to a
chosen witness, in token that he is to keep that
particular portion in strict remembrance.
36. Though alphabetic characters appear to
have been, soon after their invention, adopted by
several nations, their progress was very unequal.
In some countries, their use for ages was exceed-
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
19
ingly limited; and in others they appear to have
been entirely lost, after being once introduced.
. 37. The coufederated republics of Greece, rising
in their own energies, with a language intrinsically
excellent, compounded of its own elements, unimi-
tative, unborrowed, rose to a pitch of excellence, in
works of genius and taste, which modern nations
are contented to imitate, and would hardly dare
attempt to surpass.
The · unrivalled excellence of the Grecian
language and literature, sustained the mental do-
minion of these people, long after their civil power
had failed ; and the hardy Roman warriors,
who had subjected the country to their arms, be-
came enamored pupils of the foes they had con-
quered. The history of the world affords many
analogous instances of the triumph of intellect
over physical force. A conspicuous example of
this is the conquest of China by the Tartars, the
effect of which was simply to conform the victors
to the customs of those whom they had nominally
subjugated. The conquest of Greece tended
greatly to improve the literary taste of Rome,
while the wealth and luxury introduced, at the
same period, from the east, was undermining its
political power. The hordes that soon poured in,
from the north, on this devoted land, exercised their
ferocity alike on the monuments of virtue and the
productions of genius; and the consequent intel-
lectual degradation is hardly more evident, from
historical facts, than from the declining style of
the writers who record them.
38. The models of excellence which escaped the
general devastation, at the downfall of the Roman
empire, were collected for a time in Constantinople.
a
20
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
a
This city in its turn was doomed to yield to the
dominion of barbarian foes, and a series of revolu-
tions followed, in disastrous succession. The
history of this period is a history of violence and
crime; but even these bloody revolutions, so
frequent and desolating, assume a melancholy
interest, as connected with the scanty remains of
learning in the world.
In the seventh century, an extraordinary indi-
vidual, founding a religious system, on the love
of show, and the sensual appetites of men, had
given an impulse which was overspreading the
fairest portion of the earth. His Arabian followers
invaded the fertile plains of the Nile. After an
obstinate siege of fourteen months, Alexandria,
then one of the most splendid cities in the world,
was taken by Omrou, general under the Caliph
Omar. The Mahometan banners were every
where displayed on the ancient walls of Egypt;
and the Saracens, like the locusts of a former age,
overspread the land. This monarchy had be-
come, for the second time, the general center of
science, and for centuries, the royal library of
Alexandria had been the pride of successive kings.
Every exertion of learning and power had been
employed to enrich this great storehouse of in-
tellectual wealth ; which now exceeded half a
million volumes; the choicest remains of preceding
times. The barbarian general knew not how to
dispose of this stupendous pile, and sent to his
more barbarian sovereign for orders. The an-
swer was,
“ If these books of the infidels contain
only what is conformable to the Koran, they are
useless; if contrary to it, they are mischievous
and should be destroyed.” The work of ruin was
begun. It was a ferocious warfare on all the em-
llishments of human life. For weeks these
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.'
21
volumes served as fuel for the Alexandrian baths.
They were carried out in huge piles, and burned
in bonfires, the scene of savage sport. Hopeless
Egypt saw the flames of her conquerors, gleaming
far distant, through the darkness of her midnight,
brightening her temples, pyramids, and towers,
with a splendor more solemn than the deep con-
trasting shade. In the terrific brilliancy, so soon
to pass away, the accumulated wisdom of ages,
the pride of human genius, the glory of nations,
the reward of heroes, were sinking for ever, in
oblivious night.
39. These violent commotions among the na-
tions of the earth, though shocking to the moral
sensibilities of our nature, are deeply instructive
in the knowledge of our fellow-beings. The
astonishing contrasts presented, in various instan-
ces, impress the mind most strongly with the force
of education and early habit, in forming the charac
ters of men. The civilian, the linguist, the philo-
sopher may gain important instruction from this
contact of nations, the most opposite in customs
and degrees of improvement. The savage con-
querors of Italy erected their huts, in sight of
Roman palaces unoccupied. The costliest utensils
of luxurious refinement they regarded as the play-
things of children; and preferred the wooden
spoons of their native forests to the table furniture
of the Cesars.
But amidst all the revolutions of human affairs,
there have been a chosen few, in every age of the
world, favored by genius, who have delighted in
cultivating the better qualities of our nature, and
have cast their intellectual light on the circle
around them. Religion, however obscured and
perverted, in particular instances, has in its general
22
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
course, been the great preserver and promoter of
letters among mankind. The volumes deemed
sacred have been spared, in the most shocking
changes. Copies of these were multiplied; their
original forms preserved ; and amid all the muta-
tions of worldly fashion, held more sacred for their
antiquity Of this kind were the Zendavesta of
the Persians, the Jewish Scriptures and Talmud,
the sacred Edda of Scandinavia, and the Gospel
of the Messiah to the Christian world. It is
par-
ticularly in the history and comparison of lan-
guages, that the original copies and various transla-
tions of these writings are invaluable to mankind.
40. A train of centuries succeeded, called the dark
ages, when general ignorance prevailed, and all
regard for liberal improvement seemed nearly lost.
In this period of bigotry, under all the evils of
the prevailing gloom, the monasteries were, in one
respect, of vast importance to the cause of learn-
ing. They were sanctuaries from the violence of
the times, and the fragments which remained from
the general commotion were here preserved.
present occasion.
41. Many interesting facts might be adduced
from this portion of mental history. A single
instance must suffice for the
About the year three hundred and seventy-six,
christianity was introduced among the Visi-Goths,
on the borders of the Euxine Sea. The scrip-
tures were, not long after, translated into their
language, by Ulphilas their bishop, a man of un-
common learning and virtue, for the age in which
he lived. Nearly a thousand years after, a por-
tion of this work, containing the four Evangelists,
was found in the convent of Werden, in Germany
It is, a most valuable relic of the Teutonic lan-
:
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
23
guage, considered the best of ancient tongues, in
their pure barbarian form, and the basis of most of
" the northern tongues of Europe. This work ob-
tained the name of the silver book, from the color
of its letters, written on pages of deep black.
Copious specimens of this work, as quoted by dif-
ferent European philologists, appear to exhibit un-
common excellence in the structure of the lan-
guage.. We find in these Teutonic terms the ra-
dicals of many Saxon words, which are important
roots of our modern English derivations.
42. After many convulsions, learning took
another direction, and received a new impulse from
a quarter least expected. The Saracens, by their
conquests in Egypt, Asia, and the empire of the
Greeks, became possessed of the most valuable
writings which remained, and, under Mostanser,
founder of the college of Al Madrasa, Haroun Al
Rasebid, and a succession of distinguished
Caliphs, of the race of Abbas, Bagdad became the
great center whence the glimmerings of intellectual
light were diffused over a benighted world. Coarse
paper made of cotton was in use; and for pens,
the calamus reed was employed, as it still is in
Syria, Egypt, and the Barbary-States.
a
43. It is a high credit to the sovereigns and
savans of Arabia, that in this age of prevailing
ignorance and error, great pains was taken to cul-
tivate their language in its purity, and particular-
ly, that their alphabet exhibits better knowledge
of the science of elementary sounds, than any
other ever formed. The trifling remains of learn-
ing in Europe had fled with the monks to the
cloisters, its only safe asyluın, in the general su-
perstition. Some degree of re-action now took
24
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
place. By way of Venice, or through Morocco
and Spain, a portion of Arabian science was car-
ried to the west, and with it many of the technical
terms which it employed. The elements of Alge-
bra and the figures of Arithmetic, wholly unknown
in Europe before, were derived from the same
source.
PART SECOND.
BRIEF SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
44. In ancient Britain and Celtic Gaul, the
language of the people was intimately combined
with their religion. The Druids were the teach-
ers of both, and were the rulers of the country.
Every thing, of binding force over the public mind,
issued from the sacred groves. Such was Eng-
land, when Cesar's legions raised the Roman
eagles on its shores. This distinguished scholar,
as well as conqueror, has told us that these con-
tiguous nations had the same religion ; a similar
form of government and laws; and the same
general features of character. Their speech was
like themselves, rude, energetic, irregular, and
little known in writings of any kind.
The Roman dominion in this country, which in
some form, lasted more than four hundred
troduced a change which is still descernible in the old
books; but the rude state of these early times, and
the great subsequent revolutions, have left us no
authentic records of their precise nature or extent.
years, in-
45. The invasions by the Picts and Scots great-
ly harassed the inhabitants of South Britain, but
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
25
produced no essential change in their language;
because these invasions did not lead to conquest
and eventual union of the people; and because,
though hostile to each other, their language was
nearly the same. It was when the Saxons came
to establish themselves in Britain, and from the
thrones of their various kings, to wield their do-
minion, that the whole moral order was changed.
Their language of Gothic origin was commingled
with the Gaelic; and of the rough strong mate-
:
rials of both, the foundation of our modern Eng-
lish was formed. A portion of those native inha-
bitants who escaped the slaughter of conquest,
disdaining a foreign yoke, retired to the moun-
tains of Wales and of Scotland, where their ancient
language and distinguishing features of character
may still be plainly traced.
46. The Saxons and original Britons remaining
in England, were united under the heptarchy, in all
the intercourse of social life, and on the consolida-
tion of that confederacy, became completely one
people. There was very little of exterior influ-
ence to effect the regular progress in their lan-
guage. Their acquaintance with the Danes was,
like that of the Picts and Scots, chiefly in the
clashing of arms, and not in the connexions of
domestic life.
47. The reign of Alfred, which immediately
succeeded, presents an other great epoch in the
literature and language of England. This Prince,
under the numerous disadvantages which surround-
ed him, appears to have been, as to all personal
qualities, one of the greatest monarchs that ever
wielded a scepter. He wrote several works with
his own hand, some of which still exist, and are
3
26
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
the standard specimens of the language at that
time. To him Oxford is chiefly indebted for its
subsequent splendor; and it is not too much to
say, that the national greatness of England has
taken a higher course from the impulse given by
this extraordinary man. He shines as a brilliant
star, seen through the cloudy mantle of the night;
and we cannot read his history without a powerful
feeling of admiration for his talents and his virtues.
48. The next important epoch is the Norman
conquest. This produced an essential change in
the character of the English language, and the
Norman French, being formally introduced by an
edict of William the Conqueror, continued to be
the language of the court, and of legal proceed-
ings, for three centuries, down to the time of Ed-
ward the Third.
49. The discovery of America and of the east-
ern passage to India, during the reign of Henry
the Seventh, opened new scenes to the wondering
inhabitants of Europe, and gave a direction to
commerce ; to the intercourse and policy of na-
tions, unknown before.
These recent events, with the art of printing, have
greatly increased the means of knowledge, and
opened various channels to improvement, mental,
physical, and social, beyond those possessed by
former ages. They have also extended their irre-
sistible consequences to the English language; but
this subject has not hitherto received that attention,
as a great concern of public interest, to which, by
its relative importance, it is so justly entitled.
50. One circumstance of great interest in rela-
tion to our language, seems not to be at all adverted
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
27
to by the British writers: and they continue to
publish its vocabulary, as if chiefly made for Lon-
don alone. But the man of enlarged mind can
hardly fail to perceive that this language, instead
of being, as formerly, limited to England, has,
within a comparatively short period, been spread
over vast regions in the four quarters of the globe;
and by the joint influence of the two most com-
mercial nations, is still extending with increased
rapidity. From every human probability it is soon
to be the language of more than a hundred millions
of people, and perhaps of one-third of the human
race. It is the common property of these exten-
sive communities, so widely separated from each
other; the instrument of their intellectual improve-
ment, their social enjoyment, their commercial
transactions: the great menrat attendant, from
which the dearest ties of domestic life derive their
highest gratification: the handmaid of science in
all its walks: the medium of instruction, civil,
moral, and religioas: the basis of all the relations
of war and peace : of public security, and personal
right: of jurisprudence, and the decisions of life
and death. This whole composition of individual
elevation and national glory, so interwrought with
every ligament of social existence, all this amazing
system of intellectual machinery depends on the
combinations of twenty-six little marks, of different
forms, made on paper, and called letters.
51. The astonishing number of changes capa-
ble of being produced by the varied uses of a few
elementary materials, afford so many instances of
the simple sublime, in the plans of Divine wisdom.
All that music ever did, or ever can perform, de-
pends on the variations wrought on seven notes.
Nine figures, with a cipher, in their combinations,
28
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
give all possible powers of number, and the whole
machinery on earth is reducible to the five distinc-
tive forms of the wedge, the lever, the wheel, the
pulley, and the screw. All these analogies, drawn
from the principles of other branches of science,
point to a course almost directly opposite to that so
long pursued in grammar schools: for though lan-
guage, especially the English, in its present struc-
ture, is too irregular to be reduced to mathematical
precision, its elements may, to a considerable degree,
be analyzed, their combinations discovered, their
anomalies lessened, and a basis laid for gradualim-
provement, according to general and consistent
laws.
52. Scarcely any idea appears to have prevail-
ed, among English scholars, that their language
has an origin and a character of its own. So lit-
tle was known of independent English rules, that
the celebrated Milton, may, in the following pas-
sage, be considered as in some degree the inter-
preter for the British universities in his time. “The
scholars should begin their studies with some good
grammar, either that now used or any better : and
while this is doing, their speech is to be fashioned
to a distinct and clear pronunciation, as near as
may be to the Italian, especially in the vowels;
for we Englishmen, being far northerly, do not
open our mouths in the cold air wide enough to
grace a southern tongue: but we are observed by
all nations to speak exceeding close and inward ; so
that to smatter Latin with an English mouth is as
ill as hearing law French."
53. It is only by an attention to the elementary
structure of our own language, on scientific princi-
ples, that rational improvement can be expected.
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
29
A train of circumstances has led to a general sys-
tem of false teaching in England, which Americans
have hitherto submissively followed. It is com-
paratively a short time since all the learned works
of Europe were written in Greek or Latin. The
latter was connected with religious faith and reli-
gious prepossessions, when all depended on the
church of Rome. Though these tongues had ceas-
ed to be any where spoken, they were emphatically
called the learned languages, and what they styled
the vulgar tongue was made an object of seconda-
ry concern, or rather of absolute contempt. How-
ever excellent the literature of Greece and Rome
may be, there was great pedantry in the English
colleges, in attempting to graft the original branches
of their language upon these foreign stocks. There
is certainly a strange ignorance, both in England
and America, of the real fountains of our native
speech. All that lias been done in exploring these
sources is by a very small number of unaided indi-
viduals. The necessery consequence is, that so
far as public patronage has extended, good Eng-
lish has always been sacrificed to bad Latin and
Greek; and attempts to explain our mother tongue
have been by arbitrary and partial analogies from
foreign languages, with which it has but a remote
affinity. The English tongue is, in its original
structure, one of the most easy in the world to
learn and follow; but made one of the most diffi-
cult by the errors of false practice.
54. On the subject of making any change in
spirit or form in the English language, the most
opposite opinions prevail. It is said, on one hand.
that it is already fixed, and can admit no change:
that Dr. Johyson has settled its vocabulary : Walk-
er, Sheridan, and Jones, its pronunciation; and
3*
30
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
Murray its grammatical rules; and that every at-
tempt at improvement is fraught with mischief.
This opinion appears to prevail to a considerable
extent in the United States. An other opinion is
that a living language can neither be arrested nor
guided in its course, more than the wind can be
chained; and this is the prevailing doctrine in
England. Neither is true to the extent to which
it is carried. Mr. Todd tells us, in the London
editions of his dictionary, that he has added 14,000
words, not found in any vocabulary before. The
simple fact that one individual can add a fifth part
"а
to the entire body of the language, may give some
idea how far it is fixed, so as to need no change.
55. It is not within the plan of the present work
to attend to pronunciation. It is known to be in a
very confused state in England. The writings of
Italians, and Frenchmen to explain English to
their people, give a more scientific and correct
exposition of the sounds of our letters, than any.
work by a British author, ever yet published.
These remarks are thrown out without comment,
that we may come at once to the consideration of
our own country, in reference to its present condi-
tion, and its future prospects.
One of the first ideas presented to the mind, in
relation to the United States, is the peculiar situa-
tion in which we are placed, differing from that of
every other community which has existed on earth;
for we have no account of any nation, a prime
object of whose government was to diffuse in-
struction among the entire body of their people.
The attempt has never been made, on a national
plan, to produce uniformity, among all classes of
people, in the speaking of a national language.
Both these objects are of prime importance in the
United States.
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
31
>
56. All that concerns our public happiness, our
union and peace, within ourselves; all which tends
to develop our resources, improve and perpetuate
our institutions ; all which may give us wealth,
;
strength, and glory, among nations, depends on the
general course of instruction : that instruction, in
a great degree, on the goodness of our national
language, which is the instrument of all. Our
population has increased from 2,500,000 to
5,000,000, and from five millions to ten, in 44
years. We are still proceeding at the same rapid
rate of increase, which is beyond all parallel in
ancient or modern days. Our course of moral
and physical progress is greater than that of our
numbers. This impulse, extending to hundreds
of millions of people, must take its direction from
the general literature of our country, connected,
to a greater extent than most persons would be-
lieve, with the degree of cultivation given to our
speech. The principles of language, therefore,
necessarily blend themselves with all our prime
interests as a nation ; and to those who are pre-
pared to enter on this investigation, it is a source
of unceasing admiration, that while the great lead-
ing rules of speech are few and simple, the mi-
nor variations are endless. The relative chan-
ges of words, connected with the workings of
thought, adapt themselves to every imaginable
form of utterance, and run into each other by such
nice gradations, as are hardly obvious to the
keenest observations of philosophy. Instead of
considering the study of language as the mere
task of the schools, there is reason to believe that
a better understanding of its elements will lead to
great improvements in mental and physical re-
searches. The structure of speech, as exhibited
in different conditions of society, is an exhaustless
32
INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATION.
store of practical facts and principles, which ge
far beyond all abstract reasoning, in teaching to
man the great lesson, “ Know thou thyself.”
ESSAY, &c.
CHAPTER I.
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS.
.
57. One of the greatest difficulties in language,
is the loose manner in which terms are frequently
used, even by writers of distinguished reputation
and influence. The word perfect refers only to the
“highest conceivable excellence, that which is nei-
ther defective nor redundant, absolutely faultless ;">
yet we find Dr. Johnson, contrary to his own defi-
nition, Dr. Blair, and most other British authors,
of the highest reputation, habitually comparing
this word, which properly admits of no compari-
One thing may be more excellent than an
other, because excellence is always a relative term;
but to go beyond perfection, is for the rider to
jump over the horse, instead of seating himself in
the saddle. More perfect is the same as less ;
because it is not most perfect, and consequently
not perfect at all.
son.
58. The same observations will apply to insur-
mountable, unattainable, supreme, extreme, immense,
insuperable, and a multitude of others, which con-
tain the total affirmation or negation in the sim-
ple meaning of the term.
а
34
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS.
Ex. "The whole library [that of Christina Queen
of Sweden] is contained in an immense gallery,
214 feet long, and 48 feet broad."-Dr. Brewster.
It requires but little reflection to perceive the
absurdity of speaking of an immeasurable or
boundless room of two hundred and fourteen feet
long.
66
Ignorance of the signification of words,
which is want of understanding, disposeth men to
take on trust, not only the truth they know not,
but the errors, and which is more, the nonsense of
them they trust; for neither error nor sense can,
without a perfect understanding of words, be de-
tected."-Hobbs. Leviathan, Chap. II.
59. Language consists of words, employed by
common consent, as signs of thought.
The primitive meaning of the word language,
is the utterance of the human voice as directed by
the tongue. The name of this chief instrument of
speech has been adopted among most nations to
signify language itself.
60. In a philosophic exposition of speech, the
same words must be attended to in three distinct
points of view.
1. Their literal, original, and strict meaning.
2. The general acceptation which they acquire
by fashion and use.
3. Their different import by different relations
to other words, or their manner of signification.
Thus the verb do signifies to act or practise;
but in the familiar question, "How do you do?"
the uniform understanding is, what is the state of
your health; though the literal meaning is, how
do
you act, behave or conduct yourself,
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS.
35
>
The same idea is conveyed in the French ques-
tion, “Comment vous portez vous ?” how do you
carry yourself.. In Spanish,
In Spanish, “Como lo va ?”
how do you go; answering to the Saxon expression
still prevalent in many places, how fare you ? .from
the old verb faran, to travel or go.
The short familiar phrase in Latin was, Quid
agis ?” what are you doing.
When a man is under the temporary delirium of
a fever, we say in English, “he is out of his
head." To express the same idea, the French
say, “he is out of himself;" or otherwise, “ Il a
perdu sa tete ;" “ He has lost his head ;” not
meaning that the man's head is cut off, but that
his senses are disordered.
So if it is said that a person is in a situation of
particular difficulty, and at a loss for expedients,
the common English phrase is, he does not know
which way to turn himself. The Frenchman says,
from habit and with great seriousness, “Il ne sait
sur quel pied de danser ;" he does not know which
foot to dance on. There is also, in most langua-
ges, a great number of figurative expressions, which
grow into characteristic idioms, and give a turn
to the general current of thought ; as the expres-
sions of joy, “To bave a light heart," “ To beat
the ground with a light foot ;" but the considera-
tion of this subject will be reserved to an other
part of this work.
61. An other principle of language, of consid-
erable importance to the pbilosophic investigator,
is the transitive meaning of words. This gradual
change takes place in numerous instances, and
from various causes, most commonly a change of
the circumstances or opinions which led to the
first application.
36
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS.
The words rogue and villain, according to their
original use, implied merely a person of humble or
vile condition, without associating any idea of dis-
honesty. The men bearing these disgraceful
names were feudal dependants, who might be very
well meaning men, and exceedingly faithful to
their lords. The present meaning of the words,
has grown up, in Europe, by imperceptible de
grees, from the incidental idea, that a low condi-
tion in life is attended with greater infamy than
bad character, On the other hand, slave original-
ly implied a person of bad moral principles, and
not one in bondage.
Leghorn bonnets were so named from the place
where they were made ; but the 'name has acquir-
ed a farther meaning, descriptive of the kind of
manufacture. A silk bonnet, made in that city
would not be a Leghorn bonnet under the estab-
lished meaning of the phrase ; and the time may
arrive when this article may be as little restricted to
a specific locality as Morocco leather.
62. Words also take various shades of mean-
ing, depending on their combination. These
meanings are to be learned only by practice. A
white house is a house painted white on the outside.
A black horse is one whose coat of hair is of that
color ; but red lead is the oxid of that metal
prepared by a particular process in a reverberato-
ry furnace. If a man, under a contract to deliver
red lead, should bring forward leaden bars coated
with red paint, it would be a low trick, which the
common sense and the moral feeling of the whole
community would condemn; yet this article would
literally correspond with the white house.
The word sell was formerly used in the same
sense in which we at present employ the verb to
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS.
37
give. It signified to bestow, without implying any
equivalent return, and occurs in the form of the
Lord's prayer, as written by Alfred, Bishop of
Durham, about the beginning of the tenth century.
"Our louf, most needful, sell us to day."
63. Words are also frequently changed by iro-
nical use.
Wiseacre, as first used, signified in so-
ber earnest, a sage philosopher; as appears in the
examination before King Edward the Sixth, quoted
in the annotations of Mr. Locke, as "faithfullye
copyed, by John Leylande, Antiquarius, by the
commaunde of his Highnesse.".
"Peter Gower, a Grecian, journeyedde ffor
Kunnynge yn Egypte, and yn Syria, aud yn eve-
ryche londe whereas the Venetians hadde plaunt-
edde maconrye, wynnynge entrance, he lerned
muche, and retournedde and woned yn Grecia
Magna, wachsyne and becommynge a myghtie
wy eacre and gratelyche renowed, &c."
In plain modern English, Pythagoras travelled
for knowledge in Egypt, Syria, and every land
where the Phenicians had established masonry ;
obtaining entrance, he learned much, and returned
and dwelt in Grecia Magna, becoming an eminent
savan, and greatly renowned. The term wiseacre
has been employed in levity and irony, till it is
hardly admissible in dignified style, and when
used in lighter compositions, signifies a man wise
only in his own conceit. Dunce is from Duns Sco-
tus, a man highly famed for learning in his time;
and the name Solomon would long ago have be-
come the most expressive word in the language to
signify a downright blockhead, if the sacred vo-
lume had not fixed the meaning of the word, beyond
the power of change.
4
38
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS,
This course of-illustration might be greatly ex-
tended; but in all which is here said, it is not so
much the design to proceed to minute detail, as to
advance general principles which may serve, in
some degree, as a guide to those who are inclined
to pursue a farther course of investigation.
64. The meaning and application of words are
also changed by a great variety of accidental cir-
cumstances and associations. Many instances of
ignorance, servility, and caprice might be given in
this department of speech. A single example will
illustrate the gradual transition in the meaning of
words, and the observing scholar may increase the
number at his pleasure.
Among the numerous saints, male and female,
formerly worshipped in England, was Saint Bride,
which is a contraction of Bridget; Latin, Brigitta.
A church in London is called St. Bride. This
name was formerly applied to a well near Fleet
Ditch. Near St. Bride's well, a palace was built
by king Henry VIII. and called Bridewell Palace.
This edifice was subsequently transferred to the cor-
poration of London, and converted into a house of
correction, for which the term Bridewell has be-
come the general appellative word.
a
65. Language, in reference to the means em-
ployed for its transmission, is divided into two
kinds, spoken and written.
Spoken language consists of distinct vocal sounds,
modulated and arranged by progressive usage.
Written language is the representation of those
sounds, by visible characters, variously combined.
A broader definition may be given to speech,
as including all possible signs, by which one being
makes known his ideas or sensations to an other;
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS.
39
but, to this extent, it cannot be reduced to settled
rules, and is not the subject of grammatical expla-
nation.
66. The interchange of thought, by a system of
signs' employed by deaf mutes, throws addi-
tional light on the subject of language, as connect-
ed with the operations of the mind. This new
path of science is constantly leading to farther
developments, under able teachers, and its princi-
ples are, doubtless, capable of extensive application.
It is a new sort of artificial or conventional lan-
guage; addressed to the eye, instead of the ear,
and is of inestimable value to the class of persons
for whose use it was designed.
GRAMMAR.*
67. Grammar is an explanation of the princi-
ples on which language is formed. The use of
grammar, as a science, is to guard against devia-
tions from the settled rules of speech.
A dispute of very little utility has been main-
tained, whether the word grammar applies, in strict-
ness, to the essential principles of language, or the
system of rules to explain them. If the explana-
tory system is just, the two things are virtually
the same, and the application of the term grammar
* In this treatise the technical terms long used, are retained
as far as they will apply. It is not the purpose to introduce a
new set of words, but to endeavor to lay a basis for recti-
fying false principles.
40
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
to either, is within those moderate bounds of
metonomy which must be allowed in every lan-
guage.
68. Grammar is general when it treats of the
leading principles common to all languages; con-
parative, in pointing out the coincidences, analo-
gies, and differences between one form of speech
and an other; and particular, when its investiga-
tions are confined to a single tongue. It is the
design of the present work to attend to these three
considerations, according to their relative impor-
tance.
69. Grammar is confined in its investigations to
the formation of single sentences, and in this does
not necessarily include the idea of the best diction.
It has reference to the orderly arrangement of
words, according to their several classes and re-
lations.
70. It belongs to the science of rhetoric, to teach
the choice of the best words, and arrange them so
as to produce the highest effect.
Thus it is a perfectly grammatical expression to
say, “virtue and vice are equally commendable.”
Here the words are duly placed, according to their
relation and dependence on each other; and, with-
in the bounds of grammar rules, there is no im-
propriety. It is for the rhetorician to show that
virtue and vice are contradictory qualities, not
equally commendable, and that it is our duty to
promote one and restrain the other.
71. But if we assert that " an oyster is a very
sprightly animal;" it is good both in grammar
and rhetoric; for the sentence is perfectly correct,
AND DEFINITIONS.
41
so far as mere language is concerned; though it
asserts what is not true in natural history: it is
not the business of writers on language, in cha-
racter as such, to settle doctrines in science, mo-
rals, or metaphysics: though it is necessary to the
effect which the speaker or writer would produce,
that his principles should be at least apparently
just.
many writers on
72. One of the great defects of
grammar, seems to be the want of
proper
distinc-
tion between the effect which words may have,
by their relation and use in a sentence, and that
which results only from the specific import of the
single word. The classification of the different
parts of speech depends, not on the absolute
meaning of words, but their manner of meaning.
73. An other error of mischievous tendency
springs from the gross ignorance which is constantly
multiplying grammar rules, to explain what needs
no other explanation than the proper definition of
the numerous words absurdly represented as hav-
ing no meaning. In this way the theories re-
specting articles, particles, and auxiliaries; dis-
junctive conjunctions, and postpositive preposi-
tions, result from vain attempts of grammarians to
supply the deficiency of lexicographers.
74. Grammar is divided into four parts, Ortho-
graphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
Orthography means correct spelling. It teaches
the letters with their sounds, and their combinations
into syllables and words.
The part of grammar which teaches the deriva-
tions, changes, definition, and classification, of sin-
gle words, is called Etymology.
4*
42
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
Syntax is the orderly arrangement of words in
sentence.
Prosody teaches the distribution of accents best
calculated to produce harmony, and relates chiefly
to the measure of poetry.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
75. This first division of grammar relates en-
tirely to written language. It treats of the letters
used in writing, the various sounds which they re-
present, and the combinations of these elements to
form significant words.
76. In a language properly written, each letter
should represent one uniform sound, and every
sound should have its appropriate letter : but in the
imperfection of human skill, this regularity is not
to be expected. All languages have taken their
original structure chiefly from the immediate cir-
cumstances and the wants of men, and not from
philosophic arrangement. The number of letters
used in writing has greatly varied, from 16 to 200
and upwards. Their forms also have been greatly
altered, and the same letter is, at different times and
places, made to represent sounds the most dissimi-
lar.
The characters employed in the English written
language are twenty-six, divided into vowels and
consonants.
The vowels are a, e,i or y, o, and u or w: the re-
maining letters are consonants.
A true vowel is a perfectly pure and simple
AND DEFINITIONS.
43
sound. Two vowels, both sounded in the same syl-
lable, are called a dipthong,
Consonants are sounded only in connexion with
vowels.
77. One of the greatest difficulties in language,
is the fluctuation and uncertainty to which the
sounds of letters have always been liable. Mr. De
Kemplin, a mechanician at Vienna, bestowed great
pains, for several years, on an attempt to form anin,
strument which should imitate various sounds and
combinations of the human voice. This he profes-
ses to have done, to a very considerable extent; but
his own details of the process which he followed, .
show that his design was more curious than useful.
He attempted too much.
One attainment which there is some reason to be-
lieve practicable, would be of vast importance to the
literary world. This is the formation of a graduated
standard machine, or what might, not improperly,
be called a pitchpipe of simple vowel sounds. Such
an instrument, if produced, might be regulated
with great accuracy; transmitted from one country
to an other, and handed down to future times.
Those who have been at the pains accurately to
learn new sounds, in different languages, within the
period of their clear recollection, will need no
argument in favor of the utility of what is here
proposed. The necessity of such an acquisition
might be farther shown, by half a dozen learned men,
from as many nations, reading, each in turn, a page
of Latin, as taught at their respective universities.
The notes of singing birds are imitated, with
great accuracy, by machinery; and a transmissible
standard of the humañ articulation would, next to
the invention of letters, and the art of printing, be
the greatest step in the advancement of language.
44
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
ETYMOLOGY.
78. The second part of grammar treats of the
derivation, meaning, and changes of words. It also
divides them into their different classes or parts of
speech, according to their manner of signification.
Words are either primitive or derivative, simple
or compound.
Primitive words are those which are not derived
from any other, in the same language. The addi-
tion of letters or syllables to primitive words, to
vary thelr meaning, forms derivitives; as, Ameri-
can from America, bravely from brave.
Compound words are the combination of two or
more simple ones, as candlestick, inkstand, pen-
knife.
79. There are two great classes of words, from
which all others are derived, and into which they
may all be resolved. These are nouns and verbs;
or words of naming, and words of asserting;* but
as in the progress and refinement of language, these
original words receive numerous modifications, for
the more prompt and specific expression of
thoughts, it is found convenient to admit other
classes as auxiliary to those of absolute necessity.
In English, and in languages generally, there
may be reckoned seven sorts of words, or, as they
are commonly called, parts of speech : nouns, pro-
nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, and
prepositions.
9
* Alterum est quod loquimur; alterum de quo loquimur.
Quintil. Lib. I. cap. 4:
AND DEFINITIONS.
45
Besides these, there is a sort of vague sounds,
with which many writers have included ocrasional
distinct words, called interjections. As these have,
however, very little connexion with regulated
speech, a separate explanation of them will be given
in the proper place.
80. Nouns are names of things, real or conceiv-
able ; as man, Boston, cyclops. Man is the gene-
ral name of the human species.; Boston-is a par-
ticular city; and cyclops denotes an imaginary
race of giants.
Pronouns are used instead of nouns, to prevent
the repetition of the same word ; as, John
good; he does well; we must reward him. The
pronouns he and him are substituted for the noun
John ; and the pronoun we stands for all the per-
sons whom the speaker represents.
Adjectives are words used with nouns, to specify
or describe them; as, her second and third daugh-
ters are amiable and dutiful children. The first
three adjectives specify what particular persons
are meant, and the last iwo describe them. Words
used to show that a thing is or exists in some state,
or does some action, are called verbs; as,
here; he is well; we live, move, and have our be-
ing. The bird sings ; Jackson saved New-Or-
leans.
Adverbs are a large class of terms, generally
formed by two or more words united in one.
They express manner of action, degree of quali-
ty, time, order, and other circumstances, connected
with the ever-varying interchange of thought ; as,
she writes well; a very fine apple ; for ever, jointly.
severally.
Conjunctives, or conjunctions, are used to con-
nect words and phrases, generally under the same
I am
9
36
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS.
The words rogue and villain, according to their
original use, implied merely a person of humble or
vile condition, without associating any idea of dis-
honesty. The men bearing these disgraceful
names were feudal dependants, who might be very
well meaning men, and exceedingly faithful to
their lords. The present meaning of the words,
has grown up, in Europe, by imperceptible de-
grees, from the incidental idea, that a low condi-
tion in life is attended with greater infamy than
bad character. On the other hand, slave original-
ly implied a person of bad moral principles, and
not one in bondage.
Leghorn bonnets were so named from the place
where they were made ; but the name has acquir-
ed a farther meaning, descriptive of the kind of
manufacture. A silk bonnet, made in that city
would not be a Leghorn bonnet under the estab-
lished meaning of the phrase ; and the time may
:
arrive when this article may be as little restricted to
a specific locality as Morocco leather.
a
62. Words also take various shades of mean-
ing, depending on their combination.
These
meanings are to be learned only by practice. A
white house is a house painted white on the outside.
A black horse is one whose coat of hair is of that
color ; but red lead is the oxid of that metal
prepared by a particular process in a reverberato-
ry
furnace. If a man, under a contract to deliver
red lead, should bring forward leaden bars coated
with red paint, it would be a low trick, which the
common sense and the moral feeling of the whole
community would condemn; yet this article would
literally correspond with the white house.
The word sell was formerly used in the same
sense in which we at present employ the verb to
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS.
37
give. It signified to bestow, without implying any
equivalent return, and occurs in the form of the
Lord's prayer, as written by Alfred, Bishop of
Durham, about the beginning of the tenth century.
“Our louf, most needful, sell us to day.”
63. Words are also frequently changed by iro-
nical use.
Wiseacre, as first used, signified in so-
ber earnest, a sage philosopher; as appears in the
examination before King Edward the Sixth, quoted
in the annotations of Mr. Locke, as “faithfullye
copyed, by John Leylande, Antiquarius, by the
cominaunde of his Highnesse.”
“ Peter Gower, a Grecian, journeyedde ffor
Kunnynge yn Egypte, and yn Syria, and yn eve-
ryche londe whereas the Venetians hadde plaunt-
edde maconrye, wynnynge entrance, he lerned
muche, and retournedde and woned yn Grecia
Mayna, wachsyne and becommynge a myghtie
wy eacre and gratelyche renowed, &c."
In plain modern English, Pythagoras travelled
for knowledge in Egypt, Syria, and every land
where the Phenicians had established masonry;
obtaining entrance, he learned much, and returned
and dwelt in Grecia Magna, becoming an eminent
savan, and greatly renowned. The term wiseacre
has been employed in levity and irony, till it is
hardly admissible in dignified style, and, when
used in lighter compositions, signifies a man wise
only in his own conceit. Dunce i: from Duns Sco-
tus, a man highly famed for learning in his time;
and the name Solomon would long ago have be-
come the most expressive word in the language to
signify a downright blockhead, if the sacred vo-
lume had not fixed the meaning of the word, beyond
the power of change.
4
38
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS.
This course of-illustration might be greatly ex-
tended; but in all which is here said, it is not so
much the design to proceed to minute detail, as to
advance general principles which may serve, in
some degree, as a guide to those who are inclined
to pursue a farther course of investigation.
64. The meaning and application of words are
also changed by a great variety of accidental cir-
cumstances and associations. Many instances of
ignorance, servility, and caprice might be given in
this department of speech. A single example will
illustrate the gradual transition in the meaning of
words, and the observing scholar may increase the
number at his pleasure,
Among the numerous saints, male and female,
formerly worshipped in England, was Saint Bride,
which is a contraction of Bridget ; Latin, Brigitta.
A church in London is called St. Bride. This
name was formerly applied to a well near Fleet
Ditch. Near St. Bride's well, a palace was built
by king Henry VIII. and called Bridewell Palace.
This edifice was subsequently transferred to the cor-
poration of London, and converted into a house of
correction, for which the term Bridewell has be-
come the general appellative word.
65. Language, in reference to the means em-
ployed for its transmission, is divided into two
kinds, spoken and written.
Spoken language consists of distinct vocal sounds,
modulated and arranged by progressive usage.
Written language is the representation of those
sounds, by visible characters, variously combined.
A broader definition may be given to speech,
as including all possible signs, by which one being
makes known his ideas or sensations to an other;
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS.
39
but, to this extent, it cannot be reduced to settled
rules, and is not the subject of grammatical expla-
nation.
66. The interchange of thought, by a system of
signs employed by deaf mates, throws addi-
'
tional light on the subject of language, as connect-
ed with the operations of the mind. This new
path of science is constantly leading to farther
developments, under able teachers, and its princi-
ples are, doubtless, capable of extensive application.
It is a new sort of artificial or conventional lan-
guage; addressed to the eye, instead of the ear,
and is of inestimable value to the class of persons
for whose use it was designed.
GRAMMAR.*
*
67. Grammar is an explanation of the princi-
ples on which language is formed.
The use of
grammar, as a science, is to guard against devia-
tions from the settled rules of speech.
A dispute of very little utility has been main-
tained, whether the word grammar applies, in strict-
ness, to the essential principles of language, or the
system of rules to explain them. If the explana-
tory system is just the two things are virtually
the same, and the application of the term grammar
* In this treatise the technical terms long used, are retained
as far as they will apply. It is not the purpose to introduce a
new set of words, but to endeavor to lay a basis for recti-
fying false principles,
40
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
to either, is within those moderate bounds of
metonomy which must be allowed in every lan-
guage.
68. Grammar is general when it treats of the
leading principles common to all languages; com-
parative, in pointing out the coincidences, analo-
gies, and differences between one form of speech
and an other; and particular, when its investiga-
tions are confined to a single tongue. It is the
design of the present work to attend to these three
considerations, according to their relative impor-
tance.
69. Grammar is confined in its investigations to
the formation of single sentences, and in this doe's
not necessarily include the idea of the best diction.
It has reference to the orderly arrangement of
words, according to their several classes and re-
lations.
70. It belongs to the science of rhetoric, to teach
the choice of the best words, and arrange them so
as to produce the highest effect.
Thus it is a perfectly grammatical expression to
say, "virtue and vice are equally commendable.”
Here the words are duly placed, according to their
relation and dependence on each other; and, with-
in the bounds of grammar rules, there is no im-
propriety. It is for the rhetorician to show that
virtue and vice are contradictory qualities, not
equally commendable, and that it is our duty to
promote one and restrain the other.
>
71. But if we assert that "an oyster is a very
sprightly animal;" it is good both in grammar
and rhetoric; for the sentence is perfectly correct,
AND DEFINITIONS.
41
so far as mere language is concerned; though it
asserts what is not true in natural history: it is
not the business of writers on language, in cha-
racter as such, to settle doctrines in science, mo-
rals, or metaphysics: though it is necessary to the
effect which the speaker or writer would produce,
that his principles should be at least apparently
just.
72. One of the great defects of many writers on
grammar, seems to be the want of proper distinc-
tion between the effect which words may have,
by their relation and use in a sentence, and that
which results only from the specific import of the
single word. The classification of the different
parts of speech depends, not on the absolute
meaning of words, but their manner of meaning.
73. An other error of mischievous tendency
springs from the gross ignorance which is constantly
multiplying grammar rules, to explain what needs
no other explanation than the proper definition of
the numerous words absurdly represented as hav-
ing no meaning. In this way the theories re-
specting articles, particles, and auxiliaries; dis-
junctive conjunctions, and postpositive preposi-
tious, result from vain attempts of grammarians to
supply the deficiency of lexicographers.
74. Grammar is divided into four parts, Ortho-
graphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
Orthography means correct spelling. It teaches
the letters with their sounds, and their combinations
into syllables and words.
The part of grammar which teaches the deriva-
tions, changes, definition, and classification, of sina
gle words, is called Etymology.
4*
44
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
ETYMOLOGY.
78. The second part of grammar treats of the
derivation, meaning, and changes of words. It also
divides them into their different classes or parts of
speech, according to their manner of signification.
Words are either primitive or derivative, simple
or compound.
Primitive words are those which are not derived
from any other, in the same language. The addi-
tion of letters or syllables to primitive words, to
vary thelr meaning, forms derivitives; as, Ameri-
can from America, bravely from brave.
Compound words are the combination of two or
more simple ones, as candlestick, inkstand, pen-
knife.
79. There are two great classes of words, from
which all others are derived, and into which they
may all be resolved. These are nouns and verbs;
or words of naming, and words of asserting;* but
as in the progress and refinement of language, these
original words receive numerous modifications, for
the more prompt and specific expression of
thoughts, it is found convenient to admit other
classes as auxiliary to those of absolute necessity.
In English, and in languages generally, there
may be reckoned seven sorts of words, or, as they
are commonly called, parts of speech : nouns, pro-
nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, and
prepositions.
* Alterum est quod loquimur ; alterum de quo loquimur.
Quintil. Lib. I. cap. 4.
AND DEFINITIONS.
45
Besides these, there is a sort of vague sounds,
with which many writers have included ocrasional
distinct words, called interjections. As these have,
however, very little connexion with regulated
speech, a separate explanation of them will be given
in the proper place.
80. Nouns are names of things, real or conceiv-
able ; as man, Boston, cyclops. Man is the gene-
ral name of the human species.; Boston-is a par-
ticular city; and cyclops denotes an imaginary
race of giants.
Pronouns are used instead of nouns, to prevent
the repetition of the same word; as, John is
good; he does well ; we must reward him. The
pronouns
he and him are substituted for the noun
John ; and the pronoun we stands for all the per-
sons whom the speaker represents.
Adjectives are words used with nouns, to specify
or describe them; as, her second and third daugh-
ters are amiable and dutiful children. The first
three adjectives specify what particular persons
are meant, and the last iwo describe them. Words
used to show that a thing is or exists in some state,
or does some action, are called verbs ; as, I am
here; he is well ; we live, move, and have our be-
ing. The bird sings ; Jackson saved New-Or-
leans.
Adverbs are a large class of terms, generally
formed by two or more words united in one.
They express manner of action, degree of quali-
ty, time, order, and other circumstances, connected
with the ever-varying interchange of thought ; as,
she writes well; a very fine apple ; for ever, jointly,
severally.
Conjunctives, or conjunctions, are used to con-
nect words and phrases, generally under the same
46
NOUNS.
grammatical relation; as, “ John and I shall go,
Monday, or Tuesday, and stay two or three days,
but not longer.”
Prepositions are connective words, which serve
to introduce a following object, with incidental re-
ference to a preceding or correlative proposition ;
as, we came from Charleston by land through Rich-
mond to Baltimore.
NOUNS.
a
S1. Sometimes called substantives.
Noun is derived from the Latin word nomen,
name.
Nouns are names of things, real or conceivable;
as, tree, Troy, blackness, Hydra of Lerné.
The word things is here to be taken in its great-
est latitude of meaning, including all objects, qua-
lities, and fictions of the mind, simple or complex,
to which names are applied.
Some nouns express merely the negation of a
thing; as 'nonentity, nothingness.
82. Nouns are of two kinds, common and pro-
per.
Common nouns designate sorts of things, ac-
cording to their descriptive qualities; as, chair,
boy, city, quadruped.
Proper names are applied to individuals to iden-
tify them among others of their kind; as, Solo-
mon Belmot, Albany, Hamilcar.
Any word becomes a proper noun when used as
an individual name ; as,
“ Christian Wolf;"
a
NUMBER.
47
"Praise-God Barebones," the ships" Congress,"
and "Fair Trader;" the race-horse " Eclipse,"
the "Potter's Field," the " United States."
On the other hand, specific names become com-
mon nouns when applied as words of general
meaning; as, Dunces, a Judas, Jack Tars, many
Catilines, the Solomons of the city;
"this is a
deceiver and an Antichrist."-2 John, 7.
The question whether a noun is proper or com-
mon, depends on the fact of its being used as a sig-
nificant word, or of its being specifically applied as
an individual designation.
The word God is a common noun, because it is
hot applied to the Supreme Being peculiarly, nor
as an individual name, but in reference to his at-
tributes, and relations as the ruler of the world.
The word applies to many imaginary beings, con-
ceived of as existing under a similar character.
To nouns belong person, number, gender, and
case.
66
Most nouns are of the third person. They are
of the second when directly addressed, as persons
present, and listening to the speaker; as, Coun-
trymen and Fellow Soldiers." "O Liberty!
sound once delightful to every Roman ear!"
Nouns are never of the first person, except as
mere expletives, in apposition with a pronoun; as,
"Now I, Paul, myself, beseech you, who, being
absent, am bold toward you."
NUMBER.
83. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and
the plural. The singular denotes one thing, as
bandit; the plural, any number more than one, as
bandits. This division into singular and plural, is
48
NUMBER.
the general principle of language, though it is not
without exceptions. The Hebrew, as written with
points, the Greek, Sanscrit, all the dialects of the
Teutonic, and several other languages, have each
three numbers, the singular, the dual, and the plu-
ral. The dual speaks of two or a pair, and the
plural of any number more than two.
Some nouns
have no plural; as, fitness, chaos: Others have no
singular; as, tongs, shears. Sheep and deer are
of both numbers. Swine is a vulgar corruption
from sowen, the plural of sow, and it should not be
used in the singular. Of the same kind is kine,
plural of ky, the ancient word for cow. Kye is
now used in Scotland for cattle. The word peo-
ple stands alone in its character.
Without chang-
ing its form, it is either a noun of multitude, ha-
ving no plural; or, referring to individuals, it has
no singular. Thus we say, "a united people."
Many people are of that opinion."
86
The word cattle is without change, singular in
its form, with a plural meaning.
The English plural is generally formed, by ad-
dings to the singular. This rule has several mo-
difications and exceptions.
1. Words ending in ch, sh, ss, x, or z, take the
addition of es, to form the plural, making an other
syllable, which is necessary for ease and distinct-
ness of pronunciation. Church, churches; sash,
sashes; press, presses; fox, foxes; buzz, buzzes.
Those also which end with the sound of s, z, or
soft g, followed by e mute, make an additional
syllable in pronunciation; as, roses, places, carria-
ges
Proper nouns, as well as common, admit the
plural number; as, there are forty Jon Smiths in
the city of New-York; the Miss Van Nesses; the
twelve Cesars; both the Senecas: all the Howards.
GENDER.
19
GENDER.
84. To distinguislı the sexes by some different
form of words, is a general principle, common to
all languages. The word gender is used to ex-
press this grammatical distinction. Words deno-
ting males are of the masculine gender : names of.
females are feminine ; and the technical word
neuter applies to things which are of neither sex.
85. By a figure of rhetoric, called personifica-
tion, we sometimes speak of inanimate things as
having personal qualities. Of the moon, it is
poetically said," she sheds her mild beams.?
This ascription of sex to things without life
like most other deviations from truth and nature,
leads to many inconsistencies : Thus it is said of
the ship Hercules, Jupiter, or James Monroe,
" she sails well.” If ship must be considered fe-
minine, it should take none but a name appropri-
ate to the female character.
86. Grammarians have imagined a philosophic
principle in the application of gender to inanimate
things. They tell us, “ We commonly give the
masculine gender to nouns which are conspicuous
for the qualities of imparting or communicating,
and which are by nature strong and efficacious ;
and those are feminine which are peculiarly beau
tiful and amiable.” This seems like a very plau-
sible theory, and is wrought into a fine system by
Dr. Lowth, and by Mr. Harris in bis Hermes.
From their time it has been trustingly copied by
nearly all the compilers of grammar, and volumes
wasted upon it. The whole theory sprang from
5
50
GENDER.
the imagination of its authors. There is no sucl^
principle in the structure of those languages which
refer every thing to two genders; still less in Eng-
lish, in which a rational philosophy is the only
guide belonging to the language itself, and in
which writers personify according to their indivi-
dual fancy. In those tongues, in which adjec-
tives take the agreement of number and gender
with nouns, the whole application to inanimate
objects depends on the mere accidental ending of
the word. Not the least attention is paid to any
supposed nature of the thing. Nothing is more
contrary to fact, than the whole system taught in
English schools respecting the application of gen-
ders to inanimate objects.
If virtue is feminine from its beauty, why were
all the crimes of Babylon personified in the charac-
ter of a woman? why are vice, slander, and deceit-
ful fortune also feminine; and why have mortals been
so much afflicted by sorceresses, witches, and midnight
hags? probably in the latter case, from the love of
mankind for what is marvellous, as well as what is
beautiful and amiable. How would Bellona, Pal-
las, and the Amazons, be flattered by this gratuitous
grammatical courtesy of their gallant friends, Har-
ris, Lowth, and Murray?
87. We are told that the sun is masculine, and
the moon, feminine. So they are in Greek and La-
tin; but it is exactly the reverse, in ancient Teuto-
nic, Gothic, and Scandinavian: in the Dutch, Ger-
man, Swedish, Danish, and all the northern lan-
guages of modern Europe, except the Sclavonian,
in which they are both neuter. In the Saxon lan-
guage, from which our mother tongue is directly
derived, the words moon and man are from the
same root, and mean the same thing.
In their
GENDER.
SI
mythology the moon is the representative of Tuisco,
the father of gods and men, answering to the
Grecian Jupiter; and the sun is his wife. Down
to the time of Shakspeare, he calls the son a fair
wench, in flaming taffeta, as may be seen by refer-
ence to his Henry IV. Part I.
88. If we go to the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin,
emphatically called the learned languages, we find
the battering ram, sambuca, testudo, vinea, and
catapulta, the most terrible engines of war which
the skill of man has ever invented, are, by con-
struction of language, in the feminine gender : the
same may be said of the javelin, spear, and dagger,
which are not particularly distinguished for the
delicacy of their structure or use. In French, the
word army is feminine. Most of the instruments
of war, are also feminine, as sword, bayonet, and
others : so are the words for thunderbolt, the gal-
lows, and guillotine, which cannot be on account of
their particular delicacy, beauty, or amiableness.
In words denoting qualities, the terms violence, rage,
vengeance, deformity, cruelty, strength, grossness,
ferocity, war, pestilence, fumine, and death, are all
the same lovely, feminine personages : and on the
contrary, the pink, the lily of the valley, the reed,
are masculine; because, according to the same
logic, they are strong and efficacious. Charms, at-
tractions, and smiles, are masculine also, and doubt-
less for the same good reason. The French lan-
gorage has two words for ship, and they are both
masculine.
90. In the Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian lan-
guages, - which in construction make every noun
he or she, the inquisition and most of the instruc
52
GENDEB.
ments of torture used in it, are of the feminine
gender ; which, according to the grammatical logic,
is on account of their very amiable and enticing
qualities: but it is needless to pursue this subject
any farther. So much would not have been said,
if it had not been rendered necessary, by the ex-
isting prejudices of false teaching.
91. Many words apply to either sex, or both;
as, parent, child, cousin, friend, bird, quadruped.
These words, are said in parsing, to be of the com-
mon gender.
In some instances, the masculine word is extend-
ed' to mean the whole species ; as man, to denote
the human race. Horses, in the common accep-
tation of the word, includes mares and colts : so
geese and ducks, which strictly mean the females
alone, are used to include the whole kind.
92. There are three ways of distinguishing the
genders by the construction of the English lan-
guage.
1st. By different words; as husband, wife, bro-
ther, sister, son, daughter; buck, doe.
2d. By different ending: as adding to the mas-
culine ess, which' is a contraction of the Hebrew
word essa, a female; as poet, poetess, count, countess;
or with a contraction of the first word; as in abbot,
abbess, actor, actress,
3d. By prefixing a descriptive word; as "man
servant, woman servant; a male pigeon, female
philosophers ; gentlemen visiters, lady boarders:
a ewe lamb, a she goat.
93. It is a remarkable fact that so many nations,
widely separated from each other by time and dis-
CASES.
53
•
tance, should have agreed in classing all inanimate
things under the masculine and feminine genders.
The ancient Hebrew, the Syriac, Chaldean, and,
others, made every thing he or she. The modern
French, Italian, and Portuguese have two genders
only; and though in Spanish there is a nominal
neuter, it is confined to few adjectives used sub-
stantively; as, lo bueno, which is a mere convenient
contraction for the good people; or whatever other
term of general import may be understood. Most
Greek and many Latin nouns,
which are neither
male nor female in nature, are made so in construc-
tion of language; as, pen, book, paper, house, and
thousands of others.
备
​CASE.
94. The term case has been used, in several,
languages to denote a different beginning or ending
of words to express different relations. Under
this definition of the term, nouns in English have
no cases; for they have nothing answering to the
grammatical distinction of cases in Greek, Latin,
and many other languages. The relative positions
of English nouns in a sentence are only two, which
have heretofore been described by grammarians
under the name of the nominative and the objec-
tive case. In these two relations they are presented
as leading or led, in a regular sentence; as acting
or acted upon; as subjects concerning which verbs
affirm, or as objects at which some action centers
or terminates. These two relations of nouns in
English, are determined by connexion with other
words, and not by any change in the noun itself.
5*
64
CLASSES
95. Writers on English grammar have made a
third case, called possessive: but this noun, when
put in the possessive case, necessarily becomes an
adjective by use, and, under that class of words,
where it belongs, will be explained.
The addition of an apostrophe and s forms the
noun into a specifying word, referring to an other
noun; as Saturn's belt, Burgoyne's defeat.
96. The things to which nouns are applied as
names, consist:
1st. Of sensible objects, or substances perceiva-
ble by one or more of the five corporeal senses,
seeing, hearing, feeling, taste, and smell. Such are
a star, a flute, a thistle, an orange.
In the application of language to this class of
things, we are to consider them, not as they appear
to philosophic investigation; but as they are di-
rectly presented to our bodily organs: for all lan-
guages receive their main structure from plain
men, judging from obvious appearances, and not
from chymists, physiologists, or mechanicians.
The name horse is given to a particular quadruped,
as a single object, exhibited immediately to the
sight, and not with any necessary reference to his
aptitudes, or internal organization. Every farther
idea of this animal, as a complex being, and as a
link in the great chain of creation, depends on
the ulterior progress and refinement of knowledge.*
* "An ordinary man sees an object just as it happens to be
presented to him, and sees no more. But a man of genius
takes it to pieces, inquires into its cause and effects; remarks
its internal structure; and considers what would have been
the result, if its members had been combined in a different
way, or subjected to different influences. The man of genius
gains a whole magazine of thoughts, while the ordinary man
OF THINGS,
55
* It is not the design of this work to debate the
question, what is the real nature of light, heat, and
color, nor to engage in other subjects of scientific
disquisition; but to employ these and all other
words according to the best popular use.
ness can
97. 2. Qualities of matter, considered as re-
siding in bodies, and forming different elementary
parts of their aggregate nature, as, opacity, color,
weight, cohesion, &c.
We speak of the hardness of iron; yet that cer-
tain something which we mean by the word hard-
never be extracted from the metal and
shown as a separate substance. This quality ex-
ists in very different degrees; but, to some extent,
is necessarily connected with every species of mat-
ter.
Illustration. We may take milk in one glass,
and water in an other. If these are mingled, no skill,
mechanical or chymnical, can separate them; yet
we continue to contemplate them as objects of dis-
tinet mental conception. We speak of the water
in the milk; the milk in the water; and the white-
ness it imparts to the mixture. In the same man-
ner the mind conceives of hardness in iron, and on
this principle names are applicable to inherent
qualities, through all their combinations.
98. 3. The third order of things; to which names
bas received only one idea ; and his powers are multiplied in
proportion to the number of ideas upon which they are to be
so employed. Now there is perhaps nothing that contributes
more eminently to this subtilizing and inultiplication of mind,
an attention to the structure of language.”
Godwin, on the Study of the Classics:
56
OLASSES
1
are applied, is the class of mental objects, or incon
poreal beings; as mind, soul, spirit, angel, God.
This class of existences is entirely different from
material things : known indeed with no less cer-
tainty, but by a totally different kind of evidence.
The mind is the immortal part of man; endowed
with reason, consciousness, memory, and other fa-
culties, of which each person has the knowledge
within himself. We are certain that we have rea-
soning or thinking faculties, because we think.
This class of being therefore, is ascertained by our
inward consciousness, as clearly as material ob-
jects are exhibited to our bodily organs.
The knowledge of spiritual existences, must in
the earliest ages, either have been the subject of
divine revelation, or it is a conscious truth, spring-
ing up with the first dawnings of reason in the
mind; for there seems never to have been a lan-
guage on earth, which did not in its essential struc-
ture, recognize this class of unseen beings.
99. 4. Mental qualities. Mind as well as mat-
ter has its qualities; a recognition of which enters
into the general principles of language. Wisdom,
benevolence, cunning, belong to mind, as light, heat,
and smoothness do to bodies : but there is nothing
in the organization of speech, connected with the
inquiry how mental qualities exist in the mind it-
self: for, among all nations, language must have
received its general cast, and made great advances,
before men learn to reason concerning their own
reasoning powers. There is an other reason, which
may explain this principle, hitherto unexplained,
as it is connected with the structure of language.
The idea of the mind itself, as a separate existence,
is inferential. Its qualities therefore are deduced
OF THINGS.
57
by secondary inference; and both these classesor
inferential conceptions inust be referred to sensible
objects, before they can acquire a definite percep-
tible form, and be communicated from one intelli-
gent being to an other.
.
.
3
100. 5. Attendant circumstances. This class of
words Mr. Locke calls modes of matter; as, even-
ing, morning, motion, weather, a storm, an earth-
quake, a fever : the fall of the leaf. Here it will be
observed that fall is not the name of the leaf, nor of
any thing which inheres in it, or essentially belongs
to it; but the mere happening, which affects it only
for a moment. Evening is not the name of a sub-
stance, nor of any inherent quality of the earth or
the air. As the earth turns on its axis, it inter-
cepts, at regular periods, the rays of the sun, and
darkness ensues. The name of this circumstance,
attendant on the earth's revolution, is called night,
and in its first approaches, evening. The same ob-
servations apply to the very numerous words of
this class. Mental existences, as well as material
bodies, have their attendant circumstances. Soul
is a mental object. Consciousness is one of its es-
sential qualities : joy and grief, anger, shame, gra-
,
titude, resentment, &c. are its temporary affections,
or attendant circumstances.
'It is found in philosophic parsing, that the affec-
tions of the mind, as they exist in human beings,
and extend to the structure of speech, are so closely
allied to “modes of matter,” that it is not expedient
for any purpose of practical utility, to attempt a
complete separation between them.
a
<
1
101. 6. Fictions of the imagination, as Polyphes
mus; the Goddess Calypso ; Queen Mab of the
Fays or Fairieș ; a golden mountain ; the dog
58
CLASSES
Cerberus ; Utopia ; Lilliput; a firy flying Dra-
gon; a griffin ; a Titan; Raw Head and Bloody
Bones. A Phenix; A Mermaid ; Midas's Ears,
Aladdin's Lamp
102. 7. Complex Ideas. Though it is convenient
to give a separate contemplation to this class of
words, it is impossible accurately to mark its out-
line : because the ideas comprehended under nouns
in general, are more or less complex. Many
names, however, embrace more particularly a
great number of objects, as an aggregate whole.
Such are the terms, landscape, city, nation, uni-
cerse. A history is not the name of a single ob-
ject; but includes in its complex idea all the vari-
ed scenes and events which history records.
Nouns which name groups of similar objects, as
a collective whole, are called nouns of multitude ;
as, an army of men; a flock of wild geese ; an
assembly of divines; a society; a company;
congress of kings. Here the idea of the single
group is plural, in reference to the individuals, yet
the noun superadds the plural form for the nume-
ral increase of the aggregate.
a
103. 8. The names applied to our own species,
in their absolute and relative capacity, are so nu-
merous, that although they fall in part under the
other classes of nouns, it is convenient to place
them entirely as a distinct sort. These words
'
may be subdivided into two kinds, absolute and
relative. An absolute name is one which applies
to any being or thing, for what it positively is, and
the name remains, while the thing continues un-
changed. Relative names are given to things, in
consequence of some state or condition in which
they are placed, in reference to other objects.
OF THINGS.
59
Thus the word person, is a name applying abso-
lutely to any one of the human species, and the
name continues to apply, so long as the being
may exist. The name uncle, on the other hand,
is entirely relative : for the individual so called,
can bear this title no longer than while he has a
neph w or niece ; but must, independent of any
change in himself, cease to be an uncle, if all the
persons to whom he is thus related should die.
Parent, son, daughter, brother, sister, king, subject,
citizen, teacher, captain, master, servant, soldier,
judge, printer, and a vast number of similar words,
which relate to man in his complicated character,
are all mere relative terms.
The names of sensible objects also are fre-
quently relative; as, the end of a stick, the top of
the house, the north and south poles, the Zenith and
nadir ; an extract, quotation, abridgment, the essence
of lavender, valleys, mountains, hills, dales, banks.
a
104. Though these classes of things exist in the
structure of every language, and have their foun-
dation in nature, and the condition of man, at all
times, no skill can draw a complete separating
line between them. They run into each other
by imperceptible degrees, and mingle in endless
forms of combination. It is not therefore neces-
sary, in practice, to aim at infallibility in the appli-
cation of principles, the unerring use of which
would require nothing less than the perfection of
knowledge. The exercises under this system of
explanation will be found exceedingly improving
in expanding the mind; increasing its acumen, and
forming habits of philosophic investigation : and
though the beginning should be very defective,
every step in the progress will increase the facility
60
CLASSES
of ulterior advance. The author has, in the way
of his own experience, seen more benefit resulting
to pupils from this philosophic adaptation of
words to things, than in any other scholastic ex-
ercise on the science of language.
105. Having examined the different classes of
things, in nature and art, to which nouns are ap-
plied, we shall next attend to them as consisting of
a single object, or a of plurality.
The addition of s or es, or of any other modifi-
cation to a noun singular, to denote more objects
than one, may be called a grammatical plural.
The manner of forming this plural depends on the
special or conventional regulations of each particu-
lar tongue.
106. There are two ways of forming the plural
of nouns, philosophically considered, and this is a
principle, common perhaps to all languages.
Ist. When for instance we speak of dollars, we
mean simple numerical increase, from the singular.
Ten thousand of these coins may be cast in the
same die, and as to all perceivable qualities, may
be exactly alike. Neither does the mind necessa-
rily conceive of them under any idea of variety,
but mere increase of numbe:.
2. But when we speak of drugs and medicines,
the leading intention of the mind is variety; and
the idea of number, which is vaguely implied,
is consequential and subsidiary: The general un-
derstanding is, that no two things of a kind are in-
cluded under the idea contained in the expression;
but different articles, used for medicinal purposes.
The conception of specific number is so foreign from
this kind of plural, that to say, twelve drugs and
fifteen medicines, strikes the ear of every one as en-
tirely new and whimsical.
OF TISGS.
** Paints and dyewoods” means different kinds of
paint and dyewood, no two things of a kind being
anderstood.
" He found bis fears of wbips and ropes
By many a dram outroeighed his hopes. McFingai.
This term outweigh, is precisely the one recognized
by popular language; so little does the thought of
counting hopes and fears enter into the mind. What
is intended and understood here, is the different
modifications of hope and fear, from different causes,
relations, and objects. Hope and fear are affec-
tions of the miod. Specific number is not appli-
cable to them, and is not implied in their plural
forms, farther than as number is unavoidably in-
cluded in variety. “ Color” is a quality of mat-
ter, and so is “blackness."
The latter has no plu-
ral form; because, however this quality may vary
in its proportion, or degree of intensity, it is always
considered as being the same thing in kind.
6 Colors” means different kinds of color, or of co-
loring matter, the import always being variety, and
not the numerical augmentation of things like each
other. The same observations will apply to virtues,
vices, terrors, remedies, crimes, punishments, laws,
governments, religions, and a very numerous list of
other words. It would be easy to follow these ex-
emplifications through other languages; but this is
not necessary to the purpose of the present work.
When a merchant advertises “ Sugars and Fresh
Teas," he means different kinds of tea and sugar;
for no one sort, whatever the quantity may be, can
form a plural.
These principles, like many others, hitherto un-
noticed, will be found important in their applica-
tion.
6
62
PRONOUNS.
107. Many nouns have no plural. The l'ea-
sons are founded in philosophy, according to the
nature of the case. Wheat and rye are sensible
objects, which have no plural; for the articles to
which the names are applied are computed by bulk
or quantity, and not by number.
Universe has no plural; because from the ex-
tent of the term, there can be but one. Immensity,
infinitude, eternity, omniscience, omnipotence, and
other words of this class, can have no plural; be-
cause the singular fills all conceivable extension.
For the same reason, these terms cannot properly
admit any specifying word; and their correlative
adjectives, as eternal, infinite, &c. preclude the
idea of comparative degrees. A want of attention
to these principles has produced a remarkable
vagueness in the expressions of authors who de-
servedly stand high in other respects.
The noun being thus philosophically attended
to, it will be seen afterwards how the pronoun is
substituted for it, the adjective refers to it, and the
verb agrees with it, according to the nature of the
thing
PRONOUNS.
108. Pro is the Latin preposition for.
Pronouns are words used instead of nouns, to
prevent their tiresome repetition; as, John Brown
is a good scholar : he learns well : we must reward
him. The words he and him stand for John Brown,
and the pronoun we stands for all the persons whom
the speaker represents.
PRONOUNS.
63
>
109. The pronouns in English are, I, me, thou,
thee, he, him, she, her, it, we, ye or you, they, them,
who and whom.
Each of these words is special and invariable.
The nominatives and objectives of these pronouns
are indeed correlative by use and application, but
one is not necessarily to be deemed a mere modifi-
cation of the other, as in Greek and Latin declen-
sions. The misconception of this fact has led to
.
great error in practice. The words I and me;
we and us; she and her, are from totally different
roots; and there was no more reason to suppose
from their mere relative employment, that one was
a derivative from the other, than that William Tell
is the objective case of Switzerland, or that the name
knifeblade was derived from bucks-horn, because
handles are sometimes made of that material. It
is the general character of the English language
that its distinct words are more numerous, and each
word respectively more specific and absolute in its
application, than those of almost any other system
of human speech. In these respects it has in par-
ticular but little affinity with Greek and Latin, with
which it has been most compared, and in which
analogy has been most industriously sought.
110. Pronouns, like nouns, are of two numbers,
the singular and the plural; but they do not form
the plural, from the singular, by a different ending
of the same word. The simple theory of English
pronoups is that a specific and invariable word is
prepared for each relative position in which a pro-
noun can be placed.
Pronouns are of three genders, masculine, ſemi-
nine, and neuter.
They have three persons, first, second, and
third. The first person is the one who speaks;
the second is spaken to ; and the third is spoken of;
>
64
PRONOUNS.
or, the first person speaks, to the second, about tile
third.
111. Pronouns, though very convenient in giv-
ing variety to discourse, are not an original, nor an
absolutely necessary part of speech. This, like
some other branches of knowledge, may be learned
from savages and children, if we had no other
means of discovering the fact. The tenants of the
American forest, in their various dialects, have one
general word for the third person singular, which
answers for the three genders ; and when one of
;
these men, in speaking broken English, mentions a
woman, he habitually calls her he or him. How-
ever oddly this may sound to us, it is only the
application of e same principle to the singular
number, which we ourselves use in the plural;
we say they or them without distinguishing whether
It is very natural for an
Indian, or any other person, to carry into a foreign
language the habits with which he is familiar in
his mother tongue. It is no more philosophically
improper that savages should say he, for one per-
son, male or female, than that polite scholars should
say they, for ten of either sex. All English learners,
in French, Spanish, Italian, and many other tongues,
are liable to turn Indians in misapplying the pro-
noun plural for they.
Children also instruct us in the secondary cha-
racter of pronouns; for when the little prattler
speaks of himself, he commonly makes use of his
own name, instead of the words Zorme; as, “Charley
fall down :" "give John drink."
we mean women or men.
112. Grammatical writers have very generally
'made out a table of words of three cases, which
they call personal pronouns. It seems strange that
persons acquainted with language, should fail to
PRONOUNS,
65
perceive that this personal pronoun in the posses-
sive case is always nominative or objective, and
unavoidably so, for it is never used without a direct
connexion with a verb, as subject or object.
The following is Mr. Murray's Table :
Nom.
I
Thou
He
She
It
SINGULAR.
Poss.
mine
thine
his
hers
its
Obj.
me
thee
bim
her
it
ours
Ye or you
PLURAL.
Vom.
Poss.
Obj.
We
US
yours
you
They
theirs
them
The words mine, thine, her's, our's, your's, and
their's, are a mere contraction or sinking of a word,
always necessarily understood.
A few examples will illustrate this principle.
This is my book; or emphatically my own
book.
Here the word book is inserted after my; be-
cause perspicuity requires it to be so inserted, if it
has not been previously expressed.
This book is mine.
Here the word book, being placed before the
verb, its repetition immediately after it, is useless as
it regards perspicuity; and that object being ac-
complished, the only remaining consideration is
brevity. If the contraction had not already been
made, it is altogether likely that a community of
illiterate people would soon fall into it. That this
was the manner of formation in England, is cor-
roborated by the vulgar contractions, hisn, hern,
ourn, yourn, and theirn, in the same way,
6*
66
ADJECTIVES.
Among scholars, however, that portion of these
words which end in a consonant, have fallen into
the more general mode of contraction, as in the
changed forms of nouns, called the possessive case.
In all instances then, where mine, ours, and other
words of this class occur, they are only to be ex-
plained by the fact of their being an adjective with
a following noun understood, as being included in
a contracted form.
ADJECTIVES.
115. A traveller, on his journey, came to tire river
Rhone. He met a rustic who had always lived
near its border, and had never seen any other large
stream. “Mon bon garcon, dit le voyageur, comment
appelle tu ce fleuve ?”. My good fellow, said the
traveller, what river do you call this? “C'est le
fleuve, Monsieur, je n'en ai jamais entendu d'autre
nom. It is the river, sir ; I have never heard any
other name for it.
If there was really but one river in the world,
it would be as useless for others, as for the
clown of the Rhone, to employ a great number of
secondary words, to distinguish one river from
others.
There would have been no need of the proper
names Rhone, Rhine, Seine, Garonne, and others,
to denote various streams by appropriate indivi-
dual designation. We could not say that one river
is large and an other smaller ; some rivers limpid,
clear, and beautiful; others turbid and unwhole-
some; this river broad, deep, and sluggish in its
ADJECTIVES.
67
course; and that narrow, turbulent, and rapid ;
nor that three American rivers are larger and more
majestic than any river on the eastern continent.
.
A more full exposition of this class of words will
be given, from an impression of their great impor-
tance, as well as the limited and mistaken principles
upon which grammarians have attempted to explain
them.
.
116. The great leading character of the adjec-
tive is founded on the countless relations which
things bear to each other. They are, like other
words, nouns and verbs, by origin : they assume an
astonishing variety in their modifications, while
their general nature and use are easily distinguish-
ed by children.
Though adjectives are secondary words by use,
they are an exceedingly numerous class; and it is
a great mistake of some learned writers to suppose
that any language is without them.
I have before taken occasion to advert to the
common error in not distinguishing the relative
from the absolute meaning of words. The nature
of this error I shall endeavor to explain.
117. It is asserted by the learned and excellent
President Dwight, that from his childhood he
learned the language of the Stockbridge tribe of
Indians, and afterwards became conversant with
the principal dialects of North America. He re-
presents them all as entirely destitute of adjectives.
This authority is quoted with approbation by sev-
eral European writers, and by Horne Tooke
among the rest. It is a simple mistake of the form
for the substance. When the savage speaks of a
ship as a "water wigwam ;” does not every one per-
ceive that the epithet water, instead of being em-
69
ADJECTIVES.
>
ployed primarily, as the name of a thing, takes a
secondary relation, as descriptive of an other thing;
and, with the same specific meaning, as before, ac-
quires a new character, by its “manner of signifi-
cation?” It is the same when he calls his brandy
"fire water," and cannon, the “ white men's thun-
der.'
The latter expression is his simple and natural
manner of distinguishing this new discovered fulmi-
nation from the thunder of “the Great Spirit.”
118. Grammarians, in general, have conceived
it necessary to give practical rules for distinguish-
ing the parts of speech; but probably most persons
who know the difference between a chesnut horse
and a horse chesnut will find no great difficulty in
telling adjectives from nouns.
119. Adjectives are words used with nouns to
specify or describe them.
This definition implies two kinds, specifying and
describing adjectives. To understand these we
must see how they apply to the noun, or to the pro-
noun, as its substitute, according to the nature of the
thing
Common nouns name things with reference to
their general descriptive qualities : for instance, a
book is a collection of leaves, fastened together at
one edge, enclosed between two covers, to open
and shut, for the purpose of containing some form
of written language. The idea included in the
word books, according to its plain meaning, takes
the entire range, from two to the whole number
ever manufactured ; leaving the mind in total un-
certainty as to everything else comprehended
under the general definition of the word. Mention
the word books to any person in conversation.
Several questions successively and spontaneously
ADJECTIVES.
69
arise in his mind: what books? which books? how
many? what sort of books ? how conditioned or
situated ? Any single word which answers either
of these questions, is an adjective.
SPECIFYING ADJECTIVES.
,
120. These limit, particularize, define, point
out,
1st. By identity; or precise relation:
2d. By extension.
First. Many specifying adjectives serve to dis-
tinguish things from each other, by reference to
their identity or individuality, by special relative
circumstances, and not according to any mode of
descriptive classification. They answer to the di-
rect and specific question, which thing? what
things ? as, which book do you mean? answer,
I mean this book, or the book which is on the table,
and not any of those books which are on that shelf.
The adjectives this, the, any, those, that, imply
nothing respecting the quality or descriptive cha-
racter of any book; but wholly relate to the identity
of the one alluded to. This kind of designation is
frequently attended by a farther specification in
words, as the allusion to the table, or that shelf: or
it is accompanied by present explaining circum-
stances, known both to the speaker and hearer. If
both books are in sight, the distinction is between
the nearest and most distant. Frequently some
outward sign, as a look, a motion of the hand, con-
curs with what is spoken; and this corporeal sigu
thus makes part of the language. These words
have all been called articles; for they come under
the definition given to that class; but the article,
from its character and use, is necessarily an adjec-
tive, and as they run into each other in such various
ways that no complete dividing line can be drawn
ܪ1
70
ADJECTIVES.
between them, it is most simple and most practically
convenient to consider the whole only as modifica-
tions of the same thing.
121. The adjectives which specify things with
particular reference to their identity, or individual-
ity, and which answer to the questions which or
what things, are this, that, both, any, these, those,
all, each, every, either, no, first, second, third, last,
and all the ordinal numbers. The words which and
what also belong to the same class.
122. Second. Adjectives which limit or specify
with immediate reference to extension, apply to
things, in two ways, according as they are taken
by quantity or number. Any adjective of number
will not apply to the word wheat for the same rea-
son that the noun itself has no plural; because it is
always estimated by weight or measure, and is
never counted. If the single grains should be
counted, the adjective of number would apply to
grains, or kernels, and not to the noun wheat. We
can say much wheat, but not many wheats.
The adjectives which have relation to numerical
extension, are all the words known as cardinal
numbers : a, one, twain, two, three, four, few,
many, both, several, more, and most.
These words, in general, specify with perfect
precision ; but where the exact number is not
known, the words few, many, several, and others
specify within a limited or discretionary range.
Several means three or more, up to a moderate
number, but not ten thousand, nor one hundred.
It comes from the verb to sever, or divide, and is
applied to things, the exact number of which is not
known. Some, any, no, and all, are common
to number, quantity, and identity.
ADJECTIVES.
71
123. Any adjective of number may be convert-
ed into a noun of multitude. Ex." Moses chose
able men out of all Israel, and made them heads
over the people; rulers of thousands; rulers of
hundreds; rulers of fifties; and rulers of tens."
Any word of this class is certainly a noun,
if it takes a direct plural form, by a discre-
tionary addition to the singular. One and ones,
are nouns applied both to persons and things;
and are frequently very convenient, as words
of this general latitude of meaning. When used
with a noun, expressed or understood, one is
a defining word, or specifying adjective; but in
this character it cannot admit of a plural.
124. An other mode of specifying the identity or
individuality of objects, is by their relation to each
other. This practice is founded in an important
process of the mind, in arriving at the distinct
comprehension of things, and forms a general
principle of language. It includes the relative
conditions of consanguinity; likeness and contrast;
locality; cause and consequence; author and per-
formance; objects and their qualities and modifica-
tions; moral, civil, and religious rights and du-
ties. Of the various relations of things to each
other, that between owner and property being one,
has extended its idea and given name to the whole.
This, under the name of the possessive case, has
been treated by grammatical writers as a slight
modification in nouns and pronouns, without
amounting to a change in the character of the word.
It has been represented as merely denoting posses-
sion or ownership; but a little investigation will
show that this idea was founded in error. The
noun, in the possessive case, is only a mode of de-
signating one thing by its relation to an other, and
72
ADJECTIVES,
is always an adjective by use. The phrase Jupi-
ter's satellites, used in the language of sober phi-
losophy, does not convey to the mind the least
idea of owner and property. It is the simple speci-
fication of those particular secondary orbs which
revolve around that planet. If any man, on exam-
.
ination, can discover any other idea in his mind,
from this expression, it does not belong there, but
is the mere effect of false teaching.
125. Even where the idea of owner and property
is present to the mind, it is still only a mode of
specification. In the phrase, “Alexander's horse,
Bucephalus," it would be impossible for the mind
to arrive at the identity of the horse by any mode
of description or specification, but that of his rela-
tion to his master. " Peter's wife's mother lay sick
of a fever.” Peter was the best known person of
the three; and the leading purpose of the mind
was to designate the woman who stood in the rela-
tion of mother-in-law to him. If the wife's mother
had been as well known by her own name, as Peter
was by his, that form of expression would not have
been employed. The mention of the woman would
have been direct.
a
126. It is the natural process of the mind, in
judging of new objects, to refer them to some stand-
ard, previously known. Most new terms and new
applications of them, in all languages, depend on
this very active faculty of the human intellect.
This class of relations is almost always recipro-
cal: it is the master's slave, and the slave's master;
the uncle's niece, and the niece's uncle; it is the
owner's ox; but the ox also “knoweth his owner,
and the ass his master's crib."
ADJECTIVES.
73
127. It may be profitable to examine this im-
portant principle of language somewhat in detail,
on account of the strong prejudices which, from its
novelty, it must almost necessarily encounter.
1st. The relation betwen actor or author and his
performance: "Of man's first disobedience, and
the fruit of that forbidden tree," &c. Not the dis-
obedience that Adam owned as his property; but
that of which he had been guilty.
"Newton's Philosophy," that is, the doctrines
in science which originated with him. "Ptolemy's
Astronomy," "Euclid's Elements," "The Apostles'
Creed," "Blair's Sermons," "Cook's Voyage
round the World," "Pope's Homer's Iliad," "Gen.
Washington's March to Yorktown," "Perry's Vic-
tory," "Braddock's Defeat," "The Beggar's Pe-
tition."
"Ye have set at nought my counsels, and would
none of my reproof: I also will laugh at your ca-
lamity, and mock when your fear cometh.'
128. 2d. Relation between a person or thing
and some circumstance or occurrence attending
him, independent of that person's voluntary act.
"The Earl of Strafford's execution ;" not the exe-
cution which he owned as his property; but that
which was inflicted on him by his enemies for his
fidelity to his royal master. "The king's failure
in that expedition caused his ruin." "Supply our
wants: make us feel our dependence."
66
129. 3d. Cause and effect; objects and their
qualities; similitude, local situation, &c. "An
effect may be obvious, while its cause is unknown."
"Metalic ores may generally be known by their
weight." "Our judgments are often influenced by
our feelings." "Heat and cold, with most other
qualities, are best known by their contrasts."
7
ADJECTIVES.
“Sir John Oldcastle's pamphlet, its doctrines
and their consequences.”
130. 4th! More remote relations of various kinds
are expressed by this form of language : as “ Ham-
let's grave-digger.” Hamlet did not own the grave-
digger nor the grave. It was simply a grave-
digger whom he saw, and to whom his attention
was particularly called. “George the Third's
coio;" that is, the coin struck during his reign,
bearing his image and superscription. Pompey's
pillar; the monument of his melancholy fate,
erected long after his assassination.
.
131. 5th. Arbitrary specific designation, serving
as an individual name : as “ St. Paul's church.":
"Hudson's Bay." Madison's Island. M Gilly-
cudder's Reeks. Fingal's Cave. Martha's Vine-
yard.
6th. Relation to general ideas or transactions,
without allusion to any specific thing; as “The
king's attempting to levy ship money by his own
arbitrary authority, gave great offence to the
parliament.”
7th. But there is still a new and very interesting
point of view, in which we may contemplate the
relations of things, as tliey exist in the structure of
language; that is, the different kinds and degrees
:
of relation which frequently exist between the same
two objeets.
Benjamin West's portrait.” Here the closest
relation, and consequently the first conception
which arises in the mind, is, a portrait painted as
the likeness of Benjamin West. If we are told
this is not the meaning of the speaker, the next
supposition is, that as Mr. West was a distinguish-
ed artist, it is a portrait painted by him, as the
ADJECTIVES.
75
likeness of some other person. When these closest
relations, which in the first place irresistibly
arise, are removed, the mind may at last be
brought, faintly and reluctantly to understand that
Benjamin West's portrait, means a painting which
he bought at auction, of which he consequently
became the legal owner.
“Sound his praise in thy eternal course, &c."--Milton.
“Made vocal by my song, and taught his praise."
“ My prayer and praise shall arise with the morning.”
133. In these examples it will be seen that the
same form of expression conveys ideas of totally
opposite kinds. The Creator's praise is that
which He receives. Man's praise is what is offer-
ed by him as a religious duty. “Dr. Franklin's
.
memory was very retentive." 66 Dr. Franklin's
memory will long be cherished by his country-
men.'
These two expressions are the same possessive
case of the grammars; and they are both as well
authorized English as any sentence in the lan-
guage ; but it will be seen that the two relations
to Dr. Franklin are of directly opposite bearing.
In the first, memory denotes a faculty of Dr.
Franklin's own mind. In the second, it is that
by which his countrymen retain, cherish, and per-
petuate the knowledge of his virtues.
DESCRIBING ADJECTIVES.
134. Adjectives of description apply to nouns
in two
ys:
1st. They designate the quality, kind, or sort
of things; as good, bad; old, new; wise, sensi-
ble, ignorant,
76
ADJECTIVES.
2d. They describe the condition, situation, or
relative circumstances of things; as, a finished or
unfinished house. “A little book open.
“ An irritable man," alludes to the man's gene-
ral character of irritability. The man was greatly
irritated, refers only to the man's special situation
at a given time. “My son was dead and is alive
again ; was lost and now is found."
“ He was well yesterday; but is very sick this
?
morning."
This class of adjectives, describing by condition,
or the relative circumstances of things, includes a
large number of words which have generally but
erroneously been classed with adverbs, as here, there,
yonder, where.
Things are described as well as specified by
their relation to each other, and the same epithet
partakes, frequently, of both characters; as the
antediluvian inhabitants; the western continent;
the northern hemisphere; the rear guard.
Again, things are described by their actions or
operations; as a trotting horse; a spinning ma-
chine; an intriguing politician.
136. The noun to which the describing, and
sometimes the specifying adjective, refers, is ele-
gantly and properly omitted, wherever it is neces-
sarily understood as “The just shall live by
;
faith.” This, of course, cannot mean just beasts,
nor birds ; but the class of beings who are capable
of exercising Christian faith, and whose spiritual
life depends on that exercise; that is, the human
species. The righteous, the wicked, the swift, the
strong, are omissions of the noun upon the same
principle.
The English, the French, the Spanish, are ex-
ADJECTIVES.
77
pressions which imply the following nouns, peo-
ple, nation, language, or some other word suffi-
ciently understood.
137. By a contraction of a different kind, the
adjective is converted into a noun, and takes the
plural. As, mortals, instead of mortal beings, reg-
ulars for regular troops, Italians, an American,
marines, goods; the particulars, which means the
particular circumstances or things.
Titles are nouns, when used alone; as, both
Captains fought with great bravery. Two amia-
ble young misses are made fatherless by the duel.
When titles are prefixed to proper nouns, they
are adjectives, which in English never vary for
gender, number, nor case. Two Major Cooks and
three Captain Porters were at the meeting. Two
Miss Whites; the two Miss Whites; or two of the
Miss Whites were there. The two Lord Lyttletons.
All the Lady Grays. Many Queen Marys.†
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
138. A few observations on the adjectives and
* Maister is the old word for master, and, till within th
last three hundred years, was written alike in French and
English. The French now write it maitre, dropping the ɛ,
according to their frequent mode of elision. The English, in
one case, omit i, and write master, denoting authority. Re-
taining i instead of a gives the term of politeness, mister. So
Maistresse is altered to Mistress, and its modern contraction,
Miss, is applied to an unmarried lady. This manufacture of
many words from one is the common process in the refinement
of language.
The plurals of proper names are formed simply by ad-
dings, even where the common noun would end in ies or
otherwise; as, the eight King Henrys, and not Henries.
**
18
ADJECTIVES.
adjective pronouns," as taught in British colleges.
and schools, and hitherto followed in America, as
a matter of course, will prepare the way for such
farther explanations as appear to belong to this
class of words. The remarks offered will be re-
ferred to Mr. Murray's grammar; not to decry
that particular author; but because he is confessed-
ly the present head of the system, the study of which
requires so much expense of time and money, for
two of the principal nations of the earth; and from
the grammatical mystery, that while this work is
so generally received, as the best. English system,
and the basis of all others, almost every person,
who has any thing to do with it, finds it necessary
to mend it, in its most important points.
For the purpose of farther avoiding every ap-
pearance of unfairness, it will be proper to begin
by showing Mr. Murray's high claims to authority.
“ Mr. Murray's English Grammar, Exercises, and Key to
the Exercises, form altogether, by fur, the most complete and
judicious analysis of the English language, that has hitherto
been published. The rules for composition are excellent ;
the examples are selected with taste and judgment; and the
execution of the whole displays an unusual degree of critical
acuteness and sagacity." —Annual Review. London.
“ We have had no grammarian, within the compass of
our critical career, who has employed so much labor and
judgment upon our native language, as the author of these
volumes."-British Critic.
“We have read this work with sufficient care, to be able
to pronounce upon it, as a work of great correctness and per-
Section.
We cannot dismiss these volumes without observing, that
as they are intended for the higher classes of readers, they
will be found particularly'serviceable to instructors, to young
persons who have left school, and to foreigners."--Christian
Observer.
ADJECTIVES.
79
"The Grammar I esteem as a most excellent performance.
I think it superior to any work of that nature we have yet
had; and am persuaded that it is, by much, the best grammar
of the English language extant."-Guardian of Education.
"They occupy with distinguished excellence, a most impor
tant place in the science of the English language; and, as
such, we can warmly recommend them to the teachers of
schools, as well as to all those who are desirous of attaining
correctness and precision in their native tongue."-Monthly
Review.
:
"The very general approbation which this grammar has
received from the public, is sufficiently indicative of its mer-
its and we have much pleasure in confirming the decision of
the public, respecting its superiority over all other English
grammars. We request the author to continue his exertions
for the instruction of the rising generation."-Critical Re-
view.
"Our sentiments with regard to the omission or insertion of
the relative pronoun, are exactly stated by Mr. Lindley Mur-
ray, the ingenious author of the best English Grammar, BE-
YOND ALL COMPARISON, that has yet appeared."-Im-
perial Review.
"Mr. Murray's Grammar, and Selection of Lessons for
Reading, are the best in the English language."-Walker's
Elements of Elocution, second edition.
140. This "best of all" expositors of our lan-
guage, and other grammatical writers, in general,
present a set of words which they call adjective
pronouns, and which they commonly agree in sub-
dividing into six classes. These subdivisions of
adjective pronouns are denominated "relative and
interrogative, possessive, distributive, demonstrative,
and indefinite." Almost all which is said respect-
ing this class of words will be found irreconcilable
with the principles and practice of every language
throughout the civilized world. There is no "ad-
jective pronoun" in any language. "A pronoun
stands for a noun," and is never used with one. An
80
ADJECTIVES
adjective is used with a noun, and never stands for
one. The line of separation between these two
sorts of words is always complete. The phrase
adjective pronoun is not only a contradiction in
terms; but every attempt, in every known tongue,
to explain these words, under this supposed mixed
character, is necessarily absurd and inconsistent.
141. The words I, me, we, us, who and whom
are personal pronouns ; strictly so; as they stand
only for persons. Thou, ye, you, he she, it, they,
are included in the same class, by some occasional
latitude of meaning, given to the word personal.
No other words but those coming under the gen-
eral description of personal pronouns, that is, real
substitutes for nouns, are pronouns at all.
Let us compare some of these pronoun adjectives
with existing grammar rules, and with facts as they
exist in the actual forms of speech.
142. 1. The words who, which, what, and that,
are called relative pronouns, because they relate
to a foregoing word." This foregoing word is,
honestly enough, called an “antecedent.” Whe,
"
which, and what, are again named interrogatives,
when they are used in asking questions. Two im.
portant points are omitted, in Dr. Lowth's system
of explanation, which, in substance, has been
copied by almost every writer on grammar since
his time.
143. 1st. We are left without name or charac-
ter for the words who, which, and what, when they
neither." ask questions," nor“ relate to a foregoing
word, called the antecedent;" which circumstance
very often happens; and, in which case, it is diffi-
cult to tell under which rule, in what grammar, to
ADJECTIVES,
S
what author, to look for aid; or in which class of
adjective pronouns to place these nondescript words,
belonging at once to two parts of speech, and find-
ing no quarters with either. We know not who
can explain, nor to whom to refer, where all are
silent; in which contingency we have no guide but
common sense, and the obvious principles of lan-
guage.
144. 2d. If who, which, and what are called in-
terrogative pronouns, because they ask questions ;
by what neglect has it happened that why, when,
and how, are not called interrogative adverbs, for
the same reason? It is known, to every person
conversant with language, that almost any term in
the whole vocabulary may be made the emphatic
word in a question. Why, in that case, are they
not all“ interrogatives ?”
tell me
145, 3. Again, when the words who, which,
and what, are contained in an interrogation, it
does not necessarily follow that they are the words
on which the question turns.
66 Will you
which book of the two you like best?" Here the
whole force of the question is contained in the first
four words, and the adjective which has no other
kind of meaning but that which relates to the as-
sertive identity of the book. The true “inter-
rogative" in this question, is the verb will : but all
attempts to classify words on principles like these,
are only calculated to mislead.
145. 4. Again, we are presented with the
words who and which, in a particular manner, in-
separably connected, in all explanations upon them,
as “adjective pronouns," relative and interroga-
tive; but we are not told why it happens, with
82
ADJECTIVES.
these grammatical twins, that one always preserves
its distinct forms and relations, as subject and ob-
ject, and the other never; that one always “stands
for a noun," and cannot be used with one ; and
the other is always used with direct and specific
reference to a noun, and never as its substitute : or,
in plain English, what oversight has thus kept to-
gether two words, which, without exception, as
unequivocally belong to different parts of speech,
as any two words in Johnson's Dictionary ?
sense.
147. Who is equivalent to which or what, and
its personal noun; as, Who was there that is,
what man, what woman, which person, was there?
So who can always be substituted for which or
what man, woman or person,
and
convey
the same
The same reciprocal substitution will also
apply in the plural number.
Any pronoun is equal to a specifying adjective
and a noun ; for pronouns must necessarily be
specific words. They stand for nouns whose num-
.
ber, gender, case, and identity are understood : else
these substitutes themselves would be constantly
liable to be misemployed.
Describing adjectives refer to pronouns, in the
same manner as to the nouns for which they stand.
Thus we may say,
“ the man is good, or he is
good. We can say that, this, or the man ; but not
this, that, or the he: for pronouns being substituted
only for words or ideas already specifically under-
stood, the specifying word is redundant, and, as
we are totally unaccustomed to the association,
it strikes us as particularly awkward.
148. The word which is always used as an ad-
jective, without the least mixture of any other
character; serving the purpose of identical speci-
ADJECTIVES.
83
fication, always having direct reference to a follow-
ing noun, which (following noun) must be express-
ed, if it is not necessarily understood.
EXAMPLES.
"Which thing I also did in Jerusalem." "Unto which pro-
mise our twelve tribes hope to come."
"For which hope's
sake, king Agrippa, I am accused of the Jews." Acts xxvi.
66
Early in the morning Cyrus made a sacrifice, during
which time his army took some refreshment."-Translation
of Rollin.
By which degrees men myght climben from the neytherest
letter to the upperest."-Boecius, Boke 1. Folium 221.
“All which things succeeded to his desire.” "The false-
ness of which pretence manifestly appeared.” “Which thing,
though he had ever desired, and at last acted, yet he did not lay
aside his mask, &c.”—Lord Bacon, Character of Cesar. P. 5.
“Which doctrine also the lordes, bothe spirituall and tem-
porall, with the nether house of our parliament, have bothe
sene and lyke very wel." A necessary doctrine and erudi-
tion for any Christen man: set furthe by the Kynges Ma-
iestie of Englande.—1543.
149. The language of legal proceedings,
where words are multiplied beyond what is allow-
able in elegant literature, furnishes very numerous
examples of this subsequent, "foregoing word, call-
ed the antecedent;" As, "I, John Doe, am held
and firmly bound unto Richard Roe, in the full
and just sum of one thousand dollars, for which
sum, well and truly to be paid, I hereby bind my-
self," &c.-Form of a Bond.
"A. B. bought a farm, for which farm he agreed
to pay ten thousand dollars, and which said sum he
has not paid." So in the declaration by the bai-
liffs or occupants of a toll bridge, against Mr.
C. D. "For divers tolls and duties, due, and
of right payable, by the said C. D. to the said bai-
liffs, for the passage of divers loaded wagons, and
$4
ADJECTIVES.
loaded carts, of the said C. D. before that time,
drawn over a certain bridge, situated &c. which
said bridge the said bailiffs and their predeces-
sors," &c.
Every tolerable scholar can supply the omitted
word, or there is a want of perspicuity in the con-
struction of the sentence: as,
“Beware of false prophets, which [prophets] come to you
in sheep's clothing." "For so persecuted they the prophets
which [prophets] were before you." "Thy disciples do that
[thing] which [thing] it is not lawful to do on the sabbath day."
"I will utter things which [things] have been kept secret
from the foundation of the world."
4
It will be observed, in all these examples, and
in every other of similar structure, throughout the
language, that where persons are spoken of, the
pronoun who may be substituted for the specifying
adjective and the noun; as, Beware of false pro-
phets who come to you in sheep's clothing; and,
except for the sake of variety, this is decidedly
the best expression.
150. The words called relative pronouns, while
they always specify as adjectives, answer also the
purpose of connecting words. The reasons of their
origin and use, in this latter character, are ob-
vious.
In the early and restricted forms of language,
sentences are commonly limited to single propo-
sitions. Among a rude people the expression is,
"I took corn: I pounded corn in the mortar : I
made bread of corn." This is the form of con-
struction used by deaf mutes, in their essays at
composition. So children talk. So all people
speak, in a language with which they are not fa-
miliar. But when literature has made consider-
able progress, and men by practice grow expert
in the combinations of words, various methods
ADJECTIVES.
85
are adopted to connect propositions into com-
pound sentences, so as at once to lessen the prolix-
ity and obviate the stiff monotony, which prevail
in the earlier forms of speech. The words called
relative pronouns are one of the contrivances of
language for this purpose. They are duplicate
adjectives, specifying the identity of things.
Their effect is to add a new member of a sentence,
by connecting its beginning with the ending of the
old. In an improved state of language, the form
of expression, instead of three sentences, as given
above, is, We procured some corn, which corn]
we carried to the mill, and of which (corn) we
made bread.
“ Tribulation worketh patience, and patience experience,
and experience hope, and hope maketh not ashamed."
Tribulation worketh patience, which (patience) worketh
experience, which [experience] worketh hope, which (hope)
maketh not ashamed.
It is to be observed that except in writings
where great formality is required, the words in
brackets are to be omitted as being necessarily
understood.
151. The difference between and and which, as
. conjunctive words is this—and connects in a gen-
eral manner, and which with identical limitation.
“ Tribulation worketh patience, and patience ex-
perience:" that is, patience, in general, worketh
experience.
“ Tribulation worketh patience, which worketh
experience," &c. the meaning of this is, that the
same or identical patience, which tribulation pro-
duces, worketh experience.
As a word answering this double purpose of
3
86
ADJECTIVES.
specification and conjunction, that may be substi-
tuted in most cases for which ; as, tribulation work-
eth patience; that patience worketh experience ;
that experience hope ; &c.
152. That and the are from the same Saxon
word, [Đaet þa} tha] that. The two words are
now substantially the same, and may be substituted
for each other, in a large proportion of the instances
in which they occur; as, “That (or the) enjoyment
which a wise man should most desire, is peace of
mind.”
That is no longer, like the, used with direct refer-
ence to a following plural, as it formerly was.
There is no other difference in their manner of sig-
nification. In degree of force that is the most defi-
nite and emphatic word.
The word that, whether the demonstrative pronoun,
the relative pronoun, or the conjunction of the gram-
mars, is always a specifying adjective. If, on this
point, the least doubt remains, in the mind of any
one, a reference to the “Diversions of Purley,” Vol.
I. p. 67, will set the matter at rest.
153. The word what is a compound of two speci-
fying adjectives, each, of course, referring to a noun,
expressed or understood. It is equivalent to the
which ; that which ; which that ; or that that; used
;
also in the plural. At different periods, and in
different authors, it appears in the varying forms,
tha qua, qua tha, qu’tha, quthat, quhat, hwat, and
what. This word is found in other forms; but it
is needless to multiply them. The letters which
answer to qu and w were often interchanged, and
appear to have been similarly sounded, by most of
the ancient nations of Europe. The reciprocal sub-
ADJECTIVES.
87
stitution of these letters, as well as g and y and w,
are habitual, in the Gothic, Gaelic, and Saxon lan-
guages.
154. This compounding of words need occasion
no surprise. There must be a greater tendency to
it in spoken than in written language; a striking
proof of which is shown in the various Indian dia-
lects of North America; yet we see the same con-
stantly practised at the present day, in the words
something, nothing, don't, can't, and many others.
The word what, like which and that, is never used
without a noun after it, expressed, or necessarily
understood in construction.
"It is not material what names are assigned to
them."--Campbell's Rhetoric, I. 1.
"Whate'er a blooming world contains,
That wings the air, that skims the plains,
United praise bestow."
That is, Whatever Being, &c.
"I am whatsoever is, what so ever has been; what so ever
shall be; and the veil which is over my face no mortal hath
removed."-Inscription on the Temple of Isis, or Nature.
Here the idea is the most general: whatever con-
ceivable being or thing, in the whole range of cre-
ation.
"I know not what [] to do."
155. Any pronoun, a common noun with a speci-
fying adjective or a proper noun, without an adjec-
tive, may be made to connect different proposi-
tions, in a compound sentence. This may be illus-
trated by the celebrated syllogism of Themisto-
cles.
88
ADJECTIVES.
My little boy governs the world : that is,
He controlls his mother ;
She rules me;
I govern Athens ;
Athens gives laws to Greece ;
Greece commands the world :
So
my son governs the world.
The principle of language, here, as connected
with the mental or logical process, is this: an impor-
tant idea is caught from each proposition ; for
which idea a specific substitute is adopted, and made
the leading word in the next member of the sen-
tence. This is frequently an important use of con-
junctive words; however their radical meanings,
or original forms, may become disguised by gradual
change.
156. An other subdivision of the words called
adjective pronouns, is the possessive. The list
comprehends my, thy, his, her, our, your, and their.
Its and whose belong with them, and should have
been included. An attempt has already been
made, under the description of adjectives, to show
what these words are; it remains to show that they
are not pronouns, either wholly or in part.
What are called personal pronouns, in the posses-
sive case, too, will be examined at the same time,
for the purpose of dismissing all these possessive
words at once. These words are mine, thine, his,
her's, our's, your's, their's, and whose: for the words
his and whose, without changing their forms, belong
to both classes.
5
157. The traditional teaching has been that I, mine,
my, and me, were all pronouns of the first person,
as being only modifications of the same word. Such
a supposition is contradicted by the facts, as they
ADJECTIVES.
S9
S
are presented through every page of the English
language. As to any relation which any and mine
may have to I and me, that circumstance cannot
make them pronouns, more than golden and snowy
are nouns, because derived from gold and snow.
The word my, instead of standing for a noun, wholly
or in part, is so obstinate and pertinacions in its
character, as an adjective, that it is never used with-
out its noun, actually inserted after it, in unbroken
connexion. Many adjectives have the noun omit-
ted after them, where it is necessarily understood :
but we can not say my, without using the word to
which my, as an adjective, directly refers.
The same remarks will apply to all the possessire
adjective pronouns, wherever they occur.
158. We will next examine the personal pronoan,
in the possessive case. This will best be done
in a practical way.
You have one book,
I have two,
Mine are old,
Yours is new.
It was before observed that this possessive case of
the personal pronoun is always nominative or ob-
jective, and unavoidably so, wherever used; in-
volving a strange absurdity, which has been strange-
ly overlooked, of employing a word in two distinct
cases, at the same time, without the least explana-
tion of such a palpable inconsistency.
159. But there is still a greater difficulty ; in
trying to surmount which, we shall obtain no aid
from the standing theory of adjectives and pro-
pouns.
In the example given above, the word mine, if a
pronoun at all, is in the first person singular, as we
are told by a hundred writers on grammar: yet it
g*
90
ADJECTIVES.
is the nominative case to the verb are, which is al-
ways plural. In like manner the word your's,
which is the second person plural of the grammars,
is nominative case to the verb is, which must always
be third person singular.
"His subject is things: your's, on the contrary,
is persons."-Campbell's Rhetoric.
Here the pronoun of the second person plural, in
the possessive case, is nominative case to the verb is,
which is always third person singular.
This house is* our's, and that is your's. “Their's
ist very commodious,"-Murray's Grammar, ex-
ample under personal pronouns, possessive case.
These are a few instances of the difference be-
tween good English and bad grammar, in relation
to possessive adjective pronouns, and personal pro-
nouns in the possessive case.
160. It seems hardly necessary to observe that,
if a word could be half adjective and half pronoun,
the pronoun part, of course, should predominate,
according to the general principle of grammatical
agreement.
&C
Quid, meus Æneas, in te committere tantum," &c.
Virg. Lib. I. 245.
Here meus, masculine, if a pronoun, stands for the
Goddess Venus.
"Fando aliquid, si forte tuas pervenit ad aures."
Virg. Lib. XI. 18.
Here tuas, in the feminine plural, is the "
sive adjective pronoun" for King Priam.
posses-
*The verb to be has the same case after it as before it,
through all the moods and tenses."-Murray's Grammar.
†The verb agrees with its nominative case in number and
person."-Murray's Syntax, Rule 1.
}
ADJECTIVES.
91
So meus, tuus, and suus; noster, and vester,
through the whole Latin language, will be found
to take their agreement as mere adjectives, without
the least attention to any representative character
in them as pronouns. As words of relation, they
have reference to persons, whether speaking, spoken
to, or spoken of
In French the lady says mon fils, mes garçons,
where the adjective pronouns, mon and mes, my,
represent the lady, so far as they have a particle of
the pronoun character in them; yet both these
words are masculine ; one singular and the other
plural. So the man says ma fille, putting his pro-
noun in the feminine. The same principle runs
through the whole French language, as is well
known to every person familiar with it.
162. In Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, and other
languages, where every thing in the construction of
speech is he or she, there is the same occurrence of
these possessive pronouns ; contradicting every idea
of the system on which their scholastic exposition
has been founded. These pronominal representa-
tives, therefore, entirely forsaking the character of
their principals, and conforming to every other
word with which they come in contact, appear, like
their grammatical advocates, to be more influenced
by precedent, than by truth and propriety.
The distributive, indefinite, and all the other
classes of “adjective pronouns" are, on the same
principle, misconceived and misinterpreted, in the
general systems of grammar, as taught among the
principal nations of the carth.
92
ADJECTIVES.
A and THE.
163. A strange error has long prevailed, of ar-
bitrarily selecting two of the specifying adjectives,
and, under the unmeaning name of articles, trying
to explain them as a distinct sort of words. The
French, Spanish, and Italian grammarians gen-
erally make three articles, though they have not
separate terms for this purpose; but employ such
as are frequently acknowledged to belong to other
parts of speech.
164. The Abbé Girard tells us that the French
article has no meaning, and belongs to no part of
speech; but is only an “avant coureur," that is, a
fore-runner, to let the reader kņow that a noun is
coming, not far behind. A Portuguese gramma-
rian, Dom Hamoniere, very soberly lays down, as
a rule of syntax, that “the noun agrees with the
article in number and gender.” These ideas are
well adapted to the system of grammatical philoso-
phy which has prevailed for centuries in European
schools.
165. The traditionary account respecting a and
the, is this.
i. “Articles are words set before nouns, to limit
and define them." " To determine the extent of
their meaning :" “ Particles established to specify
the extent of the sense in which the noun is to be
taken:" or according to the “best of all English
grammars," " Words set before nouns to point them
out, and show how far their signification extends."
This is an important purpose, to be answered, in
any language ; and if the articles” a and the could
ideed define and limit nouns, in all the relations
ADJECTIVES.
93
in which it is necessary "to show how far their
signification extends," they would, by their utility,
compensate for the smallness of their number.
They should not only be a separate part of speech;
but like the privileged I and O, should always ap-
pear in capitals.
A,
166. A is the " indefinite article ;" that is, the
indefinite defining word; set before a noun to
"limit" and "determine" the "extent of its mean-
ing" and yet, this defining word a, necessarily
"points out," "limits,"" specifies," "defines," and
"determines," in a vague, indefinite, unlimited, and
indeterminate sense. Such is the absurdity of at-
tempting to class these two adjectives as a separate
part of speech, and ascribe a distinctive character
to each, without regarding the real signification of
the words. If "indefinite article" means indefi-
nite article, then it would take as many of these
words to show how far the signification of a noun
extends, as it would of witch hazel rods, to point
out a gold mine, or of levers, wheels, and balls, to
make a perpetual motion.
167. The word article, Latin articulus, Greek
agogov, a joint or knuckle, has no appropriate mean-
ing, as applied to a and the; and as these two
words, according to the grammarians, differ almost
diametrically from each other, it would be far the
most simple plan of teaching, to adopt at once, a
proper noun for each. The names Robin Riddle
and Peter Particular would be readily learned by
scholars, and applied to a and the, as significant of
their grammatical character.
168. A is always perfectly "definite," as to ex-
tension; it means half of two, or a quarter of four,
94
ADJECTIVES.
ול
and never either more or less. A moment's ex-
amination will show how far a refers to an object,
necessarily "vague and indeterminate,” even in
reference to individual identity.
" There was
a certain man, in Cesarea, called
Cornelius, a centurion of the band, called the
Italian band : a devout man,” &c. “ And a certain
Jew, named Apollos, born at Alexandria, an elo-
quent man, and mighty in the scriptures, came to
Ephesus.” Surely a is not here used in a vague
and indeterminate sense: these expressions “ascer-
tain," as well as any form of words can ascertain,
what particular persons are meant.
“And the rib, which the Lord God had taken
from the man, he made a woman, and brought her
unto the man.'
“Creation surely is the prerogative of a Self-
Existent, uncaused Being.” Presdt. Maxey's Ser-
.
On the Existence of God.”
“For I, the Lord thy God, am a jealous God."
-Decalogue.
General Washington possessed a clear head and
a patriotic heart.
The only possible “vagueness" here, must de-
pend on the question whether Washington pos-
sessed his own head and heart, or some body's else.
66
mon
1
169. It is impossible that language can make
any thing more definite” than the declaration of
the angel to the Shepherds of Bethlehem.
“For unto you is born, this day, in the city of
David, a Savior, which is Christ the Lord : and
this shall be a sign unto you, ye shall find the
babe, wrapped in swaddling clothes, and lying in
a manger.
On the 8th of Jan. 1814, a sanguinary battle
was fought at New Orleans, in which the British
troops were signally defeated.
ADJECTIVES.
95
Any other number may be perfectly definite in
reference to identity, as well as extension; as,
“Geographers commonly divide the earth into
four quarters, Europe, Asia, Africa and America."
The week consists of seven days.
170. A is the Saxon ane, an, one : not the letter
an added before a vowel,” but dropped before a con-
sonant, “ to make the pronunciation more easy."
“ To name the God that war ane manifest lee."
“Is but ane God makar of euery thing." Gawin
Douglas, Translation of Virgil. Prologue to
sirth
Booke.
171. Since the Norman conquest the word one,
corrupted from the French une, has, in part, usurp-
ed the place of the Saxon prime number. The
language of the heptarchy has fared better in
Scotland, where ane and twa continue to be the
words in current use, and, though they are slight-
ly disguised in modern English, they are easily
known by their acquaintances.
I shall
go in a day or two.
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
A stitch in time saves nine.
172. These popular expressions give the mean-
ing of the adjective a, much more clearly than it
is explained in English grammars and dictionaries.
Twa, tway, twey, tweyn, and twain, from which
we have between, twins, twenty, [i. e. twain-ten,]
and other words, are less obvious in our present
literature, though they still appear.
“ And whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile
go with him twain.” “Math. v. 41.
" And they
shall no more be twain but one flesh.”
“Yet at leist thare may fall, stop or delay,
In sa grete matteris ane yere or tway."
G. Douglass, Booke 7.
69
ADJECTIVES.
173. A is the first letter of the alphabet, and the
character answering to it was, previous to the Ara-
bian figures, used for the number one, in most
known languages, except the Coptic, or Ethiopi-
an, in which it was the eleventh. This letter, with
.
a trifling addition, became an or ane. It made the
first number, as actually written, in the Syriac,
Teutonic, and Scandinavian dialects, and runs
through most languages of northern Europe at the
present day.
The difference between a and two belongs to
arithmetic, and not to grammar.
174. The errors into which men may be carried
through traditionary prejudice, is a subject of cu-
rious contemplation. The following, from Mur-
l'ay's grammar, Chapter II. “Of the Articles,” is
an attempt to illustrate the distinctive force of a
and the, according to the received theory of these
two words, as a separate part of speech. “ Thou
art A man," is a very general and harmless posi-
but “ Thou art The man, as Nathan said
to David, is an assertion capable of striking ter-
ror and remorse into the heart."
This may sound well to persons inclined to take
upon trust whatever is offered as a rule of lan-
guage. A moment's attention will show whether
the operation, here imputed to a and the, has any
existence, except in imagination, or the connexion
with other words.
tion ;
>
175. Suppose that, after the treacherous at-
tempt to deliver West Point to Sir Henry Clinton,
the three American patriots had met and arrested
Arnold, with the declaration, “thou art A traitor !"
would not “this very harmless position have struck
terror and remorse into the heart” of the culprit ?
"
ADJECTIVES.
97
and suppose that Major André, instead of being
executed in America, had gone home triumphant,
to meet Miss Sneyd, and received from her the
declaration, "My heart long since determined the
husband of my choice, and Thou art the man:"
would it probably have produced the same effect on
the British lover, as Nathan's assertion did on King
David? Whatever terror or joy might be convey-
ed by either of these expressions, does not depend
on the adjective a or the, but on the association of
circumstances.
176. According to most Greek grammarians,
there is one article in that language; and the
noun is indefinitely defined by the "negation" of
an article.
&
"Articulus est duplex; prepositivus ỏ, 4, rò, hic,
hæc, hoc; subjunctivus, os,,, qui, quæ, quod.”
-Westminster Greek Grammar. ´Art.
177. The learned Dr. Adam, in his Latin Gram-
mar, states that there is no article in that language,
and that this want is a great defect. This defect
is one which Cicero and Quinctillian seem never to
have suspected; and the greatest difficulty, in ex-
plaining on this point, is the seeming presumption
of even remotely hinting that the Rector of the high
school of Edinburgh had not read his Latin books
with sufficient attention. It is altogether probable
that Dr. Adam would not have found this defect in
a language abounding in articles, if Dr. Wilkins,
and other authors, of more reputation than sound
philosophy, had not made it before him.
66
Appius decreto præfatus quam libertati faverit,
eam ipsam legem declarare, quam Virginii amici
postulatione suæ prætendant."-T. Livii, III. 45.
"The Romans, in solemn oaths, used to hold a
9
98
ADJECTIVES:
flint stone in their right hand, saying, "Si sciens
fallo, tum me, diespiter, salva urbe, arceque, bonis
ejiciat, ut ego hunc lapidem. Festus in Lapis."-
Adam's "Antiquities." Ch. VI. p. 264.
178. Dr. Adam's example is Filius Regis, which
he says may mean, a son of a king, the son of
the king, a son of the king, or the son of a king.
As he leaves the matter, one would suppose the
Latin language afforded no means of rendering this
idea more specific.
The phrase means, of course, a son of a king, or one
son of one king; for it is most clearly restricted to
the singular number. If it was necessary to specify
identity as well as extension, it would be done by
employing some of the many words with which the
Latin language abounds for that purpose: is, quis,
hic, ipse, ille, iste, meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester,
and others.
179. Besides that a word precisely equivalent to
an article, or specifying adjective, is contained in the
Latin and Greek terminations, additional articles
are often prefixed, and sometimes two or three to
the same noun, 66
to point them out" more definitely,
and show with great precision "how far the signi-
fication extends." In the very example, "filius
regis," which Dr. Adam has given, the Latin books
supply the deficiency which he has alleged, under
every form of its supposed existence. Ipse filius
regis, and filius ipsius regis, are too well known to
good Latin scholars to need special quotations.
180. One mistake of the grammarians has led to
considerable errors in practice. It has been com-
mon to represent these and those, as the direct plural
forms of this and that. They have, in some degree,
ADJECTIVES:
99
a correlative application: but those is no more the
plural of that, than five and ten are simple plurals of
one.
1
The nice distinction between the "definite arti-
cle," and the "demonstrative adjective pronouns," as
to their measure of meaning, is commonly this:
181. The is applied to a thing which is before
sufficiently understood, or where it is not necessary
to be particularly "definite;" and this, that, these,
and those, refer to nouns more emphatically, with
some concomitant explanation.
The moon.
"This moon that rose last night, round as my
shield."
Give me the news-paper.
Give me that news-paper which lies yonder.
"The Heavens declare the glory of God."
"Above these Heavens, to us invisible, or dimly
seen, in these thy lower works."
182. In the colloquial use of these words, some
visible sign, as a look or motion, often forms the
attendant explanation; as, give me that volume
and take this. Such allusions are, from familiar
habit, carried into written language, with some
reference to surrounding objects.
The satellites of Jupiter.
Those satellites which revolve around Jupiter.
183. But the specifying adjective of relation,
where it can be used, is the best "article" to point
out nouns, and show how far their signification ex-
tends; as, Jupiter's satellites; which means, with
precise limitation and identity, those four particular
satellites which revolve around the planet Jupiter.
A father, the father, my father, John's father.
100
ADJECTIVES.
Does not every person see, at once, that these
possessives," as words to “ ascertain what partic-
ular thing or things are meant,” are better “ defi-
nite articles” than the ?
a
184. There is one other rule of the grammars,
respecting the adjectives a and the, which will re-
quire a moment's attention.
“A substantive without any* article to limit it, is
generally taken in its widest sense; as “man is
mortal.”
“A candid temper is proper for man; that is,
A
for all mankind.” The application is correct in this
particular instance; but for a different reason from
any thing which is to be understood by the rule. All
mankind partake of a common nature, and the same
mortality and the same moral temper which belong
to one, extend to the whole.
“So God created man in his own image.”—Ex. I.
To explain this sentence by the same principle,
it would read “ All Gods, true and false, created in
one day, the whole human race in every possible
form."
>
185. If we should ask "what is the price of
flour in market ?" it would, by this rule of con-
struction, mean all flour kind in all the markets in
the world. This would give an extent and impor-
tance to the question which a merchant, unac-
quainted with grammar, would never suspect.
“Seven candlesticks,” according to the same
,
system, would imply all the candlesticks, to the
greatest conceivable extent; because seven is not
9
* Any article means, according to Mr. Murray, any one of
the two, a and the.
ADJECTIVES.
101
a nor the, and therefore the noun is to be taken in
its greatest latitude of meaning.
The true and only rule is, that specifying words,
of any kind, are not in general employed, where
they are not necessary to perspicuity.
186. “ And Jesus took clay, and spit upon it,
and anointed the eyes of the blind man,” &c.
No one asks how much clay was taken. The
question would be entirely frivolous. It was equally
miraculous that much or little clay, applied to the
eyes
of á man, blind from his birth, should imme-
diately restore him to sight. This is the reason
why it was not necessary to place a' or the, some,
or any other “article” before the noun clay.
.
187. “He that hath ears to hear, let him hear."
The translators of the bible, who were distinguished
scholars, knew that the word ears must include two,
at least, as being in the plural number. They also
knew, that according to the common course of na-
ture, any one man, implied by the word he, would
not be expected to have more than that number.
They did not, therefore, anticipate the later gram-
matical version of this passage, ascribing all the
ears in the world to a single person, by the mere
omission of the word the.
Why is there an indefinite article in the singu-
lar, and none in the plural? Why are not twain,
two, three, some, any, and many other words, as
good articles as a?
DEGREES OF COMPARISON.
188. Adjectives generally express quality in dif-
ferent degrees, as blackish, black, blacker, blackest.
9*
102
ADJECTIVES.
Besides these different forms of the adjective, many
subsidiary words are used, which, according to the
special meaning of the appended term, may serve
to give various turns to the idea conveyed by the
adjective black; as, very, extremely, slightly, totally
black. The direct forms of the adjective have been
generally called degrees of comparison; though
not with strict propriety, as comparison is not al-
ways implied, farther than as it belongs to the gene-
ral nature of adjectives.
189. As there are nouns which admit of no lim-
itation, nor increase, so many adjectives are unal-
terably fixed by the import of the term.
The Creator alone is omnipotent and omniscient,
we can not say that any other being isless or more so.
No one thing can be less or more eternal, immeas-
urable, countless, immaculate, or perfect, than an
other. These terms denoté quality, to a degree
which can neither be increased nor diminished : be-
cause that, from the nature of things, more can not
be; and less is inconsistent with the meaning of the
word.
.
190. It is found convenient in practice to class
adjectives under three degrees : positive, compara-
tive, and superlative; as black, blacker, blackest.
To these may be added an other modification
of the single word,' and which applies in a great
number of instances, though not in so general use
as the other forms; as blackish, inclining to black-
ness, or partially black. This may be considered
as the minor positive degree.
191. Adjectives are commonly compared by
adding er or est, which additions are, by origin,
separate and significant words.
ADJECTIVES.
103
Several adjectives, of most frequent use, are
made irregular by adopting different radical terms,
to express the different degrees of quality.
The regular adjectives in their direct forms, are
thus compared.
Minor.
Pos.
Comp. Sup.
Greenish
green greener
greenest
Longish long longer - longest.
-
192. Adjectives are also compared by various
qualifying words, which augment or diminish their
positive meaning, by different relations and degrees;
as, wise--less, least, more, most, very, exceedingly
wise. Some of these qualifying words, on account
of their appropriate meaning, are much used.
Those occasionally employed, for the sake of va-
riety or harmony, or to mark the nicer distinctions
of thought, are very numerous.
193. It should also be kept in mind, that the
form of the adjective, which is assumed as the
po-
sitive degree, is in fact almost always comparative.
Whatever is high, is so, in reference to something
else which is lower. The adjective in the posi-
tive degree, is associated with the idea of what is
appropriate to the thing in which the quality is
conceived to exist. The largest long boat would
make a very small ship; and a potter's kiln, alto-
gether too cool for baking stone ware, might yet
be a very uncomfortably warm room, for people to
live in.
194. Adjectives also stand connected with
nouns, and with each other, by various kinds of
relation, in a way which no mere grammar rules
can explain : “ The smoky London air,” may
meau either the air of smoky London, or the
104
ADJECTIVES.
smoky air of London. "The new Albany road,”
is either the road to New Albany, or the new road
to Albany. A witch hazel mineral rod. Russia
iron carriage springs. No man could tell how
to combine these ideas, by any explanations which
could be given, depending on the mere forms of
words. It must be known how they are accepted
in practice:
"That New Zealand provision ship."
Georgia sea island cotton plantations.
"Some English East India Company's tea
ships."
A beaver hat, a beaver trap, a beaver pond, the
beaver trade.
195. Some nouns, from the nature of the case,
require their adjectives in closer connexion than
others, in their descriptive application.
An American ship means one owned and navigat-
ed by Americans; but a China ship is merely en-
gaged in the China trade, without being owned or
managed by Chinese, either wholly or in part.
"A very thick headed gentleman's cane."
"A wild ass's colt."
26
29
Liverpool deep blue earthern pitchers.'
"Warranted fine old Jersey Cider,"
"A low Dutch stove."
club."
99 "A new Guinea war
"An elegant lady's lace veil."
Is it the lady, the lace, or the veil, which is ele-
gant?
Describing adjectives refer to general ideas and
expressions: as, "Behold how good and how
pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in
unity." Here the thing which is good and plea-
sant, is, the dwelling together of brethren in unity.
ADJECTIVES.
105
196 Other adjectives were formerly compared
by adding the superlative form to the comparative ;
as,
Uppish up upper upperest, or uppermost,
bet better, betterest bettermost
in inner innermost inmost
The word bet is no longer used as an adjective ;
but, as a noun, retains, virtually the same mean-
ing 66 To make a bet,” is to substantiate an as-
sertion, to make it good by a pledge. The word
good, originally God, has gradually come into use
in its present form as an adjective. The ancient
Persian name of the deity, Goda, is extensively
diffused through northern Europe and Asia, and
is now in use by many other nations, as well as
ourselves. We have more recently adopted god-
like and godly from the same primitive word.
а
mo-er
now
197. Several other forms, anciently prevailed,
which in the progress of time, have been changed ;
or only retained in part of their forms; as,
Mo
mo-est
more and most.
Most adjectives, of more than one syllable, make
the comparative and superlative degrees by plac-
ing before or after them the words more, most; less,
least. These words, so joined with adjectives, are
considered as adverbs : but less and most are fre-
quently joined to an adjective, as parts of one com-
pound word.
198. It has been objected to the present gene-
ral system of teaching grammar, that it is addressed
solely to the memory, as a mere form of words,
without employing the reasoning faculties. This
objection does not appear to be entirely true ;
for, by laying down arbitrary rules without reason,
the student is left at full liberty to find proofs and
106
ADJECTIVES,
arguments for himself. In the exercise of this
privilege it may be well to inquire why the com-
paratives of some adjectives can not be construed
with than : such, for instance, as inner, outer, up-
per, anterior, posterior, exterior, interior, superior,
inferior, and others.
There are, in logic and philosophy, two kinds
of comparison; that of like qualities, existing in
different degrees; or the comparison of similitude :
and that of attributes and relations opposed to
each other; or the comparison of contrast. It
would be childishness to say the inside of a vessel
is inner than the outside. To say that heat is
warmer than cold is not comparing degrees of
quality; and it is certainly not giving information
to any one who previously knows the meaning of
the words. One thing is brighter than an other,
when both are bright in different degrees.
When the west side of the town is mentioned,
it is understood, of course, that the other sides are
not west, and therefore there is no comparison be-
tween them, but simply that of local relation.
199. Some adjectives are compared, not by
their own direct forms, but by habitual connexion
with other words, as down, more and most complete-
ly down.
It appeared necessary to be more particular in
trying to explain adjectives; because the system
attempted in this work, so greatly varies from the
theory long received and taught, that it must en-
counter opposition from those, whose prejudices,
self-interest, or honest difference of opinion, will
lead them to defend the antecedent course, as being
necessarily right, because it has long been prac-
tised.
VERBS.
107
VERBS.
200. Verb is derived from the Latin, verbum, a
word. This term is applied, by way of eminence,
to mark the importance of this part of speech, as
the foundation of language: for there can be no
possible operation of human thought, but by its
instrumentality.
Verbs are words signifying action ; as the horse
runs : the birds sing ; we live, inove, and have our
being : I am here; he is well ; La Fayette aided
America.
Actions necessarily suppose an agent, or acting
power to produce them : this idea, like many others
:
on which the structure of speech depends, is to be
understood 'as the great leading principle, and,
though subject to no real exception, has various
secondary modifications, as adapted to the diver-
sified nature of things.
201. Verbs do not always imply direct, perceiva-
ble action; but that kind of affirmation, which for all
purposes of discourse, is perfectly equivalent to it;
as, a man going by accident against a rock, says,
os It hurt me.” This it will be readily seen, does
not contradict; but is only a modification of the
broad rule : for though the rock, in this instance,
does not obviously act, as an agent, yet it does
operate as a cause, producing the effect of hurting
The rock in this case hurts the person,
not by its visible action or motion ; but by its in-
herent nature. The apple hangs on the tree; the
glass stands on the table; the ship sails well, are
the same kind of assertion, so far as language is
concerned, as the bird flies; “the horse runs."
the man.
108
VERBS.
The degree of activity forms no rule for classify-
ing verbs; and the motives of action belongs not to
the essential structure of speech. To say the
beam fell, and killed the man, is, for all the pur-
poses of speech, precisely the same kind of action,
as to assert that one man killed an other with pre-
meditated malice.
202. Verbs are divided into regular and irreg-
ular. The regular verbs form the past tense and
participle, by adding d or ed; as please, pleased;
treat, treated. All which differ from this form are
irregular; as, know, knew, known; drive, drove,
driven. Other verbs have no variation of tense;
and these also are classed among the irregular;
as, cost, cost, cost; split, split, split.
Verbs are again divided by grammarians into
transitive and intransitive; according as they sup-
pose the action represented terminates on some ob-
ject, or is confined to what is generally and vague-
ly affirmed of the subject, independent of any
thing which the verb affects.
Example of the transitive verb; "Franklin in-
vented the lightning rod." Here, Franklin is the
subject of the verb; that is, the agent, the actor, or
nominative word; invented is the verb expressing
the action; lightning rod is the object, to which
the action tends, and on which it terminates.
203. Writers on logic and mental philosophy
explain this principle in different words; but
amounting to the same thing.
John strikes Thomas.
He strikes him.
John is the predicate or subject of a proposition;
strikes contains the affirmation or assertion, respect-
ing that subject; and Thomas is the object to which
the affirmation tends, and at which it terminates.
VERBS.
109
To find the subject or actor, ask who did the ac-
tion? who strikes? Answer. He or John strikes.
To find the object, place the word what or whom
after the verb: strikes what or whom? Answer.
Strikes Thomas or him.
204. Other verbs are called intransitive, be-
cause it is supposed by the learned writers and
teachers of language, that they have no objective
words.
With most of the verbs, set down in grammars
and dictionaries as having no objects, the mistake
may be seen at once.
To dream, is a standard word, selected by the
writers, as an example of intransitive or neuter
verbs; but the man who dreams, always dreams
some thing; even though, as, with Nebuchadnezzar,
the particular "thing should be gone from him,"
and he can only remember that he "dreamed a
dream." The word fight, has a long series of
definitions, as a neuter verb; but St. Paul, while
he disclaimed all other warfare, "fought the good
fight."
205. Omissions in language commonly result
from convenience and propriety. They are too
numerous to be reduced to rule; but are learned
by practice, through the whole course of life.
For omitting the objects of verbs, in numerous
instances, several reasons may be offered, which
need only be mentioned to produce a ready con-
viction of their truth and force.
First. It often happens that the object of a verb
is not a single word; but includes a long state-
ment; as, "Xenophon says that the ten thousand
Greeks retreated," &c. that is, he says that whole
book of sayings, which details this historical event.
10
110
VERBS.
Secondly. Many verbs admit very little variety
in their application to objects, which are therefore
necessarily understood, with sufficient clearness
for all the purposes of ordinary communication.
The person sleeps, either the ordinary sleep of the
night, or he sleeps a short nap; and this dormant
action is not conceived of under any other variety,
till he shall "sleep the sleep of death."
206. Thirdly. An other reason, nearly allied to the
last mentioned, often leads to the omission of the
objective word: that is, to avoid apparent repeti-
tion. The phrase to dream a dream, though per-
fectly correct, has a solemn stiffness, unsuited to
polite conversation, or elegant literature. To
avoid this form, speakers omit the verbal or deriv-
ative noun, after its own verb; or resort to circum-
locution. In the second chapter of Daniel, before
referred to, as in various other places, we find "to
tell," "to show," "to make known," "to declare,"
"to interpret a dream ;" where this noun, to avoid
monotony, becomes the object of various transitive
verbs, without the least appearance of impropriety.
To fly a flight, is not a common phrase; for it
sounds like tautology or pleonasm: but that "the
eagle's flight is out of sight," is a piece of informa-
tion familiar to primer readers.
No polite French scholar would say, VOLER un
VOL: but "Elle descendit d'un voL rapide, tout
aupres de moi," is from the pen of the elegant Fe-
nelon, for the very purpose of embellishing a fine
descriptive narration.
Language is full of constructive objects, for this
imaginary class of intransitive verbs: but any per-
son, inclined to pursue the investigation, may find
the" thickening proofs," in the first form of lan-
guage, from Greek to Tuscarora, to which he
chooses to refer.
VERBS.
111
Rex et regina regunt regnum, is perfectly correct
Latin; but would not be used by a good writer;
because its repetition of similar words makes it un-
pleasant.
66
207. Fourthly. The last class of supposed in-
transitive verbs, necessary to mention, are re-
flected verbs, with the personal objective word under-
stood. This set of words appears to include the
chief secret respecting intransitive or neuter verbs.
Warning was therefore given to Lady Jane to
prepare for death."--Hume's History of England.
That is, to prepare herself.
I must dress ) and get ( ) ready
for the ball. “ He retired
) from the
field;" that is, he retired or drew back himself:
from retirer, French : or re and tiro Latin. To
fall one's self, is no longer used; yet this is the
original expression: we still say, to fall trees.
“ Cast thyself down,” is a perfectly analogous form
of speech. So in French, s'abattre ; and the same
idiom running through the different languages of
Europe, showing the general principle, beyond all
possibility of doubt. * To repent one's self," was
the original form in English, and it still is in other,
languages. It was sometimes used as an impersonal
“ It repented him that he had threatened
to destroy Nineveh." ."No man repented him of
his wickedness ;" Jeremiah viji. ; which form an-
swers to the Latin poenitet. The phrase, as given
by the translators, is perfectly good English ; and
is the exact rendition of the Hebrew original.
verb : as,
In explaining the adjective, some notice was ta-
ken of the different kinds and degrees of relation,
ashich are often concealed under the same apparent
112
VERBS.
grammatical form. Similar principles extend to
verbs and other parts of speech.
The groom and bride marry each other; and the
priest marries them both, to each other. It is also
said by Engligh writers, that the father marries his
daughter, to the husband whom he selects for her.
In Dr. Goldsmith's song of Miss Hardcastle in
the comedy “She stoops to conquer."
when shall I marry me ?" that is, marry myself to a
husband.
60
208. This class of reflected verbs may be sub-
divided into three kinds.
1. Simple reflected verbs representing actions
recurring singly upon the actors, through the dif-
ferent persons, moods, and tenses.
66 Cornaro con-
fined himself to the most temperate course of life."
2. Reciprocal verbs, are the actions of different
persons, mutually exercised : “They ruined each
other by litigation.”
3. Verbs used only in the third person singular
are called impersonal ; implying that they are not
conjugated with different persons. Of this kind
are the common phrases, it rains, it hails, freezes,
In this form the idea is general ; the
snow snows : the frost freezes whatever freezable
thing is in its way.
As an evidence that this is the general philosophie
principle, the same idiom appears to prevail with
the same class of actions, in all known languages.
or snows.
209. It is no valid objection to say, like Mr.
Murray and others, that cold is a quality, and frost
is an effect and not an active cause. This and other
expressions, which form the main structure of lan-
guage, are not modelled by the modern refinements
in grammar. The speech of different nations is
VERBS,
113
full of examples, where these qualities and effects
are considered operative principles. The "bitter”
"bitëng frost" kills tender plants and fruit; benumbs
the limbs, and stops the raging pestilence. “ Jack
Frost makes bridges" over the streams.
«The
third day comes a frost, a killing frost; nips his
shoot; and then he falls."
The rain pours down in torrents; that is, pours
itself down; and the reason why the objective
word is not used, is that the rain is not conceived
of as pouring down any thing else but itself.
ܪ
210. The principle of natural and mental philo-
sophy, as connected with this idiom of speech,
seems easily to devolve itself, and is curiously in-
teresting. The rain rains rain. It is not the idea
of one thing acting on an other. According to the
obvious conception of unlettered people, as well as
of enlightened philosophers, it is the substance rain,
generating action, within itself, and that action, by
a consequent influence, affecting the agent which
produced it. "A little leven leveneth the whole
lump,” which, by levening, becomes leven. So we
say carbonates effervesce
with acids.
Cider works itself clear by fermentation. How
differently does the following sentence present itself
to the mind! “ Then the Lord rained upon Sodom,
and upon Gomorrah, brimstone and fire, from the
Lord, out of Heaven.”
211. The erroneous opinions respecting the
verbs, called intransitive or neuter, will be farther
seen in the definitions given by the ablest lexico-
graphers to explain them, under this supposed
character. Take for instance the familiar neuter
verb to act, as it stands in the last London edition
of Todd's Johnson.
IO?
114
VERBS.
“ To Act v. n. [ago, actum, Lat.] To be in action, noi to
rest. Pope. To perform the proper functions. South. To
practise arts or duties. Dryden. To produce effects on some
passive subject. Garth.
Every one of these definitions, and every other
which could be given, so far as it is correct as a
definition, has an objective word, expressed or ne-
cessarily understood.
212. In contemplating the thousands of verbs,
represented as being either active or neuter, ac-
cording to their collocation, one idea presents it-
self, as the obvious deduction of common sense.
These words were not originally introduced in
this double character ; but with one direct meaning.
They have gradually grown into their multifarious
applications, by long habit.
66 Mr. Williams is to move [ ] into his new
house next week.” To move himself, family, and
furniture, are the associated objects, understood by
familiar custom.
] in his
יי?[
213. Many of these verbs are vacillating be-
tween the supposed characters of transitive and
intransitive. “ How does he conduct [
new situation ?” When are you to leave (
?"
The critics, at first, object to the use of these
verbs, without the object expressed; but, in spite
of remonstrances, there is an irresistible tendency
to avoid the repetition of words which, by fami-
liar practice, are sufficiently understood : and the
number of verbs erroneously considered as intran-
sitive is constantly increasing.
“I [A. B.] undersyne thee, [C. D.] for my wed-
ded wyfe, for better, for worse, for richer, for porer,
yn sickness, end yn helthe, tyl dethe us departe, as
,
VEKBS.
115
66
holy churche hath ordeyned, end thereto I plyght my
trowthe." Marriage Vow,* “ Missals" of the
Church of Hereford, 1502.
Tyl dethe us departe ;" that is, till death shall
de-part us, or se-parate us, from each other. The
classic scholar, who gives a slight attention to the
etymons of these words, will perceive that a con-
structive object is irresistibly inferred. So “to
depart from a place;" "to depart this life,” is to
se-parate, dis-part, or de-part one's self from a
present situation.
214. One obvious reason why the objects of re-
flected verbs are less used in English than in most
other tongues, is, that they are longer and harsher
words. The constant repetition of the words myself,
himself, themselves, would have a much more clum-
sy effect, than the Latin or French se, or the Ital-
ian si; or than the slightly articulated Spanish
word lo, or la, appended to the verb.
215. But there is a shorter and more conclu-
sive way to settle the very important question,
respecting intransitive verbs, than by any course
of mere grammatical reasoning.
All verbs denote action ; for it will be shown
hereafter, how unſounded is the attempted distinc-
tion between action, passion, and existence.
216. Every action necessarily implies the mo-
tion, operation, or change of some material sub-
stance; and no movement or change of matter can
possibly take place, without affecting the moving
body, or some thing else, or both. The verb affirms
this movement, action, operation or change ; always
affirming it, under all the modifications of speech,
116
VERBS
as real action ; and the thing affected by such action
or movement, whether the moving body, or any other
portion of matter, is the object of the verb.
217. Philosophically and strictly speaking,
every action must be contemplated as producing
two or more effects; as, water in evaporating,
turns itself to vapor, exhausts itself, and increases
the bulk of air with which it mingles itself, and to
which it imparts its qualities. But, in the struc-
ture of speech, one effect is referred to, as con-
nected with the verbal affirmation. No action or
movement can be produced, without both a mover,
and some thing moved : consequently, there can be
no verb without both a subject and an object, ex-
pressed or irresistibly inferred.
All objections, apparent exceptions, and minor
applications, which can be imagined, will not con-
tradict this general proposition. To say that a
verb has no object, is to assert that an efficient cause
may operate without producing any effect : for it
the cause was not efficient, it would not produce the
action.
218. In the practical adaptation of this broad
rule, to the several classes of things, actions or
affirmations are to be understood as applying to
various subjects, according to their general nature
and qualities.
This reference to the different classes of things,
extends only to minor circumstances, and never
varies the leading principles before laid down.
Man moves himself, and acts his part, in various
ways, according to the impulse of his fancy, or
the determinations of his judgment: An ox seeks
the shade, by animal instinct or aptitude, to obvi-
ate a bodily suffering which he feels : a stone,
thrown into the air, fails to the earth, and
VERBS.
117
Would fall to the center of attraction, if not re-
sisted by some prevailing obstruction. Iron sinks
in the water, and a chip rises and swims on the sur-
face; not like the man or the ox, by voluntary pow-
er of locomotion : but by an inherent tendency to
take certain positions according to their specific
weight.
219. Even where perceivable action does not, in
the special case, exist, that is, where two active
principles balance each other, the structure of
speech, according to its prevailing rules, always
supposes real activity; and consequently includes
both actor and object.
Perhaps of all the words which the opposer
could offer, the verb to lie, in place, should seem
to be one of the most difficult to explain. The in-
tricácy with this, and every other verb, ceases, as
soon as the meaning of the word is understood,
To lie, Saxon liegan; French lier; Latin ligo ;
means, to bind, to tie, fasten, hold, fix or keep in
place. The noun lien, from the Norman French,
a tie, hold or claim, is still retained, as a law term.
There is indeed an awkwardness in using the ob-
ject of the verb lie, on account of its accidental
interference with other verbs : but this circum-
stance does not in the least degree affect the gen-
eral principle.
220. The action to lie, like other movements,
may be directed by reason, animal aptitude, or es-
sential qualities. The soldier lies down, (pros-
trates himself,) in his intrenchment, that balls may
pass over bim. The tiger lies, (conceals himself,)
in wait for his prey. The lever lies, (keeps it-
self,) on the deck ; because it has not sufficient
118
VERBS.
specific gravity to go through it, and it is too heavy
to rise into the air, or glide away with the breeze.
The handspike, by the constituent properties
which Almighty Wisdom has imparted to it, re-
tains itself on the deck, as the trembling, uncon-
scious, magnetic needle, by its inherent tendency,
points itself to the pole.
As nouns are sometimes negatively supposed, as
in the instance of nothingness, so many actions
are negatively asserted ; as, “ His pain was so
great, he was not able, possibly to lie still."
221. It is no matter by what remote or prime
cause an action is produced. The main spring of
the watch vibrates the crown wheel; the whole ma-
chinery moves; and the ha::ds point the hours.
The factory water-wheel turns the trundle head :
the bands move round the drum; and the throstle
frame twists the yarn. In all this bustle of activ-
ity, nothing appears, bat mere inanimate opera-
tors; producing their effects, in sucession, from the
water, which forces itself on the buckets, to every
spindle in the cotton mill.
222. Language applies to these objects, as
they appear, and as they are, moving and moved.
A speech could not be framed with appropriate
reference to each particular subject; or adapted,
like a system of jurisprudence, to the motives of ac-
tivity. The greatest philosopher would be very
slow of speech, if it was necessary to use verbs with
strict reference to the secret springs of action. The
freight that sinks the ship, acts with no other kind
of power than the lever which lies on the deck ; that
is, by its force of gravitation.
223. In the movements of the natural world,
VERES.
119
2.
there is no neutrality. The stupendous machine
of the universe, and every portion of matter of
which it is composed, are constantly in action, ac-
cording to the oppositely harmonious laws of grav-
itation, propulsion, affinity, cohesion, electricity,
and other influences, some yet unknown to human
thought. Through all parts of this measureless
whole, is a succession of continuous actions, from
each microscopic atom, of unnumbered intervolving
worlds, to the Eternal, Unseen, Guiding Hand.
1
ܗܝ ܝ
.
224. As in the great system of nature, so in the
transmission of thought, every thing is regarded as
possessing an acting power, and as capable of ex-
ercising some kind and degree of option. There
is a philosophic reason why the statue sustains it-
self, still in its place, instead of conveying itself
away, like its living antetype; and on the most ri-
gid scrutiny of the intellectual powers, it will be
found that the Author of Mind, by a barrier which
never can be passed, has compelled us to ascribe
in speech, to marble and bronze, that species of
choice which belongs to the aptitude of their na-
ture.
In many minor particulars, it is well that verbal
expression has réceived its main cast, not in the
schools of half-way learning, but among plain men,
applying its principles, in the only way in which
finite wisdom could properly apply them, to the op-
erations in nature, as they are seen, heard, and
felt.
225. The whole system of explanation upon
verbs, and consequently the whole theory of
speech, as taught among the European nations, ap-
pears to be remarkably unphilosophic and contrary
to the appearance of truth. Dr. Johnson, and all
the principal British expounders of language, agree
120
VERBS.
in giving a revolve," to roll round in a circle, as a
neuter verb. According to this grammatical as-
tronomy, then, the earth performs its revolution
round the sun, without the least possible effect,
change, or resulting influence, wrought upon itself,
or any other object. Such a system of instruction,
when followed into its consequences, is derogatory
to the Divine Wisdom, as well as directly at vari-
ence with the dictates of common sense. These er-
rors are not peculiar to England. The same in-
consistent theory prevails through all the universi-
ties and royal academies of Europe. Let the
learned teachers of language turn practical philoso-
phers; make with fire any experiment they please,
and satisfy themselves if they can, that burn is ever
a neuter verb. If persons allow themselves to
think, it certainly requires but little logic or know-
ledge to perceive that in the action of rolling, some
substance must be rolled ; and some thing, in every
sinking, must be sunk. Whatever that thing is, is
the object of the verb; and to say that a verb has
no object, is as contrary to science, as to assert
that two straight lines can meet in a point, without
forming an angle.
9
226. Eat and drink, among others, are set down
as neuter verbs. To those who think them such,
but who, contrary to their own creed, use them se-
veral times a day, as active and transitive, it is re.
commended that they try to reconcile their practice
with their doctrine, and employ these two verbs
without objects, as long as they believe them neuter.
Mental actions follow the analogy of corporeal
things, and will be most properly explained under
the head of figurative language. The reader, in
attending to this investigation, will be led to con-
sider the great point of union between physical and
VERBS.
121
intellectual philosophy; literature, and the active
concerns of life.
227. English verbs receive four kinds of modi-
fieation, denoted by the technical words, mood,
tense, person, and number.
MOOD.
Mood is the distinctive manner in which actions
are represented. There are are three moods, dis-
linguished by personal relation. These are named
the indicative, or declaring; the imperative, or
commanding; and the infinitive, or unrestricted.
These take their respective names from the leading
idea; but are subject to many secondary modifica-
tions.
Some writers attempt to explain one or more
moods, in addition to these; but as such additional
moods have no existence in fact, it is unphilosophic
and unprofitable to invent artificial systems to cre-
ate them.
228. The indicative is used to assert, deny, or
interrogate, and has reference to the simple fact of
the action's being done, or not done. It has one
personal relation ; that is, of direct agreement with
the actor; as “Brutus saw a vision.” “Bonaparte
6
issued the Berlin decree."
The distinctive trait of the imperative mood is,
that it implies the volition of a first person, address-
ed to the agency of a second, to do or not to do an
action. Whether the imperative mood is to be con-
sidered under the idea of authoritative command, of
supplication, or of request, depends on the countless
relative conditions in which men may stand, with
reference to each other. As no dividing line can
11
122
VERBS.
be drawn, between these minor circumstances, they
can not be made the basis of any consistent classi-
fication.
“Pull out this javelin, and let me bleed.”—Epa-
minondas to his attendants.
Who can say whether this expression is the dy-
ing man's request to his friends, to relieve him from
excruciating pain, or the last command of the
military chieftain to his subalterns ?
“ Bear witness for me to my countrymen, that I
die like a brave man.”- Col. Hale.
"
.
229. As the imperative mood is always addressed
to a second person, thou, you, or an equivalent noun,
is necessarily understood: but the verb itself is never
varied in English, for number, person, nor tense ;
though it is always future by construction. There
needs no argument to prove the absurdity of com-
manding a person to do an action, yesterday, or at
any other time than after the command is expressed.
Nearly all which is said in European grammars
respecting the tenses of this verb, is perfectly child-
ish. No sophistry can make it any thing else but
future. If a man sees instant danger threaten his
friend, and says, “ take care," all he can mean is,
that his friend may take care, in consequence of his
warning
The infinitive mood expresses action, without any
direct connexion with the actor. It is seldom goy-
erned by a single word, as has been supposed; but
generally depends on an indicative proposition.
He tries to learn. I am now ready to be offered.
It sometimes follows an imperative verb. Try to
shun evil, learn to do well.
An affirmation must of course contain a verb, and
on this verb the infinitive is commonly considered
a
VERBS.
123
class
EX
jed
of the
as more immediately depending. This partial modi-
fication, however, is no way contrary to the gen-
eral rule above advanced.
The infinitive verb some times makes part of the
affirmation, as, “ To see is pleasant.” In this kind
of sentence the infinitive may be the subject or ob-
ject of an indicative verb.
As the radical verb may almost always be used
as a noun, in English, without change of the word,
it is made a convenient practice, to prefix, to the
infinitive mood, the word to, by way of distinction.
The ideas of mood and tense are very intimately
combined. Farther explanations will therefore be
made
upon
them in connexion.
AT
4**
Tha
TENSE.
Orgul
mar
230. Writers on language have very generally
adopted the technical word tense, to denote different
verbal references to the order of time.
According to philosophic understanding, there are
three tenses, or relative periods, which include the
whole extent of duration. The present instant,
taken as a point, or crossing line, in the progress
of time, is without measure of continuance, the ever-
advancing now, dividing the past from the untried
future.
Though each word appears to have had one
only original form, yet, in the progress of several
languages, the verb has assumed different changes,
to express these periods of time; and, in some, has
more numerous variations to mark the relative or-
der of events.
W'
Ed
10
231. An English verb has, in form, two tenses
*only; the present and the past. The organization
124
VERBS
of our language, which, in this particular, is simple
and philosophic, has left other relations of time to
depend on logical construction.
Present
Past.
I write
I wrote
I was
I walk
I walked
I have
I had
Had is the contraction for haved, as in many
other words of similar structure.
I am
132. The future, in English, can only be ex-
pressed by two distinct verbs, one depending on the
other; as, I intend to go tomorrow.
In this ex-
pression, the idea of the future, which is unequiv-
ocal, even without the word tomorrow, depends on
this simple deduction. The verb intend is present
tense, in form and meaning. It declares a purpose
of the mind to do an action : that action not com-
menced, and therefore future. Neither can this de-
.
duction of the future be, in substance, varied by
any qualifying words. Whether I intend to go
instantly, next week, or next year, the grammar and
the logic are the same : for it is not the business of
either to inquire, how far the proposed action is in
advance of the present moment.
What is to be, in
one second of time, is as absolutely future, as the
praises which are to be offered after the lapse of ten
thousand
ages.
I wish, I will, I must, I propose, to go, with every
similar form of expression, are all to be explained
in the same manner. No other kind of future can
be expressed in the English language. This future
tense, then, strictly speaking, is not one of gram-
matical form; but of logical deduction.
233. The principle is the same if the reference is
VERBS.
125
>
to an action now doing : as, I have been writing two
hours, and I intend to write an hour longer. This
intention refers entirely to that portion of the action
which remains unfinished, that is, the future.
If the first verb is put in the past tense, the se-
cond is future in relation to the time of the inten-
tion, and not to the present time; as, I intended,
last Monday, to write on Tuesday.
This relative future may exist, when both the
verbs signify present and continuing action ; as “He
causeth the sun to shine on the just and on the un-
just.” Here the idea is a continuing cause, and a
consequent continuing action. The shining depends
on the causing, and is future in relation to it.
Under these circumstances of continuance, the two
actions are partly consecutive, and partly concomi-
tant.
234. The verb do, by its meaning and use, when
put before the infinitive mood, presents the idea of
two actions nearly coeval; as, I do write; “I do
believe; help thou my unbelief." The close con-
nexion in the time of the two verbs, in this instance,
depends on the special meaning of the word do,
which signifies immediate and efficient action. In
the phrase, “I dare write," the grammatical struc-
ture is precisely the same ; but the logical exposi-
tions are different; and the assertion may be un-
derstood that I do write, or that I do not.
The same close relation exists between the in-
dicative and the infinitive verb, in point of time,
when they both imply the affections of the mind; as,
will you admit the correctness of my statement ?”
Ans. I will admit it. There is no constructive fu-
ture, in English, which can come nearer to an ab-
solute present than this. To will, is the present act
of the mind. Admit also implies an act of pure vo-
11*
126
VERBS.
lition. To will, what depends solely on the will,
is a purpose of the mind which is unavoidably ac-
companied by its own instantaneous fulfilment.
235. The word will conveys no more idea of fu-
turity than is generally implied by imperative and
infinitive verbs, and by all the "auxiliaries."
"If a yong jentleman will venture himselfe into
the companie of ruffians, it is over great a jeopar-
die, lest their facions, maners, thoughts, taulke, and
dedes, will verie sone be over like."-R. Ascham's
"Scholemaster."
If a young gentleman inclines to venture (him-
self) at any time.
Will is the Latin volo, Gr. 68λw, 68λqual, ancient-
ly written in England, voll, afterwards woll, as it is
still pronounced in Yorkshire, and some other
counties. It made its past tense wolde, and was,
and still is, used in frequent instances, without a
following infinitive verb.
"Graunt mercy, good frende, quod he, I thanke
thee that thou woldest so."-Dream of Chaucer,
fol. 256.
Will, like other verbs, formerly required the usual
sign of the infinitive mood after it, when followed.
by an other verb.
This verb runs through all the present languages
of Europe, northern and southern, having nothing
but its great importance, and consequent frequency
of use, to distinguish it from other principal verbs.
In modern French literature it may, like four oth-
ers, specially privileged, take or omit the usual in-
finitive preposition, though not the infinitive form,
after it; but in other tongues, generally, the proper
infinitive forms are required, in the consecutive
verb.
•
VERBS.
127
The principle here explained respecting this for-
mation is most strikingly illustrated by reference to
the other languages of northern Europe. In Ger-
man, the most extensive of them, the plural is gen-
erally made by the verb to be; as, Ich werde
seyn, I am to be: wir waren seyn, we were to be.
In this, and several other tongues, it is perfectly
understood by every person familiar with them, that
there is no other way of forming a plural but by
an infinitive verb, depending on its proper correla-
tive expression.
Nothing is more foreign from a true philosophic
principle, than the arbitrary selection of shall and
will, as the exclusive signs of the future. This re-
sults from a mistaken idea of the character and
meaning of these words, of which more will be said
under the head of " auxiliaries."
137. The modified relations of a word, with the
same general meaning, as explained under the ad-
jectives, have an extensive application to verbs.
Want of attention to this has led to much confusion
in grammars.
To dust furniture, is to clear it from dust,
To dust gunpowder is to make it fine.
To dust [ ] often signifies to sprinkle
or cover with dust, either as a protection from
injury, or by way of reproach.
2. Samuel, xvi. 13. "And as David and his men
went by, Shimei went along on the hill's side, over
against him, and cursed (him) as he went and
threw stones at him, and (dusted him with dust."'*)
:
* This is the literal version : but the translators have given
the same meaning in different words: “and cast dust” upon
hiin.
128
VERBS.
AUXILIARIES.
These words form a most deeply interesting part
in the science of language, and it is difficult to
conceive any thing more contrary to philosophy,
than to adduce them, as having no meaning, and
as entirely subsidiary, for the very reasons which
show their primary importance.
A slight degree of preliminary reasoning leads
strongly to an other reflection. The words of ob-
scure meaning, and the general prefixes and termina-
tions of nouns, adjectives, and verbs, could not, as
they now exist, have belonged to the original
structure: for these appendages of refinement and
convenience belong to cultivated speech, and were
not adapted to suit the wants of savage man.
One broad rule may be laid down in relation to
these, as well as all other words. They all had
their origin in ideas directly relating to persons and
things in the material world.
a
239. All original verbal expressions were signs
of some thing obvious to the corporeal organs:
and prefixes, terminations, or modifying 'words
grew, subsequently, from compounding and re-
fining these elementary terms. They were not in-
vented as qualifying words. To suppose such a
process, is to reject all the lessons of experience.
The first words used among men, and consequently
those denoting the most important ideas, were, if we
may so say, worn down by long familiarity, and
gradually blended with newer formed words.
The thunder was heard, and the name applied
was direct, according to what was obvious to the
A cause was supposed, and this inferential
sense.
VERBS.
129
а
a
notion of a God, was expressed by a word equiva-
lent to a thunderer. The termination er is formed
from an elementary word for man, and probably one
of the first words ever used by man. It is traced,
in numerous variations, through many ancient
tongues, er, or, wer, ar, var, ver, vir, and others;
and thunderer* means the thunder man, or the Be-
ing who governs the thunder. This, like other
primitive words, was both a noun and a verb.
240. With these views, the reader will be pre-
pared to examine the unmeaning terms employed,
for the sake of convenience, to conjugate principal
verbs. As a particular exposition of the whole
number, would extend beyond the bounds prescri-
bed to this essay, it will suffice to explain the lead-
ing principle, which applies to all, and exemplify
it, by a few words which appear to have been least
understood.
1st. The nature and use of “auxiliaries” may
be best explained in a practical way.
“ And the four and twenty elders, who sat be-
fore God, on their seats, fell upon their faces, say-
ing, We thank thee, O Lord God Almighty, who
art, and wast, and art to come ; because thou hast
taken to thee thy great power, and hast reigned.”
Rev. xi. 16, 17.
241. Wast, and art, and drt to come. This is
the simple and proper expression of all conceiva-
ble time, past, present and future. It is the idea of
duration, as fixed in the eternal nature of the Most
High, and the laws of the universe as an intermi-
nable whole. It excludes every extraneous admix-
ture of temporary volition ; of accidental change ;
of superior permission; of external force.
;
* This word will be more fully explained under the verb
to be,
130
VERBS.
This is the philosophic, logical, and grammati-
cal exposition of the tenses, as they now exist,
through the English language, and as they are
found in the early forms of others. Every differ-
ent manner of expression, relating time, is only
an incidental or conditional modification of this
original form.
The future, in this, as in other expressions of it,
employs an infinitive verb, depending a preceding
or correlative proposition; and it is a self-evident
truth, that two consecutive actions can not both be
present, precisely within the same time.
124. Language, however, is chiefly constructed,
with immediate reference to beings who are not, like
him who was, and is, and is to come, subject to no
higher power, and liable to “no shadow of turn-
ing.” The actions of men depend on occasional
necessity, will, or superior authority; and to the
numerous vicissitudes to which our species are
every where subjected. The ideas so blended with
the condition of human life, are denoted by words
which are of frequent occurrence.
Such terms, by
constant repetition, become exceedingly familiar,
and assume the most contracted form. Of this
kind are must,* from muessen, Teutonic; mussen,
Saxon, to bind, confine, constrain, or ob-ligate; and
generally, among nations, the most significant
word to express bondage, constraint, and obliga-
. tion, must be very often used.
243. The words which the English gramma-
rians usually select, as helping verbs, are now all
* It is needless to spend time on this word. It is of exten-
sive use in various tongues, through all the moods and tenses.
The air in a cask grows musty by being confined.
a
VERBS.
131
reduced to one syllable, subject to very little vari-
ation, and to give still greater brevity to their em-
ployment, they commonly drop the following word
to, used with other verbs, as the sign of the infini-
tive mood. They denote actions, depending on the
contingencies of human affairs; thus, I may, can,
will, must, dare go, next week, all refer to some
relative condition in which the actor is placed.
When, on the contrary, we speak of the actions of
men, unconnected with extraneous circumstances,
we adopt the same form of expression, as is used in
reference to the Being who is above all change.
They are to go, tomorrow;" that is, the thing is
understood and determined; and, independent of
any expected intervention, or alteration of purpose,
is so to be.
>
244. If words of constant occurrence in lan-
guage were long and regular, their repetition would
be irksomely monotonous. By their familiarity
they are easily understood, in all their modified
forms; while words seldom used, have need of be-
ing confined to the prevailing rules of speech. In
some instances, parts of two or more words are ta-
ken, to make out the moods and tenses, of what
comes at last to be considered as the variations of
a single verb.
of this kind are go, went, gone. The verb to
wend, so common in the old books, is seldom seen
in modern literature; while its past tense, went, fa-
miliarly retained, has long been represented as a
part of the verb to go. This latter term, too, should
seem from grammar books, never to have had any
other past tense.
These remarks apply to the verb meaning to go,
in nearly every known language. It is necessary,
however, to understand, that the verb go has ac-
132
VERBS.
quired a more definite application, in modern
practice, than in its original acceptation ; for it
primarily included the meaning of the Latin ago,
and, instead of implying only progressive motion,
denoted almost every kind of activity.
245. In languages designating the relations of
actions and things, by various inflexions, in single
words, the modified beginnings or endings for this
purpose are distinct original terms, generally in a
contracted form. The prefixes and postfixes, in
Hebrew, Chaldean, Arabian, Samaritan, and other
eastern tongues, are too evidently of this kind, to
need any time in explanation.
These observations have no reference to affixing
a pronoun to a verb, and which has relation to
persons, and not to tenses : neither do they apply to
ihe appended terminations of nouns, serving the
purpose of specifying adjectives, or articles, as in
Persian, Greek, Latin, and other tongues.
246. The changes wrought on what is consider-
ed as a single word, to express different relations of
time, are made by adding one verb to an other; and,
in most languages, some form of the verbs do, have,
be, or go. The same or almost any other verb may
be, occasionally and separately, employed for this
"auxiliary" purpose.
There is no particular set of words, distinctively
and properly called "auxiliaries,” in any language;
because it is not consistent with the intellectual and
physical condition of man, that any ever should be
so formed.
“Reader, go tell at Sparta, that we died here in
obedience to her laws."--Monumental Inscription
at Thermopyla, as given by Dr. Goldsmith.
It happens, in practice, however, that a limited
VERBS.
133
·
number of verbs, by the fitness of their specific
meaning, are more generally employed in this
manner.
In Latin, and perhaps other languages generally,
the first form of the imperative mood appears to be
the real radical verb, and not the infinitive, nor the
indicative of the first person.
247. Any good Latin scholar may soon prepare
for himself, a table of verbal formations, much more
simple, rational, and correct, than any hitherto
proposed. He may take for this purpose the help-
ing verbs ago; eo, ire; and sum. fui, esse; amabam,
ama-ibam; ama-vi, ama-ivi; ama-ibo, and so of
others. Sum is compounded with itself, as well as
with other verbs. Fui-eram, fu-issem, fu-ero. Fu-
eram, literally translated, is I was been, which,
though contrary to modern practice in English, is
exactly the philosophic principle, in the general use
of verbs. It is extensively illustrated in the prac-
tice of many languages; as, in German, Ich bin
gewesen, I am been, Ich war gewesen, I was been;
I am to be, I am to be been, I am to shall, I am to
can, to will, to must; and so through the other
forms. These remarks apply to all the conjuga-
tions of the Latin tongue, both in the "active"
and "passive" voices.
A praxis of Latin verbs, according to these prin-
ciples of analysis, would greatly facilitate the
whole progress, in learning that very useful lan-
guage; and would enable students to think for
themselves, and observe their own progress, as they
advanced.
248. The following is the long standing expla-
nation, upon the endings of verbs, if it can be called
12
134
VERBS.
explanation, contained in Dr. Adam's Latin Gram-
mar, which is one of those in highest repute in col-
leges and schools.
“ There are four principal parts of a verb, from which all
the rest are formed; namely, o, of the present, i, of the perfect,
um of the supine, and re of the infinitive; according to the fol-
lowing rhyme :
1. From o are formed am and em.
2. From i ; ram, rim, ro, sse, and ssem.
3. U, us, and rus, are formed from um.
4. All other parts from re do come; as, bam, bo, rem, a, ty
and i; ns, and dus; dum, do, and di ; as, amo, em; &c.”
The grammar of this rule is worse than the po-
etry. Whatever truth it contains, is entirely inci-
dental, and not according to the plain and simple
manner in which it is always becoming that truth
should be told.
We might suppose that England and America
were at the climax of grammatical perplexity, if the
books used in the universities of Portugal and
Spain did not convince us, that, in a true system of
scholastic tradition, one age refining on the vision-
ary theories of an other, may carry the mind be-
yond all our first conceptions of absurdity.
249. The two modern tongues with which we
have most concern, next to our own, present a
striking instance to show how the terminations of
verbs are formed. The indicative future, both in
French and Spanish, is made by regular endings,
which have no exception in either. This ending in
both is made by the indicative present of the verb
to have ; contracted, in part, in the French; and in
the Spanish, he, has, ha, dropping the initial h,
which is never sounded. Thus,j' ir-ai and yo ir-e,
both answer, precisely, to the English constructive
VERBS.
135
future, "I have to go." But as it is not the design of
this work to explain the grammar of foreign langua-
ges, this particular subject is dismissed with the few
preceding hints.
250. In most known tongues, ancient and mo-
dern, there is no philosophic principle, nor consist-
ent verbal rule, for ascribing more than three real,
or at most five grammatical tenses, to verbs. Mr.
Murray makes six; but the attempts to name, clas-
sify, and describe them, sufficiently manifest the im-
propriety of the whole scheme. Mr. Churchill's
late London grammar has nine tenses in the po-
tential mood: the "Hermes" of Mr. Harris makes
twelve; Dr. Beattie has thirty-six, and thinks that
a less number" would introduce confusion into the
grammatical art." He might have made a hun-
dred and thirty-six, upon the same principle; but
the mind of this amiable and excellent man was
much better formed for poetry than philosophy.
The learned French grammarian, Mr. Bauzee,
makes twenty tenses; and others, in that language,
by different gradations, lessen the number down to
five.
These systems are, all alike, formed on the plan
of arbitrarily taking all the verbs in a proposition to
make one tense. A plan so radically absurd need
occasion no wonder, that hardly any two who
adopt it, can understand it in the same way.
251. The names given to these tenses in Latin
grammars, and thence derived into modern langua-
ges, sufficiently show the impropriety of the sys-
tem. Preteritum plus quam perfectum, preter plu-
perfect, like other things, more than perfect, instead
of really going beyond the point of perfection,
136
VERBS
comes back half way on the other side. “I had
written the letter before you came," is the simple
past tense, commonly, but improperly, called the
imperfect. Had is a transitive verb, and letter is
the object of it. Written is an adjective, describing
the letter by its condition. I had the letter written:
it was, at that time, a written letter.
252. Concerning any mood in addition to the
three which have already been explained, very lit-
tle need be said. Whether under the name of op-
tative, conjunctive, potential, hortative, conditional,
or whatever name, no man has yet succeeded in
showing a distinctive character, or separating line,
for' any of them. If can is a sign of the poten-
tial mood, then dare, is on precisely the same phi-
losophic and grammatical principle, a sign of the
courageous, and need, of the indigent mood.
The following is Mr. Murray's closing illustra-
tion of the subjunctive mood :
“ Some grammarians apply, what is called the
conjunctive termination, to the three persons of the
principal verb, and to its auxiliaries, through all
the tenses of the subjunctive mood. But this is
certainly contrary to the practice of good writers.
Johnson applies this termination to the present and
perfect tenses only. Lowth restricts it entirely to
the present tense; and Priestly confines it to the
present and imperfect tenses. This difference of
opinion amongst grammarians of such eminence,
may have contributed to that diversity of practice,
so observable in the use of the subjunctive mood.
Uniformity in this point is highly desirable. It
would materially assist both teachers and learners,
and would constitute a considerable improvement
in our language. On this subject, we adopt the
opinion of Dr. Lowth, and conceive we are fully
VERBS.
137
warranted by his authority, and that of the most
correct and elegant writers, in limiting the conjunc-
tive termination of the principal verb, to the second
and third persons singular of the present tense.”
253. The opinion of the three eminent doctors,
mentioned by Mr. Murray in the foregoing para-
graph, is certainly entitled to great consideration,
on any subject in which they could agree. That
they should differ in their conjectures respecting
an English subjunctive mood, is not so much to
be wondered at, as it is that men of their literary
standing, and acquaintance with the language,
should have so misemployed their time. They
might as well have agreed in giving the correct
natural history of Bellerophon’s' chimera, or the
precise form, dimensions, and constituent materi-
als of Charon's ferry boat. Among the numerous
grammatical errors, there is no one, which, accord-
ing to its extent, has led to more inconsistency in
practice, than the vain attempt to create an Eng-
lish subjunctive mood. If there was any such
mood, it would certainly be in the power of some
,
one to find out in what its distinctive character
consisted.
254. It is agreed on all hands, that the verb is
the most important part of speech, and the only
one without which no idea can possibly be affirm-
ed, nor any sentence framed. Dr. Johnson's ac-
knowledged pre-eminence over all other British
lexicographers, and his just merit as a moral wri-
: ter, have thrown a sanctity around his name, which
renders it a kind of literary profanation to attempt
the exposure of his errors. If, then, it should be
made apparent, that this standard expounder of
English had no just conception of the meaning of
a
12*
138
VERBS.
the words, most essential to the structure of lan-
guage, and most important in its practical appli-
cation, and that all English grammarians have
built their systems upon a false foundation, the in-
ference is clear, that millions in American colleges
and schools should not continue to be led on in a
course which is radically wrong.
255. To show how little dependence is to be
placed on British explanations of “ auxiliaries,”
I have drawn some of the principal " definitions"
from Dr. Johnson's dictionary, London edition of
1756, printed under his own immediate inspection.
His explanations have hitherto been the standard
for all subsequent writers.
“Can, v. n. To be able : to have power. It expresses
the potential mood ; as, I can do it.”
Can, con, cunning. Scotch ken, German kann,
Dutch konnen, Saxon canne, connan, cunnan, Gae-
lic cennen.
In all these words, and many others, in different
tongues, the meaning is, to know, or know how;
as, I can write short hand ; that is, I know how to
write. The same idiom, in a more modern form,
also runs through most European languages.
“ Je ne saurais y aller aujourdhui." I do not
know how to go there to-day. This is more po-
lite than to answer to an invitation, I can not go.
The idea of power, in all the applications of can,
is the secondary or inferential meaning.
Conor, Latin ; to exert knowledge, cunning, or
skill. " To con thanks." Shakspeare.
In most languages derived from the Teutonic,
as, Dutch, German, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, &c.
ran is retained as an acknowledged principal verb.
Thus, we find the forms answering to, canned, can-
>
VERBS.
139
ning, to can, I canned, I have canned, I shall, must,
or ought to can; through all the moods and ten-
ses.
256. “ Shall. Defective. It has no tenses, but shall, fu-
ture, and should, imperfect. See been.”
If shall is future, and should, imperfect, then
should is necessarily the imperfect of the future,
which is a tense not explained in any one of Dr.
Beattie's thirty-six.
“Should. This is a kind of auxiliary verb, used in the
conjunctive mood, of which the signification is not easily
fixed."
This is the abortive attempt of the eminent Dr.
Johnson, to explain one of the most familiar words
in the language, a word correctly used by the
American people, as a nation, which it could not
be, if the “signification" was not “fixed," in their
minds. The giant of English literature was en-
tangled in his own grammatical net. It was the
absurd doctrine of helping verbs, which led the
man, who “ did as much as forty French acade-
micians had done in forty years," to suppose that
a word used every day by every Englishman, had
no meaning of its own.
257. It is needless to give the numerous syno-
nyms and etymons of shall, as they extend through
various northern tongues, ancient and modern.
The following is a good example of what was the
language, in the national church of England
twelve hundred years ago.
It is taken from the
homilies or form of worship.
140
VERBS.
To him anum pe rceolan ur gebiddan. he ana ir rob hlaroɲdrop
Lod. pe biodap þingunga æt halgum mannum hirceolan ur pingian
To heona orihtne to unum drihtne. Ne gebidde pe na deah hpæ-
pene ur to him rpa spa pe to Lode dop -Bede's Life of St. Cuthbert,
p. 291.
For the convenience of those unacquainted with
the Saxon alphabet, the same is copied in Roman
print.
To him anum we sceolan us gebiddan. he ana is soth hla-
ford and soth God. we biddath thingunga aet halgum man-
num that hi sceolan us thingian to heora drihtne and to urum
drihtne. Ne gebidde we na theah hwaethere us to him swa.
swa we to Gode doth.
Translation.
To him only we shall us to devote ourselves. He
alone is truth Lord and truth God. We proffer
worship to holy men, that they shall us to think
[address pious thoughts or exercises] to their Ru-
ler and our Ruler. But, nevertheless, we do not
pray to them as we do to God.
Shall and must both signify to bind, constrain,
or obligate; but with this difference. Must sig-
nifies compliance with the obligations of strong
necessity, or mere physical binding force; and
shall includes the idea of debt, just obligation, or
duty. The same idiom is contained in the ordi-
nary form of a penal bond: I A. B. am held and
firmly bound, and hereby obligate and bind myself,
heirs and executors, unto C. D. The air in a cask
is musty, or mustied, because it is bound or con-
fined.
In the two first Saxon sentences above quoted,
it will be seen that shall is twice used as a transi-
tive´verb, with the pronoun us as its governed ob-
ject, immediately following it.
Á great number of most absurd, complicated,
I
F
VERBS.
146
and contradictory directions are given to enable us
to make a grammatical distinction between shall
and will. All the information wanted respecting
them is the plain meaning of the words.
Wilz
signifies will, or volition, in all beings capable of
exercising it; and when this meaning is extended,
it is to what is analagous to will, that is, inherent
nature, qualities, or tendency. Shall, according to
the explanation already given, always alludes to
external necessity, to unavoidable obligation. Set
a stick on end, and it will fall; because its own
;
nature will incline it to fall. “The sun shall be
darkened ;” not darkened by its own natural ten-
dency, but by an extraneous, over-ruling power,
or inevitable constraint, to which it must yield.
258. But without dwelling longer on the less
difficult “ auxiliaries," there is, perhaps, a possi-
bility of drawing aside, at once, the great curtain
of mystery
The following is the information obtained from
Dr. Johnson's Dictionary, respecting the verb
to be, under its different forms.
* AM. The first person of the verb To Be. [See To Be.] Exo-
dus.
ARE. The third person plural of the present tense of the
verb To Be.
TO BE. V. n. To have some certain state. Shakspeare.
The auxiliary verb by which the verb passive is formed.
Shakspeare. To exist: to have existence, Dryden. To
have something by appointment or rule. Locke. Let BE.
Do not meddle with. Dryden.
BEING. particip. [beond, Sax.] Existing. Att.
BEEN. [beon, Sax.] The participle preterite of To Be.
Pope. The present tense plural of To Be. Spencer.
IS. [is, Sax.] The third on singular of To Be: I am,
thou art, he is. St. John, vii.
WAS. The preterite of To Be. Gen. v.
WAST. The second person of was, from To Be.
142
VERBS.
WERE. Of the verb To Be. The plural in all persons of
indicative imperfect, and all the persons of the subjunctive
imperfect, except the second, wbich is wert. Gen. xxxiv."
Among all these words, the only attempt at
definition is on the infinitive to be, and the parti-
ciple being. The rest furnishes, probably the
best remaining specimen of Dr. Johnson's gram-
matical parsing
259. This strangely disguised and intricate
" auxiliary” appears to lie at the bottom of all the
rest; and is the last one for a grammarian to sus-
pect of being an active, transitive verb.
Be, being, been.
I am,
thou art, he is, we are, you are, they are.
The idea conveyed by the verb to be, is the
most important and essential in the structure of
every language on earth. Many circumstances
unite to make it so.
A passage from Exodus iii. among others, shows
that there is something in this insignificant word
extremely different from all which has hitherto
been said, respecting auxiliary, intransitive, and
neuter verbs.
“ And Moses said unto God, Behold, when I
shall come unto them, and shall say unto them,
the God of your fathers hath sent me unto you;
and they shall say, what is his Name, what shall
I say unto them?
“ And God said unto Moses, I AM that I AM;
and he said, thus shalt thou say unto the children
of Israel: I AM hath sent me unto you.".
VERBS
143
260. This is the place in which, more than any
other, the fifty-four translators of the Bible, under
King James, could not find English expression ade-
quately to convey the idea.
It is the general character of this verb, in various
tongues, and for reasons before given, to be ex-
tremely irregular. Its prevailing form in English
is are, which is both a noun and a verb: for air
and are present only a convenient modification of
the same word. Thou art, is a contraction of
thou arest, by dropping e and s, as the sounds of
many other words are shortened, for the facility of
pronunciation. Of the six persons of the indica-
tive mood, present tense, then, the verb are belongs
to four.
261. The Hebrew language contains several
words remarkably significant, as the representa-
tives of being, and the names of its great Author.
FIRST.
are
Hebrew,
gix aor, aur, air, or light,
English,
air
French,
air
gerer, v.
Portuguese,
air
Spanish,
ayre
German,
arie art
Italian,
aere
Saxon,
aire
ayr
Scandinavian
Teutonic or Gothic,
Arabian,
ar
Persian,
Latin,
Greek,
ang auza
Aurora : the air, the light, the morning dawn,
deified in the pagan mythology.
aer
aer
er
arr
aer
αυγα
aer
aura
144
VERBS.
The same word appears in Syriac, Chaldean,
and Samaritan, with no other difference from the
Hebrew, than the different kinds of letters used to
represent it in their several alphabets. Numerous
other synonyms might be given ; but it is needless
to increase them. In the old English books, of
standard authors, examined through a period of
seven hundred years, from the time of king Alfred,
the variations are as great as in all the instances
here given.
>
262. A simple reason may explain what might
otherwise occasion doubt; and may satisfy the
mere English scholar of the consistency of these
quotations, and the inferences to be drawn from
them.
The sound of the letter r is so produced by the
organs of speech, that it is least liable to change
of all the articulations of the human voice. This
letter, or sound, is a well known and most impor-
tant radical, in Hebrew, and other ancient tongues,
representing the general idea of activity, motion,
or operating cause. It is connected with this ele-
mentary and hieroglyphic idea, as it is distributed
at the present day, through all the most cultivated
languages of the earth. Next to r, one of the
least variable sounds is the broad a, the hiero-
glyphic sign of priority, unity, and power, and
which appears to have been common to the word
air, in all the ancient, and most of the modern
tongues. Those qualified to make the investiga-
tion, will farther observe, that, from the organic
formation of the sounds, it is not very material
which other vowel, or whether any one, is placed
between broad a andr. The different appearances,
then, adduced from so many ages and nations, are
substantially the same thing. The whole range of
VERBS.
145
human learning can produce no other instance of
a word, which, through all the desolating changes
in human affairs, bas, for thousands of years, so
nearly preserved its identity of form and meaning,
as interwrought, in constant popular use, with all
the great leading languages of the globe.
263. The primary meaning of the Hebrew
718 aur, is light. By changing the point be-
longing to the mediate character, it made 798
aor, which denoted fire, and its extended mean-
ings, warm!h, ardor, affection, and genial influence.
Aur, light, incidentally included air, as being con-
sidered the same thing as light: for in those pri-
meval tines, men neither tried experiments with
air pumps, nor traversed aerial regions in balloons.
They were unskilled in the pneumatic philosophy
of modern days, and judged from the simple ap-
pearances of nature around them. Oxygen and
hydrogen were unconsciously respired by the early
fathers of our race. No Dr. Priestley had deliver-
ed lectures on air: the chymical nomenclature of
Lavoisier, and the discoveries of Morveau, Lussac,
Chaptal, and Davy, were unknown.
2
264. The inferential meaning of AUR, light,
was GOD, the author and source of light, the
being of beings, who said,
יהי-אוֹר וִיהי אור
“ Let there be light, and there was light."
Aur, figuratively signified instruction, the light
of the mind, intellectual talent. In English, the
noun art is a participial formation from the verb,
as cleft is from cleav'. A person's art is that with
which he is lighted, instructed, or skilled. Ars, in
13
146
VERBS.
Latin, and a prodigious number of words, in vari-
ous tongues, are to be properly explained only in
the same way.
9
266. “ To air clothes ;" " to air a room,"
is to expose them to the air. A person takes an
airing, to air and exercise himself, promote health
and preserve life. They are, is, with precisely the
same meaning, they air themselves ; they breathe
the air ; “ Vitales aures carpere ;" they light
themselves; they behold, inhale, and enjoy the
light; they live. Light, life, and live, are but the
modifications of the same word. So close is the
relation, in speech, as well as in nature, between
air and light, that the words denoting them are of-
ten substituted for each other. The German luft,
light, is generally, and the Dutch lucht, habitually,
used for air, the atmosphere.
“ To enjoy the light," appears to be an idiom as
extensive as language itself, and under all its ap-
plications, signifies to live, or exist.
“Il jouit encore de la luminere et attend que son fils revi-
enne pour lui fermer les yeux." _*Telemaque.
Here is the double application of the idea in a
short sentence,
" But soon a wonder came to light.” Dr. Goldsmith.
Came into being, for it had no existence before.
In every German, book of biography, in every
family, to see the light,” means to come into life ;
to be born.
The “breath of life," "the vital air,” and
”
many similar expressions, are familiar to all.
* “ He still enjoys the light, and is waiting for his son to re-
turn to close his eyes."
VERBS.
147
266. The collateral meanings of air and light,
all center in the same point. Light, not heavy,
is like the air; or like Adam's sleep, which, Mil-
ton says, was airy light.
Air, aspect, appearance. A lady has a pleas-
ing air : that is, the light, the point of light, in
which she appears, is pleasing.. An other assumes
affected airs, to exhibit herself in the most striking
light, to attract attention.
Lights, langs, inhale the light or air.
Air, in music, is a modern and scientific appli-
cation of the term. It means the tremulous vi-
brations of the air on the tympans of the ear.
Let it not be supposed that this is idle theory.
It is supported by an astonishing body of facts,
from numerous tongues,
through thousands of
years, showing the original structure and present
meaning of the verb are, in a manner simple as
the patriarchs, for whose early use it was formed,
and clear as the light which it so expressively re-
presents.
267. The different relations in which the same
idea may be viewed, are manifested in this verb, as
in so many other terms.
The guest lights himself, or the servant lights
him to his room ; which means, to carry the sen-
sible light before him.
“ Thais led the way, to light bim to his prey !
And, like an other Helen, fired an other Troy."
“ Enlighten our hearts;" cause the “ candle of the Lord;">
the enlivening influence of heavenly' wisdom, to quicken, vivi-
fy, and animate our hearts in the love of divine truth.
268. Some very important principles, illustra-
tive of the human intellect, and of language, which
148
VERBS.
a
is its practical exposition, are to be sought chiefly
among a savage people. The untutored children
of the wilderness may instruct philosophers in the
deepest sciences which can employ the mind, or
adorn the most refined community.
There is nothing more interesting to man, than
to contemplate his own species, in all their variety:
to reflect, that whether enlightened or ignorant,
mild or ferocious; fainting under the vertical sun,
or half naked in the wintry blast ; however de-
graded by circumstance, or perverted by error;
these members of the human family are of our
own nature, and a kindred blood.
In common
with ourselves, they inherit from their Creator the
distinguishing gifts of reason and speech ; hearts
to feel; tears for wo ; and souls for immortality.
It is in comparing the minds of different people,
as exhibited in their varying conditions, habits,
and language, that the errors of the schools are
corrected. Among all the Indian tribes of North
America, there is no separate word for air. To
them, as to the ancient nations, the darkness and
the light are the visible substances, which alternate-
ly come and go. They feel the breeze, and apply
the noun to it as wind ; but air, at rest, is neither
seen nor felt. Of this, they have no distinct con-
ception ; and, consequently, no name.
269. An allusion has been made to the diversi-
fied changes of an important original term. The
words signifying the Deity, man, or being in gene-
ral, are very much used in combination. An ex-
emplification of this is contained in the form of the
oath administered, in the eighth century, to the
German Saxons, on their renunciation of heathen-
ism, and profession of Christianity, as quoted by
F. Schlegel, from an ancient record at Vienna.
VERBS.
149
“ I renounce all the words and works of the
Devil, Thun-aer (that is, the God of Thunder, or
Thor,] and Woden, and Saxon Odin, and all the
unholy that are their kindred.”
This syllable aer, and its branching forms and
meanings, acquire an extent in language entirely
beyond the conception of those who have not paid
particular attention to the subject. From the
evanescent nature of vocal sounds, and the un-
avoidable fluctuation in human affairs, the varia-
tions necessarily produced in applying the elements
of speech, soon transcend the powers of the strong-
est intellect, and render man a stranger to his own
species.
WERE.
270. This is the form of the verb to be, next in
order of importance in the present use of this ir-
regular auxiliary.
John i. 1. - In the beginning was the WORD,
and the WORD was with God, and the WORD
was God.”
'Εν αρχή ην ο ΛΟΓΟΣ, και ο ΛΟΓΟΣ ήν προς τον Θεόν,
και Θεός ην ο ΛΟΓΟΣ.
In principio erat VERBUM, et VERBUM erat
apud Deum, et Deus erat VERBUM.
Dutch Verb, Worden, to be.
Indic. present,
Ik word, gy wordt, hy wordt, wy worden, gy wordt, zy worden
thou art, he is,
we are,
you are, they are
1 ani,
13*
150
VERBS
Past tense.
Edert
Ik wierd, gy wierdt, he wierd, wy wierden, gy wierdt, zy wier-
thou wast, he was, we were, you were, they were
I was,
GERMAN.
Ich war, du warest, er war, wir waren, ihr waret, sie waren
Imperative.
Word, be.
Participles.
wordende, being
geworden, been
German verb, Werden, to be, to become, begin
to be, or come into a state or condition of existence.
Indicative present.
Ich werde, du wirst, er wird, wir werden, ihr werdet, sie werden
Ich wurde, du wurdest, er wurde, wir wurden, ihr wurdet, sie
or ward or wardst
or ward
[wurden
.
271, As aur is a primary word in Hebrew, and
its cognate languages, so word, weord, waurd, is
one of the radicals, first in order and importance,
in Teutonic and its various dialects. It is a pre-
vailing term in German, Dutch, Swedish, Danish,
Icelandic, and other branches of the parent stock,
from which it comes to us through the Anglo-Saxon.
The nice distinction between aur and word, is,
that as the first, in its strict and original meaning,
denoted light, so the other primarily signified life,
being, the vital principle, as perceived in its obvious
effects, existing in animal bodies. It was seen to
vivify the natural world, and the idea was irresisti-
bly associated with the Prime and all-pervading
Cause of vitality. It has been subsequently and
more popularly applied, to express whatever is, or
VERBS.
151
exists, the being or thing, in general; and, in lan-
guage, that which is its type or representative.
272. Word was originally opposed to death ;
and aur to darkness ; to exclusion from air and
light. These perceptions are every where primary
ideas in the human mind, and, from the nature of
the case, among the first to which words were ever
applied. From the uniform tendency to divide,
subdivide, and modify an important radical word,
these shoots, in their branching growth, have be-
come intertwined with every language known.
World is a modification of word. It is the sys-
tem of beings, collection of existing things. The
idea was confined to the earth ; because the popu-
Iar conceptions of early times did not, of course,
extend to the present astronomical science of the
universe. The Hebrew word 17X ar-etz, earth, is
formed in the same way; and means that which
was brought into light or being. The modern Ara-
bian ar-eds, is but a slight alteration of the same
word, with the same meaning.
273. A person of worth is one who is full of
spirit, animation, efficiency, and who does much
active good. Worthy is a participial formation
from the verb, and signifies having worth, or virtue,
which in Latin originally had the same meaning:
Work is the industrious exercise of this active
principle. Wort is produced by working, fermen-
tation, or excitement, and, in its turn, works new
beer, or whatever is subject to its influence.
The more modern English noun and verb spirit,
Latin spiro, spirare, spiritus, has a present applica-
tion
very
similar to the ancient word.
274. The remaining forms of the verb to be are
152
VERBS.
of similar import to what has been already explain-
ed; and that no portion of this anxiliary may fail
1
of its interest, it is connected with some of the most
specially striking associations in the history of lan-
guage, or of man.
lo offering a few remarks, which may seem
of any ordinary course of verbal explanation, it is
to be observed that they are given simply as illus-
trative of important principles of speech, in their
close connexion with the nature and progress of the
human intellect.
out
275. The various Hebrew names of the Most
High, are formed of the noun or verb of being, and
they are remarkably, expressive. The most famil-
iar appellation D75X Alohim, is a singularly con-
structed compound word, with the common plural
ending, meaning one; and answers, perhaps, as
nearly as can be given in English, to “The One
Being of beings.'
276. We learn both from sacred and profane
writers, that the immediately appropriate name of
the living God was held in that awful reverence by
the Hebrews, that it was not to be spoken but under
circumstances of the greatest solemnity. Among
all the Jewish nation, such were the associations
connected with this sacred and mysterious word,
that it was pronounced but once a year, even by
the High Priest in the temple; and that on the day
of atonement, after extraordinary preparatory sac-
rifices and ablutions, and accompanied by the most
solemn ceremonies which could impress themselves
on the mind. Persons who are much acquainted
with respectable Jews, know the fact, that to this
day, the irreverant mention of their Maker's name
occasions, in the minds of those living witnesses, a
VERBS.
153
kind of involuntary horror, which it is difficult for
others to conceive: and no Rabbin would dare to
pronounce it in the worship of the synagogue.
The true mysterious word was not written in the
holy of holies, in the ordinary letters of their alpha-
bet, but a peculiar character was employed for that
purpose, and only to be read by an explanatory
key.
277. In the series of calamities preceding and
during the captivity in Babylon, it was supposed
that the consecrated written word, and every copy
of the law were entirely lost; till after the restoration
to Jerusalem, they were found, and the sacred wri-
tings were subsequently arranged and copied with
great care by the prophet Ezra, his own book be-
ing added to the rest.
a
278. During this period, the extreme sufferings
of the Jews, the various events which had taken place
in the Assyrian capital, but particularly the splen-
did reign, the proclamation, and edicts of Cyrus,
the declared friend of the Hebrews, concurred to
produce, among the contiguous nations, great in-
terest respecting this singular people. Among
other subjects of curiosity, the interdicted word,
composed in a remarkable manner of the verb to be,
like other primitive names of the Deity, was eagerly
sought. It was obtained, or something which was
accepted for it; adopted by various people, in their
several forms; but the words thus diffused were not
if we may sò say, fastened to the organs
of speech. They were made up of vowel sounds,
particularly liable to change; and as traced through
numerous tongues, are as remarkable for their va-
riations, as aur for its long preserved sameness.
like aur,
154
VERBS.
2
279. Every change of this word, or its substi-
tutes, from one alphabet or dialect to an other, must
have been the transmission of a striking idea, rather
than of a definite sound. It would be presumption
for any human learning to pretend to trace this verb
with certainty to its origin, through all its muta-
tions, and say when, where, and how, any one form
was combined with the others; and if this could be
done, it would take volumes to explain it. One
general fact, however, is easily understood. The
verb to be, in all its forms, as now used by the great-
er part, if not all, the inhabitants of the earth,
stands immediately connected with the explana-
tions already given. The Jews indeed had similar
words previous to these transactions, and which had
probably been in use from the time of the creation ;
but their ideas of being and its Author, acquired ad-
ditional interest, and the words denoting them, new
forms, from the circumstances here adduced.
280. From the time of Moses, the Lawgiver of
the Jews, the cotemporary of Cadmus, these facts,
and their resulting influence, are traced. As far as
human knowledge extends, then, they are from the
very time of the invention of letters. This brings
us to an other important principle, in early written
language, barely alluded to in the Introductory
Dissertation, page 17.
281. Whoever may have been the inventer of let-
ters, Moses appears to have been among the number
of those who first employed them, to any considerable
extent. Independent of any extraordinary divine
.
influence upon the mind of this individual, he was,
as a man, one of the first for the times in which he
lived. He was educated at the court of Pharaoh,
º in all the learning of the Egyptians," which was,
VERBS.
155
of course, in all the sciences then known. This
learning was necessarily communicated in con-
nexion with the Egyptian system of hieroglyphics;
and the other principal Jews, long resident in that
country, must have become more or less acquainted
with this system of instruction, with which the mon-
uments of every kind throughout this then popu-
lous kingdom, were covered. According to all the
ordinary principles of human nature, then, Moses,
the primeval writer among the Jews; their teacher
and guide for so many years, must have had a very
uncommon share in giving the general cast to their
national written language. He must have done
this according to those previously acquired princi-
ples which had been wrought into habit, by the
practice of all his early life; or, in other words, he
must infallibly have blended a system of hiero-
glyphics, to a considerable extent, with the alpha-
betic writing
,
.
282. This reasoning, founded in the nature of
man, agrees in a remarkable manner with the re-
corded facts, and with the structure of the Hebrew
language, as actually transmitted to us, in its writ-
ten forms, at the present day.
This combination of circumstances, is the master
key in discovering the elements of modern speech.
The radical Hebrew letters, while they denoted va-
rious sounds, were also hieroglyphic representa-
tions of most important actions and objects.
may be important to dwell for a moment
on those philosophic principles which had so large
a share in the formation of the Hebrew language
and its kindred tongues, at a period so remote ;
and which by derivation have since extended their
influence over a large portion, if not the whole
283. It
156
VERBS.
of the globe. In the glimpse of this subject which
will be presented, the interest is increased by re-
flecting that some of the first books known, are,
considered merely as specimens of language, among
the most strikingly sublime and exquisitely beauti-
ful, ever opened to human view.
284. In the few remarks here offered, it will be
understood that it is not the design to explain the
grammar of a foreign tongue; but to call the read-
er's notice to historic facts and philosophic princi-
ples, which, through the countless vicissitudes of
thirty four hundred years, have extended their evi-
dent influence to the language of our present daily
use.
285. In the word. light, the first or right
hand letter, aleph, is the hieroglyphic emblem of
unity, stability, and power: not on any principle
resembling picture writing, but by a system much
more intellectual and refined. The middle charac-
ter was the appropriate symbol of natural or sensi-
ble light. The last letter, raish, r, was the general
sign of movement or action. The letter answering
to r, will be found very generally appended to rad-
ical words or ideas, to denote the acting principle,
the immediate cause of movement: as, in actor,
mover, and others, and enters into the infinitive
verbs, in most known languages: for these primi-
tive ideas, having given their impulse, to a great
extent, the course was continued from habit, when
the original associations were lost.
The three seemingly trifling marks, then. here
adduced, stood in this double character, that while,
as hieroglyphic symbols, they conveyed these com-
bined ideas, they at the same time, as alphabetic
letters, represented the sounds of the spoken word.
I
VERBS.
157
286. Without pretending to special means of know-
ledge, or designing to invade the rights of any sanc-
tuary, it may be permitted to explain the mysteri-
ous word, so far as it stands connected with impor-
tant principles in the structure of speech.
This word is understood to be radically the same
that the translators have rendered by the name JE-
HOVAH. It is the subject of remarkable variety,
in its pronunciation, and is very differently written,
in modern letters, by different Hebrew scholars.
The mystery of the ancient word was understood
to consist in the articulation, and in placing the mi-
nor points; for its meaning was liable to great
change by slight appendages to the radical word.
287. The Hebrew 7 hai, is understood to cor-
respond with our h. Orthographic writers very
generally agree in considering this letter not as a
distinct sound, but merely a mark of aspiration, or
strong breathing. It was therefore very naturally,
by the ancients, made the hieroglyphic emblem of
life, or being, and the root of the verb to be.
The radical letters of the Jewish appropriate
name of the Almighty are,
יהוה
The first, or right hand character, was the hiero-
glyphic sign of duration; and when unaccom-
panied by any restricting mark, denoted eternity, or
duration without beginning or end.
The second character was the typical represen-
tation of being, noun and verb, as was said before;
and, in its unrestricted form, meant self-existent
and unchanging being. The third letter has been
before explained. That light and that genial
warmth it typified, are the life-communicating me-
dium to all created things.
The repetitition of the sign of independent exis-
14
158
VERBS.
tence, to form the last character, is such a multipli-
cation and compounding of the idea of being, into
itself, as no English phrase can adequately convey
to the mind.
In the passage quoted from Exodus iii. the sa-
cred name was expressed, by making the typical
emblem of eternal duration the intermediate charac-
ter, and substituting, at the beginning of the word,
the symbol of boundless power. In this form, it
became an altogether peculiar verbal assertion,
which could only be uttered in the first person
singular, and by Him alone, who could ever truly
say,
אהיה אשר אהיה
I AM that I AM.
The expression, according to the structure of
the Hebrew language, presents an idea of the in-
comprehensible Sovereign, who was, and is, and is
to be, in a manner which it would be
presumptuous
in the writer of this essay to attempt farther to ex-
plain.
288. Having given a faint view of the mean-
ing of the verb to be, it remains to show its practi-
cal application.
It will be seen that this verb is, in all its forms,
active and transitive, and has nothing, except its
very great importance in meaning and use, to dis-
tinguish it from others.
It certainly implies, in all its uses, positive ac-
tivity, or the real doing of something. A living
be-ing must, of course, be one that does some kind
of act, or at least exercises some inherent quality
or attribute in order to be.
The Germans say, ein Senender, or ein Gewesener,
a be-ing, a be-er, one that bees or has been ; as we
VERBS.
159
say, an operator, one who operates, or has operated
or performed some action.
In the extensive comparison of languages, the
strikingly apparent singularity in one, of the same
idiom, which is perfectly familiar in an other, will
be found a very efficient aid to the philosophic in-
vestigator.
PASSIVE VERBS.
289. 1st. "A passive verb expresses a passion, or
a suffering, or the receiving of an action; and ne-
cessarily implies an object acted upon, and an
agent by which it is acted upon as, to be loved;
"Penelope is loved by me."-Murray's Gram-
:
mar.
2d. "A passive verb is conjugated by adding
the perfect participle to the auxiliary to be, through
all its changes of number, mood, and tense, in the
following manner."―The same.
3d. "The learner will perceive that the prece-
ding auxiliary verbs to have and to be, could not
be conjugated through all the moods and tenses,
without the help of other auxiliary verbs, namely
may, can, will, shall, and their variations. That
auxiliary verbs, in their simple state, and unassist-
ed by others, are of a very limited extent; and
that they are chiefly useful, in the aid which they
afford in conjugating the principal verbs, will clear-
ly appear to the scholar, by a distinct conjugation
of each of them, uncombined with any other.
They are exhibited for his inspection; not to be
committed to memory."-The same.
Penelope is loved by me.
is departed from Judah.
The scepter
160
VERBS.
The man is addicted to intemperance.
The criminal is found guilty of murder.
"Penelope is loved by me."
This is the passive verb to love, in the indicative
mood, present tense. The grammatical resolu-
tion of it is, that me, in the objective case, acting
backwards, through the preposition by, performs
the present action, denoted by the perfect participle
loved. This objective love causes the suffering of
the lady, whose name is the leading word of the
sentence.
290.
"The scepter is departed from Judah."
This is precisely the same grammatical structure
as the other sentence, except the "definite article."
It is accordingly to be resolved in the same way.
Judah, the real actor, disguised under the appa-
rent government of a preposition, exerting his ac-
tivity from this ambush, departs the scepter; and
what is still more wonderful, differing entirely in
disposition from other monarchs, departs this sym-
bol of his authority from himself; yet Judah is no
way affected by this circumstance, but the whole
weight of suffering falls on the scepter.
66
Penelope is loved by me," is turned to the ac-
tive voice by saying, "I love Penelope." If this
theory of passive verbs is a good one, the other sen-
tences will bear the same change: Intemperance
addicts the man. Murder finds the criminal guilty,
and the criminal suffers the finding.
1
Passive verb. Penelope is sent to England.
Active do. England sends Penelope.
291. An other difficulty arises in the passive verb
This relates to the tense.
VERBS.
161
According to the principles laid down in the
grammars, the verbs have and be, as auxiliaries, are
both neuter, and in this character have very little
meaning of their own; being both used merely to
conjugate other verbs. They agree then in all the
essential points; they must of course have the same
manner of meaning, and there can be but a slight
shade of special difference between them.
He has gone.
He is gone.
These two sentences, it will be seen, are precisely
alike, except the auxiliaries. These helping verbs
has and is are both in the present tense of the indi-
cative mood, third person singular. Every rational
person, therefore, must of course expect the struc-
ture of the two sentences to be explained on simi-
lar principles. Yet, by the touch of a grammari-
an's pen, as of a conjuror's wand, one of these sen-
tences is active, in the second degree of past tense,
and the other is passive, and in the present tense.
Such is the difference between two terms, belonging
in all respects, to the same special class of words,
and used precisely in the same manner.
Passive. Penelope is loved for my sake.
Active. My sake loves Penelope.
It is undoubtedly true that if Penelope is loved,
somebody loves her; but this is the inference of com-
mon sense, and does not depend on grammatical
construction.
The passive verb, nine times in ten, is turned
into downright nonsense, by the mere change of the
preposition. It needs a new grammar, therefore,
to explain on what principle a preposition can go-
14*
162
VERBS.
vern an objective case after it, and at the same
time, like a two edged sword, turn back, and total-
ly change the character of a preceding verb.
292. Persons of candor and talent, who will give
themselves the trouble to examine the principles al-
luded to in the preceding pages, will see at once,
how much the whole business of learning and teach-
ing language is simplified, by adopting the self-
proving fact, that all verbs are necessarily ac-
tive and transitive; the verb to be, among the
rest, for which an other transitive verb may always
be substituted, without altering the grammatical
construction.
“The very populace in Athens were [rendered themselves]
critics in pronunciation, in language, and even in eloquence;
and, in Rome, at present, the most illiterate shopkeeper is
[proves himself] a better judge of statues and pictures than
inany persons of refined education in London.- Lord Kaime's
Elements of Criticism.
“ The scldiers are [hold themselves] ready to march at a
moment's warning."
293. It is not pretended that an other word of
precisely the same specific meaning, can be substi-
tuted for the verb to be. What is insisted on is, that
a transitive verb, with its governed object, can be
substituted, in every possible case, for the verb to
be, substantially preserving the sense, and without
changing the grammatical construction. . This is
sufficient to show that the verb to be, is itself an
active and transitive verb, and has nothing in its
manner of meaning to distinguish it from others.
The tree was very high.
The tree grew very high.
They were ready.
They made themselves ready.
VERBS.
163
She is respected and happy.
She lives respected and happy.
He is in good health.
He keeps himself in good health.
The light was the life of men.
The light caused or produced the life of men.
The people of New Holland are opposite to us.
The people of New Holland pass their lives opposite to us
He is convicted.
He stands convicted.
He is guilty.
He confesses himself guilty.
The stream is beautifully clear.
The stream ruos [ ] beautifully clear.
They are pleasantly situated.
Once for all : the meaning of this expression is,
they are or air themselves, they enjoy the air or
light or life, pleasantly situated. They “spirit” or
inspirit themselves,” are expressions used with per-
fect correctness, according to the standing defini-
tions in the dictionaries, though these words are not
so convenient, nor so appropriately expressive as
the different parts of the verb to be; and they are
therefore not in. fashionable use.
294. Again, the doctrine of passive verbs, as to
their relation to time, is totally irreconcilable with
the fact.
The following are examples of the present tense.
66 The vessel is dashed on the rocks."
If it is dashed on the rocks, who or what dashes
it in the present tense?
164
VERBS.
The man is gone.
What goes biin?
What fipishes it.
The coat is finished.
The glass is broken.
Who breaks it?
The bird is killed.
What kills it?
There is not a man living, who is capable of
learning the directions laid down in the English
grammars, respecting
passive verbs, and applying
them to practice. The truth is, that the use of
verbs is so acquired by habit, in conversation and
reading, that such directions, intricate, mistaken,
and inconsistent as they are, can not change these
essential principles of speech. The whole theory
of passive verbs is an accumulated mass of absurdity,
handed down by prescription from the dark ages,
and ought to be exploded at once, by all nations
who have ceased to discourage learning, burn her-
etics, and hang witches. The time and expense em-
ployed in such a study are worse than lost.
295. In this labyrinth of grammatical uncertain-
ty, what is to be done to lighten the scholar's bur-
densome load, and supply a guiding torch? What
glory would redound to the man whose labors
could supply a single rule, capable of being learned
in an hour, easily remembered during life, and
every where applied, without exception. How fortu-
nate would it be for whole nations to be freed from
the labor of years, in learning volumes of perplex-
ing, inconsistent, and impracticable expositions,
which, after the toil of life, are never understood,
and lead to no certain result. It is still more for-
tunate that no such benefaction is required. The
rule is before us, and capable of being as clearly un-
derstood as the forty-seventh problem of Euclid.
PARTICIPLES.
165
PARTICIPLES.
296. "There are three participles, the present or active, the
perfect or passive, and the compound perfect; loving, loved,
having loved."-Murray's Grammar.
cumstances.
These participles are all adjectives under all cir-
Neither is ever used, but in reference
to some person or thing which is loving or loved;
and always as descriptive of that thing or person;
as, a loving parent, the parent was loving or affec-
tionate. A trotting horse; the horse is trotting.
What news have you received? That which was
very unexpected and afflicting.
Participles denote the resulting effect of verbal
action, which resolves itself into quality, or state,
or condition of the thing.
The house is finished.
Mr. Cooper has finished his house.
Mr. Smith has his new house finished.
Each of these participles describes the house, as
being in that state, condition, circumstance, or situ-
ation, in which the action denoted by the verb
finish has placed it.
"Every glytteryng thing is not golde, and under colour of
fayre speche many vices may be hyd and conseyled.—Chau-
Test of Love.
cer.
297. All participles are adjectives. They are
never used in a sentence without a reference to a
noun which, in some way, they serve to describe;
166
PARTICIPLES.
generally by condition, circumstance, relation, or
employment.
Most adjectives are of participial formation, as
derived from other tongues, though they may not
obviously be so, in the language in which they are
at present employed; as, Latin dependens, French
dependant, English dependent, depending. Here
the word dependent is in reality the same as depend-
ing ; but, coming to us as a derivative from Latin,
is slightly disguised.
“She was then sad, dejected, and sorrowful ; but now con-
tented and happy."
The words in italic are all adjectives, referring
to the pronoun she. They are at the same time all
participles, whether they directly appear so or not.
Sad is sadded or made gloomy : sorrowful is sor-
row-filled ; and happy is happied, or made joyous.
298. Participles in ing, describe things as being
engaged in some present action. If put before the
noun, they denote the more general, permanent, or
essential qualities of the thing, and when placed af-
ter it, allude to particular time, or, which is the
same, to some accompanying state of things. This
principle, however, admits great variety in prac-
tice, without any change of its nature.
In what condition, circumstance, or situation, is
the brig? It was lying in port last week, but is
now cruising at sea, where it will be detained for
some time, unless it should become damaged or
e aky.
“ Now.gliding, remote, on the verge of the sky,
The moon, half extinguished, her crescent displays;
But lately I marked when majestie on high,
She shone, and the planets were lost in her blaze."
PARTICIPLES.
167
299. This brings us to the great stumbling
block of the grammarians, in trying to get round
which, they appear to have bewildered themselves
in the intricacy of their own principles.
Thus the most philosophic and judicious gram-
marian, "beyond all comparison," reasons on this
subject.
"The participle is distinguished from the adjective, by the
former's expressing the idea of time, and the latter's denoting
only a quality. The phrases, "loving to give as well as to
receive," "moving in haste,” “heated with liquor,” contain
participles giving the idea of time; but the epithets contained
in the expressions, "a loving child," "a moving spectacle,"
“ a heated imagination,” mark simply the qualities referred to,
without any regard to time; and may properly be called par-
ticipial adjectives.
66
Participles not only convey the notion of time, but they
also signify actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pro-
nouns, in the same manner as verbs do; and therefore should
be comprehended in the general name of verbs. That they
are mere modes of the verb, is manifest, if our definition of
a verb be admitted: for they signify being, doing, or suffer-
ing, with the designation of time superadded. But if the es-
sence of the verb be made to consist in affirmation or assertion,
not only the participle will be excluded from its place in the
verb, but the infinitive itself also; which certain ancient
grammarians of great authority held to be alone the genuine
verb, simple and unconnected with persons and circumstan-
ces.
The following phrases, even when considered in themselves,
show that participles include the idea of time: "The letter
being written, or having been written;" "Charles being wri-
ting, having written, or having been writing. But when ar-
ranged in an entire sentence, which they must be to make
a complete sense, they show it still more evidently: as,
"Charles having written the letter, sealed and despatched
it." The participle does indeed associate with different
tenses of the verb: as "I am writing," "I was writing," "I
shall be writing;" but this forms no just objection to its deno-
ting time. If the time of it is often relative time, this cir-
cumstance, far from disproving, supports our position."
168
PARTICIPLES.
The mistake has uniformly been in attaching the
participle to the verb, because it has relation to
time: for, unfortunately for the cause of learning,
it is the long standing error, to consider time or
tense as belonging exclusively to verbs. In the
changing condition of all earthly things, what de-
scription of sublunary quality, relation, or circum-
stance, would for ever stand good? The man who
was living, and prosperous, and well, and obsequi-
ously obeyed, day before yesterday, is dead and bu-
ried today; and will be soon forgotten on earth.
He who was “heated with liquor” is melancholy in
prison, where he is confined, for his crimes: the
loving child” has become a misanthropic, decrepid,
old man: the "moving spectacle” is no longer
seen; and the “heated imagination” is sobered by
experience.
The broad error that participles are to be class-
ed with verbs, because they are associated with the
ideas of time, deserves serious attention. On this
subject, we may profit by our standing counselor,
Lord Bacon, to whom allusion was early made;
“ In setting down the definitions of our words, and
terms, that others may know how we accept and
understand them, and whether they concur with us,
or no.'
Tense means time. What does time itself mean?
Doct. Johnson says it is the measure of duration."
One thing still remains; which is, to define the de-
finition.
The measure of duration is the computation of pe-
riodical changes in material bodies. What would
the year be, if the earth performed no annual cir-
cuit; and where day and night, without the rotation
by which they are produced ? And if no day, then,
certainly, not weeks nor hours, which are made of
66
PARTICIPLES.
169
days. If there was no visible mooning, moneth, or
month, that lunar or calendar reckoning could never
have entered the mind of man. Without the guid-
ing chronometers, made by the Almighty Hand,
dials, clocks, and all the time keepers contrived by hu-
man skill, would soon cease : for what would twelve
o'clock be, without a natural midnight or meridian
sun? And what is eternity but unmeasured time?
How can grammar with its subtleties, furnish ideas
of that progressive duration, of which the mind of
man could “take no note ?"
301. All actions, conditions, and qualities; the earth
and all the things of earth, stand in some relative
order of temporal succession, with reference to other
things.
The murders committed, seventy years ago, by
savages of the wilderness on the frontier at Albany,
were when the earth was backward in its course, by
seventy periods, from where it is now. She who
was then a child, is now in second infancy, leaning
on the arm of her grandson. While this same globe
has been rolling its last fifty rounds, a Corsican boy
has become dictator of Rome; republican successor
of Louis XIV; chieftain of an empire, and distribu-
tor of crowns to trembling kings; lonesome sove-
reign of Elba; second emperor of the French; sai-
lor on a British deck ; a prisoner and a corpse, on
a distant island of the southern hemisphere. Such
is time or tense, in relation to sublunary conditions,
qualities, and objects. The pronouns, lately in the
first and second persons, are now third; for those
whom they represented no longer speak or are spo-
ken to.
Could not these lessons teach the schools
that the idea of time was blended with any thing in
the concerns of man, except verbal action ?
15
170
PARTICIPLES.
>
302. These relative transitions, of things and of
the dependent lords of earth, are the foundation of
all which can really exist in language, concerning
time; the clew to guide us through the subtleties of
Greek and the labyrinthian contradictions of Eng-
lish. A single rule which nature and common rea-
son have furnished; simple in its principle, as broad
and useful in its application; and seemingly over-
looked by the ornaments of our race, because that
in the rich stores of their learning, it appeared too
trifling to be noticed, or fit only for the gleaners
who might follow them.
“ On Linden, when the sun was low,
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow ;
And dark, as winter, was the flow
Of Iser, rolling rapidly.
But Linden saw an other sight!
Wben the drum beat, at dead of night,
Commanding fires of death to light
The darkness of her scenery."
Campbell
Was low, when the Ammer mountains had inter-
cepted its setting rays.
Lay, when the sun was low.
Bloodless, before the slaughtered victims of am-
bition made it bloody.
Untrodden, at sun-set, when it had recently fal-
len and before the hostile armies had entered the field
Dark, by contrast with the snow, and darker by
association of circumstances, on the evening prece-
ding the battle.
Was, during the same portentous eve.
Rolling, to Turkey, its waters, yet unstained.
The next verse explains its own tenses.
PARTICIPLES.
171
“But words are things; and a small drop of ink,
Falling, like dew, upon a thought, produces
That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think.”
Lord Byron.
Are, at all times, according to their general na-
ture.
Falling, at any time, whenever it may happen.
Produces, within a reasonable time after falling.
Makes, sooner or later, in a greater or less de-
gree, according to its power of making.
Think, in consequence of the making or causing
to think.
303. The ideas of time as existing in the struc-
ture of speech being not absolute, but relative; and
all conceptions which the mind can form, concerning
duration, only marked out by the successive actions
and conditions of things, these principles apply to
most objects which can come within the contempla-
tion of language itself; and particularly to partici-
ples and other adjectives, which describe things by
their temporary qualities, positions and relations.
This principle any good scholar may soon find
himself prepared, able, and willing to prove,
The perfect participle prepared, the adjective
able, and the present participle willing, are alike ad-
jectives, describing the condition in which the scho-
lar may soon place himself.
The active participle, in ing, while it always de-
scribes, as an adjective, at the same time, and in eve-
ry possible case, retains its character as a transitive
verb, and governs an object, expressed or inevita-
bly inferred. When it ceases to do both these, it
ceases to be a participle, and becomes a noun or
other part of speech.
Mr. Murray's example to show that the active
participle is "sometimes passive," is founded in total
misconception of the principle.
172
PARTICIPLES.
“ The Indian prisoner is burning."
This sentence asserts what is untrue ; and to
make the statement, if possible, still worse, asserts
it in bad English, unless we are to understand that
the prisoner has volunteered to burn himself.
304. In the following extract from Dr. Johnson's
Life of Dryden, the describing adjectives are print-
cd in italic.
“His prefaces have not the formality of a settled
style, in which the first half of the sentence betrays
the other. The clauses are never balanced, nor the
periods modeled ; every word seems to drop by
chance, though it falls into its proper place. No-
thing is coid or languid, the whole is airy, animated,
and vigorous ; what is little, is gay; what is great,
is splendid. Though all is easy, nothing is feeble;
though all seems careless, there is nothing harsh;
and though, since his earlier works, more than a
century has past, they have nothing yet uncouth or
obsolete."
“ Dear, fatal name rest ever unrevealed,
Nor pass these lips, in holy silence sealed ;
Hide it, my heart, within that close disguise,
Where mixed with God's his loved idea lies.
Pope. “Eloise to Abelard"
>
If any part of Mr. Murray's system of passive
verbs could be considered more specially absurd
than the rest, it might be the formal table of the im-
perative mood, commanding the person who neither
wills nor acts, to suffer the effect of an action which
he can neither controll nor obviate.
But the whole theory of passive verbs, is so rad-
ically and mischievously wrong, that it is difficult
to make much distinction between the parts. The
word passive, itself, comes from the Latin, patior,
10 suffer. Suffer is from sub and fero; and means
PARTICIPLES.
173
per-fero tolero, sustineo, permitto. It is somewhat
singular, that the thought should not have occurred,
that no language ever known, had furnished words
to define a passive verb, according to what we are
required to believe respecting it.
“A verb passive expresses a passion, or a suffering, or the
receiving of an action."
The man who receives money is considered as
much an actor as he who pays it; and it is for
readers to judge whether he does not commonly
act as much from volition. The word patience
comes from the same etymon as passive, and de-
pends on exactly the same principle for its mean-
ing; yet we are told, by the moral writers, ancient
and modern, that patience is one of the cardi-
nal virtues. Where, but in grammar books, have
we ever been taught, that one of the chief excellen-
cies of human nature consists in the mere negation
of every active quality of body and mind? When
the British critics praised the moral and religious
tendency of Mr. Murray's writings, were they
aware that, by his doctrine of passive verbs, there
could be no merit imputed to any instance of pas-
sion or suffering : because there is in this passion
no exercise, or voluntary concurrence, of any cor-
poreal or mental faculty? The inconsistency is
uniform through the whole theory. The passive
verbs are all conjugated with the “auxiliary,'
which signifies to exist. The word exist is from
ex and sisto. Sisto is from sto, stare facio : yet we
are told that exist and stand are both neuter verbs,
expressing “neither action nor passion, but being,
or a state of being; as, I am, I sleep, I sit, Cesar
stood.” If to stand requires no action, nor exertion
of strength or skill, then the child of three months
old can, of course, stand alone, as well as "Cesar,"
or any
other
person,
15*
174
PARTICIPLES.
305. If the preceding facts and reasons, respect-
ing verbs, are correct, the following brief inferences
may be deduced, as important truths, to guide us,
in a farther course.
1. Every verb, in every language, is necessarily
active and transitive.
2. There are three moods of English verbs; and
no other can be distinguished, on principles capa-
ble of being explained or understood.
3. These moods are logically and clearly divided
from each other by personal relation; and there is
110 other consistent separating line between them.
4. The indicative proposition may be assertive,
negative, suppositive, or interrogative : but whether
one or the other, the single and direct personal re-
lation of the action to the actor, under all circum-
stances, remains unbroken.
5. The directing power always implied by the
imperative verb, can only be uttered by the first
person. It is always addressed to the agency of a
second person : and no man in his right mind ex-
pects his command to be obeyed, at any other time,
than subsequent to the expression of his will. Con-
sequently the verb or action of the imperative mood
can be nothing else but future.
6. The infinitive mood has no personal relation ;
but denotes action, consequent on some supposed,
or pre-existing state of things, and is, therefore, al-
ways consecutive, or future.
7. No simple proposition can contain more than
one indicative verb, and this verb of the indicative
mood can never be subordinate to an other verb.
306. 8. An indicative verb can only be in the
present, or the simple past tense. Imperative verbs
are always absolutely future, and infinitives either
absolutely or relatively so.
4. The words erroneously called helping verbs,
PARTICIPLES.
175
in English, come before those called principals.
These " auxiliaries” are therefore first in order.
They express the actions which are the efficient
causes of those denoted by the following verbs: con-
sequently they are philosophically first in impor-
tance.
The words will, may, hear, see, feel, can, be, shall,
must, and others of this kind, which govern the in-
finitive, without the word to, are very expressive by
their own absolute meaning. They are distinct,
and frequently opposite in their signification, frorn
the verbs which follow them : so that they can not
be considered as united, to form one compound ac-
tion; and it is not the nature of verbal expression
to blend two or three actions in one.
“We will stop at Philippi.”
In this sentence, the action denoted by stop, is
the resulting effect of that expressed by will. It is
consequent on it; subsidiary to it; in the infinitive
mood governed by it: and, till that intellectual
power which is the glory of man becomes entirely
subordinate to the feet, the word will, in the above
sentence, must be the principal, and stop must be
the secondary verb.
307. One seeming paradox, respecting verbs,
still requires explanation.
Several verbs, formerly used through all the
moods and tenses, have lost, in a great degree,
their original forms, while they retain their mean-
ing. The consistency of language has been greatly
misrepresented, and scholars needlessly and unpro-
fitably perplexed, by an attempt to refer these words
to other parts of speech. They are commonly
misnamed conjunctions; as, if, though, unless,
and others.
As a general rule, language is, in its structure,
very simple and direct. There is nothing like the
176
PARTICIPLES.
.
legal fictions which are resorted to, as is said for
convenience, in the duplicate locality set forth in a
declaration, " At London, in the kingdom of Great
Britain; to wit, at Lexington, in the state of Ken-
tucky;" or like the conduct of the ficticious and
benevolent“Mr. Jackson" in ejectment suits. There
is a very common practice in language, however,
which, if not well examined, is liable to lead to mis-
take. This is the suppositive use of the verb; in
which, generally, three propositions are combined,
in such a degree of contraction, as almost entirely
to disguise the true principle.
If is a verb in the imperative mood from gifan,
to give or grant.
If all others forsake thee, I will not.
This expression contains three sentences, though
in appearance but one :-
All others forsake thee-
If, gif, give, or grant that fact-
I will, or resolve, not (to forsake thee.)
Tho', though, is an imperative verb, from thofian,
to allow or admit.
" Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid."
Allow this fact;
He is out of danger:
He is still afraid.
Attempts have uniformly been made to explain
this part of speech under a mistaken idea of a sub-
junctive mood; a mood resorted to in English,
merely for want of knowing the meaning of words.
“ If I am right, thy grace impart,
Still in the right to stay;
If I am wrong, O, teach my heart
To find that better way."
Pope's Universal Prayer.
PARTICIPLES.
177
Mr. Murray's scheme would alter these phrases
to, “If I be right:" but Pope was, “ beyond all
comparison,” a better grammarian than Murray,
the opinion of the British critics to the contrary
notwithstanding
If you and Tullia are well,
land Cicero are well.*
Cicero pays as little regard to Mr. Murray's
subjunctive rules, as Pope, Addison, Tillotson,
Steele, Temple, Dean Swift, and other ungram-
matical scholars of their class.
308. If the four classes of words already alluded
to, are properly understood, there remains nothing
else to explain; for the other parts of speech are
merely nominal, or made up of words unexplained,
because not understood. They have been called
particles, and thrown into one class, by several re-
spectable writers. Others have exercised much
unprofitable labor and ingenuity in a vain attempt
to form them into many different classes. It is not
possible for any human skill to draw a philosophic
separating line between them, as between adjec-
tives and onouns; because no such division line
exists, in practice or in fact,
309. When, therefore, we speak of adverbs,
conjunctions, and prepositions, it ought to be well
understood, as a mere convenient resort, to get rid
of explaining and reducing to practice, what wri-
ters, themselves, do not possess sufficient knowledge
to develope. The writer of this treatise has an
“Si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus."-Cicero.
Epistles.
178
ADVERBS.
other reason, in addition to that incompetency
which he is ready to admit. It is not the plan of
his work to enter so much into the special details
of language, as would be necessary in explaining
English particles, word by word. It will be found,
in practice, however, that these parts of speech are
much abridged, under the system here proposed.
ADVERBS.
310. This part of speech” has with propriety
been represented as the general lumber heap, where
all words are to be thrown, when, in parsing, neither
scholar nor teacher knows what else to call them.
This practice, from its obvious convenience, has
been extensively adopted in schools.
The adverb takes its name from the leading idea
attached to its use, as secondary to the verb. In
this character, adverbs express the manner of ac-
tion; as, she moves gracefully. This is much the
most numerous subdivision, in the motley group of
words called adverbs; and these are generally
formed by adding ly to an adjective. This
syllable,
ly, is a contraction of lyche or like. When added
to a noun it forms an adjective, and added to an ad-
jective it is still secondary, or an adverb. There is
also a number of words differently formed, which
are generally connected with adjectives, and used
to express the degree of quality; as, a very good,
or truly good man. The real explanation of this
practice is, that it employs one, and sometimes two
adjectives to qualify an other.
ADVERBS.
179
311. Other words of this class are compounded
of different terms ; but generally in such a manner
that they may easily be resolved into their ele-
ments; as, nevertheless, howsoever, tomorrow, per-
adventure, always, and others. The practice has
prevailed to a considerable extent, more formerly
than at present, of combining these words; and it
is still thought more convenient, in many instances,
to take the compound, as an adverb, than to ex-
plain the parts separately. Many of these words,
in their compounded form, are going gradually out
of use, as being inelegant and unnecessary.
But besides those adverbs which directly appear
as compounds, there are others, the separate parts
of which are only to be found by tracing them to
their origin.
312. The following is Mr. Murray's list of ad-
verbs.
Once, twice, thrice, &c. First, secondly, third-
ly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally. Here, there,
where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere,
herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward,
forward, backward, whence, hence, thence, whith-
ersoever. Now, to-day, already, before, lately,
yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long
ago, &c. To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, hence-
forth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, present-
ly, immediately, straightways. Oft, often, oft-
times, often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily,
weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever,
never, again, &c. Much, little, sufficiently, how
much, how great, enough, abundantly, &c. Wisely,
foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly. Per-
haps, peradventure, possibly, perchance, verily,
truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes,
surely, indeed, really. Nay, no, not, by no means,
180
CONJUNCTIONS.
not at all, in no wise, how, why, wherefore, wheth-
er, more, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least,
very, almost, little, alike.
CONJUNCTIVES OR CONJUNCTIONS.
one.
“A conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect
sentences; so as, out of two or more sentences to make but
It sometimes connects only words."
Mr. Murray, whose definition of these conjunc-
tive words is given above, divides them into two
kinds, copulative and disjunctive conjunctives.
The following is his list of conjunctions.
COPULATIYE.
“And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore,
wherefore."
DISJUNCTIVE.
“But, or, nor, as, then, lest, though, unless, either, neither,
yet, notwithstanding."
22
The conjunctives both, either, neither, and that,
are always adjectives.
If, but, though, unless, and yet, are imperative
verbs.
If is gif, give, grant, as was said before.
Though is thof, theofian, admit or allow.
But has two meanings, which should not be con-
founded; botan, to boot; superadd. I have
rode ten miles, but I wish to go ten miles farther.
But is also be-utan, be out, leave out, except;
as, “all but one."
All be out, leave out, except,
or save, one.
Unless is release, dismiss.
CONJUNCTIONS.
181
Yet is get, by the usual change of y and g in
the old books, or rather by the use of a character in
common for both.
a
314. The other conjunctions may all be as well
considered and explained as adverbs. The word
as never is a conjunction. The attempted distinc-
tion between copulative and disjunctive, and other-
classes of conjunctives, and all which is called ex-
planation upon them, is a totally absurd, unfound-
ed, and whimsical jargon; not surpassed in any
dream book, or treatise on the juggling art. This
mass of nonsense is not chargeable on any indi-
vidual : but has been handed down from one com-
piler to an other, to the present time, because that
no one thinks proper to inquire why seventeen
hundred thousand scholars, now in school in the
United States, should be taught to believe that join-
ing two words together necessarily produces sepa-
ration between them.
Mr. Murray's whole list of conjunctions amounts
to twenty-two. Several of these never are con-
junctions, in any possible instance, by any rational
application of the words, according to his own
scheme; and all of them may be better explained
under other classes of words.
But Mr. Murray's “judicious and philosophical"
system sinks down to relative soberness, and almost
puts on the appearance of truth, when compared
with the following classification of the different sorts
of conjunctions, which has been palmed upon the
schools, and called learning.
Conjunctive, adjunctive, disjunctive, subdisjunc-
tive, copulative, negative copulative, continuative,
subcontinuative, positive, suppositive, causal, col-
lective, effective, approbative, discretive, ablative,
presumptive, abnegative, completive, augmenta-
16
182
PREPOSITIONS.
tive, alternative, hypothetical, extensive, periodical,
motival, conclusive, explicative, transitive, interro-
gative, comparative, diminutive, preventive, ade-
quate preventive, adversative, conditional, suspen-
sive, illative, conductive, declarative, &c. &c.
The book of Revelation contains twenty-two
chapters, and nineteen of them begin with the copu-
lative conjunction and. In this case, which is gram-
matically connected, "words, or members of a
sentence?"
"Et jacet Euxinis vates Romanus in oris."-Politian's
Elegy on the Exile and Death of Ovid; Line I.
Here is a simple proposition beginning with the
copulative conjunction et; and no one, probably,
will question its Latinity.
PREPOSITIONS.
"Prepositions serve to connect words with one an other, and
to show the relation between them. They are, for the most
part, put before nouns and pronouns; as, he went from Lon-
don to York. She is above disguise. They are instructed by
him."
This is Mr. Murray's definition of this part of
speech, and it is about as good as any other which
could be made. The following is his list of the
words.
Of, to, for, by, with, in, into, within, without,
over, under, through, above, below, between, be-
neath, from, beyond, at, near, up, down, before, be-
hind, off, on, upon, among, after, about, against.
PREPOSITIONS.
183
316. Every one of these prepositions is a noun
or a verb, capable of being clearly traced and de-
fined as such, with much less trouble than to define
the word preposition or adverb.
In, as a noun, is the old word innan, innen,
the
inner part of the human breast, enclosing the heart
and vitals. In its extended meaning, it is the inner
part of any thing else; an inn of court; as, Lin-
coln's Inn; an indwelling place; a traveller's inn;
a public lodging place.
Inn, as a verb, is from the noun: “to inn the har-
vestor grain,”as used by Chaucer, Shakspeare,
Lord
Bacon, Sir Philip Sydney, and other writers, means
to put the harvest into barns. The participle in-
ning is from the same. This is also used as a noun.
The adjectives in, inner, innest, innermost, in-
most, inward, innerward, are from the noun.
The adverbs inly, innerly, and inwardly, are
formed from the adjectives.
The word in has also many compounds, as inlet,
inmate, inland, inlay, and others.
All these terms are pure old English.
Such is one of the least of these prepositions,
without meaning, used to connect significant words
and “ show the relation between them.”
If the general principles laid down in this work
should be acceptable to the American public, an at-
tempt will be made in a future edition, to reduce all
words to four classes, in such a manner as to leave
no possibility of doubt on the subject. It will
greatly facilitate the whole process of teaching lan-
guage, and is as applicable to other tongues as to
our own.
184
INTERJECTIONS.
INTERJECTIONS.
a
317. This department of language does not con-
sist of words, nor belong to conventional speech.
It is made up of sounds, which are uttered by dif-
ferent orders of beings, as mere animals; sometimes
by man among the rest. The bellowing of a cow,
the barking of a dog, the neighing of a horse, are
interjections. In many instances among men, sud-
den and violent starts of surprise, joy, pain, or an-
ger, cause an indistinct sound, not reducible to the
language of compact. Laughter, crying, or the
groans of pain, are interjections : but if a man says
hush, tush, or tut, to his children, meaning to have
them be still, and they so understand him, it is as
much an imperative verb, as if he said cease, stop.
or any other form of parental command. To say
hah, in order to call quick attention, is no less a
verb than lo, look, or see there, used for the same
purpose. The simple question is, on each utter-
ance of this kind, whether it is given and received
with a definite form and meaning.
Fruitless attempts have been made to arrange
this set of words into different subdivisions, accor-
ding to their meanings; but all words capable of
being so classified, do not belong to interjections.
SYNTAX.
185
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.
SYNTAX.
RULE I.
317. The noun is subject or object of a verb, or
governed by a preposition; as, Henry VII. de-
feated Richard III. in the battle of Bosworth.
Exception. Nouns are sometimes used without
grammatical connexion, in which case, they are said
to be independent, or absolute. This takes place
in the single words, or broken parts of sentences,
placed as heads of chapters, or in terms of direct
personal address; as, “ It must be so, Plato, thou .
reasonest well.”
RULE II.
318. All nouns and pronouns meaning the same
thing, and contained in the same member of a sen-
tence, must agree in number, gender, and person,
with the thing which they represent; pas, ye blind
guides, hypocrites.
Cicero and Hortensius rendered themselves great
orators.
He showed himself a consummate general.
They are ( ) excellent poets.
These serve to explain each other, without enlarg-
ing the idea conveyed by one of the terms.
This form of speech is the identical proposition
of the mental philosophers and logicians.
16*
186
SYNTAX.
Nouns of multitude may be singular or plural in
construction, according to the manner in which they
are conceived by the mind.
RULE III.
Pronouns, as substitutes for nouns, take the same
relation of person, number, gender, and case.
RULE IV.
Pronouns and nouns, connected by and, are to
be taken together, as a collective plural, in the
agreement of verbs or other words: as, Romulus
and Remus were twin brothers. They were grand-
sons of Numitor.
RULE V.
Every adjective refers to a noun, expressed or un-
derstood; as, "many are called; but few are cho-
sen" that is, many and few persons.
English adjectives never vary in their forms for
number, gender, nor case.
RULE VI.
320. The indicative verb agrees with the number
and person of its subject; as, " Homer warms us."
"Milton fixes us in astonishment." "They are both
sublime, and excel other poets." "Ilearn." "Thou
art the man."
RULE VII.
The infinitive verb is always consecutive, depend→
ing on some pre-supposed condition of things; as,
"He prepared himself to go, at 12 o'clock."
SYNTAX.
187
RULE VIII.
Imperative verbs are invariable in form, and fu-
ture in meaning: as, go, stay, depart in peace.
RULE IX.
Every verb and every participle in ing governs
an object expressed or understood; as, "go, flee
thee away, into the land of Judah." The tutor em-
ploys himself in teaching his pupils. They try (their
skill) to learn (their lessons.)
PARSING LESSONS.
321. "They who forgive, act nobly."
They, is a pronoun, standing for a supposed por-
tion of mankind, to whom a certain character is at-
tributed; third person plural, subject of the verb
act.
Who, an other pronoun for the same persons,
subject of the verb forgive, in the third person plu-
ral, like they, because standing for the same thing.
Forgive; indicative verb, present tense, meaning,
in general, or at any time, agreeing with its subject,
who, in the third person, plural; and governing
injuries, as its object understood.
Act; indicative verb, present tense, agreeing
with its subject they, third person plural; governing
part, or an equivalent word understood, as its ob-
ject.
Nobly, an adverb, expressing the manner of act-
ing.
188
SYNTAX
322 “ Peace and joy are virtúe's crown."
Peace, a common noun, third person, singular
number, neuter gender, subject of the verb are.
And, past participle, signifying added, connect-
ing peace with joy.
Joy, common noun, third person singular, con-
nected with peace, as subject of are.
Are, irregular verb, indicative mood, present
tense, agreeing with its two subjects, peace and joy,
governing the word themselves, as its object, under-
stood.
Virtue's, a specifying adjective, referring to
crown, to point out what one is meant.
Crown, common noun, third person singular,
subject of are, as being identical with peace and joy,
in the same member of the sentence.
“Wisdom or folly governs us.”
Wisdom, noun common, third person, singular,
conditional subject of governs.
Or, adverbial contraction, signifying otherwise ;
and as placed, between wisdom and folly, in this
sentence, implies the alternative, that one governs,
if the other does not. This is always the character
and use of the word or.
Folly, common noun, third person, singular,
placed alternatively, or conditionally, with wisdom,
as subject of the verb governs.
Governs, regular verb, indicative mood, present
tense, agreeing with either wisdom or folly, accor-
ding to the alternity; but not with both..
>
“ If Celia would be silent, her beholders would adore her.;
if Iras would talk, her hearers would admire her; but Celia's
tongue runs incessantly, while Iras gives herself silent airs and
soft languors; so that it is difficult to persuade one's self that
Celia has beauty, and Iras wit; each neglects her owo excel-
lence, and is ambitious of the other's character; Iras would be
thought to have as much beauty as Celia, and Celia as much
wit as Iras."-Addison.
SYNTAX.
199
If, verb, in the imperative mood, with the words
that fact, understood after it, as the governed ob-
ject. Give that fact-Celia would be silent-(the
Consequence would be) her beholders would adore
her.
Celia, proper noun, feminine, singular, subject
of the verb would.
Would, irregular verb, denoting volition or in-
herent propensity, put conditionally or suppositively
in the past tense, implying the admitted truth that
Celia is not silent, and agreeing with its subject
Celia, which is third person singular.
Be, an infinitive verb, depending on the words
Celia would, and governing the compounded word
herself, as its object.
Silent, adjective, referring to Celia.
Her, specifying adjective, referring to beholders.
Beholders, noun plural, subject of would.
Would, as before.
Adore, infinitive verb, depending on the phrase,
s her beholders would,” governing her, as its ob-
ject.
If, as before.
Iras, proper noun, subject of would.
Would, as before.
Talk, infinitive verb, following the phrase, “ Iras
would."
Her, specifying adjective, referring to hearers, to
identify them.
Would, as before.
Admire, infinitive verb, following would.
Her, pronoun, object of the verb admire, third.
person, singular, feminine, standing for Iras.
But, imperative verb, add, (understand farther.)
Celia's, specifying adjective, formed from the
noun, denoting the particular tongue which is
meant.
190
SYNTAX
Tongue, common noun, subject of runs.
Runs, irregular verb, indicative mood, present
tense, agreeing with its subject tongue, third per-
son singular.
Incessantly, adverb, expressing the manner of
running
While, noun, meaning, whirl, revolution, period,
time; and generally parsed as an adverb of time.
Iras, proper noun, subject of gives.
Herself, compounded of specifying adjective her,
and noun self, meaning, identical person, in the
objective case, or position, governed by the prepo-
sition to, understood.
Silent, describing adjective, referring to airs.
And, conjunctive participle, connecting airs and
languors.
Soft, adjective, describing languors.
So, like as, formerly used as an adjective, mean-
ing that or these : now generally signifying, in such
manner, and parsed as an adverb. The words -
that," taken together, are a contracted form of ex-
pression, which save the repetition of what has
gone before, and a part of what follows.
It, an assumed term for the thing, or the general
idea which follows the verb.
Is, irregular verb, it, (the idea or the thing,) is,
(makes itself) difficult.
To, past participle, signifying acted, finished,
done: used here as the convenient distinctive sign
of the infinitive mood, and generally in parsing, ta-
ken together with the following verb, as denoting
SO
>
one idea.
Persuade, infinitive verb, depending on the pre-
ceding phrase, it is difficult.
One's, specifying adjective, referring to the noun
self.
SYNTAX.
191
That, specifying adjective; the preposition of, or
into, is understood before it, and fact, belief, or oth-
er equivalent word after it; as, to persuade one's
self into that belief, or of that fact.
Celia, proper noun.
Has, irregular verb, agreeing with Celia, govern-
ing beauty.
Beauty, common noun.
Iras.
Wit, common noun, formed from the old verb,
witan, to know,'object of has.
Each, specifying adjective, referring to person,
woman, or lady, understood.
Neglects, verb, indicative mood, present tense,
agreeing with lady, understood.
Her, specifying adjective, referring to excel-
lence.
Own, participial adjective, referring to excel-
lence.
Ambitious, describing adjective, referring to each
lady.
Of, participle, used as a preposition, governing
character.
The, specifying adjective, referring to charac-
ter.
Other's, specifying adjective, in contraction for
other person's, referring to character.
Character, noun, governed by of
Iras, noun, subject of would.
Would, indicative verb, from will, suppositive
, ,
past tense.
Be, irregular infinitive, following the phrase,
"Iras would.”
Thought, participial adjective, referring to Iras.
To have, infinitive verb, depending on the whole
preceding phrase.
As, adjective, referring to much.
192
SYNTAX.
Much, noun common, signifying considerable
quantity, object of the verb to have.
Beauty, common noun, governed by of, under -
stood.
The rest as before.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES.
323. Find the nouns or persons to which each of
the following adjectives refers.
We are told by Diodorus Siculus that, adjoining
the sepulchre of Osymandyas, king of Egypt, was
a magnificent library, over the door of which was
inscribed, in letters of gold, “ Food for the mind."
,
In a conspicuous place on the wall was a sculptured
figure of a judge, with the image of truth suspended
from his neck, and a number of books lying before
him.
Who are told? What was adjoining ? What was
inscribed ? What was suspended ?
324. All verbs are transitive, and active.
“Bliss. a native of the sky,
Never wanders (herself.) Mortals try (your efforts ;)
There you can not seek (Bliss) in vain;
For to seek her is to gain (her.)"
The word, in each parenthesis is supplied in
grammatical construction.
“He enters (himself into the territory of the
peaceable inhabitants; he fights (the people) and
conquers (them ;) takes an immense booty which
SYNTAX.
193
(booty) he divides among his soldiers and returns
(himself) home, to enjoy (himself with) an empty
triumph.”
325. It often happens that the apparent is not the
real object of the verb; as, in the above sentence,
where it is evident, on proper examination, that it is
not the triumph which was to receive the joy; but
the boastful conqueror by means of a triumph.-
Those who can compare English with almost any
other language, will need no farther elucidation on
this subject.
“Murdre is waltsome and abhominable
To God that so just is and reasonable
That he ne wol* suffre healed to be
Though it abide a yere, two or thre
Murdre wolt out.”—Chaucer. Tale of the Nonnes
Priest. Vol. III. p. 1.
That he not willsit to suffer (itsell) concealed to be.
Murder wills out, or wills itself out, by the con-
scientious restlessness of its will.
326. Language, as generally used, is very ellip-
tical and its contractions are particularly great,
in verbs of primary importance, and consequent
frequency of use.
“ A bird that can sing and will not sing must be
made to sing."
A bird, that (bird) knows the way to sing (songs
or tunes) and (that bird) wills (the determination)
not to sing (any tune) (that bird) ought (without
excuse to) be) made to sing (some tune or notes.)
However clumsy this phraseology may appear,
no one should pretend to have a true philosophic
or grammatical knowledge of language, till he can
17
:194
SINTAX
complete it, by supplying every word, necessary to
the whole construction.
The great art of writing and speaking is to make
these contractions, in the most compendious man-
ner, without being deficient in perspicuity.
To the foregoing lessons in parsing, the following
are added, which may serve, at once, as exercises
for the scholar, and as specimens of the progressive
changes in the language.
The first is a Saxon specimen from King Alfred.
a
Nu pe sceolan herigean
Heofon rices pearð
Metodes mihte
And his mod gepanc
Yeonc puldor fæder.
Spa he puldner gelipas
Ece drihten
Ord onstealde.
He ærest gescop
Eorpan beurnum
Heopon to rore
Halig scyppend.
Da middan geard
Mon cynnes peard
Eco Drihtne
Æfter tcode.
Firum foldan
Prea elmibtit
For the convenience of those unacquainted with
the Saxon alphabet, the same is given in Roman
letters.
“Nu we sceolan herigean
Heofon rices weard
Metodes mihte
And his mod gethanc
Yeorc wuldor fæder.
Swa he wuldres gehwaes
Ece drihten
Ord onstealde.
He ærest gescop
Eorthan bearnum
Heofon to rofe
Halig scyppend
Tha middan geard
SINTAX
195
Mon cynnes weard
Ece drihtne
Æfter teode..
Firum foldan
Frea ælmihtig.”—Alfred's Translation of
Bede. P. 597.
LITERAL TRANSLATION.
Now we should to praise
Heaven's riches Guardian :
Maker's might
And his mind thoughts
Works of glory Father.
How he glorious was,
Eternal Lord;
Made the beginning.
He first formed
Earthen children,
Heaven to roof:
Holy Creator !
The middle expansion
Man kind's Guardian,
Eternal Lord,
Afterwards made.
The earth for man.
Ruler Almighty.
The reader will certainly be struck with the seem-
ing awkwardness of this translation; so destitute
of “ articles," conjunctions, adverbs, or preposi-
tions; but barren as it is of these modernized ap-
pendages, he will perceive that the number is great-
er than in the original
In this construction the sense is determined, in a
considerable degree, by the relative collocation ot
the words.
Much also depended on their accepted import in
practice.
" He first formed
196
SYNTAI.
Earthen chidren
Heaven to roof:
Holy Creator."
With these identical words the sense will be plair
by changing the arrangement.
“Holy Creator!
He first formed
Heaven, to roof
Earthen children."
To shelter or protect the children belonging or
pertaining to earth. This kind of translation gives
the reader a more clear idea of the real structure of
the original, than one which should be rendered in
more elegant modern English.
This piece, singular as it may appear, is the lan-
guage of the man who was at once the chief glory of
the English throne, and one of the best scholars in
the kingdom for the age in which he lived.
328. The following is given as an exact copy of
the xiii. chapter of i Corinthians, from an ancient
manuscript, and which is the oldest English trans-
lation of the New Testament, at present known to
exist. The precise date of it is not known; but sup-
posed to be about the year 1350, or about twenty
years before the introduction of printing into Eng-
land.
It is taken from a copy given by Dr. Adam
Clarke, the only alteration being the substitution
of Roman print for the old black letter English.
“GifI speke with tungis of men and aungels sotheli
I have not charitee: I am maad as brasse soun-
dynge or a symbale tinking. And gif I schal have
prophecie and have knowen alle mysteries and alle
kunnynge or science. And gif I schal have al
feithe so that I over bere hills
fro on place to an
other. forsothe gif I schal not have charitee: I am
SYNTAX.
197
nought. And gif I schal departe al my goodis into
metis of pore men. And gif I schal bitake my
body so that I brenne forsothe gif I schal not have
charitee, it profiteth to me no thing. Charite is
pacient or sufferinge. It is benynge or of good
will. Charity envyeth not. It doth not gyle. It
is not inblowen with pride it is not ambyciouse or
covetouse of wirschippis. It seekyth not the
thingis that ben her own. It is not stirrid to wrath
it thinketh not yvil. it joyeth not on wickednesse.
forsothe it joyeth to gydre to treuthe. It suffreth
alle thingis. it bilieveth alle thingis. It hopith
alle thingis, it susteeneth alle thingis. Charite fallith
not doun. Whether prophecies schuln be doid
eyther langagis schulen ceese: eyther science schal
be destruyed. Forsothe of party we han knowen :
and of partye prophecien. Forsothe whenne that
schal cum to that is perfit: that thing that is of
partye schal be avoydid. When I was a litil
chiilde: I spake as a litil chiilde. I understode as
a litil chiilde: I thoughte as a litil chiilde. Forsothe
when I was maad a man: I avoyded the thingis
that weren of a litil chiilde. Forsothe we seen now
bi a miror in darcnesse: thanne forsothe face to
face. Nowe I know of partye: thanne forsothe I
schal know as I am knowen. Now forsothe dwellen
feith hoope charite. These three: forsothe the more
of hem is charite."
329. Example in philosophic parsing.
You may show a child a house and teach him the
fact that such an edifice could not have made itself;
in proof of which opinion, you may show him ma-
sons and carpenters at their work. Then direct his
attention to the heavenly orbs; the earth; and the
numerous animals and vegetables, and minerals
17*
198
SYNTAX
which God has formed for the use of man, and say
to the little boy or girl, how much superior is the
world we inhabit, to that house! Can the universe,
then, have organized its own structure. How ought
our souls to glow with gratitude and admiration for
the Author of such wisdom and goodness.-Para-
phrase from Fenelon.
Child, absolute name of persons.
All names of persons are mixed or complex
ideas, including the union of body and mind.
House, sensible object.
Fact, attendant circumstance of matter.
It alludes to some operation on material substan-
ces.
Edifice, sensible object.
This name is general and always in some degree
relative, as implying what is raised, built, or con-
structed.
Proof, attendant circumstance having a mixed re-
lation to matter and mind.
Opinion, attendant circumstance of mind.
Masons, relative name of persons.
Carpenters, same as masons.
Work, attendant circumstance of matter and mind.
Attention, attendant circumstance, chiefly of mind.
Orbs, sensible objects.
This name is always in some degree relative, as
implying a body rolling in a circle.
Earth, sensible object; but extensive and com-
plex in its idea.
Animals, class of sensible objects, including the
relative idea of life.
Vegetables, sensible objects; but the name always
relates to the manner of growth.
Minerals, sensible objects; but always relative, as
being found in mines.
God, highest mental object,
SINTAX.
199
As mind is superior to matter, and the Creator
is the highest mental existence, so the idea is the
most sublime which the mind can conceive.
Man, general and absolute name of the human
species.
Boy, name of persons.
Girl, same.
World, complex idea.
House, as before.
Universe, most complex of all ideas, including all
objects, qualities, and relations, as a collective whole.
Structure, attendant circumstance of matter.
Souls, mental object.
Gratitude, mental affection, or attendant circum-
stance.
Admiration, attendant circumstance of mind.
Author, relative name, applied here to the Crea-
tor.
Wisdom and goodness, mental qualities.
330. “These our actors,
(As I foretold you) were all spirits, and
Are melted into ayre, into thin ayre;
And, like the baselesse fabricke of this vision,
The clowd-capt towres, the gorgeous pallaces,
The solemne temples, the great globe itselfe,
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolue,
And, like this insubstantiall pageant faded,
Leaue not a racke behind."--Shakspeare. Tempest,
page 15, vol. 1.
Philosophic parsing of the nouns in the forego-
ing paragraph. The words in this exercise are to
be taken in their literal meaning.
Actors, relative name of persons.
Spirits, mental object.
Ayre, air is matter and therefore a sensible object,
though not, in its pure form, directly obvious.
a
200
SYNTAX,
Fabric, sensible object, but relative, as being
made or fabricated.
Vision, attendant circumstance of matter.
Towers, sensible object.
Palaces, sensible object.
Temples, sensible object, but including the rela-
tive idea of their design and use.
Globe, sensible object with the relative idea of
form.
Pageant, name of a sensible object, but relatively
applied.
Racke, rack is from the verb to reek or smoke,
and means a steam, mist or vapor. It is an attend-
ant circumstance of matter; because it denotes no
particular substance; but an appearance capable
of being assumed by the exhalation of most fluid
bodies.
331. “ It fortuned, faire Venus having lost
Her little sonne, the winged god of Love,
Who for some light displeasure, which him crost,
Was from her fled, as flit as ayery dove,
And left her blissful bowre of joy above ;
(So from her often he had died away,
When she for ought him did reprove,)
And wandered in the world in strawnge array,
Disguised in thousand shapes, that none might him bewray
Him for to seeke, she left her heavenly hous,
The hous of goodly forms and faire aspect.
And searched everie way, through which his wings
Had borne him, or bis tract she mote detect;
First she him sought in court, where most he usd
Whylome to haunt, but there she found him not ;
But many there she found which sore accus'd
His falshood, and with fowle infamous blot
His cruell deedes and wicked wyles did spot:
SYNTAX
201
Ladies and lordes she every where mote heare
Complayning, how with his empoysned shot
Their woful hearts he wounded had whyleare,
And so had left them languishing twixt hope and feare."
Spencer's “ Faerie Queene."
332. Examples of the conditional or suppositive
past tense.
I was to pass the river tomorrow; but the bridge
is carried away.
I should cross the river tomorrow, but the bridge
is carried away
If I had passed the river yesterday, I could not
now return.
If I was on the other side, I could not get back.
The logic concealed under this form of expres-
sion is the most subtle and ingenious, which is to be
found, in the essential structure of speech; and yet,
it is one of the broadest general principles of lan-
guage. Probably no single rule has more com-
pletely escaped detection, or done more to mislead
the entire body of grammatical writers. After all,
however, this ingenious mental expedient becomes
very clear, when devested of the disguise which has
been cast over it by a mistaken theory of instruc-
ion.
The verbs printed in italics, in all the above
examples, depend on a common principle. In each
of the sentences, two actions are principally refer-
red to, one depending on the other. In each a cer-
tain fact is alluded to, as being known, or assumed,
by the speaker and hearer ; and the pre-admission,
•
or conditional assertion, of this fact is denoted, by
putting the verb in the past tense.
I was to pass the river tomorrow; but I am not
to pass tomorrow ; because that the condition of
202
SINTAX
things on which the determination to pass depended,
has become changed, by one of the numerous
casualties on which the actions of man so gene-
rally depend.
I should cross, &c.
I shall not cross.
>
.
The idea here is a pre-existing obligation, from
which the actor is released, by an unexpected
change of circumstances, which has increased the
difficulty, or prevented the possibility of fulfilment.
These few hints will be sufficient to enable the
intelligent scholar to make the application of this
principle, in its very extensive use; and to adapt
it to any language with which he may be familiar.
It is one of the striking instances of that rational
logic which the Author of our being has firmly
fixed in the intellect of man; for, it will be seen,
that, in the most rapid utterance, the mind, consis-
tent with itself and with the nature of things, will
habitually represent the proper class of actions in
the past tense. This is done, not only without the
help of formal teaching, but in opposition to all
scholastic rules and mistaken attempts at explana-
tion. If then it should be asked whether it is, in
part, the design of this train of reasoning to degrade
the instruction of the schools ; nothing is farther
from it: but if the splendid universities of Europe
have done so much for human improvement, under
a theory of teaching which is radically bad; what
might they not do, with their rich endowments,
their learning and talents, their zeal, enterprise, and
philanthropy, if they would consent to adopt a sys-
tem of inculcation in language, accordant with
facts, worthy of their character, and of the cause
which their ample resources are calculated to pro-
mote?
SINTAX
203
The very extensive rule above alluded to, and
which exists alike in language, in the mind, and
in the nature of things, removes at once all the per-
plexing contradictions of an imaginary conjunctive
mood, and obviates the necessity of all minor ex-
planations and exceptions.
66
333. Ambiguity from wrong collocation.
Harry. “Nothing is better, Peter, than roast
beef.”
Peter. “ I ask your pardon, friend Harry, I think
roast beef is better than nothing."
I saw a ship gliding under full sail through a
spy glass.
Aman may see how the world goes with half an eye.
1
$
Pt.
ERRORS.
The reader is desired to rectify the following mistakes,
which were not observed till too late for the correction of the
press.
Page 4, line 3d from thebottom, for difficult read deficient.
Page 67, paragraph 117, for Dright read Edwards.
Page 127, lines 4 and 9, for plural read future.
Some more trifling typographical errors were not observed
in reading the proof sheets.
-
1
}
2.6.
310U IL
ܐ ،
22) 277
antie atte
Sc
ז'

THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
GRADUATE LIBRARY
DATE DUE
JUL 15 1976
6
DECI I 1945
MAR 26 1989
APR
3
2 3 1995
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
3 9015 00825 6599
A 738,792
DO NOT REMOVE
OR
MUTILATE CARD
198
SYNTAX.
which God has formed for the use of man, and
say
to the little boy or girl, how much superior is the
world we inhabit, to that house! Can the universe,
then, have organized its own structure. How ought
our souls to glow with gratitude and admiration for
the Author of such wisdom and goodness.-Para-
phrase from Fenelon.
Child, absolute name of persons.
All names of persons are mixed or complex
ideas, including the union of body and mind.
House, sensible object.
Fact, attendant circumstance of matter.
It alludes to some operation on material substan-
ces.
Edifice, sensible object.
This name is general and always in some degree
relative, as implying what is raised, built, or con-
structed.
Proof, attendant circumstance having a mixed re-
lation to matter and mind.
Opinion, attendant circumstance of mind.
Masons, relative name of persons.
Carpenters, same as masons.
Work, attendant circumstance of matter and mind.
Attention, attendant circumstance, chiefly of mind.
Orbs, sensible objects.
This name is always in some degree relative, as
implying a body rolling in a circle.
Earth, sensible object; but extensive and com-
plex in its idea.
Animals, class of sensible objects, including the
relative idea of life.
Vegetables, sensible objects; but the name always
relates to the manner of growth.
Minerals, sensible objects; but always relative, as
being found in mines.
God, highest mental object,
SINTAX.
199
As mind is superior to matter, and the Creator
is the highest mental existence, so the idea is the
most sublime which the mind can conceive.
Man, general and absolute name of the human
species.
Boy, name of persons.
Girl, same.
World, complex idea.
House, as before.
Universe, most complex of all ideas, including all
objects, qualities, and relations, as a collective whole.
Structure, attendant circumstance of matter.
Souls, mental object.
Gratitude, mental affection, or attendant circum-
stance.
Admiration, attendant circumstance of mind.
Author, relative name, applied here to the Crea-
tor.
Wisdom and goodness, mental qualities.
330. “These our actors,
(As I foretold you) were all spirits, and
Are melted into ayré, into thin ayre;
And, like the baselesse fabricke of this vision,
The clowd-capt towres, the gorgeous pallaces,
The solemne temples, the great globe itselfe,
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolue,
And, like this insubstantiall pageant faded,
Leaue not a racke behind."--Shakspeare. Tempest,
page 15, vol. 1.
Philosophic parsing of the nouns in the forego-
ing paragraph. The words in this exercise are to
be taken in their literal meaning.
Actors, relative name of persons.
Spirits, mental object.
Ayre, air is matter and therefore a sensible object,
though not, in its pure form, directly obvious.
200
SYNTAX.
Fabric, sensible object, but relative, as being
made or fabricated.
Vision, attendant circumstance of matter.
Towers, sensible object.
Palaces, sensible object.
Temples, sensible object, but including the rela-
tive idea of their design and use.
Globe, sensible object with the relative idea of
form.
Pageant, name of a sensible object, but relatively
applied.
Racke, rack is from the verb to reek or smoke,
and means a steam, mist or vapor. It is an attend-
ant circumstance of matter; because it denotes no
particular substance; but an appearance capable
of being assumed by the exhalation of most fluid
bodies.
a
331. “ It fortuned, faire Venus having lost
Her little sonne, the winged god of Love,
Who for some light displeasure, which him cróst,
Was from her fled, as flit as ayery dove,
And left her blissful bowre of joy above ;.
(So from her often he had fled away,
When she for ought him did reprove,)
nd wandered in the world in strawnge array,
Disguised in thousand shapes, that none might him bewray
Him for to seeke, she left her heavenly hous,
The hous of goodly forms and faire aspect.
And searched everie way, through which his wings
Had borne him, or his tract she mote detect;
First she him sought in court, where most he us'd
Whylome to haunt, but there she found him not ;
But many there she found which sore accus'd
His falshood, and with fowle infamous blot
His cruell deedes and wicked wyles did spot:
SYNTAX
201
Ladies and lordes she every where mote heare
Complayning, how with his empoysned shot
Their woful hearts he wounded had whyleare,
And so had left them languishing twixt hope and feare."
Spencer's “ Faerie Queene."
332. Examples of the conditional or suppositive
past tense.
I was to pass the river tomorrow; but the bridge
is carried away.
I should cross the river tomorrow, but the bridge
is carried away.
If I had passed the river yesterday, I could not
now return.
If I was on the other side, I could not get back.
>
The logic concealed under this form of expres-
sion is the most subtle and ingenious, which is to be
found, in the essential structure of speech; and
yet,
it is one of the broadest general principles of lan-
guage. Probably no single rule has more com-
pletely escaped detection, or done more to mislead
the entire body of grammatical writers. After all,
however, this ingenious mental expedient becomes
very clear, when devested of the disguise which has
been cast over it by a mistaken theory of instruc-
ion.
The verbs printed in italics, in all the above
examples, depend on a common principle. In each
of the sentences, two actions are principally refer-
red to, one depending on the other. In each a cer-
tain fact is alluded to, as being known, or assumed,
by the speaker and hearer; and the pre-admission,
or conditional assertion, of this fact is denoted, by
putting the verb in the past tense.
I was to pass the river tomorrow; but I am not
to pass tomorrow; because that the condition of
202
SINTAX.
things on which the determination to pass depended,
has become changed, by one of the numerous
casualties on which the actions of man so gene-
rally depend.
I should cross, &c.
I shall not cross.
>
The idea here is a pre-existing obligation, from
which the actor is released, by an unexpected
change of circumstances, which has increased the
difficulty, or prevented the possibility of fulfilment.
These few hints will be sufficient to enable the
intelligent scholar to make the application of this
principle, in its very extensive use ; and to adapt
it to any language with which he may be familiar.
It is one of the striking instances of that rational
logic which the Author of our being has firmly
fixed in the intellect of man; for, it will be seen,
that, in the most rapid utterance, the mind, consis-
tent with itself and with the nature of things, will
habitually represent the proper class of actions in
the past tense. This is done, not only without the
help of formal teaching, but in opposition to all
scholastic rules and mistaken attempts at explana-
tion. If then it should be asked whether it is, in
part, the design of this train of reasoning to degrade
the instruction of the schools ; nothing is farther
from it: but if the splendid universities of Europe
have done so much for human improvement, under
a theory of teaching which is radically bad; what
might they not do, with their rich endowments,
their learning and talents, their zeal, enterprise, and
philanthropy, if they would consent to adopt a sys-
tem of inculcation in language, accordant with
facts, worthy of their character, and of the cause
which their ample resources are calculated to pro-
mote ?
SINTAX.
203
The very extensive rule above alluded to, and
which exists alike in language, in the mind, and
in the nature of things, removes at once all the per-
plexing contradictions of an imaginary conjunctive
mood, and obviates the necessity of all minor ex-
planations and exceptions.
333. Ambiguity from wrong collocation.
Harry. "Nothing is better, Peter, than roast
beef.”
Peter. “ I ask your pardon, friend Harry, I think
roast beef is better than nothing."
>
I saw a ship gliding under full sail through a
spy glass.
A man may see how the world goes with half an eye.
1
ERRORS.
The reader is desired to rectify the following mistakes,
which were not observed till too late for the correction of the
press.
Page 4, line 3d from the bottom, for difficult read deficient.
Page 67, paragraph 117, for Dwight read Edwards.
Page 127, lines 4 and 9, for plural read future.
Some more trifling typographical errors were not observed
in reading the proof sheets.
της.
7
{ . . :: 1ιιί ί.
ar
),
κ.ά.
και
7
1.
be
μ' έιίιι'
ίιιιιε,
ι;
Ι
ιιιι
Η
-
Σ
84
155

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