0 Stem f ^e feifirari? of (!$equeaf ^c^ 6l5 ^im to t^e £i6mri? of (princefon C^eofogtcctf ^eminarg 4 WHilq'l mn! \{ SMALLER DICTIONARY BIBLE. FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND YOUNG PERSONS. By WILLIAM SMITH, RCL, LL.D. Table of Shew Bread From the Arch of Ti NEW EDITION. \\\ P^aps anb lllwstrations. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1872. The right of Translation is reserved. ( iii ) PEEFACE. The ' Larger Dictionary of the Bible ' is mainly intended for Divines and Scholars, and the ' Concise Dictionary ' for Families and Students ; but a smaller and more elementary work is needed for the use of Schools, Sunday School Teachers, and Young Persons in general. I have accordingly drawn up from the former works this ' Smaller Dictionary ' myself, and have spared no pains to adapt it to the wants of the persons for whom it is intended. It contains such an account of Biblical anti- quities, biography, geography, and natural history as a young person is likely to require in the study of the Bible. Judgment is needed in knowing what subjects ought to be omitted as well as inserted in such a work as the present ; but it is confidently believed that those for whom the book is chiefly designed will not turn in vain for the information of which they are in quest. It contains every name in the Bible and Apocrypha respecting which anything can be said ; it gives an account of each of the books of the Bible ; it explains the civil and religious institu- tions, the manners and customs of the Jews, as well as of the various nations mentioned or alluded to in Scripture; in fine, it seeks to render the same service to the study of the Bible as the Smaller Classical Dictionaries have done for the study of the Greek and Eoman Classics in schools. In addition to the woodcuts inserted in the text, thirty-one separate views are given of some of the most important places mentioned in the Bible ; and several maps are added to illustrate the articles relating to geography and history. WM. SMITH. London^ May 19th, 1866. Sm. D. B. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. THE DEAD SEA .... 2. ANTIOCH To face page • 33 3. ASSOS 51 4. ATHENS RESTORED . . .53 5. BETHANY 6. BETHLEHEM .... 73 7 . BOZRAH .... . . 7q 8. CAESARE.\ . . . SI 9. COLOSSAE . ... 103 10 CORINTH 105 11. DAMASCUS 11.5 12 WILDERNESS OF ENGEDI 159 13. PLAIN OF ESDRAELON . 165 14. GADARA . . . 183 15. SEA OF GENNESARET OR 16. HEBRON GALILEE 189 207 17. JERUSALEM AND MOUNT 18. JEZREEL OF OLIVES .... 251 ?fi5 19. LAODICEA . . . 293 20. CHAIN OF LEBANON ?«>7 21. LYDDA 313 22. NAZARETH 371 23. PERGAMOS 425 24. ROME RESTORED . 477 25. SAMARIA 487 26. SARDIS AND MOUNT TMOl.US 405 27. SHECHEM 513 28. THE TABERNACLE RESTORED 54 7 29. MOUNT TABOR .... 551 30. TARSUS 555 31. THYATIRA • • • • n 567 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. SEPARATE MAPS. '12. THE HOLY LAND, TO ILLUSTRATE THE NEW TESTA- MENT To face page Ihl 33. THE HOLY LAND DIVIDED AMONG THE TWELVE TRIBES „ 401 34. ST. PAUL'S FIRST AND SECOND MISSIONARY JOURNIES . „ 415 35. ST. PAUL'S THIRD MISSIONARY JOURNEY „ 410 36. SOLOMON'S DOMINIONS, THE KINGDOMS OF JUDAH AND ISRAEL, AND THE LANDS OF THE CAPTIVITIES ... „ 533 37. WANDERINGS OF THE ISRAELITES „ 599 MAPS INSERTED IN THE TEXT. 38. PLAN OF JERUSALEM On page 249 39. MAP OF PALESTINE, TO ILLUSTRATE THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE COUNTRY ,, 399 A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE, AARON AARON A'ARON, the son of Amram and Jochebed, and the elder brother of Moses and Miriam (Num. xxvi. 59, xxxiii. 39). He was a Levite, and is first mentioned in Ex. iv. 14, as one who could " speak well." He was appointed by Jehovah to be the Interpreter and "Mouth" (Ex. iv. 16) of his brother Moses, who was "slow of speech ; " and accordingly he was not only the organ of communication with the Israelites and with Pharaoh (Ex.iv. 30, vii. 2), but also the actual instrument of working most of the miracles of the Exodus. (See Ex. vii. 19, &c.) Thus on the way to Mount Sinai, during the battle with Amalek, Aaron is mentioned with Hur, as staying up the weary hands of Moses, when they were lifted up for the victory of Israel (not in prayer, as is sometimes ex- plained, but) to bear the rod of God (see Ex. xvii. 9). Through all this period he is men- tioned as dependent upon his brother, and deriving all his authority from him. The contrast between them is even more strongly marked on the arrival at Sinai. Moses at once acts as the mediator (Gal. iii. 19) for the people, to come near to God for them, and to speak His words to them. Aaron only approaches with Nadab, and Abihu, and the seventy elders of Israel, by special command, near enough to see God's glory, but not so as to enter His immediate presence. Left then, on Moses' departure, to guide the people, Aaron is tried for a moment on his own re- sponsibility, and he fails from a weak in- ability to withstand the demand of the people for visible " gods to go before them." Pos- sibly it seemed to him prudent to make an image of Jehovah, in the well-known form of Egyptian idolatry (Apis or Mnevis), rather than to risk the total alienation of the people to false gods ; and his weakness was rewarded by seeing a " feast to the Lord" (Ex.xxxii. 5) degraded to the lowest form of heathenish Sm. D. H. sensuality, and knowing, from Moses' words and deeds, that tlie covenant with the Lord was utterly broken. He repented of his sin, and Moses gained forgiveness for him (Deut. ix. 20,). — Aaron was now conse- crated by Moses to the new office of the high-priesthood. The order of God for the consecration is found in Ex. xxix., and the record of its execution in Lev. viii. The solemnity of the office, and its entire depend- ence for sanctity on the ordinance of God. were vindicated by the death of his sons, Nadab and Abihu, for "offering strange fire " on the altar (Lev. x. 1, 2). From this time the history of Aaron is almost entirely that of the priesthood, and its chief feature is the great rebellion of Korah and the Levites against his sacerdotal dignity, united with that of Dathan and Abiram and the Reuben- ites against the temporal authority of Moses [Korah]. — The only occasion on which his In- dividual character is seen is one of presumption. The murmuring of Aaron and Miriam against Moses clearly proceeded from their trust, the one in his priesthood, the other in her pro- phetic inspiration, as equal commissions from God (Num. xii. 2). On all other occasions he is spoken of as acting with Moses in the guidance of the people. Leaning as he seems to have done wholly on him, it is not strange that he should have shared his sin at Meri- bah, and its punishment [Moses] (Num. xx. 10-12). Aaron's death seems to have followed very speedily. It took place on Mount Hor, after the transference of his robes and office to Eleazar (Num. xx. 28). This mount is still called the "Mountain of Aaron." [HoR.] — The wife of Aaron was Elisheba (Ex. vi. 23) ; and the two sons who survived him, Eleazar and Ithamar. The high-priesthood descended to the former, and to his descend- ants until the time of Eli, who, although of the house of Ithamar, received the high- B AB ABIATHAR priesthood, and transmitted it to his children ; with them it continued till the accession of Solomon, who took it from Ahiathar, and restored it to Zadok (of the house of Eleazar) [Abiathar]. AB [father), an element in the composi- tion of many proper names, of which Abba is a Chaldaic form, the syllable affixed giving the emphatic force of the definite article. Applied to God by Jesus Christ (Mark xiv. 36), and by St. Paul (Rom. viii. 15 ; Gal. iv. 6). AB. [JMONTHS.] ABAD'DON. [Apollyon.] AB'ANA, one of the " rivers of Damascus" (2 K. V. 12). The Barada and the Aivaj are now the chief streams of Damascus, the former representing the Abana and the latter the Pharpar of the text, The Barada rises in the Antilibanus, at about 23 miles from the city, after flowing through which it runs across the plain, till it loses itself in the lake or marsh Bahret el-Kibltyeh. AB'ARIM, a mountain or range of high- lands on the east of the Jordan, in the land of Moab, facing Jericho, and forming the eastern wall of the Jordan valley at that part. Its most elevated spot was " the Mount Nebo, 'head* of 'the' Pisgah," from which Moses viewed the Promised Land before his death. These mountains are mentioned in Num. xxvii. 12, xxxiii. 47, 48, and Deut. xxxii. 49. AB'BA [Ab]. AB'DON. 1. A judge of Israel (Judg. xii. 13, 15), perhaps the same person as Bedan in 1 Sam. xii. 11. — 2. Son of Micah, a contem- porary of Josiah (2 Chr. xxxiv. 20), called AcHBOR in 2 K. xxii. 12.— 3. A city in the tribe of Asher, given to the Gershonites (Josh. xxi. 30; 1 Chr. vi. 74). ABED'NEGO (i. e. servant of Nego, per- haps the same as Ncho), the Chaldaean name given to Azariah, one of the three friends of Daniel, miraculously saved from the fiery furnace (Dan. iii.). A'BEL, the name of several places in Palestine, probably signifies a meadow. 1. A'bel-beth-ma'achah, » town of some im- portance (2 Sam. XX. 19), in the extreme N. of Palestine, which fell an early prey to the invading kings of Syria (1 K. xv. 20) and .Assyria (2 K. xv. 29). In the parallel pass- age, 2 Chr. xvi. 4, the name is changed to Abel-maim, " Abel on the waters." It is also called simply Abel (2 Sam. xx. 14, 18). — 2. A'bel-mizra'im, i. e. the mourning of Egypt, the name given by the Canaanites to the floor of Atad, at which Joseph, hitf bro- thers, and the Egyptians made their mouvn- inj for Jacob (Gen. I. 11). It was beyond (on the east of) Jordan. [Atad.] — 3.,A'bel- shit'tim, " the meadow of the acacias," in the " plains " of Moab ; on the low level of the Jordan valley. Here — their last rest- ing-place befoi-e crossing the Jordan — Israel " pitclxe-d from Bethjesitnoth unto A. Shittim " (Num. xxxiii. 49). The place is most fre- quently mentioned by its shorter name of Shittim. [Shit-'Im.] — 4. A'bel-me'holah (" meadow of the dance "), in the N. part of the Jordan valley (1 K. iv. 12), to which the routed Bedouin host fled from Gideon (Judg. vii. 22). Here Elisha was found at his plough by Elijah returning up the valley from Horeb (1 K. xix. 16-19). A'BEL (i. e. breath, vapour, transitoriness, probably so called from the shortness of his life), the second son of Adam, murdered by his brother Cain (Gen. iv. 1-16). Jehovah showed respect for Abel's offering, but not for that of Cain, because, according to the Epistle to the Hebrews (xi. 4), Abel "by faith offered a more excellent sacrifice than Cain." The expression " sin," i. e. sin- offering "lieth at the door" (Gen. iv. 7), seems to imply that the need of sacrifices of blood to obtain forgiveness was already re- vealed. Our Lord spoke of Abel as the first martyr (Matt, xxiii. 35) ; so did the early church subsequently. The traditional site of his murder and his grave are pointed out near Damascus. A'BI, mother of king Hezekiah (2 K. xviii. 2), written Abijah in 2 Chr. xxix. 1. ABI'AH, second son of Samuel, whom to- gether with his eldest son Joel he made judge in Beersheba (1 Sam. viii. 2 ; 1 Chr* vi. 28). ABI-AL'BON. [Abiel.] ABI'ATHAR, high-priest and fourth in descent from Eli, who was of the line of Ithamar, the younger son of Aaron. Abia- thar was the only one of all the sons of Ahimelech the high-priest who escaped the slaughter inflicted upon his father's house by Saul, in revenge for his having inquired of the Lord for David, and given him the shew- bread to eat (1 Sam. xxii.). Abiatbar having become high-priest fled to David, and was thus enabled to inquire of the Lord for him (1 Sam. xxiii. 9, xxx. 7 ; 2 Sam. ii. 1, v. 19, &c.). He adhered to David in his wander- ings while pursued by Saul ; he was with him while he reigned in Hebron (2 Sam. ii. 1-3), the city of the house of Aaron (Josh. xxi. 10-13) ; he cai-ried the ark ]>efore him when David brought it up to Jerusalem (1 Chr. XV. 11 ; 1 K. ii. 26) ; he continued faithful to him in Absalom's rebellion ^2 Sam. XV. 24, 29, 35, 36, xvii. 15-17, xix. 11); and " was afSicted in all wherein David was ABIB ABIMELECH afflicted." When, however, Adonijah set himself up for David's successor on the throne, in opposition to Solomon, Abiathar sided with him, while Zadok was on Solo- mon's side. For this Abiathar was deprived of the high-priesthood, and we ai-e told that "Zadok the priest did the king put in the room of Abiathar" (1 K. ii. 27, 35), thus fulfilling the prophecy of 1 Sam. ii. 30. — Zadok was descended from Eleazar, the elder son of Aaron. He is first mentioned in 1 Chr. xii. 28, and is said to have joined David while he reigned in Hebi-on. From this time we read, both in the books of Samuel and Chro- nicles, of " Zadok and Abiathar the priests." There were, henceforth, two high-priests in the reign of David, and till the deposition of Abiathar by Solomon, when Zadok became the sole high-priest. In Mark ii. 26, we find Abiathar spoken of as the high-priest in whose time David ate the shew-bread : this may perhaps be accounted for, if Abiathar was the person who persuaded his father to allow David to have the bread, and if the loaves were given by him with his own hand to David, A'BIB. [Months.] A'BIEL. 1. Father of Kish, and conse- quently grandfather of Saul (1 Sam. ix. 1), as well as of Abner, Saul's commander-in- chief (1 Sam. xiv. 51). This is seen by the following table : — Abiel I I Kish I Saul I Ner Abner. — 2. One of David's mighty men (1 Chr. xi. 32). In 2 Sam. xxiii. 31 he is called Abi-al- BON. ABI-E'ZER, eldest son of Gilead, and de- scendant of Manasseh (Josh. xvii. 2 ; 1 Chr. vii. 18 ; Num. xxvi. 30, w'here the name is given in the contracted form Jeezer). He was the ancestor of the great judge Gideon. [Gideon.] The name also occurs in Judg. vi. 34, viii. 2 ; and in an adjectival form ("the Abiezrite ") in Judg. vi. 11, 24, viii. 32. ABIGAIL. 1. The beautiful wife of Nabal, a wealthy owner of goats and sheep in Carmel. When David's messengers were slighted by Nabal, Abigail supplied David and his fol- lowers with provisions, and succeeded in appeasing his anger. Ten days after this Nabal died, and David sent for Abigail and made l\er his wife (1 Sam. xxv. 14, &c.). By her he had a son, called Chileab in 2 Sam. iii. 3 ; but Daniel in 1 Chr, iii, 1. — 2. A «ister of David, married to Jether the Ish- mae/ite, and mother, by him, of Amasa (1 Chr. ii. 17). The statement in 2 Sam. xvii. 25 that the mother of Amasa was an Israelite is doubtless a transcriber's error, ABl'HU, the second son (Num. iii. 2) of Aaron by Elisheba (Ex. vi. 23). Being, to- gether with his elder brother Nadab. guilty of offering strange fire to the Lord, he was consumed by fire from heaven [Lev. x. 1, 2). ABI'JAH or ABI'JAM. 1. Son and suc- cessor of Rehoboam on the throne of Judah (1 K. xiv. 31 ; 2 Chr. xii. 16). He is called Abijah in Chronicles, Abijaji in Kings, He began to reign b.c. 959, and reigned three years. He endeavoured to recover the king- dom of the Ten Tribes, and made war on Jeroboam. He was successful in battle, and took several of the cities of Israel. We are told that he walked in all the sins of Reho- boam (idolatry and its attendant immorali- ties, 1 K, xiv. 23, 24), and that his heart " was not perfect before God, as the heart of David his father." He was succeeded by Asa. — 2. Son of Jeroboam I. king of Israel, died in his childhood, just after Jeroboam's wife had been sent in disguise to seek help for him, in his sickness, from the prophet Abijah (1 K, xiv.)— 3. A descendant of Eleazar, who gave his name to the eighth of the twenty-four courses into which the priests were divided by David (1 Chr. xxiv. 10; 2 Chr. viii. 14; Neh. xii. 4, 17). To the course of Abijah or Abia belonged Zacharias the father of John the Baptist (Luke i. 5). ABI'JAM. [Abijah, No. 1.] AB'ILA. [Abilene.] ABILE'NE (Luke iii. 1), a tetrarchy of which the capital was Abila, a city situated on the eastern slope of Antilibanus, in a dis- trict fertilised by the river Barada. Its name probably arose from the green luxuriance of its situation, " Abel " perhaps denoting " a grassy meadow." [See p. 2.] The name, thus derived, is quite sufficient to account for the traditions of the death of Abel, which are associated with the spot, and which are localised by the tomb called J^ebi Habil, on a height above the ruins of the city. The city was 18 miles from Damascus, and stood in a remarkable gorge called Suk Wady Barada, where the river breaks down through the mountain towards the plain of Damascus. ABIM'ELECH {father of the king), the name of several Philistine kings, was pro- bably a cormnon title of these kings, like that of Pharaoh among the Egyptians, and that of Caesar and Augustus among the Romans. Hence in the title of Ps. xxxiv. the name of Abimelech is given to the king, who is called Achish in 1 Sam. xxi. 11. — 1. A PhilistinCj £ 2 ABIRAM ABNER king of Gei'ar (Gen. xx., xxi.), who, exercis- ing the right claimed bj^ Eastern princes, of collecting all the beautiful women of their dominions into their harem (Gen. xii. 15 ;■ Esth. ii. 3), sent for and took Sarah. A similar account is given of Abraham's con- duct on this occasion, to that of his behaviour towards Pharaoh [Abraham]. — 2. Another king of Gerar in the time of Isaac, of whom a similar narrative is recorded in relation to Rebekah (Gen. xxvi. 1, &c.). — 3. Son of the judge Gideon by his Shechemite concubine (Judg. viii. 31). After his father's death he murdered all his brethren, 70 in number, with the exception of Jotham the j'oungest, who concealed himself; and he then per- suaded the Shechemites to elect him king. Shechem now became an independent state, and threw oif the yoke of the conquering Israelites. When Jotham heard that Abime- lech was made king, he addressed to the Shechemites his fable of the trees choosing a king (Judg. ix. 1). After Abimelech had reigned three years, the citizens of Shechem lebelled. He was absent at the time, but he returned and quelled the insurrection. Shortly after he stormed and took Thebez, but was struck on the head by a woman with the fragment of a mill-stone (comp. 2 Sam. xi. 21) ; and lest he should be said to have died by a woman, he bade his armour-bearer slay him. Thus God avenged the murder of his brethren, and fulfilled the curse of Jotham. ABI'RAM. 1. A Reubenite, son of Eliab, who with Dathan and On, men of the same tribe, and Ivor ah a Levite, organised a con- spiracy against Moses and Aaron (Num. xvi.). [For details, see Korah.] — 2. Eldest son of iliel, the Bethelite, who died when his father laid the foundations of Jericho (1 K. xvi. 34), and thus accomplished the first part of the curse of Joshua (Josh. vi. 26). AB'ISHAG, a beautiful Shunammite, taken into David's harem to comfort hiin in his ex- treme old age (1 K. i. 1-4). After David's death Adonijah induced Bathsheba, the queen-mother, to ask Solomon to give him Abishag in marriage ; but this imprudent petition cost Adonijah his life (1 K. ii. 13, &c.). [Adonijah.] ABISHA'I, the eldest of the three sons of Zeruiah, David's yister, and brother to Joab and Asahel (1 Chr. ii. 16). Like his two brothers he was the devoted follower of David. He was his companion in the desperate night expedition to the camp of Saul (1 Sam. xxvi. 6-9). On the outbreak of Absalom's rebellion he remained true to the king, and commanded a third part of the army in the decisive battle against Absalom. He riiscucd David from the hands of a gigantic Philistine, Ishbi-benob (2 Sam. xxi. 17). His personal prowess on this, as on another occa- sion, when he fought single-handed against three hundred, won for him a place as captain of the second three of David's mighty meu (2 Sam. xxiii. 18 ; 1 Chr. xi. 20). ABISHU'A, son of Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, and father of Bukki, in the genealogy of the high-priests (1 Chr. vi. 4, 5, 50, 51 ; Ezr. vii. 4, 5). ABLUTION. [Purification.] AB'NER, son of Ner, who was the brother of Kish (1 Chr. ix. 36), the father of Saul. Abner, therefore, was Saul's first cousin [see Table, p. 3], and was made by him com- mander-in-chief of his army (1 Sam. xiv. 51, xvii. 57, xxvi. 3-14). After the death of Saul David was proclaimed king of Judah in Hebron ; and some time subsequently Abner proclaimed Ishbosheth, Saul's son, as king of Israel, at Mahanaim beyond Jordan. War soon broke out between the two rival kings, and " a very sore battle " was fought at Gibeon between the men of Israel under Abner, and the men of Judah under Joab, son of Zeruiah, David's sister (1 Chr. ii. 16). When the army of Ishbosheth was defeated, Joab's youngest brother Asahel pursued Abner, and in spite of warning refused to leave him, so that Abner in self-defence was forced to kill him. After this the war con- tinued, success inclining more and more to the side of David, till at last the imprudence of Ishbosheth deprived him of the counsels and generalship of the hero who was in truth the only support of his tottering throne. Abner had married Rizpah, Saul's concubine, and this, according to the views of Oriental courts, might be so interpreted as to imply a design upon the throne. Rightly or wrongly, Ishbosheth so understood it, and he even ventured to reproach Abner with it. Abner, incensed at his ingratitude, opened negotia- tions with David, by whom he was most favourably received at Hebron. He then undertook to procure his recognition through- out Israel ; but after leaving his presence for the purpose was enticed back by Joab, and treacherously murdered by him and his bro- ther Abishai, at the gate of the city, partly no doubt from fear lest so distinguished a convert to their cause should gain too high a place in David's favour, but ostensibly in re- taliation for the death of Asand. This mur- der caused the greatest sorrow and indigna- tion to David ; but as the assassins were too powerful to be punished, he contented him- self with showing every public token of respect to Abner's memory, by following the bier and pouring forth a simple dirge ovei the slain (2 Sam. iii. 33, 34). ABOMINATION ABRAHAM ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION, men- tioned by our Saviour as a sign of the ap- proaching destruction of Jerusalem, with reference to Dan. ix. 27, xi. 31, xii. 11. The Jews considered the prophecy of Daniel as fulfilled in the profanation of the Temple under Antiochus Epiphanes, when the Israel- ites themselves erected an idolatrous altar upon the sacred altar, and offered sacrifice thereon : this altar is described as " an abo- mination of desolation" (1 Mace. i. 54, vi. 7). The prophecy however referred ultimately to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, and consequently the " abomination " must describe some occurrence connected with that event. It appears most probable that the profanities of the Zealots constituted the abomination, which was the sign of impend- ing ruin. The introduction of the Roman standards into the Temple, regarded by many as the " desolation," took place after the de- struction of the city. A'BRAHAM or A'BRAM, as his name appears in the earlier portion of the history, was the son of Terah, and founder of the great Hebrew nation. His family, a branch of the descendants of Shem, was settled in Ur of the Chaldees, beyond the Euphrates. Terah had two other sons, Nahor and Haran. Haran died before his father in Ur of the Chaldees, leaving a son Lot ; and Terah, taking with him Abram, with Sarai his wife, and his grandson Lot, emigrated to Haran in Mesopotamia, where he died. On the death of his father, Abram, then in the 75th year of his age, with Sarai and Lot, pursued his course to the land of Canaan, whither he was directed by divine command (Gen. xii. 5), when he received the general promise that he should become the founder of a great nation, and that all the families of the earth should be blessed in him. He passed through the heart of the country by the great highway to Shechem, and pitched his tent beneath the tei-ebinth of Moreh (Gen. xii. 6). Here he received in vision from Jehovah the further revelation that this was the land which his descendants should inherit (xii. 7). The next halting-place of the wanderer was on a mountain between Bethel and Ai (Gen. xii. 8). But the country was suffering from famine, and Abram, finding neither pasture for his cattle nor food for his household, journeyed still southwards to the rich corn-lands of Egypt. There, fearing that the great beauty of Sarai might tempt the powerful monarch of Egypt and expose his own life to peril, he arranged that Sarai should represent herself as his sister, which her actual relationship t? him, as probably the daughter of his bro- ther Haran, allowed her to do with some semblance of truth. But her beauty was reported to the king, and she was taken into the royal harem. The deception was discovered, and Pharaoh with some indigna- tion dismissed him from the country (xii. 10-20). Abram left Egypt with great pos- sessions, and, accompanied by Lot, returned by the south of Palestine to his former en- campment between Bethel and Ai. The in- creased wealth of the two kinsmen was the ultimate cause of their separation. The soil was not fertile enough to support them both : their herdsmen quarrelled ; and, to avoid dissensions in a country where they were surrounded by enemies, Abram proposed that each should follow his own fortune. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan, rich and Avell-watered as the garden of Jehovah ; while Abram quitted the hill-fastness between Bethel and Ai, and pitched his tent among the oak-groves of Mamre, close to Hebron (Gen, xiii.). The chiefs of the tribes who peopled the plain of the Jordan had been subdued in a previous irruption of northern warriors, and for twelve years had been the tributaries of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. Their re- bellion brought down upon Palestine and the neighbouring countries a fresh flood of in- vaders from the north-east, who joined battle with the revolted chieftains in the vale of Siddim. The king of Sodom and his con- federates were defeated, their cities plun- dered, and a host of captives accompanied the victorious army of Chedorlaomer. Among them were Lot and his family. Abram, then confederate with Mamre the Amorite and his brethren, heard the tidings from a fugitive, and hastily arming his trusty slaves, started in pursuit. He followed the track of the conquerors along the Jordan vallej', came up with them by Dan, and in a night-attack completely routed their host, and checked for a time the stream of northern immi ^ration. The captives and plunder were all re» overed, and Abram was greeted on his return by the king of Sodom, and by Melchizedek k lug of Salem, priest of the Most High God, who mysteriously appears upon the scene to bless the patriarch, and receive from him a tenth of the spoil (Gen. xiv.). After this, the thrice-repeated promise that his descendants should become a mighty nation and possess the land in which he was a stranger, was confirmed with all the solemnity of a religious ceremony (Gen. xv.). Ten years had passed since, in obedience to the divine command, he had left his father's house, and the fulfil- ment of the promise was apparently more distant than at first. At the suggestion of Sarai, who despaired of having children of her own, he took as his concubine Hagar, ABRAHAM her Egyptian maid, who bare him Ishmael in the 86th year of his age (Gen. xvi,). [Hagar ; Ishmael.] But this was not the accomplish- ment of the promise. Thirteen years elapsed, during which Abram still dwelt in Hebron, when the last step in the revelation was made, that the son of Sarai, and not Ishmael, should inherit both the temporal and spiritual blessings. The covenant was renewed, and the rite of circumcision established as its sign. This most important crisis in Abram's life is marked by the significant change oi' his name to Abraham, " father of a multi- tude ; " while his wife's from Sarai became Sarah. In his 99th year Abraham was cir- cumcised, in accordance with the divine com- mand, together with Ishmael and all the males of his household, as well the slaves born in his house as those purchased from the foreigner (Gen. xvii.). The promise that Sarah should have a son was repeated in the remarkable scene desircbed in ch. xviii. Three men stood before Abraham as he sat in his tent door in the heat of the day. The patriarch, with true Eastern hospitality, wel- comed the strangers, and bade them rest and refresh themselves. The meal ended, they foi-etold the birth of Isaac and went on their way to Sodom. Abraham accompanied them, and is i-epresented as an interlocutor in a dialogue with Jehovah, in which he pleaded in vain to avert the vengeance threatened to the devoted cities of the plain (xviii. 17-33). — In remarkable contrast with Abraham's firm faith with regard to the magnificent fortunes of his posterity stands the incident which occurred during his temporary resi- dence among the Philistines in Gerar, whither he had, for some cause, removed after the destruction of Sodom. Sarah's beauty won the admiration of Abimelech, the king of the country ; the temporizing policy of Abraham prodiiced the same results as before ; and the narrative of ch. xx. is nearly a repetition of that in ch. xii. 11-20. Abimelech's dignified i-ebuke taught him that he was not alone in recognising a God of justice.— At length Isaac, the long -looked for child, was born. His birth was welcomed by all the rejoicings M'hich could greet the advent of one whose future was of such rich promise. Sarah's jealousy, aroused by the mockery of Ishmael at the "great banquet" which Abraham made to celebrate the weaning of her son (Gen. xxi. 9), demanded that, with his mother Hagar, he should be driven out (Gen. xxi. 10). The patriarch reluctantly con- sented, consoled by the fresh promise that Ishmael too should become a great nation. But the severest trial of his faith was yet to come. For a long period the history is al- most silent. At length he receives the strange command to take Isaac, his only son, and offer him for a burnt-offering at an appointed place. Such a bidding, in direct opposition to the promptings of nature and the divine mandate against the shedding of human blood, Abraham hesitated not to obey. His faith, hitherto unshaken, supported him in this final trial, " accounting that God was able to raise up his son, even from the dead, from whence also he received him in a figure " (Heb. xi. 19). The sacrifice was stayed by the angel of Jehovah, the promise of spiritual blessing for the first time repeated, and Abraham with his son returned to Beersheba, and for a time dwelt there (Gen. xxii.). But we find him after a few years in his original residence at Hebron, for there Sarah died (Gen. xxiii. 2), and was buried in the cave of Machpelah, which Abraham purchased of Ephron the Hittite, for the exorbitant price of 400 shekels of silver. The mosque at Hebron is believed to stand upon the site of the sepulchral cave. — The remaining years of Abraham's life are marked by but few inci- dents. In his advanced age he commissioned the faithful steward of his house to seek a wife for Isaac from the family of his brother Nahor, binding him by the most solemn oath not to contract an alliance with the daughters of the degraded Canaanites among whom he dwelt (Gen. xxiv.). After Isaac's marriage with Rebecca, and his removal to Lahai-roi, Abraham took to wife Keturah, by whom he had six children, Zimran, JoKshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbok, and Shuah, who became the ancestors of nomadic tribes inhabiting the countries south and south-east of Palestine. Keturah occupied a position inferior to that of a legitimate wife. Her children, like Ishmael, were dismissed with presents, and settled in the East country during Abraham's lifetime, and Isaac was left sole heir of his father's wealth. — Abraham lived to see the gradual accomplishment of the promise in the birth of his grandchildren Jacob and Esau, and witnessed their growth to man- hood (Gen. XXV. 26). At the goodly age of 175 he was "gathered to his people," and laid beside Sarah in the tomb of Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 7-10). — From the intimate communion which Abraham held with the Almighty, he is dis- tinguished by the high title of " the ' friend ' of God" (2 Chr. xx. 7 ; Is. xli. 8; Jam. ii. 23); and El-Klialil, "the friend," is the appellation by which he is familiarly known in the traditions of the Arabs, who have given the same name to Hebron, the place of his residence. AB'SALOM [father of peace), third son of ABSALOM ACELDAMA David by Maacliah, daughter of Talmai king of Gesliur, a Syrian district adjoining the N.E. frontier of the Holy Land. Absalom had a sister, Tamar, who was violated by her half-brother Amnon, David's eldest son by Ahinoam the Jezreelitess. The natural avenger of such an outrage would be Tamar's full brother Absalom. He brooded over the wrong for two years, and then invited all the princes to a sheep-shearing feast at his estate in Baal-hazor, on the borders of Ephraim and Benjamin. Here he ordered his servants to murder Amnon, and then fled for safety to his grandfather's court at Geshur, where he remained for three years. At the end of that time he was brought back by an artifice of Joab, who sent a woman of Tekoah to entreat the king's interference in an imaginary case similar to Absalom's. David, however, would not see Absalom for two more years ; but at length Joab brought about a recon- ciliation. Absalom now began at once to prepare for rebellion, urged to it partly by his own restless wickedness, partly perhaps by the fear lest Bathsheba's child should sup- plant him in the succession, to which he would feel himself entitled as being now David's eldest surviving son. Absalom tried to supplant his father by courting popularity, standing in the gate, conversing with every suitor, and lamenting the difficulty which he would find in getting a hearing. He also maintained a splendid retinue (2 Sam. xv. 1), and was admired for his personal beauty and the luxuriant growth of his hair, on grounds similar to those which had made Saul accept- able (1 Sam. X. 23). It is probable too that the gi-eat tribe of Judah had taken some offence at David's government, perhaps from finding themselves completely merged in one united Israel. But whatever the causes may have been, Absalom raised the standard of revolt at Hebron, the old capital of Judah, now supplanted by Jerusalem. The revolt was at first completely successful ; David fled from his capital over the Jordan to Mahanaim in Gilead. Absalom occupied Jerusalem, and by the advice of Ahithophel took possession of David's harem, in which he had left ten concubines. This was considered to imply a formal assumption of all his father's rdyal rights (comp. the conduct of Adonijah, 1 K. ii. 13 fF.), and was also a fulfilment of Nathan's prophecy (2 Sam. xii. 11.) But David had left friends who watched over his interests. The vigorous counsels of Ahi- thophel were afterwards rejected thi'ough the crafty advice of Hushai, who insinuated him- self into .Absalom's confidence to work his ruin, and Ahithophel himself, seeing his ambitious hopes frustrated, went home to Giloh, and committed suicide. At lust, afler being solemnly anointed king at Jerusalem (xix. 10), Absalom crossed the Jordan to attack his father, who by this time had rallied round him a considerable force, whereas had Ahithophel's advice been followed, he would probably have been crushed at once. A decisive battle was fought in Gilead, in the wood of Ephraim. Here Absalom's forces were totally defeated, and as he himself was escaping, his long hair was entangled in the branches of a terebinth, where he was left hanging while the mule on which he was riding ran away from under him. He was despatched by Joab in spite of the prohibition of David, who, loving him to the last, had desii-ed that his life might be spared. He was buried in a great pit in the forest, and the conquerors threw stones over his grave, an old proof of bitter hostility (Josh. vii. 26). AC'CAD, one of the cities in the land of Shinar (Gen. x. 10). Its position is quite uncertain. AC'CHO (the Ptolemais of the Maccabees and N.T.), now called Acca, or more usually by Europeans, St. Jean d'Acre, the most im- portant sea-port town on the Syrian coast, about 30 miles S. of Tyre. It was situated on a slightly projecting headland, at the northern extremity of that spacious bay, which is formed by the bold promontory of Carmel on the opposite side. In the division of Canaan among the tribes, Accho fell to the lot of Asher, but was never wrested from its original inhabitants (Judg. i. 31) ; and hence it is reckoned by the classical writers among the cities of Phoenicia. No further mention is made of it in the O. T. history, but it rose to importance after the dismemberment of the Macedonian empire. Along with the rest of Phoenicia it fell to the lot of Egypt, and was named Ptolemais, after one of the Ptolemies, probably Soter. It was afterwards taken by Antiochus the Great, and attached to his kingdom. The only notice of it in the N. T. is in connexion with St. Paul's passage from Tyre to Caesarea (Acts xxi. 7). ACEL'DAMA, " the field of blood ; " the name given by the Jews of Jerusalem to a field near Jerusalem purchased by Judas with the mon*>y which he received for the betrayal of Christ, and so called from his violent death therein (Acts i. 19). This is apparently at variance with the account of St. Matthew (xxvii. 8), according to which the "field of blood" was purchased by Ihe priests with the 30 pieces of silver, after they had been cast down by Judas, as a burial- place for strangers, the locality being well known at the time as " the field of the Potter.'' ACHAIA ACTS OF THE APOSTLES And accordingly ecclesiastical tradition ap- pears, from the earliest times, to have pointed out two distinct spots as referred to in the two accounts. The " field of hlood " is now shown on the steep southern face of the valley or ravine of Hinnoni. It was believed in the middle ages that the soil of this place had the power of very rapidly consuming bodies buried in it, and in consequence either of this, or of the sanctity of the spot, great quantities of the earth were taken away ; amongst others by the Pisan Crusaders in 1218 for their Campo Santo at Pisa, and by the Empress Helena for that at Rome. ACHA'IA signifies, in the N. T., a Roman province, which included the whole of the Peloponnesus and the greater part of Hellas proper with the adjacent islands. This pro- vince, with that of Macedonia, comprehended the whole of Greece : hence Achaia and Macedonia are frequently mentioned together in the N. T. to indicate all Greece (Acts xviii. 12, xix. 21 ; Rom. xv. 26, xvi. 5 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 15 ; 2 Cor. ii. 1, ix. 2, xi. 10 ; 1 Thess. i. 7, 8). In the time of the em- peror Claudius, it was governed by. a Pro- consul, translated in the A. V. " deputy " of Achaia (Acts xviii. 12). A'CHAN (trouble?-) an Israelite of the tribe of Judah, who, when Jericho and all that it contained were accursed and devoted to de- struction, secreted a portion of the spoil in his tent. For this sin Jehovah punished Israel by their defeat in the attack upon Ai. "When Achan confessed his guilt, and the booty was discovered, he was stoned to death with his whole family by the people in a valley situated between Ai and Jericho, and their remains, together with his property, were burnt (Josh. vii. 16-22). From this event the valley received the name of Achor (i.e. trouble). [Achor]. A'CHISH, a Philistine king of Gath, who in the title to the 34th Psalm is called Abi- melech. David twice found a refuge with him when he fled from Saul. On the first occasion, being recognised by the servants of Achish as one celebrated for his victories over the Philistines, he was alarmed for his safety, and feigned madness (1 Sam. xxi. 10-13). [David.] From Achish he fled to the cave of Adullam. On a second occasion David fled to Achish with 600 men (1 Sam. xxvii. 2), and remained at Gath a year and four months. ACH'METHA. [Ecbatana.] A'CHOR, VALLEY OF, or "valley of trouble," the spot at which Achan, the "troubler of Israel," was stoned (Josh. vii. 24, 26). On the N. boundary of Judah (xv. 7 ; also Is. Ixv. 10 ; Hos. ii. 15). ACH'SAH, daughter of Caleb. Her father promised her in marriage to whoever should take Debir. Othniel, her father's younger brother, took that city, and accordingly re- ceived the hand of Achsah as his reward. Caleb, at his daughter's request, added to her dowry the upper and lower springs, which she had pleaded for as peculiarly suit- able to her inheritance in a south country (Josh. XV. 15-19; Judg. i. 11-15). ACH'SHAPH, a city within the territory of Asher, named between Beten and Alamme- lech (Josh. xix. 25) ; originally the seat of a Canaanite king (xi. 1, xii. 20). ACH'ZIB. 1. A city in the lowlands of Judah, named with Keilah and Mareshah (Josh. XV, 44 ; Mic. i. 14). It is probably the same with Chezib and Chozeba, which see. — 2. A town belonging to Asher (Josh. xix. 29), from which the Canaanites were not expelled (Judg. i. 31) ; afterwards Ecdippa. It is now es-Zib, on the sea-shore, 2 h. 20 m. N. of Acre. ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, a second treatise by the author of the third Gospel, traditionally known as Luke. The identity of the writer of both books is strongly shown by their great similarity in style and idiom, and the usage of particular words and com- pound forms. It is, at first sight, somewhat surprising that notices of the author are wanting, generally, in the Epistles of St. Paul, whom he must have accompanied for some years on his travels. But no Epistles were, strictly speaking, written by St. Paul while our writer was in his company, before his Roman imprisonment ; for he does not seem to have joined him at Corinth (Acts xviii.), where the two Epistles to the Thessa- lonians were written, nor to have been with him at Ephesus (ch. xix.), whence, perhaps, the Epistle to the Galatians was written ; nor again to have wintered with him at Corinth (ch. xx. 3) at the time of his writing the Epistle to the Romans, and, perhaps, that to the Galatians. — The book commences with an inscription to one Theophilus, who was probably a man of birth and station. But its design must not be supposed to be limited to the edification of Theophilus, whose name is prefixed only, as was customary then as now, by way of dedication. The readers were evidently intended to be the members of the Christian Church, whether Jews or Gentiles ; for its contents are such as are of the utmost consequence to the whole Church. They are The fulfilment of the promise of the Father by the descent of the Holy Spirit, and the results of that outpouring, by the disper- sion of the Gospel among Jews and Gentiles. Under these leading heads all the personal ADAH ADAM and subordinate details may be ranged. Im- mediately after the Ascension, St. Peter, the first of the Twelve, designated by our Lord as the Rock on -whom the Church was to be built, the holder of the keys of the kingdom, becomes the prime actor under God in the founding of the Church. He is the centre of the first great group of sayings and doings. The opening of the door to Jews (ch. ii.) and Gentiles (ch. x.) is his office, and by him, in good time, is accomplished. But none of the existing twelve Apostles were, humanly speaking, fitted to preach the Gospel to the cultivated Gentile world. To be by divine grace the spiritual conqueror of Asia and Europe, God raised up another instrument, from among the highly-educated and zealous Pharisees. The preparation of Saul of Tarsus for the work to be done, the progress, in his hand, of that woi'k, his joumeyings, preach- ings, and perils, his stripes and imprison- ments, his testifying in Jerusalem and being brought to testify in Rome,— these are the subjects of the latter half of the book, of which the great central figui-e is the Apostle Paul. It seems most probable that the place of writing was Rome, and the time about two years from the date of St. Paul's arrival there, as related in ch. xxviii. 30. This would give us for the publication the year 63 A.D., according to the most probable assignment of the date of the arrival of St. Paul at Rome. A'DAH {ornament, beauty). 1. The first of the two wives of Lamech, by whom were born to him Jabal and Jubal (Gen. iv. 19). — 2. A Hittitess, one of the three wives of Esau, mother of Eliphaz (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 10, 12, 16). In G€n. xxvi. 34 she is called Bashbmath. AD'AM, the name given in Scripture to the first man. It apparently has reference to the gi-ound from which he was formed, which is called in Hebrew Adamah. The idea of red- ness of colour seems to be inherent in either word. The creation of man was the work of the sixth day. His formation was the ultimate object of the Creator. It was with reference to him that all things were de- signed. He was to be the " roof and crown " of the whole fabric of the world. In the first nine chapters of Genesis there appear to be three distinct histories relating more or less to the life of Adam. The first extends from Gen. i. 1 to ii. 3, the second from ii. 4 to iv. 26, the third from v. 1 to the end of ix. The word at the commencement of the two latter narratives, which is rendered there and else- where generations, may also be rendered histoi-y. The object of the first of these narratives is to record the creation : that of the second to give an account of paradise, the original sin of man, and the immediate pos- terity of Adam; the third contains mainly the history of Noah, referring, it would seem, to Adam and his descendants principally in relation to that patriarch. The name Adam was not confined to the father of the human race, but like homo was applicable to %ooman as well as man, so that we find it said in Gen. V. 2, "male and female created He them, and called their name Adam in the day when they were created." Tlie man Adam was placed in a garden which the Lord God had planted " eastward in Eden," for the purpose of dressing it and keeping it. [Eden.] Adam was permitted to eat of the fruit of every tree in the garden but one, which was called the "tree of the knowledge of good and evil." The prohibition to taste the fruit of this tree was enforced by the menace of death. There was also another tree which was called "the tres of life," Some suppose it to have acted as a kind of medicine, and that by the continual use of it our first parents, not created immortal, were pre- served from death. While Adam was in the garden of Eden, the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air were brought to him to be named, and "whatsoever he called every living creature that was the name thereof. Thus the power of fitly designating objects of sense was possessed by the first man, a faculty which is generally considered as indicating mature and extensive intellectual resources. Upon the failure of a companion suitable for Adam among the creatures thus brought to him to be named, the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon him, and took one of his ribs from him, which He fashioned into a woman and brought her to the man. At this time they are both described as being naked without the consciousness of shame. Such is the Scripture account of Adam prior to the Fall. The first man is a true man, with the powers of a man and the innocence of a child. He is moreover spoken of by St. Paul as being "the figure of Him that was to come," the second Adam, Christ Jesus (Rom. v. 14). By the subtlety of the serpent, the woman who was given to be with Adam, was beguiled into a violation of the one command which had been imposed upon them. She took of the fruit of the forbidden tree and gave it to her husband. The propriety of its name was immediately shown in the results which fol- lowed : self-consciousness was the first-fruits of sin ; their eyes were opened and they knew that they were naked. Though the curse of Adam's rebellion of necessity fell upon him, yet the very prohibition to eat of the tree of life after his transgression was probatly a ADAM 10 ADONIJAH manifestation of Divine meruy, because the greatest malediction of all would have been to have the gift of indestructible life super- added to a state of ■wretchedness and sin. — Adam is stated to have lived 930 years. His sons mentioned in Scripture are Cain, Abel, and Seth : it is implied however that he had others. AD'AM, a city on the Jordan "be- side Zaretan," in the time of Joshua (Josh. iii. 16). AD'AMAH,oneof the *' fencea cities" of Naphtali, named between Chinnereth and ha-Hamah (Josh. xix. 36). ADAMANT, the translation of the Hebrew word Shcitntr in Ez. iii. 9 and Zech. vii. 12. In Jer. xvji. 1 it is trans- lated " diamond." In these three pas- sages the word is the representative of some stone of excessive hardness, and is used metaphorically. Since the Hebrews appear to have been unacquainted with the true diamond, it is very probable, from the expression in Ez. iii. 9, of "adamant harder than flint" that by Shamir is intended Emery, a variety of Corundum, a mineral inferior only to the diamond in hardness. Emery is exten- sively used for polishing and cutting gems and other hai-d substances. AD'AMI, a place on the border of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33). A'DAR, a place on the south boundary of Judah (Josh. xv. 3). A'DAR. [Months.] AD'ASA, a place in Judaea, about 4 miles from Bethhoron (1 Mace. vii. 40, 45). ADDER. This word is used for any poisonous snake, and is applied in this general sense by the translators of the A. V. They use in a similar way the synonymous term asp. The word adder occurs five' times in the text of the A. V. (see below), and three times in the margin as synonymous with cockatrice, viz. Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29, lix. 5. It represents four Hebrew words : — 1. 'Acshiib is found only in Ps. cxl. 3, " They have sharpened their tongues like a serpent, adders' poison is under their lips." The latter half of this verse is quoted by St. Paul from the LXX in Rom. iii. 13. 'Acshiib may be represented by the Toxicoa of Egypt and North Africa. — 2. Fethen. [Asp.] — 3. Tsepha, or Tsiphoni, occurs five times in the He- brew Bible. In Prov. xxiii. 32 it is trans- lated adder, and in Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29, lix. 5, Jer. viii. 17, it is rendered cockatrice. From Jeremiah we learn that it was of a hostile natm-e, and from the parallelism of Is. xi. 8 it appears that the Tsiphoni was considered even more dreadful than the Pethen. — 4. Skephiphon occurs only in Gen. xlix. 17, where it is used to characterise the tribe of Dan : " Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path, that biteth the horse's heels, so that his rider shall fall backward." ■ C^-ir"-^' Horned Cerastes. The habit of lurking in the sand and biting at the horse's heels, here alluded to, suits the character of a well-known species of veno- mous snake, and helps to identify it with the celebrated horned viper, the asp of Cleopatra {Cerastes), which is found abundantly in the dry sandy deserts of Egypt, Syria, and Arabia. The Cerastes is extremely veno- mous ; Bruce compelled a specimen to scratch eighteen pigeons upon the thigh as quickly as possible, and they all died in nearly the same interval of time. AD'MAH, one of the " cities of the plain," always coupled with Zeboim (Gen. x. 19, xiv. 2, 8 ; Deut. xxix. 23 ; Hos. xi. 8). ADO'NI-BE'ZEK [lord of Bezek), king of Bezek, a city of the Canaanites. [Bezek.] This chieftain was vanquished by the tribe of Judah (Judg, i. 3-7), who cut oflF his thumbs and great toes, and brought him prisoner to Jerusalem, where he diecl. He confessed that he had inflicted the same cruelty upon 70 petty kings whom he had conquered. AbONI'JAH [my Lord is Jehovah), the fourth son of David by Haggith, born at Hebron, while his father was king of Judah (2 Sam. iii. 4). After the death of his three brothers, Amnon, Chileab, and Absalom, he became eldest son; and when his father's strength was visibly declining, put forward his pretensions to the crown. David promised Bathsheba that her son Solomon should in- herit the succession (1 K. i. 30), for there was no absolute claim of primogeniture in thfise Eastern monarchies. Adonijah's cause was espoused by Abiathar and Joab, the famous commander of David's army. [Joab.] His name and influence secured a large number of followers among the captains of the royal army belonging to the tribe of Judah (comp. 1 K. i. 9, 25) ; and these, to- ADONIKAM 11 ADORATION gether with all the princes, except Solomon, were entertained by Adonijah at a great sacrificial feast held " by the stone Zoheleth, which is by En-rogel." [Eneogel.] Nathan and Bathsheba, now thoroughly alarmed, apprised David of these proceedings, who immediately gave orders that Solomon should be conducted on the royal mule in solemn procession to Gihon, a spring on the W. of Jerusalem (2 Chr. xxxii. 30). [Gihox.] Here he was anointed and proclaimed king by Zadok, and joyfully recognised by the people. This decisive measure struck terror into the opposite party, and Adonijah fled to sanctuary, but was pardoned by Solomon on condition that he should " show himself a worthy man," with the threat that " if wickedness were found in him he should die" (i. 52). The death of David quickly fol- lowed on these events ; and Adonijah begged Bathsheba, who as " king's mother " would now have special dignity and influence [Asa], to procure Solomon's consent to his marriage with Abishag, who had been the wife of David in his old age (1 K. i. 3). This was regarded as equivalent to a fresh attempt on the throne [Absalom ; Abner] ; and therefore Solomon ordei-ed him to be put to death by Benaiah, in accordance with the terms of his previous pardon. ADONI'RAM (1 K. iv, 6 ; by an unusual contraction Adokam, 2 Sam. xx. 24, and 1 K. xii. 18 ; also Hadoram, 2 Chr. x. 18), chief receiver of the tribute during the reigns of David (2 Sam. xx. 24), Solomon (1 K. iv. 6), and Rehoboam (1 K. xii. 18). This last monarch sent him to collect the tribute from the rebellious Israelites, by whom he was stoned to death. ADO'NI-ZE'DEK {lord of justice), the Amorite king of Jerusalem who organised a league with four other Amorite princes against Joshua. The confederate kings having laid siege to Gibeon. Joaiiua marched to the relief of his new allies and put the besiegers to flight. The five kings took refuge in a cave at Makkedah, whence they were taken and slain, their bodies hung on trees, and then buried in the place of their concealment (Josh. X. 1-27). ADOPTION, an expression metaphorically used by St. Paul in reference to the present and prospective privileges of Christians (Rom. viii. 15, 23 ; Gal. iv. 5 ; Eph. i. 5). He probably alludes to the Roman custom of adoption, by which a person, not having children of his own, might adopt as his son one born of other parents. The effect of it was that the adopted child was entitled to the name and sacra privata of his new father, and ranked as his heir-at-law : while the father on his part was entitled to the pro- perty of the son, and exercised towards him all the rights and privileges of a father. In short the relationship was to all intents and purposes the same as existed between a natural father and son. The selection of a person to be adopted implied a decided pm. ference and love on the part of the adopter : and St. Paul aptly transfers the well-known feelings and customs connected with the act to illustrate the position of the Christianised Jew or Gentile. The Jews themselves were unacquainted with the process of adoption : indeed it would have been inconsistent with the regulations of the Mosaic law affecting the inheritance of property : the instances occasionally adduced as referring to the cus- tom (Gen. XV. 3, xvi. 2, xxx. 5-9) are evi- dently not cases of adoption proper. ADORA'IM, a fortified city built by Reho- boam (2 Chr. xi. 9), in Judah. Adoraim is probably the same place with Adora (1 Mace, xiii. 20), unless that be Dor, on the sea- coast below Carmel. Robinson identifies it with Diira, a " large village " on a rising ground west of Hebron. ADORATION. The acts and postures by which the Hebrews expressed adoration bear a great similarity to those still in use among Oriental nations. To rise up and suddenly prostrate the body was the most simple Atlorition Modem r^'\ pmn (Lane.) method ; but, generally speaking, the pros- tration was conducted in a more formal manner, the person falling upon the knee and then gradually inclining the body until the forehead touched the ground. Such prostration was usual in the worship of Je- hovah (Gen. xvii. 3 ; Ps. xcv. 6). But it was by no means exclusively used for that purpose ; it was the formal mode of receiving visitors (Gen. xviii. 2), of doing obeisance to one of superior station (2 Sam. xiv. 4), and of showing respect to equals (1 K. ii. 19). ADRAMMELECH 12 ADULTERY Occasionally it was repeated tbree times (1 Sam. XX. 41), and even seven times (Gen. xxxiii. 3). It was accompanied by such acts as a kiss (Ex. xviii. 7), laying hold of the knees or feet of the person to whom the adoration was paid (Matt, xxviii. 9), and kissing the ground on which he stood (Ps. Ixxii. 9; Mic. vii. 17j. Similar adoration was paid to idols (1 K. xix. 18) : sometimes however prostration was omitted, and the act consisted simply in kissing the hand to the object of reverence (Job xxxi. 27), and in kissing the statue itself (Hos. xiii. 2). ADRAM'MELECH. 1. The name of an idol introduced into Samaria by the colonists from Sepharvaim (2 K. xvii. 31). He was worshipped with rites resembling those of Triolech, children being burnt in his honour. The first part of the word probably means Hre. Adrammelech was probably the male power of the sun, and Anammelech, who is mentioned with Adrammelech as a com- panion-god, the female power of the sun. — 2. Son ai the Assyrian king Sennacherib, who, together with his brother Sharezer, murdered their father in the temple of Nis- roch at Nineveh, after the failure of the As- syrian attack on Jerusalem. The parricides escaped into Armenia (2 K. xix. 37 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 21 ; Is. xxxvii. 38). The date of this event was b.c. 680. ADRAMYT'TIUM, a seaport in the pro- vince of Asia [Asia], situated in the district anciently called Aeolis, and also Mysia (see Acts xvi. 7). Adramyttium gave, and still gives, its name to a deep gulf on this coast, opposite to the opening of which is the island of Lesbos. [MiTYLENE.] It has no Biblical interest, except as illustrating St. Paul's voyage from Caesarea in a ship belonging to this place (Acts xxvii. 2). Ships of Adra- myttium must have been frequent on this coast, for it was a place of considerable traffic. The modern Adramyti is a poor village, but it is still a place of some trade and shipbuilding. A'DRIA, more properly A'DRIAS. It is important to fix the meaning of this word as used in Acts xivii. 27. The word seems to have been derived from the town of Adria, near the Po ; and at first it denoted the part of the Gulf of Venice which is in that neigh- bourhood. Afterwards the signification of the name was extended, «o as to embrace the whole of that gulf. Subsequently it obtained a much wider extension, and in the apostolic age denoted that natural division of the Mediterranean which had the coasts of Sicily, Italy, Greece, and Africa for its boundaries. This definition is explicitly given by almost a contemporary of St. Paul, the geographer Ptolemy, who also says that Crete is bounded on the west by Adrias. Later writers state that Malta divides the Adriatic sea from the Tyrrhenian sea, and the isthmus of Corinth the Aegean from the Adriatic. It is through ignorance of these facts, or through the want of attending to them, that writers have drawn an argument from this geographical term in favour of the false view which places the apostle's shipwreck in the Gulf of Venice. [Melita.] A'DRIEL, son of Barzillai, to whom Saul gave his daughter Merab, although he had previously promised her to David (1 Sam. xviii. 19). His five sons were amongst the seven descendants of Saul whom David sur- rendered to the Gibeonites in satisfaction for the endeavours of Saul to extirpate them (2 Sam. xxi. 8). ADUL'LAM, Apocr. Odollam, a city of Judah in the lowland or Shefelah (Josh. XV. 35) ; the seat of a Canaanite king (Josh, xii. 15), and evidently a place of great anti- quity (Gen. xxxviii. 1, 12, 20). Fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 7), it was one of the towns reoccupied by the Jews after their re- turn from Babylon (Neh. xi. 30), and still a city in the times of the Maccabees (2 Mace. xii. 38). — AduUam was probably near Deir Dub- bdn, 5 or 6 miles N. of Eleutheropolis. The limestone cliffs of the whole of that locality are pierced with extensive excavations, some one of which is doubtless the " cave of Adul- 1am," the refuge of David (1 Sam. xxii. 1 ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 13 ; 1 Chr. xi. 15). ADULTERY. The parties to this crime were a married woman and a man who was not her husband. The toleration of poly- gamy, indeed, renders it nearly impossible to make criminal a similar offence committed by a married man with a woman not his wife. The Mosaic penalty was that both the guilty parties should be stoned, and it applied as well to the betrothed as to the married woman, provided she were free (Deut. xxii. 22-24). A bondwoman so offending was to be scourged, and the man was to make a trespass offering (Lev. xix, 20-22). At a later time, and when, owing to Gentile example, the marriage tie became a looser bond of union, public feeling in i-egard to adultery changed, and the penalty of death was seldom or never inflicted. Thus, in the case of the woman brought under our Loi'd's notice (John viii.), it is likely that no one then thought of stoning her in fjict, though there remained the written law ready for the purpose of the caviller. It is likely also that a divorce, in which the adulteress lost her dower and rights of maintenance, &c., waa the usual remedy, suggested by a wish to ADUMMIM 13 AGE avoid scandal and -the excitement of com- miseration for crime. The expression in, St. Matthew (i. 19) "to make her a public example," probably means to bring the case before the local Sanhedrim, which was the usual course, but which Joseph did not pro- pose to take, preferring repudiation, because that could be managed privately. The famous trial by the waters of jealousy (Num. V. 11-29), was probably an ancient custom, which Moses found deeply seated, and which is said to be paralleled by a form of ordeal called the " red water " in Western Africa. The forms of Hebrew justice all tended to limit the application of this test. When adultery ceased to be capital, as no doubt it did, and divorce became a matter of mere convenience, it would be absurd to suppose that this trial was continued. And when adultery became common, it would have been impious to expect the miracle which it sup- posed. ADUM'MIM, " THE GOING UP TO " Or "OF," one of the landmarks of the boundary of Benjamin, a rising ground or pass " over against Gilgal," and " on the south side of the 'torrent ' " (Josh. xv. 7, xviii. 17), which is the position still occupied by the road leading up from Jericho and the Jordan valley to Jerusalem, on the south face of the gorge of the TFady Kelt. The pass is still infested by robbers, as it was in the daj's of our Lord, of whose parable of the Good Samaritan this is the scene. AE'GYPT. [Egypt.] AE'NON, a place "near to Salim," at which John baptized (John iii. 23). It was evidently west of the Jordan (comp. iii. 22, with 26, and with i. 28), and aboimded in water. This is indicated by the name, which is merely a Greek version of a Chaldee woi-d, signifying " springs." Aenon is given in the Onomasticon as 8 miles south of Scythopolis " near Salem and the Jordan." AERA. [Chronology.] AETHIO'PIA. [Ethiopia.] AFFINITY. [Marriage.] AG'ABUS, a Christian prophet in the apostolic age, mentioned in Acts xi. 28 and xxi. 10. He predicted (Acts xi. 28) that a famine would take place in the reign of Claudius "throughout all the world." As Greek and Roman writers used "the world " of the Greek and the Roman world, so a Jewish writer would use it naturally of the Jewish world or Palestine. Josephus men- tions a famine which prevailed in Judaea in the reign of Claudius, and swept aAvay many of the inhabitants. This, in all probability, is the famine to which Agabus refers. A'GAG, possibly the title of the kings of Araalek, like Pharaoh of Egypt. One king of this name is mentioned in Num. xxiv. 7, and another in 1 Sam. xv. 8, 9, 20, 32. The latter was the king of the Amalekites, whom Saul spared, together with the best of the spoil, although it was the well-known will of Jehovah that the Amalekites should be extirpated (Ex. xvii. 14 ; Deut. xxv. 17). For this act of disobedience Samuel was com- missioned to declare to Saul his rejection, and he himself sent for Agag and cut him in pieces. [Samuel.] — Haman is called the Agagite in Esth. iii. 1, 10, viii. 3, 5. The Jews consider him a descendant of Agag the Amalekite, and hence account for the hatred with which he pursued their race. A'GAGITE. [Agag.] AGATE is mentioned four times in the text of the A. V. ; viz. in Ex. xxviii. 19, xxxix. 12; Is. liv. 12; Ez. xxvii. 16. In the two former passages, where it is re- presented by the Hebrew word sheho, it is spoken of as forming the second stone in the third row of the high priest's breastplate ; in each of the two latter places the original word is cadcCd, by which, no doubt, is in- tended a different stone. [Ruby.] — Our English agate derives its name from the Achate?, on the banks of which, according to Theophrastus and Pliny, it was first found ; but as agates are met with in almost every country, this stone was doubtless from the earliest times known to the Orientals. It is a silicious stone of the quartz family. AGE, OLD. In early stages of civiliza- tion, when experience is the only source of practical knowledge, old age has its special value, and consequently its special honours. A further motive was superadded in the case of the Jew, who was taught to consider old age as a reward for piety, and a signal token of God's favour. For these reasons the aged occupied a prominent place in the social and political system of the Jews. In private life they were looked up to as the depositaries of knowledge (Job xv. 10) ; the young were ordered to rise up in their presence (Lev. xix. 32) : they allowed them to give their opinion first (Job xxxii. 4) : they were taught to regard grey hairs as a " crown of glory " and as the " beauty of old men " (Prov. xvi, 31, XX. 29). The attainment of old age was regarded as a special blessing (Job V. 20), not only on account of the pro- longed enjoyment of life to the individual, but also because it indicated peaceful and prosperous times (Zech. viii. 4 ; 1 Mace. xiv. 9; Is. Ixv. 20). In ^MZ»/ic affairs age carried weight with it, especially in the infancy of the state : it formed under Moses the main qualification of those who acted as the re- AGRICULTURE U AGRICUI-TURE presentatives of the people in all matters of difficulty and deliberation. The old men or Elders thus became a class, and the title gradually ceased to convey the notion of age, and was used in an official sense, like Patres, Senatores, and other similar terms. [Elders.] Still it would be but natural that such an office was generally held by men of advanced age (1 K. xii. 8). AGRICULTURE. This, though promi- nent in the Scriptural narrative concerning Adam, Cain, and Noah, was little cared for by the patriarchs. The pastoral life was the means of keeping the sacred race, whilst yet a family, distinct from mixture and locally unattached, especially whilst in Egypt. "When, grown into a nation, they conquered their future seats, agriculture supplied a similar check on the foreign intercourse and speedy demoralisation, especially as regards idolatry, which commerce would have caused. Thus agriculture became the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth. Taken in connexion with the inalienable character of inheritances, it gave each man and each family a stake in the soil, and nurtured a hardy patriotism. "The land is Mine" (Lev. xxv. 23) was a dictum which made agriculture likewise the basis of the theocratic relation. Thus every family felt its own life with intense keenness, and had its divine tenure which it was to guard from alienation. The prohibition of culture in the sabbatical year formed, under this aspect, a kind of rent reserved by the Divine Owner. Landmarks were deemed sacred (Deut. xix. 14), and the inalienability of the heritage was ensured by its reversion to the owner in the year of jubilee ; so that only so many years of occupancy could be sold (Lev. xxv. 8-16, 23-35). The prophet Isaiah (v. 8) denounces the contempt of such restrictions by wealthy grandees, who sought to " add field to field," erasing families and depopulating districts. Rain. — The abundance of water in Pales- tine, from natural sources, made it a contrast to rainless Egypt (Deut. viii. 7, xi. 8-12). Rain was commonly expected soon after the autumnal equinox. The common scriptural expressions of the " early " and the " latter rain " (Deut. xi. 14 ; Jer. v. 24 ; Jios. vi. 3; Zech, x. 1; Jam. v. 7) are scarcely confirmed by modern experience, the season of rains being unbroken, though perhaps the fall is more strongly marked at the beginning and the end of it. Crops. — The cereal crops of constant men- lion are wheat and barley, and more rarely rye and millet (?). Of the two former, to- gether with the vine, olive, and fig, the use of irrigation, the plough and the harrow, mention is made in the book of Job (xxxi. 4C ; XV. 33; xxiv. 6; xxix. 19; xxxix. 10). Two kinds of cummin (the black variety called "fitches," Is. xxviii. 27), and such podded jjlants as beans and lentiles, may be named among the staple produce. Ploughing and Sotoing. — The plough was probably very light, one yoke of oxen usually sufficing to draw it. Mountains and steep places were hoed (Is. vii. 25). New ground and fallows, the use of which latter was familiar to the Jews (Jer. iv. 3 ; Hos. x. 12), wei-e cleared of stones and of thorns (Is. v. 2) early in the year, sowing or gathering from " among thorns " being a proverb for slovenly husbandry (Job v. 5 ; Prov. xxiv. 30, 31). Sowing also took place without pre- vious ploughing, the seed, as in the parable of the sower, being scattered broadcast, and ploughed in afte^'icards. The soil was then brushed over with a light harrow, often of thorn bushes. In highly irrigated spots the seed was trampled in by cattle (Is. xxxii. 20), as in Egypt by goats. The more formal rou- tine of heavy western soils must not be made the standard of such a naturally fine tilth as that of Palestine generally. During the rains, if not too heavy, or between their two periods, would be the best time for these operations ; thus 7 0 days before the passoverwas the time prescribed for sowing for the " wave-sheaf," and probably, therefore, for that of barley generally. The oxen were urged on by a goad like a spear (Judg. iii. 31). The custom of watching ripening crops and threshing floors against theft, or damage, is probably ancient. Thus Boaz slept on the floor (Ruth iii. 4, 7). Barley ripened a week or two before wheat, and as fine harvest weather was certain (Prov. xx^'i. 1 ; 1 Sam. xii. 17 ; Am. iv. 7), the crop chiefly varied with the quantity of timely rain. The pro- portion of harvest gathered to seed sown was often vast, a hundredfold is mentioned, but in such a way as to signify that it was a limit rarely attained (Gen. xxvi. 12 ; Matt, xiii. 8). Sowing a field with divers seeds was forbidden (Deut. xxii. 9). Heaping atid threshing. — The wheat, &c., were reaped by the sickle, or pulled up by the roots. They were bound in sheaves — a pro- cess prominent in Scripture. The sheaves or heaps were carted (Am. ii. 13) to the floor — a circular spot of hard ground, probably, as now, from 50 to 80 or 100 feet in diameter. Such floors were probably permanent, and became well known spots (Gen. 1. 10, 11 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 16, 18). On these the oxen, &c., forbidden to be muzzled (Deut. xxv. 4), trampled out the grain, as we find represented on the Egyptian monuments. At a later time AGRICULTURE 15 AHAB the Jews used a threshing sledge called rnorag (Is. xli. 15 ; 2 Sam.xxiv. 22 ; 1 Chr.xxi. 23), probably resembling the noreg, still employed in EgjTJt — a stage with three rollers ridged with iron, which, aided by the driver's weight, crushed out, often injuring, the grain, as well as cut or tore the straw, which thus became fit for fodder. Lighter grains were beaten out with a stick (Is. xxviii. 27). The use of animal manure is proved frequent by such recurring expressions as " dung on the face of the earth, field," &c. (Ps. Ixxxiii. 10 ; 2 K. ix. 37 ; Jer. viii. 2, &c, 1 hpeihing-fioor. The oxt n driven round the heap ; con- trary to the usual custom. (Wilkinson, TheUs.) Wmnojving.— The " shovel " and ' fan " (Is. XXX. 24), the precise diflference of which is doubtful, indicate the process of winnow- ing— a conspicuous part of ancient husbandry Winnowing with wooden shovels (Wilkinson, Thebes.) (Ps. XXXV. 5 ; Job xxi. 18 ; Is. xvii. 13), and important, owing to the slovenly thresh- ing. Evening was the favourite time (Ruth iii. 2) when there was mostly a breeze. The "fan" (Matt. iii. 12) was perhaps a broad shovel which threw the grain up against the wind. The last process was the shaking in a sieve to separate dirt and refuse (Am- ix. 9). Fields and floors were not comn„only en- closed ; vineyards mostly were, with a towei and other buildings (Num. xxii. 24 ; Ps. Ixxx. 13 ; Is. V. 5 ; Matt. xxi. 33 ; comp. Judg. vi. 11). Banks of mud from ditches were also used. — AVith regard to occupancy, a tenant might pay a fixed money rent (Cant, viii. 11), or a stipulated share of the fruits (2 Sam. ix. 10 ; Matt. xxi. 34), often a half or a third ; but local custom, was the only I'ule. A passer-by might eat any quantity of corn or grapes, but not reap or carry off fruit (Deut. xxiii. 24, 25 ; Matt. xii. 1).— The rights of the corner to be left, and of glean- ing [Corner; Gleaning], formed the "poor man's claim on the soil for support. For his benefit, too, a sheaf forgotten in carrying to the floor was to be left ; so also with regard to the vineyard and the olive-grove (Lev. xix. 9, 10; Deut. xxiv. 19). Besides there seems a probability that every third year a second tithe, besides the priests', was paid for the poor (Deut. xiv. 28, xxvi. 12 ; Am. iv. 4 ; Tob. i. 7). AGRIP'PA. [Herod.] A'GUR, the son of Jakeh, an unknown Hebrew sage, who uttered or collected the saj'ings of wisdom recorded in Prov. xxx. "a'HAB. 1. Son of Omri, seventh king of Israel, rergned b.c. 919-896. He married Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal king of Tyre ; and in obedience to her wishes, caused a temple to be built to Baal in Samaria itself, and an oracular grove to be consecrated to Astarte. (See 1 K. xviii. 19.) How the worship of God was restored, and the idola- trous priests slain, in consequence of " a sore famine in Samaria," is related under Elijah. One of Ahab's chief tastes was for splendid architecture, which he showed by building an ivory house and several cities. Desiring to add to his pleasure-grounds at Jezreel the vineyard of his neighbour Naboth, he pro- posed to buy it or give land in exchange for it ; and when this was refused by Naboth, a false accusation of blasphemy was brought against him, and not only was he himself stoned to death, but his sons also, as we learn from 2 K. ix. 26. Thereupon Elijah declared that the entire extirpation of Ahab's house was the penalty appointed for his long course of wickedness, now crowned by tliis atrocious crime. The execution, however, of the sen- tence was delayed in consequence of Ahab's deep repentance (IK. xxi.). — Ahab under- took three campaigns against Benhadad II. king of Damascus, two defensive and one- offensive. In the first, Benhadad laid siege to Samaria, but was repulsed with prcat los- AHASUERUS 16 AHAVA (1 K. XX. 1-21). Next year Benhadad again invaded Israel by way of Aphek, on the E. of Jordan. Yet Ahab's victory was so complete that Benhadad himself fell into his hands ; but was released (contrary to the will of God as announced by a prophet) on condition of restoring all the cities of Israel which he held, and making "streets" for Ahab in Damascus; that is, admitting into his capital permanent Hebrew commissioners, in an independent position, with special dwellings for themselves and their retinues, to watch over the com- mercial and political interests of Ahab and his subjects (1 K. XX. 22-34). After this great success Ahab enjoyed peace for three years, when he attacked Ramoth in Gilead on the easf of Jordan, in conjunction with Jehosha- phat king of Judah, which town he claimed as belonging to Israel. But God's blessing did not rest on the expedition, and Ahab was told by the prophet Micaiah that it would fail. Ahab took the precaution of disguising him- self, so as not to offer a conspicuous mark to the archers of Benhadad ; but he was slain by a "certain man who drew a bow at a ven- ture." When he was brought to be buried in Samaria, the dogs licked up his blood as a servant was washing his chariot ; a partial fulfilment of Elijah's prediction (1 K. xxi. 19), which was more literally accomplished in the case of his son (2 K. ix. 26). 2. A lying prophet, who deceived the captive Israelites in Babylon, and was burnt to death by Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xxix. 21). AHASUE'RUS, the name of one Median and two Persian kings mentioned in the 0. T. The following is a list of the Medo-Persian kings from Cyaxares to Artaxerxes Longi- xnanus, according to their ordinary classical names. The Scriptural names conjectured to correspond to them are added in italics. — 1. Cyaxares, king of Media, son of Phraortes, grandson of Deioces and conqueror of Nine- veh, began to reign b.c. 634 : Ahasucrus. 2. Astyages his son, last king of Media, b.c. 594 : Darius the Mede. 3. Cyrus, son of his daughter Mandane and Cambyses, a Persian noble, first king of Persia, 559 : Cyrus. 4. Cambyses his son, 529 : Ahasueriis. 5. A Magian usui-per, who personated Smerdis, the younger son of Cyrus, 521 : Artaxerxes. 6. Darius Hystaspis, raised to the throne on the overthrow of the Magi, 521 : Darius. 7. Xerxes his son, 485 : Ahasucrus. 8. Arta- xerxes Longimanus (Macrocheir), his son, 465-495 : Artaxerxes. — 1. In Dan. ix. 1, Ahasuerus is said to be the father of Darius the Mede. Now it is almost certain that Cy- axares is a form of Ahasuerus, grecised into Axares with the prefix Cy or Kai. The son of this Cyaxares was Astyages, and it is no improbable conjecture that Darius the Mede was Astyages, set over Babylon as viceroy by his grandson Cyrus, and allowed to live there in royal state. [Darius.] This first Ahasu- erus, then, is Cyaxares, the conqueror of Nineveh. And, in accordance with this view, we read in Tobit xiv. 15 that Nineveh was taken by Nabuchodonosor and Assuerus, i, e. Cyaxares. — 2. In Ezr. iv. 6 the enemies of the Jews, after the death of Cyrus, desirous to frustrate the building of Jerusalem, send accusations against them to Ahasuerus king of Persia. This must be Cambyses. He was plainly called after his grandfather, who was not of royal race, and therefore it is very likely that he also assumed the kingly name or title of Cyaxares, which had been borne by his most illustrious ancestor. — 3. The third is the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther. Hav- ing divorced his queen Vashti for refusing to appear in public at a banquet, he married, four years afterwards, the Jewess Esther, cousin and ward of Mordecai. Five years after this, Haman, one of his counsellors, having been slighted by Mordecai, prevailed upon the king to order the destruction of all the Jews in the empire. But before the day appointed for the massacre, Esther and Mor- decai overthrew the influence which Haman had exercised, and so completely changed his feelings in the matter, that they induced him to put Haman to death, and to give the Jews the right of self-defence. This they used so vigorously, that they killed several thousands of their opponents. This Ahasuerus is pro- bably Xerxes (the names being identical) : and this conclusion is fortified by the resem- blance of character, and by certain chrono- logical indications. As Xerxes scourged the sea, and put to death the engineers of his bridge because their work was injured by a storm, so Ahasuerus repudiated his queen Vashti because she would not violate the de- corum of her sex, and ordered the massacre A v of the whole Jewish people to gratify the / ear to have been only memo- rials. Altars were most probably ori- ginally made of earth. The Law of Moses allowed them to be made either of earth or unhewn stones (Ex. xx. 24, 25). In later times they were frequently built on high places, espe- cially in idolatrous worship (Deut. xii. 2).— (B.) The Law of Moses di- rected that two altars should be made, the one the Altar of Burnt-offering (called also simply the Altar), and thp. other the Altar of Incenss.— I. The Altar of Burnt- off"ering. It differed in construction at differ- ent times. (1.) In the Tabernacle (Ex. xxvii. I ff. xxxviii. 1 ff.) it was comparatively small and portable. In shape it was square. It was five cubits in length, the same in breadth, and three cubits high. It was made of planks of shittim (or acacia) wood overlaid with brass. The interior was hollow (Ex. xxvii. 8). At the four corners were four projec- tions called horns, made, like the altar itself, of shittim-wood overlaid with brass (Ex. xxvii. 2). They probably projected upwards ; and to them the victim was bound when about to be sacrificed (Ps. cxviii. 27). On the occasion of the consecration of the priests (Ex. xxix. 12) and the offering of the sin- offering (Lev. iv. 7 ff.) the blood of the vic- tim was sprinkled on the horns of the altar. Round the altar, midway between the top and bottom, ran a projecting ledge (A. "V. "compass"), on which perhaps the priests stood when they officiated. To the outer edge of this, again, a grating or net-work of brass was affixed, and reached to the bottom of the altar, which thus presented the ap- pearance of being larger below than above. At the four corners of the net-work were four brasen rings, into which were inserted the staves by which the altar was carried. These staves were of the same materials as the altar itself. As the priests were for- bidden to ascend the altar by steps (Ex. xx. 26), it has been conjectured that a slope of earth led gradually up to the ledge from which they ofiiciated. The place of the altar was at " the door of the tabernacle of the congregation" (Ex. xl. 29). — (2.) In Solo- mon's Temple the altar was considerably larger in its dimensions. Like the former it Altar of Burnt Offering. From Surenhusiua' IHshna. ALTAR 24 AMALEKITES was square ; but the length and breadth were now twenty cubits, and the height ten (2 Chr, iy. 1). It differed, too, in the material of which it was made, being entirely of brass (1 K. viii, 64; 2 Chr, vii. 7). It had no grating : and instead of a single gradual slope, the ascent to it was probably made by three successive platforms, to each of which it has been supposed that steps led, as in the figure annexed. — (3.) The altar of burnt-offering in the second (Zerubbabel's) temple. Of this no description is given in the Bible. We are only told (Ezr. iii. 2) that it was built before the foundations of the Temple were laid. According to Josephus it was placed on the same spot on which tha.t of Solomon had originally stood. — (4.) The altar erected by Herod, whicli is thus de- scribed by Josephus : — " In front of the Temple stood the altar, 15 cubits in height, and in breadth and length of equal dimen- sions, viz. 50 cubits ; it was built foursquare, with horn-like corners projecting from it ; and on the south side a gentle acclivity led up to it. Moreover it was made without any iron tool, neither did iron ever touch it at any time." According to Lev. vi. 12, 13, a perpetual fire was to be kept burning on the altar. This was the symbol and token of the perpetual worship of Jehovah. — II. The Altar of Incense, called also the golden altar to distinguish it from the Altar of Burnt- offering, which was called the brasen altar (Ex. xxxviii. 30). — (a.) That in the Taber- nacle was made of acacia-wood, overlaid with pure gold. In shape it was square, being a cubit in length and breadth, and 2 cubjt= ir 3^ Supposed form of the ^Utar of Inceuso. neight. Like the Altar of Burnt-offering it had horns at the four corners, which were of one piece with the rest of the altar. Its ap- pearance may be illustrated by the preceding figure. This altar stood in the Holy Place, " before the vail that is by the ark of the testi- mony " (Ex. XXX. 6, xl. 5)— (6.) The Altar in Solomon's Temple was similar (1 K. vii. 48 ; 1 Chr. xxviii. 18), but was made of cedar overlaid with gold. — (c.) The Altar of Incense is mentioned as having been removed from the Temple of Zerubbabel by Antiochus Epiphanes (1 Mace. i. 21). Judas Macca- baeus restored it, together with the holy vessels, &c. (1 Mace, iv. 49). — C, Other altars, (1.) Altars of brick. There seems to be an allusion to such in Is. Ixv, 3. (2.) An Altar to an Unknown God. "What altar this was has been the subject of much discus- sion, St. Paul merely mentions in his speech on the Areopagus that he had himself seen such an altar in Athens. As to the origin of these altars, we are told by Diogenes Laertius that in the time of a plague, when the Athenians knew not what god to propitiate in oi'der to avert it, Epimenides caused black and white sheep to be let loose from the Areopagus, and wherever they lay down, to be offered to the respective divinities. It was probably on this or similar occasions that altars were dedicated to an Unknown God, since they knew not what god was offended and required to be propitiated. AL-TAS'CHITH, found in the introductory verse to the four following Psalms, Ivii., Iviii., lix., Ixxv, Literally rendered, the import of the words is " destroy not," pro- bably the beginning of some song or poem to the tune of which those psalms were to be chanted. AMAL'EKITES, a nomadic tribe, which occupied the peninsula of Sinai and the wil- derness intervening between the southern hill-ranges of Palestine and the border of Egypt (Num. xiii. 29 ; 1 Sam. xv. 7, xxvii. 8). Arabian historians represent them as originally dwelling on the shores of the Persian Gulf, whence thej' were pressed west- wards by the growth of the Assyrian empire, and spread over a portion of Arabia at a period antecedent to its occupation by the descendants of Joktan. The physical cha- racter of the district which the Amalekites occupied necessitated a nomadic life, which they adopted to its fullest extent, taking their families with them even on their military expeditions (Judg, vi. 5). Their wealth con- sisted in flocks and herds. Mention is made of a " town " (1 Sam. xv. 5), but their towns could have been little more than stations, or nomadic enclosures. The kings or chieftains AMANA 25 AMMINADAB were perhaps distinguished by the hereditary title Agag (Num. xxiv. 7 ; 1 Sam. xv. 8). The Amalekites first came in contact with the Israelites at Rephidim, but were signally defeated (Ex. xvii.). In union with the Canaanites they again attacked the Israelites on the borders of Palestine, and defeated them near Hormah (Num. xiv. 45). Saul under- took an expedition against them, overrunning their whole district from Havilah to Shur, and inflicting an immense loss upon them (1 Sam. XV.). Their power was thenceforth broken, and. they degenerated into a horde of banditti. Their destruction was completed by David (1 Sam. xxvii., xxx.). AM'ANA, apparently a mountain in or near Lebanon (Cant. iv. 8). It is commonly assumed that this is the mountain in which the river Abana (2 K. v. 12) has its source, but in the absence of further research in the Lebanon this is mere assumption. AM'ASA. Son of Ithra or Jether, by Abigail, David's sister (2 Sam. xvii. 25). He joined 4bsalom in his rebellion, and was by him appointed commander-in-chief in the place of Joab, by whom he was totally de- feated in the forest of Ephraim (2 Sam. xviii. 6). When Joab incurred the displeasure of David for killing Absalom, David forgave the treason of Amasa, recognized him as his nephew, and appointed him Joab's successor (xix. 13). Joab afterwards, when they were both in pursuit of the rebel Sheba, pretending to salute Amasa, stabbed him with his swoi'd (xx. 10), which he held concealed in his left hand, AMAZI'AH, son of Joash, and eighth king of Judah, reigned b.c. 837-809. He suc- ceeded to the throne at the age of 25, on the murder of his father, and punished the mur- derers. In order to restore his kingdom to the greatness of Jehoshaphat's days, he made war on the Edomites, defeated them in the valley of Salt, south of the Dead Sea, and took their capital, Selah or Petra. Flushed with this success he had the foolish arrogance to challenge Joash, king of Israel, to battle. But Judah was completely defeated. Ama- ziah himself was taken prisoner, and con- veyed by Joash to Jerusalem, which opened its gates to the conqueror. Amaziah lived 1 5 years after the death of Joash ; and in the 29th year of his reign was murdered by conspirators at Lachish, whither he had retired for safety from Jeiusalem (2 Chr. XXV. 27). AMBASSADOR. The earliest examples of embassadors employed occur in the cases of Edom, Moab, and the Amorites (Num. xx. 14, xxi. 21 ; Judg. xi. 17-19), afterwards in that of the fraudulent Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 4, &c.), and in the instances of civil strife mentioned Judg. xi. 12, and xx. 12. They are alluded to more frequently during and after the contact of the great adjacent mon- archies of Syria, Babylon, &c., with those of Judah and Israel, as in the invasion of Sen- nacherib. They were usually men of high rank. In the case quoted the chief captain, the chief cup-bearer, and chief of the eunuchs, were met by delegates of similar dignity from Hezekiah (2 K. xviii. 17, 18 ; see also Is. xxx. 4). Ambassadors are found to have been employed, not only on occasions of hostile challenge or insolent menace (2 K. xiv. 8 ; 1 K. XX. 2, 6), but of friendly com- pliment, of request for alliance or other aid, of submissive deprecation, and of curious inquiry (2 K. xiv. 8, xvi. 7, xviii. 14 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 31). AMBER (Heb. chashmal) occurs only in Ez. i. 4, 27, viii. 2. It is usually supposed that the Hebrew word chashmal denotes a metal, and not the fossil resin called amber. A'MEN, literally, " true ; " and, used as a substantive, " that which is true," "truth" (Is. Ixv. 16) ; a word used in strong asse- verations, fixing as it were the stamp of truth upon the assertion which it accompanied, and making it binding as an oath (comp. Num. v. 22). According to the Rabbins, " Amen" involved the ideas of swearing, ac- ceptance, and truthfulness. In the synagogues and private houses it was customary for the people or members of the family who were present to say " Amen " to the prayers which were offered by the minister or the master of the house, and the custom remained in the early Christian Church (Matt. vi. 13 ; 1 Cor. xiv. 16). And not only public prayers, but those offered in private, and doxologies were appropriately concluded with " Amen " (Rom. ix. 5, xi. 36, xv. 33, xvi. 27 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 13, &c.). AMETHYST (Heb. achlnmdh). Mention is made of this precious stone, which formed the third in the third row of the high-priest's breastplate, in Ex. xxviii. 19, xxix. 12, '* And the third row a ligure, an agate, and an amethyst." It occurs also in the N. T. (Rev. xxi. 20) as the 12th stone which garnished the foundations of the wall of the heavenly Jerusalem. Commentators gener- ally are agreed that the amethyst is the stone indicated by the Hebrew word, an opinion which is abundantly suppoited by the ancient versions. AMMIN'ADAB. Son of Ram or Aram, and father of Nahshon, or Naasson (as it ia written. Matt. i. 4 ; Luke iii. 32), who was the prince of the tribe of Judah, at the first numbering of Israel in the second year o* AMMINADIB 26 AMON the Exodus (Num. i. 7, ii. 3 ; Ruth iv. 19, 20; 1 Chr. i. 10]. lie was the fourth generation after Judah, the pati-iarch of his tribe, and one of the ancestors of Jesus Christ, AMMIN'ADIB. In Cant. vi. 12, it is un- certain -whether we ought to read, Am- minadih, with the A. V., or my willing people, Hs in the margin. AM'MON, AM'MONITES, CHILDREN OF AMMON, a people descended from Ben- Ammi, the son of Lot bj' his younger daughter (Gen. xix. 38 ; comp. Ps. Ixxxiii. 7, 8), as Moab was by the elder ; and dating from the destruction of Sodom. The near relation between the two peoples indicated in the story of their origin continued throughout their existence (comp. Judg. x. 6 ; 2 Chr. XX. 1 ; Zeph. ii. 8, &c.). Indeed, so close was their union, and so near their identity, tliat each would appear to be occasionally spoken of under the name of the other. Un- like Moab, the precise position of the terri- tory of the Ammonites is not ascertainable. In the earliest mention of them (Deut. ii. 20) they are said to have destroyed the Rephaim, whom they called the Zamzummim, and to have dwelt in their place, Jabbok being their border (Num. xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 37, iii. 16). '* Land " or " country " is, however, but rarely ascribed to them, nor is there any refei-ence to those habits and circumstances of civilisation, which so constantly recur in the allusions to Moab (Is. xv., xvi. ; Jer. xlviii.). On the contrary, we find every- where trace< of the fierce habits of marauders in their incursions (1 Sam. xi. 2 ; Am. i. 13), and a very high degree of crafty cruelty to their foes (Jer. xli. 6, 7 ; Jud. vii. 11, 12). It appears that Moab was the settled and civilised half of the nation of Lot, and that Ammon formed its predatory and Bedouin section. On the west of Jordan they never obtained a footing. The hatred in which the Ammonites were held by Israel is stated to have arisen partly from their opposition, or, rather, their denial of assistance (Deut. xxiii. 4), to the Israelites on their approach to Canaan. But whatever its origin the ani- mosity continued in f'orce to the latest date. The last appearances of the Ammonites in the biblical narrative are in the books of Judith (v. vi. vii.) and of the Maccabees (1 Mace. V. 6, 30-4 3), and it has been already re- marked that their chief characteristics — close alliance with Moab, hatred of Israel, and cunning cruelty— are maintained to the end. The tribe was governed by a king (Judg. xi. 12, &c. ; 1 Sam. xii. 12; 2 Sam. x. 1; Jer. xl. 14) and by "princes " (2 Sam. x. 3; 1 Chr. xix. 2). It has been conjectured that Nahash (1 Sam. xi. 1 ; 2 Sam. x. 2) was the official titl^ of the king as Pharaoh was of the Egyptian monarchs ; but this is without any sure foundation. — The divinity of the tribe was Molech, generally named in the O. T. under the altered form of Milcom — " the abomination of the children of Ammon ;" and occasionally as Malcham. In more than one passage under the word rendered " their king " in the A. V. an allusion is intended to this idol. [MoLECH.] AM'NON. Eldest son of David by Ahinoam the Jezreelitess, born in Hebron while his father's royalty was only acknowledged in Judah. He dishonoured his half-sister Tamar, and was in consequence murdered by her brother (2 Sam. xiii. 1-29.) A'MON, an Egyptian divinity, whose name occurs in that of No Amon (Nah. iii. 8), in A. V. "populous No," or Thebes, also called No. [No.] The Greeks called this divinity Ammon. The ancient Egyptian name is Amen. Amen was one of the eight gods of the first order, and chief of the triad of Thebes. He was worshipped at that city as Amen-Ra, or " Amen the sun." The god Anion (.Willdnson). A'MON. King of Judah, son and successor of Manasseh, reigned two years from b.c. 642 to 640. Following his father's example, Amon devoted himself wholly to the serx'ice of false gods, but was killed in a conspiracy. The people avenged him by putting all the conspirators to death, and secured the suc- cession to his son Josiah. To Amon's reign we must refer the terrible picture which the AMORITE AMULETS prophet Zephaniah gives of the moral and religious state of Jerusalem. AM'ORITE, THE AM'ORITES, i. e. the dwellers on the summits — mountaineers — one of the chief nations who possessed the land of Canaan before its conquest by the Israelites. In the genealogical table of Gen. •x. "the Amorite " is given as the fourth sen of Canaan, with " Zidon, Heth [Hittite], the Jebusite," «&c. As dwelling on the elevated portions of the country, they are contrasted with the Canaanites, who were the dwellers In the lowlands ; and the two thus formed the main broad divisions of the Holy Land (Num. xiii. 29; and see Josh. v. 1, x. 6,. si. 3 ; Deut. i. 7, 20, " mountain of the A. ;" 44). In the very earliest times (Gen, xiv, 7) they are occupying the barren heights west of the Dead Sea, at the place which afterwards bore the name of Engedi. From this point they stretched west to Hebron, where Abram was then dwelling under the " oak-grove " of the three brothers, Aner, Eshcol, and Mamre (Gen. xiv. 13; comp. xiii. 18). At the date of the invasion of the country, Sihon, their then king, had taken the rich pasture- land south of the Jabbok, and had driven the Moabites, its former possessors, across the wide chasm of the Arnon (Num. xxi. 13, 26), which thenceforward formed the boundary between the two hostile peoples (Num. xxi. 13). This rich tract, bounded by the Jabbok on the north, the Arnon on the south, Jordan on the west, and "the wilderness" on the east (Judg. xi. 21, 22), was, perhaps, in the most special sense the " land of the Amorites" (Num. xxi. 31 ; Josh. xii. 2, 3, xiii. 9 ; Judg. xi. 21, 22) ; but their possessions are distinctly stated to have extended to the very foot of Hermon (Deut. iii. 8, iv. 48), em- bracing "all Gilead and all Bashan" (iii. 10), with the Jordan valley on the east of the river (iv. 49). After the conquest of Canaan nothing is heard in the Bible of the Amorites, except the occasional mention of their name among the early inhabitants of the country. A'MOS. A native of Tekoa in Judah, about six miles S. of Bethlehem, originally a shep- herd and dresser of sycomore-trees, who was called by God's Spirit to be a prophet, although not trained in any of the regular prophetic schools (i, 1, A-ii. 14, 15). He travelled from Judah into the northern kingdom of Israel or Ephraim, and there exercised his ministry, apparently not for any long time. His date cannot be later than the 15th year of Uzziah's reign (b.c. 808) ; for he tells us that he pro- phesied "in the reigns of Uzziah king of Judah, and Jeroboam the son of Joash king of Israel, two years before the earthquake." But his ministry probably took place at an earlier period, perhaps about the middle ol Jeroboam's reign. The book of the prophe- cies Ox Amos seems divided into four prin- cipal portions closely connected together. (1) From i. 1 to ii. 3 he denounces the sins of the nations bordering on Israel and Judah, as a preparation for (2), in which, from ii. 4 to vi. 14, he describes the state of those two kingdoms, especially the former. This is followed by (3) vii. l.-ix, 10, in which, after reflecting on the previous prophecy, he re- lates his visit to Bethel, and sketches the im- pending punishment of Israel which he pre- dicted to Amaziah. After this in (4) he rises to a loftier and more evangelical strain, look- ing forward to the time when the hope of the Messiah's kingdom will be fulfilled, and His people forgiven and established in the enjoyment of God's blessings to all eternity. The chief peculiarity of the style consists in the number of allusions to natural objects and agricultural occupations, as might be ex- pected from the early life of the author. See i. 3, ii. 13, iii. 4, 5, iv. 2, 7, 9, v. 8, 19, vi. 12, Tii. 1, ix. 3, 9, 13, 14. The references to it in the N. T. are two: v. 25, 26, 27 is quoted by St. Stephen in Acts vii. 42, 43, and ix. 11 by St. James in Acts xv. 16. A'MOZ, father of the prophet Isaiah, and, according to Rabbinical tradition, brother of Amaziah king of Judah (2 K. xix. 2, 20, ss. 1 ; 2 Chr. xxvi. 22, xxxii. 20, 32 ; Is. i. 1, ii. 1, xiii. 1, XX. 2, xxxvii. 2, 21, xxxviii. 1). AMPHIP'OLIS, a city of Macedonia, through which Paul and Silas passed on their way from Philippi to Thessalonica (Acts xvii. 1). It was distant 33 Roman miles fi-om Philippi. It stood upon an eminence on the left or eastern bank of the river Stry- mon, just below its egress from the lake Cer- cinitis, and at the distance of about three miles from the sea. Its site is now occupied by a village called Neokhorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keni, or "New Town." AM'RAM. A Levite of the family of the Kohathites, and father of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam (Ex. vi. 18, 20 ; Num. hi. 19 ; 1 Chr. vi. 2, 3, 18). He is called the "son" of Kohath, but it is evident that in the gene- alogy several generations must have been omitted ; for from Joseph to Joshua ten ge- nerations are recorded, while from Levi to Moses there are but three. AM'RAPHEL, perhaps a Hamite king of Shinar or Babylonia, who joined the victo- rious incursion of the Elamite Cbedorlaomer against the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah an'd the cities of the plain (Gen. xiv.). AMULETS were ornaments, gems, scrolls, &c., worn as preservatives aga.inst the power of enchantments, and generally inscribed ANDREW with mystic forms or characters. The -word does not occur in the A. V., hut the " ear- rings " in Gen. xxxv. 4 were obviously con- nected with idolatrous worship, and were probably amulets taken from the bodies of the slain Shechemites. They are subsequently mentioned among the spoils of Midian ( Judg. viii. 24). Again, in Hos. ii. 13, "decking nerself with earrings " is mentioned as one of the signs of the " days of Baalim." The " earrings " in Is. iii. 20 were also amulets. A'NAH, the son of Zibeon, the son of Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 24), a "duke" or prince of his tribe, and father of Aholi- bamah, one of the wives of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 14, 25). There is no reason to suppose that he is other than the same Anah who found the "hot springs" (not "mules," as in the A. V.) in the desert as he fed the asses of Zibeon his father, though Bunsen considers him a distinct personage, the son of Seir and brother of Zibeon. AN'AKIM, a race of giants, descendants of Arba (Josh. xv. 13, xxi. 11), dwelling in the southern part of Canaan, and particularly at Hebron, which from their progenitor re- ceived the name of " city of Arba." Besides the general designation Anakim, they are va- riously called sons of Anak (Num. xiii. 33), descendants of Anak (Num. xiii. 22), and 8ons of Anakim (Deut. i. 28). These desig- nations serve to show that we must regard Anak as the name of the race rather than that of an individual, and this is confirmed by what is said of Arba, their progenitor, that he " was a great man among the An- akim" (Josh. xiv. 15). The race appears to have been divided into three tribes or fami- lies, bearing the names Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai. Though the warlike appearance of the Anakim had struck the Israelites with terror in the time of Moses (Num. xiii. 28 ; Deut. ix. 2), they were nevertheless dispos- sessed by Joshua, and uttei-ly driven from the land, except a small remnant that found refuge in the Philistine cities, Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod (Josh. xi. 21, 22). Their chief city Hebron became the possession of Caleb, who is said to have driven out from it the three sons of Anak mentioned above, that is the three families or tribes of the Anakim (Josh. XV. 14 ; Judg. i. 20). After this time they vanish from history. ANAM'MELECH, one of the idols wor- shipped by the colonists introduced into Sa- maria from Sepharvaim (2 K. xvii. 31). He was worshipped with rites resembling those of Molech, children being burnt in his honour, and is the companion-god to Adrammklech. As Adrammelech is the male power of the sun, KG Anammelech is the female power of the sun. ANANI'AS. 1. A high-priest in Acts xxiii. 2-5, xxiv. 1. He was the son of Nebedaeus, succeeded Joseph son of Camydus, and pre- ceded Ismael son of Phabi. He was nomi- nated to the office by Herod king of Chalcis, in A.D. 48 ; was deposed shortly before Felix left the province, and assassinated by the sicarii at the beginning of the last Jewish war. — 2. A disciple at Jerusalem, husband of Sapphira (Acts v. 1-11). Having sold his goods for the benefit of the church, he kept back a part of the price, bringing to the apostles the remainder, as if it were the whole, his wife also being privy to the scheme. St. Peter denounced the fraud, and Ananias fell down and expired. — 3. A Jewish disciple at Damascus (Acts ix. 10-17), of high repute (Acts xxii. 12), who sought out Saul during the period of blindness and dejection which followed his conversion, and announced to him his future commission as a preacher of the Gospel. Tradition makes him to have been afterwards bishop of Damascus, and to have died by martyrdom. ANATH'EMA, which literally means a thing suspended, is the equivalent of the Hebrew word signifying a thing or person devoted. Any object so devoted to Jehovah was irredeemable : if an inanimate object, it was to be given to the priests (Num. xviii. 14) ; if a living creature or even a man, it was to be slain (Lev. xxvii. 28, 29). The word anathema frequently occurs in St. Paul's writings, and is generallj' translated accursed. Many expositors have regarded his use of it as a technical term for judicial excommuni- cation. That the word was so used in the early Church there can be no doubt, but an examination of the passages in which it oc- curs shows that it had acquired a more general sense a« expressive either of strong feeling (Rom. ix. 3) or of dislike and con- demnation (1 Cor. xii. 3, xvi, 22 ; Gal. i. 9). AN'ATHOTH, a priests' city, belonging to the tribe of Benjamin, with " suburbs " (Josh. xxi. 18 ; 1 Chr. vi. 60). Anathoth lay on or near the great road from the north to Jeru- salem (Is. X. 30), and is placed by Euscbius and Jerome at 3 miles from the city. Its position has been discovered by Robinson at Andta, on a broad ridge Ij hour N.N.E. from Jerusalem. The cultivation of the priests survives in tilled fields of grain, with figs and olives. There are the remains of walls and strong foundations, and the quar- ries still supply Jerusalem with building stones. AN'DREW, one among the first called of the Apostles of our Lord (John i. 40 ; Matt, iv. 18) ; brother (whether elder or younger is uncertain) of Simon Peter (ibid.). He waa ANDRONICUS 29 ANGELS of Bethsaida, and had been a disciple of John the Baptist. On hearing Jesus a second time designated by him as the Lamb of God, he left his former master, and, in company with another of John's disciples, attached himself to our Lord. By his means his brother Simon was brought to Jesus (John i. 41). The ap- parent discrepancy in Matt. iv. 18 ff., Mark i. 16 ff., where the two appear to have been called together, is no real one ; St. John relating the first introduction of the brothers to Jesus, the other Evangelists their formal call to follow Him in his ministry. In the catalogue of the Apostles, ' Andrew appears, in Matt. X. 2, Luke vi. 14, second, next after his brother Peter ; but in Mark iii. 16, Acts i. 13, fourth, next after the three, Peter, James, and John, and in company with Philip. And this appears to have been his real place of dignity among the Apostles. The traditions about him are various. Eu- sebius makes him preach in Scythia ; Jerome and Theodoret in Achaia (Greece) ; Nice- phorus in Asia Minor and Thrace. He is said to have been crucified at Patrae in Achaia. Some ancient writers speak of an apocryphal Acts of Andi-ew. ANDROXI'CUS. 1. An officer left as vice- roy (2 Mace. iv. 31) in Antioch by Antiochus Epiphanes during his absence (b.c. 171). At the instigation of Menelaus, Andronicus put to death the high-priest Onias. This murder excited general indignation ; and on the re- turn of Antiochus, Andronicus was publicly degraded and executed (2 Mace. iv. 31-38). — 2. Another officer of Antiochus Epiphanes who was left by him on Garizim (2 Mace. v. 23), probably in occupation of the temple there. — 3. A Christian at Rome, saluted by St. Paul (Uom. xvi. 7) together with Junias. ANGELS. By the word " angels " {i. e. " messengers " of God) we ordinarily under- stand a race of spiritual beings, of a nature exalted far above that of man, although in- finitely removed from that of God, whose office is " to do Him service in heaven, and by His appointment to succour and defend men on earth." I. Scriptural use of the word. — There are many passages in which the expression the " angel of God," " the angel of Jehovah," is certainly used for a manifestation of God himself. This is espe- cially the case in the earlier books of the Old Testament, and may be seen at once by a comparison of Gen. xxii. 11 with 12, and of Ex. iii. 2 with 6 and 14 ; where He, who is called the " angel of Jehovah " in one verse, is called " God," and even " Jehovah " in those which follow, and accepts the worship due to God alone. It is to be observed also, that, side by side with these expressions, we read of God's being manifested in the form of man ; as to Abraham at Mamre (Gen. xviii. 2, 22, comp. xix, 1), to Jacob at Penuel (Gen. xxxii. 24, 30), to Joshua at Gilgal (Josh. V. 13, 15), &c. It is hardly to be doubted that both sets of passages refer to the same kind of manifestation of the Divine Presence. The inevitable inference is that by the " Angel of the Lord" in such passages is meant He, who is from the beginning the " Word," i. e. the Manifester or Revealer of God. Besides this, which is the highest ap- plication of the word " angel," we find the phrase used of any messengers of God, such as the prophets (Is. xlii. 19; Hag. i. 13; Mai. iii. 1), the priests (Mai. ii. 7), and the rulers of the Christian churches (Rev. i. 20)— II. Nature of angels.— lAttlQ is said of their nature as distinct from their office. They are termed " spirits " (as in Heb. i. 14) ; but it is not asserted that the angelic nature is incorporeal. The contrary seems expressly implied by the words in which our Lord declares, that, after the Resurrection, men shall be "like the angels" (Luke xx. 36); because (Phil. iii. 21) their bodies, as well as their spirits, shall have been made ^entirely like His. The angels are revealed to us as beings, such as man might be and will be when the power of sin and death is removed, partaking in their measure of the attributes of God, Truth, Purity, and Love, because always beholding His face (Matt, xviii. 10), and therefore being "made like Him" (1 John iii. 2). This, of course, im- plies finiteness, and therefore (in the strict sense) " imperfection " of nature, and con- stant progress, both moral and intellectual, through all eternity. Such imperfection, con- trasted with the infinity of God, is expressly ascribed to them in Job iv. 18 ; Matt. xxiv. 36 ; 1 Pet. i. 12. The finiteness of nature implies capacity of temptation ; and accord- ingly we hear of " fallen angels." Of the nature of their temptation and the circum- stances of their fall, we know absolutely nothing. All that is certain is, that they " left their first estate," and that they are now " angels of the devil " (Matt. xxv. 41 ; Rev. xii. 7, 9), partaking therefore of the falsehood, uncleanness, and hatred, which are his peculiar characteristics (John viii. 44). On the other hand, the title especially as- signed to the angels of God, that of the " holy ones" (see Dan. iv. 13, 23, viii. 13 ; Matt. xxv. 31), is precisely the one which is given to those men who are renewed in Christ's image, but which belongs to them in actuality and in perfection only hereafter. (Comp. Heb. ii. 10. v. 9, xii. 23.)— HI. Office of the atigels. — Of their office in heaven, we have, ol ANISE 30 course, only vag-ue prophetic glimpses (as in 1 K. xxii. 19 ; Is. vi. 1-3 ; Dan. vii. 9, 10 ; Rev. vi. 11, &c.), which show us nothing but a never-ceasing adoration. Their office towards man is far more fully described to us. They are represented as being, in the widest sense, agents of God's Provi- dence, natural and supeniatural, to the body and to the soul. More par- ticularly, however, angels are spoken of as ministers of what is called mpernatural Providence of God ; as agents in the great scheme of the spiritual redemption and sanctifica- tion of man, of which the Bible is the record. Dui-ing the prophetic and kingly period, angels ai-e spoken of only as ministers of God in the ope- rations of nature. But in the cap- tivity angels are revealed in a fresh light, as watching, not only over Jerusalem, but also over heathen kingdoms, under the Providence, and to work out the designs, of the Lord. (See Zech. passim, and Dan. iv. 13, 23, X. 10, 13, 20, 21, &c.) The In- carnation mai'ks a new epoch of an- gelic ministration. " Tlie Angel of Jehovah," the Lord of all created angels, having now descended from heaven to earth, it was natural that His servants should continue to do Him service there. The New Testament is the history of the Church of Christ, every member of which is united to Him. Accordingly, the angels are revealed now, as "ministering spirits" to each individual member of Christ for His spiritual guidance and aid (Heb. i. 14). In one word they are Christ's ministers of grace now, as they shall be of judgment hereafter (Matt, xiii.,39, 41, 49, xvi. 27, xxiv. 31, &c.). That there are degrees of the angelic nature, fallen and unfallen, and special titles and Common Dill. {Anethum groveolens.} against each other, was no doubt one of the reasons why they were admired (" the bravery of their tinkling ornaments"). They are still worn in the East. AN 'NA. A " prophetess " in Jerusalem at the time of our Lord's presentation in the Temple (Luke ii. 36). She was of the tribe of Asher. AN'NAS, the son of one Seth, was ap- pointed high-priest in the year a.d. 7, by Quirinus, the imperial governor of Syria ; but was obliged by Valerius Gratus, procu- rator of Judaea, to give way to Ismael, son of Phabi, at the beginning of the reign of agencies belonging to each, is clearly de- I Tiberius, a.d. 14. Ismael was succeeded by Eleazar, son of Annas ; then followed, after one year, Simon, son of Camithus, and then, after another year (about a.d. 25), Joseph Caiaphas, son-in-law of Annas (John xviii. 13). But in Luke iii. 2, Annas and Caiaphas are both called high-priests, Annas being mentioned first. Our Lord's first hearing (John xviii. 13) was before Annas, who then I sent him bound to Caiaphas. In Acts iv. 6, Annas is plainly called the high-priest, and Caiaphas merely named with others of his family. Some maintain that the two, Annas and Caiaphas, were together at the head of the Jewish people, t- Caiaphas as actual high- ciared by St. Paul (Eph. i. 21 ; Rom. viii. 38), but what their general nature is, it is useless to speculate. ANISE. This woi-d occurs only in Matt, xxiii. 23. It is by no means a matter of certainty whether the anise [Pimpinella ani- siim, Lin.) or the dill [Anethum graveoletis) is here intended, though the probability is more in favour of the latter plant. ANKLET. This word does not occur in the A. v., but anklets are referred to in Is. iii. 16, 18, 20. They were fastened to the ankle-band of each leg, were as common as bracelets and armlets, and made of much the same materials ; the pleasant jingling and priest, Annas as president of the Sanhedrim, tinkling which they made as they knocked Others again suppose that Annas held the ANOINTING 31 ANTICHRIST office of sagan, or substitute of the liigh- priest. He lived to old age, having had five sons high-priests. ANOINTING in Holy Scripture is either I. Material, with oil, or II. Spiritual, with the Holy Ghost. — I. Material. — 1. Ordi- nary. Anointing the body or head with oil was a common practice with the Jews, as with other Oriental nations (Deut. xxviii. 40; Uuth iii. 3; Mic. vi. 15). Abstinence from it was a sign of mourning (2 Sam. xiv. 2 ; Dan, x. 3 ; Matt. vi. 17). Anointing the head with oil or ointment seems also to have been a mark of respect sometimes paid by a host to his guests (Luke vii. 46 and Ps. XX iii. 5). — 2. Official. It was a rite of inau- guration into each of the three typical offices of the Jewish commonwealth, (a) Prophets were occasionally anointed to their office (IK. xix. 16), and are called messiahs, or anointed (1 Chr. xvi. 22; Ps. cv. 15). (ft) Priests, at the first institution of the Le- vitical priesthood, were all anointed to their offices, the sons of Aaron as well as Aaron himself (Ex. xl. 15 ; Num. iii. 3) ; but after- wards, anointing seems not to have been re- peated at the consecration of ordinary priests, but to have been especially reserved for the bigh-priest (Ex. xxix. 29 ; Lev. xvi. 32) ; so that " the priest that is anointed " (Lev. iv. 3) is generally thought to mean the high- priest, (c) Kings. Anointing was the prin- cipal and divinely-appointed ceremony in the inauguration of the Jewish kings (1 Sam. ix. 16, X. 1 ; 1 K. i. 34, 39). The rite was some- times performed more than once. David was thrice anointed to be king. After the sepa- ration into two kingdoms, the kings both of Judah and of Israel seem still to have been anointed (2 K. ix. 3, xi. 12). [d) Inani- mate objects also were anointed with oil in token of their being set apart for religious service. Thus Jacob anointed a pillar at Bethel (Gen. xxxi. 13) ; and at the introduc- tion of the Mosaic economy, the tabernacle and all its furniture were consecrated by anointing (Ex. xxx. 26-28). — 3. ^cc^esj- astical. Anointing with oil in the name of the Lord is prescribed by St. James to be used together with prayer, by the elders of the church, for the recovery of the sick (James v. 14). Analogous to this is the anointing with oil practised by the twelve (Mark vi. 13).— II. Spiritual. — 1. In the O. T. a Deliverer is promised under the title of Messiah, or Anointed (Ps. ii. 2 ; Dan. ix. 25, 26) ; and the nature of his anointing is described to be spiritual, with the Holy Ghost (Is. Ixi. 1 ; see Luke iv. 18). In the N. T. Jesus of Nazareth is shown to be the Messiah, or Christ, or Anointed cf the Old Testament (John i. 41 ; Acts ix. 22, xvii. 2, 3, xviii. 4, 28) ; and the historical faet of his being anointed with the Holy Ghost is as- serted and recorded (John i. 32, 33 ; Acts iv. 27, X. 38). 2. Spiritual anointing with the Holy Ghost is conferred also upon Christians by God (2 Cor. i. 21), and they are described as having an unction from the Holy One, by which they know all things (1 John ii. 20, 27). ANT (Heb. nemaldh). This insect is men- tioned twice in the O. T. : in Prov. vi. 6, xxx. 25. In the former of these passages the diligence of this insect is instanced by the wise man as an example worthy of imitation ; in the second passage the ant's wisdom is especially alluded to, for these insects, " though they be little on the earth, are ex- ceeding wise." It is well known that the ancient Greeks and Romans believed that the ant stored up food, which it collected in the summer, ready for the winter's consump- tion ; but this is an error. The European species of ants are all dormant in the winter, and consequently require no food ; and the observations of modern natui-alists seem almost conclusive that no ants lay up for future consumption. ANTICHRIST. This term is employed by the Apostle John alone, and is defined by him in a manner which leaves no doubt as to its intrinsic meaning. With regard to its application there is less certainty. In the first passage (1 John ii. 18) in which it occurs the apostle makes direct reference to the false Christs, whose coming, it had been fore- told, should mark the last days. " Little children, it is the last time : and as ye have heard that the Antichrist cometh, even now have there been many Antichrists ; whereby we know that it is the last time." The allu- sion to Matt. xxiv. 24 was clearly in the mind of the Syriac translator, who I'endcred Antichrist by " the false Christ." In ver. 22 we find, " he is the Antichrist that denieth the Father and the Son ;" and still more po- sitively, " every spirit that confesseth not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh " is of Antichrist (comp. 2 John 7). From these emphatic and repeated definitions it has been supposed that the object of the apostle in his first epistle was to combat the errors of Ce- rinthus, the Docetae, and the Gnostics on the subject of the Incarnation. The Antichrists, against which he warned the churches of Asia Minor as being already in the world, had been of their own number ; " they went out from us, but they were not of us "(1 John ii. 19) ; and the manner in which they are referred to implies that the name was alr(;ady familiar to those to whom the epistle was ANTIOCH ANTJOCH addressed, through the apostles' oral teach- ing (2 Thess. ii. 5). The coming of Anti- christ was believed to be foretold in the "vile person " of Daniel's prophecy (xi. 21), which received its first accomplishment in Antiochus Epiphanes, but of which the com- plete fulfilment was reserved for the last times. He is identified with " the man of sin, the son of perdition" (2 Thess. ii. 3), who should be revealed when he "who now letteth " was removed ; that is, accord- ing to the belief of the primitive church, when the Roman order of things ceased to be. This interpretation brings Antichrist into close connexion with the gigantic power of evil, sym- bolised by the "beast" (Rev. xiii ), Avho received his power from the dragon {i. e. the devil, the serpent of Genesis), continued for forty and two months, and was invested with the kingdom of the ten kings who de- stroyed the harlot Babylon (Rev. xvii 12, 17), the city of seven hills. The destruction of Babylon is to be fol- lowed by the rule of Antichrist for a short period (Rev. xvii. 10), to be m his turn oveithrown in " the battle of that great day of God Almighty" (Rev. xvi. 14) with the false prophet and all his followers (Rev. xix.). The personality of Antichrist is to be in- ferred as well from the personality of his historical precursor, as from th\t of Him to whom he stands opposed Such an interpretation is to be pre ferred to that which regards Anti- christ as the embodiment and per- sonification of all powers and agencies inimical to Christ, or of the Antichristian might of the world. But the language of the apostles is intentionally obscure, and this ob- scurity has been rather deepened than re- moved by the conflicting interpretations of expositors. All that the dark hints of the apostles teach us is, that they regarded Anti- christ as a power whose influence was be- ginning to be felt even in their time, but whose full development was reserved till the j passing away of the principle which hindered I it, and the destruction of the power sym- bolised by the mystical Babylon. I AN'TlbciI. i. In Syria. The capital of the Greek kings of Syria, and afterwards the j residence of the Roman governors of the pro- ' vince which bore the same name. This metro- polis was situated where the chain of Lebanon, ; running northwards, and the chain of Taurus, running eastwards, are brought to an abrupt, meeting. Here the Orontes breaks through the mountains ; and Antioch -was placed at a bend of the river, partly on an island, partly on the level which forms the left bank, and partly on the steep and craggy ascent of Mount Silpius, which rose abruptly on the south. In the immediate neighbourhood was Daphne, the celebrated sanctuary of Apollo (2 Mace. iv. 33) ; whence the city was some- times called Antioch by Daphne, to distin- guish it from other citias of the same name. — No city, after Jerusalem, is so intimately connected with the history of the apostolic church.— The chief interest of Antioch, haw- •A.-\--j.- Gate of SL Paul, Antiucli ever, is connected with the progress of Chris- tianity among the heathen. Here the first Gentile church was founded (Acts xi. 20, 21) ; here the disciples of Jesus Christ wei-e first called Christians (xi. 26). It was from Antioch that St. Paul started on his three missionary journeys. The city was founded in the year 300 b.c, by Seleucus Nicator. Jews were settled there from the first in large numbers, were governed by their own ethuarch, and allowed to have the same poli- tical privileges with the Greeks. Antioch grew under the successive Seleucid kings, till it became a city of great extent and of remarkable beauty. Some of the most mag- nificent buildings were on the island. One feature, which seems to have been charac- teristic of the great Syrian cities, — a vast street with colonnades, intersecting the whole from end to end — was added by Antiochus Epiphanes. By Pompey it was made a free 3ity, and such it continued till the time of ANTIOCHUS ANTIOCHUS Antoninus Pius. The early Emperors raised there some large and important structures, such as aqueducts, amphitheatres, and baths. Herod the Great contributed a road and a colonnade. — 2. In Pisiiha (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 19, 21; 2 Tim. iii. 11), on the borders of Phrygia, corresponds to Yalohatch, which is distant from Ak-sher six hours over the mountains. This city, like the Syrian An- tioeh, Avas founded by Seleucus Nicator. Under the Romans it became a colotiia, and was also called Caesarea. ANTI'OCHUS II., king of Syria, surnamed the God, succeeded his father Antiochus Soter in B.C. 261. During the earlier part of his reign he was engaged in a fierce war Avitti Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, in the course of which Parthia and Bactria revolted and became independent kingdoms. At length (B.C. 2J0) peace was made, and the two mon- archs "joined themselves together" (Dan. xi. 6), and Ptolemy ("king of the south") gave his daughter Berenice in marriage to Antiochus ("the king of the north"), who set aside his former wife, Laodice, to receive her. After some time, on the death of Pto- lemy (B.C. 247), Antiochus recalled Laodice and her children Seleucus and Antiochus to court. Thus Berenice was " not able to re- tain her power ;" and Laodice, in jealous fear lest she might a second time lose her as- cendancy, poisoned Antiochus (him " that strengthened her," i. e. Berenice), and caused Berenice and her infant son to be put to death, b.c. 246 (Dan. xi. 6). ANTI'OCHUS III., surnamed the Great, grandson of the preceding, succeeded his brother Seleucus Keraunos, who was assassi- nated after a short reign in b.c. 223. He prosecuted the war against Ptolemy Philo- pator with vigour, and at first with success. In B.C. 218 he drove the Egyptian forces to Sidon, conquered Samaria and Gilead, and wintered at Ptolemais, but was defeated next year at Raphia, near Gaza (b.c. 217), with im- mense loss, and in consequence made a peace with Ptolemy, in which he ceded to him the disputed provinces of Coele-Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine (Dan. xi. 11, 12). During the next thirteen years Antiochus was en- gaged in strengthening his position in Af.ia Minor, and on the frontiers of Parthia, and by his successes gained his surname of the Great. At the end of this time, b.c. 205, Ptolemy Philopator died, and left his king- dom to his son Ptol. Epiphanes, who was only five years old. Antiochus availed him- self of the opportunity which was offered by the weakness of a minority and the unpopu- larity of the regent, to unite with Philip III. of Macedon for the purpose of conquering S.M. T). B. and dividing the Egyptian dominions. lie succeeded in occupying the three disputed provinces, but was recalled to Asia by a war which broke out with Attains, king of Per- gamus ; and his ally Philip was himself em- broiled with the Romans. In consequence of this diversion, Ptolemy, by the aid of Scopas, again made himself master of Jeru- salem, and recovered the territory which he had lost. In B.C. 198 Antiochus reappeared in the field and gained a decisive victory near the sources of the Jordan; and after- wards captured Scopas and the remnant of his forces who had taken refuge in Sidon. His further designs against Egypt were frus- trated by the intervention of the Romans. From Egypt Antiochus turned again to Asia Minor, and after various successes in the Acgaean crossed over to Greece, and by the advice of Hannibal entered on a war with ■Home. His victorious course was checked at Thermopylae (b.c. 191), and after subsequent reverses he was finally defeated at Magnesia in Lydia, b.c. 190. In b.c. 187 he attacked a rich temple of Belus in Elymais, and was slain by the people who rose in its defence. HcRd of Antiochus III. (.From a coin.) ANTI'OCHUS IV., EPIPH'ANES {the lU lustrious), was the youngest son of Antiochus the Great. He was given as a hostage to the Romans (b.c. 188) after his father's defeat at Magnesia. In b.c. 175 he was released by the intervention of his brother Seleucus, who substituted his own son Demetrius in his place. Antiochus was at Athens when Se- leucus was assassinated by Heliodorus. He took advantage of his position, and, by the assistance of Eumencs and Attains, easily ex- pelled Heliodorus who had usurped the crown, and himself " obtained the kingdom by flat- teries" (Dan. xi. 21) to the exclusion of his nephew Demetrius (Dan. viii. 7 ). The acces- sion of Antiochus was immediately followed by desperate eff'orts of the Ilcllenizing party at Jerusalem to assert their supremacy. Jason, the brother of Onias III., the high-priest, persuaded tli4 king to transfer the high- O ANTIOCHUS 34 ANTIOCHUS priesthood to him, and at the same time bought permission (2 Mace. iv. 9) to earry out his design of habituating the Jews to Greek customs (2 Mace. iv. 7, 20). Three years afterwards, Menelaus, of the tribe of Benjamin, supplanted Jason by offering the king a larger bribe, and was himself ap- pointed high-priest (2 Mace. iv. 23-26). An- tiochus undertook four campaigns against Egypt, B,c. 171, 170, 169, 168, MUth greater success than had attended his predecessor, and the complete conquest of the country was prevented only by the interference of the Romans (Dan. xi. 24; 1 Mace. i. 16 ff. ; 2 Mace. V. 11 ff.). On his return from his second Egyptian campaign (b.c. 170) he at- tacked Jerusalem. The Temple was plun- dered, a terrible massacre took place, and a Phrygian governor was left with Menelaus m charge of the city (2 Mace. v. 1-22 ; 1 Mace. i. 20-28). Two years afterwards, at the close of the fourth expedition, Antiochus detached a force under ApoUonius to occupy Jerusalem and fortify it (1 Mace. iv. 61, v. 3 ff. ; Dan. xi. 41). The decrees then fol- lowed which have rendered his name in- famous. The Temple was desecrated, and the observance of the law was forbidden (1 Mace. i. 54). Ten days afterwards an offering was made upon the altar to Jupiter Olympius. At Jerusalem all opposition ap- pears to have ceased ; but Mattathias and his sons organised a resistance, which preserved inviolate the name and faith of Israel. Mean- while Antiochus turned his arms to the East, towards Tarthia and Armenia (Dan. xi. 40). Hearing not long afterwards of the riches of a temple of Nanaea in Elymais, hung with the gifts of Alexander, he resolved to plunder it. The attempt was defeated ; and though he did not fall like his father in the act of sacri- lege, the event hastened his death. He re- tired to Babylon, and thence to Tabae in Persia, where he died b.c. 164, having first heard of the successes of the Maccabees in restoring the Temple-worship at Jerusalem (1 Mace. vi. 1-16 ; comp. 2 Mace. i. 7-17 ?). HeaU of Auticichua IV. Epiphaiiea. (From a coin.) ANTI'OCHUS v., EU'PATOR [of noble descent), succeeded his father Antiochus IV. B.C. 164, while still a child, under the guar- dianship of Lysias (1 Mace. iii. 32, vi. 17), though Antiochus had on his death-bed as- signed this office to Philip his own foster- brother (1 Mace. vi. 14, 15, 55 ; 2 Mace. ix. 29). Shortly after his accession he marched against Jerusalem with a large army to re- lieve the Syrian garrison, which was hard pressed by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Mace. vi. 19 ff.). He repulsed Judas at Bethzacharia, and took Bethsura (Bethzur) after a ^^gorous resistance (1 Mace. vi. 31-50). But when the Jewish force in the Temple was on the point of yielding, Lysias persuaded the king to conclude a hasty peace that he might ad- vance to meet Philip, who had returned from Persia and made himself master of Antioch (1 Mace. vi. 51 ff.). Philip was speedily overpowered ;-but in the next year (b.c. 162) Antiochus and Lysias fell into the hands of Demetrius Soter, the son of Seleucus Philo- pator, who caused them to be put to death (I Mace. vii. 2-4 ; 2 Mace. xiv. 1, 2). Head of Antiochus VL (From a ooln.j ANTI'OCHUS VI. was the son of Alex- ander Balas and Cleopa;tra. After his father's death (146 b.c.) he remained in Arabia; but though still a child (1 Mace. xi. 54), he was soon afterwards brought forward (c. 145 B.C.) as a claimant to the throne of Syria against Demetrius Nicator by Tryphon or Diodotus (1 Mace. xi. 89), who had been an officer of his father. Tryphon succeeded in gaining Antioch (1 Mace. xi. 56) ; and after- wards the greater part of Syria submitted to the young Antiochus. lie afterwards defeated the troops of Demetrius at Hazor (1 Mace. xi. 67) near Cadesh (ver. 73) : and repulsed a second attempt which he made to regain Palestine (1 Mace. xii. 24 ff.). Tryphon having now, with the assistance of Jonathan the high-priest, gained the svipreme power in the name of Antiochus, no longer concealed ANTIOCHUS 35 APOLLOS his design of usurping the crown. As a first step he took Jonathan by treachery and put him to death, b.c. 143 (1 Mace. xii. 40) ; and afterwards murdered the young king, and ascended the throne (1 Mace. xiii. 31). ANTI'OCHUS VII., SIDE'TES [of Side, in Pamphylia), king of Syria, was the second son of Demetrius I. When his brother, De- metrius Nicator, was taken prisoner (c. 141 B.C.) by Mithridates I. (Arsaces VI., 1 Mace. xiv. 1) king of Parthia, he married his wife Cleopatra and obtained possession of the throne (137 b.c), having expelled the usurper Tryphon (1 Mace. xv. 1 if.). At first he made a very advantageous treaty with Simon, high-priest of the Jews, but when he grew independent of his help, he withdrew the concessions which he had made, and demanded the surrender of the fortresses which the Jews held, or an equivalent in money (1 Mace. XV. 26 fF.). As Simon was unwilling to yield to his demands, he sent a force under Cende- baeus against him, who occupied a fortified position at Cedron (? 1 Mace. xv. 41), near Azotus, and harassed the surrounding country. After the defeat of Cendebaeus by the sons of Simon and the destruction of his works (1 Mace. xvi. 1-10), Antiochus laid siege to Jerusalem, but granted honourable terms to John Hyrcanus (b.c. 133), who had made a vigorous resistance. In a campaign against the Parthians he was entirely defeated by Phraortes II. (Arsaces VII.), and fell in the battle c. B.C. 127-6. AN'TIPAS. [Herod.] ANTIPA'TRIS, a town to which the sol- diers conveyed St. Paul by night on their march (Acts xxiii. 31). Its ancient name was Capharsaba ; and Herod, when he rebuilt the city, changed it to Antipatris, in honour of his father Antipater. The village Kefr-Saha etill retains the ancient name of Antipatris. APES (Heb. koplum) are mentioned in 1 K. X. 22, and 2 Chr. ix. 21. There can be little doubt but that the apes were brought from the same country which supplied ivory and pea- cocks, both of which are common in Ceylon ; and Sir E. Tennent has drawn attention to the fact that the Tamil names for apes, ivory, and peacocks, are identical with the Hebrew. APHARSATH'CHITES, APHAR'SITES, APHAR'SACITES, the names of certain tribes, colonies from which had been planted in Samaria by the Assj'rian leader Asnapper (Ezr. iv. 9, V. 6). The first and last are re- gai'ded as the same. Whence these tribes came is entirely a matter of conjecture. A'PIIEK, the name of several places in Palestine. — 1. A royal city of the Canaanites, the king of which was killed by Joshua (Josh, xii. 3 8), probably the same as .\rHEKAii in Josh. XV. 53.-2. A city, apparently rn the extreme north of Asher (Josh. xix. 30), from which the Canaanites were not ejected (Judg. i. 31 ; though here it is Aphik). This is pro- bably the same place as Aphek (Josh. xiii. 4), on the extreme north " border of the Amo- rites," identified with the Aphaca of classical times, the modern Afka. — 3. A place al which the Philistines encamped while the Israelites pitched in Eben-ezer, before the fatal battle in which the sons of EU were killed and the ark taken (1 Sam. iv. 1). This would be somewhere to the N.W. of, and at no great distance from Jerusalem.— 4. The scene of another encampment of the Philis- tines, before an encounter not less disastrous than that just named, — the defeat and death of Saul (1 Sam. xxix. 1). It is possible that i't may be the same place as the preceding. — 5. A city on the military road from Syria to Israel (1 K. xx. 26). It is now found in Flk, at the head of the Wadij Ftk, 6 miles east of the Sea of Galilee. APOCALYPSE. [Revelation.] APOCRYPHA. The collection of Books to which this term is popularly applied in- cludes the following (the order given is that in which they stand in the English version) : —I. 1 Esdras ; II. 2 Esdras ; III. Tobit ; IV. Judith ; V. The rest of the chapters of the Book of Esther, which are found neither in the Hebrew nor in the Chaldee ; VI. The Wisdom of Solomon ; VII. The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus ; VIII. Baruch ; IX. The Song of the Three Holy Children ; X. The History of Susanna ; XI. The Historv of the destruction of Bel and the Dragon ; Xii. The Praj'er of Manasses, king of Judah ; XIII. 1 Maccabees ; XIV. 2 Maccabees. The primary meaning of Apo- crypha, " hidden, secret," seems, towards the close of the 2nd century, to have been associated with the signification " spurious," and ultimately to have settled down into the latter. The separate books of this collection are treated of in distinct Articles. Their re- lation to the canonical books of the Old Tes- tament is discussed under Canon. APOLLO 'NIA, a city of Macedonia, through which Paul and Silas passed in their way from Philippi and Amphipolis to Thessalonica (Acts xvii. 1). According to the Antonine Itinerary, it was distant 30 Roman miles from Amphipolis, and 37 Roman miles from Thessalonica. APOL'LOS, a Jew from Alexandria, elo- quent (which may also mean learned) and mighty in the Scriptures : one instructed in the way of the Lord, according to the im- perfect view of the disciples of John the Baptist (Acts xviii. 25), but on his coming D 2 APOLLYON 36 APOSTLE to Ephesus during a temporary absence of St. Paul, A.D. 54, more perfectly taught by Aquila and Priscilla. After this he became a preacher of the Gospel, first in Achaia and then in Corinth (Acts xviii. 27, xix. 1), •where he watered that which Paul had planted (1 Cor. iii. 6). When the apostle ■wrote his first Epistle to the Corinthians, ApoUos was with or near him (1 Cor. xvi. 12), probably at Ephesus in a.d. 57 : we hear of him then that he was unwilling at that time to journey to Corinth, but would do so when he should have convenient time. lie is mentioned but once more in the N. T., in Tit.iii. 13. After this nothing is known of him. Tradition makes him bishop of Caesarea. It has been supposed by some that ApoUos was the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews. APOL'LYON, or, as it is literally in the margin of the A. V. of Rev, ix. II, "a de- stroyer," is the rendering of the Hebrew word Abaddon, " the angel of the bottomless pit." The angel ApoUyon is further described as the king of the locusts which rose from the smoke of the bottomless pit at the sounding of the fifth trumpet. From the occurrence of the word in Ps. Ixxxviii. II, the Rabbins have made Abaddon the nethermost of the two regions into which they divide the lower world. But that in Rev. ix. II, Abaddon is the angel and net the abyss, is perfectly evident in the Greek. There is no authority for connecting it with *' the destroyer " alluded to in 1 Cor. x. 10. APOSTLE (one sent forth), in the N. T., originally the official name of those Twelve of the disciples whom Jesus chose to send forth first to preach the Gospel, and to be with Him during the course of his ministry on earth. The word also appears to have been used in a non-offlcial sense to designate a much wider circle of Christian messengers and teachers (see 2 Cor. viii. 23 ; Phil. ii. 25). It is only of those who were officially designated Apostles that we treat in this article. The original qualification of an Apostle, as stated by St. Peter, on the occasion of electing a successor to the traitor Judas, was, that he should have been personally acquainted with the whole ministerial course of our Lord, from his baptism by John till the day when he was taken up into Heaven. The Apostles were from the lower ranks of life, simple and uneducated ; some of them were related to Jesus according to the flesh ; some had previously been disciples of John the Baptist. Our Lord chose them early in his public career, though it is uncertain precisely at what time. Some of them had certainly partly attached themselves to Him uefore ; but after their call as Apostles they appear to have been continuously with Him, or in his service. They seem to have been all on an equality, both during and after the ministry of Christ on earth. Early in our Lord's ministry, He sent them out two and two to preach repentance, and perform miracles in his name (Matt. x. ; Luke ix.). This their mission was of the nature of a solemn call to the children of Israel, to whom it was confined (Matt. x. 5, 6). The Apostles were early warned by their Master of the solemn nature and the danger of their calling (Matt. X. 17). They accompanied Him in his journeys of teaching and to the Jewish feasts, saw his wonderful works, heard his discourses addressed to the people, and made inquiries of Him on religious matters. They recognised Him as the Christ of God (Matt. xvi. 16 ; Luke ix. 20), and ascribed to Him supernatural power (Luke ix. 54) ; but in the recognition of the spiritual teaching and mission of Christ, they made very slow pro- gress, held back as they were by weakness of apprehension and by national prejudices. Even at the removal of our Lord from the earth they were yet weak in their know- ledge (Luke xxiv. 21 ; John xvi. 12), though he had for so long been carefully prepai-ing and instructing them. And when that hap- pened of which He had so often forewarned them — his apprehension by the chief priests and Pharisees — they all forsook Him and fled (Matt. xxvi. 56). They left his burial to one who was not of their number and to the women, and wei-e only convinced of his resm-rection on the very plainest proofs fur- nished by himself. On the Feast of Pente- cost, ten days after our Lord's ascension, the Holy Spirit came down on the assembled church (Acts ii.) ; and from that time the Apostles became altogether diiferent men, giv- ing witness with power of the life and death and resurrection of Jesus as He had declared they should (Luke xxiv. 48 ; Acts i. 8, 22, ii. 32, iii. 15, v. 32, xiii. 31). First of all the mother-church at Jerusalem grew up under their hands (Acts iii.-vii.), and their superior dignity and power were universally acknow- ledged by the rulers and the people (Acts V. 12 ff.). Even the persecution which arose about Stephen, and put the flrst check on the spread of the Gospel in Judaea, does not seem to have brought peril to the Apostles (Acts viii. I). Their first mission out of Jerusalem was to Samaria (Acts viii. 5-25), where the Lord himself had, during his ministry, sown the seed of the Gospel. Here ends, properly speaking (or rather perhaps with the general visitation hinted at in Acts ix. 31), the first period of the Apostles' agency, during which its centre is Jerusalem, APrEAL 37 and the prominent figure is that of St. Peter. — The centre of the second period of the apostolic agency is Antioch, where a church soon was built up, consisting of Jews and Gentiles ; and the central figure of this and of the subsequent period is St. Paul. The third apostolic period is marked by the almost entire disappearance of the Twelve from the sacred narrative, and the exclusive agency of St. Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles. Of the missionary work of the rest of the Twelve, we know absolutely nothing from the sacred narrative. — As regards the apostolic office, it seems to have been pre-eminently that of founding the churches, and upholding them by supernatural power specially bestowed for that purpose. It ceased, as a matter of course, with its first holders : all continua- tion of it, from the very conditions of its ex- istence (cf. 1 Cor. ix. 1), being impossible. APPEAL. The principle of appeal was recognized by the Mosaic law in the esta- blishment of a central court under the pre- sidency of the judge or ruler for the time being, before which all cases too difficult for the local courts were to be tried (Deut. xvii. 8-9). According to the above regulation, the appeal lay in the time of the Judges to the judge (Judg. iv. 5), and under the mon- archy to the king, who appears to have deputed certain persons to inquire into the facts of the case, and record his decision thereon (2 Sam. xv. 3). Jehoshaphat dele- gated his judicial authority to a court per- manently established for the purpose (2 Chr, xix. 8). These courts were re-established by Ezra (Ezr. vii. 25). After the institution of the Sanhedrim the final appeal lay to them. St. Paul, as a Roman citizen, exercised a right of appeal from the jurisdiction of the local court at Jerusalem to the emperor (Acts XXV. 11). Since the procedure in the Jewish courts at that period was of a mixed and undefined character, he availed himself of his undoubted privilege to be tried by the pure Roman law. AP'PII FOR'UM, a well-known station on the Appian Way, the great road which led from Rome to the neighbourhood of the Bay of Naples (Acts xxviii. 13). There is no difficulty in identifying the site with some ruins near Treponti. [Three Taveens.] APPLE-TREE, APPLE (Heb. tappuach). Mention of the apple-tree occurs in the A. V. in Cant. ii. 3, viii. 5, and Joel i. 12. The fruit of this tree is alluded to in Prov. sxv. 11, and Cant. ii. 5, vii. 8. It is a difficult matter to say what is the specific tree denoted by the Hebrew word tappuach. Most modern writers maintain that it is either the quince or the citron. The quince has some plausible ^.rguments in its favour. Its fragrance was held in high esteem by the ancients. The quince was sacred to Venus. On the other hand, Dr. Royle says, " The rich colour, fragrant odour, and handsome appearance of the citron, whether in flower or in fruit, are particularly suited to the passages of Scrip- ture mentioned above." But neither the quince nor the citron nor the apple appears fully to answer to all the Scriptural allu- sions. The orange would answer all the de- mands of the Scriptural passages, and orange- trees are found in Palestine ; but there does not appear sufficient evidence that this tree was known in the earlier times to the in- habitants of Palestine. The question of identi- fication, therefore, must still be left an open one. AQ'UILA, a Jew whom St. Paul found at Corinth on his arrival from Athens (Acts xviii. 2). He was a native of Pontus, but had fled, with his wife Priscilla, from Rome, in consequence of an order of Claudius com- manding all Jews to leave the city. He be- came acquainted with St. Paul, and they abode together, and wrought at their com- mon trade of making the Cilician tent or hair- cloth. On the departure of the Apostle from Corinth, a year and six months after, Priscilla and Aquila accompanied him to Ephesus. There they remained, and there they taught Apollos. At what time they became Chris- tians is uncertain, AR, or AR OF MOAB, one of the chief places of Moab (Is. xv, 1 ; Num. xxi. 28). In later times the place was known as Areo- polis and Rabbath-Moab. The site is still called Rabba ; it lies about half-way between Kerak and the Wady Mojeb, 10 or 11 miles from each, the Roman road passing through it. AR'ABAH. Although this word appears in the A. V. in its original shape only in Josh, xviii. 18, yet in the Hebrew text it is of frequent occurrence. It indicates more particularly the deep-sunken valley or trencli which forms the most striking an ong the many striking natural features of P destine, and which extends with great unifoimity of formation from the slopes of Hermon to the Elanitic Gulf [Gulf of Akabali) of the Red Sea ; the most remarkable depression known to exist on the surface of the globe. Through the northern portion of this extraordinary fissure the Jordan rushes through the lakes of Huleh and Gennesareth down its tortuous ■ course to the deep chasm of the Dead Sea. This portion, about 160 miles in length, is known amongst the Arabs by the name of el- Ghor. The southern boundary of the Ghor is the wall of cliff's which crosses the valley about 10 miles south of the Dead Sea. From their summits, southward to the Gulf oi Akabah, the valley changes its name, or, it ARABIA 38 ARABIA would be more accurate to say, retains its old name of Wady el-Arahah. ARA'BIA, a country known in the 0. T. nnder two designations: — 1. The JSast Country (Gen. xxv. 6) ; or perhaps the East (Gen. X. 30 ; Num. xxiii. 7 ; Is. ii. 6) ; and Land of the sons vf the East (Gen. xxix. 1) ; Gentile name, Sons of the East (Judg. vi. 3, vii. 12 ; 1 K. iv. 30 ; Job i, 3 ; Is. xi. 14 ; Jer. xlix. 28 ; Ez. xxv. 4). From these pas- sages it appears that the Latid of the East and Sons of the East indicate, primarily, the country east of Palestine, and the tribes de- scended from Ishmael and from Keturah ; and that this original signification may have become gradually extended to Arabia and its inhabitants generally, though without any strict limitation. 2. ^Arcib and 'Arab, whence Arabia (2 Chr. ix. 14; Is. xxi. 13; Jer. xxv. 24; Ez. xxvii. 21). This name seems to have the same geographical reference as the former name to the country and tribes east of the Jordan, and chiefly north of the Arabian peninsula. — Arabia may be divided into Arabia Proper, containing the whole peninsula as far as the limits of the northern deserts ; Northern Arabia, constituting the' great desert of Arabia ; and Western Arabia, the desert of Petra and the peninsula of Sitiai, or the country that has been called Arabia Petraea. I. Arabia Proper, or the Arabian peninsula, consists of high table-land, declin- ing towards the north ; its most elevated por- tions being the chain of mountains running nearly parallel to the Red Sea, and the terri- tory east of the southern part of this chain. So far as the interior has been explored, it consists' of mountainous and desert tracts, relieved by large districts under cultivation, well peopled, watered by wells and streams, and enjoying periodical rains. The most fertile tracts are those on the south-west and south. — II. Northern Arabia, or the Arabian Desert, is a high, undulating, parched plain, of which the Euphrates forms the natural boundary from the Persian Gulf to the frontier of Syria, whence it is bounded by the latter country and the desert of Petra on the north-west and west, the peninsula of Aiubia forming its southern limit. It has few oases, the water of the wells is generally either brackish or unpotable, and it is visited by the sand-wind called Satnoom. The in- habitants were known to the ancients as "dwellers in tents" (comp. Is. xiii. 20; Jer. xlix, 31 ; Ezek. xxxviii. 11) ; and they extended from Babylonia on the east (comp. Num. xxiii. 7 ; 2 Chr. xxi. 16; Is. ii. 6, xiii. 20), to the borders of Egypt on the west. These tribes, principally descended from Ishmael and from Keturah, have always led a wandering and pastoral life. They conducted a considerable trade of merchan- dise of Arabia and India from the shores of the Persian Gulf (Ez. xxvii. 20-24), whence a chain of oases still forms caravan-stations ; and they likewise traded from the western portions of the peninsula. The latter traffic appears to be frequently mentioned in con- nexion with Ishmaelites, Keturahites, and other Arabian peoples (Gen. xxxvii. 25, 28 ; 1 K. X. 15, 25 ; 2 Chr, ix. 14, 24 ; Is, Ix. 6 ; Jer. vi. 20) : it seems, however, to have been chiefly in the hands of the inhabitants of Idumaea. — III. Western Arabia includes the peninsula of Sinai [Sinai], and the desert of Petra, corresponding generally with the limits of Arabia Petraea. The latter name is probably derived from that of its chief city ; not from its stony character. It was in the earliest times inhabited by a people whose genealogy is not mentioned in the Bible, the Horites or Horim (Gen. xiv. 6, xxxvi. 20, 21, 22, 29, 30 ; Deut. ii. 12, 22). [Horites.] But it was mostly peopled by descendants of Esau, and was generally known as the land of Edom, or Idumaea [Edom] ; as well as by its older appellation, the desert of Seir, or Mount Seir [Seir]. The common origin of the Idumaeans from Esau and Ishmael is found in the marriage of the former with a daughter of the latter (Gen. xxviii. 9, xxxvi. 3). The Nabathaeans succeeded to the Idu- maeans.— Inhabitants. — 1. The descendants of JoKTAN occupied the principal portions of the south and south-west of the peninsula, with colonies in the interior. In Genesis (x. 30) it is said, " and their dwelling was from Mesha, as thou goest unto Sephar, a mount of the East {Kedem)." The principal Joktanite kingdom, and the chief state of ancient Arabia, was that of the Yemen, founded (according to the Arabs) by Yaarub, the son (or descendant) of Kahtan (Joktan). This was the Biblical kingdom of Sheba. Its rulers, and most of its people, wei-e descend- ants of Seba (= Sheba), whence the classical Sabaei. The dominant family was apparently that of Himyer, son (or descendant) of Sebd. A member of this family founded the more modern kingdom of the Himyerites. Native tradition seems to prove that the latter ap- pellation represented the former only shortly before the Christian era. The rule of the Himyerites (whence the Homeritae of classical authors) probably extended over the modern Yemeni, Hadramdwt, and Mahreh. Their kingdom lasted until a.d. 525, when it fell before an Abyssinian invasion. The other chief Joktanite kingdom was that of the Hijaz, founded by Jurhum, the brother of Yaarub, who left the Y''emen and settled in tlie neighbourhood of Mekkeh. This king- dom, situate in a less fertile district than the ARABIA 39 ARAM Yemen, and engaged in conflict with abori- ginal tribes, never attained the importance of that of the south. — 2. The Ishmaelites appear to have entered the peninsula from the north-west. That they have spread over the whole of it (with the exception of one or two districts on the south coast), and that the modern nation is predominantly Ish- maelite, is asserted by the Arabs. They ex- tended northwards from the Hijaz into the Arabian desert, where they mixed with Keturahites and other Abrahamic peoples : and westwards to Idumaea, where they mixed with Edomites, &c. The tribes sprung from Ishmael have always been governed by petty chiefs or heads of families (sheykhs and emeers) : they have generally followed a patriai-chal life, and have not originated kingdonxs, though they have in some instances succeeded to those of the Joktanites, the principal one of these being that of El- Heereh. With reference to the Ishmaelites generally, there is doubt as to the wide extension given to them by Arab tradition. — 3. Of the descendants of Keturah the Arabs say little. They appear to have settled chiefly north of the peninsula in Desert Arabia, from Palestine to the Persian Gulf. — 4. In Northern and Western Arabia are other peoples which, from their geographical posi- tion and mode of life, are sometimes classed with the Arabs. Of these are Amalek, the descendants of Esau, &c. — Religion. The most ancient idolatry of the Arabs we must conclude to have been fetishism, of which there are striking proofs in the sacred trees and stones of historical times, and in the worship of the heavenly bodies, or Sabaeism. Magianism, an importation from Chaldaea and Persia, must be reckoned among the religions of the Pagan Arabs ; but it never had very numerous followers. Christianity was introduced into Southern Arabia towards the close of the 2nd century, and about a century later it had made great progress. It flourished chiefly in the Yemen, where many churches were built. Judaism was propa- gated in Arabia, principally by Karaites, at the captivity, but it was introduced before that time : it became very prevalent in the Yemen, and in the Hijaz, especially at Khey- bar and El-Medeeneh, where there are said to be still tribes of Jewish extraction. — Language. Arabic, the language of Arabia, is the most developed and the richest of the Shemitic languages, and the only one of which we have an extensive literature : it is, therefore, of great importance to the study of Hebrew. Of its early phases we know no- thing ; while we have archaic monuments of the Himyeritic (the ancient language of southern Arabia), though we cannot fix their precise ages. It is probable tbat in the 14tii or 13th cent, b.c, the Shemitic languages differed much less than in after times. But it appears from 2 K. xviii. 2G, that in the 8th cent. b.c. only the educated classes among the Jews understood Aramaic. With these evidences before us, we think that the Him- yeritic is to be regarded as a sister of the Hebrew, and the Arabic (commonly so called) as a sister of the Hebrew and Aramaic, or, in its classical phasis, as a descendant of a sister of these two, but that the Himyeritic is mixed with an African language, and that the other dialects of Arabia are in like manner, though in a much less degree, mixed with an African language. — The manners and customs of the Arabs are of great value in illustrating the Bible. No one can mix with this people without being constantly and forcibly re- minded either of the early patriarchs or of the settled Israelites. We may instance their pastoral life, their hospitality, their universal respect for age (comp. Lev. xix. 32), their familiar deference (comp. 2 K. v. 13), their superstitious regard for the beard. — Refer- ences in the Bible to the Arabs themselves are still more clearly illustrated by the man- ners of the modern people, in their predatory expeditions, their mode of warfare, their caravan journeys, &c. — Commerce. Direct mention of the commerce of the south does not appear to be made in the Bible, but it seems to have passed to Palestine principally through the noj-thern tribes. The Joktanite people of southern Arabia have always been, in contradistinction to the Ishmaelite tribes, addicted to a seafaring life. The latter were caravan-merchants; the former, the chief traders of the Red Sea, carrying their com- merce to the shores of India, as well as to the nearer coasts of Africa. ARA'BIAXS, the nomadic tribes inhabit- ing the country to the east and south of Palestine, who in the early times of Hebrew history were known as Ishmaelites and de- scendants of Keturah. A'RAD, a royal city of the Canaanites, named with Hormah and Libnah (Josh. xii. 14). The wilderness of Judah was to "the south of Arad" (Judg. i. 16). It may be identified with a hill, Tel 'Arad, an hour and a half N.E. by E. from Milh (Moladah), and 8 hours from Hebron. A' RAM, the name by which the Hebrews designated, generally, the country lying to the north-east of Palestine ; the great mass of that high table-land which, rising with sudden abruptness from the Jordan and the very margin of the lake of Gennesareth, stretches, at an elevation of no less than 2000 feet above the level of the sea, to the banks of the Euphrates itself, contrasting strongly ARARAT 40 ARARAT with the low land hordering on the Medi- terranean, the " land of Canaan," or the low country (Gen, xxxi. 18, xxxiii, 18, &c.). Throughout the A. V. the word is, with onlj' a very few exceptions, rendered, as in the Vulgate and LXX., — Syria. In the later history we meet with a number of small nations or kingdoms forming parts of the general land of Aram : — 1. Aram-Zobah, or simply Zobah (1 Sam.xiv. 47 ; 2 Sam. viii. 3 ; 1 Chr. xviii. xix.). [Zobah.] 2. Aram beth-rehob (2 Sam. x. 6), or Rehob (x. 8). [Rkhob.] 3. Aram-maachah (1 Chr. xix. 6), or Maachah only (2 Sam. x. 6). [Maaghah.] 4. Geshur, "in Aram" (2 Sam. xv. 8), usu- ally named in connexion with Maachah (Deut. iii. 14; Josh. xiii. 11, 13, &c.). [Geshur.] 5. Aram-Dammesek (Damascus) (2 Sam. viii. 5, 6 ; 1 Chr. xviii. 5, 6). The whole of these petty states are spoken of collectively under the name of " Aram " (2 Sam. X. 13), but as Damascus increased in importance it gradually absorbed the smaller powers (1 K. xx. 1), and the name of Aram was at last applied to it alone (Is. vii. 8 ; also 1 K. xi. 24, 25, xv. 18, &c.). In three passages Aram would seem to denote Assyria (2 K. xviii. 26 ; Is. xxxvi. 11 ; Jer. XXXV. 11). — 2. Another Aram is named in Gen. xxii. 21, as a son of Kemuel, and de- scendant of Nahor. AR'ARAT, a mountainous district of Asia mentioned in the Bible in connexion with the following events : — (1.) As the resting-place of the Ark after the Deluge (Gen. viii. 4) : (2.) as the asylum of the sons of Sennacherib (2 K. xix. 37 ; Is. xxxvii. 38 ; A. V. has *' the land of Armenia ") : (3.) as the ally, and probably the neighbour, of Minni and Ashchenaz (Jer. li. 27). [Armenia.] The name Ararat was unknown to the geographers of Greece and Rome, as it still is to the Armenians of the present day : but that it was an indigenous and an ancient name for a portion of Armenia, appears from the state- ment of Moses of Chorene, who gives Araratia 8,0 the designation of the central province. In its Biblical sense it is descriptive generally of the Armenian highlands — the lofty plateau which overlooks the plain of the Araxes on the N., and of Mesopotamia on the S. Vari- ous opinions have been put forth as to the spot where the Ark rested, as described in Gen. viii. 4 ; but Berosus the Chaldaean, contemporary with Alexander the Great, fixes the spot on the mountains of Kur- distan. Tradition still points to the Jciel Judi as the scene of the event. Europeans have given the name Aratat exclusively to the mountain which is called Massis by the Armenians, Agri-Dagh, i. e. Steep Mountain, by the Turks, and Kuh-i-Nuh, i. e. NoaWs Motmtain, by the Persians. It rises im- mediately out of the plain of the Araxes, and terminates in two conical peaks, named the Great and Less Ararat, about seven milea distant from each other ; the former of which attains an elevation of 17,260 feet above the level of the sea and about 14,000 above the plain of the Araxes, while the latter is lower by 4000 feet. The summit of the higher is covered with eternal snow for about 3000 feet. It is of volcanic origin. The summit of Ararat was long deemed inaccessible. It was first ascended in 1829 by Parrot, who approached it from the N.W. Arguri, the only village known to have been built on its slopes, was the spot where, according to tradition, Noah planted his vineyard. Lower down, in the plain of Araxes, is Nachdjevan, where the patriarch is reputed to have been buried. Returning to the broader significa- tion we have assigned to the term, " the mountains of Ararat," as co-extensive with the Armenian plateau from the base of Ararat in the N. to the range of Kurdistan in the S., we notice the following characteristics of that region as illustrating the Bible narrative : — (1.) Its elevation. It rises to a height of from 6000 to 7000 feet above the level of the sea. (2.) Its geographical position. The Armenian plateau stands equidistant from the Euxine and the Caspian seas on the N., and between the Persian Gulf and the Medi- terranean on the S. Viewed with reference to the dispersion of the nations, Armenia is the true centre of the world : and at the present day Ararat is the great boundary- stone between the empires of Russia, Turkey, and Persia. (3.) Its physical character. The plains as well as the mountains supply evi- dence of volcanic agency. Armenia, how- ever, differs materially from other regions of similar geological formation, inasmuch as it does not rise to a sharp well-defined central crest, but expands into plains or steppes, separated by a graduated series of subordinate ranges. (4.) The climate. Winter lasts from October to May, and is succeeded by a brief spring and summer of intense heat. In Api-il the Armenian plains are still covered with snow ; and in the earlj part of Sep- tember it freezes keenly at night. (5.) The vegetation. Grass grows luxuriantly on the plateau, and furnishes abundant pasture during the summer months to the flocks of the nomad Kurds. Wheat, barley, and vines ripen at far higher altitudes than on the Alps and the Pyrenees ; and the harvest is brought to maturity with wonderful speed. AllAU'NAH, a Jebusite who sold his threshing-floor on Mount Moriah to David as a site for an altar to Jehovah, together with his oxen (2 Sam. xxiv. 18-24 ; 1 Chr.xxi. 25). AREA 41 ARGOB AR'BA, the progenitor of the Anakim, or sons of Anak, from whom their chief city Hebro-n received its name of Kirjath-Arba, (Josh. xiv. 15, XV. 13, xxi. 1«13. AR'BAH. Hebron, or Kirjath-Arba, as " the city of Arbah " is always rendered else- where (Gen. XXXV. 27). ARBE'LA, mentioned in the Bible only in 1 Mace. ix. 2. It is identified with the modern Irbid, a site with a few ruins, west oiMejdel, on the south-east side of the Wady Hamdm, in a small plain at the foot of the hill of Kurtin Hattin. ARCHELA'US, son of Herod the Great, by a Samaritan woman, Malthake, and, with his brother Antipas, brought up at Rome. At the death of Herod (e.g. 4) his kingdom was divided between his three sons, Herod Anti- pas, Archelaus, and Philip. Archelaus never properly bore the title of king (Matt. ii. 22), but only that of ethnarch. In the tenth year of his reign, or the ninth, according to Dion Cassius, i, e. a.d. 6, a complaint was pi-eferred against him by his brothers and his subjects on the ground of his tyranny, in consequence of which he was banished to Vienne in Gaul, where he is generally said to have died. ARCHERY. [Arms.] ARCHIP'PUS, a Christian teacher in Colossae (Col. iv. 17), called by St. Paul his "fellow-soldier," (Philem. 2). He was pro- bably a member of Philemon's family, ARCHITECTURE. The book of Genesis (iv. 17, 20, 22) appears to divide mankind into great characteristic sections, viz., the "dwellers in tents" and the "dwellers in cities." To the race of Shem is attributed (Gen. X. 11, 12, 22, xi. 2-9) the foundation of those cities in the plain of Shinar, Babylon, Nineveh, and others ; of one of which, Resen, the epithet " great " sufficiently marks its importance in the time of the writer. It is in connexion with Egypt that the Israelites appear first as builders of cities, compelled to labour at the buildings of the Egyptian mon- archs. Pithom and Raamses are said to have been built by them (Ex. i. II). They were by occupation shepherds, and by habit dwel- lers in tents (Gen. xlvii. 3). They had therefore originally, speaking properly, no architecture. From the time of the occupa- tion of Canaan they became dwellers in towns and in houses of stone (Lev. xiv. 34, 45 ; I K. vii. 10) ; but these were not in all, nor Indeed in most cases, built by themselves (Deut. vi. 10 ; Num.xiii. 19). The peaceful reign and vast wealth of Solomon gave great impulse to architecture ; for besides the Temple and his other great works, he built fortresses and cities in various places, among which Baalath and Tadmor are in all proba- bility represented by Baalbec and PalmjTa (1 K. ix. 15, 24). Among the succeeding kings of Israel and of Judah, moi-e than one is recorded as a builder : Asa (1 K. xv. 23), Baasha (xv. 17), Omri (xvi. 24), Ahab (xvi, 32, xxii. 39), Hezekiah (2 K. xx. 20 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 27-30), Jehoash, and Josiah (2 K. xii. 11, 12, xxii. 6) ; and, lastly, Jehoiakim, whose winter palace is mentioned (Jer. xxii. 14, xxxv-i. 22 ; see also Am. iii. 15). On the return from captivity the chief care of the rulers was to rebuild the Temple and the walls of Jerusalem in a substantial manner, with stone, and with timber from Lebanon (Ezr. iii. 8, v. 8 ; Neh. ii. 8, iii.). But the reigns of Herod and his successors were espe- cially remarkable for their great ai-chitectural works. Isot only was the Temple restored but the fortifications and other public build- ings of Jerusalem were enlarged and embel- lished (Luke xxi. 5). The town of Caesarea was built on the site of Strato's Tower; Samaria was enlarged, and received the name of Sebaste. Of the original splendour of these great works no doubt can be enter- tained ; but of their style and appearance we can only conjecture that they were formed on Greek and Roman models. The enormous stones employed in the Assyrian, Persepolitan, and Egyptian buildings, find a parallel in the substructions of Baalbec and in the huge blocks which still remain at Jerusalem, relics of the buildings either of Solomon or of Herod. But few monuments are known to exist in Palestine by which we can form an accurate idea of its buildings, and even of those which do remain no trustworthy examination has yet been made. It is probable, however, that the reservoirs known under the names of the Pools of Solomon and Hezekiah contain some portions at least of the original fabrics. ARCTU'RUS. The Hebrew words 'Ash and 'Aish, rendered " Arcturus " in the A. V. of Job ix. 9, xxxviii. 32, in conformity with the Vulg. of the former passage, ai-e now generally believed to be identical, and to represent the constellation Ursa Major, known commonly as the Great Bear, oi Charles's Wain. AREOP'AGUS. [Mars' Hill.] APt'ETAS. 1. A contemporary of Antiochus Epiphanes (b.c. 170) and Jason (2 Mace. v. 8). —2. The Aretas alluded to by St. Paul (2 Cor. xi. 32) was father-in-law of Herod Antipas. AR'GOB, a tract of country on the east o/ the Jordan, in Bashan, the kingdom of Og, con- taining 60 great and fortified cities. In latei times it was called Trachonitis, and it is now apparently identified with the Lejah, a very remarkable district south of Damascus, and east of the Sea of Galilee (Deut. iii. 4, 13, 14). ARGOB 42 ARK AR'GOB, perhaps a Gileadite officer, who was governor of Argob. He was either an accomplice of Pekah in the murder of Peka- hiah, or was slain by Pekah (2 K. xv. 25). ARIARA'THES, properly Mithridates IV., Philopator, king of Cappadocia b.c. 168-130, mentioned 1 Mace. xv. 22. He fell in b.c. 130,, in the war of the Romans against Aristonicus. AR'IEH. Eithiet one of the accomplices of Pekah in his conspiracy against Pekahiah, or one of the princes of Pekafiiah, who was put to death with him (2 K. xv. 25). A'RIEL. A designation given by Isaiah to the city of Jerusalem (Is. xxix. 1, 2, 7). Its meaning is obscure. We must under- stand by it either •' Lion of God," or " Hearth of God." The latter meaning is suggested by the use of the word in Ez. xliii. 15, 16, as a synonym for the altar of burnt offering. On the whole it seems most probable that, as a name given to Jerusalem, Ariel means " Lion of God," whilst the word used by Ezekiel means " Hearth of God." ARIMATHAE'A (Matt, xxvii. 57 ; Luke xxiii. 51 ; John xix. 38). St. Luke calls it •' a city of Judaea." It is identified by many with the modern RamJah. ARIOCH. 1. The king of Ellasar, one of the allies of Chedorlaomer in his expedition against his rebellious tributaries (Gen. xiv. 1). — S. The cap Cain of Nebuchadnezzar's body-guard (Dan. ii. 14, &c.). — 3. Properly Eirioch, or Erioch, mentioned in Jud. i. 6 as king of the Elymaeans. ARISTAR'CHUS, a Thessalonian (Acts XX. 4 , xxvii. 2), who accompanied St. Paul on his third missionary journey (Acts xix. 29). He was with the apostle on his return to Asia (Acts xx. 4) ; and again (xxvii. 2) on his voyage to Rome. We trace him after- wards as St. Paul's fellow-prisoner in Col. iv. 10, and Philem. 24. Tradition makes him bishop of Apamea. ARISTOBU'LUS. 1. A Jewish priest (2 Mace. i. 10), who resided in Egypt in the reign of Ptolemaeus VI. Philometor. There can be little doubt that he is identical with the peripatetic philo- sopher of that name, who dedicated to Ptol. Philometor his allegoric exposi- tion of the Pentateuch. — 2. A resident at Rome, some of whose household are greeted in Rom. xvi. 10. Tradition makes him one of the 70 disciples, and G reports that he preached the Gospel in Britain. ARK, NOAH'S. [Noah.] ARK OF THE COVENANT. The first piece of the tabernacle's furniture, for which precise directions were deli- vered (Ex. XXV.). — I. It appears to have been an oblong chest of shittim (acacia) wood, 2^ cubits long, by 1^ broad and deep. Within and without gold was overlaid on the wood, and on the upper side or lid, which was edgec round about with gold, the mercy seat was placed. The ark was fitted with rings, one at each of the four corners, and through these were passed staves of the same wood similarly overlaid, by which it was carried by the Kohathites (Num. vii. 9, x. 21). The ends of the staves were visible without the veil in the holy place of the temple of Solomon (1 K. viii. 8). The ark, when transported, was enveloped in the "veil" of the dismantled tabernacle, in the curtain of badgers' skins, and in a blue cloth over all, and was there- fore not seen (Num. iv. 5, 20). — II. Its pur- pose or object was to contain inviolate the Divine autograph of the two tables, that "covenant" from which it derived its title. It was also probably a reliquary for the pot of m^anna and the rod of Aaron. Occupjing the most holy spot of the sanctuary, it tended to exclude any idol from the centre of wor- ship. It was also the support of the mercy seat, materially sjTnbolising, perhaps, the " covenant " as that on which " mercy " rested. — III. The chief facts in the earlier history of the ark (see Josh. iii. and vi.) need not be recited. Before David's time its abode was frequently shifted. It sojourned among several, probably Levitical, families (1 Sam. vii. 1 ; 2 Sam. vi. 3, 11 ; 1 Chr. xiii. 13, XV. 24, 25) in the border villages of Eastern Judah, and did not take its place in the tabernacle, but dwelt in curtains, i.e. in a separate tent pitched for it in Jerusalem by David. Its bringing up by David thither was a national festival. Subsequently the Temple, when completed, received, in the installation of the ark in its shrine, the signal of its inauguration by the effulgence of Divine glory instantly manifested. When idolatry became more shameless in the king- dom of Judah, Manasseh placed a " carved Egyptian Ark. (WUkiuson, Anc. EcyfU) ARKITE, THE 43 AEMS, ARMOUR image " in the " house of God," and pro- bably remored the ark to make way for it. This may account for the subsequent state- ment that it was reinstated by Josiah (2 Chr. xxxiii. 7, XXXV. 3). It was probably taken captive or destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Esdr. X. 22). Prideaux's argument that there must have been an ark in the second temple is of no weight against express testi- mony, such as that of Josephus. ARK'ITE, THE, one of the families of the Canaanites (Gen. x. 17 ; 1 Chr. i. 15), and from the context evidently located in the north of Phoenicia. The site which now bears the name of ^Arka lies on the coast, 2 to 2^ hours from the shore, about 12 miles north of Tripoli, and 3 south of the Nahr d-Kebir. ARMAGED'DON, "the hill, or city of Megiddo " (Rev. xvi. 16). The scene of the struggle of good and evil is suggested by that battle-field, the plain of Esdraelon, which was famous for two great victories, of Barak over the Canaanites, and of Gideon over the Midianites ; and for two great disasters, the deaths of Saul and of Josiah. ARME'NIA is nowhere mentioned under that name in the original Hebrew, though it occurs in the English version (2 K. xix. 37) for Ararat. Armenia is that lofty plateau whence the rivers Euphrates, Tigris, Araxes, and Acampsis, pour down their waters in different directions ; the two first to the Persian Gulf, the last two respectively to the Caspian and Euxine seas. It may be termed the nucleus of the mountain system of western Asia : from the centre of the plateau rise two lofty chains of mountains, which run from E. to W., converging towards the Caspian sea, but parallel to each other towards the W. The slight acquaintance which the Hebrews had with this country was pro- bably derived from the Phoeni- cians. There are signs of their knowledge having been progres- sive. Isaiah, in his prophecies regarding Babylon, speaks of the hosts as coming from the "mountains" (xiii. 4), while Jeremiah employs the specific names Ararat and Minni (li. 2 7 ) . Ezekiel, apparently better ac- quainted with the country, uses a name which was familiar to it* own inhabitants, Togarmah. ( 1 .) Ararat is mentioned as the place whither the sons of Sen- nacherib fled (Is. xxxiii. 38). It was the central district sur- rounding tbe mountain of that name. (2.) Minni only occurs in Jer, li. 27. It is pro- bably identical with the district Minyas, in the upper valley of the Murad-su branch of the Euphrates. (3.) Togarmah is noticed in two passages of Ezekiel (xxvii. 14, xxxviii. 6), both of which are in favour of its identity with Armenia. ARIMLET, an ornament universal in the East, especially among women ; used by princes as one of the insignia of royalty, and by distinguished persons in general. The word is not used in the A. V., as even in 2 Sam. i. 10 they render it by "the bracelet on his arm." Sometimes only one was worn, on the right arm (Ecclus. xxi. 21). From Cant. viii. 6, it appears that the signet some- times consisted of a jewel on the armlet. Assyrian Annlet. (.From Nineveh Marbles, British Museum.; These ornaments were used by most ancient princes. They are frequent on the sculptures of Persepolis and Nineveh, and were worn by the kings of Persia. ARMS, ARMOUR. The subject naturally divides itself into — I. Offensive weapons : Egyptian sword. ARMS, ARMOUR 44 ARMS, ARMOUR Arms. II, Defensive weapons : Armour. — I. Offensive weapons, — 1. Apparently the ear- liest known and most widely used was the Chereb, or " Sword." Very little can be gathered as to its shape, size, material, or mode of use. Perhaps if anything is to be inferred it is fhat the Chereb was both a lighter and a shorter weapon than the modern sword. It was carried in a sheath (1 Sam. Peisiau sword, or aciuaces. xvii, 51; 2 Sam. xx. 8 ; 1 Chr. xxi. 27), slung by a girdle (1 Sam. xxv. 13) and rest- ing upon the thigh (Ps. xlv. 3 ; Judg. iii. 16), or upon the hips (2 Sam. xx. 8). Doubt- less it was of metal, from the allusion to its brightness and " glittei-ing ;" but from Josh. V. 2, 3, we may perhaps infer that in early times the material was flint. — 2. Next to the sword was the Spear ; and of this weapon we meet with at least three distinct kinds, a. The Chantth, a " Spear," and that of the largest kind. It was the weapon of Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 7, 45 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 19 ; 1 Chr. XX. 5), and also of other giants (2 Sara, xxiii. 21 ; 1 Chr. xi. 23) and mighty warriors (2 Sam. ii. 23, xxiii. 18 ; 1 Chr. xi. 11, 20). i. Apparently lighter than the preceding was the Ctdoti, or " Jave- lin." "When not in ac- tion the Cidonwas car- ried on the back of the warrior (1 Sam. xvii. 6, A. V. "target"). c. Another kind of spear was the Roniach. In the historical books it occurs in Num. xxv. 7, and 1 K. xviii. 28, and frequently in the later books, as in 1 Chr. xii. 8 ("buckler"), 2 Chr. xi. 12. d. The Shelach was probably a lighter missile or "dart." See 2 Chr. xxiii. 10, xxxii. 5 (" darts ") ; Neh. iv. 17, 23 (see margin) ; Job xxxiii. 18, xxxvi. 12 ; Joelii. 8. e. She- bet, a rod or staff, is used once only to de- note a weapon (2 Sam. xviii. 14). — 3. Of mis- sile weapons of offence the chief was undoubtedly the Bow, Kesheth. It is met with in the earliest stages of the his- tory, in use both for the chace (Gen. xxi. 20, Persian spoare Egyptian bows. ARMS, ARMOUR 45 ARMY xxvii. 3) and war (xlviii. 22). The Arrows ■R-ere carried in a quiver (Gen. xxvii. 3 ; Is. xxii. 6, xlix. 2; Ps. cxxvii. 5). From an allusion in J'ob vi. 4, they would seem to have been sometimes poisoned ; and Ps. cxx. 4 may point to a practice of using arrows with some burning material attached to them. 4. The Sling is first mentioned in Judg. xx. 16. This simple weapon with which David killed the giant Philistine was the natural attendant of a shepherd. Later in the monarchy, slingers formed part of the regular army (2 K. iii. 25). II. Armour. — 1. The Breastplate, enume- rated in the description of the arms of Go- liath, a " coa^ of mail," literally a ^'' breast- plate of scales" (1 Sam. xvii. 5). This word has furnished one of the names of Mount Hermon (see Deut. iii. 9). — 2. The haber- geon is mentioned but twice — in reference to the gown of the high-priest (Ex. xxviii. 32, xxxix. 23). It was probably a quilted shirt or doublet. — 3. The Helmet is referred to in Assyrian helmets. 1 Sam. xvii. 5 ; 2 Chr. xxvi. 14 ; Ezek. xxvii. 10. — 4. Greaves, or defences for the feet oiade of brass, are named in 1 Sam. xvii. 6, •nly.— 5. Two kinds of Shielu are distin- A^yhau shields. Egyptian shield. guishable. a. The large shield, encompassing (Ps. V. 12) the whole person. When not in actual conflict, it was carried before the warrior (1 Sam. xvii. 7, 41). i. Of smaller dimensions was the buckler or target, pro- bably for use in hand-to-hand fight (1 K. x. 16, 47 ; 2 Chr. ix. 15, 16).— 6. What kind of arm was the Shelet it is impossible to de- termine. By some translators it is rendered a "quiver," by some "weapons" generally, by others a " shield." It denoted certain weapons of gold taken by David from Ha- dadezer king of Zobah (2 Sam. viii. 7 ; 1 Chr, xviii. 7), and dedicated in the Temple (2 K, xi. 10 ; 2 Chr. xxiii. 9 ; Cant. iv. 4). In Jer.li. 11 ; Ezek. xxvii. 11, the word has the force of a foreign arm. ARMY. I. Jewish Army, — The military organisation of the Jews commenced with their departure from the land of Egypt, and was adapted to the nature of the expedition on which they then entered. Every man above 20 years of age was a soldier (Num. i. 3) : each tribe formed a regiment with its own banner and its own leader (Num. ii. 2, X. 14) : their positions in the camp or on the march were accurately fixed (Num. ii.) : the whole army started and stopped at a given signal (Num. x. 5, 6) : thus they came up out of Egypt ready for the fight (Ex. xiii. 18). On the approach of an enemy, a con- scription was made from the general body under the direction of a muster-master (Deut. XX. 5 ; 2 K. XXV. 19), by whom also the officers were appointed (Deut. xx. 9). The army was then divided into thousands and hundreds under their respective captains (Num. xxxi. 14), and still further into fami- lies (Num. ii. 34 ; 2 Chr. xxv. 5, xxvi. 12), the family being regarded as the unit in the Jewish polity. With the kings arose the custom of maintaining a body-guard, which formed the nucleus of a standing army. Thus Saul had a band of 3000 select warriors (1 Sam. xiii. 2, xiv. 52, xxiv. 2), and David, before his accession to the throne, 600 (1 Sam. xxiii. 13, xxv. 13). This band he retained after he became king, and added the Cherethites and Pelethites (2 Sam. xv. 18, xx. 7), together with another class, Shalishim, officers of high rank, the chief of whom (2 K. vii. 2 ; 1 Chr. xii. 18) was immediately about the king's person. David further organized a national militia, divided into twelve regiments under their respective officers, each of which was called out for one month in the year (1 Chr. xxvii. 1) ; at the head of the army when in active service he appointed a commander-in- chief (1 Sam. xiv. 50). Hitherto the army had consisted entirely of infantry (1 Sam. iv. 10, XV. 4), the use of horses having been ARNON 46 restrained by divine command (Deut. xvii. 16) ; but we find that as the foreign relations of the kingdom extended, much importance was attached to them. David had reserved a hundred chariots from the spoils of the Syrians (2 Sam. viii. 4) : these probably served as the foundation of the force which Solomon afterwards enlarged through his alliance with Egypt (1 K. x. 26, 28, 29). It does not appear that the system established by David was maintained by the kings of Judah ; but in Israel the proximity of the hostile kingdom of Syria necessitated the maintenance of a standing army. The militia was occasionally called out in time of peace (2 Chr. xiv. 8, xxv. 5, xxvi. 11) ; but such cases were exceptional. On the other hand the body-guard appears to have been regu- larly kept up (1 K. xiv. 28 ; 2 K. xi. 4, 11). Occasional reference is made to war-chariots (2 K. viii. 21) ; but in Hezekiah's reign no force of the kind could be maintained, and the Jews were obliged to seek the aid of Egypt for horses and chariots (2 K. xviii. 23, 24 ; Is. xxxi. 1). The maintenance and equipment of the soldiers at the public ex- pense dates from the establishment of a standing army. It is doubtful whether the soldier ever received pay even under the kings. The numerical strength of the Jewish army cannot be ascertained with any degree of accuracy : the numbers, as given in the text, are manifestly incorrect, and the dis- crepancies in the various statements irrecon- cileable. II. Roman Army. — The Roman army was divided into legions, the number of which varied considerably, each under six tribuni ("chief captains," Acts xxi. 31), who com- manded by turns. The legion was subdivided into ten cohorts ("band," Acts x. 1), the cohort into three maniples, and the maniple into two centuries, containing originally 100 men, as the name implies, but subsequently from 50 to 100 men, according to the strength of the legion. There were thus 60 centuries in a legion, each under the command of a centurion (Acts x. 1, 22 ; Matt. viii. 5, xxvii. 54). In addition to the legionary cohorts, independent cohorts of volunteers served under the Roman standards. One of these cohorts was named the Italian (Acts x. 1), as consisting of volunteers from Italy. The cohort named "Augustus" (Acts xxvii. 1) may have consisted of the volunteers from Sebaste. Others, however, think that it was s cohors Augtista, similar to the legio Augusta. The head-quarters of the Roman forces in Judaea were at Caesarea. AR'NON, the river or torrent which formed the boundary between Moab and the .\morites. en the north of Moab (Num. xxi. 13, 14, 24, 26 ; Judg. xi. 22), and afterwards between Moab and Israel (Reuben) (Deut. ii. 24, 36, iii. 8, 12, 16, iv. 48 ; Josh. xii. 1, 2, xiii. 9, 16 ; Judg. xi. 13, 26). There can be no doubt that the Wady el-Mojeb of the present day is the Arnon. Its principal source ia near Katrane, on the Haj route. AR'OER. 1. A city on the torrent Arnon, the southern point of the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, and afterwards of the tribe of Reuben (Deut. ii. 36, iii. 12, iv. 48 ; Josh. xii. 2, xiii. 9, 16 ; Judg. xi. 26 ; 2 K. X. 33 ; 1 Chr. v. 8), but later again in pos- session of Moab (Jer. xlviii. 19). It is the modern Ard'ir, upon the very edge of the precipitous north bank of the iVady Mojeh. — 2. Ai-oer "that is 'facing' Rabbah" (Rabbah of Ammon) , a town built by and belonging to Gad (Num. xxxii. 34 ; Josh. xiii. 25 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 5). This is probably the place men- tioned in Judg. xi. 33, which was shown in Jei-ome's time. — 3. Aroer, in Is. xvii. 2, if a place at all, must be still further north than either of the two already named. — 4. A town in Judah, named only in 1 Sam. xxx. 28, perhaps Wady Ar^drah, on the road from Petra to Gaza. AR'PAD or AR'PHAD (Is. xxxvi. 19, xxxvii. 13), a city or district in Syria, appa- rently dependent on Damascus (Jer. xlix. 23). No trace of its existence has yet been dis- covered (2 K. xviii. 34, xix. 13 ; Is. x. 9). ARPHAX'AD, the son of Shem and an- cestor of Eber (Gen. x. 22, 24, xi. 10). — 2. Arphaxad, a king " who reigned over the Medes in Ecbatana" (Jud. i. 1-4) : perhaps the same as Phraortes, who fell in a battle with the Assyrians, 633 b.c. ARSA'CES VI., a king of Parthia, who assumed the royal title of Arsaces in addition to his proper name, Mithridates I. (1 Mace, xiv. 1-3). ARTAXER'XES. 1. The first Artaxerxes is mentioned in Ezr. iv. 7, and appears identical with Smerdis, the Magian impostor, and pretended brother of Cambyses, who usurped the throne b.c. 522, and reigned eight months. 2. In Neh. ii. 1 we have another Artaxerxes. We may safely identify him with Artaxerxes Macrocheir or Longi- manus, the son of Xerxes, who reigned b.c. 464-425. A'RUMAH, a place apparently in the neighbourhood of Shechem, at which Abim- elech resided (Judg. ix. 41). AR'VAD (Ez. xxvii. 8, 11). The island of R'lady which lies off Tortosa (Tartus), 2 or 3 miles from the Phoenician coast. AR'ZA, prefect of the palace at Tirzah to Elah king of Israel, who was assassinated ASA 47 ASHES at a banquet in his house by Zimri (1 K. xvi. 9). A'SA, son of Abijah, and third king of- Judah (B.C. 956-916). In his zeal against heathenism he did not spare his grandmother Maaehah, who occupied the special dignity of *' King's Mother," to which great importance was attached in the Jewish court. Asa burnt the symbol of her religion (1 K. xv. 13), and threw its ashes into the brook Kidron, and then deposed Maaehah from her dignity. He also placed in the temple certain gifts which his father had detlicated, and renewed the great altar which the idolatrous priests appa- rently had desecrated (2 Chi . xv. 8) . Besides this, he fortified cities on his frontiers, and raised an army, amounting, according to 2 Chr. xiv. 8, to 530,000 men, a number probably exaggerated by an error of the copyist. During Asa's reign, Zerah, at the head of an enormous host (2 Chr. xiv. 9), attacked Mareshah. There he was utterly defeated, and driven back with immense loss to Gerar. The peace which followed this victory was broken by the attempt of Baasha of Israel to fortify Ramah. To stop this Asa purchased the help of Benhadad I. king of Damascus, by a large payment of treasure, forced Baasha to abandon his purpose, and destroyed the works which he had begun at Ramah. In his old age Asa suffered from the gout. He died greatly loved and honoured in the 41st year of his reign. A'SAHEL, nephew of David, being the youngest son of his sister Zei-ulah. He was celebrated for his swiftness of foot. When fighting under the command of his brother Joab against Ishbosheth's army at Gibeon, he pursued Abner, who was obliged to kill him in self-defence (2 Sam. ii. 18 S.) A'SAPH. 1. A Levite, son of Berechiah, one of the leaders of David's choir (1 Chr. vi. 39). Psalms 1. and Ixxiii.-lxxxiii. are attri- buted to him ; and he was in after times celebrated as a seer as well as a musical com- poser (2 Chr. xxix. 30 ; Neh. xii. 46).- 2. The father or ancestor of Joah, the recorder or chronicler to the kingdom of Judah in the reign of Hezekiah (2 K. xviii. 18, 37 ;. Is. xxxvi. 3, 22). It is not improbable that this Asaph is the same as the preceding. AS'EN ATH, daughter of Potipherah, priest, or possibly prince, of On [Potipherah], wife of Joseph (Gen. xli. 45), and mother of Ma- nasseh and Ephraim (xli. 50, xlvi. 20). ASH (Heb. oren] occurs only in Is. xliv. 14. It is impossible to determine what is the tree denoted by the Hebrew word ; the LXX. and the Vulg. understand some species of pine-tree. Perhaps the larch [Laryx Ewro- paea) may be intended. A'SHAN, a city in the low coimtry of Judah (Josh. XV. 42). In Josh. xix. 7, and 1 Chr. iv. 32, it is mentioned again as belonging tc Simeon. It has not yet been identified, unless it be the same as Ain (comp. Josh. xxi. 16 with 1 Chr. vi. 59) ; in which case Robinson found it at El Ghuwein. ASHBE'A, a proper name, but whether of a person or place is uncertain (1 Chr. iv. 21). ASH'DOD, or AZO'TUS (Acts viii. 40), one of the five confederate cities of the Philistines, situated about 30 miles from the southern frontier of Palestine, 3 from the Mediterra- nean Sea, and nearly midway between Gaza and Joppa. It was assigned to the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 47), but was never subdued by the Israelites. Its chief importance arose from its position on the high road from Palestine to Egypt. It is now an insig- nificant village, with no memorials of its ancient importance, but is still called Esdud. ASH'DOTH-PIS'GAH, a curious and pro- bably a very ancient term of doubtful mean- ing, found only in Deut. iii. 17 ; Josh. xii. 3, xiii. 20 ; and in Deut. iv. 49, A. V. " springs of Pisgah." A'SHER, Apocr. and N. T. A'SER, the 8th son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's handmaid (Gen. XXX. 13). The general position of his tribe was on the sea-shore from Cai-mel northwards, with Manasseh on the south, Zebulun and Issachar on the south-east, and Naphtali on the north-east. The boundaries and towns are given in Josh. xix. 24-31, xvii. 10, 11 ; and Judg. i. 31, 32. They pos- sessed the maritime portion of the rich plain of Esdraelon, probably for a distance < 8 or 1 0 miles from the shore. This territory con- tained some of the richest soil in all Palestine ; and to this fact, as well as to their proximity to the Phoenicians, the degeneracy of the tribe maybe attributed (Judg. i. 31, v. 17). A'SHER, a place which formed one bound- ary of the tribe of Manasseh on the south (Josh. xvii. 7). Mr. Porter suggests that Teydsir may be the Asher of Manasseh [Handb. p. 348). ASH'ERAH, the name of a Phoenician goddess, or rather of the idol itself (A. V. " grove "). Asherah is closely connected witfe AsHTORETH and her worship (Judg. iii. 7, comp. ii. 3 ; Judg. vi. 25 ; IK. xviii. 19) ; Ashtoreth being, perhaps, the proper name of the goddess, whilst Asherah is the name of her image or symbol, which was of wood (see Judg. vi. 25-30; 2 K. xxiii. 14). ASHES. The ashes on the altar of burnt- offei'ing wei'e gathered into a cavity in its surface. On the days of the three solemn festivals the ashes were not removed, but the accumulation was taken away afterwards in ASHIMA ASP the morning, the priests casting lots for the office. The ashes of a red heifer burnt entire, according to reguhitions presci-ibed in Num. xix. had the ceremonial efficacy of purifying the unclean (Heb. ix. 13), but of polluting the clean. [Sacrifice.] Ashes about the person, especially on the head, were used as a sign of sorrow. [Mourning.] ASH'IMA, a god of the Hamathite colonists in Samaria (2 K. xvii. 30). It has been re- garded as identical with the Mendesian god of the Egj'ptians, the Pan of the Greeks, and has also been identified with the Phoenician god Esmun. ASH'KELON, AS'KELON, Apocr. AS'CA- LON, one of the five cities of the lords of the Philistines (Josh. xiii. 3; 1 Sam. vi. 17), but less often mentioned and apparently less known to the Jews than the other four. Samson went down from Timnath to Ash- kelon (Judg. xiv. 19), as if to a remote place whence his exploit was not likely to be heard of. In the post-biblical times Ashkelon rose to considerable importance. Near the town were the temple and sacred lake of Derceto, the Syrian Venus. The soil around was re- markable for its fertility. Ascalon played a memorable part in the struggles of the Cru- sades. ASH'KENAZ, one of the three sons of Gomer, son of Japhet (Gen. x. 3). We may probably recognize the tribe of Ashkenaz on the northern shore of Asia Minor, in the name of Lake Ascanius, and in Europe in the name Scatid-ia, Sca7id-inavia. Knobel considers that Ashkenaz is to be identified with the German race. ASH'NAH, the name of two cities, both in the Lowlands of Judah : (1) named between Zoreah and Zanoah, and therefore probably N.W. of Jerusalem (Josh. xv. 33) ; and (2) between Jiphtah and Nezib, and therefore to the S.W. of Jerusalem (Josh. xv. 43). Each, according to Robinson's Map (1857), would be about 16 miles from Jerusalem. ASH'TAROTH, and once AS'TAROTH, a city on the E. of Jordan, in Bashan, in the kingdom of Og, doubtless so called from being a seat of the worship of the goddess of the same name. It is generally mentioned as a description or definition of Og (Deut. i. 4 ; Josh. ix. 10, xii. 4, xiii. 12). The only trace of the name yet recovered in these in- teresting districts is Tell-Ashtcrah, or Ashe- rah, and of this nothing more than the name is known. ASH'TEROTH KARNA'IM = " Ashtaroth of the two horns or peaks," a place of very great antiquity, the abode of the Rephaim (Gen. xiv. 5). The name reappears but once, a.s Carnaira, or Carnion (1 Mace. v. 26, 43, 44; 2 Mace, xii. 21, 26), in "the land of Galaad." It is probably the modern ES' Sanamein, on the Haj route, about 25 miles S. of Damascus. ASHTO'RETH, the principal female divin- ity of the Phoenicians, called Ishtar by the Assyrians, and Astarte by the Greeks and Romans. She was by some ancient writei's identified with the moon. But on the other hand the Assyrian Ishtar was not the moon- goddess, but the planet Venus ; and Astarte was by many identified with the goddess Venus (or Aphrodite) as well as with the planet of that name. It is certain that the worship of Astarte became identified with that of Venus, and that this worship was connected with the most impure rites is apparent from the close connexion of this goddess with AsHERAH (1 K. xi. 5, 33; 2 K. xxiii. 13). ASH'URITES, THE. This name occurs only in 2 Sam. ii. 9. By some of the old interpreters the name is taken as meaning the Geshurites, but if we follow the Targum of Jonathan, which has Beth-Asher, " the house of Asher," " the Asherites " will denote the inhabitants of the whole of the country W. of the Jordan above Jezreel. ASIA. The passages in the N.T., where this word occurs, are the following : Acts ii. 9, vi. 9, xvi. 6, xix. 10, 22, 26, 27, xx. 4, 16, 18, xxi. 27, xxvii. 2; Rom. xvi. 5; 1 Cor. xvi. 19 ; 2 Cor. i. 8 ; 2 Tim. i. 15 ; 1 Pet. i. 1 ; Rev. i. 4, 11. In all these it maybe con- fidently stated that the word is used for a Roman province which embraced the western part of the peninsula of Asia Minor, and of which Ephesus was the capital. ASIAR'CHAE [chief of Asia, A. V. ; Acts xix. 31), officers chosen annually by the cities of that part of the province of Asia, of which Ephesus was, under Roman govern- ment, the metropolis. They had charge of the public games and religious theatrical spectacles, the expenses of which they bore. ASMODE'US (Tob. iii. 8, 17), the same as Abaddon or Apollyon (Rev. ix. 11 ; comp. Wisd. xviii. 25). From the fact that the Talmud calls him "king of the demons," some assume him to be identical with Beel- zebub, and others with Azrael. In the book of Tobit this evil spirit is represented as lov- ing Sara, the daughter of Raguel, and caus- ing the death of her seven husbands. ASNAP'PER, mentioned in Ezr. iv. 10 as the person who settled the Cuthaeans in the cities of Samaria. He was probably a general of E^sarhaddon. ASP [pcthen). The Hebrew word occui-s in the six following passages : — Deut. xxxii. 33; Job XX. 14, 16; Ps. Iviii. 5, xci. 13,' Is. xi. 8. It is expressed in the passage! ASPALATHUS 49 ASSIDEANS from the Psalms by adder in the text of the , on asses : and in this manner our Lord him A. v., and by asp in the margin : elsewhere self made his triumphant entry into Jeru the text of the A. V, has asp as the repre- salem (Matt. xxi. 2). — 2. Athon, the common I domestic she-ass. Balaam rode on a she- I ass. The asses of Kish which Saul sought I -were she-asses. The Shunammite (2 K. iv. 22, 24) rode on one when she went to seek Elisha. They were she-asses which formed the special care of one of Da^dd's officers (1 Chr. xxvii. 30).— 3. 'Air, the name of a wild ass, which occurs Gen. xxxii. 16, xlix. 11 ; Judg. X. 4, xii. 14 ; Job xi. 12 ; Is. xxx. 6, 24 ; Zech. ix. 9.' — 4. Pere, a species of wild ass mentioned Gen. xvi. 12 ; Ps. civ. 11 ; Job vi. 5, xi. 12, xxiv. 5, xxxix. 5 ; Hos. viii. 9 ; Jer. ii. 24, xiv. 6 ; Is. xxxii. 14. — 5. Arod occurs only in Job xxxix. 5 ; but in what re- spect it differs from the Pere is uncertain. — The species known to the ancient Jews are Asinus hemippus, which inhabits the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia, and the northern parts of Arabia ; the Asinus vtdgaris of the N.E. of Africa, the true onager or aboriginal wild ass, whence the domesticated breed has sprung ; and probably the Asinus onager, the Koulan or Ghorkhur, which is found in Western Asia from 48° N. latitude southward to Persia, Beluchistan, and "Western India. Mr. Layard remarks that in fleetness the wild ass [Asinus hemippus) equals the gazelle, and to overtake them is a feat which only one art. From Is. xi. 8, it would appear that ' or two of the most celebrated mares have the pethen was a dweller in holes of walls, &c. | been known to accomplish. As the Egyptian cobra is more fre- quently than any other species the subject upon which the serpent- charmers of the Bible lands practise their art, and as it is fond of con- cealing itself in walls and in holes (Is. xi. 8), it appears to have the best claim to represent the pethen. ASPAL'ATHUS, the name of some sweet perfume mentioned in Ecclus. xxiv. 15. The Lignum Rhodianum is by some supposed to be the sub- stance indicated by the aspalathtts ; the plant which yields it is the Con- volvulus scoparius of Linnaeus. AS'PHAIl, the pool in the "wilder- ness of Thecoe " (1 Mace. ix. 33), Is it possible that the name is a cor- ruption of laeus Asphaltites ? ASS. Five Hebrew names of the genus Asinus occur in the O. T. 1. Chamor denotes the male domestic ass, -though the word was no doubt used in a general sense to express any ass whether male or female. The ass in eastern countries is a very dif- j certainty. Knobel considers them the same ferent animal from what he is in western with the Asshur of Ez. xxvii. 2-3, and con- Europe. The most noble and honourable nected with southern Arabia, amongst the Jews were wont to be mounted ASSIDE'.INS, i. e. the pious, " puritan.s," Sm. D. B. E Egyptian coDra sentative of the original word pethen. That some kind of poisonous serpent is denoted by the Hebrew Avord is clear from the passages quoted above. We further learn from Ps. Iviii. 5, that the pethen was a snake upon which the serpent-charmers practised their Syrian Wild Ass. {Asinus Hemippus Specimen in Zoological Gardens ASSH'URIM, a tribe descended from De- dan, the grandson of Abraham (Gen. xxv. 3). Like the other descendants of Keturah, they have not been identified with any degree of ASSOS 50 ASSYllIA the name assumed by a section of the orthodox .Jews (1 Mace. ii. 42, vii. 13 ; 2 Mace. xiv. fi) as distinguished from the Hellenizing faction. They appear to have existed as a party before the Maccabaean rising, and were probably bound by some peculiar vow to the external observance of the Law. AS'SOS or AS'SUS, a seaport of the Ro- man province of Asia, in the district anciently called Mysia. It was situated on the northern shore of the gulf of Adramyt- TiuM, and was only about seven miles from the opposite coast of Lesbos, near Methymna (Ac+s XX. 13, 14). ASSYR'IA, ASSH'UR, was a great and powerful country lying on the Tigris (Gen. ii. 14), the capital of which was Nineveh (Gen. X. ri, &c.). It derived its name ap- parently from Asshur, the son of Shem (Gen. X. 22), who in later times was worshipped by the Assyrians as their chief god. The boundaries of Assyria differed greatly at d'iflferent periods. Probably in the earliest times it was confined to a small tract of low country, lying chiefly on the left bank of the TJG:ris. Gradually its limits were extended, until it came to be regarded as comprising the whole region between the Armenian mountains (kit. 37° 30') upon the north, and upon tlie south the country about Baghdad (lat. 33° 30'). Eastward its boundary was the high range of Zagros, or mountains of Kurdistan; westward, it was, according to the views of some, bounded by the Mesopo- tamian desert, while, according to others, it readied the Euphrates. ■ — 1. General cha- racter of the country. Gn the N. and E. the high mountain-chains of Armenia and Kur- dist.ln are succeeded by low ranges of lime- stone-hills of a somewhat arid aspect. To these ridges there succeeds at first an un- dulating zone of countrj', well watered and fairly productive, which extends in length for 250 miles, and is interrupted only by a single limestone-range. Above and below this barrier is an immense level tract, now for the most part a wilderness, which bears marks of having been in early times well cultivated and thickly peopled throughout. — 2. Provinces of Assj/ria. — The classical geographers divided Assyria into a number of regions, which appear to be chiefly named from cities, as Arbelitis'from Arbela ; Cala- oene (or Calachine) from Calah or Ilalah (Gen. X. 11; 2 K. xvii. fi) ; Apolloniatis from ApoUonia ; Sittacene from Sittace, &c. Adiabene, however, the richest region of all, derived its appellation from the Zab [Diab) river on M-hich it lay. — 3. Cliicf cities.— Tae thief cities of Assyria in the time of its great- ness appear to have been the following : — Nineveh, which is marked by the motinda opposite Mosul [Nehi-Yunns and Kouytinjik) ; Calah or Halah, now Nimriid ; Asshur, now Kilch Sherghat ; Sargina, or Dur-Sargina, now Khorsahad ; Arbela, still Arbil ; Opis at the junction of the Diyaleh with the Tigris ; and Sittace, a little further down the latter river, if this place should not rather be reckoned to Babylonia.— 4. History of As- syria— original peopling. — Scripture informs us that Assyria was peopled from Babylon (Gen, X. 11), and both classical tradition and the monuments of the country agree in this representation. — 5. Date of the foundation of the Mngdom. — As a country, Assyria was evidently known to Moses (Gen. ii. 14, xxv. 18; Num. xxiv. 22, 24); but it does not appear in Jewish history as a kingdom till the reign of Menahem (about b.c. 770). Herodotus relates that the Assyrians were " lords of Asia " for 520 years, till the Median kingdom was formed, b.c. 708. He would thus, it appears, have assigned to the foun- dation of the Assyrian empire a date not very greatly anterior to b.c. 1228. This is, perhaps, the utmost that can be determined with any approach to certainty. — 6. Early kings from the foundation of the kingdom to Pul. — The Mesopotamian researches have rendered it apparent that the original seat of government was not at Nineveh, but at Kileh^ Sherghat, on the right bank of the Tigris. The kings proved to have reigned there are fourteen in number, divisible into three groups ; and their reigns are thought to have covered a space of nearly 350 years, from B.C. 1273 to b.c. 930. The most re- markable monarch of the series was called Tiglath-pileser. He appears to have been king towards the close of the twelfth centur) , and thus to have been contemporary with Samuel. The later kings of the series are only known to us as the ancestora of two great monarchs ; Sardanapalus the first, and his son, Shalmaneser or Shalmanubar, a still greater conqueror. His son and grandson followed in bis steps, but scai-cely equalled his glory. The latter is thought to be identical with the Biblical Pul, Phul, or Phaloeh [Pur,].— 7. The kings from Fid lo Esarhaddon. — In the 2nd book of Kings we find the names of Pul, Tiglath-pileser, Shal- maneser, Sennacherib, and Esarhaddon (2 K. XV. 19, 29, xvii. 3, xviii. 13, xix. 37) ; and in Isaiah we have the name of " Sargon, king of Assyria " (xx. 1). The inscriptions, by showing us that Sargon was the father oif Sennacherib, fix his place in the list, and give us for the monarclis of the last half of the 8th and the first half of the 7th century B.C. the (probably) complete list of Tiglath- 51 ATAD pileser II., Shalmaneser II., Sargon, Senna- cherib, and Esarhaddon. — 8. Lower Dynasty. It seems to be certain that at, or near, the accession of Pul, about b.c. 7.70, a great change of some kind or other occurred in Assyria. Probably the Pul or Phaloch of Scripture was really the last king of the old monarchy, and Tiglath-pileser II., his suc- cessor, was the founder of what has been called the "Lower Empire." — 9. Supposed loss of the empire at this period. — Many writers of repute have been inclined to accept the statement of Herodotus with respect to the breaking up of the whole empire at this period. It is evident, however, both from Scripture and from the monuments, that the shock sustained through the domestic revolu- tion has been greatly exaggerated. It is plain, from Scripture, that in the reigns of Tiglath-pileser, Shalmaneser, Sargon, Sen- nacherib, and Esarhaddon, AssjTia was as great as at any former era. On every ground it seems necessary to conclude that the second Assyrian kingdom was really greater and more glorious than the first ; that under it the limits of the empire reached their ful- lest extent, and the internal prosperity was at the highest. — 10. Successors of Esarhad- don.— By the end of the reign of Esarhaddon the triumph of the arms of Assyria had been so complete that scarcely an enemy was left who could cause her serious anxiety. In Scripture it is remarkable that we hear no- thing of Assyria after the reign of Esar- haddon, and profane history is equally silent until the attacks begin which brought about her downfall. — 11. Fall of Assyria.- — The fall of Assyria, long previously prophesied by Isaiah (x. 5-19), was effected by the gi-owing strength and boldness of the Medes. If we may trust Herodotus, the first Median attack on Nineveh took place about the year b.c. 633. For some time their efforts were unsuccessful ; but after a while, having won over the Babylonians to their side, they became superior to the Assyrians in the field, and about b.c. 625, or a little earlier, laid final siege to the capital. — 12. Fulfibnent of prophecy. — The prophecies of Nahum and Zephaniah (ii. 13-15) against Assyria were probably de- livered shortly before the catastrophe. In accordance with Nahum's announcement (iii. 19) we find that Assyria never succeeded in maintaining a distinct nationality.— 13. General character of the empire. — The As- syrian monarchs bore sway over a number of petty kings through the entire extent of their dominions. These native princes were feu- datories of the Great Monarch, of whom they held their crown by the double tenure of homage and tribute. It is not quite certain how far Assyria required a religious con- formity from the subject people. Her religion was a gross and complex polj^theism, com- prising the worship of thirteen principal and numerous minor divinities, at the head of all of whom stood the chief god, Asshur, who seems to be the deified patriarch of the nation (Gen. X. 22). The inscriptions appear to state that in all countries over which the Assyrians established their supremacy, they set up '.' the laws of Asshur," and " altars to the Great Gods." — 14. Its extent. — On the west, the Mediterranean and the river Halys appear to have been the boundaries ; on the north, a fluctuating line, never reaching the Euxine nor extending beyond the northern frontier of Armenia ; on the east, the Caspian Sea and the Great Salt Desert ; on the south, the Persian Gulf and the Desert of Aiabia. The countries included within these limits are the following : — Susiana, Chaldaea, Baby- lonia, Media, Matiene, Armenia, Assyi-ia Proper, Mesopotamia, parts of Gappadocia and Cilicia, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, and Idumaea. Cyprus was also for a while a dependency of the Assyrian kings, and they may perhaps have held at one time certain portions of Lower Egypt. — 15. Civilisation of the Assyrians. — The civilisation of the Assyrians was derived originally from the Babylonians. They were a Shemitic race, originally resident in Babylonia (which af that time was Cushite), and thus acquainted with the Babylonian inventions and dis coveries, who ascended the valley of thft Tigris and established in the tract imme- diately below the Armenian mountains a separate and distinct nationality. Still, as their civilisation developed, it became in many respects peculiar. Their art is of home growth. But they were still in the most im- portant points barbarians. Theii" government was rude and inartificial ; their religion coarse and sensual ; and their conduct of war cruel. ASTY'AGES, the last king of the Medes, B.C. 595-560, or b.c 392-558, who was con- quered by Cj'rus (Bel and Dragon, 1). The name is identified by Eawlinson and Niebuhr with Deioces = Ashdahak, the emblem of the Median power. ASUP'PIM, and HOUSE OF, 1 Chr. xxvi. 15, 17, literally "house of the gatherings." Some understand it as a proper name of chambers on the south of the Temple ; others of certain store-rooms, or of the council- chambers in the outer court of the Temple in which the elders held their deliberations. A'TAD, THE THRESHING-FLOOR OF, called also Abel-Mizraim (Gen. 1. 10, 11). According to Jerome it was in his dav called E 2 ATARGATIS 52 ATHENS Bethgla or Bethacla (Beth-Hogla). Beth- Hogla is known to have lain between the Jordan and Jericho, therefore on the west side of Jordan. ATAR'GATIS, or Derceto, a Syrian god- dess, represented generally with the body of a woman and the tail of a fish (comp. Da- gon). Her most famous temples were at Hierapolis (Mabug) and Ascalon. There was a temple of Atargatis (2 Mace. xii. 26) at Karnion, which was destroyed by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Mace. v. 44). AT'AROTH. 1. One of the towns in the "land of Jazer and land of Gilead" (Num. xxxii. 3), taken and built by the tribe of Gad (xxxii. 34). From its mention with places which have been identified on the N.E. of the Dead Sea near the mountain of the Jebel Attarus, a connexion has been assumed be- tween Ataroth and that mountain. But some other identification is necessary. — 2. A place on the (south ?) boundary of Ephraim and Manasseh (Josh. xvi. 2, 7). It is im- possible to say whether Ataroth is or is not the same place, as, 3. Ataroth-adar, or -ADDAR on the west border of Benjamin, "near the 'mountain' that is on the south side of the nether Beth-horon" (Josh. xvi. 5, xviii. 13). In the Ouomasticon mention is made of an Atharoth in Ephraim, in the mountains, 4 miles N. of Sebaste ; as well as two places of the name not far from Jeru- salem.— 4. " Ataroth, the house op Joab," a place (?) occurring in the list of the descen- dants of Judah (1 Chr. ii. 54). A'THACH (1 Sam. xxx. 30). As the name does not occur elsewhere, it has been sug- gested that it is an error of the transcriber for Ether, a town in the )ow country of Judah (Josh. XV. 42). ATHALI'AH, daughter of Ahab and Jeze- bel, married Jehoram the son of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, and introduced into the S. kingdom the worship of Baal. After the great revolution, by which Jehu seated him- self on the throne of Samaria, she killed all the members of the royal family of Judah who had escaped his sword (2 K. xi. 1), availing herself probably of her position as King's Mother [Asa], to perpetrate the crime. From the slaughter of the royal house, one infant named Joash, the youngest son of Ahaziah, was rescued by his aunt Jehosheba, wife of Jehoiada (2 Chr. xxiii. 11) the high- priest (2 Chr. xxiv. 6). The child was brought up under Jehoiada's care, and con- cealed in the Temple for six years, during which period Athaliah reigned over Judah. At length Jehoiada thought it time to pro- duce the lawful king to the people, trusting to their zeal for the worship of God, and loyalty to the house of David, which had been so strenuously called out by Asa and Jehoshaphat. His plan was successful, and Athaliah was put to death. ATH'ENS, the capital of Attica, and the chief seat of Grecian learning and civilisation during the golden period of the history of Greece. St. Paul visited it in his journey from Macedonia, and appears to have re- mained there some time (Acts xvii. 14-34 : comp. 1 Thess. iii. 1). In order to under- stand the localities mentioned in the nar- rative it is necessary to give a brief account of the topography of the city. Athens is situated about three miles from the sea-coast, in the central plain of Attica. In this plain rise several eminences. Of these the most prominent is a lofty insulated mountain, with a conical peaked summit, now called the Hill of St. George, and which bore in ancient times the name of Lycabettus. This moun- tain, which was not included within the ancient walls, lies to the north-east of Athens, and forms the most striking feature in the environs of the city. It is to Athens what Vesuvius is to Naples, or Arthur's Seat to Edinburgh. South-west of Lycabettus there are four hills of moderate height, all of which formed part of the city. Of these the nearest to Lycabettus, and at the distance of a mile from the latter, was the Acropolis, or citadel of Athens, a square craggy rock rising abruptly about 150 feet, with a flat summit of about 1000 feet long from east to west, by 500 feet broad from north to south. Imme- diately west of the Acropolis is a second hill of irregular form, the Areojyagus {Mars' Hill). To the south-west there rises a third hill, the Pnyx, on which the assemblies of the citizens were held ; and to the south of the latter is a fourth hill, known as the Museum. On the eastern and western sides of the city there run two small streams, which are nearly exhausted before they reach the sea, by the heats of summer and by the channels for artificial irrigation. That on the east is the Ilissus, which flowed through the southern quarter of the city : that on the west is the Cephissus. South of the city was seen the Saronic gulf, with the harbours of Athens. ^Athens is said to have derived its name from the prominence given to the worship of the goddess Athena (Minerva) by its king Erechtheus. The inhabitants were previously called Ceci'opidae, from Cecrops, who, according to tradition, was the ori- ginal founder of the city. This at first occupied only the hill or rock which after- wards became the Acropolis; but gradually the buildings spread over the ground at the southern foot of this hill. It was not ATHENS ATHENS till the time of Pisistratus and his sons (B.C. 560-514) that the city began to as- sume any degree of splendour. The most remarkable building of these despots was the gigantic temple of the Olympian Zeus or Jupiter. Xerxes reduced the ancient city almost to a heap of ashes. After the de- parture of the Persians, its reconstruction on a much larger scale was commenced under the superintendence of Themistocles, whose first care was to provide for its safety by the erection of walls. The Acropolis now formed the centre of the city, round -which the new 60 stadia or 7| miles in circumference. But the views of Themistocles were not confined to the mere defence of Athens : he contem- plated making her a great naval power, and for this purpose adequate docks and arsenals were required. Previously the Athenians had used as their only harbour the open roadstead of FhaJerum on the eastern side of the Phaleric bay, where the seashore is nearest to Athens. But Themistocles trans- ferred the naval station of the Athenians to the peninsula of Piraeus, which is distant about 4^ miles from Athens, and contains three natural harbours. It was not till the 1. Pnyx Ecclesia. Plan of Athens. 2. Thescum. 3. Theatre of Dionysus. 5. Temple of the Olympian Jupiter. 4. Odeum of Pericles. administration of Pericles that the walls were built which connected Athens with her ports. Under the administration of Pericles, Athens was adorned with numerous public buildings, which existed in all their glory when St. Paul visited the city, and of which some idea may be formed from the accompanying restora- tion. The Acropolis was the chief centre of the architectural splendour of Athens. After the Persian wars the hill had ceased to be inhabited, and was appropriated to the worship of Athena and to the other guardian deities of the city. It was covered with the temples of gods and heroes ; and thus its platform presented not only a sanctuary, but a museum, containing the finest productions of the architect and the sculptor, in which the whiteness of the marble was relieved by brilliant colours, and rendered still more dazzling by the transparent clearness of the Athenian atmosphere. The only approach to it was from the Agora on its western side. At the top of a magnificent flight of marble steps, 70 feet broad, stood the Propylaea, constructed under the auspices of Pericles, and which served as a suitable entrance to the exquisite works within. The Propylaea were themselves one of the masterpieces of Athenian art. They were entirely of Pen- telic marble, and covered the whole of the ATHENS 54 ATHENS western end of the Acropolis, having a breadth of 168 feet. On passing through the Propylaea all the glories of the Acropolis hecame visible. The chief building was the Parthenon {i. e. House of the Virgin), the most perfect production of Grecian archi- tecture. It derived its name from its being the temple of Athena Parthenos, or Athena the Virgin, the invincible goddess of war. It stood on the highest part of the Acropolis, near its centre. It was entirely of Pentelic marble, on a i-ustic basement of ordinary limestone, and its architecture, which was of the Doric order, was of the purest kind. It was adorned with the most exquisite sculp- tures, executed by various artists under the direction of Phidias. A large number of these sculptures were brought to England by Lord Elgin, of whom they were purchased by the nation and deposited in the British Museum. But the chief wonder of the Parthenon was the colossal statue of the Virgin Goddess executed by Phidias himself. The Acropolis was adorned with another colossal figure of Athena, in bronze, also the work of Phidias. It stood in the open air, nearly opposite the Propylaea. With its pedestal it must have been about 70 feet high, and consequently towered above the roof of the Parthenon, so that the point of its spear and the crest of its helmet Avere visible off the promon- tory of Sunium to ships approaching Athens, Another magnificent building on the Acropolis was the JErechthenni, or temple of Erechtheus. It was one of the finest models of the Ionic order, as the Parthenon was of the Dbric. It stood to the north of the latter building, and close to the northern wall of the Acro- polis. Among the remarkable places in other ))arts of the city we may mention, first, the Dionysiac theatre, which occupied the slope at the south-eastern extremity of the Acro- polis. The middle of it was excavated out of the rock, and the rows of seats ascended in curves one above another, the diameter in- creasing with the height. It was no doubt sufficiently large to accommodate the Avhole body of Athenian citizens, as well as the strangers Avho flocked to Athens during the Uionysiac festival, but its dimensions cannot now be accurately ascertained. It had no roof, but the spectators were probably pro- tected from the sun by an awning, and from their elevated seats they had a distinct view of the sea, and of the peaked hills of Salamis in the horizon. Above them rose the Par- thenon and the other buildings of the Acro- polis, so that they sat under the shadow of the ancestral gods of the country. The Are- opagus, or Hill of Ares (Mars) is described 3lsewhere. [Maes' Hill.] The Fnyx, or place for holding the public assemblies of the Athenians, stood on the side of a low rocky hill, at the distance of about a quarter of a mile from the Areopagus. Projecting from the hill, and hewn out of it, still stands a solid rectangular block, called the Bema or pulpit, from whence the orators addressed the multitude in the area before them. The position of the Bema commanded a view of the Propylaea and the other magnificent edi- fices of the Acropolis, while beneath it was the city itself studded with monuments of Athenian glory. The Athenian orators fre- quently roused the national feelings of their audience by pointing to the Propylaea and to the other splendid buildings before them. Between the Pnyx on the west, the Areopagus on the north, and the Acropolis on the east, and closelj'^ adjoining the base of these hills, stood the Agora or '■'■Market," where St. Paul disputed daily. In a direction from north- west to south-east a street called the Ceramleus ran diagonally through the Agora, entering it through the valley between the Pnyx and the Areopagus. The street was named after a district of the city, which M'as divided into two parts, the Inner and Outer Ceramleus. The former lay within the city walls, and included the Agora. The Outer Ceramleus, which formed a handsome suburb on the north-west of the city, was the burial-place of all persons honoured with a public funeral. Through it ran the road to the gymnasium and gardens of the Academy, which were situated about a mile from the walls. The Academy was the place where Plato and his disciples taught. On each side of this road were monuments to illustrious Athenians, especially those who had fallen in battle. East of the city, and outside the walls, was the Lyceum, a gj'mnasium dedicated to Apollo Lyceus, and celebrated as the place in which Aristotle taught. — The remark of the sacred historian respecting the inquisitive character of the Athenians (Acts xvii. 21) is attested by the unanimous voice of antiquity. Demo- sthenes rebukes his countrymen for their love of constantly going about in the market, and asking one another What news ? Their natural liveliness was partly OAving to the purity and clearness of the atmosphere of Attica, which also allowed them to pass much of their time in the open air. The trans- parent clearness of the atmosphere is noticed by Euripides [Medea, 829), who describes the Athenians as " delicately marching through most pellucid air." Modern tra- vellers have not failed to notice the same peculiarity. Thus Dean Stanley speaks " of the transparent clearness, the brilliant colour- ing of an Athenian sky ; of the flood of fire, ATHENS £>t) ATONEMENT, THE DAY OF with which the marhie colanms, the moun- tains, and the sea are all bathed and pene- trated by an illumination of an Athenian sunset." — St. Paul began his address at Athens by speaking of their " carefulness in religion," which is translated in the A. V. " too superstitious," an unfortunate mistranslation, as Conybeare and Howson remark, " because it entirely destroys the graceful courtesy of St. Taul's opening ad- dress, and represents him as beginning his speech by offending his audience." The Athenian carefulness in religion is con- firmed by the ancient writers. Thus Pausa- nias says that the Athenians surpassed all other states in the attention which they paid to the worship of the gods ; and hence the city was crowded in every direction with temples, altars, and other sacred build- ings. The altar " to the Unknown God," which St. Paul mentions, has been spoken of elsewhere. [Altar, p. 24, b.] Of the Christian church, founded by St. Paul at Athens, according to ecclesiastical tradition, Dionysius the Areopagite was the first bishop. [DiONYSIUS.] ATONEMENT, THE DAY OF, the great day of national humiliation, and the only one commanded in the Mosaic law. [Fasts.] The mode of its observance is described in Lev. xvi., and the conduct of the people is emphatically enjoined in Lev. xxiii. 26-32. — II. It was kept on the tenth day of Tisri, that is, from the evening of the ninth to the evening of the tenth of that month, five days before the Feast of Tabernacles. [Festivals.] — III. The observances of the day, as de- scribed in the law, were as follow. It was kept by the people as a high solemn sabbath. On this occasion only the high priest was permitted to enter into the Holy of Holies. Having bathed his person and dressed him- self entirely in the holy white linen gar- ments, be brought forward a young bullock for a sin-offering, purchased at his own cost, on account of himself and his family, and two j'oung goats for a sin-offering with a ram for a burnt-offering, which were paid for out of the public treasurj', on account of the people. He then presented the two goats before the Lord at the door of the tabernacle and cast lots upon them. On one lot " for Jehovah " was inscribed, and on the other *' for Azazel." He next sacrificed the young bullock as a sin-offering for himself and his family. Taking with him some of the blood of the bullock, he filled a censer with burn- ing coals from the brazen altar, took a hand- ful of incense, and entered into the most holy place. He then threw the incense upon the coals and enveloped the naercy-seat in a cloud of smoke. Then, dipping his finger into the blood, he sprinkled it seven times before the mercy-seat eastward. The goat upon which the lot ^'' for Jehovah" had fallen was then slain and the high priest sprinkled its blood before the mercy-seat in the same manner as he had done that of the bullock. Going out from the Holy of Holies he purified the holy place, sprinkling some of the blood of both the victims on the altar of incense. At this time no one besides the high priest was suf- fered to be present in the holy place. The purification of the Holy of Holies, and of the holy place, being thus completed, the high priest laid his hands upon the head of the goat on which the lot ^'' for Azazel" had fallen, and confessed over it all the sins of the people. The goat was then led, by a man chosen for the purpose, into the wilder- ness, into " a land not inhabited," and was there let loose. The high priest after this returned into the holy place, bathed himself again, put on his usual garments of office, and offered the two rams as burnt-offerings, one for himself and one for the people. He also burnt upon the altar the fat of the two sin-offerings, while their flesh was carried away and burnetl outside the camp. They who took away the flesh and the man who had led away the goat had to bathe their persons and wash their clothes as soon as their service was performed. The accessory burnt-offerings mentioned Num. xxix, 7-11, were a young bullock, a ram, seven lambs, and a young goat. — IV. There has been much discussion regarding the meaning of the word Azazel. The opinions which seem most worthy of notice are the following : — 1. It has been regarded as a designation of the goat itself. This view has been most favoured by the old interpreters, who in general supposed it to mean the goat sent away, or let loose. But in this case it does not seem possible to make sense out of Lev. xvi. 10 and 26. 2. Some have taken Azazel for the name of the place to which the goat Avas sent. 3. a) Gesenius supposes it to be some false deity who was to be appeased by such a sacrifice as that of th« goat, b) But others have regarded him as an evil spirit, or the devil himself. 4. An explanation of the word which seems less objectionable, if it is not wholly satisfactory, would render the designation of the lot " for co7nplete sending away." — V. In considering the meaning of the particular rites of the day, three points appear to be of a very distinctive character. 1. The white garments of the high priest. 2. His entrance into the Holy of Holies. 3. The scapegoat. The writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews (ix. 7-25) teaches us to apply ATROTH 56 AXE the first two particulars. The high priest himself, with his person cleansed and dressed in white garments, was the best outward type which a living man could present in his own person of that pure and holy One who was to purify His people and to cleanse them from their sins. But respecting the meaning of the scapegoat, we have no such light to guide us, and the subject is one of great doubt and difficulty. It has been generally considered that it was dismissed to signify the carrying away of the sins of the people, as it were, out of the sight of Jehovah. If we keep in view that the two goats are spoken of as parts of one and the same sin- offering, we shall not have much difficulty in seeing that they form together but one sym- bolical expression : the slain goat setting forth the act of sacrifice, in giving up its own life for others " to Jehovah ; " and the goat which carried off its load of sin " for com- plete removal," as signifying the cleansing influence of faith in that sacrifice. AT'ROTH, a city of Gad (Num. xxxii. 3.5). ATTALI'A, a coast-town of Pamphylia, mentioned Acts xiv. 25. It was built by Attains Philadelphus, king of Pergamus, and named after the monai-ch. All its remains are characteristic of the date of its founda- tion. Leake fixes Attalia at Adalia, on the S. coast of Asia Minor, N. of the Duden Su the ancient Catarrhactes. AT'TALUS, the name of three kings of Pergamus who reigned respectively b.c. 241- 197, 159-138 (Philadelphus), 138-133 (Philo- raetor). It is uncertain whether the letters sent from Rome in favour of the Jews (1 Mace. XV. 22) were addressed to Attains II. or At- tains III., as their date falls in b.c. 139-8, about the time when the latter succeeded his uncle. AUGUS'TUS CAES'AR, the first Roman emperor. He was born a.u.c. 691, b.c. 63. His father was Cains Octavius ; his mother Atia, daughter of Julia the sister of C. Julius Caesar. He was principally educated by his great-uncle Julius Caesar, and was made his heir. After his murder, the young Octavius, then Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, was taken into the Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, and, after the removal of the latter, divided the empire with Antony. The struggle for the supreme power was ter- minated in favour of Octavianus by the battle of Actium, B.C. 31. On this victor j', he was saluted Imperator by the senate, who con- ferred on him the title Augustus (b.c. 27). The fii-st link binding him to N. T. history is his treatment of Herod after the battle of Actium. That prince, who had espoused Antony's side, found himself pardoned, taken into favour and confirmed, nay even increased in his power. After Herod's death in a.i). 4, Augustus divided his dominions almost exactly according to his dying directions, among his sons. Augustus died at Nola in Campania, Aug. 19, a.u.c. 767, a.d. 14, in his 76th year ; but long before his death he had associated Tiberius with him in the empire. AUGUSTUS' BAND (Acts xxvii. 1). [Armt.] A'VA, a place in the empire of Assyria, apparently the same as Ivah (2 K. xvii. 24). AV'ARAN, the surname of Eleazar, brother of Judas Maccabeus (1 Mace. ii. 5). A'VEN. 1. The " plain of Aven" is men- tioned by Amos (i. 5) in his denunciation of Syria and the country to the N. of Palestine, It has not been identified with certainty. — 2. In Hos. X. 8 the word is clearly an abbre- viation of Bethaven, that is Bethel (comp. iv. 15, &c.). — 3. The sacred city of Heliopolis or On, in Egypt (Ez. xxx. 17). "A'VIM, A'VIMS, or A'VITES. 1. A people among the early inhabitants of Pales- tine, whom we meet with in the S.W. corner of the sea-coast, whither they may have made their way northwards from the Desert. The only notice of them which has come down to us is contained in a remarkable fragment of primeval histoi*y preserved in Deut. ii. 23. It is a curious fact that both the LXX. and Jerome identified the Avvim with the Hivites. — 2. The people of Avva, among the colonists who were sent by the king of Assyria to re-inhabit the depopulated cities of Israel (2 K. xvii. 31). AWL, a tool of which we do not know the ancient form. The only notice of it is in connexion with the custom of boring the ear of the slave (Ex. xxi. 6 ; Deut. xv. 17). AXE. Seven Hebrew words are rendered " ax " in the A. V. : the one of most com- mon occurrence being Garzen, from a root signifying " to cut or sever," as " hatchet," from "hack," corresponds to the Lat. seciiris. It consisted of a head of iron (cf. Is. x. 34), fastened, with thongs or otherwise, upon n. handle of wood, and so liable to slip off (Deut. xix. 5 ; 2 K. vi. 5). It was used for felling trees (Deut. xx. 19), and also for Egyptian Axe. (British Museum.) AZAllIAIl 16 a shaping the wood when felled, ijcrhaps like the modern adze (1 K. vi. 7). — The " battle- ax " [mappets, Jei'. li. 20) was probably, as its root indicates, a heavy mace or maul, like that which gave his surname to Charles Martel. AZARI'AH, a common name in Hebrew and especially in the families of the priests of the line of Eleazar, whose name has precisely the same meaning as Azariaii. It is nearly identical, and is often confoiinded with Ezra as well as with Zerahiah and Seraiah. The principal persons who bore this name were : — 1. Son of Ahimaaz (1 Chr. vi. 9). He appears from 1 K. iv. 2, to have succeeded Zadok, his grandfather, in the high priesthood, in the reign of Solomon, Ahimaaz having died before Zadok. [Ahi- maaz.] To him, it can scarcely be doubted, instead of to his grandson, Azariah the son of Johanan, belongs the notice in 1 Chr. vi. 10. Josephus merely mentions Azarias as the son and successor of Ahimaaz. — 2. Azariah, the son of Oded (2 Chr. xv. 1), called simply Oded in ver. 8, was a remark- able prophet in the days of king Asa, and a contempoi ary of Azariah the son of Johanan the high priest, and of Hanani the seer. — 3. The high priest in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, whose name, perhaps from this cir- cumstance, is often corrupted into Azariah (2 K. xiv. 21, XV. 1, 6, 7, 8, &c.). The most memorable event of his life is that which is recorded in 2 Chr. xxvi. 17-20. When king Uzziah, elated by his great pros- perity and power, " transgressed against the Lord his God, and went into the Temple of the Lord to burn incense upon the altar of incense," Azariah the priest, accompanied by eighty of his brethren, went in boldly after him, and withstood him. He was contem- porary with Isaiah the prophet, and with Amos and Joel, and doubtless witnessed the great earthquake in Uzziah's reign (Am. i. 1 ; Zech. xiv. 5). AZ'EKAH, a town of Judah, with depend- ent villages, lying in the Shefelah or rich agricultural plain. It is most clearly defined as being near Shochoh (1 Sam. xvii. 1) ; but its position has not yet been recognized. AZMA'VETH, a place to all appearance in Benjamin, being named with Anathoth, Kir- jath-Jearim and other towns belonging to that tribe (Ezr. ii. 24). The name elsewhere occurs as Beth-Azmaveth. AZ'MON, a place named as being on the S. boundai-y of the Holy Land, apparently near the torrent of Egypt {Wadi el-Arish) (Num. xxxiv. 4, 5 ; Josh. xv. 4). It has not j'et been identified. AZ'NOTH-TA'BOR, the ears (j. e. possibly the summits) of Tabor, one of the landmarks of the boundary of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 34). The town, if town it be, has hitherto escaped recognition. AZ'ZAH. The more accurate rendering of the name of the well-known Philistine city, Gaza (Deut. ii. 23 •" 1 K. iv. 24 ; Jer. xxv. 20), BA'AL, the supreme male divinity of the Phoenician and Canaanitish nations, as AsHTORETH was their supreme female divinity. Both names have the peculiarity of being used in the plural, and it seems certain that these plurals designate not statues of the divinities, but different modifications of the divinities themselves. The word Baal is in Hebrew a common noun of frequent occur- rence, having the meaning Lord, not so much, however, in the sense of Ruler as of Master, Owner, Possessor. There can be no doubt of the very high antiqiiity of the wor- ship of Baal. We find it established amongst the Moabites and their allies the Midianites in the time of Moses (Num. xxii. 41), and through these nations the Israelites Avere seduced to the worship of this god under the particular form of Baal-Peor (Num. xxv. 3-18 ; Deut. iv. 3). In the times of the kings the worship of Baal spread greatly, and together Avith that of Asherah became the religion of the court and people of the ten tribes (1 K. xvi. 31-33, xviii. 19, 22). An though this idolatry was occasionally pu down (2 K. iii. 2, x. 28) it appears never to have been permanently abolished among them (2 K. xvii, 16), In the kingdom of Judab also Baal-worship extensively prevailed. The worship of Baal amongst the Jews seems to have been appointed with much pomp and ceremonial. Temples were erected to him (1 K. xvi, 32 ; 2 K, xi. 18) ; his images were set up (2 K. X. 26) ; his altars were very numerous (Jer. xi. 13), were erected particu- larly on lofty eminences (1 K. xviii. 20), and on the roofs of houses (Jer. xxxii. 29) ; there were priests in great numbers (1 K, xviii, 19), and of various classes (2 K. x. 19) ; the worshippers appear to have been arrayed in appropriate robes (2 K, x, 22) ; the worship was performed by burning incense (Jer. vii. 9) and offering burnt-sacrifices, which occa- sionally consisted of human victims (Jer. xix, 5 ) , The officiating priests danced with frantic shouts around the altar, and cut themselves with knives to excite the attention and com- passion of the god (1 K, xviii. 26-28). Throughout all the Phoenician colonies we continually find traces of the worship of this god ; nor need we hesitate to regard the BAAL 56 b BABEL, BABYLON Babylonian Bel (Is. xlvi. 1) or Belus, as essentially identical with Baal, though per- haps under some modified form. Among the compounds of Baal which appear in the 0. T. are : — 1. Ba'al-be'rith (Judg. viii. 33, ix. 4). The name signifies^ the Covenant-Baal, the god who comes into covenant with the worshippers. — 2. Ba'al-ze'bub, worshipped at Ekron (2 K. i. 2, 3, 16). The meaning of the name is Baal or Lord of the fly. The name occurs in the N. T. in the well-known form Beelzebub. — 3. Ba'al-pe'ok. We have already referred to the worship of this god. The narrative (Num. xxv.) seems clearly to show that this form of Baal-worship was connected with licentious rites. Baal-Peor was identified by the Rabbins and early fathers with Priapus. BA'AL, geographical. This word occurs as the prefix or suffix to the names of several places in Palestine. It never seems to have become a naturalized Hebrew word ; and such places called by this name or its com- pounds as can be identified, were either near Phoenicia, or in proximity to some other acknowledged seat of heathen worship. Some of the places in the names of which Baal forms a part are as follows : — 1. Ba'al, a town of Simeon, named only in 1 Chr. iv. 33, which from the parallel list in Josh. xix. seems to have been identical with Baalath- Beer. — S. Ba'alah. [a.) Another name for Kirjath-Jearim, or Kirjath-Baal, the well- known town, now Kuriet el Enab. It is mentioned in Josh. xv. 9, 10 ; 1 Chr. xiii. 6. In Josh. XV. 11, it is called Mount Baalah, and in xv. 60, and xviii. 14, Kirjath-Baal. It would seem as if Baalah were the earlier or Canaauite appellation of the place. In 2 Sam. vi. 2, the name occurs slightly altered as " Baale of Judah." [h.) A town in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 29), which in xix. 3 is called Balah, and in the parallel list (1 Chr, iv. 29) Bilhah. — 3. Ba'al-gad, used to denote the most northern (Josh. xi. 17, xii. 7), or perhaps north-western (xiii. 5), point to which Joshua's victories extended. It was in all probability a Phoenician or Ca- naanite sanctuary of Baal under the aspect of Gad, or Fortune. — 4. Ba'al-ha'mon, a place at which Solomon had a vineyard, evidently of great extent (Cant. viii. 11). — 5. Ba'al-ha'zor, a place "by Ephraim," where Absalom appears to have had a sheep- farm, and where Amnon was murdered (2 Sam. xiii. 23].— 6. Mount Ba'al-her'mon (Judg. iii. 3), and simply Baal-hermon (1 Chr. V. 23). This is usually considered as a distinct place from Mount Hermon ; but we know that this mountain had at least three names (Deut. iii. 9), and Baal-hermon may have been a fourth in use among the Phoe- nician worshippers of Baal. — 7. Ba'al-me'on, one of the towns which were built by the Reubenites (Num. xxxii. 38), and to which they " gave other names." It also occurs in 1 Chr. V. 8, and on each occasion with Nebo. In the time of Ezekiel it was Moabite, one of the cities which were the " glory of the country" (Ez. xxv. 9). — 8. Ba'al-per'azim, the scene of a victory of David over the Philistines, and of a great destruction of their images (2 Sam. v. 20 ; 1 Chr. xiv. 11). The place and the circumstance appear to be again alluded to in Is. xxviii. 21, where it is called Mount P.— 9. Ba'al-shal'isha, a place named only in 2 K. iv. 42 ; apparently not far from Gilgal (comp. ver. 38). — 10. Ba'al- ta'mar, a place named only in Judg. xx. 33, as near Gibeah of Benjamin. The palm-tree [tdmdr) of Deborah (iv. 5) was situated some- where in the locality, and is possibly alluded to. — 11. Ba'al-ze'phon, a place in Egypt near where the Israelites crossed the Red Sea (Ex. xiv. 2, 9 ; Num. xxxiii. 7). From the position of Goshen and the indications afforded by the narrative of the route of the Israelites, we place Baal-zephon on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez, a little below its head, which at that time was about 30 or 40 miles northward of the present head. BA'ALIS, king of the Ammonites at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem by Ne- buchadnezzar (Jer. xl. 14). BA'ANAH. Son of Rimmon, a Benjamite who with his brother Rechab murdered Ish- bosheth. For this they were killed by David, and their mutilated bodies hung up over the pool at Hebron (2 Sam. iv. 2, 5, 6, 9). BA'ASHA, B.C. 953-931, third sovereign of the separate kingdom of Israel, and the founder of its second djoiasty. He was son of Ahijah of the tribe of Issachar, and con- spired against King Nadab, son of Jeroboam, when he was besieging the Philistine town of Gibbethon (1 K. xv. 27), and killed him with his whole family. He appears to have been of humble origin (1 K. xvi. 2). It was probably in the 13th year of his reign that he made war on Asa, and began to fortify Ramah. He was defeated by the unexpected alliance of Asa with Benhadad I. of Damas- cus. Baasha died in the 24th year of his reign, and was honourably buried in the beautiful city of Tirzah (Cant. vi. 4), which he had made his capital (1 K. xvi. 6 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 1-6). BA'BEL, BAB'YLON, is properly the ca- pital city of the country, which is called in Genesis Shinar, and in the later books Chaldaea, or the land of the Chaldaeans. The BABEL, BABYLON BABEL, BABYLON architectural remains discovered in southern Babylonia, taken in conjunction with the monumental records, seem to indicate that it was not at first the capital, nor, indeed, a town of very great importance. The first rise of the Chaldaean power was in the region close upon the Persian Gulf; thence the nation spread northwards up the course of the rivers, and the seat of government moved in the same direction, being finally fixed at Babylon, perhaps not earlier than b.c. 1700. — I. Topography of Babylon — Ancient de- conveniently commence from the outer circuit of the town. All the ancient writers appear to agree in the fact of a district of vast size, more or less inhabited, having been enclosed within lofty walls, and included under the name of Babylon. With respect to the exact extent of the circuit they differ. The estimate of Herodotus and of Pliny is 480 stades, of Strabo 385, of Q. Curtius 368, of Clitarchus 365, and of Cteslas 360 stades. It is evident that here we have merely the moderate variations to be expected in inde- scriptions of the city. — The descriptions of pendent measurements, except in the first Babylon which have come down to us in of the numbers. Perhaps the true explan- classical writers are derived chiefly from two ation is that Herodotus spoke of the oxiter sources, the works of Herodotus and of Ctesias. According to the former, the city, which was built on both sides of the Eu- phrates, formed a vast square, enclosed within a double line of high walls, the extent of the outer circuit being 480 stades, or about 56 miles. The entire area included would thus have been about 200 square miles. The houses, which were fre- quently three or four stories high were laid out in straight streets crossing each other at right angles. In each division of the town there was a fortress or stronghold, consisting in the one case of the royal palace, iu the other of the great temple of Belus. The two portions of the city were united by a bridge, composed of a series of stone piers with moveable platforms of wood stretching from one pier to another. According to Ctesias the circuit of the city was not 480 but 360 stades — which is a little under 42 miles. It lay, he says, on both sides of the Euphrates, and the two parts were connected together by a stone bridge five stades (above 1000 yards) long, and 30 feet broad, of the kind described by Herodotus. At either extremity of the bridge was a royal palace, that in the eastern city being the more magnificent of the two. The two palaces were joined, not only by the bridge, but by a tunnel under the river ! Ctesias' account of the temple of Belus has not come down to us. In examining the truth of ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ P^,^,^„ i=.,.r.,ui...ab!e in the these descriptions, we shall most pre»eni n.imo. BABEL, BABYLON 58 BABEL, BABYLON wall, which could be trace* in his time. Taking the lowest estimate of the extent of the circuit, we shall have for the space within the rampart an area of above 100 square miles ; nearly five times the size of London ! It is evident that this vast space cannot have been entirely covered with houses. With regard to the height and breadth of the walls there is nearly as much difference of statement as with regard to their extent. The gates and walls are alike mentioned in Scripture ; the height of the one and tlie breadth of the other being specially noticed (Jer. li. 58 ; comp. 1. 15, and li. 53).— II. Prese?it State of the Ruins. — About five miles above Hilah, on the opposite or left bank of the Euphrates, occurs a series of artificial mounds of enormous size. They consist chiefly of three great masses of building— the high pile of unbaked brickwork called by Rich ' Mujellibe,' but which is known to the Arabs as ' JBabil ;' the building denominated the ' Kas7- ' or palace ; and a lofty mound, upon which stands the modern tomb of Ainrdm-ibti-'AIb. On the west, or right bank, the remains are very slight and scanty. Scattered over the country on both sides of the Euphrates, are a number of remarkable mounds, usually standing single, which are plainly of the same date with the great mass of ruins upon the river bank. Of these, by far the most striking is the vast ruin called the Bi7's-Nimrud, which many regard as the tower of Babel, situated about six miles to the S.W. of Hillah. [Babel, tower of.] — III. Identification of sites. — The great mound of Bahil is probably the ancient temple of Belus. The mound of the Kasr marks the site of the great Palace of Nebuchadnezzar. The mound of Amrcim is thought by M. Oppert to represent the "hanging gardens" of Nebuchadnezzar ; but most probably it represents the ancient palace, coeval with Babylon itself, of which Nebuchadnezzar speaks in his inscriptions as adjoining his own more magnificent residence. The most remarkable fact connected with the mag- nificence of Babylon, is the poorness of the material with which such wonderful results were produced. With bricks made from the soil of the country, in many parts an ex- cellent clay, and at first only " slime for mortar" (Gen. xi. 3), were constructed edi- fices of so vast a size that they still remain among the most enormous ruin? n the world. — IV. History of Balylon. —Scripture repre- sents the " beginning of the kingdom " as belonging to the time of Nimrod, the grand- son of Ham (Gen. x. 6-10). The most ancient inscriptions appear to show that the pri- mitive inhabitants of the country were really Cushite, i. e. identical in race with the early inhabitants of Southern Arabia and of Ethi- opia. The early annals of Babylon are filled by Bcrosus, the native historian, with three dynasties ; one of 49 Chaldacan kings, who reigned 458 years ; another of 9 Arab kings, who reigned 245 years ; and a third of 49 Assyrian monarchs, who held dominion for 526 j'ears. The line of Babylonian kings becomes exactly known to us from the j'ear B.C. 747. The " Ca7ion of Ptolemy" gives us the succession of Babylonian monarchs, with the exact length of the reign of each, from the year b.c. 747, when Nabonassar mounted the throne, to b.c. 331, when the last Persian king was dethroned by Alex- ander. Of the earlier kings of the Canon, the only one worthy of notice is Mardocem- palus (b.c. 721), the Mkrodacu-Baladan of Scripture, but it is not till we come to Nabo- polassar, the father of Nebuchadnezzar, that a new era in the history of Babylon com- mences. On the fall of Nineveh (b.c. 625) Babylon became not only an independent kingdom, but an empire. The city was taken by a surprise (b.c. 539), as Jeremiah had prophesied (li. 31), by an army of Medes and Persians under Cyrus, as intimated 170 J'ears earlier by Isaiah (xxi. 1-9), and, as Jeremiah had also foreshown (li. 39), during a festival. According to the book of Daniel, it wouid seem as if Babylon was taken, not by Cyrus, king of Persia, but by a Median king, named Darius (v. 31). There is, how- ever, sufficient indication that " Darius the Mede " was not the real conqueror, but a monarch with a certain delegated authority (see Dan. v. 31, and ix. 1). With the con- quest by Cyrus commenced the decay and ruin of Babylon, though it continued a royal residence through the entire period of the Persian em])ire. The defences and public buildings suff'ered grievously from neglect during the long period of peace which fol- lowed the reign of Xerxes. After the death of Alexander the Great, the removal of the seat of empire to Antioch under the Seleu- cidae gave the finishing blow to the pros- perity of the place. Since then Babylon has been a quarry from which all the tribes in the vicinity have derived the bricks with which they have built their cities. The "great city," "the beauty of the Chal dees' excellency," has thus emphatically *' become heaps" (Jer. li. 37). BA'BEL, TOWER OF. The "tower of Babel " is only mentioned once in Scripture (Gen. xi. 4-5), and then as incomplete. It was built of bricks, and the " slime " used for mortar was probably bitumen. Such au- thorities as we possess, represent the build- BABEL, TOWER OF 59 BADGER-SKINS ing as destroyed soon after its erection. When the Jews, however, were carried cap- tive into Babylonia, they were struck with the vast magnitude and peculiar character of certain of the Babylonian temples, in one or other of which they thought to recognise the very tower itself. The predominant opinion was in favour of the great temple of Nebo at Borsippa, the modern Birs-Nlmrud. But the Birs-Nimrud, though it cannot be the tower of Babel itself, may well be taken to show the probable shape and character of the edi- fice. This building appears to have been a sort of oblique pyramid built in seven reced- ing stages. " Upon a platform of crude brick, raised a few feet above the level of the allu- vial plain, was built of burnt brick the first or basement stage — an exact square, 272 feet each way, and 26 feet in perpendicular height. Upon this stage was ei'ected a second, 230 feet each way, and likewise 26 feet high ; which, however, was not placed exactly in the middle of the first, but considerably nearer to the south western end, which con- stituted the back of the building. The other stages were arranged similarly ; the third being 188 feet, and again 26 feet high ; the fourth 146 feet square, and 15 feet high ; the fifth 104 feet square, and the same height as the fourth ; the sixth 62 feet square, and again the same height; and the seventh 20 feet square and once more the same height. On the seventh stage there was probably placed the ark or tabernacle, which seems to have been again 15 feet high, and must have nearly, if not entirely, covered the top of the seventh story. The entire original height, allowing three feet for the platform, would thus have been 156 feet, or, without the platform, 153 feet. The whole formed a sort of oblique pyramid, the gentler slope facing the N.E., and the steeper inclining to the S.W. On the N.E. side was the grand en- trance, and here stood the vestibule, a sepa- rate building, the debris from which having joined those from the temple itself, fill up the intermediate space, and very remarkably prolong the mound in this dii-ection " (Raw- linson's Herodotus, vol. ii. pp. 582-3). BAB'YLON. The occurrence of this name in 1 Pet. V. 13 has given rise to a variety of conjectures, which may be briefiy enume- rated.—1. That Babylon tropically denotes Rome.— 2. Some take Babylon, with as little reason, to mean Jerusalem. — 3. Bar-Hebraeus understands by it the house in Jerusalem where the Apostles were assembled on the Day of Pentecost. — 4. Others place it on the Tigris, and identify it with Seleucia or Ctesiphon, but for this there is no evidence. The two theories which remain are worthy of more consideration. — 5. That by Babylon is in- tended the small fort of that name which formed the boundary between Upper and Lower Egypt, the modern Bahoul. — 6. The most natural supposition of all is that by Ba- bylon is intended the old Babylon of Assyria, which was largely inhabited by Jews at the time in question. BAB'YLON, in the Apocalypse, is the symbolical name by which Rome is denoted (Rev. xiv. 8, xvii., xviii.). The power of Rome was regarded by the later Jews as that of Babylon by their forefathers (comp. Jer. li. 7 with Rev. xiv. 8), and hence, whatever the people of Israel be understood to sym- bolize, Babylon represents the antagonistic principle. BABYLO'NISH GARMENT, literally ' robe of Shinar' (Josh. vii. 21). An ample robe, probably made of the skin or fur of an animal (comp. Gen. xxv. 25), and ornamented with embroidery, or perhaps a variegated garment with figures inwoven in the fashion for which the Babylonians were celebrated. BA'CA, THE VALLEY OF, a valley in Palestine, through which the exiled Psalmist sees in vision the pilgrims passing in their march towards the sanctuary of Jehovah at Zion (Ps. Ixxxiv. 6). That it was a real loca- lity is most probable, from the use of the definite article before the name. The ren- dering of the Targum is Gehenna, i. e. the Ge-Hinnom or ravine below Mount Zion, This locality agrees well with the mention of Becaim (A. V. " mulberi-y ") trees in 2 Sam. V. 23. BAC'CHIDES, a friend of Antiochus Epiphanes and governor of Mesopotamia (1 Mace. vii. 8), who was commissioned by Demetrius Soter to investigate the charges which Alcimus preferred against Judas Maccabaeus. BADGER-SKINS. There is much obscurity as to the meaning of the word tachash, ren- dered "badger" in our A. Y. (Ex. xxv. 5, XXXV. 7, &c.) ; the ancient versions seem nearly all agreed that it denotes not an animal, but a colour, either black or sky- blue. The badger is not found in the Bible lands. The Arabic duchash or tuchash denotes a dolphin, but in all probability is not re- stricted in its application, but may refer to either a seal or a cetacean. The skin of the Ralicore from its hardness would be well suited for making soles for shoes (Ez. x-\d. 10), and it is worthy of remark that the Arabs near Cape Mussendum employ the skins of these animals for a similar purpose. The Halicore Tabernaadi is found in the Red Sea, and on the coral banks of the Abyssinian coast. Perhaps, however, tachash may denote a seal. BAHURIM 60 BAMAH the skin of which animal would suit all the demands of the Scriptural allusions. Nostrila. Tlie Kye. Halienre Tabernnc%dt, with enlarged drawing of the BAHU'RIM, a village, the slight notices re- maining of which connect it almost exclusively with the flight of David (2 Sam. xvi. 5). It was apparently on, or close to the road leading up from the Jordan valley to Jerusalem, and must have heen very near the south boundary of Benjamin. Dr. Barclay conjectures that it lay where some ruins still exist close to a Wady Ruwahy, which runs in a straight course for 3 miles from Olivet directly towards Jordan. BA'LAAM, the son of Beor, a man endowed with the gift of prophecy (Num. xxii. 5). He belonged to the Midianites, and perhaps as the prophet of his people possessed the same authority that Moses did among the Israelites. At any rate he is mentioned in conjunction with the five kings of Midian, apparently as a person of the same rank (Num. xxxi. 8 ; cf, xxxi. 16). He seems to have lived at Pethor, which is said at Deut. xxiii. 4 to have been a city of Mesopotamia. He himself speaks of being " brought from Aram out of the mountains of the East" (Num. xxiii. 7). Balaam is one of those instances which meet us in Scripture of per- sons dwelling among heathens but possessing a certain knowledge of the one true God. When the Israelites were encamped in the plains of Moab, Balak, the king of Moab, sent for Balaam to curse them. Balaam was prohibited by Go(? from going. The king of Moab, however, sent again to him. The prophet again refused, but was at length allowed to go. Balaam therefore proceeded on his journey with the messengers of Balak. But God's anger was kindled at this mani- . festation of determined self-will, and the ! angel of the Lord stood in the way for an adversary against him. " The dumb ass, I speaking with man's voice, forbad the mad- ness of the prophet " (2 Pet. ii. 16). Balaam predicted a magnificent career for the people I whom he was called to curse, but he never- theless suggested to the Moabites the expe- dient of seducing them to commit fornication. The eff'ect of this is recorded in ch. xxv. A battle was afterwards fought against the Midianites, in which Balaam sided with them and was slain by the sword of the people whom he had endeavoured to curse (Num. xxxi. 8). BA'LAK, son of Zippor, king of the Moabites, at the time when the children of Israel were bringing their journey- ings in the wilderness to a close. Balak entered into a league with Midian and hired Balaam to curse the Israelites ; but his designs were frustrated in the manner recorded in Num. xxii.-xxiv. BALDNESS. There are two kinds of baldness, viz. artificial and natural. The latter seems to have been uncommon, since it exposed people to public derision, and is perpetually alluded to as a mark of squalor and misery (2 K. ii. 23 ; Is. iii. 24, xv. 2 ; Jer. xlvii. 5 ; Ez. vii. 18, &c.) In Lev. xiii. 29 &c., very careful directions are given to distinguish " the plague upon the head and beard," from mere natural baldness which is pronounced to be clean, ver. 40. Artificial baldness marked the conclusion of a Nazarite's vow (Acts xviii. 18 ; Num. vi. 9), and was a sign of mourning. BALM (Heb. tzort, tzcrl) occurs in Gen. xxxvii. 25, xliii. 11 ; Jer. viii. 22, xlvi. 11, Ii. 8 ; and Ez. xxvii. 17. It is impossible to identify it with any certainty. It may represent the gum of the Pistacia lentisciis, or that of the Balsamodendron opobalsamum. [Spices ; Mastick.] Hasselquist has given a description of the true balsam-tree of Mecca. He says that the exudation from the plant "is of a yellow colour, and pellucid. It has a most fragrant smell, which is resinous, balsamick, and very agreeable. It is very tenacious or glutinous, sticking to the fingers, and may be drawn into long threads." BA'MAH (lit. " high-place.") This word appears in its Hebrew form only in one pas- sage (Ez. XX. 29), very obscure, and full of the play upon words so dear to the Hebrew poets, so difficult for us to appreciate : BAMOTH-BAAL 61 BAPTISM «« What is the hiijh-place whereunto ye hie 1 and the name of it is called Bamah unto this day." BA'MOTH-BA'AL, a sanctuary of Baal in the country of Moab (Josh. xiii. 17-), which is probably mentioned in Num. xxi. 19, under the shorter form of Bamoth, or Bamoth-in- the-ravine (20), and again in Is. xv. 2. BANQUETS, among- the Hebrews, were not only a means of social enjoyment, but were a part of the observance of religious festivity. At the three solemn festivals the family also had its domestic feast (Deut. xvi. 11). Pro- bably both males and females went up (1 Sam. i. 9) together, to hold the festival. Sacrifices, both ordinary and extraordinary (Ex. xxxiv. 15 ; Judg. xvi. 23), included a banquet, and Eli's sons made this latter the prominent part. Birthday-banquets ai-e only mentioned in the cases of Pharaoh and Herod (Gen. xl. 20 ; Matt. xiv. 6). The usual time of the banquet was the evening, and to begin early was a mark of excess (Is. v. 11 ; Eccl. x. 16). The most essential materials of the banquet- ing-room, next to the viands and wine, which last was often drugged with spices (Prov. ix. 2 ; Cant. viii. 2), were perfumed unguents, garlands or loose flowers, white or brilliant robes ; after these, exhibitions of music, singers, and dancers, riddles, jesting and merriment (Is. xxviii. 1 ; Wisd. ii. 7 ; 2 Sam. xix. 35 ; Is. xxv. 6, v, 12 ; Judg. xiv. 12 ; Neh. viii. 10; Eccl. x. 19; Matt. xxii. 11 ; Am. vi. 5, C ; Luke xv. 25). The posture at table in early times was sitting (1 Sam. xvi. 11, XX. 5, 18), and the guests were ranged in order of dignity (Gen. xliii. 33 ; 1 Sam. ix. 22) : the words which imply the recum- bent posture belong to the N. T. The sepa- ration of the women's banquet was not a Jewish custom (Esth. i. 9). BAPTISM. I. It is well known that ablu- tion or bathing was common in most ancient nations as a preparation for prayers and sacrifice or as expiatory of sin. There is a natural connexion in the mind between the thought of physical and that of spiritual pol- lution. In warm countries this connexion is probably even closer than in colder climates ; and hence the frequency of ablution in the religious rites throughout the east. — II. The history of Israel and the Law of Moses abound with such lustrations (Gen. xxxv. 2 ; Ex. xix. 10 ; Lev. xv, xvii. 15, xxii. 4, 6, xvi. 26, 28 ; Num. xix. 10). It was natural, that of all people, the priests most especially should be required to purify them- selves in this manner. The consecration of the high-priest deserves especial notice. It was first by baptism, then by unction, and lastly by sacrifice (Ex. xxix. 4, xl. 12 ; Lev. viii.). From the Gospel history we learn that at that time ceremonial washings had been greatly multiplied by traditions of the doctors and elders (see Mark vii. 3, 4). The most important and probably one of the earliest of these traditional customs was the baptizing of proselytes.— III. The baptis7n of John. — These usages of the Jews will account for the readiness with which all men flocked to the baptism of John the Baptist. There has been some uncertainty as to the nature of John's baptism and its spiritual signi- ficance. It appears to have been a kind of transition from the Jewish baptism to the Christian. The distinction between John's baptism and Christian baptism appears in the case of Apollos (Acts xviii. 26, 27), and of the disciples at Ephesus, mentioned Acts xix. 1-6. We cannot but draw from this history the inference that in Christian baptism there was a deeper spiritual significance. — IV. The baptism of Jesus. — Plainly the most im- portant action of John as a baptist was his baptism of Jesus, which was His formal set- ting apart for His ministry, and was a most important portion of His consecration to be the High Priest of God. He was just enter- ing on the age of thirty (Luke iii. 23), the age at which the Levites began their ministry and the rabbis their teaching. It has already been mentioned that the consecration of Aaron to the high-priesthood was by baptism, miction, and sacrifice (see Lev. viii.). All these were undergone by Jesus. Baptism was the beginning of consecration ; unction was the immediate consequent upon the baptism ; and sacrifice was the completion of the initiation, so that He was thenceforth per- fected, or fully consecrated as a Priest for evermore (Heb. vii. 28). — V. Baptism of the Disciples of Christ. — Whether our Lord ever baptized has been doubted. The only pas- sage which may distinctly bear on the ques- tion is John iv. 1, 2, where it is said " that Jesus made and baptized more disciples than John, though Jesus Himself baptized not, but His disciples." We necessarily infer from it, that, as soon as our Lord began His ministry, and gathered to Him a company of disciples, He, like John the Baptist, ad- mitted into that company by the administra- tion of baptism. After the resurrection, baptism became the initiatory rite of the Christian Church, as circumcision was the initiatory rite of Judaism. — VI. The Types of Baptism. — Baptism is compared to the Flood by which Noah was saved (1 Pet. iii. 21); to the passage of the Red Sea and the shadow- ing of the miraculous cloud (1 Cor. x. 1, 2) ; to circumcision (Col. ii. 11); and to death (Matt. XX. 22 ; Mark x. 39 ; Luke xii. 50). BAPTISM 62 BAPTISM — YII. Names of Baptism. — 1. "Baptism" properly and literally means immersion. — 2. " The Water " is a name of baptism -which occurs ill Acts x. 47. — 3. " Washing- of Water " (lit. " the hath of the water "), is another Scriptural term, by which baptism is signified (Eph. v. 26). There appears clearly in these words a reference to the bridal bath ; but the allusion to baptism is clearer still. — 4. " The washing of regenera- tion " (lit. " the bath of regeneration ") is a phrase naturally connected with the fore- going. It occurs Tit. iii. 5. All ancient and most,modern commentators have interpreted it of baptism. — 5. " Illumination " (Heb. vi. 4). — VIII. Eccijnents of Baptism. — The command to baptize was co-extensive with the command to preach the Gospel. All na- tions were to he evangelized ; and they were to be made disciples, admitted into the fel- lowship of Christ's religion, by baptism (Matt, xxviii. 19). The great question has been, whether the invitation extended, not to adults only, but to infants also. The uni- versality of the invitation, Christ's declara- tion concerning the blessedness of infants and their fitness for his kingdom (Mar. x. 14), the admission of infants to circumcision and to the baptism of Jewish proselytes, the men- tion of whole households, and the subsequent practice of the Church, have been principally relied on by the advocates of infant baptism. The silence of the New Testament concern- ing the baptism of infants, the constant men- tion of faith as a pre-requisite or condition of baptism, the great spiritual blessings which seem attached to a right reception of it, and the responsibility entailed on those who have taken its obligations on ."hemselves, seem the chief objections urged against paedo-baptism. But here we must leave ground which has been so extensively occupied by controver- sialists.— IX. The mode of Baptism. — The language of the New Testament and of the primitive fathers sufficiently points to im- mersion as the common mode of baptism. But in the case of the family of the jailor at Philippi (Acts xvi. 33), and of the three thousand converted at Pentecost (Acts ii.), it seems hardly likely that immersion should have been possible. Moreover the ancient Church, which mostly adopted immersion, was satisfied with effusion in case of clinical baptism — the baptism of the sick and dying. — Questions and ansivers, — In the earliest times of the Christian Church we find the catechumens required to renounce the Devil and to profess their faith in the Holy Trinity and in the principal articles of the Creed. It is generally supposed that St. Peter (1 Pet. iii. 21) refers to a custom of this kind as existing from the first. — X. The formula of Baptism. — It should seem from our Lord's own direction (Matt, xxviii. 19) that the words made use of in the administration of baptism should be those which the Church has generally retained. —XI. Baptism for the Dead. — 1 Cor. xv. 27. "Else what shall they do who are baptized for the dead, if the dead rise not at all ? Why are they then baptized for the dead ? " 1 . TertuUian tells us of a custom of vicarious baptism as exist- ing among the Marcionites ; and St. Chrj-- sostom relates of the same heretics, that, when one of their catechumens died without baptism, they used to put a living person under the dead man's bed, and asked whether he desired to be baptized ; the living man answering that he did, they then baptized him in place of the departed (Chrys. Horn. xl. on 1 Cor. xv.). 2. Chrysostom believes the Apostle to refer to the profes.-;ion of faith in baptism, part of which was "I believe in the resurrection of the dead." The former of the two interpretations above mentioned commends itself to us by its simplicity ; the latter by its antiquity. Many other explana- tions have been given. BARAB'BAS, a robber (John xviii. 40), who had committed murder in an insurrec- tion (Mark xv. 7 ; Luke xxiii. 19) in Jeru- salem, and was Ij'ing in pi'ison at the time of the trial of Jesus before Pilate. BA'BAK, son of Abinoam of Kedesh, a refuge-city in Mount Naphtali, was incited by Deboi-ah, a prophetess of Ephraim, to deliver Israel from the yoke of Jabin (Judg. iv.). He utterly routed the Canaanites in the plain of Jezreel (Esdraelon). BARBARIAN. " Every one not a Greek is a barbarian " is the common Greek defini- tion, and in this strict sense the word is used in Rom. i. 14, "I am debtor both to Greeks and barbarians." It often retains this primitive meaning, as in 1 Cor. xiv. 1 1 (of one using an unknown tongue), and Acts xxviii. 2, 4 (of the Maltese, who spoke a Punic dialect). BARLEY was grown by the Hebrews (Lev. xxvii. 16; Deut. viii. 8; Ruth ii. 17, &c.), who used it for baking into bread, chiefly amongst the poor (Judg. vii. 13 ; 2 K. iv. 42 ; John vi. 9, 13 ) ; for making into bread by mixing it with wheat, beans, lentiles, millet, &c. (Ez. iv. 9) ; and as fodder for horses (1 K. iv. 28). The barley harvest (Ruth i. 22, ii. 23 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 9, 10) takes place in Pales- tine in March and April, and in the hilly districts as late as May ; but the period of course varies according to the localities where the corn grows. It always precedes the wheat harvest, in some places by a week, in others by fully three weeks. In Egypt the BARNABAS Gl BARIICH, THE BOOK OF barley is about a month earlier than the wheat ; whence its total destruction by the hail-storm (Ex. ix. 31). Barley was sown at any time between November and March, according to the season. Barley bread is even to this day little esteemed in Palestine. This fact is important, as serving to elucidate some passages in Scripture. BAR'NABAS, a name signifjing " son of prophecy," or " exhortation " (or, but not so probably, "consolation," as A. V.), given by the Apostles (Acts iv. 36) to Joseph (or Joses), a Levite of the island of Cypi-us, who was early a disciple of Christ. In Acts ix. 27, we find him introducing the newly-con- verted Saul to the Apostles at Jerusalem, in a way which seems to miply previous ac- quaintance between the two. On tidings coming to the church at Jerusalem that men of Cyprus and Cyrene had been preaching to Gentiles at Antioch, Barnabas was sent thither (Acts xi. 19-2G), and went to Tarsus to seek Saul, as one specially raised up, to preach to the Gentiles (Acts xxvi. 17). Having brought him to Antioch, he was sent with him to Jerusalem with relief for the brethren in Judaea (Acts xi. 30). On their return, they (Acts xiii. 2) were or- dained by the church for the missionary work, and sent forth (a.d. 45). From this time Barnabas and Paul enjoy the title and dia^nity of Apostles. Their first missionary journey is related in Acts xiii. xiv. ; it was confined to Cyprus and Asia Minor. Some time after their return to Antioch (a.d. 47 or 48), they were sent (a.d. 50), with some others, to Jerusalem, to determine with the Apostles and Elders the difficult question respecting the necessity of circumcision for the Gentile converts (Acts xv. 1 ff.). On that occasion Paul and Barnabas were re- cognized as the Apostles of uncircumcision. After another stay in Antioch on their re- turn, a variance took place between Barnabas and Paul on the question of taking with them, on a second missionary journey, John Mark, sister's son to Barnabas (Acts xv. 36 fF.). They parted, and Barnabas took Mark, and sailed to Cyprus, his native island. Here the Scripture notices of him cease. The Epistle attributed to Barnabas is believed to have been written early in the second century. BARTHOL'OMEW, one of the Twelve Apostles of Christ (Matt. x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 14; Acts i. 13). It has been not improbably conjectured that he is identical with Nathanael (John i. 45 ff.). He is said to have preached the Gospel in India, that is, probablj', Arabia Felix, and according to some in Armenia. BARTIMAE'US, a blind beggar of Jericho who (Mark x. 46 ff.) sat by the wayside beg- ging as our Lord passed out of Jericho on His last journey to Jerusalem, BA'RUCH. Son of Neriah, the friend (Jer. xxxii. 12), amanuensis (Jor. xxxvi. 4-32), and faithful attendant of Jeremiah (Jer. xxxvi. 10 ff. ; b.c. 603), in the dis- charge of his prophetic office. He was of a noble family (comp. Jer. li. 59 ; Bar. i. 1), and of distinguished acquirements ; and his brother Seraiah held an honourable office in the court of Zedekiah (Jer. li. 59). His enemies accused hun of influencing Jeremiah in favour of the Chaldaeans (Jer. xliii. 3 ; cf. xxxvii. 13) ; and he was thrown into prison with that prophet, where he remained till the capture of Jerusalem, b.c. 586. By the pei-mission of Nebuchadnezzar he re- mained with Jeremiah at Mizpeh (Jos. Aiit. x. 9, §1) ; but was afterwards forced to go down to Egypt (Jer. xliii. 6). Nothing is known certainly of the close of his life. BARUCH, THE BOOK OF, may be di- vided inro two main parts, i-iii. 8, and iii. 9- end. — 1. It exists at present in Greek, and in several translations which were made from the Greek. Of the two Old Latin versions which remain, that which is incorporated in the Yulgate is generally literal ; the other is more free. The vulgar Syriac and Arabic follow the Greek text closely.— 2. The as- sumed author is undoubtedlj' the companion of Jeremiah, but the details of the book are inconsistent with the assumption. — 3. The book was held in little esteem among the Jews. From the time of Irenaeus it was frequently quoted both in the East and in the West, and generally as the work of Jeremiah. At the Council of Trent Baruch was admitted into the Romish Canon. — 4. The two divisions of the book are dis- tinguisheel by marked peculiarities of style and language. The Hebraic character of the first part is such as to mark it as a transla- tion and not as the work of a Hebraizing Greek. The second part, on the other hand, closely approaches the Alexandrine type. — 5. The most probable explanation of this contrast is gained by supposing that some one thoroughly conversant with the Alex- andrine translation of Jeremiah found the Hebrew fragment which forms the basis of the book already attached to the writings of that prophet, and wrought it up into its present form.— 6. The present book must be placed probably about the time of the war of liberation (b.c. 160), or somewhat earlier. — 7. The Epistle of Jeremiah, which, according to the authority of some Greek MSS., stands in the English version as tbe 6th chapter of Baruch, is the work of a later period. It BARZILLAI 64 BAT may be assigned with probability to the first century b.c. BARZIL'LAI. A wealthy Gileadite who showed hospitality to David when he fled from Absalom (2 Sam. xvii, 27). He declined the king's ofl'er of ending his days at court (2 Sam. xix. 32-39). BA'SHAN, a district on the east of Jordan. It is sometimes spoken of as the " land of Bashan " (1 Chr. v. 11 ; and comp. Num. xxi. 33, xxxii. 33), and sometimes as " all Ba- shan" (Deut. iii. 10, 13 ; Josh. xii. 5, xiii. 12, 30), but most commonly without any addition. It was taken by the childi-en of Israel after their conquest of the land of Sihon from Arnon to Jabbok. The limits of Bashan are very strictly defined. It ex- tended from the " border of Gilead " on the south to Mount Hermon on the north (Deut. iii. 3, 10, 14 ; Josh. xii. 5 ; 1 Chr. v. 23), and fi'om the Arabah or Jordan valley on the west to Salchah {Sulkhad) and the border of the Geshurites and the Maacha- thites on the east (Josh. xii. 3-5 ; Deut. iii. 10). This important district was bestowed on the half tribe of Manasseh (Josh. xiii. 29- 31), together with " half Gilead." BA'SHAN-HA'VOTH-JA'IR, a name given to Argob after its conquest by Jair (Deut. iii. 14). BASH'EMATH, daughter of Ishmael, the last married of the three wives of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 3, 4, 13). In Gen. xxviii. 9 she is called Mahalath ; whilst the name Bashemath is in Gen. xxvi. 34 given to another of Esau's wives, the daughter of Elon the Hittite. This is probably due to a transcriber's error. BASIN. Among the smaller vessels for the Tabernacle or Temple service, many must have been required to receive from the sacri- ficial victims the blood to be sprinkled for purification. The form and material of these vessels can only be conjectured from the analogy of ancient Assyrian and EgjTJtian specimens of works of the same kind. The " basin " from which our Lord washed the dis- ciples' feet was probably deeper and larger than the hand-basin for sprinkling. BASKET. The Hebrew terms used in the description of this article are as follows : ( 1 ) Sal, so called from the twigs of which it was ori- ginally made, specially used for holding bread (Gen. xl. 16 ff. ; Ex. xxix. 3, 23; Lev. viii. 2, 26, 31; Num. vi. 15, 17, 19). (2) Salsilloth, a word of kindred ori- gin, applied to the basket used in gathering grapes (Jer. vi. 9). (3) Tene, in which the tirst-fiuits of the harvest were presented (Deut. xxvi. 2, 4). We may infer that it was used for household purposes, perhaps to bring the corn to the mill. (4) Cehib, so called from its similarity to a birdcage or trap, probably in regard to its having a lid : it was used for carrying fruit (Am. viii. 1, 2). (5) Dtid, used for carrying fruit (Jer. xxiv. 1, 2), as well as on a larger scale for carrying clay to the brickyard (Ps. Ixxxi. 6 ; pots, A. v.), or for holding bulky articles (2 K. X. 7). In the N. T. baskets are de- scribed under three different terms. Egypti (Frum Wilki BASTARD. Among those who were ex- cluded from entering the congregation, even to the tenth generation, was the mamzer (A. V. bastard), who was classed in this respect with the Ammonite and Moabite (Deut. xxiii. 2). The term is not, however, applied to any illegitimate oifspring, born out of wedlock, but is restricted by the Rab- bins to the issue of any connexion within the degrees prohibited by the Law. BAT {'utalleph). There is no doubt what- ever that the A. "V. is coi'rect in its rendering Bat. (Tnf>hrigf)tti> X'erforatvu.) of this word (Lev. xi. 19; Deut. xiv. 18). Many travellers have noticed the immense numbers of bats that are found in caverns in the East, and Mr. Layard says that on the occasion of a visit to a cavern these noisome beasts compelled him to retreat. BATH 65 BATH, BATHING. This was a prescribed part of the Jewish ritual of purification in cases of accident, leprous, or ordinary un- cleanness (Lev. xr., xvi. 28, xxii. 6; Num. xix. 7, 19 ; 2 Sam. xi. 2, 4 ; 2 K. v. 10) ; as also after mourning, which always implied defilement (Ruth iii. 3; 2 Sam. xii. 20). With bathing, anointing was customarily joined ; the climate making both these essential alike to health and pleasure, to which luxury added the use of perfumes {Susan. 17 ; Jud. x. 3; Esth. ii. 12). The "pools," such as that of Siloamand Hezekiah (Neh. iii. 15, 16 ; 2 K. xx. 20 ; Is. xxii. II ; John ix. 7), often sheltered by porticoes (John V. 2), ai-e the first indications we have of public bathing accommodation. BATH. [Measures.] BATH-RAB'BIM, THE GATE OF, one of the gates of the ancient city of Heshbon (Cant. vii. 4 [5]). BATHSHE'BA (2 Sam. xi. 3, &c. ; also called Bathshua in 1 Chr. iii. 5), the daughter of Eliam (2 Sam. xi. 3), or Ammiel (1 Chr. iii. 5), the son of Ahithophel (2 Sam. xxiii. 34), and wife of Uriah the Hittite. The child which was the fruit of her adulterous intercourse with David died ; but after mar- riage she became the mother of four sons, Solomon (Matt. i. 6), Shimea, Shobab, and Nathan. When Adonijah attempted to set aside in his own favour the succession pro- mised to Solomon, Bathsheba was employed by Nathan to inform the king of the con- spiracy (I K. i. 11, 15, 23). After the ac- cession of Solomon, she, as queen- mother, requested permission of her son for Adonijah to take in marriage Abishag the Shunamite (1 K. ii. 21-25). BATH-ZACHARI'AS, a place, named only 1 Mace. vi. 32, 33. It is the modern Beit Sakdrteh, nine miles north of Beit siir. [Bethzur.] BAY-TREE [ezrdch). Most of the Jewish doctors understand by the term ezrdch " a tree which grows in its own soil " — one that has never been transplanted ; which is the interpretation given in the margin of the A. V. (Ps. xxxvii. 35). BDEL'LIUM [hedolach), Gen. ii. 12 ; Num. xi. 7. It is quite impossible to say whether hedolach denotes a mineral, or an animal production, or a vegetable exudation. Bdel- lium is an odoi-iferous exudation from a tree which is perhaps the Borassus fiabelUformis, Lin., of Arabia Felix. BEANS (2 Sam. xvii. 28; Ez. iv. 9). Beans are cultivated in Palestine, which pro- duces many of the leguminous order of plants, Buch as lentils, kidney-beans, vetches, &c. Beans are in blossom in January ; they have S.H. D. B. been noticed in flower at Lydda on the 23rci, and at Sidon and Acre even earlier ; they continue in flower till March. Syrian Bear. (C7rsus Synacus.') BEAR (1 Sam. xvii. 34 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 8). The Syrian bear [Ursus Syriacus), which is without doubt the animal mentioned in the Bible, is still found on the higher mountains of Palestine. During the summer months these bears keep to the snowy parts of Le- banon, but descend in winter to the villages and gardens ; it is probable also that at this period in former days they extended their visits to other parts of Palestine. BEARD. Western Asiatics have always cherished the beard as the badge of the Beards. Ep>-ptian, from Wilkinson (top row). Of otht. Dations, from Rosellini aud Layard. dignity of manhood, and attached to it the importance of a feature. The Egyptians on the contrary, for the most part, shaved the hair of the face and head, though we find some instances to the contrary. It is im- possible to decide with certainty the meaning of the precept (Lev, xix. 27, xxi. 5) regard- F 66 BEE ing the " corners of the beard." Probably the Jews retained the hair on the sides of the face between the ear and the eye, Trhich the Arabs and others shaved away. The beard is the object of an oath, and that on which blessings or shame are spoken of as rest- ing. The custom was and is to shave or pluck it and the hair out in mourning (Is. 1. 6, XV. 2 ; Jer. xli. 5, xlviii. 37 ; Ezr. ix. 3 ; Bur. vi. 31) ; to neglect it in seasons of permanent affliction (2 Sam. xix. 24), and to regard any insult to it as the last out- rage which enmity can inflict (2 Sam. x. 4). The beard was the object of salutation (2 Sam. XX. 9). The dressing, trimming, anointing, &c. of the beard, was performed with much ceremony by persons of Wealth and rank (Ps. cxxxiii. 2). The removal of the beard was a part of the ceremonial treatment proper to a leper (Lev. xiv. 9). BE'CHER, the second son of Benjamin, according to the list both in Gen xlvi. 21, and 1 Chr. vii. 6 ; but omitted in 1 Chr. viii. 1. It is highly probable that Becher, or his heir and head of his house, married an Ephraimitish heiress, a daughter of Shuthelah (1 Chr. vii. 20, 21), and so that his house ■was reckoned in the tribe of Ephraim, just as Jair, the son of Segub, was reckoned in the tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr. ii. 22 ; Num. xxxii. 40, 41), BED and BED-CHAMBER. We may dis- tinguish in the Jewish bed five principal parts. — 1. The mattress, which was limited to a mere mat, or one or more quilts. — 2. The covering, a quilt finer than those used in 1. In summer a thin blanket or the outer garment worn by day (1 Sam. xix. 13) suf- ficed. Hence the law provided that it should not be kept in pledge after sunset, that the poor man might not lack his needful covering (Deut. xxiv, 13). — 3. The only material mentioned for this is that which occurs 1 Sam. xix. 13, and the word used is of doubtful meaning, but seems to signify some fabi-ic woven or plaited of goat's-hair. It is clear, however, that it was something hastily adopted to serve as a pillow, and is not de- cisive of the ordinary use. Such pillows are common to this day in the East, formed of sheep's fleece or goat's-skin, with a stuffing of cotton, &c. — 4. The bedstead was not always necessary, the divan, or platform along the side or end of an Oriental room, sufficing as a support for the bedding. Yet some slight and portable frame seems im- plied among the senses of the word, which is used for a "bier" (2 Sam. iii. 31), and for the ordinary bed (2 K. iv. 10), for the litter on which a sick person might be carried [1 Sam. xix. 15), for Jacob's bed of sickness (Gen. xlvii. 31), and for the couch on which guests reclined at a banquet (Esth. i. 6). — 5. The ornamental portions were pillars and a canopy (Jud. xiii. 9), ivory carvings, gold Bed and Head-rest. (Wilkinson, Ancient Egypt and silver, and probably mosaic work, purple and fine linen (Esth. i. 6 ; Cant. iii. 9, 10). The ordinary furniture of a bed-chamber in private life is given in 2 K. iv. 10. The "bed-chamber" in the Temple where Joash was hidden, was, probably, a store-chamber for keeping beds (2 K. xi. 2 ; 2 Chr. xxii. 11). The position of the bed-chamber in the most remote and secret parts of the palace seems marked in the passages, Ex. viii. 3, 2 K. vi. 12. BE'DAN. 1. Mentioned 1 Sam. xii. 11, as a Judge of Israel between Jerubbaal (Gideon) and Jephthah. The Chaldee Para- phrast reads Samson for Bedan ; the LXX., Syr., and Arab, all have Barak, Ewald suggests that it may be a false reading for Abdon.— 2. The son of Gilead (1 Chr. vii. 17). BEE {debordh), Deut. i. 44 ; Judg, xiv. 8 ; Ps. cxviii. 12; Is. vii. 18. That Palestine abounded in bees is evident from the descrip- tion of that land by Moses, for it was a land " flowing with milk and honey ;" nor is there any reason for supposing that this expression is to be understood otherwise than in its literal sense. English naturalists know little of the species of bees that are found in Pa- lestine. Mr. F. Smith, our best authority on the Hymenoptera, is inclined to believe that the honey-bee of Palestine is distinct from the honey-bee [A. mellifica) of this country. There can be no doubt that the attacks of bees in Eastern countries are more to be dreaded than they are in more temperate climates. Swarms in the East are far largei than they are with us, and, on account of the heat of the climate, one can readily imagine that their stings must give rise to very dan- gerous symptoms. The passage in Is. vii. BEELZEBUL 67 BEHEMOTH 18, "the Lord shall hiss for the bee that is in the land of Assyria," has been understood bj' some to refer to the practice of "calling out the bees from their hives by a hissing or whistling sound to their labour in the fields, and summoning them again to return" in the evening. In all probability, however, the expression in Isaiah has reference, as Mr. Denham says, "to the custom of the people in the East of calling the attention of any one by a signiiicant hiss or rather hist." BEEL'ZEBUL, the title of a heathen deity, to whom the Jews ascribed the sovereignty of the evil spirits (Matt. x. 25, xii. 24 ; Mark iii. 22 ; Luke xi. 15 ff.). The correct read- ing is without doubt Beehebul, and not Beel- zebub as given in the Syriac, the Vulg., and some other versions. Some connect the term with zebul, habitation, thus making Beelzebul (Matt. x. 25), the lord of the dtvelling, whe- ther as the " prince of the power of the air " (Eph. ii. 2), or as the prince of the lower world, or as inhabiting human bodies, or as occupying a mansion in the seventh heaven, like Saturn in Oriental mythology. Others derive it from zebel, dung, thus making Beel- zebul, literally, the lord of dung, or the dung- hill ; and in a secondary sense, as zebel was used by the Talmudical writers as — idol or idolatry, the lord of idols, prince of false gods. We have lastly to notice the inge- nious conjecture of Hug that the fly, under which Baalzebub was represented, was the Scarabaeus pillularius or dunghill beetle, in which case Baalzebub and Beelzebul might be used indifferently. BEER-E'LIM, a spot named in Is. xv. 8 as on the " border of Moab," apparently the south, Eglaim being at the north end of the Dead Sea. The name points to the well dug by the chiefs of Israel on their approach to the promised land, close by the " border of Moab" (Num. xxi. 16 ; comp. 13). BEER-LAHA'I-ROI, a well, or rather a living spring (A. V. fountain, comp. Jer. vi. 7) between Kadesh and Bered, in the wilder- ness, " in the way to Shur," and therefore in the "south country" (Gen. xxiv. 62). Mr. Rowland announces the discovery of the well Lahairoi at Moyle or Moilahi, a station on the road to Beersheba, 10 hours south of Ruheibeh ; near which is a hole or cavern bearing the name of Beit Hagar (Ritter, Sinai, 1086, 7) ; but this requires confir- mation. BE'EROTH, one of the four cities of the Hivites who deluded Joshua into a treaty of peace with them (Josh. ix. 17). It was allotted to Benjamin (xviii. 25), and is iden- tified with the modern el-Bireh, which stands at about 10 miles north of Jerusalem by the great road to JVdblus. BEER-SHE'BA, the name of one of the old places in Palestine, which formed the southern limit of the country. There are two accounts of the origin of the name. — 1. According to the fii-st, the well was dug by Abraham, and the name given, because there he and Abimelech the king of the Phi- listines " sware " both of them (Gen. xxi. 31). 2. The other narrative ascribes the origin of the name to an occurrence almost precisely similar, in which both Abimelech the king of the Philistines, and Phichol, his chief cap- tain, are again concerned, with the difference that the person on the Hebrew side of the transaction is Isaac instead of Abraham (Gen. xxvi. 31-33). There are at present on the spot two principal wells, and five smaller ones. The two principal wells are on or close to the northern bank of the Wady es- Seba'. They lie just a hundred yards apart, and are so placed as to be visible from a con- siderable distance. The larger of the two, which lies to the east, is, according to the careful measurements of Dr. Robinson, 123 feet diam., and at the time of his visit (Ajjr. 12) was 44^ feet to the surface of the water : the masonry which encloses the well reaches downwards for 285 feet. The other well is 5 feet diam., and was 42 feet to the water. The curb-stones round the mouth of both wells are worn into deep grooves by the action of the ropes of so many centuries, and " look as if frilled or fluted all round." The five lesser wells are in a group in the bed of the wady. On some low hills north of the large wells are scattered the foundations and ruins of a town of moderate size. There are no trees or shrubs near the spot. Beersheba was given to the tribe of Simeon (xix. 2 ; 1 Chr. iv. 28). In the time of Jerome it was still a considerable place ; and later it is mentioned as an episcopal city under the Bishop of Jerusalem. It only remains to notice that it retains its ancient name as nearly similar in sound as an Arabic signifi- cation will permit — Bir es-Sebd — the " well of the lion," or " of seven." BE'HEMOTH. There can be little or no doubt, that by this word (Job xl. 15-24) the hippopotamus is intended, since all the details descriptive ofthe behemoth accord entirely with the ascertained habits of ttit animal. Since in the first part of Jehovah's disc6urse (Job xxxviii., xxxix.) la?id animals and birds are mentioned, it suits the general purpose of that discourse better to suppose that aquatic or amphibiotis creatures are spoken of in the last half of it ; and since the leviathan, by almost universal consent, de- BELA 68 BELHHAZZAR notes the crocodile, the behemoth seems clearly to point to the hippopotamus, his associate in the Nile. The desci-iption of the animal's lying under " the shady trees," amongst the " reeds " and willows, is pecu- liarly appropriate. Hippopotamus amphibius BE'LA. 1, One of the five cities of the plain which was spared at the intercession of Lot, and received the name of Zoar (Gen. xiv. 2, xix. 22). It lay on the southern ex- tremity of the Dead Sea, on the frontier of Moab and Palestine (Jerome on Is, xv.), and on the route to Egypt ; the connexion in which it is found. Is. xv. 5 ; Jer. xlviii, 34 ; Gen. xiii. 10. We first read of Bela in Gen. xiv. 2, 8. — 2. Son of Beor, who reigned over Edom in the city of Dinhabah, eight generations before Saul, king of Israel, or about the time of the Exodus. He is sup- posed by some to be the same as Balaam. It is not improbable that he was a Chal- dean by birth, and reigned in Edom by con- quest. He may have been contemporary •with Moses (Gen. xxxvi. 31-33 ; 1 Chr. i. 43, 44). BE'LIAL. The translators of our A. V., following the Vulgate, have frequently treated tliis word as a proper name, and given it in the form Bolial, in accordance -with 2 Cor. vi. 15. There can be no question, however, that the word is not to be regarded as a pro- per name i;i the 0. T. ; its meaning is ivorth- lessuess, and hence recklessness, Imvlessness. The expression son or man of Belial must be understood as meaning simply a worthless, lawless fellow. The term as used in 2 Cor. vi. 15 is generally understood as an appel- lative of Satan, as the personification of all that was bad. BELLOWS. The word occurs only in Jer. vi. 29, " The bellows are burned ;" where iheir use is to heat a smelting furnace. A picture of two different kinds of bellows, botli of highly ingenious construction, may be found in Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt, iii. 338. " They consisted," he says, "of a leather, secured and fitted into a frame, from which i long pipe extended for carrying the wind to the fire. They were worked by the feet, the operator standing upon them, with one under each foot, and pressing them alternately while he pulled up each exhausted skin with a string he held in his hand. In one instance we observe from the painting, that when the man left the bellows, they were raised as if inflated with air ; and this would imply a knowledge of the valve. The pipes even in the time of Thothmes II., [supposed to be] the contemporary of Moses, appear to have been simply of reed, tipped with a meta point to resist the action of the fire." Egryptian bellow?. (F. Cailliard, Beclierches sur les Arts des Ancieus Egypt tens.) BELLS. In Ex. xxviii. 33 the bells alluded to were the golden ones, according to the E-abbis 72 in number, round the hem of the high-priest's ephod. The object of them was " that his sound might be heard when he went in unto the holy place, and when he came out, that he die not" (Ex. xxviii. 34 ; Ecclus. xiv. 9). To this day bells are fre- quently attached, for the sake of their plea- sant sound, to the anklets of women. The little girls of Cairo Avear strings of them round their feet. In Zech. xiv. 20 "bells of the horses " is probably a wrong rendering. It is more probable that they are not bells but concave or flat pieces of brass, which were sometimes attached to horses for the sake of ornament. BELSHAZ'ZAR, the last king of Babylon. According to the well-known narrative in Dan. v., he was slain during a splendid feast in his palace. Similarly Xenophon tells us that Babylon was taken by Cyrus in the night, while the inhabitants were engaged in feasting and revelry, and that the king was killed. On the other hand the narratives o» BENAIAH 69 BENJAMIN Berosus in Josephus and of Ileroclotiis differ from the above account in some important par- ticulars. Berosus calls the last king of Babylon Nabonnedus or Nabonadius, and says that in the 1 7 th year of his reign Cyrus took Baby- lon, the king having retired to the neigh- bouring city of Borsippus or Borsippa. Ac- cording to Herodotus the last king was called Labynetus. These discrepancies have lately been cleared up by the discoveries of Sir Henry Rawlinson. From the inscriptions it appears that the eldest son of Nabonnedus •was called Bel-shar-ezar, contracted into Belshazzar, and admitted by his father to a share in the government. So that Belshaz- zar, as joint king with his father, may have been governor of Babylon, Avhen the city was attacked by the combined forces of the Modes and Persians, and may have perished in the assault which followed ; while Nabonnedus leading a force to the relief of the phice was defeated, and obliged to take refuge in Bor- sippa. In Dan. v. 2, Nebuchadnezzar is called the father of Belshazzar. This, of course, need only mean grandfather or an- cestor. Rawlinson connects Belshazzar with Nebuchadnezzar through his mother ; but Marcus Niebuhr considers Belshazzar to be another name for Evil-merodach, the son of Nebuchadnezzar. On Kawlinson's view, Belshazzar died b.c. 538 ; on Niebuhr's, B.C. 559. BENA'IAH. 1. The son of Jehoiada the chief priest (1 Chr. xxvii. 5), and therefore of the tribe of Levi, though a native of Kab- zeel (2 Sam. xxiii. 20 ; 1 Chr. xi. 22), in the south of Judah ; set by David (1 Chr. xi. 25) over his bodj'guard of Cherethites and Pele- thites (2 Sam. viii. 18 ; 1 K. i. 38 ; 1 Chr. xviii. 17 ; 2 Sam. xx. 23) and occupying a middle rank between the first three of the " mighty men," and the thirty " valiant men of the armies" (2 Sam. xxiii. 22, 23 ; 1 Chr. xi. 25, xxvii. 6). The exploits which gave him this rank are narrated in 2 Sam. xxiii. 20, 21 ; 1 Chr. xi. 22. He was captain of the host for the third month (1 Chr. xxvii. 5). Benaiah remained faithful to Solomon during Adonijah's attempt on the crown (1 K. i. 8, 10, 32, 38, 44) ; and was raised into the place of Joab as commander-in-chief of the whole army (ii. 35, iv. 4). — 2. Ben- aiah the PiRATHONiTE ; an Ephraimite, one of David's thirty mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 30; 1 Chr. xi. 31), and the captain of the eleventh monthly course (1 Chr. xxvii. 14). BEN-AM'MI, the son of the younger daughter of Lot, and progenitor of the Am- monites (Gen. xix. 38). BENHA'DAD, the name of three kings of Damascus. — Benhadad I. was either son or grandson of Rezon, and in his time Da- mascus was supreme in Syria. He made an alliance with Asa, and conquered a great part of the N. of Israel. From 1 K. xx. 34, it would appear that he continued to make war upon Israel in Omri's time, and forced him to make " streets " in Samaria for Syrian re- sidents. This date is b.c. 950. — Bexhadad II., son of the pi-eceding, and also king of Damascus. Long wars with Israel charac- terised his reign. Some time after the death of Ahab, Benhadad renewed the war with Israel, attacked Samaria a second time, and pressed the siege so closely that there was a terrible famine in the city. But the Syrians broke up in the night in consequence of a sudden panic. Soon after Benhadad fell sick, and sent Hazael to consult Elisha as to the issue of his malady. On the day after Hazael's return Benhadad was murdered, probably by some of his own servants (2 K. viii. 7-15). Benhadad's death was about B.C. 890, and he must have reigned some 30 years. — Benhadad III., son of Hazael, and his successor on the throne of Syria. When he succeeded to the throne, Jehoash recovered the cities which Jehoahaz had lost to the Sy- rians, and beat him in Aphek (2 K. xiii. 17, 25). Jehoash gained two more victories, but did not restore the dominion of Israel on the E. of Jordan. The date of Benhadad III. is B.C. 840. BEN'JAMIN, the youngest of the chil- dren of Jacob, and the only one of the thirteen who was born in Palestine. His birth took place on the road between Bethel and Beth- lehem, a short distance from the latter, and his mother E-achel died in the act of giving him birth, naming him with her last breath Ben-oni, " son of rny sorrow." This was by Jacob changed into Benjamin (Gen. xxxv. 16-18). Until the journeys of Jacob's sonis and of Jacob himself into Egypt we hear no. thing of Benjamin. Henceforward the his- tory of Bfenjamin is the history of the tribe. And up to the time of the entrance on the Promised Land that history is as meagre as it is afterwards full and interesting. The proximity of Benjamin to Ephraim during tlie march to the Promised Land was main- tained in the territories allotted to each. Benjamin lay immediately to the south of. Ephraim and between him and Judah. It formed almost a parallelogram, of about 26 miles in length by 12 in breadth. Its eastern boundary was the Jordan, and from thence it extended to the wooded district of Kirjath- jearim, a point about eight miles west of Jerusalem, while in the other direction it stretched from the valley of Hinnom, under BEN-ON] '0 BERYL the '♦ Shoulder of the Jebusite " on the south, to Bethel on the north. On the south the territory ended abruptly with the steep slopes of the hill of Jerusalem, — on the north it melted imperceptibly into the possessions of friendly Ephraim. — (1.) The general level of this part of Palestine is A'ery high, not less than 2000 feet above the maritime plain of the Mediterranean on the one side, or than 3000 feet above the deep valley of the Jordan on the other, besides which this general level or plateau is surmounted, in the district now under consideration, by a large number of eminences, almost every one of which has borne some part in the history of the tribe. — (2.) No less important than these eminences are the torrent-beds and ravines by which the upper country breaks down into the deep tracts on each side of it. The passes on the eastern side are of a much more difficult and intricate character than those of the western. The contrast between the warlike character of the tribe and the peaceful image of its progenitor comes out in many scattered no- tices. Benjamin was the only tribe which seems to have pursued archery to any pur- pose, and their skill in the bow (1 Sam. xx. 20, 36 ; 2 Sam. i. 22 ; 1 Chr. viii. 40, xii. 2 ; 2 Chr. xvii. 17) and the sling (Judg. xx. 16) is celebrated. The dreadful deed recorded in Judg. xix., though repelled by the whole country, was unhesitatingly adopted and de- fended by Benjamin with an obstinacy and spirit truly extraordinary. That frightful transaction was indeed a crisis in the history of the tribe : the six hundred who took refuge in the cliff Rimmon were the only survivors. A long interval must have elapsed between so abject a condition and the culminating point at which we next meet with the tribe. Se- veral circumstances may have conduced to its restoration to that place which it was now to assume. Ramah (1 Sam. ix. 12, &c.), Mizpeh (1 Sam. vii. 5), Bethel, and Gibeon (1 K. iii. 4) were all in the land of Benjamin. The people who resorted to these sanctuai-ies must gradually have been accustomed to associate the tribe with power and sanctity. The strug- gles and contests which followed the death of Saul arose from the natural unwillingness of the tribe to relinquish its position at the head of the nation, especially in favour of Judah, and we do not hear of any cordial co- operation or firm union between the two tribes until the disruption of the kingdoms. Hence- forward the history of Benjamin becomes merged in that of the southern kingdom. BEN-O'NI, the name which the dying Rachel gave to her newly-born son, but which by his father was changed into Ben- jamin (Gen. XXXV. 18). BER'ACHAH, VALLEY OF, a valley ic which Jehoshaphat and his people assembled to "bless" Jehovah after the overthrow of the hosts of Moabites, Ammonites, and Me- hunim, who had come against them, and which from that fact acquired its name of "the valley of blessing" (2 Chr. xx. 26). The name of Bereikiit still survives, attached to ruins in a valley of the same name lying between Tekua and the main road from Beth- lehem to Hebron. BERE'A. 1. A city of Macedonia, men- tioned in Acts xvii. 10, 15. It is now called Vnrria or Kara-Verria, and is situ- ated on the eastern slope of the Olympian mountain-range, commanding an extensive view of the plain of the Axius and Haliacmon, and has now 15,000 or 20,000 inhabitants. — 2. The modern Aleppo, mentioned in 2 Mace, xiii. 4. — 3. A place in Judea, apparently not very far fi'om Jerusalem (1 Mace. ix. 4). BERENI'CE. [Bernice.] BERI'AH. a son of Ephraim, so named on account of the state of his father's house when he was born (1 Chr. vii. 20-23). This short notice is of no slight historical import- ance ; especially as it refers to a period of Hebrew history respecting which the Bible afi'ords us no other like information. The event must be assigned to the time between Jacob's death and the beginning of the op- pression. BE'RITH, THE GOD, Judg. ix. 46. [Baal-beeith.] BERNI'CE and BERENI'CE, the eldest daughter of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 1, &c.). She was first married to her uncle Herod, king of Chalcis, and after his death (a.d. 48) she lived under circumstances of great suspicion with her own brother Agrippa II., in connexion with whom she is men- tioned Acts XXV. 13, 23, xxvi. 30, as having visited Festus on his appointment as Procu- rator of Judaea. BER'ODACH-BAL'ADAN. 2 K. xx. 12. [Merodach-Baladan.] BE'ROTHAH, BE'ROTHAI. The first of these two names is given by Ezekiel (xlvii. 16) in connexion with Hamath and Damascus as forming part of the northern boundary of the Promised Land. The second is mentioned (2 Sam. viii. 8) also in connexion with Hamath and Damascus. The weli-known city Beirut (Berj-tus) naturally suggests it- self as identical with one at least of the names ; but in each instance the circimistances of the case seem to require a position further east. BERYL [tarshish], occurs in Ex. xxviii. 20, xxxix. 13 ; Cant. v. 14 ; Ez. i. 16, x. 9, xxviii. 13 ; Dan. x. 6. It is generally sup- BETH 71 BETHEL posed that the tarshtsh derives its name from the place so called. The ancient chrysolite or the modern yellow topaz appears to have a better claim than any other gem to represent the tarshUh of the Hebrew Bible, certainly a better claim than the beryl of the A. V., a rendering which appears to be unsupported by any kind of evidence. BETH, the most general word for a house or habitation. Like Aedes in Latin and Dom in German, it has the special meaning of a temple or house of worship. — Beth is more frequently employed in compound names of places than any other word. Beth-eked, the "shearing house" (2 K. x. 12), lay be- tween Jezreel and Samaria, according to Jerome 1 5 miles from the town of Legio, and in the plain of Esdraelon. Beth-haggan, "the garden-house" (2 K. ix. 27), is doubt- less the same place as Engannin, " spring of gardens," the modern Jemn. BETH-AB'ARA, a place beyond Jordan, in which, according to the Received Text of the N. T., John was baptizing (John i. 28). If this reading be correct, Bethabara may be identical with Beth-barah, the ancient ford of Jordan, or, which seems more likely, with Beth-nimrah, on the east of the river, nearly opposite Jericho. BETH'ANY, a village which, scanty as are the notices of it contained in Scripture, is more intimately associated in our minds than perhaps any other place with the most familiar acts and scenes of the last days of the life of Christ. It was situated " at" the Mount of Olives (Mark xi. 1 ; Luke xix. 29), about fifteen stadia from Jerusalem (John xi. 18), on or near the usual road from Jericho to the city (Luke xix. 29, comp. 1 ; Mark xi. 1, comp. X. 46), and close by the west (?) of another village called Bethphage, the two being several times mentioned together. Bethany is now known by a name derived from Lazarus — el- Azartyeh or Lazarieh. It lies on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives, fully a mile beyond the summit, and not very far from the point at which the road to Jericho begins its more sudden descent towards the Jordan valley. EW Azariyeh is a ruinous and wretched village, a wild mountain hamlet of some twenty families. Beth-any haa been commonly explained " House of Dates," but it more probably signifies " House of Misery" (H. Dixon, Holy Land, ii. 214, foil.). BETH-A'VEJJ, a place on the mountains of Benjamin, east of Bethel (Josh. vii. 2, xviii. 12), and lying between that place and Mich- mash (1 Sam. xiii. 5, xiv. 23). In Hos. iv. 15, V. 8, X. 5, the name is transferred to the neigh- bouring Bethel — once the "house of God," but then the house of idols, of " naught." BETH-BAAL-ME'ON, a place in the pos- sessions of Reuben, on the downs (A, V. " plain") east of Jordan (Josh. xiii. 17), At the Israelites' first approach its name was Baal-meon (Num. xxxii. 38, or in its con- tracted form, Beon, xxxii. 3), to which the Beth was possibly a Hebrew addition. Later it would seem to have come into possession of Moab, and to be known either as Beth- meon (Jer. xlviii. 23) or Baal-meon (Ez. XXV, 9). The name is still attached to a ruined place of considerable size, a short distance to the S.W. of Hesbdn, and bearing the name of " the fortress of Mi'un," or Maeln, which appears to give its appellation to the Wady Zerka Maehi. BETH-BA'RAH, named only in Judg. vii. 24, as a point apparently south of the scene of Gideon's victory. Beth-barah de- rives its chief interest from the possibility that its more modern representative may have been Beth-abara where John bap- tized. It was probably the chief ford of the district. BETH-DIBLATHA'IM, a town of Moab (Jer. xlviii. 22), apparently the place else- where called Almon-Diblathaim. BETH'EL. A well-known city and holy place of central Palestine. Of the origin of the name of Bethel there are two accounts extant. 1. It was bestowed on the spot by Jacob under the awe inspired by the noc- turnal vision of God, when on his journey from his father's house at Beersheba to seek his wife in Haran (Gen. xxviii. 19). — 2. But according to the other account. Bethel re- ceived its name on the occasion of a blessing bestowed by God upon Jacob after his return from Padan-aram ; at which time also (ac- cording to this narrative) the name of Israel was given him (Gen. xxxv. 14, 15).' — Early as is the date involved in these narratives, yet, if wc are to accept the precise defi- nition of Gen. xii. 8, the name of Bethel would appear to have existed at this spot even before the arrival of Abram in Canaan (Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3, 4). In one thing, how- ever, the above narratives all agree, — in omitting any mention of town or buildings at Bethel at that early period, and in draw- ing a marked distinction between the " city" of Luz and the consecrated "place" in its neighbourhood (comp. Gen. xxxv. 7). The appropriation of the name of Bethel to the city appears not to have been made till still later, when it was taken by the tribe of Ephraim ; after which the name of Luz occurs no more (Judg. i. 22-26).— After the con- quest Bethel is frequently heard of. In the troubled times when there was no king in Israel, it was to Bethel that the people went BETHER, THE MOUNTAINS OF 72 BETHLEHEM up in their distress to ask counsel of God (Judg. XX. 18, 26, 31 ; xxi. 2 : A. V. "house of God"). Here m'us the ark of the covenant under the charge of Phinehas the grandson of Aaron (xx. 26-28, xxi. 4). Later we find tt named as one of the holy cities to which Samuel went in circuit (1 Sam. vii. 16). Here Jeroboam placed one of the two calves of gold. Towards the end of Jeroboam's life Bethel fell into the hands of Judah (2 Chr. xiii. 19). Elijah visited Bethel, and we hear of "sons of the prophets" as resident there (2 K. ii. 2, 3), two facts apparently incom- patible with the active existence of the calf- worship. But, after the destruction of the Baal worship by Jehu, Bethel comes once more into view (2 K. x. 29). After the de- solation of the northern kingdom by the king of Assyria, Bethel still remained an abode of priests (2 K. xvii. 28, 27). In the account of Josiah's iconoclasm we catch one more glimpse of the altar of Jeroboam, with its last loathsome fire of "dead men's bones" burning upon it. In later times Bethel is named only once ; its i-uins still lie on the right hand side of the road from Jerusalem to Nablous under the scarcely altered name of Beitin. BETH'ER, THE MOUNTAINS OF (Cant. ii. 17). There is no clue to guide us to what mountains are intended here. BETHES'DA, the Hebrew name of a re- servoir or tank, with five " porches," close upon the sheep-gate or "market" in Jeru- salem (John V. 2). The porches— i. e. clois- ters or colonnades— were extensive enough to accommodate a large number of sick and infirm people, whose custom it was to wait there for the "troubling of the water." The large reservoir Birket Isrciil, within the walls of the city, close by the St. Stephen's Gate, and under the north-east wall of the Haram area, is generally considered to be the modern representative of Bethesda. BETH-HACCE'REM (Neh. iii. 14). From Jer. vi. 1, we find that it was used as a beacon-station, and that it was "near Tekoa. In the time of Nehemiah (iii. 14) it had a ruler or prince. By Jerome a village named Bethacharnia is said to have been on a moun- tain between Tekoa and Jerusalem, a position in which the eminence known as the Frank mountain (Herodium) stands conspicuous ; and this has accordingly been suggested as Beth-haccerem. BETH-HOG'LA, and HOG'LAH, a place on the border of Judah (Josh. xv. 6) and of Benjamin (xviii. 19), to which latter tribe it was reckoned to belong (xviii. 21). A mag- nificent spring and a ruin between Jericho and the Jordan still bear the names of Airi' hajla and Kitsr Hajla, and are doubtless on or near the old site. BETH-HO'RON, the name of two towna or villages, an "upper" and a "nether," (Josh. xvi. 3, 5 ; 1 Chr. vii. 24), on the road from Gibeon to Azekah (Josh. x. 10, 11), and the Philistine plain (1 Mace. iii. 24). Beth- horon lay on the boundary-line between Ben- jamin and Ephraim (Josh. xvi. 3, 5), and (xviii. 13, 14), was counted to Ephraim (Josh. xxi. 22 ; 1 Chr. vii. 24), and given to the Kohathites (Josh. xxi. 22 ; 1 Chr. vi. 68 [53]). There is no room for doubt that the two Bethhorons still survive in the modern vil- lages of BeiWur, et-tahta and el-foka. BETH-JESH'IMOTH, or JES'IMOTH, a town or place east of Jordan, on the lower level at the south end of the Jordan valley (Num. xxxiii. 49) ; and named with Ashdod- pisgah and Beth-peor. It was one of the limits of the encampment of Israel before crossing the Jordan. Later it was allotted to Reuben (Josh. xii. 3, xiii. 20), but came at last into the hands of Moab, and formed one of the cities which were " the glory of the country" (Ez. xxv. 9). BETH'LEHEM. One of the oldest towns in Palestine, already in existence at the time of Jacob's return to the country. Its earliest name was Ephrath or Ephratah (see Gen. XXXV. 16, 19, xlviii. 7), and it is not till long after the occupation of the country by the Israelites that we meet with it under its new name of Bethlehem, After the conquest Bethlehem appears under its own name Beth- lehem-judah (Judg. xvii. 7 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 12 ; Ruth i. 1, 2). The Book of Ruth is a page from the domestic history of Bethlehem : the names, almost the very persons, of the Beth- lehemites are there brought before us ; we are allowed to assist at their most peculiar cus- toms, and to witness the very springs of those events which have conferred immortality on the name of the place. The elevation of David to the kingdom does not appear to have affected the fortunes of his native town. — The few remaining casual notices of Beth- lehem in the Old Testament may be quickly enumerated. It was fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chr. xi. 6). By the time of the captivity, the Inn of Chimham by Bethlehem appears to have become the recognised point of de- parture for travellers to Egypt (Jer. xli. 17). — In the New Testament Bethlehem re- tains its distinctive title of Bethlehem-judah (Matt. ii. 1, 5), and once, in the announce- ment of the Angels, the "city of David" (Luke ii. 4 ; comp. John vii. 42). The pas- sages just quoted, and the few which follow, exhaust the references to it in the N. T. (Matt. ii. 6, 8, 16; Luke ii. 15). The mo- BETH-MEON BETHULIA dern town of Beit-lakm lies to the E. of the main road from Jerusalem to Hebron, 6 miles from the former. It covers the E. and N.E. parts of the ridge of a long grey hill of Jura limestone, -which stands nearly due E. and W., and is about a mile in length. The hill has a deep valley on the N. and another on the S. On the top lies the village in a kind of in-egular triangle. The population is about 3000 souls, entirely Christians. r.ETH-ME'ON, Jer. xlviii. 23. A con- tracted form of the name elsewhere given as Beth-b.aal-meon. BETH-NIM'RAH, one of the fenced cities on the east of Jordan taken and built by the tribe of Gad (Num. xxxii. 36) and described as lying in the valley beside Beth-haran (Josh. xiii. 27). In Num. xxxii. 3 it is called simply Nimrah. The name still sur- vives in the Nahr Nimrim, the Arab appel- lation of the lo-wer end of the Wady Shoaib, where the waters of that valley discharge themselves into the Jordan close to one of the regiilar fords a few miles above Jericho. BETH'-PEOR, a place, no doubt dedicated to the god Baal-peor, on the east of Jordan, opposite Jericho, and six miles above Libias or Beth-haran. It was in the possession of the ti-ibe of Reuben (Josh. xiii. 20). One of the last halting-places of the children of Israel is designated — "the ravine over against Beth- peor" (Deut. iii. 29, iv. 46). BETH'-PHAGE, the name of a place on the mount of Olives, on the road between Jericho and Jerusalem. It was apparently close to Bethany (Matt. xxi. 1 ; Mark xi. 1 ; Luke xix. 29), and to the eastward of it. No remains however which could answer to this position have been found, and the traditional site is above Bethany, halfway between that village and the top of the mount. BETH'-REHOB, a place mentioned as having near it the valley in which lay the town of Laish or Dan (Judg. xviii. 28). It was one of the little kingdoms of Aram or Syria (2 Sam. x. 6). Robinson conjectures that this ancient place is represented by the modern Hunin. BETH-SA'IDA. 1. " Bethsaida of Galilee » (John xii. 21), a city which was the native place of Andrew, Peter, and Philip (John i. 44, xii. 21) in the land of Gennesareth (Mark vi. 45 ; comp. 53), and therefore on the west side of the lake. Dr. Robinson places Beth- saida at '/tm et'Tabigah, a short distance north of Khan Minyeh, which he identifies with Capernaum. — 2. By comparing the nar- ratives in Mark vi. 31-53, and Luke ix. 10- 17, it appears certain that the Bethsaida at which the 5000 were fed must have been a second place of the same name on the east of the lake. Such a place there was at the north-eastern extremity, formerly a village, but rebuilt and adorned by Philip the Te- trarch, and raised to the dignity of a town under the name of Julias, after the daughter of the emperor. Here in a magnificent tomb Philip was buried. Of this Bethsaida we have certainly one and probably two mentions in the Gospels : — 1. That named above, of the feeding of the 5000 (Luke ix. 10).— 2. The other, most probably, in Mark viii. 22. BETH'-SHEAN, or in Samuel, Bethshan, a city, which, with its " daughter " towns, belonged to Manasseh (1 Chr. vii. 29), though within the limits of Issachar (Josh. xvii. 11), and therefore on the west of Jordan (comp. 1 Mace. V. 52) — but not mentioned in the lists of the latter tribe. The Canaanites were not driven out from the town (Judg. i. 27). In later times it was called Scjthopolis (2 Mace. xii. 29), but this name has not sur- vived to the present day ; and the place is still known as Beisan. It lies in the Ghor or Jordan valley, about twelve miles south of the sea of Galilee, and four miles west of the Jordan. BETH-SHEM'ESH. 1. One of the towns which marked the north boundary of Judah (Josh. XV, 10), but not named in the lists of the cities of that tribe. It is now ^Ain-Shems, about two miles from the great Philistine plain, and seven from Ekron. — 2. A city on the border of Issachar (Josh. xix. 22). — 3. One of the *' fenced cities " of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 38; Judg. i. 33).— 4. An idol- atrous temple or place in Egypt (Jer. xliii. 13). In the middle ages Heliopolis was still called by the Arabs Ain Shems. BETH-TAPPU'AH, one of the towns of Judah, in the mountainous district, and near Hebron (Josh. xv. 53; comp. 1 Chr, ii. 43). Here it has actually been discovered by Ro- binson under the modern name of Teffilh, 5 miles W, of Hebron, on a ridge of high table-land. BETH'UEL, the son of Nahor by Milcah ; nephew of Abraham, and father of Rebekah (Gen. xxii. 22, 23, xxiv. 15, 24, 47, xxviii, 2), In XXV. 20, and xxviii. 5, he is called " Bethuel the Syrian." Though often re- ferred to as above in the narrative, Bethuel only appears in person once (xxiv. 50). Upon this an ingenious conjecture is raised by Prof. Blunt that he was the subject of some imbecility or other incapacity. BETH'UL, a town of Simeon in the south, named with El-tolad and Hormah (Josh. xix. 4), called also Chesil and Bethuel (Josh. xv. 30 ; 1 Chr. iv. 29), BETHU'LIA, the city whicli wass the scene BETH-ZACHARIAS BIBLE of the chief events of the Book of Judith, in which hook only the name occurs. Its posi- tion is there described with very minute detail. Notwithstanding this detail, how- ever, the identification of the site of Bethulia has hitherto defied all attempts, and is one of the greatest puzzles of sacred geography. Von Raumer suggests Samir, which is per- haps the nearest to probability. It is about three miles from Dothan, and some six or seven from Jenin (Engannim), which stand on the very edge of the great plain of Es- draelon. BETH-ZACHARI'AS. [Bath-Zachaeias.] BETII'-ZUR, a town in the mountains of Judah, named between Halhul and Gedor (Josh. XV. 58). The recovery of the site of Bethzur, under the almost identical name of Beit-sur, explains its impregnability, and also the reason for the choice of its position, since it commands the road from Beersheba and Hebron, which has always been the main approach to Jerusalem from the south. BEU'LAH, "married," the name which the land of Israel is to bear, when "the land shall be married" (Is. Ixii. 4). BEZ'ALEEL. The son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah, and one of the architects of the tabernacle (Ex. xxxi. 1-6). His charge was chiefly in all works of metal, wood, and stone. BE'ZEK. 1. The residence of Adoni-bezek, i. e. the " lord of Bezek " (Judg. i. 5) ; in the lot of Judah (verse 3), and inhabited by Ca- naanites and Perizzites (verse 4). This must have been a distinct place from— 2. Where Saul numbered the forces of Israel and Judah before going to the relief of Jabesh-Gilead (1 Sam. xi. 8). This was doubtless some- where in the centre of the country, near the Jordan valley. No identification of either place has been made in modern times. BE'ZER IN THE WILDERNESS, a city of the Reubenites, with suburbs, set apart by Moses as one of the three cities of refuge in the downs on the east of the Jordan, and allotted to the Merarites (Deut. iv. 43 ; Josh. XX. 8, xxi. 36 ; 1 Chr. vi. 78). BIBLE.— I. When the Books of the Old Testament were formed into a Canon [Canon] it was natural to give a general name to the collection. The earliest instance of such a title occurs in Daniel, who refers to "the books " (Dan. ix. 2) in a manner which seems to mark the prophetic writings as already collected into one whole. The same word was applied by the Jews in Alexandria to the collected books of the Old Testament' — ai /Bi'^Aoi, more frequently ra. /Si^Xi'o — whence 'whe word Bible, or The Book, has been given to the collected books of the Old and New Testaments. The writers of the New Testa- ment call the books of the Old Testament either The Scripture {r\ ypa-^ri. Acts viii. 32 ; Gal. iii. 22 ; 2 Tim. iii, 16), or The Scriptures [al ypa(j>al, Matt. xxi. 42; Luke xxiv. 27), or Tfie Holy Scriptures (rd iepd ypdixfiaTa, 2 Tim. iii. 15). The use of the phrase rj TraAatd SLaO-qKr) in 2 Cor. iii. 14, for the law as read in the synagogues, led gradually to the extension of the word to include the other books of the Jewish Scriptures. Of the Latin equivalents, which were adopted by different writers {Instrumentum, Testamen- tum), the latter met with the most general acceptance, and perpetuated itself in the lan- guages of modern Europe, whence the terms Old Testament and New Testametit, though the Greek word properly signifies " Cove- nant" rather than "Testament." But the application of the word Bible to the collected books of the Old and New Testaments is not to be traced further back than the 5th cen- tury of our era. — II. The existence of a col- lection of sacred books recognised as autho- ritative, leads naturally to a more or less systematic arrangement. The Prologue to Ecclesiasticus mentions " the law and the prophets and the other Books." In the N. T. there is the same kind of recognition. " The Law and the Prophets " is the shorter (Matt. xi. 13, xxii. 40; Acts xiii. 15, &c.) ; "the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms " (Luke xxiv. 44), the fuller statement of the division popularly recognised. The arrangement of the books of the Hebrew text under these three heads, requires however a further notice — 1. The Lmv, containing Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, natu- rally continued to occupy the position which it must have held from the first as the most ancient and authoritative portion. In the Hebrew classification the titles were taken from the initial words, or prominent words in the initial verse ; in that of the LXX. they were intended to be significant of the subject of each book. — 2. The next group presents a more singular combination. The arrangement stands as follows : — ( Joshua, Prophets U & 2 Kings. I Isaiah. Greater . . . . < Jeremiah. I Ezekiel. < The t\velve Lesser < minor I Prophets. — the Hebrew titles of these books correspond- ing to those of the English bibles. — 3. Last in order came the group known to the Jews as Cethubim, including the remaining books BIBLE 75 BIRTH-DAYS of the Hebrew Canon, arranged in the follow- ing order, and with subordinate divisions : [a] Psalms, Proverbs, Job. (b) The Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecelesiastes, Esther — the five rolls. (c) Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, 1 and 2 Chronicles. — The history of the arrangement of the Books of the New Testament presents some variations, not with- out interest, as indicating differences of feel- ing or modes of thought. The four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles uniformly stand first. They are so far to the New what the Pentateuch was to the Old Testament. The position of the Acts as an intermediate book, the sequel to the Gospels, the prelude to the Epistles, was obviously a natural one. After this we meet with some striking differences. The order in the Alexandrian, Vatican and Ephraem MSS. (ABC) gives precedence to the Catholic Epistles, and this would appear to have been charactei-istic of the Eastern Churches, The Western Church on the other hand, as represented by Jerome, Augustine, and their successors, gave priority of position to the Pauline Epistles. The Apocalypse, as might be expected from the pecuMar cha- racter of its contents, occupied a position by itself. — III. Division i7ito Chajtt'ers and Verses. — The Hebrew of the Old Testament. It is hardly possible to conceive of the litur- gical use of the books of the Old Testament, without some kind of recognised division. The references however in Mark xii. 26 and Luke XX. 87, Rom. xi. 2 and Acts viii. 32, indicate a division which had become familiar, and show that some at least of the sections were known popularly by the titles taken from their subjects. In like manner the ex- istence of a cycle of lessons is indicated by Luke iv. 17 ; Acts xiii. 15, xv. 21 ; 2 Cor. iii. 14. The Talmudic division is on the following plan. The Law was in the first instance divided into fifty-four Farshioth, or sections, so as to provide a lesson for each Sabbath in the Jewish intercalary year. Co-existing with this there was a subdi\d- eion into lesser Parsbioth. A different ter- minology was employed for the Elder and Later Prophets, and the division was less uniform. The name of the sections in this case was Haphtaroth. Of the traditional di-- visions of the Hebrew Bible, however, that which has exercised most influence in the received arrangement of the text, was the subdivision of the larger sections into verses {Pesukim). These do not appear to have been used till the post-Talmudic recension of the text by the Masoretes of the 9th century. The chief facts that remain to be stated as to the verse division of the Old Testament »re, that it was adopted by Stephens in his edition of the Vulgate, 1555, and by Frellon in that of 1556 ; that it appeared for the first time in an English translation, in the Geneva Bible of 1560, and was thence transferred to the Bishops' Bible of 1568, and the Authorised Version of 161 1. With the New Testament, the division into chapters adopted by Hugh de St. Cher superseded those that had been in use previously, appeared in the early edi- tions of the Vulgate, was transferred to the English Bible by Coverdale, and so became universal. As to the division into verses, the absence of an authoritative standard left more scope to the individual discretion of editors or printers, and the activity of the two Stephenses caused that which they adopted in their numerous editions of the Greek Tes- tament and Vulgate to be generally received. In the Preface to the Concordance, published by Henry Stephens, 1594, he gives an account of the origin of this division. The whole work was accomplished "inter equitandum" on his journey from Paris to Lyons. While it was in progress men doubted of its success. No sooner was it known than it met with universal acceptance. The edition in which this division was first adopted was published in 1 5 5 1 . It was used for the English version published in Geneva in 1560, and from that time, with slight variations in detail, has been universally recognised. BID'KAR, Jehu's " captain," originally his fellow-officer (2 K. ix. 25) ; who com- pleted the sentence on Jehoram son of Ahab. BIG'THAN and BIG'THANA, an eunuch (chamberlain, A. V.) in the court of Aha- suerus, one of those "who kept the door" and conspired with Teresh against the king's life (Esth. ii. 21). The conspiracy was de- tected by Mordecai. BIK'ATH-AVEN, Amos i. 5 marg. [Aven 1 .] BIL'DAD, the second of Job's three friends. He is called "the Shuhite," which implies both his family and nation (Job ii. 11). BIL'HAH, handmaid of Rachel (Gen. xxix. 29), and concubine of Jacob, to whom she bore Dan and Naphtali (Gen. xxx. 3-8, xxxv. 25, xlvi. 25 ; 1 Chr. vii. 18). [Reuben.] BIRDS. [Sparrow.] BIR'SHA, king of Gomorrha at the time of the invasion of Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2). BIRTH-DAYS. The custom of observing birthdays is very ancient (Gen. xl. 20 ; Jer. XX. 15) ; and in Job i. 4, &c., we read that Job's sons " feasted every one his day." In Persia they were celebrated with peculiar honours and banquets, and in Egypt the king's birthdays were kept with great pomp« It is very probable that in Matt. xiv. 6, the feast to commemorate Herod's accession is in- tended, for we know that such feasts were BIRTHRIGHT 76 BITHINIA common, and were called " the day of the king" (Hos. vii. 5). BIRTHRIGHT. The advantages accruing to the eldest son were not definitelj' fixed in patriarchal times. Great respect was paid to him in the household, and, as the family widened into a tribe, this grew into a sus- tained authority, undefined save by custom, in all matters of common interest. Thus the '' princes " of the congregation had probably rights of primogeniture (Num. vii. 2, xxi. 18, XXV. 14). A "double portion" of the paternal property was allotted by the Mosaic law (Deut. xxi. i5-17). Tlie first-born of the king was his successor by law (2 Chr. xxi. 3) ; David, however, by divine appointment, ex- cluded Adonijah in favour of Solomon. BISHOP. This word, applied in the N. T. to the officers of the Church who were charged with certain functions of superintendence, had been in use before as a title of office. When the organisation of the Christian churches in Gentile cities involved the as- signment of the work of pastoral superin- tendence to a distinct order, the title bishop (eTTtV/coTTos) presented itself as at once conve- nient and familiar, and was therefore adopted as readily as the word elder (Trpeo-jSuTepos) had been in the mother church of Jerusalem. That the two titles were originally equivalent is clear from the following facts. — 1. Bishops and elders are nowhere named together as being orders distinct from each other. — 2. Bishops and deacons are named as apparently an exhaustive division of the officers of the church addressed by St. Paul as an apostle (Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. i. 1, 8).— 3. The same persons are described by both names (Acts XX. 17, 18; Tit. i. 5, 8).— 4. Elders dis- charge functions which are essentially epis- copal, i. e. involving pastoral superintendence (1 Tim. V. 17 ; 1 Pet. v. 1, 2).— Assuming as proved the identity of the bishops and elders of the N. T. we have to inquire into — 1. The relation which existed between the two titles. 2. The functions and mode of appointment of the men to whom both titles were applied. 3. Their relations to the general government and discipline of the Church. — I. There can be no doubt that elders had the priority in order of time. The order itself is recognised in Acts xi. 30, and in Acts xv. 2. The ear- liest use of " bishops," on the other hand, is in the address of St. Paul to the elders of Miletus (Acts xx. 28), and there it is rather descriptive of functions than given as a title. — II. Of the order in which the first elders were appointed, as of the occasion which led to the institution of the office, we have no record. Arguing from the analogy of the Seven in Acts vi. 5, 6, it would seem probp.ble that they were chosen by the mem- bers of the Church collectively, and then set apart to their office by the laying on of the apostles' hands. In the case of Tiihothy (1 Tim. iv. 14; 2 Tim. i. 6) the "pres- byters," probably the body of the elders at Lystra, had taken part with the apostle in this act of ordination. The conditions -which were to be observed in choosing these officers, as stated in the pastoral epistles, are, blame- less life and reputation among those " that are without " as well as within the Church, fitness for the work of teaching, the wide kindliness or temper which shows itself in hospitality, the being " the husband of one wife " {i. e. according to the most probable interpretation, not divorced and then married to another), showing powers of government in his own household as well as in self-control, not being a recent and, therefore, an untried convert. When appointed, the duties of the bishop-elders appear to have been as follows : — 1. General superintendence over the spi- ritual well-being of the flock (1 Pet. v. 2). 2. The work of teaching, both publicly and privately (1 Thess. v. 12 ; Tit. i. 9 ; 1 Tim. V. 17). 3. The work of visiting the sick ap- pears in Jam. v. 14, as assigned to the elders of the Church. 4. Among other acts of cha- rity that of receiving strangers occupied a conspicuous place (1 Tim. iii. 2 ; Tit. i. 8). The mode in which these officers of the Church were supported or remunerated varied probably in different cities. Collectively at Jerusalem, and probably in other churches, the body of bishop-elders took part in deli- berations (Acts XV. 6-22, xxi. 18), addressed other churches {ibid. xv. 23), Avere joined with the apostles in the work of ordaining by the laying on of hands (2 Tim. i. 6).— III. It is clear from what has been said that episcopal functions in the modern sense of the words, as implying a special superin- tendence over the ministers of the Church, belonged only to the apostles and those whom they invested with their authority. BITHI'AH, daughter of a Pharaoh, and wife of Mered, a descendant of Judah (1 Chr. i v. 18). BITHR'ON (more accurately " the Bith- ron "), a place, doubtless a district in the Jordan valley, on the east side of the river (2 Sam. ii. 29). BITHYN'IA. This province of Asia Minor is mentioned only in Acts xvi. 7, and in 1 Pet. i. 1. Bithynia, considered as a Roman province, was on the west contiguous to Asia. On the east its limits underwent great modi- fications. The province was originally inhe- rited by the Roman republic (b.c. 74) as a legacy from Nicomedes III. The chief town of Bithynia was Nicaea, celebrated for the BITTER HERBS 77 BLOOD, REVENGER OF grcneral Council of the Church held there in A.D. 325 against the Arian heresy. BITTER HERBS. The Israelites were com- manded to eat the Paschal lamb " with un- leavened bread and with hitter herbs" (Ex. xii. 8). These may well be understood to denote various sorts of bitter plants, such particularly as belong to the crueiferae, as some of the bitter cresses, or to the chicory group of the compo- sitae, the hawkweeds, and sow-thistles, and wild lettuces which grow abundantly in the Peninsula of Sinai, in Palestine, and in Egypt. BITTERN. The Hebrew word has been the subject of various interpretations. Phi- lological arguments appear to be rather in favour of the "hedgehog" or "porcupine," for the Hebrew word kippod appears to be identical with kunfud, the Arabic word for the hedgehog ; but zoologically, the hedgehog or porcupine is quite out of the question. The word occurs in Is. xiv. 23, xxxiv. 11 ; Zeph. ii. 14, and we are inclined to believe that the A. V, is correct. The bittern [Bo- taurus steUaris) belongs to the Ardeidae, the heron family of birds. bittem {l.oi BLAINS, violent ulcerous inflammations, the sixth plague of Egypt (Ex. ix. 9, 10), and hence called in Deut. xxviii. 27, 35, " the botch of Egj-pt." It seems to have been the black leprosy, a fearful kind of tflephantiasis. BLASPHEMY, in its technical English sense, signifies the speaking efil of God, and in this sense it is found Ps. Ixxiv. 18 ; Is. lii. 5 ; Rom. ii. 24, &c. But according to its derivation it may mean any species of ca- lumny and abuse : see 1 K. xxi. 10 ; Acts xviii. 6 ; Jude 9, &c. Blasphemy was pu- nished with stoning, which was inflicted on the son of Shelomith (Lev. xxiv. 11), On this charge both our Lord and St. Stephen were condemned to death by the Jews. It only remains to speak of " the blasphemy against the Holy Ghost," which has been so fruitful a theme for speculation and contro- versy (Matt. xii. 32 ; Mark iii. 28). It con- sisted in attributing to the power of Satan those unquestionable miracles, which Jesus perfoi-med by "the finger of God," and the power of the Holy Spirit. BLAS'TUS, the chamberlain of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 20). BLINDNESS is extremely common in the East from manj- causes. Blind beggars figure repeatedly in the N. T. (Matt. xii. 22), and "opening the eyes of the blind" is men- tioned in prophecy as a peculiar attribute of the Messiah (Is. xxix. 18, &c.). The Jews were specially charged to treat the blind with compassion and care (Lev. xix. 14 ; Deut. xxvii. 18). Blindness wilfully inflicted for political or other purposes is alluded to in Scripture (1 Sam. xi. 2 ; Jer. xxxix. 7). BLOOD, ISSUE OF. The menstruous dis- charge, or the fluxus uteri (Lev. xv. 19-30 ; Matt. ix. 20 ; Mark v, 25, and Luke viii. 43). The latter caused a permanent legal unclean- ness, the former a temporary one, mostly for seven days ; after which the woman was to be purified by the customary off'ering. BLOOD, REVENGER OF. It was, and even still is, a common practice among nations of patriarchal habits, that the nearest of kin should, as a matter of duty, avenge the death of a murdered relative. Compen- sation for murder is allowed by the Koran. Among the Bedouins, and other Arab tribes, should the offer of blood-money be refused, the ' Thar,' or law of blood, comes into operation, and any person within the fifth degree of blood from the homicide may be legally killed by any one within the same degree of consanguinity to the victim. The right to blood-revenge is never lost, except as annulled by compensation : it descends to the latest generation. The law of Moses was very precise in its directions on the subject of Retaliation. — 1. The wilful mur- derer was to be put to death without per- mission of compensation. The nearest re- lative of the deceased became the authorised avenger of blood (Num. xxxv. 19). 2. The BOANERGES BRASS law of retaliation was not to extend beyond the immediate offender (Deut. xxiv. 16 ; 2 K. xiv. 6 ; 2 Chr. xxv. 4 ; Jer. xxxi. 29, 30 ; Ezek. xviii. 20). — 3. The involuntary shedder of blood was permitted to take flight to one of six Levitical cities, specially ap- pointed as cities of refuge (Num. xxxv, 22, 23; Deut. xix. 4-6). BOANER'GES, a name signifying "sons of thunder," given by our Lord to the two sons of Zebedee, James and John (Mark iii. 17). See Luke ix. 54 ; Mark ix. 38 ; comp. Matt. XX. 20, &c. BOAR. [SwiNE.1 BO'AZ. 1. A wealthy Bethlehemite, kins- man to Elimelech, the husband of Naomi. He married Ruth, and redeemed the estates of her deceased husband Mahlon (iv. Iff.). Boaz is mentioned in the genealogy of Christ (Matt. i. 5), but there is great difficulty in assigning his date.— 2. Boaz, the name of one of Solomon's brazen pillars erected in the temple porch. [Jaghin.] It stood on the left, and was 18 cubits high (1 K. vii. 15, 21 ; 2 Chr. iii. 15 ; Jer. Iii. 21). BO'HAN, a Reubenite, after whom a stone was named. Its position was on the border of the territories of Benjamin and Judah (Josh. XV. 6, xviii. 17). BOOTY consisted of captives of both sexes, cattle, and whatever a captured city might contain, especially metallic treasures. Within the limits of Canaan no captives were to be made (Deut. xx. 14 and 16) ; beyond these limits, in case of warlike resistance, all the women and children were to be made cap- tives, and the men put to death. The law of booty is given in Num. xxxi. 26-47. As regarded the army David added a regulation that the baggage guard should share equally with the troops engaged (1 Sam. xxx. 24, 25). BOTTLE. 1. The skin bottle; 2. The bottle of earthen or glass-ware, both of them capable of being closed from the air. — 1 . The Arabs keep their water, milk, and other liquors, in leathern bottles. These are made of goatskinf . When the animal is killed they cut off its feet and its head, and they draw it in this manner out of the skin, without opening its belly. The great leathern bottles are made of the skin of a he-goat, and the small ones, that serve instead of a bottle of water on the road, are made of a kid's skin. The effect of external heat upon a skin-bottle is indicated in Ps. cxix. 83, "a bottle in the smoke," and of expansion produced by fer- mentation in Matt. ix. 17, " new wine in old bottles." — 2. Vessels of metal, earthen, or glass ware for liquids were in use among the Greeks, Egyptians, Etruscans, and Assyrians, and also no doubt among the Jews, especially in later times. Thus Jer. xix. 1, " a potters earthen bottle." The Jews probably bor- rowed their manufactures in this particular from Egypt. Skin Bottles. (From the Museo Borbonico.) BOX-TREE. The Heb. teasshih- occurs in Is. xli. 19, Ix. 13. The Talmudical and Jewish writers generally are of opinion that the box-tree is intended. Box-wood writing tablets are alluded to in 2 Esdr. xiv. 24. BO'ZEZ, one of the two sharp rocks be- tween the passages by which Jonathan entered the Philistine garrison. It seems to have been that on the north (1 Sam. xiv. 4, 5). BOZ 'RAH. 1. In Edom— the city of Jobab the son of Zerah, one of the early kings of that nation (Gen. xxxvi. 33 ; 1 Chr. i. 44). This is doubtless the place mentioned in later times by Isaiah (xxxiv. 6, Ixiii. 1) in con- nexion with Edom, and by Jeremiah (xlix. 13, 22), Amos (i. 12), and Micnh (ii. 12). There is no reason to doubt that its modern representative is el-Busai7'eh, which lies on the mountain district to the S. E. of the Dead Sea. — 2. In his catalogue of the cities of the land of Moab, Jeremiah (xlviii. 24) mentions a Bozrah as in " the plain country " (ver. 21, i. e. the high level downs on the east of the Dead Sea). BRACELET. [See Armlet.] Bracelets of fine twisted Venetian gold are still common in Egypt. In Gen. xxxviii. 18, 25, the word rendered "bracelet" means probably "a string by which a seal-ring was suspended." Men as well as women wore bracelets, as we see from Cant. v. 14. Laj'ard says of the Assyrian kings : " The arms were encircled by armlets, and the wrists by bracelets." Assyrian Bracelet Clasp. (Nineveh Marbles.) BRAMBLE. [Thorns.] BRASS. The word nechoshcth is impro- perly translated by " brass." In most placee §mm BRAZEN-SERPENT BRIDGE of the O. T. the correct translation would be copper, although it may sometimes possibly mean bronze, a compound of copper and tin. Indeed a simple metal was obviously intended, as we see from Deut. viii. 9, xxxii. 25, and Job XX viii. 2. Copper was known at a very early period (Gen. iv. 22). The word x"^^' KoA«/3ai/oi' in Rev, i. 15, ii. 18 (A. V. "fine brass"), has excited much differense of opi- nion. Some suppose it to have been orichal- cum, which was so rare as to be more valuable than gold. BRAZEN-SERPENT. [Serpent.] BREAD. The preparation of bread as an article of food dates from a very early period : the earliest undoubted instance of its use is found in Gen. xviii. 6. The corn or grain employed was of various sorts : the best bread was made of wheat, which after being ground produced the "flour" or "meal" (Judg. vi. 19 ; I Sam. i. 24 ; 1 K. iv. 22, xvii. 12, 14), and when sifted the "fine flour" (Ex. xxix. 2 ; Gen. xviii. 6) usually employed in the sacred off'erings (Ex. xxix. 40 ; Lev. ii. 1 ; Ez. xlvi. 14), and in the meals of the wealthy (1 K. iv. 22 ; 2 K. vii. 1 ; Ez. xvi. 13, 19 ; Rev. xviii. 13). "Barley" was used only by the very poor (John vi. 9, 13), or in times of scarcity (Ruth iii. 15, compared with i. 1 ; 2 K. iv. 38, 42 ; Rev. vi, 6), " Spelt" was also used both in Egypt (Ex, ix. 32) and Palestine (Is. xxviii. 25 ; Ez. iv. 9 ; 1 K. xix. 6). The bread taken by persons on a journey (Gen. xlv. 23 , Josh. ix. 12) was probably a kind of biscuit. The process of making bread was as follows : — the flour was Egyptians kneading dough with tlieir hands. (Wilkinson, from a paintins: in the Tomb of Kameses III. at Thebes.) first mixed with water, or perhaps milk ; it was then kneaded with the hands (in Egypt with the feet also) in a small wooden bowl or " kneading-trough " until it became dough (Ex. xii. 34, 39 ; 2 Sam. xiii. 3 ; Jer. vii. 18 ; Hos. vii. 4). When the kneading was com- pleted, leaven was generally added [Leaven] : but when the time for preparation was short, it was omitted, and unleavened cakes, hastily baked, were eaten, as is still the prevalent custom among the Bedouins (Gen. xviii, 6, xix. 3 ; Ex, xii. 89 ; Judg, vi, 19 ; 1 Sam. xxviii. 24). The leavened mass was allowed to stand for some time (Matt. xiii. 33 ; Luke xiii. 21). The dough was then divided into round cakes (Ex. xxix. 23 ; Judg. vii. 13, viii. 5 ; 1 Sam. x. 3 ; Prov, vi. 26), not un- like flat stones in shape and appearance (Matt. vii. 9 ; comp. iv. 3), about a span in diameter and a finger's breadth in thickness. In the towns where professional bakers re- sided, there were no doubt fixed ovens, in shape and size resembling those in use among ourselves : but more usually each household possessed a portable oven, consisting of a stone or metal jar about three feet high, which was heated inwardly with wood (1 K. xvii. 12 ; Is. xliv. 15 ; Jer, vii, 18) or dried grass and flower-stalks (Matt. vi. 30). BRICK, Herodotus (i. 179), describing the mode of building the walls of Babylon, says that the clay dug out of the ditch was made into bricks as soon as it was carried up, and burnt in kilns. The bricks were ce- mented with hot bitumen, and at every thir- tieth row crates of reeds were stuffed in (comp. Gen. xi. 3), The Babylonian bricks were more commonly burnt in kilns than those used at Nineveh, which are chiefly sun- dried like the Egyptian, They are usually from 12 to 13 in. square, and 3^ in. thick. They thus possess more of the character of tiles (Ez. iv. 1). The Israelites, in common with other captives, were employed by the Egyptian monarchs in making bricks and in building (Ex. i. 14, v. 7). Egyptian bricks were not generally dried in kilns, but in the sun. When made of the Nile mud, they re- quired straw to prevent cracking ; and crude brick walls had frequently the additional se- curity of a layer of reeds and sticks, placed at intervals to act as binders. A brick pyra- mid is mentioned by Herodotus (ii. 136) as the work of King Asychis. The Jews learned the art of brick-making in Egypt, and we find the use of the brick-kiln in David's time (2 Sam. xii. 31), and a complaint made by Isaiah that the people built altars of brick instead of unhewn stone as the law directed (Is. Ixv. 3 ; Ex. XX. 25). BRIDGE. The only mention of a bridge in the Canonical Scriptures is indirectly in the proper name Geshur, a district in Bashan, N.E. of the sea of Galilee, At this place a bridge still exists, called the bridge of the sons of Jacob. Judas Maccabaeus is said to have intended to make a bridge in order to BRIGANDINE 80 BURNT-OFFERING besiege the town of Casphor or Caspis, situate near a lake (2 Mace. xii. 13). The Romans were the first constructors of arched bridges, The bridge connecting the Temple with the upper city, of which Josephus speaks, seems to have been an arched viaduct. BRIGANDINE, Jer. xlvi. 4 ; elsewhere " habergeon," or " coat of mail." BRIMSTONE. The Hebrew word is con- nected with gopher, " gopher-wood," A. V. Gen. vi. 14, and probably signified in the first instance the gwn or resin that exuded from that tree ; hence it was transferred to all inflammable substances, and especially to sulphur, which is found in considerable quan- tities on the shores of the Dead Sea (Gen. xix. 24). BROTHER. The Hebrew word is used in various senses in the O. T. as 1. Any kins- man, and not a mere brother ; e. g. nephew (Gen. xiv. 16, xiii. 8), husband (Cant. iv. 9). 2. One of the same tribe (2 Sam. xix. 13). 3. Of the same people (Ex. ii. 14), or even of a cognate people (Num. xx. 14). 4. An ally (Am. i. 9). 5. Any friend (Job t. 15). 6. One of the same office (1 K. ix. 13). 7. A fellow man (Lev. xix. 17). 8. Metaphoric- ally of any similarity, as in Job xxx. 19. The word a.&tK^o'^ has a similar range of meanings in the N. T. BUL. [Months.] BULL, BULLOCK, terms used synonym- ously with ox, oxen, in the A. Y. as the representatives of several Hebrew words. Bdkdr, the most common, is properly a ge- neric name for horned cattle when of full age and fit for the plough. Accordingly it is A^ariously rendered hullock (Is. Ixv. 25), cow (Ez. iv. 15), 0X671 (Gen. xii. 16). In Is. li. 20, the *' wild bull " ("wild ox " in Deut. xiv. 5) was possibly one of the larger species of antelope, and took its name from its swift- ness. Dr. Robinson mentions large herds of black and almost hairless buffaloes as still existing in Palestine, and these may be the animal indicated. BURIAL, SEPULCHRES, TOMBS- On this subject we have to notice : 1. the place of burial, its site and shape ; 2. the mode of burial ; 3. the prevalent notions regarding this duty. — 1. A natural cave enlarged and adapted by excavation, or an artificial imita- tion of one, was the standard type of sepulchre. This was what the structure of the Jewish soil supplied or suggested. Sepulchres, when the owner's means permitted it, were com- monly prepared beforehand, and stood often in gardens, by roadsides, or even adjoining houses. Kings and prophets alone were pro- bably buried within towns (1 K. ii. 10, xvi. 6, 28 ; 2 K. x. 35, xiii. 9 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 14, xxviii. 27 ; 1 Sam, xxv. 1, xxviii. 3). Sarah's tomb and Rachel's seem to have been chosen merely from the accident of the place of death ; but the successive interments at the former (Gen. xlix. 31) are a chronicle of the strong family feeling among the Jews. Cities soon became populous and demanded ceme- teries (Ez. xxxix. 15), which were placed without the walls. Sepulchres were marked sometimes by pillars, as that of Rachel, or by pyramids as those of the Asmoneans at Modin. Such as were not otherwise notice- able were scrupulously " wiiited " (Matt, xxiii. 27) once a year, after the rains before the passover, to warn passers by of defile- ment.— 2. "The manner of the Jews" in- cluded the use of spices, where they could command the means. Thus Asa lay in a "bed of spices" (2 Chr. xvi. 11). A portion of these were burnt in honour of the deceased, and to this use was probably destined part of the 100 pounds weight of " myrrh and aloes " in our Lord's case. In no instance, save that of Saul and his sons, were the bodies burned ; and even then the bones were in- terred, and re-exhumed for solemn entomb- ment. It was the office of the next of kin to perform and preside over the whole funereal office ; but a company of public buriers, ori- ginating in an exceptional necessity (Ez. xxxix. 12-14), had become, it seems, cus- tomary in the times of the N. T. (Acts v. 6, 10). The bier, the word for which in the O. T. is the same as that rendered "bed" was borne by the nearest relatives. The grave-clothes were probably of the fashion worn in life, but swathed and fastened with bandages, and the head covered separately. — 3. The precedent of Jacob's and Joseph's re- mains being returned to the land of Canaan was followed, in wish at least, by every pious Jew. Following a similar notion, some of the Rabbins taught that only in that land could those who were buried obtain a share in the resurrection which was to usher in Messiah's i-eign on earth. Tombs were, in popular belief, led by the same teaching, invested with traditions. BURNT-OFFEKING. The word is applieo' to the offering, which was wholly consumed by fire on the altar, and the whole of which, except the refuse ashes, " ascended " in the smoke to God. The burnt-offering is first named in Gen. viii. 20, as offered after the Flood. Throughout the whole of the Book of Genesis (see xv. 9, 17, xxii. 2, 7, 8, 13) it appears to be the only sacrifice referred to ; afterwards it became distinguished as one of the regular classes of sacrifice under the Mosaic law. The meaning of the whole burnt-offering was that which is the original It 111 li' ),:?"' !,M:!:j:,| BUSH 81 CAIN idea of all sacrifice, the offering by the sacri- ficer of himself, soul and body, to God, the submission of his will to the Will of the Lord. The ceremonies of the burnt-offering are given in detail in the Book of Leviticus. There were, as public burnt-offerings — 1st. The. daily burnt-offering (Ex. xxix. 38- 42 ; Num. xviii. 3-8). 2ndly. The Sabbath lurnt-offering (Num. xxviii. 9, 10). 3rdly. The offering at the new moon, at the three great festivals, the great Day of Atonement, and feast of trumpets. (See Num. xxviii. 11- xxix. 39). Private burnt-offerings were ap- pointed at the consecration of priests (Ex. xxxix. 15 ; Lev. viii. 18, ix. 12), at the puri- fication of women (Lev. xii. 6, 8), at the cleansing of the lepers (Lev. xiv. 19), and removal of other ceremonial uncleanness (xv. 15, 30), on any accidental breach of the Na- zaritic vow, or at its conclusion (Num. vi. ; comp. Acts xxi. 26), &c. But freeivill burnt- offerings were offered and accepted by God on any solemn occasions (Num. vii. ; 1 K. viii. 64). BUSH. The Hebrew word seneh occurs only in those passages which refer to Jeho- vah's appearance to Moses " in the flame of fire in the bush " (Ex. iii. 2, 3, 4 ; Deut. xxxiii. 16). Celsius has argued in favour of the JRubus vulgaris, i. e. It. fruticosus, the bramble or blackberry bush. Sprengel iden- tifies the seneh with what he terms the Eubiis saiictus, and says it grows abundantly near Sinai. It is quite impossible to say what kind of thorn bush is intended. BUTTER, curdled milk (Gen. xviii. 8 ; Deut. xxxii. 14 ; Judg. v. 25 ; Job xx. 17). Milk is generally offered to travellers in Pa- lestine in a curdled or sour state, '^ lebbe7i," thick, almost like butter. Hasselquist de- scribes the method of making butter employed by the Arab women : " they made butter in a leather bag, hung on three poles erected for the purpose, in the form of a cone, and drawn to and fro by two women." BUZ, the second son of Milcah and Nahor (Gen. xxii. 21). Elihu "the Buzite " was probably a descendant of Buz. c AB. [Measures.] CA'BUL, a place named as one of the land- marks on the boundary of Asher (Josh. xix. 27). It may fairly be considered as still exist- ing in the modern Kabul, 8 or 9 miles east of Akka, and about the same distance from Jcfat. CAE'SAR, always in the N. T. the Roman emperor, the sovereign of Judaea 'John xix. 12, 15; Acts xvii, 7). Sm. D. B. CAESARE'A (Acts viii. 40, ix. 30, x. 1, 24, xi. 11, xii. 19, xviii, 22, xxi. 8, 16, xxiii. 23, 33, xxv, 1, 4, 6, 13), was situated on the coast of Palestine, on the ime of the great road from Tyre to Egypt, and about half way between Joppa and Dora. The distance from Jerusalem was about 70 r^.iles ; Josephus states it in round numbers as 600 stadia. In Strabo's time there was on this point of the coast merely a town called " Strato's tower" with a landing-place, where- as, in the time of Tacitus, Caesarea is spoken of as being the head of Judaea. It was in this interval that the city was built by Herod the Great. It was the oflScial residence of the Herodian kings, and of Eestus, Felix, and the other Roman procurators of Judaea. Caesarea continued to be a city of some im- portance even in the time of the Crusades, and the name still lingers on the site {Kaisa- riyeh) . CAESARE'A PHILIP'PI is mentioned only in the two first Gospels (Matt. xvi. 13 ; Mark viii. 27) and in accounts of the same transactions. It was at the eastenimost and most important of the two recognised sources of the Jordan, the other being at Tel-el-Kadi. The spring rises, and the city was built, on a limestone terrace in a valley at the base of Mount Hermon. Caesarea Philippi has no O. T. history, though it has been not unrea- sonably identified with Baal- Gad. There is no difficulty in identifying it with the Pa- nium of Josephus. Panium became part of the territory of Philip, tetrarch of Tracho- nitis, who enlarged and embellished the town, and called it Caesarea Philippi, partly after his own name, and partly after that of the em- peror. It is still called Banias. CAGE. The term so rendered in Jer. v. 27, is more properly a trap, in which de- coy birds were placed (comp. Ecclus. xi. 30). In Rev. xviii. 2, the Greek term means a prison. CAI'APHAS, in full Joseph Caiaphas, high-priest of the Jews under Tiberius (Matt. xxvi. 3, 57 ; John xi. 49, xviii. 13, 14, 24, 28; Acts iv. 6). The Procurator Valerius Gratus appointed him to the dignity. He was son-in-law of Annas. [Annas.] CAIN. The historical facts in the life of Cain, as recorded in Gen. iv. are briefly these : — He was the eldest son of Adam and Eve ; he followed the business of agriculture ; in a fit of jealousy, roused by the rejection of his own sacrifice and the acceptance of Abel's, he committed the crime of murder, for which he was expelled from Eden, and led the life of an exile ; he settled in the land of Nod, and built a city which he named after his son Enoch ; his descendants are enumerated, to- G CAINAN 82 CALF gether -with, the inventions for which they ■were remarkable. CAI'NAN. 1. Son of Enos, aged 70 years when he begat Mahalaleel his son. He lived 840 years afterwards, and died aged 910 (Gen. V. 9-14). — 2. Son of Arphaxad, and father of Sala, according to Luke iii. 35, 36, and usually called the second Cainan. He is also found in the present copies of the LXX., but is nowhere named in the Hebrew MSS. It seems certain that his name was intro- duced into the genealogies of the Greek O. T. in order to bring them into harmony with the genealogy of Christ in St. Luke's Gospel. . CA'LAH, one of the most ancient cities of Assyria (Gen. x. 11). The site of Calah is probably marked by the Nimrud ruins. If this be regarded as ascertained, Calah must be considered to have been at one time (about B.C. 930-720) the capital of the empire. CALAMUS. [Reed.] CALDRON, a vessel for boiling flesh, either for ceremonial or domestic use (2 Chr. XXXV. 13; 1 Sam. ii. 14; Mic. iii. 3; Job xli. 20). Bronze caldron from Egyptian Thebes. (Brit Mus.) CA'LEB. 1. According to 1 Chr. ii. 9, 18, 19, 42, 50, the son of Hezron, the son of Pharez, the son of Judah, and the father of Hur by Ephrath or Ephratah, and conse- quently grandfather of Caleb the spy. — 2. Son of Jephunneh, by which patronymic the illus- trious spy is usually designated (Num. xiii. 6, and ten other places), with the addition of that of •' the Kenezite," or " son of Kenaz," in Num. xxxii. 12 ; Josh. xiv. 6, 14. Caleb is first mentioned in the list of the rulers or princes who were sent to search the land of Canaan in the second year of the Exodus. He and Oshea or Joshua the son of Nun were the only two of the whole number who encouraged the people to enter in boldly to the land, and take possession of it. Forty-five years afterwards, Caleb came to Joshua and claimed possession of the land of the Anakims, Kirjalh-Arba, or Hebron, and the neighbour- ing hill country (Josh. xiv.). This was im- mediately granted to him, and the following chapter relates how lie took possession of Hebron, driving out the three sons of Anak ; and how he offered Achsah his daughter in marriage to whoever would take Kirjath- Sepher, i. e. Debir ; and how when Othniel, his j'ounger brother, had performed the feat, he not only gave him his daughter to Avife, but with her the upper and nether springs of water which she asked for. It is probable that Caleb was a foreigner by birth ; a pro- selyte, incorporated into the tribe of Judah. CALF. In Ex. xxxii. 4, we are told that Aaron, constrained by the people in the ab- sence of Moses, made a molten calf of the golden earrings of the people, to represent the Elohim which brought Israel out of Egypt. Probably it was a wooden figure laminated with gold, a process which is known to have existed in Egypt. " A gilded ox covered with a pall " was an emblem of Osiris (Wilk- inson, iv. 3 3 5 ) . To punish the apostasy Moses burnt the calf, and then grinding it to powder ♦scattered it over the water, which he made the people drink. The process which he used is difficult of explanation. Bochart and Ro- senmiiller think that he merely cut, ground, and filed the gold to powder. It has always been a great dispute respecting this calf and those of Jeroboam, whether, I. the Jews in- tended them for some Egyptian god, or II. Bronze Figure of Apis. (Wilkinsoa; for a mere cherubic symbol of Jehovah. Of the various sacred cows of Egypt, those of Isis, of Athor, and of the three kinds of sacred bulls. Apis, Basis, and Mnevis, Sir G. Wilkinson fixes on the latter as the prototype of the golden calf. It seems to us more likely that in this calf-worship the Jews merely " Likened their Maker to the graved ox," or in other words, adopted a well-understood cherubic emblem. The calf at Dan was 83 CAMPHIRE carried away by Tiglath-Pileser, and that of Bethel ten years after by his son Shalmaueser. CAL'NEH, or CAL'NO, appears in Genesis (x. 10) among the cities of Nimrod. Probably the site is the modern Niffer. In the 8th century b.c. Calneh was taken by one of the Assyrian kings, and never recovered its pros- perity (Is. X. 9 ; Am. vi. 2). CAL'VARY, a word occurring in the A. V. only in Luke xxiii. 33, and there arising from the translators having literally adopted the word calvarla, i. e. a bare scull, the Vulgate rendering of upaviovi which again is nothing but the Greek for Golgotha. The popular expression " Mount Calvary " is not war- ranted by any statement in the accounts of the place of our Lord's crucifixion. CAMEL. It is clear from Gen. xii. 16 that camels were early known to the Egyptians, though no representation of this animal has yet been discovered in the paintings or hiero- glyphics. The Ethiopians had " camels in abundance" (2 Chr. xiv. 15) ; the queen of Sheba came to Jerusalem " with camels that bare spices and gold and precious stones " (IK. X. 2) ; the men of Kedar and of Ilazor possessed camels (Jer. xlix. 29, 32) ; David took away the camels from the Geshurites and the Amalekites (1 Sam. xxvii. 2, xxx. 17) ; forty camels' burden of good things were sent to Elisha by Eenhadad king of Syria from wards (xlii. 12). The camel was used for riding (Gen. xxiv. 64; 1 Sam. xxx. 17) ; as a beast of burden generally (Gen. xxxvii. 25 ; 2 K. viii. 9 ; IK. x. 2, &c.) ; and for draught purposes (Is. xxi. 7). From 1 Sam. xxx. 17 we learn that camels were used in war. John the Baptist wore a garment made of camel's hair (Matt. iii. 4 ; Mark i. 6), and some have supposed that Elijah " was clad in a dress of the same stuff." Dr. Kitto says " the Arabs adorn the necks of their camels with a band of cloth or leather, upon which are strung small shells called cowries in the form of half-moons," this very aptly illustrates Judg. viii. 21, 26.^ The species of camel which was in common use amongst the Jews and the heathen nations of Palestine was the Ara- bian or one-humped camel (Camelus Ara- bicus). The dromedary is a swifter animal than the baggage-camel, and is used chiefly for riding purposes ; it is merely a finer breed than the other : the Arabs call it the Jleirie. The speed of the dromedary has been greatly exaggerated, the Arabs asserting that it is swifter than the horse ; eight or nine miles an hour is the utmost it is able to perform ; this pace, however, it is able to keep up for hours together. CA'MOJS, the p^ace in which Jair the Judge was buried (Judg. x. 5). CAMP. [Encampments.] CAMPHIRE (Heb. copher). There can be Damascus (2 K. viii. 9) ; the Ishmaelites trafficked with Egypt in the precious gums of Gilead, carried on the backs of camels (Gen. xxxvii. 25) ; the Midianites and the Amalekites possessed camels " as the sand by the sea-side for multitude" (Judg. vii. 12); Job had three thousand camels before his affliction (Job i. 3), and six thousand after- a Tlie word erroneously translated " camels " in Esth viiL 10 probably signifies '• mules " of a fine breed. G 2 CANA 84 CANDLESTICK no dpubt that " camphire " is an incorrect rendering of the Hebrew term, which occurs in the sense of some aromatic substance onlj- in Cant. i. 14, iv. 13. The margin in both passages has " cypress." The substance really denoted by copher is the Lmosotiia alha of botanists, the henna of Arabian naturalists. The inhabitants of Nubia call the henna-plant Khofreh. The henna-plant grows in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and N. India. The flowers are white and grow in clusters and are very fragrant. The whole shrub is from four to six feet high. The Laivsonia alha, the only known species, belongs to the natural order Luthraceae. 'CA'NA OF GALILEE, once CANA IN GALILEE, a village or town not far from Capernaum, memorable as the scene of Christ's first miracle (John ii. 1, 11, iv. 46) as well as of a subsequent one (iv. 46, 54), and also as the native place of the Apostle Nathanael (xxi. 2). The traditional site is at Kefr Kenna, a small village about 4^ miles north- west of Nazareth. The rival site is a village situated further north, about 5 miles north of Seffurieh (Sepphoris) and 9 of Nazareth, near the present Jefat, the Jotapata of the Jewish wars. This village still bears the name of Knna-el-jelil. The Gospel history will not be affected whichever site may be discovered to be the real one. CA'NAAN. 1. The fourth son of Ham (Gen. X. 6 ; 1 Chr. i. 8) ; the progenitor of the Phoenicians ("Zidon"), and of the va- rious nations who before the Israelite conquest peopled the sea-coast of Palestine, and ge- nerally the whole of the country westward of the Jordan (Gen. x. 13) ; 1 Chr, i. 13).— 2. The name " Canaan" is sometimes employed for the country itself. In several passages the word is concealed in the A, V. by being translated. These are : Is. xxiii. 8, " traf- fickers," andxxiii. 11, " the merchant city ;" IIos. xii. 7, "He is a merchant;" Zeph. i. 1 1, " merchant-people." CA'NAAN, THE LAND '0¥, lit. "Low- land," a name denoting the country west of the Jordan and Dead Sea, and between those waters and the Mediterranean ; specially op- posed to the " land of Gilead," that is the high table-land on the east of the Jordan. It is only in later notices, such as Zeph. ii. 5, and Matt. xv. 22, that we find it applied to the low maritime plains of Philistia and Phoe- nicia (comp. Mark vii. 26). CA'NAANITE, THE, the designation of the Apostle Simon, otherwise known as " Si- mon Zelotes." It occurs in Matt. x. 4 ; Mark iii. 18, and is derived from a Chaldee or Syriac word, by which the Jewish sect or faction of " the Zealots " was designated. The Greek equivalent is Zelotes (Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13). CA'NAANITES, THE, a word used m two senses : — 1. a tribe which inhabited a parti- cular locality of the land west of the Jordan before the conquest ; and 2. the people who inhabited generally the Avhole of that country. — 1. For the tribe of "the Canaanites " only — the dwellers in the lowland. The whole of the country west of Jordan was a " lowland " as compared with the loftier and more extended tracts on the east : but there was a part of this western country which was still more emphatically a " lowland." " The Canaanite dwells by the sea, and by the side of Jordan" (Num. xiii. 29). In Gen. x. 18- 20 the seats of the Canaanite tribe are given as on the sea-shore and in the Jordan Valley (comp. Josh. xi. 3). — 2. Applied as a genera, name to the non -Israelite inhabitants of the land, as we have already seen was the case with " Canaan." Instances of this are, Gen. xii. 6 ; Num. xxi. 3 ; Judg. i. 10 ; and Gen. xiii. 12. See also Gen. xxiv. 3, 37, comp. xxviii. 2, 6 ; Ex. xiii. 11, comp. 5. Like the Phoenicians, the Canaanites were probably given to commerce ; and thus the name be- came probably in later times an occasional synonym for a merchant (Job xii. 6; Prov. xxxi. 24; comp. Is. xxiii. 8, 11 ; Hos. xii 7; Zeph. i. 11). CANDA'CE, a queen of Ethiopia (Meroe), mentioned Acts viii. 27. The name was not a proper name of an individual, but that of a dynasty of Ethiopian queens. CANDLESTICK, which Moses was com- manded to make for the tabernacle, is de- scribed Ex. XXV. 31-37 ; xxxvii. 17-24. It is called in Lev. xxiv. 4, " the pure," and in Ecclus. xxvi. 17, "the holy candlestick." With its various appurtenances it required a talent of " pure gold," and it was not vwulded, but " of beaten work." Josephus, however, says that it was of cast gold, and hollow. The candlestick was placed on the south side of the first apartment of the tabernacle, opposite the table of shew-bread (Ex. xxv. 37), and was lighted every evening and dressed every morning ^Ex. xxvii. 20, 21, XXX. 8 ; comp. 1 Sam. iii. 2). Each lamp was supplied with cotton, and half a log of the purest olive-oil (about two wine-glasses), which was sufficient to keep them burning during a long night. When carried about, the candlestick was covered with a cloth of blue, and put with its appendages in badger- skin bags, which were supported on a bar (Num. iv. 9). In Solomon's Temple, instead of this candlestick, there were ten golden candlesticks similarly embossed, five on the right, and five on the left (1 K. vii. 49 ; CANE' CANTICLES 2 Chr. iv. 7). They were taken to Babylon (Jer. lii. 19). In the Temple of Zerubbabel there was again a single candlestick (1 Mace, i. 23, iv. 49). Candlestick. (From Arch of Titus.) CANE. [Reed.] CANKERWORM. [Locust.] CAN'NEH (Ez. xxvii. 23), probably a contraction of Calneh, which is the reading of one MS. CANOPY (Jud. X, 21, xiii. 9, xvL 19). The canopy of Holofernes is the only one mentioned. It probably retained the mos- quito nets or curtains in which the name originated, although its description (Jud. x. 21) betrays luxury and display rather than such simple usefulness. CANON OF SCRIPTURE, THE, may be generally described as " the collection of books which form tlie original and authorita- tive written rule of the faith and practice of the Christian Church. The word Canon, in classical Greek, is properly a straight rod, as the rod of a shield, or that used in weaving, or a carpenter's rule. In patristic writings the word is commonly used both as " a rule " in the widest sense, and especially in the phrases " the rule of the Church," " the rule of faith," " the rule of truth." As applied to Scripture the derivatives of Canon were used long before the simple word. The title "Canonical" was first given to writings in the sense of " admitted by the rule," and not as " forming part of a.nd ffiving the rule." The first direct application of the term Ca?ion to the Scriptures seems to be in the verses of Amphilochius (c. 380 a.d.), where the word indicates the rule by which the contents of the Bible must be determined, and thus secondarily an index of the constituent books. Among Latin writers it is commonly found from the time of Jerome and Augustine, and their usage of the word, which is wider than that of Greek writers, is the source of its modern acceptation. The uncanonical books were described simply as " those without," or " those uncanonized." The Apocryphal books which were supposed to occupy an in- termediate position, were called " books read," or " ecclesiastical," though the latter title was also applied to the canonical Scrip- tures. The canonical books were also called " books of the Testament," and Jerome styled the whole collection by the striking name of " the holy library," which happily expresses the unity and variety of the Bible. Popular belief assigned to Ezra and " the great synagogue " the task of collecting and promulgating the Scriptures as part of their work in organizing the Jewish Church. Doubts have been thrown upon this belief, but it is in every way consistent with the his- tory of Judaism and with the internal evi- dence of the books themselves. After the Maccabaean persecution the history of the formation of the Canon is merged in the his- tory of its contents. The Old Testament appears from that time as a whole. The complete Canon of the New Testament, as commonly received at present, was ratified at the third Council of Carthage (a.d. 397), and from that time was accepted throughout the Latin Church. Respecting the books of which the Canon is composedj see the article Bible. CANTICLES, Song of Songs, i. e. the most beautiful of songs, entitled in the A. V. The Song of Solomon.— I. Author and date. — By the Hebrew title it is ascribed to Solomon ; and so in all the versions, and by the majority of Jewish and Christian writers, ancient and modern. A few of the Talmudical writers as- signed it to the age of Hezekiah. More recent criticism, however, has called in question this deep-rooted, and well accredited tradition, but on the whole it seems unnecessary to depart from the plain meaning of the Hebrew title. Supposing the date fixed to the reign of Solomon, there is great difficulty in deter- mining at what period of that monarch's life the poem was written. — II. Form. — It may be called a drama, as it contains the dramatic evolution of a simple love-story. — III. Mean- ing.— The schools of interpretation may be divided into three ; — the mystical, or typical ; the allegorical ; and the literal. — 1. 1\\q mys- tical interpretation is properly an offrhoot CAPERNAUM 86 CAPTAIN of the allegorical, and probably owes its origin to the necessity which was felt of sup- plying a lite7-al basis for the speculation of the allegorists. This basis is either the mar- riage of Solomon with Pharaoh's daughter, or his marriage with an Israelitish woman, the Shulamite. The mystical interpretation makes its first appearance in Origen, who wrote a voluminous commentary upon the Canticles. — 2. Allegorical. — Notwithstanding the attempts which have been made to dis- cover the principle of interpretation in the LXX. (Cant. iv. 8), Jesus son of Sirach (xlvii. 14-17 ; Wisd. viii. 2), and Josephus (c. Apion. i. ^ 8), it is impossible to trace it with any certainty farther back than the Talmud. According to the Talmud the beloved is taken to be God, the loved one, or bride, is the congregation of Israel. In the Christian Church, the Talmudical interpreta- tion, imported by Origen, was all but uni- versally received. — 3. The Literal interpre- tation. — According to the most generally received interpretation of the modern liter- alists, the Song is intended to display the victory of humble and constant love over the temptations of wealth and, royalty. — IV. Ca- nonieity. — The book has been rejected from the Canon by some critics ; but in no case has its rejection been defended on external grounds. It is found in the LXX., and in the translations of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion. It is contained in the cata- logue given in the Talmud, and in the catalogue of Melito ; and in short we have the same evidence for its canonicity as that which is commonly adduced for the canonicity of any book of the O. T. CAPER'NAUM was on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee (Matt. iv. 13; comp. John vi. 24), and, if recent discoveries are to be trusted, was of sufficient importance to give to that Sea, in whole or in part, the name of the '• lake of Capernaum." It was in the " land of Gennesaret " (Matt. xiv. 34, comp. John vi. 17, 21, 24). It was of suffi- cient size to be always called a " city " (Matt. ix. 1 ; Mark i. 33) ; had its own synagogue, in which our Lord frequently taught (John vi. 59; Mark i. 21; Luke iv. 33, 38) — a synagogue built by the centurion of the de- tachment of Roman soldiers which appears to have been quartered in the place (Luke vii. 1, comp. 8 ; Matt. viii. 8). But besides the garrison there was also a customs' station, where the dues were gathered both by sta- tionary (Matt. ix. 9 ; Mark ii. 14 ; Luke v. 27) and by itinerant (Matt. xvii. 24) officers. The only interest attaching to Capernaum is as the residence of our Lord and his Apostles, the scene of so many miracles and " gracious words." At Nazareth He was " brought up," but Capernaum was emphatically His " own city ;" it was when He returned thither that He is said to have been " at home " (Mark ii. 1). The spots which lay claim to its site are 1 . Khan Minyeh, a mound of ruins, which takes its name fi-om an old khan hard by. This mound is situated close upon the sea-shore at the north-western extremity of the plain (now El Ghuweir). 2. Thi-ee miles north of Khaii Minyeh is the other claimant, Tell Hum, — ruins of walls and foundations covering a space of " half a mile long by a quarter wide," on a point of the shore pro- jecting into the lake and backed by a very gently rising ground. Khan Minyeh M-Ta- highah, and Tell Hum, are all, without doubt, ancient sites, but it is impossible to say which of them represents Capernaum, which Chorazin, or which Bethsaida. CAPH'TOR, CAPH'TORIM, thrice men- tioned as the primitive seat of the Philistines (Deut. ii. 23 ; Jer. xlvii. 4 ; Am. ix. 7), who are once called CAPHTORIMS (Deut. ii. 23), as of the same race as the Mizraite people of that name (Gen. x. 14 ; " Caphthorim," 1 Chr. i. 12). The position of the country, since it was peopled by Mizraites, must be supposed to be in Egypt or near to it in Africa, for the idea of the south-west of Pa- lestine is excluded by the migration of the Philistines. Mr. R. S. Poole has proposed to recognise Caphtor in the ancient Egyptian name of Coptos, or the Coptite nome. It is probable that the Philistines left Caphtor not long after the first arrival of the Mizraite tribes, while they had not yet attained that attachment to the soil that afterwards so eminently characterized the descendants of those which formed the Egyptian nation. CAPPADO'CIA, CAPPADO'CIANS (Acts ii. 9 ; 1 Pet. i. 1). The range of Mount Taurus and the upper course of the Eu- phrates may safely be mentioned, in general terms, as natural boundaries of Cappadocia on the south and east. Its geographical limits on the west and north were variable. In early times the name reached as far north- wards as the Euxine Sea. Cappadocia is an elevated table-land intersected by moun- tain-chains. It seems always to have been deficient in wood ; but it was a good grain country, and particularly famous for grazing. Its Roman metropolis was Caesarea. The native Cappadocians seem originally to have belonged to the Syrian stock. CAPTAIN. (1.) As a purely military title Captain answers to sar in the Hebrew army, and "tribune" in the Roman. The "cap- tain of the guard" in Acts xxviii. 16 was pro- bably the praefectus praetorio. (2.) Kdtstn, CAPTIVITIES 87 CARMEL occasionally rendered captain, applies some- times to a military (Josh. x. 24 ; Judg. xi. 6, 11 ; Is. xxii. 3 ; Dan. xi. 18), sometimes to a civil command [e. g. Is. i. 10, iii. 6). (3.) The " captain of the temple " mentioned by St. Luke (xxii. 4 ; Acts iv. 1, v. 24) su- perintended the guard of priests and Levites, who kept watch by night in the Temple. CAPTIVITIES OF THE JEWS. The present article is confined to the forcible de- portation of the Jews from their native land, and their forcible detention, under the Assy- rian or Babylonian kings. The kingdom of Israel was invaded by three or four successive kings of Assyria. Pul or Sardanapalus, ac- cording to Rawlinson, imposed a tribute (B.C. 7 71 or 762 Rawl.) upon Menahem (1 Chr. V. 26, and 2 K. xv. 19). Tiglath-Pileser carried away (b.c. 740) the trans-Joi'danic tribes (1 Chr. v. 26) and the inhabitants of Galilee (2 K. xv. 29, comp. Is. ix. 1) to As- syria. Shalmaneser twice invaded (2 K. xvii. 3, 5) the kingdom which remained to Hoshea, took Samaria (b.c 721) after a siege of three years, and carried Israel away into Assyria. Sennacherib (b.c. 713) is stated to have carried into Assyria 200,000 captives from the Jewish cities which he took (2 K. xviii. 13). Nebuchadnezzai-, in the first half of his reign (b.c. 606-562), repeatedly invaded Judaea, besieged Jerusalem, carried away the inhabitants to Babylon, and destroyed the Temple. Two distinct deportations are men- tioned in 2 K. xxiv. 14 (including 10,000 persons) and xxv. 11. One in 2 Chr. xxx-\i. 20. Three in Jer. Iii. 28-30, including 4600 persons, and one in Dan. i. 3. The two principal deportations were, (1) that which took place b.c. 598, when Jehoiachin with all the nobles, soldiers, and artificers was carried away ; and (2) that which followed the de- struction of the Temple and the capture of Zedekiah b.c 588. The 70 years of captivity predicted by Jeremiah (xxv. 12) are dated by Prideaux from b.c 606. The captivity of Ezekiel dates from b.c 598, when that pro- phet, like Mordecai the uncle of Esther (Esth. ii. 6), accompanied Jehoiachin. The captives were treated not as slaves but as colonists. The Babylonian captivity was brought to a close by the decree (Ezr. i. 2) of Cyrus (b.c 536), and the return of a portion of the nation under Sheshbazzar or Zerubbabel (b.c 535), Ezra (b.c. 458), and Nehemiah (b.c 445). The number who returned upon the decree of b.c 536 was 42,360, besides serv- ants. Those who were left in Assyria (Esth. viii. 9, 11), and kept up their national dis- tinctions, were known as The Dispersion (John vii. 35 ; 1 Pet, i. 1 ; James i. 1). Many attempts have been made to discover the ten tribes existing as a distinct community. But though history bears no witness of their present distinct existence, it enables us to track the footsteps of the departing race in four directions after the time of the Captivity. (1.) Some returned and mixed with the Jews (Luke ii. 36 ; Phil. iii. 5, &c.). (2.) Some were left in Samaria, mingled with the Sa- maritans (Ezr. vi. 21 ; John iv. 12), and be- came bitter enemies of the Jews. (3.) Many remained in Assyria, and were recognised as an integral part of the Dispersion (see Acts ii. 9, xxvi. 7). (4.) Most, probably, apostatized in Assyi-ia, adopted the usages and idolatry of the nations among whom they were planted, and became wholly swallowed up in them. CARBUNCLE. The representative in the A. V. of the Hebrew words 'ekddch and bdr- kath or idreketh.— \. ^Ekddch (Is. liv. 12) may be a general term to denote any bright sparkling gem, but it is impossible to deter- mine its real meaning. — 2. Bdrekath, bdre- keth (Ex.xxviii. 17, xxxix. 10; Ez.xxviii. 13), is supposed to be the smaragdus or emerald. CAR'CHEMISH occupied nearly the site of the later Mabug, or Hierapolis. It seems to have commanded the ordinary passage of the Euphrates at Bir, or Bireh-jik. Carche- mish appears to have been taken by Pharaoh- Necho shortly after the battle of Megiddo (c. B.C. 608), and retaken by Nebuchadnezzar after a battle three years later, b.c 605 (Jer. xlvi. 2). CA'RIA, the southern part of the region which in the N. T. is called Asia, and the south-western part of the peninsula of Asia Minor. At an earlier period we find it men- tioned as a separate district (1 Mace. xv. 23). A little later it was incorporated in the pro- vince of Asia. CAR'MEL. 1. A mountain which forms one of the most striking and characteristic features of the country of Palestine. As if to accentuate more distinctly the bay which forms the one indentation in the coast, this noble ridge, the only headland of lower and central Palestine, forms its southern bound- ary, running out with a bold bluff promon- tory all but into the very waves of the Medi- terranean. From this point it stretches in a nearly straight line, bearing about S.S.E., for a little more than twelve miles, when it ter- minates suddenly in a bluff somewhat corre- sponding to its western end, breaking down abruptly into the hills of Jenin and Samaria, which form at that part the central mass of the country. Carmel thus stands as a wall between the maritime plain of Sharon on the south, and the more inland expanse of Es- draelon on the north. Its structure is in the CAKXAIM 88 CATS main the Jura formation (upper oolite), which is prevalent in the centre of Western Pales- tine— a soft white limestone, with nodules and veins of flint. In form Carmel is a tolerably continuous ridge, at the W. end about 600, and E. about 1600 feet above the sea. There seem to be grounds for believing that from very early times it was considered as a sacred spot. In later times we know that its reputation was not confined to Pales- tine. But that which has made the name of Carmel most familiar to the modern world is its intimate connexion with the history of the two great prophets of Israel — Elijah and Elisha. It is now commonly called Mar Elyas ; Kurmel being occasionally, but only seldom, heard. — S. A town in the mountain- ous country of Judah (Josh. xv. 55), familiar to us as the residence of Nabal (1 Sam. xxv. 2, 5, 7, 40). CARNA'IM, a large and fortified city in " the land of Galaad." It was besieged and taken by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Mace. v. 26,43, 44). A comparison with 2 Mace. xii. 21,26, enables us to identify it with Ashteroth-Karnaim. CARPENTER. [Handicraft.] CAR'PUS, a Christian at Troas (2 Tim. iv. 13). According to Hippolytus, Carpus was bishop of Berytus in Thrace. CARRIAGE. This word occurs only six times in the text of the A. V., and signifies what we now call " baggage." In the margin of 1 Sam. xvii. 20, and xxvi. 5-7 — and there only — "carriage" is employed in the sense of a wagon or cart. CART, Gen. xlv. 19, 27 ; Num. vii. 3, 7, 8, a vehicle drawn by cattle (2 Sam. vi. 6), to be distinguished from the chariot drawn Egj'ptian cart with two wheels. (Wilkinson.) by horses. Carts and wagons were either open or covered (Num. vii. 3), and were used for conveyance of persons (Gen. xlv. 19), burdens (1 Sam. vi. 7, 8), or produce (Am. ii. 13). The only cart used iu Western Asia has two wheels of solid wood. But in the monuments of ancient Egypt representations are found of carts with two wheels, having four or six spokes, used for carrying produce, and of one used for religious purposes having four wheels with eight spokes. CAS'LUHIM, a Mizraite people or tribe (Gen, X. 14 ; 1 Chr. i. 12). The only clue we have as yet to the jxisition of the Cas- luhim is their place in the list of the sons of Mizraim between the Pathrusina and the Caphtorim, whence it is probable that they were seated in Upper Egypt. CASSIA. The representative in the A. V. of the Hebrew words kiddcih and ketzioth. — 1. Kidddh occurs in Ex. xxx. 24, and in Ez. xxvii. 19. The accounts of cassia as given by ancient authors are confused ; and the inves- tigation of the subject is a difficult one. It is clear that the Latin writers by the term casia understood both the Oriental product now under consideration, as well as some low sweet herbaceous plant ; but the Greek word is limited to the Eastern product. The cassia- bark of commerce is yielded by various kinds of Ginnamomum, which grow in diff'erent parts of India. — 2. Ketzioth, only in Ps. xlv. 8. This word is generally supposed to be another term for cassia : the old versions, as well as the etymology of the Hebrew word, are in favour of this interpretation. CASTLE. [Fortifications.] CAS'TOR AND POLLUX (Acts xxviii. 11). The twin sons of Jupiter and Leda, were regarded as the tutelary divinities of sailors. They appeared in heaven as the constellation Gemini. In art they were sometimes repre- sented simply as stars hovering over a ship, but more frequently as young men on horse- back, with conical caps and stars above them. Such figures were probably painted or sculp- tured at the bow of the ship. Silver coin of Bruttii. Obv. : Heads of Castor and Pollnx to right. Kev. : Castor and Pollux mounted, advancing to right. In the exergue BPETTII2N. CATS occur only in Baruch vi. 22. The Greek word, as used by Aristotle, has more particular reference to the wild cat. Hero- dotus (ii. 66) applies it to denote the domestic animal. The context of the passage in Baruch CATERPILLAR 89 CENSER appears to point to the domesticated animal. Perhaps the people of Babylon originally pro- cured the cat from Egj'pt. The domestic cat of the ancient Egyptians is supposed by some to be identical with the Felis rnaniculata. FeUs m-tniculaia. CATERPILLAR. The representative in the A.V. of the Hebrew words chctsil and yelek. — 1. Chcisil occurs in 1 K. viii. 37 ; 2 Chr. vi. 28 ; Ps. Ixxviii. 46 ; Is. xxxiii. 4 ; Joel i. 4 ; and seems to be applied to a locust, perhaps in its larva state. — 2. Yelek. [Locust.] CAVE. The chalky limestone of which the rocks of Syria and Palestine chiefly consist presents, as is the case in all limestone for- mations, a vast number of caverns and natural fissures, many of which have also been artifi- cially enlarged and adapted to various pur- poses both of shelter and defence. The most remarkable caves noticed in Scripture are : — 1. That in which Lot dwelt after the destruc- tion of Sodom (Gen. xix. 30). 2. The cave of Machpelah (xxiii. 17). 3. Cave of Mak- kedah (Josh. x. 10). 4. Cave of AduUam (1 Sam. xxii. 1). 5. Cave of Engedi (xxiv. 3). 6. Obadiah's cave (1 K. xviii. 4). T.Eli- jah's cave in Hoi-eb (xix. 9). 8, 9. The I'ock sepulchres of Lazarus, and of our Lord (John xi. 38 ; Matt, xxvii. 60). CEDAR. The Heb. word erez, invariably rendered " cedar " by the A. V., stands for that tree in most of the passages where the word occurs. The erez, or " firmly rooted and strong tree," from an Arabic root which has this signification, is particularly the name of the cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus Libani) ; but that the word is used in a wider sense to de- note other trees of the Coniferae is clear from some Scriptural passages where it occurs. For instance, the "cedar wood" mentioned in Lev. xiv. 6 can hardly be the wood of the Lebanon cedars, seeing that the Cedrus Li- bani could never have grown in the peninsula of Sinai. There is another passage (Ez. xxvii. 5), in which perhaps e;-e3 denotes some fir ; in all probability the Pinus Halepensis, which grows in Lebanon, and is better fitted for furnishing ship-masts than the wood of the Cedrus Libani. The Cedrus Libani, Pinus Hahpensis, and Juniperus exceha, were pro- bably all included under the term erez ; though there can be no doubt that by this name is more especially denoted the cedar of Lebanon, as being the firmest and grandest of the conifers. As far as is at present known, the cedar of Lebanon is confined in Syria to one valley of the Lebanon range, viz., that of the Kedisha river, which flows from near the highest point of the range westward to the Mediterranean, and enters the sea at the port of Tripoli. The grove is at the very upper part of the valley, about 1 5 miles fi-om the sea, 6500 feet above that level, and its position is moreover above that of all other arboreous vegetation. CE'DRON. In this form is given in the N. T. the name of the brook Kidron in the ravine below the eastern wall of Jerusalem (John xviii. 1, only). Bej'ond it was the garden of Gethsemane. [Kidron.] CEILING. The descriptions of Scripture (1 K. vi. 9, 15, vii. 3 ; 2 Chr. iii. 5, 9 ; Jer. xxii. 14 ; Hag. i. 4), and of Josephus, show that the ceilings of the Temple and the palaces of the Jewish kings were formed of cedar planks applied to the beams or joints crossing from wall to wall, probably with sunk panels, edged and ornamented with gold, and carved with incised or other patterns, sometimes painted (Jer. xxii. 14). CELOSYRIA. [COELESYRIA.] CEN'CHREA (accurately CENCHREAE), the eastern harbour of Corinth (i. e. its harbour on the Saronic Gulf) and the emporium of its trade with the Asiatic shores of the Mediter- ranean, as Lechaeum on the Corinthian Gulf connected it with Italy and the west. St. Paul sailed from Cenchreae (Acts xviii. 18) on his return to Syria from his second missionary journey ; and when he wrote his epistle to the Romans in the course of the third journey, an organised church seems to have been formed here (Rom. xvi. 1). CENSER. A small portable vessel of metal fitted to receive burning coals from the altar, and on which the incense for burning was sprinkled (2 Chr. xxvi. 18 ; Luke i. 9). The only distinct pi-ecepts regarding the use of the censer are found in Num. iv. 14, and in Lev. xvi. 12. Solomon prepared "censers of pure gold" as part of the same furniture (1 K. vii. 50; 2 Chr. iv. 22). Possibly their general use may have been to take up coals from the brazen altar, and convey the incense while CENSUS 90 CHALDEA burning to the " golden altar," or " altar of incense," on which it was to be offered morn- ing and evening (Ex. xxx. 7, 8). SoUzziah, Anncn he was intending "to burn incense upon the altar of incense," took a censer in his hand" (2 Chr. xxvi. 16, 19). The word rendered " censer " in Hebr. ix. 4 probably means the " altar of incense." CENSUS. [Taxing.] CENTURION. [Army.] CEPHAS. [Peter.] CHAFF. The Heb. words rendered chaff in A. V. do not seem to have precisely the same meaning : cMshash = dry grass, hay ; and occurs twice only in 0. T., viz.. Is. v. 24, xxxiii. 11. Muts is chaff separated by winnowing from the grain— the husk of the wheat. The carrying away of chaff by the wind is an ordinary Scriptural image of the de- 'Struction of the wicked, and of their power- lessness to resist God's judgments (Ps. i. 4 ; Is. xviii. 13 ; Hos. xiii. 3 ; Zeph. ii. 2). CHAIN. Chains were used, 1. as badges of office ; 2. for ornament ; 3. for confining prisoners. 1. The gold chain placed about Joseph's neck (Gen. xli. 42), and that pro- mised to Daniel (Dan. v. 7), are instances of the first use. In Ez. xvi. 11, the chain is mentioned as the symbol of sovereignty. 2 . Chains for ornamental purposes were worn by men as well as women in many countries both of Europe and Asia, and probably this was the case among the Hebrews (Prov. i. 9). The necklace consisted of pearls, corals, &c., threaded on a string. Besides the necklace, other chains were worn (Jud. x. 4) hanging down as far as the waist, or even lower. Some were adorned with pieces of metal, shaped in the form of the moon (" round tii-es like the moon," A. V. ; Is. iii. 18). The Midianites adorned the necks of their camels with it (Judg. viii. 21, 26). To other chains were suspended various trinkets — as scent-bottles (Is. iii. 20) and mirrors (Is. iii. 23). Step-chains were attached to the ankle- rings, which shortened the step and produced a mincing gait (Is. iii. 16, 18). 3. The means adopted for confining prisoners among the Jews were fetters similar to our handcuffs (Judg. xvi. 21 ; 2 Sam. iii. 34 ; 2 K. xxv. 7 ; Jer. xxxix. 7). Among the Romans, the prisoner was handcuffed to one, and occa- sionally to two guards (Actsxii. 6, 7, xxi. 33). CHALCEDONY, only in Rev. xxi. 19. The name is applied in modern mineralogy to one of the varieties of agate. There can, however, be little doubt that the stone to which Theophrastus refers, as being found in the island opposite Chalcedon and used as a solder, must have been the green transparent carbonate of copper, or our copper emerald. CHALDE'A, more correctly CHALDAE'A, properly only the most southern portion of Babylonia, is used in Scripture to signify that vast alluvial plain which has been formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris — at least so far as it lies to the Avest of the latter stream. This extraordinary flat, unbroken except by the woi'ks of man, ex- tends a distance of 400 miles along the course of the rivers, and is on an average about 100 miles in width. The general aspect of the country is thus described by a modern traveller, who well contrasts its condition now with the appearance which it must have presented in ancient times. " In foi-mer days," he says, "the vast plains of Babylon were nourished by a complicated system of canals a^d watercourses, which spread over the sur- face of the country like a network. The wants of a teeming population were supplied by a rich soil, not less bountiful than that on the banks of the Egyptian Nile. Like islands rising from a golden sea of waving corn, stood frequent groves of palm-trees and plea- sant gardens, affording to the idler or tra- veller their grateful and highly-valued shade. Crowds of passengers hurried along the dusty roads to and from the busy city. The land was rich in coi-n and wine. How changed is the aspect of that region at the present day ! Long lines of mounds, it is true, mark the courses of those main arteries which formei-ly diffused life and vegetation along their banks, but their channels are now bereft of moisture and choked with drifted sand ; the smaller offshoots are wholly effaced. ' A drought is upon her waters,' says the prophet, ' and they shall be dried up ! ' All that remains of that ancient civilisation — that ' glory of kingdoms,' — 'the praise of the whole earth,' — is recognisable in the numerous mouldering heaps of brick and rubbish which overspread the surface of the plain. Instead of the luxurious fields, the groves and gardens, nothing now meets the eye but an arid waste— the dense population of former times is vanished, and no man dwells there." (Loftus's Chaldaea, pp. 14-15). The true Chaldaea is always in the geographers a dis- tinct region, being the most southern portion of Babylonia, lying chiefly (if not solely) on the right bank of the Euphrates. Babj'lonia above this is separated into two districts, called respectively Amordacia and Auraniti-s. The former is the name of the central ter- ritory round Babylon itself ; the latter is ap- plied to the regions towards the north, where Babylonia borders on Assyria. Cities. — • Babylonia was celebrated at all times for the number and antiquity of its cities. The most important of those which have been identified CHALDEANS 91 CHAMELEON are Borsippa {Birs-Nimrud), Sippara or Se- pharvaim [Mosaib), Cutha {Ibrahim), Calneh {Niffer), Erech [JVarka], Ur {Mugheir), Chil- mad {Kalwadha), Larancha {Senkereh), Is [JUit), Duraba {Akkerkitf) ; but besides these there were a multitude of others, the sites of which have not been determined; The ex- traordinary fertility of the Chaldaean soil has been noticed by various writers. It is said to be the only country in the world where wheat grows wild. Herodotus declared (i. 193) that grain commonly returned 200-fold to the sower, and occasionally 300-fold. The palm was undoubtedly one of the principal objects of cultivation. The soil is rich, but there is now little cultivation, the inhabitants subsist- ing chiefly upon dates. More than half the country is left dry and waste from the want of a proper system of irrigation ; while the remaining half is to a great extent covered with marshes owing to the same neglect. CHALDE'ANS, or CHAL'DEES, appear in Scripture, until the time of the Captivity, as the people of the country which has Babylon for its capital, and which is itself termed Shinar ; but in the Book of Daniel, while this meaning is still found (v. 30, and ix. 1), a new sense shows itself. The Chaldeans are classed with the magicians and astronomers ; and evidently form a sort of priest class, who have a peculiar "tongue" and "learning" (i. 4), and are consulted by the king on re- ligious subjects. The same variety appears in profane writers. It appears that the Chaldeans {Kaldai or Kaldi) were in the earliest times merely one out of the many Cushite tribes inhabiting the great alluvial plain known afterwards as Chaldaea or Baby- lonia. Their special seat was probably that southern portion of the country which is found to have so late retained the name of Chaldaea. Here was Ur " of the Chaldees," the modern Mugheir, which lies south of the Euphrates, near its junction with the Shat- el-Hie. In process of time, as the Kaldi grew in power, their name gradually pre- vailed over those of the other tribes inhabit- ing the country ; and by the era of the Jewish captivity it had begun to be used generally for all the inhabitants of Babylonia. It had come by this time to have two senses, both ethnic : in the one it was the special appel- lative of a particular race to whom it hud be- longed from the remotest times, in the other it designated the nation at large in which this race was predominant. It has been ob- served above that the Kaldi proper were a Cushite race. This is proved by the remains of their language, which closely resembles the Galla or ancient language of Ethiopia. Now it appears by the inscriptions that while, both in Assyria and in later Babylonia, the Shemitic tj'pe of speech prevailed for civil purposes, the ancient Cushite dialect was retained, as a learned language for scientific and religious literature. This is no doubt the " learning " and the " tongue " to which reference is made in the Book of Daniel (i. 4). The Chaldeans were really the learned class ; they were priests,- magicians, or astronomers, and in the last of the three capacities they probably effected discoveries of great import- ance. In later times they seem to have de- generated into mere fortune-tellers. Costumes of the Chaldeans. (Rawlinson. From Ancient Monuments.) • CHALDEES. [Chaldeans.] CHAMBERLAIN. Erastus, "the cham- berlain " of the city of Corinth, was one of those whose salutations to the Roman Chris- tians are given at the end of the Ep. ad- dressed to them (Rom. xvi. 23). The office which he held was apparently that of public treasurer, or arcarius, as the Vulgate renders his title. These arcarii were inferior ma- gistrates, who had the charge of the public chest {area publica), and were under the authority of the senate. They kept the ac- counts of the public revenues. The office held by Blastus, "the king's chamberlain,''^ was entirely different from this (Acts xii. 20). It was a post of honour which involved great intimacy and influence with the king. The margin of our version gives " that was over the king's bedchamber." For Chamberlain as used in the O. T., see Eunuch. CHAMELEON, the translation of the Hebrew coach, which occurs in the sense of some kind of unclean animal in Lev. xi. 30. Others suppose it to be the lizard, known by the name of the "Monitor of the Nile " [Monitor Niloticus, Grey), a large strong CHAMOIS 92 CHEBAR reptile common in Egypt and other parts of Africa. CHAMOTS, the translation of the Hebrew zemer in Deut. xiv. 5. But the translation is incorrect ; for there is no evidence that the chamois has ever been seen in Palestine or the Lebanon. It is probable that some moun- tain sheep is intended. CHA'NAAN, the manner in which the word Canaan is spelt in the A. V. of the Apocrypha and N. T. (Jud. v. 3, 9, 10 ; Bar. iii. 22 ; Sus. 56 ; 1 Mace. ix. 37 ; Actsvii. 11, xiii. 19). CHAPITER, the capital of a pillar ; also possibly a roll moulding at the top of a building or work of art, as in the case (1) of the pillars of the Tabernacle and Temple, and of the two pillars called especially Jachin and Boaz ; and (2) of the lavers belonging to the Temple (Ex. xxxviii. 17 ; IK. vii. 27, 31, 38). CHARGER, a shallow vessel for re- ceiving water or blood, also for presenting offerings of fine flour with oil (Num. vii. 79). The daughter of Herodias brought the head of St. John the Baptist in a charger (Matt. xiv. 8) : probably a trencher or platter. [Basin.] CHARIOT, a vehicle used either for war- like or peaceful purposes, but most commonly the former. Of the latter use the following only are probable instances as i-egards the Jews, 1 K. xviii. 44, and as regards other nations. Gen. xli. 43, xlvi. 29 ; 2 K. v. 9 ; Acts viii. 28. The earliest mention of chariots in Scripture is in Egypt, where Joseph, as a mark of distinction, was placed in Pharaoh's second chariot (Gen. xli. 43) and later when he went in his own chariot to meet his father on his entrance into Egypt from Canaan (xlvi. 29). In the funeral procession of Jacob chariots also formed a part, possibly by way of escort or as a guard of honour (1. 9). The next mention of Egyptian chariots is for a warlike purpose (Ex. xiv. 7). In this point of view chariots among some nations of antiquity, as elephants among others, may be regarded as filling the place of heavy artillery in modern times, so that the military power of a nation might be esti- mated by the number of its chariots. Thus Pharaoh in pursuing Israel took with him 600 chariots. The Canaanites of the valleys of Palestine were enabled to resist the Israelites successfully in consequence of the number of their chai'iots of iron, i. e. perhaps armed with iron scythes (Josh. xvii. 18 ; Judg. i. 19). Jabin, king of Canaan, had 900 chariots (Judg. iv. 3). The Philistines in Saul's time had 30,000 (1 Sam. xiii. 5). David took from Hadadezer, king of Zobah, 1000 chariots (2 Sam. viii. 4), and from the Syrians a little later 700 (x. 18), who, in order to recover their ground, collected 32,000 chariots (1 Chr. xix. 7). Up to this time the Israelites possessed few or no chariots, partly no doubt in consequence of the theocratic pro- hibition against multiplying horses, for fear of intercourse with Egypt, and the regal despot- ism implied in the possession of them (Deut. xvii. 16; 1 Sam. viii. 11, 12). But to some extent David (2 Sam. viii. 4), and in a much greater degree Solomon, broke through the prohibition. He raised, therefore, and main- tained a force of 1400 chariots (1 K. x. 25) by taxation on certain cities agreeably to Eastern custom in such matters (1 K. ix. 19, x. 25). From this time chariots were regarded as among the most important arms of war, though the supplies of them and of horses appear to have been mainly drawn from Egypt (1 K. xxii. 34; 2 K. ix. 16, 21, xiii. 7, 14, xviii. 24, xxiii. 30 ; Is. xxxi. 1). Most commonly two persons, and sometimes three, i-ode in the chariot, of whom the third was employed to carry the state umbrella (2 K. ix. 20, 24 ; 1 K. xxii. 34 ; Acts viii. 38). A second chariot usually accompanied the king to battle to be used in case of necessity (2 Chr. XXV. 34). The prophets allude fre- quently to chariots as typical of power (Ps. XX. 7, civ. 3; Jer. li. 21 ; Zech. vi. 1). In the N. T., the only mention made of a chariot, except in Rev. ix. 9, is in the case of the Ethiopian or Abyssinian eunuch of Queen Candace (Acts viii. 28, 29, 38). Jewish chariots were no doubt imitated from Egyp- tian models, if not actually imported from Egypt. Assyrian chariot. CHE'BAR, a river in the "land of the Chaldaeans " (Ez. i. 3), on the banks of which some of the Jews were located at the time of the captivity, and where F.zekiel saw his earlier visions (Ez. i. 1, iii. 15, 23, &c.). It is commonly regarded as identical with the CHEDORLAOMER 93 CHERUB Habor, or river of Gozan, to which some por- tion of the Israelites were removed by the Assyrians (2 K. xvii. 6). But this is a mere conjecture. Perhaps the Chcbar of Ezckiel is the Nahr Malcha or Royal Canal of Nebu- chadnezzar— the greatest of all the cuttings in Mesopotamia. CHEDORLAO'MER, a king of Elam, in the time of Abraham, who with three other chiefs made war upon the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Zoar, and reduced them to servitude (Gen. xiv. 17). The name of a king is found upon the bricks recently discovered in Chaldaea, which is read Kiidar-mapula. This man has been sup- posed to be identical with Chedorlaomer, and the opinion is confirmed by the fact that he is further distinguished by a title which may be translated " Ravager of the west." CHEESE is mentioned only three times in the Bible, and on each occasion under a dif- ferent name in the Hebrew (Job x. 10 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 18 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). It is difficult to decide how far these terms correspond with our notion of cheese ; for they simply express various degrees of coagulation. It may be observed that cheese is not at the present day common among the Bedouin Arabs, butter being decidedly preferred ; but there is a substance, closely corresponding to those mentioned in 1 Sam. xvii. ; 2 Sam. xvii., con- sisting of coagulated buttermilk, which is dried until it becomes quite hard, and is then ground : the Arabs eat it mixed with butter. CHEM'ARIMS, THE. This word only occurs in the text of the A. V. in Zeph. i. 4. In 2 K. xxiii. 5 it is rendered " idolatrous priests," and in Hos. x. 5 " priests," and in both cases " chemarim " is given in the margin. So far as regards the Hebrew usage of the word it is exclusively applied to the priests of the false worship, " and was in all probability a term of foreign origin. CHE'MOSH, the national deity of the Moabites (Num. xxi. 29; Jer. xlviii. 7, 13, 46). In Judg. xi. 24, he also appeai-s as the god of the Ammonites. Solomon introduced, and Josiah abolished, the worship of Chemosh at Jerusalem (1 K. xi. 7 ; 2 K. xxiii. 13). Jerome identifies him with Baal-Peor ; others with Baal-Zebub, on etymological grounds ; others with Mars, and others with Saturn. CHER'ETHITES and PEL'ETHITES, the ife-guards of King David (2 Sam. viii. 18, XV. 18, XX. 7, 23; 1 K. i. 38, 44; 1 Chr. xviii. 17). These titles are commonly said to signify " executioners and couriers." It is plain that these royal guards were em- ployed as executioners (2 K. xi. 4), and as couriers (1 K. xiv. 27). But it has been con- jectured that they may have been foreign mercenaries. They are connected with the Gittites, a foreign tribe (2 Sam. xv. 21) ; and the Cherethites are mentioned as a nation (1 Sam. XXX. 14), dwelling appai-ently on the coast, and therefore probably Philistines, of which name Pelethites may be only another form. CHE'RITH, THE BROOK, the torrent-bed or loady in which Elijah hid himself during the early part of the three years' drought (1 K. xvii. 3, 5). The position of the Cherith has been much disputed. The argu- ment from probability is in favour of the Cherith being on the east of Jordan, and the name may possibly be discovered there. CHER'UB, CHER'UBIM. The symbolical figure so called was a composite creature- form, which finds a parallel in the religious insignia of Assyria, Egypt, and Persia, e.g. the sphinx, the winged bulls and lions of Nineveh, &c. The Hebrew idea seems to limit the The winged female Sphinx. ^Williiiison.) number of the cherubim. A pair (Ex. xxv. 18, &c.) were placed on the mercj'-seat of the ark : a pair of colossal size overshadowed it in Solomon's Temple with the canopy of their contiguously extended wings. Ezekiel, i. 4-14, speaks of four, and similarly the apo- calyptic " beasts " (Rev. iv. 6) are four. So at the front or east of Eden were posted " the cherubim," as though the whole of some re- cognised number. The cherubim are placed beneath the actual presence of Jehovah, whose moving throne they appear to draw (Gen. iii. 24 ; Ez. i. 5, 25, 2(5, x. 1, 2, 6, 7 ; Is. vi. 2, 3, 6). The glory symbolising that pre- sence which eye cannot see rests or rides on them, or one of them, thence dismounts to the temple threshold, and then departs and mounts again (Ez. x. 4, 18 ; comp. ix. 3; Ps. xviii. 10). There is in them an entire absence of human sympathy, and even on the mercy-seat they probably ap- peared not merely as admiring and wonder- ing (1 Pet. i. 12), but as guardians of the covenant and avengers of its breach. Those CHESALON 94 CHILDREN on the ark were to be placed with wing-s stretched forth, one at each end of the mercy- seat, and to be made " of the mercy-seat." They are called the cherubim of glory (Heb. ix. 5), as on them the gloi-y, when visible, rested. They were anointed with the holy oil, like the ark itself, and the other sacred furniture. Their wings were to be stretched Assyrian Gryphon. (Layard, ii. 459.) upwards, and their faces " towards each other and towards the mercy-seat." It is remark- able that with such precise directions as to their position, attitude, and material, nothing, save that they were winged, is said concern- ing their shape. On the whole it seems likely that the word "cherub" meant not only the composite creature-form, of which the man, lion, ox, and eagle were the ele- ments, but, further, some peculiar and mystical form, which Ezekiel, being a priest, would know and recognise as " the face of a cherub " (Ez. X. 14) ; but which was kept secret from all others; and such probably were those on the ai-k, though those on the hangings and panels might be of the popular device. What this peculiar cherubic form was is per- haps an impenetrable mystery. It might well be the symbol of Him whom none could behold and live. For as symbols of Divine attributes, e. g. omnipotence and omniscience, not as representations of actual beings, the cherubim should be regarded. CHE'SALON, a place named as one of the landmarks on the west part of the north boundary of Judah (Josh. xv. 10), probably Kesla, about six miles to the N.E. of Ain- shems, on the western mountains of Judah. CHE'SIL, a town in the extreme south of Palestine, named with Hormah and Ziklag (Josh. XV. 30). In Josh. xix. 4 the name Bethijl occurs in place of it, whence we may conclude that Chesil was an early variation of Bethul, CHESTNUT-TREE (Heb. 'armon: Gen. XXX. 37 ; Ezek. xxxi. 8) : it is spoken of as one of the glories of Assyria, for which the "plane-tree" ought pi-obably to have been substituted. The context of the passages where the word occurs indicates some tree which thrives best in low and rather moist situations, whereas the chestnut-tree is a tree which prefers dry and hilly ground. CHE:SUL'L0TH (Ut. "the loins"), one of the towns of Issachar, deriving its name, perhaps, from its situation on the slope of some mountain (Josh. xix. 18). From its position in the lists it appears to be between Jezreel and Shunem [Salam). CHET'TIIM, 1 Mace. i. 1. [Chittim.] CHE'ZIB, a name which occurs but once (Gen. xxxviii. 5), probably the same as ACHZIB. CHI'DON, the name which in 1 Chr. xiii. 9 is given to the threshing-floor at which the accident to the ark took place. In the parallel account in 2 Sam. vi. the name is given as Nag h on. CHILDREN. The blessing of offspring, but especially of the male sex, is highly valued among all Eastern nations, while the absence is i-egarded as one of the severest punishments (Gen. xvi. 2 ; Deut. vii. 14 ; 1 Sam. i. 6 ; 2 Sam. vi. 23 ; 2 K. iv. 14 ; Is. xlvii. 9 ; Jer. xx. 15 ; Ps. cxxvii. 3, 5). As soon as the child was born, it was washed in a bath, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in swaddling clothes. Arab mothers sometimes rub their children with earth or sand (Ez. xvi. 4 ; Job xxxviii. 9 ; Luke ii. 7). On the 8th day the rite of circumcision, in the case of a boy, was performed, and a name given, sometimes, but not usually, the same as that of the father, and generally conveying some special meaning. At the end of a certain time the mother was to make an offering of purification of a lamb as a burnt-offering, and a pigeon or turtle-dove as a sin-offering, or in case of poverty, two doves or pigeons, one as a burnt-offering, the other as a sin- offering (Lev. xii. 1-8 ; Luke ii. 22). The period of nursing appears to have been some- times prolonged to three years (Is. xlix. 15 ; 2 Mace. vii. 27). Nurses were employed in cases of necessity (Ex. ii. 9 ; Gen. xxiv. 59, XXXV. 8 ; 2 Sam. iv. 4 ; 2 K. xi. 2 ; 2 Chr. xxii. 11). The time of weaning was an oc- casion of rejoicing (Gen. xxi. 8). Arab children wear little or no clothing for four or five years : the young of both sexes are usually carried by the mothers on the hip or the shoulder, a custom to which allusion is made by Isaiah (Is. xlix. 22, Ixvi. 12). Both boys and girls in their early j'ears were under the care of the women (Prov. xxxi. 1). Afterwards the boys were taken by the father under his charge. Those in wealthy families had tutors or governors, who were sometimes CHILEAB 95 CHRISTIAN eunuchs (Num. xi. 12 ; 2 K. x. 1. 5 ; Is, xlix. 23 ; Gal. iii. 24 ; Esth. ii. 7). Daughters usually remained in the women's apartments till marriage, or, among the poorer classes, were employed in household work (Lev. xxi. 9 ; Num. xii. 14 ; 1 Sam. ix. 11 ; Prov. xxxi. 19, 23 ; Ecclus. vii. 25, xlii. 9 ; 2 Mace, iii. 19). The firstborn male children were regarded as devoted to God, and were to he redeemed hy an offering (Ex. xiii. 13 ; Num. xviii. 15 ; Luke ii. 22). The authority of parents, especially of the father, over children was very great, as was also the revei-ence enjoined hy the law to be paid to parents. The disobedient child, the striker or reviler of a parent, was liable to capital punishment, though not at the independent will of the parent. The inheritance was divided equally between all the sons except the eldest, who received a double portion (Deut. xxi. 17 ; Gen. XXV. 31, xlix. 3 ; 1 Chr. v. 1, 2 ; Judg. xi. 2, 7). Daughters had by right no portion in the inheritance ; hut if a man had no son, his inheritance passed to his daughters, who were forbidden to marry out of their father's tribe (Num-. xxvii. 1, 8, xxxvi. 2, 8). CHIL'EAB. [Abigail.] CHIM'HAM, a follower, and probably a son of Barzillai the Gileadite, who returned from beyond Jordan with David (2 Sam. xix. 37, 38, 40). David appears to have be- stowed on him a possession at Bethlehem, on which, in later times, an inn or KJian was standing (Jer. xli. 17). CHIN'NERETH, SEA OF (Num. xxxiv. 11 ; Josh. xiii. 27), the inland sea, which is most familiarly known to us as the " lake of «tures they cut their arms and tongues with swords. The prohibition, therefore, is directed against practices prevailing not among the Egyptians whom the Israelites were leaving, but among the Syrians, to whom they were about to be- come neighbours. But there is another usage contemplated more remotely by the prohibi- tion, viz., that of printing marks, tattooing, to indicate allegiance to a deity, in the same manner as soldiers and slaves bore tattooed marks to indicate allegiance or adscription. This is evidently alluded to in the Revelation of St. John (xiii. IG, xvii. 5, xix. 20), and, though in a contrary direction, by Ezekiel (ix. 4), by St. Paul (Gal. vi. 17), in the Reve- lation (vii. 3), and perhaps by Isaiah (xliv. 5) and Zechariah (xiii. 6). CYMBAL, CYMBALS, a percussive mu- sical instrument. Two kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Ps. cl. 5, "loud cymbals" or castagnettes, and "high-sounding cymbals." The former consisted of four small plates of brass or of some other hard metal ; two plates were attached to each hand of the per- former, and were struck together to produce a great noise. The latter consisted of two larger plates, one held in each hand, and struck together as an accompaniment to other instruments. The use of cymbals was not necessai'ily restricted to the worship of the Temple or to sacred occasions : they were employed for military purposes, and also by Hebrew women as a musical accompaniment to their national dances. Both kinds of cym- bals are still common in the East in military music, and Niebuhr often refers to them in his travels. The "bells" of Zech. xiv. 20, were probably concave pieces or plates of brass which the people of Palestine and Syria attached to horses by way of ornament. CYPRESS (Heb. tirzah). The Heb. word is found only in Is. xliv. 14. We are quite unable to assign any definite rendering to it. The true cypress is a native of the Taurus. The Hebrew word points to some tree with a hard grain, and this is all that can be posi- tively said of it. CY'PRUS. This island was in early times in close commercial connexion with Phoenicia ; and there is little doubt that it is referred to in such passages of the O. T. a^ Ez. xxvii. 6. [Chittim.] Possibly Jews may have settled in Cyprus before the time of Alexander. Soon after his time they were numerous in the island, as is distinctly im- plied in' 1 Mace. xv. 23. The fii-st notice of it in the N. T. is in Acts iv. 36, where it is mentioned as the native place of Barnabas. In Acts xi. 19, 20, it appears prominently in connexion with the earliest spreading of Christianity, and is again mentioned in con- CYRENIUS 113 DABAREH nexion -with the missionary journeys of St. Paul (Acts xiii. 4-13, xv. 39, xxi. 3), and •with his voyage to Rome (xxvii. 4). The island became a Roman province (b.c. 58 j under circumstances discreditable to Rome. At first its administration was joined with that of Cilicia, but after the battle of Actium it Avas separately governed. In the first di- vision it was made an imperial province ; but the emperor afterwards gave it up to the Senate. The proconsul appears to have re- sided at Paphos on the west of the island. CYRE'NE, the principal city of that part of northern Africa, which was anciently called Cyrenaica, and also (from its five chief cities) Pentapolitana. This district was that wide projecting portion of the coast (correspond- ing to the modern Trijioli), which was sepa- rated from the territory of Carthage on the one hand, and that of Egypt on the other. The points to be noticed in reference to Gy- rene as connected with the X. T. are these, — that, though on the African coast, it was a Greek city ; that the Jews were settled there in large numbers, and that under the Romans it was politically connected with Crete. The Greek colonisation of this part of Africa under Battus began as early as b.c. 631. After the death of Alexander the Great, it became a dependency of Egypt. It is in this period that we find the Jews established there with great privileges, having been introduced by Ptolemy the son of Lag us. Soon after the Jewish war they rose against the Roman power. In the year b.c. 75 the territory of Gyrene was reduced to the form of a pro- vince. On the conquest of Crete (b.c. 67) the two were united in one province, and together frequently called Creta-Cyrene. The numbers and position of the Jews in Gyrene prepare us for the frequent mention of the place in the N. T. in connexion with Chris- tianity Simon, who bore our Saviour's cross (Matt, xxvii. 32 ; Mark xv. 21 ; Luke xxiii. 26) was a native of Gyrene. Jewish dwellers in Cyrenaica were in Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts ii. 10). They even gave their name to one of the synagogues in Jerusalem (ib. vi. 9). Christian converts from Gyrene were among those who contributed actively to the formation of the first Gentile church at An- tioch (xi. 20). Lucius of Gyrene (xiii. 1) is traditionally said to have been the first bishop of his native disti-ict. CYRE'NIUS, the literal English rendering in the A. V. of the Greek name, which is itself the Greek form of the Roman name of QviRiNus. The full name is Publius Sul- picius Quirinus, He was consul b.c 12, and made governor of Syria after the banishment of Archeiaus in a.d. 6. He was sent to make Sm. D. B. an enrolm,ent of property in Syria, and made accordingly, both there and in Judaea, a census or a-aoypa^ri. But this census seems in Luke (ii. 2) to be identified with one which took place at the time of the birth of Christ. Hence has arisen a considerable difficulty, but there is good reason for be- lieving that Quirinus was twice governor of Syria, and that his first governorship ex- tended from B.C. 4 (the year of Christ's birth) to B.C. 1, when he was succeeded by M. LoUius. CY'RUS, the founder of the Persian empire (see Dan. vi. 28, x. 1, 13 ; 2 Chr. xxxvi. 22, 23), was, according to the common legend, the son of Mandane, the daughter of Astyages the last king of Media, and Cambyses a Per- sian of the royal family of the Achaemenidae. In consequence of a dream, Astyages, it is said, designed the death of his infant grand- son, but the child was spared by those whom he charged with the commission of the crime, and was reared in obscurity under the name of Agradates. When he grew up to manhood his courage and genius placed him at the head of the Persians. The tyranny of Astyages had at that time alienated a large faction of the Medes, and Cyrus headed a revolt which ended in the defeat and capture of the Median king B.C. 559, near Pasargadae. After con- solidating the empire which he thus gained, Cyrus entered on that career of conquest which has made him tiie hero of the east. In B.C. 546 (?) he defeated Croesus, and the kingdom of Lydia was tbe prize of his suc- cess. Babylon fell before his army, and the ancient dominions of Assyria were added to his empire (b.c 538). Afterwards he at- tacked the Massagetae, and according to He- rodotus fell in a battle against them b.c 529. His tomb is still shown at Pasargadae, the scene of his first decisive victory. Hitherto the great kings, with whom the Jews had been brought into contact, had been open oppressors or seductive allies ; but Cyrus was a generous liberator and a just guardian of their rights. An inspired prophet (Is. xliv. 28) recognised in him "a shepherd" of the Lord, an "anointed" king (Is. xlv. 1). The edict of Cyrus for the rebuilding of the Temple (2 Chr. xxxvL 22, 23; Ezr. i. 1-4, iii. 7, iv. 3, v. 13, 17, vi. 3) was in fact the beginning of Judaism ; and the great changes by which the nation was transformed into a church are clearly marked DAB'AREH (Josh. xxi. 28), or Dabeeath, a town on the boundary of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 12) named as next to Chisloth- Tabor. But in 1 Chr. vi. 72, and in Josh. 1 DAGON 114 DAMASCUS xxi. 28, it is said to belong to Issachar. Under the name of Debarieh it still lies at the western foot of Tabor. DA'QON, apparently the masculine (1 Sam. V. 3, 4) correlative of Atargatis, was the na- tional god of the Philistines. The most fa- mous temples of Dagon were at Gaza (Judg. xvi. 21-30) and Ashdod (1 Sam. v, 5, 6 ; 1 Chr. X. 10). The latter temple was de- stroyed by Jonathan in the Maccabaeau wars (1 Mace. X. 83, 84, xi. 4). Traces of the •■vorship of Uagon likewise appear in the names Caphar-Dagon (near Jamnia), and Beth-Dagon in Judah (Josh. xv. 41) and Asher (Josh. xix. 27). Dagon was repre- sented Avith the face and hands of a man and the tail of a fish (1 Sam. v. 5). The fish-like form was a natural emblem of fruitfulness, and as such was likely to be adopted by sea- faring tribes in the representation of their gods. C^jH >^ ^my\f ^^/V ^^^ \ ! 1 ^^^^ \ ' ^p m ifllllWiWKM v^r^j 1 t^i fsf^^ Km ■^ 1 }^ Fish-p^d. From Ximroud. (L lyard) DAI'SAN, 1 Esd. v. 31 = Rezin (Ezr. ii. 48), by the commonly repeated change of R to d'. DALAI'AH. The sixth son of Elioenai, a descendant of the royal family of Judah (1 Chr. iii. 24). DALMANU'THA, a town on the west side of the Sea of Galilee near Magdala (Matt. XV. 39 and Mark viii. 10). [Magdala.] Dalmanutha probably stood at the place called 'Ain-el-£drideh, " the cold Fountain." DALMA'TIA, a mountainous district on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, extending from the river Naro in the S. to the Savus in the N. St. Paul sent Titus there (2 Tim. iv. 10), and he himself had preached the Gospel in its immediate neighbourhood (Rom. xv. 19). DAM'ARIS, an Athenian woman converted to Christianity by St. Paul's preaching (Acts xvii. 34). Chrysostom and others held her to have been the wife of Dionysius the Ai'eo- pagite. DAMASCUS, one of the most ancient and most important of the cities of Syria. It is situated in a plain of vast size and of extreme fertility, which lies east of the great chain of Anti-Libanus, on the edge of the desert. This fertile plain, which is nearly circular, and about 30 miles in diameter, is due to the river Barada, which is probably the "Abana " of Scripture. Two other streams, the Wady Ilelhon upon the north, and the A\caj upon the south, which flows direct from Hermon, increase the fertility of the Damascene plain, and contend for the honour of representing the " Pharpar " of Scripture. According to Josephus, Damascus was founded by Uz, the son of Aram, and grandson of Sheni. It is first mentioned in Scripture in connexion with Abraham (Gen. xiv. 15), whose steward was a native of the place (xv. 2). Nothing more is known of Damascus until the time of David, when "the Syrians of Damascus came to suc- cour Hadadezer, king of Zobah," with whom David was at war (2 Sam. viii. 5 ; 1 Chr. xviii. 5). On this occasion David " slew of the Syrians 22,000 men ; " and in consequence of this victory became completely master of the whole territory, which he gurrisoned with Israelites (2 Sam. viii. 6). It appears that in the reign of Solomon, a certain Rezon, who had been a subject of Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and had escaped when David conquered Zobah, made himself master of Damascus, and established his own rule there (IK. xi. 23-25). Afterwards the family of Hadad appears to have recovered the throne, and a Benhadad, grandson of the antagonist of Da- vid, is found in league with Baasha, king of Israel, against Asa (IK. xv. 19 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 3), and afterwards in league with Asa against DAMASCUS 115 DAN Baaslia (1 K. xv. 20). He was succeeded by his son, Hadad IV. (the Benhadad II. of Scrip- ture), who -was defeated by Ahab (I K. xx.). Three years afterwards war broke out afresh, through the claim of Ahab to the city of Ra- moth-Gilead (1 K. xxii. 1-4). The defeat and death of Ahab at that place (ib. 15-37) seem to have enabled the Syrians of Damas- cus to resume the offensive. Their bands ravaged the lands of Israel during the reign of Jehoram ; and they even undertook at this time a second siege of Samaria, which was frustrated miraculously (2 K. vi. 24, vii. 6, 7). After this, we do not hear of any more at- tempts against the Israelite capital. The cuneiform inscriptions show that towards the close of his reign Benhadad was exposed to the assaults of a great conqueror, who was bent on extending the dominion of Assyria over Syria and Palestine. It may have been these circumstances which encouraged Hazael, the servant of Benhadad, to murder him, and seize the throne, which Elisha had declared would certainly one day be his (2 K. viii. 15). Shortly after the accession of Hazael (about B.C. 884) he was in his turn attacked by the Assyrians who defeated him with great loss amid the fastnesses of Anti-Libanus. How- ever, in his wars with Israel and Judah he was more fortunate, and his son Benhadad followed up his successes. At last a deliverer appeared (verse 5), and Joash, the son of Jehoahaz, " beat Hazael thrice, and recovered the cities of Israel" (verse 25). In the next reign still further advantages were gained by the Israelites. Jeroboam II. (ab. b.c. 836) is said to have recovered Damascus (2 K. xiv. 28), and though this may not mean that he captured the city, it at least implies that he obtained a certain influence over it. A century later (ab. b.c. 742) the Syrians ap- pear as allies of Israel against Judah (2 K. XV. 37). It seems to have been during a pause in the struggle against Assj'ria that Rezin king of Damascus, and Pekah king of Israel, resolved conjointly to attack Jerusalem, intending to depose Ahaz and set up as king a creature of their own (Is. vii. 1-6 ; 2 K. xvi. 5). Jerusalem successfully maintained itself against the combined attack. Ahaz was induced to throw himself into the arms of Tiglath-Pileser, to ask aid from him, and to accept voluntarily the position of an Assyrian feudatory (ib. xvi. 7, 8). The aid sought was given, with the important result, that ■Rezin was slain, the kingdom of Damascus bi-ought to an end, and the city itself de- stroyed, the inhabitants being carried captive into Assyria (2 K. xvi. 9 ; comp. Is. vii. 8 and Am. i. 5). It was long before Damascus recovered ftoru this serious blow. We do not know at what time Damascus was rebuilt ; but Strabo says that it was the most famous place in Syria during the Persian period. At the time of the Gospel history, and of the apostle Paul, it formed a part of the kingdom of Aretas (2 Cor. xi. 32), an Arabian prince, who held his kingdom under the Romans. Damascus has always been a great centre for trade. It would appear from Ez. xxvii. that Damascus took manufactured goods from the Phoenicians, and supplied them in exchange with wool and wine. But the passage trade of Damascus has probably been at all times more important than its direct commerce. — Certain localities in Damascus are shown as the site of those Scriptural events whicb es- pecially interest us in its history. A *' long wide thoroughfare," leading direct from one of the gates to the Castle or palace of the Pasha, is " called by the guides ' Straight ' " (Acts ix. 11) ; but the natives know it among themselves as " the Street of Bazaars." The house of Judas is shown, but it is not in the street " Straight." That of Ananias is also pointed out. The scene of the conversion is confidently said to be an open green spot, surrounded by trees, and used as the Christian burial-ground ; but four distinct spots have been pointed out at different times, so that little confidence can be placed in any of them. The point of the walls at which St. Paul was let down by a basket (Acts ix. 25 ; 2 Cor. xi. 33) is also shown. DAN. 1. The fifth son of Jacob, and the first of Bilhah, Rachel's maid (Gen. xxx. 6). The origin of the name is given in the excla- mation of Rachel — " God hath judged me (ddnanni) . . . and given me a son, there- fore she called his name Dan," i. e. "judge." In the blessing of Jacob (Gen. xlix. 16) this play on the name is repeated — "Dan shall Jiidffe (j/ddhi) bis people." The records of Dan are unusually meagre. Only one son is attributed to him (Gen. xlvi. 23) ; but when, the people were numbered in the wildernesp of Sinai, bis tribe was, with the exception of Judah, the most numerous of all, containing 62,700 men able to serve. The position of Dan during the march through the desert was on the north side of the tabernacle (Num. ii. 25), the hindmost of the long pro- cession (ii. 31, X. 25). It arrived at the threshold of the Promised Land, and passed the ordeal of the rites of Baal-pcor (Num. XXV.) with an increase of 1700 on the earlier census. In the division of the Promised Land Dan was the last of the tribes to receive his portion, and that portion, according to the record of Joshua, strange as it appears in the face of the numbers just quoted, was the smallest of the twelve (Josh. xix. 48). But I 2 DAN 116 DANCE notwithstanding its smallness it had eminent natural advantages. On the north and east it was completely embraced by its two brother- tribes Ephraim and Benjamin, while on the south-east and south it joined Judah, and was thus surrounded by the three most pcwerful states of the whole confederacy. Frorr. Japho — afterwards Joppa, and now Yafa — on the north, to Ekron and Gathrimmon on the south, a length of at least 14 miles, that noble tract, one of the most fertile in the whole of Pales- tine, was allotted to this tribe. But this rich district, the corn-field and the garden of the whole bjuth of Palestine, was too valuable to be given up without a struggle by its original possessors. The Amorites accordingly " forced the children of Dan into the mountain, for they would not suffer them to come down into the valley" (Judg. i. 34). With the help of Ephraim, Dan prevailed against the Amorites for a time, but in a few years the Philistines took the place of the Amorites and with the same result. These considerations enable us to understand how it happened that long after the partition of the land all the inheritance of the Danites had not fallen to them among the tribes of Israel (Judg. xviii. 1). They also explain the warlike and independent charac- ter of the tribe betokened in the name of their head-quarters Mahaneh-Dan, " the camp, or host of Dan," in the fact specially insisted on and reiterated (xviii. 11, 16, 17) of the com- plete equipment of their 600 warriors " ap- pointed with weapons of war," — and the law- less freebooting style of their behaviour to Micah. In the " security " and " quiet " (Judg. xviii. 7, 10) of their rich northern possession the Danites enjoyed the leisure and repose which had been denied them in their original seat. But of the fate of the city to which they gave " the name of their father " (Josh. xix. 47) we know scarcely anything. In the time of David Dan still kept its place among the tribes (1 Chr. xii. 35). Asher is omitted, but the " prince of the tribe of Dan " is mentioned in the list of 1 Chr. xxvii. 22. But from this time forward the name as ap- plied to the tribe vanfshes ; it is kept alive only by the northern city. In the genealogies of 1 Chr. ii.-xii. Dan is omitted entirely. Lastly, Dan is omitted from the list of those who were sealed by the Angel in the vision of St. John (Rev. vii. 5-7).— 2. The well- known city, so familiar as the most northern landmark of Palestine, in the common ex- pression " from Dan even to Beersheba." The name of the place was originally Laish or Leshkm (Josh. xix. 47). Its inhabitants lived "after the manner of the Zidonians," i.e. engaged in commerce, and without defence. Living thus " quiet and secure,'' they fell an easy prey to the active and practised free- booters of the Danites. They conferred upon their new acquisition the name of their ow» tribe, " after the name of their father who was born unto Israel " (Judg. xviii. 29 ; Josh, xix. 47), and Laish became Dan. After the establishment of the Danites at Dan it became the acknowledged extremity of the country. Dan was, with other northern cities, laid waste by Benhadad (1 K. xv. 20 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 4), and this is the last mention of the place. With regard to the mention of Dan in Gen. xiv. 14 it is probable that the passage origin- ally contained an older name, as Laish ; and that when that was superseded by Dan, the new name was inserted in the MSS. The Tell el-Kadi, a mound from the foot of which gushes out one of the largest fountains in the world, the main source of the Jordan, is very probably the site of the town and citadel of Dan. The spring is called el Ledddn, possibly a corruption of Dan, and the stream from the spring Nahr ed Dhcin, while the name. Tell el Kadi, " the Judge's mound," agi-ees in signification with the ancient name. — 3. Ap- parently the name of a city, associated with Javan, as one of the places in Southern Arabia from which the Phoenicians obtained wrought iron, cassia, and calamus (Ez. xxvii. 19). DANCE. The dance is spoken of in Holy Scripture universally as symbolical of some rejoicing, and is often coupled for the sake of contrast with mourning, as in Eccl. iii. 4 (comp. Ps. XXX. 11 ; Matt. xi. 17). In the earlier period it is found combined with some song or refrain (Ex. xv. 20, xxxii. 18, 19 ; 1 Sam. xxi. 11) ; and with the tambourine (A.V. " timbrel "), more especially in those impulsive outbursts of popular feeling which cannot find sufficient vent in voice or in gesture singly. Dancing formed a part of the religious ceremonies of the Egyptians, and was also common in private entertain- ments. The " feast unto the Lord," which Moses proposed to Pharaoh to hold, was really a dance. Women, however, among the Hebrews made the dance their especial means of expressing their feelings ; and so welcomed their husbands or friends on their return from battle. The " eating and drink- ing and dancing" of the Amalekites is recorded, as is the people's "rising up to play," with a tacit censure. The Hebrews, however, save in such moments of tempta- tion, seem to have .eft dancing to the women. But more especially, on such occasions of triumph, any woman whose nearness of kin to tlie champion of the moment gave her a public character among her own sex, seems to have felt that it was ber part to lead such a demonstration of triumph, or of welcome DANCE 117 DANIEL, THE BOOK OF (Ex. XV. 20; Judg. xi. 34). This marks the peculiarity of David's conduct, when, on the return of the Ark of God from its long sojourn among strangers and borderers, he (2 Sam. vi. 5-22) was himself the leader of the dance ; and here too the women, with their timbrels (see especially vv. 5, 19, 20, 22), took an important share. This fact brings out more markedly the feelings of Saul's daughter Michal, keeping aloof from the occasion, and " looking through a win- dow " at the scene. She should, in accord- ance with the examples of Miriam, &c., have herself led the female choir, and so come out to meet the Ark and her lord. She stays with the " household " (ver. 20), and " comes out to meet " him with reproaches, perhaps feeling that his zeal was a rebuke to her apathy. From the mention of " damsels," "timbrels," and "dances" (Ps. Ixviii. 25, cxlix. 3, cl. 4), as elements of religious wor- ship, it may perhaps be inferred that David's feeling led him to incorporate in its rites that popular mode of festive celebration. In the earlier period of the Judges the dances of the virgins in Shiloh (Judg. xxi. 19-23) were certainly part of a religious festivity. Danc- ing also had its place among merely festive amusements apart from any religious cha- racter (Jer. xxxi. 4, 13 ; Lam. v. 15 ; Mark vi. 22 ; Luke xv. 25). DANCE. By this word is rendered in the A. V. the Hebrew term, machol, a musical instrument of percussion, supposed to have been used by the Hebrews at an early period of their history. In the grand Hallelujah Psalm (cl.) which closes that magnificent collection, the sacred poet exhorts mankind to praise Jehovah in His sanctuary with all kinds of music ; and amongst the instruments mentioned at the 3rd, 4th, and 5th verses is found machol. It is generally believed to have been made of metal, open like a ring : Musical Instrumenta. Dance. (Mendelssohn). it had many small bells attached to its border, and was plaj'ed at weddings and merry- making by women, who accompanied it with the voice. D.\N'IEL. — 1. The second son of David by Abigail the Carmelitess (1 Chr. iii. 1). In 2 Sam. iii. 3, he is called CMleab. — 2. The fourth of " the greater prophets." Nothing is known of his parentage or familj\ He appears, however, to have been of royal or noble descent (Dan. i. 3), and to have possessed considerable personal endowments (Dan. i. 4). He was taken to Babylon in "the third year of Jehoiakim" (b.c. 604), and trained for the king's service with his three companions. Like Joseph in earlier times, he gained the favour of his guardian, and was divinely supported in his resolve ta abstain from the " king's meat " for fear of defilement (Dan. i. 8-16). At the close of his three years' discipline (Dan. i. 5, 18), Daniel had an opportunity of exercising his peculiar gift (Dan. i. 17) of interpreting dreams, on the occasion of Nebuchadnezzar's decree against the Magi (Dan. ii. 14 ff.). In con- sequence of his success he was made " ruler of the whole province of Babylon," and " chief of the governors over all the wise men of Babylon " (ii. 48). He afterwards interpreted the second dream of Nebuchad- nezzar (iv. 8-27), and the handwriting on the wall which disturbed the feast of Bel- shazzar (v. 10-28) though he no longer held his official position among the magi (Dan. v. 7, 8, 12), and probably lived at Susa (Dan. viii. 2). At the accession of Darius he was made first of the " three presidents " of the empire (Dan. vi. 2), and was delivered from the lions' den, into which he had been cast for his faithfulness to the rites of his faith (vi. 10-23 ; cf. Bel and Dr. 29-42). At the accession of Cyrus he still retained his pro- sperity (vi. 28 ; cf. i. 21 ; Bel and Dr. 2): though he does not appear to have remained at Babylon (cf. Dan. i. 21), and in "the third year of Cyrus" (b.c. 534) he saw his last recorded vision on the banks of the Tigris (x. 1,4). In the prophecies of Ezekiel mention is made of Daniel as a pattern of righteousness (xiv. 14, 20) and wisdom (xxviii. 3) ; and since Daniel was still young at that time (cii'c. b.c. 588-584), some have thought that another prophet of the name must have lived at some earlier time, perhaps during the captivity of Nineveh, whose fame was transferred to his later namesake. On the other hand the narrative in Dan. i. H, implies that Daniel was conspicuously distin- guished for purity and knowledge at a very early age (cf. Hist. Sus. 45), and he may have been nearly forty years old at the time of Ezekiel's prophecy. DAN'IEL, THE BOOK OF, is the earliest example of apocalyptic literature, and in a great degree the model according to wh'ch all later apocalypses were constructed. In DANIEL, THE BOOK Of 118 DARIC this as])ect it stands at the head of a series of writings in which the deepest thoughts of the Jewish people found expression after the close of the prophetic era. The language of the book, no less than its general form, belongs to an era of transition. Like the book of Ezra, Daniel is composed partly in the ver- nacular Aramaic (Chaldee), and partly in the sacred Hebrew. The introduction (i.-ii. 4 a) is written in Hebrew. On the occasion of the " Syriac " (i. e. Aramaic) answer of the Chaldaeans, the language changes to Aramaic, and this is retained till the close of the seventh chapter (ii. 4 b — vii.). The personal introduction of Daniel as the writer of the text (viii. 1) is marked by the resump- tion of the Hebrew, which continues to the close of the book (viii. — xii.). The use of Greek technical terms marks a period when commerce had already united Persia and Greece. — The book may be divided into three parts. The first chapter forms an introduc- tion. The next six chapters (ii.-vii.) give a general view of the progressive history of the powers of the world, and of the principles of the divine government as seen in events of the life of Daniel. The i-emainder of the book (viii.-xii.) traces in minuter detail the fortunes of the people of God, as typical of the fortunes of the Church in all ages. — The unity of the book in its present form, not- withstanding the difference of language, is generally acknowledged. Still there is a remarkable difference in its internal cha- I'acter. In the first seven chapters Daniel is spoken of historically (i. 6-21, ii. 14-49, iv. 8-27, V. 13 29. vi. 2-28, vii. 1, 2) : in the last five he appears personally as the writer (vii. lf'.28, viii. 1-ix. 22, x. 1-9, xiL 5). The cause of the difference of person is commonly supposed to lie in the nature of the case. It is, however, more probable that the peculiarity arose from the manner in which the book assumed its final shape. The book exercised a great influence upon the Christian Church. Apart from the general type of Apocalyptic composition which the Apostolic writers derived from Daniel (2 Thess. ii. ; Rev. ^«ss«« : cf. Matt. xxvi. 64, xxi. 44?), the New Testament incidentally acknowledges each of the characteristic elements of the book, its miracles (Hebr. xi. 33, 34), its pre- dictions (Matt. xxiv. 15), and its doctrine of angels (Luke i. 19, 26). At a still earlier time the same influence may be traced in the Apocrypha. — The authenticity of the book has been attacked in modern times, and its composition ascribed to the times of the Maccabees : but in doctrine the book is closely connected with the writings of the Exile, and forms a last step in the development of the ideas of Messiah (vii. 13, &c,), of the resurrection (xii. 2, 3), of the ministry of angels (viii. 16, xii. I, &c.), of personal devotion (vi. 10, 11, i. 8), which formed the basis of later speculations, but received no essential addition in the interval before the coming of our Lord. Generally it may be said that while the book presents in many respects a startling and exceptional character, yet it is far more difficult to explain its com- position in the Maccabaean period than to connect the peculiarities which it exhibits with the exigencies of the Return. DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS TO. The Greek translations of Daniel, like that of Esther, contain several pieces which are not found in the original text. The most important of these additions are contained in the Apocrypha of the English Bible under the titles of The sony of the three Holy Children, The History of Susannah, and The History of . . . Bel and the Dragon. The flrst of these pieces is incorporated into the narrative of Daniel. After the three confessors were thrown into the furnace (Dan. iii. 23), Azarias is represented praying to God for deliverance (Song of Three Children, 3-22); and in answer the angel of the Lord shields them from the flre which consumes their enemies (23-27), whereupon "the three, as out of one mouth," raise a triumphant song (29-68), of which a chief part (35-66) has been used as a hymn in the Christian Church since the 4th century. The two other pieces appear more distinctly as appendices, and offer no semblance of forming part of the original text. The History of Susannah (or The judgment of Daniel) is generally found at the beginning of the book, though it also occurs after the 12 th chapter. The History of Bel and the Dragon is placed at the end of the book. The character of these additions indicates the hand of an Alexandrine writer ; and it is not unlikely that the translator of Daniel wrought up traditions which were already current, and appended them to his work. DARIC (A. V. "dram ;» Ezr. ii. 69 ; viiL 27 ; Neh. vii. 70, 71, 72 ; 1 Chr. xxix. 7), a gold coin current in Palestine in the period after the return from Babylon. At these times there was no large issue of gold money except by the Persian kings. The Darica DARIUS 119 DAVID which have heen discovered are thick pieces of pure gold, of archaic style, bearing on the obverse the figure of a king with bow and javelin, or bow and dagger, and on the reverse an irregular incuse square. DARI'US, the name of several kings of Media and Persia. Three kings bearing this name are mentioned in the O. T. —1. Darius the Mede (Dan. xi. 1, vi. 1), "the son of Ahasuerus of the seed of the Medes" (ix. 1), who succeeded to the Babylonian kingdom on the death of Belshazzar, being then sixty-two years old (Dan. v. 31 ; ix. 1). Only one year of his reign is mentioned (Dan. ix. 1, xi. 1) ; but that was of great importance for the Jews. Daniel was advanced by the king to the highest dignity (Dan. vi. 1 ff.), probably in consequence of his former services (cf. Dan. V. 17); and after his miraculous deliverance, Darius issued a decree enjoining throughout his dominions " revei-ence for the God of Daniel" (Dan. vi. 25 ff.). The extreme obscurity of the Babylonian annals has given occasion to different hypotheses as to the name under which Darius the Mede is known in history ; but he is probably the same as " Astyages," the last king of the Medes. — 2. Darius the son of Hystaspes the founder of the Perso-Arian dynasty. Upon the usurpation of the Magian Smerdis, he conspired with six other Persian chiefs to overthrow the impostor, and on the success of the plot was placed upon the throne, b.c. 521. His designs of foreign conquest were interrupted by a revolt of the Babylonians. After the subjugation of Babylon Darius turned his arms against Scythia, Libya, and India. The defeat of Marathon (b.c 490) only roused him to prepare vigorously for that decisive struggle with the West which was now inevitable. His plans were again thwarted by rebellion. With regard to the Jews, Darius Hystaspes pursued the same policy as Cyrus, and restored to them the privileges which they had lost (Ezr. v. 1, &c. ; vi. 1, &c.).— 3. Darius the Persian (Neh. xii. 22), may be identified with Da- nus II. Nothus (Ochus), king of Persia b.c. 424-3 — 405-4, if the Avhole passage in ques- tion was written by Nehemiah. If, however, th' register was continued to a later time, as is not impi-obable, the occurrence of the name Jaddua (vv. 11, 22), points to Darius III. Codomanmis, the antagonist of Alex- ander, and last king of Persia b.c. 336-330 (1 Mace. i. 1). DARKNESS is spoken of as encompassing the actual presence of God, as that out of which He speaks, the envelope, as it were, of Divine glory (Ex. xx. 21 ; IK. viii. 12). The plague of Darkness in Egypt has been ascribed by various commentators to non- miraculous agency, but no sufficient account of its intense degree, long duration, and limited area, as proceeding from any physical cause, has been given. The darkness " over all the land " (Matt, xxvii. 45) attending tlie crucifixion has been similarly attributed to an eclipse. Phlegon of Tralles indeed men- tions an eclipse of intense darkness, which began at noon, and was combined, he says, in Bithynia, with an earthquake, which in the uncertain state of our chronology more or less nearly synchronises with the event. Darkness is also, as in the expression " land of dai-kness," used for the state of the dead (Job x. 21, 22) ; and frequently figu rati velj', for ignorance and unbelief, as the privation of spiritual light (John i. 5, iii. 19). DATES, 2 Chr. xxxi. 5 marg. [Palm Tree.] DA'THAN, a Reubenite chieftain, son of Eliab, who joined the conspiracy of Ivor ah the Levite (Num. xvi. I, xxvi, 9 ; Deut. xi. 6 ; Ps. cvi. 17). DAUGHTER. 1. The word is used in Scripture not only for daughter, but for granddaughter or other female descendant, much in the same way and like extent with "son" (Gen. xxiv. 48, xxxi. 43).— 2. The female inhabitants of a place, a country, or the females of a particular race ai-e called daughters (Gen. vi. 2, xxvii. 46, xxviii. 6, xxxvi. 2 ; Num. xxv. I ; Deut. xxiii. 17 ; Is. iii. 16 ; Jer. xlvi. 11, xlix. 2, 3, 4 ; Luke xxiii. 28).— 3. The same notion of descent explains the phrase " daughters of music," i. e, singing birds (Eccl. xii. 4), and the use of the word for branches of a tree (Gen. xlix. 22), the pupil of the eye (Lam. ii. 18 ; Ps. xvii. 8), and the expression " daughter of 90 years," to denote the age of Sarah (Gen. xvii. 17. — 4. It is also used of cities in general, Is. X. 32, xxiii. 12 ; Jer. vi. 2, 26 ; Zech. ix. 9). — 5. But more specifically of dependent towns or hamlets, while to the principal city the correlative " mother " is applied (Num. xxi. 25 ; Josh. xvii. II, 16 ; Judg. i. 27 ; 1 Chr. vii. 28 ; 2 Sam. xx. 19). DAVID, the son of Jesse. His life may be divided into three portions : — I. His youth before his introduction to the court of Saul. II. His relations with Saul. III. His reign. — I. The early life of David contains in many important respects the antecedents of his future career. I. His family may best be seen in the form of a genealogy. It thus appears that David was the youngest son, probably the youngest child, of a family of. ten. His mother's name is unknown. His father, Jesse, was of a great age when David was still young (1 Sam. xvii. 12). His DAVID 120 DAVID parents botli lived till after his final rupture with Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 3). Through them David inherited several points which he never lost, [a] His connexion with Moab through his great-grandmother Ruth. This he kept up when he escaped to Moab and entrusted his aged parents to the care of the king (1 Sam. xxii. 3). {b) His birthplace, Bethlehem. His recollection of the well of Bethlehem is one of the most touching incidents of his later life (1 Chr. xi. 17), and it is his connexion with it that brought the place again in after times into universal fame (Luke ii. 4). (c) His general connexion with the tribe of Judah. [d) His relations to Zeruiah and Abigail. Though called in 1 Chr. ii. 16, sisters of David, they are not expressly called the daughters of Jesse ; and Abigail, in 2 Sam. xvii. 25, is called the daughter of Nahash. Is it too much to suppose that David's mother had been the wife or concubine of Nahash, and then married by Jesse ? 2. As the youngest of the family he may possibly have received from his parents the name, which first appears in him, oi ^avid the beloved, the darling. Perhaps for this same reason he was never intimate with his brethren. The familiarity which he lost with his brothers he gained with his nephews. The three sons of his sister Zeruiah, and the one son of his sister Abigail, were probably of the same age as David himself, and they accordingly were to him throughout life in the relation usually occupied by brothers and cousins. The two sons of his brother Shimeah are both con- nected with his after history. One was Jonadab, the friend and adviser of his eldest son Amnon (2 Sam. xiii. 3). The other was Jonathan (2 Sam. xxi. 21), who afterwards became the counsellor of David himself (1 Chr. xxvii. 32). The first time that David appears in history at once admits us to the whole family circle. There was a practice once a year at Bethlehem, probably at the first new moon of the year, of holding a sacrificial feast, at which Jesse, as the chief proprietor of the place, would preside (1 Sam. xx. 6), with the elders of the town. At this or such like feast (xvi. 1) suddenly appeared the great prophet Samuel, driving a heifer before him, and having in his hand a horn of the consecrated oil of the Tabernacle. The heifer was killed. The party were waiting to begin the feast. Samuel stood with his horn to pour forth the oil, as if for an invi- tation to begin (Comp. ix. 22). He was restrained by divine intimation as son after son passed by. Eliab, the eldest, by " his height " and " his countenance," seemed the natural counterpart of Saul, whose rival, unknown to them, the prophet came to select. But the day was gone when kings were chosen because they were head and shoulders taller than the rest. " Samuel said unto Jesse, Are these all thy children ? And he said. There remaineth yet the youngest, and behold he keepeth the sheep." This is our first and most characteristic introduction to the future king. The boy was brought in. We are enabled to fix his appearance at once in our minds. He was of short stature, with red or auburn hair, such as is not un- frequently seen in his countrymen of the East at the present day. In later life he wore a beard. His bright eyes are especially mentioned (xvi. 12), and generally he was remarkable for the grace of his figure and coiintenance (" fair of eyes," " comely," "goodly," xvi. 12, 18, xvii. 42), well made, and of immense strength and agility. His swiftness and activity made him (like his nephew Asahel) like a wild gazelle, his feet like hart's feet, and his arms strong enough (2 Sam. x^ Zoruiah (iChr. ii. 16). Abishai. Joab. Salmon or Salmah (Ruth IV. 21, I Chr. li. U). Boaz = Ruth = M ah Ion. (Ruth iv. 10), Elimelech = Naomi (Kuth i. 1), Chilion = Orpan Obed (Rutli IV. 17). I . 25) Naha8h=unknown=Jesse. I I Jonjithan (1 Chr. : Abigail : Jether (1 Chr. Asahel. I Zebadiah (1 Chr. xxvii. 7). = Ira»? Eliab, (Jerome, Elihu Qu. Heb. (1 Chr. on 1 Chr. xxvii. xi. 40). 18). Abihail=Rehoboam : C hr. xi i ). Abin- adab. Shammah, Ncthan- Raddai Ozem (one DAVFD. Shimmah, eel. (Kael, (Asam, is not Shimeah Jos. Ant Jos. Ant. given, (i Sam. vi. 8. 1. vi. 8. 1). unless xxi. 21). Rei, Ewald.) Elihu, I Syr. and Arabt Jonathan (2 Sam. xxi. 21 ; 1 Chr. xxvii. 32). (Nathan ? ? Jer. Qu. Heb. oo 1 Sam. xvi. 12) Jonadab (2 Sam. xiii. 3). Joel? (Jerome, Qu Heb on 1 Chr. XI. 3a). I Chr. ii. 15). DAVID 121 DAVID to break a bow of steel (Ps. xviii. 33, '64). He was pursuing the occupation allotted in Eastern countries usually to the slaves, the females, or the despised of the family. He usually carried a switch or wand in his hand (1 Sam. xvii. 40), such as would be used for his dotrs (xvii. 43), and a scrip or wallet round his neck, to carry anything that was needed for his shepherd's life (xvii. 43). 3. But there was another preparation still more needed for his office, which is his next intro- duction to the history. When the body- guard of Saul were discussing with their master where the best minstrel could be found to chase away his madness by music, one of the young men in the guard suggested David. Saul, with the absolute control inherent in the idea of an Oriental king, instantly sent for him, and in the successful effort of David's harp we have the first glimpse into that genius for music and poetry which was afterwards consecrated in the Psalms. 4. One incident alone of his solitary shepherd life has come down to us — his conflict with the lion and the bear in defence of his father's flocks (1 Sam. xvii. 34, 35). But it did not stand alone. He was already known to Saul's guards for his martial exploits, probably against the Philis- tines (xvi. 18), and, when he suddenly appeared in the camp, his elder brother immediately guessed that he had left the sheep in his ardour to see the battle (xvii. 28). The scene of the battle is at Ephes- DAMMiM, in the frontier-hills of Judah, called probably from this or similar encounters " the bound of blood." Saul's army is encamped on one side of the ravine, the Philistines on the other, the watercourse of Elah or " the Terebinth " runs between them. A Philistine of gigantic stature, and clothed in complete armour, insults the com- paratively defenceless Israelites, amongst whom the king alone appears to be well armed (xvii. 38 ; comp. xiii. 20). No one can be found to take up the challenge. At this juncture David appears in the camp. Just as he comes to the circle of waggons which formed, as in Arab settlements, a rude fortification round the Israelite camp (xvii. 20), he hears the well-known shout of the Israelite war-cry (comp. Num. xxiii. 21). The martial spirit of the boy is stirred at the sound ; he leaves his provisions with the baggage-master, and darts to join his brothers, like one of the royal messengers, into the midst of the lines. Then he hears the challenge, now made for the fortieth time — sees the dismay of his countrymen — hears the reward px-oposed by the king — goes with the impetuosity of youth from soldier to soldier talking of the event, in spite of his brother's rebuke — is introduced to Saul — undertakes the combat. His victory over the gigantic Philistine is rendered more con- spicuous by his own diminutive stature, and by the simple weapons with which it was accomplished— not the armour of Saul, which he naturally found too large, but the shep- herd's sling, which he always carried with him, and the five polished pebbles which he picked up as he went from the watercourse of the valley, and put in his shepherd's wallet. Two trophies long remained of the battle — one, the huge sword of the Philistine, which was hung up behind the ephod in the Tabernacle at Nob (1 Sam. xxi. 9); the other, the head, which he bore away himself, and which was either laid up at Nob, or subsequently at Jerusalem.— IT. Belatiotis with Saul. — We now enter on a new aspect of David's life. The victory over Goliath had been a turning point of his career. Saul inquired his parentage, and took him finally to his court. Jonathan was inspired by the romantic friendship which bound the two youths together to the end of their lives. The triumphant songs of the Israelitish women announced that they felt that in him Israel had now found a deliverer mightier even than Saul. And in those songs, and in the fame which David thus acquired, was laid the foundation of that unhappy jealousy of Saul towards him which, mingling with the king's constitutional malady, poisoned his whole future relations to David. Three new qualities now began to develop themselves in David's character. The first was his prudence. Secondly, we now see his magnanimous for- bearance called forth, in the first instance, towards Saul, but displaying itself (with a few painful exceptions) in the rest of his life. Thirdly, his hairbreadth escapes, continued through so many years, impressed upon him a sense of dependence on the Divine help, clearly derived from this epoch. This course of life subdivides itself into four portions : — 1. His life at the court of Saul till his final escape (1 Sam. xviii. 2-xix. 18). His office is not exactly defined. But it would seem that, having been first armour-bearer (xvi. 21, xviii. 2), then made captain over a thou- sand— the subdivision of a tribe — (xviii. 13), he finally, on his marriage with Michal, the king's second daughter, was raised to the high office of captain of the king's body- guard, second only, if not equal, to Abner, the captain of the host, and Jonathan, the heir apparent. These three formed the usual companions of the king at his meals (xx. 25). David was now chiefly known for his suc- cessful exploits against the Philistines, by DAVIE 122 DAVID one of -whfsh he won his wife, and drove back the Philistine power with a blow from which it only rallied at the disastrous close of Saul's reign. He also still performed from time to time the office of minstrel. But the 8uc« ceSsive snares laid bj' Saul to entrap him, and the open violence into which the king's madness twice broke out, at last convinced him that his life was no longer safe. He had two faithful allies, however, in the court — the son of Saul, his friend Jonathan — the daughter of Saul, his wife Michal. Warned by the one, and assisted by the other, he escaped by night, and was from thenceforward a fugitive. Jonathan he never saw again except by stealth. Michal was given in mar- riage to another (Phaltiel), and he saw her no more till long after her father's death. 2. His escape (1 Sam. xix. 18-xxi. 15). He first fled to Naioth (or the pastures) of Ramah, to Samuel. This is the first recorded occasion of his meeting with Samuel since the original interview during his boyhood at Bethlehem. Up to this time both the king and himself had thought that a reunion was possible (see XX. 5, 26). But the madness of Saul now became more settled and ferocious in character, and David's danger proportionably greater. The secret interview Avith Jonathan confirmed the alarm already excited by Saul's endeavour to seize him at Ramah, and he now determined to leave his country, and take refuge, like Coriolanus, or Themistocles in like circumstances, in the court of his enemy. Before this last resolve, he visited Nob, the seat of the tabirnacle, partly to obtain a final interview with the high-priest (1 Sam. xxii. 9, 15), partly to obtain food and weapons. On the pretext of a secret mission from Saul, he gained an answer from the oracle, some of the consecrated loaves, and the consecrated sword of Goliath. His stay at the court of Achish was short. Dis- covered possibly by " the sword of Goliath," his presence revived the national e^nmity of the Philistines against their former con- queror, and he only escaped by feigning mad- ness (1 Sam. xxi. 13). 3. His life as an in- dependent outlaw (xxii. 1-xxvi. 25). (a) His first retreat was the cave of AdiiUam, pro- bably the large cavern, not far from Bethle- hem now called Khureitiln. From its vicinity to Bethlehem, he was joined there by his whole family, now feeling themselves insecure from Saul's fury (xxii. 1). This was pro- bably the foundation of his intimate connexion with bis nephews, the sons of Zeruiah. (b) His next move was to a stronghold, either the mountain, afterwards called Herodium, close to Adullam,or the fastness called by Josephus Masada, the Grecised form of the Hebrew word Matzed (1 Sam. xxii. 4, 5 ; 1 Chr. xii. 16), in the neighbourhood of En-gedi, Whilst there he had deposited his aged parents, for the sake of greater security, be- yond the Jordan, with their ancestral kinsman of Moab (ib. 3). The neighbouring king, Nahash of Amnion, also treated him kindly (2 Sam. x. 2). Here occurred the chivalrous exploit of the three heroes just mentioned to procure water from the well of Bethlehem, and David's chivalrous answer, like that of Alexander in the desert of Gedrosia (I Chr. xi. 16-19; 2 Sam. xxiii. 14-17). He was joined here by two separate bands. One a little body of eleven fierce Gadite moun- taineers, who swam the Jordan in flood-time to reach him (1 Chr. xii. 8). Another was a detachment of men from Judah and Ben- jamin under his nephew Amasai, who hence- forth attached himself to David's fortunes (1 Chr. xii. 16-18). (c) At the warning of Gad, he fled to the forest of Ilareth, and then again fell in with the Philistines, and again, apparently advised by Gad (xxiii. 4), made a descent on their foraging parties, and relieved Keilah, in which he took up his abode. Whilst there, now for the first time in a fortified town of his own (xxiii. 7), he was joined by a new and most important ally — Abiathar, the last survivor of the house of Ithamar. By this time the 400 who had joined him at AduUam (xxii. 2) had swelled to 600 (xxiii. 13). {d) The situation of David was now changed by the appearance of Saul himself on the scene. Apparently the danger was too great for the little army to keep together. They escaped from Keilah, and dispersed, " whithersoever they could go," among the fastnesses of Judah. Hence- forth it becomes difficult to follow his move- ments with exactness. But thus much we discern. He is in the wilderness of Ziph. Once (or twice) the Ziphites beti-ay his move- ments to Saul. From thence Saul literally hunts him like a partridge, the treacherous Ziphites beating the bushes before him, and 3000 men, stationed to catch even the print of his footsteps on the hills (1 Sam. xxiii. 14, 22, xxiv. 11, xxvi. 2, 20). David finds himself driven to the extreme south of Judan, in the wilderness of Maon. On two, if not three occasions, the pursuer and pursued catch sight of each other (1 Sam. xxiii. 25-29, xxiv. 1-22, xxvi.). Whilst he was in the wilderness of Maon occurred David's ad- venture with Nabal, instructive as showing his mode of carrying on the freebooter's life, and his marriage with Abigail. His marriage with Ahinoam from Jezreel, also in the same neighbourhood (Josh. xv. 56), seems to have taken place a short time before (1 Sam. xxv. 123 DAVID 43, xxvii. 3 ; 2 Sam. iii. 2). 4. His service under Achish (1 Sam. xxvii. 1 ; 2 Sam. i. 27). Weai'ied with his "wandering: life he at last crosses the Philistine frontier, not, as before, in the capacity of a fugitive, but the chief of a powerful band — his 600 men now grown into an organised force, with their wives and families around them fxxvii. 3, 4). After the manner of Eastern potentates, Achish gave him, for his support, a city — Ziklag on the frontier of Philistia (xxvii. 6). There we meet with the first note of time in David's life. He vas settled there for a yea?- and four months (xxvii. 7), and a body of Ben- jamite archers and slingers, twenty-two of whom are specially named, joined him from the vei-y tribe of his rival (1 Chr. xii. 1-7). He deceived Achish into confidence by attack- ing the old Nomadic inhabitants of the desert frontier, and representing the plunder to be of portions of the soutiiern tribes or the Nomadic allied tribes of Israel. But this confidence was not shared by the Philistine nobles, and accordingly David was sent back by Achish from the last victorious campaign against Saul. During his absence the Be- douin Amalekites, whom he had plundered during the previous year, had made a descent upon Ziklag, burnt it to the ground, and carried off the wives and children of the new settlement. A wild scene of frantic grief and recrimination ensued between David and his followers. It was calmed by an oracle of assurance from Abiathar. Assisted by the Manassites who 'had joined him on the march to Gilboa (1 Chr. xii. 19-21), he overtook the invaders in the desert, and recovered the spoil (I Sam. xxx.). Two days after this victory a Bedouin arrived from the north with the fatal news of the death at Gilboa. The reception of the tidings of the death of his rival and of his friend, the solemn mourn- ing, the vent of his indignation against the bearer of the message, the pathetic lamenta- tion that followed, will close the second period of David's life (2 Sam. i. 1-27).— III. Lavid's reign. — (I.) As king of Judah at Hebron, 7| years (2 Sam. ii. 1-v. 5). Hebron was selected, doubtless, as the ancient sacred city of the tribe of Judah, the burial-place of the patriarchs and the inheritance of Caleb. Here David was first formally anointed king (2 Sam. ii. 4). To Judah his dominion was nominally confined. Gradually his power increased, and during the two years which followed the elevation of Ishbosheth a series of skirmishes took place between the two kingdoms. Then rapidly followed, though without David's con- sent, the successive murders of Abnkr and of Ishbosheth (2 Sam. iii. 30, iv. 5). The throne, so long waiting for him, was now vacant, and the united voice of the whole people at once called him to occupy it. A solemn league was made between him and his people (2 Sam. v. 3). For the third time David was anointed king, and a festival of three days celebrated the joyful event (1 Chr. xii. 39). His little band had now swelled into " a great host, like the host of God " (1 Chr. xii. 22). The command of it, which had formerly rested on David alone, he now devolved on his nephew Joab (2 Sam. ii. 28). (II.) Reign over all Israel, 33 years (2 Sam. V. 5 to 1 K. ii. 11). (1) The foundation of Jerusalem. One fastness alone in the centre of the land had hitherto defied the arms of Israel. On this, with a singular prescience, David fixed as his future capital. By one sudden assault Jehus was taken. The reward bestowed on the successful scaler of the pre- cipice was the highest place in the army. Joab heneefoi-ward became captain of the host (1 Chr. xi. 6). The royal residence was instantly fixed there — fortifications were added by the king and by Joab — and it was known by the special name of the " city of David" (1 Chr. xi. 7; 2 Sam. v. 9). The Philistines made two inefi'ectual attacks on the new king (2 Sam. v. 17-20), and a retri- bution on their former victories took place by the capture and conflagration of their own idols (1 Chr. xiv. 12). Tyre, now for the first time appearing in the sacred history, allied herself with Israel ; and Hiram sent cedarwood for the buildings of the new capital (2 Sam. V. 11), especially for the palace of David himself (2 Sam. vii. 2). Unhallowed and profane as the city had been before, it was at once elevated to a sanctity which it has never lost, above any of the ancient sanc- tuaries of the land. The ark was now re- moved from its obscurity at Kirjath-jearim with marked solemnity. A temporary halt (owing to the death of Uzza) detained it at Obed-edom's house, after which it again moved forward with great state to Jerusalem. It was the greatest day of David's life. One incident only tarnished its splendour — the reproach of Michal, his wife, as he was finally entering his own palace, to carry to his own household the benediction which he had already pronounced on his people. His act of severity towards lier was an additional mark of the stress which he himself laid on the solemnity (2 Sam. vi. 20-23 ; 1 Chr. xv. 29). ( 2 ) Foundation of the Court and Empire of Israel, 2 Sam. viii. to xii. The erection of the new capital at Jerusalem introduces us to a new era in David's life and in the history of the monarchy. He became a king on the scale of the great Oriental sovereigns of Egypt and Persia, with a regular administration and DAVID 124 DAVID organization of court and camp ; and he also founded an imperial dominion which for the first time realised the prophetic description of the bounds of the chosen people (Gen. xv. 18-21). The internal organization now esta- blished lasted till the final overthrow of the monarchy. The empire was of much shorter duration, continuing only through the reigns of David and his successor Solomon. But, for the period of its existence, it lent a peculiar character to the sacred history, (a) In the internal organization of the king- dom the first new element that has to be con- sidered is the royal family, the dynasty, of which David was the founder, a position which entitled him to the name of " Patri- arch " (Acts ii. 29), and (ultimately) of the an- cestor of the Messiah. Of these, Absalom and Adonijah both inherited their father's beauty (2 Sam. xiv. 25 ; 1 K. i. 6) ; but Solomon alone possessed any of his higher qualities. It was from a union of the children of Solomon and Absalom that the royal line was carried on (1 K. xv. 2). David's strong parental affection for all of them is very re- markable (2 Sam. xiii. 31, 33, 36, xiv. 33, xviii. 5, 33, xix. 4 ; 1 K. i. 6). (6) The military organization, which was in fact in- herited from Saul, but greatly developed by David, was as follows : (1) " The Host," i. e. the whole available military force of Israel, consisting of all males capable of bear- ing arms, and summoned only for war. There were 12 divisions of 24,000 each, who were held to be in duty month by month ; and over each of them presided an officer, selected for this purpose from the other military bodies formed by David (1 Chr. xxvii. 1-15). The army was still distinguished from those of surrounding nations by its primitive as- pect of a force of infantry without cavalry. The only innovations as yet allowed were the introduction of a very limited number of chariots (2 Sam. viii. 4) and of mules for the princes and officers instead of the asses (2 Sam. xiii. 29, xviii. 9). (2) The Body-guard. This also had existed in the court of Saul, and David himself had probably been its com- manding officer (1 Sam. xxii. 14). But it now assumed a peculiar organization. They were at least in name foreigners, as having been drawn from the Philistines, probably during David's residence at the court of Gath. They are usually called from this circum- stance *' Cherethites and Pelethites." The captain of the force was, however, not only not a foreigner, but an Israelite of the highest distinction and purest descent, who first ap- pears in this capacity, but who outlived David, and became the chief support of the throne of his son, namely Benaiah, son of the chief-priest Jehoiada, representative of the eldest branch of Aaron's house (2 Sam. viii. 18, XV. 18, XX. 23 ; 1 K. i. 38, 44). (3) The most peculiar military institution in David's army was that which arose out of the peculiar circumstances of his early life. The nucleus of what afterwards became the only standing army in David's forces was the band of 600 men who had gathered round him in his wanderings. The number of 600 was still preserved. It became yet farther subdivided into three large bands of 200 each, and small bands of 20 each. The small bands were commanded by 30 officers, one for each band, who together foi-med "the thirty," and the 3 large bands by 3 officers, who together formed " the three," and the whole by one chief, " the captain of the mighty men " (2 Sam. xxiii. 8-39; 1 Chr. xi. 9-47). The commander of the whole force was Abishai, David's nephew (1 Chr. xi. 20 ; and comp. 2 Sam. xvi. 9). (c) Side by side with this military organization were established social and moral institutions. Some were entirely for pastoral, agricultural, and financial pur- poses (1 Chr. xxvii. 25-31), others for judicial (1 Chr. xxvi. 29-32). Some few are named as constituting what would now be called the court, or council of the king ; the councillors, Ahithophel of Gilo, and Jonathan, the king's nephew (1 Chr. xxvii. 32, 33) ; the com- panion or "friend," Hushai (1 Chr. xxvii. 33; 2 Sam. xv. 37, xvi. 19); the scribe, Sheva, or Seraiah, and at one time Jonathan (2 Sam. XX. 25 ; 1 Chr. xxvii. 32) ; Jehosha- phat, the recorder or historian (2 Sam. xx. 24), and Adoram the tax-collector, both of whom survived him (2 Sam. xx. 24 ; IK. xii. 18, iv. 3, 6). But the more peculiar of David's institutions were those directly bear- ing on religion. Two prophets appear as the king's constant advisers. Of these, Gad, who seems to have been the elder, had been David's companion in exile ; and, from his being called " the seer," belongs probably to the earliest form of the pi-ophetic schools. Nathan, who appears for the first time after the esta- blishment of the kingdom of Jerusalem (2 Sara, vii. 2), is distinguished both by his title of "prophet," and by the nature of the pro- phecies which he utters (2 Sam. vii. 5-17, xii. 1-14), as of the purest type of prophetic dispensation, and as the hope of the new generation, which he supports in the person of Solomon (1 K. i.). Two high-priests also appear— repi-esentatives of the two rival houses of Aaron (1 Chr. xxiv. 3) ; here again, as in the case of the two prophets, one, Abia- thar, who attended him at Jerusalem, com- panion of his exile, and connected with the old time of the judges (1 Chr. xxvii. 34), DAVID 125 DAVID joining' him after the death of Saul, and be- coming afterwai-ds the support of his son ; the other Zadoc, who ministered at Gibeon (1 Chr. xvi. 39), fl^idwho was made the head of the Aaronic family (xxvii. 17). Besides these four great religious functionaries there were two classes of subordinates — prophets, specially instructed in singing and music, under Asaph, Heman the grandson of Samuel, and Jeduthun (1 Chr. xxv. 1-31) — Levites, or attendants on the sanctuary, who again were subdivided into the guardians of the gates and guax'dians of the treasures (1 Chr. xxvi. 1-28) which had been accumulated, since the re- establishment of the nation, by Samuel, Saul, Abner, Joab, and David himself (1 Chr. xxvi. 26-28). (fZ) From the internal state of David's kingdom we pass to its external re- lations. These will be found at length under the various countries to which they relate. It will be here only necessary to briefly indi- cate the enlargement of his dominions. Within ten years from the capture of Jerusalem, he had reduced to a state of permanent sub- jection the Philistines on the west (2 Sam. viii. 1) ; the Moabites on the east (2 Sam. viii.2),bytheexploitsof Benaiah(2 Sam.xxiii. 20) ; the SvraANs on the north-east as far as the Euphrates (2 Sam. viii. 3) ; the Edomites (2 Sam. viii. 14), on the south ; and finally the Ammonites, who had broken their ancient alliance, and made one grand resistance to the advance of his empire (2 Sam. x. 1-19, xii. 26-31). These three last wars were en- tangled with each other. The last and crown- ing point was the siege of Kabbah. (3) Three great calamities may be selected as marking the beginning, middle, and close of David's otherwise prosperous reign ; which appears to be intimated in the question of Gad (2 Sam. xxiv. 13), "a three years' famine, a three months' flight, or a three days' pestilence." («) Of these, the first (the three years' famine) introduces us to the last notices of David's relations with the house of Saul. There has often arisen a painful suspicion in later times, as there seems to have been at the time (xvi. 7), that the oracle, which gave as the cause of the famine Saul's massacre of tbe Gibeonites, may have been connected with the desire to extinguish the last remains of the fallen dynasty. But such an explanation is not needed. The massacre was probably tlie most recent national crime that had left any deep impression ; and the whole tenour of David's conduct towards Saul's family is of an opposite kind. (&) The second group of incidents contains the tragedy of David's life, which grew in all its parts out of the polj'gamy, with its evil consequences, into which he had plunged on becoming king. Underneath the splendour of his last glorious campaign against the Ammonites, was a dark story, known probably at that time only to a very few ; the double crime of adultery with Bathsheba, and of the virtual murder of Uriah. The crimes are undoubtedly those of a common Oriental despot. But the rebuke of Nathan ; the sudden revival of the king's conscience ; his grief for the sickness of the child ; the gathering of his uncles and elder brothers around him ; his return of hope and peace ; are characteristic of David, and of David only. But the clouds from this time gathered over David's fortunes, and hencefor- ward " the sword never departed from his house" (2 Sam. xii. 10). The outrage on his daughter Tamar ; the murder of his eldest son Amnon ; and then the revolt o'f his best- beloved Absalom, brought on the crisis which once more sent him forth a wanderer, as in the days when he fied from Saul ; and this, the heaviest trial of his life, was aggravated by the impetuosity of Joab, now perhaps^ from his complicity in David's crime, more unmanageable than ever. The rebellion was fostered apparently by the growing jealousy of the tribe of Judah at seeing their king ab- sorbed into the whole nation ; and if, as ap- pears from 2 Sam. xi. 3, xxiii. 34, Ahitho- phel was the grandfather of Bathsheba, its main supporter was one whom David had provoked by his own crimes. For its general course the reader is referred to the names just mentioned. Mahanaim was the capital of David's exile, as it had been of the exiled house of Saul (2 Sam. xvii. 24 ; comp. ii. 8, 12). His forces were arranged under the three great military officers who remained faithful to his fortunes — Joab, captain of the host ; Abishai, captain of " the mighty men ;" and Ittai, who seems to have taken the place of Benaiah as captain of the guard (2 Sam. xviii. 2). On Absalom's side was David's nephew Amasa (ib. xvii. 25). The final battle was fought in the " forest of Ephraim," which tei-minated in the accident leading to the death of Absalom. At this point the narrative resumes its minute detail. The return was marked at every stage by re- joicing and amnesty (2 Sam. xLx. 16-40; 1 K. ii. 7). Judah was first reconciled. The embers of the insurrection, still smouldering (2 Sam. xix. 41-43) in David's hereditary enemies of the tribe of Benjamin, were trampled out by the mixture of boldness and sagacity in Joab, now, after the murder of Amasa, once more in his old position. And David again reigned in undisturbed peace at Jerusalem (2 Sam. xx. 1-22). (c) The closing period of David's life, with the ex- ception of one great calamity, may be ecn- DAVID 126 DAY sidered as a gradual preparation for the reign of his successor. This calamity was the three days' pestilence which visited Jerusalem at the warning of the prophet Gad, The occa- sion which led to this warning was the census of the people taken by Joab at the king's orders (2 Sam. xxiv. 1-9 ; 1 Chr. xri. 1-7, xxvii. 23, 24). Joab's repugnance to the measure was such that he refused altogether to number Levi and Benjamin (1 Chr. xxi. 6). The plague and its cessation were commemo- rated down to the latest times of the Jewish nation. Outside the walls of Jerusalem, Araunah or Oman, a wealthy Jebusite — per- haps even the ancient king of Jebus (2 Sam. xxiv. 23) — possessed a threshing-floor ; there he and his sons were engaged in threshing the corn gathered in from the harvest (1 Chr. xxi. 20). At this spot an awful vision ap- peared, such as is described in the later days of Jerusalem, of the Angel of the Lord stretching out a drawn sword between earth and sky over the devoted city. The scene of such an apparition at such a moment was at once marked out for a sanctuary. David de- manded, and Araunah willingly granted, the site ; the altar was erected on the rock of the threshing-floor ; the place was called by the name of '' Moriah" (2 Chr. iii. 1) ; and for the first time a holy place, sanctified by a vision of the Divine presence, was recognised in Jerusalem. It was this spot which after- wards became the altar of the Temple, and therefore the centre of the national worship, with but slight interruption, for more than 1000 years, and it is even conten.Ied that the same spot is the rock, still regarded with almost idolatrous veneration, in the centre of the Mussulman " Dome of the Rock." A for- midable conspiracy to interrupt the succession broke out in the last days of David's reign, which detached from his person two of his court, who from personal offence or adherence to the ancient family had been alienated from him — Joab and Abiathar. But Zadok, Nathan, Benaiah, Shimei, and llei remaining firm, the plot was stifled, and Solomon's inauguration took place under his father's auspices (I K. i. 1-53). By this time David's infirmities had grown upon him. The warmth of his ex- hausted frame was attempted to be restored by the introduction of a young Shunammite, of the name of Abishag, mentioned appar- ently for the sake of an incident which grew up in connexion with her out of the later events (2 K. i. 1, ii. 17). His last song is preserved — a striking union of the ideal of a just ruler which he had placed before him, and of the difiiculties which he had felt in realising it (2 Sam. xxiii. 1-7). His last words, as recorded, to his successor, are general exhortations to his duty, combined with warnings against Joab and Shimei, and charges to remember the children of Barzillai (1 K. ii. 1-9). He died, according to Jose- phus, at the age of 70, and " was buried in the city of David." After the return from the captivity, "the sepulchres of David" were still pointed out " between Siloah and the house of the mighty men," or " the guardhouse" (Neh. iii. 16). His tomb, which became the general sepulchre of the kings of Judah, was pointed out in the latest times of the Jewish people. The edifice shown as such from the Crusades to the present day is on the southern hill of modern Jerusalem, commonly called Mount Zion, under the so- called " Coenaculum ;" but it cannot be identified with the tomb of David, which was emphatically loithin the walls. DAVID, CITY OF. [Jerusalem.] DAY. The variable length of the natural day at different seasons led in the very ear- liest times to tht adoption of the civil day (or one revolution of the sun) as a standard of time. The commencement of the civil day varies in different nations : the Bab3'lonians reckoned it from sunrise to sunrise ; the Umbrians from noon to noon : the Romans from midnight to midnight ; the Athenians and others from sunset to sunset. The Hebrews naturally adopted the latter reckon- ing (Lev, xxiii. 32, " from even to even shall ye celebrate your sabbath ") from Gen. i. 5, " the evening and the morning were the first day." The Jews are supposed, like the modern Arabs, to have adopted from an early period minute specifications of the parts of the natural day. Roughly indeed they were content to divide it into " morning, evening, and noonday" (Ps. Iv. 17) ; but when they wished for greater accuracy they pointed to six unequal parts, each of which was again subdivided. These are held to have been: — 1. "The dawn." 2. "Sunrise." 3. " Heat of the day," about 9 o'clock ; 4. " The two noons" (Gen. xliii. 16 ; Dent, xxviii. 29) ; 5. "The cool [Wi.tcind) of the daj'," before sunset (Gen, iii. 8); so called by the Tersians to this day; 6. " Evening." The phrase " between the two evenings" (Ex. xvi. 12, xxx. 8), being the time marked for slaying the paschal lamb and offering the evening sacrifice (Ex. xii. 6, xxix. 39), led to a dispute between the Karaites and Samaritans on the one hand, and the Pharisees on the othir. The former took it to mean between sunset and full darkness (Deut. xvi. 6); the Rabbinists explained it as the time between the begin- ning and end of sunset. — Before the captivity the Jews divided the night into three watches (Ps. Ixiii. 6, xc. 4), viz. the first watch, last- DAYSMAN 127 DEBIR ing till midnight (Lam. ii. 19, A. V. "the beginning of the watches ") ; the " Middle watch," lasting till cockcrow (Judg. vii. 19) ; and the morning watch, lasting till sunrise (Ex. xiv. 24). These divisions were pi-obably connected with the Levitical duties in the Temple service. The Jews, however, say (in spite of their own definition, " a watch is the third part of the night ") that they always had four night-watches (comp. Neh. ix. 3), but that the fourth was counted as a part of the morning. In the N. T. we have allusions to four watches, a division borrowed from the Greeks and Romans. These were, 1. from twilight till 9 o'clock (Mark xi. 1 1 ; John xx, 19); 2. midnight, from 9 till 12 o'clock (Mark xiii. 35) ; 3. till 3 in the morning (Mark xiii. 35 ; 3 Mace. v. 23) ; 4. till day- break (John xviii. 28). The word held to mean " hour " is first found in Dan. iii. 6, 15, V. 5. Perhaps the Jews, like the Greeks, learnt from the Babylonians the division of the day into 12 parts. In our Lord's time the division was common (John xi. 9). DAYSMAN, an old English term, meaning umpire or arhitrator (Job ix. 33). It is derived from day, in the specific sense of a day fixed for a trial. DEACON. The office described by this title appears in the N. T. as the correlative of Bishop. [Bishop.] The two are mentioned together in Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. iii. 2, 8. Like most words of similar import, it appears to have been first used in its generic sense, im- plying subordinate activity (1 Cor. iii. 5 ; 2 Cor. vi. 4), and afterwards to have gained a more defined connotation, as applied to a distinct body of men in the Christian society. The narrative of Acts vi. is commonly referred to as giving an account of the institution of this office. The Apostles, in order to meet the complaints of the Hellenistic Jews, that their widows were neglected in the daily ministration, call on the body of believers to choose seven men "full of the Koly Ghost and of wisdom," whom they " may appoint over this business." It may be questioned, however, whether the seven were not ap- pointed to higher functions than those of the deacons of the N. T. There are indications, however, of the existence of another body in the Church of Jerusalem whom we may com- pare with the deacons of Phil. i. 1, and 1 Tim. iii. 8. As the *' elders " of Acts xiv. 23, XV. 6 ; 1 Pet. v. 1, were not merely men advanced in years, so the "young men" of Acts V. 6, 10, were probably not merely young men, but persons occupying a distinct position and exercising distinct functions. Assuming the identity of the two names we have to ask — (1) To what previous organisa- tion, if any, the order is traceable ? (2) What were the qualifications and functions of the men so designated? I. As the constitution of the Jewish synagogue had its elders or pastors, so also it had its subordinate officers (Luke iv. 20), whose work it was to give the reader the rolls containing the lessons for the day, to clean the synagogue, to open and close it at the right times. II. The moral qualifications described in 1 Tim. iii., as necessary for the office of a deacon, are substantially the same as those of the bishop. The deacons, however, were not required to be " given to hospitality," nor to be "apt to teach." It was enough for them to "hold the mystery of the faith in a pure conscience." They were not to gain their living by disreput- able occupations. On off'ering themselves for their work they were to be subject to a strict scrutiny (1 Tim. iii. 10), and if this ended satisfactorily were to enter on it. From the analogy of the synagogue, and from the scanty notices of the N. T., we may think of the deacons or " young men " in the Church of Jerusalem as preparing the rooms in which the disciples met, taking part in the distribu- tion of alms out of the common fund, at first with no direct supervision, then under that of the Seven, and afterwards under the elders, maintaining order at the daily meetings of the disciples to break bread, baptising new con- verts, distributing the bread and the wine of the Lord's Supper, which the Apostle or his representative had blessed. It does not appear to have belonged to the office of a deacon to teach publicly in the Church. DEACONESS. The word StaKovos is found in Piom. xvL. 1 (A. V. " servant"), associated with a female name, and this has led to the conclusion that there existed in the Apostolic age, as there undoubtedly did a little later, an order of women bearing that title, and ex- ercising in relation to their own sex functions which were analogous to those of the deacons. On this hypothesis it has been inferred that the women mentioned in Rom. xvi. 6, 12, belonged to such an order. The rules given as to the conduct of women in 1 Tim. iii. 11, Tit. ii. 3, have in like manner been referred to them, and they have been iden- tified even with the "widows" of 1 Tim. v. 3-10. DEAD SEA. This name nowhere occurs in the Bible, and appears not to have existed until the 2nd century after Christ. In the O. T. the lake is called " the Salt Sea," and " the Sea of the Plain," and under the former of these names it is described. DEARTH. lFamine.] DE'BIR, the name of three places of Pales- tine. 1. A town in the mountains of J udab DEBORAH 128 DEDICATION, FEAST OF THE (Josh. XV. 49), one of a group of eleven cities to the west of Hebron. The earlier name of Debir was Kirjathsepher, " city of hook " (Josh. XV. 15; Judg. i. 11), and Kirjath- eannah, " city of palm" (Josh. xv. 49). It was one of the cities given with their " sub- urbs " to the priests (Josh. xxi. 15 ; 1 Chr. vi. 58). Debir has not been discovered with certainty in modern times ; but about three miles to the west of Hebron is a deep and secluded valley called the IFady Nunkur, enclosed on the north by hills, of which one bears a name certainly suggestive of Debir — Deivlr-han. — 2. A place on the north boundary of Judah, near the " Valley of Achor " (Josh. XV. 7), and therefore somewhere in the com- plications of hill and ravine behind Jericho. A Wady Dahor is marked in Van de Velde's map as close to the S. of Nehy Miisa, at the N. W. corner of the Dead Sea.— 3. The " border of Debir " is named as forming part of the boundary of Gad (Josh. xiii. 26), and as apparently not far from Mahanaim. DEB'ORAH. 1, The nurse of Hebekah (Gen. XXXV. 1). Deborah accompanied Re- bekah from the house of Bethuel (Gen. xxiv. 59), and is only mentioned by name on the occasion of her burial, under the oak-tree of Bethel, which was called in her honour AUon- Bachuth. — 2. A prophetess who judged Israel (Judg. iv., v.). She lived under the palm- tree of Deborah, between Ramah and Bethel in Mount Ephraim (Judg. iv. 5), which, as palm-trees were rare in Palestine, " is men- tioned as a well-known and solitary landmark, and was probably the same spot as that called (Judg. XX. 33) Baal-Tamar, or the sanctuary of the palm" (Stanley, S. and P. 146). She was probably a woman of Ephraim, although, from the expression in Judg. v. 13, some sup- pose her to have belonged to Issachar. Lapi- doth was probably her husband and not Barak, as some say. She was not so much a judge as one gifted with prophetic command (Judg. iv. 6, 14, V. 7), and by virtue of her inspira- tion "a mother in Israel." Jabin's tyranny was peculiarly felt in the northern ti'ibes, who were near his capital and under her jurisdiction, viz. Zebulon, Naphtali, and Issachar : hence, when she summoned Barak to the deliverance, it was on them that the brunt of the battle fell. Under her direction Barak encamped on the broad summit of Tabor. Deborah's prophecy was fulfilled (Judg. iv. 9), and the enemy's general perished among the " oaks of the wanderers (Zaanaim)," in the tent of the Bedouin Kenite's wife (Judg. iv. 21) in the northern mountains. Deborah's title of " prophetess " includes the notion of inspired poetry, as in Ex. XV. 20; and in this Reuse the glorious triumphal ode (Judg. v.) well vindicates her claim to the office. DEBTOR. [Loan.] DECAP'OLIS. This name occurs only three times in the Scriptures, Matt. iv. 25, Mark v. 20, and vii. 31. Immediately after the conquest of Syria by the Romans (b.c. 65) ten cities appear to have been rebuilt, partially colonised, and endowed with peculiar privileges ; the country around them was hence called Decapolis. Pliny enumerates them as follows: Scythopolis, Hippos, Gadara, Fella, Philadelphia, Gerasa, Dion, Canatha, Damascus, and Raphana, All the cities of Decapolis, with the single exception of Scytho- polis, lay on the east of the Jordan. It would appear, however, from Matt. iv. 25, and Mark vii. 31, that Decapolis was a general appellation for a large district ex- tending along both sides of the Jordan. Pliny says it reached from Damascus on the north to Philadelphia on the south, and from Scythopolis on the west to Canatha on the east. This region, once so populous and prosperous, from which multitudes flocked to hear the Saviour and through which multi- tudes followed His footsteps, is now almost without an inhabitant. DE'DAN. 1. ThenameofasonofRaamah, son of Cush (Gen. x. 7 ; 1 Chr. i. 9).— 2. A son of Jokshan, son of Keturah (Gen. xxv. 3 ; 1 Chr. i. 32). — The passages in the Bible in which Dedan is mentioned (besides the genea- logies above referred to) are contained in the prophecies of Isaiah (xxi. 13), Jeremiah (xxv. 23, xlix. 8), and Ezekiel (xxv. 13, xxvii. 15, 20, xxxviii. 13), and are in every case ob- scure. The probable inferences from these mentions of Dedan are —1. That Dedan, son of Raamah, settled on the shores of the Per- sian Gulf, and his descendants became caravan- merchants between that coast and Palestine. 2. That Jokshan, or a son of Jokshan, by in- termarriage with the Cushite Dedan formed a tribe of the same name, which appears to have had its chief settlement in the borders of Idumaea, and perhaps to have led a pas- toral life. DE'DANIM. Is. xxi. 13. [Dedan.] DEDICATION, FEAST OF THE, the fes- tival instituted to commemorate the purging of the Temple and the rebuilding of the altar after Judas Maccabaeus had driven out the Syrians, b.c. 164. It is named only once in the Canonical Scriptures, John x. 22. Its institution is recorded 1 Mace. iv. 52-59. It commenced on the 25th of Chisleu, the anni- versary of the pollution of the Temple by Antiochus Epiphanes, b.c. 167. Like the great Mosaic feasts, it lasted eight days, but it did not require attendance at Jerusalem. DEER 129 DEMETRIUS It was an occasion of much festivity. The writer of 2 Mace, tells us that it was cele- brated in nearly the same manner as the Feast of Tabernacles, with the carrjang of branches of trees, and with much singing (x. 6, 7). Josephus states that the festival was called " Lights." In the Temple at Jerusalem the "Hallel" was sung every day of the feast. DEER. [Fallow-Deer,] DEGREES, SOiNGS OF, a title given to fifteen Psalms, fromcxx. to exxxiy. inclusive. Four of them are attributed to David, one is ascriberl to the pen of Solomon, and the other ten give no indication of their author. With respect to the term rendered in the A. V. " degrees," a great diversity of opinion pre- vails, but the most probable opinion is that they were pilgrim songs, sung by the people as they went up to Jerusalem. DE'HAVITES mentioned only once in Scripture (Ezr. iv. 9) among the colonists planted in Samaria after the completion of the Captivity of Israel. They ai-e probably the Dai or Dahi, mentioned by Herodotus (i. 125) among the nomadic tribes of Persia. DEL'ILAH, a woman who dwelt in the valley of Sorek, beloved by Samson (Judg. xvi. 4-18). There seems to be little doubt that she was a Philistine courtesan. [Samson.] DELUGE. [Noah.] DE'LUS, mentioned in 1 Mace. xv. .'^3, is the smallest of the islands called Cyclades in the Aegaean Sea. It was one of the chief seats of the worship of Apollo, and was cele- brated as the birthplace of this god and of his sister Artemis (Diana). DE'MAS, most probably a contraction from Demetrius, or perhaps from Demarchus, a companion of St. Paul (Philem. 24 ; Col. iv. 14) during his first imprisonment at Rome. At a later period (2 Tim. iv. 10) we find him mentioned as having deserted the apostle through love of this present world, and gone to Thessalonica. DEME'TRIUS, a maker of silver shrines of Artemis atEphesus ( Acts xix. 24). These were small models of the great temple of the Ephesian Artemis, with her statue, which it was customary to carry on journeys, and place on houses, as charms. DEME'TRIUS I., surnamed Soter, " The Saviour," king of Syria, was the son of Seleucus Philopator, and grandson of Antio- chus the Great. While still a boy he was sent by his father as a hostage to Rome (b.c. 175) in exchange for his uncle Antiochus Epiphanes. From, his position he was unable to offer any opposition to the usurpation of the Sjrian throne by Antiochus I^'. ; but on the death of that monarch (b.c. 164) he claimed Sm. D. B. his liberty and the recognition of his claim by the Roman senate in preference to that of his cousin Antiochus V. His petition was re- fused, he left Italy secretly, and landed with a small force at Tripolis in Phoenicia (2 Mace, xiv. ] ; 1 Maec. vii. 1). The Syrians soon declared in his favour (b.c. 1G2), and An- tiochus and his protector Lysias were put to death (1 Mace. vii. 2, 3 ; 2 Mace. xiv. 2). His campaigns against the Jews were unsuc- cessful. In B.C. 152, Alexander Balas was brought forward, with the consent of the Roman senate, as a claimant to the throne. The rivals met in a decisive engagement (b.c. 150), and Demetrius, after displaying the greatest personal bravery, was defeated and slain (1 Mace. x. 48-50). Tutradrachm (Attic talent) of Demetrius I. DEME'TRIUS II., "The Victorious " (Ni- cator), was the elder son of Demetrius Soter. He was sent by his father, together with his brother Antiochus, with a large treasure, to Cnidus, when Alexander Balas laid claim to the throne of Syria. When he was grown up he made a descent on Syria (b.c. 148), and was received with general favour (1 Mace. X. 67 ff.). His campaigns against Jonathan and the Jews are described in 1 Mace. X., xi. In b.c 138, Demetrius was taken prisoner by Arsaces VI. (Mithridates), whose dominions he had invaded (1 Mace, xiv. 1-3). Mithridates treated his captive honourably, and gave him his daughter in marriage. When Antiochus Sidetes, who had gained possession of the Syrian throne invaded Parthia, Phraates employed Demetrius to effect a diversion. In this Demetrius suc- Tet alraohni t Attic taJeiit) of Demetrius II. K DEMON 130 DENARIUS eeeded, and when Antiochus fell in battle, he. again took possession of the Syrian crown (B.C. 128). Not long- afterwards a pretender, supported by Ptol. Physcon, appeared in the field against him, and after suffering a defeat he was assassinated, according to some by his wife, while attempting to escape by sea. DEMON. Its usage in classical Greek is various. In Homer, whei-e the gods are but supernatural men, it is used interchangeably with "god ;" afterwards in Hesiod, when the idea of the gods had become more exalted and less familiar, the " demons " are spoken of as intermediate beings, the messengers of the gods to men. In the Gospels generally, in James ii. 19, and in Rev. xvi. 14, the demons are spoken of as spiritual beings, at enmity with God, and having power to afflict man, not only with disease, but, as is marked by the frequent epithet " unclean," with spiritual pollution also. They "believe" the power of God " and tremble " (James ii. 19) ; they recognise the Lord as the Son of God (Matt. viii. 29 ; Luke iv. 41), and acknowledge the power of His name, used in exoi'cism, in the place of the name of Jehovah, by His appointed messengers (Acts xix. 15) ; and look forward in terror to the judgment to come (Matt. viii. 29). The description is precisely that of a nature akin to the angelic in knowledge and powers, but with the em- phatic addition of the idea of positive and Jtctive wickedness. DEMONIACS. This word is frequently used in the N, T., and applied to persons suffering under the possession of a demon or evil spirit, such possession generally showing itself visibly in bodily disease or mental derangement. It has been maintained by many persons that our Lord and the Evan- gelists, in referring to demoniacal possession, spoke only in accommodation to the general belief of the Jews, without any assertion as to its truth or its falsity. It is concluded that, since the symptoms of the affliction were frequently those of bodily disease (as dumbness. Matt. ix. 32 ; blindness. Matt. xii. 22; epilepsy, Mark ix. 17-27), or those seen in cases of ordinary insanity (as in Matt. viii. 28 ; ■Mark v, 1-5), and since also the phrase " to have a devil " is constantly used in connexion with, and as apparently equiva- lent to, " to be mad" (see John vii. 20, viii. 48, X. 20, and perhaps Matt. xi. 18 ; Luke vii. 33), the demoniacs were merely persons suffering under unusual diseases of body and mind. But demoniacs are frequently distin- guished froni those afflicted with bodily sick- ness (see Mark i. 32, xvi. 17, 18 ; Luke vi. 17, 13), even, it would seem, from the epilep- tic (Matt. iv. 24) ; the same outward signs are sometimes referred to possession, sometimes mei-ely to disease (comp. Matt. iv. 24, with xvii. 15 ; Matt. xii. 22, with Mark vii. 32, c&c.) ; the demons are represented as speak- ing in their own persons with superhuman knowledge, and acknowledging our Lord to he, not as the Jews generally called him, son of David, but Son of God (Matt, viii, 29 ; Mark i. 24, v. 7 ; Luke iv. 41, &c.). All these things, speak of a personal power of evil. Nor does our Lord speak of demons as per- sonal spirits of evil to the multitude alone, but in His secret conversations with His disciples, declaring the means and conditions by which power over them could be exercised (Matt. xvii. 21). Twice also He distinctly con- nects demoniacal possession with the poAver of the evil one ; once in Luke x. 18, to the seventy disciples, where He speaks of his power and theirs over demoniacs as a " fall of Satan," and again in Matt. xii. 25-30, when He was accused of casting out demons through Beelzebub, and, instead of giving any hint that the possessed were not really under any direct and personal power of evil. He uses an argument, as to the division of Satan against himself, which, if possession be unreal, becomes inconclusive and almost insincere. Lastly, the single fact recorded of the entrance of the demons at Gadara (Mark V. 10-14) into the herd of swine, and the effect which that entrance caused, is suffi- cient to overthrow the notion that our Lord and the Evangelists do not assert or imply any objective reality of possession. We are led, therefore, to the ordinary and literal interpretation of these passages, that there are evil spirits, subjects of the Evil One, who, in the days of the Lord Himself and His Apostles especially, were permitted by God to exercise a direct influence over the souls and bodies of certain men. This influence is clearly distinguished from the ordinary power of corruption and temptatioii wielded by Satan through the permission of God. The dis- tinguishing feature of possession is the com- plete or incomplete loss of the sufferer's reason or power of will ; his actions, his words, and almost his thoughts are mastered by the evil spirit (Mark i. 24, v. 7 ; Acts xix. 15), till his personality seems to be destroyed, or, if not destroyed, so overborne as to produce the consciousness of a twofold will within him, like that sometimes felt in a dream. DENA'RIUS, A. V. "penny" (Matt, xviii. 28, XX. 2, 9, 13, xxii. 19 ; Mark vi. 37, xii, 15, xiv. 5; Luke vii. 41, x. 35, xx. 24; John vi. 7, xii. 5 ; Rev. vi. 6), a Roman silver coin, in the time of Our Saviour and the Apostles. It took its name from its DEPUTY 131 DEUTERONOMY being first equal to ten " asses," a number afterwards increased to sixteen. It was the principal silver coin of the Roman common- wealth. From the parable of the labourers in the vineyard it would seem that a denarius was then the ordinary pay for a day's labour (Matt. XX. 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 13). Denarius of Tiberius. DEPUTY. The uniform rendering in the A. V. of the Greek word which signifies "proconsul" (Acts xiii. 7, 8, 12, xix. 38). The English word is curious in itself, and to a certain extent appropriate, having been applied formerly to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. DER'BE (Acts xiv. 20, 21, xvi. 1, xx. 4). The exact position of this town has not yet been ascertained, but its general situation is undoubted. It was in the eastern part of the great upland plain of Lycaonia, which stretches from Iconium eastwards along the north side of the chain of Taurus. It must have been somewhere near the place where the pass called the Cilician Gates opened a way from the low plain of Cilicia to the table-land of the interior ; and probably it was a stage upon the great road which passed this way. DESERT, a word which is sparingly em- ployed in the A. V. to translate four Hebrew terms, of which three are essentially different in signification. A "desert," in the sense which is ordinarily attached to. the word, is fe vast, burning, sandy plain, alike destitute of trees and of water. Here, it is simply necessary to show that the words rendered in the A. V. by "desert," when used in the historical books, denoted definite localities ; and that those localities do not answer to the common conception of a " desert." — 1. ArI- BAH. This Avord means that very depressed and enclosed region — the deepest and the hottest chasm in the world— the sunken valley north and south of the Dead Sea, but n.ore particularly the former. [Arabau.] AfiABAH in the sense o the Jordan Valley is translated by the word " desert " only in Ez. xlvii. 8. In a more general sense of waste, deserted country — a meaning easily suggested by the idea of excessive heat contained in the root — " Desert," as the rendering of Arabah, occurs in the prophets and ooetical books-; as Is. XXXV. 1, 6, xl. 3, xli. 19, li. 3 ; Jer. ii. 6, V. 6, xvii. 6, 1. 12 ; but this general sense is never found in the historical books. — 2. MiDBAR. This word, which our transla- tors have most frequently rendered by "desert," is accurately the "pasture ground." It is most frequently used for those tracts of waste land which lie beyond the cultivated ground in the immediate neighbourhood of the towns and villages of Palestine, and which are a very familiar feature to the traveller in that country. In the poetical books "desert" is found as the translation of Mklhar in Deut. xxxii. 10 ; Job xxiv. 5 ; Is. xxi. 1 ; Jer. xxv. 24. — 3. Charbah, appears to have the force of dryness, and thence of desolation. It does not occur in any historical passages. It is rendered " desert " in Ps. cii. 6 ; Is. xlviii. 21 ; Ezek. xiii. 4. The term commonly employed for it in the A. "V. is "waste places" or " desola- tion."—4. Jeshimox with the definite article, apparently denotes the waste tracts on both sides of the Dead Sea. In all these cases it is treated as a proper name in the A. V. Without the article it occurs in a few pas- sages of poetry ; in the following of which it is i-endered "desert." Ps. Ixxxviii. 40 ; cvi. 14; Is. xliii. 19, 20. DEUTERONOMY, which means " the re- petition of the law," consists chiefly of three discourses delivered by Moses shortly before his death. Subjoined to these discourses are the Song of Moses, the Blessing of Moses, and the story of his death. — I. The first dis- course (i. 1 — iv. 40). After a brief historical introduction, the speaker recapitulates the chief events of the last 40 years in the wilderness, and especially those events which had the most immediate bearing on the entry of the people into the promised land. To this discourse is appended a brief notice of the severing of the three cities of refuge on the east side of the Jordan (iv. 41-43). — II. The second discourse is introduced like the first by an explanation of the circumstances under which it was delivered (iv. 44-49). It extends from chap. v. 1 — xxvi. 19, and contains a recapitulation, with some modifi- cations and additions, of the Law already given on Mount Sinai. — III. In the third discourse (xxvii. 1 — xxx. 20), the Elders of Israel are associated with Moses. The people are commanded to set up stones upon Mount Ebal, and on them to write " all the words of this law." Then follow the several curses to be pronounced by the Levites on Ebal (xxvii. 14-26), and the blessings on Gerizim (xxviii. 1-14). — IV. The delivery of the Law as written by Moses (for its still fui'ther preservation) to the cujstodv of tlui K 2. DEVIL 132 DIAMOND Levites, and a charge to the people to hear it read once every seven years (xxxi.) : the Song of Moses spoken in the ears of the people (xxxi. 30-xxxii. 44) : and the bless- ing of the twelve tribes (xxxiii.). — Y. The Book closes (xxxiv.) with an account of the death of Moses, which is first announced to him in xxxii. 48-52. — It has been maintained by many modern critics that Deuteronomj- is of later origin than the other four books of the Pentateuch ; but the book bears witness to its own authorship (xxxi. 19), and is expressly cited in the N. T. as the work of Moses (Matt, xix, 7,8 ; Mark x. 3 ; Acts iii. 22, vii. 37). The last chapter, contain- ing an account of the death of Moses, was of course added by a later hand, and perhaps formed originally the beginning of the book of Joshua. [Pentatkuch.] DEVIL. The name describes Satan as slandei-ing God to man, and man to God. The former work is, of course, a part of his great work of temptation to evil ; and is not only exemplified but illustrated as to its general nature and tendency by the narrative of Gen. iii. The effect is to stir up the spirit of freedom in man to seek a fancied in- dependence ; and it is but a slight step further to impute falsehood or cruelty to God. The other work, the slandering or accusing man before God is, as it must necessarily be, unintelligible to us. The essence of this accusation is the imputation of selfish motives (Job i. 9, 10), and its refu- tation is placed in the self-sac-ifice of those *' who loved not their own lives unto death." [Satan ; Demon.] DPjW. This in the summer is so copious in Palestine that it supplies to some extent the absence of rain (Ecclus. xviii. 16, xliii. 22), and becomes important to the agricul- turist. As a proof of this copiousness the well-known sign of Gideon (Judg vi. 37, 39, 40) may be adduced. Thus it is coupled in the divine blessing with rain, or mentioned as a prime source of fertility (Gen. xxvii. 28; Deut. xxxiii. 13; Zech. viii. 12), and its withdrawal is attributed to a curse (2 Sam. i. 21; 1 K. xvii. 1 ; Hag. i. 10). It becomes a leading object in prophetic ima- gery by reason of its penetrating moisture without the apparent effort of rain (Deut. xxxii. 2 ; Job xxix. 19 ; Ps. cxxxiii. 3 ; Erov. xix. 12 ; Is. xxvi. 19 ; Hos. xiv. 5 ; Mic. V. 7) ; while its speedy evanescence tyi)ifies the transient goodness of the hypo- crite (Hos. vi. 4, xiii. 3). DIADEM. What the "diadem" of the Jews was we know not. That of other na- tions of antiquity was a fillet of silk, two inches broad, bound round the head and tied behind, the invention of which is attributed to Liber. Its colour was generally white ; sometimes, however, it was of blue, like that of Darius ; and it was sown with pearls or other gems (Zech. ix. 16), and enriched with gold (Rev, ix. 7). It was peculiarly the mark of Oriental sovereigns (1 Mace, xiii. 32), A crown was used by the kings of Israel, even in battle (2 Sam. i. 10) ; but in all probability this was not the state crown (2 Sam. xii. 30), although used in the coronation of Joash (2 K. xi. 12). In Esth. i. 11, ii. 17, we have cether for the turban worn by the Persian king, queen, or other eminent persons to whom it was conceded as a special favour (viii. 15). The diadem of the king differed from that of others in hav- ing an ei'ect triangular peak. The words in Ez. xxiii. 15 mean long and flowing turbans of gorgeous colours. Obverse of Tetradrachm of Tigranes, king of Syria. DIAL. The word ma'aJoth is the same as that rendered "steps" in A. V. (Ex. xx. 26 ; 1 K. X. 19), and " degrees " in A. V, (2 K, XX. 9, 10, 11 ; Is, xxxviii, 8), where, to give a conL'istent rendering, we should read with the margin the " degrees " rather than the " dial " of Ahaz. In the absence of any materials for determining the shape and structure of the solar instrument, which certainly appears intended, the best course is to follow the most strictly natural meaning of the words, and to consider that the ma'uIdtJi were really stairs, and that the shadow (perhaps of some column or obelisk on the top) fell on a greater or smaller number of them according as the sun was low or high. The terrace of a palace might easily be thus ornamented. DIAMOND (Heb. yahalom), a precious stone, the third in the second row on the breastplate of the Iligh-priest (Ex. xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11), and mentioned by Ezekiel (xxviii, 13) among the precious stones of the king of Tyre, Some suppose yahalom to be the " emerald." Respecting shdmtr, which is translated " diamond " in Jer, xvii. 1, see under Adamant. DIANA 133 DIONYSIUS THE AREOPAGITE DIAN'A. This Latin word, properly de- noting a Roman divinity, is the representative of the Greek Artemis, the tutelary g-oddess of the Ephesians, who plays so important a part in the narrative of Acts xix. The I*45hesian Diana, was, however, regarded as invested with very different attributes, and is rather to be identified with Astarte and other female divinities of the East. The coin below will give some notion of the image of the true Ephesian Diana, which was grotesque and archaic in character. The head wore a mural crown, each hand held a bar of metal, and the lower part ended in a rude block covered with figures of animals and mystic inscriptions. This idol was regarded as an object of peculiar sanctity, and was believed to have fallen down from heaven (Acts xix. 35). The cry of the mob (Acts xix. 28), " Great is Diana of the Ephesians !" and the strong expression in ver. 27, "whom all Asia and the world worshippeth," may be abundantly illustrated from a variety of sources. The term " great " was evidently a title of honour recognised as belonging to the Ephesian goddess. We find it in in- scriptions. Greek imperial copper coin of Ephesus and Smyrna. DIB'LATH (accurately Diblah), a place named only in Ez. vi. 14, as if situated at one of the extremities of the land of Israel, is perhaps only another form of Riblah. DI'BON. 1. A town on the east side of Jor- dan, in the rich pastoral country, which was taken possession of and rebuilt by the children of Gad (Num. xxxii. 3, 34). From this cir- cumstance it possibly received the name of Dibox-Gad (Numb, xxxiii. 45, 46). Its first mention is in Num. xxi. 30, and from this it appears to have belonged originally to the Moabites, We find Dibon counted to Reuben in the lists of Joshua (xiii. 9, 17). In the time of Isaiah and Jeremiah, however, it was again in possession of Moab (Is. xv, 2 ; Jer. xlviii. 18, 22, comp. 24). In the same denunciations of Isaiah it appears, probably, under the name of Dimox. In modern times the name Dhihan has been dis- ftovered as attached to extensive ruins on the Roman road, about three miles north of the Arnon {Wady Modjeh).~2. One of the towns which were re-inhabited by the men of Judah after the return from captivity (Neh. xi. 25), identical with Dimonah. DI'BON-GAD. [Dibon.] DIDRACHMON. [Money; Shekel.] DID'YMUS, that is, the Twin, a surname of the Apostle Thomas (John xi. 16, xx. 24, xxi. 2). [Thomas.] DIK'LAH (Gen. x. 27 ; 1 Chr. i. 21), a son of Joktan, whose settlements, in common with those of the other sons of Joktan, must be looked for in Arabia. The name in Hebrew signifies " a palm-tree," hence it is thought that Diklah is a part of Arabia con- taining many palm-trees. DI'MONAH, a city in the south of Judah (Josh. XV. 22), perhaps the same as Dibon in Neh. xi. 25. DI'NAH, the daughter of Jacob by Leah (Gen. XXX. 21). She accompanied her father from Mesopotamia to Canaan, and, having ventured among the inhabitants, was violated by Shechem the son of Hamor, the chieftain of the territory in which her father had settled (Gen. xxxiv.). Shechem proposed to make the usual reparation by paying a sum to the father and marrying her (Gen. xxxiv. 12). But in this case the suitor was an alien, and the crown of the offence con- sisted in its having been committed by an alien against the favoured people of God ; he had "wrought folly in Israel" (xxxiv, 7). The proposals of Hanioi-, who acted as his deputy, were framed on the recognition of the hitherto complete separation of the two peoples ; he proposed the fusion of the two by the establishment of the rights of inter- marriage and commerce. The sons of Jacob, bent upon revenge, availed themselves of the eagerness, which Shechem showed, to effect their purpose ; they demanded, as a condi- tion of the proposed union, the circumcision of the Shechemites. They therefore assented ; and on the third day, when the pain and fever resulting from the operation were at the highest, Simeon and Levi, own brothers to Dinah, attacked them unexpectedly, slew all the males and plundered their city. DI'NAITES (Ezr. iv. 9), the name of some of the Cvi*-,haean colonists who were placed in the cities of Samaria after the captivity of the ten tribes. DIN'HABAH (Gen. xxxvi. 32 ; 1 Chr. i. 43), the capital city, and probably the biith- place, of Bela, son of Beor, king of Edom. DIONYS'IUS THE AREOPAGITE (Acta xvii. 34), an eminent Athenian, converted to Christianity by tlie preaching of St. Paul. He is said to have been first bishop of Athens. The writings which were once attributed to DIONYSUS 134 DIVINATION him are now confessed t/) be the production of some neo-Platonists of the 6th century. DIONY'SUS (2 Mace. xiv. 33 ; 3 Mace. ii. 29), also called Bacchus, the god of wine. His worship was greatly modified by the incorporation of Eastern elements, and assumed the twofold form of wild orgies and mystic rites To the Jew, Dionysus would necessarily appear as the embodiment of paganism in its most material shape, sanc- tioning the most tumultuous passions and the worst excesses. DIOSCORIN'THIUS. [Months.] DIOT'REPHES, a Christian mentioned in 3 John 9, but of whom nothing is known. DISCIPLE. [Schools.] DISPERSION, THE JEWS OF THE, or simply The Dispersion, was the general title applied to those Jews who remained settled in foreign countries after the return from the Babylonian exile, and during the period of the second Temple. The Disper- sion, as a distinct element influencing the entire character of the Jews, dates from the Babylonian exile. Outwardly and inwardly, by its effects both on the Gentiles and on the people of Israel, the Dispersion appears to have been the clearest providential prepara- tion for the spread of Christianity. At the beginning of the Christian era the Dispersion was divided into three great sections, the Babylonian, the Syrian, the Egyptian. Pre- cedence was yielded to the first. From Babylon the Jews spread throughout Persia, Media, and Parthia. The Greek conquests in Asia extended the limits of the Dispersion. Seleucus Nicator transplanted large bodies of Jewish colonists from Babylonia to the capitals of his western provinces. His policy was followed by his successor Antiochus the Great ; and the persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes only served to push forward the Jewish emigration to the remoter districts of his empire. Large settlements of Jews were established in Cyprus, in the islands of the Aegaean, and on the western coast of Asia Minor. The Jews of the Syrian provinces gradually formed a closer connexion with their new homes, and together with the Greek language adopted in many respects Greek ideas. This Hellenizing tendency, however, found its most free development at Alexandria. The Jewish settlements esta- blished there by Alexander and Ptolemy I. became the source of the African dispersion, which spread over the north coast of Africa, and perhaps inland to Abyssinia. At Cyrene and Berenice (Tripoli) the Jewish inhabitants formed a considerable portion of the popula- tion. The Jewish settlements in Rome were consequent upon the occupation of Jerusalem bj"^ Pompey, b.c. 63. The captives and emigrants whom he brought with him were located in the trans-Tiberine quarter. In the reign of Claudius the Jews became objects of suspicion from their immense numbers ; and the internal disputes led to their banishment from the city (Acta xviii. 2). This expulsion, if general, can only have been temporary, for in a few years the Jews at Rome were numerous (Acts xxviii. 17 if.). The influence of the Dispersion on the rapid promulgation of Christianity can scarcely be overrated. The course of the apostolic preaching followed in a regular progress the line of Jewish settlements. The mixed assembly from which the first converts were gathered on the day of Pente- cost represented each division of the Disper- sion (Acts ii. 9-11 ; (1) Parthians .... Mesopotamia; (2) Judaea (i. e. pt. (Lane.) it was especially worn by officers. The travelling cloak referred to by St. Paul (2 Tim. iv. 13) is generally identified with the Roman paenula, of which it may be a corruption. It is, however, otherwise ex- plained as a travelling-case for carrying clothes or books. — 4. Special usages relating to dress. The length of the dress rendered it inconvenient for active exercise ; hence the outer garments were either left in the house by a person working close by (Matt. xxiv. 18) or were thrown off when the occa- sion arose (Mark x. 50 ; John xiii. 4 ; Acts vii. 58), or, if this was not possible, as in the case of a person travelling, they were girded up (1 K. xviii. 46 ; 2 K. iv. 29, ix. 1 ; 1 Pet. i. 13) ; on entering a house the upper garment was probably laid aside and re- sumed on going out (Acts xii. 8). In a sitting posture, the garments concealed the feet : this was held to be an act of rever- ence (Is. vi. 2). The number of suits possessed by the Hebrews was considerable : a single suit consisted of an under and upper garment. The presentation of a robe in many instances amounted to installation or investiture (Gen. xii. 42 ; Esth. viii. 15 ; Is. xxii. 21) ; on the other hand, taking it away amounted to dismissal from office (2 Mace. iv. 38). The production of the bes» robe was a mark of special honour in a DRINK 140 DURA household (I-uke xv. 22). The number of robes thus received or kept in store for presents -was very large, and formed one of the main elements of wealth in the East (Job xxii. 16 ; Matt. vi. 19 ; James v, 2), so that 10 have clothing = to be wealthy and power- ful (Is. iii. 6, 7). On grand occasions the entertainer offered becoming robes to his guests. The business of making clothes devolved upon women in a family (Prov. xxxi. 22 ; Acts ix. 39) ; little art was re- quired in what we may term the tailoring department ; the garments came forth for the most part ready made from the loom, so that the weaver supplanted the tailor. DRINK, STRONG. The Hebrew terra shccar, in its etymological sense, applies to any beverage that had intoxicating qualities. We may infer from Cant. viii. 2 that the Hebrews were in the habit of expressing the j uice of other fruits besides the grape for the purpose of making wine; the pomegranate, which is there noticed, was probably one out of many fruits so used. "With regard to the application of the term in later times we have the explicit statement of Jerome, as well as other sources of information, from which we may state that the following beverages were known to the Jews : — 1. Beer, which was largely consumed in Egypt under the name of zythus, and was thence introduced into Palestine. It was made of barley ; cer- tain herbs, such as lupin and skirrett, were used as svibstitutes for hops. 2 . Cider, which is noticed in the Mishna as apple-wine. 3. Honey-xnne, of which there were two sorts, one, consisting of a mixture of wine, honey, and pepper : the other a decoction of the juice of the grape, termed dchash (honey) by the Hebrews, and dihs by the modern Syrians. 4. Date-ioine, which was also manufactured in Egypt. It was made by mashing the fruit in water in certain proportions. 5. Various other fruits and vegetables are enumerated by Pliny as supplying materials for factitious or home-made wine, such as figs, mallet, the ca- rob fruit, &c. It is not improbable that the Hebrews applied raisins to this purpose in the simple manner followed by the Arabians, viz., by putting them in jars of water and burying them in the ground until fermenta- tion takes place. DROMEDARY. [Camkl.] DRUSIL'LA, daughter of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. I, 19 ff.) and Cypros. She was at first betrothed to Antiochus Epiphanes, prince of Commagene, but was married to Azizus, king of Emesa. Soon after, Felix, procurator of Judaea, brought about her sediiction by means of the Cyprian sorcerer Simon, and took her us his wife. In Acts xxiv. 24, we find her in company with Felix at Caesai-ea. Felix had by Drusilla a son named Agrippa, who, together with his mother, perished in the eruption of Vesuvius under Titus. DULCIMER (Heb. Sumphotiiah), a mu- sical instrument, mentioned in Dan. iii. 5, 15, probably the bagpipe. The same instrument is still in use amongst peasants in the N.W. of Asia and in Southern Europe, where it is known by the similar name Sampogna or Zampogna. DU'MAH. 1. A son of Ishmael, most probably the founder of the Ishmaelite tribe of Arabia, and thence the name of the pi'in- cipal place, or district, inhabited by that tribe (Gen. xxv. 14 ; 1 Chr. i. 30 ; Is. xxi. 11). — 2. A city in the mountainous district of Judah, near Hebron (Josh. xv. 52) repre- sented by the ruins of a village called ed- Danmeh, 6 miles south-west of Hebron. DUNG. The uses of dung were twofold, as manure, and as fuel. The manure con- sisted either of straw steeped in liquid ma- nure (Is. xxv. 10), or the sweepings (Is. v. 25) of the streets and roads, which were care- fully removed from about the houses and col- lected in heaps outside the walls of the towns at fixed spots (hence the dung-gate at Jeru- salem, Neh. ii. 13), and thence removed in due course to the fields. The mode of ap- plying manure to trees was by digging holes about their roots and inserting it (Luke xiii. 8), as still practised in Southern Italy. In the case of saci'ifices the dung was burnt out- side the camp (Ex. xxix. 1-1 ; Lev. iy. 11, viii. 17 ; Num. xix. 5) : hence the extreme opprobrium of the threat in Mai. ii. 3. Par- ticular directions were laid down in the law to enforce cleanliness with regard to human ordure (Dent, xxiii. 12 ff.) : it was the gross- est insult to turn a man's house into a recep- tacle for it (2 K. X. 27 ; Ezr. vi. 11 ; Dan. ii. 5, iii. 29, "dunghill" A. V.) ; public esta- blishments of that nature are still found in the large towns of the East. — The difficulty of procuring fuel in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt, has made dung in all ages valuable as a sub- stitute : it was probably used for heating ovens and for baking cakes (Ez. iv. 12, 15), the equable heat, which it produced, adapt- ing it peculiarly for the latter operation. Cow's and camel's dung is still used for a similar purpose by the Bedouins. DUNGEON. [Prison.] DU'RA, the plain where Nebuchadnezzar set up the golden image (Dan. iii. 1) has been sometimes identified with a tract a little be- low Tekrit, on the left bank of the Tigris, where the name Bur is still found. M. Op- pert places the plain (or, as he calls it, the " valley ") of Dura to the south-east of Baby- DUST 141 EARTH Ion in the vicinity of the mound of Bowair or Diiair. DUST. [Mourning.] E ?AGLE (Heb. nesher). The Hebrew word, ■which occurs frequently in the O. T. may denote a particular species of the Fal- conidae, as in Lev. xi. 13; Deut. xiv. 12, ■where the nesher is distinguished from the ossifrage, osjjrey, and other raptatorial birds ; but the term is used also to express the griffon vulture {Vultur fulvus) m two or three passages. At least four distinct kinas of eagles have been observed in Palestine, viz. the golden eagle {Aquila Chrysactos), the spotted eagle {A. naevia), the commonest species in the rocky districts, the imperial eagle {Aqtcila Heliaca), and the very common Circaetos gallicus, Which preys on the nu- merous reptilia of Palestine. The Heb. nesher may stand for any of these different species, though perhaps moi-e particular reference to the golden and imperial eagles and the griffon vulture may be intended. The passage in Mic. i. 16, " Enlarge thy baldness as the eagle," may refer to the griffon vulture ( Vultur fulvus) , in ■which case the simile is peculiarly appropriate, for the ■whole head and neck of this bird are destitute of true feathers. T*he "eagles" of Matt. xxiv. 28, Luke xvii. 37, may include the Vultur fulvus and. lieophi-on perctiopterus ; though, as eagles frequently prey upon dead bodies, there is no necessity to restrict the Greek ■word to the Vulturidae. The figure of an eagle is now and has been long a favourite military ensign. The Persians so employed it ; a fact which illustrates the passage in Is. xlvi. 11. The same bird was similarly employed by the As- syrians and the Romans. EARNEST (2 Cor. i. 22, v. 5 ; Eph. i. 14). The equivalent in the original is arrhahon [appa^oiv), a Graecised form of the Heb. 'erd- bon, which was introduced by the Phoenicians into Greece, and also into Italy, where it re- appears under the forms of arrhnlo and arrha. The Hebrew word was used gene- rally for pledge (Gen. xxxviii. 17), and in its cognate forms for surety (Prov. xvii. 18) and hostage (2 K. xiv. 14). The Greek derivative, however, acquired a more technical sense as signifying the deposit paid by the purchaser on entering into an agreement for the pur- chase of anj'thing. EARRINGS. Tbe material of which ear- rings were made was generally gold (Ex. xxxii. 2 ) , and their form circular. They were worn by women and by youth of both sexes (Ex. I.e.). Aquila llelU Egj-ptian P^amngs, From Wilkinsovi. It has been inferred from the passage quoted, and from Judg. viii. 24, that they were not worn by men : these passages are, however, by no means conclusive. The earring appears to have been regarded with superstitious reve- rence as an amulet. On this account they were surrendered along with the idols by Jacob's household (Gen. xxxv. 4). Chardin describes earrings, with talismanic figures and characters on them, as still existing in the East. Jewels were sometimes attached to the rings. The size of the earrings stil! worn in eastern countries fur exceeds what is usual among ourselves ; hence they formed a handsome present (Job xlii. 11), or offering to the service of God (Num. xxxi. 50). EARTH. The term is used in two widely different senses : (1 ) for the material ol which the earth's surface is composed ; (2) as the name of the planet on which man EARTHENWARE 142 EBAL dwells. The Hebrew language discriminates between these two by the use of separate terms, Adamah for the former, Erets for the latter. — I. Adamah is the earth in the sense of soil or ground, particularly as being sus- ceptible of cultivation. The earth supplied the elementary substance of which man's body was formed, and the terms adam and adamah are brought into juxtaposition, implying an etymological connexion (Gen. ii. 7). — II. Erets is applied in a more or less extended sense : — 1. to the Avhole world (Gen. i. 1) ; 2. to land as opposed to sea (Gen. i. 10) ; 3. to a country (Gen. x.xi. 32) ; 4. to a plot of ground (Gen. xxiii. 15) ; and 5. to the ground on which a man stands (Gen. xxxiii. 3). EARTHENWARE. [Pottery.] EARTHQUAKE. Earthquakes, moi-e or less violent, are of frequent occurrence in Palestine, as might be expected from the numerous traces of volcanic agency visible in the features of that country. The recorded instances, however, are but few ; the most remarkable occurred in the reign of Uzziah (Am. i. 1 ; Zech. xiv. 5), which Josephus connected with the sacrilege and consequent punishment of that monarch (2 Chr. xxvi. 16 ff.). From Zech. xiv. 4 we are led to infer that a great convulsion took place at this time in the Mount of Olives, the moun- tain being split so as to leave a valley be- tween its summits. Josephus records some- thing of the sort, but his account is by no means clear. We cannot but think that the two accounts have the same foundation, and that the Mount of Olives was really affected by the earthquake. An earthquake occurred at the time of our Saviour's crucifixion (Matt, xxvii. 51-54), which may be deemed mira- culous rather from the conjunction of cir- cumstances than from the nature of the phenomenon itself. Earthquakes are not unfrequently accompanied by iissm-es of the earth's surface ; instances of this are i-ecorded in connexion with the destruction of Korah and his company (Num. xvi. 32), and at the time of our Lord's death (Matt, xxxvii. 51); the former maybe paralleled by a similar occurrence at Oppido in Calabria A.D. 1783, where the earth opened to the ex- tent of 500, and a depth of more than 200 feet. EAST. The Hebrew terms, descriptive of the east, differ in idea, and, to a certain ex- tent, in application; (1) kedein properly means that which is before or in front of a person, and was applied to the east from the custom of turning in that direction when de- scribing the points of the compass, before, behind, the right and the left, representing respectively E., W., S., and N. (Job xxiii. 8, 9) ; (2) mizracTi means the place of the swi's rising. Bearing in mind this etymo- logical distinction, it is natural that kedem should be used when the four quarters of the world are described (as in Gen. xiii. 14, xxviii. 14 ; Job xxiii. 8, 9 ; Ez. xlvii. 18 ff.), and mizraeh when the east is only distin- guished from the west (Josh. xi. 3 ; Ps. 1. 1, eiii. 12, cxiii. 3 ; Zech. viii. 7), or from some other one quarter (Dan. viii. 9, xi. 44 ; Am. viii. 12); exceptions to this usage occur in Ps. cvii. 3, and Is. xliii. 5 ; each, however, admitting of explanation. Again, kedem is used in a strictly geographical sense to de- scribe a spot or country immediately before another in an easterly direction ; hence it occurs in such passages as Gen. ii. 8, iii. 24, xi. 2, xiii. 11, xxv. 6 ; and hence the sub- sequent application of the term, as a proper name (Gen. xxv. 6, eastward, tmto the land of Kedem), to the lands lying immediately eastward of Palestine, viz. Arabia, Mesopo- tamia and Babylonia; on the other hand mizraeh is used of the far east with a less definite signification (Is. xli. 2, 25, xliii. 5, xlvi. 11). EASTER. The occurrence of this word in the A. V. of Acts xii. 4, is chiefly noticeable as an example of the want of consistency in the translators. In the earlier English ver- sions Easter had been frequently used as the translation of pascha (n-atrxa). At the last revision Passover was substituted in all pas- sages but this. [Passovfr.] E'BAL. 1. One of the sons of Shobal the son of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 23 ; 1 Chr. i. 40). — 2. Obal the son of Joktan (1 Chr. i. 22 ; comp. Gen. x. 28). E'BAL, MOUNT, a mount in the promised land, on which, according to the command of Moses, the Israelites were, after their en- trance on the promised land, to " put " the curse which should fall upon them if they disobeyed the commandments of Jehovah. The blessing consequent on obedience was to be similarly localised on Mount Gerizim (Deut. xi. 26-29) Ebal and Gerizim are the mounts which form the sides of the fertile valley in which lies Nablus, the ancient She- ciiEM — Ebal on the north and Gerizim on the south. One of the most serious varia- tions between the Hebrew text of the Penta- teuch and the Samaritan text, is in reference to Ebal and Gerizim. In Deut. xxvii. 4, the Samaritan has Gerizim, while the Hebrew (as in A. V.) has Ebal, as the mount on which the altar to Jehovah, and the inscription of the law were to be erected. Upon this basis they ground the sanctity of Gerizim and the authenticity of the temple and holy place, which did exist and still exist \here. The EBED 143 ECCLESIASTES modern name of Ebal is Sitti Salamiyah, from a Mohammedan female saint, whose tomb is standing on the eastern part of the ridge, a little before the highest point is reached. E'BED (many MSS. have Ebkr), father of Gaal, who with his brethren assisted the men of Shechem in their revolt against Abimelech (Judg. ix. 26, 2S, 30, 31, 35). E'BED-MEL'ECH, an Aethiopian eunuch in the service of king Zedekiah, through whose interference Jeremiah was released from prison (Jer. x.xxviii. 7 ff., xxxix. 1.5 ff.). His name seems to be an official tii\e= King's slave, i. e. minister. EB'EN-E'ZEE (" the stone of help "), a stone set up by Samuel after a signal defeat of the Philistines, as a memorial of the " hel,p " received on the occasion from Jehovah (1 Sam. vii. 12). Its position is carefully de- fined as between Mizpeh and Shen. E'BER, son of Salah, and great-grandson of Shem (Gen. x. 24 ; 1 Chr. i. 19). Eor con- fusion between Eber and Heber see Heber. EBI'ASAPH, a Kohathite Levite of the family of Korah, one of the forefathers of the prophet Samuel and of Heman the singer (1 Chr. vi. 23, 37), The same man is pro- bably intended in ix. 19. The name appears also to be identical with Abiasaph, and in one passage (1 Chr. xxvi. 1) to be abbrevi- ated to Asaph. EBONY (Tieb. hobmin) occurs only in Ez. xxvii. 1.5, as one of the valuable commodities imported into Tyre by the men of Dedan. The best kind of ebony is yielded by the Diospyros ebctium, a tree which grows in Ceylon and Southern India. Thei-e is every reason for believing that the ebony afforded by the Diospyt'os ebenum was imported from India or Ceylon by Phoenician traders. ECBAT'AXA (Heb. Achmethd). It is doubtful whether the name of this place is really contained in the Hebrew Scriptures. Many of the best commentators understand the expression, in Ezr. vi. 2, differently, and translate it "in a coffer." In the apocryphal books Ecbatana is frequently mentioned (Tob. iii. 7, xiv. 12, 14; Jud. i. 1, 2 ; 2 Mace. ix. 3, &c.). Two cities of the name of Ecbatana seem to have existed in ancient times, one the capital of Northern Media, the Media Atropatene of Strabo ; the other the metro- polis of the larger and more important pro- vince known as Media Magna. The site of the former appears to be marked by the very curious ruins at Takht-i-Suleiman (lat. 36° 28', long. 47° 9'); while that of the latter is occupied by Hamadan, which is one of the most important cities of modern Persia. There is generally some difficulty in determining, when Ecbatana is mentioned, whether the northern or the southern metropolis is in- tended. Few writers are aware of the exist- ence of the two cities, and they lie sufficiently near to one another for geographical notices in most cases to suit either site. The north- ern city was the " seven-walled town " de- scribed by Herodotus, and declared by him to have been the capital of Cyrus (Herod, i. 98, 99, 153) ; and it was thus most probably there that the loll was found which proved to Darius that Cyrus had really made a decree allowing the Jews to rebuild their temple. The peculiar feature of the site of Takht-i- Sule'tman is a conical hill rising to the height of about 1 50 feet above the plain, and covered both on its top and sides with massive ruins of the most antique and primitive character. In the 2nd book of Maccabees (ix. 3, &c.) the Ecbatana mentioned is undoubtedly the south- ern city, now represented both in name and site by Hamadan. This place, situated on the northern flank of the great mountain called formerly Orontes, and now Eluend, was per- haps as ancient as the other, and is far better known in history. If not the Median capital of Cyi-us, it was at any rate regarded from the time of Darius Hystaspis as the chief city of the Persian satrapy of Media, and as such it I became the summer residence of the Persian I kings from Darius downwards. The Ecbatana j of the book of Tobit is tho-ip-ht by Sir H. Rawlinson to be the northern city. ECCLESIAS'TES. The title of this book is in Hebrew Koheteth, a feminine noun, sig- nifying o?ie tcho speaks publicly in an assembly, and hence rendered in the Septuagint hyEccle- siastes, which is adopted in the English ver- sion. Koheleth is the name by which Solomon ECCLESIASTICUS ]44 EDOM speaks of himself throughout the book. " The words of the preacher (Heb. KoheletJi) the son of David, king of Jerusalem " (i. 1). The apparent anomaly of the feminine termination indicates that the abstract noun has been transferred from the office to the person hold- ing it. The Book is that which it professes to be — the confession of a man of wide expe- rience looking back upon his past life and looking out upon the disorders and calami- ties which surround him. The writer is a man who has sinned in giving way to selfish- ness and sensuality, who has paid the penalty of that sin in satiety and weariness of life, but who has through all this been under the discipline of a divine education, and has learnt from it the lesson which God meant to teach him. It is tolerably clear that the recurring burden of "Vanity of vanities" and the teaching which recommends a life of calm enjoyment, mark, whenever they occur, a kind of halting-place in the succession of thoughts. ECCLESIAS'TICUS, one of the books of the Apocrypha, is the title given in the Latin Version to the book which is called in the Septuagint Thk Wisdom of Jesus the Son of SiRACH. Tlie word designates the character of the writing, as publicly used in the ser- vices of the Church. The writer describes himself as Jesus (i. e, Jeshua) thn son of Sirach, of Jerusalem (i. 27), but we know nothing of the author. The language in which the book M'as originally composed was Hebrew, i. e. perhaps the Aramean dialect ; and the Greek translation incorporated in the LXX. was made by the grandson of the author in Egypt "in the reign of Euergetes," perhaps Ptolemy VII. Physcon, who also bore the surname of Euergetes (b.c. 170- 117). ECLIPSE OF THE SUN. No historical notice of an eclipse occurs in the Bible, but there are passages in the prophets which contain manifest allusion to this phenomenon (Am. viii. 9 ; Mic. iii. 6 ; Zech. xiv. 6 ; Joel ii. 10, 31, iii. 15). Some of these notices probably refer to eclipses that occurred about the time of the respective compositions : thus the date of Amos coincides with a total eclipse, which occurred Feb. 9, b.c. 784, and was visible at Jerusalem shortly after noon ; that of Micah with the eclipse of June 5, B.C. 716. A passing notice in Jer. xv. 9 coin- cides in date with the eclipse of Sept. 30, B.C. 610, so well known from Herodotus's ac- count (i. 74, 103). The darkness that over- spread the world at the crucifixion cannot with reason be attributed to an eclipse, as the m.oon was at the full at the time of the Passover. E'DAK, TOWER OF (accur. Eder), a place named only in Gen. xxxv. 21. According to Jerome it was 1000 paces from Bethlehem. E'DEN. 1. The first residence of man, called in the Septuagint Paradise. The latter is a word of Persian origin, and describes an extensive tract of pleasure land, somewhat like an English 2Mrk ; and the use of it sug- gests a wider view of man's first abode than a garden. The description ftf Eden is as follows: — "And the Lord God planted a garden in Eden eastward And a river goeth forth from Eden to water the garden ; and from thence it is divided and becomes four heads (or arms). The name of the first is Pison : that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where is the gold. And the gold of that land is good : there is the bdellium and the onyx stone. And the name of the second river is Gihon ; that is it which compasseth the whole land of Cush. And the name of the third river is Hiddekel ; that is it which fioweth before Assyria. And the fourth river, that is Euphrates" (Gen. ii. 8-14). In the eastern portion then of the region of Eden was the garden planted. The Hiddekel is the Tigris ; but with regard to the Pison and Gihon, a great variety of opinion exists. Many ancient writers, as Josephus, identified the Pison with the Ganges, and the Gihon with the Nile. Others, guided by the position of the two known rivers, identify the two unknown ones with the Phasis and Araxes, which also have their sources in the highlands of Armenia. Others, again, have transferred the site to the sources of the Oxus and Jaxartes, and place it in Bactria ; others, again, in the valley of Cash- mere. Such speculations may be multiplied ad infinitum, and have sometimes assumed the Avildest character. — 2. One of the marts which supplied the luxury of Tyre with richly embroidered stuffs. It is associated with Haran, Sheba, and Asshur. In 2 K. xix. 12, and Is. xxxvii. 12, "the sons of Eden" are mentioned with Gozan, Haran, and Kezeph, as victims of the Assyrian greed of conquest. In the absence of positive evidence, pro- bability seems to point to the N.W. of Meso- potamia as the locality of Eden. — 3. Bkth- Eden, " house of pleasure ;" probably the name of a country residence of the kings of Damascus (Am. i. 5). E'DOM, IDUME'A, or IDUMAE'A. The name Edom was given to Esau, the first-born son of Isaac, and twin brother of Jacob, when he sold his birthright to the latter for a meal of lentil pottage. The peculiar colour of the pottage gave rise to the name Edom, which signifies "red" (Gen. xxv. 29-34^ The country which the Lord subsequently gave EDOM 145 EDREI to Esau was hence called the " field of Edom " (Gen. xxxii. 3), or "land of Edom" (Gen. xxxvi. 16 ; Num. xxxiii. 37), and his de- Bcendants were called the Edomites. Probablj' its physical aspect may have had something to do with this. Edom was previously called Mount Seir (Gen. xxxii. 3, xxxvi. 8), from Seir the progenitor of the Horites (Gen. xiv. 6, xxxvi. 20-22). The name Seir was perhaps adopted on account of its being descriptive of the "rugged" character of the territory. The original inhabitants of the country were called Horites, from Hori, the grandson of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 22), because that name was descriptive of their habits as " Troglo- dytes," or " dwellers in caves." Edom was wholly a mountainous country. It embraced the narrow mountainous tract (about 100 miles long by 20 broad) extending along the eastern side of the Arabah from the northern end of the gulf of Elath to near the southern end of the Dead Sea. It was separated from Moab on the N. by the " brook Zered" (Deut. ii. 13, 14, 18), probably the modern Wady- el-Ahsy. The ancient capital of Edom was Bozrah {Buseireh) near tbe northern border (Gen. xxxvi. 33; Is. xxxiv. 6, Ixiii. 1 ; Jer. xlix. 13, 22). But Sela (Petra) appears to have been the principal stronghold in the days of Amaziah (b.c. 838; 2 K. xiv. 7): Elath and Eziongeber were the sea ports (2 Sam. viii. 14 ; i K. ix. 26).— Esau's bitter hatred to his brother Jacob for fraudulently obtaining his blessing appears to have been inherited by his latest posterity. The Edomites peremptorily refused to permit the Israelites to pass through their land (Num. xx. 18-21). For a period of 400 years we hear no more of the Edomites. They were then attacked and defeated by Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 47). Some forty years later David overthrew their army in the " Talley of Salt," and his general, Joab, following up the victory, destroyed nearly tbe whole male population (1 K. xi. 15, 16), and placed Jewish garrisons in all the strongholds of Edom (2 Sam. viii. 13, 14). In the reign of Jehoshaphat (b.c. 914) the Edomites attempted to invade Israel in con- junction with Amnion and Moab, but were miraculously destroyed in the valley of Bera- chah (2 Chr. xx. 22). A few years later they revolted against Jehoram, elected a king, and for half a century retained their independence (2 Chr. xxi. 8). They were then attacked by Amaziah, and Sela their great stronghold was captured (2 K. xiv. 7 ; 2 Chr. xxv. 11, 12). Yet the Israelites were never able again completely to subdue them (2 Chr. xxviii. 17). When Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem the Edomites joined him, and took an active part in the plunder of the city and Sm. D. B. slaughter of the Jews. Their cruelty at that time seems to be specially referred to in the 137th Psalm. It was on account of these acts of cruelty committed upon the Jews in the day of their calamity that the Edomites were so fearfully denounced by the later prophets (Is. xxxiv. 5-8, Ixiii. 1-4; Jer. xlix. 17; Lam. iv. 21 ; Ez. xxv. 13, 14 ; Am. i. 11, 12 ; Obad. 10 sq.). On the conquest of Judah, the Edomites, probably in reward for their services during the war, were permitted to settle in southern Palestine, and the whole plateau between it and Egypt, which now usually bore the Greek name of Idiimaca ; but they were about the same time driven out of Edom Proper by the Nabatheans. For more than four centuries they continued to prosper. But during the warlike rule of the Maccabees they were again completely sub- dued, and even forced to conform to Jewish laws and rites, and submit to the government of Jewish prefects. The Edomites were now incorporated with the Jewish nation, and the whole province was often termed by Greek and Roman writers Idiimaca. Immediately before the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, 20,000 Idumaeans were admitted to the Holy City, which they filled with robbery and bloodshed. From this time the Edomites, as a separate people, disappear from the page of history. — Little is known of their religion; but that little shows them to have been ido- laters (2 Chr. xxv. 14, 15, 20). Their habits were singular. The Horites, their predecessors in Mount Seir, were, as their name implies, troglodytes, or dwellers in caves ; and the Edomites seem to have adojjtcd their dwellings as well as their country. Everywhere we meet with caves and grottoes hewn in the soft sandstone strata. Those at Petra are well known. The nature of the climate, the dryness of the soil, and their great size, render them healthy, pleasant, and commodious habitations, while their security- made them specially suitable to a country exposed in every age to incessant attacks of robbers. ED'REI. 1. One of the two capital cities of Bashan (Num. xxi. 33 ; Deut. i. 4, iii. 10 ; Josh. xii. 4). In Scripture it is only men- tioned in connexion with the victory gained by the Israelites over the Amorites under Og their king, and the territory thus acquired. The ruins of this ancient city, still bearing the name Edr'a, stand on a rocky promontory which projects from the S.W. corner of the Lejah. The ruins are nearly three miles in circumference, and have a strange wild look, rising up in black shattered masses from the midst of a wilderness of black rocks. — 2. A town of northern Palestine, allotted to the tribe L EGLAH 146 EGYPT of Naphtali, and situated near Kedesh (Josh. xix. 37). About two miles south of Kedesh is a conical rocky hill called Tell Khuraiheh. the "Tell of the ruin," which may be the site of Edrei. EG'LAH, one of David's wives during his reign in Hebron, and the mother of his son Ithream (2 Sam. iii. 5; 1 Chr. iii. 3). Ac- cording to the ancient Hebrew tradition, she was Michal. EGLA'IM, a place named only in Is. xv. 8, probably the same as En-eglaim. EG'LON. 1. A king of the Moabites ( Judg. iii. 12 fF.), who, aided by the Ammonites and the Amalekites, crossed the Jordan and took " the city of palm-trees." Here, according to Josephus, he built himself a palace, and continued for eighteen years to oppress the children of Israel, who paid him tribute. He was slain by Ehud. [Ehvd.] — 2. A town of Judah in the low country (Josh, xv, 39). During the struggles of the conquest, Eglon was one of a confederacy of five towns, which under Jerusalem attempted resistance, by attacking Gibeon after the treaty of the latter with Israel (Josh. x.). The name sur- vives in the modern Ajlan, a shapeless mass of ruins, about 10 miles from Eleutheropolis and H from Gaza, on the S. of the great maritime plain. EGYPT, a country occupying the north- eastern angle of Africa. Its limits appear always to have been very nearly the same. In Ezekiel (xxix. 10, xxx. 6) the whole country is spoken of as extending from Migdol to Syene, which indicates the same limits to the east and the south as at pre- sent.— Names. The common name of Egypt in the Bible is "Mizraim," or more fully ** the land of Mizraim." In form Mizraim is a dual, and accordingly it is generally joined with a plural verb. When, therefore, in Gen. X. 6, Mizraim is mentioned as. a son of Ham, we must not concLude that anything more is meant than that Egypt was colonized by descendants of Ham. The dual number doubtless indicates the natural division of the country into an upper and a lower region. The singular Mazor also occurs, and some suppose that it indicates Lower Egypt, but there is no sure ground for this assertion. The Arabic name of Egypt, Mizr, signifies "red mud." Egypt is also called in the Bible "the land of Ham" (Ps. cv. 23, 27 ; comp. Ixxviii. 51), a name most probably referring to Ham the son of Noah ; and " Rahab," the proud or insolent : both these appear to be poetical appellations. The common ancient Egyptian name of the country is written ia hieroglyphics KEM, which, was perhaps pronounced Chem. This name sig nifies, alike in the ancient language and in Coptic, " black," and may be supposed to have been given to the land on account of the blackness of its alluvial soil. We may reason- ably conjecture that Kem is the Egyptian equivalent of Ham, and also of Mazor, thpse two words being similar or even the same in sense. Under the Pharaohs Egypt was divided into Upper and Lower, . " the two regions." In subsequent times this double division ob- tained. In the time of the Greeks and Romans Upper Egypt was divided into the Hcpta- nomis and the Theba'is, making altogether three provinces, but the division of the whole country into two was even then the most usual. ■ — General appearance. Climate, <^c. The general appearance of the country cannot have greatly changed since the days of Moses. The Delta was always a vast level plain, al- though of old more perfectly watered than now by the branches of the Nile and numerous canals, while the narrow valley of Upper Egypt must have suffered still less alteration. Anciently, however, the rushes must have been abundant ; whereas now they have almost disappeared, except in the lakes. The whole country is remarkable for its extreme fer- tility, which especially strikes the beholder when the rich green of the fields is contrasted with the utterly bare yellfw mountains or the sand-strewn rocky desert on either side. The climate is equable and healthy. Rain is not very unfrequent on the northern coast, but inland vory rare. Cultivation nowhere de- pends upon it. This absence of rain is men- tioned in Deut. (xi. 10, 11) as rendering artificial irrigation necessary, unlike the case of Palestine, andinZech. (xiv. 18) as peculiar to the country. Egypt has been visited in all ages by severe pestilences. Famines are fre- quent, and one in the middle ages, in the time of the Fatimee Khaleefeh El-Mustansir- billah, seems to have been even more severe than that of Joseph. The inundation of the Nile fertilises and sustains the country, and makes the river its chief blessing. The Nile was on this account anciently worshipped. The rise begins in Egypt about the summer solstice, and the inundation commences about two months later. The greatest height is attained about or somewhat after the au- tumnal equinox. The inundation lasts about three months. — Cultiratio7i, Agriculture, <^c. The ancient prosperity of Egypt is attested by the Bible as well as by the numerous monuments of the country. As early as the age of the Great Pyramid it must have been densely populated. The contrast of the pre- sent state of Egypt to its former prosperity ia more to be ascribed to political than to physical causes. Egypt is naturally an agri- EGYPT 147 EGYPT cultural country. As far back as the days of Abraham, we find that when the produce failed in Palestine, Egypt was the natural re- source. In the time of Joseph it was evi- dently the granary, at least during famines, of the nations around. The inundation, as taking the place of rain, has always rendered the system of agriculture peculiar ; and the artificial irrigation during the time of low Nile is necessarily on the same principle. Vines were extensively cultivated. Of other fruit-trees, the date-palm was the most com- mon and valuable. The gardens resembled the fields, being watered in the same manner by irrigation. On the tenure of land much light is thrown by the history of Joseph. Before the famine each city and large village had its field (Gen. xli. 48) ; but Joseph gained for Pharaoh all the land, except that of the priests, in exchange for food, and required for the right thus obtained a fifth of the produce, which became a law (xlvii. 20-26). — Reli- gion. The basis of the religion was Nigritian fetishism, the lowest kind of nature-worship, diff'ering in different parts of the country, and hence obviouslj' indigenous. Upon this were engrafted, first, cosmic worship, mixed up with traces of primeval revelation, as in Babylonia ; and then, a system of personifica- tions of moral and intellectual abstractions. There were three orders of gods — the eight great gods, the twelve lesser, and the Osirian group. There was no prominent hero-wor- ship, although deceased kings and other in- dividuals often received divine honours. The great doctrines of the immortality of the soul, man's responsibility, and future rewards and punishments, were taught. Among the rites, circumcision is the most remai-kable : it is as old as the time of the ivth dynasty. The Israelites in Egypt appear during the op- pression, for the most part, to have adopted the Egyptian religion (Josh. xxiv. 14 ; Ez. XX. 7,8). The golden calf, or rather steer, was probably taken from the bull Apis, cer- tainly from one of the sacred bulls. Rem- phan and Chiun were foreign divinities adopted into the Egyptian Pantheon. Ash- toreth was worshipped at :\Iemphis. Doubt- less this worship was introduced by the Phoenician Shepherds. — Army. There are some notices of the Egyptian army in the O. T. They show, like the monuments, that its most important branch was the chariot-force. The Pharaoh of the Exodus led 60(i chosen chariots besides his whole chariot-force in pursuit of the Israelites. The warriors fighting in chariots are probably the "horsemen" men- tioned in the relation of this event and else- where, for in Egyptian they are called the "horse" or "cavalry." "We have no s;b>c- quent indication in the Bible of the constitu- tion of an Egyptian army until the time of the xxiind dynastj', when we find that Shi- shak's invading force was partly composed of foreigners ; whether mercenaries or allies, cannot as yet be positively determined, al- though the monuments make it most probable that they were of the former character. The army of Necho, defeated at Carchemish, seems to have been similarly composed, although it probably contained Greek mercenaries, who soon afterwards became the most important foreign element in the Egyptian forces.— Domestic Life. The sculptures and paintingn of the tombs give us a very full insight into the domestic life of the ancient Egyptians. What most strikes us in their manners is the high position occupied by women, and the entire absence of the harem sj^stem of seclusion. Marriage appears to have been universal, at least with the richer class ; and if polygamy were tolerated it was rarely practised. There were no castes, although great classes were very distinct. The occupations of the higher class were the superintendence of their fields and gardens ; their diversions, the pursuit of game in the deserts, or on the river, and fishing. The tending of cattle was left to the most despised of the lower class. The Egyptian feasts, and the dances, music, and feats which accompanied them, for the diversion of the guests, as well as the common games, were probably introduced among the Hebrews in the most luxurious days of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The account of the noon- tide dinner of Joseph (Gen. xliii. 16, 31-34) agrees with the representations of the monu- ments. The funeral ceremonies were far more important than any events of the Egyp- tian life as the tomb was regarded as the only true home. — Magicians. We find frequent reference in the Bible to the magicians of Egypt (Gen. xli. 8; Ex. vii. 11, &c.). The monuments do not recognise any such art, and we must conclude that magic was secretly practised, not because it was thought to be unlawful, but in order to give it importance. — InrJustrial Arts. The industrial arts held an important place in the o'^cupations of the Egyptians. The workers in fine flax and the weavers of white linen are mentioned in a manner that shows thej^ were among the chief contributors to the riches of the country (Is. xix. 9). The fine linen of Egypt found its way to Palestine (Prov. vii. 16). Pottery was a great branch of the native manufac- tures, and appears to have furnished employ- ment to the Hebrews during the bondage (Ps. Ixxxi. G, Ixviii. 13 ; comp. Ex. i. 14\ — Festivals. The religious festivals were nume- rous, and some of them were, in the davs of I. 2 EGYPT 148 EGYPT Herodotus, kept with great merr3'making and license. The feast which the Israelites cele- brated when Aaron had made the golden calf seems to have been very much of the same character. — Historij. The ancient history of I'^gypt may be divided into three portions : — the old monarchy, extending from the foun- dation of the kingdom to the invasion of the Hyksos ; the middle, from the entrance to the expulsion of the Hyksos ; and the new, from the re-establishment of the native mo- narchy by Amosis to the Persian conquest. — (1.) The Old Monarchy. Memphis was the most ancient capital, the foundation of which is ascribed to Menes, the first mortal king of Egypt. The names of the kings, divided into thirty dynasties, are handed down in the liNts of Manetho,* and are also known from the works which they executed. The most memorable epoch in the history of the Old Monarchy is that of the Pyramid kings, placed in ]\Ianetho's fourth dynasty. Their names are found upon these monuments : tbe builder of the great pyramid is called Suphis by Manetho, Cheops by Herodotus, and Khufu or Shiifu, in an inscription upon the pyramid. The erection of the second pyramid is attri- buted by Herodotus and Diodorus to Cheph- ren ; and upon the neighbouring tombs has been read the name of Khafra, or Shafre. The builder of tbe third pyramid is named Mycerinus by Herodotus and Diodorus ; and in this very pyramid a coffin has been found bearing the name Menkura. Tbe most power- ful kings of the Old Monarchy were those of Manetho's twelfth dynasty : to this period are assigned the construction of the Lake of Moeris and the Labyrinth.— (2.) Tlte Middle Mo- narchy. Of this period we only know that a nomadic horde called Hyksos \ for several centuries occupied and made Egypt tributary ; that their capital was Memphis ; that in the Sethroite nome they constructed an immense earth-camp, which they called Abaris ; that at a certain period of their occupation two in- dependent kingdoms were formed in Egypt, one in the Thebaid, whicb held intimate re- lations with Ethiopia ; another at Xois, among the marshes of the Nile ; and that, finally, the Egyptians regained their independence, and expelled the Hyksos, who thereupon re- tired into Palestine. The Hyksos form the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth dynasties. iManetho says they were Arabs, but he calls the six kings of the fifteenth dynasty Phoe- ** Manetho w.is an Egj-ptian priest who lived 'under the Ptolemies in ilie 3i"d ceniury B.C. iinfi wrote in liieck a history of Kgypt, in which he divided the kings into thirty dynastie.s. The work itself is lost, but the l.sls of dynasties have been preserved by the Christian writers. > Tliis. their Egj-ptian name, is derived by Manetho fiom ilyk, a king, and Sos, a shepherd. nicians. — (3.) The New Monarchy extends from the commencement oi the eighteenth to the end of the thirtieth dynasty. The kingdom was consolidated by Amosis, who succeeded in expelling the Hyksos, and thus prepared the way for the foreign expeditions which his successors carried on in Asia and Africa, ex- tending from Mesopotamia in the former to Ethiopia in the latter continent. The glorious era of Egyptian history was under the nine- teenth dynasty, when Sethi I., u.c. 1322, and his grandson, Rameses the Great, B.C. 1311, both of whom represent the Sesostris of the Greek historians, carried their arms over the whole of Western Asia and southwards into Soudan, and amassed vast treasures, which were expended on public works. Under the later kings of the nineteenth dynasty the power of Egypt faded : the twentieth and twenty-first dynasties achieved nothing worthy of record ; but with the tiventy-second we enter upon a period that is interesting from its associations with Biblical history, the first of this dynasty, Sheshonk I. (Seconchis) b.c. 990, being the Shishak who invaded Judaea in llehoboam's reign and pillaged the Temple (1 Kings xiv. 25). Probably his successor, Osorkon I., is the Zerah of Scripture, de- feated by Asa. Egypt makes no figure in Asiatic history during the xxiiird and xxivth dynasties : under the xxvth it regained, in part at least, its ancient importance. This was an Ethiopian line, the warlike sovereigns of which strove to the utmost to repel the onward stride of Assyria. So, whom we are disposed to identify with Shebek II. or Se- bichus, the second Ethiopian, made an alliance with Hosheathe last king of Israel. Tehrak or Tirhakah, the third of this house, advanced against Sennacherib in support of Hezekiah. After this, a native dynasty again occupied the throne, the xxvith, of Saite kings. Psam- etek I. or Psammetichus I. (b.c. 6G4), who may be regarded as the head of this dynasty, warred in Palestine, and took Ashdod, Azotus, after a siege of twenty-nine years. Neku or Necho, the son of Psammetichus, continued the war in the East, and marched along the coast of Palestine to attack the king of As- syria. At Megiddo Josiah encountei'ed him (b.c. 608-7), notwithstanding the remon- strance of the Egyptian king, which is very illustrative of the policy of the Pharaohs in the east (2 Chr. xxxv. 21), no less than is his lenient conduct after the defeat and death of the king of Judah. The army of Necho was after a short space routed at Carchemisb by Nebuchadnezzar, b.c. 605-4 (Jer. xlvi. 2), The second successor of Necho, Apries, or Pha- raoh-Hophra, sent his army into Palestine to the aid of Zedekiah (Jer. xxxvii. 5, 7, 11), EHUD J 49 ELAM so that the siege of Jerusalem was raised for a time, and kindly received the fugitives from the captured city. He seems to have been afterwards attacked by Nebuchadnezzar in his own country. There is, however, no cer- tain account of a complete subjugation of Egypt by the king of Babylon. Amasis, the successor of Apries, had a long and pros- perous reign, and somewhat restored the weight of Egypt in the East. But the new power of Persia was to prove even more ter- rible to his house than Babylon had been to the house of Psammetichus, and the son of Amasis had reigned but six months when Cambyses reduced the country to the con- dition of a province of his empire b.c. 525. — With respect to the difficult question of the period of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, the following remarks may suffice. The chronology of Egypt is now so far settled that the accession of tiie eighteenth dynasty may be regarded as fixed to within a few years of b.c. 1525. The era of the Exodus, in the system of Ussher, is b.c. 1491. The obvious conclusion agrees with the statement of Manetho, that Moses left Egypt under Amosis, the first king of the eighteenth dynasty. The same king, as we have already seen, ex- pelled the Shepherd Kings ; and there is, in fact, no doubt that the great power of the eighteenth dynasty was connected with this expulsion. In this change of dynasty many writers see a natural explanation of the "new king who knew not Joseph." If this view is correct, Joseph would have come into Egypt under one of the later kings of the Shepherd dynasty. But, plausible as this theory is, the uncertainty in which Scriptural chronology is involved prevents us from coming to any definite conclusion. Lepsius and other emi- nent Egyptologers place the arrival of the Israelites under the eighteenth dynasty, and the Exodus under the nineteenth, in the year 1314 B.C. He identifies the chief oppressor, from whom Moses fled, with the great king of the nineteenth dynasty, Ramesks II., and the Pharaoh of the Exodus with his son and successor Menptah, or Phthahjien. Mr, Poole, however, takes an entirely opposite view, and places not only the arrival of the Israelites in Egypt, but also the Exodus, within the djTiasties of the Shepherd kings. It seems impossible to come to any defi- nite conclusion upon the subject. The diffi- culty of a solution is still further increased by the uncertainty as to the length of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, whether it was 215 years, according to the Sep- tuagint, or 430 years according to the Hebiew. E'HUD, son of Gera of the tribe of Ben- jamin (Judg. iii. 15), the second Judge of the Israelites. In the Bible he is not culled a Judge but a deliverer (I. c.) : so Otbniel (Judg. iii. 9) and all the Judges (Neh. ix. 27). As a Benjamite he was specially chosen to destroy Eglon, who had established him- self in Jericho, which was included in xht boundaries of that tribe. He was very strong, and left-handed. [Egi.on.] EK RON, one of the five towns belonging to the lords of the Philistines, andthemo^t northerly of the five (Josh. xiii. 3). Like the other Philistine cities its situation was in the lowlands. It fell to the lot of Judah (Josh. XV. 45, 46 ; Judg. i. 18), and indceu formed one of the landmarks on his north border. We afterwards, however, find it mentioned among the cities of Dan (Josh, xix. 43). But it mattered little to which tribe it nominally belonged, for before the monarchy it was again in full possession of the Philistines (1 Sam. v. 10). 'Akir, the modern representative of Ekron, lies at about 5 miles S.W. of liamleh. In the Apocrypha it appears as Accaron (1 Mace. x. 89, only). E'LAH. 1. The son and successor of Baasha, king of Israel (1 K. xvi. 8-10) ; his reign lasted for little more than a year (comp. ver. 8 with 10). He was killed, while drunk, by Zimri, in the house of his steward Arza, who was probably a confederate in the plot. — 2. Father of Hoshea, the last king of Israel (2 K. XV. 30, xvii. 1). ELAH, THE VALLEY OF (= Valley of the Terebinth), a valley in (not "by," as the A. V. has it) which the Israelites were encamped against the Philistines when David killed Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 19). It is once more mentioned in the same connexion (xxi. 9). It lay somewhere near Socoh of Judah and Azekah, and was nearer Plkron than any other Philistine town. So much may be gathered from the narrative of 1 Sam. xvii. E'LA:M seems to have been originally the name of a man, the son of Shem (Gen. x. 22 ; I Chr. i. 17). Commonly, however, it is used as the appellation of a country (Gen. xiv. 1, 9 ; Is. xi. 11 ; xxi. 2 ; Jer. xxv. 2.5 ; xlix. 34-39 ; Ez. xxxii. 24 ; Dan. viii. 2). The Elam of Scripture appears to be the pro- vince lying south of Assyria and east of Persia Proper, to which Herodotus gives the name of Cissia (iii. 91, v. 49, &c.), and which is termed Susis or Susiana by the geo- graphers. It appears from Gen. x. 22, that this country was originally peopled by de- scendants of Shem, closely allied to the Ara- maeans (Syrians) and the Assyrians ; and from Gen. xiv. 1-12, it is evident that by the time of Abraham a very important power had KLATH 150 ELEAZAR been built up in the same region. It is plain that at this early time the predominant power in Lower Mesopotamia was Elam, which for a while held the place possessed earlier by Babjion (Gen. x. 10), and later by either Babylon or Assyria. E'LATH, E'LOTH, the name of a town of the land of Edom, commonly mentioned to- gether with Ezion-geber, and situate at the head of the Arabian Gulf, Mhich was thence called the Elaiiitic Gulf. It first occurs in the account of the wanderings (Deut. ii. 8), and in later times must have come under the rule of David in his conquest of the land of Edom (2 Sam. viii, 14). We find the place named again in connexion with Solomon's navy (1 K. ix. 26; comp. 2 Chr. viii. 17). It Avas apparently included in the revolt of Edom against Jorum recorded in 2 K. viii. 20 ; but it was taken by Azariah (xiv. 22). After this, however, " Kezin king of Syria recovered Elath, and drave out the Jews from Elath, and the Syrians came to Elath and dwelt there to this day " (xvi. 6). From this time the place is not mentioned until the Roman period, during which it became a frontier-town of the south, and the residence of a Christian bishop. The Arabic name is Eijleh. EL-BETII'EL, the name which Jacob is said to have bestoved on the place at which God appeared to him when he was flying from Esau (Gen. xxv. 7), EL'DAD and ME'DAD, two of the 70 elders to whom was communicated the pro- phetic power of Moses (Num. xi. 16, 26). Although their names were upon the list which Moses liad drawn up (xi. 26), they did not repair with the rest of their brethren to the tabernacle, but continued to prophesy in the camp. Moses being requested by Joshua to forbid this, refused to do so, and expressed a wish that the gift of prophecy might be diffused throughout the people. ELDER. The term elder or old man, as the Hebrew literally imports, was one of ex- tensive use, as an official title, among the Hebrews and the surrounding nations. It had reference to various offices (Gen. xxiv. 2, 1. 7 ; 2 Sam. xii. 17; Ez. xxvii. 9). As betokening a political office, it applied not only to the Hebrews, but also to the Egyp- tians (Gen. 1. 7), the Moabites and Midianites (Num. xxii. 7). Wherever a patriarchal sys- tem is in force, the office of the elder will be found, as the keystone of the social and poli- tical fabric ; it is so at the present day among the Arabs, where tlie Sheikh [= the old man) is the highest authority in the tribe. The earliest notice of the elders acting in concert as a political body is at the time of the Exo- dus. They were the representatives of the people, so much so that elders and people are occasionally used as equivalent terms (comp. Josh. xxiv. 1 with 2, 19, 21 ; 1 Sam. viii. 4 with 7, 10, 19). Their authority was unde- fined, and extended to all matters concerning the public weal. When the tribes became settled the elders were distinguished by dif- ferent titles according as they were acting as national representatives, as district governors over the several tribes (Deut. xxxi. 28 ; 2 Sam. xix. 11), or as local magistrates in the provincial towns, whose duty it was to sit in the gate and administer justice (Deut. xix. 12 ; Ruth iv. 9, 11 ; IK. xxi. 8). Their number and influence may be inferred from 1 Sam. XXX. 26 ff. They retained their posi- tion under all the political changes Avhich the Jews underwent : under the Judges (Judg. ii. 7 ; 1 Sam. iv. 3) ; under the kings (2 Sam. xvii, 4) ; during the captivity (Jer. xxix. 1 ; Ez. viii. 1) ; subsequently to the return (Ezr. V. 5, vi. 7, 14, x. 8, 14) ; under the Maccabees, when they were described some- times as the senate (1 Mace, xii, 6 ; 2 Mace, i. 10, iv. 44, xi. 27), sometimes by their or- dinary title (1 Mace. vii. 33, xi. 23, xii. 35) ; and, lastly, at the commencement of the Christian era, when they are noticed as a distinct body from the Sanhedrim. St. Luke describes the whole order by the collective term npea^v-rripiov (Luke xxii. 66 ; Acts xxii. 5). With respect to the elders in the Chris- tian Church, see Bishop. ELE'ALEH, a place on the east of Jordan, taken possession of and rebuilt by the tribe of Reuben (Num. xx.xii. 3, 37). By Isaiah and Jeremiah it is mentioned as a Moabite town (Is. XV. 4, xvi. 9 ; Jer. xlviii. 34). ELEA'ZAR, 1. Third son of Aaron, by Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab, After the death of Nadab and Abihu without chil- dren (Lev. X. 1 ; Num. iii. 4), Eleazar was appointed chief over the principal Levites (Num. iii. 32). With his brother Ithamar he ministered as a priest during their father's lifetime, and immediately before his death was invested on Mount Ilor with the sacred gar- ments, as the successor of Aaron in the office of High-priest (Num. xx. 28). One of his first duties was in conjunction with Moses to superintend the census of the people (Num. XX vi. 3). After the conquest of Canaan by Joshua he took part in the distribution of the land (Josh. xiv. 1). The time of his death is not mentioned in Scripture. — 2. The son of Abinadab, of the hillof Kirjath-jearim (1 Sam. vii. 1). — 3. The son of Dodo the Ahohite, i. e. possibly a descendant of Ahoah of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr. viii. 4) ; one of the three principal mighty men of David's army (2 Sam. xxiii. 9; 1 Chr. xi. 12).— 4, EL-ELOHE-ISRAEL 151- ELIJAH Surnamed Avaean (1 Mace. ii. 5), the fourth son of Mattathias, who fell by a noble act of self-devotion in an engagement with Antio- chus Eupator, b.c. 164 (1 Mace. vi. 43 S.). In a former battle with Nicanor, Eleazar was appointed by Judas to read " the holy book " before the attack, and the watchword in the fight— "The help of God" — was his own name (2 Mace. viii. 23). EL-EL'OHE-IS'RAEL, the name bestowed by Jacob on the altar which he erected facing the city of Shechem (Gen. xxxiii. 19, 20). ELEPHANT. The word does not occur in the text of the canonical Scriptures of the A. v., but is found as the marginal reading to Behemoth, in Job xl. 15. " Elephants' teeth " is the marginal reading for " ivory " in 1 K. X. 22 ; 2 Chr. ix. 41. Elephants however are repeatedly mentioned in the 1st and 2nd books of Maccabees, as being used in warfare (1 Mace. vi.). ELEU'THERUS, a river of Syria men- tioned in I Mace. xi. 7 ; xii. 30. It sepa- rated Syria from Phoenicia, and formed the northern limit of Coele-syria. It is the mo- dern Nahr-el'Kebtr, " Great River." E'LI was descended from Aaron through Ithamar, tlie youngest of his two surviving sons (Lev. x. 1, 2, 12 ; comp. 1 K. ii. 27 with 2 Sam. viii. 17 ; 1 Chr. xxiv. 3). As the history makes no mention of any high- priest of the line of Ithamar before Eli, he is generally supposed to have been the first of that line who held the office. From him, his sons having died before him, it appears to have passed to his grandson, Ahitub (1 Sam. xiv. 3), and it certainly remained in bis family till Abiathar, the grandson of Ahitub, was " thrust out from being priest unto the Lord " by Solomon for his share in Adonijah's rebellion (1 K. ii. 26, 27 ; i. 7), and the liigh- priesthood passed back again to the family of Eleazar in the person of Zadok (1 K. ii. 35). Its return to the elder branch was one part of the punishment which had been denounced against Eli during his lifetime, for his cul- pable negligence (1 Sam. ii. 22-25) when his sons by their rapacity and licentiousness pro- faned the priesthood, and brought the rites of religion into abhorrence among the people (1 Sam. ii. 27-36, with 1 K. ii. 27). Not- withstanding this one great blemish, the cha- racter of Eli is marked by eminent piety, as shewn by his meek submission to the divine 'udgment (1 Sam. iii. 18), and his supreme re- gard for the ark of God (iv. 1 8 ) . In addition to the office of high-priest he held that of judge, being the immediate predecessor of his pupil Samuel (1 Sam. vii. 6, 15-17), the last of the judges. He died at the advanced age of 98 years (1 Sam. iv. 15), overcome by the dis- astrous intelligence that the ark of God had been taken in battle by the Philistines, who had also slain his sons Hophni and Phinehas. ELI'AKIM. 1. Son of Hilkiah ; master of Hezekiah's household (" over the house," as Is. xxxvi. 3), 2 K. xviii. 18, 26, 37. He succeeded Shebna in this office, after he had been ejected from it as a punishment for his pride (Is. xxii. 15-20). Eliakim was a good man, as appears by the title emphatically applied to him by God, "my servant Elia- kim" (Is. xxii. 20), and as was evinced by lus conduct on the occasion of ScHnaeherib's in- vasion (2 K. xviii. 37, xix. 1-5), and also in the discharge of the duties of his high station, in which he acted as a " father to the inha- bitants of Jerusalem, and to the hou'^e of Judah " (Is. xxii. 21). — 2. The original name of Jehoiakim king of Judah (2 K. xxiii. 34 ; 2 Chr. xxxvi. 4). ELl'AS, the form in which the name of Elijah i,s given in the A. V. of the Apocrypha and N. Test. ELIE'ZER. 1. Abraham's chief servant, called by him " Eliezer of Damascus " (Gen. XV. 2). There is an apparent contradic- tion in the A. V., for it does not appear how, if he was " of Damascus," he coulc be "born in Abraham's house" (ver. 3). But the phrase " son of my house," only im- ports that he was one of Abraham's house- hold, not that he was born in his house. It was, most likely, this same Eliezer who is de- scribed in Gen. xxiv. 2.-2. Second son of Moses and Zipporah, to whom his father gave this name, "because, said he, the God of my father was my help, that delivered me from the sword of Pharaoh" (Ex. xviii. 4 ; 1 Chr. xxiii. 15, 17). He remained with his mother and brother Gersbom, in the care of Jethro his grandfather, when Moses returned to Egypt (Ex.iv. 18) she having been sent back to her father by Moses (Ex. xviii. 2), though she set off to accompany him, and went part of the way with him. ELl'HU, one of the interlocutors in the book of Job. [Job.] He is described as the " son of Barachel the Buzite," and thus ap- parently referred to the family of Buz, the son of Nahor, and nephew of Abraham (Gen. xxii. 21). ELl'JAH has been well entitled " the grandest and the most romantic character that Israel ever produced." Certainly there is no personage in the 0. T. whose career is more vividly portrayed, or who exercises on us a more remarkable fascination. " Elijah the Tishbite of the inhabitants of Gilead," is lite- rally all that is given us to know of his pa- rentage and locality. To an Israelite of the tribes west of Jordan the title " Gileadite " ELIJAH i.v: ELIJAH must have conveyed a similar impi-ession, thougrh in a far stronger degree, to that which the title " Celt " does to us. What the High- lands were a century ago to the towns in the Lowlands of Scotland, that, and more than that, must Gilead have been to Samaria or Jerusalem. It is impossible rightly to esti- mate his character without recollecting this fact. It is seen at every turn. Of his ap- pearance as he " stood before " Ahab, with the suddenness of motion to this day cha- racteristic of the Bedouins from his native hills, we can perhaps realise something from the touches, few, but strong, of the narra- tive. His chief characteristic was his hair, long and thick, and hanging down his back ; which, if not betokening the immense strength of Samson, yet accompanied powers of endur- ance no less remarkable. His ordinary cloth- ing consisted of a girdle of skin round his . loins, which he tightened when about to move quickly (1 K. xviii. 46). But in addition to this he occasionally wore the " mantle," or cape, of sheepskin, which has supplied us with one of our most familiar figures of speech. In this mantle, in mo- ments of emotion, he would hide his face (1 K. xix. 13), or when excited would roll it up as into a kind of staff. The solitary life in which these external peculiarities had been assumed had also nurtured that fierceness of zeal and that directness of address which so distinguished him. It was in the wild lone- liness of the hills and ravines of Gilead that the knowledge of Jehovah, the living God of Israel, had been impressed on his mind, which was to form the subject of his mission to the idolatrous court and country of Israel. The northern kingdom had at this time forsaken almost entirely the faith in Jehovah. The worship of I4ie calves had been a departure from Him ; but still it would appear that even in the presence of the calves Jehovah was acknowledged, and they were at any rate a national institution, not one imported from the idolatries of any of the surrounding countries. But the case was quite different when Ahab introduced the foi-eign religion of his wife's family, the worship of the Phoe- nician Baal. It is as a witness against these two evils that Elijah comes forward. — 1. What we may call the first Act in his life embraces between three and four years — three years and six months for the duration of the di-ought, according to the statements of the New Testament (Luke iv. 25 ; James V. 17), and three or four months more for the journey to Horeb, and the return to Gilead (1 K. xvii. 1 — xix. 21). His intro- duction is of the most startling description : he suddenly appears before Ahab, as with the unrestrained freedom of eastern manners he would have no difficulty in doing, and pro- claims the vengeance of Jehovah for the apostasy of the king. What immediate action followed on this we are not told ; but it is plain that Elijah had to fly before some threat- ened vengeance either of the king, or more probably of the queen (comp. xix. 2). Perhaps it was at this juncture that Jezebel " cut off the prophets of Jehoyah "(IK. xviii. 4). He was directed to the brook Cherith. There in the hollow of the torrent-bed he remained, supported in the miraculous manner with which we are all familiar, till the failing of the brook obliged him to forsake it. His next refuge was at Zarephath, a Phoenician town lying between Tyre and Sidon, certainly the last place at which the enemy of Baal would be looked for. The widdw woman in whose house he lived seems, however, to have been an Israelite, and no Baal-wor- shipper, if we may take her adjuration by " Jehovah thy God " as an indication. Here Elijah pei-formed the miracles of prolonging the oil and the meal ; and restored the son of the widow to life after his apparent death. In this, or some other retreat, an interval of more than two years must have elapsed. The drought continued, and at last the full horrors of famine, caused by the failure of the crops, descended on Samaria. The king and his chief domestic officer divided between them the mournful duty of ascertaining that neither round the springs, which are so fre- quent a feature of central Palestine, nor in the nooks and crannies of the most shaded torrent-beds, was there any of the herbage left, which in those countries is so certain an indication of the presence of moisture. It is the moment for the reappearance of the pro- phet. He shows himself first to the minister. There, suddenly planted in his path, is the man whom he and his master have been seeking for more than three years. Before the sudden apparition of that wild figure, and that stern, unbroken countenance, Oba- diah could not but fall on his face. Elijah, however, soon calms his agitation — " As Je- hovah of hosts liveth, before whom I stand, I will surely show myself to Ahab ;" and thus relieved of his fear that, as on a former occa- sion, Elijah would disappear before he could return with the king, Obadiah departs to in- form Ahab that the man they seek is there. Ahab arrived, Elijah makes his charge — " Thou hast forsaken Jehovah and followed the Baals." He then commands that all Is- rael be collected to Mount Carmel with the four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal, and the four hundred of Asherah (Ashtaroth), the latter being under the especial protection of ELIJAH 153 ELIJAH the queen. There are few more sublime stories in history than this. On the one hand the solitary servant of Jehovah, accom- panied by his one attendant ; with his wild shaggy hair, his scanty garb and sheepskin cloak, but with calm dignity of demeanour and the minutest regularity of procedure, re- pairing the ruined altar of Jehovah -with twelve stones — on the other hand the 850 prophets of Baal and Ashtaroth, doubtless in all the splendour of their vestments (2 K. X. 22), with the wild din of their vain repe- titions and the maddened fury of their dis- appointed hopes, and the silent people sur- rounding a.l. The conclusion of the long day need only be glanced at. The fire of Jehovah consuming both sacrifice and altar — the pro- phets of Baal killed, it would seem by Eli- jah's own hand (xviii. 40) — the king, with an apathy almost unintelligible, eating and drinking in the very midst of the carnage of his own adherents— the rising storm — the ride across the plain to Jezreel, a distance of at least 1 6 miles ; the prophet, with true Arab endurance, running before the chariot, but also with true Arab instinct stopping short of the city, and going no further than the " entrance of Jezreel." So far the triumph had been complete ; but the spirit of Jezebel was not to be so easily overcome, and her first act is a vow of vengeance against the author of this destruction. Elijah takes refuge in flight. The danger was great, and the refuge must be distant. The first stage on the journey was Beersheba. Here Elijah halted. His servant he left in the town ; while he himself set out alone into the wilderness. His spirit is quite broken, and he wanders forth over the dreary SAveeps of those rocky hills wishing for death. But God, who had brought His servant into this diflRculty, provided him with the means of escaping from it. The prophet was wakened from his dream of despondency beneath the solitary bush of the wildei-ness, was fed with the bread and the water which to this day ai-e all a Bedouin's requirements, and went for- ward, in the strength of that food, a journey of forty days to the mount of God, even to Horeb. Here, in the cave, one of the nume- rous caverns in those awful mountains, he remained for certainly one night. In the morning came the *' wurd of Jehovah " — the question, "What doest thou here, Elijah?" In answer to this invitation the Prophet opens his griefs. The reply comes in that ambiguous and indirect form in which it seems necessary that the deepest communica- tions with the human mind should be couched, to be effectual. He is directed to leave the cavern and stand on the mountain in the open air, face to face with Jehovah. Then, as before with Moses (Ex. xxxiv. 6), "The Lord passed by," passed in all the terror of His most appalling manifestations ; and pene- trating the dead silence which followed these, came the mysterious symbol — the " still small voice," and still as it was it spoke in louder accents to the wounded heart of Elijah than the roar and blaze which had preceded it. To him no less unmistakably than to Moses, centuries before, it was proclaimed that Jehovah was " merciful and gracious, long-suffering and abundant in goodness and truth." Elijah knew the call, and at once stepping forward and hiding his face in his mantle, stood waiting for the Divine com- munication. Three commands were laid on him — three changes were to be made. Of these three commands the two first were re- served for Elisha to accomplish, the last only was executed by Elijah himself. His first search was for Elisha. Apparently he soon found him ; we must conclude at his native place, Abel-meholah. Elisha was ploughing at the time, and Elijah " passed over to him " — possibly crossed the river— and cast his mantle, the well-known sheepskin cloak, upon him, as if, by that familiar action, claiming him for his son. A moment of hesitation, and then commenced that long period of service and intercourse which con- tinued till Elijah's removal, and which after that time procured for Elisha one of the best titles to esteem and reverence — " Elisha the son of Shaphat, who poured water on the hands of P:iijah." — 2. Ahab and Jezebel now probably believed that their threats had been effectual, and that they had seen the last of their tormentor. After the murder of Naboth, Ahab loses no time in entering on his new acquisition. But his ti'iumph was a short one. Elijah had received an intimation from Jehovah of what was taking place, and rapidly as the accusation and death of Naboth had been hurried over, he was there to meet his ancient enemy on the very scene of his crime. And then follows the curse, in terms fearful to any Oriental — peculiarly terrible to a Jew — and most of all significant to a suc- cessor of the apostate princes of the northern kingdom. The whole of Elijah's denuncia- tion may possibly be recovered by putting together the words recalled by Jehu, 2 K. ix. 26, 36, 37, and those given in 1 K. xxi. 19- 25. — 3. A space of thT-ee or four years now elapses (comp. 1 K. xxii. 1, 51 ; 2 K. i. 17) before we again catch a glimpse of Elijah. Ahaziah has met with a fatal accident, and is on his death-bed (2 K. i. 1, 2 ; 1 K, xxii. 51 j. In his extremity he sends to an oraele or shrine of Baal at the Philistine town of ELIJAH 154 ELIPHAZ Ekron, to ascertain the issue of his illness. But the oracle is nearer at hand than the distant Ekron. An intimation is conveyed to the prophet, probably at that time inhabit- ing one of the recesses of Carmel, and, as on the former occasions, he suddenly appears on the path of the messengers, without preface or inquiry utters his message of death, and as rapidly disappears. But this check only roused the wrath of Ahaziah. A captain was despatched, with a party of fifty, to take Elijah prisoner. " And there came down fire from heaven and consumed him and his fifty." A second party was sent, only to meet the same fate. The altered tone of the leader of a third party brought Elijah down. But the king gained nothing. The message was de- livered to his face in the same words as it had been to the messengers, and Elijah was allowed to go harmless.— 4. It must have been shortly after the death of Ahaziah that Elijah made a communication with the southern kingdom. When Jehoram the son of Jehoshaphat began " to walk in the ways of the kings of Israel," Elijah sent him a letter denouncing his evil doings, and pre- dicting his death (2 Chr. xxi. 12-15). In its contents the letter bears a strong resemblance to the speeches of Elijah, while in the details of style it is very peculiar, and quite differ- ent from the narrative in which it is em- bedded.— 5. The closing transaction of Eli- jah's life introduces us to a locality hereto- fore unconnected with him. It was at Gil- gal — probably on the western edge of the hills of Ephraim — that the prophet received the divine intimation that his departure was at hand. He was at the time with Elisha, who seems now to have become his constant companion, and whom he endeavours to per- suade to remain behind while he goes on an errand of Jehovah. But Elisha will not so easily give up his master. They went to- gether to Bethel. Again Elijah attempts to escape to Jericho, and again Elisha protests that he will not be separated from him. At Jericho he makes a final eff'ort to avoid what they both so much dread. But Elisha is not to be conquered, and the two set off across the undulating plain of burning sand, to the distant river — Elijah in his mantle or cape of sheepskin, Elisha in ordinary clothes. Fifty men of the sons of the prophets ascend the abrupt heights behind the town to watch what happens in the distance. Talking as they go, the two reach the river, and stand on the shelving bank beside its swift brown current. But they are not to stop even here. It is as if the aged Gileadite cannot rest till he again sets foot on his own side of the rive. He rolls up his mantle as into a staff. and with his old energy strikes the waters as Moses had done before him, — strikes them as if they were an enemy ; and they are divided hither and thither, and they two go over on dry ground. " And it came to pass as they still went on and talked, that, behold, a chariot of fire and horses of fire, and parted them both asunder, and Elijah went up by the whirlwind into the skies." — And here ends all the direct information which is vouchsafed to us of the life and work of this great Prophet. How deep was the impression which he made on the mind of the nation may be judged of from the fixed belief which many centuries after prevailed that Elijah would again appear for the relief and restoration of his country. But on the other hand, the deep impression which Elijah had thus made on his nation only renders more remarkable the departure which the image conveyed by the later references to him evinces, from that so sharply presented in the records of his actual life. With the ex- ception of the eulogiums contained in the catalogues of worthies in the book of Jesus the son of Sirach (xlviii.) and 1 Mace. ii. 58, and the passing allusion in Luke ix. 54, none of these later references allude to his works of destruction or of portent. They all set forth a very different side of his character to that brought out in the historical narrative. They speak of his being a man of like pas- sions with ourselves (James v. 17); of his kindness to the widow of Sarepta (Luke iv. 25); of his "restoring all things" (Matt, xvii. 11); " turning the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the Just " (Mai. iv. 5, 6 ; Luke u 17). E'LIM (Ex. XV. 27 ; Num. xxxiii. 9), the second station where the Israelites encamped after crossing the Bed Sea. It is distin- guished as having had " twelve wells (rather ' fountains ') of water, and threescore and ten palm-trees." ELIM'ELECH, a man of the tribe of Judah, and of the family of the Hezronites, who dwelt in Bethlehem-Ephratah in the days of the Judges. In consequence of a great dearth in the land he went Avith his wife Naomi, and his two sons, Mahlon and Chilion, to dwell in Moab, where he and his sons died without posterity (Ruth i. 2, 3, &c.). EL'IPHAZ. 1. The son of Esau and Adah, and father of Teman (Gen. xxxvi. 4 ; 1 Chr. i. 35, 36).— 2. The chief of the "three friends " of Job. He is called " the Teman- ite ; " hence it is naturally inferred that he was a descendant of Teman. On him falls the main burden of the argument, that God's ELISABETH 155 ELISHA retribution in this world is perfect and cer- tain, and thnt consequently suffering must be a proof of previous sin (Job iv., v., xv., xxii.). The great truth brought out by him is the unapproachable majesty and purity of God (iv, 12-21, XV. 12-16). [Job.] ELIS'ABETH, the wife of Zacharias and mother of John the Baptist. She was herself of the priestly family, and a relation (Luke i. 36) of the mother of our Lord. ELISE'US, the form in which the name Elisha appears in the A. V. of the Apocry- pha and the N. T. (Ecclus. xItIU. 12 ; Luke iv. 27). ELl'SHA, son of Shaphat of Abel-meholah. The attendant and disciple of Elijah, and subsequently his successor as prophet of the kingdom of Israel. The earliest mention of his name is in the command to Elijah in the cave at Horeb (1 K. xix. 16, 17). But our first introduction to the future prophet is in the fields of his native place. Abel-meholah was probably in the valley of the Jordan. Elijah, on his way from Sinai to Damascus by the Jordan valley, lights on his successor en- gaged in the labours of the field. To cross to him, to throw over his shoulders the rough mantle— a token at once of investiture with the prophet's office, and of adoption as a son — was to Elijah but the work of an instant, and the prophet strode on as if what he had done were nothing — " Go back again, for what have I done unto thee ?" Elisha was not a man who, having put his hand to the plough, was likely to look back ; he delayed merely to give the farewell kiss to his father and mother, and preside at a parting feast with his people, and then followed the great prophet or. his northward road. Seven or eight years must have passed between the call of Elisha and the removal of his master, and during the whole of that time we hear nothing of him. But when that period had elapsed he reappears, to become the most prominent figure in the history of his country during the rest of his long life. In almost every respect Elisha presents the most com- plete contrast to Elijah. The copious col- lection of his sayings and doings which are preserved from the 3rd to the 9th chapter of the 2nd book of Kings, is full of testimonies to this contrast. Elijah was a true Bedouin child of the desert. If he enters a city it is only to deliver his message of fire and be gone. Elisha, on the other hand, is a civi- lised man, an inhabitant of cities. And as with his manners so with his appearance. The touches of the narrative are very slight ; but we can gather that his dress was the ordinary garment of an Israelite, the beged, probably similar in form to the long abbeyeh of the modern Syrians (2 K. ii. 12), that his hair was worn trimmed behind, in contrast to the disordered locks of Elijah (ii. 23, as explained below), and that he used a walking- staff (iv. 29) of the kind ordinarily carried by grave or aged citizens (Zech. viii. 4). The call of Elisha seems to have taken place about fom- years before the death ef Ahab. He died in the reign of Joash, the grandson of Jehu. This embraces a period of not less than 65 years, for certainly 55 of which he held the office of "prophet in Israel " (2 K. v. 8).— After the departure of his master, Elisha returned to dwell at Jericho (2 K. ii. 18). The town had been lately rebuilt (1 K. xvi. 34), and was the residence of a body of the " sons of the prophets" (2 K. ii. 5, 15). One of the springs of Jericho was noxious at the time of Elisha's visit. At the request of the men of Jericho he remedied this evil. He took salt in a new vessel, and cast it into the water at its source in the name of Jeliovah. — 2. "VVe next meet with Elisha at Bethel, in the heart of the country, on his way from Jericho to Mount Carniel (2 K. ii. 23). His last visit had been made in company with Elijah on their road down to the Jordan (ii. 2). Here the boys of the town were clus- tered, waiting, as they still wait at the entrance of the villages of Palestine, for the chance passer-by. In the short-trimmed locks of Elisha, how were they to recognise the successor of the prophet, with whose shaggy hair streaming over his shoulders they were all familiar ? So with the license of the Eastura children they scoff' at the new comer as he walks by — " Go up, roundhead ! go up, roundlitrad ! " For once Elisha assumed the sternness of his master. He turned upon them and cursed them in the name of Jehovah, and we all know the catastrophe which fol- lowed.— 3. Elisha extricates Jehoram king of Israel, and the kings of Judah and Edom, from their difficulty in the campaign against Moab, arising from want of water (iii. 4-27). This incident probably took place at the S.E. end of the Dead Sea. — 4. The widow of one of the sons of the prophets is in debt, and her two sons are about to be taken from her and sold as slaves. She has no property but a pot of oil. This Elisha causes (in his absence, iv. 5) to multiply, until the widow has filled with it all the vessels which she could borrow. — 5. The next occurrence is at Shunem and Mount Carmel (iv. 8-37). The story divides itself into two parts, separated from each other by several years, (a.) Wisha, probably on his way between Carmel and the Jordan valley, calls accidentally at Shunem. Here he is hospitably entertained by a woman of substance, apparently at that time ignorant ELISHA 156 ELISHA of the character of her guest. There is no occasion here to quote the details of this charming narrative, {b.) An intei-val has elapsed of several years. The boy is now old enough to accompany his father to the corn-field, where the harvest is proceeding. The fierce rays of the morning sun are toe powerful for him. and he is carried home to his mother only to die at noon. She says nothing of their loss to her husband, but depositing her child on the bed of the man of God, at once starts in quest of him to Mount Carmel. No explanation is needed to tell Elisha the exact state of the case. The heat of the season will allow of no delay in taking the necessary steps, and Gehazi is at once despatched to run back to Shunem with the utmost speed. He takes the prophet's walking-staff in his hand, which he is to lay on the face of the child. The mother and Elisha follow in haste. Before they reach the village the sun of that long, anxious, summer afternoon must have set. Gehazi meets them on the road, but he has no reassur- ing report to give, the placing of the staff on the face of the dead boy had called forth no sign of life. Then Elisha enters the house, goes up to his own chamber, " and he shut the door on them twain and prayed unto Jehovah." The child is restored to life. — 6, The scene now changes to Gilgal, apparently at a time when Elisha was residing there (iv. 38—41). The sons of the prophets are sitting round him. It is a time of famine. The food of the party must consist of any herbs that can be found. The great caldron is put on at the command of Elisha, and one of the company brings his blanket full of such wild vegetables as he has collected, and empties it into the pottage. But no sooner have they begun their meal than the taste betrays the presence of some noxious herb, and they cry out, " There is death in the pot, O man of God ! " In this case the cure was effected by meal which Elisha cast into the stew in the caldron.— 7. (iv. 42-44). This in all proba- bility belongs to the same time, and also to the same place as the preceding. A man from Baal-shalisha brings the man of God a present of the first-fruits, which under the law (Num. xviii. 8, 12; Deut. xviii. 3, 4) ■were the perquisite of the ministers of the sanctuary. — 8. The simple records of these domestic incidents amongst the sons of the prophets are now interrupted by an occurrence of a more important character (v. 1-27). The chief captain of the army of Syria, to whom his country was indebted for some signal success, was aflaicted with leprosy (v. 27). One of the members of his establish- ment is an Israelite girl, kidnapped by the marauders of Syria in one of their forays over the border, and she brings into that Syrian household the fame of the name and skill of Elisha. The news is communicated by Naaman himself to the king. Benhadad had yet to learn the position and character of Elisha. He writes to the king of Israel a letter very characteristic of a military prince. With this letter, and with a present, and a full retinue of attendants (13, 15, 23), Naaman proceeds to Samaria, to the house of Elisha. Elisha still keeps in the background, and while Naaman stands at the doorway, con- tents himself with sending out a messenger with the simple direction to bathe seven times in the Jordan. The independent behaviour of the prophet, and the simplicity of the pre- scription, all combined to enrage Naaman. His slaves, however, knew how to deal with the quick but not ungenerous temper of their master, and the result is that he goes doM'n to the Jordan and dips himself seven times, " and his flesh came again like the flesh of a little child, and he was clean." His first business after his cure is to thank his bene- factor. He returns with his whole following, and this time he will not be denied the presence of Elisha ; but making his way in, and standing before him, he gratefully acknowledges the power of the God of Israel, and entreats him to accept the present which he has brought from Damascus. Elisha is firm, and refuses the offer, though repeated with the strongest adjuration. But Gehazi cannot allow such treasures thus to escape him. So he frames a story by which tbe generous Naaman is made to send back with him to Elisha's house a considerable present in money and clothes. He then went in and stood before his master as if nothing had happened. But the prophet was not to be so deceived. His heart had gone after his ser- vant through the whole transaction, even to its minutest details, and he visits Gehazi with the tremendous punishment of the leprosy, from which he has just relieved Naaman. — 9, (vi. 1-7). We now return to the sons of the prophets ; but this time the scene appears to be changed, and is probably at Jericho, and during the residence of Elisha there. As one of them was cutting at a tree overhanging the stream, the iron of his axe flew off and sank into the water. His cry soon brought the man of God to his aid. The stream of the Jordan is deep up to the very bank, especially when the water is so low as to leave the wood dry, and is moreover so turbid that search would be useless. But the place at which the lost axe entered the water is shown to Elisha ; he breaks off a stick and casts it into the stream, and the ELISHA 157 ELISHAH iron appears on the surface, and is recovered by its possessor. — 10. (vi. 8-23). Elisha is now residing at Dothan, halfwaj' on tlie road between Samaria and Jezreel. Tiie incursions of the Syrian marauding bands (comp. V. 2) still continue. Their manoeu- vres are not hid from the man of God, and by his warnings he saves the king " not once nor twice." A strong party with chariots is despatched to effect the capture of Elisha. They march by night, and before morning take up their station round the base of the eminence on which the ruins of Dothan still stand. Elisha's servant is the first to dis- cover the danger. But Elisha remains un- moved by his fears. He prays to Jehovah, and the whole of the Syrian warriors are struck blind. Then descending, he offers to lead them to the person and the place which they seek. He conducts them to Samaria. There, at the prayer of the prophet, their sight is restored, and they find themselves not in a retired country village, but in the midst of the capital of Israel, and in the pre- sence of the king and his troops. After such a repulse it is not surprising that the marauding forays of the Syrian troops ceased. ■ — 11. (vi. 24— vii. 2). But the king of Syria could not rset under such dishonour. He abandons his marauding system, and gathers a regular army, with which he lays siege to Samaria. The awful extremities to which the inhabitants of the place were driven need not here be recalled. — 12. (viii. 1-6). NVe now go back several years to an incident con- nected with the lady of Shunem, at a period antecedent to the cure of Naaman and the transfer of his leprosy to Gehazi (v. 1, 27). Elisha had been made aware of a famine which Jehovah was about to bring upon the land for seven years ; and he had warned his friend the Shunammite thereof that she might provide for her safety. At the end of the seven years she returned to her native place, to find that during her absence her house with the field-land attached to it had been appropriated by some other person. To the king therefore the Shunammite had recourse. And now occurred one of those rare coincidences which it is impossible not to ascribe to something more than mere chance. At the very moment of the en- trance of the woman and her son the king was listening to a recital by Gehazi of " all the great things which Elisha had done." The woman was instantly recognised by Gehazi. From her own mouth the king hears the repetition of the wonderful tale, and, whether from regard to Elisha, or struck by the extraordinary coincidence, orders her land to be restored with the value of all its produce during her absence. — 13. (viii. 7-15). Hitherto we have met with the prophet only in his own country. We now find him at Damascus. He is there to carry out the conmiand given to Elijah on Horeb to anoint Hazael to be king over Syria. At the time of his arrival Benhadad was prostrate with his last illness. The king's first desire is naturally to ascertain his own fate ; and Hazael is commissioned to be the bearer of a present to the prophet, and to ask the question on the part of his master, " Shall I recover of this disease ? " The reply, probably _ originally ambiguous, is doubly uncertain in the present doubtful state of the Hebrew text ; but the general conclusion was unmistakable : — "Jehovah hath showed me that he shall surely die." But this was not all that had been revealed to the prophet. If Benhadad died, who would be king in his stead but the man who now stood before him 1 The prospect was one which drew forth the tears of the man of God. At Hazael's request Elisha confesses the reason of his tears. But the prospect is one which has no sorrow for Hazael. His only doubt is the possibility of such good fortune for one so mean. "But what is thy slave, dog that he is, that he should do this great thing ? " To which Elisha replies, " Jehovah hath showed me that thou wilt be king over Syria." Keturning to the king, Hazael tells him only half the dark saying of the man of God — " He told me that thou shouldest surely recover." But that was the last day of Ben- hadad's life.— 14. (ix. 1-10). Two of the injunctions laid on Elijah had now been carried out ; the third still remained. The time was come for the fulfilment of the curse upon Abab by anointing Jehu king over Israel. Elisha's personal share in the trans- action was confined to giving directions to one of the sons of the prophets. [Jehu.] — 15. Beyond this we have no record of Elisha's having taken any part in the revolution of Jehu, or the events which followed it. He does not again appear till we find him on his deathbed in his own house (xiii. 14-19). — 16. (xiii. 20-22). The power of the prophet, however, does not terminate with his death. Even in the tomb he restores the dead to life. ELI'SHAH, the eldest son of Javan (Gen. X. 4). The residence of his descendants is described in Ez. xxvii. 7, as the "i^lcs of Elishah," whence the Thoenicians obtained their purple and blue dyes. Some connect the race of Elishuh with the Aeolians, others with Elis, and in a more extended sense Peloponnesus, or even Hellas. It appeurs ELISHAMA 158 EMBALMING correct to treat it as the designation of a race rather than of a locality. ELISH'AMA, son of Amniihud, the " prince" or " captain " of the tribe of Ephraim in the Wilderness of Sinai (Num. i. 10, ii. 18, vii. 48, X. 22). From 1 Chr. vii. 26 we find that he was grandfather to the great Joshua. ELISHE'BA, the wife of Aaron (Ex. vi. 23). She was the daughter of Amniinadab, and sister of Naashon the captain of the host of Judah (Num. ii. 3). ELISHU'A, one of David's sons, born after his settlement in Jerusalem (2 Sam. V. 15 ; 1 Chr. xiv. 5). EL'KANAH. 1. Son, or rather grandson (see 1 Chr. vi. 22, 23 [7, 8]) of Korah, according to Ex. vi. 24. — 2. Another Ko- hathite Levite, was son of Jeroham, and father of Samuel the illustrious Judge and Prophet (1 Chr. vi. 27, 34). All that is known of him is contained in the above notices and in 1 Sam. i. 1, 4, 8, 19, 21, 23, and ii. 2, 20. EL'KOSH, the birthplace of the prophet Nahum, hence called " the Elkoshite," Nah. i. 1. Two widely differing Jewish traditions assign as widely different localities to this place. In the time of Jerome it was be- lieved to exist in a small village of Galilee. Others assign it to Alkush, a village on the east bank of the Tigris, about two miles north of ]Mosul. The former is more in accordance with the internal evidence afforded by the prophecy, which gives no sign of having been written in Assyria. EL'LASAR, the city of Arioch (Gen. xiv. 1), seems to be the Hebrew representative of the old Chaldaean town called in the native dialect Larsa or Larancha. Larsa was a town of Lower Babylonia or Chaldaea, situated nearly halfway between Ur [Mug- heir] and Erech [Warkn), on the left bank of the Euphrates, It is now Senkereh. ELM, Hos. iv. 13. See Oak. EL'NATHAN, the maternal grandfather of Jehoiachin (2 K. xxiv. 8), is doubtless the same man with Elnathan the son of Achbor (Jer. xxvi. 22, xxxA-i. 12, 25). E'LON. 1. A Hittite, whose daughter \ras one of Esau's wives (Gen. xxvi. 34, sxxvi. 2). — 2. The second of the three sons attributed to Zebulun (Gen. xlvi. 14 ; Num. xxvi. 26) ; and the founder of the family of the Elonites. — 3. Elon the Zebulonite, , ■who judged Israel for ten years, and was buried in Aijalon in Zebulun (Judg. xii. 11, 12).— 4. One of the towns in the border of the tribe of Dan (Josh. six. 43). ELOTH. [Elatii.] EL'TOLAD, one of the cities in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 30) allotted to Simeon (Josh. xix. 4) ; and in possession of that tribe until the time of David (1 Chr. ir 29). ELU'L, Neh. vi. 15; 1 Mace. xiv. 27. [Months.] EL'YMAS, the Arabic name of the Jew- ish magus or sorcerer Barjesus (Acts xiii. 6 ff.). EMBALMING, the process by which dead bodies are preserved from putrefaction and decay. It was most general among the Egyptians, and it is in connexion with this people that the two instances which we meet with in the O. T. are mentioned (Gen. 1. 2, 26). Of the Egyptian method of em- balming there remain two minute accounts, which have a general kind of agreement, though they differ in details. Herodotus (ii. 86-89) describes three modes, varying in completeness and expense, and practised by persons regularly trained to the profession who Avere initiated into the mysteries of the art by their ancestors. The embalmers first removed part of the brain through the nostrils, by means of a crooked iron, and destroyed the rest by injecting caustic drugs. An incision was then made along the flank with a sharp Ethiopian stone, and the whole of the intestines removed. The cavity was rinsed out with palm-wine, and afterwards scoured with pounded perfumes. It wa.s then filled with pure myrrli pounded, cassia, and other aromatics, except frankincense. This done, the body was sewn up and steeped in natron for seventy daj*s. When the seventy daj's were accomplished, the embalmers washed the corpse and swathed it in bandages of linen, cut in strips and smeared with gum. They then gave it up to the relatives of the deceased, who provided ^N\\\iiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiinniiiiinr III I Mill niiiiiis=iiriijisiiiiii==iiiiiiu= The mummy's head, seen at an open panel of the cofHn. (Wilkinson.'. EMERALD 159 ENGEDI for it a wooden case, made in the shape of a man, in which the dead was placed, and deposited in an erect position against the wall of the sepulchral chamber. The second mode of embalming cost about 20 minae. In this case no incision was made in the body, nor were the intestines removed, but cedar-oil was injected into the stomach by the rectum. The oil was prevented from escaping, and the body was then steeped in natron for the appointed number of days. On the last day the oil was withdrawn, and earned off with it the stomach and intestines in a state of solution, while the flesh was consumed by the natron, and nothing was left but the skin and bones. The body in this state was returned to the relatives of the deceased. The third mode, which was adopted by the poorer classes, and cost but little, consisted in rinsing out the intestines with syrmaea, an infusion of senna and cassia, and steeping the body for the usual number of days in nati'um. It does not appear that embalm- ing, properly so called, was practised by the Hebrews. EMERALD, a precious stone, first in the second row on the breastplate of the high- priest (Ex. xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11), imported to Tyre from Syria (Ez. xxvii. 16), used as a seal or signet (Ecclus. xxxii. 6), as an orna- ment of clothing and bedding (Ez. xxviii. 13 ; Jud. X. 21), and spoken of as one of the foundations of Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 19 ; Tob. xiii. 16). The rainbow round the throne is compared to Emerald in Rev. iv. 3. EMERODS (Deut. xxviii. 27 ; 1 Sam. v. 6, 9, 12, vi. 4, 5, 11), probably hemorrhoidal tumoursy or bleeding piles, are intended. These are very common in Syria at present, oriental habits of want of exercise and im- proper food, producing derangement of the liver, constipation, &c., being such as to cause them. E'MIMS, a tribe or family of gigantic stature which originally inhabited the region along the eastern side of the Dead Sea. They were related to the Anakim, and were generally called by the same name ; but their conquerors the Moabites termed them Emim —that is "terrible men" (Deut. ii. 11) — most probably on account of their fierce aspect. EMMAN'UEL, Matt. i. 23. [Immanuel.] EMMA'US, the village to which the two disciples were going when our Lord appeared to them on the way, on the day of His resur- rection (Luke xxiv. 13). Luke makes its distance from Jerusalem sixty stadia (A. V. " threescore furlongs "), or about 7^ miles ; and Josephus mentions " a village called Emmaus " at the same distance. The site of Emmaus remains yet to be identified. EMMA'US, or NICOP'OLIS ( 1 Mace. iii. 40), a town in the plain of Philistia, at the foot of the mountains of Judah, 22 Roman miles from Jerusalem, and 10 from Lydda. It was fortified by Bacchides, the general of Antiochus Epiphanes, when he was engaged in the war with Jonathan Maccabaeus (1 Mace. ix. 50). It was in the plain beside this city that Judas Maccabaeus so signally defeated the Syrians with a mere handful of men, as related in 1 Mace. iii. 57, iv. 3, &c. A small miserable village called ^Amwds still occupies the site of the ancient city. EM'MOR, the father of Sychem (Acts vii. 16). [Hamor.] EN, at the beginning of many Hebrew words, signifies a spring or fountain. EN'-DOR, a place in the territory of Issachar, and yet possessed by Manasseh (Josh. xvii. 11). Endor was long held in memory by the Jewish people as connected with the great victory over Sisera and Jabin. It was here that the witch dwelt whom Saul consulted (1 Sam. xxviii. 7). It was known to Eusebius, who describes it as a large village 4 miles S. of Tabor. Here to the N. of Je}jel Duhy the name still lingers. The distance from the slopes of Gilboa to Endor is 7 or 8 miles, over difficult ground. EN-EGLA'IM, a place named only by Eze- kiel (xlvii. 10), apparently as on the Dead Sea ; but whether near to or far from Engedi, on the west or east side of the Sea, it is impossible to ascertain. EN-GAN'NIM. 1. A city in the low country of Judah, named between Zanoah and Tappuah (Josh. xv. 34). — 2. A city on the border of Issachar (Josh. xix. 21), allotted with its " subui'bs " to the Ger- shonite Levites (xxi. 29), probably Jenin, the first village encountered on the ascent from the great plain of Esdraelon into the hills of the central country. ENGED'I, a town in the wilderness of Judah (Josh. xv. 62), on the western shore of the Dead Sea (Ez. xlvii. 10). Its original name was Hazazon-Tamar, on account of the palm -groves which surrounded it (2 Chr. xx. 2 ; Ecclus. xxiv. 14.) Its site is about the middle of the western shore of the lake, at the fountain of Ain Jidy, from which the place gets its name. It was immediately after an assault upon the " Amorites, that dwelt in Hazazon-Tamar," that the five Mesopotamian kings were attacked by the rulers of the plain of Sodom (Gen. xiv. 7 ; com p. 2 Chr. xx. 2). Saul was told that David was in the "wilderness of Engedi;" and he took "3000 men, and went to seek EN-MISHPAT IGO EPHAH David and his men upon the rocks of the wild goats" (1 Sam. xxiv. 1-4). The vine- yards of Engedi were celebrated by Solomon (Cant.i. 14). EN-MISH'PAT, Gen. xiv. 7. [Kadesh.] E'NOCH. 1. The eldest son of Cain (Gen. iv. 17), who called the city which he built after his name (18).— 2. The son of Jared and father of Methuselah (Gen. v. 21 ff. ; Luke iii. 28). In the Epistle of Jude (v. 24) he is described as " the seventh from Adam :" and the number is probably noticed as con- veying the idea of divine completion and rest, while Enoch was himself a type of per- fected humanity. After the birth of Methu- selah it is said (Gen. v. 22-4) that Enoch "■nalked with God 300 years . . . and he ■was not ; for God took him." The phrase " wa'.ked with God " is elsewhere only used of Noah (Gen. vi. 9 ; cf. Gen. xvii. 1, &c.), and is to be explained of a prophetic life spent in immediate converse with the spiri- tual world. In the epistle to the Hebrews the spring and issue of Enoch's life are clearly mai'ked. — Both the Latin and Greek fathers commonly coupled Enoch and Elijah as historic witnesses of the possibility of a resurrection of the body and of a true human existence in glory ; and the voice of early ecclesiastical tradition is almost unanimous in regarding them as " the two witnesses " (Rev. xi. 3 ff.) who should fall before " the beast." ENOCH, THE BOOK OF. The first trace of its existence is generally found in the Epistle of St. Jude (14, 15), but the words of the Apostle leave it uncertain whether he derived his quotation from tradition or from writing, though the wide spread of the book in the second century seems almost decisive in fa\ourof the latter supposition. Consider- able fragments are preserved in the Chrono- graphia of Georgius Syncellus (about 792 A.D.), and these, with the scanty notices of earlier writers, constituted the sole remains of the book known in Europe till the close of the last century. Meanwhile, however, a report was current that the entire book was preserved in Abyssinia ; and at length, in 1773, Bruce brought with him on his return from Egypt three MSS. containing the com- plete Ethiopic translation. The Ethiopic translation was made from the Greek, and probably towards the middle or close of the fourth century. But it is uncertain whether the Greek text was the original, or itself a translation from the Hebrew. In its present shape the book consists of a series of revela- tions supposed to have been given to Enoch and Noah, which extend to the most varied B^pects of nature and life, and are designed to offer a comprehensive vindication of the action of Providence. Notwithstanding the quotation in St. Jude, and the wide circula- tion of the book itself, the apocalypse of Enoch -was uniformly and distinctly separated from the canonical scriptures. E'NON, a place " near to Salim," at which John baptized (John iii. 23). It was evi- dently west of the Jordan (comp. iii. 22, with 26, and with i. 28), and abounded in water. This is indicated by the name, which is merely a Greek version of a Chaldee word, signifying " springs." Aenon is given in the Onomas- ticon as 8 miles south of Scythopolis " near Salem and the Jordan." E'NOS. The son of Seth ; properly called Enosh, as in 1 Chr. i. 1 (Gen. iv. 26, v. 6, 7, 9, 10, 11; Luke iii. 38). EN-RO'GEL, a spring which formed one of the landmarks on the boundary-line between Judah (Josh. xv. 7) and Benjamin fxviii. 16). Here, Jonathan and Ahimaaz remained, after the fiigiit of David, awaiting intelligence from within the walls (2 Sam. xvii. 17) ; and here, by the stone Zoheleth, which is close to En-rogel, Adonijah held the feast, which was the first and last act of hi.s attempt on the crown (1 K. i. 9). It may be identified with the present " Fountain of the Virgin," Mm Umm ed-Daraj — the pe- rennial source from which the Pool of Siloam is supplied. EN-SHEM'ESH, a spring which formed one of the landmarks on the north boundary of Judah (Josh. xv. 7) and the south boundary of Benjamin (xviii. 17), perhaps Ain-Haud or Ain-Chot — the " Well of the Apostles:" — about a mile below Bethany. EPAE'NETUS, a Christian at Rome, greeted by St. Paul in -Rom. xvi. 5, and designated as his beloved, and the first fruit of Asia unto Christ. EP'APHRAS, a fellow-labourer with the Apostle Paul, mentioned Col. i. 7, as having taught the Colossian church the grace of God in truth, and designated a faithful minister of Christ on their behalf. He was at that time with St. Paul at Rome (Col. iv. 12), and seems by the expression there used to have been a Colossian by birth. We find him again mentioned in the Epistle to Philemon (ver. 23), which was sent at the same time as that to the Colossians. Epaphras may be the same as Epaphroditus, but the notices in the N. T. do not enable us to speak with any confidence. EPAPHRODI'TUS (PhiL ii. 25, iv. 18). See above under Epaphras. E'PHAH, the first, in order, of the sons of Midian (Gen. xxv. 4 ; 1 Chr, i. 33), after- wards mentioned by Isaiah (Ix. 6, 7). 161 EPHESUS EPHAH. [Measures.] E'PHER, the second, in order, of the sons of Midian (Gen. xxv. 4 ; 1 Chr. i. 33). E'PHES-DAM'MIM, a place between Socoh and Azekah, at whicti the Philistines were encamped before the affray in which Goliath was killed (1 Sam. xvii. 1). Under the shorter form of Pas-dammim it occurs once ag'ain in a similar connexion (1 Chr. xi. 13). EPHESIANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE, was written bj' the Apostle St. Panl during his first captivity at Rome (Acts xxviii. 16), apparently immediately after he had written the Epistle to the Colossians [Colossians, ep. to], and during that period (perhaps the early part of a.d. 62) when his imprisonment had not assumed the severer character which seems to have marked its close. This epistle was addressed to the Christian church at Ephesus. [Ephesus.] Its contents may be divided into two portions, the first mainly doctrinal (ch. i. — iii.), the second hortatory and practical. The Apostle reminds his con- verts that they had been redeemed from sin by grace, and not by works, and he exhorts them to walk worthy of this calling, and to keep the unity of the Spirit. EPH'ESUS, the capital of the Roman pro- vince of Asia, and an illustrious city in the district of Ionia, nearly opposite the island of Samos. St. Paul's life fuimishes illustrations of the mercantile relations of Ephesus with Achaia on the W., Macedonia on the N., and Syria on the E. As to the relations of Ephesus to the inland regions of the continent, these also are prominently brought before us in the Apostle's travels. The "upper coasts" (Acts xix. 1) through which he passed, when about to take up his residence in the city, were the Phrygian table-lands of the interior. Two great roads at least, in the Roman times, led eastward from Ephesus ; one through the passes of Tmolus to Sardis (Rev. iii. 1) and thence to Galatia and the N.E., the other round the extremity of Pactyas to Magnesia, and so up the valley of the Maeander to Iconium, whence the communication was direct to the Euphrates and to the Syrian Antioch. There seem to have been Sardian and Magnesian gates on the E. side of Ephesus correspond- ing to these roads respectively. There were also coast-roads leading northwards to Smyrna and southwards to Miletus. By the latter of these it is probable that the Ephesian elders travelled when summoned to meet Paul at the latter city (Acts xx. 17, 18). Conspicuous at the head of the harbour of Ephesus was the great temple of Diana or Artemis, the tutelary divinity of the city. This building was raised on immense substructions, in con- sequence of the swampy nature of the ground. Sm. D. B. The earlier temple, which had been begun before the Persian war, was burnt down in the night when Alexander the Great was born ; and another structure, raised by the enthusiastic co-operation of all the inhabi- tants of " Asia " had taken its place. The magnificence of this sanctuary was a proverb throughout the civilised world. In conse- quence of this devotion the city of Ephesus was called veoj/copo? (Acts xix. 35) or "war- den " of Diana. Another consequence of the celebrity of Diana's worship at Ephesus was, that a large manufactory grew up there of portable shrines, which strangers purchased, and devotees carried with them on journeys or set up in their houses. Of the manufac- turers engaged in this business, perhaps Alexander the " coppersmith " (2 Tim. iv. 14) was one. The case of Demetrius the " silversmith " is explicit. The city was celebrated for its magical arts. In illustra- tion of the magical books which were publicly burnt (ver. 19) vmder the influence of St. Paul's preaching, it is enough here to refer to the Ephesian Writings (mentioned by Plutarch and others), which were regarded as a charm when pronounced, and whes. written down were carried about as amulets. Asia was a proconsular province ; and in harmony with this fact we find proconsuls (A. V. " deputies ") specially mentioned (ver. 38). Again we learn from Pliny (v. 31) that Ephesus was an assize-town ; and in the sacred narrative (ver. 38) we find the court- days alluded to as actually being held (A. V-. '• the law is open ") during the uproar. Ephesus itself was a " free city," and had its own assemblies and its own magistrates. The senate is mentioned by Josephus ; and St. Luke, in the narrative before us, speaks of " the people " and of its customary assem- blies (ver. 3!), A. V. "a lawful assembly"). We even find conspicuous mention made of one of the most important municipal officers of Ephesus, the " Town-Clerk " or keeper of the records, whom we know from other sources to have been a person of great in- fluence and responsibility. It is remarkable how all these political and religious cha- racteristics of Ephesus, which appear in the sacred narrative, are illustrated by inscrip- tions and coins. The coins of Ephesus are full oi allusions to the worship of Diana in various aspects. The Jews were established there in considerable numbers (Acts ii. 9, vi. 9). It is here, and here only, that we find disciples of John the Baptist explicitly men- tioned after the ascension of Christ (Acts xviii. 25, xix. 3). The case of Apollos (xviii. 24) is an exemplification further of the intercourse between this place and Alei- M EPHOD 162 EPHRAIM andria. The first seeds of Christian truth were possibly sown at Ephesus immediately after the Great Pentecost (Acts ii.). In St. Paul's stay of more than two years (xix. 8, 10, XX. 31), which formed the most important passage of his third circuit, and during which he laboured, first in the synagogue (■xix. 8), and then in the school of Tyrannus (ver. 9), and also in private houses (xx. 20), and during which he wrote the First Epistle to the Corinthians, we have the period of the chief evangelization of this shore of the Aegean. The address at Miletus shows that the church at Ephesus was thoroughly orga- nised under its presbyters. At a later period Timothy was set over them, as we learn from the two epistles addressed to him. Among St. Paul's other companions, two, Trophimus and Tychicus, were natives of Asia (xx. 4), and the latter probably (2 Tim. iv. 12), the former certainly (Acts xxi. 29), natives of Ephesus. In the same connexion we ought to mention Onesiphorus (2 Tim. i. 16-18) and his household (iv. 19). On the other hand must be noticed certain specified Ephesian antagonists of the Apostle, the sons of Seeva and his party (Acts xix. 14), Hy- menaeus and Alexander (1 Tim. i. 20 ; 2 Tim. iv. 14), and Phygellus and Hermogenes (2 Tim. i. 15). The whole place is now utterly desolate, with the exception of the small Turkish village at Ayasaluk. The ruins are of vast extent. EPHOD, a sacred vestment originally ap- propriate to the high-priest (Ex. xxviii. 4), but afterwards worn by ordinary priests (1 Sam. xxii. 18), and deemed characteristic of the office (1 Sam. ii. 28, xiv. 3 ; Hos. iii. 4). For a description of the robe itself see High- Priest. The importance of the Ephod as the receptacle of the breastplate led to its adop- tion in the idolatrous forms of worship insti- tuted in the time of the Judges (Judg. viii. 27,xvii. 5, xviii. 14 «■.). E'PHRAIM, the second son of Joskph by his wife Asenath. The first indication we have of that ascendancy over his elder brother Manasseh, which at a later period the tribe of Ephraim so unmistakably possessed, is in the blessing of the children by Jacob, Gen. xlviii, Ephraim would appear at that time to have been about 21 years old. He was born before the beginning of the seven years of famine, towards the latter part of which Jacob had come to Egypt, 17 years before his death (Gen. xlvii. 28). Before Joseph's death Ephraim's family had reached the third generation (Gen. 1. 23), and it must have been about this time that the affray mentioned in 1 Chr. vii. 21 occurred. To this early period too must probably be re- ferred the circumstance alluded to in Ps. Ixxviii. 9. It is at the time of the sending of the spies to the Promised Land that we are first introduced to the great hero to whom the tribe owed much of its subsequent great- ness. Under Joshua the tribe must have taken a high position in the nation, to judge from the tone which the Ephraimites assumed on occasions shortly subsequent to the con- quest. The boundaries of the portion of Ephraim are given in Josh. xvi. 1-10. The south boundary was coincident for part of its length with the north boundary of Benjamin. It extended from the Jordan on the E., at the reach opposite Jericho, to the Mediterra- nean on the W., probably about Joppa. On the N. of Ephraim and Manasseh were the tribes of Asher, Zebulun, and Issachar. The territory thus allotted to the •' house of Joseph" may be roughly estimated at 55 miles from E. to W. by 70 from N. to S., a portion about equal in extent to the counties of Norfolk and Sufrt)lk combined. But though similar in size, nothing can be more different in its nature from those level counties than this broken and hilly tract. Central Palestine consists of an elevated dis- trict which rises from the flat ranges of the wilderness on the south of Judah, and termi- nates on the north with the slopes which de- scend into the great plain of Esdraelon. On the west a flat strip separates it from the sea, and on the east another flat strip forms the valley of the Jordan. Of this district the northern half was occupied by the great tribe we are now considering. This was the Har- Ephraim, the " Mount Ephraim," a district which seems to extend as far south as Ramah and Bethel (1 Sam. i. 1, vii. 17 ; 2 Chr. xiii. 4, 19, compared with xv. 8), places but a few miles north of Jerusalem, and within the limits of Benjamin. After the revolt of Jeroboam, the history of Ephraim is the history of the kingdom of Israel, since not only did the tribe become a kingdom, but the kingdom embraced little besides the tribe. This is not surprising, and quite susceptible of explanation. North of Ephraim the country appears never to have been really taken possession of by the Israelites. And in addition to this original defect there is much in the physical formation and circum- stances of the upper portion of Palestine to explain why those tribes never took any active part in the kingdom. But on the other hand the position of Ephraim was alto- gether different. It was one at once of great richness and great security. Her fertile plains and well watered valleys could only bo reached by a laborious ascent through steep and narrow ravines, all but impassable for 163 EPISTLE ail army. There is no record of any attack on the central kingdom, either from the Jordan valley or the maritime plain. On the north side, from the plain of Esdraelon, it was more accessible, and it was from this fide that the final invasion appears to have been made. E'PHRAIM. In " Baal-hazor which is by Ephraim " was Absalom's sheep-farm, at which took place the murder of Amnon, one of the earliest precursors of the great revolt (2 Sam. xiii. 23). There is no clue to its situation. E'PHRAIM, a city "in the district near the wilderness" to which our Lord retired with his disciples when threatened with violence by the priests (John xi. 54). Per- haps Ophrah and Ephraim are identical, and their modern repi-esentative is et-Tniijiheh. It is situated 4 or 5 miles east of Bethel, and 16 from Jerusalem. E'PHRAIM, GATE OF, one of the gates of the city of Jerusalem (2 K. xiv. 13 ; 2 Chr. XXV. 23 ; Neh. viii. 16, xii. 39), probably at or near the position of the present " Damascus gate." E'PHRAIM, THE WOOD OF, a wood, or rather a forest on the E. of Jordan, in which the fatal battle was fought between the armies of David and of Absalom (2 Sam. xviil. 6). The name is probably derived from the slaughter of Ephraim at the fords of Jordan by the Gileadites under Jephthah (Judg. xii. 1, 4, 5). EPHRA'IN, a city of Israel, which with its dependent hamlets Abijah and the army of Judah captured from Jeroboam (2 Chr. xiii. 19), It has been conjectured that this Eph- vain or Ephron is identical with the Ephraim hy which Absalom's sheep-farm of Baal-hazor was situated ; with the city called Ephraim near the wilderness in which our Lord lived for some time ; and with Ophrah, a city of Benjamin, appai-ently not far from Bethel. But nothing more than conjecture can he arrived at on these points. EPH'RATAH, or EPH'RATH. 1. Second wife of Caleb the son of Hezron, mother of Hur, and grandmother of Caleb the spy, ac- cording to 1 Chr. ii. 19, 50, and probably 24, and iv. 4.-2. The ancient name of Bethle- hem-Judah, as is manifest from Gen. xxxv. 16, 19, xlviii. 7, EPH'RON. 1. The son of Zochar, a Hittite, from whom Abraham bought the field and cave of Machpelah (Gen. xxiii. 8-17 ; XXV. 9, xlix. 29, 39, L 13).— 3. A very strong city on the east of Jordan between Carnaim (Ashteroth-Karnaim) and Beth- shean, attacked and demolished by Judas Mac- cabaeus (1 Mace. v. 4G-o2 • 2 Mace. xii. 27). EPH'RON, MOUNT. The " cities cf Mount Ephron " formed one of the land- marks on the northern boundary of the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 9). EPICURE'ANS, THE, derived their name from Epicurus (342-271 B.C.), a philosopher of Attic descent, whose " Garden" at Athens rivalled in popularity the "Porch" and the " Academy." The doctrines of Epicurus found wide acceptance in Asia Minor and Alexandria, and they gained a brilliant advo- cate at Rome in Lucretius (95-50 B.C.). The object of Epicurus was to find in philosophy a practical guide to happiness. True plea- sure and not absolute truth was the end at which he aimed ; experience and not reason the test on which he relied. It is obvious that a system thus framed would degenerate by a natural descent into mere materialism ; and in this form Epicureism was the popular philosophy at the beginning of the Christian era. When St. Paul addressed " Epicureans and Stoics" (Acts xvii. 18) at Athens, the philosophy of life was practically reduced to the teaching of those two antagonistic schools. EPIPH'ANES (1 Mace. i. 10, x. 1). [An- TIOCHUS EpIPHANES.] EP'IPHI (3 Mace. vi. 38), name of the eleventh month of the Egyptian Yague year, and the Alexandrian or Egj'ptiau Julian year. EPISTLE. The Epistles of the N. T. in their outward form are such as might be ex- pected from men who were brought into con- tact with Greek and Roman customs, them- selves belonging to a different race, and so reproducing the imported stj'le with only partial accuracy. They begin (the Epistle to the Hebrews and 1 John excepted) with the names of the writer, and of those to whom the Epistle is addressed. Then follows the formula of salutation. Then the letter itself commences, in the first person, the singular and plui-al being used indiscriminately. When the substance of the letter has been com- pleted, come the individual messages. The conclusion in this case was probably modified by the fact that the letters were dictated to an amanuensis. When he had done his work, the Apostle took up the pen or reed, and added, in his own large characters (Gal. vi. 1 1) the authenticating autograph. In one in- stance, Rom. xvi. 22, the amanuensis in his own name adds his salutation. An allusion in 2 Cor. iii. 1 brings before us another clast". of letters which must have been in frequent use in the early ages of the Christian Church, by which travellers or teachers were com- mended by one church to the good offices of others. M 2 ER 164 ESAU ER, first-born of Judah. Er " was wicked in the sight of the Lord ; and the Lord slew him." It does not appear what the nature of his sin was ; but, from his Canaanitish birth on the mother's side, it was probably connected with the abominable idolatries of Canaan ("Gen. xxxviii. 3-7 ; Num. xxvi. 19). ER'ECH, one of the cities of Nimrod's kingdom in the land of Shinar (Gen. x. 10), doubtless the same as Orchoe, 82 miles S. and 43 E. of Babylon, the modei-n designa- tions of the site, Warka, Irka, and Irak, bearing a considerable affinity to the original name. ERAST'US, one of the attendants or dea- cons of ht. Paul at Ephesus, who with Timothy was sent forward into Macedonia while the Apostle himself remained in Asia (Acts xix. 22). He is probably the same with Erastus who is again mentioned in the salutations to Timothy (2 Tim. iii. 20), though not the same with Erastus the chamberlain, or rather the public ti-easurer, of Corinth (Rom. xvi. 23). ESA'IAS, the form of the name of the prophet Isaiah in the N. T. [Isaiah.] E'SAR-HA'DDON, one of the greatest of the kings of Assyria, was the son of Senna- cherib (2 K. xix. 37) and the grandson of Sargon who succeeded Shalmaneser. Nothing is really known of Esar-haddon until his ac- cession (ab. B.C. 680 ; 2 K. xix. 37 ; Is. xxxvii, 38). He appears by his monuments to have been one of the most powerful — if not the most powerful — of all the Assyrian mo- narchs. He carried his arms over all Asia between the Persian Gulf, the Armenian mountains, and the Mediterranean. In con- sequence of the disaffection of Babj'lon, and its frequent revolts from former Assyrian kings, Esar-haddon, having subdued the sons of Merodach-Baladan who headed the national party, introduced the new policy of substi- tuting for the former government by viceroys, a direct dependence upon the Assyrian crown. He is the only Assyrian monarch whom we find to have actually reigned at Babylon, where he built himself a palace, bricks from which have been recently recovered bearing his name. His Babylonian reign lasted thirteen years, from e.g. 680 to e.g. 667 ; and it was doubtless within this space of time that Manasseh, king of Judah, having been seized by his captains at Jerusalem on a charge of rebellion, was brought before him at Babylon (2 Chr. xxxiii. 11) and detained for a time as prisoner there. As a builder of great works Esar-haddon is particularly distinguished. Besides his palace at Babylon, he built at least three others in different parts of his dominions, either for himself or his son. The south-west palace at Nimrud is the best preserved of his constructions. It is con- jectured that Esar-haddon died about b.c. 660. E'SAU, the eldest son of Isaac, and twin- brother of Jacob. The singular appearance of the child at his birth originated the name (Esau means hairy, Gen. xxv. 25). This -was not the only remarkable circum.stance con- nected with the birth of the infant. Even in the womb the twin-brothers struggled to- gether (xxv. 22). Esau's robust frame and " rough" aspect were the types of a wild and daring nature. The peculiarities of his cha- racter soon began to develope themselves. He was, in fact, a thorough Bedouin, a " son of the desert," who delighted to roam free as the wind of heaven, and who was impatient of the restraints of civilized or settled life. His old father, by a caprice of affection not uncommon, loved his wilful, vagrant boy ; and his keen relish for savoury food being gratified by Esau's venison, he liked him all the better for his skill in hunting (xxv. 28). An event occurred which exhibited the reck- less character of Esau on the one hand, and the selfish, grasping nature of his brother on the other. Jacob takes advantage of his brother's distress to rob him of that which was dear as life itself to an Eastern patriarch. Esau married at the age of 40, and contrary to the wish of his parents. His wives were both Canaanites ; and they "were bitterness of spirit unto Isaac and to Rebekah " (Gen. xxvi. 34, 35). The next episode in the his- tory of Esau and Jacob is still more painful than the former. Jacob, through the craft of his mother, is again successful, and secures' irrevocably the covenant blessing. Esau vows vengeance. But he knew not a mother's watchful care. By a characteristic piece of domestic policy Rebekah succeeded both in exciting Isaac's anger against Esau, and ob- taining his consent to Jacob's departure. When Esau heard that his father had com- manded Jacob to take a wife of the daughters of his kinsman Laban, he also resolved to try whether by a new alliance he could propitiate his parents. He accordingly married his cousin Mahalath, the daughter of Ishmael (xxviii. 8, 9). This marriage appears to have brought him into connexion with the Ish- maelitish tribes bej'ond the valley of Arabah. He soon afterwards established himself in Mount Seir ; still retaining, however, some interest in his father's property in Southern Palestine. He was residing in Mount Seir when Jacob returned from Padan-aram, and had then become so rich and powerful that the impressions of his brother's early offences seem to have been almost completely effaced. It does not appear that the brothers again ^"i M'\ •mi ilplilj ESAY 165 ESHCOL uiet until the death of their father ahout 20 years afterwards. They united in laj-ing Isaac's body in the cave of Machpelah. Of Esau's subsequent history nothing is known ; for that of his descendants see Edom. E'SAY, the form of the name of Isaiah in Ecclus. xlviii. 20, 22 ; 2 Esd. ii. 18. [Isaiah.] ESDRAE'LON. This name is merely the Greek form of the Hebrew word Jezreel. It occurs in this exact shape only twice in the A. V. (Jud. iii. 9, iv. 6). In Jud. iii. 3 it is EsDRAELOM, and in i. 8 Esdrelom, with the addition of " the great plain." In the 0. T. the plain is called the Valley of Jezreel ; by Josephus "the great plain." The name is derived from the old royal city of Jezreel, which occupied a commanding site, near the eastern extremity of the plain, on a spur of Mount Gilboa. " The Great plain of Esdrae- lon" extends across Central Palestine from the Mediterranean to the Jordan, separating the mountain ranges of Carmel and Samaria from those of Galilee. The western section of it is properly the plain of Accho, or 'Akka. The main body of the plain is a triangle. Its base on the east extends from Jentn (the ancient Engannim) to the foot of the hills below Nazareth, and is about 15 miles long : the north side, formed by the hills of Galilee, is about 12 miles long; and the south side, formed by the Samaria range, is about 18 miles. The apex on the west is a narrow pass opening into the plain of 'Akka. From the base of this triangular plain three branches stretch out eastward, like fingers from a band, divided by two bleak, grey ridges — one bearing the familiar name of Mount Gilboa ; the other called by Franks Little Hermon, but by natives Jebel ed-Duhy. The central branch is the richest as well as the most celebrated. This is the "Valley of Jezreel" proper — the battle-field on which Gideon triumphed, and Saul and Jonathan were over- thrown (Judg. vii. 1, sq. ; 1 Sam. xxix. and xxxi.). Two things are worthy of special notice in the plain of Esdraelon. 1. its wonderful richness. 2. its desolation. If we except the eastern branches, there is not a single inhabited village on its whole sur- face, and not more than one-sixth of its soil is cultivated. It is the home of the wild wandering Bedouin. ES'DRAS. The form of the name of Ezra the scribe in 1 and 2 Esdras. ES'DRAS, FIRST BOOK OF, the first in order of the Apocryphal books in the English Bible. It was never known to exist in Hebrew and formed no part of the Hebrew Canon. As regards the contents of the book, and the author or authors of it — the first chapter is a transcript of the two last chapters of 2 Chr. for the most part verbatim, and only in one or two parts slightly abridged and paraphrased. Chapters iii., iv., and v., to the end of v. 6, are the original portions of the book, and the rest is a transcript more or less exact of the book of Ezra, with the chapters transposed and quite otherwise ar- ranged, and a portion of Nehemiah. Hence a twofold design in the compiler is discernible. One to introduce and give Scriptural sanction to the legend about Zerubbabel ; the other to explain the great obscurities of the book of Ezra, in which however he has signally failed. As regards the time and place when the com- pilation was made, the original portion is that which alone affords much clue. This seems to indicate that the writer was tho- roughly conversant with Hebrew, even if he did not write the book in that language. He was well acquainted too with the books of Esther and Daniel (1 Esdr. iii. 1, 2 sqq.), and other books of Scripture {ih. 20, 21, 39, 41, &c.. and 45 compared with Ps. cxxxvii. 7). But that he did not live under the Persian kings, appears by the undiscriminating way in which he uses promiscuously the phrase Medes and Persians, or, Persians a?id Medes, according as he happened to be imitating the language of Daniel or of the book of Esther. ES'DRAS, THE SECOND BOOK OF, in the English Version of the Apocrypha, and so called by the author (2 Esdr. i. 1). The original title, " the Apocalypse of Ezra," is far more appropriate. Chapters iii.-xiv. con- sist of a series of angelic revelations and visions in which Ezra is instructed in some of the great mysteries of the moral world, and assured of the final triumph of the righteous. The date of the book is uncertain, but there can be no doubt that it is a genuine product of Jewish thought. The Apocalypse was pro- bably written in Egypt ; the opening and closing chapters certainly were. Though this book is included among those which are " read for examples of life " by the English Church, no use of it is there made in public worship. E'SEK, a well, which the herdsmen of Isaac dug in the valley of Gerar (Gen. XX vi. 20). ESH-BA'AL, the fourth son of Saul, jc- cording to the genealogies of 1 Chr. viii. S % and ix. 39, is doubtless the same person as ISH-BOSKETH. ESH'BAN, a Horite ; one of the four sons of DisHAN (Gen. xxxvi. 26 ; 1 Chr. i. 41). ESH'COL, brother of Mamre the Amorite, and of Aner ; and one of Abraham's com- panions in his pursuit of the four kings who had carried off Lot (Gen. xiv. 13, 24). ESH'COL, THE VALLEY, OR THE ESHEAN 166 ESTHER, BOOK OF BROOK OF, a tcachj in the neighbourhood of Hebron, explored by the spies -who were sent by Moses from Kadesh-barnea (Num. xxxiii. 9 ; Deut. i. 24). The name is still attached to a spring of fine water called 'Ain-Eshkali, in a valley about two miles north of Hebron. ESH'EAN, one of the cities of Judah (Josh. XV. 52). E'SHEK, a Benjamite, one of the late de- scendants of Saul (1 Chr. viii. 39). ESH'KALONITES, THE, Josh. xiii. 3. [ASHKELON.] ESH'TAOL, a town in the low country — the Shefclah — of Judah, afterwards allotted to Dan (Josh. xv. 33, xix. 41). Here Samson spent his boyhood, and hither after his last exploit his body was brought (Judg. xiii. 25, xvi. 31, xviii. 2, 8, 11, 12). ESHTEMO'A, and in shorter form ESHTE- MOH', a town of Judah, in the mountains (Josh. XV, 50), allotted to the priests (xxi. 14 ; 1 Chr, vi. 57), It was one of the places frequented by David and his followers during the long period of their wanderings (1 Sam. XXX. 28, comp, 31). Its site is at Semii'a, a village seven miles south of Hebron. Eshte- moa appears to have been founded by the descendants of the Egyptian wife of a certain Mered (1 Chr. iv. 17). ESSE'NES, a Jewish sect, who, according to the description of Josephus, combined the ascetic virtues of the Pythagoreans and Stoics with a spiritual knowledge of the Divine Law. It seems probable that the name sig- nifies " seer" or " the silent, the mysterious." As a sect the Essenes were distinguished by an aspiration after ideal purity rather than by any special code of doctrines, Erom the Maccabaean age there was a continuous effort among the stricter Jews to attain an absolute standard of holiness. Each class of devotees was looked upon as practically impure by their successors, who carried the laws of purity still further ; and the Essenes stand at the extreme limit of the mystic asceticism which was thus gradually reduced to shape. To the Pharisees they stood nearly in the same relation as that in which the Pharisees them- selves stood with regard to the mass of the people. There were isolated communities of Essenes, which were regulated by strict rules, analogous to those of the monastic in- stitutions of a later date. All things were held in common, without distinction of pro- perty; and special provision was made for the relief of the poor. Self-denial, temperance, and labour — especially agriculture — were the marks of the outward life of the Essenes ; purity and divine communion the objects of their aspiration. Slavery, war, and com- merce were alike forbidden. Their best- known settlements were on the N.W. shore of the Dead Sea, ES'THER, the Persian name of Hadassah, daughter of Abihail the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, a Benjamite. Esther was a beautiful Jewish maiden, whose ancestor Kish had been among the captives led away from Jeru- salem by Nebuchadnezzar when Jehoiachin was taken captive. She was an orphan with- out father or mother, and had been brought up by her cousin Mordecai, who had an office in the household of Ahasuerus king of Persia, and dwelt at " Shushan the palace." When Vashti was dismissed from being queen, and all the fairest virgins of the kingdom had been collected at Shushan for the king to make choice of a successor to her from among them, the choice fell upon Esther. The king was not aware, however, of her race and parentage ; and so, on the representation of Haman the Agagite that the Jews scattered through his empire were a pernicious race, he gave him full power and authority to kill them all, young and old, women and children, and take possession of their property. The means taken by Esther to avert this great calamity from her people and her kindred are fully related in the book of Esther, History is wholly silent both about Vashti and Esther. Herodotus mentions only one of Xerxes' wives ; Scripture mentions two only, if in- deed either of them were wives at all. It seems natural to conclude that Esther, a cap- tive, and one of the harem, was not of the highest rank of wives, but that a special honour, with the name of queen, may have been given to her, as to Vashti before her, as the favourite concubine or inferior wife, whose offspring, however, if she had any, would not have succeeded to the Persian throne. ES'THER, BOOK OF, one of the latest of the canonical books of Scripture, having been written late in the reign of Xerxes, or early in that of his son Aitaxerxes Longimanus. The author is not known, but may very pro- bably have been Mordecai himself. Those who ascribe it to Ezra, or the men of the Great Synagogue, may have merely meant that Ezra edited and added it to the canon of Scripture, which he probably did. The book of Esther is placed among the hagiographa by the Jews, and in that first portion of them which they call " the five rolls." It is some- times emphatically called MegiUah (" roll"), without other distinction, and is read through by the Jews in their synagogues at the feast of Purim. It has often been remarked as a peculiarity of this book that the name of God does not once occur in it. The style of writing is remarkably chaste and simple. It 16- EUNUCH does not in the least savour of romance. The Hebrew is very like that of Ezra and parts of the Chronicles ; generally pure, but mixed with some words of Persian origin, and some of Chaldaic affinity. In short it is just what one would expect to find in a work of the age to which the book of Esther professes to belong. As regards the Septuagint version of the book, it consists of the canonical Esther with various interpolations prefixed, interspersed, and added at the close. Though, however, the interpolations of the Greek copy are thus manifest, they make a consistent and in- telligible story. But the Apocryphal addi- tions as they are inserted in some editions of the Latin Vulgate, and in the English Bible, are incomprehensible. E'TAxM. 1. A village of the tribe of Simeon, specified only in the list in 1 Chr. iv. 32 (comp. Josh. xix. 7). — 2. A place in Judah, fortified and garrisoned by Rehoboam (2 Chr, xi. 6). Here, according to the state- ments of Josephus and the Talmudists, were the sources of the water from which Solomon's gardens and pleasure-grounds were fed, and Bethlehem and the Temple supplied. E'TAM, THE KOCK, a cliff or lofty rock, into a cleft or chasm of which Samson retired after his slaughter of the Philistines (Judg. XV. 8, 11). This natural stronghold was in the tribe of Judah ; and near it, probably at its foot, was Lehi or Ramath-lehi, and En- hakkore (xv, 9, 14, 17, 19). The name Etam was held by a city in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem (2 Chr. xi. 6), which is known to have been situated in the extremely uneven and broken country round the modern Urtas. Here is a fitting scene for the adventure of Samson. E'THAM, one of the early resting-places of the Israelites when they quitted Egypt, the position of which may be very nearly fixed in consequence of its being described as "in the edge of the wilderness " (Ex. xiii. 20 ; Num. xxxiii. 6, 7). Etham may be placed where the cultivable land ceases, near the Seba Biar or Seven Wells, about three miles from the western side of the ancient head of the gulf. E'THAN. 1. Ethan the Ezrahite, one of the four sons of Mahol, whose wisdom was excelled by Solomon (1 K. iv. 31 ; 1 Chr. ii. 6). HisnameisinthetitleofPs. Ixxxix. — 2. Son of Kishi or Kushaiah ; a Merarite Levite, head of that family in the time of king David (1 Chr. vi. 44), and spoken of as a "singer." With Heman and Asaph, the heads of the other two families of Levites, Ethan was appointed to sound with cvmbals (xv. 17, 19). ETH'ANIM. [Months.] ETHBA'AL, king of Sidon and father of i Jezebel (1 K. xvi. 31). Josephus represents him as king of the Tyrians as well as the Sidonians. We may thus identify him with Eithobalus, who, after having assassinatea Pheles, usm-ped the throne of Tyre for 32 j'ears. The date of Ethbaal's reign may be given as about b.c. 940-908. E'THER, one of the cities of Judah in the low country, the Shefelah (Josh. xv. 42), allotted to Simeon (xix. 7). ETHIO'PIA. The country which the Greeks and Romans described as " Aethiopia" and the Hebrews as " Cush " lay to the S. of Egypt, and embraced, in its most extended sense, the modern Nubia, Se}maar, Kordofan, and northern Abyssinia, and in its moi-e definite sense the kingdom of Meroe. Syene marked the division between Ethiopia and Egypt (Ez. xxix. 10). The Hebrews do not appear to have had much practical acquaint- ance with Ethiopia itself, though the Ethio- pians were well known to them through their intercourse with Egypt, The inhabitants of Ethiopia wei-e a Hamitic race (Gen. x. 6). They were divided into various tribes, of which the Sabaeans were the most powerful. The history of Ethiopia is closely interwoven with that of Egypt. The two countries were not unfrequently united under the rule of the same sovereign. Shortly before our Saviour's birth a native dynasty of females, holding the official title of Candace (Plin. vi. 35), held sway in Ethiopia, and even resisted the advance of the Roman arms. One of these is the queen noticed in Acts viii. 27. ETHIO'PIAN WOMAN, The wife of Moses is so described in Num. xii. 1, She is else- where said to have been the daughter of a Midianite, and in consequence of this some have supposed that the allusion is to another wife whom Moses married after the death of Zipporah. ETHIOPIANS. Properly "Cush" or "Ethiopia " in two passages (Is. xx. 4 ; Jer. xlvi. 9). Elsewhere " Cushites," or inhabi- tants of Ethiopia (2 Chr. xii. 3, xiv. 12 [11], 13 [12], xvi. 8, xxi. 16 ; Dan. xi. 43 ; Am. ix. 7 ; Zeph. ii. 12). EUBU'LUS, a Christian at Rome men- tioned by St. Paul (2 Tim. iv. 21), EUER'GETES. [Ptolkmy.] EUNI'CE, mother of Timotheus (2 Tim. i. 5). EUNUCH. The law (Deut. xxiii. 1 ; comp. Lev. xxii. 24) is repugnant to thus treating any Israelite. The origination of the practice is ascribed to Semiramis, and is no doubt as early, or nearly so, as Eastern despotism itself. The complete assimilation of the kingdom of Israel, and latterly of Judah to the neighbouring models of despotism, is EUODIAS 168 EVANGELIST traceable in the rank and prominence of eunuchs (2 K. viii. 6, ix. 32, xxiii. 11, xxv. 19 ; Is. Ivi. 3, 4 ; Jer. xxix. 2, xxxiv. 19, xxxviii. 7, xli, 16, lii. 25). They mostlj' ap- pear in one of two relations, either military as •' set over the men of war," greater trustworthiness possibly counterbalancing inferior courage and military vigour, or asso- ciated, as we mostly recognise them, with women and children. We find the Assyrian Kab-Saris, or chief eunuch (2 K. xviii. 17), emploj^ed together with other high officials as ambassador. It is probable that Daniel and his companions were thus treated, in fulfil- ment of 2 K. XX. 17, 18; Is. xxxix. 7; comp. Dan, i. 3, 7. The court of Herod of course had its eunuchs, as had also that of Queen Candace (Acts viii. 27.) EUO'DIAS, a Christian woman at Philippi (Phil. iv. 2). The name is correctly Eu- ODIA. EUPHRA' TES is probably a word of Aryan origin, signifying " the good and abounding river." It is most frequently denoted in the Bible by the term "the river." The Euphrates is the largest, the longest, and by far the most important of the rivers of Western Asia. It rises from two chief sources in the Armenian mountains, and flows into the Persian Gulf. The entire course is 1780 miles, and of this distance more than two- thirds (1200 miles) is navigable for boats. The width of the river is greatest at the distance of 700 or 800 miles from its mouth — that is to say, from its junction with the Khahour to the village of Werai. It there averages 400 yards. The annual inundation of the Eupl'.rates is caused by the melting of the snows in the Armenian highlands. It occurs in the month of May. The great hydraulic works ascribed to Nebuchadnezzar had for their chief object to control the inun- dation. The Euphrates is first mentioned in Scripture as one of the four rivers of Eden (Gen. ii. 14). Its celebrity is there suffi- ciently indicated by the absence of any ex- planatory phrase, such as accompanies the names of the other streams. We next hear of it in the covenant made with Abraham (Gen. XV. 18), where the whole country from " the g]eat river, the river Euphrates " to the river of Egj'pt is promised to the chosen race. During the reigns of David and Solo- mon the dominion of Israel actually attained to the full extent both ways of the original promise, the Euphrates forming the boundary of their empire to the N.E., and the river of Egyptto the S.W. This wide-spread territory was lost upon the disruption of the empire under Rehoboam ; and no more is heard in Scripture of the F'lphrates until the expedition of Necho against the Babylonians in the reign of Josiah. The river still brings dowiT as much water as of old, but the precious ele- ment is wasted by the neglect of man ; the various watercourses along which it was in former times conveyed are dry ; the main channel has shrunk ; and the watc stagnates in unwholesome marshes. EUPOL'EMUS, the " son of John, the son of Accos," one of the envoys sent to Rome by Judas Maccabaeus, cir. b.c. 161 (1 Mace, viii. 17 ; 2 Mace. iv. 11). He has been identified with the historian of the same name, but it is by no means clear that the historian was of Jewish descent. EUROC'LYDON, the name given (Acts xxvii. 14) to the gale of wind which off the south coast of Crete seized the ship in which St. Paul was ultimately wrecked on the coast of Malta. It came down from the island, and therefore must have blown, more or less, from the northward. EU'TYCHUS, a youth at Troas (Acts xx. 9), who sitting in a window, and having fallen asleep while St. Paul was discoursing far into the night, fell from the third story, and being taken up dead, was miraculously restored to life by the Apostle. EVANGELIST, means "the publisher of glad tidings," and therefore seems com- mon to the work of the Christian ministry generally ; yet in Eph. iv. 11, the "evange- lists " appear on the one hand after the "apostles" and "prophets;" on the other before the " pastors " and " teachers." This passage accordingly would lead us to think of them as standing between the two other groups — sent forth as missionary preachers of the Gospel by the first, and as such pre- paring the way for the labours of the second. The same inference would seem to follow the occurrence of the word as applied to Philip in Acts xxi. 8. It follows from what has been said that the calling of the Evangelist is the proclamation of the glad tidings to those who have not known them, rather than the instruction and pastoral care of those who have believed and been baptised. It follows also that the name denotes a work rather than an order. The Evangelist might or might not be a Bishop-Elder or a deacon. ,The Apostles, so far as they evangelized (.\ct8 viii. 25, xiv. 7 ; 1 Cor. i. 17), might claim the title, though there were many Evange- lists who were not Apostles. If the Gospel was a written book, and the office of the Evangelists was to read or disti-ibute it, then the writers of such books were preeminently THE Evangelists. In later liturgical language the word was applied to the reader of lUo Gospel for the day. EVE 169 EXCOMMUNICATION EVE, the name given in Sci'ipture to the first woman. The account of Eve's creation is found at Gen. ii. 21, 22. Perhaps that ■which we are chiefly intended to learn from the narrative is the foundation upon which the union between man and wife is built, viz., identity of nature and oneness of origin. Through the subtilty of the serpent. Eve was beguiled into a violation of the one command- ment which had been imposed upon her and Adam. The Scripture account of Eve closes with the birth of Seth. E'VI, one of the live kings or princes of Midian, slain by the Israelites (Num. xxxi. 8; Josh. xiii. 21). E'VIL-MER'ODACH (2 K. xxv. 27), the son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar. He reigned but a short time, having ascended the throne on the death of Nebuchadnezzar in B.C. 561, and being himself succeeded by Neriglissar in b.c. 559. He was murdered by Neriglissar. EXCOMMUNICATION. I. Jexoish Excom- munication.— The Jewish system of excom- munication was threefold. For a first offence a delinquent was subjected to the penalty of Niddui. The twenty-four offences for which it was inflicted are various, and range in heinousness from the off'ence of keeping a fierce dog to that of taking God's name in vain. The offender was first cited to appear in court ; and if he refused to appear or to make amends, his sentence was pronounced. The term of this punishment was thirty days ; and it was extended to a second and to a third thirty days when necessary. If at the end of that time the offender was still contumacious, he was subjected to the second excommunication termed Cherem, a word meaning something devoted to God (Lev. xxvii. 21, 28 ; Ex. xxii. 20 [19] ; Num. xviii. 14). Severer penalties were now attached. The sentence was delivered by a court of ten, and was accompanied by a solemn malediction. Lastly followed Sham- mdthd, which was an entire cutting off from the congregation. The punishment of excom- munication is not appointed by the Law of Moses. It is founded on the natural right of self-protection which all societies enjoy. The case of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram (Num. xvi.), the curse denounced on Meroz (Judg. V. 23), the commission and proclamation of Ezra (vii. 26, x. 8), and the reformation of Nehemiah (xiii. 25), are appealed to by the Talmudists as precedents by which their pro- ceedings are regulated. In the New Testa- ment, Jewish excommunication is brought prominently before us in the case of the man that was born blind (John ix.). The ex- pressions here used refer, no doubt, to the first form of excommunication, or Niddui. In Luke vi. 22, it has been thought that our Lord referred specifically to the three forms of Je"ish excommunication : " Blessed are ye when men shall hate you, and when they shall separate jon from their company, and shall reproach you, and cast out your name as evil, for the Son of Man's sake." The three words very accurately express the simple separation, the additional malediction, and the final ex- clusion of niddui, cherem, and shammdthd. — II. Christian Hzcommimication. — Excom- munication, as exercised by the Christian Church, is not merely founded on the natural right possessed by all societies, nor merely on the example of the Jewish Church and nation. It was instituted by our Lord (Matt, xviii. 15, 18), and it was practised and commanded by St. Paul (1 Tim. i. 20 ; 1 Cor. v. 11 ; Tit. iii. 10). In the Epistles we find St. Paul frequently claiming the right to exercise discipline over his converts (comp. 2 Cor. i. 23, xiii. 10). In two cases we find him exercising this authority to the extent of cutting off offenders from the Church. What is the full meaning of the expres- sion, " deliver unto Satan," is doubtful. All agree that excommunication is con- tained in it, but whether it implies any further punishment, inflicted by the extraordinary powers committed specially to the Apostles, has been questioned. Introduction into the Church is, in St. Paul's mind, a translation from the kingdom and power of Satan to the kingdom and government of Christ. This being so, he could hardly more naturally de- scribe the effect of excluding a man from the Chui-ch than by the words, " deliver him unto Satan." In addition to the claim to ex- ercise discipline, and its actual exercise in the form of excommunication, by the Apostles, we find Apostolic precepts directing that dis- cipline should be exercised by the rulers of the Church, and that in some cases excom- munication should be resorted to (2 Thess. iii. 14; Rom. xvi. 17; Gal. v. 12; 1 Tim. vi. 3 ; Tit. iii. 10 ; 2 John 10 ; 3 John 10 ; Rev. ii. 20). There are two passages still more important to our subject (Gal. i. 8, 9 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 22). It has been supposed that these two expressions, " let him be Anathema," *' let him be Anathema Maran- atha," refer respectively to the two later stages of Jewish excommunication — the che- rem and the shammdthd. The Nature of Excommunication is made more evident by the acts of St. Paul than by any investigation of Jewish practice or of the etymology of words. We thus find, (1) that it is a spiritual penalty, involving no temporal pun- ishment, except accidentally ; (2) that it con- EXILE 170 EZEKIEL Bists ill separation from the commimion of the Church ; (3) that its object is the good of the suiferer (1 Cor. v. 5), and the protection of the sound members of the Church (2 Tim. iii. 17) ; (4) that its subjects are those Avho are guilty of heresy (1 Tim. i. 20), or gross immorality (1 Cor. v. 1) ; (5) that it is in- flicted by the authority of the Church at large (Matt, xviii. 18), wielded by the high- est ecclesiastical officer (1 Cor. v. 3; Tit. iii. 10) ; (6) that this officer's sentence is pro- mulgated by the congregation to which the oifender belongs (1 Cor. v. 4), in deference to his superior judgment and command (2 Cor. ii. 9), and in spite of any opposition on the part of a minority (lb. 6) ; (7) that the exclusion may be of indefinite duration, or for a period; (8) that its duration may be abridged at the discretion and by the in- dulgence of the person who has imposed the penalty [lb. 8) ; (9) that penitence is the condition on which restoration to commun- ion is granted [lb. 7) ; (10) that the sentence is to be publicly reversed as it was publicly promulgated {lb. 10). EXILE. [Captivity.] EX'ODUS (that is, going out [of Egypt]), the second book of the Law or Pentateuch. It may be divided into two principal parts : I. Historical, i. 1 -xviii. 27 ; and II. Legis- lative, xix, 1-xl. 38. The former of these maybe subdivided into (1.) the preparation for the deliverance of Israel from their bond- age in Egypt ; (2.) the accomplishment of that deliverance. I. (1.) The first section (i. 1-xii. 36) contains an account of the following particulars : — The great increase of Jacob's posterity in the land of Egypt, and their oppression under a new dynasty, which occupied the throne after the death of Joseph (ch. i.) ; the birth, education, and flight of Moses (ii.) ; his solemn call to be the de- liverer of his people (iii. 1-iv. 17), and his return to Egypt in consequence (iv. 18-31) ; his first ineffectual attempt to prevail upon Pharaoh to let the Israelites go, which only resulted in an increase of their burdens (v. 1-21) ; a further preparation of Moses and Aaron for their office, together with the ac- count of their genealogies (v. 22-vii. 7) ; the successive signs and wonders, by means of which the deliverance of Israel from the land of bondage is at length accomplished, and the institution of the Passover (vii. 8-xii. 36). (2.) A narrative of events from the departure out of Egypt to the arrival of the Israelites at Mount Sinai. II. The solemn establishment of the Theocracy on Mount Sinai. This booli in short gives a sketch of the early history of Israel as a nation : and the history has three clearly marked stages. First we see a nation enslaved ; next a nation redeemed ; lastly a nation set apart, and through the blending of its religious and political life consecrated to the service of God. EX'ODUS, THE, of the Israelites from Egypt. On the date of this event, see Egypt, p. 149. The history of the Exodus itself commences with the close of that of the Ten Plagues. [Plagues OF Egypt.] In the night in which, at midnight, the firstborn were slain (Ex. xii. 29), Pharaoh urged the de- parture of the Israelites (ver. 31, 32). They at once set forth from Rameses (ver. 37, 39), apparently during the night (ver. 42), but towards morning, on the loth day of the first month (Xum. xxxiii. 3). They made three journeys and encamped by the Red Sea. Here Pharaoh overtook them, and the great miracle occurred by which they were saved, while the pursuer and his army were destroyed. [Red Sea, Passage of.] EXORCIST. The use of the term exor- cists in Acts xix. 13 confirms what we know from other sources as to the common practice of exorcism amongst the Jews. That some, at least, of them not only pretended to, but possessed, the power of exorcising, appears by our Lord's admission when he asks the Pharisees, " If I by Beelzebub cast out devils, by whom do your disciples cast them out ?" (Matt. xii. 27). What means were employed by real exorcists we are not informed. David, by playing skilfully on a harp, pro- cured the temporary departure of the evil spirit which troubled Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 23). It was the profane use of the name of Jesus as a mere charm or spell which led to the disastrous issue recorded in the Acts of the Apostles (xix. 13-16). The power of casting out devils was bestowed by Christ while on earth upon the Apostles (Matt. x. 8) and the seventy disciples (Luke x. 17-19), and was, according to His pi-omise (Mark xvi. 17), exercised by believers after His Ascension (Acts xvi. 18) ; but to the' Christian miracle, whether as performed by our Lord himself or by His followers, the N. T. writers never apply the terms " exorcise " or " exorcist." EXPIATION. [Sacrifice.] EZE'KIEL, one of the four greater pro- phets, was the son of a priest named Buzi, and was taken captive in the captivity of Jehoia- chin, eleven years before the destruction of Jerusalem. He was a member of a commu- nity of Jewish exiles who settled on the banks of the Chebar, a " river " or stream of Babylonia. It was by this river " in the land of the Chaldaeans " that God's message first reached him (i. 3). His call took place " in the fifth year of king Jehoiachin's cap- tivity," B.C. 595 (i. 2), "in the thirtieth EZION-GABER 171 EZRA year in the fourth month." The latter ex- pression is uncertain. It now seems gene- rally agreed that it was the 30th year from the new era of Nabopolassar, father of Nebu- chadnezzar, who began to reign b.c. 625. The use of this ChahJee epoch is the more appropriate as the prophet wrote in Babylo- nia, and he gives a Jewish chronology in ver. 2. The decision of the question is the less important because in all other places Ezekiel dates from the year of Jehoiachin's captivity (xxix. 17, xxx. 20, et passim). We learn from an incidental allusion (xxiv. 18) — the only reference which he makes to his personal history— that he was married, and had a house (viii. 1) in his place of exile, and lost his wife by a sudden and unforeseen Btroke. He lived in the highest considera- tion among his companions in exile, and their elders consulted him on all occasions (viii. 1, xi. 25, xiv. 1, xx. 1, &c.). The last date he mentions is the 27 th year of the captivity (xxix. 17), so that his mission ex- tended over twenty-two years, during part of which period Daniel was probably living, and already famous (Ez. xiv. 14, xxviii. 3). He is said to have been murdered in Babylon by some Jewish prince whom he had convicted of idolatry, and to have been buried in the tomb of Shem and Arphaxad, on the banks of the Euphrates. The tomb, said to have been built by Jehoiachin, was shown a few days' joui-ney from Bagdad. Ezekiel was distin- guished by his stern and inflexible energy of will and character ; and we also observe a devoted adherence to the rites and ceremonies of his national religion. The depth of his matter, and the marvellous nature of his visions, make him occasionally obscure. The book is divided into two great parts — of which the destruction of Jerusalem is the turning-point; chapters i.- xxiv. contain pre- dictions delivered before that event, and xxv.-xlviii. after it, as we see from xxvi. 2. Again, chapters i.-xxxii. are mainly occupied with correction, denunciation, and reproof, while the remainder deal chiefly in consola- tion and promise. A parenthetical section in the middle of the book (xxv.-xxxii.) contains a group of prophecies against seven foreign nations, the septenary arrangement being apparently intentional. There are no direct quotations from Ezekiel in the New Testa- ment, but in the Apocalypse there are many parallels and obvious allusions to the later chapters (xl.-xlviii.). E'ZION - GA'BER, or E'ZION- GE'BER (Num. xxxiii. 35 ; Deut. ii. 8 ; 1 K. ix. 26, xxii. 48 ; 2 Chr. viii. 17), the last station named for the encampment of the Israelites before they came to the wilderness of Zin. It probably stood at Ain el-Ghudydti, about ten miles up what is now the dry bed of the Arabah, but which was probably then the northern end of the gulf. EZ'RA, called Esbras in the Apocrypha, the famous Scribe and Priest, descended from Hilkiah the high-priest in Josiah's reign, from whose younger son Azariah sprung Seraiah, Ezra's father, quite a different person from Seraiah the high-priest (Ezr. vii. 1). All that is really known of Ezra is contained in the four last chapters of the book of Ezra and in Neh. viii. and xii. 26. From these passages we learn that he was a learned an I pious priest residing at Babylon in the time of Artaxerxes Longimanus. The origin of his influence with the king does not appear, but in the seventh year of his reign, in spite of the unfavourable report which had been sent by Rehum and Shimshai, he obtained leave to go to Jerusalem, and to take with him a company of Israelites, together with priests, Levites, singers, porters, and Nethi- nim. The journey of Ezra and his com- panions from Babylon to Jerusalem took just four months ; and they brought up with them a large free-will offering of gold and silver, and silver vessels. It appears that his great design was to effect a religious reformation among the Palestine Jews, and to bring them back to the observation of the Law of Moses, from which they had grievously declined. His iirst step, accordingly, was to enforce a separation from their wives upon all who had made heathen marriages, in which num- ber were many priests and Levites, as well as other Israelites. This was effected in little more than six months after his arrival at Jerusalem. With the detailed account of this important transaction Ezra's autobiography ends abruptly, and we hear nothing more of him till, 13 years afterwards, in the 20th of Artaxerxes, we find him again at Jerusalem with Nehemiah " the Tirshatha." It seems probable that after he had effected the above- named reformation, and had appointed com- petent judges and magistrates, with authority to maintain it, he himself returned to the king of Persia. The functions he executed under Nehemiah's government were purely of a priestly and ecclesiastical character. But in such he filled the first place. As Ezra is not mentioned after Nehemiah's departure for Babylon in the 32nd Artaxerxes, and as everything fell into confusion during Nehe- miah's absence (Neh. xiii.), it is not unlikely that Ezra may have died or returned to Babylon before that year. There was a Jew- ish tradition that he was buried in Persia. The principal works ascribed to him by the Jews are ; — 1. The institution of the Great EZRA, BOOK OF 172 FALLOW-DEER Synagogue. 2. The settling the canon of Scripture, and restoring, correcting, and editing the whole sacred volume. 3. The introduction of the Chaldee character instead of the old Hebrew or Samaritan. 4. The au- thorship of the books of Chronicles, Ezra, Neheniiah, and, some add, Esther ; and, many of the Jews say, also of the books of Ezekiei, Daniel, and the twelve prophets. 5. The establishment of synagogues. EZ'RA, BOOK OF, is a continuation of the books of Chronicles. Like these books, it consists of the contemporary historical jour- nals kept from time to time, which were after- guards strung together, and either abridged or added to, as the case required, by a later hand. That later hand, in the book of Ezra, was doubtless Ezra's own, as appears by the four last chapters, as well as by other matter inserted in the previous chapters. The chief jortion of the last chapter of 2 Chr. and Ezr. i. was probably written by Daniel. As re- gards Ezr. ii., and as far as iii. 1, it is found (with the exception of clerical errors) in the 7 th ch. of Keheniiah, where it belongs beyond a shadow of doubt. Tae next portion ex- tends from iii. 2 to the end of ch. vi. With the exception of one large explanatory addi- tion by Ezra, extending from iv. 6 to 23, this portion is the work of a writer contem- porary with Zerubbabel and Jeshua, and an eye-witness of the rebuilding of the Temple in the beginning of the reign of Darius Hy- staspis. That it was the prophet Haggai be- comes tolerably sure when we observe further the remarkable coincidences in style. Ezr. iv. 6-23 is a parenthetic addition by a much later hand, and, as the passage most clearly shows, made in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus. The compiler who inserted ch. ii., a document drawn up in the reign of Artaxerxes to illustrate the return of the captives under Zerubbabel, here inserts a notice of two historical facts— of which one occurred in the reign of Xerxes, and the other in the reign of Artaxerxes — to illustrate the opposition offered by the heathen to the rebuilding of the Temple in the reign of Cyrus and Cambyses. The last four chapters, beginning with ch. vii., are Ezra's own, and continue the history after a gap of fifty- eight years— from the sixth of Darius to the seventh of Artaxerxes. It is written partly in Heorew, and partly in Chaldee. The Chaldee begins at iv. 8, and continues to the end of vi. 18. The letter or decree of Artaxerxes, vii. 12-26, is also given in the original Chal- dee. The period covered by the book is eighty years, from the first of Cyrus, b.c. 536, to the beginning of the eighth of Ar- taxerxes B.C. 456. FABLE. Of the fable, as distinguished from the Parable [Parable], we have but two examples in the Bible, (1.) that of the trees choosing their king, addressed by Jotham to the men of Shechem (Judg. ix. 8-15) ; (2.) that of the cedar of Lebanon and the thistle, as the answer of Jehoash to the challenge of Amaziah (2 K. xiv. 9). The fables of false teachers claiming to belong to the Christian church, alluded to by writers of the N. T. (1 Tim. i. 4, iv. 7 ; fit. i. 14 ; 2 Pet. i. 16), do not appear to have had the character of fables, properly so called. FAIR HAVENS, a harbour in the island of Crete (Acts xxvii. 8), though not men- tioned in any other ancient writing, is still known by its own Greek name, and appears to have been the harbour of Lasaea. These places are situated four or five miles to the E. of Cape Matala, which is the most con- spicuous headland on the S. coast of Crete, and immediately to the W. of which the coast trends suddenly to the N. FAIRS, a word which occurs only in Ez. xxvii. and there no less than seven times (ver. 12, 14, 16, 19, 22, 27, 33) : in the last of these verses it is rendered " wares," and this we believe to be the true meaning of the word throughout. FALLOW-DEER (Heb. yachmur). The Heb. word, which is mentioned only in Deut. xiv. 5 and in 1 K. iv. 23, is probably the Alcelaphus bubalis of Barbary and N. Africa. It is about the size of a stag and lives in herds. /.Icelapfius butioiia. FAMINE 173 FASTS FAMINE. In the whole of Syria and Arabia, the fruits of the earth must ever be dependent on rain ; the -watersheds having fe-n .arge springs, and the small rivers not being sufficient for the irrigation of even the level lands. If therefore the heavy rains of November and December fail, the sustenance of the people is cut off in the parching drought of harvest-time, when the country is almost devoid of moisture. Egypt, again, owes all its fertility to its mighty river, whose annual rise inundates nearly the whole land. The causes of dearth and famine in Egypt are occasioned by defective inundation, preceded and accompanied and followed by prevalent easterly and southerly winds. The first fa- mine recorded in the Bible is that of Abraham after he had pitched his tent on the east of Bethel (Gen. xii. 10). We may conclude that this famine was extensive, although this is not quite proved by the fact of Abraham's going to Egypt ; for on the occasion of the second famine, in the days of Isaac, this pa- triarch found refuge with Abimelech king of the Philistines in Gerar (Gen. xxvi. 1 sq.). We hear no more of times of scarcity until the great famine of Egypt which " was over all the face of the earth." We have men- tioned the chief causes of famines in Egypt : this instance difi'ers in the providential re- currence of seven years of plenty, whereby Joseph was enabled to provide against the coming dearth, and to supply not only the population of Egypt with corn, but those of the surrounding countries (Gen. xli. 53-57). The modern history of Egypt throws some curious light on these ancient records of fa- mines ; and instances of their recurrence may be cited to assist us in understanding their course and extent.. The most remark- able famine was that of the reign of the Fatimee Khaleefeh, El - Mustansir billab, which is the only instance on record of one of seven years' duration in Egypt since the time of Joseph (a.h. 457-464, a.d. 1064- 1071). Vehement drought and pestilence con- tinued for seven consecutive years, so that the people ate corpses, and animals that died of themselves. The famine of Samaria re- sembled it in many particulars ; and that very briefly recorded in 2 K. viii. 1, 2, aftbrds another instance of one of seven years. In Arabia, famines are of frequent occurrence. FARTHING. Two names of coins in the N. T. are rendered in the A. Y. by this word. —I. /coSpai/TT);, quadruns (Matt. v. 26 ; Mark xii. 42), a coin current in Palestine in the time of Our Lord. It was equivalent to two lepta (A. V. "mites"). The name quadrans was originally given to the quarter of the Roman as, or piece of three unciae, therefore also called teruncius. — 2. aa-adpiov (Matt. x. 2S ; Luke xii. 6), properly a small as, assa- Hum, but in the time of Our Lord used as the Gr. equivalent of the Lat. as. The ren- dering of the Yulg. in Luke xii. 6 makes it probable that a single coin is intended by two assaria. FASTS. — I. One fast only was appointed by the law, that on the day of Atonement. There is no mention of any other periodical fast in the O. T., except in Zech. vii. 1-7, viii. 19. From these passages it appears that the Jews, during their captivity, observed four annual fasts, in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months. Zechariah simply dis- tinguishes the fasts by the months in which they were observed ; but the Mishna and St. Jerome give statements of certain his- torical events which they were intended to commemorate. The number of annual fasts in the present Jewish Calendar has been multiplied to twenty-eight.— II. Public fasts were occasionally proclaimed to express na- tional humiliation, and to supplicate divine favour. In the case of public danger, the proclamation appears to have been accom- panied with the blowing of trumpets (Joel ii. 1-15). The following instances are recorded of strictly national fasts : — Samuel gathered " all Israel " to Mizpeh and proclaimed a fast (1 Sam. vii. 6) ; Jehoshaphat appointed one "throughout all Judah" when he was preparing for war against Moab and Ammon (2 Chr. XX. 3) ; in the reign of Jehoiakim, one was proclaimed for " all the people in Jerusalem and all who came thither out of the cities of Judah," when the prophecy of Jeremiah was publicly read by Baruch (Jer. xxxvi. 6-10 ; cf. Baruch i. 5) ; three days after the feast of Tabernacles, when the second temple was completed, "the children of Israel assembled with fasting and with sackclothes and earth upon them " to hear the law read, and to confess their sins (Neb. ix. 1). There are references to general fasts in the Prophets (Joel i. 14, ii. 15 ; Is. Iviii.), and two are noticed in the books of the Mac- cabees (1 Mace. iii. 46-47 ; 2 Mace. xiii. 10- 12). — III. Private occasional fasts are re- cognised in one passage of the law (Num. XXX. 13). The instances given of individuals fasting under the influence of grief, vexation, or anxiety, are numerous. — IV. In the N. T. the only references to the Jewish fasts are the mention of " the Fast," in Acts xxvii. 9 (generally understood to denote the Day of Atonement), and the allusions to the weekly fasts (Matt. ix. 14 ; Mark ii. 18 ; Luke v. 33, xviii. 12 ; Acts x. 30). These fasts origin- ated some time after the captivity. They j were observed on the second and fifth days of FAT 174 FESTIVALS the week, which being appointed as the daj s for public fasts, seem to have been selected for these private voluntarj' fasts. — V. The Jewish fasts were observed M'lth various de- grees of strictness. Sometimes there was en- tire abstinence from food (Esth. iv. 16, &c.). On other occasions, there appears to have been only a restriction to a very plain diet (Dan. X. 3). Those who fasted frequently dressed in sackcloth or rent their clothes, put ashes on their head and went barefoot (1 K. xxi. 27 ; Neh. ix. 1 ; Ps. xxxv. 13).— YI. The sacrifice of the personal will, Avhich gives to fasting all its value, is expressed in the old term used in the law, afflicting the soul. FAT. The Hebrews distinguished between the suet or pure fat of an animal, and the fat ■which was intermixed with the lean (Neh. viii. 10). Certain restrictions were imposed upon them in reference to the former : some parts of the suet, viz., about the stomach, the entrails, the kidneys, and the tail of a sheep, which grows to an excessive size in many eastern countries, and produces a large quantity of rich fat, were forbidden to be eaten in the case of animals offered to Jehovah in sacrifice (Lev. iii. 3, 9, 17, vii. 3, 23). The ground of the prohibition was that the fat was the richest part of the animal, and there- fore belonged to Him (iii. 16). The pre- sentation of the fat as the richest part of the animal was agreeable to the dictates of natural feeling, and was the ordinary practice even of heathen nations. The burning of the fat of sacrifices was particularly specified in each kind of offering. FAT, i. e. Vat. The word employed in the A. V. to translate the Hebrew term yekeb, in Joel ii. 24, iii. 13. The word commonly used for yekeb is " winepress " or " winefat," and once " pressfat " (Hag. ii. 16). The " vats " appear to have been excavated oat of the native rock of the hills on which the vineyards lay. FATHER. The position and authority of the father as the head of the family is ex- pi-essly assumed and sanctioned in Scripture, as a likeness of that of the Almighty over His creatures. It lies of course at the root of that so-called patriarchal government (Gen. iii. 16 ; 1 Cor. xi. 3), which was introductory to the more definite systems which followed, and which in part, but not wholly, super- seded it. The father's blessing was regarded as sonferring special benefit, but his male- diction special injury, on those on whom it fell (Gen. ix. 25, 27, xxvii. 27-40, xlviii. 15, 20, xlix.) ; and so also the sin of a parent was held to affect, in certain cases, the wel- fare of his descendants (2 K. v. 27). The command to honour jiarents is noticed by St. Paul as the only one of the Decalogue which bore a distinct promise (Ex. xx. 12; Eph. vi. 2), and disrespect towards them was condemned by the Law as one of the worst of crimes (Ex. xxi. 15, 17 ; 1 Tim. i. 9). It is to this well recognised theory of parental au- thority and supremacy that the very variou uses of the term " father " in Scripture are due. " Fathers " is used in the sense of seniors (Acts vii. 2, xxii. 1), and of parents in general, or ancestors (Dan. v. 2 ; Jer. xxvii. 7 ; Matt, xxiii. 30, 32). FATHOM. [Measures.] FEASTS. [Festivals.] FE'LIX, a Roman procurator of Judaea, appointed by the Emperor Claudius, whose freedman he was, on the banishment of Ven- tidius Cumanus in a.d. 53. Tacitus states that Felix and Cumanus were joint procur- ators ; Cumanus having Galilee, and Felix Samaria. Felix was the brother of Claudius's powerful freedman Pallas. He ruled the province in a mean, cruel, and profligate manner. His period of ofl&ce was full of troubles and seditions. St. Paul was brought before Felix in Caesarea. He was remanded to prison and kept there tAVO years, in hopes of extorting money from him (Acts xxiv. 26, 27). At the end of that time Poi-cius Festus [Festus] was appointed to supersede Felix, who, on his return to Rome, was accused by the Jews in Caesarea, and would have suffered the penalty due to his atrocities, had not his brother Pallas prevailed with the Emperor Nero to spare him. This was pi'obably in the j-ear 60 a.d. The wife of Felix was Drusilla, daughter of Herod Agrippa I., the former wife of Azizus King of Emesa. FERRET, one of the unclean creeping things mentioned in Lev. xi. 30. The animal referred to was probably a reptile of the lizard tribe. The Rabbinical writers seem to have identified this animal with the hedgehog. FESTIVALS.— I. The religious times or- dained in the Law fall under three heads : — (1.) Those formally connected with the insti- tution of the Sabbath ; (2.) The historical or great festivals ; (3.) The Day of Atonement. — (1.) Immediately connected with the in- stitution of the Sabbath are— (a) The weekly Sabbath itself, (b) The seventh new moon or Feast of Trumpets, (c) The Sabbatical Year, (d) The Year of Jubilee. — (2.) The great feasts are : — («) The Passover, (b) The Feast of Pentecost, of Weeks, of Wheat- harvest, or, of the First-fruits, (c) The Feast of Tabernacles, jar of Ingathering. On each of these occasions every male Israelite was commanded " to appear before the Lord," that is, to attend in the court of the taber- FESTUS, PORCIUS 175 FIRMAMENT uacle or the temple, and to make his offering with a joyful heart (Deut. xxvii. 7 ; Neh. viii. 9-12). The attendance of women was voluntary, hut the zealous often went up to the Passover. On all the days of Holy Con- vocation there was to be an entire suspension of ordinary labour of all kinds (Ex. xii. 16 ; Lev. xvi. 29, xxiii. 21, 24, 25, 35). But on the intervening days of the longer festivals woi'k might be carried on. Besides their re- ligious purpose, the great festivals must have had an important, bearing on the maintenance of a feeling of national unity. The frequent recurrence of the sabbatical number in the organization of these festivals is too remark- able to be passed over, and seems when viewed in connexion with the sabbatical sacred times, to furnish a strong proof that the whole sys- tem of the festivals of the Jewish law was the product of one mind. The agricultural significance of the three great festivals is clearly set forth in the account of the Jewish sacred year contained in Lev. xxiii. The times of the festivals were evidently ordained in wisdom, so as to interfere as little as pos- sible with the industry of the people. — (3.) For the Day of Atonement see that article. — II. After the captivity, the Feast of Purim (Esth. ix. 20 sq.) and that of the Dedication (1 Mace. iv. 56) were instituted. FES'TUS, POR'CIUS, successor of Felix as procurator of Judaea (Acts xxiv. 27), sent by Nero probably in the autumn of the year 60 A.D. A few weeks after Festus reached his province he heard the cause of St. Paul, who had been left a prisoner by Felix, in the presence of Herod Agrippa II. and Bernice his sister (Acts xxv. 11, 12). Judaea was in the same disturbed state during the procu- ratorship of Festus, which had prevailed through that of his predecessor. He died probably in the summer of 62 a.d., having ruled the province less than two years. FIG, FIG-TREE (Heb. tecndh), a word of frequent occurrence in the 0. T., where it signifies the tree Ficus Caricn of Linnaeus, and also its fruit. The fig-tree is very com- mon in Palestine (Deut. viii. 8). Mount Olivet was famous for its fig-trees in ancient times, and they are still found there. " To sit under one's own vine and one's own fig- tree " became a proverbial expression among the Jews to denote peace and prosperity (1 K. iv. 25 ; Mic. iv. 4 ; Zech. iii. 10). FIR (Heb. berosh, beroth Is. xiv. 8 ; Ez. xxvii. 5, &c.). As the term "cedar" is in all probability applicable to more than one tree, so also " fir " in the A. V. represents probably one or other of the following trees : —1. Pinus sylvestris, or Scotch fir ; 2. larch ; 3. Cupressus sempervirens, or cypress, all which are at this day found in the Le- banon. FIRE is represented as the symbol cf Jehovah's presence, and the instrument of his power, in the way either of approval or of destruction (Ex. iii. 2, xiv. 19, &c.). Parallel with this application of fire and with its symbolical meaning is to be noted the similar use for sacrificial purposes, and the respect paid to it, or to the heavenly bodies as symbols of deity, which prevailed among so many nations of antiquity, and of which tbe traces are not even now extinct : c. g. the Sabaean and Magiaii systems of worship, and their alleged connexion with Abraham ; the occasional relapse of the Jews themselves into sun-, or its corrupted form of fire-wor- ship (Is. xxvii. 9 ; Deut. xvii. 3, &c.), the worship or deification of heavenly bodies or of fire, prevailing to some extent, as among the Persians, so also even in Egypt. Fire for sacred purposes obtained elsewhere than from the altar was called " strange fire," and for the use of such Nadab and Abihu were punished with death by fire from God (Lev. X. 1, 2 ; Num. iii. 4, xxvi. 61). FIREPAN, one of the vessels of the Temple service (Ex. xxvii. 3, xxxviii. 3 ; 2 K. xxv. 15 ; Jer. Iii. 19). The same word is elsewhere rendered " snuff-dish " (Ex. xxv. 38, xxxvii. 23 ; Num. iv. 2) and "censer" (Lev. X. 1, xvi. 12 ; Num. xvi. 6 ff.). There appear, therefore, to have been two articles so called : one, like a chafing-dish, to carry live coals for the purpose of burning incense ; another, like a snuffer-dish, to be used in trimming the lamps, in order to carry the snuffers and convey away the snuff. FIRKIN. [Weights and Mkasures.] FIRMAMENT. The Hebrew term rdkU, so translated, is generally regarded as ex- pressive of simple expansion, and is so ren- dered in the margin of the A. V. (Gen. i. 6). The root meang to expand by beating, whether by the hand, the foot, or any instru- ment. It is especially used of beating out metals into thin plates (Ex. xxxix. 3 ; Num. xvi. 39). The sense of solidity, therefore, is combined with the ideas of ex]xmsio7i and tenuity in the term. The same idea of solidity runs through all the references to the rdkta. In Ex. xxiv. 10, it is represented as a solid floor. So again, in Ez. i. 22-26, the "firmament" is the floor on which the throne of the Most High is placed. Further, the office of the rdktci in the economy of the world demanded strength and substance. It was to serve as a division between the waters above and the waters below (Gen. i. 7). In keeping with this view the rdkia was pro- vided with "windows" (Gen. vii. 11; Ls. FIRST-BORN 176 FITCHES xxiv, 18; Mai. iii. 10) and "doors" (Ps. Ixxviii. 23), through which the rain and the enow might descend. A secondary purpose which the rdkia served was to support the heavenly bodies, sun, moon, and stars (Gen. i. 14), in which they were fixed as nails, and from which, consequently, they might be said to drop off (Is. xiv. 12, xxxiv. 4 ; Matt. xxiv. 29). FIRST-BORN. Under the Law, in memory of the Exodus, the eldest son was regarded as devoted to God, and was in every case to be redeemed by an offering not exceeding 5 shekels, within one month from birth. If he died before the expiration of 30 days, the Jewish doctors held the father excused, but liable to the payment if he outlived that time (Ex. xiii. 12-15, xxii. 29 ; Num. viii. 17, xviii. 15, 16 ; Lev. xxvii. 6). The eldest son received a double portion of the father's in- heritance (Deut. xxi. 17), but not of the mother's. Under the monarchy, the eldest son usually, but not always, as appears in the case of Solomon, succeed'^d his father in the kingdom (1 K. i. 30, ii. 22). The male first- born of animals was also devoted to God (Ex. xiii. 2, 12, 13, xxii. 29, xxxiv. 19, 20). Unclean animals were to be redeemed with the addition of one-fifth of the value, or else put to death ;" or, if not redeemed, to be sold, and the price given to the priests (Lev. xxvii. 13, 27, 28). FIRST-FRUITS. 1. the Law ordered in general, that the first of all ripe fruits and of liquors, or, as it is twice expressed, the first of first-fruits, should be offered in God's house (Ex. xxii. 29, xxiii. 19, xxxiv. 26). 2. On the morrow after the Passover sabbath, t. e. on the 16th of Nisan, a sheaf of new corn was to be brought to the priest, and waved before the altar, in acknowledgment of the gift of fruitfulncss (Lev. xxiii. 5, 6, 10, 12, ii. 12). 3. At the expiration of 7 weeks from this time, i. e. at the Feast of Pentecost, an oblation was to be made of 2 loaves of leavened bread made from the new flour, which were to be waved in like manner with the Passover sheaf ( Ex. xxxiv. 22 ; Lev. xxiii. 15, 17 ; Num. xxviii. 26). 4. The feast of ingathering, i. e. the Feast of Taber- nacles in the 7 th month, was itself an ac- knowledgment of the fruits of the harvest (Ex. xxiii. 16, xxxiv. 22 ; Lev. xxiii. 39). These four sorts of offerings were national. Besides them, the two following were of an individual kind. 5. A cake of the first dough that was baked, was to be offered as a heave-offering (Num. xv. 19, 21). 6. The ftrst-fruits of the land were to be brought in a basket to the holy place of God's choice, and there presented to the priest, who was to set the basket down before the altar (Deut. xxvi. 2-11). — The offerings were the per- quisite of the priests (Num. xviii. 11 ; Deut. xviii. 4). Nehemiah, at the Return from Captivity, took pains to reorganize the offer- ings of first-fruits of both kinds, and to ap- point places to receive them (Neh. x. 35, 37, xii. 44). An offering of first-fruits is men- tioned as an acceptable one to the prophet Elisha (2 K. iv. 42). FISII. The Hebrews recognised fish as one of the great divisions of the animax kingdom, and, as such, give them a place in the account of the creation (Gen. i. 21, 28), as well as. in other passages where an ex- haustive description of living creatui-es is in- tended (Gen. ix. 2 ; Ex. xx. 4 ; Deut. iv. 18; 1 K. iv. 33). The Mosaic law (Lev. xi. 9, 10) pronounced unclean such fish as were devoid of fins and scales : these were and are regarded as unwholesome in Egypi Among the Philistines, Dagon was repre sented by a figure, half man and half fish (1 Sam. V. 4). On this account the worship of fish is expressly prohibited (Deut. iv. 18). In Palestine, the Sea of Galilee was and still is remarkably well stored with fish. Jeru- salem derived its supply chiefly from the Mediterranean (comp. Ez. xlvii. 10). The existence of a regular fish-market is implied in the notice of the fish-gate, which was probably contiguous to it (2 Chr. xxxiii. 14 ; Neh. iii. 3, xii. 39 ; Zeph. i. 10). FITCHES (i. e. Vetches), the representa- tive in the A. V. of the two Heb. words cussemeth and ketsach. As to the former see Rye. Ketsach denotes without doubt the NlgeJla sativa, an herbaceous annual plant belonging to the natural order Ranunctilaceae FLAG 177 FOOD and sub-order Hellehorene, ■which grows in the S. of Europe and in the N. of Africa. FLAG, the representative in the A. V. of ^the two Heb. words achu and suph. 1. Achu, a word, according to Jerome, of Egyptian origin, and denoting " any green snd coarse herbage, such as rushes and reedsj •vhich grows in marshy places." It seems probable that some specific plant is denoted in Job viii. 1 1 . The word occurs once again in Gen. Ixi. 2, 18, where it is said that the seven well-favoured kine came up out of the i-iver and fed in an dcMi. It is perhaps the Cypervs esculentus. 2. Suph (Ex. ii. 3, 5 ; Is. xix. 6) appears to be used in a very wide sense to denote " weeds of any kind." FLAGON, a word employed in the A. V. to render two distinct Hebrew terms : 1. Ashishah (2 Sam. vi. 19 ; 1 Chr. xvi. 3 ; Cant. ii. 5 ; Hos. iii. 1). It really means a cake of pressed raisins. 2. liehel (Is. xxii. 24), is commonly used for a bottle or vessel, originally probably a skin, but in later times a piece of pottery (Is, xxx. 14). FLAX. Two words are used for this plant in the O. T., or rather the same word slightly modified. Eliminating all the places where the words are used for the article manufac- tured in the thread, the piece, or the made up garment, we reduce them to two (Ex. ix. 31 ; Josh. ii. 6). It seems probable that the cultivation of flax for the purpose of the manufacture of linen was by no means con- fined to Egypt ; but that originating in India it spread over Asia at a very early period of antiquity. That it was grown in Palestine even before the conquest of that country by the Israelites appears from Josh. ii. 6. The various processes employed in preparing the flax for manufacture into cloth are indicated : — 1. The drj'ing process. 2. The peeling of the stalks, and separation of the fibres. 3. The hackling (Is. xix. 9). That flax was one of the most important crops in Palestine appears from Hos. ii. 5, 9. FLEA, an insect twice only mentioned in Scripture, viz., in 1 Sam. xxiv. 14, xxvi. 20. Fleas are abundant in the East, and afford the subject of many proverbial expressions. FLESH. [Food.] FLINT. The Heb. challdmish is rendered flt'ii in Deut. viii. 15, xxxii. 13 ; Ps. cxiv. 8 ; and Is. 1. 7. In Job xxviii. 9 the same word is rendered rock in the text, and flint in the margin. In Ez. iii. 9 the English word " flint " occurs in the same sense, but there it represents the Heb. Tzor. FLOOD. [Noah.] FLOUR. [Bread.] FLUTE (1 K. i. 4, marg. [Pipe]), a musical instrument mentioned amongst others (Dan. Sm. D. B. iii. 5, 7, 10, 15) as used at the worship of the golden image which Nebuchadnezzar had set up. FLUX, BLOODY (Acts xxviii. 8), the same as our dysentery, which in the East is, though sometimes sporadic, generally epi- demic and infectious, and then assumes its worst form. FLY, FLIES. 1. Zebiib occurs only in Eccl. X. 1 and in Is. vii. 18, and is probably a generic name for any insect. The zebiib from the rivers of Egypt has been identified with the zimb of which Bruce gives a descrip- tion, and which is evidently some species of Tabanus. 2. ^Arob (" swarms of flies," "divers sorts oi flies," A. V.), the name of the insect, or insects, which God sent to punish Pharaoh ; see Ex. viii. 21-31 ; Ps. Ixxviii. 45, cv. 31. As the 'drob are said to have filled the houses of the Egyptians, it seems not improbable that common flies [Muscidae) are more especially intended. The identification of the ^drob with the cock- roach is purely gratuitous. FOOD. Tlie diet of Eastern nations has been in all ages light and simple. As com- pared with our own habits, the chief points of contrast are the small amount of animal food consumed, the variety of articles used as accompaniments to bread, the substitution of milk in various forms for our liquors, and the combination of what we should deem heterogeneous elements in the same dish, or the same meal. The chief point of agree- ment is the large consumption of bread, the importance of which in the eyes of the Hebrew is testified by the use of the term lechem (originally food of any kind) specifi- cally for bread, as well as by the expression " staff of bread " (Lev. xxvi. 26 ; Ps. cv. 16 ; Ez. iv. 16, xiv. 13). Simpler prepara- tions of corn were, however, common ; some- times the fresh green ears were eaten in a natural state, the husks being rubbed off by the hand (Lev. xxiii. 14 ; Deut. xxiii. 25 ; 2 K. iv. 42 ; Matt. xii. I ; Luke vi. 1) ; more frequently, however, the grains, after being carefully picked, were roasted in a pan over a fire (Lev. ii. 14), and eaten as " parched corn," in which form they were an ordinary article of diet, particularly among labourers, or others who had not the means of dressing food (Lev. xxiii. 14 ; Ruth ii. 14 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 17, xxv. 18 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 28) : this practice is still very usual in the East. Sometimes the grain was bruised (A. V. "beaten," Lev. ii. 14, 16), and then dried in the sun ; it was eaten either mixed with oil (Lev. ii. 15), or made into a soft cake (A. V, " dough ;" Num. xv. 20 ; Neh. x. 37 ; Ez. xliv. 30). The Hebrews used a great variety N FOOD FOREST of articles (John xxi. 5) to give a relish to bread. Sometimes salt was so used (Job vi. 6), as we learn from tho passage just quoted ; sometimes the bread was dipped into the sour wine (A. V. " vinegar ") which the labourers drank (Ruth ii. 14) ; or, where meat was eaten, into the gravy, which was either served up separately for the purpose, as by Gideon (Judg. vi. 19), or placed in the middle of the meat-dish, as done by the Arabs. Milk and its preparations hold a conspicuous place in Eastern diet, as afford- ing substantial noui-ishment ; sometimes it was produced in a fresh state (Gen. xviii. 8), but more generally in the form of the modern leban, i. e. sour milk (A. V. "butter;" Gen. xviii. 8 ; Judg. v. 25 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). Fruit was another source of subsistence : figs stand first in point of importance ; they were generally dried and pressed into cakes. Grapes were generally eaten in a dried state as raisins. Fruit-cake forms a part of the daily food of the Arabians. Of vegetables we have most frequent notice of lentils (Gen. XXV. 34 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 28, xxiii. 11 ; Ez. iv. 9), which are still largely used by the Be- douins in travelling ; beans (2 Sam. xvii. 28 ; Ez. iv. 9), leeks, onions, and garlick, which were and still are of a superior quality in Egypt (Num. xi. 5). The modern Arabians consume but few vegetables : radishes and leeks are most in use, and are eaten raw with bread. In addition to these classes we have to notice some other important articles of food : in the first place, honey, whether the natural product of the bee (1 Sam. xiv. 25 ; Matt. iii. 4), which abounds in most parts of Arabia, or of the other natural and artificial productions included under that head, espe- cially the dibs of the Syrians and Arabians, i. e. grape-juice boiled down, which is still extensively used in the East ; the latter is supposed to be referred to in Gen. xliii. 11, and Ez. xxvii. 17. "With regard to oil, it does not appear to have been used to the ex- tent we might have anticipated. Eggs are not often noticed, but were evidently known as articles of food (Is. x. 14, lix. 5 ; Luke xi. 12). The Orientals have been at all times sparing in the use of animal food : not only does the excessive heat of the climate render it both unwholesome to eat much meat, and expensive from the necessity of immediately consuming a whole animal, but beyond this the ritual regulations of the Mosaic law in ancient, as of the Koran in modern times, have tended to the same result. The prohi- bition expressed against consuming the blood of any animal (Gen. ix. 4) was more fully developed in the Levitical law, and enforced by the penalty of death (Lev. iii 17, vii. 26, xix. 26 ; Pent. xii. 16 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 32 if. ; Ez. xliv. 7, 15). Certain portions of the fat of sacrifices were also forbidden (Lev. iii. 9, 10), as being set apart for the altar (Lev. iii. 16, vii. 25 ; cf. 1 Sam. ii. 16 ff. ; 2 Chr. vii. 7). In addition to the above. Christians were forbidden to eat the flesh of animals, portions of which had been ofl'ered to idols. All beasts and bii-ds classed as unclean (Lev. xi. 1 ff". ; Deut. xiv. 4 ff.) were also pro- hibited. Under these restrictions the Hebrews were permitted the free use of animal food : generally speaking they only availed them- selves of it in the exercise of hospitality (Gen. xviii. 7), or at festivals of a religious (Ex. xii. 8), public (1 K. i. 9 ; 1 Chr. xii. 40), or private character (Gen. xxvii. 4 ; Luke xv. 23) : it was only in royal households that there was a daily consumption of meat (1 K. iv. 23 ; Neh. v. 18). The animals killed for meat were — calves (Gen. xviii. 7 ; 1 Sam. xxviii. 24 ; Am. vi. 4) ; lambs (2 Sam. xii. 4 ; Am. vi. 4) ; oxen, not above three years of age (1 K. i. 9 ; Prov. xv. 17 ; Is. xxii. 13 ; Matt. xxii. 4) ; kids (Gen. xxvii. 9 ; Judg. vi. 19 ; 1 Sam. xvi. 20) ; harts, roe- bucks, and fallow-deer (1 K. iv. 23); birds of various kinds ; fish, with the exception of such as were without scales and fins (Lev. xi. 9 ; Deut. xiv. 9). Locusts, of which certain species only were esteemed clean (Lev. xi. 22), were occasionally eaten (Matt, iii. 4), but considered as poor fare. FOOTMAN, a word employed in the Auth. Version in two senses. 1. Genei'ally, to dis- tinguish those of the people or of the fighting- men who went on foot from those who were on horseback or in chariots. But, 2. The word occurs in a more special sense (in 1 Sam. xxii. 17 only), and as the translation of a different term from the above. This passage aff'ords the first mention of the existence of a body of swift runners in at- tendance on the king, though such a thing had been foretold by Samuel (1 Sam. viii. 11). This body appears to have been after- wards kept up, and to have been distinct from the body-guard— the six hundred and the thirty — who were originated by David. See 1 K. xiv. 27, 28 ; 2 Chr. xii. 10, 11 ; 2 K. xi. 4, 6, 11, 13, 19. In each of these cases the word is the same as the above, and is rendered " guard ;" but the translators were evidently aware of its signification, for they have put the word " runners " in the margin in two instances (1 K. xiv. 27 ; 2 K. xi. 13). FOREST. Although Palestine has never been in historical times a woodland countrj% yet there can be no doubt that there was much more wooii formerly than there is at FORTUNATUS 179 present. (1.) The wood of Ephraim clothed the slopes of the hills that bordered the plain of Jezreel, and the plain itself in the neigh- bourhood of Bethshan (Josh. xvii. 15 ff.)- (2.) The wood of Bethel (2. K. ii. 23, 24) was situated in the ravine which descends to the plain of Jericho. (3.) The forest of Hareth (1 Sam. xxii. 5) was somewhere on the border of the Philistine plain, in the southern part of Judah. (4.) The wood through which the Isi-aelites passed in their pursuit of the Philistines (1 Sam. xiv. 25) was probably near Aijalon (comp. v. 31). (5.) the "wood" (Ps. cxxxii. 6) implied in the name of Kirjath-jearim (1 Sam. vii. 2) must have been similarly situated, as also (6.) were the "forests" in which Jotham placed his forts (2 Chr. xxvii. 4). (7.) The plain of Sharon was partly covered with wood (Is. Ixv. 10). (8.) The wood in the wilder- ness of Ziph, in which David concealed him- self (i Sam. xxiii. 15 ff.), lay S.E. of Hebron. The house of the forest of Lebanon (1 K. vii. 2, X. 17, 21 ; 2 Chr. ix. 16, 20) was so called probably from being fitted up with cedar. FORTUNA'TUS (1 Cor. xvi. 17), one of three Corinthians, the others being Stephanas and Achaicus, who were at Ephesus when St. Paul wrote his first Epistle. There is a Fortunatus mentioned at the end of Clement's first Epistle to the Corinthians, who was possibly the same person. FOUNTAIN. Among the attractive fea- tures presented by the Land of Promise to the nation migrating from Egypt by way of the desert, none would be more striking than the natural gush of waters from the ground. The spi'ings of Palestine, though short-lived, are remarkable for their abundance and beauty, especially those which fall into the Jordan and its lakes throughout its whole course. The spring or fountain of living water, the " eye " of the landscape, is dis- tinguished in all Oriental languages from the artificially sunk and enclosed well. Jerusa- lem appears to have possessed either more than one perennial spring, or one issuing by more than one outlet. In Oriental cities generally public fountains are frequent. Traces of such fountains at Jerusalem may perhaps be found in the names En-Rogel (2 Sam. xvii. 17), the " Dragon- well " or foun- tain, and the " gate of the fountain " (Neh. ii. 13, 14). FOWL. Several distinct Hebrew and Greek words are thus rendered in the A. V. of the Bible. Of these the most common is ^oph, which is usually a collective term for all kinds of birds. In 1 K. iv. 23, among the daily provisions for Solomon's table, "fatted fowl" are included. In the N. T. the word translated " fowls " is most fre- quently that which comprehends all kinds of birds (including ravens, Luke xii. 24). [Sparrow.] , FOX (Heb. shu'dl) . Probably the "jackal " is the animal signified in almost all the passages in the O. T. where the Hebrew term occurs. The shiVdltm of Judg. xv. 4 are evidently "jackals," and not "foxes," for the former animal is gregarious, whereas the latter is solitary in its habits. With respect to the jackals and foxes of Palestine, there is no doubt that the common jackal of the country is the Catiis aureus, which may be heaid every night in the villages. A vulpine Fountaiu at Nazareth. (Roberts. FRANKINCENSE 180 FULLER animal, under the name of Canis Syriacus, occurs in Lebanon. The Egyptian Vulpes Niloticus, and doubtless the common fox of our own country, are Palestine species. FRANKINCENSE, a vegetable resin, brit- tle, glittering, and of a bitter taste, used for the purpose of sacrificial fumigation (Ex. XXX. 34-36). It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of a tree called the arhor thuris, the first of which yields the purest and whitest kind ; while the produce of the after incisions is spotted with yellow, and as it becomes old loses its whiteness altogether. The Hebrews imported their frankincense from Arabia (Is. Ix, 6 ; Jer. vi. 20), and more particularly from Saba; but it is remarkable that at present the Arabian Xiibanum, or Olibanum, is of a very inferior kind, and that the finest frankincense im- ported into Turkey comes through Arabia from the islands of the Indian Archipelago. There can be little doubt that the tree which produces the Indian frankincense is the Bos- wellia serrata of Roxburgh, or Bosioellia thurifera of Colebrooke. It is still extremely uncertain what tree produces the Arabian Olibanum. FROG. The mention of this reptile in the O. T. is confined to the passage in Ex. viii. 2-7, &c., in which tlie plague of frogs is de- scribed, and to Ps. Ixxviii. 45, cv. 30. In the N. T. the word occurs once only in Rev. xvi. 13. There is no question as to the ani- mal meant. The only known species of frog which occurs at present in Egypt is the Rana esctiletita, the edible frog of the continent. FRONTLETS, or PHYLACTERIES (Ex. xiii. 16 ; Dent. vi. 8,xi. 18 ; Matt, xxiii. 5). These " frontlets " or " phylacteries " were strips of parchment, on which were written four passages of Scripture (Ex. xiii. 2-10, 11-17 ; Deut. vi. 4-9, 13-23) in an ink pre- pared for the purpose. They were then rolled up in a case of black calfskin, which was attached to a stiff'er piece of leather, having a thong one finger broad, and one and a half cubits long. They were placed at the bend of the left arm. Those worn on the forehead were written on four strips of parch- ment, and put into four little cells within a square case, on which the letter ^ was written. The square had two thongs, on which Hebrew letters were inscribed. That phylacteries were used as amulets is certain, and was very natural. The expression " they make broad their phylacteries " (Matt, xxiii. 5) refers not so much to the phylactery itself, which seems to have been of a prescribed breadth, as to the case in which the parch- ment was kept, which the Pharisees, among their other pretentious customs (Mark vii. 3, 4 ; Luke v. 33, &c.), made as conspicuous as they could. It is said that the Pharisees wore them always, whereas the common people only used them at prayers. The modern Jews only wear them at morning prayers, and sometimes at noon. In our Lord's time they were worn by all Jews, ex- cept the Karaites, women, and slaves. Boys, at the age of thirteen years and a day, were bound to wear them. The Karaites explained Deut. vi. 8, Ex. xiii. 9, &c., as a figurative command to remember the law, as is certainly the case in similar passages (Prov. iii. 3, vi. 21, vii. 3; Cant. viii. 6, &c.). It seems clear to us that the scope of these injunctions favours the Karaite interpretation. Frontlets or Phylacteries. FULLER. The trade of the fullers, so far as it is mentioned in Scripture, appears to have consisted chiefly in cleansing garments and whitening them. The process of fulling or cleansing cloth consisted in treading or stamping on the garments with the feet or with bats in tubs of water, in which some alkaline substance answering the purpose of soap had been dissolved. The substances used for this purpose which are mentioned in Scripture are natrum (Prov. xxr. 2C ; Jer. ii. 22) and soap (Mai. iii. 2). Other sub- stances also are mentioned as being employed in cleansing, which, together with alkali, seem to identify the Jewish with the Roman pi'ocess, as urine and chalk. The process of whitening garments was performed by rub- bing into them chalk or earth of some kind. Creta Cimolia (Cimolite) was probably the earth most frequently used. The trade of the fullers, as causing offensive smells, and also as requiring space for drying clothes, FULLER'S FIELD, THE 181 GAD appears to have been carried on at Jerusalem outside the city. FULLER'S FIELD, THE, a spot near Jerusalem (2 K. xviii. 17 ; Is. vii. 3, xxxvi. 2) so close to the walls that a person speaking from there could be heard on them (2 K. xviii, 17, 26). One resort of the fullers of Jerusalem would seem to have been below the city on the south-east side. But Rab- shakeh and his *' great host " must have come from the north ; and the Fuller's Field was therefore, to judge from this circum- stance, on the table-land on the northern side of the city. FUNERALS. [Burial.] FURLONG. [Measures.] FURNACE. Various kinds of furnaces are noticed in the Bible, such as a smelting or calcining furnace (Gen. xix. 28 ; Ex. ix. 8, 10, xix. 18), especially a lime-kiln (Is. xxxiii. 12 ; Am. ii. 1) ; a refining furnace (Prov. xvii. 3, xxvii. 21 ; Ez. xxii. 18 if.) ; a large furnace built like a brick-kiln (Dan. iii. 22, 25). The Persians were in the habit of using the furnace as a means of inflicting capital punishment (Dan. I. c. ; Jer. xxix. 22 ; 2 Mace, vii. 5 ; Hos. vii. 7). GA'AL, son of Ebed, aided the Sheche- mites in their rebellion against Abi- melech (Judg. ix.). GA'ASH. On the north side of " the hill of Gaash " was the city which was given to Joshua (Josh. xxiv. 30 ; Judg. ii. 9 ; comp. Josh. xix. 49, 50). It does not appear to have been recognized. GA'BA. The same name as Geba. It is found in the A. V. in Josh, xviii. 2t ; Ezr. ii. 26; Neh. vii. 30. GAB'BATHA, the Hebrew or Chaldee ap- pellation of a place, also called " Pavement," where the judgment-seat or bema was planted, from his place on which Pilate delivered our Lord to death (John xix. 13). The place was outside the praetor ium, for Pilate brought Jesus forth from thence to it. It is sug- gested that Gabbatha is a mere translation of " pavement." It is more probably from an ancient root signifying height or roundness. In this case Gabbatha designated the ele- vated Bema; and the "pavement" was pos- sibly some mosaic or tesselated work, either forming the bema itself, or the flooring of the court immediately round it. GA'BRIEL. The word, which is not in itself distinctive, but merely a description of the angelic office, is used as a proper name or title in Dan. viii. 16, ix. 21, and in Luke i. 19, 26. In the otdinary traditions, Jewish and Christian, Gabriel is spoken of as one of the archangels. In Scripture he is set forth only as the representative of the angelic nature in its ministration of comfort and sympathy to man. GAD, Jacob's seventh son, the first-born of Zilpah, Leah's maid, and whole-brother to Asher (Gen. xxx. 11-13, xlvL 16, 18). The w-ord means either "fortune" or "troop;" hence Leah said at his birth — " a troop (of children) cometh " (Gen. xxx. ii. ; comp. xlix. 19). Of the childhood and life of the patriarch Gad nothing is preserved. At the time of the descent into Egypt seven sons are ascribed to him. The alliance between the tribes of Reuben and Gad was doubtless in- duced by the similarity of their pursuits. Of all the sons of Jacob these two tribes alone returned to the land which their forefathers had left five hundred years before, with their occupations unchanged. At the halt on the east of Jordan we find them coming forward to Moses with the representation that they " have cattle " — " a great multitude of cattle," and the land where they now are is a " place for cattle." They did not, however, attempt to evade taking their proper share of the difficulties of subduing the land of Canaan, and after that task had been effected they were dismissed by Joshua " to their tents," to their " wives, their little ones, and their cattle," which they had left behind them in Gilead. The country allotted to Gad appears, speaking roughly, to have lain chiefly about the centre of the land east of Jordan. The south of that district — from the Arnon [Wady Mojeh), about halfway down the Dead Sea, to Heshbon, nearly due east of Jerusalem — was occupied by Reuben, and at or about Heshbon the possessions of Gad com- menced. They embraced half Gilead, as the oldest record specially states (Deut. iii. 12), or half the land of the children of Ammon (Josh. xiii. 25), probably the mountainous district which is intersected by the torrent Jabbok, including, as its most northern town, the ancient sanctuary of Mahanaim. On the east the furthest landmark given is " Aroer, that faces Rabbah," the present Ammaii (Josh, xiii. 25). West was the Jordan (27). Such was the territory allotted to the Gadites, but there -is no doubt that they soon extendctl themselves beyond these limits. The official records of the reign of Jotham of Judah (1 Chr. V. 11, 16) show them to have been at that time established over the whole of Gilead, and in possession of Bashan as far as Salcah, and very far both to the north and the east of the border given them originally, while the Manassites were pushed still further northwards to Mount Hermon (1 Chr. v. 23). The character of the tribe is throughout GAD 18^ GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE strongly marked — fierce and warlike — "strong men of might, men of war for the battle, that could handle shield and buckler, their faces the faces of lions, and like roes upon the mountains for swiftness." Gad was carried into captivity by Tiglath-Pileser (1 Chr. v. 26), and in the time of Jeremiah the cities of the tribe seem to have been inhabited by the Ammonites. GAD, "the seer," or "the king's seer," i. e. David's (1 Chr. xxix. 29 ; 2 Chr. xxix. 2 .3 ; 2 S-am. xxiv. 11 ; 1 Chr. xxi. 9), was a " prophet" who appears to have joined David when in the hold (1 Sam. xxii. 5). He re- appears in connexion with the punishment inflicted for the numbering of the people (2 Sam. xxiv. 11-19 ; 1 Chr. xxi. 9-19). He wrote a book of the Acts of David (1 Chr. xxix. 29), and also assisted in the arrange- ments for the musical service of the " house of God" (2 Chr. xxix. 25). GAD. Properly " the Gad," with the article. In the A. V. of Is. Ixv. 11 the clause " that prepare a table for that troop " has in the margin instead of the last word the proper name " Gad," which evidently denotes some idol worshipped by the Jews in Babylon, though it is impossible positively to iden- tify it. GAD'AUA, a strong city situated near the river Hieromax, east of the Sea of Galilee, over against Scythopolis and Tiberias, and sixteen Roman miles distant froin each of those places. Josephus calls it the capital of Peraea. A large district was attached to it. Gadara itself is not mentioned in the Bible, but it is evidently identical with the "country of the Gadarenes," or Gergesenes (Matt. viii. 28; Mark v. 1; Luke viii. 26, 37). The ruins of this city, now called Um Keis, are about two miles in circumference. Gadara derives its greatest interest from having been the scene of our Lord's miracle in healing the demoniacs (Matt. viii. 28-34 ; Mark v. 1-21 ; I. ike viii. 26-40). The whole circumstances of the narrative are strikingly illustrated by the features of the country. Another thing i? worthy of notice. The most interesting remains of Gadara are its tombs, which dot the cliffs for a considerable distance round the city. Gadara was captured by Vespasian on the first outbreak of the war with the Jews ; all its inhabitants massacred ; and the town itself, with the surrounding villages, reduced to ashes. GAI'US. [John, Second and Third Epistles of.] GAL'AAD, the Greek form of the word GiLEAD. GALA'TIA, is literally the " Gallia" of the East. The Galatians were in their origin a stream of that great Keltic torrent which poured into Greece in the third century before the Christian era. Some of these invaders moved on into Thrace, and appeared on the shores of the Hellespont and Bosporus, when Nicomedes I., king of Bithynia, being then engaged in a civil war, invited them across to help him. At the end of the Republic, Galatia appears as a dependent kingdom ; at the beginning of the Empire as a province (a.d. 26). The Roman province of Galatia may be roughly described as the central region of the peninsula of Asia Minor, with the pro- vinces of Asia on the west, Cappadocia on the east, Pamphylia and Cilicia on the south, and Bithynia and Pontus on the north. These Eastern Gauls preserved much of their ancient character, and something of their ancient language. The prevailing speech, however, of the district was Greek. The inscriptions found at Ancyra are Greek, and St. Paul wrote his Epistle in Greek. It is difficult at first sight to determine in what sense the word Galatia is used by the writers of the N. T., or whether always in the same sense. In the Acts of the Apostles the journeys of St. Paul through the district are mentioned in very general terms. On all ac- counts it seems most probable that Galatia is used by St. Luke as an ethnographical term, and not for the Roman province of that name. GALATIANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE, was written by the Apostle St. Paul not long after his journey through Galatia and Phi'ygia (Acts xviii. 23), and probably in the early portion of his two years' and a half stay at Ephesus, which terminated with the Pente- cost of A.D. 57 or 58. The Epistle appears to have been called forth by the machinations of Judaizing teachers, who, shortly before the date of its composition, had endeavoured to seduce the churches of this province into a recognition of circumcision (v. 2, 11, 12, vi. 12, sq.), and had openly sought to de- preciate the apostolic claims of St. Paul (comp. i. 1, 11). The scope and contents of the Epistle are thus — (1) apologetic (i., ii.) and polemical (iii. iv.) ; and (2) hortatory and practical (v., vi.) : the positions and de- monstrations of the former portion being used with great power and persuasiveness in the exhortations of the latter. Two historical questions require a brief notice : — 1. The numher of visits made by St. Paul to the churches of Galatia previous to bis writing the Epistle. These seem certainly to have been two. The Apostle founded the churches of Galatia in the visit recorded Acts xvi. 6, during his second missionary journey, about A.D. 51- ana revisited them at the period and GALBANUM 183 GALL on the occasion mentioned Acts xviii. 23, Tvhen he went through the country of Galatia and Phrygia. On this occasion it would seem probable that he found the leaven of Judaism beginning to work in the churches of Galatia. 2. Closely allied with the preceding question is that of the date, and the place from which the Epistle was written. It was probably written about the same time as the Epistle to the Romans at Corinth, during the three months that the Apostle stayed there (Acts XX, 2, 3), apparently the winter of a.d. 57 or 58. GALBANUM, one of the perfumes em- ployed in the preparation of the sacred incense (Ex. XXX. 34). The galbanum of commerce is brought chiefly from India and the Levant. It is a resinous gum of a brownish yellow colour, and strong, disagreeable smell, usually met with in masses, but sometimes found in yellowish tear -like drops. But, though galbanum itself is well known, the plant which yields it has not been exactly deter- mined. GAL'EED, the name given by Jacob to the heap which he and Laban made on Mount Gilead in witness of the covenant then entered into between them (Gen. xxxi. 47,48; comp. 23, 25). GAL'ILEE. This name, which in the Roman age was applied to a large province, seems to have been originally confined to a little "circuit" of country round Kedesh- Naphtali, in which were situated the twenty towns given by Solomon to Hiram, king of Tyre, as payment for his work in conveying timber from Lebanon to Jerusalem (Josh. XX. 7; 1 K. ix. 11). They were then, or subsequently, occupied by strangers, and for this reason Isaiah gives to the district the name "Galilee of the Gentiles" (Is. ix. 1). It is probable that the strangers increased in number, and became during the captivity the great body of the inhabitants; extending themselves also over the surrounding country, they gave to their new territories the old name, until at length Galilee became one of the largest provinces of Palestine. In the time of our Lord all Palestine was divided into three provinces, Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee (Acts ix. 31 ; Luke xvii. 11 ; Joseph. B. J. iii. 3). The latter included the whole northern section of the country, including the ancient territories of Issachar, Zebulun, Asher, and Naphtali. On the west it was bounded by the territory of Ptolemais, which probably included the whole plain of Akka to the foot of Carmel. The southern border ran along the base of Carmel and of the hills of Samaria to Mount Gilboa, and then descended the valley of Jezreel by Scythopolis to the Jordan. The river Jordan, the Sea of Galilee, and the upper Jordan to the fountain at Dan, form.ed the eastern border ; and the northern ran from Dan westward across the mountain ridge till it touched the territory of the Phoenicians. Galilee was divided into two sections, "Lower" and " Upper." Lower Galilee included the great plain of Esdraelon with its offshoots, which run down to the Jordan and the Lake of Tiberias ; and the whole of the hill-country adjoining it on the north to the foot of the mountain-range. It was thus one of the richest and most beautiful sections of Palestine. The chief towns of Lower Galilee were Tiberias, Tarichaea, at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee, and Sepphoris. The towns most celebrated in N. T. history are Nazareth, Cana, and Tiberias (Luke i. 26 ; John ii. 1, vi. 1). Upper Galilee embraced the whole mountain-range lying between the upper Jordan and Phoenicia. To this region the name "Galilee of the Gentiles " is given in the O. and N. T. (Is. ix. 1; Matt. iv. 15). The town of Caper- naum, on the north shore of the lake, was in upper Galilee. Galilee was the scene of the greater part of our Lord's private life and public acts. His early years were spent at Nazareth ; and when He entered on His great work He made Capernaum His home (Matt. iv. 13. ix. 1). It is a remarkable fact that the first three Gospels are chiefly taken up with our Lord's ministrations in this pro- vince, while the Gospel of John dwells more upon those in Judaea. The nature of our Lord's parables and illustrations was greatly influenced by the peculiar features and pro- ducts of the country. The Apostles were all either Galileans by birth or residence (Acts i. 11). After the destruction of Jerusalem, Galilee became the chief seat of Jewish schools of learning, and the residence of their most celebrated Rabbins. GALILEE, SEA OF. [Gennesareth.] GALL, the representative in the A. V. of the Hebrew words mererdh, or mh'ordh, and rosh. 1. Mererdh or merordh denotes ety- mologically " that which is bitter ;" see Job xiii. 26, "thou writest bitter things against me." Hence the term is applied to the "bile" or "gall" from its intense bitterness (Job xvi. 13, XX. 25) ; it is also used of the "poison" of sei-pents (Job xx. 14), which the ancients erroneously believed was their gall. 2. Rosh, generally translated "gall" by the A. V. is in Hos. x. 4 rendered " hem- lock :" in Deut. xxxii. 33, and Job xx. 16, rosh denotes the "poison" or "venom "of serpents. From Deut. xxix. 18, and Lam. iii. 19, compared with Hos. x. 4, it is evident that the Heb. term denotes some bitter, and GALLEY 184 GAJVIES perhaps poisonous plant. Other writers have supposed, and with some reason (from Deut. xxxii. 32), that some herry-bearing plant must be intended. Gesenius understands " poppies." The capsules of the Papaveraceae may well give the name of rosh (" head ") to the plant in question, just as we speak of poppy heads. The various species of this family spring up quickly in corn-fields, and the juice is extremely bitter. A steeped solu- tion of poppy heads may be " the water of gall" of Jer. viii. 14. The passages in the Gospels which relate the circumstance of the Roman soldiers offering our Lord, just before his crucifixion, "vinegar mingled with gall," according to St. Matthew (xxvii. 34), and "wine mingled with myrrh," according to St. Mark's account (xv. 23), require some consideration. " Matthew, in his usual way," as Hengstenberg remarks, " desig- nates the drink theologically : always keeping his eye on the prophecies of the O. T., he speaks of gall and vinegar for the purpose of rendering the fulfilment of the Psalms more manifest. Mark again (xv. 23), according to Ms way, looks rather at the outward quality of the drmk." " Gall " is not to be under- stood in any other sense than as expressing the bitter nature of the draught. Notwith- standing the almost concurrent opinion of ancient and modern commentators that the " wine mingled with myrrh " was offered to our Lord as an anodyne, we cannot readily come to the same conclusion. Had the sol- diers intended a mitigation of suffering, they would doubtless have offered a draught drugged with some substance having narcotic properties. The drink in question was pro- bably a mere ordinary beverage of the Romans. GALLEY. [Ship.] GAL'LIO. Junius Annaeus Gallio, the Roman pro-consul of Achaia when St. Paul was at Corinth, a.p. 53, under the Emperor Claudius (Acts xviii. 12). He was brother to Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the philosopher. Jerome in the Chronicle of ilusebius says that he conmiitted suicide in the year 65 A.D. GAMA'LIEL. 1. SonofPedahzur ; prince or captain of the tribe of Manasseh at the census at Sinai (Num. i. 10, ii. 20, vii. 54, 59), and at starting on the march through the wilderness (x. 23). — 2. A Pharisee and celebrated doctor of the law, who gave prudent, worldly advice in the Sanhedrim re- specting the treatment of the followers of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts v. 34 ff.). We learn from Acts xxii. 3 that he was the preceptor of St. Paul. He is generally identified with the very celebrated Jewish doctor Gamaliel. This Gamaliel was son of Rabbi Simeon, and grand- son of the celebrated Hillel ; he was president of the Sanhedrim under Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, and is reported to have died eighteen years before the destruction of Jeru- salem. GAMES. Among the Greeks the rage foi theatrical exhibitions was such that every city of any size possessed its theatre and stadium. At Ephesus an annual contest was held in honour of Diana. It is probable that St. Paul was present when these games were proceeding. A direct reference to the ex- hibitions that took place on such occasions is made in 1 Cor. xv. 32. St. Paul's Epistles abound with allusions to the Greek contests, borrowed probably from the Isthmian games, at which he may well have been present during his first visit to Corinth. These con- tests (2 Tim. iv. 7 ; 1 Tim. vi. 12) were divided into two classes, the pancratium, con- sisting of boxing and wrestling, and the peniathIo7i, consisting of leaping, running, quoiting, hurling the spear, and wrestling. The competitors (1 Cor. ix. 25 ; 2 Tim. ii. 5) required a long and severe course of previous training (1 Tim. iv. 8), during which a par- ticular diet was enforced (I Cor. ix. 25, 27). In the Olympic contests these preparatory ex- ercises extended over a period of ten months, during the last of which they were conducted under the supervision of appointed officers. The contests took place in the presence of a vast multitude of spectators (Heb. xii. 1), the competitors being the spectacle (1 Cor. iv. 9 ; Heb. X. 33). The games -\>'ere opened by the proclamation of a herald (1 Cor. ix. 27), whose office it was to give out the name and country of each candidate, and especially tc announce the name of the victor before the assembled multitude. The judge was selected for his spotless integrity (2 Tim. iv. 8) : his office was to decide any disputes (Col iii. 15) and to give the prize (1 Cor. ix. 24 ; Phil, iii. 14), consisting of a crown (2 Tim. ii. 5, iv. 8) of leaves of wild olive at the Olympic games, and of pine, or at one period, ivy, at the Isthmian games. St. Paul alludes to two only out of the five contests, boxing and running, most frequently to the latter. In boxing (cf. 1 Cor. ix. 26) the hands and arms were bound with the cestus, a band of leather studded with nails. The foot-race (2 Tim. iv. 7) was run in the stadium (1 Cor. ix. 24), an olDlong area, open at one end and rounded in a semicircular form at the other, along the sides of which were the raised tiers of seats 'on which the spectators sat. The judge wa.«; stationed by the goal (Phil. iii. 14), which was clearly visible from one end of the sta~ dium to the other. GARDEN 185 GATE GARDEN. Gardens in the East, as the Hebrew word indicates, are inclosures, on the outskirts of towns, planted with various trees and shrubs. From the allusions in the Bible we learn that they were surrounded by hedges of thorn (Is. v. 5), or walls of stone (Prov. xxiv, 31). For further protection lodges (Is. i. 8 ; Lam. ii. 6) or watchtowers fMark xii. 1) were built in them, in which sat the keeper (Job xxvii. 18) to drive away the wild beasts and robbers, as is the case to this day. The gardens of the Hebrews were planted with flowers and aromatic shrubs (Cant. vi. 2, iv. 16), besides olives, fig-trees, nuts, or walnuts (Cant. vi. 11), pomegranates, and others for domestic use (Ex. xxiii. 11 ; Jer. xxix. 5 ; Am. ix. 14). Gardens of herbs, or kitchen-gardens, are mentioned in Deut. xi. 10, and 1 K. xxi. 2. Cucumbers were grown in them (Is. i. 8 ; Bar. vi. 70), and probably also melons, leeks, onions, and garlick, which are spoken of (Num. xi. 5) as the productions of a neighbouring country. The rose-gai-den in Jerusalem, said to have been situated westward of the temple mount, is remarkable as having been one of the few gardens which, from the time of the prophets, existed within the city walls. But of all the gardens of Palestine none is pos- sessed of associations more sacred and im- perishable than the garden of Gethsemane, beside the oil-presses on the slopes of Olivet. In a climate like that of Palestine the neigh- bourhood of water was an important consi- deration in selecting the site of a garden. To the old Hebrew poets " a well-watered gar- den," or " a tree planted by the waters," was an emblem of luxuriant fertility and ma- terial prosperity (Is. Iviii. 11 ; Jer. xvii. 8, xxxi. 12). From a neighbouring stream or cistern were supplied the channels or con- duits, by which the gardens were intersected, and the water was thus conveyed to all parts (Ps. i. 3 ; Eccl. ii. 6 ; Ecclus. xxiv. 30). It is matter of doubt what is the exact meaning of the expression "to water with the foot" in Deut. xi. 10. — The Hebrews made use of gardens as places of burial (John xix. 41). Manasseh and his son Amon were buried in the garden of their palace, the garden of Uzza (2 K. xxi. 18, 26).— The retirement of gardens rendered them favourite places for devotion (Matt. xxvi. 36 ; John xviii. 1 ; cf. Gen. xxiv. 63). In the degenerate times of the monarchy they were selected as the scenes of idolatrous worship (Is. i. 29, Ixv. 3, Ixvi. 17) and images of the idols were probably erected in them. — The traditional gardens and pools of Solomon, supposed to be alluded to in Eccl. ii. 5, 6, are shown in the Wady Urtas [i. e. Hortus), about an hour and a quarter to the south of Bethlehem. The " king's garden," menticied in 2 K. xxv. 4; Neh. iii. 15; Jer. xxxix. 4, lii. 7, was near the pool of Siloam, at the mouth of the Tyropoeon, north of Bir Eyub, and was formed by the meeting of the valleys of Jehoshaphat and Ben Hinnom. GARLICK (Num. xi. 5), is the Allium Sa- tivum of Linnaeus, which abounds in Egypt. GARMENT. [Dress.] GATE. The gates and gateways of eastern cities anciently held, and still hold, an im- portant part, not only in the defence but in the public economy of the place. They are thus sometimes taken as representing the city itself (Gen. xxii. 17, xxiv. 60; Deut. xii. 12 ; Judg. v. 8 ; Ruth iv. 10 ; Ps. Ixxxvii. 2, cxxii. 2). Among the special purposes for which they were used may be mentioned — 1. As places of public resort (Gen. xix. 1, xxiii. 10, xxxiv. 20, 24; 1 Sam. iv. 18, &c.). 2. Places for public deliberation, adminis- tration of justice, or of audience for kings and rulers, or ambassadors (Deut. xvi. 18, xxi. 19, xxv. 7 ; Josh. xx. 4 ; Judg. ix. 35, &c.), 3. Public markets (2 K. vii. 1). In heathen towns the open spaces near the gates appear to have been sometimes used as places for sacrifice (Acts xiv. 13; comp. 2 K. xxiii. 8). Regarded therefore as positions of great importance the gates of cities were carefully guarded and closed at nightfall (Deut. iii. 5 ; Josh. ii. 5, 7 ; Judg. ix. 40, 44). They con- tained chambers over the gateway (2 Sam. xviii. 24). The doors themselves of the larger gates mentioned in Scripture were two-leaved, plated with metal, closed with locks and fast- ened with metal bars (Deut. iii. 5 ; Ps. cvii. 16; Is. xlv. 1, 2). Gates not defended by iron were of course liable to be set on fire by an enemy (Judg. ix. 52). The gateways of royal palaces and even of private houses were often richly ornamented. Sentences from the Law were inscribed on and above the gates (Deut. vi. 9 ; Is. liv. 12 ; Rev. xxi. 21). The gates of Solomon's Temple were very mas- sive and costly, being overlaid with gold and carvings (1 K. vi. 34, 35 ; 2 K. xviii. 16). Those of the Holy Place were of olive-wood, two-leaved, and overlaid with gold ; those of the temple of fir (1 K. vi. 31, 32, 34; Ez. xii. 23, 24). The figurative gates of pearl and precious stones (Is. liv. 12 ; Rev. xxi. 21) may be regarded as having their types in the massive stone doors which are found in some of the ancient houses in Syria. These are of single slabs several inches thick, sometimes 10 feet high, and turn on stone pivots above. The parts of the doorwaj were the threshold (Judg. xix. 27) ; the side-posts, the lintel (Ex. xii. 7). In the Temple, Le- GATH 186 GEBA rites, and in houses of the wealthier classes, and in palaces, persons were especially ap- pointed to keep the door (Jer. xxxv. 4 ; 2 K. xii. 9, XXV. 18, &c.). GATH, one of the five royal cities of the Philistines (Josh. xiii. 3 ; 1 Sam. vi. 17) ; and the native place of the giant Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 4, 23). It probahly stood upon the con- spicuous hill now called Tell-es-Sdfieh, upon the side of the plain of Philistia, at the foot of the mountains of Judah ; 10 miles E. of Ashdod, and about the same distance S. by E. of Ekron. It is irregular in form, and about 200 ft. high. Gath occupied a strong position (2 Chr. xi. 8) on the border of Judah and Philistia (1 Sam. xxi. 10; 1 Chr. xviii. 1 ) ; and from its strength and resources forming the key of both countries, it was the scene of frequent struggles, and was often captured and recaptured (2 Chr. xi. 8, xxvi. 6 ; 2 K. xii. 17 ; Am. vi, 2). The ravages of war to which Gath was exposed appear to have destroyed it at a comparatively early period, as it is not mentioned among the other royal cities by the later prophets (Zeph. ii. 4 ; Zech. ix. 5, 6). It is familiar to the Bible student as the scene of one of the most romantic incidents in the life of king David (1 Sam. xxi, 10-15). GATH-HE'PHER, or GIT'TAH-HE'PHER, a town on the border of the territory of Zebu- lun, not far from Japhia, now Ydfa (Josh. xix, 12, 13), celebrated as the native place of the prophet Jonah (2 K, xiv, 25). El-Mesh- had, a village 2 miles E, of SefCirieh, is the ancient Gath-hepher, GATH-RIM'MON, 1, A city given out of the tribe of Dan to the Levites (Josh. xxi. 24; 1 Chr. vi. 69), situated on the plain of Philistia, apparently not far from Joppa (Josh, xix. 45). — 2. A town of the half tribe of Manasseh west of the Jordan, assigned to the Levites (Josh. xxi. 25). The reading Gath-rimmon is probably an error of the transcribers. GA'ZA (properly Azzah), one of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It is remark- able for its continuous existence and import- ance from the very earliest times. The secret of this unbroken history is to be found in the situation of Gaza. It is the last town in the S.W. of Palestine, on the frontier to- wards Egypt. The same peculiarity of situ- ation has made Gaza important in a military sense. Its name means "the strong;" and this was well elucidated in its siege by Alex- ander the Great, which lasted five months. In Gen. x. 19 it appears, even before the call of Abraham, as a " border " city of the Ca- naanites. In the conquest of Joshua the territory of Gaza is mentioned as one which he was not able to subdue (Josh. x. 41, xi. 22, xiii. 3). It was assigned to the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 47), and that tribe did ob- tain possession of it (Judg. i. 18) ; but they did not hold it long ; for soon afterwards we find it in the hands of the Philistines (Judg. iii. 3, xiii. 1, xvi. I, 21) ; indeed it seems to have been their capital ; and apparently con- tinued through the times of Samuel, Saul, and David to be a Philistine city (1 Sam. vi. 17, xiv. 52, xxxi. 1 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 15). Solomon became master of "Azzah" (1 K. iv. 24). But in after times the same trouble with the Philistines recurred (2 Chr. xxi. 16, xxvi. 6, xxviii. 18). The passage whei-e Gaza i& mentioned in the N. T. (Acts viii. 26) is full of interest. It is the account of the baptism of the Ethiopian eunuch on his return from Jerusalem to Egypt. The words " which is desert " have given rise to much discussion. The probability is, that tbey refer to the road, and are used by the angel to inform Philip, who was then in Samaria, on what route he would find the eunuch. Besides the ordinary road from Jerusalem by Ramleh to Gaza, there was another, more favourable for carriages (Acts viii. 28), further to the south through Hebron, and thence through a district com- paratively without towns and much exposed to the incursions of people from the desert. The modern Ghuzzeh is situated partly on an oblong hill of moderate height, and partly on the lower ground. The climate of the place is almost tropical, but it has deep wells of excellent water. There are a few palm-trees in the town, and its fruit-orchards are very productive. But the chief feature of the neighbourhood is the wide-spread olive-grove to the N. and N.E. GAZ'ARA, a place frequently mentioned in the wars of the Maccabees, and of great importance in the operations of both parties (1 Mace. ix. 52, xiii. 53, xiv. 7, 33, 34, 36, XV. 28, xvi. 1 ; 2 Mace. x. 32-36). There is every reason to believe that Gazara was the same place as the more ancient Gezer or Gazer. GA'ZER, 2 Sam. v. 25 ; 1 Chr. xiv. 16. [Gezer.] GE'BA, a city of Benjamin, with "sub- urbs," allotted to the priests (Josh, xxi, 17 ; 1 Chr. vi, 60). It is named amongst the first group of the Benjamite towns ; apparently those lying near to and along the north boundary (Josh, xviii. 24). Here the name is given as Gaba. During the wars of the earlier part of the reign of Saul, Geba was held as a garrison by the Philistines (1 Sam. xiii. 3), but they were ejected by Jonathan. Later in the same campaign we find it re- ferred to to define the position of the t^vo GEBAL 18- GENEALOGY rocks which stood in the ravine below the garrison of Michmash, in terms whieli fix Geba on the south and Michmash on the north of the ravine (1 Sam. xiv. 5 ; the A. V. has here Gibeah). Exactly in accordance with this is the position of the modern village of Jeba, which stands picturesquely on the top of its steep terraced hill, on the very edge of the great IFadi/ Suweinit, looking north- wards to the opposite village, which also re- tains its old name of Mukhmas. GE'BAL, a proper name, occurring in Ps. Ixxxiii. 7, in connexion with Edom and Moab, Ammon and Amalek, the Philistines and the inhabitants of Tyre. The contexts both of the psalm and of the historical records will justify our assuming the Gebal of the Psalms to be one and the same city with the Gebal of Ezekiel (xxvii. 9), a maritime town of Phoenicia. From the fact that its inhabit- ants are written " Giblians " in the Vulg., and " Biblians" in the LXX., we may infer their identity with the Giblites, spoken of in con- nexion with Lebanon by Joshua (xiii. 5), and that of their city with the " Biblus " (or Byblus) of profane literature. It is called Jehail by the Arabs, thus reviving the old Biblical name. GEDALI'AH, son of Ahikam (Jeremiah's protector, Jer. xxvi. 24), and grandson of Shaphan the secretary of king Josiah. After the destruction of the Temple, b.c. 588, Ne- buchadnezzar departed from Judaea, leaving Gedaliah with a Chaldean guard (Jer. xl. 5) at Mizpah, to govern the vine-dressers and husbandmen (Jer. lii. 16) who were exempted from captivity. Jeremiah joined Gedaliah ; and Mizpah became the resort of Jews from various quarters (Jer. xl. 6, 11). He was murdered by Ishmael two months after his appointment. GE'DER. The king of Geder was one of the 31 kings who were overcome by Joshua on the west of the Jordan (Josh. xii. 13). It is possible that it may be the same place as the Geder named in 1 Chr. iv. 39. GED'EROTH, a town in the low country of Judah (Josh. xv. 41 ; 2 Chr. xxviii. 18). GEDO'R, a town in the mountainous part of Judah (Josh. xv. 58), a few miles north of Hebron. Robinson discovered a Jeclur halfway bet-ween Bethlehem and Hebron, about two miles west of the road. GEHA'ZI, the servant or boy of Elisha. He was sent as the prophet's messenger on two occasions to the good Shunammite (2 K. iv.) ; obtained frauaulently money and garments from Naaman, was miraculously smitten with incurable leprosy, and was dis- missed from the prophet's service (2 K. v.). Later in the history he is mentioned as being engaged in relating to King Joram all the great things which Elisha had done (2 K. viii.). GEHEN'NA. [Hinnom.] GEMARI'AH. 1. Son of Shaphan the scribe, and father of Michaiah. He was one of the nobles of Judah, and had a chamber in the house of the Lord, from which Baruch read Jeremiah's alarming prophecy in the ears of all the people, b.c. 606 (Jer. xxxvi.). — 2. Son of Hilkiah, was made the bearer of Jeremiah's letter to the captive Jews (Jer. xxix.). GEMS. [Stones, Prkcious.] GENEALOGY. In Hebrew the term for genealogy or pedigree is " the book of the generations ;" and because the oldest his- tories were usually drawn up on a genea- logical basis, the expression often extended to the whole history, as is the case with the Gospel of St. Matthew, where " the book of the generation of Jesus Christ " includes the whole history contained in that Gospel. The promise of the land of Canaan to the seed of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob successively, and the separation of the Israelites from the Gentile world ; the expectation of Messiah as to spring from the tribe of Judah ; the ex- clusively hereditary priesthood of Aaron with its dignity and emoluments ; the long suc- cession of kings in the line of David ; and the whole division and occupation of the land upon genealogical prmciples by the tribes, families, and houses of fathers, gave 'a deeper importance to the science of genealogy among the Jews than perhaps any other nation. With Jacob, the founder of the nation, the system of reckoning by genealogies was much further developed. In Gen. xxxv. 22-26, we have a formal account of the sons of Jacob, the patriarchs of the nation, repeated in Ex. i. 1-5. In Gen. xlvi. we have an exact gene- alogical census of the house of Israel at the time of Jacob's going down to Egypt. When the Israelites were in the wilderness of Sinai, their number was taken by Divine command " after their families, by the house of their fathers." According to these genealogical di- visions they pitched their tents, and marched, and offered their gifts and offerings, chose spies, and the whole land of Canaan was par- celled out amongst them. When David esta- blished the temple services on the footing which continued till the time of Christ, he divided the priests and Levites into courses and companies, each under the family chief. When Hezekiah reopened the temple, and restored the temple services which had fallen into disuse, he reckoned the whole nation bj* genealogies. When Zerubbabel brought back the captivity from Babylon, one of his first GENEALOGY 188 GENESIS Dares seems to have been to take a census of those that returned, and to settle them ac- cording to their genealogies. Passing on to the time of the birth of Christ, we have a striking incidental proof of the continuance of the Jewish genealogical economy in the fact that when Augustus ordered the census of the empire to be taken, the Jews in the province of Sj'ria immediately went each one to his own city. Another proof is the exist- ence of our Lord's genealogy in two forms as given by St. Matthew and St. Luke, The mention of Zacharias, as "of the course of Abia," of Elizabeth, as "of the daughters of Aaron," and of Anna the daughter of Pha- nuel, as " of the tribe of Aser," are further indications of the same thing. From all this it is abundantly manifest that the Jewish genealogical records continued to be kept till near the destruction of Jerusalem. But there can be little doubt that the registers of the Jewish tribes and families perished at the destruction of Jerusalem, and not before. It remains to be said that just notions of the nature of the Jewish genealogical records are of great importance with a view to the right interpretation of Scripture. Let it only be remembered that these records have respect to political and territorial divisions, as much as to strictly genealogical descent, and it will at once be seen how erroneous a conclusion it may be, that all who are called " sons " of such or such a patriarch, or chief father, must necessarily be his very children. If any one family or house became extinct, some other would succeed to its place, called after its own chief father. Hence of course a census of any tribe drawn up at a later pe- riod, would exhibit different divisions from one drawn up at an earlier. The same prin- ciple must be borne in mind in interpreting any particular genealogy. Again, when a pedigree was abbreviated, it would naturally specify such generations as would indicate from what chief houses the person descended. But then as regards the chronological use of the Scripture genealogies, it follows from the above view that great caution is necessary in using them as measures of time, though they are invaluable for this purpose whenever we can be sure that they are complete. The Jewish genealogies have two forms, one giv- ing the generations in a descending, the other in an ascending scale. Examples of the de- scending form may be seen in Ruth iv. 18-22, or 1 Chr. iii. Of the ascending 1 Chr. vi. 33-43 (A. V.) ; Ezr. vii. 1-5. Females are named in genealogies when there is anything remarkable abou*. them, or when any right or property is transmitted through them. Bofc Gen. xi. 29, xxii. 23, xxv. 1-4, xxxv. 22-26 ; Ex. vi. 23 ; Num. xxvi. 33 ; I Chr. ii. 4, 19, 50, 35, &c. GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST. The New Testament gives us the genealogy of but one person, that of our Saviour. The follow- ing propositions will explain the true con- struction of these genealogies : — 1. They are both the genealogies of Joseph i. e. of Jesus Christ, as the reputed and legal son of Jo- seph and Mary. 2. The genealogy of St. Matthew is Joseph's genealogy as legal suc- cessor to the throne of David. St. Luke's is Joseph's private genealogy, exhibiting his real birth, as David's son, and thus showing why he was heir to Solomon's crown. The simple principle that one evangelist exhibits that genealogy -mhich contained the successive heirs to David's and Solomon's throne, while the other exhibits the paternal stem of him who was the heir, explains all the anomalies of the two pedigrees, their agreements as well as their discrepancies, and the circumstance of there being two at all. 3. Mary, the mother of Jesus, was in all probability the daughter of Jacob, and first cousin to Joseph her husband. GENERATION. In the long-lived Patri- archal age a generation seems to have been computed at 100 years (Gen. xv. 16 ; comp. 13, and Ex. xii. 40) ; but subsequently the reckoning was the same which has been adopted by other civilised nations, viz., from thirty to forty years (Job xlii. 16). For generation in the sense of a definite period of time, see Gen. xv. 16 ; Deut. xxiii. 3, 4, 8, &c. As an indefinite period of time : — for time past, see Deut. xxxii. 7 ; Is. Iviii. 12; for time future, see Ps. xlv, 17, Ixxii. 5, &c. Generation is also used to signify the men of an age, or time, as contemporaries (Gen. vi. 9 ; Is. liii. 8) ; posterity, especiiiUy in legal formulae (Lev. iii. 17, &c.) ; fathers, or ati- cestors (Ps. xlix. 19). GENES 'ARETH. [Gennesaret.] GEN'ESIS, the first book of the Law or Pentateuch, so called from its title in the Sep- tuagint, that is, Creation. Respecting its inte- grity and author, see Pentateuch, The book of Genesis (with the first chapters of Exodus) describes the steps which led to the establish- ment of the Theocracy. It is a part of the writer's plan to tell us what the Divine pre- paration of the world was, in order to show, first, the significance of the call of Abraham, and next, the true nature of the Jewish theo- cracy. He begins with the creation of the world, because the God who created the world and the God who revealed Himself to the fathers is the same God. The book of Genesis has thus a character at once special and universal. It embraces the world ; it GENESIS 189 GENTILES speaks of God as the God of the whole human race. • But as the introduction to Jewish his- tory, it makes the universal interest subor- dinate to the national. Five principal persons are the pillars, so to speak, on which the whole superstructure rests : Adam, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. — I. Adam. The creation of the world, and the earliest history of mankind (ch. i.-iii.). As yet no divergence of the different families of man. — II. Noah. The history of Adam's descendants to the death of Noah (iv.-ix.). Here we have (1) the line of Cain branching off while the his- tory follows the fortunes of Seth, whose de- scendants are (2) traced in genealogical suc- cession, and in an unbroken line as far as Noah, and (3) the history of Noah himself (vi.-ix.), continued to his death.— III. Ahfa- ham. Noah's posterity till the death of Abra- ham (x.-xxv. 18). Here we have (1) the peopling of the whole earth by the descend- ants of Noah's three sons (xi. 1-9). The his- tory of two of these is then dropped, and (2) the line of Shem only pursued (xi. 10-32) as far as Terah and Abraham, where the genea- logical table breaks off. (3) Abraham is now the prominent figure (xii.-xxv. 18). But as Terah had two other sons, Nahor and Haran (xi. 27), some notices respecting their families are added. Lot's migration with Abraham into the land of Canaan is mentioned, as well as the fact that he was the father of Moab and Ammon (xix. 37, 38), nations whose later history was intimately connected with that of tlie posterity of Abraham. Nahor remained in Mesopotamia, but his family is briefly enu- merated (xxii. 20-24), chiefly no doubt for Rebekah's sake, who was afterwards the wife of Isaac. Of Abraham's own children, there oranches off first the line by Ishmael (xxi. 9, &c.), and next the children by Keturah ; , and the genealogical notices of these two branches of his posterity are apparently brought together (xxv. 1-6, and xxv. 12-18), in order that, being here severally dismissed at the end of Abraham's life, the nuiln Eiream of the narrative may flow in the channel of Isaac's fortunes. — IV. Isaac. Isaac's life (xxv. 19-xxxv. 29), a life in itself retiring ar.d uneventful. But in his sons the final separation takes place, leaving the field clear for the great story of the chosen seed. Even when Nahor's family comes on the scene, as it does in ch. xxix., we hear only so much of it as is necessary to throw light on Jacob's history. — V. Jacob. The history of Jacob and Joseph (xxxvi. 1). Here, after Isaac's death, we have (1) the genealogy of Esau (xxxvi.), who then drops out of the narrative, in order that (2) the history of the Patriarchs may be carried on without intermission to the death of Joseph (xxxvii.-l.). — It will be seen that a specific plan is preserved through- out. The main purpose is never forgotten. God's relation to Israel holds the first place in the writer's mind. It is this which it is his object to convey. The history of that chosen seed, who were the heirs of the pro- mise and the guardians of the Divine oracles, is the only history which interprets man's relation to God. By its light all others shine, and may be read when the time shall come. Meanwhile, as the dilferent families drop off here and there from the principal stock, their course is briefly indicated. Beyond all doubt, then, we may trace in the book of Genesis a systematic plan. GENNES'ARET, SEA OF, called in the O.T. " the Sea of Chinnereth," or " Cin- neroth " (Num. xxxiv. 11; Josh. xii. 3), from a town of that name which stood on or near its shore (Josh. xix. 35). At its north- western angle was a beautiful and fertile plain called " Gennesaret " (Matt. xiv. 34 ; Mark vi. 53), from which the name of the lake was taken. The lake is also called in the N.T. " the sea of Galilee," from the pro- vince of Galilee which bordered on its western side (Matt. iv. 18; Mark vii. 31 ; John vi. 1) ; and "the sea of Tiberias," from the celebrated city (John vi. 1). Its modern name is Bahr Tuhartyeh. Most of our Lord's public life was spent in the environs of the Sea of Gennesaret. This region was then the most densely peopled in all Palestine. No less than nine cities stood on the very shores of the lake. The sea of Gennesaret. is of an oval shape, about thirteen geographical miles long, and six broad. The river Jordan enters it at its northern end, and passes out at its southern end. In fact the bed of the lake is just a lower section of the great Jordan valley. Its most remarkable feature is its deep depression, being no less than 700 feet below the level of the ocean. The scenery is bleak and monotonous. The great depression makes the climate of the shores almost tropical. This is very sensibly felt by the traveller in going down from the plains of Galilee. In summer the heat is intense, and even in early spring the air has some- thing of an Egyptian balminess. The water of the lake is sweet, cool, and trensparent ; and as the beach is everywhere per.'bly it has a beautiful sparkling look. It abounds in li^h now as in ancient times. GENTILES. In the O. T. the Heb. goytm signified the nations, the surrounding nations, foreigners as opposed to Israel (Neh. v, 8), and was used with an invidious meaning. In the N. T. it is used as equivalent to Greek. But the A. V. is not consistent in its transla- GERA 190 GERSHON tion of the word Mellen, sometimes rendering it by "Greek" (Acts xiv. 1, xvii. 4 ; Rom. i. 16, X. 12), sometimes by " Gentile" (Rom. ii. 9, 10, iii. 9 ; 1 Cor. x. 32). The latter nse of the word seems to have arisen from the almost universal adoption of the Greek language. GE'RA, one of the " sons," i. e. descend- ants, of Benjamin, enumerated in Gen. xlvi. 21, as already living at the time of Jacob's migration into Egypt. He was son of Bela (1 Chr. viii. 3). The text of this last passage is very corrupt ; and the different Geras there named seem to reduce themselves into one — the same as the son of Bela. Gera, who is named (Judg. iii. 15) as the ancestor of Ehud, and in 2 Sam. xvi. 5, as the ancestor of Shimei who cursed David, is probably also the same person. GERAH. [Weights and Measures.] GE'RAR, a very ancient city south of Gaza. It occurs chiefly in Genesis (x. 19, xx. 1, xxvi. 16) ; also incidentally in 2 Chr. xiv. 13, 14. It must have trenched on the *' south " or " south country " of later Palestine. From a comparison of xxi. 32 with xxvi. 23, 26, Beersheba would seem to be just on the verge of this territory, and perhaps to be its limit towards the N.E. GER'GESENES. [Gadaea.] GER'IZIM. On the position of Mount Gerizim, see Ebal. It is an important question whether Gerizim was the mountain on which Abraham was directed to offer his son Isaac (Gen. xxii. 2, and sq.). First, then, let it be observed that it is not the mountain, bat the district which is there called Moriah, and that antecedently to the occurrence which took place " upon one of the mountains " in its vicinity — a consideration which of itself would naturally point to the locality, already known to Abraham, as the plain or plains of Moreh, "the land of vision," "the high land ;" and therefore consistently " the land of adora- tion," or " religious worship," as it is vari- ously explained. That all these interpreta- tions are incomparably more applicable to the natural features of Gerizim and its neigh- bourhood, than to the hillock (in comparison) upon which Solomon built his temple, none can for a moment doubt who have seen both. [Moriah.] The Samaritans, therefore, through whom the tradition of the true site of Gerizim has been preserved, are probably not wrong when they point out still — as they have done from time immemorial — Gerizim as the hill upon which Abraham's " faith was made perfect." Another tradition of the Samaritans is far less trustworthy: viz., that Mount Gerizim was the spot where Melchise- dcch met Abraham — though there certainly was a Salem or Shalem in that neighbourhood (Gen. xxxiii. 18). Lastly, the altar which Jacob built was not on Gerizim, as the Samaritans contend, though probably about its base, at the bead of the plain between it and Ebal, " in the parcel of a field " which that patriarch purchased from the children of Hamor, and where he spread his tent (Gen. xxxiii. 18-20). Here was likewise his well (John iv. 6), and the tomb of his son Joseph (Josh. xxiv. 32), both of which are still shown. — We now enter upon the second phase in the history of Gerizim. According to Josephus, a marriage contracted between Manasseh, brother of Jaddus, the then high- priest, and the daughter of Sanballat the Cuthaean (comp. 2 K. xvii. 24), having created a great stir amongst the Jews, who had been strictly forbidden to contract alien marriages (Ezr. ix. 2 ; Neh. xiii. 23), Sanballat, in order to reconcile his son-in-law to this unpopular affinity, obtained leave from Alexander the Great to build a temple upon Mount Gerizim, and to inaugurate a rival priesthood and altar there to those of Jerusalem. " Samaria thenceforth," says Prideaux, " became the common refuge and asylum of the refractory Jews." Gerizim is likewise still to the Samaritans what Jerusalem is to the Jews, and Mecca to the Mahometans. GER'SHOM. 1. The first-born son of Moses and Zipporah (Ex. ii. 22, xviii. 3). The name is explained in these passages as = " a stranger there," in allusion to Moses' being a foreigner in Midian — "For he said, I have been a stranger {Ge7-) in a foreign land." Its true meaning, taking it as a Hebrew word, is " expulsion." The circum- cision of Gershom is probably related in Ex. iv. 25. — 2. The form under which the name Gershon — the eldest son of Levi — is given in several passages of Chronicles, viz., 1 Chr. vi. 16, 17, 20, 43, 62, 71, xv. 7. GERSHON, the eldest of the three sons of Levi, born before the descent of Jacob's family into Egypt (Gen. xlvi. 11 ; Ex. vi. 16). But, though the eldest born, the families of Gershon were outstripped in fame by their younger brethren of Kohath, from whom sprang Moses and the priestly line of Aaron. At the census in the wilderness of Sinai the whole number of the males of the sons of Gershon was 7500 (Num. iii. 22), midway between the Kohathites and the Merarites. The sons of Gershon (the Gershonites) had charge of the fabrics of the Tabernacle — the coverings, curtains, hangings, and cords (Num. iii. 25, 26, iv. 25, 26) ; for the transport of these they had two covered wagons and four oxen (vii. 3, 7). In the encampment their station was behind the Tabernacle, on the west side (Num. iii. 23\ GESHUR 191 GIBEAH In the appoi-tionment of the Levitical cities thirteen fell to the lot of the Gershonites. These were in the northern tribes — two in Manasseh beyond Jordan, four in Issachar, four in Asher, and three in Naphtali. GE'SHUR, a little principality in the north-eastern corner of Bashan, adjoining the province of Argob (Deut. iii. 14), and the kingdom of Aram (Syria in the A. V. ; 2 Sara. XV. 8 ; corap. I Chr. i. 23). It is highly probable that Geshur was a section of the wild and rugged region now called el-Lejah. [Argob.] GESH'URIand GESH'URITES. 1. The inhabitants of Geshur (Deut. iii. 14 ; Josh, xii. 5, xiii. 11). — 2. An ancient tribe which dwelt in the desert between Arabia and Philistia (Josh. xiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. xxvii. 8). GETHSEM'ANE, a small "farm" (A. V. "place;" Matt. xxvi. 36; Mark xiv. 32), situated across the brook Kedron (John xviii. 1), probably at the foot of Mount Olivet (Luke xxii. 39), to the N.W., and about \ or f of a mile English from the walls of Jerusa- lem. There was a " garden," or rather orchard, attached to it, to which the olive, fig, and pomegranate doubtless invited resort by their hospitable shade. And we know from the Evangelists Luke (xxii. 39) and John (xviii. 2) that our Lord ofttimes resorted thither with his disciples. But Gethsemane has not come down to us as a scene of mirth ; it was the scene of the Agony of the Son of God on the evening preceding His Passion. A modern garden, in which are eight vener- able olive-trees, and a grotto to the north, detached from it, and in closer connexion with the Church of the Sepulchre of the Virgin, are pointed out as the true Gethsemane. Against the contemporary antiquity of the olive-trees, it has been urged that Titus cut down all the trees round about Jerusalem. The probability would seem to be that they were planted by Christian hands to mark the Rpot : unless, like the sacred olive of the Acropolis, they may have reproduced them- selves. GEZ'ER, an ancient city of Canaan, whose king, lloram, or Elam, coming to the assist- ance of Lachish, was killed with all his people by Joshua (Josh. x. 33, xii. 12). It formed one of the landmarks on the south boundary of Ephraim, between the lower Beth-horon and the Mediterranean (xvi. 3), the western limit of the tribe (1 Chr. vii. 28). It was allotted with its suburbs to the Kohathite Levites (Josh. xxi. 21 ; 1 Chr. vi. C>7) ; but the original inhabitants were not dispossessed (Judg. i. 29) ; and even down to the reign of Solomon the Canaanites were still dwelling there, and paying tribute to Israel (I K. ix. 16). Ewald takes Gezer and Geshur to be the same. In one place Gob is given as identical with Gezer (1 Chr. xx. 4 ; comp. 2 Sam. xxi. 18.) GIANTS. 1. They are first spoken of in Gen. vi. 4, under the name Nephilim. We are told in Gen. vi. 1-4 that " there tvej-e Nephilim in the earth," and that afterwards the " sons of God " mingling with the beautiful " daugh- ters of men " produced a race of violent and insolent Gibhorim (A. V. "mighty men"). But who were the parents of these giants? who are " the sons of God " 1 They were most probably the pious Sethites, though the prevalent opinion both in the Jewish and early Christian Church is that they were angels. It was probably this ancient view which gave rise to the spurious Book of Enoch, and the notion quoted from it by St. Jude (6), and alluded to by St. Peter (2 Pet. ii. 4). 2. The Rephaim, a name which frequently occurs. The earliest mention of them is the record of their defeat by Chedorlaomer and some allied kings at Ashteroth Karnaim (Gen. xiv. 5). Extirpated, however, from the east of Pales- tine, they long found a home in the west (2 Sam. xxi. 18, sq. ; I Chr. xx. 4). It is pro- bable that they had possessed districts west of the Jordan in early times, since the " Yalley of Rephaim" (2 Sam. v. 18 ; 1 Chr. xi. 15 ; Is. xvii. 5), a rich valley S.W. of Jerusalem, derived its name from them. They were probably an aboriginal people of which the Emim, Anakim, and Zuzim were branches. GIB'BETHON, a town allotted to the tribe of Dan (Josh. xix. 44), and afterwards given with its " suburbs" to the Kohathite Levites (xxi. 23). GIB'EAH, a word employed in the Bible to denote a " hill." Like most words of this kind it gave its name to several towns and places in Palestine, which would doubtless be generally on or near a hill. They are — 1. GiBEAH, a city in the mountain-district of Judah, named with Maon and the southern Carniel (Josh. xv. 57 ; and comp. 1 Chr. ii. 49, &c.). — 2. GiBEATH, is enumerated among the last group of the towns of Benjamin, next to Jerusalem (Josh, xviii. 28). It is generally taken to be the place which after- wards became so notorious as "Gibeah-of- Benjamin " or " of-Saul." But this was five or six mil s north of Jerusalem. The name being in the " construct state " — Gibeath and not Gibeah— may it not belong to the follow- ing name Kirjath, and denote the hill ad- joining that town ? — 3. The place in which the Ark remained from the time of its return by the Philistines till its removal by David (2 Sam. vi. 3, 4 ; com.p. 1 Sam. vii. 1, 2). — 4. Gibeah-of-Blnjamix, first appears in the GIBEON 192 GIER-EAGLE tragical story of the Levite and his concubine (Judg. xix., XX.). It was then a "city," with the usual open street or square (Judg. xix. 15, 17, 20), and containing 700 "chosen men" (xx. 15), probably the same whose skill as slingers is preserved in the next verse. In many particulars Gibeah agrees very closely with Tuleil-el-FiU, a conspicuous eminence just four miles north of Jerusalem, to the right of the road. We next meet with Gibeah-of-Benjamin during the Philistine wars of Saul and Jonathan (1 Sam. xiii., xiv.). It now bears its full title. As " Gibeah-of- Benjamin " this place is referred to in 2 Sam. xxiii. 29 (comp. 1 Chr. xi. 31), and as " Gibeah " it is mentioned by Hosea (v. 8, ix. 9, X. 9), but it does not again appear in the history. It is, however, almost without doubt identical with — 5. Gibeah-of-Saul. This is not mentioned as Saul's city till after his anointing (1 Sam. x. 26), when he is said to have gone "home" to Gibeah. In the subsequent narrative the town bears its full name (xi. 4). — 6. Gibeah-in-the-Field, named only in Judg. xx. 31, as the place to which one of the " highways " led from Gibeah-of-Benjamin. It is probably the same as Geba. The " meadows of Gaba " (A. V. Gibeah; Judg. xx, 33) have no con- nexion with the " field," the Hebrew words being entirely different. GIB'EON, one of the four cities of the HiviTES, the inhabitants of which made a league with Joshua (ix. 3-15), and thus escaped the fate of Jericho and Ai (comp. xi. 19). Gibeon lay within the territory of Benjamin (xviii. 25), and with its " suburbs " was allotted to the priests (xxi. 17), of whom it became afterwards a principal station. It retains its ancient name almost intact, El-Jib. Its distance from Jerusalem by the main road is as nearly as possible 6^ miles ; but there is a more direct road reducing it to 5 miles. GIB'EONITES, THE, the people of Gibeon and perhaps also of the three cities associated with Gibeon (Josh. ix. 17) — Hivites ; and who on the discovery of the stratagem by which they had obtained the protection of the Israel- ites, were condemned to be perpetual bondmen, hewers of wood and drawers of water for the congregation, and for the house of God and al- tar of Jehovah (Josh. ix. 23, 27). Saul ap- pears to have broken this covenant, and in a fit of enthusiasm or patriotism to have killed some and devised a general massacre of the rest (2 Sam. xxi. 1, 2, 5). This was expiated many years after by giving up seven men of Saul's descendants to the Gibeonites, who hung them or crucified them " before Jehovah " — as a kind of sacrifice- -in Gibeah, Saul's own tDwn (4, 6, 9), GIB'LITES, TEIE. [Gebal.] GID'EON, a Manassite, youngest son of Joash of the Abiezrites, an undistinguished family who lived at Ophrah, a town probably on the west of Jordan (Judg. vi. 15). He was the fifth recorded Judge of Israel, and for many reasons the greatest of them all. When we first hear of him he was grown up and had sons (Judg. vi. 11, viii. 20), and from the apostrophe of the angel (vi. 12) we may conclude that he had already distinguished himself in war against the roving bands of nomadic robbers who had oppressed Israel for seven years, and whose countless multi- tudes (compared to locusts from their terrible devastations, vi. 5) annually destroyed all the produce of CanaanV except such as could be concealed in mountain-fastnesses (vi. 2). It was probably during this disastrous period that the emigration of Elimelech took place (Ruth i. 1, 2). When the angel appeared, Gideon was threshing wheat with a flail in the winepress, to conceal it from the preda- tory tyrants. His call to be a deliverer, and his destruction of Baal's altar, are related in Judg. vi. After this begins the second act of Gideon's life. Clothed by the Spirit of God (Judg. vi. 34 ; comp. 1 Chr. xii. 18; Luke xxiv. 49), he blew a trumpet, and was joined by Zebulun, Naphtali, and even the reluctant Asher. Strengthened by a double sign from God, he reduced his army of 32,000 by the usual proclamation (Deut. xx. 8 ; comp. 1 Mace. iii. 56). By a second test at "the spring of trembling " he again reduced the number of his followers to 300 (Judg. vii. 5, sq.). The midnight attack upon the Midian- ites, their panic, and the rout and slaughter that followed, are told in Judg. vii. The memory of this splendid deliverance took deep root in the national traditions (1 Sam. xii. 11 ; Ps. Ixxxiii. 11 ; Is. ix. 4, x. 26 ; Heb. xi. 32). After this there was a peace of 40 years, and we see Gideon in peaceful posses- sion of his well-e^med honours, and surround- ed by the dignity of a numerous household (viii. 29-31). It is not improbable that, like Saul, he had owed a part of his popularity to his princely appearance (Judg. viii. 18). In this third stage of his life occur alike his most noble and his most questionable acts, viz., the refusal of the monarchy on theocra- tic grounds, and the irregular consecration of a jewelled ephod formed out of the rich spoils of Midian which proved to the Israelites a temp- tation to idolatry, although it was doubtless intended for use in the worship of Jehovah. GIER-EAGLE, an unclean bird mentioned in Lev. xi. 18 and Deut. xiv. 17. There is no reason to doubt that the rdcham of the Heb. Scriptures is identical in reality as in GIHON ]93 GILGAL name with the racham of the Arabs, viz., the Egyptian vulture. Egyptian Vulture. GI'HON. 1. The second river of Paradise (Gen. ii. 13). [Eden]. — 2. A place near Jerusalem, memorable as the scene of the anointing and proclamation of Solomon as king (1 K. i. 33, 38. 45). GILALAI', one of the priests' sons at the consecration of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 36). GILBO'A, a mountain range on the eastern side of the plain of Esdraelon, rising over the city of Jezreel (comp. 1 Sam. xxviii. 4 with xxix. 1). It is only mentioned in Scripture in connexion with one event in Israelitish history, the defeat and death of Saul and Jonathan by the Philistines (1 Sam. xxxi. 1 ; 2 Sam. i. 6, xxi. 12 ; 1 Chr. x. 1, 8). Of the identity of Gilboa with the ridge which stretches eastward, from the ruins of Jezreel, no doubt can be entertained. The village is now called Jelbou. GIL'EAD. 1. A mountainous region bounded on the west by the Jordan, on the north by Bashan, on the east by the Arabian plateau, and on the south by Moab and Am- mon (Gen. xxxi. 21 ; Deut. iii. 12-17). It is sometimes called " Mount Gilead " (Gen. xxxi. 25), sometimes "the land of Gilead" (Num. xxxii. 1) ; and sometimes simply " Gilead" (Ps. Ix. 7 ; Gen. xxxvii. 25) ; but a comparison of the several passages shows that they all mean the same thing. The name Gilead, as is usual in Palestine, describes the physical aspect of the country. It signi- fies " a bard rocky region." The statements in Gen. xxxi. 48, are not opposed to this etymology. The old name of the district S:d. D. B. was Gilead, but by a slight change in the pronunciation, the ladical letters being re- tained, the meaning was made beautifully applicable to the " heap of stones " Jacob and Laban had built up—" the heap of witness." Those acquainted with the modern Arabs and their literature will see how intensely such a play upon the word would be appreciated by them. The mountains of Gilead have a real elevation of from two to three thousand feet ; but their apparent elevation on the western side is much greater, owing to the depression of the Jordan valley, which averages about 1000 feet. Their outline is singularly uni- form, resembling a massive wall running along the horizon. The name Galaad occurs several times in the history of the Maccabees (1 Mace. V. 9, sq.). — 2. Possibly the name of a mountain west of the Jordan, near Jezreel (Judg. vii. 3). We are inclined, however, to think that the true reading in this place should be Gilboa. — 3. Son of Machir, grand- son of Manasseh (Num. xxvi. 29, 30). — 4. The father of Jephthah (Judg. xi. 1, 2). GIL'EADITES, THE (Judg. xii. 4, 5; Num. xxvi. 29 ; Judg. x. 3), a branch of the tribe of Manasseh, descended from Gilead. There appears to have been an old standing feud between them and the Ephraimites, who taunted them with being deserters. GIL'GAL. 1. The site of the first camp of the Israelites on the west of the Jordan-, the place at which they passed the first night after crossing the river, and where the twelve stones were set up which had been taken from the bed of the stream (Josh. iv. 19, 20, comp. 3) ; where also they kept their first passover in the land of Canaan (v. 10). It was in the " end of the east of Jericho " (A.V. " in the east border of Jericho ") ap- parently on a hillock or rising ground (v. 3, comp. 9) in the Arboth-Jericho (A. V. " the plains "), that is, the hot depressed district of the Ghor which lay between the town and the Jordan (v. 10). We again encounter Gilgal in the time of Saul, when it seems to have exchanged its military associations for those of sanctity. We again have a glimpse of it, some sixty years later, in the history of David's return to Jerusalem (2 Sam. xix.). Its site is uncertain. — But, 2. it was certainly a distinct place from the Gilgal which is con- nected with the last scene in the life of Elijah, and with one of Elisha's miracles (2 K. ii.). The mention of Baal-shalisha (iv. 42) give.«< a clue to its situation, when taken with the notice of Eusebius, that that place was fifteen miles from Diospolis (Lydda) towards the north. In that very position stand now the ruins bearing the name of Jiljilieh, i. e. Gil- gal. 3. The " KING OF THE NATIONS Of (J GILOH 194 GOAT Gii.GAL," or rather perhaps the "king of Goim-at-Gilgal," is mentioned in the cata- logue of the chiefs overthrown by Joshua (Josh. xii. 23). — 4. A Gilgal is spoken of in Josh. xv. 7, in describing the north border of Judah. GI'LOH, a town in the mountainous part of Judah, named in the first group, with Debir and Eshteraoh fJosh. xv. 51) ; it was the native place of the famous Ahithophel (2 Sam, XV. 12), GIRDLE, an essential article of dress in the East, and worn both by men and women. The common girdle was made of leather (2 K. i, 8 ; Matt, iii, 4), like that worn by the Bedouins of the present day. A finer girdle was made of linen (Jer. xiii. 1 ; Ez. xvi. 10), embroidered with silk, and sometimes with gold and silver thread (Dan. x. 5 ; Rev. i, 13, XV, 6), and frequently studded with gold and precious stones or pearls. The manu- facture of these girdles formed part of the employment of women (Prov, xxxi, 24). The girdle was fastened by a clasp of gold or silver, or tied in a knot so that the ends hung down in front, as in the figures on the ruins of Persepolis. It was worn by men about the loins (Is. v. 27, xi. 5). The girdle of women was generally looser than that of the men, and was worn about the hips, except when they were actively engaged (Prov. xxxi. 17). The military girdle was worn about the waist; the sword or dagger was suspended from it (Judg, iii. 16 ; 2 Sam. xx. 8 ; Ps. xlv. 3). Hence girding up the loins denotes preparation for battle or for active exertion. In times of mourning, girdles of sackcloth were worn as marks of humiliation and sorrow (Is. iii. 24, xxii. 12). In conse- quence of the costly materials of which girdles were made, they were frequently given as presents (1 Sam. xviii, 4 ; 2 Sam. xviii. 11), They were used as pockets, as among the Arabs still, and as purses, one end of the girdle being folded back for the purpose (Matt. X. 9 ; Mark vi, 8). The girdle worn by the priests about the close-fitting tunic (Ex. xxviii. 39, xxxix. 29), is described by Josephus as made of linen so fine of texture as to look like the slough of a snake, and embroidered with fiowers of scarlet, purple, blue, and fine linen. It was about four fingers broad, and was wrapped several times round the priest's body, the ends hanging down to the feet. The " curious girdle " (Ex. xxviii. 8) was made of the same mate- rials and colours as the ephod, that is of " gold, blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen." Josephus describes it as sewn to the breastplate. After passing once round it was tied in front upon the seam, the ends hanging dovvn. GIR'GASHITES, THE, one of the natione who were in possession of Canaan before the entrance thither of the children of Israel (Gen. X. 16, xv. 21; Deut. vii. I ; Josh. iii. 10, xxiv. 11 ; 1 Chr. i. 14 ; Neh. ix. 8). GITTA'IM. [GiTTiTEs.] GIT'TITES, the 600 men who followed David from Gath, under Ittai the Gittite (2 Sam. XV. 18, 19), and who probably acted as a kind of body-guard. Obed-edom " the Gittite " may have been so named from the town of Gittaim in Benjamin (2 Sam. iv. 3 ; Neh. xi. 33), or from Gath-rimmon. GIT'TITH, a musical instrument, by some supposed to have been used by the people of Gath ; and by others to have been employed at the festivities of the vintage (Ps. viii., Ixxxi., Ixxxiv.). GLASS. The Heb. word occurs only in Job xxviii. 17, where in A. V., it is rendered " crystal." In spite of the absence of specific allusion to glass in the sacred writings, the Hebrews must have been aware of the inven- tion. From paintings representing the pro- cess of glass-blowing which have been dis- covered at Beni-Hassan, and in tombs at other places, we know that the invention is at least as remote as the age of Osirtasen the first (perhaps a contemporary of Joseph), 3500 years ago. Fragments too of wine- vases as old as the Exodus have been dis- covered in Egypt. The art was also known to the ancient Assyrians. In the N. T. glass is alluded to as an emblem of brightness (Rev. iv. 6, XV. 2, xxi. 18). GLEANING, The gleaning of fruit trees, as well as of cornfields, was reserved for the poor, [Corner.] GLEDE, the old name for the common kite [fnilvus ater) occurs only in Deut. xiv. 13 among the unclean birds of prey. GNAT, mentioned only in the proverbial expression used by our Saviour in Matt, xxiii. 24. GOAD (Judg. iii. 31 ; 1 Sam. xiii. 21). But the Hebrew word in the latter passage probably means the point of the ploughshare. The former word does probably refer to the goad, the long handle of which might be used as a formidable weapon. The instrument, as still used in the countries of southern Europe and western Asia, consists of a rod about eight feet long, brought to a sharp point and sometimes cased with iron at the bead. GOAT. There appear to be two or three varieties of the common goat {Hircus acga- grus) at present bred in Palestine and Syria, but whether they are identical with those which were reared by the ancient Hebrews it is not possible to say. The most marked varieties are the Syrian goat {Capra Manu GOAT, SCAPE 195 GOD brica, Linn.), and the Angora goat {Capra Angore7isis, Linn.), -with fine long hair. As to the "-wild goats" (1 Sam. xxiv. 2 ; Job xxxix. 1, and Ps. civ. 18) it is not at all im- probable that some species of ibex is denoted. Long-eared Sjrian goal. GOAT, SCAPE. [AT0NEJ5E.NT, Day of.] GOB, a place mentioned only in 2 Sam. xxi. 13, 19, as the scene of two encounters between David's warriors and the Philistines. In the parallel account in 1 Chr. xx. 4, the name is given as Gezer. GOD. Throughout the Hebrew Scriptures two chief names are used for the one true divine Being — Elohim, commonly translated God in our Version, and Jehovah, translated Lo7-d. Elohim is the plural of Eloah (in Arabic Allah), a form which occurs only in poetry and a few passages of later Hebrew (Xeh. ix. 17 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 15). It is also formed with the pronominal suffixes, as Eloi, my God, with the dependent genitive, and with an epithet, in which case it is often used in the short form. El (a word signifying strength), as in El-Shaddai, God Almighty, the name by which God was specially known to the patriarchs (Gen. xvii. 1, xxviii. 3 ; Ex. vi. 3). The etymology is uncertain, but it is generally agreed that the primary idea is that of strength, power to effect ; and that it properly describes God in that cha- racter in which He is exhibited to all men in Ills works, as the creator, sustainer, and su- preme governor of the world. Hence it is used to denote any being believed in and worshipped as God ; but in the sense of a heathen deity, or a didne being spoken oi indefinitely, the singular is most often used, and the plural is employed, with the strict idea of number, for the collective objects of polytheistic worship, the gods, the gods of the heathen. It is also used for any being that strikes an observer as god-like (Sam. xxviii. 13), and for kings, judges, and others en- dowed with authority from God (Psalm Ixxxii. 1, 6, viii. 6, xcvii. 7, &o. ; Ex. xxi. 6, xxii. 7,8). The short form El is used for a hero^ or mighty man, as Nebuchadnezzar (Ezek. xxxi. 11), a sense derived at once from the meaning of strength. The plural form of Elohim has given rise to much discussion. The fanciful idea, that it referred to the Trinity of Persons in the Godhead, hardly finds now a supporter among scholars. It is either what grammarians call the plural of majesty, or it denotes the fulness of divine strength, the sum of the poivers displayed by God. Jehovah denotes specifically the one true God, whose people the Jews were, and who made them the guardians of His truth. The name is never applied to a false god, nor to any other being, except One, the Angel- Jehovah, who is thereby marked as one with God, and who appears again in the New Covenant as " God manifested in the flesh." Thus much is clear ; but all else is beset with diflEiculties. At a time too early to be traced, the Jews abstained from pro- nouncing the name, for fear of its irreverent use. The custom is said to have been founded on a strained interpretation of Lev. xxiv. 16 ; and the phrase there used, " The Name " [Shema), is substituted by the Rabbis for the unutterable word. They also call it " the name of four letters" (mn"')> "the great and terrible name," *' the peculiar name," " the separate name." In reading the Scrip- tures, they substituted for it the word Adonai {Lord), from the translation of which by Kvpios in the LXX., followed by the Vulgate, which uses Domimis, we have got the Lord of our Version. Our translators have, how- ever, used Jehovah in four passages (Ex. vi. 3 ; Psalm Ixxxiii. 18 ; Is. xii. 2, xxvi. 4), and in the compounds, Jehovah-Jireh, Jeho- vah-Nissi, and Jehovah-Shalom {Jehovah shall see, Jehovah is my Banner, Jehovah is Peace, Gen. xxii. 14 ; Ex. xvii. 15 ; Judges vi. 24) ; while the similar phrases Jehovah-Tsidkenu and Jehovah-Shammah are translated, " the Lord our righteousness," and " the Lord is there" (Jer. xxiii. 6, xxxiii. 16; Ezek. ±lviii. 35). In one passage the abbreviated form J ah is retained (Psalm Ixviii. 4). The 0 * GOG 196 GOLIATH substitution of the word Lord is most un- happy ; for, while it in no way represents the meaning of the sacred name, the mind has constantly to guard against a confusion with its lower uses, and, above all, the direct personal bearing of the name on the reve- lation of God through the whole course of Jewish history is kept injuriously out of sight. The key to the meaning of the name is unquestionably given in God's revelation of Himself to Moses by the phrase " I am THAT I AM," in connexion with the state- ment, that He was now first revealed by his name Jehovah (Ex. iii. 14, vi. 3). Without entering here upon questions of Hebrew philology, we must be content .to take as established the etymological con- nexion of the name Jehovah with the He- brew substantive verb, with the inference that it expresses the essential, eternal, un- changeable Being of Jehovah. But more, it is not the expression only, or chiefly, of an absolute truth : it is a practical revelation of God, in His essential, unchangeable relation to His chosen people, the basis of His Cove- nant. This is both implied in the occasion on which it is revealed to Moses, and in the fifteenth verse of Ex. iii. And here we find the solution of a diflficulty raised by Ex. vi. 3, as if it meant that the name Jehovah had not been known to the patriarchs. There is abundant evidence to the contrary. As early as the time of Seth, "men began to call on the name of Jehovah" (Gen. iv. 25). The name is used by the patriarchs them- selves (Gen. xviii. 14 ; xxiv. 40 ; xxvi. 28 ; xxviii, 21). It is the basis of titles, like Jehovah-Jireh, and of proper names, like Moriah and Jochehed. Indeed, the same reasoning would prove that the patriarchs did not know God as Mohim, but exclu- sively as M-Shaddai. But, in fact, the word name is used here, as elsewhere, for the attributes of God. He was about, for the first time, fully to reveal that aspect of His character which the name implied. GOG. [Magog.] GO'LAN, a city of Bashan (Deut. iv. 43) allotted out of the half tribe of Manasseh to the Levites (Josh. xxi. 27), and one of the three cities of refuge east of the Jordan (xx. 8). Its very site is now unknown. It gF ve its name to the province of Gaulanitis, which is frequently mentioned by Josephus. It lay east of Galilee, and north of Gadaritis [Gadara]. The Jordan from the Sea of Galilee to its fountains at Dan and Caesarea- Philippi, formed its western boundary. It corresponds to the modern province of Jauldn (which is the Arabic form of the Hebrew Golan). The greater part of Gaulanitis is a flat and fertile table-land, well watered, and clothed with luxuriant grass. GOLD, the most valuable of metals, from its colour, lustre, weight, ductility, and other useful properties. Hence it is used as an emblem of purity (Job xxiii. 10) and no- bility (Lam. iv. 1). Gold was known from the very earliest times (Gen. ii. 11). It was at first chiefly used for ornaments, &c. (Gen. xxiv. 22). Coined money was not known to the ancients till a comparatively late period ; and on the Egyptian tombs gold is repre- sented as being weighed in rings for com- mercial purposes. (Comp. Gen. xliii. 21.) Gold was extremely abundant in ancient times (1 Chr, xxii. 14 ; 2 Chr. i. 15, ix. 9 ; Nah. ii. 9; Dan. iii. 1) ; but this did not depreciate its value, because of the enormous quantities consumed by the wealthy in fur- niture, &c. (1 K. vi. 22, X. passim ; Cant, iii. 9, 10 ; Esth. i, 6 ; Jer. x. 9). The chief countries mentioned as producing gold are Arabia, Sheba, and Ophir (1 K. ix. 28, x. 1 ; Job xxviii. 16). Other gold-bearing coun- tries were Uphaz (Jer. X. 9 ; Dan. x. 5) and Parvaim (2 Chr. iii. 6). Metallurgic pro- cesses are mentioned in Ps. Ixvi. 10 ; Prov. xvii. 3, xxvii. 21 ; and in Is. xlvi. 6, the trade of goldsmith (cf. Judg, xvii. 4) is alluded to in connexion with the overlaying of idols with gold-leaf. GOL'GOTHA, the Hebrew name of the spot at which our Lord was crucified (Matt, xxvii. 33; Mark xv. 22; John xix. 17). By these three Evangelists it is interpreted to mean the " place of a skull." St. Luke's words are really as follows — " the place which is called 'a skull'"' — not, as in the other Gospels, " of a skull," thus employing the Greek term exactly as they do the Hebrew one. Two explanations of the name are given : (1) that it was a spot where ex- ecutions ordinarily took place, and therefore abounded in skulls. Or (2) it may come from the look or form of the spot itself, bald, round, and skull-like, and therefore a mound or hillock, in accordance with the common phrase — for which there is no direct autho- rity— *' Mount Calvary." Whichever of these is the correct explanation, Golgotha seems to have been a known spot. GOLI'ATH, a famous giant of Gath, who *' morning and evening for forty days " de- fied the armies of Israel (1 Sam. xvii.). He was possibly descended from the old Rephaim [Giants], of whom a scattered remnant took refuge with the Philistines after their dis- persion by the Ammonites (Deut. ii. 20, 21 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 22). His height ^as "six cubits and a span," which, taking the cubit at 21 inches, would make him 10+ feet high. GOMEll 197 GOSPELS But the LXX. and Joseplius read '■'■four cubits and a span." The scene of his combat with David was the Valley of the Terebinth, between Shochoh and Azekah, probably amon^ the western passes of Benjamin, al- though a confused modern tradition has given the name of Ain Jahlood (spring of Goliath) to the spring of Harod (Judg. vii. 1). In 2 Sam. xxi. 19, we find that another Goliath of Gath was slain by Elhanan, also a Bethlehemite. GO'MER, the eldest son of Japheth, and the father of Ashkenaz, Riphath, and To- garmah (Gen. x. 2, 3). His name is sub- sequently noticed but once (Ez. xxxviii. 6) as an ally or subject of the Scythian king Gog. He is generally recognised as the pro- genitor of the early Cimmerians, of the latter Cimbri and the other branches of the Celtic family, and of the modern Gael and Cymry, the latter preserving, with very slight devi- ation, the original name. GOMOR'RAH, in the N. T. written GO- MOR'RHA, one of the five "cities of the plain," or " vale of Siddim," that under their respective kings joined battle there with Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2-8) and his allies, by whom they were discomfited till Abraham came to the rescue. Four out of the five were afterwards destroyed by the Lord with fire from heaven (Gen. xix. 23-29). One of them only, Zoar or Bela, which was its ori- ginal name, was spared at the request of Lot, in order that he might take refuge there. Of these Gomorrah seems to have been only second to Sodom in importance, as well as in the wickedness that led to their overthrow. What that atrocity was may be gathered from Gen. xix, 4-8. Their geographical position is discussed under SODOM. GOPHER WOOD, only once in Gen. vi. 14. Two principal conjectures have been pro- posed : — 1. That the " trees of Gopher" are any trees of the resinous kind, such as pine, fir, &c. 2. That Gopher is cypress. GO'SHEN, the name of a part of Egypt where the Israelites dwelt for the whole period of their sojourn in that country. It is usually called the " land of Goshen," but also Goshen simply. It appears to have borne another name, "the land of Rameses" (Gen. xlvii. 11), unless this be the name of a district of Goshen, It was between Joseph's residence at the time and the frontier of Palestine, and apparently the extreme pro- vince towards that frontier (Gen. xlvi. 29). The results of an examination of Biblical evidence are that the land of Goshen lay between the eastern part of the ancient Delta find the western border of Palestine, that it was scarcely a part of Egypt Proper, was inhabited by other foreigners besides the Israelites ; that it was a pasture-land, espe- cially suited to a shepherd-people, and suffi- cient for the Israelites, who there prospered, and were separate from the main body of the Egyptians. These indications seem to indicate the Wddi-t-Tumeylat, the valley along which anciently flowed the canal of the Red Sea. GOSPELS. The name Gospel (from god and spell, Angl. Sax. good message or fieivs, which is a translation of the Greek euayyeAioi/) is applied to the four inspired histories of the life and teaching of Christ contained in the New Testament, of which separate ac- counts are given in their place. They were all composed during the latter half of the first century : those of St. Matthew and St. Mai'k some years before the destruction of Jerusalem ; that of St. Luke probably about A.D. 64 ; and that of St. John towards the close of the century. Before the end of the second century, there is abundant evi- dence that the four Gospels, as one collection, were generally used and accepted. As a matter of literary history, nothing can be better established than the genuineness of the Gospels, On comparing these four books one with another, a peculiar difficulty claims attention, which has had much to do with the controversy as to their genuineness. In the fourth Gospel the narrative coincides with that of the other three in a few pas- sages only. Putting aside the account of the Passion, there are only three facts which John relates in common with the other Evan- gelists, Two of these are, the feeding of the five thousand, and the storm on the Sea of Galilee (ch, vi.). The third is the anointing of His feet by Mary, Whilst the others pi-e- sent the life of Jesus in Galilee, John follows him into Judaea ; nor should we know, but for him, that our Lord had journeyed to Jerusalem at the prescribed feasts. The re- ceived explanation is the only satisfactory one, namely, that John, writing last, at the close of the first century, had seen the other Gospels, and purposely abstained from writing anew what they had sufficiently recorded. — In the other three Gospels there is a great amount of agreement. If we suppose the history that they contain to be divided into sections, in 42 of these all the three narra- tives coincide, 12 more are given by Matthew and Mark only, 5 by Mark and Luke only, and 14 by Matthew and Luke. To these must be added 5 peculiar to Matthew, 2 to Mark, and 9 to Luke ; and the enumeration is complete. But this applies only to genera] coincidence as to the facts narrated : the GOSPELS ]98 GOZAN amount of verbal coincidence, that is, the passages either verbally the same, or coin- ciding in the use of many of the same words, is much smaller. Various theories have been proposed to account for this phenomenon. (1). The first and most obvious suggestion would be, that the narrators made use of each other's work. Accordingly many have endeavoured to ascertain which Gospel is to be regarded as the first ; which is copied from the first ; and which is the last, and copied from the other two. But the theory in its crude form is in itself most improb- able ; and the wonder is that so much time and learning have been devoted to it. It .issumes that an Evangelist has taken up the work of his predecessor, and, without sub- stantial alteration, has made a few changes in form, a few additions and retrenchments, and has then allowed the whole to go forth under his name. (2). The supposition of a common original from which the three Gos- pels were drawn, each with more or less modification, would naturally occur to those who rejected the notion that the Evangelists had copied from each other. But if all the Evangelists had agreed to draw from a common original, it must have been widelj if not universally accepted in the Church , and yet there is no record of its existence If the work was of high authority, it would have been preserved, or at least mentioned , if of lower authority, it could not have be- come the basis of three canonical Gospels (3). There is another supposition to account for these facts. It is probable that none of the Gospels was written until many yeais after the day of Pentecost on which the Holy Spirit descended on the assembled disciples From that day commenced at Jerusalem the work of preaching the Gospel and converting the world. Now their preaching must have been, from the nature of the case, in great part historical ; it must have been based upon an account of the life and acts of Jesus of Nazareth. Nor is there anything unna- tural in the supposition that the Apostles intentionally uttered their witness in the same order, and even, for the most part, in the same form of words. It is supposed, then, that the portions of the three Gospels which harmonise most exactly owe their agreement to the fact that the apostolic preaching had already clothed itself in a set- tled or usual form of words, to which the •vvi'iters inclined to conform without feeling bound to do so ; and the differences which occur, often in the closest proximity to the harmonies, arise from the feeling of indepen- dence with which each wrote what he had seen and heard, or, in the case of Mark and Luke, what apostolic witnesses had told him. GOURD. 1. Kikdi/on only in Jon. iv. 6-10. The plant, which is intended by this word, and which afforded shade to the prophet Jonah before Nineveh, is the liicimis com- munis, or castor-oil plant, which, formerly a native of Asia, is now naturalised in America, Africa, and the south of Europe. This plant varies considerably in size, being in India a tree, but in England seldom attaining a greater height than three or four feet. The leaves are large and palmate, with serrated lobes, and would form an excellent shelter for the sun-stricken prophet. The seeds contain the oil so well known under the name of " castor-oil," which has for ages been in high Castor-oil plant. repute as a medicine. 2. With regard to the "wild gourds" [pakkn'oth) of 2 K. iv. 39, which one of "the sons of the prophets" gathered ignorantly, supposing them to be good for food, there can be no doubt that it is a species of the gourd tribe {Cucurhitacene), which contains some plants of a very bitter and dangerous character. As several kinds of Cucurhitaceae, such as melons, pumpkins, &c., are favourite articles of refreshing food amongst the Orientals, we can easily un.ler- stand the cause of the mistake. GO'ZAN seems in the A. V. of 1 Chr. v. 26, GRAPE 199 GROVE to be the name of a river ; but in Kings (2 K. xvii. 6, and xviii. 11) it is evidently applied not to a river but a countrj'. Gozan was the tract to which the Israelites were carried away captive by Pul, Tiglath-Pileser, and Shalmaneser, or possibly Sargon. It is probably identical with the GauzaniUs of Ptolemy, and may be regarded as represented by the Mygdonia of other writers. It was the tract watered by the Habor, the modern Khabour, the great Mesopotamian affluent of the Euphrates, GRAPE. [Vine.] GRASS. This is the ordinary rendering of the Hebrew word chdtsir (1 K. xviii. 5 ; Job xl. 5, Ps. civ. 14 ; Is. xv. 6). As the herbage rapidly fades under the parching heat of the sun of Palestine, it has afforded to the sacred writers an image of the fleeting nature of human fortunes (Job viii. 12 ; Ps. xxxvii. 2), and also of the brevity of human life (Is. xl. 6, 7 ; Ps. xc. 5). GRASSHOPPER. [Locust.] GRAVE. [Burial.] GREECE, GREEKS, GRECIANS. The histories of Greece and Palestine are little connected with each other. In Gen. x. 2-5 Moses mentions the descendants of Javan as peopling the isles of the Gentiles ; and when the Hebrews came into contact with the lonians of Asia Minor, and recognized them as the long-lost islanders of the western migration, it was natural that they should mark the similarity of sound between Javan and lones. Accordingly the 0. T. word which is Grecia, in A. V. Greece, Greeks, &c., is in Hebrew Javan (Joel iii. 6 ; Dan. viii. 21) : the Hebrew, however, is sometimes retained (Is, Ixvi. 19 ; Ez. xxvii. 13). The Greeks and Hebrews met for the first time in the slave-market. The medium of communica- tion seems to have been the Tyrian slave- merchants. About B.C. 800 Joel speaks of the Tyrians as selling the children of Judah to the Grecians (Joel iii. 6) ; and in Ez. xxvii. 13 the Greeks are mentioned as barter- ing their brazen vessels for slaves. Pro- phetical notice of Greece occurs in Dan. viii. 21, &c., where the history of Alexander and his successors is rapidly sketched. Zechariah (ix. 13) foretells the triumphs of the Mac- cabees against the Graeco-Syrian empire, while Isaiah looks forward to the conversion of the Greeks, amongst other Gentiles, through the instrumentality of Jewish missionaries (Ixvi. 19). In 1 Mace. xii. 5-23 we have an account of an embassy and letter sent by the Lacedaemonians to the Jews. The most re- markable feature iu the transaction is the claim which the Lacedaemonians prefer to lundred with the Jews, and which Areus pro- fesses to establish by reference to a book. The name of the country, Greece, occurs once in N. T. (Acts xx. 2), as opposed to Mace- donia. [Gentiles.] GREYHOUND. The translation in the text of the A. V. (Prov. xxx. 31) of the Hebrew words zarzir mothnayin, i. e. " one girt about the loins." Various are the opinions as to what animal "comely in going " is here intended. Some think " a leopard," others " an eagle," or "a man girt with armour," or "a zebra," or " a war-horse girt with trappings." But perhaps the word means " a wrestler," when girt about the loins for a contest. GRINDING, [Mill.] GROVE. A word used in the A. V., with two exceptions, to translate the mysterious Hebrew term Asherah, which is not a grove, but probably an idol or image of some kind. [Asherah.] It is also probable that there was a connexion between this symbol or image, whatever it was, and the sacred sym- bolic tree, the representation of which occurs so frequently on Assyrian sculptures, and is figui-ed below. — 2. The two exceptions noticed Sacred Symbolic Tree of the Assyrians. above are Gen. xxi. 33, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6 (margin). In the religions of the ancient heathen world groves play a prominent part. In the old times altars only were erected to the gods. It was thought wrong to shut up the gods within walls, and hence trees were the first temples ; and from the earliest times groves are mentioned in connexion with re- ligious worship (Gen. xii. 6, 7, xiii. 18 ; Deut. xi. 30 ; A. V. "plain"). The groves were generally found connected with temples, and often had the right of affording an asylum. Some have supposed that even the Jewish Temple had an enclosure planted with palm and cedar (Ps. xcii. 12, 13) and olive HABAKKUK 200 HAGAR (Ps. lii. 8), as the mosque which stands on its site now has. This is moi-e than doubtful ; but we know that a celebi-ated oak stood by the sanctuary at Shechem (Josh, xxiv, 26 ; Judg. ix. 6). There are in Scripture many memorable trees : e. g. Allon-bachuth (Gen. XXXV. 8), the tamarisk in Gibeah (1 Sam. xxii. 6), the terebinth in Shechem (Jos. xxiv. 26) under which the law was set up, the palm-tree of Deborah (Judg. iv. 5), the tere- binth of enchantments (Judg. ix. 37), the terebinth of wanderers (Judg. iv. 11), and others (1 Sam. xiv. 2, x. 3, sometimes " plain" in A. V.). This observation of par- ticular trees was among the heathen extended to a regular worship of them. HAB'AKKUK, the eighth in order of the minor prophets. Of the facts of the prophet's life we have no certain information. He probably delivered his prophecy about the 12th or 13th year of Josiah (b.c. 630 or 629). The prophet commences by announcing his office and important mission (i. 1). He be- wails the corruption and social disorganiza- tion by which he is surrounded, and cries to Jehovah for help (i. 2-4). Next follows the reply of the Deity, threatening swift ven- geance (i. 5-11). The prophet, transferring himself to the near future foreshadowed in the divine threatenings, sees the rapacity and boastful impiety of the Chaldean hosts, but, confident that God has only employed them as the instruments of correction, assumes (ii. 1) an attitude of hopeful expectancy, and waits to see the issue. He receives the divine command to write in an enduring form the vision of God's retributive justice, as revealed to his prophetic eye (ii. 2, 3). The doom of the Chaldeans is first foretold in general terms (ii. 4-6), and the announcement is fol- lowed by a series of denunciations pronounced upon them by the nations who had suffered from their oppression (ii. 6-20). The stro- phical arrangement of these "woes" is a remarkable feature of the prophecy. The whole concludes with the magnificent Psalm in chap, iii., a composition unrivalled for boldness of conception, sublimity of thought, and majesty of diction. HABERGEON, a coat of mail covering the neck and breast. [Arms, p. 45.] HA'BOR, the "river of Gozan " (2 K. xvii. 6, and xviii. 11), is identified beyond all reasonable doubt with tbe famous affluent of the Euphrates, Aborrhas and Chaboras by ancient writers, and now Khabonr. HA'DAD, originally the indigenous appella- tion of the Sun among the Syrians, and thence transferred to the king, as the highest of earthly authorities. The title appears to have been an official one, like Pharaoh. It is found occasionally in the altered form Hadar (Gen. xxv. 15, xxxvi. 39, compared with 1 Chr. i. 30, 50).— 1. Son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 15 ; 1 Chr. i. 30).— 2. A king of Edom who gained an important victory over the Midianites on the field of Moab (Gen. xxxvi. 35 ; 1 Chr. i. 46). — 3. Also a king of Edom, with Pau for his capital (1 Chr. i. 50). — 4. A member of the royal house of Edom (1 K. xi. 14 ff.). In his childhood he escaped the massacre under Joab, in which his father appears to have perished, and fled with a band of followers into Egypt. Pharaoh, the predecessor of Solomon's father-in-law, treated him kindly, and gave him his sister-in-law in marriage. After David's death Hadad re- solved to attempt the recovery of his do- minion : Pharaoh in vain discouraged him, and upon this he left Egypt and returned to his own country. HADADE'ZER (2 Sam. viu. 3-12; 1 K. xi. 23). [Hadarezer.] HA'DAR. [Hadad.] HADARE'ZER, son of Rehob (2 Sam. viii. 3), the ^ing of the Aramite state of Zobah, who was defeated by David, and defeated with great loss both of chariots, horses, and men (1 Chr. xviii. 3, 4). After the first re- pulse of the Ammonites and their Syrian allies by Joab, Hadarezer sent his army to the assistance of his kindred the people of Maachah, Rehob, and Ishtob (1 Chr. xix. 16 ; 2 Sam. X. 15, comp. 8). Under the command of Shophach, or Shobach, the captain of the host, they crossed the Euphrates, joined the other Syrians, and encamped at a place called Helam. David himself came from Jerusalem to take the command of the Israelite army. As on the former occasion, the rout was complete. HAD'ASHAH, one of the towns of Judah, in the maritime low country (Josh. xv. 37 only) , probably the Adasa of the Maccabaean history. HADAS'SAH, probably the earlier name of Esther (Esth. ii. 7). HAD'ORAM, the form assumed in Chro- nicles by the name of the intendant of taxes under David, Solomon, and Rehoboam (2 Chr. X. 18). In Kings the name is given in the longer form of Adoniram, but in Samuel (2 Sam. XX. 24) as Adoram. HA'GAR, an Egyptian woman, the hand- maid, or slave, of Sarah (Gen. xvi. 1), whom the latter gave as a concubine to Abraham, after he had dwelt ten years in the land of Canaan and had no children by Sarah (xvi. 2 and 3). That she was a bondwoman ia stated both in the 0. T. and in the N. T., in HAGARZNES 201 HAIR the latter as part of her typical character. It is recorded that " when she saw that she had conceived, her mistress was despised in her eyes" (4), and Sarah, with the anger, we may suppose, of a free woman, rather than of a wife, reproached Abraham for the results of her own act. Hagar fled, turning her steps towards her native land through the great wilderness traversed by the Efjyptian road. By the fountain in the way to Shur, the angel of the Lord found her, charged her to return and submit herself under the hands of her mistress, and delivered the remarkable prophecy respecting her unborn child, re- corded in ver. 10-12. On her return, she gave birth to Ishmael, and Abraham was then eighty-six years old. Mention is not again made of llagar in the history of Abra- ham until the feast at the weaning of Isaac, when " Sarah saw the son of Hagar the Egyptian, which she had born unto Abra- ham, mocking ;" and in exact sequence with the first flight of Hagar, we now read of her expulsion. The verisimilitude, oriental exact- ness, and simple beauty of this story are in- ternal evidences attesting its truth, apart from all other evidence. The name of Hagar occurs elsewhere only when she takes a wife to Ishmael (xxi. 21) ; and in the genealogy (xxv. 12). St. Paul refers to her as the type of the old covenant, likening her to Mount Sinai, the Mount of the Law (Gal. iv. 22 seqq.). HA'GARENES,. HA'GARITES, a people dwelling to the east of Palestine, with whom the tribe of Reuben made war in the time of Saul (1 Chr. v. 10, 18-20). The same people, as confederate against Israel, are mentioned in Ps. Ixxxiii. 6. It is generally believed that they were named after Hagar, and that the important town and district of Hejer, on the borders of the Persian Gulf, represents them. HAG'GAI, the tenth in order of the Minor Prophets, and first of those who prophesied after the Captivity. With regard to his tribe and parentage both history and tradition are alike silent ; but it is more than probable that he was one of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel and Joshua. The rebuilding of the temple, which was commenced in the reign of Cyrus (b.c. 535), was suspended during the reigns of his successors, Cambyses and Pseudo-Smei-dis, in consequence of the determined hostility of the Samaritans. On the accession of Uarius Hystaspis (b.c. 521), the prophets Haggai and Zechariah urged the renewal of the undertaking, and obtained the permission and assistance of the king (Ezr. V. 1, vi. 14). According to tradition, Haggai was born in Babylon, was a young man when he came to Jerusalem, and was buried with honour near the sepulchres of the priests. The names of Haggai and Zecha- riah are associated in the LXX. in the titles of Ps. 137, 145-148 : in the Vulgate in those of Ps. Ill, 145 ; and in the Peshito Syriac in those of Ps. 125, 126, 145, 146, 147, 148. It may be that tradition assigned to these prophets the arrangement of the above-men- tioned psalms for use in the temple service. The style of Haggai is generally tame and prosaic, though at times it rises to the dignity of severe invective, when the prophet rebukes his countrymen for their selfish indolence and neglect of God's house. But the brevity of the prophecies is so great, and the poverty of expression which characterises them so strik- ing, as to give rise to a conjecture, not with- out reason, that in their present form they are but the outline or summary of the ori- ginal discourses. They were delivered in the second year of Darius Hystaspis (b.c. 520), at intervals from the 1st day of the 6th month to the 24th day of the 9th month in the same year. HAG'GITH, one of David's wives, the mother of Adonijah (2 Sam. iii, 4 ; 1 K. i. 5, 11, ii. 13 ; 1 Chr. iii. 2). HAIR. The Hebrews were fully alive to the importance of the hair as an element of personal beauty, whether as seen in the " curled locks, black as a raven," of youth (Cant. V. 11), or in the "crown of glory" that encircled the head of old age (Prov. xvL 31). Long hair was admired in the case of young men ; it is especially noticed in the description of Absalom's person (2 Sam. xiv. 26). The care requisite to keep the hair in order in such cases must have been very great, and hence the practice of wearing long hair was unusual, and only resorted to as an act of religious observance. In times of affliction the hair was altogether cut oflf (Is. iii. 17, 24, xv. 2 ; Jer. vii. 29). Tearing the hair (Ezr. ix. 3) and letting it go dis- hevelled, were similar tokens of grief. The usual and favourite colour of the hair was black (Cant. v. 11), as is indicated in the comparisons to a "flock of goats" and the "tents of Kedar" (Cant. iv. 1, i. 5) : a similar hue is probably intended by the ^Mr»?e of Cant.'vii. 5. The approach of age was marked by a sprinkling (Hos. vii. 9) of gray hairs, which soon overspread the whole head (Gen. xlii. 38, xliv. 29 ; 1 K. ii. 6, 9 ; Prov. xvi. 31, XX. 29). Pure white hair was deemed characteristic of the Divine Majesty (Dan. vii. 9; Rev. i. 14). The chief beauty of the hair consisted in curls, whether of a natural or artificial character. With regard to the mode of dressing the hair, we have no very precise information ; the terms used are HALAH 202 HAMMATH of a general character, as of Jezebel (2 K. ix. 30), of Judith (x. 3). The terms used in the N. T. (1 Tim. ii. 9 ; 1 Pet. iii. 3) are also of a general character. The arrangement of Samson's hair into seven locks, or more pro- perlj' braids (Judg. xvi. 13, 19) involves the practice of plaiting, which was also familiar to the Egyptians and Greeks. The locks were probably kept in their place by a fillet as in Egypt. The Hebrews, like other na- tions of antiquity, anointed the hair profusely with ointments, which were generally com- pounded of various aromatic ingredients (Ruth iii. 3 ; 2 Sam. xiv. 2 ; Ps. xxiii. 5, xlv. 7, xcii. 10; Eccl. ix. 8; Is. iii. 24); more especially on occasion of festivities or hospitality (Matt. vi. 17, xxvi. 7 ; Luke vii. 46). It appears to have been the custom of the Jews in our Saviour's time to swear by the hair (Matt. v. 36), much as the Egyptian women still swear by the side-lock, and the men by their beards. HA'LAH is probably a different place from the Calah of Gen. x. 11. It may be identi- fied with the Chalcitis of Ptolemy. HALL, used of the court of the high- priest's house (Luke xxii. 55). In Matt, xxvii. 27, and Mark xv. 16, "hall" is syno- njTuous with " praetorium," which in John xviii. 28 is in A. V. "judgment-hall." HALLELUJAH. [Alleluia.] HAM. 1. The name of one of the three sons of Noah, apparently the second in age. It probably signifies "warm" or "hot." This meaning is confirmed by that of the Egyptian word Kem (Egypt), the Egyptian equivalent of Ham, which signifies " black," probably implying warmth as well as black- ness. Of the history of Ham nothing is re- lated except his irreverence to his father, and the curse which that patriarch pro- nounced. The sons of Ham are stated to have been " Gush and Mizraim and Phut and Canaan" (Gen. x. 6; comp. I Chr. i. 8). The name of Ham alone, of the three sons of Noah, is known to have been given to a country. Egypt is recognized as the " land of Ham" in the Bible (Ps. Ixxviii. 51, cv. 23, cvi. 22). The other settlements of the sons of Ham are discussed under their respective names. An inquiry into the history of the Hamite nations presents considerable diffi- culties, since it cannot be determined in the cases of the most important of those com- monly held to be Hamite that they were purely of that stock. It is certain that the three most illustrious Hamite nations — the Cushites, the Phoenicians, and the Egj'ptians — were greatly mixed with foreign peoples. There are some common characteristics, however, which appear to connect th6 dif- ferent branches of the Hamite family, and to distinguish them from the children of Japheth and Shem. Their architecture ha» a solid grandeur that we look for in vam elsewhere. — 2. According to the present text (Gen. xiv. 5), Chedorlaomer and his allies smote the Zuzim in a place called Ham. If, as seems likely, the Zuzim be the same as the Zamzummim, Ham must be placed in what was aftei-wards the Ammonite territory. Hence it has been conjectured, that Ham is but another form of the name of the chief stronghold of the children of Amxnow, Kab- bah, now ^?n-nian. HA'MAN, the chief minister or vizier of king Ahasuerus (Esth. iii. 1). After the failure of his attempt to cut off all the Jews in the Persian empire, he was hanged on the gallows which he had erected for Mordecai. The Targum and Josephus interpret the de- scription of him — the Agagite — as signifying that he was of Amalekitish descent. HA'MATH, the principal city of Upper Syria, was situated in the valley of the Orontes, which it commanded from the low screen of hills which forais the watershed between the Orontes and the Litany — the " entrance of Hamath," as it is called in Scripture (Num. xxxiv. 8 ; Josh. xiii. 5, &c.) — to the defile of Daphne below Antioch. The Hamathites were a Hamitic race, and are included among the descendants of Ca- naan (Gen. X. 18). We must regard them as closely akin to the Hittites on whom they bordered, and with whom they were generally in alliance. Nothing appears of the power of Hamath, until the time of David (2 Sam. viii. 10). Hamath seems clearly to have been included in the dominions of Solomon (1 K. iv. 21-4). The "store-cities," which Solomon "built in Hamath" (2 Chr. viii. 4), were perhaps staples for trade. In the As- syrian inscriptions of the time of Ahab (b.c. 900) Hamath appears as a separate power, in alliance with the Syrians of Damascus, the Hittites, and the Phoenicians. About three- quarters of a century later Jeroboam the second "recovered Hamath" (2 K. xiv. 2S). Soon afterwards the Assyrians took it (2 K. xviii. 34, xix. 13, &c.), and from this time it ceased to be a place of much importance. Antiochus Epiphanes changed its name to Epiphaneia. The natives, however, called it Hamath, even in St. Jerome's time, and its present name, Hainah, is but slightly altered from the ancient form. HAM'MATH, one of the fortified cities in the territory allotted to Naphtali (Josh. xix. 35). It was near Tiberias, one mile distant, and had its name, Chamniath, "tot baths," because it contained those of Tiberias. In HAMMEDATHA 208 HANDICRAFT the list of Levitical cities given out of Naph- tali (Josh. xxi. 32) the name of this place seems to be given as Hammoth-Dor. HAMMEDa'THA, father of the infamous Haman (Esth. iii. 1, 10, viii. 5, ix. 24). HAM'MOTH-DOR. [Hammath.] HAM'ONAH, the name of a city men- tioned in Ezekiel (xxxix. 16). HA'MOR, a Hivite, who at the time of the entrance of Jacob on Palestine was prince of the land and city of Shechem (Gen. xxxiii. 19, xxxiv. 2, 4, 6, 8, 13, 18, 20, 24, 26). [Dinah.] HAN'AMEEL, son of Shallum, and cousin of Jeremiah (Jer. xxxii. 7, 8, 9, 12; and comp. 44). HAN'ANEEL, the tower of, a tower which formed part of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 1, xii. 39). From these two pas- sages, particularly from the former, it might almost be inferred that Hananeel was but another name for the Tower of Meah : at any rate they were close together, and stood between the sheep-gate and the fish-gate. This tower is further mentioned in Jer. xxxi. 38. The remaining passage in which it is named (Zech. xiv. 10) also connects this tower with the " corner-gate," which lay on the other side of the sheejj-gate. HANANl'AH. 1. Son of Azur, a Benja- mite of Gibeon and a false prophet in the reign of Zedekiah king of Judah. In the 4th year of his reign, b.c. 595, Hananiah with- stood Jeremiah the prophet, and publicly prophesied in the temple that within two years Jeconiah and all his fellow-captives, with the vessels of the Lord's house which Nebuchadnezzar had taken away to Babylon, should be brought back to Jerusalem (Jer. xxriii.) : an indication that treacherous ne- gotiations wei'e already secretly opened with Pharaoh - Hophra. Hananiah corroborated his prophecy by taking from off the neck of Jei-emiah the yoke which he wore by Divine command (Jer. xxvii.) in token of the sub- jection of Judaea and the neighbouring coun- tries to the Babylonian empire, and breaking it. But Jeremiah was bid to go and tell Hananiah that for the wooden yokes which he had broken he should make yokes of iron, so firm was the dominion of Babylon destined to be for seventy years. The prophet Jere- miah added this rebuke and prediction of Hananiah's death, the fulfilment of which closes the history of this false prophet. — 2. The Hebrew name of Shadrach. He was of the house of David, according to Jewish tra- dition (Dan. i. 3, 6, 7, 11, 19; ii. 17). — 3. Son of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. iii. 19), from whom Christ derived his descent. He is the same person who is by St. Luke called Joanna. The identity of the two names Hananiah and Joanna is apparent immediately we compare them in Hebrew. HANDICRAFT. (Acts xviii. 3, xix. 25 ; Rev. xviii. 22). In the present article brief notices only can be given of such handicraft trades as are mentioned in Scripture. 1. The preparation of iron for use either in war, in agriculture, or for domestic purposes, was doubtless one of the earliest applications of labour ; and, together with iron, working in brass, or rather copper alloyed with tin, bronze, is mentioned in the same passage as practised in antediluvian times (Gen. iv. 22). In the construction of the Tabernacle, copper, but no iron, appears to have been used, though the use of iron was at the same period well known to the Jews, both from their own use of it and from their Egyptian education, whilst the Canaanite inhabitants of Palestine and Syria were in full possession of its use both for warlike and domestic purposes (Ex. XX. 25, XXV. 3, xxvii. 19; Num. xxxv. 16; Deut. iii, 11, iv. 20, viii. 9; Josh, viii, 31, xvii. 16, 18). After the establishment of the Jews in Canaan, the occupation of a smith became recognised as a distinct employment (1 Sam. xiii. 19). The smith's work and its results are often mentioned in Scripture (2 Sam. xii. 31 ; 1 K. vi. 7 ; 2 Chr. xxvL 14; Is. xliv. 12, liv. 16). The worker in gold and silver must have found employment both among the Hebrews and the neighbour- ing nations in very early times, as appears from the ornaments sent by Abraham to Re- bekah (Gen. xxiv. 22, 53, xxxv. 4, xxxviii. 18 ; Deut. vii, 25). 2. The work of the carpenter is often mentioned in Scripture (Gen. vi. 14; Ex. xxxvii. ; Is. xliv. 13). In the palace built by David for himself the workmen employed were chiefly Phoenicians sent by Hiram (2 Sam. v. 1] ; 1 Chr. xiv. 1), as most probably were those, or at least the principal of those who were employed by Solomon in his works (1 K. v. 6). But in the repairs of the Temple, executed under Joash king of Judah, and also in the re- building under Zerubbabel, no mention is made of foreign workmen, though in the latter case the timber is expressly said to have been brought by sea to Joppa by Zido- nians (2 K. xii. 11 ; 2 Chr. xxiv. 12 ; Ezra iii. 7). That the Jewish carpenters must have been able to carve with some skill is evident from Is. xii. 7, xliv. 13. In N. T. the occupation of a carpenter is mentioned in connexion with Joseph the husband of the Virgin Mary, and ascribed to our Lord him- self by way of reproach (Mark vi. 3 ; Matt, xiii. 55). 3. The masons employed bj David and Solomon, at least the chief of them, were HANDICRAFT 204 HARE Phoenicians (1 K. v. 18 ; Ez. xxvii. 9). The large stones used in Solomon's Temple are said by Josephus to have been fitted together exactly without either mortar or cramps, but the foundation stones to have been fastened with lead. For ordinary building, mortar was used; sometimes, perhaps, bitumen, as was the ease at Babylon (Gen. xi. 3). The lime, clay, and straw of which mortar is generally composed in the East, require to be very carefully mixed and united so as to resist wet. The wall " daubed with untem- pered mortar" of Ezekiel (xiii. 10) was per- haps a sort of cob-wall of mud or clay with- out lime, which would give way under heavy rain. The use of whitewash on tombs is remarked by our Lord (Matt, xxiii. 27). Houses infected with leprosy were required by the Law to be re-plastered (Lev. xiv. 40- 45). 4. Akin to the craft of the carpenter is that of ship and boat-building, which must have been exercised to some extent for the fishing-vessels on the lake of Gennesaret (Matt. viii. 23, ix. 1 ; John xxi. 3, 8). So- lomon built, at Ezion-Geber, ships for his foreign trade, which were manned by Phoeni- cian crews, an experiment which Jehoshaphat endeavoured in vain to renew (1 K: ix. 26, 27, xxii. 48; 2 Chr. xx. 36, 37). 5. The perfumes used in the religious services, and in later times in the funeral rites of monarchs, imply knowledge and practice in the art of the " apothecaries," who appear to have formed a guild or association (Ex. xxx. 25, 35 ; Neh. iii. 8 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 14 ; Eccl. vii. 1, X. I; Erclus. xxxviii. 8). 6. The arts of spinning and weaving both wool and linen were carried on in early times, as they are still usually among the Bedouins, by women. One of the excellences attributed to the good house-wife is her skill and industry in these arts (Ex. xxxv, 25, 26 ; Lev. xix. 19 ; Deut. xxii. 11 ; 2 K. xxiii. 7 ; Ez. xvi. 16 ; Prov. xxxi, 13, 24). The loom, with its beam (1 Sam. xvii. 7), pin (Judg. xvi. 14), and shuttle (Job vii. 6), was, perhaps, introduced later, but as early as David's time (1 Sam. xvii. 7). Together with weaving we read also of embroidery, in which gold and silver threads were interwoven with the body of the stuff, sometimes in figure patterns, or with precious stones set in the needle-work (Ex. xxvi. 1, xxviii. 4, xxxix. 6-13). 7. Besides these arts, those of dyeing and of dressing cloth were practised in Palestine, and those also of tanning and dressing leather (Josh. ii. 15-18; 2 K. i, 8; Matt. iii. 4; Acts ix. 43). Shoemakers, barbers, and tailors are mentioned in the Mishna [Pesach. iv. 6) ; the baiber, or his occupation, by Ezekiel (v* 1 ; Lev. xiv. 8 ; Num. vi. 5), and the tailor, plasterers, glaziers, and glass vessels, painters, and goldworkers are men- tioned in the Mishna [Chel. viii. 9, xxix. 3, 4, xxx. 1). Tent-makers are noticed in the Acts (xviii. 3), and frequent allusion is made to the trade of the potters. 8. Bakers are noticed in Scripture ( Jer. xxxvii. 2 1 ; Hos. vii. 4) ; and the well-known valley Tyro- poeon probably derived its name from the occupation of the cheese-makers, its inhabi- tants. Butchers, not Jewish, are spoken of 1 Cor. X. 25. HAN 'N AH, one of the wives of Elkanah, and mother of Samuel (1 Sam. i. ii.). A hymn of thanksgiving for the birth of her son is in the highest order of prophetic poetry ; its resemblance to that of the Virgin Mary (comp. 1 Sam. ii. 1-10 with Luke i. 46-55 ; see also Ps. cxiii.) has been noticed by the commentators. More recent critics have, however, assigned its authorship to David. HA'NOCH. 1. The third in order of the children of Midian (Gen. xxv. 4). — 2. Eldest son of Reuben (Gen. xlvi. 9 ; Ex. vi. 14 ; Num. xxvi. 5 ; 1 Chr. v. 3), and founder of the family of the Hanochites (Num. xxvL 5). HA'NUN, son of Nahash (2 Sam, x. 1, 2 ; 1 Chr. xix. 1, 2), king of Ammon, who dis- honoured the ambassadors of David (2 Sam. X. 4), and involved the Ammonites in a dis- astrous war (2 Sam. xii. 31 ; 1 Chr. xix. 6). HA'RAN. 1. The third son of Terah, and therefore youngest brother of Abram (Gen. xi. 26). Three children are ascribed to him —Lot (27, 31), and two daughters, viz., Mil- cah, who married her uncle Nahor" (29), and Iscah (29). Haran was born in Ur of the Chaldees, and he died there while his father was still living (28). — 2. Haran or Charran (Acts vii. 2, 4), name of the place whither Abraham migrated with his family from Ur of the Chaldees, and where the descendants of his brother Nahor established themselves (comp. Gen. xxiv. 10, with xxvii. 43). It is said to be in Mesopotamia (Gen. xxiv. 10), or more definitely, in Padan-Aram (xxv. 20), the cultivated district at the foot of the hills, a name well applying to the beautiful stretch of country which lies below Mount Masius between the Khabour ana the Euphrates. Here, about midway in this district, is a small village still called Harran. It was celebrated among the Romans under the name of Charrae, as the scene of the defeat of Crassus. HARE (Heb. arnehcth) occurs only in Lev. xi. 6 and Deut. xiv. 7, amongst the animals disallowed as food by the Mosaic law. The hare is at this day called arneb by the Arabs HARETH, THE FOREST OF 205 HAZAEL in Palestine and Syria. It was erroneously thought by the ancient Jews to have chewed the cud. They were no doubt misled, as in the case of the shdphdn {Hyrax) by the habit these animals have of moving the jaw about. HA'RETH, THE FOREST OF, in which David took refuge, after, at the instigation of the prophet Gad, he had quitted the "hold" or fastness of the cave of AduUam (1 Sam. xxii. 5). HA'ROD, THE WELL OF, a spring by which Gideon and his great army encamped on the morning of the day which ended in the rout of the Midianites (Judg. vii. 1), and where the trial of the people by their mode of drinking apparently took place. The Ain Jaltid is very suitable to the circumstances, as being at present the largest spring in the neighbourhood. HARO'SHETH "OF THE GENTILES," so called from the mixed races that inhabited it, a city in the north of the land of Canaan, supposed to have stood on the west coast of the lake Merom, from which the Jordan is- sues forth in one unbroken stream. It was the residence of Sisera, captain of Jabin, king of Canaan (Judg. iv. 2), and it was the point to which the victoi-ious Israelites under Barak pursued the discomfited host and cha- riots of the second potentate of that name (Judg. iv. 16). HARP (Heb. k'mnor). The kinnor was the national instrument of the Hebrews, and was well known throughout Asia. Moses as- signs its invention to the antediluvian period (Gen. iv. 21). Josephus records that the kinnor had ten strings, and that it was played on with the plectrum ; but this is in contradiction to what is set forth in the 1st book of Samuel (xvi. 23, xviii. 10), that David played on the kinnor with his hand. Probably there was a smaller and a larger kin7ior, and these may have been played in different ways (1 Sam. x. 5). HARROW. The word so rendered 2 Sam. xii. 31, 1 Chr. xx. 3, is probably a threshing- machine. The verb rendered "to harrow" (Is. sxviii. 24 ; Job xxxix. 10 ; Hos. x. 11), expresses apparently the breaking of the clods, and is so far analogous to our harrow- ing, but whether done by any such machine as we call " a harrow," is very doubtful. HART. The hart is reckoned among the clean animals (Deut. xii. 15, xiv. 5, xv. 22), and seems, from the passages quoted, as well as from 1 K. iv. 23, to have been commonly killed for food. The Heb. masc. noun ayiidl denotes, there can be no doubt, some species of Cervidae (deer tribe), either the Dama vulgaris, fallow-deer, or the Cervus Bar- barus, the Barbary deer. HARVEST. [Agriculture.] HAU'RAN, a province of Palestine twice mentioned by Ezekiel (xlvii. 16, 18). There can be little doubt that it is identical with the well-known Greek province of Auranitis, and the modern Haurdn. HAV'ILAH. 1. A son of Cush (Gen. x. 7) ; and 2. a son of Joktan (x. 29). Various theories have been advanced respecting these obscure peoples. It appears to be most probable that both stocks settled in the same country, and there intermarried ; thus re- ceiving one name, and forming one race, with a common descent. The Cushite people of this name formed the westernmost colony of Cush along the south of Arabia. HAV'ILAH (Gen. ii. 11). [Eden.] HA'VOTH-JA'IR, certain villages on the east of Jordan, in Gilead or Bashan, which were taken by Jair the son of Manasseb, and called after his name (Num. xxxii. 41 ; DeuL iii. 14). In the records of Manasseh in Josh, xiii. 30,' and 1 Chr. ii. 23, the Havoth-jair are reckoned with other districts as making up sixty "cities" (comp. 1 K. iv. 13). There is apparently some confusion in these different statements as to what the sixty cities really consisted of. No less doubtful is the number of the Havoth-jair. In 1 Chr. ii. 22 they are specified as twenty-three, but in Judg. X. 4, as thirty. HAWK, the ti-anslation of the Hebrew nets (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15 ; Job xxxix. 26). The word is doubtless generic, as ap- pears fi-om the expression in Deut. and Lev. " after his kind," and includes various species of the Falconidae. With respect to the passage in Job [1. c), which appears to allude to the migratory habits of hawks, it is curious to observe that of the ten or twelve lesser raptors of Palestine, nearly all are summer migrants. The kestrel remains all the year, but the othe.rs are all migrants from the south. HA'ZAEL, a king of Damascus, who reigned from about b.c. 886 to b.c. 840. He appears to have been previously a person in a high position at the court of Benhadad, and was sent by his master to Elisha, to in- quire if he would recover from the malady under which he was suffering. Elisha's answer led to the murder of Benhadad by his ambitious servant, who forthwith mounted the throne (2 K. viii. 7-15). He was soon engaged in hostilities with Ahaziah king of Judah, and Jehoram king of Israel, for the possession of the city of Ramoth-Gilead (ibid, viii. 28). Towards the close of the reign of Jehu, Hazael led the Syrians against the Israelites (about b.c. 860), whom he " smote in all their coasts" (2 K. x. 32), thus accom- HAZAR-ADDAR 200 HEBREW pushing the prophecy of Elisha (ibid. viii. 12). At the close of his life, having taken Gath (ibid. xii. 17 ; comp. Am. vi. 2), he pro- ceeded to attack Jerusalem (2 Chr. xxiv. 24), and was about to assault the city, when Joash bribed him to retire (2 K. xii. 18). Hazael appears to have died about the year b.c. 840 (ibid. xiii. 24), having reigned 46 years. HA'ZAR-AD'DAR, &c. [Hazer.] HAZARMA'VETH, the third, in order, of the sons of Joktan (Gen. x. 26). The name is preserved in the Arabic Hadramdwt and Hadrumuict, the appellation of a province and an ancient people of Southern Arabia. Its capital is Satham, a very ancient city, and its chief ports are Mirbat, Zafari, and Kisheem, from whence a great trade was carried on, in ancient times, with India and Africa. HAZEL. The Hebrew term luz occurs only in Gen. xxx. 37. Authorities are di- vided between the hazel and the almond tree, as representing the luz. The latter is most probably correct. HA'ZER, topographically, seems generally employed for the "villages" of people in a roving and unsettled life, the semi-permanent collections of dwellings which are described by travellers among the modern Arabs to consist of rough stone walls covered with the tent-cloths. As a proper name it appears in the A. V, : — 1. In the plural, Hazerim, and Hazeroth, for which see below. 2. In the slightly different form of Hazor. 3. In composition with other words. — 1. Hazar- apdar, a place named as one of the land- marks on the southern boundary of the land promised to Israel (Num. xxxiv. 4 ; Adar, Josh. XV. 3). — 2. Hazah-enan, the place at which the northemi boundary of the land promised to the children of Israel was to terminate (Num. xxxiv. 9, 10 ; comp. Ez. xlvii. 17, xlviii. 1). — 3. Hazar-gaddah, one of the towns in the southern district of Judah (Josh. XV. 27), named between Moladah and Heshmon. — 4. Hazar-shual, a town in the southern district of Judah, lying between Hazar-gaddah and Beersheba (Josh. xv. 28, xix. 3; I Chr. iv. 28).— 5. Hazar-susah, one of the " cities " allotted to Simeon in the extreme south of the territory of Judah (Josh. xix. 5). HA'ZERIM. The Avims, or more accu- rately the Avvim, are said to have lived " in the villages (A.V. "Hazerim") as far as Gaza" (Deut. ii. 23) before their expulsion by the Caphtorim. HA'ZEROTH (Num. xi. 35, xii. 16, xxxiii. 17 ; Deut. i. 1), a station of the Israelites in the desert, and perhaps recognizable in the Arabic Hudhera. HA'ZEZON-TA'MAR, and HA'ZAZON- TA'MAR, the ancient name of Engedi (Gen. xiv. 7). The name occurs in the records of the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xx. 2). HA'ZOR. 1. A fortified city, which on the occupation of the country was allotted to Naphtali (Josh. xix. 36). Its position was apparently between Ramah and Kedesh (ibid, xii. 19), on the high ground overlooking the Lake of Merora. There is- no reason for supposing it a different place from that of which Jabin was king (Josh. xi. 1 ; Judg. iv. 2, 17 ; 1 Sam. xii. 9). It was the prin- cipal city of the whole of North Palestine (Josh. xi. 10). It was fortified by Solomon (1 K. iv. 15), and its inhabitants were car- ried captive by Tiglath-Pileser (2 K. xv. 29). The most probable site of Hazor is Tell Khiiraibeh. — 2. One of the " cities " of Judah in the extreme south, named next in order to Kedesh (Josh. xv. 23).— 3. Hazor- Hadattah, = " new Hazor," another of the southern towns of Judah (Josh. xv. 25). HEATHEN. [Gentiles.] HEAVEN. There are four Hebrew words thus rendered in the O. T., which we may briefly notice. 1. RdkVa (A. V. firma- ment). [Firmament.] — 2. Shdmayim. This is the word used in the expression " the heaven and the earth," or " the upper and lower regions" (Gen. i. 1).— 3. Mdrom, used for heaven in Ps. xviii. 16; Jer. xxv. 30; Is. xxiv. 18. Properly speaking it means a mountain, as in Ps. cii. 19 ; Ez. xvii. 23. — 4. ShecJidkifn, "expanses," with reference to the extent of heaven (Deut. xxxiii. 2G ; Job XXXV. 5). St. Paul's expression " third heaven" (2 Cor. xii. 2) has led to much con- jecture. Grotius said that the Jews divided the heaven into three parts, viz., 1. the air or atmosphere, where clouds gather ; 2. the fir- mament, in which the sun, moon, and stars are fixed ; 3. the upper heaven, the abode of God and his angels. HE'BER. 1. Grandson of the patriarch Asher (Gen. xlvi. 17 ; 1 Chr. vii. 31 ; Num. xxvi. 45), from whom came the Heberites (Num. xxvi. 45). — 2. The patriarch Eber (Luke iii. 35). [Eber.] HE'BllEW. This word first occurs as given to Abram by the Canaanites (Gen. xiv, 13) because he had crossed the Euphrates. The name is also derived from 'eier, " be- yond, on the other side," but this is essen- tially the same with the preceding explana- tion, since both imply that Abraham and his posterity were called Hebrews in oi'der to express a distinction between the races E. and W. of the Euphrates. It would therefore appear that Hebrew was a cis-Euphratian word applied to trans- Euphratian immigrants. Il#ii|:i!fc I'^'li'l'lIWi^ HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE 207 HEBRON The term Israelite was used by the Jews of themselves among themselves, the term He- brew was the name by which they were known to foreigners. The latter was ac- cepted by the Jews in their external rela- tions ; and after the general substitution of the word Jew, it still found a place in that marked and special feature of national con- tradistinction, the language. All the Books of the Old Testament are written in the He- brew language, with the exception of the following passages — -Dan. ii. 4-vii. ; Ez. iv. 8-vi. 18, and vii. 12-26 ; Jer. x. 11 — which are in Chaldee. Both Hebrew and Chaldee are sister dialects of a great family of lan- guages, to which the name of Semitic is usually given, from the real or supposed de- scent of the people speaking them from the patriarch Shem. The dialects of this Semitic family may be divided into three main branches: — 1. The Northern or Aramaean, to which the Chaldee and Syriac belong. 2. The Southern, of which the Arabic is the most important, and which also includes the Ethi- opic. 3. The Central, which comprises the Hebrew and the dialects spoken by the other inhabitants of Palestine, such as the Canaan- ites and Phoenicians. HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE. There has been a wide difference of opinion respect- ing the authorship of this Epistle. The super- scription, the ordinary source of information, is wanting ; but there is no reason to doubt that at first, everywhei-e, except in North Africa, St. Paul was regarded as the author. Clement of Alexandria ascribed to St. Luke the translation of the Epistle into Greek from a Hebi'ew original of St. Paul. Origen believed that the thoughts were St. Paul's, the language and composition St. Luke's or Clement's of Rome. TertuUian names Bar- nabas as the reputed author according to the North African tradition. Luther's conjecture that Apollos was the author has been adopted by many. — The Epistle was probably addressed to the Jews in Jerusalem and Palestine. The argument of the Epistle is such as could be used with most effect to a church consisting exclusively of Jews by birth, personally fami- liar with and attached to the Temple-service. It was evidently written before the destruc- tion of Jerusalem in a.d. 70. The whole argument, and specially the passages viii. 4 and sq., ix. 6 and sq., and xiii. 10 and sq., imply that the Temple was standing, and that its usual course of Divine service was can-ied on without interruption. The date which best agrees with the traditionary ac- count of the authorship and destination of the Epistle is a.d. 63, about the end of St. Paul's imprisonment at Rome, or a year after Albinus succeeded Festus as Procurator. — Wr have already seen that Clement of Alexandria stated that the Epistle was written by St. Paul in Hebrew, and translated by St. Luke into Greek. But nothing is said to lead us to regard it as a tradition, rather than a conjecture suggested by the style of the Epistle. In favour of a Greek original we may observe (1.) the purity and easy flow of the Greek; (2.) the use of Greek words which could not be adequately expressed in Hebrew without long periphrase ; (3.) the use of paronomasia ; and (4.) the use of the Septuagint in quotations and references. — With respect to the scope of the Epistle, it should be recollected that, while the nume- rous Christian churches scattered throughout Judaea (Acts ix. 31 ; Gal. i. 22) were con- tinually exposed to persecution from the Jews (1 Thess. ii. 14), there was in Jerusalem one additional weapon in the hands of the pre- dominant oppressors of the Christians. The magnificent national Temple might be shut against the Hebrew Christian ; and even if this affliction were not often laid upon him, yet there was a secret burden which he bore within him, the knowledge that the end of all the beauty and aw fulness of Zion was rapidly approaching. What could take the place of the Temple, and that which was behind the veil, and the Levitical sacrifices, and the Holy City, when they should cease to exist ? What compensation could Chris- tianity offer him for the loss which was pressing the Hebrew Christian more and more ? The writer of this Epistle meets the Hebrew Christians on their own ground. His answer is — " Your new faith gives you Christ, and, in Christ, all you seek, all your fathers sought. In Christ the son of God you have an all-sufficient Mediator, nearer than angels to the Father, eminent above Moses as a benefactor, more sympathising and more pre- vailing than the High-priest as an intercessor : His sabbath awaits you in heaven ; to His covenant the old was intended to be subser- vient ; His atonement is the eternal reality of which sacrifices are but the passing shadow ; His city heavenly, not made with hands. Having Him, believe in Him with all your heart, with a faith in the unseen future, strong as that of the saints of old, patient under present, and prepared for coming woe, full of energy, and hope, and holiness, and love." Such was the teaching of the Epistle to the Hebrews. HE'BRON. 1. The third son of Kohath, who was the second son of Levi ; the younger brother of Amram, father of Moses and Aaron (Ex. vi. 18 ; Num. iii. 19 ; 1 Chr. vi. 2, 18, xxiii. 12). The immediate children of Hebron HEIFER 208 HELL are not mentioned by name (comp. Ex. vi. 21, 22), but he was tbe founder of a family of Hebronites (Num. iii. 27, xxvi. 58 ; 1 Chr. xxvi. 23, 30, 31) or Bene-Hebron (1 Chr. xv. 9, xxiii. 19). — 2. A city of Judah (Josh. xv. 54) ; situated among the mountains (Josh. XX. 7), 20 Roman miles south of Jerusalem, and the same distance north of Beersheba. Hebron is one of the most ancient cities in the world still existing ; and in this respect it is the rival of Damascus. It was built, says a sacred writer, " seven years before Zoan in Egypt" (Num. xiii. 22) ; and was a well-known town when Abraham entered Canaan 3780 years ago (Gen. xiii. 18). Its original name was Kirjath-Arba (Judg. i. 10), " the city of Arba ; " so called from Arba, the father of Anak, and progenitor of the giant Anakim (Josh. xxi. 11, xv. 13, 14). The chief interest of this city arises from its having been the scene of some of the most striking events in the lives of the patriarchs. Sarah died at Hebron ; and Abraham then bought from Ephron the Hittite the field and cave of Machpelah, to serve as a family tomb (Gen. xxiii. 2-20). The cave is still there ; and the massive walls of the Saram or mosque, within which it lies, form the most remarkable object in the whole city. Abraham is called by Mahommedans el-KhulU, ■" the Friend," i. e. of God, and this is the modern name of Hebron. Hebron now con- tains about 5000 inhabitants, of whom some 50 families are Jews. It is picturesquely situated in a narrow valley, surrounded by rocky hills. The valley runs from north to south ; and the main quarter of the town, surmounted by the lofty walls of the venerable Haram, lies partly on the eastern slope (Gen. xxxvii. 14 ; comp. xxiii. 19). About a mile from the town, up the valley, is one of the largest oak-trees in Palestine. This, say some, is the very tree beneath which Abra- ham pitched his tent, and it still bears the name of the patriarch. HEIFER. The Hebrew language has no expression that exactly corresponds to our heifer ; for both eylah and parah are applied to cows that have calved (1 Sam. vi. 7-12 ; Job xxi. 10; Is. vii. 21). The heifer or young cow was not commonly used for ploughing, but only for treading out the corn (Hos. x. 11 ; but see Judg. xiv. 18), when it ran about without any headstall (Deut. XXV. 4) ; hence the expression an " unbroken heifer" (Hos. iv. 16 ; A.V. " back- sliding"), to which Israel is compared. HEL'BON, a place mentioned only in Eze- kiel xxvii. Geographers have hitherto re- presented Helbon as identical with the city of Aleppo, called Saleb by the Arabs ; but there are strong reasons against this, and the ancient city must be identified with a village within a few miles of Damascus, still bearing the ancient name Helbon, and stiU celebrated as producing the finest grapes in the country. HE'LI, the father of Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary (Luke iii. 23) ; main^ tained by Lord A. Hervey, the latest investi" gator of the genealogy of Christ, to have been the real brother of Jacob the father ol the Virgin herself. HELL. This is the word generally and unfortunately used by our translators to render the Hebrew Sheol. It would perhaps have been better to retain the Hebrew word Sheol, or else render it always by " the grave" or "the pit." It is deep (Job xi. 8) and dark (Job xi. 21, 22), in the centre of the earth (Num. xvi. 30 ; Deut. xxxii. 22), having within it depths on depths (Prov. ix. 18), and fastened with gates (Is. xxxviii. 10) and bars (Job xvii. 16). In this cavernous realm are the souls of dead men, the Rephaim and ill-spirits (Ps. Ixxxvi. 13, Ixxxix. 48 ; Prov. xxiii. 14; Ez. xxxi. 17, xxxiL 21). It is clear that in many passages of the 0. T. Sheol can only mean " the grave," and is so rendered in the A. V. (see, for example, Gen. xxxvii. 35, xiii. 38 ; 1 Sam. ii. 6 ; Job xiv. 13). In other passages, however, it seems to involve a notion of punishment, and is therefore rendered in the A. V. by the word " Hell." But in many cases this translation misleads the reader. It is obvious, for in- stance, that Job xi. 8 ; Ps. cxxxix. 8 ; Am. ix. 2 (where " hell" is used as the antithesis of "heaven"), merely illustrate the Jewish notions of the locality of Sheol in the bowels of the earth. In the N. T. the word Hades, like Sheol, sometimes means merely " the grave" (Rev. xx. 13; Acts ii. 31; 1 Cor. XV. 55), or in general "the unseen world." It is in this sense that the creeds say of our Lord " He went down into hell," meaning the state of the dead in general, without any restriction of happiness or misery, a doctrine certainly, though only virtually, expressed in Scripture (Eph. iv. 9 ; Acts ii. 25-31). Elsewhere in the N. T. Hades is used of a place of torment (Luke xvi. 23 ; 2 Pet. ii. 4 ; Matt. xi. 23, &c.). Consequently it has been the prevalent, almost the universal, notion that Hades is an intermediate state between death and resurrection, divided into two parts, one the abode of the blessed and the other of the lost. In holding this view, main reliance is placed on the parable of Dives and Lazarus ; but it is impossible to ground the proof of an important theological doctrine on a passage which confessedly abounds ia HELLENIST 209 HEROD Jewish metaphors. The word most frequently used in the N. T. for the place of future punishment is Gehenna or Gehenna of fire. [Gkhenna and Hinnom.] HEL'LENIST. In one of the earliest no- tices of the first Christian Church at Jeru- salem (Acts vi. 1), tM'o distinct parties are recognised among its members, "Hebrews" and "Hellenists" (Grecians), who appear to stand towards one another in some degree in a relation of jealous rivalry (comp. Acts ix. 29). The name, according to its deriva- tion, marks a class distinguished by peculiar habits, and not by descent. Thus the Hel- lenists as a body included not only the prose- lytes of Greek (or foreign) parentage, but also those Jews who, by settling in foreign countries, had adopted the prevalent form of the current Greek civilisation, and with it the use of the common Greek dialect. HELMET. [Arms.] HEM OF GARMENT. The importance which the later Jews, especially the Pharisees (Matt, xxiii. 5), attached to the hem or fringe of their garments was founded upon the re- gulation in Num. xv. 38, 39, which gave a symbolical meaning to it. HE'MAN, son of Joel, and grandson of Samuel the prophet, a Kohathite. He is called " the singer," rather, the musician (1 Chr. vi. 33), and was the first of the three Levites to whom was committed the vocal antl instrumental music of the temple-service in the reign of David (1 Chr. xv. 16-22), Asaph and Ethan, or rather, according to xxv. 1, 3, Jeduthan, being his colleagues. A further account of Heman is given 1 Chr. xxv., where he is called (ver. 5) "the king's seer in the matters of God." Whether or no this Heman is the person to whom the 88th Psalm is ascribed is doubtful. He is there called " the Ezrahite; " and the 89th Psalm is ascribed to " Ethan the Ezrahite." HEMLOCK. The Hebrew rosh is rendered " hemlock" in two passages (Hos. x. 4 ; Am. vi. 12), but elsewhere "gall." [Gall.] HEN. The hen is nowhere noticed in the Bible except in Matt, xxiii. 37 ; Luke xiii. 34. That a bird so common in Palestine should receive such slight notice, is certainly singular. HE'NA seems to have been one of the chief cities of a monarchical state which the Assy- rian kings had reduced shortly before the time of Sennacherib (2 K. xix. 13 ; Is. xxxvii. 13). At no great distance from Sippara (now .Vosaib), is an ancient town called Ana or Anah, which may be the samaas Hena. HER'.MAS, the name of a Christian resi- dent at Rome to whom St. Paul sends greeting in his Epistle to the Romans (xvi. 14). Ire- Sm. D. B. naeus, Tertullian, and Origen agree in attri- buting to him the work called the Shepherd : which is supposed to have been written in the pontificate of Clement I. ; while others affirm it to have been the work of a namesake in the following age. It existed for a long time only in a Latin version, but the first part in Greek is to be found at the end of the Codex Sinaiticus. It was never received into the canon ; but yet was generally cited with respect only second to that which was paid to the authoritative books of the N. T. HER'MES, a Christian mentioned in Rom. xvi. 14. According to tradition he was one of the Seventy disciples, and afterwards Bishop of Dalmatia. HERMOG'ENES, a person mentioned by St. Paul in the latest of all his Epistles (2 Tim. i. 15) when all in Asia bad turned away from him, and among their number " Phygellus and Hermogenes." HER'MON, a mountain on the north- eastern border of Palestine (Deut. iii. 8 ; Josh. xii. 1), over against Lebanon (Josh. xi. 17), adjoining the plateau of Bashan (1 Chr. V. 23). It stands at the southern end, and is the culminating point of the anti-Libanua range ; it towers high above the ancient border-city of Dan and the fountains of the Jordan, and is the most conspicuous and beautiful mountain in Palestine or Syria. The name Hennon was doubtless suggested by its appearance — " a lofty prominent peak," visible from afar. The Sidonians called it Sirion, and the Amorites Shenir. It was also named jS/ow, "the elevated" (Deut. iv. 48). So now, at the present day, it is called Jebel esh-Shelkh, " the chief-mountain ; " and Jebel eth-TJie!J, " snowy mountain." When the whole country is parched with the summer sun, white lines of snow streak the head of Hermon. This mountain Avas the great land- mark of the Israelites. It was associated with their northern border almost as inti- mately as the sea was with the western. Hermon has three summits, situated like the angles of a triangle, and about a quarter of a mile from each other. This may account for the expression in Ps. xlii. 7 (6), " I will re- member thee from the land of the Jordan and the Hermons." In two passages of Scripture this mountain is called Baal-hermon (Judg. iii. 3 ; 1 Chr. v. 23), possibly because Baal was there worshipped. The height of Hermon has never been measured, though it has often been estimated. It may safely be reckoned at 10,000 feet. HER'OD. This family, though of Idumaean origin, and thus aliens by race, were Jews in faith. — I. Hkrou the Great was the second son of Antipatcr, an Idumaean, who HEUOD 210 HEROD •was appointed Procurator of Judaea by Julius Caesar, b.c. 47, and Cypvos, an Arabian of noble descent. At tlie time of his father's elevation, though only fifteen years old, he received the government of Galilee, and shortly afterwards that of Coele-Syria. When Antony came to Syria, b.c. 41, he appointed Herod and his elder brother Phasael tetrarchs of Judaea. Herod was forced to abandon Judaea next year by an invasion of the Par- thi«vns, who supported the claims of Antigonus, the representative of the Asmonaean dynasty, and fled to Rome (b.c. 40). At Rome he was well received by Antony and Octavian, and was appointed by the senate king of Judaea to the exclusion of the Hasmonaean lino. In the course of a few years, by the help of the Romans, he took Jerusalem (b.c. 37), and completely established his authority through- out his dominions. After the battle of Actium he visited Octavian at Rhodes, and his noble bearing won for him the favour of the con- queror, who confirmed him in the possession of the kingdom, b.c. 31, and in the next year increased it by the addition of several im- portant cities, and afterwards gave him the province of Trachonitis and the district of Paneas. The remainder of the reign of Hei'od was undisturbed by external troubles, but his domestic life was embittered by an almost uninterrupted series of injuries and cruel acts of vengeance. The terrible acts of bloodshed which Herod perpetrated in his own family vere accompanied by others among his sub- jects equally terrible, from the number who fell victims to them. According to the well- known story, he ordered the nobles whom he had called to him in his last moments to be executed immediately after his decease, that so at least his death might be attended by universal mourning. It was at the time of his fatal illness that he must have caused the slaughter of the infants at Bethlehem (Matt. ii. 16-18), and from the comparative insignificance of the murder of a few young children in an unimportant village when con- trasted with the deeds which he carried out or designed, it is not surprising that Josephus has passed it over in silence. In dealing with the religious feelings or prejudices of the Jews, Herod showed as great contempt for public opinion as in the execution of his personal vengeance. But while he alienated in this manner the affections of the Jews by liis cruelty and disregard for the Law, he sdorned Jerusalem with many splendid mo- numents of his taste and magnificence. The j Temple, which he rebuilt with scrupulous care, was the greatest of these Avorks. The restoration was begun b.c. 20, and the Temple itsL'lf \»'a8 completed in a year and a half. But fresh additions were constantly made in succeeding years, so that it was said that the Temple was "built in forty and six years" (John ii. 20), a phrase which expresses the whole period from the commencement of Herod's work to the completion of the latest addition then made. — II. Herou Antipas was the son of Herod the Great by Malthace, a Samaritan. His father had originally des- tined him as his successor in the kingdom, but by the last change of his will appointed him "tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea" (Matt, xiv. 1 ; Luke iii. 19, ix. 7 ; Acts xiii. 1. Cf. Luke iii. 1). He first married a daughter of Aretas, " king of Arabia Petraea," but after some time he made overtures of mar- riage to Herodias, the wife of his half-brother Herod-Philip, which she received favourably. Aretas, indignant at the insult offered to his daughter, found a pretext for invading the territory of Hei-od, and defeated him with gi-eat loss. This defeat, according to the famous passage in Josephus, was attributed by many to the murder of John the Baptist, which had been committed by Antipas shortly before, under the influence of Herodias (Matt. xiv. 4 ff. ; Mark vi. 17 ff.; Luke iii. 19). At a later time the ambition of Herodias proved the cause of her husband's ruin. She urged him to go to Rome to gain the title of king (cf. Mark vi. 14) ; but he was opposed at the court of Caligula by the emissaries of Agrippa, and condemned to perpetual banish- ment at Lugdunum, a.d. 29. Herodias voluntarily shared his punishment, and he died in exile. Pilate took occasion from our Lord's residence in Galilee to send Him for examination (Luke xxiii. 6 ff.) to Herod Antipas, who came up to Jerusalem to cele- brate the Passover. The city of Tiberias, which Antipas founded and named in honour of the emperor, was the most conspicuous monument of his long reign. — III. Herod Philip I. (Philip, Mark vi. 17) was the son of Herod the Great, and Mariamne, and must be carefully distinguished from the tetrarch Philip. He married Herodias, the sister of Agrippa I., by whom he had a daughter Salome. Herodias, however, left him, and made an infamous marriage with his half- brother Herod Antipas (Matt. xiv. 3 ; Mark vi. 17 ; Luke iii. 19). He was excluded from all share in his father's possessions in consequence of his mother's treacherj-, and lived afterwards in a private station. — IV. Hkrod Piiiijp II. was the son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra. Like his half-brothers Antipas and Archelaus, he was brought up at home. He received as his own govern- ment Batanea, Tracbonitis, Auranitis (Gaul- onitis), and some parts about Jamnia with HEROD 211 HERON the title of tetrarch (Luke iii. 1). He built a new city on the site of Paneas, near the som-ces of the Jordan, -which he called Caesarea (Matt. xvi. 13 ; Mark viii. 27), and raised Bethsaida to the rank of a city under the title of Julias, and died there A.D. 34. He married Salome, the daughter of Herod Philip I. and Herodias. — V. Herod Agrippa I. was the son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great. He was brought up at Rome with Claudius and Drusus, and after a life of various vicis- situdes, was thrown into prison by Tiberius, where he remained till the accession of Caius (Caligula) a.d. 37. The new emperor gave him the governments formerly held by the teti'archs Philip and Lysanias, and bestowed on him the ensigns of royalty and other marks of favour (Acts xii. 1). On the banishment of Antipas, his dominions were added to those already held by Agrippa. Afterwards Agrippa rendered important services to Claudius, and received from him in return (a.d. 41) the government of Judaea and Samaria. Unlike his predecessors, Agrippa was a strict observer of the Law, and he sought with success the favour of the Jews. It is probable that it was with this view he put to death James the son of Zebedee, and further imprisoned Peter (Acts xii. 1 if.). But his sudden death interrupted his ambitious projects. In the fourth year of bis reign over the whole of Judaea (a.d. 44) Agrippa attended some games at Caesarea, held in honour of the Emperor. When he appeared in the theatre (Acts xii. 21) his flatterers saluted him as a god ; and sud- denly he was seized with terrible pains, and being carried from the theatre to the palace died after five days' agony. — VI. Herod Agrippa II. was the son of Herod Agrippa I. and Cypros, a grand-niece of Herod the Great. At the time of the death of his father a.d. 44 he was at Rome. Not long after- wards, however, the Emperor gave him (about A.D. 50) the kingdom of Chalcis, which had belonged to his uncle ; and then trans- ferred him (a.d. 52) to the tetrarchies formerly held by Philip and Lysanias with the title of king (Acts xxv. 13). The rela- tion in which he stood to his sister Berenice (Acts xxv. 13) was the cause of grave sus- picion. In the last Roman war Agrippa took part with the Romans, and after the fall of Jerusalem retired with Berenice to Rome, where he died in the third year of Trajan (a,d. 100). The appearance of St. Paul before Agrippa (a.d. 60) offers several character isti 3 traits. The "pomp" with which the king came into the audience chamber (Acts xxv. 23) was accordant with his general bearing ; and the cold irony with which he met the impassioned words of the Apostle (Acts XX vi. 27, 28) suits the temper of one who was contented to take part in the desti'uction of his nation. HERO'DIANS. In the account which is given by St. Matthew (xxii. 15 ff.) and St. Mark (xii. 13 ff.) of the last efforts made by different sections of the Jews to obtain from our Lord Himself the materials for His ac- cusation, a party under the name of Hero- dians is represented as acting in concert with the Pharisees (Matt. xxii. 16 ; Mark xii. 13 ; comp. also iii. 6, viii. 15). There were probably many who saw in the power of the Herodian family the pledge of the preservation of their national existence in the face of Roman ambition. Two distinct classes might thus unite in supporting what was a domestic tyranny as contrasted with absolute dependence on Rome : those who saw in the Herods a protection against direct heathen rule, and those who were inclined tc look with satisfaction upon such a compro- mise between the ancient faith and heather civilisation, as Herod the Great and his suc- cessors had endeavoured to realise, as the true and highest consummation of Jewish hopes. HERO'DIAS, daughter of Aristobulus, one of the sons of Mariamne and Herod the Great, and consequently sister of Agrippa I. She first married Herod Philip I. ; then she eloped from him to marry Herod Antipas, her step-imcle, who had been long married to, and was still living with, the daughter of Aeneas or Aretas, king of Arabia. The con- sequences both of the crime, and of the re- proof which it incurred, are well known. Aretas made war upon Herod for the injury done to his daughter, and routed him with the loss of his whole army. The head of John the Baptist was granted to the request of Herodias (Matt. xiv. 8-11 ; Mark vi. 24- 28). According to Josephus the execution took place in a fortress called Machaeriis, looking down upon the Dead Sea from the south. She accompanied Antipas into exile to Lugdunum. HERO'DION, a relative of St. Paul, to whom he sends his salutation amongst the Christians of the Roman Church (Rom. xvi. 11). HERON. The Hebrew andphah appears as the name of an unclean bird in Lev. xi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18. It was probably a generic name for a well-known class of birds. The only point on which any two commentators seem to agree is that it is not the heron. On etymological grounds, Gesenius considers the name applicable to some iri-itable bird, per- haps the goose. P 2 HESHBON 212 HEZEKIAH HESH'BON, the capital citj' of Silion king of the Amorites (Num. xxi. 26). It stood on the western border of the high plain {Mishor, Josh. xiii. 17), and on the boundary- line between the tribes of Reuben and Gad. The ruins of Heshcm, 20 miles east of the Jordan, on the parallel of the northern end of the Dead Sea, mark the site, as they bear the name, of the ancient Heshbon. There are many cisterns among the ruins (comp. Cant. vii. 4). ' HESH'MON, a place named, with others, as lying in the extreme south of Judah (Josh. XV. 27). HETH, the forefather of the nation of the HiTTiTES. In the genealogical tables of Gen. X. and 1 Chr. i., Heth is a son of Canaan. The Hittites were therefore a Hamite race, neither of the "country" nor the "kin- dred " of Abraham and Isaac (Gen. xxiv. 3, 4, xxviii. 1, 2). HEZEKI'AH, twelfth king of Judah, son of the apostate Ahaz and Abi (or Abijah), ascended the throne at the age of 25, b.c. 726. Hezekiah was one of the three most per- fect kings of Judah (2 K. xviii. 5; Ecclus. xlix. 4). His first act was to purge, and repair, and reopen with splendid sacrifices and perfect ceremonial, the Temple which had been de- spoiled and neglected during the careless and idolatrous reign of his father. This conse- cration was accompanied by a revival of the theocratic spirit, so strict as not even to spare " the high places," which, although tolerated by many well-intentioned kings, had naturally been profaned by the worship of images and Asherahs (2 K. xviii. 4). A still more decisive act was the destruction of a brazen serpent, said to have been the one used by Moses in the miraculous healing of the Israelites (Num. xxi. 9), which had become an object of adoration. When the kingdom of Israel had fallen, Hezekiah ex- tended his pious endeavours to Ephraim and Manasseh; and by inviting the scattered in- habitants to a peculiar Passover, kindled their indignation also against the idolatrous practices which still continued among them. This Passover was, from the necessities of the case, celebrated at an unusual, though not illegal (Num. ix. 10, 11) time; and by an excess of Levitical zeal it was continued for the unprecedented period of fourteen days (2 Chr. xxix., xxx., xxxi.). At the head of a repentant and united people, Hezekiah ventured to assume the aggres- sive against the Philistines ; and in a series of victories not only rewon the cities which his father had lost (2 Chr. xxviii. 18), but oven dispossessed them of their own cities, except Gaza (2 K. xviii. 8) and Gath. It was perhaps to the purposes of this war that he applied the money which would otherwise have been used to pay the tribute exacted by Shalmaneser, according to the agreement of Ahaz with his predecessor, Tiglath-Pileser. When, after the capture of Samaria, the king of Assyria applied for this impost, Hezekiah refused it, and in open rebellion omitted to send even the usual presents (2 K. xviii. 7). Instant war was averted by the heroic and long-continued resistance of the Tyrians under their king Eluloeus. This must have been a critical and intensely anxious period for Jerusalem ; and Hezekiah used every available means to strengthen his position, and render his capital impregnable (2 K. xx. 20; 2 Chr. xxxii. 3-5, 30; Is. xxii. 8-11, xxxiii. 18). According to a scheme of chro- nology proposed by Dr. Hincks, Hezekiah's dangerous illness (2 K. xx. ; Is. xxxviii. ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 24) nearly synchronised with Sargon's futile invasion, in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah's reign, eleven years before iSeti7iacherib's invasion. That it must have pt^eeeded the attack of Sennacherib is nearly obvious from the promise in 2 K. xx. 6, as well as from modern discoveries. Hezekiah, whose kingdom was in a dangerous crisis, and who had at that time no heir (for Manasseh was not born till long afterwards, 2 K. xxi. 1), "turned his face to the wall and wept sore " at the threatened approach of dissolution. God had compassion on his anguish, and heard his prayer. Isaiah had hardly left the palace when he was ordered to promise the king immediate recovery, and a fresh lease of life, ratifying the promise by a sign, and curing the boil by a plaster of figs. Various ambassadors came with letters and gifts to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery (2 Chr. xxxii. 23), and among them an embassy from Merodach-Baladan (or Berodach, 2 K. xx. 12), the viceroy of Babylon. The ostensible object of this mis- sion was to compliment Hezekiah on his convalescence (2 K. xx. 12 ; Is. xxxix. 1) ; but its real purpose was to discover how far an alliance between the two powers was pos- sible or desirable, for Merodach-Baladan, no less than Hezekiah, was in apprehension of the Assyrians. Community of interest made Hezekiah receive the overtures of Babylon with unconcealed gratification ; and, per- haps, to enhance the opinion of his own importance as an ally, he displayed to the messengers the princely treasures which he and his predecessors had accumulated. If ostentation were his motive it received a terrible rebuke, and he was informed by Isaiah that from the then tottering and subordinate province of Babylon, and not HEZEKIAH 213 HIGH PLACES from the mighty Assyria, would come the ruin and captivity of Judah (Is. xxxix. 5). Sargon was succeeded (b.c. 702) hy his son Sennacherib, whose two invasions occupy the greater part of the Scripture records con- cerning the reign of Hezekiah. The first of these took place in the third year of Senna- cherib (B.C. 702), and occupies only three verses (2 K. xviii. 13-16), though the route of the advancing Assyrians may be traced in Is. X. 5, xi. The main hope of the political faction was the alliance with Egypt, and they seem to have sought it by presents and private entreaties (Is. xxx. 6). The account given of this first invasion in the Annals of Sennache7-ib is that he attacked Hezekiah because the Ekronites had sent their king Padiya (or " Haddij'a ") as a prisoner to Jerusalem (cf. 2 K. xviii. 8) ; that he took fortj^-six cities ("all the fenced cities" in 2 K. xviii. 13 is apparently a general ex- pression, cf. xix. 8) and 200,000 prisoners ; that he besieged Jerusalem with mounds (cf. 2 K. xix. 32) ; and although Hezekiah pro- mised to pay 800 talents of silver (of which perhaps 300 only were ever paid) and 30 of gold (2 K. xviii. 14), yet not content with this he mulcted him of a part of his domi- nions, and gave them to the kings of Ekron, Ashdod, and Gaza. In almost every par- ticular this account agrees with the notice in Scripture. Hezekiah's bribe (or fine) brought a temporary release, for the Assyrians marched into Egypt, where, if Hei-odotus and Josephus are to be trusted, they advanced without resistance to Pelusium. In spite of this advantage, Sennacherib was forced to raise the siege of Pelusium by the advance of Tirhakah or Tarakos. Returning from his futile expedition, Sennacherib " dealt trea- cherously " with Hezekiah (Is. xxxiii. 1) by attacking the stronghold of Lachish. This was the commencement of that second inva- sion respecting which we have such full details in 2 K. xviii. 17 sq. ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 9 sq. ; Is. xxxvi. From Lachish Sennache- rib sent against Jei-usalem an army under two oiRcers and his cupbearer the orator Rabshakeh, with a blasphemous and insult- ing summons to surrender. Hezekiah's ministers were thrown into anguish and dismay, but the undaunted Isaiah hurled back threatening for threatening with un- rivalled eloquence and force. Meanwhile Sennacherib, having taken Lachish, was besieging Libnah, when, alarmed by a " rumour " of Tirhakah's advance, he was forced to relinquish once more his imme- diate designs, and content himself with a defiant letter to Hezekiah. The next event of the campaign, about which we are in- formed, is that the Jewish king with simple piety prayed to God with Sennacherib's letter outspread before him, and received a prophecy of immediate deliverance. Accordingly " that night the Angel of the Lord went out and smote in the camp of the Assyrians 185,000 men." There is no doubt that some secon- dary cause was employed in the accomplish- ment of this event. We are certainly "not to suppose," as Dr. Johnson observed, " that the angel went about with a sword in his hand stabbing them one by one, but that some povverful natural agent was employed." Josephus, followed by an immense majority of ancient and modern commentators, attri- butes it to the Pestilence. Hezekiah only lived to enjoy for about one year more his well-earned peace and glory. He slept with his fathers after a reign of twenty-nine years, in the 56th year of his age (b.c. 697). HEZ'ION, a king of Aram (Syria), father of Tabrimon, and grandfather of Benhadad I. He and his father are mentioned only in 1 K. XV. 18. He is probably identical with P^ezon, the contemporary of Solomon, in 1 K. xi. 23 ; the two names being very similar in Hebrew, and still more so in the versions. HIDDEK'EL, one of the rivers of Eden, the river which " goeth eastward to Assyria" (Gen. ii. 14), and which Daniel calls "the Great river" (Dan x. 4), seems to have been rightly identified by the LXX. with the Ti- gris. Dekel is clearly an equivalent of Biffla or Difflath, a name borne by the Tigris in all ages. The name now in use among the in- habitants of Mesopotamia is Dij'leh. HI'EL, a native of Bethel, who rebuilt Jericho in the reign of Ahab (1 K. xvi. 34) ; and in whom was fulfilled the curse pro- nounced by Joshua (Josh. v. i. 26). HIERAP'OLIS. This place is mentioned only once in Scripture (Col. iv. 13), with CoLossAE and Laodicea. Such association is just what we should expect ; for the three towns were all in the basin of the Maeander, and within a few miles of one another. HIGGAl'ON, a word which occurs three times" in the book of Psalms (ix. 17, xix. 15, xcii. 4). The word has two meanings, one of a general character implying thought, re- ftection, and another in Ps. ix. 17, and Ps. xcii. 4, of a technical nature, the precise meaning of which cannot at this distance of time be determined. HIGH PLACES. From the earliest times it was the custom among all nations to erect altars and places of worship on lofty and conspicuous spots. To this general custom we find constant allusion in the Bible (Is. Ixv. 7 ; Jer. iii. 6 ; Ez. vi. 13, xviii. 6 ; Hos, iv. 13), and it is especially attributed to the HIGH PLACES 214 HIGH-PRIEST Moabites (Is. xv. 2, xvi. 12 ; Jer. xlviii. 35). Even Abraham built an altar to the Lord on a mountain near Bethel (xii. 7, 8 ; cf. xxii. 2-4, xxxi. 54), which shows that the practice was then as innocent as it was natural ; and although it afterwards became mingled with idolatrous observances (Num. xxiii. 3), it was in itself far less likely to be abused tban the consecration of groves (Hos. iv. 13), It is, however, quite obvious that if evei-y grove and eminence had been suffered to become a place for legitimate worship, especially in a country where they had al- ready been defiled with the sins of poly- theism, the utmost danger would have re- sulted to the pure worship of the one true God. It was therefore implicitly forbidden by the law of Moses (Deut. xii. 11-14), which also gave the strictest injunction to destroy these monuments of Canaanitish idolatry (Lev. xxvi. 30 ; Num. xxxiii. 52 ; Deut- xxxiii. 29). The command was a jtrospective one, and was not to come into force until such time as the tribes were settled in the promised land. Thus we find that both Gideon and Manoah built altars on high places by Divine command ( Judg. vi. 25, 26, xiii. 16-23), and it is quite clear from the tone of the book of Judges that the law on the subject was either totally for- gotten or practically obsolete. It is more surprising to find this law absolutely ignored at a much later period, when there was no intelligible reason for its violation — as by Samuel at Mizpeh (1 Sam. vii. 10) and at Bethlehem (xvi. 5) ; by Saul at Gilgal (xiii. 9) and at Ajalon (? xiv. 35) ; by David (1 Chr. xxi. 26) ; by Elijah on Mount Carmel (1 K. xviii. 30) ; and by other prophets (1 Sam. X. 5). The explanations which are given are sufficiently unsatisfactorj' ; but it is at any rate certain that the worship in high places was organised and all but uni- versal throughout Judaea, not only dui-ing (1 K. iii. 2-4), but even after the time of Solomon. The convenience of them was obvious, because, as local centres of religious worship, they obviated the unpleasant and dangerous necessity of visiting Jerusalem for the celebration of the yearly feasts (2 K. xxiii. 9). Many of the pious kings of Judah were either too weak or too ill-informed to repress the worship of Jehovah at these local sanctuaries, while they of course endeavoured to prevent it from being contaminated with polytheism. At last Hczekiah set himself in good earnest to the suppression of this pre- valent corruption (2 K. xviii. 4, 22), both in Judah and Israel (2 Chr. xxxi. 1), although, so rapid was the growth of the evil, that even his sweeping reformation required to be finally consummated by Josiah (2 K« xxiii.), and that too in Jerusalem and its immediate neighbourhood (2 Chr, xxiv, 3). After the time of Josiah we find no further mention of these Jehovistic high places. HIGH-PRIEST. I. Legally.— The first distinct separation of Aaron to the office of the priesthood, which previously belonged to the first-born, was that recorded Ex. xxviii. We find from the very first the following characteristic attributes of Aaron and the high-priests his successors, as distinguished from the other priests : — (1.) Aaron alone was anointed (Lev. viii. 12), whence one of the distinctive epithets of the high-priest was "the anointed priest" (Lev. iv. 3, 5, 16, xxi. 10 ; see Num. xxxv. 25). This appears also from Ex. xxix. 29, 30, The anointing of the sons of Aaron, i. e. the common priests, seems to have been confined to sprinkling their garments with the anointing oil (Ex. xxix. 21, xxviii. 41, &c.). The anointing of the high-priest is alluded to in Ps, cxxxiii. 2. — (2.) The high-priest had a peculiar dress, which passed to his successor at his death. This dress consisted of eight parts, as the Rabbins constantly note, the breastplate, the ephod with its curious girdle, the rohe of the ephod, the mitre, the hroidered coat or diaper tunic, and the girdle, the materials being gold, blue, red, crimson, and fine (white) linen (Ex. xxviii.). To the above are added, in ver. 42, the breeches or drawers (Lev. xvi. 4) of linen ; and to make up the number 8, some reckon the high- priest's mitre, or the plate separately from the bonnet ; while others reckon the curious girdle of the ephod separately from the ephod. Of these 8 articles of attire, 4— viz. the coat or tunic, the girdle, the breeches, and the bonnet or turban [migha'dh) instead of the mitre {mitsnepheth) — belonged to the common priests. Taking the articles of the high-priest's dress in the order in which they are enumerated above, we have (a.) the breastplate, or, as it is further named (vers. 15, 29, 30), the breastplate of judgment. The breastplate was originally 2 spans long, and 1 span broad, but when doubled it was square, the shape in which it was worn. On it were the 12 precious stones, set in 4 rows, 3 in a row, thus corresponding to the 12 tribes, and divided in the same manner as their camps were ; each stone having the name of one of the children of Israel en- graved upon it. According to the LXX. and Josephus, and in accordance with the lan- guage of Scripture, it was these stones which constituted the Urim and Thummim. [Urim and Thxjmmim.] — [b.) The ephod. This consisted of two parts, of which one covered HIGH-PRIEST 215 HIGH-PRIEST the back, and the other the front, i. e. the breast and upper part of the body. These were chisped together on the shoulder with two large onyx stones, each having engraved on it 6 of the names of the tribes of Israel. It was further united by a " curious girdle " of gold, blue, purple, scarlet, and fine twined linen round the waist [Ephod; Girdle].— {c.) The robe of the ephod. This was of inferior material to the ephod itself, being all of blue (ver. 31), which implied its being only of "woven work" (xxxix. 22). It was worn immediately under the ephod, and was longer than it. The blue robe had no sleeves, but only slits in the sides for the arms to come through. It had a hole for the head to pass through, with a border round it of woven work, to prevent its being rent. The skirt of this robe had a remark- able trimming of pomegranates in blue, red, and crimson, with a bell of gold between each pomegranate alternately. The bells were to give a sound when the high-priest went in and came out of the Holy Place.— {d.) The mitre or upper turban, with its gold plate, engraved with Holiness to the Lord, fastened to it by a ribbon of blue, (e.) The broidered coat was a tunic or long skirt of linen with a tessellated or diaper pattern, like the setting of a stone. The girdle, also of linen, was wound round the body several times from the breast downwards, and the ends hung down to the ankles. The breeches or drawers, of linen, covered the loins and thighs ; and the bonnet was a turban of linen, partially covering the head,but not in the form of a cone like that of the high-priest when the mitre was added to it. These four last were common to all priests. — (3.) Aaron had peculiar functions. To him alone it appertained, and he alone was permitted, to enter the Holy of Holies, which he did once a year, on the great day of atone- ment, when he sprinkled the blood of the sin-offering on the mercy-seat, and burnt incense within the veil (Lev. xvi.). —(4.) The high-priest had a peculiar place in the law of the manslayer, and his taking sanc- tuary in the cities of refuge. The manslayer might not leave the city of refuge during the lifetime of the existing high-priest who was anointed with the holy oil (Num. xxxv. 25, 28). It was also forbidden to the high- priest to follow a funeral, or rend his clothes for the dead, according to the precedent in Lev. X. 6. The Rabbins speak vei-y fre- quently of one second in dignity to the high- priest, whom they call the Sagan, and who often acted in the high-priest's room. He is the same who in the O. T. is called •' the second priest" (2 K. xxiii. 4, xxv. 18). Thtt3 too it is explained of Annas and Caiaphas (Luke iii. 2), that Annas was Sagan. Ananias is also thought by some to have been Sagan, acting for the high-priest (Acts xxiii. 2 ) . — It does not appear by whose authority'the high-priests were appointed to their office be- fore there were kings of Israel. But as we find it invariably done by the civil power in later times, it is probable that, in the times preceding the monarchy, it was by the elders, or Sanhe- drim. It should be added, that the usual age for entering upon the functions of the priesthood, according to 2 Chr. xxxi. 17, is considered to have been 20 years, though a priest or high-priest was not actually incapacitated if he had attained to puberty. Again, accord- ing to Lev. xxi., no one that had a blemish could officiate at the altar. — II. Tueologi- CALLT. The theological view of the high- priesthood does not fall within the scope of this work. It must sufiBce therefore to indicate that such a view would embrace the consideration of the office, dress, functions, and ministrations of the high-priest, con- sidered as typical of the priesthood of our Lord Jesus Christ, and as setting forth under shadows the truths which are openly taught under the Gospel. This has been done to a great extent in the Epistle to the Hebrews. It would also embrace all the moral and spiritual teaching supposed to be intended by such symbols. — III. Historically. The history of the high-priests embi-aces a period of about 1370 years, and a succession of about 80 high-priests, beginning with Aaron, and ending with Phannias. They naturally arrange themselves into three groups — (a.) those before David ; (h.) those from David to the captivity ; (c.) those from the return of the Babylonish captivity till the cessation of the office at the destruction of Jerusalem. (a.) The high-priests of the first group who are distinctly made known to us as such are — 1. Aaron; 2. Eleazar ; 3. Phinehas ; 4. Eli; 5. Ahitub (1 Chr. ix. 11 ; Neh. xi. 11 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 3); 6. Ahiah ; 7. Ahimelech. Phinehas the son of Eli, and father of Ahitub, died before his father, and so was not high- priest. Of the above, the three first suc- ceeded in regular order, Nadab and Abihu, Aaron's eldest sons, having died in the wilderness (Lev. x.). But Eli, the iih, was of the line of Ithamar. What was the exact interval between the death of Phinehas and the accession of Eli, what led to the trans- ference of the chief priesthood from the line of Eleazar to that of Ithamar, we have no means of determining from Scripture. Jose- phus asserts that the father of Bukki — whom he calls Joseph, and Abiezer, i. e. Abishua — was the last high-priest of Phinehas's line, before Zadok. If Abishua died, leaving a HIGH-PRIEST 216 HILKIAH son or grandson under age, Eli, as head of the line of Ithamar, might have become high- priest as a matter of course, or he might have been appointed by the elders. If Ahiah and Ahimelech are not variations of the name of the same person, they must have been brothers, since both were sons of Ahitub. The high-priests then before David's reign maybe set down as eight in number, of whom seven are said in Scripture to have been high- priests, and one by Josephus alone. — (i.) Passing to the second group, we begin with the unexplained circumstance of there being two priests in the reign of David, apparently of nearly equal authority, viz. Zadok and Abiathar (1 Chr. xv. 11 ; 2 Sam. vii. 17). It is not unlikely that after the death of Ahimelech and the secession of Abiathar to David, Saul may have made Zadok priest, and that David may have avoided the diffi- culty of deciding between the claims of his faithful friend Abiathar a.nd his new and important ally Zadok by appointing them to a joint priesthood : the first place, with the Ephod and Urim and Thummim, remaining with Abiathar, who was in actual possession of them. The first considerable difficulty that meets us in the historical survey of the high-priests of the second group is to ascer- tain who was high-priest at the dedication of Solomon's Temple. Josephus says that Zadok was, and the Seder 01am makes him the high-priest in the reign of Solomon ; but 1 K. iv. 2 distinctly asserts that Azariah the son of Zadok was priest under Solomon, and 1 Chr. vi. 10 tells us of Azariah, "he it is that executed the priest's office in the temple that Solomon built in Jerusalem," obviously meaning at its first completion. We can hardly therefore be wrong in saj'ing that Azariah the son of Ahimaaz was the first high-priest of Solomon's Temple. The priests of this series ended with Seraiah, who was taken prisoner by Nebuzar-adan, and slain at Riblah by Nebuchadnezzar, together with Zephaniah the second priest or Sagan, after the burning of the Temple and the plunder of all the sacred vessels (2 K. XX. 18). His son Jehozadak or Jo- sedech was at the same time carried away captive (1 Chr. vi. 15). The time occupied by these high-priests was about 454 years, which gives an average of something more than twenty-five years to each high-priest. It is remarkable that not a single instance is recorded after the time of David of an in- ijUiry by Urim and Thummim. The ministry of the prophets seems to have superseded that of the high-priests (see e. g. 2 Chr. xv., xviii., XX. 14, 15 ; 2 K. xix. 1, 2, xxii. 12- 14; Jer. xxi. 1, 2). — (c.) An interval of about fifty-two years elapsed between the high-priests of the second and third group, during which there was neither Temple, nor altar, nor ark, nor priest. Jehozadak, or Josedech, as it is written in Haggai (i. 1, 14, &c.), who should have siicceeded Seraiah, lived and died a captive at Babylon. The pontifical office revived in his son Jeshua, of whom such frequent mention is made in Ezra and Nehemiah, Haggai and Zechariah, 1 Esdr. and Ecclus. ; and he therefore stands at the head of this third and last series, honour- ably distinguished for his zealous co-operation with Zerubbabel in rebuilding the Temple, and restoring the dilapidated commonwealth of Israel. Under the Syrian domination the high-priesthood was brought to the lowest degradation by the apostasy and crimes of the last Onias or Menelaas, the son of Eleazar, and after a vacancy of seven years by the brief pontificate of Alcimus, his no less in- famous successor. A new and glorious suc- cession of high-priests arose in the Asmonean family, who united the dignity of civil rulers, and for a time of independent sovereigns, to that of the high-priesthood. The Asmonean family were priests of the course of Joiarib, the first of the twenty-four courses (1 Chr. xxiv. 7), whose return from captivity is re- corded 1 Chr. ix. 10 ; Neh. xi. 10. They were probably of the house of Eleazar, though this cannot be affirmed Avith certainty. This Asmonean dynasty lasted from b.c. 153, till the family was damaged by intestine divisions, and then destroyed by Herod the Great. Aristobulus, the last high-priest of his line, brother of Mariamne, was murdered by order of Herod, his brother-in-law, b.c. 35. There were no fewer than twenty-eight high-priests from the reign of Herod to the destruction of the Temple by Titus, a period of 107 years. The N. T. introduces us to some of these later, and oft-changing high-priests, viz. Annas, Caiaphas, and Ananias. Theophilus, the son of Ananus, was the high-priest from whom Saul received letters to the synagogue at Damascus (Acts ix. 1, 14). Phannias, the last high-priest, was appointed by lot by the Zealots from the course of priests called by Josephus Eniachim (probably a corrupt reading for Jachim). HILKI'AH. 1. Father of Eliakim (2 K. xviii. 37, Is. xxii. 20, xxxvi. 22). [Eli- akim.]—2. High-priest in the reign of Josiah (2 K. xxii. 4 sqq. ; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 9 sqq. ; 1 Esdr. i. 8). According to the genealogy in 1 Chr. vi. 13 he was son of Shallum, and from Ezr. vii. 1, apparently the ancestor of Ezra the scribe. His high-priesthood was i-endercd particularly illustrious by the great reformation effected under it by king Josiah, HIN 217 by the solemn Passover kept at Jerusalem in the 18th year of that king's reign, and ahove all hy the discovery which he made of the book of the law of Moses in the temple. HIN. [Measures.] HIND, the female of the common stag or oervus elaphus. It is frequently noticed in the poetical parts of Scripture as emblematic of activity (Gen. xlix. 21 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 34 ; Ps. xviii. 33 ; Hab. iii. 19), gentleness (Prov. V. 19), feminine modesty (Cant. ii. 7, iii. 5), earnest longing (Ps. xlii. 1), and maternal affection (Jer. xiv. 5). Its shyness and remoteness from the haimts of men are also alluded to (Job xxxix. 1), and its timidity, causing it to cast its young at the sound of thunder (Ps. xxix. 9). HIN'NOM, VALLEY OF, otherwise called " the valley of the son " or " children of Hinnom," a deep and narrow ravine, with steep, rocky sides to the S. and W, of Je- rusalem, separating Mount Zion to the N. from the " Hill of Evil Counsel," and the sloping rocky plateau of the " plain of Ke- phaim " to the S. The earliest mention of the Valley of Hinnom is in Josh. xv. 8, xviii. 16, where the boundarj'-line between the tribes of Judah and Benjamin is described, as passing along the bed of the ravine. On the southern brow, overlooking the valley at its eastern extremity, Solomon erected high places for Molech (1 K. xi. 7), whose horrid rites were revived from time to time in the same vicinity by the later idolatrous kings. Ahaz and Manasseh made their children ♦'pass through the fire" in this valley (2 K. xvi. 3 ; 2 Chr. xxviii. 3, xxxiii. 6), and the fiendish custom of infant sacrifice to the iire- gods seems to have been kept up in Tophet, at its S.E. extremity for a considerable period (Jer. vii. 31 ; 2 K. xxx. 10). To put an end to these abominations the place was polluted by Josiah, who rendered it ceremonially unclean by spreading over it human bones, and other corruptions (2 K. xxiii. 10, 13, 14; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 4, 5), from which time it appears to have become the common cesspool of the city, into which its sewage was conducted, to be carried off by the waters of the Kidron, as well as a lay- stall, where all its solid filth was collected. From its ceremonial defilement, and from the detested and abominable fire of Molech, if not from the supposed everburning funeral piles, the later Jews applied the name of this valley Ge Hinnom, Gehenna, to denote the place of eternal torment. In this sense the word is used by our Lord (Matt. v. 29, x. 28, xxiii. 15 ; Mark ix. 43 ; Luke xii. 5). HIPPOPOT'AMUS. [Behemoth.] HI'RAM. or HU'KAM. 1. The king of Tyre who sent workmen and materials to Jerusalem, first (2 Sam. v. 11, 1 Chr. xiv. 1) to build a palace for David whom he ever loved (1 K. V. 1), and again (1 K. v. 10, vii. 13, 2 Chr. 14, 16) to build the Temple for Solomon, with whom he had a treaty of peace and commerce (1 K. t. 11, 12). The con- tempt with which he received Solomon's present of Cabul (1 K. ix. 12) does not appear to have caused any breach between the two kings. He admitted Solomon's ships, issuing from Joppa, to a share in the pi-ofitable trade of the Mediterranean (1 K. x. 22) ; and Jewish sailors, under the guidance of Tyrians, were taught to bring the gold of India (1 K. ix. 26) to Solomon's two harbours on the Red Sea. — 2. Hiram was the name of a man of mixed race (1 K. vii. 13, 40), the principal architect and engineer sent by king Hiram to Solomon. HIT'TITES, THE, the nation descended from Cheth (A. V. "Heth"), the second son of Canaan. Abraham bought from the "Children of Heth," the field and the cave of Machpelah, belonging to Ephron the Hittite. They were then settled at the town which was afterwards, under its new name of Hebron, to become one of the most famous cities of Palestine, then bearing the name of Kirjach-arba (Gen, xxiii. 19, xxv. 9). When the Israelites entered the Promised Land, we find the Hittites taking their part against the invader, in equal alliance with the other Canaanite tribes (Josh. ix. 1, xi. 3, &c.). Henceforward tbe notices of the Hittites are very few and faint. AYe meet with two individuals, both attached to the person of David. (I.) " Ahimelech the Hittite " (1 Sam. xxvi. 6). (2.) " Uriah the Hittite," one of "the thirty " of David's body-guard (2 Sam. xxiii. 39 ;" 1 Chr. xi. 41). HI'VITES, ■ THE. In the genealogical tables of Genesis, " the Hivite " is named as one of the descendants — the sixth in order — of Canaan, the son of Ham (Gen. x. 17 ; 1 Chr. i. 15). We first encounter the actual people of the Hivites at the time of Jacob's return to Canaan. Shechem was then in their possession, Hamor the Hivite being the "prince of the land" (Gen. xxxiv. 2). We next meet with the Hivites during the con- quest of Canaan (Josh. ix. 7, si. 19). The main body of the Hivites were at this time living on the northern confines of western Palestine — " under Hermon, in the land o. Mizpeh " (Josh. xi. 3) — " in Mount Lebanon, from Mount Baal-Hermon to the entering in of Hamath " (Judg. iii. 3, comp. 2 Sam. xxiv. 7). HO 'BAB. This name is found in tAvo places only (Num. x. 29 ; Judg. iv. 11), and nOBAH 218 HORITES it seems doutftful -whether it denotes the father-in-law or brother-in-law of Moses. (1.) In favour of the latter is the express statement that Hobab was "the son of Ragiiel" (Num. x. 29); Raguel or Ruel — the Hebrew word in both cases is the same — being identified with Jethro, not only in Ex. ii. 18 (comp. iii. 1, &c.), but also by Josephus. (2.) In favour of Hobab's identity with Jethro are the words of Judg. iv. 11, and the Mahometan traditions. But whether Hobab was the father-in-law of Moses or not, the notice of him in Num. x. 29-32, though brief, is full of point and interest. While Jethro is preserved to us as the wise and practised administrator, Hobab appears as the experienced Bedouin sheikh, to whom Moses looked for the material safety of his cumbrous caravan in the new and difficult ground before them. HO'BAH, the place to which Abraham pursued the kings who had pillaged Sodom (Gen. xiv. 15). It was situated "to the noi'th of Damascus." HO'HAM, king of Hebron at the time of the conquest of Canaan (Josh. x. 3). HOLOFER'NES, or, more correctly, Olo- FKRNES, was, according to the book of Judith, a general of Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians (Jud. ii. 4), who was slain by the Jewish heroine Judith during the siege of Bethulia. HOMER. [Measures.] HONEY. The Hebrew dehash, in the first place, applies to the product of the bee, to which we exclusively give the name of honey. All travellers agree in describing Palestine as a land " flowing with milk and honey " (Ex. iii. 8) ; bees being abundant even in the remote parts of the wilderness, where they deposit their honey in the crevices of the rocks or in hollow trees. In some parts of northern Arabia the hills are so well stocked with bees, that no sooner are hives placed than they are occupied. In the second place the term debash applies to a decoction of the juice of the grape, which is still called dibs, and which forms an article of commerce in the East ; it was this, and not ordinary bee-honey, which Jacob sent to Joseph (Gen. xliii. 11), and which the Tyrians purchased from Palestine (Ez. xxvii. 17). A third kind has been described by some writers as " vegetable" honey, by which is meant the exudations of certain trees and shrubs, such as the Tamarix mannifera, found in the peninsula of Sinai, or the stunted oaks of Luristan and Mesopotamia. The honey, which Jonathan ate in the wood (1 Sam. xiv, 25), and the "wild honey," which sup- | ported St. John (Matt. iii. 4), have becu referred to this species. But it was probably the honey of the wild bees. HOPH'NI and Phineas, tne two sons of Eli, who fulfilled their hereditary sacerdotal duties at Shiloh. Tlieir brutal rapacity and lust, which seemed to acquire fresh violence with their father's increasing years (1 Sam. ii. 22, 12-17), filled the people with disgust and indignation, and provoked the curse which was denounced against their father's house first by an unknown prophet (27-36), and then by Samuel (1 Sam. iii. 11-14). They were both cut off in one day in the flower of their age, and the ark which they had accompanied to battle against the Philis- tines was lost on the same occasion (1 Sam. iv. 10, 11). HOR, MOUNT. 1. The mountain on which J Aaron died (Num. xx. 25, 27). The word Hor is probably an archaic form of Har, the usual Hebrew term for "moun- tain." It was " on the boundary line " (Num. XX. 23) or "at the edge" (xxxiii. 37) of the land of Edom. It was the halting- place of the people next after Kadesh (xx. 22, xxxiii. 37), and they quitted it for Zal- monah (xxxiii. 41) in the road to the Red Sea (xxi. 4). It was during the encamp- ment at Kadesh that Aaron was gathered to his fathers. It is situated on the eastern side of the great valley of the Arabah, the highest and most conspicuous of the whole range of the sandstone mountains of Edom, having close beneath it on its eastern side the mysterious city of Petra. The tradition has existed from the earliest date. It is now the Jebel Nebi-Harun, " the mountain of the Prophet Aai-on." Its height is 4800 feet above the Mediterranean, that is to say about 1700 feet above the town of Petra, 4000 above the level of the Arabah, and more than 6000 above the Dead Sea. The mountain is marked far and near by its double top, which rises like a huge castellated building from a lower base, and is surmounted by a circular dome of the tomb of Aaron, a distinct white spot on the dark red surface of the mountain. The chief interest of Mount Hor consists in the prospect from its summit — the last view of Aaron — that view which was to him what Pisgah was to his brother.' — 2. A mountain, entirely distinct from the preceding, named in Num. xxxiv. 7, 8, only, as one of the marks of the northern boundary of the land which the children of Israel were about to conquer. This "Mount Hor" is the great chain of Lebanon itself. HO'REB. [Sinai.] HO'RITES and HO'RIMS, the aboriginal inhabitants of Mount Seir (Gen. xiv. 6), and HORMAH :iy HOSEA probably allied to the Emims and Repbaims. The name Horite appears to have been derived from their habits as " cave-dwellers." Their excavated dwellings are still found in hundreds in the sandstone cliffs and moun- tains of Edom, and especially in Petra. HOR'MAH, or Zephath (Judg. i. 17), was the chief town of a king of a Canaanitish tribe on the south of Palestine, which was reduced by Joshua, and became a city of the territory of Judah (xv. 30 ; 1 Sam. xxx. 30), but apparently belonged to Simeon (1 Chr. HORN. The word " horn " is often used metaphorically to signify strength and honour. Of strength the horn of the unicorn was the most frequent representative (Deut. xxxiii. 17, &c.), but not always; comp. 1 K. xxii. 11, where probably horns of iron, worn defiantly and symbolically on the head, are intended. Among the Druses upon Mount Lebanon the married women wear silver horns on their heads. In the sense of honour, the word horn stands for the abstract {my horn. Job xvi. 15 ; all the hor^is of Israel, Lam. ii. 3), and so for the supreme authority. It also stands for the concrete, • whence it comes to mean king, kingdom (Dan. viii. 2, &c. ; Zech. i. 18). Out of either or both of these two last metaphors sprang the idea of representing gods with horns. Heads ol modem AaiatScs ornamented with ho i HORNET. In Scripture the hornet is referred to only as the means which Jehovah employed for the extirpation of the Canaan- ites (Ex. xxiii. 28 ; Deut. vii. 20 ; Josh. xxiv. 12 ; Wisd. xii. 8). Some commentators regard the word as used in its literal sense, but it more probably expresses under a vivid I image the consternation with which Jehovah I would inspire the enemies of the Israelites, as declared in Deut. ii. 25, Josh. ii. 11. HORONA'IM, a town of Moab, possibly a sanctuary, named with Zoar and Luhith (Is. XV. 5 ; Jer. xlviii. 3, 5, 3-1). . HORSE. The most striking feature in the Biblical notices of the horse is the ex- clusive application of it to warlike opera- tions; in no instance is that useful animal employed for the purposes of ordinary loco- motion or agriculture, if we except Is. xxviii. 28, where we learn that horses (A. V. " horsemen ") were employed in threshing, not, however, in that case put in the gears, but simply driven about wildly over the strewed grain. The animated description of the horse in Job xxxix. 19-25 applies solely to the war-horse. The Hebrews in the patriarchal age, as a pastoral race, did not stand in need of the services of the horse, and for a long period after their settlement in Canaan they dispensed with it, partly in consequence of the hilly nature of the country, which only admitted of the use of chariots in certain localities (Judg. i. 19), and partly in consequence of the prohibition in Deut. xvii. 16, which would be held to apply at all periods. David first established a force of cavalry and chariots after the defeat of Hadadezer (2 Sam. viii. 4). But the great supply of horses was subsequently effected by Solomon through his connexion with Egypt (1 K. iv. 26). The horses were not shod, and therefore hoofs as hard "as flint" (Is. v. 28) wer-e regarded as a great merit. HORSELEACH (Heb. 'alukdh) occurs once only, viz. Prov. xxx. 15. There is little doubt that 'altikdh denotes some species of leech, or rather is the generic term for any bloodsucking annelid. HOSAN'NA ("Save, we pray"), the cry of the multitudes as they thronged in our Lord's triumphal procession into Jerusalem (Matt. xxi. 9, 15 ; Mar. xi. 9, 10 ; John xii. 13). The Psalm from which it was taken, the 118th, was one with which they were familiar from being accustomed to recite the 25th and 26th verses at the Feast of Tabernacles. On that occasion the Hallel, consisting of Psalms cxiii.-cxviii., was chanted by one of the priests, and at certain intervals the multitudes joined in the re- sponses, waving their branches of willow and palm, and shouting as they waved them. Hallelujah, or. Hosanna, or " O Lord, I beseech thee, send now prosperity" (Ps. cxviii. 25). HOSE'A, son of Beeri, and first of the Minor Prophets. The title of the boo's gives for the beginning of Hosea's ministry the HOSHEA 220 HOSPITALITY reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, but limits this vague definition by reference to Jero- boam II., king of Israel ; it therefore yields a date not later than b.c. 783. The pictures of social and political life which Hosea draws so forcibly are rather applicable to the inter- regnum which followed the death of Jero- boam (712-7 72), and to the reign of the succeeding kings. It seems almost certain that very few of his prophecies were written until after the death of Jeroboam (783), and probably the life, or rather the prophetic career of Hosea, extended from 784 to 725, a period of fifty-nine years. The prophecies of Hosea were delivered in the kingdom of Israel. It is easy to recognise two great divisions in the book : — (1.) chap. i. to iii. ; (2.) iv. to end. The subdivision of these several parts is a work of greater difficulty. (1.) The first division should probably be subdivided into three separate poems, each originating in a distinct aim, and each after its own fashion attempting to express the idolatry of Israel by imagery borrowed from the matrimonial relation. The first, and therefore the least elaborate of these, is con- tained in chap, iii., the second in i. 2-11, the third in i. 2-9, and ii. 1-23. These three are progressively elaborate developments of the same reiterated idea. Chap. i. 2-9 is common to the second and third poems, but not repeated with each severally. (2.) At- tempts have been made to subdivide the second part of the book. These divisions are made either according to reigns of contem- porary kings, or according to the subject- matter of the poem. The prophecies were probably collected by Hosea himself towards the end of his career. Hosea is referred to in the following passages of the N. T. : — Matt. ix. 13, xii. 7, Hos. vi. 6 ; Luke xxiii. 30, Rev. vi. 16, Hos. x. 8 ; Matt. ii. 15, Hos. xi. 1 ; Rom. ix. 25, 26, 1 Pet. ii. 10, Hos. i. 10, ii. 23 ; 1 Cor. xv. 4, Hos. vi. 2 ; Heb. xiii. 15, Hos. xiv. 2. HOSHE'A, the nineteenth, last, and best king of Israel. He succeeded Pekah, whom he slew in a successful conspiracy, thereby fulfilling a prophecy of Isaiah (Is. vii. 16). It took place b.c. 737, in the 20th year of Jotham (2 K. xv. 30), i. e. " in the 20th year after Jotham became sole king," for he only reigned 16 years (2 K. xv. 33). But there must have been an interregnum of at least eight years before Hoshea came to the throne, which was not till b.c. 729, in the 12th year of Ahaz (2 K. xvii. 1). It is expressly stated (2 K. xvii. 2) that Hoshea was not so sinful as his predecessors. In the third year of his reign (b.c. 726) Shalmaneser cruelly btormed the strong caves of Beth-arbel (Hos. 8. 14), and made Israel tributary (2 K. xvii. 3) for three years. At the end of this period, encouraged perhaps by the revolt of Hezekiah, Hoshea entered into a secret alliance with So, king of Egypt, to throw off the Assyrian yoke. The alliance did him no good ; it was revealed to the court of Nineveh by the Assyrian party in Ephraim, and Hoshea was immediately seized as a rebel- lious vassal, shut up in prison, and apparently treated with the utmost indignity (Mic. v. 1). Of the subsequent fortunes of Hoshea we know nothing. HOSHE A, the son of Nun, i.e., Joshua (Deut. xxxii. 44; and also in l>um. xiii. 8, though there the A. V. has Oshea). HOSPITALITY. Hospitality was regarded by most nations of the ancient world as one of the chief virtues. Among the Arabs we find the best illustrations of* the old Bible narratives, and among them see traits that might beseem their ancestor Abraham. The laws respecting strangers (Lev. xix. 33, 34) and the poor (Lev. xxv. 14 seq. ; Deut. xv. 7), and concerning redemption (Lev. xxv. 23 seqq.), &c., are framed in accordance with the spirit of hospitality ; and the strength of the national feeling regarding it is shown * in the incidental mentions of its practice. In the Law, compassion to strangers is con- stantly enforced by the words, " for ye were strangers in the land of Egj'pt " (Lev. xix. 34). And before the Law, Abraham's enter- tainment of the angels (Gen. xviii. 1 seqq.), and Lot's (xix. 1), are in exact agreement with its precepts, and with modern usage (comp. Ex. ii. 20 ; Judg. xiii. 15, xix. 17, 20, 21). In the N. T. hospitality is yet more markedly enjoined ; and in the more civilised state of society which then pre- vailed, its exercise became more a social virtue than a necessity of patriarchal life. The good Samaritan stands for all ages as an example of Christian hospitality, embodying the command to love one's neighbour as him- self. The neglect of Christ is symbolised by inhospitality to our neighbours (Matt. xxv. 43). The Apostles urged the church to "follow after hospitality " (Rom. xii. 13 ; cf. 1 Tim. V. 10) ; to remember Abraham's example (Heb. xiii. 2) ; to " use hospitality one to another without grudging" (1 Pet. iv. 9) ; while a bishop must be a " lover of hospitality" (Tit. i. 8, cf. 1 Tim. iii. 2). The practice of the early Christians was in accord with these precepts. They had all things in common, and their hospitality was a characteristic of their belief. Such having been the usage of Biblical times, it is in the next place important to remark how hospitality was shown. In the patri- 221 HOUSE avchal a^^es we may take Abraham's example as the most fitting, as we have of it the fullest account. " The account," says Mi-. Lane, *' of Abraham's entertaining the tliree angels, related in the Bible, presents a perfect picture of the manner in which a modern Bedawee sheykh receives travellers arriving at his encampment. He immediately orders his wife or women to make bread, slaughters a sheep or some other animal, and dresses it in haste, and bringing milk and any other pro- visions that he may have ready at hand, with the bread and the meat which he has dressed, sets them before his guests. If these be persons of high rank, he stands by them while they eat, as Abraham did in the case above alluded to. Most Bedawees will suffer almost any injury to themselves or their families rather than allow their guests to be ill-treated while under their protec- tion." The Oriental respect for the covenant of bread and salt, or salt alone, certainly sprang from the high regard in which hospi- tality was held. HOUR. The ancient Hebrews were pro- bably unacquainted with the division of the natural day into 24 parts ; but they afterwards parcelled out the period between sunrise and sunset into a series of divisions distinguished by the sun's course. The early Jews appear to have divided the day into four parts (Neh. ix. 3), and the night into three watches (Judg. vii. 19), and even in the N. T. we find a trace of this division in Matt. xx. 1-5. The Greeks adopted the division of the day into 12 hours from the Babylonians. At what period the Jews became first acquainted with this way of reckoning time is unknown, but it is generally supposed that they too learnt it from the Babylonians during the captivity. In whatever way originated, it was known to the Egyptians at a very early period. They had 12 hours of the day and of the night. There are two kinds of hours, viz. fl.) the astronomical or equinoctial hour, t. e., the 24th part of a civil day, and (2.) the natural hour, i. e., the 12 th part of the natural day, or of the time between sunrise and sun- sg:, These are the hours meant in the N. T. (John xi. 9, &c.), and it must be remem- bered that they perpetually vary in length, so as to be very different at different times of the year. For the purposes of prayer the old division of the day into 4 portions was continued in the Temple service, as we see from Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 9. HOUSE. The houses of the rural poor in Egypt, as well as in most parts of Syria, Arabia, and Persia, are for the most part mere huts of mud, or sunburnt bricks. In Bomc parts of Palestine and Arabia stone is used, and in certain districts caves in the rock are used as dwellings (Amos v. 11). The houses are usually of one story only, viz., the ground floor, and often contain only one apartment. Sometimes a small court for the cattle is attached ; and in some cases the cattle are housed in the same building, or the people live on a raised platform, and the cattle round them on the ground (1 Sam. xxviii. 24). The windows are small aper- tures high up in the walls, sometimes grated with wood. The roofs are commonly but not jilways flat, and are usually formed of a plaster of mud and straw laid upon boughs or rafters ; and upon the flat roofs, tents, or " booths " of boughs or rushes are often raised to be used as sleeping-places in summer. The dift'ciente between the poorest A Nestorian House, with stages upon the roof for sleeping. (Layard, AinereA, i. 177) houses and those of the class next above them is greater than between these and the houses of the first i-ank. The prevailing plan of Eastern houses of this class presents, as was the case in ancient Eg5'pt, a front of wall, whose blank and mean appearance is usually relieved only by the door and a few latticed and projecting windows. Within this is a court or courts with apartments opening into them. Over the door is a pro- jecting window with a lattice more or less elaborately wrought, which, except in times of public celebrations, is usually closed (2 K. ix. 30). An awning is sometimes drawr^ over the court, and the floor strewed with carpets on festive occasions. The stairs to HOUSE the uppei- apartments are in Syria usually in a corner of the court. Around part, if not the whole, of the court is a verandah, often nine or ten feet deep, over which, when there is more than one floor, runs a second g:allery of like depth with a balustrade. Inner Court of House in Cairo. (Lane, Modem Egyytiani.) Bearing in mind that the reception room is raised above the level of the court, we may, in explaining the circumstances of the miracle of the paralytic (Mark ii. 3 ; Luke v. 18), suppose, 1. either that our Lord was stand, ing under the verandah, and the people in front in the court. The bearers of the sick man ascended the stairs to the roof of the house, and taking off a portion of the boarded covering of the verandah, or removing the awning, in the former case let down the bed through the verandah roof, or in the latter, down hy way of the roof, and depo- sited it before the Saviour. 2. Another ex- planation presents itself in considering the room where the company were assembled as the " upper room," and the roof opened for the bed to be the true roof of the house. 3. And one still more simple is found in regarding the house as one of the rude dwell- ings now to be seen near the Sea of Galilee, a mere room 10 or 12 feet high and as many or more square, with no opening except the door. The roof, used as a sleeping-place, is reached by a ladder from the outside, and the bearers of the paralytic, unable to ap- proach the door, would thus have ascended the roof, and having uncovered it, let him down into the room where our Lord was. When there is no second floor, but more than one court, the women's apartments, harecm, harem, or haram, are usually in the second court ; otherwise they form a separate building within the general enclosure, or are above on the first floor. When there is an upper story, the Ka'ah forms the most im- portant apartment, and thus probably answers to the " upper room," which was often the "guest-chamber" (Luke xxii. 12; Acts i. 13, ix. 37, XX. 8). The windows of the upper rooms often project one or two feet, and form a kiosk or latticed chamber. Such may have been " the chamber in the wall " (2 K. iv. 10, 11). The "lattice" through which Ahaziah fell, perhaps belonged to an upper chamber of this kind (2 K. i. 2), as also the " third loft," from which Eutychus fell (Acts XX. 9 ; comp. Jer. xxii. 13). There are usually no special bedrooms in Eastern houses. The outer doors ai'e closed with a wooden lock, but in some cases the apartments are divided from each other by I curtains only. There are no chimneys, but fire is made when required with charcoal in a chafing-dish ; or a fire of wood might be kindled in the open court of the house (Luke xxii. 55). Some houses in Cairo have an apartment, open in front to the court, with two or more arches, and a railing ; and a pillar to support the wall above. It was in a chamber of this kind, probably one of the largest size to be found in a palace, that our Lord was being arraigned before the High- priest, at the time when the denial of Him by St. reter took place. He "turned and looked " on Peter as he stood by the fire in the court (Luke xxii. 56, 61; John xviii. 24), whilst He himself was in the " hall of Judgment." In no point do Oriental do- mestic habits differ more from European than in the use of the roof. Its flat surface is made useful for various household pur- poses, as drying corn, hanging up linen, and preparing figs and raisins. The roofs are used as places of recreation in the evening, and often as sleeping- places at night (2 Sam. xi. 2, xvi. 22 ; Dan. iv. 29 ; 1 Sam. ix. 25, 26 ; Job xxvii. 18 ; Prov. xxi. 9). They were also used as places for devotion, and even idolatrous worship (Jer. xxxii. 29, xix. 13 ; 2 K. xxiii. 12 ; Zeph. i. 5 ; Acts x. 9). At the time of tlie Feast of Tabernacles booths were erected by the Jews on the tops of their houses. Pi-otection of the roof by parapets was enjoined by the law (Deut. xxii. 8). Special apartments were devoted in larger to winter and summer uses (Jor. HULDAH 223 HYSSOP xxxvi. 22 ; Am. iii. 15). The ivory house of Ahab was probably a palace largely orna- mented with inlaid ivory. The circumstance of Samson's pulling down the house by means of the pillars, may be explained by the fact of the company being assembled on tiers of balconies above each other, supported by central pillars on the basement ; when these were pulled down the whole of the upper floors would fall also (Judg. xvi. 26). HUL'DAH, a prophetess, whose liusband Shallum was keeper of the wardrobe in the time of king Josiah. It was to her that Josiah had recourse when Hilkiah found a book of the law, to procure an authoritative opinion on it (2 K. sxii. 14 ; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 22). HUH. 1. A man who is mentioned with Moses and Aaron on the occasion of the battle with Amalek at Rephidim (Ex. xvii. 10), when Avith Aaron he stayed up the hands of Moses (12). He is mentioned again in xxiv. 14, as being, with Aaron, left in charge of the people by Moses during his ascent of Sinai. The Jewish tradition is that he was the husband of Miriam, and that he was identical with — 2. The grandfather of Bezaleel, the chief artificer of the taber- nacle— " son of Hiiri, son of Hur — of the tribe of Judah " (Ex. xxxi. 2, xxxv. 30, xxxviii. 22). In the lists of the descendants of Judah in 1 Chr. the pedigree is more fully preserved. Hur there appears as one of the great family of Pharez. He was the son of Caleb ben-Hezron, by a second wife, Ephrath (ii. 19, 20 ; comp. 5, also iv. 1), the first fruit of the marriage (ii. 50, iv. 4), and the father, besides Uri (ver. 20), of three sons, who founded the towns of Kirjath-jcarim, Bethlehem, and Beth-gader (51).— 3. The fourth of the five kings of Midian, who were slain with Balaam after the " matter of Peor" (Num. xxxi. 8). In a later mention of them (Josh. xiii. 21) they are called princes of Midian and dukes. HU'RAM. [HiEAM.] HUSBAND. [Marriage.] HUSHA'I, an Archite, i.e., possibly an in- habitant of a place called Erec (2 Sam. xv, 32 if., xvi. 16 ff.). He is called the " friend " of David (2 Sam. xv. 37 ; comp. 1 Chr. xxvii. 33.) To him David confided the deli- cate and dangerous part of a pretended ad- herence to the cause of Absalom. He was probably the father of Baana (1 K. iv. 16). nu'SHAM, one of the early kings of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 34, 35 ; 1 Chr. i. 45, 46). HU'SHIM. In Gen. xlvi. 23, " the chil- dren of Dan " are said to have been Hushim. The name is plural, as if of a tribe rather than an individual. In Num. xxvi. the name is changed to Shvham. HUSKS. The word rendered in the A.V. "husks" (Luke xv. 16), describes really the fruit of a particular kind of tree, viz. : the carob or Ceratonia siliqua of botanists. This tree is very commonly met with in Syria and Egypt ; it produces pods, shaped like a horn, varying in length from 6 to 10 inches, and I about a finger's breadth, or rather more. HYMENAE'US, the name of a person occurring twice in the correspondence be- tween St. Paul and Timothy ; the first time classed with Alexander (1 Tim. i. 20) ; and the second time classed with Philetus (2 Tim. ii. 17, 18). In the eiTor with which he was charged he stands as one of the earliest of the Gnostics. As regards the sentence passed upon him — it has been asserted by some writers of eminence, that the " delivering to Satan " is a mere synonym for ecclesiastical excommunication. Such can hardly be the case. As the Apostles healed all manner of bodily infirmities, so they seem to have possessed and exercised the same power in inflicting them— a power far too perilous to be continued when the manifold exigen- cies of the Apostolical age had passed away (Acts V. 5, 10, ix. 17, 40, xiii. 11). Even apart from actual intervention by the Apos- tles, bodily visitations are spoken of in the case of those who approached the Lord's Supper unworthily (1 Cor. xi. 30). HYMN. • Among the later Jews the word hynm was more or less vague in its appli- cation, and capable of being used as occasion should arise. To Christians the Hymn has always been something different from the Psalm ; a diff'erent conception in thought, a different type in composition. There is some dispute about the hymn sung by our Lord and his Apostles on the occasion of the Last Supper ; but even supposing it to have been - the Mallei, or Paschal Hymn, consisting of " Pss. cxiii.-cxviii., it is obvious that the word hyinn is in this case applied not to an indi- vidual psalm, but to a number of psalms chanted successively, and altogether forming a kind of devotional exercise which is not unaptly called a hymn. In the jail at Phi- lippi, Paul and Silas " sang hymns " (A. Y. " praises ") unto God, and so loud was their song that their fellow-prisoners beard them. This must have been what we mean by sing- ing, anu not merely recitation. It was in fact a veritable singing of hymns. And it is remarkable that the noun hymn is only used in reference to the services of the Greeks, and in tlie same passages is clearly distin- guished from the psalm (Eph. v. 19, Col. iii. 16), "psalms, and hymns, and spiritual songs." HYSSOP. aieb. ezob.) The ezob was IBHAR 224 IDOLATRY used to sprinkle the doorposts of the Israel- ites in Egj'pt with the blood of the paschal Iamb (Ex. xii. 22) ; it was employed in the purification of lepers and leprous houses (Lev. xiv. 4, 51), and in the sacrifice of the red heifer (Num. xix. 6). In consequence of its detergent qualities, or from its being associated with the purificatory services, the Psalmist makes use of the expression, " purge me with ezob " (Ps. li. 7). It is described in 1 K. iv. 33 as growing on or near walls. Bochart decides in favour of marjoram, or some plant like it, and to this conclusion, it must he admitted, all ancient tradition points. But Dr. Royle, after a careful investigation of the subject, arrives at the conclusion that the hyssop is no other than the caper-plant, or capparis sphiosa of Linnaeus. The Arabic name of this plant, asiif, by which it is sometimes, though not commonly, described, bears considerable resemblance to the Hebrew. 1'BHAR, one of the sons of David (2 Sam. v. 15; 1 Chr. iii. 6, xiv. 5) born in Jerusalem. IB'LEAM, a city of Manasseh, with vil- lages or towns dependent on it (Judg. i. 27). It appears to have been situated in the terri- tory of either Issachar or Asher (Josh. xvii. 11). The ascent of Gur was "at Ibleam " (2 K. ix. 27), somewhere near the present Jenin, probably to the north of it. IB'Z A.N, a native of Bethlehem of Zebulon, who judged Israel for seven years after Jephthah (Judg. xii. 8, 10). ICH'ABOD, the son of Phinehas, and grandson of Eli (I Sam. iv. 21). ICO'NIUM, the modern Konieh, was the capital of Lycaonia. It was on the great line of communication between Ephesus and the western coast of the peninsula on one side, and Tarsus, Antioch, and tlie Euphrates on the other. Iconium was a well chosen place for missionary operations (Acts xiv. 1, 3, 21, 22, xvi. 1, 2, xviii. 23). The Apos- tle's first visit was on his first circuit, in company with Barnabas ; and on this 'occa- sion he approached it from Antioch in Pisidia, which lay to the west. ID'DO. 1. A seer whose " visions " against Jeroboam incidentally contained some of the acts of Solomon (2 Chr. ix. 29). He appears to have written a chronicle or story relating to the life and reign of Abijah (2 Chr. xiii. 22), and also a book "concerning genealo- gies " in which the acts of Rehoboam -were recorded (xii. 15). These books are lost, but they may have formed part of the foun- dation of the existing books of Chronicles- — 2. The grandfather of the prophet Zechariah (Zech. i. 1, 7), although in other places Zechariah is called " the son of Iddo " (Ezr. V. 1 ; vi. 14). Iddo returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Jeshua (Xeh. xii. 4). — 3. The chief of those who assem- bled at Casiphia, at the time of the second caravan fron Babylon. He was one of the Nethinim (Ezr. viii. 17 ; conip. 20). IDOLATRY, strictly speaking, denotes the worship of deity in a visible form, whether the images to which homage is paid are symbolical representations of the true God, or of the false divinities which have been made the objects of worship in His stead. — I. History of Idolatry among the Jews. — The first undoubted allusion to idolatry or idolatrous customs in the Bible is in the account of Rachel's stealing her father's teraphim (Gen. xxxi. 19), a relic of the worship of other gods, whom the ancestors of the Israelites served " on the other side of the river, in old time" (Josh. xxiv. 2). These he consulted as oracles (Gen. xxx. 27, A. V. " learned by experience ") though without entirely losing sight of the God of Abraham and the God of Nahor, to whom he appealed when occasion off'ered (Gen. xxxi. 53), while he was ready, in the pre- sence of Jacob, to acknowledge the benefits conferred upon him by Jehovah (Gen. xxx. 27). Such, indeed, was the character of most of the idolatrous worship of the Israel- ites. Like the Cuthcan colonists in Samaria, who " feared Jehovah and served their own gods" (2 K. xvii. 33), they blended in a strange manner a theoretical belief in the true God with the external reverence which they were led to pay to the idols of the nations by whom they were surrounded. During their long residence in Egypt, the country of symbolism, they defiled them- selves with the idols of the land, and it was long before the taint was removed (Josh. xxiv. 14 ; Ez. xx. 7). To these gods Moses, as the herald of Jehovah, flung down the gauntlet of defiance, and the plagues of Egypt smote their symbols (Num. xxxiii. 4). Yet, with the memory of their deliverance fresh in their minds, their leader absent, the Israelites clamoured for some visible shape in which they might worship the God who had brought them out of Egypt (Ex. xxxii.). Aaron lent himself to the popular cry, and chose as the symbol of deity one with which they had long been familiar — the calf — em- bodiment of Apis, and emblem of the pro- ductive power of nature. For a while the erection of the tabernacle, and the establish- ment of the worship which accompanied it, satisfied that craving for an outward sign which the Israelites constantly exhibited] IDOLATRY 225 IDOLATRY and for the remainder of their march through the desert, with the dwelling-place of Jehovah in their midst, they did not again degenerate into open apostasj'. But it was only so long as their contact with the nations was of a hostile character that this seeming orthodoxy was maintained. During the lives of Joshua and the elders who outlived him, they kept true to their allegiance ; but the generation following, who knew not Jehovah, nor the works he had done for Israel, swerved from the plain path of their fathers, and were caught in the toils of the foreigner (Judg. ii.). From this time forth their history becomes little more than a chronicle of the inevitable sequence of offence and punish- ment (Judg. ii. 12, 14). By turns each conquering nation strove to establish the worship of its national god. Thus far idolatry is a national sin. The episode of Micah, in Judg. xvii. xviii. sheds a lurid light on the secret practices of individuals, who without formally renouncing Jehovah, though ceasing to recognise Him as the theo- cratic King (xvii. 6), linked with His wor- ship the symbols of ancient idolatry. In later times the practice of secret idolatry was carried to greater lengths. Images were set up on the corn-floors, in the wine- vats, and behind the doors of private houses (Is. Ivii. 8 ; Hos. ix. 1, 2) ; and to check this tendency the statute in Deut. xxvii. 15 was originally promulgated. Under Samuel's administration a fast was held, and purifi- catory rites performed, to mark the public renunciation of idolatry (1 Sam. vii. 3-6). But in the reign of Solomon all this was forgotten. Each of his many foreign wives brought with her the gods of her own nation ; and the gods of Amnion, Moab, and Zidon, were openly worshipped. K.ehoboam, the son of an Ammonite mother, perpetuated the 'Worst features of Solomon's idolatry (1 K. xiv. 22-24) ; and in his reign was made the great schism in the national religion : when Jeroboam, fresh from his recollec- tions of the Apis worship of Egypt, erected golden calves at Bethel and at Dan, and by this crafty state-policy severed for ever the kingdoms of Judah and Israel (1 K. xii. 26-33). The successors of Jeroboam followed in his steps, till Ahab, who married a Zidonian princess, at her instigation (1 K. xxi. 25) built a temple and altar to Baal, and revived all the abominations of the Amorites (1 K. xxi. 26). Compared with the worship of Baal, the worship of the calves was a venial offence, probably because it was morally less detestable and also less anti-national (1 K. xii. 28; 2 K. x. 28-31). Henceforth Baal- worship became so completely identified with Sm. D. B. the northern kingdom that it is described as walking in the way or statutes of the kings of Israel (2 K. xvi. 3, xvii. 8), as dis- tinguished from the sin of Jeroboam. The conquest of the ten tribes by Shalmaneser was for them the last scene of the drama of abominations which had been enacted un- interruptedly for upwards of 250 years. The first act of Hezekiah on ascending the throne was the restoration and purification of the temple which had been dismantled and closed during the latter part of his father's life (2 Chr. xxviii. 24, xxix. 3). The icono- clastic spirit was not confined to Judah and Benjamin, but spread throughout Ephraim and Manasseh (2 Chr. xxxi. 1), and to all external appearance idolatry was extirpated. But the reform extended little below the surface (Is. xxix. 13). With the death of Josiah ended the last effort to revive among the people a purer ritual, if not a purer faith. The lamp of David, which had long shed but a struggling ray, flickered for a while and then went out in the darkness of Babylonian captivity. But foreign exile was powerless to eradicate the deep inbred tendency to idolatry. One of the first difficulties Avith which Ezra had to contend was the haste with which his countrymen took them foreign wives of the people of the land, and followed them in all their abominations (Ezr. ix.). The conquests of Alexander in Asia caused Greek influence to be extensively felt, and Greek idolatry to be first tolerated, and then practised, by the Jews (1 Mace. i. 43-50, 54). The attempt of Antiochus to establish this form of worship was vigorously resisted by Mattathias (1 Mace, ii, 23-26). The erection of synagogues has been assigned as a reason for the comparative purity of the Jewish worship after the captivity, while another cause has been discovered in the hatred for images acquired by the Jews in their inter- course with the Persians. — II. Objects of Idolatry. — In the old religion of the Semitic races the deity, following human analogy, was conceived of as male and female : the one representing the active, the other the passive principle of nature ; the former the source of spiritual, the latter of physical life. The sun and moon were early selected as outward sj'mbols of this all-pervading power, and the worship of the heavenly bodies was not only the most ancient but the most pre- valent system of idolatry. Taking its rise in the plains of Chaldea, it spread through Egypt, Greece, Scythia, and even Mexico and Ceylon (Comp. Deut. iv. 19, xvii. 3 ; Job xxxi. 26-28). It is probable that the Israelites learnt their first lessons in sun- j worship from the Egyptians, in whose i c- IDOLATRY 226 INCENSE ligious system that luminary, as Osiris, held a prominent place. The Phoenicians wor- shipped him under the title of " Lord of heaven." As Molech or Milcom, the sun was "worshipped by the Ammonites, and as Chemosh by the Moabites. The Hadad of the Syrians is the same deity. The Assyrian Bel or Belus, is another form of Baal. By the later kings of Judah, sacred horses and chariots were dedicated to the sun-god, as by the Persians (2 K. xxiii. 11). The moon, worshipped by the Phoenicians under the name of Astarte or Baaltis, the passive power of nature, as Baal was the active, and known to the Hebrews as Ashtaroth or Ashtoreth, the tutelary goddess of the Zidonians, appears early among the objects of Israelitish idolatry. In the later times oif the monarchy, the planets, or the zodiacal signs, received, next to the sun and moon, their share of popular adora- tion (2 K. xxiii. 5). Beast-worship, as exemplified in the calves of Jeroboam, has already been alluded to. There is no actual proof that the Israelites ever joined in the service of Dagon, the fish-god of the Philis- tines, though Ahaziah sent stealthily to Baal- zebub, the fly-god of Ekron (2 K. i.), aud in later times the brazen serpent became the object of idolatrous homage (2 K. xviii. 4). Of pure hero-worship among the Semitic races we find no trace. The singular rever- ence with which trees have been honoured is not without example in the history of the Hebrews. The terebinth at Mamre, beneath which Abraham built an altar (Gen. xii. 7, xiii. 18), and the memorial grove planted by him at Beersheba (Gen. xxi. 33), were in- timately connected with patriarchal worship. Mountains and high places were chosen spots for offering sacrifice and incense to idols (1 K. xi. 7, xiv. 23) ; and the retirement of gardens and the thick shade of woods offered •great attractions to their worshippers (2 K. xvi. 4 ; Is. i. 29 ; Hos. iv. 13). The host of hearen was worshipped on the house-top (2 K. xxiii. 12 ; Jer. xix. 3, xxxii. 29 ; Zeph. i. 5). — III. Punishment of Idolatry. — If one main object of the Hebrew polity was to teach the unity of God, the extermination of idolatry was but a subordinate end. Je- hovah, the God of the Israelites, was the civil head of the State. He was the theo- cratic king of the people, who had delivered them from bondage, and to whom they had taken a willing oath of allegiance. Idolatry, therefore, to an Israelite was a state offence (1 Sam. XV. 23), a political crime of the gravest character, high treason against the majesty of his king. But it was much more than all this. While the idolatry of foreign nations is stigmatised merely as an abomina- tion in the sight of God, which called for his vengeance, the sin of the Israelites is regarded as of more glaring enormity and greater moral guilt. In the figurative language of the prophets, the relation between Jehovah and his people is represented as a marriage bond (Is. liv. 5 ; Jer. iii. 14), and the wor- ship of false gods with all its accompaniments (Lev. XX. 56) becomes then the greatest of social wrongs (Hos. ii. ; Jer. iii., &c.). The first and second commandments are directed against idolatry of every form. Individuals and communities were equally amenable to the rigorous code. The individual offender was devoted to destruction (Ex. xxii. 20) ; his nearest relatives were not only bound to denounce him and deliver him up to punish- ment (Deut. xiii. 2-10), but their hands were to strike the first blow when, on the evidence of two witnesses at least, he was stoned (Deut. xvii. 2-5). To attempt to seduce others to false worship was a crime of equal enormity (Deut. xiii. 6-10). IDUME'A. [Edom.] I'JE-AB'ARIM, one of the later halting places of the children of Israel (Num. xxi. 1 1, xxxiii. 44). It was on the boundary — the S.E. boundary — of the territory of .Moab ; in the waste uncultivated "wilderness" on its skirts (xxi. 11). I'JON, a town in the north of Palestine, belonging to the tribe of Naphtali. It was taken and plundered by the captains of Ben- hadad (1 K. xv. 20 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 4), and a second time by Tiglath-pileser (2 K. xv. 29). It was situated a few miles N.W. of the site of Dan, in a fertile and beautiful little plain called Merj ^Ayiin. ILLYlVlCUM, an extensive district lying along the eastern coast of the Adriatic from the boundary of Italy on the north to Epirus on the south, and contiguous to Moesia and Macedonia on the east (Rom. xv. 19). IMMAN'UEL, that is, God with us, the symbolical name given by the prophet Isaiah to the child who was announced to Ahaz and the people of Judah, as the sign which God would give of their deliverance from their enemies (Is. vii. 14). It is applied by the Apostle Matthew to the Messiah, born of the Virgin (Matt. i. 23). It would therefore appear that the immediate reference of the prophet was to some contemporary occur- rence, but that his words received their true and full accomplishment in the birth of the Messiah. INCENSE. The incense employed in the service of the tabernacle was compounded of the perfumes stacte, onycha, galbanum, and pure frankincense. All incense which "was not made of these ingredients was forbidden INDIA 227 INN to be offered (Ex. xxx. 9). Aaron, as high- priest, was originally appointed to offer Incense, but in the daily service of the second temple the office devolved upon the inferior priests, from among whom one was chosen by lot (Luke i. 9), each morning and even- ing. The times of offering incense were specified in the instructions first given to Moses (Ex. xxx. 7, 8). The morning in- cense was offered when the lamps were trimmed in the Holy place, and before the sacrifice, when the watchman set for the purpose announced the break of day. When the lamps were lighted " between the even- ings," after the evening sacrifice and before the drink-offerings were offered, incense was again burnt on the golden altar, which "belonged to the oracle" (1 K. vi. 22), and stood before the veil which separated the Holy place from the Holy of Holies, the throne of God (Rev. viii. 4). When the priest entered the Holy place with the incense, all the people were removed from the temple, and from between the porch and the altar (cf. Luke i. 10). Profound silence was observed among the congregation who were praying without (cf. Rev. viii. 1), and at a signal from the prefect the priest cast the incense on the fire, and bowing reverently towards the Holy of Holies retired slowly backwards, not pro- longing his prayer that he might not alarm the congregation, or cause them to fear that he had been struck dead for offering un- worthily (Lev. xvi. 13 ; Luke i. 21). On the day of atonement the service was dif- ferent. The offering of incense has formed a part of the religious ceremonies of most ancient nations. It was an element in the idolatrous worship of the Israelites (Jer. xi. 12, 17, xlviii. 35; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 25). Look- ing upon incense in connexion with the other ceremonial observances of the Mosaic ritual, it would rather seem to be symbolical, not of prayer itself, but of that which makes prayer acceptable, the intercession of Christ. In Rev. viii. 3, 4, the incense is spoken of as something distinct from, though offered with, the prayers of all the saints (cf. Luke i. 10) ; and in Rev. v. 8 it is the golden vials, and not tlie odours or incense which are said to be the prayers of saints. INDIA. The name of India does not occur in the Bible before the book of Esther, where it is noticed as the limit of the territories of Ahasuerus in the east, as Ethiopia was in the west (i. 1 ; viii. 9). The India of the book of Esther is not the peninsula of Hindostan, but the country surrounding the Indus, the Punjab and perhaps Scinde. In 1 Mace. viii. 8, India is reckoned among the countries which Eumcnes, king of Pergamus, received out of the former possessions of Antiochus the Great. A more authentic notice of the country occurs in 1 Mace. xi. 37. But though the 7iame of India occurs so seldom, the people and productions of that country must have been tolerably well known to the Jews. There is undoubted evidence that an active trade was carried on between India and Western Asia. The trade opened by Solomon with Ophir through the Red Sea consisted chiefly of Indian articles. The connexion thus established with India led to the opinion that the Indians were included under the ethnological title of Cush (Gen. X. 6). INK, INKHORN. [Writing.]^ INN. The Hebrew word [mdlon] thus rendered literally signifies "a lodging-place for the night." Inns, in our sense of the term, were, as they still are, unknown in the East, where hospitality is religiously practised. The khans, or caravanserais, are the representatives of European inns, and these were established but gradually. It is doubtful whether there is any allusion to them in the Old Testament. The halting, place of a caravan was selected originally on account of its proximity to water or pasture, by which the travellers pitched their tents and passed the night. Such was undoubtedly the " inn" at which occurred the incident in the life of Moses, narrated in Ex. iv. 24 (Comp. Gen. xlii. 27). On the more fre- quented routes, remote from towns (Jer. ix. 2), caravanserais were in course of time erected, often at the expense of the wealthy. The following description of one of those on the road from Bagdad to Babylon will suffice for all : — " It is a large and substantial square building, in the distance resembling a fortress, being surrounded with a lofty wall, and flanked by round towers to defend the inmates in case of attack. Passing through a strong gateway, the guest enters a large court, the sides of which are divided into numerous arched compartments, open in front, for the accommodation of separate parties and for the reception of goods. Iii the centre is a spacious raised platform, used for sleeping upon at night, or for the devo- tions of the faithful during the day. Between the outer wall and the compartments are wide vaulted arcades, extending round the entire building, where the beasts of burden are placed. Upon the roof of the arcades is an excellent terrace, and over the gateway an elevated tower containing two rooms — one of which is open at the sides, permitting the occupants to enjoy every breath of air that passes across the heated plain. The terrace is tolerably clean ; but the court ynd Q2 INSTANT 228 ISAAC stabling below are ankle-deep in chopped straw and filth." (Loftus, Chaldea, p. 13.) INSTANT, INSTANTLY, in the A. V., means urgent, ^urgently, or fervently, as will be seen from the following passages (Luke vii. 4, xxiii. 23 ; Acts xxvi. 7 ; Kom. xii. 12). In 2 Tim. iv. 2 we find " be instant in season and out of season." The literal sense is ♦'stand ready" — "be alert" for whatever may happen. IRON is mentioned with brass as the earliest of known metals (Gen. iv. 22). As it is rarely found in its native state, but gener- ally in combination with oxygen, the know- ledge of the art of forging iron, which is attributed to Tubal Cain, argues an acquaint- ance Avith the difficulties which attend the smelting of tliis metal. The natural wealth of the soil of Canaan is indicated by describ- ing it as "aland whose stones are iron" (Deut. viii. 9). The book of Job contains passages Avhich indicate that iron was a metal well known. Of the manner of pro- curing it, we learn that " iron is taken from dust" (xxviii. 2). The ^^ furnace of iron" (Deut. iv. 28; IK. viiL 51) is a figure which vividly expresses hai'd bondage, as represented by the severe labour which at- tended the operation of smelting. Sheet- iron was used for cooking utensils (Ez. iv. 3 ; cf. Lev. vii. 9). That it was plentiful in the time of David appears from 1 Chr. xxii. 3. The market of Tyre was supplied with bright or polished iron by the merchants of Dan and Javan (Ez. xxvii. 19). The Chalj'bes of the Pontus were celebrated as workers in iron in very ancient times. The produce of their labour is supposed to be alluded to in Jer. XV. 12, as being of superior quality. IR'-SHEM'ESH, a city of the Danites (Josh. xix. 41), probably identical with Beth-shkmesh, and if not identical, at least connected with Mount Heres (Judg. i. 35). ISAAC, the son whom Sarah, in accordance with the Divine promise, bore to Abraham in the hundredth year of his age, at Gcrar. In his infancy he became the object of Ishmael's jealousy; and in his youth the victim, in intention, of Abraham's great sacrificial act of faith. When forty years old he married Hebekah his cousin, by whom, when he was sixty, he had two sons, Esau and Jacob. In his seventy-fifth year he and his brother Ishmael buried their father Abraham in the cave of Machpelah. From this abode by the ■well Lahai-roi, in the South Country, Isaac was driven by a famine to Gerar. Here Jehovah appeared to him and bade him dwell there and not go over into Egypt, and re- newed to him the promises made to Abraham. Here he subjected himself, like Abraham in the same place and under like circumstance.") (Gen. XX. 2), to a rebuke from Abimelech the Philistine king for an equivocation. Here he acquired great wealth by his flocks ; but was repeatedly dispossessed by the Philistines of the wells which he sank at convenient stations. At Beersheba Jehovah appeared to him by night and blessed him, and he built an altar there : there, too, like Abraham, he received a visit from the Philistine king Abimelech, with whom he made a covenant of peace. After the deceit by which Jacob acquired his father's blessing, Isaac sent his son to seek a wife in Padan-aram ; and all that we know of him during the last forty-three years of his life is that he saw that son, with a large and prosperous family, return to him at Hebron (xxxv. 27) before he died there at the age of 180 years. He was buried by his two sons in the cave of Mach- pelah. In the N. T. reference is made to the offering of Isaac (Heb. xi. 17 ; and James ii. 21) and to his blessing his sons (Heb. xi. 20). As the child of the promise, and a.s the progenitor of the children of the promise, he is contrasted with Ishmael (Rom. ix. 7, 10; GaL iv. 28; Heb. xi. IS). In our Lord's remarkable argument with the Sad- dueees, his history is carried beyond the point at which it is left in the O. T., and beyond the grave. Isaac, of whom it was said (Gen. xxxv. 29) that he was gathered to his people, is represented as still Living to God (Luke xx. 38, «&;c.) ; and by the same Divine authority he ' is proclaimed as an acknowledged heir of future glory (Matt, viii. 11, &c.). It has been asked what are the persecutions sustained by Isaac from Ishmael to which St. Paul refers (Gal. iv. 29) ? Eashi relates a Jewish tradition of Isaac suffering personal violence from Ishmael, a tradition which some think was adopted by St. Paul. In reference to the offering up of Isaac by Abraham, the primary doctrines taught are those of sacrifice and substitution, as the means appointed by God for taking away sin ; and, as co-ordinate with these, the need of the obedience of faith, on 'the part of man, to receive the benefit (Heb. xi. 17). A confusion is offer made between Isaac and the victim actually offered. Isaac himself is generally viewed as a type of the Son of God, oft'ered for the sins of men ; but Isaac, himself one of the sinful race for whom atonement was to be made, — Isaac, who did not actually suffer death, — was no fit type of Him who " teat slain, the Just for the unjust." But the animal, not of the human race, which God provided and Abraham offered, was, in the whole history of sacrifice, the recognised ISAIAH 229 ISAIAH type of " the Lamb of God, that taketh away the sins of the world." Isaac is the tj'pe of humanity itself, devoted to death for sin, and submitting to the sentence. ISAl'AH, the prophet, son of Amoz. The Hebrew name, our shortened form of which occurs with other persons [see Jesaiah, Jeshaiah], signifies Salvation of Jahii (a shortened form of Jehovah). He prophesied concerning Judali and Jerusalem in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah (Is. i. 1). Isaiah must have been an old man at the close of Hezekiah's reign. The ordinary chronology gives 758 B.C. for the date of Jotham's accession, and 698 for that of Hezekiah's death. This gives us a period of sixty years. And since his ministry commenced before Uzziah's death (how long we know not), supposing him to have been no more than twenty years old when he began to prophesy, he would have been eighty or ninety at Manasseh's acces- sion. Rabbinical tradition says that Isaiah was sawn asunder in a trunk of a tree by order of Manasseh, to which it is supposed that reference is made in Hebrews xi. 37. — I. Chs. i.-v. contain Isaiah's prophecies in tlie reigns of Uzziah and Jotham. — Ch. i. is very general in its contents. — Chs. ii.-iv, are one prophesying, — the leading thought of which is that the present prosperity of Judah should be destroyed for her sins, to make room for the real glory of piety and virtue ; while ch. v." forms a distinct dis- course, whose main purport is that Israel, God's vineyard, shall be brought to desola- tion.— Ch. vi. describes an ecstatic vision that fell upon the prophet in the year of Uzziah's death. — Ch, vi., vii., delivered in the reign of Ahaz, when he was threatened by the forces of Pekah, king of Israel, and Kezin, king of Syria. As a sign that Judah was not yet to perish, he announces the birth of the child Immanuel, who should " know to refuse the evil and choose the good,'' before the land of the two hostile kings should be left desolate. — Ch. viii.-ix. 7. As the Assyrian empire began more and more to threaten the Hebrew commonwealth with utter overthrow, the prediction of the Messiah, the Restorer of Israel, becomes more positive and clear. The king was bent upon an alliance with Assyria. This Isaiah stedfastly opposes. — Ch. ix. 8-x. 4, is a pro- phecy delivered at this time against the kingdom of Israel (ix. 8-x. 4). — Ch. x. 5-xii. 6, is one of the most highly wrought passages in the whole book, and was pro- bably one single prophecy. It stands wholly disconnected with the preceding in the cir- cumstances which it presupposes ; and to what period to assign it, is not easy to de- termine.— Ch. xiii.-xxiii., contain chiefly a collection of utterances, each of which is styled a "burden." [a.) The first (xiii. 1- xiv. 27) is against Babylon. The ode of triumph (xiv. 3-23), in this burden is among the most poetical passages in all literature. [b.) The short and pregnant "burden" against Philistia (xiv. 29-32), in the year that Ahaz died, was occasioned by the revolt of the Philistines from Judah, and their successful inroad recorded in 2 Chr. xxviii. 18. (c.) The "burden of Moab " (xv. xvi.) is remarkable for the elegiac strain in which the prophet bewails the disasters of Moab, and for the dramatic character of xvi. 1-6. {(l.) Ch. xvii. xviii. This prophecy is headed " the burden of Damascus ; " and yet after ver. 3 the attention is withdrawn from Damascus and turned to Israel, and then to Ethiopia, (e.) In the "burden of Egypt" (xix.) the prophet prophesies the utter help- lessness of Egypt under God's judgments, probably to counteract the tendency which led both Judah and Israel to look towards Egypt for succour against Assyria. (/.) In the midst of these " burdens " stands a passage which presents Isaiah in a new aspect, an aspect in which he appears in this instance only. The more emphatically to enforce the warning already conveyed in the " burden of Egypt," Isaiah was com- manded to appear in the streets and temple of Jerusalem stripped of his sackcloth mantle, and wearing his vest only, with his feet also bare, {g.) In " the burden of the desert of the sea," a poetical designation of Babylonia (xxi. 1-10), the images in which the fall of Babylon is indicated are sketched with Aeschylean grandeur, {h.) " The burden of Dumah," and "of Arabia" (xxi. 11-17), relate apparently to some Assyrian inva- sion. ( j.) In " the burden of the valley of vision" (xxii. 1-14) it is doubtless Jeru- salem that is thus designated. The scene presented is that of Jerusalem during an invasion, {k.) The passage in xxii. 15-25 is singular in Isaiah as a prophesying against an individual. Shebna was one of the king's highest functionaries, and seems to have been leader of a party opposed to Jehovah (ver. 25). (/.) The last "burden" is against Tyre (xxiii.). Her utter destruction is not predicted by Isaiah as it afterwards was by Ezekiel. — Ch. xxiv.-xxvii., form one prophecy, essentially connected with the preceding ten "burdens" (xiii.-xxiii.), of which it is in effect a general summary. In XXV., after commemorating the destruction of all oppressors, the prophet gives us in vers. 6-9 a most glowing description of ISAIAH 230 ISH-BOSHETH Messianic blessings. In xxvi., vers. 12-18 describe tbe new, happy state of God's people as God's work wholly. In xxvii. 1, "Levia- than the fleeing serpent, and Leviathan the twisting serpent, and the dragon in the sea," are perhaps Nineveh and Babylon — two phases of the same Asshur — and Egypt (comp, ver. 13) ; all, however, symbolizing adverse powers of evil. — Ch. xxiii.-xxxv. predicts the Assyrian invasion. The prophet protests against the policy of courting the help of Egypt against Assyria (xxx. 1-17, xxxi. 1-3). — Ch. xxxvii.-xxxix. At length the season so often, though no doubt ob- scurely foretold, arrived. The Assyrian was near, with forces apparently irresistible. In the universal consternation which ensued, all the hope of the state centered upon Isaiah ; the highest functionaries of the state — Shebna too — wait upon him in the name of their sovereign. The short answer which Jehovah gave through him was, that the Assyrian king should hear intelligence wliich should send him back to his own land, there to perish. How the deliverance was to be effected, Isaiah was not commissioned to tell ; but the very next night (2 K. xix. 35) brought the appalling fulfilment. — II. The last 27 chapters form a separate prophecy, and are supposed by many critics to have been written in the time of the Babylonian captivity, and are therefore ascribed to a " later Isaiah." It is evident that the point of time and situation from which the prophet here speaks is that of the captivity in Babylon (comp. e.g., Ixiv. 10, 11) ; but this may be adopted on a principle which appears to characterise "vision," viz., that the prophet sees the future as if present. This second part falls into three sections, each, as it happens, consisting of nine chapters ; the two first end with the refraiti, " There is no peace, saith Jehovah [or "my God"), to the wicked ; " and the third with the same thought amplified. (1.) The first section (xl.- xlviii.) has for its main topic the comfort- ing assurance of the deliverance from Baby- lon by Koresh (Cyrus) who is even named twice (xli. 2, 3, 25, xliv. 28, xlv. 1-4, 13, xlvi. 11, xlviii. 14, 15). It is characteristic of sacred prophecy in general that the "vision" of a great deliverance leads the, seer to glance at the great deliverance to come through Jesus Christ. This principle of association prevails in the second part taken as a whole ; but in the first section, taken apart, it appears as yet imperfectly. (2.) The second section (xlix.-lvii.) is dis- tinguished from the first by several features. The person of Cyrus as well as his name, and the specification of Babylon, disappear alto- gether. Return from exile is indeed spoken of repeatedly and at length (xlix. 9-26, li. 9- lii. 12, Iv. 12, 13, Ivii. 14) ; but in such general terms as admit of being applied to the spiritual and Messianic, as well as to the literal restoration. (3.) In the third section (Iviii.-lxvi.), as Cyrus nowhere appears, so neither does " Jehovah's servant " occur so frequently to view as in the second. The only delineation of the latter is in Ixi. 1-3 and in Ixiii. 1-6, 9. He no longer appears as suffering, but only as saving and avenging Zion. The section is mainly occupied with various practical exhortations founded upon the views of the future already set forth. — In favour of the authenticity of the last 27 chapters the following reasons may be ad- vanced, (a.) The unanimous testimony of Jewish and Christian tradition (comp. Ecclus. xlviii. 24) ; and the evidence of the N. T. quotations (Matt. iii. 3 ; Luke iv. 17 ; Acts viii. 28 ; Rom. x. 16, 20). (&.) The unity of design which connects these last 27 chapters with the preceding. The oneness of diction which pervades the whole book. The pecu- liar elevation and grandeur of style, which characterize the second part as well as the first. The absence of any other name than Isaiah's claiming the authorship. Lasth', the Messianic predictions which mark its inspiration, and remove the chief ground of objection against its having been written by Isaiah. In point of style we can find no difficulty in recognising in the second part the presence of the same plastic genius as we discover in the first. IS'CAH, daughter of Haran the brother of Abram, and sister of Milcah and of Lot (Gen. xi. 29). In the Jewish traditions she is identified with Sarai. ISCAR'IOT. [JXJDAS ISCARIOT.] ISH'BAK, a son of Abraham and Keturah (Gen. XXV. 2 ; 1 Chr. i. 32), and the pro- genitor of a tribe of northern Arabia. ISH'BI-BENO'B, son of Kapha, one of the race of Philistine giants, who attacked David in battle, but was slain by Abishai (2 Sam. xxi. 16, 17). ISH-BO'SHETH, the youngest of Saul's four sons, and his legitimate successor. His name appears (1 Chr. viii. 33, ix. 39) to have been originally Esh-baal, " the man of Baal." He was 35 years of age at the time of the battle of Gilboa, but for five years Abner was engaged in restoring the domi- nion of the house of Saul over all Israel. Ishbosheth was then " 40 years old when he began to reign over Israel, and reigned two years" (2 Sam. iii. 10). During these two years he reigned at Mahanaim, though only in name. The wars and negotiations with ISHMAEL 231 ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF David were entirely carried on by Abner (2 Sam. ii. 12, iii. 6, 12). The death of Abner deprived the house of Saul of their last remaining support. When Ishbosheth heard of it, " his hands were feeble, and all the Israelites were troubled" (2 Sam. iv. 1). In this extremity of weakness he fell a victim, probably, to revenge for a crime of his father. Two Beerothites, Baana and Rechab, in remembrance, it has been con- jectured, of Saul's slaughter of their kins- men the Gibeonites, determined to take advantage of the helplessness of the royal house to destroy the only representative that was left, excepting the child Mephibosheth (2 Sam. iv. 4). After assassinating Ish- bosheth, they took his head to David as a ■welcome present. They met with a stern reception. David rebuked them for the cold- blooded murder of an innocent man, and ordered them to be executed. The head of Ishbosheth was carefully buried in the sepul- chre of his great kinsman Abner, at the same place (2 Sam. iv. 9-12). ISH'MAEL, the son of Abraham by Hagar the Egyptian, his concubine ; born when Abraham was fourscore and six years old (Gen. xvi. 15, 16). Ishmael was the first- born of his father. He was born in Abra- ham's house, when he dwelt in the plain of Mamx-e ; and on the institution of the covenant of circumcision, was circumcised, he being then thirteen years old (xvii. 25). With the institution of the covenant, God renewed his promise respecting Ishmael. He does not again appear in the nari-ative until the weaning of Isaac. The latter was born when Abraham was a hundred years old (xxi, 5), and as the weaning, according to Eastern usage, probably took place when the child was between two and three years old, Ishmael himself must have been then between fifteen and sixteen j'ears of age. At the great feast made in celebration of the weaning, " Sarah saw the son of Hagar the Egyptian, which she had born unto Abraham, mock- ing," and urged Abraham to cast out him and his mother. The patriarch, comforted by God's renewed promise that of Ishmael He would make a nation, sent them both away, and they departed and wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba. It is doubtful whether the wanderers halted by the well, or at once continued their way to the " wilder- ness of Paran," where, we ar-e told in the next verse to that just quoted, he dwelt, and where "his mother took him a wife out of the land of Egypt" (Gen. xxi. 9-21). This wife of Ishmael was the mother of his twelve sons, and daughter. Of the later life of Ishmael we know little. He was present with Isaac at the burial of Abraham. He died at the age of 137 years (xxv. 17, 18). The sons of Ishmael peopled the north and west of the Arabian peninsula, and eventually formed the chief element of the Arab nation. Their language, which is generally acknow- ledged to have been the Arabic commonly so called, has been adopted with insignificant exceptions throughout Arabia. The term IsHMAELiTE occurs ou three occasions. Gen. xxxvii. 25, 27, 28, xxxix. 1 ; Judg. viii. 2i ; Ps. Ixxxiii. 6.-2. The son of Netha- niah ; a perfect marvel of craft and villany, whose treachery forms one of the chief epi- sodes of the history of the period immediately succeeding the first fall of Jerusalem. His exploits are related in Jer. xl. 7-xli. 15, with a short summary in 2 K. xxv. 23-25. His full description is " Ishmael, the son of Nethaniah, the son of Elishama, of the seed royal" of Judah (Jer. xli. 1 ; 2 K. xxv. 25). During the siege of the city he had, like many others of his countrymen (Jer. xl. 11), fled across the Jordan, where he found a refuge at the court of Baalis, the then king of the Bene-Ammon. After the departure of the Chaldeans, Ishmael murdered Gedaliali and all his attendants, and succeeded in escaping to the Ammonites. ISH'TOB, apparently one of the small kingdoms or states which formed part of the general country of Aram, named with Zobah, Rehob, and Maacah (2 Sam. x. 6, 8). It is probable that the real signification is " the men of Tob." IS'RAEL. 1. The name given (Gen. xxxii, 28) to Jacob after his wrestling with the Angel (Hos. xii. 4) at Peniel. Gesenius interprets Israel " soldier of God." — 2. It became the national name of the twelve tribes collectively. They are so called in Ex. iii. 16 and afterwards. — 3. It is used in a nar- rower sense, excluding Judah, in 1 Sam. xi. 8; 2 Sam. xx. 1 ; 1 K. xii. 16. Thence- forth it was assumed and accepted as the name of the Northern Kingdom. — 4. After the Babylonian captivity, the returned exiles resumed the name Israel as the designation of their nation. The name Israel is also used to denote laymen, as distinguished from Priests, Levites, and other ministers (Ezr. vi. 16, ix. 1, X. 25 ; Neh. xi. 3, &c.). ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF. 1. The pro- phet Ahijah of Shiloh, who was commissioned in the latter days of Solomon to announce the division of the kingdom, left one tribe (Judah) to the house of David, and assigned ten to Jeroboam (1 K. xi. 35, 31). These Avere probably Joseph (=Ephraim and Ma- nasseh), Issachar, Zebulun, Asher, Naphtaii, Benjamin, Dan, Simeon, Gad, and Reuben ; ISRAEL. KINGDOM OF 232 ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF Levi being intentionally omitted. Eventually the greatei- part of Benjamin, and probably the whole of Simeon and Dan, were included as if by common consent in the kingdom of Judah. With respect to the conquests of David, Moab appears to have been attached to the kingdom of Israel (2 K. iii. 4) ; so much of Syria as remained subject to Solomon (see 1 K. xi. 24) would probably be claimed by his successor in the northern kingdom ; and Amnion, though connected with Kehoboam as his mother's native land (2 Chr. xii. 13), and though afterwards tributary to Judah (2 Chr. xxvii. 5), was at one time allied (2 Chr. xx. 1), we know not how closely or how early, with Moab. The sea-coast between Accho and Japho remained in the possession of Israel. — 2. The population of the kingdom is not expressly stated ; and in drawing any inference from the numbers of fight- ing men, we must bear in mind that the numbers in the Hebrew text are strongly suspected to have been subjected to exten- sive, perhaps systematic, corruption. Jero- boam brought into the field an army of 800,000 men (2 Chr. xiii. 3). If in b.c. 957 there were actually under arms 800,000 men of that age in Israel, the whole popu- lation may perhaps have amounted to at least three millions and a half. —3. Shkchem was the first capital of the new kingdom (1 K. xii. 25), venerable for its traditions, and beautiful in its situation. Subsequently Tirzah became the royal residence, if not the capital, of Jeroboam (1 K. xiv. 17) and of his successors (xv. 33, xvi. 8, 17, 23). Samaria, uniting in itself the qualities of beauty and fertility, and a commanding posi- tion, was chosen by Omri (1 K. xvi. 24), and remained the capital of the kingdom until it had given the last proof of its strength by sustaining for three years the onset of the hosts of Assyria. Jezreel was probably only a royal residence of some of the Israelitish kings. — 4. The kingdom of Israel lasted 254 years, from b.c. 975 to b.c. 721, about two-thirds of the duration of its more compact neighbour Judah. The de- tailed history of the kingdom will be found under the names of its nineteen kings. A summary view may be taken in four periods : — {a.) B.C. 975-929. Jeroboam had not suffi- cient force of 'character in himself to make a lasting impression on his people. A king, but not a founder of a dynasty, he aimed at nothing beyond securing his present eleva- tion. The army soon learned its power to dictate to the isolated monarch and disunited people. Baasha, in the mid.'it of the army at Gibbethon, slew the son and sucees.sor of Jeroboam ; Zimri, a cuptain of chariots, slew the son and successor of Baasha ; Omri, the captain of the host, was chosen to punish Zimri ; and after a civil war of four years he prevailed over Tibni, the choice of half the people.— (6.) B.C. 929-884. For forty-five years Israel was governed by the house of Omri. That sagacious king pitched on the strong hill of Samaria as the site of his capital. The princes of his house cultivated an alliance with the kings of Judah, which was cemented by the marriage of Jehoram and Athaliah. The a'doption of Baal- worship led to a reaction in the nation, to the moral triumph of the prophets in the person of Elijah, and to the extinction of the house of Ahab in obedience to the bidding of Elisha. — (c.) B.C. 884-772. Unparalleled triumphs, but deeper humiliation, awaited the kingdom of Israel under the dynasty of Jehu. Hazael, the ablest king of Damascus, reduced Jeho- ahaz to the condition of a vassal, and tri- umphed for a time over both the disunited Hebrew kingdoms. Almost the first sign of the restoration of their strength was a war between them ; and Jehoash, the grandson of Jehu, entered Jerusalem as the conqueror of Amaziah. Jehoash also turned the tide of war against the Syrians ; and Jeroboam II., the most powerful of all the kings of Israel, captured Damascus, and recovered the whole ancient frontier from Hamath to the Dead Sea. This short - lived greatness expired with the last king of Jehu's line. — {d.) b.c. 772-721. Military violence, it would seem, broke off the hereditary succession after the obscure and probably convulsed reign of Zachariah. An unsuccessful usurper, Shal- lum, is followed by the cruel Menahem, who, being unable to make head against the first attack of Assyria under Pul, became the agent of that monarch for the oppressive taxation of his subjects. Yet his power at home was sufficient to insure for his son and successor Pekahiah a ten years' reign, cut short by a bold usurper, Pekah. Abandon, ing the northern and transjordanic regions to the encroaching power of Assyria under Tiglath-Pileser, he was very near subjugat- ing Judah, with the help of Damascus, now the coequal ally of Israel. But Assyria in- terposing summarily put an end to the inde- pendence of Damascus, and perhaps was the indirect cause of the assassination of the baffled Pekah. The irresolute Iloshea, the next and last usurper, became tributary to his invader, Shalmaneser, betrayed the Assy- rian to the rival monarchy of Egypt, and was punished by the loss of his liberty, and by the capture, after a three years' siege, of his strong capital, Samai-ia. Some gleanings of the ten tribes yet remained in the land ISSACHAR 233 IVORY after so many years of religious decline, moral debasement, national degradation, anarchy, bloodshed, and deportation. Even these were gathered up by the conqueror and carried to Assyria, never again, as a dis- tinct people, to occupy their portion of that goodly and pleasant land which their fore- fathers won under Joshua from the heathen. IS'SACHAR, the ninth son of Jacob and the fifth of Leah ; the first born to Leah, after the interval which occurred in the births of her children (Gen. xxx. 17 ; comp. xxix. 35). At the descent into Egypt four sons are ascribed to him, who founded the four chief families of the tribe (Gen. xlvi. 13; Num. xxvi. 23, 25 ; 1 Chr. vii. 1). The number of the fighting men of Issachar, when taken in the census at Sinai, was 54,400. During the journey they seem to have steadily increased. The allotment of Issachar lay above that of Manasseh (Josh. xix. 17-23). In the words of Josephus, "it extended in length from Carmel to the Jor- dan, in breadth to Mount Tabor." This territory was, as it still is, among the richest land in Palestine. Westward was the famous plain which derived its name from its fer- tility. On the north is Tabor, which even under the burning sun of that climate is said to retain the glades and dells of an English wood. On the east, behind Jezreel, is the opening which conducts to the plain of the Jordan — to that Beth-shean which was pro- verbially among the Rabbis the gate of Para- dise for its fruitfulness. It is this aspect of the territory of Issachar which appears to be alluded to in the Blessing of Jacob. ISSUE, RUNNING. (Lev. xv. 2, 3, xxii. 4 ; Num. v. 2 ; and Sam. iii. 29.) In Lev. XV. 3 a distinction is introduced, which merely means that the cessation of the actual flux does not constitute ceremonial cleanness, but that the patient must bide the legal time, seven days (ver. 13), and perform the prescribed purifications and sacrifice (ver. 14). IT'ALY. This word is used in the N.T. (Acts xviii. 2, xxvii. 1 ; Heb. xiii. 24) in the usual sense of the period, i. e. in its true geographical sense, as denoting the whole natural peninsula between the Alps and the Straits of Messina. ITALIAN BAND. [Army.] ITH'AMAR, the youngest son of Aaron (Ex. vi. 23). After the deaths of Nadab and Abihu (Lev. X. 1), Eleazar and Ithamar were appointed to succeed to their places in the priestly office (Ex. xxviii. 1, 40, 43 ; Num. iii. 3, 4 ; 1 Chr. xxiv. 2). In the distri- bution of services belonging to the Taber- nacle, and its transport on the march of the Israelites, the Gershonites and the Merarites were placed under the superintendence of Ithamar (Ex. xxxviii. 21 ; Num. iv. 21-33). The high-priesthood passed into the family of Ithamar in the person of Eli, but for what reason we are not informed. ITTAI. 1. " Ittai the Gfitite," i. e. the native of Gath, a Philistine in the army of king David. He appears only during the revolution of Absalom. We first discern him on the morning of David's flight. Last in the procession came the 600 heroes who had foi-med David's band dxiring his wander- ings in Judah, and had been with him at Gath (2 Sam. xv. 18 ; comp. 1 Sam. xxiii. 13, xxvii. 2, xxx. 9, 10). Amongst these, apparently commanding them, was Ittai the Gittite (ver. 19). He caught the eye of the king, who at once addressed him and be- sought him not to attach himself to a doubt- ful cause, but to return " with his brethren " and abide with the king (19, 20). But Ittai is firm ; he is the king's slave, and wherever his master goes he will go. Accordingly he is allowed by David to proceed. When the army was numbered and organised by David at Mahanaim, Ittai again appears, now in command of a third pjirt of the force (2 Sam. xviii. 2, 5, 12).— 2. Son of Ribai, from Gibeah of Benjamin ; one of the thirty heroes of David's guard (2 Sam. xxiii. 29). ITURAE'A, a small province on the north- western border of Palestine, lying along the base of Mount Hermon, only mentioned in Luke iii. 1. Jetur the son of Ishmael gave his name, like the rest of his brethren, to the little pi'ovince he colonised (Gen. xxv. 15, 16). Ituraea, with the adjoining provinces, fell into the hands of a chief called Zeno- dorus ; but about b.c. 20, they were taken from him by the Roman emperor, and given to Herod the Great, who bequeathed them to his son Philip (Luke iii. 1). It adjoined Trachonitis, and lay along the base of Li- banus between Tiberias and Damascus. At the place indicated is situated the modern province of Jediir, which is just the Arabic fox-m of the Hebrew Jetur, I'VAH, or AVA, which is mentioned in Scripture twice (2 K. xviii. 34, xix. 13; comp. Is. X xxvii. 13) in connexion with Hena and Sepharvaim, and once (2 K. xvii. 24) in connexion with Babylon, and Cuthah, must be sought in Babylonia, and is probably identical with the modern Hit, on the Eu- phrates. IVORY (Heb. shen in all passages, except 1 K. X. 22, and 2 Chr. ix. 21, where shen- habbiin is so rendered). The word shen literally signifies the " tooth " of any animal, and hence more especially denotes the sub- IZHAR 234 JACINTH stance of the projecting tusks of elephants. It is remarkable that no word in Biblical Hebrew denotes an elephant, iinless the latter portion of the compound shenhahhtm be supposed to have this meaning. Gesenius derives it from the Sanscrit ihhas, " an ele- phant." The skilled workmen of Hiram, king of Tj're, fashioned the great ivorj' throne of Solomon, and overlaid it with pure gold (1 K. X. 18 ; 2 Chr. ix. 17). The ivory thus employed was supplied by the caravans of Dedan (Is. xxi. 13; Ez. xx^ai. 15), or was brought with apes and peacocks by the navy of Tharshish (1 K. x. 22). The "ivory house " of Ahab (1 K. xxii. 39) was probably a palace, the walls of which were panelled with ivory, like the palace of Menelaus described by Homer [Odys. iv. 73). Beds inlaid or veneered with ivory were in use among the Hebrews (Am. vi. 4). IZ'HAR, son of Kohath, grandson of Levi, uncle of Aaron and Moses, and father of Korah (Ex. vi. 18, 21 ; Num. iii. 19, xvi. 1 ; 1 Chr. vi. 2, 18). Izhar was the head of the family of the Izharites or Izeharites (Num. iii. 27 ; 1 Chr, xxvi. 23, 29). JA'AZER, or JA'ZER, a town on the east of Jordan, in or near to Gilead (Num. xxxii. 1, 3; 1 Chr. xxvi. 31). We first hear of it in possession of the Amorites, and as taken by Israel after Heshbon, and on their way from thence to Bashan (Num. xxi. 32). It seems to have given its name to a district of dependent or " daughter " towns (Num. xxi. 32, A. V. "villages;" 1 Mace. V. 8), the " land of Jazer " (Num. xxxii. 1). JA'BAL, the son of Lamech and Adah (Gen. iv. 20) and brother of Jubal. He is described as the father of such as dwell in tents and have cattle. JAB'BOK, a stream which intersects the mountain-range of Gilead (comp. Josh. xii. 2, and 5), and falls into the Jordan about midway between the sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. It was anciently the border of the children of Ammon (Num. xxi. 24 ; Deut. ii. 37, iii. 16). It was on the south bank of the Jabbok the interview took place between Jacob and Esau (Gen. xxxii. 22) ; and this river afterwards became, towards its western part, the boundary between the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Josh. xii. 2, 5). Its modern name is Wady Zurka. JA'BESH. 1. Father of Shai.t.um, the 15th king of Israel (2 K. xv. 10, 13, 14).— 2. Jabesh, or Jabesh Gilead, or Jabesh in the territory of Gilead. In its widest sense Gilead included the half tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr. xxvii. 21) as well as the tribes of Gad and Reuben (Num. xxxii. 1-42) east of the Jordan — and of the cities of Gilead, Jabesh was the chief. It is first mentioned in Judg. xxi. 8-14. Being attacked subse- quently by Nahash the Ammonite, it gave Saul an opportunity of displaying his prowess in its defence (1 Sam. xi. 1-15). Eusebius places it beyond the Jordan, 6 miles from Pella on the mountain - road to Gerasa ; where its name is probably preserved in the Wady Yabes. JA'BIN. 1. King of Hazor, who orga- nised a confederacy of the northern princes against the Israelites (Josh. xi. 1-3). Joshua surprised the allied forces by the waters of Merom (ver. 7) and utterly routed them. During the ensuing wars, Joshua again attacked Jabin, and burnt his city (xi. 1-14). — 2. A king of Hazor, whose general Sisera was defeated by Barak (Judg. iv. 3, 13). JAB'NEEL. 1. One of the points on the northern boundary of Judah, not quite at the sea, though near it (Josh. xv. 11). There is no sign, however, of its ever having been occupied by Judah. Josephus attributes it to the Dani*;es. There was a constant struggle going on between that tribe and the Philistines for the possession of all the places in the lowland plains, and it is not surprising that the next time we meet with Jabneel it should be in the hands of the latter (2 Chr. xxvi. 6). Uzziah dispossessed them of it, and demolished its fortifications. Here it is in the shorter form of Jabneh. In its Greek garb, Iamnia, it is frequently men- tioned in the Maccabees (1 Mace. iv. 15, v. 58, X. 69, XV. 40 ; 2 Mace. xii. 9). At the time of the fall of Jerusalem, Jabneh was one of the most populous places of Judaea. The modern village of Ycbna, more accu- rately Ibna, stands about two miles from the sea on a slight eminence just south of the Nahr Rubin. — 2. One of the landmarks on the boundary of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33) in Upper Galilee. JA'CHIN, one of the two pillars which were set up "in the porch" (1 K. vii. 21) or before the temple (2 Chr. iii. 17) of Solomon. [Boaz.] JACINTH, a precious stone, forming one of the foundations of the walls of the new Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 20). It seems to be identical with the Hebrew leshem (A. V. "ligure," Ex. xxviii. 19). The jacinth or hyacinth is a red variety of zircon, which is found in square prisms, of a white, grey, red, reddish-brown, yellow, or pale-green colour. The expression in Rev. ix. 17, " of jacinth," applied to the breast-plate, is descriptive simply of a hyacinthme, i. e., dark-purpla colour. 235 JAHAZ JA'COB, the second son of Isaac and Rebekah. He was born -with Esau, -when Isaac was 59 and Abraham 159 years old, probably at the well Lahai-roi. His history is related in the latter half of the book of Genesis. He bought the birthright from his brother Esau ; and afterwards, at his mother's instigation, acquired the blessing intended for Esau, by practising a well- known deceit on Isaac. Hitherto the two sons shared the wanderings of Isaac in the South Country; but now Jacob, in his 78th year, was sent from the family home, to avoid his brother, and to seek a wife among his kindred in Padan-aram. As he passed through Bethel, God appeared to him. After the lapse of 2 1 years he returned from Padan- aram with two wives, two concubines, eleven sons, and a daughter, and large propertj\ He escaped from the angry pursuit of Laban, from a meeting with Esau, and from the ven- geance of the Canaanites provoked by the murder of Shechem ; and in each of those three emergencies he was aided and strength- ened by the interposition of God, and in sign of the grace won by a night of wrestling with God his name was changed at Jabbok into Israel. Deborah and Rachel died before he reached Hebron ; and it was at Hebron, in the 122nd year of his age, that he and Esau buried their father Isaac. Joseph, the favourite son of Jacob, was sold into Egypt eleven years before the death of Isaac ; and Jacob had probably exceeded his 130th year when he went thither, being encoura'ged in a divine vision as he passed for the last time through Beersheba. He was presented to Pharaoh, and dwelt for seventeen years in Rameses and Goshen. After giving his solemn blessing to Ephraim and Manasseh, and his own sons one by one, and charging the ten to complete their reconciliation with Joseph, he died in his 147th year. His body was embalmed, carried with great care and pomp into the land of Canaan, and depo- sited with his fathers, and his wife Leah, in the cave of Machpelah. — The example of Jacob is quoted by the first and the last of the minor prophets. Hosea, in the latter days of the kingdom, seeks (xii. 3, 4, 12) to convert the descendants of Jacob from their state of alienation from God, by recalling to their memory the repeated acts of God's favour shown to their ancestor. And Ma- laehi (i. 2) strengthens the desponding hearts of the returned exiles by assuring them that the love which God bestowed upon Jacob was not withheld from them. Besides the fre- quent mention of his name in conjunction with those of the other two Patriarchs, there are distinct references to events in the life of Jacob in four books of the N. T. In Rom. ix. 11-13, St. Paul adduces the history of Jacob's birth to prove that the favour of God is independent of the order of natural de- scent. In Heb. xii. 16, and xi. 21, the transfer of the birthright and Jacob's dying benediction are referred to. His vision at Bethel, and his possession of land at Shechem are cited in St. John i. 51, and iv. 5, 12. And St. Stephen, in his speech (Acts vii. 12, 16), mentions the famine which was the means of restoring Jacob to his lost son in Egypt, and the burial of the patriarch in Shechem. JADDU'A, son, and successor in the high- priesthood of Jonathan or Johanan. He is the last of the high-priests mentioned in the O. T., and probably altogether the latest name in the canon (Neh. xii. 11, 22), J A 'EL, the wife of Heber the Kenite. In the headlong rout which followed the defeat of the Canaanites by Barak, Sisera, abandon- ing his chariot the more easily to avoid notice, fled unattended, and in an opposite direction from that taken by his army, to the tent of the Kenite chieftainess. He accepted Jael's invitation to enter, and she flung a mantle over him as he lay wearily on the floor. When thirst prevented sleep, and he asked for water, she brought him buttermilk in her choicest vessel, thus ratifying with the semblance of officious zeal the sacred bond of Eastern hospitality. At last, with a feeling of perfect security, the weary general resigned himself to the deep sleep of misery and fatigue. Then it was that Jael took in her left hand one of the great wooden pins which fastened down the cords of the tent, and in her right hand the mallet used to drive it into the ground, and with one ter- rible blow dashed it through Sisera's temples deep into the earth (Judg. v. 27). She then waited to meet the pursuing Barak, and led him into her tent that she might in his pre- sence claim the glory of the deed ! Many have supposed that by this act she fulfilled the saying of Deborah, that God would sell Sisera into the hand of a woman (Judg. iv. 9) ; and hence they have supposed that Jaci was actuated by some divine and hidden in- fluence. But the Bible gives no hint of such an inspiration. JAHAZ, also JAHA'ZA, JAHA'ZAH, and J AH 'Z AH. Under these four forms are given in the A. V, the name of a place which in the Hebrew appears as Yahats and Tahtsah. At Jahaz the decisive battle was fought between the children of Israel and Sihon king of the Amorites (Num, xxi, 23 ; Deut. ii. 32 ; Judg. xi. 20). It was in the allotment of Reuben (Josh, xiii, 18). Like JAIR 23(5 JAMES many others relating to the places East of the Dead Sea, the question of its site must await fm-ther research. JA'IR. 1. A man who on his father's side was descended from Judah, and on his mother's from Manasseh. During the con- quest he took the whole of the tract of Argob (Deut. iii. 14), and in addition pos- sessed himself of some nomad villages in Gilead, which he called after his own name Hawoth-Jair (Num. xxxii. 41 ; 1 Chr. ii. 23). — 2. " Jair the Gileadite," who judged Israel for two-and-twenty years (Judg. x. 3-5). He had thirty sons who rode thirty asses, and possessed thirty cities in the land of Gilead, which, like those of their name- sake, were called Havvoth-Jair. JAI'RUS, a ruler of a synagogue, probably in some town near the western shore of the sea of Galilee (Matt. ix. 18 ; Mark v. 22 ; Luke viii. 41). JA'KEH. [Proverbs.] JAM'BRES. [Jannes and Jambres.] JAMES. 1. James the Son of Zebedee, one of the Twelve Apostles. We first hear of him in a.d. 27, when Zebedee, a fisher- man (Mark i. 20), was out on the Sea of Galilee with his two sons, James and John, and some boatmen. He was engaged in his customary occupation of fishing, and near him was another boat belonging to Simon and Andrew, with whom he and his sons were in partnership. Finding themselves unsuccessful, the occupants of both boats came ashore, and began to wash their nets. At this time the new Teacher appeared upon the beach. At His call they left all, and became, once and for ever. His disciples, hereafter to catch men. For a full year we lose sight of St. James. He is then, in the spring of 28, called to the apostleship with his eleven brethren (Matt. x. 2 ; Mark iii. 14 ; Luke vi. 13 ; Acts i. 13). In the list of the Apostles given us by St. Mark, and in the book of Acts, his name occurs next to that of Simon Peter : in the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. Luke it comes third. It is worthy of notice that with one exception (Luke ix. 28), the name of James is put before that of John, and that John is twice described as " the brother of James " (Mark V. 37 ; Matt. xvii. 1). This would appear to imply that at this time James, either from age or character, took a higher position than his brother. It would seem to have been at the time of the appointment of the twelve Apostles that the name of Boanerges was given to the sons of Zebedee. The " Sons of Thunder " had a burning and impetuous spirit, which twice exhibits itself in its unchastened form (Luke ix. 54 ; Mark x. 37). The first occasion on which this natural character manifests itself in St. James and his brother is at the commence- ment of our Lord's last journey to Jerusalem in the year 30. He was passing through Samaria, and *' sent messengers before his face" into a certain village, "to make ready for him" (Luke ix. 52), i.e. in all proba- bility to announce him as the Messiah. The Samaritans, with their old jealousy strong upon them, refused to receive him ; and in their exasperation James and John entreated their Master to follow the example of Elijah, and call down fire to consume them. At the end of the same journey a similar spirit appears again (Mark x. 35). On the night before the Crucifixion he was present at the Agony in the Garden. On the day of the Ascension he is mentioned as persevering with the rest of the Apostles and disciples in prayer (Acts i. 13). Shortly before the day of the Passover, in the year 44, he was put to death by Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 1, 2). — 2. James the Son of Alphaeus, one of the Twelve Apostles. Matt. x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 15 ; Acts i. 13. — 3. James the Brother of the Lord. Matt. xiii. 55 ; Mark vi. 3 ; Gal. i. 19. — 4. James the Son of Mary. Matt, xxvii. 56 ; Luke xxiv. 10. Also called the Less. Mark xv. 40. — 5. James the Brother of Jude. Jude 1. — 6. James the Brother (?) of Jude. Luke vi. 16 ; Acts i. 13.— 7. James, Acts xii. 17, xv. 13, xxi. 18 ; 1 Cor. xv. 7 ; Gal. ii. 9, 12.— 8. James, the Servant of God and of oxr Lord Jesus Christ (James i. 1). St. Paul identifies for us Nos. 3. and 7. (see Gal. ii. 9 and 12 compared with i. 19). If we may translate 'lovSas 'laK^^ov, Judas the brother, rather than the son of James, we may con- clude that 5. and 6. are identical. We may identify 5. and 6. with 3., because we know that James the Lord's brother had a brother named Jude. We may identify 4. with 3., because we know James the son of Mary had a brother named Joses, and so also had James the Lord's brother. Thus there remain two only, James the son of Alphaeus (2), and James, the brother of the Lord (3). Can we, or can we not, identify them ? This is one of the most difficult questions in the Gospel history. By comparing Matt, xxvii. 56 and Mai'k xv. 40, with John xix. 25, we find that the Virgin Mary had a sister named like herself, Mary, who was the wife of Clo- pas or Alphaeus (varieties of the same name), and who had two sons, James the Less and Joses. By refei-ring to Matt. xiii. 55 and Mark vi. 3, we find that a James and a Joses, with two other brethren called Jude and Simon, and at least three sisters, were JAMES THE LESS JANNES living with the Virgin Mary at Nazareth. By referring to Luke vi. 16 and Acts i. 13, we find that there were two brethren named James and Jude among the Apostles. It would certainly be natural to think that we had here but one family of four brothers and three or more sisters, the children of Clopas and Mary, nephews and nieces of the Virgin Mary. There are difficulties, however, in the way of this conclusion into which we cannot here enter ; but in reply to the objec- tion that the four brethren in Matt. xiii. 55 are described as the brothers of Jksus, not as His cousins, it must be recollected that a6eAAl JEHORAM portraiture of him. The reign of Jehoiakim extends from b.c. 609 to b.c. 598, or as some reckon 599. JEHOI'ARIB, head of- the first of the 24 courses of priests, according to the arrange- ment of king David (1 Chr. xxiv. 7). Some of his descendants returned from the Baby- lonish captivity, as we learn from 1 Chr. ix. 10, Neh. xi. 10. Their chief in the days of Joiakim the son of Jeshua was Mattenai (Neh. xii. 6, 19). They were probably of the house of Eleazar. To the course of Jehoiarib belonged the Asmonean family (1 Mace. ii. 1), and Josephus, as he informs us. JEHO'XADAB, and JO'NADAB, the son of Kechab, founder of the Rechabites. It appears from 1 Chr. ii. 55, that his father or ancestor Rechab belonged to a branch of the Kenites ; the Arabian tribe which entered Palestine with the Israelites. One settle- ment of them was established, under a foui-- fold division at or near the town of Jabez in Judah (1 Chr. ii. 55). To these last belonged Rechab and his son Jehonadab. The Bedouin habits, which were kept up by the other branches of the Kenite tribe, were inculcated by Jehonadab with the utmost minuteness on his descendants (Jer. xxxv. 6). Bearing in mind this general character of Jehonadab as an Arab chief, and the founder of a half- religious sect, we are the better able to understand the single occasion on which he appears before us in the historical narrative. Jehu was advancing, after the slaughter of Betheked, on the city of Samaria, when he suddenly met the austere Bedouin coming towards him (2 K. x. 15). The king was in his chariot ; the Arab was on foot. No doubt he acted in concert with Jehu through- out ; the only occasion on which he is ex- pressly mentioned is when he went with Jehu through the temple of Baal to turn out any that there might happen to be in the mass of Pagan wor&hippers (2 K. x. 23). JEHO'RAM, 1. Son of Ahab king of Israel, who succeeded his bixther Ahaziah, B.C. 896, and died B.C. 884. The alliance between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, commenced by his father and Jehoshaphat, was very close throughout his reign. We first find him associated with Jehoshaphat and the king of Edom, at that time a tribu- tary of the kingdom of Judah, in a war against the Moabites. The three armies were in the utmost danger of perishing for want of water. The piety of Jehoshaphat suggested an inquiry of some prophet of Jehovah, and Elisha, at that time and since the latter part of Ahab's reign Elijah's at- tendant (2 K. iii. 11 ; IK. xix. 19-21), was Sii. D. B. found with the host. From him Jehorani received a severe rebuke, and was bid to inquire of the prophets of his father and mother, the prophets of Baal. Nevertheless for Jchoshaphat's sake Elisha inquired of Jehovah, and received the promise of an abundant supply of water, and of a great victory over the Moabites : a promise which was immediately fulfilled. The Moabites were put to the rout. The allies pursued them with great slaughter into their own land, which they utterly ravaged and de- stroyed with all its cities. Kirharaseth alone remained, and there the king of Moab made his last stand. An attempt to break through the besieging army having failed, he resorted to the desperate expedient of offering up his eldest son, the heir to his throne, as a burnt- oftering, upon the wall of the city, in the sight of the enemy. Upon this the Israelites retired and returned to their own land (2 K. iii.). A little later, when war broke out between Syria and Israel, we find Elisha befriending Jehoram. What happened after this to change the relations between the king and the prophet we can only conjecture. But it seems probable that when the Syrian inroads ceased, and he felt less dependent upon the aid of the prophet, he relapsed into idolatry, and was rebuked by Elisha, and threatened with a return of the calamities from which he had escaped. Refusing to repent, a fresh invasion by the Syrians, and a close siege of Samaria, actually came to pass, according probably to the word of the prophet. Hence, when the terrible incident arose, in consequence of the famine, of a woman boiling and eating her own child, the king immediately attributed the evil to Klisha, and determined to take away his life. The providential interposition by which both Elisha's life was saved ahd the city delivered, is narrated 2 K. vii., and Jehoram appear." to have returned to friendly feeling towards Elisha (2 K. viii. 4). It was very soon after the above events that Elisha went to Da- mascus, and predicted the revolt of Hazael, and his accession to the throne of Syria in the room of Ben-hadad. Jehoram seems to have thought the revolution in Syria, which immediately followed Elisha's prediction, a good opportunity to pursue his father's favourite project of recovering Ram.oth- Gilead from the Syrians. He accordingly made an alliance with his nephcAV Ahaziah, who had just succeeded Joram on the throne of Judah, and the two kings proceeded to occupy Ramoth-Gilead by force. The expedi- tion was an unfortunate one. Jehoram was wounded in battle, and obliged to return to Jczreel to be healed of his wounds (2 K JEHOSHAPHAT 242 JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF viii. 29, ix. 14, 15), leaving' his army under Jehu 1,0 hold Ramoth-Gilead against Hazael. Jehu, however, and the army under his com- mand, revolted from their allegiance to Jehoram (2 K. ix.), and, hastily marching to Jezreel, surprised Jehoram, wounded and defenceless as he was. Jehoram, going out to meet him, fell pierced by an arrow from Jehu's bow on the very plot of ground which Ahab had wrested from Naboth the Jezreel - ite ; thus fulfilling to the letter the prophecy of Elijah (1 K. xxi. 21-29). With the life of Jehoram ended the dynasty of Omri. — 2. Eldest son of Jehoshaphat, succeeded his father on the throne of Judah at the age of 32, and reigned eight years, from b.c. 893-2 to 885-4. Jehosheba his daughter was wife to the high-priest Jehoiada. As soon as he was fixed on the throne, he put his six brothers to death, with many of the chief nobles of the land. He then probably at the instance of his wife Athaliah the daughter of Ahab, pi'oceeded to establish the worship of Baal. A prophetic writing from the aged prophet Elijah (2 Chr. xxi. 12), failed to produce any good effect upon him. This was in the first or second year of his reign. The remainder of it was a series of calamities. First the Edomites, who had been tributary to Jehoshaphat, revolted from his dominion, and established their permanent independ- ence. Next Libnah, one of the strongest fortified cities in Judah (2 K. xix. 8), rebelled against him. Then followed invasions of armed bands of Philistines and of Arabians, who stormed the king's palace, put his wives and all his children, except his j'oungest son Ahaziah, to death (2 Chr. xxii. 1), or carried them into captivity, and plundered all his treasures. He died of a terrible disease (2 Chr. xxi. 19, 20) early in the twelfth year of his bi'other-in-law Jehoram's reign over Israel. JEHOSH'APHAT, king of Judah, son of Asa, succeeded to the throne e.g. 914, when he was 35 j^ears old, and reigned 25 years. His history is to be found among the events recorded in 1 K. xv. 21 ; 2 K. viii. 16, or in a continuous narrative in 2 Chr. xvii. 1- xxi. 3. He was contemporary with Ahab, Ahaziah, and Jehoram. At first he strength- ened himself against Israel by fortifying and garrisoning the cities of Judah and the Ephraimite conquests of Asia. But soon afterwards the two Hebrew kings, perhaps appreciating their common danger from Damascus and the tribes on their eastern frontier, formed an alliance. Jehoshaphat's eldest son Jehoram married Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel. In his own kingdom Jehoshaphat ever showed himself a zealous follower of the commandments of God : he tried, it would seem not quite suc- cessfully, to put down the high places and groves in which the people of Judah burnt incense. Riches and honours increased ai-ound him. He received tribute from the Philistines and Arabians ; and kept up a large standing army in Jerusalem. It was probably about the 16th year of his reign (B.C. 898) when he went to Samaria to visit Ahab and to become his ally in the great battle of Ramoth-Gilead. From thence Je- hoshaphat returned to Jerusalem in peace ; and went himself through the people " from Beersheba to Mount Ephraim," reclaiming them to the law of God. Turning his atten- tion to foreign commerce, he built at Ezion- geber, with the help of Ahaziah, a navy designed to go to Tarshish ; but it was wrecked at Ezion-gcber. Before the close of his reign he was engaged in two additional wars. He was miraculously delivered from a threatened attack of the people of Ammon, Moab, and Seir. After this, perhaps, must be dated the war which Jehoshaphat, in con- junction with Jehoram king of Israel and the king of Edom, carried on against the rebellious king of Moab (2 K. iii.). In his declining years the admmistration of affairs was placed (probably b c. 891) in the hands of his son Jehoram. JEHOSH'APHAT, VALLEY OF, a valley mentioned by Joel only, as the spot in which, after the return of Judah and Jerusalem from captivity, Jehovah would gather all the heathen (Joel iii. 2), and would there sit to judge them for their misdeeds to Israel (iii. 12). The prophet seems to have glanced back to that triumphant day when king Jehosha- phat, the greatest king the nation had seen since Solomon, led out his people to a valley in the wilderness of Tekoah, and was there blessed with such a victory over the hordes of his enemies as was without a parallel in the national records (2 Chr. xx.). The scene of "Jehovah's judgment" has been localised, and the name has come down to us attached to that deep ravine which separates Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives, through which at one time the Kedron forced its stream. At what period the name was first applied to this spot is not known. There is no trace of it in the Bible or in Josephus. In both the only name used for this gorge is KiDEON (N. T. Cedron). We first encounter its new title in the middle of the 4th century in the Onomasticon of Eusebius and Jerome, and in the Commentary of the latter Father on Joel. Since that time the name has becii recognised and adopted by travellers of all ages tind all faiths. Both Moslems and Jews JEIIOSHEBA 243 JEIIU believe that the last judgment is to take place there. The steep sides of the ravine, wherever a level strip affords the oppor- tunity, are crowded — in places almost paved --by the sepulchres of the Moslems, or the simpler slabs of the Jewish tombs, alike awaiting the assembly of the last Judgment. The nan!e would seem to be generally con- fined by travellers to th*e upper part of the glen, from about the " Tomb of the Virgin " to the south-east corner of the wall of Jeru- salem. JEHOSHE'BA, daughter of Joram king of Israel, and wife of Jehoiada the high-priest (2 K. xi. 2). Her name in the Chronicles is given Jehoshabeath. As she is called, 2 K. xi. 2, " the daughter of Joram, sister of Ahaziah," it has been conjectured that she was the daughter, not of Athaliah, but of Joram by another wife. She is the only re- corded instance of the marriage of a princess of the royal house with a high-priest. JEHOSH'UA, that is, "help of Jehovah " or " Saviour." In this form is given the name of Joshua in Num. xiii. 16, on the occasion of its bestowal by Mosfrs. JEHO'VAH. [God.] JEHO'VAH-JI'REH, i. e. " Jehovah will see," or " provide," the name given by Abraham to the place on which he had been commanded to offer Isaac, to commemorate the interposition of the angel of Jehovah, who appeared to prevent the sacrifice (Gen. xxii. 14) and provided another victim. JEHO'VAH-MS'SI, 1, e. "Jehovah my banner," the name given by Moses to the altar which he built in commemoration of the discomfiture of the Amalekites by Joshua and his chosen warriors at Rephidim (Ex. xvii. 15). The significance of the name is probably contained in the allusion to the staff wliich Moses held in his hand as a banner during the engagement. JEHO'VAH-SHA'LOM, i.e. "Jehovah (is) peace," or, -with an ellipsis, "Jehovah, the God of peace," the altar erected by Gideon in Ophrah was so called in memory of the salutation addressed to him by the angel of Jehovah, " Peace be unto thee " (Judg. vi. 24). JEHO'ZADAK, son of the high-priest Sebaiah (1 Chr. vi. 14, 15) in the reign of Zedekiah. When his father was slain at Riblah by order of Nebuchadnezzar, in the 11th of Zedekiah (2 K. xxv. 18, 21), Je- hozadak was led away captive to Babylon (1 Chr. vi. 15), where he doubtless spent the remainder of his days. He himself never attained the high-priesthood, but he was the father of Jeshua the high-priest — Avho with Zerubbabel headed the Return from Captivity — and of all his successors till the pontificate of Alcimus (Ezr. iii. 2 ; Neh. xii. 26, «&:c.). JE'HU. 1. The founder of the fifth dynasty of the kingdom of Israel, son of Jehoshaphat (2 K. ix. 2). In his youth he had been one of the guards of Ahab. His first appearance in history is when, with a comrade in arms, Bidkar, he rode behind Ahab on the fatal journey from Samaria to Jezreel, and heard the warning of Elijah against the murderer of Naboth (2 K. ix. 25). But he had already, as it would seem, been known to Elijah as a youth of promise, and, accordingly, in the vision at Horeb he is mentioned as the future king of Israel, whom Elijah is to anoint as the minister of veri- geance on Israel (1 K. xix. 16, 17). This injunction, for reasons unknown to us, Elijah never fulfilled. It was reserved long after- wards for his successor Elisha. Jehu mean- time, in the reigns of Ahaziah and Jehoram, had risen to importance. He was, under the last-named king, captain of the host in the siege of Ramoth-Gilead. Whilst in the midst of the officers of the besieging army a youth suddenly entered, of wild appearance (2 K. ix. 11), and insisted on a private in- terview with Jehu. They retired into a secret chamber. The youth uncovered a vial of the sacred oil which he had brought with him, poured it over Jehu's head, and after announcing to him the message from Elisha, that he was appointed to be king of Israel and destroyer of the house of Ahab, rushed out of the house and disappeared. Jehu's countenance, as he re-entered the assembly of officers, showed that some strange tidings had reached him. He tried at first to evade their questions, but then revealed the situation in which he found himself placed by the prophetic call. In a moment the enthusiasm of the army took fire. They threw their garments under his feet, so as to form a rough carpet of state placed him on the top of the stairs, as on an extempore throne, blew the royal salute on their trumpets, and thus ordained him king. He then cut off' all communication between Ramoth-Gilead and Jezreel, and set off, full speed, with his ancient comrade, Bidnar, whom he had made captain of the host in his place, and a band of horsemen. From the tower of Jezi-eel a watchman saw the cloud of dust (A. V. " company ") and an- nounced his coming (2 K. ix. 17). It was not till he had almost reached the city, and was identified by the watchman, that alarm was taken. But it was not till, in answer to Jehoram's question, "Is it peace, Jehu !" that Jehu's fierce denunciation of Jezebel at once revealed the danger. Jebu sei?ed hi.s II 2 JEHU 244 JEPHUNNEH opportunity, and shot him through the heart (ii. 24). The body was thrown out on the fatal field, and whilst his soldiers pursued and killed the king of Jiidah at Beth-gan (A. V. " the garden-house "), probably En- gannini, Jehu himself advanced to the gates of Je/reel and fulfilled the divine warning on Jezebel as already on Jehoram. He then entered on a work of extermination hitherto unparalleled in the history of the Jewish monarchy. All the descendants of Ahab that remained in Jezreel, together with the officers of the court, and hierarchy of Astarte, were swept away. His *next step was to secure Samaria. As he drove on he encountered a strange figure, such as might have reminded him of the great Elijah. It was Jehonadab, the austere Arabian sectary, the son of Rechab. In him his keen eye discovered a ready ally. He took him into his chariot, and they concocted their schemes as they entered Samaria (x. 15, 16). Up to this moment there was nothing which showed anything beyond a determination to exter- minate in all its branches the personal ad- herents of Ahab. There was to be a new inauguration of the worship of Baal. A solemn assembly, sacred vestments, innumer- able victims, were ready. The vast temple at Samaria raised by Ahab (1 K. xvi, 32) was crowded from end to end. The chief sacrifice was offered, as if in the excess of his zeal, by Jehu himself. Jehonadab joined in the deception. There was some appre- hension lest worshippers of Jehovah might be found in the temple ; such, it seems, had been the intermixture of the two religions. As soon, however, as it was ascertained that all, and none but, the idolators were there, the signal was given to eighty trusted guards, and a sweeping massacre removed at one blow the whole heathen population of the kingdom of Israel. This is the last public act recorded of Jehu. The remaining twenty- seven years of his long reign are passed over in a few words, in which two points only are material : — He did not destroy the calf- worship of Jeroboam : — The trans-jordanic tribes suffered much from the ravages of Hazacl (2 K. x. 29-33). He was buried in state in Samai-ia, and was succeeded by his son Jkhoahaz (2 K. x. 35). Ilis name is the first of the Israelite kings which appears in the Assyrian monuments. — 2. Jehu, son of Hanani ; a prophet of Judah, but whose ministrations were chiefly directed to Israel. His father -\yas probably the seer who at- tacked Asa (2 Chr. xvi. 7). He must have itc^'un his career as a prophet when very young. He first denounced Baasha (1 K. xvi. 1, 7), and then, after an interval of thirty years, reappears to denounce Jehosha- phat for his alliance with Ahab (2 Chr. xix. 2, 3). He survived Jehoshaphat and wrote his life (xx. 34). JEPH'THAH, a judge, about b.c. 1143- 1137. His history is contained in Judg. xi. 1-xii. 7. He was a Gileadite, the son of Gilead and a concubine. Driven by the legitimate sons from his father's inheritance, he went to Tob, and became the head of a company of freebooters in a debateable land probably belonging to Ammon (2 Sam. x. 6). His fame as a bold and successful captain was carried back to his native Gilead ; and when the time was ripe for throwing off the yoke of Ammon, Jephthah consented to be- come their captain, on the condition (solemnly ratified before the Lord in Mizpeh) that in the event of his success against Ammon he should still remain as their ac- knowledged head. He collected warriors throughout Gilead and Manasseh, the pro- vinces which acknowledged his authority ; and then he vowed his vow unto the Lord. The Ammonites were routed with great slaughter. But as the conqueror returned to Mizpeh there came out to meet him a procession of damsels with dances and tim- brels, and among them — the first person from his own house— his daughter and only child. " Alas ! my daughter, thou hast brought me very low," was the greeting of the heart-stricken father. But the high- minded maiden is ready for any personal suffering in the hour of her father's triumph. Only she asks for a respite of two months to withdraw to her native mountains, and in their recesses to weep with her virgin-friends over the early disappointment of her life. When that time was ended she returned to her father, and " he did unto her his vow." But Jephthah had not long leisure, even if he were disposed, for the indulgence of domestic grief. The proud tribe of Ephraim challenged his right to go to war, as he had done without their concurrence, against Ammon. He first defeated them, then in- tercepted the fugitives at the fords of Jordan, and there put forty-two thousand men to the sword. He judged Israel six years and died. It is generally conjectured that his jurisdiction was limited to the trans-Jordanic region. That the daughter of Jephthah was really offered up to God in sacrifice, is a conclusion which it seems impossible to avoid. JEPHUN'NEH, father of Caleb the spy, appears to have belonged to an Edomitisl* tribe called Kenezites, from Kenaz their founder. (See Num. xiii. 6, &c., xxxii. 12, &c.; Josh. xiv. 14, &c. ; 1 Chr. iv. 15.) JERAII 24.: JEREMIAH JE'RAH, the fourth in order of the sons of Joktan (Gen. x. 26; 1 Chr. i. 20), and the progenitor of a tribe of southern Arabia. JEREMI'AH was "the son of Hilkiah of the priests that were in Anathoth " (Jer. i. 1), and was a child in the reign of Josiah, B c. 638-608 (i. 6). In his j'outh he was called to the prophetic office, but we have hardly any mention of him during the eighteen years between his call and Josiah's death, or during the short reign of Jehoahaz. Under Jehoiakim, b.c. 607-597, he opposed the Egyptian party, then dominant in Jeru- salem, and maintained that the only way of safety lay in accepting the supremacy of the Chaldeans. He was accordingly accused of treachery, and men claiming to be prophets had their " word of Jehovah " to set against his (xiv. 13, xxiii. 7). In the fourth year of Jehoiakim the battle of Carchemish over- threw the hopes of the Egyptian party (xlvi. 2), and the armies of Nebuchadnezzar drove those who had no defenced cities to take refuge in Jerusalem (xxxv. 11). As the danger from the Chaldeans became more threatening, the persecution against Jere- miah grew hotter (xviii.) The people sought his life ; his voice rose up in the prayer that God would deliver and avenge him. That thought he soon reproduced in act as well as word. Standing in the valley of Ben-Hin- nom, he broke the earthern vessel he carried in his hands, and prophesied to the peo])le that the whole city should be defiled with the dead, as that valley had been, within their memoi-y, by Josiah (xix. 10-13). The boldness of the speech and act drew upon him immediate punishment. The years that followed brought no change for the better. Famine and drought were added to the miseries of the people (xiv, 1), but false prophets still deceived them with assurances of plenty ; and Jeremiah was looked on with dislike, as "a prophet of evil," and "every one cursed" him (xv. 10). He was set, however, " as a fenced brazen wall" (xv. 20), and went on with his work, reproving king and nobles and people. The danger which Jei-emiah had so long foretold at last came near. First Jehoiakim, and afterwards his successor Jehoiachin, were carried into exile (2 K. xxiv.) ; but Zedekiah (b.c. 597-586), who was appointed by Nebuchadnezzar, does not exhibit the same obstinate resistance to the prophet's counsels as Jehoiakim. He respects him, fears him, seeks his counsel ; but he is a mere shadow of a king, powerless even against his own counsellors, and in his reign, accordingly, the sufferings of Jeremiah were sharper than they had been before. The approach of an Egyptian army, and the consequent departure of the Chaldeans, made the position of Jei-emiah full of danger ; and he sought to effect his escape from the city, and to take refuge in his own town of Ana- thoth or its neighbourhood (xxxvii. 12). The discovery of this plan led to the charge of desertion : it Avas thought that he too was " falling away to the Chaldeans," as others were doing (xxxviii. 19) ; and, in spite of his denial, he was thrown into a dungeon (xxxvii. 16). The interposition of the king, who still respected and consulted him, led to some mitigation of the rigour of his confine- ment (xxxvii. 21); but, as this did not hinder him from speaking to the people, the princes of Judah, bent on an alliance with Egypt, and calculating on the king's being unable to resist them (xxviii. 5), threw him into the pi'ison-pit, to die there. From this horrible fate he was again delivered by the friendship of the P'thiopian eunuch, Ebed- Melech, and the king's regai-d for him ; and was restored to the milder custody in which he had been kept previously, where we find (xxxii. 16) he had the companionship of Baruch. The return of the Chaldean army filled both king and people with dismay (xxxii. 1) ; and the risk now was that they would pass from their presumptuous con- fidence to the opposite extreme and sink down in despair, with no faith in God and no hope for the future. The prophet was tauglit how to meet that danger also. In his prison, while the Chaldeans were ra- vaging the country, he bought, with all requisite formalities, the field at Anathoth which his kinsman Hanameel wished to get rid of (xxxii. 6-9). His faith in the pro- mises of God did not fail him. At last the blow came. The city was taken, the Temple burnt. The king and his princes shared the fate of Jehoiachin. The prophet gave utter- ance to his sorrow in the Lamkntations. After the capture of Jerusalem, b.c. 586, the Chaldean party in Judah had now the pros- l)ect of better things. We find a special charge given to Nebuzaradan (xxxix. II) to protect the person of Jeremiah ; and, after being carried as far as Ramah with the crowd of captives (xl. 1), he was set free, and Gedaliah made governor over the cities of Judah. The feeling of the Chaldeans towards him was shown yet more strongly in the offer made him by Nebuzaradan (xl. 4, 5). For a short time there was an in- terval of peace (xl. 9-12), soon broken, how- ever, by the murder of Gedaliah by Ishmael and his associates. The prophet escaped from the massacre ; and the people, under Johanan, who had taken the command on the death of Gedaliah, turned to him for JEKEMIAH 24(5 JERICHO counsel. His warnings and assurances were m vain, and did but draw on him and Barucli the old charge of treachery (xliii. 3). The people followed their own counsel, and in order to escape the vengeance of Nebuchadnezzar for the murder of Gedaliah, they determined to take refuge in Egypt. They carried with them Jeremiah and his I faithful friend and amanuensis Baruch. [Baruch.] In Egypt, in the city of Tah- panlies, we have the last clear glimpses of the Prophet's life. His words are sharper and stronger than ever. He does not shrink, even there, from speaking of the Chaldean king once more as '' the servant of Jehovah " (xliii. 10). After this all is uncertain. If we could assume that lii. 31 was written by Jeremiah himself, it would show that he reached an extreme old age, but this is so doubtful that we are left to other sources. On the one hand there is the Christian tra- dition, resting doubtless on some earlier belief, that the Jews at Tahpanhes, irritated by his rebukes, at last stoned him to death. On the other side there is the Jewish state- ment that on the conquest of Egypt by Nebu- chadnezzar, he, with Baruch, made his escape to Babylon or Judaea, and died in peace. — The absence of any chronol)gical order in the present structure of the collection of Jeremiah's prophecies is obvious at the first glance. In the present order we have two great divisions : — I. Ch. i.-xlv. Pi-ophecies delivered at various times, directed mainly to Judah, or connected with Jeremiah's per- sonal history. II. Ch. xlvi.-li. Prophecies connected with other nations. Ch. lii., taken largely, though not entirely, from 2 K. xxv., may be taken either as a supplement to the prophecy, or as an introduction to the La- mentations. Looking more closely into each of these divisions we have the following sec- tions : — 1. Ch. i.-xxi. Containing probably the substance of the book of xxxvi. 32, and including prophecies from the thirteenth year of Josiah to the fourth of Jehoiakim : i. 3, however, indicates a later revision, and the whole of ch. i. may possibly have been added on the prophet's retrospect of his whole work from this its first beginning. Ch. xxi. be- longs to a later period, but has probably found its place here as connected, by the recurrence of the name Pashur, with ch. xx. 2. Ch. xxii. xxv. Shorter prophecies, de- livered at different times, against the kings of Judah and the false prophets, xxv. 13, 14, evidently marks the conclusioii of a series of prophecies ; and that which follows, xxv. 15-38, the germ of the fuller predic- tions in xlvi.-xlix., has been placed here as a kind of completion to the prophecy of the Seventy Years and the subsequent fall of Babylon. — 3. Ch. xxvi.-xxviii. The two great prophecies of the fall of Jerusalem, and the history connected with tbem. Ch. xxvi. belongs to the earlier, ch. xxvii. and xxviii. to the later period of the prophet's work. Jehoiakim, in xxvii. 1, is evidently (comp. ver. 3) a mistake for Zedekiah. — 4. Ch. xxix.-xxxi. The message of comfort for the exiles in Babylon. — 5. Ch. xxxii.-xliv. The history of the last two years before the capture of Jerusalem, and of Jeremiah'sr work in them and in the period that fol- lowed. The position of ch. xlv., uncon- nected with anything before or after it, may be accounted for on the hypothesis that Baruch desired to place on record so me- morable a passage in his own life, and in- serted it where the direct narrative of his master's life ended. The same explanation applies in part to ch. xxxvi. — 6. Ch. xlvi.- li. The prophecies against foreign nations, ending with the great prediction against Babylon. — 7. The supplementary narrative of ch. lii. J E II' I C HO, a city of high antiquity, situ- ated in a plain traversed by the Joi-dan, and exactly over against where that river was crossed by the Israelites under Joshua (Josh, iii. 16). It had a king. Its walls were so considerable that houses were built upon them (ii. 15), and its gates were shut, as throughout the East still, " when it was dark" (v. 5). The spoil that was found in it betokened its affluence. Jericho is first mentioned as the city to which the two spies were sent by Joshua from Shittim : they were lodged in the house of llahab the harlot upon the wall, and departed, having first promised to save her and all that were found in her house from destruction (ii. 1-21). As it had been left by Joshua it was bestowed by him upon the tribe of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 21), and from this time a long interval elapses before Jericho appears again upon the scene. The solemn manner in which its second foundation under Hiel the Bethelite is recorded (1 K. xvi. 34) implies that up to that time its site had been unin- habited. Once rebuilt, Jericho rose again slowly into consequence. In its immediate vicinity the sons of the prophets sought re- tirement from the world : Elisha " healed the spring of the waters ; " and over against it, beyond Jordan, Elijah " went up by a whirlwind into heaven " (2 K. ii. 1-22). In its plains Zedekiah fell into the hands of the Chaldeans (2 K. xxv. 5 ; Jer. xxxix. 5). In the return under Zerubbabel the " chil- dren of Jericho," 345 in number, are com- prised (Ez. iii. 34; Neh. vu. 36). Under JEROBOAM 247 JEROBOAM Herod the Great it again became an impor- tant place. He built a fort there, which he called " Cyprus " in honour of his mother ; a tower which he called in honour of his brother Phasaelis ; and a number of new palaces, which he named after his friends. He even founded a new town, higher up the plain, which he called, like the tower, Pha- saelis. If he did not make Jericho his habitual residence, he at least retired thither to die, and it was in the amphitheatre of Jericho that the news of his deith was an- nounced to the assembled soldiers and people by Salome. Soon afterwards the palace was burnt, and the town plundered by one Simon, slave to Herod ; but Archelaus re- built the former sumptuously, and founded a new town on the plain, that bore bis own name ; and, most important of all, diverted water from a village called Neaera, to irrigate the plain which he had planted with palms. Thus Jericho was once moi-e " a city of palms " when our Lord visited it. Here He restored sight to the blind (Matt. xx. 30 ; Mark X. 46 ; Luke xviii. 35). Here the descendant of Rahab did not disdain the hospitality of Zacchaeus the publican. Finally, between Jerusalem and Jericho was laid the scene of His story of the good Samaritan. The city was destroyed by Vespasian. The site of ancient (the first) Jericho is placed by Dr. Robinson in the immediate neighbourhood of the fountain of Elisha ; and that of the second (the city of the N.T. and of Josephus) at the opening of the Wady Kelt {C'he7-ith), half an hour from the fountain. JEROBO'AM. 1. The first king of the divided kingdom of Israel (b.c. 975-954), was the son of an Ephraimite of the name of Nebat. He was employed by Solomon in the fortifica- tions of Millo underneath the citaciil of Zion, and was raised to the rank of super- intendent over the taxes and labours exacted from the tribe of Ephraim (1 K. xi. 28). He made the most of his position, and at last was perceived by Solomon to be aiming at the monarchy. These ambitious designs were probably fostered by the sight of the growing disaffection of the great tribe over which he presided, as well as by the aliena- tion of the Prophetic order from the house of Solomon. He was leaving Jerusalem, and he encountered on one of the black-paved roads which ran out of the city, Ahijah, " the prophet " of the ancient sanctuary of Shiloh. Ahijah, who was dressed in a new outer garment, stripped it off, and tore it into 12 shreds; 10 of which he gave to Jeroboam, with the assurance that on con- dition of his obedience to His laws, God v'ould establish for him a kingdom and dynasty equal to that of David (1 K. xi. 29-40). The attempts of Solomon to cut short Jeroboam's designs occasioned his flight iftto Egj'pt. There he remained during the rest of Solomon's reign. On Solomon's death, he demanded Shishak's permission to return. The Egyptian king seems, in his rehictance, to have offered any gift which Jeroboam chose, as a reason for his remain- ing, and the consequence was the marriage with Ano, the elder sister of the Egyptian queen, Tahpenes, and of another princess who had married the Edomite chief, Hadad. A year elapsed, and a son, Abijah (or Abijam), was born. Then Jeroboam again requested permission to depart, which was granted ; and on his return to Shechem took place the conference with Rehoboam, and the final revolt [Rehoboam] ; which ended in the ele- vation of Jeroboam to the throne of the north- ern kingdom. From this moment one fatal error crept, not unnaturally, into his policy, which undermined his dynasty and tarnished his name as the first king of Israel. The political disruption of the kingdom was com- plete ; but its religious unity was as yet unimpaired. He feared that the yeai'ly pil- grimages to Jerusalem would undo all the work which he effected, and he took the bold step of rending it asunder. Two sanc- tuaries of venerable antiquity existed already, one at the southern, the other at the north- ern extremity of his dominions. These he elevated into seats of the national worship, which should rival the newly established Temple at Jerusalem. But he was not satis- fied without another deviation from the Mo- saic idea of the national unity. His long stay in Egypt had familiarised him with the outward forms under which the Divinity was there represented. A golden figure of Mnevis, the sacred calf of Heliopolis, was set up at each sanctuary, with the address, " Behold thy God which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt." The sanctuary at Dan, as the most remote from Jerusalem, was esta- blished first (1 K. xii. 30). The more im- portant one, as nearer the capital and in the heart of the kingdom, was Bethel. . The worship and the sanctuary continued till the end of the northern kingdom. It was while dedicating the altar at Bethel that a prophet from Judah suddenly appeared, who de- nounced the altar, and foretold its desecra- tion by Josiah, and violent overthrow. The king stretching out his hand to arrest the prophet, felt it withered and paralyzed, and only at the prophet's prayer saw it restored, and acknowledged his divine mission. Jero- boam was at constant war with the house of Judah, but the only act distinctly recorded is JERUBBAAL 248 JERUSALEM a battle with Abijah, son of Rehoboam, in wliicli he was defeated. The calamity was severely felt ; he never recovered the blow, and soon after died, in the 22nd year of his reign (2 Chr. xiii. 20), and was buried in his ancestral sepulchre (1 K. xiv. 20).— 2. Jeroboam II., the son of Joash, the 4th of thedynasty of Jehu (b.c. 825-784). The most prosperous of the kings of Israel. He re- pelled the Syrian invaders, took their capital city Damascus (2 K. xiv. 28 ; Am. i. 3-5), and recovered the whole of the ancient dominion from Haraath to the Dead Sea (xiv. 25 ; Am. vi. 14). Amnion and Moab were recon- quered (Am. i. 13, ii. 1-3) ; the Transjor- danic tribes -were restored to their territory (2 K. xiii. 5 ; 1 Chr. v. 17-22). But it was merely an outward restoration. Amos was charged by Amaziah with prophesying the destruction of Jeroboam and his house by the sword (Am. vii. 9, 17). JERUBBA'AL, the surname of Gideon which he acquired in consequence of de- stroying the altar of Baal, when his father defended him from the vengeance of the Abi- ezrites (Judg. vi. 32). JERU'SALEM. I. The Place Itself.— The arguments for and against the identity of the " Salem " of Melchizedek (Gen. xiv. 18) with Jerusalem — the " Salem " of a late Psalmist (Ps. Ixxvi. 2) — are discussed under Salem. The earliest notice of the city is in Josh. XV. 8 and xviii. 16, 28, describing the landmarks of the boundaries of Judah and Benjamin. Here it is styled Ha-Jebusi, t. e. " the Jebusite " (A. V. Jebusi), after the name of its occupiers. Next, we find the form Jebus (Judg. xix. 10, 11) — *' Jebus, which is Jerusalem .... the city of the Jebusites ; " and lastly, we have Jerusalem (Josh. X. 1, &c., xii. 10 ; Judg. i. 7, &c.). — Jerusalem stands in latitude 31° 46', 35" North, and longitude 35° 18' 30" East of Greenwich. It is 32 miles distant from the sea, and 18 from the Jordan ; 20 from Hebron, and 36 from Samaria. " In several respects," says Dean Stanley, " its situation is singular among the cities of Palestine. Its elevation is remarkable ; occasioned not from its being on the summit of one of the numerous hills of Judaea, like most of the towns and villages, but because it is on the edge of one of the highest table-lands of the country. Hebron indeed is higher still by some hundred feet, and from the south, ac- cordingly (even from Bethlehem), the ap- proach to Jerusalem is by a slight descent. But from any other side the ascent is per- petual ; and to the traveller approaching the city from the E. or W. it must always have presented the appearance beyond any other capital of the then known world — we may say beyond any important city that has ever existed on the earth — of a mountain city ; breathing, as compared with the sultry plains of Jordan, a mountain air ; en- throned, as compared with Jericho or Da- mascus, Gaza or Tyre, on a mountain fast- ness " [S. ^ P. 170, 1). The elevation of Jerusalem is a subject of constant reference and exultation by the Jewish writers. Their fervid poetry abounds with allusions to its height, to the ascent thither of the tribes from all parts of the country. It was the habitation of Jehovah, from which "He looked upon all the inhabitants of the world" (Ps. xxxiii. 14): its kings were " higher than the kings of the earth " (Ps. Ixxxix. 27). Jerusalem, if not actually in the centre of Palestine, was yet virtually so. " It was on the ridge, the broadest and most strongly marked ridge of the back-bone of the complicated hills which extend through the whole country from the Plain of Esdrae- lon to the Desert. Every wanderer, every conqueror, every traveller who has trod the central route of Palestine from N. to S. must have passed through the table-land of Jeru- salem. It was the watershed between the streams, or rather the torrent beds, which find their way eastward to the Jordan, and those which pass westward to the Mediter- ranean " (Stanley, S. ^ P. 176). This cen- tral position, as expressed in the words of Ezekiel (v. 5), " I have set Jerusalem in the midst of the nations and countries round about her," led in later ages to a definite belief that the city was actually in the centre of the earth — in the words of Jerome, " um- bilicus terrae," the central boss or navel of the world. — Roads. There appear to have been'but two main approaches to the city. 1. From the Jordan valley by Jericho and the Mount of Olives. This was the route commonly taken from the north and east of the country — as from Galilee by our Lord (Luke xvii. 11, xviii. 35, xix. 1, 29, 45, &c.), from Damascus by Pompey, to Maha- naim by David (2 Sam. xv. xvi.). It was also the route from places in the central dis- tricts of the country, as Samaria (2 Chr. xxviii. 15). The latter part of the approach, over the Mount of Olives, as generally fol- lowed at the present day, is identical with what it was, at least in one memorable instance, in the time of Christ. 2. From the great maritime plain of Philistia and Sharon. This road led by the two Beth- horons up to the high ground at Gibeon, whence it turned south, and came to Jeru- salem by Ramah and Gibeah, and over the ridge north of the city. — Topography. To JERUSALEM 249 JERUSALEM convey an idea of the position of Jerusalem, ' which is cut off from the country round it on •we may say roughly, and with reference to I its west, south, and east sides, by ravines the accompanying Plan, that the city occu- I more than usually deep and precipitous. pies the southern termination of a table-land, ' These ravines leave the level of the table- Scopus Vl","/// "''"lill.'\\\\\\VN"^"" jH Pal a CI ^ Plcxce ^^<<-. ■:'-mt: Wm. Vi&w of Jerusuleiu. JERUSALEM 250 JERUSALEM land, the one on the west and the other on the north-east of the city, and fall rapidly until they form a junction below its south- east coi-ner. The eastern one — the valley of the Kedron, commonly called the Valley of Jehoshaphat, runs nearly straight from north to south. But the western one — the valley of Hinnom — runs south for a time and then takes a sudden bend to the east until it meets the Valley of Jehoshaphat, after which the two rush off as one to the Dead Sea. How sudden is their descent may be gathered from the fact, that the level at the point of junction — about a mile and a quarter from the starting-point of each — is more than 600 feet below that of the upper plateau from which they commenced their descent. Thus, while on the north there is no material dif- ference between the general level of the country outside the walls, and that of the highest parts of the city ; on the other three sides, so steep is the fall of the ravines, so trench-like their character, and so close do they keep to the promontory, at whose feet they run, as to leave on the beholder almost the impression of the ditch at the foot of a fortress, rather than of valleys formed by nature. The promontory thus encircled is itself divided by a longitudinal ravine run- ning up it from south to north, called the valley of the Tyropoeon, rising gradually from the south like the external ones, till at last it arrives at the level of the upper plateau, and dividing the central mass into two unequal portions. Of these two, that on the west is the higher and more massive on which the city of Jerusalem now stands, and in fact always stood. The hill on the east is considerably lower and smaller, so that, to a spectator from the south, the city appears to slope sharply towards the east. Here was the Temple, and here stands now the great Mohammedan sanctuary with its mosques and domes. — The name of Mouxr Ziox has been applied to the western hill from the time of Constantine to the present day ; but not- withstanding it seems certain that up to the time of the destruction of the city by Titus, the name was applied exclusively to the eastern hill, or that on which the Temple stood. From the passages in 2 Sam. v. 7, and 1 Chr. xi. 5-8, it is quite clear that Zion and the city of David were identical, for it is there said, " David took the castle of Zion, which is the city of David." " And David dwelt in the castle, therefore they called it the city of David. And he built the city round about, even from Millo round about, and Joab repaired the rest of the city." There are numberless passages in which Zion is spoken of as a Holy place in such terms as are never applied to Jerusalem and which can only be understood as applied to the Holy Temple Mount (Ps. ii. 6, Ixxxrli. 2, &c.). When from the Old Testament we turn to the Books of the Maccabees, we come to some passages written by persons who cer- tainly were acquainted with the localities, which seem to fix the site of Zion with a considerable amount of certainty (1 Mace, iv. 37 and 60, vii. 33). — The eastern hill, called Mount Mokiah in 2 Chron. iii. 1, was, as already remarked, the site of the Temple. It was situated in the south-west angle of the area, now known as the Haram area, and was, as we learr from Josephus, an exact square of a stadium, or 600 Greek feet, on each side. Attached to the north- west angle of the Temple was the Antonia, a town or fortress. North of the side of the Temple is the building now known to Chris- tians as the Mosque of Omar, but by Moslems called the Dome of the Rock. This building is, according to Mr. Fergusson's theory, the identical church which Constantine erected ever the rock containing the tomb of Christ. According to this view the Church of the Holy Sejyulchre, which stands on the western hill, has no right to its name. The soxithern continuation of the eastern hill was named Ophel, which gradually came to a point at the junction of the valleys Tyropoeon and Jehoshaphat ; and the northern Bezetiia, " the New City," first noticed by Josephus, which was separated from Moriah by an artificial ditch, and overlooked the valley of Kedron on the E. ; this hill was enclosed within the walls of Herod Agrippa. Lastly, Agra lay westward of Moriah and northward of Zion, and formed the " Lower City " in the time of Josephus. — Gates. — The follow- ing is a complete list of those which are named in the Bible and Josephus, with the references to their occurrences ;— L Gate of Ephraim. 2 Chr. xxv. 23 ; Neb. viii. 16, xii. 39. This is probably the same as the — 2. "Gate of Benjamin. Jer. xx. 2, xxxvii. 13 ; Zech. xiv. 10. If so, it was 400 cubits distant from the — 3. Corner gate. 2 Ghr. xxv. 23, xxvi. 9 ; Jer. xxxi. 38 ; Zech. xiv. 10. 4. Gate of Joshua, governor of the city. 2 K. xxiii. 8. 5. Gate between the two walls. 2 K. xxv. 4 ; Jer. xxxix. 4. 6. Horse gate. Neh. iii. 38 ; 2 Chr. xxiii. 15; Jer. xxxi. 40. 7. Ravine gate [i.e. opening on ravine of Hinnom). 2 Chr. xxvi. 9; Neh. ii. 13, 15, iii. 13. 8. Fish gate. 1 Chr. xxxiii. 14 ; Neh. iii. 1 ; Zeph. i. 16. 9. Dung gate, Neh. ii. 13, iii. 13. 10. Sheep gate. Neh. iii. 1, 32, xii. 39. 11. East gate. Neh. iii. 29. 12. Miphkad- Neh. iii. 31. 13. Fountain gate (Siloam?) ,1 JERUSALEM 251 JERUSALEM Neh. xii. 37. 14. Water gate. Neh. xii. 37. 15. Old gate. Neh. xii. 39. 16. Prison gate. Neh. xii. 39. 17, Gate Harsith (perhaps the Sun; A. V. East gate). Jer. xix. 2. 18. First gate. Zech. xiv. 10. 19. Gate Gennath (gardens). Joseph, i?. J. V. 4, §4. 20. Essenes' gate. Jos. B. J. 4, § 2. — To these should he added the following gates of the Temple :— Gate Sur, 2 K. xi. 6. Called also Gate of foundation. 2 Chr. xxiii. 5. Gate of the guard, or hehind the guard. 2 K. xi. 6, 19. Called the High gate. 2 Chr. xxiii. 20, xxvii. 3 ; 2 K. xv. 35. Gate Shallecheth. 1 Chr. xxvi. IG.— Walls. — These are described by Josephus. T\ie first or old wall began on the north at the tower called Hippicus, the ruins now called Kasr Jalitd at the N.W. angle of the present citj', and, extending to the Xystus, joined the council house, and ended at the west cloister of the Temple. Its southern dii-ection is desci'ibed as passing the gate of the Essenes (probably the modern Jaffa gate), and, bending above the fountain of Siloam, it reached Ophel, and was joined to the eastern cloistei of the Temple. The second wall began at the gate Gennath, in the old wall, probably near the Hippicus, and passed round the northern quarter of the city, en- closing the great valley of the Tyropoeon, which leads up to the Damascus gate ; and then, proceeding southward, joined the for- tress Antonia. The direction of this second wall was identical with that of the modern wall ; and some part at least of the northern portion of the western part of the Haram area is probably built on its site. The third wall was built by King Herod Agrippa ; and was intended to enclose the suburbs which had grown out on the northern sides of the city, which before this had been left exposed. It began at the Hippicus, and reached as far as the tower Psephinus, till it came opposite the monument of Queen Helena of Adiabene ; it then passed by the sepulchral monuments of the kings — a well-known locality — and turning south at the monument of the FviUer, joined the old wall at the valley called the valley of Kedron. After describ- ing these walls, Josephus adds that the whole circumference of the city was 33 stadia, or nearly four English miles, which is as near as may be the extent indicated by the locali- ties. He then adds that the number of towers in the old wall was 60, the middle wall 40, and the new wall 99. — Pools and Fountains. — Among the objects of interest about Jerusalem the pools hold a conspicuous place. Outside the walls on the W. side were the Upper and Lower Pools of Gihon, the latter close under Zion, the former more to the N.W. on the Jaffa road. At the junction of the valleys of Hinnom and Jehoshaphat was Enrogki,, the Well of Job, in the midst of the king's gardens. Within the walls, immediately N. of Zion, was tlie " Pool of Hezekiah." A large pool existing beneath the Temple (referred to in Ecclus. 1. 3), was probably supplied by some subterranean aqueduct. The " King's Pool " was pro- bably identical with the Fountain of the Virgin, at the southern angle of Moriah. It possesses the peculiarity that it rises and falls at irregular periods ; it is supposed to be fed from the cistern below the Temple. From this a subterranean channel cut through the solid rock leads the water to the pool of SiLOAH or Siloam, which has also acquired the character of being an intermittent foun- tain. The pool to which tradition has as- signed the name of Betkesda is situated on the N. side of Moriah : it is now named Birket Israil. — Burial-grounds. — The main cemetery of the city seems from an early date to have been where it is still— on the steep slopes of the valley of the . Kedron. The tombs of the kings were in the city of David, that is. Mount Zion. The roj'al sepulchres were probably chambers contain- ing separate recesses for the successive kings. Otlier spots also were used for burial. — Gardens. — The king's gardens of David and Solomon seem to have been in the bottom formed by the confluence of the Kedron and Hinnom (Neh. iii. 15). The Mount of Olives, as its name and those of various places upon it seem to imply, was a fruitful spot. At its foot was situated the Garden of Gethsemane. At the time of the final siege the space north of the wall of Agrippa was covered with gardens, groves, and plantations of fruit-trees, inclosed by hedges and walls ; and to level these was one of Titus's first operations. We know that the gate Gennath {i.e. " of gardens ") opened on this side of the city. — Streets, Houses, i^c. — Of the nature of these in the ancient city we have only the most scattered notices. The " East street " (2 Chr. xxix. 4) ; the " street of the city " — i.e. the city of David (xxxii. 6) ; the " sti-eet facing the water gate" (Neh. viii. 1, 3)— or, according to the parallel account in 1 Esdr. ix. 38, the " broad place of the Temple towards the East ; " the "street of the house of God" (Ezr. X. 9) ; the " street of the gate of Ephraim " (Neh. viii. 16) ; and the " open place of the first gate towards the East " must have been not " streets " in our sense of the word, so much as the open spaces found in eastern towns round the inside of the gates. Streets, properly so called, there were (Jer. v. 1, xi. JERUSALEM JERUSALEM 13, &c.) ; but the name of only one "the bakers' street" (Jer. xxxvii. 21), is pre- served to us. To the houses we have even less clue ; but there is no reason to suppose that in either houses or streets the ancient Jerusalem differed verj' materially from the modern. No doubt the ancient city did not exhibit that air of mouldering dilapidation which is now so prominent there. The whole of the slopes south of the Haram area (the ancient Ophel), and the modern Zion, and the west side of the valley of Jelioshaphat, present the appearance of gi- gantic mounds of rubbish. In this point at least the ancient city stood in favourable contrast with the modern, but in many others the rnsemblance must have been strong. — Population. — Taking the area of the city enclosed bj^ the two old wails at 750,000 yards, and that enclosed by the wall of Agrippa at 1,500,000, M-e have 2,250,000 yards for the whole. Taking the population of the old city at the probable number of one person to 50 yards we have 15,000, and at the extreme limit of 30 yards we should have 25,000 inhabitants for the old city. And at 100 j-ards to each indi- vidual in the new city about 15,000 more; so that the population of Jerusalem, in its days of greatest prosperity, may have amounted to from 30,000 to 45,000 souls, but could hardly ever have reached 50,000 ; and assuming that in times of festival one- luilf were added to this amount, which is an extreme estimate, there may have been 60,000 or 70,000 in the city when Titus came up again.'^t it. — Etivirons of the City.— 'I'he various sjjots in the neighbourhood of the city are described under their own names, and to them the reader is accord- ingly referred. — II. Tiiv. Annals of thk City. — In considering the annals of the city of Jerusalem, nothing sti-ikes one so forcibly as the number and severity of the sieges which it underwent. We catch our earliest glimpse of it in the brief notice of the 1st chapter of Judges, which describes how the " children of Judah smote it with the edge of the sword, and set the city on fire ; " and almost the latest mention of it in the New Testament is contained in the solemn warnings in which Christ foretold how Jerusalem should be " compassed with armies" (Luke xxi. 20), and the "abomina- tion of desolation " be seen standing in the Holy Place (Matt. xxiv. 15). In the fifteen centuries which elapsed between those two points the city was besieged no fewer than seventeen times ; twice it was razed to the ground ; and on two other occasions its walls were levelled. In this respect it stands without a parallel in any city ancient or modern. The first siege appears to have taken place almost immediately after the death of Joshua (cir. 1400 B.C.). Judah and Simeon " fought against it and took it, and smote it with the edge of the sword, and set the city on fire " (Judg. i. 8). To this brief notice Josephus makes a material addition. He tells us that the part which was taken at last, and in which the slaughter was made, was the lower city ; but tliat the upper city was so strong, that they relinquished the attempt and moved off to Hebron. As long as the upper city remained in the hands of the Jcbusites they practically had possession of the whole, and a Jebusite city in fact it remained for a long period after this. The Benjamites followed the men of Judah to Jerusalem, but with no better i-esult (Judg. i. 21). And this lasted during the whole period of the Judges, the reign of Saul, and the reign of David at Hebron. David ad- vanced against the place at the head of a formidable army. No doubt he approached the city from the south. As before, the lower city was immediately taken — and as before, the citadel held out. The undaunted Jcbu- sites, believing in the impregnability of their fortress, manned the battlements " with lame and blind." But they little understood the temper of the king or of those he commanded. David's anger Was thoroughly roused by the insult, and he at once proclaimed to his host that the first man who would scale the rocky side of the fortress and kill a Jebusite should be made chief captain of the host. A ci-owd of warriors rushed forward to the attempt, but Joab's superior agility gained him the day, and the citadel, the fastness of Zion, was taken (1046 e.g.). It is the first time that that memorable name appears in his- tory. The fortress, which now became the capital of the kingdom, received the name of " the city of David ; " and David fortified its whole circuit round about from Millo, while Joab repaired the rest of the city. (2 Sam. V. 6-9; 1 Chr. xi. 4-8.) Until the time of Solomon we hear of no additions to the city. His three great works were the Temple, with its east wall and cloister, his own Palace, and the Wall of Jerusalem. One of the first acts of the new king was to make the walls larger. Rut on the completion of the Temple he again turned his attention to the walls, and both increased their height and constructed very large towers along them. Another work of his in Jerusalem was the repair or fortifica- tion of Millo (1 K. ix. 15, 24). The city was taken by the Philistines and Arabians in the reign of Jehoram (e.g. 886), and by the Israelites in the reign of Amaziah (e.g. 826). JERUSALEM JESSE It was thrice taken by Nebuchadnezzar, in the years b.c. 607, 597, and 586, in the last of which it was utterly destroyed. Its resto- ration commenced under Cyrus (b.c. 538), and was completed under Artaxerxes I., who issued commissions for this purpose to Ezra (b.c. 457) and Nehemiah (b c. 445). In b.c. 332 it was captured by Alexander the Great. Under the Ptolemies and the Seleucidae the town was prosperous, until Antiochus Epi- phanes sacked it (b.c. 170). In consequence of his tyranny, the Jews rose under the Mac- cabees, and Jerusalem became again indepen- dent, and retained its position until its capture by the Romans under Pompey(B.c. 63). The Temple was subsequently plundered by Cras- SU3 (b.c. 54), and the city by the Parthians (b.c. 40). Hei-od took up his i-esidence there as soon as he was appointed sovereign, and restored the Temple with great magnificence. On the death of Herod it became the resi- dence of the Roman procurators, who occu- pied the fortress of Antonia. The greatest siege that it sustained, however, was at the hands of the Romans under Titus, when it held out nearly five months, and, when the town was completely destroyed (a.d. 70). Hadrian restored it as a Roman colony (a.d. 135), and among other buildings erected a temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the site of the Temple. He gave to it the name of Aelia Capitolina, thus combining his own family name with that of the Capitoline Jupiter. The emperor Constantine estab- lished the Christian character by the erec- tion of a church on the supposed site of the holy sepulchre (a.d. 336), and Justinian added several churches and hosi)itals (about A.D. 532). It was taken by the Persians under Chosi-oes II. in a.d. 614. After a struggle of fourteen years the imperial arms were again victorious, and in 628 Heraclius entered Jerusalem on foot. The dominion of the Christians in the Holy City was now rapidly drawing to a close. In a.d. 637 the patriarch Sophronius surrendered to the Khalif Omar in person. With the fall of the Abassides the Holy City passed into the hands of the Fatimite dynasty, under whom the sufferings of the Christians in Jerusalem reached their height. About the year 1084 it was bestowed upon Ortok, chief of a Turk- man horde under his command. From this time till 1091 Ortok was emir of the city, and on his death it was held as a kind of fief by his sons Ilghazy and Sukman, whose se- verity to the Christians became the proxi- mate cause of the Crusades. It was taken by the Crusaders in 1099, and for eighty- eight years Jerusalem remained in the hands of the Christians. In 1187 it was retaken by Saladin after a siege of several weeks. In 1277 Jerusalem was nominally annexed to the kingdom of Sicily. In 1517 it passed under the sway of the Ottoman Sultan Selim I., whose successor Suliman built the present walls of the city in 1542. Mohammed Aly, the Pasha of Egypt, look possession of it in 1832 ; and in 1840, after the bombardment of Acre, it was again restored to the Sultan. JESH'IMON, " the waste," a name which occurs in Num. xxi. 20 and xxiii. 28, in designating the position of Pisgah and Peor : both described as " facing the Jeshimon." Perhaps the dreary, barren waste of hills lying immediately on the west of the Dead Sea. JESH'UA (another form of the name Joshua or Jesus), son of Jehozadak, first high-priest of the third series, viz., of those after the Babylonish captivity, and ancestor of the fouiteen high-priests his successors down to Joshua or Jason, and Onias or Menelaus, inclusive. [High-priest.] Jeshua, like his contemporary Zerubbabel, was pro- bably born in Babj-lon, whither his father Jehozadak had been taken captive while young (1 Chr. vi. 15, A. V.). He came up from Babylon in the first year of Cyrus with Zerubbabel, and took a leading part -nith him in the rebuilding of the Temple, and the i-estoration of the Jewish commonwealth. The two prophecies concerning him in Zech. iii. and vi. 9-15, point him out as an eminent type of Christ. JESH'URUN, and once by mistake in A. V. JES'URUN (Is. xliv. 2), a symbolical name for Isi-ael in Deut. xxxii. 15, xxxiii. 5, 26; Is. xliv. 2. It is most i)robably derived from a root signifying "to be blessed." With the intensive termination Jeshurun would then denote Israel as supremely happy or prosperous, and to this signification the context in Deut. xxxii. 15 points. JESSE, the father of David, was the son of Obed, who again was the fruit of the union of Boaz and the Moabitess Ruth. Nor was Ruth's the only foreign blood that ran in his veins ; for his great-grandmother was no less a person than llahab the Canaanite, of Jericho (Matt. i. 5). Jesse's genealogy is twice given in full in the O. T., viz. Ruth iv. 18-22, and 1 Chr. ii. 5-12. He is com- monly designated as " Jesse the Bethlehe- mite " (1 Sam. xvi. 1, 18). So be is called by his son David, then fresh from home (xvii. 5S) ; but his full title is "the Ephra- thite of Bethlehem Judah " (xvii. 12). He is an " old man " when we first meet with him (1 Sam. xvii. 12), with eight sons (xvi. 10, xvii. 12), residing at Bethlehem (xvj. 4, 5j. Jesse's wealth seems to have ion« JESUS 254 JESUS CHRIST bistcd of a flock of sheep and goats, which were under the care of David (xvi. 11, xvii. 34, 35). When David's rupture with Saul had finally driven him from the court, and he was in the cave of AduUam, " his brethren and all his father's house" joined him (xxii. 1). Anxious for their safety, he took his father and his mother into the country of ]Moab, and deposited them with the king, and there they disappear from our view in the records of Scripture. Who tlie wife of Jesse was we are not told. His eight sons will be found displayed under David. JE'SUS, the Greek form of the name Joshua or Jeshua, a contraction of Jehoshua, that is, " help of Jehovah " or " Saviour," (Num. xiii. 16). [Jehoshua.] JESUS THE SON OF SIRACH is de- scribed in the text of Ecclesiasticus (1. 2?) as the author of that book, which in the LXX., and generally, except in the Western Church, is called by his name the Wisdom of Jesus fJie Son of Sirach, or simply the Wisdom of Sirach. [Ecclesiasticus.] JE'SUS, called JUSTUS, a Christian who was with St. Paul at Rome (Col. iv. 11), JE'SUS CHRIST.— I. Name.— The name Josus signifies Saviour. The name of Christ signifies Anointed. Priests were anointed among the Jews, as their inauguration to their office (1 Chr. xvi, 22 ; Ps. cv. 15), and kings also (2 Mace. i. 24 ; Ecclus. xlvi. 19). In the New Testament the name Christ is used as equivalent to Messiah (John i. 41), the name given to the long-promised Prophet and King whom the Jews had been taught by their prophets to expect (Acts xix. 4 ; Matt. xi. 3). The use of this name, as applied to the Lord, has always a reference to the promises of the Prophets. The name of Jesus is the proper name of our Lord, and that of Christ is added to identify Him with the promised Messiah. — II. Birth and Early Life. — According to the received chronology, which is in fact that of Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century, the Birth of Christ occurred in the year of Rome 754 (a.d. 1) ; but from other considerations it is probable that the Nativity took place some time before the month of April 750 (a.d. 4), and if it happened only a few months before Herod's death, then its date would be four years earlier than the Dionysian reckoning. The salutation addressed by the Angel to Mary His mother, "Hail ! Thou that art highly favoured," was the prelude to a new act of divine creation. Mary received the announcement of a miracle, the full import of which she could not have understood, with the submission of one who knew that the message came from God ; and the Angel departed from her. The prophet Micah had foretold (v. 2) that the future king should be born in Bethlehem of Judaea, the place where the house of David had its origin ; but Mary dwelt in Nazareth. Au- gustus, however, had ordered a general census of the Roman empire. From the well-known passage of St. Luke (ii. 2) it appears that the taxing was not completed till the time of Quirinus (Cyrenius), some years later ; and how far it was carried now, cannot be determined : all that we learn is that it brought Joseph, who was of the house of David, from his home to Bethlehem, where the Lord was born. As there was no room in the inn, a manger was the cradle in which Christ the Lord was laid. But signs were not wanting of the greatness of the event that seemed so unimportant. Lowly shep- herds were the witnesses of the wonder that accompanied the lowly Saviour's birth ; an angel proclaimed to them " good tidings of great joy ; " and then the exceeding joy that was in heaven amongst the angels about this mystery of love broke through the silence of night with the words, " Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will to- wards men" (Luke ii. 8-20). 'J'he child Jesus is circumcised in due time, is brought to the Temple, and the mother makes the offering for her purification. Simeon and Anna, taught from God that the object of their earnest longings was before them, pro- phesied of His divine work : the one re- joicing that his eyes had seen the salvation of God, and the other speaking of Him «' to all that looked for redemption in Jerusalem" (Luke ii. 28-38). Thus recognised amongst His own people, the Saviour was not without witness amongst the heathen. " Wise men from the East"— that is, Persian magi of the Zend religion, in which the idea of a Zoziosh or Redeemer was clearly known — guided miraculously by a star or meteor created for the purpose, came and sought out the Saviour to pay him homage. A little child made the great Herod quake upon his throne. When he knew that the magi were come to hail their king and Lord, and did not stop at his palace, but passed on to a humbler roof, and when he found that they would not return to betray this child to him, he put to death all the children in Bethlehem that were under two years old. Joseph, warned by a dream, flees to Egypt with the young child, beyond the reach of Herod's arm. After the death of Herod, in less than a year, Jesus returned with his parents to their own land, and went to Nazareth, where they abode. Except as to one event, the Evangelists are silent upon the succeeding years of our Lord's life down to the commencement of JESUS CHRIST 255 JESUS CHRIST His ministrj'. When He was twelve years old He was found in the Temple, hearing the doctors and asking them questions (Luke ii. 40-52). We are shown this one fact that we may know that at the time when the Jews considered childhood to be passing into youth, Jesus was already aware of His mission, and consciously preparing for it, although years passed before its actual commencement. Thirty years had elapsed from the birth of our Lord to the opening of His ministry. In that time great changes had come over the chosen people. Herod the Great had united under him almost all the original kingdom of David ; after the death of that prince it was dismembered for ever. It was in the fifteenth year of Tiberius the Emperor, reckoning from his joint rule with Augustus (Jan. v.c. 765, a.d. 12), and not from his sole rule (Aug. u.c. 767, a.d. 14), that John the Baptist began to teach. He was the last representative of the prophets of the old covenant ; and his work was twofold — to enforce repentance and the terrors of the old law, and to revive the almost forgotten expectation of the Messiah (Matt. iii. 1-10 ; Mark i. 1-8 ; Luke iii. 1-18). The career of John seems to have been very short. Jesus came to Jordan with the rest to receive baptism at John's hands : first, in order that the sacrament by which all were here- after to be admitted into His kingdom might not want His example to justify its use (Matt. iii. 15) ; next, that John might have an assurance that his course as the herald of Christ was now completed by his appearance (John i. 33) ; and last, that some public token might be given that He was indeed the Anointed of God (Heb. v. 5). Immediately after this inauguration of His ministry Jesus was led up of the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted of the devil (Matt. iv. 1-11 ; Mark i. 12, 13; Luke iv. 1-13). The three temptations are addressed to the three forms in which the disease of sin makes its appear- ance on the soul — to the solace of sense, and the love of praise, and the desire of gain (1 John ii. 16).— III. The Lord's Ministry. — Before entering upon the history of our Lord's ministry, there are two points that demand a few i-emarks : — (i.) the scene of the ministry ; (il.) its duration, (i.) The scene of the ininistry. — As to the scene of the ministry of Christ, no less than as to its dura- tion, the three Evangelists seem at first sight to be at variance with the fourth. Matthew, Mark, and Luke record only our Lord's do- ings in Galilee ; if we put aside a few days before the Passion, we find that they never mention Ills visiting Jerusalem. John, on the other hand, whilst he records some acts in Galilee, devotes the chief part of his Gospel to the transactions in Judaea. But when the supplemental character of John's Gospel is borne in mind there is little diffi- culty in explaining this. The three Evan- gelists do not profess to give a chronology of the ministry, but rather a picture of it : notes of time are not frequent in their nar- rative. And as they chiefly confined them- selves to Galilee, where the P^edeemer's chief acts were done, they might naturally omit to mention the feasts, which being passed by our Lord at Jerusalem, added nothing to the materials for His Galilean ministry. — (ii.) Duratio7iy, of the ministry. — It is impossible to determine exactly from the Gospels the number of years during which the Redeemer exercised His ministry before the Passion : but the doubt lies between two and three. The data are to be drawn from St. John. This Evangelist mentions six feasts, at five of which Jesus was present ; the Passover that followed His baptism (ii. 13) ; "a feast of the Jews" (v, 1) ; a Passover during which Jesus remained in Galilee (vi. 4) ; the feast of Tabernacles to which the Lord went up privately (vii. 2) ; the feast of Dedication (x. 22) ; and lastly the feast of Passover, at which he suffered (xii. xiii.). There are certainly three Passovers, and it is possible that "a feast" (v. I) may be a fourth. Upon this possibility the question turns. But if this feast is not a Passover, then no Passover is mentioned by John be- tween the first (ii. 13), and that which is spoken of in the sixth chapter ; and the time between those two must be assumed to be a single year only. Now, although the record of John of this period contains but few facts, yet when all the Evangelists are compared, the amount of labour compressed into this single year woidd be too much for its compass. It is, to say the least, easier to suppose that the " feast" (John v. 1) was a Passover, dividing the time into two, and throwing two of these circuits into the second year of the ministry. Upon the whole, though there is nothing that amounts to proof, it is probable that there were four Passovers, and consequently that our Lord's ministry lasted somewhat more than three years, the " beginning of miracles " (John ii.) having been wrought before the first pass., over. — 1. First year of the viinistry. — The year of the first of these Passovers Avas u.c. 780 (a.d. 27), and the Baptism of our Lord took place either in the beginning of that j'ear or the end of the year preceding. Our Lord has now passed through the ordeal of tempta- tion, and His ministry is begun. At Betha- bara, to which He returns, disciples begin tf JESUS CHRIST 256 JESUS CHRIST be drawn towards Him ; Andrew and another, probably John, the sole narrator of the fact, see Jesus, and hear the Baptist's testimony concerninsr Him. Andrew brings Simon Peter to see Him also ; and he receives from the Lord the name of Cephas. Then Philip and Nathanael are brought into contact with our Lord. The two disciples last named saw Him as He was about to set out for Galilee, on the third day of His sojourn at Bethabara. Th.e third day after this interview Jesus is at Cana in Galilee, and works His first miracle, by making the water wine (John i. 29, 35, 43 ; ii. 1). He now betakes Himself to Capernaum, and after a sojourn there of " not many days," sets out for Jerusalem to the Passover, Avhich was to be the beginning of His ministry in Judaea (John ii. 12, 13). The cleansing of the Temple is associated by St. John with this first Passover (ii. 12-22), and a similar cleansing is assigned to the lapt Passover by the other Evangelists. These two cannot be confounded without throwing discredit on the historical character of one narrative or the other ; the notes of time are toe precise. The expulsion of the traders was not likely to produce a per- manent effect, and at the end of three years Jesus found the tumult and the traffic de- filing the court of the Temple as they had done when He visited it before. The visit of Nicodemus to Jesus took place about the first passover. It implies that our Lord had done more at Jerusalem than is recorded of Him even by John : since we have here a Master of Israel (John iii. 10), a member of the Sanhedrim (John vii. 50) expressing his belief in Him, although too timid at this time to make an open profession. The ob- ject of the visit, though not directly stated, is still clear : he was one of the better Pharisees, who were expecting the kingdom of Messiah, and having seen the miracles that Jesus did, he came to enquire more fully about these signs of its approach. It has been well said that this discourse con- tains the whole Gospel in epitome. After a sojourn at Jerusalem of uncertain duration, Jesus went to the Jordan with His disciples ; and they there baptized in His name. The Baptist was now at Aenon near Salim ; and the jealous J' of his disciples against Jesus drew from John an avowal of his position, which is remarkable for its humility (John iii. 27-30). How long this sojourn in Judaea lasted is uncertain. In the way to Galilee Jesus passed by the shortest route, through Samaria. In the time of our Lord the Samaritans were hated by the Jews even more than if they had been Gentiles. Yet c ren in Samaria were souls to be saved ; and Jesus would not shake off even that dust from His feet. He came in His journey to Sichem, which the Jews in mockery had changed to Sychar. Wearied and athirst He sat on the side of Jacob's well. A woman from the neighbouring town came to draw from the well, and was astonished that a Jew should address her as a neighbour, with a request for w^ater. The conversation that ensued might be taken for an example of the mode in which Christ leads to Himself the souls of men. In this remarkable dialogue are many things to ponder over. The living water which Christ would give ; the an- nouncement of a change in the worship of Jew and Samaritan ; _ lastly, the confession t"hat He who speaks is truly the Messiah, are all noteworthy. Jesus now returned to Galilee, and came to Nazareth, His own city. In the Synagogue He expounded to the people a passage from Isaiah (Ixi. 1), telling them that its fulfilment was now at hand in His person. The same truth that had filled the Samaritans with gratitude, wrought up to fury the men of Nazareth, who would have destroyed Him if He had not escaped out of their hands (Luke iv. 16-30). He came now to Capernaum. On his way hither, when He had reached Cana, He healed the son of one of the courtiers of Herod Antipas (John iv. 46-54), who " himself believed, and his whole house." This was the second Galilean miracle. At Capernaum He wrought many miracle^ for them that needed. Here two disciples who had known him before, namely, Simon Peter and Andrew, were called from their fishing to become " fishers of men" (Matt. iv. 19), and the two sons of Zebedee received the same summons. After healing on the Sabbath a demoniac in the Synagogue, He returned the same day to Simon's house, and healed the mother-in-law of Simon, who was sick of a fever. At sun- set, the multitude, now fully aroused by what they had heard, brought their sick to Simon's door to get them healed. He did not refuse His succour, and healed them all (Mark i. 29-34). He now, after showering down on Capernaum so many cures, turned His thoughts to the rest of Galilee, where other " lost sheep " were scattered : — " Let us go into the next towns that I may preach there also, for therefore came I forth " (Mark i. 38). The journey through Galilee, on which He now entered, must have been a general circuit of that country.— 2. Second year of the minisU'tj. — Jesus went up to Jerusalem to " a feast of the Jews," which was probably the Passover. At the pool Bethesda ( = house of mercy), which wag near the sheep-gate (Neh. iii. 1) on tb» THE HOLT LAND NEW TESTAMENT. | j JESUS CHRIST 251 JESUS CHRIST north-east side of the Temple, Jesus saw many infirm persons waiting their turn for the healing virtues of the water (John v. 1-18). Among them was a man who had an infirmity thirtj'-eight years : Jesus made him whole hy a word, bidding him take up his bed and walk. The miracle was done on the Sabbath ; and the Jews, who acted against Jesus, rebuked the man for carrying his bed. It was a labour, and as such forbidden (Jer. xvii. 21). In our Lord's justification of Himself, "My Father worketh hitherto, and I work" (John v. 17), there is an une- quivocal claim to the divine nature. An- other discussion about the Sabbath arose from the disciples plucking the ears of corn as they went through the fields (Matt. xii. 1-8). The time of this is somewhat un- certain ; some would place it a year later, just after the third Passover : but its place is much more probably here. Our Lord quotes cases where the law is superseded or set aside, because He is One who has power to do the same. And the rise of a new law is implied in those words -which St. Mark alone has recorded : *' The Sabbath was made for man, and not man for the Sabbath." The law upon the Sabbath was made in love to men, to preserve for them a due measure of rest, to keep room for the worship of God. The Son of Man has power to re-adjust this law, if its woi-k is done, or if men are fit to receive a higher. This may have taken place on the way to Jerusalem after the Passover. On another Sabbath, probably at Capernaum, to which Jesus had returned, the Pharisees gave a far more striking proof of the way in which their hard and narrow and unloving interpretation would turn the beneficence of the Law into a blighting op- pression. Our Lord entered into the syna- gogue, and found there a man with a withered hand — some poor artisan perhaps whose handiwork was his means of life. Jesus was about to heal him — which would give back life to the sufferer — which would give joy to every beholder, who had one touch of pity in his heart. The Pharisees interfere : "Is it lawful to heal on the Sabbath-day ? " Their doctors would have allowed them to pull a sheep out of a pit ; but they will not have a man rescued from the depth of misery. Rarely is that loving Teacher wroth, but here His anger, mixed with grief, showed itself : He looked round about upon them " with anger, being grieved at the hardness of their hearts," and answered their cavils by healing the man (Matt. xii. 9-14 ; Mark iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11).— In placing the ordination or calling of the Twelve Apostles just before the Sermon on the Mount, we are Sm. D. B. under the guidance of St. Luke (vi. 13, 17)- But this more solemn separation for their work by no means marks the time of their first approach to Jesus. That which takes place here is the appointment of twelve disciples to be a distinct body, under the name of Apostles. They are not sent forth to preach until later in the same year. The number twelve must have reference to the number of the Jewish tribes : it is a number selected on account of its symbolical mean- ing, for the work confided to them might have been wrought by more or fewer. In the four lists of the names of the Apostles preserved to us (Matt, x., Mark iii., Luke vi., Acts i.), there is a certain order pre- served, amidst variations. The two pairs of brothers, Simon and Andrew, and the sons of Zebedee, are always named the first ; and of these Simon Peter ever holds the first place. Philip and Bartholomew, Thomas and Matthew, are always in the next rank ; and of them Philip is always the first. In the third rank James the son of Alpheus is the first, as Judas Iscariot is always the last, with Simon the Zealot and Thaddaeus be- tween. Some of the Apostles were certainly poor and unlearned men ; it is probable that the rest were of the same kind. Four of them were fishermen, not indeed the poorest of their class ; and a fifth was a " publican," one of the tax-gatherers, who collected the taxes farmed by Romans of higher rank. From henceforth the education of the twelve Apostles will be one of the principal features of the Lord's ministry. First He instructs them ; then He takes them with Him as companions of His wayfaring ; then He sends them forth to teach and heal for Him. The Sermon on the Mount, although it is meant for all the disciples, seems to have a special reference to the chosen Twelve (Matt. v. 11). — About this time it was that John the Baptist, long a prisoner with little hope of release, sent his disciples to Jesus with the question, " Art thou He that should come, or do we look for another ? " In all the Gospels there is no more touching inci- dent. The great privilege of John's life was that he was appointed to recognize and bear witness to the Messiah (John i. 31). After languishing a year in a dungeon, after learn- ing that even yet Jesus had made no steps towards the establishment of His kingdom of the Jews, and that his following consisted of only twelve poor Galileans, doubts began to cloud over his spirit. Was the kingdom of Messiah as near as he had thought ? Was Jesus not the Messiah, but some forerunner of that Deliverer, as he himself had been ? There is no unbelief; he does not suppose S JESUS CHRIST 258 JESUS CHRIST that 3 esus ha? deceived ; when the doubts arise, it is to Jesus that he submits them. But it was not without great depression and perplexity that he put the question, " Art thou He that should come 1 " The scope of the ansAver given lies in its recalling John to the grounds of his former confidence. — Now commences the second circuit of Galilee (Luke viii. 1-3), to which belong the parables in Matt. xiii. ; the visit of our Lord's mother and brethren (Luke viii. 19-21), and the account of His reception at Nazareth (Mark vi, 1-6). During this time the twelve have journeyed with Him. But now a third circuit in Galilee is recorded, which probably oc- curred during the last three months of this year (Matt. ix. 35-38) ; and during this circuit, after reminding them how great is the harvest and how pressing the need of labourers, He carries the training of the dis- ciples one step further by sending them forth by themselves to teach (Matt. x. xi.). They went forth two and two ; and our Lord con- tinued His own circuit (Matt. xi. 1), with what companions does not appear. After a journey of perhaps two months' duration the twelve i-eturn to Jesus, and gave an account of their ministry. The third Passover was now drawing near ; but the Lord did not go up to it. He wished to commune with His Apostles privately upon their work, and, we may suppose, to add to the instruction they had already received from Him (Mark vi. 30, 31). He therefore went with them from the neighbourhood of Capernaum to a moun- tain on the eastern shore of the Sea Qf Tiberias, near Bethsaida Julias, not far froni the head of the sea. Great multitudes pur- sued tham ; and here the Lord, moved to compassion by the hunger and weariness of the people, wrought for them one of His most remarkable miracles. Out of five barley loaves and two small fishes. He produced food for five thousand men besides women and children. After the miracle the disciples crossed the sea, and Jesus retired alone to a mountain to commune with the Father. They were toiling at the oar, fur the wind was contrary, when, as the night drew to- wards morning, they saw Jesus walking to them on the sea, having passed the whole night on the mountain. They were amazed and terrified. He came into the ship and the wind ceased. When they reached the shore of Gennesaret the whole people showed their faith in Him as a Healer of disease (Mark vi. 53-56) ; and He performed very many miracles on them. Yet on the next day the great discourse just alluded to was uttered, and " from that time many of His disciples went back and walked no more with Him " (John vi. 66). — 3, Third yem- of the Ministry. — Hearing perhaps that Jesus was not coming to the feast. Scribes and Pharisees from Jeru- salem went down to see Him at Capernaum (Matt. XV. 1). Leaving the neighbourhood of Capernaum our Lord now travels to the north-west of Galilee, to the region of Tyre and Sidon. The time is not strictly deter- mined, but it was probably the early summer of this year. It does not appear that He retired into this heathen country for the pur- pose of ministering ; more probably it was a retreat from the machinations of the Jews (Matt. XV. 21-28 ; Mark vii. 24-30). Re- turning thence He passed round by the north of the sea of Galilee to the region of Deca- polis on its eastern side (Mark vii. 31-37). In this district He performed many miracles, and especially the restoration of a deaf man who had an impediment in his speech, re- markable for the seeming effort with which He wrought it. To these succeeded the feed- ing of the four thousand with the seven loaves (Matt. xv. 32). He now crossed the Lake of Magdala, where the Pharisees and Sadducees asked and were refused a " sign." After they had departed Jesus crossed the lake with his disciples. At Bethsaida Julias, He restored sight to a blind man ; and here, as in a former case, the form and preparation which He adopted are to be remarked (Mark viii. 22-26). The ministry in Galilee is now drawing to its close. Through the length and breadth of that country Jesus has pro- claimed the kingdom of Christ, and has shown by mighty woi'ks that He is the Christ that was to come. Many thousands had actually been benefited by the miracles ; and yet of all these there were only twelve that really clave to Him, and one of them was Judas the traitor. "With this rejection an epoch of the history is connected. He begins to unfold now the doctrine of His passion more fully. The doctrine of a suffering Messiah, so plainly exhibited in the prophets, had receded from sight in the current religion of that time. The announcement of it to the disciples was at once new and shocking. Turning now to the whole body of those who followed Him, He published the Christian doctrine of self-denial. The Apostles had just shown that they took the natural view of suffering, that it was an evil to be shunned. They shrank from conflict, and pain, and death, as it is natural men should. But Jesus teaches that, in com- parison with the higher life, the life of the soul, the life of the body is valueless (Matt. xvi. 21-28 ; Mark viii. 31-38 ; Luke ix. 22- 27). The Transfiguration, which took place just a week after this conversation, is to be JESUS CHRIST 259 JESUS CHRIST understood in connexion with it. Tiie minds of the twelve were greatly disturbed at what they had heard. Now, if ever, they needed support for their perplexed spirits, and this their loving Master failed not to give them. He takes with Him three chosen disciples, Peter, John, and James, who formed as it were a smaller circle nearer to Jesus than the rest, into a high mountain ajjart by them- selves. There are no means of determining the position of the mountain. The three disciples were taken up with Him, who should afterwards be the three witnesses of His agony in the garden of Gethscmane : those who saw His glory in the holy mount would be sustained by the remembrance of it when they beheld His lowest humiliation. Mean- time amongst the multitude below a scene was taking place which formed the strongest contrast to the glory and the peace which they had witnessed, and which seemed to justify Peter's remark, "It is good for us to be here." A poor youth, lunatic and pos- sessed by a devil, was brought to the disciples who were not with Jesus, to be cured. They could not prevail ; and when Jesus appeared amongst them the agonized and disappointed father appealed to Him, with a kind of com- plaint of the impotence of the disciples. "What the disciples had failed to do, Jesus did at a word. He then explained to them that their want of faith in their own power to heal, and in His promises to bestow the power upon them, was the cause of their in- ability (Matt. xvii. 14-21 ; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix. 37-43). Once more did Jesus foretell His sufferings on their way back to Capernaum (Mark ix. 30-32). — Third year, from the Feast of Tabernacles. — The Feast of Tabernacles was now approaching. His brethren set out far the feast without Him, and He abode in Galilee for a few days longer (John vii. 2-10). Afterwards He set out, taking the more direct but less fre- quented route by Samaria. St. Luke alone records, in connexion with this journey, the sending forth of the seventy disciples. This event is to be regarded in a different light from that of the twelve. The seventy had received no special education from our Lord, and their commission was of a temporary kind. The number has reference to the Gentiles, as twelve had to the Jews ; and the scene of the work, Samaria, reminds us that this is a movement directed towards the stranger. After healing the ten lepers in Samaria, He came about the midst of the feast to Jerusalem. The Pharisees and rulers sought to take Him ; some of the people, however, believed in Him, but concealed their opinion for fear of the rulers. To this division of opinion we may attribute the failure of the repeated attempts on the part of the Sanhedrim to take One who was openly teaching in the Temple (John vii. 11-53 : see esp. ver. 30, 32, 44, 45, 46). The officers were partly afraid to seize in the presence of the people the favourite Teacher ; and partly were themselves awed and attracted by Him. The history of the woman taken in adultery belongs to this time. To this place belongs the account, given by John alone, of the heal- ing of one who was born blind, and the con- sequences of it (John ix. 1-41, x. 1-21). The well-known parable of the good shep- herd is an answer to the calumny of the Pharisees, that He was an impostor and breaker of the law, " This man is not of God, because he keepeth not the Sabbath-day " (ix. 16). — We now approach a difficult por- tion of the sacred history. The note of time given us by John immediately afterwards is the Feast of the Dedication, which was cele- brated on the 25th of Kisleu, answering nearly to December. According to this Evangelist our Lord does not appear to have returned to Galilee between the Feast of Tabernacles and that of the Dedication, but to have passed the time in and near Jerusalem. Matthew and Mark do not allude to the Feast of Tabernacles. Luke appears to do so in ix. 51 : but the words there used would imply that this was the last journey to Jeru- salem. Now in St. Luke's Gospel a large section, from ix. 51 to xviii. 14, seems to belong to the time preceding the departure from Galilee ; and the question is how is this to be arranged, so that it shall harmonize with the narrative of St. John ? In most Harmonies a return of our Lord to Galilee has been assumed, in order to find a place for this part of Luke's Gospel. Perhaps this great division of Luke (x. 17 -xviii. 14) should be inserted entire between John x. 21 and 22. Some of the most striking para- bles, preserved only by Luke, belong to this period. The parables of the good Samaritan, the prodigal son, the unjust steward, the rich man and Lazarus, and the Pharisee and publican, all peculiar to this Gospel, belong to the pi-esent section. The instructive ac- count of Mary and Martha and the miracle of the ten lepers belong to this portion of the narrative. Besides these, scattered say- ings that occur in St. Matthew are here re- peated in a new connexion. The account of the bringing of young children to Jesus unites again the three Evangelists (Matt. xix. 13- 15 ; Mark x. 13-16 ; Luke xviii. ir.-17). On the way to Jerusalem through J eraea, to the Feast of Dedication, Jesus again puts before the minds of the twelve what thev are S 2 JESUS CHRIST 260 JESUS CHRIST never now to forget, the sufferings that await Him. They " understood none of these things," for they could not reconcile this foreboding of suffering with the signs and announcements of the coming of His king- dom (Matt. XX. 17-19; Mark x. 32-34; Luke xviii. 31-34). In consequence of this new, though dai-k, intimation of the coming of the kingdom, Salome, with her two sons, James and John, came to bespeak the two places of highest honour in the kingdom. Jesus tells them that they know not what they ask ; that the places of honour in the kingdom shall be bestowed, not by Jesus in answer to a chance request, but upon those for whom they are prepared by the Father. As sin ever provokes sin, the ambition of the ten was now aroused, and they began to be much displeased with James and John. Jes\is once more recalls the prin- ciple that the childlike disposition is that which He approves (Matt. xx. 20-28 ; Mark x. 35-45). The healing of the two blind men at Jericho is chiefly remarkable among the miracles from the difficulty which has arisen in harmonizing the accounts. Mat- thew speaks of two blind men, and of the occasion as the departure from Jericho ; Mark of one, whom he names, and of their arrival at Jericho ; and Luke agrees with him. This point has received much discussion ; but the view of Lightfoot finds favour with many eminent expositors, that there were two blind men, and both were healed under similar circumstances, except that Barti- maeus was on one side of the city, and was healed by Jesus as He entered, and the other was healed on the other side as they departed (Matt. XX. 29-34 ; Mark x. 46-52 ; Luke xviii. 35-43). The calling of Zacchaeus has more than a mere personal interest. He was a publican, one of a class hated and despised by the Jews. But he was one who sought to serve God. From such did Jesus wish to call His disciples, whether they were pub- licans or not (Luke xix. 1-10). We have reached now the Feast of Dedication ; but, as has been said, the exact place of the events in St. Luke about this part of the ministry has not been conclusively deter- mined. After being present at the feast, Jesus returned to Bethabara beyond Jordan, where John had formerly baptised, and abode there. How long He remained here does not appear. It was probably for some weeks. The sore need of a family in Bethany, who were what men call the intimate friends of our Lord, called Him thence. Lazarus was sick, and his sisters sent word of it to Jesus, whose power they well knew. It was not till Lazarus had been four days in the grave that the Saviour appeared on the scene. But with the power of God he breaks the fetters of brass in which Lazarus was held by death, and at His word the man on whom con-up- tion had already begun to do its work, came forth, alive and whole (John xi. 1-45). A miracle so public, for Bethany was close to Jerusalem, and the family of Lazarus well known to many people in the mother-city, could not escape the notice of the Sanhedrim. A meeting of this Council was called without loss of time, and the matter discussed. We now approach the final stage of the history, and every word and act tend towards the great act of suffering. Each day is marked by its own events or instructions. Our Lord entered into Bethany on Friday the 8th of Nisan, the eve of the Sabbath, and remained over the Sabha.th.— Saturday, the 9th of Nisan f April IstJ. — As he was at supper in the house of one Simon, surnamed " the leper," a relation of Lazarus, who was at table with Him, Mary, full of gratitude for the wonder- ful raising of her brother from the dead, took a vessel containing a quantity of pure oint- ment of spikenard, and anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped His feet with her hair, and anointed His head likewise. — Passion Week. Sunday the 10 th day of Nisan (April 2nd), — When He arrives at the Mount of Olives He commands two of His disciples to go into the village near at hand, where they would find an ass, and a colt tied with her. With these beasts, impressed as for the service of a king. He was to enter into Jerusalem. The disciples spread upon the ass their ragged cloaks for Him to sit on. And the multi- tudes cried aloud before Him, in the words of the 118th Psalm, " Hosanna, Save now! blessed is He that cometh in the name of the Lord." All the city was moved. Blind and lame came to the Temple when He arrived there and were healed. After working mi- racles in the Temple He returned to Bethany. The 10th of Nisan was the day for the sepa- ration of the paschal lamb (Ex. xii. 3). Jesus, the Lamb of God, entered Jerusalem and the Temple on this day, and although none but He knew that He was the Paschal Lamb, the coincidence is not undesigned (Matt. xxi. 1-11, 14-17; Mark xi. 1-11; Luke xix. 29-44 ; John xii. 12-19).— ilfoTi^- day the Wth of Nisan (April Zrd). — The next day Jesus returned to Jerusalem, again to take advantage of the mood of the people to instruct them. On the way He approached one of the many fig-trees which grew in that quarter, and found that it was full of foliage, but without fruit. He said, " No man eat fruit of thee hereafter for ever!" and the fig-tree withered away (Matt. xxi. 18, Hi ; JESUS CHRIST 261 JESUS CHRIST Mark xi. 12-14). Proceeding' now to the Temple, He cleaved its court of the crowd of traders that gathered there (Matt. xxi. 12, 13 ; Mark xi. 15-19 ; Luke xix. 45-48). In the evening he returned again to Bethany. — Tuesday the \2ih of Nisan (April Uh). — On this the third day of Passion week Jesus went into Jerusalem as befoi-e, and visited the Temple. The Sanhedrim came to Him to call Him to account for the clearing of the Temple. " By what authority docst thou these things ? " The Lord answered this question by another. They refused to answer, and Jesus refused in like manner td answer them. To this time belong the parables of the two sons (Matt. xxi. 23-32 ; Mark xi. 27-33 ; Luke xx. 1-8), of the wicked hus- bandman, and of the wedding garment (Matt. xxi. 33-46, xxii. 1-14 ; Mark xii. 1-12 ; Luke XX. 9-19). Another great discourse belongs to this day, which, more than any other, presents Jesus as the great Prophet of His people. On leaving the Temple His dis- ciples drew attention to the beauty of its structure, its " goodly stones and gifts," their remarks probably arising from the threats of destruction which had so lately been uttered by Jesus. Their Master an- swered that not one stone of the noble pile should be left upon another. When they reached the Mount of Olives the disciples, or rather the first four (Mark), speaking for the rest, asked him when this destruction should be accomplished. To understand the answer it must be borne in mind that Jesus warned them that He was not giving them an histo- rical account such as would enable them to anticipate the events. " Of that day and hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels of heaven, but my Father only." Exact data of time are to be purposely withheld from them. Accordingly two events, analogous in character but widely sundered by time, are so treated in the prophecy that it is almost impossible to disentangle them. The destruction of Jerusalem and the day of judg- ment— the national and the universal days of account — are spoken of together or alter- nately without hint of the great interval of time that separates them. The conclusion which Jesus drew from his own awful warn- ing Avas, that they were not to attempt tc fix the date of his return. The lesson of the parable of the Ten Virgins is the same (Matt. xxiv. 44, XXV. 13). And the parable of the Talents, here repeated in a modified form, teaches how precious to souls are the uses of time (x^xv. 14-30). In concluding this mo- mentous discourse, our Lord puts aside the destruction of Jerusalem, and displays to our eyes the picture of the final judgment (Matt. XXV. 31-46). With these weighty words ends the third day. — Wednesday the \Mh of Xisati (Ajml bth). — This day was passed in retire- ment with the Apostles. Satan had put it into the mind of one of them to betray Him ; and Judas Iscariot made a covenant to betray Him to the chief priests for thirty pieces of silver (Matt. xxvi. 14-16 ; Mark xiv. 10, 11 ; Luke xxii. \-6).—T?iursday the lith of Nisan (April dth). — On "the first day of unleavened bread," the disciples asked their Master where they were to eat the Passover. He directed Peter and John to go into Jeru- salem, and to follow a man whom they should see bearing a pitcher of water, and to demand of him, in their Master's name, the use of the guestehamber in his house for this pur- pose. All happened as Jesus had told them, and in the evening they assembled to cele- brate, for the last time, tiie paschal meal. The sequence of the events is not quite clear from a comparison of the Evangelists. The order seems to be as follows. When they had taken their places at table and the supper had begun, Jesus gave them the first cup to divide amongst themselves (Luke). It was customary to drink at the paschal supper four cups of wine mixed with water; and this answered to the first of them. There now arose a contention among the disciples which of them should be the greatest ; per- haps in connexion with the places which they had taken at this feast (Luke). After a solemn warning against pride and ambition Jesus performed an act which, as one of the last of His life, must ever have been remem- bered by the witnesses as a great lesson of humility. He rose from the table, poured water into a basin, girded himself with a towel, and proceeded to wash the disciples' feet (John). After all had been washed, the Saviour explained to them the meaning of what He had done. " If I, your Lord and Master, have washed your feet, ye also ought to wash one another's feet. For I have given you an example, that ye should do as I have done to you" (Matt. xxvi. 17-20; Mark xiv. 12-17*; Luke xxii. 7-30; John xiii. 1-20). From this act of love it does not seem that even the traitor Judas was excluded. But his treason was thoroughly known ; and now Jesus denounces it. One of them should betray Him. The traitor having gone straight to his wicked object, the end of the Saviour's ministry seemed already at hand. He gave them the new commandment, to love one another, as though it were a last bequest to them (Matt. xxvi. 21-25 ; Mark xiv. 18-21 ; Luke xxii. 21-23 ; John xiii. 21-35). Towards the close of the meal Jesus instituted the sacrament cf t-ho JESUS CHRIST 262 JESUS CHRIST Lord's Supper (Matt. sxvi. 26-29 ; Mark xiv. 22-25 ; Luke xxii. 19, 20 ; 1 Cor. xi. 23-25). The denial of Peter is now foretold, and to no one would such an announcement be more incrediole than to Peter himself (Matt. xxvi. 31-35 ; Mark xiv. 27-31 ; Luke xxii. 31-38 ; John xiii. 36-38). That gr«at linal discourse, which John alone has re- corded, is now delivered. Althoug-h in the middle of it there is a mention of departure (John xiv. 31), this perhaps only implies that they prepared to go ; and then the whole discourse was delivered in the house before they proceeded to Gethsemane (John xiv.-xvii.). — Friday the 15th of Nisan (April 7thJ, including part of the eve of it. — " When they had sung a hymn," which per-haps means, when they had sung the second part of the Hallel, or song of praise, which con- sisted of Psalms cxv.-cxviii., the former part (Psalms cxiii -cxiv.) having been sung at an earlier part of the supper, they went out into the Mount of Olives. Jesus takes only his three proved companions, Peter, James, and John, and passes with them farther into the garden, leaving the rest seated, probably near the entrance. No pen can attempt to describe what passed that night in that se- cluded spot. He tells them " my soul is exceeding sorrowful, even unto death : tarry ye here and watch with me," and then leav- ing even the three He goes further, and in solitude wrestles with an inconceivable trial. The words of Mark are still more expressive — " He began to be sore amazed, and to be very heavy" (xiv. 33). The former word means that he was struck with a great dread ; not from the fear of physical suffering, how- ever excruciating, we may well believe, but from the contact with the sins of the world, of which, in some inconceivable way, He felt the bitterness and the weight. He did not merely contemplate them, but bear and feel them. It is impossible to explain this scene in Gethsemane in any other way. The dis- ciples have sunk to sleep. It was in search of consolation that He came back to them. The disciple who had been so ready to ask "Why cannot I follow thee now?" must hear another question, that rebukes his for- mer confidence — " Couldest not thou watch one hour ? " A second time He departs and wrestles in prayer with the Father. A second time He returns and finds them sleeping. The same scene is repeated yet a third time ; and then all is concluded. Henceforth they may sleep and take their rest ; never more shall they be asked to watch one hour with Jesus, for His ministry in the flesh is at an end. This scene is in complete contrast to tho Transfiguration (Matt. xxvi. 36-46 ; Mark xiv. 32-42 ; Luke xxii. 39-46 ; .John xviii. 1). Judas now appeared to complete his work. In the doubtful light of torches, a kiss from him was the sign to the officers whom they should take. Peter, whose name is first given in John's Gospel, drew a sword and smote a servant of the high-priest and cut off his ear ; but his Lord refused such succour, and healed the wounded man. All the disciples forsook Him and fled (Matt. xxvi. 47-56; Mark xiv. 43-52; Luke xxii. 47-53 ; John xviii. 2-12). There is some difficulty in arranging the events that imme- diately follow, so as to embrace all the four accounts. On the capture of Jesus He was first taken to the house of Annas, the father- in-law of Caiaphas the high-priest. It might appear from the course of John's narrative that the examination of our Lord, and the first denial of Peter, took place in the house of Annas (John xviii. 13, 14). But the 24th verse is i-etrospective ; and probably all that occurred after verse 14 took place not at the house of Annas, but at that of Caiaphas. The house of the high-priest consisted probably, like other Eastern houses, of an open central court with chambers round it. Into this court a gate admitted them, at which a woman stood to open. As Peter passed in, the portress took note of him ; and after- wai-ds, at the fire which had been lighted, asked him, " Art not thou also one of this man's disciples?" (John). All the zeal and boldness of Peter seems to have deserted him. He had come as in secret ; he is determined so to remain, and he denies his Master! Feeling now the danger of his situation, he went out into the porch, and there some one, or, looking at all the accounts, probably se- veral persons, asked him the question a second time, and he denied more strongly. About an hour after, when he had returned into the court, the same question was put to him a third time, with the same result. Then the cock crew ; and Jesus, who was within sight, probably in some open room communi- cating with the court, " turned and looked upon Peter. And Petei remembered the word of the Lord, how He had said unto Him, Before the cock crow, thou shalt deny Me thrice. And Peter went out and wept bitterly" (Matt. xxvi. 37, 58, 69-75; Mark xiv. 53, 54, 66-72 ; Luke xxii. 54-62 ; John xviii. 13-18,24-27). The first interrogatory to which our Lord was subject (John xviii. 19-24) was addressed to Him by Caiaphas, probably before the Sanhedrim had time to I assemble. It was the questioning of an in- quisitive person who had an important cri- minal in his presence, rather than a formal , examination. The Lord's refusal to answer JESUS CHRIST 263 JESUS CHRIST is thus explained and justified. When the more I'egular pi'oceedings begin He is i-eady to answer. A servant of the high-priest, knowing that he should thereby please his master, smote the cheek of the Son of God •with the palm of his hand. But this was only the beginning of horrors. At the dawn of day the Sanhedrim, summoned by the high- priest in the course of the night, assembled, and brought their band of false witnesses, whom they must have had ready before. These gave their testimony, but even before this unjust tribunal it could not stand ; it was so full of contradictions. At last two false witnesses came, and their testimony was very like the truth. Even these two fell into contradictions. The high-priest now with a solemn adjuration asks Him whether He is the Christ the Son of God. He answers that He is, and foretells His return in glory and power at the last day. This is enough for their purpose. They pronounce Him guilty of a crime for which death should be the punishment (John xviii. 19-24 ; Luke xxii. 63-71 ; Matt. xxvi. 59-68 ; Mark xiv. 55-65). Although they had pronounced Jesus to be guilty of death, the Sanhedrim possessed no power to carry out such a sen- tence. As soon as it was day they took Him to Pilate, the Roman procurator. The hall of judgment, or praetorium, was probably a part of the tower of Antonia near the Tem- ple, where the Roman garrison was. Pilate hearing that Jesus was an offender under their law, was about to give them leave to treat him accordingly ; and this would have made it quite safe to execute him. From the first Jesus found favour in the eyes of Pilate, and He pronounced that he found no fault in Him. Not so easily were the Jews ,to be cheated of their prey. They heaped up accusations against Him as a disturber of the public peace (Luke xxiii. 5). Pilate was no match for their vehemence. Finding that Jesus was a Galilean, he sent Him to Herod to be dealt with ; but Herod, after cruel mockery and persecution, sent Him back to Pilate. Now commenced the fearful struggle between the Roman procurator, a weak as well as cruel man, and the Jews. The well- known incidents of the second interview are soon recalled. After the examination by Herod, and the return of Jesus, Pilate pro- posed to release Him, as it was usual on the feast-day to release a prisoner to the Jews out of -grace. Pilate knew -well that the priests and rulers would object to this ; but it was a covert appeal to the people. The multitude, persuaded by the priests, preferred another prisoner, called Barabbas. Now came the scourging, and the blows and insults of the soldiers, who, uttering truth when they were only reviling, crowned Him and ad- dressed Him as King of the Jews. Accord- ing to John, Pilate now made one more effort for His release. He still sought to release Jesus : but the last argument, which had been in the minds of both sides all along, was now openly applied to him : "If thou let this man go, thou art not Caesar's friend." This decided the question. He delivered Jesus to be crucified (Matt, xxvii. 15-30 ; Mark xv. 6-19 ; Luke xxiii. 17-25 ; John xviii. 39, 40, xix. 1-16). John mentions that this oc- curred about the sixth hour, reckoning pro- bably from midnight. In Mark the Jewish reckoning from six in the morning is fol- lowed. One Person alone has been calm amidst the excitements of that night of hor- rors. On Him is now laid the weight of His cross, or at least of the transverse beam of it ; and, with this pressing Him down, they proceed out of the city to Golgotha or Cal- vary, a place the site of which is now uncer- tain. As He began to droop. His persecu- tors, unwilling to defile themselves with the accursed burthen, lay hold of Simon of Cyrene and compel him to carry the cross after Jesus. After offering Him wine and myrrh, they crucified Him between two thieves. Nothing was wanting to His humiliation ; a thief had been preferred before Him, and two thieves share His punishment. Pilate set over Him in three languages the inscription, *' Jesus, the King of the Jews." The chief-priests took exception to this that it did not de- nounce Him as falsely calling Himself by that name, but Pilate refused to alter it. One of the two thieves underwent a change of heart even on the cross : he reviled at first (Matt.) ; and then, at the sight of the constancy of Jesus, repented (Luke) (Matt. xxvii. ; Mark xv. ; Luke xxiii. ; John xix.). In the depths of His bodily suff'ering, Jesus calmly commended to John (?), who stood near, the care of Mary his mother. " Be- hold thy son ! behold thy mother." From the sixth hour to the ninth there was dark- ness over the whole land. At the ninth hour (3 P.M.) Jesus uttered with a loud voice the opening words of the 22nd Psalm, all the inspired words of which referred to the suf- fering Messiah. One of those present dipped a sponge in the common sour wine of the soldiers and put it on a reed to moisten the sufiferer's lips. Again He cried with a loud voice, " It is finished " (John), " Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit " (Luke) ; and gave up the ghost (Matt, xxvii. 31-56 ; Mark xv. 20-41 ; Luke xxiii. 33-49 ; John xix. 17-30). On the death of Jesus the veil which covered the most Holy Place of the JESUS CHRIST 264 JETHRO Temple, the place of the more especial pre- sence of Jehovah, was rent in twain. There was a great earthquake. Many who were dead rose from their graves, although they returned to the dust again after this great token of Christ's quickening power had been given to many (Matt.). The Jews, very zea- lous for the Sabbath in the midst of their murderous work, begged Pilate that He would put an end to the punishment by breaking the legs of the criminals that they might be taken down and buried before the Sabbath, for which they were preparing (Deut. xxi. 23 ; Joseph. B. J. iv. 5, § 2). Those who were to execute this duty found that Jesus was dead and the thieves still living. The death of the Lord before the others was, no doubt, partly the consequence of the previous mental suffering which He had undergone, and partly because His will to die lessened the natural resistance of the frame to dissolution. Joseph of Arimathea, a member of the Council but a secret disciple of Jesus, came to Pilate to beg the body of Jesus, that he might bury it. Nicodemus assisted in this work of love, and they anointed the body and laid it in Joseph's new tomb (Matt, xxvii. 50-61 ; Mark xv. 37-47; Luke xxiii. 46-56; John xix. 30- 42). — Saturday the \Qth of Nisan (April 8iAy,— The chief priests and Pharisees, with Pilate's permission, set a watch over the tomb, " lest His disciples come by night and steal Him away, and say unto the people He is risen from the dead." (Matt, xxvii. 62- U).— Sunday the 17 th of Msan (April 9thJ. — The Sabbath ended at six on the evening of Nisan 16th. Early the next morning the resurrection of Jesus took place. The exact hour of the resurrection is not mentioned by any of the Evangelists. Of the great mystery itself, the resumption of life by Him who was truly dead, we see but little. The women, who had stood by the cross of Jesus, had pre- pared spices on the evening before, perhaps to complete the embalming of our Lord's body, already performed in haste by Joseph and Nicodemus. They tame very early on the first day of the week to the Sepulchre. When they arrive they find the stone rolled away, and Jesus no longer in the Sepulchre. He had i-isen from the dead. Mary Mag- dalene at this point goes back in haste ; and at once, believing that the body has been removed by men, tells Peter and John that the Lord has been taken away. The other women, however, go into the Sepulchre, and they see an angel (Matt. MarkJ. The two angels, mentioned by St. Luke, are probably two separate appearances to different mem- bers of the group ; for he alone mentions an indefinite number of women. They now leave the Sepulchre, and go in haste to make known the news to the Apostles. As they were going, " Jesus met them, saying. All hail." The eleven do not believe the account when they receive it. In the mean time Peter and John came to the Sepulchre. They ran, in their eagerness, and John arrived first and looked in ; Peter afterwards came up, and it is characteristic that the awe which had prevented the other disciple from going in appears to have been unfelt by Peter, who entered at once, and found the grave- clothes lying, but not Him who had worn them. This fact must have suggested that the removal was not the work of human hands. They then returned, wondering at what they had seen. Mary Magdalene, how- ever, remained weeping at the tomb, and she too saw the two angels in the tomb, though Peter and John did not. They address her, and she answers, still, however, without any suspicion that the Lord is risen. As she turns away she sees Jesus, but in the tumult of her feelings does not even recognise Him at His first address. But He calls her by name, and then she joyfully recognises her Master. The third appearance of our Lord was to Peter (Luke, Paul) ; the fourth to the two disciples going to Emmaus in the evening (Mark, Luke) ; the fifth in the same evening to the eleven as they sat at meat (Mark, Luke, John). All of these occurred on the first day of the week, the very day of the Resurrection. Exactly a week after. He ap- peared to the Apostles, and gave Thomas a convincing proof of 'His resurrection (John) ; this was the sixth appearance. The seventh was in Galilee, where seven of the Apostles were assembled, some of them probably about to return to their old trade of fishing (John). The eighth was to the eleven (Matt.), and probably to five hundred brethren assembled with them (Paul) on a mountain in Galilee. The ninth was to James (Paul) ; and the last to the Apostles at Jerusalem just before the Ascension (Acts). JETH'RO was priest or prince of Midian, both offices probably being combined in one person. Moses spent the forty years of his exile from Egypt with him, and married his daughter Zipporah. By the advice of Jethro, Moses appointed deputies to judge the con- gregation and share the burden of govern- ment with himself (Ex. xviii.). On account of his local knowledge he was entreated to remain with the Israelites throughout their journey to Canaan (Num. x. 31, 33). It is said in Ex. ii. 18 that the priest of Midian whose daughter Moses married was Reuel ; afterwards at ch. iii. 1, he is called Jethro, ill'i; 111 if" If. JEW 265 JEZREEL as also in ch. xviii. : but in Num. x. 29 " Hobab the son of Rag-uel the Midianite" is apparently called Moses' father-in-law (comp. Judg. iv. 11). Some commentators take Jethro and Reuel to be identical, and call Hobab the brother-in-law of Moses. JEW. This name was properly applied to a member of the kingdom of Judah after the separation of the ten tribes. The term first makes its appearance just before the captivity of the ten tribes (2 K. xvi. 6). After the ■Return the word received a larger applica- tion. Partly from the predominance of the members of the old kingdom of Judah among those who returned to Palestine, partly from the identification of Judah with the religious ideas and hopes of the people, all the mem- bers of the new state were called Jews (Judaeans), and the name was extended to the remnants of the race scattered through- out the nations (Dan. iii. 8, 12 ; Ezr. iv. 12, 23, &c. ; Neb. i. 2, ii. 16, v. 1, &c. ; Esth. iii. 4 ff., &c.). Under the name of " Judae- ans," the people of Israel were known to classical writers (Tac. H. v. 2, &c.). The force of the title " Jew " is seen particularly in the Gospel of St. John, who very rarely uses any other term to describe the opponents of our Lord. The name, indeed, appeared at the close of the apostle's life to be tjie true antithesis to Christianity, as describing the limited and definite form of a national re- ligion ; but at an earlier stage of the progress of the faith, it was contrasted with Greek as implying an outward covenant with God (Rom. i. 16, ii. 9, 10; Col. iii. 11, &c.), which was the correlative of Hellenist [Hel- lenist], and marked a division of language subsisting within the entire body, and at the same time less expressive than Israelite, which brought out with especial clearness the privileges and hopes of the children of Jacob (2 Cor. xi. 22 ; John i. 47 ; 1 Mace. i. 43, 53, and often). JEWEL. [Precious Stones.] JEW'RY, the same word elsewhere ren- dered Judah and Judaea. It occurs several times in the Apoc. and N. T., but once only in the 0. T. (Dan. v. 13). Jewry comes to us through the Norman-French, and is of frequent occurrence in Old English. JEZ'EBEL, wife of Ahab, king of Israel, and mother of Athaliah, queen of Judah, and Ahaziah and Joram, kings of Israel. She was a Phoenician princess, daughter of " Ethbaal king of the Zidonians." In her hands her husband became a mere puppet (1 K. xxi. 25). The first effect of her in- fluence was the immediate establishment of the Phoenician worship on a grand scale in the court of Ahab. At her table were sup- ported no less than 450 prophets of Baal, and 400 of Astarte (1 K. xvi. 31, 32, xviii. 19). The prophets of Jehovah, M'ho up to this time had found their chief refuge in the northern kingdom, were attacked by her orders and put to the sword (1 K. xviii. 13 ; 2 K. ix. 7). When at last the people, at the instigation of Elijah, rose against her min- isters, and slaughtered them at the foot of Carmel, and when Ahab was terrified into submission, she alone retained her presence of mind. The next instance of her power is still more charactei'istic and complete. When she found her husband cast down by his dis- appointment at being thwarted by Naboth, she took the matter into her own hands, with a spirit which reminds us of Clytem- nestra or Lady Macbeth (1 K. xxi. 7). She wrote a warrant in Ahab's name, and sealed it with his seal. To her, and not to Ahab, was sent the announcement that the roj^al wishes were accomplished (1 K. xxi. 14), and she bade her husband go and take the vacant property ; and on her accordingly fell the prophet's curse, as well as on her hus- band (1 K. xxi. 23). We hear no more of her for a long period. But she survived Ahab for 14 years, and still, as queen-mother (after the Oriental custom), was a great per- sonage in the court of her sons, and, as such, became the special mark for the vengeance of Jehu. She was looking out fi'om the window of the palace, which stood by the gate of the city, as Jehu approached. The new king looked up from his chariot. Two or three eunuchs of the royal harem showed their faces at the windows, and at his com- mand dashed the ancient princess down from the chamber. She fell immediately in front of the conqueror's chariot. The merciless destroyer passed on ; and the last remains of life were trampled out by the horses' hoofs. The body was left in that open space called in modern Eastern language " the mounds," where offal is thrown from the city-walls. The dogs of Eastern cities, which prowl around these localities, and which the pre- sent writer met on this very spot by the modern village which occupies the site of Jezreel, pounced upon this unexpected prey. JEZ'RERL. 1. A city situated in the plain of the same name between Gilboa and Little Hermon, now generally called Es- draelon. [Esdraelon.] It appears in Josh. xix. 18, but its historical importance dates from the reign of Ahab, who chose it for his chief residence. The situation of the moderi village of Zerin still remains to show tl.e fitness of his choice. In the neighbourhood, or within the town probably, was a temph' and grove of Astarte, with an establishmen*. JOAB 266 JOANNA of 400 priests supported by Jezebel (1 K. xvi. 33 ; 2 K. x. 11). The palace of Ahab (1 K. xxi. 1, xviii. 46), probably contain- ing his "ivory house " (1 K. xxii. 39), was on the eastern side of the citVj forming part of the city wall (conip. 1 K. xxi. 1 ; 2 K. ix. 25, 30, 33). The seraglio, in which Jezebel lived, was on the city wall, and had a high •window facing eastward (2 K. ix. 30). Close by, if not forming part of this seraglio, was a watch-tower, on which a sentinel stood, to give notice of arrivals from the disturbed district beyond the Jordan (2 K. ix. 17). An ancient square tower which stands among the hovels of the modern village may be its representative. The gateway of the city on the east was also the gateway of the palace (2 K. ix. 34). Whether the vineyard of Naboth was here or at Samaria is a doubtful question. Still in the same eastern direction are two springs, one 12 minutes from the town, the other 20 minutes. The Litter pro- bably both from its size and situation, was known as " the Spring of Jezreel " (mis- translated A. V. " a fountain," 1 Sam. xxix. 1). With the fall of the house of Ahab the glory of Jezreel departed. — 2. A town in Judah, in the neighbourhood of the southern Carmel (Josh. xv. 56). Here David in his ■wanderings took Ahinoam the Israelitess for his first wife (1 Sam. xxvii. 3, xxx. 5). JO'AB, the most remarkable of the three nephews of David, the children of Zeruiah, David's sister. Their father is unknown, but seems to have resided at Bethlehem, and to have died before his sons, as we find men- tion of his sepulchre at that place (2 Sam. ii. 32). Joab first appears after David's ac- cession to the throne at Hebron. Abner slew in battle Asahel, the younger brother of Joab ; and when David afterwards received Abner into favour, Joab treacherously mur- dered him.' [Abner.] There was now no rival left in the way of Joab's advancement, and at the siege of Jehus he was appointed for his prowess commander-in-chief — " cap- tain of the host " — the same office that Abner had held under Saul, the highest in the state after the king (1 Chr. xi. 6 ; 2 Sam. viii. 16). In this post he was content, and served the king with undeviating fidelity. In the wide range of wars which David undertook, Joab was the acting general. He was called by the almost regal title of "Lord" (2 Sam. xi. 11), " the prince of the king's army" (1 Chr. xxvii. 34). — 1. His great war was against the Ammonites which he conducted in person. It was divided into three cam- paigns. At the siege of Rabbah, in the last campaign, the ark was sent with him, and the whole army was encamped in booths or huts round the beleaguered city (2 Sam. xi. 1, 11). Joab took the lower city on the river, and then sent to urge David to come and take the citadel (2 Sam. xii. 26-28). — 2. The services of Joab to the king were not confined to these military achievements. In the entangled relations which grew up in David's domestic life, he bore an important part, (a) The first occasion was the un- happy correspondence which passed between him and the king during the Ammonite war respecting Uriah the Hittite (2 Sam, xi. 1- 25). {b) The next occasion on which it was displayed was in his successful endeavour to reinstate Absalom in David's favour, after the murder of Amnon (2 Sam. xiv. 1-20). (c) The same keen sense of his master's interests ruled the conduct of Joab no less, when the relations of the father and son were reversed by the successful revolt of Absalom. His former intimacy with the prince did not impair his fidelity to the king. He followed tim beyond the Jordan, and in the final battle of Ephraim assumed the responsibility of taking the rebel prince's dangerous life in spite of David's injunction to spare him, and when no one else had courage to act so decisive a part (2 Sam. xviii. 2, 11-15). The king transferred the command to Amasa. {d) Nothing brings out more strongly the good and bad qualities of Joab than his conduct in this trying crisis of his history. With his own guard and the mighty men under Abishai he went out in pursuit of the remnants of the rebellion. In the heat of pursuit, he encountered his rival Amasa, more leisurely engaged in the same quest. At " the great stone " in Gibeon, the cousins met. Joab's sword was attached to his girdle ; by design or accident it protruded from the sheath ; Amasa rushed into the treacherous embrace, to which Joab invited him, holding fast his beard by his own right hand, whilst the unsheathed sword in his left hand plunged into Amasa's stomach ; a single blow from that practised arm, as in the case of Abner, sufficed to do its work. — 3. There is something mournful in the end of Joab. At the close of his long life, his loyalty, so long unshaken, at last wavered. " Though he had not turned after Absalom he turned after Adonijah " (1 K. ii. 28). This probably filled up the measure of the king's long cherished resentment. The re- vival of the pretensions of Adonijah after David's death was sufficient to awaken the suspicions of Solomon. Joab fled to the shelter of the altar at Gibeon, and was there slain by Benaiah. JOAN'NA, the name of a woman, occur- ring twice in Luke (viii. 3, xxiv. 10), but JOASH 267 JOB evidently denoting the same person. In the first passage she is expressly stated to have been " wife of Chuza, steward of Herod," that is, Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee. TO 'ASH, contr. from Jehoash. 1. Son of Ahaziati, king of Juuah, and the only one of his children who escaped the murderous hand of Athaliah. After his father's sister Jehoshabeath, the wife of Jehoiada the high- priest, had stolen him from among the king's sons, he was hid for six years in the cham- bers of the Temple. In the 7th year of his age and of his concealment, a successful re- volution, conducted by Jehoiada, placed him on the throne of his ancestors, and freed tlie country from the tjTanny and idolatries of Athaliah, For at least 23 years, while Je- hoiada lived, this reign was very prosperous. But, after the death of Jehoiada, Joash fell into the hands of bad advisers, at whose sug- gestion he revived the worship of Baal and Ashtaroth. When he was rebuked for this by Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada, Joash caused him to be stoned to death in the very court of the Lord's house (Matt, xxiii. 35). The vengeance imprecated by the murdered high-priest was not long delayed. That very year, Hazael king of Syria came up against Jerusalem, and carried off a vast booty as the price of his departure. Joash had scarcely escaped this danger, when he fell into another and fatal one. Two of his servants, taking advantage of his severe ill- ness, some think of a wound received in battle, conspired against him, and slew him in his bed in the fortress of Millo. Joash's reign lasted 40 years, from 878 to 838 b.c. — 2. Son and successor of Jehoahaz on the throne of Israel from b.c. 840 to 825, and for two full years a contemporary sovereign with the preceding (2 K. xiv. 1 ; comp. with xii. 1, xiii. 10). When he succeeded to the crown, the kingdom was in a deplorable state from the devastations of Hazael and Ben- hadad, kings of Syria. On occasion of a friendly visit paid by Joash to Elisha on his deathbed, the prophet promised him deliver- ance from the Syrian yoke in Aphek (1 K. XX. 26-30). He then bid him smite upon the gi-ound, and the king smote thrice and then stayed. The prophet rebuked him for staying, and limited to three his victories over Syria. Accordingly Joash did beat Benhadad three times on the field of battle, and recovered from him the cities which Hazael had taken from Jehoahaz. The other great military event of Joash's reign was his successful war with Amaziah king of Judah. The grounds of this war are given fully in 2 Chr. XXV. The two armies met at Beth- shemesh, that of Joash was victorious, put the army of Amaziah to the rout, took him prisoner, brought him to Jerusalem, broke down the wall of Jerusalem, and plundered the city. He died in the 15th year of Ama- ziah king of Judah, and was succeeded by his son Jeroboam II.— 3. The father of Gideon, and a wealthy man among the Abiez- rites (Judg. vi. 11, 29, 30, 31, vii. 14, viii. 13, 29, 32). JOB, the patriarch, the name of one of the books of the O. T. His residence in the land of Uz, which took its name from a son of Aram (Gen. x. 23), or Nahor (Gen. xxii. 21), marks him as belonging to a branch of the Aramaean race, which had settled in the lower part of Mesopotamia (probably to the south or south-east of Palestine, in Idumaean Arabia), adjacent to the Sabaeans and Chaldaeans. The opinions of Job and his friends are thus peculiarly interesting as exhibiting an aspect of the patriarchal re- ligion outside of the family of Abraham, and as yet uninfluenced by the legislation of Moses. The form of worship belongs essen- tially to the early patriarchal type ; with little of ceremonial ritual, without a separate priesthood, it is thoroughly domestic in form and spirit. Job is represented as a chieftain of immense wealth and high rank, blameless in all the relations of life. One question could be raised by envy ; may not the good- ness which secures such direct and tangible rewards be a refined form of selfishness ? Satan, the accusing angel, suggests the doubt, " doth Job fear God for nought?" and asserts boldly that if those external blessings were withdrawn Job would cast off his allegiance — " he will curse thee to thy face." The problem is thus distinctly propounded which this book is intended to discuss and solve. Can goodness exist irrespective of reward? The accuser receives permission to make the trial. He destroys Job's property, then his children ; and afterwards, to leave no possible opening for a cavil, is allowed to inflict upon him the most terrible disease known in the East. Job's wife breaks down entirely under the trial. Job remains steadfast. He repels his wife's suggestion with the simple words, "What! shall we receive good at the hand of the Lord, and shall we not receive evil ? " " In all this Job did not sin with his lips." The question raised by Satan was thus an- swered.— 2. Still it is clear that many points of deep interest would have been left in obscurity. Entire as was the submission of Job, he must have been inwardly perplexed by events to which he had no clue. An opportunity for the discussion of the provi- dential government of the world is afforded by the introduction of three men, represent- JOBAB 268 JOHN THE APOSTLE ing the wisdom and experience of the age, who came to condole with Job on hearing of his misfortunes. After a long discussion between Job and his three friends, Elihu, a young man, who had listened in indignant silence to the arguments of his elders (xxxii. 7), now addresses himself to both parties in the discussion, and specially to Job. He shows that they had accused Job upon false or insufficient grounds, and failed to convict him or to vindicate God's justice. Job again had assumed his entire innocence, and had arraigned that justice (xxxiii. 9, 11). Je- hovah at length appears in the midst of a storm, and in language of incomparable grandeur He reproves and silences the mur- murs of Job. He rebukes the opponents of Job, and vindicates the integrity of the patriarch. The restoration of Job's external prosperity, which is the result of God's per- sonal manifestation, symbolizes the ultimate compensation of the righteous for all suffer- ings undergone upon earth. — The date of the book is doubtful, and there have been many theories upon the subject. The language approaches far more nearly to the Arabic than any other Hebrew production. On the other hand, there are undoubtedly many Aramaic words, and grammatical forms, which some critics have regarded as a strong proof that the writer must have lived dur- ing, or even after the captivity. This hypothesis is now universally given up as un- tenable ; and it has been proved that these Aramaisms are such as characterise the antique and highly poetic style. It may be ■-egarded as a settled point that the book was as his first exliortation to tliem, " Repent ye for the liingdom of heaven is at hand." Many of every class pressed forward to confess their sins and to be baptised. The preparatory .baptism of John was a visible sign to the people, and a distinct acknowledgment by them, that a hearty renunciation of sin' and a real amendment of life were necessary for admission into the kingdom of heaven, which the Baptist proclaimed to be at hand. But the fundamental distinction between John's baptism unto repentance, and that baptism accompanied with the gift of the Holy Spirit which our Lord afterwards ordained, is clearly marked by John himself (Matt. iii. 11, 12). Jesus Himself came from Galilee to Jordan to be baptised of John. [Jesus.] From incidental notices we learn that John and his disciples continued to baptise some time after our Lord entered upon his ministry (see John iii. 23, iv. 1 ; Acts xix. 3). We gather also that John instructed his disciples in certain moral and religious duties, as fast- ing (Matt. ix. 14 ; Luke v. 33) and prayer (Luke xi. 1). But shortly after he had given his testimony to the Messiah, John's public ministry was brought to a close. In daring disregard of the divine laws, Herod Antipas had taken to himself the wife of his brother Philip ; and when John reproved him for this, as well as for other sins (Luke iii. 19), Herod cast him into prison. The place of his confinement was the castle of Machaerus ■ — a fortress on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. It was here that reports reached him of the miracles which our Lord was working in Judaea. Respecting the message which John sent to our Saviour, see Jestjs, p. 257. Nothing but the death of the Baptist would satisfy the resentment of Herodias. A court festival was kept at Machaerus in honour of the king's birthday. After supper, the daughter of Herodias came in and danced before the company, and so charmed was the king by her grace that he promised with an oath to give her whatsoever she should ask. Salome, prompted by her abandoned mother, demanded the head of John the Baptist. Herod gave instructions to an officer of his guard, who went and executed John in the prison, and his head was brought to feast the eyes of the adulteress whose sins he had de- nounced. His death is suppOvsed to have occurred just before the third passover, in the course of the Lord's ministry. JOHN, GOSPEL OF. No doubt has been entertained at any time in the Church, either of the canonical authority of this Gospel, or of its being written by St. John. Ephesus and Patmos are the two places mentioned by early writers as the place where this Gospel was written ; and the weight of evidence seems to preponderate in favour of Epbesus. The Apostle's sojourn at Ephesus probably began after St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians was written, i.e. after a.d. 62. Eusebius specifies the fourteenth year of Domitian, i. e. A.D. 95, as the year of his banishment to Patmos. Probably the date of the Gospel may lie about midway between these two, about A.D. 78. After the destruction of Jerusalem a.d. 69, Ephesus probably becan^e the centre of the active life of Eastern Christendom. It contained a large church of faithful Christians, a multitude of zealous Jews, an indigenous population devoted to the worship of a strange idol whose image was borrowed from the East, its name from the West. The Gospel was obviously addressed primarily to Christians, not to heathens. There can be little doubt that the main object of St. John, who wrote after the other Evan- gelists, is to supplement their narratives, which were almost confined to our Lord's life in Galilee. [See further, Gospel.]— The following is an abi'idgment of its contents : — A. The Prologue i. 1-18.— B. Tlie History, i. 19-xx. 29. a. Various events relating to our Lord's ministry, narrated in connexion with seven journeys, i. 19-xii. 50 : — 1. First journey, into Judaea and beginning of His ministry, i. 19-ii. 12. 2. Second journey, at the Passover in the first year of His ministry, ii. 13-iv. 3. Third journey, in the second year of His ministry, about the Passover, v. 4. Fourth journey, about the Passover, in the third year of His ministry, beyond Jordan, vi. 5. Fifth journey, six months before His death, begun at the Feast of Tabernacles, vii.- X. 21. 6. Sixth journey, about the Feast of Dedication, X. 22-42. 7. Seventh journey in Judaea towards Bethany, xi. 1-54. 8. Eighth journej"^, before His last Passover, xi. 55-xii. b. History of the death of Christ, xiii.-xx. 29. 1. Preparation for His Passion, xiii.-xvii. 2. The circumstances of His Passion and Death, xviii. xix. 3. His Resurrection, and the proofs of it, xx. 1-29.- C. The Conclusion, XX. 30-xxi. : — 1. Scope of the foregoing his- tory, XX. 30, 31. 2. Confirmation of the authority of the Evangelist by additional historical facts, and by the testimony of the elders of the Church, xxi. 1-24. 3. Reason of the termination of the history, xxi. 25. JOHN, THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF. There can be no doubt that the Apostle John was the author of this Epistle. Like the Gospel it was probably Avritten from Ephesus, and most likely at the close of the first century. It was primarily meant for the churches of Asia under St. John's in- spection, to whom he had already orally JOHN, EPISTLES OF 271 JON.\H delivered his doctrine (i. 3, ii. 7). In the introduction (i. 1-4) the Apostle states the purpose of his Epistle. It is to declare the Word of life to those whom he is addressing, in order that he and they might be united in true communion with each other, and with God the Father, and His Son Jesus Christ. The first part of the Epistle may be con- sidered to end at ii. 28. The Apostle begins afresh with the doctrine of sonship or com- munion at ii. 29, and returns to the same theme at iv. 7. His lesson throughout is, that the means of union with God are, on the part of Christ, His atoning blood (i. 7, ii. 2, iii. 5, iv. 10, 14, v. 6) and advocacy (ii. 1) — on the part of man, holiness (i. 6), obedience (ii. 3), purity (iii. 3), faith (iii. 23, iv. 3, v. 5), and above all love (ii. 7, iii. 14, iv. 7, v. 1). There are two doubtful passages in this Epistle, ii. 23, "but he that acknowledgeth the 'Son hath the Father also," and v. 7, " For there are three that bear record in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost, and these three are one." It would appear without doubt that they are not genuine. JOHN, THE SECOND AND THIRD EPISTLES OF. These two Epistles are placed by Eusebius in the class of " disputed " books, and he appears himself to be doubtful whether they were written by the Evange- list, or by some other John. The evidence of antiquity in their favour is not very strong, but yet is considerable. In the 5th century they were almost universally received. The title and contents of the Epistles are strong arguments against a fabricator, whereas they would account for their non-universal re- ception in early times. The Second Epistle is addressed enKeicrr] KvpCa. An individual woman who had children, and a sister and nieces, is clearly indicated. Whether her name is given, and if so, what it is, has been doubted. According to one interpretation she is "the Lady Electa," to another, " the elect Kyria," to a third, " the elect Lady." The English version is probably right, though here too we should have expected the article. The Third Epistle is addressed to Gains or Caius. We have no reason for identifying him with Caius of Macedonia (Acts xix. 29), or with Caius of Derbe (Acts xx. 4), or with Caius of Corinth (Rom. xvi. 23 ; 1 Cor. i. 14), or with Caius Bishop of Ephesus, or with Caius Bishop of Thessalonica, or with Caius Bishop of Pergamos. He was probably a convert of St. John (Ep. iii. 4), and a layman of wealth and distinction (Ep. iii. 5) in some city near Ephesus. The object of St. John in writing the Second Epistle was to warn the lady to whom he wrote against abetting the teaching known as that of Basilides and his followers, by perhaps an undue kindness displayed by her towards the preachers of the false doc- trine. The Third Epistle was written for the purpose of commending to the kindness and hospitality of Caius some Christians who were strangers in the place where he lived. It is probable that these Christians carried this letter with them to Caius as their in- troduction. JOK'MEAM, a city of Ephraim, given with its suburbs to the Kohathite Levites (1 Chr. vi. 68). The situation of Jokmeam is to a certain extent indicated in 1 K. iv. 12, where it is named with places which we know to have been in the Jordan valley at the extreme east boundary of the tribe. JOK'NEAM, a city of the tribe of Zebulun, allotted with its suburbs to the Merarite Le- vites (Josh. xxi. 34). Its modern site is Tell Kaimon, an eminence which stands just below the eastern termination of Carmel. JOK'SIIAN, a son of Abraham and Ke- turah (Gen. xxv. 2, 3 ; 1 Chr. i. 32), whose sons were Sheba and Dedan. JO K 'TAN, son of Eber (Gen. x, 25 ; 1 Chr. i. 19), and the father of the Joktanite Arabs. Scholars are agreed in placing the settlements of Joktan in the south of the peninsula. The original limits are stated in the Bible, " their dwelling was from Mesha, as thou goest unto Sephar, a mount of the East " (Gen. x. 30). The ancestor of the great southern peoples was called Kahtan, who, say the Arabs, was the same as Joktan. JOK'THEEL. 1. A city in the low coun- try of Judah (Josh. xv. 38), named next to Luchish. — 2. "God-subdued," the title given by Amaziah to the cliff (A.V. Selah) — the stronghold of the Edomites — after he had captured it from them (2 K. xiv. 7). The parallel narrative of 2 Chr. xxv. 11-13 sup- plies fuller details. JO'NA, the father of the Apostle Peter (John i. 42), who is hence addressed as Simon Barjona [i. e. son of Jona) in Matt. xvi. 17. JON'ADAB, son of Shimeah and nephew of David. He is described as "very subtil" (2 Sam. xiii. 3). His age naturally made him the friend of his cousin Amnon, heir to the throne (2 Sam. xiii. 3). He gave him the fatal advice for ensnaring his sister Tamar (5, 6). Again, when, in a later stage of the same tragedy, Amnon was murdered by Absalom, and the exaggerated report reached David that all the princes were slaughtered, Jonadab was already aware of the real state of the ease (2 Sam. xiii. 32, 33). JO'NAH, the fifth of the Minor Prophets, according to the order of our Bible, wa.-» the son of Amittai, and a native of Gath- JONAS 272 JONATHAN hcpher, a town of Lower Galilee in Zebulun (2 K. xiv. 25). He lived after the reign of Jehu, when the losses of Israel (2 K. x. 32) began ; and probably not till the latter part of the reign of Jeroboam II. The general opinion is that Jonah was the first of the prophets. The king of Nineveh at this time is supposed to have been Pul, who is placed B.C. 750. Our English Bible gives b.c. 862. Having alreadj', as it seems, prophesied to Israel, he was sent to Nineveh. The time was one of political revival in Israel ; but ere long the Assyrians were to be employed by God as a scourge upon them. The prophet shrank from a commission which he felt sure would result (iv. 2) in the sparing of a hostile city. He attempted therefore to escape to Tarshish. The Providence of God, however, watched over him, first in a storm, and then in his being swallowed by a large fish for the space of three days and three nights. [On this subject see art. Whalk.] After his deliverance, Jonah executed his commission ; and the king, " believing him to be a minister from the supreme deity of the nation," and having heard of his miraculous deliverance, ordered a general fast, and averted the threat- ened judgment. But the prophet, not from personal, but national feelings, grudged the mercy shown to a heathen nation. He was therefore taught, by the significant lesson of the "gourd," whose growth and decay brought the truth at once home to him, that he was sent to testify by deed, as other pro- phets would afterwards testify by wonJ, the capacity of Gentiles for salvation, and the design of God to make them partakers of it. This was " the sign of the prophet Jonas " (Luke xi. 29, 30). But the resurrection of Christ itself was also shadowed forth in the history of the prophet (Matt. xii. 39, 41, xvi. 4). The mission of Jonah was highly Bymbolical. The facts contained a concealed prophecy. The old tradition made the burial- place of Jonah to be Gathliepher : the modern tradition places it at Nebi-Yunus, opposite Mosul. JO'NAS. 1. The prophet Jonah (Matt. xii. 39, 40, 41, xvi. 4). 2. Father of Peter (John xxi. 15-17). [Jona.] JON'ATHAN, that is, " the gift of Jeho- vah," the eldest son of king Saul. He was regarded in his father's lifetime as heir to the throne. Like Saul, he was a man of great strength and activity (2 Sam. i. 23). He was also famous for the peculiar martial exercises in which his tribe excelled — archery and slinging (1 Chr. xii. 2). His bow was to him what the spear was to his father : •' the bow of Jonathan turned not back " (2 Sam. i. 22). It was always about him (1 Sam. xviii. 4, xx. 35). His life may be divided into two main parts. — 1. The war with the Philistines, commonly called, from its locality, " the war of Michmash " (1 Sam. xiii. 21). The Philistines were still in the general command of the country ; an officer was stationed at Geba, either the same as Jonathan's position or close to it. In a sud- den act of youthful daring Jonathan slew this officer, and thus gave the signal for a general revolt. But it was a premature attempt. The Philistines poured in from the plain, and the tyranny became more deeply rooted than ever. From this oppres- sion, as Jonathan by his former act had been the first to provoke it, so now he was the first to deliver his people. Without commu- nicating his project to any one, except the young man, whom, like all the chiefs of that age, he retained as his armour-bearer, he sallied forth from Gibeah to attack the gar- rison of the Philistines stationed on the other side of the steep defile of Michmash (xiv. 1). A panic seized the garrison, thence spread to the camp, and thence to the surrounding hordes of marauders ; an earthquake com- bined with the terror of the moment. Saul and his little band had watched in astonish- ment the wild retreat from the heights of Gibeah : he now joined in the pursuit. Jonathan had not heard of the rash curse (xiv. 24) which Saul invoked on any one who ate before the evening, and he tasted the honey which lay on the ground as they passed through the forest. Jephthah's dreadful sac- rifice would have been repeated ; but the people interposed in behalf of the hero of that great day; and Jonathan was saved (xiv. 24-46). — 2. But the chief interest of his career is derived from the friendship with David, which began on the day of David's return from the victory over the champion of Gath, and continued till his death. Their last meeting was in the forest of Ziph, during Saul's pursuit of David (1 Sam. xxiii. 16-18), From this time forth we hear no more till the battle of Gilboa. In that battle he fell, with his two brothers and his father, and his corpse shared their fate (1 Sam. xxxi. 2, 8). His ashes were buried first at Jabesh- Gilead (ib. 13), but afterwards removed with those of his father to Zelah in Benjamin (2 Sam. xxi. 12). The news of his death oc- casioned the celebrated elegy of David. He left a son, Mephibosheth. [Mkphibosheth.] — 2. Son of Shimeah, brother of Jonadab, and nephew of David (2 Sam. xxi. 21 ; 1 Chr. XX. 7). Like David, he engaged in a single combat, and slew a gigantic Philis- tine of Gath (2 Sam. xxi. 21).— 3. The son o Abiathar, the high-priest, is the last descend JOPPA 273 JOSEPH ant of Eli, of -whoin we hear anything. He appears on the day of David's flight from Absalom (2 Sam. xv. 36, xvii. 15-21), and on the day of Solomon's inauguration (1 K. i. 42, 43). — 4. The son, or descendant, of Ger- shom the son of Moses (Judg. xviii. 30). [MicAH.] — 5. Son of Joiada, and his successor in the high-priesthood (Neh. xii. 11, 22, 23). JOP'PA, or Japho, now Jaffa, a town on the S.W. coast of Palestine, in the portion of Dan (Josh. xix. 46). Having a harbour attached to it — though always, as still, a dangerous one — it became the port of Jerusa- lem in the days of Solomon, and has been ever since. Here Jonah " took ship to flee from the presence of his Maker." Here, on the house-top of Simon the tanner, " by the seaside," St. Peter had his vision of tolerance (Acts xi, 5). The existing town contains about 4000 inhabitants. JO'RAM. [Jehoram.] JOR'DAN, the one river of Palestine, has a course of little more than 200 miles, from the roots of Anti-Lebanon to the head of the Dead Sea. It is the river of the "great plain" of Palestine— the "Descender" — if not "the river of God" in the book of Psalms, at least that of His chosen people throughout their history. There were fords over against Jericho, to which point the men of Jericho pursued the spies (Josh. ii. 7 ; comp. Judg. iii. 28). Higher up, perhaps over against Succoth, some way above where the little river Jabbok {Zerka) enters the Jordan, were the fords or passages of Beth- barah (probably the Bethabara of the Gospel), where Gideon lay in wait for the Midianites (Judg. vii. 24), and where the men of Gilead slew the Ephi-almites (xii. 6). These fords undoubtedly witnessed the first recorded passage of the Jordan in the O. T. (Gen. xxxii. 10). Jordan was next crossed, over against Jericho, by Joshua the son of Nun (Josh. iv. 12, 13). From their vicinity to Jerusalem the lower fords were much used ; David, it is probable, passed over them in one instance to fight the Syrians (2 Sam. x. 17) ; and subsequently when a fugitive him- self, in his way to Mahanaim (xvii. 22) on the east bank. Thus there were two cus- tomary places, at which the Jordan was ford- able ; and it must have been at one of these, if not at both, that baptism was afterwards administered by St. John, and by the dis- ciples of our Lord. Whci-e our Lord was baptised is not stated expressly ; but it was pi-obably at the upper ford. These fords were rendered so much the more precious ia those days from two circumstances. First, it does not appear that there were then any bridges thi-own over, or boats regularly esta- Sm. D. B. Wished on, the Jordan. And secondly, be- cause " Jordan overflowed all his banks aL the time of hai-vest " (Josh. iii. 15). The channel or bed of the river became brimful, so that the level of the water and of the banks was then the same. The last feature which remains to be noticed in the Scriptural account of the Jordan is its frequent mention as a boundary : " over Jordan," " this," and " the other side," or "beyond Jordan," were expressions as familiar to the Israelites as "across the water," "this," and "the other side of the Channel," are to English ears. In one sense indeed, that is, in so far as it was the eastern boundary of the land of Canaan, it was the eastern boundary of the promised land (Num. xxxiv. 12). The Jordan rises from several sources near Panium {JBdnida,, and passes through the lakes of Merom [Hideh) and Gennesaret. The two principal features in its course are its descent and its windings. From its fountain-heads to the Dead Sea, it rushes down one continuous inclined plane, only broken by a series of rapids or precipitous falls. Between the lake of Gennesaret and the Dead Sea there ai-e 27 rapids ; the depression of the lake of Gennesaret below the level of the Mediter- ranean is 653 feet ; and that of the Dead Sea 1316 feet. Its sinuosity is not so re- markable in the upper part of its course. The only tributaries to the Jordan below Gennesaret ai-e the Yarmiik (Hieromax) and the Zcrka (Jabbok). Not a single city ever crowned the banks of the Jordan. Still Bethshan and Jericho to the W., Gerasa, Bella, and Gadara to the E. of it, were im- portant cities, and caused a good deal of traffic between the two opposite banks. The physical features of the Ghor, through which the Jordan flows, are treated of under Pales- tine. JO'SEPH. 1. The elder of the two sons of Jacob by Rachel, is first mentioned when a youth, seventeen years old. Jacob seems then to have stayed at Hebron with the aged Isaac, while his sons kept his flocks. Joseph, we read, brought the evil report of his brethren to his father, and they hated him because his father loved him more than them, as the "son of his old age," and had shown his preference by making him a dress, which appears to have been a long tunic with sleeves, worn by youths and maidens of the richer class (Gen. xxxvii. 2). The hatred of Joseph's brethren was increased by his telling of a dream foreshowing that they would bow down to him, which was followed by another of the same import. They had gone to Shcchcm to feed the flock ; and Joseph was seut thither from the vale of T JOSEPH 274 JOSEPH Hebron hy his father to bring him word of their -welfare and that of the flock. They were not at Shechem, but were gone to Dothan, which appears to have been not far distant, pasturing their flock like tlie Arabs of the present day, wherever the wild country was unowned. On Joseph's approach, his brethren, except Reuben, resolved to kill him ; but Reuben saved him, persuading them to cast him into a dry pit, to the intent that he rniglit restore him to his father. Accordingly, when Joseph was come, they stripped him of his tunic and cast him into the pit, "and they sat down to eat bread: and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmeelites came from Gilead with their camels." Judah suggested to his brethren to sell Joseph to the Ishmeel- ites, and accordingly they took him out of the pit and sold him " for twenty [shekels] of silver" (ver. 28). His brethren pretended to Jacob that Joseph had been killed by some wild beast, taking to him the tunic stained with a kid's blood. The Midianites sold Joseph in Egypt to Potiphar, " an officer of Pharaoh, captain of the executioners, an Egyptian" (xxxix. 1; comp. xxxvii. 36). Joseph prospered in the house of the Egyptian, who, seeing tliat God blessed him, and pleased with his good service, " set him over his house, and all [that] he had he gave into his hand" (xxxix. 4, comp. 5). His master's wife, with the well-known profligacy of the Egyptian women, tempted him, and failing, charged him with the crime she would have made him commit. Potiphar, incensed against Joseph, cast him into prison, where he remained for at least two years, and perhaps longer. In the prison, as in Potiphar's house, Joseph was found worthy of complete trust, and the keeper of the prison placed everything under his control. After a while, Pharaoh was incensed against two of his officers, " the chief of the cup- bearers " and the " chief of the bakers," and cast them into the prison where Joseph was. Each dreamed a prophetic dream, which Joseph interpreted. " After two years," Joseph's deliverance came. Pharaoh dreamed two prophetic dreams. "He stood by the river [the Nile]. And, behold, coming up out of the river seven kine [or ' heifers '], beautiful in appearance and fat-fleshed ; and they fed in the marsh-grass. And, behold, seven other kine coming up after them out of the river, evil in appearance, and lean- fleshed" (xli. 1-3). These, afterwards de- scribed still more strongly, ate up the first seven, and yet, as is said in the second ac- count, when they had eaten them remained i»5 lean as before (xli. 1-4, 17-21). Then Pharaoh had a second dream,— "Behold, seven ears of corn coming up on one stalk, fat [or ' full,' ver. 22] and good. And, be- hold, seven ears, thin and blasted with the east wind, sprouting forth after them" (ver. 5, 6). These, also described more strongly in the second account, devoured the first seven ears (ver. 5-7,. 22-24). In the morn- ing Pharaoh sent for the " scribes " and the " wise men," and they were unable to give him an interpretation. Then the chief of the cupbearers remembered Joseph, and told Pharaoh how a young Hebrew, " servant to the captain of the executioners," had inter- preted his and his fellow-prisoner's dreams. " Then Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they made him hasten out of the prison : and he shaved [himself], and changed liis raiment, and came unto Pharaoh" (ver. 14). The king then related his dreams, and Joseph, when he had disclaimed human wisdom, de- clai-ed to him that they were sent of God to forewarn Pharaoh. There was essentially but one dream. Both kine and ears sym- bolized years. There were to be seven years of great plenty in Egypt, and after them seven years of consuming and " very heavy famine." On the interpretation it may be remarked, that the kine represented the animal products, and the ears of corn the vegetable products, the most important object in each class representing the Avhole class. Having interpreted the dream, Joseph coun- selled Pharaoh to choose a wise man and set him over the country, in order that he should take the fifth part of the produce of the seven years of plenty against the years of famine. To this high post the king appointed Joseph, made him not only governor of Egypt, but second only to the sovereign. He also " gave him to wife Asenath daughter of Poti- pherah, priest [or ' prince '] of On." Joseph's first act was to go throughout all the land of Egypt. During the seven plenteous years there was a very abundant produce, and he gathered the fifth part, as he had advised Pharaoh, and laid it up. Before the year of famine Asenath bare Joseph two sons. When the seven good years had passed, the famine began (Gen. xli. 54-57). Famines are not very unfrequent in the history of Egypt. [Famine.] After the famine had lasted for a time, apparently two years, Joseph gathered up all the money that was found in the land of Egypt, and in the land of Canaan, for the corn which they bought : and Joseph brought the money into Pharaoh's house (xlvii. 13, 14). When all the money of Egypt and Canaan was exhausted, barter became neces- sary. Joseph then obtained all the cattle of Egypt, and in the next year, all the laud^ JOSEPH ^O JOSEPH except that of the priests, and apparently, as a consequence, the Egyptians themselves. He demanded, however, only a fifth part of the produce as Pharaoh's right. Early in the time of famine, which prevailed equally in Canaan and Egypt, Jacob reproved his helpless sons and sent them to Egypt, v'here he knew there was corn to be bought. Ben- jamin alone he kept with him. Joseph was now governor, an Egyptian in habits and speech. His brethren did not know him, grown from the boy they had sold into a man. Joseph remembered his dreams, and behaved to them as a stranger, using, as we afterwards learn, an interpreter, and spoke hard words to them, and accused them of being spies. In defending themselves they spoke of their household. The whole story of Joseph's treatment of his brethren is so graphically told in Gen. xlii.-xlv., and is so familiar that it is unnecessary here to repeat it. After the removal of his family into Egypt, Jacob and his house abode in the land of Goshen, Joseph still ruling the country. Here Jacob, when near his end, gave Joseph a portion above his brethren, doubtless including the "parcel of gr-ound" at Shechem, his future burying-place (comp. Johniv. 5). Then he blessed his sons, Joseph most earnestly of all, and died in Egypt. " And Joseph fell upon his face, and wept upon him, and kissed him" (1. 1). When he had caused him to be embalmed by " his servants the physicians " he carried him to Canaan, and laid him in the cave of Mach- pelah, the burying-place of his fathers. Then it was that his brethren feared that, their father being dead, Joseph would punish them, and that he strove to remove their fears. We know no more of Joseph than that he lived "a hundred and ten years," having been more than ninety in Egypt ; that he " saw Ephraim's children of the third" [generation], and that "the children also of Machir the son of Manasseh were borne upon Joseph's knees ; " and that dying he took an oath of his brethren that they should carry up his bones to the land of pro- mise : thus showing in his latest action the faith (Heb. xi. 22) which had guided his whole life. Like his father he was em- balmed, " and he was put in a coffin in Egypt" (1. 26). His trust Moses kept, and laid the bones of Joseph in his inheritance in Shechem, in the territory of Ephraim his offspring. As to the dynasty which ruled in Egypt during Joseph's residence, see EoYrr. —2. Sou of Heli, and reputed father of Jesus Christ. All that is told us of Joseph in the N. T. may be summed up in a few words. He was a just man, and of the house and lineage of David. The public registers also contained his name under the reckoning of the house of David (John i. 45 ; Luke iii. 23 ; Matt. i. 20 ; Luke ii. 4). He lived at Nazareth in Galilee, and it is probable that his family had been settled there for at least two preceding generations, possibly from the time of Matthat, the common grand- father of Joseph and Mary, since Mar-y lived there too (Luke i. 26, 27). He espoused Mary, the daughter and heir of his uncle Jacob, and before he took In-r home as his - wife received the angelic communication re*- corded in Matt. i. 20. When Jesus was 12 years old Joseph and Mary took him with them to keep the Passover at Jerusalem, and when they returned to Nazareth he continued to act as a father to the child Jesus, and was reputed to be so indeed. But here our know- ledge of Joseph ends. That he died before our Lord's crucifixion, is indeed tolerably certain, by what is related, John xix. 27, and perhaps Mark vi. 3 may imply that he was then dead. But where, when, or how he died, we know not. — 3. Joskph of Ari- MATHAKA, a rich and pious Israelite, is de- nominated by Mark (xv. 43), an honourable counsellor, by which we are probably to understand that he was a member of the Great Council, or Sanhedrim. He is further characterised as "a good man and a just" (Luke xxiii. 50), one of those who, bearing in their hearts the words of their old pro- phets, were waiting for the kingdom of God (Mark xv. 43 ; Luke ii. 25, 38, xxiii. 51). We are expressly told that he did not " eon- sent to the counsel and deed" of his col- leagues in conspiring to bring about the death of Jesus ; but he seems to have lacked the courage to protest against their judgment. At all events we know that he shrank, through fear of his countrymen, from pro- fessing himself openly a disciple of our Lord. The crucifixion seems to have wrought in him the same clear conviction that it wrought in the Centurion who stood by the cross ; for on the very evening of that dreadful day, when the triumph of the chief priests and rulers seemed complete, Joseph " went in boldly unto Pilate and craved the body of Jesus." Pilate consented. Joseph and Nicodemus then having enfolded the sacred body in the linen shroud which Joseph had bought, consigned it to a tomb hewn in a rock, a tomb where no human corpse had ever yet been laid. The tomb was in a garden belonging to Joseph, and close to the place of crucifixion. There is a tradition that he was one of the seventy disciples. — 4. Joseph, called Bahsabas, and surnamed Justus ; one of the two persons chosen by JOSHUA 276 JOSHUA, BOOK OF the assembled church (Acts i. 23) as worthy to fill the place in the Apostolic company from which Judas had fallen. JOSH' U A, whose name appears in the various forms of Hoshea, Oshea, Jehoshua, Jeshua, and Jesus, was the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim (1 Chr. vii. 27), and was nearly forty years old when he shared in the hurried triumph of the Exodus. He is mentioned first in connexion with the fight against Amalek at Rephidim, when he was chosen by Moses to load the Israelites (Ex, xvii. 9), When Moses ascended Mount Sinai to receive for the first time the two Tables, Joshua, who is called his minister or servant, accompanied him part of the way, and was the first to accost him in his descent (Ex. xxxii. 17). Soon afterwards he was one of the twelve chiefs who were sent (Num. xiii. 17) to explore the land of Canaan, and one of the two (xiv. 6) who gave an en- couraging report of their journey. The 40 years of wandering were almost passed, and Joshua was one of the few survivors, when Moses, shortly before his death, was directed (Num. xxvii. 18) to invest Joshua solemnly and publicly with definite authority, in con- nexion with Eleazar the priest, over the people. And after this was done, God Him- self gave Joshua a charge by the mouth of the dying Lawgiver (Deut. xxxi. 14, 23). Under the direction of God again renewed (Josh. i. 1), Joshua assumed the command of the people at Shittim, sent spies into Jericho, crossed the Jordan, fortified a camp at Gilgal, circumcised the people, kept the passover, and was visited by the Captain of the Lord's Host. A miracle made the fall of Jericho more terrible to the Canaanites. In the first attack upon Ai the Israelites were repulsed : it fell at the second assault, and the invaders marched to the relief of Gibeon. In the great battle of Bethhoron the Amorites were signally routed, and the south country was open to the Israelites. Joshua returned to the camp at Gilgal, master of half of Palestine. In the north, at the waters of JMerom, he defeated the Canaanites under Jabin king of Hazor ; and pursued his suc- cess to the gates of Zidon and into the valley of Lebanon under Hermon. In six years, six tribes with thirtj'-one petty chiefs were conquered ; amongst others the Anakim — the old terror of Israel — are especially re- corded as destroyed everywhere except in Philistia. Joshua, now stricken in years, proceeded in conjunction with Eleazar and the heads of the tribes to complete the divi- sion of the conquered land ; and when all was allotted, Timnath-serah in Mount Ephraim was assigned by the people as Joshua's peculiar inheritance. After an interval of rest, Joshua convoked an as- sembly from all Israel. He delivered two solemn addresses reminding them of the marvellous fulfilment of God's promises to their fathers, and warning them of the con- ditions on which their prosperity depended ; and lastly, he caused them to i-enew their covenant with God, at Shechem, a place already famous in connexion with Jacob (Gen. XXXV. 4), and Joseph (Josh. xxiv. 32). He died at the age of 110 years, and was buried in his own city, Timnath-serah. JOSH'UA, BOOK OF. This book has been regarded by many critics as a part of the Pentateuch, forming with the latter one complete work ; but there do not appear to be sufficient grounds for this opinion. The fact that the first sentence of Joshua begins with a conjunction does not show any closer connexion between it and the Pentateuch than exists between Judges and it. The re- ferences in 1. 8, viii. 31, xxiii. 6, xxiv. 26, to the " book of the law " rather show that that book was distinct from Joshua. Other references to events recorded in the Penta- teuch tend in the same direction. No quo- tation (in the strict modern sense of the word) from the Pentateuch can be found in Joshua. — The book may be regarded as con- sisting of three parts : (I.) The conquest of Canaan, (II.) The partition of Canaan, (III.) Joshua's farewell. — I. The preparations for the war and the passage of the Jordan, ch.- 1-5 ; the captui-e of Jericho, 6 ; the conquest of the south, 7-10 ; the conquest of the north, 11 ; recapitulation, 12. — II. Teri'itory assigned to Reuben, Gad, and half Manasseh, 1 3 ; the lot of Caleb and of the tribe of Judah, 14, 15; Ephraim and half Manasseh, 16, 17; Benjamin, 18; Simeon, Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali and Dan, 19 ; the appointment of six cities of refuge, 20 ; the as- signment of forty-eight cities to Levi, 21 ; the departure of the transjordanic tribes to their homes, 22. This part of the book has been aptly compared to the Domesday-book of the Norman conquerors of England. The docu- ments of which it consists were doubtless the abstract of such reports as were supplied by the men whom Joshua sent out to describe the land. In the course of time it is pro- bable that changes were introduced into their reports by ti-anscribers adapting them to the actual state of the covintry in later times, when political divisions were modified, new towns sprang up and old ones disappeared. — III. Joshua's convocation of the people and first address, 23 ; his second address at Shechem, and his death, 24. Nothing is really known as to the authorship of the JOSIAH 277 JUDAEA book. Joshua himself is generallj' named as the author by the Jewish writers and the Christian Fathers ; but no contemporary assertion or sufficient historical proof of the fact exists, and it cannot be maintained with- out qualification. The last verses (xxiv. 29- 33) were obviously added at a later time. Some events, such as the capture of Hebron, of Debir (Josh. xv. 13-19, and Judg. i. 10-15), of Leshem (Josh. xix. 47, and Judg. xviii. 7), and the joint occupation of Jerusalem (Josh. xv. 63, and Judg. i. 21) probably did not occur till after Joshua's death. JOSl'.\n. The son of Amon and Jedidah, succeeded his father b.c. 641, in the eighth year of his age, and reigned 31 years. His history is contained in 2 K. xxii.-xxiv. 30 ; 2 Chr. xxxiv., xxxv. ; and the first twelve chapters of Jeremiah throw much light upon the general character of the Jews in his days. He began in the eighth year of his reign to seek the Lord ; and in his twelfth year, and for six years afterwards, in a personal pro- gress throughout all the land of Judah and Israel, he destroyed everywhei-e high places, groves, images, and all outward signs and relics of idolatry. The temple was restored under a special commission ; and in the course of the repairs Ililkiah the priest found that book of the Law of the Lord which quickened so remai'kably the ardent zeal of the king. The great day of Josiah's life was the day of the Passover in the eighteenth year of his reign. After this, his endeavours to abolish every trace of idolatry and super- stition were still carried on. But the time drew near which had been indicated by Huldah (2 K. xxii. 20). When Pharaoh- Necho went from Egypt to Carchemish to carry on his war against Assyria, Josiah, possibly in a spirit of loyalty to the Assyrian king, to whom he may have been bound, opposed his march along the sea-coast. Necho reluctantly paused and gave him battle in the valley of Esdraelon. Josiah was mor- tally wounded, and died before he could reach Jerusalem. He was buried with ex- traordinary honours. JO'THAM. 1. The youngest son of Gideon (Judg. ix. 5), who escaped from the massacre of his brethren. His parable of the reign of the bramble is the earliest example of the kind. — 2. The son of king Uzziah or Azariah and Jerushah. After administering the kingdom for some years during his father's leprosy, he succeeded to the throne b.c. 758, when he was 25 years old, and reigned 16 years in Jerusalem. He was contemporary with Pekah and with the prophet Isaiah. His history is contained in 2 K. XV. and 2 Chr. xxvii. JU'BAL, a son of Lamech by Adah, and the inventor of the " harp and organ " (Gen. iv. 21), probably general terms for stringed and wind instruments. JUBILEE, THE YEAR OF, the fiftieth year after the succession of seven Sabbatical years, in which all the land which had been alienated returned to the families of those to whom it had been allotted in the original distribution, and all bondmen of Hebrew- blood were liberated. The relation in which it stood to the Sabbatical year and the general directions for its observance are given Lev. XXV. 8-16 and 23-55. Its bearing on lands dedicated to Jehovah is stated Lev. xxvii. 16-25. There is no mention of the Jubilee in the book of Deuteronomy, and the only other reference to it in the Pentateuch is in Num. xxxvi. 4. The year was inaugurated on the Day of Atonement with the blowing of trumpets throughout the land, and by a proclamation of universal liberty. Josephus states that all debts were remitted in the year of Jubilee ; but the Scripture speaks of the remission of debts only in connexion with the Sabbatical Year (Deut. xv. 1, 2), and the Jewish writers say expressly that the remis- sion of debts was a point of distinction be- tween the Sabbatical year and the Jubilee. The Jewish writers in general consider that the Jubilee was observed till the destruction of the first temple. But there is no direct his- torical notice of its observance on any one occasion, either in the books of the 0. T., or in any other records. The only passages in the Prophets Avhich can be regarded with much confidence, as referring to the Jubilee in any way, are Is. v. 7, 8, 9, 10, Ixi. 1, 2 ; Ez. viL 12, 13, xlvi. 16, 17, 18. The Ju- bilee is to be regarded as the outer circle of that great Sabbatical system which comprises within it the Sabbatical year, the sabbatical month, and the sabbath day. But the Jubilee is more immediately connected with the body politic ; and it was only as a member of the state that each person concerned could parti- cipate in its provisions. It was not distin- guished by any prescribed religious observance peculiar to itself, like the rites of the sabbath day and of the sabbatical month. As far as legislation could go, its provisions tended to restore that equality in outward circum- stances which was instituted in the first set- tlement of the land by Joshua. JU'CAL, son of Shelemiah (Jer. xxxviii. 1). JU'DA, one of the Lord's brethren, enu- merated in Mark vi. 3. [Jud^s, p. 280.] JUDAE'A, or JUDE'A, a territorial divi- sion which succeeded to the overthrow of the ancient landmarks of the tribes of Israel and Judah in their respective captivities. JUDAH JUDAH, KINGDOM OF The word first occurs Dan. v. 13 (A.V. "Jewry"), and tlie first mention of the " province of Judaea " is in the book of Ezra (V. 8) ; it is alluded to in Neh. xi. 3 (A. V. " Judah "), and was the result of the division of the Tersian empire mentioned by Hei-o- dotus (iii. 89-97), under Darius (comp. Esth. viii. 9 ; Dan. vi. 1). In the Apocryphal Books the word " province " is dropped, and throughout the books of Esdras, Tobit, Judith, and Maccabees, the expressions are the " land of Judaea," "Judaea" (A. V. frequently "Jewry"), and throug-hout the N. T. In a wide and inore improper sense, the term Judaea was sometimes extended to the whole country of the Canaanites, its ancient inhabi- tants ; and even in the Gospels we seem to read of the coasts of Judaea " beyond Jor- dan" (Matt. xix. 1; Mark x. 1). Judaea was, in strict language, the name of the third district, west of the Jordan, and south of Samaria. It was made a portion of the Roman province of Syria upon the deposition of Archelaus, the ethnarch of Judea in a.d. 6, and was governed by a procurator, who was subject to the governor of Syria. JU'DAH, the fourth son of Jacob and the fourth of Leah, the last before the temporary cessation in the births of her children. His whole-brothers were Reuben, Simeon, and Levi, elder than himself — Issachar and Ze- bulun younger (see Gen. xxxv. 23). Of Judah's personal character more traits are preserved than of any other of the patriarchs, with the exception of Joseph. In the matter of the sale of Joseph, he and Reuben stand out in favourable contrast to the rest of the brothers. When a second visit to Egypt for corn had become inevitable, it was Judah who, as the mouthpiece of the rest, headed the remonstrance against the detention of Benjamin by Jacob, and finally undertook to be responsible for the safety of the lad (xliii. 3-10). And when, through Joseph's artifice, the brothers were brought back to the palace, he is again the leader and spokesman of the band. So too it is Judah who is sent before Jacob to smooth the way for him in the land of Goshen (xlvi. 28). This ascendancy over his brethren is reflected in the last words addressed to him by his father. His sons were five. Of these, three were by his Canaanite wife Bath-shua. They are all in- significant : two died early ; and the third, Shelah, does not come prominently forward, either in his person or his family. The other two, Phaeez and Zkrah, were illegitimate sons by the widow of Er, the eldest of the former family. As is not unfrequently the case, the illegitimate sons surpassed the legi- timate, and from Pharez, the elder, were de- scended the royal and other illustrious families of Judah. The three sons went with their father into Egypt at the time of the final removal thither (Gen. xlvi. 12 ; Ex. i. 2). When we again meet with the families of Judah they occupy a position among the tribes similar to that which their progenitor had taken amongst the patriarchs. The numbers of the tribe at the census at Sinai were 74,600 (Num. i. 26, 27), considerably in advance of any of the others, the largest of which— Dan— numbered 62,700. On the borders of the Promised Land they were 76,500 (xxvi. 22), Dan being still the nearest. During the march through the desert Judah's place was in the van of the host, on the east side of the Tabernacle, with his kinsmen Issachar and Zebulun (ii. 3-9, x. 14). During the conquest of the country the only incidents specially affecting the tribe of Judah are — (1) the misdeed of Achan, who was of the great house of Zerah (Josh. vii. 1, 16-18) ; and (2) the conquest of the mountain district of Hebron by Caleb, and of the strong city Debir, in the same locality, by his nephew and son-in-law 0th- niel (Josh. xiv. 6-15, xv. 13-19).— The boundaries and contents of the territory allotted to Judah are narrated at great length, and with greater minuteness than the others, in Josh. xv. 20-63. The north boundary, for the most part coincident witli the south boundary of Benjamin, began at the embouchure of the Jordan, entered the hills apparently at or about the present road from Jericho, ran westward to En-shemesh, probably the present Ain-Hmid, below Be- thany, thence over the Mount of Olives to Enrogel, in the valley beneath* Jerusalem ; went along the ravine of Hinnom, under the precipices of the city, climbed the hill in a N.W. direction to the Avater of the Nephtoah (probably Lifta ), and thence by Kirjath-Jea- rim (probably Kuriet-el-Enah), Bethshemesh {Ain-Shcms), Timnath, and Ekron to Jab- neel on the sea-coast. On the east the Dead Sea, and on the west the Mediterranean formed the boundaries. The southern line is hard to determine, since it is denoted by places many of which have not been iden- tified. It left the Dead Sea at its extreme south end, and joined the Mediterranean at the Wady el-Arish. This territory is in average length about 45 miles, and in average breadth about 50. JU'DAH, KINGDOM OF. When the dis- ruption of Solomon's kingdom took place at Shechem, only the tribe of Judah followed the house of David. But almost immediately afterwards, when Rehoboam conceived the design of establishing his authority over JUDAH, KINGDOM OF 279 JUDAS ISCAllIOT Israel by foi-ce of ai-ms, the tribe of Ben- jamin also is recorded as obeying his sum- mons, and contributing its warriors to make lip liis army. Two Benjamite towns, Bethel and Jericho, were included in the northern kingdom. A part, if not all, of the territory of Simeon (1 Sam. xxvii. 6 ; IK. xix. 3 ; comp. Josh. xix. 1) and of Dan (2 Chr. xi. 10 ; comp. Josh. xix. 41, 42) was recognised as belonging to Judah ; and in the reigns of Abijah and Asa the southern kingdom was enlarged by some additions taken out of the territory of Ephraim (2 Chr. xiii. 19, xv. 8, xvii. 2). The kingdom of Judah possessed many advantages which secured for it a longer continuance than that of Israel. A frontier less exposed to powerful enemies, a eoil less fertile, a population hardier and more united, a lixed and venerated centre of administration and religion, an hereditary aristocracy in the sacerdotal caste, an army always subordinate, a succession of kings which no revolution interrupted : — to these and other secondary causes is to be attri- buted the fact that Judah survived her more populous and more powerful sister kingdom by 135 years, and lasted from b.c. 975 to B.C. 536. {a.) The first three kings of Judah seem to have cherished the hope of re-estab- lishing their authority over the Ten Tribes ; for sixty years there was war between them and the kings of Israel. The victory achieved by the daring Abijah brought to Judah a temporary accession of territory. Asa ap- pears to have enlarged it still farther. (&.) Hanani's remonstrance (2 Chr. xvi. 7) pre- pares us for the reversal by Jehoshaphat of the policy which Asa pursued towards Israel and Damascus. A close alliance sprang up with strange rapidity between Judah and Israel. Jehoshaphat, active and prosperous, repelled nomad invaders from the desert, curbed the aggressive spirit of his neai-er neighbours, and made his influ- ence felt even among the Philistines and Arabians. Amaziah, flushed with the re- covery of Edom, provoked a war with his more powerful contemporary Jehoash the conqueror of the Syrians ; and Jerusalem was entered and plundered by the Israelites. Under Uzziah and Jotham, Judah long en- joyed political and religious prosperity, till Ahaz became the tributary and vassal of Tig- lath-Pileser. (c.) Already in the fatal grasp of Assyria, Judah was yet spared for a che- quered existence of almost another century and a half after the termination of the king- dom of Israel. The consummation of the ruin came upon them in the destruction of the Temple by the hand of Nebuzaradan, amid the wailings of prophets, and the taunts of heathen tribes released at length from the yoke of David . JU'DAS, Rurnamed BAR'SABAS, a leading member of the Apostolic church at Jeru- salem (Acts XV. 22), endued with the gift of prophecy (ver. 32), chosen with Silas to accompany Paul and Barnabas as delegates to the church at Antioch, to make known the decree concerning the terms of admission of the Gentile converts (ver. 27). After em- ploying their prophetical gifts for the con- firmation of the Syrian Christians in the faith, Judas went back to Jerusalem. JU'DAS OF GALILEE, the leader of a popular revolt " in the days of the taxing " {i.e. the census, under the prefecture of P. Sulp. Quirinus, a.d. 6, a.u.c. 759), referred to by Gamaliel in his speech before the San- hedrim (Acts V. 37). According to Josephus, Judas was a Gaulonite of the city of Gamala, probably taking his name of Galilaean from his insurrection having had its rise in Ga- lilee. His revolt had a theocratic character, the watchword of which was, " We have no Lord or master but God." Judas himself perished, and his followers were dispersed. With his fellow-insurgent Sadoc, a Pharisee, Judas is represented by Josephus as the founder of a fourth sect, in addition to the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. The Gaulonites, as his followers were called, may be regarded as the doctrinal ancestors of the Zealots and Sicarii of later days. JU'DAS ISCAR'IOT. He is sometimes called " the son of Simon" (John vi. 71, xiii. 2, 26), but more commonly called (the three Synoptic Gospels give no other name) Isca- riotes (Matt. x. 4; Mark iii. 19; Luke vi. 16, &c.). In the three lists of the Twelve there is added in each case the fact that he was the betrayer. The name Iscariot has received many interpretations more or less conjectural. The most probable are — (1) From Kerioth (Josh. xv. 25), in the tribe oi Judah. On this hypothesis his position among the Twelve, the rest of whom be- longed to Galilee (Acts ii. 7), would be ex- ceptional ; and this has led to (2) From Kartha in Galilee (Kartan, A.V. Josh. xxi. 32). (3) From scortea, a leathern apron, the name being applied to him as the bearer of the bag and=Judas with the apron. — Of the life of Judas, before the appearance of his name in the lists of the Apostles, we know absolutely nothing. What that appearance implies, however, is that he had previously declared himself a disciple. He was drawn, as the others were, by the preaching of the Baptist, or his own Messianic hopes, or the " gracious words " of the new Teacher, to leave his former life, and to obey the call of JUDAS ISCARIOT 280 JUDAS, THE LORD'S BROTHER the Prophet of Nazareth. The choice wa'« not made, we must rememher, without a pre- vision of its issue (John vi. 64). The germs of the evil, in all likelihood, unfolded them- selves gradually. The rules to Avhich the Twelve were subject in their first journey (Matt. X. 9, 10) sheltered him from the temptation that would have been most dan- gerous to him. The new form of life, of which we find the first traces in Luke viii. 3, brought that temptation with it. As soon as the Twelve were recognised as a body, travel- ling hither and thither with their Master, receiving money and other offerings, and re- distributing what they received to the poor, it became necessary that some one should act as the steward and almoner of the small society, and this fell to Judas (John xii. 6, xiii. 29). The Galilean or Judaean peasant found himself entrusted with larger sums of money than before, and with this there came covctousness, unfaithfulness, embezzlement. It was impossible after this that he could feel at ease with One who asserted so clearly and sharply the laws of faithfulness, duty, unselfishness. The narrative of Matt, xxvi., Mark xiv., places this history in close connexion with the fact of the betrayal. It leaves the motives of the betrayer to conjecture. During the days that intervened between the supper at Bethany and the Paschal or quasi-Paschal gathering, he appeared to have concealed his treachery. At the last Supper he is present, looking forward to the consummation of his guilt as drawing nearer every hour. Then come the sorrowful words which showed him that his design was known. " One of you shall betray me." After this there comes on him that paroxysm and insanity of guilt as of one whose human soul was possessed by the Spirit of Evil — " Satan entered into him " (John xiii. 27). He knows that garden in which his Master and his companions had so often rested after the weary work of the day. He comes, accompanied by a band of officers and servants (John xviii. 3), with the kiss which was probably the usual salutation of the disciples. The words of Jesus, calm and gentle as they were, showed that this was what embittered the treachery, and made the suffering it inflicted more acute (Luke xxii. 48). What followed in the confusion of that night the Gospels do not record. The fever of the crime passed away. There came bacK on him the recollection of the sinless right- eousness of the Master he had wronged (Matt. xxvii. 3). He repented, and his guilt and all that had tempted him to it became hate- ful. He carried back the thirty pieces of silver to the chief priests, and confessed his sin, hoping perhaps that good might yet be done by this assei-tion of Christ's innocence. Their only answer was to throw the responsi- bility upon him ; and casting down the money on the pavement of the Temple he went and hanged himself. His death was made more horrible to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem by the circumstance recorded by St. Luke in the Acts ; but most awful of all is the sen- tence which was more than once pronounced upon him by the Lord, and with which Peter dismisses his name from the apostles' list, " from which Judas by transgression fell, that he might go to his oivn place." With a scrupulousness which is the most striking example of religious formalism glossing over moral deformity, the chief priests decided that the thirty silver pieces, as the price of blood, must not be put back into the treasurj', so they purchased with them the potter's field, without the city, as a burial place for strangers. It seems to be implied in the narrative that the field thus purchased was also the place where Judas committed suicide, and the double memoi'ial of the scene and the price of blood was preserved by its name, Aceldama, the field of blood (Matt, xxvii. 3-10 ; Acts i, 18, 19). It is hardly necessary to point out that " purchased " in the latter passage is an instance of a common figure of speech, implying indirect agency. [Aceldama.] JUDE, or JU'DAS, LEBBE'US and THAD- DE'US (A. V. " Judas the brother of James "), one of the Twelve Apostles ; a member, toge- ther with his namesake " Iscariot," James the son of Alphaeus, and Simon Zelotes, of the last of the three sections of the Apostolic body. The name Judas only, without any distinguishing mark, occurs in the lists given by St. Luke vi. 16 ; Acts i. 13 ; and in John xiv. 22 (where we find " Judas not Iscariot " among the Apostles), but the Apostle has been generally identified with " Lebbeus whose surname was Thaddeus " (Matt. x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18). Much difference of opinion has existed from the earliest times as to the right interpretation of the words 'lovSas 'laKiafiov- The generally received opinion is that the A. V. is right in translating " Judas the brother of James." But we prefer to follow nearly all the most eminent critical authoi'ities, and render the words "Judas the son of James." The name of Jude occurs only once in the Gospel narrative (John xiv. 22). 'Nothing is certainly known of the later history of the Apostle. Tradition connects him with the foundation of the church at Edessa. JU'DAS MACCAEAE'US. [Maccabees.] JU'DAS, THE LORD'S BROTHER. Among the brethren of our Lord mentioned by the people of Nazareth (Matt. xiii. 55 ; Mark vi. JUDE, EPISTLE OF 281 JUDGES, BOOK OF 3) occurs a " Judas," who has been some- times identified with the Apostle of the same name. It has been considered with more probability that he was the writer of the Epistle which bears the name of " Jude the brother of James." JUDE, EPISTLE OF. Its author was probably Jude, one of the brethren of Jesus, the subject of the preceding article. Althoug-h the canonicity of this Epistle was questioned in the earliest ages of the Church, tliere never was any doubt of its genuineness. The ques- tion Avas never whether it was the woi'k of an impostor, but whether its author was of sufficient weight to warrant its admission into the Canon. This question was gradually decided in its favour. There are no data from which to determine its date or place of writing. The object of the Epistle is plainly enough announced, ver. 3 : the reason for this exhortation is given ver. 4. The re- mainder of the Epistle is almost entirely occupied by a minute depiction of the adver- saries of the faith. The Epistle closes by briefly reminding the readers of the oft-re- peated prediction of the Apostles — among whom the writer seems not to rank himself — that the faith would be assailed by such enemies as he has depicted (ver. 17-19), ex- horting them to maintain their own stead- fastness in the faith (ver. 20, 21), while they earnestly sought to rescue others from the corrupt example of those licentious livers (ver. 22, 23), and commending them to the power of God in language which forcibly recalls the closing benediction of the Epistle to the Romans (ver. 24, 25; cf. Rom. xvi. 25-27). This Epistle presents one peculiarity, which, as we learn from St. Jerome, caused its authority to be impugned in very early times — the supposed citation of apocryphal writings (ver. 9, 14, 15). The former of these passages, containing the reference to the contest of the archangel Michael and the devil " about the body of Moses," was sup- posed by Origen to have been founded on a Jewish work called the " Assumption of Moses." As regards the supposed quotation from the Book of Enoch, the question is not so clear whether St. Jude is making a cita- tion from a work already in the hands of his readers, or is employing a traditionary pro- phecy not at that time committed to writing. The larger portion of this Epistle (ver. 3-16) is almost identical in language and subject with a part of the Second Epistle of Peter (2 Pet. ii. 1-19). This question is examined in the article Pkter, Second Epistle of. JUDGES. The Judges were temporary and special deliverers, sent by God to deliver the Israelites from their oppressors, not su- preme magistrates, succeeding to the authority of Moses and Joshua. Their power only extended over portions of the country, and some of them were contemporaneous. Their nam^e in Hebrew is Shophetiin, which is the same as that for ordiiuxry judges, nor is it applied to them in a diff'erent sense.* For, though their first work was that of deliverers and leaders in war, they then administered justice to the people, and their authority supplied the want of a regular government. But the only recognised central authority was still the oracle at Shiloh, which sunk into a system of priestly weakness and dis- order under Eli and his sons. Even while the administration of Samuel gave something like a settled government to the South, there was scope for the irregular exploits of Sam- son on the borders of the Philistines ; and Samuel at last established his autliority as Judge and prophet, but still as the servant of Jehovah, only to see it so abused by his sons as to exhaust the patience of the people, who at length demanded a King, after the pattern of the surrounding nations. The following- is a list of the Judges, whose history is given under their respective names : — First Servitude, to Mesopotamia — First Judge : Otmniel. Second Servitude, to Moab — Second Judge : Enun ; Third Judge : Shamgar. Third Servitude, to Jabin and Sisera — Fourth Judge : Deborah and Barak. Fourth Servitude, to Midian — Fifth Judge : Gideon ; Sixth Judge : Abimelech ; Seventh Judge : Tola ; Eighth Judge : Jair. Fifth Servitude, to Amnion — Ninth Judge : Jephthah ; Tenth Judge : Ibzax ; Eleveiith Judge : Elon ; Twelfth Judge : Abdon. Sixth Servitude, to the Philistines- Thirteenth Judge : Samson ; Fourteenth Judge : Eli. Fifteenth Judge : Samuel. On the Chronology of the Judges, see the following article. JUDGES, BOOK OF, of which the book of Ruth formed originally a part, contains the history from Joshua to Samson. As the history of the Judges occupies by far the greater part of the narrative, and is at the same time the history of the people, the title of the whole book is derived from that portion. The book * Tlie Hebrew word is the same as that of the Car- thaprinian "Suffctes," the name of the magistrates whom we find lu the time of the Punic wars. JUDGES, BOOK OF 282 JUDITH, THE BOOK OF may be divided into t-wo parts — (I.) Ch. i.-xvi. — The subdivisions are — {a) i.-ii. 5, which may be considered as a first introduc- tion, giving a summary of the results of the -war carried on against the Canaanites by the several tribes on the west of Jordan after Joshua's death, and forming a continuation of Josh. xii. (ft) ii. 6-iii. 6. — This is a second introduction, standing in nearer relation to the following history, (c) iii. 7-xvi. — The words, " and tlie children of Israel did evil in the sight of the Lord," which had been already used in ii. 11, are employed to intro- duce the history of the thirteen Judges com- prised in this book. An account of six of these thirteen is given at greater or less length. The account of the remaining seven is very short, and merely attached to the longer narratives. We may observe in ge- neral on this portion of the book, that it is almost entirely a history of the wars of deliverance. (II.) Ch. xvii.-xxi. — This part has no formal connexion with the preced- ing, and is often called an appendix. No mention of the Judges occurs jn it. It con- tains allusions to " the house of God," the ark, and the high-priest. The period to which the narrative relates is simply marked by the expression, " when there was no king in Israel" (xix. 1 ; cf. xviii. 1). It records [a) the conquest of Laish by a portion of the tribe of Dan, and the establishment there of the idolatrous worship of Jehovah already instituted by Micah in Mount Ephraim. [b] The almost total extinction of the tribe of Benjamin. The date is marked by the men- tion of Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron (xx. 28). From the above account it will be observed that the history ceases with Samson, excluding Eli and Samuel ; and then at this point two historical pieces are added — xvii.- xxi. and the book of Ruth — independent of the general plan and of each other. This is sufficiently explained by the supposition, that the books from Judges to 2 Kings formed one work. [Kings, Books or.] In this case the histories of Eli and Samuel, so closely united between themselves, are only defeiTcd on account of their close connexion with the rise of the monarchy. And Judg. xvii.-xxi. is inserted both as an illustration of the sin of Israel during the time of the Judges, in which respect it agrees with i.-xvi., and as presenting a contrast with the better order prevailing in the time of the kings. If we adopt the view, that Judges to 2 Kings form one book, the final arrangement of the whole must have been after the thirty-seventh year of Jehoiachin's captivity, or b.c. 5G2 (2 K. XXV. 27.) — The time commonly assigned to the period contained in this book is 299 years. The dates which are given amount to 410 years when reckoned consecutively; and Acts xiii. 20 would show that this was the compvitation commonly adopted, as the 4 50 years seem to result from adding 40 years for Eli to the 410 of this book. But a difficulty is created by xi. 26, and in a still greater degree by 1 K. A'i. 1, where the whole period from the Exodus to the building of the Temple is stated as 480 years. On the whole, it seems safer to give up the attempt to ascertain the chronology exactlJ^ The successive narratives give us the history of only parts of the country, and some of the occurrences may have been contemporary (X. 7). JUDGMENT-HALL. The word Praeto- rium is so translated five times in the A. V. of the N. T. ; and in those five passages it denotes two diff'erent places. 1. In John xviii. 28, 33, xxix. 9, it is the residence which Pilate occupied when he visited Jeru- salem. The site of Pilate's praetorium in Jerusalem has given rise to much dispute, Bome supposing it to be the palace of king Herod, others the tower of Antonia ; but it was probably the latter, which was then and long afterwards the citadel of Jerusalem. 2. In Acts xxiii. 35 Herod's judgment-hall or praetorium in Caesar ea was doubtless a part of that magnificent range of buildings, the erection of which by king Herod is de- scribed in Josephus. — The word " palace," or " Caesar's court," in the A. V. of Phil. i. 13, is a translation of the same word prae- torium. It may here have denoted the quarter of that detachment of the Praetorian Guards which was in immediate attendance upon the emperor, and had barracks in Mount Palatine. JU'DITH, the heroine of the apocrj'phal book which bears her name, who appears as an ideal type of piety (Jud. viii. 6), beauty (xi. 21), courage, and chastity (xvi. 22 ff.). JU'DITH, THE BOOK OF, one of the books of the Apocrypha, like that of Tobit, belongs to the earliest specimens of historical fiction. The narrative of the reign of " Ne- buchadnezzar king oi Nineveh" (i. 1), of the campaign of Holofernes, and the deliverance of Bethulia, through the stratagem and cour- age of the Jewish heroine, contains too many and too serious difficulties, both historical and geographical, to allow of the supposition that it is either literally true, or even care- fully moulded on truth. It belongs to the Maccabaean period, which it reflects not only in its general spirit but even in its smaller traits. The text exists at present in two distinct recensions, the Greek and the Latin. The former evidently is the truer representa- JULIA 263 KAXAH live of the oi-iginal, and it seems certain that the Latin \vas derived, in the main, from the Greek by a series of successive alterations. JU'LIA, a Chi-istian woman at Rome, pro- bably the wife, or perhaps the sister, of Philo- logus, in connexion with whom she is saluted by St. Paul (Rom. xvi. 15). JU'LIUS, the centurion of "Augustus' band," to whose charge St. Paul was de- livered when he was sent prisoner from Caesarea to Rome (Acts xxvii. 1, 3). JU'XIA, a Christian at Rome, mentioned by St. Paul as one of his kinsfolk and fellow- prisoners, of note among the Apostles, and in Christ before St. Paul (Rom. xvi. 7). JUNIPER (I K. xix. 4, 5; Ps. cxx. 4 ; Job XXX. 4). The word wliich is rendered in A. V. juniper is beyond doubt a sort of broom, Genista monosperma, G. raetam of Forskal, answering to the Arabic Rdhem. It is very abundant in the desert of Sinai, and affords sha'e and protection, both in heat and storm, to travellers. The Rothem is a leguminous plant, and bears a white flower. It is also found in Spain, Portugal, and Palestine. JU 'PITER (the Greek Zeus). Antiochus Epiphanes dedicated the Temple at Jerusalem to the service of Zeus Olympius (2 Mace. vi. 2), and at the same time the rival temple on Gerizim was devoted to Zeus Xenins [Jupiter hospitalis, Vulg.) . The Olympian Zeus was the national god of the Hellenic race, as well as the supreme ruler of the heathen world, and as such formed the true opposite to Jehovah. The application of the second epithet, " the God of hospitality," is more obscure. Ju- piter or Zeus is mentioned in one passage of the X". T., on the occasion of St. Paul's visit to Lystra (Actsxiv. 12, 13), where the expres- sion " Jupiter, which was before their city," means that his temple was outside the city. JUST'US. 1. A surname of Joseph called Bar- sabas (Acts i. 23). — 2. A Christian atCorinth, with whom St. Paul lodged (Acts xviii, 7). — 3. A surname of Jesus, a friend of St. Paul (Col. iv. 11). KABZEE'L, one of the "cities" of the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 21), the native place of the great hero Benaiah-ben-Jehoiada (2 Sam. xxiii. 20 ; 1 Chr, xi. 22). After the captivity it was reinhabited by the Jews, and appears as Jekabzekl. KA'PESH, KA'DESH-BARNE'A (Kadesh means holy : it is the same word as the Arabic name for Jerusalem, El-Khiuls). This place, the scene of Miriam's death, was the farthest point which the Israelites reached in their direct road to Canaan ; it was also that whence the spies were sent, and where, on their return, the people broke out into mur- mm-ing, upon which their strictly penal term of wandering began (Num. xiii. 3, 26, xiv. 29-33, XX. 1 ; Dent. ii. 14). It is probable that the term " Kadesh," though applied to signify a " city," yet had also a wider appli- cation to a region, in which Kadesh-Meribah certainly, and Kadesh-Barnea probably, indi- cates a precise spot. In Gen. xiv. 7 Kadesh is identified with En-Mishpat, the " fountain of judgment," and is connected with Taraar or Ilazazon Tamar. Precisely thus stands Kadesh-Barnea in the books of Numbers and Joshua (comp. Ezek. xlvii. 19, xlviii. 28 ; Num. xxxiv. 4 ; Josh. xv. 3). The name of the place to which the spies returned is "Kadesh" simply, in Num. xiii. 26, and is there closely connected with the " wilderness of Paran ;" yet the "wilderness of Zin " stands in near conjunction, as the point whence the " search " of the spies commenced (ver. 21). Again, in Num. xx., we find the people encamped in Kadesh after reaching the wilderness of Zin. Hence it has been supposed that there were two places of the name of Kadesh, one in the wilderness of Paran, and the other in that of Zin ; but it is more probable that only one place is meant, for whether these tracts were contiguous, and Kadesh on their common border, or ran into each other, and embraced a common terri- tory, to which the name " Kadesh," in an extended sense, might be given, is compara- tively unimportant. Kadesh must be placed in a site near where the mountain of the Amorites descends to the low region of the Arabah and Dead Sea ; but its exact locality cannot be ascertained. Dean Stanley would identify it with Petra. KAD'MIEL, one of the Levites who with his family returned from Babylon with Zerub- babel (Ezr. ii. 40 ; Neh. vii. 43). He and his house are prominent *in history on three occasions (Ezr. iii. 9 ; Neh. ix. 4, 5, x. 9). KAD'MONITES, THE, a people named in Gen. XV. 19 only ; one of the nations who at that time occupied the land promised to the descendants of Abram. The name is pro- bably a synonym for the Bene-Kedem — the " childi-en of the East." KA'NAH. 1. One of the places which formed the landmarks of the boundary of Asher ; apparently next to Zidon-rabbah, or "great Zidon " (Josh. xix. 28). — 2. The River, a stream falling into the Mediterra- nean, which formed the division between the territories of Ephraim and Manasseh, the former on the south, the latter on the north (Josh. xvi. 8, xvii. 9). KAREAH 284 KETURAH KARE'AH, tlie father of Johanan and Jonathan, who supported Gedaliah's autho- rity and avenged his inui'der (Jer. xl. 8, 13, 15, 16, xli. 11, 13, 14, 16, xlii. 1, 8, xliii. 2, 4,5). KAR'KOR, the place in which Zebah and Zalmunna were ag^ain routed by Gideon (Judg. viii. 10), must have been on the east of Jordan. KE'DAR, the second in order of the sons of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 13 ; 1 Chr. i. 29), and the name of a great tribe of the Arabs, settled on the north-west of the peninsula and the confines of Palestine. The " glory of Kedar " is recorded by the prophet Isaiah (xxi. 13-17) in the burden upon Arabia; and its importance may also be inferred from the "princes of Kedar " mentioned by Ez. (xxvii. 21), as well as the pastoral cha- racter of the tribe. They appear also to have been, like the wandering tribes of the present day, "archers" and "mighty men" (Is. xxi. 17 ; comp. Ps. cxx. 5). That they also settled in villages or towns, we find from Isaiah (xlii. 11). The tribe seems to have been one of the most conspicuous of all the Ishmaelite tribes, and hence the Rab- bins call the Arabians u.aversally by this name. KE'DEMAH, the youngest of the sons of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 15 ; 1 Chr. i. 31). KE'DEMOTH, one of the towns in the dis- trict east of the Dead Sea allotted to the tribe of Reuben (Josh. xiii. 18) ; given to the Merarite Levites (Josh. xxi. 37 ; 1 Chr. vi. 79). It possibly conferred its name on the *' wilderness," or uncultivated pasture land, " of Kedemoth " (Num. xxi. 23 ; Deut. ii. 26, 27, &c.). KE'DESH. 1. In the extreme south of Judah (Josh. xv. 23). — 2. A city of Issachar, allotted to the Gershonite Levites (1 Chr. vi. 72). The Kedesh mentioned among the cities whose kings were slain by Joshua (Josh. xii. 22), in company with Megiddo and Jokneam of Carmel, would seem to have been this city of Issachar. — 3. Kedesh : also Kedesh in Galilee : and once, Judg. iv. 6, Kedesh-Naphtali. One of the fortified cities of the tribe of Naphtali, named between Hazor and Edrei (Josh. xix. 37) ; appointed as a city of refuge, and allotted with its ♦' suburbs" to the Gershonite Levites (xx. 7, xxi. 32 ; 1 Chr. vi. 76). It was the resi- dence of Barak (Judg. iv. 6), and there he and Deborah assembled the tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali before the conflict, being pi-o- bably, as its name implies, a " holy place " of great antiquity. It was taken by Tiglath- Pileser in the reign of Pekah (2 K. xv. 29). It is identified with the village Kades, which lies 4 miles to the N.W. of the upper part a the Sea of Merom. KED'ROX, properly Kidron. [Kidrox.] KE'ILAH, a city of the Shefelah or low- land district of Judah (Josh. xv. 44). Its main interest consists in its connection with David (1 Sam. xxiii. 7-13). It is represented by Kila, a site with ruins, on the lower road from Beit Jibrin to Hebron. KEM'UEL, son of Nahor by Milcah, and father of Aram (Gen. xxii. 21). KE'NAN = Cainan, the son of Enos (1 Chr. i. 2). KE'NAZ, son of Eliphaz, the son of Esau, was one of the dukes of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 15, 42 ; 1 Chr. i. 53). KE'NEZITE, or KENIZZITE (Gen. xv. 19), an Edomitish ti'ibe (Num. xxxii. 12 ; Josh. xiv. 6, 14). KE'XITE, THE, and KE'NITES, THE, a tribe or nation, first mentioned in company with the Kenizzites and Kadmonites (Gen. XV. 19). Their origin is hidden from us. But we m.ay fairly infer that they were a branch of the larger nation of Mxdian — from the fact that Jethro, who in Exodus (see ii. 15, 16, iv. 19, «&:c.) is represented as dwelling in the land of Midian, and as priest or prince of that nation, is in Judges (i. 16, iv. 11) as distinctly said to have been a Kenite. The important services rendered by the sheikh of the Kenites to Moses during a time of gi-eat pressm-e and difficulty, were rewarded by the latter with a promise of firm friendship between the two peoples. The connexion then commenced lasted as firmly as a connexion could last between a settled people like Israel and one whose ten- dencies were so ineradicably nomadic as the Kenites. They seem to have accompanied the Hebrews during their wanderings (Num. xxiv. 21, 22; Judg. i. 16; comp. 2 Chr. xxviii. 15). But the wanderings of Israel over, they forsook the neighbourhood of the towns, and betook themselves to freer air — to " the wilderness of Judah, which is to the south of Arad" (Judg. i. 16). But one of the sheikhs of the tribe, Heber by name, had wandered north instead of south (Judg. iv. 11). The most remarkable development of this people is to be found in the sect or family of the Rechabites. KE'NIZZITE. (Gen. XV. 19). [Kenezite.] KE'REN-IIAP'PUCH, the youngest of the daughters of Job, born to him during the period of his reviving prosperity (Job xlii. 14). KETU'RAH, the wife whom Abraham "added and took" (A. V, "again took") besides, or after the death of, Sarah (Gen. xxv. 1 ; 1 Chr. 1. 32). Some critics think that Abraham took Keturah after Sarah'a KEY 28c KING death ; but it is more probable that he took her during Sarah's lifetime (comp. Gen. xvii. 17; xviii. 11; Rom. iv. 19; Heb. xi. 12). That she was strictly speaking his wife is also very uncertain. In the record in 1 Chr. i. 32, she is called a "concubine " (comp. Gen. XXV. 5, 6). KEY. The key of a native Oriental lock is a piece of wood, from 7 inches to 2 feet in length, fitted with wires or short nails, which, being inserted laterally into the hollow bolt which serves as a lock, raises other pins within the staple so as to allow the bolt to be drawn back. But it is not difficult to open a lock of this kind even without a key, viz. with the finger dipped in paste or other ad- hesive substance. The passage Cant. v. 4, 5, is thus probably explained. KEZI'A, the second of the daughters of Job, born to him after his recovery (Job xlii. 14). KEZI'Z, of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 21) and the eastern border of the tribe. KIB'ROTH-HATTA'AYAH, Num. xi. 34 ; marg. "the graves of lust" (comp. xxxiii. 17). From there being no change of spot mentioned between it and Taberah in xi. 3, it is probably, like the latter, about three days' journey from Sinai (x. 33), and near the sea (xi. 22, 31). li lludherd be Haze- roth, then " the graves of lust " may be per- haps within a day's journey thence in the direction of Sinai. KID. [Goat.] KID 'RON (or KED'RON), THE BROOK, a torrent or valley — not a " brook," as in the A. V. — close to Jerusalem. It lay between the city and the Mount of Olives, and was crossed by David in his flight (2 Sam. xv. 23, comp. 30), and by our Lord on His way to Gethsemane (John xviii. 1 ; comp. Mark xiv. 26 ; Luke xxii. 39). Its connexion with these two occurrences is alone sufficient to leave no doubt that the Kidron is the deep ravine on the east of Jerusalem, now commonly known as the "Valley of Jehoshaphat." [Map, p. 249.] The distinguishing peculiarity of the Kidron valley — that in respect to which it is most frequently mentioned in the 0. T. — is the impurity which appears to have been ascribed to it. In the time of Josiah it was the common cemetery of the city (2 K. xxui. 6; comp. Jer. xxvi. 23, "graves of the common people "). At present it is the favourite resting-place of Moslems and Jews, the former on the west, the latter on the east of the valley. The channel of the valley of Jehoshaphat is nothing more than the dr}' bed of a wintry torrent, bearing marks of being occasionally swept over by a large volume of water. KING, the name of the Supreme Ruler of the Hebrews during a period of about 500 years previous to the destruction of Jerusa- lem, B.C. 586. The immediate occasion of the substitution of a regal form of govern- ment for that of Judges, seems to have been the siege of Jabesh-Gilead by Nahash, king of the Ammonites (1 Sam. xi. 1, xii. 12), and the refusal to allow the inhabitants of that city to capitulate, except on humiliating and cruel conditions (1 Sam. xi. 2, 4-6). The conviction seems to have forced itself on the Israelites that they could not resist their for- midable neighbour unless they placed them- selves under the sway of a king, like sur- rounding nations. Concurrently with this conviction, disgust had been excited by the corrupt administration of justice under the sons of Samuel, and a radical change wa? desired by them in this respect also (1 Sam. viii. 3-5). Accordingly the original idea of a Hebrew king was twofold : first, that he should lead the people to battle in time of war ; and, 2ndly, that he should execute judg- ment and justice to them in war and in peace (1 Sam. viii. 20). In both respects the de- sired end was attained. To form a correct idea of a Hebrew king, we must abstract our- selves from the notions of modern Europe, and realise the position of Oriental sovereigns. Besides being commander-in-chief of the army, supreme judge, and absolute master, as it were, of the lives of his subjects, the king exercised the power of imposing taxes on them, and of exacting from them personal service and labour. And the degree to which the exaction of personal labour migln be carried on a special occasion is illustrated by King Solomon's requirements for building the temple. In addition to these earthly powers, the King of Israel had a more awful claim to respect and obedience. He was the vicegerent of Jehovah (1 Sam. x. 1, xvi. 13), and as it were His son, if just and holy (2 Sam. vii. 14 ; Ps. Ixxxix. 26, 27, ii. 6, 7). He bad been set apart as a conseciated ruler. Upon his head had been poured the holy anointing oil, which had hitherto been re- served exclusively for the priests of Jehovah. He had become, in fact, emphatically " the Lord's Anointed." A ruler in whom so much authority, human and divine, was em- bodied, was naturally distinguisbed by out- ward honours and luxuries. He had a court of Oriental magnificence. When the power of the kingdom was at its height, he sat on a throne of ivory, covered with pure gold, at the feet of which were two figures of lions. The king was dressed in royal robes (1 K. xxii. 10 ; 2 Chr. xviii. 9) ; his insignia were, a crown or diadem of pure gold, or perhaps KINGS, BOOKS OF 286 KINGS, BOOKS OF radiant with, precious gems (2 Sam. i. 10, xii. 30 ; 2 K. xi. 12 ; Ps, xxi. 3), and a royal sceptre. Those who approached him did him obeisance, bowing down and touching the ground with their foreheads (1 Sam. xxiv. 8 ; 2 Sam. xix. 2-1) ; and this was done even by a king's wife, the mother of Solomon (1 K. i. 16). Their ofiB.cers and subjects called them- selves his servants or slaves, though they do not seem habitually to have given way to such extravagant salutations as in the Chal- daean and Persian courts (1 Sam. xvii. 32, 34, 36, XX. 8 ; 2 Sam. vi. 20 ; Dan. ii. 4). As in the East to this day, a kiss was a sign of respect and homage (1 Sam. x. 1, perhaps Ps. ii. 12). He lived in a splendid palace, with poixhes and columns (1 K. vii. 2-7). All his drinking vessels were of gold (1 K. x. 21). He had a large harem, which in the time of Solomon must have been the source of enormous expense. As is invariably the case in the great eastern monarchies at pre- sent, his harem was guarded by eunuchs ; translated " officers " in the A. V. for the most part (1 Sam. viii. 15 ; 2 K. xxiv. 12, 15 ; 1 K. xxii. 9 ; 2 K. viii. 6, ix. 32, 33, XX. 18, xxiii. 11 ; Jer. xxxviii. 7). The law of succession to the throne is somewhat ob- scure, but it seems most probable that the king during his lifetime named his successor. This was certainly the case with David (1 K. 1. 30, ii. 22) ; and with Rehoboam (2 Chr. xi. 21, 22). At the same time, if no partiality for a favourite wife or son intervened, there would always be a natural bias of affection in favour of the eldest son. KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF, originally only one book in the Hebrew Canon, form in the LXX. and the Vulgate the third and fourth books of Ki7igs (the books of Samuel being the first and second). It must also be remembered that the division between the books of Kings and Samuel is equally artificial, and that in point of fact the historical books commencing with Judges and ending with 2 Kings present the appear- ance of one work, giving a continuous history of Israel from the time of .Joshua to the death of Jehoiachin. The Books of Kings contain the history from David's death and Solomon's accession to the destruction of the kingdom of Judah and the desolation of Jerusalem, with a supplemental notice of an event that oc- curred after an interval of twenty-six years, viz. the liberation of Jehoiachin from his prison at Babylon, and a still further exten- sion to Jehoiachin's death, the time of which is not known, but which was probably not long after his liberation. The history there- fore comprehends the whole time of the Is- laelitish monarchy, exclusive of the reigns of Saul and David. As regards the authorship of the books, but little difficulty presents it- self. The Jewish tradition, which ascribes them to Jeremiah, is borne out by the strong- est internal evidence, in addition to that of the language. The last chapter, especially as compared with the last chapter of the Chronicles, bears distinct traces of havinpr been written by one who did not go into cap- tivity, but remained in Judaea after the destruction of the Temple. This suits Jere- miah. The events singled out for mention in the concise narrative are precisely those of which he had personal knowledge, and in which he took special interest. The writer in Kings has nothing more to tell us concerning the Jews or Chaldees in the land of Judah, which exactly agrees with the hypothesis that he is Jeremiah, who we know was car- ried down into Egypt with the fugitives. In fact, the date of the writing and the position of the writer seem as clearly marked by the termination of the narrative at v. 26, as in the case of the Acts of the Apostles. But though the general unity and continuity of plan lead us to assign the whole history in a certain sense to one author, yet it must be borne in mind that the authorship of those parts of the history of which Jeremiah was not an eye-witness— that is, of all before the reign of Josiah — would have consisted merely in selecting, arranging, inserting the con- necting phrases, and, when necessary, slightly modernising the old histories which hud been drawn up by contemporary pi'ophets through the whole period of time. (See e.g. 1 K. xiii. 32.) For, as regards the sources of information, it may truly be said that we have the narrative of contemporary writers throughout. There was a regular series of state-annals both for the kingdom of Judah and for that of Israel, which embraced the whole time comprehended in the books of Kings, or at least to the end of the reign of Jehoiakim (2 K. xxiv. 5). These annals are constantly cited by name as " the Book of the Acts of Solomon" (1 K. xi. 41); and after Solomon, " the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah, or, Israel " {e. g. 1 K. xiv. 29, XV. 7, xvi. 5, 14, 20 ; 2 K. x. 34, xxiv. 5,&c.) ; and it is manifest that the author of Kings had them both before him, while he drew up his history, in which the reigns of the two kingdoms are harmonized, and these annals constantly appealed to. But, in addi- tion to these national annals, there were also extant, at the time that the Books of Kings were compiled, separate works of the several prophets who had lived in Judah and Israel. Thus the acts of Uzziah, written by Isaia':, were very likely identical with the hisloij KINGS, BOOKS OF ^87 KINGS, BOOKS OF of his reign in the national chronicles ; and part of the history of Hezekiah we knuw is identical in the chronicles and in the pro- phet. The chapter in Jeremiah relating- to the destruction of the Temple (lii.) is identical -with that in 2 K. xxiv., xxv. — Relatio7i of the Books of Kings to those of Chronicles. — It is manifest, and is uni- versally admitted, that the former is by far the older work. The language, which is quite free from the Persicisms of the Chro- nicles and their late orthography, clearly points out its relative superiority in regard to age. Its subject also, embracing the king- dom of Israel as well as Judah, is another indication of its composition before the king- dom of Israel was forgotten, and before the Jewish enmity to Samaria, which is apparent in such passages as 2 Chr. xx. 37, xxv., and in those chapters of Ezra (i.-vi.) which be- long to Chronicles, was brought to maturity. While the Books of Chronicles therefore were written especially for the Jews after their return from Babylon, the Book of Kings was written for the whole of Israel, before their common national existence was hope- lessly quenched. Another comparison of considerable interest between the two his- tories may be drawn in respect to the main design, that design having a marked relation both to the individual station of the supposed writers, and the peculiar circumstances of their country at the time of their writing. Jeremiah was himself a prophet. He lived while the prophetic office was in full vigour, in his own person, in Ezekiel, and Daniel, and many others, both true and false. Ac- cordingly, we find in the Books of Kings great prominence given to the prophetic office. Ezra, on the contrary, was only a priest. In his days the prophetic office had wholly fallen into abeyance. That evidence of the Jews being the people of God, which consisted in the presence of prophets among them, was no more. But to the men of his generation, the distinctive mark of the continuance of God's favour to their race was the rebuilding of the Temple at Jerusalem, the restoration of the daily sacrifice and the Levitical worship, and the wonderful and providential renewal of the Mosaic institutions. The chief in- strument, too, for preserving the Jewish remnant from absorption into the mass of Heathenism, and for maintaining their na- tional life till the coming of Messiah, was the maintenance of the Temple, its ministers, and its services. Henco we see at once that the chief care of a good and enlightened Jew of the age of Ezra — and all the more if he were himself a priest — would naturally be to en- nance the value of the Levitical ritual, and the dignity of the Levitical caste. And in compiling a history of the past glories of his race, he would as naturally select such pas- sages as especially bore upon the sanctity of the priestly office, and showed the deep con- cern taken by their ancestors in all that related to the honour of God's House, and the support of his ministering servants. Hence the Levitical character of the Books of Chronicles, and the presence of several de- tailed narratives not found in the Books of Kings, and the more frequent reference to the Mosaic institutions, may most naturally and simply be accounted for, without resort- ing to the absurd hypothesis that the cere- monial law was an invention subsequent to the Captivity. (2 Chr. xxix., xxx., xxxi., com- pared with 2 K. xviii, is pei'haps as good a specimen as can be selected of the distinctive spirit of the Chronicles. See also 2 Chr. xxvi. 16-21, compared with 2 K. xv. 5 ; 2 Chr. xi. 13-17, xiii. 9-20, xv. 1-15, xxiii. 2-8, compare with 2 K. xi. 5-9, and vers. 18, 19, compare with ver. 18, and many other pas- sages.) Moreover, upon the principle that the sacred writers were influenced by natural feelings in their selection of their materials, it seems most appropriate that while the prophetical writer in Kings deals very fully with the kingdom of Israel, in which the prophets were much more illustrious than in Judah, the Levitical writer, on the con- trary, should concentrate all his thoughts round Jerusalem, where alone the Levitical caste had all its power and functions, and should dwell upon all the instances preserved in existing muniments of the deeds and even the minutest ministrations of the priests and Levites, as well as of their faithfulness and sufferings in the cause of truth. From the comparison of parallel narratives in the two books, it appears that the results are precisely what would naturally arise from the circum- stances of the case. The writer of the Chro- nicles, having the Books of Kings before him, made those books to a great extent the basis of his own. But also having his own per- sonal views, predilections, and motives in writing, composing for a different age, and for people under very diff'erent circumstances ; and, moreover, having before him the original authorities from which the Books of Kings were compiled, as well as some others, he naturally rearranged the older narrative as suited his purpose and his taste. He gave in full passages which the other had abridged, inserted what had been wholly omitted, omitted some things which the other had in- serted, including nearly everything relating to the kingdom of Israel, and showed the colour of his own mind, not only in the ii.:- KIR-HARASETH 288 KIR OF MOAB ture of the passages which he selected from the ancient documents, but in the reflections which he frequently adds upon the events which he relates, and possibly also in the turn given to some of the speeches which he records. KIR-HARA'SETH (2 K. iii. 25). KIR- HA'RESH (Is. xvi. 11). KIR-HARE'SETH (Is. xvi. 7). KIR-HE'RES (Jer. xlviii. 31, 36). These four names are all applied to one place, probably Kir-Moab. KIR'IAH, apparently an ancient or archaic word, meaning a city or town. It may be compared to the word "burg" or "bury " in our own language. Closely related to Kiriah is Kereth, apparently a Phoenician form, which occm's occasionally (Job xxix. 7 ; Prov. viii. 3). This is familiar to us in the Latin garb of Carthago, and in the Parthian and Armenian names Cirta, Tigrano-Certo. As a proper name it appears in the Bible under the forms of Kerioth, Kartah, Kartan ; besides those immediately following. KIRIATHA'IM. [Kiejathaim.] KIR'IOTH, a place in Moab, the palaces of which were threatened by Amos with de- struction by fire (Am. ii. 2) ; unless indeed the word means simply " the cities " — which is probably the case also in Jer. xlviii. 4. KIR'JATH, the last of the cities enume- rated as belonging to the tribe of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 28), probably identical with the better known place Kiejath-Jearim. KIRJATHA'IM.— 1. On the east of the Jordan, one of the places which were taken possession of and rebuilt by the Reubenites, and had fresh names conferred on them (Num. xxxii. 37, and see 38), the first and last of which are known with some tolerable degree of certainty (Josh. xii. 19). It existed in the time of Jeremiah (xlviii. 1, 23) and Eze- kiel (xxv. 9 — in these three passages the A. V. gives the name Kiriathaim). By Euse- bius it appears to have been well known. He describes it as a village entirely of Chris- tians, 10 miles west of Medeba, "close to the Baris." — 2. A town in Naphtali not men- tioned in the original lists of the possession allotted to the tribe (see Josh. xix. 32-39), but inserted in the list of cities given to the Gershonite Levites, in 1 Chr. (vi. 76), in place of Kartan in the parallel catalogue, Kartan being probably only a contraction thereof. KIR'JATH-AR'BA, an early name of the city which after the conquest is generally known as Hebron (Josh. xiv. 15 ; Judg. i. 10). The identity of Kirjath-Arba with Hebron is constantly asserted (Gen. xxiii. 2, XXXV. 27 ; Josh. xiv. 15, xv. 13, 54, xx. 7, XXI. 11). KIR'JATH- A 'RIM, an abbreviated form of the name Kirjath-Jearim, which occurs only in Ezr. ii. 25. KIR'JATH-BA'AL. [Kirjath-Jearim.] KIR'JATH-HU'ZOTH, a place to which Balak accompanied Balaam immediately after his arrival in Moab (Num. xxii. 39). KIR'JATH-JE'ARIM, first mentioned a« one of the four cities of the Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 17) : it next occurs as one of the land- mai-ks of the northern boimdary of Judah (xv. 9) and as the point at which the western and southern boundaries of Benjamin coin- cided (xviii. 14, 15) ; and in the two last passages we find that it bore another, perhaps earlier, name — that of the great Canaanite deity Baal, namely Baalah and Kirjath- Baal. It is reckoned among the towns of Judah (xv. 60). It is included in the genea- logies of Judah (1 Chr. ii. 50, 52) as founded by, or descended from, Shobal, the son of Caleb-ben-Hm*. "Behind Kirjath-jearim '* the band of Danites pitched their camp before their expedition to Mount Ephraira and Laisb, leaving their name attached to the spot for long after (Judg. xviii. 12). [Ma- HANEH-UAN.] Hithcrto beyond the early sanctity implied in its bearing the name of Baal, there is nothing remarkable in Kir- jath-jearim. It was no doubt this reputation for sanctity which made the people of Beth- shemesh appeal to its inhabitants to relieve them of the Ark of Jehovah, which was bring- ing such calamities on their untutored inex- perience (1 Sam. vi. 20, 21). In this high place the ark remained for twenty years (vii. 2). At the close of that time Kirjath-jearim lost its sacred treasure, on its removal by David to the house of Obed-edom the Gittite (1 Chr. xiii. 5, 6 ; 2 Chr. i. 4 ; 2 Sam. vi. 2, &c.). To Eusebius and Jerome it appears to have been well known. They describe it as a village at the ninth mile between Jerusalem and Diospolis (Lydda). These requirements are exactly fulfilled in the modern village of Kwiet-el-Enab — now usually known as Abu Gosh, from the robber-chief whose head-quar- ters it was — on the road from Jaffa to Jeru- salem. KIR'JATH-SAN'NAH. [Debir.] KIR'JATH-SE'PHER. (Judg. i. 11, 12.) [Debir.] KIR OF MOAB, one of the two chief strongholds of Moab, the other being Ar of Moab. The name occurs only in Is. xv. 1, though the place is probably referred to under the names of Kir-heres, Kir-haraseth, &c It is almost identical with the name Kerah, by which the site of an important city in a high and very strong position at the S.E. of the Dead Sea is known at this day. Its KISH 289 KNOP situation is truly remarkable. It is built upon the top of a steep hill, surrounded on all sides by a deep and narrow valley, which again is completely inclosed by mountains rising higher than the town, and overlooking it on all sides. KISH. 1. The father of Saul; a Ben- jamite of the family of Matri, according to 1 Sam. X. 21, though descended from Becher according to 1 Chr. vii. 8, compared with 1 Sam. ix. 1.- — 2. Son of Jehiel, and uncle to the preceding (1 Chr. ix. 36). — 3. A Ben- jamite, great grandfather of Mordecai (Esth. ii. 5). — 4. A Merarite, of the house of Mahli, of the tribe of Levi. His sons married the daughters of his brother Eleazar (I Chr. xxiii. 21, 22, xxiv. 28, 29), apparently about the time of King Saul, or early in the reign of David, since Jeduthun the singer was the son of Kish (1 Chr. vi. 44, compared with 2 Chr. xxix. 12). KISH'ION, one of the towns on the boun- dary of the tribe of Issachar (Josh. xix. 20), which with its suburbs was allotted to the Gershonite Levites (xxi. 28 ; A. V. Kishon). KI'SHON, THE RIVER, a torrent or winter stream of central Palestine, the scene of two of the grandest achievements of Is- raelite history — the defeat of Sisera (Judg. iv.), and the destruction of the prophets of Baal by Elijah (1 K. xviii. 40). The ^'ahr Mukutfa, the modern representative of the Kishon, is the drain by which the waters of the plain of Esdraelon, and of the moxmtains which enclose that plain, find their way to the Mediterranean. Like most of the so-called "rivers" of Palestine, the perennial stream forms but a small part of the Kishon. During the greater part of the year its upper portion is dry, and the stream confined to a few miles next the sea. The part of the Kishon at which the prophets of Baal were slaughtered by Elijah was doubtless close below the spot Dn Carmel where the sacrifice had taken place. KI'SON, an inaccurate mode of represent- ing the name Kishon (Ps. Ixxxiii. 9). KISS. Kissing the lips by way of affec- tionate salutation was customary amongst near relatives of both sexes, both in Patri- archal and in later times (Gen. xxix. 11 ; Cant. viii. 1). Between individuals of the same sex, and in a limited degree between those of different sexes, the kiss on the cheek as a mark of respect or an act of salutation has at all times been customary in the East, and can hardly be said to be extinct even in Europe. In the Christian Church the kiss of charity was practised not only as a friendly salutation, but as an act symbolical of love and Christian brotherhood (Rom. xvi. 16 ; 1 Sm. D. B. Cor. xvi. 20 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 12 ; 1 Thess. v. 26 ; 1 Pet. v. 14). The written decrees of a sovereign are kissed in token of respect ; even the ground is sometimes kissed by Orientals in the fulness of their submission (Gen. xli. 40 ; 1 Sam. xxiv. 8 ; Ps. Ixxii. 9 ; &c.). Kissing is spoken of in Scripture as a mark of respect or adoration to idols (1 K. xix. 18; Hos. xiii. 2). KITE (Heb. mjijdh). The Hebrew word thus rendered occurs in three passages. Lev. xi. 14, Deut. xiv. 13, and Job xxviii. 7 : in the two former it is translated " kite" in the A. v., in the latter " vulture." It is enume- rated among the twenty names of birds men- tioned in Deut. xiv. (belonging for the most part to the order Raptores), which were con- sidered unclean by the Mosaic Law, and for- bidden to be used as food by the Israelites. The allusion in Job alone affords a clue to its identification. The deep mines in the re- cesses of the mountains from which the labour of man extracts the treasures of the earth are there described as " a track which the bird of piey hath not known, nor hath the eye of the aiiydh looked upon it." The ayydh may possibly be the "kite," but there is no certainty on the subject. ^^^"^ Kite. KIT'RON, one of the towns from which Zebulun did not expel the Canaanites (Judg. i. 30). In the Talmud it is identified with " Zippori," i.e. Sepphoris, now Seffm-ieh. ■ KIT'TIM. Twice written in the A. V. for CnrniM (Gen. x. 4 ; 1 Chr. i. 7). KNEADING-TROUGHS. [Bread.] KNOP. A word employed in the A. V. to translate two terras, which refer to some U KOHATH 290 LACHISH architectural or ornamental object, but which have nothing in common. 1. Caphtor. This occurs in the description of the candlestick of the sacred tent in Ex. xxv. 31-36, and xxxvii. 17-22. 2. The second term, Peka'hn, is found only in 1 K. vi. 18, and vii. 24. The word no doubt signifies some globular thing resembling a small gourd, or an egg, though as to the character of the ornament we are quite in the dark. The following woodcut of a portion of a richly ornamented door-step or slab from Kouyunjik, probably represents something approximating to the " knop and the flower " of Solomon's Temple. Border of a Slab from Kouyunj KO'HATH, second of the three sons of Levi, from whom the three principal divisions of the Levites derived their origin and their name (Gen. xlvi. 11; Exod. vi. 16, 18; Num. iii. 17 ; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 12, &c.). Ko- hath was the father of Amram, and he of Moses and Aaron. P'rom him, therefore, were descended all the priests ; and hence those of the Kohatbites who were not priests were of the highest rank of the Levites, though not the sons of Levi's first-born. In the journeyings of the Tabernacle the sons of Kohath had charge of the most holy portions of the vessels (Num. iv.). It appears from Ex. vi. 18—22, compared with 1 Chr. xxiii. 12, xxvi. 23-32, that there were four families of sons of Kohath — Amramites, Izharites, llebronites, and Uzzielites. Of the personal history of Kohath we know nothing, except that he came down to Egypt with Levi and Jacob (Gen. xlvi. 11), that his sister was Jochebed (Ex. vi. 20), and that he lived to the age of 133 j'ears (Ex. vi. 18). KO'RAII. 1. Third son of Esau by Aholi- bamah (Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, 18 ; 1 Chr. i. 35). He was born in Canaan before Esau migrated to Mount Seir (xxxvi. 5-9), and was one of the "dukes" of Edom. — 2. A.nother Edom- itish duke of this name, sprung from Eliphaz, Esau's son by Adah (Gen. xxxvi. 16). — 3. Son of Izhar, the son of Kohath, the son of Levi. He was leader of the famous rebellion against his cousins Moses and Aaron in the wilderness, for which he paid the penalty of perishing with his followers by an earthquake and flames of fire (Num. xvi. xxvi. 9-11). The particular grievance which rankled in the mind of Korah and his company was their exclusion from the office of the priest- hood, an;l their being confined — those among them Avho were Levites — to the inferior ser- vice of the tabernacle. Korah's position as leader in this rebellion was evidently the result of his personal character, which was that of a bold, haughty, and ambitious man. From some cause which does not clearly ap- pear, the children of Korah were not involved in the destruction of their father (Num. xxvi. 11). Perhaps the fissure of the ground which swallowed up the tents of Dathan and Abi- ram did not extend beyond those of the Reu- benites. From ver. 27 it seems clear that Korah himself was not with Dathan and Abiram at the moment. He himself was doubtless with the 250 men who bare cen- sers nearer the tabernacle (ver. 19), and perished with them by the "fire from Jeho- vah " which accompanied the earthquake. In the N. T. (Jude 11) Korah is coupled with Cain and Balaam. KOR'AHITE (1 Chr. ix. 19, 31), KOR'- HITE, or KGR'ATIIITE, that portion of the Kohathites who were descended from Korah, and are frequently styled by the synonymous phrase Sons of Korah. They were an im- portant branch of the singers (2 Chr. xx. 19). Hence we find eleven Psalms (or twelve, if Ps. 43 is included under the same title as Ps. 42) dedicated or assigned to the sons of Korah, viz. Ps. 42, 44-49, 84, 85, LA'BAN, son of Bethuel, brother of Rebe- kah, and father of Leah and Rachel. The elder branch of the family remained at Haran when Abraham removed to the land of Canaan, and it is there that we first meet with Laban, as taking the leading part in the betrothal of his sister Rebekah to her cousin Isaac (Gen. xxiv. 10, 29-60, xxvii. 43, xxix. 4). The next time Laban appears in the sacred narrative it is as the host of his nephew Jacob at Haran (Gen. xxix. 13, 14). The subsequent transactions by which he secured the valuable services of his nephew ai-e related under Jacob. LACEDEMO'NIANS, the inhabitants of Sparta or Lacedaemon, with whom the Jews claimed kindred (1 Mace. xii. 2, 5, 6, 20, 21 ; xiv. 20, 23 ; xv. 23 ; 2 Mace. v. 9). LA'CHISH, a city of the Amorites, the I king of which joined with four others, at the I invitation of Adonizedek king of Jerusalem, I to chastise the Gibeonites for their league I with Israel (Josh. x. 3, 5). They were LAHAI-ROI, THE WELL 291 LAMP routed by Joshua at Bethhoi-on, and the king of Lachish fell a victim with the others under the trees at Makkedah (ver. 26). The destruction of the town shortlj' followed the death of the king (ver. 31-33). In the spe- cial statement that the attack lasted two days, in contradistinction to the other cities which were taken in one (see ver. 35), we gain our first glimpse of that strength of position for ■which Lachish was afterwards remarkable. Lachish was one of the cities fortified and garrisoned by Rehoboam after the revolt of the northern kingdom (2 Chr. xi. 9). It •was chosen as a refuge by Amaziah from the conspirators who threatened him in Jeru- salem, and to whom he at last fell a victim at Lachish (2 K. xiv. 19; 2 Chr. xxv. 27). In the reign of Hezekiah, it was one of the cities taken by Sennacherib when on his way from Phoenicia to Egypt. This siege is con- sidered by Layard and Hincks to be depicted on the slabs found by the former in one of the chambers of the palace at Ivouyunjik. But though the Assyrian records appear to assert the capture of Lachish, no statement is to be found either in the Bible or Josephus that it was taken. After the return from captivity, Lachish with its surrounding " fields " was re-occupied by the Jews (Neh. xi. 30). By Eusebius and Jerome, in the Onomasticon, Lachish is mentioned as "7 miles from Eleutheropolis, towards Daroma," i.e. towards the south. LAHA'I-RO'I, THE WELL. In this form is given in the A. V. of Gen. xxiv. 62, and xxv. 11, the name of the famous well of Hagar's relief, in the oasis of verdure round which Isaac afterwards resided. LA'ISH, the city which was taken by the Danites, and under its new name of Dan be- came famous as the northern limit of the nation (Judg. xviii. 7, 14, 27, 29). [Dan.] In the A. V. Laish is again mentioned in the account of Sennacherib's march on Jerusalem (Is, X. 30). This Laish is probably the small village, Laishah, lying between Gallim and Anathoth, and of which hitherto no traces have been found. LA'ISH, father of Phaltiel, to whom Saul had given Michal, David's wife (1 Sam. xxv. 44 ; 2 Sam. iii. 15). LAKES. [Palestine.] LA'KUM, properly LAKKUM, one of the places which formed the landmaiks of the boundary of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33). LAMBS formed an important part of al- most every sacrifice (Ex. xxix. 38-41 ; Num. xxviii. 9, II, xxix. 2, 13-40, &c.). On the Paschal Lamb see Passover. LA'MECII, properly Lemech.—l. The fifth lineal descendant from Cain (Gen. iv. 18-24). He is the only one except Enoch, of the posterity of Cain, whose history is related with some detail. His two wives, Adah and Zillah, and his daughter Naamah, are, with Eve, the only antediluvian women whose names are mentioned by Moses. His three sons — Jabal, Jubal, and Tubal-cain, are celebrated in Scripture as authors of useful inventions. The remarkable poem which Lamech uttered has not yet been explained quite satisfactorily. It may be rendered : — Adah and Zillah ! hear my voice, Ye wives of Lamech ! give ear unto my speech. For a man liad 1 slain for smiting me, And a youth for wounding me : Surely sevenfold shall Cain be avenged, But Lamech seventy and seven. It may perhaps be regarded as Lamech's song of exultation on the invention of the sword by his son Tubal-cain, in the possession of which he foresaw a great advantage to himself and his family over any enemies. — 2. The father of Noah fGen. v. 29). LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH. The Hebrew title of this Book, Ecah, is taken, like those of the five Books of Moses, fi-om the Hebrew word with which it opens. It contains the utterance of Jeremiah's sorrow upon the capture of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple. It consists of five chapters, each of which, however, is a separate poem, complete in itself, and having a distinct subject, but brought at the same time under a plan which includes them all. The book has supplied thousands with the fullest utterance for their sorrows in the critical periods of national or individual suft'ering. We may well believe that it soothed the weary years of the Babylonian exile. On the ninth day of the month of Ab (July-August), the Lamentations of Jeremiah were read, year by year, with fasting and weeping, to commemorate the misery out of which the people had been delivered. It enters largely into the order of the Latin Church for the services of Passion-week. LAMP. 1. That part of the golden candle- stick belonging to the Tabernacle which bore the light ; also of each of the ten candlesticks placed by Solomon in the Temple before the Holy of Holies (Ex. xxv. 37 ; 1 K. vii. 49 ; 2 Chr. iv. 20, xiii. 11 ; Zech. iv. 2). The lamps were lighted every evening, and cleansed every morning (Ex. xxx. 7, 8). 2, A torch or flambeau, such as was carried by the soldiers of Gideon (Judg. vii. 16, 20 ; comp. XV. 4). The use of lamps fed with oil in marriage processions is alluded to in the parable of the ten virgins (Matt, xxv, 1). Modern Egyptian lamps consist of small glass vessels with a tube at the bottom containing a cotton-wick twisted round a piece of straw. U 2 LANCET 292 LATCHET For night-travelling, a lantern composed of ■\Taxed cloth strained over a sort of cylinder of wire- rings, and a top and bottom of per- forated copper. This would, in form at least, answer to the lamps within pitchers of Gideon. Egyptian Lamp. LANCET. This word is found in 1 K. xviii. 28 only. The Hebrew term is Romach, which is elsewhere rendered, and appears to mean a javelin, or light spear. In the original edition of the A. V. (1611) the word is " lancers." LANGUAGE. [Tongues, Confusion of.] LAO DICE' A, a town in the Roman pro- vince of Asia, situated in the valley of the Maeander, on a small river called the Lycus, with CoLOssAE and Hierapolis a few miles distant to the west. Built, or rather rebuilt, by one of the Seleucid monarchs, and named in honour of his wife, Laodicea became under the Roman government a place of some im- portance, lis trade was considerable : it lay on the line of a great road ; and it was tlie seat of a convcntus. From Rev. iii. 17, we should gather it was a place of great wealth. It was soon after this occurrence that Christianity was introduced into Lao- dicea, not, however, as it would seem, through the direct agency of St. Paul. We have good reason for believing that when, in writing from Rome to the Christians of Colossae, he sent a greeting to those of Laodicea, he had not personally visited either place. But the preaching of the Gospel at Ephesus (Acts xviii. 19-xix. 41) must in- evitably have resulted in the formation of churches in the neighbouring cities, especi- ally where Jews were settled : and there were Jews in Laodicea. In subsequent times it became a Christian city of eminence, the see of a bishop, and a meeting-place of councils. The Mohammedan invaders de- stroyed it ; and it is now a scene of utter desolation : but the extensive ruins near Denislu justify all that we read of Laodicea in Greek and Roman writers. One Biblical subject of interest is connected with Laodicea. P'rom Col. iv. 16 it appears that St. Paul wrote a letter to this place when he wrote the letter to Colossae. The question arises whether we can give any account of this Laodicean epistle. Wieseler's theory is that the Epistle to Philemon is meant. Another view maintained by Paley and others, is that the Epistle to the Ephesians is intended. Ussher's view is that this last epistle was a circular letter sent to Laodicea among other places. The apocryphal JEpistola ad Lao- dicenses is a late and clumsy forgery. LAP'IDOTH, the husband of Deborah the prophetess (Judg. iv. 4). LAPWING (Heb. ductphath) occurs only in Lev. xi. 19, and in the parallel passage of Deut. xiv. 18, amongst the list of those birds which were forbidden by the law of Moses to be eaten by the Israelites. Com- mentators generally agree that the Hoopoe is the bird intended. The hoopoe is not now eaten except occasionally in those countries where it is abundantly found — Egypt, France, Spain, &c., &c. The hoopoe is an occasional visitor to this country, arriving for the most part in the autumn. Its crest is very elegant, the long feathers forming it are each of them tipped with black. Hoopoe {l^piipa Epops.') LASE'A (Acts xxvii. 8), a city of Crete, the ruins of which were discovered in 1856, a few miles to the eastward of Fair Havens. LA'SHA, a place noticed in Gen. x. 19 as marking the limit of the country of the Canaanites. It lay somewhere in the south- east of Palestine, .leronie and other writers identify it with Callirhoe, a spot famous for hot springs near the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. LATCHET, the thong or fastening by which the sandal was attached to the foot. It occurs in the proverbial expression in Gen. xiv. 23, and is there used to denote something trivial or worthless. Another semi-pro- verbial expression in Luke iii. 16 points to Illjlflllil LATIN 293 LAW the fact that the office of bearing and un- fastening the shoes of great personages fell to the meanest slaves. LATIN, the language spoken by the Ro- mans, is mentioned only in John xix. 20, and Luke xxiii. 38. LATTICE. The rendering in A. V. of three Hebrew words. 1. Eshndb, which oc- curs but twice, Judg. v. 28, and Prov. vii. 6, and in the latter passage is translated "case- ment" in the A. V. In both instances it stands in parallelism with "window." 2. Kharaccnn (Cant. ii. 9), is apparently synony- mous with the preceding, though a word of later date. 3. Sebdcdh, is simply "a net- work " placed before a window or balcony. Perhaps the network through which Ahaziah fell and received his mortal injury was on the parapet of his palace (2 K. i. 2). LAYER. 1. In the Tabernacle, a vessel of brass containing water for the priests to wash their hands and feet before offering sacrifice. It stood in the court between the altar and the door of the Tabernacle (Ex. XXX. 19, 21). It rested on a basis, i.e. a foot, though by some explained to be a cover of copper or brass, which, as well as the laver itself, was made from the mirrors of the women who assembled at the door of the Tabernacle-court (Ex. xxxviii. 8). The form of the laver is not specified, but may be as- sumed to have been circular. Like the other vessels belonging to the Tabernacle, it was, together with its " foot," consecrated with oil (Lev. viii. 10, 11). 2. In Solomon's Temple, besides the great molten sea, there were ten lavers of brass, raised on bases (1 K. vii. 27, 39), five on the N. and S. sides respectively of the court of the priests. Each laver contained 40 of the measures called " bath." They were used for washing the animals to be offered in burnt - offerings (2 Chr. iv. 6). The dimensions of the bases with the lavers, as given in the Hebrew text, are 4 cubits in length and breadth, and 3 in height. There were to each 4 wheels of 1| cubit in diameter, with spokes, «S:c., all cast in one piece. LAW. The word is properly used, in Scriptm-e as elsewhere, to express a definite commandment laid down by any recognised authority. The commandment maybe general, or (as in Lev. vi. 9, 14, &c., "the law of the burnt-offering," &c.) particular in its bear- ing ; the authority either human or divine. But when the word is used with the article, and without any words of limitation, it refers to the expressed will of God, and, in nine cases out of ten, to the Mosaic Law, or to the Pentateuch, of which it forms the chief portion. The Hebrew word, tdrdh, lays more stress on its moral authority, as teach- ing the truth, and guiding in the right way ; the Greek nomos {voixv;), on its constraining power, as imposed and enforced by a recog- nised authority. The sense of the word, how- ever, extends its scope, and assumes a more abstract character in the writings of St. Paul. Nomas, when used by him with the article, still refers in general to the Law of Moses ; but when used without the article, so as to embrace any manifestation of "law," it in- cludes all powers which act on the will of man by com.pulsion, or by the pressure of external motives, whether their commands be or be not expressed in definite forms. The occasional use of the word "law " (as in Rom. iii. 27, "law of faith;") to denote an hiternal principle of action, does not really militate against the general rule. It should also be noticed that the title " the Law " is occasionally used loosely to refer to the whole of the Old Testament (as in John x. 34, re- ferring to Ps. Ixxxii. 6 ; in John xv. 25, referring to Ps. xxxv. 19 ; and in 1 Cor. xiv. 21, referring to Is. xxviii. 11, 12). — The question has been frequently discussed how far the Mosaic Law has any obligation or existence under the' dispensation of the Gospel. As a means of justification or salva- tion, it ought never to have been regarded, even before Christ : it needs no proof to show that still less can this be so since He has come. But yet the question remains whether it is binding on Christians, even when they do not depend on it for salvation. It seems clear enough, that its formal coercive au- thority as a whole ended with the close of the Jewish dispensation. It referred through- out to the Jewish covenant, and in many points to the constitution, the customs, and even the local circumstances of the people. That covenant was preparatory to the Chris- tian, in which it is now absorbed ; those customs and observances have passed away. It follows, .by the very nature of the case, that the formal obligation to the Law must have ceased with the basis on which it is grounded. But what then becomes of the declaration of our Lord, that He came " not to destroy the Law, but to perfect it," and that " not one jot or one tittle of it shall pass away " ? what of the fact, consequent upon it, that the Law has been reverenced in all Christian churches, and had an important influence on much Christian legislation ? The explanation of the apparent contradic- tion lies in the difference between positive and moral obligation. To apply this principle practically there is need of much study and discretion, in order to distinguish what is local and temporary from what is universal, LAWYER 294 LAZARUS and what is mere external form from what is the essence of an ordinance. LAWYER. The title " lawyer " is gene- rally supposed to he equivalent to the title " scrihe," both on account of its etymological meaning, and also because the man, who is also called a "lawyer" in Matt. xxii. 35 and Luke x. 25, is called " one of the scribes" in Mai-k xii. 28. If the common reading in Luke xi. 44, 45, 46, be correct, it Avill be decisive against this. By the use of the word i^o^ikos (Tit. iii. 9) as a simple ad- jective, it seems more probable that the title " scribe" was a legal and official designation, but that the name vo^ikos was properly a mere epithet signifying one " learned in the law," and only used as a title in common parlance (comp. the use of it in Tit. iii. 13, "Zenas the lawyer "). LAYING ON OF HANDS. [Baptism.] LAZ'ARUS, another form of the Hebrew name Eleazar. — 1. Lazarus of Bethany, the brother of Martha and Mary (John xi. 1). All that we know of him is derived from the Gospel of St. John, and that records little more than the facts of his death and resurrection ; but we may, with at least some measure of pro- Oability, fill up these scanty outlines. (1.) The language of John xi. 1, implies that the sisters were the better known. Lazarus is " of Bethany, of the village of Mary and her sister Martha." From this, and from the order of the three names in John xi. 5, we may reasonably infer that Lazarus was the youngest of the family. (2.) In Luke x. 38 and John xii. 1, 2, a feast is given to Jesus by Martha and Mary ; but in Matt. xxvi. 6, Mark xiv. 3, the same feast appears as occurring in " the house of Simon the leper." A leper, as such, would have been compelled to lead a separate life, and certainly could not have given a feast and received a multitude of guests. Among the conjectural explanations which have been given of this difference, the hypothesis that this Simon was the father of the two sisters and of Lazarus, that he had been smitten with leprosy, and that actual death, or the civil death that followed on his disease, had left his children free to act for themselves, is at least as probable as any other, and has some support in early ecclesiastical traditions. (3.) All the circumstances of John xi. and xii., point to wealth and social position above the average. (4.) A comparison of Matt. xxvi. 6, Mark xiv. 3, with Luke vii. 36, 44, suggests another conjecture that harmonises with and in part explains the foregoing. If Simon the leper were also the Pharisee, it would explain the fact just noticed of the friendship between the sisters of Lazarus and the members of that party in Jerusalem. It would follow on this assumption that the Pharisee, whom we thus fur identify with the father of Lazarus, was probably one of the members of that sect, sent down from Jerusalem to watch the new teacher. (5.) One other conjecture may yet be hazarded. There are some coincidences which suggest the identification of Lazarus with the young ruler that had great possessions, of Matt, xix., Mark x., Luke xviii. The age (Matt. xix. 20, 22) agrees with what has been be- fore inferred (see above, 1), as does the fact of wealth above the average with what we know of the condition of the family at Bethany (see 2). If the father were an in- fluential Pharisee, if there were ties of some kind uniting the family with that body, it would be natural enough that the son, even in comparative youth, should occupy the position of a " ruler." But further, it is of this rich young man that St. Mark uses the emphatic word ("Jesus, beholding him, loved him ") which is used of no others in the Gospel-history, save of the beloved apostle and of Lazarus and his sisters (John xi. 5). — Combining these inferences then, we get an insight into one aspect of the life of the Divine Teacher and Friend, full of living interest. The village of Bethany and its neiglibourhood were a frequent retreat from the controversies and timiults of Jerusalem (John xviii. 2 ; Luke xxi. 37, xxii. 39). At some time or other one household, wealthy, honourable, belonging to the better or Nico- demus section of the Pharisees (see above, 1,2, 3) learns to know and reverence him. Disease or death removes the father from the scene, and the two sisters are left with their younger brother to do as they think right. In them and in the brother over whom they watch, He finds that which is worthy of His love. But two at least need an education in the spii-itual life. A few weeks pass away, and then comes the sickness of John xi. One of the sharp malignant fevers of Pa- lestine cuts off the life that was so precious. The sisters know how truly the Divine Friend has loved him on whom their love and their hopes centered. They send to him in the belief that the tidings of the sickness will at once draw Him to them (John xi. 3). Slowly, and in words which (though afterwards understood otherwise) must at the time have seemed to the discijjles those of one upon whom the truth came not at once but by degrees, he prepares them for the worst. " This sickness is not unto death " — " Our friend Lazarus sleepeth " — " Lazarus is dead." The work which he was doing as a teacher or a healer (John x. 41, 42) in Betha- 295 LEAF, LEAVES bara, or the othei- Bethany (John x. 40 and i. 28), was not interrupted, and continues for two days after the message reaches him. Then comes the journey, occupying two days more. When He and His disciples come, three days have passed since the hurial. The friends from Jerusalem, chiefly of the Pharisee and ruler class, are there with their consolations. The sisters receive the Pro- phet, each according to her character. His sympathy with their sorrow leads Him also to weep. Then comes the work of might as the answer of the prayer which the Son offers to the Father (John xi. 41, 42). The stone is rolled away from the mouth of the rock- chamher in which the body had been placed. *' He that was dead came forth, bound hand and foot with grave-clothes ; and his face was bound about with a napkin." One scene more meets us, and then the life of the family which has come before us with such daylight clearness lapses again into obscurity. In the house which, though it still boi-e the father's name (sup. 1), was the dwelling of the sisters and the brother, there is a sujjper, and Lazarus is there, and Martha serves, no longer jealously, and Mary pours out her love in the costly offering of the spikenard ointment, and finds herself once again mis- judged and hastily condemned. After this all direct knowledge of Lazarus ceases. The resurrection of Lazarus is recorded only by St. John. The writers of the first three Gospels confined themselves, as by a deli- berate plan, to the miracles wrought in Galilee (that of the blind man at Jericho being the only exception).— 2. The name of a poor man in the well-known parable of Luke xvi. 19-31. The name of Lazarus has been perpetuated in an institution of the Christian Church. The leper of the Middle Ages appears as a Lazzaro. Among the orders, hfilf-military and half-monastic, of the 12th century, was one whicli bore the title of the Knights of St. Lazarus (a.d. 1119), whose special work it was to minister to the lepers, first of Syria, and afterwards of Europe. The use of lazaretto and lazar- house for the leper-hospitals then founded in all parts of Western Christendom, no less than that of lazzurone for the mendicants of Italian towns, are indications of the effect of the parable upon the mind of Europe in the Middle Ages, and thence upon its later speech. LEAD, one of the most common of metals, found generally in veins of rocks, though seldom in a metallic state, and most com- monly in combination with sulphur. It was early known to the ancients, and the allusions to it in Scripture indicate that the Hebrews were well acquainted with its uses. The rocks in the neighbourhood of Sinai yielded it in large quantities, and it was found in Egypt. That it was common in Palestine is shown by the expression in Ecclus. xlvii. 18 (comp. 1 K. X. 27). It was among the spoils of the Midianites which the children of Israel brought with them to the plains of Moab, after their return from the slaughter of the tribe (Num. xxxi. 22). The ships of Tarshish supplied the market of Tyre with lead, as with other metals (Ez. xxvii. 12). Its heaviness, to which allusion is made in Ex. XV. 10, and Ecclus. xsii. 14, caused it to be used for weights, which were either in the form of a round flat cake (Zech. v, 7), or a rough unfashioned lump or " stone " (ver. 8) ; stones having in ancient times served the purpose of weights (comp. Prov. xvi. II). In modern metallurgy lead is used with tin in the composition of solder for fastening metals together. That the ancient Hebrews were acquainted with the use of solder is evident from Isaiah xli. 7. No hint is given as to the composition of the solder, but in all probability lead was one of the materials employed, its usage for such a pur- pose being of great antiquity. In Job. xix. 24 the allusion is supposed to be to the prac- tice of carving inscriptions upon stone, and pouring molten lead into the cavities of the letters, to render them legible, and at the same time preserve them from the action of the air. In modern metallurgy lead is em- ployed for the purpose of purifying silver from other mineral products. The alloy is mixed with lead, exposed to fusion upon an earthen vessel, and submitted to a blast of air. By this means the dross is consumed. This process is called the cupelling operation, with which the description in Ez. xxii. 18- 22 accurately coincides. LEAF, LEAVES. The word occurs in the A. V. either in the singular or plural number in three different senses. 1. Leaf of a tree. The olive leaf is mentioned in Gen. viii. 11. Fig-leaves formed the first covering of our parents in Eden. The barren fig-tree (Matt. xxi. 19 ; Mark xi. 13) on the road between Bethany and Jerusalem, " had on it nothing but leaves." The oak-leaf is mentioned in Is. i. 30, and vi. 13. The righteous are often compared to green leaves (Jer. xvii. 8). The ungodly on the other hand are '' as an oak whose leaf fadeth " (Is. i. 30). In Ez. xlvii. 12 ; Rev. xxii. 1, 2, there is proDably an al- lusion to some tree whose leaves were used by the Jews as a medicine or ointment ; in- deed, it is very likely that many plants and leaves were thus made use of by them, as by the old English herbalists. 2. Leaves of doors. The Hebrew word, which occurs LEAH 296 LEBANON very many times in the Bible, and which in 1 K. vi. 32 (margin) and 34 is translated " leaves " in the A. V., signifies beams, ribs, aides, &c. 3. Leaves of a book or roll occurs in this sense only in Jer. xxxvi. 23. The Hebrew word (literally doors) would perhaps be more correctly translated columns. LE'AH, the daughter of Laban (Gen. xxix. 16). The dulness or weakness of her eyes was so notable, that it is mentioned as a con- trast to the beautiful form and appearance of her younger sister Rachel. Pier father took advantage of the opportunity which the local marriage-rite afforded to pass her off in her sister's stead on the unconscious bridegroom, and excused himself to Jacob by alleging that the custom of the country forbade the younger sister to be given first in marriage. Jacob's preference of Rachel grew into hatred of Leah, after he had married both sisters. Leah, however, bore to him in quick suc- cession Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, then Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah, before Rachel had a child. She died some time after Jacob reached the south country in which his father Isaac lived. She was buried in the family grave in Machpelah (ch. xlix. 31). LEASING, " falsehood." This word is re- tained in the A. V. of Ps. iv. 2, v. 6, from the older English versions ; but the Hebrew word of which it is the rendering is else- whei-e almost uniformly translated '* lies " (Ps. xl. 4, Iviii. 3, &c.). LEATHER. The notices of leather in the Bible are singularly few ; indeed the Avord occurs but twice in the A. V., and in each instance in reference to the same object, a girdle (2 K. i. 8 ; Matt. iii. 4.). There are, however, other instances in which the word " leather " might with propriety be substi- tuted for "skin" (Lev. xi. 32, xiii. 48; Num. xxxi. 20). LEAVEN. Various substances were known to have fermenting qualities ; but the ordi- nary leaven consisted of a lump of old dough in a high state of fermentation, which was inserted into the mass of dough prepared for baking. The use of leaven was strictly for- bidden in all offerings made to the Lord by fire. It is in reference to these prohibitions that Amos (iv. 5) ironically bids the Jews of his day to " offer a sacrifice of thanksgiving with leaven." In other instances, where the offering was to be consumed by the priests, and not on the altar, leaven might be used. Various ideas were associated with the pro- hibition of ieaven in the instances above quoted. But the most prominent idea, and the one which applies equally to all the cases of prohibition, is connected with the cor- fupiion which leaven itself had undergone, and which it communicated to bread in the process of fermentation. It is to this pro- perty of leaven that our Saviour points when he speaks of the " leaven {i.e. the corrupt doctrine) of the Pharisees and of th^ Saddu- cees " (Matt. xvi. 6) ; and St. Paul, when he speaks of the " old leaven " (1 Cor. v. 7). LEB'ANON, a mountain range in the north of Palestine. The nam"e Lebanon sig- nifies " white," and was applied either on account of the snow, which, during a great part of the year, covers its whole summit, or on account of the white colour of its lime- stone cliffs and peaks. It is the *' white mountain " — the Mont Blanc of Palestine. Lebanon is i-epresented in Scripture as lying upon the northern border of the land of Israel (Deut. i. 7., xi. 24 ; Josh. i. 4). Two distinct ranges bear this name. They run in parallel lines from S.W. to N.E. for about 90 geog. miles, enclosing between them a long fertile valley from 5 to 8 miles wide, anciently called Coele-Syria. The western range is the " Libanus " of the old geogra- phers, and the Lebanon of Scripture. The eastern range was called " Anti-Libanus " by geographers, and " Lebanon toward the sun- rising" by the sacred writers (Josh. xiii. 5). 1. Lebanon — the western range— commences on the south of the deep ravine of the Litany, the ancient river Leontes, which drains the valley of Coele-Syria, and falls into the Medi- terranean five miles north of Tyre. It runs N.E. in a straight line parallel to the coast, to the opening from the Mediterranean into the plain of Emesa, called in Scripture the " Entrance of Hamath " (Num. xxxiv. 8). Here Nahr el-Kcbtr — the ancient river Eleu- therus — sweeps round its northern end, as the Leontes does round its southern. The average elevation of the range is from 6000 to 8000 ft. ; but two peaks rise considerably higher. On the summits of both these peaks the snow remains in patches during the whole summer. The line of cultivation runs along at the height of about 6000 ft. ; and below this the features of "the western slopes are entirely different. The rugged limestone banks are scantily clothed with the ever- green oak, and the sandstone with pines ; While every available spot is carefully culti- vated. The cultivation is wonderful, and shows what all Syria might be if under a good government. Fig-trees cling to the naked rock ; vines are trained along narrow ledges ; long ranges of mulberries, on ter- races like steps of stairs, cover the more gentle declivities ; and dense groves of olives fill up the bottoms of the glens. Hundreds of villages are seen — here built amid laby- rinths of rocks, there clinging like swallows' % W'/f O ^ i''}^^,"-^ LEBBAEUS 297 LEES nests to the sides of cliffs ; while convents, no less numerous, are perched on the top of every peak. The vine is still largely culti- vated in every part of the mountain. Leba- non also abounds in olives, figs, and mulber- ries ; -while some remnants exist of the forests of pine, oak, and cedar, which for- merly covered it (1 K. v. 6 ; Vs. xxix. 5 ; Is. xiv. 8; Ezr. iii. 7). Considerable num- bers of wild beasts still inhabit its retired glens and higher peaks ; the writer has seen jackals, hyenas, wolves, bears, and panthers (2 K. xiv. 9; Cant. iv. 8; Hab. ii. 17). Along the base of Lebanon runs the irregular plain of Phoenicia ; nowhere more than two miles wide, and often interrupted by bold rocky spurs, that dip into the sea. The main ridge of Lebanon is composed of Jura lime- stone, and abounds in fossils. Long belts of more recent sandstone run along the western slopes, which is in places largely impreg- nated with iron. Lebanon was originally inhabited by the Hivites and Giblites (Judg. iii. 3 ; Josh. xiii. 5, 6). The whole moun- tain range was assigned to the Israelites, but was never conquered by them (Josh. xiii. 2-6 ; Judg. iii. 1-3). During the Jewish monaixhy it appears to have been subject to the Phoenicians (1 K. v. 2-6 ; Ezr. iii. 7). From the Greek conquest until modern times Lebanon had no separate history.— 2. Anti- Libanus. — The main chain of Anti-Libanus commences in the plateau of Bash an, near the parallel of Caesarea-Philippi, runs north to Hermon, and then north-east in a straight line till it sinks down into the great plain of Emesa, not far from the site of Riblah. Hermon is the loftiest peak ; the next highest is a few miles north of the site of Abila, beside the village of Bhiddn, and has an elevation of about 7000 feet. The rest of the ridge averages about 5000 ft. ; it is in general bleak and barren, with shelving gray declivities, gray cliffs, and gray rounded summits. Here and there we meet with thin forests of dwarf oak and juniper. The western slopes descend abruptly into the Bu- ka'a ; bat the features of the eastern are entirely different. Three side ridges here I'adiate from Hermon, like the ribs of an open fan, and form the supporting walls of three great terraces. Anti-Libanus is only once distinctly mentioned in Scripture, where it is accurately described as " Lebanon toward the sun-rising " (Josh. xiii. 5). " The tower of Lebanon which looketh toward Damascus " (Cant. vii. 4) is doubtless Hermon, which forms the most striking feature in the whole panorama round that city, ■ LEBBAE'US. This name occurs in Matt. X. 3, according to Codex D (Bezae) of the sixth century, and in the received Text. In Mark iii. 18, it is substituted in a few unim- portant MSS. for Thaddaeus. [Jude.] LEECH. [Horse-Leech.] LEEKS (Heb. chdtsir). The word chdtslr, which in Num. xi. .5 is translated leeks, occurs twenty times in the Hebrew text. The He- brew term, which properly denotes grass, is derived from a root signifying " to be green," and may therefore stand in this passage for any green food, lettuce, endive, &c. ; it would thus be applied somewhat in the same manner as we use the term " greens ; " yet as the chdisir is mentioned together with onions and garlick in the text, and as the most ancient versions unanimously imder- stand leeks by the Hebrew word, we may be satisfied with our own translation. There is, however, another and a very ingenious inter- pretation of chdtsir, first proposed by Hengs- tenberg, and received by Dr. Kitto [Pictor. Bible, Num. xi. 5), which adopts a more literal translation of the original word, for, says Dr. Kitto, " among the wonders in the natural history of Egypt, it is mentioned by travellers that the common people there eat with special relish a kind of grass similar to clover." This plant (of which the scientific name is Trigonella foenum Graecum) is si- milar to clover, but its leaves more pointed, Trigonella foenum-grnecum and great quantities of it are eaten by the people. The leek is too well-known to need description. Its botanical name is Allium porrttin. LEES. The Hebrew shevicr bears the radical sense oi preservation, and was applied LEGION 298 LEOrARD to " lees " from the custom of allowing the wine to stand on the lees in order that its coljur and body might be better preserved. Hence the expression " wine on the lees," as meaning a generous full-bodied liquor (Is. XXV. 6). Before the wine was consumed, it was necessary to strain off the lees ; such wine was then termed "well refined" (Is. XXV. 6). To drink the lees, or " dregs," was an expression for the endurance of extreme punishment (Ps. Ixxv. 8). LEGION, the chief sub-division of the Roman army, containing about 6000 in- fantry, with a contingent of cavalry. The term does not occur in the Bible in its pri- mary sense, but appears to have been adopted in order to express any large number, with the accessory ideas of order and subordination (Matt. xxvi. 53 ; Mark v. 9). LE'HABIM, occurring only in Gen. x. 13, the name of a Mizraite people or tribe. There can be no doubt that they are the same as the ReBU or LeBU of the Egyptian inscrip- tions, and that from them Libya and the Libyans derived their name. These primi- tive Libyans appear to have inhabited the northern part of Africa to the west of Egypt, though latterly driven from the coast by the Greek colonists of the Cyrenalca. LE'HI, a place in Judah, probably on the confines of the Philistines' country, between it and the cliff Etam ; the scene of Samson's well-known exploit with the jawbone (Judg. XV. 9, 14, 19). It contained an eminence — Ramath-lehi, and a spring of great and last- ing repute — En-hak-kore. It m.ay perhaps be identified with Beit-Liktyeh, a village about 2 miles below the upper Beth-boron. LEM'UEL, the name of an unknown king to whom his mother addressed the prudential maxims contained in Prov. xxxi. 1-9. The Rabbinical commentators identified Lemuel with Solomon. Others regard him as king or chief of an Arab tribe dwelling on the boi'ders of Palestine, and elder brother of Agur, whose name stands at the head of Prov. XXX. LENTILES (Heb. Vidnshtm). The word occurs in the four following passages : — Gen. XXV. 34, 2 Sam. xvii. 28, xxiii. 11, and Ez. iv. 9. There are three or four kinds of len- tiles, all of which are still much esteemed in those countries where they are grown, viz. the South of Europe, Asia, and North Africa : the red lentile is still a favourite article of food in the East ; it is a small kind, the seeds of which after being decorticated, are commonly sold in the bazaars of India. The modern Arabic name of this plant is identical with the Hebrew ; it is known in Egypt and Arabia, Syria, &c., by the name 'Adas. Lentile bread is still eaten by the poor of Egypt. Lentile {Erviim lens.) LEOPARD (Heb. nnmer) is invariably given by the A. V. as the translation of the Hebrew word, which occurs in the seven fol- lowing passages, — Is. xi. 6 ; Jer. v. 6, xiii. 23 ; Dan. vii. 6 ; Hos. xiii. 7 ; Cant. iv. 8 ; Hab. i. 8. Leopard occurs also in Ecclus. xxviii. 23, and in Rev. xiii. 2. From Cant, iv. 8, we learn that the hilly ranges of Le- banon were in ancient times frequented by these animals. They are now not uncom- monly seen in and about Lebanon, and the southern maritime mountains of Syria. Under the name ndiner, which means " spotted," it is not improbable that another animal, namely the cheetah [Gueparda juhata), may be included ; Avhich is tamed by the Maho- Leopard (Lei^mrdu$ 29