ittlteSt' o* Forward Mission jk^ OURSES * DEC 15 1906 *: BV 3265 .T5 1906 Thoburn, J. M. 1836- 1922. The Christian conquG St of India Bishop James M. Thobum FORWARD MISSION STUDY COURSES EDITED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE YOUNG PEOPLE'S MISSIONARY MOVEMENT THE CHRISTIAN CONQUEST OF INDIA By V'" BISHOP JAMES M. THOBURN h'orly-six Years a Missionary in India Fifil Edition Se!\>enly-five Thousand Young People's Missionary Movement New York - - - Toronto Copyright, 1906 Young Peopue's Missionary Movement New York TO THE YOUNG MEN AND YOUNG WOMEN OF CHRISTENDOM URGING THEM TO IMMEDIATE COOPERATION IN THE SOCIAL AND SPIRITUAL REGENERATION OF INDIA'S MILLIONS PREFACE The task of writing this book was undertaken at the urgent request of leading members of the YoTing People's Missionary Movement. The writer had spent many years in India and had acquired a personal knowledge of missionary work in nearly all its phases, but yet did not at first sufficiently appreciate the difficulties con- nected with the work which was committed to him. The manuscript of this book when com- pleted was placed in the hands of the Editorial Committee for revision, and especially to prepare it for the use of mission study classes. This Com- mittee has made important changes in some parts of the work, both by way of addition in some places, and omission in others. It was also found necessary to change the plan to some extent in order to make the book better serve its purpose as a text-book for students. India contains about one fifth of the human race, and missionary work carried on in such a vast empire, and directed by the leading Churches of the Protestant world leads the student into fields of observation and inquiry hardly second to any others in the world. To attempt to write in a few brief chapters a sketch of a region w^hich practically constitutes a world in itself, and to do this from a missionary view-point and in a form suitable for young readers, must inevitably prove to be a most perplexing task. It is hardly necessary to remark that no at>- tempt has been made in the following pages to present to the reader a full and exhaustive ac- count of India and its people or of the mission- ary work, past or present, for which the country has become noted. The commission given to the writer did not imply an ideal of this kind. If the book proves useful in creating an intelligent interest in India and its teeming millions, and if, in addition to this, it enables the young people to realize that they are practically in touch with these millions, it will accomplish the end which the writer had in view. J. M. Thoburn. Delaware, Ohio, May 26, 1906. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Preface v I. The Country I II. Invaders and Rulers 31 III. The People 61 IV. The Religions 91 V. Christian Conquerors 131 VI. Missionary Agencies 167 VII. Problems 201 VIII. Results 225 Appendix A — Chronological Table 251 Appendix B — Bibliography 255 Appendix C — Rules for Pronunciation 265 Appendix D — Glossary 266 Appendix E — Statistics of Protestant Missions.... 271 Appendix F — Area and Population 273 Appendix G — Distribution of Christians by Race and Denomination 274 Appendix H — Distribution of Population According to Religion and Education 275 Appendix I — Statistics Concerning Some of the Principal Occupations 276 Index 277 ILLUSTRATIONS Bishop James M. Thobiirn Frontispiece Asafnagar Falls, Ganges Canal, Illustrating Irrigation Works page 12 Plowing in the Punjab " 12 Taj Mahal, Agra " z6 Great Mosque, Delhi " 36 Public Library, Allahabad " 49 Victoria Railway Station, Bombay " 49 Burmese Coast Village " 68 Santal Village Courtyard " 68 Brahman Sub-judge and Family " y;^ Karen Family, Burma " 7Z Map Showing the Distribution of the Popula- tion According to Religions in the Prov- inces and States " 92 Hindu Temple, Madura " 98 Buddhist Temple, Buddh-Gaya " 98 Map Showing the Principal Races and Religions " 108 Four Indian Deities " 114 Manager and Priests of Hindu Temple, Rameswaram " 117 Buddhist Priest Instructing a Class of Boys.. " 117 Fakirs " 121 ILLUSTRATIONS Oldest Syrian Church in India at Kottayam.. Henry Martyn's Pagoda William Carey Alexander Duff Nagercoil Church Vinton Memorial Church College Hall of Madura Mission Forman Christian College, Lahore Young Men's Christian Association Building, Madras Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknow Extremes of the Caste System Garo Polygamous Family Founders of National Missionary Society of India Political Map of India Showing Christian Mission Stations Sketch Maps and Charts 'Railway Map British Provinces and Native States Languages of India Missionary Development, Eastern India.... Western and Southern India Northern India page 132 " 132 " 139 " 139 " 172 " 172 " 178 " 178 " 191 " 191 " 207 207 " 241 End 18 47 63 144 158 160 THE COUNTRY CHAPTER I THE COUNTRY ] IxDiA^ is one of the world's greatest empires. Area and ; In area it embraces 1,766,597 square miles/ It I extends from east to west about 2,500 miles and j from north to south nearly 2,000 miles. Its 1 revenues are on a large scale, and in time of stress j have proved as elastic as the average revenues of ] European nations under similar conditions. Its ! army is large and always prepared for possible ; emergencies. If threatened by invasion, the J Indian government, aided by the feudatory' states, 1 could meet the invaders on the frontier with an | *When the first Aryan pioneers, traveling south- ward from the highlands of Central Asia, reached the river Indus, which was probably in flood at the time, they named it "Sindhus," or ocean, and very possibly mistook it for a part of the ocean itself. At a later period, other members of their race, coming from what is now called Persia, softened the sibilant ; initial into an h, and at a still later period the Greeks erased the first letter altogether and gave ; the river the illustrious name it still bears, the Indus. The original name still lives in the province ■ of Sindh, and the people of that province are known ; as Sindhis. i ^Including Assam and Burma, which are integral .\ parts of the empire. I ^Semi-independent native states governed by na- tive princes under the advice of a British Resident • whom the viceroy stations at their courts. .j 1 ' 2 The Christian Conquest of India army of 370,000 men. Its vast provinces are threaded with railway lines, and modern improve- ments of every kind keep pace with the general progress of the country. Legislative bodies share the responsibility of administration, both in the imperial and provincial governments. In all that pertains to industrial, civil, educational, and re- ligious progress, a steady advance can be noticed, and the future of this great empire becomes a subject of intense interest to every observing stu- dent, and especially to every Christian missionary. Population The population of the empire at the last census in 1901 was 294,361,056, equal to the whole of Europe, less Eussia, and over three and one half times that of the United States. If account be taken of the normal increase of population, it may be accepted as reasonably certain that at the present time it exceeds 300,000,000, or nearly one fifth of the human race. India is a land of imperial proportions, and is entitled to fair con- sideration among the empires of the world. Ninety per cent, of the population is scattered in villages. The census counts 2,148 towns^ and 728,605 villages.* Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras are the only cities with more than 500,000 inhabi- tants ; whereas in the United States there are six. In the entire empire there are only twenty-six ^A town is incorporated, with a magistrate and petty court. =^A village is a collection of houses, not incorpor- ated, with a headman. Cities and Villages The CouDlry Density of Population cities of more than 100,000 inhabitants each. In the United States and Canada there are thirty- seven. About twenty per cent, of the population of the United States lives in cities exceeding 100,000 inhabitants, while in India only two per cent, of the population is in cities of more than 100,000 inhabitants. The average density of population for the entire empire is 167 per square mile. The popula- tion of Belgium is three and one half times as dense, 589 per square mile, while that of Ontario is only ten persons per square mile. The British provinces are twice as populous as the native states, and the increase in the British provinces has been nearly five per cent., while the native states have decreased 5.47 per cent, in population. The most populous regions are the Gangetic plain, the delta of Bengal, and the coast of the tri- angular southern plateau, while the most sparsely settled are the northwest portions and the coast of Burma. Arizona, Idaho, and Montana have less than two persons per square mile, while Baluchis- tan, the most thinly settled, has eleven. The delta of Bengal has 552, as compared with the 407 per square mile in Ehode Island. The geographical position of India can be seen Geographical by a glance at any map of Asia. On the north it seems to nestle under "the roof of the world," the name sometimes given to the vast region in central Asia which is buttressed by the Hima- Position 4 The Christian Conquest of India lajas^ and their spurs, and by other ranges on the north, east, and west. On the west its shores are washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea, and on the east it is bounded by the Chinese Empire, Anam, and Siam. On the northwest its historic boundary has been the Indus, although the politi- cal boundary has often been pushed southeast by invaders from central Asia, or again northwest by powerful rulers in India. Similar changes of boundary have taken place on the other side of India, but not so frequently, nor to so great an extent. At the present time the boundary of the empire embraces Assam and Burma on the east, and extends far enough beyond the Indus on the northwest to include Baluchistan, while Afghan- istan is held in the position of a subsidized state.^ The authority of the Indian government is para- mount up to the boundary line of Persia. Divisions Writers on India frequently divide the country into four sections : the first including the moun- tains of the Himalayan range; the second, the plains of northern India ; the third, the table-land of central and southern India; and the fourth, Burma. These first three divisions, however, are somewhat arbitrary, and do not convey a very clear idea of the actual configuration of the coun- ^The word Himalaya means in Sanskrit "the abode of snow." 'The British government pays the Ameer of Afghanistan a subsidy of $600,000 per annum for his friendship. The Country 5 tr}^ Immediately south of the suow-line of the Himalayas is a belt of lower mountains, with an average width of perhaps a hundred miles. At a distance of several hundred miles from the moun- tains the surface begins to rise, and long before it reaches the Vindhya mountains, a range which crosses India from east to west at about the middle of the country, the land has become an elevated plateau. Immediately south of this mountain range is a rich valley through which the Narbada Eiver flows westward, dividing the greater part of the country into two somewhat distinct sections. South of this river is another range of mountains called the Satpuras, which forms the northern boundary of a triangular pla- teau known as the Deccan, or South Country. This plateau has an average elevation of about two thousand feet, and is hemmed in on the west by a line of mountains running parallel with the ocean from northwest to southeast. A similar but somewhat lower range shuts in the plateau on the eastern side. These two ranges are called respectively the Eastern and Western Ghats, the former having an average height of about fifteen hundred feet, and the latter of about three thou- sand. Burma consists mainly of the valley and delta of the Irawadi, the Yoma ranges, a coast strip along the Bay of Bengal, and a wild hill region extending east and northeast of the Ira- wadi toward the Chinese and Tibet frontiers. 6 The Christian Conquest of India Rivers The great rivers of India aj-e chiefly those which have their sources in the Himalayas. It is a singular fact that these streams, except the Ganges, take their rise, not in India proper, but on the northern side of the Himalayas in Tibet. The Brahmaputra not only takes its rise to the northward of the mountains, but for the greater part of its course flows at a great elevation along a valley between the Himalayas proper and another snowy range which lies to the north in Tibet. Of all these rivers, the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra take precedence. The Indus is a very large stream, but through nearly all its lower courses it flows through a desert, hence it is only along its upper course near the mountains, or in- deed among the mountains, that the tremendous volume of water it carries into the sea can be appreciated by a spectator. The Ganges has many tributaries ; one of them, indeed, the Gogra, is larger than the Ganges itself, and hence this river carries down an amazing volume of water to the sea. The Mississippi, when its banks are full, discharges 1,200,000 cubic feet of water per sec- ond; the Saint Lawrence, 1,000,000; the Nile only 400,000 ; the Ganges, 1,800,000. The Brahmapu- tra is unknown to India until it suddenly sweeps around the southeastern base of the Himalayas, and bursts forth into the Assam valley in all its strength. It was formerly considered larger than the Ganges, but it has been ascertained that in The Country 7 the rainy season its discharge per second is only a little more than 500,000 cubic feet. This, how- ever, still gives it a prominent place among the great rivers of the world. Only two rivers of any size flow westward into the ocean — the Narbada, spoken of above, and the Tapti, which flows par- allel with it and but a short distance from it. The Irawadi breaks through the eastern Himalayas from Tibet and flows down through the center of Burma, receiving several affluents on its way. Three other rivers of considerable size, but not of great importance, discharge their waters into the Bay of Bengal — the Godavari, the Kistna, and the Mahanadi. The rivers of India are not well adapted to Adaptation of steamer traffic, as the force of their currents and Traffic the treacherous nature of the sand which they all bring down from the mountains make it difficult for steamers to ply for trade, as is so common on North American rivers. An immense traffic, how- ever, is carried on by native boats, some of them of considerable size, although most of them are very small. On the Ganges, boats may be seen constantly, sometimes carried up by means of clumsy and often ragged sails, but very often slowly dragged by the boatman walking on shore and tugging with ropes. The downward passage, of course, is made more easily. The immense delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra — for the two rivers unite before reaching the sea — is made 8 The Christian Conquest of India Rivers as Land-makers, Fertilizers, and Highways up of numberless canals and estuaries, on which a constant traffic is maintained. Some idea of the vast extent and activity of this river traffic can be formed from the statement that at the city of Patna on the Ganges, 61,000 boats have been registered as having passed up or down in the course of a single year. At Hugli, a town about twenty-five miles above Calcutta, 124,000 boats of all kinds and sizes passed in a year. The river- borne trade of the city of Calcutta amounts to more than $100,000,000 a year, and when "it is remembered that nearly all of this is carried on in clumsy native boats, some idea can be formed not only of the number of these river crafts, but also of the vast number of boatmen employed in the service. The rivers of India are noted perhaps beyond those of any other part of the world, unless it be Africa, for the amount of silt which they carry down to the sea. If it be true that the Nile has made Egypt, it is equally true that the Ganges has made Bengal, while every river flowing into the sea has in like manner built up its own delta. The Ganges and Brahmaputra carry down more silt than the Indus, the Brahmaputra taking the lead in this respect. It has been estimated that it would take 24,000 steamships, each of 14,000 tons burden, to carry the amount of deposit which is brought down by the Ganges alone during the four months of the rainy season. The mind fails The Country 9 to realize how vast this yearly accumulation must he and yet it is not perceptibly noticed at the mouth of the river. It is true that thousands of acres are thrown up each year, not only in the delta, but at many points in the upper course of the stream ; but while new land is thus constantly forming, large slices of cultivated land are swept away from time to time, so that the poor native does not notice that the river makes much amends for the loss which it so often inflicts upon him. Nevertheless, the land is steadily gaining on the ocean ; and as the silt which is brought down is of the richest possible quality, those who cultivate near the river not only have their lands fertilized by the deposits left by the floods, but also at times secure new fields thrown up in the course of a few weeks, which furnish fruitful farms for years to come. I have myself seen wheat growing rich and green on fields where I have seen the water flowing fifty feet deep but six months before. The rivers also form cheap highways for carrying the produce of the country to the towns and seaports, and perform an invaluable function in furnishing the water for the irrigation schemes. Climate conditions in India are to a very great Monsoons extent dependent upon the winds known as "mon- soons" in southern Asia, but better known in other parts of the world as "trade winds." About six weeks after the sun crosses the equator in its northward course, a steady and sometimes strong 10 The Christian Conquest of India wind sets in from the southwest and continues with slight interruptions for three or four months, and again when the sun recrosses the equator, similar conditions prevail, save that the direction is reversed; instead of coming from the southwest the prevailing winds are from the northeast. These winds are of the utmost importance to India. The heated air rising from the ocean carries with it a large measure of mois- ture, and when it reache's the somewhat cooler atmosphere farther from the equator this mois- ture is condensed and precipitated as rain upon the parched and thirsty land, a process as beauti- ful as it is wonderful. Destructive- But for thcsc mousoous India would speedily soons ' hecome an uninhabitable waste, and yet these messengers of blessing are sometimes attended by great disasters, and followed by suffering in vari- ous forms. The typhoon of the coast of China, the cyclone of India, and the hurricane of the West Indies are practically one and the same in origin, character, and destructive effect. Some twenty years ago a strong and persistent wind drove the watei in one of the mouths of the Brahmaputra backward for many hours until it stood above its normal level. When a sudden change of the wind released this mighty mass, and the swollen flood swept out to sea, it buried a large island with its hundred thousand beneath its waves. It was sub- stantially the destruction of Pharaoh^s host re- The Country 11 j peated before the eyes of the modern world. The ] Bakarjang cyclone of 1876 drove huge waves over the large islands, and in a few hours engulfed j 150,000 acres of land, and destroyed 2,000,000 ■ souls. At times large ships have been swept in- j land upon the crest of great waves and deposited j on the shore, sometimes at a distance of several | miles from the sea. > The average annual rainfall varies greatly in Rainfall I the different parts of India. At the stations on ' the outer ranges of the Himalayas it reaches a ! point which in North America would be consid- i ered very excessive, ranging from 91 inches at i Naini Tal to 120 inches at Darjiling. In some I parts of the great valley of the Brahmaputra the I rainfall is the heaviest known in the world. At i Cherra Punji, a station in Assam, the average annual rainfall is no less than 523 inches, and in * 1861 it actually rose to 805 inches. This, how- i ever, is exceptional. In Baluchistan the normal mean rainfall is 8.7 inches, and on the Burma coast 152.9 inches. In general, rain is most abun- dant on the coast of Burma, along the Western ; Ghats, and the Brahmaputra valley, and in the eastern sections of the sub-Himalayas. The dryest portions are northwestern India, Gujarat, and the Deecan. As a basis of comparison it may be noted J that the rainfall in the state of New York in 1905 | was a little more than 45 inches, in Ohio slightly I less than 45 inches, in California about 25 inches. 12 The Christian Conquest of India and Arizona 20 inches. As a rnle there is no want of moisture in India, as the average rain- fall is considerably in excess of the rainfall in North America, but instead of being spread all over the year it is confined to a few months. Irrigation The cauals of British India are far more widely extended and also more useful than is commonly supposed. At a time when so much attention is being given to the irrigation projects in the arid sections of the United States, the reader will be interested to know that the British government has been the chief modern pioneer in this line of work. The canals in India have an aggregate length of "main line'' of 14,438 miles, with 29,- 174 miles of smaller distributing channels. More than 44,000,000 acres of land are irrigated by canals, mainly in Madras, the Punjab, United Provinces, and Bengal, and the work of extending the system is going on vigorously. The govern- ment has already expended over $150,000,000 in constructing these canals, employing at times a large number of famine laborers who would prob- ably have starved. This great work is largely due to a distinguished engineer, the late Sir A. Cot- ton, who adopted the theory that God sends as much rain as is needed, but would have man care for the gift which his bounty provides. Drought An immense amount of suffering and many deaths are caused by drought, which frequently occurs in the sand portions of the Punjab, large Asafnagar Falls, Ganges Canal, Illuslrallng Irrigation Works ■.■„.>^ -^»g ^'e^. ■^,. Plowing in the Punjab The Country 15 sections of the Deccan, and other parts of the em- pire, where the rainfall is not abundant. How- ever, the shortage of rain will become less formid- ^ j able as the government extends its system of irri- | gation. During the first eighty 3^ears of the nine- '| teenth century, 18,000,000 people perished of 1 famine. In 1877, 5,000,000 of the people of j southern India starved to death.^ Cholera is also frequently a concomitant of the terrible famine^ and various sorts of fever and other sickness I usually follow. The bubonic plague, largely re- j suiting from insufficient food, caused the ^ death of nearly 360,000 persons between 1896 and 1900. For long ages India has been famed for her Goid^siiver, treasures of gold, silver, and jewels, but as a mat- ter of fact, her mines are few in number and not very productive. The historic treasures of India have been to a great extent the product of military plunder. In fact, the same remark might be made with regard to public wealth in all Asiatic lands from the days of Croesus to the present time. The immense treasures of which we read in history and story are partly fabulous and partly accounted for by the fact that success- ive conquerors brought them from other lands to India. Diamond mines are still worked in south- ern India, but the product is not large. European skill and energy have given an impetus to gold ^Lill3% India and its Pro'blems, 287. and Diamonds 14 The Christian Conquest of India mining in Mysore, but the success achieved has been only fairly satisfactory. Last census imports of treasures were two and one half times exports. Coal Coal was never sought for until its necessity began to be felt a few years ago. As the various railway lines have been extended into different parts of the country, coal has been discovered here and there, and its production has steadily in- creased, until in 1903 it reached more than seven million tons. In India, as in all lands, this spe- cies of "black diamond" is found to be of infi- nitely greater value than any deposit of real diamonds. It is now used in large quantities by all the manufacturing establishments in the cities, and is also in demand in seaport towns because of the increasing number of steamers which frequent the Indian shores. Rice In Europe and America the impression prevails very generally that the people of India subsist almost wholly upon rice, but this is a great mis- take, as it is a staple food for only one third of the population. Kice is produced in very large quantities, and is a common article of diet along the seashore and river bottoms, especially in Burma, but the greater part of India consists of uplands which are not adapted to the production of rice. Eice is cultivated in the uplands wherever favorable conditions can be found, and people of all races are not only willing, but eager to obtain it whenever possible. The Country 15 Taking the empire of India as a whole, the Miiiet most common article of diet will be found to con- sist of the different kinds of millet, and of the grains belonging to the pea family. The term millet includes a large variety of grains. A mis- sionary received a small package of sorghum seed from the United States, and sowed it in his gar- den to see if it would mature successfully in the strange soil and climate of an Eastern land. The seed germinated and developed precisely as it would have done in Kansas, but the natives watched the experiment with extreme interest, and recognizing the plant as a species of their own field crop, stole a part of the seed for their own use and in a few years the improved quality of their millet began to attract attention. A dozen varieties of this grain may now be seen in northern India. Other crops belonging to the pea family also yield bountiful harvests. India is justly famed for her variety of tropical Fruits fruits. The mango is to the people of India what the apple is to the American people. It grows everywhere, and often large mango trees line both sides of a public road, or occupy waste ground near the villages, and being free to the poor, these become a great boon during the fruitage season. The banana of many varieties is also found in all parts of the land, and its fruit is usually cheap. Oranges of fine quality, guavas of many varieties, pineapples, custard apples, loquats, lemons, and 16 The Christian Conquest of India Forests limes of many kinds, and in the extreme south, breadfruit, jack-fruit, and the durian — the last three being members of a common family — all claim a place in the list of Indian fruits. The forest products of India include almost everything which grows in the tropical world. The teak of Burma and southern India has become known in all parts of the world. Among the lower ranges of the Himalayas, the cedar of Leba- non maintains the renown of that illustrious mon- arch of mountain forests, while the fir, spruce, and other members of the coniferous family are also found, although in the lapse of many centuries, since the mountains became inhabited, most of them have perished. "Immense elms capable of seating six hundred persons in their shade," ^ and valuable trees of different kinds are found throughout the empire. A forest reserve of sixty- seven million acres is carefully protected by the Indian government. Banyan Trees T^g Indian banyan tree has become noted throughout the world. Some of these trees have been well cared for, and in the course of a century or more they have spread in all directions until a single tree is made to resemble a small forest. A tourist visiting Calcutta a few years ago was taken to the Botanical Gardens to see a famous banyan tree which had been carefully protected for years, and even assisted in its natural effort to support ^Beach, The Cross in the Land of the Trident, 12. The Country 17 its spreading branches by stems thrown down from above. When the tree was pointed out to this stranger, as he was approaching it, he was utterly unable to realize that the tiny forest before him consisted of a single tree, and asked in great sim- plicity, "Which one of these trees is the banyan ?" India has some extensive deserts in the north- cultivable east, some arid wastes and malarious swamps in ^^^^ other regions, but, taken as a whole, it is a land of great fertility. Of the 737,703,322 acres of land, nearly one third is poorly cultivated, and about 140,000,000 cultivable acres are unused. Land which has been cultivated for thirty centu- ries, or possibly longer, yields its yearly crop boun- teously without deep plowing and without the help of fertilizers. India fed and cared for her own vast population Exports and sent to foreign countries in 1903-4, $28,000,- ^" mports 000 of tea, $38,000,000 of wheat and flour, $63,- 000,000 of rice, $70,000,000 of raw and manufac- tured jute, $115,000,000 of raw and manufac- tured cotton, besides large quantities of hides, indigo, coffee, lumber, and other products. Her exports during 1903-4, totaling nearly $500,000,- 000, and her imports approximating $280,000,000 entitle her to a prominent place among the first commercial nations of the world. The first railroad in India was completed in Railroads 1853, connecting Bombay and Thana, a distance of three miles. During the mutiny of 1857-8 18 The Christian Conquest of India the government was badly crippled by a lack of facilities for transporting troops. After this disastrous experience. Lord Dalhousie influenced the government to connect by rail the large cities and military stations. Through Lord Mayo and others the railroad system has been rapidly ex- tended. In 1878 there were 8,000 miles in opera- tion; in 1895, 16,000 miles. A glance at the rail- way map above shows the empire connected by The Country 19 nearly 27,000 miles, placing India fifth among the powers of the world in railroad mileage, and employing over 400,000 natives. In a region so large as India it could not be seasons expected that the climate would be uniform, and yet it presents certain features which may be spoken of as peculiarly Indian. Throughout nearly the whole empire the year may be divided into three sections : cold, hot, and wet. The cold season begins in northern India about coid season the first of October. At Calcutta and Bombay it is hardly recognized as having begun before No- vember. With the exception of about a week near the close of December, it seldom rains during this season. In all northern India, from October to March, the v^eather is delightful, with sky almost cloudless. People can make their ar- rangements months in advance without fear of having them disturbed by bad weather. At points as far south as Lucknow or Benares, a white frost sometimes forms in late December or early Janu- ary, and a very thin coating of ice may sometimes be seen on the water if it is exposed in a shallow vessel and in a damp place. In Calcutta and Bom- bay frost is never seen. Houses are never built with chimneys, and fire is rarely introduced into any dwelling. In southern India the thermome- ter rarely falls below sixty-five degrees, but in northern India, during the three or four months of the cold season, a fire in the evening is found to be very comfortable. 20 The Christian Conquest of India Hot Season As the end of the cold season approaches, a steady and sometimes strong west wind begins to blow, and the signs of the approaching hot season become unmistakable. The evenings and nights still continue cool even as late as March. In Cal- cutta and Bombay, however, it is usually quite warm before the middle of March. By the month of April the west wind has become a hot wind, and with the exception of fruit and forest trees, vegetation has wholly disappeared ; not a blade of grass is to be seen ; daily the hot west wind blows with increasing intensity and people take refuge from it as they do from cold in more northern climes. The month of June is a trying one on account of the extreme heat, especially in north- ern India. Common It is a commou mistake in the West to suppose that the farther north one goes in India the cooler will be the weather; and young mission- aries very frequently make the mistake of asking for a station in northern India on the grounds that they cannot very well endure the heat, and do not wish to expose themselves to the hot winds of southern India and thus risk their health. The condition is exactly the opposite. The nearer one is to the equator the cooler it seems. At Eangoon it is found to be much hotter than at Singapore, which is only ninety miles from the equator; in Calcutta again it is much warmer than in Ran- goon, while as we pass northward the thermometer Mistake The Country 21 rises in the hot months until it stands at Delhi and Lahore, in the far north, at a figure that is never reached in Calcutta and Bombay. While this hot wind blows during the summer, care of Health missionaries and Europeans in general avoid expo- sure to it as much as possible, seldom venturing out of doors after ten or eleven o'clock in the morning, or before four or five in the afternoon. It should be said, howcA-er, that the air is moderately pure at this season, and that it is only the excessive heat and the effect of the sun's rays Avhich the foreigner must avoid. Malarious influences of all kinds are held in suspense during this season, and persons who give proper attention to the necessary condi- tions often remark that they really enjoy better health at this season than at any other time of the year. By the month of June the heat has become wet season intense. About this time, to use the phrase com- monly adopted in India, the "monsoon bursts." All over the empire there is intense anxiety to hear of the approach of the rains. About the end of June — sometimes a little earlier — the telegraph announces that the monsoon has burst on the western coast of Ceylon and along the extreme southwestern coast of India. Each day the rains creep northward. In a week or so they have reached Bombay, and by the twentieth of June they have usually extended throughout India. A marked change of temperature follows their ad- ^ 22 The Christian Conquest of India vent. The thermometer will perhaps fall fifteen to twenty degrees at the first downpour. Nature's The wliole landscape, which has been utterly des- Awakening olate for three months, and which at last looks as though it had been sprinkled over with ashes, be- comes in a few days clothed in the richest green. Vegetation of every kind springs into wonderful activity ; the birds seem filled with new life ; multi- tudes of frogs come from no one knows where and revel in every pond and puddle to be seen in the level fields. During the next three or four months India is a beautiful country, clothed everywhere in the richest green and filled with every form of ac- tive and joyous life. The rain does not fall con- stantly, but one or more showers may be expected every day. The evenings and mornings are de- lightful, and in no land do the clouds present a grander spectacle than when banked up against the western sky at sunset, with great billowy edges upturned toward the setting sun and glowing in the rich light with which its evening rays bathe a trop- ical landscape. Not everyone, however, enjoys this season. The air if cooler is more sultry, and the houses become damp and to some people uncom- fortable. Cholera, fever, and other diseases are apt to be more prevalent than when the heat is greatest. As in northern climes the cold is little felt and inflicts but little injury on invalids when it is dry, so in India the excessive heat is not felt as an affliction so long as the air is perfectly dry. The Country 23 The climate of India is not so great a foe to Health life and health as is generally supposed. If it must be conceded that Bengal is the birthplace of Asiatic cholera, it can be said in reply that India has never produced a case of yellow fever. If the plague infests the cities and even spreads among the remote villages, it should be remembered that it found its way to India from China, and that it once devastated London more terribly than it has ever afflicted any city in India. Very much of the ill health of Europeans in The India can be traced to their defiance of the sim- plest laws of health, by persistently following a course of life in the tropics which would be barely within the limits of safety in the higher latitudes of Europe and America. The feverish haste which attends the lives of most persons in the Occidental world cannot be transferred to the quiet and calm environments of life in India or in the East generally, but the average American and Euro- pean can live his three score years and ten in India and enjoy health and cheerful spirits if he adapts himself to his environment. The writer of these lines, after a personal experience of forty- six years, is glad to put on record the testimony that when God called him to India he gave him "a goodly heritage," and many retired "old In- dians" in Great Britain and other parts of Europe often speak longingly of the Eastern home in which the years of their active life have been spent. 24 The Christian Conquest of India QUESTIONS OF STUDY These questions have a twofold purpose: First, to assist the average student, partly in reviewing the most important topics of the chapter and partly in thinking out further conclusions. Those marked * may serve as a basis for more extended thought and discussion. It is not to be expected that these should be answered without careful reflection. Second, to assist leaders of mission study classes in bringing out the points of the lesson. Leaders should rarely use the entire list in a single meeting, but should freely select, modify, and supplement. In addition to the use of these questions, they should not fail to obtain from the secretaries of their denominational mis- sionary boards helps containing full suggestions for the conduct of each session of the class. QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER I Aim: To Realize the Claim that India as a Land Presents fob Chbistian Conquest I... Size of the country. 1. How does India compare in size with the United States and with Great Britain? 2. How do its extreme distances compare with distances in the United States? 3. What American cities measure the distance of Mandalay from Quetta? Madras from Peshaw- ar? Calcutta from Lahore? Bombay from Rangoon? II. . .Population. 4. As the sun makes his daily rounds what are the three greatest masses of population he sees on the earth's surface? 5. How does India compare in size and population with that part of the United States lying west of the Mississippi River? (excluding Alaska.) The Country 25 6. How does the population of India compare with that of the entire United States? With that of Africa? With that of Canada? 7. What part of the world's total population is that of India? S. What eliect will it have on evangelization that such a large percentage of the people live in villages? III. . .Climate. 9. In what part of India should you prefer to live for the entire year? W^hy? 10. Y/hat months should you choose for a visit to India? 11. What part of America at what season would most remind you of the plains of the upper Ganges basin on June the first? on July the first? 12. AVhat parts of India should you most like to visit on account of the scenery, and why? lY. . .India's Value to England. 13. Why does England guard India so jealously against Russia? 14. Which of the principal products of India can- not be raised in Great Britain? 15. What sorts of British goods are especially needed in India? 16. Kow does India rank among the purchasers of British goods? (Consult the Statesman's Year- Eook or similar authority). 17. Vv^hy is trade between nations of different zones apt to be more profitable than that between nations of the same zone? IS. Try to estimate what it costs England to main- tain control of India? What are the motives for this expenditure? 36 The Christian Conquest of India Y... Value of England to India. 19.* What lias England done to increase the eco- nomic resources of India? 20. How does India compare in modern improve- ments with Persia or Siam? 21.* How do these improvements aid in mitigating the effects of famine? 22. Do you consider English occupation on the whole an economic blessing to India or not? YI. . .India's Claim on the Church. 23. What is the claim of India on the Christian Church in view of its size and resources? 24. What is its claim in view of its vast popula- tion? 25. Does the present condition of these multitudes increase or decrease the claim? 26.* Try to estimate the appeal that India makes to the eye of God as he looks down upon the world? 27. Does trade constitute the greatest opportunity that India presents to the Christian world? 28. With what relative zeal do we advance to eco- nomic and Christian conquest? 29. What of all things that we have to give India does she most need? 30.* What is our responsibility for offering her the best things? 31. Sum up the claims of India as a land for Chris- tian conquest? References for Advanced Study. — Chapter I I . . . Climate. Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 15-19. Chamberlain: The Cobra's Den, XV. Compton: Indian Life in Town and Country, 7, 184, 263. The Country 27 I. . .Cliw.ate — {Continued) . Griffin: India and Daily Life in Bengal, VI. Stewart: Life and Work in India, IV. II. . .Resources. Reach: India and Christian Opportunity, 12-15. Elphinstone: History of India, 5-10. Griffin: India and Daily Life in Bengal, V. Rowe: Every-day Life in India, XXIV, XXV. III.. .Famines. Curtis: Modern India, XX. Denning: Mosaics from India, XI. Hunter: Brief History of the Indian Peoples, 124, 231, 233, 242. Lilly: India and Its Problems, 286-288. Rowe: Every-day Life in India, XXXVII. Scott: In Famine Land, I, II, III, IV, VI. IV.. .Burma. Cochrane: Among the Burmans, VII. Hall: A People at School, I. Sangermano: The Burmese Empire, VII. Smith: Ten Years in Burma, IV. Thoburn: India and Malaysia, XXXIV. INVADERS AND RULERS CHAPTER II INVADERS AND RULERS. Nowhere are the words, "the gorgeous East/' a Land oi used with such complete fitness as when applied to India. It is the one land of the Orient that is invested with ever-changing interest and romantic charm at each stage of its development. The vision of Heine in his day-dream is almost literally true : "And I saw the blue, holy Ganges, the eternally radiant Himalayas, the gigantic banyan forests, with their wide leafy avenues, in which the clever elephants and the white robed pilgrims peacefully wander; strange dreamy flowers gazed at me with mysterious meaning; golden wondrous birds burst into glad wild song." India still, to use Milton's phrase, "with richest hand, Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold," while about these native courts, and the great cities and structures, lingers a strange poetic halo from the past. The peninsula has undergone so many changes in its long history, so many invaders have entered its territory, so many thrones have arisen and passed away, that the land everywhere is full 31 Historic Charm Two Stone Ages 32 The Christian Conquest of India of historic associations and the memories of de- parted greatness. The Earliest Invaders In the early dawn of Indian life, as disclosed by modern research, there were two stone ages, one having agate knives and rough flint weapons, such as are found in the Xarbada valley ; the succeeding one using polished flint axes and other deftly wrought implements of stone, like those found in northern Europe. Pre-Aryan jj^ appears that peoples representing the early metal age followed those of the stone ages and that they were invaders belonging chiefly to two stocks. There were, first, the Tibeto-Burman tribes entering India from the northeast and clinging to the skirts of the Himalayas ; and second, the Dra- vido-Munda, who seem to have made their way into the Punjab by the northwestern passes. The rude stone circles erected by these people have been discovered, also upright slabs and mounds beneath which they buried their dead. The remains in these tombs show that they knew how to make round pots of hard thin earthernware, that they fought with iron weapons, and wore ornaments of silver and gold.^ ^Hunter, A Brief History of the Indian Peoples^ 40, 49. Invaders and Rulers 33 The Coming of the Aryans The people holding central place in Indians his- The Aryan torical development is the Aryan. From their ^"^^^^°° ancestral home in Asia this great race sent streams of migration westward into Europe. Another stream going southeastward into India, began in the Punjab the conquest of the original inhabi- tants and became eventually the predominant ele- ment in the country^s population and history. The word "Aryan" means noble, and the term applied to the language of the Aryans is "Sanskrit'^ or "polished," both names suggestive of the high qualities of this richly endowed race. Fair com- plexioned, noble-featured, alert and forceful in mind, aggressive in spirit, having a wealth of reli- gious ideas and ceremonies, and devoted to the service of their "bright gods," the Aryan invaders gradually moved forward in their appropriation of all the more desirable regions of India. The aboriginal peoples, whom the Aryans found in pos- session of the fertile river valle3^s and plains, were overcome in war, enslaved, or made a servile class, or driven into the fastnesses of the hills, moun- tains, and deserts. As time v^ent on there was, in large sections of the land, a gradual intermarriage and blending of the Aryan and the non-Aryan populations. The Aryans probably invaded India about two Three Historic thousand years before the Christian era." From ^^""'^^ ^Frazer, British Rule in India, 51. 34 The Christian Conquest of India 1400 to 1000 B. C, they spread from the Punjab southeastward into the Ganges valley as far as Benares and Behar, establishing kingdoms as they went/ From 1000 to 330 B. C, they advanced from the valley of the Ganges and extended their sway widely, introducing Hindu civilization and founding Hindu kingdoms, even to the southern- most limits of India.' Alexander's Invasion Close oi Greek Period Greek and Scythian Incursions Alexander the Great invaded northwestern In- dia in 327 B. C. In his principal battle, near the Jehlam Eiver, he defeated Porus, a local monarch, who afterward became his friend. The Greeks were able to penetrate the country only as far as Amritsar, and recognizing that any defeat would be fatal, they turned back and descended the Jeh- lam and Indus to the sea. A part of the army returned homeward in boats, and Alexander led the rest of his forces back through great hardships to Susa. The important results of his expedition were the alliances he made, the cities he founded, and the Greek garrisons he planted. After Alexander's death, Bactria and the cities' of India, in which Greek dominion was intact, fell to Seleukos Nikator, the founder of the Syrian monarchy; and as Chandra Gupta had built up a considerable empire in northern India, Seleukos ^Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 34. -Dutt, Ancient Iridia, 60, 61. Invaders and Eulers 35 gave to him his daughter in marriage, and sold to him the Greek possessions in India. There were further incursions into the Indian peninsula from Greek Bactria, but these ceased about 200 B. C. About 100 B. C, inroads into India were made The Scythians by a people supposed to be the Scythians, from a region east of the old ancestral home of the Aryan race. These Scythic invasions went on for a period, extending to 500 A. D., but their greatest aggressions were made in the century preceding the birth of Christ. Their most notable king was Kanishka, who called the Fourth Buddhist Coun- cil about 40 A. D., and who held his court in Kashmir, Mohammedan Rulers Mohammed was born in 570 A. D., created a conquering religion, and died in 632 A. D. Within a hundred years after his death the armies of Islam had made the crescent supreme throughout Asia, west of the Hindu Kush Mountains. From the first this new power seems to have fixed eager eyes upon the rich domain of India, and some early assaults were made, but Islam had to consoli- date itself during three more centuries before it grew strong enough to grasp the prize. Even then India did not fall before the Mohammedans at once, for there were a series of invasions and par- tial conquests during nearly eight centuries, and Islam's Efforts for the Prize 36 The Christian Conquest of India at no time was Islam master of the whole of India. The period of the Mohammedan rule is calculated as extending from 1001 to 1761 A. D. The rulers of these seven and a half centuries were of eight houses or dynasties. The most famous of them belonged to the last dynasty, that of the house of Timur. The Moguls This powerful line of conquerors were Mongols, or Moguls, and in 1398 Timur, or Tamerlane, led through the Afghan passes the united hordes of Tartary, defeated the Tughlak King Mahmud under the walls of Delhi, committed great mas- sacres in that capital and Meerut, and retired to his own capital, Samarkand, with immense booty. Though he had proclaimed himself emperor at Delhi, the title lapsed till his grandson Baber revived it, regained possession of Delhi and other cities of India, and was the first to bear the famous title, the Great Mogul. The grandson of Baber, Akbar the Great, whose reign extended from 1556 to 1605 A. D., is regarded as the greatest sovereign India ever had, as well as the most illustrious Asiatic monarch of modem times.^ He subdued all India north of the Vindhya Mountains and organized it into an empire. He conciliated the Hindu tributary princes by placing them side by side with the Mogul nobles, thus checking at the same time the power of the latter. He carried out a great system of land set- 'Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 63. Akbar the Great Taj Mahal, Agra Great Mosque, Delhi Invaders and Rulers 37 tlement as a basis of taxation, the outlines of which have continued down to the present. It is interest- ing to note that Akbar's tax was about three times the amount that the British collect/ He respected the laws of the Hindus, but put down their inhu- mane rites, such as trial by ordeal, animal sacri- fices, and early child marriages. "He legalized the remarriage of Hindu widows but he failed to abol- ish widow-burning on the husband's funeral pyre, although he took steps to ensure that the act was a voluntary one.""" In religious view he was broad and tolerant. Among the successors of Akbar, Shah Jehan and shah jehan Aurungzeb are also noted for the splendor and ^ "f^n^^ success of their reigns. If Akbar has to his archi- tectural credit the massive and imposing red sand- stone fortress at Agra, and his tomb near by. Shah Jehan has there the unrivaled Taj Mahal, his Pearl Mosque within the fort, and at Delhi the Great Mosque and the palace. Aurungzeb by attempting to impose his Moslem faith upon the body of the Hindus undermined the authority of his house, and the Marathas came forward as a new Hindu power in central and western India. The tempest of invasion by the Afghans, break- closing Date ing the power of the Marathas at the third battle Mohammedan of Panipat in 1761, and the rising fortunes of the English as the coming rulers, make this date the most appropriate as terminating the era of Moham- ^Hunter, Indian Empire, 240. ^Tbid, 237. Dominion The Portuguese 38 The Christian Conquest of India medan dominion/ During the centuries of its sway, portions of the population, especially in eastern Bengal, became Mohammedan in religion. Continental European Settlements In 1492 Christopher Columbus sailed westward from Europe, hoping to find a new way to India, but found America instead. Five years later Vasco da Gama started from Lisbon with an expe- dition, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and in May, 1498, anchored off the city of Calicut' on the southwest coast of India. From that date began the period of contact with, and settlements in India by a number of the continental European nations. As Portugal was the first of these to find the sea route to the East, her people enjoyed a monopoly of Oriental trade for a century, from 1500 to 1600. But their efforts to establish Portu- guese authority in India were too deeply marked by superstition and cruelty to produce lasting results. Albuquerque was the only worthy leader of expeditions or governor of settlements in India who treated the natives with kindness. The pos- sessions in India now remaining to the Portuguese are Goa, Daman, and Diu, all on the west coast, with an area of 1,558 square miles and a popula- tion in 1901 of 572,290.' ^Lilly, India and Its Protlems, 97. ^The place giving rise to the word "calico." It must not be confused with Calcutta. ^Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 66. Invaders and Rulers 39 Durinsr the seventeenth century the Dutch held various T . 1 X T 1 Companies a leading position m the trade with India and and the East, vrith the English as their rivals. The settlements English East India Company was formed in 1600, and the Dutch East India Company in 1602. Next came the French with a succession of com- panies of which the first was established in 1604. Danish settlements were founded at Tranquebar and Serampur in 1616, and acquired by the Eng- lish by purchase in 1845. The German or Ostend Company was incorporated in 1722, but the jeal- ousies and diplomatic adjustments of the European powers led to the extinction of its two settlements in 1793. Less important, and partly abortive attempts were made by Prussia in 1750 and 1753, and by Sweden in 1731, the latter being the last nation of Europe to engage in maritime trade with India, as the company was reorganized in 1806.^ Out of all these aspirants for foothold and power struggle of in India the final decisive struggle narrowed itself France and °° Great Britain down to two — France and Great Britain. Even with them the rise and fall of their strength in the East often simply reechoed the advantage which one power or the other gained over its antagonist in the European field, or in the expanding western world of America. For a time success seemed to attend the efforts of France both in America and India. As Montcalm, the leader of the French ^Hunter, A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, 173, 174; Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 66-68. 40 The Christian Conquest of India power in the western world, had a succession of victories at Fort Ontario, Fort William Henry, and Fort Ticonderoga, but at length fell, and his cause forever failed, on the Heights of Abraham, before the British forces led by Wolfe; so the French arms in India under Dupleix won success after success at Fort Saint George and at the fort- ress of Gingi, only to go down forever, as far as dominion in India was concerned, before the genius of Clive at the battle of Plassey/ British Control and Development Outiirxe of Xot infrequently a commander or leader learns o icy ^^^ secret of success from his foes. The most care- ful English writers now recognize that it was the French leader Dupleix who, in the years from 1740 to 1750, first discerned the leading principles and points of policy that made possible the control of India by a European power." Dupleix himself par- tially applied this policy, but it was left for Clive, the East India Company, and Great Britain to carry it out so thoroughly as in the end to make India a part of the British empire. Some of the points involved may be noted. 'The Battle of Plassey was fought about seventy miles north of Calcutta, June 23, 1757. By the treaties of 1814 and 1815 there remain as French dependencies in India five separate towns: Pondicherri, Karikal, Chandernagar, Mahe, and Yan- aon, with a total area of 196 square miles and a population in 1903 of 273,748. statesman's Year- Book, 1905, p. 637. =^Seeley, The Expansion of England, 201, 211, 212. Invaders and Rulers 41 ■ The English were a peaceful trading company, war an ! but they employed troops to defend their factories °PP°""°i*y ! against the French and the natives. England was ! at war with France during much of the time from \ 1740 to 1820, the period during which the British ] control of India was largely decided. English ac- quisition of power in the East began not in some : quarrel between the East India Company and a native state. It began in an alarming attempt made by the French to get control over the Deccan, ' which would lead to the destruction of the English settlements at Madras and Bombay. Thus the first military movements of the English in India were < made to defend themselves, and the positions they already held, against the French. In all their j later advance steps, till the close of the Napoleonic ' wars, the struggle for dominion in India was felt to be a part of the great contest of the English j nation with France. Again, there came to the English large extension je^rito ^ of territory and increase of revenues, in conse- and Revenues ; quence of their wars and dealings with native ' powers. They soon learned the advantage whenever ; an issue arose of favoring a rival to a position ' which was under the patronage of their foes. : When Dupleix, in 1748, placed his nominees on the i thrones of Haidarabad and Arcot, the English were i ready with a candidate to the throne of Arcot in the ; person of Muhammad Ali. When Colonel Clive defeated at Plassey the viceroy of Bengal, who had 42 The Christian Conquest of India sided with the French, he had at hand Mir Jafar to elevate to this viceregal post, as Nawab of Ben- gal, and obtained for him the official decree of appointment from the Mognl emperor at Delhi. "For this service, Mir Jafar granted to the East India Company the landholder's rights over an extensive tract of country around Calcutta, and paid a sum of not less than a million and a half dollars/ This policy thenceforward was increas- ingly employed. Government everywhere through- out the land was disorganized owing to the break- ing down of Mogul dominion. There were wars and clashing interests of native rulers and aspi- rants to power. The English came in as arbiters among these contending forces at a critical period, and in return for their services received immense extensions of territory and enlargements of revenue. Paramount Then, as the final and logical result, it was seen that England should become the paramount power, not only in the territory which had been acquired, but over all the native or feudatory states. Only in this way could permanent peace and order be secured and the progress of all India toward a higher civilization be made possible. Able Founders Amoug thosc who did most to win the control of Empire India for Great Britain are Robert Clive, the hero of the battle of Plassey; Warren Hastings, who ^Hunter, A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, 178-182. Invaders and Eulers 43 kept for England, in a great crisis, the empire which Clive had founded ; Lord Wellesley, who first clearly laid down the principle that the English must be the one paramount power, and that native princes could only retain their insignia of sover- eignty by relinquishing political authority; and Lord Dalhousie, "the greatest of Indian pro-con- suls," who made remarkable additions to the Brit- ish possessions in India, and at the same time abolished manifold wrongs and brought about most valuable internal improvements. During his administration from 1848 to 1856, in the words of Hunter : "He founded the Public Works Depart- ment, with a view to creating the network of roads [railroads] and canals which now cover India. He opened the Ganges canal, still the largest work of the kind in the country ; he turned the sod of the first Indian railway. He promoted steam commu- nication with England via the Eed Sea ; he intro- duced cheap postage and the electric telegraph."^ The most important event in Indian history The Mutiny during the latter half of the nineteenth century was the Mutiny of 1857, in which the sepoys in British military service revolted, kindling a vast flame of rebellion to British authority throughout the valley of the Ganges and in Central India. It is perhaps not possible to give the real causes its causes of this great uprising. Those usually suggested lie ^Hunter, A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, 214. 215. 44 The Christian Conquest of India upon the surface. It is averred that the policy of annexation had been carried to an extreme. The appearance of Western inventions like the steam engine and the telegraph is said to have created widespread alarm. The failure of the government to open avenues of official promotion to the natives is considered to have been a grievance. Even the use of lard to grease the cartridges served to native regiments, so making them ceremonially unclean alike to Hindu and Mohammedan, was probably a blundering accident that has been made to serve as a cause. The fundamental reason seems to have been that a crisis was reached in the transition from the old India to the new, much like that shown in the Boxer uprising in China in 1900. The Outcome The quelling of the rebellion added immortal honor to British names like those of Havelock and Campbell, in relieving Lucknow, and of Nichol- son in turning the scale at the siege of Delhi. Brilliant operations covered with glory alike British troops and native forces that remained loyally on the English side. The awful era of peril, suffering, and death has left as visible memo- rials the ruined residency at Lucknow and the Memorial Well at Cawnpur. But, as in China after Peking was re-occupied, the last sparks of the Mutiny were hardly quenched before mission- ary operations leaped forward by a new impulse. Transference rp|^g Mutiuv causcd the transference in 1858 of to the Crown *^ the government of India from the East India Com- Invaders and Eulers 45 pany to the CrowTi of Great Britain. Finally, as a second notable date, on January 1, 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India at a durbar^ of unparalleled magnificence, on the his- toric "ridge'^ overlooking the ancient Mogul capi- tal of Delhi; and the long course of events by which India has come to be a part of the British empire was complete. This event has been fittingly followed, at the opening of th^ opening of the twentieth century and the com- c^tul^^' mencement of the reign of King Edward VII, by the Indian commemoration of his coronation, Jan- uary 1, 1903, when he was proclaimed by the vice- roy, as Emperor on the same site at Delhi that witnessed Queen Victoria's reception of the impe- rial title. In the great ceremony, which was fol- lowed by a considerable reduction of taxation, over a hundred rulers of separate states testified their allegiance to their common sovereign. By its latest enumeration, the results of which British . 2 1 • • 1 • Empire and were announced in 1906, the British empire British india embraces 11,908,378 square miles, or slightly less than one fourth of the earth's land surface, and over 400,0t)0,000 people. Of this immense total, India represents over one seventh of the territory and three fourths of the population, or 300,000.000 people. The British possessions, comprising all the territory directly under British control, have, ^An ofRcial reception or levee given by a native ruler or officer of rank in British India. ^Census of the British Empire, 1906. 46 The Christian Conquest of India according to the census of 1901, an area of 1,768,- 061 square miles, and a population of 231,898,807, and are distributed into fourteen provinces. Each has its own governor or head, but all are controlled by the supreme governing authority of India, con- sisting of a Governor-General in council. The Governor-General, who is also called Viceroy, is appointed by the king of England, as are also the governors of the provinces of Madras and Bombay. The heads of the other provinces are chosen for their merit from those in the Anglo-Indian service. Among the leading provinces, after Madras and Bombay, are Bengal, United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Central Provinces, Berar, Punjab, Assam, and Burma. Feudatory The Native States and Agencies number thirteen divisions for administrative purposes, with an area of 679,393 square miles, and a popu- lation in 1901, of 62,461,549. The native princes govern their states with the help and under the advice of a British Eesident, whom the Viceroy stations at their courts. The British government, as suzerain in India, interferes when any prince misgoverns his people; rebukes, and if needful, dethrones the oppressor; protects the weak and imposes peace upon all. Of the Native States and Agencies, the more important are Haidarabad, Eajputana Agency, Central India Agency, Mysore States, Central Provinces States, Baroda State, and the Native States politically attached to India Invaders and Eulers 47 Madras, Bombay, Bengal, and the United Provinces/ The question might be asked how Great Britain is able to hold India. There is at the bottom the great ignorance and poverty of the masses. The Indian people also lack nnity and a sense of BOKH/iA^ p^^,^ £/fSrSMA/ TOM/<£ST^JV T / S £ T c e M. MOfiGjIM nationality, so that native soldiers can always be enlisted for service in India. Of the armies that won India for England fonr fifths consisted of native troops, and of the forces which garrison India, two thirds are natives." This statement, ^Hunter, A Briet History of the Indian Peoples, 32-S5. ^Seeley, The Expansion of England, 227. The Holding of India 48 The Christian Conquest of India Arbiter for Peace and Progress Conservative Outlook Toward a Higher Future almost in itself, answers the question as to how Great Britain holds India. An amazingly small outlay of either men or money has been required on England's part for the winning and holding of her Indian empire. But there are far deeper reasons to account for Great Britain's power to retain India as a part of her possessions. She has shown all the different races, rulers, native states, and creeds that they have more to expect from her than from each other if she did not maintain peace among them. Fur- thermore, there is the military prestige of Great Britain and the advantage of belonging to one of the foremost world powers, whose vast resources are held ready to defend India against the aggres- sions of any other nation. English rule in India has also shown itself capable of promptly repres- sing outbreaks and reforming abuses, while at the same time it has been wise, temperate, and conser- vative in abolishing native customs or interfering with long cherished institutions. This last feature of British policy has often been a special trial to the missionaries with their advanced ideas of progress, religious, moral, and social, but it has doubtless largely been a necessity in order that the British administration should not find itself too far ahead of the people. It is to be remembered that England entered India and has remained there primarily for commercial and gov- ernmental purposes, and at every step has had to '""•y.M^f^'-JM>i» nmii\ I JUlJl 1 1 tftiM iingi' Public Library, Allahabad Victoria Railway Station, Bombay Invaders and liulers 49 justify its course to public opinion both at home and in India/ Tliough it has not been able to respond to all the demands made upon it from every side, and at times has moved very slowly, the Indian government has swept away an imposing list of evils. Among these are widow-burning, the sacrifice of the lives of children and others in some of the religious processions and festivals, exposure of infants or casting them into the sacred rivers, the denial of educational opportunity to women and to men of the lower castes, extortion, cruel punishments, and numerous other abuses and wrongs formerly prevalent under native laws, cus- toms, and administration. It has also powerfully elevated the moral and social life of the people. Best of all, British rule in India is never content with what has been attained, but has its eyes ever on a higher future. The control, improvements, and development British ruis which British rule have brought to India are exceedingly favorable, on the whole, to the native people themselves and to the progress of missions. As respects taxes upon the natives, W. B. Stover says : "The taxation per head is lighter than in any other civilized country in the world. In Russia it is eight times as great, in England twenty times, in Italy nineteen, in France twenty-five, in the United States and Germany thirteen times. **' The •Lyall, Asiatic Studies, 259. ^Stover, India: A FroNem. 18, 19. weighing Evil 50 The Christian Conquest of India money derived from taxes goes directly into the treasury of the Indian government, and therefore in reality is used for India's benefit. Good Out- ^ British control is bringing more and more the prevalence of social peace and justice from one end of the land to the other. The natives are being given a surprisingly large participation in the fran- chise and in public office. Education is rapidly extending its privileges to the masses, the efforts of Christian missions adding no small part to the work of the government, so that one ninth of all the school enrolment of India is found in mission schools.^ It is true that the evils of the production of opium and extension of its use, the state monop- oly of the drink traffic, together with the sad example of indulgence in strong drink by British officials, and the deplorable immorality in some degree prevalent among British soldiers in India, are reproaches which yet remain to be removed. But notwithstanding these drawbacks, the verdict of the missionaries is that British control of India is a marvelous example of efficiency, wisdom, pro- gressiveness, and fairness to a subject race. Impressive This vcrdict is also confirmed by native testi- mony, as is seen in these eloquent words, in which Babu S. N. Banerji expresses the sentiment of the most thoughtful and influential natives of the country : "Our allegiance to the British rule is based upon *Jones, India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 29. Native Testimony Invaders and Eulers 51 the highest considerations of practical expediency. As a representative of the educated community of India — and I am entitled to speak on their behalf and in their name — I may say that we regard Brit- ish rule in India as a dispensation of divine Provi- dence, England is here for the highest and the noblest purposes of history. She is here to rejuve- nate an ancient people, to infuse into them the vigor, the virility, and the robustness of the West, and so pay off the long standing debt, accumulat- ing since the morning of the world, which the West owes to the East. We are anxious for the perma- nence of British rule in India, not only as a guar- antee for stability and order, but because vrith it are bound up the best prospects of our political advancement. To the English people has been entrusted in the councils of Providence the high function of teaching the nations of the earth the great lesson of constitutional liberty, of securing the ends of stable government, largely tempered by popular freedom. This glorious work has been nobly begun in India. It has been resolutely car- ried on by a succession of illustrious Anglo-Indian statesmen whose names are enshrined in our grate- ful recollections. Marvelous as have been the in- dustrial achievements of the Victorian era in India, they sink into insignificance when compared with the great moral trophies which distinguish that epoch. Roads have been constructed; rivers have been spanned; telegraph and railway lines 52 The Christian Conquest of India have been laid down; time and space have been annihilated; nature and the appliances of nature have been made to minister to the wants of man. But these are nothing when compared to the bold, decisive, statesmanlike measures which have been taken in hand for the intellectual, the moral, and the political regeneration of ni}^ countrymen. Under English influences the torpor of ages has been dissipated ; the pulsations of a new life have been communicated to the people; an inspiriting sense of public duty has been evolved ; the spirit of curiosity has been stirred, and a moral revolution, the most momentous in our annals, culminating in the transformation of national ideals and aspira- tions, has been brought about.^^^ A Divinely At the Same time it is evident that the British people are only beginning to realize the wonderful part which in God's providence they are fulfilling, and are destined to fulfill, in the evangelization of India. The fact that they are one of the foremost Protestant Christian nations; that in their mate- rial development of India, by railways, by canals and irrigating works, by improved industrial prod- ucts, and in their care for higher interests, such as education, freedom of worship, and equal justice to high and low, they have won the confidence and regard of India's millions; the further fact that the government distinctly welcomes and approves the missionary operations of America, not less than ^Quoted in Jones, India's Problem: Krishna or Christ. 51, 52. Purposed Goal Invaders and Rulers 53 Great Britain, makes it certain that the historical evolution of India has led to a divinely purposed conclusion. Great Britain's control of India is a vast step toward the Christian conquest of India. In view of their remarkable missionary service, Far western past and present, to the land of the Vedas, the eI^^^/^'^ ^^' Churches of the United States and Canada may be said to be the final invaders of India ; but theirs is a great peaceful enterprise, the obligation of which they joyfully accept in union with the Christian forces of Great Britain. These sister peoples are closely related by ties of history, of commerce, of religion, of language, of national and political interest, and of blood relationship. In a peculiar manner the burden of the evangelization of the world, and especially of the Indian peoples, as so largely members of the great Aryan family, rests upon these English-speaking Churches on both sides of the Atlantic. To these countries has been given in large measure the wealth of the world. The gold in California, Alaska, and the Klondyke, in Australia and South Africa, was kept from the eyes of aboriginal races and of Spaniard and Russian till these regions could come under the control of this one great Protestant race. Within the past three years the United States and Canada together have approximately equaled Great Britain in their amount — about forty per cent, each — ^toward the world's total annual contri- bution for foreign missions. Side by side these two 54 The Christian Conquest of India great sections of the English-speaking race are moving forward, through Christian and missionary agencies, to bring the millions of India to share in the same liberty, enlightenment, and civilization to which the religion of Christ has led the Aryans of the West. ar QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER II Aim: To Realize the Challenge to Christian Mis- sions Involved in British Control in India I Panorama of Indian Peoples. 1. What are the principal races that constitute the population of India? 2. How do these compare in diversity with the nations of Europe? 3.* What tendencies would operate toward the in- termingling cf these races? What tendencies toward separation? II... Steps in British Occupation. 4. What was the political condition of India in the middle of the eighteenth century? 5. What had become of the power of the Great Mogul? 6. What invasions and wars were disorganizing society? 7. To what extent was there any national feeling? 8. To what extent were the people accustomed to the rule of foreigners? 9. What was the original motive that took the Eu- ropean nations to India? 10. Was war to their interest or not? 11. What led to war between the English and French? Invaders and Eulers 55 12. By what means did eacli seek to strength itself against the other? 13. In what position did the English emerge in con- sequence of success in the war? 14.* Was their attitude up to this point justifiable? 15. What led to extension of territory and revenue when England had become the paramount power? IG. Was it right for her to assume control in order to maintain order? 17.* What would have been the state of affairs in the country if England had never chosen to interfere under any circumstances? 18.* To what extent was this control of the country foreseen and planned? 19*. To what extent was it unavoidable and justi- fiable? 111... The Value of British Rule. 20. If you were a peasant in northern India what would it be worth to you to know that inva- sions and wars were no longer a possibility? 21.* Who would govern the country if England retired? 22.* What would be the probable course of events? 23. What is the relative safety of life and property now and before English control? 24. Along what lines have social customs been im- proved? 25. In what ways has the development of railway communication been a blessing? 26. Sum up the elevating social and political in- fluences that have resulted from British con- trol. 27. Do they constitute it a moral necessity? 56 The Christian Conquest of India IV. . .The Need of Missionary Effort. 28. How do we compare on the average in enlighten- ment and advancement with the people of India? 29. Do we need religious institutions and education in addition to what is provided by the state? 30. How much more is the highest and purest teaching needed in India? y . . .The ResponsiMlity of America. 31. Is Great Britain doing all for the Christian conquest of India that needs to be done? 32. Is she behind other nations in her contributions to the evangelization of the world? 33. Is India appreciably better manned with mis- sionaries than the other great mission fields? 34. What in general has been the length, extent, and success of American missnonary operation in India? 35. What is the attitude of the government toward American missionaries? 36. What possible advantages might American mis- sionaries have over English workers? 37. Would it be possible at this time to confine the missionary operations of Christian nations each to a single foreign field? 38. What then is the special responsibility of America for India? References for Advanced Study. — Chapter II 1. . .Mohammeclan Rule. Curtis: Modern India, XIII. Hunter: Brief History of the Indian Peoples, X. Lilly: India and Its Problems, IX. Invaders and Rulers 57 II. ..British Rule. Curtis: Modern India, VII. Denning: Mosaics from India, II. Frazer: British Rule in India, XV, XVI. Fuller: The Yv'rongs of Indian Womanhood, XII, XIII. Mason: Lux Christi, 58-72. Seeley: The Expansion of England, III, IV, V. Stewart: Life and Work in India, III. Temple: A Bird's-Eye View of Picturesque India, IX, X. III. . .Mutiny. Butler: The Land of the Veda, VI, VII, VIII. Frazer: British Rule in India, XIV. Hunter: Brief History of the Indian Peoples, XV. Mason: Lux Christi, 66-69. IV. . .British Statesmen. Frazer: British Rule in India, V. (Clive.) Frazer: British Rule in India, XL (Lord William Bentinck.) Smith: Twelve Indian Statesmen, III. (John, Lord Lawrence of the Punjab.) Smith: Twelve Indian Statesmen, II. (Sir Henry Lawrence). Smith: Tv/elve Indian Statesmen, VIII. (Sir Her- bert B. Edwardes.) THE PEOPLE CHAPTEK III THE PEOPLE The people of India have not descended from a common ancestry, but are a heterogeneous mass of tribes, races, and tongues. Their diverse origin and the size of the country make it possible to write of them only in a general way. Customs that prevail in one section will probably be un- known in another. As well expect the same cus- toms to obtain in Manitoba and Florida, as to look for the same mode of life in Kashmir and Travan- core. Another cause for irregularity is the differ- ing nature of the three chief religions — Hindu- ism, Mohammedanism, and Buddhism. Apparent contradictions in the reports of missionaries and travelers may be accounted for by this fact. The larger part of the population is of Aryan origin. They are about 221,000,000 in number, and occupy the territory not included by N'epal, Burma, and Assam and north of 19 ** north lati- tude. The Aryan race includes the Hindu, the Persian, the Greek, the Teuton, the Celt, the Slav, and, in fact, most of the peoples of Europe and !N"orth America. No student who investigates the subject can long doubt that the ancient Aryan ancestors of the Europeans belonged to the 61 Heteroge- neous People Races 63 The Christian Conquest of India same race and once lived in the same ancestral home as the progenitors of the Aryan people in India. The territory south of the Aryans is largely held by the Dravido-Munda — or non- Aryans — who approximate 60,000,000. Of these, 56,000,000 are Dravidian. They probably came from the north- west and were pushed southward by the invading Aryans. The Indo-Chinese are confined to Nepal, Assam, and Burma. They number nearly twelve million and are composed almost wholly of the Tibeto-Burmans who entered India from the northeast. While this general language-grouping is not a safe criterion of racial difference, it is sufficiently accurate for our purpose. Language* Accordiug to the census of 1901, the languages spoken by the people of India number one hun- dred and eighty-five,* sixteen of which are spoken by more than 3,000,000 each.' The Hindi,' Ben- gali, Marathi, Panjabi, Eajasthani, Gujarati and Oriya indicate a common origin at a date not very *Many of the languages are only well developed dialects; 18 are other Asiatic languages spoken by 153,902; 23 are European languages spoken by 269,997. »In the chart on p. 63, Western Hindi, Bihari, and Eastern Hindi of the census are given as a total under Hindi. 'Hindustani, spoken by about one hundred mil- lions, is the most modern of the tongues spoken. It is simply the Hindi with a large admixture of Per- sian and Arabic words and idioms. In the census, those who use Hindustani are chiefly given under the two divisions of the Hindi and the Bihari, and Hin- dustani is not reported. The People 63 far removed from the historic period. These lan- guages are used by about two thirds of the peo- ple in the empire, and are closely related to the LANGUAGES OF INDIA SPOKEN BY 3.000.000 OR MORE! POPULATION R3jast/?ani. 1 0,9/ 7.7 /Z Kanarese , 10,365,047 Gujarat/ , S, 928, 50/ Or/ya, 9,687,^29 Burmese , 7,^7^,396 A^o/aya/am, 6, 02S, Z 04 lahnc/a, <5,>557.S/7 S/nc//i/, Z,006,Z95 /69 Ot/7ers spoAen bv/7.9 73,2Z 5 1 Popu/at/on Sanskrit, which is not now spoken. Four languages are spoken by as many distinct races, inhabiting the peninsular section of the empire. •cteristics 61 The Christian Conquest of India On the west the Kanarese are found ; on the east the Telugus; south and east of these two, the Tamil; and in the extreme southwest the Malay- alam people have their home. These people are all considered a branch of the Dravidian race. Many other languages might be named, but most of them are local tongues and consequently of minor importance. English being the language of the government and of higher education, is rapidly coming into use, and many of the edu- cated, including many Indian ladies, are begin- ning to use it in their ordinary conversation. Physical Char. The appearance of the people varies with cli- mate, environment, and occupation as well as ra- cial peculiarities. The Aryan type in general is brown, from dark to coffee-colored, of medium height, black hair, oval face, and pronounced lips. As a rule they are stronger and more courageous in the north than in the south. The Dravidians have a darker complexion, longer heads, irregular features, and are short and squat in stature. The Burmans are Mongolian in type. Between the sturdy Aryans of the north and the primitive people of the south there is a great gulf, and there are many diversities in character and tempera- ment. Among the wild tribes the most interest- ing are the Andaman Islanders, who bear a strik- ing resemblance to the pygmies of Central Africa. The Indians, while existing on scanty sustenance, have remarkable powers of endurance, but in phy- The People 65 sical strength and nervous energy one American is equal to about six of them. The people of India differ widely in their intel- intellectual lectual gifts, but taken as a whole, they compare ^^^** very favorably with any other non-Christian people in the world. The Bengali and Tamil young men are sometimes taunted for their lack of physical courage, but they can reply that they are able to take and hold the leading place in intellectual contests. The Tamil people boast that their literature is the most extensive as well as the best in India, while the Bengalis point to their daily and monthly periodicals and to the fourteen thousand students in attendance at the colleges of Calcutta. Some of the Bengali orators acquire a really marvelous mastery of English style. They also excel in mathematical studies. Man for man, and boy for boy, any hundred students taken from the schools of Calcutta will pass an examination test successfully if pitted against an equal number of students taken from the best schools of North America. Nevertheless, igno- rance and low mentality are inevitable in the lower castes and among the hill tribes who have never had an opportunity for study. One element seems to be strangely wanting in Lack ot the mental equipment of the Indian people ; they ^""^^ ivei.css invent nothing. Their few farming implements and workmen's tools are as old as their traditions. They neither improve the old nor invent the new. nes* 6Q The Christian Conquest of India The whole non-Christian world has for centuries seemed to be retrogressive in its industries rather than progressive, and it is a most suggestive fact that no mental awakening has been seen except in lands which have been brought into vital touch with Christianity. Tolerance and In most parts of India a broad line of division ptogressive- -^ drawQ bctwccn Hindus and Mohammedans. The former constitute about two thirds and the latter about one fifth of the population.. The Hindu is the more tolerant of the two, so long as his caste privileges are not interfered with, and in spite of his conservative instincts is more in sym- pathy with the spirit of modern progress than his Mohammedan neighbor. The first generation of young men educated up to the European standard was composed almost exclusively of Hindus, but in the more recent years the Mohammedans have entered into the general competition for govern- ment employment with energy, and many leading members of their community manifest a very com- mendable public spirit. Education The pcoplc of India, when viewed in the mass, are an illiterate people. According to the last census, out of a total population of 294,361,056, there were 149,442,106 males. Of these, 134,752,- 026 were analphabet, and only 14,690,080 could read and write. Of the 143,972,800 females, only 996,341 could read or write or were being in- structed. In short, less than ten per cent, of the The People 67 males and about one in 144 of the females are in any sense literate. The cause of popular, as well as higher education has made remarkable progress during the last half century. The statistics com- piled to March 31, 1904, show an enrolment of 4,367,685 males and 515,296 females in the public and private schools, and in the colleges of the country. It is estimated that in British India, 22.6 per cent, of the boys of school-going age attend school, and 2.6 per cent, of the girls. The Universities of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Alla- habad, and the Punjab are at the head of the national educational system in India. These in- stitutions offer no instruction, but are simply examining boards, having numerous affiliated col- leges in which a prescribed course of higher edu- cation is given those in attendance. Art, medi- cal, law, normal, engineering, and agricultural schools are increasing rapidly, and female educa- tion is receiving special attention. The govern- ment of India has made most praiseworthy efforts to found a practical system of education, not only for the masses but also for those who prove them- selves capable of a college training. The result is that an able class of writers and speakers, who reflect credit upon themselves, and no less upon the government system of education, is coming to the front and assuming positions of influence in both the political and social world. An intense desire to acquire a knowledge of English is nrrani^ 68 The Christian Conquest of India Vernacular Newspapers Cities, Towns, and Villages f ested among the young men and boys in all parts of the empire, and it is evident that the next cen- tury will dawn upon millions in India who will speak and write the English language as correctly as the average Englishman does at the present day. While English will increase in influence, the work of missions must be accomplished through the vernaculars. Newspapers and periodicals in the native tongues are increasing. During 1903, 797 newspapers were published. The daily paper with the largest circulation was the Bombay Samachar, with 4,000 copies per issue. The Hitavadi of Calcutta had a weekly circulation of 16,000 copies. There are also three other weekly papers with a circulation of more than 13,000 each.^ City life affects a minority of India's inhabi- tants, and European influence is becoming more pronounced in the large centers through adminis- tration and commerce. Ninety per cent, of the population is in towns and villages, which, al- though differing in size, do not vary much in general appearance. A town is an overgrown vil- lage and has a magistrate and petty court to man- age its judicial affairs. The whole country outside the cities and towns is mapped out by government survey into district areas, called villages, and in each village area there may be included hamlets. ^Statesman's Year-Book, 1905, 144. Burmese Coast Village Santal Village Courtyard Grain Drying and Plows Behind Man Standing The People G9 A village has its headman who, aided by a clerk i and council of five, decides cases of a moral j nature. Other personages of importance in a vil- j lage organization are the village priest, the astrol- [ oger, schoolmaster, watchman, barber, smith, shoe- j maker, carpenter, and potter. Village lands are ' around the hamlets and are cultivated by those who own them, but in some parts whole villages : are owned by absentee landlords. It is into these ; streets and lanes that the majority of the mission- : aries carry their message of love. The homes of wealthy natives are capacious, and Homes frequently furnish accommodations for two hun- dred persons. Those of the middle and lower classes are gloomy and unattractive. Usually they are set in a courtyard the rear of which is to the street, and consist of mud walls, with small windows set high, earthern floors, and no chimneys. In northern India most of the houses have flat roofs, but in the south, and in Burma, thatched roofs are more common. The rooms of the women usually open on a veranda. Within the houses there is very little if any furniture, but in many homes cows, calves, buffaloes, and bullocks are received on inti- mate terms. Sometimes there are crude bedsteads v/'ith only a blanket for covering. As a rule there are some brass plates and cups, earthern cooking vessels and water Jars, perhaps one knife, but no forks. The cooking utensils are kept scrupulously clean by the Hindus, lest the food should be 70 The Christian Conquest of India defiled, and the laws of caste broken. Among the Mohammedans cleanliness is not so prevalent. Domestic Life The domestic life of the people of India is that of the Oriental world, and to say this is to remark that it has some features that are utterl^^ foreign to the ideal of a Christian home. When a visitor to India some years ago was addressing an audi- ence through an Indian interpreter, he used the word "home." The interpreter abruptly paused. The speaker repeated the sentence, when the embarrassed interpreter said, "Sir, in the sense in which you use the word ^home,' there is no equiva- lent for the word in any Indian language." The Christian home is the product of vital Christian- ity. To the majority of the human race, the home is simply a place in which to live. Nine tenths of the people subsist on rice and curry, or cakes of wheat, or some variety of millet baked on the coals of a small fire outside the house. Most persons try to provide two meals a day, but many millions often fail to do so. Scanty garments, made from the cheapest cotton fabrics, are provided for the boys perhaps once a year, while the girls fare a little better. The clothing of the average child in the empire does not cost more than ten or fifteen cents a year, and as a rule children, until they are three or four years of age, wear no clothing. India may be said to be a rich country, inhabited by a very poor people. For many years it bore the Food and Clothing are Poor I 1 I The People 71 reputation of fabulous wealth, and every Euro- pean who went there to engage in business was expected to return laden with riches in some form, j^-^^y, country, but that illusion has long since passed away. In- but People dia is no longer a land of promise to the adven- turer from abroad, nor does it bestow its wealth upon its children except as a reward for honest, well-directed, and vigorous labor. A goodly num- ber of the higher classes have inherited what in Europe would be considered a moderate compe- tence, a few have acquired valuable property, and a very few are immensely wealthy, but the mass of the people are very poor indeed. Common laborers are easily secured for five or six cents a day, and millions would be glad to accept perma- nent employment at from twenty-five to fifty dollars a year. It is estimated that over sixty millions of the people constantly suffer hunger, and hence fall easy victims before drought and famine. However, most of this poverty is self-inflicted, some causes The insane passion for jewels and the litigious spirit of the people are an awful drain upon their meager resources. The four million beggars also constantly prey upon the proverbial charity of the Hindu. Frequently a man spends on the marriage of a son or daughter, especially the latter, more than a year's income and is plunged into the clutches of the money lender who extracts monthly his two or three per cent. of Poverty 72 The Christian Conquest of India Womanhood Hindu Married Life Mohammedan Married Life The actual status of any people can be discov- ered readily by ascertaining the position of womanhood in the country under review. When this test is applied to India, the result is not favor- able to the moral and social standard maintained by the people in the long ages of the past, nor even in the light and privileges of the present day. The Hindu, Mohammedan, and Buddhist have failed to appreciate the dignity and worth of womanhood, and have suffered both morally and socially for their failure. The Hindu brings his wife to his father's home where she is under the indisputable sway of the mother-in-law. It is a strange fact that where womanhood is do^i^Titrodden and despised, the mother's authority is supreme over the son's wife. In the average Hindu home, there are three gener^ ations — parents, sons and their wives, and the grandchildren. A Hindu wife is not permitted to eat with her husband. If they have children, the boys eat with the father, and after they have done, the mother and daughters. The wife never walks beside her husband, but always trudges along behind. These customs prevail among all classes of Hindus. The Mohammedan wife is treated not a whit better, and is at the caprice of her dictatorial hus- band. A Mohammedan usually takes his bride to his own home, but may and usually does have manv wives. The wealthy have large harems in Brahman Sub-judge and Family- Karen Family, Burma The People 73 Buddhist Married Life which are the favorite and legitimate wives. In all polygamous homes, jealousy and intrigue result in terrible crime, and mothers sometimes destroy the children of their rivals in the household. According to Buddhism the male is considered far superior to the female, and her highest hope and prayer is that in some future existence she may be born as a man. Unlike the customs among the Hindus and ^Mohammedans, the young hus- band goes to live with the wife's parents. The wife is the burden-bearer and usually follows her empty-handed husband with a load on her head. While among the Hindus and Mohammedans the women are kept in the background, the Burmese women carry on the trade and walk the streets with greatest freedom, puffing their huge cigars. The home life of the aborigines is exceedinglv ^^"'«^ ^»*^= , -P, , • •> \ of Aborigines simple. Polygamy is quite common among most of them, but in some cases only one wife is per- mitted. In monogamous households the husband, wife, and children occupy the rudely constructed hut. In some cases the older boys live in public houses provided for their use, and the- older girls are often sheltered in the houses of widows. From necessity the whole family is obliged to toil hard for a living. Women are held in greater esteem than among some of the more civilized races of India. Old people and children are cared for, and, in some cases, aged men are almost acknowledged as patriarchs. 74 The Christian Conquest of India Zenana Polygamy Polygamy prevails to a great extent among all classes except the poorest, and rests as a social blight upon the people. It is more common among the Mohammedans than among the Hindus and others. In the case of the Hindu, if a son has been born into the family, the father does not usually seek a second wife, but the wife who has no son often becomes an object of pity to those who know her. The complications which some- times arise in a polygamous household are fre- qilently distressing and always disgusting. The practice of seclusion affects only a very small per cent, even of the high-caste Hindu women. The custom probably grew out of the fear of Hindus that Mohammedans would steal their wives and daughters. Those who are behind the purdah often consider their lot an indication of aristocratic superiority, although they are wretchedly ignorant and may never have enjoyed a ride or walked outside of their gloomy quarters. Where Mohammedan influence does not prevail, women are permitted a large degree of freedom. The worst misfortune that can befall a Hindu woman is to be unmarried. This idea is the result of the belief that a woman can have no social status or religious destiny apart from man. Hence, parents who cannot find a suitable match for their daughters join them in wedlock to a professional bridegroom who is prepared to marry any number for a reasonable income. Marriage a Necessity The People 75 Marriage is in many respects a mercenary tran- saction and may take place when the bride is but a helpless babe, but the marriage is legal, and if the husband dies the baby wife is a widow and can never re-marry. A widower may marry a hundred wives if he sees fit to do so. Many of the mar- riages are negotiated for business or social reasons, and if one or more children are sacrificed, what does it matter? One of the terrible blights upon the home is the practice among the Hindus of child marriage. The census of 1901 reports nearly nine million child wives under fifteen years of age. This horrible custom often initiates the child into motherhood at ten years of age, which is physi- cally, mentally, and morally disastrous both to the child-mother and offspring. Much effort has been put forth, especially by missionaries, to make early marriage impossible, but the only progress made thus far is the passage of the "Age of Consent Bill" in 1891, whereby the age of cohabitation was raised from ten to twelve. The widows of India numbered in 1901, 25,- 891,936, of whom 391,147 were under fifteen years of age. Some families are anxious to contract an alliance with a branch of caste higher than their own, and to do so they sacrifice a little child by marrying her to an old man, who receives a payment in money for conceding the privilege. Very strange relationships are created in this way. A Bengali gentleman, in explaining the system, Child Mar- riage and ■Widowhood Widowhood 76 The Christian Conquest of India once remarked that he had sixty grandmothers. Many of these grandmothers were probably little girls. The wrong that is done to these children pursues them through life. They are not only regarded, but treated, as sufferers for some wrong act committed by them, very possibly in a previous existence or incarnation. They have their heads shaved, are forced to sit apart from the family, are obliged to fast weekly, are deprived of many kinds of food, and are taught to regard themselves as victims of evil fortune. Intelligent Hindus are beginning to understand how base and baneful this custom is, and some prominent men oppose and denounce it with great vigor. One wealthy gentleman offered liberal rewards to any young man who would select a bride from the so-called widows, and in recent years several young men of courage have married widows in utter defiance of public opinion, and at the risk of public hostility and social ostracism. Widow's The widow's funeral pyre of tradition and his- tory tells the whole story of the utterly selfish and cruel ideal which Hinduism has long cherished concerning women. The faithful wife or wives must prove their devotion by suffering a horribly cruel death on the late husband's funeral pyre. In many parts of India the landscape is dotted with little temples or shrines each marking the spot where some wretched woman, or perhaps several of them, were burned with the body of a possibly Funeral Pyre The People 77 worthless man. This was done as a tribute to an evidence of true wifely devotion. It will be said that this was owing to the dense ignorance of ages long passed, but it is only the strictest vigi- lance on the part of the authorities that prevents a continuance of this custom in various parts of India at the present time. The social and religious customs of the Hindu Temple c-iris demand a large number of dancing girls, or priest- esses, who in infancy are dedicated to the service and maintenance of tlie temples, and are called "the servants of the gods.^' They are the endowed ministers of the temples, and commerce with them is regarded as meritorious and an act of devotion to the idol whose brides they are. The institution of the nautch is based upon the example of the god Krishna. The nautch girls are taught in early childhood to read, dance, and sing, and in- structed in every act of seduction. The muralis are devoted to the god Khandoba, a deity of the Maratha country. They are licensed by law and dedicated to lives of impurity in the name of reli- gion. These girls are invited to the homes of native gentlemen on nearly all social occasions. They are highly respected, and without the jing- ling of their foot-bells a dwelling place is not purified. The separation of the people into different Many caste castes' has long been known to be a distinctive Divisions ^The word caste came from the Portuguese word casta, meaning race. 78 The Christian Conquest of India peculiarity of Hinduism. This custom is not only a characteristic of the social life of the people, but also has much to do with their religious tenets and usages. In the outside world it is generally supposed that the entire community is divided into only four classes or castes, but while this may have been the case in former days, it is by no means a correct idea of Hindu caste to-day. So far from the classes or castes being limited to four, they are divided and sub-divided until the student of the Hindu social system becomes lost in the maze of interminable lines of separation, all of which have the sanction of religion, and the infraction of any of which brings sure and immediate ruin to the transgressor. The whole system is complicated in the extreme, and it requires close study and care- ful observation on the part of strangers to be able to understand it. Origin of At the outsct it is probable that no special sanc- tity was attributed to the system. Four classes of the community were recognized by the Code of Manu\ and in the simple civilization of those remote days such a division no doubt seemed as harmless as it was natural. The religious leaders or Brahmans assumed first place and this probably gave a certain sanctity to the whole plan in an age of superstition and ignorance. The warriors, called Rajputs or Kshattriyas naturally took the second place, the agricultural class, or Vaisyas, the 'One of the sacred books of the Hindus containing the laws of caste. Four Classes The People 79 third. The conquered non-Aryan tribes who be- came the serfs were called the Sudras. The divi- sion was not made nor recognized in a day, but slowly gained ground, until it at last received the solemn sanction of religion and became entrenched in the double stronghold of religion and social organization. Once firmly established, the spirit of caste rapidly took possession of the public mind, and began to exercise a baneful influence upon all classes of people. Instead of resisting the assump- tion of superiority on the part of the high castes^ men in the lower ranks began to assume superior rights over their own inferiors, and in time the whole system became an elaborate plan to enable each rank of society to depress and even oppress those who chanced to be a little lower in the social scale. To use the illustration once given by an American military gentleman in Calcutta, it has become, ^'a social ladder on which every man kisses the feet of the man above him, and kicks the face of the man below him." A broad line of demarcation exists in India AFifthciasa between that part of the population, on the one hand, which is included within the pale of the four castes for which India has been so long cele- brated, and the very large section of inhabitants known by various terms such as outcastes, pariahs, sweepers, and other similar terms, on the other. In Bengal the term nama-Sudra,* which literally ^In Southern India the name is Panchama. so The Christian Conquest of India means sub-sudra is applied to all who occupy a lower social position than the four traditional classes which have long been incorrectly supposed to include all the inhabitants of India. The Su- dras are the lowest of the four classes and were once supposed to be outcastes, but as compared v/ith the millions below them in the social scale, these people are regarded now as relatively respect- able. Some twenty years ago a government census officer in Bombay applied the term "depressed classes" to all the tribes and classes v/ho are found below the line of social respectabilit}^ and this term has now come into general use. It includes nearly all who follow mechanical trades of what- ever kind, altliough these again are graded with great care. The shoemaker is much lower in the social scale than the blacksmith, while the black- smith is beneath the carpenter. The lowest of all is the sweeper, who both in city and country vil- lage is regarded as an utter outcast. Some of the principal present day rules of caste are as follows: ^°™® (1) Intermarriage impossible; (2) change of occupation forbidden; (3) only persons of the same caste may eat together; (4) meals must not be cooked except by a person of the same caste or by a Brahman; (5) no man of any inferior caste may touch the rations or enter the cook room; (6) no water or liquor contaminated by the touch of a man of inferior caste can be used — rivers. The People 81 tanks, and large bodies of water excepted ; (7) arti- cles of dry food are only contaminated if they pass throngh the hands of a man of inferior caste, but- tered or greased; (8) cow^s flesh, pork, fowl, and similar meats are prohibited; (9) an ocean voyage is forbidden, and the boundaries of India must not be crossed. The name of the avocation does not by any means correctly describe the work or occupation of all the members of the caste. For instance, the shoemakers are reported in the last census as num- bering 1,957,291, whereas the people belonging to the shoemaker caste number more than ten mil- lion. Large numbers of the so-called leather workers are farmers, and the whole community represents a population almost equal to that of the Brahmans. In former years it was considered an outrage upon the rights of the higher castes for any mem- bers of the outcasts' community to learn to read, or to aspire to any position regarded as the pecu- liar privilege of the higher castes. Even at the present day it sometimes happens that the people who consider education as a special prerogative of their own, will pull down or burn the humble little buildings in which the low caste children are taught. In many parts of the country, before the English era, the low- caste people were obliged to leave the road when they saw a higher caste man approaching. Strangest and most outrageous of Avocation does not Describe Occupation Hostility toward Lower Caste People 82 The Christian Conquest of India all, low- caste women in some parts of India were not allowed to dress themselves with the modesty which natural instinct would suggest, lest they might seem to trench upon the privileges of the high- caste people. Inconvenience rpj^^ followinsT is an lUustration of the inconven- of Caste . . , lUuEtrated ICUCC ot Castc : "One day I found a man and his wife lying in a shed and both unconscious. The husband died shortly after, and as the wife showed considerable strength I had her removed to our plague hospi- tal, in order that she might receive suitable nurs- ing and proper care. On her arrival at the hospital I ordered milk to be given her, but on visiting her in her ward I found the milk in a cup by her side untouched. She made signs to me on my inquiry that the people who brought the milk were not of her caste, and therefore she could not take the cup out of their hands, nor had she strength to lift the cup from the ground to her lips. I raised her head myself and put pil- lows behind it and held the cup in my own hands, but she closed her eyes and gave me such a look that I saw I had to do something else. After some search I found in the hospital a woman of her caste taking care of a member of her family who was also down with the plague. I sent this woman to give her the milk, but the moment she looked in at the open door of the ward she ex- claimed, *I can't touch her; she is in mourning The People 83 for the dead/ and she went away. I then found 1 this woman's little girl, and by offering to bring \ her a doll when I returned the next morning I i induced her to hold the cup to the woman's lips ] so that she might drink. But I had to stand | outside the door while she was drinking, as I ! was an outcast myself. When I returned the j next morning with the doll in my pocket to ful- j fill my promise, the little girl was dead and j buried."' \ Some of the advantages of the system are: an Merits and j economic division of labor, the promotion of clean- ^^'^^ o^the | ' ^ Caste System liness, restraint of morals in certain directions, i and the keeping alive of a learned class that might otherwise have passed out of existence. On the other hand, caste is a tyrannical force of the worst ' sort, every man must surrender his own individu- ality and submit to be bound to an ignorant com- munity. It is a source of physical degeneracy because it compels marriage between narrow lines of consanguinity. It forbids sympathy beyond one's particular caste. It restricts a man from engaging in any trade which is not presented by his caste custom. It chokes or strangles ambition, ' aspiration, and progress. It prohibits natural ; unity and fosters jealousy and antagonism. i What is the secret of the distressing social con- Secret of ; ditions of the people ? It is not found in the bad ^°"'*^ ^''^^'' J quality of the soil, nor in the oppression of the : ^Tfie Missionary Herald, May, 1906, 219. ! 84 The Christian Conquest of India laborers, nor in the extortion of the tax gatherers, nor in the idle habits of the people. The source of the awful plight of the millions of this great empire is the same as that which accounts for the terrible circumstances of the great mass of the people in all non-Christian lands. It is sin. When we speak of "life in Christ'^ we use a phrase with a broader meaning than we at first perceive. Life in the spiritual realm gives renewed vitality to the affections, stimulates the mental powers, creates ambition to improve in a general way, and, in short, endows a community with that peculiar stimulus which we call the spirit of improvement. Christian converts in India do not fail to develop a new ambition and desire to improve their con- dition. Their children are taught, old trammels are broken, and very many of them advance as far in a generation as their non-Christian neighbors have done in a centur}^ or perhaps in ten centuries. QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER III Aim: To Realize the Imperative Need of Indian Society for Christianity I... The Limitations of Indian Society. 1.* What are the influences making for popular separation or union m India as compared with the United States and Canada? Compare in detail, and give reasons for your views. 2.* What is the relative likelihood in the two coun- tries of a new idea becoming common prop- erty? The People S5 3. Until recent times to what extent did the in- vaders have any regard for the welfare of so- ciety in general? 4. Why has her contact with the rest of the world brought so little of social progress to India? 5.* What to your mind are the three greatest evils of caste? Explain your views. 6.* Try to picture what life would become in this country if caste restrictions were suddenly im- posed? 1* Which of the social surroundings of Indian childhood should you most dread for a child of your own? 8.* Give several reasons why you should object to having your sister brought up from child- hood under Hindu auspices? 9.* State in order of importance the practical meas- ures you should take to alleviate the conditions of Hindu women. 11... What Indian Civic Life Needs. 10. Do you consider India ready for popular self- government? 11.* What is there in Indian society to develop in- dividual opinion? 12. How much education and personal development do you think a man ought to have before being allowed to vote? 13. In what percentage of Indian society has this standard been attained? 14. How broad should a man's sympathy be before he is allowed to vote? W^hy? 15. To what extent does Indian society meet this requirement? 16.* By what processes should you endeavor to fit a body of Indian villagers for useful citizenship? SG The Christian Conquest of India 17. How should you try to secure helpful coopera- tion and sympathy between castes? 18. How should you endeavor to cultivate public spirit? 19.* What traits of character should public educa- tion in India most seek to develop? Ill .. .Inadequacy of Purely Secular Methods. 20. Is the Hindu truly conscientious in observing CvHste restrictions? 21.* In what spirit do you think you should ap- proach such conscientiousness? 22. What has been the relation of religion to the prejudices and customs of the Hindu? 23. Do you think that such customs could be suc- cessfully changed entirely by secular methods? 21.* What would be the effect on character if they could? lY .. .Christianity the Only Solution. 25.* What needs indispensable to Indian society would Christianity supply? 26.* How will it effect personal initiative and the sense of responsibility? Indicate results likely to follow. 27.* What effect will it have on public opinion? On national feeling? 28. Do you see any hope for Indian society or any other society apart from the love of God as manifested in Jesus Christ? Referknces fob Advanced Study. — Chapteb III X . . . Social Life. Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 87-106. Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 23-26. The People 87 i Lilly: India and Its Problems, XVI. | Stewart: Life and Work in India, VI. I Stock: Notes on India for Missionary Students, II. J i 11.. .Aboriginal Trihes. Cloiigh: Tales of a Pariah Tribe, 1-31. ^ Hunter: Brief History of the Indian Peoples, HI. ; Hurst: Indika, XI. j Mitchell: In Southern India, XXV. i III. . .l>\'idO'Wliood. Denning: Mosaics from India, V. ; Dubois and Beauchamp: Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies, Pt. II, Chaps. XVIII, XIX. \ Fuller: The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood, IV. j Guinness: Across India at the Dawn of the I Twentieth Century, XV. i Storrow: Our Sisters in India, IX. i lY. . .Child Marriage and Child Life. ! Fuller: The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood, III, X. i Holcomb: Bits About India, XIII. ; Rowe: Every-day Life in India, XI. ( Storrow: Our Sisters in India, V, VI. THE RELIGIONS CHAPTEE IV j THE RELIGIONS The people of India might justly lay claim to a Religious the compliment paid by the Apostle Paul to the ^^^^ \ men of Athens in his first address in that city. They are certainly very religious, and have been so from time immemorial. The aborigines scat- tered in the jungles of the land, while ignorant, and unable to make any statement of their reli- ! gious belief, are nevertheless possessed of various i religious notions, while every grade and shade of I society from these half wild people to the univer- j sity graduates of the present day, have a distinct j religious belief which is never concealed. Practi- j cally this rule is universal, hence it is not diffi- j cult for the government to obtain accurate reli- • '[ gious statistics, although in India, as elsewhere, j cold figures fail to show the moral strength of the 1 various sects or parties represented. The last ■ census gives the following statistics: ! I Jews 18,228 Animists 8,584,148 I Parsees 04,190 Buddhists 9,476,759 I Jains 1,334,148 Mohammedans. 62,458,077 I Sikhs 2,195,339 Hindus 207,147,026 ■, Christians 2,923,241 Others 129,900 92 The Christian Conquest of India Distribution "The ppovinces containing most of the Jews are e igions jgQjj-^i^^y^ which is the habitat of more than three fourths of them, Bengal, and Madras. Bombay is likewise the home of almost eighty-four per cent, of India's Parsees, making it the greatest stronghold of that faith in the world. Nearly half of the Jains are also found in Bomba}^, while Cen- tral India, and Eajputana especially, contain most of the remainder. The Sikhs are almost wholly found in their early home in the Punjab. Catholic and Protestant Christians are fairly well distrib- uted over the empire ; though if a line were drawn due west from Calcutta about four fifths of them would be found south of it, two thirds of the entire Christian population being in the single province of Madras. Bengal, Bombay, and Burma are the provinces coming next in the number of resident Christians. Holders of animistic beliefs are the most numerous in Assam, the Central Provinces, and Bengal, with a goodly number in Burma, Madras, and Central India. The Buddhists have been driven out of their original home, and are now almost wholly confined to Ceylon, Burma, and the rim of adjacent Bengal, though Kashmir, bor- dering on Tibet, also has some 35,000. Mohamme- danism is strongest in Xorth India, Bengal being the home of more than twenty-five millions of Moslems, and the Punjab standing next in order. Madras and Haidarabad are the two southern provinces having the largest number of Moslems. J.1 U.-LlXUCi" ing less than 100,000 people, the Parsees have made ^Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 109. 4X ' UNITED I [PROVINCESL -. — I f "--.-„'' RAJ PUTANA\ 1 ■/h.'LI,'''''.,,,;"^ isOM BAYfjAiNjil.nosL :nDA< ■2a: -''CENTRAL PROVINCES '/{" X-. U R M A J 10.363 t.^ \) ■ISTRIBUTION PROVINCES ^ Av OF POPULATION ro RELIGIONS AND STATES <> .v~lk' 1 Thousaodei & ?^??^^* The Religions 93 ^ Of all religionists the Hindus are by far the most ubiquitous, abounding in all sections except i Burma, Baluchistan, and Kashmir, where either I Buddhism or Mohammedanism is so prevalent. j Madras, the United Provinces, and Bengal have j the largest number of Hindus.''^ J Taking one thousand natives, and selecting Proportion j them from the different religions, the proportion °^ Religionists , will be as follows: Hindus, 704; Mohammedans, ^ 212 ; Buddhists, 32 ; Animists, 29 ; Christians, 10 ; j Sikh, 7!/2 ; Jains, 45/2- The remaining one in the I thousand includes the Parsees, Jews, and others. ] From the preceding statistics it is evident that Great i the great native religions of India are Hinduism, ^ '^'°"^ ; Mohammedanism, and Buddhism. On this account J the minor faiths will receive less attention. The ! followers of Judaism are so few in number that they lose significance and will not receive further comment. The Parsees are the merchant princes, bank- Parsees ers, and financial operators of the empire; while they are nearly all located in Bombay and its en- virons, there is scarcely a city of note in Arabia, Baluchistan, and Burma where they are not rep- resented commercially. They are known for their integrity, generosity, and progressiveness. About seventy-five per cent, of them are literate, and they eagerly accept educational advantages. Number- ing less than 100,000 people, the Parsees have made ^Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 109. 94 The Ckristian Conquest of India more stir in the world than any other sect in pro- portion to their population.. They are the residue of one of the world^s oldest religions, Zoroastri- anism^ and were driven from Persia to India in the seventh century by the fierce persecutions of the Mohammedans. It is thought that Hinduism and Zoroastrianism had a common origin, but the former has swung far from the original tenets of Dualism and Monotheism to idolatry and Pan- theism."" The faith of the Parsee is one of the purest of ethnic religions. Their distinguishing theory is Dualism. They are monotheists, and be- lieve that in the beginning the Eternal, Supreme, and Infinite One produced two other divine spirits, the Spirit of Good and the Spirit of Evil, or the Spirit of Light and the Spirit of Darkness. They believe in the resurrection and equality of all beings before God. Their chief object of worship is fire, and water is almost as sacred. jaias Of the nine religious divisions of the empire the Jains occupy the seventh place in number. Un- der the leadership of a Buddhist priest^ they broke away from Buddhism about a thousand years ago, and in a Buddhist country would not attract much ^Zoroaster, the founder, whose followers were fire worshipers, lived about 3,000 B. C. -Monotheism, believing in the existence of one divine principle or one God; Dualism, of two such principles, or two gods, the one good and the other evil; Pantheism, the view that all is divine, or that God is in everything. =Some authorities claim that Jainism was a revolt against Hinduism contemporaneous with Buddhism. The Eeligions 95 ; attention as a distinct religious body. Like the ' Buddhists they deny the authority and infallibil- \ ity of the Vedas,^ but on the other hand they J observe the rules of caste and worship some of the 1 Hindu deities. They are wealthy, intelligent, and in some respects progressive, but their chief pecu- liarity is their abnormal regard for life, whether of man, beast, bird, or insect. They are noted for ; the hospitals which they maintain for animals, in ; which cats, dogs, decrepit horses, diseased cows, and insects are found, and are regarded as equally i sacred because possessed of the principle of life. In the Bombay papers a report of the admissions to these hospitals is sometimes published, and in < like manner a list of those animals discharged as .] cured. Snakes are not excluded, but children are | not admitted. It is said that even vermin are tol- | crated and protected. And yet these people are ;.! above the average in India in point of intelligence, j and are reckoned among the progressive classes. 1 The Sikhs number 2,195,339 souls. Although sikhs j originally they separated from Mohammedanism, | they are gradually being absorbed by Hinduism. t Their founder, a religious teacher named Nanak, ] lived about four hundred years ago, and gathered around him a band of disciples, somewhat after the i fashion of the founder of Buddhism. He rejected j caste and idol worship, and his followers are J tolerant toward other religions. Their men are '] ^Sacred books of Hinduism. ! I 96 The Christian Conquest of India among the best soldiers in India, and are found at all English settlements along the seacoast, from Calcutta to Shanghai. Living among these Sikhs are many low-caste people who have adopted more or less of their religious ideas and practices, and are known as Mazabi-Sikhs, that is, Sikhs in reli- gion. The main body constitutes a race as well as a religious sect, and in many respects they are more favorable to the work of the Christian mis- sionary than the Hindus and Mohammedans. Animism Among the followers of the different religions mentioned in the census table, about eight and one half millions are Animists. The aboriginal tribes represented by this faith in Bengal, Madras, and the Central Provinces are the Santals, Bhils, and Gonds; in Assam the Garos, Khasis, and J^agas; in Burma the Chins, Kachins, and Karens. The seven characteristic tenets that may be generally though not universally ascribed to Animism are : ( 1 ) "A supreme, or at least a supe- rior Being is acknowledged though scarcely wor- shiped; (2) other spirits are also acknowledged, which are almost malignant and have to be pro- pitiated; (3) bloody offerings are necessary, as at least a part of the propitiation; (4) wild dances are performed in the worship; (5) little impor- tance is attached to idols, temples, or priests; (6) possession by spirits is believed in; (7) witch- craft is much practiced."^ ^Mitchell, The Great Religions of India. 252. The Religions 97 Buddhism Buddhism took its rise in India about five^ centu- Gautamj ries before Christ, and in the empire is now almost wholly confined to Burma. According to all accounts Hinduism had reached a state of degra- dation as well as of tyranny, when a reform was inaugurated by the founder of Buddhism, Gau- tama, who was a prince of some note. He led an ordinary life until he suddenly became impressed with the conviction that he had a mission to per- form in the world. He deserted his throne, adopted austere habits of life, and became a wan- dering teacher among the people of the land. As he denounced Brahmanism with great freedom and preached against the trammels of caste, he quickly gained popularity and made rapid prog- ress in winning converts. Ancient Buddhism, however, was very different Reasons from that of later years, or of the present day. As popularly known, it was simply a protest against Brahmanism. It did not reject caste, but it ignored it by appealing to all on equal terms. It made light of religious austerities, and rejected the elaborate ceremonies of the Brahmans. It spoke in the language of the common people, and in contrast with Brahmanism it must have seemed liberal indeed. It made much of the ills of the present life, which all keenly feel, and held out the hope of final escape from earthly woes by ^Monier Williams, Buddhism, 21. for Success < 98 The Christian Conquest of India entering the state of Nirvana!' be3'0nd which there can be no further birth, if indeed any further existence. Decline It is a siugular fact that no historian has evei been able to tell the story of the decline and fall of Buddhism in India. It rose to great power, sent missionaries to other lands, and as a great missionary religion proved notably successful. In fact it won its way into China, Tibet, Burma, and all the countries of southeastern Asia, until it became numerically the leading religion of the world. But while holding its ground in other lands, it failed to maintain its position in India. The quiet manner in which Buddhism was so com- pletely supplanted in India by the competing system of Hinduism would make a unique chap- ter in religious history, if the facts could be gathered from authentic records; but this is now impossible, and the slow process by which the change was affected must probably remain a mat- ter of intelligent conjecture. Divisions of Indian Buddhism during the third century B. C, divided into two sections ; known as north- ern and southern respectively; the former has its headquarters in Tibet and the latter in Ceylon. The southern school prevails in Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. Teachings It is difficult at this great distance of time to determine with accuracy what the great leader Regarded as the end of all personal existence. Buddhism of Buddha o The Religions 99 Gautama actually taught, and it is probable that many teachings popularly attributed to him really belonged to leaders of a more recent date. The following statement throws much light upon the whole doctrine of Buddha: "First, all existence — that is, existence in any form, whether on earth or in heavenly spheres — necessarily involves pain and suffering. Second, all suffering is caused by lust, or craving, or desire, of three kinds : for sen- sual pleasure, for wealth, for existence. Third, cessation of suffering is simultaneous with extinc- tion of lust, craving, and desire. Fourth, extinc- tion of lust, craving, and desire, and cessation of suffering are accomplished by perseverance in the noble, eightfold path, namely: right beliefs or views, right resolve, right speech, right work, right livelihood, right exercise or training, right mindfulness, right mental concentration."^ Some of the excellent moral precepts of Buddha are: (1) Do not kill; (2) Do not steal; (3) Do not lie; (4) Do not commit adultery; (5) Drink no strong drink; (6) Exercise charity; (7) Be pure; (8) Be patient; (9) Be courageous; (10) Be contemplative; (11) Seek after knowl- edge. The Buddhist believes that he has passed Nir%'ana through countless existences as man, animal, or insect. This numberless series of transmigrations may be ascending or descending. "Karma, the ^Monier Williams, Buddhism, 43, 44. Moral Precepts 100 The Christian Conquest of India resultant force of all his past actions, brings into existence a new being whose state is happy or miserable according to the desert, good or evil, embodied in that resultant force/^^ This teaching denies all previous identity and heredity. In Buddhism salvation means an escape from exist- ence, which is considered as full of evil and suffer- ing, through the noble eightfold path mentioned above. In other words salvation can be obtained only by gaining merit through a meaningless wor- ship at the pagoda,^ obeying the commandments of Buddha, and through intellectual attainment. The highest attainment which Buddhism holds out to its followers is Nirvana, in Burmese Neihhan, which means extinction of both the spiritual and physical or utter annihilation. Neikban expressed in a milder form is that state of impossible exist- ence in which there is neither sensation nor con- scious life, or as they fittingly describe it, "a flame which has been blown out." According to their teachings, Gautama, having attained this condi- tion of Nirvana has wholly disappeared from the world. Before the entrance of Buddhism into Burma, the Burmans and Talaings, like the surrounding tribes, worshiped nats, demons, or spirits, with supernatural powers. The reigning king becoming a convert, decreed that all his subjects must wor- ^Cushing, in Religions of Mission Fields, 107. 'Buddhist temple of worship. The Eeliffions 101 'O Moral Code ship at the pagoda or be put to death. But the peo- ple refused to obe}^, so the king had a nat-sin, spirit-house, constructed near the pagoda and in this way induced the people to transfer their wor- ship from the nat-sin to the substantial and visible pagoda. It must not be understood that the Bur- mans have completely forsaken animism, because there are many evidences that they have simply added Buddhism to their spirit-worship. The majority of the people constantly live in awful fear lest some evil spirit may bring disaster, and Nagas, dragon-like reptiles, are dreaded by nearly all of the Burmese. It has sometimes been asserted that the moral High code of Buddha rivals that of Christ, and that Buddhism expresses high moral ideals cannot be ' denied. However, to obtain a correct estimate of ; any teaching it is necessary to study the lives of : its exponents. One of the cardinal command- ments is, "Thou shalt not take the life of any liv- ing thing.^' This commandment forbids exceptions even in Preservation | self-defense and equalizes in penalty the taking °^ ^"* of human life and that of the smallest insect. But .' the Burmans in destroying life in w^ar have always found it convenient to obtain absolution by resort- j ing to the doctrine of "merit.^'^ Moreover, large | numbers of them are making their living by fish- ' ing, which is a life-taking business. - ^The belief tliat o^erings at pagodas will absolve sin, ' 102 The Christian Conquest of India Truthfulness Benefits and Evils of Buddhism Another eonimandment is, "Thou shalt speak no false word." As a result of such a commandment one would naturally expect some truthfulness among Buddhists, but thus far it has not been dis- covered, and few Europeans place any reliance upon the promise of a heathen Burman. To show the looseness of the interpretation of their com- mandments, their "Sacred Book" gives this defini- tion of a falsehood: "A statement constitutes a lie, when discovered by the person to whom it is told to be untrue/'^ These examples of the gulf be- tween teaching and practice are sufficient to show the failure of Buddhism in the moral life of the people. Buddhism proclaims equality and social freedom to all. Caste does not exist, and any man may rise to the highest position. Women are accorded full rights in business and society. But Buddhism knows no God in any real sense, and is practically atheistic. It believes personal existence in itself to be a source of evil, and hence can have no real hope of conscious immortality. It takes a wholly pessimistic view of life. It teaches men to trust in their own efforts wholly, and to look for no help from without. It exacts works of merit and bur- dens its votaries with useless duties. It ignores praj^er and knows nothing of faith, hope, or love. It is merely a religion of the intellect and has failed to elevate the moral life of its followers. 'Cochrane, Among the Burmans, 124. The Eeliffions 103 Christianity advocates all of the moral virtues contrasted \ of Buddhism and fills up the awful desolation of ^'^'^ . .^ i ^ Christianity i Buddhism with a living personal God. Christian- ity has a Saviour, Buddhism casts each individual J upon his own helplessness. Christianity is a \ revelation of hope, Buddhism a religion of despair. j Gautama offers only death, Christ offers life and j immortality. 1 Mohammedanism ' The former faiths are insignificant in a general vigor of mo- statement of the religious situation in India ^"^^ to-day. To the popular mind there are two reli- gions — the Hindu and the Mohammedan. One fifth of the people of the empire, a number greater than the population of Germany, are followers of the False Prophet. India has more Mohamme- dans within its borders than any other country, and to-day more than one half of the Mohamme- dan world is under Christian rule or protection. Mohammedanism is the most modern of all reli- gions, and does not confine itself to any one race. Its adherents in India are physically more sturdy and vigorous than their neighbors and display unusual qualities of leadership. They are proud of their race and religion, and are more independ- ent and influential than the Hindus. ^Mohammedanism was brought into India in invasion 714 A. D., by the invading armies from the north- medanism' west, and neither made an impression on the pub- 104 The Christian Conquest of India Four Sects Is Moham< medanism (Showing Rapidly? lie mind nor gained a foothold until the invading hosts began to form permanent settlements in the land. No missionaries accompanied or followed the invaders, and the work of conversion was as unlike that of the Buddhists as it possibly could have been. In many cases the naked sword served as an argument, while in a different manner rewards became a force among people who have always appreciated positions of respectability and honor. The invaders were ignorant of the Indian languages, and it was absolutely necessary for them to secure a large staff of assistants who belonged to the soil, and who were thoroughly conversant with the languages, ideas, usages, and modes of thought of the people. Then, as now, the mass of the people were extremely poor, and it is easy to imagine what the effect must have been when it was announced that none but converts would be admitted into public office. It is commonly supposed that Islam is a homo- geneous religion, and not rent by factions. Among the man}^ divisions the four principal schools of thought in India are the Sunnites, Shiahs, Waha- his, and the modern school of freethinkers, among whom Sir Saiyid Ahmad was the most influential advocate of all teachings that promote progress and enlightenment. A comparative statistical study of Mohamme- danism during the last two decades will allay the fears of many in regard to its rapid extension The Eeligions 105 through the empire. Between the years 1881 and 1891 Mohammedanism increased 14.3 per cent., and during the decade preceding 1901, 8.9 per cent. At the same time the population of the country increased from 1881 to 1891, 13.1 per cent., and from 1891 to 1901, 2.5 per cent. Mohammedanism is not keeping pace with Chris- tianity, which increased during the decade pre- vious to 1901, 27.9 per cent. Mohammedan doctors divide religion into two ReHgioa parts — the dogmatic and the practical. Two Parts Under the former comes what must be believed concerning God, angels, the sacred oracles, the prophets, the resurrection, the judgment, and predestination. The practical part consists of five pillars or foun- dations, namely : ( 1 ) The recital of the Kalima or creed; (2) Five times of daily prayer; before sun- rise, at noon, before sunset, after sunset, and when night sets in. All prayers are recited in fixed forms of Arabic words ; (3) The thirty days' fast, that is, during the month of Ramazan; (4) Almsgiving; (5) Pilgrimage to Mecca." ^ The Mohammedan creed is brief and bald. Creed "There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet." "The divine unity making, uphold- ing, governing, perfecting all things, is the rock on which Mohammed builds. The consciousness ^Mitchell, The Great Religions of India, 223. 106 The Christian Conquest of India Benefits cf Moham. medanism Evils of Mo- hammedanisni of dependence upon the Absolute and Eternal is the keynote of Islam/' ^ It must be admitted that Mohammedanism has some truth and has been a successful missionary religion among several races. It has raised some of the wild tribes above their barbarous customs of devil worship, human sacrifice, infanticide, and witchcraft, and has inculcated the idea of mono- theism. During the period of the Mogul emperors its leaders contributed some of the finest architec- ture in the world. It infused a more vigorous element into the national character, gave the peo- ple the broadening conception of a great Indian empire, and relieved its followers of the fetters of the caste system. It is a distinct advance beyond Buddhism and Hinduism in that it opposes pan- theism, polytheism, atheism, idolatry, and trans- migration of souls. The Moslem conception of God is "the worst form of monotheism which has ever existed.''^ God is an absolute sovereign who knows no love or mercy. There is no escaping from the will of God and every Moslem must be resigned and obedient. In short, it is fatalism of the most heinous type. To the drowning man Mohammed says, "It is the will of God.'' The Mohammedan idea of imm.or- tality is a blurred vision of sensual delights, and *Lilly, India and Its Problems, 145. 'Quoted by Mason, Lux Christi, 52. The Religions 107 ] its code of morals is a mixture of ancient Judaism and Arabian heathenism tainted by Hinduism. Its | spirit is hostile to progress, and intolerant in the extreme. As a rule it is opposed to modern educa- < tion, and in literacy its people are below all of the i faiths except the animistic. The Koran^ is full of ! errors and superstitions, permits falsehood, and .| perpetuates slavery, polygamy, divorce, and the j degradation of womanhood. While it may elevate j races to a certain point, it petrifies them there and J almost hopelessly impedes any further advance. j The Moslems divorce morals from religion. In ' writing of the sensuality of Mohammedanism, Dr. '; Zwemer, who is one of the foremost authorities, j says: "On this topic it is not possible to speak : plainly nor to be wholly silent. One must live among Moslems to feel the blasting influence of this side of Islam on its followers.^''' Mohammedanism believes in a God who is contrasted j above, relentless and immovable; Christianity be- chdstianity ! lieves in a God who is within, full of mercy and ■ tenderness. To the Mohammedan prayer is ' stereotyped praise ; to the Christian it is commun- ■ ion with a Father of love. As a remedy for sin j Mohammedanism offers fatalism; Christianity, | redemption. The hope of the Mohammedan is in i a prophet; the hope of the Christian is in a Saviour. j ^The Scriptures of the Moslems, I ^Zwemer, in Religions of Mission Fields, 258. 108 The Christian Conquest of India Hinduism A Mighty Problem Kistorical Development Sacred Literature Among the religions systems of India, Hindu- ism bulks the largest. Its adherents include more than two thirds of the people of the empire, and it is safe to state that it has more or less colored every faith in the country except Christianity. The bond which unites the Hindu is caste. It is both a social and a religious bond, and, strangely enough, though it unites them it also keeps them apart. The early Aryans, who crossed the Indus and established themselves in what is now called the Punjab, were not worshipers of idols, and so far as can be known from their writings which have come down to us, were men of a much higher plane of thought than was common in that far-off age of the world. By slow degrees as they penetrated south and east, the more intelligent invaders became gradually involved in the degrading prac- tices which they found among the peoples of the land which they had conquered. Changes of this kind move slowly and cannot be effected even in the course of a century. Very many long years must have elapsed while the system now known as Hinduism was taking shape, and in what way the changes were effected can now be only a matter of conjecture. As early as 200 B. C, two alphabets, or written characters, were used in India. The Brahmans, PRINCIPAL RACES AND RELIGIONS OF INDIA The Religions 109 however, preferred to hand down their holy learn- ing rather than write it, so it remained unwritten until the fifteenth century after Christ. Although the sacred writings are now in print, it must be borne in mind that ninety per cent, of the people have no knowledge of them whatever. The Eig- Veda is the oldest and most important book and is considered the transcendent authority of the Hindu religion. It is a collection of ten hundred and seventeen hymns chiefly addressed to the gods. It is a memorial, accounting the victorious march of the Aryan race through Kabul to the Punjab. The Yajur Veda^ is a later production and mainly liturgical. The Sama Veda is ceremonial in character. The Atharva Veda is the most recent in origin of the four and contains a multitude of incantations. The Code of Manu is the chief authority in Hindu jurisprudence and contains the laws of caste. In addition to the above there are the TJpanisliads and Sutras, the philo- sophical productions of the Brahmans, and the great epic poems Ramayana and Mahahharata. The Puranas were probably composed during the seventh and eighth centuries A. D., and exhibit the degeneration of the religion into the grossest polytheism. The Tantras — probably the latest productions — are similar to the Puranas and ^'set ^A few years ago portions of the Yajur Veda were published, but the government was obliged to punish the producers on the ground of having violated the law against obscene literature. 110 The Christian Conquest of India Variety of Worship Animistic Survivals forth the principles of the obscene and horrible SaMi worship/^ ^ Hinduism does not represent any distinct sys- tem or doctrine, settled form of worship, or code of morals. The average middle-class Hindu in his every-day life may worship any one or many of the following: (1) Mere stocks and stones and unus- ual local configurations; (2) Things inanimate, which are gifted with mysterious motion ; ( 3 ) Ani- mals which are feared; (4) Tools and visible things, animate or inanimate, which are directly or indirectly useful and profitable; (5) Deo^ or spirit, the vague impersonation of an uncanny sen- sation that comes over one at certain places; (6) Dead relatives and other deceased persons, who had a great reputation during life, or who died in some strange or notorious way at shrines; (7) Manifold demigods or subordinate deities; (8) The supreme gods of Hinduism, and of their ancient incarnations and personifications, handed down by the Brahmanic scriptures/ The above category includes theism, pantheism, polytheism, fetichism, nature worship, animal worship, demon worship, hero worship, and ancestor worship. Although Hinduism has a multitude of beliefs, and is rent by many sects, there are seven^ articles of faith on which there is a degree of unity. "Janvier, in Religions of Mission Fields, 56. 'Lyall, Asiatic Studies, 7. 'For the classification of common beliefs, the author is indebted to Wilkin's Modern Hinduism. The Religions 111 "God is one and without a second*^ is a common Divine unity expression among the people. He created the heavens, and earth, and all men regardless of race or color. God is so great that he cannot be ex- pressed by any one being, so he is manifested in numberless incarnations. To the attributes usually ascribed to the Deity Belief by Christians the Hindus make no objection. *" ""^^ They believe that it is only when God is incarnated in some being that he becomes degraded, and because of his superior wisdom and power, his capacity for doing evil is increased beyond that of any ordinary individual. j Believing in millions of incarnations, they have innumerable no difficulty in adding any number of gods. When- "* i ever a teacher displays unusual power, they imme- j liately consider him an incarnation. Thus they j admitted Buddha into their pantheon, and would j readily accept Christ as another incarnation, if the i Christians did not claim that he is supreme. Maya means illusion and is one of their f unda- Belief in Maya ; mental doctrines of philosophy. The common belief is that everything in the world emanated : from God, and that he can withdraw all into him- i self at any time. Men may think that they are i! different from God, but that is all Maya or illu- j sion. The his^hest wisdom is to realize one's one- ^ ... 1 ness with God, and when this is attained there is ; union with the divine spirit. The devotees are i examples of men trying to overcome this illusion. . j 112 The Christian Conquest of India Pantheism Trans- migration Fate Philosophical Systems God is everywhere and everything. God is in everyone. Man^s acts are not his own, but are compelled by God. Sin therefore is not sin, be- cause God induces men to do right and wrong. Because God is everywhere and is so much stronger, man must do as God desires. This is one of the most pernicious beliefs, because it destroys all free- dom and moral responsibility. The human soul is reborn into the world for further trial either in a better or a worse condi- tion. A soul may reappear in a plant, a mineral, an animal, or in an exalted or degraded human form. A few days after an infant is born it is believed that the Deity sketches the career on the forehead of the child ; hence everything that comes to pass during the lifetime of a person is inevitable, and the pious Hindu satisfies himself by meekly saying "It is written.^' During illness physicians are not employed nor medicines used because they would be of no avail if it is decreed that the patient is to die. Some reference to the six philosophical systems of Hinduism may be expected by readers of this brief sketch, but any explanation of these would be impossible in this short chapter. Such a description would have to deal with questions of philosophy rather than religion. In fact these sys- tems hardly affect the modern religious situation at all, although appeals to some philosophical The Eeligions 113 tenet are sometimes made in the course of a reli- gious discussion; but to the ordinary Hindu they have little meaning. The well-known belief of the Hindus in a sacred Hindu Triad triad, known as Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer, has led many to suppose that the Christian doctrine of a trinity is faintly reflected in this feature of Hinduism; but a close examination of the Hindu system quickly dispels this idea. There is no real unity in the Hindu trinity. It is a triad, but not a trin- ity. Vishnu and Shiva are often represented as antagonistic ; and bitter, long-standing feuds have often occurred between the votaries of the two deities. Because of the multitude of gods, the people have an opportunity to select, hence nearly every section of India has its favorite ones. As a rule Vishnu is the most popular god in the north, and Shiva has most of his devotees in the south. Brahma, the so-called Creator, stands wholly in comparativa the background in the popular mind. He is sel- of^Go^d^*^ dom worshiped and has but few avowed followers. Vishnu, the Preserver, is brought into great prom- inence by his numerous incarnations, and is prob- ably the most popular of the triad. Shiva, however, is the most universally revered, probably owing to the fact that in some of his forms he becomes an object of terror to his votaries, and fear added to superstition is a great motive power in the Hindu mind. 114 The Christian Conquest of India Vishnu Of the ten principal incarnations of Vishnu, the as Krishna ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ comc. The most popular incarnation is the eighth Krishna. He is a mixed character, conceived of the people as a warlike prince, a licentious cowherd, and a supreme deity. The story of Krishna^s life is one of the most debasing, and the people admit that the incidents are abomina- ble, but as a god he could do no wrong. "He has been characterized as the incarnation of lust, and is said to have had 16,100 wives and 180,000 sons.'^ Shiva Shiva, first known as destroyer, then as repro- ducer, is in his fourth form a demon rather than a god, bears the name of Bhairava, wears garlands of serpents, and a string of skulls for a necklace, and in every respect forms as repul- sive and malignant a character as the Oriental mind can depict. He appears in still another form as a mountain god, fond of pleasure, devoted to dancing and drinking, and surrounded by a troup of dwarfs. In this last character his wor- ship is the most degrading and immoral known in India. ^^^ Each god has one or more wives who are wor- shiped. The wife of Shiva is known by different names, the most popular of which is Kali. In this character she excels her husband in her love of wanton destruction, and her image is perhaps as revolting an object as can be found anywhere in the world. "She is represented as a black Brahi Kali Hanuman Ganesha Four Indian Deities The Religions 115 "& woman with four arms. In one hand she has a weapon, in another the giant she has slain; with the two others she is encouraging her worshipers. For earrings she has two dead bodies ; she wears a necklace of skulls. Her only clothing is a girdle made of dead men's hands, and her tongue pro- trudes from her mouth. Her eyes are red as those of a drunkard, and her breasts are smeared with blood. She stands with one foot on the thigh and the other on the breast of her husband.''^ India has a multitude of minor deities, the most Minor Deities popular of whom is Ganesha, the god of wisdom, invoked by persons beginning anything new and by students before their examinations. The monkey-god Hanumari is also a great favorite. Not satisfied with gods and goddesses, there are temples, shrines, idols, and other objects of wor- ship, until it is stated by some that they number 330,000,000. It is not a pleasing task to give an account of cruei practices which belong to the Hinduism of the present day, which are sometimes revolting in cru- elty, or ridiculous in absurdity, or painful in suf- fering imposed for imaginary purposes. Mention was made in the last chapter of the abominable custom of burning widows with the dead bodies of their husbands, but to this may be added many other practices, some of which are shockingly Practices ^Quoted by Beach, India and Christian Opvortunity, 130. 116 The Christian Conquest of India repulsive. Only a few years ago the writer wit- nessed a spectacle of incredible voluntary torture which he has often wished could be banished from his memory. A number of men were being escorted by friends to a shrine some miles distant, where they were to exhibit themselves as living evidences of the fact that they had fulfilled certain vows made during the previous year. The friends who accompanied them sometimes assisted them by sprinkling water on them, or fanning them while they walked in the burning sun. Each of these wretched creatures had his tongue drawn out as far as possible, and kept in that position by an iron spike several inches long which passed directly through it. Their naked breasts and backs had a number of broad steel hooks passing through the skin and muscles. There were prob- ably a dozen of these in each breast, and the same number on each back. On their feet they were wearing shoes with sharp nails driven through the soles in such a way as to inflict frightful torture at every step. They seemed to be almost exhausted and yet had several miles farther to walk before they could reach the temple. The whole exhibi- tion was simply horrible, and it required a very great effort to look at them at all. Of course it will be said that this was exceptional, but never- theless it was a part of Hinduism, or at least of present-day Hinduism. If the authorities had known of it, no doubt the spectacle would have Manager and Priests of Hindu Temple, Rameswaram, India Buddhist Priest Instructing a Class of Boys, Burma The Keligions 117 been prohibited, but in the eyes of many of the Hindus this would have amounted to an unwar- rantable interference with religious liberty. The devotees with arms held aloft till they become shrunken, and no longer obey the will of the suf- ferer, can still be seen at many of the great fairs in different parts of the country. It would be doing a great injustice to the intelli- gent classes of the Hindu people to hold them responsible for all the degrading elements which are found in the popular Hinduism of to-day. Literally millions of Hindus, and especially young men who have received a modern education, are ready to repudiate all the more degrading ele- ments of their religion, and yet they cling to their system as a whole with extraordinary tenacity. The pressure of the caste system is chiefly respon- sible for their persistence in adhering to it. They are men not often noted for their personal courage, either physical or moral, and are not strong enough for the trial which a vigorous repudiation of the system would cost them. It would be a very great mistake to state that Hinduism as a religion is in a dying condition. That it is losing ground no careful observer can doubt, but it still retains a large measure of vigor- ous life, and many long years will probably elapse before it ceases to be one of the great religions of the earth. None the less, as a system it has the sentence of death pronounced upon it, and it Attitude of Intelligent Hindus Hinduism Not a Dying Religion 118 The Christian Conquest of India cannot permanently hold the position which it has long maintained in the face of advancing intelligence and the modern era. The people of India are rapidly emerging out of the darkness of ages into the light of present-day civilization, and the missionaries of India ask for nothing more than simply to let the Light of the World break through all obscuring hindrances and shine freely upon the people of the empire. Benefits and jf would be wroug to concludc that Hinduism Hinduism IS wholly of the dcvil, and that a loving Father has left these myriads without a witness. To acknowl- edge this would admit the supremacy of the evil one. It is not generous but just to believe that the Hindus are seeking God, but to them he is afar off and unapproachable. At some points in their faith the light of heaven almost breaks through. Nevertheless, the fair-minded reader who seeks for virtues and elements of strength in Hinduism has a most difficult task. Theoretically, Hinduism suggests the unity of God and the solidity of man, but practically it destroys these ideals by its gross idolatry and its benumbing caste system. How- ever, it may be said, with some degree of safety, that it emphasizes the sanctity of life, the cultiva- tion of the passive virtues of patience, gentleness, and submission, and introduces religion into every- day life. But Hinduism has robbed man of a per- sonal God, and defaced the distinction between right and wrong. It has obliterated freedom of The Relisrions 119 ^t) with Christianity will through the fatalism that results from trans- migration. The blighting effects of the caste sys- tem, the degradation and religious prostitution of womanhood, the corruption of the priesthood, the lust and immorality of the gods and goddesses, and its other vices, stamp Hinduism as one of the foulest, if not the foulest religion that the world has seen. To the Christian the universe and man are Contrasted real; to the Hindu, illusion. Christianity repre- sents God as seeking man; Hinduism represents man as seeking God. Christianity offers salvation from sin and the elevation of character ; Hinduism offers only the annihilation of personality. Hin- duism, in striking contrast to Christianity, per- petuates pessimism, bondage, intolerance, retro- gression, and the demoralization of womanhood. Judged by its moral results, Hinduism is over- whelmingly bad. Before closing this chapter some mention must Religious be made of the devotees of India, a class of the community for which India has become famous. They are found in great numbers and represent various castes of Hindus as well as of Mohamme- dans. Some of them are professedly saints, some are sages, and many of them are scoundrels, although the last-named do not make a profession of their calling. All classes either reverence or fear these men, and their influence is very great. Most or them are ascetics and live by accepting 120 The Christian Conquest of India alms. Their blessing is highly prized, and their curse greatly feared. Many of them either prac- tice self-torture, or submit to severe hardships, or adopt repulsive habits, or contrive in some way to make life itself a burden and an affliction. They discard most of their clothing and smear their bodies with ashes; they forsake home and friends and wander among strangers. They fast to the limit of endurance, or perhaps eat repulsive food. Many are their devices for afflicting the body, without however having any clear idea of benefiting the soul. The predominant ideal in their minds is that of abstract merit, and this is the peculiar notion of Hindus generally. The methods adopted for self- inflicted penance are almost endless. Everyone has read of those who have held a hand aloft until it had become fixed in its position. At nearly every great fair a number of men will be seen going through the self-inflicted torture of what is called the "five fires." Four fires are kept burning constantly around the devotee, while the sun, which makes the fifth, pours down its burning rays on the head of the sufferer. Others for months at a time never allow themselves to lie down to rest, but permit themselves to be supported in a half- reclining position, or suspended upon a cushion with their feet dangling down some distance from the ground. Some sleep on beds made of broken stones, others on spikes: while others again seek Fakirs Pierced Cheeks Vow of Silence On a bed of Spikes An Example of the Good Type The Eeligion 121 Periods of Progression torture for the body by abstaining from sleep alto- gether, or at least reduce their sleeping hours to the narrowest possible limits. A very common mode of practicing asceticism various is that of eating revolting food. The complete course of training adopted by a Hindu devotee, if carried to the full extent, involves one period of discipleship during which he is obliged to eat everything which is offered to him. 1 might say here that, according to a strict rule, an ordinary Hindu who wishes to take a full course is obliged to pursue six different kinds of asceticism, for a term of twelve years each, making seventy-two years in all. The poor creatures can object to nothing; and when a devout Hindu — perhaps a wealthy princess who has sent a thousand miles for the famous devotee — wishes to obtain a special favor through his works of merit, she will almost certainly assure herself of his sanctity by requir- ing a horrible test of some kind from which he dare not shrink. The moral tone of the Indian devotees, taking them as a whole, is very low. It could not be other- wise when so many who adopt this kind of a life as a profession are insincere in their lives and given to various modes of deception. Many of them, under the impression that they must sepa- rate their minds and hearts as far as possible from all worldly things, adopt a listless manner, which makes them seem simple almost to the point of Mora} Tone of Devotees 122 The Christian Conquest of India idiocy. In conversation they try to appear as art- less as little children and carefully avoid showing any of the wisdom of the world, even with regard to the most ordinary affairs. Some men of this class are very harmless, while others are much less artless than they seem to be. Many again are given to the use of opium or other drugs peculiar to India. It is probable that most of them are driven to the use of intoxicating or stupefying drugs for the sake of lessening physical pain or weariness. And yet, while the general character of the devotees as a class is by no means high, I have long since become convinced that many of them are not only sincere, but according to their light are blameless and harmless in ordinary life. From among these the missionaries occasionally succeed in winning Christian converts, some of whom have become valuable preachers of the Word. Devil Among the Mohammedan devotees are found Worshippers occasioual dcvil worshipers, and here and there fortune tellers who are capable of making lasting impressions for evil on the minds of young chil- dren when allowed to amuse them by telling their fortunes. On the whole, India could well spare her great army of devotees estimated at more than four millions. They do very little good, and in the aggregate compose a vast army of idlers. They are in the main the product of the mistaken notion that evil is inherent in matter. The Eeligions 123 It is not possible, within the space allotted, to An Appeal review the fallacies and horrible practices of the religions of India. Many additional appalling and revolting spectacles could be rehearsed, but have been purposely omitted lest the writer should be charged with immodesty or accused of being hopelessly biased in his judgments. Immorality, dishonesty, superstition, idolatry, inhuman prac- tices, and other evils exist because of their reli- gious beliefs, and summon every Christian to instant prayer, sacrifice, and effort in order that a loving Father and a saving Christ may be made known to the millions of India. QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER IV Aim: To Realize the Value and Limitations of THE Great Religions of India I . . . The General Atmosphere. 1.* From what you know of Indian society to what extent should you consider the beliefs of the average man to be based on intelligent convictions? 2,* How does the mental atmosphere 'conduce to- ward intelligent individual opinions as com- pared with that of the United States? 3. What does the wide prevalence of crude animis- tic beliefs testify as to the religious atmos- phere? 4. What seems to be the relative importance of ceremonial customs, theological beliefs, and morality? 124 The Christian Conquest of India 11... The Influence of Physical Surroundings. 5.* What influence of climate and physical sur- roundings can you trace in the religions na- tive to India? 6. What influence would the grinding poverty of the masses have upon religious development? 7. What would be the effect of centuries of help- lessness against invasion and of oppression? 8. What is the tendency of a hot and moist climate upon character? Of a vegetable and insufla- cient diet? III...Owr Spirit of Approach. 9. In what spirit ought we to approach representa- tives of these religions? 10.* Give some rules in regard to argument with them? 11.* What use should you make of the strongest points in their religions? What of the weakest? 12. What would most attract you in one who was seeking to convert you to another religion? 2i. . .To Buddhism. 13. What ideals should you have in common with a sincere middle class Buddhist? What use should you make of these? 14. What are the fatal weaknesses of his system? 15.* How should you endeavor to get him to realize these as weaknesses? Give suggestions in re- gard to each point. b...To Mohammedanism. 16. What points of contact should you have with a sincere orthodox Mohammedan? The EeligioDS 125 17. What elements in Christianity would most at- tract his sympathy? 18. What should you consider to be his greatest religious hindrances and needs? 19.* How could you awaken his desire for some- thing he did not possess? c. .To Hinduism. 20. How should you begin to speak to an audience of ignorant Hindu villagers who had never be- fore heard the gospel? 21. What do you think would constitute their chief aspirations and fears? 22.* How could you utilize these in presenting Christianity? 23. How should you deal with an educated Hindu gentleman? 24.* How would his pantheism affect his ideas of the universe? Of the holiness of God? Of personal conscience and effort? 25. How would his views of existence differ from yours? 26. What points of agreement with him do you think you could find? 27.* What kind of appeal do you think might arouse a response? rV . . . The Need of Christianity. 28. State how the Christian idea of God combines the excellences of the Mohammedan and Hindu conceptions? 29. What does it contain that they both lack? 30.* What change will it bring to the lives of Buddhists, Moslems, and Hindus to know God as revealed in Christ? 126 The Christian Conquest of India 31. To what extent are we responsible for bringing about this change? 32. How suflacient does the strength of man seem to you to be to change the lives of these people? 33. How can we help to add the power of God to the efforts that are being made? References fob Advanced Study. — Chapter IV 1. . .Buddhism. Barth: The Religions of India, III. Cochrane: Among the Burmans, V. Gushing: Religions of Mission Fields, IV. Hopkins: Religions of India, XIII. Mitchell: The Great Religions of India, IV. II. . .Mohammedanism. Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 116-121. Mitchell: The Great Religions of India, V. Zwemer: Religions of Mission Fields, IX. III. . .Hitiduism. Barth: The Religions of India, V. Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 121-145= Chamberlain: In the Cobra's Den, X. Janvier: Religions of Mission Fields, III. Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 62-76. Mitchell: The Great Religions of India, II. lY... Other Native Religions. Barth: The Religions of India, IV. Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 110, 116. Hopkins: Religions of India, XII, XVIII. Hurst: Indika, 425, 431. Thornton: Parsi, Jain, and Sikh. Christian Conquerors 127 X. . .Hinduism and Christianity Contrasted. Hume: Missions from the Modern View, V. Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, III, IV. Robson: Hinduism and Its Relation to Chris- tianity, Pt. IV, Chap. I. CHRISTIAN CONQUERERS CHAPTER V CHRISTIAN CONQUERORS The people of India, throughout the whole a most ., T , . . rv , Accessible empire, are more aeeessible to missionary eiiort pieid than any other equal number of non-Christian people on the face of the globe. The Christian missionary may expect a certain measure of hos- tility, or at least, of opposition, from almost any race among whom he may go, with the expressed purpose of supplanting their religion, and in Bome cases he may anticipate violence at the hands of his opponents. This is especially the rule in early stages of the work, and wise mis- sionaries will neither be surprised nor discouraged when signs of opposition begin to appear. But it is surprising to observe the state of things which now prevails in India. The gospel is preached freely everywhere, and the object of the missiona- ries is stated in the clearest terms, but, with an occasional exception, no disturbance is caused and no displeasure or alarm manifested. The Moham- medans are less open to evangelization than the Hindus, but if the missionary is discreet, even they will make no unfriendly demonstration. In other words, religious liberty, free speech, and a free press prevail without challenge and without pro- test in almost the entire country. 131 132 Tlie Christian Conquest of India Nestorian Christians Nestortaa or Syrlaa They Main- tain their Independence The earl}^ Portuguese settlers in India were amazed and in a measure confounded to find a large community of Christians living in southern India. These people did not differ much from their Indian neighbors in appearance or in character, but they had a recognized place in the community as Christians, and affirmed that they were connected with the IS'estorian branch of the ancient Church. How they had come into existence in India was not known, and no certain light has been shed upon this problem in the centuries which have since passed. They are popularly known as Syrian Christians, and it is possible that they are the remnants of Christian communities which are known to have existed in India as far back as the second century. The Portuguese adventurers and missionaries who first found these Syrian Christians in India, were sorely disappointed when they discovered that they stood in no ecclesiastical relation to the Roman Catholic Church, and at once endeavored to induce them to acknowledge the authority of the Pope, but they soon found that this was not an easy task. Although they were relentlessly per- secuted, the Syrian Christians still maintained their own distinct character. *An early sect of Christians named after Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, in the fifth century A. D, Oldest Syrian Church in India at Kottayam Henry Martyn's Pagoda Ancient Structure at Serampur Used by Him for a Temporary Place of Study ' Christian Conquerors 133 Xavier and the Roman Catholic Missions The Portuguese adopted the policy of introduc- ing the Christian religion among their subjects in their eastern possessions by the use of arts of various kinds, but more especially by the direct exercise of authority, and they seemed to meet with a large measure of nominal success. But the change which took place both in individuals and communities was chiefly external, and in most cases where compulsion had been used, the first opportunity for discarding the new faith was eagerly embraced. Any account of the early Eoman Catholic mis- sions in India would be very incomplete which did not assign a prominent place to the famous Jesuit apostle, Francis Xavier. The career of this extraor- dinary man was remarkable, but his work was superficial in the extreme. It was his custom to prepare a few very simple lessons, including the Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Ave Maria, and the Lord's Prayer, and to have these memo- rized by boys who were to teach them to the people. He found no difficulty in collecting large audi- ences, armed as he was with royal authority, and when he went forth into the streets with a bell to summon the people to come forth to his services he never failed to meet with a prompt response. One year sufficed to convince Xavier that he could not achieve success on a large scale in India, Portuguese Use of Authority Xavier and His Ritualistic Method Idea of Using '•Kings' 134: The Christian Conquest of India so he began to look for a more hopeful field. He also began to consider new plans for securing larger and more enduring results, and at one time he became much impressed with a plan for con- verting "kings," a title which he seems to have given to every petty prince or chief whom he met. His new ideal was that of securing the submission and conversion of a native prince or chief, and then inducing him to order his subjects to receive baptism and at the same time to become responsi- ble for keeping them faithful to their new obliga- tions. But the scheme was utterly impracticable, for the "kings" did not respond either to his appeals or his demands. Advised In his later days, Xavier so far yielded to the Setting up of temptation to adopt sheer force in maintaining Inquisition r r o the authority of the church and advancing his interests, that he wrote to the Pope advising that a branch of the Inquisition, then newly established in Europe, should be set up in India, and this terrible expedient was actually adopted, but not until after his death. Later About fifty ycars after the death of Xavier, the Jesuit Jesuits established a strono^ mission on the east Failure . coast of southern India, and were led even to attempt the winning of the people to their faith by methods of deception and imposture, but in the end such methods only ended in disastrous failure, unprogressive Descendants of the early Eoman Catholic con- Descendants ygp^s are still fouud in large numbers in western Christian Conquerors 135 and southern India, where they are popularly known as Portuguese Christians. They constitute a distinct class in the general Christian commu- nity, and have not made much progress in educa- tion or social position. Danish Settlements and the Pioneer Protestant Missionaries Unlike the other European powers in the East, Denmark's the Danish government protected missionaries at p''°^'^^'' all its settlements, and while making the mistake which was common to all governments in that age, of trying to administer missionary affairs under the strict control of the secular power, it yet avoided serious mistakes for the most part, and succeeded in choosing some good and true men as pioneers of the Christian enterprise. In 1705 Ziegenbalg and Plutschau were sent ziegenbaig out as the first missionaries from Denmark, and p^utg^hau the first Protestant missionaries who have been generally recognized as belonging rightfully to the great missionary brotherhood of the Eastern world. They were located in Tranquebar, a Danish possession on the extreme southeastern coast of India, and at once began to study the language and engage in such efforts for the good of the settlement as lay in their power. But opposition was soon developed; not among the natives, but as so often happened in early days in 136 The Christian Conquest of India Pioneers in Modefn Lines Converts and The Press India, the officials in charge of the settlement became hostile, and Ziegenbalg was thrown into prison. ISTo cable could carry the news to Europe in those days, and a long time elapsed before he regained his liberty. But the work went on, and was extended to the neighboring kingdom of Tan- jore, and a little later to Tinnevelli. Later still, Madras was occupied as a missionary station, and for many years the Danish organization was known as "the Coast Mission." These Danish missionaries made some grave mistakes, but on the other hand they established some valuable precedents which are widely fol- lowed to the present day. They were the pioneers in the work of Bible translation, and within three years they had taken up the important work of preparing a suitable literature in the Tamil lan- guage for the people among whom they were to live. They were the first missionaries to use the agency of schools, not merely as an ally of civiliza- tion, but as an aid to their missionary enterprise. Numerous itinerations were made among the people, and, in short, mission work in elementary ways at least, was established on lines not essen- tially different from those now employed. Success attended these good men from the first. By the end of three and one half years, they had gathered around them one hundred and sixty con- verts, and ten years later the number had quad- rupled. A flourishing station was established in i Christian Conquerors 137 1 ] Madras, and the missionaries began to preach in j Telugu and Portuguese as well as in Tamil. 'No ^ ' less than one hundred and forty persons were bap- j tized in Madras in a single year. The publications i of their press were in eager demand in Bombay | and other distant places, and some of them even : found their way to important towns in northern 1 India. i A new era may be dated in the history of the Schwartz \ Danish mission from the arrival of Christian Friedrich Schwartz in 1750. This extraordinary man is universally conceded to have been one of j the greatest leaders who has appeared in the mis- j sionary ranks in India. He was a gifted man, a I devoted Christian, an untiring and unselfish worker, a good organizer, and had in his person nearly all the elements which enter into the char- ; acter of a leader of men. At the time of his arri- ' val the first generation of missionaries had nearly : all passed away. Troublous times were at hand I in southern India and he seemed to be the provi- j dential man to breast the coming storms. He won the favor of hostile Frenchmen, was trusted by Hindu and Mohammedan rulers without hesita- tion, and became the agent of British rulers in negotiations of great delicacy and of supreme im- i portance. For the first sixteen years his field of ■ labor was in Tranquebar and its neighborhood, ] but his activities were afterward largely trans- j ferred to Trichinopoli and Tanjore. In both ' 138 The Christian Conquest of India places he was able to secure the erection of churches through the liberal gifts which his char- acter and services called forth from English civil- ians and soldiers and native rulers. It was in 1779 that he was entrusted by the officials at Madras with a conciliatory mission to Hyder All, the prince who was exercising control in the king- dom of Mysore. "Send me the Christian," said the suspicious ruler, "he will not deceive me." As one result, Schwartz by his intercession was able to save the district of Cuddalore from destruction by the savage hordes of the enemy. When Hyder forced upon him a present of three hundred rupees, the unselfish missionary gave it to the English authorities to be applied to the building of an orphan asylum in Tanjore. Evangelistic He was an evangelist in his method of mis- sionary labor, and led many thousands into the Christian Church. It has been estimated that there were 50,000 Christians connected with the Danish mission at the close of the eighteenth cen- tury. The host of converts who were thus rallied under the banner of Schwartz and his associates were not all lost to Christianity. Some of them or their descendants no doubt were absorbed by other missions or churches in later years, though the numbers of Christians in their several fieldi by 1850, was surprisingly small.^ ^Sherring, History/ of Protestant Missions in India, 51. Success Christian Conquerors 139 British Beginning made by William Carey In the inauguration of the first real attempt of Great Britain to evangelize India, God chose a leader whom man never could have chosen. Wil- liam Carey gave little promise in early life of achieving success in his chosen calling, or for that matter, in any calling. His genius seemed to the dull-minded people around him, an eccentricity; his absorbed thoughtfulness, a mark of stupidity. As a country shoemaker he was barely able to make a living, and as a pastor of a small Baptist church, he prospered but little better. But he thought; he absorbed knowledge as if by instinct, and he developed a marvelous ability to master both ancient and modern languages. Such a man com- pelled both respect and attention; and when he began to talk about the duty of Christ's Church to evangelize the world, it became certain that the missionary cause would get a hearing in at least one somewhat remote community. Nothing could discourage, and certainly nothing could silence this persistent advocate of a great idea; and soon friends began to rally around the standard which he had set up. His plans, as viewed in the light of the present day, do not appear to have been wise or even practicable ; but the supreme duty of the hour was recognized and boldly proclaimed by him, and his voice began to be like that of an old- time prophet. William Carey 140 The Christian Conquest of India Baptist • After many discouragements, it was decided to sodety"^'^^ discuss the question at a meeting of Baptist min- isters to be held at Kettering ; and on this occasion Carey preached a sermon of extraordinary pathos and power, which produced a remarkable impres- sion upon his brethren and led to the immediate organization of what is now the Baptist Mission- ary Society. But all this happened in a somewhat obscure country district, and the new society had very few friends and no visible resources. In Lon- don the Baptist leaders looked upon the Kettering movement almost as an impertinence. In all ages alike, Jerusalem is offended if Nazareth becomes the starting-point of a new evangel. But the men who had associated themselves with Carey in this great enterprise were not wanting either in courage or devotion, and no further time was lost in talk. Carey goes to Bcf orc his uotablc scrmou Carey had preached a sermon at the meeting of the Baptist ^Association in which his theme was summarized in the now famous words that have become one of the best known missionary mottoes: "Expect great things from God ; attempt great things for God.^^ These two phrases give the keynote of his life. The obsta- cles seemed almost too great to be overcome in the way of his going to India, the chief being the oppo- sition to the presence of missionaries on the part of the British East India Company. But a way was providentially opened for him and his family to Indi Christian Conquerors 141 Work at Mudnabatty go on a Danish ship, and they reached Calcutta, November 11, 1793. The date is that from v/hich the modern era of missionary conquest of India is now reckoned. True to his motto, it was not long before Carey was attempting great things for God. The poor cobbler of England, with scant provi- sion for support from the homeland, soon had opened to him at Mudnabatty, a hundred and fifty miles north of Calcutta, the superintendency of an indigo factory at a salary of $300 a year, yet with such duties that he had time for the work of his mission. Plunging into the study of Bengali, he was able in a few months to begin preaching in that language among the two hundred villages around him, while he gave careful attention to the spiritual needs of the many native workmen emplo3Td in the factory. At the same time he began his great work of translating the Scriptures into Bengali. Thus at Mudnabatty for more than five years from 1794 to 1800, Carey provided for his own expenses, while doing a vast amount of missionary work, mastered the Bengali language, and began the translating of the Bible into that tongue by completing the New Testament. In the year 1800 commenced the era of his set- At serampur tlement with other missionaries at Serampur, a town ab9ut fifteen miles north of Calcutta and then under Danish control. Here occurred the scene when Carey was permitted to baptize in the Hugli Eiver, first his own son Felix, using English 142 The Christian Conquest of India Professor at Fort William College 'Work as Translator words, and then Krishna Pal, his first Hindu con- vert, with the baptismal formula in Bengali. It is not strange that the governor of the Danish settle- ment who was present could not restrain his tears of emotion at the sight. In 1801 Carey's translation of the New Testa- ment into Bengali was issued. The eminent scholarship which it disclosed led to his call to the chair of Bengali in the government college at Fort William, Calcutta. His first position was that of teacher of Bengali, afterward of Sanskrit and of Marathi, with a salary of $3,000 per year. It was not long before he became professor of these three languages, and his emoluments rose to $7,500 a year;^ but the whole of this income, excepting about $200 annually needed for the support of his family, was devoted to the interests of the mis- sion.* This position he held with highest success and honor until 1830, within four years of his death. Either under his superintendence or by himself, translations of the Scriptures were made in thirty- five languages or dialects. Of these, six were of the whole Bible; twenty-two of the New Testa- ment, five including also a considerable part of the Old Testament ; and seven of portions of the New Testament.^ A great multitude of tr^ts were ^Sherring, History of Protestant Missions in India, 63 'Creegan, Great Missionaries of the Church, 52, 53. ®Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 170. Christian Conquerors 143 issued, as well as books for schools and colleges. As early as 1810 Carey had five mission centers in operation, in Bengal, Bhutan, Burma, Orissa, and the new station at Agra. By the close of 1816 the Serampur missionaries had baptized about 700 native converts, and in their schools Christian instruction had been imparted to more than 10,000 heathen children.' Dr. Carey wrote grammars and elementary text- Learning and books of many of the languages that he acquired. He possessed wide knowledge of the arts and sciences. Improvements were made in the native paper for press purposes, rendering it proof against destruction by insects, a steam engine was imported to work the paper mill, and practical knowledge was applied to botany and agriculture, resulting in great material benefits to India. He cared little for the many honors which came to j him, or for worldly praise. His work was to make j Christ known, to impart to India's millions the i Word of God, to stop cruel sacrifices such as those i of children at the great annual festival at Gunga ; Sangor; to secure the abolition of the awful cus- ! tom of widow-burning on the pyre of the dead bus- ^ band. He had the joy in 1829 of translating into j Bengali the decree and proclamation which forever I put an end to this horrible practice of Hinduism. ^ He laid the foundations broad and deep of the | ^Sherring, History of Protestant Missions in India, \ 175. ^ 144 The Christian Conquest of India great Protestant missionary movement not only in India bnt in all the Orient. For forty-one yeiars unbroken by return to England, he toiled for India's Christian conquest, his death occurring t CKFT EASTERN INDIA June 9, 1834. Surely William Carey not only attempted but accomplished great things for God ; be expected and received great things from God. Christian Conquerors 145 Creative Power of Carey's Letters and Influence Two great missionary impulses, each of far- reaching significance, appeared, one in the closing years of the eighteenth century and the other in the early years of the nineteenth, both arising from the effect of Dr. William Carey's letters from India. In Great Britain these letters aroused such conviction and interest among non-Baptists as resulted in 1795 in the organization of the London Missionary Society which has largely been the agency for the missionary work of the Indepen- dents, or Congregationalists, of the British Isles. Somewhat later Dr. Carey's letters came to Amer- ica and produced a similar missionary awakening, which found organic expression in 1810 in the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, now almost wholly the channel of the missionary operations of the Congregationalists of the United States. Carey's influence also pre- pared the way for later Baptist missionary organi- zation in the United States, as interest in his work and that of his associates led the members of Bap- tist churches in America to send to England con- tributions in their aid, sometimes to the amount of several thousand dollars a year. Giving Impulse to Missionary Organization Other Men of Might Henry Martyn received his first missionary Henry impulse while still at Cambridge, from a remark *«*"y» 146 The Christian Conquest of India of the Eev. Charles Simeon, the university preacher, on the good accomplished by a single missionary, Carey, in India. The impression was intensified by his reading The Life of David Brainerd, and he decided to give himself to mis- sion work. The need of providing support for a sister led him to accept a chaplaincy under the East India Company, but his was not less a soul aflame with missionary devotion. On the passage out he studied Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic. Arriving in India in 1806, he displayed a quench- less zeal and exerted and left a marvelous influ- ence, which taken with his brief years of service and the disappointment of his hopes of domestic joys, has caused his name to be instinctively linked with that of Brainerd. "Now let me burn out for God/^ he wrote two days after his arrival in Calcutta. At Dinapur Soon he was far up the Ganges at Dinapur near Patna, with the two regiments to which he had been assigned as chaplain. In a letter to England he says, "I fag as hard here as ever we did for our degrees at Cambridge. The heat is terrible, often at 98 degrees, the nights insupportable.^^ Yet he was engaged in translating the New Testament into Hindustani, and at the same time was pre- paring a book on the parables of our Lord, and a translation of the Book of Common Praj^er. He held almost daily discussions with Hindus and Mohammedans, and cared for vernacular schools Christian Conquerors 147 which he had organized and was supporting from his own purse. In addition to all this, his duties as chaplain to the English troops and civilians were faithfully performed. In March, 1808, Martyn^s Hindustani translation of the New Tes- tament was completed. On the twelfth of the same month a new church edifice for which he had earnestly labored was opened for divine service. Shortly afterward came the transference of his chaplaincy to the troops at Cawnpur. Here almost the same labors as at Dinapur for troops, civilians, children, and for a church building were carried forward, while with Sabat, an Arab, who had been baptized at Madras, Persian and Arabic ver- sions of the New Testament were undertaken. Even an open air assembly of beggars was con- ducted Sunday by Sunday during the eighteen months of Mart^-n's labors at Cawnpur. It bore unexpected fruit, for a young Mussulman, who with others first watched this meeting with scorn, was through it won to Christ, became a native preacher, with the name Abdul Masih, "servant of Christ,^' and was instrumental in leading many to the Saviour, one being the chief physician of the Eajah of Bhurtpur. Under his intense labors, together with the effect of the climate, the health of the young chap- lain began to decline, and there were admonitory signs of consumption. It was also seen, after his Persian translation of the Xew Testament At Cawnpur His Farewell to India 148 The Christian Conquest of India appeared^ that it would be desirable to go into Arabia and Persia, that he might more success- fully solve the problem of the idiomatic rendering of the 'New Testament into Arabic and Persian. On the last Sabbath of September, 1810, he took leave of his European congregation in Cawnpur. On that very day the church edifice, the erection of which he had promoted, was opened for divine service, and it continued to be the military church of Cawnpur till 1857, when it was destroyed by the mutineers. After leaving India, a year was spent at Shiraz in carrying through the fresh transla- tion of the New Testament into Persian. A Hero's Finally after a measure of recovery from more Triumph gerious illness, this frail man of indomitable will started on a horseback journey of 1,300 miles to Constantinople, hoping thus to make his way back to England. Such a ride would have taxed the endurance of the strongest, and the stages of the course were traversed with brutal haste by Hassan, a Turkish attendant. What wonder that on Octo- ber 6, when a fresh relay of horses were not to be had, Martyn should write: "I sat in the orchard and thought with sweet comfort and peace of my God, in solitude my Company, my Friend and Comforter. when shall time give place to eter- nity? When shall appear that new heaven and new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness ?" For him the transition was close at hand from pain and hardship to release and triumph, for on Octo- Christian Conquerors 149 ber 16, 1812, he reached Tocat, and passed away, and his body was there laid to rest in the Arme- nian cemetery. His influence, like that of Brain- erd^s is nndying, and of the kind that has created many missionaries. Though permitted to give but four brief years of service to India, his name is joined imperishably with the Christian conquest of the Orient ; and his versions of the ISTew Testa- ment in Hindustani and Persian, spoken by many- millions of people, are enduring monuments to his scholarship and missionary devotion. "Adoniram Judson," says Dr. George Smith, Adoniram "is surpassed by no missionary since the apostle J""^^"" Paul in self-devotion and scholarship, in labors and perils, in saintliness and humility, and in the result of his toils on the future of an empire and its multitudinous peoples."^ After his conversion and preparation for mis- Marriage and sion work abroad, Judson was married in 1812 to Miss Ann Hasseltine, and sailed with his bride from Salem, Massachusetts, for Calcutta. He was a member of the Congregational Church and went out under the American Board, but on the long voyage he came to the view that the Baptist belief was more nearly in agreement with the Scriptures.. Accordingly, after arriving at Calcutta, he and his wiie were received into fellowship by the Baptist missionaries at Serampur, and he resigned his connection with the American Board. Mr. Rice, ^Smith, The Conversion of India, 151. Arrival in Burma 150 The ChLristian Conquest of India Difficult Beginnings Disappoint- ment and Imprisonment at Ava who though going out on another ship, passed through a like experience, returned to America to urge the organizing of a Baptist Missionary Soci- ety, and this was effected in 1814. Provision was thus made for sustaining the mission to Burma undertaken by Mr. and Mrs. Judson, and after great vicissitudes they reached Eangoon, July 13, 1813. Burma was then an independent empire with a population of about eight millions. The govern- ment was an absolute despotism, arbitrary and cruel, and the religion was Buddhism. There were two languages to be learned, the common Burmese and the sacred Pali. Judson at once commenced the translation of the Bible into the Burmese. Eeinforcements arrived in 1816 and the printing press began to put tracts and portions of the Scriptures into circulation. In 1819, about six years after his arrival in Eangoon, Judson was able to begin preaching to a Burmese audience in their own tongue, and not long after the first con- vert, Moung Nau, was won to Christ. Gradually others were added till in 1822 there was a native church of eighteen members. Judson greatly desired to plant Christianity at Ava, the capital of the empire,^ and for this pur- pose had made a journey by boat four hundred miles up the Irawadi from Eangoon, and secured an interview with the emperor, but without avail ^Ava is located just south of Mandalay. Christian Conquerors 151 as far as permission to evangelize the natives was concerned. Leaving the little church at Eangoon in charge of others who had come to reinforce the mission, Dr. and Mrs. Judson removed to Ava in 1823. But scarcely had they arrived before war broke out between the English and the emperor. Dr. Judson and other foreigners were thrown into prison, where for nine months he lay in three pairs, and for two months more in five pairs of fetters. Then for six months more he remained in a country prison in one pair of fetters. The prisons were indescribably filthy, and for greater security the prisoners at night were partly sus- pended from a bamboo pole. For the rest of his life Judson bore the scars of the fetters he w^ore at Ava and the prison Oung-pen-la. During all these months his devoted wife went back and forth amid the burning heat and among the mocking foes daily carrying food to her imprisoned husband. In her girlhood days Mrs. Judson had expressed womanly a desire to "ramble.''' Truly she had rambled far «"o«»« from the quiet New England manse from which she went forth as a bride, but it was for the sake of the souls of Burma that she sought to make one home after another in that land, and with her hus- band pierced its jungles, threaded its rivers, lin- gered among its prisons, and at length with their little daughter Maria found the rest that is undis- Adoniram Judson: A BiograpJiy, by his son Ed- ward Judson, D.D., 27. 152 The Christian Conquest of India Service at Maulmein and Among the Karens Immortal Words Finishing a Masterly Course turbed, beneath the hopia-tree in southern Burma. She is but one of the many examples of supreme heroism among the wives of missionaries. The principal center for Judson^s activities was Maulmein at the mouth of the Sal win, southeast from Eangoon across the Gulf of Martaban. From this point, aided by other missionaries and native helpers, he did much to extend the Christian movement among the Karens. To reach them required excursions to be made into the jungles and remote recesses among the hills bordering the valley of the Salwin. They proved most suscep- tible to missionary effort. Evangelization also went forward rapidly among the Burmans. Although the intolerance of the court at Ava never was removed during Judson's life, he unceasingly sought to extend the work into the heart of the empire. When asked as to the pros- pects of the gospel in Burma, his reply was in the famous words that have become one of the most inspiring of missionary mottoes : "The prospects are as bright as the promises of God." In the year 1834 Dr. Judson completed his translation of the entire Bible into Burmese, and about seven years later finished the revision, which was a still more laborious task. It was a stupen- dous work to be carried through single-handed, and is regarded as one of the most successful of versions. He also compiled a Burmese dictionary, and was the author of writings that exerted a Christian Conquerors 153 > ] powerful influence in Christianity's long battle '< with the bigotry and intolerance of the native . Buddhistic powers. The end came of this most I strenuous of missionary lives in 1850, on a ship I bringing the worn laborer to America, and almost fittingly the mortal frame of a soul so boundless i in its purpose and endeavor found sepulcher in the illimitable deep. At the time of his death the i native Christians numbered 7,000, and in 1905 i the number of communicants in the Baptist ! churches of Burma from many different races, ■ were more than 53,000. He laid the foundation ' of the religion of Christ deep down in the Burman i heart, and no power of opposition has been able to I sweep it away. : Charles Simeon, the earnest and spiritual Alexander preacher at Cambridge, who largely inspired the ^"^ I formation of the Church Missionary Society and ; kindled the soul of Henry Mart}^ into flame for j India, by a chance sermon in the little village of I ^.loulin during a trip to Scotland probably indi- j rectty won another great missionary for India. \ James Duff and Jean Rattray, destined to be the ; father and mother of Alexander Duff, were in the little village kirk that day, and it was to both of | them the beginning of a new life. Born in 1806, i Dr. Duff attributed his first missionary impression ■ to that father, who when his little son was but four 1 years old showed him pictures of idols and stirred his heart with compassion for the heathen. 154 The Christian Conquest of India fo"anr'°'' Young Duff, recently graduated from St. Entrance upon Audrew^s, liceused, ordained, married by Dr. Mission Work (jhalmers to Anne Scott Drysdale, after two ship- wrecks on the voyage, arrived with his bride in Calcutta, May 27, 1830. He was at this time twenty-four years of age, of commanding presence and boundless energy, and had accepted his com- mission from the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland to go out as a missionary to India unhampered by conditions. Well that it was so, for the one point of instruction which he had received, not to found in Calcutta the institution which the Society was to establish under his care, had to be disregarded. The judgment of Dr. Carey, whose blessing he r ceived at Serampur, coincided with his own, and at Calcutta the plan of a Christian mission college which should do its work with the English language as its medium was carried out with astonishing success. It proved to be one of the great revolutionizing steps that in an educational way almost did for India what the public school system has accomplished for North America. It was really an essential fac- tor in the process of uniting the interests of Eng- land and India, which caused it to be quickly adopted by the British government schools in India. It has emancipated the young men and women of the lower ranks and castes, and given them an outlook toward advancement and posi- tion. Yet its first most noticeable effects were Christian Conquerors 155 seen in the large numbers, reaching into the hun- dreds, of high-caste Hindu young men who were drawn to the school, and from whose ranks some were soon led to Christ, such as Krishna Mohun Bannerjea, and the Rev. Gopinath l\undy. The students recognized in the Holy Scriptures, which were faithfully taught in the college along with other studies, an uplifting influence such as their o^^Ti sacred books did not possess. "Love your enemies ; bless them that curse you. How beauti- ful ! how divine ! Surely those Scriptures contain the truth," exclaimed one of the students one morning during the Bible hour. Dr. Duff also wrought marvels by his eloquence Educative in awakening the missionary spirit in the entire Eloquence English-speaking world of his day. Such an edu- cative and inspirational movement was necessary in the middle period of the nineteenth century as a basis for the great missionary advances in its closing decades. Probably no other voice has ever promoted the cause of missions by quickening the thought and feeling of the home field as did Dr. Duff. In periods of recuperation from sickness and the strain of his work in India he and his wife were in Great Britain from 1834 to 1839 and again from 1850 to 1855, and in the last-named year he visited the United States and Canada, everywhere arousing immense enthusiasm. Through his efforts missionaries w^ere steadily dispatched to India and the stream of contributions to sustain 156 The Christian Conquest of India The Evening Glow Men and Women Heralds of Light them and the schools wonderfully increased, so that on the return of the unwearied leader and his wife to India the college at Calcutta, the grow- ing Christian college of south India at Madras, and other parts of the work were found to be in a most flourishing condition. Again disabled by illness in 1863, Dr. Duff, amid a great company of sorrowing friends, took final leave of the land for which he had labored for thirty-three years. But there was no waning of his zeal for its Christian uplift. Called by his Church to a missionary professorship, he prepared courses of lectures which he gave winter by winter in the colleges of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and Glas- gow, Then there were the years from 1873 onward when less could be undertaken, but even in the last year the advocacy of India's cause had the right of way. At last came the serene end of a great missionary career, February 12, 1878. Ever Enlarging Roll of Worlcers The roll of noble missionary workers in India is a long one. In earlier, as in later periods, it includes the names of sons and daughters of other lands than Great Britain and America. And of those who have gone forth from the English- speaking race only a few can be mentioned of the scores who have completed their course, not to speak of the hundreds who are still on the battle line. Christian Conquerors 157 Characters replete with interest are associated characters with the early dawn of the modern missionary era °^ ^^^ Dawn in India. There are Joshua Marshman and Wil- liam Ward, Carey's devoted and deeply learned companions at Serampur, who went out in 1799; Eeginald Heber, the saintly bishop of Calcutta, who tirst having composed the matchless mission- ary hymn. From Greenland's icy mountains, From India's coral strand, went to India in 1823 and poured out his life in Vvdlling service to her people ; chaplains of the East India Company to be named along with Henry Mart}Ti, such as David Brown, Claudius Buchanan, Daniel Corrie, and Thomas Thomason; Eingie- taube the eccentric but effective pioneer in Madras and Tinnevelli; Samuel Newell, among the first to go to the foreign field under the inspiration of i the Williams College movement; and his wife, \ Harriet Newell, whose early death and burial on 1 the Isle of France left her grave a waymark point- ; ing toward India's conquest. In the decades from 1820 to 1850, John Wilson, Three Forma- ; Robert Nesbit, and J. Murray Mitchell, almost the *^^' ^"^^" \ first of Scotland's gifted sons offering themselves for India, strongly advanced the lines of educa- [ tional and literary work begun by Carey ; Gordon \ Hall of the American Board left a record in Bom- j bay and western India for self -forgetting service ! 158 The Christiaii Conquest of India that reminds one of Brainerd and Martyn ; Hough and Pettitt won victories in the field of Tinnevelli ; while Bailey and others in Travancore and Cochin, Gordon Hall 1812-1826 John Wilson 1829—1875 IJ. Murray Mitchell, Robert Nesbit 1827— iBombay OAhmadnagar Ig ' Samuel B Fairbank 1846-1893 Narayan Sheshadrl ®Poona Pand ita Ramabal HAIDARABAD Ongole^^j_ymanjewett Samuels Day 1 Nellore l840-i853®|J0hnE.CIou^h 1865- FrancisA.Dou|lassljQhnAndersonl857-55 .nhr,c. L? T^i ,t?^ \Hot>ertJohnston 183^51 Ban&aloreO Y. M.C. A.^i'^f'^J^ ^ ^,„^„ David Mcconaughy /John Murdoch 1858- OMysore 1889 /W.T.Satthianadhan \o^ . 'Q36- rrranquebar ^VCalicut ^^^jQp^jZiegenbQlgl706-l7l9 \\williarnTod l835WPIut5ChaU 1706 ^^M"/^arSo"^°/Schwartz 1750-1798 . tiwm?v/fi 1 1 I W.TRing,letaubeia04-J5 COCH I N V y^amesHou^h I8I6-I82I TRAVANCOReV / George Pettitt I BenjaminBaileylBlo-^ ^^ ! CKFT WESTEllN AND SOUTHERN INDIA Tod and Hoisington in Madura, and Hodson and his fellow-workers in Mysore covered other parts of southern India. John Scudder became the pio- Christian Conquerors 159 ' neer of medical missions in Ceylon and the region j of Madras, and demonstrated that a regimen of ^i total abstinence was possible in the Orient. George Dana Boardman linked his name imperish- ably with the beginnings of the marvelous move- | ment among the Karens of Burma. Not on ship- ' board, but back into the forest paths he com- ; manded the bearers of the litter to carry him, that with his expiring breath he might welcome into : the fellowship of the Church of Christ the first- , fruits of his work among these "wild men'^^ of the j jungles. Finally came the wonderful half century of Kaif century achievement from 1850 to 1900. Scarcely was the °^ Expansion ; Mutiny over before Dr. William Butler was able to lay the foundations in the Ganges valley of the ' work of an American society'' that has since spread 1 to nearly all parts of the Indian empire; Ander- ! son and Johnston at Madras grandly carried out \ the educational idea of Duff for southern India; I Murdoch developed the field of Christian litera- . ture; Samuel B. Fairbank wrought powerfully ; among the Marathas in the west ; John E. Clough I gained thousands among the Telugus in the east < from the long planting of Day, Douglass, and Jewett; William Taylor started an evangelistic wave in the great cities like Calcutta, Bombay, ■: Poona, and Madras, that has scarcely ceased yet to ^ ^The name "Karens" means literally "wild men." ' 'That of the Methodist Episcopal Church. i IGO Tlie Christian Conquest of India Women's Era roll over the land ; and Samuel H. Kellogg by his scholarship and power as a linguist and Christian thinker left an indelible impress upon the field of north India. ' 866-^9 oV_oBatala/ ChafrloUeMariaTucker('A.L.O.E'.'lr^''f f, of the Hindu commnnity. Young men who have | been educated in the government schools come out ! atheists and are unreliable in character. . . . The ' young men whom the missionaries educate come j from the schools with faith in God and satisfactory i stability of character/^ Modern education apart , from Christianity destroys but does not build up faith. Therefore it would be a shortsighted and ; disastrous policy to discontinue educational , missions. ] There are some persons who question the expen- "vvhy do i diture of money in maintaining educational insti- work? ' j tutions on the ground that they are not an evan- j gelistic agency. In reply to this criticism, Dr. [ Jones after a tested experience in India writes : "I fearlessly maintain that more conversions trke ; place and more accessions are made through j schools than through any other agency apart from j the Christian Church itself."' Schools and col- ] leges are necessary to properly train a native agency upon whom must fall the greater part of the evangelization of the empire, and the native ; Christian community must have other educated ] leaders if Christianity is to become a vital force. . Then, too, a higher class of students are attracted ■' to colleges, who would never consent to listen to | the gospel on the street or enter a church. Caste 1 is also being broken down because in a number of i institutions high caste students are being taught -j ^Jones, India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 249. j ;1 178 The Christian Conquest of India by low caste instructors. In nearly all missionary institutions the daily Bible class is a part of the regular course, and if students are not converted while in attendance, they usually go forth from college into business or professional life with their former faith disintegrated and their ideals revolu- tionized by contact with Christian teaching. The American The American College at Madura is a type c CoEiege Christian institution that is leavening a section in southern India with the spirit of Christianity. Its departments are: College, Theological, Nor- mal, High and Lower schools, and Industrial. It is affiliated with the Madras University and receives an annual grant from the government. The faculty numbers fifty-two and there are 1,030 in attendance from thirty-five castes. Two fifths are Hindus and about one half of these are Brahmans, while the remainder are Mohamme- dans and aborigines. The majority who have gone out from the college are Christians, and the re- mainder were permeated with the spirit of Christ. As a further result of the work of this college, 232 have entered distinctively Christian work, 600 are teachers, a large number are in the government service, others are editors, lawyers, and some have gone into agriculture and other industries. They are scattered in northern and southern India and in Burma and Ceylon, and are taking an active part in rightly shaping the destiny of the empire. College Hall of Madura Mission III II If 11 1 , . fl-.^^ ..-.• 4. :l!!,\ i'd nV»l iliil I till UJII iiiw 'A* Forman Christian College, Lahore Opening of Newton Hall, February 5, 1903 Missionary Agencies 179 Litetary If the people of India are ever to become an importance of intelligent and educated people, provision must be press""*^^^' made' for supplying them with devotional books and text-books suited to their stage of progress and full of the inspiration which the myriads of the great Eastern world need at this momentous era of the world^s progress. Dr. Carey appreciated the power of the press, and with characteristic foresight became the pioneer printer of all India. His printing-press at Serampur was the first one established in India, and although it has long since ceased to exist as the Serampore press, it is practically represented by the Baptist Mission Press of Calcutta, an institution which has had a long period of usefulness. Fifty-three publishing houses, some older and others of recent origin, have been established at important centers of popu- lation and influence, and are printing one hundred and forty-seven newspapers and magazines for the Christian people, besides thousands of leaflets, books, and other literature. For some reason missionary societies on both ^ack of sides of the Atlantic have failed thus far to appre- ciate the power of the printing-press. This is the more unfortunate so far as India is concerned, because the educated leaders of the Indian commu- nity have been quick to avail themselves of the power which it puts in their hands, and often it Appreciation 180 The Christian Conquest of India Bible and Tract Societies Value of Literature Influence of a Gospel happens that the streets are placarded with notices of books and pamphlets which are hostile to Chris- tianity, while hardly a line in defense of the truth can be obtained. The speeches of Ingersoll and Bradlaugh with others of like kind have been scat- tered far and wide throughout the Eastern world. The propagation of theosophy was chiefly effected through the press, and the exposure and overthrow of the imposture may be credited to the same agency. Any year or any day new issues may arise — indeed new issues are sure to arise — and for these the defenders of the truth and the guides of the Church of the future should always be prepared. The Bible Society, Tract Societ}^, and Christian Literature Society are valuable auxiliaries in the distribution of good literature among the people. These organizations have expended large sums of money in the translation, revision, and circulation of the Scriptures. They have also furnished many exceedingly useful tracts, illustrating and defend- ing the Christian religion. The influence of the printed page is invaluable in the present propaganda both among Christians and non-Christians, and probably no phase of activity encourages larger hopes than the distribu- tion of wholesome literature among India's people. The following shows the effective power of Christian literature: "It is said that one of the vernacular versions of the Gospels accidentally fell Missionary Agencies 181 into the hands of a Mohammedan Moulvi, or teacher, in North India. It had been prepared and published by the Bible Society. The Mussul- man read the book with eagerness, chiefly with a view to find new arguments against the divinity of our Lord and the heavenly source of our faith. But as he read, he was so impressed with the won- derful narrative and the unique beauty of the character of our Lord, that he surrendered himself to him as his Saviour and found in him peace and rest. Somewhat later he met a Hindu fakir, named Chet Ram, who was earnestly in search of the truth. The Mohammedan convert joyfully told him of his newly found Saviour and gave liim his copy of the New Testament that he might find for himself the same blessing. The Holy Spirit carried the gospel message of life into his heart also, and he accepted Christ and at once began to preach him to his friends and neighbors. This work he performed faithfully; and he gathered around himself many who accepted this short creed : 'I believe in Jesus Christ the Son of Mary, and in the Holy Ghost, and in the Father to whom prayer should be made, and in the Bible through which salvation is to be received.^ Chet Eam died some time ago; but there are to-day found scat- tered through the villages of North India thou- sands of his followers who subscribed to his brief creed and who always carry upon their persons a copy of the Scriptures. So far as I know, these 182 The Christian Conquest of India people have never come into contact with Chris- tian workers, but have been led simply through a study of God's Word, under the guidance of God's Spirit, unto Christ the Saviour of the world." ^ Medical Work .Demands for Almost all missiouarics, no matter in what part iMedicai Aid ^£ ^j^^ world their lot may be cast or whether they have any medical knowledge or not, will at times be almost compelled to distribute medicine among the sick, and to act the part of the Good Samari- tan in various ways. Go where he may the average missionary will find human suffering and human helplessness, and he will certainly have ever-recur- ring appeals made to him for medical help. If he responds to these appeals, as he almost certainly will, he may sometimes be repaid with ingratitude, but it is much more probable that his kindness will win favor for him and prove of service in his missionary work. Observing this result, many missionaries naturally have become impressed with the idea of establishing medical missions, involving the sending out of medical men and women who are to use their medical skill as a means of helping multitudes of helpless people, and at the same time making Christ known to them, under circumstances which are naturally calculated to impress them favorably. This idea ^Jones, India's ProMem: Krishna or Christ, 334. Missionary Agencies 183 has met with much favor, and medical missiona- ries, men and women, are now in many parts of India. ^ Medical missions have added mnch to the gen- Aid to eral reputation of the missionaries among the **^^"°°» people, and have helped the missionary to emulate his Master in relieving a large amount of physical suffering. They have given Christianity a better standing among the people by disarming preju- dices and removing hostilit}^ They have also been the means of breaking down caste and bringing many people within direct hearing of the gospeL Through the women workers they have brought relief to the inmates of Oriental zenanas, a class for whom no proper medical help had ever been provided before the advent of the missionaries. In their good work the medical missionaries have been encouraged and in some cases assisted by the government officials, and in the more remote dis- tricts help would be materially increased if the missionary societies could be depended on to fill vacancies as they occur and to carry on the good work without interruption. In all the records of missionary history no story women has been more remarkable than that which tells P^y''^*^^"" of the sending of medical lady missionaries to India. Previous to 1870' there was not a single ^Clara A. Swain, M.D., was sent to India by the Women's Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1869, arriving in Bareilly, Jan. 20, 1870. 184 The Christian Conquest of India medical lady in all the non-Christian world, and when it was proposed to send medical women as missionaries to India, many influential parties opposed the movement, and not a few denounced it as impracticable, if not dangerous. But the tolerant and intelligent government of the day approved the experiment, and a very short trial sufficed to demonstrate the unqualified success of the experiment. The medical ladies were received without hesitation by all classes and castes, and before many years had passed, young ladies were admitted as students into the government medical colleges of the country, and have now won recog- nition as efficient practitioners. iSTotwithstanding the excellent efforts made by Need for -j-j^g government to supply medical aid. Dr. Wan- Missions less writes that ^^there are still 566,000 villages with a population of five hundred or less and thou- sands of larger villages and towns without a resi- dent educated physician. Even in the city of Cal- cutta, which is the best supplied with physicians of any in India, three out of every five die unat- tended by physicians.^^^ When one remembers the adhesion of the masses to the superstition that sickness is an expression of the anger of the gods or goddesses, and realizes that between seven and eight millions die annually, it is not difficult to believe in the need of skilled physicians for the country. ^The Missionary Review of the World, May, 1905. Missionary Agencies 185 How diversified are the attending benefits may Typical be learned from this scene : "First of all there J^°'°^T ^' ^ Medical came the service, with the assembled patients in Mission the front of the veranda. The patients listened to the Doctor's address which lasted about fifteen minutes. There was a poor Brahman who had come some fifteen miles, next to him was a poor low-caste man, next to him was a Hindu merchant, over there was a Parsee clerk from Bombay, and next to him a man of the agricultural caste, all drawn by the one need to hear the same gospel and to receive the treatment each required. After the service the patients came in turn to see the doctor. Their ailments were varied, though eye and skin diseases predominated. All displayed gratitude for the help given, and one poor fellow, an old man, went down on the ground before Dr. Thomas, almost worshiping him for what he had done for him. Truly it is a blessed work !''^ The Miraj Medical Mission in the Bombay Miraj Medical Presidency, although not the largest in India, pre- Mission sents features that are typical and ideal. The work includes a hospital with sixty-five beds, a detached dispensary for outdoor patients, a medi- cal school for training Indian Christian young men, and a leper asylum. In one year, 1,313 in-patients were treated and more than 17,000 received treatment at the dispensary from between ^The Missionary Herald of the Baptist Missionary Society, March, 1906. 18G The Christian Conquest of India six and seven hundred villages in five provincial districts. During this same year 1,871 surgical operations were performed, 415 being for the removal of cataract. In connection with this hospi- tal there is also a European ward with a cottage for sick missionaries. The medical school with a four- year curriculum, is training Indian Christians for the work of medical assistants. One of the last class is a Brahman and is now the native physician in charge of Pandita Eamabai's institution for girl-widows. The entire medical staff, foreign and native, are Christians and take turn in conducting a twenty-minute noonday service in the wards. All who come to the mission receive a Christian tract and many buy Gospels and Christian books, while to all the gospel is preached or taught. The students of the medical school have organized a Young Men's Christian Association, and are actively engaged in missionary work among their own people. This work through its deeds of mercy is winning the favor of thousands and is commend- ing the Christian religion to all classes in a very practical way. Said a prominent Mohammedan, ^'^It is these medical missionaries who are winning the hearts and confidence of our people. If we do not do as they do, we will soon lose our hold upon our own people. We must build hospitals and care for the sick and dying if we wish to keep our reli- gion alive.""^ ^The Assembly Herald, April, 1905. Industrial Missions Missionar}^ x4gencies 187 Industrial Another missionary agency is attracting atten- Necessity foz tion at the present time. Converts are multiply- ing somewhat rapidly, and most of them are extremely poor. The country is densely popu- lated; every avenue of labor is crowded; wages are so low as to seem almost nominal; famines- have filled the orphanages with boys and girls who are approaching adult years and the missionaries are compelled to consider the question of finding employment for a constantly increasing number of people. How can they provide work for so many ? What new industries can they introduce ? Can they organize industrial schools and make them self-supporting? Can the missionary be- come a mechanic, or will it be better to send home for laymen who will give their exclusive attention to this kind of work ? Will it be possible to bene- fit the country and help the people in a general way, while still devoting the chief attention to the Christian youths and the Christian community? These and other questions of the kind are pressing themselves upon the attention of thoughtful mis- sionaries in many parts of the empire, and demand the attention of friends of missions in all lands. Of late years many attempts have been made to Difficulties meet this demand for employment, but not by any means with uniform success. Difficulties and obstacles abound, and it is not strange that many in the "Work for Success 188 The ChriGtian Conquest of Icdia ardent friends of the movement become dis- couraged. At the outset most of the converts are unaccustomed to habits of steady labor. Adults do not at first take kindly to work which is new to them. Boys become foolish and resent discipline. Imperfect work commands reduced pay. New associations are distasteful, and finally, poor human nature is weak, and average people in our world are very prone to become unreasonable and refuse to cooperate in efforts made to do them good; so oftentimes, in one way or another, many of these efforts fail. Requirements But it should uot be assumcd that all such efforts must fail, or that the experiments made in the past have been sufficient in all their bearings. As a matter of fact, the question in all its broad bearings has hardly been tested at all. The fail- ures of the past have been valuable for the lessons which they have taught, and some of the mistakes made will serve a good purpose to guide those who are to lead in coming days. One thing which is needed in such attempts is capital. Money is abso- lutely necessary. Time and patience also are fac- tors in the problem. It is seldom best for a mis- sionary to combine all offices in his own person. He cannot direct everything, and when his hands and heart are already full, he should not dream of assuming other tasks sufficient to fill the heart and hands of another man quite equal to himself. Up to date very few missionaries in India have Missionary Agencies 189 been assigned to the exclusive task of directing experiments in the line of industrial missions. It is impossible to enumerate the various indus- some tries that are emphasized, because of the different o^«^"pat^oa» conditions that must be met by the missionaries. As a rule the girls and women are taught cooking, spinning, weaving, laundry work, needle work, and embroidering, while the boys and men are instructed in carpentry, shoemaking, tailoring, printing, bookbinding, tile and brickmaking, agri- culture, and other trades. The Basel Evangelical Mission has probably Basel accomplished more in this phase of activity than any other mission in the country. They have suc- ceeded in inventing and manufacturing a superior quality of cloth and tile, that have found a ready market in India. They have also taught carpen- try, tailoring, and bookbinding to good advantage, and the Mission has proved that self-support is possible when the work is conducted by efficient Christian men from Europe. Besides being able to provide a livelihood for a large number of natives at their stations, the Indians trained in their schools have entered some of the trades and have made more than a living. The missionaries are able to point with pride to a number of their converts who own comfortable houses and have a bank account. Evangelical Mission 190 The Christian Conquest of India Philanthropic Work Famine ReUef ^g ^ result of the terrible famines which occur frequently, missionaries have found themselves in the presence of large numbers of orphans. These Christian workers would not be true to the holy instincts which inspire them, if the spectacle of these helpless and often djdng children did not move them to immediate efforts for their relief and permanent care for them, as they find them in every to^vn or village and along every public high- way. To feed them when found would relieve a present want, but nothing short of permanent care can save them. The result might have been pre- dicted by any one who knows the meaning of Christian sympathy, or understands the imperative sense of duty which such sympathy creates. The children are received as permanent wards, and in this way scores of Christian orphanages have been founded and equipped for a career of practical service in different parts of India. Results of rpj^g gooS. work donc by these institutions h-as proved a threefold blessing to the country. First, it has rescued and saved thousands of perishing little ones. In the second place, it has created a large number of permanent institutions for the rescue and training of orphan and helpless chil- dren of all grades. Lastly, it has led to the train- ing of large numbers of young people who are able to occupy positions of usefulness among their countrymen. These institutions have also served Young Men's Christian Association Building, Madras Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknow Missionary Agencies 191 as models for boarding and training schools, in which thousands of the sons and daughters of the land are receiving training and instruction, while the communities in which the schools are situated receive the benefit of the light and better spirit which emanates from such an agency. Young Men's Christian Association At the invitation of the missionaries of the invited to evangelical churches of Madras, the International Committee of the Young Men's Christian Associ- ation sent out Mr. David McConaughy in October, 1889, to establish the first Association among the young men of that city. The growth of this work, while phenomenal, has been substantial, and according to the latest statistics there are 110 Associations with a membership of 6,957. Its field of activity is among Europeans and ^leWsof Indians. It owns sixteen buildings valued at ^*^*y $400,000, and its secretaries are at work among the students, railroad men, civilians and British officials, and in the army. It is providing health- ful social surroundings, clean athletic exercises, and is ministering to the spiritual needs of India's young men through religious meetings and Bible study classes Perhaps the most strategic work is among the work Among students in the great educational centers where ®*"^*°*' agnosticism and vice are rife. Here the Associa- tion, because of its interdenominational character 192 The Christian Conquest of India and its vast experience among the students in many lands, is doing a unique work. Calcutta University is the largest student center, having more men registered than Harvard, Yale, Prince- ton, and Toronto. In addition to the 12,000 young men in the colleges, there are 30,000 pupils in the high schools of Calcutta. In these and other student centers, the Association conducts hostels or boarding clubs, and maintains Bible classes, lectures, and indoor and outdoor religious meetings. In the Association hostels, Hindus of various castes and Mohammedans eat at the same table. The value of this work is better expressed by the words of a Brahman who said to one of the secretaries: "I would much rather have liim (his son) live at the Association and lose his caste but keep his character, than to have him live with holy relatives, adhere to the forms of caste, and lose his character.^^ ^igh^^ Prominent government officials, among them Sir Donald Eraser, Governor of Bombay, are serv- ing as presidents of local Associations. In recog- nition of the educational work of the Calcutta Col- lege and Boys' branches, the Government of Ben- gal has voted $600 annually, and for the work among the railroad men of Jamalpur the East India Railway has provided the building and sec- retarial residence for the Association. Wherever the Association has entered it has won the hearty approval of those in authority. Recognition Missionary Agencies 193 The Decennial Missionary Conference in Madras Testimony of in 1903, the most representative gathering of Missionaries Protestant missionaries ever held in India, ex- pressed its appreciation of the work of the Young Men^s Christian Association in the -following reso- lution : "The Conference hereby records its hearty and thorough appreciation of the work of the Young Men^s Christian Association in India, Burma, and Ceylon. The Conference commends its general principles and methods, and affection- ately accords to those engaged in its work its praj^ers and fellowship, and emphasizes the strong claim which the Young Men's Christian Associa- tion work in India has already established upon the prayers, the sympathy, and support of the home churches/^ Young People^s Work It is only in recent years that the activities of importance of young people have become a vital force both in the young "^°°^ homeland and foreign field. To-day, as never before, the church has set its heart upon gripping the young people. The hope of the church in India and elsewhere is in its youth, and the organizations that can best win the young men and young women of the empire for the Master and direct them in Christian service, will be ren- dering the greatest service for the kingdom. It is becoming more evident that the labor lavished Ideal Plan 194 The Christian Conquest of India upon this generation of young people in India will bear the most fruitage. The young are more receptive, more responsive and plastic, and cling less tenaciously to their ancestral faith than those of more mature years. Some of the organizations that are rendering valuable help in the work of evangelization are the Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor, the Baptist Young People's Union, the Epworth League, the Sunday-school, and the Young Women's Christian Association. In some missions the evangelistic agency has been overshadowed by some other department of activity. While the importance of the other agen- cies must not be minimized, the neglect of pre- senting the gospel would be disastrous to the whole missionary enterprise. Among the people every effort must be made to heal their physical ills, to care for them in distress, to teach them the means of obtaining an honest living, to raise up an intel- ligent and efficient leadership, yet it must be borne in mind that the dominating purpose of missions is to make Christ preeminent in the lives of the millions of India. If any department may be magnified it is the evangelistic, but unquestionably the wiser plan is to have all these vital agencies permeated with the spirit of winning the alle- giance of the people to the Master. Missionary Agencies 195 QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER VI Aim: To Realize the Need and Value of the Various Forms of Work l...The Scope of Foreign Missions. 1* What in general does the work of foreign missions include and what does it not include? 2.* What is its ultimate object? 3. Should such work as Dr. Torrey's in Australia be supported by foreign mission funds? Why not? 4. Under what circumstances ought foreign mission boards to consider their work in a certain country to be completed? II . . . Evangelistic Work. 5.* What are the special contributions that evan- gelistic work makes toward realizing the ulti- mate object of foreign missions? What are its limitations? 6.* What preparation should you consider neces- sary in order to become a successful evange- list in India? 7. Tell how you think you should begin to address a street crowd? 8.* State what policy you should adopt in regard to native helpers, and give reasons? 9. If you had a sister in an Indian zenana what would be your attitude toward women's work? 10. Give several reasons why work by and for women is especially needed in India. III. . .Educational Work. 11.* Why is educational work necessary if the ulti- mate object of foreign missions is to be at- tained? 196 The Christian Conquest of India 12. What is the least education that should be im- parted to an illiterate native convert? 13. Should more than this be done for the children of such a convert? 14. How much education ought a native pastor to have, and why? 15. What arguments can you give for educating the Christian community? 16.* To what extent should our education be modified to meet the needs of Indian society? 17.* Would missionary colleges be justified in re- ceiving non-Christians if it could be shown that none of them were converted during their course? Defend your views. 18. Are our boards warranted in maintaining col- leges in India? IV... Literary Work. 19. Try to estimate how different your life would be if you had never read any Christian litera- ture. 20. Which of the two has the greater privileges apart from literature, the American or the Indian convert? 21. Mention some advantages peculiar to the printed page. 22. Can you imagine a strong church built up without it? 23.* Mention some kinds of Christian literature that you think would be especially useful. Y .. .Medical Work. 24.* Give five arguments for medical missions. 25. Present as strikingly as you can the relative need for more physicians in America and in India. Missionary i^igencies 197 26.* State in detail methods by which medical missions can be made most effective as an evengelistic agency. YI. . .Industrial Work. 27. What seem to you to be the principal argu- ments against industrial missions? 28 What are the principal reasons in its favor? 29. How will it contribute to the ultimate object of foreign missions? VII . . . Other Forms. 30. Try to imagine the feelings with which you as a missionary should discover in a famine- visited village tv/enty starving orphans? 31. How, under such circumstances, should you feel toward the Christian wealth in America? 32. Give several reasons for the value of young people's work in India. 33. Try to picture the temptations and the moral resources of the average Oriental student. 34. What is the special value of Young Men's Christian Association work to the Church? 35. If you were a thoughtful Hindu which of these forms of missionary work would most attract you toward Christianity? 36.* What would you consider to be the best use of these various methods of work, if you had ten missionaries in a parish of a million people? References for Advanced Study. — Chapter VI I. . .Evangelistic. Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 182-189. Chamberlain: In the Tiger Jungle, IX. Stewart: Life and Work in India, XXI. Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 242- 248, 198 The Christian Conquest of India Smith: The Conversion of India, 169, 178. Stock: Notes on India for Missionary Students, VIL II. . .Educational. Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 194-201. Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 248, 252. Stock: Notes on India for Missionary Students, 46, 59, 60, 79. Students and the Modern Missionary Crusade, 376- 378. 111... Medical. Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 202-207. Ecumenical Missionarj^ Conference Report, Vol. 1—189, 202, 217, 220, 224. Students and the Modern Missionary Crusade, 372-375. IV. . .Literature Work and Value of Literature. Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 207-209. Chamberlain: In the Tiger Jungle, VI. Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 252- 255, Smith: The Conversion of India, 179. Y...The Work of the Young Men's Christian Asso- ciation in India. "India's Young Men, Their Perils and Safeguards," 5 cents. International Committee, Young Men's Christian Association, 3 West Twenty-ninth Street, New York City. Yl...The Work of the American Bihle Society. For literature write to the American Bible Society, Bible House, New York City. PROBLEMS CHAPTER yil PROBLEMS It is a very great mistake to suppose, as many Revolutionary intelligent persons seem to do, that the modem missionary, having to work among simple and ignorant people, is seldom called upon to deal with difficult problems. Throughout his career he finds himself face to face with many very strange and difficult questions, and these are often of such a character that nothing in his own experience or that of other workers of other lands can suggest any help to him in his perplexity. Missionaries in ancient lands like India and China can appreci- ate this statement in full measure. The traditions of the people have the force of ancient laws, and the laws have all the sanctity of religious obliga- tions. To introduce a simple Christian principle often seems like an attempt to overthrow the gov- ernment, or to plunge the people into the unknown dangers of a great revolution. The simplest pos- sible proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ to a people like the Chinese or Indians is in reality revolutionary, but fortunately its full import is not often understood clearly ; in fact is not always clearly perceived even by the missionary himself. 201 Effect of Christianity 202 The Christian Conquest of India Problem cf Caste Attitude of Missionary Toward Caste Take for instance the problem of caste. In the mind of the orthodox Hindu it means that at least sixty millions of the people of India shall never learn to read, shall never enjoy the rights of citi- zenship, shall never enter respectable society, shall never have the right of selecting a trade by their own free choice, and shall never fail to recognize the superior social privileges of those who have a traditional claim to a higher rank. What attitude shall the missionary assume toward this question? Shall he violently denounce its injustice? Shall he exhort the timid and depressed low caste man to resist his oppressors and contend for his rights ? Or shall he preach a gospel of patience, a gospel of hope, and meanwhile introduce the elements of a better life among the people ? Some of the early missionaries tried the experi- ment of tolerating caste in the hope that it would gradually be given up, but in this hope they were sadly disappointed. Its rules and its spirit have been so woven into the very fabric of Hindu soci- ety that no possible word of command can separate the two. The system will disappear in time from the church, as the somewhat similar system of Judaism disappeared, but for the present, the Christian missionary and the Christian Church in India are concerned to know how to deal with it. The question demands very wise and very cautious treatment, and in dealing with it care should be taken not to demand or to try to enforce too many Problems 203 or too rigid changes, but on the other hand every- thing in which it oppresses the poor and lowly, everything which infringes upon civil and social right, everything which denies that personal free- dom which is the common heritage of all men, should be resisted and treated as an element of hostility to our common Christianity. When per- sonal liberty of thought and action is assured, a wise missionary will not insist on social changes which do violence to those personal preferences which are peculiar to all men. In other words, personal preferences must be free, and converts to Christianity must be taught that they have no right to force their society upon persons who do not desire it. Some excellent missionaries, in earlier years, Failure of aa became so anxious to wipe out every trace of caste Experiment feeling, that they invited cultured and refined men to meet recent converts who had been common scavengers at an evening dinner. The guests accepted the invitation, but the dinner was a dis- mal failure. It was simply a social blunder and would have been so regarded in any part of the world. The system of caste is a crushing incubus to the Depressed people of India, and stands directly in the way Elevated of a missionary who wishes to see a great Chris- tian empire raised up in southern Asia. But in this noble purpose it will be neither wise nor well to attempt too much, or to be in too great haste. 304 The Christian Conquest of India < or to confuse the issues which are at stake. The Sudra cannot be forced upward nor the Brahman crushed down into a position of social humiliation, but both can meet upon a common plane of per- sonal right and religious privilege. The caste problem can be most easily solved by bringing ele- vating influences to bear upon the low caste people, rather than by wearisome and fruitless efforts to induce the high caste people to abandon the special privileges and social distinction which they have inherited from their ancestors through a long series of centuries. In other words, the real prob- lem involved in the caste question in India is not that of annulling the false claims of the higher castes, but rather that of creating a healthy and sane feeling of self-respect in the minds of the millions who are of low caste origin. This can be only safely and successfully done by the genuine conversion of the people to Christianity. Enough has been accomplished already to mal^e this clear. The depressed and despised poor of yesterday are the intelligent leaders of awakening thousands to-day, and some of the Brahman leaders are clearly perceiving and confessing that the leaders of their community must either move forward or else fail in the race of progress. Problem of No ouc need feel surprised when told that some ciSSr**^ people in India who have seen more or less of the daily life of these depressed classes are inclined to doubt the possibility of elevating them either Problems 205 l morally or socially after they become Christians. ' The simple statement that many of them have re- I ceived the appellation of carrion-eaters will suffice , to destroy all hope of their social renovation in the j minds of multitudes, even of intelligent people. But we are always prone to forget the social rock ; from which we ourselves have been hewn. Three | centuries ago many of the ancestors of the most 'j cultured of the Anglo-Saxon race were addicted 1 to the practice of feasting upon puddings made of 1 blood drawn from living cows. We forget, too, I that three centuries ago there were sections of ' Great Britain in which the half savage farmers knew no better method of plowing than that of . tying the tails of their oxen to the plows. The use j of harness was unknown. The descendants of j these rude and utterly ignorant people conven- j iently forget many pages in the history of their I ancestors which it would do them good to study. j So far as the possibility of elevating these In- Problem of ' dian people of low caste is concerned, I venture to cil^ses^goived ■ affirm that the problem has already been solved. ! I have seen before my own eyes a second genera- 1 tion of Christians drawn from this class grow up ] to a new and nobler life than their ancestors ever ; knew. More than that, I have seen them overcome < the prejudices of their high caste neighbors to an ^ astonishing extent, and not only win, but com- ! mand their respect without effort. In regions * where two or three generations ago it would have j 206 The Christian Conquest of India been considered an outrage for a man belonging to any of these depressed classes to presume to learn to read or to seek an education in any form whatever, I have seen the Christian convert not only acquiring knowledge but imparting it with- out exciting either indignation or surprise. Two years ago, when visiting a high school in northern India, my attention v\-as called to a young man who was pronounced the most successful teacher in the institution. The principal of the school said to me that he passed more boys at the annual examination than any other teacher, and when I was in his room I noticed that not only Brahmans and other high caste Hindus were present, but also Mohammedans of the better class. This successful teacher was the son of a sweeper and his low origin was perfectly well known, and yet I saw him in the very act of preparing Brahman boys for admission to the university. This one illustration would suffice to show what is possible in the way of revolutionizing the posi- tion of these lowly people, but it is only one among many. Polygamy Polygamy is another great obstacle to mission- ary progress in India, and one of the immediate problems which must be confronted is that of deciding how to settle the affairs of a polygamous household when the head of the family becomes a Christian. To a reader in a Christian land the question may seem simple enough, but to those i -.4 ; 1 ... ,-/•■? Brahman Sweeper Extremes of the Caste System Garo Polxgamous Family, Assam Problems 207 responsible for the settlement the question seems anything but simple. In Africa a definite policy has been adopted, but African polygamy is very different from that of India. In Africa the husband buys his wife as he would purchase a horse or cow, and although she bears the relation of a wife to a husband, he can sever that relation without notice within the space of five minutes whenever he chooses. The wife is his slave, and of course the children are his prop- erty also. The husband can sell both wife and children and replace the discarded wife by pur- chasing another, all in the space of twenty-four hours. But the important part is that the dis- carded wife has been sold to another, or else is free to marry whom she pleases, and her children go with her. Of course a missionary who faces a con- dition of this kind not only can, but in every case must, insist on a Christian marriage, which, be- sides ennobling and sanctifying the union of the two, also protects the wife from legal sale, and secures rights and privileges to the children. In India there is no such condition as this. Each wife has been legally married to the common husband, and the children are recognized as belonging to a common father and enjoying such rights as the religious and civil laws will enable them to claim. It is very true that many worth- less husbands treat their wives with great cruelty and injustice, but the legal position of the woman Polygamy in Africa Polygamy in India 208 The Christian Conquest of India will be respected in a court of law, if proper appli- cation is made. It thus appears that the question of polygamy in India is somewhat complicated; and the difficulty is increased by the fact that dif- ferent usages, and to some extent different laws, apply to members of different castes or different religions; and perhaps no question which arises in the whole mission field would perplex a new missionary more seriously than a legal issue con- nected with an attempt to readjust the affairs of a polygamous household. Illustration Yery fow missionaries have dealt successfully of Polygamy ^.^j^ ^^^ qucstiou as yet. A single case may be mentioned as an illustration. A Hindu with three wives applied to a missionary for baptism, together with ten of his neighbors who were monogamists. The missionary called attention to the Christian law of monogamy and was told immediately that the polygamist would separate from his plural wives, but when the time for action came it was found that he had no thought of a separation which would be equivalent to the Christian idea of divorce. He would not allow his wives to remarry, nor would he allow them to leave the village in which he himself resided. He had no thought of surrendering his authority over them, and it was evident that when they were separated from him his jealousy would keep both himself and his wives in constant trouble. The end of the affair was that the man was not baptized and that Problems 209 his ten neighbors drew back also. The missionary, after long experience and wide observation, has publicly expressed his conviction that in ninety- nine cases out of a hundred attempts to break up a polygamous household in India will result very much as in the above instance. In other words, a very general conviction is felt, by men of experi- ence, that polygamous households cannot be sepa- rated permanently and successfully. It seems as if the only practical question to be Problem considered by the missionaries of the present gen- unsolved eration, at least, is that of deciding whether a polygamous family can be admitted on any possi- ble conditions to the Christian Church. Of the wives it may be said that they have no choice. Practically nine tenths of them could not leave their husbands even if they so desired. The hus- band, on the other hand, would honestly feel, how- ever it might seem to us, that he could not break up his family. How long shall persons be kept on trial before Probation being admitted into the Church? If there is a •need of testing the sincerity of prospective mem- bers in the homeland before they are accepted by the Church, how much greater the necessity of proving those who are ignorant of the Christian requirements and who are saturated with heathen practices. A man may be swayed by the gospel at a festival far from home and become an honest inquirer. If baptism is deferred he may never 310 The Christian Conquest of India Private Baptism Embarrass- ments of Success have an opportunity of receiving the rite at all. Some missionaries hold that it is right to stimu- late this desire by baptism and trust the divine power to produce fruitage, while others look upon this haste as destructive to the best interests of Christianity. In a country where people are so prejudiced toward other faiths, as they are in India, a bap- tismal confession usually precipitates great hard- ship. To renounce one's faith means the breaking of family ties and causes cruel persecution. Being reviled is mild compared with the danger of being drugged into idiocy or poisoned. The relatives, especially the mother, are relentless in their tor- ment. Under these circumstances is it strange that there are requests for private baptism, espe- cially from young women and students ? There are some who advocate secret baptism, believing that he who looketh upon the heart will deal generously with such, but others hold rigidly to the necessity of public confession. One of the most difficult problems that arises is that of the "mass movements^^ in various sec- tions of India. The designation of "rice Chris- tians" is familiar to all readers of missionary liter- ature. In the past, certain castes or classes have almost in a body sought entrance to the Church, and at the present time there are similar move- ments. The question arises whether these people are sincere, or whether they have come for the Problems 211 "loaves and fishes.'^ Famine, poverty, sickness, misfortune, litigation, lack of employment, desire for better marriage alliances, and the depressing caste rules are among the causes that influence the people. Can the missionaries discern the hearts of the applicants ? Another danger, although the people may be sincere in their purpose, is the possibility of dragging into the Church caste and other heathen customs, because of their ignorance of the meaning of Christianity. There are some who favor receiving large bodies because it pro- tects them from persecution, but others refuse to accept them before they are properly instructed in the new faith. Both conditions are a challenge to the home Church speedily to increase its forces in order that all who desire may be instructed in the principles of Christianity. Eliminating all unworthy converts does not end the missionary's difficulties when working among the poor. Christian baptism deprives many of em- ployment and home. If a man is in business he will be boycotted by Hindus and Mohammedans. In many cases it is not mere prejudice, but laws of caste would be violated by trading with a Chris- tian. The awful poverty and exclusion of the con- verts makes it impossible for them to help them- selves, hence it becomes the duty of the missiona- ries to provide in some way for such converts. It is a frightful thing when Christian converts are stranded with no means of livelihood. As a solu- Need of Employment 212 The Christian Conquest of India Self-support of Pastors Self-support Possible tion of this grim problem, it is hoped that the organization of Christian communities or settle- ments, industrial education, and the growth of manufacturing will bring relief. So far as India is concerned, the mass of the converts are miserably poor. The average monthly income of nineteen twentieths of the Christians in India probably does not exceed two dollars and a half. The people are so wretchedly poor that it seems cruel to look to them for any support of their pastors. But it is practically the life prin- ciple in Christianity that every individual believer should bear a part of the responsibility of support- ing the Master's work. The very poorest can do something, as is evidenced by the number of churches that are self-supporting among the American Baptists. The converts in India are a very feeble people, but in the early future they will be a very numerous people. We can never expect them to give an average of a cent a day, but they can do a little. They could probably give a cent a month, and at this rate three hundred native Christians could support their own pastor. It will thus be seen that if converts in a country like India are initiated into the proper plan at the outset, and if their own pastors live among them, and are not raised too high above the average people to whom they minister, the institutions of a living Christian Church can be permanently planted on Indian soil and extended throughout Problems 213 ; •i the empire. Of course many difficulties will attend the work at the outset, but as time passes a law of \ Christian life which is too generally overlooked j will begin to assert itself. As certainly as flowers | bloom and trees and plants grow in the warm sun " of early spring, so certainly will Christian institu- '> tions and Christian people begin to develop in nor- mal measure in India, or in any land where the : gospel has free course and Christ is glorified. In ' the realm of spiritual dynamics much has been affirmed and much illustrated by events, but the \ Christian world has yet very much to learn con- ! cerning the power which is inherent in a body of i humble believers who obey their Saviour, and are ; animated by the indwelling Spirit of God. ! The problem of church organization must also seif- ' be noticed. No matter what the polity favored by Government , the missionaries may be, how can converts whose '■ ancestors for three thousand years or more have ; been illiterate and ignorant of the meaning of i organization assume the responsibility of con- structing the framework of a church organization ? What safeguards can be devised for securing the safety and integrity of the Indian Church of the future? Is it wise to encourage present-day con- verts to discuss or even think of future independ- l ence, or any measure of autonomy? Should not ' the analogy of the present administration of civil j affairs by a foreign power be followed by those 21 J: The Christian Conquest of India entrusted with the responsibility of the future Church of India ? Organization jj^ reply to these and other questions connected with the organization of the Church, or of separate churches, it first of all may be well to state that organization is a law of life, and this holds true in the spiritual realm as well as in the natural world. A living Church will in every case develop lines of organization. The men of to-day are learning lessons which will be inherited by chil- dren and grandchildren, but the ultimate result will undoubtedly be that the Christian churches of India will administer their own ecclesiastical affairs. It can hardly be otherwise, and it cer- tainly is not desirable that it should be otherwise. So far as the converts of the present generation are concerned, they have seldom, if indeed ever, manifested a disposition to abuse their privileges. There are many foreign missionaries in the land who have committed their rights, and even their ministerial character unreservedly into the hands of their India brethren, and in no instance has fraternal love and confidence been abused. Counter rpi^g Ari/u Samaj, one of the reformincr bodies of Movements ^^. ^ . *^ , '' n i , n ,. Hinduism, has accepted the burden oi purging its religion from superstition and leading its people back to one God. It is also bent upon extermi- nating Christianity. Mohammedanism is engaged in an organized propaganda to hinder missions by sending preachers to attack Christianity and win Problems 215 back any who have renounced its faith. Hinduism has ceased being simply defensive and is now viciously assaulting the belief in the resurrection of Christ and other fundamental teachings. The deplorable efforts of individuals from the West, like Mrs. Besant, Madame Blavatsk}^, and Miss Noble, are having an unwholesome influence on the minds of the people. Through their exertions in some of our Western cities the "yellow-robed Hindu monk^^ is parading Christianized-Hin- duism before "select^' audiences. Following the example of the missionaries both Mohammedanism and Hinduism are employing the agencies of preaching, the press, and education among their people. Modern Hinduism has even resorted to holding a weekly devotional meeting and has organized a Young Men's Hindu Association in imitation of the Young Men's Christian Associa- tion. In addition they are also discovering in their literature teachings that are similar to those of Christianity, and by this method are seeking to satisfy many hungry hearts. While these move- ments are not widespread, they are fraught with danger, because they are either led or espoused by able natives who have a potent influence over the people. Missionary leaders in India and missionary sec- Missionary retaries are not perfectly agreed in the views which ^°^^^y they take of the present situation or of the imme- diate duty of the Churches of the homeland. Some 216 The Christian Conquest of India favor a polic}- of expansion, while others would concentrate their efforts upon chosen portions of the vast field before them. Some would seek out the influential classes, while others would go directly to the masses. Some would advise thorough work even though the fruit might be limited, while others would cast the gospel net into the great sea of humanity although assured that it would bring to them a great mass of human beings of "every kind." ^Yho are right ? What is the best policy and the best method ? Should the missionaries and the Churches which sustain them, take broad views and expect great results, or should they move cautiously and avoid the snare of a zeal which is mixed with unconscious ambi- tion to lead great movements and achieve great victories ? Financial Souic thouglitful fricuds of missious regard the present financial basis of the enterprise as unsat- isfactory, and predict early embarrassment and ultimate failure unless a radical change is effected. In recent A'ears missionaries have often been quoted as saying that their success has become their greatest embarrassment. Converts multiply more rapidly than the missionary income increases, and hence the work must soon either stop or be carried on under conditions which will lead to results perhaps worse than positive failure. In other words, the financial problem is regarded as the most serious of all pending questions. It Problem Problems 217 seems^ in fact, to illustrate the Saviour's parable of the man who attempted to build a tower with- out at first having made a correct estimate of the probable cost. It may be true, and indeed it does seem to be so, count the c that the Churches have not as yet counted the cost of the great missionary tower which they are try- ing to build, but it is not too late yet for them to correct their mistake. The cost will be very great indeed, but never so great as to compare for a moment with the expense involved in a great war of conquest by the children of this world. When the object to be attained and the difficulties of the work are considered, the missionary enterprise is a marvel of simplicity and cheapness, but this does not change the fact that success upon even a moderate scale must soon involve an expenditure to be reckoned in terms of eight figures instead of seven. If a full solution of this problem cannot be produced at once, a good deal of light can cer- tainly be thrown upon it by taking two striking facts into consideration. . In the first place, the Churches have not yet Alphabet of 1 1 T, i-1 1 1 I, J. -C Proportionate learned even so much as the alphabet oi proper- Qj^jng tionate giving, nor have they mastered a single les- son in the art of systematic collecting. The tradi- tional plan of issuing appeals and trusting to the spontaneous inclination of the givers, is still the favorite plan of most missionary societies. A very little investigation never fails to show that mil- of Giving 218 The Christian Conquest of India lions never give anytliing at all, vrhile millions more give small sums in a perfunctory way. The actual resources of the evangelical Churches of !N'orth America are so very great, that when placed in comparison with the actual revenues of the several missionary societies, they seem almost fabulous. Po^sibiHties Accordiug to the latest statistics there are twenty-two million Protestant church members in the United States and Canada. These millions are all avowedly disciples of Jesus Christ, and as such are taught to pray daily for the coming of his kingdom in this world. If each and all of these millions were to give the sum of one cent daily for the spiritual conquest of the non-Chris- tian world, the result would be an annual mission- ary revenue of over $80,000,000. An annual revenue of such a sum would not only meet all the demands of all the mission fields of the world, but would enable the missionary leaders at home and abroad to extend their fields and increase their agencies tenfold. The real problem pertains, then, not to the mission fields, but to the home Churches. The Churches of America are abun- dantly able not only to meet all the wants of our foreign missions for the immediate future, but to provide for an extension of the work far beyond the dreams of anyone in the mission field. Indeed, the above estimate hardly touches the question of the real ability and the resources of the Christians Problems 219 of America. If their hearts were really enlisted in this work, if they really understood that they ■were obeying a summons from Christ himself, if they were fully awake to the perception of their immediate duty as individuals, and if all began to give according to their actual ability, the $80,- 000,000 would be doubled, trebled, and even quad- rupled without an effort. The real need is a revi- val of missionary interest. A missionary gospel must be preached, and those who bear the Chris- tian name, both old and young, be made aware that they are neglecting a responsibility which in the most solemn sense has been laid upon them by the Master himself. QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER VII Aim: To Realize the Difficulties that Must be Overcome in the Christian Conquest of India 1. . .Difficulties Compared with Other Countries. 1. Compare the difnculties in missionary work with those in Africa. 2. How do the difficulties compare with those in Japan? In the homeland? 3.* In which country would you prefer to work for Christ? 11. . .Prol)lem of Caste. 4. What do you consider the greatest difficulty in Indian mission work? 5.* How would you show an Indian that the caste system is injuring him? 220 The Christian Conquest of India 6. Do you think that the idea of brotherhood would appeal to an Indian? Why? 7.* Which are the most efficient missionary agencies for elevating the depressed classes? Why? 111. . .Pi'oJjlem of Polygamy. 8. Why is polygamy wrong? 9.* What effect has it on home life? 10. How would you show a polygamist the evils of the system? 11.* Is there any possibility of receiving polyga- mous persons into Church membership? Vv'hy not? IV. . .Church Relationship. 12. What requirements would you make of an In- dian before baptizing him? 13. Why would you not baptize an Indian privately': 14.* Do you believe that the Indian Church can support its native ministry? Why? 15. What degree of self-government would you allow the Indian Church? V. . .Christian Stewardship. 16. What is the Old Testament basis for tithing? 17.* Do you believe that the poor as well as the wealthy should give a tenth? Why? 3 8.* Should missionaries be expected to make greater sacrifices than we in the homeland? 19. Do you believe that the home Church is able to support sufficient reinforcements to evan- gelize the non-Christian world? W^hy? 20.* How can you assist in overcoming these diffi- culties in the Christian Conquest of India? Problems 221 i Refebences ioe Advanced Study. — Chapteb VII j I I . . . Caste. I Carmichael: Things As They Are, 81-97. | Curtis: Modern India, XXIV. ■; Denning: Mosaics from India, XV, XVI. Hunter: Brief History of the Indian Peoples, 96-98. Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 270-274. 11... Self-support. Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 229-233. Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 274- 277, 282-286. Stewart: Life and Work in India, 328-331. i Stover: India a Problem, 184, 191, 199, 250. 111. . .Christian Steivardship. . Bosworth: "The New Testament Conception of the i Disciple and his Money." Schauffler: "Money: Its Nature and Power." Strong: "Money and the Kingdom." For other pamphlets on Christian stewardship write to the secretary of your denominational missionary board. RESULTS CHAPTER YIII RESULTS The final test of the value of modern missions The Test is that of results. Are they successful? Do mis- '^^ ^'^^^uKs sionaries accomplish the task which they have undertaken? In the face of mighty opposing forces missions have won amazing triumphs. Property has been acquired, languages mastered, translations made, literature published and circu- lated, converts added, intelligence advanced, lives transformed, native workers enlisted, women emancipated, reforms inaugurated, heathenism stirred to its very foundations, and a considerable constituency leavened with the spirit of Chris- tianity. After a century of work the Church can boast Property of possessing thousands of acres of land and a large number of substantial buildings that have been erected to the cause of Christ. These repre- ■ sent an investment of ten million dollars contribu- i ted by Christians of the West, and by the natives. i There are churches and chapels, colleges, schools, i and dormitories, hospitals and printing houses, residences for missionaries and native helpers, i Christian Association and other buildings. These structures are a gigantic asset in the missionary enterprise of the empire. ' 225 I 226 The Christian Conquest of India Literature Progress of First Half Century In a land where prejudices are so strong one of the most effective messengers is the printed page. Over forty presses are producing more than four million copies of leaflets, books, and periodicals for evangelistic and educational work annu- ally. The Bible has been translated into nearly seventy of the most important languages and dia- lects. Besides this there is an abundance of uplift- ing Christian literature available to the people, that will continue to do its leavening work quietly, regardless of the change of workers and mission- ary policy. Only a part of the good work done can be tabu- lated in statistical columns, and these never can tell a complete story. During the first half of the last century, before the era of railways and cheap post routes, the missionaries of India were isolated from one another, and it was not until the year 1851 that the first attempts were made to collect the statistics of all the Protestant missions in the empire. At the close of 1851 the total number of Christians in India under the care of Protestant missionaries was 91,092, but of these only 14,661 were communicants. The number of foreign mis- sionaries reported was 339, and the number of native pastors was only twenty-one. At the present day these figures seem disappointing, but it should be remembered that a large proportion of these missionaries were young men, not yet familiar with Indian languages, and it should also be and after a Century Results 227 explained that for many years most missionaries were unwisely too cautious in admitting natives to the ranks of authorized preachers. During the second half of the last century Agencies at steady progress was made, and at the meeting of the Decennial Missionary Conference in Madras, at the close of 1902, the following statistics' were I reported : | j Ordained Protestant Male Missionaries 1,049 ' Ordained Native Preachers 905 Unordained Native Preachers 6,653 ; Native Teachers 9,050 \ College and Upper School Students.... 52,597 ■ Lower School Pupils 162,645 These figures were sufficiently encouraging, but women's ■ less so than those showing the rise and extraordi- Agencies ^ nary progress of missionary work among women. i This was practically a new work, and the preju- ; dices of the people, not to mention the misgivings | of some missionaries, should be taken into account ' when regarding the extraordinary progress made I as indicated in these statistics : ; Foreign and Eurasian Agents 1,302 Native Agents 5,965 Medical Agents, Foreign and Eurasian.. 193 ' Native Medical Agents 157 ^Latest statistics in Appendix E. i 22S The Christian Conquest of India Agents, Com- muracants, and Adherents Comparison with other Religions The total number of Christian agents of all kinds was reported as 25^799, while the total num- ber of communicants was 343,906, and the total number of native Protestant Christians of all ages lacked only 21,06-1 of being a round million. Later reports from various parts of the empire indicate that the present Protestant Christian community numbers much more than a million souls and is steadily increasing. The official census of 1901 reports a Christian population of 2,923,241 of all branches.^ This is an increase of 640,000 during the previous decade, a growth four times as rapid as that of the whole population. By comparing the data for the vari- ous religions of the empire, and including only the increase of the native Protestant Christians, the progress is still more satisfying. The figures for the ten years preceding 1901 are as follow:^ Protestant native Christians about 50.87 per cent. Buddhists 32.88 " Non-Protestant native Christians.. 21.44 " Sikhs lo-OT " Mohammedans 8.96 Jews 6.01 " Parsees 4.76 " Hindus 28 " " dec. Jains 5.82 " Animists, etc 6.15 " Increase of total population 2.45 " ^Includes Roman Catholics. ^Quoted bv Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 251. Results 229 Moreover, in the census the adherents of nine different religions are tabulated, and among these the Christians occupy the fifth place in number. And yet many writers and tourists persist in reporting to the outer world that missionary work in India has been a failure. No doubt the reader will wish to know about the details of the work. Someone, for instance, will wish to ask about the converts. In what way are they changed when they become Christians? Do they adopt European habits? Do they give up Oriental notions and prejudices? How do they conduct public worship? As a rule, converts make some change in their dress, food, and style of living. Like the disciples of Jesus, they have to be taught how to pray. In most cases they prefer to sing native tunes, and if left to themselves, they incline to adopt Oriental methods of worship. In village chapels there is often an absence of furniture, except a small stand and a single chair. The people sit on mats, often of very cheap material. A village chapel may not cost more than twenty-five dollars, and its furni- ture two or three dollars more. But the children and most of the young people can read, and the service is intelligent and devout. Morally the people are not perfect, but relatively, if allowance is made for difference of advantages, they will compare favorably with an average Western con- gregation. Christians Occupy Fifth Place in Numbers Change in Converts Living and Worship 230 The Christian Conquest of India Increased Intelligence Recognized Christian Community As a community the Indian Protestant Chris- tians have gained steadily in intelligence, so that now they supply more than twenty-one times their quota of the students and pupils in the schools, and command the respect of their non-Christian neighbors to an extent wholly unknown in past years. This is especially noticeable in the case of converts from the lowest social classes, some of whom are now treated with much respect. It begins to be evident that in coming years the power of the caste system will be broken much sooner, and more effectively, than has generally been sup- posed. In many lines of service the best equipped men will win the best positions, and in India offi- cial position carries social respect with it. Among the striking results of missionary labor in India a conspicuous place should be assigned to the fact that there is now a recognized Christian community in the empire, and that, altogether apart from the government, it is a recognized power in the land. Fifty years ago Indian Chris- tians were almost unknoA^Ti in all the region north of Calcutta and Bombay, while in southern India the term Christian was understood to apply chiefly to the communities raised up during the era of the early Portuguese and Dutch rulers. But to-day fhe term Christian, as applied to natives of India, has a very different meaning. It is a more definite and positive term. It partakes of the character of the Protestant missionary body Results 231 j i of the empire. It carries with it the idea of defi- ■ nite belief and positive moral character, Chris- : tians of this class are found far and near. They 5 preach and worship in all the leading languages ■ of the empire. They publish several weekly papers in English — papers owned and edited by Indian ■ Christians — and issue many publications in the ] various vernaculars. One of their number has ■ been a member of the Viceroy's Legislative Coun- i cil, and another a member of the Legislative ; Council of Bengal. The names of Christian stu- , dents appear in the lists of applicants for univer- | sity degrees so constantly that their presence no j longer occasions any remark. ^ Pandita Eamabai's noble work for the uplifting prominent I of her sisters is already well known. A Brahman ^°^^^ \ Converts ! widow, she lost her father very early in life, and i consecrated herself to the redemption of Hindu j women. Her deeds of faith and philanthropy are I expressed in more than two thousand unfortunate i ones whom she is protecting, training, and giving { a vision of Christ. The father of the illustrious i Sorabji sisters was a converted Parsee ; one of his j daughters, the widow of an Englishman, has j exceptional ability as a singer. One was a repre- ■ sentative at the World's Parliament of Religions " in Chicago. The third and most distinguished is Cornelia Sorabji, a brilliant barrister and writer .' in India. Her graduation thesis at Oxford, on ' Roman Law, was one of the best papers ever pro- ! 232 The Christian Conquest of India duced at that institution. Mrs. Sathianthan, a talented writer, established the first English monthly magazine for the women of India. After an address by Miss Singh at the Ecumeni- cal Missionary Conference in New York, in 1900, ex-President Harrison said that if he had con- tributed a million dollars to missions, and had seen only one such convert, he would consider it a profitable investment. These and a host of other women are achieving results for the kingdom among their sisters, and it is not extravagant to state that they are a mighty force for righteous- ness in the land. Notable "Beginning with those early confessors, Krishna Pal and Ko Thah-byu, one passes down through the century noticing the names of such high caste converts as Krishna Mohun Banerjea, D. L., distin- guished as a Hindu editor and, after his conversion, as a professor in Bishop's College, as a clergyman of the Church of England, and above all as the native father of Bengali literature ; of Eam Chan- dra Bose, M. A., whose career as an educator would have placed him in the highest official position, had he not chosen to become an evangelist under the American Methodists, until the demands made upon him as a lecturer in India and at Chicago University, where he gained his M. A., brought him before a larger audience ; of Professor Ram Chandra whose work on the problems of Maxima and Minima made his name famous in the univer- Native Leaders Eesults 233 sities of Europe, as did later writings on Differen- tial and Integral Calculus, and who became head of the Department of Instruction in one of the native states; of Eev. Imad-ud-din, D. D., the most distinguished accession from Indian Moham- m.edanism, whose conversion is of thrilling inter- est, and whose twenty-four Christian books are a most valued addition to Indian literature; and of Rev. ISTarayan Sheshadri, a Brahman convert of Dr. John Wilson, who gained so enviable a reputa- tion during his visit in America, whence he car- ried home from McGill University of Montreal, the degree of D. D. Nor do these men belong only to the past. At King Edward's coronation in Lon- don, as emperor of India, twenty representatives of the native Indian Church were present, six of them being ruling princes/'^ The record of service rendered by the Christian Foreign missionaries of India is one which will be better ^^^^°^°^ appreciated a century hence than it is at the present day. The first generation of missionaries was misunderstood and misrepresented, but no whisper against them or their successors is heard in official circles to-day. It is conceded by all parties that they have done a good and great work, while they themselves are animated by stronger faith and brighter hopes than ever before. Their influence has been felt in almost all parts of the globe. Native preachers have been asked for in ^Eeacli. India and Christian Opportunity, 260, 261. 234 The Christian Conquest of India places as far distant as the Fiji Islands and Natal, and converts have been reported from Demarara and East Africa. Able missionaries have gone from India into Persia and Arabia, and converts have been won in the sealed regions of Tibet and Nepal. When God by his providence opened the gates of the Philippine Islands, missionaries from India were among the first to enter, and mnch of the work now making notable progress in the islands of Malaysia had its origin in India. Indeed, as far back as the time of Dr. Carey, mis- sionaries were sent from Calcutta to the island of Java. In short, missionary work in India has not only been notably successful, but the key posi- tion of the empire among the Asiatic powers, makes the conversion of India the most important project now engrossing the attention of the Chris- tian world. Caste Tyranny In a prcvious chapter mention has been made of the persistent opposition of the higher castes to the education of the low caste and outcasts children. This opposition continues to a very great extent in some sections, but in other places the logic of events is overcoming it. While many oppose, the poor people quietly go ahead and allow their children to be educated, and when the boys and girls reach mature years they seem to drift naturally into the positions for which they are fitted. Their critics or opponents may not like it, but they cannot help it, and it is no wonder that Being Broken Eesults • 235 intelligent persons begin to see that the rule of caste tyranny is fast approaching its end. The practical meaning of all this is that in going to the lowly poor in the character of God's messen- gers, and pointing out to them a pathway of enlightenment and social elevation, the missiona- ries have struck a blow at the system of caste from which it never can recover. The future of the system is only a question of time. Many years may elapse before the end comes, but as a social force the traditional caste system of India cannot survive the education and enlightenment of the great mass of low caste and outcaste people who now grope in mental and spiritual darkness. India will yet be freed from this great barrier to her progress, and when the day of deliverance comes, it will be seen and acknowledged by all that it was the Christian missionaries above all others who introduced the agencies which effected this great reform. Aside from the religious question altogether, it Reforms is certain that in addition to the good work done ^^'^ Results directly, the agencies introduced by the missiona- ries have also resulted in much good to the people. Millions are better off and enjoy greater privileges and opportunities than would have fallen to their lot had the missionaries never entered the empire. To confirm this statement, it is necessary to refer to only one change which has occurred since Dr. Carey landed in Calcutta ; I refer to the changed 236 The Christian Conquest of India position of Indian womanhood. If Christian mis- sionaries had never come to India, the suttee fires might still be burning on the banks of the Ganges, the inmates of the zenanas would still be without medical relief, and the whole w^omanhood of the empire would have been absolutely illiterate. Infant marriage and enforced widowhood would have gone unchallenged, and thus one half of the population would have been condemned to a life of mental disabilities and social wrongs. Had Christian missionaries never come to India, millions of the people would have been wholly illiterate to-day, and any proposal to teach them would have been resented as a public wrong. Whole tribes that are now devout Christian believers would have been worshiping demons, or adoring snakes, monkeys, or cows. Before the advent of the Christian missionaries into the country, hospitals had been built for cows and elephants, for snakes and tigers, for insects and birds, but not for human beings. The change thus far effected among the people is by no means com- plete, but if not complete, it is not stationary. It is a progressive movement and one that gains both momentum and speed as time passes. Great changes for the better may be anticipated as the years go by and it is hoped that India will regain the position she once held, but unhappily forfeited, as the intellectual leader of the Asiatic nations. Results 237 In estimating the value of Christian missions in India, we should not lose sight of the good work done, or good influences exerted by the missiona- ries among the Europeans in the empire. Dr. Carey and his colleagues found that the European society of Calcutta was almost incredibly and reck- lessly bad, and this accounts for the fierce hostility with which the}' were greeted. Sir John Kaye, well known as a writer on Indian subjects, says of European society in Calcutta at that period : "There was no society whose frowns the sensu- alist might dread. His doings on those far-off shores were unknown to his countrymen in Eng- land. In India he was as far beyond the observa- tion of parent, brother, or friend, as though he dwelt on another planet. There were, in truth, no outward motives to preserve morality of conduct, or even decency of demeanor. So from the moment of landing, the first settlers cast off all those bonds which had restrained them in their native land. They regarded themselves as privi- leged beings — privileged to violate all the obliga- tions of religion and moralit}^, and to outrage all the decencies of life. Many of those who went there were desperate adventurers whom England had, in the emphatic language of the Scriptures, ^spued out' ; men who sought those golden sands to repair broken fortunes ; to bury in obscurity a sul- lied name, or to wring with lawless hands from the weak the wealth which thev had not the honest Europeans Vice of Europeans Europeans 238 The Christian Conquest of India capacity or character to obtain by honest means at home. They gambled, they drank, they reveled in all kinds of debauchery. Associated in vice, they often pursued one another with desperate malice. Among them there was no fellowship but that of vice." It is not a pleasant duty to place this repulsive Changes in picture OH exhibition, but it is due to the early missionaries of that period to place on record the fact that the hostility of the European community a century ago was a compliment to the missiona- ries. Dr. Carey in Calcutta was simply Bunyan's pilgrim in a modern Yanit}^ Fair. But Dr. Carey was not to die at the hands of his enemies. To him and his associates it was given to inaugurate a movement for the conversion of India to Chris- tianity, and this included necessarily the reforma- tion of the base worldlings who defied God and disgraced the Christian name in Calcutta and Bengal. The task was difficult enough, and required many long and weary years, but so far as the European community is concerned, Calcutta became a changed city before the middle of the century, and will now compare very favorably with many Western cities. But Calcutta does not stand alone in this record. All over India the personal influence of the missionaries, and in some places their pulpit and pastoral influence, have greatly contributed to the maintenance of a correct stand- ard of morals and decent respect for the ordi- Kesults 239 nances of the Christian religion. The task of the missionaries is not only to win the teeming mil- lions of India to the Christian faith, but to help in making India worthy of a place among the Chris- tian empires of the world. Among the healthy movements that have been Brahmo- aroused by Christianity are the various samajes or *"^^^ societies that are endeavoring to lead the people back to the earlier and purer days of their Aryan forefathers. Notable among these attempts has been the career of a small, but intelligent and devoted band of reformers in Calcutta popularly known as Brahmos. The founder of this move- ment, Ram Mohan Roy, was a man of character and ability, but at his death the late Keshub Chunder Sen became its great leader nearly fifty years ago, and in the year 1860 gave the name of Brahmo-SamaJ to the band of disciples who rallied about him. While repudiating much of Hinduism, these leaders tried to revive the teach- ings of the earliest Yedic writers. They also became avowed reformers, and by their public teachings and writings succeeded in making a marked impression upon intelligent Hindus, especially in Bengal; but thus far the leaders of the movement have not been able to draw around them any considerable number of like-minded per- sons. In other parts of the country they have attracted attention, and have apparently stimu- lated other parties to take up the work of reform. 240 The Christian Conquest of India Arya-samaj In imitation of the Brahmos, Dyanand Saras- vati organized the xlrya-Samaj in northern India, and soon gathered aronnd him a large number of followers. They adopted a profession of reform, but are less liberal than the Brahmos, and, unlike them, vigorously oppose the Christian missiona- ries. They usually manifest a strong partisan bias, and in consequence many of the missionaries in northern India refuse to cooperate with them in reform movements. The Arya-Samaj leaders denounce popular idolatry, and many of them are enlisted in a crusade against child marriage, enforced widowhood, and other social abuses. Aside from all other considerations, it is a hopeful sign to see any class of the Hindu community encouraging popular reforms such as these, and whatever the immediate effect may be, no one can doubt that in the end this and other movements of the kind will prove helpful to the cause of Christian missions. Ko San Ye Among the remarkable innovations is that of the Baptist Karen Mission, known as the Ko San Ye Movement. It is an independent work manned by native Christians, and under the leadership of Ko San Ye. Previous to his conversion in 1880, he was a leader of considerable influence, and although not educated, he has demonstrated extra- ordinary initiative and organizing ability. The work is conducted at twelve centers, some magnifi- cent buildings have been erected, and it has Movement Eesults 241 : resulted in adding thousands of members to the ; Karen churches. A feature of the enterprise is '. institutional, and involves the feeding and lodging of the people who visit the centers. The expense . of maintaining this work is largely provided by j San Ye's followers, but a generous amount is con- r tributed by heathen. As a result, Christianity is ^ attracting the entire populace of lower Burma, ! and there is a need for great wisdom and tact on ] the part of the missionaries in dealing with this i movement. j By far the most marvelous movement is the The National ; orsranization of the National Missionary Society Missionary i . , , . Society ; of India, which marks a distmct epoch m the his- : tory of missions. Its coming has not been unher- • aided, because as early as 1860 there was an : attempt to organize a National Society that should ' be independent of foreign management and sup- ! port. Local movements similar to the Ko San Ye ' movement have been in existence in several parts of India, but this great society is national and j interdenominational, with its purpose the evan- \ gelization of the empire. Delegates representing ; each province of India and Ceylon met in Carey's j historic library at Serampur, on Christmas Day, j 1905. In the old pagoda, where Henry Martyn pra5^ed and worked for the evangelization of India, the Constitution of the new society was » adopted. The organization is loyal to all denomi- nations, solicits no contributions outside of the . 242 The Christian Conquest of India empire, and lays the task of India's evangelization upon her sons. The movement is governed by a council of sixty representative Indian Christians, and by an executive committee assisted by an advisory board of experienced missionaries. Already the organization has stimulated some of the Christian students to offer themselves as pas- tors, and Indian Christians are consecrating their sons and contributing funds for the evangelization of their own people. This indigenous missionary organization under the leadership of Sir Hanam Sing as president, and Mr. Y. S. Azariah, promises mighty things for the cause of Christ in the empire. Glorious India may not be the most important section of the globe, but it presents the field most ripe for the sickle of the missionary reaper. As its rich har- vests are garnered, the joyous harvest songs of the reaper will be heard around the globe, and the reapers in a thousand whitening fields in other lands will take up the strain, and even heaven itself join in the most sublime chorus of praise which has been heard since the morning stars sang together at the dawn of creation. The mighty work of saving a vast empire will not be completed in a day, or a month, or a year, or a decade, but it need not and must not be allowed to drag along through a long course of weary cen- turies. All great movements gain momentum if allowed a free course. If history seems to contra- Opportunity Results 243 j i diet this statement, it is because it so often hap- j pens that due care is not taken to keep the course | free and clear. It is no exaggeration to say that j no men and women on earth carry a more weighty j responsibility and yet enjoy a richer and more glo- i rious opportunity than the chosen few who hold ! the lines of advance in the great mission field of India. : It would be difficult to find any class, caste, Need of j tribe, or people which has not one or more repre- ^°^^^^^ \ sentatives among the Christian converts of this ; land of promise. The call for laborers which ! India sends to the Christians of Europe and America is one which embraces all kinds of workers for a field which needs every kind of ' labor. Teachers are needed for pupils of every > grade from the kindergarten to the university. \ The vernacular preacher of the first generation is ^ giving place to a successor with a literary degree. • Yery recently twenty-two students in an Indian I college volunteered in a body for the work of \ preachers in their native land. The daughters of j converts who in former days lived in squalid pov- ■ erty are studying in college halls and winning j honors which will give them distinction through- : out the empire. In short, a new and bright day has dawned upon India and God is co-operating • with his servants in creating agencies which will : prove sources of blessing far and wide through the empire for years and generations to come. i J4-1 The Christian Conquest of India Millions Waiting Time Auspicious In her most palmy days Eome ruled over only one hundred and twenty million people, while in India to-day nearly three hundred million souls are subject, more or less directly, to the rule of the King-Emperor. China alone among the great kingdoms and empires of the world can compare with India in population at the beginning of this new century, and this splendid realm has opened all her gates and doors to the Christian missionary. Instead of the wretched little vessels in which Paul coasted around the Mediterranean ports, the Indian missionary has floating palaces to convey him at sea, while palatial cars await him when he wishes to travel by land. God has opened his path- way, to even the most remote tribes, while a sym- pathetic and enlightened government protects him from hostile persecution, or even the menace of danger. The original commission to evangelize the nations still stands, while God, who rules over all nations, sets an open door before his servants who are willing to enter and evangelize the wait- ing millions. The time is auspicious, and the missionaries of India should not lose a day or an hour in sounding the trumpet for a great forward movement. As Paul, the ideal missionary for all lands and all time, aimed first for Greece and next for Eome, so should the missionaries of our modern day aim for all the great centers of population, commerce, and political rule in the empire. This does not mean Eesults 245 that outlying and distant places are to be neg- lected, but only that the great centers of power and influence should be quickly seized and strongly held. A wide and firm grasp is needed. The word should be passed all along the line that India is to be won for Christ, and that the greatest movement ever attempted in the history of Chris- tianity is now at hand. Nothing in all modern history, nothing since the day of Pentecost^ has been equal to the present opportunity. The old may rejoice that they have lived to see Christian this day, but the young may rejoice still more in ^°"*i"^^* the hope of seeing a day when a million souls will be found inquiring the way to Zion in North India, a million in West India, a million more in Burma, and still a million more in South India. A million ? Why not ten millions ? Why not the Christian Conquest of India? QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER VIII Aim : To Realize the Obligation of the Church fob THE Christian Conquest of India in View OF Past Achievements and Present Opportunities I. . .Results Achieved. 1. In what respect is the possession of property an important asset in the missionary enterprise? 2. In what way does Christian literature supple- ment other missionary agencies? I 246 The Christian Conquest of India 3.* Compared with the first half century, how do you explain the more rapid progress of the last half? 4. Do you consider ordained missionaries more effective agents than lay missionaries? 5. How do you account for the rapid advance of work among women in India? 6. What proportion of the population is now Chris- tian? 7.* Enumerate some of the conditions necessary for a doubling of Christian communicants in India during the next decade. 8. What religion has the better opportunity for the conquest of India, Christianity, or Moham- medanism? 9.* Do you think that the neutral rule of the British government is an aid to missionary work? Why? 10. In what way is the work of Christianity strengthened by strong Indian leaders? 11. To what extent will the improved social life and increased intelligence among the Indian Christians affect the non-Christian people? 12.* How will foreign missionary work done by Indian Christians stimulate the Christian Church in India? II. . .Present Opportunities. 13.* What advantages of freedom for missionary work has India as compared with China? 14.* To what extent do you think the organization and cooperation of Indian Christians will hasten the extension of Christianity? 15. How much do you think the reforming bodies in the native religions will assist Christianity among the people? Eesults 247 16. What particular help will the cooperation of Christian Europeans in official and business positions, be to the cause of missions? 17.* Do you consider India more ripe for imme- diate conquest than any other of the great non-Christian countries? Why? 18.* Where do you think the greatest obstacles are to the Evangelization of India? Why? 19.* How can we in the homeland hasten the Chris- tian conquest of India? Refeeences for Advanced Study. — Chapter VIII . . Testimonies Concerning the Work of Missions. Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 269-276. Curtis: Modern India, XXVIII. Liggins: The Great Value and Success of Foreign Missions, 94-111. Stock: A Short Handbook of Missions, 112-115. Students and the Modern Missionary Crusade, Re- port of the Nashville Convention, 1906, 131-141. II . . . Success of Missions. Clough: Tales of a Telugu Pariah Tribe, 285-301. Cochrane: Among the Burmans, XIII. Griflan: India, and Daily Life in Bengal, XIV. Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, XI. Pierson: The Miracles of Missions, First Series III, VIII. Pierson: The Miracles of Missions, Fourth Series, IV. Stover: India a Problem (Telugu), XIII. Young: The Success of Christian Missions, IV. /348 The Christian Conquest of India III. . .Native Christians. Dyer: Pandita Ramabai, VII, VIII. Mateer: The Gospel in South India, VIII, X, XI, XIV. Pierson: The Miracles of Missions, Third Series, XTII. Stock: Notes on India for Missionary Students, 93-99. APPENDIXES Appendix A 251 APPENDIX A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 1500 B. C. to 900 B. C. 900 B. C. to 1200 A. D. 543 B. C. to 900 A. D. 400 B. C. to 508 B. C. 327 B. C. 250 B. C. 161 B. C. 100 B. C. to 500 A. 500 A. D. D. 640-1300 A. 1001 A. D. D. 1000-1765 A. D. 1260 A. D. 1321 A. D. 1370 A. D. 1398 A. D. 1498 A. D. 1500 A. D. 1500-1600 A. D. 1525-1857 A. D. 1542 A. D. Period of Vedism. Period of Brahmanism. Period of Buddhism. Period of Modern Hinduism. Persian Invasion under Darius. Greek Invasion under Alexander the Great. Asoka establishes Buddhism as state religion. Bactrian Invasion. Sc}'thian or Tartar Invasions. Nestorian Missions in Central Asia. Islam Supreme in Western Asia. First Invasion of Punjab by Mahmud of Ghazni. Mohammedan Invasions and Rule of Islam. Franciscan Missions in Asia. The Four Martyrs of Thana. Tamerlane's conquest sweeps Christianity from Central Asia. Tamerlane invades India. Portuguese Expedition under Vas- co da Gama. First Portuguese Missionaries. Portuguese monopoly of Oriental trade. Mogul Empire. Francis Xavier. 252 Appendix A 1556 A. D. Akbar the Great. 1560 A. D. Introduction of the Inquisition into Portuguese Missions at Goa. 1600 A. D, Akbar, a Patron of Christianity. 1600-1857 British East India Company main- tains mihtary and commercial power. 1602 A. D. Dutch East India Company found- ed. 1602-1642 A. D. Dutch Protestant Missions estab- lished. 1604 A. D. The French enter India. 1606 A. D. Robert de Nobili, Jesuit Mission- ary in India. 1658-1707 A. D. Aurungzeb. 1681 A. D. First English Church founded. 1698 A. D. East India Company's Charter enjoins the provision of chap- lains. 1705 A. D. First Danish Lutheran Missionary, Ziegenbalg appointed. 1705 A. D. King of Denmark sends first Protestant missionaries to India. 1709 A. D. First English contribution to Mis- sions in India— £20— by S. P.G. members of Danish Mission. 1739-1761 A. D. Afghan Invasion and Sack of Delhi 1750 A. D. Schwartz, "the Christian," arrives in India. 1757 A. D. Lord Clive's victory at Plassey establishes British Empire in India. 1758 A. D. ' Kiernander goes to Calcutta in 1771, builds " Old Church.' 1792 A. D. Formation of Baptist Missionary Society in England. Appendix A 253 1793 A. D. William Carey sails for Calcutta^ 1793 A. D. East India Company's Charter renewed with Wilberforce's pious clauses defeated. 1793-1813 A. D. Active opposition of East India Company to the spread of the gospel. 1800 A. D. First Hindu Convert baptised by Carey. 1806 A. D. Henry Martyn arrives in India. 1811 A. D. Baptism of Abdul Masih. 1812 A. D. First American Missionaries. Bur- ma and Bombay. 1813 A. D. East India Charter renewed with Wilberforce's pious clauses in- serted. 1825 A. D. Bishop Heber ordains Abdul Masih, H. Martyn's convert from Islam, first native clergy- man in India. S. P. G. takes over S. P. C. K. Missions in southern India. 1829 A. D. Abolition of suttee by Lord W» W. Bentinck. First Scotch Mis- sionaries to India, Alexander Duff and John Wilson. 1830 A. D. John Devasagayam, first native clergyman in southern India, or- dained. 1833 A. D. British Government declares itself neutral regarding introduction of Christianity. 1834 A. D, Basel Mission in Malabar. 1837 A. D. Sir P. Maitland resigns command of the Madras Army rather than salute the idols. 254 Appendix A 1846 A. D. Gossner's Mission, Chota Nagpure., 1850 A. D. First Medical Mission. 1853 A. D. First Railway train in India, April 16. 1854 A. D. Sir C. Wood's dispatch on Educa- tion in India. 1857 A. D. Sepoy Mutiny, and Dissolution of East India Company. 1858 A. D. Government of India transferred to the Crown. 1859 A. D. First Call for Week of Prayer. 1864-1869 A. D. John Lawrence Viceroy of India, 1866 A. D. Keshub Chunder Sen's Lecture on Christ, May 5. Imad-ud-din baptized April 29, 1868. or- dained Dec. 6. 1870-1880 A. D. Great ingathering of Telugus. 1872 A. D. First General Missionary Confer- ence, Allahabad. 1877 A. D. Queen Victoria proclaimed Em= press of India. Cambridge Delhi Mission begun. 1880 A. D. Oxford Mission to Calcutta. 1886 A. D. The Student Volunteer Movement at Northfield, Mass. 1896 A. D. Formation of Student Volunteer Movement of India and Ceylon. 1905 A. D. Organization of the National Mis- sionary Society of India. APPENDIX B Bibliography HISTORICAL Andrew, W. P., India and Her Neighbors. Allen & Co., London, 15s. Cox, Sir G. W., History of the Establishment of British Rule in India. Longmans, Green & Co., New York, 60c., net. Cunningham, H. S., British India and Its Rulers. Allen & Co., London, 2s. Dutt, R. C, Ancient India. Longmans, Green & Co., New York. $1. Eden, C. H., India, Historical and Descriptive. Ward, London, 3s. 6d. Encyclopoedia Britannica, Vol. xii., art. India (Sir W. W. Hunter). Frazer, R. W., British Rule in India. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, $1.50. Hodgson, B. H., Aborigines of India. Williams & Norgate, London, 9s. Hunter, Sir W. W., Brief History of the Indian Peo- ple's. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 90c., net. , England's Work in India. Smith & Elder, London, Is. , The Indian Empire. 2 vols. Charles Scrib- ner's Sons, New York, $11,20, net. Kaye and Malleson, History of the Indian Mutiny. Allen & Co., London, 6 vols., £1. 16s. 255 256 Appendix B Keene, H. G., The Fall of the Moghul Empire. Allen & Co., London, 10s. 6d. Mcfarlane, C, History of British India. Routledge, London. 3s. 6d. Malcolm, J., Political History of India. Murray, Lon- don, 2 vols., £1. 12s. Malleson, G. B., The Decisive Battles of India. Allen & Co., London, 7s. 6d. Saville, B. "W., How India Was Won. Hodder & Stoughton, London, 5s. Seeley, The Expansion of England. Little, Brown & Co., Boston, ?1,75. Wheeler, .7. Talboys, Short History of India. Mao- millan & Co., New York, $3.50. RELIGIONS Ballantyne, James R., Christianity Compared with Hindu Philosophy. Madden, London, 8s. 6d. Barrows, J. H., World's Parliament of Religions. George M. Hill & Co., New York. 2 vols., $5. Barth, Religions of India. Triibner, London. 2d edition, 16s. Bose, R. C, Brahmoism; or. History of Reformed Hinduism, Funk & Wagnalls Co., New York, $1.25. Burrell, D. J., The Religions of the World. Pres., Book Publ., Philadelphia, $1.25. Davids, T. W. Rhys., Buddhist India. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, $1.35, net. Ellinwood, F. F., Oriental Religions and Christianity. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, $1.75. Grant, G. M., The Religions of the World in Rela- tion to Christianity. F. H. Reveil Co., New York. 40c. Appendix B 257 Hall, Charles Cuthbert, Christian Belief Interpreted by Christian Experience. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.50. Hall, Charles Cuthbert, The Universal Elements of the Christian Religion. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. Hopkins, Edward Washburn, The Religions of India, Ginn & Co., Boston, $2. Howard, E., Studies in Non-Christian Religions. So- ciety for the Propagation of Christian Knowl= edge, London, 2s. 6d. Islam and Christianity; or. The Koran and the Bible. By a missionary. American Tract Society, New York, fl. Jones, J. P., India's Problem: Krishna or Christ P. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.50. Kellogg, S. H., A Handbook of Comparative Religions. Student Volunteer Movement, New York, 75c. Leigh, H. S., Religions of the World. Triibner, Lon- don, 2s. 6d. Menzies, Allan, History of Religion. Charles Scrite- ner's Sons, New York, $1.50. Mitchell, J. Murray, The Great Religions of India. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.50. Mitchell, J. M., Hinduism Past and Present Re- ligious Tract Society, London, 4s. Miiller, F. Max, Origin and Growth of Religion. Smith & Elder, London, 9s. Miiiler, F. Max, Origin and Growth of ReligioBc Longmans, Green & Co., London, 10s. 6d. „ , Natural Religions. Longmans, Green & Co., New York, $1.75. Non-Christian Religions of the World. Religioiss Tract Society, London, 2s. 6d. 258 Appendix B Non-Christian Religious Systems: Hinduism. So- ciety for the Propagation of Christian Knowl- eldge, London, 2s. 6d. Padfield, Rev. J. E., Hindu at Home. Simpkin, Lon- don, 3s. 6d. Religions of Missions Fields as Viev/ed by Protestant Misionaries. Student Volunteer Movement, New York, 50c. Religious Systems of the World. E. P. Button & Co., New York, $2.50. Sen, Keshub Chunder, The Brahmo-Samaj. Allen & Co., London, 2s. Shedd, William Ambrose, Islam and The Oriental Churches. Pres. Board of Publication, Phila- delphia, $1.25, net. Thornton, D. M., Parsi, Jain, and Sikh. Religious Tract Society, London, 2s. Vaughan, J., The Trident, the Cresent and the Cross. Longmans, Green & Co., London, 9s. 6d. Wilkins, W. J., Modern Hinduism. T. Fisher Unwin, London, 16s. Yv''illiams, Sir W. Monier, Hinduism. E. S. Gorham, New York, 73c. Williams, Sir W. Monier, Brahmanism and Hindu- ism. Macmillan & Co., New York, $3.50. Zwemer, S. M., The Moslem Doctrine of God. Ameri- can Tract Society, New York, 45c. GENERAL Allen, William O. B., and McClure, Edmund, Two Hundred Years. Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge, London, 10s, 6d. Barnes, Irene, H., Behind the Pardah. Marshall Bros., London, 3s. 6d. Appendix B 25^ Barrett, R. N., The Child of the Ganges. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1. Beach, H. P., India and Christian Opportunity. Stu- dent Volunteer Movement, New York. 50c. Bose, Ram Chandra, Hindoos as They Are. Stand- ford, London, 7s. 6d. Bunker, Alonzo, Soo Thah. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1. Butler, W., The Land of the Veda. Eaton & Mains, New York, $2. Carmichael, Amy Wilson, Things As They Are: Mis- sion Work in Southern India. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1. Chamberlain, Jacob, in the Tiger Jungle. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1. Chamberlain, Jacob, The Cobra's Den. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1. Clark, R., The Missions in the Punjab and Sindh. Church Missionary Society, London, 3s. lOd. Clough, E. R., While Sewing Sandals: Tales of a Telugu Pariah Tribe. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.50. Cochrane, Henry Park, Among the Burmans. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. Compton, Herbert, Indian Life in Town and Country. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, $2.25. Crook, W., Northwest Provinces of India. Methuen & Co., London, 10s. 6d. Curtis, William Eleroy, Modern India. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $2. Denning, M. B., Mosaics from India. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. Decennial Missionary Conference, Report of the Third, held in Bombay. 2 vols., $4, net. 260 Appendix B Decennial Missionary Conference, Report of the Fourth, Madras, 1902. Christian Literature So- ciety, London. Donning, David, The History of the Telugu Mission. American Baptist Publication Society, Phila- delphia, 75c. Duff, Dr. Alexander, India and Indian Missions. Groombridge, Edinburgh, 12s. Fuller, M. B., The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood, F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. Gordon, A., Our India Missions. United Presbyterian Board of Publication, Pittsburg, Pa., $1.50, net. Griffin, Z. F., India and Daily Lif« in Bengal. Morn- ing Star Publishing House, Boston, $1. Guinness, Lucy E., Across India at the Dawn of the Twentieth Century. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.50. Guinness, Lucy E., New Year's Eve, 1900: An Indian Dream. Marshall Bros., London, 2s. Harband, Beatrice M., Daughters of Darkness in Sunny India. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1. Harband, Beatrice M., Pen of Brahma. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25, net. Harband, Beatrice M., Under the Shadow of Durgam- ma. Hewlett, Miss S. S., Daughters of the King. Nisbet, London, 5s. Hopkins S., Armstrong, Within the Purdah. Eaton & Mains, New York, $1.25. Hmme, Robert A., Missions from the Modern View. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. Humphrey, J. L., Twenty-one Years in India. Eaton & Mains, New York, $1. Hunter, R., History of Missions of Free Church of Scotland in India and Africa. Nelson, London, 3s. 6d. Appendix B 261 Hurst, J. F., Indika. Harper & Bros., New York, $3.75. Jackson, John, Lepers. Marshall Bros., London, 3s. 6d. Karney, Evelyn S., and Winifrede W. S. Walden, The Shining Land. Church of England Zenana Missionary Society, London, 6d., net. Lilly, W. S., India and Its Problems. E. P. Button & Co., New York, $3. Lyall, A. C, Asiatic Studies. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, $3.60. Mason, Caroline Atwater, The Little Green God. P, H. Revell Co., New York, 75c. Mason, Caroline Atwater, Lux Christi: An Outline Study of India. Macmillan, New York, 90c. Mateer, S., The Gospel in South India. Religious Tract Society, London, 3s. 6d. Maxwell, Ellen Blackmar, The Bishop's Conversion, Eaton & Mains, New York, $1.50. Mitchell, J. Murray, Once Hindu, now Christian. F. H. Revell Co., New York, 75c. Pitman, E. R. (Mrs.), Indian Zenana Missions. Snow, London, 6d. Powell, B. H. Baden, The Origin and Growth of Vil- lage Communities in India. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, ?1. Protestant Missions in Burma and Ceylon: Statis- tical Tables. Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta. Ramabai, Pandita, The High-Caste Hindu Women, F. H. Revell Co., New York, 75c. Rice, H., Native Life in South India: Being Sketches of the Social and Religious Characteristics of the Hindus. Religious Tract Society, London, 2s. 6d. Rowe, A. D., Every-Day Life in India. Americas Tract Society, New York, $1.50. 262 Appendix B Russell, Norman, Village Work in India. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1, net. St. Clair-Tisdall, W., India. Student Volunteer Missionary Union, London, Is. 6d. Scott, J. E., In Famine Land. Harper & Bros., New York, $2.50, net Scott, T. J., Missionary Life Among the Villages in India. Eaton & Mains, New York, $1.75. Sherring, M. A., History of Protestant Missions in India. Religious Tract Society, London, 6s. Smith, George, Conversion of India. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.50. Stewart, R., Life and Work in India. Pearl Pub. Co., Philadelphia. Stevens, G. W., In India. Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, $1.50. Stock, Eugene, History of the Church Missionary So- ciety. Church Missionary Society. 12s. 6d. Storrow, E., Our Sisters in India. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. Stover, W. B., India a Problem. Brethren Publishing House, Elgin, 111., $1.25. Temple, Sir Richard, India in 1880. 2 vols., Allen & Co., London, 16s. Temple, Sir Richard, A Bird's-Eye View of Pictur- esque India. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $2. Thoburn, J. M., India and Malaysia. Eaton & Mains, New Y'ork. $1.50. Thoburn, J. M., Light in the East. Eaton & Mains, New York, 50c. Various Authors, Empire Builders. Church Mission- ary Society, London, Is. 6d. Wilder, Robert P., Among India's Students. F. H. Revell Co., New York, 30c. Williams, Sir M. Monier, Modern India and the In- dians. Triibner, London, 14s. Appendix B 363 BIOGRAPHICAL Birks, Rev. Herbert, Bishop T. V. Frencli. Murray, London, 30s, Butler, Clementina, William Butler. Eaton & Mains, New York, $1. Carus-Wilson, Mrs. Ashley, Irene Petrie, A Woman's Life for Kashmir. F. H. Revell Co., Ngw York, $1.50. Dyer, Helen S., Pandita Ramabai: The Story of Her Life. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. Elmslie, Mrs., William Jackson Elmslie, Memoir, Seedtime in Kashmir. Nisbet, London, Is. Farwell, Mary E., William Carey. F. H. Revell Co., New York, 30c., net. Fox, Rev. G. T., Rev. Henry Watson Fox. New Edition. Religious Tract Society, London, 3s. 6d. Gracey, Mrs. J. T., Eminent Missionary Women. Eaton & Mains, New York, 85c. Grey-Edwards, Rev. A. H., Memoir of Rev. John Thomas (of Tinnevelli), Elliot Stock, 5s. Holcomb, Helen H., Men of Might in India Missions. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. Jackson, J., Mary Reed, Missionary to the Lepers. F. H. Revell Co., New York, 75c. Johnston, Julia H., Adoniram Judson. F. H. Revell Co., New York, 30c. Judson, Edward, Adoniram Judson. American Bap- tist Publishing Society, Philadelphia, $1.25. Lewis. Rev. A., G. M. Gordon, "The Pilgrim Mission- ary of the Punjab." Church Missionary Society. 2s. 6d. Messmore, J. H., The Life of Edwin Wallace Parker, Eaton & Mains, New York, $1. Monteflore, Arthur, Reginald Heber. F. H. Revell Co., New York, 75c. 264 Appendix B Myers, Rev. John B., William Carey, the Shoemaker who Became "The Father and Founder of For- eign Missions." F. H. Revell Co., New York, 75c. Rhea, Mrs. Sarah J., Henry Martyn. F. H. Revell Co., New York. 30c. Sargent, Rev. John, Henry Martyn. New edition. Seelej^ London, 2s. 6d. Smith, G., Bishop R. Heber. John Murray, Lon- don, 10s. 6d. Smith, G., Henry Martyn, Saint and Scholar. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $3. Smith, George. Twelve Indian Statesmen. Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York, $3.50. Smith, George, Twelve Pioneer Missionaries. Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York, $3.50. Smith, G., William Carey. John Murray, London, 7s. 6d. Smith, G., Alexander Duff. Hodder & Stoughton, London, 6s. Smith, G., John Wilson: Philanthropist. John Mur- ray, London, 9s. Thoburn, J. M., Life of Isabella Thoburn. Eaton & Mains, New York, $1.25. Termilye, Elizabeth B., Alexander Duff. F. H. Re- vell Co., New York, 30c. Appendix C 265 APPENDIX C RULES FOR PROXUXCIATIOX Vowels and Diphthongs a has the sound of li in fun a " " " a in father e " " " e in they i " " " i in pin Y a a " % in machine O " " " in note 11 " " " Xi in pull u " " '• w in rule ai " " " e in file au " " " OIU in owl Consonants k, kh has the sound of ch in loch in Scotch and Buch in German t has the sound of t in toy d has the sound of d in day t has a peculiar th sound — half-way between the English t in toy and th in this u is nasal r is a slurred r as r in French words 266 Appendix D APPENDIX D GLOSSARY A list of words, with pronunciation and definition, found in books on India, In some cases the pronunciation is omitted because the English is the same as the Indian. Agni Ag-ni God of fire Aiyo Ai-yo Alas ! Ai runs together almost like eye. The word is repeated rapidly. Eye-eye Yo Eye- eye-Yo ! Amin A-min Head of district. Amma Am-ma Mother! (vocative case). A is pronounced like u in up. The word is also used by all women in speaking to each other, and by girls in speak- ing to women. Ammal Am-mal Lady or woman. A is pronounced like u in up. Anna Two cents. Areca Nut Nut eaten by the Indians with betel leaf or lime. Ayah A-yah Nurse. Babu Ba-bu English-speaking native gentleman. Bajjan Bha-jan Hymn. Bakshish Bak-shlsh Fee, gratuity. ^ Bandy A bullock cart. Bazar Ba-zar Street in which are shops. Begum Be-gam A Mohammedan princess. Bhisti Bhish-tl Water carrier. Bibi Bi-bi Wife. Bulbul Bul-bul Indian nightingale. Bungalow European residence. Bunghis Bang-hi Sweepers ; the lowest caste. Bunnia Ban-nl-a Shopkeeper or storekeeper. Betel Leaf of a creeper. Brahma Brah-ma Appendix D 267 The first person in the Hindu Triad, regarded as the Creator, Brahman Brah-man The highest of the Hindu castes. Eramo Samaj Brah-mo Sa-maj A sect of Hindu reformers who honor Christ as a man, but who reject him as a Saviour. Leather workers. Attendant, messenger. Portable bedstead. Exclamation of derision, disgust, or remonstrance. Disciple. Pipe. Written testimonial or message. Unleavened bread, universally used. Muslin covering for the head. A piece of ground surrounding a house. A paid laborer. Coolie is the Tamil €hamars Cha-mars Chaprassi Chap-ras-sl Charpoy Char-pa-i Chee Chi Chela Che-la Chilam Chi-lam Chit Chit Chopatti Cha-pat-ti Chuddar Chad-dar Compound €oolie word for pay. Crore Ka-ror Curry Ten millions. A preparation of meat or vegetables made by grinding various condiments and mixing them together. Dak Dak Dandy Dervish Deva De-v2 Dhobi Dho-bl Diwan or Divan Durbar or Darbar Fakeer Fa-kir The post, the relay of men. Conveyance carried by coolies. Mohammedan fanatic. God. Washerman, A council. Court reception. Religious beggar. Ganesa or Ganesha Gan-esh The god of wisdom. Garri Gar-rl A carriage. 268 Appendix J) Ghee Ghl Guru Gu-ru Hadji Ha-ji made the pilgrim; Hakim I Ha-kim Hanuman Han-u-man Eowdah Iyer Kali Ka-li Karma I Kar-ma dhistic. Ghat Ghat A quay or flight of steps leading to the water. Also a steep mountain side. Clarified butter. Religious teacher. A Mohammedan gentleman who has to Mecca. Physician. Monkey god. Seat used for riding elephants. Title given to Brahmans and Gurus. A goddess, the wife of Shiva. The law of consequences. Bud- Khitmutgar Khid-mat-gar A servant or butler, usually Mo- hammedan. Kismet Kismat Destiny. Kowree Kau-rl A small white shell used for money among the poorest people. Krishna Krishna Lakh Lakh Lama La-ma Lascar Lat Lat Lota L6-ta Madrissah Mad-ris-sah Maha Ma-ha Mahadeva Ma-ha-de-va Mahajan Ma-ha-jau Mahatma Ma-hat-ma Maidan Mai-dan Mela Me-la Memsahib Mem-sa-hib Moulvie Mol-vl An incarnation of Vishnu. 100,000. A celibate priest (Buddhist). Servant in charge of tents. Monolithic column. Metal cooking utensil. School. Used in composition, meaning great. Great God, used in Shiva. Money lender. An adept of the first order. Plain. A fair. Lady. Native Mohammedan teacher. Appendix D 269 Munshi Mun-shl Musjid Mas-jid Nawab Xa-wab Nirvana Xir-van-a Paddy Padre Sahib Pad-ri Sa-liib Pan Pan Paul Pa-nl Patel Pa-tel Pathan Pat-han Teacher. Mosque. Mohammedan chief. Oblivion. Rice in the husk. Clergyman or missionary The leaf which encloses the beteln. Water. Head man. A mixed tribe on the boundary between Afghanistan and Hindustan, Peshwa Pesh-wa Pice Poor Pur Pujah Pu-jah 00. Pukka Pak-ka Pundit or Pandit Pan-dit Pundita Pan-di-ta Punkah Pank-ha Purdah Par-dah Rajah RiVjah Rana Ra-na Rani Ra-ni Rupee Ru-pl Ryot Saddhu Sad-dhu Sahib Sa-hib Saivite Salaam Sa-lam Head of the Mahratta dynasty Small copper coin, one-half cent. Town, used as a terminal, as Jeypoor. Worship. u is pronounced like Firm, strong. A learned man. Feminine of pundit. A swinging fan. A curtain. Prince or sovereign. A prince or king. Queen. About thirty-three cents. Peasant. An ascetic. Sir, lord. A worshiper of Siva. A salutation meaning peace used in greeting and farewell, and often in the sense of thank you. The right hand is raised to the forehead as one savs salaam. 270 Appendix D Sari Sa-ri Seer Sir Sli abash Sha-b£sh Shanar Sha-nar Shiva or Siva Shiv The Destroyer. Situra Sit-ta-ra Swami Swa-ml Tiffin Tom-tom Tonga Tulsi Tdl-si rishu Masih Yi-sti- Ma- Yogi Y6-gi Yaisimftvite Yishnu Yls-nu Preserver. Zayat Za-yat Zemindar Zi-min-dar. Zenana Za-na-na Woman's garmetnt. Not quite two pounds. Well done. A caste of Palmyra-palm climbers. The third person in the Hindu Triad. A musical instrument. Religious teacher. Lunch. An Indian drum. A light, two-wheeled vehicle. Sacred plant, sih Jesus. Hindu fanatic or ascetic. A worshiper of Yishnu. The second person in the Triad. The Wayside chapel. Hereditary occupier of the soil. Apartments of ladies of rank. Appendix E Statistics of Protestant Missions m India -'-™"- :\l K'K-SS,' 1 1 J't";.'..'-,"''" ~ 1 M,.,.K.,., ,'l •; ■! 1 1 r J i 1 f if i I ! f 5^ i i [_ ;= - '' 1 505 72 2 70 58 e 257 4.S j ; 8 10 1 "Jo 1 .'''' .1 I X 11 i ::" 271 1 '1' Is 8.409 Iml '1 ■■ i38 1 -70 'I '1 25 i.eg '■3 1 ■ m I 200 27.150 ] "is 33 o.9r4 1 13 T urn 'I ] i iS 1 J , i J ii 3 .5,10 3 6 5 22300 i ,"" :: :. •, ■■'» 1» 2,.;2' '6 > 7 WA^ 52 c;070 » oJ hS S ' :' ;■ ^ • ? ' " ■; ■■ 1 IS SE App:ndix E. Statistics o{ Protestant Missions in India. a .'4.W- 2sy5;« J ": 85,128| M,981 s ouxh2iy {Presidency) 123,064 18,559,561 Bombay 7S-,9^8 is^j04^77 Sind 47,obb s^io^gio ^den 8o 43-ff74 S.Burma 236 738 10 490,624 9 Central Pro\inces 86,459 9,876,646 10. Coorg 1,582 180,607 11 . Madras 141,726 38,209,436 12. North-West Frontier Province 16,466 2.125,480 13. Punjab 97,209 20,330,339 14. United Provnces of Agra and Oudh 107 164 47,691.782 Agra 83^q8 34-,Ss8,7os Oudh 23^qbb isfys^orj'] Tota', Brif sh Territory 1,087,204 231,899,507 States and Agencies 15. Baluchistan (Agency) 86,511 502,500 16. Baroda State 8,099 1,952.692 17. Bengal States 38,852 3,748,544 18. Bombay States 65.761 6.908,648 19 Central India Agency 78,772 8,628,781 Gtualior State 2^QJJ,00I 20. Central Provinces Statea 29 435 1.996.383 21. Hyderabad State 82,698 11,141,142 22 Kashmir State 80.900 2.905 578 23. Madras State 9,969 4,188 086 Cochin State ,... 8/2,02^ Travancore State 2^S2-/S7 24. Mysore State 29,444 5.539.399 25. Punjab States 36,532 4.424.398 26. Rajputana .Vgency , . . . 127.541 9.723,301 27. United Provinces States 5 079 802,097 Total Native States 679,393 62 461.549 Grand Total India 1,766,597 294,361,056 274 Appendix G APPENDIX G Distribution of Christians by Race and Denomination Denomination Anglican Armenian Baptist Congregationalist Greek Lutheran and Allied Denominations Methodist Presbyterian Quaker Roman Catholic Eomo-Syrian Syrian (Jacobite and others) Ealvationist Q-ther Denominations and those not re- toned European and Allied Races iilales Fern 81,583 215 495 953 4,494 7,522 15 23,635 1,830 30.181 385 910 206 90 447 1,504 2,171 15 10,329 3 1 46 793 Eurasians Males Fem 993 62 27 152 1,060 715 3 23,156 18,049 17 732 30 22 Total 122,596 47,081 44,941 44,310 1,344.160 1,320.153 2,923.241 1,024 135 1,360 724 1 22,541 681 Natives Males Fem 154,544 is 110,180 19,113 25 77,111 35,759 21,602 731 560,168 163,607 126,593 64,953 151,373 8 106,735 18,200 15 76,65' 32.730 21,197 544 562,340 158,976 122,144 9,081 60,153 Total 1901 » 453 462 1,053 221040 37,874 656 155,455 76,907 53,931 1,309 1.202,169 322,586 248,741 18 960 129,098 Including 92,644 who described themselves as Protestants. Appendix H 275 APPENDIX H Distribution of Population According to Religion and Education, igoi MALES TotaJ Relig.ons Population Illiterate Literate Hindu 105,163,432 95,241,15(3 9 922,276 Sikh 1,241,543 1 120,023 121,520 Jain 691,787 366,489 325,298 Buddhist 4 680,384 2.800,505 1,879,879 Parsi 48,086 11,743 36,343 Mohammedan 31,843,565 29.916,414 1.927,151 Christian 1508,372 1,068,759 439,613 Animistic 4,254 030 4,220,804 33.226 Minor and Unspecified 10,907 6.133 4,774 Tota' Males 149,442 106 134,752,026 14,690,080 FEMALES Hindu 101,945,436 101468.049 477.387 Sikh 950 823 943,708 7,115 Jain 642.249 630.794 11455 Buddhist 4,796,368 4 592,738 203,630 Parai 45.883 21,214 24.669 Mohammedan 29,849 144 29,758,085 91,059 Christian 1.410,843 1,233809 177,034 Animistic 4 321,926 4,319 958 1,968 Mmor and Unspecified 10 128 8104 2,024 Total Females 143,972 800 142,976,459 996,341 Total Population 293414,906 277.728 485 15.686,421 ^ Literacy was not recorded in the case of 946,150 persons (509,718 male* and 436.432 females). 276 Appendix I APPENDIX I Some of the Principal Occupations Upon Which Per- sons Depend for a Living Agriculture 191,691.731 General Laborers 16,941,026 Textile Fabrics and Dress 11,214,158 Mendicants (non-rell^ous) 4,222,241 Leather, hides and horns 3,241,935 Priests and others engaged in Religion 2,728.812 Barbers and Shampooers 2,331 598 Grain and Pulse Dealers 2,264,481 Shoe, Boot and Sandal Makers 1,957,291 Grocers and General Condiment Dealers 1 587 255 Construction of Buildings 1 579.760 Sweepers and Scavengers 1,518,422 Fishermen and Fish Curers 1,280.358 Fish Dealers 1,269,435 Bankers and Money Lenders, etc 1 200,998 Tailors, Milliners Dressmakers and Darners 1, 142, 153 Vegetable and Fruit Sellers 862 428 Indefinite and disreputable occupations 737,033 Sweetmeat Makers and Sellers 603,741 Actors, S ngers. Dancers, Bandmasters, Players, etc 562,055 Medical Practitioners, Midwives, etc 520,044 Railway Servants. 503,993 Teachers. Professors and others engaged in education 497 509 Butchers and Slaughterers 345,933 Barristers and others engaged id Law 279,646 INDEX INDEX Abdul Masih, 147 Aborigines, 32,33,91 ; home life, 73; in college at Madura, 178; tribes of, 96 Administration, see British administration in India Afghanistan, 4 Afghans, 37 Africa, 8, 53. 207 ; East, 234 Age of Consent Bill, 75 Agra, 46, 143; Akbar's for- tress near, 37 Agriculture, improvements by Carey, 143 Ahmad, Sir Saiyid, 104 Akbar the Great 36, 37 Alaska, 53 Albuquerque, 38 Alexander the Great. 34 Allahabad, 67 Alphabets, early in India, 108 Ameer of Afghanistan, 4 America, 38, 39, 156, see also North Atnerica, United States American Baptist Missionary Union, 145, 150, 172, 173 American Board of Commis- sioners for Foreign Missions, 145, 149, 157 American College at Madura, 178 Americans, 23 Amritsar, 34 Anam, 4 Andaman Islanders, 64 Anderson, John, 158 Animists, 91, 93, 96 Arabia, 93, 148, 234 Arabian Sea, 4 Arabic language, 146; New Testament, 147, 148 Architecture of the Moguls, 37, 106 Arcot, 41 Area of India, 1 ; cultivable and cultivated, 17 Arizona, 3, 12 Armenian cemetery, Tocat, 149 Army, 1, 2 Arts and sciences and their schools, 67, 143 Aryans, invasion by, 1, 33, 34 ; originally not idol worship- ers, 108; race of, 1, 32, 53, 54, 61, 62; type of, 64 Arya-samaj, 240 Asia, 1, 3, 4, 9, 13, 33, 98, 234, 236 Assam, 1, 4, 6, 11, 46, 62, 92, 96 Asylums, 185 Baber, 36 Bactria, 34, 35 Bailey, Benjamin, 158 Bakarganj, 11 Baluchistan, 3, 4, 11, 93 Bananas, 15 Banerjea, Krishna Mohun, 155 232 Banerji, Babu, S. N., 50 Banyan trees, 16, 31 Baptist churches, 145, 153; Karen Mission, 240 ; Mission Press at Calcutta, 179; missionaries at Serampur, 149; Missionary Society in England, 140; in America, see American Baptist Mis- sionary Union; Young Peo- ple's Union, 194 Bareilly, 184 Baroda State, 46 279 280 Index Basel Evangelical Mission, 189 Bazaar, the, 169 Beggars or devotees, 71 Behar, 34, 46 Belgium, 3 Benares, 19, 34 Bengal, 8, 12, 23, 46, 47, 92, 93, 96, 143; Bay of, 5, 7; delta of, 3; Government of, 192; Legislative Council, 231; nawab, 42 ; viceroy, 41 Bengali, language, 62 ; oratory and periodicals, 65; transla- tion into, by Carey, 141-143; use in baptizing, 142 Besant, Mrs., 213 Bhairava, 114 Bhils, the, 96 Bhutan, 143 Bible, 143, 155, 178, 180; cir- culation, 150, 181; classes, 191, 192; Societv, 180, 181; translation, 136, 141, 142, 146-152, 226 Bihari language, 62 Blavatsky, Madame, 215 Boardman, George Dana, 159 Boats, for traffic, 7, 8 Bombav, 2, 17, 19-21, 41, 46, 47, 67, 92, 93, 137, 157, 159, 185 ; Presidency, 185 ; Sam- achar (paper), 68 Book of Common Prayer, 146 Books, 142, 143, 179, 186, 226 Bose, Ram Chandra, 232 Botany, Carey's help to, 143 Boundaries of India, 4 Brahma, 113 Brahmanism, 97 Brahmans, 78, 97, 108, 109, 178, 185, 186, 192, 206 Brahmaputra River, 6-8, 10; valley, 11 ♦ Brahmo-samaj , 239 Brainerd, David, 146, 149, 158 Breadfruit, 16 British administration in India 2, 48; civilians, 138, 147, 191 ; control, 41, 49, 53: East India Companv, 39-42, 44, 45, 140; empire, 40, 45 extension of territory, 41 42; gain in revenue, 41 42; government in India 12, 37, 46, 48, 49; officials 43-46, 50, 138, 191; para- mount authority, 42, 48 power to hold India, 47-49 providential destiny, 51-53 provinces, 3, 45, 46 ; reforms needed, 50; residents, 1, 46 rulers, 137; schools, 154 174-177; soldiers, 44, 50 138, 146, 147, 191 BroTATi, David, 157 Bubonic plague, 13 Buchanan, Claudius, 157 Buddha, 99-101, 111 Buddhism, 61, 72, 91-95, 97- 103 ; date of its rise, 97; Gautama, its founder, 97; growth and decline in India, 97, 98; its extension as a missionary religion, 98; its fourth council, 35; north- em and southern sections, 98 ; precepts and teachings, 98- 102; results contrasted with Christianity, 102, 103 ; strong opposition and in- tolerance in Burma toward Judson, 150-153 Burial, 32 Burma, 1, 4, 5, 7, 11, 14, 16, 46, 62, 69, 92, 93, 96-98, 143,178; emperor's intolerance, 150- 152; Ko San Ye movement, 240, 241 Burmans, 64, 100-102 Burmese Bible, 150; language, 150 ;Mission,149-153 ; women, 93 Butler, Dr. William, 159 Calcutta, 2, 8, 19-21, 42, 96, 142, 157, 159, 184, 234; arrival of missionaries at, 141, 149, 154; Botanical Gardens 16 ; college by Dufif, 154, 156; early era of Euro- pean vice, 237, 238; Hitavadi Index 281 (paper), 68,\^chools, 65, 67, 192 ; University, 192 Calicut, 38 California, 11, 53 Cambridge University, 146, 153 Campbell, Sir Colin, 44 Canada, 3, 53, 155, 218 Canals, chieflv for irrigation, 8, 12, 43, 52 Cape of Good Hope, 38 Carey, William, 139-146, 154, 157, 161, 174, 179, 234, 237, 238, 241 ; as pastor of Bap- tist church and shoemaker, 139; developed power to master languages, 139; dis- courses effect missionary organization, 140; famous motto, 140; goes to India, 141 ; Mudnabatty, 141 ; preaching and Scripture translation, 141 ; 142; Serampur and pro- fessorship, 141-143; work covering forty-one years, and influence, 143-146 Caste, 77-83, 95, 97, 102, 109, 119, 154; breaking in Chris- tian schools and by rise to positions, 171, 178, 192 , 230, 234; divisions of, 77, 78; four classes, 78, 79; names of castes often misleading, 81; outcasts or "depressed classes," 79, 80, 203-206; rules, 80, 81, 211; sacrifice of modesty and even life, 81, 82; should be dealt with carefully, 202, 203, 211; some advantages and disad- advantages, 83, 117, 118,; thirty-five castes in Ameri- can College, Madura, 178; unites Hmdus, but also divides, 108 Cawnpur, 44, 147, 148 Cedar of Lebanon, 16 Celt, the 61 Census of British empire, 45 Central India, 43; Agencv, 46, 92 Central Provinces, 46, 92, 96 Ceylon, 21, 92, 98, 159, 178 Chalmers, Dr., 154 Chandra Gupta, 34 Chaplains of East India Com- pany, 146, 157 Cherra Punji, 11 Chet Ram, 181 Chicago, 231, University, 232 Child lite, 49, 72-76 ; marriage, 37, 75, 76, 236, 240; widows, 75, 76 Children instructed, 143; sac- rifice stopped, 143 China, 5, 10, 23, 98, 244; Boxer uprising, 44 Chinese empire, 4 Chins, the, 96 Cholera, 13, 22, 23 Christ, 103, 111, 118, 168; as Sa\'iour, 84, 103, 107, 123, 147, 181, 182; to possess India, 161, 194; Christian agents, 228; com- mvmicants, 228 ; community, 228 ; literature, see Literary work; missionarv conquerors of India, 131-164. Christianity, 54; contrast with Buddhism, 101, 103; Hindu- ism, 119,123; Mohammedan- ism, 107 Christians, 91-93; increase in India, 228 Church buildings erected, 138 Church Missionary Societv, 153 Church of England, 232, of Scotland, 154 Churches, of United States and Canada,53 ; membership, 218 Cities, 2, 3, 18, 23, 31, 68 Climate, 19-23 Clive, Lord, 40-42 Clothing, 70 Clough, John E., 159, 172 Coal, 14 "Coast Mission, the," 136 Coast regions, 3, 5, 11, 21, 38 Cochin, 158 Code of Manu, 78, 109 38^ Index Coffee, 17 Colleges, Christian, in India, 154, 156, 178, 232; grad- uates, 155, 178 Columbus, Christopher, 38 Commerce, 14, 38, 39, 48, 53; Parsees in, 93 Congregational Churches, 149; Missionary Societies, 145 Constantinople, 148 Continental, see European Converts, 136-138, 143, 150, 159,161, 229, 234; advance of, 84 ; from among devotees, 122; from schools and col- leges, 155, 178; see also Native Christians Corrie, Daniel, 157 Cotton, 17 Cotton, Sir A., 12 Croesus, 13 Cuddalore, 138 Cultivated area, 17 Custard apple, 15 Da Gama, Vasco, 38 Dalhousie, Lord, 18; achieve- ments in India, 43 Daman, 38 Danish, missions, 135-138; settlements, 39, 142 Darjiling, 11 Dav, Samuel S., 159, 172 Deccan, the, 5, 11, 13, 41, 172 Decennial Missionary Confer- ence, 193 Delhi, 21, 36, 37, 44, 45 Delta of Bengal or of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, 3, 6 ; of the Irawadi, 5 Demarara, 234 Deo or spirit, 110 Desert, 17 Devil worshipers, 122 Devotees, religious, 116, 117, 119-122 Diamonds, 13, 14 Dinapur, 146 Diseases, 13, 22, 23 Diu, 38 Douglass, Francis A., 159 Dravidian race, 62, 64 Dravido-Munda people, 32, 62 Drink traffic, 50 Drought, 12, 13 Drysdale, Anne Scott, 154 Dualism, 94 Duff, Alexander, 153-156; 159, 161, 174, 176; father and mother, 153; first missionary impression, 153; marriage and voyage to India, 154; success and effect of colleges at Calcutta and Madras, 156; vast educative work in home fields, 155, 156 Dupleix, 40, 41 Durbars, 45 Durian, the, 16 Dutch East India Company, 39 Earthenware, prehistoric, 32 East India Company, see British East India Company East India Railway, 192 East, the, see Orient, the Eastern Ghats, 5 Eastern India, 159 Ecumenical Missionary Con- ference, 232 Educational work, 49, 50, 52 64, 66-68, 93, 107,173-178 Christ's commission, 173 instruction needed 173, 174 modern movement, 143 154, 157, 159, 174-176 results show its necessity 176-178; type, in college at Madura, 178; women participating, 175, 176 Edward VII, King-Emperor, 244 ; crowned and proclaimed emperor of India, 45, 233 Egypt, 8 Employment, a problem, 211, 212 England, see Great Britain English, see British EngHsh language, 64, 67, 68; use in colleges by Duff and in government schools, 154 English-speaking race, 54, 156 Index 283 Epworth League, 194 Fortress of Gingi, 40 Equator, 20 France, 39, 49 Europe, 2, 13, 14, 38, 134; Eraser, Sir Donald, 192 powers having early settle- Freethinking sect of Moham- ments in India, 38-40 medans, 104 European languages in India, French companies, 39 ; depend- 62; mode in preaching, 168 encies,40; efforts in the East, Europeans, 21, 23, 61, 191; 39, 40 former vices needing correc- Frenchmen, 137 tion, 237-239 Fruits, 15, 16 Evangelistic work, 168-173; discourses seated or stand- Ganesha, 115 ing, 168; in bazaars and Ganges, canal, 43; river, 6-9, melas, 169; itinerating among 31; valley, 34, 43, 159 villages, 170; open air stere- Gangetic plain, 3 opticon services, 170; pro- Garos, the, 96 fcssors and evangelistic Gautama, 97, 99, 100 bands from seminaries, 170, German company, 39 trained native pastors, 170, Germany, 49 171; women workers in Ghats, see Eastern Ghats, West- homes, 171, 172; years of ern Ghats prayer and work bring thous- Giving and support of missions, ands among Telugus, 172, 138,142, 145, 147, 155; ability 173 great, 218, 219; proportion Evils removed, 49, 236; still to and Christlike motive, 217- be overcome, 50 219 Exports, 14, 17 Godavari River, 7 God, 12, 103, 107, 119, 139, Fairbank, Samuel B., 159 140, 148, 243, 244 Fakirs or devotees, 119, 120, God or gods, in the non-Chris- 181 tian faiths, 94, 96, 105-107, Famines, 13 110-115, 236; Animism, 96, Fatalism, 106, 107, 112 100, 101; Buddhism, 102; Fertility of land, 17 Hinduism, 110-115, 118, Fetichism and similar forms, 119; Mohammedanism, 105, 110 106; Parseeism, 94 Feudatory states, see Native Gogra River, 6 states Golri, 13, 32, 53 Fevers, 13, 22, 23 Gonds, the, 96 Fiji Islanders, 234 Governor-General, 46, see also Financial problem in missions. Viceroy 216-219 Governors, 46 Fire, worshiped by Parsees, 94 Great Britain, 23, 39-57, 139, Food, 70; products, 14-16; 145,155,156 revolting as a test by devo- Greece, 244 tees, 121 Greek invasion, 34, 35 Forests, 16 Greeks, 1, 61 Fort Ontario, 40 ; Saint George, Guavas, 15 40 ; Ticonderoga, 40 ; William Gujarat, 1 1 Henry, 40; Gujarati language, 62 Fort William College, 142 Gunga Sangor, 143 28-1 Index Haidarabad, 41, 46, 92 Hall, Gordon, 157 Hanuman, 115 Harrison, ex-President, 232 Harvard University, 192 Hastings, Warren, 42 Hasseltine, Miss Ann, 149 Havelock, Sir Henrv, 44 Health, 20-23 Heber, Reginald, 157 Heights of Abraham, 40 Heine, 31 Hides, 17 Hill region, 5 Himalaya Mountains, 4-7, 11, 16,31 Himalayan range, 4 Hindi language, 62 Hindu Kush Mountains, 35 Hindu civilization, 34; deities worshiped by Jains, 95; kingdoms, 34; marriage and home life, 72-74; princes, 36; reconquest of part of India, 37; rulers, 137; widows, 37, 231, 236, 240 Hinduism, 61, 72, 91-98, 108- 122, 143, 214, 215; adherents form bulk of Indian people, 108; early developed among Aryans in India, 108; hter- ature in the Brahmanic or Vedic writings, 108-110; seven articles of faith, 110- 112; ; six philosophical sys- tems, 112, 113; triad, Brah- ma, Vishnu, Shiva, 113, 114; wife of Shiva, Kali, 114, 115; wisdom and monkey gods, 115; worthless tortures and low moral tone of devotees, 115-123 Hindus, 44, 61, 96, 146,178, 185, 192, 206, 211 ; relatively tolerant and progressive, 66, 131 Hindustani language, 146; New Testament, 146, 147 Hodson, Thomas, 158 Hoisington, Henry, 158 Homes, 69, lack Christian ideal, 70 Hospitals, by Jains for animals 95; mission, 185, 186, 225 Hough, James, 158 Hugh, city, 8; River, 141 Hyder All, 138 Idaho, 3 Idolatry and idols, pictures, 153 ; worship, 95, 96, 106, 108 240 Illiteracy, 66, 67, 107 Imad-ud-din, Rev., 233 Imports, 14 Improvements, 43, 48, 49, 235 Incarnations in Hinduism, 111, 113, 114 Independents, missionary agency for, 145 India, accessible to missionary effort, 131 ; area, 1 ; army, 1, 2; boundaries, 4; British provinces, 3, 46; Christian conquerors, 131-164; cities, 2, 3; climate, 19-23; com- merce, 14; cultivated area, 17; divisions, physical, 4; exports and imports, 14, 17; famines, 13; food products, 14-16; forests, 16; free press and speech, 131 ; French possessions, 40 ; fruits, 15, 16 : government transferred to crown, 44, 45 ; improvements under Dalhousie, 43; invad- ers and rulers, 31-56; irri- gation, 9, 12, 43; lack of patriotism, 47 ; languages, 33, 62-64 ; legislative powers, 2; missionaries from, to other places, 234; mission- aries to, 133-161 ; missionary results, 225-242; monsoons, 9-11,21; mountains, 5; Mutiny, 43 ; name, 1 ; Na- tional Missionarv Society 241, 242; native states, 1, 3' 46, 47; people, 61-87; popul lation, 2, 38, 40, 45, 46, 105; Portuguese possessions, Sg' Index 285 Public Works Department 43; products, 13-17; races, 61, 62; railroads or railways, 2, 17-19, 43; rainfall, 11, 12; religions, 91-127 ; re venues, 1 ; rich country but poor people, 70, 71 ; rivers, 6-9 ; rulers, 33- 38, 40-45; seasons, 19-22; statistics, see Statistics of In- dia; temperature, 19-22; towns, 2, 68,' 18; treasures, 13, 14; viceroy, 1, 45, 46; viUages, 2, 23, 68, 69, 184; wealth, 13; women, 66, 72- 77, 102, 119, 161, 171, 172; see also sections, as Eastern India Indigo, 17 Indo-Chinese, 62 Indoor services, 169 Indus River, 1, 4, 6, 8, 34 Industrial work, call for such agency 187; difficulties, 187, 188; improvements, 52; requirements and successes, 188, 189 Ingalls, Mrs. Murilla B., 161 Inquisition in India, 134 Invaders of India, 32-36; . Aryans, 33, 34; Greeks 34, 35; Mohammedans, 35-38; settlements and British con- trol, 38-54 Inventiveness, lack of, 65, 66 Irawadi, delta, 5; River, 5, 7, 150 Irrigation, 9, 12 Islam, see Mohammedanism Italy, 49 Jack-fruit, 16 Jains, the, 91-95 Jamalpur, 192 Java, 234 Jehlam River, 34 Jesuit efforts in India, 134, 135 Jewels and jewelry, 13, 71 Jewett, Lyman, 159, 172 Jewett, Mrs., 172 Jews, 91-93 Johnston, Robert, 159 Judaism, 93, 107, 202 Judson, Adoniram, 149-153, 161 ; conversion, marriage, and departure for India, 149; doctrinal view and church relation changed, 149, 150; entrance upon work in Burma and first converts, 150; imprisonment at Ava and Oung-pen-la, 151 ; Maulmein and the Karens, 152; missionary motto, 152; translation of Bible and close of life, 152, 153 Judson, Ann Hasseltine, bride, 149, 151 ; devotion to hus- band during imprisonment, 151 ; missionary heroism and death, 151, 152 Jute, 17 Kaching, the, 96 Kali, 114, 115 Kalima, the, of Mohammed- anism, 105 Kanarese, 64 Kanishka, 35 Kansas, 15 Karens, the, 96; mission work among, 152, 159, 240, 241 Karikal, 40 Karma, \mder Buddhism, 99 Kashmir, 35, 61, 92, 93 Kellogg, Samuel H., 160 Keshub Chunder Sen, 239 Kettering, 140 Khandoba, 77 Khasis, the, 96 King of England, appointment of governors, 46 "Kings, " sought to be used by Xavier, 134 Kistna River, 7 Klondyke, the, 53 Ko San Ye movement, 240 Ko Thah-byu, 232 Koran, the, 107 Kshattriyas, 78 Krishna, 77, 114 Krishna Pal, 142, 232 286 Index Lahore, 21 Landholder's rights, 42 Languages of India, 33, 62-64, 67, 68 Legislative powers, 2 Lemons, 15 Letters, Carey's influence through, 145 Life, abnormal regard for, 95, 101, 236 Limes, 16 Lisbon, 38 Literary work and the press, 137, 150, 157, 159; Christian literature presses and agen- cies, 179, 180; need, range, and value of output, 179- 182, 226 Literature Society, Christian, 180 London, 23, 140; Missionary Society Loquats, 15 Lucknow, 19; relief of, 44; ruined residency, 44 Lumber, 17 Madras, 2, 12, 41, 46, 47, 67, 92, 93, 96, 137, 138, 147, 156, 157, 159, 172, 191; Presi- dency, 172 Madura, 158, 172 Mahahharata, the, 109 Mahanadi River, 7 Mahe, 40 Mahmud, Tuglak King, 36 Malayalam 64 ]\Ialaysia, 234 Mango tree and fruits, 15 Marathas, 37, 159 Marathi language, 62, 142 Marriage, 71-76 Marshman, Joshua, 157 Martyn, Henry, 145-149, 157, 158, 161 ; decision for mis- sions at Cambridge, 146, 153 ; duties as chaplain com- bined with mission service, 146, 147; labors at Dinapur and Cawnpur, 146, 147; journey through Persia and death, 148, 149; work as translator, influence, 149 "Mass movements," 210 Mauhnein, 152 Maya, or illusion. 111 Mayo, Lord , 18 Mazabi-Sikhs, 96 McConaughy, Mr. David, 191 Mecca, pilgrimage to, 105 Medical work, 159, 182-186; demand for medical aid, 182- 184; range and worth of this ministrv, 185, 186 Meerut, 36 Melas, 169 Merit, Buddhist doctrine of, 100-102 Metal age in India, 32 Military stations, 18 Millet, 15, 70 Milton, 31 Mir Jafar, 42 Miraj Medical Mission, 185 Mission jDress, see Literary work Mission schools, see Educa- tional work, Schools Missionaries, 2, 21, 48, 50, 69, 96, 131, 133- 161, 191, 193, 214, 233, 235 Missionary'- agencies, 54, 167- 198, see also separate topics, as Educational work; giving 216-219; lectures, 156; pol- icy, 215; problems, 201-221; professorship, 156; results, 225-248; Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 159 Missions, Protestant, 44, 53, 144; accessibility of India, 131; Danish work, 135-138; date of modern era, 141; first centurv of development, 139-161, 225-239; possibili- ties for the future, 217-219, 242-245; quickening of the home field, 155, 215-219; woman's work, 160, 161, 171, 172, 227 Mississippi River, 6 Index 287 Mitchell, J. Murray, 157 Moguls, 36, 42 Mohammed, 35 Mohammedan intolerance and unprogressive spirit, 66, 107, 131; rulers, 36-38, 137 Mohammedanism, 61, 72, 91- 93, 95, 103-107, 214,215; accepted in eastern Bengal, 38; advanced by power of the sword and offer of position, 104; conquest and rule in India, 35-38, 103, 104; dynasties, 36 ; extension now not rapid, 104, 105; four sects, 104; its dogmatic and practical parts, 105, 106; marriage and place of woman, 72, 73, 107; relative benefits and evils, 106, 107; sensuality, 106, 107; viewed in contrast with Christianity, 107 Mohammedans, 44, 66, 96, 131, 146, 178, 186, 192, 206,211 Mongolian type, 64 Mongols, see Moguls Monotheism, 94, 106 Monsoons, 9-11,21 Montana, 3 Montcalm, General, 39, 40 Moslem, see Mohammedan Mosques, Great, 37; Pearl, 37 Mottoes, missionary, 140, 152 Moung Nau, 150 Mountains, 5 Mudnabatty, 141 Muhammad Ali, 41 Mullens, Mrs. H. C, 161 Murdoch, John, 159 Mutiny, the, 17,43, 148 ; causes, 43, 44; outcome and results, 44, 45, 159 Mysore, 14, 138, 158; States, 46 Nagas, 107 Nagas, the, 96 Naini Tal, 11 Narbada River, 5, 7; valley, 32 Natal, South Africa, 173," 234 National Missionary Society of India, 241-242 Native Bible women, 171, 172; Christians, 153; churches, 150, 172, 213; missionary societies, 173, 241, 242; princes or rulers, 1, 43, 45, 46, 138, 233; soldiers, 43, 44, 47, 96; States and Agencies, 1, 3, 42, 46, 47; testimony for British control, 50-52; workers, 170-173, 226, 227, 233 Nat-sin, 101 Nats, 100 Nautch girls, 77 Nellore, 172 Nepal, 62, 234 Nesbit, Robert, 157 Nestorian Christians, 132 New Testament, translations, 141, 142, 146-149 New York City, 232; State, 11 Newell, Harriet, 157 Newell, Samuel, 157 Nicholson, Gen. John, 44 Nile River, 6, 8 Nineteenth century, 43 Nirvana or Neikban, 98, 100 Noble, Miss, 215 North America, 7, 11, 12, 14, 23, 61, 65, 154; resources of Churches, 218 Northern India, 15, 19, 20, 34, 69, 92, 137, 160, 181, 230, 240, 245 Northwestern India, 11, 34 Nundy , Rev. Gopinath, 155 Occident, the, 23, 54 Official promotion for natives, 44 Ohio, 11 Ongole, 172 Ontario, 3 Opium evil, 50 Oranges, 15 Orient, the, 23, 31, 38, 135, 144, 149, 159, 168 Orissa, 143 Oriya language, 62 288 Index Orphanages, 190 Oudh, 46 Oung-pen-la prison, 151 Oxford University, 231 Pagoda, in Buddhist worship, 100, 101, Martyn's at Seram- pur, 241 Pah language, 150 Panchamas, 79 Panipat, battle of, 37 Panjabi language, 62 Pantheism, 94, 106, 110 Paper, improved by Carey, 143 ParseeB, 91-94, 185 Passes of India, 32, 36 Patna, 8, 146 Paul, the Apostle, 91, 149, 244 Peace and progress, 48, 50 Peking, 44 People of India, 61-87; caste distinctions, 77-83 ; intellec- tual gifts, 65; lack of inven- tiveness, 65, 66; literacy and schools, 66-68 ; physical characteristics, 64, 65; rela- tive progressiveness, 66 ; ; sex regulations, 72-77; sin ex- plains phght, 83, 84 Periodicals, 65, 68, 226 Persecution, 132, 210 Persia and Persians, 1, 61, 94, 148, 234 Persian language, 146 New Testament, 147, 148, 149 Pettitt, George, 158 Philanthropic work ; famine orphanages, 190; results, 190, 191 Philippine Islands, 234 Phj'sical divisions of India, 4 Physicians, lack of, 184 Pineapples, 15 Plague, the, 23 Plains of Northern India, 4 Plassey, battle of, 40-42 Plateau, the southern, of India, 3, 5 Plutschau, Danish missionary, 135 Policy by which India was won, 40-42; and is held, 47-49 Political authority relinquished by native rulers, 43 Polygamy, 72-74, 107; a mis- sionary problem, 206-210 Polytheism, 106, 110 Pondicherri, 40 Poona, 159 Pope, the, 132, 134 Population, 2 Portugal, 38 Portuguese Christians, 135; language used, 137 ; expedi- tions and possessions in India, 38, 132, 133 Porus, 34 Postage, cheaper, 43 Poverty of masses, 47, 70, 71 Prayers, 105, 107, 123 Press, see Literary work Princeton University, 192 Prisons in Burma, 151 Piivate baptism, 210 Products, 13-17 Protestant Christians, 228, see also Missions, Protestant, Native Christians Provinces, British, 2, 45, 46 Prussia, 39 Public opinion, 49 ; office, 50 Public Works Department, 43 Punjab, 12, 32-34, 46, 67, 92 Puranas, the, 109 Queen Victoria, see Victoria Races, 61, 62 Railroads or railwaj'-s, 2, 17-19, 43, 52 Rains and the rainfall, 11, 12, 21, 22 Rajah of Bhurtpur, 147 Rajasthani language, 62 Rajputana, 92 Rajputs, 78 Ram Chandra, professor, 232 Ram Mohan Roy, 239 Ramabai, Pandita, 186, 231 Ramayana, the, 109 Index 289 Ramazan, Mohammedan fast, 105 Rangoon, 20, 150-152 Red Sea, 43 Religions of India, 33, 91-127 Religious freedom and tolera- tion, 37, 52, 131 Results in India missions, 225- 245; a first half century, 226; a second half century, 227 ; agencies among women, 228 ; Christian population and community, 228-231 ; eminent native converts, 231- 233; foreign expansion, 233, 234 ; literature, 226 ; obstacle of caste lessened, 234, 235 ; property, 225 ; reforms, 235- 239 ; samajes and native mis- sion movements, 239-242 ; vast opportunity,242-245 Resurrection, beUef of Parsees, 94 Revenues, 1, 41, 42 Rhode Island, 3 Rice, 14, 17, 70 Rice, Luther, 149, 150 Ringletaube, W. T., 157 Rivers, as fertilizers and high- ways, 8, 9; as land-makers, 9; traffic, 7, 8; volume, 6, 7 Roman Catholic Christians, 92, 228; Church, 132; mis- sions, 133-135 Rome, 244 "Roof of the world," 3 Riilers of India, 33-38, 40-45 Russia, 2, 49 Sabat, 147 "Sacred Book" of Buddhism, 102 Saint Lawrence River, 6 Sakti worship, 110 Salem, Massachusetts, 149 Salwin River, 152 Samarkand, 36 Sanskrit language, 33, 63, 142, 146 Sarasvati, Dyanand, 240 Sathianthan, Mrs., 232 Satpura range, 5 Schools, effect of Duff's use of English, 154, 174; govern- ment, 65-67, 174-177; high, 192, 206; mission, 50, 143, 154, 155, 173-178,227 Schwartz, Christian Friedrich, 137, 138 Scudder, John, 158 Scythians, 35 Seasons, 19-22 Seleukos Nikator, 34 Self-government, a problem, 213, 214 Self-support of pastors, 212,213 Sepoys, 43 Serampur, 39, 141, 143, 149, 154, 157, 241 Sermon on the Mount, 168 Settlements in India, 38, 39 Shah Jehan, 37; palace of, 37 Shanghai, 96 Sheshadri, Rev. Narayan, 233 Shiah, sect of Mohammedans, 104 Shiraz, 148 Shiva, 113, 114 Siam, 4, 98 Sikhs, 91-93, 95, 96 Silt, 8, 9 Silver, 13, 32 Simeon, Rev. Charles, 146, 153 Sin, a plight of non-Christian lands, 84; viewed by fatal- ism, 112 Sindh, Sindhis, 1 "Sindhus," 1 Sing, Sir Hanam, 242 Singapore, 20 Singh, Miss Lilavati, 232 Slavs, 61 Social life elevated, 49 Soldiers, see Native soldiers Sorabji sisters, 231 Sorghum, 15 South Country, 5 Southern India, 13, 16, 19, 20, 34, 132, 135, 137-139, 156, 230, 245 Spaniard, 53 Spirit of Good and of EvH, 94 290 Index Spirits, animistic views, 96, 100, 101 Starvation, 13, see also Fam- ines Sta.tes, feudatory, or native, see Native states Statistics of India: area, 1; army, 2 ; beggars or devotees 71, 122: boats, 8; British empire, 45 ; Britisli provinces 46 ; canals, 12 ; cities. 3 ; culti- vated land, 17; deaths from famine, 13; exports, 17; French possessions, 40 ; mis- sions, 225-228 ; Mohammedan increase, 105; native states, 46; population, 2, 38, 40, 45, 46, 105; Portuguese posses- sions, 38; railroads, 18; rain- fall, 11; religions, 91, 228; river volumes, 6, 7; schools, 176; Telugu mission, 172; taxation, 37, 49; towns, 2; villages, 2 Steam engine, 44, 143 Stereopticon service, 170 Stone ages of India, 32 Subsidized state, 4 Sub-sudras, 79, 80 Sudras, 79, 80 Sunday-school, 194 Sunnite, sect of INIohammedans, 104 Susa, 34 Sutras, the, 109 Suttee, 236 Swain, Clara A., M.D., 184 Sweden, 39 Sweepers, 80, 206 Syrian Christians, 132 Table-land of central and southern India,4, see also Deccan, the Taj Mahal, 37 Taiaings, the, 100 Tamerlane, see Timur Tamil language, 64, 3 37; liter- ature, 65, 136 Tan j ore, 136, 137 Tantras, the, 109 Tapti, 7 Tartary, 36 Taxation, 37, 45, 49, 50 Taylor, William, 159 Teak, 16 Telegraph, 43, 44 Telugu language, first used, 137; mission, 159, 172, 173 Temperature, 19-22 Temple girls, 77 Teutons, 61 Thana, 17 Thoburn, Isabella, 161 Thomason, Thomas, 157 Tibet, 5, 6, 7, 92, 98, 234 Tibeto-Burman people, 32, 62, 234 Timur, 36 * Tinnevelli, 136, 157, 158 Tocat, 149 Tod, Wilham, 158 Tomb of Akbar at Agra, 37 Toronto University, 192 Torture, voluntary, of devotees, 116, 117, 120-122 Total abstinence in Orient, 159 Towns, 2, 68, 184 Tract Societv, 180 Tracts, 142, i50, 180, 186 Trade winds, 9 Traffic, on rivers, 7, 8 Tranquebar, 39, 135, 137 Transmigration, 99, 106, 112 Travancore, 61, 158 Treasures, 13, 14 Trichinopoli, 137 Truthfulness, in Buddhist teaching and practice, 102 Tucker, Charlotte Maria, 161 United Provinces, 12, 46,47, 93 United States, 2, 3, 12, 15, 49, 145, 155, 218 Universities, government, 67, 178, 192 Vaisyas, 79 Vedas, 53, 95; separate parts of, 109 Vernacular, mission and press, 68 ; schools, 146 Index 291 Viceroy of India, 1, 45, 46; Legislative Council, 231 Victoria, Queen, made Empress of India, 45 Villages, 2, 23, 68, 184; person- ages in 2, 69; preaching in 141, 170 Vindhya Mountains, 5, 36 Vishnu, 113 Wahahi,sect of Mohammedans, 104 Ward, William, 157 Wealth of India, 13, 71; of English-speaking peoples, 53 Weapons, early, 32 Wellesley, Lord, 43 West Indies, 10 West, the, see Occident, the Western Ghats, 5, 11 Western India, 38, 157, 159, 245 V/heat and flour, 17, 70 Widow-burning, 37, 76, 77, 144, 236 Widows, see Hindu widows Wilson, John, 157, 233 Witchcraft, 96, 106 Wives, under native religions and usages, 72-77, 207-209 Wolfe, General, 40 Women converts, 231, 232; mission workers, 149-152, 154-157, 160, 161, 171, 227; physicians, 183, 184, 227 Women of India, 66, 171 ; as affected by the non-Chris- tian religions and customs, 72-77, 102, 119, 207-209, 236; as reached by mission- ary agencies, 161, 171, 172, 175, 176, 183, 184, 225, 227, 231 World's Parliament of Reli- gions, 231 Wrongs abolished, 43, 48, 49, 143, 235, 236 Xavier, Francis, 133, 134 Yale University, 192 Yanaon, 40 Yoma ranges, 5 Young Men's Christian Associ- ation, 191-193; 186; fields, 191 ; 192 ; hearty recognition and support, 191-193 Young Men's Hindu Associa- tion, 215 Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor, 194 Young people's work, 193, 194 Young Women's Christian Association, 194 Zenana, the, 74, 183 Ziegenbalg, Danish missionary, 136 Zoroaster, 94 Zoroastrianism, 94 The Forward Mission Study Courses ''Anywhere, provided it be forward." — David Livingstone Prepared under the auspices of the YOUNG PEOPLE'S MISSIONARY MOVEMENT Executive Committee: — Harry Wade Hicks, S. Earl Taylor, John W. Wood, F. P. Haggard, T. H. P. Sailer. The Forward Mission Study Courses are an outgrowth of a conference of leaders in Young People's Mission Work, held in New York City, December, 1901. To meet the need that was manifested at that conference for Mission Study Text-books suitable for young people, two of the delegates. Professor Amos R. Wells, of the United Society of Christian Endeavor, and Mr. S. Earl Taylor, Chairman of the General Missionary Com- mittee of the Ep worth League, projected the Forward Mission Study Courses. These courses have been officially adopted by the Young People's Missionary Movement, and are now under the immediate direction of the Executive Committee of the Movement, which consists of the young people's secretaries, or other official representatives of twelve of the leading mis- sionary boards of the United States and Canada. The aim is to publish a series of text-books covering the various home and foreign mission fields, and written by leading authorities with special reference to the needs of young people. The entire series when com- pleted will comprise perhaps as many as twenty text- books. A general account will be given of some of the smaller countries, such as Japan, Korea, and Turkey; but, for the larger fields, as China, Africa, and India, the general account will be supplemented by a series of biographies of the principal missionaries connected with the country. The various home mission fields will also be treated both biographically and historically. The following text-books have been published: — 1. The Price of Africa. (Biographical.) By S. Earl Taylor. 2. Into All the Worldo A General Survey of Missions. By Amos R. Wells. 3. Princely Men in the Heavenly Kingdom. (Biographical.) By Harlan P. Beach, M.A., F.R.G.S. 4. Child Life in Mission Lands. A Course of Study for Junior Societies. By Ralph E. Diffendorfer. 5. Sunrise in the Sunrise Kingdom. A Study of Japan. By the Rev. John H. De Forest, D.D. 6. Heroes of the Cross in America. Home Missions. (Bio- graphical.) By Don O. Sheltcn. 7. Daybreak in the Dark Continent. A Study of Africa. By Wilson S. Naylor. 8. The Christian Conquest of India. A Study of India. By Bishop James M. Thobum. 9. Aliens or Americans? A Study of Immigration. By Rev. Howard B Grose, Pn. D. These books are published by mutual arrangement among the denominational publishing houses, to whom all orders should be addressed. They are bound uni- formly, and are sold for 50 cents, in cloth, and 35 cents, in paper, postage extra. Study classes desiring more advanced text-books are referred to the admirable series published by the Inter- denominational Committee of the Woman's Boards. The volumes already published are : — Via Christi. A Study of Missions before Carey. By Louise Manning Hodgkins. Lux Christi. A Study of Missions in India. By Caroline Atwater Mason. Rex Christus. A Study of Missions in China. By Rev. Arthur H. Smith, D.D. Dux Christus. A Study of Missions in Japan. By Rev. W. E. Griffis, D.D. Christus Liberator. A Study of Missions in Africa. By Ellen C. Parsons. Christus Redemptor. A Study of the Island World, By Helen Barrett Montgomery. POLITICAL MAP OF INDIA SHOWING CHRISTIAN MISSION STATIONS DATE DUE _^_^___,,„ 1 5 tPRQ Jiltit S1990 ju\ ,m JUl^ v^ \ \ \ ^r.niki . \ ' «%dCi^ DEMCO 38-297 Princeton Theological Seminary-Speer Library 'il 1012 01049 2926