/, /^ /.'•' ^^ PRINCETON, N. J. *^ Purchased by the Hamill Missionary Fund. BV 2060 .F3 ,.4. Faunce, William Herbert Perry, 1859-1930. The social aspects of '^% %*-^ '%: % CKOci' oi' •i\\i:.\-r\-'r\V() \•|■/il;l^\x .mission. \kii:s At the Centenary Conference, 1907. all had been in China forty years or more THE SOCIAL ASPECTS OF FOREIGN MISSIONS BY v' William Herbert Perry Faunce PRESIDENT OF BROWN UNIVERSITY NEW YO RK Missionary Education Movement of the United States and Canada 1914 COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY MISSIONARY EDUCATION MOVEMENT OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Preface v-vi Introductory vii-x I Relation of the Individual to Society. . 3 II Types of Social Order in the East and the West 33 III The Projection of the West into the East 67 IV Social Achievements of Missionaries.. loi V Social Achievements of Missionaries (Continued) 141 VI Enlarging Function of the Missionary. 185 VII Great Founders and Their Ideals 211 VIII The Interchange of East and West 249 Bibliography , 287 Index 297 111 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Group of Twenty-two Veteran Missionaries, Frontispiece Sarah Tucker College, Tinnevelli, India .... 22 Palmer Boarding School, Telugu, South India ... 58 Mission Press, Rangoon, Burma 114 American College, Madura, India 126 Peking University, Peking, China 126 Miraj Hospital, Miraj, India 132 Operating Room, Foochow Hospital, Foochow, China . 132 General Hospital, Chungking, West China • • . • 132 Warren Memorial Hospital, Hwanghien, China . , . 135 Elizabeth Shelton Danforth Memorial Hospital, Kiukiang, China 136 Central Training School, Old Umtali, Rhodesia . . . 146 Silliman Institute, Damaguete, Philippine Islands . . 160 Mission Hospital, Madura, India 170 Alexander M. Mackay 190 Archery, Aoyama Gakuin, Tokio, Japan 202 Gymnastic Drill, Nanking University, Nanking, China . 202 Main Building, Serampur College, Serampur, India . 214 American Deccan Institute, Ahmednagar, India . . . 220 Industrial School, Jorbat, Assam 220 Alexander Duff 226 Main Building, Hospital, Guntur, India 260 Orphanage, Guntur, India 260 PREFACE On returning from a journey through the Far- ther East I was asked to prepare this book as an aid to people in their study of the missionary enterprise. My oriental journey was not intended as a " tour " of the mission stations. My chief desire was to meet the natives themselves, to look through their eyes, and gain some glimpse of their racial characteristics and their point of view. Buf^ I soon found that the best possible approach to the soul of India or China was not through the Euro- pean government official or the European trader, both of them aloof and sometimes cynical, but through the missionary, whose life has been poured- into the lives around him. Through the courtesy of missionaries I found windows everywhere opened into native life, doors flung wide, and hands out- stretched. I have not attempted to set forth facts except as they illustrate principles. The facts have been col- lected in amazing number and variety by Dr. Den- nis in his three encyclopedic volumes : Christian Mis^ sions and Social Progress. But the very wealth of facts now available may hinder vision. Our real need is a clearer definition of what we are trying to do. Each generation must redefine its object. The preaching of the glad tidings must ever occupy VI Preface a foremost place in missionary enterprise. Evan- gelism is the cutting edge of effort. The persua- sion of the human will to righteousness is indis- pensable. But a complete message is a message to the whole man, and aims at the entire transforma- tion of both the individual and society. A large part of what is here printed was delivered in April, 19 14, before the students, faculty, and friends of Crozer Theological Seminary, as " The Samuel A. Crozer Lectures." I cannot adequately express my indebtedness to many friends throughout the Orient, to the officers of the Missionary Societies and the Alissionary Edu- cation Movement, to Mrs. John E. Clough for per- mission to quote from Dr. Clough's Autobiography, now in press, and to Dr. James Quayle Dealey, Pro- fessor of Social and Political Science in Brown Uni- versity. All of these, without assuming any respon- sibility, have given me much helpful counsel. W. H. P. Faunce. Brown University, Providence, R. I. May ig, igi4' INTRODUCTORY In this book we are to study one phase of the con- tact between East and West. The most momentous fact of modern times is that the East and the West are coming physically nearer to each other every year, and yet intellectually and spiritually are still separated by a great abyss. The distance between any two points on the earth's surface — measured by the time required to travel that distance — is rapidly diminishing. We live on a shrinking globe, whose surface, measured in time, is not one half as great as it was fifty years ago. W^e can go from New York to Peking in much less time than our grand- fathers needed to go by '' prairie schooner " from New York to Chicago. Thirty years ago " Around the World in Eighty Days " was a fairy-tale. Now the journey has been completed in less than thirty- six days. London and Bombay are to-day near neighbors. Vancouver and Yokohama are gazing into each other's eyes. San Francisco and Hong- kong are conversing by telegraph, and soon may be communicating by telephone and aerial ships. The Mediterranean through the Suez Canal flows into the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean; the Atlantic and Pacific have mingled their waters in the Panama Canal. All the oceans have become one ocean, and all the world is physically one world. viii Social Aspects of Foreign Missions But what will happen if the nations draw steadily closer geographically, and remain far asunder in sympathies and ideals? What will happen if the races clash together in mutual suspicion and hostil- ity? What shall be the result if we bring the na- tions together with swift ships and throbbing wires, but leave them alienated by the natural — or rather unnatural — hatred of white men and black, of Mon- golian and Caucasian? Already incalculable harm has been done by the sudden influx of the white man and his ideas among the weaker peoples. We all know what havoc was wrought even in the Western Hemisphere by the first European conquerors and settlers. In Hayti the entire native population died out within forty years because of the harshness and cruelty of Spanish mis- government. The atrocities wrought by the white man in the Kongo State, driving the blacks to pro- duce rubber, are still fresh in our minds. Africa has been robbed for many centuries of her material treasure, and of her flesh and blood, to satisfy Euro- pean and American greed. The mere photographs of what the white man has done to the natives in central Africa, and more recently in Putumayo, Peru, are such that we dare not bring them into a civilized home. Even when no deliberate wrong is done, when the white man goes to the weaker races with honest and kindly spirit, still his coming has always brought about a critical situation. He has carried with him novel ideas, more penetrating and powerful than Introductory ix bayonets or cannon. He has carried and spread abroad his own curiosity and unrest. He has un- dermined hoary customs, shaken up stagnant minds, made the thrones of native tyrants to totter, and with his ideas of Hberty and law and popular rights has roused from slumber whole nations. Thus a crisis has recently been produced in every Far East- ern land. India, hitherto a " land where it is al- ways afternoon," is now uneasily stirring. Japan has become more modern than her teachers. China has thrown off the Manchu yoke, and may with it lose her respect for parents, for institutions, and for morality. Egypt is demanding larger share in her own government. The Philippines are seething with a social and political ferment that we our- selves have introduced. The nations of the world have been, for good or for evil — usually both — in- fected by the white man's presence. Mr. James Bryce, perhaps the keenest of all students of our modern civilization, says : *' This is perhaps the most critical moment ever seen in the history of non- Christian nations and races. ... In half a cen- tury or less that which we call European civiliza- tion will have overspread the earth. . . . All is trembling and crumbling under the shock and im- pact of the stronger, harder civilization. . . . Things which have endured from the stone age until now are at last coming to a perpetual end and will be no more." ^ ^ University and Historical Addresses, 147. X Social Aspects of Foreign Missions It is richly worth our while to ask how far these momentous and far-reaching results have been brought about by the foreign missionaries who rep- resent us abroad, and what sort of changes these men and women have introduced. First, however, we must inquire as to the general relation of the in- dividual to the social order, and what Christianity has to say about that relation. RELATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL TO SOCIETY Heaven doth with us as we with torches do, Not light them for themselves; for if our virtues Did not go forth of us, 'twere all alike As if we had them not. — Measure for Measure. The essence of Jesus' teaching consists in the proclaiming of a new order of the world and of life, i.e., the " Kingdom of Heaven," which should be far removed from, indeed in positive opposition to, existing conditions; in fact, opposed to all the natural doing and contriving of men, to the *' world." In Jesus' conception, this new order is by no means merely an inner trans- formation, affecting only the heart and mind, and leaving the outer world in the same condition. Rather, historical research puts it beyond question that the new kingdom means a visible order as well, that it aims at a complete change of the state of things, and hence cannot tolerate any rival order. Never in his- tory has mankind been summoned to a greater revolution than here, where not this and that among the conditions but the to- tality of human existence is to be regenerated. — Rudolf Eucken. CHAPTER I RELATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL TO SOCIETY Social Organisms. When hundreds of students are closely associated in a single college, does the college itself become a living organism? When hundreds of voices are singing of alma mater, " benignant mother," are the singers using a mere figure of speech? Or does the college have a life of its own, far longer and deeper than the life of any student who comes and goes? Is there such a thing as '' college spirit," distinct from the separate spirits of individual students? Social Methods of Approach. When we see hun- dreds of workers coming out of a cotton-mill at nightfall, we sometimes speak of them as *' hands." Are they really hands, members of a huge body, possessed of a common consciousness and a com- mon will, and working together as hands and feet and eyes and ears cooperate in the human body? Or are all the workers really as separate from one another as the separate pieces in a game of chess? If we want to uplift and inspire and educate those mill workers, shall we approach them one by one, or as a mass? Shall we study the individual need, or shall we provide for the whole group better 3 4 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions sanitation, better ventilation, better wages, better schools? Which method did primitive Christianity adopt when it conquered the Roman empire in the first three centuries ? Three Theories. Three theories have prevailed in the past as to the relation of the one and the many, the individual and the group. Society Viewed as a Magnified Man. The oldest of these is the organic theory of society, which conceives the social order as a sort of magnified human being. We find this view among the ancient Greeks, who made the state immensely more impor- tant than the single citizen. Plato tells us that if we want to understand justice we should first study it on a large scale, as embodied in a just city. Then we may later understand the just man — as children learn to read large letters before they are able to read small ones. To him the Greek state was the Greek man '' writ large." Aristotle cannot conceal his scorn for the isolated individual, owning no allegiance to the state. '' The state," he says, " is a creation of nature, man is by nature a political animal, and he who by nature, and not by mere ac- cident, is without a state is either above humanity or below it. He is the * Tribeless, lawless, hearthless one ' whom Homer denounces — the outcast who is a lover of war, and solitary as a bird of prey." ^ Force of This Idea, Late and Early. This idea of the social order finds later echo in the striking ^Politics, Book I, Ch. II. Relation of Individual to Society 5 phrase of John Milton — himself a stanch individu- alist : '' The state is one huge Christian personage, one mighty growth or stature of an honest man." From that standpoint a state, or any kind of so- ciety, is vastly more than an aggregation of atoms, more than the sum of the persons composing it. It has a character, good or evil, a common conscious- ness, a corporate responsibility. It is a sort of artificial or metaphysical person, a mighty super- human being, to be served by every citizen whose little life is included in the larger life of the entire social order. This theory minimizes the single man, and exalts the unity of the group. It built Athens, the superb '' city of the violet crown," and it slew the questioning, critical Socrates. Pervades the Old Testament. This vivid sense of the nation as a living being pen^ades all the Old Testament. Israel, addressed as "my servant," is invited, entreated, warned, punished, rewarded by Jehovah. If one member of the community sinned — like Achan — the entire nation was held guilty, just as when a human finger is poisoned the whole body is poisoned through that finger. The nation was responsible, not only for all living mem- bers, but for the deeds of its ancestors as well. If the fathers had " eaten sour grapes," the children's teeth were " set on edge." The iniquity of the fa- thers was visited " upon the children, and upon the third and upon the fourth generation," and it did not occur to the prophets to question the justice of such a principle. The Hebrew nation was to them 6 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions a living being enduring through the ages. It had its period of infancy : *' When Israel was a child, ... I loved him, ... I took him on my arms." It needed comfort, like a forsaken woman: "Thy Maker is thy husband. . , . For a small moment have I forsaken thee, but with great mercies will I gather thee." It grew old and feeble : ** Gray hairs are upon him, . . . and he knoweth it not." But the nation could not die : " Shake thyself from the dust; arise, sit on thy throne, O Jerusalem." Attitude of Prophetism. Such vivid conceptions are not mere figures of speech. To the Israelite his nation was '* one huge personage," chosen of God, called out of Egypt, led through the wilder- ness, heir of all the promises. The individual in the Old Testament has little or no hope of immor- tality, but his nation should endure forever. ** The prophets," says Professor Walter Rauschenbusch, ''were not religious individualists. During the classical times of prophetism they always dealt with Israel and Judah as organic totalities. They con- ceived of their people as a gigantic personality which sinned as one and ought to repent as one. . . . It was only when the national life of Israel was crushed by foreign invaders that the prophets be- gan to address themselves to the individual life and lost the large horizon of public life." ^ A Defective Conception. If we to-day should ac- cept this idea of a nation as a real person, our ' Christianity and the Social Crisis, 8. Relation of Individual to Society 7 teachers and reformers would of course deal mainly with national sin and national redemption, and we should place small emphasis on any attempt to reach the individual. But the conception is obviously de- fective. Neither ancient Greece nor ancient Israel realized the meaning and value of the individual personality. Both peoples conceived slavery as es- sential to society; both merged the parts of society in the whole. They could not realize, at that period, w^hat Christianity has so decisively proclaimed, " This main miracle, that ' I am I,' With power on mine own act and on the v/orld." A nation is not, strictly speaking, a person, or true organism of any kind. In an organism like the human body, or like a vine or a tree, a single mem- ber is not an individual. A leaf plucked from the tree cannot live; but Robinson Crusoe, cast out of all human society, can still live on his lonely island. A single member of the human body, like an eye or ear, has no separate consciousness, no will of its own, no responsibility for anything. But a single member of society is in himself a complete individual, with volitions, hopes, fears, responsibili- ties as real as if there were no other man alive. Hence we cannot fully accept the statement that so- ciety is an organism, or that the state is literally a person, and religion can never remit its effort to reach the individual personal life. Social Contract Theory. Under the influence of a complete reaction from the ancient view of so- 6 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions ciety there arose in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the so-called '' social contract " theory. Hobbes and John Locke in England and Rousseau in France expounded this theory and spread it through Europe and America. According to this extremely individualistic view, society is merely a contract among certain persons. Each individual is an independent, self-governing being, possessed of certain '' natural rights " which cannot be taken from him except by his consent. Men were originally in a '* state of nature," free from all government, roaming about as lions roam in the desert or eagles in the air. Then for the sake of mutual advan- tages these primitive men came together and formed a society, each member surrendering individual rights in return for a share in common benefits. Thus every society, every village or city or state, is a mutual benefit association, based on a contract voluntarily made. Thus the *' noble red man," the Iroquois chief, who had surrendered few or none of his natural rights, seemed to Rousseau a far more admirable type than the modern city-dweller, absolutely dependent on policemen, firemen, shop- keepers, and middlemen of every kind. Large Place in History. This theory of social contract has played a great part in modern history, and echoes of it are heard in the Declaration of Independence. The " consent of the governed " has become a very familiar phrase to the people of the United States since Admiral Dewey's victory in Manila Bay. The great movement of modern Relation of Individual to Society 9 democracy has made the will of the people the supreme law. And the popular will is concerned not only with protection of life and property, but with all human welfare. Perhaps the noblest de- scription of society as a compact among individuals was given by Edmund Burke, when he said of the state : " It is a partnership in all science, a part- nership in all art, a partnership in every virtue and in all perfection." Now Plainly Inadequate. But can the citizen withdraw from such a partnership? Surely no one would affirm that. The American Civil War set- tled the great fact that America is more than a voluntary association of sovereign states — it is a ** union now and forever, one and inseparable." If any single citizen, whether philosophical anar- chist or common tramp, should decide to retire from all social control, society with a strong hand would show him the error of his way. Society is some- thing vastly deeper and more divine than a mere agreement based on selfish advantage. Superficial. The theory of " social contract," which has fascinated so many brilliant minds, is after all superficial. It leaves men essentially " dis- severed," if not " discordant, belligerent." It says nothing of the deeper unities which produce the love of home and kindred and native land. ^ Third Inclusive Theory. But the third theory, which may perhaps be called the corporate theory, contains the truth that the other two theories halt- ingly attempt to express. It affirms that there is a lO Social Aspects of Foreign Missions real analogy — not identity — between social life and animal life. As society is a real unity of real per- sons, the whole must not be sacrificed to the part, nor must the part be sacrificed to the whole. Each develops in and through the progress of the other. While the individual is the basis of society, and our primary business is with him, yet we are dealing also with a collective will which is over and above all the little individual wills that compose it. Just as the tree is something more than the sum of all its leaves and branches, so a nation is more than the sum of all its citizens. Just as a human body could never be made by gluing together legs and arms, so a nation can never be produced by merely adding up separate individuals with no common purpose. The *' social mind " is a vital reality. The " psychology of the crowd " has taught us that a mob of a thousand men is vastly stronger and more cruel than a thousand men acting each one alone. A congregation of a thousand worshipers on Sunday morning will rise to heights of devo- tion no one of them alone could attain. When we combine chemical atoms in a test-tube we often get an entirely new substance. When men unite to form a true church, there is a union of all single personalities in the larger body, there springs into being a new social consciousness, a corporate responsibility. Cities Have Character. We willingly grant that a city is not a person. But we are also sure that a city is not a list of names in a directory, or a Relation of Individual to Society ii hundred thousand separate and detached individu- als, like a heap of rounded pebbles on the shore. A city has a cliaracter. Athens and Sparta in an- cient Greece were only a hundred miles apart. But the two cities were thousands of miles asunder in temper and ideal. Each of those two city-states had a quality of its own which spread through all its citizens, as the oak has a quality different from that of a maple, and diffuses that quality through every twig and bud. There were doubtless lonely saints in Sodom and Gomorrah, but the cities as a whole were " wicked and sinners against Jehovah exceedingly." There were doubtless defiant spirits in Nineveh when the prophet Jonah preached there. It was the city which put on sackcloth and ashes and cried '' mightily unto God." When Jerusalem was addressed as one '' that killeth the prophets, and stoneth them that are sent unto her," we can- not believe that Jesus was indulging in mere poetic personification. Jerusalem had acquired a charac- ter and a responsibility of its own. Individual saints were doubtless found there, individual minds were open to light. But the city as a whole had shut its eyes, stopped its ears, and hurled stones at divine messengers. Therefore, though individuals should be saved, the city should be trampled down and scattered abroad. Consciousness of Community. While therefore we cannot admit that the social order is a mere contract, and we cannot affirm that it is an organ- ism, we do believe that human lives are united into 12 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions a " social tissue " as closely related as the cells which make up a living tree or a human body. Every human life is the offspring of the great human stock. In each man flows the blood of millions of ancestors. *' I am a part of all that I have met," said the much-traveled Ulysses. But each man is part of millions he has never met, millions who lived before him; in whose vital blood he shares, whose inventions and achievements he inherits. And each man is part of millions around him, united with them all by a '' consciousness of kind," by sharing in common hopes and fears and struggles. It was this sense of the union of the individual with his social order that led Moses to the audacious prayer: "If thou wilt forgive their sin — ; and if not, blot me, I pray thee, out of thy book." What Was Jesus* Attitude? What, now, was the attitude of Jesus toward this idea of corporate ex- istence and corporate responsibility which pervades the Old Testament? Was the message of Jesus primarily an individual gospel, or was it a social message? Did he seek only the rebirth of separate men and women, leaving to other teachers all ques- tions of unity and fraternity and social reconstruc- tion? Or did he make it his primary aim to estab- lish a divine society, in which each individual life might find fulfilment and nourishment and joy? No more weighty question can be asked to-day by Christian men and women. According, to our answer will be our modern theory of life and our program of effort. Relation of Individual to Society 13 Case for Individualism. If Jesus is our spiritual master, his insight in such a matter will be for us conclusive and controlling. If we believe that he sought primarily to save a few souls from a wrecked world, if he despaired of any real reign of God on earth and sought merely to rescue individuals from a hopeless social order and transport them to heaven, then our attitude toward all reforms, charities, governments will be affected profoundly by our belief. A Christianity based on that belief will be intense, insistent, devoted, but will care little for social and political changes, and wall re- gard all the problems of child labor, better housing for the poor, improved sanitation, organized char- ity, as outside the true sphere of Christian effort. It will consistently relegate all such problems to secular organizations, while it devotes itself to the task of making individual Christian disciples. Re- cently an active Christian woman, being asked if her church maintained a kindergarten, answered: " Certainly not ; we leave all such modern notions to worldly people, while we preach the simple gospel." Case for Communal Life. On the other hand, if we believe that Christ's primary desire was to estab- lish a new social and spiritual order called the king- dom of God, that the Old Testament vision of a purified and saved Israel was Christ's vision also, and that the primitive message was a summons into a divine fellowship, then such a belief will shape our whole attitude toward the burning questions of 14 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions our day. We shall then hold that '' nothing which is human is alien " to the Christian Church. We shall supplement the evangelization of the individual by the preaching of a social gospel. We shall hold that Christianity is concerned, not only with the transformation of single lives, but with the crea- tion of a social atmosphere in which single lives can unfold in beauty and power. We shall con- ceive that our aim is not only to rescue certain souls from a wrecked world, but to save the wreck it- self, repair its broken spars, and send it on a happier voyage. We shall hold that the growth of Christian character is vitally related to civic betterment, to medical attendance, to intelligent philanthropy, to honest public service. We shall hold that the good seed needs the good soil, that the individual Christian needs a Christian civili- zation around him if he is to '' bring forth an hun- dredfold " in moral and spiritual achievement. The character of the whole missionary enterprise is ab- solutely dependent on our answer to this question. Christ's Message Primarily Spiritual and Per- sonal. The moment we open the New Testament we perceive the " inwardness " of the primitive Chris- tian message. This at least is clear — Jesus was no mere political or social reformer. His was a spir- itual, not an economic message. His omissions and silences are eloquent. Clearly he aimed primarily at a new experience rather than a new environment. He was concerned chiefly, not with the symptoms, but with the causes of human sorrow and suffer- Relation of Individual to Society 15 ing. In all the nations around Palestine slavery was well established; Christ organized no revolt or crusade against it. Among all the government officials of Palestine corruption flourished; Christ hardly seemed to notice it. On the throne of Judea was intrigue and tyranny, such as caused John the Baptist to cry out to the tyrant's face : " It is not lawful." But Christ had deeper tasks on hand than publicly rebuking one unlawful marriage. His great work was a revealing — unveiling — of the spiritual world. He revealed the character of God, and portrayed a character to be attained by men. Repentance, faith, love, forgiveness, prayer, growth into the divine image — these things lay at the heart of his message. An inward and spiritual change in human hearts and lives — this was the immediate aim of every word Jesus spoke and every deed he did. The great cry, " Repent ! " means simply " Change your mind ! " Jesus was not content with a change of clothes, or a change of diet, or a change of rulers ; his demand was far more fundamental — a change of mind. He refused to be side-tracked into petty reforms; he declined to dissolve religion into what we now call sociology. But He Adds the Collective Message. Shall we admit, then, that Jesus had no social message ? On the contrary, all his message is throbbing with so- cial impulse, all his life is aflame with social pas- sion. In him was achieved the synthesis of the two great impulses of our human nature. For him the second commandment was '' like unto " the first, i6 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions and the two great laws, " Thou shalt love thy God," and, ''Thou shalt love thy neighbor," were sim- ply hemispheres of the same globe. John Bunyan wrote his Pilgrim s Progress to set forth the ex- perience of the individual, pressing through all dangers and forsaking even wife and child that he might win his own place in a heavenly city. Then Bunyan was obliged to write another allegory to set forth the experience of a family group journey- ing together toward the distant goal. But in the teaching of Jesus the egoistic and the altruistic exist side by side, disciples swiftly become apostles, and the transformed individual begins at once to transform the world around him. Jesus as Fulfiller. Jesus claimed to " fulfil " — ta fill full of meaning — the ancient law and the prophets. But all Old Testament law and prophecy is aglow with the demand for social justice. The " laws of Moses " are full of care for the father- less and the widow, full of prohibitions of usury, monopoly, oppression of wage-earners, cheating in trade, and land-grabbing. Could Jesus fulfil that law if he cared for none of these things? The prophets of Israel thundered for centuries against licentiousness, greed of gain, the ostentatious lux- ury of wealth, the exploitation of the poor, the cor- ruption of rulers, and religious worship divorced from loving human service. Could Jesus fulfil the prophets and be indifferent to these things? *' Wo unto them that decree unrighteous decrees," cried Isaiah (Is. x. i). "O princes of Israel," cried Relation of Individual to Society 17 Ezekiel (Ezek. xlv. 9), " remove violence and spoil, and execute justice and righteousness; take away your exactions from my people, saith the Lord Jehovah." '' The prince asketh, and the judge is ready for a reward," said Micah (Mic. vii. 3). " Wo unto them," cried Isaiah, " that join house to house, that lay field to field, till there be no room, and ye be made to dwell alone in the midst of the land" (Is. V. 8). Renan calls these prophets socialists, because their chief demand seemed to him to be for a radical reconstruction of a cruel social order. They were not socialists; they had no governmental program. But they were patriots to the last drop of their blood. They blazed w^th indignation at national wrongs, at social and po- litical tyranny. Can we believe that Jesus fulfilled such a message if he was a sheer individualist, in- different to poverty and slavery and oppression? Can we believe that all the great shining vision of the whole Old Testament collapsed at the birth of Jesus, and that he, despairing of the world, merely showed men how to get out of it into a jasper city with golden streets? Ideals of Social Order. Every great leader of men has had some vision of a fairer social order than any yet seen. To Plato it was a '' Republic," where " all magistrates should be philosophers and all philosophers magistrates." To Augustine it was a " City of God," rising on the ruins of the Roman empire. To Sir Thomas More it was a " Utopia," where gold should be used for the fetters of crimi- i8 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions nals and jewels should be but children's toys. To Jesus it was the Kingdom of God. In the center of the Lord's Prayer he set the petition : " Thy king- dom come." Nearly every one of his parables be- gins: "The kingdom of heaven is like." Those parables not only draw their illustrations from daily social life, but most of them deal simply with man's duty to his fellow men. The story of the Good Samaritan anticipates many of the methods of our most advanced philanthropy. Personal knowledge ("he came where he was"), medical attendance ("bound up his wounds"), the use of permanent institutions (" he brought him to an inn "), coopera- tion (he said to the landlord, " Take care of him "), persistent interest (" when I come back again "), — all these methods of modern social helpfulness are imbedded in that simple story. Meaning of His Miracles. And the miracles of Christ are a part of the preaching of Christ. They were not a nine days' wonder. They were not the " ringing of the bell " to induce people to hear the sermon. They were the sermon itself — since ac- tions speak louder than v/ords. If we count the recorded miracles of Christ as thirty-two in num- ber, twenty-six of them are miracles of healing of the body, and two more are the supplying of bodily food. Such a record hardly justifies the charge of " other-worldliness " ! His Social Teaching and Spirit. Three quarters of the teaching of Jesus has to do with the relations of men to one another. He himself was no recluse. Relation of Individual to Society 19 but a social being, enjoying the wedding feast and the dinner in the Pharisee's house. The scandalous accusation of being " a gluttonous man and a wine- bibber " could never have been brought against any Old Testament prophet, or against the apostle Paul ; but it was freely made against Jesus, because of his overflowing social sympathy. He called his disci- ples out of the world only that he might send them back into the W'Orld. His " Come unto me " was swiftly followed by " Go ye into all the world." His disciples were to be like leaven diffused through- out the whole lump of civilization ; like salt, sprin- kled and permeating, giving flavor and zest to the entire earth. We do Christ great wrong if we imagine that because he gave himself to the enuncia- tion of great principles, therefore he had no in- terest in their practical application to life. He had less than three years to work in, and all he could do in that time was to plant in human consciousness certain germinating ideas which his disciples must develop and apply. True, he never concerned him- self with a runaway slave, as did Paul in the case of Onesimus. But it is the teaching of Jesus regard- ing the brotherhood of man that has made slavery odious to the modern world. True, he never laid down rules for " first aid to the injured," but the desire to aid all weaker members of society is largely his gift, and desire is always more important than rules or program. Social Temper of the Early Church. And the moment we open the Book of Acts and the Epistles 20 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions we see that primitive Christianity was a social movement. In the life there depicted an isolated disciple is inconceivable. They '' had all things common," — not only a common faith and hope and zeal, but common property also. Within the Church of Jerusalem private property largely disappeared, and community of goods was the rule. The early Church was not only a prayer-meeting, but a mu- tual benefit association. Its members were not only '' saved from the wrath," but they were insured against poverty and sickness by the organization which they joined. There was a sharing of pos- sessions as well as of ideals. The first official ac- tion of the Church after Pentecost was the choice of seven men '' over this business " — the intelligent care of the poor. Organized relief of poverty in Jerusalem preceded all attempts at the formulation of Christian truth. Social Climax of the Epistles. In almost every New Testament Epistle, while the first part deals with some Christian truth, the last part of the writ- ing deals wholly with social rights and duties — the stout stem of doctrine blossoming out into prac- tical ethics. The Epistles to the Corinthians are addressed to the " wickedest city of the ancient world," and there is hardly a form of social evil they do not discuss. The regulation of marriage, the lawfulness of divorce, the duties of parents and children, the Christian view of law-courts and liti- gation, the Christian attitude toward feasts and festivals, even woman's dress and coiffure — these Relation of Individual to Society 21 are a few of the subjects which the writer treats with utmost frankness. In other letters the apostle discusses respect for magistrates, obedience to law, the payment of taxes, honesty in financial transac- tions, the duty of self-support, the relation of mas- ter and slave. No modern treatise on social sci- ence is more obviously and directly concerned with social obligations and abuses of every kind than are those New Testament letters which set forth Christ as the Master of mankind. Primitive Union of Faith and Ethics. Primitive Christianity knew no separation between religion and ethics, between a good heart and a good life. It put spiritual ends first, but it could not conceive a spiritual impulse which was not also a social im^ pulse. " Whoever uncouples the social and the re- ligious life has not understood Jesus." ^ A saint cannot live in a vacuum. The reconstructed single life at once begins to reconstruct the whole life around him, and to make goodness easier for all who come after him. To say that we are not con- cerned with environment or heredity, but only with individual experience, is not only to flout the teach- ing of science, but to ignore large sections of the New Testament and the teaching of Christian history. God Not Apart from Nature. A certain man of intense but narrow vision recently said : '' I have no use for what you call eugenics; if a man is born again, it makes no difference who his father and * Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis, 48. 22 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions mother were or how they lived." Such a view to- tally ignores the value of the home and of Chris- tian education. It has no place for ** the faith which dwelt in thy grandmother Lois and thy mother Eunice." It cuts the bond between parent and child, and defies the laws of God in the name of Chris- tian faith. Such a man cannot oppose the saloon and the brothel, since these are merely the '' environ- ment." He cannot protest that the sensual indul- gence of parents will entail suffering on their chil- dren, since the children can always escape through the new birth. He cannot work against tubercu- losis and typhoid, since *' the prayer of faith shall save him that is sick." To such a man nature and God are forever in opposition. Modern Christianity's Return to Type. But mod- ern Christianity is rapidly recovering the social impulse of its earliest days. It is glowing once again with the old fire. The fatalist — whether he wear the garments of materialism or of predestina- tion — does not count in the forward march of the Christian army to-day. The Church is convinced that a Christianity which does not go about " doing good " is not the Christianity of Christ. A religion which ignores the healing of the body is not the religion of him who *' took our infirmities, and iDare our diseases." A religion which ignores child labor and child mortality is not the religion of him who took the children in his arms. A religion which has nothing to say about vice and crime in the modern city cannot claim kinship with the pov;er Relation of Individual to Society 23 that speaks out in the great apostolic letters to Corinth and Rome and Ephesus. A faith that merely hopes the will of God will be done in heaven, as it is not on earth, is not the faith of the Lord's Prayer. Social Note Must Be in the Simple Gospel. Hence the presentation of the social message of Christianity is a vital part of the " simple gospel." The cry " Repent " is forever ineffective unless it be followed by the passionate faith that the " king- dom of heaven is at hand." To make the streets of the modern city safe by the suppression of the liquor traffic, to shut up the criminal resort, to abolish graft in public officials, to circulate whole- some literature, is as truly Christian work as to conduct public worship. To plant and develop Chris- tian schools, to erect hospitals or send nurses into homes of the poor, to teach the blind and the deaf, to open homes for the aged, to do all those things which create a Christian atmosphere is part of the preaching of the simple gospel. That gospel al- ways strikes inward, producing a personal and in- dividual experience; but it always flows outward, transforming the tone and temper of those " insti- tutions which are but the shadows of men." Chris- tianity is never self-contained. " My cup runneth over " was the ancient experience. If the cup does not run over, it has not been divinely filled. If the individual experience does not create any change in home or school or village or city, it is mere indulgence in pious emotion. 24 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions Not as Bait but Real Element. But we must be careful that we do not use Christian philanthropy as mere " bait " to catch men. In some quarters social relief has been used merely to attract hear- ers, with the purpose of dropping the relief as soon as a congregation is secured. But there is always danger in concealing our real intention. If we offer bread to hungry men merely to induce them to enter a '' mission " and hear a sermon, we are on the perilous verge of insincerity. Converts made by such methods are called in India " rice- Christians," and when the rice ceases, the convert may disappear. We should protest against any hiding of motive, any attempt to entrap men into listening to a message. If we offer bread, it is because feeding the hungry is a Christly act; if we clothe the naked it is not with veiled purpose, but because such clothing is an essential part of the creation of character. We are to save the entire personality of men — body, soul, and spirit; mind, might, and strength. Experience Bears Social Fruit. Those forms of Christian effort which have placed most vital emphasis on the Christian experience have never stopped there. The most fervid calls to personal righteousness and the most profound realization of inward change have in the history of the Church always been followed by far-reaching social con- sequences. In this respect the Christian preacher has proved himself the direct descendant of the Old Testament prophet. The followers of John Relation of Individual to Society 25 Calvin at Geneva, of Wyclif in England, of Huss and Zwingli in Germany, of John Robinson and Miles Standish in America, were all driven by their overmastering vision of God to attempt vital changes in the structure of society, or the planting of entirely new societies in distant lands. Demonstrated in Wesley an Revival. English Methodism was one of the most fervid and heart- searching religious movements in modern history. No one ever accused John Wesley of diluting Christianity into mere " mutual helpfulness." But the movement which he started had pro founder social results than all the laws passed by the Eng- lish Parliament in John Wesley's lifetime. " In the progress of the revival," says Professor Wil- liam North Rice,^ " the public mind was awakened to a profound sympathy with the oppressed and the degraded. This ' enthusiasm of humanity ' soon worked a reformation in that murderous penal code which had served, not to curb, but to render more ferocious the evil passions of man. John Howard was the friend of John Wesley, and gratefully ac- knowledged the inspiration received from Wesley's words and life. His noble career of philanthropy was an expression of one phase of the spirit of the great revival. The legislative reforms by which the physical and moral welfare of the poor and the helpless has been protected against the greed of capital and the temptations of vice, the regulation of hours and conditions of labor, the safeguarding ^ North American Reviezv, June, 1913. 26 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions of those engaged in perilous occupations, the re- striction of the traffic in intoxicating liquors, are among the fruits of the philanthropic spirit which sprang to life in the great religious revival. The ' good men of Clapham ' not only organized Bible and tract and missionary societies, but achieved the suppression of the African slave-trade and the abolition of slavery in the English colonies. Their influence v^as felt in multitudinous minor reforms in industrial, social, and political life. The last letter written by the trembling hand of John Wesley, the aged, was a letter of encouragement to William Wilberforce in his struggle against slavery." Social Effort Used by the Churches. In recent years all Christian Churches have been placing re- newed emphasis on neglected forms of social effort. The modern sensitiveness to human suffering, the striking applications of science to the relief of human pain, the modern inventions which have brought all lives into close contact for weal or wa; — all these things have produced a wave of altruistic sentiment that is sweeping round the world. That feeling has swept in a great tide through the Chris- tian Churches and expressed itself in many new organizations and methods. The Methodist Epis- copal Church has established a Federation for Social Service, the Protestant Episcopal Church and the Baptists have Social Service Commissions, and the Presbyterian Church has its Bureau of Social Service. The Salvation Army, organized for direct and fervent evangelism, has found it nee- Relation of Individual to Society 2^ essary, in order to interpret its message and to conserve results, to establish philanthropic institu- tions throughout the world. Its shelters and lodg- ing-houses, its supplies of food and medicine and clothing and employment have spoken in a universal language that none can gainsay or resist. The Army has discovered that the new^ spiritual life in the soul of man must have a nev^ environment or be suffocated in the stifling air of the slums. Y. M. C. A. Standard. The Young Men's Chris- tian Association was organized for the direct pur- pose of bringing young men into allegiance to the Christian faith. In that high purpose it has never wavered. But with keen insight and consummate skill it has uttered its message not only by word of mouth, not only through the printed page, but through evening classes for all kinds of study, through reading-rooms and gymnasiums and swim- ming pools, through indoor games and outdoor sports, through social parlors and rented chambers, — through all honest means of upbuilding a well- rounded type of Christian manhood. Social Reform Recognized by the Churches. The Churches of to-day are studying as never before the moral and spiritual effects of our modern in- dustrial system. When the church has the man for two hours a week, and the factory has him fifty-four hours, the church cannot afford to ig- nore the moral results of the factory system. When the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ, representing over eighteen million Christians in the 28 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions United States, met for the first time in 1908, it struck a new note in its frank declaration : '' We deem it the duty of all Christian people to con- cern themselves directly with certain practical in- dustrial problems. . . . The Church does not stand for the present social order, but only for so much of it as accords with the principles laid down by Jesus Christ. . . . Christ is final authority in the social as in the individual life." Edinburgh Conference Statement. Two years later, at the great Edinburgh Conference, the same broad vision of the scope of Christian effort was presented by Commission I in its report : " The evangelization of Africa means something more than the introduction of the gospel into existing forms of social life. It means the introduction of education and letters, of agriculture and indus- tries, of Christian marriage and due recognition of the sanctity of human life and property. The prob- lem before the Church is the creation of an African civilization." ^ The Value of Christian Environment. In vivid language Dr. Axenfeld of the Berlin Missionary Society has set forth the situation of an isolated Christian man enmeshed in a non-Christian civiliza- tion : " A golden bridge was built for every one of us (in Christian lands) before we opened our eyes, and when we resolved to become Christians, we simply followed the tendencies of our situation. 1 Edinburgh Conference Report, Vol. I, Carrying the Gos- pel, 206. Relation of Individual to Society 29 . . . The Christian convert on the mission field finds his language is not yet Christianized to be a suitable organ of the Holy Spirit. He wishes to be, and should be, a good member of his tribe or his state, but it is impossible while his tribe or state is ruled by antichristian rulers and tendencies. As a Christian in a non-Christian country he cannot, as a rule, be even a good member of his family. Con- version is only a beginning. ... To build the golden bridge of Christian feeling and thinking, of Christian literature and education. Christianized art and Christianized science. Christianized law and Christianized public opinion, in the wide world, is our common work." ^ Test for Foreign Missionary Enterprise. Has the foreign missionary enterprise hitherto included these magnificent and far-reaching aims? Has it sought in the great mass of non-Christian civiliza- tion to draw out a few souls into the light of West- ern Christianity, or has it carried the light far and wide until entire civilizations have been irradiated? Is it now seeking only to rescue, or also to plant? Is it attempting to separate men from non-Christian country and kindred, or is it attempting to '' Chris- tianize the Asiatic consciousness ? " In the follow- ing chapters we shall seek to answer these ques- tions. ' Edinburgh Conference Report, Vol. I, Carrying the Gos- pel, 422. TYPES OF SOCIAL ORDER IN THE EAST AND THE WEST The moral ideal of the classical world was a political or social ideal, that of the modern world is individualistic. To the Greek, whether he was philosopher or not, all the interests of life were summed up in those of citizenship; he had no sphere of 'private morality.' If modern theory and practise are defective, it is in the opposite extreme. The modern ethical standpoint has been that of the individual life. This change of standpoint is mainly the result of the acceptance of the Christian principle of the infinite value of the individual as a moral person, of what we might almost call the Christian discovery of the significance of personality. The isolation of the moral individual has been made only too absolute; the principle of mere individualism is as inadequate as the prin- ciple of mere citizenship, — James Seth. According to the Christian view, the true end is neither the individual alone nor society alone, but full development and reali- zation of the individual in society. Extensively, society is more important than the individual, since it is only in society that we find a term comprehensive enough to describe God's plan. In- tensively, the reverse is the case, since that which gives worth to society is that it is the training school of individual character. It is because of this reciprocal relation that Jesus, though an in- dividual, can reveal to us the true social ideal. Narrow as was the stage on which he lived, his dealings with the men with whom he was brought in contact manifest the spirit which should characterize the relations of all men everywhere. — William Adams Brown. CHAPTER II TYPES OF SOCIAL ORDER IN THE EAST AND THE WEST A Wide-open World. The world of to-day is a wide-open world — wide-open both to travelers and to ideas. The traveler, whether tourist, trader, or missionary, is now for the first time in human his- tory free to visit almost every land on the globe. Of course there are impassable deserts and mountain ranges, there are frozen steppes and primeval for- ests and impenetrable jungles, where travel is ex- ceedingly dangerous or quite impossible. But there are only two cities in the world from which travelers are still excluded — Mekka, the sacred city of Mohammedanism, and Lassa, the Buddhist cen- ter and forbidden city of Tibet. Barriers that were impassable to Alexander and to Napoleon, walls that shut out the crusaders and the medieval Turks, have crumbled and vanished, and lands where fifty years ago the white man never ven- tured except on peril of his life are now open to every tourist from Europe and America. Open to Ideas. This modern world is open not only to travelers, but to the penetration of new ideas and ideals. The words Whittier wrote at the laying of the Atlantic cable were poetic rhapsody 33 34 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions then, but have been acquiring a deeper meaning every year since. ' For lo, the fall of ocean's wall, Space mocked and time outrun; And round the world the thought of all Is as the thought of one." The swift mail steamers, the ever-growing net- work of steel rails, the electric cables that thread the seas, have given the world, as it were, a new nervous system, and have enabled all civilized na- tions to receive news simultaneously and to throb with the same emotion at the same instant. An international event, like the death of the Japanese emperor, Mutsuhito, or the sinking of the Titanic in mid-ocean, awakens a responsive thrill around the globe. A speech in the English parliament is often read a few hours later in Egypt and China, and — owing to the difference in time — a few hours earlier in New York and Boston. The act of Gen- eral Nogi, in committing suicide after the death of his emperor, was flashed through the Orient and Occident, and his reasons were discussed in every American city. The utterance of John Hay regard- ing the *' open door " was pondered in every Oriental city from Bombay to Peking, and the de- mand of some English women for political rights has echoed through the harems of Cairo and the zenanas of Calcutta. The world has become a huge whispering-gallery, where a single voice may wake tremendous echoes. No man lives to him- Social Order in East and West 35 self, but what he speaks in the ear is proclaimed from housetops. Impact of Occident on Orient. But the impact of Western ideas on Eastern life is shattering many conceptions on which Eastern life is built. Ameri- can and European ideals are now permeating the Farther East, with results in some cases good, in others evil, but in all cases far-reaching and mo- mentous. What is the fundamental difference be- tween the structure of society in Europe and America and that in Asia and Africa? Western Individualism and Liberty. Our West- ern lands have been for centuries founded on the principle of individualism. Personality, freedom, civil liberty, self-government — these have been the w^atchwords of Western lands from the age of Cromwell and Luther down to the age of Abraham Lincoln. The " primacy of the person " has marked all Western civilization. Freedom to believe, to act, to achieve, has been the heritage of the " rest- less, striving, doing Aryan." The Greeks made man '' the measure of all things." Ever since the Euro- pean Renaissance the Greek traits of curiosity, in- terrogation, self-assertion, self-realization, have marked the European peoples. The whole move- ment of society, as Sir Henry Maine pointed out, has been '' from status to contract " — from inherited social position to the voluntary grouping of men according to their personal choice. The English Revolution of 1688, the American Revolu- tion of 1776, the French Revolution of 1789, are 36 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions simply stages in the great Western emancipation of the individual. The struggle of Crown and Com- mons in England is the tragedy and the glory of English history. Extreme Independent Type in America. The American people have gone much further than their British forbears in this self-assertion of the individual. They started out v^ith the declaration that all men are created free and equal. Their fathers were men of a daring and disobedient breed. Naturally the men who crossed the sea in the early perilous days were men of pluck and audacity. '' The colonists were more self-reliant than even the original self-reliant British stock, since, broadly speaking, only selected men essayed the ocean jour- ney." ^ They were flung out from Europe by revolts, and in them individualism was doubly ac- cented and developed. They were mainly Protes- tants, in w^hose ears w^as ringing Luther's cry: '' Here stand I ; I can do no other ! " They were men of aggressive, achieving temper, descendants of the Vikings and the Normans, of Sir Walter Raleigh and Sir Francis Drake. They were sailors and soldiers, adventurers, explorers, conquerors, loving the salt air of the ocean and braving the depths of the virgin forest. Their children became the *' embattled farmers " of Lexington, and the whalers of New Bedford, and the explorers of the Mississippi valley. The struggle with a harsh north- ern climate, and often a reluctant soil, only made *W. E. Weyl, The New Democracy, 37. Social Order in East and West 37 them more virile and dauntless. Many of the greatest men in America were pioneers and back- woodsmen. Even when they brought with them European culture, they were uncompromising indi- vidualists. The founders of commonwealths, like Roger Williams and William Penn, the great explorers like Fremont and Marcus Whitman, the great inventors like Samuel F. B. Morse and Eli Whitney, were men who dared to stand alone. They learned to face the whole world unterrified. They had only " heart within and God o'erhead." They had been sifted out of their generation by hard experience, and they v/ere men of large hori- zons, free movements, and indomitable will. '' In blood and bone the Western man is the individu- alist." ' Eastern Solidarity. But in all Oriental civiliza- tion we find a social structure wholly different. We find everywhere cohesion, solidarity, the individual completely subordinate to the society of which he is a part. In place of self-assertion we find pas- sivity, in place of resistance to tyrants we find patient submission to fate, in place of progress we find aversion to any change. Instead of restless, eager ambition to climb out of the condition in which one is born, we find the stratification of so- ciety into immovable layers. Instead of glorifying the man of action and self-assertion, the East hon- ors the man of contemplation and self-denial. Indeed the teachers of the East have until recently * E. A. Ross, Social Control, 8. 38 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions looked with amused contempt on our restless West- ern striving. " The East bowed low before the blast In patient deep disdain; She let the legions thunder past, Then plunged in thought again." Scarcely Due to Physical Surroundings. To dis- cuss the causes of this age-long difference might lead us far aheld. It cannot be due merely to dif- ference of race, since the Brahman is as truly of Aryan descent as the Anglo-Saxon. Is it due to the tropical climate, relaxing, enervating, and at times prohibiting physical exertion? Yet Japan, the most cohesive of modern nations, does not lie in the tropics. Is it due to the terrific natural phe- nomena of Asia and Africa, to the typhoons and floods and famines and volcanic eruptions which overawe puny man and make him shrink into con- scious insignificance? Is it due to the sight of the vast deserts, the inhospitable mountain ranges that constitute the '' roof of the world," and the tree- less steppes that crush man's ambition by their very size and solitude? We who hold that God has made of one blood all nations to dwell on all the face of the earth cannot believe that these differences between East and West have always been so striking. Cause May be Historical. Two thousand, — even one thousand — years ago the opposition was far less, or practically non-existent. The apostle Social Order in East and West 39 Paul seemed unconscious of any great change of atmosphere when he crossed the Aegean Sea, and passed from Asia into Europe. His message to the Ephesians of Asia Minor is not very differ- ent from his message to the Philippians of Europe. The writers of the early Christian centuries, whether Roman or Christian, seem unconscious of any contradiction between life in the eastern and life in the western provinces of the Roman empire. It may be that it was Saracens, or Moslems, '' who first interposed an insuperable barrier between Europe and Asia, so that the w^orld was practically rent in twain." ^ It certainly must be that the present divergence will dwindle, and East and West will mingle in some higher synthesis. But we gain nothing and lose much if we merely say that " There is neither East nor West, border nor breed nor birth." Looking back over the last fifteen hundred years we must admit that '' the history of Western civili- zation is the history of man's emancipation from the tyranny of his surroundings, that of tropical civilization is the record of his enslavement." ^ Western versus Eastern Ideal. All that we most prize in American life is the offspring of the in- dividualistic principle — the love of liberty, the em- phasis on personality, the determination to give every hum.an being a chance, the joy of conscious * Inazo Nitohe. The Japanese Nation, 6. ^ Alleyne Ireland, The Far Eastern Tropics, 10. 40 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions progress. Our Western temper has found charac- teristic expression in the motto : " Liberty, equahty, fraternity." But such a motto is meaningless to the vast majority of the population of the globe. Liberty, social or political or religious, would be a novel and trying experience for great sections of the Orient. Equality, in the sense of democracy, is not wanted by peoples who from time immemorial have '^ desired a king," and who admire the gener- osity of a personal ruler much more than the ab- stract justice of a code of laws. Fraternity is an unintelligible word to people separated for ages by the granite walls of caste distinctions. The great Indian durbar, when the English sovereigns, the Emperor and Empress of India, made their royal progress through the chief Indian cities, drew forth the real sentiment of the Indian soul — boundless loyalty to a king, boundless reverence for superior and enduring power. Rigid Caste Control. The arrangement of East- ern society in horizontal layers (where, as in India, the caste system prevails), or into separate com- partments (where, as in China, officials are distinct from the people), renders any sort of progress peculiarly difficult. The *' crust of custom " is very hard to break through. In India it is believed that the four great castes — the Brahmans, the Kshat- riyas (warriors), the Vaisyas (agriculturists), and the Sudras (serfs) — came respectively from the head, the arms, the thighs, and the feet of Brahma. The Brahman wears his sacred white thread over Social Order in East and West 41 his shoulder throughout his life, as the symbol of his superiority to all other orders of the human race. The other three castes descend in regular grada- tions of power and privilege, and below all the castes are some fifty millions of wretched '' outcastes," who may not draw water from the village well, or touch any utensil used by those above them, whose very shadow is a pollution and a terror. Men of this low estate may by their shadow pollute any man of the higher castes — at a distance of twenty- four paces, or thirty-six or forty-eight paces, or even while sixty-four paces away ! The sins against caste are always purely social sins. Caste does not forbid the holding of any belief or the commission of any moral wrong. But it does with terrible stringency forbid a man to eat with any lower caste, or to marry into a lower caste. It is an iron- bound social system, the most tyrannical and endur- ing the world has ever seen, by which no man may emerge from the position in which he was born» and by which all individual initiative is strangled at its birth. Vast Boycotting System. Under such a system each man carries upon his person the marks that show at a glance his social position and his religious faith. Each morning before the man goes forth on the street he paints upon his forehead the signs of his caste, to protect himself from chance meeting with men of inferior birth. But that mark also prevents him from any attempt to rise above his prenatal position. He is held in fetters, clamped 42 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions into a social status from which there is no earthly escape. If he is for any ceremonial offense ejected from his caste, he is of all men most miserable. He loses at once his occupation and his home. He is re- garded with horror by neighbors and friends. None may trade with him, employ him, or feed him. If he crosses the ocean to study — crossing the " black " sea is a sin against caste — he may be required on his return to undergo most loathsome purification before he can be restored to his place in the caste. Such a social system of course stamps out all origi- nality or even individuality. '' It is a vast boycot- ting system, ready to hand, to crush non-conform- ity." ^ Mohammedan Immobility through the Koran. In the great Mohammedan world, — which includes Turkey and Egypt, much of interior Africa, a large part of India, parts of Burma, the Malay States, and Java, — there is no caste whatever, and society is in a sense democratic. But there solidarity and immobility are brought about through rigid adher- ence to the letter of the Koran. The teaching of the Koran and the traditions that have gathered around it have so stereotyped Mohammedan peoples that any idea of progress is rejected as religious heresy. The Koran, written in the seventh century, poured into an unchangeable mold the life of the Arabs. The original cry, " There is no God but God, and Mohammed is his prophet," may have come as a glad release to tribes living in fear of petty ^ John Morrison, Nezv Ideas in India, 22. Social Order in East and West 43 deities and toiling under the heavy yoke of petty superstition. Certainly we can all share Moham- med's hatred of idolatry and all admire a worship which will not tolerate an image in any mosque throughout the world. We should not forget the results in literature and science achieved by Mo- hammedanism in its early development. A Petrifying System. But Mohammed's concep- tion of God as absolute arbitrary will, and of human life as merely the working out of divine decrees has in later times petrified the social and religious life of large sections of the globe. The laws of marriage and of inheritance of property, laid down in the Koran twelve hundred years ago, cannot be changed, and property still descends from father to son in Mohammed's way. The ceremonial observ- ances suited to Arabian tribes of the seventh cen- tury are binding on all peoples of every land that embraces Mohammedan faith. Still the muezzin calls to prayer five times a day. Still the varied washings, so useful in a tropical climate, must be observed in every climate by whoever would follow Mohammed. Still the Koran, unchangeable in any jot or tittle, is the supreme law, discouraging all real thinking and petrifying social and religious life. Mohammedanism would force Europe and Africa to conform to the customs of the nomadic Arabian tribes of the seventh century. It makes resistance to novelty obedience to God. Both Systems Degrade Womanhood. This un- changing social structure includes, in both Moham- 44 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions medan and Hindu communities, the perpetual in- feriority of women. Both systems inculcate the rigid seclusion of women from all active participa- tion in life. If man is passive in the East from choice, woman is passive by ancient prescription which she dares not defy. She is deliberately ex- cluded from all the things that make the life of her husband, or father, or brother, interesting and vital. She is usually illiterate, since education might cause her to become restless and rebellious. She is mar- ried before the attainment of womanhood, and thus a happy, care-free childhood is impossible. She is the victim of polygamy, and so is shut into a home likely to be filled with jealousy and petty strife. If she becomes a Hindu widow, even while still a child, remarriage is prohibited, and she becomes the mere drudge and slave of her kindred. Where- ever Hinduism or Mohammedanism prevails, a man's civilization necessarily results. The Hindu wife may not even eat with her husband, but must first serve him, and then eat, often from her hus- band's plate, alone or with her children. She is a subject, if not a slave. The Mohammedan woman may be divorced by the simple pronouncement of the usual formula: '* I divorce thee." And for both Hindu and Mohammedan women all these cramping customs, designed to suppress unwelcome individuality, are supposed to be divinely given, eternally binding laws. Defect of China. China is not only free from caste, but also free from the curse of veiled and Social Order in East and West 45 secluded womanhood. Its social structure is ex- traordinarily democratic. The emperor sometimes rose from the lowest ranks. The poorest boy might take the famous examinations and attain recogni- tion as a great scholar. Women, in spite of foot- binding, have often exercised great influence in Chinese history, and the whole social order has been one to encourage local self-government. Whence then has come the stagnant and even fossil- ized character of Chinese civilization? Why is it that one of her own citizens has recently said: *^ China has not been able to produce a world-mind, or an immortal book, or an epoch-making invention for the last twenty centuries." ^ Devotion to Ancestors. The petrifaction of Chinese civilization has been due chiefly to an un- reasoning devotion to ancestors. The Chinese citi- zen has been held back from self-development, not by the men around him, but by the generations be- hind him. Of course there are other causes for the immobility of China, such as its seclusion from Europe by mountain ranges and deserts, its long inaccessibility by sea; but the main cause is the extraordinary glorification of the past, leading to the worship of one's own ancestors. On the first and the fourteenth day of each month the normal Chinese household has bowed before the wooden tablets on which are inscribed the names of parents and grandparents and even remote generations. To ^ L. Y. Ho, Annals American Academy of Political Science, January, 1912. 46 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions retain the approval of those ancestors, to follow minutely and implicitly their teaching, to reproduce their virtues, is the highest aim of every loyal son in the household/ When Sun Yat-sen was chosen provisional President of the Chinese Republic in 1912, one of his first public acts was to visit the " Ming tombs " near Nanking, where the emperors of the great Ming dynasty are buried, and in solemn ceremony '' inform " his official ancestors of his accession to power. Arrested Development. This sense of the pres- ence of past generations has pervaded all Chinese life. The land is filled with innumerable graves, covering every hillside, facing every running stream, standing in the midst of almost every plowed field, or emerging from the growing crops. To disturb a grave is a species of sacrilege. In the streets of Canton every little shop has its shrine, where the shopkeeper may commune with his an- cestors before he begins to trade. One of the finest temples in China is that of the Chun Ka Che clan in the city of Canton. There one can see hundreds of wooden tablets, each bearing the name of some ancestor, and also vacant tablets on which the names of those living will some day be inscribed. Each individual thus acquires his sole significance from his place in the family — he is one more tablet ^ I have myself met a Chinese gentleman who claimed to be a direct descendant of Confucius in the fortieth genera- tion, and his every movement showed his consciousness that forty generations were " looking down upon " him. Social Order in East and West 47 amid the thousands. To remove him from the family is to blot him out utterly. Filial piety is the highest possible duty. Loyalty to the teachings of past ages is the test of fitness for present office. The old examinations, given at all the provincial capitals for many centuries, were designed simply to test the candidate's absolute mastery of every phrase in the Chinese classics of two thousand years ago. Thus Chinese civilization, in its own way and by its own peculiar methods, became even more im- mobile and stereotyped than Mohammedanism or Hinduism. China became the most striking in- stance of arrested development the world ever saw, on a gigantic scale and by deliberate intention. Japanese Unity. The solidarity of Japan was forcibly brought home to the Western world by the famous telegram of Admiral Togo to his em- peror after the victory over the Russian fleet in the Sea of Japan: ''The virtues of your majesty and the help of our ancestors have won for us this victory." ^ At Sacrifice of Personality. It was that union of past w4th present, that subordination of each man ^ The writer said to one of the foremost leaders of thought in modern Japan : " Did that telegram affirm the immortality of the soul? Did the Admiral, do your people, believe that their ancestors were actually fighting beside them in battle?" " Not that ; it was not a credal statement, but an instinctive feeling that we and our fathers are forever one." " But what will happen when your people begin to examine the validity of that belief?" "We dread the time when our people shall examine the foundations of what they now hold by instinct." 48 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions to the life of the nation, that enabled the Japanese to conquer the apparently impregnable Port Arthur. This national unity has made them reverence the emperor as divine, and hang his picture as a re- ligious symbol in every schoolhouse. But it has also created a family system which crushes out the sense of personal evil, or personal responsibility, and has permitted the v^oman to sell her honor in order to support her father or educate her brother. Dr. Inazo Nitobe, of the Imperial University of Tokyo, whose former residence in America and service as exchange professor has made him peculiarly com- petent to estimate both civilizations, points out in his lectures many of the defects of our Western individualism. Then, with the candor of the scholar, he describes the sacrifices required by the social sys- tem of Japan : '' Individuals are, figuratively speak- ing, made victims at the shrines of family worship; their very personality is nipped in the bud at the same altar. . . . Our family is based on vertical relations, on successive, superimposed generations, from parents to children." ^ We are not then sur- prised to find that in the Japanese language there is no word exactly corresponding to our word per- son {persona). Under the old ethical system of Bushido one of the greatest compliments that could be paid a hero was to say : '' He is a man without a me." Tyranny of Tribe among Uncivilized People. In those Eastern lands which are still inhabited by * The Japanese Nation, 159. Social Order in East and West 49 half-civilized or barbarous peoples, the tribe or the village community is the unit of organization. In Africa the power of the tribe over the individual is absolute. '* Natural rights " are undreamed of among savage peoples. The single man has such rights as the tribe may grant him, and no more does he dare to claim. And the law of the tribe is the law of immemorial custom. The customs of the people are so inwrought with their religious be- liefs that a violation of established custom is de- fiance of the gods. " No savage is free," says Sir John Lubbock. " All over the world his daily life is regulated by a complicated and apparently most inconvenient set of customs (as forcible as laws), of quaint prohibitions and privileges." ^ Under such circumstances to change one's religion means to be thrown out of the community at once, and to become a "man without a country," or even a man without a home. Village Rule in India and Burma. In India the village community, including many castes, has long been a unit of organization, and the compulsion of the village no single man could hope to escape. The solidarity of a native Burmese village has been de- picted by one who lived for many years in Burma : " A village does not mean only one collection of houses ; it is a territorial unit, of from one to a hun- dred square miles. . . . The headman and council ruled all the village matters. They settled house- sites, rights of way, marriages of boys and girls, ^ Quoted by Dewey and Tufts, Ethics, 428. 50 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions divorces, public manners, they got up such public works as were undertaken. . . . There was hardly any appeal from their decision. The village was a real living organism, within which the people learned to act together, to bear and forbear. There was a local patriotism and a local pride. ^ Whole East Suppresses Individualism. Thus in Burma, India, Turkey, Egypt, China, Africa — and to a less extent in Japan and Persia and Arabia — the social order of Eastern lands has been either stratified, layer above layer, as in some geological deposit, or fixed in compartments, separated by ancient frowning walls which no single man might dare to scale. In either case the social order was for many centuries curiously fixed, impermeable to new impulse, resentful of every change. The great landlocked Eastern nations, shut from the Western world for ages, have crystallized into masses where the individual is buried in customs harder than the igneous rocks of the geologic ages. As Sir Bamp- fylde Fuller has said : " Asiatics accept their en- vironment as inevitable and are content to act on the defensive toward it; whereas Europeans are at constant strife with their surroundings in attempts to modify them. . . . Politics in the East have hardly ventured to question an authority which is endowed by religion or supported by force; West- ern history has been disturbed by denials of this authority." ^ "■ H. Fielding Hall, Atlantic Monthly, October, 1913. ' The Empire of India, 357. Social Order in East and West 51 Brahman Belief Obliterates Personality. This social immobility has been greatly strengthened by the mystical character of much Oriental religion. To the Hindu all human life is Maya, or illusion. Brahma is the primal reality and into him at last shall all individuals be absorbed. The human beings that seem so separate to us are really facets of the primal being, temporary manifestations of the in- finite all-pervading life. Thus all personal effort tends to be dissolved in a pantheistic mist. While the common people worship a multitude of minor divinities that are incarnations of the divine, the more subtle minds of the educated classes find divinity in everything, whether good or evil. That God is all is the universal assumption. Hence sin is unreal, struggle against it is folly, and personal ambition is futile, — except the am.bition to sink at last absorbed in Brahma, as the glancing, tossing waves fall back into the infinite sea. Hence Hindu- ism has little definite creed, and is more of a social system than a religious faith. Dr. John Morrison of Calcutta finds only three chief doctrines in Hin- duism. ''These are: first, Pantheism; secondly, Transmigration and Final Absorption into Deity; and thirdly, Maya, i.e., Illusion, or the unreality of the phenomena of sense and consciousness." ^ To such a faith, or rather philosophy, evil is a passing dream, effort as futile as the running of a squirrel in a revolving cage, and the thing which hath been is the thing which shall be. The lament of Ec- ^ New Ideas in India, 153. 52 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions clesiastes " All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is not full," and the fancy of the distempered Hamlet that '' life is a stale and pestilent congre- gation of vapors," and the dreary belief of Omar Khayyam, that all of us are *' a moving row Of visionary shapes that come and go," — all these confessions of the uselessness of strug- gle are echoes of the fatalism that pervades Hin- duism and Hindu society. Buddhism Leads to Passivity. And Buddhism for the countless millions w^hom it controls has no happier message. It is indeed filled with pity, it is beautiful in its compassionate temper. But it reminds us of Heine's complaint, as he stood before the mutilated figure of the Venus de Milo in the Louvre: ''Alas! she is beautiful, but she has no arms ! " The images of Buddha that are sprinkled all over Ceylon and China and Japan are exalta- tions of the contemplative and quiescent life. That sedentary figure calls men away from the world of action. The nerveless hands rest upon the knees, the head is downward bent. The eyes do not, like those of the Sistine Madonna, survey the far hori- zon, but are turned inward, and the whole figure invites humanity to cease from striving and retire into meditation. Far better such a figure, as the symbol of attainment, than the bloody deities of Hindu superstition; but it certainly is an invita- tion to inaction, to passivity. Buddhism sets before Social Order in East and West 53 us, as the goal of life, Nirvana, where desire itself shall cease. If Nirvana be not extinction, it is at least the extinction of will and wish. Buddhism constantly presents to its followers the argument : " Everywhere is suffering ; suffering springs from desire; hence only through cessation of desire can we attain release from suffering and reach the goal of life.'* The emphasis on personality is necessarily weak wherever Buddhism prevails.^ Oriental Wars without Progress. The result of the im.mobility of social order in Eastern lands has been in many cases a monotonous history, which taxes the patience of the Western scholar. In Euro- pean and American history we are fascinated by the story of the growth of laws, institutions, and governments. The tragic wars that have devastated Europe usually had at least some definite outcome, and changed the map of the world. The growth of popular liberty, the struggle against royal preroga- tive, the abolition of slavery, the spread of suffrage, all these things show a definite unfolding — " first the blade, then the ear, then the full grain in the ear." Runnymede, Plymouth Rock, Trafalgar, ^ The finest of all images of Buddha is the mammoth bronze statue at Kamakiira, Japan, the Daibutsu. For seven hundred years — for the last three centuries without any roof over it — the figure has sat there in mild dignity, gentle- ness and pity beaming out of the downcast eyes. But the contrast between that bowed, sedentary figure and the athletic figure of " Saint George and the Dragon," or the forward stride of " Liberty Enlightening the World," at the entrance to New York harbor, is the contrast between two attitudes toward life, and two resulting civilizations. 54 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions Yorktown — -those words call up to us definite ad- vances in the human story, new and permanent levels of human life. But as we try to understand the history of Africa or Central Asia, while doubt- less our Western training is responsible for much of our lack of comprehension, we are confronted with constant movement and little progress. We read of enormous migrations, continuous warfares, revo- lutions immense and bloody, but we " come out at the same door wherein we went." " Real history," says Dr. George W. Knox, '' has to do Vvith prog- ress — that makes the interest of the story. In Asia there have been endless wars, . . . leaving the people unchanged, whoever won. Hence it is in- tolerably tedious, without real movement or result." ^ What Can Arouse the East? We read the history of the invasions of the Scythians, Tatars, Mongols, with a curious sense of hopelessness and unreality, and catch ourselves wondering if the story is simply a phase of the '' Maya," or illusion, in which every Hindu so profoundly believes. And when we see, after the millenniums, the Egyptian fellah or peas- ant still using the same sort of plow as in Abraham's day, and the Indian ryot living in the same sort of hut as in the time of the Mogul emperors, and the Chinese observing the same elaborate code of etiquette as when Confucius died, we realize that " far as the east is from the west " means a greater distance than the psalmist dreamed. Until Japan emerged into new life, we faced everywhere in the ' The Spirit of (he Orient, 33. Social Order in East and West 55 Orient peoples of crystallized ideas, fixed habits, and compacted social order, such as the restless Occi- dent could not endure for a single year. Against that social order Alexander flung his armies in vain. Against it the crusaders hammered for two centuries equally in vain. Against it Britain has now for a century and a half contended in India, with a re- sult indicated in Lord Curzon's declaration : '' We English in India are but as the foam on the surface of a fathomless ocean." The question of the twentieth century is whether the Christian faith has a dynamic that can accomplish what marching armies and commercial companies have found im- possible. To that question we shall later return. Must Conserve the Oriental's Social Connections. But this at least is clear: religion in the Orient is and must be a social as well as an individual matter. We can never make English Puritans out of Indian peasants, nor do we wish to. The Kingdom will not come in India merely by isolating single con- verts from all the life around them. To break up the caste or the village community is not enough; '' to replace is to conquer." When the native Indian convert has been plucked away from his caste and his home and his livelihood, what shall we do with him? If he has lost not only his superstitious creed, but has lost also all the '* social tissue " in which he was born, what new fellowship shall we provide for him? To embrace Christianity is in most cases to be regarded as false to family and ancestry and native land. His old faith was not a 56 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions matter of mere creed ; it was woven into his entire life. It covered that life with a fine network of social observances. The pious Mohammedan spreads his prayer-mat five times a day, on the plowed field, in the desert, on the deck of his boat, •or wherever he may be. The Hindu farmer can- not sow nor reap grain, nor thrash nor grind it, except at such times as his priest may approve. The devoted Buddhist will not undertake any jour- ney, nor make any bargain, nor celebrate any family festival, without consulting the superstitions that have grown up around the simple teachings of Buddha. Religion Socially Pervasive. The Oriental has never understood what we mean by the distinction between sacred and secular. All his life is saturated Vv^ith his religion, and he cannot conceive the smallest part of life as exempt from religious motive and sanction. He makes little of what we call congre- gational worship, observed at set times in the week, but he prays after his fashion constantly, propitiates at every cross-roads the demons that he dreads, and refuses to make the smallest decision unless assured that his gods are with him. Hence religion in the Orient, while often degraded and degrading, has a social pervasiveness which is astonishing. Instead of being ashamed of his religion, the Oriental finds in it the indispensable element in agriculture and trade, in travel and labor, in life and death. Instead of confining it to sacred times and places, he puts liis images everywhere and bows before them morn- Social Order in East and West 57 ing, noon, and night. Amid all the darkness of non-Christian faiths the Oriental bears witness to Sabatier's declaration that ''man is incurably re- ligious." Movement by Mass. Now it is obvious that in such coherent societies as we have described mass movements are to be expected among the people. In Western lands the individual reformer or protes- tant or revolutionist has frequently stood forth alone and defied the powers that be. '' Athanasius against the world " is a figure congenial to European think- ing. But the East, while it has of course had its individual reformers, has usually been marked by huge slow migrations, vast but gradual changes of sentiment, and has been like a floating midsummer cloud *' that moveth altogether if it move at all." The unrest that has been stirring all Eastern lands since Japan's victory over Russia is a vague mass- feeling that can hardly be located or defined. Africa has no single native mind to lead its awakening life. India produces no Cromwell nor Washington. Whether China has produced a man who can voice the national aspiration and lead it to national achievement remains to be seen. But the general movement in every Oriental land is, as it were, sub- terranean. Far beneath the surface that is visible to every traveler vast currents are flowing, imper- ceptible changes are wrought in racial feeling, and when the people do move toward a new ruler, or a new ideal, or a new faith, they go in shoals and herds and m.asses. 58 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions National Gravitations. Hence, if Eastern lands shall accept the Christian faith, they may *' fly as doves to their windows." For many centuries im- passive Oriental minds may offer a stolid resistance to Christianity, and then a nation may be born in a day. The surprising spread of Buddhism through all India, followed by its complete expulsion from India proper and its swift expansion in China and Japan, is a case in point. The swift triumph of Mohammedanism in its earlier stages is well known, and many an African tribe has in recent years come bodily into the Mohammedan fold. When Christi- anity is really understood in Eastern lands, when we can separate it from all the intrigue of politics, the sharp practises of commerce, and the vices in- troduced by traders, and can present it as a spiritual faith and force, may we not expect whole communi- ties, tribes, and castes to embrace it? Problem of North India Mass Movement. The Bishop of Madras has recently reported significant mass movements which he has witnessed in a visit to northern India. In 1891 there were only 19,780 native Christians in the Punjab. Ten years later there were 37,695 Christians, while in 191 1 he found there 163,994 Christian converts. A growth of eight hundred per cent, in twenty years is difficult for us to conceive, but quite in accord with Indian ideals. A conference of six denominations was called at the city of Lahore to determine how to deal with such an incoming tide. Were these converts' motives pure and Christian? Did they realize what Social Order in East and West 59 they were doing? Doubtless their motives were varied and mingled, as in all that is human. Doubt- less one great reason for the spiritual migration from Hinduism to Christianity has been the revolt of the " depressed classes," the outcastes, against the tyranny of Brahmans, and the evident response to the social sympathy of the Christian Church. But whatever the motives, the facts are portentous. " The situation in the Punjab is urgent and extrem.e. The mass movement is advancing with extreme rapidity; it is bound to advance even more rapidly in the immediate future; it is animated by powerful motives that are legitimate but dangerous; the re- sources of the missionary societies are inadequate for instructing the new converts and teaching the baptized Christians: to-day there are 160,000 Christians in the Punjab, in five years' time there will be 300,000; in ten years' time a million; it will take five years' time to train a body of teachers suflficient even for the pressing needs of to-day. There is no time therefore to be lost. * Educate, Educate, Educate,' ought to be the watchword of every mission Church working in the Punjab, and if the Churches in the West fail to respond to the appeal that comes to them from this great move- ment now, they will bitterly rue their shortsighted- ness or apathy ten years hence, when they have to deal with half a million Christians, discontented with their social position, fired with a passionate desire for land and liberty, and at the same time illiterate, imperfectly instructed in the truths of 6o Social Aspects of Foreign Missions Christianity and little influenced by the spirit of Christ." ' Baptist Telugu Movement The remarkable in- gathering among the Telugus in southern India in 1878 is one of the fascinating stories of modern times. The '' Lone Star Mission," carried on for years in the face of appalling obstacles and dis- couragements, was suddenly transformed by a re- ligious movement which amazed and perturbed the missionaries who had brought it about. During the great famine of 1876-78 for eighteen months none were received into the Church, as the missionaries were exceedingly cautious about making '* rice Christians." But as soon as the doors of the Church were opened, 10,000 new members were received in ten months by Dr. J. E. Clough and his colleagues of the American Baptist mission, 2,222 being bap- tized in a single day. And the mass movement did not suddenly cease nor involve reaction. To-day in that one mission there are 60,000 communicants, and 625 schools with 15,000 pupils. Dr. Clough's Attitude. Dr. Clough had been brought up in the free life of the American prairie. But in India he found himself facing a complex and powerful social system. His success was achieved by the abandonment of any attempt to create a Christian Iowa or a Christian Kansas under the Indian sky. In his autobiography,^ he writes : ^ The Bishop of Madras, International Revieiv of Missions, July, 1913- ^ Now in press, edited by Mrs. J. E. Clough. Social Order in East and West 6i Utilizing Native Conditions. " I can see in look- ing back that nothing could have been further apart in social ideals than I, with my inherent love of in- dividual rights handed down to me through six generations of Americans on the one side, and these Madigas, bound up in a system where the com- munity was everything while the individual counted as nothing. I was conciliatory in many ways. I let Christianity find a place for itself in the com- mon village life and expand along the old-time manner of thought. The tribal characteristics, the village community, and family cohesion, all came into play. Where village headmen were among the converts I took away from them none of the authority which their village system had given them. By common consent they became deacons, and the old authority was exercised under the new regime. To force a lot of Western ideas upon such a con- verted village elder was not to my mind good policy. I let him stay in his groove, and let him learn in his own way how to live a Christian life and help others to 60 so. Thus Winning Success. " It is possible for me to say in retrospect what I would not have cared to say thirty-five years ago. At that time the whole trend of opinion in the Christian world would have been against me. But now I can say without hesi- tation that the Western forms of Christianity are not necessarily adapted to an Eastern com- munity. . . . My attempt at church organization along Western lines I cannot say was a success. In 62 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions so far as I could make use of the primitive, in so far did I succeed." Recent Methodist Telugu Movement. But other missions among the Telugus are having to-day an experience similar to that of thirty-five years ago. The Methodist missionaries have gathered 14,000 people into the churches, and remarkable scenes have recently been witnessed. Hundreds have v/aiked long distances over cobra-infested paths, colliers have come from the mines, employees from the railv^ay, farmers from remote villages, crowd- ing to hear the Christian message. The caste sys- tem of southern India is more rigid and tyrannical than that in northern India, and thousands of na- tives who could never muster courage to act alone are coming in families and groups and villages to profess the new faith. These people are poor, de- spised, illiterate. All Christian customs and ideals are to them strange and far away. Their coming in masses has been opposed by some conscientious missionaries. But others, seeing whole villages and castes turning toward the truth, reaching out with a great hunger for the new teaching, have said : " What was I that I could withstand God ? " The Transformation of Korea. Nor are these movements confined to India. The extraor- dinary opening of Korea to the Christian faith in the last thirty years is well known. The first missionaries entered Korea in 1884. To-day there are 200,000 Korean Christians, and the num- ber has been increasing so rapidly as to cause seri- Social Order in East and West 63 ous embarrassment to those who seek to guide the movement and make it enduring. Here again the reasons for the mass movement were various. The frequent change of political rulers and the ruin of political hopes made the people eager for some steadfast faith. The absence of any really vital native religion made the soil an easy one in which to plant new seed. The simple native language, which " a person of intelligence can learn in a morning and the stupidest person in a few days," made Bible reading a very simple process. The bent of the native mind toward mysticism, the hope of securing foreign protection in time of political disturbance, the docile temper of the people — all these things prepared the w^ay for a great national welcome to Christianity. To-day the Church is no longer the sole refuge of the Korean in dis- tress. Government is under Japanese control, the whole peninsula is now filled with new influ- ences, and the value of the old mass movement is being severely tested. But the national conscious- ness was forever changed by the sweeping of multi- tudes into the Church in ten years of extraordinary transformation. Other National Movements. The marvelous changes in the political and social life of Turkey show us that when the time is fully ripe similar religious changes may there be expected. The up- heaval in Persia in recent years has altered the whole attitude of the nation toward the modern world. In Africa probably the most remarkable 64 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions mass movement has been that in Uganda, where for several years the converts have numbered seven or eight thousand a year. The Great Expectation. Such v^holesale changes in certain lands or provinces should not induce any roseate anticipations, as if the millennium were at hand. As we shall see later, there are also mass movements of reaction and hostility. Nor should community movements toward Christianity lead us to the mistake of many medieval missionaries, who baptized whole clans and tribes without much in- quiry into individual experience or attitude. It remains true that the personal choice of each hu- man soul is the first essential in the spread of the Christian faith. But these great movements do show that since the Oriental has never been accus- tomed to think alone or act alone, but always as a fragment of some group, we may expect not merely to gain a recruit here and there, but to see whole communities and provinces arising into faith, as some army springs from the ground at a bugle call. There is such a thing as the Chris- tianizing of families, villages, and tribes, there is a conversion of national aspirations and ideals. There is a sudden turning of the vast stream of human history. It was seen in the days of Con- stantine; again in the day of Luther; again under Napoleon; yet again under Mutsuhito, of Japan. That stream is turning, massively, irresistibly to- day; but we, dim-sighted, stand too near to per- ceive it. THE PROJECTION OF THE V/EST INTO THE EAST The Gospel aims at founding a community among men as wide as human life itself, and as deep as human need. As has been truly said, its object is to transform the socialism which rests on the Ijasis of conflicting interests into the socialism v/hich rests on the consciousnes of a spiritual unity. — Adolf Harnack. Respect for Oriental national aims and religious aspirations has had small place in Western thinking. The momentous condition of the world at this time indicates an approaching change. None may safely prophesy the nature of that change, but, if we believe in the present activity of the Spirit of God, we may look tor great readjustments in Western thinking, for the chastening of inad- missible ambitions, for the growing influence of Christ in the East. —Charles Cuthbert Hall. CHAPTER III THE PROJECTION OF THE WEST INTO THE EAST Meeting of Opposing Civilizations. We are fa- miliar with the old problem often discussed by our fathers: what would happen if a material body moving with irresistible force should strike against another body that is immovable? Somewhat simi- lar is the great problem of the twentieth century: what is to be the result of the projection of the restless, dynamic civilization of the West into the static crystallized civilization of the East? The problem is not simply that of individualism versus collectivism — it is far deeper and more complex. The two civilizations embody opposing ideals of all that is really worth while. An acute observer, thoroughly familiar with life in India, has written of the Indian attitude to-day : " Whatever its modes of expression, the mainspring is a deep-rooted an- tagonism to all the principles upon which Western society, especially in a democratic country like Eng- land, has been built up." ^ View of Lord Cromer. The contrast between the social and moral values of the East and those of * Valentine Chirol, India's Unrest, 5. 67 68 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions the West is depicted by Lord Cromer : '' Contrast the talkative European, bursting with superfluous energy, active in mind, inquisitive about everything he sees and hears, chafing under delay and impa- tient of suffering, with the grave and silent East- ern, devoid of energy and initiative, stagnant in mind, wanting in curiosity about matters which are new to him, careless of waste of time and patient under suffering." ^ Contrast between East and West. In the pref- ace of his great work on Modern Egypt, Lord Cromer still more clearly outlines the mental habits and ideals and values of Oriental peoples. " No casual visitor can hope to obtain much real insight into the true state of native opinion. Divergence of religion and habits of thought; in my case igno- rance of the vernacular language; the reticence of Orientals when speaking to any one in authority; their tendency to agree wath any one to whom they may be talking; the want of mental symmetry and precision, which is the chief distinguishing feature between the illogical and picturesque East and the logical West, and which lends such peculiar interest to the study of Eastern life and politics; the fact that religion enters to a greater extent than in Eu- rope into the social life and laws and customs of the people; and the further fact that the European and the Oriental, reasoning from the same premises, will often arrive at diametrically opposite conclu- sions — all these circumstances place the European ^ Modern Egypt, 6. Projection of West into East 69 at a great disadvantage when he attempts to gage Eastern opinion." Statements of Sayce and Hall. Of course it is quite possible to exaggerate this antithesis between Oriental and Occidental minds. Those who would erect a permanent barrier between races, and main- tain that the Oriental is to us forever " inscrutable," are in error. The highest classes in India are of our own blood, and easily compete with the best minds among us. China has been called the land of *' topsy-turvydom," because the Chinese wear white for mourning, read a page from top to bot- tom rather than left to right, etc. But if Ameri- cans had been isolated from the rest of the world for two thousand years, would they not appear pecu- liar? The differences are not due to original con- stitution, but to environment and training, and in time they may — to the great loss of the world — disappear. But at present they are clear and strik- ing, and to ignore them is to fail in either diplo- matic or missionary endeavor. " Those who have been in the East and have tried to mingle with the native population," says Professor A. H. Sayce, " know well how utterly impossible it is for the European to look at the world with the same eyes as the Oriental. For a w^hile indeed the European may fancy that he and the Oriental understand one another, but a time comes when he is suddenly awakened from his dream and finds himself in the presence of a mind which is as strange to him as yo Social Aspects of Foreign Missions would be the mind of an inhabitant of Saturn." ^ H. Fielding Hall, writing out of most intimate knowledge of the Burmese people, says: " The bar- riers of a strange tongue and a strange religion and ways caused by another climate than ours are so great that even, to those of us who have every wish and every opportunity to understand, it seems sometimes as if we should never know their hearts. It seems as if we should never learn more of them than just the outside — that curiously varied outside which is so deceptive, and which is so apt to pre- vent our understanding that they are men just as we are, and not strange creations from some far- away planet." ^ Difference of Ideals. The difference between the two civilizations is not that one has attained the goal while the other is still seeking it. The dif- ference is that one civilization disdains what the other most desires. The virtues of the one have been regarded as vices by the other. Eagerness, haste, energetic unremitting toil, improvement of tools, the accumulation of material comforts, repre- sentative government, unlimited freedom of move- ment, *' the glory of going on," — these are Western " goods " whose value we seldom question. Hence we have in the West an intensely competitive spirit ; in school life, in athletic sports, in commerce, in manufacture, even in religion. But inner calm, dis- like of haste, meditation, reverence for the past ^ The Higher Criticism and the Monuments, 558. ' The Soul of a People, 3. Projection of West into East 71 and for the powers that be, dignity of bearing and repose of spirit — these are the '' goods " of the Orient whose value is felt by every growing child.^ Speaking in general terms, the goal of existence in Eastern lands has been release from action, while the goal of the West has been " life more abun- dantly." What, now, is likely to be the result when ships and railways and telegraphs and telephones are carrying Western ambitions, Western ideals throughout all Eastern lands? What has been the result already of this projection of the Occident into the Orient? Old Chinese Examinations. The influence of Western education introduced into Eastern lands both by missionaries and by European governments has been profound and far-reaching. Schools have battered down more walls than cannon, and the work of teachers has caused the undermining of systems of thought that have endured for mil- lenniums. No more striking scene can be found in China to-day than the deserted '' examination halls " in the city of Nanking on the Yangtze River. The visitor to that city is taken to the top of a tall tower in the center of a vast enclosure surrounded by a stone wall. From the top of the tower he * A distinguished American traveler, calling on an Arab sheik, excused himself to meet another appointment. " You seem to be in haste," said the sheik ; " you Americans are always in haste, are you not?" "Yes," said the traveler, " we have invented two words, a verb and a noun, to describe our attitude — the words ' hustle ' and ' hustler.' " " Ah ! " sighed the Arab chief, "we in the East got all over that thousands of years ago." ^2 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions looks down on the halls, or cells, said to be 20,000 in number, outspread around him in every direc- tion. The cells are arranged in long rows, with narrow aisles or lanes running between the rows. Each cell is about five feet square. At the bottom is a board on which the student could sleep at night. At the side is a niche in the masonry where the stu- dent placed the basket of food which he brought in with him. A little higher is another niche for a candle by whose light the student could write after dark. In that cell the student worked for three days and then had one day of freedom. Then he was shut in for three days more, followed by an- other day of rest. Then he had three days more in the cell — nine days in all, of rigid, relentless ex- amination. The examination papers were not printed until all the students were in their cells and the gates were closed. This precaution was taken to avoid cheating — which nevertheless was not avoided. If any student died under the strain, as men occasionally did, the heavy gates might not be opened. The body was simply removed from the cell, hoisted over the wall, and carried off by relatives. The supreme object of the imprisoned student was to write an essay which should demon- strate his absolute mastery of the Confucian classics and his absolute loyalty to their teaching. He must prove through the examinations — which were the only door to public office — that he was familiar with every allusion, every phrase, every character in the writings of Confucius, Mencius, and their disci- Projection of West into East 73 pies. Any variation from the original phrasing, any introduction of novelty, any intrusion of personal experience and opinion was fatal to success. Now Left Behind. But now the visitor, looking down on the 20,000 halls, sees that about 500 of them are in ruins, swept aw^ay by an overflow of the huge river. Over thousands of the halls weeds, vines, and mosses are growing, and never again will any Chinese pupil enter any one of them. They are crumbling slowly into dust, and with them has crumbled, not only a kind of examination, but an attitude tow^ard life, a system of values, a standard of character. The passing of China's old education is the transformation of her life. Now the student who w^ould win governmental positions must answ^er questions in European history, in economics, in social science; and the old Chinese officials, with their huge goggles, their embroidered coats, their clinging to the far past, have gone into hiding, never to emerge. The crumbling of the cells signi- fies the transformation of the national life. " See on the cumbered plain. Clearing a stage, Scattering the past about. Comes the new age." Ideas in English Words and Writers. Consider the far-reaching influence of merely teaching our English language. There are certain insurgent ele- ments in our English tongue, because there have been insurgent forces beneath Anglo-Saxon life. 74 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions The teacher of English may refrain from any at- tempt to disturb native ideals in China or India or Africa, but he is forced to explain such words as " patriotism," '' public spirit/' " citizenship." He may have no wish to undermine the throne of any prince, but he must explain the meaning of " com- mittee," " congress," '* representative," '* freedom." When Verbeck of Japan was forbidden to teach any- thing but English, he took as one of his text-books the constitution of the United States. What is the result, when, as in India, John Stuart Mill's Essay on Liberty has been used as a text-book, and the speeches of Burke are learned by heart? What is the result when men brought up to worship Vishnu and Siva, or Buddha, begin to study passages from Milton and Tennyson? In scores of Indian schools Tennyson's " In Memoriam " has been studied by pupils eager to learn the English tongue, quite un- conscious that they were absorbing at the same time English ideals and English faith. There are in India perhaps six million pupils in government and mission schools, a large part of this number study- ing English. Suppose they read in Tennyson's " The Princess " : " The woman's cause is man's ; they rise or sink Together, dwarfed or godlike, bond or free." Can such reading fail to start questions in a land where all respectable womanhood is shut within the zenana or the harem, or if it ventures on the street is so veiled as to make recognition impossible? Projection of West into East 75 English Speech in Indian Education. It was in 1835 that the English government, under the influ- ence of Lord Macaulay, determined, after long and bitter controversy, that in all the government schools of India education should be given, not in the ver- naculars, but in. the English language. In this mo- mentous step the government was simply endorsing the view of the great missionary, Dr. Alexander Duff, who strongly advocated the same policy. Dr. Duff, as we shall see later, held that the native tongues could not then express the deepest truths the missionaries had to give, and his powerful in- fluence, and his great success in the English school which he opened in Calcutta in 1830, put all his opponents to silence. But to learn English means to become familiar with terms wrought out by cen- turies of freedom and Christian faith. In studying the social sciences the student must define such words as society, responsibility, progress, representative — and perhaps referendum and recall. In philosophy the student must learn the meaning of personality, soul, freedom of the will, conscience — and that in a land where individuality has been sternly repressed or regarded as illusion. In science the student learns the meaning of atom and electricity and radio- activity, and also of evolution, the descent of man, the origin of species, and other phrases and ideas which have been the battle-fields of Western con- troversy. In the study of history the Indian stu- dent learns of the revolt of the United States against British rule and the practical autonomy attained by y(> Social Aspects of Foreign Missions Canada and Australia. He has before him decla- rations of independence, defenses of popular liberty, the fervid oratory of John Bright and William E. Gladstone. Is it any wonder that many an Indian student has his head turned, and wants India to achieve in five years what Britain has achieved in a thousand years ? To '' learn English " is not merely to learn the twenty-six letters of the alphabet and their combinations; it is to become familiar with English liberty and law and ethics and religion. It is in many cases to be dazzled by a new and blind- ing light. Effect on Religious Thought. In religious thought the simple learning of English may involve far-reaching changes. The words God, sin, eternal life, convey to the native of India novel concep- tions. His god may have been a dancing wooden image, his sin a purely ceremonial offense, his eter- nal life a ceasing to be. The Mohammedan who studies our English tongue is confronted by such terms as Son of God, trinity, atonement — words whose very meaning is a direct attack on his deepest religious convictions. He cannot read Shakespeare or Milton or Scott or Longfellow without entering a circle of ideas at variance with all his training. He cannot " learn English " without learning what are the chief spiritual treasures of the English- speaking race. Influence of Science. The study of Western sci- ence also has had a profound effect on Eastern con- ceptions of life. The facts of modern science have Projection of West into East "jy shattered at once many Oriental superstitions. The pious Hindu beheves that the Ganges rises in the nail of the great toe of Vishnu's left foot, then issues from the moon, and that the nymphs of heaven by sporting in its waters have imparted to it life-giving power. He believes that any man who dies on the banks of the river is sure of heaven, and that '' this sacred stream, heard of, desired, seen, touched, bathed in, sanctifies all beings." How long can such a faith survive the teaching of modern astronomy and geography ? " Chemistry and bac- teriology," says Dr. Charles R. Henderson, " are making rubbish of a good deal of hoary and ven- erated idolatry. . . . The evangel has many voices ; science is one of them." ^ In the center of Benares is the '' well of life," from whose putrid depths, filled with decaying flowers and all kinds of vileness, water is dispensed daily to thousands of devout Hin- dus. How long will the water retain its sacredness after a little elementary science has percolated down through the common people ? Occupations Vanishing before New Knowledge. Whole occupations are vanishing at the touch of Western knowledge. The " hail-doctor," who by his incantations has for ages pretended to avert the hail-storms, is now discredited in many parts of India. Native medicine in China, which punctured the body in scores of places, to let out the evil spir- its, is rapidly losing popular confidence. The edu- cated Chinese can no longer believe that tigers' * International Review of Missions, October, 1913. y8 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions claws, ground to powder and taken internally, will give him strength. He no longer fears the priest who tells him that a lunar eclipse is due to the at- tempt of the great dragon to swallow the moon. Growth of Promptness and Accuracy. The teach- ing of science is even modifying national character. It gives a new sense of accuracy and the value of truth. It recalls the Oriental mind from hyperbole and glowing symbolism, to a plain direct statement of fact. Hitherto the Oriental has had no sense of the value of time. " Time doesn't count " is a com- mon expression in the Far East." ^ The Oriental moves when he gets ready to move, and the idea of being bound to act at a specified moment is irksome and intolerable. To him a " calendar of engage- ments " would be a species of slavery. But the exact measurements involved in any scientific study have sharpened Oriental apprehension of time val- ues. In the same way the Oriental has always been careless in estimating size or numbers. If recount- ing a battle, he would say that 20,000 men were killed, or 100,000, as best suited his purpose to produce a certain impression. An exact estimate of the population of a city seemed to him needless, pedantic, or even wicked, — we remember how David was condemned for attempting a census of Israel. But now, wherever Western education has gone, a * When the writer asked an Indian servant at a railway- station "What time does the train start?" the answer was! "In ten minutes; yes, in about fifteen minutes; surely it will go in half an hour." Projection of West into East 79 new power to discriminate, to make accurate state- ment, to adhere to simple facts, has begun to enter the national character. Spread of Modern Inventions. And the influence of science, made concrete in modern inventions, has been bewildering and shattering. Formerly the Chinese tore up the tracks of each new railroad, convinced that since it was disturbing hundreds of graves it must rouse the anger of their ancestors. But now a railroad enters the capital city of Peking through a huge breach in the ancient wall, and makes a most spectacular approach to the " forbidden city." The steamboat now sails peacefully from Canton up the West River to Wuchow, a three days' trip, where before the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 the smoking monster would have been savagely attacked as an offense to all the spirits that guard the river. The caravans of patient camels traveling from Mongolia southward pass through a huge crumbling gateway in the ancient Great Wall of China, and also pass under telegraph and telephone wires, throbbing with the news of the world. The Great Wall, built in the third century before Christ, meant fear, seclusion, defiance ; the electric wires mean welcome, brother- hood, desire to know and feel with the whole round world. Breaking Down Social Barriers. In India the coming of the railroads has proved the most for- midable attack on the iron-bound system of caste. The Brahman and the Pariah both must ride — they cannot refuse the enormous advantage. But if they 8o Social Aspects of Foreign Missions pay the same fare they find themselves in the same compartment. The Brahman has protested vigo- rously that he is being defiled, and that the vile creatures of lower birth should be kept out of his way. But the inexorable English guard quietly says, '' Same fare, same seat," and there is no ap- peal. Somehow the high-caste men and women find a way of explaining their conduct, and endure con- tacts with inferiors which thirty years ago would have been thought polluting and degrading beyond repair. The tyrannical caste distinctions of India, the fear of evil spirits in China, and many super- stitions in all Eastern lands are being driven out, or seriously weakened, by steam and electricity from the West. Static Quality of Mohammedanism. We have al- ready noted the static quality of the Mohammedan world, forever fixed by literal adherence to the minute regulations of a divinely dictated book. Wherever the Mohammedan faith is dominant the only elementary education consists in memorizing that book. Most interesting it is to visit the kiittabs, or little village schools in Egypt, and see — and hear — the children all studying aloud at the top of their voices. Such a schodl needs no placard, for the deafening din is heard afar. Each child sits cross- legged, its little body swaying rapidly to and fro, to prevent falling asleep, while it recites aloud pas- sages from the Koran. After the lesson is memo- rized it is written out with a reed pen on a sheet of tin — the substitute for a slate — once a part of Projection of West into East 8i a tin oil-can. But there is no study of nature, of any plant or rock or tree or star, no study of history or geography or any science — merely the parrot-like repetition of the precepts of the seventh century which hold the Mohammedan world in their vise-like grip. Method in the El Azhar. At the great Moham- medan University in Cairo, the El Azhar, we find the same conception of education, adapted to adults. Ten thousand pupils assemble there each year, com- ing from places as far asunder as northern Rus- sia and southern India. Each professor sits at the base of a great column of the open court and around him on straw mattings sit the listening stu- dents. The teacher expounds hour after hour, but usually the theme is the same as in the children's kuttab — the text of the Koran or of the various commentaries and expositions that have gathered around it. The endeavor is everywhere the same — to fix all social and moral life in the same ancient mold, to crystallize all action into the shapes pre- scribed twelve centuries ago. Now Meeting the Modern Spirit. But even this cast-iron system is now stirred within and is facing portentous changes. Modern critical methods of study are being applied even to the Koran, and its stupendous claim to have been dictated by the angel Gabriel cannot go unexamined. Its laws regarding marriage and bequest have had to adjust themselves to the demands of English courts in India. Its pic- ture of God as absolute monarch, and men as but his 82 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions tools, must adjust itself to the modern claims of freedom, democracy, and self-government. Its treatment of woman, shutting her into the harem or behind the veil, is now clashing with the world- wide demand for the emancipation of womanhood from all that enfeebles and crushes personality. Its schools are now confronted with the demand for training of the hand in useful work, and for some real knowledge of nature and life. Recent Political Changes Affecting Islam. Mean- while political changes are big with religious result. The Turkish revolution of 1908 put the " Young Turks " in power. A constitution was granted, and the sultan — whose atrocious cruelties had richly earned him Gladstone's description, " Abdul Hamid the damned " — was deposed and driven out. Many social reforms followed. The loss of Tripoli to Italy diminished the prestige of the new sultan, the titular head of all Islam. The Balkan war, whose full results are not yet clear, has driven the Turks into a small corner of Europe and liberated from Turkish misrule provinces oppressed and har- ried for centuries. The defeat of the Turkish arms has carried shame and doubt to every Mohammedan tribe in Arabia and every Mohammedan colony in India. It is clear as the handwriting on the ancient wall that the social and religious system of Mo- hammed must be reformed or cast out. It thrives when confronting barbarous tribes. It is still strong, aggressive, and advancing in darkest Africa. But wherever it has been subjected to the searchlight Projection of West into East 83 of modem knowledge it has begun to falter and decay. Nitobe on Old Japan. The marvelous transfor- mation through which Japan has passed in the last fifty years is vividly reviewed by Dr. Nitobe. In striking paragraphs he gives us a picture of the sudden projection of the new into the old in Japan : *' Cut off from the rest of the world by an exclu- sive and inclusive policy, there was formed a so- ciety impervious to ideas from without, and fos- tered within by every kind of paternal legislation. Methods of education were cast in a definite mold; press censure was vigorously exercised; no new or alien thought was tolerated, and if any head har- bored one, it was in immediate danger of being dis- severed from the body that upheld it ; even matters of frisure, costume, and building were strictly regu- lated by the state. Social classes of the most elabo- rate order were instituted. Etiquette of the most rigorous form was ordained. . . . Even the man- ner of committing suicide was minutely prescribed. Industries were forced into channels, thus retard- ing economic development." ^ Progress in New Japan. But the Emperor Mutsu- hito, who ascended the Japanese throne as a lad of sixteen, in 1868, at once proclaimed the " Charter Oath of Five Articles," intensely modern, one article of which announced that " knowledge and learning shall be sought for all over the world." Then the * The Japanese Nation, 72. 84 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions swift and amazing changes followed : " The year 1871 saw the abolition of feudalism. . . . Not only was education made compulsory between the ages of six and twelve, but education in the wider sense of self-governing citizenship was insisted upon. . . . Side by side with the preparation for civil liberty, reforms were set in motion in every civil and po- litical institution. . . . The time-honored social classification of citizens into the samurai, or mili- tary and professional men, the tillers of the soil, the artizans, and lastly the merchants, was abolished. The defense of the country was entirely remod- eled. ... In political life the transformation was, if anything, more marvelous. . . . The constitu- tion was in 1889 proclaimed in the name of the emperor, and the first parliament took its seat the following year. . . . The Gregorian calendar was adopted and the Christian Sabbath made a regular holiday. Laws were codified on the principles of the most advanced jurisprudence, yet without vio- lating the best traditions of the people. Higher education in cultural and technical lines was encour- aged and patronized. New industries were con- stantly introduced or old ones improved. Means of communication — shipping, railways, the tele- graph, and telephone — have been steadily extended. Changes in all departments of national and com- mercial life are still transpiring. . . . The state- ment is often repeated, that Japan has achieved in five decades what it took Europe five centuries to accomplish. The privilege of youth lies in the in- Projection of West into East 85 heritance of the dearly-bought experience of age. We are forever indebted to our older sisters in the family of nations." ^ Her Success Has Aroused Asia. And Japan's forward movement has touched the imagination of all Asia. The story of her revolution — or restora- tion, as she prefers to call it — has been told in the ears of every Oriental prince. The sound of her great guns, in her amazing victory over Russia in 1905, has echoed through all Asia. At last an Asi- atic power had triumphed over a European power of the first magnitude! At last the little brown man had proved his ability to grapple with the white man on the white man's chosen field, military and naval strategy, scientific medicine, and or- ganized warfare.^ The news flashed over the new electric wires of China and India, journeyed on camels and ponies into Mongolia and Tibet, was carried by swift runners into villages of the Cau- casus and the Himalayas, and remote Asiatic tribes and provinces began to stir and seethe with long- repressed ambition. The English poet, Alfred Noyes, has painted this great change in the modern consciousness, in verses more accurate than any prose statement: The spirit that moved upon the deep Is moving on the minds of men ; The nations feel it in their sleep, A change has touched their dreams affain, ^ The Japanese Nation, 82-88 passim. 86 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions Voices confused and faint arise, Troubling their hearts from East and West, A doubtful light is in their eyes A gleam that will not let them rest. The dawn, the dawn is on the wing. The stir of change on every side, Unsignaled as the approach of spring, Invincible as the hawthorn tide."^ Japan's Perilous Moral View-point. But if Japan has led all Asia in opening the mind to Western ideas, she has also led Asia in consciousness of uncertainty and '* doubtful light.'* Dr. Sidney L. Gulick, who by long residence has acquired inti- mate knowledge of the Japanese, writes to the sec- retary of the American Board : '' The influx into Japan of Occidental naturalistic philosophy, irre- ligious spirit, intense industrial and commercial ac- tivity, and lust for gold and pleasure is producing widespread moral disaster. Even the system of popular education, so valuable in many ways to na- tional prosperity, is having an unfortunate influence, in that, while the scientific education it imparts destroys belief in traditional faiths, it has not been able to provide an adequate substitute. The public school system has officially discarded religion and the ethics based thereon, and has attempted to found morality on patriotism and imperial deification. The result of this policy has been to undermine moral and spiritual life, a result which has be- come a matter of keen solicitude to many patriots 'Alfred Noyes, "The Dawn of Peace." Projection of West into East 87 in positions of responsibility. . . . Japan's life is characterized by increasing spiritual perplexity and moral peril, for to many of the educated class, trained in science and history and relatively fa- miliar with various religions, the religious faiths inherited from the past have lost their meaning, value, and power, while their motives for moral conduct and sanctions for social life have become ineffective. Now, unless some new religious faith is found able to maintain itself in the presence of modern civilization, the universe comes to be re- garded as a great, irresponsible machine (material or psychic), mercilessly working out its inevitable results, regardless of man's nature and needs." Conflicting Currents. Count Okuma, one of the wisest of the older statesmen, is perfectly candid regarding the difficult moral situation of this era of transition: ''Japan at present may be likened to a sea into which a hundred currents of Orien- tal and Occidental thoughts have poured, and, not having effected fusion, are raging, wildly tossing, warring, roaring. The old religion and old morals are steadily losing their hold, and nothing has yet arisen to take their place." ^ Problems of Adjustment. Miss Ume Tsuda, one of the first five Japanese girls sent by the Japanese government in 1872 to study in the United States, has recently described the present conflict of ideals. " Suddenly into the midst of the old monotonous life of the middle ages has rushed the full flood ^ The Missionary Message, 116. 88 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions of present-day civilization. Japan, awakening from her sleep of ages, has tried to catch up by one bound with the progress made in centuries by the other nations. This difficult task is being done with a marvelous rapidity. To women no less than to men has come the new life, calling them out into a new and stirring world, with changed re- sponsibilities and duties, new thoughts and ambi- tions. These conditions are bewildering, and there are many adjustments to be made and problems to be settled." ' Older Standards Without Force. Baron Shibu- sawa, '' the Morgan of Japan," was brought up in the Confucian system, and is still satisfied with it for himself. Biut he sees that it has no hold on the young men of his nation to-day, and he de- clares : '' The young men now coming out as the product of the school system have no religious faith nor moral principles, but live for money and pleasure." Adoption of New Customs. Viewing the proc- ess, then, in a large way, what are some of the immediate results of the projection of Occidental ideas into the Oriental mind? The most obvious result is a widespread restlessness and in many places a feverish discontent. A general question- ing spirit has been aroused among peoples who have for centuries simply accepted and obeyed. The ** custom of the country " is no longer to be blindly and necessarily approved. European costume is ^ International Review of Missions, April, 1913. Projection of West into East 89 displacing — to the regret of every artist — the old picturesque native dress. Among the young busi- ness men of Egypt the white turban has given place to the somber derby, and the long silk gown of flashing colors has made way for the " customary suit of solemn black." The veils worn by the fash- ionable women of Cairo have become a mere bit of gauze, hardly concealing a single feature. The huge wooden shoes of Korea are replaced among the well-to-do by European footwear. The gorgeous mandarin coats of China can no longer be worn on the public streets, and are everywhere sold for a song. When the revolution of 1912 broke out in Canton, every Chinese cue in the city disap- peared in two days. The police went about the streets with shears in their hands, snipping off every cue if the owner had neglected to do so. Boatloads of country people coming down the river and arriv- ing at Canton were met at the landing-place by the police, and the astonished country-man, who had not yet heard of the revolution, was horrified to see his dearest earthly possession — the cue — clipped from his head and placed in his hands. Social regulations that no one has for centuries defied are now being critically examined or openly flouted. An Englishman who has spent a large part of his life in Burma thus describes the new unrest of that land : '' In the place of placid content we [the Brit- ish] have given the ambition to better things; in the place of the belief that to possess nothing is the highest good, we are implanting the belief that 90 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions to gain money is the worthy aim of endeavor; and we are naturally enforcing the British view that to strive, to succeed, and to obtain is right and lawful, in place of the Burmese belief that to share is better than to hold, to dance happier than to work, and to be content holier than to strive." Movements toward Nationalism. A spirit of na- tionalism, such as Europe has seen in the case of modern Germany, Italy, and Greece, is now working like a ferment in Eastern lands long passive and stagnant. The yoke of foreign control galls East- ern peoples as never before. '' China for the Chi- nese " is an old familiar cry. But now we hear also " India for the Indians," " Egypt for the Egyp- tians," and the constant pressure of the Filipinos for self-government is felt each day in Wash- ington. Astounding Change in China. But it is in China that we see to-day most clearly a complete upsetting of revered traditions, and a reversal of the cus- toms and ideals of three thousand years. The abo- lition of the cue in South China is merely the outer sign of the inner transformation. Discontent with the past has taken the place of adoration of the past. The ethical basis of Chinese life has suddenly crumbled and vanished, as the great campanile at Venice suddenly collapsed in a cloud of dust. Con- fucius based all human duty on five relations — the relation of sovereign and subject, of husband and wife, of parent and child, of brother and sister, of friend and friend. That was admirable as far Projection of West into East 91 as it went, but since the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty the first and fundamental relation, that of sovereign and subject, no longer exists! The most solemn ceremony in all the Chinese nation has been the annual worship by the emperor, kneel- ing alone under the open sky on the marble plat- form of the magnificent Temple of Heaven in Peking. But not only has the emperor vanished; the marbles of that great temple are cracked and broken, and the Young Men's Christian Association recently held a Christian service on the very spot where the emperor used to kneel. Request for Prayer. In the year 1900, at the time of the Boxer troubles, two hundred and sixty- five missionaries perished, thousands of native Christians v/ere slaughtered, and the nation seemed determined to drive every Christian into the sea. But in the spring of 1913 President Yuan Shi-kai sent a telegram to leading Christians in every great city of China, asking that Sunday, April 27, be observed as a day of Christian prayer for the bless- ing of God on the young republic. The writer was in Shanghai at the time, and both missionaries and foreign residents rubbed their eyes and gasped in astonishment. Some cried incredulously : " A po- litical movement — a mere piece of good policy!" But what has made it " good policy " for ancient China to appeal for Christian prayers ? How comes it that in the very palace of the empress dowager, who thirteen years before was breathing out threat- enings and slaughter, it is now considered good 92 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions policy to conciliate Christian sentiment and beg for Christian sympathy? Such a reversal of na- tional feeling in thirteen years can hardly be found in all previous human history. That is not evo- lution — it is revolution. It is not the slow rising of the tide — it is the resistless sweep of a tidal wave. The land where once all life had crystal- lized into unchangeable forms, has suddenly become fluid, plastic, seeking new molds from the Western world. Homage of Japanese Emperor Passing. Evi- dently this intrusion of Western thought has brought more than discontent; it has in many cases brought disintegration. It has undermined, as we have seen, the government of China, and in an- other way it is undermining the attitude of the Japanese toward their own government. The Japanese emperor has always been regarded as divine, as a direct descendant of the gods, and all early Japanese history is largely mythological. But the higher criticism, applied to Japanese history, has made those early stories quite incredible, and brought in question the imperial descent. Never can the attitude toward the new emperor be the same as toward the old. Japanese statesmen played with the present emperor in his childhood, they studied with him at school, and, devoted patriots as they are, they cannot think of him as other than a human being. Perils of Transition Period. Our Western indi- vidualism is attacking at the same time the worship Projection of West into East 93 of ancestors in China and the bondage of caste in India. The result sometimes is a social anarchy which is full of danger. The Chinese young man who refuses longer to bow before the ancestral tab- lets in the home may become a conceited upstart, who holds himself superior to all the sages of the past and the present. The Chinese woman who refuses longer to be subject to her mother-in-law may learn to ignore all family bonds and despise all social order. The Bengali who has become fa- miliar with the writings of Jefferson and Mazzini sometimes becomes a wild-eyed fanatic and maker of bombs reserved for British officials. The Af- rican native who, in asserting his manhood, has rebelled against his tribe and defied the chief, may become a mere outlaw. Even among the natives of Java, those " mild-eyed children of the southern sea," by nature wonderfully docile and gentle, there is now a demand for better schools, more consid- erate treatment from their thrifty Dutch rulers, and larger participation in the government. New Problems Raised. The entrance of Oriental peoples into civilization has brought with it startling problems and novel dangers. Wealth has brought in its train luxury and sensuality. Science is de- molishing the old false sanctions of moral conduct. History is demolishing the false bases of patriotism and destroying reverence for thrones. The study of Western law is making the old Oriental court pro- cedure seem quaint or ridiculous. Machinery is revolutionizing social conditions in great cities, and 94 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions bringing in labor problems unknown before. Around Bombay and Calcutta stand the smoking factory chimneys, just as around Liverpool or Fall River. China has already forty-one cotton mills, forty-nine breweries and distilleries, thirty oil mills, forty flour mills, and the last cotton mill erected in Shanghai contains over two hundred thousand spindles. Electric-light stations have been opened at Foochow and Hangchow on the coast, and at Changsha in the far interior. In central China, at Hanyang — the Chinese Chicago — are iron works, employing some three thousand workmen, rolling huge steel rails for Chinese railroads, and ship- ping them to America in close competition with the famous firms of Pittsburgh. Not far from the iron works of Hanyang are deposits of coal and iron sufficient to last for a thousand years. Industrial Disturbance and Distress. But for East, as for West, the increase of knowledge is not without increase of sorrow. The iron mills of Hanyang have created such labor problems that the directors have been forced to study '' welfare " work, and have offered to erect a Y.M.C.A. build- ing as soon as a suitable secretary can be found. The jute mills and cotton-mills of Calcutta are send- ing good dividends to their stockholders; but they are breaking up the family system on which Indian life is built, they are introducing child labor, they are destroying native arts and industries that have endured for centuries. Everywhere throughout the East may be found American sewing-machines, and Projection of West into East 95 the clicking of the flying needle may be heard in scores of idol temples in India. But the sewing- machine and the cotton-mill are driving out the na- tive needles, native looms, and native handwork. Great cotton plantations and sugar plantations are now being developed in the land of the Pharaohs, but the '' perennial irrigation," whereby the land is flooded with Nile water for longer periods, is chang- ing the very climate, and the peasants are laboring under novel and trying conditions. The railroad locomotive now climbs from Jaffa to Jerusalem, but with it enter disturbing forces, uprooting the cus- toms of three thousand years. The steamboats now churn the waters of the Kongo River for hundreds of miles, but they carry the white man's rum, his firearms, his contagious diseases, his nameless vices.' Phases of Religious Resistance. In view of these startling changes in the '' changeless East," no won- der native religions are rousing themselves to new resistance. Reactionary organizations are now formed in many regions to resist the further en- croachment of Western ideals. In Japan there is a new society whose object is to bring about a return to the Shinto faith. Republican Chin^ has se- lected Confucianism as the religion of the state. In India the " Swadeshi " movement is widespread. In several Indian cities there is a Young Men's Buddhist Association, attempting to duplicate the methods and so resist the advance of our Young Men's Christian Association. Buddhist priests are holding " protracted meetings," and far into the 96 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions night their lamps are seen and their voices heard exhorting their countrymen not to yield to Chris- tian teachings. The National Congress of India has for many years sought to provide a platform on which all Hindus could meet to resist further en- croachment by British officials and further intru- sions of Western religion. Western theosophists are encouraging Hindus in a resolute resistance to everything Christian. Many ne,w associations have sprung up, attempting to resist the West by virtu- ally adopting its ideals. Such are the Widow Mar- riage Association, the Hindu Widows' Home, the Nish-Kama-Karma-Matha (Society for Selfless Work). Such movements, unheard of before in the Orient, show desperate attempts at reform from within, as the only possible alternative to reform from without. In some cases they are a kind of death-bed repentance of an enfeebled or expiring faith. Chaos or Christianity. But these efforts will not permanently avail. The native religions have not the dynamic to meet the dilemma. That dilemma in many cases is simply chaos or Chris- tianity. *' The old order changeth " — sometimes gradually, like a glacier, but in many cases swiftly, like a crashing avalanche. Are we of the West content merely to unsettle and undermine the in- stitutions of the East? Are we merely to destroy the African's faith in his witch-doctor, the Brah- man's faith in the waters of the Ganges, the Bud- dhist's faith in karma, and the Confucianist's faith Projection of West into East 97 in the " five relations " ? Are we with our scien- tific research, our discoveries and ingenuities, our restless roaming intellect, merely to play the part of destroyer in the modern world? Are we simply to demolish idols and leave the world full of va- cant shrines? Or are we to give to the Eastern world a deeper reverence, a more satisfying faith, a nobler moral code, a truly Christian life? We who have sent our fleet of warships round the world, shall we also send our religion? We who have sent through all the Eastern lands our food- products, our textiles, our automobiles, shall we also send our Bible? We who are breaking down family life and ancient forms of worship and long- established government in the Farther East, shall we also plant the faith in God the Father and in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord ? The alterna- tive " chaos or Christianity " may be a dilemma for the East, but is surely a challenge to the West. SOCIAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF MISSIONARIES If one saw a single navvy trying to remove a mountain, the desolation of the situation would be sufficiently appalling. Most of us have seen a man or two, or a hundred or two — ministers, mis- sionaries. Christian laymen — at work upon the higher evolution of the world; but it is when one sees them by the thousand in every land, and in every tongue, and the mountain honeycombed, and slowly crumbling on each of its frowning sides, that the majesty of the missionary work fills and inspires the mind. — Henry Drummond. The social aspect of the missionary service has long been very impressive to me. It seems to have what social service in this country often lacks, the persistent and unashamed personal religious appeal. It aims not merely to relieve men but so to touch them that they shall become themselves agents of relief. We cannot safely divorce social service and religion. —Arthur C. Baldwin. CHAPTER IV SOCIAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF MISSIONARIES Proper Benefits of Missions. No one would claim that the Christian missionary enterprise, or even the Christian faith itself, has been the sole source of recent progress in the non-Christian world. The obligation of perfect candor, which rests on every historian, is peculiarly binding on one who deals with the facts or the narratives of religious enterprise. To view all missionary sta- tistics through rose-colored glasses, ignoring the grim obstacles that face all noble effort, and the failures that are common to all good men at home and abroad, is to prepare for a rude awakening and reaction when the full truth is known. To sup- press discouraging facts in order to secure con- tinued support, or to ignore contributory causes in order to magnify our own effort, v/ould be both dishonest and suicidal. The Book of Acts, the first missionary journal, is in this respect a marvel of candor. Belonging avowedly to the literature of propaganda, it nevertheless does not hesitate to record the small results of the magnificent ad- dress on Mars' Hill, the lamentable dissension of 102 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions Paul and Barnabas, and the " many adversaries " to be faced at Ephesus. Some Help from Trade and Commerce. There is glory enough for the foreign missionary enter- prise, even when all other powers have been given their full credit. Traders from Western lands, with no altruistic motive, have often carried the tools of civilization far and wide. Commercial companies are to-day sending thousands of plows into Africa, looms into India, oil into China, sew- ing-machines into the South Sea Islands, and are constructing railways, canals, and telephone lines throughout the Orient. It was the United States government behind Commodore Perry that com- pelled the opening of Japan in 1853. It is the British government that by the building of the great dam across the Nile at Assuan, and the in- troduction of better methods of tilling the soil, is now lifting the Egyptian peasant out of poverty six thousand years old. Applied science, as we have already seen, is reshaping vast regions of the world, both East and West. It is changing ancient modes of life, creating new wants, put- ting Sheffield cutlery and Lancashire cottons into Bombay and Calcutta, German rifles into Turkey, and American automobiles into Java and Borneo. The Christian Faith the Mainspring. But when all this has been admitted, it remains true that the mainspring of human progress has been for nine- teen hundred years, and is to-day, the Christian faith. The moral dynamic that transformed our Social Achievements of Missionaries 103 wild forefathers, the Saxons, Celts, and Scandina- vians, into civilized nations was not science — then unborn — not politics, literature, or art; it was Christianity. And the power that has in the last one hundred and fifty years aroused Asia and Africa and Oceania from the sleep of ages is not commercial or governmental, but Christian. W. T. Stead was absolutely accurate when he wrote: *' South Africa is the product of three forces — conquest, trade, and missions, and of the three the first counts for the least, and the last for the great- est factor in the expansion of civilization in Africa, Missionaries have been everywhere the pioneers of empire. The frontier has advanced on the step- ping-stones of missionary graves." ^ Frequent Influence of a Missionary. Professor Caldecott, of the University of London, speaks with the impartiality of a trained and detached philosopher when he writes : *' The analysis of the influence of the Christian missionary, settled with an African tribe or on a Pacific island, is replete with interest. Over and over again a single individual has meant ' civilization,' as well as the gospel, to a whole community. From him have flowed influences regenerating every part of their social life. From one man's heart and brain have issued not only the abolition of degrading and cruel customs, but the beginnings of new industrial or- ganization, glimpses of science and literature, new forms of social order. And when he has been * Quoted in Stewart of Lovedale, 335. I04 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions accompanied by a household, a new type of do- mestic life has been exhibited and the family set in new light. It is difficult to conceive that the future of the world can ever again show example after example of social elevation on so considerable a scale: important tribes in South Africa, in the Pacific, in Madagascar and New Zealand, among the Red Indians of the Northwest and the remote Eskimos of Greenland and Labrador have come to a new birth. So clear has been the elevation that for many of them it has meant the entry into the single world-circle now approaching com.ple- tion." ' Five Kinds of Missionary Achievement. How has this been accomplished? What definite steps have missionaries taken to bring the non-Christian nations within the '' single world-circle " of Chris- tian civilization? There are five kinds of mission- ary achievement well worth our study : achievement in language and literature, in the education of the mind, in the healing of the body, in industrial de- velopment, and in social reform. We shall con- sider each of these five in turn. I. Language and Literature. The translation of Christian literature into non-Christian tongues is a herculean task, involving in many cases the crea- tion of a written language. The Bible, or a large part of it, has been translated into about five hun- dred distinct languages and dialects, and nearly one half of these languages had first to be reduced to * G. Spiller, Inter-Racial Problems, 307. Social Achievements of Missionaries 105 writing.^ It is easy to record such a fact, but who can measure the appalling toil involved, or the enormous human uplift resulting? Who but mis- sionaries, moved by a world-conquering impulse, would undertake it ? These five hundred languages vary all the way from the ancient Sanskrit to the modern Zulu. The translations of the Bible com- prise the Eskimo version, now two centuries old, and the Singhalese revision, issued in Ceylon, in 1910. There are twenty versions in twenty different dialects of colloquial Chinese, and seventy versions are now being distributed among the polyglot peo- ples of India. Most of the original dialects of the South Sea Islands were reduced to writing by the missionaries. Would any trading company attempt to reduce to writing even one dialect? Would any European philologist bury himself for a lifetime in Tahiti, in New Guinea, in Sumatra, in order to give the natives a written speech ? In the South Sea Islands a score of dialects have been provided with alphabet, grammar, and printed literature, and in every case this has been done by self-sacrificing missionary labor. Difficulties of Translation. To translate from English into French or German is easy, — though American students do not seem to think so, — since ever>^ idea in English has its exact equivalent in European tongues. But when we attempt to trans- ^ Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress has been printed in one hundred different versions, and the plays of Shakespeare have appeared in twenty-seven versions. io6 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions late into even the finest of non-Christian tongues, we face all the barriers created by an alien culture and a wholly different intellectual heritage. Often there are no equivalent words, because the idea we are trying to express has never entered the non- Christian mind. It is not easy to translate '* Behold the Lamb of God " to people that have never seen a lamb. To convey the Biblical symbolism of the vine and the palm and the dove, and to set forth the elaborate Jewish ritual in the dialects of the frozen north, is not a simple matter. To translate the gorgeous visions of Isaiah, the plain prose of the four Gospels, and the metaphysical arguments of the Pauline epistles, in which even the apostle Peter found " some things hard to be understood " — to do that, even in our English speech, is a task so stupendous that it has employed the energies of English scholars for the last four centuries. But to translate all this varied literature so as to make it intelligible and commanding to the mystical minds of India, and the practical minds of China, and the childish minds of the Kongo Valley, is perhaps the greatest literary task known to history, and its virtual accomplishment is one of the greajt tri- umphs of human intelligence. Some Examples. In some dialects the word love has a carnal meaning which the translator must avoid. In China the missionaries have for many years debated whether the proper word for God is Shang Ti, Supreme Ruler, or Tien Chu, Lord of Heaven. Professor Robertson, who is lecturing Social Achievements of Missionaries 107 in many Chinese cities on the principles of mod- ern science, has been obliged to invent Chinese terms for aeroplane, radio-activity, gyroscope, find- ing a new dress for totally new ideas. But it is far easier to describe radium than to explain grace, faith, atonement, eternal life. It is vastly simpler to convey the principle of the aeroplane than to convey the idea of salvation by faith to a Buddhist who has been trained from infancy in the idea of self-salvation by achievement of merit. Wil- liam Carey described in 1796 the obstacles he found in the Bengali tongue : *' Now I must mention some of the difficulties under which we labor, particu- larly myself. . . . Though the language is rich, beautiful, and expressive, yet the poor people whose whole concern has been to get a little rice to sat- isfy their wants . . . have scarcely a word in use about religion. They have no word for love, for repent, and a thousand other things, and every idea is expressed either by quaint phrases or tedious circumlocutions. . . . This sometimes discourages me much." ^ Languages of Savage Tribes. But if these bar- riers are encountered in the most highly developed languages of the Orient, what may the missionary expect in trying to break his way into the dialect of barbarous or savage tribes ? Some of those dia- lects are, like the one of which Charles Darwin speaks : '' A language of clicks and grunts and squeaks and hiccoughs." The English alphabet ^ George Smith, The Life of William Carey, 87. io8 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions is altogether incapable of representing such sounds, and the English-speaking throat cannot undergo the convulsions required for uttering them. Aspirates and gutturals and nameless conso- nants, deprived of all vowels, crowd the sentence. The pioneer missionary must start with : " What is this? What is that?" Then with the slender apparatus of twenty-six English letters (or others he may invent) he must put down these sounds on paper or bark or skin. Then from the simplest roots, full of material meaning, he must, with new endings, or by new combinations, build up words to express " God is spirit," " Keep thyself pure," " I give unto them eternal life " ! The process is like trying to paint a sunrise with lumps of clay. The apostle Paul found the marvelous resources of the Greek tongue altogether inadequate for " my gos- pel," and was obliged to pour new meaning into such words as " humility " and " service " and " eternity." Thanks to the general diffusion of the Greek tongue, he never attempted to translate his message to the barbarians of Malta or the mountain tribes of Asia Minor. Through one language he reached the world he knew, while his successors must reach the world we know through the five hundred dialects already made into vehicles of the Christian faith. Surely it has been the task of the missionary " to undo the curse of Babel and carry out the blessing of Pentecost." Instances in Africa. In Africa the work of Social Achievements of Missionaries 109 translation has gone on steadily, from the transla- tion of the Bible by Dr. Moffat in 1820 down to the present moment. The linguistic poverty of some African tribes has been pitiful. *' Outside of the Barbary States, Egypt, and Abyssinia, with the single exception of some traces of the Haussa litera- ture, there is — in marked contrast to China and In- dia — not a single tribe with a literature or even an alphabet of its own.^ Rev. E. H. Richards, who invented a written language for certain tribes in the Province of Mozambique, writes : " These peo- ple had never heard of ink until we brought it to them. There was no history, no book, no diction- ary, no alphabet, not a single idea as to how thought and words could be transferred to paper. . . . They could not tell what paper was, but called it a ' leaf/ the same as the leaf on a tree.'' ^ Reward of Skill and Patience. But the mission- aries have unlocked such languages with amazing skill and tireless patience. The Comparative Hand- book of Congo Languages appeared a few years ago, and a Kaffir dictionary was published in 1910. The Livingstonia Mission has done heroic work in translation, and it was mentioned in one of the British Commissioner's Reports as " first as regards the value of its contributions to our knowledge of African languages." Its members have been ^ Edinburgh Conference Report, Vol. I, Carrying the Gos- pel, 205. ' J. S. Dennis, Christian Missions and Social Progress, Vol. Ill, 419. no Social Aspects of Foreign Missions obliged to master eight languages or tongues, and to work with five others. Two and a half millions of people were able to read the Nyanja Testament as soon as they could read at alV Other Marvels in Africa. Mr. Dan Crawford has recently come out of Central Africa after twenty-three years of service without a furlough, and has carried to Oxford for the inspection of English scholars his reduction to writing of the language of the cannibals. He affirms that he has found the natives of high intelligence, eager to learn the white man's method of speaking cai pa- per. He has found verbs with no less than thirty- two tenses (several future tenses, e.g., I will come, I will come in a few minutes, I will come after many years, I will come if something occurs, etc.) and nouns with twelve genders (or genera, classes). Yet in this surprising tongue no word had ever been written until Mr. Crawford broke in, mastered its secret, and made it visible to all the world. The process by which he did this is appropriately called *' thinking black."^ No wonder Sir H. H. Johnston wrote: ''Huge is the debt which philologists . owe to the labors of British missionaries in Africa ! By evangelists of our own nationality nearly two hun- dred African languages and dialects have been illus- trated by grammars, dictionaries, vocabularies, and translations of the Bible. Many of these tongues ^ Ellen C. Parsons, Christus Liberator, 231. " Thinking Black, Social Achievements of Missionaries iii were on the point of extinction and have since be- come extinct, and we owe our knowledge of them solely to the missionaries' intervention." ^ Success of Carey and Martyn. In India a new era was created by the linguistic achievements of the distinguished missionary and Orientalist, William Carey. He translated the Bible either in whole or in part, either alone or with others, into twenty-eight Indian languages. A fire in the print- ing house at Serampur destroyed his astonishing Dictionary of All Sanskrit-derived Languages, but numerous grammars and dictionaries survive in many tongues to attest his genius. Henry Martyn, whose talents had made him senior wrangler at Cambridge University, completed his translation of the New Testament into Hindustani in 1808. Four years later he died, while taking a journey of fifteen hundred miles on horseback, having at- tempted to put his Persian translation into the hands of the Persian monarch. Judson's Translation in Burma. Adoniram Jud- son finished his monumental translation of the en- tire Bible into Burmese in 1834, after twenty-one years of incredible toil. At the age of fifty-six he wrote : " Thanks be to God, I can now say I have attained. I have knelt down before him with the last leaf in my hand. . . . May he make his own inspired Word now complete in the Burmese tongue, the grand instrument of filling all Burma with songs * British Central Africa, 205. 112 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions of praise to our great God and Savior Testis Christ." ^ Morrison and Williams in China. The Chinese language offers to the foreigner perhaps more for- midable difficulties than does any other. A lan- guage without an alphabet or a grammar, requiring from six to ten thousand separate characters for ordinary printing, it is commonly said to need ten years of a missionary's life to acquire it. " To learn Chinese," cried Dr. Milne, " is work for men with bodies of brass, lungs of steel, heads of oak, hands of spring steel, eyes of eagles, hearts of apostles, memories of angels, and lives of Methuse- lah." ^ But into this language — voluminous, com- plex, artificial, elaborate beyond description — Rob- ert Morrison, with the help of Milne, translated the entire Bible, and completed its printing in 1819. Not content with this, he prepared a Chinese dic- tionary of such value that it was published by the East India Company at an expense of $60,000. But this dictionary was partially superseded by the great work of Dr. S. Wells Williams — in later life * Most instructive is the contrast between this record and that of the historian Gibbon on completing his great Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: " I wrote the last lines of the last page in a summer house in my garden, . . . The air was temperate, the sky serene, the silver orb of the moon was reflected from the waters, and all nature was silent. I will not dissemble the first emotions of joy on the recovery of my freedom, and, perhaps, the establishment of my fame. . . . But whatsoever might be the future fate of my history, the life of the historian must be short and precarious." — A u tobiography . ^ A. T. Pierson, The Modern Missionary Century, 104. Social Achievements of Missionaries 113 Professor of Chinese Literature at Yaie — who pub- lished at Shanghai in 1874 his Syllabic Dictionai^ of the Chinese Language, containing over twelve thousand characters and their pronunciation in four dialects. Work of Dr. Richard. The work of Dr. Tim- othy Richard, secretary of the Christian Literature Society, has for forty-five years been a leavening force throughout all China. The writer recently saw him at his desk in Shanghai, surrounded by his Chinese assistants and translators, in a small office that is as influential as the headquarters of any foreign embassy in Peking. On the shelves were the Chinese versions, made by the society, of some two hundred standard English books, relig- ious, scientific, historical, medical, philosophical, economic. These, with almost innumerable smaller works, have been scattered for four decades through the empire, and studied by Chinese students and literati. The world sees the revolution and the republic — it does not, cannot, see the causes behind the event. It sees the explosion, not the planting of the mine. It sees the Manchus driven out; it cannot see the great economic and religious truths driven in by a half century of silent, ceaseless pub- lication. But when ten thousand Christian women in China united in presenting to the Empress Dowager on her sixtieth birthday a magnificent copy of the Bible, and when the young Emperor eagerly began to read it, then at last the heedless 114 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions world began to realize that even the haughty Mid- dle Kingdom stood on the brink of change. Record in Japan. Fifty years ago no part of the Bible had been translated into Japanese, and the laws forbade the circulation of the Bible in any language. Twenty-five years ago the so-called *' Authorized Version " was made, and that is now being revised. In 191 2 was puWished the first life of Christ written by a Japanese, the work of Pro- fessor Toranosuke Yamada of the Methodist Theo- logical Seminary. In the same year were published translations of Dr. Orr's The Virgin Birth of Christ and Bishop Gore's The Lord's Prayer. A varied Christian literature is now printed and cir- culated throughout the Japanese empire — in whose museums may still be seen the bronze figures of Christ on which the Christians of sixty years ago were cruelly compelled to trample as a proof that they had abjured the Christian faith. Power of the Press. Indeed, the printing-press has become one of the chief powers in the non- Christian world. The Chinese agency of the American Bible Society disposed of nearly one mil- lion copies of the Scriptures during the first six months of the year 1913. But the British and For- eign Bible Society has doubtless issued as many, and the Bible Society of Scotland half as many. Therefore, about five million Bibles or portions of the Bible in Chinese were issued in 1913 by those three agencies. And the presses on the foreign field are doing rapidly increasing work. " To-day one Social Achievements of Missionaries ii^ ' hundred and sixty presses are conducted by the Protestant mission boards in various parts of the world, and they issue annually about four hundred million pages of Christian literature and the Word of God. . . . The mission press in Beirut, Syria, is probably doing as much as all other agencies com- bined to influence the Mohammedan world, for there the Bible is printed in the language that is spoken by two hundred million souls. . . . The peo- ples of Asia are not so much accustomed to public discourse as Western races. The priests of the native religions seldom or never preach, and it is much more difficult to influence people in that way than it is in England and America." ^ Replacing Evil with Good. Buddhism made its extraordinary advance largely by the circulation of the teachings of Buddha and the legends of his life, apart from all public assemblies. The mod- ern world is becoming " eye-minded " ; it under- stands only what it sees in black and white. Mil- lions are learning to read in all lands, and millions find nothing worth reading. The new reading classes in India are fed on cheap sensational ver- nacular newspapers, on legends about popular dei- ties, and on books of the songs sung by dancing- girls, corrupt and defiling. Over against this trivial or debasing literature we have the work of fifty- three publishing houses in India which are printing 131 newspapers and magazines, besides thousands ^ Arthur J. Brown, The Why and How of Foreign Missions, 127 ff. ii6 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions of books and leaflets. The Christian Literature So- ciety for India printed in 191 1 over 6oo,ocmd vol- umes containing over 52,ocx),ooo pages. If, as Napoleon said, " to replace is to conquer," these printing houses are conquering the Orient by re- placing licentious vernacular novels, cheap, inflam- matory newspapers, and degrading stories of gods and men, v^ith a v^holesome literature irradiated by Christian ideals. All this Christian literature brings its message primarily, indeed, to the individual, but, because the printed page may present the same mes- sage, at the same time, to thousands of readers, it becomes a powerful social and unifying influence. 2. Education. Let us now turn to the second form of social service rendered by missionaries, — in the field of education. After all, printed books and papers are useless to those who cannot read them, and, as a matter of fact, two thirds of the human race to-day can neither read nor write. After one hundred and fifty years of British rule in India, the ** Indians who can read and write number only 98 per 1,000 in the case of males and 7 per 1,000 in the case of females." ^ We usually speak of the Chinese as an educated people, and the govern- ing classes have indeed been through a strenuous intellectual discipline. But the vast majority of the people have not mastered the complicated ideographs sufficiently to read a newspaper. '' A fair estimate would be that only one in twenty of * Year Book of Missions in India, 1912, p. 37. Social Achievements of Missionaries 117 the male sex can read intelligently." ^ In Eg}^pt only one person in seventeen can read. As re- gards the illiteracy of Central Africa, and the South Sea Islands nothing need be said. The great mass of humanity has no conception of the use of a writ- ten or printed sign to convey an idea. To them a religion whose ten commandments were " graven in stone," whose founder is known to us only through the precious writings of his disciples, whose teach- ings are enshrined in an immortal book — such a religion is shadowy and well-nigh meaningless until they have learned to read. Hence all missionaries in every field — whatever their theory of the mis- sionary *' motive " or " program " — have found a place for the education of the natives. While there are sharp differences of opinion as to the relative importance of education and evangelism, the mis- sionary who ignores education is simply divorcing Christianity from intelligence. The map of every non-Christian land is to-day dotted with Christian schools, from kindergarten to university, and from them has gone forth a stream of men who are now shaping Oriental civilization. Effects in Turkey. In no other part of the field has there been so much emphasis on Christian schools as in Turkey. The jealous fanaticism of the Mohammedans has made direct evangelization among them well-nigh impossible. To preach the Christian faith in the streets of a Turkish city has ^ Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, January, 1912. ii8 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions been to court a speedy death. But the schools fur- nish an indirect approach. The education furnished by the Turkish government is so antique and so meager that enlightened Mohammedans brave the danger to their religion, and often send their chil- dren to Christian schools. In these schools usually there is no direct attempt to make proselytes, as in some other lands, but in all of them attendance at Christian v^orship is required, the instruction is by Christian teachers, and Christian ideals permeate the whole atmosphere. W. T. Stead in his pic- turesque journalistic style has described some of his impressions : " How often have I wished dur- ing my visits to Turkey that Christian ministers would let the Acts of the Apostles rest for awhile, and instead tell their congregations something of the acts of the modern apostles who are laboring to-day in the very countries that enjoyed the min- istry of Saint Paul. . . . When I get sick and weary over the contemplation of the mean intrigues, the squalid ambitions, and the unscrupulous doings of politicians, I find an unfailing refreshment for my soul in remembering the heroic pioneer work that is being done in the dominions of the Sultan by citizens of the United States. . . . Private American citizens, subscribing out of their own pockets sums that in fifty years may have equaled the amount spent to build one modern ironclad, have left in every province of the Ottoman Empire the imprint of their intelligence and of their char- acter. ... It is not a small thing to have laid the Social Achievements of Missionaries 119 foundation of a new state, to have given shape to the latest aspirations of a nationality — and that is what the Americans did when they cradled the Bul- garian kingdom in the classrooms of Robert Col- lege. Even greater work than this they have done and are doing." ^ American Board Schools. The remarkable work done at Robert College, whose superb site on the Bosporus near Constantinople is even more com- manding than that of Cornell or the University of Wisconsin, caught the attention of the whole world when, in the recent Balkan War, it was found that the ideals of freedom possessing the Balkan States were largely acquired through the education of the leaders in the Christian colleges of Turkey. On a site not far from Robert College are now rising the fine new buildings of the American College for Girls. The American Board alone has established and developed eleven colleges and theological or training-schools in Turkey. Besides the two at Constantinople, there are others at Harpoot (in the Euphrates Valley), at Aintab (four days by caravan from the Mediterranean Sea), at Tarsus (the native city of the apostle Paul), at Marsovan (on the south shore of the Black Sea), and at Smyrna (to which once came the message : " I know thy poverty, but thou art rich "). The Syrian Prot- estant College at Beirut, founded by missionaries but now independent of the American Board, has since its incorporation in 1863 stood like a light- ^ Americanising Turkey, 3 ff. 120 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions house on the shore, casting its ilkiminating beams, not over the Mediterranean Sea, but into all the cities, governments, and homes of the nearer East/ Such institutions are not like Jonah's gourd, that endured till the sun grew hot. They are wrought into the Eastern consciousness, recognized by the government, feared by Moslem teachers, eagerly sought out by young people (fifteen nationalities sitting together in the classrooms of Robert Col- lege), and some of them are destined to endure as long as the colleges founded by the Puritans in New England. New England Precedent. The experience of the missionaries in India has been a constant re- enforcement of the value of schools in Christian work. The arguments in favor of education have been a repetition of the pleas set forth two hun- dred and fifty years ago by our fathers, when New England was a pagan wilderness. The early colo- nists of Massachusetts founded their first college while they were still in the depths of poverty, in want of food and shelter, and menaced by the treachery of the Indians. On the gateway before ^ It is of this college that John R. Mott writes : " This is one of the most important institutions in all Asia. In fact there is no college which has within one generation accom- plished a greater work and which has to-day a larger oppor- tunity. It has practically created the medical profession in the Levant. It has been the most influential factor in the East. It has been, and is, the center for genuine Christian and scientific literature in all that region. Fully one fourth of the graduates of the collegiate department have entered Christian work, either as preachers or as teachers in Chris- tian schools." — Sherwood Eddy, The New Era in Asia, 184. Social Achievements of Missionaries 121 the entrance of Harvard University is carved in stone the notable utterance of those early days: '* After God had carried us safe to New England . . . one of the first things we longed for and looked after was to advance learning and perpetu- ate it to posterity, dreading to leave an illiterate ministry to the churches when our present min- isters should be in the dust." ^ But if an illiterate ministry is dangerous in Christian America, what is it amid the seductions and sophistries of Hindu- ism in India? On the records of the oldest church in Providence, Rhode Island, closely connected with Brown University, is the quaint fecord : " This meeting-house was built for the worship of God and to hold Commencement in." Thus our far- seeing fathers planted school and church side by side. Every argument for the support of Chris- tian schools in America applies with double force to the planting and development of schools in India. Effective in Conversion. One of the most ex- perienced of Indian missionaries affirms : " I fear- lessly maintain that more conversions take place, more accessions are made, through schools than through any other agency apart from the Christian Church itself." ^ One of the wisest exponents of the missionary enterprise writes from Africa re- garding the remarkable Livingstonia mission: " There is no doubt that the greatest pioneer agency * New England's First Fruits, 12. * J. P. Jones, India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 249. 122 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions for Christianity has been the schools. I do not think that one ever finds an isolated declaration of our spiritual message break with startling sudden- ness in a native's mind, and lead him into the obe- dience of Christ. A vast deal of reiteration, and simple teaching of each theme and each demand of the gospel are necessary, before men understand how great Christ's claims are, and where the way of salvation lies. This is the main use of the schools to the mission. Their daily Bible lesson and daily worship gradually awakened the people to the message of the gospel, and it was chiefly from within the schools that the first converts were ob- tained. There are now 735 village schools with 47,000 pupils on the rolls." ^ Cooperation of Indian Government. And these opinions are in exact accord with the attitude of the brilliant group of missionaries who entered In- dia at the close of the eighteenth century. The first Indian college was founded at Serampur in 1818. Two years before that time the Serampur missionaries reported that they had given instruc- tion to not less than 10,000 children in their schools. Those missionaries powerfully influenced the Indian government, and in 1854 a comprehensive system of Indian education was announced, includ- ing " grants-in-aid " to schools established by pri- vate means. This kind of assistance is now re- ceived (some schools refusing to receiv^e it, or ^ Donald Fraser, International Review of Missions, April, 1913. Social Achievements of Missionaries 123 to enter into any alliance with the state) by most of the mission schools that come up to the standards required by the English government. Under Prot- estant missionary societies there are now in India over 13,000 elementary schools — including thirty kindergartens — with nearly half a million pupils. Often the teacher in one of these rural schools is the only educated person in the village, and so commands high respect and authority. The par- ticular benefits of such schools are these : (i) They give training to the children of Chris- tian parents, and thus equip them for a career of usefulness and honor. (2) They give to the missionary access to plas- tic minds not yet blinded by false teaching or seared by sensual living. (3) They furnish a point of contact with the homes around them, and a bond of sympathy be- tween the Christian teacher and the non-Christian community. (4) They train leaders, both ministers and lay- men, for the native Church, which without native leadership can never prosper. (5) They diffuse knowledge of the Christian Bible, Christian songs, and Christian habits and ideals through all the surrounding population. Mission Schools Develop Native Leaders. For the development of native leaders the work of the high schools and colleges is absolutely essen- tial. India has now thirty-eight institutions of collegiate rank conducted by Protestant mission- 124 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions ary societies. In these colleges are over 6,000 stu- dents. In all of them the Bible has foremost place, in all of them the ethical standards are those of the New Testament, and all of them are doing much to counteract the defects of the government schools, which, with high intellectual standards, enforce ab- solute neutrality in religion. A Searching Question. With all these schools in operation, working on the minds of a remarkable race, it would seem that India after one hundred and fifty years of effort should be fairly well sup- plied with native leaders of native churches and schools. But such is not the case. Where are the native Indian prophets, poets, administrators, lead- ers, that we might reasonably expect? Where is the Indian apostle who shall lead in a crusade to capture Indian cities for the Christian faith? Where is the Indian thinker who shall expound Christianity in terms of Indian thought ? Why are some Indian churches after many years of train- ing as dependent on the foreigners' advice and the foreigners' gifts as they were fifty years ago? The Year Book of Missions in India laments that the non-Christian Hindu teacher is frequently employed in Christian schools, and '' must continue there until his successor can be found in the person of the Indian Christian who is intellectually and spiritu- ally equipped for the task which is awaiting him. ... It is high time that we learn the cause of fail- ure." ^ Such a candid admission in missionary ^ 1912, p. 280. Social Achievements of Missionaries 125 literature is most encouraging. Why cannot native Christian teachers be found? Is the cause in the inherent moral weakness of the lower classes of Indian society? in past mistakes of method? in unwise use of foreign money? or where? We shall return to this problem later. The solution is cer- tainly not in diminishing our interest in schools. In India, as in other lands, they will yet produce the leaders of the nation. Educational Departure in China. That is pre- cisely what Christian schools have done and are doing in China and Japan. The old examination system of China has been described in a previous chapter. It was curiously artificial, but as it was the sole avenue to public service, it gave the scholar greater honor in China than he has ever received anywhere else in the world. The Chinese scholar could compose stiff and stilted poems, he could re- cite memoriter whole books of Confucius and Men- cius, he could decide the finest points of etiquette; but he despised the whole world outside of China, and disdained science, history, geography, and world politics. At length even the Empress Dowa- ger perceived some of the defects of the educational method, and the vast illiteracy of the common peo- ple, and in 1905 an imperial edict suddenly abolished the whole system of examinations. At one stroke of the '' vermilion pencil " it was directed that schools be everywhere established and that in them '* Western learning " should be taught. At once thousands of the old schools fell into decay, and 126 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions tens of thousands of teachers were without employ- ment. Soon fourteen thousand Chinese young men were studying in Japan, which had already adopted Western ways, and several hundred were in the United States. The educational revolution of 1905 was the antecedent and the real cause of the po- litical revolution of 19 12. College of Shanghai. But when the Chinese sought for Western learning they found it was already among them — in the Christian schools that they had always despised and frequently sup- pressed. Here at their doors, or rather inside their doors, were schools and colleges modeled after the best in Europe and America. St. John's Col- lege at Shanghai has in a quarter century developed from a poorly-equipped grammar school into a genuine college equal in grade to Amherst or Dart- mouth, and with a student body numbering 500. Its constructive influence is felt throughout China. A former student and teacher is now Chinese am- bassador to Germany; a younger graduate is sec- retary to President Yuan Shi-kai; another is China's ambassador to the United States. It is no wonder that the alumni of such a college have just com- pleted a fund of $10,000 to erect a memorial build- ing to commemorate the twenty-five years of Presi- dent Pott's administration. Leading Schools at Canton. At Canton, on an island in the river and opposite the huge city, is the Canton Christian College, an independent but thoroughly Christian school. The Dean of the col- AMERICAN COLLEGE, MADURA, IXDL\ Affiliated with }iladras University, 645 students PKK1.\(, L".\l\I-.R>rr\". l'FJ\IX(,. UilAA 1,600 students Social Achievements of Missionaries 127 lege has been Commissioner of Education for the entire province, and he began his work by direct- ing that the worship of Confucius should no longer be required in the schools. Adjoining the College is the University Medical School, supported by the students and graduates of the University of Penn- sylvania. Other Educational Centers of China. At Chang- sha, in central China, there is a hospital and medical school known as '' Yale in China," since it is entirely supported by Yale graduates and undergraduates. Universities are now planned at Chengtu in west China, at Nanking in the east, in the Province of Shantung, and in the capital city of Peking. At Shanghai is a thriving college supported by the Bap- tists, at Hangchow a college under Presbyterian auspices, and at Wuchang is Boone University, supported by the Episcopal Church. Immense Educational Opportunity. Here in these Christian colleges the Chinese find to-day the very science and history and mathematics and geography and political economy which the people believe to be the only hope of the young repub- lic. And here they find, whether they desire it or not, the Christian solution of all human prob- lems, and the Christian ideal of human life. Was ever such opportunity offered before to Christian schools ? A thousand Chinese young men are now studying in the United States — but what are they among so many? The Chinese government is at- tempting to increase the number of government 128 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions schools, but if it were to gather into schools as large a percentage of the population as attends school in Japan, it would need to provide buildings '/ and teachers for forty million pupils.^ Not for a hundred years to come can the government in China care for the education of its own children. A mag- nificent opportunity, a tremendous responsibility, is now before the Christian schools of the ancient empire. The whole nation is eager for knowledge of a type their ancestors never knew. Millions are crying out for the new learning which is the new road to public service. In the Christian schools are text-books of geography, history, physical science, translated by the missionaries. In the Christian schools are the inductive and experimental methods which must replace the old learning by rote. The ** eight-legged " essay has gone forever, and the scientific method is supplanting the old devotion to stereotyped forms of literary art. The whole country desires — this is not true of any part of Africa or India — what the Christian schools can give. And even in the government schools there is eagerness to understand the secret of the power of Christianity. Need of Teachers. Recently the writer addressed the students of the government schools in Peking. At five o'clock in the afternoon, after study hours, they gathered in the courtyard of an ancient yamen, or former official residence. Listening through an interpreter is always difficult, but they listened most * F. L. Hawks Pott, The Emergency in China, 157. Social Achievements of Missionaries 129 intently for an hour to a description of school and college life in America. Meanwhile the darkness was descending, and their faces were fading out in the evening dusk, until at last only their eyes could be seen, glowing like balls of fire through the deep shadows. Then a single lamp was lighted, and a single young man rose to make an announce- ment. *' Three weeks ago John R. Mott was here, and told us that the Bible Avas the secret of West- ern power. All who wish to enroll in classes for Eible study will now have a chance to do so." Then the students eagerly pressed forward, crowding one another aside, struggling to be the first to enroll. Not one in twenty-five was a Christian, but all of them believed that the progress of Europe and America was somehow due to the Bible, and were determined to investigate for themselves the cause. Then a Young Men's Christian Association Secre- tary turned to us in despair, saying : " Where can we secure teachers for these men? The regular missionaries are busy with their own classes. The foreign residents will not aid. We are utterly help- less before this ever-growing demand." And that afternoon scene in Peking might easily be dupli- cated in many a great Chinese city to-day. In a land that for two thousand years has revered the scholar, the progress of Christianity depends ab- solutely on educational enterprise. Situation in Japan. In Japan the connection of Church and school is just as vital as in China. But the situation is quite different, owing to the fact 130 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions that the government schools are extremely efficient, and ninety-five per cent, of the population can read and write. Only missionaries of thorough train- ing and modern culture can appeal to the highly trained minds of modern Japan. A type of pioneer missionary that would be extremely useful in Poly- nesia or Central Africa would be quite useless in Tokyo or Kyoto. Only thoroughly trained Chris- tian converts can lead the congregations of Japa- nese churches. The Doshisha, a college founded by Joseph Hardy Neesima, has now two hundred students in its higher courses, while the total enrol- ment is 1,164. Many other Christian colleges and schools — five of them in Tokyo — are doing a de- voted and needed work. But the excellence of the government schools, their high standards and ex- pensive equipment, compel the missionaries either to keep the pace set by the government or abandon all attempts at education. The great need of Japan is now a central Christian university, inter- denominational in character, equipped for the training of the Christian leaders of to-morrow. It is finely said by the editors of The Christian Movement in Japan for 1913: ''The questions of missions have come to be not only: how many individuals have been won for Christ? or how is any particular work succeeding? but^ also, how far is a whole nation being influenced in the direction of Christ and a new life? . . . The Chris- tianity that is to prevail in Japan is to be an edu- cational Christianity. Buddhism, its chief rival. Social Achievements of Missionaries 131 is rapidly becoming an educational Buddhism in response to the demands of an educated nation, and it is beyond a doubt that Japan, with its broad enlightenment and its profound respect for educa- tion, cannot be won by any religion that is not educational." ^ Education has become in these days the chief agency of social progress. It is in its con- ception of a common intellectual life for all classes that it binds and helps them to advance together. 3. Medical Work — Moslem Approach. If now we turn to medical achievements in foreign lands, we enter a fascinating field. This is the realm where Christianity and applied science meet, in the gra- cious ministry of healing. Primitive Christianity, like modern psychology, made no separation be-, tween soul and body, but treated the human per- sonality as a unit. He who said : " Thy sins be forgiven thee," said also, " Rise and walk." Any permanent separation of spiritual help from physical help, any attempt to save souls while ignoring bod- ies, is contrary to the whole recorded ministry of our Lord. Consequently in whatever portion of the globe missionaries are working to-day they are attempting to minister to the entire life of man. The '' healing of the seamless dress," once confined to Palestine, is now carried to the ends of the earth, and one expression of it is to be found in about six hundred hospitals founded and operated un- der Christian auspices on the missionary field to- day. In Turkey alone there are thirty-five such ' Pp. 84, 259. V 132 i Social Aspects of Foreign Missions hospitals, besides one hundred and forty-four dis- pensaries. The fanatical bitterness of the Moslem toward Christianity has often vanished in the pres- ence of the Christian physician, and beholding the man which was healed he could say nothing against it. The women of the harem, for centuries inac- cessible to any Christian message, are now easily approached by the woman physician and the trained nurse. Results in India. In India there are to-day over three hundred medical missionaries, and as many more nurses trained in Europe or America. There are in that vast country two hundred and forty mission hospitals with over four hundred dispensa- ries. In these institutions in the year 1910 nearly a hundred thousand surgical operations were per- formed and about three million patients were treated. Can any record of courage and persist- ence in the relief of human pain surpass that? In such a land, where there is seldom a sewer, even in the largest cities, where holiness and dirt have been for centuries associated, where the people drink holy water from stagnant tanks covered with foul scum, where thousands daily bathe and wash and drink standing waist-deep in the Ganges, while dead bodies float past in the stream — in such a land medi- cine is a boon beyond belief. Not only the cure of individuals has engaged the missionaries, but preventive medicine becomes there, as here, of the first importance. Most of the illness in tropica) lands is due to filthy suroundings and unhygienic li^Avould have scandalized their fathers. Enlisting the Government. The government has become keenly alive to the value of this kind of training. At Shanghai municipal grants have en- abled the Association to secure an athletic field of four acres, equipped with quarter-mile running track, tennis courts, baseball field, and dressing- rooms. Through the gift of the provisional repub- lican government the Association at Nanking has acquired twenty acres which are being fully equipped for various forms of Western play.^ The associa- tion buildings at Peking, Tientsin, Tokyo, and Seoul are provided with gymnasiums. The Shanghai gym- nasium, opened in 1907, was used by four hundred and sixty Chinese members during the year 1913, and has become a center for the training of physical directors for other Chinese Associations. The two forms of physical training well known in Europe — indoor gymnastics, developed in Germany and Sweden, and outdoor sports, developed in England * China Mission Year Book, 1913, p. 339. 2o6 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions — are becoming immensely popular in awakening China. Wish to Acquire Strength. What has produced this change of social standards among Chinese young men ? Chiefly the desire to acquire strength for the service of their country. They see that the inert and flabby scholar of a past generation, wearing elaborate embroidery and memorizing Confucius, is hopelessly out of date. They have seen the marching soldiers of the European powers, trained to physical hardihood. They have seen the Englishman at cricket, the American at base- ball, and they are conscious of as robust a consti- tution as our own. They want to become soldiers, and so they are drilling in the open fields around every Chinese city. They want to acquire physical alertness and endurance, and so they are taking up with the sports that have changed the temper of all our Western schools and colleges. Twenty years ago at Boone University, in Wuchang, there was such dislike of play, such devotion to study, that it was necessary to lock the doors of the study-room from four to six o'clock each day, in order to force the students out upon the playground. Now the eagerness shown is as great as at the University of Michigan or of Wisconsin. In Burma the story is the same, and far up the Irrawady schoolboys may be seen playing football or basketball with energy and determination to excel. The first Far Eastern Olympic Meet was held in Manila in Febru- ary, 1913, when teams representing China, Japan, Enlarging Function of the Missionary 207 and the Philippines competed. Eastern indolence at last gives way, Eastern inertia and pseudo-dignity yield to the desire for virility and swiftness and expertness, to be used in the service of one's na- tive land. Play Moralized and Christianized. It means much to have the sports of a nation start under Christian auspices. Here in America our games have often started under distinctly antichristian in- fluence, and have only by painful struggles been redeemed. Often they have been surrounded by betting, gambling, drinking, and the Church has frowned upon sports, not because of intrinsic, but because of collateral, evils. But in the Orient these outdoor contests have been organized by Christian schools and colleges and associations, which regu- larly offer Christianized play to all their members. That fear of games which marked our Puritan fa- thers in England and America — and not without reason — may never be known among peoples taught to play by the Christian secretary and the Christian teacher. Both Work and Play Carry the Christian Ideal. Thus both work and play — each essential to a ro- bust and achieving personality — are now being taught on the foreign field by the Christian mis- sionary. He is no anemic or ascetic figure on a " coral strand." He is teaching men to use the plow, the ax, the scythe, the loom, the press, in the creation of a new civilization, and he is teaching them the uses of Indian clubs and pulley-weights. 2o8 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions and tennis racquets and footballs, in developing a clean and vigorous manhood. And alike through work and play he is teaching that kind of coopera- tion, that ''team work," out of which homes, schools, and all Christian institutions must inev- itably grow. In his picture of the completed king- dom of God he sees with the Old Testament prophet a city that '* shall be full of boys and girls playing in the streets thereof." And he also sees a city filled with harmonious cooperative toil — " his servants shall serve him day and night." A mis- sionary is a man who has dedicated any sort of human ability — athletic or linguistic, oratorical or dramatic or musical, mechanical or agricultural — to the supreme task of making that prophetic vision come true. GREAT FOUNDERS AND THEIR IDEALS Say not the struggle naught availeth, The labor and the wounds are vain, The enemy faints not nor faileth, And as things have been, they remain. For while the tired waves, vainly breaking, Seem scarce one painful inch to gain, Far back, through creeks and inlets making. Comes silent, flooding in, the main. — Arthur Hugh C lough. Not once or twice in our fair island story The path of duty was the way to glory. He that, ever following her commands, On, with toil of heart and knees and hands, Through the long gorge to the far light has won His path upward, and prevailed. Shall find the toppling crags of duty scaled Are close upon the shining table-lands To which our God himself is moon and sun. — Tennyson. CHAPTER VII GREAT FOUNDERS AND THEIR IDEALS Diversions or Accessories. Our discussion has obviously led us straight up to one of the most far- reaching problems of the missionary enterprise. We stand at the parting of the ways. Are we convinced that all the educational, medical, industrial, agricul- tural, philanthropic features of which we have spoken lie at the heart of the great undertaking, or are they mere impediments to the highest success? AvQ they part and parcel of making the King- dom come, or are they diversions, and perversions, draining off the great stream of spiritual enthusiasm into secular channels? Are they weak attempts to reduce Christianity to its lowest terms, or are they brave efforts to lift it to its highest power? The problem is not one to be concealed or glossed over, lest we should quench enthusiasm by its discussion. An enterprise that involves no challenging prob- lems, no clashing of ideals, no summons to think, must be so small that it cannot interest our young people. It is good for them to stand a while at the cross-roads and consider. The Inclusive Ideal. The two ideals may be most clearly understood by contrast. Here is a recent utterance of Dr. Lewis Hodous, vice-presi- aii 212 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions dent of the Foochow Union Theological School: '' The missionaries and Chinese leaders must recog- nize that the school, the hospital, the Christian newspaper, the large number of industrial and eleemosynary institutions are expressions of Chris- tianity, and are all evangelistic agents, not merely for indoctrinating the Chinese, but for forming within them new habits and producing new activi- ties which are fundamentally Christian. The new social gospel should rather enlarge than curtail these institutions. The new evangelism must learn to use these agencies in its work of preaching the gospel. The fundamental need then is a broad view of the social significance of the gospel which shall em- brace and utilize all the Christian forces. . . . Not only should the equipment be improved ; the methods of the Churches must be changed to meet the present crisis. Religion should be treated in a large and more vital way as being related not only to the individual, but to society and the nation. The churches should minister to the social needs of their neighborhoods. For this purpose reading- rooms and social rooms are necessary. The church should be related to all the Christian agencies. It should work with the hospitals by following up the patients and bringing them into touch with the church. It should be intimately connected with the schools and keep in touch with the boys and girls and their families. All these different agencies should be articulated and correlated with the church, not for the purpose of aggrandizing the church, but Great Founders and Their Ideals 213 that the church might impart spiritual power to them all." ' The Exclusive View. Beside that definite pro- gram we may place the conservative utterance of a missionary of equal experience and devotion : " I know of no temptation that is pregnant with greater evil to missions than that connected with this multiplication of what may be called the lower activities of missions. . . . These lower forms of activity are exceedingly absorbing and distracting; and when a mission enters into them it usually means, and I would almost say, necessarily means, a withdrawal of time and energy and of interest from its highest spiritual work. . . . While I can see reasons for taking up such work, I know also the demoralizing influence that so naturally and easily follows it. A mission that allows itself to be secularized by giving too much emphasis to these social and civilizing agencies becomes inevitably paralyzed as a spiritual force in its field." - Sharply Contrasted Conceptions. It is good to have the antithesis so sharply defined. There are plainly two kinds of effort possible, and two concep- tions of the missionary campaign. If we adopt the first conception we shall make character-creation in India or Africa as various in method, as broad in horizon, as ingenious in appliances as in America — perhaps far more so. If we adopt the second conception we shall narrow our scope in order to ' Bible Magazine, December, 1913, p. 948. 'John P. Jones, India's Problem .-Krishna or Christ, 284. 214 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions conserve spiritual intensity ; we shall leave the work of civilization to other agencies, that the missionary may be able to focus his endeavor on the primary task of making disciples, and truthfully say : '' This one thing I do." Of course there are various types of men, and all cannot work in the same way, either at home or abroad. There are diversities of gifts. But still the question presses: What is the highest conception of our task — the theological or the sociological? To deliver a new message or to create a new society? To rescue or to plant? To save men or to save man ? Carey a Leading Path-breaker. Let us refresh our recollection of some of the great founders of the enterprise. First, let us recall something of the motive and method of one of the greatest path- breakers of all the centuries, — William Carey. No life, since that of the apostle Paul, is better worth reading. We shall draw freely on the classic biography by George Smith. Range of His Boyhood Interests. The year of William Carey's birth, 1761, fell in as dull a period as any known to English history. Neither in the humble folk around him in Northamptonshire, nor in the shoemaker's trade, was there anything to in- spire him. He was a simple-hearted English boy, so na'ive in manner and expression as to furnish an easy target for those who later ridiculed the " con- secrated cobbler." But the striking fact of his childhood is the extraordinary range of his interests. Some children show capacity for language, some Great Founders and Their Ideals 215 for science — this boy showed both. Birds that he had captured stood in every corner of the boy's room, strange insects were stowed away and care- fully studied. He daily roamed the fields in search of specimens, while his uncle Peter gave him les- sons in botany and agriculture. The country round him was famous for its short-horns and its Leicester sheep, and these and their habits he studied con- stantly. Further Studies and His Great Vision. But in the study of language he was still more eager, and no teacher was at hand. At the age of twelve he found a Latin grammar and memorized it from beginning to end. Then in a New Testament com- mentary he discovered about a dozen Greek words, which he wrote out and treasured — like the strange insects — until he found a man who could explain them. Henceforth he was a student of Greek* French he taught himself in three weeks, at least sufficiently for reading purposes. Then he found an old Dutch quarto and forthwith began to write out the vocabularies and master the syntax. Hebrew he acquired from a neighboring minister. Long lists of words he wrote out and went over them con- stantly in his mind as he trudged up hill and down, carrying to town the shoes he had made in the little shop that was later known as '* Carey's College." Meanwhile he borrowed books of travel and ex- ploration and devoured them so steadily that other boys called him " Columbus " — with a prescience of which they little dreamed. Thus in shoemaking. 2i6 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions collecting specimens, reading voyages, preaching (after his striking religious experience when eighteen years of age), studying a large paper map on the wall before his bench and a leather globe made with his own hands, he spent his days until he " began to be about thirty years of age." Then suddenly he unfolded to the world his vast vision, his idea, so disconcerting to complacent orthodoxy, so big with fate to the Oriental world, his plan which places him forever among the great seers and founders of all time. Idea Published. In 1792, through a friend who gave him ten pounds, he published his great " En- quiry into the Obligations of Christians." Consid- ering its origin, it is perhaps the greatest missionary document ever penned. In an admirable literary style, with a pathetic religious simplicity, with a breadth of vision no English statesman of that day could surpass, he proclaimed his new idea to a be- wildered and indignant Church. " This shoemaker, still under thirty, surveys the whole world, con- tinent by continent, island by island, race by race, faith by faith, kingdom by kingdom, tabulating his results with an accuracy and following them up with a logical power of generalization which would extort the admiration of the learned even at the present day." ^ His Conception Appeared Full-grown. A great work of genius or a great work of faith — the two are never far apart — often does not grow, but is * George Smith, The Life of William Carey, 24. Great Founders and Their Ideals 217 bom full-grown, matured, athletic. Its realization indeed must grow — slowly, amid rebuffs and de- spairs. But the idea itself, completely worked out, appears at a bound, like the morning sun leaping from the horizon in the tropics. We may venture to say that there is scarcely a fundamental prin- ciple of present missionary endeavor which Carey did not anticipate and announce, and in most mission fields we have not yet caught up with the greatness of his ideal. But let us be more specific. What were his leading ideas? 1. Strategy. The selection of strategic points for religious propaganda. He had read of Captain Cook's voyages a few years before, and the dis- covery of savage Tahiti had thrilled Europe. But Carey turned from Tahiti to Bengal, because of Bengal's enormous density of population, greater than anywhere else on the globe, and the fact that the Hindus were the leading race in Asia, through w^hom other Oriental lands might be deeply influenced. 2. Home and Field Organization. He inspired the organization of like-minded spirits at home, the forerunner of all the great missionary societies since established. He never dreamed of being an " independent " missionary, even when later he was in receipt of ample income. Always he cherished the closest union with what we now call the " home base." But he also drew up a notable " form of agreement " under which he himself, with his col- leagues Marshman and Ward and their families, 2i8 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions lived most happily for many years, — the precurser of all organizations on the foreign field to-day. 3. Medical Work. He showed early faith in medical missions. On that first voyage he took with him the ^argeon, John Thomas, a man quite unworthy of Carey, but nevertheless the first medical missionary in India. '' Brother Thomas," wrote Carey, " has been the instrument of saving numbers of lives. His house is constantly sur- rounded with the afflicted ; and the cures wrought by him would have gained any physician or surgeon in Europe the most extensive reputation. We ought to be furnished yearly with at least half a hundred weight of Jesuits' bark." 4. The Press. At the beginning he gave proof of his faith in the printing-press. Before Carey sailed he said to the printer and editor, William Ward : '' If the Lord bless us, we shall want a per- son of your business to enable us to print the Scrip- tures. I hope you will come after us." Five years later Ward followed, and printer and preacher formed a partnership. 5. Oneness with Natives. His insistence on identification with the natives. Even with two of his four children sick, and a wife whose melan- cholia was incurable, he determined to '* build a hut and live like the natives." When famous all over the world, when copies of his portrait were selling in England at a guinea apiece, he still lived in daily intimate contact " with the natives." 6. Self-support and Self-propagation. He ad- Great Founders and Their Ideals 219 vocated entire self-support for the mission after the first critical period had passed. *' It is useful," he said, ^' to carry on some worldly business." When his first means were quite exhausted, he was put in charge of an indigo factory at a salary of two hundred and fifty pounds a year. Then the very government which had opposed his coming and still washed him away was forced to engage him to teach Bengali at Fort William College, since no other linguist of equal ability could be found. Thus he found himself in possession of a surplus, which he turned into the mission. During thirty-four years he spent on the mission about $225,000. And with self-support he associated self-propagation. After he baptized his first convert, Krishna Pal, he made him a street preacher in Calcutta. " We are also to hope that God may raise up some missionaries in this country, who may be more -fitted for the work than any from England can be/' 7. Industrial and Commercial Factor. He under- took with full confidence the business of publishing. When he first set up the press the natives thought it the " Englishman's idol," but they met a much greater marvel when he set up a steam-engine and " the engine went in reality this day." Soon he was publishing a monthly, as well as a " penny magazine " and a " Saturday magazine." The first newspaper the missionaries began to publish in 1818. That press trained many natives in a most useful art and in sound industrial and commercial methods. 8. Scripture Translation. He was unequaled in 220 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions his mastery of languages and in tireless labor as a translator. Here the facts and figures are almost incredible. For seven years he gave one third of each long v^orking day to the study of Sanskrit. Any other task he could leave at call, but his daily Sanskrit lesson was never omitted. From that press in Serampur Carey and his colleagues sent out the complete Bible in six different languages and the New Testament in twenty-two more — twenty-eight versions of the Scriptures in all. Parts of the Bible they sent out in a dozen other languages. About three hundred million human beings, from Peking through India and down to Singapore, received the Bible or parts of it in their own tongue as the re- sult of the labors of the Serampur missionaries. Can words describe an achievement like that? g. Educational Work. He insisted on educa- tion as indispensable. In every station he planned for a *' free school,'' and in all of them he used the vernacular. Before 1818 the missionaries had founded one hundred and twenty-six schools, con- taining ten thousand boys, while Mrs. Marshman had opened a school for girls. Every teacher Carey insisted " should be more than a superintendent of schools — he should be a spiritual instructor." 10. Interest in Science. He had an enduring in- terest in every branch of natural science. Instead of fearing science, as so many of his successors have done, as something alien to faith, he made it one great joy of his life and the close ally of the mis- sion. His Botanical Garden expanded until it cov- AMERICAN DECCAN INSTITUTE, AHAIEDNAGAR, INDIA A fully developed trade school subsidized by the Indian government INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, JORBAT, ASSAM High school with industrial training Great Founders and Their Ideals 221 ered five acres. There grew in profusion the mahogany, the eucalyptus, the teak and the tamar- ind, and the finest shade-trees of the East bent over *' Carey's walk." Foresters from many lands have studied Carey's trees and tested their rate of growth. Amid the rare and brilliant flowers of that garden the missionary wrote and prayed. One entry in his journal reads : " 23rd September, Lord's Day. — Arose about sunrise, and, according to my usual practise, walked into my garden for medita- tion and prayer till the servants came to family worship." Range of Investigations. In many of his letters he begs friends to send him plants or curious insects. *' You may always enclose a pinch of seeds in a letter." To his son, William, he writes eagerly: *' Can you not get me a male and female Khokora — I mean the great bird like a kite, which makes so great a noise, and often carries off a duck or a kid? I believe it is an eagle and want to examine it. Send me also all sorts of duck and waterfowls you can get, and in short every sort of bird you can obtain which is not common here. Send me their Bengali names. . . . Spare no pains to get me seeds and roots." Later he writes to a friend : '' To you I shall write some account of the arts, utensils, and manufactures of the country; to brother Sutliff their mythology and religion; to brother Ryland the man- ners and customs of the inhabitants; to brother Fuller the productions of the country; to brother Pearce the language, etc. ; and to the Society a 222 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions joint account of the mission." All these varied in- terests, instead of conflicting with one another in Carey's mind, played into one another's hands, and enriched and ennobled his far-reaching work. Improvement of Fruits. In 1794 he sends home for *' some instruments of husbandry." His letters on the fruits of India fully describe the mango, the guava, the custard-apple, the pomegranate, the papaw, the coconut, the citron, and the lime. " Of many of these, and the foreign fruits which he introduced, it might be said he found them poor and he cultivated them until he left succeeding gen- erations a rich and varied orchard." It is quite certain that if Carey were living to-day he would be in active correspondence with Luther Burbank. Mark in Agriculture and Horticulture. When Dr. Roxburgh, of the government Botanical Garden died, Carey, then in advanced age, printed the botanist's great work, Flora Indica, in four large volumes, placing on the title-page the sentence : " All thy works praise thee, O Lord — David." In the Transactions of the Bengal Asiatic Society, of which Carey was an eminent member, he energeti- cally discussed the necessity of agricultural reforms in India. Crops and soils and utensils and fertiliz- ers, modes of plowing and reaping, are all described with the skill of an expert, and illustrated by draw- ings carefully drawn to scale. Scores of native plants are set forth, the cultivation of vegetables and the best methods of forestry are all carefully re- viewed. Finally, after corresponding with botanists Great Founders and Their Ideals 223 in all parts of the world, Carey formed the " Agri- cultural and Horticultural Society in India," long before there was any similar society in Great Britain. Had William Carey done nothing more than render his distinguished service in the realms of botany and agriculture, his title to fame would be secure. II. Ever-enlarging Horizon. His ever-enlarging horizon embraced India, and far beyond it. He fought the slave-trade throughout his life. He ad- dressed memorials to the government on the evils of infanticide, of voluntary drowning by fanatics, of the self-immolation of widows. But far beyond the needs of India his vision penetrated and his heart went forth. " The state of the world," he writes, *' has occupied my thoughts more and more. . . . A mission to Siam would be comparatively easy of introduction. ... A mission to Pegu and another to Arakan would not be difficult. ... I have not mentioned Sumatra, Java, the Moluccas, the Philip- pines, or Japan, but all these countries must he sup- plied with missionaries. . . . Africa and South America call as loudly for help and the greatest part of Europe must also be holpen by the Protestant Churches." Notable Transition in History. For prophetic vision, for range of study, for audacious initiative, inexhaustible curiosity, and indefatigable toil, has the record of this man's life been surpassed? When we consider the cobbler's shop whence he came, the early rejection of his idea by nearly all the Churches, and the final acceptance of his idea 224 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions throughout Christendom, we find ourselves facing one of the notable transitions of modern history. Represents a Healthy Attitude. One of the salient facts in Carey's life is that this servant of Christ, whose humility and piety and utter devotion are unquestioned, never seemed to feel for a mo- ment that his Christian message was imperiled by his linguistic or scientific study. Nowhere does he intimate that botany and exegesis are at war, that sermonizing and irrigation are incompatible, or that planting a garden interfered with time for prayer. " All thy works shall praise thee " might well be counted the motto of his life. Is it not our littleness of soul that makes us believe that no man can be both machinist and evangelist, that no man can be- come both farmer and teacher, and that only when the missionary is relieved from material cares can he have the vision of God? If each of us could have Carey's varied intellectual interests, would they not save us from morbid introspection, from brood- ing over slights or failures, from falling into the ruts of godliness? Would it not have been well for even David Brainerd and Adoniram Judson if they too had been masters of soil-culture and devotees of science? *' To every man his work " is indeed the divine order. The universal genius is impossible. But Carey has forever demonstrated that the nar- row view of the missionary's place and function is not necessary, is not the highest view, and that breadth of apprehension may coexist with intensity of conviction in every prophet of the faith. Great Founders and Their Ideals 225 Policy Extended by Duff. William Carey's life- work was continued and expanded in the memorable career of the Scotch pioneer Alexander Duff. When he landed in Calcutta in 1830, there was a general belief among government officials that the education of the natives was dangerous, and that in any case there must be no interference with religious beliefs. The few missionaries already in Calcutta were strongly opposed to the use of English in mission schools. But Dr. Duff arrived with two convictions on v/hich his whole subsequent career was based. The first was that only through education of the natives could any permanent change be made in the Indian character, and that such education must include constant instruction in the Christian religion. The second was that the proper vehicle of instruc- tion was not a language saturated with idolatry, but the English tongue, colored and shaped by five centuries of Christian history. Discouraged in his ambition by all the other missionaries. Dr. Duff could not rest till he had seen William Carey, then nearing the sunset of life. The meeting of the veteran and the young recruit was most affecting, and Carey gave his benediction to the new mis- sionary and the new policy. That policy was to destroy an ancient system of life, based on a re- markable literature, by introducing the Hindus to a Western language and literature and a Western science under whose influence their own religious and social structure must crumble. " In this way/* said Dr. Duff, when addressing the people of Scot- 226 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions land ten years later, " we thought not of individuals merely; we looked to the masses. Spurning the notion of a present day's success, and a present year's wonder, we directed our view not merely to the present, but to future generations." ^ Adopted by the Indian Government. The first examination held in Dr. Duff's school in Calcutta and attended by many government officials gave striking proof of the soundness of his policy. Soon Thomas B. (later, Lord) Macaulay was won over to Dr. Duff's view, and through his powerful ad- vocacy the British government issued its famous decree of 1835, establishing the English language as the medium of instruction in Indian schools and colleges. Thus the idea of one isolated missionary became the policy of the Indian empire. Sir Charles Trevelyan has epitomized Duff's conception: " There was a general demand for education and he proposed to meet it by giving religious educa- tion. Up to that time preaching had been considered the orthodox regular mode of missionary action, but Dr. Duff held that the receptive plastic minds of children might be molded from the first according to the Christian system, to the exclusion of all heathen teaching, and that the best preaching to the rising generation, which soon becomes the entire people, is the ' precept upon precept, line upon line, here a little, there a little ' of the school- room. . . . These were great and pregnant re- * George Smith, The Life of Alexander Duff, 108. ALEXANDER DUFF We directed our view not merely to the present but to future generations " Great Founders and Their Ideals 227 forms, which must always give Dr. Duff a high place among the benefactors of mankind." ^ Secular Agencies Made Sacred. Long after the college which Dr. Duff founded had succeeded be- yond his dreams, he continued to expound in India and in Scotland his theory of educational missions. Accused of mere secularism, of filling natives with conceit, and accused, on the other hand, of inter- fering with native religions and so embarrassing the government, he kept his hand on the plow and made a straight furrow. Western literature and West- ern science he made available to the finest youths of Bengal, but never for a moment did he condone religious neutrality. ** There ought to be," he said, ** no secular department. In other words, in teach- ing any branch of literature or science, a spiritually- minded man must see it so taught as not only to prove subservient to a general design, but to be more or less saturated with religious sentiment, or re- flection, or deduction, or application." A Later Reaction. Such were the ideals of the great founders of the Indian missions, William Carey and Alexander Duff. Have we lived up to them ? Or have we declined from them into smaller horizons and more transient aims ? About the mid- dle of the nineteenth century some American leaders of the enterprise swerved from the purpose of the great pioneers, and advocated a more re- stricted type of endeavor. The churches at home experienced a reaction from the broad and inclusive ^George Smith, The Life of Alexander Duff, 196. 228 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions ideals of the founders, a reaction from which they are just recovering to-day. Sixty years ago there swept over America what the Edinburgh Confer- ence of 1910 called one of " those wars of anti- educational sentiment which have in times past checked or undone the educational work of mis- sions." In 1853 American Baptists were among the foremost of the churches in missionary zeal. Out of that zeal, combined with constant world-wide study, came the resolve to continue and reenforce the work abroad, and at the same time to send a deputation to study on the foreign field the whole question of legitimate missionary methods. The result was a report which amounted to a practical reversal of some of the ideals of the founders, and which administered a heavy blow to many of the young men who saw visions and the old men who dreamed dreams. The results may best be described by a missionary secretary, Dr. Fred P. Haggard : Alleged Principles. '' The report of the execu- tive committee on the work of the deputation is a remarkable document and naturally aroused con- siderable discussion. I shall refer to one item only as illustrating the great change which has taken place in one department of the work. The executive committee said : ' The two elementary principles which seem to have had decisive control over them [the deputation] were, first, that ' schools are not a wise or Scripturally-appointed agency for propagat- ing Christianity among a heathen people — that they are not the Scriptural mode of evangelization'; Great Founders and Their Ideals 22(^ secondly, that ' whatever be their value, it is subor- dinate to that of preaching the gospel to the adult population; that they are in no respect to be re- garded as a substitute for, or a mode of preaching; and that the measure of demand for them is in pro- portion to the success which attends the preaching of the gospel.' " Idea Given Extended Effect. " At the same meeting of the Society Francis Wayland presented his famous report on ' The Relative Proportion of Time Given by our Missionaries to Teaching, Translating, and Other Occupations, Aside from Preaching the Gospel,' the gist of this document being that, while it might under certain very clear circumstances be proper for a missionary to indulge in any of the first-mentioned exercises, he must re- member that his chief business is to preach. Schools are all right in their place, but they ought never to be thought of or used as a mode of evangelism. That doctrine, enunciated by such men, and in- culcated through many decades both at home and abroad, has brought us . . . face to face with the most stupendous problem we have ever been called to consider." ^ Reaction in American Board. The same reaction against the use of educational methods in India was experienced in the constituency of the American Board. Certain mistakes had been made. Some schools in India and Ceylon were manned largely by non-Christian teachers and the atmosphere was * The Standard, December 6, 1913. 230 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions at least neutral. The graduates were disappointing. The American supporters of the work began to question the value of education as an evangelistic agency. Some were ready to abandon the schools at once, and return to itinerant preaching as the only Scriptural method. At the annual meeting of the American Board in 1854 the Prudential Committee reported : ** Neither the schoolhouse, nor the college, nor an improved literature, nor the scientific lecture- room, are among the means ordained of God for the regeneration of the human soul." ^ It was de- termined to send a deputation to the foreign field to investigate current methods and report on the proper policy. The report of that deputation, pre- sented in 1856, aroused eager debate and led to an extremely conservative attitude toward all educa- tional enterprise. The American Board adopted an " Outline of Missionary Policy " which sounds curi- ously antiquated to-day : Policy Formulated. " The experience of Mis- sionary Societies thus far has shown that the school and the press are most likely to exceed their proper limits. . . . The inquiry should often come up: Are the schools and the press, in our operations, properly subordinated to our grand aim? It is found that printing establishments need to be care- fully watched. They are sometimes necessary; still they are pretty sure to give the making of books a special prominence. . . . Education and the press can never successfully take the place of preaching. ^ Report of the American Board, 1854. Great Founders and Their Ideals 231 They should not stand before it in point of time, or generally be employed as a preparative to its re- ception. Nothing could more directly contravene the established methods of grace." ^ Clearer Present Light. That schools and books can never be a substitute for preaching v^e should all agree; but that they are never ''a preparative to its reception " is a declaration to which fev^ would now subscribe. But the acceptance of this policy caused the closing of many English schools in India and Ceylon. It was openly declared that mathe- matics and the higher studies should not be sup- ported by missionary contributions, and that the gospel was able to do without these " secular " aids. The natural result appeared twenty years later, in a dearth of native leaders, in churches destitute of trained pastors and teachers. Gradually and pain- fully the schools were reopened — perhaps with greater wisdom gained by hard experience. To-day those very stations are constantly emphasizing the absolute necessity of the Christian school, and the value of all studies that banish ignorance and suf- fering. The Syrian Protestant College at Beirut was founded by the same American Board whose declaration, made in 1856, we have just quoted. It is therefore interesting to note one paragraph in the annual report ( 1913) of the president of the col- lege, Dr. Howard S. Bliss : Many Agencies with One Aim. '^ Among build- ing operations there should be included the fitting ^ Report of the American Board, 1856. 232 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions up of Dr. Post's former residence for the use of the Dental School, making an admirably equipped establishment. The series of rooms in the so- called Mill Building, vacated by the Dental School, have been assigned to the clinics of diseases of the eye and ear, diseases of women, and diseases of children. The new X-ray apparatus will be housed in rooms in this building, and the Electro- therapeutic clinics will be held there. . . . The lower story of the house might be advantageously utilized in connection with the growing athletic activities of the institution. For these activities are being constantly developed under the firm convic- tion that, when under proper regulations they are kept subordinate to the higher purpose of the college, they become powerful agencies in promot- ing those very interests." ^ Example of Livingstone. If we turn now to Africa, it will be universally conceded that the greatest founder of African missions was David Livingstone. Never has Great Britain been more profoundly stirred at the burial of one of her sons than when Livingstone's body, carried fifteen hun- dred miles over African trails by his devoted serv- ants Susi and Chuma, was entombed in Westminster Abbey. He evoked the admiration of all sections of British life, because he touched all that was human in African life. When as a young man he reached Kuruman, in South Africa, he might easily have settled down into the position of docile attache of ^Forty-seventh Annual Report, 7. Great Founders and Their Ideals 233 the existing mission. Something within urged him to roam, to explore, to attempt the problem, not of a single station, but of a continent. It is no secret that this impulse brought him into difficulty with his supporters at home. Was he not engaging in '' secular " work, when he had been sent out on a spiritual mission ? Was he not attacking extraneous and irrelevant problems, which were better left to the geographer, the naturalist, and the government official? But when, after ten years in Africa, he saw eight native boys exchanged for eight muskets, his life-purpose suddenly expanded. When, later, the paddle-wheels of his steamboat on the Zambezi were entirely clogged with the corpses of slaves that had floated down in the night, that purpose became an irresistible passion. No amount of preaching in a single station on the coast could accomplish much, so long as a continuous flood of iniquity and suffering poured down from the interior. Defying the Portuguese government which blocked his path at every step, defying the Boers, who knew he was undermining their power, defying British opinion which would limit the scope of his endeavor, he de- clared '' the end of the geographical feat is only the beginning of the missionary enterprise," and started out on his world-changing geographical feat. To be ignorant of Livingstone's life is to misunder- stand the story of Great Britain, Belgium, Ger- many, Portugal, France, Egypt, and America dur- ing the last seventy-five years. Is He Exceptional? But it may be said, and 234 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions justly, that Livingstone was an exceptional man, called to an exceptional work, furnishing no safe model for all others. It may even be affirmed that his irresistible impulse to roam, his habit of " think- ing in continents," made the intensive work of a single station impossible for him, and that the or- dinary worker had better limit his vision to a single task. We put blinders on the horses because we want them to go straight forward and not be taking broad views of things. James Stewart as a Type. Let us, then, look at the life of one of Livingstone's successors, Dr. James Stewart of Lovedale, who received his com- mission directly from Livingstone's lips, but was himself called to a local and intensive kind of labor. His biography, by James Wells, is more fascinat- ing than any work of fiction.^ His life-purpose, like Carey's, blossomed early. When a boy, carry- ing a gun over his shoulder, he suddenly cried out to his cousin : " Jim, I shall never be satisfied till I am in Africa, with a Bible in my pocket and a rifle on my shoulder to supply my wants." His father's financial losses forced him into three or four years of valuable business experience, and he was twenty years of age when he reached the Uni- versity. There his stature, — he stood six feet, two inches — his swift swinging gait, and his devotion to chemistry, botany, and agriculture were noted by all who met him. Even then he was hardy, athletic, forceful, " sometimes overmasterful," a * From that life many of the facts which follow are taken. Great Founders and Their Ideals 235 natural leader, — the type of young man Cecil Rhodes has described in his specifications for the Rhodes scholars at Oxford. He began the study of medicine, which he resumed after his first visit to Africa, and also took a thorough course at the Divinity School of Edinburgh University. Inspired by Livingstone's Achievements. Then he read the newly published volume of Livingstone's Travels and Researches in South Africa, and, not content with a vague inspiration, he tabulated the contents. Chapter I in his note-book he headed ''' Dr. Livingstone as a botanist," and then in other chapters he discussed the great missionary " as a zo- ologist, a geologist, a medical man, an explorer, a missionary, and a Christian." Such a mighty en- thusiasm was communicated to him through that single volume that he could talk of nothing but Africa, and henceforth was known to his com- panions as " Stewart Africanus." When at last in 1 86 1, he sailed for the Dark Continent, Mrs. Liv- ingstone went with him to rejoin her husband, and Stewart's supreme ambition was to crown Living- stone's work by the establishment of a permanent interior mission. Civilizer as Well as Preacher. The impressive thing about " Stewart of Lovedale," as about Liv- ingstone, is that before either of them left Scotland — there is an affinity between Scotch blood and heroic faith — his great idea was full grown. " We were going," he says, ''as civilizers as well as preachers, and we took Scotch cart-wheels and 236 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions axles, American trucks, wheelbarrows, window- frames, and many other additional tools and imple- ments which a sailor would describe under the one word, gear." But at the same time he cordially ap- proves the statement he heard in a public address that *' civilization without Christianity was a dry stick to plant in Africa or elsewhere." Self-support and Lovedale Plans. As soon as he undertook the work of building up a school at Lovedale (seven hundred miles northeast of Cape Town), he encountered the ever-present problem of self-support — here rendered acute by African in- dolence. The school seemed to the natives to be a prison, where their children were to be immured for the benefit of the stalwart Scotchman, and they wanted the children paid for " making a book for the white man." The first fee paid Dr. Stewart by a native family was a genuine triumph in char- acter-building. The program for the institution embraced " the rudiments of education for all, in- dustrial training for the many, and a higher educa- tion for the talented few." The industrial side of the school he did not expect would pay for itself, and his chief ambition was not to make goods, but to develop power of accurate, loyal, cooperative en- deavor. For ages the attitude of the natives when not fighting had been " just sitting." As the Chris- tian converts were forbidden to fight or raid, they were in danger of flabbiness and vice. To work in the mines was to them terrifying. "Why should a man be put under the ground before he is dead? " Great Founders and Their Ideals 237 It was Stewart's work to invent types of labor that should be attractive, strenuous, and efficient. At the time of his death he had developed an educa- tional institution which had on the literary side five departments — normal, commercial, arts, medi- cal, and theological; and on the industrial side five departments — agriculture, building, carpentry, engi- neering and blacksmithing, printing and book- binding. '^ An electrical engineer is on the mission staff. The station is now lighted, and the machinery in the large workshops is driven, by electricity; motors are used for flour-mills ; and the natives are taught many of the arts and crafts of civilized life. Among the fourteen hundred students, there is no pandering to African pride or indolence. Every one has to take his turn at manual labor. On Sab- baths the scholars scatter among neighboring vil- lages to preach." Industrial Development. Closely connected with the manufacturing, has been the agricultural growth of Lovedale. The boys in school were early re- quired to do thirteen hours of outdoor work each week, in tree-planting, gardening, and various meth- ods of tilling the soil. Hundreds of acres were brought under cultivation. Native blacksmiths literally beat native spears into '' plowshares " and native assagais into scythes, if not " pruning hooks." The tidings of the extraordinary development of civilization in South Africa stirred all Scotland. When Dr. Stewart, after his first eight years, re- visited Great Britain, he was well-nigh embarrassed 238 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions by gifts for the enlargement of the work. He asked for fifty thousand dollars for opening a mission in Central Africa, but the gifts amounted to one hun- dred thousand dollars. When he returned to Liv- ingstonia, Central Africa, with a skilful physician, Dr. Laws, and four artizan missionaries, he took with him a steamboat in sections. That boat was transported on the backs of natives, not a piece being lost on the way, to Lake Nyasa, four hundred and fifty miles from the sea, and the missionaries sailed out over the unexplored lake, singing the one hun- dredth Psalm. Greater than this marvelous work of Dr. Stewart in Livingstonia were his later most fruitful years at Lovedale in the Cape of Good Hope Province. Symmetrical Ideal. Yet with him, as with William Carey, the spiritual impetus behind the multifarious undertakings never failed. '* Are we not," he wrote, " in danger of forgetting our real purpose? All this work, pleasant to see and bene- ficial as it will be in its results, is material only. It is of the earth, earthy. It begins and ends with time. A certain text kept constantly recurring to my mind as I walked about the place: *One thing is needful.' " And again he said : " If the will and conscience is right, the man will be right. Our aim therefore is not to civilize but to Christianize. Merely to civilize can never be the primary aim of the missionary. Civilization without Christianity among a savage people is a mere matter of clothes and whitewash. But among barbarous races a Great Founders and Their Ideals 239 sound missionary method will in every way en- deavor to promote civilization by education and in- dustry, resting on the solid foundations of religious instruction. Hence there is a variety of teaching." ^ Kindred Views of Dan Crawford. In close har- mony with Dr. Stewart's ideals have been those of most of the pioneers in Africa. The primitive brutal conditions of savage life have forced the missionary to forget academic standards, to fling aside all fine-spun speculation, to ignore many de- nominational shibboleths and preach a plain gospel of divine love, of human decency, of social and spiritual uplift, of daily toil. Mr. Dan Crawford, whose heroic work lies far to the north of Lovedale, in lands that neither Stewart nor Livingstone could penetrate, writes : " Here then is Africa's challenge to its missionaries. Will they allow a whole con- tinent to live like beasts in hovels, millions of negroes cribbed, cabined, and confined in dens of disease ? No doubt it is our diurnal duty to preach that the soul of all improvement is the improvement of the soul. But God's equilateral triangle of body, soul, and spirit must never be ignored. Is not the body wholly ensouled, and is not the soul wholly embodied? ... In other words, in Africa the only true fulfilling of your heavenly calling is the doing of earthly things in a heavenly manner." ^ Great Leaders with Imperial Conceptions. We see then that, from the first planting of Christian * Stewart of Lovedale, 257. ' Thinking Black, 444. 240 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions faith in northern India a century and a half ago down to the present day, a truly imperial concep- tion has marked many of the leaders in the enter- prise. Some of the opponents of missions have said the missionaries were mere pietists, seeking only to produce certain states of feeling in their con- verts, but making no serious attempt to uplift their lives. Again and again we have heard that the missionaries preach resignation instead of initia- tive and resolution, and offer a city of golden streets hereafter, while they do little to clean up the streets of the actual cities in which men dwell. How false such statements are we can now see. True, indeed, it is, that the pietists of Germany were early stirred by the woes of India. The Moravian Brethren, with their intense spiritual con- centration, were early in the field. The very limita- tion of knowledge sometimes produces a certain type of heroic endeavor. But as we have seen, the greatest leaders have been men, not only of ardent devotion, but of world-wide vision and world-con- quering aims. They have often stood head and shoulders above the churches that sent them forth, and have evoked an admiring but reluctant approval for their imperial plans. To them this world was no mere vale of tears, but a presence-chamber of the Almighty. Their instruments were not only exhortations and prayers, but colleges and hospitals and botanical gardens, subsoil plows, artesian wells, electric lights, and honest, useful, manual labor. They could pass easily from pulpit to printing- Great Founders and Their Ideals 241 press, and then to medicine-chest or dispensary. They aimed, not at reclaiming a section of human life, but at transforming the whole of it. Men too Large for Narrow Horizons. The friends of the missionary undertaking have some- times said that, if we were like the great founders, we should have an eye for nothing but the sum- mons to repent, and should regard education, sani- tation, industry, as superfluous appendages to the spiritual aim. Such a statement is wholly mistaken. It is of course true that once the chief motive of missions, deeply felt by our fathers, was to rescue men from perdition, and all other dangers seemed small compared with that. But that motive was dominant in work at home as truly as abroad. The narrower world-view, the " other-worldliness " which ignored the needs of the body, wdiich cared little for environment, or social institutions or citi- zenship, was characteristic of all Christendom, and prevailed in Britain, as much as in any Oriental mission-chapel. But the great founders sent their vision far beyond the limits of orthodox opinions. One reason why they went to the foreign field was that they were too large to submit to the horizons existing at home. The faith of Robert Morrison and Peter Parker in China, of Robert Moffat in Africa, of Cyrus Hamlin in Turkey, was no mere ascetic renunciation of life. It was a virile and joy- ous proclamation of complete life for continents and races. It was not what the Germans call "world- denial," but " world-affirmation." Those great 242 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions pioneers sought to bring " every thought into cap- tivity to Christ," and every human institution and invention and organization. They fervently believed that all the kingdoms of this v^orld — king- doms of language, literature, science, art, business, government — were to become the kingdoms of our Lord. Their great ideal drove them out of obscure home villages into all the ends of the earth, and the stay-at-home Christians have since been limping slowly up to the heights of vision where those lead- ers stood. Men Continuing the Type. To-day there are scores of missionaries on the foreign field who are emulating Carey and Duff and Livingstone and Stewart and the apostle Paul in the endeavor '' hy all means'' to ''save some." The teaching of the great founders has never ceased to echo in the lives of their successors. A host of men and women on the foreign field are exhibiting not only piety and devotion, but insight, versatility, and breadth of sympathy. They are harnessing all scientific dis- covery, all medical skill, all agricultural implements into the service of the advancing Kingdom. One of them speaks for many when he writes : '* Few peo- ple have recognized the enormous social contribu- tion made by the medical profession in India which has in truth subdued kingdoms of disease, wrought righteousness, stopped the sting of reptiles, and put to flight armies of microbes. If a great number of our finest young men from western India could press into the Agricultural College at Poona and Great Founders and Their Ideals 243 there, under Dr. Mann's inspiring leadership, se- cure equipment for the agricultural, moral, and spiritual regeneration of thousands of villages, the Kingdom would the sooner come. The Christian missionaries from the earliest days in India have been aggressive social workers." ^ Sociological View-point. Many of the young people who have recently gone to the foreign field are feeling the powerful influence of the sociological point of view. In American colleges for the last twenty years the most popular studies have been what Woodrow Wilson calls " the new humani- ties," — ^the study of society, the family, govern- ment, economic laws, social reform, and human up- lift. Theological seminaries have made Hebrew an elective subject and established chairs of soci- ology. Anthropology has made us take a new in- terest in all the beliefs and customs of savage races, and comparative religion has taught us to find both resemblances and contrasts between Christianity and the great ethnic religions. A tremendous social im- pulse has swept over America. We have acquired a new sympathy for the prisoner in his cell, for deserted wives and homeless children, a new inter- est in the better housing of the poor, wholesome recreation, the prevention of diphtheria and typhoid, and the creation of a finer social order for all hu- man beings. In our churches this new attitude has led to the building of parish houses, to "hospital Sunday" and ** tuberculosis Sunday," to all the * E. C. Carter in Young Men of India, February, 1912. 244 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions varied — and sometimes perplexing — activities of the institutional church. This new outlook is voiced in the declaration of Professor William Adams Brown : Remaking the World with God. *' Christianity is not simply a religion for individuals. It has a public message. It contemplates the reconstruc- tion of society as a whole, as well as the units which compose it. Best of all the gifts which it offers man is the right to share with God in his work of making out of this wonderful, growing world of ours ... all that in the divine plan it was meant to be." Outward Sweep of Social Methods. But can we expect that this new enthusiasm for social recon- struction will be confined to the churches at home? Already it has swept into South America, where Protestants are reproducing some of the industrial methods of the old Jesuit missions. Already it has projected itself into the missions of the Orient and the South Pacific. Where nations are just awak- ening from political and social stagnation, as in China, the new social methods are absolutely indis- pensable. The task of the missionary there is not to call out the most receptive minds from their kindred, but through those minds to permeate and reconstruct the national conscience and ideal. A group of young missionaries in North China have definitely adopted the methods of social study which they learned in American universities. They are investigating the walled cities of China after the Great Founders and Their Ideals 245 manner of the " Pittsburgh Survey." They realize that it is useless to acquire the Chinese language unless they acquire also a knowledge of Chinese homes, employments, wages, diseases, superstitions, and ideals. Two small books by J. S. Burgess of Peking, a Princeton graduate, have recently ap- peared, written from this standpoint and intended as guides in Young Men's Christian Association effort. They are Methods of Social Work and How to Study the Jinrickshaw Coolie. No traveler from the West can ride day after day behind the runners in the jinrickshaw without observing their swollen legs, their callous shoulders, and all the signs of swift physical breakdown. At last Chris- tianity is to approach this great human group, not only with tracts, but with statistical inquiry as to the wrongs they suffer, the hard lives they lead, the kind of help they need. Some of the younger missionaries around Peking are banded together with native Christians in a social service club which is waging war against opium, the cigaret, the gambling-den, and is preaching at fairs and festi- vals, in city streets and on country roads, the duties of personal purity and devotion to the common good. Room for All Types. Of course not all our rep- resentatives abroad are or can be of such a type. There is need of all types, to reach all types. The mystic, the dreamer, even the ascetic, may have his place and function, as well as the robust leader, the born commander of men. The writing of The .246 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions Imitation of Christ may have been as great a serv- ice as the evangelization of any tribe, or the social uplift of a province. "All service ranks the same with God." But in any survey of the foreign field we must give high place to the men and women of this new social vision, which after all is the old vision of the founders. These young Elishas are buoyant, optimistic, modern, but the mantle of the earlier Elijahs they have caught up and made their own. THE INTERCHANGE OF EAST AND WEST India has interested me intensely. Its past and present and future are all full of suggestion. I long to see Christianity come here, not merely for what it will do for India, but for what India will do for it. Here it must find again the lost Oriental side of its brain and heart, and be no longer the Occidental European religion which it has so strangely become. It must be again the religion of Man, and so the religion for all men. —Phillips Brooks. For one of Western birth, who attempts in the sensitized at- mosphere of modern India to give moral content to the idea of God, to differentiate the Incarnation of the Son of God from the incarnations of Hinduism and to ethicize religion in the thought and practise of the individual, there must be a preparation of spirit as well as a preparation of mind. Intellectual research is not enough. There must be born within one a chastened and humble temper, a heart of love. The pride of Anglo-Saxon birth must be subdued; the fierce intolerance toward the halting, irresolute, dreaming East must be rebuked and overthrown by Christlike love. Reverence must supplant contempt, and the honor of brotherhood the pious disdain that stoops to save what it cannot respect. —Charles Cuthbert Hall. Personally I was in a sense made over new during those years and many of the ideas I had brought over from America with me had to go. I made myself thoroughly acquainted with the ways of the people ... I began by making fun of the Hindu gods, and by trying to shake the faith of the people in them. It did not take me long to see that was not the way to do. Some were angered by it needlessly; others lost faith in their old gods by what I said, but did not accept Jesus in place of them and were thus sent adrift. I stopped that method. I settled down to just telling the people, singly or in groups, about Jesus and his life and death and what he could be to them if they would receive him. That did the work. When they accepted Jesus, their old idol-worship went at a stroke and my destructive attempts were not necessary. — John E. Clough, CHAPTER VIII THE INTERCHANGE OF EAST AND WEST Right Understanding Determines Commerce. The enormous increase in means of communication in the modern world may well make us ask what we are going to communicate. Everywhere the paths are multiplying — paths of steel over prairies and steppes and deserts, paths of electric wire through the depths of the sea. But what is to be sent over these paths? The exchange of goods is important, but that is impossible until we have first exchanged ideas. American manufacturers are often seeking to break into Oriental markets, not realizing that they must penetrate into the Oriental mind. We cannot trade with a sphinx. We can- not do business with a man whose point of view we ignore and disdain. We must put ourselves in his place, before we can put our products in his home. Because Americans seldom try to under- stand the foreigner, we find in foreign cities quanti- ties of American goods that cannot be sold — made in sizes too large or too small, of materials that will not stand the climate, in colors considered un- lucky, and packed in boxes that seem of evil omen. We find chairs sent to people who never sat on a chair, tables for those who prefer the floor, rub- 349 250 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions ber shoes that crumble in tropical moisture, grains that mildew before they arrive, and preserved fruits v^hose very labels are considered dangerous by the Orientals. Contempt Creates a Barrier. Slowly we are com- ing out of our Western provincialism, and are be- ginning to see that back of all physical and economic exchange lies the necessity for intellectual and spiritual understanding. Nothing so quickly closes and seals the mind as the spirit of contempt. So long as China regarded the Caucasian race as '' for- eign devils " there was no hope for China. So long as Japan shut out the West in medieval disdain, she was condemned to a medieval civilization. So long as we in America speak, or even think, of the foreigner as '' heathen Chinee " or " dago " or " sheeny," we are sealing up the eyes of our own understanding. The vitally needed communication between America and foreign lands is not com- mercial, but intellectual and spiritual. We chiefly need to send abroad, not the product of our blast- furnaces and our looms, but the ideals and prin- ciples of civil freedom and religious faith. And the things we need to gain from traffic with other lands are not jewels and spices and silks, but a cos- mopolitan spirit, a world-wide sympathy, a genuine " respect for the unlikeness which accompanies likeness." All peoples — Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, African — are to-day forced into diplomatic and economic intercourse. Such intercourse is fu- tile apart from that spiritual understanding out of Interchange of East and West 251 which alone can come the parliament of man, the federation of the world, and the kingdom of God. Romance of Plant and Fruit Diffusion. The exchange of seeds and cuttings between different lands would furnish materials for a most romantic story, if any one would write it. We are all fa- miliar with Carey's delight when the tiny specimen of the English daisy, sent out from England, began to bloom in Serampur. In 1907 the spineless cactus was sent from California to a missionary experi- ment farm in India, where it promises to save much animal, and therefore much human, life. The best grains and fruits and trees of America have been planted by missionaries under the Southern Cross and on the table-lands of Asia. And the reverse process has constantly been going on. David G. Fairchild of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Depart- ment of Agriculture in the United States, recently said: "The best varieties of wheat now grown through the South originated from seed sent over to Georgia by missionaries. Our most profitable pear originated as a cross between seedlings im- ported by missionaries from China and an Ameri- can pear. The soy bean from Japan and China was also introduced by missionaries." ^ Mind Fertilization Between Races. But it is the exchange of ideas and ideals which chiefly counts, and which plainly marks the growth of a world consciousness in our time. Thousands of students from the Orient have had their minds fertilized at ^ James L. Barton, Human Progress Through Missions, 43. 252 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions American colleges, and have carried back the pollen to their own people. The story of Obookiah, the Hawaiian boy found weeping on the steps of Yale College in 1809, has often been told. The story of Joseph Hardy Neesima, smuggled out of Japan in 1864, educated at Amherst and Andover, and returning to found The Doshisha in Kyoto, is now a part of international history. The career of Sun Yat-sen, the leader in the Chinese revolution of 19 12, educated as a boy in a Christian mission school at Canton, later transported to England and imbued with Christian ideals, is known throughout the world. The career of C. T. Wang, a graduate of Yale University, has vitally affected all the future of China, and his work as student secretary for the Chinese in Tokyo, then as Acting Minister of Com- merce in Yuan Shi-kai's cabinet, then as Vice- President of the new Senate in Peking, has spread abroad the Christian attitude toward modern life through scores of novel channels. Exchange Professorships and Asiatic Addresses. The system of exchange professorships is accom- plishing much for the cross-fertilization of the East and the West. The recent visits of President Charles Cuthbert Hall, President Charles W. Eliot, Professor Charles R. Henderson, Professor Francis G. Peabody, and Mr. Hamilton W. Mabie have in- terpreted Western ideals to Eastern minds with the happiest results. These men have never tolerated the old attitude of pity and disdain for every- thinsf foreisrn. Charles Cuthbert Hall has frankly Interchange of East and West 253 lamented that in the past " we have drawn the thick veil of Western civilization between the face of Christ and the waiting East." All of these ripened Western scholars have gone forth to carry our chief values to the regions beyond and to discover the values which others may possess. Side by side with their efforts we may put the more directly missionary work of such men as Dr. John R. Mott and Mr. Sherwood Eddy,^ whose tour through Japan, India, and China in 1912-13 was startling in the response it evoked. With uncompromising earnestness, but with genuine respect for Oriental institutions, they so presented the Christian faith that audiences averaging eight hundred greeted them in Japan, audiences of one thousand in India, and in China no halls seemed large enough for the crowds that flocked to hear these messengers of the faith which has created the Western world. At Mukden, in Manchuria, all the government schools were dismissed, while some four thousand people thronged the great hall to hear the speakers. With such an open door is it any wonder that one of those men recently declined to accept the post of ambassador to China ? He was already ambassador by virtue of a more ancient commission, sent forth by a more than world-power. Fellowships at Oriental Schools. This cross- fertilization would be still further promoted by a series of fellowships, enabling American college graduates to go into the Farther East for graduate ^ Sherwood Eddy, The New Era in Asia. 254 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions study. For seventy-five years or more we have been sending many of our finest young men to Europe for the continuation of their higher educa- tion. Is it not time that v^e should begin to send them to the Orient, also? Of course there are as yet few universities in the East developed along our Western lines. But in the study of Oriental diplomacy, or trade, or history, or social structure, or religions, in the study of Oriental art, or litera- ture, or archeology, a student actually on the ground — in Cairo, or Constantinople, or Calcutta, or in the flourishing University of Hongkong — could accomplish some things impossible in any of the libraries of the Western world. Oriental Courses by Western Teachers. In a similar way great good would come if Christian teachers in American colleges could spend some of their Sabbatic years in the Orient. In most colleges the professor is now given leave of absence on half salary one year in seven. Frequently he does not know what to do with that year. He revisits Oxford or Berlin or Vienna, but he does not want to become again a student, and he is not wanted as a teacher. But if he could settle down for six months at Robert College on the Bosporus, or at the Peking University, or at St. John's College in Shanghai, or at the Waseda University in Tokyo, he would gain for himself a wholly new horizon, an unfailing stimulus, and he might give to hun- dreds of eager students the best Christian teaching of the Western world. What might not be achieved Interchange of East and West 255 if Western professors, of national or international reputation, were to lecture in Oriental cities for a whole winter on modern psychology, or social sci- ence/ or English literature, or Biblical literature, or Christian theism? The fact that our American teachers already would be in receipt of half-salary would render the financial problem not insoluble. Christian teachers moving through foreign lands would be ambassadors of peace, of knowledge, of faith. Essence of the Gospel. But what is the vital gospel that our ambassadors of Christ have to give to other lands? Exactly what is the con- tent of the message? Harnack tells us that the entire Christian message of the early Church, and indeed of the first three Christian centuries, may be summed up in the single passage, i Thessalonians i. 9, 10: '' Ye turned unto God from idols, to serve a living and true God, and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead, even Jesus, who delivereth us from the wrath to come." ^ Re- leased from apocalyptic imagery that first message, that triumphed over the known world in three cen- turies, is precisely our message to-day. A living (personal) and true (real) God, far beyond all mate- rial symbols, was the forefront of the message. Next came the proclamation of a Jesus (Savior), * See Prof. Henderson's lectures in the Orient: Social Programs of the West. ^Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries, Vol. I. 108. 256 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions deliverer from fear and sin, and yet to be revealed in his eternal greatness. Next came faith in the resurrection of Jesus, his victory over death being the pledge of our immortal life. Last was the an- nouncement of a final judgment, making moral issues clear at length, and now making righteous- ness the supreme obligation of human life. Faith in one living God, in Jesus the deliverer, in immor- tality, in righteousness, — is not this the message that still transforms the individual or the nation? Gift of the Christian Faith. Our greatest gift to other peoples and races is the gift of the Chris- tian faith. We are to carry not only science and its dazzling results, not only civil freedom " slowly broadening down from precedent to precedent," but the Christian gospel. To look on life through the eyes of Christ, to hate what he hated and love what he loved, and live for the things he believed worth while, means the supreme happiness and the high- est efficiency for any nation. To plant the Chris- tian faith in the minds and hearts of any savage tribe, or any cultivated city, is to make the great- est of all international gifts. It is sometimes said that we are not warranted in interfering with na- tive faiths. But the policy of '' non-interference in religion " is to-day antiquated and absurd. Are we not " interfering" in everything else? We are interfering in all tropical lands on the globe. We have partitioned Africa, since Stanley's great jour- ney, and have taken possession of large sections of China. Within fifty years white men have seized Interchange of East and West 257 about eleven million square miles in the tropics. Where we do not seize, we still interfere, by ex- porting our goods to supplant native products, by scattering our ideas of representative government, of the equality of the sexes, of the right of the oppressed to rebel. Is it only in religion that we may not interfere? We are interfering by circu- lating through Constantinople and Canton and Yokohama the writings of Thomas Paine and Charles Bradlaugh. Is it only the writings of Christian prophets and seers that we may not circu- late? We are giving rapidly to all the islands of the sea the discontents, the social upheavals, the disorganizing forces of the West. Is it imperti- nence to give them our constructive faith as well? Never was there a more shallow view than that which regards the missionary enterprise as unwar- ranted interference. That enterprise means simply the resolve that our best shall follow our worst, or go with it, unto the ends of the earth. Qualities of Character. But what is the best in the realm of character ? What moral qualities may we, without Pharisaism, hope to give to other peoples ? Truthfulness. We are surely bound to give our Western sense of the value of truthfulness. When Lord Curzon ended his remarkable career as Vice- roy of India, he made a farewell address at the University of Calcutta, in which he said : " The highest ideal of truth is to a large extent a West- ern conception. Truth took a higher stand in the 258 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions moral codes of the West long before it had been similarly honored in the East, where craftiness and diplomatic wile have always been held in repute." His words of course aroused resentment and pro- test. Leading Indians reminded him of the fa- mous phrase " perfidious Albion." ^ They explained that accuracy seemed mere pettifogging to the mys- tic temperament, and that the Eastern reporter attempts to communicate his subjective feeling rather than the objective fact. To discuss that mat- ter would lead us into the field of racial psychology. We would not indict a whole nation, much less a race. But the fact remains that, while the Occident violates truth and is ashamed of it, the Orient often violates truth on the naive assumption that indirec- tion and evasion is the natural defense of the weak against the strong. For thousands of years the insolence of tyrants has been met by a systematic concealment of inner purpose. Hence to speak one's inmost self has seemed impolitic or discour- teous, and an elaborate system of etiquette, guarding all approaches to the self, has made human inter- course artificial and unreal. Never will the Orient achieve unity and progress, never will it have the confidence of the Western world until it shall say of each earthly kingdom : " Into it shall not enter what- soever loveth or maketh a lie." Justice. But another quality that our Western peoples have especially developed is the sense of ^ A favorite expression of Napoleon I in referring to Eng- land. Interchange of East and West 259 justice. From the days of Justinian to those of Blackstone and Kent, from the writing of Magna Charta to the compact in the Mayflower -and the charter of the Colony of Rhode Island, our fathers have been intent on searching out the fundamental principles, the *' inalienable rights," which no na- tion may violate and endure. But if there is one thing that the average Oriental mind fears, it is impersonal and abstract justice. To him the con- ception of an impersonal law, knowing neither friend nor foe, superior to all pity and personal attachment, seems mechanical and inhuman. What he wants is not cold, relentless justice, — he wants the personal sympathy and generosity of a power- ful protector. If a judge merely studied precedents and asked, not so much what is equitable, as what is legal, he would be feared and hated by the un- trained populace in any Eastern province. But wherever the empire of Great Britain has gone it has established first and foremost the eternal prin- ciple of justice. It has indeed often withheld hu- man sympathy, has been sometimes brutally direct, but it has given justice the primacy among national virtues. And where British rule has not come, but the Christian ideal has penetrated, there to-day we hear a new cry for justice. We hear it in the re- form of the penal code in China, in the more humane attitude of the Dutch government in Java, in the release of Cuba from the Spanish yoke, and in the cry of Africa for release from the age-long cruelties that have crimsoned her great rivers from 26o Social Aspects of Foreign Missions the mountains to the sea. '' The Republic of China cannot endure," said Sun Yat-sen, " unless that righteousness for which the Christian religion stands is at the center of the national life." Brotherhood. The great doctrine of human brotherhood is nowhere even theoretically accepted, much less practised, in non-Christian lands. That brotherhood, absolutely denied by the caste system of India, by the tribal organizations of Africa and Oceania, and by the old Chinese officials, is far more than political democracy. Democracy is the recognition of rights, brotherhood is the acknowl- edgment of duties. Brotherhood means especial regard for the weaker members of society. It means everywhere the release of womanhood from cruel customs, from ignorance, from abject sub- ordination. It means that '' the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, and the poor have good tidings preached to them." It means that the weakest life is cherished as con- taining the possibility of measureless strength. It means a reverence for childhood, which amid the awful pressure of Oriental populations has fre- quently vanished. One verse in the New Testa- ment has often provoked opposition from Chinese inquirers : '* The children ought not to lay up for the parents, but the parents for the children." That fathers should find their highest function in caring, not for the past, but for the coming gen- eration, still weak and defenseless — that has seemed to Chinese thinking an inversion of society. And MAIN BUILDING, HOSPITAL, GUXTUR, INDIA Capacity loo beds, with maternity building and infectious wards ORPHANAGE, (JUNTUK, INDIA Orphans are trained in printing, weaving, carpentry, and other industries Interchange of East and West 261 so it is. '' These that have turned the world up- side down are come hither, also." Spiritual Energy. Greatest of all our gifts to the Orient may be the impartation of spiritual en- ergy. The physical indolence of barbarous tribes is only the outer reflection of inner lethargy. There is an old Hindu saying: *' It is not exertion, but inertion (vairagya) which is the path to libera- tion." To stir the Eastern mind from its acquies- cence in fate, its placid belief that all is Maya, or illusion, that nothing is really worth while — to fur- nish power of moral exertion, is the greatest task of Christianity. The maxims of Confucius are ad- mirable, but they have petrified rather than ener- gized a noble nation. The hymns of the Vedas are as pure and lofty as any prayers in any human tongue — and those who recite them go on hating their brothers and worshiping their cows. The pre- cepts of the Koran are usually identical with those of our Old Testament and sometimes with those of the New — yet the men who repeat them five times a day are the men guilty of Armenia's woes and the five hundred years of oppression in the Balkan States. '' I see the better," said the Roman poet, '' and approve it, but I follow the worse." When Henry Martyn was translating the New Testament into Persian he could find no word in the Persian tongue for conscience. He used fourteen dififerent terms in trying to express what Christianity means by conscience, and still was satisfied that he had not conveyed the idea. A wholly new idea it is 262 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions impossible to convey to any mind; always by *' hooks and eyes " we must attach the novel idea to the familiar ones. But why should conscience, duty, oughtness, be novel to an ancient people? What can give those nations of famous history power to shake off this fatal submission to fate, this paralyzing inability to believe and to act, this loss of faith in their own personality and achieve- ment ? What can give the Orient not only wisdom, but power? Only one thing, — faith in the Christ who is at once the wisdom of God and the power of God. Self-reliance and Self-direction. In one of his American lectures Dr. Nitobe said : '' American in- fluence in Asia cannot be otherwise than wholesome as long as it is exercised in infusing the vast mass of humanity there with the consciousness of their own dignity and mission — a task which Europe not only neglected, but positively refused to perform on every occasion. ... It is by awakening in the Eastern mind the sense of personal and national responsibility that America has imparted energy to its inertness — by suggesting to it that power which so eminently characterizes the American people, and which Professor Miinsterberg calls ' the spirit of self-direction.' It was this spirit of self-reliance and self-development which early passed through cannon-holes into Oriental communities, and there, leavening the leaders and the masses, emancipated Japan from the iron shackles of convention and con- formity, and which promises to put an end to the Interchange of East and West 263 sleeping cycle of Cathay and lead that hoary na- tion to a new heaven and a new earth." ^ Attempts to Reject Christian Source. Curiously enough the moral energy already communicated to the East is arousing many attempts to utilize the energy and reject its source. All the great ethnic religions are now stirred to reforms from within. They seize upon the Christian method of organiza- tion, only changing the label. A social service league has been organized in the Marathi field, de- voted simply to human uplift, and including in its membership Mohammedans, Hindus, and Parsees. Mr. Gokhale, one of the foremost of present Indian leaders, organized in 1905 the " Servants of India Society." He invited to enter it all young men who wished to make the service of their country the supreme end of their life, and he required them to take vows that, without distinction of caste or creed, they would regard all Indians as brothers. The headquarters of the society is at Poona, where the grounds cover twenty acres. There are branches in four other cities. By means of lectures on first aid, sanitation, nursing, by means of traveling libraries and personal service, it is hoped to neu- tralize Christian advance and demonstrate that In- dia can reform from within. Somaj Movements. The work of the Brahmo- Somaj has long been known through its founder, Keshub Chunder Sen, and its later leader, Mazoom- dar. The more recent Arya-Somaj is a much more ' The Japanese Nation, 305. 264 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions aggressive and radical body. In the last thirty years it has acquired 250,000 members, chiefly from the upper classes, all protesting against outstanding social evils. It is hostile to Christianity in every form, but at the same time ridicules popular idola- try and superstition, and is striking powerful blows at child marriage, perpetual widowhood, at sturdy beggars in the guise of saints, and at the denial of human brotherhood to fifty millions of India's people. A social conscience is developing even among the proudest of the Brahmans. They are beginning to protest against some of the more vio- lent abuses of their own religion — such as the sell- ing of little girls into the outrageous service of idol temples. The followers of Swami Vivekananda, who was once a familiar figure in America, still hold together in India and preach the New Vedan- tism — a blending of Hindu philosophy and Chris- tian ethics, which is at least a mark of the tran- sition era. The native newspapers apologize for social abuses in which once they gloried, and ap- prove many a reform which once seemed to them an attack on all that was holy. They are becoming aware, at last, that holiness and righteousness have some connection — a truth to which India has al- ways been blind. The Indian gods have always been outside morality, and hence the priests and holy men have been outside, also. Now there is being gradually introduced the earth-shaking con- ception that a good man must do good, and that religion must actually care for human welfare now Interchange of East and West 265 and here. These attempts at rehgious house-clean- ing on the part of Indian leaders are full of encour- agement. Bitter as these leaders are toward Chris- tianity, they yet are marching, against their will, toward the Christian world-view. Rejecting Christ and holding to Krishna, they are doing the deeds of Christ in Krishna's name. Reform Efforts in China. Equally hopeful is the splendid struggle in China of the whole nation against the opium curse, against foot-binding, and gambling, and graft on the part of public officials. These reforms are often urged by those who hope thereby to conserve Confucianism, and save it from disintegration as the national religion. But when Confucianists are roused to put in practise the best ideals of their own heritage, all Christians must rejoice. China is fairly bristling with organiza- tions for political and social changes. One Chris- tian meeting, addressed by Mr. Eddy, was attended by members of seventy-two different reform socie- ties that have recently sprung into existence in the city of Foochow.^ Effect of East upon West. And what has the East to contribute to the West? Will there come in the twentieth century Eastern magi bearing gifts? That Christianity will be itself enriched through its own heroic enterprise, through its mar- tyrdoms and sacrifices, goes without saying. Chris- tianity has become far less introspective, less specu- lative, more virile, more courageous, through its * Sherwood Eddy, The New Era in Asia, 25. 266 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions dramatic march around the globe. Through the sailing of the four young men who met in the hay- stack prayer-meeting at Williamstown a century ago, there came a new lease of life to all the churches of America. When we pluck the pansies in our gardens, we find that for each flower plucked several more bloom the next day. Consider the pansies how they grow, for the Kingdom grows in tht same way. Danger of Contraction. The quickest way to paralyze the Christianity of America is to shut it up into itself, to meditate on its own short-comings and spend its great energies in self-improvement. An invalid is a man whose gaze is fixed on his own health rather than on his task. An invalid church is one that spends its time in paying its own ex- penses, filling its own pews, and listening to its own music. A healthy church is one that steadily reaches outward — as a diver uses the spring-board to project himself beyond it. Paradoxical as it may seem, — but every student of human nature under- stands it, — a church that stays at home soon loses the home in which it stays. A religion that loses its life shall find it. A religion that has had a mes- sage for Americans only is not great enough for America. " God so loved the world " — not the little section of it where we happen to live. Ameri- can Christianity must not be a Dead Sea with many tributaries and no outlet, but an outward flowing stream so that " everything shall live whithersoever Interchange of East and West 267 the river cometh." Its present power is derived largely from its v^orld-wide vision. Enlarged Horizon. A largeness of horizon, a breadth of sympathy, a many-sided comprehension of truth, come to us when Orient and Occident unite in Christian fellowship. " Because of what the missionaries have taught us in regard to Eastern races," says Dr. James L. Barton, " we have begun seriously to revise our thinking and our language with reference to these peoples. We have come to recognize their intellectual and spiritual equip- ment. . . . We have sent our missionaries to work for the people of the East, and are now learning that when they come to know the Christ in his quickening love and power a partnership results in which new and potent forces are joined for greater conquest. We have learned that we may be co- workers together with them in the accomplishment of the task that once w^e thought wholly our own." ^ Oriental Lives of Christ. But more than this is true. Certain elements of character, certain in- sights into reality, may be possessed by the Orient in richer measure than by us, and may never reach us except through the contacts established by missions. The inner spiritual growth of the Church in the Book of Acts is quite as obvious as the ex- pansion of its territory. That first council in Jerusalem showed that the new faith was still cling- ing to Judaism, and we are amazed at the decree that no disciple might eat things " strangled." But ^ Human Progress Through Missons, 82. 268 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions the whole narrative of the Acts gives us the sense of being in a boat sailing out of a narrov^r creek into the open sea. At a later period Christianity came into contact v^ith Greek philosophy and borrowed from it the idea of the Logos, or Word of God. Later it conquered the Roman Empire, and adopted from it conceptions of the universal divine gov- ernment, which have endured until our own time. When Mazoomdar a few years ago wrote his life of Christ, it was wholly different from any West- ern life of our Lord. In 1912 Professor Torano- suke Yamada of the Methodist Theological Semi- nary in Japan published a life of Christ — a solid volume of nearly a thousand pages — quite different in its conceptions from any Western life of our Lord, yet filled with unquestioning loyalty. As new lives of Christ are written by Eastern Christians, new commentaries, new theologies, new treatises on Christian ethics and Christian ideals, what will be the gift of the Orient to our common apprehension of Christian truth? Fresh Phases of Biblical Interpretation. Un- doubtedly the Orient will give us a fresh interpreta- tion of some parts of our Bible that to us are still obscure. '' Resist not him that is evil " is a com- mand which has caused our Western commentators no end of trouble, and their attempted explana- tions would be humorous if they were not tragic. Yet to millions of Indian '' saints " that ideal is intelligible and congenial. '' Be not anxious for the morrow " is a precept exemplified for gen- Interchange of East and West 269 erations by the leaders of Asiatic life. May it not be that our prosaic Western intellect needs to ac- quire the patient brooding calm of the East before we can be fully equipped for Biblical study? Are there not some things hidden from lexicon and grammar and revealed unto minds at peace ? Shall not the lands that produced the Bible produce the best interpreters of the Bible? Passive Virtues and Contemplative Life. The East will undoubtedly give us a fresh emphasis on the passive virtues and on the contemplative life. It v/ill persuade us that the strenuous life is not the only life that is noble. It will help us to turn at times from the clangor of Kipling and his school, and listen to Wordsworth's declaration : " That we can feed these minds of ours In a wise passiveness." Emphasis on Prayer-life. The East will bid us *' enter into thine inner chamber " when Western teachers are bidding us enter the market, the slums, the factory, the voting-booth. The East will teach us how to pray, as truly as the West has taught us how to strive. There is an intense spirituality among many Oriental Christians which even now affects their teachers. Their faith is not argument, but intuition ; not eager for outer conquest, but for inner harmony; and in quietness and confidence is their strength. A native Christian teacher, Profes- sor R. Siraj-ud-din, of the Forman Christian Col- lege in Lahore, has said : " To my mind, the first 270 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions and foremost lesson of Islam to Western Christian- ity, and in fact of the East generally to the West (for Hinduism and Buddhism are also distinctly de- votional), is that of the importance of the devo- tional prayer-life in the Protestant Church." Poems of Tagore. The great Nobel prize for the finest work in the literature of idealism has been recently awarded to the Bengali poet, Rabindranath Tagore, whose name is repeated with love and rev- erence by millions in the delta of the Ganges and on the slopes of the Himalayas. His poems, trans- lated into lyrical English by himself, are now wing- ing their way through the Western world. And always the message is the same — the need of inner vision, of detachment from the sensuous, of union with the infinite, the boundless wealth of the soul that possesses God. In one of those poems he pic- tures himself as slowly parting with all external possessions and still remaining ineffably rich. He describes himself as coming from the market when '* the selling had been done and the buying," — as crossing the river and paying the ferryman his fee, — as giving his brother, the beggar, a gift, — as " when the night grows dark and the road lonely," encountering robbers. '' It was midnight when I reached home. My hands were empty. Thou [God] wast alone with anxious eyes at my door, sleepless and silent. Like a timorous bird thou didst fly to my breast with eager love. Ay, ay, my God, much remains still to my share. My fate has Interchange of East and West 271 not cheated me of my all." ^ When minds capable of such vision shall come to see God in Christ, the whole world will be enriched. Our banks and warehouses will pale into insignificance, our huge and noisy and restless schemes seem quite trivial, when such minds shall begin to interpret the mean- ing of '' God so loved the world, that he gave." A Deeper Reverence. Unquestionably a Chris- tianized Orient will give to us of the Occident a deeper reverence, — for parents, for old age, for the years that are past. The disrespect of young Amer- ica for parents is proverbial. The epithets many a Western boy applies to his father, with no evil intent, would in the Orient sound like utter repudia- tion of family ties. The very affection of our chil- dren is ashamed to utter itself. They no longer " rise up before the hoary head," but stare at it as a curiosity and relic. Our whole nation in the exuberance of its youth faces toward the future, and finds the past merely quaint or tedious. Our civilization is broad, but not deep, intensely busy in small and transient matters, and regardless of yesterday. Honoring Parents. But the older nations of the East have learned wisdom. In Japanese history and drama the one great theme, which never fails to bring tears to the reader or the spectator, is the devotion of a son to his mother. In China the most sacred of all duties is performed before the ancestral tablets. In India the *' elders " of the ^ The Indian Interpreter, October, 1913. 2^2 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions village community demand and receive universal respect. Some day we of the West will emerge from the brashness and pertness which now make us seem to the older peoples so juvenile and un- trained. Certainly wherever a nation has truly honored father and mother its days have been long in the land, as China and Egypt bear witness. When East and West clasp hands in a common Christian faith, our ceaseless striving for novelty will be finely supplemented by Eastern reverence for established institutions and ripened character. " Not that the Christian ethic needs supplement- ing," says a modern prophet, " and that the ideal of the future is to be an amalgam of elements derived from various faiths; but the spirit of Christ will find less to do along certain lines in perfecting the adherents of some of the ethnic religions than he discovers in many of us, the products of gen- erations of imperfectly applied Christianity." ^ Christianity to Be Made Native in the East. But all this implies that Christianity on the foreign field must not remain a '' foreigners' religion." It must be indigenous, or it will pass away. If it be treated as a precious exotic imported from the West, to be forever guarded and controlled and molded by Western hands, it will fail. Self-supporting, self- governing, self -propagating churches on the for- eign field constitute the goal of all wise effort. The churches that are kept in leading-strings will never ^ Henry Sloan Coffin, Edinburgh Conference Report, Vol. IX, History, RecordSy and Addresses, 167. Interchange of East and West 273 get beyond ecclesiastical infancy. Only through ex- ercise of freedom can any people become worthy of it. A Chinese preacher has recently been asking why his church is called '' English," when his coun- try would not submit to the appellation. Equally strange and difficult to explain may be the title " German Lutheran " for a church in Africa, or '' Dutch Reformed " for a church in India. We may well be thankful that the very language of our sectarianism is meaningless to the regions beyond. Such titles are a foreign brand imposed upon a native church, and may involve a perpetual expec- tation of foreign support and foreign methods and foreign control. Gothic architecture imposed upon an Indian church, or a New England meeting-house in a Chinese village — these are sad, but familiar, sights to the traveler. A sound philosophy of mis- sions will insist that Chinese Christians shall build in Chinese fashion, and that the Indian Christians shall not ignore the fine architectural motives of their race. And what is far more important, it will insist that native social traditions, methods, and ideals, so far as they are not antichristian, shall be carefully conserved and made the basis of local church development. Is it true that '' we have more Europeanized than Christianized the Kaffirs, to their loss, and to the church's loss ? " ^ But we were sent to disciple the nations, not to denation- alize them. ' Edinburgrh Conference Report, Vol. IX, History, Rec- ords, and Addresses, 221. 274 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions Oriental Independence of Thought. The secre- tary of one of our Foreign Mission Societies, in reporting a recent conference of American mis- sionaries and Chinese Christians, says : " It was clear that the Chinese leaders will insist on mak- ing their own interpretation of Christianity. While they recognize the value of learning all they can from the creeds and the theological systems of the West, they will do their own thinking. This is an encouraging sign. The success of the Christian missionary effort is not in proportion to the readi- ness of docile men to accept unchallenged the theo- logical systems of the West. We shall succeed more largely if, while we encourage independent spirits in every land to learn all they can from us, we also teach them that it is their privilege to interpret Christ for themselves. Surely Orientals have a contribution to make to the world's understanding of the Savior whose life was lived in the Orient. It is not strange that in this day of national self- consciousness the Chinese leaders should begin to see that the responsibility for Chinese evangeliza- tion rests upon the Chinese Christians, and that they must be given a free hand to work out their own destiny." ^ Plea for Doctrinal Initiative. The foremost mis- sionaries of India fully share this conviction of the rightfulness and necessity of encouraging Oriental churches to think out their own problems. The Yearbook of Missions in India affirms *J. H. Franklin, Watchman-Examiner, September ii, 1913- Interchange of East and West 275 their attitude as follows : '' Then, and then only, will the Church of God in India appeal with stir- ring might and with largest success to the people of this land, when it shall present Christ from the mystical Eastern view-point. . . . What w^e need is a baptism of poAver upon the [native] Church which will enable it to advance in this matter of intellectual self-assertion and doctrinal initiative, in order that Christ and his divine truth may come to the people in a way that will most strongly grip them and find their hearty intellectual and spirit- ual response." ^ Eastern Churches Made Autonomous. In har- mony with this view a number of the most active societies and Churches have released from all West- ern control the Churches they have planted, as a father sends out his son to an independent career. In some cases this may have been done too early, before the capacity for self-direction has been ac- quired, and the results have been disastrous — as if a father should dismiss his child in infancy. But if a church after fifty years is still an infant, need- ing foreign feeding and foreign nursing, we surely ought to study ecclesiastical eugenics, and see that future churches are better born. The sensitive spirit of the Japanese is naturally eager for self-guidance, and the Methodist Church in Japan has since 1907 been an independent body. The Kumi-ai churches of Japan, planted by American Congregationalists, and those of the Church of Christ, planted by sev- * 1912, p. 221. 276 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions eral Presbyterian and Reformed bodies, have long been free from American control, but in close fel- lowship and cooperation with the missionaries from the West. More and more this multiplication of independent churches from the parent stock will occur, and such growth of Christian initiative, self- respect, and self-direction is one of the clearest proofs of the existence of a vital faith among the members/ Self-support. When the native church has self- government, it can hardly fail to recognize the duty of self-support. When we open the Book of Acts we see that every church planted by the apostles was from the beginning a self-supporting body. The home base in Jerusalem, or Antioch, furnished counsel when asked for, sent out its choicest spirits on long journeys, but never sent money to any new church. On the contrary, the new churches all around the Mediterranean Sea sent their contribu- tions to the mother church in Jerusalem in her time ^ The National Conference of Missionaries and Chinese Christians held in Shanghai in March, 1913, adopted, among many significant resolutions, the following: "This Conference rejoices that the churches in China, for the most part, have been organized as self governing bodies, and believes that in respect of form and organization, they should have freedom to develop in accord with the most natural expression of the spiritual instincts of Chinese Christians. . . . The responsi- bility for the work of evangelizing the nation, and the chief place in carrying out the task, must be assigned to the Chinese churches. We believe that they will gladly welcome the full- est cooperation and assistance which the foreign rnissions can give them. In the main, China must be evangehzed by the Chinese." Interchange of East and West 277 of need. The wrong use of foreign money has pre- vented many a native church from growing up. That money is sorely needed for the evangeHzation and training of peoples still unreached. We are now returning to the early Christian method, and in the new missions self-support is inculcated as a primary duty. The converts paid heavily enough for their paganism. They were severely taxed for idolatrous temples, processions, ceremonies. Shall they now be allowed to think their expenses can be assumed by wealthy Christians beyond the sea? That idea, once adopted, can be guaranteed to pro- duce gelatinous character in the individual, and chronic infancy in the church. Native Leadership. Out of self-government and self-support is now coming the great desideratum — native leadership. Among the humble pariahs and outcastes it may be difficult to develop inde- pendence of thought or action, but even there it is not impossible. Recently the first Anglican bishop has been ordained in India — Bishop V. S. Azariah. Born in Tinnevelli, among an outcaste group of devil-worshipers, he has been for twenty years steadily developing in organizing ability, without losing his native gift of spiritual insight. '' His letters," says one of his intimate American friends, ** help me more than any other writings save the letters of the apostle Paul, and drive me to my knees." If from such lowly origin can come a flam- ing apostle, worthy to stand beside any English bishop, what might we not expect from a Christian 278 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions Brahman, a Christian mandarin, a Christian samurai ? Movement toward Unity. Another development on the foreign field which must powerfully influence the home churches is the widespread and irresistible movement toward Christian unity. In our own land the union of all that profess and call them- selves Christians is hindered by the misunderstand- ings and controversies of a long historic develop- ment. Our creeds are "scarred with tokens of old wars." Nearly every chapter in the Bible has been a battle-field, and the smoke of the famous con- flicts is still about us. But the converts on the for- eign field know nothing — thank God — of this long and painful struggle. To them there is neither Greek nor Jew, Barbarian nor Scythian, Calvinist nor Arminian, but Christ is all and in all. They cannot see — even if we can — why the distinction be- tween Northern and Southern Churches, brought about by American slavery, should be perpetuated under Oriental skies. In their simplicity they imagine that all followers of Christ can live in fellowship; and they are not greatly concerned with our historic labels. They are forced together by crying needs and pressing dangers which threaten their very existence. They see that if every West- ern Church that sends missionaries abroad shall attempt to establish in every continent, in every nation and every province, its own separate equip- ment of schools, churches, hospitals, printing- presses, and native literature, the result must be Interchange of East and West 279 ruinous waste of resources, unchristian competition, incessant conflict. Consequently in various ways — by conferences, by federations, by union efforts, and sometimes by actual blending of the churches, they are getting together. Institutional Consolidation. In the establishment of " language schools," where missionaries, newly arrived, can study the language under skilled native teachers, there is no difficulty. In a union language school at Nanking missionaries of all denomina- tions are studying the Chinese language, and what is hardly less important, Chinese etiquette. In the publishing of hymn-books, of Sunday-school " helps," and of much religious literature, union effort means vast saving of labor and expense. In the establishment of medical work it is clearly worse than useless for several denominations in one prov- ince to have separate hospitals and dispensaries. A denominational medical school would be absurd. In schools and colleges for academic or industrial training, unity is the watchword of present effort. Japan is working for a Japanese Christian university, with no recognition of Western divisions. Egypt is calling for the same thing. In the report of the South China Conference of Missionaries, held at Canton in February, 1913, under the presidency of Dr. Mott, we see this significant '' finding " : " In- asmuch as the middle schools and colleges are located in large cities occupied by missions in com- mon, and as the cost of maintaining such colleges as are absolutely essential is beyond the reach of 28o Social Aspects of Foreign Missions a single mission, and inasmuch as the sciences taught in these schools are incapable of sectarian interpretation, we recommend union in all such work. . . . Inasmuch as the provision for train- ing of the highest type is beyond the ability of any one mission, we recommend union theological in- struction, wherever practicable. Where such union has been attempted, theological differences have not caused complications." Merging Centers. And union in work will in due time become union in fellowship. This cannot be forced either in Asia or America, but the move- ment toward Christian unity is to-day far more powerful on the foreign field than it is with us at home. The '' South India United Church " was founded in 1908, and is an actual organic union of Presbyterian, Congregational, and Reformed Churches. This new organization borrowed its con- stitution and rules largely from the '' Church of Christ in Japan," formed about thirty years earlier. The South India United Church includes 130 or- ganized local churches, grouped in nine councils, with a membership of nearly 30,000 communicants. The influence of this movement has been felt throughout India. An interdenominational confer- ence was held at Jabalpur in 1909, embracing dele- gates from a dozen different denominations. At a second meeting in 191 1 the delegates adopted a plan for the *' federation of the churches " throughout India, and that plan is fast gaining acceptance. It is a definite attempt at '' fostering and encouraging Interchange of East and West 281 the sentiment and practise of union," and already has achieved large results. Thus on the oldest of our mission fields Christian unity is making rapid strides. Outreach for One Church in China. In Japan and China the sentiment for unity is almost irre- sistible. The example of India spreads by a sort of international contagion. The " West China Christian Church " is projected along broad and in- clusive lines. The Presbyterian Churches of China have come together. The Episcopal Churches have all united. And nov^ there is an urgent call for cooperation, for federation, and for more than that, — for a great " Christian Church of China." In the South China Conference, to which we have already alluded, the missionaries voted this declaration: " We recognize that the Chinese Church, both as regards her leaders and the majority of her mem- bership, is strongly in favor of one Church open to all Christians, and is making a more or less con- scious effort to realize that aim. This does not mean that there will be a uniform statement of faith, or identity in forms of worship, or one central Church government, but an attempt to make this a truly Chinese Church which in all its constituent parts will comprehend the whole Christian life of the nation." The Spirit to Guide. The missionaries have in- deed a difficult task to guide the strong national spirit of republican China, as it expresses itself in the demand for a national Church, independent of 282 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions Western formulas and Western management. Will the new Church slough off much that is good in our Western organization and formula? Will it tend to reduce Christianity to an ethical system — a bet- tered Confucianism? Will it preserve the es- sentials? But who is to be the judge of essentials? — who but the Chinese Christians themselves, under the leading of the Spirit that guides into all truth? " Ye are the body of Christ " is quite as likely to be true of the Christians in Peking as of the erring Corinthian Christians to whom it was first written. Yellow Leadership instead of Yellow Peril. In this very independence of spirit lies the hope of swift Christian progress. '* Our chief duty to the Chinese Christians," said an American bishop in Central China, '' is now to get out of their way." It may be possible in " changing China," now flexi- ble, even fluid, to achieve results that will give that people at no distant day a position of leadership in the Christian world. A Christianized China would not be a mere submissive appendage of Christianized Europe or America. It would inevitably forge to the front, and the magnificent industry, endurance, and solidity of the Chinese nature would make the " Christian Church of China " a molding power throughout the world. If China is Christianized, the '' yellow peril " will become yellow leadership, and an intellectual power equal to any in the West will be harnessed to the advancing kingdom of God. Hastening the Coming of God's Day. The changes in the last fifteen years, both in the Nearer Interchange of East and West 283 and the Farther East, are ahnost incredible. The maps of fifteen years ago are useless, the maps of five years ago defective and misleading. Dynasties have gone, boundaries have been effaced, territories redistributed, famous names blotted from the map. " When God wipes out," said Bossuet, " it is because he is getting ready to write." What stupendous writing do such vast erasures portend? Changes are not always gradual and unperceived. Evolu- tion includes both " line upon line " and also ava- lanche upon avalanche. W^e are not merely to be *' looking for and earnestly desiring the coming of the day of God," but, as the marginal reading of the Revised Version says, " hastening the coming of the day of God." Our human effort accelerates the majestic divine process. That the Kingdom will assuredly come, we know. But how soon it shall come is for us to say. The evolutionist may want ages for a process which faith can bring about in a few years. The coming of the Kingdom may be long drawn out through the listlessness and chill of human hearts, or it may be crowded into a few years, as a telescope is shut up into itself. It took five hundred years to convert the British Islands to Christianity, and pagan rites lingered for centuries more in the caves and mountains. But no such time is needed for the vaster conquests of our age. The loom of time has been speeded up, and "the gar- ment thou seest him by " is far more swiftly woven. Moving in Rapid Measures. Alfred Russell Wallace in The Wonderful Century counts up 284 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions thirteen great inventions or discoveries made in the nineteenth century, and only seven in all preceding human history. Thirteen — like the sewing-machine and the telegraph — in one century, and but seven — like the mariners' compass and the telescope — in all the millenniums before. Is human history, like some great musical overture or sonata, to pass, with scarcely a pause, from adagio to presto, and crowd vast meanings into rapid measures? It is not for us to know the times or the seasons, but it is for us to know the opportunity and the responsibility. The wide-open world should produce in us wide- open minds to study the need, and wide-open hearts to feel it. It is no petty province we have to subdue, no parochial victory we seek. It is nothing less than the Christianization of all human lives and institu- tions — a task to challenge the scholarship and statesmanship and deathless devotion of all Christendom. The superb heroism of the last hun- dred and fifty years has led us only to the nearer edge of our enterprise. We have but skirted the coast of our duty. On the old Spanish coins, is- sued in the days before Columbus, was a picture of the pillars of Hercules, at the straits of Gibraltar, and beneath them the motto : '' Ne plus ultra." But when the great voyages had been made, and the big- ness of the world began to dawn on the European mind, the coins bore the same picture with a changed motto : " Plus ultra " — '' More beyond ! " It is the vision of the things beyond that nerves and sum- mons us. It is not our little neighborhood alone, Interchange of East and West 285 our city, our country, that beckons us. It is the call of humanity itself — East and West, black and white, brown and yellow, — all bearing the tarnished image and superscription of God. "Have the elder races halted? Do they droop and end their lesson, wearied over there beyond the seas? We take up the task eternal, and the burden and the lesson, Pioneers ! O pioneers ! " Till with sound of trumpet Far, far off the daybreak call — hark! how loud and clear I hear it wind, Swift! to the head of the army! — swift! spring to your places, Pioneers ! O pioneers ! " Made Great by Great Tasks. Surely large men are needed for so great a task. Men ingenious, athletic, versatile, tireless, courageous, are needed for confronting the savages of Africa, the Moros in the Philippines, the head-hunters of Borneo. Men of learning, high-bred courtesy, winsome speech, far-reaching plans, are needed to go to races that were building palaces when our fathers were build- ing log-cabins around Plymouth Rock. Men of medical skill, women trained in the healing art, men and women of penetrating minds and indomitable patience are needed to enter the Moslem world, which is to-day as closely sealed as was China fifteen years ago. The pioneers of Christianity must be great men — or made great by their task. There are thousands of young men and women in America living dull and petty lives, merely because devoted 286 Social Aspects of Foreign Missions to petty things. There are men sitting all day on a three-legged stool who might be founding an empire. There are women " pouring tea " all winter who might be lifting hundreds of Oriental girls into new womanhood. There are able-bodied Americans without a vision or a task, useless as chips on the stream, when they might be directing the main currents of life for a province or a nation. Devotion to a great cause makes a great life. BIBLIOGRAPHY General Barton, J. L. Human Progress through Misstotis. 1912. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. 50 cents, net, A survey of the sociological, industrial, literary, com- mercial, and moral results of missions. Brace, C. L. Gesta Christi. 1893. A. C. Armstrong, New York. $1.50. Review of the influence of Christianity in modifying social conditions in the Roman Empire. Capen, Edward W. Sociological Progress in Mission Lands. 1914. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $1.50. A careful study showing the achievements of Christian missions in the removal of ignorance and poverty and the uplift of womanhood and other ethical standards. Carver, W. O. Missions and Modern Thought. 1910. Mac- millan Company, New York. $1.50. _ A_ thought-provoking study showing that the present civilization is a result of Christianity, and the hope of the future is the extension of Christianity. Modern thought demands unity of Christian forces, charity in theological differences, sane methods, careful planning, and generous support. Dennis, James S. The Modern Call of Missions. 1913. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $1.50. A study of some of the larger aspects of missions in relation to human progress. Dennis, James S. Christian Missions and Social Progress. Vol. I, 1897; Vol. II, 1899; Vol. Ill, 1906. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $2.50 each. A monumental work, superior to anything ever pub- lished on the social problems confronting missions and the Christian solutions proposed by missionaries, with a most remarkable exhibit of the success attending the work. Gore, Charles. " Missions and the Social Question." Article in International Review of Missions, Vol. I, pp. 270-278. 1912. 287 288 Bibliography Hall, C. C. Christ and the Human Race. 1906. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. $1.25. The Noble lectures for 1906 given by the late Presi- dent Hall; discusses the attitude of Jesus Christ toward foreign races and religions ; reveals Dr. Hall's wonderful insight into the beliefs of Orientals. Headland, I. T. Some By-Products of Missions. 1912. Jennings & Graham, Cincinnati. $1.50, net. Discusses by-products of government, trade, science, civic life, music, art, peace, and religion. Henderson, Prof. Charles S. " The Modern Approach." Ar- ticle in International Review of Missions, Vol. H, pp. 765-772. 1913. Jones, J. P. The Modern Missionary Challenge. 1910. Fleming H, Revell Company, New York. $1.50. The author discusses new conditions, new problems, new methods, new ideals, the magnitude of the task, and the new response of the Church to the missionary chal- lenge. Keen, \V. W. The Service of Missions to Science and So- ciety. 1908. American Baptist Foreign Mission Society, Boston. 10 cents. A condensed and stimulating survey of the social achievements of foreign missionary work. Knox, G. W. The Spirit of the Orient. 1906. T. Y. Crowell & Co., New York. $1.50. An interpretation of the spirit of the people of the Orient, first by contrast with the spirit of the West, and then by an examination in turn of the people and customs and the spirit and problems of India, China, and Japan. Liggins, J. Great Value and Success of Foreign Missions. 1888. Baker & Taylor Company, New York. 75 cents. Contains many striking arguments and incidents to show the benefits of foreign missions. It was for some time a handbook for speakers on missions. Lindsay, Anna R. Gloria Christi. 1907. Macmillan Com- pany, New York. 50 cents. Covers the wide field of social progress and missions, though necessarily in a cursory way; prepared as a text- book for study classes. Lucas, Bernard. The Empire of Christ. 1907. Macmillan Company, New York. 80 cents. An examination of present missionary methods and ob- jectives; throws the emphasis strongly on the gospel's mission to pervade and transform society as distinguished from the gaining of individual converts; will appeal to Bibliography 289 thinkers of the liberal school; written by an experienced missionary in India. Mackenzie, \V. D. Chnstianity and the Progress of Man. 1897. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $2.00. (Out of print.) A strong apologetic for missions, based on the social influence of Christianity; describes the message and methods and results of modern missions. Paton, Bunting, and Garvie. Christ and Civilization. igi2. National Council of Evangelical Free Churches, Memorial Hall, London, E. C. los. 6d. Chapter V, " The Factors in the Expansion of the Christian Church," by Dr. Orr, and Chapter VI, "The Social Influence of Christianity as Illustrated by Modern Foreign Missions," deal especially with the missionary side ; but the whole book is worthy of study by the mis- sionary. Patten, Simon N. The Nezv Basis of Civilization. 1907. Macmillan Company, New York. $1.00, net. Interprets in a specially suggestive and stimulating way the meaning and significance of the recent social changes. Report of World Missionary Conference, 1910. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. 9 Vols. $5.00. The report of the World Missionary Conference at Edinburgh is of permanent value to all students of mis- sions. Particularly the reports of Commissions: II, The Native Church and its workers; III, Education in rela- tion to Christianization of national life; and VII, Rela- tion of missions to governments. Ross, E. A. Social Control. 1906. Macmillan Company, New York. $1.25, net. A work on the border line between sociology and poli- tics, but particularly suggestive in that it points out the psychological and sociological foundations of government. Schm.idt, C. G. A. Social Results of Early Christianity. 1889. Pitman & Sons, London. 7s. 6d. A study of the influence of Christianity in bringing about reforms in the poltical and social life of the Roman Empire; traces in considerable detail the results of the beneficent impact of Christianity on the vices and wrongs of heathen society. Slater, T. E. The Influence of the Christian Religion in His- tory. George H. Doran Company, New York. $1.50. A thoughtful and suggestive sketch of the power of preservation, progress, and social reform, shown by the Christian religion in history, ancient and modern. 290 Bibliography Slater, T. E. Missions and Sociology. 1908. Eliot Stock, London. 35 cents. A valuable monograph on the social bearings and con- tributions of Christian missions, especially in India; writ- ten by a well-known missionary of the London Mission- ary Society. Speer, Robert E. Christianity and the Nations. 1910. Flem- ing H. Revell Company, New York. $2.50. A comprehensive treatment of the theory and practise of missions, including such themes as the basis, aims, and methods of missions, the problems of the native Church, missions and politics, Christianity and the non- Christian religions, and the unifying influence of mis- sions ; written by a foremost missionary authority and leader. Taylor, Alva W. The Social Work of Christian Missions. 191 1. Foreign Christian Missionary Society, Cincinnati. 50 cents. A brief and somewhat general treatment of the social and humanitarian work of Christian missions. Tenney, E. P. Contrasts in Social Progress. Illustrated by the Story of Five Great Religions.. 1914. Rumford Press, Concord, N. H. $1.00, postpaid. Contrasts in domestic, civic, industrial, fraternal, educa- tional, in books, moral seed thoughts, and growth. Warneck, G. Modern Missions and Culture. 1888. W. B. Ketcham, 7 West i8th Street, New York. $2.50. The reciprocal development of these two factors since the publication of this study has confirmed the essential soundness of the views developed by Dr. Warneck as to the cultural importance of missions, the need of provid- ing for this aspect of the work, and the principles of ad- justment between the spread of culture and of the gospel. Departments of Work Barnes, Irene H. Between Life and Death. 1901. Church of England Zenana Missionary Society, London. 3s. 6d. Account of the need, methods, incidents, and oppor- tunities of woman's medical work, especially in India and China. Burton, Margaret E. Education of Women in China. 191 1. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $1.25. Attractively written sketches of the lives of six Chris- tian Chinese women who are strong testimonies to the power of Christianity. Bibliography 291 Christian Education of Women in the East. 1912. Student Christian Movement, London. 2s., net. Addresses delivered at a Conference of University Women at Oxford, September, 1912. Valuable for breadth of outlook. Cowan, Minna G. The Education of the Women of India. 1912. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $1.25, net. A useful survey of the present situation, well illus- trated by statistical tables and pictures. Worthy of study by all who wish to grasp the problems before missionary educators in India. De Gruche, Kingston. Dr. Apricot of Heaven Below. 1910. Marshall Brothers, London. 2s. 6d. An interesting story of Dr. Main of Hangchow, illus- trating the need, daily work, and results of medical mis- sions. Kilborn, Omar L. Heal the Sick. 1910. Missionary So- ciety of the Methodist Church, Toronto. 50 cents. Story of medical missions as carried on by a Canadian missionary in West China. Contains two chapters on the Canadian Methodist medical work. Lewis, R. E. Educational Conquest of the Far East. 1903. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $1.00. A good account of education in China and Japan, with special reference to Christianity — up to date of publica- tion. Moorshead, R. F. The Appeal of Medical Missions. 1913. Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier, London. 2s. 6d., net. A forcible statement of the basis, need, power, and progress of medical missions. Osgood, E. L Breaking Down Chinese Walls. 1908. Flem- ing H. Revell Company, New York. $1.00. An interestingly written account by one who has con- ducted a hospital and dispensary in China for eight years, preaching the gospel and healing the sick in the villages round about. Wishard, John G. Twenty Years in Persia. 1908. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $1.50. An interesting record of what a medical missionary- alone could observe and experience; one of the best books on the subject. Countries Crawford, Dan. Thinking Black. 1913. George H. Doran Company, New York. $2.00, net. 292 Bibliography A satisfying summary of twenty-two years of travel, observation, and experience in Central Africa without a furlough. The author shows a keen insight into the mental life of the African. Harris, John H. Dawn in Darkest Africa. 1912. E. P. Button & Co., New York. $3.50, net. Written as a result of a tour of the Belgian Kongo, but includes the whole West Coast, by one who was formerly a missionary in the Kongo, who is not only an authority on missionary problems and a warm friend of the African races, but also a well-informed student of economic and political questions. Tucker, Alfred R. Eighteen Years in Uganda and East Africa. 191 1. Longmans, Green & Co., New York. $2.10. A record of religious and social progress in Uganda. Ross, E. A. The Changing Chinese. 191 1. Century Com- pany, New York. $2.50. Written by a professor of sociology, this book con- tains much that v/ould escape the ordinary observer.- Perhaps the most readable of the recent books. The China Mission Year Book. 1910-1913. Missionary Edu- cation Movement, New York. $1.50. Annual survey of missionary work and its setting which is indispensable. The many phases of work are treated by specially qualified writers. Chirol, Valentine. Indian Unrest. 1910. Macmillan Com- pany, New York. $2.00, net. An authoritative study of the causes of unrest in the Indian Empire. Fleming, D. J. The Social Mission of the Church in In- dia. 1913. The Association Press, Calcutta. Annas 2. Fleming, D. J. Social Studies, Service, and Exhibits. 1913. The Association Press, Calcutta. Rupees 1-4. Brief exposition of the social mission of the Church in India based upon the teachings of the Bible. Jones, John P. India: Its Life and Thought. 1908. Mac- millan Company, New York. $2.50. Particular attention is called to the chapters in which the relation of the movements for religious reform to the Christian propaganda is canvassed. Morrison, John. Nezv Ideas in India During the Nineteenth Century. 1906. Macmillan Company, New York. $1.60. Dr. Morrison traces the influence of Christian ideas upon the educated classes of India. Bibliography 293 The Year Book of Missions in India. 1912-1913. Missionary Education Movement, New York. $1.50. Contains a general survey of the country, religions, the work of Protestant missions, and other subjects of keen interest to missionary students. The Christian Movement in Japan. 1902-1913. Missionary Education Movement, New York. $1.00. These annual volumes, twelve in number, contain in- teresting references to the relation which missions bear to certain phases of social progress in Japan. Religions DeGroot, J. J. M. Religions in China. 1912. G. P. Put- nam's Sons, New York. $1.50. Buddhism is omitted and Confucianism and Taoism are treated more fully than in his previous volume. Hall, Charles C. Christ and the Eastern Soul. 1909. Uni- versity of Chicago Press, Chicago. $1.25. The Barrows lectures, delivered in 1906-1907 by Dr. Charles Cuthbert Hall, in India ; the lectures are irenic, yet loyal to the supremacy and dignity of Christianity; recognize fully all that is good in ethnic religions, and are highly appreciative of the gifts and capacities of the Eastern soul, especially its ability to profit by and exem- plify the benefits of the Christian religion, when loyally and intelligently accepted. Hall, Charles C. The Universal Elements of the Christian Religion. 1905. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $1.25. An attempt to interpret contemporary religious con- ditions; makes it clear that Christianity alone has a message for all men. Hopkins, Edward W. The Religions of India. 1895. Ginn & Co., Boston. $2.00. Professor Hopkins writes as a specialist who has studied in India the various religions included therein; in many respects the best comprehensive work on the subject. Hume, Robert A. Missions from the Modern View. 1905. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $1.25. Views of a famous missionary born in India as to God and the world, the relations of missions to psychology" and sociology, what Christianity and Hinduism can gain from each other, as to how the gospel should be pre- sented to Hindus. 294 Bibliography Knox, George W. The Development of Religion in Japan, 1907. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. $1.50. With insight and scholarship Professor Knox writes an account of the religions that have invaded Japan and of their influence upon the evolution of the nation; indi- cates the influence of Christianity in the progress of the New Japan. Menzies, Allan. History of Religion. 1895. Charles Scrib- ner's Sons, New York. $1.50. A compendious Vitw of ancient and present-day re- ligions from the modern standpoint; intended for text- book use in colleges, etc. Mitchell, J. Murray. The Great Religions of India. Flem- ing H. Revell Company, New York. $1.50. The Duff lectures, written by a veteran who, in India and at home, was a student and authority on Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and the other native religions of India. Nassau, Robert H. Fetichism in West Africa. 1904. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. $2.50. Forty years' observation of native customs and super- stitions have enabled this missionary author to present a vast amount of material relating to every phase of the religious and social life of West Africa. Ross, John. The Original Religion of China. 1909. Metho- dist Book Concern, New York. $1.25. A scholarly discussion of the primitive monotheistic and animistic beliefs of the Chinese people; the sub- stratum of the present-day religions of China; written by a Scotch missionary in Manchuria. Zwemer, Samuel M. The Moslem Doctrine of God. 1905. American Tract Society, New York. 45 cents. Valuable monograph on a vital doctrine of Mohamme- danism ; written by a high missionary authority on Islam. Biography Blaikie, W. Garden. The Personal Life of David Livingstone. 1880. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $1.50. Standard life of Africa's greatest missionary explorer; large use of extracts from Livingstone's writings. Brown, George. George Brown, D.D. 1909. George H. Doran Company, New York. $3.50. Narrative of forty-eight years' residence, travel, and labor of a missionary pioneer and explorer among the islands of the Pacific; very valuable. Bibliography 295 Griffis, W. E. Verheck of Japan. 1900. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $1.50. Life and work of the most influential missionary and publicist that Japan has had; described by one who knew him and his work well. Hamlin, Cyrus. My Life and Times — an Autobiography. 1893. Congregational Sunday School and Publishing So- ciet}^ Boston. $1.25. The record of the career of the founder of Robert College, Constantinople, and the most influential figure in the history of education in the Ottoman Empire within the last half century. Hawker, George. The Life of George Grenfcll. 1909. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $2.00. Biography of one of the most able and devoted and unostentatious of missionaries, who explored and evan- gelized the Kongo country in the spirit and after the method of Livingstone. Jessup, Henry H. Fifty-three Years in Syria, 2 Vols. 1910. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $5.00. Autobiography of a truly great missionary statesman and pioneer in Syria; acquaints the reader with the forces which are making the new Turkish Empire. Smith, George. The Life df William Carey, D.D. 1887. E. P. Button, New York. 35 cents, net. Smith, George. The Life of Alexander Duif. 1900. Hodder & Stoughton, London. (Out of print.) Wells, Jamies. Stewart of Lovedale. 1909. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York. $1.50. Biography of a prince among missionaries; recounts the varied and untiring efforts of the " long strider," and shows his influence upon the development of South and Central Africa. INDEX Abdul Hamid, 82 Accuracy, growth of, in the Orient, 78 Achievements of missiona- ries in the world's work, 186-189 Administrative men needed, 202 Africa, Islam in, S2 African languages and dia- lects, no Agricultural college at Poona, 242 ; department at Allahabad, 156 Aims, Christian, for heathen lands, 97 Aintab school, 119 American Baptist Foreign Mission Society Report, 1912, quoted, 153 American Bible Society, 114 American Board, new policy formulated, 230; reaction against educational meth- ods, 229, 230; Report, 1913, 231; schools of the, 119 American and European ideals in the East, effect of. 35, 118 American College for Girls at Constantinople, 119, 172 American Diplomacy in the Orient, quoted, 196 Americanizing Turkey, quot- ed, 118 America's attitude, 9 Ancient Israel, 7 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, quoted, 45, 117, 125 Antioch, early church in, 276 Apostolic letters, 23 Aristotle and the state, 4 Armstrong, Gen. S. C, 142 Arnold, Matthew, quoted, 140 Arya-Somaj, the, 263 Athens, character of, 10 Athletic sports, growth of, 204; reasons for, 206 Atlantic Monthly, quoted, 50, 160 Attitude of Jesus, 12, 14 Autonomous, Eastern Church- es made, 275 Axenfeld, Dr., quoted, 28 Azariah, Bishop V. S., 277 Baker, Henry D., on Salva- tion Army silk looms in India, 192 Baldwin, Arthur C, quoted, 100 Baptist Social Service Com- mission, 26 Barriers between East and West, 39 ; broken down by modern scientific work, 79 ; contempt a barrier, 250 Index Barton, J. L., 190, 251, 267 Basel Mission, industrial work at, 147, I59 Bawden, S. D., 153, I55, I57 Beirut, school, 119 Bennett, Albert A., 178 Berlin Missionary Society, 28 Bible Magazine, The, quoted, 213 Bible, presented to the Em- press Dowager, 113; trans- lation in China, 112; and circulation in Japan, 114 Bishop of Madras, 58, 59 Bliss, Dr. Howard S., report of Syrian Protestant Col- lege for 1913, 231 Board of Foreign Missions of Methodist Episcopal Church, Report, 1912, quot- ed, 143 Book of Acts, a marvel of candor, loi ; pictures social movement, 19; reveals spiritual growth, 267 ; self- supporting churches, 2^6 Booth, General William, 138 Booth - Tucker's testimony, T52 Bossuet, quoted, 283 Bowen, Rev. A. J., quoted, 143 Brahmo-Somaj, the, 263 Brent, Bishop, quoted, 161 Bridgman, Dr. E. C, 195 Britain. See Great Britain British and Foreign Bible Society, 114 British Central Africa, iii British government helps mission work in Egypt, 102 Brooks, Phillips, quoted, 248 Brotherhood's narrow bounds in India, 175; universal in Christ, 175 Brown, A. J., quoted, 115 Brown, Professor William Adams, 32, 244 Buddhism's message, 52 Business dependent on means of communication, 249 Bunyan, John, 16 Burgess, J. S., of Peking, 245 Burke, Edmund, quoted, 9 Burmese, beUefs, old and new, 90; Bible, 111-115, 124, 129 Cadbury, W. W., quoted, 135 Caldecott, Professor, quoted, 103 Calvin, John, 25 Candor, the obligation of, lOI Canton, Christian College, 200; schools, 126 Carey, William, life and methods, 214-224; quoted, 107; work of. III Carrying the Gospel, 109 Carter, E. C, quoted, 243 Caste a boycotting system, 41, 42; grades of, 40; sins against, 41 Castes, the four great, 40 Chianges, world, .of recent years, 283, 284 Chaos or Christianity, 96 " Charter oath of Five Ar- ticles " by Mutsuhito, 83 China, call for united Church in, 281 ; reform efforts in, 265; self-governing church- es in, 276; social structure in, 44-47 ^ ^ China Mission Year Book, 1913, quoted, 204 Index 299 Chinese, approach, 134, 137; industrial qualities, 143 ; leaders to interpret Chris- tianity for themselves, 274; medical practise, 134; mor- al evils, 164-166; scholar, 125; schools, 125, 128, 129; versions of English books, 113 Chirol, Valentine, quoted, 167 Christ. See Jesus Christ Christian, advance, 95, 263 environment, 28; faith, 102, 256; missions. See Mis- sion work; school men in recent crisis, 196 ; source for progress rejected, 263; unity on the foreign field, 278-281 Christian Literature Society, for India, 116; in Shang- hai, 113 " Christian loafers," 144, 145 Christian Missions and Social Progress. 109, 178, 196 Christian Movement in Ja- pan, The, 130 Christianity and the Social Crisis, 8, 21 Christianity a personal reli- gion, 64 Christianized play and work, 207 Christianizing the aim, 168 Christly deeds, 177-179 Christus Liberator, no Church Missionary Society, 160 " Church of Christ in Japan," 280 Church, the modern, 22 Churches, the, and social ef- fort, 26 Cigarets, 166, 24,^ City characteristics, 10 Clarke, William Newton, quoted, 184 Clough, A. H., quoted, 210 Clough, Mrs. J. E. ; referred to, 60 Clough, Dr. J. E., 60, 61; Autobiography, quoted, 146, 248 Coffin, Henry Sloan, quoted, 272, 273 Cohesion in the East, 27 Communal life, the case for, Communication, increase of means of, 249 Comparative Handbook of Congo Languages, 109 Conference at Lahore, 58 Conger, Mr., in Peking, 196 Congregational Church a mission factor, 280 Conscience, in Persian, 261 " Consent of the governed,'* 8 Constantinople, Christian schools at, 119 Contemplative life, the, 269 Contempt a barrier, 250 Contraction, danger in, 266 Contrasts and divergences in ideas and ideals, 2i7, Z^r 68 Conversion, implications of, 55. Coolies, the jinrickisha. 245 Corinthians, the, 20, 282 Corporate theory of govern- ment, 9 Cosmopolitan spirit required, 250 Costume, European, in the East, 89 Crawford, Dan, on African unwritten language, no. 167 ; views and work of, 239 300 Index Cromer, Lord, on diver- gences of East and West, 68 Cross-fertilization of East and West, 252 Cue, the, 89; other changes in China, 90, 91 Cushing, Caleb, 195 Daibutsu, the, 53 Daily consular and trade re- ports, 193 Darwin, Charles, on barbar- ous languages, 107; Life and Letters, quoted, on mission work, 192 " Dawn of Peace, The," 85 Declaration of Independence, the U. S, 8 Democracy, spread of, 174 Dennis, J. S., 109, 178, 196 Dewev, Admiral, in Manila Bay, 8 Dictionary of All Sanskrit- derived Languages, by Ca- rey, III Difficulty of translation, 105; some examples, 106-112 Disciple the nations, 273 Doshisha, The, 130 Drummond, Henry, on the majesty of mission work, 100 Dufif, Alexander, views on English in mission schools, 75, 225-227 Early Church, the, 20 Eastern churches, planted by the Church of Christ, 275, 280; by Congregationalists, 275, 280 ; by Presbyterians, 276, 280; Reformed, 276, 280 Eddy, Sherwood, 120, 253, 265 Edinburgh Conference ; re- ferred to, 28, 109, 144, 272 Educational work, 116-131; call for, in fields, 116; development of native lead- ers, 123; in Africa, 121, 122; in China, 125-129; in India, 121-125; in Japan, 129-131; in Turkey, 117- 120 Education as social service, 116; Lord Kitchener's views, 157 Egypt, Lord Kitchener's work in, 157; Nile dam, 102 Eliot, President Charles W., 252 Emergency in China, The, 128 Empire of India, 50 Empress Dowager, the, 125, 113 English daisy in India, Carey, English language, mfluence of the, 74, 75. 225-227 Environment, effects of, 22 Episcopal Churches in China Epistles, social teachings in the, 20 Equality, not desired in the Orient, 40 Eskimos, 104 Essay on Liberty, Mills ; re- ferred to, 74 Essence of the gospel, 255, 256 Eucken, Rudolf, quoted, i Eugenics, 21 ; ecclesiastical, 275 Ewing Christian College at Allahabad, 155 Examination halls, 71-73; system pursued in, 72 Index 301 Exchange professorships, 252 Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries, 255 Fairchild, David G., on plants introduced by mis- sionaries, 251 Faith and ethics, union of, 21, 241, 242 241, 242 Faith, Christian, the main- spring of progress, 102 Far Eastern Tropics, The, 39 Federal Council of the Churches of Christ, The, 27, 28 Fellowships at Oriental schools, 253 Five kinds of missionary achievement, 104 Fixed habits of the East, 54, 55 Fleming, D, J., on social mission of the Church in India, 194, 195 Foochow Union Theological School, 212 Foot-binding, 165 Foreign money, wrong use of in the East, 277 . " Foreigner's Religion," a, 272 Forman Christian College, 200 Foster, Hon. John W., 196 Franklin. Dr. J. H., 274 Eraser, Donald, on mission schools, I2T, 122 Fremont, John C, explorer, 37 Fuller, Sir Bampfylde, 50 Gibbon, Autobiography, 112; Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; alluded to, 112 God, 255, 271 ; as Father, 97, 175 ; as love, 167, 181 Gokhale, Mr., organizer, 263 Golden rule, 198 Good Samaritan methods, 18 Great Britain, 102, 166, 237, 259 Greek views, Ancient, 4, 7 Grenfell, George, map of the Kongo, 187 Grenfell, W. T., work of, 188 Gulick, L. H., work of, 188 Gulick, Dr. Sidney L., quoted, 86 H Haggard, Dr. Fred P., on schools in mission work, 228 Hall, Charles Cuthbert, 66, 184, 248, 2^2 Hall. H. Fielding, on Bur- mese ideals and village rule, 50, 70 Hampton Institute, 142 " Hands," a suggestive term, 3 Harnack, Adolf, on gospel aim. 66; on message of early Church, 255 Harpoot school, 119 Hay, John, 34 " Heavenly Foot Society," 165 Hebrew prophets and the na- tion, 5, 6 Heine; referred to, 52 Help to missions from trade and commerce, 102 302 Index Henderson, Prof. Charles R., yy, 1/6, 252 Heredity, 21 Higginbottom, Sam, on agri- cultural training, 156 Higher Criticism and the monuments, The, 70 Hindu Widows' Home, 96 Hinduism, three doctrines in, 51 History, effect of study of, 93 Ho, L. Y., on stagnant China, 45 Hobbes, Thomas, 8 Hodous, Dr. Lewis, on so- cial work in missions, 211 Hollister, W. H., 153; on in- dustrial work, 154 Homer, quoted, 4 Hoskins, Dr., quoted, 173 Howard, John, 25 Hozv to Study the Jinrick- shaw Coolie, 245 Human Progress Through Missions, 190, 251, 267 Huss, John, 25 Ideals, Eastern and Western, 35, 70 Ideals of Carey and Duff, re- action from the, 227, 228 Imitation of Christ, The, 246 Immortality, Jewish idea of, 6 " In Memoriam," referred to, 74 Independence of thought, OricNtal, 274; reasons for American, 36, 37 India, caste system, 40-42, 62, 79, 176; durbar and rever- ence for power, 40; educa- tion, 122; industrial move- ments, 94, 95, 144-155, 192, 193; medical advance, 132- 134; immoral standards, 164; native leaders, 124, 277 ; personality sacrificed, 50-53 ,' resisting Christian advance, 96; subjection of woman, 43, 44, 169 ; union Christian steps, 280; vil- lage rule, 49; work of Ca- rey and Duff, 217-227 Indian approach, 132 ; gov- ernment " grants in aid," 112; schools, 123 Indian Interpreter, The, 271 India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 121, 213 India's Unrest, 67 Individualism, 3, 6, 13, 35; suppressed in the East, 50 Industrial work, 141-162; Eden the earliest industrial school, 141 ; effect in Hampton and Tuskegee, 142; in Africa, 157-161 ; in India, 144-157; in the Philippines, 142, 161, 162 Institutional church, 244 ; consolidation, 279 " Interference " in religion, 256, 257 International Review of Mis- sions, 60, 77, 88, 122, 145, 146, 150, 156, 177 Inter-Racial Problems, 104 Ireland, Alleyne, quoted, 39 Isabella Thoburn College at Lucknow, 172 Jabalpur, interdenominational conference, 280 Jackson, Dr. Sheldon, 189 Index 303 Japan, Bible, and other trans- lated works, 114; culture, 129 ; defective moral view- point, 86. 88; Emperor, 92; lack of personalit3% 47, 48; unrest, 88 Japan Mail, quoted, 197 Japanese Nation, The, 39, 48, 83, 85, 263 Jesus Christ, 28, 66, 97, 114, 122, 248, 255, 262, 265 ; as Fulfiller, 16; message per- sonal, 15; Oriental life of, 274; purposed revolution, 2, 18, 19, 181 Java, av.-akening, 93 ; effect of education in, 144 Jerusalem, 11; community of goods in the early Church, 20; first council, 267; sent helpers but not money to new churches, 276 Johnston, H. H., no, 167, 186 Jonah, II Jones, J. P., 121, 213 Judson, Adoniram, transla- tion work of, III K Kaffir Dictionary, 109 Keen, W. W., 189 Keshub Chunder Sen, 175, 263 Kitchener, Lord, 157 Knox, Dr. G. W., on meager results of Eastern wars, 54 Koelewyn, Dr. D., 144 Koran, The, 42 ; good points in its teaching, 43 : school book, 80 ; static effect, 42, 43 ; wrong to womanhood, 43, 44 Korea, transformation cf, 62 Labor problems in China and India, 94 Lady Dufferin Hospitals, 172 Language and literature, dif- ficulty of translation into non-Christian tongues, 104 "Language schools," uses of, 279 Lassa, Z2, Law, Western, in the East, 93 Leaders, native, in India, 124; in China and Japan, 125 Leopold, King, 192 Lepers, asylums for and mis- sions to, 178 Life of Christ, by Professor Yamada, in Japanese, 114 Life of William Carey, The, quoted, 107, 216 Life of Alexander Dnff, The, quoted, 226, 227 Life of A. M. Mack ay, quot- ed, 191 Literacy, of China, 116; of Egypt, 117 Literary work, 104-116; Bible translation and circulation, 104, III, 112, 114, 115; Christian literature, 113- 116; difficulties to be over- come, 104-110 Livingstone, David, explorer, 186 ; ideals in mission work, 232 Livingstonia Mission, 109, 121 Locke, John, 8 '* Lone Star Mission," 60 Lord's Prayer, The, in Jap- anese, 114 Love, difficult of translation, ig6 304 Index Lovedale plans, 236-239 Lovedale, Stevv^art of, 103, 160, 239; life and work of, 234-238 M Mabie, Hamilton W., 252 Macaulay, Lord, action taken by, in India, 75 MacGowan, Dr., 165 Machinery, results of the in- troduction of, 94 Mackay, Alexander M., 159; an engineering missionary, 190 McKean, J. W., 178 McTyeire school in Shang- hai, 172 Maine, Sir Henry, quoted, 35 Manila Bay, 8 Mann, Dr., of Poona Agri- cultural College, 156, 243 Marsovan school, 119 Martin, Dr. W. A. P., trans- lator, 195, 197 Martyn, Henry, work of, in translation, iii Mass movements, examples of, 57, 58, 60, 63, 64 Mazoomdar, leader of Brah- mo-Somaj, 263, 268 Medical work, 131-138; a means of approach, 131, 'i^Zy, 138; results in China, 134-136; in India, 132-134 Mekka, 2,Z Methodist Church in Japan, 275 Methodist Episcopal Church, Federation for Social Serv- ice, 26 Methodist Theological Semi- nary in Japan, 114, 268 Methods of approach, three theories, 4, 7, 9 Methods of Social Work, 245 Mill, John Stuart, 74 Milne, Dr., translator, on learning the Chinese lan- guage, 112 Milton, John, idea of society, 5 Miracles of Christ, social significance, 18 Mission work, literary, 104- 116; educational, 116-131 ; medical, 131-138; indus- trial, 141-162; reforming, 162-181 Mission ships, work of, 187, 188 Missionary Message, The, 87. Missionary, A, newly defined, Missionaries assist, in diplo- matic service, 195-197; in plant diffusion, 25 Missions and Sociology, 169 Missions and Social Prog- ress, 178, 187 Missions may be secularized, 213 Mistakes of medieval mis- sionaries, 64 Modern Egypt, 68 Modern Missionary Century, The, 112 Moffat, Robert, quoted, 137, 185 ; translator of the Bible, 109 Mohammedanism, 42, 43 ; education in, 80, 81 ; wom- an under, 43 Money, foreign, in non- Christian lands, 276, 277 " Morgan of Japan, The," 88 Morley, Lord John, 175 Moro needs, 161, 162 Morrison, John, 42, 51 Index 305 Morrison, Robert, Bible translator, 112, 195 Morse, S. F. B., 37 Moslem approach, 131 Mott, John R.. 120, 253, 279 Motto on Spanish coins, 284 Mtesa, King, 159, 191 Miiller, Rev. J., 149 Mutsuhito, 34; early procla- mation by, 83 Nirvana, 53 Nitobe, Inazo, quoted, 39, 48, 83. 262 Nogi, General; referred to, 34 North American Review, quoted, 25 Noyes, Alfred, quoted, 85 N Nassau, Robert H., 189 Nation, the, as a living be- ing, 5 National Conference at Shanghai, 138; Resolution adopted, 174, 276 Nationalism, spirit of, 90 Native leadership coming, 277 Native religions, resistance of, 95. 263 " Natural Foot Society," 166 " Ne plus ultra," 284 Neesima, Joseph Hardy, 130; story of, 252 New customs in Oriental lands, 89 New Democracy, The, ^6 New England precedent for founding schools, 120 Neiv England's First Fruits, 121 Nezv Era in Asia, The, 120, 253, 265 " New Humanities, The," 243 New Ideas in India, 42 New Japan. 83-85 ; effect of, on Asia, 85 New Testament message, pri- marily spiritual, 14, 15 ; but also social, 15-21 Nineveh, 11 Obookiah. story of, 252 Okuma, Count, quoted, 87 Old Testament view, 5, 6, 12 " Open door, The," 34 Omar Khayyam, quoted, 52 One missionary's influence, 103 " Open door, the," 34 Opening Up of Africa, The, 167, 186 Opposing civilizations, 67, 68 Oriental courses by and for Western teachers, 254, 255 Oriental lives of Christ, 267 Orr, Dr., translator, 114 Others' point of view, diffi- culty in comprehending, 68, 69 Parker, Peter, 135, 195 Parsons, Ellen C, quoted, no Paton, John G., 185 Paul, 19; as precedent, 193, 194 Peabody, F. G., 252 Pearson, Alexander, 135 Peking, incident in the gov- ernment school in, 129 Penn, William, 2>7 Perils of transition, 92 3o6 Index Perry, Commodore, 102 Persecution of converts, 145, 146; industrial training as a resource, 147 Persia, Bible for, in; wom- en patriots, 173 Person or state in three theories of social order, 4-12 Philanthropy, proper meth- ods in, 24 Phi'lippine Islands, the, 142, 161 Physical director, the, 204 Pierson, A. T., quoted, 112 Pilgrim's Progress, referred to, 16, 105 " Pittsburgh Survey," 245 Plato and the Greek state, 4 Port Arthur, 48 Pott, F. L. Hawks, 126, 128 Prayer, China's request for, 91 Prayer-life, need of the, 269 Presbyterian Church in so- cial and mission lines, 26, 276, 280, 281 Press, power of the, 114 " Princess, The," quoted, 74 Problems of industrial work, 150 Promptness, growth of, in the East, 78 Protestant Episcopal Church, Social Service Commission, 26 Qualities worth bestowing, 257-263 Quarantine established by medical missionaries against plague, 133 Quinine, 189 Railroads, 79 Rauschenbausch, Walter, quoted, 6, 21 Raw silk production, 193 Record of Christian Work, 178 Red Cross Society, 179 Reform work, 162-181 ; brotherhood and democ- racy, 174-177; Christly ministry, 177-179; dynamic moral power, 179- 181 ; emancipation of woman, 169-174; new social order, 168, 169; results in Africa, 167; in China, 164-166; in India, 162-164 Religion socially pervasive, s6 Resistance societies to every- thing Christian, 96 Results of impact of West- ern and Eastern ideals, 88 Reverence lacking in West- ern nations, 271 Revolutions — American, Eng- lish, French, 35 Rice Christians, 24, 60 Rice, William North, quoted, 25 Richard, Timothy, 113, 197 4 — Missions May 27 Crowell Richards, E. H., quoted, 109 R. Siraj-ud-din, Professor, quoted, on need of prayer- life, 269 Robert College, Constanti- nople, 119, 200 Robertson, Professor; re- ferred to, 107 Robinson, John, 25 Ross, E. A., quoted, 37 Rousseau, J. J., 8 Index 307 Sabbatic year of the Western teacher, a suggestion for, 254 St. John's College at Shang- hai, 126 Salvation Army, 26, 138, 179, 192 Sanitation taught, 133 Sayce, A. H., quoted, 6g School of Tropical Medicine, London, 188 Schools as a pioneer agency, 122 : old and new schools in the Orient, 71-73- See also Educational work Science, influence of Western in the East, 76, 93, 102 Secularizing question in mis- sions, 213, 231 Seed and plant diffusion, 251 " Seeing China," 137 Self-support of Eastern Churches, 276 " Servants of India Society," 263 " Service of Missions to Science and Societv, The," 189 Seth, James, quoted, 32 Shakespeare, quoted, i ; re- ferred to, 105 Shibusawa, Baron, quoted, on Japan's l^ck of faith and morals, 88 Shintoism in Japan, 95 Short-time appointments, 199- 201 Silk looms in India, 192 Silo, use of, in mission fields, 155 " Simple gospel " and social note, 23 Single world-circle, the, 104 Slater, Rev. T. E., quoted, 168 Slavery, attitude of Christ, 15 ; effect of missions, 167 Smith, Arthur H., quoted, on Y. M. C. A, 203 Smith George, 107, 216, 226, 227 Smyrna school, 119 Social, boycott for converts, 145-152; conscience de- veloping, 264; element in Christ's life, 19; methods sweep outward, 244; side of Christ's message, 15 " Social Contract " theory, 7-9 Social Control, ^y " Social Mind," the, 10 Social Programs of the West, 255 Social Service Club at Pe- king, 245 " Social tissue," 12 Society for Selfless Work, The, 96 Sociological work at Ameri- can colleges, 243 Sodom and Gomorrah, 10 Solidarity in Japan, 47 Soul of a People, The, 70 South China Conference of Missionaries, at Canton, Report of, 279 "South India United Church," 280 Sparta, characteristics of, 10 Spiller, G., quoted, 104 Spineless cactus in India, 251 Spirit of the Orient, The, 54 Spiritual message character- istic of Christ, 15 Standard, The, 229 Standish, Miles, 25 Stanley, Henry M., 159, 160 State, or person, 4, 5 Stead, W. T., quoted, T03, 118 Stewart, Dr. James, of Love- dale, 160, 234-239 3o8 Index Stewart of Lovedale, 103 Sun Yat-sen, 46; career of, 252 Superstition shattered by science and invention, yy, 79 Suttee abolished, 163 " Swadeshi " movement in India, 95 Syrian Protestant College at Beirut, 119, 200, 231 Tagore, poems of, 270 Tarsus school, 119 Teaching English literature, effects of, 74, 76 Teluga movement, Baptist, 60; Methodist, 62 Temper of the early Church,. 19 Tennyson, Alfred, 74, 210 Theories of the social order, 4-12 Thinking Black, no, 239 Tinnevelli, 146. 277 Titanic, the, alluded to, 34 Togo, Admiral, victory and telegram of, 47 Tourist Directory of Chris- tian Work in the Chief Cities of the Far East, In- dia, and Egypt, 137 Trade and commerce as mis- sion helps, 102 Training Institute in Pasu- malai, 144 Translation, difficulties in, 105-112; work of some translators, 195, 197 Tribal tyranny, 49 Tsuda, Miss Ume, quoted, 87 Turkey, Christian schools in, 1 17-120 Two commandments, the, 16 U Uganda, 190, 191 " Uganda Company, Limited, The," 160 Uganda, Mackay of, 159 Ukita, Professor, quoted, as questioning Japan's moral energy, 180 Uncleanness of customs and symbols in India, 164 Undercurrents in Oriental lands, 57 Understanding necessary to commerce, 249 Unhygienic habits, 132 Unifying force found in Christianity, 198 Union effort in publishing work, 279 United Presbyterian Mis- sion in Egypt. 200 United States, 9; opening of Japan, 102 Unity, movement toward, 278-281 Unrest in Burma, 89 Utilizing native conditions, 61 Vaccination, 135 Vanishing occupations, 77 Verbeck; referred to, 74, 195 Village rule, 49 Virgin Birth of Christ, The, in Japanese, 114 Viveicananda, Swami, 264 W Wallace, Alfred, quoted, 284 Wang, C. T., career of, 252 Index 309 Wanless, W. J., quoted, 133 War, advance as the outcome of, 53 Washington, Booker T., 142 Watchman-Examiner, 274 Wealth, leading to luxury and sensuality, 93 Wells, James, 234 Wesley, John, last letter of, 26 W^sleyan revival and its fruits, 25, 26 West learns from the East, 267 Western learning favored for China by the Empress Dowager, 125 Weston, C. W., quoted, 146 Weyl, Vv. E., quoted, 36 Wheaton's International Law, translated into Chinese, 195 Whispering -gallery, the world a, 34 Whitman, IMarcus, Z7 Whitney, Eli, 37 Whittier, J. G., quoted, 34 Why and How of Foreign Missions, The, 115 Wide-open world, a, 33 Widow Marriage Associa- tion, 96 Wilberforce, William, 26 Williams, John, 185, 188 Williams, Roger, 2>7 Williams, S. Wells, 113, 195 Woman suffrage and the harems and zenanas, 34 Womanhood, non-Christian, 44, 81, 163-174, 179; eman- cipation for service, 173 Woman's Christian Temper- ance Union, 179 Women of Bulgaria, 173; of Persia, 173; of Syria, 173; and Turkey, 173 Wonderful Century, The, 283 Words, Strenuous English, 74 "World-affirmation," 241 World changes of recent years, 283, 284 World-wide method of ap- proach, 131-137 Wyclif, 25 "Yale in China," 127 Yamada, Toranosuke, Life of Christ in Japanese, 114, 268 Year Book of Missions in India, 1912, 116, 124, 152, 164, 274 ^ Yellow leadership, not yellow peril, 282 Yoshiwara, the. 179 Young Men's Buddhist Asso- ciation, 95 Young Men's Christian Asso- ciation, 27, 94, 95, 179, 202, 203, 245 Young Men of India, 243 " Young Turks," 82 Yuan Shi-kai, President, 91 Zumbro, W. M., quoted, 144 Princeton Theological Seminary-Speer 1 1012 01092 2823 Date Due ;■ : .1 It N 3 -aa :; '^ m ■^ 'y 'Af^ i / ^U i^ao 'i^i ' * * '-' 'r n ■ ,-> ?r 45#-*«' ifii^^^-^ *«»» !!*^ J u N ■'<^ p** f)