KSssskJ 9 HflB m H si PRINCETON, N. J. %, Shelf BL 18 1 B3 Vhe idea 9 I895 Herbert. *««a of n~^ "*« ■.„.'. <£ «« t he tne light , /; THE IDEA OF GOD THE MORAL SENSE LIGHT OF LANGUAGE. BEING A PHILOLOGICAL ENQUIRY INTO THE RISE AND GROWTH OF SPIRITUAL AND MORAL CONCEPTS. HERBERT BAYNES, M.R.A.S., AUTHOR OF 'The Evolution of Religious Thought in Modern India," "Dante and His Ideal" if c. WILLIAMS AND NORGATE, 14, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON; 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH; and 7, BROAD STREET, OXFORD. 1895. Heb Dduw heb Ddim; Duw a cligon. Es rauschen den eingeborenen Ton Der Wald, das Meer seit Jahrtausenden schon; Geschlechter schwanden und sind gekommen, Sie haben des Urlieds Klang vernommen, Und konnten aus all dem Wogen und Wehen Ein einziges Wort nur: „Gott" verstehen! Feodor Lowe. 'Ev dpxri r\v 6 Aoyog. Zwei Dinge erfiillen das Gemiith mit immer neuer und zunelimender Be- wunderung und Ehrfurcht, je ofter und anhaltender sich das Nachdenken damit beschaftigt: der bestirnte Himmel ilber mir und das moraliscbe Gesetz in mir. Kant. c ATict(70iiTUj to 6vo|ud crou. PREFACE. When dealing with concepts of languages little known and understood we have thought it well in each case to give an outline of the grammar and ideology, together with the Pater Noster, paid in this connexion we gratefully acknowledge our indebtedness to Prof. Friedrich Miiller's most excellent Orundriss der Sprachwissenscliaft, Nor must we fail to mention our obligation to Prof. Tylor's invaluable work on Primitive Culture, and to Curtius' Qrundzuge. It is hoped that the various classifications at the end of the work may prove useful not only to the philologist but to every one who delights to trace the mental progress of the race. The psychological classifications are those of Professors Steinthal and Oppert; the genealogical linguistic classification is that of Prof. F. Miiller, the theistic is our own. CONTENTS. Page Preface ^ Introduction *-'-■'• YOLTJME I. THE HISTOET OF SPIRIT AND THE THOUGHT OF GOD. CHAPTER I. The history of Spirit 1 CHAPTER II. Aryan thoughts of God 19 CHAPTER III. Semito-Hamitic theology 41 CHAPTER IV. The Mongol concepts of Deity 50 CHAPTER V. The theology of the Nuba race 93 CHAPTER VI. The Dravida Race 98 CHAPTER VII. The Basques and the Caucasians 1°^ CHAPTER VIII. Hottentot ideas of the Divine 112 CHAPTER IX. 118 The Papua Race CHAPTER X. 121 The Negro theology ' ' ' CHAPTER XL The Kafir Race CHAPTER XII. Page Australian theology 163 CHAPTER XIII. The Hyperboreans 169 CHAPTER XIV. The American Race 174 CHAPTER XV. The Malay Race 194 CHAPTER XVI. The Idea of God: its genesis and evolution 212 VOLUME II. ETHICAL CONCEPTS. CHAPTER I. Page Right and "Wrong in Chinese 3 CHAPTER II. Semitic ethics 8 CHAPTER III. Aryan views of good and evil 23 CHAPTER IV. The concept of Love 52 CHAPTER V. The moral sense 70 Appendix 81 INTRODUCTION. he tendency of modern thought is undoubtedly toward that unification of knowledge which is so essential to all human progress. Alike in science, religion and philosophy there is a call for exact correspon- dence between external fact and internal thought. Science, on the one hand, is advancing toward transcendentalism, combining with its results the principles of philosophy, whilst philosophy, on the other, is learning to operate only on those abstract symbols which are the rational equivalents of their concrete reals. Such, indeed, are the dangers of the spe- cialist that, unless he occasionally take a glance over the whole field of research his point of view is apt to be too circumscribed for him to be able to obtain or retain a far- reaching generalisation. Particularly is this the case with the theologian and moralist who, ignoring the comparative method, have looked each at his own science for his own special purpose, the result being that neither has often lrad a vision of total truth. Now it seems to us that it is the light of Language which must be thrown on these sciences in order to reveal their true nature and significance. In few fields of learning have such epoch-making discoveries been lately made as in semasiology. Students of language have brought many costly gifts to the Adyton of science, and it is some of those ~3* VIII *g- gems, tliose dealing more especially with man's ethical and spiritual consciousness, which it is here attempted to lay bare. Accepting the definition of moral philosophy as 'the science which teaches men their duties and the reasons of them' the comparative philologist is able to show not only what this philosopher or that poet thought of Obligation, but what has been conceived of God, of Duty, and of Eight and Wrong by the universal human mind. Interesting and important as it is to find out the views of Confucius and Aristotle on Virtue, of Kant on conscience, of Spinoza on the nature of the Deity and of Wordsworth on Duty, those of mankind at large are surely not less worthy of attention. We have, then, to place under the microscope of the etymo- logist the words for what Cicero has so happily termed the igniculi et semina virtutum, quae sunt earum quasi principia et fundamenta. And here we must remember that it must be a polar examination, resulting from the application of the historical method. That such antinomies of thought as many and one, whole and part, subject and object, matter and mind, are necessarily conceived as correlatives is the common dictum of all philosophies, however otherwise opposed. If there is a law of consciousness which may be looked upon as original or final it is surely that which tells us that, absolute unity is a mere verbal abstraction, that, apart from phaenomena 'force' has no meaning, can only be known in manifestation, that the infinite is in the finite, the inner itself the outer; namely, the law of relativity. The question mooted so long ago at the first flush of speculative thought: TTujc; 6e uoi ev ti t& Ttdvi' ecriai Kai xwpi? eKaarov; may per- haps be best answered by a re-statement of the problem. Every thing is a group of relations, every thought involves relation, likeness, difference; that is to say, thinking is a synthesis of thesis and antithesis in rapid alternation. The -5h IX h$~ proof is not only psychological but also linguistic. In our own Aryan the same root tak has given us different words for the deepest of all correlations, that, namely, of thoughts and things and for the possibility of expressing either or both, thing : think : : denken : bedingen. If in the macrocosm two phaenomena A and B habit- ually appear together and the phaenomenon A is presented to the senses, upon the state a which is produced in the microcosm the state b immediately follows representing the phaenomenon A. But the thought-process does not end here. Since in the outer world the phaenomenon B is just as much the antecedent of A as A is of B — since the expressions 'antecedent' and 'consequent' are only applicable as the order of our experience, it follows that, as often as the state b is induced the state a necessarily follows. So long as the relation remains the subject of thought, there must be this rapid alternation of thesis and anti- thesis. To use Mr. Spencer's illustration: If the outer lines and colors of a body are presented there at once follows on the resulting consciousness the consciousness of something resisting; and conversely, if in the dark a body is touched, on the resulting consciousness there follows that of something extended. But in no case is this all. When the idea of extension recedes, that of resistance does not wholly disap- pear. Both continue to be thought of as it would seem almost simultaneously; and since the two members of the relation cannot be apprehended in absolutely the same state of conciousness, since, further, the lasting conscious- ness of them cannot be one state of consciousness, which is equivalent to no consciousness, it follows that the seem- ingly-ceaseless presentation of both is in reality a rapid alternation, an alternation so swift that it produces the effect of persistence, just as the changing impressions to which the retina is subjected by the pictures at the opposite sides of a revolving thaumatrope induce a con- ciousness of the two pictures as merged into one. From a logical point of view Prof. Bain says the same: 'The essential relativity of all knowledge, thought or consciousness cannot but show itself in language. If every- thing that we know is looked upon as a transition from something else, every experience must have two sides, and either every name must have a double meaning, or for every signification there must be two names. We cannot have the perception 'light' except as motion from the dark, our consciousness is affected in a particular way by the transition from light to dark and from dark to light. The word 'light' has no meaning without that which is contained in the word 'dark'. We distinguish the two opposite transitions, light to dark, and dark to light, and this distinction is the only difference of meaning in the two terms: 'light' is emergence from dark; 'dark' is emergence from light. Now, the doubleness of transition is likely to occasion double names being given all through the universe of things ; languages should be made up, not of individual names, but couples of names.' If, as we have every reason to believe, the residuum of speech, the root, apperception-stuff or perceptual reflex were originally either the emotional or mimetic repetition of a syllable, then we can well understand how, in the synthesis, one syllable would represent the positive and the other the negative. Thus in Egyptian we find Menmen to stand y to move; in Joruba baba great Y small. A diffe- rentiation would be Rulie-Hurry, etc., metathesis of sound for inversion of meaning. Of radical polarity we have several instances, notably in the Hamito-Semitic family of speech. E. g. Egyptian: Ma to give Y to take; tua to honor Y to despise; tas to separate ]/" to bind; dp to meet jA to part; ( suo to flow Y to dry up ; ball empty Y full ; kef to take Y to let lie; ken strong Y weak; tern to cut to pieces Y to unite; terp to take Y to give, and lien to stand Y to go; hierog.: laau kopt: le someone Y none. ~$H XI K~ Hebrew: birek to bless y to curse. Arabic: bdnndh pleasant scent y a stench; bdda to buy y to sell; dsdna be pushed him back y it pleased him; baas force ]/" fear; bdlta to separate ]/" to complete; bdsa'a bilii to rejoice, make glad y to despise; balm to weep y^to sing; taballada to rule y to be subject; gdt'ama to cleave to the ground y to raise oneself a little above the ground ; hdrada to take refuge in something y to separate from something; Icdlada to rob y to endow; ddlafa to hurry y to go quietly; dintuhu or dajjantulm I asked him for a loan y I received from him a loan; $dma3a to be quick y to go with short steps; sdbaha with its double antitheses: to swim y to dig into the ground, to be busy y to be at leisure; sdgada to throw oneself down (for prayer) y to stand upright; sdmma to poison y to set right; asgaliu it caused him pain y it made him happy ; sdriba to have quenched one's thirst y to be thirsty; sdZaba to destroy y to repair; tasdfaba it became united y it became scattered; Sadala to act justly y to turn away from the right path; afraha to cause joy y to rob of joy \fdra3a he went up y he came down;/a3« he made his fortune y he died; kdra$ahu he made him a loan y he received from him a loan; Msaba to spoil y to adorn, and kdsabe to refuse to drink y to drink. Aryan examples are: — . Skt: upa above y below Latin : sacer holy y accursed ; propugndre to attack yto defend; praevenire to go before, help y to come behind, hinder ; curiosus full of care, sad \ inquisf- tive, glad. Persona y personne; Rem y Rien; Aliquis y Aucun; hos- tis y guest. French: prevenir assister y empecher. German: Boden ground y loft; barmen to hold fast y to exclude; gegen towards \ r against. ~$H XII f«~ English: square to agree y to disagree; fast rest Y motion; shame modesty y disgrace; ravel to entangle y to disentangle. As regards let and cleave in which different roots have come to be identical by mere outer change, it is a question whether, to the English linguistic consciousness, they are polar words or not. The early framers of speech could only realise thought by thesis and antithesis, likeness and difference. If great resemblance had to be expressed it could only be done by negation; the good was only the relatively bad, until, with the progress of thought, arose separation and distinction of positive and negative. Of the three phases of primitive speech, namely, antonymy (each sound expressing opposed meanings), homonymy (every sound having any meaning) and synonymy (every meaning being expressed by any sound) the first would seem to be alike the oldest and most interesting, but in our enquiry we must take note of all. Hitherto students of language have, for the most part, been engaged in seeking and formulating the laws of phonetic changes, but a far more important study is that of the laws of conceptual evolution as manifested in the rise and fall both of word-meanings and grammatical forms. How are concepts generated and concatenated? How are im- pressions co-ordinated? These are the questions that interest the psychological student of human speech. By more than one apostle of the mind it has lately been maintained that all future philosophy will be a philo- sophy of language. Not only do we find the higher order of linguistic students renouncing the purely grammatical and syntactical standpoint for the exploration of the border- land between philology and philosophy, but psychologists themselves are beginning to see that language is not so much the garment as rather the body of reason, and that the problems of reason, or the mythology of philosophy, H>4 XIII K~ can only be solved by a critique of Language. It is possible, no doubt, to think in sight and to see in thought: modes of mind can certainly be represented in architecture, sculpture and painting, but no fine art in its richest forms can tell us such a simple fact as: last summer there was a bad harvest. Again, in nature everything is either necessary or contingent; there is no still small voice to whisper: 'thou canst, for thou must!' In other words, sequence of time and moral obligation can only be expressed in verbal sym- bols. We are thus led at once to consider the relation of language to thought, to seek the origin of Reason, to see whether the dawn of mind was not also the sunrise of the moral sense, whether conscience and consciousness did not rise together. VOLUME I. THE HISTORY OF SPIRIT AND THE THOUGHT OF GOD. CHAPTER I. THE HISTORY OF SPIRIT. f the many realms of knowledge upon which pro- gressing philology has thrown a flood of light, there is surely none more fascinating to the student of man than that of ethical and spiritual concepts. Language has made most of our riddles in ethics and religion, and must therefore be made to solve them. Now, in matters of scientific discovery there is perhaps no safer maxim than the well-known aphorism of Bacon: — Sola spes est in vera inductione. But nowhere has it been on the whole so persistently neglected as in the attempts to explain the rise and fall of moral and religious ideas. And yet it is precisely in an examination of the fundamental facts of man's common religious and ethical consciousness that the inductive method should prove most fruitful. What philology and ethnology have done to strengthen the tie that binds the individual to his fellow-man, we venture to think comparative conceptology will do for the broadening and deepening of his faith. In dissecting the various forms of human speech we are not only laying bare the progress of culture, but are writing the history of the evolution of the moral sense. Thus, if we wish to know what stage in A the development of ethical or religious thought has been reached by the different branches of mankind, we must ex- amine their words for God, for sin and righteousness, false- hood and truth, good and evil, love and hatred, soul or spirit. In the following pages we propose to give such a chapter of ethics from an analysis of language; to listen to the voice ot conscience in the temple of speech. It is not too much to hold that, in the multiform manifestation of language we have a contemporary antiquity and are able, as Goethe would say, to look into great maxims of creation, nay, into the secret workshop of God! The consideration of the cell- element of all religious or ethical thought, namely, the con-, cept of Deity or the idea of right and wrong can thus vie in interest with the astronomer's study of galaxy and nebulae, of systems and of worlds. To trace the history of the name which is above every name, to gauge the supreme concept, to arrive at a truly scientific derivation of the words for the All-Father, which, from the cradle to the grave, express for each his sublimest thought, his best feeling, his loftiest aspiration, must be to every reverent observer, be he ethno- grapher or psychologist, historian or antiquarian, a very choice delight. On the hypothesis of man's evolution from some lower organism the question naturally presents itself: is there no life of the soul in some of the higher mammalia, no poss- ibility of a pre-human ethical or religious consciousness? Have not the animals morals and religion? It certainly has been maintained, and more especially by von Hartmann, that the attitude of many domestic animals toward man is undoubtedly of a religious nature. In so doing, however, there can be little doubt that the unconscious philosopher looks at the question too much from an anthropopathical point of view, which leads him to overlook the fact that, owing to its lack of verbal symbols whereby impressions -5* 3 K~ become co-ordinated, animal consciousness must necessarily be too fleeting to be called religious or moral. Surely the great difference between animal and human consciousness is that, whereas in the one case it is purely substantive with no differentiation of form, in the other form assumes a separate existence, a fixity in independent mental images. The reason why the animals do not speak is in no wise to be found in externals but essentially in psychical momenta. It is possible for the animal to grow up in human society to a great extent as the child does. It not only exactly apprehends speech-sounds, but can itself produce them and yet — it cannot speak. Nay, it can understand other signs and can even project itself into the mood of others, fully taking part in human life, though more as rogue than as a worker. In many respects it is wiser than 'John' and 'Jane', and yet it does not learn to speak. Why not? Let us first of all remember that one does not become wise by speaking; the animals may be very wise and not a little clever in adapting means to ends : the lack of language does not make them stupid. That is to say, it is not the content of con- sciousness which is immediately affected by language, but only its form. A talking man may have less mental con- tent, less mental mobility than the animal, but he has his content in higher form. Of course, under favorable circum- stances the higher form will further the content. The form of animal consciousness is perception, that of human con- sciousness is apperception, which constitutes the fourth stage in psychical development. Feeling, sensation and perception may be completed and thoroughly comprehended without speech, but apperception is only possible with the help of language. 'Speech is form, speaking formation.' We have, then, to do with man, and when we say with man we mean, with the author of Genesis, D^K th?. It i not necessary for our purpose to determine the dimensions of the protogenes Hackelii or to investigate the capabilities ~3H 4 Hg~ of Huxley's bathybius. All we say, is that, what the Turanians call ji||, the Semites nVp, the Hamites I <=> , and what we Aryans call 3gH or Aoyoc; is to he found in man alone, however long it may have been evolving. It is astonishing how firm a hold this truth had upon the best minds of the Roman world. Cicero says of man: 'Deus homines, primum humo excitatos, celsos et erectos constituit, ut deorum cogni- tionem, caelum intuentes, capere possent'. 'Sed nostra omnis vis,' writes Sallust, 'in animo et corpore sita est; animi im- perio, corporis servitio magis utimur; alterum nobis cum Dis, alterum cum belluis commune est. Quo mihi rectius videtur ingenii quam virium opibus gloriam quaerere.' And Ovid sings: — Os homini sublime dedit, coelumque tueri Jussit, et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus Sic, modo quae fuerat rudis et sine imagine, tellus Induit ignotas hominum conversa figuras. As Prof. Steinthal well observes: 'If we are told that the Hottentots and Bushmen are nothing but simiae lingua praeditae, we answer with the king and poet of the Hebrews when he says of man (psalm 8): attamen paullulo tantum Deo est inferior.' In seeking the spiritual history of the various races of the globe let us begin by asking: what is the etymology of spirit and of soul? For, the biography of the word will show us how the concept was framed and named, and how man came to believe he could know so much more than he ever can know, to realise a world of thought far removed from that of sense. Now, as is well . known, our word spirit is the Latin spiritus. 'breath', from spir-are (for spis-a-re, speis-a-re, spois- a-re) 'to breathe'. The root is spit which underlies piis-ula, pus-tula blis-ter; Sanskrit puppu-sa-s 'lung'; Greek qpu-o"a •windbag'; Lithuanian pus-ti 'to blow', and pus-le 'bladder'. -§H O H$- Froni this root comes also the Greek ipuxn (= spu-ch-e), which was destined to play so great a part in the history of philosophy. The direct descendants of 'spiritus' are the following: — vspu Spanish: Oldform : Old-French : English : Welsh: e-spiritu, e-sprito e-spir spright, spirit y-sbryd. Italian: spirito Roumanian : spirit Portuguese: e-spirito Catalan: e-sperit French : e-sprit Here we find the primary concept to be 'breath' or 'wind', and the question naturally presents itself: is this true of other words for spirit? Let us examine a few. The root of 'animus' and 'anima', 'mind', 'soul', is an 'to breathe', as may be seen from the following list of cognates: — VAN Skt.: sjisth an-a-s 'breath', ^fn^« an-ila-s 'wind' ^fnfa an-i-mi 'I breathe', ^ wfcht* an-ika-s 'face'. ^end: Ajajyjjo ain-ika 'face' (originally 'mouth'). Greek: dv-e-uo-q 'wind'. Irish: an-a-m&n 'revelry'. Latin: an-i-mu-s 'mind'; an-i-ma 'soul'; an-i-mal. French: a-me. Gothic: j\ti-ST 'grace, favor'. iiz-j\ti-j\ 'I expire'. Old High German: un-st 'wind'; an-do 'anger'. Ags.: an-da 'anger'. Old Norse: 6n-d 'soul, life'. Swedish: andedrag 'drawing the breath'. „ An-de 'spirit'; hellige Oncl 'Holy Ghost'. (Norsk). The change of meaning has nowhere been so great as in Latin. "When, for instance, Cicero says: 'quaedam animalis intelligentia per omnia ea transit', we have to trans- late: 'a kind of living mind goes through them all.' ■^i 6 **- The mystery of breathing was the first to wake the wonder of our Aryan ancestors. When, wandering on the banks of the Sarasvati and looking up at the blue dome above, the venerable E,si asked himself whence this great creation sprang, he could not but break forth into 'mystic, unfathomable song': — 'The birth of Time it was, when yet was naught nor aught, Yon sky was not, nor heaven's all-covering woof; No life, no death, no amplitude of breath was sought In those primeval days. What clouded all? what roof Of many twinkling eyes, if need of such could be? Unknown alike were sun and moon; no light or sound E'er broke the awful sameness of that vast, wan sea; The One alone breathed breathless, waiting, self-profound!' 'HhIh 'H^TrT S^WT rTS VZiB Rgveda x- 129. A matchless line, unrivalled in the poetry of any nation! Similarly from a root VA, metathesized AU we get: Gothic: j\liHj\ 'spirit', Ahma sunjos 'the spirit of Truth'. yATJ-VA 'to breathe, blow'. S~kt.: cnftr 'I breathe', grcro va-ju-s 'wind'. Sd.: )jj.o(> vaju 'wind, air'; ^jj^(j vaja 'The Death-Bird', which conducts the souls of the dead into the Beyond. Git.: ydf d-uu 'I breathe', d-oq TrveOua, dr)-ui 'I blow 5 , dr|-TTi-S 'wind', au-pa 'breath', d-ip (= d/ep) 'air', 'mist'; d-i'-aG-w, dd-2-iu, do"0-ua 'difficult breathing'. Lot.: ven-tu-s, ven-ter. Eccs.: ve-j-a 'I breathe'. Lith.: ve-je-s 'wind', 6-ra-s 'air, weather'. Goth.: y^*i^N 'to blow, to breathe'. Ah-ma = dn-ua vi-nd-s 'wind'. ~5* 7 k=~ An expansion of this root (AU-T-) gives us the follow- ing important words: — Skt.: tmi*wh at-man 'breath, soul, self. Gk.: dux-ur|V 'breath, incense'; dt-uo-s 'mist, smoke'. Old Saxon: ath-om. Old High German: at-um 'breath'. Ags.: aeS-ni 'breath'. Modem High German: Od-em. Irish: adh-m 'cognitio', adh-ma 'gnarus'. Again, from the root PNTJ come: — Gk.: Trve-uu 'I blow', TrveO-ua 'breath, spirit'; TTveu-uuuv 'lung' ; Tre-TTVuuevo-q 'intelligent'; mvu-Tri 'understanding'. hat.: pul-mo(n) 'lung'. Eccs.: plus-ta 'lung'. Lithuanian: plau-czei 'lung'. Yet another root, with the same fundamental concept, has given us words for 'thought, spirit, soul'. VD'TJ Ski.: VFftfa d'ii-n6-mi, *irT d'li-ta 'I shake, kindle'; vam d'u- ma-s 'smoke'; vifa d'u-li 'dust'. Sd.: /aj6/>9 dun-man 'mist, incense'. Gk.: 0u-uu 'I rave, roar, sacrifice'; 0u-v-uu 'I storm'; 90-vo-g 'assault'; 6u-e\Xa, 'storm-wind'; 6u-uo-<; 'courage, passion, emotional frame of mind; soul'; 90-ua, 9u-o"ia 'sacrifice'; 0uri-ei-? 'odorous'; Guuouavxtc; 'having a prophetic soul'. Lat.: ffi-mu-s, 'smoke'; sub-fi-o 'I fumigate'; sub-fi-men 'incense'. Bussian : KyxT> 'spirit'; Ayxt cbatoh Duk' svjatoj 'Holy Ghost'. Boh.: du-ch; Pol.: du-ch; Cro.: du-h; Gypsy: dii-k 'spirit'. Eccs.: du-na/ti 'to breathe'; dy-mu 'smoke'; du-chu 'spirit'; du-sa 'soid'. Lith.: du-niai (pi.) 'smoke'; du-ma-s 'thought'. Goth.: daun-s 'odor'. Ohg.: tun-s-t 'storm'; tou-m 'vapor'. ON.: du-s-t 'pulvis'. Eng.: du-s-t. -3* 8 f<~ The conceptual evolution here is very significant: — a) d'urnas 'smoke' P) Guuos 'soul' Y) dumas 'thought'. Anglosaxon gdst 'spirit', gdst-bana 'devil', i. e. 'spirit- murderer', German Geist, English Ghost all point to the same idea, for, they are connected with gas, yeast, geyser. On the other hand soul is connected with sea and swell. VSU Skt.: STsftftr su-no-mi 'I press juice'; ^rctrr sav-am 'water'; T&m su-ma-m 'milk, water'; *rh sti-na-s 'river'. Umbr.: sa,\-itu 'rain'. Gk.: u-ei 'it rains'; u-c-to-c; 'rain', ceiuu (= cr/e-juu) 'I shake'; o"d\o-£ (for of a-Xo-q) 'oscillation, hesitation'; crdXag 'sieve'; caXcrfn 'tumult'. Lat.: salu-s, salu-m = cdXog. Goth.: Sjuys 'sea'; Sjuyj\Aj\ 'soul'. Ohg.: swe-11-an 'to swell'; wider-swal-m. Ags.: japul 'soul'. Dan.: siel. Isl. : saal. Dutch: ziel. Ger.: See, Seele, schwellen. Eng: sea, soul, swell. Compare for a moment now we know the etymology, English soul, German Seele, French ame, with Geist, esprit, spirit. * All three former words may be said to denote the whole of consciousness — idea, feeling, will, though not quite in equal degrees. Soul, Seele, ame form the world within, the kocfuoc; voriTO? as Plato would say. These forceful and beautiful words express that deep and mysterious well whence issue and flow the streams of our manifold being. Who can say when it will be exhausted? How truly the poet sings: — 'Kein Dicliter liat sein Tiefstes ausgesungen, Kein Maler je sein Tiefstes hingestellt, Tief liegt es in der Seele Dammerungen Em dunkles Sein, von keinem Strahl erhellt.' 1 See Prof. C. Abel's "Psychology of Language." ~X 9 K~ But it is different, as Prof. Abel well points out, "if, dividing the soul into its various capacities, we endeavour to mark out the proper sphere of each. Geist, esprit, and spirit indeed concur in that part of their comprehensive signification which approaches closely the meaning of soul, Seele, ame; the difference mainly consisting in soul empha- sizing the capacity rather than its application, while spirit and its foreign kindred do the reverse. But the moment this capacity, which they all equally recognise, begins to enter on the sphere of action, the genius of each nation profits by the opportunity for the display of its own peculiar calibre and taste. The German Geist discovers the more delicate features, resemblances and dissemblances of things, without expressly attending to their more patent qualities. qualities which they have in common with many other things and which reason and sense suffice to ascertain. Geist endeavours to penetrate the essence of matter — I had almost said, to enter into the Geist of a thing, so identified is the term with inner individuality and special type. French esprit certainly proceeds on the same lines, but, in con- formity with the peculiar workings of the Gallic mind, shows a tendency to illustrate speciality by strong contrast, and, as brief and daring comparisons are apt to be incorrect, frequently succeeds in being more brilliant than true. As regards the English term spirit, in this particular appli- cation, it is essentially a sensible quality, but it is sense shaded off with a warm appreciation of what is correct, right and true. Instead of pretending to weigh, gauge, and assess the very soul of a person or an object, as the German and French relatives of the English term undertake spirit is content to discern main facts and clothe them with colors supplied by principle and sense alike. The diversity of national character stands out well in these various ways of distinguishing the leading forces of the soul. The German endeavours to penetrate the inner essence of things by patient B -> 10 K- research; the French attempt to reach the same goal by brilliant leaps; and the steady-going, confident, and hearty valuation of surrounding objects by English sense equally betray some of the leading characteristics of the three national types compared." This examination of the more cultivated idioms has shown us that, roots, be they reflected sound-gestures or evolved phonetic types, are for the most part indicative of human action, pointing thus to the significant fact that, man was, before all, conscious of his own activity, that it was to him the best known, the most intimate of all. And this truth will become clearer when we go on to consider the speech of tribes of the lowest order. Among the West Australians we find the same word for 'breath,' 'spirit,' 'soul,' namely, Wang, whilst in the Netela language of California Piuz means 'life, breath, soul.' To the Malays of Java 'breath, life, soul' are all expressed by naiva, which at once reminds us of the Hebrew and Arabic tl^Si nefes, ,JLii nafs, 111*1 ruak', ^ rub.', the stages of development being identical. Of the Seminoles of Florida we are told that, 'when a woman dies in childbirth the infant is held over her face to receive her parting spirit, and thus acquire strength and knowledge for its future use.' At the death-bed of an old Roman the nearest kinsman used to lean over — et excipies banc animam ore pio — to inhale the last breath of the departing! The various terms life, mind, soul, spirit, ghost are not so much descriptive of really separate entities, as rather the several forms and functions of one individual being. Indeed, the doctrine of Animism, so admirably enunciated and worked out by Dr. Tylor in his 'Primitive Culture,' lies at the root of primitive man's philosophy of life. According to Malagasy psychology, the saina or mind vanishes at death, the aina or life becomes mere air, but the matoatoa or ghost hovers round the tomb. The Karens -> 11 K~ distinguish between the la or kelah, the personal life-phantom, and the t'ah, the responsible moral soul. In the same way the Fijians make a distinction between a man's 'dark spirit' or shadow, which goes to Hades, and his 'light spirit', which is a reflexion in water or a mirror, and stays near where he dies. In savage biology the functions of life are said to be caused by the soul. Of one insensible or unconscious it is alleged, in the language of the South Australians, that he is wiljamarraba i. e. 'without soul.' Some of the Burmese tribes, the Karens, for instance, "will run about pretending to catch a sick-man's wandering soul, or as they say with the ancient Greeks, his 'butterfly' (leip-pja), and at last drop it down upon his head." According to the Caribs, the chief soul of man, which is to enjoy the heavenly life, is to be found in the heart, hence jouanni means 'soul, life, heart.' Again, Soul has been conceived as the phantasm of the dreamer and the visionary, that insubstantial form which is like a shadow and indeed has been often identified with it. In Arawak, for instance, ueja means 'shadow', 'soul,' 'image.' Amongst the Algonquins a man's soul is described as otahk'uk 'his shadow,' and in kike we have natub for 'shadow, soul,' whilst the Abipones employ the word loakal for 'shadow,' 'soul,' 'echo,' 'image.' Similarly amongst the South African tribes we have Zulu tunsi and Basuto seriti for 'shadow, 'spirit,' 'ghost.' Of the latter, indeed, it is said that 'if a man walk on the river bank, a crocodile may seize his shadow (seriti) in the water and draw him in.' The people of Old Calabar identify the spirit with the ukpon or 'shadow,' the loss of which is fatal. Nay, even in Christian Dante's Purgatory we find the dead know the poet to be alive, because, unlike theirs, his figure casts a shadow on the ground. According to Dante the dead soul forms for itself a shadow-body from the air by which it is surrounded. In ~* 12 k^- tliat lovely and touching scene in the Purgatorio (xxi. 130) between Statius and Virgil, when the former learns that Virgil is before him, he bends at once to kiss his "feet, but Virgil holds him back with: 'We are both but shadows'; and he: 'Now thou canst measure the greatness of my consuming love for thee, which led me to forget that Ave are shadows. and to clasp shadows as though they were solid bodies/ In the Hebraic doctrine of the D^D") Repaini and the more or less obscure teaching of the ekimme in Assyria and Baby- lonia we again meet with the 'shadow-soul.' When the body dies, there is detached from it a sort of impalpable and in- visible image or double, the nSTRapeh which descends into "?1Kt2" A seol, the Shadow-land, the Ekiinmu which goes down to Aralii 'The undiscovered country from whose bourn No traveller returns.' And now that we have learned a little about the rise and growth of the concept, it seems almost ludicrous to think of the amount of useless speculation as to the seat of the Soul. Aristotle placed it in the heart, Plato in the brain. Herakleitos, Kritios and the Jews sought for it in the blood, Epikouros, on the other hand, in the chest. More recently Picinus placed it again in the heart; Descartes in the pineal gland — a little organ situated in the centre of the brain, containing sandy particles. Sommering declared the soul's seat must be in the ventricles, and Kant in the water contained in them, whilst Huxley can only think of it as a 'mathematical point.' 'The brain,' says Buclmer, 'is not merely the organ of thought and of all higher mental faculty, but also the sole and exclusive seat of the Soul.* Already our study has shown us how great is the difference between the outer and the inner, the body and the soul of language, nay, between thought and its ex- pression! Who would have thought that the same radical idea, the simple act of breathing, would have given us words for Mind and Wind, for Thought and Dust, for very Soul ■** 13 *s~ itself? It is a remarkable fact in Sanskrit that the oblique cases to the substantive svajam are formed from atman, and there can be no doubt that the Greek auTog comes from the same root an to breathe, just as in Arabic we find nafs-u 'self, and hu 'he', havijat 'ipseity' from hava 'to breathe, be'; and nafs 'breath, soul'. animus : d'veuoc; : : d'umas : dumas. It is perhaps not unnatural that 'the act of breathing, so characteristic of the higher animals during life, and coinciding so closely with life in its departure 1 should have repeatedly been 'identified with the life or soul itself.' But what a gulf between the breath of a savage and the Atman of the Vedanta, the udgit'a, the Oin, the Brahman of the Aryan world, representing the high-watermark of speculative thought and finding its best expression in the Upanisads! To the uncultured mind it is simply 'in breathing see breath,' but to the philosopher, to the pandit of Aryan thought it is: 'know the Self by the self,' i. e. know thyself to be a limited reflex of the eternal Self, that thy spirit is part of Spirit supreme! Hence Sadananda, the author of the Vedantasara exclaims : — Akandam Sak'k'idanandamavan-manasagok'aram Atmanamak'ilad'aramas'raje 'b'istasidd'aje || 'In order to obtain my heart's desire, I flee to the indivisible Self of the World (Atman), the Upholder of All, beyond speech and reason, and consisting of Being, Thought. Joy!' Indeed I am not sure that we should not be justified in translating Atman 'the Prayer of the World.' It is the \6yos of feeling, the incense of the heart, the Breath of the Eternal! What to the Hebrews was objective— "in J> the smoke of the sacrifice, was to the Aryans intensely ♦ 14 K- subjective, was, in fact, the aspiring will of man: Brahman (j^barh), Atman, euxeaGcu, mojihtlch, orare, precari, bicljan. Unlike the children of Israel, the Arabs seem ever to have depended more upon the inner than the outer: ky^> (from J-)- How great, again, is the difference between the vpuxn of the Greek peasant and that of the Homer of philosophers ! It has been truly said that, if not the best, Plato's definition of the soul is certainly one of the best ever written: tw uev 0eiuj Kai d6avdTiu Kai vonTw kcu uovoeibeT Kai dbiaXuru) Kai del ujcrauTuuq Kai Kaid xaOia exovrt eauiw ouoioxdxriv eivai ipuxnv. 'The soul most nearly resembles an essence, which is divine, immortal, intellectual, homogeneous, in- divisible, and always and uniformly the same.' Accepting the ouo~ia or Eternal Substance of Parmenides, Plato argues that the forms of this universal ouoia are certain eternal, simple and self-like (ououuuciTa) pictures, which exist in the human soul as voriuaia, immutable concepts. It is these alone which really exist, rd ovia, dvruug ovia, and form the koctuos voriToq. From them come all ideas of the True, the Beautiful and the Good, whilst the world of sense, Kocruoq opctTog, has no real existence, is, in fact, the ouk 6v. Indeed, the whole system may be described as a philosophy of the soul (qpiXocroqpia tx\<; vpuxn^)- G-od (6 vouc;) has created the human soul immortal as part of himself, because it is itself the cause of motion (auio eauxo kivoOv), and because it is the necessary antithesis of the death of the body. The ijjuxm has two parts (uepn) by which it is united with the body: whilst the Xotictikov xf\q vjajxh? or the voOq has its seat in the head, the animal part (to d\oYto"TiKov or £Tn8uur)TiK6v) is to be found in the abdomen, the Gimog or the 6u)uoeibes in the breast. The souls of men have not always been bound to this weak body; they might indeed be enjoying the eternal contemplation of the ibeat -$h 15 Kr- but having turned away from them, they have sunk into mortal bodies, wherein by memory (dvduvncns) they pant after the eternal types! It was, doubtless, in recognition of the instinct of im- mortality that the Greeks and the Karens were led to adopt the butterfly as the emblem of the soul. Dr. Owgan has well shown the twofold analogy between the two cases. Firstly, between the three states of existence through which the insect passes, and those through which the human being, if immortal should also pass. Secondly, between our spiritual instinct which leads us to anticipate another life, and that evident instinct which guides the lower animal to make preparation for the transformation of which it is impossible that it can have any fore-knowledge; from which it is naturally inferred that, as the instinct of the butterfly is infallible, so also is man's. Between ipuxn and Trveuua there is precisely the same nuance of thought as between Ctei and nn, JLkS and _^. Perhaps this is nowhere so clearly seen as in Isaiah xlii. 1 :— tasato v$jj vnn ^na ^d: nnr\ n^rn ir-ijans nnj> jn Hen abdi et'mak-bo bk'iri raztah nafsi nat'ati Ruk'i alaiv mispat lagojim jozi. 'Behold my servant, whom I will uphold; my elect, in whom my soul delighteth: I have put my spirit upon him. that he may bring forth justice to the nations.' As quoted in the New Testament: — «'l6ou, 6 ttcxu; uou, ov ripexicra, 6 dYoarnTos iuou, 6v euboKnaev f) \pv\r\ uou* 0r|O"uu to 7rve0ud uou gtt' cmjtov, Kai Kpicriv T0T5 eGvemv a.TTa.we\zi.» The Arabs distinguish not only between JLiJ Xafs and r y Ruh but between JS JJCs. Akl-i-kul 'Universal Reason', 'Cosmic Intelligence' and JS J~J6 Nafs-i-kul 'all-embracing •^ 16 K- Spirit, Over-Soul', which, as an emanation from God, is subordinate to the former. It was the TTveOua orpov of which, on the day of Pentecost when the whole house was tilled with the sound of a mighty, rushing wind, the Apostles were full. Nay, of the Eternal himself it is said that, He is Spirit: TTveO|ua 6 0605 ! This is the supreme revelation of the Son of Man to the children of God! Spirit of all the spirits of our race, Who of all souls art ever Over-Soul, Thine is the crescive secret, thine the roll Of aeons and the stately stretch of space. In thine infinitude for each a place Be found as facet, jewel, or as Scroll "Whereon the alphabet of love, the whole Of being, thought and joy thou mayest trace. Son of Man! the brotherhood of man And sisterhood of woman in one faith And fire of heart art thou, and thine the plan Of service, till the gentle hand of death Reveal the banner of all souls unfurled In thee, o Heart, whose flutters fill the World! Having thus traced the development of the concept Soul from the simple act of breathing to the sublime thought of God, let us go on to consider the predicate of Deity, which will show us how, in all ages though in different ways, man has been conscious of dependence on a Higher Power, a Nobler will than his own, and has panted after God as the hart after the waterbrooks. The idea of God: was it evolved, revealed, or arrived at by a play of subjective intellectual activity? In discussing this important question philosophers have, for the most part, employed the deductive method. Thus, so subtle a thinker as Hume tried to show that the idea of Gods arose out of the ignorance and fear which personi- fied the "unknown causes" of the accidents and eccentricities of Nature, the idea of one God — Monotheism — out of the ~>- 17 Mfr- gradual concentration of flattery and offerings on one of these personifications. According to him polytheism is the deification of many unknown causes of natural phaenomena; monotheism the deification of one unknown cause. Comte supposed the so-called primitive fetishism to spring from infant or savage by a tendency which it had in common with dog or monkey to ascribe to natural objects organic or inorganic, a life analogous to its own. In Comte's view the individual passes, as the race has passed before him, through three states, the theological or fictitious, the meta- physical or abstract, and the scientific or positive. He says : — "En etudiant ainsi le developpement total de l'in- telligence humaine dans ses diverses spheres d'activite, depuis son premier essor le plus simple jusqu'a nos jours, je crois avoir decouvert une grande loi fondamentale, a laquelle il est assujetti par une necessite invariable, et qui me. semble pouvoir etre solidement etablie, soit sur les preuves rationelles fournies par la connaissance de notre organisation, soit sur les verifications historiques resultant d'un examen attentif du passe. Cette loi consiste en ce que chacune de nos conceptions principales, ehaque branche de nos connaissances passe successivement par trois etats theoriques differents ; l'etat theologique ou fictif ; l'etat nieta- physique, ou abstrait; l'etat scientifique oupositif. En d'autres termes, l'esprit humain, par sa nature, emploie successive- ment dans chacune de ses recherches trois methodes de philosopher, dont le caractere est essentiellement different et meme radicalement oppose; d'abord la methode theo- logique, ensuite la methode metaphysique, et enfin la methode positive. De la, trois sortes de philosophie, ou de systemes generaux de conceptions sur l'ensemble des phenomenes qui s'excluent mutuellement ; la premiere est le point de depart necessaire de l'mtelligence humaine; la troisieme, son etat fixe et definitif; la seconde est uniquement destinee a servir de transition." c ~>; 18 Kr- In his 'Descent of Man' Darwin combines the various elements of an ascription of life to natural objects, dreams, fears, &c. Mr. Spencer considers the propitiation of dead ancestors, who are supposed to be still existing and to be capable of working good or ill to their descendants, the rudimentary form of all religion. Sir John Lubbock is perhaps the only man of any authority in England who considers that tribes of the lowest culture, representatives of primitive man, are utterly destitute of belief of any kind. The transition to fetishism he describes as arising partly from dreams and disease, and, in some cases, owing to divination and sorcery. With the exception of Comte's, all these theories agree in the following propositions: a) that primitive man had no kind of idea of a God; P) that the animism of savagery was the rudimentary form of all belief; and y) that, in the progress of the species from savagery to advanced civili- sation, anthropomorphism grew into theology. That these propositions, arrived at by the deductive method, are not tenable, we hope to be able to show by the application of the method of induction, by national and international linguistic analysis. We want, in fact, fewer theories and more facts; and for these facts we must look to the Logic of Signs or, in other words, to the Science of Language. It is customary with logicians to assume that, all objects of belief are susceptible of propositional form; but the evidence of language when examined ideologically will, I think, conclusively prove that, confidence in a Divine reality may be expressed in other than our familiar affir- mative forms of language. ~>- 19 K~ CHAPTER II. AEYAX THOUGHTS OF GOD. To begin with our own Teutonic concept of Deity, what is the etymology of "God?" "Parini les noms europeens cle Dieu", says M. Ad. Pictet, "qui n'ont pas de correlatifs orientaux, mais dont quelques-uns peuvent etre fort anciens, je ne m'occuperai ici que du gothique Guth, et de ses analogues germaniques. Les essais multiplies qui out ete faits pour l'expliquer montrent bien a quel point nous sommes livres airx incerti- tudes etymologiques quand les termes sanserifs ou zends nous font defaut." Starting from the base guta M. Pictet would naturally look for a Sanskrit form ^h guta. Not finding this, however, he suggests that the Gothic word came from %r\ huta (\/~HU), which has the double sense of sacriftcatus and is cui sacrificatur, "et ce dernier con- viendrait parfaitement a Dieu," giving us the formula ?0-ov, K6o9-uu, cus-tos), the reply is that an Aryan form kud'a would have given us what in fact we find, namely, Huda, hide, Hut. Nor do I think Schweitzer and Leo Meyer have been more successful. The hypothesis of the one being Gutli = ved. Uuti, because, forsooth, skt. d" is sometimes reduced to h, and li = g Gothic ! whilst that of the other is that Gutha is the original form and corresponds with G'uta. No, if we want an etymology which is to be of any scientific value, we dare not disregard the Lautversdiiebungs- gesctz. If the exact phonetic equivalent cannot be found in Sanskrit, let us turn to Ancient Bactrian. What I venture to submit is that the word 'God' is derived from the Eranian verbal adjective a)Kuxj£>a>«x> li'a&ata, meaning 'self-evolved' or 'self-determined', 'obeying one's own law', as opposed to ajw-w^jw-o stid'dta 'following the law of the world'. So far from agreeing with M. Pictet when he says: 'le g gothique, en effet, ne saurait en ancun cas repondre au q zend', it seems to me that a sound which is the equivalent of Pahlavi and Persian h y cannot have been very different from Greek x, which is the normal ex- ponent of Gothic g. Very remarkable are the passages in the Avesta in which the word K'ad'dta occurs. I shall quote at least three, firstly word for word, and then in M. Darmesteter's ex- cellent translation. self-determined Universe Zoroaster thou Invoke high-in-action. Vaju boundless -X 22 k- || Nisbajaguha • tu • Sarat'ustra • t'wasahe ■ k'ad'atahe ■ Srvanahe • akaranahe • Yajaos • uparo-kairjehe || 'Invoke, o Sarat'ustra, the sovereign Heaven, the bound- less Time, and Vaju, whose action is most high'. Vendidad xix. 13 (44). .^>eOA)WJUU^\)U> .^Oe>3A»J)WAW» ..H'eOAyAWJiMJf .JftWJJA)>rjy having-its-own-law place Misvana I call upon Masda-made. K'invad bridge || Nisbajemi • Misvanahe ■ gatvahe • k'ad'atahe • k'invad- peretum • Masdad'atam || 'I invoke the sovereign place of eternal veal, and the- k'invad bridge, made by Masda". V. 36 (122). The last is a very obscure passage from the Vendidad Sadah, and M. Darruesteter has to confess that his trans- lation is doubtful. most warlike Self-Existent Ancient Meresu I call upon O .vM5JWJ-Vlev>pA))).VOL\5 .^u«aw\ . CAVM)jyjA>e Mighty. Creation of-the-two-spirits || Nisbajemi • Meresu ■ Pouru-K'ad'ato ■ juid'isto ■ mainivao • daman • savaghaitis || M. Darmesteter translates: 'I invoke the ancient and sovereign Meresu, the greatest seat of Battle in the Creation of the two spirits'. If I venture to give another version it is because I feel that I am supported by the note of a distinguished Eranian scholar. In his Handbuch der Awesta- sprache (p. 111. n. 2) Dr. Wilhelm Geiger, referring to this passage, says: 'Das Folgende ... ist vollkommen un- erklarbar. Bemerken mo elite ich nur, dass in Qadhdta ein Eigenname vorliegen Jconnte. 1 This is the more probable, because Pouru-K'ad'ato is the subjective case, so that I should render the sentence as follows: — -^ 23 ~s~ 'I call upon Meresu. In the creation of the two spirits the Ancient-of-Days, who follows His own law, was a mighty warrior.' K'acTata is composed of K 5 a 'self, and data, the perfect participle passive of jAla (Skt. d'a, Gk. 6e) 'to lay, make, create'. Hence 'law' as that which is 'laid down. The Sanskrt equivalent is ^n- 24 k- oblation to the Manes. And though k'ad'ata is not speci- fically applied to Ahura Masda, it is applied to Srvdna- akarana, boundless Time, by which deity, according to at least one sect of the Persians, Ahura Masda was created. Alike from 'Sahra'stani, from the reports of the Armenians Esnik and Eliseus and from Damascius, as Prof. Spiegel informs us, we learn that, the Zervanites hold that Srvdna- akarana is really the eternal unconditioned Ruler, that he created Fire and Water and that from the union of these two elements Ahura Masda arose. Thus ^n and woMAUyz may well have been per- manently before the Aryan religious consciousness, nor is it more surprising to find k'ad'a among the Goths as Gild than to know that an obscure son of Aditi— wt — has become the Supreme Being to the Slavonic nations — EOFL. Let us but look at the following list of cognates: — VD'A Aryan: wwm Svad'ata Old Bactrian: AJtt5ja'^AJtX> K'ad'ata Bahlavi: rx>»)j>3 K'utat Parsi-Gugarati: ^oioS% K'odao Persian : \o^L K'uda Kurdisli : fuoutg- K'ode Pastu: ^^L K'udai Osseti: Xyuay K'uzau Kdsmiri: cr?3^ K'udain Sind'i: K'uda Urdu: ljos» K'uda Dak'ani: K'uda Muslim-Bengali: tyr? y K'oda -5* 25 K-~ Kumikian: \j^ K'uda Gothic: rrijv Gud Icelandic: GirS Swedish: (DuD Norsk: (0uD Anglo- Saxon : God Loiv German: God Frisian: God Flemish: God Dutch : English: God God Old High Ger man: Kot Thus, alike in extension and intension, this Aryan con- cept of Deity is a truly noble one; it is the absolutism of the supreme — 'Law unto Himself, Lawgiver to man. 'God is law, say the wise, o Soul, and let us rejoice, For if He thunder by law, the thunder is yet His voice. Law is God say some; no God at all, says the fool, For all we have power to see is a straight staff bent in a pool. And the ear of man cannot hear, and the eye of man cannot see, But if we could hear and see this vision — were it not He?' And what of Slavonic EOFi, which is to Russians, Bulgarians, Servians, Slovenians, Croatians, Bohemians. Wends, Slovaks and Poles the supreme thought? As already hinted Kfi, modern Eon> Bog is really the Vedic WT B'aga, one of the sons of Aditi. Here again, however, it is not to India but to Eran that we must turn for the supremacy of the concept. In the Veda the place of B'au r ;i is always one of subordination. Even amongst the Aditjas, the phases and forms of the Infinite, he is by no means chief. Thus we read (ii. 27. 1): — D -^ 26 Hg- sznffrrT fain ^vm wft st: i || Ima gira Aditjeb'jo grtasniih | Sanadragabjo guhua guhomi | Srnotu Mitro Arjania B'ago nab | Tuvigato Varuno Dakso Amsah || | || 'May this song be poured forth to the Aditjas: I bring the offering to the Kings of long ago! May Mitra, Arjaman, B'aga hear us! Varuna, Daksa, Amsah, the mighty-born ! ' Xowhere do we find wt as a synonym of £cl deva sr^R Brahman or micww Atman. In the minds of those early Aryan poets he was but one of the many sides of the ^rfcjfn Aditi by which they were surrounded. But to the dwellers in Eran he had become Ahura Masda himself. In an Inscription of Alvend we read: || Baga vasraka Auramasda hja imam bumim God great Ahura Masda who this earth ada hja avam asmanam ada hja martijam created, who that heaven made, who man ada hja sijatim ada martijahja hja darajavaum made, who plenty made of (= for) man, who Darius k'sajat'ijam akunaus aivam parunam k'sajat'ijam aivam king made one of the many kings one parunam framataram of the many rulers. || Again, in the Avesta there are at least three passages where Baga cannot but apply to Ahura Masda. In one of the hymns addressed to Haoma, the Vedic Soma, we read: — (Jasna x. 26—27). ~> 27 ^ .-. .}*\> a vttJ>JeX) Aurvantem twa dami-datem Bago tatasad hvapao. The God who fashioned thee, the swift dispenser of wisdom, was a supreme Artist! Prof. Spiegel translates: — 'Dich, den grossen Spender der Weisheit, bildete ein kunstreicher Gott.' The same sentence follows, with i\>A)(3;uyy nidat'ad for <>3aj^.v)i>o,vik3 tatasad. Then, in the 19th Pargard of the Vendidad, which constitutes the framework of the whole book and gives us the wonderful history of Sarat'ustra's temptation and victory, we find the following (78): — Aad Vohu-mano-nidait'is suro-fwarstanam raok'agam jad he staram Bago-datanam aiwi-raok'ajaoiiti. And the prayer of man shall be under the mighty structure of the bright heavens, by the light of the God- given stars! Now, *pt B'aga comes from j/wsi bag just as .voam Baga is derived from Vv*>\ bag, the fundamental meaning being 'to bestow'. Hence from this root we have many words expressing fortune, property. YBAG to bestow, to obtain. SM.: b'aga 'son of Aditi, fortune, happiness, wealth'; b'agavat 'adorable'. Sd.: baga 'God, the Highest Good'; bag-a-s 'piece'; b bakta 'God-given'. ~& 28 r<~ Persian: bak'-t 'fortune'; bad-bak't 'unfortunate'. Buss.: Bog 'God'; boga-tiii 'rich'; u-bog'ii 'poor'; bogat-stvo .'riches'; bog-inja 'goddess'; bes-bosie 'godlessness'. Lath.: bago-tas 'rich'; na-bagas 'a poor man'. Gk.: (paf-eiv 'to eat'; qpay-a-g 'devourer'; (pay-ov-eg 'teeth'. Goth.: ga-beig-s 'rich'; manna gabigs 'a rich man'. Eng.: big. Welsh: ffaw-d 'fortune, luck'. Irish: fuigh-im 'I get'; fagh-ail 'getting'; fuigh-eall 'profit'. Skt: WT B'aga Sd.: MOM) Baga OP: -KB Baga Pvi. : Z?) Bag Pers. : & Bag Phrg. : Bayaiog (Zeus) Sd.: C< impounds: juro.u>i\ -^jpA)\Bago-data God-made. Bagdad, the City of Irak. Persian: MjyjLi built A. C. 762. Old Slavic: GO* Russian : Eon> Polish: Bog Bulgarian : Eon> Wendish : Bob Slovenian: Bog Croatian: Bogu Servian : Bory Bohemian: Bttf? Slovak: B6t> Tungusic: Baga. Hence B'aga is God as the great Bestower, the All- giver, the bountiful Dispenser of Riches. Few, if any, of the sons of Aditi have had so interesting and important a history. Whatever be the view taken of the Aditjas, whether solar or meteorological, certain it is that the wt of the Rg-veda has developed not only into the ak>ju\ of the Avesta and into the Clan-God of the Cuneiform In- scriptions, but has actually become the TTpwiri Oeou evvoia of all the Slav nations. ->• 29 k~ Of the Tungus Tatars Castren tells us that, besides the Sun and Moon, Heaven, Earth and Water, they worship a Supreme Being whom they call Buga, and perhaps it is not going too far to hold that it was through this channel that the Slav peoples obtained and retained their thought and predicate of God. Whilst worshipping the forces and beauties of Nature it is hardly to be wondered at that one of the Turanian tribes should have adopted the Eranian generic name for deity, especially when we remember the etymology which, in this case, seems never to have been lost sight of. The history of this Name is interesting in many ways. and especially as an illustration of the law so clearly per- ceived and so poetically described by Dante in the Paradiso (xxvi. 130):— Opera naturale e ch'uom favella. Ma, cosi o cosi, natura lascia Poi fare a voi secondo die v'abbella. Pria ch'io scendessi all' infernale ambascia, I s'appellava in terra il sommo Bene Onde vien la letizia che mi fascia; Eli si cliiamo poi: e cio conviene; Che l'uso de' mortali e come fronda In ramo, che sen va, ed altra viene. In dealing with the great Aryan family of mankind, to which we ourselves belong, let us not forget those thoughts of the Eternal which have sprung from the primary con- cept 'to shine', 'to be bright', from the ever-growing con- sciousness that 'God is Light and in Him is no darkness at all.' To the early Aryan framers of thought and speech, to the Rsis of our race all atoms in space were mirrors, fronted with the perfect face of God! The sun, the moon, the stars, the seas, the hills and the plains were 3^ deva, •bright 7 , from the root feaf div 'to illuminate'. And the sky was £or Kax' eSoxnv, it was sft dju 'the Illuminator", from the metathesized from of the same root — si dju. Nor was ~$* 30 hS- this all. In some of the oldest hymns of the Rg-Veda we meet with the great Asura sfo Djaus, Heaven, the su- premely Bright one, and more especially in that close connexion with facrr pita, 'father', which is so familiar to us in the religion of Greece and Home, dltufurir Djaus- Pita, points to a primitive Aryan ajijH Dju-Patar 'Heaven- Father'. 'This discovery of Dyaushpita', says Prof. Max Miiller, 'was like finding at last, by means of a powerful telescope, the very star in the very place of the heavens, which we had fixed before by calculation'. Thus we read (Egv. vi. 51. 5):— aft: ftfHT ?f?T ufafsr jtttt: mi=R i ^p^ **tft: erera: tfftri t: i Djauh Pitar iti Prt'ivi matah ad'ruk Agne b'ratah vasavah mrlata nah 'Father Heaven and kind mother Earth, Brother Fire, bright spirits, have mercy on us!' He is often invoked as d Tmfudi sif^HT Djaus pita g'anita (= Aryan Dju-patar ganitar), Zeug irarrip Ytveirip, Ju-piter genitor — 'Heaven-Father creator'. In Homer we read: — ZeO udrep, f\ pd nq e'crri Ppoxuiv in' otTieipova Ydiav, "Ocmc; eY dGavdxoiai voov Kai |uf|Tiv dviv^ei; Heaven-Father, who of mortals on the boundless earth Can now the immortal mind and will speak forth? And in those beautiful lines of Sophokles: — Gdpaei |uoi, Gdpaei, tckvov. £ti \xijaq oupavil) ZeO? o<; e'cpopu iravra Kai KpaTuver tl) tov uirepaXYfi xoXov v£f.iovaa, |ar|6' o\q e"x6aipei<; uirepdxGeo unr' e'm\d3ouv. Courage, courage, my child; Still is in heaven mild Almighty Zeus; he, watching, ruleth as of yore: To Him commit thy grief exceeding sore, And be not wroth henceforth for evermore! ~5~ 31 x$~ Amongst the Romans we find besides Jupiter the form Diespiter. Thus Horace (lib. I. xxxiv): — — Namque Diespiter, Igni corusco nubila dividens Plerumque, per purum tonantes Egit equos volucremque currum. There is a passage in Ovid which gives us in two lines the two other forms: — Di pia facta vident. Astris delphina recepit Juppiter et stellas jussit habere novem. In Welsh we have the striking motto: — Heb Dduw beb ddim: Duw a digon. "Without God without Everything: God is enough! And this name, once found, was never to be lost. There has been no solution of continuity. Subject, as every other name, to dialectic growth and phonetic decay, it has sur- vived in many a forceful way to bear witness to the eternal truth that God is our Father and we His children! Whether uttered on the Himalayas, amongst the oaks at Dodona, in the Roman Capitol, on the Welsh hills or the plains of Brittany; whether whispered in the forests of Germany, proclaimed from the peaks of Scandinavia, the heights of the Isle of Man, or wafted across the lonely lakes of Scot- land and of Erin — it is the selfsame word. ^foj DIV.BJU Skt: 33* devas 'God'; aft djo 'Heaven, Day'. Sd.: \}»y Xi \ daeva oouuuiv OJc.: Zeus, Ai/-oc;; Auiivn; bcuuuuv. Lett.: iDwcoe 'God' Lith.: £>tet»s 'God' Samo: £>ien?a6 'God' Lot.: Deus ; Diov-is ; Ju-piter; divus; div-initas; Diana; dies; sub dio. ~$H 32 : (lev bcuuuiv. Jebba 'God' devane 'God'; Devijo 'God' Devane Tia, in the compound TTepviia = Paramdeva Peren-dia = Paramdeva. Welsh: Duw 'God' Armoric: Doue 'God' Irish: Dia 'God' Gaelic: Dea 'God' Manx: Gi = Dji 'God' Pom. (Oberl.): Deus Pom. (Engad.): Deis French: Dieu Vandois: Diou Roumanian: Zev in the compound Dsmnezes Dumnedeu = Dominus-Deus Italian: Iddio, Dio. Piedmontese: Diou, Iddiou. Catalan: Deu Spanish: Dios Portuguese: Deus Prov.: Dieu OZd Norse: Tivar 'gods' Gothic: Tius OM jH?^7i German: Zio English: Tues-day. Of the tribes Non- Aryan who have adopted this word we find many in America, doubtless owing to the presence of the Spaniards: — Totondki: Dios Ajmara: Diosaja Mayan: Dioz Paeses: Dios Pules: Lios (for Dios) Abiponese: Dios Colorados: Dios Timukua: Dios ~S* 33 H$- Of the Malay race there are two instances :- Kdgutl: Dew-se '/\ ^K Deb-ata Batta . Amongst the Dravidas we find at least two examples: — Telugu: "^ $ ^ j Dewada Konkani: <^ ^ ^ 7$ -Devata In his Hibbert Lectures of 1878 Prof. Max Midler says of this pre-eminently Aryan concept: — "Five thousand years ago, or, it may be earlier, the Aryans, speaking as yet neither Sanskrit, Greek, nor Latin. called him Dyu patar, Heaven-father". Four thousand years ago, or, it may be earlier, the Aryans who had travelled southward to the rivers of the Penjab, called him Dyausli-pita, Heaven-father. Three thousand years ago, or, it may be earlier, the Aryans on the shores of the Hellespont, called him Zevq Train, p, Heaven-father. Two thousand years ago, the Aryans of Italy looked up to that bright heaven above, hoc sublime cancleus, and called it Ju-piter, Heaven-father. And a thousand years ago the same Heaven-father and All-father was invoked in the dark forests of Germany by our own peculiar ancestors, the Teutonic Aryans, and his old name of Tiu or Zio was then heard perhaps for the last time. But no thought, no name, is ever entirely lost. And when we here in this ancient Abbey, which was built on the ruins of a still more ancient Eoman temple, if we want a name for the invisible, the infinite, that surrounds us on every side, the unknown, the true self of the world, and the true self of ourselves — we, too, feeling once more like E ^ 34 k- children, kneeling in a small dark room, can hardly find a better name than: "Our Father, which art in 'Heaven'." Another Aryan thought of the Deity is that of Ruler or Commander, from the root 4rcr, often in conjunction with param, 'supreme'. Y IS to rule, have dominion Sanskrit: 4*cre Is-vara, =b& Is-a Lord, God. Kait'i: ^sr Is-ana Pdrbuti: cf^d C Is-vara Multani: l>'f , '57 s ^ t Is-ranai Sand: jjj Is to rule. Bengali: "^^T^ Is-wor God; Jf^ii ois-worjo 'Power, might'. Hindi: ^^^r Is-varane Mondari: trcri*creT Param-Esvara 'supreme Ruler . Gurmuki: sifted Param-Esura Umbrian: Es-unu 'sacrum'; Etruscan: Aes-ar 'deus'. Irish: Aes-ar, Aes-fhear. Perhaps the modern Bengali will serve best as an instance of the use of this word for the Supreme. In the Tota-Itihasa we read of a certain Sultan Ahmad who was a man of great wealth and power. 'A thousand horse, five hundred elephants, nine hundred camels, with their burdens, were wont to stand ready at his gate'. But he had no family. Ei karon tini dibaratri, o prate o sondjate Iswor-ptigokerder nikote gomon. ~3H 35 r<- 'On this account he day and night, morning and evening was in the habit of going near worshippers of God'. Thus, by means of worship, he made request for the gift of a son. An extremely interesting and significant Aryan thought of God is that of the Armenians, which seems peculiar to themselves. Nowhere in the Realm of Language do we find such a consciousness of the omnipresence of the Deity. The word is |^ mn Liii^ Asdouaz, meaning He-is-here. The beautiful Gospel message of St. John iii. 16 is thus trans- lated into Armenian: — yji^ni. np l^uuinLU/cf uibuibli uhnhn uiijuuin "Oj, Jjtli^L. nn jip ilfeui&l>h \\[> n t" uinLiuL. np ujJJ^b nt]_ nn uihnn ^uiluiuiiuS ^nnunL-h , ^iiiu^uijuiI-JiuiItIiuI^uiIi l^lruibj> nbnnuiji. Inkou wor Asdouaz anang sirhz askar he, minkjev wor miazin Worgin dwau. "Wor amen uv wor anwor hauadaj lcgorsoui, habajauidhnagan gjanke entouni. 'For God so loved the world that He gave his only- born Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life'. As to the etymology of Greek Geo? much has already been written. Many have attempted, notably Prof. Max Midler, to connect it with the root div, which has given us Deus, but the initial 6 seems to me an insuperable difficulty. On the whole I venture to think that Doderlein has found the true solution. He connects it with i/~Geo~ which we find in Gecr-crd-uevoi (= aiTncrduevoi), 6ecrcf-e-o"Gou (= arreiv, iKeieueiv), Geo-c; standing for Gecr-o-c; as a sub- stantived adjective. ]/"OEI to beseech, pray to Greek: Qeo-q for Gecr-o-c; God ; Tro\u-Gecr-TO-c; miich-beseeched ; Gecr-TTecrio-c;, Gecr-qpaTO-c;, Oecr-iuup. -^ 36 hS- Latin: fes-tu-s, fes-tu-m, fes-tivu-s, fer-iae. French : fe-te, foire. Port. : feira. Prov.: feira. Span.: feria. It.: fiera. Eng.: fair (cf. German: Messe = mass). Hence Oeog is 'He-to-whom-prayer-is-made\ From this root, too, we learn how all holidays were originally lioly days, nay, how even the fair itself was a place, a time of prayer! Xenophanes says: — Etc; Qeoc, ev xe GeoTcn kou dvQpiJuTroicri u^yioto?. Ou ti beuac; GvnxoTcn ouoioc; oube von^a. Of gods and men One God alone is Lord Nor unto mortals like in form or word! Again, in Theognis: — Oeoi; eoxou, 6eoi<; ioxw eiri Kpdxo? - ou xoi dxep Geiftv Yivexai avQpumoic; ou-x' a^dO' ou-xe KaKoi. But it is in the New Testament that the word has been hallowed and endeared to us all. Mr) TapacroecrGuu uuujv f\ Kapbior 7no~Teijexe etc; xov Geov, kou eiq eue mcTTeueTe. Before taking leave of Aryan theology let us not forget the specifically Hindu view of the Eternal as subjectively ^rrrJT^T Atman objectively $i^r Brahman. We have already seen something of the evolution of the former concept, but the rise and growth of the latter are not so clear. There can, however, be little doubt that Brahman comes from l/srg barh 'farcire', to cause to swell, so that it would at first seem to mean 'flood', i. e. prayer, whereby man's aspiration is met by God's inspiration. As soon as the individual soul, the giv atman, has learned to see that it is really part of the Over-Soul, the Paramatman, Muk'jatman, ~>; 37 k~ Aupanisadatman, it l)ecomes one with Brahman and lives the life of Prayer. H5T *5tw[ ^5W ^^IST I ?fcT TTI^fT 3Wtc7 II Sarvarii kalv idam Brahman; tag-galan; iti santa upasita. K'andogja-Upanisad: iii. 14. All is indeed Brahman; in Him it breathes, begins and ends; so let every one adore Him calmly! SI5W5T «r£ 5TTR ftnaJT ^teft sJ^Rcf STTtrc: Brahman satjam, gagan mit'ja, givo Brahmaiva naparah! Brahman is true, the world is false; the soul is Brah- man only and no other! When a man has once had this vision he exclaims: rTfT ?am tat tvam 'that art thou' and loses himself in Self supreme, in H^a^T^^ Sat-Kit-Ananda 'Being-Thought-Joy'! This final solution of the search of the Hindu mind after the Eternal and the Infinite I have endeavoured to express in the following sonnet: — seeker after God, eternal rest Alone in Self is found! All else is part Of tins great whole. See here, in this my heart 1 feel its streams of light and life. No quest Of first and last can now the soul molest; For shines not 'neath the veil of soul, athwart The vast dim sea of space, whose atoms dart Refulgent through the worlds, supremely blest, The beauty of the Self? No longer now Do shadows of duality appear. The sward of being rises; sweet and low Come murmurs of glad music; crystal clear The streams of peace upon the spirit fall: Existence, thought, love, bliss— the all in all! 1 i The Evolution of Religious Thought in Modern India (S. P. C. K.) p. 36. ~3H 38 K~ Of Indo-European thoughts of God which have become polarised in speech there yet remain for examination: uvj-.uf .Masdao, wvq^ Mdnroih, £^1 Jahan, ^by Jasdan, and jU-w^Jl* Manistar. £>\>j> Jasdan, like CH^N Elolmn, is a plural form, and may be taken as the Persian subsumption of the henotheistic phase of religious thought. In the Gulsan-i-Pas or Rose Garden of Mystery by Sa'd ud Din Mahmud Sabistari, which is a compendium of Sufi thought and faith we read: — C^JS c yBj^\ £>\>&>. y£ ^>li> C>^T Knan tan Gabr Jasdan Ahriman guft. "E'en as those Guebers speak of Jesdan and of Ahriman." As already hinted (p. 19) the fundamental meaning is •He-to-whom-sacrifice-is-made'. From the same root comes the Greek crfioc; 'holy'. And what is still more remarkable is the fact that, the Magyars, a Non-Aryan people, have adopted this very word for God, in the form Isten. Let us look at the congeners: — Yqb JAG to offer, to sacrifice Sanskrit: wrfrr jag-a-mi I offer, worship; qscra jag-jas to be revered. Sand: - A ,o*> jas to offer to, praise; A>K>A>f.V)M3 jasata venerable. Persian: >y> jasd, ^by Jasdan God. Greek: erf- a£-o-uai I revere; ciy-xo-q (= jag-ja-s) holy; ay-v6-<;piire; af-oq consecration ; afilwloffer. Magyar: Is-ten God. Just as in Iran the Hindu $3 deva, God, became M)>»iM\ daeva, devil, so in Mesopotamia the Persian >~^_ jasd, God, became Ised, devil. "The Izedis or Yezidis, the so-called Devil-worshippers", says Dr. Tylor, "still remain a numerous though oppressed -£~ 39 K~ people in Mesopotamia and adjacent countries. Their ad- oration of the sun and horror of defiling fire accord with the idea of a Persian origin of their religion (Persian ized = god), an origin underlying more superficial admixture of Christian and Moslem elements. This remarkable sect is distinguished by a special form of dualism. While re- cognizing the existence of a Supreme Being, their peculiar reverence is given to Satan, chief of the angelic host, who now has the means of doing evil to mankind, and in his restora- tion will have the power of rewarding them. 'Will not Satan then reward the poor Izedis, who alone have never spoken ill of him, and have suffered so much for him?' Martyrdom for the rights of Satan! exclaims the German traveller to whom an old white-bearded devil-worshipper thus set forth the hopes of his religion". The Persian word ^4^. Jahdn God goes back to Old Baktrian ,vuu>*M3 from the root Mfo jd 'to go', so that Jana is really the 'going' to the gods, i. e. prayer, supplication. And this is the etymology of the Latin Janus. Ym JA to go Skt.: ur jana a going. Sd.: MfMspo jana a going, prayer, salvation, blessing. Pers.: ^U^. Jahan God. Lat.: Janus, janua, janitor. Assamese wvqj Mdnrah God, and Persian ^U^oLo Manist&r Over-Soul or Supreme Spirit come from the root man, which has given us nearly all our words connected with mind. This is very significant: if, as has been often held by philosophers, there be nothing great in the world but man and nothing great in man but mind, then the Eternal must not only be spirit but mind supreme. 'Ev dpxfl fjv 6 Aoyog. ^ 40 k- l/wsj MAN to think Sanskrt: srfar man-mi I think; *&m mind; jrfks ma-tis opinion. Sand: yjoe man to think; eOj5A)/A>« rnan-agh m^^, wan. Vy,ue .>eo^j(j Vohu Mano Good Thought, the first of the Amesa Spentas. Assam: wm^ Man-rah God. Persian: ^U^ol* Man-i-star Over- Soul. Greek: uev-oc; mind, mood; Mev-xuup; MoOcm = Movna. Latin: Men-s; Mon-i-tor; Miner-va; Mone-ta. ^vacxi Masdao, the Supreme Being of the Parsis, pro- bably comes from an extended form of the same root. The primary form seems to be ma 'to measure', the secondary man 'to think', and the tertiary mad 1 'to meditate, ponder'. Just as nasdista = nedist'a and mjasda = med'a, so s u\?ow-Aie = ircn Masdao = Med' a cosmic Intelligence. The word is usually found in connexion with jo^hoxj Ahura, the breathing or living one, so that the thought is: Living Mind! Some have held that it is a compound, namely, r.u? mas great, and <^<\ Ddo knowledge, which would amount to an in- tensification of the same idea. Sand: Ahura Masdao Old Per s.: Aura Mas da Pahlavi : Oharmas d Persian: Ormusd. Let me close the Aryan thoughts of God with the Persian ^U. ^U- Gdn-Gdn from the root 5R gan (Sd. jvr san) 'to produce' which has given us gen-ius and (g)ndtura. Truly a beautiful thought: Life-Life! " 'Tis life, whereof our nerves are scant, life, not death, for which we pant; More life, and fuller, that I want." -> 41 K- It was Life and abundance thereof that the Shepherd of Souls brought for His true followers: eyd) rjXBov, iva £wr)V exuuai xai Trepicraov e'xuicriv. And as the king and poet of the Hebrews sings: — ni«-n«-ii tp;iKS n\»n ii^id sjs^ ^ ki hnka mkur kajjim; bOrka nireh-6r. 'For with Thee is the Fountain of Life; in Thy light shall we see light!' CHAPTER HI. SEMITO-HAMITIC THEOLOGY. In trying to penetrate the hallowed precincts of the Semitic religious consciousness, to watch the first attempts to express the Inexpressible, to utter the Unutterable, we might a priori conclude, from the mould in which the mind was cast, that we should not find such an expression as 'Heaven-Father' or even 'Heaven' to be the symbol of the Divine. Whether we find him in Sidon or Tyre, in Babylonia or Mesopotamia the leading idea of God in the mind of the Semite was that of Strength. Awe, Sover- eignty:— Ani El-Saddai: hit'halek' lpanai vehjeh t'amim! 'I am God, Almighty, walk before me and be thou perfect!" Gen. xvii. 1. This name of God, El, ^^s- ^\ ismi c asim the Great Name, as the Arabs call it, is found not only in Hebrew, but also in Syriac. and Himyaritic and Babylonian In- F ~x 42 hs- scriptions. The fundamental meaning of the root was 'to be thick' and then 'to be fleshy and strong'. yb$ AL Hebrew: b$ El Deus; DNi^K ^« Dens Deorimi; fpftj "?« Deus altissimus; bit TIN cedri divinae; v yjO *?{$ monies divini Himyar: k'h Al #od Syriac- ^J Al Ztews Arabic: J^ II (rod Samar: 2. fit A Ail (7od Assyrian: *$~H or ^-f Ilu ^W- E - g- : E-a Samas Marduk ilani The gods Ea, Samas and Merodach. Another well-known Semitic form is Hi^K Eldali, Arabic »\)\ JZ«/i, from a root meaning 'to be perplexed, confused', 'to be afraid', the transition of ideas being Fear, Object of Reverence, God. In Hebrew it is the plural form Dv6s Elohim with which we are more familiar, and which, from being originally opposed to the WH$ S'edim or evil spirits, came to be the subsumption of the henotheistic phase of the Hebraic religious consciousness. Compare, for instance, Deuteronomy xxxii. 17, with Genesis i. 1: — Jisbbohu lassedim 16 Eloah: Elohim 16 idaiim! 'They sacrificed unto evil spirits, (things that are) not God: to Gods whom they knew not'. Bresit' bara Elohim et' hassamajim v' et' haarez. 'In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth'. -^ 43 H$r But it is amongst the Arabs that this form has become supreme, for aI)I Allah stands for *\J\ j\ Al llah. The key-note of Islam, nay, of Sufiism itself is the oft-quoted sentence ascribed to Muhammad: — Kan Illahu, va lam jakun malm se! 'God was, and there is nothing but He!' The realisation that Allah alone is Being, all else being Not-Being, is termed by the Sufis j***.y tavlrid or 'assertion of the Divine Unity'. One of the great objects of Sufiism is the attainment of this consciousness of the identity of the individual soul with the Over-Soul or Divine Essence, which state, when it is merely a temporary ecstasy. during which the soul beholds, as it were, its own Apo- theosis or Absorption, is called J la. Hal, corresponding to the Zkotclgk; or ctTrXwaig of the Neo-Platonists. The next state, which is that of utter selflessness, is called Li l_^Jssx^> magsvh i Mutlak 'drawn into the Absolute' or ^Jb* >\j\ tisad sara' 'released into the Eternal Law'. There is yet another stage, which is considered final, namely, -^ ^ ^Y t^- £*r|y T, y t] Na-ta-nu-ja-a-va =7V\n^ni, and £^ jz^>- ^t^ |J ^ Ga-mar-ja-a-va = niiTHfcW i. e. the Nethanjahu and Gemar- jahu of the Masoretic text of the Old Testament, It would thus appear that the Holy Name koct eHoxnv in the fifth century B. C. was pronounced by the Jews of the exile Jahava and by those at home Jahu. And this is just what we should expect. In Arabic y> -lit' is pro- nounced both hu and huva, $ being alike vowel (u) and semivowel (v). Nay, the emphatic form for God in Arabic is ysb Jciliu He! So that we have from the same root the formula: — y&b : 1,T : : y&b : HliT Jahu : Jahu : : Jahuva : Jahava, The human heart yearning, in dumb yet trustful fashion. after the Eternal, finds It, as the Hebrew of old and the Arab of to-day, to be Being, and exclaims .with the Ansariah : — ~> ? 46 h^ *A>y\ _ybLo js-Ls.^ £y°\?. y*^. 3-*^. Jahu, Jahu, ja man la jaglam malm illahu! '0 He who is, O He who is, He whom none knows what he is but Himself!' /rnn HAVAH to hreathe, be Hebrew: HIST Jalmvali, T\\ Jdh God; Kin Hu he. Arabic: yt>l> J«7m God; y> 7m he; <4oy*> humjdt Ipseity, Being. Aramaic: " 1-1 God. From this root comes also that revelation of the Eternal in Exodus iii. 14: — jdd^n ^nby} rpn« b$%r\ Vajomer Elohim el Moseh: Ehjeh aser Ehjeh. Vajomer koh toniar libne Jisrael: Ehjeh slakani alekem. 'And God said to Moses: I-will-be that I-will-Be. And He said: Thus say unto the children of Israel: I-shall-Be sent me unto you'. Now, we know that Moses was learned in all the lore of the Egyptians, so that it is quite possible he may have been aware of the forceful fact that, when the religious Egyptian died, he had inscribed on a sacred scroll these remarkable words, which were his sublime thought of God:— /WW\A ^\ /WWW A/WW\ LI V^\ AAAAAA Nuli-im-Nuli 'I am that I am', which is the exact counterpart of irn« "l#K rrnK Ehjeli-aser-Elijeh, as in this case it is certainly open to us to translate the future by the present. We have thus seen how man-Aryan, Semite and Hamite, from the simple act and image of breathing has been led on to sublimest thought of the Infinite and Eternal! In Arabic there are three concepts of Deity which are very striking and which we shall do well to consider here. Besides dUJ\ Allah, which is understood all over the Muhammadan world, we have cry^ Amin, ^Jjb^ Vahhab, and ,3^ Halck. The first is from a root meaning 'to he stable', 'firm', and means Faithfulness, Loyalty-to-Truth, Amen! Amin ja Rabba '1 aalamin Amen! o Lord of the Worlds! Y\m AMAN 'to be firm', 'stable'. Hebrew: fiftN Emet stability, faith, truth. ]»N Amen true, truth, so-be-it! Arabic: cr^ Amin faithfulness, God. The second is the form used more especially by a sect which, in our own day. has been distinguished for its fanat- icism. c_jIaj Vdhhab means Bestower and is therefore the Semitic equivalent of Aryan *m B l aga, of which we have already treated. Vahhabu'l eataja blk*J\ s-^ 'God, the Bestower of Benefits!" Jja. Hdkk is a most important word in the East. Alike to Arabs and Persians it means Truth, 'The Truth', God. Of Him, whom St. John describes as the Aoto?. the Arabs speak as jUdJ JIS KCihCl Haiti, Word of God. But it was through "the friend by whom the head of the gallows was raised', namely. Hussain Manssur, Hallag, the wool- carder, that the word has become world-famous. He was born at Baida, a borough in Persia, and brought up at VassitV His mystical writings, his eloquence, and the belief that he possessed the power not only of divining what went on in the homes but also the most secret thoughts, attracted many friends but made even more enemies. He was the first in Persia to spread the doctrine of the unity of the knower and the known, which he expressed in the memor- able words: — Ana'l-Hakku ^liil 'I am the Truth'. On returning from a journey to India, Transoxana and China, whither he is said to have gone in order to bring those lands to a knoAvledge of the One True God, he was charged with heresy and unanimously condemned to death by the Imams of Bagdad. After suffering the most fearful torture during which he constantly repeated the above words, he was hung as a heretic in the year of the Higra 309 (921 A. D.), under the Chalifate of Muktedir Billah. Passing on to Hamitic concepts we come to Egyptian (1 Nuter, which is derived from a root meaning 'to crush', 'to destroy'. It is also found in Hieroglyphics as j ^ and ^, o and in Demotic as \ f , Vr>, ^, Koptic +. In the Turin Papyrus of Aufank we read: — Enok. Nuter da kojier t'esef: I am the great God, the Am God great existing self [self-existent! Again: — gk /wwv\ < -~- > a s^, [1 H "H H .cr^- AA/W\A < ^^ > I Nenek pu amen ren-f er nuter -u 'I am he whose name is more hidden than that of the gods!' ~3H 49 *$- 1'^f AMAAA | A Nider uci dnJc' em mtitu cir enti-u ham unen-tu. 'God only living in truth, Creator of-tliat-which-is, Fashioner of-beings!' The Koptic form may best be studied in translations of Holy Writ. Thus: 'And God blessed Noah' is ex- pressed by voa Aq^iLiv euxa 9) Waka-jo Potter E. g. Kan nu hume Wakajo: 'He who has made us, is God'. Nam-ni Wakajo sagada: 'Man God reveres'. G -5* 50 hs~ On the other hand, in Bogos we have d£ Gar Heaven E. g. Duva takalan! ji ganat anir Gar-li dabiugun-la; intin inti ganat Gar-li dabdanni-ma: 'Say, ye daft ones! I bury my mother in Heaven; will ye not also bury your mother in Heaven?' Nan awagin? Gar mahadila! 'What shall I do now? God help me!' Alike in Kabyle, a Hamitic idiom, and in Barea, a language of the Nuba race, we find the Hebrew "0*1 Rabbi Master. CHAPTER IV. THE MONGOL CONCEPTS OF DEITY. In nearly all the idioms known as Turanian we find it was the turkis-vaulted dome of the sky, the broad and beautiful firmament that seemed the Unchanging, the In- finite, the Divine. 'Aspice hoc sublime candens, quern invocant omnes Jovem' said Ennius to the Roman world, and, with equal truth, under another name, he might have said it to the Indians of North America and to the dwellers on the tablelands of Asia. ". . . . the whole circle of the heavens, for him A sensitive existence, and a Cod, With lifted hands invoked, and songs of praise". Nowhere is this more clearly seen than in the speech and thought of the Chinese. % Tjcin Heaven is not only the ^ Kih, the Principle, Origin, Being, but the synthesis of jjgx and $£ ^ Wu Kih Being and Not-Being, namely, •^ fig T'ai Kilt Great Principle, First Cause. -5* 51 Kj- It is the secret of |g Jen and % Jan Rest and Motion, the norm of $g Kian and \\\\ K'un the male and the female elements in Nature. Thus we read in the Si-Kin (iii. 1. 1. 7) or Book of Odes and in the Tai-Jcih-tu or Table of the Primal Prin- ciple (I. a.): — Saii T'jan k'e zai: wu seii wii k'au, 61 si zao hwa k'e k'u nju. P'in Ave k'e kan ti je. Translated into Mangu it is: — Dergi Abka-i baita de, gilgan ako, wa ako bime, jar- gijan-i bangibure wembure horgiko So sohon, eiten gaka-i fulehe da ohobi. 'High Heaven's works are without tone and without aroma (i. e. immaterial), and yet indeed they are the axis and source of life and death, the root and origin of every- thing'. Chinese: ^ T'jan God, Heaven. Accadian: Jfijlf Dingir, Heaven, God. Mongolian: V) Tengri Heaven, God. Turkish: ^yoU. Tangri. Jakut: Tanrapa Tangara. Hun : Tang-li. Korean: ^ A Tk'ien. q O The Jakuts divide their gods into white and black, good and evil. At the head of the former stands Tangara, at the head of the latter Abarj. Every disease has its ~$h 52 f<~ SiuliuMun or black god, who is propitiated by pouring vodka on the burning coals and throwing tobacco and horsehair upon it. In ascending a ridge the Tungus and Jakuts avoid loud talk for fear of offending the mountain- spirit, who will then send a destructive snowstorm. 1 In Mangu the expression for The Highest is t* Abkai Egen Heaven-Lord, which is the exact equivalent ^ of 5^ Tjcin Ku, the title adopted by Pope Clement XI. ^> :£ in 1715 to designate God in Chinese. ^! The first Jesuits who visited China, notably Kicci, T» had chosen the word Tjan alone, but when the Do- minicans arrived in 1631, a long controversy on the subject arose. 'On accusa les Jesuites', says M. Piry, 'de chercher, par ce choix du mot T'ien et l'autorisation qu'ils accordaient a leurs neophytes de continuer leur culte a la memoire des ancetres et du Sage Confucius, a assimiler la doctrine du vrai Dieu a la religion des Chinois. La question fut portee devant Innocent X. qui, en 1645, condamna les Jesuites; mais, dix ans i^lus tard, Alexandre VII. leva cette sentence en declarant que les rites chinois en litige etaient purement civils et ne pouvaient d'aucune facon porter atteinte aux dogmes de la foi chretienne. La question en resta la jusqu'en 1703, date a laquelle Clement XL condamna de nouveau les Jesuites, enfin, en 1715, ce menie pontife decida que pour designer Dieu en chinois on conserverait le mot T'ien, mais en y ajoutant l'epithete Chu, Seigneur, Maitre Quant au choix du mot Tien pour designer Dieu, le Pere Premare dans sa "Lettre Inedite sur le Monotheisme des Chinois, 1728"', deplore la decision du Saint-Siege qui le condamne; on sait en effet que ce savant sinologue, et beaucoup d'autres apres lui, ont voulu demon- 1 See "To the Arctic Zone" by a Russian Exile. -» 53 k- trer que le Tien ou Shang-Ti ± tf? des classiques chinois possede les principaux des attributs du vrai Dieu." The Hsjao Kin or Book of Filial Piety speaks of the three supreme Powers: ^ Tjan Heaveu, J£ Ti Earth, A sin Man. Thus we have ^ £ ££ T'jan ki Kin 'the immutable Law of Heaven'; jfc £ § Ti la I 'the Justice of Earth'; J£ £ ft Min ki Hsin 'the Obligation of the People'. In the Lu 'Sii we read: 5c i# T'jan jii l sin Heaven is called God. 5^ ^C 5® 1$ Tjan ta kwo 'sin Heaven is greater than the gods. ^ _t ^ Tjan jii 'sari Ti Heaven is called the Supreme Being. But we must not forget that a very powerful Being amongst the Chinese, amounting in fact to what we in the "West should call the Monon, is jg Tau meaning primarily The Way, from Badical i_ 'to go'. Its Aryan equivalent is 3?r Rta or a>££a> A'sa the Path of Righteousness, the Norm of Being, Aojoc,. In China's oldest historical book ^ fg 'Su Kin, we find the Emperor Kin, of the Kau dynast}.' directing three of his highest officers of State 'to discuss the Tau, to govern the States, and to harmoniously regulate the Jen and the Jah'. But the Tau Kjau or Doctrine of the Monon was most fully worked out by the philosopher Li Er' or Po Jah, generally known as Lau Zo, in the 7 th century B. C. His celebrated jf; fjg |g? Tau te Kin, known to the Japanese as Dau-toku Kjau, or Classic of Reason and Virtue, begins with the following remarkable words : — m, pi m, m % m, Tau k'o tau fe kah Tau. Reason which can be em- bodied in speech is not the Eternal Reason! -•3- 54 Kr- « ^r ■« * » « Miii k'o ruin fe lean Miii. The name which can be uttered is not the Eternal Name! According to M. Stanislas Julien ^ Tau is almost eqivivalent to f^rainr Nirvana. In his preface to the Tau- te-kih he says: 'Dans Lao-tseu et les plus anciens philo- sophes de son ecole anterieurs a l'ere chretienne, Temploi et la definition du mot Tao excluent toute idee de Cause Intelligente, et qu'il faut le traduire par Voie, en donnant a ce mot une signification large et elevee qui reponde au langage de ces philosophes lorsqu'ils parlent de la puissance et de la grandeur du Tao. Lao-tseu represente le Tao comme un etre depourvu d'action, de pensees, de desirs, et il veut que, pour arriver au plus haut degre de perfection, 1'homme reste comme le Tao, dans un quietisme absolu; qu'il se depouille de pensees, de desirs, et meme des lumieres de l'intelligence, qui, suivant mi, sont une cause de desorclre. Ainsi, dans son livre, le mot Tao signifie tantot la Yoie sublime par laquelle tous les etres sont arrives a la vie, tantot limitation du Tao, en restant, comme lui, sans action, sans pensees, sans desirs'. As an illustration of the variety of views on this ques- tion, let us compare our own translation of Lau-zo's opening sentences with that of M. Pauthier on the one hand, and of M. Julien on the other: — ■ Yia quae potest frequentari non aeterna-et-irnmutabilis rationalis Yia. La voie droite qui peut etre suivie dans les actions de la vie n'est pas le Principe eternel, immuable, de la Raison supreme. (Pauthier). La Yoie qui peut etre exprimee par la parole n'est pas la Voie eternelle. (Julien). Nomen quod potest nominari, non aeternum-et immuta- bile Nomen. (Pauthier). -5h 55 k- Le Nora qui peut etre nomine n'est pas le Nora eternel et iraruuable. (Julien). Again, it is said of the Tau: — Tau sen ji ji sen ol 61 sen san san sen wan 11 Tau produced One; One brought forth Two; Two begat Three; Three gave rise to all things! Passing to the Land of the Rising Sun we come to the 'Way of the Kami' l^- jj EL J HL ] Kami-no Miti of which we may read more especially in the Ko si Iti or Furu Koto Bund. Who or what these 'Jj ^ Kami are, it is perhaps at first sight a little difficult to determine. In all likelihood the Kamino Miti or jjiijj jj| 'sin Tau as the Chinese call it, does not much differ from the Chinese worship of jjjifj 'sin and fy Kwe, their divine Ancestors. 'The Japanese', says D r Tylor, 'are a comparatively civilized nation, one of those so instructive to the student of culture from the stubborn conservatism wuth which they have con- secrated by traditional reverence, and kept up by state authority, the religion of their former barbarism. This is the Kami-religion, Spirit-religion, the remotely ancient faith of divine spirits of ancestors, nature-spirits, and polytheistic gods, which still holds official place by the side of the im- ported Buddhism and Confucianism. In this ancient faith the Sun-god is supreme. He is Amaterasu oho Kami the 'heaven-enlightening great Spirit'. Below him stand .all lesser kamis or spirits, through whom, as mediators, guar- dians, and protectors, worship is paid by men". Here, then, we have as supreme Spirit ^ Amaterasu Oho Kami Japanese thought, speech and writing owe a great deal to the Chinese. When, in the third century of our era, the ^» 56 k- Japanese came in contact with the Chinese, the literature of the latter found its way into Japan, and with it, Chinese writing. But the characteristic ideology of each nation is still preserved. Thus, whilst the Chinaman says: No pu Ui Jii 'I not know that', the Japanese says : Watakowa Korewo sira su 'I that know not'. In structure Japanese resembles the undeveloped langu- ages of the Altaic peoples, Mangu and Mongolian, but differs from them in its lack of vowel-harmony. The local relations of the noun are sufficiently indicated by phonetic means, and even for the purely grammatical relations such as subject and object there exist elements of which the idiom makes excellent use. Whilst the language lacks definite verbal forms, it possesses a great number of gerunds and participles, which doubtless explains the lack of a relative pronoun. "Within the sentence the defining element precedes the thing defined, that is to say, the genitive comes before the noun to which it belongs, the object before its verb, the defining sentence before the one it more nearly defines. Numeration in Japanese seems to be based on the decimal system: — 1 fito 40 go-so 10 too 50 it su-so 20 futa-zi 100 momo 30 mi-so 1000 zi From an ideological standpoint the language is indirect, the formula being 1. 3. 5. Ill; i. e. Genitive + noun, adjec- tive + noun, object + verb, subject + verb. In Korean, as in Chinese, we find as the expression for the Highest not only I— A Tk'ien Heaven, but 4 O n Tjiu Lord, and not infrequently in combination. For -^ 57 k- instance, Tkien-tjiu-bi tien-mo God's holy mother. Idtin- o-ro tjiu-rql JconkienRata to honor God with devotion. r a K ± i O TT • Like Japanese, Korean has a tolerably-well evolved noun, but a wholly-undeveloped/ flexionless verb, which is nevertheless rich in various turns affecting the relation of the speaker to the one addressed. The subject is only denoted when it is defined, but the object characterized by a sign of its own. The attribute is distinguished from the predicate, and the thing defined always comes after the defining element. The subject with its qualifications opens the sentence, the verb with its pre- ceding object closes it. The language possesses no relative pronoun, but several forms of the gerund. Its ideology is the same as that of Japanese; namely, indirect: 1. 3. 5. 8. III. Here, too, it is the decimal system of numeration. 1 K'ana 30 t'ielk'on 10 iel 40 mak'on 20 tomul 50 t'uin St. John 111. 16 is thus translated into Korean: — TJ K 1 it ^ -o °l CD V a -r H « /■» ° 1 o HI A' c^. ~o~ L Ah °l 7£ ?h H L ± ~o~ l\ 4 S- 7 3 — *■ 3.1 o oh a ->• 58 r^- Most interesting is the thought, most curious the spreech of the Bodpa, the dwellers in Tibet. The language consists of monosyllabic radicals, the structure of the sentence de- pending partly upon combination,, partly upon the addition of particles which in certain cases become suffixes by amalgamation. There is no difference between noun and verb, the latter itself being really a noun, and the two most important cases lack a distinctive sign. As in active transitive sent- ences the nominative cannot stand to designate the agent, but the instrumental, we have the remarkable fact in Tibetan that, nominative and accusative or the subject-case can never appear in one and the same sentence. Number, spatial case-relations and the relation of dependence are denoted by annexed particles. The verb is really a noun which expresses a state the bearer of which in a neutral sense is denoted by the naked stem (nominative), in an active-passive sense by the in- strumental. In Tibetan there is no active verbal expression with subject and object; even in passive constructions, in which we conceive the subject in the nominative, it is generally put by preference in the dative. Thus, on the one hand, the language lacks the conception of the subject as something acting, and, on the other, that of the object as something affected by the action. In the sentence the verb stands at the end; the de- fining expression precedes the thing defined, the genitive the noun, the object the verb. Only the instrumental or ex- pression of the agent has a freer position; if the object is in the dative, it can either come before or after it. So that Tibetan ideology is really natural, the order being 1. 4. 5. 8. I, or genitive + noun, noun + adjective, object + verb and subject + verb. And with this goes the decimal system of numeration. ~2* 59 H$- Now, in the language of the Bod-pa there are two ex- pressions for God which seem to represent the high-water mark of the Tibetan religious consciousness, namely: — ~\T &J<5>in T Mliog, pronounced Koa, The Best; ™ Lha, pronounced La *v Lhasa = deva-nagari City of God. Lha klu mi sogs-kjis saris-rgjes-la phjag bjas so (la hi mi sog-tji sah-dja-la "kag ga so) 'By the gods, snake-deities, men and others adoration was paid toBudd'a-' The form used by the missionaries x^T^c^*^ooZ^ , Kon-Koa. 5J<5>ZJ1 T Ko is applied by Budd'ists to the Trratna, Passing on to Burmese Ave find it to be a language consisting of monosyllabic root-words; but possessing a great many dissyllabic nominal expressions which have been borrowed from the ecclesiastical language of the Southern Budd'ists, namely, Pali. Indeed, in one particular the lan- guage itself goes beyond Isolation, by prefixing a- to the verbal stems for the derivation of nouns and by combining synonyms with the verbal and nominal composition for the nearer determination of the concept. The various case-relations are indicated by annexed particles. There is no pure nominative or subjective, but the objective is known not only by its position in the sent- ence but by a suffix. The verb rests upon a nominal basis, though there are indications of a closer definition. In the sentence the subject stands at the beginning, the verb at the end. The defining element precedes the thing defined; hence the subordinate sentence must be en- cased in the principal sentence, which involves a certain ~5H 60 K~ looseness of construction sometimes almost amounting to unintelligibility. Burmese possesses three modes of intonation: — a) the natural tone (without modulation of the voice); (3) the rising tone; y) the falling tone. In a language of monosyllabic construction there is really no distinction between root, stem and word. Nay, from a morphological standpoint there is no difference between noun, verb and particle. Use only can determine to which category it belongs. As regards the noun there are three points to be not- iced. In the first place substantives are often derived from stems which signify a general quality by the addition of the prefix a. The result is that the meaning of the word is very general. For instance, from the stem kaunh signify- ing 'good, to be good,' we have a-kaunh 'the good, goodness.' But the nouns proper, or underived, are monosyllabic and are not intimately connected with any verbal root. E. g. lu 'man', re 'water', ne 'sun', kiveh 'dog'. Then, the greatest number of compounds consists in expressions for definite persons and things combined with expressions denoting general categories and determining the former. E. g. mrahh-ta-zih horse-a-riding-object == 'a horse'; lu-ta-kilj man-a-body = 'a man'. Lastly, the various case-relations are throughout ex- pressed by annexed particles of definite meaning. It is only the subjective, objective and genitive which, from their unique position, can dispense with them. For instance: — Lu-kah man. Singular Plural Nominative Lu-kah lii-to-kah Agent (Norn. Inst.) lii-t'i lii-to-t'i Accusative lu-kii lii-to-ku Singular Plural lii-t'o lii-to-t'o lu-i, lu-tAvari lu-to-i, lii-to-twan lu-ah ld-to-ah lii-nhaik lu.-to-nb.aik lu-p'ran lu-to-p'ran lu-nhan hi-to-nhan lu-ka, lu-mlia lfi-to-ka, lii-to-mka lu-kraun lu-to-kraun ~3H 61 Hg- Sin Approximative' {spatial ace.) Genitive Dative Local Instrumental Social Ablative Causal As an attribute the adjective may either come before or after the substantive to which it belongs. In the former case it appears with the relative suffixes t'i, and fan, in the latter it is the crude form. As predicate the adjective is equal to the verb and is put after the subject, receiving at the same time the suffix t'i. E. g. llia-t't meimma 'a beautiful woman'; meimma lha-t'i -the woman is beautiful'. There is no relative pronoun in Burmese, but, by way of compensation, we have a series of participial and ge- rundive formations. With regard to the verb, it may be said to be quite formless in respect of person. If person is expressed at all, it is done by means of an accompanying noun or pronoun. In its inner form the Burmese verb often resembles the Tibetan, and in one respect it reminds us of Korean and Javanese, namely, in the distinction it makes between in- feriors and superiors. The tenses fall into two categories, actual and representative. Of actual or immediate action we find four forms of the present and three of the preterite, whilst the tenses of representative action are a) two forms of the future; p) two necessitate forms, expressing necessity both near and distant. Burmese numerical expressions are based upon the decimal system. Like Tibetan, Burmese is natural in its ideology, the formula being 1. 4. 5. 8. I. ~S* 62 «r- As a specimen of the language we may take the following: — - Mahl -krih-ti : mi-b'urah-riirat! ria-ah kjaii-ra King -the: O great queen! to -me work -thing kauh-ra-t'au t'ari-i wut ma-kon-t'au-krauh completion-thing of thy business not-finished-on account of nhit-loh ina-t'a-si-ti lth ma-hot, tapah-t'au akraunh-to- mind troubled is alike certainly not, others causes krauh nhit-loh ma-t'a-si-ti lib ma-hot. on account of mind troubled is as also certainly not. Divine sovereignty seems to be the Burmese view of the Eternal, for, the word for God is OOQQ B'ura Lord The language of the Siamese known as Dai is the purest example of a formless, wholly undeveloped monosyllabic idiom. In form all parts of speech are alike, the meaning alone determining which part it shall be. As regards the noun, there is no designation of number, and the spatial case-relations are only expressed by prefixed particles. The verb, too, does not denote either person or number. Indefinite is the position in the sentence. The defining element follows the thing to be defined without distinction. Alike the genitive and the attribute are put after the expression which they more nearly define, as also the com- plement of the verb, namely, the object. Hence the pre- dicate, which likewise follows the subject, is really indist- inguishable from the attribute. Like Chinese, the language distinguishes homonymous words by intonation, there being no less than five distinct tones in Siamese. Thus, a) the natural tone (without modulation of the voice) P) the higher rising tone (a quarter upwards) •f) the lower rising tone (a third upwards) -5* 63 k~ o) the higher falling tone (weak rise and then sinking to the fundamental) e) the lower falling tone (a fifth downwards). Every word in Siamese being a root-word, it is the lexicon and not the grammar which determines whether a word shall be taken in this or that sense. Nouns are either simple, such as (p) Hwa 'head', (a) tin 'foot', (y) fa 'heaven'; or compound, as in the three following modes: — A. Derivation from a nominal expression. 1. Genitive relationship: (e) ma- (y) na 'mother of the water' (river); (e) mii- (a) mi 'mother of the hand' (thumb); (a) liik- (a) mi 'son of the hand' (artizan). 2. Determination: (a) wat- (a) wa 'temple' (p) bai- (e) lai 'leaves', where the second members wa, lai in themselves mean nothing. B. Derivation from a verbal expression: — (a) gwain- (a) nam 'thing-beautiful' (beauty); (e) p'li- (a) taj 'this three-die' (dead man). The cases being known for the most part by their position, it is well to pay particular attention to Siamese ideology. The subjective precedes the verb, the objective comes directly after it; thus: (a) fai (e) hniai (a) rien 'fire burn house'. The genitive is expressed either by putting the defining element after the thing to be defined, or by com- bining the latter with such words as (p) k'on 'thing', (6) hah place. For instance, (a) Eien (p) k'oh (a) naj (a) d ah fin 'house thing leader troops' = the house of the leader of the troops. The dative and ablative are expressed by prefixing (b) ka 'to', 'after', and (b) til 'from' respectively. Thus, (e) p u- (y) s5 (e) hai (a) nun (6) kfi (e) p u- (P) k aj 'this there- buy give money to this there-sell' = the buyer gives money -X 64 hs- to the seller; (a) ma (b) ta (a) miah (a) dai (f) lau 'come from kingdom T'ai already' = he has come from the king- dom of T'ai. Whether as predicate or attribute the adjective comes after the substantive to which it belongs: e. g. (a) kien (P) sun 'house high' = high house, and, the house is high. As in the Further Indian idioms generally pronouns in Siamese were originally nouns and vary according to the social position of the person addressed. The verb dispenses alike with person and number. Not infrequently the verbal stem is joined to another of general meaning, as in Burmese. Thus, (e) wa- (a) pai 'to talk' (say-go); (a) tok (a) loh 'to fall down' (fall-descend). Numeration is based upon the decimal system, but the substantives do not immediately follow the numbers, a numeral word such as 'person', 'tail', 'piece' being put be- tween the two. E. g. (a) pla (P) hok (P) hah 'fish six tails' = six fishes. Siamese ideology is direct, namely, 2. 4. 6. 7. VII, or noun + genitive, noun + adjective, verb + object and verb + subject. The Siamese thought of God is identical with that of the Burmese, namely mtit Bra Lord. St. John 111. 16. is thus translated into Siamese: — ivt^QnmrinwjNjm«LJj?i'if ! i'3'iJj:wi!)'?i!ijjriji!i'tj e lw e l«fi?j u ii If we pass up to the K'asia Hills of Eastern India we find that the language of the K'asia is one of peculiar inter- est, for, although it is a monosyllabic idiom, it expresses ~w 65 «~ the various relationships of the outer world by means of particles rather than by position within the sentence. K'asi is thus the exact opposite of Chinese. Indeed there are not a few signs of agglutination and several poly- syllabic forms which have been borrowed from Bengali It is noteworthy, also, that gender and number are re- gularly denoted. As regards form there is really no distinction between noun, verb and particle, differentiation being effected by means of suffixes. In the formation of the parts of speech the pronoun plays the chief part. With the substantive gender, number and case are all distinguished, but the form of the noun remains unchanged, these functions being performed by the personal pronoun of the third person. Thus we have: — Xom. u briu 'the man', ki briu 'the men 7 ; ka in 'the house', ki in -the houses'. Whilst the nominative as the subject-case generally comes before the verb, the dative and accusative follow it: e. g. U Blei u la t'au ia ka pirt'ei -God created the Earth'; U Gark a u la pin-ih ia ha ia uta u him 'Gark'a showed me this mountain'. In the genitive the definable expression precedes the defining, and not infrequently the word goh 'thing' comes between the two; thus, u kun u briu -the son of man'; kipa goh hi 'father our'; ka kti goh me 'thy hand"; ka in goh ha 'my house'. Then there are the dative, loca- tive, ablative, comitative and instrumental, which are formed regularly. When used attributively the adjective has a special form: it is derived from verbs or adverbs by means of the prefixed relative particle ba; e. g. ba-lih white, ba-k'am-lih whiter; ba-b'a good, ba-k'am-b'a better. The adjective can either come before or after the substantive to which it belongs; in the former case the relative pronoun which servos ~$* 66 k~ as a demonstrative adjective or article must agree with the noun in gender and number. For instance, u kulai ba-lih 'the horse white'; u luni ba-k'rau 'the mountain high'; ki dok'a ba-b'a 'the fishes good'. The K'asi verb is just as immutable and indefinite as the noun; all relations and definitions of time, mood and person are expressed by auxiliary verbs, particles and pro- nouns. In fact, except for the meaning of the stem, there is no distinction between noun and verb. E. g. u ioh 'he has', u briu 'the man'; ka pom 'she breaks off', ka briu 'the woman'. The tenses are the following: an aorist present, a durative present, an aorist preterite, a durative preterite, a durative perfect, a preterital perfect (= plus- quamperfectum), an aorist future, a definite future and an imperative. Numeration in K'asi is based upon the decadic system. As a specimen of the language we may take the Lord's Prayer : — Ko kipa goh ni u- ba ha bineh, loh ba-kuid ka O Father who our He who in heaven, be holy the kirten goh me, wan ka hima goh me, loh ka name which thine, come the kingdom which thine, be the mon son me ha ka kindeu kum-ba ha bineh, ai will which thine, upon the earth so-as in heaven, give ia hi mnta ka gin-bam goh hi ka ba-biah, map to us now the food which our the sufficient, forgive ruh ia hi ka rihkah goh hi kum-ba hi map also to us the transgression which our so-as we forgive ia ki-ba leh sniu ia hi. "Wat ialam ruh ia hi sa to those who act badly to us. And not lead also us into ka ba-pin-soi, hinrei sumar ia hi na ka ba-sniu, na-ba the temptation, but shield us from the evil, for -5* 67 Hg- ka hinia ka bor ruh ka biirom ruh ki goh ine the kingdom the power and the glory also which thine hala karta. Amen, eternal time. Amen. We have seen that K'asi ideology is lu/lrid, namely 2. 4. 6. 8. VI. Like Burmese and Siamese, the K'asi thought of the Supreme is that of divine Sovereignty: — Blei Lord (= B\ira, Bra). || Blei u la pin-mi ia ka pirt'ei da ka gin-p u-iap u kun gon u God made living the world (earth) by the death (die-make) of His Son!' Having thus followed the language of Indo-China and the course of theologic thought amongst the nations of this vast area, it may be well to understand their mutual re- lationship and interdependence. Now, indo-chinese philology is a science of yesterday. Were we to question a sinologist of any school of 50, nay, 20 years ago, as to the origin of the Chinese, he would emphatically declare that, from time immemorial they had occupied the same ethnic position, and for five thousand years had had an isolating language and even a mono- theistic religion. That is to say, hitherto the history of China has been conceived as that of a gradual self-devel- lopment of a homogeneous stem, possessing almost the whole land, from savagery up to a culture to which five hundred years ago no Western nation had attained. From the existence of this supposed self-rise and progress of an im- portant focus of culture definite conclusions alike for political and historical philosophy have been drawn. The origin of the misunderstanding with respect to the political and ethnological state of ancient China is remark- able; it is to be found in the special divisions of the Chinese annals and in the peculiarities of the geographical division ~$* 68 h$~ of the empire for the purposes of administration. It was thus that Klaproth was misled in his 'Tableaux historiques de l'Asie'. The three thousand volumes of which the his- torical annals consist are not by any means a finely-spun narrative of all the political, social, artistic, scientific and economical subjects which, according to our "Western notions, constitute history. They are rather analytical and encyclo- paedic: every thing is considered simply. First come the imperial records containing the purely political relations of each reign, and more especially the deeds of the Emperor. Then follow sections on chronology, prescriptions, politics, political ecomomy, music, geography and literature. In the last division of each part of the annals, where all the' facts and relevant details are given, the immigrants who were not subject and, although within the Chinese Empire, were not Chinese, namely, the Mjau, Man, Lan, Pah, Ngu, etc. are treated as foreigners. The history of China having thus been mostly taken from the chronological parts of these annals, the Chinese seem always to have been in full poss- ession of their empire. Who, then, are the Chinese? This is a question which would seem to involve a reference to the very densest stratum of nebulous thought. It has been said of Art that 'with a special tenacity she has wrapped herself about in the grateful gloom of a mystic twilight', and with equal truth it may be said of China; for, indeed, in walking down a street in Hankow or Pekin 'we survey a living past and converse with fossil men'. Though known amongst them- selves as Po Hsiii, 'the Hundred Families', we must not forget that the Chinese form a third part of the whole human race, and that this colossal agglomeration of 420 millions of human beings is cemented solely by the tradi- tion of the Elders. Notwithstanding the fact that we possess a vast literature on both the race and language of this wonderful country, and despite all that has been set forth ~3H 69 K~ by chinamen as to the possession of an unbroken history, Ave cannot rest satisfied that three is nothing more to be learnt about them. Consulting the first chapters of this venerable history we find the representation of a small band of Chinese immigrants settling down in what form the North Eastern province of the present empire, that is to say, in a territory surrounded on all sides by autochthonic tribes. These strangers are said to have been possessed of arts and Sciences by means of which they were able to exercise lordship over the more ignorant natives of the country. But then we at once ask: whence came these foreigners? From whom had they learnt astronomy, the art of writing and the science of government? The only way of satisfactorily answering these questions is by national and international linguistic analysis. In dis- secting words we are in reality writing the history of civili- sation. As regards China the linguistic problem is undoubtedly that of evolution. According to Schlegel and others matter and form in Chinese remain distinct, on the other hand Humboldt and Bopp have declared that the Chinese lan- guage is without all form, without organism, without grammar. Wherein, then, lies the difficulty of general exegesis if not in a right view of the Law of Evolution? Be it natural or mental science, the student presses the law of the deve- lopment of organisms or of the modes of thought and speech, which he accepts, with a magnificent and often enough successful onesidedness, as though he were obliged to derive everything exclusively from this. On the one hand the positive and inner formative causes are brought to the front, whilst on the other everything is explained by external pro- cesses. Beginning with national analysis we must bear in mind the truth so well enunciated by Wilhelm von Humboldt that the mental peculiarity of a people and the form of its speech stand to each other in such intimate relationship -3H 70 H$~ that, the one being given, one should be able to completely deduce the other from it. For, intellectuality and language only admit and induce forms which are mutually correspond- ent. Applying this to the Chinese, we are not surprised to find that the principle which shows itself in their prac- tical life, that, namely, of undifferentiated unity, is also the principle of their speech. The inner form is lacking, having become pure externality. Only by the external order of words are the inner relations and interdependence of con- cepts expressed. It would seem that the richness of Chinese linguistic phantasy has resolved itself into music. Position and intonation decide the meaning of the sentence. But what is the origin of the Sen or tones? 'The salvation of science', says Prof. Steinthal, 'must ever mostly depend upon a correct statement of the question; for every question contains its answer in itself, and if the former is wrongly stated, the latter is necessarily wrong. With new questions begin new epochs'. If, therefore, we have before us an organism of data, we have to ask, not so much after the How and Why, as rather after the What. Strange though it seem, it is to these 'Sen that Chinese owes its mono- syllabism. This ingenious musical device has been brought about solely by phonetic decay. It is a phaenomenon which is found, though in a less degree in many African dialects, where it has produced the same result. 'To understand their origin', says Prof. Douglas, 'we must remember that on entering China the Chinese found the country occupied by races more or less civilised, with whom they freely mixed to a greater or less degree as circumstances determined. From this inequality of inter- course betwen races speaking languages with different mor- phological constructions, in which great importance was attached to the quality and quantity of vowels for the meaning of Words, there resulted a condition of phonetic poverty owing to contractions and elisions of the initial, -$* 71 hS~ medial or final syllables of their words. By the movements of the organs of speech and the ordinary principle of equi- librium the place of these decayed articulations has been supplied by differences of tone in the pronunciation of the vowels, a system which, by the facility it gives for the economy of language, has received a full development'. The Chinese written language (Kjai-Su) is a word- writing; every sign represents a concept. But since the number of the simple conceptual signs was limited, new concepts were formed partly by reduplication and to a great extent by addition. A calculation based on the Im- perial Chinese Dictionary show that, at present, the Chinese language is represented by about 50,000 characters. Of these at least 13,000 are utterly irrelevant and consist of signs which are alike obsolete, incorrectly formed, and un- explained. In ordinary literature we do not meet with more than 4000 signs. A knowledge of only 2500 characters will enable one to understand the writings of Confucius and his disciples, in fact, almost any Chinese work on history and philosophy. Now, the Kjai-Su does not date further back than the 4 th century of our era. It is a modification of the more rounded and thick writing known as Li-s'ii i. e. official script, which is ascribed to Kin-mo, rendered possible through the improvements in the scribe's apparatus, namely, his paper and hair pencil. The Chinese emperors have always con- sidered it their special function to uphold orthography and have repeatedly tried to fix by law the form of the written signs. Hence, since the days of the Zin dynasty the Li-s'n had been the official text. It will easily be seen that, when once there was a deviation from tradition and new forms were created, there would arise the danger that, in the far- reaching provinces of the Chinese empire, independent forms would be developed and the highly-important unity of written language be destroyed. The character composed of meagre -$h 72 Kr- and monotonous strokes which had immediately preceded the Li-su was the Sjau-kwan which was written on a bamhoo with a stylus. But this again was an official modification of the ancient mode of writing called Ta-kwan in which, among the different States which had once been subject to the dominion of the Kau, many and great variations had been developed. Formed by the historiographer C S6 Kau at the instigation of one of the greatest monarchs of the Kau dynasty, King Sun, the Ta-kwan was an undertaking in which the written character was reconstructed as one of hieroglyphics. Having come thus far by an analysis of the Chinese language itself, let us now, under the guidance of that emin- ent philologist, Prof. Terrien de Lacouperie, apply our second canon of research, namely, international linguistic analysis. The modern characters can be traced back through the changes they have undergone, partly in obedience to political necessities, in the fourth century and during the Zin (B. C. 255—200) and the Kau (B. C. 1122—255) dy- nasties, to a time when they were used to phonetically re- present an agglutinative or amalgamating laguage. 'We have multifarious proofs that the writing first known in China was already an old one, partially decayed, but also much improved since its primitive hieroglyphic stage. Although many of them had kept their early pictographic and ideo- graphic value, the characters, selected according to their sense, were used phonetically, isolated and in groups, to represent the monosyllabic and polysyllabic words as well as the compounds of the spoken language. At that time the writing of the Ku-wan was really the phonetic expression of speech'. By an analysis of the old inscriptions and frag- ments and by the help of the native works on palaeography M. de La Couperie has compiled a dictionary of this period. With the results of Jan Hjuh's researches in 25 dialectic ~3* 73 kJ~ regions and by a comparison of the various idioms of modern China with those of the aborigines we are enabled to read the characters as the subjects of the Zin dynasty read them. The outcome of this process has then to be compared with the rhymes of the Si-Kih or 'Book of Odes' and with the languages of the offshoots from the ancient Chinese con- federation, such as the Siamese, the Burmese and the Anna- mites, and even with those of remoter kinship. We have already spoken of that characteristic of Chinese, namely the Sen or tones. Now, a comparison of these tones as they are developed in the speech of the Middle Kingdom with the double initials in Burinese, Siamese and Sinico- Annamite, and with the mute letters in Tibetan, completes the evidence required to prove that they are the modern representatives of decayed syllables. As an instance of the transformation of ancient Chinese words we may mention the equivalent for 'eye' which, as Prof. Douglas has pointed out, from a combination of two words, mut and kan, becomes mukan, as it is at the present day among the Panicoochi tribe of aborigines. As this word gradually became the property of tribes some of whom laid greater stress on the final and other on the initial parts of their words, it was successively metamorphosed on the one hand to mang, ngan and the modern Jew, and on the other hand to muk and mull. Thus, notwithstanding its excessive attenuation, and disguised as it is by the influence of idioms belonging to a different morphology and conceptology , the Chinese spoken language is nevertheless an ancient member of that great family of speech which is known as Uralaltaic. And here it may be well, as Prof, de Lacouperie suggest. to establish a third division of that family, which might appro- priately be called Amardian; a group in which the first division embraces Akkadian and its dialect, and the second division Proto-Medic, Susian and Kossian. The ideological characteristics of Chinese, coupled with K ~5* 74 H5- its peculiarities, place it as a link between the Arnardian division and the Ugro-Finnish group. It is true that ancient Chinese shares certain very marked grammatical affinities with the Ugro-Finnish tongues, but its phonetic degeneration and its choice of certain articulations more closely connect it with the Akkadian and Susian dialects. To quote but a few instances of this linguistic relationship: Akkadian Chinese English hi li cow umu mu mother sik sik cloth gan gun cloud ka ko mouth Of the Akkadian hieroglyphics there have as yet been deciphered rather more than 500, and it is very remarkable that Chinese tradition fixes the number of the original characters at 540. 'Results no less remarkable', says Prof. Douglas, 'are, however, brought to light by a comparison of the social and religious institutions of the two peoples. In the early leg- endary records of China we find the first place in the list of the five Sovereigns who bore rule at the dawn of history occupied by Hwah-ti, anciently Kon-ti, whose family name is said to have been Nai or Nak. This ruler is credited with having invented astronomy, music, medicine and the other sciences, as well as the arts which contribute to the comfort and well-being of man. If we examine the old form of his name as preserved in the Kwen-z'6-wei and the Su-su- fum-lui we find it to be composed of one group of charac- ters to be read Nak-Konti, a name which strangely coin- cides with .Nak'unta or Nak'unte mentioned in the Susian texts as the chief of the gods. This name was added to their own by the oldest Susian Kings, as we find in the case of Kudur-JNTakunta who ravaged the country from Ur to Babylon and founded the dynasty called by Berosus -> 75 <- Medic (B. C. 2285). Again, tradition tells us that the in- ventor of Chinese writing was Zan Hie, or, as his name was pronounced in old Chinese, Dum-Kit, who is said to have been an independent chief, though by some writers he has been described as reigning in succession to Fii-Hi and by others as a minister of Hwah-Ti. The resemblance be- tween his name Dum-Kit and that of Dungi, King of Ur, Avho succeeded the famous Sikbagas or Likbabi on the throne, is curious, and the interest in the comparison is heightened when we recognise that the meaning of the Akkadian charac- ters composing the name Dungi is the man of the reed tablet'. Turning now to the political institutions of the early Chinese we find in the fragments of Susian history as yet made known complete explanations on two points which have hitherto baffled the investigation of scholars both native and foreign. In the second chapter of the 'Book of History' Ave are told that the Emperor c San (B. B. 2255 — 2205) 'gave daily audiences to all the pastors', who are understood t<» have been the Princes of the various states; and, in another passage, that 'he sacrificed specially, but with the ordinary forms, to God, and with reverent purity, to the Six Honored Ones.' The epithets 'pastors', as applied to Princes, and 'Six Honoured Ones' have been much commented upon, but no satisfactory explanation has been offered of them. Now, however, that which has been a riddle to the people them- selves for tens of centuries is made plain to us by the Susian texts. There we are told that the Princes of the second rank were called 'pastors', and that in the Divine hierarchy there were next in order to the principal god six deities of the first rank'. And here we must stop to notice what is, after all, the most important work in the whole realm of Chinese literature, namely, the Ji-Kin. It was of this book that Confucius said that, if he had 50 more years to. live, lie would devote them to the study of the original text, which ~3* 76 H5- consists of short sentences arranged under certain diagrams, formed by the combination of straight lines. 'As a matter of fact', says Prof, de Lacouperie, 'the Ji-kin is the oldest of the Chinese books, not certainly as it now stands, but as far as concerns the greatest part of the documents which are compiled in it. Some of these parts are most likely contemporary with the early leaders of the Chinese Bak families (Poh-Sing). It has all the appear- ance of being a series of notes, documents, and informations collected by the early chiefs of the Chinese immigrants. It looks like a repository of indications drawn up by the early leaders of the Bak families, for the guidance of their officers and successors, in the use of the characters of the writing, by the native populations with whom the newly - arrived people had to deal, for the customs, the produce of the soil, the animal kingdom, etc.; and it is in this sense that the Ji-kih is the most valuable of the Chinese classics, the one in which, according to the non-interrupted and unconscious feeling of the Chinese themselves, was embodied the wisdom and Knowledge of the sages of yore'. The work is attributed to the legendary Emperor Fu-Hi (B. C. 2852) and seems to have been first arranged under the Hia dynasty (2205—1766 B. C). The fact that 1450 works on the Ji were selected for the library of Kien-Lah shows pretty clearly the inability of the successive early commentators —Wan Wan (B. C. 1150), k'au Kim (B. C. 1120), and Kuh-pu-zo (B. C. 500) to understand the book. Native and European scholars have alike supposed it to treat exclusively of philosophy and divinatory lore, but the researches of Prof, de Lacouperie and his collaborateur, Prof Douglas, prove that 'the original text consits to a great extent of vocabularies in which important words and their characters are explained in the (probably eight) different dialects spoken within the limits of the Chinese supremacy, and in which to other words are appended lists of their equivalents. Inter- ~>4 77 Hg~ mingled with these vocabularies are important records of unusual interest, such as ephemerides bearing on the ethno- logy and history of the ancient East'. Now, it would seem that these Chinese vocabularies have been framed in obedience to the same principles, very much with the same materials, and according to the tradition of the old syllabaries of South-Western Asia. Both in Elam and China we find not only the phonetic vocabularies, but also the converse system, namely, lists of the words or characters which have a common meaning, Thus we have many proofs of a theory which has been held by Prof, de Lacouperie for many years, that before their emigration to the far East, the Chinese Bak families had borrowed the pre-cuneiform writing and elements of their Knowledge and institutions from a region connected with the old focus of culture of Susiana. There is, however, evidence of a multi- farious kind to show that the borrowing took place after the Semitic influence had been brought to bear upon the Akkadians and Sumirians, and at a time when 'the cunei- form strokes already introduced were not yet exclusively used to draw the characters, straight and curved lines being still used at the same time, and the introduction of the wedge-shaped implement had not effaced the pictographical forms of the signs'. To historically determine this remarkable propagation of culture, we must remember the following interesting and important facts, which have been pointed out by M. de La- couperie. 1. The writing was communicated with all its peculia- rities and complexity of ideograms and phonetics, the latter keeping their sounds, and the former receiving sometimes new appellations in the language of the borrowers according to their picture-meaning. 2. The characters were still in the plastic stage which allows a certain range of alterations and occasional variations ~3H 78 H$~ for the facility of the compound characters. A comparative analysis of the compounds in the early Cuneiform characters discloses this parallel fact, and it is a feature of the so-called Hittite characters, which on the inscriptions are modified according to their position as opposed to the rigidity of the Egyptian hieroglyphs more early crystallized. 3. Many characters were still pictographic, but a great number had lost their original hieroglyphic shape and had assumed apparently arbitrary forms. 4. The writing had not been drawn at first by an ob- lique eyed people. 5. The facing process, upwards or downwards, of draw- ing the pictographic characters, had been preferred as often as possible to the profile process (Egyptian and Hittite), probably to avoid the boustrophedon. 6. At the time of its propagation to the Chinese Bak families, the pre-cuneiform writing was disposed in horizontal lines, but it had been written previously horinzontally and vertically, according to the size of the characters as in Egyptian and so-called Hittite hieroglyphs. 7. The borrowers, perhaps in imitation of the knotted cords and notched rods previously used by them, disposed the writing in vertical lines instead of horizontal, and for that purpose had to put up the characters single a com- pound not easy to disintegrate, which had too much width for the regularity of the lines. The putting-up of the picto- graphic characters was ruled by the figure of their subject. 8. In the script borrowed, the characters were used phonetically in the formation of compounds, without neglec- ting their ideographic values, which were taken into account and ruled their selection; their reading was from left to right or from top to bottom. We have thus answered the question with which we started. The early leaders of the Chinese borrowed their culture from Elam, that confederation of states of which -> 79 h^ Susa was the chief town, and the Kussi the chief population. 'From a body of evidence', says M. de Lacouperie, 'it results that they were at first settled south-east of the Caspian Sea; and that, in order to escape a heavy yoke, they extended on the east, along the head-w T aters of the Oxus, following .its main affluent, the Red Water (Kisil Su), and then passing into Chinese Turkestan along the other Kisil-Su, the head- waters of the Ka'sgar River (the Tarim), which conducted them after a time to the Yellow River and 'The Flower Land 7 . of which the fame was without doubt already attractive enough to make it a suitable place of colonisation'. The same distinguished scholar suggests that the break up which happened in those states and resulted in the con- quest of Babylonia by the Elamite King, Kadur-Nalumta, in 2285 B. C. was also the cause of an Eastern conquest and a settlement in Bactria, and that this would account for the old focus of culture coeval with the earlier period of Assyrian monarchy said to have existed in Central Asia. Now, the two ethnic names which were those of the future Chinese invaders, namely, Bak which is the ancient form of Poll (Poh Sin — Bak families), and Kutti or Kutta (now Hid) are not foreign to these regions; nay, is it not likely that the Chinese Kutti and the Kussi, the Chinese Bak and Bali (Bak'-di: Bactria) are the same? Tho population of Indo-China thus consists for the most part of ethnic elements previously existing in China, so that, to fully understand the ethnology of the whole peninsula and adequately to appreciate the necessary interdependence of various human races, we must study the Chinese immi- gration itself. As we have seen, the results of ancient Chinese philo- logy point to the fact that China received her language and the elements of the arts, sciences and institutions, from the invasions of the Ugro - Altaic Bak families. These tribes came from Western Asia about 2300 B. C. under the leader- ~3* 80 »«- ship of men of high culture who, through their neighbors the Susians, were acquainted with the civilisation which came from Babylon and was changed in the second focus. When these Bak families came in contact with the aborigines they found tattooed tribes, two stems indeed, whose characteristics strike the traveller even to-day. One was a race of dwarfs, the Tjau, who are still represented by a) the Trau, in the east of Bienhoa in Cochin China, well-nigh the smallest of the human race; |3) the Hota c - c San, Southwest of Junnan; y) the Minkopies of the Andamans; 6) the Simangs of the Malay peninsula, and e) one of the native Formosan stems. These races are all representative of the once so widely-spread Negrito stem. Near the first Chinese colony on the Hwah ho was the other stem of the Kah Kjo, the 'long-legged'. The French scientists of the expedition du Mekong observed that the Mo'is, P'nohs and K c as of the Southern Indo-Chinese peninsula had long legs. Since at that time the Chinese knew nothing of the regions and races South of the Jaii-zo-Kjah, since, further, the present representatives of these remarkable men live not far from one another, it seems highly probable that the Chinese immigrants of both stems knew one another, that the then settlement was in North China, and that it was only af-- terwards they were driven South. By the unequal amount of affinities and parallelisms which they have in common with the Chinese, the non-Chinese race of the 'flowery land' together with their younger relatives of Indo- China show that, some obtained them by fortuitous proximity, others by mixture. Now there are two facts which make it difficult for us to follow the linguistic history of a country and at the same time to keep fast hold of the identity of a race always speaking the same language, namely, racial succession and linguistic tradition. As regards the problem before us here, the primary data are ethnological; the linguistic evi- ->; 81 <- dence does not go beyond the tracing of the effect of aboriginal speech upon the idiom of the Chinese immigrants. The means used for determining the classification of native dialects are lexical and ideological affinities. Since it is the very nature of language to be in a state of restless evolution and change, we ought not to suppose that, in former times, other forces and influences were at work than those which we find dominant to-day. If roots are produced by the unconscious working of the mind in its search after signs for general ideas, then the radical period is with us still, and will never cease. The language of Tibet, Burmali. Pegu, Siam, Annam and China are generally called mono- syllabic and are still mentioned by some as living examples of the primaeval speech of monosyllabic roots. But it is very doubtful whether there ever was such monosyllabism. According to Prof De Lacouperie there are but three kinds: one of decay, that of pronunciation, and one of writing. The languages of South Eastern Asia belong to the second, whilst that of English, for instance, arises from decay. By reason of the separation of matter from form in these lan- guages they are sometimes called juxtapositing ; now it is just the stuff- and form-words which run together and then gradually decay. The decay is often produced by distinction of pitch in pronunciation. These tones have been considered as the residue of the speech of primitive humanity, when language was pure soul-song, the fact is, however, that they are merely a common phaenomenon of linguistic equilibrium. By this process of decay the languages of South Eastern Asia became in many ways destroyed, but their former and fuller phoneticism can to a certain extent be restored by palaeography and dialectic comparison. The same savant divides them into the following six classes: — 1. Incapsulating. 2. Incorporative. 3. Alliterative. 4. Juxtapositing. 5. Annexing. 6. Amalgamating. But we must remember that they are not stages following L -5« 82 ~s~ one upon another but states resulting from the two great forces which produce language, namely, the mental capacity to conceive and express general ideas and the laziness of the organs of speech. Sometimes these two forces work harmoniously together and sometimes against one another. We have, for instance, the remarkable phaenomena of mixed and hybrid languages. A language is mixed when only the lexicon shows foreign elements, hybrid, if the grammar is cut up. Grammar shows inner and outer development: inner, if, making use of the possibility of evolution, it yet remain true to its own nature; outer, if it become mixed with another grammar. Of this phaenomenon comparative conceptology gives adequate proof, for, ideology has to do with the position of words in the sentence and shows how languages are built up according to different modes of thought, and that if an idiom with direct (logical) word-order come into contact with one of indirect or inverting ideology, the grammar develops, mixes and changes. Dr. de Lacouperie suggests the following laws of con- ceptual evolution and mixture: — 1. Where an immigrant idiom comes into contact and mixes with a language of different ideology which is spoken by the earlier settlers, the power of preserving the order of the sentence is greater with the less-refined idiom, whether autochthonic or nomadic. 2. When, in the case of two languages spoken by two stems of different stages of culture , imposition and not suspension takes place, the prevailing position of the noun and adjective of the more refined language holds its own. 3. Other things equal, the dominant position of the verb with regard to subject and object will be that of the less developed language, often with the addition of repeating pronouns. Where a language of indirect form (V) is modified by an idiom of direct form (IV, VI), we find the phaenomena -5H 83 Kr- of incorporating pronouns, which frequently repeat subject and object. If, then, Ave wish to understand the inner speech-sense, the speech -creating mind or the national consciousness, it is highly important to know whether the ideology is natural, direct, indirect or hybrid. Speaking generally one may say that, the dolichokephalic stems have direct ideology, the brachykephalic indirect. Excepting that of the Northern races which had gone before them into the Middle Kingdom and probably belonged to the Turko - Tataric stem, the language of the primitive Chinese or immigrant Bak families was wholly unlike the idiom of the aborigines. Primitive Chinese was related not so much to the Altaic as rather to the Western or Ugric branch of the Turanian family and more particularly to the Ostiak dialects. The ideological formulae of this idiom were probably those which are common to all the Ugro- altaic languages, when not complicated, namely, 1. 3. 5. 8. III. But there are no texts with this ideology extant. In all Chinese dialects the formula of to-day is 1. 3. 6. 8. VI; an earlier formula 1. 3. 5. 8. I is sometimes found in the older of these dialects, e. g. those of Fukau, Kanton and Tunkin. In the writings of the Tau-so we even find traces of the primitive ideology 1. 3. 5. 8. III. Yet even with these three formulae the linguistic evolution of China is not complete. Kemarkable instances of a formula 2. 3. 6. 7. are occasionally found in older texts. The numerals 6. 7., which indicate the postposition of the subject, and imply a syntax IV or V, are extant in the earlier texts of the Hia dynasty about 2000 B. C; in the Calendar, for instance, and in certain parts of the Ji Kin. The former was instituted at the time when the founder of the said dynasty made his way down to the mouth of the Jah-zo-Kjan in a South Easterly direction. In this way the idiom of the conquerors became' mixed with the speech of the autochthons. And since this calendar ~> 84 k~ was written and spread for the benefit of the mixed popu- lation, it follows that, the deviation from the Chinese of that clay corresponded with the linguistic traits of the district. Indeed, they are just those which are peculiar to the Tagalo- Malay idioms, the position of the subject after the verb not being found in the other dialects which have influenced Chinese. By the position of the object after the verb and by the synthetic arrangement of the sixth standard as against the pure numerals of Uralian, which were formerly common to it, there can be little doubt that Chinese has borrowed from the indigenous Mon and Tai-San languages. The revolutionary stages of Chinese ideology are, therefore, the following: 1. 3. 5. 8. III., 1. 3. 6. 7. IV., 1. 3. 5. 8. I., 2.3. 6. 8. VI and 1. 3. 6. 8. VI. Phonetics, morphology and semasiology all show how great was the influence of the native idioms. The introduction and growth of the tones as the result of linguistic equili- brium by reason of phonetic decay are to be ascribed to the same influence. The postposition of imrticles in Ugro-Altaic to express relations of space and time has been replaced in Chinese by the exactly-opposite principle. On the ancient dialects there are three Chinese dic- tionaries, namely, the Er -ja, the Fan Jen and the 'Swo Wan. The first is a work of the Kau dynasty (1050—255 B. C.) and is divided, according to the subject, into 19 sections. Small collections of words arranged according to their related meanings constitute the first section, 'Si Ku, which is ascribed to the celebrated Duke of Kau. 'Sijen, the second section, consists of a series of words of which the last gives the meaning of the others: its composition is generally ascribed to Zo Hia, a disciple of Kun. The next division is arranged in pairs with explanations. This kind of double words, which is a characteristic of the Tai-San languages, is often found in the popular songs, the c Si Kin, for instance, and ->t 85 K~ must be looked upon as the result of the influence of the native idioms of this family upon the speech of the Chinese. The Er-ja is primarily a guide to the classics, but it con- tains many words which are found in no Chinese text. To a great extent they are loan-words which appear in Chinese only by homonyms as phonetic exponents. In this work we have a fifth of the whole repertory, i. e. 928 words which do not occur elsewhere. According to the ¥u Kin Wan the five Kin or canonical books contain only 3335 different word -forms. If we add the four *Su the number is only 4754. The great collection of the 'Si San Kin or 13 Kin, which, besides those mentioned, contains the I-li, Kau-li, Hjau-Kin, Ko-lian, Kun Jan and Er'-ja, contais 6544 differ- ent words. As regards the Fan Jen it is nothing but a compara- tive glossary which was made by Jan. Hjuri (5 — 3 B. C. — 18 A. D.). Its full title is: Jeo hien c se k'e zjiie tai jii 'si pie kwo Fail Jen 'the speech of the past explained by messengers in light carts together with words from different parts of the country'. In this work Jan Hjiui has collected over 12,000 words from more than 44 districts. Hii c Sen, the author of the 'Swo Wan, lived in the first century of our era. The 'Swo Wan, which consists of 9353 words , is still the chief work with Chinese lexicographers. In this great work Hii 'Sen has collected all the characters of the so-called Sjau Kwan, which he considered the best, and has given 441 of the Ku Wan. If, therefore, we would critically arrange the data which are to be obtained from the Er'-ja, the Fail Jen and the c Swo Wan, together with the commentaries of Kwo P6, much of the linguistic history of China between 500 B. C. and 250 A. D. would be elucidated and explained. Let us now sum up the results of the Indo - Chinese philology, for they are of far reaching importance.' In the first place they reveal the remarkable fact that China's -> 86 K- interesting culture is derived from Babylonia and Syria, that the so-called Chinese list of kings is based upon the early Babylonian canon and restores the first dynasty of the 86 kings mentioned by Berosus. The duration of the Chinese canon, without any astronomical reference, has been calcu- lated at 44 centuries B. C. On the other hand, the earlier dynasty (13, 11, 9 kings) at 600 years, which would give us about 3800 B. C. for 'Sen-Nun = Sargon. Then, besides the similarity in names and facts between Chinese tradition and Babylonian history, we get two great synchronisms: Ku Nak K'un-te = Kudur Nak-Kunte about 2300 B. C. and 'Sen Nuii = Sargon about 3800 B. C. Still more important are, perhaps, the linguistic facts which have been brought to light by scientific research. Especially remarkable are the ideological changes which are manifest in the two types of speech known as Turano- Scythian and Indo -Pacific. The original ideology of the Kwanlunic family was 1. 3. 5. 8. Ill, but that of the Chinese of to-day is 1. 3. 6.8. VI, whilst that of Karengian is 1. 4. 6. 8. VI. and that of Tibeto-Burmese 1. 4. 5. 8. III. Speaking generally, one may say that the great differ- ence between inflecting languages and those of the agglu- tinative type is this, that whilst in the former the single parts of the perception are presented to the hearer according to their importance, the sketch thus developing into the perfect picture, in the latter the conceptual framework is put together like a mosaic, and only at the end of the sen- tence or conversation is it possible to have a review of the whole. Again, what a contrast between the vocalisation of the Aryan idioms, with the Umlaut of Ancient Baktrian, Old Irish and German, and the vowel-harmony as we have it in the Uralic and Altaic tongues! As a type of the Samoyede forms of speech we may take Jurak. The language has a richly-developed inflexion, the noun possessing the usual case-forms to express space. ->i 87 k- On the other hand, the verb is tolerably poor in expressions for inner modifications. Every noun can be used as a neuter verb and every transitive verb can assume the form of a noun with possessive suffixes. The object is expressed phoneti- cally, but the subject is not. The attribute precedes the noun, but the predicate taking the form of the verb, follows. The subject stands at the head of the sentence, the verb at the end, the object, as the verb's complement, going before. From a phonetical point of view there is no distinction between noun and verb. E. g. hano-u my boat; madawae-u my section i. e. 'I have cut.' There is no expression of grammatical gender, but we have the three numbers, namely, singular, dual and plural, and 8 cases, namely, subjective, objective, genitive, dative, locative, ablative, prosecutive and instrumental. The language of the Samoyedes possesses two phoneti- cally different series of suffixes, namely, predicative and possessive, applying alike to noun and verb. Tense is only imperfectly expressed in Samoyede. As a rule there are but two forms: a fundamental form which may be designated an Aorist expressing present and future — durative, in fact, and a preterite derived from it by means of a sign pointing to the past. There are two moods, the conjunctive and im- perative, the optative being found in the Jurak dialect only. Samoyede numeration is based upon the decimal system, but it is very doubtful whether originally, the Samoyedes could count beyond six. 1 Nopoi hob (Jurak); oker (Ostjak) 5 Samljan „ ; somblan „ 10 ju', liitsa-ju' „ ; kot Jurak ideology is indirect, as will be seen from the following examples (1. 3. 5. 8. Ill): — Sawa njenetje tubka-si har-si nji jili-im'. brave man club-without knife-without not live will. -^ 88 h£- Man jili-no-ina-u ja-u I dwell-shall-of-my place-mine = A place where I will dwell. Ostjali- Samoyede. Asa-m takseniel-kum-en njala-md mi-nge-d, wuenel Father-nry rich-man-to daughter-his give will, another kum-en asa mi-nge-d. man-to not give will. The Jurak and Ostjak thoughts of the Supreme are common to all the Uralic tribes, namely: — Num Thunder; Torim Earth. Nor must we forget that 'the Tatar tribes with much unanimity recognize as a great god the Sun, whose figure may be seen beside the Moon's on their magic drums, from Siberia to Lapland. Castren, the ethnologist, speaking of the Samoyed expression for heaven or deity in general (jili- beambaertje) tells an anecdote from his travels, which gives a lively idea of the thorough simple nature -religion still possible to the wanderers of the steppes. "A Samoyed woman," he says, "told me it was her habit every morning and eve- ning to step out of her tent and bow down before the sun; in the morning saying, 'When thou Jilibeambaertje risest, I too rise from my bed!' in the evening, "When thou Jilibeam- baertje sinkest down, I too get me to rest!' The woman brought this as a proof of her assertion that even among the Samoyeds they said their morning and evening prayers, but she added with pity that there are also among them wild people who never sent up a prayer to God"' * The chief characteristic of the idioms of the Uralic tribes is the truly astounding development of flexion. The noun, for instance, for the living expression of various spatial relations shows an unrivalled richness of forms. There are i Tylor; Primitive Culture, 291. ^ 89 !<^ no less than 17 cases or modifications of the stem, namely, subjective, objective, indefinite, essive, inessive, relative, illa- tive, adessive, ablative, allative, abessive, translative, prose- cutive, comitative and instructive, genitive and instrumental. The two important categories Noun and Verb are generally distinguished, as are also the attribute and the predicate, the former going before, the latter coming after, the subject! As regards the subject, its position is not always the same. Whilst in Magyar the object precedes the verb, in Finnish, as a rule, it follows. The genitive comes before the word it defines. The decimal system underlies Uralic numeration. For the sake of comparison I give the figures in the words of 8 languages: — Lapp Syrianian Mordivinian Keremissian Suomi 1 yksy 2 kaksi 3 koline 4 nelja 5 viisi akte kuekte kolma nelje vita 10 kymmenen lokke Ostjalc 1 it 2 kat 3 kiuk'in 4 njel 5 vet 10 joh otik kik kuiin njol' vit das Woyul akva kit korom njile at lau ifka kafta kolma nila veta kemen Magyar egy ket liarom negy ot tiz ikta kok kum nil viz lu As a specimen of Finnish we may take a Rune from the great epic Kalevala (III, v. 91): — Tuli nuori Joukahainen, Ajoi tie-llii vastatusten Came young Joukahainen, Hurried way-up towards; Tarttu-i aisa aisa-n paa-han; smashed-its elf pole pole-the head-against; M ~$* 90 K~ Rahe rahke-lien takist-i, Pole-ring pole-ring-against was knocked, Lange-t puultu-i lanki-loi-hin, Harness entangled-itself harness-with, Vemniel vempele-n nena-han. Horse-collar horse-collar-of top-against. And the following prayer addressed to Ukko: — Oi Ukko ylijimiala, Ukko, thou, o God above, Talii taatto taivahinen, Thon, o Father in the heavens, Vallan pilvissa pitaja, Who reignest in the clouds Hattarojen hallitsia! And leadest cloudlings all! E. II, V. 317. In Finnish the Pater Noster is as follows: Isa meidan, joka olet taiwaissa: Pyhitetty olkoon sinun nimes. Lahestykoon sinun waltakuntas. Olkoon sinun tahtos niin niaassa, kuin taiwaassa. Anna meille tanapaiwana meidan jokapaiwainen leipamme. Ja anna meille meidan welkamme anteeksi, miinkuin mekin anteelsi annamme meidan welwollistemme. Ja ala johdata meita kiusaukseen. Mutta paasta meita pahasta. Silla sinun on waltakunta, ja woima, ja kunnia, ijankaikkisesti; Amen! Mordwinian may be represented by part of a fable entitled 'Fox and Wolf :— Kelas asdi kapa prea-sa, mez-divik Fox sits hay-rick head-upon, something (abl.) jarhtsai mol'-s malaz-inza virgas kizift-izii: he eats. Came neighborhood-his wolf asked -him: 'mezda jarhta-t kelas jalgai?' 'Da vaga! Kal-nat 'What eatest-thou fox friend?' And there! fishes-which kunda-ii.' 'Ko-sta kunda-t'?' 'Af aza-n.' I have caught.' 'Whence has thou caught?' 'not I say.' Of Magyar we may take an example from Kisfaludy: — Bus orje a sir-nak, magas Cyprus! te a Sad guardian the grave-to, high Cypress! thou the levego-nek air-to-tlie ~& 91 H$- halal-nak nenia biztos-a; — niino titko-t fedez nemes deatli-to dumb confidant-his ; what secret conceals sublime peldazat-od? felko-t oszlat-va tor-sz fel a image-thine? clouds dividing strugglest-thon upwards the magas-ra 5 s az eg csillagos ter-e-i-n orok height-up and of-the heaven starry spaces his-eternal feny-ben mereng-ve hezte-id tiszta-bb splendor-into fixing gaze-thine purer sziv-od arja-i-t 's komor-dan thou drinkest-it-in floods its and earnestly bii zke let-ed-et keskeny proud being-thy narrow szentel-ed! thou consecratest it! Ideologically the Uralic (1. 3. 5. 8. I) or hybrid (1. 3. With the Magyar Concept of Deity, namely, Isten, we have already dealt. The remaining Concepts are: — is also hant-ok sod meg yet disz-e-re adornment-his-to tongues are either indirect 6. 8. in). Finnish: Itse ilmoinen Jumala Valjastele varsojasi, Rakentele ratsujasi Aja kirja-korjinesi: jumala Thunder-place Thou, o God among the breezes, Catch the colth and have them ready; Harness, thou, the lively steeds, Hither drive in sledges gay! Kiill jumal teeb, kui anname teha. God indeed will do (it) if only we will let Him! Esthonian: 3[ummal Thunder-place Keremissian: IOMa Thunder Lapp: ^fttumct Thunder-place Wogul: TopiiM Earth Kuvds: Topa Earth Mordwinian: na3i. The Hidden One. Pas povni God-fearing. Mok'sa: Skai The Holy One. -3* 92 *§- In the Mok c sa form of Mordwinian we find the word 'Skai for Deity: — Oh! otsu skai kormelets! vara Skai kormelets! Maj anatama, makst: varda pisem, alda lihtima, paksas sora, kuts sembendi smnbrasi, kaldasis 5ivatat; vanimast vorda, tolda, kaldun lomanda! great God, Guardian! God above, Defender! What we long for, that give: rain from above, springs from below; corn in the field, health for all at home, cattle in the pens. Protect us from thieves, fire, and sorcerers! There are many forms of the Tatar word, namely, Jum, Juma, Jub; Nuin, Nom, Nome, Nup, Nop, Som, but the Idea is always the same: primarily Sky, then Thunder. As Prof. Tylor well observes: — 'Over the vast range of the Tatar races, it is the type of the supreme Heaven that comes prominently into view. Nature-worshippers in the extreme sense, these rude tribes conceived their ghosts and elves and demons and great powers of the earth and air to be, like men themselves, within the domain of the divine Heaven almighty and all- encompassing. To trace the Samoyed's thought of Num the personal Sky passing into vague conceptions of per- vading deity; to see with the Tunguz how Boa the Heaven- god, unseen but allknowing, kindly but indifferent, has divided the business of his world among such lesser powers as sun and moon, earth and fire; to discern the meaning of the Mongol Tengri, shading from Heaven into Heaven- god, and thence into god or spirit in general; to follow the records of Heaven-worship among the ancient Turks and Hiong-nu; to compare the supremacy among the Lapps of Tiermes, the Thunderer, with the supremacy among the Finns of Jumala and Ukko, the Heaven-god and heavenly Grandfather — such evidence seems good ground for Gastrin's argument, that the doctrine of the divine Sky underlay the first Turanian conceptions, not merely of a Heaven-god, -& 93 h$- but of a highest deity who in after ages of Christian con- version blended into the Christian God'. Nor must we fail to mention a beautiful expression for the deity found amongst the Samoyeds, namely, Jilibeambaertje Protector of the Living ! CHAPTER V. THE THEOLOGY OF THE NTJBA RACE, FROM THE STAND- POINT OF PHILOLOGY. Passing on to the Nuba race we may well begin with the language of the Fid-be known as Ful-de or Fulful-de. Speaking generally the language has a harmoniously-evolved phonetic system. It is fond of polysyllabic forms. The two categories Noun and Verb are distinguished from each other, the latter being built up upon the relation of predi- cate. Subject and object are only distinguished by position in the sentence, and attribute and predicate are not quite adequately distinguished. Definition follows the thing to be defined, consequently the genitive comes after the noun, the attributive adjective after the substantive, the object after its verb. The idiom possesses alike relative particles and relative pronouns. With the pronoun of the first person there is a double form in the plural, namely, inclusive and exclusive. Very interesting is the phonetic denotation of the cor- relation of unity and plurality. In certain cases both with the noun and the verb it is effected by a regular change of initial consonants, which, as Prof. F. Midler well observes, occurs again in no idiom and implies an uncommonly cute linguistic consciousness. Thus, M-do slave. M-be si: gor-U man, wor-be men; ptil-o a fulah. fftl-be fulahs. Nay. more, we find two forms of the substantive, the indefinite and the definite. -£H 94 Hg- Indefinite form Definite form singular plural singular plural Sagata.sagata-be youth, youths; Sagata-on sagata-be-be Ko-do ho-be stranger, strangers ; Ko-do-oh ho-be-be. But although as regards number and individuality the language shows a rich and original evolution, in respect of Case it is very poor. The two most important cases, the subjective and objective can only be recognised by position in the sentence. As already stated, the genitive follows the substantive to which it belongs and the other case- relations are expressed by prepositions preceding the nouns. The adjective in the sense of the attribute follows the substantive to which it belongs, agrees with it in number and, instead of the noun, takes the articular ending. For instance, baba moto a good father, baba moto-oh the good father; baba-rabe moto-be good fathers, baba-rabe moto- bebe the good fathers. One may do well to compare the nominal expression with possessive suffixes, with the verbal expression with predicate suffixes: — Sing. 1. Pers. gelo-ba-am my camel fudor-mi I begin 2. Pers. gelo-ba-ma fudor-da Plur. 1. Pers. gelo-ba-ammih ' fudor-meh As in Arabic, the distinction between transitive and intransitive is made by difference of vowel, a in the one case, i or u in the other. The verbal stems are six in number, namely, the simple, the definite, the causative, the reflexive, the reciprocal, and the limitative stem-form. Every verb has a passive and every expression can appear either in the positive or negative form. The quinar-decimal system underlies Ftilde and the ideology is hybrid, namely, 2. 4. 6. 8. VI, as may be seen from the following examples: — Timba wi-i jo be-deff-ana-mo maro jo onjam Timba said that they boiled-him rice that he might eat. -s* y5 h$- Sapal-be iiat-i e Gagaga, be-kel-i Moors-the pressed into Gagaga, they destroyed tata Makana be-nibar-i im-be fop. the wall (of) Makana they killed people all. The thought of Deity is that of divine sovereignty: — Gornam Lord. Gomirado. If we take the language of the Nuba we find that it has a harmoniously-developed phonetic system, excluding too great an accumulation of either vowels or consonants. As a rule forms are produced by means of suffixes. It is, in fact, the process of the simplest agglutination. Noun and verb are distinguished from each other but the nominal expression predominates. Subject, predicate and object and attribute are denoted partly by position and partly by the speech-form. The thing to be defined comes after the defining element. The language possesses no relative pronoun. In Nubian a great part is played by compounds whereby both substantives and adjectives are formed. They consisl of two expressions with definite denotation of the reciprocal grammatical relationship. The latter is either one of the ob- ject or of dependence. Thus, kare-kal 'fishes eating' — pelican ; nune-g-att-i 'thoughts bringing' = wise; id-en 'of the man woman' = wife; maii-isse 'eyes water' = tear. Nubian not knowing the categories of grammatical gender one has only to consider those of number and case. Alike in the singular and plural an i is added to the stem, in the former short, in the latter long. E. g. sogort-i, murt-i (sing.); spirit, horse; fab-i fathers, gid-i grasses. As regards case, the nominative as subject has no sign; as predicate it is denoted by a suffixed -a, the expresMnn of the copula. E. g. bum mas 'the beautiful maiden', on the other hand mas-a 'it is good', mas-a immun 'it is not ~£h 96 KS~ good'. The genitive is expressed by putting the denning element before the thing to be defined: buru-n ukki 'the maiden's ear'; fab -in ur 'the father's head'. The object-case corresponds with our accusative and dative and is formed by the suffix -ga in Mahas, and -gi in Kenus and Dongola. In the sentence the expression of the direct object (Accus.) as a rule goes before the finite verb. If a direct (accus.) and an indirect (dat.) object occur in the sentence, the direct takes the first place, the indirect the second. Both as attribute and predicate the adjective follows the substantive to which it belongs. In the former case it takes the suffixes of the substantive, in the latter it remains unchanged and must be joined to the copula. There is no relative pronoun in Nubian, so the relative sentence has to be treated as a noun, and construed as such in relation to the principal sentence. E. g. 'the moun- tain upon which Moses spake with God they call Sinai' is expressed thus: Moses with God spake-of which mountain Sinai they call. The Nubian verb is characterized by peculiar suffixes, and in speech by the preceding forms of the personal pro- noun. The former are divided into those of the durative and those of the aorist. There are six tenses: durative, aorist, perfect, pluperfect, two forms of the future, the exact future. With regard to modality Nubian distinguishes between positive and negative expression. The decadic system underlies Nubian numeration, and here it may be well to compare five dialects: — Malms Kenus Dongola Kulfan Koldagi 1 wer wera Averi ber bera 3 tusko tosku to ski toju todje 5 diga digu digi tisu tessu 10 dimer dimenu dimini bure bure 20 aro ari ari -2* ( J7 K~ THE PATER XOSTER. Uf-fab sema-la tans inni gudsi-kir-takk-eia, Our Father heaven-in name thine holy-be-made-indeed, mulk inni kir-eia it-logo, irada inn aw-takk-eia kingdom thy come-indeed us-to, will thine made-be-indeed sema-gon ardi-gon-la, kabire kafi-g' ft-ga heaven-and earth-and-upon, food enougb-which us-to den-g-e eli, gafra-den-g-e sembi uni-gu-ga (accus.) give-us-indeed to-day, forgive-us-indeed sins our-they sikkir u-gon gafra-tigg-uru ter-i-n u-log lis-k as we-and forgive them whom-of us-to bad-of aw-innan-ga u-g uda-gga-tam-e gerrib-id-lfi l:\kin making (Ace.) us lead-us-not-indeed temptation-in but negi-g-e sarri-ltoni, il-lo dfir-in-nogo deliver-us-indeed evil-out, thee-with is-because mulki-gon gudra-gun gurandi-gon abad-la. Amin. kingdom-and power-and glory-and unity-to. Amen. Nubian ideology is natural, the formula being 1.4.5.8.1. Of the supreme concept we have the following forms: — Nubian: Nor Lord Mahas: Nor Lord Dongoldwi: Arti Knower Barea: Kebbi Master. In Barea the Pater Noster is as follows: — He-aben nere-ge ut-ko, eng-ade kuddusnej-am Our-Father heaven-in is who. thy name hallowed be ehga simet wo-n-em, eriga solinga ej-am aere-gi thy kingdom come, thy will done be heaven-in lug-go, he-koberi wal-n-i-gin-der-ko enton earth-upon, our bread day-spend-make-to-which to-day da, he-wahgel fine ha, heige le he-negus-guna-go give, our debt forgive us, as also our debtors ~X 98 hs~ fin-in-dere-k, fitnet-gi ma nanegine lakin kosei we forgive, temptation-in not lead into but evil mesa-ko-gi dihin-ni-gin-ha. Amen, great-out save us. Amen. CHAPTER VI. THE DRAVIPA RACE. Like those of the Nuba race, the languages of the Kolh or Vind'ja stems possess a richly-developed phonetic system. The principle underlying their structure is suffix- agglutination. By the side of this is the formation by infix. The verb rests upon a predicative basis, which formally cannot adequately be distinguished from the possessive relationship; but its structure is quite formless, since the personal pro- noun is only loosely connected with the verbal stem. A verbal expression can be derived from any part of speech by the addition of the verbal suffixes. In number there are singular, dual and plural with the noun and pronoun, and by the pronoun this distinction is transferred to the verb. And, as regards the first person dual and plural of pronoun and verb, we even find the distinction between exclusive and inclusive. By the infix-formation, the struc- ture of the verb, the dual, the two forms of the first person dual and plural, as well as by the vigesimal system, the Kolh idioms are essentially distinguished from the Dravi- dian. Subject, object, and predicate and attribute are kept apart alike by formal and syntactical means. The vigesimal system is at the basis of the Vind'ja numeration. The numbers one to five are as follows: — Sanial Mundari Kolh Owaii Kurku 1 mi(t) mija(t) mid mi mia 2 barea baria barea anibar baria -Sh 99 ,«- 3 pea apia apia sgota hapia 4 ponea upunea upunja guclami upunia 5 more inonea morea monoja Here are a few sentences in Mandari: — Ora'-ete darn salani mena. Sane-te diri hambala- Honse-of tree high is. "Wood-of stone heavy tan-a. He gonike aliii higu-tan-a-liri. Ini being-is. Sir we two (excl.) coming-are-we. He apia merom-ko kirin-ked-ko-a. Aiii horo kagi four goats bought them has. I man speech (Ian- ka-in bugaw-a. guage of the Mundas) not-I understand. Vind'ja ideology is that of primitive mankind, 1. 4. 5. 8.1, being absolutely natural. So far we have been considering the Yind'ja idioms of the Dravida race, we have now to deal with the languages more specifically known as Dravidian, namely, Tamil, Cana- rese, Malayalam, Telugu, Tulu and Oraon. By their phonetic system these tongues are sharply distinguished from their neighbours, the Aryan. They all possess five, some even six, classes of explosives, viz. guttu- rals, palatals, cacuminal or cerebral and dental Dentals and labials. In Tamil and Malayalam the cacuminal den- tals are palatalised, whereby a new class of explosives arises. The cacuminal dentals are in these idioms not only trans- formations of ordinary dentals into suffix-syllables, as, for instance, in Sanskrit and the allied dialects, but hit parts of the roots. Words are formed from roots by means of the process of suffixing. The noun is rich in case-endings of a spatial nature, but the denotation of grammatical cases is some- what meagre. The verb rests on the predicative relationship and is formed by suffixes, which represent contracted pro- nouns. By position in the sentence subject and object, HH 100 -* 101 *g_ Tamil Malayalam Telugu Canarese Tulu Kudagu 1 Oixlru onna Okati Vondu vongi ondu 5 eindu anka ajidu eidu emu ansi 10 pattu patta padi hattu paltii pattu Poda Oraon Bralmi 1 Yodd Onta asit 5 iik panke pang 10 pal tu dase dak The Dravidians do not seem to have counted beyond 100, at all "events, in the first instance. The following may serve as instances of Dravidian con- struction and ideology: — Tamil. Parabaran imd-endr-um avar enn-ei ppadei-tt-ar God is-said-liaving-and he me created has endr-um viguvagi-kkidr-en. said-having-and believe-I. 'I believe that God exists and that He has created me.' A-ppadi an-al a van en i-ppadi ktollu-gidr-an? That way being-through he as this way speaks? 'If that is the case, how can he speak thus?' Malayalam. Masi kon-tu var-enam-enna avan-ota padra-ka. Ink taken-having come-beg-said having him-with speak. 'Tell him to bring ink.' Tamil: uril ewalavu viduga] irukkidradu? Telugu: pallelu enni indlu uimavi? Kanari: uralli estu manegalave? Town-in how many houses are? Oraon. Pater noster. He embai ge merka-nu rak-adaj. ninahi name O Father who heaven-in art. Thy name -$h 102 k~ pavitr niano, ninahi ragi bark'o, ninahi suuwak ekane holy be, Thy kingdom come, Thy will as merka-nu aneho k'ekal-nu ho-mano, emahi ulla-ulla-nta heaven-in even so earth-npon be-done, our daily asma ina emage Icia, antle emahi dosan mnaf bread to-day us give, and our debt forgiveness nana, ekane em-ho emahi dosnanur-in muaf make, as we-also our debtors forgiveness nandam, antle eman pariksa-nu amba kaka, pahe make, and us temptation-into not lead, but burai-nti kar-a-bak-a; ragi, saAvan antle mahatm sadau evil-from deliver; kingdom, power and glory ever . sadau ninahi rai. Amen, ever Thine is. Amen. Tamil Pater Noster. ujjUJ. LDJ LDllS'sV jBofTJllJ <3T iEI d&SoYT ^jj lL !?f!<£j£]&Q &1 m(&^LD ^jHU^QlU^LpLC), SUSV)oD«nLD«-/LD, LD Si <5S) LD ILf LD2-LD& Q& OT GwQp<5W65)p&(&)L£ a_OT L_[TIL?i(]$<&QC> = 1^. Gmert'-oba divinity, deity. G'mert'i-s sitkwa God's Word. -$* 112 r<~ Mingrelian: llJJlthfitn Goront-i Sivanetian tl^lh^th G'ermet. Here we have perhaps the answer to Prof, de Harlez's question (seep. 23). K'uda came to the dwellers in the Cau- casus as G'ti whence it may well have passed over to the Goths as Guth. Afterwards it was expanded to G'mert'i or G'erinet in the sense of 'The Self-Existent above'. In T'us and Keltenzis we have a common concept namely, Dal, Dele. $ ^ % fi *t{ ^ g Giver. Dal-go-ih 'up to God' (conversive) ; Dal-go-re 'down from God'. Nakkwo or E ek'enzis : si huma d-u kigamat-ah din-ah. Two things are resurrection-of the day-on Dele ses-k'e hos-u-r w-6zu-s. God himself see-will not. . Then we have Avaric: £)$$8S2. Betsed Riches, Wealth; the exact equivalent of wj. Bits-ase hu'-el hetso; adam-asul God-to dying not is; men-of hulare-u wak'inaro. Gungutal-dasa tsai k'ak not-dying-one not is. Gungutal-of men very betsed-a-1 r-ugu. rich they-are. Lastly, we have the Abkasian ^ R 5 1 t Anka, Mother. CHAPTER VIII. THE THEOLOGY OF THE HOTTENTOTS. Let us now turn to the theologic speech and thought of savagery. Beginning with that yellow race of woolly- haired men, the Hottentots, or more correctly K'oikoi and San: by what name did they try to express the Inexpressible, ~$* 113 hs~ to utter the Unutterable? What was their predicate of God? Before finding an answer to this supreme question it may be well to get a glimpse at the prehistoric ethnical condition of this interesting people. In ancient times this race, which consisted of two branches, inhabited the great- er part of South Africa, at least the territory South of the rivers Kunene and Zambesi. As Dr. F. Hahn points out: 'We should apply the term Hottentot to the whole race, and call the two families each by the native name, that is the one, the Khoikhoi, the so-called Hottentot proper; the other the San (Sa) or Bushmen.' The meaning of the former term is 'men of men', i. e. men par excellence, but the derivation of San is not quite certain: most probably the root is Sa to inhabit, to be settled, so that San would mean Aborigines or Settlers. In the Colonial Annals they are styled Bosjesman or Bosnianneken to indicate their abode and mode of living, whilst in the Cape Records they are called Sa-gu-a, Sonqua or Sounqua. 'While the Bushmen are hunters, the Khoikhoi are nomads, cattle and sheep farmers; and while the Bushman family has with the Khoikhoi, linguistically speaking, only the clicks and some harsh sounding faucals and a few roots of words in common, the various Bushman languages hitherto recorded differ among themselves as much as they differ from the Khoikhoi idioms. This difference and variety in speech is mainly due to their wandering habits and unsett- led life. The wild inaccessible mountain strongholds and- the arid deserts of South Africa, where nobody can follow them, are their abode; constantly on the alert, constantly on the move, constantly on the path of war either with other tribes or with the wild animals, no inducement is given to them for a settled life, the necessary condition of the development of a more articulate speech and a higher intellectual culture. The Khoikhoi or Nomadic Hottentots have all the P ~5* 114 ^~ same language which branches off in as many idioms and dialects as there are tribes. The idiomatic peculiarities, however, are not very prominent, indeed not so striking as to hinder a Gei || khan or $ Auni or || Habobe of Great Namaqualand and the J Niibe of Ovamboland, or the Gei ^ nam of the North Western Kalihari conversing easily with the inhabitants of the Khamies Bergen (North Western Colony) and with the i Koras and Griquas of Griqualand West and the Orange Free State.' Considered formally the K'oikoi language is amalga- mating, formless and suffixing throughout. Its ideology is hybrid, the formula being II. 8. 1. 4. That is to say, the order of the K'oikoi sentence is: Object + verb + subject'; subject-!- verb; genitive + noun; noun + adjective. Noun and verb, originally identical, can only be determined in the sentence by affixed pronominal elements. From a psycho- logico- grammatical standpoint the language distinguishes the subject from the predicate principally by the different position within the sentence, as is also the case with the attribute and predicate, the subject and the object. As there is no relative pronoun in K'oikoi, such a sentence as 'the ox which they had seen in Hoakanas, preceded them' can only be expressed thus: see-ox the-Hoakan-as in-they seen him went before them, mii-re goma-bjlioa-ka-jnas jna-gu gje mu-b gje ei-ei-ba-gu. But there is one fact about the K'oikoi distinguishing them from all the Bushmen tribes which shows how high must have been their intellectual evolution even before migrating from their primaeval home. I mean their power of forming concepts or abstract words. For instance: — ^ Ei to think, from .^ ani to cut to pieces; ^ eiq (= $ anis) thought; ^ ei | eT-sen to consider, think over again; ^ ei ^ ei- sen-s the result of one's own consideration, idea, perception. A yes; ama true; amab truth; amasib truthfulness. | Amo endless, eternal; | amosib infinity. This word ~3H 115 Kr- is derived from I a to be sharp, pointed; hence | am the end, the point; o is privative and corresponds to the a privativum of the Greeks, so that |amo is that which is without end — the Infinite. | nam | nam to love; | nams love: J nam nam-sa fond. | K c om to have mercy; | korns mercy. | u to forget; | fi to forgive. ^ ka to refuse; ^ lcaba stubborn, wicked; ^ kaba sib wickedness. 5a to feel; ?ab feeling, taste, sentiment; 5a | ka to con- dole; 3a- I kasib condolence. j Ann neat, clean; aim and Anuka sacred, pure, refined; anusib holiness, sacredness, purity. Nor is this all. The abstract power of the K'oikoi idiom is perhaps nowhere so fully shown as in the great number of its names for the various divisions and sub- divisions of color, j uri white, \ nu black, j am green, j ava red, \ hoa blue, | hai fawn-colored, j huni yellow, \ gama brown, j kau grey, j nai \ u | garu dotted. Then there are the subdivisions: | uri- j huni whitish- yellow, j urisi whitish, \ nu | ho black- patched, \ nu ; garu black-dotted, \ nu \ ura black-shining, | ava \ ura rod-shining. | ava \ gani with white and red patches, | ava j ho or ho chestnut-color, | avara or | avaka reddish, j am \ ura green-shining, \ gama | ho brown-dotted, \ gama ] garu same; i gama \ hoa brownish- blue (the color of Bucephalus capensis), \ gama \ ura brown-shining, like the Yipera Cornuta. Prof. F. Midler would therefore seem to be going too far when he says: — „Da die Sprache nicht im Stande ist ein Nomen un- bestimmt zu fassen (wie unsere „Pferd, Kind"), sondern jedes Nomen, falls es nicht als Pradicat in dor dritteD Person (gleich einem pradicativ gebrauchten Adjectivum) zu fassen ist, mit dem Zeichen der Person, des Geschleehh - ~§H 116 Hg~ und der Zahl ausstatten muss, so ersieht man wie bei dieser streng individualisirenden Auffassimg der Sprache jeg- licker Weg zur Bildung der Begriffe von vornherein ab- gesclmitten ist." Now, it is a remarkable fact that in all the K'oikoi idioms we have various forms of the same word for God, namely, Stun* ||Q5oam. K'oitioi: %W\\\* || tftoani: ?ui || Kwap Nama: ?ui || Goab j Kora: 5u || Goam: K'u || koap Cape Koilioi: Tan-kwoa: Ti || kwoa j Gonakiva: T'ui-kwe 5ui || Goab K c oi-b-a | kai-b-a ra ma 'God gives bless- ing to mankind,' and 5i-b ge 5ui- || Goab | na-b-a ge mil | gai-b-a j kaie 'And God saw the Light, that it was good.' This K'oikoi word has long been a riddle to etymo- logists. Most missionaries have translated it "wounded knee", from zu wounded, and || goab knee. And even Dr. Halm himself in his paper 'Der Hottentotische Tsuni || Goam und der griechische Zeus', which was written in 1870, adopted this view. In a more recent work, however, he has given us a different interpretation. In 3uni || Goam we have two independent roots, ]/zu to wound and || goa to approach, go on. And it is the same whether we say in K'oikoi || Goab, || Goam coming-he i. e. he comes or the coming one, namely, Day, or whether we say: || Goab || Goam the walking one, i. e. Knee. 5uni || Goam is, there- fore, the wound of Day, the Red Morning, the Dawn. What a lovely glimpse into the primaeval picture-gallery of human thought and faith: the Us'as and 3 Hws of the K'oikoi! The j Koras believe ou.i || Goam to live in the red Sky, and when day dawns the K'oikoi go and pray Avith the face turned toward the East: '0 5u || Goa, All-Father!' The following simple and beautiful Hymn which is at the same time a Prayer is still sung when the Pleiades first -^ 117 HS~ appear above the eastern horizon, when the j Garni { nus in the || K'oras mountains the || Habobes or so-called Veltschoendragers (Sandal -wearers) in the North East || K'aras, and the Gei || K c ous, || O-geis and the ^ Aunis of the K'omab Mountains East of Sandwich Harbour come gei i. e. a religious dance. Thou, o 3ui || Groa! Father of fathers! Thou, our Father! Let rain the thunder-cloud! Please let (our) flocks live! Let us live, please! I am so very weak indeed! From thirst! together for a 3ui || Goaze! Abo ize! Sida ize! | Nanuba | avire! En kuna uire! Ed a sida uire! ^ K'abuta gum goroo! ( J as kao ! j As k'ao! Eta kurina amre! Sazgum kave sida izao? Abo izao? 5ui || Goaze! Eda sida ganganzire! Eda sida || kava | Kaizire! Abo ize! Sida j K'uze! 3ui || Goaze. It is, however, highly probable that the term || lH'iio Ruler, Lord (Y\ kit to be laden, rich, powerful) was used even before 3uni || Goam as a predicate of the Godhead. 'This name was formed long before the tribes separated to migrate to the right and left, and we are correct in presuming that at that time their religious ideas were much purer than we find them now, when various circum- stances have worked to accelerate their annihilation' (loc. cit. p. 149). From hunger! That I may eat field fruits! Art thou then not our Father? The Father of the fathers! 3ui || Goa! That we may praise Thee! That we may give thee in re- turn (i. e. may bless Thee!) Father of fathers! Thou our Lord! O 5ui |l Goa! ~3* 118 HS~ CHAPTER IX. THE PAPUANS. In passing on to the Papuan race we are now able to analyse the New Guinea dialects known as the Motu of Port Moresby and the Mapor of Dore Bay. Judging from Mapor the Papuan languages are totally different from the Melanesian and Malayo-Polynesian. They lack, for instance, the literal agreement of the possessive pro- nouns suffixed, and though the dictionary of Motu is Eastern Polynesian, the grammar is Papuan throughout. Motu is spo- ken not only at Port Moresby, but also at Pari, Borebada, Lealea, and Manumanu, as well as by the natives of Belena, Boera, Tatane, Vabukori, Tupuselei, Kaile and Kapakapa. * As regards the noun and the verb the former, if not primitive as Cm a tree, nadi a stone, is formed from the latter by prefixing i, as ilapa a sword, from lapaia to smite; ikoko a nail, from kokoa to nail. The plural is made in many ways; sometimes by reduplicating a syllable, sometimes by adding dia, the pronominal suffix of the third person plural, or, again, by dropping one or even two syllables, as Tauliau a young man, Uhau young men; Haniidato maiden, - Ulato maidens. Prepositions and suffixes na singular and dia plural are used for family relations and parts of the body, and to express the genitive. Mero Sinana boy mother his; the boy's mother. LoMabada aena chief leg his; the chief's leg. In other cases ena is placed after the principal noun. Plural nouns take dia and edict instead of na and ena: — Hanua taudia edia rumadia village men their houses = the houses of the villagers. Motu is an indirect language, the ideological formula being III. 1. 3. 5. 8. Owing to the dearth of particles i See Chalmer's Motu Grammar. ~3M 119 fi 150 k~ da keao, ja-k'e: nii .a-ka-ji ina-ni? ja-ke: is good, he said: what wilt thou do to me? he said: ina-ji ma-ka sira garike tumaki-nka da I make for thee clean place sheep thine and awaki-nka. Ja-ke: da keao. su-nka-samna. goats thine. He said: is good. they-themselves-seated. Kowoke sap'ia kurege si-na-dauka kasi-n-tumaki. Every morning fox he took dung of sheep si-na-gerta turike-n-tumaki da na-awaki. Samma he made clean stall of sheep and of goats. Being samma su-na-nan. being were they there. HAUSA PATER NOSTER. Obamu, da ke zikin alizana, sunanka si samma keaokeawa. Sarautanka, tana sakkua, ahin da ka ke so anajinsa kamma zikin alizana hakkana zikin dunia. Ka bamu jao abinzimu dakulum. Ka jap'e mamu sunubaimu, kammada mu muna jape masu, woddanda suna ji mamu sunup'i. Kada ka kaimu zikin rudi, amma ka zieziemu daga mugu. Don sarauta taka ze, da alhorma, da haske, hal abbadu abbada. Amin. Of the remaining African Negro concepts of Deity we have : — Sarar: Rog and Grbate Basa: Grepo or Gelipo Grebo: Njesoa Musuk: Alau Bisari : Ankwane Fernando Po: Rupi. ~5* 151 *£- CHAPTER XI. THE KAFIRS. Our attention must now be directed to the languages of Kafir race, which form what is known as the Bantu linguistic stem. In spite of the great diffusion of this branch of speech, namely from the seat of the Hottentots and Bushmen in the South as far as and even beyond the equator in the north, all the dialects and languages belonging to it ex- hibit such striking signs of relationship alike in vocabulary and in the phonetic evolution of forms, that we may well accept for them all a common grammatical system. Hence these languages, as in the case of the Aryan, Hamito-Se- mitic, and Dravidian idioms, have been regarded as off- shoots of a common primitive form of speech which no longer exists and the characteristics of which can only be inferred from finding out what is common to them all. Now, what Sanskrit is to the Aryan languages and Arabic to the Semitic, Kafir is to the Bantu group, pre- serving most faithfully the features of the mother-speech. It will therefore be best to begin with this language. From a phonetic point of view these languages are distinguished by a regular evolution of sounds. Combi- nations alike of vowels and consonants are_ for the most part avoided. Speaking generally, articulation in the south. in the neighborhood of the Hottentots, is strong and manly, whereas in the north, that is to say, in the neighborhood of the negroes, the vocal element predominates, rendering the language weak and effeminate. As regards grammatical structure these idioms hold the mean between the form— and the formless languages. ->• 152 kj~ They belong to the so-called agglutinative or amlagamating type, i. e. they have an inkling of form, but the feeling for form is not strong enough to create means adequate to its expression. Hence they fall into the opposite extreme of absolute formlessness. 'Wir wiissten, says Prof. F. Miiller, keine Sprachclasse, welche — ausser den sogenannten ural- altaischen Sprachen — so geeignet ware, den wesentlichen Unterschied zwischen formlosen, formbildenclen (flectieren- den) und agglutinirenden Sprachen ad oculos besser zu cle- monstriren als die Bantu-Familie'. In these tongues grammatical definition is effected for the most part by prefix -f ormation ; indeed Ave may regard it as the express character of these idioms just as the opposite formation, namely, that by suffixes, is the promi- nent characteristic of the Ural-Altaic family. Originally verb and noun were not to be distinguished; the former is nothing more than a nominal expression with dependent pronominal elements. Hence a purely predicative relationship is impossible. Subject and object are distin- guished by their position to the verb, a failing which led to the incorporation of the expression for the object into the verbal form, as in Mexican and many languages of the new world. We meet with three inspirates or clicks in Kap'ir which have been borrowed from K'oikoi, namely, the palatal i, the dental I , and the lateral ||. As a rule the accent rests on the penultimate syllable, rarely at the end. There is however a subsidiary accent which, as far as possible, is placed at the beginning of words. In Bantu forms of speech the root is of two kinds: nominal and pronominal. Speaking generally, the nominal roots are polysyllabic and from these, by combination with the pronominal roots, words are formed. The common dis- tinction between word and stem is here unknown. In the -5* 153 HSr- process of word-formation the pronominal roots regularly precede the nominal. As regards the inner form of the nominal root, it un- ites both the nominal and verbal meaning, i. e. one and the same complexus of sound can act as noun and verb accord- ing to the pronominal stems with which it is combined. Thus tja is 'to eat', uku-tja fodder; sa 'to dawn', uku-sa 'morning'. Nevertheless, in most cases the language endeavors to keep the two forms distinct by means of elements attached to the root. The following are the principal formative elements. 1. To form nominal stems. The suffix -i, -e, Kafir: teriga to buy, um-teng-i mer- chant; sindisa to save, um-sindis-i Savior; lingana to be equal, um-lingan-i friend. The suffix -o. Alata to point out, show, im-alat-o first finger; pilisa to keep alive, im- 2)ilis-o life, health; kola to call, isi-kal-o cry, call. The suffixes -ana and -jana form nomina diminutiva, and -anjana (= ana + jana) diminutivissima. E. G. Isi-lo animal, isi-lw-ana small animal, isi-hv-anjana animalcule. 2. Formation of verbal stems. a. Suffixes. -La or -ila (Herero: ra, na. Kiswahili: a) forms verba relativa. Before -la the a which regularly ends the verbal stem is turned into e (Kiswahili: i). Thus 'Kafir: liamba to go, hamh-e-la to rush at something; Sekrana: bona to see, to look after somebody (bon-e-la); Herero: sepa to kill, sep-e-ra to kill for somebody. Kiswahili: pata to reach, pat-i-a to reach something for somebody; Mporiwe: kamba to speak, hamb-i-na to speak for somebody. The suffix -isa before which the closing a of the stem disappears, forms Verba causativa. Kafir: tanda to love, U ~*H 154 KJ- tand-isa to induce to love; Sekwana: bona to see, bon-isa to cause to see; Herero: ram to sleep, rar-isa to send to sleep; Kiswahili: penda to love, pend-esa to cause to love; Mpon- we: liamba to speak, kamb-isa to induce to speak. -Ika, -eka forms the reflexive-causative. Kafir: liamba to go, hamb-eka to prepare oneself to go; Herero: 7?m7fa to clothe, huik-ika to dress oneself. -.Awa forms Verba reciproca. Kafir: tanda to love, tand-ana to mutually love one another. Sekwana: sebeletsa to work, sebelets-ana to work for one another. Herero: sepa to kill, sep-ana to mutually kill one another. Kis- wahili: penda to love, pend-ana to mutually love one another. The suffix -u, which has here become formally an infix, coming immediately before the final a, forms the passive. Kafir: tanda to love, tand-iv-a to be loved; tand-isa to cause to love; tandis-w-a to be induced to love. Sekwana: rata to love, rat-o-a to be loved. Herero: hungira to speak, liungir-u-a to be spoken; sepa to kill, sep-o-a to be killed. Kiswahili: penda to love, pend-o-a to be loved. Mponwe: tonda to love, tond-o to be loved. p. Prefixes. Si- (kiswahili: gi-, Herero: ri-, Sekwana: i-) forms verba reflexiva. Kafir: tanda to love, si-tanda to love one- self. Kiswahili: penda to love, gi-penda to love oneself. Herero: sepa to kill, vi-sepa to kill oneself. Sekwana: bona to see, i-pona to see-oneself. Y. Reduplication. This forms Verba frequentativa and intensiva. For in- stance, Kafir: liamba to go, hambahamba to make a circuit; £eta to speak, tetateta to chatter. Herero: kanda to move oneself, kandakanda to tremble. All these elements admit of combinations amongst themselves, whereby the following forms, which may be illustrated by the Kafir word teta to speak, arise: — ~>: 155 r<~ d p c3 c3 CO o3 PI r4 c3 i -t-3 PI c5 i P! 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For the first and the second person singular and plural there are four forms, whilst for the third person there are no less than seven pronominal stems, whereof some are expressions of unity, some of plu- rality and others of both. By means of this distinction the language has been able to build up nominal forms express- ing number and a kind of gender, being furnished with pronominal elements in the sense of our Article or demon- strative adjective. From the seven Bantu character-sounds of the third person arise the following stems in Kafir and Sekwana: — I. Singular Forms. a. Primitive Form uMu iLi iMi iSi uLu uMu b. Kafir Form urn, u ili, i im, in, isi ulu, u um c. Set '■tvana Form mo le me, m se, lo mo II. Plural Forms. a. Primitive Form aBa aMa iSi iMi III. b. Kafir Form aba, o ama isim ] - | isim J imi Collective Forms. c. Seh 'ivana Form ba ma lin, rin me a. Primitive Form uBu uKu b. Kafir Form ubu uku c. Sel '•.ivana Form bo ko, ho. ~5* 157 hs~ The possessive pronoun is represented by the genitive of the personal pronoun. It either precedes or follows the substantive to which it belongs. In the latter case the de- monstrative element which refers to the preceding noun is prefixed in the shortest form to the possessive pronoun, whilst in the former the demonstrative, coming before the nominal form, must be prefixed to the possessive pronoun in its full form, united with the preceding demonstrative- relative particle a. Examples: — a. Postposition of the possessive pronoun: ump'asi wake his wife = um-p'asi w-ake; the prefix w- points back to um- and ake is genitive of je-na, the pro- noun of e. g. um-tu man. ihase lajo his horse = i-hase 1-ajo; the prefix 1- points back to i (for ili) and ajo is the genitive of jo-na, the pro- noun for e. g. in-kosi chief. ukutja kwawo their fodder = uku-tja ku-awo; the pre- fix ku points back to uku and awo is the genitive of wo- na, the pronoun for e. g. aina-ha.se the horses. b. Preposition of the possessive pronoun: omake ump'asi his wife = a-umu-ake um-p'asi elajo ihase his horse = a-ili-ajo i-hase okwawo ukutja their fodder = a-uku-awo uku-tja obam ubuso my countenance = a-ubu-ami ubu-so abam abantu my men = a-aba-ami aba-ntu elako ihase thy horse = a-ili-ako i-hase. The personal pronominal stems of the third person in their full form with the prefixed relative particle a act as demonstrative pronouns. Stems with initial m, being weak, take the stem li also, which is prefixed. We" have to distinguish three forms of the demonstra- tive pronoun, one simple and two compound, whereof the -S* 158 f<~ one is compounded with wa (and au — o), the other with wa-ja (o-ja, ja). The demonstrative pronouns are so intimately connect- ed with the following nouns, that in most cases the initial vowel of the latter falls away. For instance: — lo-mtu, lowa-mtu, lowaja-mtu this man lo-mp'asi, lowa-mp'asi, lowaja-mp'asi this woman eli-hase, elo-hase, elija-hase this horse le-hkosi, lejo ihkosi, lejaja inkosi this chief. There is no relative pronoun in Bantu but only the relative particle a. This is invariable, so that, where in a relative sentence, a case-relationship has to be expressed, a demonstrative pronoun must be joined to it, as in the Se- mitic languages. Thus, ihase elinjau sinkulu = i-hase a- ili-njau siii-kulu the-horse-which = that-his-feet-great. in- klu e|aiigo lukulu = iii-klu a-i-Jango lu-kulu the-house-which = that gate-is-great. As regards the noun, it is unable to express phoneti- cally either gender or number. And indeed we may say the same of case, and more especially of the subject- and object-case. All these categories are indicated either by connecting the noun with the pronominal stems of the third person or by position in the sentence. For a few examples we may take: — Singular um-ntu the man u-dade the sister (for umu-dade) ili-swi the word i-hase the horse (for ili-hase) u-bambo the rib (for ulu-bambo) um-ti the tree Plural aba-ntu o-dade (for aba-dade) ama-swi ama-hase isim-bambo imi-ti ~& 159 -<~ ubu-lumko wisdom and uku-tja fodder are collectives and have no plural. These pronominal elements which precede the nominal stems occur in all the Bantu languages with the phonetic modifications peculiar to each idiom. In Bantu the adjective is generally expressed as follows : — Kafir: um-tu a-u-na-ubu-luniko (umtu onobulumko) the man who with wisdom = the wise man. um-lamho a-u-na-in-hlabati (umlambo onenhlabati) the river which with sand = the sandy river. Herero: omu-ndu u-n-osondunge the man who with understanding = the intelligent man. When the adjective is expressed in the usual way it follows the substantive to which it belongs, whether as attri- bute or predicate; for instance, umhlaba ubansi wona earth extended it = the earth is wide; ump'asi omkulu (um-p'asi a-um-kulu) the woman who great = the great woman. As regards the verb it depends, as in every case, upon the connexion of the stem with the personal pronominal elements. The latter appear as prefixes, and in cases where the object is taken up into the body of the verb, it immediately follows the subject, so that the structure of the sentence is: 'I-thee-love'. But the subject -denoting pre- fixes are rather of an objective than subjective nature, 'I love' being not so much 'I loving' as 'to me is love' or 'me catches love'. Thus: — u-Satani wa-m-kohl-isa u-Ewa. The Satan he-her-deceived the-Eve. u-ja-basi aba-ntu b-onke. Thou-them-knowest the-men all. U-ja-wad-ela ama-swi ami. He-them-despises the-words my. For the sake of comparison I here give the Pater Noster in three languages. ~s>< 160 •<- I. Kafir (language of the Ama-||osa). Bawo w-etu os-esulw-ini ma-li-patwe Father who-our who-heaven the in may-he-borne-be ngo-bu-ng | wele i-gama 1-ako Ubu-kumkani with-holiness the name the thine. The-kingdom b-ako ma-bu-pike. In-tando j-ako the thine may-it-come. The -will the-thine ma-j-ensiwe emhlab-eni ngengokuba may-he-done-be earth upon as esulw-ini Ma-u-si-pe l-s-ensiwa he done being uku-tja kw-etu heaven-in Mayest-thou-us-give the-food the-our kw-emi-hla hge-mi-hla. U-si-||olele the-of the-days with-the-days. i-sono s-etu ngengokuba nati the debts the-our as also ba-sonajo tina. U-nga-si-ngenisi the-debtors we. Thou-not-us-lead s-u-si-sindise enkohlakalweni. Thou-us-forgive si-||olela abo Ave-forgive these ekuhendwem into-temptation Amene. Init-thou-us-deliver evil-from. Amen. II. Sulu (language of Ama-sulu). w-etu os-esulw-ini, ma-li-dunjiswe the-our which-heaven-in may-he-hallowed 1-ako. U-mbuso w-ako ma-wu-se the-thine. The-kingdom the-thine may-it-come j-ako ma-j-ensiwe emhlabeni apa the-thine may-it-done-be. earth-upon so Si-pe namhla isin-kwa Us-give this-day need-ful s-emi-hla s-etu. Si-jekele i-sono s-etu the-of the-days the-our Us-forgive the-debts the-our Baba Father i-gama the-name In-tando The-will ngengasesulwini. as-heaven-in. SH 161 K~ ng'engokuba tina si-ba-jekela bona abo-najo as we we-them-forgive these the-debtors ku-ti. Uhga-si-sisi ekulihgweni kodwa si-kulule also. Thou-not-us-lead tenrptation-in but us-deliver ekwoneni. Amene. evil-front. III. Se-suto (language of the Ba-suto). Ntate o-a-rona o-kua ma-gorimo-n, le-bitso Father the-our the-wlio the-heavens-in the-become la-gao le-galalele. Bo-pitle bo-gosi joa-gao. the-thine the-name-holy. The-kingdom the-thine niay-it-come. Go-ratsah ki-uena go-etsoe mo-le-p'atsi-n jualeka The-will the-thine the-done-be as-the-earth-in so be-gorimo-h. U-re-pe kajenu b-ogobe ba-rona the-heavens-in. Thou-us-give the-which the-food the-our ba-metle e-otle. U-re-iMwarele libe jeika the-days with-days. Thou-us-forgive also as rea-lebala melatu ea banielatu mo-go-rona. we-too sins which the-debtors the-our. U-si-ke-ua-re-isa li-beh, u-re-tlose bo-ben. And-not-us-lead into-evil but-us-free from-evil! Bantu ideology, as will have been observed, is almost invariably indirectly hybrid, the formula being 2. 4. 6. 8. Ill, or nominative + genitive, noun + adjective, verb + object, subject + verb, subject -f- object + verb. The theology of the Kafir race is in many ways most instructive. In Kafir itself we have another form of the Koikoi Zuni || Goam, namely, uTi||o the Dawn, other forms being Tekesa and Tillo; e. g. Ili-swi li-ka-Ti\\o The word of God Ubu-lumbo hu-ka-Ti\\o The wisdom of God x ^- 162 Kr- But the thought which most frequently occurs and seems to have sunk most deeply into the Kafir religious consciousness is that of Munkulunkulu the reduplicated form of kalu old, so that the root-idea is The-Old-Old-One. Sum: (M) Unkulunkulu Inhambane : Muluiigulu Kinika: Mulun gu Ki-hj au : Mulun gu Ki-kamb a : Mulun gu ki-Swahili : Mlun gu Makua: Mulugo Otji-Herero : oMukuru Swahili : Muungu Sop'ala; Murungu Tette: Morungo Ki-pokomo: Mungo Such a concept would lead one to anticipate ancestor- worship amongst these tribes, nay, the very word for God in Sekwana and Se Suto means Ancestral Spirit-Morimo, Molimo. On the other hand, the Girjama word is Mwenje, Master. The Kafir Pater Noster is: — Bawo wetu osesulwini! Malipatwe ngobungcwele igama lako. Ubukumkani bako mabufike. Intando jako majensiwe emhlabeni, ngengokuba isensiwa esulwini. Sipe namhla hge ukutja kwetu kwemihla ngemihla. Usi- xolele isono setu, ngengokuba nati sixolela abo basonajo tina. Ungasingenisi ekulingweni, susisindise enkohlakalweni. Ngokuba bubobako ubukumkani, namandhla, nobung- cwalisa, kude kube ngunapakade. Amene. We are on more delicate ground when we come to deal with the other words for Spirit, namely: — ->^ 163 •<- Maravi: Nsiinnio Sena: Musimo Kwelliniane: Musimo Benga: Anjambi Mponwe: Anjambia Kongo: Nsambi-a-npimgu Spirit on High Angola: oNsambi Kiteke: Nsamo-rupuo Spirit above. Bogignigi: Pfiluga Good Spirit Now, the worship of ancestral spirits may not unjustly be described as a service of fear: the dead are propitiat- ed because it is in their power to injure the living. The ghost of the dead man lurks near the dwelling of the living relative, often assuming the form of a snake or a reed, so that of the Kongo, the Kiteke and the Bogignigi at least we may predicate that the theological concept does not arise from ancestor-worship. Isubu stands by itself as a monument of the spiritual genius of that tribe: the thought of God is Obasi the Father, reminding us of the Hausa Obangisi, of the Negro race. CHAPTER XII. THE AUSTRALIAN RACE. In dealing with the languages of the Australian Race we have to remember first of all that, morphologically they fall into several categories. Those of the west, for instance, stand no higher than the formless idioms of Further India, others show an agglutinative structure, whilst others, again, show a tendency to raise themselves to a higher level by amalgamating the formative elements with the stem. Most interesting is the evolution of case-forms in these tongues, and yet, strangely enough, there is no specialisation ~5H 164 H$~ of case either for subject or object, the nominative and accusative being expressed by the naked stem. In con- tradistinction to the Papuan idioms and those of Melanesia and Polynesia the morphological process of the Australian languages is that of attaching suffixes to what are considered radical forms. Our knowledge of these tongues is for the most part confined to the eastern and south eastern part of the con- tinent, where they are more highly evolved. We propose to examine the languages known as Turrubul and Kamilaroi or Gumilroi. In Wiraturai or Wiradurei and the idiom spoken in the vicinity of Hunter's River and Lake Mac- quarie there seems to be no native thought of God, the word used being the Hebrew Jehovah, so we must be con- tent with the Pater ^Foster. Wiraturai: Jehova-gu guobini malnidjali-gun Jehovah ceased work-from-his biambul. all. MACQUARIE: PATER NOSTER. Pejun-pai iiearum-pa wokka-ka-pa moroko-ka-pa Father our above-in heaven-in ka-tan kumunpilla jitufa niroumpa jirijiri kakilliko. being be make name thine holy to be. Paipipunpilla piriwul-kopa niroumpa; nururpunpilla Appear make kingdom thine; heard be make wijellikane niroumpa janti purai-ta-pa janti ta word thine even as earth-in as is moroko-kapa imwa nearun pureun ka janti ka-tai heaven-in give us day is as always takilliko. Natun warikulla nearumpa jarakai umatoara, to eat. And throw away our evil done, H3H 165 K~ janti ta neen warika, janti ta wijapajeen as since we throw away, as is spoken nearumpa. Natun jutiji-kora nearun jarakai nmilli-kan our. And lead not us Evil doing kolan. Miromulla nearun jarakai-ta-piruii, kulla toward. Deliver make us Evil-from, for ta niroumpa ta piriwul-ko-pa iiatun killipinpin janti as thine is kingdom and Grlory as ka-tai. Amen, ever. According to Ridley Kamilaroi or G-ummilroi is the language of the Aborigines of the Namoi, Barwan, Bundarra and Balonue Rivers and of Liverpool plains and the Upper Hunter. As regards the noun, case-relations are expressed by suffixes, whilst number is designated either by the pre- position or postposition of the words bular two and burula manifold, much. Thus: — Subjective and objective: million the eagle. Nom.: mulion-du (as agent) Gen.: mulion-hu of the eagle Dat. : mulion-go Abl. : mulion-di Loc. : mulion-da Soc. (rest) : mulioh-kiinda „ (motion) : mulioh-kale In an attributive sense the adjective occurs both be- hind and before the substantive to which it belongs: e. g. bular giwir muga 'two man blind', bain dina tuhgor 'sick foot lame'. In a predicative sense the adjective must fol- low the substantive: Lajaru wibil ginji 'Lazarus ill be- came', heane guije duri 'we happy become'. The verb has had a manifold evolution: it has both a causative and a permissive form. Thus, from liumi 'to H3H 166 if 167 i<~ taon, burul kole, kanuno mina-mina-bul earth, great water, everything manifold giniobi. Baiame jalwuha Baiame"! has-created. God ever God!" It will be seen that Kamilroi ideology is hybrid, though it very nearly approaches the natural order, the formula being 2. 4. 5. 8. III. As we have already seen, the word for the Supreme in Kamilaroi is Baiame Creator, from ]/baia to form, fashion, so that the idea of God is that of the potter moulding the clay. By this tribe of the North Western district of New South "Wales Baiame is regarded as the maker of all things and according to their conduct, as the rewarder and punisher of men. He sees all and knows all, if not directly, through the subordinate deity Turramulan, who presides at the Bora. It is a very noteworthy fact that Baiame is said to have been once on the earth and that, in all his deal- ings with man and man's transactions with him, Turra- malan is declared to be Mediator. The meaning of Turra- midan is 'leg on one side only', 'one-legged'. Turrubul is the language of the Aborigines on the Bris- bane River, and may fairly be described as a sonorous idiom. Its principle of formation is that of postposition. Suf- fixes serve to denote cases and to express number when a distinction is made phonetically. The verb is either primary or derived, and the tense- and mood-forms are expressed by means of suffixes. To define more particularly person and number in the verb, the substantival and pronominal forms precede; thus, 'What hast thou done?' is: intaminja jugari thou-what-done? In certain cases the pronoun fol- lows the verb, as: daie-duha lay he. Alike in Kamilaroi and in Turrubul arithmetic does not go beyond the number three: — -^ 168 •<- Kamilaroi 1 mal Turrubul 1 kunar 2 bular 2 biidela 3 giiliba 3 mudan Any higher number is formed by combining two of these. Turrubul ideology, which is indirect, namely, 1. 3. 5. 8. Ill, may be well seen from the following translation of Genesis: — Mumbal God bigi jugar, sun not, daoun jugar creature not tar jugar. earth not. Tar beren Earth there wungun-ti above-upon tar-ti. nambilebu all na kilen and moon milbulpu, nunankin juga-ri, Kaloma things made has, Once jugar, na miregm, na not and stars, and iki tar, nul-pa hine-du, living also earth, we-there sitting, Kurumba mumbtil nambilebu juga-ri. Great God everything made has. kurun, dark. tabil water kudal earth-upon, bush muri nor nine-du kurun-kurun form sitting darkness Bagiil jugar durutunga Tree not growing duga-tin jugar, jaraman men not, horse nunin jugar. Mumbal cangaroo not, Emu not. God juga-ri mudan na mudan bigi. jugar not nine, sat. jugar, not, jugar, jugar, na not, and nambilebu everything made has six days (in). What, then, is Mumbal, the Turrubul thought and pre- dicate of God? It is the rolling Thunder, the colossal manifestation in Nature, the Australian Thor! -^ 169 h$~ CHAPTER XIII. THE HYPERBOREAN RACE. Next in order come the idioms of the Hyperborean Eace. Let us begin with the language of the Jukagirs known as Odul or Ododomni. The noun is peculiarly rich in cases, which are ex- pressed by suffixes, namely, the objective, locative, ablative, allative, sociative and prosecutive. The relation of genitive is expressed by placing the defining expression before the thing defined, the letter n being put between the two. For instance, 'the Russian's faith' is luUi-n-mudol "(of the) Russian-faith."' As regards the adjective, when used attributively it precedes the noun, when predicatively it follows. Thus, omok'a towoka 'good dog', amun-gi adi 'the bones (are) sound'. When appearing as the stem-form the possessive pro- noun precedes the noun to which it belongs, as mit numa our house', but when the suffix la is added, it follows, as eke mitla -Father our', k'ak'a tatla 'brother thine'. In the case of the verb the suffixes vary according as it is transitive or intransitive. E. g. le-i 'he is', jeginu-m 'he her kisses'. Let us look at a few sentences: — Anure-mik tat puguv-danlege Anure. Lovest thou Sun-lord (Emperor)? I love. Age-tei-il, Kuinin (for Koil-nin) Raise-we-ourselves (Let us rise) God-before naka-tei-li. Motin omok age-tei. kanin mot bow-we-ourselves. Me-to good begins, if I leit-am-ik luki-n-mudol. know-should Russian-faith. Y -^ 170 s«~ Ideologically Oclul is 1. 3. 6. 8. VI, that is to say, hybrid. What, then, is the meaning of Th^rmu ^oil? The language of the Ainu is one of particles, expressing grammatical relationships by external means. Its type re- minds us of the undeveloped idioms of the Mongol-Tun- gusic stem. In the case of the noun, the category of number is only occasionally denoted, the singular and plural not as a rule being phonetically distinguished. Case, too, is only partially represented; the genitive by position and the rest by suffixed particles. For the subjective and objective there is no phonetic distinction. "When used attributively the adjective precedes the sub- stantive, when as predicate it follows, receiving at the same time a particle representing the Copula. E. g. bekere kuroro glittering cloud, sirun guru poor man, tambaku eramus utara a man accustomed to tobacco. The personal pronoun comes before the expression to which it belongs, as anokai Use our house, k'dkai yo my child. As regards the verb, it seems to be absolutely form- less, time, mood, person and number being expressed by elements which are attached to what serves as the verbal expression. Thus, jaikota-no-ja I am afraid, oltono siomo u-nukara we have not seen each other for a long time, S'nenin ainu taban nobori kasketa rikin an Ainu has gone up this mountain. In form the active and the passive are identical. Intransitive verbs are turned into transitive and transitive into causal verbs by means of the suffix -te, -ti (-de -di). For instance, nukura to see, nukan-te to cause to see, to show; oman to go out, oman-de to send. To express number Ainu seems to have adopted the vigesimal system. The ideology is indirect, the formula being 1. 3. 5. 8. III. ~>; 171 k~ And the thought of the Supreme? It is Kanmi Spirit! Judged by its richness in word-forms the speech of the Aleuts would seem to belong to the Turko-tataric idioms and the languages of the Uralian Branch, hut the charac- teristic of these tongues, vowel-harmony, is unknown. The ruling principle is agglutination or amalgamation and the process of Avord-formation that of suffixing. There is no definite case for subject or object, but attribute and predicate are distinguished phonetically. Most remarkable is the evolution of the verb, which can only be compared with that of the speech of Turkey. Singular, dual and plural are all denoted in the noun: e. g. agituda-k brother, dual: agituda-kik, plural: agituda-n. The paradigm of the substantive is as follows: — (ada-k father). Dual Plural Ada-kik Ada-n as JNTom. same ada-kin ada-nin same as Nom. as Nom. The defining cases come before the defined: thus, 'the word of the Kingdom of God' is Ago'gu-m aiiali-gan tunu: God-of Kingdom- by word. When used attributively the adjective agrees with the substantive to which it belongs, whilst as predicate it be- comes a verbal expression. For instance, igamana-k good (Sing.), igamana-Mk (dual), igamana-n (plural), but ada-n igamana-Jcuk my father is good; agitasa-n-lii maUk'isalakan your companions are nut brave. Wonderfully rich in forms is the Aleutic verb. The sum of all the forms derivable from one root is about 40 and if the persons and numbers of every form are added, it is said to be over 300. The verb would seem to rest on two formations whereof the one is a no»ien agoitis or its equivalent and the other a nomen actionis. To the Singular Nora. Ace. Ada-k Gen. ada-m Dat. ada-man Abl. ada-gan ->; 172 HS- fornier are added the personal pronominal forms, to the latter the possessive suffixes. There are 5 moods and 5 tenses, namely, Indicative, Conjunctive, Potential, Imperative and Infinitive; Present, Aorist, Perfect, indefinite Future, lasting Future and Futurum exactum. At the basis of the numerical expressions is the qui- nary system, and Aleutic ideology is hybrid, the formula apparently being 1. 4. 6. 8. VI. The Aleuts have conceived God as Agogu-k Creator. Of the Innuit or Eskimo language Prof. F. Miiller ob- serves that it is of great importance for the history of Language because it gives us a certain chronological crite- rion for estimating phonetic changes in nature-languages. We are told, for instance, that 'though the Eskimos in La- brador have been separated from the Greenlanders for at least 1000 years, the languages of both differ less than Danish and Swedish or Dutch and Hamburg Plattdeutsch. The dwellers in Boothia Felix, with whom Captain John Ross on his second polar expedition spent three years, understood much of what lie read to them from a Green- land book and would certainly have understood more if they had heard it from a Greenlander, nay, perhaps everything if a Greenlander had spoken on matters of common life.' The centre of gravity of the linguistic organism is to be found in the demonstrative roots or pronouns, as in K'oik'oi, and the principle of formation is that of suffixing. Noteworthy, too, is the fact that, as the Hottentots, the Eskimos of Labrador call themselves men KaTeHoxnv, for Inuit=K < oikoi. Singular, dual and plural are all expressed by the noun, whilst the denotation of the cases is singulary rich. Not only have Ave the purely grammatical cases, subjective, objective and genitive, but those which express spatial re- lations, namely, the locative, ablative, vialis, terminalis, ~5* 173 h$~ moclalis and comparative. The object-case is represented by the naked stem; the genitive or rather possessive case is phonetically expressed by adding the pronominal suffixes to the expression which is to be defined, the defining ex- pression preceding. If, for instance, we want to render the sentence "the tail of the whale touched the bows of the boat" we must say: ak'fek'u-p sak'piata umia-p suju-a aktok'-p-fi, i. e., whale (subject) tail-his (subject of the sentence) boat (subject) bows-its (object of sentence) touched-he-it. As attribute the adjective follows the substantive and agrees with it in number and ending. Thus, ujak'k-at a,kitsu-t stones weak; ikdlu-t ku-p sinti-ne-itu-t = houses brook edge-its being, i. e., the houses which are at the edge of the brook. The predicative relationship is expressed by a form which also serves as a verbal expression. 'Our house is good' is ikdlok'put ajuhilak = house-our good-is; 'our house begins to get bad' ikdlok'put ojulekpok = house- our bad-to be-to get-begins. The pronouns are derived from the demonstrative roots uw 'here' and ik 'there', so that T is equivalent to 'my here-hood', 'thou' to 'thy there-hood'. The forms of the pro- noun are wonderfully rich; we find, namely, subjective, ob- jective, locative, ablative, vial, terminal, modal and com- parative. And, as regards the nominal stems with pro- nominal suffixes, they fall into two series: 1. subjective. 2. objective; whilst of the pronoun of the third person there are two subdivisions, viz. demonstrative and reflexive suffixes. The quinar-vigesimal system of numeration underlies all the limit dialects: 5 = one hand, 10= two hands; 11 to 15 = first foot, 10 to 20 the other foot. Now in the Eskimo idioms of Labrador we find no native worcl for God, the words used being Gktdib and Glide, which are easily recognisable as forms of our own word. In Greenlandish, on the other hand, we have the remarkable and deeply-significant word Torngarsuk, which ~X 174: f<~ is an augmentative of Torngdk Spirit, so that the thought is: Great Spirit. For the sake of comparison we may take a verse from the Gospel of St. John, which has been translated alike into Inuit and Greenlandish limit. Taimak Gudib sillaksoarmiut naegligiveit , Ernetuane tunnilugo, illunatik okpertut tapsomunga, assiokonnagit nun- gusuitomigle innogutekarkovlugit. Greenlandish. Sillarsub innue Torngarsuk taima assakigei, Ernetue . untniullugo taukkonunga, tamarmik taursomunga opertut tammarkonnagit, naksaungit somigle innursutekarkollugit. St. John. iii. 16. Eskimo ideology is hybrid, the formula being 2. 4. G. 8. VI; i. e. indirect. CHAPTER XIV. THE RACES OF AMERICA. Few languages are more interesting to the student of speech than the American. In the first place it is almost impossible to apply our familiar grammatical terminology, such categories as noun, verb, adjective, existing only in a very modified sense, if at all. Not only do we find a ming- ling of noun and verb but also the complete identity of the subjective and possessive pronouns. Sometimes singular and plural are not distinguished, nay, even the first and second person plural are not always phonetically separated. A peculiarity of most of these tongues is the so-called incorporation, i. e. the taking up an object into the verbal body. The verb, in fact, represents a whole sentence, the remaining parts of which serve merely as elucidation. In _>: 175 H$~ many respects we are reminded of the idioms of Dardistan. Only the intransitive or neutral verb can appear without reference to an object, whilst every transitive verb must in itself contain the expression of the object. To the Indian "love" in the abstract is unthinkable. His language has not emerged from the state in which it is impossible to have such a word as 'heart' as distinguished from 'my heart', 'thy heart' or 'his heart'. So it is to this day in Hunsa. Ak, for instance, is 'my name', ik 'his name'. Take away the pronominal sign, and the remaining It means nothing. Aus is 'my wife' and gits 'thy wife'. The s alone has no meaning. Speaking morphologically the American idioms do not all stand upon the same footing, or rather, have not all arrived at the same stage of evolution. Whilst some have hardly got beyond Isolation, others approach the agglutina- ting , combinatory or amalgamating stage, others, again, form a new linguistic type, that, namely, of incorporation. To the Americans belongs that tribe which has abso- lutely no sense of number, and in this respect at all events, stands below the aborigines of Australia and the bushmen of South Africa, I refer to the Kikitos. Beginning with the tongues of the Tinne and Kinnai Stems we find in K'ippewe a very instructive syntax. Amongst the cases those which denote purely grammatical relations are the most important. The nominative stands either at the beginning or at the end of .the sentence but never immediately before the verb. It is the complement of the verb, the accusative or objective which precedes the verb. To express the genitive the defining element is put before the thing defined. Thus, the sentence: 'the house of the sister of the father of my friend' is: se l'a be tka be dese je kue. my friend his father his sister her house. -3* 176 ■<- The adjective follows, as attribute, the substantive to which it belongs, without any change whatever: dene nesu man good, dene-Tike nesu men good. Possessive pronouns of the noun, which also serve as objective pronouns of the verb, are put before the forms in question. By combination of the pronoun and verbal stem arises the verb. As regards numeration, the decimal system, or rather the decadic method of calculation seems to underlie these At'apaskic tongues. The following is the Lord's Prayer in Kippewe: — r o~w, J)> a n>-o vq^^jw , ^qj/T-O cv, D'M~U o Jnn } n, f)'T7 -II£5j PP(T tf'X/T dV' t>un\ Vr* n^U' f Cr* J3AJ ±>'^, deT? qD_/>jC' AV f t>rcr £ _iiqcnn_, 030- ^ jjsj b/>r, o^cr^ (LUW 3, CTiCr r* ZVcV Lr' u^u pjw. Amen. The ideology of these sidioms is quite natural, 1. 4. 5. 8. I being the formula. With the Algonkin idioms the stem is derived from the root by means of suffixes, whilst the transformation of the stem into the word is effected by prefixes. Nouns fall into two classes, that, namely, of the higher or things animate, and that of the lower or things inani- mate. As animate are treated not only the expressions for men and the larger animals, but also those for certain bodies and objects, such as sun, moon, stars, bow, arrow, kettle, wagon, tobacco-pipe, corn, silver and tobacco. Every- thing else is inanimate. This distinction becomes apparent in the formation of number and in the connexion of the noun with the verb. ^ 177 Kr- With things animate the plural is formed by adding k to the singular, with those inanimate -n. Thus, Algonkin: anisinabe man, anisinabe-k men; Mikmak: lenu, lenu-k; Senni-Lennape: leni, lenow-a-k. Ogibwe: moskesin shoe, moskesin-o-n shoes; Lenni-Lennape: ivikwahem house, wik- ivahem-a-l houses, where we have I for u. As regards the cases, the nominative or subjective stands at the head of the sentence; the objective or accu- sative both precedes and follows the verb; e. g. Kri: ki- waskahigan nawak' miwasin ispiki ni-waskfihigan 'thy house is better than my house'; Sakihew kigemamtow-a 'he loves God'; Ogibwe: nin sagia n-6s 'I love my father.' But in Algonkin we can say either: osawakik sakiha otema, or, otema sakiha osawakik Osawakik loves his horse, or, his horse loves Osawakik. In the genitive case the thing de- fined follows that which defines and is furnished with the possessive pronoun. E. g. Lenni-Lennape: Ketanitowit o-|-ahoaltoagan God His-love = the love of God. The other case-relations are expressed by suffixes. The adjective may either precede or follow the noun, in the latter case it must agree with the noun in number and gender. When used predicatively the adjective must be turned into a verbal expression. These languages possessing no relative pronoun this relation has to be expressed by a participial construction. There is, in fact, no essential difference between a nominal, adjectival and verbal stem. Noun, verb and ad- jective are all treated in the same way. A peculiarity of the Algonkin tongues is the mood known as dubitative. If the Indian wishes to speak of things which he has not him- self experienced or the existence of which is not directly demanded by the mind, he makes use of this mood. It arises partly out of scrupulosity towards himself and partly out of politeness toward others. The sign of the dubitative is iok, tuke, dog. Algonkin: ni-sakihu-tok I love him per- ^ 178 *s- haps; nid-awema-tok he is perhaps my brother; Ogibwe: md-ikit-om-i-dog perhaps I say; Kri: ni-pimi-pattin-a-tuke I run perhaps. As regards numeration, the decadic system seems to underlie these idioms. The degree of connexion between these tongues is also well shown by number. Thus: — Kri Oyibive Algonkin Mikmdk Lenni Lennape 1 pejak begig pegik, niugot neukt neguti 5 nijanan nanan nanan nean palnias" 10 mitatat midaswi midaswi metelen telen The following is the Kri Pater Noster: — _i5"Ca_' 4 "AT* \7^ J ; bCba.P l, CC <3"'P\ b Ar 1 <^7* ^Ar x . r^^j <7^" _ i>tvi>\ c"~> pr'b" b&r'rrV*. ra. >^"fLA'-or^"Cl-<3-P'ip s \>L('q-" bW&V-&-(r-* "P } f"z P)Ua.A-A- J , To. ^"Lr^A-A-', Ta_ PU'WCdr'A-* b/°9. VT. Now the thought of the Eternal in these American languages is very remarkable: — Kri: L-0 — O Manito Spirit Tinne: $ ^ L- ^ ^3 Kesaman.edu Great Spirit i. e. kesa great, and Manedu Spirit Og'ibwa: p l I (J 3 Yisemanito Great Spirit (vise = kesa) Lenni-Lennape: P U Q ' CT~~ "^ ' /\ *L Kittanitowit Great Living Spirit, from Kitta great, Manito Spirit, wit termination implying life. ~r* 179 f<~ This is a concept with which, heautiful as it is, it is always difficult to deal, especially when it is a question of uncivilised races. One thing, however, seems to be certain: a word such as Kittanitowit could never apply to ancestor- worship. What we really want to know is its intension. Of its extension we have already had proof (pp. 79. 80). 'The Algonquin's belief, says Dr. Tylor, 'recognizes the antagonistic Kitchi Manitu and Matchi Manitu, the Great Spirit and Evil Spirit, who preside over the spiritual con- tending hosts which fill the world and struggle for the mastery over it. They are especially associated, the one with light and warmth, the other with damp and darkness, while some tribes identify them with Sun and Moon. Here the nature-religion of the savage may have been developed, but was not set on foot, by the foreigner': Amongst the Algonkins we find three words for the Supreme, namely : — Atahokan Creator Kuduagni Framer 6ki One-Above. From an ideological standpoint these tongues are naturally hybrid; viz. 1. 4. 6. 8. II. In passing on to the speech of the Irokois, we find the curious fact that, nouns are divided into higher and lower. To the former belong the expressions for God, the higher beings and the male members of the human race, to the latter those for all animals, whether masculine or feminine, and for every thing else. There are three numbers; singular, dual and plural. The three grammatical cases are mostly known by their position in the sentence. The genitive is expressed by putting the defining expression either after or before the thing defined, in the latter case with the possessive element. Thus ne hoauak ne Demit 'the son David's', Nioo ro-ieha God his Son, rakui otat- -5* 180 *s- enisteha of-the-queen her mother. The remaining cases, ex- pressing spatial relations, are denoted by suffixes. When used as an attribute the adjective is placed after the noun to winch it belongs: kaniatare koua sea great; kdhonueia koua ship great. As predicate the adjective must be turned into a verb. Thus, ra-koua-ne he is great. The Irokese verb is very rich in tenses and moods: it has even what we may call the conjunctive pluperfect: e. g. ao-k-a-tkdh-t-o-hdke if I had seen. The incorporation of the object into the verbal expression in the compound objective conjugation generally takes place by precedence of the sub- jective and sequence of the objective, that is to say, the pronominal prefixes which precede the verb are composed of subjective and objective elements. Ideologically Irokese is therefore indirectly hybrid: 2. 4. 6. 8. VI. Unlike the thought of the preceding tribes, that of the Irokese is C7~"A ^ Nioo Creator Hawaniu pre-existent Creator There is another thought, namely: — Taronhiawagon Sky-Holder In Slave the theologic Idea is identical with that of Irokese: — r-t — f> b f Niotsi Creator Very interesting is the speech of the Dakota. The root is transformed into the stem and the stem into the word by means of prefixes, more seldom by suffixes. Thus, ksa to break to pieces; ba-ksa to cut to pieces with a knife; ka-ksa to split with a hatchet. . -5K 181 Hg- As regards the noun, inasmuch as there are no ex- pressions for higher "and lower, animate and inanimate beings, we have only'to do with the two categories of number and case. In Hidatsa the plural is not phonetically distinguished from the singular, and it is almost the same in Dakota. The grammatical cases : nominative, accusative and genitive are indicated by the position in the sentence. As a rule the objective or accusative precedes the verb: thus, Wit- sasta wa woivapi wa kaga man book made, 'a man has made a book.' If, however, there be no ambiguity about the matter, the object is put at the head of the sentence and the subject immediately before the verb, as in German. For instance, ivitsasla Wakataka ka'ga den Menschen hat Gott gemacht, 'Man God made'. To express the genitive the defining element is put before the thing defined; i. e. Dakota tipi tijopa house gate; ista midi eye water (tear). Spatial relations are ex- pressed by postpositions. When used attributively the adjective follows the noun to which it belongs, Avhen predicatively it must be turned into a verbal expression. Thus, Witsasta sitse Ksi man bad; ni-ivaste thou art good; wa-ma-jasaka I am ill. The pronouns are divided into inclusive and exclusive, and are put as a rule before the verb. By combining the subjective and objective pronouns we get the emphatic reflexive form, namely, mis mije I me = I myself; nis nije thou thee = thou thyself. The possessive pronoun is of a twofold nature, either dependent or independent. In the for- mer case it appears as prefix to the noun, in the latter it is equivalent to an adjective. The demonstrative pronoun, which is put after the noun, corresponds to what used to be known as the definite or indefinite article. Thus, ivitsas- ta ki the man; wiUasta sitse Jci the bad man. The Dakota verb rests on the union of a stem con- -s* 182 h$- ceivecl as predicate with the prefixed subjective pronominal elements. But the interesting verb eki 'to think', with its synonyms, is conjugated not by means of prefixes but by means of suffixes. E. g. Sing. 1. Eka-ini Plu. 1. inch u-keki excl. u-keki-pi 2. eka-ni eka-ni-pi 3. eki eki-pi. The decadic system of numeration seems to underlie both Dakota and Hidatsa. Dakota Hidatsa 1. Waka dueza 2. nopa dopa 3. jamni dami As we saw just now, the form for the Supreme in Dakota is: Wakataka Great Spirit, Wakah spirit tanka great. Dakota ideology is natural, the formula being 1. 4. 5. 8.1. Passing on to the speech of the Kolos known as Tklinkit, we find that the verb departs from the type of American tongues. Prof. F. Miiller tells us that it most nearly resembles the same part of speech in the languages belonging to the Hyperborean race. It is formed by means of suffixes which are connected with the stems of the per- sonal pronoun. In transitive verbs the accompanying pro- noun generally appears with the suffix -K, which would point to an original instrumental form, te-ti, for instance, being 'with the stone', tek-li 'with the stones'. A peculiarity of this idiom is the fact that, in transitive verbs, the agent stands in the instrumental. The possessive pronoun has two forms, whereof the one occurs as a prefix, the other as an adjective, and both are often combined. Thus, for the first person there are ~$* 183 HSr- the forms ak'-, ak'-agi (sing.), a-, a-agi (phi.): a#a#i a#-is 'mine my father', aagi a-is 'ours our father.' To the Kolos the Eternal is known as Asakun For instance, Asakun-k' Ik'atakat agatin God knows all. As we have seen, the ideology of Tk'linMt is indirect, namely, 1. 3. 5. 8. III. As typical of Mexican forms of speech we may take Nahuatl or Nawatl. In this language it is not always easy to abstract the root from the words used singly. The derivation of stems takes place by means of suffixes. From tetl stone, for in- stance, we get tetla stony place, tetejo stony, tetik hard, te- tilitstli hardness, ni-tla-tetilja I make it hard. The most frequently-occurring process is that of Com- bination, wherein the defining element precedes the thing defined. Thus, totoltetl 'egg of the hen', consists of totolin 'hen', and tetl 'stone'. Sok'ikal'i 'fruit' means properly 'flower- food' from sok'itl 'flower' and kal'i 'what is edible' from yka 'to eat'. In dealing with the noun and verb we must remember the well-developed antithesis betw r een animate and inani- mate, rational and irrational beings. With inanimate things number is, as a rule, not denoted phonetically. On the other hand, the expressions for animate and more especially for rational beings have a manifold plural. Words ex- pressing a business or nationality drop the individualising suffix -tl and lengthen the final vowel. Thus, siwatl woman, skua women; mesikatl Mexican, mesikd Mexicans. Occa- sionally reduplication takes place. E. g. koatl snake, pi. Icokoti; Teotl God, pi. teteo. Expressions for animate ir- rational beings and for inanimate things conceived as animate, add to the form deprived of the individualising suffix, the suffix -me. E. g. ik'katl sheep, pi. ik'ka-me. Te- petl mountain, tepe-me mountains. Nor must w r e omit to mention certain suffixes which -$h 184 hS~ are added to express respect, tenderness or contempt. Petlo-zin means 'the highly-honored Peter'; Ta-zin 'the much-honored father' but weive-ton 'a despised old man'; pil-tontli denotes 'a childish boy', pil-zin, on the other hand, 'son in the best sense'. Okik'-pil is a small, ridiculous little man. -put implies blame or enlargement in a bad sense: e. g. siwa-pul is 'a bad woman', no-siwa-pul 'my bad woman'. As regards the cases, the subjective and the objective become manifest only by position, the former preceding, the latter following, the verb. Like the dative, the objec- tive is also indicated by the pronominal element which is incorporated with the verb. Thus: — Ni-k-kiwi-lia in no-pil-zin se kal'i I-it-make-for the-my-son a house. Here kal'i is shown at once to be conceived objectively by the k which is incorporated with the verb, and the verb k'iwi-lia indicates that in no-pit-zin is the dative. The genitive is expressed by putting the thing to be defined before the defining expression, and by adding to the former the possessive pronoun applying to the latter. Thus, i-tlaskal okik'li his-bread Man = the bread of Man. As attribute the adjective precedes the substantive. E. g. K'ipaivak atl pure water. As predicate the adjective must be turned into a verbal expression. When combined with the possessive pronoun most nouns discard the individualising singular suffix. Thus, Teo-tl God becomes Teu: no-Tea my God; kal'i house, be- comes kal: no-kal my house, mo-kal thy house. The re- flexive pronoun in a possessive relation is expressed by the stems ne, mo. E. g. Ne-tlasotla-listli Love to oneself; mo- tlasotla-ni one who loves himself; ne-mak'ti-lo-jan place where one instructs oneself, study. In Nawatl almost every independent word can be used, when combined Avith the subject-prefixes of the personal ~3H 185 *g- pronoun, as predicate, so as to make a whole sentence of a verbal expression. For instance, ni-no-ma-popowa It my + hands + wash = I wash my hands. Nisok'itekwi I + flow- ers + pluck = I am picking flowers. There is no verbum substantivum in the sense of our Copula. As a rule this is rendered by the personal or de- monstrative pronoun. Thus, Neivatl ni-wei ni-tlatlakoani I I-great I-sinner = I am a great sinner. Interesting is the position of the object. Sometimes it is found between the subject-pronoun and the verb: ni- naka-ka I flesh eat; more often, however, the noun is re- presented by the pronoun of the third person and it is then put after the verb. Respecting numeration, the quinar-vigesimal system in its purest form underlies Nawatl: — 1 se 2 ome 10 matlaktli 3 jei 15 kastol'i 4 naui 20 Sem-pual'i 5 makwil'i Ideologically this interesting language is indirectly hy- brid, the formula being 1. 3. G. 8. V. Now, what is the Na- watl thought of God? It is ljf» Teotl - The Adored. Teotlatolli verbum Dei. ^^ Teo-kualo God-eating. Dropping the individualising suffix Ave have the root Teo, reminding us, curiously enough, of -the Gothic Tiu which is still with us in our own Tuesday. As typical of the so-called Sonoric forms of speech we may take that of the Otomi or K'id-K'iu. According to Prof. F. Miiller the relation of the highly-evolved Astek to the simple idioms of the North is very much that of the Tagala tongues on the Philippines to the dialects which are spoken by the Polynesians and the Melanesians. AA -$* 186 hs- By combination of the pronoun with the verbal par- ticle the root can become a verb, and when combined with the demonstrative article or adjective, a substantive or ad- jective. But the Otomi language possesses a series of phonetic means by which, and especially in the case of the noun, it is able to express the various modifications of concrete action. Thus, in roots beginning with a vowel the prefix t denotes the result of the action, the prefix y- the agent. For instance, oj;Zc'o to write; t-opk'o manuscript; na y-opko writer. Where the root begins with m or n the prefix is k': e. g. madi to love, na k'-madi love; nee to wish, na k'-nee wish, will. The most important of the Cases are recognised by their position in the sentence: the subjective precedes, the objective follows the verb. E. g. Na bednu i-ma okk'a Peter loves God. The genitive is expressed by putting the thing defined before the defining element. Thus, Na ma Okk'a the mother of God. When used as an attribute the adjective comes before the noun to which it belongs: e. g. Ka je a pious man. As a predicate the adjective is treated as a verb. The verb is conjugated by certain pronominal elements prefixed to the stem. Speaking generally, these elements amalgamate with adverbs which are put either before or after them, in order to more nearly define the temporal or modal quality of the state or action. For instance, d-na- nk'o I am good; di-nu I see. In the compound or objec- tive conjugation the expressions for the object are suffixed to the verbal expression: e. g. di-nu-i I see thee, gi-nu-gi thou seest me, gi-nu-gk'.e thou seest us. Underlying both Otomi and Masahua is the quinary- vigesimal system: — Otomi Masahua 1 Na-ra daka 5 Kuto sika 6 Ra-to (1 + 5) nanto -5* 187 *$~ 7 Jo-to (2 + 5) jen-ko 8 kia-to (3 + 5) iiin-k'o 9 gu-to (4 + 5) sin-ko 10 Reta deka From an ideological standpoint Otomi or K'ia-K'iu is hybrid, the order being 2. 3. 6. 8. VIII, i. e. noun + genitive, adjective + noun, verb + object, subject + verb. As we have seen, the theologic thought of the Otomi centres round Okka probably another form of Oki, the Power that rules the seasons and controls the winds and waves. Most interesting are the forms of speech familiar to the Caribees. The so-called language of the Caribees real- ly embraces two wholly-different idioms, namely: a) the speech of the Caribees of the mainland, called by the French Missionaries 'la langue des Galibis'; and p) the language of the Caribees of the islands, 'la langue Cara'ibe'. The former has cognates in several idioms of the mainland, i. e. in K'aima, Kumana-goto, Tamanak etc., whilst the latter shows quite another type, which is grammatically more akin to Arowak. Now, this type is connected with a very peculiar circumstance. The language of the Islanders embraces two different forms of speech, whereof one is used by the men, the other by the women. In vocabulary the speech of the men is most akin to Galibi, that of the women to Arowak. The curious fact, that one the and -same people ac- cording to the sex of its individuals speaks two lexically different languages is to be accounted for by the habits of this tribe. The Caribee warriors, when they had landed on the neighboring islands, slew the men Arowaks (Lukumi ) who had settled there and captured their women. Inasmuch, therefore, as it became the duty of the women to educate the children from the 10th to the 12th year, not only was ~$H 188 Hg- their language communicated to them but a knowledge thereof was for ever assured to the growing lads. Thus whilst the women learnt Galibi from the men, the latter had already from early youth been taught Arowak by the former. And so we have both sexes learning two lexically wholly-differing modes of speech, yet in intercourse with the same sex using but one; for, when talking to his fellows the Caribee (Kalipi) uses Karina or Galibi, his wife in intercourse with women using Lukunu or Goakira. As regards the noun, there is the somewhat rare phae- nomenon of the denotation of sex alike in nouns and ad- jectives by means of the final vowel: e. g. basabanti boy, ba- sabantu girl; Go: anctsi good, fern, anase. In Goakira the' form for the singular can be used without any addition for the plural, the distinction being generally made by gesture. Of the cases the three grammatical, the subjective, ob- jective and genitive are only known by their position in the sentence. In Arowak the subjective precedes the verb, the objective follows: damalitdn bahii 'I make a house', and the relation of genitive is expressed by simply putting the de- fining element before the thing defined. Thus, da-ti ulm- kiti 'of my father younger brother'. The remaining spatial cases are denoted by postpositions. In Goakira the subjective comes before, the objective after, the verb. The relation of genitive is expressed by putting the defining element after the thing defined and by combining the former with the possessive pronoun referring to the latter, thus : No-i ni-kon Mareiwa 'the mother of the Son of God' = his mother his Son God. The adjective follows the noun to which it belongs and agrees with it in number and sex. In Goakira we find the decadic system of numeration, in Arowak the quinar-vigesimal. The ideology is in both cases hybrid, being respectively 2. 4. 6. 8. and 1. 4, G. 8. III. and the Thought of God -3M 189 h^ Mareiwa. In dealing with Guarani-Tupi we find, first of all, that it is very rich in formative elements and is therefore able to express the chief distinctions within the perception. As regards the noun the plural is either left undeno- ted or is expressed by suffixing the word seta 'many' in the shorter form eta. Thus, aba 'man', aba-eta 'men'. Of the cases the most important, namely, the subjective, ob- jective and genitive are known only by their position in the sentence. Indeed it is only the genitive whose position is assured, the nominative and accusative both in relation to the verb and indeed to one another being uncertain of any definite position. For instance, one may say: Pedro oil miape 'Peter eats bread'; Pedro miape ou 'Peter bread eats'; miape Petro ou 'bread Peter eats' or ou Pedro miape 'eats Peter bread'. In the relation of genitive the expression which defines comes before the word defined; thus Tupan rolm 'God's house'. The remaining case -relations are expressed by postpositions of a purely material kind. The adjective as attribute comes after the substantive to which it belongs, becoming, indeed, one with it, so that the case-signs are attached to the former. Thus, mbae-katu 'good thing', nii-gatu 'good field', mbae-aiba 'bad thing', nu- aiba 'bad field'. As predicate the adjective is treated as a verb: e. g. i-katu 'he is good', i-kalu-pe? 'is he good?' se-katu-ramo 'as I am good'. According as the verb is transitive 6r neutral it is really double. The transitive verbs have prefixes which stand in a predicative relation to the following verbal stem whilst the neutral verbs take the same possessive prefixes as the noun. With the exception of the future there is no exact definition of time in the Tupi-Guarani verb; a-jukd, for instance, means both 'I kill' and 'I killed', 'I have killed', 'I had killed'. The future is really the only tense which -5* 190 f<~ is adequately denned. The compound conjugation (objective) of Tupi, unlike what is usual in American languages, shows agglutination and not incorporation. As regards numeration, the quinary-vigesinial system seems to underlie Guarani, Tupi and Omagua. 5 is ex- pressed by one hand; 10 by two hands; 20 by hands and feet (ase-po-petel; ase-po-mokoi; mbe mbi abe, ase-po ase- pi abe). Ideologically Guarani is most irregular. Sometimes it is natural, viz. 1. 4. 5. 8. I, but we have also the final formulae II. III. IV. In Tupi the Supreme is conceived as Tupan Thunderer. In Guarani, on the other hand, as Tamoi Lord of Paradise, Ancient of Heaven. In Kiriri and Kikito also we have the same thought, though the form of the word is, in the one case, Tupan, and in the other, Tupas. The ideology of these idioms differs from that of Tupi. Thus in Kiri we say: era Tupan House-God; Kangi Tupan good God, for 'the house of God'; 'God is good'. And in K'ikito: I-poo-stii Tupas his house God or poos i-tsa-stii Tupas house his God = God's house. The Molu-ke of Chili have likewise considered Thunder to be the surest manifestation of the Supreme. Pillan = Thunderer. Pillan is also the highest deity of the Araucanians, known sometimes as Huenu-Pillan Heaven -Thunder, and Vuta-gen Great Being. 'The universal government of Pil- lan', says Molina, 'is a prototype of the Araucanian polity. He is the great Toqui (Governor) of the invisible world, and as such has his Apo-Ulmenes, to whom he entrusts the administration of affairs of less importance. These ideas are certainly very rude, but it must be acknowledged that the Araucanians are not the only people who have regula- ted the things of heaven by those of the earth'. Their language, which is known as K'ili-denu, is in- -5* 191 re- direct in ideology, the formula being 1. 3. 5. 8. Ill, and their system of numeration decadic. Kine 1, kek'u 5, mari 10. Other American forms of the theistic Idea are: — Tukud' : Vittukuk ankj o Astek: Huizilo-Poktli = Ancient of Heaven K'apaneki: Nomboui Koggaba: Kalguasisa Kvikuan: Pakakamakka World-Creator Inka: Pakakamak World-Creator. As an instance of theological deterioration none is per- haps so striking as the Astek Huizilopoktli. Originally representing the great thought of Heaven supreme he may now be found 'figuring as the demon Vizlipuzli in the po- pular drama of Doctor Faustus'. "The very name of Mexico", says Prof. Tylor, "seems derived from Mexitli, the national War-god, identical or identified with the hideous gory Huizilopochtli. Not to attempt a general solution of the enigmatic nature of this inextricable compound parthenogenetic deity, we may notice the association of his principal festival with the winter- solstice, when his paste idol was shot through with an ar- row, and being thus killed, was divided into morsels and eaten, wherefore the ceremony was called the teoqualo or "god-eating". This and other details tend to show Huitzi- lopochtli as originally a nature-deity, whose life and death were connected with the year's, while his functions of War- god may be of later addition". Pakakamak, from kamani I create, kainak Creator Kama Soul, is really a title of Uirakoka, the supreme Deity in the religion of the Inkas. His other title is Palcajakakik World-Teacher. 'The three great deities', says Prof. Tylor, 'were the Creator, Sun, and Thunder; their images were brought out together at great festivals into the square of Cuzco, llamas were sacrificed to all three, and they could be addressed in prayer together: "0 Creator, and Sun, -3* 192 *S- and Thunder, be for ever young, multiply the people, and let them always be at peace". Yet the Thunder and Light- ning was held to come by the command of the Creator, and the following prayer shows clearly that even "our father the Sun" was but this creature': — "Uiracocha! Thou who gavest being to the Sun, and afterwards said let there be day and night. Raise it and cause it to shine, and preserve that which thou hast created, that it may give light to men. Grant this, Uiracocha! Sun! Thou who art in peace and safety, shine upon us, keep us from sickness, and keep us in health and safety". Very remarkable both in thought and form is the expression for the Deity in the language of the Mikmak Indians, namely A Nikskam Malisit >± Nukskam The following is a translation into Malisit, the idiom of the Indians in New Brunswick, of St. John iii. 16: — Ibukul Nukskam eduki-musagitpun uskitkumikw wege- meluetpun wihwebu Ukwusul, welaman 'mseu wen tan welamsutuk uhukek, skatup uksekahawe, kanukulu uteiiip askumowsuagun. Does it not seem a spiritual instinct to conceive of supreme Being in a threefold aspect? Here, at all events, we have the triangle, not less than three lines enclosing a space. Unlike as they are in forms of thought and modes of speech, the Brahman and the Mikmak Indian show a psychical likeness which is most significant. A == sfW3R55 Past, Present, Future; Being, Thought, Joy. The following is the Mikmak Pater Noster: — -s2b£ T O 1 kiptuk wlory Amen. this ever. ni the mi-trosa sinners ami into ami frow o. Malagasi. Ni raj-naj, isaj ani an-danitra, hasino The Father, who art in-heaven, hallowed ampandrosoj ni fandsaka-nao. come the kingdom-Thine. fankasitraha-nao eti an-tani will-Thine evenso upon-earth an-danitra. Omeo anaj in-heaven Give ns isa-nandro, ari m-amela this-day, and forgive tahaki ni-amela-naj ni as are forgiven by us the asa mi-tarikia anaj not lead us fa manafaha anaj but deliver us ni anara-nao, the name-Thine, Atavi ni Come-to-pass the tahaki ni ani as the being anio isaj fihina-naj that which food-our trosa-naj sins-our an and ami-naj, with-us, ni fakampanahi, the temptation, ni ratsi. the evil. Apan Father ara-m name-Thine ka-hendak-m 6. Dajdk. ikaj our (excl.) im-prasi. hallowed be. gddi iga who lmai'i in Ka-raga-an-m Kingdom-Thy kilan huan Will-Thine come-to-pass as in sorga, heaven, duma; come; sorga, heaven, -5* 208 k~ kakaj evenso akan kea also hung'un upon and an to us (excl.) day ka-salah-n ikaj kilau us (excl.) as petak. earth. to, this, Peha Give dan and sms olo, men ala not iga which aton are salah sinful menamaan lead ikaj us (excl.) aton property-Thine is tuntai'i ka-haie lapas deliver aju-m ikaj we deiian with huai'i us (eycl.) into bara talo from the talo kinan the eating ampun kara forgive all kea m-ampun also forgive ikaj, dan us (excl.). and tihkese, baja temptation, but krana for and jlory ka-raga-an kingdom ka-tahi-tahi. for ever ever. Amen. papa evil, tuntaii and kwasa strength 7. Javanese. Rama kawula hiiikan wonten hih Father (of thine) servants who art in swarga wasta sampejan dadossa sutgi heaven name (of thy) feet be holy; karaton sampejan handatenana ; karsa kingdom (of thine) feet come then; will (of thy) dadossa hih bumi kados hih come-to-pass upon earth as in re^ekki kawula kan sa-dinten-dinten bread (of thine) servants which a day-day dinten punniki marih kawula, hambi day this to (thy) servants, and marih kawula dosa kawula, to (thy) servants guilt (of the) servants, sampejan feet swarga; heaven sukanni give puntan forgive -** 209 *s- kados kawula as (thy) servants titijan kan salah enemy who sins sampun bekta indeed not lead tapi but iiawon, evil, sarta with hin into k'uk'ullaken free make sabab cause (%) (%) (for) puntan marin sa-tungil-tungil forgive to one-each-each marin kawula, liambi to (thy) servants, and kawula hin perkoban, servants into temptation, kawula bari pada sail servants from karaton bambi kingdom and kamukten glory nawet, eternity. kagunhan-nipun gusti Lord (=Thou) property his Amin. what kowas a power dumugi until J an who 8. Malay Bapa kami Father our (excl.) di-per-suki-lah be-hallowed-then ka-hendak-mu will-thine nama-mu name-thine datan-lah, come-then, di-dalam in-the-interior biuni ; roti ada is ! di-sorga, in heaven, ka-raga-an-mu kingdom-thin e seperti earth ; akan to ampon-i-lah forgive-then kami seperti our (excl.) even as pon-i pada to Kira-nga ! please! gadi-lah come-then-to-pass similarly sorga demikian-lah di-atas of heaven evenso-then upon-above kami sa-hari sa-hari beri-la bread our (excl.) of-day of-day give-then kami pada hari ini, dan us (excl) to day this. and pada kami segala salah to us (excl.) allhood (of) sins kami ini men-am- we (excl.) there forgive jan ber-salah who have-commited-sin lagi again oran men DD ~§H 210 H$- ka-pada kami, dan ganan-lah mem-bawa against us (excl.), and indeed-not-then lead kami ka-pada per-k'oba-an, hanga lepas- us (excl.) into temptation, but loose- kan-lah kami deri-pada jan gahat, make-then us (excl.) from-to anything evil, karena ankau punga ka-raga-an dan kwasa cause (for) Thou owning kingdom and power dan ka-muliia-an sampei sa-lama-lama-nga. . ,iiii. Amen. and glory unto length-length-his. To sum up. The Malay race may be shortly classified as follows: — I. Australian negroes and Tasmanians. II. Papuas, including the inhabitants of New Guinea, of the Luisiad Archipelago, New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands. Here also belong the Negri- tos, the inhabitants of the Andaman (Mincopies) and of the Nicobar islands. III. Malayo-Polynesians, namely, 1. Polynesians, 2. Me- lanesians and 3. Malays. Ideology in these tongues varies. Whilst in the Me- lanesian and Malay it is hybrid, in the Polynesian it is direct, the respective formulae being 2. 4. 6. 8. VI and 2. 4. 6. 7. VII. Now, as regards the Malay Race, the human mind has evolved a very noble thought of God. In nearly all these idioms it is a form of Atua, 'the very Core of Humanity', atu being a kernel or core, and a an intensive. 'Eternity' is expressed by e rimua ua atu 'until covered with the moss of ages'. Samoan : Atua Aneityum: Atua Maori: Atua Tahitian : Atua ~3* 211 k- Rarotongan : Atua Marquesan : Atua Nju: Atua Hawaii : Akua Tongan : Otua Lifu: Okotdsi and Hase. 1 Rotuman : Oiitu Fata: Leatu. The word Jo 'pith' or 'core' is also used for God: Jo ora living God. Those that differ from this form are: — Malagasi: Sanahari Creator; and Andria Manitra Noble-Sweet. The former is the older form, used bv the ruder tribes, the latter has become polarized in Malagasi religious thought since the introduction of Christianity. Balinese: Widi Mare : Makase Dajak : Tapa Father Jaian : Kon Kalu Greatness Kalou Greatness Supe Saibai: Ausadan. Fig'i: Viti: Ngunese: 1 Trenehase CTod-knower=Priest. Hnei angeike hna loda kowe la uma i Hasc. By him was gone into the House of God. -5H 212 H$- CHAPTER XVI. THE IDEA OF GOD: ITS GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT. We are now in a position to discuss the question which modern Science and Positivism have combined to raise: how did the idea of God arise? What was its earliest form? What the law or what the process of its evolution? Already at the outset of our enquiry we had occasion to notice some of the natural histories of religion, and here, without attempting an analytic and categorical criticism, we may do well to point out that, they all assume the- truth of an empirical philosophy. Religious concepts are resolved into sense-impressions, it being taken for granted that man started with 'an original atheism of consciousness'. But, how, upon this hypothesis, are we to account for man's faculty of faith, his tendency to believe in beings invisible, his conception of the Infinite? Can we accept an hypo- thesis which would derive the sublime predicate 'God' from dreams, delusions, fears? Surely ex nihilo nihil Jit. Gran- ted that savage and monkey, infant and dog, alike think natural objects alive, the one does, the other does not, for- mulate his thoughts into a religion. Nor must we forget that the evidence of religion is never entirely furnished by sensuous perception. 'In worshipping his fetish, the savage does not worship a common stone, but a stone which, be- sides, being a stone that can be touched and handled, is supposed to be something else, this something else being beyond the reach of our hands, our ears, or our eyes'. 1 If, with M. Comte, we argue that man can get out of Vetat theologique ou Jictif, we must also be prepared to admit that he can get into it. Is it not more true that mind makes nature than that nature makes mind? In the formation ' Max Miiller: Hibbert Lectures for 1878. p. 168. ■^ 213 hs~ of beliefs the constitutive element is what mind brings to nature, not what nature brings to mind. "It is not without significance", says Principal Fair- bairn, "that, while M. Comte was introducing his law of evolution to the world, finding the roots of religion in Fe- tichism and the final and perfect system in a Positivism without God, the two profoundest thinkers then living were formulating very different doctrines — the one the doctrine that a nation and its religion rose together, that, apart from religion, a nation, with its institutions and laws, was im- possible; the other, that 'the religion and foundation of a State are one and the same, in and for themselves identi- cal', and that, 'the people who has a bad conception of God has also a bad government, and bad laws'." Going back from these 'incomplete' Kantians to Kant himself, though it is doubtless true that he found a three- fold impossiblity of proving the existence of the Ideal of "Reason, yet, what is important for us is the fact so strongly held by him that, though experience may give the first im- pulse to faith, it is the transcendental concept which acts as Reason's guide and points the goal to all her aspirati- ons. According to the Konigsberg philosopher, theology is either transcendental or natural. In the former case there is the attempt to derive the existence of the First Cause either from experience generally, which is known as cosmotheology, or from mere concepts, without the aid of the least experience— ontothelogy. Natural theology, on the other hand, induces the attributes and the existence of a World-Framer from the nature, order and unity met with in the world around us, wherein we must admit a twofold causa- lity, namely, nature and freedom. It thus rises from this world to the highest Intelligence, either as to the Principle of all natural or of all moral Order and Perfection. That is to say, it is either physico-theology or moral theologv. Examining the subject from the standpoint ofthearchi- -$* 214 h$~ tectonics of pure reason Kant could not but come to the conclusion that, from purely speculative reason, no satis- factory proof of the existence of a Being is possible, which would correspond to our transcendental idea of the Ens originarium, realissimum, Ens entium. We know that the Cartesian school laid stress upon the ontological proof. Descartes held that there must be at least as much reality in the Cause as in the Consequence. Finite man could never arrive at the concept infinite sub- stance unless it came to him from an infinite Being. In his third Meditation Cartesius says: — Ideoque ex antedictis Deum necessario existere est concludendum: nam quamvis substantiae quidem idea in me sit ex hoc ipso quod sim substantia, non tamen id- circo esset idea substantiae infinitae, cum sim finitus, nisi ab aliqua substantia, quae revera esset infinita, procederet. Again, in the fifth meditation we find the noble thought which had already been expressed by Anselm: — Est aliquid quo majus nihil cogitari potest et in in- tellectu et in re. Malebranche went even further and asserted that, in order to have ideas we must be in God. 'Dieu est tres etroitement uni a nos ames par sa presence, de sorte qu'on peut dire, qu'il est le lieu des esprits, de meme que les es- paces sont en un sens le lieu des corps. Dieu est le monde intelligible on le lieu des esprits, de meme que le monde materiel est le lieu des corps'. Again, 'Dieu renferme dans lui-meme les perfections de la matiere, sans etre materiel; il comprend aussi les perfections des esprits crees, sans etre esprit, de la maniere, que nous concevons les esprits. Son nom veritable est Celui qui est, c'est a dire l'etre restriction, tout etre, l'etre infini et universel'. Passing on to Spinoza we find him to be so full of the idea of Deity that he has been aptly described as the God-intoxicated man. He says: — ^- 215 ;<~ Quicquid est in Deo est, ct nihil sine Deo esse neque concipi potest. God is the absolute, infinite substance, and without Him there is no substance. Per Deum intelligo Ens absolute, infinitum, hoc est, substantias constantem infinitis attributis, quorum unum- quodque aeternam et infinitam essentiam exprimit. Praeter Deum nulla dari neque concipi potest sub- stantia. Thought and extension are the attributes of Deity. 'Deus est res cogitans' and 'Deus est res extensa'. What- ever is founded in something else is a mode of that other thing. Thus, a triangle is a modus of the substantia ex- tensa, a definite thought is a modus of the substantia co- gitans. The sum of these modi is the 'Natura naturata'. God, considered as Free Cause, in whom the modes have their basis, is the 'Natura naturans'. He is the causa efficiens not only of the existentia but also of the essentia of things. According to Spinoza the highest joy and the noblest virtue is Tmoivledge of God. And if to joy is added the thought of its cause, we have love. Joy sprung from know- ledge of God leads to love of God. Amor est laetitia con- comitante idea causae externae'. Our happiness consists 'in sola Dei cognitone, ex qua ad ea tantuni agenda induci- rnur, quae amor et pietas suadent'. Leibniz, too, is full of the thought of God. He is 'centre par-tout et sur-tout'; the highest Monad; the final Reason. 'La derniere raison des choses doit etre thins une Substance necessaire, dans laquelle le detail des change- ments ne suit qu'eminemment, comme dans la source: et e'est ce que nous appelons Dieu\ In his Monadology he argues that God exists necessarily if it is possible: — Ainsi Dieu seul (ou l'Etre necessaire) a ce privilege qu'il faut qu'il existe s'il est possible. Et comme rien ne peut empecher la possibilite de ce qui n'enferme aucunes -5* 216 K~ homes, aucune egation, et par consequence aucune contra- diction; cela seul suffit pour connaitre l'existenoe de Dieu a priori. Again, in the Essais de Theodicee: — 'Dieu est la premiere Raison des choses: car celles qui sont bornees, comme tout ce que nous voyons et ex- perimentons, sont contingentes et n'ont rien en elles qui rende leur existence necessaire; etant manifeste que le terns, l'espace et la rnatiere, unies et uniformes en elles-mernes, et indifferentes a tout, pouvoient recevoir de tout autres inouvemens et figures et dans un autre ordre. II faut done ckercher la raison de l'existence du Monde, qui est l'asseni- blage entier des choses contingentes : et il faut la chercher dans la substance qui porte la raison de son existence avec elle, et laquelle par consequent est necessaire et eternelle, LI faut aussi que cette cause soit intelligente: car ce Monde qui existe etant contingent, et une infinite d'autres Mondes etant egalement possibles et egalement pretendans a l'exis- tence, pour ainsi dire, aussi-bien que lui, il faut que la cause du monde ait eu egard ou relation a tous ces Mondes possibles, pour en determiner un. Et cet egard ou rapport d'une substance existante a de simples possibilites, ne peut etre autre chose que Ventendemerrf qui en a les idees; et en determiner une, ne peut etre autre chose que l'acte de la volonte qui choisit. Et e'est la puissance de cette sub- stance, qui en rend la volonte efficace. La puissance va a l'etre, la sagesse ou l'entendement au vrai, et la volonte an bien. Et cette cause intelligente doit etre infinie de toutes les manieres, et absolument parfaite en puissance en sagesse et en bonte, puisqu'elle va a tout ce qui est possible. Et comme tout est lie, il n'y a pas lieu d'en admettre plus d'une. Son entendement est la source des essences, et sa volonte est l'origine des existences. Voila en peu de mots la preuve d'un Dieu unique avec ses per- fections et par lui l'origine des choses.' ~3H 217 HS~ Modern philosophy, in so far as it deals with the ques- tion before us, may be fitly represented on the one hand by Mr. H. Spencer and on the other by the late Prof. Green. In his First Principles Mr. Spencer says: — 'Our examination of Ultimate Eeligious Ideas has been carried on with the view of making manifest some funda- mental verity contained in them. Thus far however we have arrived at negative conclusions only. Criticising the essential conceptions involved in the different orders of be- liefs, we find no one of them to be logically defensible. Passing over the consideration of credibility, and confining ourselves to that of conceivability, we see that Atheism, Pantheism, and Theism, when rigorously analysed, severally prove to be absolutely unthinkable. Instead of disclosing a fundamental verity existing in each, our investigation seems rather to have shown that there is no fundamental verity contained in any. To carry away this conclusion, however, would be a fatal error; as we shall shortly see. Leaving out the accompanying moral code, which is in all cases a supplementary growth, a religious creed is definable as an a priori theory of the Universe. The sur- rounding facts being given, some form of agency is alleged which, in the opinion of those alleging it, accounts for these facts. Be it in the rudest Fetishism, which assumes a se- parate personality behind every phenomenon ; be it in Poly- theism, in which these personalities are partially generalized; be it in Monotheism, in which they are wholly generalized ; or be it in Pantheism, in which the generalized personality becomes one with the phenomena; we equally find an hypo- thesis which is supposed to render the Universe compre- hensible. Nay, even that which is commonly regarded as the negation of all Religion — even positive Atheism, comes within the definition; for it, too, in asserting the self-exis- tence of Space, Matter, and Motion, which it regards as adequate causes of every appearance, propounds an a priori EE -X 218 *s~ theory from which it holds the facts to be deducible. Now every theory tacitly asserts two things: firstly, that there is something to be explained; secondly, that such and such is the explanation. Hence, however widely different spe- culators may disagree in the solutions they give of the same problem; yet by implication they agree that there is a problem to be solved. Here then is an element which all creeds have in common. Religions diametrically opposed in their overt dogmas, are yet perfectly at one in the tacit conviction that the existence of the world with all it con- tains and all which surrounds it, is a mystery ever pressing for interpretation. On this point, if on no other, there is entire unanimity . . . Nor does the evidence end here. Not only is the om- nipresence of something which passes comprehension, that most abstract belief which is common to all religions, which becomes the more distinct, in proportion as they develop e, and which remains after their discordant elements have been mutually cancelled; but it is that belief which the most unsparing criticism of each leaves unquestionable — or rather makes ever clearer. It has nothing to fear from the most inexorable logic; but on the contrary is a belief which the most inexorable logic shows to be more profoundly true than any religion supposes. For every religion, setting out though it does with the tacit assertion of a mystery, forth- with procedes to give some solution of this mystery ; and so asserts that it is not a mystery passing human comprehen- sion. But an examination of the solutions they severally pro- pound, shows them to be uniformly invalid. The analysis of every possible hypothesis proves, not simply that no hypo- thesis is sufficient, but that no hypothesis is even thinkable. And thus the mystery which all religions recognize, turns out to be a far more transcendent mystery than any of them suspect — not a relative, but an absolute mystery. Here, then, is an ultimate religious truth of the highest -5* 219 hS~ possible certainty — a truth in which religions in general are at one with each other, and with a philosophy antagonistic to their special dogmas. And this truth, respecting which there is a latent agreement among all mankind from the fetish-worshipper to the most stoical critic of human creeds, must be the one we seek. If Religion and Science are to be reconciled, the basis of reconciliation must be the deepest, widest, and most certain of all facts — that the Power which the Universe manifests to us is utterly inscrutable.' "We now come to the greatest of the Neo-Kantians — the late Prof. Green. Speaking generally, the whole fabric of his philosophy may be said to rest on his theory of re- lations, which mainly consists of two propositions, namely, that objects are constituted by relations, and that relations are the work of the mind. According to him relations exist only for a self-conscious intelligence and are due to the activity of a self-conscious intelligence; in other words 'nature results from the activity of the spiritual principle'. The relations constituting nature form a 'single unalterable all-inclusive system' implying as such the existence of a 'principle of unity in relation' which cannot be other than Universal Spirit. Mr. Balfour has done well to point out the singular resemblance which Green's system bears to that of Berkeley. 'Berkeley by an examination of the nature of perception. Green by a criticism of the conditions of experience, alike reach the conviction that the world of objects exists only for mind; both deduce from this the reality of freedom; both assume the existence of a universal spirit in order that their idealised universe may be something more than the phantasm of the individual consciousness; with both this assumption develops into something which resembles, though it never actually becomes, a species of Pantheism.' It will, then, surely be admitted thai the Inst philo- sophy and the purest science do not pronounce against the ~>4 220 hs~ truth of theology nor do they accept the law of historical progression enunciated by Positivism. But if we cannot admit any hypothesis whereby the idea of God is evolved from the lower faculties and passions of men or from generatio aequivoca, shall we trace it to a primitive revelation? Let us consider for a moment what this implies. In the first place it means that, far from being rooted in the nature of man, religion must be im- planted from without. If there be no religious capacity or instinct man can never 'seek the Lord, if haply he might feel after and find Him'. The implication really is that, the human race was originally atheistic. Moreover, if there were a primitive revelation, it must have been either written or oral. And this involves us in hopeless difficulty. On this point none has spoken with greater clearness than Princi- pal Fairbairn: 'If written, it could hardly be primitive, for writing is ah art, a not very early acquired art, and one which does not alloAv documents of exceptional value to be easily lost. If it was oral, then either the language for it was created or it was no more primitive than the written. Then an oral revelation becomes a tradition, and a tradition requires either a special caste for its transmis- sion, becomes therefore its property, or must be subjected to multitudinous changes and additions from the popular imagination — becomes, therefore, a wild commingling of broken and bewildering lights. But neither as documentary nor traditional can any traces of a primitive revelation be discovered, and to assume it is only to burden the question with a thesis which renders a critical and philosophic dis- cussion alike impossible'. There remains, then, the historical method by which to approach this interesting and important question. It is the method which, so far as it has been possible, has been applied throughout the whole of this work. But mental life goes back further than historical, although to have ~3H 221 h$~ historical evolution is an essential characteristic of the mental. There are tribes and times and relations which remain outside of the historical movement. Philology only embraces historical life: what lies beyond is the province of the science of Language. Where language oversteps the bounds of philology, it enters the province of psychological ethnology. There is undoubtedly a mental life which is not historical. Tribes without culture and history have language and religion, and the life they lead is one ordered by mental considerations such as marriage, work, law, authority. And here we must remember that, the mental or spiritual life of a nation is a connected whole, that a people is not a heap of individuals but an entire Being. and as such creates and thinks, frames notions and words, that in its life ideas are the leading and ruling forces, nut blind chance or the vagaries of a single ruler. Moreover, our investigation has shown us that, religion is really co- extensive with man; that, tribes the most distant and the most unlike in genius, culture, and position on the earth's surface, having laws and tongues wholly different, yet have as their common characteristic the thought of God. From the point of view of evolution our inquiry should doubtless have begun with the Hottentots and ended witli the most cultured and refined Europeans of to-day. Never- theless, by beginning with the Aryan family we have had the twofold advantage of at once connecting the discussion with ourselves and of proceeding from the more known to the less known. Now, the primitive form of the theistic Idea amongst the Aryau peoples — that in which there is both radical and general agreement we have found to be Djdus (pp. 29, 30), the bright and beautiful Heaven. This is the specific term. Then, from the same root, we have the ge- neral term deva, the Brilliant, This is especially note- worthy because it is the very concept which i^ supreme -5* 222 kj- with the Mongols— T'jan, Jum, Nuni (pp. 49, 50, 51). We cannot call this nature-worship in the strict sense of the term, the nature is so limited, excluding even Earth. The form Djaus — Prt'ivi, T'jan — Ti, Num— Torim is a dis- tinctly later phase of religious thought. Perhaps the best expression is individualistic Theism, for Djaus, T'jan, Num. is conscious, creative, moral. To the early Aryan, as to the Tatar of to-day, the most natural thought was that Nature acts by virtue of an immanent life. The seat of this life both Aryan and Mongol placed in Heaven. 'The glory of the blue and brooding heaven was the glory of the immanent God'. To them Heaven was a Being capable alike of feeling and willing, to whom they prayed, to whom they offered sacrifice. There was no localisation of the deity upon earth, and hence no temple, hence no priest. 'The home, or the meadow, or the shadow of a giant oak, like that which stood in old Dodona, or those under Avhose spreading branches the Germans of Tacitus gathe- red to worship the invisible Presence, was the temple, and the patriarch of the family was the priest. That worship may be termed a Nature- worship, because the one word was the name of Heaven and of God, but Nature is here only a synonym for God. The Nature was living, and the life in it was to our primitive man divine'. Of Aryan and Mongol it may indeed be said: — 'They stood in the primeval home in the highlands of North-Western Asia, looked, as Abraham once did, at the resplendent sun flooding the world with life and light, at the deep, broad, blue heaven, a bosom that enfolded earth, bringing the rain that fertilized their fields and fed their rivers, and the heat that ripened their corn, at the glory its sunlight threw upon the waking, its moonlight upon the sleeping, earth, and at the stars that "globed themselves" in the same boundless Heaven, and went and came and -S* 223 i<~ shone so sweetly on man and beast and they called thai far yet near, changing but unchangeable, still but evermoving, bright yet unconsumed and unconsuming Heaven, deva (Xmni —God. To Aryan man Heaven and God were one, not a thing but a person, whose Thou stood over against his I. His life was one, the life above him was one too. Then, that life was generative, productive, the source of every other life, and so to express his full conception, he called the living Heaven, Diespiter, Djauspitar — Heaven-Father'. Now, this element of paternity, so characteristic of the Aryan conception of God— Djauspitar, Zeuc; Tromip, Jupiter, Alfadir — is precisely that which most distinguishes it from the Semitic thought of deity. The fundamental unlikenesses in feeling, thought, and worship can all be traced to this primary difference in the thought of God. Whether as monotheisms or as polytheisms we nowhere find in the Semitic religions the attribution to their God or gods of a fatherly or humane character. It is true that the Hebrew as a people may realise an abstract ideal fatherhood — of which Ave find traces in the Old Testament, but as an individual the Jew never does. The concept which is common to all the Semitic tribes is that of the Great Ruler sitting in judgment — El, Allah (pp. 41, 42). To the Semitic mind the Supreme is an awful, invisihle Presence, dwelling in inaccessible light, before whom, un- covered, man standeth trembling! In an exalted mono- theism like this, the majesty of God is so conceived as well-nigh to annihilate the freewill and- even tin' personal being of man. And here perhaps, as Dr. Fairbairn has suggested, we may find the explanation of the Hebrew horror at death, 'almost hopeless "going down to the grave," the often-asserted and often-denied silence of the Old Tes- tament as to the immortality of man. So much is certain. whether the Warburtonian or the more orthodox theory be held, the doctrine of a future state occupies a less pronii- -5* 224 fl- uent and less essential place in the religion of the Old Testament than in the Aryan religions in general. The belief in immortality was before Christ more explicit and more general among the Greeks than among the Jews'. Here, again, we have no trace of the dead ancestor, the idol or the fetish. It is a concept of intense subjec- tivity. The Semitic finds his God in himself, and offers a worship such as would have been pleasing to him had he himself been Divine. Hence the designation of Deity in the Kabbala — "OK 'I'. There is certainly one very striking ^ CLU passage in the New Testament where Oupavo? is used as a synonym of ©eo<;: — fjuapiov eic, tov oupavov. Luke xv. 21. but we must not forget that the story of the Prodigal Son was told to 'publicans and sinners' amongst whom the ma- jority were probably Greeks and Romans. It is also true that, amongst the Bogos, a JIamitic tribe, the supreme thought is fC& Heaven (p. 48), but nowhere do we find DV?# used as the equivalent of WTibti. Thus, while the Semitic religions developed themselves subjectively from the idea of Divine Sovereignty, whereby the thought of God almost shut out the concept of man, the Aryan religions were evolved objectively from the idea of Divine Fatherhood, whereby the two conceptions were mutually complementary, the one being incomplete without the other. The Semite delights in the frequent and prolonged fast, but the Aryan loves the gay religious festival. 'While the lather in the Aryan religions soften the god, and gives, on the whole, a sunny and cheerful and sometimes festive character to the worship, the god in the Semitic annihilates the father, and gives to its worship a gloomy, severe, and cruel character, which does not indeed belong to the reveal- ed religion of the Old Testament, but often belongs to the actual religion of the Jews'. "What, then, shall we say of the theology of so-called ~$* 225 hs~ savagery? Surely here we shall find not only traces, but the prevalence of, ancestor-worship. And indeed, Avere we guided solely by the evidence of the Kafir race, there can he little doubt that we should come to that conclusion. Munkulunkulu 'Old-Old-One', Nsambi-a-npungu 'Old-Spirit' may well represent the 'wandering double' of the departed forefather (pp. 162, 163). But this is not all. We have to deal with such concepts as Hausa Obangisi 'High Father' (p. 149.), Oki Onjah-kSpon 'Heaven' (p. 133), Joruba Olodu- mare 'One-who-has-a-name' (p. 133.), Kanuri Kema-nde 'Lord-of-us' (p. 143.), Kamilaroi Baiame 'Creator' (p. 167.) and Malay Atua 'Core of Humanity' (p. 210.). In seeking the genesis of the idea Ave cannot but see Avhat light the form throAvs upon the question. Noav, in this respect, Ave have seen that, with perhaps tAvo exceptions, the already-considered Positivist theories are historically untenable. We have watched the theogonic process in its multiform manifestation, but have not found that it has been induced by fear, horrid dreams or the longing to pro- pitiate the angry ghosts of the dead. As regards the Aryan concept Prof. Fairbairn truly says: 'There were two real or objective, and two ideal or subjective, factors in the genesis of the idea. The two real Avere the bright, brooding Heaven and its action in relation to Earth. The two ideal were the conscience and the imagination. The real factors stimulated the action of the ideal. The ideal borrowed the form in Avhich to ex- press themselves from the real. Conscience kneAv of rela- tion, dependent and obligatory, to Some One. Imagination discovered the Some One on whom the individual and the Avhole alike depended in the Heaven. Neither faculty could be satisfied with the subjective, each was driven by the law of its oavh constitution to seek an objective reality. Conscience, so far as it revealed obligation, revealed relation to a being higher than self. Imagination, when it turned PF ~3H 226 Kr- its eye to Heaven, beheld there the higher Being, the great soul which directed the varied celestial movements, and created the multitudinous terrestrial lives. Without the conscience, the life the imagination saw would have been simply physical; without the imagination, the relation the conscience revealed would have been purely ideal— the re- lation of a thinker to his thought, not of one personal being to another. But the being given by the one faculty and the relation given by the other coalesced so as to form that worship of the bright Dyaus, which was our primitive Aryan religion'. Psychologists may differ as to the intensity of the action of these two powers, but that they were the faculties generative of the idea there can be no question. And this is true throughout the whole realm of comparative theology: the real or objective factors differ, the ideal or subjective remain the same. Nor is it only from the concept of Deity that we infer this. The existence amongst the primitive Aryans of such rudimentary ideas as faith, worship, holi- ness, sacrifice, prayer, imply no less a creative faculty than Conscience. In the case of our Aryan forefathers, then, we can be quite sure that the oldest is the highest. Far from rising by almost imperceptible gradations from the physical, the moral is really eclipsed by the physical. Some of the oldest hymns of the Eg -Veda are addressed to Varuna who, as Dr. Muir has well observed, 'has a moral elevation and sanctity of character far surpassing that attributed to any other Vedic deity'. Take, for in- stance, hymus Rgv. 2. 28; 5. 85; 7. 86. 7. 8. 9. Nay more, there is one hymn which is wholly ethical, that, namely, by B'iksu, the beggar, on the duty of beneficence (10. 117). Speaking generally one may say that, more ethical ele- ments are found in the earlier than in the later forms of our Aryan faith. It is the moral sense which alone can account for these primary religious acts and ideas. 'Mind -$* 227 f<$- conscious of self was also mind conscious of obligation. The "I am" and the "I ought" were twins, born at the same moment. But to be conscious of obligation was to be cons- cious of relation, and so in one and the same act mind was conscious of a self who owed obedience, and a Not-Self to whom the obedience was due'. In other words, 'conscious ness and conscience rose together'. In the very same act as the idea of self was given the concept of God; there was no question of precedence. Without the consciousness of God mind could as little be mind as without that of self. 'Certain philosophies may have dissolved the first idea as certain others may have dissolved the second, but each idea is alike instinctive, rises by nature, can be suppressed only by art'. From a consideration of the genesis of this TTpumi Oeou evvoia, which has been variously styled relativer Mono- tlieismus, henotlieism and individual theism, we pass on to its evolution. The aboriginal concept was essentially ger- minal, its developmental possibilities were great; though it did well as a starting-point it could never be the goal of the human mind. Now, if primitive man, whether Aryan, Semitic, Hamitic or Turanian had been possessed of a cultured reason, or, as in the case of the Semite, had a strong instinct anticipated its action there would in all likelihood have been a development to a complete Mono- theism. But this was not the case. The two faculties which we have been considering acted in opposite directions; the moral sense, which was unifying, required an individual deity, but the imagination was multiplicative, demanded many. To again quote the admirable words of Principal Fair- bairn: — 'The very conception of a life immanent in the lumi- nous and impregnating Heaven strengthened the multiplying as opposed to the unifying tendency. The variety and contrasts of Nature helped the imagination to individualize -fcn 228 h$- the parts. A different spirit seeins to animate the calm, smiling Heaven from what animates a heaven tempestuous and thundering. Night seems distinct from day — the brilli- ant, beneficent spirit of the one from the revealing yet en- folding, distant yet near, spirit of the other. So the imag- ination, which had discerned and localized the God con- science demanded, pursued its creative career, not now in obedience to the moral faculty, but only to its own im- pulses. And so its creations graduated to Naturalism, be- came more physical, less moral — simple transcripts of the phenomena and aspects of Nature'. Perhaps the first step to Physicalism was marked by ttiS in India, Oupavoq in Greece from j/var to cover. Here we have the representation of the all-enfolding Night- Sky as opposed to the bright and beautiful aim. That is to say, the two aspects of the same object were appre- hended as two beings. The deification, though compara- tively recent, probably took place before the Aryan sepa- ration. But deified Night is incomplete without deified Day, hence, by the side of creuj we find the god of Light, ftr^r. This is the graduation to naturalism, though the influence of the moral sense is not wholly lost. It is only when we come to ^j, who superseded srw, to that splen- did physical figure 'borne on a shining golden car with a thousand supports, drawn by tawny steeds with flowing golden manes, hurling his thunderbolts, drinking the soma-juice, slayer of Vrtra', that the transition is complete. And here we trace alike the decay of the old Vedic religion and the beginnings of philosophy. Hymn 10, 151 expresses doubt and uncertainty as to the value of belief, and in 9, 112 we find Indra represented as an Egoist, in 10, 119 as drunken. Then there is the longing for unity, as we have it in the song of Dirgatamas (1, 164) and in the Creation-Hymn (10, 129). This unity is more nearly defined in hymns 10, 121; 10, 81; 10, 72 and 10, 90. ~$* 229 Mg- In the primitive Aryan religion we find the two ele- ments as spirit and letter, matter and form in a realised unity, but, in the course of evolution, mind became conscious of a dualism in its faith and, by exclusion of the ethical element, the physicalism of the Vedas was developed, by exclusion of the natural, the spiritualism of the Avesta. Nor was this all. There was an indirect action of the conscience on the theogonic process. It not only prompt- ed to worship but furnished objects which could be per- sonalised, the tendency being to increase rites and acts and ceremonies. At the beginning the process seems to operate in two distinct spheres — the natural and the sacerdotal. In the former we have already seen how geo- graphical conditions have influenced its action, in the latter we shall find how marked is the influence of social and political. Our study of the religious consciousness of man- kind has abundantly shown that, the physical phases and forces deified have throughout been borrowed from the Na- ture presented to the imagination. Under the rough and boisterous skies of the North the Scandinavians and Ger- mans forgot the bright vision of This and worshipped, for the most part, the stormful Odhin and the thundering Thor. Unlike these, our Teutonic forefathers, the dwellers under the sunny sky of Hellas, that land of many mountains, rivers and islands, surrounded by the shining sea, were ever mindful of Zeus, and summoned round him the fairy- forms and many-colored spirits of forest, hill, and stream. Similarly in India, among the mountainous regions of Kas- mir, we meet with the furious and tempestuous Eudra. ^ whilst the Hindus who came down into the hot plains and lived under a burning sky, sighed and prayed for the cool- ing Rain, and created the grand and glowing Indra. In India, too, political and social conditions were such as to lead to the evolution of sacerdotalism. The fathers of the family were undoubtedly the first priests, but as life ~3H 230 H$~ became more complex the head of the household would gladly hand over his priestly office to another. And the sense of guilt would be likely to affect the worshipper to the extent of inducing him to distinguish between what he would consider sacred and that which would be called se- cular, until, at last, he would come to believe that, the man well-pleasing unto God must be one wholly devoted to things divine. 'Hence, a professional priesthood was formed, and, as a matter of course, forms of worship increased. Each reacted on the other. The worship became more elaborate as the priesthood became more professional, and the ritual the priest developed the imagination idealized — the form became to it the matter of religion. What could reveal deity was deified. "What made the worshipper accepted, forgiven, was idealized into the accepter, the forgiver; and hence, sacerdotal deities were evolved alongside the natural. The same period that witnessed the creation of Varuna- Mitra witnessed also the creation of Soma. The juice of the plant used in sacrifice to God became itself a god, just as to a certain section of Christians the symbol of Christ's sacrifice has become the sacrifice itself.' At the time of the Indian and Iranian unity many forces were operative in the realm of religious conviction, and, at the separation, the outer and formal powers and tendencies seem to have been carried away by the Indians, whilst the Iranians retained the inner and ethical. Hence the direction which the genius of each people took was different, and we have, in the one case, a development of the spiritual side of religion, and, in the other, an evo- lution of the external. Nowhere do we find such extreme sacerdotalism, which changes the form into the matter of religion, as in India, where even the physical deities assume a sacerdotal character. It is not only that Indra delights in the Soma, as a thirsty hart in the waterbrooks, that =sif«T is a deification of the sacrificial fire and so -$H 231 K~ becomes 'the priest of the gods', but we find the creation of such sacrificial deities as g^reufk, whom Prof. Roth well describes as an 'impersonation of the power of devotion', a deity in whom 'the action of the worshipper upon the gods is personified' (cf. Bgv. 10, 72) and irerrofo, the order of whose development seems to be a) as Creator (10, 121); P) as Euler and Upholder; j) as Water and Not-Beinu; o) as Mind and Speech; and e) as a Cycle or Year and as Sacrifice. In other Aryan countries there w 7 as a tendency to regard the instruments of worship as sacred, but, the necessary social conditions being wanting, neither the sacri- fices themselves nor the oaks and groves where they took place were considered divine. In each sphere the early faith-faculty, the organ of the spirit seems to have followed a different course. Physicism descends, metaphysicism ascends. The earlier hymns of the Rgveda show the worship of Heaven under two aspects — as luminous, afts ; as boundless, sjrfefVT. But it is not long be- fore Aditi becomes dissolved into the Aditjas, some eight deities partly physical, partly spiritual. Then w r e find the deification of such single objects as *rcr the Sun, jtstth the storm-gods, and 31m the Dawn. Nor is this all. Elvers such as the src^rtf and s*r, mountains like the %jtt*t are looked upon as gods. In the sacerdotal sphere, on the other hand, the process is just the reverse. Starting with the juice known as #w there is ascension through ^tsj and P^RwfrT till we come to a culmination in si^r the highest deity of speculation. Nor does the process end here. As the human mind developes there is an evolution of another double process, which starts from two opposite sides but springs from allied causes, namely, anthropomorphism and apotheosis. When once the worship of a nation has introduced human ele- ments into the idea of God, the unconscious poetry of early society begins to import divine elements into the thought of ~& 232 Ha- inan. Hence the constant widening of the polytheistic circle and the difficulty of ascertaining not so much what was, as rather what was not, divine. But at last there is a limit to mythical creations and the period of amalgamation begins. This is the age of the world's great epics — the Malm B arata, the Ramajana, the Iliad and Odyssey, the Kalevala, the Edda and the Song of the Niebelungen. Here we have a more or less organized polytheism, a 'conscious effort to weave into historical harmony and form the mythical creations of the past.' As an instance of Aryan religious combination we may take Agamemnon's prayer in the third book of the Iliad :— ZeO irdiep, "lonBev uebeuuv, Kubiaie, uentfre, 'HeXio? 9\ bq tt(xvt 5 eqpopfic;, Kcri irdvT tTraKOueic;, Kai TToTauoi kcu Taia, icai o'i im£vep0e KauovTag dvGpumouc; xivuaGov, otic; k 5 emopKOV ouoffcrn, imeicj udpTupot eo"T€, qpuXdcrcreTe 5'opKia T^lO'Td• II. iii. 276—280. Thus, when multiplication is no longer possible we come to this product of the reflective consciousness, which combines heterogeneous elements, so far as this can be done, into a homogeneous system. That is to say, the meditative faculty is brought into play to lead to the evo- lution of the theogonic idea in another direction, namely, that of Unity. Assuming the truth of the many mythical creations of the past, granted that the gods have each their place and work in the world, it seeks behind and above them all a subsumptive Principle and ascribes to it, even over the gods supreme power. Thus in India the priestly deity g^wwfd developed into sffpT the chief of the gods, and lastly into sTgr^ or HJirHH the Over-Soul or World- Will. Amongst the Greeks, Romans and Teutons we find the same unifying tendency; MoTpa, Fatum, Ragnarokr was the sombre, mystic power that controlled and directed alike gods and men. The various steps of this meditative con- -£* 233 hs- sciousness toward oneness doubtless depend upon the par- ticular people's culture and power of abstraction, but, sub- sumption once having begun, poets and philosophers were eager to strive after theistic unity. "What was thus found by reason was unity of a thought, something abstract, im- personal, self-centred; not monotheism but Monism. The thought expressed by the Rs'is in the first Man- dala of the Rg-veda (i. 164. 46):— S35JT Hfl fain 31VCT dgf*W In many ways, The Sages say, Doth God himself To man display! was developed by the Brahinans in the Brahmanas and subsumed by the Vedantins in the Upanisads. Of this qzm 5rT there are in the Brahmanas four stages: a) as treu Purusa Soul, vital Force; (3) as wtot Pla- na Breath; y) as ^iw SkamVa The Support; 6) as sf^us Ukk'ista the Rest supreme. In the Upanisads we reach the standpoint of the 5RS5T — *nr*t*t Brahman- Atman doctrine, the science of Being-in-itself. In tracing the history of Spirit we have already had occasion to consider the rise and growth of Atman, the World-Self or Spirit supreme (p. 13). Brah- man, from the root brh or vrh to grow, expand, corres- ponds perhaps best to Hegel's das Werden: it is the Re- conciliation of Contradictions. Thus we read in the B'aga- vad Gita (xiii, 12): — iw SH rm ragaTftr usaTcgTOrW^R^ i siRTfcTrT Vt &W ?T SrT cHH d d^H II ^« II 'I will explain (to thee) what is to be known, what kind of knowledge it is that leads to immortality. That which is to be known is Brahma supreme, which is without beginning, and can neither be described as Being nor Not- Being.' GG -5h 234 h$- Again (ix, 19): — 'I am death and immortality, Being and Not-Being, o Arguna !' According to the Vedanta 5T^R is isjoFT^TR^f^^ 'not split by Time and Space' and HorfefewrcflrT 'free from all change'. The great commentator Sankara in discussing the theology of the Vedanta distinguishes between the sagund vidjd or exoteric doctrine of the Atman, and the nirgund vidjd or esoteric teaching. Of the latter, which alone con- cerns us here, the fundamental tenet is the utter inad- equacy of human thought and speech to conceive and' ex- press God. urft errat fWw Hence the well-known formula of the Brhad-aranjaka- Upanisad: — 51% ^f?T I 'It is not so; It is not so!' "When we ask: is it this or is it that? the reply is always: neti, neti! The only adumbration of a definition is: g i isr f) juw ^TTrJTT Silence is Atma ! Thus, to the Advaita Vedanta, Brahman, grasped in ourselves as our own Atman, is the only Reality, the Self in which all other selves live and move and have their being. This is the samjagdarsanam, perfect knowledge, but it is the great Secret revealed not by gndna but by anuVava. By absorption into his own self the Brakmakfvrin finds that he is one with the Over-Self (Brahma- dtma-dikja), whereby he exclaims: aham Brahma asmi 'I am Brahma', whilst he says to his Guru: tat tvam asi 'that art thou.' It is this which constitutes motea, as has been well poin- ted out by Prof. Deussen: — ~5* 235 ks~ "The knowledge of this Atman, the great intelligence: „aham brahma asmi, u does not produce moksha (deliverance), but is moksha itself. Then we obtain what the Upanish- ads say: rlfln»auev be tov Oeov etvai £ujov dibtov dpicFTov, ware £tur) Kai aiwv auvexn? Kai di'bioc; imdpxei tuj 0euV touto Tap 6 Geo?. "Oaoi be imoXajupdvoucnv, wtfTrep 01 TTuGa- Yopeiot Kai ZTTeocrmTTog, to KaXXicrrov Kai d'pio"TOV ur| ev dpx>] eivai, bid to Kai tuuv qpuTwv Kai tujv £ujujv iaq dpxdc; aiTia uev eivai, to be Ka\6v Kai TeXetov ev toic; ck toutuuv ouk 6p9wc; oiovTai. to yap CTTepua e£ erepuuv eari rrpoTepuuv reXeiuuv, Kai to rrpuuTOv ou CTTrepua ecrriv, dXXd to TeXeiov oiov TrpoTepov d'vGpujTTOV dv qpain Tl ? £ ivai tou ffTrepuaTOc;, ou tov ck toutou Yevouevov, dXX 1 erepov eH ou to OTrepua. "Oti uev ouv ecmv ouafa tic; di'biocj Kai aKivr|TOc; Kai Kexwpicr- juevn tujv aia9r|TUJV, qpavepov ck tujv eipruuevujv. bebeiKTai be Kai oti uef£0oc; ouGev exeiv evbexerai TauTnv if]V ouoiav, dXX 5 duepr|cj Kai dbiaipeTOc; ecmv. 'So we say that God is a living, everlasting, best Being; life and perpetuity become Him, for such is the essence of Deity. But those are mistaken who, with Speusippos and the Pythagoreans, hold that the best and the most beautiful exist not originally, since even with plants and animals the beginnings are indeed causes, but the noble, the complete is contained in what results from them. In -Sh 236 H$~ error, for the seed comes from something earlier, something- perfect; the seed is not that which is first, but the perfect. One may indeed say that man is earlier than the seed, not the man who is born from the seed, but he from whom the seed comes. From what has been said it is thus clear that there exists an eternal, immovable Being, removed from Sense. It has also been shown that this Being can have no extension, but that it is inseparable and indi- visible'. Xenophanes, too, has left us those fine lines: — Els Geo? ev xe GeoTcri kcu dvGpdmoicri uefuJ-roc;, ou ti beuccq GvnToTcri ouoio? oube von.ua. Of gods and men one God alone is lord Nor unto mortals like in form or word! Nor must we forget that <*JJ\ is sometimes referred to as <_>l-~co\) t^^^xi cause of causes ! And we have already had occasion to notice the speculative tendencies of the Sufis. The many monistic and subsumptive propensities of our own century in theology are perhaps nowhere better expressed than in Goethe's Faust. The man of culture Kerr 5 eHoxnv, he who was at once philosopher and poet, who had scanned the whole horizon of the world of thought, could not but leave his Confession of Faith. Wer darf ihn nennen? Und wer bekennen: Ich glaub' ihn. Wer empfinden Und sich unterwinden Zu sagen: ich glaub' ihn nicht? Der Allumfasser, Der Allerhalter, Fasst und erhalt er nicht Dich, mich, sich selbst? -$* 237 H$- Wolbt sich der Himmel niclit da drobeii? Liegt die Erde niclit hierunten fest? Und steigen freundlich blickend Ewige Sterne nicht herauf? Schau' ich niclit Aug' in Auge dir, Und drangt niclit alles Nach Haupt und Herzen dir, Und webt in ewigeni Geheimniss Unsiclitbar siclitbar neben dir? Erfiill' davon dein Herz, so gross es ist, Und wenn du ganz in deni Gefiihle selig bist, Nenn' es dann, wie du willst, Nenn's Gliick! Herz! Liebe! Gott! Ich habe keinen Namen Dafiir! Gefiilil ist alles; Name ist Schall und Rauch Uninebelnd Himmelsglutli. Him who can name, And who declaim: I believe? Who were afraid, Yet could himself persuade To say: I believe not? The All-embracer, The All-upholder, Embraces, upholds He not Thee, me, Himself? Is not above bright Heaven's eternal dome? And here on earth — is not a steadfast home? Mount not on high The eternal stars of night? See I not eye in eye Thine own most inner light? -5h 238 h$~ Ancl does not all in thee Press on toward Head and Heart, And move in eternal secret Around thee, about thee, Within thee, without thee? Thy spirit drink thereof unto her fill, And in her flight of feeling, striving still, Name it then as thou wilt: Joy! Heart! Love! God! No name have I for it! Feeling is all: — Name is but echo and vapor Enveloping heavenly fervor! The deity thus discovered by Reason is a Principle of Order, Unity of a Cause, a "World-Will. Here we have the Monon of philosophy, not the God of Religion. How, asks the philosopher, can we venture to ascribe personality, with all that it implies, to the Deity? The man of medi- tation, the Jogi of East and West may perhaps find lonely solace in an abstract, impersonal Unity, but the common people, who heard the Master gladly, mankind at large can worship no other than a personal God, a living Being who can sustain relations with every human soul, who possesses qualities which appeal to the noblest and ten- derest susceptibilities of every human heart. Well does a Persian poet exclaim: — 'How can I know Thee who art beyond the vision of reason? So concealed, Thou art the more revealed to the eye of the heart. The world were an empty tablet but that Thou hast written thereon Thy eternal thought. Of thy divine poem the first word is Reason, and the last is Man. And whoso shall trace the words from first to last shall find them the unbroken series of Thy favors, the varied names of Thy love.' -$* 239 K~ Our enquiry has shown us how in all ages and in many ways man has been stretching out his hands toward the All-Father — palmas ad sidera tendens! 'Es sagen's aller Orten Alle Herzen unter dem himmlischen Tage, Jedes in seiner Sprache.' The dei sensus is there, and the individual soul (givat- man) is only man when conscious of the Over-Soul (Para- matman). The Ksis of our race will never find it hard to believe that God is Spirit (TTveOua 6 Oeog), but what we all have to learn — sufi and sophist, savant and seer — is the truth brought to light by Him who was hallowed and sent into the world, that God is Love ('AYoarn 6 0e6q), living and undying Love! '0 Oeog drfdTTr) ecnr kcu 6 uevuuv ev ifj afa-nx}, ev tlu 0euj uevei, Kai 6 Geo? ev auto). VOLUME II. ETHICAL CONCEPTS. CHAPTER I. RIGHT AND WRONG IN CHINESE. s representative of the Turano-scytliian stock let us take the Chinese. Now, it would almost seem as though the Chinese, from time immemorial, had been conscious of the privative nature of sin. Indeed, the well-known saying of Augustine: 'Nemo de me quaerat efficientem causam malae voluntatis; Non enim est efficiens sed deficiens; quia nee ilia effectio est, sed defectio', might have been written by Confucius himself. For, to the chinaman Right is ^ si Being, to 6v, whilst Wrong is ^ pe Not- Being, to ur| 6v. The established opinion is that, man is by nature good and that it is only as he falls away from the Tau j|| the Path, the Norm, the \6joq, that he becomes bad. As Kau-zo in his T'ai-M-tu says: — All men have the rational principle of motion and rest, but in motion they miss it. For originally men and things possess altogether the Norm of the First Cause'. This, too, is doubtless the meaning of Lau-zo in his classic of Reason and Virtue, when he says (Tau-te-Kiri: cap. 11. 9):— 'Thus the saintly man does not become entangled in the meshes of Not-Being'. In the proverb in which, out of foui* words, three are radicals we have this truth in its most terse form: — D £k & |£ Ko 'si, sin pe. Literally, the mouth (saying) yes, the heart (meaning) no, or, as we should say, 'in speech true, in thought false'. We may attempt to realise Being in speech, whilst at the same time our heart is set on Not-Being. 'To be or not to be, that is the question!' It is only when, to quote another proverb, fo p ^p — sin ko gu ji 'the heart and the mouth are as one' that Ave tread the Path of Being. |£ is sometimes used in the sense of fault, as in the saying: ^ J\^ -^ |§ j~ j£ _@_ ^ kjan rin ji san wan ki pb p'e (when you) see a man (per- form) one good (action), forget his hundred faults. Si and Pe in the general meaning of Eight and Wrong are common in such a phrase as J| gij -= J| si ze jen si (if) right say so, ^ I3ij =* ||£ p'e ze jen pe (if) wrong say so. Having conceived wrong as a falling away from Being, the modes of this declension have seemed to the dwellers in the Flowery Land well-nigh infinite. JSTo language is so rich in ethical terminology as the Chinese. Viewed as a transgression, a going beyond, napafiaoxq, the expression for evil is in action fc pan, from the radical 3 hjuan (94) 'dog' and in speech % kwo, from the lG2nd radical ^ Jib 'to go'. Thus we read : 3£ ^ 2fB & H j£ fpj IP wan zb pan pa ju min tun zwi when the king's son trans- gresses the law, the guilt is the same (as it would be) in the case of the people. And in the Lun-ju (Bk. vii. Cap. 16.): — Zb ju: kja wo su njen ivu si i hjo Ji k'b i ivu td kwo i. The Master said: 'If some years were added to my life, I would give 50 to the study of the Ji, and then I might come to be without great faults'. -§* 5 *«~ But in order to gauge the concept of Evil in all its forms we must compare it with the corresponding forms of Good. For the law of relativity applies here as elsewhere, giving us sense and countersense, thesis and antithesis, positive and negative. Twv evavriuuv, says Aristotle, tnv auTrjv eivai emcrTrmnv. Omnis determinatio. says Spinoza, est negatio. Or in the words of Hegel: 'Die Grundlage aller Bestimmtheit ist die Negation. . . . Als seiende Be- stimmtheit gegentiber der in ihr enthaltenen, aber von ihr unterschiedenen Negation ist die Qualitat Realitat'. Now the opposite of |£, yan is *, Unit loyal . from radical 61 fo sin heart, and p£i Tiuh middle, to hit the mark; and of }ft Jcwo the antithesis is f= hsin faithfulness, from \ rin man, the 9th radical, and "= jcin to speak. In the 24th Chapter of the Lun-jii we meet with both these words: — Hr jy P9 %\ 3C fr *- fK Zd i s 'o fy° Wan Hitl Kun Hsin. The Master taught four things: literature, ethics. loyalty to truth and faithfulness. Then sin is conceived as the 'missing of a mark', duapTia. Thus in the Sin Jil Kwah Hstin or Amplification of the Sacred Edict we read (ix. 12): — # j£@ %$. 7& £, T& wu ^ au zlU1, z ° ^ fiJ en: beware of the sins of your unbridled instincts! or as M. Piry trans- lates it 'Gardez-vous des errements de vos instincts de- regles!' iff tijen is from radical 61 fa sin heart and fjj jen overflowing, which is composed of the 144th radical ft bin to act and \ sim water, so that the idea is: the heart acting as water. Opposed to this is f& su Reci- procity, the word that was so often on the lips of Con- fucius, from the same radical >£> sin 'heart' and jm gu 'as', the heart being in equilibrium, acting harmoniously, hitting the mark. Hence it is often used in conjunction with *, Hun loyal as *, fa, Uun su faithful and benevolent. When 30 Jiun asked Confucius whether there were one word ~5* 6 KJ- which might serve as a rule of practice for all one's life, he said: &$g^i* t flfXQk%jffl,1feA & $ u 7m; hi so pu jii ivu si jii Bin! 'Is not Reciprocity such a word? What you do not want clone to yourself, do not to others!' Evil is also conceived as 'disobedience to a voice', -rrapcxKori. Thus we have the ethical antithesis: |jj» sin heart; a froward heart, a stiff neck. Thus in the Analects we read: — «*.«£&*»* Tcu til jii sen i : wu ngo je. 'If the will be set on Goodness, there will be no practice of vice!' Not only is £ sen straightforwardness, benevolence, opposed to 35 ngo, but also ^| i righteousness, ^§ san virtue and ^ me excellence, which are all connected with radical 123 ^: jan sheep, the type and trope of simplicity. In the T'ai-M-t'u we read of the 5 chief virtues, of which sen and i are two, in connexion with the Jen and the Jan: — 'The heart of Heaven and Earth, nay, the principle of humanity. Now, form arises from Jen and mind from Jan; the nature of the five chief virtues is manifested by con- tact with things: thus Jan is good and Jen bad'. The heart of heaven and earth, the principle of ~3* 7 h^- humanity, is the ^ ^ t'ai-M; the 5 fundamental rules of conduct are: f- sen benevolence, || i sincerity, jjjff ?i pro- priety, ^ 7H wisdom, and \% lisin faithfulness. According to Kau-zb matter is earthly, spirit heavenly; as, therefore, matter belongs to [^ Jen and spirit to |Jj| Jan, the former is the earthly whilst the latter is the heavenly principle. Now, the T'ai ki is the resultant of these two great forces, Good and Evil, Motion and Rest, the earthly and the Heavenly, and is free only in so far as it follows the Tau of Jan, the Path of Right; for, if it abide in the way of Jen it is bound by the fetters of Sin, it is caught in the tissues of Falsehood! Finally, to the sons of Heaven (Tjan zo) Evil has seemed a Net which is spread by unseen hands to catch the will that is weak. Alike in lore and language, in proverb and in prayer we meet with |p zwi sin, crime, from radical 122 EQ wan a net. There is a celebrated passage in the Liin-jii (xx. 1. 3) in which this word occurs. It is a prayer addressed to God by T'aii on his undertaking the overthrow of the Hia dynasty, which he rehearses to his nobles and people, after the completion of his work. Hivan Invaii hau Ti, ju zwi pu Jean se. '0 most great and sovereign God, the sinner I dare not pardon !' The opposite of |p zwi is (*; te Virtue, from ^ lei a step, radical 60. The full meaning of the character is: 'the heart stepping out of the net'. With all his love of virtue Confucius had to admit: — 'It is all over! I have not seen one who loves Virtue as he loves Beauty". a £ % ^ * £ # m in ft €l % & Ki i hu: wu we hjan hau Te gu hau S% lie je. ->■ 8 K~ CHAPTER II. THE ETHICS OF EGYPTIANS AND HEBREAVS. As representing the Hamito-Semitic branch of the Midlanders let us take Egyptian and Hebrew. By the Egyptians, as by the Chinese, the subtle enemy Sin has been looked at from many jioints of view, to such an extent, indeed, as well-nigh to hide the angel goodness. As Trapdpacnc;, transgressio, a 'going beyond' it is ^g^, A/WvNA. sen sin, X <=* ^^-^ sen-n-t evil, from the root ^^ a sen 7 AAAAAA i-L *o . _J _i AA/WNA l •" to go beyond. Memphitic ceu, ceiictnii. Perhaps the most AAAAAA rj usual form is A \ sonen. Thus (D. Temp. 1. 1.) in the temple of Dendera: — ™s3 \ =^r ® ' Suta-p Horse er Sonen 'He keeps the lake of Horus from defilement'. A peculiarly interesting view of Good and Evil in Egyptian is that of an Afflatus, diabolical or divine. It is a polar expression, both in sound and sense, a synthesis of thesis and antithesis, ^^aa "v\ ^g^, nep-a, Memphitic itOB-e, Basmuric iiab-6 sin; Jj '^^ ben Memphitic Eton bad; AAAAAA = jAj nip impious, enemy. I =0= nep-r, Sahidic uovq-e Memphitic u-A-novq good, useful. All these forms come from the root """ 132 nep, Sahidic and Memphitic ueq, AAAAAA 1 iiHiq, Basmuric ijib-i to blow, in the sense of clouds passing over the sky, to be under a cloud, to be blown hither and thither. For instance, (Abyd. Mar.) ~3W 9 ir ± ^\ Bu nofer keper in bu ban "bona fuint mala". Then wrong has been conceived as a 'sword' piercing the heart and causing pain. -^^S <^ mdk evil; S^\ ' v \\ mctk-a-s-u Coptic uax-i a sword; ^j\ mek-s sceptre; v\ ^K ^ mas-u dagger; Sahidic uok-2 pain. Hier. mes-h-u S. mek-li M. hem-k-o to afflict. At the basis of all these words is the root J|vi "^ £ — /? mdt'-d to cut, t' and k being interchangeable, metathesized in Memphitic kiu to strike. To fall away from righteousness is to fall into sin, hence a common view of evil is that of a declension, napd- TTTuuua. We meet with it in Egyptian. ^I> ^^^ % u It!"^^ d - ha 1111^ d ' h% Memphitic zo, T-eo, eoor, etoor, Sahidic oo, Basmuric 2av; Somali: hu-ma bad. Sahidic eii-B-e worse. " r 1 ^ fter fear, horror; Demotic hair, Sahidic ?Aip-6, Memphitic ecuip-i excrement. H^N^ko k'uu sin; all from the root 8 %> £) O huu-a to decline, fall away. ~5* 10 i<~ Thus in Dtimichen's 'historische Inscliriften' (II. 35) we read: — „ . n ku kmr kuu 'preserve the Adyton from uncleanness (sin)'. In this short sentence we have the same root expressing the opposite ideas of sacredness and defilement. Prof. Brugsch suggests that the fundamental meaning of ® is 'to guard', 'to preserve', giving us holiness as that which 'keeps' us from evil, and sin as that from which we have to be 'preserved'. And in the Book of the Dead (125, 63):— S§ V -^ /WWW I Q f\ • , , hr-^ =^ v& AAAAAA I r*° ^5r (1 Au-a-db-ku-d em k'uu-nib. 'Yes, I have been washed clean from all sin'. As we have seen, this is another instance of counter- sense, of a polar root expressing both the rise and fall of the moral consciousness. E. g. ku is 'excellent', A — o fa — -o 'sacred'. Sahidic and Basmuric zox-e better. Demotic 1/^f£. k'ui holy. Thus: ^1 Vs. ® I m ' V ° 1 ^ M (wwfo*) nt'6 &'w em Itefr. 'All the divine and sacred animals in the land of Bek'. 0&Jj\/L. < 1\\\(^_OJYy L L j(jJ~JlZ. Na-kdu-u add ent k'ui ■cem. 'The other animals which Egypt considers sacred'. So strong, indeed, was this feeling of 'falling' with primitive humanity, that there is perhaps no language which has not thus conceived wrong. Akin to this is the idea of 'going astray', of leaving the straight path for the crooked. Many are the rami- fications of this thought in Egyptian, to which the root O -fw crooked has given rise. I — J I J ^-^- ker-ker, c-nop-Kep to roll; ~3H 11 K~ Sahidic np-o-c } . . > circle * Mempliitic Kop-K-c 3 Demotic and Sahidic Kcorp a ring <=>' 1 1 tiers to in- volve, bury. (kJtS tier-t'-a to fold. (I ^o ^-^tier-au crooked; (1 ' tier-a-t barrier. The forms which have an ethical significance mostly come from the metathesized form of the root. v\ (I ^\ J J\ reti-adu to curve, to swerve ; Coptic pAK, piK-e, pGKpiK-e a wink, a twinkling. v\ /v reti-a to turn away from ; 1 1 3 reti to be addicted to; Sahidic poK-e. (j (1 / v\k reti-i bad, an enemy. Mempliitic piK-i transgression; A-piK-i fault, ^Ik^JM rek-aau-t quarrel. ^ J= ker Sahidic ctoa, Basniuric ctaa lie, con- cealment. Thus, in an Inscription at Elkab (Gr. Ateflera's) we read : — "^ ° aa^vn 1 Tot-d enten nen Jeer dm £Jk AAAAA<\ I I I 'In what I tell you there is no deceit'. The corresponding virtue is represented by <=> (1 ma-t, dem. 2-./^ rne-t, whereof the root-idea is 'to be open, straight forward': it is the parent of such words as truth, justice, uprightness. ° 3 1 1 S) ^ er meier m ^ ' navm S tne witness of truth'. But sin is not only a going astray or speaking falsely, it is sometimes doing an injury, and of this also the ~x 12 *«- cs-n n ^ Egyptians were well aware. Thus from the root 1 v\ J ^^ kab-t to do an injury, we have: — f j] *~^^ keb-n-ti iniquity; *£_ ^jS kep-t Memphitic iy t vq-T sinner; ^juxj-t sin; ^tOB-q to sin; ab-a violence; Sahidic kb-a to avenge; Demotic Jcm-d to avenge. ^ ^ /li a«am /|v 5 A /H awaa iL A v^\ | ^He gives life to the virtuous but death to the corrupt'. (Melanges egyptologiques III. p. 269.) Opposed to the vice kab-t is the virtue mer QA Sahidic ue, Memphitic uai, uenp-e; Basmuric uhi to love. '■rh^ 3 ^ Ar mer-d u Amon 'I was a friend of Amon'. Besides this view of evil as the perpetration of bodily harm, there is the more subtle sense of sin as 'opposition to truth', as 'violence to the categorical imperative'. This is expressed in Egyptian by I j ^^ seteb y\\ I se ^ e ^ evil, damage. On the other hand, conformity to truth, fixity of ethical purpose is °" d ^ es % Basmuric xici, Sahidic xice, croc-6, Memphitic croc-i better, best. / J\ 1^^- altitude, sublimitas. ^1J\\^^1)C U t'at Sahidic xoott impure, wicked. o ^% fata enemy, impious. Demotic t'eti; Basmuric xgxi; Sahidic xaxg; M. xa^i V\ ^^r 5 - t'a foul. -^h 13 Kr- The opposite of ta is ab to wash, to shine, to be pure. -JJ-fl aaaaaa ^^ and—JM/K ab; M. otab B. otgb pure, orderly; S. ovon to shine, purity, holiness. Memphitic: botbot to shine. /] "^ I ,— ~-. (I Aft' m& wopn ab. lit. Things all good, pure. 'Everything good and pure'. As the Chinese, though not to the same extent, the Egyptians were conscious of the privative nature of sin. They saw that, if persisted in, it would lead to the ex- tinction of all Being. Thus, from the root J -^^ Demotic /^-4— V y m bet not to be, to ur| 6'v, we get c=s^ bet bad; Sahidic but abominable; bgt to wipe out, destroy; bot, qoT to be sick, abominate. O <^ bet-n bad, enemy. M. bot-c, bojt-g to wage A war ; and in metathesized reduplication a a \\ tebteb, Sahidic tgb-c to strike against. Finally, there is a view of Good and Evil in Egyptian which is highly remarkable, reminding us of the tree in the Garden of Eden whereof Adam and Eve were forbidden to eat. It is that of knowledge. P (] D | sap ^ 1^ J^ sau ^^ ^ |j) sa M. cab-g, cojovii, cot; S. coov-ii, goov; to know, to understand, to enjoy. 1K v\ p| saub to teach; M. cb-uj science, S. to learn. sa; M. cujq foul, impure; .^^(lll sal => g g g g, c sa S. ca M. cai, ^jov beautiful, worthy. -5* 14 k~ In an Inscription of Paher at El Kab we meet with these remarkable words: — Bek'-kud Nuter inert' Bern sa 5>T i =i _zf* '^ ^ ave known God in the midst of men, and ( - lsu have enjoyed Him!' The dwellers on the Xile also conceived the Bad as a , 1111 11 ^ disease K won nirp-sja Bkd Jhovah kdsit'i al-eboidh loldm bzidkdt'k'd p'alteni. 'In Thee, o God, do I put my trust; let me never be ashamed. Deliver me in thy righteousness!' As Franz Delitzsch well observes : 'all relations in which man stands to man, and indeed to creation generally, are only phaenomenal forms of his fundamental relationship to H3H 15 hS- God, and Sin ... is opposition to the will of God, of Him who alone is the supreme lawgiver and judge'. On the one hand we have the more or less passive sins arising from man's fallen nature, from his weakness as born of the dust. 'For He knoweth our frame, He re- in embereth that we are dust!' To this order belong fiNtsn kattdt', rbysi avlah, jn rd, ]ty T dvon and nj;in took. On the other there are the various forms of active wickedness ex- pressed by JttJte pesa, $H2h resa and nttt^iS! asrndh, )1« dven, HD")P mirmah. As we have already seen in the Psalm li. 4.: — HNtsn, Arabic ^K-^. is 'the missing of a mark', duapria. das Yerfehlen des rechten Zieles, the conscious lack of the divine Presence; from the root Ntan to wander, to fail of the end. Opposed to this sin of Godlessness is DPI, rtJSVpn, DNSPi tarn, tmimah, tumnnm whole-heartedness, truth, per- fection, from i/DDH whole, integer, insons, Arabic ? U3'. Thus in Genesis xvii. 1, we read: — onan n;m *&) ^.nnn ■ntf bxrw Am el saddai: liithalek Ip'dnai v'ehjeh t'dmim. 'I am God almighty: walk before me and be thou perfect!' Next to the sin of atheism and agnosticism comes that of 'falling away' from God, TrapdTTTuuua, which is expressed by r6";j? or b))l from Y^)V T to fall away. This is particularly manifest in the 37th Psalm, where we have the striking contrast between those who trust and delight themselves in the Lord and such as bring about the forsaking of Jahveh : — :r6iy_ ^ya k^ft'w D^jpss innn-^s Al-tit'k'a?- bammreim, al-tkanne hose avlah. -Fret not thyself because of evil-doers, Neither be thou envious against such as work unrighteousness (or, effect backsliding)'. The counterpart of avlah is ")#; jdsdr straitforwardness, integrity, from jA" 1 ^ to make straight, to be equal. 'Good -»* 16 ks- and upright', says the Psalmist, 'is the Lord : therefore will he instruct sinners in the way'. Ps. xxv. 8. To& v'jdsdr Jalweli, al-Mn jbreli kattdhn baddrek'. In many respects "It2^ has had a similar development to the Vedic ^RrT. We then come to the world-old antithesis of Good and Evil as a state of mind, manifest in }H Rd and 2113 tob (Syriac £*% tov). The former is from JJjn Edaa 'to break in pieces', Arabic ^>j so that the fundamental meaning would seem to be 'iconoclasm'. Thus in Genesis hi. 5. we read : — Dn^m nypy. inj?s:i iSBt? dd^k nvz ^ ij^k jrr ^ jjrn nits ^ D\"i^«3 Ki jode Elohim hi bjom dkalkem mimmenu v'nip'kk'a enekem vihjit'em kelbhim jode tob vara: 'For God knoweth that in the day when ye shall eat thereof, your eyes shall be open and ye shall be as God knowing Good and Evil'. And in that majestic passage in Isajah (xlv. 7) in which the creation of Evil is ascribed to the Eternal Himself: — jn fcnqi di 1 ?^ nfcty ^n tnini m« w Jbzer or ubbre k'osek 1 , bseli sdlom ftbbre rd. 'I form the Light and create Darkness; I make Peace and create Evil'. Again in Solomon's beautiful prayer for an 'under- standing heart' : — Vf> aifc-pa park *i®v~nx ti&f? VJlW ^ TOSft 90£| 'Give thy servant therefore an understanding heart to judge thy people, that I may discern between good and evil'. Right and wrong are, moreover, conceived as .'the crooked' and 'the straight' alike in the outer and the inner world, in the realm of thought and the sphere of action. ^ 17 hs~ For these concepts we have the words ]ty dvon and p"13 ^eaefc perversity and rectitude. Of the former we have a notable instance in the opening words of the great prophet (Isa. i. 4):— i^ivrrcto d^2 D^jna jn? jty ins og.. Ktth *ia Mn iZ6£ #oi fe'ote, c<»i fre&ed avow, sera mrr'tnu bdnim niaskit'wi. 'Wo! sinful nation, people laden with iniquity, seed of evildoers, children that are corrupt!' Here Ave have sin in its triple form, as k'et or Jc'attal' the being estranged from God, as don or dvon crookedness, turned from the Path, and rd evil-minded. Isajah speaks with burning words to the heart of Israel that has become corrupt. On the other hand, rectitude, straitforwardness, righteousness is zedek, zddkdh, Arabic : ,5^-0 sddik, righteous; ^o^o sddek, to believe, as is peculiarly manifest in the noble words and stirring tones of the Psalmist (xxxvi. 7): — Zidlcat'k'd kharre-eJ bx m *T\T\3 ftl{n? 'Thy righteousness is like the mountains of God!' nj?W toah impiety, defection from the Supreme, ( I/TIJMJI aberravit) is the passive side of JJ$B pesa from yti>S to break faith. It is not only the breach of faith between man and man — Treubruch, of which Schiller so forcefully speaks in his Burgscliaft that: \Der Freund dem Freunde gebrochen die Pflicht', as we read of Moab in its action toward the people of fsrael: Vajip'sa Moab bjisrdel: biXffig n«1fi JJtfEW 'And Moab acted faithlessly toward Israel'; but also the rebelling against God. What saith the prophet Micah? 'Hear, ye peoples, all of you; hearken, earth, and all that therein is: and let the Lord God be witness against you, the Lord from his holy temple. For, behold, the Lord cometh forth out of his place, and will come clown and tread upon the high places of the earth. And the moun- -*H 18 H$~ tains shall be molten under him, and the valleys shall be cleft, as wax before the fire, as waters that are poured down a steep place. For the faithlessness of Jacob is all this, and for the sins of the House of Israeli '' Bpesa Jaakob Itol sot! ubltattot' bet' Jisrdel. Again, in Isajah (xliv. 22): — Mdk'it'i Jcdab psaek'a v'Jcedndn h'attot'eJc'd. 'I have blotted out, as a thick cloud, thy breaches of faith, and, as a cloud, thy want of communion with me!' Opposed to this Breach of Faith is jyoX emet' stability ^ faith, truth, from |/)tt« to be firm, stable, which gives us also )OS truth, veracity. Arabic: c ^ r o-?. janthi right. ^-oT dmdn to believe. ^U->\ emdn faith. Thus, in the 37th Psalm Ave read (v. 3):— Btak baJhovdh vaaseh tob, skdn-erez ureh emundh. 'Trust in the Lord and do good: dwell in the land and feed on faithfulness!' Then we have sin in the form of 'taking pride in self- sufficiency', having no sense of dependence on a Higher Power, which is expressed by JJtth rem or njJtih ri§dh from J?EH. Of the man guilty of this sin the psalmist gives us a most vivid picture (x. 4): — {"pni&to-bs mib% y$ BhT-^a isk nite yah Rasa Jcgobah app bal-jidros en Elohhn kol-msimmot'div. 'The wicked, in the pride of his countenance, (saith): he will have no need. All .his thoughts are: There is no God!' On the other hand, the man who is conscious of his ■+* 19 H£- own weakness, who more than any other feels his need of God, is ^J> dm the poor; a truth which was afterwards to come in more simple and beautiful language and with a far deeper meaning from the lips of the Master himself: uaKdpioi oi TTTwxoi- on oueiepa ecrftv fj pacri\efa toO Oeou. The Psalms speak thus of the tint (cxl. 12): — d^k taster? \$ ]^ ni.T nb>v : p3 njn; Jddaati Jci-jaaseh Jahavali dm dm mispat ebjonim. 'I know that the Eternal will maintain the cause of the needy, the right of the poor!' A form of sin with which the Hebrews were not un- familiar is that of nb*ifc mirmdh fraud, deceit, from the root Jltt^ ar. ^^ to throw ; the idea being 'to throw off the track'. Perhaps the most notable instance of this is the deception practised upon his father by Jacob, whereby he obtained Esau's blessing. In Genesis xxvii. 35 we read: — Vajomer bd ak'ik'd bmirmdh vajika'k' birhat'efc'a. 'And he said: thy brother came with fraud and took away thy blessing'. Then we come to the sin of Omission, the leaving undone, expressed by D$K didm or n&^'N asmtih from /■Q^N dsam, which is sometimes described as culpa de- linquendo contracta. It survives in the Arabic li'\. We meet with it in the 69th Psalm (v. 5) and more particularly in the Proverbs, where we read: — EviVm jdllz dsam uben jsarim rdzon. 'Pools make a mockery of guilt, but among the upright there is goodwill'. Nor must we overlook an ethical contrast which occurs in that mine of moral antitheses — the Proverbs, namely, -& 20 h^ niDSnri t'alvpukot' 'perverseness' from }^jsn to overturn, and rPt^ri t'usijjdh 'uprightness', 'discretion', from ffl2fy ar. ^^Aj 'it was solid', to be real and substantial. Thus, in the 8th Chapter we read: — pflKiftf niDsnri w jn sjtji )i«ii n«3 jn n«':'^ njrp n«T Jira£' Jhovdh snot' Baa, gedh v'gdon v'derek rda fi-pi t'afvpuMt' sdnet'i. Li ezdh v't'usijjdh, Ant vindh, It gvurdh. 'The fear of the Eternal is to hate evil; pride, haughtiness and the evil way, and the mouth of perverseness have I hated. To me is counsel, is uprightness; I am Under- standing; to me is strength'. Lastly, in the Book of Job Ave meet with two ex- pressions in one verse which forcibly remind us of the Chinese |£ and the Egyptian IL^: I mean the 11th verse of the 11th chapter. Ki-hii jddaa mt'e sdv vajar dven via jifbondn. 'For He knoweth men of vanity: he seeth wickedness also, and shall He not consider?' Those words N1$ sdv and ])$ dven show us that the Semites, as Turanians and Hamites, were conscious that sin is rather a defect than an effect, for the root of the one is i"!K$ (ar. ^li") defectus realitatis, inane; whilst that of the other is ]W which is a polar root meaning both 'to be and not to be', its other form being ]V* or ]^. Perhaps the best rendering for both expressions is the word 'vanity', emptiness, as we have it in the 10th Psalm (v. 7): — || Aldh pihu male umirmot' vdt'oh' tah'at' I'sdno dmdl vddven || 'His mouth is full of cursing and deceit and fraud: under his tongue are mischief and vanity'. In Arabic there are two forms expressive of good and evil which deserve careful consideration, namely, jUi. and -SH 21 *sr- P>\. Both these words imply reflexion resulting in choice on the part of the subject; in the former case it is that of the right and the good, whilst in the latter there is tin- distinct recognition of sin. One of the finest Surats of the Kuran tells us how, in paradise, the faithful Moslem 'shall not hear any vain discourse nor any charge of sin, but only the salutation Peace! Peace!' || La jisamidwun p'ihd lagwan wa Id tat'iman; ilia kilun Salamun Salamun || (lvi. vv. 24. 25.) Again, in the Conclavia Medinensis (Surat xlix. 6; we <> meet with the expression ^Ja pdsikun, the man of ^ui gus 'deceit' and _^ mild' 'praise', the Sycophant, from the root p'ask 'to act dishonorably'. 'Even if a tale-bearer come unto you with a message, investigate it'. In gd-am p'asikum bi-naba'in p'a-tabajjanu! (0 qui crediderunt), si venerit ad vos (aliquis) Sycophanta cum nuntio, recte distinguite. On the other hand, the man of probity (gucacuo) and truth ( l 3^.) is ^.JLo sdlih. He it is who knows ^aJlsL. k'dlisat purity, and who is k >S^o muhassab sincere. In him we know the 'Traveller on the Path". Finally, in two very remarkable passages of the Kuran, in which the 'possessors of a religious book' (Ehl Kitab) are acknowledged as spiritual brethren, we have the clearest statement of the ethical contrast: — Surat ii. 61, @ C^f 5 ^. f* ^5 ~s* 22 *«~ /»■«« 'llad'ina dmanu va 'llad'ina hddii va 'nnasdrdh va ssdbaina man dmana Ullahi va Ijom il alrir va 'amila salihan, pa lahum agirohum inda rabbehim va Id gop'um 'alehim va Id hum jaksanun. 'Verily those who have believed (in the prophets) and those who have become Jews, and the Christians and the Sabeans, whosoever hath believed in God and the Last Day, and hath done that which is right, they shall have their reward with their Lord and no fear upon them, neither shall they grieve'. Marracci translates: Certe qui cre- diderunt, et qui Judaei sunt, et Christiani et Sabaitae; quisqnis (ex his) crediderit in Deum et diem novissinmm, et fecerit rectum; erit ipsis merces sua apud Dominion suum, neque timor (erit) super eos, neque ipsi contris- tabuntur. 11:0)3 C^\ J)^2 l ^i Jj^ ^ Surat xxix. 46. ©■ £>*,^~L~}. Opposed to these ideas of evil are the forms of good e*3 7 \vy.w c \Aj sptinag, w^ bddra, sjfa sila ami vmm prasasja. -$* 26 *3- The first is from the root {*£*> span, to increase, which is an expansion of the y>» su, Skt, g to bring forth, so that the order of ideas would seem to be: to produce, to further, to be good and useful, to be holy. In the Avesta the word jow^^a) spenta is always opposed to a>7/a> ayra; *j)jj/j\)f .Vv>J Ayro Mainjus the Bad Mind, the Devil, 7>j/ja)« .a)K>^>^a) Spenta Mainju the Good Mind, God. a>w^q)aj .aA<^ mat'ra spenta the sacred Word, Holy Writ. Spenta sacred, spanjag more sacred, spenista most holy. Thus, in the ninth book of the Jasna we read in praise of the genius of the sacred plant (73): — Haomo taek'id joi katajo Nasko-p'rasaogo aogenti spdnem mastimk'a ballsaiti. 'Haoma gives to those who as householders recite the Naskas, greatness, holiness and wisdom'. «3 is one of the most interesting of all ethical con- cepts. It comes from the root Wc3, which is an extension of the root wt to shine, to radiate, Scl. -">), giving us away>\ much, the crescive participle, and the superlative ?^sv)M3j^avjn mostly, in the best way. For us, however, its peculiar interest is the fact that, it has become in English a polar word, expressing both good and evil. Nay, this lias even come to pass in Hindustani, where skt. w^f 'good' has become ^5 jo badl 'evil', and in Persian jo bad wicked; ? li\ ^MU»;L jo most vicious of mankind. In the Dammapadam we find the contrast papo V 1/adro. Thus (w. 119, 120. Papavaggo navamo): — Papo pi passati ba'dram, Java papani na pak'k'ati, Jada k'a pak'k'ati papani, at c a papo papani passati. B c adro pi passati papain, Java b'adram na pak'k'ati, Jada k'a pak'k'ati b'adram, at c a b c adro b'adrani passati. ->>. 27 h$- Improbus bonum videt, quamdiu malefactum non matu- rescit; ubi vero maturescit malefactiun, turn mala videt. Probus malum videt, quamdiu bonum non maturescit ubi vero bonum maturescit, turn bona videt. Gothic: bjvt-s good, bj\tizj\ better, bj\tists best. Ags.: bee good, befcepa better, betjr best. Ohg.: baz good, beziro melior, bezisto optimus. Eng.: bad, malus, better melior, best optimus. Irish: badli-acb great, good; feodli-as better. In the Hitopadesa, for instance, we read (Mitr. 4): — i «3*t ^£ * lrorrftr i B'adram idam na pasjdmi. 'I do not see that this is good'. Dr. Buhler informs us that the ancient royal title Vadramulca 'of pleasing or gracious countenance' is found in the Western Ksatrapa Svami-Rudrasena, where it is applied to the three kings Rudraddman, Budrasimha and Rudrascna. It is the oldest document in which this rare word occurs, belonging to the end either of the first or of the second century A. D. Thus in Firdusi's Sahnamah we read: — 'Manifestum fiat illis arcanum meum; in omni bono et malo socii mei sunt'. The root-idea of srta is exactly that of x a P aKT] Wi f° r the root sjfa meaning amongst other things 'to make', 'to prepare' is an expansion of fsr to sharpen, 'to make an im- pression'. XapaKirip ev TUTroig TreTrXnKTai. (xapdaauj.) It may be rendered 'nature', 'habit', 'disposition', but always in a good sense. With the preposition^ we may translate it 'good-tempered'. In combination with d'arma it means 'versed in' or 'addicted to' Law or Eeligion. Thus in MahaJfdrata 79: — ^ 28 K- fg; tnrawsnWi *m en wfeyw err n cs n Kim pimard'armasilasja mama vd madvid'asja vd. 'Who, again, is so religiously-disposed as I, or can be compared to me?' vnm and Trere prasasja and prakrsta from the roots sj*T 'to praise' and «v 'to stand out' in the sense of un- conscious excellence are more particularly opposed to ^st. We now come to the important antithesis trru V otkj papa V pimja Vice and Virtue. These words play a leading part in the drama of the Aryan ethical con- sciousness, and are to be met with more especially in the celebrated Budd'ist work D'ammapadam. The root of the former is uncertain, but in all probability it is oFsf which has given us the Greek koik-oc;, KaKK-r), the Latin caco and the Lithuanian szik-u, the idea being that of 'dirt', 'filth'. That the labial and guttural tenues interchange is a funda- mental fact in Aryan phonetics. On the other hand, wm is from jAmr which is an expansion of j/^r 'to purify', a root underlying the Greek iroivii, d'-Troiva, and the Latin poe-na, pu-n-io, poe-nitet. Let us begin with the Upanisads. At the end of the Talavakara or Kena Upanisad we read : — ■ ufrTfrT'SsfrT II ^J I" Jo vd Mam evam veda apaliatja pdpmdnam anante svarge lokegjeje pratitistati, praiitistati. 'He who knows what has been set forth above, being delivered from his sins, obtains an everlasting joy in the heavenly mansions!' In the B'agavad-Gita the word pimja is used of Krsna, who says : 'I am the pure odor in the earth and the splendor in the flame' (xii. 9): — troztf jto: qf^o!JT g Hdvw 'for fcmTcw 1 Punjo gand'ah prtHvjdm k'a tegask'a 'smi vib'dvasdu. ~* 29 H$- Of the true B'iksu we read in the D'ammapadam that, it is not 'he who begs' but the religious man who, 'above and away from the ijood and the had, lives considerately in the world'. || Jo d c a punhah Jc'a pdpan Jc'a bahetvd brahmak 'arijavd SamJc'aja lake Jc'arati, sa ve B'ikk'u ti vuJc'k'ati. || D c mm. 19. eclxvii. Qui hie, bono maloque alienato, religiosus considerate in mundo vivit, is profecto bHJck'us appellatur. Again : 17. Id'a tappati, pek'k'a tappati papakari, ub'ajatt'a tappati; 'Papain me katan' ti tappati, b c ijjo tappati duggatim gato. 18. Id c a nandati, pek'k'a nandati katapunno, ub c ajatt e a nandati; 'puiinam me katan' ti nandat i : b'ijjo nandati suggatim gato. In hoc aevo cruciatur, niorte obita cruciatur malum patrans, utrobique cruciatur; "malum a me peractum", ita (cogitans) cruciatur, magis cruciatur tartarum ingressus. In hoc aevo gaudet, morte obita gaudet qui bonum per- fecit, utrobique gaudet; "bonum a me peractum 7 ', ita (cogitans) gaudet, magis gaudet coelum ingressus. Gogerly translates: 'The sinner suffers in this world, and he will suffer in the next world. In both worlds he suffers; he suffers, knoAving — sin has been committed by me; and dreadfully will he suffer in the regions of torment'. 'The virtuous man is happy in tins world, and he will be happy in the next world. In both worlds he is happy; he is happy, knowing — I have acted virtuously, and greatly will he rejoice in heaven'. A painfully prolific root in Sanskrit is 3n -to corrupt, vitiate', which gives us 3?s vice, blemish, sin; ^ixrafrT du c sprakrti 'of an evil disposition'; sissFrT and 2^?r duskrta and durvrtta wicked, criminal. -& 30 *$- iifirsH ^ tout: si *n^ alim^ srcftw i Pandite k'a gunah sarve murk'e dosdsk'a kevalam \ Tasmdnmurk'asahasresu prdgna ekb visisjate \\ 'And in a learned man are all excellent qualities; but in a blockhead faults (or blemishes) only. Hence, amongst thousands of fools, one wise man is distinguished'. In the Avesta, too, we find the expression dusvarsta x»tow\\j^<*»<} used in the sense of 'wrong-doing', 'sin'. Thus the Haoma worshipper says (Jasna x. 48): — Hvarstahe ahmi dusvarstahe noid ahmi. 'I am of those who do right, and do not belong to those who do wrong'. As a prefix dus is opposed to su (Sd.: dus V hit) and appears in Persian as dus, Gr.: 6uo"-, Gothic: tus-, Old High German: zur- and Modern High German: zer-, Skt. Dur-manas = Sd.: dus-manag = Gk.: bu<;-uevi'i ^\ Jih larkd us se atik'a liai 'this boy is better than that'. U^l ^ ^ 3 ^ ^^> Sab larlcon se aUM 'best of all the boys'. ^ 32 r<- Tlie concepts Being and Not-Being, Right and Wrong have long been familiar to the Hindus. There are several very remarkable passages in the Rgveda and in the Upanisads in which these words occur. Thus we read (Rgv. x. 5, 7.):- 3^TCI I 51^ | ^jf^H: I SVJW II Asat Ua sat lia parame vi-oman daksasja garvman, Adiieh upa-st'd. 'Not Being and Being, Right and Wrong are in the highest heaven, in the birthplace of force, in the lap of the Infinite!' 33RT gn to ^HrTt SfT mzUUrt II Rv. x. 72. 3. Devanam juge prat'ame asatali sat agtljata. 'In the first age of the gods Being (Right) was born from Not-Being (Wrong)'. But the most celebrated passage occurs in the Creation- Hymn ascribed to Pragapati Paraniest'in (Rv. 10. 129): — 57 ^WrJ ^TTSftrT ^t cffjf *T?T ^TFtrT HSfT^ II Na asat asit no iti sat dsit tadariim. 'When Time was born, was neither Is nor Is-Not, Right nor Wrong!' In the sixth prapat'aka of the Kandogja Upanisad we find Uddalaka discoursing to his son Svetaketu about the origin of Sat and Asat: — Sat eva idam ogre asit, ekam eva advitijam. 'In the beginning there was that only which Is (Right): one «»nly, without a second'. The father continues: 'Others say, in the beginning there was that only which is not (wrong) : one only, without a second, and from that which is not, that which is was •^ 33 h$- born. But how could it be thus, my dear? How could that which is, be born of that which is not? No, my dear, only that which is, was in the beginning: one only, without a second'. Like the Egyptians and Chinese the Aryans are fully conscious of the crookedness of Evil ; that sin is a deviation from the straight and narrow path. Hence the contrast K^ Rgu straight, upright; ^few vrgina crookedness, sin. E. g. in Egveda 4, 1, 17 we read how Surja, the undying, looks down upon the right and the wrong (straight and crooked) amongst mortals. vn srch 3£h: ■Rt'ssh sjjwtr ^t pfhi qfiHT ^f tro^r n A surjah brhatalt tisfat agrdn rgu martesu vrgina lia pasjan. These words and ideas are specially interesting and important because they are radically and conceptually connected with our own words right and ivrong. In order to fully gauge the concepts we shall do well to take note of the cognate words. YARG. yRAG. to attain. Ski: ^m ^Tftr arg-a-mi I acquire; ^B5W j'gus right, straight, upright; *ifefe rdgis row, line; 3?53W Rg-ra-s Leader. Sd.: >C£?£ eresu straight, right, upright. As subst. 'finger.' Gk.: 6peY-w> opex-vu-ui I reach, stretch; oprf-vd-o-uai I stretch myself, attain; opey-ua, 6pe£i-c; a stretch; opyuid a clasp, a grasp. Lai: reg-o, e-rig-o, por-rig-o, rogu-s, rec-tu-s, rex. Goth.: nj\K.c,j\u rak-jan to stretch, reach; j<.j\ihTS raih-t-s straight, right. Ags.: paecan to reach; pint right. Dan.: Ret law. Ger.: Reichen 'to reach'; Recht 'right'; rich-t-ig 'correct'; Ge-richt 'judgment'; Rich-t-er 'judge'. Eng.: Reach; rack; right; right-eousness. yVARG- to turn away. Skt: stst q^few vr-n-a-g-mi I keep off, exclude; ci^ra vraga-s cowpen; ^sr vrg-ana crookedness, sin; qf^HH vrg-ina-s evil. Gk.: /epT" eipY-vu-ut, ei'pY-uu I shut in, detain; eipY-|u6-c; imprisonment; eipK-n'i prison; AuKOopYO-^. hat.: urg- urg-e-o (= varg-jd-mi); ex-urg-e-o. Goth.: yjuK- yjUK-j\u to follow up, persecute; yjtj\Kj\ vrak-a persecution; yj^nrrQ vrung-o trap, crook- edness, transgression, Ags.: ppac ppacan ivrac-an, ppap.cca ivraec-c-a. Eccls.: HDJblfl^,' (UJbfh^h^ vrag-n inimicus. Litlt.: Kepar Itepraio vers-ju I urge, bind. Eng.: wrek* wreck; wrong. Norsk.: vrag* 'vrang wrong'; en vrang Strompe a stocking turned inside out. Shakespere in his King Henry VI makes Talbot exclaim: — 'And here will Talbot mount, or make his grave. Now Salisbmw! for thee, and for the right Of English Henry, shall this night appear How much in duty I am bound to both'. In Julius Caesar (Act III, Sc. I) the great Roman says to Cimber: — 'Know, Caesar doth not wrong, nor without cause "Will he be satisfied'. -$H 35 H§~ An allied concept is that of ^m rta the right, the orderly, the true; from ]/=r r to go, to strive, to fix. Thus we read (Egv. x, 133, 6):— Btasja nah pat'a naja ati visvdni duh-itd. 'Lead us (0 Indra) on the right path over all evils'. Varuna, Mitra and Arjaman are described as rtasprsah upholding the Right, and the gods generally are said to delight in Eta and to hate Anrta (Egv. v. 67. 4; vi. 52. 10; vii. G6. 13):— Te hi satjdh rtasprsah rta-vdnali gane-gane. Visve devdh Bta-vixtah Etu-dih havana-srutah gusamtdm jugjam pajah tRtTJ^TT: WWancTT: tRtW^: ^trt: ^rrjfgn: I Rta-vdnah Bta-gdtdh Bta-vnVah gordsah Anrta-dvisah. In Vasisf/a's hymn to Varuna anrta is used in the sense of 'all evil'. saw: ^r ^h ^sjhsu HJifcn u t n Svapnalj liana it Anrtasja pra-jotd. 'Even sleep does not remove all evil'. vii. 86. 6. Herr Geldner translates: 'Sogar der Traum verschliesst sich nicht dem Unrecht'. In the Avesta we find ■*>££*>, which is the old Bactrian form of tRH, used in the sense of Cosmic Order, of koo"|uo<; as opposed to x<* 0, » 5 /-wmaj^a) 'belonging to the holy, well- ordered Creation' = tR?i^r. ^ 36 <^ Of the most powerful Drug whom Agra-Mainjus is said to have created we read that, she destroyed the Right, the harmony of the world: — .JAU"0\e£A^ .^OG.K>A>S>0 .f^ K3 JAW WW A) .^jM3 .J^JAJ .*W»JJ/JA)« .V-** .-. .fU/A)6\>0A*K> .ex>A>££A* Jaw akaogastemam Drugim fraUa Kerentad Agro Mainjus aoi jam astvaithn gaet'am mahrMi asaM gaet'anam. 'Whom Agra Mainjus had created as, in the bodied world, the most powerful Drug, for the destruction of Righteousness in the world; i. e. to stamp out the divine World-Order'. Jasna ix, 27. And here we are reminded that the Drug of the Avesta is but the personification of a common Aryan con- cept of sin. The ancient Rsi Vasista in his prayer to Varuna exclaims: — ^ra spvnfa ftraT 33T t: ^cr m era ^ur rigfw: i Ava drugd'ani pitrjd srga nah ava jd vajaiii tiakrma tanutfih. Rg v - vii > 86 > 5 - 'Forgive the sins of our fathers and what we have done with (our own) bodies!' The evolution of this thought of evil seems to be a) to hurt (3) to be at enmity y) to cheat. yDRUG. SM.: 31 druh to be harmful; ^i\j drug d' a offence, sin. Sd.: ^f)3 drug to cheat, deceive; name of a class of female demons. xyAjy-w^A} drugim-vana slaying the Drugas. Pers,: ^> durug evil. ->• 37 f«~ 0%.: tfntgr- triug-an to deceive; trug-u-mes we cheated. On.: draugr ghost. Mhg.: triig-en to cheat; Tnt// deception. PPeZs^. 1 drw^ offence. Irish: droch evil. In the oldest of the Gat' as, that known as Ahuna- vaiti, we read how, at the beginning of the world, there existed the heavenly twins, the Good and the Bad in thought, in word and deed; how, when man appeared upon the scene, some chose the former, others the latter, ranging themselves respectively on the side of Ahura Masda and Agra-Mainjus. And there is an interesting passage in tins Gat'a in which the crooked and deceitful Drugas are said to be given over into the hands of Asa, the upright, the pure. ,«,U .^JtoJAJfAJO .AU/jOAJQ .f^^OX^A) .AXVjAiyMJ .AMy^AJ \ \ \ I .JAVJ££AJ .Jv>JjM> .AVJ^tOA) ,JW)MD.V»M3 .^)JJNJ,H).U .wSJOJAU^ ))J^»y Adject jadd aesdm haend gamaiti a&nagam ad Masda taeibjo Ksatrem Vohu Managa voividaite aeibjo sasti Ahura joi Asdi Kaden sastajo Drugem. Jasna xxx. 8. 'When punishment overtakes those doers of evil, then, o Masda Ahura, the Kingdom will come, through Vohu Mano and the Doctrine, to those who decide for thee and who deliver the Drugas into Asa's hands'. But the Avestic ethical contrast kcht' e£oxnv is )cx>^A>y V •^j-u Vaga-Aka, The noble and the Base. We have here a conception of Good and Evil thoroughly Aryan though worked out only by the Parsis. Nowhere in the Veda do we find such a development of etc? and mzn. ~3* 38 HCr- yVAS to (hvell, abide. VAK to ivrithe. Sid.; era to dwell; era vasu ^ra? tortuose ire: riches; cTr^cr vds-tu ^ ak-a sin, affliction, house ; cTr^HoEW va- stavja-s oiKeioc;. Sd.: eo^v)(p to abide; Je^-wy a^aj aka base, bad. vagu beautiful, good, noble; m/m^m^ va- gana goodness, ex- cellence. Fa/mZra. Py.: e*u> veh good. Pers.: <*o &a7i good. d\ ah evil. (rfr.; /'ag. d'er-ru (for /dcrru) City; dcrreio-g civic; dcrro-g citizen. Goth.: yisj\ii vis-an to be (vas, vesum, visans); ga-visan to abide; vists essence, nature; vis stillness. Goth 'ist unsis her visan 'it is good for us to be here.' Ays.: peran ives-an to be. Id.: vcv*. Mhg.: Wesen, war. Eng.: Was. Sid.: vasu, vasjas, vasista — Sd.: vagu, vagag, vahista. As an ethical expression vagu is most commonly used in connexion with the two Ames a spentas— Asa the most noble and Mano the good, ..uwmjjcxx^ .m^m Asa vahista, .ua$A}/A>5 :>eov\j(p Yoliu Manag. Opposed to the latter is \>j\^ .^aj Ahem Mano Bad Mind, the arch-demon; \]\M .f£io*sjfM AlUstem Mano the Worst Mind, Agra Mainjus himself. -5* 39 h$- The radical antithesis is thus conceived as Rest V Motion. Goodness is that which abides, Evil is full of a tortuous, snake-like activity. We may take a strophe from the 30th Ha of the Jasna, which forms part of the Gat'a Ahunavaiti, as the best textual illustration : — .^co .J^yx»6«iJAJJJ^M3 .Auyjeoxy^y .AO^Jeo.vy^v)? .??wau)Aojx> Ad ta Mainju paouruje jet jemd kafnd asrvdtem ma- nahiM vaUahilhl sljaotanoi lit vahjo aJcemliti ajaosUd huddogo eres visjdtd noid diisdaogd. ; These two heavenly beings, the twins, were the first to be heard, namely, the Noble and the Base in thought, word and work. Of these rightly chose the wise, not so the unwise!' 'Violation of the categorical imperative' is perhaps the truest rendering of the Sanskrit fim himsd from the root fitH hints, primarily to kill, injure; then to violate, offend. It is action contrary to \m, whereby the moral sense is injured. On the other hand, sjrfwr ahimsd is the perfection of yjr. As with the metaphysical antithesis between Brah- man and Samsdra, between phaenomena and the Thing- in-itself, so here in immediate connexion we have the ethical contrast between denial and affirmation. *srfta iron irtffm rarf^T n*jr ^3^ n 'Harmlessness or the-denial-of-the-Will-to-life is the highest Duty, the most excellent way, the supreme Joy, the noblest thought!' Or as we have it in the beautiful language of the B'agavad-Grita : — ~3* 40 H$- f flT^fTjTRTrETR rlrtf *nfrT HH nfrT II V; || In all things dwells the Lord supreme, Undying, when they cease to be. "Whoso can look beyond the dream And know Him — he indeed can see: — The Self within he cannot wrong, But treads , the Path serene and strong! A characteristic thought of good and evil is that of the gay and the grave, the bright and the blurred. In the well-known Indian maxim: ^jtcTsw sg wfajoS 3^t Wt swremir 'The fruit of every action good or bad is of necessity to be eaten'; we have the compound sub' as ul>' a from yhiU to shine, be gay, and a privative. In sjrfoaw, from ykram to step, and ati beyond, we have the familiar view expressed in Trapd{3ao"is and trans- gressio, more particularly as the overstepping or going beyond a law. 'Peccare', says Cicero 'est tanquam tran- silire lineas', but for the full significance of the conception we must listen to St. Paul: — cv O» 43 «. But by far the most significant view of sin to be found in the New Testament is that expressed in the word djuaptia, namely, the missing of a mark, the failing to attain the true scope and goal of our lives. It is the word of the master and of his beloved disciple. Tic; eH tiuduv e\eYX ei M^ rcepi duapTiccc;; That is to say: 'Who can show that I have failed of the Divine, that I have missed the true Mark?' Ei t& epYOC ur) eiroincra ev aiiToTc;, a oubeic; d'Moc; erroir)0"ev, duap-riav ouk ei'xocrav The Jews did wrong (fiNttn, duapTia) because they failed to see in Christ the Revelation of the Father, the nVp and the Aoyoc; of God. And we too sin when we are content with anything less than the secret of Jesus! Righteousness, on the other hand, is expressed by oatoTriS, biKaioauvr), dYiOTnc; and dyveta. ociotng corresponds to the Latin sanctitas: it is the divine constitution of the Koffuoq, the everlasting ordinance of right. In classical Greek it is generally applied to piety toward the gods and dutifulness to parents; in the Septuagint ociog is used as the rendering of Tpn the man who loves God; the saint. Plato says: Kai uriv irepi touc; dvGpdmouc; t& ttpogYikovtoc rrpdrrwv, bixai 5 dv Trpdrroi, rcepi be 0eoOc; ocria (Gorg. 507b). Here ocrtog is the pious man, bixaioc; is he who is faithful in his obligations to his fel- lowmen. But in another dialogue Plato regards oikcuoouvji or to biKOiiov as the sum total of all virtue: toOto ioIvujv euorfe boxei, uj XwKpaTec;, to uepoc; tou btKaiou eivai eucrepec; Te Kai offiov, to irepi ty\v tuuv 6e0uv Oepaireiav to be rrepi Tiqv tujv dvGpOurruiv to Xoirrov eivai tou biKaiou uepoc; (Euthyphro 12 e). According to its etymology biKr\, biKaiocruvn is that which can be pointed at, so, firstly, established practice, consolidated custom, law. -$h 44 h$- YDIK to point out. Sid.:. ]/fe*r fk^rrfW dis-ti-mi I show, direct; f^rr di- rection. Ok. : j/biK' 6eiK-vu-|ui I point, show; beTHi-c; notice; 6eiT|ua something shown; biK-n Right; biK-aioc;, oiK-aioauvr). hat.: "(/"die. dico; causi-dic-u-s ; in-dico ; judex, dicis causa. Goth.: ytih. teih-an, taih, taihum, taihans; to show, an- nounce. Oer.: l^zig. zeig-e I point. ctYioiric; and &Yveia are both from the root dy meaning primarily to set apart, worship. VJAO. Skt.: V^rer wrfw jag-d-mi I sacrifice, worship; urn** jag-am sacrifice; tj&m jagjas = crpoq adorable. Ok. : yaf d£-o-|uat I stand in awe of; orf-io-q holy; &Y-vo-c; pure; dYi£w I consecrate; orf-og sacrifice. Sd.: Y^f»a to sacrifice, praise; ajwaj^mj jas-ata ador- able. AiKatocuvri y«P Qeou ev aiiTiy dTTOKaXuTTTeiai ck Tricrreuuc; eiq tticttiv, KaGuuc; YeYPCTTTar 6 be biKaio? 47 «- Scl.: w.Ua) pas to bind. Ok.: TT(rr uriY-vu-ui (e-ndY-nv) I make fast, confirm; nf\f-ixa. pedestal; TrriY-6? fast, strong; iraY-o^, TtctY-vri rime, frost; irdtY-n trap; ■naaa-aXoq = rraK-ja-Xo? plug. Lett: pac-i-sc-or; pax; pac-i-o; pa-lus; pang-o; pec-c-are; pec-c-atu-m; pig-nus; pec-u. Goth.: fah-an to catch; fulla-fah-jan kavov iroieiv; fagr-s eu0€Toq; faih-u property. Olig.: fuog-a, gafuogi aptus; gafag-jan to satisfy; fall de- partment; fih-u cattle. Mhg.: fang-en; Fach; flig-en; Fug-e; fiig-lich; Vieh. OPr.: pek-u cattle, property. Boh.: pas girdle; pas-mo thread, yarn. Eng: fing-er. The order of conceptual evolution seems to be: to bind fast, to catch, to freeze. From the Rgveda itself we know that both sin and punishment are spoken of as fetters or cords. Thus we read: — '0 Soma, Rudra, all the medicines that ye have, put into our bodies. Whatever guilt cleaves to us which we have brought upon ourselves, take away, and set us free! Ye bearers of the pointed spear and sharp lance, O Soma- Rudra, show gracious favor; deliver us from the fetters (pasad) ofVaruna and take us into thy friendly protection!' Rgv. 6. 74. This thought of sin is thus thoroughly Aryan, and is present not only to the linguistic consciousness of the Romance nations, but has been handed on to the Welsh as pechocl. Latin : peccatum. Welsh: pechod. French : peche. -^ 48 (<- Spanish: pecco, peccado. Portuguese : peca. Italian : pecca. Provengal: peca. Perhaps the most difficult to determine is the word sin itself. Already we have seen how often evil has been conceived as Not-Being, but here it seems at first sight as though sin had been conceived as Being, if we are right in deriving it from ]/"as, which has given us the Gothic sun-ja truth, being. The real difficulty is the vowel in Latin, where, instead of son-s we should have expected sen-s (pre-sen-s, ab-sen-s). Ags. : seon-an to bring a sacrifice, purify; syn sin. To gebetenne ealle mine sinna To atone for all my sins. L. Can. Edg. Conf. 9. ■ ON: son piaculum, expiation; synd quod expiandum est; synia negare. Danish } Swedish > synd sin Icelandic] Gothic: sann expiation. Dutch: zonde sin. Mhg.: Sunde sin; siihn-en to expiate. Irish: sain to change. Galic: sain-e discord. Norse: onde evil. Latin: son-s guilt; in-son-s guiltless. If this is a case of polarity we might well be tempted to compare: — Gk. : cdo-c;, ooo-q, crwo-g, cfuj<; whole; ctuj-ko-c; powerful; craouu, o~uj-£-uu I heal, save; o~w-xr|p saviour; d-o~w-TO-<; unsaved. ~$h 49 *5~ Lat. : sa-nu-s whole. Ohg.: ga-sunt well. Ags.: sund healthy, Eng. : sound. Now it is quite possible that all these words come from Yas, not so much, however, in its secondary sense of Being as rather in its primary meaning of Breathing (ski: as-u-s breath of life; as mouth; lat. os). YAS to breathe. Skt.: \f<%w srfer as-mi am; ^jrfer is; ira sat being, good; ^ftrf*? sv-as-ti-s well-being; & su = eu well; imm asu-ra-s living; ^m^s as-u-s breath of life. Gh. : ]/"ec- ei-|ui = ecrui; 3. S. eo-ii; eu-ec-Tuu well- being; eo"-0-\6-q excellent; e-u-g good. Sd.: Jf«uOAj ah-mi am; jkmoai as'-ti is. Lith.: es-nii am; es-ti is; es-a-ba essence; es-ni-s sub- stantial. Eccls.: jes-mi am; jes-ti is. Lat.: (e) s-u-m am; es-t is. Osc. : es-uf estate. Goth.: i-m am; is-t is; suni-s true; sun-ja truth. Eng.: a-m, is. On.: sann-r true. The order of conceptual evolution seems to be: a) breath P) life y) being 0) reality e) truth I) goodness. If the word sin really comes from this root there can, I think, be little doubt that it is the primary sense of 'breathing', 'mouth', for 'out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh'. ~&i 50 •<- It is, however, possible that 'sin' and its cognates come directly from oiv-oc; a mischief, a plague; criv-o-uat I plunder, spoil; aiv-ins ravenous. There remain a few ethical concepts, mostly savage, the etymology of which I am unable to give: — Kafir: enkohlakalu evil. sono trespass. Sidu : ekwon evil. sono trespass. Sesuto : Bari : ben melatu toronjak narok evil. trespass. sin. evils. Temne : trabeitra tralas sin. evil. OUi : akaw bone sin. evil. Kamilroi : kagil bad. Musuk: dur bad. muru good. pidem good. Macqaarie : jarakai evil. Kamir: gig bad. jirijifi sacred. bin debitum. Odul : omok good. kas good. Kiiktien : nimelkin good. Aleutic ; igamanak good. Encounter Bay : brup naiikur bad. good. Adelaide : muijo good. West- Australian i: gul gwab bad. good. Ostjak: bogat ] right (= Vagavat, from Kottish : pagai J /1/ag?) Kippewe : nesu good. -*4 51 *§- Basque : gaitzetic evil ; barkha trespass, Udic: sel good p'is bad Jurak: SctlltL .. waewo » Tas: naga „ nohfa » Kot: taxse „ bila JJ Russian : xopomo „ V xy.no » Kroatian : dobro „ V kudo ?? Polish: dobrze „ V zle )? Bohemian: dobre „ V zle » Ski: har-ja YOAB to shine. ,-mi. Ok.: Xaip-w, xap-i-q, X«P-Mcc- Lat. : gra-tu-s, gra-t-ia; Herentatis (Osk. Venus). Got: gair-r l-s, gair-uni. Lit: gor-u -ti, gor; Eccls.: zel-e-ti. Buss.: kor-c YD A. to divide. Ok.: bdtTT-T -in, oeiiT-vo-v, ba\\)- i\ri-q. Lat. : dap-s ; dap-inare. Ags.: tib-er ; ON.: taf- ■n. Buss, ,; dob-ro Happy indeed is the Tibetan view of Virtue as 'that which is to be rejoiced at' ^H*^' dge-ba, from ^1$'^* dga-ba to rejoice. On the other hand, sin is conceived as a Scorpion ^pTj'^T sdig-pa. Sdig-pa-rnams bjds-pa iroXXct viuapTr|KUjq. Dgasdug-drag-san good and bad; las dge-ba, mi-dge-ba good and bad actions. Lastly, we have the American Indian Mikmak forms: — jti^lilc twdktmn evil. -T food. Here we have most likely an onomatopoetikon — twist twist, moral crookedness! ~3h 52 hs~ CHAPTER IV. THE CONCEPT OF LOVE. Having applied the search-light of language to the grave issues of Right and Wrong, Good and Evil, Sanctity and Sin, turn we now to the beautiful thought of Love. Treating the words of each language separately we shall obtain a picture of the individual nation's thought. A com- parison of the pictures so won will bring out national characteristics ancf reveal the nature of that holy state which has been truly described as the greatest thing in the world. Hebrew shall represent the early Semites, Sanskrit and Persian the Arjas, Greek and Latin cultured European antiquity, Gothic the Teutonic world, and Russian the aspirations and inspirations of the Slavs 1 . I. SEMITIC. The cultured European of to-day may perhaps find it . hard to realise a naive antiquity, a sceptical present can only with difficulty enter into the emotional life of a devout past, to which the Supernatural was a reality more vital than anything physical. To the Jew of the ancient East Love was not what it is to the Gentile of the modern West. The different kinds of love which are possible between members of the human race the Hebrew dis- tinguished as concrete and abstract, as active and inactive. Whilst the former was analysed according to the mood i In his Linguistic essays my friend Dr. Abel has on this subject an excellent chapter, to which as regards the Hebrew conception I am much indebted. ~jh 53 k~ and motives from which it springs, the latter was con- sidered to be the same in all cases. So long as love was denoted as mere feeling, one word seemed to him enough for all the various relations between man and man in which it can manifest itself. But where the benevolent purposes which accompany love and the delightful results were em- phasized, he became conscious of the manifold gradations of the feeling in strength and motive and felt the need of several words, the synonymity of which was quite peculiar to him. If, on the one hand, this view represents the simple relations of early times in which less was thought of the good intention than of the good deed, yet, on the other, we must remember that the latter springs from love, nay, that it is indeed love itself. Hence the application of the concept in all its various Hebrew colors to Jahveh himself and the tracing of all earthly love to its divine Source. YAHAB- to breathe quickly, to love. Hebr.: 2nK he loved; 2nK loving, a friend, lover; T^2T\^ love. delight. Sam.: !"DN amavit. Ar.: JUa concitatus est, anhelavit; i_^r»»\ amiable, most lovely; L&.1 friends; i >UsJ favorites; ^J^l >Z*a~ Amor patriae. 'For God so loved the -world.' .bo.\i»\~ /ftt^ >a^l fJNSjj, JLi-aoi The history of this Hebrew word forms, as Prof. Abel truly says, a sacred chapter in the history of humanity. Like drcarm,, its equivalent among the Greeks, Ahav is love as pure feeling, embracing not only the love between man and woman but also between parents and children, relations -* 54 *e~ and friends, in fact, all men generally. Metaphorically also love to things, inclination to certain actions, when its idea dwindles to liking. It expresses an inner attachment without the cause becoming apparent, and has a tendency, this point being left undecided, to let one think rather of the impulse of a warm heart than of a weighed and settled esteem. Between man and woman it is both passion and conjugal affection. As passion Ahav is capable of the highest poetic elaboration, as in the Song of Solomon, where it is the 'banner held over the beloved' and where all nature is invoked to adequately express its sweetness. From the earliest times, too, it has represented that devotion which gladly serves the beloved object and finds nothing too hard, no trouble too great for a purpose so dear. We are told, for instance, that Jacob served seven years for Rachel, and that they seemed to him but a few days for the Ahav he had to her. D^irw d^s pyjja =prn n^tf jnttf ^rna n|?jr nixn nn« inarms Nay, it even denotes that glowing passion which is found only in that ideal sphere where love is lord of all. 'If a man would give all the substance of his house for Love, it would utterly be contemned.' Taken broadly it embraces not only the pitiful tender- ness of God toward man and man's devotion to God, but also a world-wide charity. bkffi. ^2 _ n« ni.T nan«3 'As God loved the children of Israel.' sfttop-^ia* sj$pjj-^33i inaHaa yrfox nirr n« ronsi 'And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, with all thy soul and with all thy strength.' 'Love covers all sins.' -£~ 55 H$~ At different periods of Semitic history these three views of Ahav have underlain Jewish thought, nor do they shut out the idea of Jahveh as an avenging Judge. It is just because God loves, that He punishes or purifies His people. And if the Highest can forgive and even love the man who has sinned against Him, it behoves all men to pardon and esteem one another. Hence 3HK represents the bond of universal brotherhood. Thus we read in Leviticus as a commandment of the Eternal: 'Thou shalt not avenge nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people, but thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself: I am the Lord.' nirp ^« spqi ^jjnb nnnw s\®y_ ^F n § "fefl"*fr| Qfefl"^ From the conception of charity as applying to the various members of the Semitic family Ahav rises to the thought of all mankind. dijv tas^p nbty nn^ nj?i vb\ d^d «^;« t ? "i$5 aniarn nlaan a^r's i|!i"n« annrjKi inj?i?Pl anb ^ nj ?!? ^ n! ^l n 29V*l .ayrca n$- arpvr 'For the Lord your God, he is God of gods and Lord of lords, the great God, the mighty, and the terrible, who regardeth not persons nor taketh reward. He doth execute the judgment of the fatherless and widow, and loveth the stranger in giving him food and raiment. Love ye therefore the stranger: for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt.' Passing on to the thought of active love we find in 1DH a noble combination of love and "grace. It is a grace arising from goodwill, a disposition which gladly does good because it looks upon the active love, which underlies bene- fience, as the beautiful prerogative of the Mighty One. Thus Isaiah says (liv, 10): — rnni tftanfc ^n.Ko ^prn n^Bian rnynam wfao; annn s ? :ni.T "spinn ias won *6 ^i 1 ?^ it i t v n r i r" t t ■ i 'For the mountains may depart, and the hills may be removed; but my kindness (Kesed) shall not depart from thee, neither shall the covenant of my peace be removed, saith He that hath mercy (Raltam) on thee, the Eternal.' The fundamental meaning of the root (ytiasad) seems to be painful emotion. Hebr.: IDn Ar.: JLixa- Syr.: lfm>- And this is perhaps why it primarily expresses a vouchsafing or condescending grace, pity. 'But the Lord was with Joseph and shewed kindness unto him.' But it is not solely love of superiors for inferiors; not infrequently the idea of condescension steps into the back- ground and we find liesed expressing brotherly love and even conjugal affection. 'And David said: I will shew kindness unto Kanun the son of NaMas, as his father shewed kindness unto me.' 'Yea, I will betroth thee unto me in righteousness, in judgment, in loving-kindness and in mercies.' In Genesis xxi, 23 we find it used as love of one's country, patriotism; and in Nehemiah xiii, 14 as piety or love of God. From the friendly grace of Kesed we pass to the loving pity, the mercy of Raliam. ^) nm 'to be soft, tender.' To the Psalmist Kesed is more than mere grace. Raliam more than sympathy. Thus ciii, 8: — -$h 57 h§- "inn-rii d^bk tjn« jut pjinn Dirn 'The Lord is merciful and gracious, slow to anger and plenteous in loving kindness.' In Drn we have an exquisite tenderness, that delicate solicitude which not only an earthly father feels for his children but which the All-Father entertains for those who fear Him. vKT," t ?y. nirr Drn. d^s-'tj; a« nnns Nay, it expresses that annihilation or abandonment of self in God which was the burden of Israel's sweetest songs: — Whilst £esed is kindliness manifested toward rich and poor, whole and sick, happy and miserable, without distinction, rakani represents pity for the poor, compassion with the needy and the suffering. And it is the same in Arabic where <*JJ\ is described as ^Ua.J1 arrakman the Compassionate, f^-j^ arrakim the Merciful. 'May he have mercy and pardon and the blessing of God!' A modification of Kesed is Ken or Kanan, the primary meaning of which seems to be 'to utter a gurgling sound,' 'to groan.' pn, ]n, ££. In the Old Testament it is often used in the sense of that kindly feeling which a master has for his pupil, a senior for a junior, and which a son may warmly entertain for his father. "Where Ave should say: 'if it please you,' the Hebrew used to say: 'if I have found ken in thine eyes.' Thus Jacob at the end of his days says to his son Joseph: 'If I have found ]H in thine eyes, put thy hand under my thigh, and shew me IDH and faithfulness!' And indeed, where the relations between man and his Maker are close, ■^ 58 •«- the same feeling is expressed. In Exodus xxxiii, 17, Ave read : — 'The Lord spake unto Moses: what thou hast said, I will do. For thou hast found grace (Hen) in mine eyes, and I know thee by name!' But perhaps its best and most sacred meaning is 'a father's love for his little ones.' (Job xix, 17.) \»pn ^b warn ^nutx) rnt Tin 'My breath is strange to my wife, and my cherishing to the children of my body.' By far the most interesting feature of the Hebrew question is the bright and beautiful expansion of the Jewish SHK into the Christian dYotTrn, the full meaning of which is given us by St. Paul in the 13th Chapter of his first Letter to the Corinthians, and by St. John in his epistles. II. ARYAN. Of early Aryan ideas of the supreme emotion perhaps the most striking characteristic is spontaneity. The most general thought is that of the heart bending toward the world at large, a kindly, genial benevolence. This, at all events, seems to be the fundamental meaning of znm, though in later literature it came to be specialised as the Indian Cupid. YKAM to bend, Skt: aFFTT eRmF Mimas love, affirmation of the will to Life. ^iTnT kaiita lover; dh\T*ri Minti beauty; sftttjt Mum id freely. Kamopahatakittamga ainore affliction animum et corpus habens. Irish: caemh love, desire; caomhach friend; caomhaim I save, protect. Roumanian: chamor love. Latin: ca-rus (= canwrus) dear; cd-ri-tas love. ■** 59 h$- Ancl this concept, as the affirmation of the will to Life, is found in one of the most interesting of the Kg-veda mantras, which long ago excited the enthusiasm of Prof. Max Miiller in his History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. The Sukta, which is known as the Creation-Hymn, opens with a lofty description of the primaeval Chaos — no light, no sound; no day, no night; a yawning Abyss of empty, dark space, without death and without immortality. 'The One alone breathed calmly, self-contained'. From this serene self-consciousness of the primal Brah- man in the profound chaotic gloom arose, by reason of the genial heat evolved, Kainas, the earliest seed of mind, which poets, pondering in their hearts, have found to be the source of being from not-being. oRTw: i cm i *m i h i nmri i *afa i *rh: i for i ttcht i u?t i ^mfn i hh: i sro i ^rfr? i fa: i ^fsisR i wfe i tifkvffissi i si^u: i jT^hsn ii a 11 Expressed in the philosophical phraseology of Schopen- hauer's school it is: Out of the Will (Tad) arose, through the turning thereof (Tapas), first Kainas, affirmation, and this became the first germ of mind, the only principle of the visibility of affirmation. From this first principle rose the whole realm of Being, its flames being cast over all nature. Then we come to a thought of friendship which, though always implying a surface-attachment^ is by no means to be considered the ideal of love. Affection as 'oiliness' seems to be pre-eminently Aryan, ^ sitelta and fac^r mitratvam coming each from a root meaning 'to be fat', 'oily', namely, fog snih and firs mid. They are found especially in the Hitopadesas, a book of moral instruction and popular legend, generally supposed to have been written by Visnusarman for the benefit of certain Indian princes. •^ 60 «- Thus, in the first Book we read how, for a long time, a Deer and a Crow live in great Sneha in a forest of Bahar. rreri fzv* wiciT ii?r ^1*1**1 faercrcr: Tasjam Uiran maJiatd snehena mrgakaMu nivasatdh. The Deer, frisky and fat, roaming about at his pleasure, is seen by a certain Jackal. Having eyed him, the Jackal reflects: 'Ah! how shall I feast on this delicate flesh?' In the same way n^ffr maitri and fiercer mitratvam are used of that lively friendliness amongst animals of the lower order which may, perhaps, not improperly be described as brute love. Continuing the above story, for instance, we find that the jackal seeks to effect his purpose by ad- dressing the deer as Mitra (ymid) and then by describing himself as a poor lonely creature without a Mitra (friend) and without a bancVu (relation), K e sudrabudd c i of the forest! s^toR? facrcrrfa 'Here, in the forest, as one dead, I dwell alone, without kinsman and without a friend!' The word si?vj bancVu brings us at once to another view of love, that, namely, of those strong ties of blood and kinship which unite various members of the same family, clan, tribe or nation; for, yband 1 ' means to hind. A bancVu is one who is bound to another in the first instance by family-feeling, afterwards, no doubt, by other and purely ideal considerations. The opening of the B < agavacl-GUa deals largely with the relations of the parties involved, and from that work we may quote the following: ^rmrar: farn;: wrsaira ^ ftrrroriT: i JTTrTSfT: *3*qu: m^T: tort: 'Teachers, fathers, sons also, and progenitors; Uncles, sisters, nephews, brothers-in-law and near relatives (sam- band'inas 'those-who-are-bound-to-one'). ~JH 61 Hg~ In TftfrT Briti and Sir B-eman we have love as i2r- httaration, a lofty joy which takes possession of the soul and rushes in tumult to the beloved object. yPRl to he overjoyed at, love. Skt.: jfanfa pri-nd-mi I delight in; firon pri-ja-s dear, beloved; jftfcr pri-ti, ^jt^ pre-man love, joy. #£?..• t>?m /n to love, praise; a>&.A* fri-fa love, bene- volence. Oh: Trpa-oc;, Trpau-q soft; Trpa-o-inq softness; rrpau-v-ai. Russ.: IlpiaTeiifc pri-ja-tel friend. Eccs.: pri-ja-ti to provide; pri-ja-telu friend. Litli.: pre-telius friend. JRuss.:llpiAsahpri-ja-sn friendship. Goth.: fri-j-on to love; frijond-s friend; fri-a-thva love. Ohg.: fra-o glad ; fri-unt amicus ; fri-da pax. Mlig.: fro-h glad; Freund qpi\og; Fri-e-de peace. Eng.: fri-end amicus. Jm/&: frith service. Wete/j-: priawd spouse. Prijatva : TTpaoiri^ : : friathva : Friede. Kroat. : pri-jat-nost loveliness. Pol.: przy-jem-nosc loveliness. Kroat.: pri-ja-telj ) ; pri-atan ] Pol. : przy-ja-ciel \ friend przy-ja-zny \ friendly. Boh.: pri-tel j prd-tel-sky j Boh,: pri-jem-ny amiable Ban.: fre-nde) Ags.: fre-ond\ amicus Flem.: vriend j Goth.: fri-j-ei freedom; frei-s free; fri-thus peace Eng.: free; freedom; fro-lic. In the second Fargard of the Vendidad we find the word frita applied to Speiita Armaiti, the genius of the earth, in the sense of 'beloved'. Jima steps forward toward the luminous space southwards, to meet the sun, and lie -5* 62 re- pressed the earth with the golden ring, and bored it with the poniard, speaking thus: — Frit' a Spenta Armaiti, frdfca 'sava, vilia n&nmga! 'Beloved Spirit of the Earth, Kindly open up and stretch thyself afar!' It is a significant fact that Bishop Ulfilas thought the word friathva the best Gothic equivalent of the Greek dYctTrn- To the liberty-loving Goths the ideal of life was more than charity, affection or respect; it was Friede : Freud e : Freundschaft : Freiheit 'peace, joy, friendship, freedom'; for, friathva connotes these things and Ypri underlies them all. Hence its great im- portance as an Aryan concept. m ljub-iti to be fond of. Kro.: ljub-av amor; ljub-ezan amiable. Boh.: Mb-ez-nost loveliness. Ecdes.: Ijiib-i-tl qptXeTv; liub-y (TfdTrr]; ljub-imi sponte. Litli.: liub-y-ti to take pleasure in; liub-jaus rather. Goth.: liub-an to love; lub-an to hope; laub-jan to believe; liub-s dear; liuba-leiks lovely; lub-o love; lub-ains hope; ga-laub-eins faith; lib-dins life. Ohg.: mot-lub-a affectus; lop praise; lop-on to praise; lep-an Zwr|. Ags. : luf-e crfdTrr|; lif £uuri; lif-frea Life-Lord, God. Mhg.: Lieb-en; Lieb-e; lob-en to praise; Leb-en. Eng.: lov-e; lief; be-lief; lif-e. In love we have freedom, hope, faith, praise, nay, life itself. No poet has expressed this exquisite feeling with greater delicacy than Tennyson. Maud's lover speaks of his love to 'Her whose gentle will has changed my fate And made my life a perfumed altar-flame.' -$* 64 *<- Peter the Great is described as having worked for Russia with such Lubov: — Bt> diowh ciuia ii 6y^ym,HOCTL Pocciii, MR KOTopoii TaKt neycTaimo, ct TaKOK jiy6oBio pa6oTajit rieTpt Be.niKin. 'Herein lie the power and the future of Russia, for which Peter the Great worked so incessantly, and with such love'. In no language has this root been so prolific as in Russian where, besides lubov, we have lub-esni to be loved on account of really amiable qualities recognised not only by the feelings but by the judgment; lub-imi to be loved from choice; lub-oi loved as a matter of taste; lub dear from natural inclination; lub-im and luo-imez the dear hus- band; lub-ovnik the erotic amateur; v-lub-Uivi one in love; lub-itel lover of the fine arts. In Latin we see two streams of thought ; that in which love turns to lust (libido); and that whereby a lofty, dis- ciplined passion leads to freedom (libertas). A libidinosa sententia certum et definitum jus religio- num eos deterret. Liber sum, et nullius dominationi parens. The corresponding word in Persian is £&*, which is at once lub-o and lib-ains, Liebe and Leben, love and life. In the sweet song of Umar K'ajjam: — (J^-co\ i^y^s- ^yiUixi /JLs. yXa> _^o d~vi\ (3->*'" s ' ly^W^- i k _$^-rr* l ^\ CU*o\ (3-**^ t_s^ «^ij dS £>\ Js-o lX5o ^\ 'The heading of the. Volume of the Spirit- "World is Love! The first verse of the lyrics of youth is Love! O ye who know not of the realm of Love, Know this alone, that Life is Love!' -5* 65 *s~ Tliis is the Persian word par excellence and is a thoroughly Aryan view of the subject, the root being is to yearn. Skt.: \f*W ?ti is-ta dilectus; ^fa is-ti desire; ^tsjtf Is- ma-s Love-god; eUJc-d-mi = ais-sk-d-mi Sd.: £%■> is to wish, earnestly seek; jwooj is-ti longing. Oh.: jA'c to wish; io-in.-^ wish, will; i-uepo-q for iff- uepo-q longing. Lot.: aes-timare. Goth,: is-an to long for; fra-isan to tempt. Passing on to the people of Hellas we meet with the well-known and weighty words (rfairav and qpiXeiv. Now these two words stand to each other in much the same relation as dilhjere and amare, but the Greek expression which most nearly corresponds to sffara and in later liter- ature to cFrrara and J^z is epuus, from Yap to strive after, long for. It is not only the passion of the youth for the maiden, but is used by Plato to express that yearning for the unseen yet ever-present Beauty which surrounds us all, and will one day be revealed to every purged soul. Just as the Indian Rsis found Kamas to be the moving principle of Creation, so in the theogony of the Greeks "Epoq holds a foremost place. In the beautiful words of Hesiod: — n.6' "Epog, bq koXXictto^ ev deavdioicri GeoTcri, XutfiueXnq irdvTuuv re Gewv, ttcxvtujv t 5 dvGpwTTiuv -dduvaTcu ev crrnOeaai voov, kou erriqppova (touXnv. Anakreon says: — '0 bt KCti Gewv buvdCTriT '0 b£ kou pporoO<; baiuc&ei. Most of all in the organ-voice of the Chorus in So- phokles' Antigone and in the Hippolytos of Euripides:— ~>i 66 X~ Epux; dvkcrre udxav, 'Epuiq, oq ^v Kxriiuaai TTiTrxeK;, bq £v uaXaxai^ irapeiaTi; vedviboc; ^vvuxeueiq- qporrac b' UTrep-rrovTioi;, £v t c*Ypov6|uoi^ auXouV Kai a' out' dGavaxuiv cpulEiuo? oubdc; ou9' duepiuuv in dv- Gpumuuv 6 b' £xujv, H^uiyvev. Epuuc; "Epuuc, o Kax' 6u|udTUJV OToZext; ttoGov, eiadxiuv YXuKeiav iyuxaT^ xdpiv ovq etnaTpaxeuffi], |ur) uoi iroxe auv koikw cpaveinc; jur|b' dppu6uo<; £X0oiq. ouTe ydp irupoi; out darpuuv uir^prepov f^Xoc;, oTov to Td<; 'AqppobiTai; i'riaiv £k xepdiv "Epuuc; 6 Aide; irate;. Ant. 777—785. Hipp. 525-534. Amongst the Romans, too, we find Ovid saying of Amor: regnat et in dominos jus hdbet Me Deos, which might well he paraphrased in the words of the 'Last Minstrel': — Love rules the court, the camp, the grove, And men below and saints above: For love is heaven, and heaven is love! Between the Greek dYanav and qpiXeiv and the Latin diligere and amare the parallelism is so close that it will he best to consider them together. Both dYcmav and diligere express an attachment re- sulting from choice and a deliberate judgment that the object is really worthy of regard, whilst cpiXeiv and amare, without necessarily-implying an unreasoning attachment, give utterance to an instinctive feeling, an impulse of passion, as is amply manifest not only in the literature of Greece and Rome but in the New Testament itself. As regards the Latin words we cannot do better than refer •>> 67 <^- to Cicero's letters. Writing to one friend concerning another, the great orator says: 'Ut scires ilium a me non diligi solum, verum etiam amarP (Ep. Fam. xiii. 47) ; and with regard to Clodius' feeling for him: 'L. Clodius valde me diligit, vel, ut eucpaTiKurrepov dicam, valde me amat\ (Ad Brut. 1). Dion Cassius tells us that, addressing the Roman people over the body of Caesar, Antonius said: ecptXriaaie auiov (be, Tra-repa , Kai riYamicraTe w<; eii- epYeinv. But it is in reading the New Testament that we most fully realise the distinction, as was long ago shown by Dean Trench. Whilst we are often bidden dfa-nav tov Geov (Matt. xxii. 37; Luke x. 27; 1 Cor. viii. 3) and good men are said to do so (Rom. viii. 28; 1 Pet. i. 8; 1 John iv. 21), it is nowhere urged that man should qpiXeiv tov Geov. Of the Father we read that He both drfaTra (John iii. 35) and cpiXeT (v. 20) tov Yiov. And in this connexion we cannot forget the touching scene, described in the 21 st Chapter of St. John's Gospel. The risen Master thrice asks the penitent disciple: 'Lovest thou me?' and to each enquiry Peter answers: qptXuj o~e, expressing a warm, per- sonal affection, but when the question is put it is only the third time that our Lord uses this word, drfouras ue, re- spectful affection giving place to cptXeig ue, personal attach- ment. The Latin Caritas seems to hold an intermediate position: a man may have caritas for his fellow-man, he may also have it for his country and his country's past. Ex ea caritate quae est inter natos et parentes, quae diriini nisi detestabili scelere non potest. Cic. Am. 8, 27. Oblitaque ingenitae erga patriam caritatis, dummodo virum honoratum videret, consilium migrandi ab Tarquiniis cepit. Liv. 1. 34. B. •^ 68 h$- In the same way Anior, from primarily meaning sexual passion : Persuasit nox, amor, vinum, adolescentia — Humanum 'st. Ter. Ad. 3. 4. 471. has become transformed by the great Christian poet of the Middle Age into the supreme cosmic emotion: L'Amor che muove il Sole e l'altre stelle. But of all the words for love in any language there is none so sacred as the Greek afdixr]. No classical writer goes beyond qpiXia , cpiXabeXqpia or qpiXav8pujTTia. It is Christianity alone which has created this noble con- ception, this glorious expansion of the Hebrew HHK, this love which 'delightedly believes Divinities, being itself divine'. Of this beautiful Christian thought St. Paul has given us an exquisite analysis in the 13 th Chapter of his first Epistle to the Corinthians: — C H oVfdTTr) ucxKpoBuue!, xptltfTeueTar f) a^anr] ou £n.Xor r\ oVfoVnri ou TreprrepeueTai, ou qpucnoOTai, ouk dcrximoveT, ou lr\rd Td eauTfjc;, ou TrapoSuveTai, ou XoyiZieTcu to koikov, ou Xaipei erri Tf) dbtKia, auyxaipei be xfj dXriGeiqr Trdvia crxeYei, irdvTa TTiO'Teuei, Trdvia eXrri£et, irdvia urrouevei. f] dfam] OUbeTTOT6 eKTTlTTTei. Nuvi be u.evei TricTTtc;, eXmg, dYdirri, Td Tpia TauTa' uei£uuv be toutuuv f) a.^d-nr\. Here we have vastly more than a transition from Amor, through caritas, to dilectio. "Epuug represents amor and qpiXia fairly corresponds to caritas, but dya^r) goes far beyond any dilectio. St. Paul has shown us that it has at least nine ingredients, namely, patience, kindness, -5H 69 -<~ generosity, humility, courtesy, unselfishness, good temper, guilelessness and sincerity. Nay, though prophecies fail and tongues cease, though knowledge vanish and the very world itself pass away — Love abides! Tor life, with all it yields of joy and woe And hope and fear, Is just our chance o' the prize of learning love,— How love might be, hath been indeed, and is'. ~3* 70 f^- CHAPTER V. THE MOEAL SENSE. In conclusion let us see how the inductive survey of human views of good and evil bears upon the great question of the existence, nature and function of what is known as conscience, divine reason, moral sense or categorical imperative. Assuredly the most important enquiry respecting this faculty is whether it is really intuitive, that is to say, an instinct, or nothing but a power of appreciation and distinction wholly derived from experience. The consensus of opinion in the past has accepted it as the innate prin- ciple to which all laws and moral maxims are addressed. As far back as the 4th century B. C. we find a Chinese philosopher exclaiming: 'In man there is a sense of right and wrong 1 ; that he loses it, arises from the fact that it is daily injured and its beauty destroyed, just as trees are hewn down by axes. During a period of repose conscience again comes to the front, but, since it is always hurt, the human being is not far removed from the lower animals. " At the same time it must not be supposed that man has never had a moral sense, for that were wholly-contrary to his nature!' 2 But not only do the ancients, notably the Roman philosophers who distinguish between the honestum and the utile, take the transcendental side of the question: we have the witness of words themselves pointing in the same direction. For instance, to the linguistic consciousness 1 K 'A 2 Man-zo (373—289 B. C.) In the first instance the expression J^, )[£ 'innate principle' is used, in the second fjif Zin 'conscientious sensibility.' -3* 71 h$- of Europe the moral sense is knowledge or consciousness of the individual soul with the Over-Soul, of man with God (j/vid- cruv-ei6r|cnc;; coBtCTL; svjest; sumnienie; svedomi; con-scientia; Mith-vissei; Gewissen; in-wyt). It is quite true that there are words of ethical import implying a long course of evolution, such as rjGoq, Sitte, Mores, Pfiicht, but we have only to look into the history of these words to see that, as soon as they assume an ethical meaning they primarily apply not to the individual but to the nation, if not to the race. They represent, in fact, the collective, as distinguished from the individual, conscience. VD'A 'to do'. Sid.: s^tjt sva-d'd own doing, custom, character. A law unto oneself or to one's own people. For, Indra, according to thy wont, thou art om ' s! Rgv.i. 165.5. „ ^3*n?T sva-d'dta the Self-Determined (see p. 24). Ok.: q9-og (== c/e9oc;) custom; r|9eio-c; trusty, dear. ei'-w9-a am wont, e9-i£-w accustom myself. Goth.: si ygar to shine. Polish : gorsze 'worse' ; -5* 76 Hg~ German: schlicht 'straight, upright'; schlecht 'bad.' Chinese: JjL 'good'; _g. 'bad.' Sanskrit: w^ Kad-ra 'good'; English: bad. Gothic: vair-s cR vara 'good' • Icelandic: ver Danish : vaerre English: worse. But uo modern student of the phaenomena of con- sciousness can overlook the fact that, the geological con- ception of the mental world so strongly advocated by the evolutionist, by offering a new interpretation of all a priori forms of thought, greatly affects the question before us. Before the rise of the new doctrine our ideas of Duty and of the Deity were either included in the a priori category or were supposed to have been arrived at in the course of individual experience. According to the principle of Evolution, on the other hand, they are the 'accumulated lesson of actual experience unconsciously whispered on to each new descendant by its line of progenitors.' The real difficulty lies in distinguishing the bequeathed part of the infant's mental furniture from its own subsequent acqui- sitions. None has stated this more clearly than Prof. Sully. 'According to this hypothesis', he says, 'a man's experiences and habits, while they distinctly modify his own cerebral structure and mental capacity, tend also to modify those of his offspring. Hence it is fairly certain that if these processes of hereditary transmission have been going on through countless generations of the human race, every infant now born into the world receives along with its primitive nervous organization a very decided and powerful moral bent, whether it be as a predisposition to certain modes of conception, or as an instinctive force of emotional susceptibility in particular directions. Not only so, but if we suppose man to have been gradually evolved from less -> 77 hs- highly organized species, it becomes highly probable that influences which can be seen to have acted on whole species, man included, have left behind them a yet deeper impress in the innate mental structure of a nineteenth century boy or girl.' In his Descent of Man our great biologist Mr. Darwin has made an elaborate attempt to interpret the brute mind and to derive man's ethical feelings from the instincts of lower orders of being. He tells us that, when the degree of its sociability and of its intelligence qualifies it to ex- perience the recurrence of images of past actions, and a feeling of dissatisfaction at the recollection of an unsatis- fied instinct, an animal suffers remorse. And, indeed, his view of conscientious sensibility is such that, he does not hesitate to maintain that, if mankind were brought up under the same conditions as the hive-bees, sisters would feel it to be a sacred duty to slay their brothers, and mothers to make away with their prolific daughters. Now it must be confessed that, this is a somewhat strange view of the moral sentiment. In the first place, we are left in the dark as to how a mere memory of an ungratified instinct becomes suddenly transformed into the voice of a Socratic oouuoviov which imperatively points out 'that it would have been better to have followed one impulse rather than the other.' In the second, if one is not disposed to believe that a superior bee would solve the population problem in a less drastic way, there is certainly no reason for supposing that human_ beings in a state of sanity would not do so. Unless we can find, after a wide psychological induction, based on the observation of many races, that men in crowded cities or under specially- uncomfortable circumstances have resorted to such measures from a sense of duty, we must decline to entertain any such opinion of the human conscience. Then, who is to say that the superior persistence of an instinct gives a HM 78 h$- consciousness of obligation? When the swallow abandons her young in order to migrate, is it at the high call of duty? The difficulties of trying to enter into the feelings which a dog, a swallow, or a horse experiences under the drawings of two opposite impulses are indeed immense. Of one thing, however, we may be quite sure, namely, that a sense of wrong in no way accompanies the regret which we ourselves feel at the omission to seize a passing pleasure or at the recollection of an unsatisfied longing. Nor is this all. There are surely few students of anthropology who would deny that 'the first rudimentary sense of duty presents itself in that peculiar variety of fear which ac- companies a recognition of superior will and power in another.' It is thus more than likely that an intelligent elephant, horse, or dog, which is capable of apprehending the manifestations of lofty volition lurking behind its master's words, feels something akin to man's sentiment of obligation. But when we are told of a troop of baboons (Cercopithecus griseo-viridis) that, after passing through a thorny brake each stretches himself at full length along the branch of a tree whilst his neighbor 'conscientiously' extracts from his fur every thorn and burr, we cannot but think it highly conjectural to suppose that such an impulse of mutual service really amounts to an act of conscience. Thus, as regards the lower animals, the truth would seem to be that, under domestication and in con- stant contact with man, a moral sentiment may be ac- quired, but that there is no really-instinctive appreciation of duty. As regards man, on the other hand, we have found that, even in a state of nature, in which condition according to Hobbes no moral element exists, there is an undoubted intuition of right and wrong. Darwin himself gives us the account of three Patagonians who preferred being shot, one after the other, to betraying their comrades. That -5* 79 h$- the distinction between virtue and vice is intrinsic or essential is further shown by the general use of the word ought, doit, soil, and of such inipersonals as 6qpei\ei and oportet, clearly indicating some universal idea of duty apart from, though perhaps coinciding with utility. Nor can this idea of duty be expressed in any language relating to a consideration of consequences. 'Duty!' exclaims Kant, 'wondrous thought, that workest neither by fond insinuation, flattery, nor by any threat, but merely by holding up thy naked law in the soul, and so extorting for thyself always reverence, if not always obedience; before whom all ap- petites are dumb, however secretly they rebel— whence thy original?' * How truly does the poet say: — 'He that ever following her commands, On with toil of heart and knees and hands, Through the long gorge to the far light has won His path upward, and prevailed, Shall find the toppling crags of Duty scaled Are close upon the shining table-lands To which our God Himself is moon and sun!' The fact is, wherever we find man we find him with face upturned to Heaven, his eyes upon the stars, looking for the sudden outshining of transcendental idea. As soon as ever he becomes conscious of self he is aware of Deity. This is the truth underlying not only the European words for Conscience already noticed, but such remote expressions as Malay £j* ^j, Arabic y^, and Hebrew nQtft, which, from primarily-signifying the breath -of life breathed into man whereby he became a living soul (Gen. ii. 7), came to mean 'a lamp of the Everlasting, searching all the inner chambers of the body' (Prov. xx. 27). Nor should we forget the Chinese % >fr and >[f , where in each case it is the heart or mil rather than the head that is taken into • Kritik der„praktischen Vernunft (S. 105). account: and the Hyperborean Natawct, from naitea 'that which is on high'; a conception of the categorical im- perative whereby das sittliclie Gesetz rises to dem gestirnten Himmel. Perhaps no better analogy could be found than that between the moral sense and an eye for color or an ear for sound. As certain musically-gifted people come into the world enabled to appreciate and delight in the simul- taneity and succession of certain musical sounds, without knowledge of the laws of harmony and counterpoint, so, though altogether ignorant of moral maxims, mankind is born with an intuitive appreciation of right and wrong in various degrees of sensitiveness. It is certainly possible that, this exquisite sense, together with the faculty of speech has been gradually evolved in countless ages from lower forms of life. What we hold is that, in man alone it is intuitive. Plato, Plotinos and Paul express themselves differently, but, in this matter, the truth to which they give utterance is the same; a truth made amply apparent by an analysis of language. The light of the Logos thrown upon the consciousness of man makes manifest the two great and abiding facts: God and Conscience; giving us all the sublime assurance that, though that image may be blurred and sometimes altogether lost, the true likeness of the human is that of the divine! Auto to Trveuua (7uu|uapTupei tuj TTveuucm v)uwv, oti ecruev TeKva 0eoO. And this is the sacred secret of Duty, 'Nor know we anything so fair As is the smile upon thy face!' APPENDIX. IDEOLOGICAL INDICES. 1. Genitive + noun 2. Noun + genitive 3. Adjective + noun 4. Noun + adjective 5. Object + verb (i. Verb + object 7. Verb + subject 8. Subject + verb. a) Object + subject + verb (3) Object + verb + subject Y) Verb + object + subject b) Verb + subject + object e) Subject + object + verb I) Subject + verb + object. 4 5 8 n + adj, o -|- v, s + v. i 6 8 n + adj, v + o, s + v. I. Natural gen + n, i II. Hybrid gen + n, i III. Indirect gen + n, i IV. Hybrid gen + n, i V. Hybrid gen + n, VI. Hybrid n + gen, n + adj, v + o, s + v. 2 4 6 7 VII. Direct n + gen, n + adj, v + o, v + s. 3 adj + n, 5 o + v. 8 s + V. 3 adj + n, 5 + V, 7 V + s. 3 - adj + n, 6 V + 0, 8 s + v. In the transmission of Language the old word-order is often disturbed by later substitution of races, but with a H3* 84 K~ regularity which enables us to formulate the following laws of ideological evolution: — 1. Wherever a language spoken by immigrant tribes is brought into contact with an idiom of different ideology spoken by a settled population, and mingles with it, the power of preserving its sentence-arrangement is greater with the less civilised. 2. When, of two languages spoken by two populations at different stages of civilisation, there is imposition and not supersession, the position of the genitive and adjective which usually prevails, is that proper to the more civilised idiom, often with the addition of an affix. 3. Under the same conditions the position of the verb, as to its subject and object, which has the greater chance of prevailing, is that of the less cultured language, pro- nouns &c, being often added. 4. The phaenomena of incorporative pronouns relating to subject or object are found wherever a language of an indirect standard comes under the modifying influence of another language of a direct standard. 4- 85 «§- f.2 r^ ® ^ a, e3 l£ tf H - 13 a CD be i<2 ;h< o # jj 3 f.2 r-a - H - i ip5 =9 P CD T 1 "D c3 5 CD Is ps w ~3w 86 *s~ CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGE. a) GENEALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. I. Hottentots. II. Papuans. III. African Negroes. IV. Kafirs. V. Australians. VI. Hyperboreans. VII. Americans. 1. Speech of the Kbilcoi. 2. Languages of the Bushmen. Idioms of the Papua-stems. 21 different speech-stems. 1. Mande idioms. 2. Wolof language. 3. Felup idioms. 4 — 11. isolated languages. 12. Bornu idioms 13. Kru „ 14. Ewe „ 15. Ibo „ 16 — 17. isolated idioms 18. Musgu „ 19—20. isolated „ 21. Nile „ Bantu languages. Australian and Tasmanian idioms. 1. Jukagir 2. Korjak. Kukkisk. 3. Kamkadal. Speech of the Ainu. 4. Jenissei-Ostjak and Kottish. 5. Eskimo languages. 6. Aleutic. 26 Stems. 1. Kenai languages. 2. Atfapaska „ 3. Algonkin „ 4. Irokese. 5. Dakota. 6. Pani. -X 87 k- Aniericans. 7. Appalach. 8. Languages of the tribes of the N.W. Coast. 9. Oregon idioms. 10. Californian „ 11. Juma „ 12. Isolated idioms of Sonora and Texas. 13. Idioms of the aborigines of Mexico. 14. Astek-Sonoric languages. 15. Maja 16. Isolated idioms of Middle America and the Antilles. 17. Carabee; Arowak. 18. Tupi-Guarani. 19. Andes-idioms. 20. Araukan. 21. Abiponese. 22. Languages of the Puelche. 23. „ „ Tehuelhet. 24. „ „ Pesarah. 25. Kibka. 26. Kwikua. VIII. Malays. Malayo-Polynesian languages. IX. Mongols. 1. Ural-Altaic idioms. 2. Sumirian and Akkadian. 3. Japanese. 4. Korean. 5. Monosyllabic languages. a) Tibetan. Himala tongues. P) Burmese. Lohita „ Y) Siamese. 6) Annamite. £) Chinese. ~£h 88 h«s~ Mongols. X. Dravidas. XI. Nubas. XII. Midlanders. I) Isolated languages of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. 1. Munda languages. 2. Dravida „ 3. Singhalese. 1. Fulah tongue. 2. Nuba languages. 3. Languages of the "Wa-Kwafi and Masai stems. 1. Basque. 2. Kaukasian languages. 3. Hamito-Semitic „ 4. Aryan „ P) MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. I. Idioms without grammatical structure (Chinese, for in- stance). A. Inorganic Languages, i II. Languages with affixes (all idioms of polysyllabic build excepting the Indo-European). JIT. Flexion-Languages (theAryan). a) Synthetic (the ancient), 8) Analytic languages (the B. Organic Languages. <^ ^' J & & v modern Indo - European tongues). 1. Normal 2. Intranormal 3. Transnormal Flexional languages, or state tongues. Isolating and agglutinative, or fa- mily 'nomad'. Incorporative tongues. -X 89 «- a a> o ci oS a h 0) "S l-l - < 03 o d EH Hindustani, Bengali, Singhalese. Sanskrit, Baktrian, 1 rreek and Latin. German,Eng- lish, etc. etc. 13 O a> « 5 >> bo O OJ ... . --S3. ... . -a bs > S o 03 a o 01 = O u a £ o 3 - 0) ID CO a IS o Japanese, Gau- dian and Dra- vidian, Finnish and Turkish. CJ • • U)S ... . . fl o • • - Korean, Transgang- etic, Kiranti and Tibetan tongues. Mandengo, Joruba. Kongo, Angola. Malay tongues. a o aa s o H 2 o M 91 Algonkin Narrinjeri - American ton- gues and Basque ton- gues. Polynesian and Australian id- ioms. "3 c Characteristics. I. Monosyl- labic II. Incorpor- ating III. Euphonic IV. Alliteral V. Agglutin- ating VI. Agglutin- ating In- Ilfxional VIE Dissyllabic Inilexional V 1 11. Inilexional Synthetical o o '*> fl fl l-H c3 -$* 90 k~ Separating matter and form. A. Mixing matter and form. tS aq CO* 5' Crq t±> p H 5 en CD X c-t- B. 3' ts aq B aq oq TO 3 £ £§ 50 aq ts p p. S". B. fi- ts CfQ o ts p ts P- as O r+- i — i l-J CO eg ^ tg CD s M aq CfQ e - g; C- (IO P ^ P 5> o B ^ CfQ aq S as_ 2 a" 0' to < !z! Q ► (72 ^ o 1. Languages with incomplete form. < h5 - w tei o d H I— i O c ta K - - Q w b ►d H •SIU.IOJ q^tAi saSBnSirerj *g •sa.o'en.oU'Bq; ssapujo^j -y -3H 91 H$~ — s w o GO a i— i W GO P o I— I <1 f> H ffl O O i— i H > >> :>> >s m pq « pq X be ltd - d a go 3 EH -3 EH — o +3 >• ;a '5 > £ = _bo ^3 "£ >a 05 X Tj 's* i 92 «■ SCHEME II. I. Thought-Script:— A) Script-Painting B) Picture-Script. II. Sound-Script: — A) Word-Script. B) Syllable-Script (Thought as a whole). Script- painting of the North American Indians. (Thought in its constituents). Writing of the Mexicans, and at the basis of the Chinese and the Egyptian script. (Substitution of the picture of an idea for another, coincid- ing with the former in sound). Script of the Chinese and ancient Egyptians. Japanese writing and Semitic Cuneiform. C) Syllable-letter-Script. (Writing in which a definite sign can denote neither a syllable nor a single sound, but both). Writing of the Semitic nations. D) Letter-Script (Writing in which a definite sign denotes a definite sound). Persian Cuneiform. Egyptian, Indian, Greeco-Roman Script. PHONOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. I. VOWELS. a e o o i u a, e 6' 6 i u a § Q o i u u u a 6 o u u etc. ^ 94 k- tr 1 tr 1 b 58 p CD ey cy 1=1 -d Q so 5' ^ pi £T aq £" e-t- o 1 p pj H M r/i GO P so P! O so ^3 r+ (d- -rt- lr+- ^t, N £T\ ^T 4 .pfi O* pj ? pj .pj ipj pj .n OQ- gq ^ ^ *t ^ '^. lc t. hs W. -Cfq- C^ Pj ?pj .pj iPu (jq" ^ H ► x ►^ fel ST M CD GO hd CD CO > H t> H o o S3 o !z{ ^ H) B (05 .ffl |(C co- W -(jt^ pr - pr 1 *j on -; g ft) W ~3* 95 *sf~ GENEALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE CONCEPTION OF DEITY. A. Hottentot Race: — 1. K'oi&ri IK'u'b Lord 2. San Zuni-llGoam Red Morning. B. Papua Race:— 1. Motn Dirava Spirit C. African Negro Race: — 1 . Mande 2. Tenne 2. Mafor Hari Bright One (cognomen of Visnu). Ngewo 4. Kanuri Kema-nde Lord-of-ns 7. Ola OnjankSpon Heaven 10. Soiirai Jer-koi Our Lord 13. Dinka Den did That-Great 16. Logone Mal-ua Our Master Kuru Old-One 5. Ewe Mawu Striker 8. Akra Njoi'mio Heaven 11. Ibo Ku'ku Seeker 14. Maba Kalak Great One 17. Wandala i Dada-mia Our Father 3. Hausa Obangisi i House Father 6. Joruba Olodumare One-who-ha s-a-name 9. Teda Kenuo Our Master 12. Bari Nun _ The All-Depth 15. Musuk Alan (a form of Allah?) 18. Bisari Ankwane -$* 96 h$- 19. Fernando Po 20. Serer 21. Nupe Rupi Bog Soko Seeker 22. Basa 23. G-rebo 24. Bulloni Grepo Njesoa Foi Beyond. D. Kafir Race: — 1. Kafir 2. Sulu 3. Swahili Utikso Munkiilimkulu Muungu Bed Morning Old'-Old-One Old'-Old-One 4. Sekwana 5. Sesuto 6. Inhanibane Morimo Molimo i Muluiigulu Ancestral Spirit Ancestral Spiri t Old'-Old-One 7. Ki-Hjan 8. Ki-Kamba 9. Kinika Mulungu Mulungu Mulungu Old-Old-One Old-Old-One Old'-Old-One 10. Makua 11. Otji-Herero 12. Maravi Mulugo o Mukuru Nsininio Old-Old-One Old-Old-One Spirit 13. Sena 14. Kwellimane 15. Benga i Musimo Musimo Anjambi Spirit Spirit Spirit 16. Mponwe 17. Ki-Swahili 18. Sofala Anjambia i Mlungu Murungu Spirit Old-Old-One Old'-Old-One 19. Tette 20. Ki-Pokomo 21. Isubu Morungo Mungo Obasi Old-Old-One Old'-Old-One The Father 22. Kongo 23. Angola 24. Kiteke Nsambianpungi i u o Nsambi Nsanio-rupuo Old' Spirit Spirit Spirit above ~3* 97 f«- 25. Fulde 26. Andaman Goinain Puluga Good Spirit. E. Australian Race: — 1. Kaniilaroi 2. TuiTiibul Baianie Mumbal Creator Thunder. F. Hypa-horeait Race: — 1. Odul 2. Eskimo 3. Greenlandish Koil Gudib Torngarsuk Great Spirit 4. Aniu 5. Aleutic 6. Labrador Kaniui Agoguk Glide Spirit (a form of God), 0. 1. Tinne 2. Kri 3. Lenni-Lennape Kesainanedu Maiiito Kittanitowit Great Spirit Spirit Great-Living- Spirit 4. Ogibwa 5. Mikinak 6. Malisit Visenianito Nikskam Nukskam Great Spirit 7. Algonkin 8. &okta 9. Irokuois Kuduagni Oki Taronhiawagon Framer Lofty-One Sky-dolder 10. Dakota ll.Tklinkit 12. Mexikan Wakantauka Asakun Teo'tl Great Spirit 13. Otomi 14. Tukud' 15. Goalara Okka Vittukukar ikjo Mareiwa ~5* 98 H$- 1C. Tupi 17. Kiriri 18. Kikito Tupan Tupan Tupas Thunderer Thunder Thunderer 19. Kili-denu 20. Astek 21. Gwarani Pill'an Huizilo Poktli Tanioi Thunderer 'Humming Bird, left'. 22. Inka 23. KviMuan 24. Kapaneki Pakakamak Pakakamakka Nomboui World Creator "World Creator 25. Koggaha Kalguasisa H. Malay Race: — 1. Lifu 2. Aneitjumese 3. Samoan Akotesi and Atua Atua Hase Core-of-Humanity. 4. Tongan 5. Maori 6. Tahitian Otua i i Atua Atua 7. Rarotongan 8. Marquesan 9. Nju Atua Atua Atua 10. Hawaii 11. Rotuman 12. Fate Akua Oiitu Leatu Core-of-Humanity. 13. Malagasi 14. Malay Andria-Manitr; i and Sanahari Tilhan Noble-Sweet Creator Lord 15. Balinese 16. Batta 17. Djak Widi Debata Tapa The Bright One 18. Mare 19. Jaian 20. Figi Ma'kase K'on Kalu ~3* 99 :^ 21. Viti 22. Ngunesc 23. Saibai Kalou Supe Augadan, Mongol Race: — 1. Akkadian 2. Mongolian 3. Turkish Dingir Tengri Tangri Heaven Heaven Heaven 4. Jakut 5. Manku 6. Hun Tangara Abka-i Egen Tang-li Heaven Heaven's Lord Heaven 7. Chinese 8. Korean 9. Japanese T'jaA Tkien Kami Heaven Heaven Spirit 10. Tibetan 11. Burmese 12. Siamese Lha and Mko g B'ura Bra Lord Best ; Lord Lord 13. K'assi 14. Kams ? adal 15. Finnish U-Blei Billukai Jumala Lord Heaven Thunder-place (Heaven) 16. Esthonian 17. Keremissian 18. Lapp Jurunial i Junia Jubniel Heaven Thunder Heaven 19. Jurat 20. Ostjak 21. Wogul Num Torini Torim Thunder Earth Earth 22. Kuvas 23. Magyar 24. Mordvinian Tora 1st en Paz Earth i Object-of worship Lord -$* 100 f«~ 25. Kalinuk 26. Lepka 27. Samoyede Tari i i Ramu Jilibeambaertje Earth Protector-of-tlieLiving 28. Karassin Ilza Great Uncle. K. Drdvida Race: — 1. Kol 1 2. Munda > Sin-Zona Sun-God. 3. Oraon i 4. Sant'ali 5. Tamil 6. Tulu Kando Kadruveguran Kadavul ar Moon Omnipotent Omnipotent 7. Gone! 8. Urija 9. Ragmahali Tari-Pennu Bura-Pennu Gosanjit' Star- Worn an Lord and Lady Leader-of-the-Flocl M. . Nubi 2. Fulde 3. Mahas 4. Dongolawi Nor Gomirado Nor Arti i Lord Folk-Lord Lord Knower. Midlanders :— 1. Basque 2. Avaric Jainkoa Zov and Betsed Lord celestial Heaven Wealth 3. Georgian 4. Mingrelian 5. Swanetian Gmerti c 1 Goronti Self-Existent c 1 Germet 6. Lesgish 7. Abkasian 8. Udic Tangri i Anita Zu Heaven Mother i Heaven ~5H 101 f<~ 9. T'ils 10. Kek'enzis Dal Dele Giver Giver. iV. Hamito-Semitic Race: — 1. Bogos 2. Galla 3. Kabyle Gar Waka-jo 1 Rehbi i Heaven Potter Master 4. Egyptian 5. Koptic 6. Hebrew Nuter Nute El Destroyer Destroyer Force 7. Aramaean 8. Assyrian 9. Syro-Chaldaic Alalia An and Ilu i I-I Fear Force Self-Existent 10. Phaenician 1 1 . Karsun 1 2. Arabic Ali'lat Allah Allah Fear Fear Fear 13. Bilin 3 14. Karoir 15. Kara i Adara Adara Jadara Lord Lord Lord 16. ^Ethiopic 17. Amharic IS. Tigre Egsiabeher Amlak Egsiabeher Land-Lord King Land-Lord. 0. Aryan Race: — 1. Samskrt 2. Sand 3. Pali Deva Ahura 1 Jebba Bright One Spirit Bright One 4. Bengali 5. Assami 6. Parbuti I wor Manrah ^ . 1 Is vara Ruler Rider 7. Mondari ParamesVara High Ruler 10. Simhali Devijo i Bright One 13. Kait f i Isaya Ruler 16. Pahlavi Kutat -JN 102 H$~ 8. Grurmula Paramesura High Ruler ll.Multani Isranai Ruler 14. Sangiri Ruata 9. Marat'i Devane Bright One 12. Hindi i Is varan e Ruler 15. Old-Baktrian Kacl ata 18. Persian K'uda 22. Daliani K'uda 25. Pastu Kude 28. Welsh Duw Bright One 31. Gaelic Dia Bright One 34. Latin Deus 17. Parsi-Gugarati K'odao Self-Existent 19. Kasmiri 20. Sind'i 21. Urdu K'udan K'uda Kuda Self-Existent 23. Mussulman-Bengali K'oda Self-Existent 26. Osseti Xyuay Self-Existent 29. Armoric Doue Bright One 32. Manx Gi Bright One 35. French 36. Vaudois Dieu Diou Bright One 24. Kurdish Kode 27. Armenian i Asdouaz He-is-here 30. Irish Dia i Bright One 33. Umbrian Aesar i Ruler 37. Italian Iddio ~3H 103 K~ 38. Pieclmontese Iclcliou 39. Romanese 40. Roumanian i 41. Catalan Deli Dens and Deis Dumnecleu Bright One Kuler and Brigth One 42. Spanish 43. Portuguese 44. Provencal Dios Dens Dieu 45. Gypsy Dewel Bright One Bright One 46. Tosk 47. Geg Perutia Perendia High Bright One 48. Greek Geo? He-to-whom-prayer-is-made. 49. Old Slav Bog 50. Russian Bog 52. Servian Boffu 51. Bulgarian Bog 53. Slovenian Bog Dispenser of Wealth 54. Slovak 55. Polish 5G. Wendish i i i Boh Bog Bohg 57. Kroatian 58. Bohemian Bogu Biih Dispenser of Wealth 59. Lettish 60. Lithuanian 61. Samogitian i Deews Diews Bright One Diewas 62. Icelandic 63. Swedish 64. Norsk 65. Gothic GirS Gu'd Gu'd Self-Existent Gu'd H3H 104 K^- 66. Old High German 67. Nether-German 68. Anglosaxon Kot God God Self-Existent 69. Frisian 70. Flemish 71. Dutch 72. English God God God God Self-Existent Printed by W, Drugulm, Leipzig. c on Theological Semmary-Speer Library 1 1012 01006 9062 — IB IMlWlWfflfflMi S^@ BBbT _JaPL_ BHBH mBbKBm fifflfHHM I .;■ - I f ■ . v t4', rir.t HHhUI jVE^«dHHKH%SgBnH '. M . ■•,:■■: HHHT ra&