Cibrarp of "the 'theological ^emmarp PRINCETON • NEW JERSEY PRESENTED BY Delavan L. Pierson s^&lftvan L. Pierson, 1127 DEAN ST. Brooklyn, N. Y, S!9 ■ , i KURDISH SHEIKHS XEbe IRulc of A REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION OF Cbe Hrmenian Crisis BY y FREDERICK DAVIS GREENE, M.A. RECENTLY A RESIDENT OF ARMENIA FULL Y ILLUSTRA TED EIGHTEENTH THOUSAND G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS NEW YORK 27 WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET ®Ije Knickerbocker $Jress 1896 LONDON HODDER & STOUGHTON Copyright, i8g6 BY G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London Ube Ifentcberbocfccr ipress, Ittew JSorfe HafoarRen ©asilt Qljjtztzr. CLfuLa,lrf&y . 4 -^ Urtk* JviJ-' h ■ , . „ _, ' junJac xJtu+bxn*' hr fa* hr Jiu*~ if"*~t ^T, ^ rJ jy*. . *;.’• v» AN ARMENIAN TOMBSTONE OF A. D. 934 Evidence of a high state of art. 135 136 The Crisis in Turkey. open the whole eastern frontier to the invasion of the Seljouk Turks, who shortly before had begun their attacks, and who might have been successfully resisted by these hardy mountaineers. The result was fatal, both to Armenia, which was overrun, and to the Greek Empire ; for by the battle of Manzikert, 1071 A. D., when Romanus IV. was defeated and made prisoner by Alp Arslan, the whole of Asia Minor was left at the mercy of the Seljouks. 1 Rupen, a relative of the last Pagratid sovereign, escaped into Cilicia, and established the Rupenian dynasty, which was not extinguished until the death of Leon VI., 1393, an exile in Paris, and the last of the Armenian kings. The Rupenians had entered into alliance with the Crusaders. They wel¬ comed the Mongolian hordes under Genghis Khan, early in the thirteenth century, and suffered the vengeance of the Mamelukes, 1375. A graphic account of the cruelties of Timour 'the Tartar, who devastated Armenia at the close of the fourteenth century, has been left us by Thomas of Medzop. The last great calamity which fell upon the mother country happened in 1605, when Shah Abbas forcibly transplanted twelve thousand families to Ispahan in Persia. The Armenian Church. —It is the oldest of all national churches. Their legends claim that our Lord corresponded with King Abgarus of Edessa or Ur, and that the apostles Thaddseus and Bartholomew preached the Gospel to them. But the historical founder of the Armenian church was St. Gregory 1 Tozer, The Church and the Eastern Empire, pp. 22, 86, Who are the Armenians ? 137 “ The Illuminator,” 1 an Arsarcid prince, related to King Tiridates (Dertad), who was consecrated Bishop of Armenia, at Caesarea, in 302 A. D. The Armenian church is Episcopal in polity, and closely resembles the Greek in outward forms. Misled by imperfect reports of the Council of Chalcedon, 451, which they were not able to attend on account of Persian persecutions, the Armenian bishops annulled its decrees in 536, thus gaining the credit of being Eutychians, which led to their gradual separation from the orthodox church, much to the satisfaction of the Persian ruler Chosroes. This es¬ trangement was doubtless political as much as doc¬ trinal, on account of the attempts at ecclesiastical supremacy by the churches of Constantinople and Rome. As far as her ecclesiastical writers are con¬ cerned, and her beautiful liturgy, the Armenian church is in general orthodox. Her heresy, in com¬ mon with that of the rest of Christendom, is one of life rather than of doctrine. A chism in the Armenian church was brought about in the sixteenth century by Jesuit missionaries, who succeeded in detaching the community of Catholic Armenians from the mother church, of which the Catholicos at Etchmiad- zin is recognized as the supreme head. All Armenians—except perhaps the Catholic, whose allegiance has been transferred of course to Rome—still cherish a passionate attachment for the venerable church of their ancestors, to which they owe their identity as a people after the terrible vicis- 1 Krikor “ Loosavoritch,” from which title the Armenian Gregorian church calls itself Loosavortchagan. The Crisis in Turkey. 133 situdes of so rn^ny centuries. It is true that Ar¬ menians who have come under European influence, especially French, have to some extent become scep¬ tical and indifferent to religion. But even such men still profess at least an outward loyalty, as a matter of sentiment, and because they believe the formal preservation of the Armenian church to be the con¬ dition of national union in the future as it has been in the past. It is, indeed, almost a political necessity, as the Ottoman Empire is now constituted. It is to be hoped that the time will come when the children of the Armenian church of every shade will no longer look upon her as a mother frail and failing, yet to be treated with respect while she lasts ; nor as a mother ignorant and bigoted beyond hope of re¬ form ; still less, as one heretical and to be abandoned for Rome. Rather, let all her sons rally around her and help her to fulfil her true spiritual mission. She will then renew her youth and again take her honored place in the front ranks of “ the Church of the living God, which is the pillar and ground of the truth.” Would that the spirit of the grand and broad¬ minded man who is now the Catholicos at Etchmiad- zin, His Holiness, Mugerditch Khrimian, might pervade the whole body of which he is the honored and beloved head. Less than a year ago, the author had the privilege of a long private interview with this venerable ecclesiastic, whose hand he kissed in ori¬ ental fashion, with respect for the man and for himself. His last words to me, found upon the title-page, were “ Husahadclu chenk ,” meaning, “We must not despair”—a good motto for us all. Who are the Armenians? 139 That the grand old church of “The Illuminator” should somewhat lose its hold on the mind and con¬ science of the rising generation at this stage of super- THE CATHOL 1 COS OF ETCHMIADZIN, IN THE CAUCASUS. Religious head of the Armenian Church. facial enlightenment is not strange. Her real merits are concealed, unfortunately, under a growth of super¬ stition and ignorance which even the clergy admit. 140 The Crisis in Turkey . but lack the courage and ability to remove. These abuses, however, are not due to any demoralization of the Armenian race itself, but to its isolation, and to the repeated and terrible devastations that have checked its growth and reduced it to a condition of extreme poverty and helplessness. No greater service could be rendered to the Ar¬ menian people than aid and encouragement in estab¬ lishing institutions for the education of the clergy, who under present circumstances are their natural leaders. The twentieth century will bring, we hope, better political privileges. But unless, in the mean¬ time, the ancient church has maintained her hold on the conscience of the rising generation, she is in danger of sinking into the position of the church in France. By nature the Armenians are deeply religious, a? their wFole literature and history show. It has been a religion of the heart, not of the head. Its evidence is not to be found in metaphysical discussions and hair-splitting theology as in the case of the Greeks, but in a brave and simple record written with the tears of saints and illuminated with the blood of martyrs. The seeds of a thorough and far-reaching reforma¬ tion have been carefully sown and are already bear¬ ing fruit. The prospect of reform is brightened by three facts: first, the Armenian church is essentially democratic, and is not in bondage to any “ infallible ” human authority ; second, her errors of doctrine and practice are not fundamental, and, having never been sanctioned by councils, but simply by custom and Who are the Armenians ? 141 tradition, can in due time be discarded ; third, she has always acknowledged the supreme authority of THE SUBORDINATE CATHOI.ICOS OF AGHTAMAR, A TOOL OF THE TURKS. Wearing the Sultan’s highest decorations for services rendered. the Bible, which is no longer a sealed book, having been translated into the modern tongue by American missionaries, very widely scattered, and at last gladly The Crisis in Turkey. \\l received by all classes. The demand for progress and reform is by no means confined to the so-called “ evangelical ” element, but is making itself heard even in the pulpits of the old church and in the secular press. The Armenians, very numerous in ancient times, now number only about 4,000,000, of whom 2,500,000 are under the Sultan, 1,200,000 in Russia, 150,000 in Persia, and the rest widely scattered in many lands, but everywhere distinguished for their peaceable and enterprising character. They are the leading bankers, merchants, and skilled artisans of Turkey, and exten¬ sively engage in the various trades, manufactures, and agriculture as well. They love their native home and are yet destined to play an important part in the moral and material regeneration of western Asia. The following estimate is from an experienced and discriminating authority, who is also a member of the Church of England : “ I have confessed already to a prejudice against the Armenians, but it is not possible to deny that they are the most capable, energetic, enterprising, and pushing race in Western Asia, physically su¬ perior, and intellectually acute, and above all they are a race which can be raised in all respects to our own level, neither religion, color, customs, nor inferi¬ ority in mtcllect or force constituting any barrier be¬ tween us. Their shrewdness and aptitude for business are remarkable, and whatever exists of commercial enterprise in Eastern Asia Minor is almost altogether in their hands. They have singular elasticity, as their survival as a church and nation shows, and I Who are the Armenians ? Hi cannot but think it likely that they may have some share in determining the course of events in the East, both politically and religiously. As Orientals they understand Oriental character and modes of thought as we never can, and if a new Pentecostal afflatus were to fall upon the educated and intelli¬ gent young men who are being trained in the colleges which the American churches have scattered liberally through Asia Minor, the effect upon Turkey would be marvellous. I think most decidedly that re¬ form in Turkey must come through Christianity, and in this yiew the reform and enlightenment of the religion which has such a task before it are of mo¬ mentous importance. ” 1 Language and Literature. —The Armenian grammar is analogous to that of other languages of the same origin. It has not the distinction of gen¬ der, but is rich in its declensions and conjugations. The accent of Armenian words is on the last sylla¬ ble, and many of the strong consonantal sounds strike the ear of a foreigner with harshness, and defy his tongue. The rich native vocabulary has been increased by additions from languages with which it has come in contact. It possesses also, as the Ger¬ man, great facility in building compound words. The earliest specimen of this language, though in the cuneiform character, is probably to be found in the tri-lingual inscriptions on the great citadel rock of Van, which have not yet been satisfactorily made out. The pre-Christian literature of Armenia, con¬ sisting of national songs, has entirely perished, ex- 1 Mrs. Bishop, yourneys in Persia and Kurdistan , vol. ii., p. 336. 144 The Crisis in Turkey . cept a few quotations. All that has come down to us is subsequent to the fourth century, and refers exclusively to history or religion. Poetry and fiction never greatly flourished among this serious race, al¬ ways in the midst of danger or suffering. The ancient Armenian version of the Bible, made by Mesrob, the inventor of their alphabet, and his disciples, early in the fifth century, has been called the queen of versions for its beauty, and, though not based on the Hebrew, is of some critical value in determining the readings of the Septuagint, of which it does not follow any known recension. Hundreds of other translations from Syriac and Greek writers soon followed, some of which are extant only in Armenian. The fifth century, their Golden Age, was adorned by such classic writers as Yeznig of Goghp, who wrote most eloquently, in four books, against the Persian fire-worshippers, the Greek philosophers, the Marcion heresy, and the Manichaeans; Goriun, the biographer of Mesrob ; David, the philosopher and translator of Aristotle; Yeghishe, who relates the heroic struggle of Vartan for the Christian faith against the Persian Zoroastrians ; Lazarus of Parb ; and Moses of Khorene, their national historian. There follows a period of four centuries of literary barrenness, due to political disorder and schism. Under the Rupenian dynasty there was a second period of literary brilliancy. Then flourished Nerses Schnorhali “The Gracious, ” an orator grafted upon the poet; as well as Nerses of Lampron, whose hymns also enrich the beautiful Armenian liturgy. The Who are the Armenians? 145 annals of Matthew of Edessa give interesting facts about the first Crusade. Samuel of Ani, John THE ISLAND MONASTERY OF AGHTAMAR, IN LAKE VAN. One of many similar Armenian Monasteries still existing, rich in parchment manuscripts exposed to decay and vandalism. Vanagan, Vartan the Great, and Thomas of Med- zop wrote succeeding chronicles. A third revival of Armenian letters was begun by 146 The Crisis in Turkey. Mechitar of Sebaste (Sivas),who established an order of Catholic monks at the monastery of St. Lazarus in Venice, 1717. These fathers have won the inter¬ est and admiration of European scholars by their publication of Armenian classics, together with many learned original contributions. Other centres of literary activity are to be found in Vienna, Paris, and the Institute of Moscow, as well as the schools of Constantinople and Tiflis. A list of authorities on Armenian subjects is given in Appendix E. CHAPTER XI. AMERICANS IN TURKEY, THEIR WORK AND INFLUENCE. T HE American missionaries in the Turkish Em¬ pire are brought into the discussion of almost every question that arises in that land. Especially is this true at present, in connection with the Armenian problem. So many wild and contra¬ dictory statements are made in regard to them, and the Protestant communities which are the direct re¬ sults of their labors, that the mind of the public is more or less confused on the subject. The mission¬ aries, and the many thousands who have gladly fol¬ lowed their leadership in intellectual, moral, and religious reform, are an important, though not a noisy or conspicuous element. For this reason, as well as on account of popular ignorance and hostile misrepresentation, they cannot be overlooked in any fair and adequate survey of the situation. The writer has long been familiar with this phase of the subject, and has a large mass of evidence and statis¬ tics at his command. But he is not connected with any of the various missionary societies involved , and is alone responsible for the statements made in this or any other part of the volume . i47 148 The Crisis in Turkey . It is very important to note that charges against the missionaries, of disloyalty to the Sultan, have never been sustained for a moment, and that investi¬ gation has shown them to be obedient to the laws, and opposed to revolutionary sentiments upon the part of any of the subjects of the Empire. The highest officials have repeatedly borne public testi¬ mony to the valuable services of the Americans in educational, literary, medical and philanthropic lines. Even H. I. M. Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid has graciously given expression to his confidence in Americans as being free from any political designs, such as all Europeans are supposed to entertain. Many are not aware of the great work already ac¬ complished by American missionaries during the past seventy years in the Ottoman Empire, nor of the vast influence they have exerted, both directly and indirectly. They have been in many depart¬ ments the pioneers of civilization. They have stuck to their posts, obscure or prominent, in peace or in war, in famine, plague and persecution. Pashas and diplomats and generals have sought their aid without fear of being misled or betrayed. But the messen¬ gers of the Cross have never been swerved from what they consider a “higher calling”—to instruct the ignorant, young and old, to counsel and reclaim the erring, to attend the sick and imprisoned, and to comfort the broken-hearted. To support these gen¬ eral statements, the reader must pardon a few statis¬ tics compiled from the latest official tables, showing the direct results of American missionary effort in Turkey. Americans in Turkey . 149 STATISTICS OF AMERICAN MISSIONS IN TURKEY. 1 The following figures, with the exception of che Press statistics, represent the work of the American Board (Congregational) and of the Presbyterian Board taken together. The Congregational proportion constitutes about three fourths and the Presbyterian one fourth in all these figures, the work of the latter society being confined to Syria and Mosul. THE FORCE. Laborers. Foreign missionaries Native pastors, preachers, teachers, etc. 223 1,094 Total force of laborers American missionaries to Turkey since 1821 . T3I7 550 1 By far the largest part of foreign missionary work in Turkey has always been in the hands of Americans, although, of course, they neither claim nor have any monopoly in this respect. As a mat¬ ter of fact there are many other large and successful missionary, be¬ nevolent, and educational enterprises conducted in that land by other foreign societies as well as individuals. The various Roman Catholic orders are strongly established in many parts, and are generally of French connections and introduce that language in their work as the Americans do English. The following is a partial list of other socie¬ ties at work in Turkey : The British and Foreign Bible Society, the Church Missionary Society, the Bible Lands Missions Aid Society, the British Syrian Mission Schools and Bible Work, the Church of Scotland Mission to the Jews, the Society of Friends (both English and American), the Irish Presbyterian Mission, the Reformed Pres¬ byterian Mission, and the German Deaconesses. In addition to all these agencies, there are many private and local schools and institu¬ tions that are doing excellent work, but of which only this general mention can here be made. The statistics of Robert College, Constantinople, are not included in these tables, as that institution, though a child of American Mis¬ sions, is independent of them. The Crisis in Turkey . 150 riant. Value of property held by Americans, exclusive of churches, schools, etc., erected in the names of native subjects, with foreign aid, for which sta¬ tistics are not available ..... $2,500,000 Annual Expenditure. Appropriations from America .... $225,000 From native sources ...... 60,000 Total expenditure annually Total American expenditure from the first, at least $235,000 $10,000,000 THE RESULTS. Religious. Churches organized . . . . . . . 155 Other stated preaching places ..... 2S1 Total number of preaching places . . . 436 Communicants (received on confession of faith) . 13,528 Members of Protestant civil communities (adherents) 60,000 Average Sunday congregations ..... 40,000 Sunday-school membership ..... 35,000 Educational. Colleges well equipped, for •* both sexes .... 5 Theological seminaries 6 > students 4,085 High-schools for boys ) 80 Boarding-schools for girls f * Common schools for both sexes 530 i < 23,315 Total schools of all grades . 621 Students 27,400 There are six American institutions in Turkey incorporated under the laws of the United States, and controlled by trustees in that land. Medical. There is a well equipped American Medical Col¬ lege and Hospital at Beirut, and American mission- Americans in Turkey. 1 5 1 ary physicians treat, yearly, many thousands of patients of all classes and races throughout the land, both in their dispensaries and in private prac¬ tice, at a nominal sum and very often gratuitously. Publishing . Both weekly and monthly newspapers are pub¬ lished by the American missionaries at Constantino¬ ple, in the Armenian, Turkish, Greek, and Bulgarian languages, and an Arabic weekly is published at Beirut. The catalogue of editions of the Scriptures and of religious, educational, and miscellaneous books and tracts in various languages, which may be obtained at the American Bible House, Constantinople, con¬ tains separate titles to the number of about 1000. The publications in the catalogue of the Presbyte¬ rian Press at Beirut, mostly in Arabic, number 507. The number of copies of the Scriptures (entire or in part) put in circulation by the Levant Agency of the American Bible Society alone, 1847 to 1893, is 1,378,- 715. The number of copies of the Scriptures (entire or in part) in languages and type available for Mo¬ hammedans , put in circulation by the same Agency in 1893, was Osmanli-Turkish (Arabic type), 5,392 ; Arabic language (Arabic type), 34,077 ; total, 39,469. The number of copies of Scriptures (entire or in part) circulated in Turkey since 1820 amounts to about 3,000,000. The number of copies of other books and tracts for the same period is about 4,000,- 000. The total number of copies of the Scriptures and of miscellaneous literature circulated is therefore about 7,000,000. 152 The Crisis in Turkey . Even these large figures by no means measure the extent and significance of Protestant influence in Turkey. The idea and spirit of Protestantism has a breadth which cannot be measured or portrayed by figures. As a matter of convenience and political ARMENIAN FAMILY, BITLIS. necessity, and also to destroy unity of feeling and action among the subject peoples, all non-Moslem races were classified by Mohammed II., after the capture of Constantinople in 1453, according to their religious belief. These lines'of division have always Americans in Turkey . 153 been strictly observed by the government in all its dealings with non-Moslems. Even many of the taxes are collected through ecclesiastical organizations. This policy of the government, together with the bitter persecution of Protestants by the older churches, led to the formation of a Protestant civil community in 1850, contrary to the original desire and instruction of the missionaries, and in spite of the protests of many evangelicals who preferred to retain connection with their ancestral church, but who were thrust out with violence and anathema. The Protestant communities which then sprang up all over the Empire, were not ruled, as are the other Oriental churches, by hierarchical bodies. The mis¬ sionaries, who are mostly Congregational or Presby¬ terian, while ready to advise and guide, have never exercised ecclesiastical control over their converts. The Protestants, in accordance with their inherent spirit and beliefs, have naturally organized their re¬ ligious and civil communities on a simple representa¬ tive basis, which has gradually developed indepen¬ dence of thought and character, and desire for progress. We come now to the indirect results of missionary effort, namely, the stimulus of evangelical example and success upon the Gregorian and other communities including even the Mohammedans. The homes, schools, and churches of the missionaries have been open to all comers; their varied literature has gone everwhere; their aid in sickness, distress, and famine has always ignored race or creed. Many thousands of Armenians, Greeks, Syrians, Jacob- i54 The Crisis in Turkey. ites and others — Moslems being prevented by their rulers except in rare instances—have received education in Protestant schools, without changing their church relations. But, nevertheless, a deep impression has been made on these pupils by con¬ tact no less than by teaching, and this, together with a natural and worthy loyalty to their own institutions, has stirred up all the other races to higher ideals and efforts. 1 The existence of a marked desire for progress by all classes is now clear, and that this is largely due to foreign missionaries is admitted by all 2 —gratefully by the Armenians and Christians generally, but often with chagrin by the Turks, who find themselves 1 “ The creation of churches, strict in their discipline, and protest¬ ing against the mass of superstitions which smother all spiritual life in the National Armenian Church, is undoubtedly having a very salu¬ tary effect far beyond the limited membership, and is tending to force reform upon an ancient church which contains within herself the ele¬ ments of resurrection.”—Mrs. Bishop, jfourneysin Persia and Kurd¬ istan , vol. ii., p. 336. 2 Unhappily there are some who can see nothing but bigotry and mistakes in what the missionaries have done. Such characters are to be found among all races, as the following extract shows : “ It might be thought that here, [Missilonghi] on the spot where he [Byron] breathed his last, malignity would have held her accursed tongue ; but it was not so. He had committed the fault, unpardonable in the eyes of political opponents, of attaching himself to one of the great parties that then divided Greece ; and though he had given her all that man could give, in his own dying words, ‘ his time, his means, his health, and, lastly, his life,’ the Greeks spoke of him with all the rancour and bitterness of party spirit. Even death had not won obliv¬ ion for his political offences ; and I heard those who saw him die in her cause affirm that Byron was no friend to Greece.”—Stephens, Greece, Turkey, Russia , and Poland , New York : Harper and Brothers, 1839. Americans in Turkey . 1 55 being rapidly left behind in the forward march which they have been too stupid or too proud to fall in with. It is, however, very gratifying to see that the Mohammedan leaders in both Church and State are at length becoming aware of the marked intellectual awakening and substantial progress that education has quietly brought about among the Christian races. Robert College on the Bosphorus stands at the head of the many well equipped American institutions in Turkey which have largely contributed to these results. We gladly recognize the wisdom and energy of His Majesty the present Sultan, in trying to estab¬ lish Moslem schools throughout his empire, some of which are already quite large, creditable, and popu¬ lar with the Turks. It cannot be doubted that these schools will lead ultimately to an awakening and a desire for reform and progress among Moslems which will make them no less restive under present conditions than are the non-Moslems to-day, and thus hasten the necessary reforms. While most hearty praise is due His Majesty for fostering and even forcing education among his Moslem subjects, it is greatly to be regretted that there is another side to this policy as carried out by his agents, namely, an equal zeal in curtailing and even closing, as far as possible, Christian schools. The hostility of the Sublime Porte has been grow¬ ing, just in proportion as the excellent results of American institutions, already enumerated, have appeared. Does the Turkish Government desire that its hostility be considered the most convincing 156 The Crisis in Turkey. proof of the success of disinterested efforts to benefit its subjects of all classes? And does it propose to continue to cripple and suppress such efforts ? If so, it is not the two hundred and fifty American missionaries in her borders who will suffer, but the many schools and churches which they have planted and the many thousands of peaceable and hitherto loyal subjects, who have been taught in them to serve God as well as honor the king. CHAPTER XII. ARMENIAN VILLAGE LIFE. T HE following description will show to what con¬ dition the villagers of Armenia had been re¬ duced by their oppressors. And yet it was such people who had to be further inpoverished and massacred, lest by their indomitable hopefulness and industry, and by the operation of reforms guaranteed by Europe, they might rise to equality with their Mohammedan neighbors. Of course the customs and style of living of the Armenians in the cities and in some villages, were on a far higher plane, but they too have now been utterly prostrated. It is very easy to miss the villages as one travels through the country ; their location is indicated by a few trees and cultivated fields rather than by con¬ spicuous buildings. The houses themselves are in¬ variably low and contiguous, and of the color of the mud and stones of which they are made. Where the houses are on a hillside they run back into the ground, so that they present only a front elevation, the solid earth forming the sides and rear wall. In the region of Bitlis the earthen roofs of the houses, instead of being flat, are rounded, and thus the vil¬ lage at a distance looks like a collection of gigantic The Crisis in Turkey . 158 ant-hills, from the centre of which, however, there towers a church, symbolic of the great and promi¬ nent part which religion plays in the humble lives of the people. The churches and monasteries are often very ancient structures of hewn stone, in some cases richly carved with inscriptions and reliefs, and sur¬ mounted with a low round conical tower. The dif¬ ference between these fine old structures and the modern hovels which surround them forcibly sug¬ gests to the beholder the former prosperity of this ancient people when independent, in contrast with the poverty and degradation to which they have been reduced by their Ottoman masters. In some places the remains of fine stone bridges are to be seen, where now the traveller is compelled to ford the stream, at the risk of losing his baggage and perhaps his life. The family is conducted on strictly patriarchal lines. As the sons grow up and are married they bring their brides to the father’s house instead of starting new homes of their own. For this large establishment, which includes all, from grandparents to grandchildren, the word “ family ” or “ house ” is used. With this explanation it does not seem so strange to hear of families of twenty or even fifty souls. These large families are the units which com¬ pose the village. The members of each family have everything in common, property, living rooms, house¬ hold cares and pleasures included. The freedom of the family home belongs hot sim¬ ply to every human member of it, but is also gener¬ ously conferred upon the numerous animals on which 159 Armenian Village Life. the family depends. As day declines, cows, buffaloes, horses, donkeys, sheep, goats, dogs, cats, and chickens all turn their steps to the common entrance, where each knows his place and is duly cared for. There is little distinction between drawing-room, kitchen, chamber, and stable; they all form parts of one semi-subterranean cavern, which is divided by posts, railings, and walls, forming a veritable labyrinth to the stranger, though every turn is familiar to the regular occupants. The people gladly welcome the European traveller, as an angel from the outside world, who can take back their story, and who, they know, will pay for all he receives, instead of extorting it as do the Kurds and Turkish zaptiehs , or police. On reaching the village where one is to spend the night, he naturally desires at once to see his quar¬ ters. After the saddle is removed that it may not be injured in going through the low passages, both horse and traveller are led in by the light of a flicker¬ ing wick in a cup of linseed-oil, which barely suffices to reveal the sooty walls and posts. The guide warns you not to strike your head on that beam, or to step into the puddle on your left ; in avoiding the puddle you stumble over something on the right, but your host immediately puts you at your ease by saying it was only a calf. He then proceeds to remove a yoke of buffaloes or half a dozen sheep from one obscure corner, and informs you that it is at your disposal. The poor creatures linger so near that you can hear them breathe and catch the reproachful expression of their lustrous eyes. Before you realize what is 160 The Crisis in Turkey . going on, the corner has been swept, with the effect of raising a stifling dust. In summer you would prefer the roof to the inside accommodation, but this happy alternative would be impossible in win¬ ter. The temperature of these crowded, unventi¬ lated, damp compartments—not to mention the fleas —makes you so uncomfortable that sleep is out of the question. A hole in the roof is often the only window, and serves also as a chimney ; but in winter even this is generally closed. The heavy pungent smoke of the animal fuel with which your supper is being cooked at last drives you out of your corner, and you conclude to take a quiet look about the house. The children, overawed by your presence, make no sound and hardly dare to move. You notice one woman nursing a baby, tightly rolled in swaddling bands and strapped into a cradle. She does not remove the child, but sits upon the floor, which is of earth, tilting the cradle over to her. The cradle has no rockers, and if the child cries he is rudely “ soothed ” by being.bumped from side to side. Another woman is churning a goatskin full of sour milk by jerking it back and forth as it hangs from a beam in the roof. The meal, which consists of fermented milk, boiled wheat or rice, and eggs fried in a sea of butter, is at last served in the middle of the floor, on a round tray, about a yard in diameter, of wood or copper, resting on a low stool. Every article of food is served in a single dish, from which each helps himself, using his fingers for a fork. If the food is liquid, it is eaten by twisting the thin tenacious bread into the form of Armenian Village Life . 161 a spoon, which disappears in the mouth together with what it conveys. The civilized drudgery of dish¬ washing is thus reduced to the simple process of washing hands, which each one does for himself, both before and after the meal. A certain etiquette and kindly feeling refines even these dismal homes, and points to higher ideals than the material condition would indicate. THE SASSOUN COMMUNITY. As a matter of history I wish to place on record a brief description of the inhabitants of Sassoun, who were killed, scattered and destroyed as a com¬ munity by the massacre of 1894, and subsequent events. Hemmed in by rough mountains and wild Kurds, the Armenians of the Sassoun district were a re¬ markable community of about forty villages, shut off from the outside world, of which they had only the most vague ideas. Their position, bravery, and numbers had enabled them to resist, to some extent, the robber tribes around them, but not the con¬ stantly increasing extortions of the Turkish tax- gatherer. The dread of the former and the burden of the latter were all that clouded their otherwise glad and simple existence. They were not, like the more exposed and impoverished Armenians of the plains, in the habit of seeking employment in distant cities, but, like all mountaineers, were passionately attached to home. The commercial instinct, so strong in most Armenians, was foreign to them. I once asked one of the leading men of Ghelieguzan, 162 The Crisis in Turkey . “ What is there you need which you cannot make yourselves?” “ Nothing but salt,” he instantly re¬ plied, adding, after a pause, “ and gunpowder.” Shut out the Kurds, and the Armenians would have had no use for gunpowder except against the bears and wolves. Though the mountains were rocky and precipitous, a large population supported itself by the care of fields and flocks in the fertile and sheltered valleys. Life in Sassoun was physically comfortable, though not luxurious. Open-handed hospitality and care of the poor were as much a duty as provision for one’s own family. The houses were of stone, often two and even three stories high. There was considerable variety in the occupations which followed one another in rapid succession throughout the year. No drones were tolerated in that busy hive, and in all their toil men and women stood shoulder to shoulder. Which bore the heavier burden the reader may decide. Take the care of the flocks and herds for instance, in which their chief wealth consisted. To the men was entrusted the task of pasturing and protecting them, but the women did all the milking and made the butter and cheese. The shearing of the sheep was men’s work, but the women washed, carded, and spun the wool into thread, which was then woven into excellent cloth by the men on their heavy looms, and after¬ ward made into garments for all the household by the women. Crude cotton, also, brought from Mesopotamia, was put through the same stages. The bringing of wood and water was always left to Armenian Village Life . 163 the women and girls. After the men had ploughed, sowed, and irrigated the fields, the reaping—a very slow and laborious task—was done by their wives and sisters, who also winnowed and cleaned the grain, after the men had threshed it. The straw was carefully stored for the food of the horses and cattle in winter. During the dry months of summer practically all the animals and most of the women and children would migrate to the cool upper slopes of the mountains, where the melting snow keeps the grass always green. The men by irrigation were able to raise wheat, millet, barley, and rye, together with such vegetables as potatoes, tomatoes, squashes, cucum¬ bers, turnips, peas, and beans. Around their rude low stone houses they nourished a few fruit trees such as the apple, pear, cherry, apricot, and quince. In the lower valleys of Talori the fig also flourished and the vine, but in the course of the massacre all fruit trees and vineyards throughout the region were systematically cut down. Honey of excellent quality was very abundant. These clever people made even their own iron tools, which were so good as to be readily sold in Moosh and other neighboring towns. The villagers obtained the iron from the crude ore which, after being laboriously extracted by hand was reduced in rude furnaces, kept at melting heat by hand bellows day and night, two weeks at a time. The only fuel used was wood, and care had to be taken not to let the metal run out in quantities larger than a black¬ smith could easily handle in making a plowshare, 164 The Crisis in Turkey . scythe, axe, sword, or knife. The report that these blacksmiths even had the skill to make a rifle barrel is a mistake. I once asked a man and his wife to enumerate the various tasks which fell to their respective sexes and was quite amused at the eager competition into which they at once entered. Strange to say, the woman entirely omitted the training and care of children as one of her additional burdens. When I called attention to this oversight they both exclaimed “ The children take care of themselves.” And so they do, almost from the first. The children, with their bright eyes and ruddy faces, would be attractive but for the fact that they were often far from tidy, and were dressed in coarse garments of red or blue. They were loved but not often petted, being taught to be silent and to show an air of reverence in the presence of their elders. At a very early age, the children were initiated into the employments which were to occupy their lives. Almost the onlv men who knew how to read and * write were those connected with the Church, and they were by no means adepts. In the matter of numbers, however, they could easily calculate with¬ out the aid of figures. These intelligent highlanders knew the value of education, and had repeatedly tried to start schools in their villages, but they were invariably closed by the government. The morality of the people of Sassoun was of a very high standard. Wine made by themselves was moderately used on festive occasions, but drunken¬ ness was practically unknown. The mountain Armenian Village Life . 165 women, unlike their sisters of the cities, used the veil, not to cover the face, but to fall as a graceful drapery down the back. They had the frank and direct look which we are accustomed to see only in children, and were quick to detect and resent evil, even with violence, as the intruder would find to his cost. These people had neither laws nor courts, but referred their disputes to the head-man of the vil¬ lage, from whose decision appeal was rarely made. The head-man, or “ reis ,” held office simply by com¬ mon consent of the villagers, not as a hereditary right or a prerogative of wealth, but because of superior character and ability. Religion was a vital matter to the people of Sas- soun, but concerned itself only with the barest essen¬ tials. They had no more conception of theologi¬ cal doctrines than had the people who listened to the Sermon on the Mount. Christianity was to them a story, the characters of which were real and kept before them by the frequent festivals of the Chris¬ tian year. They felt profound reverence for the Virgin Mary, but Christ was the object of their wor¬ ship. Their gratitude, submission, and love to Him would find expression in brief significant exclama¬ tions, deep sighs, and sometimes silent tears. Such evidences I have frequently noticed among Armenian peasants as they listened to the reading of the Scrip¬ tures or engaged in prayer. Their first daily act as they stepped from their dark cheerless dwellings was an act of prayer, accompanied by repeated prostra¬ tions to the East with the sign of the Cross. A large number of villagers who had escaped the 166 The Crisis in Turkey . general massacre, and, relying on Turkish promises, followed their priest into the soldiers’ camp, were offered their lives on condition they would trample upon the Crucifix and Holy Gospels. But the priest in horror refused to commit this sacrilege, and every member of his flock, following his example, was forth¬ with butchered. I have carefully verified these details of Sassoun life and of the massacre in conversation with Bedros and his wife, who, after escaping almost miraculously, when a score of their relatives were killed before their eyes, were brought to London to give their testimony. I was profoundly impressed with the simple dignity and absolute truthfulness of these witnesses, who bore bodily scars, and in their faces showed the evidence of the terrible sorrow and suf¬ fering through which they had so lately gone. When asked what his impression was of England, the man thoughtfully replied : “ I wonder at the houses, the great buildings, the fields all like gardens, the multitude of people, their wealth, and their churches ; but, most of all, I wonder that with all their greatness and power they did not lift a finger to save us, their poor fellow-Christians, of whose sufferings they have so long been officially informed.” The following incident throws much light upon the character and environment of the people of Sassoun. About six years ago twenty armed Kurds suddenly came down upon the house of a rich man near Ghelieguzan to steal the sheep, when only his wife and children were at home. They ordered the woman to prepare a good meal before they left. In Armenian Village Life . 167 the most obliging manner the housewife set about her task. But in the meantime she dispatched one of her little boys to give the alarm to the men, away on the mountain side. The unsuspecting Kurds hung their long flint-lock rifles on the walls of the kitchen, and went out to search the stables and collect the live stock. While they were engaged in this work, out of sight, the woman with her strong fingers, quickly pulled out the flint from the lock of each musket, leaving them still hanging on the wall. In order to allow the men of her family more time, she prepared a specially elaborate meal, to which the Kurds made no objection. But when they were in the midst of the repast, they suddenly found themselves surrounded by the villagers who had hastily mustered. Each Kurd seized his flint-lock only to find it useless. They thereupon drew their swords and daggers, and were about to make a rush to escape, but were quickly brought to bay by the levelled muskets of the Armenians, to whom they thought best to surrender. After being stripped of all their arms and outer garments the Kurds were informed that they might go home, and if they wished their weapons they might return the next day with reinforcements and try to take them. The Kurds did not see fit to try this method, but so pes¬ tered the Armenians in other ways, that at the end of three months the muskets were given back to avoid further trouble. It should not be thought, however, that such inci¬ dents as this could occur among the Armenians any¬ where in Turkey, except among the highlanders of 168 The Crisis in Turkey. Sassoun, or those of Zeitoun, three hundred miles west in the Taurus mountains. These two little communities were quite exceptional in their secure location and brave spirit. The other Armenians throughout Eastern Turkey, timid and crushed by more severe oppression, used to speak of the Sas- sounlis with an admiration almost akin to reverence. It was on this account that they were singled out by the Government for extermination, for it was feared that their brave and independent spirit might spread to the Armenians of the plains and cities, while their destruction, on the other hand, would strike terror everywhere, and prove a salutary object-lesson to those who might be disposed to express dissatisfac¬ tion with the Sultan’s rule. In this calculation the Turks were mistaken. The blood of those noble mountaineers, instead of acting like a stupefying drug upon the Armenian race, proved to be a stimu¬ lant, and enlisted the sympathy of Europe. This so alarmed and irritated the Turks that, in order to prevent any progress of the Armenians either through their own efforts or those of Europe, they have committed further massacres in comparison with which Sassoun hardly deserves to be mentioned. There are no words to characterize the cowardly betrayal of the Armenians by England, and Europe which guaranteed their protection. The “ Powers ” impotent for good, while masquer¬ ading in the livery of Christianity, have proved its worst enemies and shown themselves callous even to the principles of ordinary humanity. APPENDIX A. A BIT OF AMERICAN DIPLOMACY IN TURKEY. THE CASE. (Foreign Relations of the United States, 1884, pp. 538-539. J ) (Inclosure in No. 317.) Mr. Wallace to Aarifi Pasha. Note Verbale. Legation of the United States, Constantinople , January 24, 1884. The legation of the United States of America has the honor to in¬ vite the attention of his highness, the minister of foreign affairs, to the matters following : By note No. 167, June 13, 1883, the legation informed his high¬ ness that two American citizens, traveling in the vilayet of Bitlis, had been set upon by Kurds, robbed, and left to die, and that the governor-general of the vilayet had manifested the most singular in¬ difference about the affair, and might be fairly charged with responsi¬ bility for the escape of the malefactors. The suggestion was then made that his highness would serve the cause of humanity and justice by ordering the most energetic measures to be taken for the appre¬ hension of the robbers. By a communication, No. 71235, June 13, 1883, his highness was good enough to answer the note of the legation, and give the pleas- 1 This is an exact copy of the official documents as published by the State Department, capitalization included. 169 The Crisis in Turkey. 170 ing intelligence that the governor-general had succeeded in discover¬ ing the goods taken from the two gentlemen, and that the robbers had been arrested and delivered up to justice. This information his highness reported as derived from the governor-general. This report the legation found it necessary to correct; and for that purpose it addressed a second note to his highness, the minister of foreign affairs, No. 179, dated September 10, 1883, declaring that the robbers had not been arrested, and that the goods and money taken from Messrs. Knapp and Reynolds had been returned to them, but in small parts. Under impression that it was yet possible to obtain the powerful assistance of the Sublime Porte in bringing the thieves and assassins to justice, the legation in the same note proceeded to give the full particulars of the affair, both those connected with the as¬ sault and those descriptive of the action of the governor-general. Of the assault, it remarked that Messrs. Knapp and Reynolds, accepting the assurance of the governor-general that the roads were perfectly safe, set out on their journey without a guard of zaptiehs. They put up for a night at a house where there was present Moussa Bey, son of Meza Bey, an influential Kurdish chief. When they took their coffee they failed to send a cup of it to the said Moussa, who feeling himself insulted by the inattention, took four assistants and next day waylaid the gentlemen, one of whom, Mr. Knapp, they beat with clubs until they supposed him dead. Moussa Bey, with his own hand, cut down Dr. Reynolds, giving him ten cuts with a sword. The two were then bound and dragged into the bushes and there left to die. That there might be no excuse, such as that the murderers were unknown, the legation gave his highness the names of the sub¬ ordinate assassins and their places of abode, Sherif Oglon Osman and Iskan Oglon Hassan, both of the village of Movnok. A third one was pointed out as the servant of Moussa Bey, living in the vil¬ lage of Kabiaa. Of the action of the governor-general the legation said further that when the affair was reported to him he made a show of action by sending zaptiehs to arrest the robbers, but, singular to remark, he selected Meza Bey, the father of Moussa, to take charge of the party. Going to the village of Auzont, Meza Bey pointed out four Kurds of another tribe as the guilty men, took them into cus¬ tody and carried them for identification to Messrs. Knapp and Rey¬ nolds, who said they were not the assailants. During the night, in Aozou, a bundle was thrown through a window into a room occupied by the police, which on examination proved to Appendix. 1 7 i contain a portion of the stolen goods. With this the governor-gen¬ eral rested from his efforts and dispatched to his highness the minis¬ ter of foreign affairs, that the stolen goods were recovered and returned, and the felons captured and punished. This report, the legation took the liberty of informing his highness, was not true, also that the chief of the assassins, Moussa Bey, was still at large ; and to emphasize its statement, the legation further said to his highness, that the details it communicated were current through all the region of Bitlis, having been first given out by Moussa himself. The lega¬ tion then, in the same note, exposed the maladministration of the governor-general in language plain as respect for his highness, the minister, and for the Sublime Porte would permit, and suggested as the only means of accomplishing anything like redress that a brave impartial officer be sent to Bitlis to investigate the conduct of the governor and take the affair in his own hands. “ Such a step,” it was added, “ might serve to save the lives of many Christians,” and it was further represented that “could the assassins be brought to just sentence it would unquestionably lessen the demand for indem¬ nity which otherwise it would be the duty of the legation to present against the Imperial Government in this connection.” On November 7, 1883, the legation of the United States, by a third note, No. 184, communicated to his highness, the minister of foreign affairs, that the governor-general of Bitlis had confronted four per¬ sons with Mr. Knapp for identification, and that that gentleman had recognized Moussa Bey as one of those who had robbed and wounded him. The legation of the United States then expressed a hope that the minister of foreign affairs would give proper orders for bringing Moussa Bey and his companions in crime before the tribunals for trial. Still later, on November 12, 1883, the legation of the United States addressed a fourth note, No. 185, to his highness, the minister of foreign affairs, detailing again the circumstances of the attempted murder of Messrs. Knapp and Reynolds, and representing the un¬ trustworthiness of the governor-general by charging that Moussa Bey had already obtained from him assurances of immunity in the event of a trial and conviction. His highness, the minister, was then requested that, if it was decided to maintain the governor-general at his post, orders be given for the transfer of the criminals to Constantinople'for trial. The three notes last named of the legation of the United States The Crisis in Turkey . 172 have not been answered by his highness, the minister of foreign affairs, except in a note, dated December 8, 1883, in which he is pleased to renew assurances based upon telegrams from the governor- general, which are utterly unreliable. Wherefore, abandoning hope of justice through the governor- general of Bitlis, and the judicial tribunals of the empire, the legation of the United States finds itself compelled to change its form of ap¬ plication for redress, and demand of the Sublime Porte indemnity in behalf of Messrs. Knapp and Reynolds, for the former ,£1,500, and for the latter, because of the more serious nature of his injuries, ^“2,000. THE POSITION TAKEN IN WASHINGTON. (Foreign Relations of the United States, 1884, p. 544.) No. 419. Mr. Frelinghuysen to Mr. Wallace. (No. 153.) Department of State, Washington, February ij, 1S84. Sir: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your No. 317, of the 25th ultimo, relative to the case of the Rev. Mr. Knapp and Dr. Reynolds, murderously attacked by Kurds near Bitlis, and to say that, after a careful consideration of all the facts before the Depart¬ ment, the inaction of the governor of Bitlis and the failure of the supreme Government to force him to undertake such measures as the case evidently demanded, must be regarded as a denial of justice. While this Government is always averse to making money demands for indemnity in countries whose administration of justice may differ from our own, the Department feels compelled to resort to this remedy under circumstances which manifestly make the local officers and the Government of the Porte responsible for the failure to do justice in this case. The action reported in your dispatch is, consequently, approved. I am, &c., Fred’k T. Frelinghuysen, Appendix . 173 THE POSITION TAKEN IN CONSTANTINOPLE. General Lew Wallace is understood to have been emphatically a persona grata as U. S. Minister to Turkey, in fact to have en¬ joyed, to a very exceptional degree, the personal confidence and friendship of His Majesty the present Sultan. The following quota¬ tion will show what treatment even he received in the discharge of his official duties in the case under consideration : From the Regular Correspondent of the Tribune. Constantinople, March i, 1884. The Porte, in deciding how far it is safe to affront foreign Gov¬ ernments, has even ranked the United States below some of the European States. The Porte during the past year has treated Gen¬ eral Wallace as if he were the representative of a Danubian Princi¬ pality. Remonstrance after remonstrance against fresh violations of the treaties it has left unanswered, and it has repeatedly omitted the courtesy of a bare acknowledgment of their receipt. In fact, Turkey has been relying upon the distance of the United States. Perhaps its officials even suppose that the American navy is afraid to risk adven¬ tures so far from home as the coasts of the Levant. General Wallace found it necessary, for the sake of the safety of American citizens in Turkey, to press for some definition of the situa¬ tion. During nearly five weeks he had been refused a personal interview with the Minister of Foreign Affairs on the ground of “ indisposition.” During all that time the representative of that Min¬ ister declined to enter upon any discussion of the important questions at issue. Four times the Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States had been turned away from the door of the Sublime Porte by the refusal of the Grand Vizier to see him. Each time plausible reasons were assigned which seemed to render any insistance on the part of the General uncourteous. Yet it became daily more evident that all these plausible excuses for declining negotiation on the inju¬ ries done by Turkey to American commerce and to American citizens were part of a settled purpose not to redress the wrongs.— New York Semi-Weekly Tribune , March 28, 1884. *74 The Crisis in Turkey . THE RESULT. The ten years that have elapsed since the above was written clearly show that what seemed then to be a “ settled purpose ” has become the settled policy of the Ottoman Government in regard to Americans and their rights in Turkey. In regard to the outcome of the case of Messrs. Knapp and Ray- nolds, the humiliating fact must be recorded that not one cent of the indemnity demanded by the United States of America has to this day been obtained. The monster, Moussa Bey, was allowed by the Turkish Government to continue his outrages on the Armenian vil¬ lages of the great Moosh plain, until his record became so appalling, that under European pressure the Porte summoned him to Constanti¬ nople, where he was entertained as the Sultan’s guest. He was whitewashed by the courts, but the Sultan was prevailed upon to invite him to make a pilgrimage to Medina at his expense, and there spend the remainder of his days in religious exercises. APPENDIX B. U. S. CONSULATES IN EASTERN TURKEY. / The following petition was recently presented to the Hon. Walter Q. Gresham, Secretary of State, and to the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, for the establish¬ ment of U. S. Consulates at Erzerum and Harpoot. The necessary legislation has been promptly enacted, for which the thanks of all Americans in Turkey is due to His Excellency the President, to the Secretary of State and to members of both Houses of Congress. Washington, D. C., Jan. 3, 1895. Apropos to the recent massacre of five thousand Armenians in Turkey, it is clearly inexpedient for the United States to mix up in the Eastern Question. But it is equally clear that the duty of pro¬ tecting a large body of native born American citizens constantly sub¬ jected to danger , injury and insult in that land is not complicated by atiy Monroe Doctrine . In their interests, attention is called to this brief statement of facts, and to a practical request for consular pro- , tection. 1. Number of Individuals and Interests Involved. Distributed in thirty of the principal cities of Asiatic Turkey alone, there is a permanent body of two hundred and fifty Americans , not including their children, who hold over two million dollars of Ameri¬ can property for residence and the use of their educational, medical, publishing and religious enterprises. These figures do not cover the large commercial interests of Ameri¬ cans in Turkey, for which statistics are not at hand. 2. Nature and Extent of the Danger to which they are Exposed. There are two sources of danger: first, the lawlessness of numerous highwaymen who infest the country, and of the fanatical Moslem 175 176 The Crists in Turkey . population of the cities; and second, the hostility of Turkish officials, who have repeatedly failed to restrain, and in some cases have even encouraged attacks upon the lives and property of American citizens. 3. Evidence of this Dangerous Condition. So far back as June 29th, 1881, Secretary Blaine, in official instruc¬ tions to Minister Wallace at Constantinople, wrote : “ Your attention will doubtless be prominently and painfully drawn to the insecurity of the lives and property of foreign travelers in Turkey, and the failures of the authorities to prevent or repress outrages upon American citizens by wayside robbers and murderers, or even to execute its own laws in the rare instances of the perpetra¬ tors of such outrages being brought to justice. I cannot take a better text on which to base this instruction, than the accompanying copy of a letter addressed to the President by a number of American resi¬ dents in Turkey. Its statements are known to be entirely within the truth, and can be verified abundantly from the files of your legation. They show in simple yet forcible language, the insecurity of traveling in that country, and the instances to the number of eight, within the past two years, when American citizens have been robbed and beaten by lawless marauders. On these occasions the lives of the assailed have been at the mercy of the robbers and, in one instance at least, the taking of life preceded the robbery.”-— Foreign Rela¬ tions of the United States 1881. The above extract refers to outrages in Western Asia Minor and the vicinity of Constantinople, but it is well known that in the Eastern and interior part of Turkey, where many of us live, the in¬ security is greater and has steadily increased, during the thirteen years that have elapsed since the above facts were admitted by the State Department. The murderous attack by a Kurdish chief in person, which nearly cost Dr. G. C. Raynolds, of Van his life, and for which no indemnity was ever obtained , though the assailant was positively identified in court, is reported in full in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1883, 1884, and 1890. The arrest and indignities inflicted upon Mr. Richardson of Erz- erum, by the Governor-General, for which no apology even was ever secured, are related in Foreign Relations of the United States 1891. The burning of Marsoyan College by an unrestrained Turkish mob % Appendix. i and the danger to the lives of many American residents is found in Foreign Relations of the, United States 1893. More cases of injury and insult, may be found in the same official records. But in many other instances it has been felt to be useless and inexpedient to even report them. The absence of any American representative to substantiate and vindicate our rights on the ground, and the hopelessness of securing anything but further injury by trying to press our claims , often drives us to the humiliating necessity of sujfering injustice with scarcely a protest. THE REQUEST. We feel that the condition shown by the above evidence, not to add more, abundantly justifies a renewed request for some Consular protection in the Eastern part of Turkey, for the American citizens per 77 ianently residing there in the prosecution of lawful pursuits. Our present exposed and helpless condition is clearly set forth in a communication from the United States Legation at Constantinople, to the State Department : “It may not be doubted that the absence of an American Consul at Erzroom leaves our citizens there singularly destitute of means to vindicate their rights and protect their interests ; this is the more regrettable as Erzroom is a missionary station of con¬ siderable importance, and situated in a province where official pro¬ tection is most frequently and urgently needed. The British Consul there is instructed to act 1 unofficially ’ for our citizens , but his right to represent the7n is not recognized by the Ottoman authorities ; the obvious C 07 iseque 7 ice is, that when his good offices are 77 iost needed, they are of least avail." Foreig/i Relations of United States 1891. We are thus seen to be cut off from Consular protection of any kind. The nearest U. S. Consul, Mr. Jewett of Sivas, an excellent man, is unavailable for us for three reasons : first, the delay and difficulty in communicating with him on account of our isolation, and the very circuitous post-routes, in case the local authorities were kind enough not to intercept our letters, as they have repeatedly, even the official correspondence of the United States Minister ( Foreign Re¬ lations of the U. S. 1893); second, the distance and methods of travel are such that probably from one to two months would elapse after any outrage, before the Sivas Consul could be notified and arrive ; third, the Consul at Sivas could not leave his post without neglecting the large American interests in Asia Minor. The Crisis in Turkey . 178 Aside from being needed when special difficulties do occur, it is obvious that the mere presence of a United States Consul on the ground would have a marked effect in deterring both the lawless and fanatical elements, and the officials, who have never seen the stars and stripes, from repeating acts which have caused much injury to the interests of American citizens, and have been the occasion of tedious and unpleasant diplomatic correspondence between the two countries. The expense of living in Turkey is unusually low. In view of all the foregoing facts, it is urgently requested that American Consuls be located at Erzerum and Harpoot. These cities are large centres of population and of American interests, and the seat of Provincial Governors. They have large commercial and strategic importance, and as good facilities for communication by post, telegraph, or private messenger as the country affords. From Erzerum, Bitlis and Van could also be cared for, while Mardin and Mosul would naturally be under Harpoot, and thus the Americans of that whole territory would be brought within two or three week’s journey of Consular protection. We are from seven hundred to one thousand miles from Constan¬ tinople, which means a journey of three to six weeks. The fact that at least g,ooo men, women and children in our midst have been mas¬ sacred , and this fact kept nearly three months from the civilized world, is a- significant hint as to our isolation and danger. The articles in the last Harper's Weekly , Dec. 29, and in the Review of Reviews , Jan. 1895, give much light on the situation. With shame it must be recorded that, although Congress, in Janu¬ ary, 1895, authorized United States consulates at Erzerum and Har¬ poot, the Executive branch of the Government has failed to secure their establishment. Messrs. Chilton and Hunter, both excellent men, were sent to Turkey as properly accredited consuls. But the Porte refused to recognize them, and the United States, as usual, swallowed the insult. This course so emboldened the Turkish Government, that it pro¬ ceeded in November, 1S95, to burn and bombard the important American settlement at Harpoot. These soon followed the burning of an American building in Marash. The timid and tardy manner in which indemnity is now being sought, is likely to lead to greater insolence by Turkey, and the ultimate ruin of American interests throughout the Empire. APPENDIX C. dr. hamlin’s explanation. (New York Herald , December 20 , iSgg..) To the Editor of the Herald : A cutting from the Herald has been sent to me to-day containing a letter of His Excellency, Mavroyeni, on the Armenian atrocities. I must strongly object to the use he makes of a letter of mine in the Boston Congregaiionalist of last year (December 23, 1893). The object of that letter was to show the absurdity of the revolu¬ tionary plotters. The Armenians are a noble race, but few in num¬ ber, scattered and unarmed. The Turkish Government has never had the least fear of any such movement. It knows well that there is no place in the Empire where one thousand or even one hundred Ar¬ menians could assemble with hostile intent. And besides they have no arms, and they are not accustomed to their use. They would be lambs in the midst of wolves. Every one knows this who knows any¬ thing of Turkey outside of Constantinople. It is to be greatly regretted that the Ottoman Ambassador should attempt to cover up the path of these horrid atrocities which have agitated the whole Christian world and for which Turkey must give account. It were far better to deplore the fact and work for justice and judgment. It may be the time has passed when such deeds of blood and torture, committed upon unarmed men, women and chil¬ dren, can be condoned by the civilized world. The plots of the revolutionists were harmless as to any effective force, but were very pernicious in arousing fanaticism. The fact that a few hair-brained young men in foreign lands had plotted a revo¬ lution was a sufficient reason in the view of Moslem fanaticism for devoting the whole race to destruction. It was this which I feared and it is this which has happened. 179 The Crisis in Turkey. 180 Another object of the letter, from which His Excellency has quoted, was to draw attention to the fact that this revolutionary movement is a game which Russia is playing in her own interests. And she has played it well. She has again caught Turkey in her trap. The whole civilized world will now approve of her marching in with force to stop the slaughter of an industrious, peaceful, unarmed peasantry. If Russia enters, it will be with professions of great kindness toward the Sultan. It will be to aid him in his well known benevolent in¬ tentions in the government of his Christian subjects ! But she will call the Armenians to her standard and will arm and train them and they will prove a brave and valiant soldiery. Some of the ablest generals of the Russian army have been Armenians. Thus armed and trained, with the aid of their Russian allies, they will defend their own homes in the Sassoun or any other district. Turkey has brought this upon herself. His Excellency is a Greek gentleman, and has a natural sympathy with Russia. His influence has been to magnify the revolutionary plots instead of showing, as my letter did, their insignificance and their Russian character, and has led his government to give to them an importance which seems absurd. The Turkish Government has had sufficient opportunity to study and understand Russia since the Treaty of 1S29, and again of 1833. Have her trusted advisers been true to her, or have they betrayed her interests ? The civilized and Christian world awaits with profound and fixed attention the solution of the question whether bloody, fanatical vio¬ lence or law shall reign over the Eastern regions of the Turkish Empire. Cyrus Hamlin. Lexington, Mass., December 18, 1894. APPENDIX D. THE CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS., With what intelligence and religious toleration the censorship of the press is conducted may be judged from examples found in an official document : “ The quotation, in religious books, of the words of Scripture for proof or illustration, has been subjected to the will of the censor ; and even the printing of religious books has been objected to on the ground that since Christians are graciously allowed to use the Holy Bible, they need no other books of religion. Appeal from the deci¬ sions of the censors is practically unavailing. This censor insists that the Scriptural phrase ‘ Kingdom of Christ ’ may not be used by Christians. “ The index list of the Bible lessons for 1893 is simply a table of contents prepared by the British Sunday School Union. The cen¬ sors have refused to permit the publication of this index list, unless some fifty titles are erased, or modified into a form at variance with the matter of the lessons, or expanded to a degree impossible in a brief table of contents, for example : St. Luke iv., 14-21, * Gospel liberty.’ The word ‘liberty’ must be erased. Jeremiah xxxiii., 7-16, ‘Sor¬ row turned to joy.’ This title must be suppressed. Haggai ii., 1-9, ‘ Encouraging the people.’ This title, which refers to the Divine encouragement given to the people in the work of rebuilding the temple in the days of Zerubbabel, must be erased. “Psalm xxxiii., 10-22, * Wicked devices frustrated.’ This title must be stricken out. “Esther iv., 1—9, ‘Sorrow in the palace.’ This title must be suppressed. “ Romans iv., 1-8, ‘ Saved by grace.’ This title must be modified to read ‘ Saved from sin by grace.’ 181 The Crisis in Turkey . I o2 “Psalm xxxviii., 8-15, ‘ Hope in distress.’ This title must be suppressed. “Joshua i., 1-9, ‘ Fear not.’ This title can not be allowed. “ Romans viii., 31-39, ‘ Rejoicingin persecution.’ This title must be erased. “ Romans xv., 25-33, ‘ A benevolent object.’ This title cannot be allowed to stand unless the object is stated .”—Foreign delations of the United States, 1893. We learn that four months after the complaint was made the par¬ ticular points specified above were arranged. But as soon as foreign pressure was relaxed the activity of the Censor revived, and is now more intolerable than ever. A gentleman of long experience and intimate knowledge writing from behind the scenes within a month, states : “ The Censorship of the Press is so severe as to amount almost to a prohibition. At Constantinople a most reckless and destructive mutilation of books goes on ; and, contrary to the ex¬ pressed utterances of the Porte guaranteeing religious liberty, Chris¬ tian doctrines are expunged or changed, so as, at times, to become ridiculous and false. The men appointed as Censors of the Press seem to be utterly ignorant of all Christian literature and history and their object is to make all books conform to the doctrines of Islam. “ The religious weekly of the American Mission in Syria, which had been published for thirty years, was suppressed for a whole year, no reason being given ; and when the permit was finally secured, it was accompanied by puerile and humiliating conditions.” Some special departments of literature, such as history and poetry, are forbidden, wholesale, by the Censor. Many of the Censor’s deci¬ sions and the grounds on which they are based would be most laugh¬ able, but for the fact that they are part of an attempt to throttle and starve the hungry and growing minds of millions. APPENDIX E. * PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE SUBJECT. HISTORICAL. Norman, Armenia and the Campaign 0/1877. London, 1878. Milner, The Turkish Empire. London: Religious Tract So¬ ciety. Clark, The Arabs and the Turks. New York : Dodd & Mead. Tozer, The Church and the Eastern Empire. New York : Ran¬ dolph. London : Longmans. Latimer, Russia and Turkey in the XIX. Century. Chicago: McClurg & Co., 1894. Morfill, Russia. New York : Putnams. London : T. Fisher Unwin, 1893. Lane Poole, Turkey. New York : Putnams. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1893. Churchill, Druzes and Maronites. London: Quaritch, 1862. Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe, The Eastern Question. London: John Murray, 1881. Latham, Russian and Tiirk. London : Allen, 1878. Layard, Nineveh and its Remains. London: Murray. Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies. Murray. Rawlinson, The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Longmans. Rawlinson, The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy. Longmans. TRAVEL. Smith and Dwight, Researches in Armenia. 2 vols. Boston : Crocker & Brewster, 1833. Stephens, Greece , Turkey , Russia , and Poland. 2 vols. New York : Harpers, 1839. 183 184 The Crisis in Turkey . Southgate, A Tour through Armenia, Persia , and Mesopotamia 2 vols. New York : D. Appleton & Co., 1840. Van Lennep, Travels in Asia Minor. 2 vols. New York : Van Lennep, 1870. Van Lennep, Bible Lands : Their Modern Customs and Manners. New York : Harpers, 1875. Theilmann, Journey in the Caucasus , Persia , and Turkey. 2 vols. London: 1875. Creagh, Armenians , Koords , and Turks. London: 1880. Tozer, Turkish Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor. London: 1881. Bishop, Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan. 2 vols. New York; Putnams. London: John Murray, 1891. MOHAMMEDANISM. Sale’s, The Koran. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Wardle, 1833. Smith, R. Bosworth, Mohammed and Mohammedanism. London: John Murray. New York : Harpers, 1875. Washburn, The Points of Contact and Contrast between Christi¬ anity and Mohammedanism. Chicago : The Parliament Publishing Company, 1893. Burton, Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Mecca. New York : Putnams. Belfast: Mullan. Muir, Life of Mahomet. London. Sprenger, Life of Mohammed. Allahabad, 1851. Irving, Life of Mahomet. Putnams. Stobart, Lslayn and its Founder. Christian Knowledge Soc. Pfander, Mezan el LLoc. London : Church Missionary Society. Hughes, Notes on Muhammadanism. London : Allen, 1877. Osborn, Lslam under the Arabs. London: Longmans, Green. Muir, The Coran. London : Christian Knowledge Society. Koelle, Mohammed and Mohammedanism. London : Riving- ton’s, 1889. Arnold, Lslam and Christianity. London : Longmans. Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam. Ameer Ali, Life and Teachings of Mohammed. London: Williams. Appendix. 185 MISSIONS. The Missionary Herald , 1820-1894. Boston : The American Board. Dwight, Christianity Revived in the East. New York : Baker & Scribner, 1850. Anderson, Rlissions to the Oriental Churches. 2 vols. Boston : Congregational Publishing Society, 1872. Wheeler, Letters from Eden. Boston : American Tract Society, 1868. Wheeler, Ten Years on the Euphrates. Boston: American Tract Society, i860. Wheeler, Daughters of Armenia. New York : American Board, 1891. Prime, Forty Years in the Turkish Empire, or Memoirs of Rev. William Goodell, D.D., Boston : American Tract Society, 1877. Laurie, Missions and Science. Boston : American Board, 1885. Laurie, Dr. Grant and the Mountain Nestorians . Boston : Gould & Lincoln, 1853. Jessup, The Mohammedan Missionary Problem. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1879. Schauffler , Autobiography. New York : Randolph, 1888. Hamlin, Among the Turks. New York: Robt. Carter & Bro. Hamlin, My Life and Times. Boston : Congregational S. S. and Pub. Soc. ARMENIAN HISTORY. Moses Chorenf.nsis, Armenian History , Arm. and Lat. London : William and George Whiston, 1736. Langlois, Victor, Collection des LListoriens anciens et ?nodernes de VArmenie, en Fran^ais. Vol. i. Historiens grecs et syriens traduits anciennement en Armenien. Vol. II. Historiens armeniens de 5 e siecle. 8° . Paris, 1867. Dulaurier. Recueil des Historiens des Croisades. Documents Armeniens. Paris, 1869. Folio with fac-simile reproductions. Pp. 855. Arm. and French. Dulaurier, Etude sur VOrganisation Politique, Religieuse et Administrative du Royaume de la Petite-Armenie a Pepoque des Croisades. Paris, 1862. Lenormant, Sur l'Ethnographie et THistoire de TArmenie, avant les Achdmenides. In Lettres Assyriologiques. 1871. 186 The Crisis in Turkey . Inscriptions d'un Reliquaire Armenien. With plates. Paris, 1883. Neumann, The History of Vartan by Elisaeus. Translated from the Armenian. London, 1830. Malan, The Life and Times of St. Gregory the Illuminator. Translated from Armenian. London, 1868. Chamich, History of Armenia. Translated from Armenian into English by Avdall. Calcutta, 1827. Stubbs, William. The Mediceval Kingdoms of Cyprus and Ar¬ menia. In Seventeen Lectures, etc. 1886. Genealogical Catalogue of the Kings of Armenia. Oriental Trans¬ lation Fund. Vol. ii. London, 1834. Gabrielian, The Armenians or People of Ararat. Philadelphia : Allen, Lane & Scott, 1892. ARMENIAN LITERATURE. Neve, Felix, L ' Armenie Chretienne et sa Litterature. Louvain, 1886. Catalogue des anciennes traductions Armeniennes , siecles iv.-xiii. 8 0> pp. 783. Venezia, 1889. Dwight, Catalogue of all Works known to exist in the Armenian Language earlier than the Seventeenth Century. American Oriental Society. Vol. iii. 1853. FORTESCUE, The Armenian Church , History , Literature , Doc¬ trine. London, 1872. ISSAVERDENZ, The Divine Ordinances according to the Catholic Armenian Ritual. Venice, 1867. Alishan, Armenian Popular Songs. Armenian and English. Venice, 1867. Lord Byron’s Armenian Exercises and Poetry. Armenian and English. Venice, 1870. GENERAL INDEX. A Aberdeen, Lord, 72 Aghtamar, 14 r, 145 Alexander, 53, 133 Americans Position, 67, 148 Number, 149 Work, 141, 148-151 Influence, 152-154 Interests, 147-166 Anglo-Armenian Assoc., 69 Anglo-Turkish Convention See England Armenia Land Name, 44, 46 Extent, 45 Aspects, 44-46 Inhabitants, 45, 46 Condition, 9, 15, 32, 35, 39, 42, 46, 62-65 Autonomy, 69, 81 Race Origin, 132 Number, 45, 142 Distribution, 44 Characteristics, 52, 140 Condition, chap, i., ii., iii., >v, • “ Revolution,” Preface, Chap, i., 69, 81, 167 Progress, 79, 117, 154 History Biblical, 132, 133 Classical, 134, 135 Armenian Sources, 144 In General, 53 Church Apostolic Tradition, 136 Founder, 136 Doctrine, 137 Form, 137, 144 Heroic Struggle, 53 Decline, 139 Reform, 140, 143, 154 Catholicos, 137, 138 Political Significance, 138 Future, 138 Literature Language, 132, 143 Pre-Christian, 143 Golden Age, 144 Second Period, 144 Modern Revival, 146 General Character, 144 Massacre See Massacres Arnaut, 98 187 188 General Index . Austria, Preface, 104 Author, Purpose, Preface, 147 B Bagdad, 48 Baibourt, 46 Bashi-Bazouk, 98, 102 Bashkalla, 16, 49 Berlin Treaty. See Treaties Bibliography, Appendix E Bilotti, Consul, 113 Bishop, Mrs., 62, 67, 131, 154 Bismarck, Preface, 78 Bitlis, 12, 16, 37, 43 Blue-Books. See England Blowitz, M. de, 83 Bosnia, 83, 84 Britannica, Encyc., 48, 49 Bryce, Hon. James, Preface, 69 Bulgaria, 73, 83, 96, 101, 126 Byron, Lord, 154 Byzantine Empire, 53, 134 C Cairo University, 75 Castle, Kurdish, 49 Catholicos. See Armenia Censorship, 73, Append. C Chermside, Consul, 113 Chios, 97 Chosroes, 137 Christianity, Toleration. See Mohammedanism Churchill, 96, 100 Circassians, 73 Code Napoleon, 89 Commission of Inquiry. See Massacres Consular Reports. British. See England United States, 66 Council of Chalcedon, 157 Courts. See Turkey Crete. See Massacres Crimean War, 72 Crisis, 33, 35, 82, 84, Preface Cyprus Convention, 72, 76 D Diarbekir, 48 Diplomacy American, Preface, Append. A, B European, Preface, Chap. v. Turkish, 70, 77, 93 E Eastern Question, Preface, 68, 85 Education, 87, 140, 143, 150, 155 Egypt, 83 England Attitude, Preface Responsibility, 69, 73, 76, 79, 103, 128. See Treaties Efforts, 76-79, 123 Consular Reports, Preface, 48, 66, 68, 74, 77, 78, 112 Erzerum, 46, 62, 66, 113 Erzingan, 21, 23, 46 Everett, Consul, 113 F Fanaticism. See Mohamme-. danism General Index. France, Preface, 78, 104, 107, 138, 140, 149 Freeman, 79, 85, 88, 117 G Genghis Khan, 136 Germany, Preface, 78, 104 Gladstone, on Consular Reports, Preface Sassoun Massacre, 121-125 Turkish Rule, 126-130 Goschen, 78 Granville, 77 Greece, 83, 89, 97, 127, 133, 154 Gregory, The Illuminator. See Armenian Church H HALLWARD, Consul, 16 Hamlin, Cyrus, 81, 167 Hannibal, 134 Harpoot, 48 FIatti Humayoun, 72 Hatti Sherif, 71 Herodotus, 133 Herzegovina, 183 Hughes, 89 Humanity, Preface, 1, 33, 123, 127, 129 I Ibrahim Pasha, 71 Identical Note, 76 “Illuminator,” 53, 137, 138. See Armenian Church Imperial Rescript, 71 189 Independent, The, 54, 95, 101 Information Channels, 66 Danger of, Preface, 1,15, 16, 54, 62 Sultan’s, 13, 89, 92, 93 Islam. See Mohammedanism Italy, Preface, 104 J Jacobite, 54, 89 Jessup, 75 Jesuit, 137 Jews, 68, 89 K Kallay, M. de, 84 Kermanshah, 46 Khrimian, Catholicos, 138 Motto on Title-page Khoshab, Castle, 50 Knapp, Attack on, 157 Koran. See Mohammedanism Kurdistan Country, 46 Kurds, 48-52 “Hamidieh” Troops, 1-30, 126 Outrages, 54-69, 157-164 L Latham, 96 Layard, 96, 99 Lebanon, 93 Leon VI., 136 Lloyd, Consul-Gen., 66 190 General Index . M MacCall, Canon, 72 MacGahan, 96, 103 Malatiah, 46 Mamelukes, 136 « r Maronites, 99 Massacres in Turkey Greek (1822), 96-98 Nestorian (1850), 96, 99 Syrian (i860), 96, 99 Cretan (1867), 104 Bulgarian (1876), 96, 101 Armenian (1877), 105-107 Yezidi (1892), 108 Armenian (1894), Chap. I. Victims, Dedication Evidence, 1-42 Uncalled for, 21, 23, 26, 36 Premeditated, 17, 18 Ordered, 7, 12, 14, 20, 28-30 Long Duration, 21, 31 Number Slain, 11, 15, 24 Manner, 20-23, 26, 31 Violation of Women, 15, 22, 27, 28, 39, 41 Denials, 12, 25, 27 Concealment, 11-15, 29-34, 40 Commission of Inquiry, Pref¬ ace, 103 Gladstone’s Opinion, 121-125 Midhat Pasha, 86 Missions. See Americans Other Missions, 149 Mohammedanism Founder, no, 125 Koran, 89, 99, in, 115 Exclusive, 115, 116 Spirit, 22, 74, 89, no, 167 Rationalistic Types, 116 “ Tolerance,” 42, 71, 74, 84, 107, 114, 127, 169 Converts from, 68, 114 Union with State, in, 119 Moosh, 43 Morfiil, 69 Mosul, 48, 58 N Nebuchadnezzar, 53 Nestorians, 54, 89, See Mas¬ sacres Norman, 52, 85, 104 O Ordos, 70 Ottoman. See Turkey P Pagratid^:, 134 Parry,107 Parthians, 53, 134 Persia, 6, 43, 48, 53 Phil-Armenic, 69 Pope, 88 Porte Sublime See Sultan of Turkey Powers, European Attitude, Preface, 67, 76, 81, 99, 104 Responsibility, 33, 41, 69, 88, 119, 122 Protestants Origin, 153 Number, 150 Success, 147-154 Hostility to, 58, 71, 155 General Index . 191 R Raynolds, Attack on, 157, 163 Register, The Christian, 127 Religion Classification by, 152 Freedom of, 70-75, 110-120, 169 See Mohammedanism, Tur¬ key Review of Reviews, Preface Robert College, 115, 149, 155 Rolin-Jaequemyns, 78, 112 Romans, 53 Rupenian Dynasty, 136, 144 Russia Attitude, 53, 68, 104, 168 Feeling toward, 45, 52, 68, 73, 81 S Saladin, 48 Saracen, 53 Sassanid^e, 134 Schuyler, Eugene, 96, 101 Seljuk, 53, 136 Seleucid^e, 133 Shah, 48 Shaw, Dr. Albert, 7 SlOUFFI, 107 Smith, R. Bosworth, 111 Stamboul, 70 Stein, Robert, 96 Stevenson, Preface, 121 Stillman, 104 Stratford de Redcliffe, Lord, 69, 109 Strong, Dr. Josiah, Introduc¬ tion Sublime Porte, 90-94, 155 Sultan Mohanuned II, 87, 152 Selim /., 88 Mahmoud , 97 Medjid , 71, 72 Abd-ul-Hamid, Preface Sincerity, 13, 87, 91, 155 Helplessness, 88 Isolation, 124 Absolutism, 90-94 Syrian, 89, 96, 100 See Massacres T Tacitus, 134 Tamerlane, 136 Tigranes II., 134 Times, The London, 104, 127 Tozer, 136 Treaties, Chapter iv. Adrianople, 70 Berlin, 69, 73, 76-81, 112 Cyprus, Preface, 73, 76 Paris, 72 Trebizond, 12, 43, 113 Turkey Americans in. See Ameri¬ cans, United States Antecedents, 117-120, 124, 127 Attitude, Preface, 81 Future, 108-109, 120, 127 - 130 Government Administration, 11, 35, 46, 74, 109, 123, 128, 153 Courts, 41, 65, 74, 112 Divided, 92 IQ2 General Index. T urkey —Continued Favors Kurds, 17, 20, 30, 62 Hostile to Christians, 10-41, 53, 66, 89, 100, 110-120, 153 Reports, 48, 67 Union with Islam, in Massacres. See Massacres Moslem Races, 86, 90 Reform, 10, 70-75, 83, 88, 94, 109, 117-120, 129 Treaties. See Treaties Taxation, 16, 27, 34, 49, 59- 62 Travel, 43, 131 Turks, 46, 86 U United States Attitude, Introduction, Pref¬ ace Consulates, 66, 163 Diplomacy, 157 Armenians in, 45 V Van, 37, 43, 4) Governor of, 19, 64 Violation of Women, 15, 22, 27, 28, 39, 41, 98, 101, 105- 107, 129 W Wallace, Gen. Lewis, 157-162 Washburn, Prest. George, 115 Wilson, Consul-Gen., 73, 112, 114 X Xenophon, 133 Xerxes, 53 Y Yezidi Massacre, 106 Yuruk, 98 Z Zeibek, 83, 98 Zekici Pasha, 21 ZOROASTRIANS, 134 . , .. Date Due rum Joni o 2006 J U h . .! % PRINTED IN U. S. A.