The 
 
 NewCentury 
 
 Bible 
 
 Thessalonians 
 Galatians 
 
MAR 20 1908 
 
 Division j t\<=\ 
 
 Section 
 
The following thirteen volumes, comprising the whole 
 New Testament, have already been arranged for. 
 
 i. MATTHEW, by Prof. W. F. Slater, M.A. 
 
 2. MARK, by Principal Salmond, D.D. 
 
 3. LUKE, by Prof. W. F. Adeney, M.A. 
 
 4. JOHN, by the Rev. J. A. M c CLYMONT, D.D. 
 
 5. ACTS, by Prof. J. Vernon Bartlet, M.A. 
 
 6. ROMANS, by the Rev. A. E. Garvie, M.A., B.D. 
 
 7. I and II CORINTHIANS, by Prof. J. Massie, M.A., D.D. 
 3. EPHESIANS, COLOSSIANS, PHILEMON, PHILIP- 
 
 PIANS, by the Rev. G. Currie Martin, M.A., B.D. 
 9. I and II THESSALONIANS, GALATIANS, by Prof. 
 W. F. Adeney, M.A. 
 
 10. THE PASTORAL EPISTLES, by the Rev. R. F 
 
 HORTON, M.A., D.D. 
 
 11. HEBREWS, by Prof. A. S. Peake, M.A. 
 
 12. THE GENERAL EPISTLES, by Prof.W. H.Bennett, 
 
 M.A. 
 
 13. REVELATION, by the Rev. C. Anderson Scott, 
 
 M.A. 
 
General Editor : Prof. \V. F. Adeney 
 
 £fk00afonian0 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 AUTHORIZED VERSION 
 
 REVISED VERSION WITH NOTES 
 
 INDEX AND MAP 
 
 EDITED. BY 
 
 WALTER F. ADENEY, M.A. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF NEW TESTAMENT EXEGESIS, NEW COLLEGE, LONDON 
 
 AUTHOR OF 'HOW TO READ THE BIBLE,' &C, AND 
 
 JOINT AUTHOR OF 'BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION ' 
 
 NEW YORK: HENRY FROWDE 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, AMERICAN BRANCH 
 
 EDINBURGH : T. C. & E. C. JACK 
 
The Revised Version is printed by permission of ike 
 Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. 
 
THE NEW-CENTURY BIBLE 
 THESSALONIANS 
 
 AND 
 
 GALATIANS 
 
Uw idmbnrgli G«otfr«piiicAl Tuatitai 
 
7 
 
 ASIA MOTOR & GHEECS 
 
 SHOWING THE JOURNEYS OF ST PAUL 
 
 English Miles 
 
 C°E3« i gte-J<i3i.BartKo"Um CTr & c 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Editor's Introduction i 
 
 Text of the Authorized Version .... 131 
 
 Text of the Revised Version with Annotations . 155 
 
 Index 34° 
 
 MAP 
 
 Asia Minor and Greece, shewing the journeys of 
 
 St. Paul Facing Title 
 
THE EPISTLES OF PAUL THE APOSTLE 
 
 TO THE 
 
 THESSALONIANS 
 
 AND 
 
 GALATIANS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
THE EPISTLES OF PAUL THE APOSTLE 
 
 THESSALONIANS and GALATIANS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The Two Epistles to the Thessalonians. 
 
 These two short letters are closely associated together, 
 not merely because they were both addressed to the same 
 church, but also because there was but a short interval 
 of time between them, and because they deal with much 
 the same subjects and have certain features in common 
 that mark them off from the other writings of Paul. 
 They form a group by themselves, both chronologically 
 and in character and teaching. There is good reason 
 to think that they are the earliest of the Apostle's writings, 
 or at all events the earliest that have survived, though 
 there are students of the New Testament who would give 
 the priority to the Epistle to the Galatians. If they come 
 first among Paul's writings, we must conclude that, with 
 the doubtful exception of the Epistle of James, they are the 
 oldest books of the New Testament. With that one pos- 
 sible exception, it would seem that the great Apostle had 
 written all his epistles before any other books of the New 
 Testament were composed. The next writer whose work 
 has been included in the Christian Canon is Mark, the 
 author of our second gospel, and he comes nearly twenty 
 years after the Thessalonian Epistles. Here, then, we 
 B 2 
 
4 THESSALONIANS 
 
 have the oldest but one, perhaps the very oldest, docu- 
 ments of Christianity. Simple as they are in thought 
 and style when compared with Paul's later Epistles, they 
 must have a peculiar value to us on account of their 
 extremely primitive position in the history of Christian 
 literature. One objection to the early date of the Epistle 
 of James is that if that book is placed before the first of 
 Paul's Epistles, its conservative Jewish author must be 
 credited with the invention of a new style of literature — 
 that which conveys religious instruction in the form of 
 a letter. But whether this be the case or not, nobody 
 will suppose that Paul borrowed his method from James. 
 He was far too bold and original to need guidance as to 
 his procedure ; and certainly, if he had felt any such 
 need, the very last person whom he would have imitated 
 was the head of the Jerusalem church. As far as he 
 was concerned, then, we must allow that the Apostle 
 struck out for himself the idea of communicating religious 
 teaching by means of letters. Nevertheless, though this 
 was a novel form of literature when it appeared, there 
 is nothing surprising about it. In this, as in so many 
 other cases, necessity was the mother of invention. Paul 
 was in the novel position of a religious leader called upon 
 to direct his disciples from a distance. The letter was 
 the natural means by which to carry on that work. 
 There is nothing artificial about this epistolary form of 
 the Apostle's writings. We cannot compare it with such 
 works as The Letters of Junius ■, the appearance of which 
 as a collection of letters is a mere literary device. These 
 Epistles of Paul are real letters, and can better be com- 
 pared with Cyprian's letters to his church at Carthage 
 written from his retirement in the desert. They were 
 actually sent by the Apostle to his correspondents as 
 the best means he had of communicating with them. 
 If he could have visited them at the time, undoubtedly he 
 would have dispensed with writing, preferring the word 
 of mouth communication of personal presence. In that 
 
INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 case, though two or three churches might have gained, 
 the world and all subsequent ages would have been great 
 losers, for we should have had no Epistles of Paul. The 
 last thing the Apostle dreamed of in writing these letters 
 was the composition of permanent literature that would 
 be treasured up for all time and circulated throughout 
 the world. He wrote to the occasion for his immediate 
 readers in the church addressed. This fact will account 
 for much of the obscurity that some people complain of 
 when reading his epistles. This is why they need com- 
 mentaries. Even with the best collateral information 
 to guide us, we occasionally stumble on obscurities which 
 are simply due to the fact that we do not possess the 
 historical key that was in the hands of the readers to 
 whom the letters were addressed. What is difficult 
 to us may have been quite simple and easy to them. 
 On the other hand, we must not forget that Paul was 
 supremely concerned with eternal truths. Therefore 
 his letters, though written for an immediate purpose, 
 remain of permanent value for the church in all ages. 
 These letters deal with religion, because to Paul religion 
 was the one supremely important thing in the world; 
 and their treatment of the great theme is deserving of 
 constant attention, because their author was one of the 
 two or three most inspired teachers of religion the world 
 has ever seen. The letter form bears the stamp of the local 
 and temporary on its surface ; the underlying substance 
 contains the essence of the spiritual and eternal. 
 
 Thessalonica. 
 
 The city of Thessalonica— represented by the modern 
 Saloniki — was situated at the head of the Thermaic gulf 
 to the north of the ./Egean Sea. It was the capital of 
 one of the divisions of the Roman province of Macedonia. 
 Accordingly Paul, who always uses the Roman political 
 
6 THESSALONIANS 
 
 names for the places he refers to, describes the Thessa- 
 lonians as well as the Philippians as ' Macedonians,' or 
 'the churches of Macedonia' (2 Cor. viii. 1). There 
 is no reason to suppose that he ever penetrated to the 
 region of the original kingdom of Macedon. In race, 
 these people of Thessalonica were not Macedonian, 
 but Thracian, the natives of ancient Thrace, though with 
 a considerable mixture of Celtic blood. They were very 
 different in character from the quick-witted, lively, dis- 
 solute Greeks whom Paul met with in Athens and Corinth. 
 Renan says of this district: 'It was probably the region 
 the most honest, the most serious, the most pious of the 
 ancient world.' It is noteworthy that Paul found his 
 most devoted followers among these solid, reliable 
 Thracians. He was grievously tried with the moral 
 failings of his Greek converts and with the doctrinal 
 errors of his churches in Asia. But he had no serious 
 complaints on either of these grounds to make against 
 his Thracian friends in Philippi and Thessalonica, whom 
 he always found to be loyal followers, stanch supporters, 
 generous and affectionate helpers. 
 
 Under the Romans Thessalonica had become a port 
 of some consequence in the trade of the Mediterranean, 
 and it had grown into a wealthy and populous city. 
 It was the greatest city in the north-east of the Roman 
 Empire before the rise of Constantinople. This fact adds 
 some importance to our two small, simple epistles. They 
 were directed to one of the chief centres of the world's 
 life. Paul always aimed at these metropolitan centres, 
 and therefore was most eager to bear his testimony in 
 the imperial city of Rome itself. The Jews, who had a 
 keen eye for promising marts of commerce, had flocked 
 to Thessalonica in considerable numbers, and had built 
 a fine synagogue, which served also for the neighbouring 
 towns of Philippi, Amphipolis, and Apollonia. But Paul 
 drew few, if any, adherents from among the rich and 
 important citizens. There was a numerous artisan class 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 gathered in this busy city; the weaving industry was 
 largely followed there, and many men must have been 
 engaged on the quays in connexion with the shipping. 
 It was among these working people that most of the 
 disciples of the new faith were won. 
 
 The Apostle Paul visited Thessalonica on the occasion 
 of his first journey in Europe, accompanied by Silas and 
 Timothy. Luke had crossed over from Troas with them, 
 and the three travellers, after touching at Samothrace, had 
 landed at Neapolis and proceeded thence to the Roman 
 colony of Philippi. Here Paul planted his first church 
 on European soil ; it was always his most affectionate 
 and devoted church, and apparently the one he loved 
 most. But the persecution he received at Philippi, 
 although the magistrates were compelled to apologize 
 for their illegality in scourging him, a Roman citizen, 
 seems to have hastened his departure, probably so as to 
 avoid occasioning fresh disturbances, which would have 
 been a trouble and a danger to the new converts. Leav- 
 ing Luke behind, perhaps because his home was in this 
 city, Paul then proceeded with his two other companions 
 along the famous Via Egnatia, among the dales and rocks 
 and by the winding river of the beautiful pass of Arethusa, 
 to Thessalonica. Thus the church he founded there was 
 the second oldest of his European churches. Being a 
 Jew, and longing for the salvation of his people, Paul 
 followed his custom and made the first offer of the gospel 
 to the Jews, visiting their great synagogue on three 
 successive Sabbaths, and there delivering his message. 
 His method was to reason from the Scriptures in order to 
 prove that 'it behoved the Christ to suffer and to rise 
 again from the dead.' Then he would apply the result 
 of his argument and shew that Jesus, whom he must 
 have described, since the historian says i this Jesus' 
 (Acts xvii. 3), was the predicted Christ. The brief 
 epitome of Paul's preaching at Thessalonica in Acts sheds 
 an interesting light on his method of evangelizing his 
 
8 THESSALONIANS 
 
 own people. The main objection to the claim of Jesus 
 to be the Messiah was that his life was not at all like 
 what had been expected of the Mighty Deliverer of 
 Israel, while his death had only completed the incon- 
 gruity. Accordingly a completely new idea of the Mes- 
 sianic character and mission must be accepted if the 
 crucified peasant from Galilee could be regarded as 
 the long-expected Christ. This necessity controlled 
 all the gospel preaching among the Jews. We see it in 
 Peter's speeches at Jerusalem. It appears much later 
 in Justin Martyr's Dialogue with Trypho, for Trypho 
 was a Jew. Here we find Paul endeavouring to break 
 through the thick wall of prejudice by demonstrating 
 from the Jewish Scriptures themselves that the coming 
 of a suffering Messiah was really quite in accordance 
 with the prophecies contained in those venerated books. 
 But while the Jewish objections compelled Paul to treat 
 this subject, we know from his weighty words about it 
 when writing to his own converts that even apart from 
 those objections he would have made much of it, because 
 it was central to his conception of Christianity. 'With 
 Paul the gospel was rooted in the person of Christ, and 
 the chief significance of the person of Christ was seen in 
 his death and resurrection. This, then, was always found 
 to be the substance and core of the Apostle's message. 
 
 The results of Paul's preaching at Thessalonica were 
 very promising. Converts of various classes began to 
 declare themselves for the new faith. Luke mentions 
 three classes : — (i) Some of the Jews. These could only 
 have been few in number, for it is manifest that the church 
 of the Thessalonians was mostly Gentile. Still, it is 
 something to know that even in Thessalonica, where 
 Paul was to meet with the most violent opposition from 
 his own countrymen, some of them were won. That 
 argument from the Scriptures had told on the more 
 open-minded or susceptible Jews in the synagogue. 
 (2) Proselytes. These are called 'devout Greeks.' We 
 
INTRODUCTION 9 
 
 must not understand the phrase to mean Greeks who 
 were pious according to their own j pagan light, worship- 
 ping their national divinities, like Socrates or Marcus 
 Aurelius. The term is always used in Scripture for 
 those who had accepted the Jewish faith with more 
 or less thoroughness, even if they had not actually 
 become Jews by undergoing the rite of circumcision. 
 A very considerable proportion of the early Christians 
 was drawn from people of this class. They were 
 religious in sympathy and intention to begin with, or 
 they would not be found worshipping in the synagogue ; 
 they were in a measure prepared for the new revelation 
 by their reception of the older revelation which pointed 
 towards it and led up to it, in spite of the denial of this 
 by the prejudice and bigotry of the Jews ; and they were 
 more ready to listen to reason than the Jews, having 
 already moved one step towards the light out of their 
 native pagan darkness. (3) Women of position — ' chief 
 women,' Luke calls them. The poorer women in their 
 benighted ignorance would be the blindest, most in- 
 fatuated devotees of the old local Thracian heathenism. 
 But many women of the upper classes throughout the 
 Roman Empire at this time were shewing a keen interest 
 in questions of religion. At Rome, at Alexandria, at 
 Damascus, women in high social position had adopted 
 Judaism. The motives which led some to do this in 
 their search for a deeper religion than the pagan cults in 
 which they had been brought up would induce others to 
 accept the Christian teaching. It would be these well- 
 to-do women in the church who came to make up the 
 bulk of the contributions that were subsequently sent 
 by the Macedonian Christians to Paul when he was "in 
 other places, as it was by the gifts of grateful women 
 that the temporal necessities of Jesus Christ and his 
 disciples had been supplied. 
 
 This happy state of affairs was soon rudely disturbed — 
 how soon, we do not know. One objection that has been 
 
io THESSALONIANS 
 
 brought against our two epistles is based on the ground 
 that such a church as they imply to be existing in 
 Thessalonica could not have been constituted and have 
 received the amount of teaching the epistles refer to all 
 within the course of three weeks. But Luke does not 
 state that Paul's visit only lasted that short time. He 
 says that the Apostle delivered his message for three 
 Sabbaths in the synagogue ; but he does not say that 
 Paul remained no longer in the city. As his converts 
 were mostly derived from the pagan population, he 
 must have preached to the Gentiles after the Jews had 
 refused to hear him any longer. Indeed, the narrative 
 in Acts suggests that this was the case, for it states 
 that the Jews were 'moved with jealousy.' They would 
 not have been so jealous of the offer of the gospel 
 to their own adherents in the synagogue as of the 
 fact that Paul was inviting Gentiles to its privileges. 
 For anything we know, he may have been engaged 
 in this work during several months. There is really 
 no contradiction between Acts and the Epistles here. 
 If there were such a contradiction it would be more 
 reasonable to doubt the accuracy of Luke's work, since its 
 author was not present at the time, than to reject what 
 appears as the well-authenticated writing of the chief 
 actor in this scene. 
 
 Here, as in most other places, the opposition to Paul 
 arose from the Jews. It had been otherwise at Philippi, 
 where the pagan master of a supposed Pythoness, or 
 inspired prophetess, was enraged at the loss of his liveli- 
 hood by the cure of the poor slave-girl, and later at 
 Ephesus, where the silversmiths feared loss of trade. 
 But these were exceptions. As a rule all the early 
 persecutions were instigated by the Jews. Even as late 
 as the middle of the second century the martyrdom 
 of Polycarp was urged on by Jews, But while this 
 was the origin of the disturbance, the Jews did not 
 care to undertake the ugly business single-handed, 
 
INTRODUCTION n 
 
 or indeed to carry it through with their own hands at 
 all. They preferred to get more disreputable people 
 to do their dirty work for them, and therefore they 
 roused the mob, always easily excited in these Eastern 
 seaports, which made for the house of a man named 
 Jason, probably because this house was used by Paul 
 for his teaching. At all events the Apostle was lodg- 
 ing there. Although the opposition began in an 
 uproar, the authority of law and order in a city under 
 Roman government was too strong for the mob to 
 proceed to lynch-law. Accordingly, having broken into 
 Jason's house, and perhaps being disappointed at not 
 finding his lodger there, they carried the proprietor off 
 to the police court. This was rather hard on Jason. 
 Paul was supporting himself by his own labour at tent 
 making, and was not dependent on Jason's hospitality. 
 Possibly he was also paying for his lodging. And now 
 the landlord is made responsible for his tenant's doings. 
 Still, it is likely that he was a convert, and other Chris- 
 tians found in his house were taken with him. It may 
 be remarked in passing that the magistrates of Thessa- 
 lonica bore a peculiar name — 'politarch' — which Luke 
 is careful to record, a note of that historian's accuracy. 
 The charge against the Christians was a serious one 
 in the eyes of Roman magistrates. First, they were 
 accused of being social revolutionists— ' turning the 
 world ' — literally, the ' civilized, inhabited world ' — ' upside 
 down.' The Romans were intensely conservative. There 
 was nothing they suppressed more sternly than any 
 attempt to upset the order of society. Then the Chris- 
 tians were accused of rebellion — going 'contrary to the 
 decrees of Caesar ' ; what decrees, we do not know, 
 though probably the explanation is in the final item 
 of the charge, that of proclaiming 'another king, one 
 Jesus ' — rank treason ! No crime could be worse than 
 that in the eyes of the emperor. The penalty was 
 death. But the lenient way in which the politarchs 
 
12 THESSALONIANS 
 
 dealt with the accused shews that the case broke down. 
 In fact, they were acquitted. Still, it could not be denied 
 that there had been disturbances in the city arising out 
 of the visit of the Christian missionaries. To prevent 
 the repetition of such scenes, Jason and his friends were 
 bound over to keep the peace and required to give 
 security to that effect. This was quite in accordance 
 with Roman law. It may be compared to the action 
 of some English magistrates in forbidding processions of 
 the Salvation Army because of the riots that followed, 
 although they knew that the Salvationists themselves 
 were not disturbers of the peace. Professor Ramsay 
 points out that this magisterial order involved the de- 
 parture of Paul from the city, and prevented his return 
 for some time. This may explain the Apostle's language 
 where he says that he would fain have come to the 
 Thessalonians once and again, but Satan hindered 
 him (i Thess. ii.ti8). The mischief-making agency of 
 the spirit of evil is credited with bringing about this 
 unhappy state of affairs, which effectually keeps the 
 Apostle at a distance from his Macedonian friends. 
 
 We can gather some information about the character 
 and condition of the church at Thessalonica from a study 
 of the two epistles. 
 
 I. The church consisted mainly of converted pagans. 
 This is quite in accordance with what we read in Acts. 
 In I Thessalonians Paul reminds his readers how they 
 ' turned unto God from idols, to serve a living and true 
 God' (i Thess. i. 9) ; and after referring to the persecu- 
 tions of the Christians in Judaea, he adds, 'for ye also 
 suffered the same things of your own countrymen, even 
 as they did of the Jews' (ii. 14), where the distinction 
 between ' your own countrymen ' and ' the Jews ' shews 
 that the people addressed were Gentiles. Then the vices 
 against which the Apostle warns his readers were more 
 Greek and pagan than Jewish, such as immoral relations 
 between men and women (see 1 Thess. iv. 1-8), drunken- 
 
INTRODUCTION 13 
 
 ness (v. 7), indolence (2 Thess. iii. 10), mischievous 
 gossiping (verse 11). The licentiousness of the peoples 
 of Hellenic civilization was notorious, while the faults 
 of the Jews lay rather in the direction of bigotry, pride, 
 censoriousness, and greed of money. 
 
 2. Most of the members were of what we call 'the 
 working classes.' Paul exhorts his converts to keep to 
 their manual work, and not permit the elation caused 
 by their enjoyment of rare spiritual privileges to induce 
 them to become impatient of this drudgery or despise it. 
 They are to study to be quiet, to do their own business, 
 and work with their hands (1 Thess. iv. 11). Paul had 
 done the same while among them, and he is careful to 
 remind them of the fact in the hope that his example may 
 stimulate the indolent and sober the flighty. We must 
 suppose, therefore, that the well-to-do Jewish converts and 
 the women from a higher social class formed but small 
 minorities in the church, and that the bulk of the brother- 
 hood consisted of working people. This church was not 
 troubled with any of the refined subtleties of thought 
 that interested the more dreamy, speculative Christians 
 of Ephesus and the churches in the Lycus Valley, nor 
 with the ambition of intellectuality in which the Greeks 
 of Achaia indulged. The members were simple folk, and 
 they took a simple view of the teachings they had received. 
 
 These facts need to be borne in mind when we are 
 considering the ideas of the Apostle contained in the 
 epistles. As the earliest of his extant writings, it seems 
 natural to find them the most elementary. M. Sabatier 
 has worked out a very definite scheme of the develop- 
 ment of Paul's mind and thought through the course of 
 his epistles, beginning with these two. But probably he 
 has gone too far. It is true that the Apostle does seem 
 to advance in some respects, especially in his teaching 
 about the divine nature of Christ in Ephesians and 
 Colossians. No doubt the controversies with which 
 he was engaged helped to clarify and accentuate his 
 
i 4 THESSALONIANS 
 
 leading convictions. Thus the doctrine of justification 
 by faith is most fully expounded in Galatians and 
 Romans after the conflict with the Judaizers in Galatia ; 
 and the most exalted ideas of Christ's relation to the 
 universe are expressed in the epistles of the Captivity 
 in order to counteract vague gnostic and theosophic 
 notions in the churches addressed. But while this is 
 reasonable enough, there is another side to the case. The 
 epistles do not only express their writer's views at the 
 moment, they are especially adapted to the conditions and 
 needs of his correspondents in the special circumstances 
 they are designed to meet. This is one important 
 distinction between real, living letters and mere essays 
 intended for the reading of the general public, and 
 perhaps not specially adapted to the particular state 
 of society when they happen to be published. Certainly 
 it would be unfair to assume that a writer put all his 
 beliefs into every one of his letters. We cannot say 
 that he did not hold a certain belief when writing any 
 particular letter just because he did not there and then 
 state it, unless the subject treated in the letter would 
 naturally lead up to it. If Paul writes to a working man's 
 church not disturbed by any novelties or irregularities 
 of doctrine, it is not to be supposed that he has not yet 
 thought out his ideas concerning certain abstruse subjects 
 simply because he does not see fit to trouble his corre- 
 spondents with them. We cannot say that when he 
 wrote the two simple letters to the Thessalonians his 
 mind had not yet moved beyond the most elementary 
 conceptions of Christian truth. If, as seems probable, 
 he had been engaged in mission work during some 
 eighteen years before he wrote these epistles, he was no 
 novice at the time, but an Apostle of wide and long- 
 continued experience in Christian life, thought, and 
 teaching. Here we have the utterances of a ripe mind, 
 although the circumstances do not call for the exposition 
 of the most profound ideas. 
 
INTRODUCTION 15 
 
 Before proceeding to the consideration of the two 
 epistles, a glance may be permitted at the subsequent 
 history of the church. The Apostle who was so longing 
 to revisit his friends, but was prevented from doing so 
 at the time when he wrote, was able to carry out his 
 wish three or four years later. After his year and a half 
 at Corinth, Paul returned to Jerusalem and Antioch 
 without going to see his friends in Macedonia. His 
 second missionary tour took him through Galatia and 
 other parts of Asia Minor to Ephesus, where he remained 
 two and a half years. After the riot he went north to 
 Troas and thence across to Europe, as on his previous 
 journey in this direction. Thus at length, after so long 
 an interval, he once more found himself among his 
 favourite disciples, the Macedonians. There he was 
 much cheered by the good news brought him by Titus 
 concerning the improved condition of affairs in Corinth, 
 about which Christian centre he had been feeling 
 considerable anxiety. At this time he was engaged in 
 collecting the offerings of his churches for the poor 
 Christians at Jerusalem, a work into which he threw 
 himself heartily as a means of reconciling the two great 
 sections of the church — the Gentile and the Jewish. 
 He met with the greatest possible encouragement from 
 his Macedonian friends, whose generosity, in spite of 
 their poverty, was astonishing, so that he made much 
 of it in writing to Corinth. Philippi seems to have 
 taken the lead in giving— as it had done earlier in 
 sending more than once to the support of the Apostle 
 during his first missionary visit to Thessalonica. But 
 it is not to be supposed that the church in the great 
 Macedonian metropolis was backward with regard to 
 the generous work. Thus Paul was able to go on south 
 to Achaia with a good harvest of contribution gathered 
 in Macedonia. After going to Corinth, Paul returned 
 through Macedonia, and then no doubt revisited Thessa- 
 lonica. Another interval of three or four years passes, 
 
1 6 THESSALONIANS 
 
 and Paul is a prisoner at Rome. Writing to his friends 
 at Philippi, he tells them that he expects to be with them 
 before long (Phil. ii. 24). If the tradition that he was 
 liberated from this first imprisonment at Rome is correct, 
 when visiting the Philippians we may be pretty sure that 
 he would go also to see his Macedonian friends in the 
 neighbouring city of Thessalonica. In 1 Tim. i. 3 — if 
 we may accept this as a genuine piece of the Apostle's 
 writing— Paul refers to yet another visit he had paid 
 to Macedonia while Timothy was left at Ephesus. After 
 this, Macedonia, and with it the chief town, Thessalonica, 
 fade out of the New Testament history, to reappear 
 in the later history of the church and the Empire. 
 For three centuries Thessalonica was the principal 
 city in Greece. It obtained a terrible notoriety in the 
 reign of Theodosius as the scene of a frightful mas- 
 sacre. Enraged with the citizens for their murder of 
 the governor of the garrison — who had offended them 
 by imprisoning a favourite charioteer of the games for 
 a gross offence— the emperor issued a savage order. 
 Evil counsellors had made the worst of the case and 
 roused his Spanish blood. The citizens were invited 
 to a fresh exhibition of the games, and while they were 
 assembled in the amphitheatre the soldiers rushed in 
 and slaughtered them indiscriminately, men, women, 
 and children, to the number of 7,000. For this crime 
 St. Ambrose refused to admit Theodosius to the church 
 at Milan, or even to see him, till he had given signs 
 of penitence and humiliation. During the barbarian 
 invasions the city was the bulwark of the Eastern 
 empire, the guardian of Eastern Christendom against 
 wave after wave of heathen and Mohammedan assaults. 
 It was taken three times during the Middle Ages, by the 
 Saracens in 904, by the Sicilian Normans in 1185, by 
 the Turks in 1430. Under the name of Saloniki it 
 is now a part of the Turkish Empire. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 
 
 Genuineness. 
 
 This is one of the New Testament books that have 
 gained ground in the estimation of critics during the last 
 fifty years until their position may be reckoned established 
 and virtually unassailable. It was rejected by Baur, in 
 the middle of the last century, that critic only allowing 
 four of the Pauline Epistles to be authentic — viz. Galatians, 
 Romans, I and 2 Corinthians. But now the Epistle is 
 accepted by most even of those scholars who may be 
 said to belong to the left-wing of criticism. Thus on the 
 continent it is acknowledged by Pfieiderer and Holtz- 
 mann, as well as by Harnack and Jiilicher who are 
 more moderate in their views, and by the conservative 
 scholars Godet and Zahn ; and in England and America 
 it is received by all classes of New Testament students. 
 It was included in Marcion's Canon (about A. D. 140), 
 though the earliest writer to quote it by name, as far as 
 we know, is Irenaeus (about A. D. 180), who says, 'And 
 for this cause does the apostle, explaining himself, make 
 it clear that the saved man is a complete man as well 
 as a spiritual man; saying thus in the first Epistle to 
 the Thessalonians, " Now the God of peace sanctify you 
 perfect {fierfectos) ; and may your spirit, and soul, and 
 body be preserved whole without complaint to the coming 
 of the Lord Jesus Christ V ' 
 
 1 Adv. Hacr. V. vi. 1 ; cf. 1 Thess. v. 23. 
 C 
 
18 I THESSALONIANS 
 
 By the end of the second century we find Clement of 
 Alexandria making use of it l , and also Tertullian a little 
 later 2 . 
 
 Further, the constructor of that anonymous canon 
 known as the Muratorian Fragment, which may be 
 dated before the end of the second century, acknowledged 
 the Epistle as Paul's. It is contained in the most ancient 
 versions of the New Testament, the Syriac in the East, 
 and the Old Latin in North Africa. After this it is 
 needless to cite the testimony of later ages. Clearly 
 the Epistle was known and recognized as Paul's through- 
 out the greater part of the second century. The paucity 
 of earlier literature is quite enough to account for its not 
 having left still more ancient records of its existence and 
 use in the church. 
 
 Then the Epistle speaks for its own genuineness. One 
 objection that Baur brought forward against it was the 
 absence of distinctively Pauline doctrine. But this fact 
 can better be pleaded as an argument for the defence. 
 There is not sufficient motive for a pseudonymous writer 
 to have composed so simple and personal a letter as this 
 and then published it under the name of the great 
 Apostle in order to obtain acceptance for it in the church. 
 It fits in well with the circumstances under which it pro- 
 fesses to be written. Its silence on the controversy with 
 the Judaizing Christians, which is so prominent in the 
 Epistle to the Galatians, may be explained by its very 
 early date, before that controversy had broken out, or, 
 if it had already appeared in some quarters, by its not 
 having extended to Thessalonica. Baur thought that 
 there was a reference to the destruction of Jerusalem — 
 which would make the writing later than the lifetime of 
 Paul — in the sentence, ' but the wrath is come upon them 
 to the uttermost ' (ii. 16). But the language is too vague 
 to be fixed to that event, and it may be used of the 
 
 1 Paed. v. 19; Strom, i. 9. 53. 2 De Res. Cam., c. 24. 
 
INTRODUCTION 19 
 
 preaching of judgement l . Attention has already been 
 called to the seeming inconsistencies between this Epistle 
 and Acts. Now if these are as great as some suppose, 
 the question rises, why should a pseudonymous writer 
 of a later date, who presumably knew Acts, manufacture 
 such difficulties for himself, having only plastic imagina- 
 tions instead of stubborn facts to deal with ? Moreover, 
 if these inconsistencies are quite fatally irreconcilable 
 it is Acts that must suffer in its reputation for accuracy, 
 rather than the Epistle, since the history does not pro- 
 fess to be written by an eye-witness at this place. But 
 let us look at these supposed differences a little more 
 closely. According to Acts, Paul left Timothy and 
 Silas behind him in Macedonia when he took his 
 hasty departure from Bercea (Acts xvii. 14). From 
 Athens he sent back a request that they would join 
 him there (verse 15). But before they arrived he had 
 gone on to Corinth, where at length these two friends 
 came up with him (xviii. 1, 5). Now when we turn to our 
 Epistle we find that Paul had sent Timothy from Athens 
 to Thessalonica, and that when that attendant disciple 
 joined the Apostle at Corinth it was on his return from 
 this visit of inquiry at Thessalonica. Paul writes, ' Where- 
 fore when we could no longer forbear '— i. e., as the 
 previous sentence shews, when he was chafing under 
 his own inability to return to his Thessalonian friends 
 because, as he puts it, 'Satan hindered'— 'we thought 
 it good to be left behind at Athens alone' — 'Athens? 
 mark, not Corinth — 'And sent Timothy'— plainly from 
 Athens — '. . . to establish you,' &c. (iii. I, 2). Clearly 
 then Timothy was with Paul at Athens, unless we are 
 to suppose that the Apostle forgot that it was not till 
 he reached Corinth that Timothy rejoined him, and that 
 he was in fact dispatched from the latter city and not 
 from Athens ; but that is most improbable. We cannot 
 
 1 See note on the passage. 
 C 2 
 
20 I THESSALONIANS 
 
 quite piece the two accounts together. The simplest 
 explanation is that Luke was not fully informed, that he 
 did not know of Timothy's return to Thessalonica, and 
 therefore concluded that his meeting with the Apostle at 
 Corinth was on the occasion of his first visit to Achaia, 
 whereas it really was his second visit. Slight dis- 
 crepancies such as this are met with in nearly all separate 
 accounts of events. They do not invalidate the general 
 truthfulness of the narratives. In the present case we 
 may suppose that what really happened was this. Luke 
 is right in his explicit and detailed statement about the 
 staying on of Silas and Timothy in Macedonia, and 
 Paul's desire to have them with him at Athens and 
 message to that effect. Then they did actually reach 
 him while he was in that city. But the news they brought 
 of the troubles of the Thessalonians was so disquieting 
 that he immediately dispatched one of them, Timothy, 
 back to Thessalonica to encourage and fortify the per- 
 secuted church. Then Paul moved on to Corinth, and 
 while there welcomed Timothy back from his special 
 mission. There is really no serious difficulty here. 
 
 The one difficulty of any weight is to be found in the 
 amount of development in the life of the church and 
 the experience of its members which the Epistle seems 
 to imply. We have seen that probably Paul stayed on 
 at Thessalonica some time after the conclusion of those 
 three weeks during which he was visiting the synagogue. 
 But we cannot allow more than two or three months 
 between Paul's leaving Thessalonica and his writing this 
 letter. The explanation must be sought in the recognition 
 that those were times of wonderful enthusiasm, of rare 
 spiritual power. It is not our happy experience to see 
 new churches planted and fostered by a Paul. On the 
 other hand, there are signs of a very primitive stage in 
 the history of the church addressed. It was a trouble 
 to the members that some of the brotherhood had died 
 before the coming of Christ. They had been labouring 
 
INTRODUCTION 21 
 
 under the delusion that Christ would appear very soon, 
 and that then they would enter into the joys of the 
 kingdom with him. Now what would happen to the 
 brethren who had died in the interval ? would they miss 
 the great privilege all were eagerly looking for? Such 
 a question, one that strikes us as so quaint and remote, 
 could only have occurred very early indeed in the history 
 of any church, when the first breaches in the family circle 
 were made by the hand of death. Then there is no 
 indication of any elaborate church organization, such as 
 we meet with even before the end of the New Testament 
 times. We have no mention of bishops and deacons as in 
 Philippians and the Pastoral Epistles. A vague allusion 
 to I them that labour among you, and are over you in the 
 Lord, and admonish you' (v. 12, see note) suggests the 
 existence of some church officers, possibly corresponding 
 to the elders of whom we read elsewhere, though as yet 
 without any title. How very primitive all this is! Further, 
 Paul, for his own part, expects to be alive at the coming 
 of Christ. He says ' we that are alive, that are left unto 
 the coming of the Lord' (iv. 15). No one claiming to 
 write as Paul would have said that after his death, and 
 so gratuitously manufactured a delusion. 
 
 Occasion, Place, and Date of Origin. 
 
 A comparison of our Epistle with the narrative in Acts 
 will enable us to determine with some exactness the 
 circumstances under which it was written. Silvanus 
 and Timothy, who were Paul's travelling companions 
 when he visited Thessalonica, are with him now, and 
 have a share in the messages of the Epistle. The Apostle 
 is still on the same missionary journey. He has been 
 to Athens, for he says that he sent Timothy back to 
 Thessalonica from that city (iii. 1). He does not say 
 in so many words that he has left Athens. But we 
 cannot suppose that the Epistle was dispatched from 
 
22 I THESSALONIANS 
 
 that city. Timothy had returned after his special visit 
 to Thessalonica, and there is some probability that he 
 did not reach Paul till the Apostle had gone on to 
 Corinth. We have seen that this is the natural explana- 
 tion of the statements in Acts (xviii. I, 5). Besides, 
 a longer interval of time is required than the dispatch 
 of the letter from Athens would allow. Paul writes to 
 the Thessalonians, 'ye became an example to all that 
 believe in Macedonia and in Achaia (i. 7). The inclusion 
 of the latter province shews that Paul had evangelized 
 Achaia to some extent, and this can hardly have been 
 the case before he had reached Corinth, the capital, 
 which he made the head quarters of his missionary work 
 in that district. Then he adds, ' For from you hath 
 sounded forth the word of the Lord, not only in Mace- 
 donia and Achaia, but in every place your faith to 
 God-ward is gone forth ' (verse 8). Now there were no 
 other parts of Europe evangelized — Rome being out 
 of the question. What then does Paul mean by 'every 
 place ' ? He must be referring to the Eastern churches 
 in Asia Minor and Syria. But for the fame of the 
 Thessalonian Christians to have reached those remote 
 places, and for Paul to have heard of this, requires some 
 time. Paul has had communications from the Eastern 
 churches making mention of what they knew about his 
 missionary work at Thessalonica. ' For they themselves 
 report concerning us,' he says, 'what manner of entering in 
 we had unto you ; (verse 9). This is a striking statement, 
 shewing what close and frequent communication there 
 was between the churches scattered round the Levant, 
 and what warm interest they took in one another. In 
 the flourishing state of trade under the Roman Empire 
 at this time ships were sailing to and fro in all direc- 
 tions, and there was ready and frequent communication, 
 especially between the great provincial capitals, and 
 Thessalonica, Ephesus, Antioch, and Corinth— the cen- 
 tres of the chief Christian churches in which Paul was 
 
INTRODUCTION 23 
 
 interested — were all capitals of provinces. But while 
 the communication between these places would be as 
 easy and rapid as was ever known in ancient times, of 
 course it would be very slow compared with our rates 
 of motion — sailing-ships at sea, caravans of camels on 
 land — and therefore we must allow some time. Paul's stay 
 at Corinth extended to eighteen months. But we cannot 
 assign the writing of the Epistle to the latter part of that 
 period ; its reference to the reception of the news of the 
 conversion of the Thessalonians in other places shews 
 that this is a recent event. The Epistle was written 
 immediately after Timothy's return from his special 
 mission (iii. 6). The purpose of that mission, which 
 was in part to relieve the Apostle's anxiety about his 
 friends at Thessalonica during his enforced absence from 
 them, would not allow of long stay in the city. A few 
 months, which would be sufficient for the travelling and 
 spreading of news, is all that the circumstances require. 
 Seeing, however, that winter was a close time for navi- 
 gation we cannot well allow of less than six months. 
 Probably Paul would travel down the coast to Athens 
 before the autumn equinoxial gales. At the same time 
 letters or messengers would go out to the Eastern churches 
 with the wonderful news of what was happening in 
 Macedonia. In the spring, when navigation was opened 
 again, the churches in the East would send back their 
 congratulations to Paul. By that time the dispatch of 
 Timothy, and his return, would have taken place. Thus 
 we come to the conclusion that the Epistle was written 
 from Corinth after the Apostle's first winter in that 
 city, which, according to the usually accepted chronology, 
 would be A. D. 53. 
 
 These facts lead us to a pretty clear understanding of 
 the circumstances under which the Epistle was written 
 and the Apostle's object in sending it. He had been 
 compelled to leave Thessalonica before he had finished 
 his work there. While at Athens he had wondered what 
 
24 I THESSALONIANS 
 
 was going on, and longed to be back among his converts 
 in the north. The prohibition of the politarchs seemed 
 to him just an instance of Satan's interference with his 
 work. To relieve his own anxiety and give some coun- 
 sel and encouragement to the Thessalonians he had sent 
 Timothy on the special mission, already frequently referred 
 to. Timothy had returned with cheering news about 
 the constancy of the Thessalonians, though with painful 
 information concerning the persecution they had to en- 
 dure from their cruel neighbours. Besides these general 
 facts there were certain specific details in the condition 
 of the church at Thessalonica that called for counsel 
 from its founder. Dr. Rendel Harris has suggested that 
 Paul had sent a letter — which has been lost— with 
 Timothy to Thessalonica, and that the Thessalonians 
 had replied in another letter which Paul answers in our 
 first Epistle 1 . 
 
 This is an ingenious suggestion, but our Epistle does 
 not bear the indications of a reply to another letter which 
 we meet with in i Corinthians, an Epistle which plainly 
 shews that it is an answer to a letter received from 
 Corinth. The more general character of the allusions to 
 the information brought by Timothy rather implies that 
 this had been delivered by word of mouth. 
 
 The first and chief piece of information greatly relieved 
 the Apostle's mind and filled him with joy and gratitude. 
 The young plant, left by the gardener to be exposed to 
 fiery heat so soon after he had set it in the soil, had 
 not withered away, but was flourishing bravely and bear- 
 ing fruit. These new converts from heathenism were 
 remaining faithful, and were already developing the most 
 beautiful graces of the Christian life. Nothing could 
 bring greater joy to the heart of a true missionary. 
 Nevertheless it was painful to hear of the wrongs and 
 hardships they had to endure. Paul sympathizes with 
 
 1 See Expositor, Sept. 1898. 
 
INTRODUCTION 25 
 
 them in their distresses while congratulating them on 
 their fidelity. He never has to charge his Macedonians 
 with the grave faults he mentions in writing to other 
 churches — the factiousness and loose moral discipline of 
 the Corinthians, the abandonment of the essence of the 
 gospel for Jewish practices to which the Galatians were 
 yielding, the philosophic speculations that were fascinating 
 some in the neighbourhood of Ephesus. The two Mace- 
 donian churches, the Philippian and the Thessalonian, 
 are the churches that receive the warmest commendation 
 from the Apostle. At the same time there are two or 
 three points in Timothy's report that demand attention. 
 Something must have called for the Apostle's very explicit 
 defence of his own conduct and protest of the unselfish- 
 ness of his aims when at Thessalonica. This indicates 
 that some suspicion had been raised with regard to his 
 character and motives. Probably his Jewish antagonists 
 had attempted to poison the minds of weak, credulous 
 members of the church, suggesting that Paul was acting 
 with self-seeking aims in claiming their allegiance. 
 
 That distress about the death of some of the members 
 for fear they should not have their share in the blessed- 
 ness of Christ's return especially needed to be set right. 
 Probably the Thessalonians had asked Timothy to con- 
 sult the Apostle on the point. He gives a definite and 
 quite reassuring reply. The deceased Christians will miss 
 nothing. They will accompany Christ in his triumph. 
 The living will have no precedence over them in welcoming 
 their Lord. There are certain other matters connected 
 with Timothy's report on the condition of the Thessalo- 
 nians that occasion the Apostle some anxiety. He 
 gravely warns them against lapsing into immorality, the 
 temptations to which are so frequent in a great, dissolute, 
 pagan city given up to the habits of the later Greek 
 corrupt civilization. A certain feverish restlessness, due 
 to dwelling too much on the expected coming of Christ, 
 needs to be subdued. The Christians must keep to their 
 
26 I THESSALONIANS 
 
 daily work, and earn a good character for sobriety and 
 industry among their neighbours. The possibility of the 
 sudden coming of Christ at any time should induce this 
 combination of sobriety and diligence. Reading between 
 the lines of the concluding exhortations we may gather 
 that some were disorderly, some faint-hearted, some weak 
 and rather trying. There was a tendency to despise and 
 repress the utterances of the more enthusiastic members 
 of the church. These defects should be overcome in 
 a spirit of wise and patient brotherliness. 
 
 Characteristics and Leading Ideas. 
 
 The Apostle's style in this Epistle, and also in the 
 following Epistle, is much simpler than in his later works, 
 just as Carlyle's Essays and Life of John Sterling are 
 simpler than his French Revolution. There is neither 
 the vehemence and passion we meet with in Galatians, 
 nor the vigour and argumentative earnestness of the 
 Corinthian and Roman letters, nor the rich elaboration of 
 ideas in thick clusters that are found in the Epistles 
 of the captivity. The style is limpid and easy ; the 
 sentences natural and readily intelligible ; the thought clear 
 and elementary. Nevertheless the essentially Pauline 
 spirit and temper are here. First we have Paul's sublime 
 egoism, not so prominent as in 2 Corinthians and Galatians, 
 but still very marked. The apostle does not shrink from 
 writing about himself, defending himself, revealing him- 
 self. Sometimes, as in the case of the other two Epistles, 
 this is necessary in order to clear up misunderstandings 
 and refute calumnies that are positive hindrances to his 
 work ; and possibly to some extent that is so here also. 
 But apart from these special requirements we must allow 
 that a natural trait of the Apostle's character here breaks 
 out. We often see this in men of very pronounced per- 
 sonality—in Augustine, in Luther, in John Wesley— among 
 the saints as evidently as in great men of worldly aims 
 
INTRODUCTION 27 
 
 such as Julius Caesar, and that prince of egoists, Napoleon 
 Buonaparte. The remarkable thing in the case of good 
 men is that their egoism can be separated from selfishness. 
 Paul was a most wonderfully unselfish man. If he talked 
 freely about himself it was not that he wanted to gain any 
 personal end or that he was affected with foolish vanity 
 and love of admiration. His sublime, self-sacrificing, 
 whole-hearted devotion to his life-mission excludes all such 
 unworthy ideas. Paul is an egoist in part because his 
 subjectivity is very intense. He is a man of deep feelings, 
 and he cannot prevent his emotions from coming to the 
 surface. His genius is seen in the power he possesses 
 for impressing his own personality on others. No doubt 
 this is one reason why the specific ' Pauline Theology ' 
 fell into neglect in the church immediately after the 
 Apostle's death. It needed the magnetic influence of his 
 presence to keep men in touch with great and difficult 
 ideas that were so much in advance of the age. 
 
 Then, closely associated with this egoism as being very 
 personal to the Apostle, but as the opposite pole in his 
 character, balancing it and keeping it clear of the septic 
 influence of selfishness, we have his warm-hearted affection 
 for his converts. Nowhere is this more apparent than 
 in the letters he addressed to his Macedonian friends at 
 Philippi and Thessalonica. If he is egoistic enough to 
 write ' be ye imitators of us,' he is generous enough to add, 
 4 ye became an ensample to all that believe in Macedonia 
 and in Achaia.' If he speaks of having been i gentle in 
 the midst of you, as when a nurse cherisheth her own 
 children,' he is perfectly honest in adding, ' we were well 
 pleased to impart unto you, not the gospel of God only, 
 but also our own souls, because ye were become very dear 
 to us.' That is why the Apostle felt his enforced absence 
 so keenly. He was devoted to these people, whom he had 
 won by his short ministry among them, to a degree only 
 possible with a man of large heart and most warm 
 affectionateness. 
 
28 I THESSALONIANS 
 
 What is regarded as the characteristically Pauline 
 doctrine is not at all prominent in this Epistle. There are 
 no definite utterances about the person of Christ and the 
 atoning influence of his death such as we meet with in 
 the later Epistles. That the flesh is the seat of sin, that 
 we are helpless to work out our own salvation, that the 
 law is of no use for this purpose, that Christians are free 
 from the law's claims, that Gentiles are on a level with 
 Jews in the Christian privileges, that justification is by 
 faith — these well-known, specific Pauline doctrines are 
 not touched upon, or if in some cases alluded to, are never 
 expounded and enforced as in the Apostle's subsequent 
 writings. On the other hand, they are never denied ; there 
 is nothing inconsistent with them ; all that Paul here says 
 is in full agreement with them ; some of them are actually 
 hinted at, and others may be said to underlie statements or 
 exhortations that imply them. We may feel sure that if 
 Paul had written this Epistle at a later period of his life 
 he would not have repressed his intense interest in these 
 themes ; they would have burst out again and again, as the 
 waters of a full fountain must overflow. Still the purpose 
 of the Epistle was not to discuss such subjects, and his 
 thoughts were not now drawn to them. 
 
 Taking the ideas of the Epistle as they occur, we see, 
 in the first place, how vividly the thought of God is 
 present to the Apostle's mind throughout. The very 
 name ' God ' occurs no less than thirty-six times, and the 
 relation of Christians to God is emphatically stated again 
 and again. The 'gospel of God' is the name of the 
 Christian message, and the striking characteristic of the 
 Thessalonians which is being celebrated among the sister 
 churches is their ' faith to God-ward ' (i. 8). This may be 
 explained by the fact that they had been idolaters and 
 had turned from idols unto God—' to serve a living and 
 true God.' Jews who knew the God of their fathers 
 were called on to accept Jesus as their Messiah ; but the 
 heathen had to be brought to the knowledge of a spiritual 
 
INTRODUCTION 29 
 
 God as well as to receive the message about Jesus Christ. 
 In the next place we see that the relation of Christians 
 to Christ is also dwelt on. The church is described as 
 being ' in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.' 
 The Apostle does not refer to our Lord's earthly life and 
 teachings, but he mentions the death of Christ in two 
 aspects of it. (1) As regards the Jews who brought it 
 about and who are charged with the guilt of it. They 
 ' both killed the Lord Jesus and the prophets, and drave out 
 us ' (ii. 15). (2) As regards Christians, who are appointed 
 I unto the obtaining of salvation through our Lord Jesus 
 Christ, who died for us ' (v. 9), literally died on our behalf. 
 This implies a purpose in Christ's death, that it was not a 
 mere murder, that it was more than martyrdom, that some 
 benefit for Christians, the salvation just referred to, was 
 the end to be obtained by the death of Christ. Thus 
 even in this earliest Epistle the Apostle hints at his great 
 doctrine of the cross of Christ. Still he does not explain 
 and elaborate it here as he does later in the Epistle to the 
 Romans. Then he mentions the resurrection of Christ as 
 effected by God, saying f whom he raised from the dead, 
 even Jesus ' (i. 10). But the dominant idea concerning 
 Christ running through the whole Epistle is the expecta- 
 tion of his return to this world in great glory and power. 
 This 'second coming ' of Christ, known as the 'Parousia,' is 
 the most prominent thought in the Epistle, in part because 
 it was a matter of keen interest to the Thessalonians, but 
 also because the Apostle himself set a high value upon it. 
 It has been recently argued that it was the principal topic 
 in the teaching of Jesus Christ himself, who, whenever he 
 spoke of the kingdom of God, meant that great triumphant 
 new order of the future which would be set up on his 
 return to this world in glory with the angels 1 . While 
 few will agree with that extreme view of the case, it must 
 be admitted that the idea of Christ's return bulked largely 
 in the thoughts of the early Christians. We meet with it 
 
 1 See J. Weiss, Die Predigt Jesu vom Reiche Gottes. 
 
3 o I THESSALONIANS 
 
 throughout the Epistles of Paul, though it is less prominent 
 in the later than in the earlier Epistles. In John this 
 expectation is based on the materialistic pictures of the 
 Messianic Age which are found in Jewish Apocalypses. 
 The triumph and splendour there portrayed, which were 
 not realized among the humble scenes of our Lord's 
 ministry on earth, were thought by his followers to be 
 postponed to the time of his Second Advent. Thus the 
 church was in danger of coming down to as earthly a con- 
 ception of the Messianic blessings as that which the Jews 
 themselves were holding at the time of Christ. What 
 these Jews expected at the first coming of Christ the 
 Christians were inclined to look for at his second coming. 
 Of course it must not be supposed that the whole differ- 
 ence between Jew and Christian turned on the merely 
 arithmetical question of a first or a second advent of the 
 Messiah to accomplish precisely the same results. Jesus 
 had revolutionized the whole conception of the kingdom 
 of heaven and of the Christ who was to bring it about, 
 lifting it into the atmosphere of the spiritual. Still, old 
 Jewish notions clung to the Christian hope, and it was 
 long before they were outgrown. The Thessalonians had 
 received all their teaching about Christianity from Paul 
 and his fellow missionaries ; but they had not observed 
 true proportions in their reception of it. They had seized 
 on that idea of the second coming of Christ with avidity, 
 and allowed it to work on their imaginations so as to 
 colour and rule everything else. Paul too participated in 
 the belief with the rest of the early Christians, though he 
 kept it in its place. At this period he seems to have 
 expected a visible return of Jesus Christ during his own 
 lifetime. Later he came to anticipate death for himself 
 followed by union with Christ in the realm of the blessed 
 (see 2 Cor. v. 1-5 ; Phil. i. 21-25). As sharing the common 
 Christian belief in the speedy second coming of Christ, 
 the Apostle writes to the Thessalonians, to whom it means 
 so much, in order to relieve their minds of needless 
 
INTRODUCTION 31 
 
 anxiety about their departed friends and to warn them so 
 to live that they may be ready for the sudden appearance 
 of their Lord at any moment — * as a thief in the night' 
 Now the question arises, was all this a delusion ? 
 Certainly Christ did not return in the visible way expected 
 by the early Christians. But ' illusion ' is a better word 
 than ' delusion ' with which to describe their condition. 
 We are always being educated by illusions. ' Things are 
 not w"hat they seem.' Yet they exist. To primitive man 
 the sun seems to rise and set ; to all of us who know 
 better it wears that appearance. Yet we are not funda- 
 mentally deluded about the appearance of the sun. The 
 phenomena of day and night are real, and they do really 
 depend on changing relations between the sun and the 
 earth. Christ might come in other ways than were 
 expected — in the overthrow of the Jewish persecuting 
 power, in the spread of Christianity and the victory of his 
 spirit over the world, in any judgement of evil, in any 
 triumph of God of which he was the centre and source 
 and vital power. Then, though the sensation of wonders 
 appearing in the clouds would not be enjoyed, the real 
 end of the second coming would be accomplished. But 
 this was not so understood at the time. When Paul wrote 
 about the Lord descending from heaven, with the shout, 
 the voice of the Archangel, the trump of God, the rising 
 of the dead — i. e. coming out of their graves — and the 
 living being caught up in the clouds to meet the Lord in 
 the air, all this would be taken literally. And when he 
 added 'comfort one another with these words,' the 
 consolation would be found in the vivid anticipation 
 that these things were shortly about to happen in a visible, 
 audible, external way exactly according to the literal 
 meaning of the Apostle's language. 
 
 For the rest, the Epistle consists mainly of expressions 
 of personal interest in the Thessalonians and practical 
 exhortations concerning their conduct. The Apostle 
 does not hesitate to congratulate his readers on their 
 
32 I THESSALONIANS 
 
 full acceptance of the gospel message and loyalty to it. 
 But while Christian graces are generally acknowledged, 
 an increase in them is to be desired. Therefore Paul 
 exhorts the Thessalonians to make progress, especially 
 in the supreme Christian duty of love. This he urges 
 more than once, saying, ' the Lord make you to increase 
 and abound in love one toward another, and toward all 
 men' (iii. 12); and again, 'But concerning love of the 
 brethren ye have no need that one write unto you : for 
 ye yourselves are taught of God to love one another ; 
 for indeed ye do it toward all the brethren which are 
 in all Macedonia. But we exhort you, brethren, that ye 
 abound more and more 3 (iv. 9, 10). Then the fussiness 
 and flightiness of those who are too taken up with the 
 grand expectation to attend to their duty are rebuked, and 
 they are urged to give their mind to their daily work. 
 One effect of this great expectation should be sobriety 
 and purity of life. Constant care must be taken not to 
 lapse into the vices of heathendom. Altogether the life of 
 the church, in its devotion, purity, and brotherly sympathy 
 should be maintained and strengthened. Thus we see 
 that the chief purpose of the Epistle is not to establish 
 doctrine, as in Romans ; nor to refute error, as in 
 Galatians ; nor to correct irregularities of conduct, as 
 in I Corinthians ; but to cheer, edify, and encourage the 
 Christian life. Much the same purpose influenced the 
 Apostle in sending the second Epistle to the Thessalonians, 
 and again several years later in writing to the neighbouring 
 Macedonian church at Philippi. We do not go to such 
 outpourings of the heart as to a quarry out of which to 
 extract materials for the construction of a system of 
 theology. In the first place they throw an interesting 
 light on the characters of the writer and of the readers 
 for whom they were primarily intended, and also on the 
 condition of primitive Christianity ; and then they serve 
 for all time as guides and inspiring influences for the 
 encouraging and uplifting of the Christian life. 
 
CONTENTS OF THE EPISTLE 
 
 Salutation, i. i. 
 
 Paul, with the two companions whom he brings in as 
 associates in writing the Epistle, addresses his readers 
 as a church in union with God the Father and Jesus 
 Christ, and greets them with the usual Christian expression 
 of a desire for grace and peace to be with them. 
 
 Thanksgivings and congratulations, i. 2-10. 
 
 According to his custom Paul begins by thanking God 
 for the good that he recognizes in the people he is 
 addressing. They are much in his prayers, and when 
 he prays for them he gives thanks also. Not only in 
 their own province of Macedonia and in Paul's present 
 abode, Achaia, but everywhere else, the wonderful story 
 of their reception of the gospel and rejection of idols for 
 the living God is famed abroad. 
 
 Reminiscences of the Apostle's ministry at Thessalonica, 
 ii. 1-12. 
 
 This, as he reminds his readers, followed the shameful 
 treatment he had received at Philippi, and it had met with 
 much opposition. Yet it was marked by (1) boldness, 
 (2) purity and truthfulness, (3) fidelity to God, irrespective 
 of pleasing men, and without seeking human honour, 
 
 (4) gentleness, as of a nurse cherishing her own children, 
 
 (5) disinterestedness, the Apostle labouring assiduously 
 with his own hands in order that he might not be burden- 
 some to the poor men whom he was gathering into 
 discipleship, (6) a blameless example, and (7) an affec- 
 tionate, fatherly treatment of the new converts. 
 
 Thanksgivings again, ii. 13-16. 
 
 Paul thanks God that the Thessalonians have received 
 his message as no less than the word of God, and have 
 become imitators of the churches in Judaea, having suffered 
 persecution as they too had suffered. This leads to a short 
 digression in which the wickedness of the Jews in killing 
 the Lord Jesus and carrying on other cruelties is de- 
 nounced. 
 
 (9) D 
 
34 CONTENTS OF THE EPISTLE 
 
 Paul's eager desire to visit the Thessalonians frustrated, 
 li. 17-20. 
 
 More than once he has urgently wished to set out on 
 a visit to Thessalonica ; but Satan has hindered it. His 
 reason for desiring it so intensely is that the Thessalonians 
 are the chief source of his hope and joy. 
 
 The mission of Timothy, iii. 1-10. 
 
 Unable to go himself, Paul had sent Timothy to encourage 
 the church and bring him back a report of its condition. 
 Timothy has returned with most cheering news, for which 
 the Apostle is very thankful. 
 
 Hope of yet visiting 1 Thessalonica, iii. n-13. 
 
 Paul still cherishes the hope of visiting his friends, and 
 meanwhile prays that their Christian character may be 
 made secure in view of the coming of Christ. 
 
 Exhortation to purity of life, iv. 1-8. 
 
 The Apostle exhorts his readers to increase in the 
 excellences he already recognizes in them. He reminds 
 them of his exhortation when with them to avoid the 
 prevalent heathen immoral practices, to respect and honour 
 their own wives, and not to wrong any men by their 
 conduct towards other people's wives. 
 
 On hrotherly love and quiet work, iv. 9-12. 
 
 It is really unnecessary for Paul to write about brotherly 
 love, for God has already taught the Thessalonians to 
 practise this duty. But he urges them to abound in it 
 more and more, and at the same time to attend quietly to 
 their businesses, working with their own hands. 
 
 The state of the blessed dead, iv. 13-18. 
 
 The Thessalonians should not sorrow for their departed 
 friends, like the rest of the world who have no hope. 
 These friends will not miss the glory of the coming of 
 Christ, but will come with him, rising first, and then the 
 living will be caught up to meet him in the air. 
 
 The sudden coming* of Christ, v. i-3. 
 
 This will be like the coming of a thief in the night, with 
 sudden destruction, and as unavoidable as travail in a 
 woman with child. 
 
 Consequent call for watchfulness and sobriety, v. 4-1 1. 
 
 As sons of light expecting this great event Christians 
 should be sober and on their guard, for they are not 
 appointed to wrath, but to obtain salvation through Christ 
 in order that they may always live with him. 
 
INTRODUCTION 35 
 
 Various practical exhortations, v. 12-22. 
 To honour the leaders of the church. 
 To be at peace among themselves. 
 To admonish or encourage according to requirement. 
 To avoid all retaliation of evil. 
 To pray and praise unceasingly. 
 
 Not to repress enthusiastic utterances, but to test and 
 sift them. 
 
 To avoid all evil. 
 
 Final commendations and benediction, v. 23-28. 
 
 The Thessalonians are commended to the keeping of 
 God. Paul seeks their prayers, sends a salutation to ever}' 
 member, solemnly requiring the Epistle to be read to all 
 the brethren, and ends with a benediction. 
 
 D 2 
 
II THESSALONIANS 
 
 Genuineness. 
 
 More doubt has been felt about the genuineness of 
 this Epistle than concerning the question of the origin 
 of I Thessalonians, and in the present day there are 
 critics who reject it while accepting the earlier Epistle 
 as Paul's — Hilgenfeld, for instance. There is no objec- 
 tion on the ground of lack of early references. On the 
 contrary, this Epistle appears to have been in the hands 
 of more ancient writers than any whose testimony can be 
 cited for the use of I Thessalonians. It seems to have 
 been known to Polycarp of Smyrna, who was a very 
 old man when he suffered martyrdom in the middle 
 of the second century. Writing to the neighbouring 
 church of Philippi, k he says : ' But I have not found 
 any such thing in you' — i.e. covetousness or idolatry, 
 which he has just been denouncing — 'neither have heard 
 thereof, among whom the blessed Paul laboured, who 
 were his epistles 1 in the beginning. For he boasteth 
 of you in all those churches which alone at that time 
 knew God 2 .' 
 
 This seems to be a reference to Paul's words in our 
 Epistle, 'so that we glory in you in the churches of God' 
 (2 Thess. i. 4). It is true that the application of the 
 words by Polycarp is to the Philippians, while Paul 
 wrote them in a letter to the Thessalonians. But the two 
 
 1 No doubt a reference to 2 Cor. iii. 2, f Ye are our epistle, 
 written in our hearts, known and read of all men.' 
 
 2 Polycarp, Epist. to Phil. xi. 
 
INTRODUCTION 37 
 
 churches were comprehended in the one title ' Mace- 
 donian,' and we know that when Paul did what he here 
 mentions, and celebrated the praises of these churches, 
 it was under their common name, as when he says to 
 the Corinthians, ' we make known to you the grace 
 of God which hath been given in the churches of 
 Macedonia' (2 Cor. viii. 1). In another place Polycarp 
 uses the expression, ' count not such as enemies, but restore 
 them as frail and erring members V which appears to be 
 an echo of the Apostle's words, ' count him not as an 
 enemy, but admonish him as a brother' (2 Thess. iii. 15). 
 Then Justin Martyr, writing in the middle of the second 
 century, says : ' He shall come from heaven with glory, 
 when the man of apostasy, who speaks strange things 
 against the Most High, shall venture to do unlawful 
 deeds on the earth against us the Christians 2 .' This 
 seems to be a clear reference to the mysterious passage 
 in our Epistle about 'the man of sin* (2 Thess. ii. 1-12). 
 He also has the expression 'the man of sin' in an 
 earlier passage, where he is discussing the Second 
 Advent 3 . Irenasus is the first writer to mention the 
 Epistle by name. After quoting various other passages 
 from Paul's Epistles, which he duly ascribes to that 
 apostle, he writes, 'And again, in the second to the 
 Thessalonians, speaking of Antichrist, he says, "And 
 then shall that wicked be revealed, whom the Lord 
 Jesus Christ shall slay with the Spirit of his mouth, and 
 shall destroy him with the presence of his coming ; 
 [even him] whose coming is after the working of Satan, 
 with all power, and signs, and lying wonders 4 ".' This 
 passage is evidently taken from 2 Thess. ii. 8, 9. A little 
 later Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian quote from 
 the Epistle. It was in Marcion's collection of Paul's 
 Epistles, and admitted into the Canon of the ' Muratorian 
 Fragment 5 .' Both the old Latin and the Syriac versions, 
 
 1 Pclycarp, Epist. to Phil. xi. ~ Dialogue with Trypho, ex. 
 3 ibid, xxxii. 4 Against Heresies, in. 7. 5 See p. iS. 
 
3 8 II THESSALONIANS 
 
 dating back to the second century of the Christian era, 
 contain our Epistle. No one seems to have questioned it 
 in ancient times. Eusebius, who discriminated between 
 different books in the Canon, having one list in which he 
 placed those that were universally accepted and another 
 for the books which some questioned, placed 2 Thessa- 
 lonians in the first list. This most learned and fair- 
 minded historian, writing in the early part of the fourth 
 century, and having the famous library of Pamphilus 
 at Csesarea, since scattered and destroyed, at his service, 
 knew of no objections to the Epistle on the part of any 
 more ancient author. Thus antiquity speaks with unbroken 
 unanimity in favour of accepting the Epistle as a genuine 
 production of the Apostle Paul. 
 
 When we examine the Epistle itself we see much that 
 speaks for its genuineness. In many respects it resembles 
 1 Thessalonians. We have the same afifectionateness of 
 manner and the same earnestness and personal interest 
 in the readers that arrest our attention in the study of 
 the earlier Epistle. The writer is still grateful for the 
 good progress that the church has made, and breaks out 
 into the language of thanksgiving on this account repeat- 
 edly. At the same time he finds it necessary to ad- 
 minister practical exhortations and admonitions. All this 
 strikes us as very natural and real ; it is difficult to 
 discover the motive for writing it if the Epistle is not 
 genuine. 
 
 No objection appears to have been raised till early 
 in the nineteenth century. In the year 1804 a German 
 critic, Schmidt, first suggested doubts on the ground 
 of the strangeness of the teaching about 'the man of 
 sin,' the apparent contradiction between the two Epis- 
 tles to the Thessalonians, the singularity of the pre- 
 caution against fraud at the end of our Epistle, and other 
 features of the Epistle. The attack was renewed in 1839 
 by Kern, and then pushed home by Baur, who was 
 followed by the Tubingen School in rejecting the 
 
INTRODUCTION 39 
 
 Epistle, and by some not of that school. The principal 
 Continental scholars of recent times who have discussed 
 the question may be arranged as follows : — 
 
 Denying the genuineness: Hilgenfeld, Volkmar, 
 Holsten, Hausrath, Pfleiderer, Steck, Holtzmann, Weiz- 
 sacker, von Soden. 
 
 In favour of the genuineness : Lipsius, Hofmann, 
 Weiss, Renan, Reuss, Sabatier, Godet. 
 
 Most English and American scholars accept the Epistle. 
 
 The objections to its genuineness arrange themselves 
 under four heads : — 
 
 1. The relation of this Epistle to 1 Thessalonians. It 
 is said to be for the most part but a repetition and 
 expansion of the earlier work ; and yet it is accused 
 of contradicting statements about the Second Advent 
 found in that work. 
 
 2. The peculiar statements about c the man of sin.' 
 These are said to be not like Paul, and derived from 
 the Apocalypse. 
 
 3. The supposed reference to a forged epistle in ii. 2. 
 At so early a date this would not be looked for. The 
 authentication at the close is also said to wear a sus- 
 picious appearance. 
 
 4. Certain variations of style that are said to be un- 
 Pauline. 
 
 1. The relation of this Epistle to 1 Thessalonians 
 comes to be considered as the first objection. Now 
 it seems somewhat inconsistent to accuse it at once 
 of imitating the earlier Epistle and of contradicting that 
 work. Whether the contradiction be real or only supposed, 
 the very appearance of it shews a certain independence 
 of mind that could not be allowed to the mere imitator. 
 There are close resemblances between Galatians and 
 Romans, which are both allowed to be Paul's writings, 
 and again between Ephesians and Colossians, and 
 between 1 Timothy and Titus. The latter Epistles 
 even, when denied to Paul, are generally allowed to have 
 
40 II THESSALONIANS 
 
 both come from the same pen. The contents of our 
 Epistle suggest that it was written very soon after the 
 earlier Epistle. When the same man is writing a second 
 letter to the same correspondents dealing with the same 
 subjects shortly after his first letter to them, it is reasonable 
 to expect to see a good many expressions common to 
 both letters. This is really no serious objection. 
 
 Now what of the contradiction ? In I Thessalonians 
 Paul had warned the church to be on its guard, watching 
 and ready for the sudden advent of Christ, which would 
 be like the coming of a thief in the night (i Thess. v. 2 fF.). 
 But now the principal purpose of 2 Thessalonians is to 
 shew that Christ cannot be coming immediately, because 
 certain events must occur first, and thus, to dissuade the 
 readers from living in an attitude of daily expectancy, to 
 the neglect of the common duties of life (see 2 Thess. ii. 
 1-12). Is there any contradiction here? Did Paul say 
 in the First Epistle that Christ was coming immediately ? 
 There is no statement to that effect from beginning to 
 end of the Epistle. What he does suggest is that Christ 
 will come suddenly, without warning; he says nothing 
 about the time when that startling event will occur. The 
 illustration of the thief in the night implies that we do 
 not know when it will take place. Jesus Christ uses the 
 same image to teach this very lesson, when he says, * But 
 know this, that if the master of the house had known in 
 what watch the thief was coming, he would have watched, 
 and would not have suffered his house to be broken 
 through. Therefore be ye also ready: for in an hour 
 that ye think not the Son of man cometh ' (Matt. xxiv. 
 43, 44). Jesus had distinctly said, ' But of that day and 
 hour knoweth no one, not even the angels of heaven, 
 neither the Son, but the Father only ' (verse 36). It is not 
 likely that the Apostle would have professed knowledge 
 of a question concerning which his Master had confessed 
 ignorance. The difference between the two Epistles 
 is this : in the first, Paul teaches that Christ will come 
 
INTRODUCTION 41 
 
 suddenly and without warning, whenever that may be; 
 in the second, he teaches that it cannot be just yet. 
 
 We must allow then that there is no actual contradiction 
 on this point between the two Epistles. Nevertheless 
 this is not to entirely remove the difficulty. The mental 
 attitude of the writer in the Second Epistle is very 
 different from that in the First. Although in 1 Thessa- 
 lonians Paul does not say that the coming of Christ is 
 near at hand, he certainly implies that it may be. Indeed, 
 he rather suggests his own expectation that Christ will 
 come very soon. The advice to be constantly on the 
 watch implies a belief that something is likely to happen 
 before long. It is only reasonable if the possibility of 
 a speedy occurrence is allowed. When once we are 
 assured that this cannot yet come about the requirement 
 of instant and continuous watching for it ceases. There- 
 fore we must allow that when Paul wrote the First Epistle, 
 the idea of the intermediate occurrence, the appearing of 
 ' the man of sin,' was not in his mind. But when the 
 Second Epistle was written, this idea was brought forward 
 prominently and made the chief object of contemplation, 
 with the express purpose of postponing the expectation 
 of the coming of Christ. Such a change of attitude as 
 the introduction of this new idea involved could not 
 but gravely modify the readers' views of the admonition 
 to watchfulness, accompanied as it was by that arresting 
 image of the thief in the night, to keep people on the 
 tip-toe of expectation. But to allow of this is not to 
 disprove the Pauline authorship of the Epistle. Could 
 not the Apostle's own thought be moving on ? We may 
 suppose that during the interval his mind had been 
 brooding over the subject ; perhaps he had been reading 
 some Jewish Apocalypse l , with the result that he seemed 
 to see it more clearly and so was able to fill out the 
 interval of intervening time to some extent. This is 
 
 1 See note on 3 Thess. ii. 1-12. 
 
42 II THESSALONIANS 
 
 only in accordance with the growth of revelation which we 
 see going on throughout the Bible. There is no difficulty 
 in believing that it was taking place in the experience of 
 the great Apostle. 
 
 But there is a serious difficulty in the way of accepting 
 this as an explanation. In the midst of the passage about 
 ' the man of sin ' Paul says, ' Remember ye not, that, when 
 I was yet with you, I told you these things?' (2 Thess. 
 ii. 5). Then this is no new revelation, after all. Paul 
 had told the Thessalonians of these very things when 
 he was with them. When was that ? It is just possible 
 that he had carried out the desire of his heart, so touch- 
 ingly recorded in the First Epistle, and paid a flying visit 
 to Thessalonica between the writing of the two Epistles. 
 In that case the difficulty vanishes. Paul could then 
 have given the instruction which he now finds it necessary 
 to explain more fully and enforce again. There is no 
 reference in Acts to any such journey, but we know 
 from 2 Cor. xii. that Paul made many journeys that 
 are not recorded in that historical work. If, however, 
 this was not the case we may allow for the changes of 
 treatment of a subject which occur in a thinking mind, 
 so that ideas which once were prominent may fall back 
 for a time into obscurity, and then emerge later on into 
 prominence again. 
 
 2. It is said that the peculiar statements about 'the 
 man of sin ' contained in this Epistle, together with the 
 whole apocalyptic passage in which they occur, are not at 
 all like Paul's teaching elsewhere and shew dependence 
 on the Apocalypse. This objection may be broken up 
 into two parts : first, the un-Pauline character of the pass- 
 age ; second, the supposed dependence on the Apocalypse. 
 (1) As to the first part of the objection, it simply means 
 that Paul does not discuss this obscure subject on any 
 other occasion. But surely he might treat it once, and 
 only once, if special circumstances called for the discus- 
 sion. While he dwelt much on the coming glory of the 
 
INTRODUCTION 43 
 
 victory of Christ in his teaching throughout his ministry, 
 his mind did not frequently turn to apocalyptic subjects. 
 That must be allowed. But the circumstances of the 
 Thessalonians at the moment demanded attention to 
 them. These Christians had got so ill-proportioned a 
 conception of Christianity that it was for them primarily 
 a doctrine of the Second Advent. To correct the notions 
 of people who had that way of thinking it was necessary 
 to be as explicit as possible. Therefore the Apostle deals 
 with this matter, not so much because it is a favourite 
 theme with him, but rather because his correspondents 
 require to be set right concerning it. (2) Then as regards 
 the further difficulty that the idea of ' the man of sin ' in 
 particular, but also the general apocalyptic picture, are 
 derived from the Book of the Revelation, it should be 
 observed that the case is by no means proved. Indeed, 
 some elements of Paul's teaching here are not at all 
 harmonious with that book. It seems pretty clear that 
 the hindrance to 'the man of sin' of which he writes 
 must be the Roman Government, then restraining the 
 outbreak of Jewish antagonism to Christianity. Thus 
 Rome is regarded favourably as an instrument in God's 
 hand for the protection of His people. But in the Book 
 of the Revelation Rome is Babylon drunk with the 
 blood of the saints, and judgement is denounced against 
 the imperial city for her persecution of the Christians. 
 Besides, there is a peculiar individuality in this mysterious 
 'man of sin 5 which is not found in the Revelation and 
 belongs only to our Epistle among New Testament books. 
 The resemblance may be accounted for in another way. 
 It is now widely conceded that the New Testament book of 
 the Revelation is based on some earlier Jewish apocalyptic 
 writing. That writing, or rather the current ideas re- 
 produced by it, may have been familiar to Paul, and he 
 may have adopted them and applied them in a Christian 
 sense. We must not suppose that the last book of our 
 Bible, since it is unique in Scripture, is also unique in 
 
44 II THESSALONIANS 
 
 all literature. On the contrary, it belongs to a kind of 
 composition that was very popular at the time when it 
 was written. It is exceptional in its Christian inspiration, 
 not in its literary form or doctrinal character. Even in 
 the New Testament there are other apocalyptic utter- 
 ances. A great part of what Paul here writes may be 
 regarded as a development of our Lord's own teaching 
 on the subject of his Second Advent as that is recorded in 
 the Synoptic Gospels. 
 
 3. The reference to a supposed forged epistle (ii. 2) and 
 the emphatic authentication of our Epistle at the close 
 (iii. 17) are pointed out as suspicious signs. Let us look 
 at the earlier point first. Paul, in exhorting his readers 
 to be calm, writes, 'to the end that ye be not quickly 
 shaken from your mind, nor yet be troubled, either by 
 spirit, or by word, or by epistle as fro?n tis, as that the 
 day of the Lord is now present ' (ii. 2). Some have taken 
 the Epistle here mentioned for our 1 Thessalonians, and 
 have supposed that the church had misapprehended that 
 communication, gathering from it the conclusion that the 
 return of Christ was to be expected immediately. We 
 can very well understand how such a mistake might 
 have been made. After reading Paul's words about the 
 sudden coming of Christ like a thief in the night, with the 
 accompanying picture of the dead rising and the living, 
 among whom the writer included himself, being caught 
 up to meet their Lord in the air, nothing would seem 
 more natural to believers than to be keenly excited with 
 the expectation of seeing these wonders occurring very 
 speedily. This application of Paul's words fits in well 
 with the general situation. But it cannot be a true 
 interpretation of them. The word 'as' is fatal to it. 
 An 'epistle as from us' cannot mean 'an epistle which 
 we wrote ' ; it must mean ' an epistle which appears or 
 pretends to be from us.' If Paul had meant to refer to 
 his former letter, why did he not write, 'the letter I sent 
 you previously,' or other words to that effect? Still we 
 
INTRODUCTION 45 
 
 need not infer from his language in this place that he 
 knew of the existence of a forged letter. He may only 
 mean to suggest a supposititious case. However the 
 impulse may come — whether by spirit, or by word, or 
 by a letter purporting to be written by the Apostle himself 
 —the Thessalonians should not permit themselves to be 
 disturbed by it. The very mentioning of these alterna- 
 tives implies that he is dealing with conceivable hypotheses 
 rather than with known facts. If we must take his 
 words as a statement of facts, it becomes necessary to do 
 so throughout. Thus we have to conclude that three 
 different kinds of influences were at work — represented by 
 (1) 'spirit, 5 (2) 'word,' (3) 'a letter.' But the alternative 
 form of the sentence with the conjunction 'or' excludes 
 that interpretation. And yet the phrase certainly implies 
 the possibility of a forgery, if not the probability of it. 
 This is sufficiently remarkable. Who could be forging 
 a letter in the Apostle's name so soon after he had been 
 at Thessalonica ? What could induce any one to do so 
 merely in order to lead the readers to believe in the 
 immediate coming of Christ ? This is very strange. We 
 can only conclude that there were cross currents and 
 various movements in the early church of which we have 
 no knowledge. Anyhow the statement lies before us in 
 our Epistle. Now if Paul did not write it, somebody else 
 must have done so. What could have induced such 
 a person to have gratuitously cumbered his pages with 
 words that would only add to the difficulty of passing off 
 his production as a genuine apostolic writing? It may 
 be said that he wanted to discredit 1 Thessalonians, 
 while himself setting out a different idea of the Second 
 Advent from that in the earlier Epistle. But surely 
 if this were his object he would have stated it more 
 explicitly. 
 
 Now let us turn to the concluding authentication, * The 
 salutation of me Paul with mine own hand, which is the 
 token in every epistle : so I write ' (iii. 17). It is said that 
 
4 6 II THESSALONIANS 
 
 this expression reveals a suspicious anxiety on the part 
 of the writer to have the Epistle accepted as a genuine 
 work of Paul. Would the Apostle need to say this ? 
 The sentence must be read in the light of that previously 
 considered. If Paul knew of the existence of a forged 
 letter, or if he even suspected the possibility of such 
 a thing, he would naturally wish to authenticate a genuine 
 letter beyond the possibility of mistake. Thus the two 
 passages throw light on one another and support each 
 other's genuineness. If the Epistle is not genuine, this 
 concluding statement with its pretended token is nothing 
 less than a barefaced falsehood of the most inexcusable 
 character. ' Pseudonymity ' is not the word to apply here. 
 It is a case of downright forgery, and that with a daring 
 lie added to give it credence. Is it possible that anybody 
 who could write the lofty moral and spiritual sentences 
 contained in this Epistle could be guilty of such wicked- 
 ness ? A person of such a sinister character would not 
 trouble himself to commit forgery in order to convey such 
 teaching as we have here. He would be incapable of 
 giving the teaching and he could not be credited with 
 a desire to do so. The case is entirely different from that 
 of the common practice of apocalyptic and other writers 
 in affixing the name of some great personage to their own 
 works— as for instance in the case of the so-called Apoc- 
 alypse of E?ioch. In such cases there is no solemn 
 authentication, no plain declaration that the document is 
 a letter coming with the authorizing mark of the person 
 whose name is attached to it. 
 
 But, it is said, the phrase ' every epistle ' is inappropri- 
 ate at this early time, in what appears as only the second 
 of the writer's letters, since it implies the existence of 
 a number of epistles. We must remember, however, that 
 we have no proof that our thirteen Pauline Epistles are all 
 the letters the Apostle ever wrote. Did he never write 
 any letters during all those eighteen years of Christian life 
 and work that preceded the sending of our two Thessa- 
 
INTRODUCTION 47 
 
 Ionian Epistles ? We have references, apparently, to more 
 than one lost epistle. Besides, in writing here Paul states 
 a rule of his correspondence of which he desires his 
 readers to take notice. He does not say how often it has 
 been applied in the past. It is for universal application, 
 and this should be noticed in the present instance and for 
 the future. That is really all that his words mean. In 
 point of fact the Apostle did authenticate his letters in the 
 way he here describes. We have several clear examples, 
 e. g. ' The salutation of me Paul with mine own hand ' 
 (1 Cor. xvi. 21) ; ' See with how large letters I have written 
 unto you with mine own hand' (Gal. vi. 11); 'The 
 salutation of me Paul with mine own hand ' (Col. iv. 18) ; 
 ' I Paul write it with mine own hand' (Philem. 19). We 
 know that at a later time the Apostle's footsteps were 
 dogged bymalignant enemies who would spare no means of 
 thwarting his plans and hindering his work. We do not 
 know how far suspicion and antagonism had gone already, 
 but these cases of authentication shew that Paul did 
 find it necessary to guard against the palming off of 
 forged documents under his name. 
 
 4. In the last place there are phrases and expressions 
 not in accordance with what we know from his undoubt- 
 ed writings to be Paul's literary style. This question can 
 only be thoroughly examined by means of a discussion 
 of the Greek terms which would be out of place here. 
 Two points may be noticed, however. Thus twice we 
 read, ' we are bound to give thanks to God 5 (i. 3, ii. 13), 
 whereas in 1 Thessalonians, instead of this expression, 
 we have twice simply, f we give thanks to God,' or ' we 
 thank God' (1 Thess. i. 2, ii. 13). Then this. Epistle is 
 characterized by a frequent use of the term 'the Lord' 
 for God, which elsewhere Paul is not accustomed to employ, 
 excepting in citations from the Old Testament. Thus 
 we have 'the Lord of peace' (2 Thess. iii. 16), instead of 
 { the God of peace ' (1 Thess. v. 23) ; ' beloved of the Lord ' 
 (2 Thess. ii. 13), instead of beloved of God' (1 Thess. i. 4) ; 
 
4 8 II THESSALONIANS 
 
 'the Lord is faithful' (2 Thess. iii. 3) corresponding to 
 1 faithful is he that calleth you ' (1 Thess. v. 24) ; • the Lord 
 direct your hearts ' (2 Thess. iii. 5), which we may com- 
 pare with the sentence, ' Now may our God and Father 
 himself, and our Lord Jesus, direct our way unto you' 
 (1 Thess. iii. 11). Such differences may be accounted for 
 by a temporary change in habits of language, perhaps 
 under the influence of some book that is being read at 
 the time or some person with whom the writer is thrown 
 into contact. If Paul had been consulting the Old 
 Testament prophecies about 'the day of the Lord' in 
 view of a letter which was especially designed to deal 
 with that subject he may have caught the prophet's 
 phrase. Or we may account for the change in another 
 way. Possibly Paul employed a fresh amanuensis for 
 the Second Epistle. We do not know what latitude he 
 allowed his literary assistants. It may be that certain 
 variations of style came in at their instigation. At all 
 events, it will never do to urge these small points as dis- 
 proofs of the genuineness of the Epistle in face of the very 
 powerful evidence we have in its favour. On the whole, 
 therefore, in spite of all that has been brought forward 
 on the other side, there seems good reason for resting 
 assured that we have here a true, original work of the 
 Apostle Paul. 
 
 The Objects of the Epistle. 
 
 The Apostle's main purpose in writing this Epistle will 
 be apparent from the considerations we have been just 
 looking at. It is manifest, too, in the Epistle itself. Like 
 the earlier Epistle this short missive is especially concerned 
 with our Lord's Second Advent. But there is a difference 
 of standpoint in regarding it — as we have seen already. 
 In 1 Thessalonians Paul has to comfort his readers with 
 regard to friends whom they have lost by death, assur- 
 ing them that these departed friends will not miss the 
 
INTRODUCTION 49 
 
 privilege of taking part in the great event. Now he has 
 to warn his readers against the expectation of its immedi- 
 ate occurrence. How this expectation has been engendered 
 the Apostle does not say ; apparently he does not know. 
 It may have been by means of what was taken for an 
 inspired utterance of prophecy in the church ; possibly 
 some saying, attributed to Paul or one of the apostles, 
 perhaps even said to have been uttered by Jesus Christ 
 during his life on earth, has been conveyed to Thessalonica 
 and appealed to as an announcement of the speedy 
 coming of Christ ; or, lastly, Paul supposes it possible that 
 the authority is some letter purporting to have emanated 
 from him — though, as a matter of fact, he has written no 
 such letter. Be that as it may — the Apostle leaves the 
 question open, not caring how it might be settled — the 
 notion having spread abroad in the church and being 
 bolstered up by some shew of authority, it becomes 
 necessary to save the Thessalonians from their delusion, 
 which has brought the church into a state of agitation 
 that is very inimical to sober work and the healthy 
 development of the graces of Christianity. A feverish 
 anxiety about the awful Apocalypse is throwing all other 
 subjects into the shade. Men cannot even give attention 
 to their daily tasks. This mischievous condition of 
 affairs must be corrected. For one thing, when the 
 disappointment comes, as come it must, since the eager 
 anticipation is founded on a delusion, there will be a 
 terrible reaction, in which faith itself will be imperilled. 
 This is always the penalty of fanaticism. While it lasts it 
 sweeps all before it with a flood of emotion ; but when 
 it is disappointed and disconcerted the ebb of the tide 
 leaves a dreary and desolate region strewn with wrecked 
 hopes. There is no collapse so desperate as that of 
 inflated enthusiasm when the bubble is pricked. From 
 this miserable end to their highly wrought anticipations 
 Paul desires to save his readers by leading them to 
 more sober ways of thinking. But this is not all. Even 
 ( rj ) E 
 
5o II THESSALONIANS 
 
 during the present state of elation mischief is brewing. 
 Such a condition of mind is morbid. Total absorption 
 in the contemplation of a vain vision is making idle 
 dreamers of its victims. Therefore, after correcting the 
 noxious delusion, Paul will come down to the considera- 
 tion of very mundane duties and urge a diligent attention 
 to them. 
 
 The process by which the Apostle sets to work to 
 correct the Thessalonian error is very remarkable. It 
 must have been quite startling to his readers. Though 
 he appeals to their memory of what he had said when 
 with them, this could not have been as explicit as the 
 statements he now proceeds to set forth with some fullness 
 of detail. He uses the veil of figurative language because 
 he cannot tell but that his letter may be intercepted 
 and fall into unfriendly hands before reaching its destina- 
 tion in the north. But, difficult as it is for us to thread 
 our way through the maze of vague hints, since the key 
 is lost, no doubt the first readers of the Epistle would 
 understand perfectly well what was meant. Three 
 persons, or powers, are to be recognized — one of evil 
 influence — * the man of sin, ' ' the mystery of iniquity ' ; 
 the second keeping this back and preventing it from 
 breaking out to effect its malignant purpose ; the third, 
 the might that is to master and overthrow the dark and 
 dreadful power after its great outburst. It is now 
 generally agreed that the evil power is Judaism, or the 
 Jews regarded as one in their united opposition to the 
 Christians; and that the restraining influence is the 
 Roman government, which in maintaining justice and 
 keeping order prevented the Jews from persecuting the 
 Christians. The third influence is Christ coming in his 
 power and glory, no symbolism here disguising the pro- 
 phecy. Thus the Apostle wishes the Thessalonians to 
 understand that the Jews, now prevented by Rome from 
 carrying out their will against the Christians, will at some 
 subsequent time be released from that restraint; but 
 
INTRODUCTION 51 
 
 when they are about to do their worst Christ will come 
 and destroy their power. As this has not yet happened 
 he cannot be coming immediately. Therefore the Thes- 
 salonians are to see that their too eager anticipation of 
 that event is a mistake. 
 
 But, it will be said, after all was not Paul himself 
 labouring under almost as great a delusion as that from 
 which he wished to liberate his readers ? Did the removal 
 of the power of Rome ever occur to give Judaism an 
 opportunity for the more violent persecution of Chris- 
 tianity? Evidently Paul was expecting this to happen 
 comparatively soon, though not so speedily as the Thessa- 
 lonians imagined ; and his anticipation of the coming of 
 Christ to overthrow the power of wickedness was not 
 satisfied with something that would not happen till 2,000 
 years had passed away. We have seen that Paul 
 evidently shared the universal belief of the early church, 
 that Christ would return during the lifetime of the 
 generation of Christians then on earth. But he never 
 made this a part of his gospel message. What he did 
 preach with emphasis in this connexion was that the 
 living, risen Christ would certainly return in judgement 
 and for the deliverance of his people. Further, when he 
 saw people expecting the great event to happen immedi- 
 ately he declared that this could not be. But he never 
 made it part of his message to announce the Second 
 Advent as an event to happen during his own lifetime. 
 He may have expected this ; but that is another matter. 
 The most thoroughgoing champion of Paul is not called 
 upon to maintain the doctrine of a sort of papal in- 
 fallibility for his hero. Fallibility in regard to many ideas 
 which do not enter into the Apostle's message will not 
 set the message aside. 
 
 While the subject just discussed evidently afforded the 
 main reason for the dispatch of this short letter, the 
 opportunity was seized by the Apostle to treat of other 
 subjects with which he was deeply concerned when 
 
 E 2 
 
52 II THESSALONIANS 
 
 thinking of his friends at Thessalonica. They were still 
 suffering from persecution ; and the Apostle wished to 
 cheer and encourage them in the midst of their troubles. 
 It was hard that this should be their experience so shortly 
 after the formation of the church ; but it was wonderful 
 that the church should have been so firm in faith and 
 so thoroughly consolidated as to be able to withstand 
 the long-continued trial. Only a few months before its 
 members were heathens like their neighbours ; now they 
 are Christians under persecution shewing the spirit of 
 martyrs. Here is striking testimony to the success of 
 the Apostle's missionary efforts and to the power of that 
 new life which it had brought. This is the subject with 
 which the Epistle opens. Then, after dealing with the 
 delusion about the Second Advent, it closes with some 
 practical directions concerning the conduct of certain 
 disorderly members of the church. These people are 
 refusing to work, and imposing on the kindness of the 
 brethren, so as to obtain a livelihood by drawing from the 
 common funds provided for the poor and needy. Paul 
 again reminds his readers— as he had done in the earlier 
 epistle— that he had supported himself by his own manual 
 labour when he was staying at Thessalonica. That was 
 an example which he expected to be followed. The lazy 
 busybodies must not be allowed to feed on the gifts of the 
 charitable. The proper thing to do is to cease to have 
 any communication with people who behave so meanly ; 
 still, only for a time. The Christian spirit must not fail in 
 the treatment of such unworthy members, even when they 
 prove to be recalcitrant. A man who acts in the way 
 described is not to be treated as an enemy, but kindly 
 admonished, with a recognition that even he is a brother. 
 Such advice brings out the affectionate, merciful, kindly 
 spirit which was in the Apostle and which he wished to 
 see cultivated by the Thessalonians, while at the same 
 time it shews his practical good sense and his anxiety for 
 the preservation of order and the suppression of abuses. 
 
INTRODUCTION 53 
 
 Date and Place of Origin. 
 
 The data already discussed point pretty clearly to the 
 time and circumstances of the origin of the Epistle. 
 Nevertheless it has been maintained that this Epistle was 
 written earlier than our I Thessalonians. The principal 
 reason for that view is that it bears evidence of having 
 been composed very shortly after the Apostle's presence 
 among his friends, in the newly organized church, and 
 his personal teaching of them. But, apart from the 
 suggestion that he may have paid a flying visit to Thessa- 
 lonica of which we have no notice in the history, it should 
 be observed that the Epistles may both have been written 
 nearly about the same time, and therefore the second of 
 them as well as the first but a few months after the 
 founding of the Macedonian ch niches. The advice, 
 'Hold the traditions which ye were taught, whether by 
 word, or by epistle of ours' (ii. 15), certainly implies that 
 the Thessalonians had already received some letter from 
 Paul when these words were written. The simplest 
 explanation of them is that the letter referred to was 
 our first Epistle. Then the treatment of the Second 
 Advent in the two Epistles best suits the chronological 
 order commonly given to them. The surprise and dis- 
 appointment at the occurrence of death in the newly 
 formed ranks of the brotherhood, discussed in 1 Thessa- 
 lonians, would be likely to occur early in the history of the 
 church, if at all. On the other hand, the misapprehension 
 about the time of the Second Advent, and the restless state 
 of expectancy referred to in 2 Thessalonians, would very 
 naturally come in at a rather later period. We are not 
 bound to insert any considerable interval between the two 
 letters. If the reference to an 'epistle as from us' 
 (2 Thess. ii. 2) applied to our 1 Thessalonians, it would 
 require time for the earlier letter to have reached the 
 church and produced its impression, and for news of this 
 to have come back to Paul before he wrote 2 Thessa- 
 
54 II THESSALONIANS 
 
 lonians. That would imply quite an appreciable interval. 
 But if, as seems more probable from the use of the phrase 
 'as from us,' Paul means some other letter not really his 
 own, though pretending to be from him, the existence of 
 which he knows, or which he imagines may have been 
 written, this argument falls to the ground. It is quite 
 possible that the news of the state of the church, : which 
 called forth our Epistle, reached the Apostle very soon 
 after the dispatch of the first Epistle. In that case the 
 second may have followed close behind it. The same 
 two companion missionaries, Silvanus and Timothy, are 
 associated with the Apostle in both Epistles. As I Thessa- 
 lonians was written from Corinth, early in Paul's long 
 residence in that city, probably this second Epistle was also 
 dispatched from the same place, and perhaps also during 
 the early part of the Apostle's time there. Thus we have 
 the year a.d. 53, or at latest 54, according to the accepted 
 chronology, for the probable date of our Epistle. 
 
 Characteristics. 
 
 The same elementary nature of the ideas and practical 
 tone of the writing, which were seen in the earlier Epistle, 
 is found in this shorter document. There are no argu- 
 ments such as we meet with in Romans and Galatians, 
 and very little is said about the doctrinal side of Christi- 
 anity, that little coming in by way of allusion rather than 
 in the form of direct statements. The thought of God is 
 prominent here, as it was in 1 Thessalonians, and in a 
 way that can be well appreciated when we recollect that 
 the readers had but recently been rescued from poly- 
 theism and idolatry and brought into the knowledge of 
 the one spiritual God. The ' man of sin's ' great crime is 
 that he f exalteth himself against all that is called God,' 
 ' sitteth in the temple of God,' ' setting himself forth as 
 God.' The enemies 'know not God.' It is the privilege 
 of the Christians to be under the blessing of God, whom 
 
INTRODUCTION 55 
 
 they know as their Father — 'the Father' and 'our 
 Father.' Jesus Christ is often referred to in close rela- 
 tion with God. Thus the opening salutation unites • God 
 the Father ' with ' the Lord Jesus Christ ' as the source of 
 grace and peace (i. 2) ; again, later, grace is attributed in 
 common to God and Christ (verse 12). 'The Spirit,' as 
 the source of sanctification, is mentioned in association 
 with 'God' and 'our Lord Jesus Christ' (ii. 13); but 
 there is no elaboration of statement concerning the 
 mutual relation of the three. The Epistle contains no 
 reference to the death or resurrection of Christ, nor does 
 it mention justification, though it lays stress on the value 
 of faith (i. 3 : ' We are bound to give thanks to God 
 alway for you, brethren, even as it is meet, for that your 
 faith groweth exceedingly,' &c). On the other hand, 
 prominence is given to the exaltation of Christ and the 
 great things he will do when the day of his manifestation 
 has come. The Second Advent entirely overshadows 
 the First Advent, though the frequent use of the human 
 name ' Jesus ' implies the earthly ministry of our Lord. 
 
 The same thankful spirit that was manifested in the 
 earlier writing appears here also. The Apostle has but 
 little fault to find with his Macedonian friends, and much 
 good progress and steadfastness under trial for which to 
 offer them congratulations and to give thanks to God. The 
 persecutions they are enduring call out his sympathy, 
 together with his admiration for their fidelity. 
 
 But one marked change may be noticed in the tone of 
 the Apostle's mind. He is more stern and severe in his 
 denunciation of the opponents of the gospel. Christ will 
 come ' in flaming fire, rendering vengeance to them that 
 know not God, and to them that obey not the gospel of 
 our Lord Jesus ' (i. 8). These people are to ' suffer punish- 
 ment, even eternal destruction from the face of the 
 Lord, ' &c. ' The Lord Jesus shall slay ' ' the lawless one ' 
 ' with the breath of his mouth.' It looks as though the 
 continuance of the opposition and the growing spite of the 
 
56 II THESSALONIANS 
 
 opponents had roused the Apostle's indignation and 
 moved him to utter language of an unusually drastic 
 nature. In this Epistle, perhaps more than in any other, 
 Paul approaches the tone and temper of the Hebrew 
 prophets. 
 
 At the same time the warm uffectionateness of the 
 Apostle comes out in this short letter, as in everything 
 he wrote. It is deeply rooted in his nature. A man of 
 large-hearted kindliness, he is continually overflowing with 
 sympathy and affection. Even his rebukes are meant in 
 love. After describing the treatment to be meted out to 
 the tiresome, idle busybody, he is careful to add, 'and yet 
 count him not as an enemy, but admonish him as a 
 brother.' That is Paul writing from the heart. 
 
 CONTENTS OF THE EPISTLE 
 
 Salutation, i. i, 2. 
 
 Paul, associating with himself his two travelling com- 
 panions, Silvanus and Timothy, as in the previous Epistle, 
 addresses the divinely ordered church of the Thessalonians 
 and wishes them grace and peace from God and Christ. 
 
 Congratulations for fidelity under difficulties, i. 3-12. 
 
 According to his custom Paul begins by expressing his 
 thankfulness for the good things he has heard about 
 his friends, their faith and love, and especially their 
 patience under persecution. The enemies who work this 
 mischief will certainly suffer severe punishment. Mean- 
 while the Apostle prays for the highest blessings to come 
 to the church, that the Lord Jesus may be glorified in 
 them. 
 
 The mistake about the Parousia, 11. 1-1& 
 
 The readers are warned against being disturbed by the 
 delusion of anticipating the immediate coming of Christ. 
 There must be a falling away first and the manifestation 
 of ' the man of sin,' who is at present under restraint. 
 When the restraining influence is removed, the evil power 
 
INTRODUCTION 57 
 
 will break out, only to be destroyed by Christ, who will 
 then appear. Meanwhile those who are under the influence 
 of this mysterious evil power are condemned to believe 
 a lie. 
 Further thanksgiving and exhortation, ii. 13-17. 
 
 Paul cannot but express his thankfulness for the Divine 
 call of the Thessalonians. He exhorts them to steadfastness, 
 and prays that they may be cheered and strengthened. 
 
 Prayer and Confidence, hi. 1-5. 
 
 The Apostle asks for his readers' prayers that his 
 missionary work may be fruitful and that he may be 
 delivered from his opponents. He has great confidence 
 in them, and prays that they may be blessed with love and 
 patience. 
 
 Admonition against disorderly conduct, iii. 6-15. 
 
 The church should withdraw from disorderly brethren 
 who refuse to work for their own living and behave as 
 idle busybodies. Paul had worked hard for his own living 
 when at Thessalonica, and they should do the same. 
 Anybody who will not heed this advice should be shunned, 
 but still admonished kindly as an erring brother. 
 
 Benediction and Salutation, iii. 16-18. 
 
 The Apostle prays for peace and the Lord's presence 
 with his readers. He concludes with his invariable token, 
 a salutation in his own handwriting, and so prays that 
 the grace of Christ may be with them. 
 
GALATIANS 
 
 Who were the Galatians? 
 
 Galatia proper was a compact district towards the 
 north of Asia Minor, about 200 miles long from east to 
 west, and 100 miles wide, dreary and monotonous, and 
 afflicted with a severe winter climate. Its name was de- 
 rived from the Gauls, warrior tribes who migrated from 
 Western Europe in the third century and conquered the 
 native Phrygian population. They came as savages from 
 the woods, and at first lived a nomadic life with iheir 
 flocks and herds, making the original population work 
 for them in the fields as serfs. But, as was inevitable, 
 in course of time the two races mixed. The advancing 
 tide of Roman conquest absorbed the kingdom of Galatia ; 
 according to the custom and policy of the great victors 
 with their genius for government, first under a native 
 tributary king and then as an integral part of the empire, 
 with Ancyra, Tavium, and Pessinus for its chief cities. 
 This was the condition in which it was to be found at 
 the time of Paul's journeys in Asia Minor. 
 
 Now until recently it has been generally held that 
 Galatia proper was the region where the Apostle had 
 planted the churches to which our Epistle was directed, 
 and that the Galatians therein addressed were the 
 descendants of the settlers from Gaul. This view is still 
 maintained in Germany by some scholars, such as Weiss, 
 Lipsius, and Sieffert. Under the powerful influence of 
 Bishop Lightfoot it came to be almost universally accepted 
 in England. Lightfoot drew attention to their Celtic 
 sensuousness as inclining Paul's correspondents to accept 
 the external and ritual elements of Judaism, for doing 
 which the Apostle so sternly rebukes them, and again, 
 
INTRODUCTION 59 
 
 the Celtic fickleness to which Paul is supposed to refer in 
 his expostulations when he writes, ' I marvel that ye are 
 so quickly removing from him that called you in the 
 grace of Christ unto a different gospel ' (i. 6), and ' O 
 foolish Galatians, who did bewitch you ? &c. ' (iii. 1.) 
 
 But another view that has been maintained by Renan, 
 Hausrath, Weizsacker, Pfleiderer, Zahn, and other scholars 
 on the Continent, is now being widely accepted in Great 
 Britain owing to the arguments of Professor Ramsay, the 
 greatest authority on the geography and antiquities of 
 Asia Minor. In New Testament times the title Galatia 
 was applied by the Romans to a province which included 
 the old Gallic kingdom and recognized Ancyra as its 
 capital, but also extended further south into great parts 
 of Phrygia, Isauria, Pisidia, and Lycaonia ; and thus in- 
 cluded Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe, the cities in 
 which Paul planted churches during what we call his 
 first missionary journey. If we can accept this theory 
 it will throw a flood of light on the origin and early 
 history of the churches addressed in our Epistle. In- 
 stead of the obscure people in the north, of whose con- 
 version and early Christian history we know absolutely 
 nothing beyond what might be gathered from the Epistle 
 itself, if it had been directed to them, we have com- 
 munities that are well known to us from the full and 
 graphic narrative in Acts. We must not let this differ- 
 ence weigh with us in determining the question between 
 the claims of the two Galatias; but no one can deny 
 that it adds zest to the inquiry and makes the result 
 one of more than merely geographical interest. Let us 
 then look at the merits of the case. 
 
 1. The Apostle's habitual style. We find that Paul 
 invariably wrote of the places he visited under the names 
 of the Roman provinces to which they belonged. Thus we 
 have Asia, Achaia, and Macedonia mentioned frequently 
 in his Epistles. The latter name is particularly striking. 
 In point of fact Philippi and Thessalonica were not 
 
6o GALATIANS 
 
 Macedonian cities. The indigenous race where these 
 cities stood was Thracian, and the ancient kingdom of 
 Macedon lay further to the north-west. But a Roman 
 citizen himself, and greatly interested in the imperial 
 idea, Paul would not commit the barbarism of calling 
 the inhabitants of these places Thracians ; he always 
 addressed them as Macedonians. It is not to be denied 
 that if he were addressing the people of North Galatia he 
 would call them Galatians, for they belonged to the same 
 province as the inhabitants of South Galatia. But it is 
 equally certain that if he were writing to the people of 
 the south part of the province, though these were not of 
 Gallic descent, and therefore ethnologically not Galatian, 
 he would not use any local names, but, according to his 
 invariable custom, would address them by the title of 
 their province in the Roman Empire, and therefore call 
 them ' Galatians.' 
 
 Then there are two or three special reasons why he 
 would not depart from his settled habit in this place, 
 why here in particular — if he were writing to the four 
 cities— he would use the Roman provincial title. In the 
 first place, he was addressing a group of churches drawn 
 from different primitive races. Some were Phrygians, 
 others were Lycaonians. There was no one original 
 local name to include all the churches. It would have 
 been clumsy to specify the racial differences or the towns 
 in each case when a personal appeal was made. The 
 quick, vehement style of the Epistle would not allow 
 of descending to details in this way. If a common name 
 to cover all the four churches could be found, certainly 
 it would be most convenient to use it. Seeing that in 
 all other cases Paul used the name of the Roman province 
 concerned, he would have that name ready to hand in 
 this case, and it would be as appropriate and serviceable 
 as it would be in accordance with his favourite view of 
 the places he passed through, which consisted of large 
 divisions of the Roman Empire. 
 
INTRODUCTION 61 
 
 Secondly, one of the local names was not particularly 
 flattering. The title Phrygian was used with some 
 contempt by those to whom it did not apply. In the 
 dramatists it stands for a drunken slave. If the only 
 name we had for a Londoner were ' Cockney,' or for an 
 inhabitant of New York 'Yankee,' when we wished to 
 speak courteously we should avoid the local title and 
 seek for some more dignified mode of address. This 
 would be more especially the case where people of 
 different districts and names were included together. 
 The people of Lycaonia would resent the inclusion of 
 their cities under the name Phrygian, or the association of 
 them with Phrygia in a common appeal. Paul, who was 
 always courteous and anxious to be conciliatory, would 
 not commit so complete a blunder in tact as to alienate 
 his readers, at the outset, by employing what they might 
 think an offensive title in addressing them. 
 
 Thirdly, the members of the Christian churches would 
 be townsfolk, and for the most part the younger and 
 more intelligent persons in the community, at all events 
 the more liberal-minded, such as were open to the recep- 
 tion of new, startling ideas. The country folk — ' pagans ' 
 or peasants, * heathen ' or heath men—wzre. long the 
 most backward to adopt the Christian faith. It must have 
 happened that in the towns the conservative, old-fashioned 
 people would have no patience with the preachers of 
 a new religion, while eager, open-minded young souls 
 would be more inclined to receive it. But now these latter 
 would also be the people most influenced by the new 
 ideas of the Roman Empire. Thus it would be the mem- 
 bers of the Christian churches in particular who would 
 like to be addressed as members of the Empire also, 
 and so would welcome the Roman name of their pro- 
 vince in a letter addressed to them. 
 
 It may be remarked, as a slight confirmation of this 
 question of usage, that I Peter is addressed to sojourners 
 of the dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and 
 
62 GALATIANS 
 
 Bithynia (i Pet. i. l). Now the last three of these names 
 undoubtedly designate Roman provinces \ It is probable 
 therefore that the name ' Galatia ' does also. We cannot 
 argue certainly from Peter's language to Paul's. But 
 i Peter is remarkably Pauline in style and phrase. 
 
 2. The silence of Acts. We have a full account of 
 the planting of the South Galatian churches, but no 
 description of the origin of churches in North Galatia. It 
 is true that Luke does not, by any means, include a com- 
 plete itinerary of Paul's journeys in his history, for the 
 remarkable catalogue of experiences that the Apostle 
 gives in 2 Cor. xii. contains several items which do 
 not find a place in the Acts of the Apostles. It must be 
 allowed therefore that Paul might have visited North 
 Galatia, and yet Luke might not have described his 
 missionary tour in that remote region. He mentions 
 two visits to Galatia (Acts xvi. 6 ; xviii. 23). If he 
 means North Galatia, the former of these references 
 may be the occasion of evangelizing that district. But 
 he gives no details, and yet the first visit immediately 
 preceded Paul's meeting with Luke at Troas. If that 
 were the occasion of the founding of the Galatian churches, 
 Paul would be full of it at the moment of meeting Luke. 
 Our Epistle shews how enthusiastic his reception had 
 been, and how promising the conversion of the Galatians. 
 How then shall we account for Luke's curt treatment 
 of the whole matter in Acts ? It is much more easy 
 to explain this slight mention of the district through 
 which Paul was travelling, if it were an old mission-field 
 which he was revisiting, than if he were engaged in 
 breaking up new ground and founding new churches, 
 amid the scenes of enthusiasm and with the great 
 results that our Epistle testifies to in regard to the origin 
 of the Galatian church. By itself this might not amount 
 
 1 Pontus may be an exception, but it was constituted a 
 Roman province under Nero. 
 
INTRODUCTION 63 
 
 to a very strong argument. But following the considera- 
 tion of greatest weight, that Paul invariably used the 
 names of Roman provinces when it was possible to do so, 
 it is more likely that Luke's full account of the origin 
 of the four churches in the south refers to the very 
 churches addressed in the Epistle, than that he said 
 nothing specific concerning Paul's Galatian churches, as 
 would be the case if those churches were up in the north 
 at Ancyra and the other Celtic cities. 
 
 5. The remoteness of North G-alatia. The question 
 of the locality to which the Epistle is directed has usually 
 been studied from a distance, with reference only to books 
 and documentary evidence. Professor Ramsay has a 
 great advantage over his predecessors in the fact that he 
 has examined it on the ground, travelling in person over 
 the very course that Paul is supposed to have taken. 
 The result is a strong persuasion that this could not have 
 lain in the remote regions of North Galatia. In the first 
 place, that is quite an outlying district, off the main 
 lines of travel which the Apostle was in the habit of 
 following. Unless we have good evidence to shew that 
 he travelled up into these parts, the presumption is that 
 he confined his ministry to the great Greek towns that are 
 mentioned in Acts and the Epistles. A deflection of his 
 course in order to evangelize the Celtic population of an 
 obscure portion of the Roman Empire would be a varia- 
 tion from his regular mode of procedure, and therefore 
 would need to be proved on evidence that is not yet 
 forthcoming before it could be regarded as having taken 
 place. Then Paul was in the habit of travelling along 
 great Roman roads, the highways of commerce, or at 
 all events main, well-known routes. That was the case 
 when he visited the cities of Southern Galatia. But it 
 would not have been so if he had gone to Northern 
 Galatia. In that case he would have had to take a 
 very rough and little frequented path over a wild 
 mountainous district. Of course it is not to be asserted 
 
64 GALATIANS 
 
 that the Apostle would have shrunk from the toil and 
 risk of such a journey, liable as it was to the attack of 
 brigands, if he had seen good reason to take it. But 
 the circumstances of his first visit to Galatia were some- 
 what peculiar, as he shews in his Epistles. He reminds 
 his readers that it was on account of bodily illness 
 that he came among them at all ; for this is apparently 
 the meaning of the phrase, ' but ye know that because 
 of an infirmity of the flesh I preached the gospel unto 
 you the first time 5 (Gal. iv. 13). Professor Ramsay 
 conjectures that this illness may have been a malarious 
 fever contracted when down on the coast of the Levant, 
 after coming from Crete, the neighbourhood being 
 notoriously unhealthy ; and he supposes that, in order 
 to throw it off and escape from the depressing and even 
 dangerous atmosphere of the sea-shore, the Apostle 
 struck north among the Balkans for the more salubrious 
 climate of the great upland interior of Asia Minor. 
 He further suggests that the reason why Mark left him 
 at this point and returned to Jerusalem was that this was 
 a change of plan, and not a part of the tour contemplated 
 by the missionaries when they left Antioch. The hy- 
 gienic idea underlying such an explanation of Paul's 
 movements may strike us as rather modern. Still it 
 must be acknowledged as possible. At all events, since 
 sickness is given as the reason for going to Galatia this 
 fact must be reckoned with when we are considering the 
 course of the Apostle's journey. It would not seem 
 likely that the bad state of his health would induce him 
 to take the long and arduous journey into North Galatia, 
 and therefore this is a point in favour of the South 
 Galatian theory. Professor Ramsay considers that the 
 strange experience described by Paul in 2 Cor. xii. 
 refers to this time and to the illness then endured. The 
 'thorn— or rather stake— m the flesh' he takes to mean the 
 piercing agony of pain in the head that is one of the 
 symptoms of malarial fever. Certainly such a distressful 
 
INTRODUCTION 65 
 
 condition was not in itself likely to induce the Apostle 
 to undertake what would have been his most toilsome 
 and adventurous missionary journey. 
 
 4. The greater suitability of the Epistle to the 
 South Galatians. Professor Ramsay's commentary is 
 largely occupied with an elaboration of this idea. Going 
 through the Epistle point by point, the author shews 
 again and again how apt many of the Apostle's phrases 
 and arguments are when read with reference to what 
 we know of the four churches in the south, and how 
 much less suitable they would be for North Galatia. 
 Some of his arguments will strike the ordinary reader as 
 subtle and far-fetched. But there are considerations 
 which all of us can appreciate. Let us glance at one 
 or two. 
 
 In the first place, it is impossible to read the Epistle 
 observantly without being struck with the tone of author- 
 ity which the Apostle employs throughout. It is true he 
 is writing to his own converts. But that is the case in 
 the Epistles to Corinth, Thessalonica, and Philippi ; yet 
 in none of those Epistles, not even when rebuking the 
 Corinthians, does he shew so much the air of a master 
 correcting his pupils. He wonders at the Galatians 5 great 
 declension, and expostulates with them on account of it in 
 no measured terms. Now there was no district evangelized 
 by Paul where such a tone would be more likely to rouse 
 a spirit of pride and resentment than Celtic Galatia. 
 The Gauls regarded themselves as the aristocracy settled 
 in the land, like our Norman barons, and despised the 
 original inhabitants, those poor Phrygians whom they had 
 conquered and subdued. To use such an expression as 
 * O foolish Galatians ! ' to such people would be peculiarly 
 annoying. Paul had no fear of man before his eyes, and 
 held to his convictions with the utmost tenacity, no 
 matter who might dispute them. And yet he declared 
 that he would become all things to all men if by any 
 means he might win some, and his conduct on more 
 CO F 
 
66 GALATIANS 
 
 than one occasion evinces great tact. But to address the 
 proud Gauls, as the Galatians in this Epistle are addressed, 
 in language which might almost be compared to the 
 scolding of little children, must strike us as anything but 
 tactful. The case would be entirely different if Paul 
 were addressing the Asiatics of Southern Galatia. Those 
 Phrygians and other races of men who had been in 
 subjection for generations, always emotional, sometimes 
 fanatical, would need firm treatment, and could stand it. 
 
 Secondly, there are two points of law raised in the 
 course of the Epistle, each of which would be more suit- 
 able to the southern than to the northern Galatians, 
 one touching the law of adoption, the other the law of 
 inheritance. The Greek custom of adoption carried with 
 it certain religious rights and obligations. This had been 
 so with the Roman custom in ancient times ; but it had 
 ceased to be the case before the commencement of the 
 Christian era. Now in our Epistle the Apostle assumes 
 that it is still a current custom. To be made a son of 
 Abraham by adoption is to come into the privileges of 
 the patriarch's covenant. This then implies a Greek 
 civilization, rather than a Roman. Then, according to 
 the old custom, to be an heir implied sonship, because the 
 son had a right to inherit his father's property. Thus to 
 make a will in favour of anybody implied the adoption of 
 that person. This custom had ceased at Rome by Paul's 
 time, but in our Epistle he argues that the possession of 
 Abraham's faith carries with it the sonship, as the inherit- 
 ance implies the adoption, saying, ' Know therefore that 
 they which be of faith, the same are sons of Abraham * 
 (iii. 7). In writing to the Romans, referring to their 
 different customs, he argues conversely, ' If children, 
 then heirs' (Rom. viii. 16). Now the civilization of the 
 southern cities was thoroughly Grecian ; they had been 
 part of the Macedonian kingdom, and were immersed in 
 the ideas and habits of the Greeks before they had come 
 under the Roman authority. But this was not the case 
 
INTRODUCTION 67 
 
 with Galatia proper, in the north. Here their own Celtic 
 king had reigned till he had to give place to the Roman 
 governor, and Greek influence was much less felt. Con- 
 sequently any reference to the law of adoption would be 
 understood in the Roman sense, and therefore Paul's 
 argument would not be appreciated in North Galatia as 
 it would be appreciated in the south. 
 
 The other legal point is similar. There had come to 
 be a difference between a Greek will and a Roman will. 
 The Greek will was irrevocable when once it had been 
 duly executed ; but the Roman will could be destroyed 
 or altered by the testator at any time so long as he lived. 
 Now Paul here assumes the Greek custom, when he 
 writes, ' Brethren, I speak after the manner of men : 
 Though it be but a man's covenant (or testament, will, 
 as the word's primary meaning is in the Greek), yet when 
 it hath been confirmed, no one maketh it void, or 
 addeth thereto' (iii. 15). That is to say, once made and 
 executed it is irrevocable. This is not the Roman 
 custom ; it is the Greek custom. Therefore it would suit 
 the people of Southern Galatia with their Greek manners 
 and customs as it would not suit the Romanized Celts of 
 the north who knew little of Greek civilization. 
 
 In the third place, a small point which yet is not 
 without its significance may be made out of the Apostle's 
 references to Barnabas in this Epistle. He is first simply 
 mentioned as Paul's companion in one of the Apostle's 
 visits to Jerusalem. Paul writes, ' Then after the space 
 of fourteen years I went up again to Jerusalem with 
 Barnabas' (ii. 1). But in describing the dispute with 
 Cephas at Antioch the Apostle states as the climax of the 
 mischief ' that even Barnabas was carried away with their 
 dissimulation' (ii. 13). Why 'even Barnabas'? That 
 remark would be without significance unless the readers 
 were sufficiently acquainted with Barnabas to be surprised 
 at his conduct. But the only place in the scheme of 
 history as we have it in Acts which would allow of Paul 
 F 2 
 
68 GALATIANS 
 
 visiting North Galatia comes after the breach with 
 Barnabas, when that great teacher was no longer the 
 Apostle's travelling companion. The Gauls in the north 
 could never have seen him. Paul, who always adjusted 
 himself to the attitude of his readers, would scarcely have 
 written as he did if that were the case. But in the visit 
 to the four cities of South Galatia Barnabas was with 
 Paul, or rather, as we read the narrative, Paul with 
 Barnabas, for the senior disciple took the lead in that 
 early mission. At Lystra the native people took Barnabas 
 for Zeus, the supreme divinity, and Paul for Hermes, the 
 messenger god, because he was the more eloquent 
 speaker. The superior honour offered to Barnabas 
 suggests that in presence he appeared to be the more 
 imposing personage, as formally he was the leader of the 
 mission. The two worked together quite harmoniously. 
 They delivered the same message. The gospel which Paul 
 preached was also Barnabas' gospel. If then Barnabas 
 turned aside from the spirit of it and by his example 
 contradicted its principles, this would be a most surpris- 
 ing thing for the people of Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and 
 Derbe. They would quite understand the emphasis of 
 the phrase ' even Barnabas \ ; but in Ancyra, Tavium, and 
 Pessinus, away in the north, places Barnabas had never 
 visited, where he had never been heard of, or at best 
 where he was known only by name, the remark would be 
 pointless. 
 
 There would be little or nothing to say against this 
 view, that the Galatians of our Epistle are no others than 
 the members of the churches which Paul and Barnabas 
 planted during their first missionary journey in Asia 
 Minor, the South Galatians, if it were not that certain 
 things in the Acts are thought to point in the opposite 
 direction. Let us look at these objections. 
 
 Objections to the South Galatian theory. In the 
 first place, it is to be observed that Luke does not usually 
 adopt the nomenclature of Roman political geography, 
 
INTRODUCTION 69 
 
 giving the districts he describes the names of provinces, 
 but, following the older and local custom, he uses the 
 native names according to the divisions of races or 
 ancient kingdoms. Thus when describing the visit of 
 Paul and Barnabas to the four cities of South Galatia he 
 does not use the word Galatia, the title of the Roman 
 province, but has * Antioch of Pisidia' (Acts xiii. 14), 'the 
 cities of Lycaonia, Lyslra and Derbe ' (xiv. 6), &c. If that 
 were all we might conclude that while Luke chose to use 
 the local names Paul preferred the Roman names for the 
 same regions. But we find Luke also twice mentioning 
 'Galatia' (xvi. 6, xviii. 23). If then he is adhering to his 
 custom here he must mean ethnological Galatia, Galatia 
 proper, in the north, not the Roman province of Galatia. 
 And in each of these places Luke says that Paul went 
 through the region of Galatia. That would seem to 
 indicate two visits to the Celtic district. Thus after all 
 it would seem that Paul had evangelized that part of Asia 
 Minor. If so, is it not reasonable to suppose that when 
 he wrote a letter to the 'Galatians' it was to people living 
 there ? Luke was the attendant companion of Paul in 
 some of his journeys. Is it not likely that he used the 
 word 'Galatia' in the same sense as his master? That 
 indeed is most probable. But are we sure he does 
 not mean the province of Galatia ? It is true that this 
 would be a departure from his custom. But Professor 
 Ramsay has shewn a good reason why he should have 
 departed from it in this instance. The churches of South 
 Galatia formed a certain missionary unit in that they lay 
 along the same travelling route and were all four planted 
 at the same time. They were the earliest Pauline churches 
 in Asia Minor, the harvest of his first missionary journey 
 on the mainland after leaving Crete. It was desirable 
 therefore to comprehend the group under one common 
 name. This could not be done if only the local names 
 were used. In that case Luke would have to write Pisidia 
 and Lycaonia. Besides, it is likely that Paul had come to 
 
70 GALATIANS 
 
 speak of these churches in his own way as Galatian. 
 Though when describing the first visit to the district 
 Luke would follow his custom and use the local names, 
 after the churches had been formed, and had had some 
 history, and had often been mentioned by Paul, it would 
 be natural for Luke to adopt his master's phraseology, 
 and call them Galatian. 
 
 But now in the two passages above referred to we have 
 mention of ' the region of Galatia and Phrygia,' literally in 
 the first case 'the Phrygian and Galatian region' (Acts 
 xvi. 6), and in the other either the same thing, or 'the 
 Galatian region and Phrygia ' (xviii. 23) — for the order 
 of the words is different. Now the question is, Do these 
 phrases mean one district with two names ? That was 
 Lightfoot's view, on the supposition that as the original 
 population of North Galatia was Phrygian, the expression 
 means 'the region which was originally Phrygian and 
 afterwards Galatian ' — surely a cumbrous notion, and one 
 dragging in a needless archaeological allusion. If one 
 and the same district is meant, it is much more probably 
 one known in Luke's day both as Phrygia and as Galatia. 
 That would apply to the Phrygian part of South Galatia. 
 Then the adjectival form of the phrase favours the view 
 that the larger Galatia of the province and not the original 
 ethnographical Galatia is meant. Professor Ramsay 
 adduces an analogous case : ' Lakonia is the old historic 
 land of Lacediemonia ; but Lako?iikc ge (the Lacedaemo- 
 nian land) comprises the entire region which had passed 
 under Spartan rule and had been added to Laconia, 
 including Messenia and the land near Pylas ' (Hastings' 
 Dictionary of the Bible, article 'Galatia, Region of). 
 There is no reason why Luke should say 'the Galatian 
 region ' if he meant Galatia proper ; but it would be quite 
 in accordance with Greek usage if, not being so enamoured 
 of the Roman usage as Paul, he employed it for the larger 
 district which took its name from the more ancient king- 
 dom in the north. If in the second passage we read, ' the 
 
INTRODUCTION 71 
 
 Galatian region and Phrygia,' we may understand the 
 latter name to refer to that part of Phrygia which was 
 not included in Galatia, or we may take 'the Galatian 
 region ' to be the Lycaonia part of Galatia. In any case 
 we have no insuperable difficulty here. 
 
 What looks more like a serious difficulty comes up in 
 the content of the earlier phrase. The whole passage 
 runs thus : t And they went through the region of 
 Phrygia and Galatia, having been forbidden of the Holy 
 Ghost to speak the word in Asia ; and when they 
 were come over against Mysia, they assayed to go into 
 Bithynia ; and the Spirit of Jesus suffered them not ; 
 and passing by Mysia, they came down to Troas ' (Acts 
 xvi. 6-8). Let us study this passage with a map open 
 before us. As we read it in our English versions it 
 seems to mean that the missionaries were first forbidden 
 to preach in Asia — i.e. the province called Asia, of 
 which Ephesus was the capital. Accordingly they turned 
 aside and went into the region of Phrygia and Galatia, 
 and thence towards Mysia, and so on to Troas by the 
 north-west coast. Now if South Galatia is intended, a 
 difficulty arises on this understanding of the narrative. 
 In the previous paragraph (verses 1-5) we see that Paul 
 had just been to Derbe, Lystra, and Iconium. The 
 province of Asia lies west of those cities, and Mysia is 
 north of that. It seems absurd to say that, being forbidden 
 to go into Asia on his journey from the cities of South 
 Galatia, Paul went back to the province of Galatia, 
 meaning those very cities, and thence round by Mysia 
 to Troas. Therefore, it has been said, the passage must 
 refer to North Galatia. But this is on the assumption that 
 the dependent clause ' having been forbidden ... to speak 
 the word in Asia ' must refer to what happened before the 
 statement of the primary clause and condition it, the 
 primary clause consisting of the statement, ' And they 
 went through the region of Phrygia and Galatia.' That 
 this is the natural reading of the passage in English must 
 
72 GALATIANS 
 
 be granted. It has been argued that it must also be the 
 meaning of the Greek text. But there are instances of 
 a clause with a past participle coming after one in the 
 indicative mood to describe what followed, not what 
 preceded and conditioned the action first stated. Thus 
 in Acts xxv. 13 we read, ' Now when certain days were 
 passed, Agrippa the king and Bernice arrived at Cassarea, 
 and saluted Festus.' The Revisers' margin has ' having 
 saluted,' and this is the exact translation of the Greek, 
 which is a dependent clause with a past participle, similar 
 to that in the passage before us. It would be misleading 
 to translate it literally here, because 'having saluted 
 Festus' would mean in English that Festus had been 
 saluted by the king and queen before they arrived at 
 the place where they met him — an obvious absurdity. 
 A similar construction is found in Acts xi. 30 : ' Which 
 also they did, sending it to the elders by the hands of 
 Barnabas and Saul.' Here a past participle (Greek 
 aorist) is translated by the English present participle 
 'sending,' and it does not mean a previous action 1 . 
 
 Therefore it is perfectly in accordance with Luke's style 
 to understand the passage before us to mean a series of 
 events in the following order : — 
 
 (1) A journey through the region of Phrygia and 
 Galatia. 
 
 (2) An intention to preach in Asia (Divinely frustrated). 
 
 (3) A course of travel by Mysia. 
 
 (4) An intention to visit Bithynia (Divinely frustrated). 
 
 (5) The course of travel continued through Mysia to 
 Troas. 
 
 These are the principal objections to the South Galatian 
 theory, and they do not seem to go far to dispose of it, 
 while we have seen that the reasons for accepting it are 
 very strong indeed. It may seem superfluous to have 
 
 1 For other instances of this form and a full discussion of the 
 subject the reader may be referred to The Epistle to the Galatians: 
 An Essay on its Destination and Date, by E. H. Askvvith. 
 
INTRODUCTION 73 
 
 devoted so much attention to a mere geographical 
 question ; but we have this result, that we can now feel 
 assured that our Epistle was not directed to an obscure 
 people of whom we know nothing, but was sent to 
 those converts of Paul's first journey in Asia Minor 
 concerning whom we have very full information in the 
 narrative of Acts. Thus we get a frame for our picture, 
 or rather a background clearly outlined and richly 
 coloured. 
 
 The Four Galatian Cities. 
 
 Having now located the destination of the Epistle, we 
 are in a position to gather some information concerning 
 the places in which the Galatian churches were founded. 
 These, we have seen, were four — Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, 
 and Derbe. 
 
 Antioch. The reader of the New Testament meets 
 with two cities of this name. One is the capital of Syria 
 and the head quarters of Gentile Christianity in the days 
 of the apostles, the church in which city had ordained 
 and commissioned Paul and Barnabas for their mission- 
 ary expedition (Acts xiii. 1-3). The other is known as 
 Antioch in Pisidia, or more strictly ' Pisidian Antioch,' 
 to distinguish it from various Antiochs of which there 
 were as many as sixteen scattered over Asia Minor and 
 Syria, all named in honour of the Seleucid kings. This 
 city had been founded about 300 B. c. by Seleucus 
 Nikator. Some time before the year 6 B. c. Augustus 
 made it a Roman colony. Under the emperors a colony 
 was a city in some conquered territory where soldiers at 
 the end of a campaign, or those who had completed their 
 term of service, were allowed to settle with the privileges 
 of citizenship. The citizens of a military colony possessed 
 a right called ius Italicum, which apparently included 
 not only personal freedom, but also immunity from the 
 poll tax and the payment of tribute. In fact, a colony 
 
74 GALATIANS 
 
 was like a piece of Rome carried away into the province 
 and still retaining the proud rights of Roman citizenship. 
 Paul would rejoice to preach in such a city, as he always 
 felt drawn to bring his message to bear on what was most 
 central and potent in the life of his age. If, as Professor 
 Ramsay suggests, the Apostle turned his footsteps towards 
 the uplands where this city was situated in order to 
 escape the mischievous effects of the malarious sea-coast, 
 he should have found Antioch bracing and health-giving, 
 for the city was planted at an elevation of 3,600 feet 
 above the sea level, on the skirts of a long ridge now 
 called Sultan-Dagh, overlooking an extensive, fertile 
 plain that stretches away in a south-easterly direction. 
 The ruins are said to be imposing and to cover a con- 
 siderable space, but they have never been thoroughly 
 explored. The original population was Phrygian, and 
 the Roman soldiers on account of whom the city was 
 converted into a colony could only have formed a minority 
 of the inhabitants. According to the narrative in Acts 
 (xiii. 50) 'the Jews urged on the devout women of 
 honourable estate ' as well as ' the chief men of the city ' 
 to persecute Paul and Barnabas. This is a peculiar 
 feature of the persecution at Antioch, not met with 
 elsewhere, as far as our information goes. It is interest- 
 ing to learn that throughout Asia Minor, and in the 
 Phrygian cities in particular, women of social standing 
 enjoyed great consideration and even held office. Then 
 the Jews were also an influential body in Antioch. 
 Thousands of them were settled in the Phrygian cities. 
 At Antioch they had a synagogue, and were able to 
 influence the chief people of the city enough to secure 
 the expulsion of the Christian missionaries. 
 
 Iconium. This city, still existing under the name of 
 Konia, and now the terminus of the railway that comes 
 across Asia Minor in a southerly direction from the 
 Bosphorus, was strictly speaking within the confines of 
 Lycaonia, though the inhabitants were regarded as 
 
INTRODUCTION 75 
 
 Phrygians, a fact which accounts for the statement in 
 Acts (xiv. 6) that when the apostles were driven out of this 
 city 'they fled unto the cities of Lycaonia, Derbe, and 
 Lystra,' as though they were not already in that district. 
 Antony had conferred the city on Amyntas, the king of 
 Galatia, after whose death in 25 B. C. it became an integral 
 part of the Roman Empire. Under Claudius it received 
 the name Claudiconium. Unlike Antioch, it was not a 
 Roman colony during the apostolic age, though it became 
 one under Hadrian in the next century. It remained for 
 two centuries part of the province of Galatia. Situated 
 on one of the great routes between Cilicia and the 
 West, Iconium became an important commercial city, 
 and accordingly attracted a number of Jewish settlers. 
 The modern Konia stands in the midst of luxuriant 
 orchards, and is watered by a stream from the hills on 
 the west which loses itself in the great central, unculti- 
 vated plains that spread out to the east from this point. 
 The natural advantages of the situation must have made 
 it a garden of beauty and fruitfulness in ancient times 
 when the city was most flourishing. 
 
 Lystra. A journey of eighteen miles in a southerly 
 and slightly westerly direction from Iconium would bring 
 the traveller to Lystra, a city which was reckoned as in 
 the same district with Derbe, but which was really nearer 
 to Iconium. The road between the two sites rises 
 considerably, so that Lystra was 430 feet above Iconium 
 and stood at a height of 3,780 feet above the sea level. 
 Yet it was situated in a mountain valley at the extreme 
 north of the hills that form the southern rampart of the 
 great central tableland. The valley is refreshed with 
 a stream which flows in an easterly direction till it loses 
 itself in the plain. About a mile north-west of the 
 modern village of Khatyn Serai is a large mound which 
 marks the site of the ancient city ; that, however, must 
 have extended over the lower, level ground for some 
 distance, since a large stone basin, bearing an inscription 
 
76 GALATIANS 
 
 in honour of Augustus, has been found some distance 
 from the mound, and apparently on the site of a sacred 
 place dedicated to the worship of the emperor. In 
 the year 1885 a coin was discovered with the Latin 
 legend : Colonia . Iulia . Felix . Gemina . Lustra, 
 proving that Lystra was a Roman colony. The city 
 was off the main highway that ran east and west through 
 Asia Minor, but an imperial military road connected it 
 with the head quarters of the army at Antioch. In the 
 apocryphal Acts of Paul and Thecla it is stated that 
 when Paul was expelled from Antioch he went along the 
 ' royal road ' that leads to Lystra till he came to the 
 crossways, where Onesiphorus, who was waiting for him, 
 induced him to turn aside and visit Iconium. There 
 would be Latin-speaking veterans of the Roman army at 
 Lystra as in other military colonies, but the majority of 
 the inhabitants would be the native Asiatics — Lycaonians, 
 as they were then called. Here were Jews also ; but as we 
 do not read of any synagogue in this city, probably they 
 were not very numerous. 
 
 Derbe. The last of the four cities, that which marks 
 the termination of the Apostle's journey in an easterly 
 direction through Asia Minor, is Derbe, another town of 
 Lycaonia, still within the large province of Galatia. The 
 site of this city has been identified with some probability 
 as Zoska or LosAa, where is a large mound called Gudc- 
 lissin, which appears to be ancient but has not been 
 excavated. This site was identified by Professor Sterrett, 
 and his opinion is accepted by Professor Ramsay, who 
 states, however, that 'the evidence is not yet perfect.' 
 Derbe was situated on the main eastern road, to which 
 therefore Paul had returned after turning aside to visit 
 Lystra. For a time (from a.d. 41 to 72) it was the 
 frontier city of the Roman province, and was entitled 
 Claudio-Derbe, after the Emperor Claudius. 
 
INTRODUCTION }7 
 
 The Origin of the Galatian Churches. 
 
 The churches in the four cities of Southern Galatia 
 were all founded in the course of Paul's ' first missionary 
 journey.' It has been said that the title of this journey 
 is not strictly correct, since the Apostle had been engaged 
 in evangelistic preaching for years among the towns 
 and villages of Syria and Judaea before he set out on 
 this more distant expedition. But that work was the 
 spontaneous, irresponsible, independent activity of a 
 man burning with zeal for the cause he had previously 
 persecuted, sanctioned by the highest of all authorities 
 — the authority of the Lord who had called him and 
 made him an apostle, but not commissioned by any 
 human community. He always based his right to 
 teach on this primary, Divine call. But when he set 
 out as the companion of Barnabas for the wider field 
 of evangelizing, which included more remote regions 
 than any hitherto visited, it was with a distinct mandate 
 from the church at Antioch in Syria. That church 
 solemnly set apart and sent out the two missionaries. 
 Their journey was missionary in the sense that they 
 were commissioned by the Syrian church to undertake 
 it, and it was the first of Paul's expeditions of this 
 character, and also the first of his extensive journeys. 
 The two travellers sailed to the island of Cyprus, 
 where they were remarkably successful in one respect, 
 for they actually won over to their faith the Roman 
 proconsul, Sergius Paulus. Thence they sailed across 
 to the mainland of Asia Minor, landing in the gulf of 
 Attalia, opposite to Cyprus. Not staying long at Perga, 
 they made their way up through the Balkans to Antioch 
 in Pisidia. We have already noticed the Apostle's 
 statement that this inland journey was taken, or per- 
 haps we should say expedited, because of his illness 1 . 
 
 1 See p. 64. 
 
78 GALATIANS 
 
 Even in the present day it is the common practice 
 of the inhabitants of the hot, unhealthy sea-border to 
 retire to the mountains on the approach of summer. 
 'When the time arrives, the people may be seen 
 ascending to the upper grounds, men, women, and 
 children, with flocks and herds, camels and asses, like 
 the patriarch of old. If then St. Paul was at Perga in 
 May, he would find the inhabitants deserting its hot 
 and silent streets. They would be moving in the 
 direction of his own intended journey. He would be 
 under no temptation to stay. And if we imagine him 
 as joining some such company of Pamphylian families 
 on his way to the Pisidian mountains, it gives much 
 interest and animation to the thought of this part of his 
 progress V 
 
 Mark declined to accompany the apostles in this 
 extension of their expedition and returned to Jerusalem, 
 leaving Barnabas and Paul to prosecute the mission by 
 themselves. The first halting-place was Antioch in 
 Pisidia, the Roman colony and great military centre. 
 Here, according to custom, they entered the synagogue 
 on the first sabbath and took their seats among their 
 fellow Jews. After the usual reading of two lessons, 
 one from the Tor ah, the sacred book of the law, and 
 the other from the second volume of the Hebrew 
 Scriptures, the two visitors were asked if they had 
 anything to say. This was quite in accordance with 
 the custom of the synagogue, where the preaching 
 and teaching were not confined to any order of 
 ministry, but were open to any capable person who 
 might be invited to speak by the elders in authority. 
 Paul, already appearing as the chief spokesman in the 
 mission, responded to the courteous invitation of the 
 synagogue rulers, rose to his feet, and attracting attention 
 
 1 Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul, 
 chap. vi. 
 
INTRODUCTION 79 
 
 with a beckoning wave of his hand, delivered the great 
 message of the gospel for the first time in the hearing of 
 any people of Asia Minor. Luke shews that he perceives 
 the importance of the occasion by giving the speech in 
 full. It must be allowed that, in harmony with the 
 recognized licence of the ancient historian, the author 
 of Acts would feel free to compose such a speech as he 
 would believe Paul might have uttered on the occasion. 
 This was the invariable practice of Thucydides, who 
 nevertheless must be reckoned an honest and trust- 
 worthy writer. But then we must not forget that Luke 
 became a travelling companion of the Apostle. In con- 
 templating the production of his narrative, is it not 
 likely that an accurate and diligent author, such as 
 the preface to the Third Gospel leads us to expect Luke 
 to be, would do his best to learn from the lips of Paul 
 himself what the Apostle had said on so historic an 
 occasion? At all events we may rest assured that 
 we have here the line of thought and the method of 
 presenting his subject followed by the Apostle. In view 
 of our Epistle it is important to see how the Galatians 
 were first approached with the gospel message. Here in 
 the first discourse in the first of the four towns visited by 
 Paul and Barnabas we have the first presentation of 
 Christianity to these people. What form did it take ? 
 
 Paul begins with a brief review of the history of 
 Israel, calling attention to God's choice of the people and 
 His directing hand at every great crisis. Thus they 
 should be prepared for some new manifestation of Divine 
 power and grace. In a few swift strokes the Apostle touches 
 on leading points - the bondage in Egypt, the obtaining 
 of Canaan, the mission of the judges up to Samuel, the 
 appointment of Saul in response to the people's demand 
 for a king, the substitution of David as king when Saul 
 was rejected. Here the recital ceases. The mention of 
 David suggests David's greater son. At this point Paul 
 plunges at once into his new message. It is all in line 
 
80 GALATIANS 
 
 with what preceded. God had sent the judges and kings ; 
 now God has brought a descendant of David, according 
 to the promises of Scripture, to be a Saviour. This is 
 Jesus, for whose coming John the Baptist— of whom the 
 Galatian Jews must have heard, for he had disciples 
 even at Ephesus— prepared the way, and to whom the 
 prophet of the wilderness bore witness as being a much 
 more honourable personage than himself. This Jesus 
 came to bring salvation to the Jews ; but the inhabit- 
 ants of Jerusalem rejected him and induced Pilate to 
 put him to death. Their opposition was futile, for 
 God raised him from the dead, in accordance with 
 prophecy. Through this man forgiveness of sins is now 
 proclaimed. Every one who believes is justified as he 
 could not be justified by the law of Moses. A solemn 
 warning not to despise the message concludes this clear, 
 virile declaration of the gospel. The statement about 
 justification should be especially noted. Luke here re- 
 produces the exact Pauline doctrine. It is the doctrine 
 which the Apostle enforces in our Epistle — justifica- 
 tion by faith over against the failure of the Jewish 
 law to effect it. When writing his letter he expresses 
 astonishment that the Galatians should have fallen 
 back from this position, fascinated by the weak and 
 beggarly elements of the law. He assumes that they 
 know his teaching of justification by faith perfectly well. 
 Now in Luke's account of the first sermon preached to 
 the Galatians we see that this idea is distinctly set forth. 
 Here we have the very teaching, departure from which 
 Paul deplores in his Epistle. 
 
 The effect of this sermon was remarkable. No one 
 seems to have taken offence at it, although it was 
 delivered to Jews in their synagogue. It is to be 
 observed that while Paul spoke of the ineffectiveness 
 of the law, assuming that the Jews were conscious of 
 this in their own experience, he did not announce the 
 abrogation of the law. It was a moderate, considerate 
 
INTRODUCTION 81 
 
 statement of his position. The Jews requested Paul 
 to speak to them again the next sabbath. They were 
 interested, , but not yet convinced, and perhaps per- 
 plexed. Still, after the meeting many of them followed 
 Paul and Barnabas, who urged them 'to continue in 
 the grace of God,' implying that they had yielded to 
 the message and become converts. These were of two 
 classes — Jews and ' devout proselytes,' i. e. men and 
 women of the native race who had previously accepted 
 Judaism. As yet no heathen were included. But the 
 novel teaching made a great stir. The synagogue was 
 open to the public, and on the next sabbath it was found 
 to be crowded with the pagan inhabitants of the city. 
 This roused the jealousy of the Jews, and as Paul was 
 preaching, though it does not appear that as yet he was 
 making any explicit offer of his gospel to the Gentiles — 
 that came a little later — since his teaching was of such 
 a character as to break down the wall of privileged 
 seclusion about the covenant people, they interrupted 
 him, contradicting his statements, and at length de- 
 scending to personal abuse. Then Paul made a bold 
 declaration of policy. It was necessary that he should 
 first deliver his message to the Jews. But since they 
 had rejected it the missionaries would turn to the 
 Gentiles. Of course this pleased the latter class of 
 people, and many of them came over to the new move- 
 ment. Not only the city, but the region — a technical 
 term for the suburban parts under the jurisdiction of the 
 colony — were affected. Thus quite a considerable church 
 was gathered. We can see from this narrative how it 
 was composed. There was first the nucleus of Jews 
 and Jewish proselytes won over on the first sabbath ; 
 then there was the much more numerous body of con- 
 verted pagans from the city and 'the region.' The 
 majority would be Gentile, but there was a Jewish 
 minority. 
 This success was not to go on unmolested. The Jews 
 ( 9 ) G 
 
82 GALATIANS 
 
 roused the religious women of influential position and the 
 chief men of the city, who commenced a persecution 
 which induced Paul and Barnabas to leave, shaking off 
 the dust of their feet, according to their Master's direc- 
 tions. Thence they made their way to Iconium. In con- 
 nexion with this journey we have the earliest account 
 of the Apostle's bodily appearance. It is found in the 
 apocryphal Acts of Paul and Thecla, an early Chris- 
 tian romance, based to some extent on tradition. We 
 cannot put much faith in the description contained in such 
 a work. Still it is so definite that it may contain a 
 genuine reminiscence of what Paul looked like. Onesi- 
 phorus, who with his wife and family is waiting at the 
 crossroads for the Apostle as he comes from Antioch, 
 recognizes him by the description Titus * had given. 
 It is as follows : ' He saw Paul coming along, a man 
 of moderate stature, with crisp hair, . . . scanty, 
 crooked legs, with blue eyes, and large knit brows, 
 long nose, and he was full of the grace and pity of the 
 Lord, sometimes having the appearance of a man, but 
 sometimes looking like an angel.' 
 
 At Iconium the missionaries proceeded on lines similar 
 to those followed in Antioch. They first went to the 
 synagogue, and their preaching resulted in the conversion 
 of many people, both Jews and Greeks. Here too the 
 Jews aroused opposition on the part of the heathen 
 population, and the whole city was divided into two 
 factions. At length the antagonism became serious. 
 Gentiles and Jews, including the elders of the synagogue, 
 united in a plot to stone the apostles, hearing of which 
 they fled from the city. Still they had been there 
 for some time preaching, and miracles had appeared. 
 They left a considerable church behind them as the fruit 
 of their labours. 
 
 The next places to be visited were the Lycaonian cities 
 
 1 An anachronism; this was before Titus had met Paul. 
 
INTRODUCTION 83 
 
 of Lystra and Derbe, with ''the region round about? 
 The mission was not confined to the towns. Outlying 
 parts were also evangelized. At Lystra the cure of 
 a cripple led to a scene of wild enthusiasm. The excited 
 populace, more devoted to the old pagan cults in the 
 interior of Asia Minor than people nearer Rome, were for 
 sacrificing to the missionaries as to two divinities who 
 were paying them a visit. They actually brought oxen 
 crowned with garlands for this object. Barnabas, the 
 leader of the expedition, they took for Zeus, the king of 
 the gods, and Paul, the chief spokesman, for Hermes, the 
 herald god. There was a temple or shrine, or perhaps 
 only an altar of Zeus, at the gate of the city, and here 
 the sacrifices were to be offered. A stranger scene has 
 never been witnessed in all the romance of missions. It 
 was with the greatest difficulty that Paul could restrain the 
 crowd from their fanatical purpose. Now we know that 
 our Epistle was addressed in part to converts from these 
 very people, we can see how suitable some of its expres- 
 sions are. Thus when Paul writes, 'ye received me as 
 an angel of God ' (Gal. iv. 14), he may be referring to 
 their mistaking him for Hermes, the winged messengev 
 god of the pagans. If so, then his words in an earlier 
 passage, ' But though we, or an angel from heaven, should 
 preach unto you any gospel other than that which we 
 preached unto you, let him be anathema' (i. 8), may 
 contain an allusion to the same incident. Then his re- 
 minder of the enthusiasm of the Galatians, which went so 
 far that Paul could say of it, ' for I bear you witness, that, 
 if possible, ye would have plucked out your eyes and given 
 them to me ' (iv. 15), might well be based on a recollection 
 of that frantic attempt to offer garlanded oxen and so 
 render Divine honours to the apostles. 
 
 But the amazing changeableness of temperament to 
 
 which the Epistle bears witness as a painful characteristic 
 
 of the Galatians was previously witnessed in the city of 
 
 Lystra. Jews from Antioch and Iconium persuaded the 
 
 G 2 
 
84 GALATIANS 
 
 mob to turn against the missionaries, no doubt represent- 
 ing them to be no better than cheats and charlatans. 
 Chagrin at their own humiliation in having taken such 
 people for gods would whip the fickle multitude into 
 a rage. What was only planned at Iconium was effected 
 at Lystra. Paul was stoned and dragged out of the city 
 as a dead man. But while the mourning disciples were 
 gathered round him he recovered consciousness and was 
 able to return. The next day the two missionaries left 
 for Derbe. The mention of 'disciples' shews that at 
 Lystra there were some converts. But they do not seem 
 to have been numerous. There is no statement to that 
 effect, as in the cases of Antioch and Iconium, and 
 probably Paul's visit to the city was quickly terminated. 
 The disturbance must have followed almost directly after 
 the cure of the cripple, and that miracle is described 
 immediately after the general statement that ' they 
 preached the gospel ' in these parts. But one important 
 result of the Apostle's work at Lystra was that Timothy 
 was won to the faith (see Acts xvi. i). 
 
 Luke gives the briefest notice of the Apostle's work in 
 Derbe, the last of the four Galatian cities visited ; but he 
 tells us that the missionaries 'made many disciples.' 
 Here also a church was founded. Paul and Barnabas 
 retraced their steps, again visiting the cities by the way, 
 encouraging and instructing the converts and appointing 
 elders in the churches, after the pattern of Jewish syna- 
 gogues. Coming down to Perga they now stayed longer 
 at that place than when they passed through on their 
 outward journey, and delivered their gospel message 
 there. Then, embarking at the port of Attalia, they 
 returned to Antioch, to the church that had sent them 
 forth, with a report of the adventures and results of their 
 mission. The chief point was that 'God had opened 
 a door of faith unto the Gentiles.' We can imagine with 
 what eagerness the Christians of Antioch would listen to 
 this report. They had sent out the missionaries under an 
 
INTRODUCTION 85 
 
 impulse of the Divine Spirit, perhaps because directed to 
 do so by prophets in their church. But the mission had 
 been directed to Jews in the first instance. It would be 
 known that Paul and Barnabas, both Jews, would visit 
 the synagogues and preach the gospel in those centres 
 of the old faith. And yet the majority of the Antioch 
 church was Gentile ; it consisted of ' Greeks,' as the 
 name was then used, that is to say, of people of Greek 
 culture and civilization. And it was liberal in spirit as 
 well as alive with the passion of evangelizing. Now it 
 learnt to its delight that the signs of grace manifested 
 among its own members were also appearing among the 
 ' Greeks ' of Asia Minor. Experience was shewing, the 
 logic of facts was proving, that the gospel was no narrow 
 message only for Jews. It was good news for the world 
 at large. Galatia came in to confirm what hitherto had 
 been seen at Antioch only, or scarcely anywhere else, 
 viz. the saving power of the gospel for ' Greeks ' as well 
 as Jews. This was a confirmation of the Antiochian 
 position ; and it opened up a magnificent prospect for 
 the future of Christianity. Like the enlargement of 
 horizon brought about at the Renaissance by the discovery 
 of America, and further by the appearance of the Coper- 
 nican system of astronomy, an immense widening of 
 outlook, a vast increase of possibilities, now opened up to 
 the Antioch Christians. The Gentile churches of Galatia 
 were the firstfruits of a world-wide harvest. This must 
 be borne in mind when we read of the Apostle's extreme 
 disappointment at the defection to Judaism of these very 
 churches. It was like the corruption of his proof-text, 
 the tearing up of his sheet anchor. He was accustomed 
 to point to Galatia as affording the Divine proof that his 
 liberal gospel was true and right, for there God was seen 
 to be blessing it greatly as a message of grace to the 
 heathen apart from the Jewish law. Bitter indeed must 
 have been his disappointment, deep and dark his dismay, 
 when he found these specimen churches of their own 
 
86 GALATIANS 
 
 accord cutting the ground from beneath them by 
 voluntarily abandoning the position of Christian liberty 
 which their very existence was vindicating in the eyes of 
 the timorous Jewish Christians of Jerusalem. 
 
 Subsequent Visits to Galatia. 
 
 We learn from the narrative in Acts that Paul paid two 
 later visits to the Galatian churches. The first (described 
 in Acts xvi. 1-6) was after the Jerusalem council — that 
 meeting of the church at Jerusalem recorded in Acts xv, 
 in which the problem of Gentile Christianity was dis- 
 cussed and in some measure decided (c. A.D. 50). The 
 proposal came from the Apostle who would have had 
 Barnabas go also ; but when Barnabas wished to take 
 his nephew Mark, who had left them in Pamphylia on 
 the previous occasion, Paul objected, and there was 'a 
 sharp contention ' between them, with the result that 
 Barnabas sailed for Cyprus, his native island, with Mark, 
 and Paul then took Silas as his companion. This time 
 he approached Galatia from the east, coming round 
 through Syria and Cilicia. Thus Derbe, the last town 
 visited on the former occasion, was now reached first. 
 At Lystra Paul found Timothy, and took him to be his 
 attendant disciple and assistant evangelist. The de- 
 cision of the Jerusalem council was communicated to 
 the Galatian churches. It allowed of Gentile Christianity 
 apart from circumcision. Paul's great point was gained. 
 Converts from heathenism were not required to become 
 Jews in accepting Christianity. They could receive the 
 salvation of Christ without keeping the law. But certain 
 simple restrictions, especially aimed at excluding heathen- 
 ism and its vices, were included in the 'decrees' from 
 Jerusalem. The result of this visit was an increase 
 and strengthening of the churches. For the third visit 
 {c. A.D. 53), which followed a return to Jerusalem and 
 Palestine after the great tour in Macedonia and Greece, 
 
INTRODUCTION 87 
 
 Paul's first visit to Europe, he again travelled to Galatia 
 from Antioch, though Luke does not say which way he 
 approached the province. He ' went through the region 
 of Galatia and Phrygia in order, stablishing all the 
 disciples' (Acts xviii. 23). The Galatians were included 
 in the contributors to the fund for the relief of the poor 
 members of the Jerusalem church. 
 
 The Date and Place of Origin of the Epistle. 
 
 Date. There is some uncertainty, not only as to the 
 exact date of the Epistle —a comparatively unimportant 
 matter — but as to its position in the life and history 
 of the early church and its order in the list of Paul's 
 letters. These are questions of some interest, because 
 a right understanding of the Epistle itself and of its 
 relation to the Christian life and thought of the day, 
 of which its ideas are important factors, depends in 
 some measure on our answer to them. The principal 
 question is, Eid it precede or follow the 'council of 
 Jerusalem'? Nanifestly the whole discussion contained 
 in the Epistle vill take a different complexion according 
 as we considei L it to be prior to that decision, and 
 therefore quite )ut of any relation to it, or subsequent 
 and perhaps moje or less modified by it. 
 
 It was maintained by Lightfoot that the Epistle came 
 later. But then is a tendency in the present day to 
 put it earlier, ard even to make it the first written of 
 all our thirteen ^auline Epistles. Let us look first at 
 the reasons in fcvour of an early date. 
 
 I. In writing tc the Galatians the Apostle expresses his 
 astonishment at he quickness with which they have per- 
 1 mitted themselve to be perverted. He says, ' I marvel 
 that ye are so quckly removing from him that called you 
 in the grace of Christ unto a different gospel ' (Gal. i. 6). 
 That is said to inply a perversion very soon after the 
 founding of the cmrches. A period of some six years, 
 
88 GALATIANS 
 
 which would be required if we accepted the later date of 
 the Epistle, would seem too long to allow of such r an 
 expression. But how do we know that the Apostle is 
 counting from the time of the founding of the churches ? 
 If he had visited them twice since and had found them 
 steadfast on each occasion, and if he had received letters 
 and messages even after his last visit, perhaps with 
 reference to the collection for the Jerusalem church, and 
 these had conveyed favourable reports, and then all 
 of a sudden the Galatians had been led astray into 
 teaching quite contrary to that of their Apostle, this would 
 strike him as an amazingly quick change. The news 
 would come on him like a thunder-clap, however long 
 an interval may have elapsed since the conversion of 
 the Galatians. Professor Ramsay understands the words 
 ' so quickly ' to mean ' so soon ' after the second visit. But 
 they may just as well mean so soon after the third visit, or 
 not even that, but so quickly, taken in an lbsolute sense, 
 implying that it had been a hasty changj of mind and 
 belief on the part of the Galatians, no mater when it took 
 place. 
 
 2. In iv. 13 we read, 'But ye know tha because of an 
 infirmity of the flesh I preached the gosjel unto you the 
 
 first time.' Here the Revisers note in tleir margin that 
 the Greek word rendered ' first ' means ' former.' The 
 former time would seem to mean the fir.t of two. Thus 
 this would seem to imply that Paul hal only paid two 
 visits to Galatia when he wrote the Episle. Accordingly 
 it should not be dated after the third visi. But if we take 
 the word more indefinitely as meaning jist 'formerly,' this 
 difficulty vanishes (see note on the text). 
 
 3. In ii. 3 Paul writes, 'But not evea Titus who was 
 with me, being a Greek, was compelled t> be circumcised.' 
 Why does Paul say 'being a Greek,' if Titus was known 
 to the Galatians, as would be the caseat the later date 
 assigned to the Epistle ? The phrase however, is not 
 merely introduced in order to infom the Galatians 
 
INTRODUCTION 89 
 
 of the fact that Titus was a Greek. The point is that, 
 inasmuch as Titus was a Greek, Paul would not permit 
 him to be circumcised. 
 
 These arguments for the early date of the Epistle do 
 not amount to much. They all turn on small verbal 
 points. On the other hand, the reasons for assigning it 
 to the later period stand on a broader basis. They are 
 drawn from the character of the Epistle and the subject 
 it discusses. Paul's Epistles naturally fall into four 
 groups according to character and contents as well as 
 in chronological arrangement. First we have the simple, 
 practical Thessalonian Epistles, second the great doc- 
 trinal and controversial Epistles, third the meditative, 
 spiritual, partly mystical, Epistles of the imprisonment, 
 fourth the Pastoral Epistle. There cannot be the slightest 
 question as to which of these groups would claim our 
 Epistle on the ground of its subject and characteristics. 
 This Epistle is immersed in the controversy with the 
 Judaizers. Paul's authority has been challenged, and 
 he is vehemently defending his apostolic rights. His 
 specific teaching has been set aside, and he is expounding 
 and justifying it in a polemical temper. His style has a 
 peculiar force and incisiveness in keeping with the tone 
 and spirit of the Epistle. Something of the same spirit 
 and style may be detected in the other great doctrinal 
 Epistles. In 1 Corinthians Paul alludes to various parties 
 in the church, one of which claims his name, while the 
 rest take other names. In 2 Corinthians he vindicates 
 his own apostolic authority against opponents. He does 
 not find it necessary to do this when writing to the distant 
 church at Rome which he has never visited. But in the 
 Roman letter he deals with similar doctrinal subjects, 
 and he uses the same vigorous style. Thus our Epistle 
 naturally falls into line with the other doctrinal Epistles, 
 those which belong to the second group. None of 
 the remaining three groups manifest these character- 
 istics either of subject-matter or of style. To place 
 
9 o GALATIANS 
 
 Galatians before I and 2 Thessalonians would be an 
 anachronism, viewed in the light of the Apostle's personal 
 history and the development of his own thought and 
 style. Those Epistles give us no hint of the great 
 controversy ; they contain no trace of the logical strenu- 
 ousness found in all the four doctrinal Epistles. Of course 
 we must allow that if the troubles dealt with in our Epistle 
 had not broken out in Macedonia Paul might have had 
 no occasion to refer to them when writing to the Thessa- 
 lonians. Still it is easier to bring this Epistle into close 
 connexion with the other doctrinal Epistles than to separate 
 it from them and place the mild, simple Thessalonian 
 letters between. 
 
 There are some who accept this position, but who 
 place Galatians before the two Corinthian Epistles, dating 
 it from Ephesus during the Apostle's long residence in 
 that city. They thus bring it near to Paul's third visit 
 to Galatia (or his second visit, if they hold to the North 
 Galatian theory). But we have seen that if the words 
 ' so quickly ' do not refer to the Apostle's recent presence 
 in Galatia, then we have no reason for saying that the 
 Epistle was written soon after Paul had been with the 
 Galatians. If we may allow a little interval of time, there 
 is reason for placing our Epistle after the Corinthian 
 letters. This is found in its close resemblance to the 
 Epistle to the Romans both in idea and in phrase. The 
 two Epistles expound the doctrine of justification by faith 
 with a fullness and force not met with elsewhere, and 
 they both treat of the relation of Christianity to Judaism 
 as the one burning question of the hour. Dr. Lightfoot 
 worked out the comparison in detail, and nothing that 
 has been said since his time could possibly demolish 
 the facts of close resemblance which he has set before 
 us. Both Epistles contain the same appeal to Abraham as 
 affording the typical example of righteousness obtained 
 by faith, the same idea that they who have faith are 
 Abraham's true children. Then both contain what to 
 
INTRODUCTION 91 
 
 Jews must have seemed the amazing statements that 
 the law brings a curse rather than a blessing and that 
 no man is justified by it. Further, in both it is argued 
 that this failure of the law is for the ultimate blessing 
 of those who come to the righteousness of faith. The 
 result is shewn in both Epistles to be the same— that 
 those who have faith become sons of God in the power 
 of the Spirit. 
 
 Several striking and peculiar phrases are common to 
 the two Epistles, shewing that in language as well as in 
 thought they are often very close together. For instance : — 
 
 Gal. ii. 16 : ' Because by the works of the law shall no 
 flesh be justified.' 
 
 Rom. iii. 20 : ' Because by the works of the law shall 
 no flesh be justified in his sight.' 
 
 Here we have identically the same variation from the 
 Old Testament, which is as follows both in the Hebrew 
 and in the Septuagint : ' For in thy sight shall no man 
 living be justified' (Ps. cxliii. 2). 
 
 Gal. ii. 19 : ' Died unto the law.' 
 Rom. vii. 4 : ' Dead to the law.' 
 
 Gal. ii. 20 : ' Crucified with Christ.' 
 Rom. vi. 6 : ' Crucified with him.' 
 
 Gal. iii. 22 : ' The scripture hath shut up all things 
 under sin.' 
 
 Rom. xi. 32 : ' God hath shut up all unto disobedience.' 
 
 Gal. iii. 27: 'As many of you as were baptized into 
 Christ.' 
 
 Rom. vi. 3 : ' All we who were baptized into Christ 
 Jesus.' 
 
 Gal. iii. 27 : ' Did put on Christ.' 
 Rom. xiii. 14 : ' Put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ.' 
 Gal. iii. 29: ' Abraham's seed, heirs according to promise.' 1 
 Rom. ix. 8 : ' The children of the promise are reckoned 
 for a seed.' 
 
9 2 GALATIANS 
 
 Gal. iv. 28 : ' Children of promise.' 
 Rom. ix. 8 : ' Children of the promise.' 
 
 Gal. v. 14: 'The whole law is fulfilled in one word, 
 even in this, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.' 
 
 Rom. xiii. 8, 9 : ' He that loveth his neighbour hath 
 fulfilled the law; ... it is briefly summed up in this word, 
 namely, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.' 
 
 Gal. v. 16: '■Walk by the spirit, and ye shall not 
 fulfil the lust of the flesh: 
 
 Rom. viii. 4 : ' Who walk not after the flesh, but after 
 the spi?it: 
 
 Gal. v. 17 : ' Ye may not do the things that ye would.' 
 Rom. vii. 15 : 'Not what I would, that do I practise.' 
 
 Gal. vi. 2 : ' Bear ye one another's burdens.' 
 
 Rom. xv. 1 : * We . . . ought to bear the infirmities of 
 the weak.' 
 
 In each case the context shews that the 'burdens' or 
 ' infirmities ' are faults or moral defects. 
 
 It has been suggested that the identity of subject in the 
 two Epistles may account for the close resemblance of 
 style, even if other Epistles come between. But some 
 of these phrases do not belong to the main argument ; 
 and in all cases it is easier to think that both Epistles 
 were written at the same time while the Apostle's mind 
 was deeply stirred with the great question raised by the 
 Judaizers. This is the more likely when we consider the 
 peculiarity of the Epistle to the Romans. Unlike all 
 the other of Paul's Epistles, except Colossians, this 
 was not written to one of his own churches ; nor was it 
 called forth by any immediate necessity. There was no 
 reason for it to be sent at the particular time when 
 the Apostle chose to dispatch it, excepting that his mind 
 was then full of the subject. This was so supremely 
 important that he wished the church in the imperial city 
 to come to see it clearly and be fully impressed with its 
 
INTRODUCTION 93 
 
 significance. Possibly too he desired to write out once 
 for all a complete exposition of the subject that might 
 serve for other churches also. It is probable that the 
 idea would occur to him when the desperate state of 
 the Galatian churches urgently called for instruction and 
 expostulation, rather than at some subsequent period. 
 If Paul wished to do this at all, that would be the time 
 when he would be most strongly impelled to write the 
 Roman letter. It seems reasonable then to say that the 
 two epistles were written about the same time. We 
 have a parallel case in the close resemblance between 
 Ephesians and Colossians, the natural explanation being 
 that they were companion Epistles, composed in the 
 same period of the Apostle's imprisonment. 
 
 These considerations help us also to decide which of 
 the two letters was written first. It has been said that 
 Galatians comes after Romans, since it shews an intensi- 
 fying and further accentuating of the ideas contained in 
 the earlier epistle. This is a perverse statement ; or 
 rather, it is not too much to say that it is an inversion of 
 the case. Nothing can be more certain than that Gala- 
 tians comes hot from the roused feelings of the Apostle. 
 He is astonished, distressed, indignant. 'Out of the 
 abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh.' Here we 
 have the psychological moment, and in it the psychologi- 
 cal explanation of the unique phenomena of the Epistle. 
 This is just the condition in which new thoughts are 
 brought to the birth and new phrases coined. The 
 calmer atmosphere in which the longer epistle is written, 
 the absence of any special need of immediate guidance 
 and help in the church at Rome, the fact that the Apostle 
 had no personal relations with that church, these are all 
 conditions under which the later discussion could best 
 be developed when based on the strong phrases and 
 fiery, passionate ideas of the Galatian letter. First we 
 have the rough draft, then the elaborate treatise ; first 
 the epistle of urgent necessity aimed at effecting a vital 
 
94 GALATIANS 
 
 result, an epistle the writing of which is a deed ; after- 
 wards the enlarged, finished document which partakes 
 more of the character of literature. 
 
 This position of our Epistle, just before Romans and 
 therefore next after 2 Corinthians, is confirmed by a com- 
 parison with the latter epistle. Dr. Jowett called attention 
 to certain points of resemblance between the two. Thus 
 in both Paul vindicates his own apostleship and in both 
 he mentions his bodily weakness or illness, the - thorn in 
 the flesh ' of 2 Corinthians (xii. 7) corresponding to the 
 'infirmity of the flesh' mentioned in Galatians (iv. 13). 
 Accordingly it seems that we should fix the date of our 
 Epistle between 2 Corinthians and Romans, and probably 
 near the time of the latter epistle. This will give us the 
 end of A. D. 57 or the beginning of 58 (according to the 
 usually accepted chronology of the Apostle's missionary 
 journeys). The date is fixed thus — the epistle to the 
 Romans was written in Achaia (Rom. xv. 25, 26), and 
 therefore probably from Corinth. This must be during 
 the second visit recorded in Acts (xx. 2). It could not be 
 the first visit to Corinth recorded in Acts xviii, because 
 Paul had preached the gospel as far as Illyricum (Rom. 
 xv. 19), and we have too full particulars of that first visit 
 when he came down through Philippi, Thessalonica, and 
 Bercea to allow of an interval for any deviation towards 
 Illyricum. Besides, Romans evidently belongs to the 
 second group of epistles, and has 1 and 2 Corinthians as 
 well as Galatians for its companion epistles. It cannot 
 possibly be put back to the time of the Thessalonian 
 letters, which were written during the first visit to Corinth. 
 If then Galatians belongs to the same period, this too 
 must have been written during that second missionary 
 visit to Greece. 
 
 An objection to this late date assigned to Galatians has 
 been raised on the ground that it makes the letter to be 
 subsequent to the Jerusalem council. We can best 
 appreciate and meet this objection when wc have 
 
INTRODUCTION 95 
 
 considered the occasion and purpose of our Epistle. Let 
 it stand over for a little while. 
 
 Place of Origin. The question where the Epistle was 
 written is virtually settled when we have decided its date. 
 According to the theori6s as to the date are the theories 
 concerning the locality. There are the claims of three 
 places which demand our attention. 
 
 1. Antioch in Syria. The claims of this place are 
 advocated by Professor Ramsay. He considers that 
 Paul supported his arguments with the authority of the 
 church in that city, the church which had sent out the 
 mission that led to the evangelizing of Galatia, and for 
 which therefore grateful converts should feel some 
 deference. The expression, 'all the brethren that are 
 with me/ in the opening salutation (Gal. i. 2) is taken as 
 a reference to the church at Antioch. But if that church 
 were appealed to, why was it not named ? In the Epistle 
 of Clement the church at Rome addresses the church at 
 Corinth. And the phrase, 'all the brethren that are with 
 me,' is not suitable to the church which had commissioned 
 Paul for his tour. It applies much more aptly to his 
 own travelling companions. The words ' with me ' point to 
 inferiors or subordinates rather than to a respected body 
 such as the great church at Antioch. The phrase is used 
 elsewhere for the Apostle's personal friends and com- 
 panions, as in Philippians iv. 21, where we read, 'The 
 brethren which are with me salute you.' But by far the 
 most serious difficulty in the way of accepting Professor 
 Ramsay's view comes from the fact that it runs counter 
 to the spirit of the Epistle and the line of argument 
 maintained through the whole writing. Paul's apostolic 
 authority has been called in question. He has been 
 accused of presenting a second-hand gospel. His teach- 
 ing has been discredited by an attempt to lower the 
 status of the teacher. Paul meets this personal charge 
 boldly and unequivocally. He maintains his absolute 
 independence. He ascribes his apostleship to God and 
 
96 GALATIANS 
 
 Christ, not to any human being. On the authority thus 
 secured he expects his readers to shew deference to 
 his instructions. He would only have weakened his 
 argument in this direction if he had appealed to 
 the church at Antioch or associated that church with 
 himself in his letter. It is the one Epistle above all 
 others that stands on the personal, independent authority 
 of the Apostle. 
 
 The only other reason for suggesting Antioch as the 
 place from which the letter was sent which is of any 
 weight, is dependent on Professor Ramsay's theory of 
 its early date, a time when Paul would be found at 
 Antioch. But if there is validity in what has . been 
 here said about the date, of course that argument 
 vanishes. If the Epistle was written as late as A.D. 57 
 or 58 it could not have come from Antioch. 
 
 2. Ephesus. The claim for this city as the place from 
 which the Epistle was dispatched, put forth by Dr. Zockler 
 and others, especially in Germany, is also dependent on 
 the question of date. Placing the Epistle earlier than the 
 two Corinthian letters, though later than the two Thessa- 
 lonian letters written during the first visit to Corinth, 
 it finds the Apostle's long stay at Ephesus as the most 
 likely period for the writing of it. 1 Corinthians was written 
 at Ephesus at this time. Galatians is assigned to an 
 earlier part of the Apostle's residence in that city. On 
 the North Galatian theory it could not be written earlier ; 
 but on the South Galatian theory, advocated in this Intro- 
 duction, it is not necessarily confined to this time. The 
 quickness with which the Galatians were perverted is 
 given as a reason for preferring Ephesus, during the early 
 part of Paul's residence there, rather than Corinth, after 
 the whole time of his stay in the capital of Asia was over. 
 But we have seen that his words will not bear the con- 
 struction put on them in this argument l . 
 
 1 See p. S7 f. 
 
INTRODUCTION 97 
 
 3. Corinth. If we accept the date above assigned to 
 the Epistle we seem driven towards Corinth for the place 
 of its origin. Coming later than 2 Corinthians, which was 
 written in Macedonia, and earlier than Romans, which was 
 written at Corinth, the only alternative would be Macedonia 
 or some place on the route round through Achaia. But 
 Paul would not be likely to stay long at any place during 
 this journey. He wrote to Corinth, it is true ; but he 
 had special reasons for doing so, after Titus had come to 
 him from that city. It is more probable that news of the 
 state of the churches in Galatia would reach him when he 
 was in an important metropolis such as Corinth, which was 
 in constant communication with the East, than while he 
 was journeying through Macedonia and Achaia. Corinth 
 then seems to be the most likely place of origin for the 
 Epistle. 
 
 There is no authority for the subscription to the Epistle 
 in our Authorized Version, ' Unto the Galatians written from 
 Rome.' This is not found in the oldest MSS., which simply 
 have, 'To the Galatians/ and even that would not have 
 been part of the original writing. 
 
 The Occasion for Writing the Epistle. 
 
 Most of Paul's Epistles were written to meet certain 
 specific requirements of the moment. They all contain 
 truths of profound significance and lasting worth. It was 
 characteristic of the Apostle's depth of spiritual thought 
 to treat every topic he had occasion to handle from the 
 standpoint of the 'eternal verities.' That is why his 
 writings remain of permanent value. They are ' Scripture' 
 for us to-day, because they are inspired with ideas that live 
 through all the ages and bring light and life to readers of 
 every generation. Nevertheless they were not drawn up 
 as manifestos for the benefit of the church in perpetuity. 
 We cannot suppose that their author had the least idea of 
 the immense debt under which he was laying all future 
 
 (9) H 
 
98 GALATIANS 
 
 Christendom. Such an elaborate work as the Epistle to 
 the Romans may have been designed for more than local 
 use. Sent to the church in the centre of the empire, a 
 church the Apostle had never seen, and for which he was 
 in no special way responsible, it bears the character of 
 a careful declaration of his essential gospel intended to 
 be of general service if widely circulated. But this is 
 wholly exceptional — though Ephesians and Colossians 
 approach the great Roman Epistle in their detachment 
 from local circumstances. For the rest, Paul's Epistles 
 were all written to meet immediate, pressing requirements. 
 Thus we must understand what those requirements were 
 if we would discover the drift and purpose of the Epistles. 
 
 These considerations apply with force to the Epistle to 
 the Galatians. No other Epistle is more clearly stamped 
 with the marks of its origin. It springs up hot and eager 
 to meet its provocation. That is really not too strong a 
 phrase. The Epistle was called forth by nothing less than 
 provocation. The Apostle was literally provoked into 
 writing it. Sudden news that fell upon him ' like a bolt 
 from the blue ' roused the fire of his indignation. Still, 
 passionate as it is, this is no mere outburst of feeling. 
 The Apostle never thought more clearly than when he 
 felt most deeply. Like Byron's English Bards and 
 Scottish Reviewers, which is said to have been written 
 in a night under a stinging sense of stupid injustice, 
 our Epistle owes its point and piquancy to the rousing 
 circumstances of its origin. 
 
 For this was the situation. The Apostle was regarding 
 the four churches of Galatia as the firstfruits of his 
 missionary labours. Though he had been successful 
 elsewhere in his earlier work, there is no evidence that 
 he had actually succeeded so far as to found and organize 
 churches before he established the churches at Antioch, 
 Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. And this remarkably 
 successful work had been aided and prospered by the 
 very enthusiastic reception he had received among the 
 
INTRODUCTION 99 
 
 Phrygian and Lycaonian people. Here in the course of 
 what we call his ' first missionary journey ' he had met 
 with eager souls who had responded to his appeals with 
 all their hearts. They had received him as an angel of 
 God ; they would have plucked out their eyes and given 
 them to him, if he had demanded such a sacrifice. Nor 
 was this enthusiasm the mere effervescence of transitory 
 emotion. When the Apostle passed through the cities on 
 his return journey he was able to thoroughly organize 
 their churches. Since then he had visited them again, 
 perhaps twice, and on each occasion he had been well 
 received and had found everything in a most encouraging 
 condition. Thus he had every reason for thankfulness 
 in thinking of these churches of Galatia now ripening in 
 Christian experience. 
 
 Suddenly the Apostle was amazed and confounded by 
 the receipt of absolutely unexpected information of what 
 he could regard as nothing less than a revolution in the 
 beliefs and practices of the Galatians. They had come 
 to reject his authority as an Apostle, treating it lightly, 
 as quite inferior to the authority of the Jerusalem 
 apostles, and no better than a delegated position received 
 from them and dependent on their good-will. This is the 
 first surprise, and it calls forth the personal explanations 
 which occupy the first part of the Epistle. In the second 
 place, in rejecting the authority of their founder and 
 guide, the four churches had also abandoned his specific 
 teaching and adopted that of the Jewish Christians at 
 Jerusalem. Those Christians continued to observe the law 
 of Moses as they had observed it from their childhood. 
 They were loyal followers of Jesus Christ, believers in 
 him as their Lord and Saviour, his servants, working 
 out what they could see of his will, for this persecuted 
 by their unbelieving brethren among the Jews, and ready 
 to suffer martyrdom for their faith. Still, they did not 
 abandon the practices of the Jewish law. Circumcision 
 was not superseded by baptism, nor the passover by 
 h 2 
 
loo GALATIANS 
 
 the Lord's Supper, nor the temple by the church. These 
 Jerusalem disciples were law-abiding Jews who accepted 
 Jesus as Christ, Jews who added Christianity to Judaism 
 and considered that the amalgam made one perfect re- 
 ligion. Now the Galatians were going over to the same 
 position. Yet it was really entirely different with them. 
 For the most part these people were not Jews by birth. 
 Unlike the Jerusalem Christians they had never been 
 under the yoke of the law, had never confessed any 
 obligation to accept it. It was the law of the Jews, 
 and they were Gentiles. They had received Christian 
 baptism and had been formed into churches without 
 the least idea that in so doing they were becoming 
 Jews. The omission of the rite of circumcision on their 
 reception into the pale of Christianity was a plain proof 
 that they were not expected to adopt Judaism. And 
 then the gospel which Paul had preached, and which 
 they had received, tacitly excluded Judaism by leaving 
 no room for it. They had seen his picture of Christ 
 crucified vividly set before them, and in it the promise and 
 pledge of full redemption. After that no more could be 
 needed to secure the very richest blessings which God 
 could give or man receive. For people with such 
 a history, men who had been heathen, Gentiles, never 
 under the Jews' law, and who were now Christians 
 enlightened with knowledge of the gospel of freedom, 
 to be adopting Judaism was indeed an astounding piece 
 of perversity. And the change had come about so 
 quickly. There had been no premonitory symptoms. 
 It was not like the case of Newman's recession to Rome, 
 a slow movement through successive stages of deep 
 meditation, soul struggle, and agony, as the story is 
 set forth in his Apologia pro Vitd sud. When last seen 
 by the Apostle these Galatians were apparently un- 
 changed, still steadfast in the faith they had learnt from 
 their founder. And now they are in full pursuit of the 
 Jewish gospel, quite infatuated with it. 
 
INTRODUCTION lot 
 
 How could so great a change have come about so 
 suddenly? Dr. Lightfoot puts it down to Celtic fickle- 
 ness. But we have seen that the Galatians were not 
 Celts, but Phrygians and Lycaonians. These people 
 of Central Asia Minor were exceptionally liable to be 
 captured by appeals to religious excitement. Their 
 very enthusiastic reception of the Apostle on the occasion 
 of his first visit is a revelation of their temperament. 
 People who had behaved in that extravagant manner 
 once would be ready to do so again if some equally 
 novel, though not equally deserving, influence were 
 brought to bear upon them. Like those Jews of the 
 following cf James who went down to Antioch and 
 disturbed the peace of the church there, some Jewish 
 Christians, perhaps jealous for the position of the 
 primitive apostles, possibly sincerely anxious for the 
 good of the new heathen converts, and fearing that 
 Paul had given them a one-sided representation of 
 Christianity, went over to visit the four Galatian churches, 
 the fame of whose prosperity had reached Jerusalem. 
 There they set to work to depreciate the authority of 
 Paul, and so to undermine his teaching, at the same 
 time introducing their own teaching of Judaistic Chris- 
 tianity. This they would assert to be more authentic 
 since they would claim to represent the original Chris- 
 tianity of the apostles in Palestine. The idea was that 
 the Gentile converts should accept the ordinances of 
 Judaism as these were observed by the Jewish Christians 
 who constituted the primitive church at Jerusalem. 
 
 The Galatians were fascinated. Paul in his indignant 
 amazement can only describe their condition as that of 
 people bewitched. Still, it must be admitted that the 
 intruders could make out a specious case. They would 
 support it on the highest authority, that of Christ's twelve 
 apostles. There is not the faintest evidence to shew that 
 they were authorized by the apostles at Jerusalem. We 
 have no indication that James at the head of the mother 
 
102 GALATIANS 
 
 church had commissioned them for their unfortunate task. 
 We do not even know that they claimed to be the emis- 
 saries of those authorities, though it is quite possible that 
 they would pose as such. But at all events they would 
 be able to cite the precedent of Jerusalem, telling the 
 Galatians how the venerated community in the parent 
 church thought and acted ; and this would go for much. 
 Then the substance of their teaching would have a fascina- 
 tion for the people of Central Asia Minor. These people 
 had been brought up in a religion of outward rites and 
 ceremonies. Judaism presented itself as a system of 
 outward rites and ceremonies. So similar in spirit and 
 character were the heathen and Jewish cults in this 
 respect, that Paul could describe the adoption of Judaism 
 — new as it was to the Galatians in name and form — as 
 nothing less than a return to the 'weak and beggarly 
 elements ' which they had abandoned at their conversion. 
 In the Apostle's opinion their adoption of Judaism was 
 tantamount to a reversion to heathenism. Then the 
 natural tendency to return to the primitive type which is 
 seen as much among men and women as it is in the 
 cultivation of gardens and orchards would aid the 
 Judaizers. The introduction of a new ritual would 
 awaken the old habit of ritual observance in the minds 
 of the Galatians. 
 
 But now it is said that all this is inconsistent with the 
 decision of the council of Jerusalem as described in Acts 
 xv. The supposed inconsistency is variously interpreted. 
 Baur and the early Tubingen critics used it as an argu- 
 ment for discrediting the historicity of Acts. A modern 
 Dutch school, represented by Steck, reverses the reasoning 
 and endeavours to upset the genuineness of the Epistle. 
 Lastly, Professor Ramsay, and others who agree with 
 him on this point, consider that it makes for the early 
 date of Galatians, since the trouble in the Galatian 
 church could not have arisen after the Jerusalem settle- 
 ment of the status of Gentile Christians ; or, at all events, 
 
INTRODUCTION 103 
 
 that if it did arise later— though most inconsistently— 
 Paul would certainly have appealed to the decision of the 
 council in this letter. Yet he never does so. 
 
 Now to take up the last of these ideas in the first place, 
 we have to face the question, Why did not Paul refer to 
 the council and its decision if he was writing after that 
 event ? According to the chronological arrangement here 
 set forth he had already done so, lor he had gone through 
 the Galatian cities with ' the decrees ' some time before 
 the date of our Epistle. Still, it must be granted to be 
 somewhat perplexing that he makes no reference what- 
 ever to the subject in the Epistle. This point, however, 
 should be considered. Paul's personal authority had been 
 assailed. His originality had been challenged. It was 
 said that he was only the lieutenant of the primitive 
 apostles and the bearer of a second-hand gospel. Under 
 such circumstances he would not feel inclined to fall 
 back on the authority of the Jerusalem church. He 
 must base his contention on completely independent 
 grounds. 
 
 When we turn to the question of the introduction of 
 Judaism into the churches of Galatia after the decision at 
 Jerusalem two facts should be considered. 
 
 First, it is not at all probable that the whole church 
 loyally held to that decision. There must have been at 
 least a minority who were overawed by the weight of the 
 great leaders Peter and James, and compelled, for the 
 time being, to be silent in face of the very remarkable 
 testimony concerning the conversion of the heathen, 
 which so trusted a member of their community as 
 Barnabas joined with Paul in presenting to the church. 
 But though silenced for the time they would not be 
 convinced, much less would they be finally suppressed. 
 The spirit that shewed itself in the meddlesome visit of 
 the Judaizers to Antioch would prompt a similar inva- 
 sion of the liberties of Galatia. The disturbance may 
 have come from this minority, disloyal to the decision 
 
io 4 GALATIANS 
 
 at Jerusalem, and determined if possible to frustrate its 
 influence. 
 
 Second, the question decided at Jerusalem was not the 
 same as that subsequently brought up in Galatia. The 
 point on which the Christians at Antioch had consulted 
 the mother church concerned the reception of the heathen 
 into the privileges of Christianity. Should the rite of 
 circumcision be insisted on? In becoming Christians 
 must they also become Jews ? Was Christianity only a 
 phase of Judaism, and should it be bound down to the 
 rules and customs of that religion even when it received 
 Gentiles into its fold ? This question was answered 
 in the negative. The heathen need not be circumcised ; 
 the Gentiles were under no obligation to keep the law. 
 Thus the main position Paul contended for was gained, 
 though some slight restrictions in regard to the ritual of 
 diet were imposed on the Gentiles, as well as obligations 
 of moral purity. Now quite another question had come 
 before the four churches of Galatia. They had been 
 recognized as Christian, quite apart from the observance 
 of the Jewish law. But the Judaizers who had come 
 among them were persuading them to adopt and practise 
 the rites of the Jewish religion in order to perfect their 
 Christian life. This was not presented as the preliminary 
 to Christianity, but as the perfection of it : not as the 
 foundation on which to build, but as the crowning 
 pinnacle. And it was not demanded as obligatory ; but it 
 was made out to be eminently desirable. Having become 
 Christians by faith in Christ while Gentiles, free from the 
 Mosaic law, the Galatians were invited to go on to 
 perfection by voluntarily adopting that law and practising 
 it. This is the situation Paul had to face. Thus he 
 writes, ' Received ye the Spirit by the works of the law, or 
 by the hearing of faith ? ' (Gal. iii. 2). The Galatians had 
 welcomed the gospel message with faith, and the result 
 was that they had received the gift of the Spirit, always 
 regarded in apostolic times as the sure sign that God 
 
INTRODUCTION 105 
 
 was acknowledging those on whom it descended. It was 
 their Divine seal, the proof that they were duly authenti- 
 cated Christians. Then Paul proceeds with his expostu- 
 lation : ' Are ye so foolish ? having begun in the Spirit, 
 are ye now perfected in the flesh ? f (verse 3)—' perfected 
 in the flesh.' The idea is that some bodily rite is to 
 perfect what was begun in a spiritual way. Circumcision, 
 then, was not the door of entrance to the church, as it 
 was to the synagogue, but a subsequent performance in 
 which the further advance of a Christian life already 
 commenced was aimed at. 
 
 The Judaizers might argue thus :— * It is true you have 
 been excused the rite on your entrance into the church, 
 and with it the obligation to keep the law. Thus you 
 have a religion made easy for you as an accommodation 
 to your Gentile habits. But do you desire an easy religion ? 
 See ! We observe all these regulations about days and 
 diet, fastings and washings. We grant that they are 
 somewhat of a burden. But we are eager to live the 
 highest life, to do our utmost in religious service. The 
 same id open to you. Accept these rules from that of 
 circumcision onwards and you will not only be Christians 
 just admitted within the gate of the fold ; you will be 
 advanced Christians following on to perfection.' Some 
 such presentation of the case would appeal to enthusiastic 
 natures. These Phrygians and others of Asia Minor who 
 had witnessed the wild, orgiastic rites of Cybele, who 
 had even known fanatics mutilate themselves in the 
 frenzy of their devotion, were not the men to shrink 
 from a religion that exacted much. They were ready 
 to despise an easy road if a more arduous path were set 
 before them. The very severity of the discipline would 
 constitute its fascination. Reading between the lines, may 
 we add yet another idea ? These people of Asia Minor 
 had been brought up in all the dissoluteness of a most 
 corrupt heathen society. Suddenly they were called to 
 live a life of spotless purity. When the first enthusiasm 
 
io6 GALATIANS 
 
 died down, old habits would threaten to reassert their 
 power. How were they to be kept under ? Turning with 
 wistful hope to the rules of Judaism, the Galatians would 
 be tempted to think that here perhaps was the aid they 
 needed. If so, there is something very pathetic in their 
 delusion. They were engaged in a desperate struggle for 
 which every possible assistance was requisitioned. 
 
 Purpose and Teaching of the Epistle. 
 
 The Apostle's aim in writing this Epistle was to counter- 
 act the mischievous influences that were at work among 
 the Galatian churches. Since these were twofold in their 
 ends, though of common origin, the reply and refutation 
 were necessarily also twofold. Paul's personal authority 
 as an Apostle had been attacked, and the gospel which 
 he proclaimed had been assailed. Accordingly he had 
 in the first place to defend his apostleship and in the 
 second to justify his doctrine. These two subjects, though 
 so different in form and in the treatment they called for, 
 were vitally connected. K was only because of his 
 teaching that the Judaizers had made their personal attack 
 on the Apostle, seeking to undermine his influence in 
 order to discredit his message. And it was only in order 
 to secure what he saw to be his all-important message 
 and its hold upon the Galatians that Paul set himself 
 to the distasteful task of vindicating his office. This 
 was necessary in the first instance, if only in order to 
 gain a hearing for the exposition of the great truths with 
 which he followed in the doctrinal part of the Epistle. 
 
 The personal claim. The ground Paul takes in the 
 vindication of his own apostleship is the highest possible. 
 He claims to have received it direct from God and 
 Christ, through no human instrumentality whatever. The 
 same claim extends to his message. He has not 
 received this from the older apostles, nor from any other 
 
INTRODUCTION 107 
 
 Christian teachers. It has come to him by revelation from 
 heaven. In proof of this high claim he describes all his 
 interviews with the apostles previous to the missionary 
 journey when he founded the Galatian church. That is 
 the object of the autobiographical reminiscences with 
 which the Epistle opens. Paul declares that after his 
 conversion he did not go up to Jerusalem in order to 
 learn from its custodians the principles of the new faith 
 which he had just adopted ; he went direct to Arabia, to 
 the desert, to solitude. There, alone with God, meditating 
 on the facts that he had now come to see in a new light, 
 especially the death and resurrection of Jesus whom he 
 now acknowledged to be the Christ, he was led to perceive 
 the gospel that grew out of them. This perception, since 
 it came to him when under the influence of the Divine 
 Spirit, was reckoned by him as a revelation from heaven. 
 It is true he met the apostles on subsequent occasions. 
 These he distinctly enumerates and exactly describes. 
 They all occurred later than his adoption of that form of 
 Christian truth which he preached as in an especial 
 sense his own gospel, and they were too brief to account 
 for his knowledge of that gospel. They did not allow 
 of the idea that he had ever sat at the older apostles' feet, 
 as their disciple. 
 
 With this negative conclusion to be drawn from the 
 recital of the autobiographical incidents there are as- 
 sociated two deductions of a positive character. It shews 
 that his apostleship, with its peculiar claims and the 
 mission to which it was dedicated, was fully recognized 
 by the older apostles ; and it also shews that he did not 
 shrink from asserting his full equality with the chief among 
 them. The first comes out in the description of the 
 interview at Jerusalem, in which the leading apostles gave 
 him the right hand of fellowship ; the second in the meeting 
 with Peter at Antioch, when Paul ' withstood him to the 
 face ' and rebuked him sternly for what he regarded as 
 cowardly vacillation. These two deductions account for 
 
108 GALATIANS 
 
 the introduction of the incidents that lead to them, and 
 are themselves important factors in the main argument 
 by which Paul establishes his right to full, independent 
 apostleship. 
 
 In thus claiming originality for his message, as well 
 as independence for his office, Paul must not be under- 
 stood to assert that he was in no way helped by human 
 testimony in regard to the facts of the life of Christ. 
 To suppose that he knew those facts by revelation 
 and not by report from eye-witnesses is to bring in a 
 needless supernatural agency. Luke tells us that he 
 gathered his information for the life of Christ from the 
 testimony of witnesses. He was a disciple of Paul. If 
 the Apostle had received the story direct from heaven, 
 why did not Luke take it down from the lips of his 
 master ? Why did he resort to the laborious process 
 of the secular historian in hunting up his facts, if they 
 were all ready to hand in the information that had been 
 flashed into the mind of Paul? If we are to understand 
 the Biblical idea of revelation by studying the character 
 of revelations received through prophets and apostles, we 
 shall recognize that they are not vehicles for conveying 
 information about the events of external history, which 
 could be obtained from earthly sources— mere expedients 
 to save the trouble of historical research. Besides, the 
 Apostle does not despise or ignore testimony in regard 
 to these matters. He cites the evidence for our Lord's 
 resurrection, carefully specifying the witnesses. In giving 
 his account of the Lord's Supper he states that he had 
 received it 'of the Lord' (i Cor. xi. 23). Yet the narra- 
 tive is parallel to the synoptic accounts, and even in 
 verbal texture very like that of Luke, who has told us 
 that he got the materials for his book from eye-witnesses. 
 Are we to understand that a revelation from heaven 
 would shape itself in words agreeing with the synoptic 
 tradition ? When we examine Paul's language in the 
 Greek, we find that it does not point to a direct com- 
 
INTRODUCTION 109 
 
 munication. He uses words that are applied to tradition, 
 therefore suggesting not that what he is about to com- 
 municate was given to him immediately by Jesus Christ, 
 but that ' the Lord ' was the original source of it, so 
 that it has his authority, though it reached Paul through 
 the channels of human testimony. In referring to his 
 own original message the Apostle calls it his gospel— 
 'the gospel which was preached by me.' Now the word 
 P gospel ' is never used by Paul, is never used anywhere 
 in the New Testament, for a narrative of the life of Jesus 
 Christ. The meaning attached to it when it stands 
 as the title of four books in our Bible is not met with 
 before the second century, certainly not before Ignatius, 
 not definitely before Justin Martyr in the middle of that 
 century. In apostolic times the word invariably stands 
 for the message of salvation in Jesus Christ. Paul's 
 gospel was his conception and presentation of that 
 message. It was based on the crucifixion and resur- 
 rection of Christ. These were facts widely known, the 
 first in the world, the second in the church. Viewing 
 them in relation to human sin, the Jewish law, and 
 the failure of the struggle for deliverance from sin by 
 way of the law, Paul was led, under the influence of 
 the illuminating Spirit that he felt he possessed, to strike 
 out new paths and shape his message of salvation on 
 broader lines and with a freedom from Jewish prejudices 
 not yet attained by the older apostles. That was his 
 gospel. He had not received it from Peter, or John, or 
 James, or any other human teacher. It had come to 
 him from God. It was a revelation. 
 
 And now the question arises, What differences between 
 Paul and the older apostles does this Epistle make 
 apparent? According to Baur they are in open and 
 pronounced antagonism ; the church is divided into 
 two by a wide cleft, and we have Pauline Christianity on 
 the one side and the Christianity of the Twelve Apostles 
 on the other, each disowning and opposing its rival. 
 
no GALATIANS 
 
 In arguing against this extravagant representation of 
 the case Bishop Lightfoot went to the other extreme, 
 denying that there was any appreciable difference 
 between the two schools of teaching. More moderate 
 views have been maintained by Hort, Harnack, and 
 McGiffert, and even by Pfleiderer and Weizsacker, 
 although the two latter are more inclined to the left 
 wing of criticism. 
 
 It is sheer perversity to maintain that there was an 
 irreconcilable quarrel between Paul and his seniors in 
 the apostleship. They recognized him as an apostle, 
 and he acknowledged them. This Epistle is sufficient 
 to demonstrate the fact of their fundamental agreement 
 and mutual respect. Paul says, 'and when they per- 
 ceived the grace that was given unto me, James and 
 Cephas and John, they who were reputed to be pillars, 
 gave to me and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship ' 
 (Gal. ii. 9). What could be more explicit ? what more 
 definite ? The elder apostles, suspicious at first, origin- 
 ally questioning the legitimacy of Paul's free preaching 
 of the gospel to the heathen, apart from Judaism, 
 but subsequently convinced by the logic of facts, were 
 compelled to allow that the conversion of the heathen, 
 their changed lives, the appearance of the Christian 
 graces among them of which Paul had given evidence, 
 were signs that the work was of God, that it had 
 the stamp of His approval. Seeing this, they ceased 
 to criticize, withdrew their opposition— if indeed they 
 had ever really opposed, and we have not clear evidence 
 to that effect — and generously welcomed Paul and 
 Barnabas to their fellowship. 
 
 At Antioch there was a sharp contest between Paul and 
 Peter. But according to the account of it in our Epistle 
 there was no fundamental difference between the two 
 apostles. Peter had been eating with the Gentiles till his 
 scruples were roused, or his fear of criticism excited, by 
 the advent of strict Judaizers from James. Then he 
 
INTRODUCTION m 
 
 had turned round and ceased to have brotherly intercourse 
 with the Greek section of the church. Paul was indignant. 
 What most roused his anger was the appearance of moral 
 weakness and culpable inconsistency in the older disciple. 
 Peter appeared to be acting contrary to his own con- 
 victions. If they had taken different lines all along Paul 
 would not have been surprised at Peter's exclusiveness, 
 nor would he have had any occasion to rebuke it as 
 hypocrisy. 
 
 On the other hand, it must be allowed that there were 
 considerable differences of view and method of work 
 existing between Paul and the Jerusalem church with 
 its leaders. I Peter, which is essentially Pauline in spirit, 
 and the Epistles and Gospel of John, which are as anti- 
 Jewish and as liberal towards the Gentiles as Paul's own 
 writings, shew that the two senior apostles came over to 
 Paul's position in later years. The Epistle of James is 
 not anti- Pauline. Even Pfleiderer admits this, holding 
 that it is directed against an extravagant perversion of 
 Paulinism by disciples who misinterpreted their master. 
 But at the time covered by the Acts, and when our Epistle 
 was written, it is not clear that these three reputed 'pillars' 
 accepted Paul's position. Probably the Jerusalem church 
 never reached it. To the last that church was essentially 
 Jewish, observing the law, and frequenting the temple, as 
 long as the temple stood. After the destruction of the 
 city by Titus it returned from Pella, where it had been in 
 retreat, appointed Symeon, a relative of James, as its 
 bishop, and apparently resumed the James tradition 
 of Jewish Christianity. After the revolt of Bar Cochbar, 
 in the reign of Hadrian, when no Jews were permitted to 
 approach the site of Jerusalem — now occupied by a pagan 
 city named Aelia Capitolina with its temples of Jupiter 
 and Venus— the Jewish Christians were scattered. Some 
 passed into the Catholic Church. But those who held 
 together still maintained I their Judaism, and were ac- 
 cordingly regarded as heretics by the Catholic Church. 
 
ii2 GALATIANS 
 
 Thus the Jerusalem church right down its history was 
 Jewish, observing circumcision, keeping the law. In 
 this respect, then, James and the Jewish Christians differed 
 from Paul and the Greek Christians who followed that 
 Apostle's leading. This was so even on the grounds of 
 the compact contained in the Jerusalem treaty. Jewish 
 Christians were to keep the law ; Gentile Christians were 
 to be exonerated. But our Epistle goes much further 
 than that compact. It proclaims the abolition of the law 
 for Jews as well as for Gentiles. The Jerusalem Christians 
 had never faced such a revolutionary proposal. It must 
 have shocked them greatly when they heard of it. But 
 Paul was anxious to preserve the peace of the church. In 
 this condition of affairs we can see why he attached great 
 importance to the collection of money in the Greek churches 
 for the assistance of the poor members of the Jerusalem 
 community. We must not regard this in the light of a 
 vulgar bribe. It is not to be supposed that sincere men 
 would change their views on receipt of a dole. But it was 
 an evidence of brotherly sympathy ; the generosity it im- 
 plied was to be recognized as a fruit of Christian grace. 
 Paul hoped that the freedom practised by his converts 
 would be pardoned in view of the spirit of love and peace 
 and self-sacrifice they were manifesting towards their 
 more conservative brethren in Jerusalem. 
 
 The teaching of the Epistle. This was both posi- 
 tive and negative ; but its negation was the necessary 
 result of its affirmation. It asserted justification by 
 faith in Christ crucified, and maintained that this was 
 so complete, so all-sufficient, that no room was left for 
 any additional justification by means of the Jewish law. 
 Thus the perfection and triumph of the Christian method 
 abolished the Jewish by superseding it. The older 
 method was no longer needed. It had been proved to be 
 inefficient. To introduce it in addition to the Christian 
 method was to detract from the latter by usurping some of 
 its offices, since it covered the whole ground and effected 
 
INTRODUCTION 113 
 
 the whole work of salvation from beginning to end much 
 better than the old method could do with any part of it. 
 The Judaizing proposal might be compared to a sugges- 
 tion from the rural owners of stage-coaches, when the 
 railway was constructed from London to Edinburgh, to 
 the effect that they admitted the higher power and 
 speed of the trains, and would accept them for the 
 greater part of the journey, say as far as Berwick, but 
 thought the rest of the route should be taken by road. 
 Paul was sure that his gospel introduced the one efficient 
 means of salvation. To allow any space for the clumsy, 
 ineffectual Jewish method was to detract so much from 
 the range and scope of the gospel, and so to check and 
 retard the Christian progress, not to carry it a stage 
 further on towards perfection, as the Judaizers main- 
 tained. ^ 
 
 The theme of the doctrinal part of the Epistle appears 
 in the Apostle's speech at Antioch, his expostulation with 
 Cephas, or perhaps his comment on that speech. ' Know- 
 ing,' says Paul, ' that a man is not justified by the works 
 of the law, save (or rather, ' but only ') through faith in 
 Jesus Christ, even we believed on Christ Jesus, that we 
 might be justified by faith in Christ, and not by the works 
 of the law : because by the works of the law shall no 
 flesh be justified' (Gal. ii. 16). 
 
 The object then aimed at by both methods is 'justifica- 
 tion.' The only question is as to the means of reaching 
 that object. The word justification is legal and technical \ 
 
 It means the establishment of a claim to stand right in 
 the eyes of the law. Such a term with its forensic asso- 
 ciations, would be especially appropriate in an argument 
 
 1 It would be suggested to Paul by his professional training, 
 for while by trade he was a tent-maker, by profession he had been 
 a lawyer. As we should say, he had been educated for the bar, 
 the Jews considering that the work of a trade, as the means of 
 a livelihood, was by no means incompatible with the practice 
 of a profession as the chief interest of life. 
 
ii4 GALATIANS 
 
 with people who were posing as champions of law. 
 Paul uses their own term to shew that the legal status 
 they aim at acquiring by their method is reached by his 
 method. Some of our difficulty in understanding the 
 Apostle arises from the necessity of reading his words 
 from the standpoint of Jewish law and Rabbinical dis- 
 cussions if we would see their exact force. Under the 
 influence of modern science we are more accustomed to 
 discuss religious problems in terms of biology. But the 
 technicality of the Apostle's language is not really abstruse, 
 nor is it very difficult to understand. From the legal stand- 
 point he uses the word 'justify 5 in the sense it invariably 
 bears both in the Old Testament and in the New, and that 
 is the sense we usually attach to it, viz. to clear from a 
 charge of guilt, to acquit. What is special is rather in 
 the application of the word. With Paul it represents not 
 the clearing of the innocent from a false charge, but the 
 clearing of the guilty from a true charge. In other words, 
 it stands for forgiveness when looked at from the stand- 
 point of law. This we may regard as Paul's limiting, 
 specific application of the word. It is not really far 
 from the Jewish application. In so far as Christianity 
 awakened a keener sense of guilt than Judaism, Paul's 
 justification gave more prominence to the idea of pardon, 
 while Jewish justification admitted of self-complacency, 
 as when a self-righteous man attempted to justify himself, 
 not admitting his guilt, excusing and defending his con- 
 duct. Yet even here the idea of the final result was the 
 same, viz. to stand right in the eyes of the law, to stand 
 right with God, the Judge of all. 
 
 Then, further, Paul continually identifies justification 
 with righteousness. This is most manifest in Romans ; 
 but it is more or less apparent throughout all his writings 
 on the subject. When a man was accounted righteous 
 by being justified, Paul would say that he possessed right- 
 eousness. He guarded himself against an immoral use 
 of this teaching by continually insisting on the fact of 
 
INTRODUCTION 115 
 
 experience, that the faith which justifies also brings anew 
 life, because it is the act of surrender to Christ, through 
 union with whom the transformation of character takes 
 place. Therefore if the transformation of character is 
 not there, this is a proof that the faith which would bring 
 it about is absent, and therefore that there can be no 
 justification. 
 
 Now Paul teaches that this justification is realized 
 by faith in Jesus Christ. How does he prove it ? In 
 two ways— by an appeal to experience, and by an appeal 
 to Scripture. 
 
 (1) The appeal to experience. The Galatians had 
 received the gift of the Holy Spirit, and it was working 
 wonders among them (Gal. iii. 5). These facts were not to 
 be denied. The Galatians themselves were conscious of 
 the gift, and they saw its good effects in their community. 
 What was the source of the wonderful gift ? Originally 
 heathen, living in idolatry and all kinds of gross 
 corruption, these people had heard Paul and Barnabas 
 preach. They had received the message, they had 
 yielded their faith to what it had set before them. This 
 is all they had done. There had been no performance 
 of the rite of circumcision, no attempt to practise the 
 requirements of the Jewish law. And yet unmistak- 
 able spiritual results had followed. The substance of the 
 preaching had been the setting forth of Christ crucified 
 (Gal. iii. 1). Then it was faith in Christ thus made known 
 that had effected all this. Here was the proof of 
 experience. But this seems to imply that the receipt of 
 the Spirit was equivalent to justification, for what is 
 sought is justification, but what is received is the Spirit. 
 The Apostle's idea is that this great gift is a result of 
 justification, or at all events is only given to the justified, 
 and therefore is a proof of justification. Moreover it 
 contains the promise and potency of every needful grace. 
 Paul reverts to this phase of the subject in the practical 
 exhortations with which he draws the Epistle to a close. 
 I 2 
 
n6 GALATIANS 
 
 The Galatians possess the gift of the Spirit; then let 
 them live in accordance with their high privilege, and 
 it will work out in their lives all the Christian graces. 
 1 Walk by the Spirit,' he says, ' and ye shall not fulfil the 
 lust of the flesh' (Gal. v. 16). A little further on he 
 appends a catalogue of fruits of the Spirit to shew how 
 those who have received this gift have implicitly received 
 these graces, and will enjoy them in actual experience 
 if they make use of the gift. What more could they 
 want ? 
 
 (2) The appeal to Scripture. Paul cites the example 
 of Abraham. This was especially apt in dealing with 
 people who had been fascinated by the glamour of the 
 Jewish law, because the story of Abraham was to be 
 found in the law. Paul will answer them from their own 
 much-vaunted authority. We have here a specimen of 
 the argumentum ad hominem which was a favourite 
 method of reasoning with the Apostle. This is not a 
 mere ad captandum argument. It is valid for all who 
 accept the inspired authority of the Old Testament. He 
 cites the classic text, 'Abraham believed God' — though 
 he does not now complete it as when he is writing his 
 more deliberate Epistle to the Romans. Still the point 
 on which he lays emphasis is here. It was Abraham's 
 faith that was commended, not his submitting to a rite. 
 And a promise of blessing to all nations was connected 
 with the name of Abraham. Then the source of his 
 own blessings, faith, must be the source of the Gentile 
 blessings also. Paul adds a second Old Testament 
 testimony to the value of faith, this time citing a text 
 from the prophets— * The just shall live by his faith' 
 (Hab. ii. 4), and then he returns to the example of 
 Abraham on which he mainly relies. 
 
 The negative position is necessarily associated with 
 this positive position, as its complement or counterpart. 
 If faith does everything, there is no room for the Jewish 
 law. Still the law exists. How then can it be ignored 
 
INTRODUCTION 117 
 
 or evaded? It is not ignored or evaded. It is satisfied 
 and superseded. At this point Paul brings in his doctrine 
 of the cross. The law pronounced a curse against every- 
 body who did not keep all its requirements. Hence the 
 strenuousness of the Jewish endeavour. But Christ had 
 died a death which the law itself had pronounced to be 
 accursed, for he had been crucified, and the law had said, 
 'Cursed is every one that hangeth on the tree.' Then 
 Christ had experienced the worst thing that the law had 
 threatened— not merely death, its more common supreme 
 penalty, but the accursed death. What more could it do, 
 since Christ had endured its very worst ? 
 
 Now it is possible for some one to object here that the 
 logic halts. Christ did not break the law, and his death was 
 not a legal infliction in consequence of any such action, 
 but a grossly illegal crime on the part of its perpetrators. 
 This Paul does not stop to consider. It is enough for 
 him that Christ did endure the fate which the law 
 accounted accursed. This could not be required a second 
 time. But, it will be objected further, even if Christ 
 could not receive the doom a second time, how does that 
 affect us ? We have not experienced it, and we are the 
 offenders, not he. Christian theology has endeavoured 
 to solve the problem by the doctrines of imputed sin 
 and imputed righteousness. Our sin is said to be imputed 
 to Christ, and then he is punished for it as though he 
 were the guilty person ; Christ's righteousness is said to 
 be imputed to us, and then we are acquitted as though we 
 were innocent people. This is not the place in which to 
 discuss a much controverted theological dogma. All we 
 are endeavouring to do here is to understand Paul's teach- 
 ing in our Epistle. It cannot be said that the doctrines 
 referred to are here explicitly set forth. Probably we 
 should look for his explanation of what he leaves unex- 
 plained in quite another direction— not along the lines of 
 what might be called a legal fiction, but rather in the 
 region of the Apostle's mysticism. On one side of his nature 
 
n8 GALATIANS 
 
 a lawyer arguing according to the Rabbinical logic of the 
 schools, on the other he was a mystic penetrating to the 
 deep things of God beyond the reach of words. These 
 two phases of thought are never far apart. The Apostle 
 passes swiftly, easily, unconsciously, from the one to the 
 other. The mystical supplements the arguments of the 
 logical and furnishes data for further reasoning. In 
 the present case Paul does not reason about the relation 
 of Christians to Christ. He assumes it. He takes it as 
 a fact, realized in mystical experience, that there is a union 
 so close between the Redeemer and his people that what 
 he does is equivalent to their doing it, so that if he 
 satisfies the law by enduring the curse they are redeemed 
 from that curse. 
 
 Moreover, Paul argues, returning to his main position, 
 even while the law held good it could not set aside the 
 promise to Abraham : even a human covenant once 
 confirmed cannot be thus treated, nor can it have fresh 
 clauses inserted. The covenant with Abraham was 
 older than the law. That law, only appearing, accord- 
 ing to the conventional Jewish reckoning, 430 years 
 later, could not interfere with the venerable covenant. 
 Once confirmed this stands for all time. If then Chris- 
 tians become Abraham's heirs by sharing his faith, they 
 have a right to claim the permanent covenant, not- 
 withstanding the interlude of law which appears in 
 Jewish history. 
 
 What then was the purpose of the law ? What end 
 did it serve? Here we must see that, while Paul 
 separated himself from the Judaizers, he did not take 
 the position assigned to him by Marcion in the second 
 century. He did not treat the law as an evil thing, or 
 deny its inspired origin. He regarded it as a Divinely 
 ordered system, intended to benefit the people to whom 
 it was given. The benefit was not what the Judaizers 
 claimed. It was not to confer the gift of justification. 
 It was to prepare the people for Christ. Paul does not 
 
INTRODUCTION 119 
 
 here say how the preparation was carried on, though 
 he hints at the process when he adds, ' the scripture 
 hath shut up all things under sin, that the promise by 
 faith in Jesus Christ might be given to them that believe ' 
 (Gal. iii. 22). This idea is developed and explained in the 
 Epistle to the Romans, where the Apostle shews that 
 the law awakens conscience, creates the sense of helpless 
 guilt, and so shews the need of Christ and drives us to 
 him as our only refuge and hope. There is no thought 
 that the law carries us a little way towards goodness 
 and then Christ meets us and completes the process. 
 It does not take us a step. What it does is to reveal 
 the necessity of redemption in Christ. 
 
 But now in representing the law to be the tutor or 
 attendant slave who brings to Christ, Paul does more 
 than indicate its inferiority of function, he hints at its 
 temporary nature. This he declares more explicitly 
 a little later. Tutors and governors are only set over 
 the heir $0 long as he is an infant in the eyes of the law. 
 As soon as he is of age he is liberated from their 
 authority and surveillance. After this he has nothing 
 more to do with them. Therefore Christians, who are 
 regarded as God's adult sons, are entirely free from 
 the Jewish law. This argument only applies directly 
 to Jews, since they were formerly under the law. 
 But a fortiori Gentile Christians must be very foolish 
 if they subject themselves to such a yoke. 
 
 Thus Paul comes to the absolute abolition of the law 
 of Moses. It was a great step to take, a daring step. 
 It went far beyond the Jerusalem decision, for it not 
 only exempted Gentiles, it made Jewish Christians 
 equally free from the law, the sanctity of which they had 
 been brought up to venerate from their childhood. Paul 
 writes as the conclusion of the whole matter, 'For 
 neither is circumcision anything, nor uncircumcision, 
 but a new creature' (Gal. vi. 15). The situation among 
 the Galatian churches had evoked that great utterance. 
 
120 GALATIANS 
 
 We may almost thank the mischievous intruders for 
 having provoked so complete an answer to their con- 
 tention. It is impossible to say how far Paul had gone 
 in this direction in his earlier teaching. But for all 
 we know, never before had he made this explicit 
 announcement. It might be regarded as a logical 
 necessity. Even the half measures of the Jerusalem 
 council pointed in this direction. If Gentiles could be 
 saved without the law, why not Jews also? If there 
 was a better method of salvation which could be preached 
 to the Greeks, why should the chosen people be ex- 
 cluded from it ? Still, few people have the courage to 
 be logical in face of prejudice. It is Paul who saw 
 distinctly to the end of the argument, and then dared to 
 pronounce the conclusion in clear, ringing words that 
 nobody could misunderstand. It is Paul, therefore, who 
 liberated the church from the Ghetto and secured for 
 all future ages that Christianity should go forth as a 
 religion for mankind, free from the shackles and fetters 
 of an antique, provincial cult. And yet he was but 
 developing the teaching of his Master who had said, 
 'No man putteth new wine into old wine-skins.' 
 
 The practical application to the condition of the four 
 churches was obvious. The Galatians would gain no- 
 thing by adopting the Jewish law as a counsel of perfec- 
 tion. It would be a degeneration, not a progress, and it 
 would put them under the intolerable burden of com- 
 plying with impossible obligations from which they were 
 now free. Paul therefore exhorts them to stand fast in 
 the liberty which Christ has given them. 
 
 It is beyond the scope of an Introduction, which is con- 
 fined to the literary and historical problems of the book 
 it seeks to explain, to discuss the application of its teach- 
 ing to the circumstances of later ages. Yet it cannot 
 be ignored that the great controversy of Paul with the 
 Judaizers has been repeated more than once in the 
 history of Christendom, whenever the doctrine of faith 
 
INTRODUCTION 121 
 
 and the claims of ritual have come into collision. Most 
 markedly was this the case at the time of the Reformation. 
 Luther, with an eye of genius for the true inwardness 
 of the situation, selected the Epistle to the Galatians as 
 the chief weapon in his armoury with which to do battle 
 against Rome ; and the most beautiful of his writings 
 is his early work Concerning Christian Liberty, in which 
 he urges on behalf of Christianity, as opposed to priestly 
 and Papal tyranny, exactly the same claims which Paul 
 here puts forth in opposition to the interference of Jewish 
 legalism. 
 
 It has already been remarked in connexion with the 
 discussion on the date of the Epistle 1 that the topics of 
 Romans and Galatians are closely similar. But there 
 is a great difference in the methods of treatment followed 
 in the two epistles respectively. While Galatians is 
 written in a tone of vehement expostulation, Romans is 
 courteous in manner and without any fault-finding ; for in 
 writing to Rome Paul is addressing strangers, and these 
 are people against whom he has no cause of complaint. 
 To them he is simply sending an exposition of his gospel 
 for their edification. The earnestness of his argument 
 implies that they need it, that they have not yet clearly 
 seen it. That is all. While the Galatians are blamed for 
 an amazing falling back, the Romans are encouraged to 
 advance to what the Galatians were supposed to have 
 attained previously and lost. The positive doctrine is 
 the same in both cases — justification through faith based 
 on the redeeming death of Christ. But the negative 
 attitude is not the same in the two epistles. Among the 
 Galatians the opponents are Judaizing Christians. No 
 such persons are contemplated in the case of the Roman 
 church. At Rome the rival influence is that of the un- 
 believing Jews. Therefore in Romans Paul's doctrine 
 is opposed to Judaism pure and simple— not to Judaism 
 
 'See pp. 90 ff. 
 
122 GALATIANS 
 
 as an addition to Christianity, the Galatian position, but 
 to Judaism as claiming to be superior to Christianity and 
 so to make out the gospel to be needless. 
 
 Literary Style and Characteristics. 
 
 This is the most characteristic of all Paul's writings. 
 He reveals himself in the sincerity of his argument and 
 the eagerness with which he presses it home. The last 
 thing that he is thinking of is the production of a finished 
 piece of literature to stand the criticism of the fastidious 
 in all ages. He is too terribly in earnest. Cicero worked 
 up his correspondence with an eye to effect. Pope wrote 
 letters for the express purpose of publication. No such 
 thought entered Paul's mind while he was dictating these 
 fiery sentences. We shall not expect to find in such an 
 unstudied composition the delicacies of phrase that delight 
 the admirers of Mr. Walter Pater. But there is a style the 
 very excellence of which is to be found in its ruggedness. 
 Fors Clavigera does not emulate the richly embroidered 
 sentences of Mode?-n Painters. But Mr. Ruskin's style is 
 as great in vehement expostulation as in elaborate de- 
 scription. This Epistle of Paul is more than a word ; 
 it is a deed. As we read it we watch the swing of the 
 sledge-hammer that is breaking the fetters of Judaism. 
 
 Even for us in these late days, when the controversy 
 with which it deals is relegated to the museum of theo- 
 logical antiquities, the Epistle burns and throbs with life ; 
 it speaks to us in trumpet notes that we cannot keep 
 apart from the vexed controversies of our own religious 
 thought. There is immortality in such an inspired utter- 
 ance. 
 
 The Apostle's tone in this Epistle differs from that of 
 any other of his writings, except the latter part of 2 Corin- 
 thians, with which it may be closely compared. It is 
 vehement, indignant, sometimes approaching sarcasm, at 
 other times indicative of profound concern. The opening 
 
INTRODUCTION 123 
 
 and close differ markedly from the corresponding parts 
 of all the rest of Paul's Epistles. Elsewhere it would 
 appear to be his invariable habit to commence with 
 congratulations and thanksgiving and to conclude with 
 affectionate messages. Even in writing to Corinth, when 
 he had several complaints to make about the conduct of 
 the church, he was able to find some ground of congratu- 
 lation. He could not praise the Corinthians for their 
 love one to another, nor for their spiritual attainments, as 
 for instance he praised the Philippians and Colossians. 
 But he knew that they were gifted with intelligence and 
 faculty of speech. Therefore he expressed his thankful- 
 ness to God that they ' were enriched in him, in all utter- 
 ance and all knowledge 5 (1 Cor. i. 5) — meagre praise for 
 a Christian church, but still indicating so much to the 
 good. Paul cannot even say that of the Galatians. The 
 Epistle opens without a word of congratulation or thanks- 
 giving. The Apostle begins with an assertion of his high 
 claims and their Divine authority. He proceeds to greet 
 his correspondents with language of earnest well-wishing ; 
 for he is writing in love and for their good, although he 
 is constrained to adopt a tone of severity. Then he 
 plunges right into his subject with the indignant out- 
 burst, ' I marvel that ye are so quickly removing from him 
 that called you in the grace of Christ unto a different 
 gospel ; which is not another gospel, ' &c. (Gal. i. 6). It 
 is the same at the close. There is an entire absence of 
 those pleasant personal greetings with which Paul usually 
 ends his letters. He wishes peace for those who will 
 follow his advice — '■ as many as shall walk by this rule ' ; 
 and then he flings off the painful controversy with the 
 almost disdainful words, ' From henceforth let no man 
 trouble me : for I bear branded on my body the marks 
 of Jesus ' (Gal. vi. 17). The briefest possible benediction is 
 appended. There is a sternness about Paul's method of 
 addressing his old friends that might well strike them 
 with consternation. This was necessary. If they were 
 
/24 GALATIANS 
 
 * bewitched/ caught in the toils of an evil fascination, they 
 needed a rude awakening. 
 
 For the rest, we notice that Paul's method is by way 
 of vigorous argument. Here is no hectoring and brow- 
 beating, no mere scolding, no denunciation on the bare 
 authority of the apostleship. Paul always treats his 
 correspondents as persons of intelligence who are free to 
 cherish their own opinions and who, if they are to be 
 saved from error, must be convinced in their own reason. 
 He is opposing what he regards as a deadly heresy, but 
 it is not in the spirit of the Inquisition. His very conten- 
 tion is that Christians are God's free sons, and he is 
 careful to treat even erring Christians with due respect to 
 their liberty and independence. 
 
 While he argues his point, however, Paul does not 
 write like a scholastic divine, more interested in the 
 abstract theme than in the personal relations of the 
 disputants. He would care nothing for a barren logical 
 victory such as the Rabbis of the schools or the Greek 
 sophists delighted in. His concern is wholly practical. 
 He is a father pleading with his children — though for the 
 moment a somewhat stern father, since a severe treat- 
 ment is what they need. His one desire is to rescue 
 them from the snare of a most disastrous delusion. Their 
 welfare, not the mere triumph of his doctrine, is what he 
 is labouring to secure. This gives an intensely human 
 interest to the Epistle. We do it an injustice when we 
 discuss it with cold criticism, as though it were an abstract 
 theological treatise. The humanity of Paul is revealed in 
 the passion that stirs the pages, and the humanity of his 
 readers is suggested by all he says about them. The key- 
 note of the motive of the Epistle is struck in the sentence, 
 1 1 am afraid of you, lest by any means I have bestowed 
 labour upon you in vain ' (Gal. iv. n). 
 
 And now in conclusion the question arises, What 
 was the effect of this letter ? If we could accept one of 
 the earlier dates assigned to it Ave should have good 
 
INTRODUCTION 125 
 
 reason for considering that it had accomplished its purpose. 
 For in that case we should have a record of at least one 
 more visit of Paul to Galatia in Acts, and even of two if 
 we could admit Professor Ramsay's very early date. The 
 fact that these visits are but briefly alluded to would 
 imply that nothing remarkable had happened. If Paul 
 had found the trouble still working, painful scenes 
 would have ensued, and Luke could scarcely have 
 passed them over in silence. But with the date assigned 
 in this Introduction we have no record of a later visit 
 to Galatia. Still we have some light on the question. 
 I Peter is addressed to Galatians, among other peoples 
 of Asia Minor (1 Pet. i. 1) ; and this Epistle is 
 thoroughly Pauline in tone. But it is not in any way 
 controversial on the question of the law. Thus it implies 
 that the vexed controversy is over, and it assumes that 
 its readers agree with its author, sharing with him the 
 spirit of liberty from the law. Subsequently when we 
 meet with Judaistic Christians it is not in Galatia. 
 Known as Ebionites, these people were found in Judsea, 
 and they even penetrated to Rome in the second century. 
 But we meet with no reference to their presence in the 
 cities to which this Epistle was written. Then about 
 the same time, that is, before the middle of the second 
 century, there arose in Phrygia, the very district of 
 some of the Galatian churches, an enthusiastic move- 
 ment known as Montanism, which magnified the gifts 
 of the Spirit and claimed the widest freedom for the 
 exercise of them. It was in part a revolt against the 
 growing clericalism of the Catholic Church, and it 
 claimed liberty of prophesying for laymen and even 
 for women. This was regarded as a breach of discipline 
 and an abuse of Christian liberty. Therefore it exhibited 
 tendencies in some respects the very opposite to that 
 fascination for legalism against which Paul contends. 
 Accordingly we may safely conclude that the Epistle was 
 successful, that its powerful arguments and its urgent 
 
126 CONTENTS OF THE EPISTLE 
 
 appeals were effectual, that the mischievous leaven was 
 purged out and the churches brought back to their old 
 allegiance to the gospel they had received from Paul, its 
 liberty, its faith, its spirituality. 
 
 CONTENTS OF THE EPISTLE 
 
 Introductory Statements, i. i-io. 
 
 Opening- salutation, i. 1-5. 
 
 Paul, claiming a Divine appointment for his apostleship, 
 but associating his companions with the letter, greets the 
 churches of Galatia with good wishes for their spiritual 
 prosperity. 
 
 The Galatian perversion, i. 6-10. 
 
 The Apostle expresses astonishment at the quickness 
 with which the Galatians are being turned aside from his 
 gospel. No matter how high the authority of any one 
 who proclaims another kind of gospel, he deserves to be 
 accursed. Paul will not consider whether he pleases 
 men in expressing such a sentiment. 
 
 I. Personal Defence, i. 11 — ii. 21. 
 
 Paul's account of his own conversion, i. 11-17. 
 
 This is shewn to have been wholly God's work. Paul 
 did not even see the apostles till much later. He could 
 not have received his gospel from them. His first step 
 was to seek retirement in Arabia. 
 
 Pirst visit to Jerusalem, i. 18-24. 
 
 Three years later he went up to Jerusalem, stayed only 
 a fortnight there, and saw none of the apostles except 
 Peter and James the Lord's brother. Thence he went to 
 Syria and Cilicia without becoming personally known 
 to the churches of Judaea. 
 
 Another visit to Jerusalem, ii. 1-10. 
 
 After fourteen years Paul went up again to Jerusalem, 
 under the influence of a ' revelation,' accompanying 
 Barnabas, and taking Titus, who though a Greek was 
 not compelled to be circumcised. He then learnt nothing 
 from the leaders of the church ; but they recognized his 
 mission to the Gentiles and greeted him cordially as 
 a brother apostle. 
 
INTRODUCTION 127 
 
 ."Dispute with Peter, ii. 11-14. 
 
 At Antioch Paul boldly rebuked Peter because that 
 apostle had gone back from social intercourse with Gentile 
 Christians under the influence of some messengers from 
 James, Barnabas being carried away by the same influence. 
 
 The new life in Christ, ii. 15-21. 
 
 Even Peter and Paul, though Jews, were not justified 
 by the works of the law, but through faith in Christ. 
 This faith, by identifying the Christian with the crucified 
 Christ, brings about a new life, together with the conquest 
 of sin. The preaching of that truth destroys the religion 
 of law, to reintroduce which, after this, would be to become 
 a transgressor of the Law. 
 
 II. Doctrinal Argument, iii. 1 — v. 1. 
 
 An appeal to experience, iii. 1-5. 
 
 The Galatians must be bewitched. Had they received 
 the Spirit by way of the law, or through the gospel which 
 they had heard ? They are stultifying their own past. 
 
 The example of Abraham, iii. 6-9. 
 
 Abraham's faith, according to the law itself, was reckoned 
 to him for righteousness. Then it must be the same with 
 those who have become his sons by sharing his faith. 
 
 The curse of the law, iii. 10-14. 
 
 They who go the way of the law come under its curse, 
 since they cannot perfectly keep it. But Christ has 
 redeemed us from this curse by becoming a curse for us 
 in dying the accursed death of the cross. 
 
 The ancient covenant, iii. 15-18. 
 
 A covenant once confirmed cannot be subsequently set 
 aside or even altered. Therefore God's covenant with 
 Abraham cannot be affected by the law which came 
 hundreds of years later. 
 
 The place and function of the law, iii. 19-29. 
 
 It was a temporary necessity for the sake of transgressors 
 to convict them of sin and so drive them to Christ for 
 deliverance. 
 
 Sonship, iv. 1-7. 
 
 Christians are like sons come of age, and so liberated 
 from tutors and governors, i. e. from the restraints of the 
 Jewish law. 
 
128 CONTENTS OF THE EPISTLE 
 
 The return to the old bondage, iv. 8-n. 
 
 The adoption of Jewish legal rules by the Galatians 
 was essentially a return to the old bondage of their 
 heathenism. 
 
 The earlier sympathy between Paul and the Galatians, 
 iv. 12-20. 
 
 Though it was a phj'sical infirmity that had led the 
 Apostle to preach to them in the first instance they had 
 given him a most enthusiastic welcome. Has he now 
 become their enemy because he tells them the truth ? He 
 is most affectionately concerned for them. 
 
 The allegro ry of II agar, iv. 21— v. 1. 
 
 Hagar corresponds to Sinai and the present Jerusalem 
 with the law, Sarah to Jerusalem which is above, the 
 mother of all Christians. As the son of the bondwoman is 
 cast out after persecuting Isaac, so will it be with the Jews 
 after persecuting Christians. 
 
 III. Practical Expostulation, v. 2— vi. 18. 
 The danger of Judaizing, v. 2-12. 
 
 In becoming circumcised the Galatians were putting 
 themselves under an obligation to keep the whole law, 
 and in seeking justification in that way they were making 
 their connexion with Christ ineffectual. The leaven would 
 spread and work greater mischief if it were not removed. 
 Love the fulfilment of the law, v. 13-15. 
 
 Christians should not abuse their freedom, but practise 
 it in love, thus fulfilling the law. 
 The spirit and the flesh, v. 16-26. 
 
 Christians are urged to live in the Spirit and so escape 
 the tyranny of the senses. Indulgence in the flesh 
 produces a multitude of evil works ; life in the spirit, fruits 
 of good conduct. 
 On burden-bearing, vi. 1-5. 
 
 The more spiritual should restore a fallen brother in 
 a spirit of meekness. 
 On well-doing, vi. 6-10. 
 
 Church teachers should receive temporal support. The 
 harvest will be according to the sowing, and patient labour 
 will be rewarded. 
 Conclusion, written by Paul himself, vi. 11-18. 
 
 Writing with his own hand, Paul gives a final warning 
 against the Judaizers, desires that he may be no more 
 troubled, and ends with a brief benediction. 
 
LITERATURE 
 
 THESSALONIANS. 
 
 Ellicott, C. J., A Critical and Grammatical Commentary on 
 St. Paul's Epistle to the Thcssalonians, with a revised 
 translation. 3rd edit. Longmans, 1865. 
 
 Eadie, John, A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of 
 Paul to the Thcssalonians, edited by W. Young, with 
 Preface by Principal Cairns. Macmillan, 1877. 
 
 Hutchinson, John, Lectures chiefly Expository on PauFs First 
 and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, with Notes and 
 Illustrations. T. & T. Clark, 1884. 
 
 Denney, James, The Epistles to the Thessalonians (' Expositor's 
 Bible '). Hodder & Stoughton, 1892. 
 
 Garrod, G. W., The First Epistle to the Thessalonians, also 
 The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, Analysis and 
 Notes. Macmillan, 1900. 
 
 Schmiedel, Paul Wilh., Die Briefe an die Thessalonicher und 
 an die Korinther (' Hand-Commentar zum Neuen Testa- 
 ment '). Freiburg and Leipsic, 1893. 
 
 Bornemann, W., Kritisch-exegetischcr Kommentar iiber das Neue 
 Testament (Meyer, vol. x, 6th edit.). Gdttingen, 1894. 
 
 GALATIANS. 
 
 Luther, Martin, Commentarium in Epistolam S. Pauli ad 
 Galatas. 
 
 Ellicott, C. J., St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians, with a Critical 
 and Grammatical Commentary and a Revised Translation. 
 3rd edit. Longmans, 1863. 
 
 Eadie, John, Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul 
 to the Galatians. T. & T. Clark, 1869. 
 
 Findlay, G. G., The Epistle to the Galatians (' Expositor's Bible'). 
 Hodder & Stoughton, 1888. 
 
 ( 9 ) K 
 
i ;o 
 
 LITERATURE 
 
 Lightfoot, J. B., St. PauTs Epistle to the Galatians. a 
 Revised Text, with Introductions, Notes, and Disserta- 
 tions. 5th edit., 1880. 20th thousand, 1895, Macmillan. 
 
 Beet, Jos. A., A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the 
 Galatians. 4th edit. 1896, Hodder & Stoughton. 
 
 Askwith, E. H., The Epistle to the Galatians : an essay on its 
 destination and date, with an Appendix on the visit to 
 Jerusalem, recorded in chap. ii. Macmillan, 1899. 
 
 Ramsay, W. M., A Historical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle 
 
 to the Galatians. Hodder & Stoughton, 1899. 
 Lipsius, R. A., Die Bricfc an die Galater, Romer, Philipper 
 
 (' Hand-Commentar zum Neuen Testament'). Freiburg 
 
 and Leipsic, 1893. 
 Sieffert, F., Kritisch-excgetischcr Komntcntar iiber das Neue 
 
 Testament (Meyer, vol. vii, 9th edit.) Gottingen, 1899. 
 Schmidt, P. V. , Der Galatcrbrief im Fcucr dcr neucsten Kritik. 
 
 Leipsic, 1892. 
 
 Valuable light on these Epistles may be obtained from 
 Jowett, The Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalonians, Galatians, 
 and Romans, third edition, edited and condensed by Lewis 
 Campbell John Murray, 1894); Conybeare and Howson, The 
 Life and Epistles of St. Paul; Ramsay, Paul the Traveller and 
 the Roman Citizen, and Cities and Bishopricks of Phrygia; 
 M c Giffert. History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age ; 
 Bartlet, Vernon, The Apostolic Age; Stevens, G. B., The 
 Theology of the New Testament-, Weizsacker, The Apostolic Age 
 of the Christian Church (English translation) ; articles in 
 Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, and in the Encyclopaedia 
 Biblica, especially Mr. Turner's article in the former on 
 4 Chronology ' for the date of the Epistle, on which question 
 see also Moffatt, The Historical New Testament. 
 
THE EPISTLES OF PAUL THE APOSTLE 
 
 TO THE 
 
 THESSALONIANS 
 
 AND 
 
 GALATIANS 
 
 AUTHORIZED VERSION 
 
THE FIRST EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE 
 
 THESSALONIANS 
 
 Paul, and Silvanus, and Timotheus, unto the Chap.i 
 church of the Thessalonians which is in God the saiuta- 
 Father and in the Lord Jesus Christ : Grace be tlon - 
 unto you, and peace, from God our Father, and 
 the Lord Jesus Christ. 
 
 We give thanks to God always for you all, Thanks- 
 making mention of you in our prayers ; remember- Snappy 
 ing without ceasing your work of faith, and labour ^"^ tion 
 of love, and patience of hope in our Lord Jesus Tnessa- 
 Christ, in the sight of God and our Father ; lonians - 
 knowing, brethren beloved, your election of God. 
 For our gospel came not unto you in word only, 
 but also in power, and in the Holy Ghost, and in 
 much assurance ; as ye know what manner of men 
 we were among you for your sake. And ye became 
 followers of us, and of the Lord, having received 
 the word in much affliction, with joy of the Holy 
 Ghost : so that ye were ensamples to all that 
 believe in Macedonia and Achaia. For from you 
 sounded out the word of the Lord not only in 
 Macedonia and Achaia, but also in every place 
 your faith to God-ward is spread abroad ; so that 
 we need not to speak any thing. For they 
 
i 3 4 I THESSALONIANS 
 
 Chap, l themselves shew of us what manner of entering 
 
 in we had unto you, and how ye turned to God 
 
 from idols to serve the living and true God ; and 10 
 to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised 
 from the dead, even Jesus, which delivered us 
 from the wrath to come. 
 Adescrip- For yourselves, brethren, know our entrance in 2 
 
 Apostle^ unt0 vou > tnat ft was not m vam : b ut even a ^ ter 2 
 conduct of that we had suffered before, and were shamefully 
 
 his mis- t ' " . 1,1 
 
 sionat entreated, as ye know, at Philippi, we were bold 
 ionicaf m our God to speak unto you the gospel of God 
 
 with much contention. For our exhortation was 3 
 not of deceit, nor of uncleanness, nor in guile : 
 but as we were allowed of God to be put in trust 4 
 with the gospel, even so we speak ; not as pleasing 
 men, but God, which trieth our hearts. For 5 
 neither at any time used we flattering words, as 
 ye know, nor a cloke of covetousness ; God is 
 witness : nor of men sought we glory, neither of 6 
 you, nor yet of others, when we might have been 
 burdensome, as the apostles of Christ. But we 7 
 were gentle among you, even as a nurse cherisheth 
 her children : so being affectionately desirous of 8 
 you, we were willing to have imparted unto you, 
 not the gospel of God only, but also our own souls, 
 because ye were dear unto us. For ye remember, 9 
 brethren, our labour and travail : for labouring 
 night and day, because we would not be chargeable 
 unto any of you, we preached unto you the gospel 
 of God. Ye are witnesses, and God also, how 10 
 holily and justly and unblameably we behaved 
 ourselves among you that believe : as ye know i r 
 how we exhorted and comforted and charged every 
 
I THESSALONIANS 135 
 
 12 one of you, as a father doth his children, that ye Chap. 2 
 would walk worthy of God, who hath called you 
 
 unto his kingdom and glory. 
 
 13 For this cause also thank we God without Thanks- 
 ceasing, because, when ye received the word of fhe^ay^ 
 God which ye heard of us, ye received it not as in which 
 
 , / , ... , , the Thes- 
 
 the word of men, but as it is in truth, the word saionians 
 of God, which effectually worketh also in you that ceived"the 
 
 14 believe. For ye, brethren, became followers of apostolic 
 che churches of God which in Judaea are in Christ m 
 Jesus : for ye also have suffered like things of your 
 
 own countrymen, even as they have of the Jews : 
 
 15 who both killed the Lord Jesus, and their own 
 prophets, and have persecuted us ; and they please 
 
 16 not God, and are contrary to all men : forbidding 
 us to speak to the Gentiles that they might be 
 saved, to fill up their sins alway : for the wrath 
 is come upon them to the uttermost. 
 
 17 But we, brethren, being taken from you for a short The Apos- 
 time in presence, not in heart, endeavoured the pointmenu 
 more abundantly to see your face with great desire. 
 
 18 Wherefore we would have come unto you, even 
 I Paul, once and again ; but Satan hindered us. 
 
 19 For what is our hope, or joy, or crown of rejoicing ? 
 Are not even ye in the presence of our Lord 
 
 20 Jesus Christ at his coming? For ye are our 
 glory and joy. 
 
 3 Wherefore when we could no longer forbear, Timothy's 
 we thought it good to be left at Athens alone ; SUre? 
 
 2 and sent Timotheus, our brother, and minister P° rt * 
 of God, and our fellowlabourer in the gospel of 
 Christ, to establish you, and to comfort you con- 
 cerning your faith : 
 
*3* 
 
 I THESSALONIANS 
 
 Chap. 3 
 
 A fervent 
 desire for 
 the pro- 
 gress of 
 the Thes- 
 salonians. 
 
 Exhorta- 
 tion to 
 purity of 
 life. 
 
 That no man should be moved by these afflic- 3 
 tions : for yourselves know that we are appointed 
 thereunto. For verily, when we were with you, 4 
 we told you before that we should suffer tribulation ; 
 even as it came to pass, and ye know. For this 5 
 cause, when I could no longer forbear, I sent to 
 know your faith, lest by some means the tempter 
 have tempted you, and our labour be in vain. 
 
 But now when Timotheus came from you unto 6 
 us, and brought us good tidings of your faith and 
 charity, and that ye have good remembrance of 
 us always, desiring greatly to see us, as we also 
 to see you : therefore, brethren, we were comforted 7 
 over you in all our affliction and distress by your 
 faith : for now we live, if ye stand fast in the Lord. 8 
 For what thanks can we render to God again for 9 
 you, for all the joy wherewith we joy for your sakes 
 before our God; night and day praying ex- 10 
 ceedingly that we might see your face, and might 
 perfect that which is lacking in your faith ? Now 1 1 
 God himself and our Father, and our Lord Jesus 
 Christ, direct our way unto you. And the Lord 12 
 make you to increase and abound in love one 
 toward another, and toward all men, even as we 
 do toward you : to the end he may stablish your 13 
 hearts unblameable in holiness before God, even 
 our Father, at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ 
 with all his saints. 
 
 Furthermore then we beseech you, brethren, 4 
 and exhort you by the Lord Jesus, that as ye have 
 received of us how ye ought to walk and to please 
 God, so ye would abound more and more. For 2 
 ye know what commandments we gave you by the 
 
I THESSALONIANS 137 
 
 3 Lord Jesus. For this is the will of God, even chap. 4 
 your sanctification, that ye should abstain from 
 
 4 fornication : that every one of you should know 
 how to possess his vessel in sanctification and 
 
 5 honour; not in the lust of concupiscence, even 
 
 6 as the Gentiles which know not God: that no 
 man go beyond and defraud his brother in any 
 matter: because that the Lord is the avenger of 
 all such, as we also have forewarned you and 
 
 7 testified. For God hath not called us unto 
 
 8 uncleanness, but unto holiness. He therefore 
 
 that despiseth, despiseth not man, but God, who 
 
 hath also given unto us his holy Spirit. 
 
 o But as touching brotherly love ye need not Exhorta- 
 , r 1 1 tion to m * 
 
 that I write unto you : for ye yourselves are taught crease of 
 
 10 of God to love one another. And indeed ye do JJJ'vSn'uie 
 it toward all the brethren which are in all Mace- church 
 donia : but we beseech you, brethren, that ye industry 
 increase more and more ; world 
 
 11 And that ye study to be quiet, and to do your 
 own business, and to work with your own hands, 
 
 1 2 as we commanded you ; that ye may walk honestly 
 toward them that are without, and that ye may 
 have lack of nothing. 
 
 13 But I would not have you to be ignorant, The Par 
 brethren, concerning them which are asleep, that 
 
 ye sorrow not, even as others which have no hope. 
 
 14 For if we believe that Jesus died and rose again, 
 even so them also which sleep in Jesus will God 
 
 1 5 bring with him. For this we say unto you by the 
 word of the Lord, that we which are alive and 
 remain unto the coming of the Lord shall not 
 
 16 prevent them which are asleep. For the Lord 
 
138 I THESSALONIANS 
 
 Chap. 4 himself shall descend from heaven with a shout, 
 with the voice of the archangel, and with the trump 
 of God : and the dead in Christ shall rise first : 
 then we which are alive and remain shall be 17 
 caught up together with them in the clouds, to 
 meet the Lord in the air : and so shall we ever 
 be with the Lord. Wherefore comfort one another 18 
 with these words. 
 Sons of But of the times and the seasons, brethren, ye 5 
 
 have no need that I write unto you. For your- 2 
 selves know perfectly that the day of the Lord so 
 cometh as a thief in the night. For when they 3 
 shall say, Peace and safety ; then sudden destruc- 
 tion cometh upon them, as travail upon a woman 
 with child ; and they shall not escape. But ye, 4 
 brethren, are not in darkness, that that day should 
 overtake you as a thief. Ye are all the children 5 
 of light, and the children of the day : we are not 
 of the night, nor of darkness. Therefore let us 6 
 not sleep, as do others ; but let us watch and be 
 sober. For they that sleep sleep in the night ; 7 
 and they that be drunken are drunken in the 
 night. But let us, who are of the day, be sober, S 
 putting on the breastplate of faith and love ; and 
 for an helmet, the hope of salvation. For God 9 
 hath not appointed us to wrath, but to obtain 
 salvation by our Lord Jesus Christ, who died 10 
 for us, that, whether we wake or sleep, we should 
 live together with him. Wherefore comfort your- n 
 selves together, and edify one another, even as also 
 ye do. 
 Practical And we beseech you, brethren, to know them 12 
 tioii? rta " which labour among you, and are over you in the 
 
I THESSALONIANS 139 
 
 13 Lord, and admonish you; and to esteem them Chap. 5 
 very highly in love for their work's sake. 
 
 14 And be at peace among yourselves. Now we 
 exhort you, brethren, warn them that are unruly, 
 comfort the feebleminded, support the weak, be 
 
 15 patient toward all me?i. See that none render 
 evil for evil unto any man; but ever follow that 
 which is good, both among yourselves, and to 
 all men. 
 
 17 Rejoice evermore. Pray without ceasing, 
 a 8 In every thing give thanks : for this is the will 
 of God in Christ Jesus concerning you. 
 
 20 Quench not the Spirit. Despise not prophesy- 
 
 2 1 ings. Prove all things ; hold fast that which is 
 
 22 good. Abstain from all appearance of evil. 
 
 23 And the very God of peace sanctify you wholly ; Conciu- 
 and / pray God your whole spirit and soul and slon * 
 body be preserved blameless unto the coming of 
 
 24 our Lord Jesus Christ. Faithful is he that calleth 
 you, who also will do it. 
 
 26 Brethren, pray for us. Greet all the brethren 
 
 27 with an holy kiss. I charge you by the Lord that 
 this epistle be read unto all the holy brethren. 
 
 28 The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with 
 you. Amen. 
 
 The first epistle unto the Thessalonians was 
 written from Athens. 
 
THE SECOND EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE 
 
 THESSALONIANS 
 
 Chap, l Paul, and Silvanus, and Timotheus, unto the 
 SauTtaT church of the Thessalonians in God our Father 
 tion. an( j the Lord Jesus Christ : Grace unto you, and 
 
 peace, from God our Father and the Lord Jesus 
 Christ. 
 Congratu- We are bound to thank God always for you, 
 fidim/^ brethren, as it is meet, because that your faith 
 under dif- groweth exceedingly, and the charity of every one 
 of you all toward each other aboundeth ; so that 
 we ourselves glory in you in the churches of God 
 for your patience and faith in all your persecu- 
 tions and tribulations that ye endure : which is a 
 manifest token of the righteous judgment of God, 
 that ye may be counted worthy of the kingdom 
 of God, for which ye also suffer : seeing it is a 
 righteous thing with God to recompense tribulation 
 to them that trouble you; and to you who are 
 troubled rest with us, when the Lord Jesus shall be 
 revealed from heaven with his mighty angels, in 
 flaming fire taking vengeance on them that know 
 not God, and that obey not the gospel of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ : who shall be punished with ever- 
 
II THESSAL0N1ANS 141 
 
 lasting destruction from the presence of the Lord, Chap. 1 
 :o and from the glory of his power ; when he shall 
 come to be glorified in his saints, and to be ad- 
 mired in all them that believe (because our testi- 
 mony among you was believed) in that day. 
 
 1 Wherefore also we pray always for you, that our 
 God would count you worthy of this calling, and 
 fulfil all the good pleasure of his goodness, and 
 
 2 the work of faith with power: that the name of 
 our Lord Jesus Christ may be glorified in you, 
 and ye in him, according to the grace of our God 
 and the Lord Jesus Christ. 
 
 2 Now we beseech you, brethren, by the coming Mistake 
 of our Lord Jesus Christ, and by our gathering to- Parou'sia. 
 
 2 gether unto him, that ye be not soon shaken in 
 mind, or be troubled, neither by spirit, nor by word, 
 nor by letter as from us, as that the day of Christ 
 
 3 is at hand. Let no man deceive you by any 
 means : for that day shall not come, except there 
 come a falling away first, and that man of sin be 
 
 4 revealed, the son of perdition \ who opposeth and 
 exalteth himself above all that is called God, or 
 that is worshipped ; so that he as God sitteth in 
 the temple of God, shewing himself that he is God. 
 
 5 Remember ye not, that, when I was yet with you, 
 
 6 I told you these things? And now ye know what 
 withholdeth that he might be revealed in his time. 
 
 7 For the mystery of iniquity doth already work: 
 only he who now letteth will let, until he be taken 
 
 8 out of the way. And then shall that Wicked be 
 revealed, whom the Lord shall consume with the 
 spirit of his mouth, and shall destroy with the bright- 
 
 9 ness of his coming : even him, whose coming is 
 
t 4 2 II THESSALONIANS 
 
 Chap. 2 after the working of Satan with all power and signs 
 
 and lying wonders, and with all deceivableness of 10 
 unrighteousness in them that perish ; because they 
 received not the love of the truth, that they might 
 be saved. And for this cause God shall send them 1 1 
 strong delusion, that they should believe a lie : that 12 
 they all might be damned who believed not the 
 truth, but had pleasure in unrighteousness. 
 Further But we are bound to give thanks alway to God 13 
 
 g*iving S and f° r vou > brethren beloved of the Lord, because 
 exhorta- q 0( j na th from the beginning chosen you to salva- 
 tion through sanctification of the Spirit and belief 
 of the truth : whereunto he called you by our 14 
 gospel, to the obtaining of the glory of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ. Therefore, brethren, stand fast, and 15 
 hold the traditions which ye have been taught, 
 whether by word, or our epistle. Now our Lord 16 
 Jesus Christ himself, and God, even our Father, 
 which hath loved us, and hath given us everlasting 
 consolation and good hope through grace, comfort 17 
 your hearts, and stablish you in every good word 
 and work. 
 Prayer Finally, brethren, pray for us, that the word of 3 
 
 dence? n " tne Lord may have free course, and be glorified, 
 
 even as it is with you : and that we may be de- 2 
 livered from unreasonable and wicked men : for 
 all men have not faith. 
 
 But the Lord is faithful, who shall stablish you, 3 
 and keep you from evil. And we have confidence 4 
 in the Lord touching you, that ye both do and will 
 do the things which we command you. And the 5 
 Lord direct your hearts into the love of God, and 
 into the patient waiting for Christ. 
 
II THESSALONIANS 143 
 
 6 Now we command you, brethren, in the name of chap. 3 
 
 our Lord Jesus Christ, that ye withdraw yourselves j 
 
 from every brother that walketh disorderly, and tion 
 
 not after the tradition which he received of us. disorderly 
 
 7 For yourselves know how ye ought to follow us : conduct, 
 for we behaved not ourselves disorderly among 
 
 8 you ; neither did we eat any man's bread for 
 nought ; but wrought with labour and travail night 
 and day, that we might not be chargeable to any 
 
 9 of you : not because we have not power, but to 
 make ourselves an ensample unto you to follow us. 
 
 10 For even when we were with you, this we com- 
 manded you, that if any would not work, neither 
 
 11 should he eat. For we hear that there are some 
 which walk among you disorderly, working not 
 
 12 at all, but are busybodies. Now them that are 
 such we command and exhort by our Lord Jesus 
 Christ, that with quietness they work, and eat 
 
 13 their own bread. But ye, brethren, be not weary 
 
 14 in well doing. And if any man obey not our 
 word by this epistle, note that man, and have 
 no company with him, that he may be ashamed. 
 
 15 Yet count him not as an enemy, but admonish 
 him as a brother. 
 
 16 Now the Lord of peace himself give you peace Benedic- 
 always by all means. The Lord be with you all. saiuS^ 
 
 17 The salutation of Paul with mine own hand, tion. 
 which is the token in every epistle : so I write. 
 
 18 The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you 
 all. Amen. 
 
 The second epistle to the Thessalonians was 
 written from Athens. 
 
THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE 
 
 TO THE 
 
 GALATIANS 
 
 Opening 
 
 saluta- 
 tion. 
 
 Chap, i Paul, an apostle, (not of men, neither by man, 1 
 but by Jesus Christ, and God the Father, who 
 raised him from the dead ;) and all the brethren 2 
 which are with me, unto the churches of Galatia : 
 Grace be to you and peace from God the Father, 3 
 and from our Lord Jesus Christ, who gave himself 4 
 for our sins, that he might deliver us from this 
 present evil world, according to the will of God 
 and our Father : to whom be glory for ever and 5 
 ever. Amen. 
 
 I marvel that ye are so soon removed from him 6 
 that called you into the grace of Christ unto an- 
 other gospel : which is not another ; but there be 7 
 some that trouble you, and would pervert the 
 gospel of Christ. But though we, or an angel 8 
 from heaven, preach any other gospel unto you 
 than that which we have preached unto you, let 
 him be accursed. As we said before, so say I now 9 
 again, If any man preach any other gospel unto 
 you than that ye have received, let him be accursed. 
 For do I now persuade men, or God? or do I 10 
 seek to please men? for if I yet pleased men, 
 I should not be the servant of Christ. 
 
 The Gala 
 tian per- 
 version. 
 
GALATIANS 145 
 
 n But I certify you, brethren, that the gospel Chap. 1 
 
 1 2 which was preached of me is not after man. For Pau ^~~ 
 I neither received it of man, neither was I taught account 
 
 13 it, but by the revelation of Jesus Christ. For ye conver- 
 have heard of my conversation in time past in sion * 
 the Jews' religion, how that beyond measure I 
 persecuted the church of God, and wasted it: 
 
 14 and profited in the Jews' religion above many my 
 equals in mine own nation, being more exceedingly 
 
 15 zealous of the traditions of my fathers. But when 
 it pleased God, who separated me from my 
 
 16 mother's womb, and called me by his grace, to 
 reveal his Son in me, that I might preach him 
 among the heathen ; immediately I conferred 
 
 1 7 not with flesh and blood : neither went I up 
 to Jerusalem to them which were apostles before 
 me; but I went into Arabia, and returned again 
 
 18 unto Damascus. Then after three years I went First visit 
 up to Jerusalem to see Peter, and abode with saiem. U 
 
 19 him fifteen days. But other of the apostles saw 
 
 20 I none, save James the Lord's brother. Now 
 the things which I write unto you, behold, 
 
 21 before God, I lie not. Afterwards I came into 
 
 22 the regions of Syria and Cilicia; and was un- 
 known by face unto the churches of Judaea which 
 
 23 were in Christ : but they had heard only, That 
 he which persecuted us in times past now preacheth 
 
 24 the faith which once he destroyed. And they 
 glorified God in me. 
 
 2 Then fourteen years after I went up again to Another 
 Jerusalem with Barnabas, and took Titus with me jS-usaiem. 
 
 2 also. And I went up by revelation, and com- 
 municated unto them that gospel which I preach 
 W L 
 
146 GA1ATIANS 
 
 Chap. 2 among the Gentiles, but privately to them which 
 were of reputation, lest by any means I should 
 run, or had run, in vain. But neither Titus, who 3 
 was with me, being a Greek, was compelled to be 
 circumcised : and that because of false brethren 4 
 unawares brought in, who came in privily to spy 
 out our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus, 
 that they might bring us into bondage : to whom 5 
 we gave place by subjection, no, not for an hour ; 
 that the truth of the gospel might continue with 
 you. But of these who seemed to be somewhat, 6 
 (whatsoever they were, it maketh no matter to me : 
 God accepteth no man's person :) for they who 
 seemed to be somewhat in conference added no- 
 thing to me : but contrariwise, when they saw 7 
 that the gospel of the uncircumcision was com- 
 mitted unto me, as the gospel of the circumcision 
 was unto Peter; (for he that wrought effectually 8 
 in Peter to the apostleship of the circumcision, 
 the same was mighty in me toward the Gentiles :) 
 and when James, Cephas, and John, who seemed 9 
 to be pillars, perceived the grace that was given 
 unto me, they gave to me and Barnabas the right 
 hands of fellowship ; that we slwuld go unto the 
 heathen, and they unto the circumcision. Only 10 
 they wou/d that we should remember the poor; 
 the same which I also was forward to do. 
 Dispute But when Peter was come to Antioch, I with- it 
 
 with Peter. st00< 3 nim to t j ie f aCGj because he was to be blamed. 
 
 For before that certain came from James, he did 1 2 
 eat with the Gentiles : but when they were come, 
 he withdrew and separated himself, fearing them 
 which were of the circumcision. And the other 14 
 
GALATIANS 147 
 
 Jews dissembled likewise with him ; insomuch Chap. 2 
 that Barnabas also was carried away with their 
 
 14 dissimulation. But when I saw that they walked 
 not uprightly according to the truth of the gospel, 
 I said unto Peter before them all, If thou, being 
 a Jew, livest after the manner of Gentiles, and 
 not as do the Jews, why compellest thou the 
 
 15 Gentiles to live as do the Jews? We who are The new 
 Jews by nature, and not sinners of the Gentiles, JjJ r ^ t# 
 
 16 knowing that a man is not justified by the works 
 of the law, but by the faith of Jesus Christ, even 
 we have believed in Jesus Christ, that we might 
 be justified by the faith of Christ, and not by 
 the works of the law : for by the works of the 
 
 17 law shall no flesh be justified. But if, while we 
 seek to be justified by Christ, we ourselves also 
 are found sinners, is therefore Christ the minister 
 
 18 of sin? God forbid. For if I build again the 
 things which I destroyed, I make myself a trans- 
 
 19 gressor. For I through the law am dead to the 
 
 20 law, that I might live unto God. I am crucified 
 with Christ : nevertheless I live ; yet not I, but 
 Christ liveth in me : and the life which I now 
 live in the flesh I live by the faith of the Son of 
 God, who loved me, and gave himself for me. 
 
 2 1 I do not frustrate the grace of God : for if 
 righteousness come by the law, then Christ is dead 
 in vain. 
 
 3 O foolish Galatians, who hath bewitched you, An appeal 
 that ye should not obey the truth, before whose ence* Pe " 
 eyes Jesus Christ hath been evidently set forth, 
 
 2 crucified among you? This only would I learn 
 of you, Received ye the Spirit by the works of 
 (9) l 2 
 
148 GALATIANS 
 
 Chap. 3 the law, or by the hearing of faith ? Are ye so 3 
 foolish ? having begun in the Spirit, are ye now 
 made perfect by the flesh ? Have ye suffered so 4 
 many things in vain ? if it be yet in vain. He 5 
 therefore that ministereth to you the Spirit, and 
 worketh miracles among you, doeth he it by the 
 works of the law, or by the hearing of faith ? 
 The ex- Even as Abraham believed God, and it was 6 
 
 Abraham. account ed to him for righteousness. Know ye 7 
 therefore that they which are of faith, the same 
 are the children of Abraham. 
 
 And the scripture, foreseeing that God would 8 
 justify the heathen through faith, preached before 
 the gospel unto Abraham, saying, In thee shall 
 all nations be blessed. So then they which be of 9 
 faith are blessed with faithful Abraham. 
 The curse For as many as are of the works of the law are 10 
 of the law. un( j er tne curse : f or it is written, Cursed is every 
 one that continueth not in all things which are 
 written in the book of the law to do them. 
 
 But that no man is justified by the law in the n 
 sight of God, it is evident : for, The just shall 
 live by faith. And the law is not of faith: but, 12 
 The man that doeth them shall live in them. 
 
 Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the 13 
 law, being made a curse for us : for it is written, 
 Cursed is every one that hangeth on a tree : that 14 
 the blessing of Abraham might come on the Gen- 
 tiles through Jesus Christ ; that we might receive 
 the promise of the Spirit through faith. 
 The Brethren, I speak after the manner of men ; 15 
 
 covenant. Though it be but a man's covenant, yet if it be 
 confirmed, no man disannulled!, or addeth thereto. 
 
GALATIANS 149 
 
 16 Now to Abraham and his seed were the promises Chap. 3 
 made. He saith not, And to seeds, as of many ; 
 
 but as of one, And to thy seed, which is Christ. 
 
 17 And this I say, that the covenant, that was con- 
 firmed before of God in Christ, the law, which 
 was four hundred and thirty years after, cannot 
 disannul, that it should make the promise of none 
 
 iS effect. For if the inheritance be of the law, it is 
 no more of promise : but God gave it to Abraham 
 by promise. 
 
 19 Wherefore then serveth the law ? It was added Th f P lace 
 
 and func- 
 
 because of transgressions, till the seed should tkm of the 
 come to whom the promise was made ; and it was law " 
 ordained by angels in the hand of a mediator. 
 
 20 Now a mediator is not a mediator of one, but God 
 is one. 
 
 21 Is the law then against the promises of God? 
 God forbid : for if there had been a law given 
 which could have given life, verily righteousness 
 
 22 should have been by the law. But the scripture 
 hath concluded all under sin, that the promise by 
 faith of Jesus Christ might be given to them that 
 
 23 believe. But before faith came, we were kept 
 under the law, shut up unto the faith which 
 
 24 should afterwards be revealed. Wherefore the 
 law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ, 
 that we might be justified by faith. 
 
 25 But after that faith is come, we are no longer 
 
 26 under a schoolmaster. For ye are all the children 
 
 27 of God by faith in Christ Jesus. For as many of 
 you as have been baptized into Christ have put 
 
 28 on Christ. There is neither Jew nor Greek, there 
 is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor 
 
150 GALATIANS 
 
 Chap. 3 female : for ye are all one in Christ Jesus. And 29 
 if ye be Christ's, then are ye Abraham's seed, and 
 heirs according to the promise. 
 Sonship. Now I say, That the heir, as long as he is a child, 4 
 diftereth nothing from a servant, though he be 
 lord of all; but is under tutors and governors 2 
 until the time appointed of the father. Even so 3 
 we, when we were children, were in bondage under 
 the elements of the world : but when the fulness 4 
 of the time was come, God sent forth his Son, 
 made of a woman, made under the law, to redeem 5 
 them that were under the law, that we might receive 
 the adoption of sons. And because ye are sons, 6 
 God hath sent forth the Spirit of his Son into 
 your hearts, crying, Abba, Father. Wherefore 7 
 thou art no more a servant, but a son ; and if a 
 son, then an heir of God through Christ. 
 The return Howbeit then, when ye knew not God, ye did 8 
 bondage^* serv "i ce unto them which by nature are no gods. 
 
 But now, after that ye have known God, or rather 9 
 are known of God, how turn ye again to the weak 
 and beggarly elements, whereunto ye desire again 
 to be in bondage? Ye observe days, and months, 10 
 and times, and years. I am afraid of you, lest ir 
 I have bestowed upon you labour in vain. 
 Theeariier Brethren, I beseech you, be as I am; for I am 12 
 between 7 as ve are '• ve have not injured me at all. Ye 13 
 Paul and know how through infirmity of the flesh I preached 
 tians. the gospel unto you at the first. And my tempta- 14 
 tion which was in my flesh ye despised not, nor 
 rejected ; but received me as an angel of God, 
 even as Christ Jesus. Where is then the blessed- 15 
 ness ye spake of? for I bear you record, that, if 
 
GALATIANS 151 
 
 it had been possible, ye would have plucked out Chap. 4 
 your own eyes, and have given them to me. 
 
 16 Am I therefore become your enemy, because I 
 
 17 tell you the truth? They zealously affect you, but 
 not well; yea, they would exclude you, that ye 
 
 1 3 might affect them. But it is good to be zealously 
 affected always in a good thing, and not only 
 
 19 when I am present with you. My little children, 
 of whom I travail in birth again until Christ be 
 
 20 formed in you, I desire to be present with you 
 now, and to change my voice; for I stand in 
 doubt of you. 
 
 21 Tell me, ye that desire to be under the law, Theaiie- 
 
 22 do ye not hear the law? For it is written, that Hagar! 
 Abraham had two sons, the one by a bondmaid, 
 
 23 the other by a freewoman. But he who was of 
 the bondwoman was born after the flesh ; but he 
 
 24 of the freewoman was by promise. Which things 
 are an allegory : for these are the two covenants ; 
 the one from the mount Sinai, which gendereth 
 
 25 to bondage, which is Agar. For this Agar is 
 mount Sinai in Arabia, and answereth to Jerusa- 
 lem which now is, and is in bondage with her 
 
 26 children. But Jerusalem which is above is free, 
 
 27 which is the mother of us all. For it is written, 
 Rejoice, thou barren that bearest not; break 
 forth and cry, thou that travailest not: for the 
 desolate hath many more children than she which 
 
 28 hath an husband. Now we, brethren, as Isaac 
 
 29 was, are the children of promise. But as then 
 he that was born after the flesh persecuted him 
 that was born after the Spirit, even so it is now. 
 
 30 Nevertheless what saith the scripture? Cast out 
 
152 GALATIANS 
 
 Chap. 4 the bondwoman and her son : for the son of the 
 bondwoman shall not be heir with the son of the 
 freewoman. So then, brethren, we are not children 31 
 of the bondwoman, but of the free. 
 
 Stand fast therefore in the liberty wherewith 5 
 Christ hath made us free, and be not entangled 
 The dan- again with the yoke of bondage. Behold, I Paul 2 
 
 judafzing. sa y unto y° u ' tnat ^ y e b e circumcised, Christ 
 
 shall profit you nothing. For I testify again to 3 
 every man that is circumcised, that he is a debtor 
 to do the whole law. Christ is become of no 4 
 effect unto you, whosoever of you are justified 
 by the law; ye are fallen from grace. For we 5 
 through the Spirit wait for the hope of righteous- 
 ness by faith. For in Jesus Christ neither circum- 6 
 cision availeth any thing, nor uncircumcision ; 
 but faith which worketh by love. Ye did run 7 
 well; who did hinder you that ye should not 
 obey the truth? This persuasion cometh not of S 
 him that calleth you. A little leaven leaveneth 9 
 the whole lump. 
 
 I have confidence in you through the Lord, 10 
 that ye will be none otherwise minded : but he 
 that troubleth you shall bear his judgment, who- 
 soever he be. And I, brethren, if I yet preach n 
 circumcision, why do I yet suffer persecution? 
 then is the offence of the cross ceased. I would 12 
 they were even cut off which trouble you. 
 Love the For, brethren, ye have been called unto liberty ; 13 
 of theTaw. on ty use not liberty for an occasion to the flesh, 
 
 but by love serve one another. For all the* law 14 
 is fulfilled in one word, even in this ; Thou shalt 
 love thy neighbour as thyself. But if ye bite and 15 
 
GALATIANS 153 
 
 devour one another, take heed that ye be not Chap. 5 
 consumed one of another. 
 
 16 This I say then, Walk in the Spirit, and ye The Spirit 
 
 1 7 shall not fulfil the lust of the flesh. For the ^h. e 
 flesh lusteth against the Spirit, and the Spirit 
 against the flesh : and these are contrary the one 
 
 to the other : so that ye cannot do the things 
 
 18 that ye would. But if ye be led of the Spirit, 
 
 19 ye are not under the law. Now the works of 
 the flesh are manifest, which are these ; Adultery, 
 
 20 fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, idolatry, 
 witchcraft, hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, 
 
 21 strife, seditions, heresies, envyings, murders, 
 drunkenness, revellings, and such like: of the 
 which I tell you before, as I have also told you 
 in time past, that they which do such things 
 
 22 shall not inherit the kingdom of God. But the 
 fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, longsuffering, 
 
 23 gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance : 
 
 24 against such there is no law. And they that 
 are Christ's have crucified the flesh with the 
 
 25 affections and lusts. If we live in the Spirit, let 
 
 26 us also walk in the Spirit. Let us not be desirous 
 of vain glory, provoking one another, envying one 
 another. 
 
 8 Brethren, if a man be overtaken in a fault, ye On tmr- 
 which are spiritual, restore such an one in the ing# " ear " 
 spirit of meekness ; considering thyself, lest thou 
 
 2 also be tempted. Bear ye one another's burdens, 
 
 3 and so fulfil the law of Christ. For if a man 
 think himself to be something, when he is nothing, 
 
 4 he deceiveth himself. But let every man prove 
 his own work, and then shall he have rejoicing in 
 
154 GALATIANS 
 
 Chap. 6 himself alone, and not in another. For every 5 
 man shall bear his own burden. 
 
 On well- Let him that is taught in the word communicate 6 
 
 unto him that teacheth in all good things. Be 7 
 not deceived ; God is not mocked : for whatsoever 
 a man soweth, that shall he also reap. For he 8 
 that soweth to his flesh shall of the flesh reap 
 corruption ; but he that soweth to the Spirit shall 
 of the Spirit reap life everlasting. And let us not 9 
 be weary in well doing : for in due season we shall 
 reap, if we faint not. As we have therefore oppor- 10 
 tunity, let us do good unto all ;/ie/t, especially unto 
 them who are of the household of faith. 
 
 Concia- Ye see how large a letter I have written unto n 
 
 written by you with mine own hand. 
 
 himself ^ s manv as desire to make a fair shew in the 12 
 
 flesh, they constrain you to be circumcised ; only 
 lest they should suffer persecution for the cross 
 of Christ. For neither they themselves who are 13 
 circumcised keep the law ; but desire to have you 
 circumcised, that they may glory in your flesh. 
 
 But God forbid that I should glory, save in the 14 
 cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, by whom the 
 world is crucified unto me, and I unto the world. 
 For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision availeth 15 
 any thing, nor uncircumcision, but a new creature. 
 And as many as walk according to this rule, peace 16 
 be on them, and mercy, and upon the Israel of 
 God. From henceforth let no man trouble me : 17 
 for I bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus. 
 
 Brethren, the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ 18 
 he with your spirit. Amen. 
 
 Unto the Galatians written from Rome. 
 
THE EPISTLES OF PAUL THE APOSTLE 
 
 TO THE 
 
 THESSALONIANS 
 
 AND 
 
 GALATIANS 
 
 REVISED VERSION WITH ANNOTATIONS 
 
THE FIRST EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE 
 
 TO THE 
 
 THESSALONIANS 
 
 Paul, and Silvanus, and Timothy, unto the church of 1 
 
 i. i. Salutation. Paul and his two companions salute the 
 Thessalonian church, wishing them grace and peace. 
 
 1. Paul. The name is given without any title. This is quite 
 unusual in Paul's Epistles. In all other cases, except the Second 
 Epistle to the Thessalonians, there is some descriptive name or 
 phrase. Usually Paul designates himself an 'apostle,' sometimes 
 very emphatically, as 'an apostle of Jesus Christ through the will 
 of God,' ' an apostle not from men, neither through men, but 
 through Jesus Christ, and God the Father,' &c. In writing to 
 the Romans and to Titus he also describes himself as ' a servant 
 of Jesus Christ/ and ' of God ' ; and in writing to the Philippians 
 he unites the name of Timothy with his own name, describing both 
 as ' servants of Christ Jesus ' ; in this case, the only one beside 
 the letters to the Thessalonians and that to Philemon, he does not 
 name himself as an apostle. In the beautiful little Epistle to 
 Philemon— quite a private letter— he is simply ' a prisoner of Jesus 
 Christ.' Thus out of the thirteen Epistles — 
 
 In nine Epistles Paul introduces himself as an ' apostle.' 
 
 In two of these he is also a 'servant.' 
 
 In one, joined with Timothy, he is only a 'servant.' 
 
 In one he is a 'prisoner of Christ Jesus.' 
 
 In two he appears without any title. 
 The omission of the title in the two Thessalonian letters implies 
 that when he wrote them he had no reason to assert his claims. 
 This was early, before the opposition of Judaizing Christians had 
 arisen. 
 
 Silvanus : a lengthier form of the name ' Silas,' and indicating 
 
158 I THESSALONIANS 1. i 
 
 the Thessalonians in God the Father and the Lord Jesus 
 Christ : Grace to you and peace. 
 
 Paul's travelling companion, of whom we read in Acts under that 
 name. He had been a prominent member of the Jerusalem church, 
 and as such he was sent, together with another member named 
 Judas, by the apostles and elders of that church to Antioch 
 with Paul and Barnabas on their return, in order to convey the 
 answer of the church at Jerusalem to a momentous question 
 on which the Antioch Christians had sought advice. Paul having 
 had a difference of opinion with Barnabas, his travelling companion, 
 on what we call his 'first missionary journey,' chose Silas instead 
 for the second journey, that in which, having travelled through 
 Asia Minor, he crossed to Europe. Thus Silas was with the 
 Apostle when the Thessalonians — who were evangelized during 
 this mission — received the gospel. He remained behind at Bercea 
 when the Apostle went on to Athens, and joined Paul later at 
 Corinth. There he took an active part in preaching the gospel. 
 Possibly he was with Peter some years later, as the name Sil- 
 vanus occurs in i Pet. v. 12, an epistle directed to Christians 
 residing in districts that Silvanus had traversed when he 
 was Paul's travelling companion. There is a tradition that 
 Silvanus was bishop of Thessalonica, but it is late and of little 
 value. 
 
 Timothy : named last as junior to Silvanus. Paul's favourite, 
 most trusted, and most useful disciple and helper. The son of 
 a Greek father and a Jewess mother named Eunice (Acts xvi. 1; 
 2 Tim. i. 5\ he had been trained in the Hebrew Scriptures when 
 he first met Paul. He was living at Lystra, and apparently he was 
 there won to the Christian faith by the preaching of the Apostle 
 during the first missionary tour in Asia Minor. On his second 
 visit to Lystra Paul took Timothy to be his personal attendant 
 and fellow worker, according to 'Acts' first having him submit 
 to the Jewish rite of initiation, that he might be received among 
 the Jews. He accompanied the Apostle to Europe, and was 
 present at the founding of the church in Thessalonica, and 
 he remained behind at Beroea when Paul hurried on to Athens. 
 There he joined the Apostle, to be sent back, however, to 
 Thessalonica, as our Epistle shews (iii. 1, 2). He had just returned 
 a second time to the company of Paul, coming up with him at 
 Corinth, when this letter was written. It is therefore most 
 appropriate for Timothy's name to appear in the salutation of an 
 Epistle to the Thessalonians. The three names — Paul, Silvanus, 
 and Timothy — recur precisely in the same way in the opening of 
 2 Thessalonians. 
 
 the church of the Thessalonians. The word ecclesia, 
 
I THESSALONIANS 1; i 159 
 
 rendered ' church,' was the name of the lawful assembly of free 
 citizens in a Greek city. But it seems to have come to be 
 employed loosely for an assembly of any kind, in accordance 
 with the less accurate usage of later Greek, for we find this name 
 given to the riotous mob at Ephesus in Acts xix. 32, 41. In the 
 O. T. it is used for the assembly of the Israelites, ' the congregation 
 of Israel.' It only occurs at two places in the gospels, both of 
 them being in Matthew (i.e. xvi. 18, and xviii. 17). We meet 
 with it frequently in Acts, the Epistles, and the Apocalypse. 
 Most commonly it is used for a local community of Christians, 
 defined by the town in which it is situated. It is used in this 
 sense here ; ' the church of the Thessalonians ' is the Christian 
 community at Thessalonica. In Ephesians and Colossians the 
 Apostle uses the word ' church ' for the communion or mystical 
 assembly of all Christians. In that sense of the word there 
 is but one church, geographically coextensive with Christen- 
 dom, but everywhere limited by individual discipleship to Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 the Thessalonians. See Introduction, p. 5ff. 
 
 in : a preposition very extensively used by Paul to express 
 the idea of mystical union between God or Christ and Christian 
 people. They are so closely united to God and Christ, so much 
 under Divine influence, so entirely drawing their life from above, 
 that they are said to live in the Divine Being. 
 
 God the Father: a peculiarly Christian name for God, 
 consequent on our Lord's revelation of the Fatherhood of God. 
 This Paul had made known to the Thessalonians. 
 
 the Iiord Jesus Christ. The first title, ' the Lord,' is one of 
 honour and reverence, carrying with it a confession of loyalty 
 from the servant who uses it. 'Jesus ' is the personal name by 
 which our Lord was known among all acquaintances from his 
 childhood. 'Christ' is just the Greek rendering of the Hebrew 
 1 Messiah,' literally the ' Anointed-one,' but in usage meaning the 
 expected Deliverer and King of Israel. With Paul it has become 
 a surname of Jesus. 
 
 Grace : an echo of the Greek salutation — ' All hail ! ' but with 
 a Christian meaning. The word in N. T. usage means the free 
 favour of God and its happy effects, manifested in the Christian 
 gospel. 
 
 peace : an echo of the Hebrew salutation — the * Salaam ! ' 
 but having a deepening of its meaning with Christian ideas, 
 Christians having the privilege of peace with God and peace 
 in their own hearts and in their happy relations one with 
 another. 
 
 The additional clause in the A. V., 'from God our Father, and 
 the Lord Jesus Christ,' is omitted by the Revisers as it is absent 
 from some of the best MSS., though found in others. There could 
 
160 I THESSALONIANS 1. 2,3 
 
 2 We give thanks to God always for you all, making 
 
 3 mention of you in our prayers ; remembering without 
 ceasing your work of faith and labour of love and 
 patience of hope in our Lord Jesus Christ, before our 
 
 be no reason for cutting it out. But it may easily have been 
 inserted by some scribe copying the Second Epistle, where it stands 
 on undoubted MSS. authority. 
 
 i. 2-10. Thanksgiving for the happy condition of the Thessalonians. 
 Paul thanks God for the graces seen in the Thessalonians. 
 They prove that his preaching has not been ineffectual. These 
 people, manifesting joy in spite of persecution, have become an 
 example to others north and south of them, the word of the 
 gospel thus sounding out from Thessalonica in both directions ; 
 and thus the report of their conversion has come round to the 
 Apostle from Macedonia and Achaia. 
 
 2. We: not the 'editorial we,' but meaning the Apostle together 
 with Silvanus and Timothy. This plural continually recurs 
 throughout the Epistle, and for the same reason. Still, it is used 
 in courtesy, not because the two companions are really joint 
 authors with the Apostle. It is Paul's Epistle. 
 
 for you : lit. i about ' or ' concerning you.' 
 
 3. Paul here mentions the three Christian graces of which he 
 writes later in 1 Cor. xiii. 1. In both cases he names faith first, 
 not for its pre-eminent importance, because in Corinthians he 
 expressly gives the palm to love, but no doubt because he regards 
 it as coming earlier in experience than the other graces, and in 
 a measure laying the foundation for them. In the passage before 
 us the graces are not by themselves, but associated with their 
 fruits. It is these fruits that the Apostle describes himself as 
 remembering. They are more concrete and perceptible than the 
 graces, but they are valued as evidences of the existence of those 
 graces. 
 
 work of faith : work that springs from faith, or is characterized 
 by faith. 
 
 labour of love : ' labour ' is a stronger word than ■ work.' In 
 the Greek original, as well as in the English translation, the term 
 used points to painful effort. Love is capable of going beyond 
 faith in inspiring and sustaining painful efforts. This labour 
 springs from love, or is characterized by love — the phrase ad- 
 mitting of either interpretation. 
 
 patience : more than uncomplaining submission. There is 
 an active sense in the Greek word which points to a sustaining by 
 effort, a bearing up. 
 
 hope. The patience is based on hope, or is characterized by 
 
 
I THESSALONIANS 1. 4 , 5 161 
 
 God and Father ; knowing, brethren beloved of God, 4 
 your election, how that our gospel came not unto you in 5 
 word only, but also in power, and in the Holy Ghost, 
 
 hope, a similar alternative being open to us in interpreting each 
 of these three phrases. 
 
 in our Lord Jesus Christ. This must not be connected with 
 the whole phrase 'patience of hope,' nor with all three phrases, 
 but only with the word 'hope.' It is not the work or labour or 
 patience, but the hope that is in Christ. In Col. i. 27 Paul writes 
 of Christ as our hope. The meaning is that the Christian 
 expectation is based on Christ and what he will do. It may- 
 mean the hope of Christ's return, that subject occupying attention 
 later in the Epistle (iv. 13-18). But the word ' hope ' occurs three 
 times again in this Epistle, at iv. 13, where it refers to the condition 
 of the blessed dead, and at v. 8, where its object is ' salvation/ or 
 final deliverance from all evil. It is best therefore to take it here 
 in a wide, general sense. The gospel instils hopefulness with 
 regard to the future generally ; this rests in Christ and what he 
 will accomplish ; meanwhile it gives the power to bear up amid 
 present adverse circumstances. 
 
 4. beloved of God: the reading of R.V., preferable to the 
 arrangement in A. V., which is 'brethren beloved,' the following 
 phrase then being 'your election of God.' That arrangement 
 disjoints the phrases. 
 
 your election : the selection of these people out of the great 
 population of the city of Thessalonica. 
 
 5. how that: not 'for' as in A. V. The words that follow 
 expand the notion of the selection of these people, shewing for 
 what end they were chosen. 
 
 our gospel: the gospel which Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy 
 had preached. The word ' gospel ' is never used in the Bible for 
 a book, as we use it for the works of the four Evangelists, but 
 always for the preachers' message, the good news they were 
 proclaiming. 
 
 in power : manifested in the effects of the mission. This was 
 at Thessalonica. Now Paul is in Corinth. Writing subsequently 
 to the Christians of the latter city he refers to the ' power' of his 
 preaching witnessed there also, describing ' the word of the cross' 
 as 'the power of God ' (1 Cor. i. 18). 
 
 in the Holy Ghost : the coming of the Spirit of God on the 
 converts as spiritual gifts conferred by the apostles. This may be 
 illustrated by an incident at Ephesus, where Paul, finding twelve 
 converts who had not heard of this gift, laid his hands on them, 
 with the consequence that ' the Holy Ghost came on them ; and 
 they spake with tongues and prophesied ' (Acts xix. 6). Probably 
 
 < 9 > M 
 
162 I THESSALONIANS 1. 6 
 
 and in much assurance ; even as ye know what manner 
 
 of men we shewed ourselves toward you for your sake. 
 
 6 And ye became imitators of us, and of the Lord, having 
 
 similar signs which expressed the extraordinary enthusiasm of the 
 new movement were witnessed at Thessalonica. Still the deeper, 
 more permanent, and more valuable effects of the working of 
 the Divine Spirit were also seen there, as this Epistle clearly 
 shews. 
 
 assurance : rather, ' fullness.' The word admits of both 
 senses ; but as here it follows references to the power of the 
 preaching and the accompanying outpouring of the Holy Spirit, 
 it is not so likely that we should have the thought of the Apostle's 
 own confident mood as the third idea brought before us; it is 
 much more probable that the abundant working of the gospel 
 among the Thessalonians should be the idea that crowns the 
 other two. Besides, the preposition ' in ' is not repeated the third 
 time. We have (i) 'in power,' and (2) 'in the Holy Ghost 
 and fullness' — one common, complex idea. There was a wealth 
 of grace and good effects in association with the gift of the Holy 
 Ghost. 
 
 even as ye know, &c. Paul appeals to his readers' experience. 
 They had seen the missionaries who had preached in the effective 
 way just described to be themselves living witnesses of the power 
 of the gospel they proclaimed. 
 
 we shewed ourselves: lit. 'we became,' not merely 'we 
 were,' as in A. V. The expression occurs several times in the 
 Epistle, and is generally equivalent to ' we proved to be ' this or 
 that. Still it might be read more literally here. In point of fact 
 the missionaries adapted themselves to the requirements of their 
 converts, toiling for their daily bread (see ii. 9), labouring in 
 teaching, denying themselves innocent delights, almost incurring 
 martyrdom, as the history in Acts shews. All this they became for 
 the sake of the Thessalonian Christians; and that the people 
 themselves knew right well. This was the secret of their 
 influence. We see the same thing repeated in the story of 
 Robert and Mary Moffat, where the Africans are impressed 
 by their self-denying kindness in coming out from England 
 and living among the native people solely for the good of these 
 people. 
 
 6. ye became: corresponding to the 'we became' of the 
 previous verse. 
 
 imitators : better than ' followers/ as in A. V. The Greek 
 word is that from which our term 'mimic' is derived, but it does 
 not convey the belittling associations of the English derivative. 
 It points to the grave imitation of the master by the pupil. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 1. 7,8 163 
 
 received the word in much affliction, with joy of the 
 Holy Ghost ; so that ye became an ensample to all that 7 
 believe in Macedonia and in Achaia. For from you 8 
 hath sounded forth the word of the Lord, not only in 
 Macedonia and Achaia, but in every place your faith to 
 
 and of the Lord. The Thessalonians were led on to the 
 imitalio Christi by first of all copying the conduct of those of 
 Christ's servants who were living among them. 
 
 affliction : the persecution described in Acts xvii. 5-9, where 
 we read how the Jews of Thessalonica collected • vile fellows of 
 the rabble' with whom they assaulted the house of Jason, Paul's 
 host, and dragged him before the Roman tribunal. 
 
 joy of the Holy Ghost : the joy that springs from the 
 reception of the Spirit of God. Elsewhere in specifying l the 
 fruit of the Spirit' Paul gives 'joy' as the second item in his 
 list of products — the first being 'love' (Gal. v. 22). Prof. 
 Harnack has pointed out that the two great characteristics of 
 the early Christians were brotherly love and an enthusiasm of 
 gladness. 
 
 *7. an ensample. As the Thessalonians had imitated the mis- 
 sionaries, so they in turn became examples to neighbouring Chris- 
 tians, and particularly in this, that they cheerfully surmounted 
 persecution. The idea is that gladness of soul shining out of the 
 troubles of life furnishes an attractive example to others. 
 
 Macedonia : the Roman province of northern Greece. 
 
 Achaia: the Roman province of southern Greece. Paul 
 always uses these large names of the political divisions of the 
 Roman Empire when referring to the districts they include. 
 Thus he writes of ' Asia,' ' Cilicia,' &c. 
 
 8. sounded forth. This can scarcely point to missionary 
 enterprises undertaken by the Thessalonians. It seems to mean 
 that the fame of their glad endurance of persecution was itself 
 a powerful declaration of the gospel. Their joy was like a merry 
 peal of bells ringing out the good news of the Christian message, 
 and reverberating far and wide. 
 
 the word of the Lord: either (1) 'the Lord's word,' his 
 teaching and commands, or (2) 'the word about the Lord,' the 
 gospel story of his grace. The very frequent use of the expression 
 in the O. T., and always with the first of these meanings, points to 
 that meaning here (cf. Isa. i. 10). Thus the idea is the Divine 
 word, the word from God and Christ. 
 
 every place : besides Macedonia and Achaia ; therefore the 
 Eastern Churches, see Introduction, p. 22. 
 M 2 
 
i6 4 I THESSALONIANS 1. 9, 10 
 
 God-ward is gone forth ; so that we need not to speak 
 9 anything. For they themselves report concerning us 
 
 what manner of entering in we had unto you ; and how 
 
 ye turned unto God from idols, to serve a living and 
 10 true God, and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he 
 
 raised from the dead, even Jesus, which delivereth us 
 
 from the wrath to come. 
 
 we need not to speak anything : i. e. in commendation of 
 the Thessalonians, their character being so well known. 
 
 9. they themselves. These people having heard the fame of 
 the Thessalonians are sending to congratulate the Apostle on the 
 wonderful reception his message has met with in the Macedonian 
 city. 
 
 idols. Those marble statues that we now admire as works 
 of art were to Paul mere idols, and rightly so, since in his day 
 incense was burnt before them as though the gods lived in them. 
 
 living": in contrast to the lifeless stone. 
 
 true : in contrast to the false, the unreal divinity of the 
 images. The first and most fundamental change in the religion of 
 these Greeks was their abandonment of idolatry and their com- 
 mencement of the spiritual worship of God. 
 
 10. This verse indicates the second great change in the 
 Thessalonians, viz. their reception of the Christ-thought. 
 
 to wait for his Son : i. e. for the return of Christ. It is 
 characteristic of this Epistle to direct attention forward to our 
 Lord's second Advent, rather than back to his earthly life, his 
 death and resurrection, mention of which only comes here in 
 a subsidiary clause, the main thought being that of the attitude of 
 expectancy. These two things characterize the new faith of the 
 Thessalonians — (i) abandonment of idolatry for the worship of 
 the living, true God, and (2) expectation of the return of the risen 
 Christ. 
 
 whom he raised. This is Paul's usual manner of describing 
 our Lord's resurrection. It is not that Christ rises ; but that God 
 raises him up (e. g. Rom. iv. 24, vi. 4, 9 ; 1 Cor. vi. 14, xv. 12, &c). 
 The fact is mentioned here as a ground for the expectation of 
 our Lord's return. 
 
 even Jesus : our Lord's personal name. 
 
 delivereth. The verb is in the present. The process is now 
 going on. 
 
 us. In humility, and truth also, the Apostle associates 
 himself with these converts from heathenism. He too as well as 
 they was in danger of the wrath, and was being saved from it by 
 Christ. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 2. i, 2 165 
 
 For yourselves, brethren, know our entering in unto 2 
 you, that it hath not been found vain : but having suffered 2 
 before, and been shamefully entreated, as ye know, at 
 Philippi, we waxed bold in our God to speak unto you 
 
 the wrath to come : lit. ' the coming wrath ' ; the participle 
 is in the present, not to indicate that the wrath is on the way, but 
 to shew the certainty of its future advent, whenever that may be. 
 Paul is referring to the anger of God that will descend in vengeance 
 on the guilty race. 
 
 ii. 1 -1 2. A description of the Apostles conduct of his mission at 
 Thcssalonica. The Thessalonians know how Paul and his com- 
 panions came to them after having been shamefully treated at 
 Philippi, preaching boldly the pure, true message that was 
 entrusted to them. They did not flatter, they did not seek their 
 own profit, but they cherished their converts, giving them their very 
 selves. Not to be a burden to the Thessalonians, they supported 
 themselves by their own labour, and lived a good and holy life 
 among them, treating them as a father treats his children, and so 
 encouraging them in the Christian life. 
 
 1. our entering in: the coming of the missionaries to the city 
 of Thessalonica. 
 
 hath not been found: lit. 'did not become' — i.e. did not 
 prove itself to be. 
 
 vain : lit. ' empty.' They did not come as helpless fugitives, 
 as pauper immigrants, empty-handed and useless. They came in 
 fullness of power and with gifts for the people they visited. 
 
 2. shamefully entreated ... at Philippi. Luke gives a full 
 account of this shameful treatment in Acts xvi. 19-23. In this 
 case it was not Jewish jealousy that raised opposition to Paul, but 
 a much more rare source of antagonism, an alarmed commercial 
 self-interest in heathen circles. Some soothsayers were enraged 
 because Paul had cured a supposed Pythoness, a girl said to be 
 possessed by a divining demon, out of whose performances they 
 were making their living. These men got Paul and Silas arrested 
 and dragged before the praetors in the forum as disturbers of the 
 peace and innovators in opposition to Roman customs. The mob 
 were excited against the apostles, and the magistrates had them 
 stripped and scourged with the lictor's rods and then flung into 
 prison, conduct for which Paul subsequently exacted an apology 
 on the ground of his Roman citizenship. 
 
 Philippi : a city in the east of Macedonia situated on a steep 
 hill at the edge of a great plain. It was named after Philip of 
 Macedon, its founder, but in Paul's time it was a Roman colony. 
 
166 I THESSALONIANS 2. 3, 4 
 
 3 the gospel of God in much conflict. For our exhortation 
 
 4 is not of error, nor of uncleanness, nor in guile : but 
 even as we have been approved of God to be intrusted 
 with the gospel, so we speak j not as pleasing men, but 
 
 Our Epistle to the Philippians was addressed to the church in 
 this city. 
 
 waxed bold. The Apostle's courage grew all the stronger in 
 face of opposition. The word, taken literally, means ' became bold 
 in speech.' 
 
 in our God: by the help of God, the source of the courage. 
 
 the gospel ©f God: God's gospel, meaning the gracious 
 message which He sends, not the glad-tidings about God. The 
 subject of the gospel is Christ. The expression is a favourite one 
 with the Apostle, and his use of it is clear in Rom. i. 1-3, where 
 after referring to 'the gospel of God,' he adds that it is ' concerning 
 His Son.' 
 
 much, conflict: the opposition at Thessalonica already referred 
 to. See note on i. 6. 
 
 3. exhortation: the appeal that follows the 'preaching' or 
 proclamation of the gospel, and 'teaching' or exposition of its 
 truths. 
 
 of error: meaning 'out of error,' 'having its source in error.' 
 Compare the phrase in the Creed, ' light of light,' i. e. derived light 
 coming from original light. The apostolic exhortation did not 
 spring from a delusion. 
 
 uncleanness: 'impure motives,' i.e. low, self-interested 
 aims, as the words that follow shew the Apostle's meaning to 
 be. He was not deceiving and flattering, with secret motives 
 of covetousness. The Greeks were familiar with such conduct 
 on the part of sophists and rhetoricians, travelling lecturers, 
 clever to gather audiences with taking speech, but caring only for 
 the fees they could extract. 
 
 nor in gruile. All was open and above board in the apostolic 
 exhortation. There were no sophistical attempts to entrap the 
 unwary. 
 
 4. approved of God : as regards their characters. 
 intrusted with the gospel : with reference to their mission. 
 
 God had considered Paul and his companions fit and proper 
 persons to have the responsibility of expounding His message of 
 grace intrusted to them. In the pastoral epistles the Apostle says 
 that the gospel 'was committed to my trust' (1 Tim. i. n), and 
 calls it ' the message wherewith I was intrusted according to the 
 commandment of God our Saviour' (Titus i. 3). 
 
 so we speak : i. e. in accordance with their character, the 
 
I THESSALONIANS 2. 5-7 167 
 
 God which proveth our hearts. For neither at any time 5 
 were we found using words of flattery, as ye know, nor 
 a cloke of covetousness, God is witness ; nor seeking 6 
 glory of men, neither from you, nor from others, when 
 we might have been burdensome, as apostles of Christ. 
 But we were gentle in the midst of you, as when a nurse 7 
 
 character of which God so much approved that He intrusted them 
 with the gospel. 
 
 provetii: tries and tests, and so discovers the true inner 
 character. 
 
 5. a cloke of covetousness: some trick to disguise covetousness, 
 flattering the people with pleasant phrases only to get money out 
 of them. 
 
 God is witness. He only can see if there is any hidden 
 selfish motive or deceitful aim. Therefore here the Apostle 
 appeals to God. When dealing with external conduct, visible 
 to all, he appeals to his readers. 
 
 6. been burdensome. The alternatives are 'used authority' 
 (margin of A.V.) and ' claimed honour' (margin of R. V.). If we 
 accept either of these the idea is that the apostles did not assert 
 their dignity as they might have done. The previous statement, 
 that they did not seek ' glory of men,' and the following words in 
 which Paul writes of their gentleness favour this view. But 
 a little further on he uses a form of the same Greek word here 
 rendered ' burdensome,' saying, ' that we might not burden you/ 
 when reminding the Thessalonians how he had worked for his 
 living rather than take anything from them. It seems reasonable 
 therefore to conclude that the meaning is the same here. 
 
 7. we were : or ' proved to be,' the word so frequently met 
 with before in this sense. 
 
 gentle. Curiously enough some of the oldest MSS. — including 
 the two most ancient of all, the Vatican and the Sinaiiic — have 
 ' babes ' instead of this word : ' But we were babes in the midst of 
 you.' But this is quite inappropriate to the immediate context, 
 where Paul compares himself to a nurse cherishing her children. 
 The change of the word is easily accounted for. In the Greek 
 it only involves the addition of one letter. ' Gentle ' = epioi; 
 'babes' = ncpioi. Moreover in the Greek text the previous word 
 ends with this letter n. In the old MSS. there is no division 
 between the words. If that final n got detached from its own 
 word and joined to the following word in reading, the result 
 would give us 'babes' instead of 'gentle'; or the carelessness 
 of a scribe in writing the n twice would produce the text as it 
 
i68 I THESSALONIANS 2. 8-10 
 
 8 cherisheth her own children : even so, being affection- 
 ately desirous of you, we were well pleased to impart 
 unto you, not the gospel of God only, but also our 
 own souls, because ye were become very dear to us. 
 
 9 For ye remember, brethren, our labour and travail : 
 working night and day, that we might not burden any of 
 
 10 you, we preached unto you the gospel of God. Ye are 
 witnesses, and God a/so, how holily and righteously and 
 
 stands in the MSS. referred to. This is an instance of how the 
 best MSS. may sometimes be demonstrably wrong, and of how 
 therefore we must sometimes prefer the readings of inferior 
 MSS. 
 
 a nurse: a nursing mother, not a slave or a hired nurse, 
 because she is described as cherishing ' her own children.' 
 
 8. affectionately desirous : a single word in the Greek, 
 indicating the keen interest the Apostle felt in the Thessalonians. 
 
 our own souls : our very selves, and even our lives. 
 
 9. labour : toil with the idea of its weariness. 
 
 travail : work with the idea of its effort and strenuousness. 
 
 working' night and day. The Apostle supported himself at 
 Thessalonica by his own labour. In writing to the Corinthians 
 Paul reminds them how he had worked among them also, as he 
 says, with his 'own hands' (i Cor. iv. la). We learn from Acts 
 xviii. 2 that his trade was tent-making, an employment in which 
 Priscilla and Aquila joined the Apostle when at Corinth. This 
 work by which he earned his daily bread, added to his missionary 
 labours, necessarily involved long hours. After preaching the 
 gospel and discussing questions arising from it with all possible 
 inquirers during the day-time, instead of taking his much needed 
 rest he would have to sit late into the night, cutting the coarse 
 goat's-hair cloth and sewing it to the requisite shape for the 
 shelters of the Greek shepherds out on the hills. 
 
 that we might not burden any of you: the reason for 
 undertaking this manual work. Note Paul's delicacy of feeling in 
 this matter. 
 
 10. holily. This is not a form of the word commonly rendered 
 'holiness,' which really means being dedicated and set apart for 
 God ; but a term pointing to purity and elevation of character, 
 and therefore meaning more nearly the same as our word 
 'holiness.' 
 
 righteously : with integrity and uprightness of conduct, 
 morally right. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 2. 11,12 169 
 
 unblameably we behaved ourselves toward you that 
 believe : as ye know how we dealt with each one of you, 1 1 
 as a father with his own children, exhorting you, and 
 encouraging you, and testifying, to the end that ye 12 
 should walk worthily of God, who calleth you into his 
 own kingdom and glory. 
 
 unblameably. Nobody could sustain any accusation against 
 the missionaries. 
 
 11. each one of you. There was personal care and attention 
 given to every individual convert separately. 
 
 as a father. Previously Paul had spoken of his being like 
 a nursing mother (verse 7). Thus he heaps up the images of most 
 affectionate solicitude. 
 
 exhorting 1 : to rouse the sense of duty. 
 
 encouraging: to cheer with the prospect of a glad per- 
 formance of it. 
 
 testifying: solemnly charging. The word is used in this 
 sense in Eph. iv. 17, 'This I say therefore, and testify in the Lord, 
 that ye no longer walk as the Gentiles,' &c. 
 
 12. walk: a Hebraism pointing to the common course of 
 daily life. 
 
 calleth: according to the best MSS., not 'called' as in A. V. 
 The call is continuous, (i) This may mean that one and another 
 are called successively, the gospel invitation being continually 
 repeated to bring in new converts. (2) Or it may mean that the 
 whole church is being continually called to an inheritance not yet 
 enjoyed. Perhaps the reference to the ' glory ' which is a privilege 
 of the future rather favours this second view. But it is not at all 
 in the line of Paul's usual teaching. The Apostle always regards 
 the call of each individual as one act of God. Therefore probably 
 we should fall back on the first meaning. The evangelistic work 
 in Thessalonica has not ceased ; although the Apostle has left 
 the city God is still calling new followers of Christ into His 
 Church. 
 
 his own : an emphatic pronoun. This is the high privilege 
 of Christians, not to be treated as aliens, but to be made citizens 
 of God's own kingdom. Paul is a Jew; the kingdom of God was 
 regarded as the privilege of his race. The Thessalonians are 
 Gentiles ; yet they are being called into it. 
 
 kingdom : the most familiar word in the teaching of Jesus ; 
 much less frequent in the apostolic writings. The idea was 
 Jewish in origin — the Jews looking forward to the coming of the 
 kingdom of God. The Greek world was not familiar with the idea, 
 
170 I THESSALONIANS 2. 13 
 
 13 And for this cause we also thank God'without ceasing, 
 that, when ye received from us the word of the message, 
 
 and therefore would not so readily apprehend the presentation of 
 the gospel in this form. Still occasionally it is so described even 
 for Greeks, for the idea itself is true and important. In Christian 
 teaching, as our Lord has shewn, it represents the spiritual, inward 
 rule of God in the hearts of His people with all the benefits 
 personal and in the social system that result from that rule. 
 Here the union of the idea of glory with it shews the kingdom to 
 be regarded as something future, not yet realized, just as we are 
 taught to pray, 'Thy kingdom come/ with a view to its future 
 advent. It is to be observed that Paul had made the preaching of 
 the kingdom prominent at Thessalonica, since there the Christians 
 were accused of 'saying that there is another king, one Jesus,' 
 and thus ' acting contrary to the decrees of Caesar ' (Acts xvii. 7). 
 May it be that the misunderstanding here made apparent induced 
 the Apostle to avoid references to the Jewish conception of 
 Christianity as a kingdom in his subsequent work among the 
 Greek cities ? Thus we can account for the rarity of the occurrence 
 of the term in the Epistles compared with the Gospels. 
 
 ii. 13-16. Thanksgiving for the way in which the Thessalonians 
 had received the apostolic message. Turning from the description 
 of his own work at Thessalonica the Apostle makes mention of 
 the good reception of it on the part of his converts in that 
 city. This is a matter of ceaseless thankfulness on his part. The 
 Thessalonians received the gospel as the word of God, and it 
 continued to work in them so that they followed the example of 
 the Judaean Christians, enduring from their fellow countrymen 
 persecutions like those the Jewish Christians were suffering from 
 Jews. This leads the Apostle to describe the guilt of those Jews 
 who both reject Christ for themselves and refuse the gospel to 
 the Gentiles. 
 
 13. for this cause. For what cause? The Apostle might be 
 referring to the call of the Thessalonians into God's own kingdom ; 
 but as the mention of that call only occurs in a subordinate 
 clause it is more likely that his reference is to the whole of the 
 previous sentence. That is to say, he never ceases to thank God 
 for his work at Thessalonica. 
 
 we also : we who conferred the benefit, as well as you who 
 have received it. 
 
 thank. The Greek word is that from which the term 
 'Eucharist' is derived. 
 
 the word of the message : lit. ' the word of hearing,' i. e. 
 the word heard, corresponding to ' the preached word.' It was 
 
I THESSALONIANS 2. 14 171 
 
 even the 7vord of God, ye accepted it not as the word 
 of men, but, as it is in truth, the word of God, which 
 also worketh in you that believe. For ye, brethren, 
 became imitators of the churches of God which are 
 in Judaea in Christ Jesus : for ye also suffered the 
 
 a word that reached the Thessalonians, a message they themselves 
 had been able to hear. 
 
 the word of God : not the word about God, but the word that 
 came from God, God's word, as is proved by the antithesis of f the 
 word of men,' a word of merely human origin. The Thessalonians 
 had perceived that what the Apostle taught had its origin in God. 
 This word of God is not Scripture, but the preaching of Paul and 
 his companions. 
 
 which also worketh. This Divine word has power, and 
 makes itself felt by its influence. The present condition of the 
 Thessalonians which has been reported to Paul is a fruit and 
 sign of the working of the truth in them. 
 
 you that believe. The Pauline teaching is that the benefit 
 of the gospel is conditional on the faith of those who receive it. 
 Observe the present tense of the verb. The word is operative 
 while the hearers believe. The two things are continuous. If 
 the faith ceased the influence of the message would cease also. 
 
 14. "became imitators: a consequence of the operation of 
 the word just mentioned. Previously Paul had described the 
 Thessalonians as imitators of their missionaries (i. 6). Now he 
 notes that they are imitators of the primitive churches in Judaea. 
 
 churches ... in Judaea. It has been said that there was no 
 friendliness, that there was even bitter antagonism, between the 
 Jewish Christian in Palestine and Paul. This passage does not 
 favour that notion. Still the Epistle to the Galatians shews that 
 at a later period the party of James in Jerusalem was opposed 
 to the Apostle, and the subsequent history of the old Jewish 
 communities of Christians in Palestine tells how they gradually 
 got out of sympathy with the Greek churches, till at last they 
 were regarded as heretics under the title of ' Ebionites ' and 
 'Nazarenes' for clinging to the law and Jewish notions of 
 Christianity by the general body of the Christians elsewhere. 
 Then the Greek churches would not dream of imitating the 
 churches of Judaea. But at the early date of this Epistle the 
 schism had not appeared, and the primitive churches were 
 naturally regarded as patterns whose example the new, raw 
 converts from the heathen would do well to follow. 
 
 suffered the same thing's : a third reference to the persecu- 
 tions endured by the Thessalonians. The two earlier references 
 
172 I THESSALONIANS 2. 15/16 
 
 same things of your own countrymen, even as they 
 
 15 did of the Jews ; who both killed the Lord Jesus 
 and the prophets, and drave out us, and please not 
 
 16 God, and are contrary to all men ; forbidding us to 
 speak to the Gentiles that they may be saved ; to fill up 
 
 are at i. 6 and ii. 2. Here, as in the earlier of the two passages 
 just cited, where the Apostle says the Thessalonians were 
 imitators of their missionaries, the imitation is in the endurance 
 of persecution. The martyr spirit of the Judaean Christians 
 inspired the fidelity of the Thessalonians when under similar 
 trials. 
 
 yotir own countrymen. The persecution had been carried 
 on by the rabble of the city, fellow Macedonians, though it had 
 been instigated b} r the Jews (see Acts xvii. 5). 
 
 15. killed the Lord Jesus. The Apostle lays the charge of 
 this supreme crime against the Jews generally. Their present 
 attitude shewed their consent to the deed. They did not repudiate 
 it ; they continued to act in the spirit of it. It could be regarded 
 as their national action. 
 
 the prophets: not the Christian prophets — there is no 
 sign that these had been killed by the Jews— but the Hebrew 
 prophets of former ages. The mention of them here resembles 
 the accusation Jesus brought against the Jews of being the 
 murderers of the servants sent to his vineyard by the husband- 
 man in the parable (Mark xii. 4, 5), and his warning that on 
 them would ' come all the righteous blood shed on the earth from 
 the blood of Abel the righteous unto the blood of Zachariah son 
 of Barachiah,' &c. (Matt, xxiii. 35). 
 
 drave out us. The narrative in Acts describes the expulsion of 
 Paul and his companions from Thessalonica (see Acts xvii. 5-10). 
 Prof. Ramsay considers it to imply that the magistrates settled the 
 case that was brought before them on the understanding that 
 the missionaries, as disturbers of the peace, left the city forthwith. 
 
 contrary to all men. The exclusiveness of the Jews led 
 to their being regarded by the Gentiles as misanthropic. This 
 is mentioned by Tacitus. But here Paul suggests that their 
 antagonism to the preaching of the gospel rendered them really 
 enemies of the human race. 
 
 16. forbidding- vlc to speak to the Gentiles. The Jews, while 
 rejecting the gospel for themselves, were wildly jealous of Paul's 
 work in evangelizing the Gentiles. In this jealousy we may see 
 the ground of the persecution they stirred up. 
 
 to fill up. The idea is an allusion to the common Jewish 
 image of the cup. When this is filled to the brim it will overflow. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 2. 17 173 
 
 their sins alway : but the wrath is come upon them to 
 the uttermost. 
 
 But we, brethren, being bereaved of you for a short 17 
 
 There will then be no more scope for sinning ; the judgement 
 will follow. 
 
 alway : i. e. the Jews always act in this way. They never 
 cease from the dreadful work of filling up their sins. 
 
 the wrath: i.e. God's anger, mentioned thus simply with 
 the definite article, both as known from previous warnings, and 
 also because it is so dreadful as not to be confounded with any 
 other being's anger. It is emphatically the wrath. 
 
 is come. This is clearly a verb in the past tense, for the 
 form of the Greek word is the aorist. It cannot mean ' is coming,' 
 or ' will come.' Accordingly it has been argued from the phrase 
 that the great outpouring of Divine wrath in the destruction 
 of Jerusalem had already taken place. This would place the 
 Epistle later than a. d. 70. Baur pointed to this as a reason for 
 concluding that it is not a genuine work of Paul's. But the 
 context does not bear out this view, since there we read of the 
 Jews still filling up their cup of sin, indicating that the great 
 outpouring of wrath is yet to come. Besides, the whole passage 
 has manifest reference to a time but shortly after the evangeliz- 
 ing of the Thessalonians. Perhaps the Apostle means that the 
 preaching of judgement which goes with the gospel message 
 is the coming of the wrath. In this preaching, wrath hangs over 
 the heads of the Jews like a thundercloud ready to burst at 
 any moment, sure to burst directly the cup of sin is full. 
 
 to tlie uttermost: to be connected with the verb — 'is come 
 to the uttermost,' i. e. has completely come. 
 
 Schmiedel considers verses 14 to 16 to be a late interpolation, 
 both because of the harsh language used concerning the Jews, 
 and also because of the complete accomplishment of their doom 
 here affirmed. Thus the Epistle may be still regarded as genuine 
 and of early date, although a late date is given to this passage. 
 But this theory is not needed if we may regard the 'wrath' as 
 coming in the message of judgement delivered the by Apostle. 
 Possibly the troubles caused by the insurrection of Theudas 
 (Acts v. 36), the Jerusalem famine (xi. 27-30), and the expulsion 
 of the Jews from Rome by Claudius (xviii. 2) were taken by Paul 
 as signs of Divine wrath against the Jews. The recent Jewish 
 persecution of the Christians at Thessalonica would account for 
 Paul's stern thoughts concerning his people. 
 
 ii. 17-20. The Apostle s disappointment. Temporally separated 
 from the Thessalonians — in presence, though not in heart — 
 
i 7 4 I THESSALONIANS 2. iS, 19 
 
 season, in presence, not in heart, endeavoured the more 
 
 18 exceedingly to see your face with great desire : because 
 we would fain have come unto you, I Paul once and 
 
 19 again ; and Satan hindered us. For what is our hope, 
 
 the Apostle has made several attempts to visit them, but has 
 been hindered by Satan. He rejoices, exults in them before 
 Christ at his coming. 
 
 bereaved. A very expressive compound Greek word is used 
 here, including the two ideas of separation and bereavement, 
 i. e. ' bereaved by separation.' 
 
 a short season: lit. 'a season of an hour.' In point of fact 
 it was a few months. There was the time of the Apostle's visit 
 to Bercea, his journey to Athens and stay there during which 
 he sent Timothy back to Thessalonica, and Timothy's return 
 to the Apostle, then at Corinth. 
 
 IS. we would fain : lit. ' we wished.' 
 
 I Paul. Throughout the Epistle Paul associates Silvanus and 
 Timothy with himself by writing in the plural. But evidently 
 that is an act of courtesy towards the two companions. It is the 
 Apostle who writes, and his personal references are really to 
 his own feelings and experience. At this point he breaks from 
 the plural form of language to emphasize the idea of his in- 
 dividual wish to visit the Thessalonians. Indeed the plural would 
 be out of place here, since one of the three, Timothy, had been 
 to Thessalonica. 
 
 once and again. We have no particulars as to these two 
 occasions. Possibly one was when the Apostle was rejoined 
 at Athens by his travelling companions who would bring news 
 from Macedonia. The other occasion might well be on the receipt 
 of the news that Timothy brought to Corinth. Then this letter 
 would have to take the place of the visit. 
 
 Satan: lit. ' the adversary.' Accordingly some have under- 
 stood the word in that general sense here, as meaning that some- 
 body or something that Paul called his adversary hindered him. 
 But throughout the N. T. it clearly stands for the Prince of Evil, 
 and therefore so we must understand it here. In Job i. 6 Satan 
 appears among the sons of God as the Patriarch's accuser. But 
 in i Chron. xxi. i he is the evil spirit who tempts David to 
 take a military census of his people. In Ps. cix. 6 and Zech. iii. i, 2 
 he appears rather as an adversary than as a tempter. These are 
 the only O. T. books in which Satan is mentioned. In the N. T. 
 he is the (1) Evil Spirit as the great tempter and promoter of 
 wickedness. It is Satan who tempts Jesus in the wilderness 
 (e. g. Mark i. 13) and later through Peter (Mark viii. 33). (2" Satan 
 is also referred to as the Prince of the demons who is exorcised, 
 
I THESSALONIANS 2. 19 175 
 
 or joy, or crown of glorying ? Are not even ye, before 
 
 together with his instruments, when the possessed are cured 
 (Mark iii. 23). This is coming near to some physical power, 
 and that is distinctly referred to in the case of a woman bowed 
 together with 'a spirit of infirmity,' for Jesus speaks of her as 
 one 'whom Satan had bound' (Luke xiii. 16). Paul seems to 
 have this way of regarding disease as the work of Satan in mind 
 when describing the ' thorn in the flesh ' with which he was 
 afflicted as 'a messenger of Satan' (2 Cor. xii. 7), and perhaps 
 also when recommending as an act of discipline on an offender, 
 that the church 'deliver such a one unto Satan' (1 Cor. v. 5). 
 (3) He is the evil world-power, because tempting men to sin, and 
 thus ruling through human wickedness, as the ' Prince of this 
 world' (John xii. 31), and the 'Prince of the power of the air* 
 (Eph. ii. 2). 
 
 hindered. The expression is vague, and we are left to 
 conjecture as to the way in which Paul conceived Satan to have 
 prevented him from going to Thessalonica. (1) The Apostle 
 cannot possibly be thinking of temptation here, as though some 
 morally evil influence on himself held him back. (2) He may 
 mean illness ; but if that were the case probably he would be 
 more explicit. (3) It would seem then that the third form of 
 Satan's influence is in the Apostle's mind — Satan mismanaging 
 human affairs. This might take the form of some adverse 
 conjunction of circumstances, some hindrance to the arrangements 
 of travel, perhaps the watchful opposition of the Jews, or perhaps 
 the attitude of the magistrates at Thessalonica in theirdetermination 
 to prevent fresh disturbances of the peace. 
 
 19. crown of glory in g- : better, 'garland of exulting.' The 
 word rendered ' crown ' does not stand for the gold and jewelled 
 decoration worn by a king ; it is used for the wreath of laurel, 
 myrtle, or olive, given to a victor or honoured person, and for 
 the garland worn by a guest at a banquet. The ' crown of life ' 
 (Rev. ii. 10) is the victor's wreath. But here the idea of a festive 
 garland is more appropriate. The Thessalonians are like this 
 sign of joy to the Apostle, for he can exult and rejoice in them, 
 so noble has their Christian character proved to be when under 
 trial. 
 
 "before our Lord Jesxts. The Apostle looks forward to 
 the happy time when he shall see his Lord. It will be like 
 a banquet, and he will appear there with his festal garland, 
 of which the Thessalonians will be the flowers. To put it in 
 plain prose : the Apostle will be proud of these disciples, full 
 of joy and exultation about them, when he appears before Christ. 
 It is they of all his converts in Asia and Europe who will have 
 this first place of honour. Some years later he called the 
 
176 I THESSALONIANS 2. 20— 3. 1 
 
 20 our Lord Jesus at his coming ? For ye are our glory 
 
 and our joy. 
 3 Wherefore when we could no longer forbear, we 
 
 neighbouring church at Philippi his 'joy and garland' (Phil. iv. i). 
 These Macedonian Christians seem always to have held the first 
 place in the Apostle's heart. When writing to the Corinthians 
 he cites their example with enthusiasm (2 Cor. viii. 5). 
 
 his coming* : lit. ' his presence ' — the Paronsia. This 
 thought is very prominent in both the Epistles to the Thessalonians. 
 It bulked largely in the minds of the early Christians, who lived in 
 the hope of the return of Christ to establish his kingdom, deliver 
 his people, and call their enemies to judgement. Now this was 
 very like the Jewish expectation concerning their Messiah. Thus 
 it would appear that the Christians were transferring to the Second 
 Advent what Jesushad not fulfilled atthe first, namely, the fulfilment 
 of Jewish Messianic hopes. No doubt this was largely so. But 
 there were differences. The Christian expectation of the Parousia 
 was not merely for Jews, but for Christians, and therefore to the 
 exclusion of unbelieving Israelites, but admitting Gentile believers. 
 Then though probably many Christians like the Jews were only 
 too ready to take materialistic views of the future and regard the 
 good time coming as one of temporal prosperity, in so far as 
 the Christians had received the teaching and spirit of Christ they 
 must have risen to his more spiritual ideas. It is to be observed 
 that the expectation is less prominent in the later period of 
 Paul's life. 
 
 20. glory : a different word from that translated ' glorying ' in 
 verse 19 R. V., which would have been better rendered -exulting,' 
 to maintain the distinction. ' Glory ' is the right word here. It 
 does not point to the Apostle's own feelings of pride and joy in the 
 Thessalonians, but indicates that they are to him like the radiance 
 of the sun, like the light that gilds, the source of the honour to 
 be given him at the appearing of Christ. This accounts for the 
 word -for' with which the verse opens. Here is the reason for 
 the exultation, viz. that the Thessalonians are a credit to the 
 Apostle of highest value. 
 
 iii. i-i'O. Timothy's mission and report. Unable to bear his 
 separation from the Thessalonians without intercourse with 
 them, the Apostle sent Timothy with the object of encouraging 
 them to the faithful endurance of persecution. He had warned 
 them of the danger when with them, and now it has come. He 
 was dreading lest they should succumb to the temptation and 
 thus his labour among them be in vain. But Timothy on his 
 return has brought tidings of the fidelity of the Thessalonians. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 3. 2 177 
 
 thought it good to be left behind at Athens alone ; and 2 
 sent Timothy, our brother and God's minister in the 
 
 They have not forgotten their evangelist. This news greatly 
 cheers Paul. Now he is full of thankfulness, but he does not 
 cease to pray that he may see them in person. 
 
 1. Wherefore : because of what is stated in the previous 
 paragraph, i. e. that the Thessalonians are the Apostle's ' garland 
 of exulting.' 
 
 we : plainly meaning the Apostle himself, and not including 
 Silvanus and Timothy. This verse would suggest that Paul is 
 using the editorial ' we ' throughout the Epistle. But that would 
 be contrary to his custom. Moreover, since he expressly associates 
 two companions with himself at the opening of the Epistle (i. i), 
 the pronoun 'we' in the next sentence would naturally include 
 all three. And yet we often meet with expressions of such intense 
 personal feeling associated with this plural pronoun that we must 
 assign them to the Apostle individually. The explanation seems 
 to be that he chose the plural pronoun in order to associate the 
 two companions with the letter, and then held to it even when he 
 was writing what really only expressed his own thoughts. In 
 this verse he can only mean himself, as he speaks of being left 
 alone. 
 
 forbear : endure separation from the Thessalonians without 
 having communication with them. 
 
 Athens : where the Apostle had stayed for a time when on 
 his way from Macedonia to Corinth. From Acts xvii. 14, 15 we 
 learn that he arrived there before his travelling companions. 
 From this Epistle we discover that he sent Timothy to Thessalonica 
 from Athens. Acts only mentions a separation before coming to 
 Athens ; our Epistle only refers to a separation after arriving 
 there. It has been said that there is a contradiction here. 
 But it is not difficult to piece the two accounts together, and 
 understand that the news of the distressed state of the Thessa- 
 lonians which Timothy brought to Paul at Athens induced the 
 Apostle to send him back with a message of encouragement and 
 to obtain later information. 
 
 2. minister. The Greek word is diakonos, from which our word 
 * deacon ' is derived. It means a servant viewed in regard to his 
 work, and not with reference to his relations with his master. It 
 is not here used as an official title. The minister is one who 
 renders service. The addition, 'and our fellow-labourer, 1 which 
 was in the A. V. disappears from the text in the R. V. because it 
 is not found in the best MSS. There is a reading found in old 
 Western Greek and Latin MSS. which gives ' fellow-worker ' 
 instead of ' minister' ; but it is not well attested. 
 
 in the gospel. This is the sphere of service. Timothy labours 
 ( 9 > N 
 
178 I THESSALONIANS 3. 3 
 
 gospel of Christ, to establish you, and to comfort you 
 3 concerning your faith ; that no man be moved by these 
 
 in preaching and expounding the gospel. He is not 'serving 
 tables,' like the ' Seven ' who were appointed for that work at 
 Jerusalem, although we might think the word ' deacon' pointed to 
 such service. Plainly it is used here in a general sense, which, 
 however, is limited by the qualifying words confining the ministry 
 to ' the gospel.' 
 
 to establish : a familiar Pauline metaphor (e. g. 1 Cor. viii. 1, 
 x. 23, xiv. 17) derived from the O. T., e. g. in the expressions, 
 'he established a testimony' (Ps. lxxviii. 5), ' I will build them, 
 and not pull them down' (Jer. xxiv. 6), 'And I will cause the 
 captivity of Judah and the captivity of Israel to return, and will 
 build them, as at the first ' (xxxiii. 7). But while in the older usage 
 the idea is national prosperity, in the N. T. the metaphor refers to 
 individuals, and indicates spiritual progress in the enlargement, 
 advance, and strengthening of the Christian life. 
 
 comfort. The word has four meanings : — (i^ ' exhort,' as in 
 ii. 11 and iv. 1 ; (2) ' beseech, 1 as in Eph. iv. 1 ; (3) ' encourage,' as 
 in Eph. vi. 22 where the English is that ' he may comfort your 
 hearts'; since there is no idea of trouble needing consolation, 
 
 1 encourage ' would be a better word here ; (4) ' comfort,' the 
 usual word in the English versions. This word formerly included 
 the ideas of strengthening and cheering, apart from sorrow. Thus 
 in the treaty between England and Scotland in the reign of 
 Richard III it is agreed that neither of the kings ' shall maintayne, 
 fauour, ayde, or comfort any rebell or treytour.' Wycliffe 
 translates Isa. xli. 7, ' And he coumfortide hym with nailes, 
 that it shulde not be moued,' where the A.V. has 'fastened.' 
 Frequently where our English Bible has 'comfort' it would be 
 better to read 'encourage.' In the present case, as the word 
 is connected with faith, and not with the troubles from which the 
 Thessalonians were suffering, it would be desirable to render 
 it 'encourage,' especially as it is associated with the word 
 ' establish' or strengthen. We meet with the same association in 
 
 2 Thess. ii. 17, ' comfort your hearts and stablish them,' where 
 again ' encourage ' would be more suitable than ' comfort,' with 
 our modern idea of consoling. 
 
 concerning yonr faith. In these early times the word 'faith ' 
 is always used subjectively. It does not mean the creed or the 
 religion, i. e. the object of faith ; it means the internal state of 
 trusting. This would be much tried by the persecutions the 
 Thessalonians were passing through, and therefore in need of 
 strengthening and encouragement. 
 
 3. moved : agitated, disturbed. In its primary sense the word 
 is used of a dog wagging its tail. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 3. 4, 5 179 
 
 afflictions ; for yourselves know that hereunto we are 
 appointed. For verily, when we were with you, we told 4 
 you beforehand that we are to suffer affliction ; even as 
 it came to pass, and ye know. For this cause I also, 5 
 when I could no longer forbear, sent that I might know 
 your faith, lest by any means the tempter had tempted 
 
 these afflictions : the persecutions before referred to. 
 
 yourselves know: an allusion to warnings the Apostle had 
 given the Thessalonians when he was with them, as the next verse 
 explains. 
 
 we. Paul here associates himself with his correspondents. 
 He too is appointed to persecution. It is the common lot of 
 the Christians. By using the first person the Apostle reminds 
 the Thessalonians that they were not being treated with ex- 
 ceptional severity. 
 
 appointed: by God's arrangement. The trouble should be 
 borne patiently, seeing that it is really no accident or misadventure, 
 but a part of God's previous plan concerning His people. Why 
 it is so the Apostle does not attempt to say in this place, although 
 subsequently he describes trouble as a wholesome discipline (e. g. 
 see 2 Cor. iv. 17). For the present it is enough to know that 
 it is God's ordinance. The knowledge of that fact should 
 encourage those who trust God to bear it patientfy. 
 
 4. beforehand : or ' plainly/ as in the margin of R. V. The 
 same word occurs at 2 Cor. xiii. 2 and at Gal. v. 21, in both of 
 which cases 1 1 tell you plainly ' seems more suitable than ' I tell 
 you beforehand,' or ' forewarn you.' But here the meaning in 
 the text fits best, as it is followed by the statement ' even as it 
 came to pass.' 
 
 ye know : now from experience. 
 
 5. Por this cause. Paul was not only anxious because of his 
 separation from his recent converts, he was especially concerned 
 for them on account of the persecutions they were enduring. 
 
 that I might know your faith : a second reason for 
 sending Timothy to Macedonia. The first was to strengthen and 
 encourage the Thessalonians. The Apostle also wants a report 
 of the state of the church. Have the persecuted people stood firm 
 under persecution ? or has their faith failed ? It was an anxious 
 time for Paul. He could not endure the suspense. He must 
 know the worst. 
 
 the tempter : Satan. 
 
 tempted : by fear of suffering inducing the Thessalonians to 
 lose faith. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 I THESSALONIANS 3. 6, 7 
 
 6 you, and our labour should be in vain. But when 
 Timothy came even now unto us from you, and brought 
 us glad tidings of your faith and love, and that ye have 
 good remembrance of us always, longing to see us, even 
 
 7 as we also to see you ; for this cause, brethren, we were 
 comforted over you in all our distress and affliction 
 
 our labour, &c. : the work of the Apostle and his fellow 
 missionaries at Thessalonica. If the Thessalonians had yielded 
 before the temptation to save themselves from persecution by 
 renouncing Christianity, the church would have been broken up 
 and Paul's work in the city brought to nothing. 
 
 6. when Timothy came: Timothy's return from this journey 
 with its double purpose of encouraging the Thessalonians and 
 obtaining information for the Apostle. 
 
 even now. This shews that the Epistle was written immedi- 
 ately after Timothy had reached Corinth and given in his report. 
 
 glad tidings. This was the answer to Paul's anxious inquiry. 
 Though sorely tried, the young church was standing firm. Then 
 the Apostle's labour was not in vain. 
 
 faith : the one subject of the Apostle's inquiry. Faith had 
 not failed. 
 
 love : love to one another. A grateful addition. Faith was 
 bearing fruit in brotherly love. 
 
 good remembrance : a kindly recollection. In his unselfish- 
 ness the Apostle had not pressed for an inquiry on this point. 
 But Timothy brings the additional information : not only have the 
 Thessalonians not lost faith in God and Christ while under 
 persecution ; they have not forgotten the founder of their church, 
 nor turned against him as the cause of this trouble, nor even grown 
 cold towards him, their enthusiasm damped by disappointment. 
 
 always: even in the most trying times, when persecution 
 tempts them to regret the Apostle's ever having come among 
 them. 
 
 7. for this cause : because of the good news brought by 
 Timothy, especially its items of personal interest just referred to. 
 
 distress: lit. 'necessity,' and so 'hard straits,' 'distress.' 
 affliction. While the Christians were being persecuted at 
 Thessalonica, Paul in Corinth had his troubles to face. According 
 to the narrative in Acts the violent opposition of the Jews at 
 Corinth, following on Paul's preaching Jesus as Christ, compelled 
 him to leave the synagogue and commence work with the Gentiles 
 in a private house. That the situation was dangerous is indicated 
 by Paul's vision in which the Lord said to him, ' Be not afraid, 
 
I THESSALONIANS 3. 8-10 181 
 
 through your faith : for now we live, if ye stand fast in 8 
 the Lord. For what thanksgiving can we render again 9 
 unto God for you, for all the joy wherewith we joy 
 for your sakes before our God : night and day praying 10 
 
 but speak, and hold not thy peace: for I am with thee,' &c. (see 
 Acts xviii. 9-1 1). The disturbance which led to Paul being 
 brought before the proconsul Gallio occurred at a later period — 
 about a year and a half after his coming to the city. 
 
 your faith. It was the faith of the Thessalonians about 
 which Paul had directed Timothy to make inquiry. Now it is 
 their faith that cheers the Apostle. The brotherly love and the 
 kindly remembrance were fruits of this faith. If faith had failed, 
 they would have vanished. Although the Apostle does not here 
 develop his doctrine of faith as in the Epistle to the Romans, even 
 this early Epistle reveals his consciousness of the unique importance 
 of the fundamental grace. 
 
 8. now we live. It has been suggested that the Apostle 
 regards his depressed state before Timothy arrived with the good 
 news from Thessalonica as like a condition of death. This glad 
 tidings has revived him, and he will continue to live if only the 
 Thessalonians will continue faithful. 
 
 stand fast: a change of phrase, indicating the result of faith. 
 Faith produces steadfastness. 
 
 in. The use of this preposition in the N. T. is very varied 
 and extensive, partly owing to the fact that it is often a rendering 
 of the Hebrew b' a preposition which means 'by' as well as 'in.' 
 and partly because it lends itself readily to certain specifically 
 Christian ideas. To be in Christ is one of these ideas. The 
 phrase is distinctly a Christian idiom. It signifies close vital union 
 with Christ, like the branch that abides ' in the vine.' 
 
 the Lord: Jesus Christ. See i. i, where this title is given 
 together with the personal name. 
 
 9. for you: lit. 'concerning you.' It is not giving God the 
 thanks which was due from the Thessalonians themselves, but 
 thanking God because of the good news that had come from 
 Thessalonica. 
 
 all the joy. This is the immediate occasion of the thanks- 
 giving. Paul does not know how to thank God enough for giving 
 him this great gladness. 
 
 for your sakes: simply 'because of you' as the occasion of 
 the joy, not, on your behalf, as its end and purpose. 
 
 before our God. Surely not to indicate ' the pure nature of 
 the joy . . . such as could bear the scrutiny of the eye of God,' as 
 Bishop Ellicott says. That would be a thought too remote from 
 
182 I THESSALONIANS 3. n 
 
 exceedingly that we may see your face, and may perfect 
 that which is lacking in your faith ? 
 
 Now may our God and Father himself, and our Lord 
 
 the context. The Apostle is thinking of his prayers and thanks- 
 givings when he presents himself before God. These are made 
 glad by the news from Macedonia. 
 
 10. nigM and day. This cannot merely refer to morning 
 and evening prayers, at the two set hours of devotion. The 
 same phrase was used earlier for the Apostle's twofold work of 
 preaching the gospel and supporting himself by manual labour — 
 'working night and day' (ii. c,\ where continuity was indicated. 
 The same idea is in mind here. Paul is continually praying 
 this prayer. It is in his heart in the quiet night and in the busy 
 day. 
 
 perfect : lit. ' adjust,' ' put in right order ' ; but the word is 
 used in a secondary sense with the idea of completing. It is not 
 of the same root as the word usually rendered 'perfect,' as, for 
 instance, where Jesus says, 'Ye therefore shall be perfect, as 
 your heavenly Father is perfect' (Matt. v. 48). It has nothing to 
 do with what is technically called 'Christian perfection.' The 
 real meaning of the word ' perfect ' in the N. T. is adult or mature. 
 Here the idea is of setting to rights what is defective. 
 
 your faith. The faith of these new Macedonian converts 
 could not but be defective as to its contents, however strong it 
 might have been in its sense of loyalty and confidence. There 
 is no evidence that the Thessalonians were deficient in trust- 
 fulness of spirit or fidelity to Christ. What they lacked was 
 a clear and reassuring view of truth, as the subsequent words 
 of the Apostle about the Second Advent shew. By giving them 
 further enlightenment the Apostle would enlarge and strengthen 
 the contents of their faith. 
 
 iii. 11-13. A fervent desire for the progress of the Thessalonians. 
 The Apostle earnestly prays that his way may be Divinely directed 
 so that he may come to his friends. He also prays that they may 
 abound in love, in order that they may be well established in 
 holiness at the coming of Christ. 
 
 our G-od and Father : a favourite expression of the Apostle. 
 It also occurs in i. 3, and again in iii. 13 ; in i. 1 Paul writes of 
 ' God the Father.' Then in the Second Epistle he has ' God our 
 Father' (2 Thess. ii. 16), and 'our God' (2 Thess. i. 11, 12). The 
 full phrase brings before us (1) the personal relation with God as 
 'our God,' and (2) the Divine Fatherhood, a doctrine especially 
 revealed and expounded in the teachings of Jesus Christ, and 
 fully accepted by the Apcstle Paul. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 3. 12 183 
 
 Jesus, direct our way unto you : and the Lord make you 13 
 to increase and abound in love one toward another, and 
 
 direct : lit. < make straight.' The verb is in the singular, and 
 yet there are two subjects to it, ' our God and Father ' and ' our 
 Lord Jesus Christ.' This indicates that to the Apostle the two 
 were one. We must not deduce any elaborate Trinitarian doctrine 
 from this simple expression, as Paul is not here formulating a 
 creed. It took the church three centuries to arrive at the meta- 
 physical refinement of the Nicene Creed. But Paul could not 
 possibly write as he does here unless he viewed our Lord in 
 closest union with God. The very casualness of the phrase 
 where another subject is in mind shews that the idea in it was 
 familiar to the Apostle. The optative form of the verb approaches 
 the language of prayer. In breathing this wish the Apostle is 
 virtually praying that God and Christ will make a way for him to 
 visit Thessalonica. 
 
 our way unto you. The desire to see his friends is on the mind 
 of the Apostle, and therefore repeatedly coming out in his letter. 
 This sentence must be set off against the earlier statement that 
 Satan was hindering the journey (ii. 18). If the hindrance is 
 from Satan the help must come from God and Christ. Circum- 
 stances are too strong for the Apostle. But the supreme Providence 
 can frustrate the machinations of the great mischief-maker. 
 
 12. the Lord. It may be questioned whether Paul here means 
 God, or Christ. Throughout the Epistle he writes of Jesus as 
 Lord, sometimes with the personal name added, as 'our Lord 
 Jesus,' or 'the Lord Jesus.' Here, as in verse 8, it stands alone, 
 and therefore it might mean God according to the frequent usage 
 of the O. T. But then Paul elsewhere plainly uses the title by 
 itself for Christ. Thus in iii. 13 he has 'the coming of our Lord 
 Jesus,' but in iv. 15, 'the coming of the Lord,' manifestly with 
 reference to the same future event. In the latter passage, and in 
 the verses that follow, \ the Lord ' is evidently Jesus Christ. It 
 is likely that the intended application is the same here. But the 
 indefiniteness of the expression agrees with the inference deduced 
 from the previous verse, viz. that Paul is assuming the Divinity of 
 Christ. Otherwise he would scarcely use a term so familiar to 
 readers of the O. T. as a name of God without guarding it against 
 misapprehension. Right feeling, a shrinking from what might 
 seem to approach blasphemy, would lead him to avoid this 
 danger. 
 
 increase: pointing to the process of growth. 
 
 abound : pointing to superlative attainment. 
 
 in love : or ' in your love.' It already exists ; the prayer is 
 for its advance to overflowing fullness. Love is the one Christian 
 
i8 4 I THESSALONIANS 3. 13 
 
 13 toward all men, even as we also do toward you ; to the 
 end he may stablish your hearts unblameable in holiness 
 
 grace which the Apostle here expressly desires to see flourishing. 
 His following words shew that he regards it as the foundation of 
 holiness and of a ripe Christian character generally. This was 
 the most marked characteristic of primitive Christianity. There 
 had come into the world a new religion distinguished from the 
 old religions especially in this, that its followers were cultivating 
 a spirit of unselfish kindness. 
 
 one toward another : the peculiarly Christian grace known 
 in the N. T. as ' love of the brethren.' 
 
 toward all men : philanthropy. By what looks like a cruel 
 irony of fate the Christians were hated as enemies of mankind. 
 Thus, referring to Nero's persecution of the Christians after the 
 burning of Rome, Tacitus writes, • a vast multitude was convicted, 
 not so much of arson, as cf hatred for the human race.' Never- 
 theless history gradually dispelled this monstrous illusion. Charity 
 was a visible feature of the new religion. Rich men would give 
 all their property to the poor. Orphanages were established, 
 hospitals supported, prisoners relieved, slaves treated kindly, and 
 in some cases emancipated, by the Christians. Seeing that they 
 held a gospel of salvation, their missionary zeal in spreading it 
 abroad was the outcome of their large and warm philanthropy. 
 
 as we also. It was the broader philanthropy that led 
 the missionaries to preach to the Greeks at Thessalonica after 
 they had been repelled by the Jews. Then after the church was 
 established there grew up between the converts and their teachers 
 the new, strong emotion of brotherly love. This Epistle affords 
 abundant evidence of Paul's affection for the Thessalonians. 
 
 13. to the end. This twofold love is not the end of all per- 
 fection. It is the basis on which the complete Christian character 
 is to be built. The Apostle therefore proceeds to describe the 
 object he has in view when desiring the Thessalonians to abound 
 in love. 
 
 stablish: the same Greek word that the Apostle had used 
 in verse 2 when expressing his desire that he could visit the 
 Thessalonians in order to ' establish ' them. Here again it suggests 
 the notion of making firm and strong. But while in the former 
 passage Paul wrote as though he could bring about this result, now 
 he prays that God may do it. Unable to visit the Thessalonians in 
 person as yet, he prays that God may make up his lack of service 
 to them. We must not suppose, however, that he would think 
 of the Divine strengthening as a mere alternative to his own, to 
 be substituted simply because he is not able to go to Thessalonica in 
 person. If he went, it would be as God's messenger and servant, 
 
I THESSALONIANS 3. 13 185 
 
 before our God and Father, at the coming of our Lord 
 Jesus with all his saints. 
 
 and as the human instrument through which the Divine grace 
 would be bestowed. What he prays is that, while he is unable 
 to go, God will bestow that grace directly, apart from the instru- 
 mentality of the Apostle. 
 
 your hearts. Throughout the Bible, both in the O. T. and 
 in the N. T., the heart stands for the whole inner life— the will 
 and thought as well as the affections. It is the inner life that 
 the Apostle desires to see made firm and strong. 
 
 unblameable : in view of the judgement at the paronsia 
 referred to further on. 
 
 holiness. The primary idea of holiness is consecration. In 
 the O. T. it represents what is set apart for God, and therefore 
 sacred in contrast with the common things of the world ; but 
 even there the moral character of holiness gradually emerges. 
 God cannot endure sin. Therefore what is devoted to God must 
 be separated from sin. God Himself is holy as being perfectly 
 good and as not permitting the approach of evil. Thus in Isa. vi. 
 while the seraphs adore Jehovah as holy the prophet shrinks in 
 contrast as a man of unclean lips. In the N. T. the physical con- 
 ception of holiness in ritual disappears and the moral and spiritual 
 are exclusively present. Thus holiness is purity considered as 
 a condition of approach to God, freedom from sin in His sight. 
 It is the same moral state as goodness, but with the addition that 
 it is goodness in God's presence and fcr His sake. This idea of 
 holiness is clear in 2 Cor. vii. 1, where we read of 'perfecting 
 holiness in the fear of God.' In the present instance the Apostle 
 bases holiness on love. He prays that the love of his friends ma}* 
 abound in order that their hearts may be made strong in holiness. 
 Since sin is selfishness, love which expels selfishness must make 
 for purity, the ethical aspect of holiness. 
 
 before our God and Father. The clause might mean (1) that 
 the blamelessness was to be such as God would recognize, or (2) 
 that the holiness should be that which would stand in His sight, 
 or (3) taking the two ideas together, that to be blamelessly holy 
 in God's sight is what the Apostle desires for the Thessalonians. 
 This third interpretation is the more probable, as the words are 
 all closely connected together. There is a blamelessness that 
 may stand with men, but while this is inoffensive and not chargeable 
 with crime, it may not amount to holiness. To be blameless before 
 God, holiness must be added to virtue, internal purity to external 
 goodness. Then there is a holiness that is not without blame, 
 being imperfect and defective. The conjunction of the two ideas 
 is necessary for satisfying God and standing clear in His presence 
 — blamelessness as regards holiness. 
 
1 86 I THESSALONIANS 3. 13 
 
 the coming: //'/. 'the presence,' the parousia; see note on 
 ii. 19. This will be the occasion of the judgement of Christians 
 as well as of godless people. It is necessary, therefore, that 
 Christians should be ready for the presence of Christ by having that 
 blamelessness of holiness that is the only fit condition for being 
 presented to God. 
 
 with all his saints. It is usual to address Christians, the 
 members of the apostolic churches, by the title ' saints.' Thus 
 the Roman Christians are 'called to be saints' (Rom. i. 7 N . 
 Similarly the Corinthians (i Cor. i. 2) and the Christians of Achaia 
 (2 Cor. i. 1). The title is not given to the Galatians, with whom 
 the Apostle was much displeased ; but neither is it applied to the 
 Thessalonians, with whom he was greatly pleased. The Christians 
 in the churches to which the epistles of the captivity are directed 
 are all addressed as ' saints ' (Eph. i. 1 ; Phil. i. 1 ; Col. i. 2 ; Philem. 
 5, 7). Thus the saints are not the blessed dead, but men and 
 women living in this world ; nor are they a selection of eminent 
 souls that have been canonized in distinction from their brethren, 
 but all the Christians. The case is different here : Christ does not 
 come to his saints as he would come if they were the members 
 of the churches on earth at his advent ; he comes with them. They 
 accompany him. This is only a variation of the Jewish picture 
 of the Messiah coming with his angels which our Lord himself 
 adopted when he said, * when he cometh in the glory of his Father 
 with the holy angels ' (Mark viii. 38). Pearson in his work On 
 Creed understands that the word ' saints ' here simply means 
 the angels. But that is contrary to usage. Paul believes in the 
 usually accepted idea that Christ will come attended by angels, 
 for he states it in the next Epistle, describing ' the revelation of 
 the Lord Jesus from heaven with the angels of his power ' (2 Thess. 
 i. 7). There he uses the word 'angels.' If he has 'saints' here 
 his meaning cannot be the same. It will not do to say that the 
 word 'saints' includes both men and angels. That too is quite 
 contrary to usage. It seems clear that in the present case Paul 
 substitutes the saints for the angels. The saints are to be Christ's 
 attendants at his parousia. The Apostle can only mean the spirits 
 of the departed servants of God. This is further explained by 
 IV. 14, where Paul says that they 'that are fallen asleep in Jesus 
 will God bring with Him.' As that was a very important idea in 
 the mind of the Apostle just now, and in some measure the occasion 
 of writing the Epistle, Paul hints at it here, though he intends to 
 explain it fully later on. Perhaps the idea may be traced back 
 to the primitive apocalypse of Daniel, where, after the vision of 
 one like a son of man coming in the clouds of heaven (Dan. vii. 
 I 3)> we read how ' the saints of the Most High shall receive the 
 kingdom,' &c. (verse 18). 
 
I THESSALONIANS 4. i 187 
 
 Finally then, brethren, we beseech and exhort you in 4 
 the Lord Jesus, that, as ye received of us how ye ought 
 to walk and to please God, even as ye do walk, — that ye 
 
 iv. 1-8. Exhortation to purity of life. Paul urges his readers to 
 continue as they have begun to live, but going further in the same 
 direction. So he charged them before. God's will is for their 
 sanctification, which in their case means especially abstinence 
 from sexual impurity. They should know how to keep the body 
 holy in contrast to the lustfulness of the heathen, and not wrong 
 one another in this matter, since God is the Avenger. The Divine 
 call was not for uncleanness, but for holiness. He who rejects this 
 message goes beyond the rejection of a man, he is renouncing 
 God and His gift of the Holy Spirit. 
 
 1. Finally. How can this word occur when we are only half- 
 way through the Epistle ? The Revisers have substituted it for 
 ' Furthermore,' which was the rendering of the A. V., and this is 
 more correct as a translation of the original, which means literally 
 1 For the rest.' But the Greek word does not necessarily imply 
 that the writing is coming to an end. Here we see it occurs 
 before half the Epistle is written. Similarly we have it in the 
 middle of the Epistle to the Philippians (iii. i\ It has been said 
 that it indicates an intention to close ; but that the rush of fresh 
 thoughts leads in each case to additions previously not con- 
 templated. But the word does not mean this. It rather points 
 to a transition than to a termination. It contemplates all the 
 subjects that remain to be dealt with, but these need not be few, 
 nor the treatment of them brief. 
 
 then: in view of what has just been said about being 
 blameless in holiness at the coming of Christ. This is a great 
 motive for the purity of life about which the Apostle is about to 
 speak. 
 
 "brethren : the specific title of Christians among themselves. 
 
 in the I»ord Jesus : not ' by the Lord Jesus ' as in the A. V. 
 This is not a form of adjuration. The language is in what we 
 may call the Christian dialect. It is not to be interpreted by the 
 ordinary usages of Greek literature. It is as Christians, with 
 reference to their close relation to Jesus Christ, that the Apostle 
 exhorts his readers. 
 
 as ye received of us: when the missionaries were at 
 Thessalonica. 
 
 to walk: a Hebraism for the conduct of life. Thus it is 
 said, 'Enoch walked with God' (Gen. v. 22). According to Paul 
 Christianity is not merely concerned with the crisis of conversion, 
 or public worship, or the blessedness of heaven. It is for the 
 continuous course of life in the world day by day. 
 
188 I THESSALONIANS 4. 2-4 
 
 2 abound more and more. For ye know what charge we 
 
 3 gave you through the Lord Jesus. For this is the will 
 of God, eve?i your sanctification, that ye abstain from 
 
 4 fornication ; that each one of you know how to possess 
 
 and to please God: i.e. by the way in which they walk, 
 walking so as to please God. 
 
 abound: in walking so as to please God. This expression 
 delicately implies that the Thessalonians are already living in the 
 right way in accordance with the apostolic injunctions. They 
 are not rebuked as though their walk were wrong, or urged to 
 commence the right course as though they were sitting in 
 indolence, but simply encouraged to do better in the course they 
 are now following. 
 
 2. charge: literally, ' precepts,' ' commands.' The Apostle had 
 not merely given the Thessalonians the invitations of the gospel, 
 he had followed these up with practical directions to guide the 
 conduct of his new converts. 
 
 through the Lord Jesus: on the ground of the authority 
 of Christ. It was as Christ's messenger that Paul gave these 
 commands. They were not his own ideas urged by his own will. 
 The mind and will of Christ were behind him when he issued 
 them. It was therefore by reason of their relation to Christ that 
 they had weight. Cf. ' I beseech you, brethren, through the 
 name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that ye all speak the same 
 thing,' &c. (1 Cor. i. 10). Cf. Rom. xii. i, xv. 31 ; 2 Cor. x. 1. 
 
 3. the will of God : the thing that God wills. 
 sanctification. The Greek word signifies the process of 
 
 being sanctified. This is God's will, that His people should be 
 sanctified. To sanctify means primarily 'to set apart for God.' 
 Thus it has the same original meaning as 'to make holy.' But 
 for those who are morally evil this necessarily involves a cleansing, 
 because impurity cannot be brought into the presence of God. 
 Thus we come to the secondary meaning of sanctifying, the 
 process of purification which fits souls to be consecrated to God. 
 In the N. T. the two ideas are interwoven, and sanctification 
 is purification for the sake of devotion to God. See note on 
 ' holiness,' iii. 13. The words that follow shew that sanctification 
 is directly related to purity of character. In writing to new 
 converts from heathenism Paul felt it necessary to be very urgent 
 on the point of sexual morality. Nothing is more wonderful in 
 the progress of Christianity among the Greek cities than its 
 maintenance of a standard of purity in startling contrast to the 
 comparative indifference of paganism in regard to this matter. 
 
 4. know hew. A mere effort of will was not enough. The 
 
I THESSALONIANS 4. 5 189 
 
 himself of his own vessel in sanctification and honour, 
 not in the passion of lust, even as the Gentiles which 5 
 
 lofty ideal must be conceived and comprehended, and then the 
 way to attain it by the grace of Christ understood. 
 
 his own vessel. The commentators have been divided 
 between two explanations of this metaphor, some taking it to 
 mean 'his own body,' others 'his own wife.' Most now incline 
 to the latter meaning ; the language is more easily explained 
 with this reference in mind, (i) The word 'possess 1 is out of 
 place with regard to a man's body. It fits in better with the 
 idea of having a wife. (2) The strong phrase ' his own ' seems 
 superfluous if the body is intended ; it would be enough to say 
 'his vessel' for 'his body.' But with reference to a wife it 
 excludes adultery with other women who are not 'his own.* 
 (3) While we never meet with the image of a 'vessel' for the 
 body, we do meet with it elsewhere for a wife in the passage 
 ' giving honour unto the woman, as unto the weaker vessel ' (i Pet. 
 iii. 7), where the mention of 'honour' in connexion with the 
 'vessel,' as in the passage before us, suggests that Peter actually 
 had our passage in mind when writing. It is now generally 
 admitted that i Peter contains several allusions to the Epistles 
 of Paul. Elsewhere the image of a vessel is used for men, e. g. 
 ' vessels of wrath ' (Rom. ix. 22). In such passages it does not 
 represent the body, but the whole person. For these reasons 
 it would seem that the Apostle is here following up his admonition 
 to abstain from the licence of pagan immorality by urging each 
 man to be faithful to his own wife. 
 
 5. even as the Gentiles. This might seem to imply that the 
 readers were Jews ; but other passages make it certain that such 
 was not the case, e. g. ' how ye turned unto God from idols ' (i. 9 ; 
 see Introduction, p. 12). But Paul is a Jew, and to the Jew 
 Gentile and heathen are equivalent terms. Then he regards 
 Christians as spiritual Israelites, the true Israel of God, in contrast 
 with whom the unconverted pagan world is still Gentile. He is 
 here referring to the vicious habits of the heathen. 
 
 which know not God. In analysing the genesis and develop- 
 ment of the world's wickedness Paul traces it back to a suppression 
 of the knowledge of God which even the heathen had obtained 
 from the observation of His works in nature. This led to idolatry ; 
 idolatry to immorality (see Rom. i. 18-25). O r perhaps ignorance 
 of God might be thought some excuse for the vices of paganism. 
 That excuse the Thessalonians do not possess. Then it would be 
 peculiarly wicked for them with their new light to fall back into 
 the practices of heathen darkness. 
 
igo I THESSALONIANS 4. 6 
 
 6 know not God ; that no man transgress, and wrong his 
 brother in the matter : because the Lord is an avenger 
 in all these things, as also we forewarned you and 
 
 6. transgress. The A. V. has ' go beyond,' the literal meaning 
 of the Greek ; but it makes no sense here. The Revisers suggest 
 'overreach,' in the margin, which is a classic usage of the word. 
 This meaning will suit very well if the words further on rendered 
 'in the matter' be translated 'in business,' but, as we shall see 
 when we come to them, that is not their probable meaning. The 
 word does not necessarily involve the idea of the cunning that 
 cheats. It will be suitable for any case in which a man wrongfully 
 gets the better of another. ' Transgress ' is too vague. Injustice to 
 some other person is what is intended. 
 
 wrong : lit. ' get an advantage over.' 
 
 Ms brother: his fellow Christian. The early Christians 
 treated one another as brothers. 
 
 in the matter : i. e. the matter just referred to. With tins 
 meaning the passage must be a warning against adultery. A man 
 is not to overreach his brother or get an advantage over him by 
 an intrigue with his brother's wife. The indefinite expression of 
 the A. V., 'in any matter/ is clearly wrong, because the definite 
 article is employed. ' In business ' would be a possible meaning 
 of the words — though for this the Greek should be in the plural — 
 'in affairs.' Then the passage would be a warning to Christians 
 not to take advantage of their fellow Christians and wrong them 
 in commercial transactions, a very suitable admonition in itself. 
 But the context is against it. We have seen that the subject of 
 the morality of the sexes precedes this passage ; the same 
 subject follows in verse 7, and that verse is connected with the 
 intermediate sentences by the word 'For'; i.e. verse 7 gives 
 the reason for what is said here. This seems to make it clear 
 that one and the same subject is under treatment throughout the 
 whole paragraph. 
 
 avenger : even against Christians if they fall into the sins of 
 the heathen. Paul does not teach that the forgiveness of all past 
 sin with which the Christian life commences carries with it im- 
 munity in regard to the future. The coming judgement will be 
 for Christians who fall away as well as for those who have never 
 been brought into the kingdom of grace. 
 
 ail these things: the immorality mentioned first as well as 
 the adultery referred to later. 
 
 forewarned: rather, 'said before,' not meaning 'before the 
 day of vengeance,' as 'forewarned' implies. The Apostle must 
 be alluding to his utterances at a previous time when in Thessa- 
 lonica. The margin of R. V. has, ' told you plainly,' but there 
 
I THESSALONIANS 4. 7, 8 191 
 
 testified. For God called us not for unclean ness, but in 7 
 sanctification. Therefore he that rejecteth, rejecteth not 8 
 man, but God, who giveth his Holy Spirit unto you. 
 
 are no clear instances of this meaning in the N. T. (cf. Gal. i. 9). 
 See also Acts i. 16, where the same Greek word is used in 
 the phrase, ' which the Holy Ghost spake before by the mouth of 
 David.' 
 
 testified: charged. A strong word which in Grimm's 
 Dictionary is rendered 'testify earnestly/ 'solemnly affirm.' 
 In 2 Tim. ii. 14 it is rendered ' charge ' — ' charging them in 
 the sight of the Lord.' So it is in 2 Tim. iv. 1, 'I charge 
 thee in the sight of God, and of Christ Jesus.' 
 
 i 7. Tor : introducing the reasonable justification of the preceding 
 admonition. Immorality is not merely to be shunned for fear 
 of God's vengeance. It is the contradiction of the Christian 
 vocation. This fact makes the Divine vengeance on it especially 
 just. Such a breach of the condition of discipleship and complete 
 missing of its end deserves severe punishment. 
 
 for uncleanness: pointing to the purpose and end. There 
 is a similar expression in Gal. v. 13, • For 3'e, brethren, were 
 called for freedom.' Similarly, 'created ... for good works' 
 (Eph. ii. 10). The same preposition is used in each case. The 
 statement is not superfluous, since there were pagan cults that 
 involved their votaries in immoral ceremonies. 
 
 "but in sanctification. Schmiedel takes this to mean ' in order 
 to be sanctified ' ; but observe the change of preposition. Besides, 
 sanctification is a process, not an end. Christians are undergoing 
 the purifying and consecrating which is to fit them for future 
 union with God. Therefore the meaning seems to be that the 
 vocation brings Christians into the condition of being sanctified. 
 This is the opposite state to one of indulgence in immorality. 
 
 8. he that rejecteth : he who sets this advice at nought and 
 takes no account of it. 
 
 hut God : because the call came from God, and this call is not 
 for uncleanness, but its opposite. The Christian who indulges in 
 immorality is flouting the character and purpose of his call, and 
 therefore repudiating the message of God. 
 
 •who giveth: in the present (as R. V.) according to the best 
 MSS., not 'who hath . . . given,' as in the A. V. The phrase refers 
 to a continuous process. This might mean the giving of the 
 Spirit to a succession of people, each new convert in turn receiving 
 it. But as the Apostle adds ' unto you,' and as he is writing to 
 the members of a Christian church who have already all received 
 the first gift of the Spirit, he must mean that God is continually 
 giving more and more of His Spirit to each one of them. Paul more 
 
192 I THESSALONIANS 4. 9 
 
 9 But concerning love of the brethren ye have no need 
 
 frequently writes of the Holy Spirit as given in the past by one 
 definite act, e. g. ' the Holy Ghost which was given unto us ' 
 (Rom. v. 5) ; • God sent forth the Spirit of his Son into our hearts ' 
 (Gal. iv. 7) ; see also 2 Cor. i. 22, v. 5. Here we have an ad- 
 ditional plea. Not only did God call the Thessalonians at the 
 first. He is continually breathing His Spirit into them. But 
 the purpose of this is sanctification ; the Spirit of God is the Holy 
 Spirit. To live licentiously while receiving this gift is grossly 
 insulting to the Giver. The obligation to purity, growing out of 
 the reception of the Holy Spirit, is similarly urged by the Apostle 
 when writing to the Corinthians, ' know ye not that your body 
 is a temple of the Holy Ghost which is in you, which ye have 
 from God?' (1 Cor. vi. 19). 
 
 iv. 9-12. Exhortation to increase of brotherly love in the church, 
 and quiet uidustry in the ivorld. The Thessalonians being taught 
 by God to love their fellow Christians, and practising the duty 
 among all their brethren in Macedonia, do not need to be reminded 
 of it. Still the Apostle exhorts them to increase in this funda- 
 mental grace of character. At the same time he recommends a 
 quiet life of diligent activity at their handicraft work, that they 
 may stand honourably with the world without and duly provide 
 for their own necessities. 
 
 9. But : better, ' Now.' The word is frequently used to indicate 
 a transition to a fresh subject, e. g. ' Now concerning spiritual gifts ' 
 (1 Cor. xii. 1), ' Now concerning the collection for the saints ' (xvi. i), 
 &c. It recurs with this meaning at iv. 13, v. 1, 12. 
 
 love of tlie "brethren: this is expressed in the Greek by 
 one word, Philadelphia, which has a fixed and definite meaning 
 wherever it occurs in the N. T., standing for the affection of 
 Christians for one another. It involves the esprit de corps 
 of an organized community to which the members are devoted, 
 but it is much deeper, and partakes of a family nature. Jesus had 
 exhibited this love in his own person and character, not only 
 honouring but claiming as brothers and sisters all who did the will 
 of God (Mark iii. 35) ; and nothing is more indicative of the way 
 in which his spirit went with his gospel than the fact that even 
 in remote Greek cities no sooner was faith in Christ obtained than 
 this family feeling also sprang up among the converts. Nothing 
 approaching it is recorded of the pagan religious societies that 
 were spreading through the empire at this time, an external 
 resemblance to which might be seen in the Christian churches. 
 Harnack points to ' love of the brethren ' as one of the two 
 most marked peculiarities of the early Christians, the other 
 being ' enthusiasm.' 
 
 ye have: the Syro-Latin text (here represented by the MSS. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 4. 10, n 193 
 
 that one write unto you : for ye yourselves are taught of 
 God to love one another j for indeed ye do it toward all 10 
 the brethren which are in all Macedonia. But we exhort 
 you, brethren, that ye abound more and more ; and that 1 1 
 
 D*FG, and the Vulgate and one of the Syrian versions) has ' we 
 have,' a not uncommon change which Nestle points out may be 
 due to the habit of the reader of Scripture in public worship of 
 thus associating himself with his hearers. Similarly perhaps it is 
 owing to the use of Scripture in the church services that we some- 
 times meet with the change of direct statements into exhortations. 
 
 no need. Ellicott treats this remark as a 'rhetorical turn,' 
 meaning a polite and insinuating way of conveying advice ; but 
 there is reason to conclude from other statements of the Apostle 
 that the Thessalonians were exceptionally marked by kindliness 
 and generosity of spirit (e. g. 2 Cor. viii. 1). 
 
 one. A.V. has 'I.' The Greek verb is in the infinitive 
 without any pronoun. Thus the phrase is general. The Thessa- 
 lonians did not need an exhortation on this matter from any 
 human correspondent. 
 
 taught of God: by the influence of the Spirit of God on their 
 hearts. This is why they did not need a human counsellor 
 concerning brotherly love. 
 
 to love. The form of the Greek is peculiar here. It has a pre- 
 position signifying an end or purpose. The exact expression 
 means, ' ye are God's pupils for this purpose — that ye may love 
 one another.' This is the great object that God has in view, the 
 supreme reason why He is schooling them. 
 
 10. all the brethren, &c. : not only in their own church, but 
 in neighbouring churches. We only know of two of these centres 
 of Christian life, viz. Philippi and Bercea. But possibly there were 
 also scattered believers who had heard the missionaries when 
 marketing in the towns. 
 
 all Macedonia : the Roman province of that name. Wherever 
 there were Christians in Macedonia the Thessalonians manifested 
 brotherly love for them. The expression 'a// Macedonia' was 
 in accordance with the Apostle's large way of speaking in the 
 sanguine spirit that anticipated winning all for Christ. Thus 
 he writes of 'all Achaia' (2 Cor. i. 1). 
 
 abound more and more : i. e. in love of the brethren. 
 
 11. study : lit. ' make it your ambition.' The primary meaning 
 of the word is ' to be fond of honour ' ; thence comes the secondary 
 meaning, ' to be ambitious.' Paul uses it in two other places — 
 Rom. xv. 20, where according to the R. V. we read, ' making it my 
 aim to preach the gospel,' &c, and 2 Cor. v. 9, 'we make it our 
 
 ( 9 > o 
 
i 9 4 I THESSALONIANS 1. u 
 
 ye study to be quiet, and to do your own business, and 
 12 to work with your hands, even as we charged you ; that 
 ye may walk honestly toward them that are without, and 
 may have need of nothing. 
 
 aim ... to be well-pleasing unto him.' This milder sense of 
 the word is adopted by Ellicott here ; but Schmiedel adopts the 
 stronger meaning ', which is more in accordance with usage as well 
 as etymology. 
 
 to be quiet. The paradox is striking. Ambition is usually for 
 publicity, noise, stir in the world. Paul would have the end of 
 ambition to be the attainment of quiet. This advice, together with 
 what follows, suggests the idea that the Apostle fears the Thessa- 
 lonians are too restless. In his second letter he distinctly says 
 that he hears that some of them are ' busybodies' (a Thess. iii. n). 
 
 work with your hands. This shews that they were artizans. 
 It was a working-man's church. Probably many of them were 
 weavers, as weaving was an industry carried on at Thessalonica. 
 Thus their position was not unlike that of Paul the tent-maker. 
 But the advice here given suggests that they were becoming 
 indifferent to their daily toil in the new enthusiasm that had 
 taken possession of them. There was no fault to be found with 
 them in the matter of brotherly love ; but this must not be pleaded 
 as an excuse for the neglect of daily duty. 
 
 even as we charged you. The enthusiasm had appeared as 
 early as the time of the Apostle's missionary labours in Thessa- 
 lonica, and even then he had felt it necessary to warn his converts 
 not to be so carried away with religious emotion as to fail in 
 attention to their business affairs. This advice is not often 
 called for in the present da} r . 
 
 12. honestly: lit. 'becomingly,' 'decorously.' An idle habit 
 indulged in with negligence of the work of life is most unseemly. 
 
 them that are without: the pagan neighbours. For 
 Christians to be seen neglecting the duty of earning their daily 
 bread while giving themselves up to religious excitement would 
 prejudice their cause in the eyes of the world, which could 
 appreciate the value of sober work, while it could not understand 
 the spiritual pursuits of the new faith. 
 
 have need of nothing". Ellicott translates this, f have need of 
 no man,' i. e. not to be dependent on any one. The Greek admits 
 of either interpretation. But Schmiedel points out that the 
 reference to persons rather than things would be far-fetched and 
 not so clear. Moreover, it would be somewhat harsh. We do 
 
 1 r Eure Ehre darein zu setzen.' 
 
I THESSALONIANS 4. 13 u )S 
 
 But we would not have you ignorant, brethren, con- 13 
 cerning them that fall asleep ; that ye sorrow not, even 
 
 not want to feel that wc have need of nobody. The notion is 
 churlish. But it is reasonable that people should make proper 
 provision for themselves and their families by their own industry. 
 Thus Paul advances two reasons for assiduity in common work : 
 (1) Seemliness of behaviour in the eyes of the world, and (2) 
 avoiding want. 
 
 iv. 13-18. The Parousia. The Thessalonians are not to be 
 without the hope of seeing their departed friends again. God 
 will bring them back when Jesus returns, and we who are alive 
 at the time shall not then have precedence of them, because at the 
 coming of the Lord the dead Christians will rise in the first place, 
 and after that those living at the time will join them. 
 
 13. But: rather, ' How,' indicating transition to another topic. 
 See note on verse 9. 
 
 we would not have you ignorant : a favourite expression of 
 the Apostle when he is about to introduce some new assertion or 
 to impart some new teaching (e. g. Rom. i. 13, xi. 25 ; i Cor. x. 1, 
 xii. 1 ; 2 Cor. i. 8), and so to be contrasted with such expressions 
 as ' know ye not?' (1 Cor. iii. 16, v. 6, vi. 2, &c), or ' ye re- 
 member ' (1 Thess. ii. 9), where an appeal is made to what should 
 be already in mind as previously taught or learnt by experience. 
 
 them that fall asleep. The best MSS. have the present 
 participle, not the perfect, which gave the A. V. the expression 
 • them which are asleep ' — a reading of the Syro-Latin text. This 
 present tense points to what is now going on. The temptation to 
 despair is most keen at the moment of loss. The thought is that 
 as one and another of the Christians are taken away, even while 
 this very thing is happening hope must not be lost. The image of 
 sleep is the specifically Christian idea of death, though it is found 
 in the O. T., e. g. ' So David slept with his fathers ' (1 Kings ii. 
 10), and even in pagan writers — Homer, for instance, who has 
 'He slept an iron sleep ' {Iliad, ii. 241), Sophocles, and others. But 
 it is most frequent in the N. T. ; and it is peculiarly suitable to the 
 Christian idea of death, first as being a safe and peaceful rest free 
 from terror, and then as giving the prospect of an awakening. 
 
 that ye sorrow not. The comma at the end of this clause is 
 important. The idea is that there should not be sorrow at all 
 among Christians, not that their sorrow should not be the same in 
 kind and degree as that of the heathen. Human nature forbids the 
 absolute following of such advice. But when we think of the 
 wild abandonment to grief that accompanied an oriental mourning 
 we can understand how the Apostle would deprecate anything of 
 the kind in the case of Christians. 
 
 O 2 
 
196 I THESSALONIANS 4. i 4 
 
 14 as the rest, which have no hope. For if we believe that 
 Jesus died and rose again, even so them also that are 
 
 the rest : other people in Thessalonica, the pagan neighbours. 
 
 no hope: i.e. of again meeting departed friends. The old 
 Greek cemetery at Athens, containing pathetic expressions of 
 love for the departed, and its sad ' Farewells,' without any hope 
 of meeting the beloved parent or wife or child again, is in striking 
 contrast with what we read in the catacombs at Rome of the 
 Christian hope of life beyond the grave. Classic writers abound 
 with dreary expressions of the hopelessness of death. Thus 
 among the Greeks Theocritus says, ' Hopes are among the living, 
 but the dead are without hope ' {Idyll iv. 42), and Catullus among 
 the Romans, 'Suns can set and rise again. When once our brief 
 life sets, there must be the sleep of one perpetual night ' (v. 4 ; see 
 Jowett's commentary in loc). On the other hand, an inscription in 
 the catacomb of Callistus begins, ' Alexander is not dead, but 
 he lives above the stars and his body rests in this tomb V (Quoted 
 in Smith's Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, art. 'Catacombs.') 
 
 14. if we toelieve that Jesus died and rose again. As the re- 
 surrection of our Lord was thecorner-stone of the Apostle's faith, he 
 must have made it prominent in his preaching at Thessalonica, and 
 must have looked for belief in his testimony to it among his converts. 
 Therefore he could say, 'we, on the assumption that they as well 
 as he accepted it as an established fact. Observe, this verse is 
 the earliest written statement of our Lord's resurrection, occurring 
 as it does in the first of Paul's Epistles. Thus we have a docu- 
 mentary record of it from little more than twenty years after the 
 event, according to the accepted chronology, and even with less 
 interval of time if we admit Harnack's scheme of dates. This may 
 be compared to an assertion made to-day of the fall of the 
 Beaconsfield Cabinet and the return of Mr. Gladstone to power 
 on the occasion of the agitation about the Bulgarian atrocities 
 made by a contemporary of those events. 
 
 Jesus: our Lord's personal name on earth, very rarely used 
 by itself in Paul's Epistles. Whenever it is so used the Apostle is 
 directing attention to Christ in his life on earth. 
 
 died. Observe, it is never said that Jesus slept. He died ; 
 there is no softening of that fact. It stands out in grim horror by 
 its close juxtaposition to what Is asserted of his people who are 
 said to sleep. 
 
 even so. Paul takes the resurrection of Christ as at once the 
 assurance and the type of the resurrection of Christians. Both 
 these ideas are elaborately worked out in 1 Cor. xv. 
 
 1 ' Alexander mortuus non est sed vivit super astra et corpus in hoc 
 tumulo quiescit.' 
 
I THESSALONIANS 4. 15 197 
 
 fallen asleep in Jesus will God bring with him. For this 1 
 
 them also that are fallen asleep. This is more correct than 
 the A. V., 'them also which sleep,' for the verb is in the aorist 
 tense, and therefore indicates not a continuous present condition, 
 but a single past action. It would be more accurate to say, 'them 
 also that were put to sleep,' since the verb is in the passive voice ; 
 it is the very act of dying compared to putting to sleep, as with 
 a child whom his mother hushes to slumber. 
 
 in Jesus. This cannot be a correct translation. The pre- 
 position ' here used primarily signifies ■ through.' Then it means 
 'by' in the sense of the relation of an agent or an instrument. 
 When it expresses the state through which one is passing, it may 
 sometimes be rendered by the English word ' in,' e. g. 'those who 
 believe, though they be in ' uncircumcision ' (Rom. iv. n), i.e. 
 while passing through that condition of life. For this sense of the 
 preposition, however, there must be some indication of a continuous 
 state or process. But that cannot be the case here, since the aorist 
 form of the verb indicates a single action. Therefore we must say 
 4 by,' or 'through Jesus.' Two interpretations are now possible: 
 
 (1) To connect this phrase with the falling asleep. Then it will 
 mean 'those who were put to sleep by Jesus, 1 a beautiful idea 
 of Christian death, but one nowhere else met with in the N.T. 
 
 (2) To connect the phrase with the words that follow, reading the 
 whole sentence thus, ' even so them also that were put to sleep 
 will God through Jesus bring with Him.' This view, perfectly 
 legitimate as a translation of the original Greek, is accepted by 
 Schmiedel. It indicates that while it is God who effects the 
 resurrection, He will do this through the instrumentality of 
 Christ, with whom after they have been raised the departed 
 Christians will return. This conception is more in harmony with 
 Paul's teaching generally, in which Christ is seen as the Divine 
 agent through whom God creates (Col. i. 16) and redeems 
 (Rom. v. 1). In i Cor. xv. 22 the Apostle expressly describes 
 Christ as bringing about the resurrection, saying, 'As in Adam all 
 die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive.' 
 
 will God bring 1 . The originating power of the resurrection 
 is always ascribed to God who raises Christ from the dead ; 
 though here it is also through him that God raises His people. 
 
 bring: lit. 'lead,' without indicating direction, in the sense 
 of ' lead to us,' implied by the word ' bring.' The idea is explained 
 by the context. When Christ comes back from the unseen world 
 the departed Christians will come with him. Paul conceives of this 
 earth as then revisited by the blessed dead. Thus, though the 
 word rendered ' bring ' does not imply all that the English term 
 
 1 5«d. 
 
xg8 I THESSALONIANS 4. 15 
 
 we say unto you by the word of the Lord, that we that 
 
 contains, that term goes no farther than what is suggested in the 
 sequel. The same Greek word is used in Heb. x. 10 where we 
 read of God ' bringing [lit. ' leading '] many sons to glory.' 
 
 15. For : pointing to the explanation of the previous verse, as 
 that verse, introduced by the same conjunction, is the justification 
 of its predecessor. This is one of the common features of the 
 Apostle's st3 r le. He pushes his explanations further and further 
 back, sometimes with quite a string of sentences each beginning 
 with ' For.' These are not parallel sentences, giving several 
 reasons for one earlier statement; but each sentence supports that 
 which goes before. Still the whole series is intended to sub- 
 stantiate the statement with which the paragraph opens. 
 
 this we say : an emphatic introduction of some new, impor- 
 tant assertion. 
 
 by : lit. ' in.' The preposition does not point to the authority 
 that gives Paul a right to speak, but to the nature of what he is 
 saying. This preposition is very common in the N. T. as an 
 equivalent of the Hebrew b\ which may mean 'with' as well 
 as 'in.' Similarly we read, 'We speak of God's wisdom in 
 a mystery' (i Cor. ii. 7), and, 'Unless I speak to you either 
 in a revelation, or in knowledge, or in prophecy, or in 
 teaching' (xiv. 6), where the A. V. has ' by,' and the R. V. ' by 
 way of,' e. g. ' by way of revelation,' &c, i. e. indicating the 
 kind of speech. The case before us is analogous. The kind 
 of utterance Paul is about to give is a word of the Lord. We 
 might render the phrase, 'as a word of the Lord' (Schmiedel). 
 
 the word of the Lord : lit. ' a word of the Lord,' one specific 
 word. By 'the Lord' Paul here means Jesus Christ; that is 
 indicated by other references to the same title in the words that 
 follow, e.g. 'the coming of the Lord,' 'the Lord himself shall 
 descend,' Sec. The phrase may be explained in either of two 
 ways : (1) As an appeal to some saying of Christ during his 
 ministry on earth ; or (2) as a reference to the inward and spiritual 
 teaching of Christ. There is nothing in the gospels that corre- 
 sponds to Paul's statements here. It is possible that he is referring 
 to some traditional saying : but, if so, probably he would have given 
 the utterance more directly, as for instance when he cites a saying 
 not in the gospels with the phrase, ' He himself said ' (Acts xxi. 35), 
 or when he wrote, ' I give charge, yea, not I, but the Lord ' (1 Cor. 
 vii. 10). Here his method is quite different ; for he writes, 'We 
 say unto you.' Elsewhere the Apostle claims to possess direct 
 teaching from Christ, e. g. when declaring that he has received 
 his gospel ' through revelation of Jesus Christ' (Gal. i. 12) ; and 
 probably he is referring to something of the kind here. 
 
 we that are aUve. The use of the first person evidently 
 
I THESSALONIANS 4. 16 199 
 
 are alive, that are left unto the coming of the Lord, shall 
 in no wise precede them that are fallen asleep. For the 16 
 
 indicates that the Apostle is expecting to be of the number of 
 those who will not die before the coming of Christ. Five years 
 later, when he is writing to the Corinthians, this expectation is 
 not so definitely expressed, the Apostle saying, f We shall not all 
 sleep, but we shall all be changed' (r Cor. xv. 51), a prediction 
 that leaves it open whether he himself will be of the first group, 
 that containing those who sleep (cf. 1 Cor. i. 7, 8,iv. 5, xvi. 22). 
 Yet another five years, and it would seem that the Apostle has 
 definitely renounced the idea of living till the return of Christ, for 
 then he writes of his ' desire to depart and be with Christ ' (Phil. 
 i. 23, but cf. iv. 5, which points to the near coming of Christ). 
 Possibly he had reached this stage earlier, i. e. by the middle 
 period, because in 2 Corinthians, written only a few months after 
 I Corinthians (just cited), he speaks of the possible dissolution 
 of 'the earthly house of our tabernacle' (2 Cor. v. 1). Ellicott 
 considers that the passage before us i supplies no certain elements 
 for such startling deductions ' as that the Apostle identified himself 
 with the first-named group and expected to be alive at the Second 
 Advent. It is true that the pronoun f we ' might be used in- 
 definitely for all Christians, so that possibly Paul only means ' those 
 of us who will be alive,' but the frequent use of this pronoun 
 throughout the Epistle with a definite reference to the Apostle 
 himself forbids that interpretation. 
 
 in no wise : a double negative in the Greek, meaning ' certainly 
 not,' ' not by any means'— a strong denial. 
 
 precede: a great improvement in the R.V. over the word 
 \ prevent ' in the A. V., which is there used in an old English sense, 
 now obsolete, as in the collect, ; Prevent us, O Lord,' &c. ; in 
 Shakespeare, ' So shall my anticipation prevent your discovery ' 
 {Hamk ', Act ii. Scene 3) ; and in Milton : — 
 
 ' Half way he met 
 His daring foe, at this prevention more 
 Incens'd.' {Paradise Lost, Book vi. line 129.) 
 
 The idea is that those living on the earth at the time of our Lord's 
 advent shall not have precedence over those who shall have died 
 before that event. It would seem that the Thessalonians feared 
 that their deceased friends would miss the joy of participating in 
 the great event, the joy of the virgins who go out to meet the 
 Bridegroom. The Apostle assures them that this will not be the 
 case ; those who will be alive at the time will have no advantage 
 over their departed brethren in being the first to welcome Christ. 
 Jt is to be remarked that this quaint fear of the Thessalonians 
 
200 I THESSALONIANS 4. 16 
 
 Lord himself shall descend from heaven, with a shout, 
 
 indicates a very early date for the Epistle. It must have been felt 
 most acutely at the first appearance of death in the happy com- 
 munity. Previous to this, it would seem, the enthusiastic Christians 
 at Thessalonica imagined that they would all live to welcome 
 the return of Christ to earth. The first breach in their numbers 
 disappointed and perplexed them. 
 
 16. the Lord himself: no less a being. The phrase suggests 
 the august Presence. 
 
 shall descend from heaven : the idea being that Christ is 
 now in heaven seated at the right hand of God (Col. iii. i). 
 Inasmuch as the latter statement must be figurative, the infinite 
 and omnipresent God not being confined to a physical and local 
 throne, it follows that Christ's descent from his heavenly seat 
 should not be expected as a movement in space. If the language 
 which describes the throne of God, by the side of which Jesus is 
 pictured as sitting, cannot be taken literally, then that which 
 indicates his coming from that seat to another place must be equally 
 metaphorical. The word parousia, or ' presence,' which Paul 
 uses in this passage and elsewhere is less figurative. Christ "s 
 presence will be manifested, and to our limited imagination the 
 truth and its accompaniments can only be described in figurative 
 language. But while not forgetting its figurative form we must 
 perceive that this language contains a great idea, the real presence 
 of Christ revealing itself by indubitable signs and resulting in 
 stupendous consequences. 
 
 a shout. The Greek word means literally 'a shout ofcommand.' 
 It is commonly used of the call of the officer in a ship to the 
 rowers. Plato has it in his famous description of the soul as 
 a charioteer with two horses, one of which is obedient to ' the 
 word of command,' while the other is restive (Phaedrus, 253 d). 
 Homer uses it of the hero's shout to his followers in battle; 
 Xenophon of the huntsman's call to his dogs. The Vulgate has 
 in jussu ('with a command'). Two questions may be asked, 
 Who issues the word of command ? What is its meaning and 
 purpose ? The answer to neither question is quite clear. The 
 shout might be supposed to come either from Christ, or from the 
 archangel. But since ' the voice of the archangel ' is mentioned 
 afterwards as something additional to the shout, it seems more 
 likely that the shout, or rather 'word of command,' is ascribed 
 to Christ himself, like the captain of the host calling to his 
 followers. This is the view of the Greek expositors ; so also 
 Schmiedel. Ellicott refers it to the archangel. Nothing is said 
 as to the meaning and purpose of this commanding word ; but as 
 the rising of the dead follows, it would seem that the shout is the 
 call to slumbering souls to awake. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 4. 17 201 
 
 with the voice of the archangel, and with the trump of 
 God : and the dead in Christ shall rise first : then we 
 that are alive, that are left, shall together with them be 
 caught up in the clouds, to meet the Lord in the air : 
 
 the voice of the archangel : following and echoing the 
 Lord's word of command. Jesus had spoken of the summons 
 coming from 'angels' (Matt. xxiv. 31), and Paul refers to Christ's 
 coming ' with the angels of his power' in 2 Thess. i. 7. The only 
 passage in the N. T. besides that before us where we meet with 
 the word ' archangel ' is Jude 9, and there the archangel is named 
 'Michael.' The word does not appear in the O.T. But in 
 Daniel we meet with Michael described as ' one of the chief 
 princes' (x. 13), 'your prince' (verse 21), and ' the great prince 
 which standeth up for the children of thy people' (xii. 1). 
 Michael appears again in the Apocalypse, and there as the leader 
 of the angels, for we read ' Michael and his angels fought against 
 the dragon ' (Rev. xii. 7). 
 
 the trump of God. The genitive is possessive. The angel 
 sounds God's trumpet. The conception of this trumpet comes 
 down from the description of the giving of the law at Sinai with 
 'the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud' (Exod. xix. 16). In 
 Isaiah it is said that for the return of the scattered Israelites ' the 
 great trumpet shall be blown ' (Isa. xxvii. 13). The trumpet 
 appears again in 2 Esdras vi. 23. Jesus mentions it in connexion 
 with his return (Matt. xxiv. 31), and Paul writes of 'the last trump' 
 when ' the dead shall be raised incorruptible' (1 Cor. xv. 52). In 
 the Apocalypse seven angels appear each with a trumpet (Rev. viii. 
 a). All these instances indicate the trumpet as an instrument 
 to rouse and summon, after the manner of the use of trumpets 
 among the Jews in time of war (Num. x. 9), and in the temple 
 ritual (2 Chron. v. 12). 
 
 the dead in Christ : deceased Christians. 
 
 shall rise first: before the living meet Christ. The meaning 
 is not that c the dead in Christ ' shall rise before the dead who are 
 not in Christ. There is no reference to the latter class in the 
 whole passage, where the two contrasted groups are living and 
 dead Christians. The next sentence makes this indubitable. First 
 the dead in Christ are raised ; then follow— not the other dead 
 people— but 'we that are alive.' 
 
 17. then: immediately ; the words do not allow of any interval. 
 
 we that are alive, &c. See note on verse 15. 
 
 in the clouds : in accordance with the vision in Dan. vii. 13 
 that the son of man comes ' with the clouds of heaven.' Jesus 
 mentions this when predicting his return (Matt. xxiv. 30, xxvi. 
 
202 I THESSALONIANS 4. is 
 
 iS and so shall we ever be with the Lord. Wherefore 
 comfort one another with these words. 
 
 64). The ascension is described as Christ being taken up into 
 a cloud, after which angels declare that he will return ' in like 
 manner* (Acts i. 9, 11). Perhaps the conception may be traced 
 back to the poetic image of the Psalmist, who says of God, ' who 
 maketh the clouds his chariot ' (Ps. civ. 3). 
 
 in : lit. ' into.' If the preposition 1 is used in that sense it must 
 mean lifted up from the ground into the air, so that the sentence 
 would run thus : ' caught up in the clouds into the air to meet the 
 Lord.' But the strict limitation of the preposition's meaning 
 is not observed in the Greek of the first century, which allows 
 of its being used in the static sense of our word ' in.' This gives 
 us the more simple signification, as it is expressed in the English 
 versions. The Lord is met in the air while he is in the act 
 of descending from heaven to earth. 
 
 and so. The result is brought about in the way just indicated. 
 Thus, meeting Christ in the air, it comes to pass that we shall 
 be with him for ever after. 
 
 18. comfort one another. The thought goes backto thesituation 
 indicated in verse 13. The Thessalonians were grieving over the 
 fact that some of their number had died previous to the parousia, 
 fearing that these people would miss sharing in that event. Paul 
 has declared that so far from anything of the kind being the case, 
 the deceased Christians will even anticipate their living brethren 
 in meeting Christ. 
 
 The earnestness of the Apostle's treatment of this subject shews 
 that he considers the issues at stake to be very grave. This would 
 lead us to think that something much more serious than missing 
 the sight of the return of Christ as a sort of celestial pageant must 
 be feared by the Thessalonians. It would seem, as Schmiedel 
 holds, that with this there was feared to be lost all the future life 
 and blessedness of union with Christ, the being * for ever with the 
 Lord.' Thus these distressed people would seem to be much 
 in the same state as those members of the Corinthian church who 
 did not believe in a resurrection, though not, as in the latter case, 
 owing to any deliberate rejection of the doctrine (see 1 Cor. xv. 12). 
 The sorrowing without hope, like the pagans, involves some such 
 attitude towards the future. These new converts had taken in the 
 idea of the return of Christ, and with it the thought that his people 
 would meet him in order to live with him for ever, thus escaping 
 the doom of death by not dying at all. They did not see that 
 those who died could enter into the same state of blessedness. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 5. i, 2 203 
 
 But concerning the times and the seasons, brethren, 5 
 ye have no need that aught be written unto you. For 2 
 
 Paul's new revelation is to remove their distress by shewing that 
 this is a mistake, since the joy and privilege, not only of meeting 
 Christ at the parousia, but, what is infinitely more important, living 
 with him for ever, is for the blessed dead as surely as for the living, 
 and even with a certa ; n precedence for the former. The reason 
 for this precedence is not stated ; but it may be that, being already 
 in the unseen world, they will be spiritually nearer to Christ when 
 he manifests himself than those who are still going through their 
 life on earth. 
 
 v. i-ii. Sons of light. It is not necessary for the Apostle to 
 wiite anything about the time of the parousia, as his readers know 
 that this will be sudden and unexpected. But they are not in 
 darkness ; so that the event will be no terror to them, like the visit 
 of a thief. Being sons of the day we should act accordingly with 
 becoming sobriety, arming ourselves against any possible attack, 
 especially since the purpose of our Lord's death on our behalf was 
 that whether awake or asleep we should live with him. 
 
 1. the times and the seasons. The word rendered 'times' 
 indicates time generally, the simple idea of the succession of 
 moments, e. g. ' after a long time ' (Matt. xxv. 19), ' after so long 
 a time' (Heb. iv. 7), 'there shall be time no longer' (Rev. x. 6). 
 In the plural it represents several periods of time. The word 
 rendered ' seasons ' stands for specific epochs, points of time, 
 crises, or periods in some way distinguished from one another. 
 It may be illustrated by our four seasons of the year, with their 
 characteristic differences as Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter ; 
 but it has a much wider application. Thus we have 'the season 
 [A. V. and R.V. have 'time'] of harvest' (Matt. xiii. 30), 'the 
 season of figs' (Mark xi. 13), 'in due season 1 (Rom. v. 6). These 
 two words are frequently found together (e. g. Eccles. iii. 1 ; 
 Dan. ii. 21 ; Wisd. of Sol. viii. 8 ; Acts i. 7). Thus the phrase 
 as a whole means both the periods of time that are to elapse 
 before the coming of Christ — how many days or years — and the 
 specific epochs, with their several characteristics, that may have 
 to accomplish their own special ends or prepare for the parousia 
 and usher it in. (See Trench, Synonyms of the New Testament, lvii.) 
 no need, &c. : in contrast with what was needed. They had 
 great need to be set right as to what the parousia involved ; but 
 the questions as to when it would happen and at what kind of 
 epoch in history did not require to be answered. If only the 
 survivors, only those who escaped death, were to share in the 
 coming blessedness, these questions would be of the most acute 
 interest, seeing that the longer the final consummation was post- 
 
2o 4 I THESSALONIANS 5. 3 
 
 yourselves know perfectly that the day of the Lord so 
 3 cometh as a thief in the night. When they are saying, 
 
 poned the more numerous would those Christians be who would 
 have to miss it by dying first. The Apostle has dispelled that 
 delusion. Then it matters not how long the interval of waiting 
 may be. But further, there is quite another way of looking at 
 this great event. It will be the advent of the Judge of all, the 
 return of the Master to call his servants to account, the coming 
 of the King to destroy his enemies. Those who would view 
 His coming with terror might be anxiously inquiring how near 
 the dread day would be ; those who were unprepared for it might 
 shrink from the startling occurrence. Not so Paul's readers ; the 
 sequel indicates why they have no alarming concern on this point. 
 They already know of the suddenness that will characterize the 
 parousia. But this thought need not distress them, because it 
 will be no terror to them. 
 
 2. yourselves know: from the teaching received during Paul's 
 stay at Thessalonica. 
 
 perfectly : better, ' accurately.' There was no haziness about 
 the missionaries' instructions on this point. 
 
 the day of the Lord : a familiar O. T. phrase used by the 
 prophets for the time of Jehovah's interference whether (i) to 
 deliver His oppressed people and destroy the power of their 
 enemies (Isa. xiii. 6), or (2) to bring judgement on Israel herself 
 (Amos v. 18). In later ages it came to be identified with the time 
 of the coming of the Messiah. In the N. T. it is always applied to 
 the Second Coming of Christ. His first advent did not realize that 
 portion of the Messianic ideal which comprehended the thoughts 
 of victory, kingship, and judgement, and which therefore were 
 reserved for some future advent. Thus the early Christians came to 
 live in an attitude of mind similar to that of devout Jews under the 
 prophets' teaching, but with this important difference, that, while 
 the old hope was a vague expectation of God's manifestation of 
 His power or the coming of some then unknown deliverer, the 
 Christian hope was more specific, being the anticipation of the 
 return of the Christ who was already well known by means of his 
 life on earth. 
 
 as a thief in the night. The origin of this illustration is in 
 our Lord's teaching (Matt. xxiv. 43). It is likely that Paul had 
 repeated the tradition of Christ's words to the Thessalonians, so 
 that this gave him reason for saying, 'yourselves know perfectly.' 
 But the saying of Jesus about his coming as a thief does not 
 include the idea of it being 'in the night.' Cf. Rev.iii. 3 and xvi. 
 15 ; 2 Pet. iii. 10, where Christ is seen coming ' as a thief,' but 
 again with no mention of the night. It would seem that this was 
 
I THESSALONIANS 5. 3 205 
 
 Peace and safety, then sudden destruction cometh upon 
 
 an addition of the Apostle's, perhaps suggested by the parable 
 of the Virgins, if that, was known to Paul, where we read, ' But 
 at midnight there is a cry, Behold, the bridegroom ! ' Still Christ's 
 words about the householder watching against the thief naturally 
 suggest the night as the season of his coming. Possibly this 
 passage is the origin of the church tradition that the Second 
 Advent is to occur at night. Thus Lactantius writes, 'Then the 
 middle of the heaven shall be laid open in the dead and darkness 
 of the night, that the light of the descending God may be manifest 
 in all the world as lightning: of which the Sibyl spoke in these 
 words: "When He shall come, there will be fire and darkness 
 in the midst of the black night"' {Institutes, vii. 19). It is not 
 probable that Paul knew the Sibylline oracle here cited, even if it 
 had made its appearance as early as the date of this Epistle. 
 Nevertheless it indicates an impression that the night was to be 
 the time of the advent. Later tradition fixes this at Easter Eve. 
 But all the Apostle intends is probably an emphasizing of our 
 Lord's teaching in which he compares his coming with that of 
 the thief simply to shew that the time will not be known 
 beforehand. 
 
 3. they are saying : people generally, in distinction from the 
 enlightened watchers, though Schmiedel holds that those who are 
 not Christians are intended, since they are referred to in the 
 verses that follow. But they have not yet been introduced, and 
 the phrase is indefinite. Most people are not expecting the day 
 of the Lord. This attitude of mind is illustrated by our Lord in 
 his references to the people of the days of Noah (Matt. xxiv. 38, 
 39 ; Luke xvii. 26, 27) and Lot (Luke xvii. 29, 30). 
 
 Peace and safety. Like the Jews of Ezekiel's time who 
 cried, ' Peace ' when, as the prophet says, ' there is no peace ' 
 (Ezek. xiii. 10). 
 
 sudden destruction : as in the days of Noah's flood and the 
 destruction of the cities of the plain. Here the coming of Christ 
 is associated with those events which the prophets ascribed to ' the 
 day of the Lord,' judgement and the destruction of the enemies of 
 God and of His people, e. g. 4 Howl ye; for the day of the Lord 
 is at hand ; it shall come as a destruction from the Almighty ' — 
 literally 'the Mighty to destroy' (Isa. xiii. 6) ; cf. verse 9, Ezek. 
 xxx. 3 ff. ; Joel i. 15, ii. 1, 2, 11, 31 ; note especially Amos v. 18, 
 ' Woe unto you that desire the day of the Lord ! to what end is 
 it for you ? the day of the Lord is darkness, and not light.' See 
 also Zeph. i. 14-17, ii. 2, 3; Zech. xiv ; Mai. iii. 2. The same is 
 seen in our Lord's teaching, e. g. Luke xvii. 22-37 ; and repeated 
 by the apostles, e. g. Peter (Acts ii. 20), Paul (the passage before 
 us, Phil. i. 10, &c), John (Rev. xvi. 14). 
 
2o6 I THESSALONIANS 5. 4-7 
 
 them, as travail upon a woman with child ; and they 
 
 4 shall in no wise escape. But ye, brethren, are not in 
 darkness, that that day should overtake you as a thief : 
 
 5 for ye are all sons of light, and sons of the day : we are 
 
 6 not of the night, nor of darkness ; so then let us not 
 
 7 sleep, as do the rest, but let us watch and be sober. For 
 
 4. darkness. The mention of ' night ' earlier suggests the 
 contrast of darkness and light, and thus introduces a new line of 
 thought. The darkness here referred to is primarily ignorance. 
 The sequel shews that moral depravity is also in mind, but rather 
 as the behaviour of the children of darkness than as that darkness 
 itself. Though Christ will come to the world as a thief in the 
 night, i. e. suddenly and unexpectedly, this will not be the case 
 with Christians who are taught to expect his advent. They are 
 not in darkness, being enlightened by the revelation of the 
 mysteries proclaimed by the apostles. Cf. Eph. iv. 18, ' darkened 
 in their understanding.' 
 
 5. sons of light: a phrase found in the teaching of Jesus 
 (Luke xvi. 8). It is a Hebraism; cf. 'son of wickedness' (Ps. 
 lxxxix. 22), 'sons of thunder' (Mark iii. 17). The idiom is used 
 to express an essential characteristic. ' Sons of light ' are people 
 characterized by their intimate relation to light. The phrase is 
 more forcible than our expression ' enlightened people,' for the 
 light is not a mere accident ; it has become part of the nature and 
 being. The primary idea must be the possession of knowledge, 
 in contrast with the benighted state of the heathen to whom the 
 day of Christ's coming will be a terrible surprise. The contrast is 
 further emphasized by the synonymous expression 'sons of day.' 
 Since the Thessalonians have received the light of Christian truth 
 they belong not to the night, but to the day. The moral and 
 spiritual significance of the contrast of light and darkness is 
 a prominent idea in the Fourth Gospel, e.g. John i. 5, iii. 19-21, 
 xi. 9, 10, xii. 35, 36, where, while ignorance and moral depravity 
 are blended in the notion of darkness, light symbolizes purity as 
 well as knowledge. Some such secondary signification appears to 
 be emerging here, since the Apostle turns directly to the treatment 
 of the conduct that becomes Christians as sons of light. 
 
 6. so then: in the Greek a strong conclusive phrase, very 
 characteristic of Paul's style. It points to a sure inference. 
 
 not sleep. Sleep represents careless indifference which 
 would be startled by the sudden coming of a thief. 
 
 the rest : those who are not Christians, especially heathen 
 fellow citizens at Thessalonica. See iv. 13. 
 
 watch : the first duty, as in view of a thief's sudden coming ; 
 
I THESSALONIANS 5. 8 207 
 
 they that sleep sleep in the night ; and they that be 
 drunken are drunken in the night. But let us, since we 8 
 are of the day, be sober, putting on the breastplate of 
 faith and love; and for a helmet, the hope of salvation. 
 
 a duty frequently insisted on by Christ, e. g. Matt. xxiv. 42 ; 
 Luke xii. 37, 39. It is also elsewhere urged by Paul — Acts xx. 
 31; 1 Cor. xvi. 13; Col. iv. 2; and it is prominent in the 
 Apocalypse — iii. 2, 3, xvi. 15. 
 
 "be sober. In Grimm-Thayer the Greek word is rendered, ' to 
 be calm and collected in spirit.' It occurs again in verse 8, and 
 then only at 2 Tim. iv. 5 in the Pauline Epistles. The only other 
 N. T. instances of its appearance are in 1 Peter— viz. i. 13, iv. 7, 
 v. 8. It is not enough to watch. The watcher must be in a calm 
 and self-possessed temper of mind to be ready for the great event. 
 In Christ's teaching prayer is commonly associated with watching, 
 e. g. ' Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation ' (Mark 
 xiv. 38'. The word does not have our modern specific sense of 
 the opposite to intemperance in strong drink, although that in- 
 temperance is referred to in the context. 
 
 7. Two ways of spending the night — in sleep and in reveln', 
 neither of which is appropriate to the day. The non- Christian 
 world may be said to be spending its time largely in one or the 
 other of these ways — in careless indifference to the coming judge- 
 ment, equivalent to sleep ; or if with keen interest and excitement, 
 only with a passion for what is base and unworthy. 
 
 8. let us. The pronoun is emphatic in the Greek— meaning 
 ' us Christians,' in contrast with ' the rest ' just referred to 
 (verse 6). 
 
 putting 1 on, &c. : the harnessing of the soldier with his 
 armour for fight — a new image. Of course there is no reference 
 to the notion of defence against the thief. The illustration of the 
 thief was only introduced to suggest the alarming suddenness of 
 the advent of Christ for those not prepared to expect it. Now we 
 have an instance of the Apostle's frequent allusions to the warfare 
 of the spiritual life, introduced apparently by the sober, alert 
 attitude of the Christian in contrast with the careless slumbers or 
 dissolute excitement of others. 
 
 breastplate: rather, 'corselet,' or 'cuirass,' a coat of mail 
 protecting the body from the neck to the waist. 
 
 of faith and love : a genitive of apposition. Faith and love 
 constitute a breastplate, protecting the heart from the assaults of 
 evil. In the parallel passage in Eph. vi. 14 the breastplate consists 
 of righteousness. 
 
 the hope of salvation. Salvation in the N. T. is usually 
 
208 1 THESSALONIANS 5. 9, 10 
 
 9 For God appointed us not unto wrath, but unto the ob- 
 10 taining of salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ, who 
 
 regarded as a future good, the final deliverance from all evil, e.g. 
 Rom. xiii. it. Here the image is similar to 'the helmet of 
 salvation ' in Eph. vi. 17, but more explicit, since it shews that the 
 protection is to be found in the hope of future deliverance. Such 
 a hope is a safeguard against yielding either to despair or to the 
 fatal allurements that attack the uninterested soul. 
 
 It is difficult to carry the analysis further and discover the 
 specific suitability of faith and love as a breastplate and of the 
 hope of salvation as a helmet. Fanciful analogies may be easily 
 suggested ; but probably the Apostle had none such in mind, and 
 only intended to indicate that the whole person — especially the 
 two most vital parts, the head and the heart — should be covered 
 with this armour of the spiritual graces. Observe, these are the 
 same three graces that he eulogizes in writing to the Corinthians 
 as being permanent in contrast with the temporary gifts of 
 prophecy, tongues, and knowledge (1 Cor. xiii. 8), saying, ' But 
 now abideth faith, hope, love, these three ' (verse 13). The trio to be 
 thus permanent must consist of tough and enduring substance — such 
 as will be suitable for armour that is to stand the assaults of evil. 
 
 9. appointed: indicating the Divine end and purpose in calling 
 us to be Christians. 
 
 wrath : the destiny of abandoned souls, designated elsewhere 
 ' children of wrath ' (Eph. ii. 3) ; cf. Rom. i. 18, ii. 5, 8, iii. 5, v. 9 ; 
 and especially, 'What if God, willing to shew his wrath, and to 
 make his power known, endured with much longsuffering vessels 
 of wrath fitted unto destruction ' (Rom. ix. 22), where a certain 
 Divine destiny of some people to come under the wrath of God in 
 future times is indicated, although the Apostle is careful to shew 
 that this is not independent of character, saying, ' by their unbelief 
 they were broken off' (Rom. xi. 20), so that it was * towards them 
 that fell' that he shewed 'severity' (verse 22). 
 
 obtaining' of salvation : as a future possession. Elsewhere 
 the word rendered 'obtaining' sometimes means ' possession,' e. g. 
 Eph. i. 14 ; Heb. x. 39 ; 1 Pet. ii. 9. But here it plainly points to 
 a future acquisition, since it balances the 'wrath' which belongs 
 to the future. It has the same meaning in 2 Thess. ii. 14, where 
 R. V. follows A. V. in rendering it 'obtaining' ; and, as there the 
 object is the ' glory of the Lord Jesus Christ' a share in which 
 undoubtedly belongs to the future, it is impossible to read ' pos- 
 session,' as though a present state were intended. 
 
 through : pointing to the means or the agent. The primary 
 source of salvation will be God, who effects His redeeming purpose 
 by means of the action of Jesus Christ. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 5. 10 209 
 
 died for us, that, whether we wake or sleep, we should 
 
 10. died: not simply 'was killed.' The voluntary element in 
 our Lord's death is here indicated. 
 
 for us. The preposition l rendered ' for ' signifies ' on behalf 
 of,' 'for the benefit of.' Thus it occurs with reference to 
 intercessory prayer in the phrases ' pray for them ' (Matt. v. 44), 
 1 pray ye for me' (Acts viii. 24"), ' praying always for you ' (Col. 
 i. 3), ' pray one for another' (Jas. v. 16) ; cf. Rom. x. 1 ; 2 Cor. 
 i. 11, ix. 14; Eph. vi. 19; Phil. i. 4. But here what is said 
 elsewhere of intercessory prayer is affirmed of the death of Christ, 
 which is stated to be on our behalf or for our benefit. This is 
 chronologically the first statement of the great truth in the N. T., 
 occurring as it does in the earliest of Paul's epistles, and, with the 
 possible exception of the Epistle of James, which does not contain 
 the idea, the earliest written book of the N. T. It has been 
 described as an essentially Pauline thought, originating in the 
 mind of the great Apostle. The speeches ascribed to Peter and 
 Stephen in 'Acts' do not contain it. But it is found in our Lord's 
 teaching (Matt. xx. 28, xxvi. 28), and therefore must be ascribed 
 to the original gospel of the Founder of Christianity, whence Paul 
 may have received it. Still the idea is much more prominent in 
 the preaching and writing of the Apostle after the death of Jesus 
 had been witnessed than it was in the utterances of his master 
 before that event. Paul made the crucifixion central in his 
 preaching (see 1 Cor. ii. 2). That was inevitable when once he 
 had come to see the purpose of it. Directly it is perceived that 
 death was voluntarily accepted by Jesus Christ for our benefit, that 
 event becomes of supreme interest to our thoughts of what he was 
 and what he did, for it must be regarded as the greatest thing 
 that he did, self-devotion for others reaching its utmost possible 
 limit. It is to be observed, however, that Paul here simply states 
 the supreme fact without adding any details to specify the way in 
 which the death of Christ comes to be for our benefit. His present 
 object is not to elucidate what we call ' the doctrine of the 
 atonement ' ; it is not theological and theoretical. It is wholly 
 practical, viz. to urge this truth as a motive for our complete 
 consecration to one who has made the greatest possible sacrifice 
 on our behalf. Lastly, observe that in using the first person plural 
 Paul associates himself with his converts. In this amazing relation 
 to Christ — the obligation of devotion springing from the fact that 
 he has given his life for both parties — the differences between an 
 apostle and his disciples sink into insignificance. 
 
 that : pointing to purpose. The object of Christ's sacrifice of 
 
 (9) 
 
210 I THESSALONIANS 5. 11,12 
 
 11 live together with him. Wherefore exhort one another, 
 and build each other up, even as also ye do. 
 
 12 But we beseech you, brethren, to know them that 
 
 himself was that his people might be brought into close union with 
 himself. 
 
 wake: lit. 'watch/ the word so rendered in verse 6. 
 
 sleep. The verb is in the present tense, signifying sleeping 
 as a continuous condition. It is not the same word as that 
 rendered sleep in iv. 15 *, which is a transitive verb meaning 
 ' to put to sleep,' while here the verb is intransitive, signify- 
 ing 'to be asleep.' The meaning is the Christian sleep of death. 
 Whether living and performing our duty of watching while we 
 live, or sleeping in death, we are to live with Him. 
 
 live : a strong word indicating the vitality of Christian being. 
 Even when we sleep in the state commonly reckoned death, if we 
 are in the relation to Christ here indicated we are alive as really 
 as when we are 'awake' and 'watching' on earth. Cf. 'Whoso- 
 ever liveth and believeth on me shall never die ' (John xi. 26). 
 
 tog-ether. This word must be connected with what precedes, 
 not with what follows. It indicates the union of Christians, both 
 those now living and those who have died. Thus it points to the 
 consolation of the Thessalonians in their grief over the loss of 
 some of their number. They are not to sorrow as those who have 
 no hope. The chief hope is that the deceased Christians shall not 
 miss the great joy of welcoming Christ on his return and then 
 entering on the resurrection life of eternity. But the more 
 human hope of reunion may also be cherished, since both the dead 
 and the living will be together in that happy future. 
 
 11. exhort. A. V. had 'comfort.' Perhaps here a better 
 meaning than either would be 'encourage,' the Greek admitting 
 of all three significations. The principal aim of the whole Epistle 
 is to cheer the Thessalonians in their distress and despondency 
 concerning departed friends. 
 
 one another. The encouragement was to be mutual in 
 accordance with the simple order of the most primitive times, 
 which allowed free scope to the members of a church to address 
 the brotherhood, as we see clearly from the case of the church at 
 Corinth (see 1 Cor. xiv. 31). 
 
 build . . . up : see note on iii. 2. 
 
 v. 12-22. Practical exhortations. The leaders of the church 
 are to be honoured and the brethren to live peaceable together, 
 admonishing and encouraging one another according to their 
 several characters and requirements. There is to be no revenge. 
 
 1 Here we have /cadevSafiev ■ in iv. 15 the word was KoifirjOevTas. 
 
I THESSALONIANS 5. 13 211 
 
 labour among you, and are over you in the Lord, and 
 admonish you ; and to esteem them exceeding highly in 13 
 
 Life is to be glad, prayerful, grateful. The spiritual gifts of the 
 various members of the community are not to be checked, but are 
 to be tested, the good held fast, the bad of all kinds rejected. 
 
 12. But: or 'now,' indicating a transition to a new subject. 
 See note on iv. 9. 
 
 know: an unusual use of this word, apparently meaning 
 'recognize,' 'acknowledge' ; cf. 'acknowledge [a different Greek 
 word] ye therefore them that are such' (1 Cor. xvi. 18), also 
 ' Lord, what is man, that thou takest knowledge of him ? ' (Ps. 
 cxliv. 3). 
 
 labour: a stronger word than 'work,' meaning ' toil,* 'work 
 to weariness. ' 
 
 are over you : indicating official status in the church. No 
 titles of church officers appear in either of the epistles to the 
 Thessalonians ; nor is there any distinct reference to such officers 
 in the four epistles of the succeeding group — Galatians, Romans, 
 1 and 2 Corinthians. The first such reference is in Phil. i. 1 : 
 'bishops and deacons.' Still the Apostle's language here plainly 
 points to office ; but we cannot be sure that there was as yet any 
 definite organization of the very young church at Thessalonica. 
 In describing the Lord's Supper as observed in his day Justin 
 Martyr uses the same indefinite word that we have here in order 
 to indicate the president (1 Apol. 65). But he has it in the 
 singular; in this passage the form is plural, indicating several 
 persons in a position of leadership, like the elders in a Jews' 
 synagogue. 
 
 in the Lord : in regard to Christianity, as distinguished from 
 civil magistrates or business employers. 
 
 admonish : lit. * put you in mind.' Practical teaching is 
 intended. The three expressions 'labour among you,' 'are over 
 3'ou,' and ' admonish you ' are not ascribed to three separate orders 
 of the ministry. The presence of but one article before all these 
 expressions shews that only one class of persons is intended. 
 The same leaders of the church perform all three functions ; or 
 better, these are not three formally distinct functions, but merel}' 
 three aspects of the relation of the leaders to the members of the 
 church. 
 
 13. to esteem them exceeding' highly in love. Two 
 renderings of this phrase have been suggested : (1) to connect 
 ' exceeding highly ' with ' esteem,' and to regard the last two 
 words, ' in love,' as supplementary, with this meaning — 'To have 
 a very high opinion of them and to cherish that in a spirit of love.' 
 (2) To connect the words 'in love' with 'esteem,' taking the 
 
 P 2 
 
212 I THESSALONIANS 5. 14 
 
 love for their work's sake. Be at peace among your- 
 
 14 selves. And we exhort you, brethren, admonish the 
 
 disorderly, encourage the fainthearted, support the weak, 
 
 intermediate clause as an intensifying of the idea this gives, thus — 
 'To esteem them with love, and that exceeding highly.' This 
 second meaning is preferable, because (a) the Greek word {liegeo- 
 mai) rendered ' esteem ' does not contain the idea of respect and 
 honour that we attach to the English word, but only means 
 'reckon,' 'consider,' and (b) also because the phrase rendered 
 'exceeding highly' only means 'very much indeed,' without 
 the specific idea of elevation in honour. Therefore something 
 more specific is needed to complete the thought. We have this 
 if the conception of Christian love is made central to the whole 
 sentence. Then it means that the church is to regard its leaders 
 with very warm affection. It is not high dignity, but great love 
 that the Apostle wishes to be given to them. In the next century 
 we find Ignatius urging on the churches to which he writes the 
 duty of honouring their ministers ; and with him it is the elevation 
 of their authority, rather than the rousing of affection for them, 
 that is most earnestly enforced. Thus he says, ' It is therefore 
 necessary, even as your wont is, that ye should do nothing with- 
 out the bishop ; but be ye obedient also to the presbytery, as to 
 the apostles of Jesus Christ our hope ; for if we live in him, we 
 shall also be found in him' (Epist. to Trallians, 2, ; and again, ' Do 
 ye all follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, 
 and the presbytery as the apostles ; and to the deacons pay 
 respect, as to God's commandment' (Ept'st. to Sniyrnceans, 8 > 
 Thus Ignatius magnifies the authority of the ministry, while Paul 
 only desiderates very much love for the ministers. 
 
 for their work's sake : //'/. ' because of their work.' It i 
 their work, not merely their office, that is to elicit the affection of 
 the church for them. They should be loved for what they are 
 doing, since that is for the benefit of the church. The love should 
 spring from gratitude for the services they are rendering. 
 
 Be at peace, &c. : the duty of the ordinary members one to 
 another, following the special duty of love to the leaders. 
 
 14. admonish. : the same word that had described the work of 
 the leaders in verse 12. Therefore the duty of admonishing is 
 not confined to those men, though they are especially entrusted 
 with it. As yet the church order is so fluid, and the rights and 
 duties of the private members are so extensive, that no official 
 admonition dispenses with the mutual counsel of the members 
 among themselves. 
 
 the disorderly : strictly, ' those who do not keep to the 
 ranks/ with reference to military discipline. Plato uses it of 
 
I THESSALONIANS 5. 15 213 
 
 be longsuffering toward all. See that none render unto 15 
 any one evil for evil ; but alway follow after that which 
 
 intemperance in pleasures. Ellicott suggests that, ' Here the 
 precise reference is probably to the neglect of duties and callings 
 into which the Thessalonians had lapsed owing to mistaken views 
 of the time of the Lord's coming.' This view is borne out by 
 such passages as iv. 10, n ; a Thess. Hi. 6, and especially verse 
 11: 'for we hear of some that walk among you disorderly [a form 
 of the same Greek word], that work not at all, but are busy- 
 bodies,' where the disorderliness is associated with idleness. 
 These people are Christ's soldiers who fall out of the ranks instead 
 of following the call of dut3\ 
 
 the fainthearted: the opposite class of people to the dis- 
 orderly enthusiasts, people who are discouraged, perhaps espe- 
 cially those who have lost friends by death and are despondent on 
 that account, since this ground of despondency has been noted as 
 conspicuous in the church (see i Thess. iv. 13). 
 
 the weak: weak in the spiritual life, especially before per- 
 secution, rather than the weak in faith of Romans xv. 1, who are 
 over-scrupulous because too timorous to use Christian liberty. 
 
 15. See that, &c. : surely not meaning that the church as 
 a whole is to exercise discipline over its individual members in 
 restraining outbreaks of the spirit of revenge, but rather urging 
 each member to see to it that for his part he does not manifest 
 that unchristian temper. 
 
 evil for evil. The prohibition of private revenge is an 
 especially Christian duty required by our Lord in the Sermon on 
 the Mount, with a distinct recognition of its repudiation of the old 
 Jewish lex talionis, "'an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth' 
 (Matt. v. 38, 39). The more general duty of love to one's enemy 
 had been recognized in Prov. xxv. 21. This passage is quoted by 
 Paul (Rom. xii. 20) after he has given the advice to the Romans 
 which he here gives the Thessalonians, and in almost identical 
 words, 'Render to no man evil for evil' (Rom. xii. 17). It is 
 plain that the precept has no direct reference to the duty of the 
 magistrate in dealing with offenders against the law. Under 
 the Roman government none of Paul's converts could be in 
 the position of responsible administrators of justice. Besides, the 
 words ■ See that none,' &c, point to the action of private persons, 
 not to that of officials in the discharge of their public functions. 
 
 that which is good: 'the good,' an expression often met 
 with in Plato and discussed in the Dialogues. Here it is not 
 taken in an abstract sense, but with reference to the benefits that 
 one member of the church is to confer on another. Thus it is the 
 opposite to ,the • evil for evil ' just forbidden. In this connexion 
 
214 I THESSALONIANS 5. 16-18 
 
 16 is good, one toward another, and toward all. Rejoice 
 17, iS alway ; pray without ceasing ; in everything give thanks : 
 
 to follow after the good for the benefit of one another must mean 
 to make the welfare of our fellow Christians a definite aim and 
 pursuit, to seek and labour for this end. 
 
 16. Cf. Phil. iii. i, iv. 4. This is (1) essentially Christian, since 
 Christianity is based on glad tidings ; (2) characteristically Paul- 
 ine, the Apostle being deeply emotional and himself finding joy 
 in his work (e.g. Phil. iv. 1); and (3) specifically appropriate, inas- 
 much as the Thessalonians were sorrowing beyond necessity (cf. 
 verse 13). The remarkable part of the advice lies in the adverb 
 'alway.' Paul is no blind optimist ; but he would point to peren- 
 nial springs of joy beneath passing sorrows. Thus he writes 'as 
 sorrowful, yet alway rejoicing' (2 Cor. vi. io\ The explanation 
 of this paradox is to be found in Rom. viii. 18 ; and especially in 
 2 Cor. iv. t6-i8. 
 
 17. pray: a word used for worship generally, and not only for 
 petition. 
 
 without ceasing". Cf. Luke xviii. i ff., a passage which 
 suggests perseverance in prayer rather than the habit of incessant 
 prayer. The Christian is to persevere like the widow who con- 
 tinued appealing to the unrighteous judge till he attended to her 
 case. If he does not at once obtain an answer to his prayer he 
 is not to abandon the quest in despair, nor to cease praying. 
 But both the precept that precedes and that which follows point- 
 ing to a continuous habit, it is better to read the words of the 
 Apostle in a more general sense. Thus they recommend a life of 
 prayer, as one pervaded by the spirit of worship. It is quite 
 plain that he is not advising the neglect of daily duty for the sake 
 of a 'religious life' given up entirely to prayer in the cloister. 
 Such a vocation was not thought of in the primitive church, 
 though the habit of Anna the prophetess had approached it 
 (Luke ii. 37). In this Epistle Paul emphatically commends his 
 readers to carry on their business duties, working with their 
 hands (iv. 11). The spirit of his advice may be realized in 
 accordance with Coleridge's lines : — 
 
 , He prayeth best who loveth best 
 All things both great and small ; 
 For the dear God who loveth us, 
 He made and loveth all.' 
 
 Still the prayer must be a reality, the actual lifting up of the 
 heart and life to God in worship. This is to be a habit. Cf. 
 ' Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all 
 to the glory of God ' (1 Cor. x. 31). 
 
 18. in everything. Schmiedel understands this to mean 'in 
 
I THESSALONIANS 5. 19,20 215 
 
 for this is the will of Clod in Christ Jesus to you-ward. 
 Quench not the Spirit ; despise not prophesyings ; 19, 20 
 
 all places,' or 'under all circumstances'; but Ellicott calls atten- 
 tion to 2 Cor. ix. 8, where the same Greek words mean 'with 
 regard to everything.' (Cf. 2 Cor. ix. 11, with the same meaning.) 
 Probably therefore this is the idea here. 
 
 tliis, &c. It is a question whether Paul here intends to refer 
 to the three foregoing precepts, or only to the last of them. It is 
 more in accordance with his habit to connect the sentence simply 
 with the last precept. Besides, the singular 'this,' not 'these 
 things,' also points to the same conclusion. Thus great emphasis 
 is laid on the duty of thankfulness. This is especially what God 
 wills to see in His children. 
 
 the will of God: the thing that God wills to be done by 
 men. 
 
 in Christ Jesus: God's will with regard to His people 
 being manifested in the life, work, and teaching of Christ, and 
 thus coming in Christ. 
 
 to you-ward: so R. V. ' Concerning you ' in A. V. is not so 
 accurate, as the preposition points to an end or object. God's will 
 has come to Christians by means of Christ Jesus. 
 
 19. Quench: a word based on the idea of the Spirit regarded 
 under the image of fire. Thus John the Baptist says of Christ, 
 'he shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire' (Matt, 
 iii. n>, and the Holy Spirit comes at Pentecost as tongues of fire 
 (Acts ii. 3). To smother and suppress the working of the Spirit 
 is to quench the fire. 
 
 the Spirit. R. V. uses a capital i S,' indicating the Spirit of 
 God ; A. V. has a small 's,' meaning our own spirit. It is nearly 
 certain that R.V. is right here, for two reasons: (1) Paul is 
 accustomed to name the Divine Spirit in this absolute way, while 
 he generally defines the human spirit in contra-distinction as ' our 
 spirit,' or with the use of some similar limitation, e.g. 'The Spirit 
 beareth witness with our spirit' (Rom. viii. 16). When 'the 
 spirit' is mentioned in contrast with 'the flesh' (e.g. Rom. viii. 4) 
 no doubt the human spirit is intended. But when the expression 
 stands by itself it indicates the Spirit par excellence, i.e. the Holy 
 Spirit. (2) In the next verse the Apostle goes on to one of the 
 chief manifestations of the Spirit of God in the church; and the 
 two verses are evidently almost parallel. Therefore he means 
 here, ' Do not suppress and stifle the working of the Spirit of God.' 
 The application is left open to be as widely comprehensive as 
 possible. The Spirit is not to be quenched either in one's self or 
 in others ; either by self-suppression or by hindering the working 
 and manifestation of the Divine Spirit in others. The sentence 
 
216 I THESSALONIANS 5. 21,22 
 
 2i, 22 prove all things; hold fast that which is good; abstain 
 from every form of evil. 
 
 ■which follows shews that the Apostle is referring to those various 
 manifestations of the indwelling power of the Spirit in the early 
 churches that were seen in miracles, tongues, prophesyings, 
 &c, a full discussion of which is preserved in i Cor. xii. and xiv. 
 The enthusiasm of primitive Christianity sometimes took on extra- 
 ordinary forms. The Apostle warns the people of cooler tempera- 
 ment not to damp it in others, as perhaps they are inclined to 
 do, and also those who feel ashamed of it in themselves not to 
 suppress it. 
 
 20. prophesyings : inspired utterances, not necessarily pre- 
 dictions. Paul puts these first in the order of spiritual gifts when 
 he says, ' desire earnestly spiritual gifts, but rather that ye may 
 prophesy' (i Cor. xiv. i). Possibly some such utterances struck 
 men of common sense as not very profound or important. There 
 was danger lest they should be treated with contempt. That 
 would be quenching the Spirit. 
 
 21. prove all things : with reference to what precedes. What- 
 ever prophesyings are uttered in the church are to be tested or 
 proved before being accepted. On the one hand, the utterances 
 are not to be discouraged ; on the other hand, they are not to be 
 accepted with implicit faith, as certainly inspired and infallibly 
 true. The words have no direct reference to the wider range of 
 thought and the question of proving all possible propositions. 
 
 hold fast, &c. : as a result of the test. The prophetic 
 utterances are to be tried and sifted. Those proved to be good are 
 to be accepted and retained. The Greek word rendered ' hold 
 fast ' is very strong, signifying decisive and firm action. 
 
 good : in Greek, to kalon, the fair and excellent, not merely 
 what is morally good. The utterances that stand examination and 
 are proved to be worthy of belief and attention are to be welcomed 
 and retained. 
 
 22. form: not 'appearance' as in the A. V. The Greek word 
 admits of both meanings. It occurs at Luke iii. 22, 'in a bodily 
 form, as a dove,' where the idea is the appearance of a dove, and 
 Luke ix. 29, ' the fashion of his countenance,' where again the 
 idea of appearance is meant. The meaning is similar in 2 Cor. 
 v. 7, 'We walk by faith, not by sight,' where the Revisers' 
 margin has 'appearance.' Cf. John v. 37. On the other hand, 
 the word is used in Greek philosophy for 'species.' And a phrase 
 similar to that of Paul here occurs in Josephus, Antiq. x. 3. 1, 
 plainly meaning ' every kind of evil.' Moreover, the context 
 suggests that meaning in the present case. The antithesis to 
 holding fast the good is rejecting the evil, not merely its appear- 
 
I THESSALONIANS 5. 23 217 
 
 And the God of peace himself sanctify you wholly ; 23 
 and may your spirit and soul and body be preserved 
 
 ance. Reality is thought of in the first clause ; reality will be 
 intended in the second. 
 
 v. 23-28. Conclusion. Paul commends the entire sanctification 
 of his readers to the faithfulness of God, asks for their prayers, 
 sends a salutation to all the brethren, commands the Epistle to be 
 read to them all, and ends with a benediction. 
 
 23. the God of peace : a Hebraism, meaning God as connected 
 with peace. He dwells in peace, and He gives peace. The 
 thought of peace does not suggest the notion of any discord 
 among the Thessalonians, since it is usual in oriental salutations ; 
 still, see verse 13. But with Paul the word has the deeper 
 Christian meaning of the interior restfulness which is the 
 experience of God's people. Peace is wished for the Thessa- 
 lonians in the opening salutation (i. i). 
 
 himself. The word is very emphatic in the Greek. It is 
 God, He and He only, who can sanctify. 
 
 sanctify: consecrate and purify. Following the description 
 of the Sanctifier as ' the God of peace ' this suggests that peace 
 is to be obtained through sanctification. 
 
 wholly : a word found nowhere else in the N. T., but frequent 
 in later Greek. It means ' wholly attaining the end/ i. e. complete 
 in all respects. The Thessalonians are already consecrated in 
 some degree ; the Apostle desires that this may be complete. 
 
 your spirit and soul and "body: the threefold division of 
 human nature adopted by Paul. It is not found in the sayings 
 of Christ, who uses the twofold division more familiar to us — 
 body and soul. Paul's trichotomy has been traced through Philo 
 to Plato. But the Platonic division of human nature, though 
 threefold, is not the same as the Pauline. With Plato the highest 
 of the three parts of man is intellect (nous), and Plato is followed 
 by Philo. The idea of 'spirit,' as we meet with it in the 
 Scriptures, is Hebraic, not Hellenic. Paul uses the word to 
 denote man's highest nature in its religious perceptions and 
 activities, and its relations with the Spirit of God. Then the soul 
 stands for the animal nature with its appetites and propensities, 
 and the lower life generally. In i Cor. ii. and iii. Paul discusses 
 the distinction between the operations of soul and spirit, the 
 'natural man' there representing the soul, or lower nature. 
 Plainly this does not exclude a certain intelligence, but that 
 is ' carnal,' i. e. sensuous and worldly, and therefore unable to 
 appreciate the spiritual, i. e. that which moves in the higher plane 
 when the Spirit of God touches the life and consciousness of man. 
 But while with Paul there is thus a certain opposition between 
 
218 I THESSALONIANS 5. 24,25 
 
 entire, without blame at the coming of our Lord Jesus 
 
 24 Christ. Faithful is he that calleth you, who will also 
 do it. 
 
 25 Brethren, pray for us. 
 
 spirit and soul, the vital antagonism is between spirit and flesh 
 (see 1 Cor. v. 5). The soul is too much the slave of the flesh, and 
 is in danger of being quite degraded and ruined by the flesh, 
 unless rescued and uplifted by the spirit. The idea of the 
 sanctification of all three parts of the nature is significant as 
 regards both extremes: (i) In regard to the spirit. The spirit 
 needs it. Thus Paul writes, ' Let us cleanse ourselves from all 
 defilement of flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear 
 of God' (2 Cor. vii. 1). (2) In regard to the body. This is 
 capable of sanctification. Accordingly Paul desires the body to 
 be presented to God as a living sacrifice (Rom. xii. 1), and de- 
 scribes it as 'a temple of the Holy Ghost' (i Cor. vi. 19). 
 
 entire: lit. ' entire in all its parts.' It occurs in one other 
 place in the N. T., where we read, ' that ye may be perfect and 
 entire, lacking in nothing' (Jas. i. 4\ It is used in the LXX 
 for stones untouched by a tool (Deut. xxvii. 6). Philo uses 
 it for a body without blemish or defect (de Vict. 12). 
 
 24. Faithful: i. e. to the promise involved in calling. If God 
 gives an invitation, He will grant that to which He invites. 
 
 lie that calleth : God. This expression might seem to 
 impty either (1) that each Christian was being continually called, 
 or (2) that God was calling a succession of new converts into the 
 church. The first meaning would be unsuitable, as Paul always 
 regards the call of Christians as an act previous to their becoming 
 such ; the second is a possible meaning, though even this meaning 
 would only be appropriate if the Apostle were addressing a series 
 of new converts in the act of entering the church, and it would be 
 more suitable for those who had not yet entered. Probably there- 
 fore there is no thought of time in the passage, the expression 
 simply meaning 'your Caller' (so Ellicott). 
 
 who will also do it : i. e. what is necessary to be done ; 
 equivalent to, ' who will act and produce the results.' There 
 is no object to the verb. The idea of what is to be done is 
 not expressed. But the call and the faithfulness imply that 
 God will do for His people that to which He invites them. The 
 phrase is too comprehensive to be limited to what precedes in 
 verse 23. Still it must include those two things — the sanctifying 
 and the preserving. 
 
 25. pray for us: ///. 'pray about 1 us'; make us a subject 
 
 1 n(pi, 'about,' 'concerning'; not vnep, 'on behalf of.' But 
 
I TIIESSALONIANS 5. 26,27 219 
 
 Salute all the brethren with a holy kiss. I adjure 26, 27 
 
 of your prayers. The Apostle highly valued the prayers of 
 his friends; cf. 2 Thess. iii. 1; Eph. vi. 18; Col. iv. 3. It is to 
 be observed that these requests for prayer are all found in the 
 earlier and later Epistles, written at leisure and calmly ; none 
 of them in the four strenuous Epistles of the period of conflict 
 (Gal., Rom., 1 and 2 Cor.). 
 
 26. It would seem that verses 26, 27 were especially addressed 
 to the leaders of the church. The charge to have the Epistle read 
 to all the brethren implies that it would first go to some people 
 who might otherwise not make it known to the others. Then 
 it is to be observed that the salutation differs in form from that 
 in other places where the members of the church are exhorted 
 to salute one another, e. g. ' salute one another with a holy kiss ' 
 (Rom. xvi. 16; cf. 1 Cor. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xiii. 12; 1 Pet. v. 14^. 
 Here the phrase is Salute all the brethren, as though some other 
 persons not known simply b3 r that general name for the members 
 of the church were to give the salutation. 
 
 a holy kiss. The kiss is a common mode of salutation between 
 men and men, as well as between women and women, in the 
 East at the present day, as it is also in Continental countries. 
 It was especially appropriate among the Christians, since such 
 people were taught to regard one another as brethren. In very 
 primitive times it was exchanged indiscriminately among the 
 members of a church ; subsequently the men kissed the men, 
 and the women kissed the women. It must be understood here 
 that the word 'brethren' includes the 'sisters' in the church. 
 Enthusiasm and simplicity made this possible ; but we can 
 understand how such practices gave rise to scandalous libels 
 among prurient critics in the heathen world. They may help 
 to account for the gross charges that were brought against the 
 early Christians, the purest people of their day being falsely 
 accused of impurity. In Peter (v. 14") we have 'the kiss of love,' 
 the word for 'love' being the specially Christian word agape, 
 a different word from that used to designate the love of the 
 two sexes — eros. 
 
 27. I adjure you: an unusually strong expression not easily 
 to be accounted for. Baur even took this as a sign that the 
 Epistle was not genuine. It has been suggested that Paul is 
 only calling attention to the importance of what he is about 
 to say. But the language is too strong for that. It seems to 
 imply a fear that the Epistle may not be read to all the members 
 
 the distinction must not be pressed, as the prepositions are used 
 more loosely in late Greek than in the classics. 
 
2 2o I THESSALONIANS 5. 28 
 
 you by the Lord that this epistle be read unto all the 
 brethren. 
 2 s The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you. 
 
 of the church. If, as seems probable, this verse is especially 
 designed for the elders or other leading persons who would 
 receive the letter in the first instance, it indicates the Apostle's 
 apprehension lest they should retain it and only communicate 
 its contents to those whom they chose to take into their con- 
 fidence. Paul puts them on oath not to do this. 
 
 all the brethren: including (i) the most poor, humble, 
 ignorant, and obscure members of the church, (2) those for 
 any reason out of favour with the leaders of the church, and 
 (3) any who might be absent when the Epistle arrived, This 
 shews Paul's anxiety that his teaching should not be limited 
 to any privileged order in the church, that it should be shared 
 by every member on the most democratic principle. Paul's 
 nine Epistles to churches contain his most advanced teaching, 
 and therefore the most difficult theological statements of the 
 Bible. Yet they are not to be reserved for an esoteric group 
 of theologians. Even the most doctrinal discussions are to be 
 freely set before all private Christians. 
 
 28. grace: a modification of the Greek salutation (chaire), with 
 deeper meaning, as our Lord's salutation, 'Peace be unto you,' 
 is the usual Hebrew salutation, but also with deeper meaning 
 (John xx. 19). The two were combined in the opening of 
 the Epistle (i. 1). One only is found at the close, and that the 
 more characteristically Christian. The Apostle desires that 
 the free favour of Christ and its good effects may be with his 
 readers. 
 
 our Lord Jesus Christ. This salutation is thus confined 
 to blessings given by Christ as especially the Divine Being 
 through whom grace comes. A usual form of salutation in 
 Paul's Epistles, it is repeated in identical words in Rom. xvi. 
 20 ; at the conclusion of 2 Thessalonians (except that there 
 the word 'all' is added— 'with you all'); and in 1 Corinthians 
 (with the slight modification, i the Lord,' &c, instead of ' our 
 Lord,' &c). In 2 Corinthians we have the full benediction : ' The 
 grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the 
 communion of the Holy Ghost, be with you all,' in Galatians, 
 Philippians, and Philemon : ' The grace of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ be with your spirit '—with the word ' brethren ' added 
 in Galatians. The form is more varied and longer in Ephesians, 
 but there too grace is named (see Eph. vi. 23, 24). Colossians, 
 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus have simply ' Grace be with you,' 
 but Titus adds the word 'all' — 'with you all' Thus 'grace' 
 
I THESSALONIANS 5. 38 221 
 
 appears in the closing salutation of every one of the Pauline 
 Epistles. It is also found in Hebrews — 'Grace be with you aH,' 
 but not in the Epistle salutations of James, Peter, John, or Jude. 
 Thus it is characteristically Pauline. 
 
 The subscription in the A. V. stating that the Epistle 'was' 
 written from Athens disappears from the R. V. because it certainly 
 was not in the original text. Moreover it is incorrect. See 
 Introduction, p. 21 ff. The subscriptions to Epistles were added 
 by Greek editors of a later age, perhaps in the second centuiy. 
 
THE SECOND EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE 
 
 THESSALONIANS 
 
 1 Paul, and Silvanus, and Timothy, unto the church of 
 the Thessalonians in God our Father and the Lord Jesus 
 
 i. i, 2. Salutation. Paul and his two companions salute the 
 Thessalonian church, wishing its members grace and peace from 
 God and Christ. 
 
 1. Identical with i Thess. i. i, except that there we read ' God 
 the Father,' while here we have God our Father. For explana- 
 tions see annotations on the companion passage. The similarity 
 of the opening words points to the probability of there not having 
 been any long interval between the writing of the two letters. 
 
 Silvanus, and Timothy. These two companions being still 
 with the Apostle are associated with him in this letter as they 
 had been in the former letter. Thus we have the same curious 
 complexity of authorship again. The letter is written in the 
 first person plural in order to include these men. Yet for the 
 most part it evidently expresses the individual convictions of 
 Paul, who drops the plural form in one place and uses the 
 pronoun ' I ' (ii. 5). 
 
 God our Father : an expression most frequently used at the 
 opening of Paul's Epistles (e. g. Rom. i. 7 ; 1 Cor. i. 3 ; 2 Cor. i. 2 ; 
 Eph.i. 2; Phil. i. 2 ; Col. i. 2 ; Philem. 3V This slight variation on 
 1 Thessalonians is probably accidental. Still it is illuminating, for 
 it shews that while God the Father and "Jesus Christ are here 
 named together, and again in verse 2, the Divine Fatherhood 
 referred to is not that of the Trinitarian idea in which God is the 
 Father of Christ, the Son, but that Fatherhood of God's relation to 
 men which is prominent in our Lord's teaching. The Apostle uses 
 
II THESSALONIANS 1. 2 223 
 
 Christ; Grace to you and peace from God the Father 
 and the Lord Jesus Christ. 
 
 the term especially with regard to Christians, whom he regards 
 as God's adopted sons. Thus he writes, 'as many as are led 
 by the Spirit of God, these are sons of God ' (Rom. viii. 14), and 
 refers to Christians Having 'received the spirit of adoption' (verse 
 i5\ this spirit enabling them to cry ' Abba, Father ' (ibid). Accord- 
 ingly the Divine Fatherhood is that of adopted children realized 
 by them through their reception of the Holy Spirit. Probably 
 therefore the pronoun ' our ' as here used points to Christians 
 rather than to mankind at large. Nevertheless, in a later Epistle 
 Paul writes of the larger Divine Fatherhood which includes the 
 whole human race, and indeed other spiritual beings also, describ- 
 ing God as ' the Father, from whom every family in heaven and on 
 earth is named' (Eph. iii. 14). 
 
 the Lord Jesus Christ. See note on 1 Thessalonians i. 1. 
 
 2. Grace . . . peace. See the same note. 
 
 from God the Father, &c. This clause appears in the A. V. 
 of 1 Thessalonians i. 1, as well as here, probably, however, only 
 because it was transferred to some MSS. from the Second Epistle, 
 as it is absent from equally good MSS. But here it has the support 
 of full MSS. authority, and unquestionably belongs to the original 
 text. It is a thoroughly Pauline phrase, the same words occur- 
 ring in the salutations of all Paul's Epistles to churches, except 
 Colossians and 1 Thessalonians and also that to Philemon, with 
 the slight variation of the use of k our' instead of 'the,' as 'God 
 our Father' in all the Epistles but Galatians, and the substitution 
 of ' our ' for ' the ' in the second clause, as f our Lord Jesus Christ ' 
 in that Epistle. The Revisers omit this second clause from 
 Colossians altogether, and the salutation in that Epistle reads 
 simply, ' Grace to you and peace from God our Father ' (Col. i. 2). 
 We have the same form of salutation in the three pastoral Epistles, 
 though rather more modified, the word 'mercy' coming between 
 'grace' and 'peace' in 1 and 2 Timothy, and the title 'our 
 Saviour' being appended to the name 'Christ Jesus' in TituSj 
 and ' our Lord ' in 1 and 2 Timothy. Thus we have : — 
 
 ' Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord 
 Jesus Christ' (Rom. ; 1 and 2 Cor. ; Eph.; Phil. ; Philem.). 
 
 ' Grace to you and peace from God the Father and the Lord 
 Jesus Christ' (2 Thess.). 
 
 ' Grace to you and peace from God the Father, and our Lord 
 Jesus Christ' (Gal.). 
 
 ' Grace to you and peace from God our Father' (Col.). 
 
 'Grace and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our 
 Saviour ' (Titus). 
 
224 II THESSALONIANS 1. 2 
 
 ' Grace, mere}', peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our 
 Lord' (i and 2 Tim.). 
 
 The salutations in other N. T. writers are as follows : — 
 
 ' Grace to you and peace be multiplied ' (1 Pet.). 
 
 • Grace to you and peace be multiplied in the knowledge of God 
 and of Jesus our Lord' (2 Pet). 
 
 1 Mercy unto you and peace and love be multiplied' (Jude). 
 
 ' Grace, mercy, peace shall be with us, from God the Father, 
 and from Jesus Christ, the Son of the Father, in truth and love' 
 (2 John). 
 
 Hebrews, James, 1 and 3 John contain no opening salutations. 
 God the Father. The A. V. has 'God our Father,' and 
 Tischendorf in his critical text retains that reading. The MSS. 
 are about equally divided ; but Westcott and Hort omit the 
 Greek word for 'our,' and are followed by the Revisers. It is 
 likely to have been inserted by a later hand as an assimilation to 
 the more usual form of the Pauline salutation. Still, the father- 
 hood in the phrase ' God the Father ' is evidently the same as 
 that in ' God our Father,' since that expression occurs in the 
 previous verse as well as in most other salutations. It does not 
 refer to the Father as the first Person of the Trinity in contra- 
 distinction from the Son as the second Person, but points to God's 
 fatherly relation to His human children, especially Christians. 
 
 and the Lord Jesus Christ. The structure of the sentence 
 indicates that both grace and peace flow from God and Christ, 
 a twofold blessing from a twofold source. Such a sentence 
 certainly implies very close union in the Divine action. Still it 
 is possible to make a logical, if not a real, distinction. In that 
 case 'grace' will be especially associated with 'the Lord Jesus 
 Christ/ and 'peace ' with 'God the Father.' This is in accordance 
 with the usage of the Apostle. Thus the phrase ' the grace of our 
 Lord Jesus Christ' occurs frequently in his benedictions (cf. Rom. 
 xvi. 20 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 23 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 14 ; Gal. vi. 18 ; Phil. iv. 23; 
 1 Thess. v. 28 ; 2 Thess. iii. 18). On the other hand, Paul writes 
 of ' the peace of God ' (Phil. iv. 7), and ' the God of peace ' (Rom. 
 xv - 33, xv i- 2 ° 5 Phil. iv. 9 ; 1 Thess. v. 23, &c). He also has one 
 reference to the 'peace of Christ' (Col. iii. 15)- But he more 
 frequently ascribes the gift of peace directly to God. Thus he 
 says, ' God hath called us in peace' (1 Cor. vii. 15). When 
 reading the whole verse we may understand that peace, the 
 gift of God, is encircled by the grace of Christ, guarded by it, 
 the peace of God being in a frame of the grace of Christ. Grace 
 is named first. That is thoroughly Pauline, as the argument of 
 the Epistles to the Romans shews. Through the grace of Christ 
 we enter into the peace of God. Nevertheless, the compact 
 sentence indicates the close union of the two gifts as it does 
 the close union of their two sources. 
 
II THESSALONIANS 1. 3 225 
 
 We are bound to give thanks to God alway for you, 3 
 brethren, even as it is meet, for that your faith groweth 
 exceedingly, and the love of each one of you all toward 
 
 i. 3-12. Congratulations for fidelity under difficulties. God is to 
 be thanked for the growing faith and love of the Thessalonians. 
 The Apostle is exulting among the churches over their faith and 
 patience under persecution, by means of which they are being 
 made worthy of the kingdom of God. At the revelation of Christ 
 they will have rest and their enemies severe punishment. There- 
 fore he is continually praying for them that God may reckon them 
 worthy of their calling and that Christ may be glorified by means 
 of them. 
 
 3. We: Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy; but chiefly Paul. The 
 two companions soon fade into shadowy presences and pass out 
 of notice altogether, and then, though the plural pronoun is 
 retained throughout the Epistle, it really represents the personality 
 of Paul alone. 
 
 are bound : lit. i owe ' ; it is a debt. We must thank God, 
 a strong expression indicating unusual reason for gratitude. 
 
 to give thanks. As in the previous Epistle to the Thessa- 
 lonians (i. 2), and all his Epistles to churches except Galatians, 
 the Apostle begins by congratulating his readers on the good news 
 that he has received concerning them and thanking God for their 
 spiritual progress. This progress is always ascribed to God, 
 never attributed to the unaided efforts of his readers, and therefore 
 the congratulations always take the form of thanksgivings. 
 
 as it is meet : ' worthy ' or ' fitting.' While the phrase i we 
 are bound' indicates duty towards God, this additional phrase 
 points to suitability in the condition of the readers. Thanksgiving 
 on the Apostle's part when contemplating their progress is 
 appropriate to what he sees in it. 
 
 faith: named first, because the root-grace from which the 
 other graces spring, as in the previous Epistle [1 Thess. i. 3). 
 
 groweth exceedingly. This is something additional to the 
 ground of thanksgiving in the earlier letter, where the work of 
 faith was simply referred to as a fact. Subsequent information 
 has led the Apostle to perceive a great and continuous increase in 
 the faith of his converts. 
 
 love of each one of you all, &c. : a remarkably full and 
 comprehensive expression. The Apostle is careful to make it 
 clear that there are no exceptions to the experience of brotherly 
 love. It is found in every member of the church. This, too. 
 shews an advance beyond the earlier writing, which merely 
 mentions ' labour of love ' in a general way. In that Epistle the 
 Apostle exhorted his readers to ' abound more and more ' in love 
 (9) o 
 
226 II THESSALONIANS 1. 4,5 
 
 4 one another aboundeth ; so that we ourselves glory in 
 you in the churches of God for your patience and faith 
 in all your persecutions and in the afflictions which 
 
 5 ye endure; which is a manifest token of the righteous 
 
 to all the brethren (1 Thess. v. 10 . Now he acknowledges that 
 the end of his exhortations is attained. He has nothing more to 
 wish for in this direction. 
 
 4. glory: rather, 'exult.' 
 
 the churches of God. What churches ? We only know of 
 the one church at Corinth, in Achaia, where the Apostle wrote 
 the Epistle. This phrase suggests that other churches had been 
 founded in the villages round the metropolis. 2 Corinthians is 
 addressed to ' all the saints which are in the whole of Achaia ' 
 as well as ' the church of God which is at Corinth' (2 Cor. i. 1), 
 implying that there were Christians in other parts of the province. 
 But the Apostle may have written to churches in his older 
 mission-fields in Asia, giving them an account of these remarkable 
 Christians at Thessalonica. 
 
 patience: also referred to in the opening of the earlier 
 Epistle (1 Thess. i. 3} ; evidently much needed at Thessalonica. 
 
 persecutions : more particularly referred to in the previous 
 Epistle, where we see that they were caused by the converts' fellow 
 countrymen, provoked by the Jews see 1 Thess. iii. 14-16). 
 
 5. a manifest token, &c. : a clear sign that the righteous 
 judgement of God will take place. The phrase must point to that 
 future event ; it cannot mean that the judgement has already 
 happened, or is now in process, because there is nothing in the 
 context to suggest either position. On the contrary, the immediate 
 scene is that of the endurance of persecution by the Christians 
 from the unrestrained antagonism of their opponents, which 
 therefore is not yet judged and condemned. It is difficult to see 
 the connexion of the clause with its context, either in what 
 precedes or in what follows. If this clause were omitted the 
 whole passage would run on smoothly, thus: — verse 4, 'in the 
 afflictions which ye endure,' followed immediately by the second 
 part of verse 5 : ' to the end that ye may be accounted worthy,' &c. 
 Accordingly Schmiedel suggests that the sentences may have 
 been transposed by a copyist, and that the clause in question may 
 have stood originally after the word \ suffer ' in verse 5. But we 
 have no MS. authority for such an alteration in the text. Reading 
 it as it stands we must take the clause as a parenthesis. Still, to 
 find a place here at all, it must have a point of attachment, and 
 the question arises, Where is that to be found? what is the 
 
 1 manifest token * ? Two answers have been offered to this 
 question : (1) That it consists in the persecutions and afflictions. 
 
II THESSALONIANS 1. 6, 7 227 
 
 judgement of God ; to the end that ye may be counted 
 worthy of the kingdom of God, for which ye also suffer : 
 if so be that it is a righteous thing with God to recom- 6 
 pense affliction to them that afflict you, and to you that 7 
 are afflicted rest with us, at the revelation of the Lord 
 
 But these are not in themselves clear signs of the judgement 
 that is to follow them. (2) That it consists in the patient 
 endurance of these troubles— a much more probable idea. The 
 display of such a martyr temper is an eloquent protest against 
 the injustice done to the Christians, and an indication that God, 
 who cannot but approve of such conduct, will vindicate it in the 
 punishment of the oppressors. 
 
 In illustration of this thought Mr. Garrod quotes Browning's 
 Abt Vogler : — 
 
 And what is our failure here but a triumph's evidence 
 For the fulness of the days ? ' 
 
 to the end : the Divine purpose in permitting the persecution. 
 It is discipline, education, or at least a test of fitness. 
 
 the kingdom of God. See note on 1 Thess. ii. 12. As in the 
 earlier passage the kingdom is here regarded as in the future, as 
 the happy condition when the reign of God is established on earth, 
 no doubt associated in the mind of the Apostle with the paronsia, 
 the return of Christ. 
 
 6. if so be : rather, * if indeed/ The Greek word (eiper) is 
 used ' by a species of rhetorical politeness ... of that about which 
 there is no doubt ' (Grimm-Thayer). 
 
 7. rest with us : referring to the future establishment of the 
 kingdom of God just mentioned. That will be an end of the present 
 condition of conflict and hardship from which the missionaries 
 as well as their converts are suffering. As they are troubled with 
 the same persecutions, so they will enjoy the same rest. And 
 the association in the rest will be closer. Now the Apostle is 
 separated from his friends at Thessalonica. At the happy time 
 coming they will be together. The idea of participation together 
 in this blessedness is suggested elsewhere, for instance, 'as ye 
 are partakers of the sufferings, so also are ye of the comfort' 
 (2 Cor. i. 7). 
 
 the revelation. The Greek word is apocalypsis, the 
 apocalypse. The parousia will result from an apocalypse. It 
 is not merely that Jesus will come ; he will be manifested. This 
 may imply that he is already present, but invisible. What we 
 call the Second Coming is really the revelation of the Christ who 
 is present all along, though hitherto unseen. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 II THERSALOXIANS 1. 8 
 
 8 Jesus from heaven with the angels of his power in 
 flaming fire, rendering vengeance to them that know not 
 God, and to them that obey not the gospel of our Lord 
 
 from, heaven. No doubt, in form, the idea is that of coming 
 from above, from the distant heaven. But if in reality heaven 
 is to be thought of as the presence of God in the sphere of the 
 spiritual, local terms do not strictly apply to it. In becoming 
 manifest Jesus passes from heaven to earth. 
 
 the angels of his power. This might be read, 'his angels 
 of power,' i. e. a Hebraism meaning ' his mighty angels,' as in 
 the A. V. But probably Ellicott is right in understanding it to 
 signify the angels who belong to his power, through whom it is 
 exercised. Jesus spoke of coming with accompanying angels (Matt. 
 xxiv. 31, xxv. 31). In the previous Epistle (1 Thess. iv. 16) Paul 
 wrote of the advent of Christ 'with the voice of the archangel.' 
 
 8. in flaming fire. The R. V. associates these words with 
 the preceding clause, thus taking it as descriptive of the accom- 
 panying terrors of Christ's advent to judgement. The A. V. 
 connects it with the sentence that follows, and so reads it as 
 describing the instrument of vengeance. Mr. Garrod prefers the 
 latter reading, comparing it with the text lower down, 'whom 
 the Lord Jesus shall slay with the breath of his mouth' (ii. 8) as 
 though he were breathing out fire (cf. Ps. xviii. 8). But in favour 
 of the Revisers' reading we have the familiar O. T. image of the 
 manifestation of God in fire as at the burning bush (Exod. iii. 2), 
 the pillar of fire (xiii. 21), Jehovah descending at Sinai in fire 
 (xix. 18), the glory of the Lord 'like devouring fire' (xxiv. 17 ; 
 cf. Pss. xviii. 12, 1. 3, xcvii. 3"), 'behold the Lord will come with 
 fire ' (Isa. lxvi. 15). This O. T. conception is now applied to 
 Christ in his revelation for judgement. It signifies a splendid 
 terror, a dangerous majesty. 
 
 them that know not God : the heathen. This reads harshly, 
 as though the heathen were to be punished merely for their 
 ignorance. No explanation is given here. But in writing to 
 the Romans Paul enters into an elaborate explanation of the case. 
 He there attributes the present benighted condition of the pagan 
 world to moral causes. There was a knowledge of God displaj'ed 
 in the creation. But this was wilfully suppressed and stifled by 
 wickedness. Therefore God is justly angry (cf. Rom. i. 18, 19). 
 
 them that obey not, &c. The Greek clearly indicates another 
 class of people, by repeating the article. We are not to think of 
 the heathen remaining in their ignorance because they reject the 
 gospel ; but first we have the heathen condemned for their guilty 
 ignorance, and then those who reject the gospel. This second 
 class consists primarily of the hearers of the missionaries, ar.d 
 
II THESSALONIANS 1. 9 229 
 
 Jesus : who shall suffer punishment, even eternal destruc- 9 
 tion from the face of the Lord and from the glory of his 
 
 especially those people at Thessalonica, both Jews and pagans, 
 who rejected their message. 
 
 obey: not merely 'believe.' The fault is moral, not 
 intellectual. It lies with the will. These people will not submit 
 to the claims of the gospel 
 
 9. punishment: not the Greek word rendered 'punishment' 
 in the parable of the 'sheep and the goats' (kolasis, Matt. xxv. 
 46), which really signifies 'chastisement,' but a word (dike) 
 connected with the same root as the Greek for 'judge' and 
 'judgement,' meaning first of all 'right,' 'justice' ; then a 'judicial 
 hearing,' and a 'judicial decision,' a ' sentence ' (cf. Acts xxv. 15) ; 
 and so finally, ' the execution of a sentence,' which is its significa- 
 tion here. It is the word rendered 'punishment' in Jude 7. 
 
 eternal. The primary meaning of this adjective is ' that 
 which belongs to the ages.' Thus its strict application would be 
 indefinite, pointing to that which is vast and age-long, without 
 any determination of endlessness. But in usage it stands for 
 what is everlasting, as in the phrase 'eternal life.' There is 
 another word (ai'dios) used for the complete philosophical idea 
 of endlessness which is applied to the doom of fallen angels in 
 Jude 6, but nowhere in the N. T. to the punishment of human 
 beings. The word rendered 'eternal' 'gives prominence to the 
 immeasurableness of eternity ' (Grimm-Thayer). In Philo we 
 find it associated with punishment or chastisement {kolasis). 
 
 destruction. This cannot be a long process of being destroyed, 
 to which the adjective ' eternal ' is added in order to suggest its 
 continuance. The word points to a condition once for all settled. 
 Thus an eternal destruction is equivalent to a lasting destruction, 
 a destruction which is never, or at least not soon, superseded by 
 a restoration. Still it is too much to read into the word absolute 
 extinction of being, annihilation. It is an indefinite term in popular 
 usage. Thus Paul adopts it in the phrase ' the destruction of 
 the flesh' (1 Cor. v. 5), where he evidently does not even mean 
 physical death, but indicates the restraint of carnal appetite 
 through the chastisement involved in bodily sickness. The word 
 is used in a general sense in the earlier Epistle (1 Thess. v. 3). 
 
 from the face, &c. : a Hebraism, the face representing the 
 presence and the favour. This destruction involves banishment 
 from God and the loss of His favour. Trouble is regarded as God 
 hiding His face (Pss. x. n, xiii. 1). To behold God's face is great 
 joy (Ps. xvii. 15). 
 
 the lord : God. Both before and after this verse Christ is 
 indicated, as' our Lord Jesus Christ' and 'the Lord Jesus Christ.' 
 The O. T. idea of the face of Jehovah appears in this verse. 
 
230 II THESSALONIANS 1. 10 
 
 ro might, when he shall come to be glorified in his saints, 
 and to be marvelled at in all them that believed (because 
 
 the glory of his might. This could be read as a Hebraism 
 meaning ' His mighty glory.' But such an idea is not consonant 
 with usage. It would be better, therefore, to understand the 
 phrase to mean ' the glory that belongs to His might,' the 
 splendour radiating out of God's great power and the exercise of 
 it. Those who suffer punishment are cut off from the glad 
 appreciation of this glory of God's great deeds of might in which 
 His true people will share. 
 
 10. when he shall come. The previous verse would 
 grammatically lead us to take the pronoun 'he' for God, and 
 the sentence for a description of a theophany. Yet the language 
 is so plainly in line with the Apostle's frequent references to the 
 coming of Jesus Christ that we must so read it here. The 
 transition from the Father to the Son is made quite readily and 
 almost unconsciously here as in other places by means of the 
 indefinite term ' the Lord.' 
 
 to toe glorified : his splendour to be made manifest. 
 
 in his saints: as though the glory were shining through 
 them. The idea seems to be that what Christ does for his saints 
 will be seen to redound to his glory. 
 
 saints : godry people, and therefore including all Christians, 
 not merely exceptionally hoi}' Christians, according to the usage 
 of primitive times. The members of a church are all ' called to 
 be saints' (Rom. i. 7 ; i Cor. i. 2; 2 Cor. i. 1), and are even 
 addressed as being already saints in such expressions as 4 all the 
 saints in Christ Jesus which are at Philippi ' (Phil. i. 1), ' the saints 
 and faithful brethren in Christ which are at Colossae' (Col. i. 2), 
 ' Salute every saint in Christ Jesus' (Phil. iv. 21). But in addition 
 to Christians probably the word ' saint ' here includes the godly 
 of O. T. times, as the following clause about those who believed 
 points specifically to Christians. It is not likely that two clauses 
 so markedly distinct should refer to exactly the same people. 
 
 to toe marvelled at. The word ' admired ' in the A. V. is used 
 in a sense now obsolete, but once familiar, meaning 'wondered 
 at.' Thus in Milton we read — 
 
 'The undaunted fiend what this might be admired; 
 Admired, not feared' ^Paradise Lost, ii. 677, 67S) ; 
 
 and in Shakespeare — 
 
 ' I perceive, these lords 
 At this encounter do so much admire 
 That they devour their reason' \Tcmpcst, Act v. Scene 1). 
 
 in, &c. : the same relationship as in the previous clause. 
 
II THESSALONIANS 1. n 231 
 
 our testimony unto you was believed) in that day. To 11 
 which end we also pray always for you, that our God 
 may count you worthy of your calling, and fulfil every 
 
 What Christ does in the case of those who believe in him will be 
 so manifested in the great day as to be a source of wonderment — 
 whether to themselves, or to other beings, such as angels, who 
 might be conceived of as spectators, we are not told. 
 
 all them that believed: Christians, those who accepted the 
 apostolic message with faith. The word 'believed' iin the Greek 
 aorist tense, a correction of the A. V. 'believe,' in accordance 
 with all good MSS.) indicates a single act of faith experienced in 
 some past time, and therefore points to the commencement of the 
 Christian life. 
 
 because: justifying the previous clause. The Thessalonians 
 had accepted the apostolic message with faith. They are specimens 
 of the people who believed and, as such, instances of the fact that 
 there will be those in whom the marvel of Christ's redeeming 
 power will be exhibited at the great day of revelation and 
 judgement. 
 
 our testimony. The substance of the apostolic preaching 
 is frequently called • testimony,' because the apostles present 
 themselves as witnesses of what they themselves have seen and 
 experienced, especially the great, convincing fact of the resurrec- 
 tion. This is distinctly set forth in the narrative of the selection 
 of a substitute for Judas (Acts i. 21, 22, 'a witness with us of 
 his resurrection '). Paul claims to have been such a witness 
 himself (i Cor. xv. 8). Thus we have 'the testimony of Christ' 
 (1 Cor. i. 6), meaning witness-bearing to what is known about 
 Christ. 
 
 in that day : to be connected with the main sentence, ' to be 
 glorified ... to be marvelled at,' not with the clause immediately 
 preceding; the R. V. rightly agrees with the A.V. in treating this 
 as a parenthesis. ' That day ' is the day of the revelation of Christ 
 just described. 
 
 11. To which end: the end referred to inverse 5, 'that ye 
 may be counted worthy of the kingdom,' &c, repeated in the 
 sentence here beginning. The letter takes a new turn. The 
 great prospect of the future just described is the motive of the 
 Apostle's prayers to which he now refers. 
 
 also: praying in addition to glorying or exulting mentioned 
 in verse 4. 
 
 your calling : not that to which you are called, your vocation, 
 but the process of calling you. Schmiedel takes this to be a future 
 call, the last call to participation in final blessedness. Such an 
 interpretation would agree with the summons in the parable of the 
 
232 II THESSALONIANS 1. 12 
 
 desire of goodness and every work of faith, with power ; 
 a that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you, 
 and ye in him, according to the grace of our God and 
 the Lord Jesus Christ. 
 
 Ten Virgins, 'Behold, the bridegroom! Coinc ye forth to meet 
 him' (Matt. xxv. 6). But it is not in accordance with Paul's 
 references to the calling of Christians, which invariably stand for 
 the invitation to enter the Christian life ^cf. Rom. viii. 30, ix. 24 ; 
 1 Cor. vii. 15, 17; Gal. i. 6, 15 ; 1 Thess. ii. 12, iv. 7 ; 2 Thess. ii. 
 T4 ; 2 Tim. i. 9, in all of which cases the verb is in the past tense). 
 Paul uses the word three times in the present tense in a similar 
 connexion (Rom. ix. 11 ; Gal. v. 8 ; 1 Thess. v. 24) ; but there he is 
 referring to the custom and way of God, how he is a God who 
 calls with certain ends in view. The Apostle never has the verb 
 in the future, and never suggests any future call for Christians. 
 Mr. Garrod, who agrees with Schmiedel here, cites 1 Thess. ii. 12, 
 • That ye would walk worthy of God, who hath called you unto 
 his kingdom.' But, though that verse describes a call to what is 
 yet future, it sets the calling itself in the past. 
 
 every desire of goodness. The A. V. understood this to 
 refer to God, translating the phrase, ' all the good pleasure of his 
 goodness.' The word that the Revisers render ' desire ' usually 
 stands for God's good pleasure (cf. Eph. i. 5, 9 ; Phil. ii. 13). But 
 there are reasons for rejecting this interpretation : (1) The addition 
 of the Greek word agathostine, here translated ' goodness,' which 
 Paul never applies to God, but always to men (cf. Rom. xv. 14 ; 
 Gal. v. 22; Eph. v. 9). (2) The following clause, which refers to 
 human experience. Thus we have the two clauses in parallel 
 line — 'the desire of goodness' and ' the work of faith,' both being 
 found in the Thessalonians. 
 
 every work of faith. These like the desires of goodness 
 are to be fulfilled. To fulfil a desire is to realize it, to acquire 
 the thing wished for. It is not so usual to associate the idea of 
 fulfilment with the thought of works. Paul seems to mean the 
 bringing these works to a successful issue. 
 
 with power : associated with the word ' fulfil.' God's power 
 is sought to accomplish what is desired, whenever the desire 
 springs from a good motive, and to make effectual every labour 
 that is inspired by faith. 
 
 12. the name : the character and fame (cf. Phil. ii. 9, ' the name 
 which is above every name '). 
 
 glorified in you : in what happens in your life and experience, 
 thus exhibiting the goodness and greatness of Christ, since he 
 is the source of every Christian excellency. 
 
 ye in him : Christians sharing in Christ's glory and receiving 
 
II THESSALONIANS 2. i 253 
 
 Now wc beseech you, brethren, touching the coming 2 
 of our Lord Jesus Christ, and our gathering together 
 
 glory from him. The servants come in for a share of the honour 
 of the master whose livery they wear. 
 
 according' to the grace, &c. : in harmony with the whole 
 system of grace. That involves many favours, among which may 
 be placed the favours just mentioned. 
 
 ii. 1-12. Mistake about the parousia. The Apostle begs his 
 readers not to be easily disturbed by what they take to be 
 communications from him to the effect that the day of the Lord 
 is already present. There will be a previous apostasy and the 
 revelation of a mysterious person or power described as ' the man 
 of sin,' who is already opposing God and usurping the place of 
 God. This the Apostle had stated when he was with the 
 Thessalonians. At present there is a restraining influence. 
 When that is removed the lawless one will be slain by Christ, 
 although he is working with the power of Satan and using methods 
 of deceit which entangle unrighteous people who are given over 
 by God to the delusion. 
 
 The previous part of the Epistle is all in a way introductory, the 
 salutation being followed by thanksgiving and prayer down to 
 the end of the first chapter. Now the specific purpose of the 
 Epistle appears. It is written in the main in order to counteract 
 mistaken ideas about the Second Coming of Christ. 
 
 1. we beseech you. Thanksgiving and prayer are followed by 
 exhortation. 
 
 touching : lit. ' on behalf of,' not ' by,' as in the A. V. When 
 Paul beseeches or exhorts with such an appeal as ' by the mercies 
 of God ' (Rom. xii. i), ' through the name of our Lord Jesus Christ ' 
 (1 Cor. i. 10), he uses another Greek preposition {did) ; here the 
 preposition is hyper. Thus the Apostle may mean his exhortation 
 to be a preparation for the Second Advent. In order that the 
 great event may be rightly treated he will beg his friends now 
 to take a right view of it. But the simpler meaning given in 
 the R.V. is allowable, and it seems more suitable here. The 
 preposition is taken as indicating the subject discussed, as if we 
 read 'about' or * concerning.' The meaning is very similar in 
 i. 4 where it is translated * for ' in the clause '/or your patience 
 and faith,' these graces being the subjects concerning which the 
 Apostle exults. 
 
 coming : lit. ' presence,' the parousia. 
 
 our gathering, &c. The reference is to the gathering of 
 Christians to Christ on his appearance at the Second Advent, or 
 revelation of his Presence. This had been fully described in 
 1 Thcss. iv. 16, 17, the dead rising first, then the living being 
 
234 II THESSALONIANS 2. 2 
 
 3 unto him ; to the end that ye be not quickly shaken 
 from your mind, nor yet be troubled, either by spirit, or 
 by word, or by epistle as from us, as that the day of the 
 
 caught up in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air and dwell 
 with Him for ever after (cf. v. io x . In Matt. xxiv. 31 Christ says, 
 'they shall gather together his elect from the four winds.' 
 Probably the early Christians understood these predictions quite 
 literally. In the present day few will be ready to believe in the 
 actual levitation of human bodies and collection of a multitude 
 of living men and women in the vapour that floats half a mile 
 or so above the ground when the barometer has fallen. But if this 
 physical scene is not to be reasonably expected, and the language 
 of Christ on the subject is to be accepted in his customary 
 parabolic sense, as when he spoke of faith removing a fig-tree, 
 the essential idea is unaffected. This is the promise that Christ's 
 people shall meet him and dwell with him for ever. 
 
 2. to the end that: a clause pointing forward. The object 
 arrived at is stated in this verse, the means by which that object 
 is to be obtained in the verses that follow. Thus the Apostle writes, 
 1 In order that ye be not quickly troubled ... let no man beguile 
 you, 1 &c. 
 
 from your mind: from 3-our normal state of mind, your 
 settled convictions ; not ' in mind ' as in the A. V. 
 
 nor yet . . . troubled. The two words ' shaken ' and ' troubled' 
 point to two possible effects of the disturbing influence, the first 
 unsettling the ideas and mental views of the Thessalonians, the 
 second causing them distress. Three possible disturbing influences 
 are contemplated by the Apostle — spirit, word, epistle. 
 
 spirit: not necessarily theHoly Spirit as Mr.Garrod and others 
 assert. The reference would be to some inspired utterance, what 
 was called a ' prophecy ' in the primitive church. But the in- 
 definiteness of the word ' spirit ' standing here boldly by itself 
 points to the wide, general sense of the word. Christians and 
 Jews both believed in spirits influencing men, and no doubt the 
 Thessalonians were familiar with the Greek notion of demons. 
 Even if the influence were attributed by the church to the Spirit 
 of God, when it was seen to be erroneous or hurtful in character 
 Paul would ascribe it to some mischievous spirit (cf. ' a lying 
 spirit,' 1 Kings xxii. 23). He leaves the nature and character of 
 the source open by simply saying ' spirit/ a word which may be 
 taken here generically. 
 
 word: a vocal utterance, as distinguished from the 'epistle,' 
 introduced as a third possibility. This may be taken separately, 
 or joined to the clause that follows. In the latter case, the word 
 as well as the epistle would be ascribed to the Apostle, and here 
 
II THESSALONIANS 2. 2 235 
 
 the idea would be that some officious person may have brought 
 a report of what he asserted Paul had said and thereby disturbed 
 the minds of the Thessalonians. This seems the probable meaning, 
 since after the reference to a prophetic message received by 
 inspiration it is difficult to think what word — clearly distinguished 
 from such a message — could have weight enough to upset the 
 church unless it were attached to apostolic authority. It is 
 conceivable that Paul may have intended to refer to some tra- 
 ditional saying of Christ, or perhaps to some utterance of one of 
 the older apostles. But in that case it is probable that he would 
 have described the source of the word as he proceeds to describe 
 the reputed source of the Epistle. 
 
 epistle as from. 113. Is Paul referring (V to i Thessalonians, 
 or (2) to a known forged epistle, or (3^1 to the possibility of 
 some epistle reporting ideas ascribed to Paul having been received 
 at Thessalonica ? In favour of ( i) it has been remarked that the 
 earlier Epistle refers to Christ coming suddenly 'as a thief in 
 the night' (i Thess. v. 2). Moreover it seems highly improbable 
 that anybody would be forging a letter in the Apostle's name at 
 this early date. Such a letter as is here suggested would not help 
 the cause of the Judaizers, the only people in the early church 
 whom we know to be meddlers in the Apostle's work. That there 
 were men who wished so strongly to make out that Paul taught 
 the immediate advent of Christ that they forged a letter in his 
 name with that object in view is a conception of the history wholly 
 unsupported by evidence from any other quarter, and in itself 
 perplexing, indeed inexplicable. On the other hand, the phrase 
 before us cannot be explained if the Apostle is only referring to his 
 previous Epistle. The word ; as ' is an insuperable difficulty to that 
 view. Why should Paul write 'an epistle as from us' if he meant 
 his own Epistle? Such language must have suggested a different 
 meaning to the readers. And even apart from the word ' as' the 
 phrase is not what one would expect. We know how Paul did 
 refer to previous letters, e. g. in writing to the Corinthians he says 
 with reference to an earlier letter, * I wrote unto you in my epistle ' 
 (1 Cor. v. 9), a perfectly clear, intelligible phrase, quite different 
 from what we have here. Nevertheless there is some difficulty 
 in accepting (2) — the notion of a known forged epistle. Surely the 
 Apostle would not have joined this to a prophetic utterance and 
 a reported saying (represented by 'spirit' and 'word') as though 
 all three means of influence were in some respects similar. That 
 is too mild a treatment for a forgery. We should have looked for 
 indignant denunciation of the impudent crime. Accordingly we 
 come to (3) — the idea that the Apostle imagines that some letter pur- 
 porting to convey his teaching may have reached the Thessalonians. 
 The mention of three possible influences implies that Paul does 
 not know which of them has been the cause of the present trouble 
 
236 II THESSALONIANS 2. 3 
 
 Lord is now present ; let no man beguile you in any 
 wise : for // will not be, except the falling away come 
 first, and the man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition, 
 
 at Thessalonica. He merely surmises that it may have been some 
 such influence as he specifies. Schmiedel points out that the use 
 of the same preposition (din) in all three eases and before the 
 pronoun 'us' docs not suit the supposition that the authorship of 
 the letter was ascribed to Paul. To preserve the identity of 
 phrase we might read ' either by spirit, or by word, or by epistle, 
 as by us.' This might mean that the Thessalonians should not be 
 affected by a prophecy, a word of report, or a letter, as they would 
 be affected by the Apostle himself. 
 
 now present: more accurate than the expression of the A. V. 
 'at hand.' 
 
 3. let no nian beg"uile yon, Sec. It has been said that this 
 Epistle shews a change of mind in the Apostle compared with his 
 views in the earlier letter. But he does not contradict himself. 
 In 1 Thessalonians he had spoken of the sudden coming of Christ, 
 not of its being immediate. Still the tone of the earlier Epistle 
 suggested the nearness of the advent, which the later Epistle 
 explicitly denies. We should rather say that there is a develop- 
 ment of thought. The Apostle had declared the suddenness without 
 going further ; now he advances to fuller details. It is likely that 
 the subject had occupied his thoughts in the interval with the 
 result that he had reached the definite conclusions here stated. 
 
 the falling away. The definite article, appearing in the R.V., 
 points to some expected apostas\' of which Paul knew the Thessa- 
 lonians had heard. Dr. Denney refers the phrase to the Jews 
 because there is no mention of the Christians throughout the 
 passage, treating it as their rejection of Christ. But that was 
 already an accomplished fact. Most commentators take it for 
 a future Christian defection from the faith. The expectation of 
 this might be based on our Lord's prediction that many shall be 
 led astray by false prophets and that ' the love of the many shall 
 wax cold' (Matt. xxiv. 12). 
 
 the man of sin: a Hebraism meaning 'the sinful man.' Cf. 
 'man of Belial' (1 Sam. xxv. 25). The article indicates either 
 (1) 'the pre-eminently sinful man,' or (2) some known person. 
 Verse 5 suggests the latter interpretation. 
 
 sin. The margin of the R.V. substitutes 'lawlessness,' 
 following the Vatican and Sinaitic MSS. and other good authorities, 
 probably the correct reading. This word occurs later, at verse 7. 
 Thus ; the mystery of lawlessness ' must be identified with ' the 
 man oflawlcssncss.' 
 
II THESSALONIANS 2. 4 237 
 
 he that opposeth and exalteth himself against all 4 
 that is called God or that is worshipped; so that he 
 sitteth in the temple of God, setting himself forth as God. 
 
 revealed: implying that he already exists, and may even be 
 present ; but he is hidden from view, or his true nature and 
 character are not yet known. The coming revelation, i. e. the 
 manifestation and declaration of the man of iniquity, corresponds 
 to the revelation of Christ previously mentioned (i. 7), which it is 
 to precede. 
 
 the son of perdition : a Hebraism meaning ' the lost and 
 ruined person, one who is going to perdition.' The expression 
 was applied by Christ to Judas Iscariot in John xvii. 12. Cf. 'son 
 of death ' {2 Sam. xii. 5, marg.), for one doomed to die. 
 
 4. he that opposeth : the negative attitude indicated first. 
 
 exalteth himself. Cf. Dan. xi. 36, l And the king shall do 
 according to his will ; and he shall exalt himself, and magnify 
 himself above every god, and shall speak marvellous things against 
 the God of gods' ; a passage which with its context seems to have 
 been in the Apostle's mind. Thus Daniel is at the root of Paul's 
 apocalypse, as he is at the root of nearly every other apocalypse. 
 In Daniel the reference is to Antiochus Epiphanes, the insolent 
 tyrant who persecuted the Jews and insulted their religion. 
 
 all that is called God : corresponding to ' every god ' in the 
 Daniel passage just cited. This must mean an opposition to 
 religion, not merely to Christianity. 
 
 he sitteth. The words ' as God ' in the A. V. disappear from 
 the text in the R. V., not being found in the best MSS. and 
 versions. 
 
 the temple of God. The word for temple (naos) is that 
 which represents the inner shrine, with the Jews the Holy Place, 
 not the whole temple enclosure (called hieron). Three possible 
 applications of the phrase in this place have been suggested : 
 (1) The Jews' temple at Jerusalem; (2) the Christian church; 
 (3) a pagan centre of worship. (3) is suggested in support of the 
 view that ' the man of iniquity ' is the Roman emperor assuming 
 to be a god and claiming worship. But in that case would Paul 
 write ' the temple,' and add the clause 'of God'? (2) has been 
 supported by an appeal to Paul's conception of the church, as 
 when he writes, 'Ye are a temple of God 1 (1 Cor. iii. 16). But 
 the notion of the man of lawlessness sitting in this temple is 
 somewhat incongruous. We seem therefore to be driven back 
 to (1), the view taken by Irenaeus in the 2nd century (Hcer. v. 
 30. 4), an interpretation which is adopted by those who regard 
 the mysterious personage to represent the Jews in their anti- 
 Christian attitude. It is possible, however, that the phrase ma}' be 
 
?38 II THESSALONIANS 2. ;, 6 
 
 5 Remember ye not, that, when I was yet with you, I told 
 
 6 you these things ? And now ye know that which restrain- 
 ed, to the end that he may be revealed in his own season. 
 
 used in a wide allegorical sense, being, as Mr. Garrod suggests, * a 
 forcible method of shewing that the man of sin will by his own 
 deliberate action usurp the dignity and prerogative of God.' 
 About 15 years before this (a. d. 40") the Emperor Caligula had 
 ordered his statue to be set up in the temple at Jerusalem ; he 
 died before his command was executed v Josephus, Antiq. xviii. 8). 
 setting- himself forth, as God. This well describes the 
 action of the Roman emperors in accepting and even demanding 
 Divine honours. 
 
 5. If this verse is to be taken literallj' Paul is not giving the 
 Thessalonians any fresh information. Probably, however, he 
 means that he had told them generally about these things ; now 
 he is entering more into detail. Possibly the division here 
 indicates that, while hitherto he has recapitulated his personal 
 teaching, what follows contains more fresh instruction. This verse 
 will account in part for the vagueness of the Apostle's language. 
 He assumes that his readers will understand the allusion which 
 in writing he couches in vague terms, perhaps for fear of the 
 letter falling into the hands of enemies. But this very fact of the 
 mutual understanding between writer and readers must make us 
 cautious with our attempts at explanations and lead us not to be 
 surprised if the riddle may seem to us insoluble. We have not 
 the key to the cypher with which the Thessalonians had been 
 supplied. 
 
 6. ye know. Again the reference is to what had passed 
 between the Apostle and the Thessalonians during his stay in 
 their city. 
 
 that which restraineth : a neuter form in the Greek, indicat- 
 ing any restraining influence, in the most indefinite way. In the 
 next verse Paul writes of ' one that restraineth,' and thus indicates 
 that the restraining influence is personal. He uses the same verb 
 in both cases, a fact that was obscured in the A. V. by rendering 
 the word ' withholdeth ' in verse 6 and ' letteth ' in verse 7. This 
 influence or person is restraining the man of lawlessness so that 
 as yet he cannot work his will. 
 
 that he may be revealed : i. e. the man of lawlessness, who 
 is not yet seen because repressed by the restraining power. This 
 mysterious being will be revealed when the restraining influence 
 is removed. 
 
 his own season : the time of the man of lawlessness, when 
 he will have free range and scope to work his evil will. The 
 
II THESSALONIANS 2. 7 239 
 
 For the mystery of lawlessness doth already work : only 7 
 there is one that restrained! now, until he be taken out of 
 
 idea is that some such season is fixed in the order and arrange- 
 ment of things, so that when it arrives the outbreak will appear. 
 It is one of the 'times and seasons' referred to in i Thess. v. i. 
 The date of it cannot be given ; the Apostle does not know that. 
 Even Jesus declared that his knowledge did not extend to a 
 definite date in the future (cf. Mark xiii. 32). Prophecy fore- 
 shadows the future in indicating the development of" principles 
 and their conditional or inevitable consequences, but it does not 
 pre-date the almanack and fill in the future at fixed periods. It 
 predicts what is to occur in time ; it does not define and limit 
 time itself. 
 
 7. mystery. This word is always used in the N. T. for what has 
 been hidden, but is subsequently revealed ; never for that which 
 cannot be understood, in our modern sense of the term. Thus 
 Paul writes, 'Behold, I tell you a mystery' (x Cor. xv. 51), and 
 then proceeds to make a declaration about the resurrection, 
 declaring what had previously been hidden. A nvystery is a 
 revelation. Here the word applies to the restrained power of 
 wickedness, still hidden, but ultimately to be revealed. In view 
 of that coming revelation, and not because it is unintelligible, in 
 our sense of the word ' n^'std-Jous, 1 it is called a mystery. Thus 
 this is another name for the man of lawlessness, or perhaps it 
 represents his power and his doings, which of course will be made 
 evident when he is unmasked. 
 
 doth already work. Though the revelation, the unmasking 
 and manifestation, is future, this evil power is even now at work, 
 undiscovered and unrecognized, or at all events not seen in its 
 naked wickedness. 
 
 one that restraineth : a more definite description of the 
 restraining influence mentioned in the previous verse, now seen 
 to be personal. The word ' let ' in the A. V. is there used in an 
 an old English sense now obsolete, as equivalent to ' hinder ' or 
 ' restrain.' Thus we have it in Shakespeare : — 
 
 ' I'll make a ghost of him that lets me' {Hamlet, Act i. Sc. 4); 
 
 and in Bacon : ' But there must be no alleys with hedges . . . for 
 letting your prospect upon this fair hedge from the green ' (Essay, 
 lxvi). 
 
 There is some difficulty in the construction of the whole sen- 
 tence. The Revisers make good sense by inserting the words 
 • there is ' before ' one that restraineth,' their italics shewing that 
 these words are not in the original. But though the verb ' to be ' 
 
240 II THESSALONIANS 2. 8 
 
 the way. And then shall be revealed the lawless one, 
 whom the Lord Jesus shall slay with the breath of his 
 
 must often be supplied when it can serve as a simple copula, here 
 it appears as the predicate and even as the most emphatic word 
 in the sentence, which is thus made to assert the existence of the 
 lawless one. If Paul had meant that, it is probable that he would 
 have used the word himself. This difficulty is avoided in the 
 A. V., but by supplying other words not in the Greek, viz. 'only 
 he who now letteth, will let,'' &c. — 'will let' being added by the 
 translators. Any such intrusion of foreign elements is escaped 
 by a third rendering, that suggested in the margin of the R. V., 
 viz. 'only until he that now restraineth be taken,' &c, i.e. the 
 mystery of lawlessness is already working in an underground 
 fashion, under restraint. But this malignant activit}' is only to 
 continue till the restraining influence is removed ; for no sooner 
 will that happen than the wicked one being revealed, swift 
 destruction will fall upon him, as the next verse declares. 
 8. And then : when the restraining power is removed. 
 
 revealed : the unveiling, or unmasking mentioned in verse 3. 
 
 the lawless one : evidently the same as • the man of lawless- 
 ness' (verse 3). In the Greek the same root word is used in the three 
 places where different words obscure the meaning in the A. V. : — 
 
 The A.V. The Greek. 
 
 1. Man of sin. 1. Man of lawlessness (correct 
 
 text). 
 
 2. Mystery of iniquity. 2. Mystery of lawlessness. 
 
 3. That lawless. 3. Lawless one. 
 
 the Lord Jesus. The A. V. has only ' the Lord.' The R. V. 
 adds 'Jesus' on important documentary authority, though the 
 good MSS. are divided as to the question of retaining or omitting 
 the word. The Revisers have followed Tischendorf and other 
 critics of the text in inserting it. Thus, while the ambiguity of 
 the word ' Lord ' might have left us in doubt whether God or 
 Christ were intended, the admission of this correction settles the 
 point. It is quite in accordance with N. T. teaching, and with 
 Paul's ideas in particular, that the coming of Christ should be 
 associated with wrath and vengeance. John the Baptist sa3's. 
 1 the chaff he will burn up with unquenchable fire' (Matt. iii. 12) ; 
 Jesus refers to the punishment he will inflict in his parables of 
 judgement (Matt. xxiv. 51, xxv. 30, 46) ; and Paul in this very 
 Epistle describes him as coming 'with the angels of his power in 
 flaming fire, rendering vengeance,' &c. (i. 7, 8\ 
 
 slay: in the best MSS. and therefore substituted for 
 'consume' (A. VA 
 
II THESSALONIANS 2. 9,10 241 
 
 mouth, and bring to nought by the manifestation of his 
 coming ; even he, whose coming is according to the 9 
 working of Satan with all power and signs and lying 
 wonders, and with all deceit of unrighteousness for them 10 
 that are perishing ; because they received not the love 
 
 with the breath of his mouth. The Greek word (pneuma) 
 rendered ' breath ' here in the R. V. is that which usually stands 
 for i spirit' (as in the A. V. here). But the meaning 'breath' 
 best suits the context, and the whole phrase seems to be an echo 
 of Isa. xi. 4, ' with the breath of his lips shall he slay the 
 wicked,' where the same Greek word occurs, and plainly means 
 •breath.' The same expression occurs in Ps. xxxiii. 6, ' By the 
 word of the Lord were the heavens made ; and all the host of 
 them by the breath of his mouth.' The Apostle may be referring 
 to a word of command for the destruction of ' the lawless one,' 
 and the analogy of the passage in the Psalms would suggest that 
 idea. On the other hand, the passage from Isaiah, and the sub- 
 sequent description of the destruction to be brought about by the 
 ' manifestation of his coming.' or presence, point to a metaphorical 
 idea of more direct influence, as though the very breathing of 
 Christ on the great enemy would be sufficient to slay him. 
 
 manifestation: not ' brightness' as in the A. V. The Greek 
 word (epiphaneia) is the original of our word ' Epiphany.' 
 
 9. whose coming 1 . The same word (paronsia) is here used for 
 the ' coming' or ' presence ' of the lawless one that is used for the 
 1 coming ' or ' presence ' of Christ in other parts of the Epistle. 
 
 according' to the working of Satan : i. e. he acts as Satan 
 would act, in agreement with Satan's ways. 
 
 power . . . signs . . . wonders : the three N. T. words for 
 what we call miracles. Thus we have ' he could there do no 
 mighty work* (Mark vi. 5, the Greek word dunamis, rendered 
 ' mighty work,' being the same that is here translated ' power ') ; 
 'Except ye see signs and wonders, ye will in no wise believe' (John 
 \v. 48). But here, since the word ' power ' is in the singular while 
 the other two words are in the plural, the suggestion is that a 
 Satanic power is causing the signs and wonders. 
 
 lying : not mere conjuror's illusions, but real miracles that 
 mislead. 
 
 10. deceit of unrighteousness : a Hebraism, meaning < wicked 
 deceit.' 
 
 them that are perishing : as contrasted with those who 
 are being saved, the people on the broad road that leads to 
 destruction. 
 
 because they received not, &c. : indicating that the perishing 
 
 ( 9 ) R 
 
242 II THESSALONIANS 2. 11,12 
 
 11 of the truth, that they might be saved. And for this 
 cause God sendeth them a working of error, that they 
 
 13 should believe a lie : that they all might be judged who 
 believed not the truth, but had pleasure in unright- 
 eousness. 
 
 of these people is due to their own fault in refusing to cherish love 
 for the truth. The}- would have been saved if they had done so. 
 
 the love of the truth. This may mean either (r) the love of 
 truth in general, or (2) the love of the specific truth contained 
 in the teaching of Christ and the apostles, the truths of the 
 Christian faith. The latter meaning is most in accordance with 
 Paul's use of the word, e. g. ' who did hinder you that ye should 
 not obey the truth?' (Gal. v. 7), where the context shews that 
 ' the truth' stands for the Christian teaching as opposed to Judaism 
 (cf. 2 Cor. iv. 2, xiii. 8;. Nevertheless perhaps the first meaning — 
 the love of truth in general — should be preferred here because 
 (a) it is contrasted with belief in a lie ^ verse 11), and (b) it seems 
 to be referred to later when we read of belief of the truth (verse 
 13, see note). The idea is not that these people are lost because 
 they have never heard of this truth of the gospel, as is the case 
 with the heathen world, nor because they are unable to understand 
 it or believe in it, but because they do not love truth and therefore 
 come to reject the Christian message. Thus the cause of their ruin 
 is moral, not intellectual. 
 
 11. for this cause : i.e. because they shewed this disposition 
 of aversion to the truth. 
 
 God sendeth them, &c. Two points must be noted in regard 
 to this assertion : (1) The state of confusion with erroneous ideas 
 is distinctly described as coming from God ; (2) this is so because 
 the people who are afflicted with it have first of all deliberately 
 shut themselves out from sympathy with the Christian truth. We 
 can understand this better if we translate it into terms of natural 
 law, since that is what we can more immediately perceive, while at 
 the same time we regard it as the expression of the Divine will. 
 Those people who harden themselves against Christian truth will 
 suffer the penalty of their perverse conduct by becoming the 
 victims of delusion. The specific delusion here suggested is faith 
 in the evil power called ' the man of lawlessness ' and a credulous 
 acceptance of his 'lying wonders.' 
 
 12. judged: not 'damned,' as in the A. V. ; the word only 
 describes the process of judgement. Still in the N. T. it is 
 generally used where an adverse judgement, a condemnation, 
 is implied. Plainly that is so here. 
 
 who believed not the truth. The unbelievers are to be 
 
II THESSALONIANS 2. 12 243 
 
 condemned, but not simply for unbelief; the cause of that unbelief, 
 lias been clearly indicated already, and it is again described in the 
 clause that follows, as in itself morally culpable. We are not to 
 infer from this that all unbelief flows from a morally culpable 
 source. The Apostle is only referring to the doom of the victims 
 of the delusion introduced by ' the man of lawlessness.' 
 
 the truth. The word truth must be taken generally through- 
 out the passage for that which is true. Still the Apostle has the 
 message of the gospel in mind, and to the general sense of the word 
 truth must be added here the mental associations of the special 
 Christian truth. 
 
 pleasure in unrighteousness : the correlative of not re- 
 ceiving the love of the truth ; a further confirmation of the idea that 
 the unbelief and the state of delusion in question spring from 
 culpably moral sources. The phrases of this sentence are dis- 
 tinctly balanced: those 'who believed not the truth' are the 
 people who ' had pleasure in unrighteousness.' 
 
 Note. — This is one of the most perplexing passages in the N. T. 
 A volume might be written on the history of the views that have 
 been advocated concerning it. The following are the most 
 conspicuous, turning chiefly on the identification of 'the man 
 of sin.' (1) Some personage in history prophetically indicated — 
 Mahomet, according to the Greek church ; the Pope, according to 
 the Preface of the A. V. (in 1611); Napoleon; modern Atheism, &c. 
 (2) Some contemporary personage, perhaps Caligula, if Paul was re- 
 ferring to the mad emperor's attempt to thrust his image into the 
 temple at Jerusalem ; or Nero, but if so with a later date for the 
 Epistle than allows it to be written by Paul. (3) The persecuting 
 Jewish authorities personified as one malignant enemy. This view 
 is largely advocated in the present day. The Jews had been Paul's 
 great opponents at Thessalonica and they were the instigators of 
 the persecution of the Christians in that city. That some contem- 
 porary power or person is intended seems clear from the use 
 of the present tense ' opposeth, 1 'exalteth,' 'sitteth,' ' doth already 
 work ' ; the same applies to the restraining influence which * now 
 letteth.' Thus interpretations of the first kind must be excluded, 
 as indeed they should be excluded in any case, because it is 
 a mistaken view of prophecy to regard it as ' history written 
 before the event,' with definite references to distinct human 
 personages. Further, in favour of the third view we have the 
 reference to the temple of God. This would seem to be the 
 Jerusalem temple, the only temple Paul, a Jew, could so describe ; 
 and the Jewish authorities had possession of it. The language 
 is suspiciously strong here, and the phrase ' setting himself forth 
 as God ' which would well fit a Roman emperor could not be 
 applied literally to the Jews. Still in a figurative sense Paul 
 might use it for the dogmatic assumption of the Jews to judge and 
 
 K 2 
 
244 II THESSALONIANS 2. 12 
 
 condemn all who differed from them. We can hardly think that 
 he would write so strongly to denunciation of a Roman emperor, 
 because everywhere else he treats the imperial government with 
 respect and speaks well of it. Then if the * man of sin ' represents 
 the Jewish authorities, the 'one that restraineth ' will be easily 
 interpreted as the Roman government. Again and again Paul was 
 protected by the civil power from the attacks of the Jewish mob, 
 and he saw in this government the authority which held back the 
 malignity of persecuting Jews. Here he foresees a time when 
 that restraint will be removed. It did not happen in his own 
 lifetime, but it came about in the revolt of Bar Cochbar, in the 
 reign of Hadrian, whose temporal overthrow of the Roman 
 government in Palestine resulted in a persecution of the Christians 
 of that district. That something of the kind must happen Paul 
 felt sure. Nevertheless this interpretation is not wholly satisfac- 
 tory. The reference to miracles wrought by the power of Satan 
 is obscure. Besides, the Apostle's language would suit one definite 
 person better than the personification of the Jewish authorities. 
 The origin of the phraseology is to be found in the Book of Daniel ; 
 and there the opponent is a person, Antiochus Epiphanes. Pos- 
 sibly the Apostle is thinking of some great enemy of Christianity 
 whom he expects to appear, corresponding to the ' Antichrist ' of 
 John and later writers, if ' Antichrist ' is indeed one person. But 
 there is doubt on that point, for John seems to use the title ' Anti- 
 christ ' generically for any violent opposers of Christ (cf. 1 John 
 ii. 18, 22, iv. 3). The use of the present tense, and in particular 
 the expression about sitting ; .n the temple, do not well suit the 
 conception of a purely ideal apocalyptic figure. Some more 
 distinct idea, recognizable by the Thessalonians at the time, seems 
 to be indicated. On the whole, therefore, the third interpretation 
 given above seems to be the most probable, though there is 
 considerable doubt on the question. According to this view the 
 passage would be explained as follows : — Do not be deceived. 
 Christ will not come yet. First there will be a falling away of 
 some of the Christians ; then the full malignity of the Jewish 
 power will be made manifest. It is very haughty and insolent 
 now, claiming the temple as its own and assuming the authority 
 of God ; but for the present the Roman government restrains it. 
 When that restraining influence is removed it will break out with 
 full violence. But then Christ will come and destroy it. 
 
 If it is asked, Why did not the Apostle write more plainly ? the 
 answer must be that he adopted the enigmatic symbolism of the 
 apocalyptic style for the same reason that led other apocalyptic 
 writers to use it, namely, because more open language was 
 dangerous. The Christians at Thessalonica were surrounded 
 by Jewish enemies, and perhaps watched by Jewish spies. 
 While he was with them Paul had said enough to make his 
 
II THESSALONIANS 2. 13 245 
 
 But we are bound to give thanks to God alway for 13 
 you, brethren beloved of the Lord, for that God chose 
 
 meaning when writing this letter clear — for he here refers to that 
 earlier teaching. As we have not the key we must be content to 
 leave the passage in some obscurity. After all, though of intense 
 interest to the Thessalonians, it is not of much importance for us 
 in the present day, since it refers to events which now lie far 
 back in the primitive history of the church, rather than to those 
 eternal principles which we prize as the treasures of inspired 
 Scripture. 
 
 ii. 13-17. Further thanksgiving and exhortation. Returning 
 to a phrase employed in the earlier part of the Epistle (i. 3), the 
 Apostle again declares that he must thank God for choosing the 
 Thessalonians and calling them by means of the gospel. He 
 exhorts them to steadfastness in accordance with the truths they 
 have received from him, and prays that Christ and God may cheer 
 and establish them. 
 
 13. we: an emphatic word in the Greek text, implying a con- 
 trastwith others previously mentioned. The Greek pronoun wasnot 
 given in the parallel passage (i. 3) as it was not usual to write 
 it except for emphasis, and this fact makes the insertion of it here 
 the more significant. We should rather have expected the 
 emphasis to have been laid on the word ' you,' contrasting the 
 redeemed Thessalonians with the abandoned persons just described. 
 But we must understand Paul to mean that as to himself and his 
 companion missionaries, for their part, they have good grounds 
 for thankfulness, while the miserable people of whom he has been 
 writing can have no such reasons for congratulating themselves. 
 
 beloved of the Lord : an additional description, not found in 
 the earlier passage (i. 3 1 ), contrasting the Thessalonians with the 
 unhappy people on whom God ' sendeth an error,' though it is to 
 be observed that the difference is not arbitrary, since if those 
 reprobates seem to be hardly dealt with by God it is as the conse- 
 quence of their own fault in refusing to entertain the love of the 
 truth — ' And for this cause God sendeth them a working of error ' 
 (verse 11). Conversely we must not set down God's love to the 
 Thessalonian Christians as a mark of partiality. That too must 
 have had its selective cause. 
 
 chose. This choice comes previous to the salvation and faith 
 of the Thessalonians in which it issues. Apart from a mysterious 
 theological conception of ' election ' there is a plain historical fact 
 which illustrates this idea. The gospel was preached effectually 
 in Thessalonica, as it was not yet preached in many other places, 
 and that was a consequence of the providential ordering of events 
 and also of the special guidance of the missionaries by the Spirit of 
 
246 II THESSALONIANS 2. 14 
 
 you from the beginning unto salvation in sanctification of 
 14 the Spirit and belief of the truth: whereunto he called 
 
 God. Paul may be alluding to these obvious facts. Still he goes 
 behind them to a previous Divine purpose and action. A gloss 
 which has crept into some of the MSS., including the great 
 Vatican MS., probably from the margin, though most critics 
 do not accept it as part of the original text, ma} 7 serve as an 
 admirable explanation. This consists of the addition of the words 
 'as firstfruits.' In point of fact that is what the Divine choice of 
 the Thessalonians amounted to. They were chosen thus early in 
 the preaching of the gospel, but not to the exclusion of other 
 believers who would come in later, only as the firstfruits of 
 a large harvest. 
 
 from the beginning 1 : i.e. the beginning of all things, when 
 God laid out His plans for the ordering of human affairs. Thus 
 Christ speaks of k the kingdom prepared for you from the 
 foundation of the world' (Matt. xxv. 34) and Paul writes, * He 
 chose us in him before the foundation of the world' (Eph. i. 4). 
 For the phrase cf. Gen. i. 1; Prov. viii. 22; John i. 1. 
 
 unto salvation: as the end to be attained, not yet realized 
 cf. Rom. xiii. n). 
 
 in : or ' by means of,' a common Hebraism. 
 
 sanctification. See note on 1 Thess. iv. 3. 
 
 of the Spirit. This might mean ( 1) the human spirit, with 
 reference to the consecrating and purifying of the spirits of 
 Christians, as implied by the A. V. ' spirit.' But (2) probably the 
 R. V. is correct in printing the word ' Spirit ' with a capital ' S ' to 
 suggest the Holy Spirit. It is usual to refer to sanctification 
 as brought about by the Spirit of God. In 1 Pet. i. 2 we have 
 this phrase 'in sanctification of the Spirit 'associated with references 
 to God the Father and Jesus Christ, making it clear that there the 
 word Spirit stands for the Holy Spirit. 
 
 the truth. There is no article before the word ' truth ' in 
 the Greek, which shews that Paul does not mean the specific 
 truth of the gospel, but truth generally. We have here a 
 manifest contrast between the Christians who have 'belief of the 
 truth' and the deceived persons referred to in the previous 
 paragraph who are subject to ' a working of error, that they should 
 believe a lie' (cf. notes on verses 10 and 12). 
 
 14. whereunto : to the salvation just referred to. 
 
 called : subsequently to the choosing mentioned in the previous 
 verse. Cf. ' whom he foreordained, them he also called ' (Rom. 
 viii. 30). This call came in the preaching of the gospel by Paul 
 and his companions. There is no hint of any other call, any 
 mvsterious call in the interior life. 
 
II THESSALONIANS 2. 15, 16 247 
 
 you through our gospel, to the obtaining of the glory of 
 our Lord Jesus Christ. So then, brethren, stand fast, 15 
 and hold the traditions which ye were taught, whether 
 by word, or by epistle of ours. 
 
 Now our Lord Jesus Christ himself, and God our 16 
 
 our gospel : the gospel we preached. 
 
 to the obtaining", &c. : the end and purpose of the call, as 
 salvation is the end and purpose of the choosing. Christians are 
 chosen to be saved and called to share in the glory of Christ. 
 
 the glory of our I»ord Jesus Christ : the splendour and 
 honour which belong to Christ now that he is exalted to the 
 right hand of God. Christians are called to participate in this 
 glory. Cf. 'enter thou into the joy of thy lord' (Matt. xxv. 21), 
 where the faithful servant's reward is to be a sharing in his 
 Master's joy. 
 
 15. So then: a strong phrase in the Greek, and a favourite 
 one with Paul. The greatness of the privileges just enumerated 
 is a reason for steadfastness, in spite of the discouragement of 
 present trials. 
 
 stand fast. The Greek is simply 'stand/ meaning 'do not 
 be moved by the flood of adverse influences/ 'hold your ground 
 in spite of all opposition.' 
 
 traditions : not of course ancient sayings handed down 
 from one to another, in our modern sense of the word ' tradition/ 
 but simply ' what has been conveyed to you.' This would consist 
 of the substance of the gospel truths (cf. 1 Cor. xi. 2). A verbal 
 form of the same term is used in Paul's words introducing his 
 account of the Lord's Supper : ' I received of the Lord that which 
 also I delivered unto 3 T ou ' (1 Cor. xi. 23). Mr. Garrod refers the 
 'traditions' especially to teaching about the Second Advent, 
 but it is better to take the word more comprehensively for all 
 the apostolic teaching of the Thessalonians. 
 
 taught. There had been more than preaching, a general 
 proclamation of the gospel. The missionaries had taken pains to 
 instruct their converts in the truths of the faith. 
 
 by word : oral teaching when Paul and his companions Were 
 at Thessalonica. 
 
 by epistle : a letter written to the Thessalonians. Probably 
 the reference is to our previous Epistle. 
 
 16. himself. This word holds the most emphatic position in 
 the Greek text. Thus it lays special stress on the appeal to 
 Christ himself to help his people. This and the following verses 
 are closely parallel to 1 Thess. iii. 11-13 ; but there the words run 
 k Now may our God and Father himself, and our Lord Jesus/ &c, 
 
2 4 8 II THESSALONIANS 2. 17 
 
 Father which loved us and gave us eternal comfort 
 7 and good hope through grace, comfort your hearts and 
 stablish them in every good work and word. 
 
 and the word 'himself is in the same emphatic position as 
 here, and yet it refers to God the Father. It cannot be that 
 the changed application of the emphasis is meant to mark a 
 contrast between God and Christ, that in the First Epistle God 
 Himself more especially, and in the Second Christ himself more 
 especially, are invoked. A comparison between the two passages 
 shews that, whether Christ or God be thus emphatically named, 
 the thought is of heavenly influences coming directly down ; 
 no mere human or angelic ministry would suffice. Still there 
 must be a reason for the change of order, especially as it is 
 contrary to the custom of the Apostle, who generally writes 
 the name of Christ after that of God when he introduces both 
 names. Probably the previous reference to the coming of Christ 
 and his glory led the Apostle to name Christ first here. He 
 follows a similar order in the benediction at the end of 
 2 Corinthians, a benediction that has been adopted by the 
 churches in preference to all other Scripture forms of blessing : 
 'The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God,' &c. 
 (2 Cor. xiii. 14). 
 
 which.: i.e. God our Father. The relative pronoun is in the 
 singular, and therefore does not stand for both Christ and God our 
 Father. 
 
 loved : the ground of all that follows. 
 
 us: the Apostle now including himself with his readers. 
 
 gave. The verb is in the aorist tense, referring to a 
 specific act in the past. This must be the gift of grace in the 
 very institution of the gospel by the sending of Christ with all 
 its consequent blessings. That was done once for all ; the gift 
 was then made, though the individual reception of it is a matter 
 of time and is repeated again and again. 
 
 eternal comfort: better than 'everlasting consolation' as 
 in the A. V., for the word rendered ' comfort ' stands for general 
 cheering and encouragement, and not only the relief of sorrow 
 (cf. note on 1 Thess. iii. 2). 
 
 good. Grimm gives this passage as an instance of the Greek 
 word (agathos) rendered 'good,' meaning 'pleasant, agreeable, 
 joyful, happy.' Cf. Titus ii. r3, 'the blessed hope.' 
 
 through grace: to be connected with the verb 'gave.' 
 It was by His grace that God gave these rich gifts. 
 17. comfort. Cf. note on 1 Thess. iii. 2. 
 
 hearts: the inner life generally, thought, feeling, and will, 
 according to the Hebrew idiom. 
 
II THESSALONIANS 3. 1-3 249 
 
 Finally, brethren, pray for us, that the word of the 3 
 Lord may run and be glorified, even as also it is with you ; 
 and that we may be delivered from unreasonable and 2 
 evil men ; for all have not faith. But the Lord is faithful, 3 
 
 iii. 1-5. Prayer and confidence. The Apostle requests the 
 prayers of his readers for the progress of his missionary work 
 and his deliverance from vexatious opponents. The Lord being 
 faithful will establish and preserve them. Paul is confident that 
 the Thessalonians will obey his directions; he prays that they 
 may love God, and patiently wait for Christ. 
 
 1. Finally. See note on 1 Thess. iv. 1. 
 pray for us. Cf. 1 Thess. v. 25. 
 
 the word of the Lord. See note on 1 Thess. i. 8. 
 the Lord: Jesus Christ. The title is often expressly given 
 to Jesus Christ where he is named in these Epistles (e. g. 
 
 1 Thess. i. 1, 3, ii. 15, 19, iii. 11, 13, iv. 1, 2, v. 9, 23, 28; 
 
 2 Thess. i. 1, 2, 7, 8, 12, ii. 1, 8, 16, iii. 6, 12, i8\ and sometimes 
 evidently intended to apply to him where it stands alone, as where 
 we read of being 'imitators . . . of the Lord' (1 Thess. i. 6), 'the 
 coming of the Lord ' (iv. 15). On the other hand, it is not certainly 
 applied to God the Father anywhere in these Epistles. 
 
 run : make rapid progress by means of swift and unhindered 
 evangelizing (cf. Ps. cxlvii. 15). 
 
 be glorified : by proving its power and grace ; cf . ' they were 
 glad, and glorified the word of God ' (Acts xiii. 48). 
 
 2. unreasonable and evil men. If this Epistle were written 
 later, in the period when the Epistle to the Galatians was 
 written, we might take the people here referred to for the 
 Judaizing Christians who sheltered under the name of James, 
 and became the jealous opponents of Paul's liberalism. But 
 there is no indication that these men were molesting the Apostle 
 in Greece so early as this. Probably he means the Jews who did 
 not accept Christianity at all. Both in Macedonia and at Corinth 
 the most bitter antagonism came from Jews. Paul might call 
 Jewish Christians ' unreasonable men,' but he would not describe 
 them as also 'evil men.' 
 
 all have not faith. This sentence might favour the idea 
 that the men just referred to were Jewish Christians lacking 
 in faith, if it had not been excluded on ether grounds ; for it 
 would seem superfluous to say that 'all' have not what as yet is 
 possessed by but a small minority. Therefore Mr. Garrod suggests 
 that the word 'all' here does not apply to the world at large, 
 but means 'all the Jews'; that, however, is scarcely possible 
 since the Jews have not been named. The phrase is a reminder 
 
256 IT THESSALONIAKS 3. 4,5 
 
 who shall stablish you, and guard you from the evil one. 
 
 4 And we have confidence in the Lord touching you, that 
 ye both do and will do the things which we command. 
 
 5 And the Lord direct your hearts into the love of God, 
 and into the patience of Christ. 
 
 that, however successful the gospel may be at certain places, there 
 are still those who do not accept it. 
 
 faith. The margin of the R. V. has l the faith ' which would 
 mean 'the Christian religion,' but the term is not used in this 
 sense so early. It must mean 'faith' as a subjective condition, 
 i.e. faith in Christ. 
 
 3. the Lord. See note on verse i. 
 
 faithful. In the Greek this word comes immediately after 
 the word 'faith,' and thus a sharp antithesis is marked. All men 
 have not faith. But there is faithfulness in Christ. 
 
 the evil one. The Revisers have given this expression in 
 place of the abstract word 'evil' in the A. V., just as they have 
 done with the same Greek form in the Lord's Prayer (Matt. vi. 13). 
 This Greek term admits of either meaning according as it is taken 
 as a neuter or as a masculine. In favour of the Revisers' correction 
 we have (1) the more frequent use of the word in the masculine 
 to indicate Satan. Cf. ' the fiery darts of the evil one' (Eph. vi. 16; ; 
 'ye have overcome the evil one' (r John ii. 13. 14); 'Cain was 
 of the evil one' (Hi; 12) ; 'the evil one toucheth him not' v. 18 : 
 4 the whole world lieth in the evil one ' (verse 19). (2) The analogy 
 of the Lord's Prayer, the similarity of phrase here suggesting that 
 perhaps the Apostle had that prayer in mind. (3) The contrast 
 between the Lord as a person who protects and Satan as a person 
 who would hurt. In his previous Epistle the Apostle had written 
 of Satan acting as a hindrance (i Thess. ii. 18). The suggestion 
 that 'the evil one' is 'the man of sin' cannot be sustained, seeing 
 that the phrase is well known elsewhere as a name of Satan. Paul's 
 thought here reminds us of his words in the previous Epistle, 
 'lest by any means the tempter had tempted you' (r Thess. iii. 5). 
 
 4. confidence in the Lord : that Christ will lead the Thessa- 
 lonians to carry out the precepts of Christian teaching. 
 
 5. the Lord. See note on verse 1. 
 
 hearts: Hebraism for the whole inner life of thought, 
 emotion, and will. 
 
 the love of God. This may mean either (1) God's love to 
 us, or (a) our love to God. Probably the latter is the meaning 
 here, because it suits the context best, (a) It is more natural 
 to think of our hearts being so directed that we come to love God 
 than that thev should be directed into God's love for us. b The 
 
II THESSALONIANS 3. tS 251 
 
 Now we command you, brethren, in the name of our 6 
 Lord Jesus Christ, that ye withdraw yourselves from 
 every brother that walketh disorderly, and not after the 
 
 analogy of the companion phrase ' the patience of Christ ' leads to 
 the conclusion that both should be taken subjectively, for conditions 
 of our minds. 
 
 the patience of Christ. If ' the love of God ' meant the 
 love that is in God's heart, we should be compelled to understand 
 'the patience of Christ' to be the grace of patience exercised by 
 Christ. In itself that would seem to be the natural signification 
 of the phrase, just as we have ! the patience of Job' (Jas. v. n). 
 With this sense the passage would consist of a prayer that 
 God would lead us to imitate the patience revealed in the example 
 of Christ when he was cruelly treated. On the other hand, this 
 thought has nothing elsewhere in the Epistle to introduce it. The 
 Apostle has not been writing about the patient behaviour of Jesus 
 when he was on earth. But the dominant theme of both Epistles 
 is the Second Coming of Christ. This, however, was expected by 
 the Thessalonians to be seen immediately, and the consequence 
 was considerable disarrangement of their life and conduct. They 
 should learn patience in waiting for the great consummation. 
 The chief purpose of our Epistle is to inculcate patience with 
 that end ill view. For this reason probably patience with regard 
 to Christ and his coming is the idea intended by the expression. 
 
 iii. 6-15. Admonition against disorderly conduct. The Thessa- 
 lonians are solemnly commanded to withdraw from disorderly 
 Christians and follow the example of Paul who supported himself 
 when among them by his own manual labour. If a man declines 
 to work he is not to be allowed to live on the funds of the church. 
 Busybodies are exhorted to earn their own living, and that quietly. 
 Any one who will not obey what the Apostle commands in this 
 Epistle is to be shunned, yet admonished in a brotherly way. 
 
 6. in the name of: by the authority of, as an ambassador 
 
 speaks in his sovereign's name and so with his sovereign's authority. 
 
 withdraw yourselves : a more kindly and seemly idea than 
 
 the notion of expelling a faulty member or suspending his member. 
 
 ship. 
 
 walketh disorderly. The negative character of this conduct 
 is indicated by the words immediately following ; it consists in 
 divergence from the apostolic precepts. Its positive features may 
 be learnt from the subsequent directions, which imply that there 
 were people in the church at Thessalonica who neglected their 
 daily work, depending for their support on the charity of their 
 fellow members. These idlers went about making mischief by 
 
2 5 2 II THESSALONIANS 3. 7, s 
 
 7 tradition which they received of us. For yourselves 
 know how ye ought to imitate us : for we behaved not 
 
 8 ourselves disorderly among you ; neither did we eat 
 bread for nought at any man's hand, but in labour and 
 travail, working night and day, that we might not burden 
 
 interfering in other people's affairs. The expectation of the 
 immediate return of Christ was disarranging the daily course 
 of life and duty. Warning against this same disorderly conduct 
 had been given in the previous Epistle (cf. r Thess. iv. n). 
 Nevertheless the evil had grown worse during the interval 
 between the two Epistles, for while in the first letter Paul simply 
 exhorts the church in one brief sentence net to fall into such 
 conduct, here he specifically mentions persons who are behaving 
 in the way he has condemned and devotes a whole paragraph to 
 a discussion of the mischievous state of affairs. The very enthu- 
 siasm that the new religion has introduced has led some people 
 to neglect the prosaic affairs of daily work, and the new spirit 
 of brotherhood has been imposed upon b}' idlers who are glad to 
 avail themselves of the generosity of their fellow members so as 
 to escape the necessity of working for their own living. 
 
 tradition. See note on ii. 15. 
 
 they. This pronoun is adopted by the textual critics as 
 required by the best MS. authority. There are no ancient MSS. 
 in support of the reading ■ he ' which stands in the A. V.. evidently 
 as a correction of the text, since in strict grammar it is more 
 suitable than the plural. Some very ancient MSS. (including 
 the great Vatican codex B) have 'ye,' which therefore must 
 be allowed as a possible alternative. 
 
 7. Ct\ 1 Thess. ii. 10. 
 
 8. labour : hard work. 
 
 travail: toil in face of difficulties. 
 
 working": tent-making cf. Acts xviii. 3). 
 
 night and day. If the Apostle was supporting himself by 
 manual labour while at the same time he was preaching the 
 gospel, founding the church, and training his converts, he must 
 have been very fully occupied. We may suppose that after 
 meeting the church in the early morning, and conversing with 
 strangers and preaching the gospel during the daytime, he would 
 have to sit long into the night sewing the harsh goat-hair cloth 
 of which tents were made. It is said that the craft of tent- 
 making was but poorly paid. The Apostle laboured so much in 
 this way that he had the industrial worker's hands with their 
 marks of toil, as he seems to have implied when, perhaps holding 
 them out before his hearers, he said to the Ephesian elders, 
 
II THESSALONIANS 3. 9-12 253 
 
 any of you : not because we have not the right, but to 9 
 make ourselves an ensample unto you, that ye should 
 imitate us. For even when we were with you, this we 10 
 commanded you, If any will not work, neither let him 
 eat. For we hear of some that walk among you dis- u 
 orderly, that work not at all, but are busybodies. Now 12 
 them that are such we command and exhort in the 
 
 ' Ye yourselves know that these hands ministered unto my 
 necessities, and to them that were with me' (Acts xx. 34). The 
 last clause of this quotation shews that the Apostle supported, 
 or helped to support, his fellow missionaries. 
 
 that we mig-ht not burden any of you: the motive for 
 undertaking this manual work. The Apostle was not unwilling 
 to accept the means of support when this was freely given him. 
 The Philippians sent him contributions to Thessalonica (Phil. iv. 
 16), Corinth (2 Cor. xi. 9;, and Rome (Phil. iv. 14). 
 
 9. Paul recognized the right of the Christian teacher to be 
 maintained by those who enjoy the benefit of his instructions (cf. 
 1 Thess. ii. 6 ; 1 Cor. ix. 3-12). The Apostle had this right ; but 
 he did not use it, in order as he says, f that we may cause no 
 hindrance to the gospel of Christ ' (verse 12). The right was 
 recognized by Christ (Matt. x. 9, 10). 
 
 an ensample : in industry and independence. 
 
 imitate us : in this particular of working for your own living. 
 
 10. even when we were with, you: shewing that even then 
 the Apostle perceived the danger of the selfish indolence he is 
 here condemning. 
 
 this we commanded you : i. e. the command that follows. 
 If any, &c. Idlers are not to be fed from the funds of the 
 church. 
 
 11. we hear: evidently reports that had reached the Apostle 
 after the time of writing the previous Epistle ; therefore not 
 brought by Timothy (1 Thess. hi. 6). 
 
 work not . . . are busybodies. In the Greek these expressions 
 are represented by two very similar words. We might say ' busy- 
 bodies not minding their own business.' 
 
 12. command: with apostolic authority. 
 
 exhort in the Lord Jesus Christ : urge and plead on the 
 ground of their relation to Jesus Christ and for his sake, that his 
 name be not dishonoured, and that his grace be recognized by 
 diligence in work to please him. This is raising the duty of 
 daily work to the rank of Christian service. It is a Christian 
 duty to be gaining an honest, independent livelihood. 
 
254 II THESSALONIANS 3. 13, 14 
 
 Lord Jesus Christ, that with quietness they work, and 
 
 13 eat their own bread. But ye, brethren, be not weary in 
 
 14 well-doing. And if any man obeyeth not our word by 
 this epistle, note that man, that ye have no company 
 
 with, quietness: in opposition to the noisy, fussy behaviour 
 of the busybodies. 
 
 their own bread: which they have earned, not the bread of 
 their fellow members, taken by an abuse of Christian brotherly 
 kindness. 
 
 13. Bnt ye, brethren: the rest of the church, as distinct from 
 the idlers and busybodies. 
 
 well-doing. Chrysostom understood this to refer to the work 
 of Christian charity in relieving the poor, the abuse of which by 
 the idlers would tend to check it altogether. But there is no 
 evidence that the word was ever used in that limited sense. In 
 the LXX it is used of doing good generally as opposed to doing 
 evil : thus we read, ' to do evil, or to do good' (Lev. v. 4). This 
 is the only meaning in the Grimm-Thayer Dictionary, and it 
 is adopted by most modern commentators here, e. g. Ellicott, 
 Schmiedel, Garrod. The antithesis is to the conduct of the 
 idlers. They have grown weary of work. To the church at large 
 the Apostle gives this admonition not to follow their evil example. 
 The saying is repeated in Gal. vi. 9. though with a slight variation 
 in the Greek terms. 
 
 14. This sentence seems simple enough ; and yet three distinct 
 interpretations of it have been maintained, viz. (1) Joining the 
 phrase by this epistle to the words that follow, 'note that man by 
 means of this epistle,' i. e. ' use the epistle as a standard and rule 
 by which to prove the unworthiness of his behaviour.' This is an 
 unlikely meaning. To write of noting a man by an epistle is 
 a strange expression, (al) Translating the phrase ' by the epistle ' 
 and understanding it to refer to an epistle the Apostle is expecting 
 to receive from Thessalonica, in which, as he directs, his corre- 
 spondents are to give him the offender's name. This also is 
 improbable, seeing that we have not met with the slightest allusion 
 to the Apostle's expectation of any such letter. (3) We come there- 
 fore to the third interpretation : associating the phrase ' by this 
 epistle ' with the preceding words. This gives good sense and is 
 the meaning suggested by the punctuation of both the A. V. and 
 the R. V. Thus the reference is to anybody who is disobedient to 
 what Paul has just been saying in this Epistle, especially concerning 
 his rebuke of indolence and his directions about honest industry. 
 If any man will not follow out these directions, but will continue to 
 behave as an idle busybody, his fellow church members are not 
 to associate with him. There is no indication of a formal act of 
 
II THESSALONIANS 3. 15, 16 255 
 
 with him, to the end that he may be ashamed. And 15 
 yet count him not as an enemy, but admonish him 
 as a brother. 
 
 Now the Lord of peace himself give you peace at 16 
 all times in all ways. The Lord be with you all. 
 
 censure, much less can we see here a rule for excommunication. 
 Quiet withdrawal from friendly intercourse is all that is suggested. 
 This silent rebuke should lead the offender to be ashamed of his 
 conduct. 
 
 15. The offender is to be treated in a Christian spirit. The 
 church is not to forget that he is still a brother. Therefore he 
 should receive kindly admonition. Cf. Christ's directions for the 
 treatment of an offending brother (Matt, xviii. 15-17). 
 
 iii. 16-18. Benediction and salutation. Drawing to a conclusion 
 the Apostle prays for abiding peace and Christ's presence to be 
 enjoyed by his readers. He adds the token of a salutation in his 
 own handwriting and ends with the benediction. 
 
 16. the Lord of peace : probably meaning 'God,' because of 
 the parallel phrase in the earlier Epistle — ' the God of peace ' 
 (1 Thess. v. 23; see note on that verse). But Mr. Garrod 
 understands the phrase to refer to Christ, as 'the Lord' represents 
 Christ elsewhere in our Epistle. Paul does not seem to discriminate 
 between God and Christ in this place. 
 
 give you peace : not meaning the ceasing of divisions and 
 quarrels. None such existed at Thessalonica. The irregularities 
 referred to had not issued in any breach of the peace. In 
 Hebrew the word rendered 'peace' also means 'welfare.' It 
 has something of this wider meaning in the N. T. The Apostle 
 desires for his readers true welfare in peacefulness of soul 
 and life. 
 
 at all times : even times of trial, such as the Thessalonians 
 had to pass through. 
 
 in all ways : by all sorts of leadings of Providence, all things 
 working together for the good of God's people. 
 
 The Lord be with, &c. Evidently it is Christ's presence that 
 the Apostle here desires for his friends, since the title ' the Lord ' 
 when standing by itself in this Epistle represents Christ. Thus the 
 Apostle contemplates that presence of Christ with Christians on 
 earth which our Lord himself had promised (cf. Matt, xxviii. 20). 
 
 you all : including in particular (1) Those who were distressed 
 by the death of friends and relatives, (2) those who were upset by 
 the idea of the speedy coming of Christ, (3) those who were 
 especially selected for persecution. 
 
256 II THESSALONIANS 3. 17, 18 
 
 17 The salutation of me Paul with mine own hand, which 
 
 18 is the token in every epistle: so I write. The grace of 
 our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. 
 
 17. mine own hand. These two concluding verses were 
 written by Paul himself, the Epistle having been written as 
 a whole by dictation to an amanuensis. In Rom. xvi. 22 the 
 amanuensis appends his own salutation. 
 
 the token, &c. This expression has been used as a ground 
 for discrediting the genuineness of the Epistle. Certainly it seems 
 strange that the Apostle should have to guard his readers against 
 forged epistles thus early. Is it likely that any such should have 
 been sent to the Thessalonians so soon after the founding of the 
 church? Who would be at the pains to do this ? What would be 
 his motive ? We cannot answer these questions from our limited 
 knowledge. Doubtless there were currents in the life of the early 
 church of which little or no trace has been left in history. We 
 must not forget that Paul had been carrying on his apostolic- 
 labours for some eighteen years when he wrote this Epistle, during 
 much of which time jealous rivals and pronounced antagonists 
 would have been seeking opportunities to hinder him. Then ii. 2 
 suggests the possible existence of a fictitious letter. 
 
 in every epistle. Another difficulty here meets us. This is 
 only the second of the Pauline Epistles. Yet the Apostle writes as 
 though there were quite a number of epistles in which the custom 
 here described was observed. But (1) we do not know but that 
 he may have written several other epistles which have been lost ; 
 (2) he may mean that he has started a custom which he will 
 observe with all subsequent epistles. This is to be the authenti- 
 cation. Though the epistle will be written by an amanuensis it 
 will always conclude with a salutation in Paul's own hand- 
 writing. 
 
 so I write : i. e. these very words and the benediction that 
 follows are written by the Apostle's own hand. 
 
 18. The usual concluding benediction. See note on 1 Thess. v. 
 28. 
 
 all. The one addition to the words of the benediction at the 
 end of the previous Epistle, possibly written here, as at the end of 
 verse 16, for the advantage of those various classes whose troubles 
 or defects have been referred to in the Epistle, especially anybody 
 to whom verses 13 and 14 might apply. No one is to be excluded. 
 May the grace be given to faulty brethren as well as to the more 
 worthy members ! 
 
 The subscription of the A. V. stating that the Epistle was 'written 
 from Athens ' disappears from the R. V. as it certainly was not in 
 the original text. Moreover it is incorrect : see Introduction, p. 5. 
 
THE EPISTLE OF PAUL TO THE 
 
 GALATIANS 
 
 Paul, an apostle (not from men, neither through man, l 
 
 Introductory Statement. 
 
 i. 1-5. Opening salutation. Paul, describing himself as a 
 Divinely appointed apostle, and associating all the Christians 
 who are with him in his greeting to the churches of Galatia, 
 wishes them spiritual prosperity from God and from Christ who 
 gave himself for their deliverance. 
 
 1. apostle: lit. 'one sent,' 'a messenger,' from a Greek root 
 that corresponds to the Latin root of the word ' missionary,' 
 which also means ' one sent.' The word was used in classic 
 Greek for an ambassador, one who represents the sender with 
 some authority, but in the later Greek it is used in its primitive, 
 simple meaning (cf. John xiii. 16, 'one that is sent,' the same 
 Greek word, apostolos, that is elsewhere rendered 'apostle'). 
 It is doubtful whether the word (or its Aramaic equivalent) was 
 used as an official title of the Twelve by Jesus Christ. It is very 
 rarely applied to them in the gospels ; but after the resurrection 
 of Christ, when these men took the lead in the church, it became 
 their recognized title. The word was still sometimes used in 
 a wider and more general sense, and thus applied to Barnabas 
 (Acts xiv. 14), and by Paul, apparently, to two of his friends, 
 Andronicus and Junias, with others (Rom. xvi. 7). Later in the 
 first century it was given to an order of ministry in the church, 
 as we learn from The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, a 
 primitive church manual. But Paul nearly always uses it in the 
 stricter sense as the title of the Twelve, which title with its implied 
 gifts and authority he claims for himself. Plainly that is the 
 meaning here. It occurs in the opening words of all his Epistles 
 except those to his Macedonian friends, the Philippians and the 
 Thessalonians, and the little private letter to Philemon. But 
 nowhere else is it placed so emphatically as in the opening of 
 Galatians. Here it is accompanied by no humbler title, such as 
 
 (9) S 
 
258 TO THE GALATIANS 1. 2 
 
 but through Jesus Christ, and God the Father, who raised 
 2 him from the dead), and all the brethren which are with 
 
 'a servant of Jesus Christ,' which precedes it in Romans (i. 1), 
 and it is followed by words that accentuate its importance. Paul 
 felt it necessary to assert his claims more forcibly when writing 
 to the Galatians than in any other Epistle. The note of authority 
 that pervades this Epistle is struck in its very first words. 
 
 not from men : not of human origin. The source and 
 fountain of his apostleship is not human. Since he was not one 
 of the original Twelve his opponents might assert that this was 
 the case, alluding perhaps to his designation for missionary work 
 by the church at Antioch (see Acts xiii. 2, 3). 
 
 neither through man : better ' a man.' No human agent by 
 ordaining him had conferred on him the grace of apostleship. 
 The first clause refers to the origin of the apostleship, the second 
 to the immediate gift of it. Neither a human source nor human 
 instrumental^ had brought this gift to Paul. 
 
 through Jesus Christ : in antithesis to 'neither through man.' 
 Paul claims to have been appointed directly by Christ himself. 
 
 and God the Father : in antithesis to ■ not from men.' The 
 original source of the apostleship is in God, His will and grace. 
 It is always taught by Paul that the primary disposal of men's 
 lives and destinies is with God the Father, rather than with Jesus 
 Christ. Paul does not here say when and how he received his 
 apostolic mission, but further on (verse 15) his reference to his 
 conversion leads us to think that it was at the same time, i. e. in 
 the amazing experience that befell him on the road to Damascus 
 (Acts ix). 
 
 who raised him, &c. It is the teaching of Paul generally 
 not that Jesus rose, by himself, in his own power, but that it was 
 God who raised him from the dead (cf. Rom. iv. 24 ; 1 Cor. vi. 14, 
 xv. 15 ; 2 Cor. iv. 14. &c), as it is also the teaching of the N. T. 
 generally (cf. Acts iii. 15, iv. 10; 1 Pet. i. 21). The subject is 
 here introduced to account for Paul's claim to have been appointed 
 by God through Christ, although he had not been associated with 
 our Lord during his earthly life, like the other apostles. He had 
 been called by the risen Christ and his appointment came from 
 the same source as Christ's resurrection, the supreme authority 
 of God. 
 
 2. and all the brethren, &c. The question as to who these 
 brethren might have been depends on the date and place of writing 
 the Epistle (see Introduction, p. 87 ff.). Lightfoot, supposing 
 it to be written from Macedonia or Achaia during Paul's second 
 tour through those parts, considers that the company perhaps 
 included Timothy (2 Cor. i. 1), Erastus (Acts xix. 22), Titus and 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 1. 3,4 259 
 
 me, unto the churches of Galatia : Grace to you and peace 3 
 from God the Father, and our Lord Jesus Christ, who 4 
 gave himself for our sins, that he might deliver us out 
 of this present evil world, according to the will of our 
 
 two brethren from Corinth (2 Cor. viii. 16-24), anc * possibly 
 Tychicus and Trophimus (Acts xx. 4, 5), who afterwards 
 accompanied him on his return to Asia, though it may be that 
 these men were no other than the two brethren from Corinth. 
 Prof. Ramsay, regarding Antioch as the place from which the 
 Epistle was written, understands this clause to refer to the church 
 in that city, which was the mother church of the Galatian churches, 
 as it had sent out the missionaries Paul and Barnabas (Acts xiii. 2), 
 whose authentication therefore, he thinks, the apostle is here 
 giving. But would he not have named the church explicitly if 
 that had been the case? Besides, the general character of the 
 clause scarcely suggests an official authentication. It was the 
 Apostle's custom to associate his travelling companions with 
 himself in his letters, generally proceeding to write in the first 
 person plural on that account. But this Epistle to the Galatians 
 demanding a more emphatic assertion of apostolic authority is 
 written throughout in the first person singular. 
 
 the churches. Note the plural form. There were separate 
 churches in the several towns where the gospel had been planted. 
 Each Christian congregation was called a ' church.' Subsequently 
 the Apostle developed the idea of one Catholic Church compre- 
 hending all Christians, both those living in this world and the 
 blessed dead, though without ever refusing the word to the local 
 congregations. 
 
 Galatia. See Introduction, p. 58 ft". Observe the bald style 
 of address. Paul usually adds some descriptive characteristics 
 referring to the graces and privileges of the people to whom 
 he is writing. Nothing of the kind appears here. 
 
 3. Grace to you and peace : a common form of salutation in 
 Paul's Epistles. See notes on 1 Thess. i. 1. 
 
 4. who gave himself. Thus early in the Epistle the Apostle 
 introduces Christ's sacrifice of himself for the redemption of 
 sinners. In so doing he puts in the forefront of the Epistle the 
 fundamental truth which the Galatians have begun to set aside 
 in favour of Jewish ritual (see ii. 21, iii. 1). His aim will be to 
 bring them back to this truth. 
 
 for our sins. The Greek expression, if we follow the MS. 
 reading accepted by Tischendorf and Lightfoot, is that used in the 
 O. T. for sin-offerings. Thus it means that Jesus gave himself as 
 a sacrifice in order that our sins might be forgiven. 
 
 world: lit. 'age.' The word is used in both senses. If 
 
 S 2 
 
2 6o TO THE GALATIANS I. 5,6 
 
 5 God and Father : to whom be the glory for ever and 
 ever. Amen. 
 
 6 I marvel that ye are so quickly removing from him that 
 
 we take it to stand for ' world,' then it means the world as it now 
 is, in its present state of corruption. The Jews were accustomed 
 to distinguish between ' this age,' a dark and evil age, and ' the 
 age to come,' the glorious Messianic age. 
 
 according- to the will of our God, &c. This is all in 
 accordance with God's will, i. e. both the deliverance itself and 
 the means by which it is effected, Christ's sacrifice of himself 
 for our sins. 
 
 5. whom : i. e. God. The glory is ascribed to God. It was 
 a Rabbinical custom to interject a doxology when the name of God 
 was mentioned. With Paul there is more than obedience to 
 custom. He writes with real feeling. 
 
 i. 6-10. The Galatian perversion. Paul is astonished at the 
 quickness with which the Galatians are being turned aside from 
 his gospel. If the most authoritative of teachers proclaimed any 
 gospel different from that which they had received at first, he 
 would deserve to be accursed. Paul is not to be stayed by con- 
 siderations as to whether he may give offence in the determined 
 stand he is taking ; if he were influenced by such motives he 
 would be no servant of Christ. 
 
 Thus the Apostle plunges at once into the subject of his Epistle 
 in a tone of indignant expostulation. This is wholly unlike his 
 method in any other of his letters. Elsewhere it is his invariable 
 custom to commence with thanksgivings and congratulations. 
 He always begins in a spirit of kind appreciativeness and Christian 
 courtesy by gladly enumerating the merits of his correspondents 
 and expressing his joy at their progress. Even when writing 
 his First Epistle to the Corinthians, wherein he has occasion to 
 introduce several matters of fault-finding, he is careful to begin 
 by gratefully referring to the one point of progress that he can 
 discover in the very imperfect church, and therefore he con- 
 gratulates them on their growth in knowledge, eloquence, and 
 various gifts, though he cannot speak of their growth in grace. 
 But here there is nothing of the kind. The churches had been 
 named at first in the baldest way, without the ascription to them 
 of any attributes ; now they are addressed without the recognition 
 of any merits in them. This is a painful letter. It must have 
 distressed the readers, as we may be sure the writer was pained 
 in having to send it. 
 
 6. I marvel. Observe the startling and abrupt commencement. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 1. 6 261 
 
 called you in the grace of Christ unto a different gospel ; 
 
 The declension of the Galatians is so swift that it is a matter 
 of astonishment to the Apostle. 
 
 bo quickly. This phrase has given rise to much discussion 
 concerning the date of the Epistle. Those who favour an early- 
 date point to it as a reason for supposing that it could not have 
 been written long after the founding of the Galatian churches. 
 But may not the word 'quickly' here have reference not to the 
 time of the conversion of the Galatians, but to the time of the 
 visit of the disturbing teachers who had come from Jerusalem ? 
 They had been but a short time among these Galatians when 
 the fickle people came right round to their views. It was a quick 
 process of perversion. Lightfoot suggests that the word rendered 
 quickly (tac/ieos) may here signify 'readily,' 'rashly.' 
 
 removing": as in the R. V., not 'removed' as in the A. V. 
 The verb is in the present tense and thus it indicates a process 
 still going on. The perversion is not j^et complete. Paul hastens 
 to arrest it before it goes any further. The word is used for 
 military desertion, and also for a change in religious opinion. 
 Lightfoot cites the case of Dionysius of Heraclea who from being 
 a Stoic became an Epicurean and therefore was said to have 
 become a 'turncoat.' These Galatians were becoming 'turn- 
 coats.' 
 
 from Mm that called you : from God. So serious a view 
 does Paul take of this perversion. He has not yet said in what 
 it consists ; but he begins by characterizing it in the gravest 
 terms, that the essential significance of it may be felt. 
 
 in the grace, &c. : or, ' by the grace,' according to a familiar 
 Hebraism. 
 
 different. The Revisers have followed Lightfoot in sub- 
 stituting this word for ' another,' the term in the A.V. The Greek 
 word (heteron) is not the same as that rendered ' another ' {alio) 
 in the next verse, and Lightfoot took it to indicate difference in 
 kind and the second word simply to mean an additional one 
 of the same kind. Thus the two clauses would mean that the 
 Galatians were being perverted towards a different kind of gospel 
 which was not really another gospel because it was no gospel 
 at all. But Prof. Ramsay has shewn that this distinction is not 
 borne out by usage and that the exact reverse is the case. Accord- 
 ingly if we retained the present punctuation we should read the 
 passage as meaning ' a second gospel, which indeed is not realry 
 a different gospel,' because all the apostles preached essentially 
 the same gospel. But would Paul sa}' that here? Surely he 
 would not allow that the intrusive teachers who were leading 
 the Galatians astray were preaching his gospel ; and verse 9 
 distinctly brings up the idea of an essential!}' different gospel. 
 
262 TO THE GALATIANS 1. 7-9 
 
 7 which is not another gospel', only there are some that 
 
 8 trouble you, and would pervert the gospel of Christ. But 
 though we, or an angel from heaven, should preach unto 
 you any gospel other than that which we preached unto 
 
 9 you, let him be anathema. As we have said before, so 
 
 A third possibility is suggested by a change in the punctuation 
 of the following verse. 
 
 7. Lipsius rejects the idea just described and understands 'not 
 another gospeV to mean 'no gospel at all.' But the American 
 Revisers propose to remove the colon that occurs in the R. V. 
 after the first five words of this verse — a perfectly legitimate 
 treatment of the text, since there were no punctuation marks in 
 the original MSS. Then they read 'a different gospel which 
 is nothing else save that there are some that . . . would pervert 
 the gospel of Christ.' That is to say, this other gospel they 
 offer is only a perversion of the one true gospel. This view is 
 advocated by the German classical scholar Prof. Blass and favoured 
 by Prof. Ramsay. 
 
 8. we. It has been suggested that Paul's actions in bringing 
 to the Galatians the decision of the Jerusalem council (Acts xvi. 
 4) and in circumcising Timothy (xvi. 3) may have given rise to 
 the supposition that Paul had modified his views and come round 
 somewhat to the position of the Judaizing party. The Apostle 
 repudiates the notion. 
 
 an angel from heaven. Some of the Galatians had taken 
 Paul for ' Hermes,' the wing-footed messenger god, i. e. the Greek 
 angel (Acts xiv. 12). He seems to be alluding to that incident 
 here, and again in iv. 14, where he says, 'ye received me 
 as an angel of God.' Now Paul is so absolutely sure of the 
 one gospel he has preached to the Galatians that even if, on 
 superhuman authorit}', something else were preached as the 
 gospel the preacher must be denounced. It may be said that 
 this is the language of bigotry and intolerance. But observe, 
 it rests on the assurance of experience ; it is the language of an 
 apostle missionary addressing his own converts with whom 
 other people have been wantonly interfering; and the Apostle 
 does not propose to take any external action, affording a precedent 
 for Inquisitors with their autos dafe. 
 
 anathema : a Greek word, lit. i devoted ' ; in the first instance 
 used in a good sense for that which is consecrated to God and 
 therefore forbidden to be handled profanely ; then used in a bad 
 sense for that which is devoted to destruction or miser}', an 
 accursed thing or person (cf. Deut. vii. 26). 
 
 9. As we have said "before : not referring to the previous verse. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 1. 10, n 263 
 
 say I now again, If any man preacheth unto you any 
 gospel other than that which ye received, let him be 
 anathema. For am I now persuading men, or God? or 10 
 am I seeking to please men ? if I were still pleasing 
 men, I should not be a servant of Christ. 
 
 For I make known to you, brethren, as touching the n 
 
 The language points to utterance by word of mouth, and that on 
 some quite distinct occasion. Probably the Apostle is reminding 
 his readers of what he had said during his second visit to Galatia. 
 He had then warned them against any teaching that would lead 
 them away from the gospel they had received when he and 
 Barnabas had been preaching among them on their first missionary 
 journey. This shews that the danger of the perversion had been 
 perceived by Paul as early as his second journey. 
 
 which ye received: an advance on the expression in the 
 previous sentence where Paul had said 'which we preached.' 
 There had been more than the proclamation of the gospel; it had 
 been welcomed by the Galatians. To turn from it now would be 
 to shew inconsistency, would be to belie their own history. 
 
 10. This implies that the Apostle had been charged with un- 
 worthily shifting his ground to win favour, by a misjudging of 
 his policy of becoming 'all things to all men,' perhaps with 
 reference to his action in the matters of the Jerusalem decree 
 and the circumcision of Timothy. But what he has just said is 
 a repudiation of all vacillating conduct. After that vehement 
 outburst, so clear and uncompromising, will his enemies venture 
 to accuse him of mincing words to win the approval of men ? 
 
 persuading- men : to regard him favourably. 
 
 or God. We cannot actually speak of persuading God. Paul 
 means seeking God's favour and approval. 
 
 servant: lit. 'slave.' Contrary to his common custom Paul 
 has not introduced this title of himself at the opening of the Epistle. 
 Yet he will not keep it back even from the restive Galatians. He 
 is not ashamed of it. He counts it his supreme honour to be the 
 slave of Christ. But to seek to please men as the chief aim of his 
 life would be the abandonment of the service of Christ. 
 
 I. Personal Defence, i. n — ii. 21. 
 
 i. n-17. Paul's account of his own conversion. The Apostle now 
 embarks on his 'apologia.' His first aim is to shew from the facts 
 of his life-history that he was not dependent on any human 
 source for the gospel he had preached in Galatia. To begin with, 
 his conversion was brought about directly by means of a revelation 
 
264 TO THE GALATIANS 1. 12 
 
 gospel which was preached by me, that it is not after man. 
 
 2 For neither did I receive it from man, nor was I taught 
 
 it, but it came to me through revelation of Jesus Christ. 
 
 of Jesus Christ. He had been a loyal Jew of exceptional zeal 
 when God, who from his birth had destined him to his apostolic 
 mission, was pleased to give him an inward revelation of Christ 
 for the purpose of sending him as a preacher to the Gentiles. 
 Immediately after this Paul refrained from consulting any human 
 being, and did not go up to Jerusalem to see the apostles, but 
 retired in seclusion to Arabia, whence he returned direct to 
 Damascus. 
 
 11. I make known: the Apostle's customary phrase in making 
 some new assertion, declaring something that was not in his 
 previous teaching (cf. i Cor. xv. i ; 2 Cor. viii. 1). The correlative 
 to this when reference is made to what has been previously 
 taught, or at all events ought to be familiar, is 'Know ye not?' 
 (Rom. vi. 16). 
 
 not after man : not according to a human standard or 
 customary ways of thinking. 
 
 12. neither did I receive it : the usual word for receiving 
 a tradition handed down from one to another. It was no mere 
 tradition of the church that Paul passed on to the Galatians. 
 
 nor was I taught it. Paul had not been taken in hand by 
 Christian teachers to be trained in the doctrines of the faith. This 
 may seem to contradict the record in Acts where we read of the 
 commission of Ananias. But that record says nothing of teaching ; 
 it only mentions two things done for Paul through the instrumen- 
 tality of the Damascus disciple — the restoration of his sight and 
 the gift of the Holy Ghost, followed by his baptism (Acts ix. 17, 18). 
 
 through revelation. Paul claims to have received his gospel 
 by means of a Divine revelation. We need not conclude that all 
 his knowledge of the details of the life and death of Christ and of 
 our Lord's teachings were communicated to him in this way. In 
 1 Cor. xi. 23-25 he gives an account of the institution of the Lord's 
 Supper which closely corresponds with the synoptic record. It is 
 reasonable to suppose that he had this by word of mouth from 
 the apostles, or perhaps in some written notes containing 
 it, together with other reminiscences of our Lord's life on earth. 
 Paul only claims to have received his gospel by means of a revelation. 
 Now we know from this Epistle and other of his writings what 
 this gospel was. It was not any historical narrative, such as the 
 narratives that make up our four gospels. It was the message of 
 redemption by means of the death and resurrection of Christ to 
 be enjoyed on condition of faith in him. 
 
 Jesus Christ : the subject of the revelation. This was making 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 1. 13-15 265 
 
 For ye have heard of my manner of life in time past in 13 
 the Jews' religion, how that beyond measure I persecuted 
 the church of God, and made havock of it : and I ad- 14 
 vanced in the Jews' religion beyond many of mine own 
 age among my countrymen, being more exceedingly 
 zealous for the traditions of my fathers. But when it 15 
 was the good pleasure of God, who separated me, even 
 
 Christ known, what Paul calls God revealing His Son in him 
 (verse 16). When he was made to see Christ aright and under- 
 stand him he could perceive the nature and character of the gospel 
 of which Christ is the centre. 
 
 13. Por ye have heard, &c. : more correctly, 'ye heard'; 
 perhaps because Paul had confessed it ; possibly because his 
 opponents had busied themselves to circulate the tale. 
 
 the Jews' religion : lit. 'Judaism, 1 but with reference to its 
 practices rather than its beliefs. Paul had been a rigid observer 
 of Jewish rites. 
 
 the church of God. The word ' church ' here does net 
 represent any one local community. It points to Christians 
 generally. This is the earliest reference in Paul to this larger 
 sense of the word. 
 
 made havock. Lightfcot has 'devastated.' 
 
 14. of mine own age. The Revisers wisely adopted this 
 phrase from Lightfoot in preference to ' my equals ' in the A. V. 
 
 my countrymen : Jews. Paul is writing to Gentiles. 
 
 more exceedingly zealous : i. e. than other Jews of his 
 own age. 
 
 traditions : not the law, but Rabbinical details, pretended 
 explanations and applications of the law, often false to its spirit and 
 purpose, as Jesus Christ shewed (cf. Mark vii. 8). Thus Paul's 
 conduct was the exact opposite to that of Christ, whose principal 
 polemic was against the traditions which his future chief Apostle 
 once so zealously advocated. 
 
 15. the good pleasure. Though this word originally meant no 
 more than choice, i. e. that which one is well pleased to do, in the 
 Bible it has come to mean favourable choice, and when applied to 
 God, that which He chooses to do for the good of those to whom He 
 is gracious, or simply His pleasure in them (cf. applied to men, 
 Rom. xv. 26 ; 1 Thess. ii. 8; applied to God, Matt. iii. 17). Paul 
 counts it as a favour that God chose him to be an apostle. 
 
 separated: marked off from others for a special calling. 
 This, Paul recognizes, had been done from his very birth. Cf. 
 'separated unto the gospel of God ' (Rom. i. 1). 
 
266 TO THE GALATIANS 1. 16 
 
 from my mother's womb, and called me through his grace, 
 
 [6 to reveal his Son in me, that I might preach him among 
 
 the Gentiles ; immediately I conferred not with flesh 
 
 called me. That came later, in the revelation on the road 
 to Damascus. 
 
 through his grace. The call was brought about by reason 
 of God's free favour, not on account of any merit or claim on the 
 part of the man called. This does not exclude essential fitness in 
 gifts and capacities as a reason for the call, a fitness which is 
 implied in the previous idea of being marked off from birth for 
 the special vocation. 
 
 16. to reveal his Son in me. Two explanations of this phrase 
 have been maintained : (i) Taking the preposition ' in' according 
 to a common Hebraistic usage as instrumental and equivalent to ' by 
 means of,' so that the expression would mean ' to reveal his Son by 
 means of me,' i. e. in Paul's preaching of the gospel. This is 
 Lightfoot's view ; he points out that the next clause describes that 
 preaching and he calls attention to similar statements elsewhere, 
 e.g. 'they glorified God in me' (verse 24), i. e. on account of me 
 (cf. 2 Cor. xiii. 3 ; Phil. i. 30 ; 1 Tim. i. 16). (2) Understanding 
 the phrase to refer to an internal revelation enjoyed by the Apostle 
 himself. This view is maintained by Lipsius, Pfleiderer, and most 
 other interpreters, (a) It has strongly in its favour the fact that 
 Paul has just been mentioning a revelation made to him in the words, 
 1 through revelation of Jesus Christ ' (verse 12). (b) It is required 
 by the context. Without this idea there would be no mention of 
 Paul's conversion in the autobiographical sketch. He speaks of his 
 Divine destiny, then of his call, next comes this phrase, and the 
 mission to the Gentiles follows. Thus it comes in just at the right 
 place to refer to his conversion. The revelation would seem to be 
 the great occurrence on the road to Damascus which turned the 
 course of Paul's life. That it is here said to be internal need not 
 disturb us. The narrative in Acts implies that the manifestation 
 of Christ was made to Paul alone, and was not perceived by his 
 companions, which shews that it was not physically objective, 
 though it was not the less real, a real revelation made by God 
 to Paul, not a creation of his own imagination (see Acts ix. 7). 
 
 that I might preach, &c. Paul connects his conversion with 
 his mission. The revelation was made to him in order that he 
 might become a preacher. 
 
 among the Gentiles : the specific sphere of Paul's mission, 
 of interest to the Galatians who were Gentiles, and bearing on 
 the object of the Epistle which is to maintain Paul's own gospel 
 with its freer outlook for the Gentiles as against the interference 
 of Judaizers. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 1. 17 267 
 
 and blood : neither went I up to Jerusalem to them which 17 
 were apostles before me : but I went away into Arabia ; 
 and again I returned unto Damascus. 
 
 immediately I conferred not, &c. The Apostle's point is that 
 he did not derive his gospel from men — that he had it direct from 
 God. Proving this he shews how he went away immediately after 
 his conversion into seclusion without any conference with the 
 Christians who might be supposed to have instructed him. The 
 word ' immediately' does not exclude later conferences. 
 
 flesh and blood. A common Hebraism for ' man ' is ' flesh.' 
 Evidently the fuller expression has the same meaning ; cf. ' flesh 
 and blood hath not revealed it unto thee ' (Matt. xvi. 17), i. e. it 
 was not revealed by any human being. 
 
 17. up to Jerusalem. Not simply as we say ' up to London ' 
 as to the capital, but because the city is only reached by ascending 
 to a great height, since it is about 2,000 feet above the sea level. 
 Thus leaving Jerusalem is called ' going down ' (cf. Acts xviii. 22, 
 xxiv. 1). 
 
 apostles before me : the Twelve and possibly also James the 
 Lord's brother (cf. verse 19). It would have been most natural 
 for a new convert who felt himself called to a great mission to 
 have consulted the leaders of the church, his seniors in the faith, 
 on the subject. We do not know why Paul declined to do so, 
 perhaps because he feared they would not welcome the persecutor 
 so suddenly turned disciple. Doubts may be felt as to whether 
 he acted wisely in this matter. Possibly if he had taken the 
 Jerusalem church into his confidence future troubles and misunder- 
 standings, to be discussed in this Epistle, might have been avoided. 
 But it looks as though Paul had been overwhelmed with a torrent 
 of ideas and feelings which simply drove him into seclusion, where 
 he might adjust himself to his entirely altered view of truth and 
 his entirely new conception of his own vocation. So we read 
 how, when Jesus at his baptism had consecrated himself to his 
 great mission, ' straightway the Spirit driveth him forth into the 
 wilderness ' (Mark i. 12). 
 
 Arabia: probably the desert country in the environs of 
 Damascus and to the south, which was reckoned part of Arabia 
 at this time. It is not to be supposed that Paul went there to 
 preach to the Bedouin. No doubt he only sought solitude for his 
 own meditations. This journey to Arabia is not mentioned in 
 Acts. We have it here on the unquestionable authority of the 
 traveller himself. 
 
 again X returned. Paul has not yet stated that he had 
 previously been to Damascus as recorded in Acts ; but this phrase 
 implies that fact and thus indirectly confirms Luke's narrative. 
 
268 TO THE GALATIANS 1. 18,19 
 
 18 Then after three years I went up to Jerusalem to visit 
 
 19 Cephas, and tarried with him fifteen days. But other of 
 the apostles saw I none, save James the Lord's brother. 
 
 Damascus. A most ancient city situated between the Lebanon 
 and Anti-Lebanon ranges of mountains, formerly the capital of 
 S3'ria and thus frequently brought into the O. T. history, since that 
 country was the neighbour and sometimes the enemy of Israel. 
 Our knowledge of its history begins with the capture of it by 
 David (2 Sam. viii. 3-6). It was overthrown by the Assyrians 
 under Tiglath-Pileser. Subsequently it was possessed by the 
 Macedonians and then by the Romans, but when Paul was there 
 it was in the hands of Aretas, king of Arabia, by whose ethnarch 
 it was then governed. Elsewhere Paul states that he escaped 
 from Damascus through a window, being let down in a basket 
 by the wall (2 Cor. xi. 33 ; cf. Acts ix. 23-25). 
 
 i. 18-24. First visit to Jerusalem. Paul tells how after three 
 years he visited Cephas at Jerusalem, staying with him a fortnight, 
 seeing no other apostle except James the Lord's brother. He says 
 he is speaking the truth in this matter. After this he went into 
 Syria and Cilicia without having become personally known to the 
 churches of Judaea, only they heard of his conversion and glorified 
 God on account of him. 
 
 18. after three years. Prof. Ramsay states that according 
 to the ancient way of speaking about time this might mean only 
 between two and three years, so long as it was after the beginning 
 of the third year. But, while the instances he cites shew that the 
 expression ' three years ' might be used for two years and a portion 
 of a third, they give no authority for understanding the very 
 definite 'after three years' to mean less than that full period. He 
 must mean more than three years. The question has been raised 
 whether this period is to be reckoned from the date of Paul's 
 conversion or from that of his return to Damascus. Probably the 
 former, in contrast to ' immediately ' (verse 16). Paul had gone 
 to Arabia directly after his conversion and not to Jerusalem till 
 three years subsequent to that great crisis. 
 
 visit: rather 'to become acquainted with' (margin of the 
 R.V.). 
 
 Cephas : the Aramaic for Peter (Greek). 
 
 fifteen days : long enough for personal acquaintance, much 
 too short a time for instruction in the gospel and the establishment 
 of the great principles of his teaching. 
 
 19. other of the apostles: any other besides Peter. 
 
 save James. This might mean • I did not see any other 
 apostle, but I did see James.' But the use of the expression 'any 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 1. 20-23 269 
 
 Now touching the things which I write unto you, behold, 20 
 before God, I lie not. Then I came into the regions of 2 1 
 Syria and Cilicia. And I was still unknown by face unto 22 
 the churches of Judcea which were in Christ : but they 23 
 
 other of the apostles ' makes it more natural to take the passage to 
 mean ' I did not see any other apostle except James/ i. e. reckoning 
 James as an apostle. Paul used the word apostle occasionally 
 for others besides the Twelve, e.g. for Andronicus and Jumas 
 ^Rom. xvi. 7). 
 
 the Lord's brother : to be distinguished both from James the 
 son of Zebedee and from James the son of Alphaeus (see Mark 
 vi. 3). During our Lord's life none of his brethren had believed 
 on him (John vii. 5). But Jesus appeared to James after the 
 resurrection (i Cor. xv. 7), and a little later we meet with him as 
 the leader of the church at Jerusalem (Acts xii. 17, xv. 13 ff., 
 xxi. 18 ; Gal. ii. 9, 12). Observe the distinction : Paul went up 
 to Jerusalem with the sole object of becoming acquainted with 
 Peter, the foremost apostle, preacher, and teacher, not with the 
 intention of seeking out James ; but while there he did also see 
 James. 
 
 20. A vigorous assertion of the truthfulness of what is now 
 stated, amounting to an oath (before God), implying that Paul's 
 opponents had made contrary statements concerning his inter- 
 course with the apostles to the intent that he had learnt his 
 doctrines from them. 
 
 21. the regions of Syria and Cilicia: a Roman province 
 including these two districts— Syria, with the capital Antioch, and 
 Cilicia, whose chief town, Tarsus, was Paul's birthplace. Both 
 cities became centres of Paul's subsequent missionary work. 
 Probably his reason for evangelizing this province was that it 
 was 'his own country.' 
 
 22. still unknown by face, &c, and therefore could not be 
 learning his lessons as to the nature of the gospel from the 
 primitive Christians of Palestine. 
 
 the churches of Judaaa : i. e. others besides that of Jerusalem. 
 It is not to be inferred that Paul's visit to Jerusalem had been so 
 secret that he had not come into contact with the church in that 
 city. Nevertheless there is some difficulty in reconciling with 
 this what Luke says about Barnabas introducing Paul ' to the 
 apostles' and Paul 'going in and going out at Jerusalem, preaching 
 boldly in the name of the Lord' (Acts ix. 26-29). There is no 
 actual contradiction, since Paul writes of his having seen two 
 apostles, and does not deny that he saw the Jerusalem church, 
 and Luke does not say that he visited any other church. Then it 
 
270 TO THE GALATIANS I. = 4 — 2. i 
 
 only heard say, He that once persecuted us now preacheth 
 :4 the faith of which he once made havock; and they 
 
 glorified God in me. 
 2 Then after the space of fourteen years I went up 
 
 should be observed that the two writers have different ends in 
 view; for while Paul is simply concerned to shew that he did not 
 learn his gospel from the Palestine Christians, Luke is interested 
 in tracing out the growth of missionary enterprises. Still it 
 cannot be denied that the two accounts leave very different 
 impressions as to the character of Paul's visit to Jerusalem, and 
 a later account in Acts (xxvi. 20) tells of his evangelizing 'all the 
 country of Judaea.' Between the two records we must give Paul's 
 own statement the preference as regards accuracy over that of the 
 later historian. 
 
 23. they only heard : only had reports of Paul, did not 
 see him. 
 
 the faith. This cannot mean ' the Christian religion ' in the 
 modern sense of the expression, as that meaning does not seem 
 to have been given to it so early as our Epistle. In this primitive 
 time the word ' faith ' is always used for the internal experience 
 of trust. To preach the faith would seem to be 'to proclaim the 
 glad tidings of faith in Christ' (Grimm). Lipsius calls this 'the 
 belief in the Messiah as the way of salvation.' 
 
 24. glorified God : gave glory to God, praised God. 
 
 in me : on account of what they heard had happened to me 
 and what I was doing in preaching the gospel. 
 
 ii. 1-10. Second visit to Jerusalem. Paul declares how in the 
 course of fourteen years he again went up to Jerusalem, travelling 
 with Barnabas, and accompanied by Titus. This time it was as 
 the result of a Divine revelation, and his object was to explain his 
 preaching among the heathen to the chief people in the church 
 in order to prevent his work from failing. Titus, a Greek, who 
 accompanied him was not compelled to be circumcised by some 
 false, spying members of the church to whom Paul and his friends 
 would not yield. The leading people at Jerusalem then contri- 
 buted nothing to his knowledge and beliefs ; but on recognizing 
 how God was blessing his work among the heathen the three who 
 were reckoned the pillars of the church, James, Peter, and John, 
 heartily acknowledged him as a brother in Christian work, agreeing 
 that while they laboured among the Jews, Paul and Barnabas 
 should go to the Gentiles, though not forgetting also to care for the 
 wants of the poor in the Jerusalem church. 
 
 1. after the space of: a different preposition {dia) from that 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 2. i 271 
 
 again to Jerusalem with Barnabas, taking Titus also with 
 
 translated 'after' at the commencement of the previous paragraph 
 [lucta, verse 18). Strictly rendered it means 'in the course of,' 
 lit. ' through.' Still there would be no sense in the note of time 
 if Paul did not mean that what he was about to relate occurred at 
 the end of that period. 
 
 fourteen years. Are we to reckon these fourteen 3'ears from 
 the conversion of Paul, or from his previous visit to Jerusalem? 
 Prof. Ramsay considers that the former view must be adopted, 
 because Paul is reckoning everything from his conversion and 
 regarding all the later events in relation to that supreme crisis of 
 his life. Mr. Turner in the article on 'Chronology' in Hastings' 
 Dictionary of the Bible and Harnack also count the fourteen years 
 from the conversion. Nevertheless Lightfoot is followed by 
 Lipsius in taking the fourteen years on from the first visit to 
 Jerusalem, and there is much in favour of that view. The 
 repeated use of the word 'then' (i. 18, 21, ii. 1) seems to indicate 
 a regular chronological succession of events. Besides, Paul would 
 wish to mark the periods during which he had no intercourse with 
 the apostles ; and further the use of the expression ' in the course 
 of so many years excludes from this period another visit to 
 Jerusalem previously named. On the whole, therefore, it seems 
 desirable to reckon the fourteen years from the previous visit. 
 
 with Barnabas. Paul accompanies Barnabas who is the 
 senior Christian teacher. We learn from Acts iv. 36 that Barnabas 
 was a Levite from Cyprus, who had sold land for the benefit of the 
 poor, and who subsequently commended Paul to the church at 
 Jerusalem (Acts ix. 27). At a later time he fetched Paul from 
 Tarsus to Antioch (xi. 25, 26). The two friends brought the gifts 
 from the church at Antioch for the relief of the church at Jerusalem 
 during a famine (xi. 30), and afterwards travelled together on 
 what is now known as Paul's ' first missionary journey ' (xiii. 1 ff.), 
 and together were deputed to go up to the Jerusalem conference 
 (xv. 2) ; they parted company on the eve of the ' second missionary 
 journey ' (xv. 36-39). The Galatians would have a special interest 
 in hearing anything about Barnabas since the missionary journey 
 in which he and Paul were together was through their towns, and 
 Barnabas was one of the founders of their churches. 
 
 taking- Titus also. The relation of Titus to Paul was entirely 
 different from that of Barnabas. He was a young disciple and 
 attendant of the Apostle. He is not mentioned in Acts, and all we 
 know of him is gathered from Paul's Epistles, which shew that he 
 was a Gentile whom the Apostle employed as his travelling com- 
 panion and occasional messenger. Thus he was sent to Corinth and 
 anxiously awaited at Troas by Paul (2 Cor. ii. 13). But it was not 
 till Paul reached Macedonia that Titus met him with news of the 
 
272 TO THE GALATIANS 2. 2,3 
 
 2 me. And I went up by revelation ; and I laid before 
 them the gospel which I preach among the Gentiles, but 
 privately before them who were of repute, lest by any 
 
 3 means I should be running, or had run, in vain. But not 
 
 Corinthian church (2 Cor. vii. 6, 7, 13-15). Titus was then sent 
 back to Corinth with the Second Epistle, in charge of the collection 
 for the Jerusalem poor (2 Cor. viii. 6, 17). One of the Pastoral 
 Epistles is addressed to him, and from this we learn that at some 
 later time Paul had left him in Crete to set things in order and 
 appoint elders in the island (Titus i. 5). 
 
 2. by revelation : either made directly to himself, or through 
 one of the Christian prophets. 
 
 the gospel which I preach. This implies that there was 
 some doubt among the Jerusalem Christians as to what Paul 
 was preaching. The main message of the Christian missionaries 
 was the same in all cases — the preaching of Jesus as Christ, of his 
 resurrection, and of salvation through him. Nor was there any 
 unwillingness on the part of the Jewish Christians to admit 
 Gentiles to the church — if they would become proselytes to 
 Judaism and observe the law. But Paul was dispensing with 
 this condition and that was especially his gospel. 
 
 privately. This does not exclude a subsequent public meet- 
 ing with the whole church. The explanation of his peculiar 
 doctrinal standpoint was private. 
 
 them who were of repute : or ' who are ' ; there is no verb 
 in the original Greek. Verse 9 shews who these were, viz. 
 James, Cephas, and John, though perhaps other leaders are also 
 included here in the less definite expression. There is nothing 
 satirical in the phrase, though the emphatic repetition of it 
 (verse 9) may convey a touch of irony. 
 
 should be running, &c. : referring to his present and past 
 work. The illustration is from the Greek stadium — a favourite 
 form of illustration with Paul (cf. 1 Cor. ix. 26). 
 
 had run: referring to his past work, the good results of 
 which were endangered. 
 
 in vain. It could not be that Paul was in doubt as to the 
 correctness of his teaching. His attitude in this Epistle is that of 
 such perfect independence of human authority that he could not 
 mean he had any hesitation about what he was doing till he 
 obtained the sanction of the Jerusalem leaders. His fear must 
 have been lest the influence of the Jerusalem church should be 
 exercised to hinder his missionary labours among the heathen ; and 
 it was to prevent that disaster that he explained his teaching in 
 a private conference with the chief apostles, in the hope of eliciting 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 2. 4 273 
 
 even Titus who was with me, being a Greek, was com- 
 pelled to be circumcised : and that because of the false 4 
 
 their sympathy. He did not require their sanction ; but he 
 deprecated the hindrance that their disapproval would have 
 caused. 
 
 3. Was Titus circumcised ? The verse may be read in agree- 
 ment with either answer to this question. It may mean that 
 the known fact of his circumcision was not brought about by 
 compulsion ; that it was done in accordance with what he and 
 the Apostle also felt to be wise. Luke tells us that Paul had 
 Timothy circumcised ' because of the Jews that were in those 
 parts' (Acts xvi. 3). But the cases are not parallel, for Timothy's 
 mother was a Jewess (Acts xvi. 1), while Titus was wholly 
 Gentile. Timothy, by undergoing the initial rite of Judaism, 
 would be fitted to carry on evangelistic work among the Jews of 
 his own neighbourhood. It is much more likely that Titus was 
 not circumcised. Paul's position was uncompromising; he says 
 that he did not give place ' in the way of subjection ' in the least 
 degree. Under such circumstances a voluntary acquiescence 
 must have been misunderstood. Besides, the circumcising of 
 Titus, a Gentile, would have been in direct conflict with the verj' 
 position Paul is vehemently contending for in the doctrinal part 
 of this Epistle. The expression 'not even Titus' implies that 
 great pressure was brought to bear on Titus. 
 
 4. and that because of the false brethren, &c. : lit. 'and 
 because of the false brethren.' The sentence is incomplete. 
 Paul cannot mean that though not compelled to circumcise Titus 
 he did it to please these false brethren ; nor that he refused to 
 do it to please the false brethren, though otherwise he might have 
 performed the rite, both of which ideas would conflict with his 
 position throughout the Epistle. Lightfoot suggests that if Paul 
 had completed the sentence it would have run thus: 'But to 
 satisfy, to disarm, the false brethren, &c, the leading apostles 
 urged me to yield.' That view implies that the Apostle never 
 worked out the idea of the sentence at all. The thought in the 
 Apostle's mind seems to be that the importance given to the 
 question of the circumcision of Titus arose from the action of false 
 brethren in the matter, but certainly he never sufficiently finished 
 the sentence actually to say this. These * false brethren ' would 
 be Jews, who contrived to get an entrance into the church for the 
 express purpose of thwarting Paul's work. Whether that was at 
 Jerusalem, or at Antioch, or among the Gentile churches which 
 Paul had founded, is not made clear. They must not be identified 
 with the Judaizing disturbers of the Galatian churches, who belong 
 to a later period and are not charged with hypocrisy. 
 
 (0) T 
 
274 TO THE GALATIANS 2. 5,6 
 
 brethren privily brought in, who came in privily to spy 
 out our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus, that they 
 
 5 might bring us into bondage : to whom we gave place in 
 the way of subjection, no, not for an hour ; that the truth 
 
 6 of the gospel might continue with you. But from those 
 who were reputed to be somewhat (whatsoever they were, 
 it maketh no matter to me : God accepteth not man's 
 
 our liberty : the liberty of dispensing with the Jewish law in 
 Gentile churches. 
 
 in Christ Jesus. This liberty is enjoyed by virtue of the 
 relation of Paul and his converts to Christ. If full salvation is 
 found in Christ alone, no bondage of the law can be required for 
 these converted heathen who have it. 
 
 5. the truth of the gospel. If Paul had yielded, the truth 
 of his large gospel of liberty would have been obscured. 
 
 with you : the Galatians. Paul had been fighting their battle 
 at Jerusalem. It was in order that they, in common with the 
 other Gentile churches, might retain their gospel unimpaired, and 
 so their freedom from the law of the Jews, that Paul had explained 
 the whole case to the Jerusalem leaders. How supremely dis- 
 appointing then it was that, after this, the Galatians should be 
 voluntarily putting themselves under the very yoke from which 
 the Apostle had been at such great pains to keep them free ! 
 
 6. But from those, &c. This sentence also, like that in 
 verse 4, is not completed, or rather the Apostle changes the form 
 of it as he proceeds, beginning by saying ' from those,' &c, never 
 adding what comes from them, but returning to them in the 
 nominative case to describe their conduct directly : ' they, I say, 
 who were of repute imparted nothing to me.' The bad grammar 
 must be accounted for by the vehemence of the Apostle's mind. 
 He rushes on from point to point quite heedless of the con- 
 struction of his sentences. This is living writing, though awk- 
 ward to construe. 
 
 reputed to he somewhat : the three apostles named in 
 verse 9, with perhaps other leaders. 
 
 whatsoever they were : i. e. in the past, as men who had 
 been personal disciples of Jesus on earth. This could not be said 
 of Paul. The apparent irritation of his language shews that the 
 fact had been flung at him to mark his inferiority. Paul will not 
 let that affect the measure of authority he allows the senior 
 apostles. 
 
 accepteth not man's person: a Hebraism, meaning to shew 
 favouritism. It may be said that Paul goes too far here. Mere 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 2. 7-9 275 
 
 person) — they, I say, who were of repute imparted nothing 
 to me : but contrariwise, when they saw that I had been 7 
 intrusted with the gospel of the uncircumcision, even as 
 Peter with the gospel of the circumcision (for he that 8 
 wrought for Peter unto the apostleship of the circumcision 
 wrought for me also unto the Gentiles) ; and when they 9 
 perceived the grace that was given unto me, James and 
 Cephas and John, they who were reputed to be pillars, 
 
 favouritism was not claimed for the elder apostles. Their supposed 
 privilege was based on the historical fact of their personal inter- 
 course with Jesus on earth and all they had derived from it. 
 
 imparted nothing: in the way of authority to preach, 
 spiritual power, or understanding of the principles of the gospel. 
 
 7. but contrariwise. Not only did not the leaders correct or 
 complete Paul's apostolic equipment ; they recognized to the full 
 his mission to the heathen, and gave him brotherly sympathy with 
 regard to it. 
 
 intrusted : by God, the context shewing an admission that 
 God's hand was in this. 
 
 the gospel of the uncircumcision : the gospel for Gentiles, 
 i. e. the mission of evangelizing the heathen. 
 
 Peter : as the leading Christian missionary to the Jews. 
 
 the gospel of the circumcision : the gospel for Jews, in 
 distinction from the mission of evangelizing the heathen. 
 
 8. The same influence was at work with both of these great 
 apostles in their missionary labours. The successful results of 
 both proved that God was in them. If the recognition of this fact 
 in Peter's case stamped and authenticated his mission, the same 
 should be said of Paul. 
 
 9. and when they, &c. : completing the sentence of verse 7 
 which had been interrupted by the parenthesis in verse 8. 
 
 the grace, &c. : probably not referring to Paul's personal 
 character, but meaning the signs of God's favour and the effects of 
 His gracious assistance given to Paul, as seen in the fruits of his 
 missionary work. 
 
 James : the Lord's brother. See note on i. 19. 
 
 Cephas : Peter. See note on i. 18. 
 
 John: the son of Zebedee, appearing in Acts (iii. r, II, 
 iv. 13 ff.) as the companion of Peter. Thus Peter, James, and 
 John are now the leading apostles, just as the three chief disciples 
 in the gospel history were Peter, James, and John (cf. Mark v. 37, 
 ix. 2, xiv. 33). But while Peter and John are the same men, 
 
 T 2 
 
276 TO THE GALATIANS 2. 10 
 
 gave to me and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship, 
 that we should go unto the Gentiles, and they unto the 
 to circumcision ; only they would that we should remember 
 the poor ; which very thing I was also zealous to do. 
 
 James the brother of Jesus now takes the place of James the 
 brother of John. 
 
 reputed: the third use of this word (cf. verses 2, 6). Paul 
 does not deny that the three men were as great as what the 
 church reckoned them to be. Still his repetition of the same 
 expression lays emphasis on the estimation in which they were 
 held, rather than on their actual characters and worth. This 
 would help the Apostle's argument. If those who were most 
 highly honoured and considered to be of most importance in the 
 Jerusalem community treated Paul as he here describes, it was un- 
 reasonable for the Galatians to listen to the insinuations of smaller 
 people, who had come from that church to undermine their con- 
 fidence in their own apostle. 
 
 pillars: a metaphor applied by Jews to great teachers of 
 the law. 
 
 Barnabas. The narrative in Acts shews that Barnabas had 
 been a trusted member of the Jerusalem church long before this. 
 But when associated with Paul in missionary work among the 
 heathen he joined in that Apostle's methods, and therefore appeared 
 before his old friends in new relations. 
 
 the right hands of fellowship. Brotherly sympathy of the 
 most unqualified nature is here implied. Baur maintained that 
 there was a feud between Paul and the older apostles. This 
 undoubtedly genuine statement is quite irreconcilable with such 
 a hypothesis. 
 
 that we should gfo unto the Gentiles, &c. This division, 
 as Lipsius says, is ethnographical, not geographical. It could not 
 be maintained permanently, but it represented the main distinction 
 of work among the apostles. Nothing is said here of any differ- 
 ence in the preaching, but as Paul's full rights were recognized, 
 evidently it would be understood that he would preach to the 
 heathen a gospel free from the Jewish law, while the other 
 apostles would continue to preach to Jews without relaxing the 
 requirements of their law. 
 
 10. remember the poor : i. e. of Jerusalem. Before this Paul 
 had come up to Jerusalem with gifts from Antioch (Acts xi. 29, 3o\ 
 He had been eagerly gathering similar offerings from his Galatian 
 friends before the writing of our Epistle (r Cor. xvi. r). 
 
 Note. There is considerable difficulty in determining how this 
 incident stands related to the narrative in Acts. The commonly 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 2. 10 277 
 
 accepted view is to identify it with Paul's visit to Jerusalem 
 described in Acts xv. But serious objections have been urged 
 against that view : (i) Luke describes an intermediate visit 
 (Acts xi. 27-30, xii. 25). In proving his independence of the 
 older church authorities could Paul omit all reference to this? 
 (2) Here he says he went up 'by revelation' ; but the narrative 
 in Acts xv shews us Paul and Barnabas dispatched by the church 
 at Antioch as a deputation to Jerusalem. (3) Paul writes of a 
 private interview with ' them of repute,' in which he gave an 
 account of his preaching, and he makes no reference to any 
 meeting with the church or any decree coming thence ; but in 
 Acts xv there is an important church meeting, commonly called 
 'The Jerusalem Council,' in which the condition of the Gentile 
 churches is discussed and a proposal to settle the differences 
 between the two classes of Christians is formally adopted. Could 
 Paul omit all reference to this when sending the Galatians an 
 account of the very visit to Jerusalem at which so important 
 a decision was reached? These apparent discrepancies have been 
 used to discredit the history in Acts, and vice versa, by a recent 
 Dutch school, to throw doubts on our Epistle. Prof. Ramsay 
 denies the suggested identification, and understands Paul to be 
 here referring to the second visit (that in Acts xi). To do so he 
 has to make the fourteen years date back from Paul's conversion. 
 He finds 'the revelation' which induced Paul to go up in Agabus's 
 prophecy (Acts xi. 28), and he thinks that verse 10 in our section 
 has a distinct bearing on the fact that Paul was then the bearer of 
 aid to the poor. Then Prof. Bartlet, dissatisfied with all attempts 
 at a reconciliation between the two documents, supposes Paul to 
 be referring to a still earlier visit to Jerusalem not recorded in 
 Acts, and Wieseler identifies it with a visit set later than all of 
 these in Acts xviii. 22. But is the older view, identifying our 
 section with Acts xv, really untenable ? Lightfoot argued strongly 
 in its favour, and he has been supported by Hort. (1) If the 
 apostles were absent from Jerusalem when Paul came up during 
 the famine, he would not have to mention this visit {Judaistic 
 Christianity, p. 61). The fact that Luke describes the relief as 
 given to 'the elders,' and does not make any reference to the 
 apostles in his account of the famine visit, points to the conclusion 
 that the apostles were then absent. (2) Could not Paul describe 
 a solemn embassy dispatched by the church, probably after prayer 
 and with full faith in the presence of the Holy Spirit, as the result 
 of a revelation ? Besides, he may have had a private revelation 
 encouraging him to go. All his other references to revelations 
 in their bearings on his conduct point to personal experiences of 
 his own (cf. i. 12, 16). (3) Paul is here dealing with his apostolic 
 rights and authority ; Luke, in Acts xv, is concerned with a 
 question of public policy. It is quite reasonable to suppose that 
 
278 TO THE GALATIANS 2. u 
 
 ii But when Cephas came to Antioch, I resisted him to 
 
 Paul might have a private interview with the leading apostles to 
 settle his personal relations with them. When dealing with that 
 here he might think it irrelevant to add an account of the other 
 object of his visit. After all. Acts and Galatians agree on the 
 main point — the freedom of the Gentiles from any obligation to 
 become proselytes to Judaism as a condition to reception in 
 the church. That was the essential point Paul desired to get 
 the apostles to assent to, and concession to which was implied in 
 their admission of his right to preach his gospel ; and that was 
 also the main result of the ' Jerusalem Council. 1 On the whole, 
 therefore, it seems best to identify this visit with that of Acts xv. 
 Prof. M c Giffert cuts the knot by suggesting that ' Acts xi and xv 
 both refer to the same event,' i. e. in each case ' the second of the 
 two visits mentioned by Paul in his Epistle to the Galatians.' 
 He adds, ' It is entirely conceivable that Luke found two indepen- 
 dent accounts of the same journey in his sources ; and as the 
 occasion was given differently in the two cases, he supposed them 
 to refer to separate events , and inserted them at what seemed to 
 him the proper point in his narrative ' {Christianity in the Apostolic 
 Age, p. 171;,. 
 
 ii. 11-14. Dispute with Peter. Paul tells how he had a dispute 
 with Peter — here called by his Aramaic name 'Cephas'— at 
 Antioch, because that Apostle drew back from social intercourse 
 with the Gentiles after some messengers from James had arrived, 
 carrying with him the rest of the Jews and even Barnabas. Paul 
 openly expostulated with Peter for this inconsistency. 
 
 11. when. There is nothing to fix the chronological position of 
 this incident, and Prof. Ramsay agrees with Prof. Zahn and 
 Mr. Turner (article 'Chronology' in Hastings' Dictionary of the 
 Bible) that Paul's language would allow of it coming earlier 
 than the incident just recorded, i. e. if that referred to the visit 
 to Jerusalem in Acts xv. Lightfoot considered that Paul was 
 still continuing his narrative in chronological order; but the 
 phrasing is changed. Instead of reading 'then,' after such and 
 such a time, Paul here writes 'but when,' quite indefinitely. 
 
 Cephas. See note on i. 18. 
 
 Antioch: a large city founded by the Greeks and named 
 after Antiochus ; the capital of the Roman province of Syria, 
 on the Orontes, and well situated for communication with the 
 west by the Levant. Josephus calls it the third city of the 
 empire, only Rome and Alexandria standing before it in impor- 
 tance {Wars, III. ii. 4). The church at Antioch was founded by 
 unknown and unofficial Christians from Cyprus and Cyrene, who 
 preached to the Greeks there and so originated the first Gentile 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 2. 13 279 
 
 the face, because he stood condemned. For before that 12 
 certain came from James, he did eat with the Gentiles : 
 
 church (Acts xi. 20). It became the church of greatest influence 
 next to that of Jerusalem, and in resources and energy even 
 went beyond the mother church. Antioch was the great 
 missionary centre, and it was from this city that Paul and 
 Barnabas were dispatched on the mission which resulted in 
 the evangelizing of the Galatians. These people, therefore, 
 would be especially interested in hearing anything of signifi- 
 cance concerning the church in that city. After the Mohammedan 
 conquest the position of the chief town in Syria reverted to 
 Damascus, the ancient capital in the desert. Antioch is now 
 represented by a town of only 6,000 inhabitants, called in Turkish 
 Antaki and in Arabic Antakiyeh, with little ancient remains 
 except the ruins of Justinian's wall. 
 
 stood condemned: more correct than the A. V. rendering 
 'he was to be blamed.' Another possible alternative is 'he had 
 been accused,' the idea with that rendering being that the Greek 
 Christians had brought a charge against Peter ; but this is a less 
 likely meaning. 'Stood condemned' here means 'plainly proved 
 to be in the wrong by his conduct.' There is no thought of 
 a formal trial or act of church censure. It is not to be denied 
 that the difference between the apostles was real. Origen started 
 the theory that it was only simulated, and he was followed by 
 Jerome on the same lines, which led to a controversy between 
 that father and Augustine. There can be no doubt that Augustine 
 was right in his contention that to allow the idea of the two 
 leading apostles conspiring to act a lie would be to undermine 
 the whole authority of Scripture. 
 
 12. certain . . . from James : messengers from James, we do 
 not know on what errand. Mr. Turner is inclined to identify 
 them with those of whom we read in Acts xv. 1 : ' and certain 
 men came down from Judaea and taught the brethren, saying, 
 Except ye be circumcised after the custom of Moses, ye cannot 
 be saved.' If we accept this view we must place the incident 
 just before the Jerusalem council recorded later in Acts xv, and 
 therefore prior to the previous incident in Galatians. Acts 
 represents Barnabas as united with Paul in resisting the Jewish 
 influence, while in Galatians he follows Paul in being carried 
 away by it. Besides, the questions are not identical. In the 
 present case there is no mention of compelling the Gentiles to 
 be circumcised; the only point is that of Jewish Christians eating 
 at the same table with their Gentile brethren. Still, if so serious 
 a breach of church unity as the exclusive policy which the Jewish 
 party would advocate were brought about, Gentile Christians 
 
2 8o TO THE GALATIANS 2. 13 
 
 but when they came, he drew back and separated himself, 
 
 13 fearing them that were of the circumcision. And the rest 
 
 of the Jews dissembled likewise with him ; insomuch that 
 
 would feel themselves ostracized until they had embraced the 
 Jewish law, and thus a measure of constraint would be brought 
 to bear upon them in order to induce them to do so. In any case, 
 it would not be fair to make James up at Jerusalem responsible 
 for the action of his messengers at Antioch, when we do not know 
 but that they were exceeding their authority, if the words in Acts 
 xv. 1 are to be attributed to them. 
 
 eat with the Gentiles : contrary to Jewish custom and 
 especially reprobated by the Pharisees, the party specified in 
 Acts xv. 1-5 as interfering with the liberty of the church at 
 Antioch. Peter's conduct at this point is not to be set down 
 to weakness or lack of principle. Further on Paul implies that 
 it was based on that Apostle's convictions of Christian liberty. 
 The vision at Joppa points in this direction (Acts x. 15). The 
 custom of the agape in the early church gave great importance 
 to the question. To refuse to eat with the Gentiles would mean 
 to decline to meet them at those feasts of brotherly love, and the 
 Lord's supper, with which it was then associated. 
 
 drew hack: in the imperfect tense, signifying a slow and 
 cautious movement. 
 
 separated: in the aorist tense, indicating the final result. 
 Peter gradually withdrew himself till at length he was quite 
 separated from the Gentile Christians. 
 
 fearing-, &c. Thus it is Paul's view of the case that Peter 
 changed his conduct simply out of fear, dreading the censure of 
 the narrower-minded Jewish Christians from Jerusalem. We 
 should like to have Peter's version of the incident. Possibly 
 that Apostle actually wavered in his opinion as to what was right 
 in the matter when strong pressure was brought to bear upon 
 him. His whole career reveals him as a man under the influence 
 of the impressions of the moment. To a man of Paul's strong, 
 independent character such a nature would not be easily intelligible. 
 13. the rest of the Jews : Jewish members of the church at 
 Antioch. Previously, encouraged by Peter's example, these 
 people had freely associated with their Gentile brethren. Thus 
 unity of a very liberal stamp had prevailed. Peter's conduct 
 led to a serious breach of church unity. 
 
 dissembled likewise. Thus Paul considers that this change 
 of conduct was pure dissimulation, holding that both Peter and 
 the Jewish Christians really believed in the liberal position and 
 only pretended to share the principles of James's messengers. 
 Whether this is quite fair to them or not, it is plain that 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 2. 14 281 
 
 even Barnabas was carried away with their dissimulation. 
 But when I saw that they walked not uprightly according 14 
 to the truth of the gospel, I said unto Cephas before 
 them all, If thou, being a Jew, livest as do the Gentiles, 
 
 Paul did not believe Peter's fundamental position to be that of 
 the strong Judaizers, the view of the so-called Tubingen hypo- 
 thesis which represents the early church to be divided into two 
 antagonistic parties, on the one side Paul and his followers, on 
 the other James, Peter, John and all the other apostles and Jewish 
 Christians. Paul here declares that when Peter sided with the 
 Judaizers that Apostle was hiding his real convictions, so sure is he 
 that Peter was at heart in agreement with his own position. 
 
 even Barnabas. Why ' even ' ? Because Barnabas had been 
 Paul's travelling companion, and indeed, as the senior, regarded 
 as the leader in the mission to the heathen which had resulted 
 in the founding of the Galatian churches. The Galatians might 
 well be amazed that their senior evangelist should have succumbed 
 to the influence of the party of exclusiveness. Indirectly the 
 prominence given to Barnabas is a testimony in favour of the 
 * South Galatian theory/ since it was on the tour through Antioch, 
 Pisidium, Derbe, and Lystra that Paul and Barnabas travelled 
 together. 
 
 14. uprightly: more exactly 'in a straight course.' Paul 
 does not mean to insinuate want of integrity. His words should 
 be interpreted objectively, with regard to the course pursued 
 by Peter and his followers. This Paul finds to deviate from the 
 norm of the gospel. 
 
 according* to the truth, &c. : the line from which they 
 deviated. Paul holds that the truth of the gospel is with the 
 liberalism that unites Jews and Gentiles in the common Christian 
 family. 
 
 before them all : perhaps neither a wise nor a kind course, 
 considering that Peter was the senior Apostle. Peter's conduct 
 was public and his example had spread, and therefore Paul would 
 feel that it must be publicly rebuked. Still, if we read between 
 the lines we may see that he was carried away by the heat of 
 his indignation beyond the bounds of the considerateness due 
 to such a man as Peter. His excuse is that his indignation — 
 if not his way of shewing it — was justified by the seriousness of 
 the crisis. To Paul everything vital was at stake. If the Gentiles 
 were to be cut off from communion with the Jewish Christians, 
 the unity of the brotherhood would be fatally severed, and all who 
 believed in the position of the apostolic church would necessarily 
 regard the converts from heathenism, who followed Paul's liberal 
 teaching, as of a lower grade. 
 
282 TO THE GALATIANS 2. i S 
 
 and not as do the Jews, how compellest thou the Gentiles 
 5 to live as do the Jews ? We being Jews by nature, and 
 
 how compellest thou, &c. Peter had lived in the free 
 Gentile style until the friends of James had arrived at Antioch. 
 By using the present tense, ' If thou livest,' Paul here assumes 
 that this is the older apostle's habit. And yet by now changing 
 his line of action he is tending to draw the Gentiles after him 
 into the narrower Jewish way. When Paul uses the word 
 'compel' he cannot mean direct action, of which we have no 
 hint. To people of scrupulous conscience anxious to follow the 
 lead of so eminent a personage, Peter's example virtually amounted 
 to compulsion. The result would be that such people would seek 
 circumcision, become proselytes to Judaism, and take on them 
 the yoke of the Jewish law. 
 
 ii. 15-21. The neiv life in Christ. Even Peter and Paul, though 
 Jews by nature, were not justified by the law, but had their 
 justification through faith in Christ, since nobody can be justified 
 by the law. This does not allow of continuance in sin, which 
 would be most inconsistent with faith in Christ. The old life 
 is crucified with Christ : the new life is enjoyed through faith 
 in the Son of God who manifested his love by dying. This 
 grace of love would be nullified if, after all, justification were 
 to be got by way of law. 
 
 This passage begins as part of Paul's expostulations with Peter 
 and so continues to the end of verse 17, where the plural is 
 dropped and the paragraph passes into the first person singular, 
 indicating that the Apostle is adding his own comment. Still the 
 whole passage is so much of a piece that it is best to read it as 
 one section. It would seem that even in the earlier part Paul 
 is not certainly reproducing the ipsissima verba of his address 
 to Peter. The passage reads rather like a meditative working up 
 of what was said in the heat of controversy with later reflection. 
 Thus the historical recital melts into doctrinal discussion, and we 
 are not told how the incident ended — probably not satisfactorily, 
 for if Peter had yielded at the time Paul would have said so. 
 It would have made an excellent point in the argument with the 
 Galatians. Probably therefore the apostles parted on this occasion 
 without coming to an agreement. Yet the quarrel passed off 
 in course of time, and Peter came more and more to accept 
 Paul's views. This is proved by the fact that 1 Peter is thoroughly 
 Pauline, and betrays a sympathetic acquaintance with some of 
 Paul's Epistles. 
 
 15. We: Peter and Paul. 
 
 Jews by nature: Jews born, not even proselytes, much less 
 uncircumcised Gentiles. Cf. Phil. iii. 4, 5. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 2. 16 283 
 
 not sinners of the Gentiles, yet knowing that a man is 16 
 not justified by the works of the law, save through faith 
 
 sinners of the Gentiles: an ironical expression. The Jews 
 reckoned the Gentiles as such to be sinners. Cf. 1 Mace. ii. 44 : 
 1 they mustered a host, and smote sinners in their anger.' In 
 Luke vi. 32 we have ' even sinners love those that love them.' 
 corresponding to Matt. v. 47, 'do not even the Gentiles the 
 same ? ' 
 
 16. knowing, &c. Again Paul assumes that Peter shares his 
 fundamental position. As Christians they had both reached 
 justification by means of faith. 
 
 justified : ' pronounced righteous,' ' reckoned to be righteous,' 
 and in Paul especially ' treated as righteous.' (1) The Greek 
 word (dikaioo^ is often used in the sense of clearing of guilt ; 
 cf. Gen. xlv. 16, ' How shall we clear ourselves ? ' Exod. xxiii. 7, 
 * I will not justify the wicked ' ; Ps. cxliii. 2, ' In thy sight shall no 
 man living be justified.' This is a familiar English use of the 
 word. Thus Shakespeare has it : 'I cannot justify whom the 
 law condemns' (2 Henry VI, Act ii. Scene 3). This is the most 
 frequent sense of the word in the gospels (cf. Matt. xii. 37 ; 
 Luke x. 29). But for this usage the original innocence of the 
 person justified is requisite. (2) A secondary meaning appears in 
 the teaching of Paul when the word is used for a guilty person. 
 Here it does not mean making righteous in character, but treating 
 as righteous, i. e. treating as though a person were justified in 
 the original sense of the word. This is equivalent to forgiveness ; 
 it is forgiveness viewed from the standpoint of law and right. 
 At the same time as implying the re-establishment of right 
 relations with God, the result of it is called ' righteousness ' 
 (Rom. iii. 21-24). This peculiar meaning of the word — since 
 made familiar, especially through Luther's teaching — is frequent 
 in Romans and Galatians, but scarcely to be met with anywhere 
 else — only once in 1 Cor. (vi. 11) and once in Titus (iii. 7). It 
 also appears once in Acts (xiii. 39). In this sense of forgiveness 
 the word occurs nowhere else in the N. T., except perhaps in 
 Luke xviii. 14. It is used in James in the earlier sense of acquitting 
 or pronouncing innocent, apart from the notion of forgiveness. 
 It does not occur at all in Hebrews, 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2, and 
 3 John, or Revelation. 
 
 the works of the law : rather ' works of law,' i. e. works 
 prescribed by law. 
 
 save: more correct than 'but' (A.V.), the Greek expression 
 {ean me) meaning 'except.' Yet Paul cannot intend to teach 
 that justification is by works of the law if only faith is added, 
 the very position of the Judaizing Christians which he is contesting. 
 
284 TO THE GALATIANS 2. 17 
 
 in Jesus Christ, even we believed on Christ Jesus, that 
 we might be justified by faith in Christ, and not by the 
 w orks of the law : because by the works of the law shall 
 17 no flesh be justified. But if, while we sought to be 
 justified in Christ, we ourselves also were found sinners, 
 
 Lightfoot connects the clause directly with 'justified' as 'not 
 justified except through faith.' Otherwise we are bound to 
 give it the meaning ' but,' although no satisfactory instances of 
 such a meaning can be adduced, and the grammarians (Winer, &c.) 
 deny that it ever has it. 
 
 through faith. Faith is not the ground of justification, but 
 the means through which it is received. 
 
 faith in Jesus Christ : not ' the faith of Jesus Christ,' as 
 in the A. V. There is no article. It does not mean the Christian 
 religion, but trust reposed in Jesus Christ. The great positive 
 idea of the Epistle is here introduced, that justification is given on 
 condition of personal faith in Jesus Christ. 
 
 even we : Peter and Paul ; emphatic. 
 
 believed: came to have faith. The verb is in the aorist, 
 signifying a single act in the past. 
 
 by faith. A different preposition is used here, meaning 
 literally * out of,' which might suggest that faith is itself the 
 ground of justification, if we had not just had the more exact 
 expression 4 through faith.' Probably Paul has no subtle distinction 
 in mind, but varies the prepositions for the sake of euphony, as 
 he varies the names — Jesus Christ and Christ Jesus. 
 
 no flesh: Hebraism, meaning no man. The sentence is 
 a quotation from Ps. cxliii. 2, 'for in thy sight shall no man 
 living be justified,' somewhat freely rendered. The LXX has 
 the expression ' no flesh ' in this passage. The clause ' by the 
 works of the law' is not in the psalm, but is here added by Paul. 
 He would consider it appropriate because the psalm was part of the 
 Scriptures of Jews living under the law, who would be seeking 
 justification by legal works, if at all. In Rom. iii. 20 the same 
 passage is quoted and with the same addition by Paul, but also 
 with the words ' in his sight,' not given in Galatians, which more 
 certainly identify the sentence with the verse from the psalm where 
 it also occurs. The impossibility of obtaining any other justifica- 
 tion asserted in order that we may be shut up to the one available 
 justification through faith in Christ. 
 
 17. The following are the most important of the various 
 proposed interpretations of this verse : — (1) It is a Jewish 
 objection complaining that since to abandon the law is sinful, 
 if Christ encourages such conduct he must be ministering to sin, 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 2. iS 285 
 
 is Christ a minister of sin? God forbid. For if I build 18 
 up again those things which I destroyed, I prove myself 
 
 a conclusion which Paul indignantly repudiates because he rejects 
 the premises, and does not admit that to abandon the law is sinful. 
 There is no indication that Paul is bringing in an objection from 
 any opponent ; and such an objection would demand a more 
 complete answer than an indignant repudiation. Moreover it 
 would not lead on to the next sentence. (2) It is an argument 
 by the Apostle to shew that abandonment of the law is not sinful, 
 since if it were, Christ by encouraging it would be ministering 
 to sin, an utterly unbelievable conclusion. For this argument 
 to have a starting-point there must have been some previous 
 statement of the assumption that it is sinful to abandon the law. 
 (3) It is admitted that to abandon the law is to place ourselves 
 in the position of sinners, not because it is wicked to do this, 
 but because we lose the privileges of the law and range ourselves 
 with the heathen in this matter. Yet it is outrageous to 
 charge Christ with ministering to sin. This view gives the same 
 meaning to the word ' sinners,' with its touch of irony, that we 
 had in verse 15, i. e. as equivalent to Gentiles, or heathen, people 
 out of the pale of the law. Thus we see how it is introduced 
 here. With the previous interpretations it comes in abruptly, 
 apart from any apparent reason. Then the expression 'found' 
 best suits this meaning. It does not point to a definite overt 
 act, such as the abandonment of the law would be ; it indicates 
 the discovery of a condition already existing. The Pauline 
 Christian, though a Jew, is seen to be on a level with the 
 Gentile sinner. He too, notwithstanding his law, must be 
 regarded as a sinner in order to be justified by Christ. Never- 
 theless it would be outrageous to say that Christ brings about 
 this condition. 
 
 God forbid: lit. Met it not be'; an indignant repudiation of 
 an utterly impossible notion. 
 
 18. I. Paul now passes to the first person singular, thereby 
 dropping the form of speech suitable for his expostulation with 
 Peter and directly addressing the Galatians. 
 
 build up again, &c. : reconstruct the obligation of the law, 
 as Peter had been doing at Antioch by returning to Jewish 
 exclusiveness. 
 
 which. I destroyed. There is no evidence that Paul had 
 destroyed the obligations of the law before this by directby 
 agitating against them. But in dispensing with those obligations 
 when carrying on his missionary work he had been virtually 
 destroying them. 
 
 I prove myself a transgressor: in having previously 
 
286 TO THE GALATIANS 2. 19, 20 
 
 19 a transgressor. For I through the law died unto the law, 
 
 20 that I might live unto God. I have been crucified with 
 Christ ; yet I live ; and yet no longer I, but Christ liveth 
 
 abandoned the law. The word 'transgressor' is always used for 
 one who breaks the definite commandments of the written law, 
 an offender against the law as such. If the law is to be restored 
 as a standard of judgement, the man who is guilty of having 
 repudiated it is plainly an offender against it. 
 
 19. through the law, &c. : lit. 'through law died to law.' 
 The absence of the articles helps the interpretation of the phrase. 
 It cannot mean that the law as containing types and prophecies 
 of Christ tends to liberate us from its own bondage, because this 
 would involve allusions to the specific contents of the Mosaic law, 
 the law. It must refer to the operation of law in general. This 
 Paul discusses more fully in Rom. vii, where he shews that it 
 was the function of law to awaken the consciousness of guilt. 
 Now he also shews that there is no escape from guilt by way 
 of law. Therefore the only liberation must be found in ceasing 
 to live under the accusing law. Thus the law, by making its yoke 
 intolerable, provokes us to abandon it. 
 
 that I might live unto God. The purpose of this abandon- 
 ment of law is not antinomian licence, but a life set in relation 
 to God. That was prevented by the bondage of law and the 
 oppression of guilt accompanying it. Then the supreme con- 
 sideration in life was our depressing relation to condemning law. 
 When that is dissolved we are free to come into personal relations 
 with God. Henceforth the chief consideration becomes how we 
 may adjust our lives in regard to God. Thus God takes the place 
 of law. 
 
 20. crucified with Christ: Paul's doctrine of the mystical 
 union. His union with Christ involves a personal experience 
 corresponding to the death of Christ on the cross, and produced 
 by it. In that experience his old life perishes under the influence 
 of the cross of Christ. Cf. Rom. vi. 6, ' our old man was crucified 
 with hint ' ; Col. ii. 20. 
 
 yet I live ; and yet no longer I. The reading in the margin 
 of the R. V. seems preferable on account of the contrast that 
 follows, viz. ' And it is no longer I that live, but Christ,' &c. Paul 
 teaches that crucifixion with Christ is followed by resurrection 
 with him (cf. Col iii. 1). Here he writes of the new life, after 
 death with regard to the old state. So completely is it dependent 
 on Christ and directed by Christ that Paul considers it to be no 
 longer his only life, but simply Christ, who has taken possession 
 of him, living in him. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 2. 21 287 
 
 in me : and that life which I now live in the flesh I live 
 in faith, the faith which is in the Son of God, who loved 
 me, and gave himself up for me. I do not make void 2 
 the grace of God : for if righteousness is through the law, 
 then Christ died for nought. 
 
 now : after the great change, in the present Christian 
 condition. 
 
 in the flesh: lit. 'in flesh,' a Hebraism indicating human 
 life on earth. Although the Christian life is like a resurrection, it 
 is still spent amid material surroundings and with a human body. 
 
 in faith : set in antithesis to ' in flesh,' indicating another 
 sphere in which this new life is spent. It is in the body and 
 in the world, but not confined to these things ; it is also lived 
 in the sphere of faith. Possibly, however the preposition ' in ' 
 is instrumental (a Hebraism), so that the phrase means ' by faith ' : 
 but this misses the antithesis of ' in flesh.' 
 
 the Son of God. Some of the oldest and best MSS. read 
 'God and Christ.' But in verse 16 Paul wrote of Jesus Christ 
 only as the specific object of the faith here referred to, and in 
 any case the clause which follows can only refer to Christ. 
 
 loved me: a touching personal utterance shewing how 
 deeply the Apostle feels what he is writing. The past tense is 
 used because he is thinking especially of the one past proof, love, 
 which he proceeds to specify. The love of Christ here appears 
 as the reason for faith in him. 
 
 gave himself np : i. e. to death (cf. i. 4). The word is 
 frequently used in the gospels for the giving up of Jesus to death 
 by God or by men (cf. Mark ix. 31, x. 33). Here Paul applies it 
 to Christ's own act in surrendering himself to death. 
 
 for me: on behalf of me, for my benefit. The Greek 
 preposition is hyper, which has this meaning, not anti, which 
 would be used if the Apostle meant ' instead of,' in the sense that 
 Christ gave himself to die instead of our dying. Whether Paul 
 would have said that or not, all his language here implies is that 
 Christ's death was for our benefit. This is according to the 
 Apostle's invariable custom. He frequently uses the word hyper 
 in this connexion (e. g. Rom. i. 32, ix. 3 ; 1 Cor. i. 13, v. 7 ; Gal. 
 iii. 13), never anti. 
 
 21. make void: nullify, sometimes rendered 'reject' (cf. Luke 
 vii. 30 ; 1 Cor. i. 19). To return to the law would be to nullify or 
 reject the grace which God has manifested in the love of Christ 
 and his surrender to death. 
 
 the grace of God: that special favour which was manifested 
 in the love and sacrifice of Christ. 
 
288 TO THE GALATIANS 2. 21 
 
 righteousness: primarily ' Tightness, ' a substantive cor- 
 responding to the adjective which means 'right' and 'just.' 
 This is the sense of the word in the O. T. (cf. Ps. vii. 8 ; 
 Prov. viii. 20; Isa. lxiv. 5, &c). It is also used in this sense in 
 the gospels (cf. Matt. iii. 15, v. 20 ; Luke i. 75 ; John xvi. 8, &c.) 
 and other parts of the N. T. (cf. Acts x. 35 ; Jas. i. 20 ; 1 Pet. ii. 24 ; 
 1 John ii. 29; Rev. xix. 11, &c). In fact wherever it is em- 
 ployed by our Lord or by any O. T. or N. T. writer, except Paul, 
 this is the meaning of the word. Moreover Paul himself uses 
 it in this sense (cf. Rom. vi. 13, 16, 18, 19, 20; 2 Cor. vi. 14; 
 Eph. v. 9, &c.\ But the Apostle also employs the term in a 
 specific theological sense which is peculiar to him among Scripture 
 authorities, identifying justification with righteousness. Manifestly 
 he does so here. In verses 16, 17 he discusses justification, which 
 we have seen is simply forgiveness regarded from the standpoint 
 of law and right (see note on verse 16). Then in verse 21 he 
 is evidently referring to the same subject. That is clear from 
 (1) the use of the connecting word 'for,' and (2) the reference 
 to the law as not bringing about the desired result, which was 
 more fully described in verses 16, 17. Yet it is not 'justification' 
 that he names here, but 'righteousness.' Righteousness then is 
 the condition of being justified. The idea is that the Divine act 
 of forgiveness puts the soul in right relations with God. Seeing 
 that in Paul's teaching those right relations are the sources of 
 the new life of holiness, they must contain the germs of righteous- 
 ness in the old sense of the word. i. e. of a right character and 
 right conduct. When Paul writes about 'righteousness of God' 
 (Rom. i. 17) as a gift to us, and more explicitly as * righteousness 
 which is of God' (Phil. iii. 9) he means forgiveness of sins in the 
 first instance ; but this forgiveness is viewed as restoring right 
 relations with God, so that the man who has it stands right with 
 God. The same identification of justification, or forgiveness of sins, 
 with righteousness is worked out more fully in Romans (iii. 21-26) 
 where Paul first described ' a righteousness of God ' given to men, 
 and then proceeds to refer to this as a ' being justified.' 
 
 through the law : better ' through law ' ; if law is the means 
 by which righteousness is attained. 
 
 for naught: rather 'unnecessarily,' 'without sufficient 
 reason,' a meaning of the Greek word {doreavi) not found in 
 classic authors, but met with in the LXX (Ps. xxxiv [xxxv], 7 ; 
 Ixviii [lxix] 4, quoted in John xv. 25). If the end of Christ's 
 death, which was to give us righteousness, put us in right 
 relations with God through the forgiveness of sins, could be 
 effected in some other way, namely by means of law, then that 
 great sacrifice was unnecessary. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 3. i, 2 289 
 
 O foolish Galatians, who did bewitch you, before whose 3 
 eyes Jesus Christ was openly set forth crucified? This 2 
 
 II. Doctrinal Argument, iii. 1 — v. 1. 
 
 iii. 1-5. An appeal to experience. Paul appeals to the experience 
 of the Galatians, whom he considers to be quite senseless, since 
 they have received the clearest instruction in the gospel, and 
 yet now are resorting to the law. Did they receive the Spirit 
 by the law? If not, having begun in the better way, do they 
 expect to be perfected by adopting the inferior method ? Is their 
 present exercise of spiritual gifts derived from works of law or 
 from what they hear in faith ? 
 
 1. foolisli: senseless, wanting in intelligence. 
 Galatians. See Introduction, p. 58 ff. Prof. Ramsay points 
 out that this title, drawn from the name of the Roman province, 
 would be especially appropriate for those of the inhabitants who 
 had adopted the Graeco-Roman civilization, among whom the 
 Apostle would be likely to find most of his converts. In con- 
 trast to the rest of the population, which was still involved in 
 Asiatic customs of thought and life, these more cultured people 
 would regard themselves as superior in intelligence. Yet even 
 they are behaving senselessly. The personal address by name 
 only occurs here and in 2 Cor. vi. 11 ; Phil. iv. 15 ; 1 Tim. i. 18, 
 vi. 20 ; and in all cases the context shews that Paul is moved 
 with deep feeling. 
 
 bewitch. The Greek word (ebaskanen) means the blighting 
 of the evil eye. The Galatians are behaving so senselessly that 
 they must be under a spell. Who is it that has cast an evil eye 
 on them? 
 
 openly set forth. The more usual meaning of the Greek 
 word is ' to write before ' (cf. Rom. xv. 4 ; Eph. iii. 3), and if 
 intended here would refer to the O. T. prophecies of Christ. 
 But it would be out of place to bring in such an allusion at this 
 point with reference to the Galatians. Besides, the expression 
 'before whose eyes' points to a different meaning. Lightfoot 
 renders the word ' was posted up,' ' placarded,' seeing that it was 
 commonly used in this sense for public notices and proclamations. 
 But is not this meaning harsh when applied to the idea of 
 presenting Christ as crucified ? The root-word {grapho) is used 
 of a painter's art — hence our word ' graphic ' for what is vividly 
 pictorical. Accordingly Grimm- Thayer suggests here the meaning 
 ' depict (paint, portray) before the eyes.' Paul in his preaching 
 had vividly portrayed Christ as crucified ; the picture had been set 
 before the eyes of the Galatians. For them to be bewitched as 
 by the evil eye shews that they had taken their eyes off that 
 central object of contemplation. 
 
 («) U 
 
2 9 o TO THE GALATIANS 3. 3, 4 
 
 only would I learn from you, Received ye the Spirit by 
 
 3 the works of the law, or by the hearing of faith? Are 
 ye so foolish? having begun in the Spirit, are ye now 
 
 4 perfected in the flesh ? Did ye suffer so many things 
 
 crucified : without the addition ' among you ' as in the A. V., 
 which is absent from the best MSS. The notion of Christ being 
 crucified afresh among the Galatians in their crucifixion with him 
 and dying to sin is not in Paul's mind. The word refers to the 
 actual, historical crucifixion of Christ ; it stands at the end of the 
 sentence for emphasis, the significance of which is made evident 
 by the previous verse. The Galatians were behaving as though 
 the death of Christ had not been necessary to their salvation. 
 Did they forget that it was as crucified, with especial reference 
 to his cross, that Christ had been depicted to them in Paul's 
 preaching ? 
 
 2. This only, &c. Here is a critical dilemma. Paul will be 
 satisfied if his correspondents will answer this one question, for 
 that will settle the dispute. If they had the gift of the Spirit 
 by means of the law, well and good ; let them keep to the law. 
 But if not, they have no excuse for turning to the law. 
 
 Received: the aorist tense, indicating one event in the past, 
 an experience frequently referred to in the apostolic church, 
 when the Spirit of God was given to the converts (cf. Acts x. 44, 
 xix. 20). 
 
 the works of the law: rather, 'works of law.' See note 
 on ii. 16. 
 
 the hearing- cf faith. This might be rendered ' the message,' 
 as in the margin of the R. V. ; but as it is contrasted with works 
 it is more likely to refer to the personal experience of the 
 Galatians. and 'hearing' is therefore the probable idea. 
 
 of faith : not ' the faith ' as the substance of Christian teaching, 
 a meaning never found in Paul, or at least not so early as this; 
 nor ' faith ' as a topic of preaching, for the gospel was what Paul 
 preached ; but faith characterizing the hearing. The whole 
 expression means ' the hearing which was with faith.' This 
 is the view of Lipsius. Lightfoot's interpretation, 'which comes 
 of faith,' is less natural. The hearing does not come from faith; 
 but faith accompanies and characterizes it. 
 
 3. having begun in the Spirit : in the power of the Spirit of 
 God, the receiving of which has just been mentioned. 
 
 perfected. The Galatians were not formally abandoning 
 Christian grace and falling back on mere Judaism. Their position, 
 as here indicated, was that of adding the observance of the Jewish 
 law to their Christian faith as a means of attaining perfection. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 3. 5 291 
 
 in vain? if it be indeed in vain. He therefore that 
 supplieth to you the Spirit, and worketh miracles among 
 you, doeth he it by the works of the law, or by the hearing 
 
 This is different from the question at Antioch referred to in 
 Acts xv. 1, which made circumcision a condition of salvation. 
 Here it is only proposed to be added to Christian faith as a means 
 of attaining perfection. 
 
 in the flesh : by external ordinances, especially circumcision. 
 The paradox is in the notion that this lower process could come 
 after the higher in order to crown it with perfection. To imagine 
 such a thing is extremely foolish. 
 
 4. Did ye suffer, &c. Lightfoot remarks, ' The history in- 
 deed says nothing of persecutions in Galatia ' ; but that is on the 
 North-Galatian theory. Lightfoot himself points cut that ' the 
 converts to the faith in Pisidia and Lycaonia . . . were exposed to 
 suffering' (as recorded in Acts xiv. 2, 5, 19, 22), and now it seems 
 to be proved that the Galatians to whom the Epistle is directed 
 were the people of these very districts (see Introduction, p. 58 ff.). 
 
 in vain. The history in Acts shews that the persecution 
 from which the Galatians suffered had been stirred up by the 
 Jews. But if the Christians had accepted Judaism, of course 
 this persecution would not have occurred. And now if after 
 enduring it they proceed to adopt the Jewish religion, all the}' 
 have suffered for their distinctive Gentile Christian faith goes 
 for nothing. Why did they make the bold stand before persecu- 
 tion if afterwards they would voluntarily concede the very point 
 on which the persecution turned ? 
 
 if it be indeed in vain. The Apostle cannot really believe 
 them to be so completely stultifying themselves. 
 
 5. He: God, who is alwaj^s regarded as the Giver of the 
 Spirit. 
 
 supplieth: an emphatic word meaning 'to bestow liberally.' 
 miracles : lit. ' powers ' ; but one of the usual words in "the 
 N. T. for those events which we call ' miracles ' (cf. Mark vi. 2, 
 5, 14, &c). Paul here assumes that miracles were occurring 
 among the Galatians. In writing to the Corinthians he dis- 
 tinguishes ' workings of miracles ' ( ' powers ') from i gifts of 
 healing' (1 Cor. xii. 9, 10). Possibly by ' miracles' he means 
 the exorcism of demons, one of the works of the Spirit most 
 frequently referred to in the early church. Paul appeals to the 
 testimony of these miracles. On what condition were they 
 brought about — by performing works of law? or as a result of 
 hearing with faith the message of the gospel? Experience must 
 tell the Galatians that the latter was the case. 
 
 U 2 
 
292 TO THE GALATIANS 3. 6, 7 
 
 6 of faith ? Even as Abraham believed God, and it was 
 
 7 reckoned unto him for righteousness. Know therefore 
 that they which be of faith, the same are sons of Abraham. 
 
 iii. 6-9. The example of Abraham. Paul appeals to the 
 classical instance of Abraham, whose faith was reckoned to him 
 for righteousness. Then surely those who have faith are the 
 true sons of Abraham. The Scriptures predicted the justification 
 of the Gentiles by faith in the promise of Abraham's blessing, 
 which blessing the men of faith share with the patriarch. 
 
 6. Quoted from the LXX of Gen. xv. 6 ; cited again in Rom. 
 iv. 3 ; Jas. ii. 23. 
 
 Abraham. This patriarch was venerated by the Jews as 
 their great religious hero, and it was a common practice for Rabbis 
 to argue points of difference with reference to his life-story, 
 seeking to determine their controversies by the precedents they 
 found in it. Therefore Paul could distinctly score a point by 
 shewing that this supreme historical authority supported his teach- 
 ing about faith. 
 
 believed God. The specific act of faith was concerned 
 with God's promise of a son to Abraham in his old age and 
 numerous descendants. 
 
 for righteousness: not 'instead of,' but 'as equivalent to 
 righteousness.' The preposition (eis) is used in the sentences, 
 ' the}' shall be one flesh' (Gen. ii. 24), lit. 'for (eis) one flesh'; 
 and 'they shall be my people' (Jer. xxxi. 33; cf. Heb. viii. 10), 
 lit. * to me for (eis) a people.' God takes Abraham's faith in His 
 promise as itself equivalent to righteousness, apart from the perform- 
 ance of any external actions by the patriarch. 
 
 7. Know. The R. V. margin has 'Ye perceive,' and Lightfoot 
 advocates the indicative ' Ye know.' But did the Galatians know 
 what Paul proceeds to state here ? It rather follows as a con- 
 sequence of the previous verse. If the specific characteristic 
 of Abraham is faith, then they who share in his faith are his 
 true children. The point of the argument lies in the fact that 
 the Judaizing tendency of the Galatians revealed in them a desire 
 to come in for the privileges of the sons of Abraham which Jews 
 claimed to enjoy. They will do that. Paul argues, by resembling 
 Abraham in the righteousness God recognized in him, i. e. in 
 possessing faith. 
 
 they which be of faith : lit. ' they who come from faith,' in 
 accordance with a common idiom. Cf. 'them that are factious' 
 (lit. ' them that are of faction,' Rom. ii. 8\ ' they which are of the 
 law' (Rom. iv. 14% Though the idiom in John expresses origin, 
 that idea is lost sight of in common usage. Thus the phrase 
 simply means ' men of faith,' ' men who have faith.' 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 3. 8-10 293 
 
 And the scripture, foreseeing that God would justify the 8 
 Gentiles by faith, preached the gospel beforehand unto 
 Abraham, saying, In thee shall all the nations be blessed. 
 So then they which be of faith are blessed with the faith- 9 
 ful Abraham. For as many as are of the works of the 10 
 law are under a curse : for it is written, Cursed is every 
 
 8. the scripture, foreseeing*. The singular means some specific 
 passage of Scripture (cf. Mark xii. 10 ; Luke iv. 21 ; John vii. 38 ; 
 Rom. iv. 3), the plural 'Scriptures' being used for the O. T. as 
 a whole (cf. Mark xii. 24 ; Luke xxiv. 27 ; John v. 39 ; Rom. xv. 4). 
 The passage of Scripture is here personified as though it were 
 a teacher. In verse 23 a passage of Scripture is supposed to 
 be active — 'the scripture hath shut up,' &c. 
 
 preached the gospel beforehand. The promise to Abraham 
 is taken as a proclamation of the gospel of blessing for the 
 heathen. 
 
 In thee, &c. : a sentence combining Gen. xii. 3, 'in thee 
 shall all the families of the earth be blessed,' and Gen. xviii. 18, 
 'all the nations of the earth shall be blessed in him.' O.T. critics 
 consider these passages to mean that the nations will bless 
 themselves by Abraham, taking his blessing as the type of 
 blessing they will desire for themselves. Be that as it ma}', 
 evidently Paul understands them to convey a distinct promise 
 of blessing which the heathen are to receive through Abraham. 
 
 9. faithful: possessing faith, believing ; not here 'trustworthy.' 
 We have this meaning elsewhere (cf. 2 Cor. vi. 15, ' a believer,' 
 for the same Greek word). 
 
 iii. 10-14. The curse of the Jaw. Paul proceeds further. Not 
 only is the law needless and superfluous, as the instance of 
 Abraham shews, it is positively hurtful. Those who go the way of 
 the law are actually under a curse, since that is threatened against 
 all who do not keep it with absolute fidelity. That nobody is 
 justified by law is proved by the Scripture statement that the 
 righteous shall live by faith, which is not the way of the law. 
 Christ, by becoming a curse for us in his crucifixion, redeemed 
 us from the law's curse in order that through him Abraham's 
 blessing might come to the Gentiles and we receive the promised 
 gift of the Spirit. 
 
 10. of the works of the law. For the idiom see note on 
 verse 7, ' they which be of faith.' Here it means the people whose 
 characteristic way in religion is to observe the works of the law. 
 
 it is written: a phrase indicating authoritative Scripture. 
 
294 TO THE GALATIANS 3. n, 13 
 
 one which continueth not in all things that are written in 
 
 11 the book of the law, to do them. Now that no man is 
 justified by the law in the sight of God, is evident : for, 
 
 12 The righteous shall live by faith; and the law is not 
 of faith ; but, He that doeth them shall live in them. 
 
 It is met with in contemporary Greek in Egypt for any au- 
 thoritative document to which an appeal is made. 
 
 Cursed, &c. Deut. xxvii. 26, the conclusion of the curses 
 pronounced on Mount Ebal. Since nobody ever has kept the 
 whole law it follows that all who are under the law are subject 
 to its curse. It is a curious fact that the words ' every one ' and 
 • all things ' are not in the Hebrew, although they occur in the 
 LXX Greek from which Paul quotes them. Lightfoot points 
 out that Jerome attributed the omission to a wilful corruption 
 of the text on the part of the Jews for fear they should appear 
 to be under the curse — a groundless charge. 
 
 the book of the law : the Pentateuch. 
 
 11. justified. See note on ii. 16. 
 
 by the law : lit. ' in law,' meaning either (1) ' by means of 
 law,' according to the common Hebrew idiom which uses the 
 preposition 'in' instrumentally ; or (2) 'in the region of law,' 
 in the law religion. Lipsius prefers the latter meaning; but 
 the absence of the article favours the former, which is both in 
 the A. V. and in the R. V. 
 
 The righteous shall live, &c. : quoted from Hab. ii. 4 ; 
 also cited in Rom. i. 17, and Heb. x. 38. The LXX has ' my 
 righteous man.' Paul corrects this by returning to the Hebrew, 
 which has not the pronoun 'my.' In the language of the prophet 
 ' faith ' stands for ' fidelity' ; so that the sentence meant originally 
 ' the righteous man shall live by his fidelity,' that is to say, as 
 the context shews, he shall be preserved amidst the dangers of 
 the Chaldaean invasion because of his steadfastness and loyalty 
 to God. But of course such fidelity is the outcome of faith. 
 
 righteous: better than 'just' as in the A. V. The word 
 does not mean ' the strict,' ' the upright,' simply ; but it has the 
 more comprehensive sense of general righteousness. 
 
 12. not of faith : not possessing faith as its characteristic 
 principle. The preposition {ek) literally means 'out of and 
 Lightfoot gives it that signification here ; but see note on 
 verse 7. 
 
 He that doeth, &c. : quoted from Lev. xviii. 5. 
 in them: meaning 'by means of them,' the Hebraistic 
 instrumental sense of 'in.' 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 3. 13 295 
 
 Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law, having 13 
 become a curse for us : for it is written, Cursed is every 
 
 13. redeemed: not the usual Scripture word for redemption 
 (apoltttrosis), which directs attention to the consequent liberation. 
 The Greek word used here (exegorasen) points rather to the act 
 of buying. It might be rendered 'bought up,' but it is commonly 
 employed for the ransom of slaves. The word is in the aorist 
 sense, indicating a single act, which the context shews to be the 
 dying of Christ. 
 
 us : Paul and other Christian Jews who had been under the 
 law and therefore liable to its curse. 
 
 the curse of the law. See note on verse 10. 
 
 having become a curse. The Hebrew language, being 
 deficient in adjectives, frequently employs substantives with an 
 adjectival meaning. The expression 'becoming a curse' in 
 our language would most naturally mean 'coming to be a means 
 of cursing people.' Of course that is not the idea here ; Paul 
 means ( becoming accursed,' or ' coming under a curse.' Similarly 
 he writes of Christ being • made to be sin ' (2 Cor. v. 21). This 
 language might be interpreted by readers of the O. T. with 
 reference to the transactions of the 'Day of Atonement,' when 
 the goat, over the head of which the high-priest had pronounced 
 the sins of the people, was driven out to the demon of the 
 wilderness as an accursed thing (see Lev. xvi. 8, 21, 22). The 
 miserable fate of this creature is powerfully portrayed in Holman 
 Hunt's picture of ' The Scapegoat.' 
 
 for us : on our behalf. See ii. 20, note. 
 
 for it is written : appeal to the authority of Scripture. See 
 note on verse 10. 
 
 Cursed is every one, &c. : quoted from Deut. xxi. 23 in 
 the LXX. The Hebrew original is, ' for he that is hanged is 
 accursed of God.' To be hanged, impaled, or crucified was 
 reckoned as undergoing an accursed form of punishment. If 
 it was brought about under the law it was regarded as the 
 infliction of God's curse. Now Christ suffered from one of these 
 horrible kinds of death. Consequently, Paul argues, the curse 
 of it fell on him. Yet the Apostle does not give the full phrase 
 1 accursed of God,'' for he could not apply that to Christ whom he 
 would not think of as coming under God's curse. Still, as Christ 
 died the accursed death in the mere fact that he was crucified, 
 that curse, the very curse of being crucified, fell on Christ. His 
 being crucified was his endurance of the curse ; so awful a death 
 could not be thought of as anything short of a curse. The teaching 
 of the whole verse is that by submitting to that accursed death on 
 our behalf Jesus Christ freed us from the curse of the law. 
 
296 TO THE GALATIANS 3. 14, 15 
 
 14 one that hangeth on a tree : that upon the Gentiles 
 might come the blessing of Abraham in Christ Jesus ; 
 that we might receive the promise of the Spirit through 
 faith. 
 
 1 5 Brethren, I speak after the manner of men : Though 
 it be but a man's covenant, yet when it hath been 
 
 14. that upon the Gentiles, &c. The purpose of Christ's 
 redemption is that the Gentiles might receive the blessing of 
 Abraham. A gap in Paul's argument is here apparent. He has 
 just spoken of deliverance from the curse of the law. Now he 
 assumes that, as a consequence, the law itself ceases to be binding 
 The implied idea is that, if it has lost its sanction in the punishment 
 it threatens, it ceases to be effective. Consequently it is now 
 a dead letter. Therefore, in spite of its proscriptions, the Gentiles 
 whom it had excluded from the privileges of Israel are now able 
 to enjoy them. 
 
 the blessing of Abraham. See verse 8. 
 
 in Christ Jesus: by spiritual union with Christ Jesus. 
 
 we. Here Paul joins himself with the Gentiles. The pronoun 
 is now most comprehensive, embracing all Christians. 
 
 the promise of the Spirit: not the promise made by the 
 Spirit, but the promised gift which consists in the Holy Spirit 
 bestowed on Christians; because (1) Paul has not spoken of 
 this promise as coming from the Spirit ; he has referred it to 
 Scripture personified ; and (2) he continually treats the gift of 
 the Spirit as the chief present blessing of the gospel (cf. verse 5). 
 This he takes to be part of Abraham's blessing ; elsewhere he 
 calls it the ' firstfruits ' (Rom. viii. 23). 
 
 through faith: an emphatic final clause. This promised 
 gift is received by means of faith, not by works of law, as the 
 Galatians are bewitched into imagining. 
 
 iii. 15-18. The ancient covenant. Taking an analogy from 
 human custom Paul points out that a covenant which has once 
 been confirmed cannot be set aside. Such was God's promise 
 to Abraham with its application to Christ. The law which was 
 430 years later than the confirmation of the covenant could not 
 supersede it. And yet if the inheritance were to come by the law 
 the promise would be neutralized. 
 
 15. Brethren: an urgent and affectionate address indicating 
 the Apostle's desire to convince. 
 
 after the manner of men : according to the analogy of men's 
 common actions in the world (cf. Rom. iii. 5 ; 1 Cor. ix. 8, 
 xv. 32). 
 
 but a man's : introducing an a fortiori argument. Even 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 3. 15 297 
 
 confirmed, no one maketh it void, or addeth thereto. 
 
 a man's covenant duly executed is inviolable ; much more then 
 must this be the case with God's covenant. 
 
 covenant: the Greek word {diaiheke) usually means a 'will.' 
 It has been generally supposed that this meaning only occurs once 
 in the Bible (Heb. ix. 15-17), and that in all other cases the word 
 means a formal agreement between two parties. This sense 
 is given to it in the LXX, where the translators employ it as their 
 rendering of the Hebrew word for 'covenant' {beriih), probably 
 preferring it to the usual Greek word for 'covenant' (suntheke), 
 because the Divine covenant is an arrangement made by God 
 which men accept from Him, not a bargain settled on equal terms. 
 It is the classic use of the word for a 'will ' or 'testament' that 
 gives us our popular titles of the two parts of the Bible — the ' Old 
 Testament ' and the ' New Testament ' — really the Old and New 
 Covenants. But now a flood of light has been thrown on this 
 remarkable word by means of the Greek papyri recently discovered 
 in Egypt. Prof. Ramsay shews, on the testimony of Messrs. 
 Grenfell and Hunt, how the wills that have been found among 
 those documents, and the Greek customs concerning them, illustrate 
 Paul's statements here. Accordingly he argues that in the present 
 case the word means a ' will ' and not a ' covenant.' The following 
 considerations point in this direction : (1) The phrase 'after the 
 manner of men ' indicating the analogy of ordinary human 
 practice, and therefore not the special LXX use of the word ; 
 (2) the mention of an inheritance ; (3) the Greek custom which 
 made the will a public document and irrevocable even before the 
 death of the testator, though the Attic law allowed of codicils. 
 Nevertheless, while Paul is apparently appealing to the example 
 of a Greek 'will' for his argument, it is evident that he has the 
 O. T. 'covenant' also in mind, since he argues from its history. 
 Thus he seems to apply the Greek usage concerning wills to the 
 ancient covenant, without considering any difference of meaning 
 in the two applications of the word. The nature of the Greek 
 ' will,' as public and unchangeable when once executed, would 
 assimilate it to such a covenant as we meet with in the O. T., 
 an agreement between two parties, but really determined in the 
 first instance by one, since it is God's covenant offered to man. 
 
 confirmed. A Greek will had to be lodged in the Record 
 Office and there examined, and if found valid duly authenticated. 
 
 no one xnaketh it void, &c. : according to the Greek custom, 
 even during the life of the testator. The Roman custom, on which 
 our law is founded, was different. 
 
 addeth thereto: fresh clauses, codicils. The Judaizers 
 treated the law as something subsequently added to the original 
 agreement with Abraham. But inasmuch as that was a covenant 
 
298 TO THE GALATIANS 3. 16, 17 
 
 j 6 Now to Abraham were the promises spoken, and to his 
 seed. He saith not, And to seeds, as of many ; but as 
 
 1 7 of one, And to thy seed, which is Christ. Now this I 
 say ; A covenant confirmed beforehand by God, the law, 
 which came four hundred and thirty years after, doth not 
 
 or will, ordinary human usage in Greek society was contrary 
 to such an interference with its original provisions. 
 
 16. promises : in the plural. Abraham received more than one 
 promise (see Gen. xiii. 15, xvii. 8). 
 
 seed : Hebraism for ; children,' ' descendants.' The reference 
 is to Gen. xiii. 15, 16. 
 
 not ... to seeds, &c. Great ingenuity has been exercised in the 
 attempt to prove the formal validity of Paul's argument here ; but 
 it is only reasonable to admit that he was using a Rabbinical method 
 of treating Scripture which cannot be made to agree with exact 
 exegesis. ( t ) The word 'seed' in the Hebrew original is collective, 
 and stands for any number of seeds, the plural only being used for 
 different kinds of seeds or for crops. (2) The narrative in Genesis 
 distinctly refers to the multitude of Abraham's descendants, and 
 makes no reference to one particular descendant who is to inherit 
 the promises. Nevertheless the Rabbis applied these promises to 
 the Messiah, and Paul was following a Jewish usage in the specific 
 personal application he made of them. While his logic might not 
 be called sound, the point to which he was coming could not be 
 confuted, since it was in Christ that the promises to Abraham 
 were fulfilled. 
 
 17. confirmed : see note on verse 15. 
 beforehand: before the law-giving. 
 
 the law: the Mosaic law, which was acknowledged in the 
 Pentateuch. 
 
 four hundred and thirty year3 after : i. e. after Abraham 
 received the covenant. The figure seems to be taken from Exod. xii. 
 40, where, however, in the Hebrew Bible 430 is given as the 
 number of years for the sojourn in Egypt. The Samaritan 
 Pentateuch and the LXX correct that by reading, instead of 
 ' in Egypt,' the words ' in the land of Eg3'pt and in the land 
 of Caanan.' Paul here follows the LXX reading. Josephus also 
 follows this reckoning in one passage (Antiq. ii. 15. 22), though 
 elsewhere he follows the reckoning of the Hebrew text {Antiq. ii. 
 9. 1 ; Bell. Ltd .v. 9. 4), which is borne out by Gen. xv. 13, where 
 400 years of oppression in Egypt are predicted, a prediction quoted 
 by Stephen (Acts vii. 6). The obscurity of the early history of 
 Israel renders it impossible for us to determine which reckoning 
 may be nearest the facts of the case. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 3. 18, 19 299 
 
 disannul, so as to make the promise of none effect. For 18 
 if the inheritance is of the law, it is no more of promise : 
 but God hath granted it to Abraham by promise. What 19 
 then is the law? It was added because of transgressions, 
 
 doth not disannul. The later law cannot set aside the earlier 
 covenant, since by its nature this is made for ever unalterable. 
 Yet the Judaizing movement in Galatia assumed that to be the 
 case, more or less, by requiring something beyond faith, although 
 in the case of Abraham faith had been the sole condition of the 
 covenant, God reckoning that for righteousness. 
 
 disannul : an old English word, an intensive form of annul. 
 Thus Shakespeare has it : — 
 
 ' Then Warwick disannuls great John of Gaunt' (3 Henry VI, iii. 3). 
 The Greek word is the negative form of the word previously 
 rendered ' confirmed ' (verses 15, 1 7). Being once ; confirmed,' the 
 covenant cannot be subsequently made unconfirmed so as to have 
 its provisions invalid. 
 
 IS. the inheritance: as according to will, Abraham's blessing 
 passing on to his ' seed.' 
 
 of the law : lit. ' out of law,' law regarded as the source from 
 which it is derived. 
 
 no more : no longer ; it had been a matter of promise from 
 Abraham's time for those 430 years. On the supposed hypothesis 
 this would be the case no longer. 
 
 of promise. The absence of the article before the word 
 1 law' as well as before this word brings the contained ideas into 
 comparison — law versus promise. 
 
 iii. 19-29. The place and function of the law. Having shewn 
 that the law cannot supersede the older covenant Paul proceeds 
 to discuss its place in the Divine economy of history. Tempor- 
 arily necessitated for the sake of transgressions, it came througli 
 intermediary angels, by way of a mediator ; while God in giving 
 and executing His promises requires no such intermediaries. Not 
 that the law stands in any way opposed to God's promises. If it 
 could have given life it would have been admitted to be the way 
 to righteousness. But what the O. T. does is to confine everything 
 in subjection to sin in order that they who have faith in Christ may 
 thus receive the promised blessing. 
 
 19. What then is the law? The argument seems to have led 
 up to the conclusion that the law was a mere superfluity, even an 
 unwarrantable intrusion. It is necessary then to see what the 
 law really is. 
 
 added : i. e. in addition to the covenant. 
 
3 oo TO THE GALATIANS 3. 20 
 
 till the seed should come to whom the promise hath been 
 
 made ; and it was ordained through angels by the hand 
 
 20 of a mediator. Now a mediator is not a mediator of one ; 
 
 because of transgressions : not in order to prevent trans- 
 gressions, for the context shews no such purpose in the law ; nor 
 in order to punish transgressions ; but, according to Paul's peculiar 
 conception of the law, in order to bring out transgressions as 
 clearly acknowledged breaches of law. Therefore he uses the 
 almost technical word ' transgression,' which means a breach 
 of law, not the more common word 'sin.' Of course Paul could 
 not deny the obvious, immediate purpose of the law as the Israelite 
 code to be in part the restraint of evildoing. But much of this 
 law did not concern crime or ethics ; much of it was purely 
 ceremonial. Besides, with Paul the supreme Divine purpose was 
 much more than the immediate end to be served. That purpose, 
 he held, was to convert vague, dormant sin into what could be 
 recognized as the transgression of definite precepts. Cf. Rom. 
 vii. 9 : ' when the commandment came, sin revived ' (or ' sprang 
 into life '). 
 
 the seed : Christ (cf. verse 16). The law was to do its work 
 in bringing out transgression down to the time of Christ— no 
 longer. 
 
 through angels. The Rabbis held that angels assisted in the 
 giving of the law, basing the idea on the words ; he came from 
 the ten thousands of holy ones ' (Deut. xxxiii. 2, R. V.) This idea 
 is referred to in Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 53). It is also found 
 injosephus (Antiq. xv. 5. 3). Paul mentions it here to indicate the 
 inferiority of the law to the covenant which God gave directly to 
 Abraham. If it be said that the O. T. does not warrant such 
 a belief, at all events the Apostle's word would serve as an 
 argumentum ad homines, since his Jewish opponents would accept 
 this view of the law-giving. 
 
 a mediator : an intermediary, i. e. Moses. The specific 
 notion of mediation in a. quarrel is not here suggested. 
 
 20. Lightfoot observes that ' the number of interpretations 
 of this passage is said to mount up to 250 or 300.' His own view 
 is that now most generally adopted, viz. : The very idea of media- 
 tion supposes at least two persons between whom the mediation 
 is carried on. That was the case with the law. There were two 
 parties to it, God and Israel ; and therefore it was conditioned by 
 the action of each party. But it is different in the case of the 
 promise. God gives this promise. Thus there is but one party 
 to it, for God is one. Therefore the promise is absolute and 
 unconditional. Another interpretation takes the word ' one ' 
 qualitatively, understanding it to mean that God is not divided in 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 3. 21,22 301 
 
 but God is one. Is the law then against the promises of 21 
 God ? God forbid : for if there had been a law given 
 which could make alive, verily righteousness would have 
 been of the law. Howbeit the scripture hath shut up all 22 
 things under sin, that the promise by faith in Jesus 
 Christ might be given to them that believe. 
 
 will and counsel, so that there can be no other will in Him conflict- 
 ing with the will which gave the promise ; but this does not suit 
 the previous clause so well. Then there is the view that, since 
 a mediator requires two parties, and God is one, man, or specifically 
 Israel, must be the other. But Paul does not draw that conclusion, 
 nor would it be in place. 
 
 21. promises. For the plural form see note on verse 16. 
 God forbid. See note on ii. 17. 
 
 make alive : more than justify ; an actual personal change 
 of condition from death in sin to life in God. Cf. ii. 20, iii. 11 ; 
 Rom. vi. 23. 
 
 righteousness. See note on ii. 21. This is here closely 
 associated with the idea of making alive. He who is justified 
 and therefore has righteousness is, according to Paul's teaching, 
 ipso facto endowed with the gift of eternal life. Cf. Rom. v. 21 : 
 1 that, as sin reigned in death, even so might grace reign through 
 righteousness unto eternal life,'' &c. The life is a consequence of 
 the righteousness. 
 
 The whole verse is the answer to a supposed objection. If, as 
 Paul has just been saying, the law is so different from the promises, 
 must it not be in conflict with them and therefore after all nullify 
 them ? That would be so if the law were the Divinely appointed 
 means of conferring the gift of eternal life. Then of course it 
 would be the way to righteousness. But it is nothing of the kind. 
 
 22. the scripture: apparently a single passage in the O. T., 
 personified as in verse 8. See note on that verse. But since 
 Paul does not here cite any such passage it majr be that he is 
 using the singular ' scripture ' for the Scriptures generally, though 
 this would be contrary to custom. 
 
 shut up : as in prison ; stronger than ' conclude ' (A. V.). 
 
 all thing's: neuter for comprehensiveness, as we say 'the 
 whole world ' when we mean ' all mankind.' Cf. Col. i. 20, ' to 
 reconcile all things.' 
 
 under sin: sin being the tyrant holding the world in sub- 
 jection. 
 
 that: indicating the purpose of the universal imprisonment. 
 It is to drive men to resort to the sole method of escape. 
 
3 02 TO THE GALATIANS 3. 23, 24 
 
 23 But before faith came, we were kept in ward under the 
 law, shut up unto the faith which should afterwards be 
 
 24 revealed. So that the law hath been our tutor to bring us 
 
 the promise : not the word promising, but the thing promised, 
 i. e. Abraham's blessing, now interpreted by Paul as developed into 
 the gift of righteousness leading to eternal life. This is implied 
 in the references to 'making alive' and 'righteousness' in the 
 previous verse. What the law could not do is conferred in the 
 promise. 
 
 by faith: lit. * from,' or ' out of faith.' the same preposition 
 (ek) that is translated 'of in the phrase ' of the law' (verse 21). 
 It is a pity the Revisers did not mark the antithesis by translating 
 this preposition in the same way in each case. The blessing does 
 not spring from law ; it springs from faith. 
 
 in Jesus Christ : as the object of faith. 
 
 them that believe : them that have faith — in Greek the verbal 
 form of the word rendered 'faith.' 
 
 23. faith: rather, 'this faith' ; //'/. 'the faith,' which however 
 might seem to mean ' the Christian religion,' a sense not given to 
 the expression at so early a date as the Epistle. Paul means ' the 
 faith just mentioned,' i. e. faith in Christ. His idea is that before 
 'this faith' came the Jews were imprisoned under the law. 
 
 we : Paul as a Jew and other Jews - not including the Gentile 
 Galatians. 
 
 kept in ward : a word usually meaning ' guarded b}' soldiers.' 
 
 under the law. Paul had just said, ' shut up . . . under sin.' 
 Here he must be referring to the same restraint. He does not 
 think of the law as a system of obligations to be fulfilled, but as 
 a standard of judgement for transgressors. Thus subjection to sin 
 and being held in keeping by the law are two aspects of the same 
 condition ; it is because of sin that law has its power of holding in 
 ward. It is only the law-breaker who loses his liberty and can 
 be retained in a lock-up by the police as guardians of law. 
 
 unto: or 'for,' indicating the object of this guarding and 
 imprisonment. 
 
 the faith. See note on ' faith ' earlier in this verse. 
 
 afterwards . . . revealed: in the gospel of Jesus Christ. 
 
 24. tutor : an unfortunate word of the Revisers, not much 
 better than the ' schoolmaster ' of the A. V. The Greek word 
 (paidagogos) stands for a slave who was entrusted with the charge 
 of children. In the Roman world he was also their teacher ; but 
 this was not the case among the Greeks, and Paul is writing to 
 a people living in a state of Greek civilization, as several of his 
 references to manners and customs shew. He does not mean 
 that the law was the teacher training: for Christ, and that the ideas 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 3. 25-27 303 
 
 unto Christ, that we might be justified by faith. But now 25 
 that faith is come, we are no longer under a tutor. For 26 
 ye are all sons of God, through faith, in Christ Jesus. For 27 
 
 of Judaism were preliminary and preparatory to the fuller Christian 
 truth. He simply means that the law was like a servant whose 
 business it was to conduct the children to school. Christ is the 
 one teacher. 
 
 to bring us unto Christ : (1) not by the partial development of 
 a religious life under Judaism, which Paul never teaches ; nor (2) 
 as typical and symbolical of Christianity, leading to Christianity 
 by foreshadowing it, an idea never found in Paul, though it is 
 met with in Hebrews and pushed to an extreme in the so-called 
 Epistle of Barnabas ; but (3) by making people perceive their 
 need of Christ through the sense of guilt and the consciousness 
 of the danger of judgement which the law awakens, so that there 
 is felt to be an imperative necessity of seeking what Paul calls 
 justification, i. e. deliverance from this state of guilt, where alone it 
 can be found, in Christ. His argument has distinctly led up to 
 this point. 
 
 justified by faith. See notes on ii. 16. 
 
 25. we : still only Paul and the Jews, as far as they have become 
 Christians. 
 
 26. ye . . . all : the Galatians, Gentile Christians. 
 
 sons of God. (1) According to Lightfoot, and apparently 
 Prof. Ramsa3' also, this sonship is contrasted with the condition 
 of childhood under a servant-custodian, as involving the liberty 
 of older years. (2) Lipsius denies the contrast, and there is some 
 reason for his view. Paul now deliberately drops the first person 
 and uses the second person. That breaks the line of argument. 
 The Gentiles never were as children under the law. Besides, the 
 boy child is also a son. The notion of sonship does not in itself 
 imply adult age. Still Paul evidently means that, since the 
 Galatians are brought into sonship only as Christians, they do 
 not have to undergo the irksome process to which Jewish 
 Christians had been subject, since that was previous to their 
 conversion to Christianity. Then the following paragraph dis- 
 tinctly contrasts the privilege of sonship with the restraints of 
 childhood, and this throws us back on the first view. 
 
 in Christ Jesus. The Revisers are plainly right with their 
 punctuation, which separates this clause from that which im- 
 mediately precedes and connects it with the first clause of the 
 sentence. He does not mean ' faith in Christ Jesus,' but 'sons of 
 God ... in Christ Jesus,' this sonship being realized by means 
 of faith. He has written of the Jews being led to Christ (verse 
 24), and further down he describes Christians as being < in Christ' 
 
3o 4 TO THE GALATIANS 3. 28, 29 
 
 as many of you as were baptized into Christ did put on 
 
 28 Christ. There can be neither Jew nor Greek, there can 
 be neither bond nor free, there can be no male and 
 
 29 female : for ye all are one man in Christ Jesus. And if ye 
 
 (verse 28). The sonship is a state of intimate union with Christ. 
 Paul is not here thinking of the universal Fatherhood of God and 
 consequent Divine childhood of man, but of the sonship which he 
 elsewhere compares to adoption when by their union with Christ 
 the Gentile heathen enter God's family (cf. Rom. viii. 23). 
 
 2*7. baptized into : rather ' to,' or ' for,' a common usage of the 
 Greek preposition (eis) signifying an end or purpose. Thus Paul 
 uses the same preposition where he says that the Israelites were 
 1 baptized unto Moses ' (1 Cor. x. 2) ; it is employed with reference 
 to the baptism of John the Baptist, where we read of a i baptism 
 of repentance unto remission of sins' (Mark i. 4; Luke iii. 3). 
 It occurs in the baptismal formula where the A. V. reads ' baptizing 
 them in the name of the Father,' &c. (Matt, xxviii. 19). The R. V. 
 has ' into ' in this passage ; but the analogy of the other passages 
 cited would rather suggest * unto ' or ' for,' in all cases the pre- 
 position indicating the object of the baptism. 
 
 into Christ. The phrase 'baptized to Christ' indicates the 
 primitive form of baptism as simply ' to Christ ' (Rom. vi. 3), or, 
 1 to the name of Jesus' (cf. Acts xix. 5 ; 1 Cor. i. 13). 
 
 put on : a common O. T. idiom (cf. Job viii. 22, xxix. 14, 
 xxxix. 19; Ps. xxxv. 26) found also elsewhere in the N.T. 
 (1 Pet. v. 5). Cf. Rom. xiii. 14, 'Put ye on the Lord Jesus 
 Christ.' As the garment covers the person and is closely wrapped 
 about him, so Christ is thought of as closely united to his people 
 and giving them their characteristic appearance. 
 
 28. Jew . . . Greek : the racial distinction, named first, because 
 it had given rise to the trouble in the Galatian churches. ' Greek ' 
 is the title of people of the Greek language and civilization, not 
 simply Hellenes by birth. This title would suit the people of 
 South Galatia, as it would not suit the North Galatians, the Gauls, 
 who were Romanized, but who had not adopted Greek customs 
 (see Introduction, p. 66 ff.). 
 
 bond . . . free: the great social distinction in the ancient 
 world. Christianity did not formally denounce slavery. More 
 misery than good would have come of that premature action. But 
 by making master and slave equally brethren in the church it 
 tended to remove the distinction between them, and so in the end 
 to destroy the system on which that distinction rested. 
 
 male and female. Christianity, more than any other religion, 
 gives equal rights to men and women. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS L i 305 
 
 are Christ's, then are ye Abraham's seed, heirs according 
 to promise. 
 
 But I say that so long as the heir is a child, he 4 
 
 all are one: not of one kind or nature but a unity. Being 
 all as one man in Christ by reason of the close union with him in 
 which they all participate, Christians cannot maintain the old lines 
 of separation. This is a favourite doctrine in Paul's teaching, 
 and the establishment of the fact to which it refers was one of 
 the principal ends of his labours. A great part of his work, as 
 in collecting the contributions of the Gentile churches for the 
 assistance of the Jewish church at Jerusalem, was directed 
 towards bringing about the union of these two branches of 
 Christendom. 
 
 29. Christ's : of Christ, by being in Christ. 
 
 then . . . Abraham's seed: because Christ is Abraham's 
 seed. 
 
 heirs : because Abraham's family. Therefore Abraham's 
 promises will be realized by all Christians irrespective of any 
 difference of race, social distinction, sex. Then there is no 
 room for the Jewish privileges after which the Galatians were so 
 foolishly hankering. As Christians they already possess the best 
 privileges of Israel. 
 
 iv. 1-7. Sonship. So long as he is a child the heir is kept 
 under the authority of certain officials till the time determined in 
 his father's will. Similarly while Paul and the Jewish Christians 
 were in religious childhood, they were in subjection to the 
 elements of the world. But on the completion of this time of 
 tutelage God sent His Son in a human life subject to the law in 
 order to redeem those under law and grant them sonship. The 
 Galatians, too, being sons, have received the Spirit of God whereby 
 they can acknowledge Him as their Father. This privilege 
 of sonship involves freedom from servitude and the rights of 
 heirs. 
 
 1. Bnt Z say. Paul reverts to the idea of verse 23 in order to 
 confirm it from another point of view, and thus explain more fully 
 both why the law was given and how it came to be superseded. 
 
 the heir. The whole argument here proceeds on the sup- 
 position of a case in which property is left to a child under a will 
 by the death of his father. Since Paul regards God as the Father, 
 this part of the analogy cannot be worked out in detail. Still it 
 serves to set the case of the heir before us as, in some respects, 
 representative of the Jews in the pre-Christian age. 
 
 a child: an infant in the eyes of the law, a minor. Accord- 
 ing to Roman law the title infaus ceased, at the age of seven, 
 
 W x 
 
3 o6 TO THE GALATIANS 4. 2-4 
 
 differeth nothing from a bondservant, though he is lord 
 
 2 of all ; but is under guardians and stewards until the 
 
 3 term appointed of the father. So we also, when we 
 were children, were held in bondage under the rudiments 
 
 4 of the world : but when the fulness of the time came, 
 
 after which the child was competent to perform certain legal 
 acts ; he was under a guardian till he was fourteen ; and he did 
 nut have full power over his property till he was twenty-five. 
 But Prof. Ramsay has shewn that Paul is following the Greek 
 usage, known in Syria and therefore probably also in Southern 
 Galatia. 
 
 differeth nothing, &c. : in being under authority and not 
 allowed to dispose of property. 
 
 lord of all : i. e. of all the estate left by his father, including 
 the slaves, like whom, for the time being, he has to be in subjection, 
 and even the very officials whom he has to obey. 
 
 2. guardians : the recognized Greek legal word for the 
 guardians of minors, having personal charge of them, as seen in 
 the inscriptions. 
 
 stewards : having charge of the property. Cf. the parable 
 of 'The Unjust Steward' (Luke xvi. i ff.). 
 
 the term appointed of the father. Roman law did not 
 permit the testator to fix the age at which a son came into his 
 estate ; but this was allowed by the Syrian Greek law, to the 
 example of which therefore Paul is now appealing. It would be 
 the law of his own native province Cilicia, and that also of the 
 churches to which he was writing. 
 
 3. we: Paul and fellow Jews cf. verse 5, ' that he might redeem 
 them which were under the law'), distinguished from the Gala- 
 tians who are addressed in verse 6 as " ye.' 
 
 when we were children : reverting to the idea of verse 24 
 where the law is the servant in charge of children. Paul regards 
 the pre-Christian condition of the Jews as a state of childhood. 
 This has an important bearing on his whole argument, shewing 
 why he regarded the Galatians as foolish in adopting Judaism. 
 They were voluntarily putting themselves in that state of re- 
 strained infancy from which Christianity was giving the Jews 
 deliverance. 
 
 bondage. Law is essentially bondage compared with the 
 freedom of the Christian state. 
 
 the rudiments of the world. The Revisers follow Light- 
 foot in giving the word ' rudiments ' here, Lightfoot understanding 
 the reference to be to elementary teaching. The Greek word is 
 sometimes used for the alphabet. With this sense the passage 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 4. 4 3°7 
 
 God sent forth his Son, born of a woman, born under the 
 
 would describe the state of the Jews as possessing but the alpha- 
 bet of religious knowledge in pre-Christian times. But there is 
 much in favour of retaining the word ' elements ' as in the A. V. 
 That is a common use of the word (cf. Wisd. of Sol. vii. 17, xix. 18; 
 2 Pet. iii. 10, 12, ' the elements shall be dissolved/ 'the elements 
 shall melt with fervent heat'). The addition of the phrase 'of 
 the world ' favours this view. It is difficult to see any sense in 
 the expression ' the rudiments of the world ' understood as we 
 apply the word 'rudiments' to a grammar or a science. But 
 then it is difficult to see how the Jews were especially subject 
 to the elements of nature. Most of the Fathers understood the 
 expression to mean the sun, moon, and stars. In Jewish specula- 
 tion these were supposed to represent angel-powers. In the 
 apocryphal Testament of Solomon, the spirits say, 'We are the so- 
 called elements, the world rulers of this world.' In verse 9 ' the weak 
 and beggarly rudiments' (A. V. ' elements') seem to be identified 
 with ' them which by nature are no gods ' (verse 8), and then the 
 idea of the Galatians turning back to these old influences implies 
 that even they, though heathen, had been under them previous 
 to their conversion. This would not apply to the Jewish law ; 
 and yet we must give the word the same meaning in both places. 
 If then we understand it here to refer to the heavenly bodies, the 
 Jewish observance of sabbaths, new moons and other seasons 
 (verse 10) would be thought of as like a heathenish return to 
 subjection to the heavenly bodies that were supposed to rule these 
 seasons (so Lipsius, and Prof. Massie, article 'Elements' in 
 Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible). 
 
 4. the fulness of the time : the completion of the time, when 
 the preliminary period had come to an end. This corresponds 
 to 'the term appointed' (verse 2) by the father in his will 
 determining when the heir shall enter into his estate (cf. Eph. i. 
 10). 
 
 God sent forth his Son. The idea is Christ coming into this 
 world from God and as a result of God's action. 
 
 horn of a woman: indicating an actual human birth, with 
 consequent human nature and its physical frailty, not a mere 
 Christophany, or appearance of Christ on earth. This phrase 
 has no direct bearing on the subject of the virgin birth of Jesus, 
 since every man is ' born of a woman.' On the other hand, it 
 contains nothing to exclude the virgin birth, being simply silent 
 on the question of paternity. Evidently no such question was in 
 the Apostle's mind, his purpose being simply to point to our Lord's 
 actual humanity in contrast with his Divine origin. 
 
 horn under the law : a Jew by birth ; not like the Galalians 
 
 X 2 
 
3o8 TO THE GALATIANS 4. 5-7 
 
 5 law, that he might redeem them which were under the 
 
 6 law, that we might receive the adoption of sons. And 
 because ye are sons, God sent forth the Spirit of his Son 
 
 7 into our hearts, crying, Abba, Father. So that thou art 
 no longer a bondservant, but a son ; and if a son, then 
 an heir through God. 
 
 who, though born apart from the law. were voluntarily subjecting 
 themselves to it. 
 
 5. redeem. See note on iii. 13. Evidently Paul here connects 
 redemption with the incarnation and subjection of Christ to the 
 law. He was sent into these humiliating conditions for the purpose 
 of effecting the redemption. 
 
 them which were under the law: Jews, to whom alone 
 this verse applies. 
 
 we : strictly Paul and other Jews, as the context proves ; 
 and yet the next verse shews how ready Paul will be to extend 
 the content of the pronoun to include all Christians — Gentile as 
 well as Jew. 
 
 adoption: a familiar Greek and Roman custom. The striking 
 thing is that the Apostle even describes the Divine sonship of 
 Jewish Christians as obtained by adoption, not by nature. 
 
 6. ye are sons. Paul suddenly passes from the sonship he 
 shares with Jewish Christians to that of the Galatians, as though 
 having asserted the former he might take the latter for granted. 
 He is not engaged in proving the sonship in either case. He 
 appeals to it as an acknowledged fact. But he assumes that it 
 has the same origin both with Jews and with Gentiles. 
 
 the Spirit of his Son. Paul does not tie himself down to 
 exact Trinitarian distinctions. Here he is referring to the Divine 
 Spirit, elsewhere known as the ' Holy Spirit,' now regarded as 
 dwelling in Christ. 
 
 Abba: Aramaism for Father; hence our word 'Abbot.' It 
 would seem that the Aramaic and Greek words were repeated 
 together by the early Christians as a sort of familiar formula in 
 prayer, marking the Divine Fatherhood common to both sections 
 of the church. Paul here refers to it as prompted by the Spirit of 
 Christ ; elsewhere he argues that this inspired acknowledgement 
 of God as our Father is a testimony to the sonship of Christians 
 (Rom. viii. 15, 16). 
 
 7. thou. The singular makes the appeal personal to each reader. 
 no longer a bondservant. Both branches of the church had 
 
 been in subjection — the Jews as children under guardians and 
 stewards because subject to their law (verses 1, 0), the Gentiles 
 as slaves to idolatry. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 4. s, 9 309 
 
 Howbeit at that time, not knowing God, ye were in 8 
 bondage to them which by nature are no gods : but now 9 
 that ye have come to know God, or rather to be known 
 of God, how turn ye back again to the weak and beggarly 
 
 then an heir : not merely of the promises to Abraham which 
 extended to his heirs, as might be said of Christians when con- 
 sidered to be * sons of Abraham ' (iii. 7), but an heir of God's inheri- 
 tance as His son. 
 
 through God : by God's action of adoption, not by nature 
 (verse 5). 
 
 br. 8-1 1. The return to the old bondage. The Galatians had 
 been in bondage to false gods previous to their knowledge of the 
 true God ; but how after that could they return to the miserable 
 degradation ? In their observance of sacred seasons they are 
 really doing so. Such conduct makes Paul fear that he has thrown 
 away his labour on them. 
 
 8. at that time : previous to conversion. 
 
 in bondage. Paul regards the heathen condition as a bondage 
 to superstition just as he regards the Jewish condition as a 
 bondage to law when contrasted with the liberty of Divine sonship. 
 
 them ... by nature ... no gods : ' the weak and beggarly 
 elements/ i. e. the sun, moon, and stars. The commonest worship 
 throughout the world was sun-worship. Renan points out that 
 in the second century this pagan cult, under the form of adoration 
 of the Persian Mithra, was the most serious rival to Christianity. 
 
 toy nature ... no gods : only gods by convention and super- 
 stition. 
 
 9. come to know God. Paul's preaching to the heathen, as 
 that of every wise missionarj' must necessarily be, was based on 
 an explanation of the pure Christian theism as opposed to pagan 
 polytheism (cf. Acts xvii. 23-29). 
 
 or rather to toe known of God : in the sense of being acknow- 
 ledged by God, i. e. as sons. Cf. 1 Cor. viii. 3, ' If any man 
 loveth God, the same is known of him.' 
 
 turn ye back again. Paul regards the adoption of Judaism 
 as virtually a reversion to heathenism, a startling opinion for 
 Judaizing Christians who would regard themselves as further 
 removed from paganism than the freer living Gentile Christians. 
 Throughout the argument he insists on the essential resemblance 
 between Judaism and paganism in contrast to Christianity. 
 
 weak. The pagan divinities were ineffective, impotent to 
 save as the Christian God saves in His redemption. But it was 
 bold to say this in the hearing of sun-worshippers, in effect to call 
 the blazing sun of Asia 'weak' ! 
 
310 TO THE GALATIANS 1 10-13 
 
 rudiments, whereunto ye desire to be in bondage over 
 10 again? Ye observe days, and months, and seasons, and 
 ] r years. I am afraid of you, lest by any means I have 
 
 bestowed labour upon you in vain. 
 
 12 I beseech you, brethren, be as I <?///, for I am as ye 
 
 13 are. Ye did me no wrong : but ye know that because 
 
 beggarly: unable to bestow any gifts of value, such as the 
 Christian God gives in His grace. 
 
 rudiments : ' elements ' as in the A. V. See note on verse 3. 
 10. days: sabbaths and perhaps fast da3's ; cf. Col. ii. 16. 
 
 months: new moon festivals ; cf. Isa. i. 14, lxvi. 23. 
 
 seasons : various other periodical festivals. 
 
 years: annual Jewish feasts— Passover, Pentecost, &c. 
 Lightfoot suggests the Sabbatical and Jubilee years ; but these 
 were not really observed. The pagan education of the Galatians 
 would predispose them to adopt especially this aspect of Judaism, 
 since it fell in with their traditional reverence for the heavenly 
 bodies. 
 
 iv. 12-20 The earlier sympathy between Paul and the Galatians. 
 The Apostle entreats the Galatians to follow his example, 
 reminding them how he was first led to preach to them through 
 his phrysical infirmity; and yet the}' did not despise him on that 
 account, but gave him a most enthusiastic welcome. No sacrifice 
 would have been too great for them to have made for him. But 
 now has he become their enemy merely because he tells them 
 the truth? Their new friends have no good end in view, though 
 in itself it is well that people should shew an interest in them. 
 Paul feels like a mother in birth-pains for them again. He longs 
 to be present with them and to be able to change his tone from 
 the style of grieved expostulation. 
 
 12. I beseech: a strong word in the Greek. ' I beg and pray.' 
 
 be as I am : i. e. free from the bondage of Jewish ordinances. 
 This shews that not only did Paul not require his Gentile converts 
 to adopt the law ; though a Jew b} r birth he himself had 
 abandoned it. There is no reason to believe that the other 
 apostles had thus wholly renounced Judaism, though Peter had 
 taken a timid step in that direction (ii. 12). 
 
 X am as ye are: like the Gentiles who are free from the 
 Jewish law. Since Paul has taken the bold step of breaking with 
 the law of his fathers in order to put himself on a level with his 
 converts, he begs them to come back to that position of freedom 
 from law in deference to his example. 
 
 Ye did me no wrong. The punctuation of the A. V. connects 
 this sentence with what precedes, and seems to imply that the 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 4. 14 311 
 
 of an infirmity of the flesh I preached the gospel unto 
 you the first time: and that which was a temptation 14 
 
 Apostle is repudiating any feeling of personal offence. In this 
 their perversion the Galatians have not wronged Paul personally. 
 But the punctuation of the R.V. better suits the context, in 
 associating the sentence with what follows, especially as the 
 pronoun 'me' is not in an emphatic place. In the old time the 
 Galatians had behaved well to Paul. He will proceed to enlarge 
 on that subject. Possibly, as Lightfoot suggests, Paul is alluding 
 to some unrecorded incident of his intercourse with the Galatians 
 in which they may have thought to have done him an injustice. 
 
 13. because of an infirmity, &c. : not 'through infirmity' 
 as in the A. V. Paul distinctly asserts that it was because of 
 some bodily ailment that he came to preach the gospel at all 
 to the Galatians, and this they themselves know. Prof. Ramsa}* 
 makes an ingenious suggestion to explain this position, viz. that 
 Paul's ' infirmity of the flesh,' which he takes to be the same 
 as the 'thorn' (or 'stake') 'in the flesh' (2 Cor. xii. ■jtY, was 
 an attack of malarial fever brought on while he was in the 
 low-lying district of Perga in Pampl^lia (Acts xiii. 13). This 
 induced him to seek restoration of health by crossing the 
 bracing range of Taurus mountains. Thus the Apostle was 
 brought into the region of the South Galatian cities, and came 
 to carry on evangelistic work there as recorded in Acts xiii, xiv. 
 The change of plan would account for Mark's desertion of the 
 party and return to Jerusalem (ibid.). The attacks of this fever are 
 intermittent, and when they occur they produce extreme prostration 
 with severe headache. Now it was a tradition in Asia Minor 
 as early as the second century (see Tertullian, De Pudic. xiii) that 
 Paul's * thorn in the flesh' was severe headache, a pain which 
 in its acuteness of agony fever patients have compared to 
 'a red-hot bar thrust through the forehead,' 'the grinding, boring 
 pain in one temple, like the dentist's drill — the phantom wedge 
 driven in between the jaw,' so that the patient seems to have 
 
 ' reached the extreme point of human endurance.' 
 
 the first time: or 'the former' (R.V. marg.). This would 
 mean that Paul had been twice to the Galatian district : (r) 
 Acts xiii, xiv and (a)xvi. 1-6. Thus he would be now referring to 
 the former of these two visits, which was the occasion when he 
 founded the churches at Antioch, Iconium, Derbe, and Lystra. 
 This would shew that the Epistle was not written till after the 
 second visit, when apparently he had not been so well received. 
 But the word ma} T mean ' formerly,' irrespective of the number 
 of visits, e.g. Eph. iv. 22, 'your former manner of life.' 
 
 14. a temptation to you. All the best MSS. give this reading 
 
3 i2 TO THE GALATIANS 4. 15-17 
 
 to you in my flesh ye despised not, nor rejected; but 
 ye received me as an angel of God, even as Christ Jesus. 
 
 15 Where then is that gratulation of yourselves? for I bear 
 you witness, that, if possible, ye would have plucked 
 
 16 out your eyes and given them to me. So then am I 
 
 17 become your enemy, because I tell you the truth ? They 
 
 in preference to 'my temptation* as in the A. V. Paul means 
 that the wretched appearance he presented in his illness was 
 a temptation to the Galatians to treat him with contempt. 
 
 despised: the word used by our Lord in predicting his 
 rejection, where it is translated 'set at nought' (Mark ix. 12). 
 
 rejected: lit. 'spat out.' This strong language favours the 
 idea that Paul's physical infirmity was such as to make him 
 present a humiliating spectacle. Accordingly some have suggested 
 that it was 'epilepsy.' 
 
 as an angel of God. Some of the Galatians, at Lystra, 
 had taken Paul and Barnabas for divinities (see Acts xiv. 12), 
 regarding the Apostle as Hermes, the Greek messenger-god. 
 Seeing that the word 'angel' means 'messenger' it seems likely 
 that Paul is here referring to that incident. We had an earlier 
 reference to this idea of the angel (see note on i. 8\ 
 
 15. gratulation. Lightfoot has 'felicitation.' Paul means the 
 joy which the Galatians experienced in receiving him and his 
 message. 
 
 if possible : i. e. to give their eyes to Paul, not merely to 
 pluck them out, which of course was possible. 
 
 would have plucked out your eyes. This expression lias 
 led some to conjecture that the thorn in the flesh was some 
 affection of the eyes. The fact that Paul was in the habit of 
 dictating his Epistles to an amanuensis, and his reference to 
 the 'large letters' in which he wrote with his own hand the 
 sentences he thus appended (vi. 11 , have been thought to bear 
 out this suggestion. But the illustration was very natural, quite 
 apart from any such specific use of it. The 'apple of one's eye' 
 was proverbial for something very precious (Ps. xvii. 8). 
 
 16. So then: in view of the changed attitude of the Galatians 
 to Paul. 
 
 your enemy. This word could be used in the passive sense 
 as 'one whom you hate 1 ; but then it would require the dative 
 of the pronoun, whereas it has the genitive. Therefore it must 
 mean 'your antagonist' or 'one who injures you,' probably with 
 reference to the insinuations of the Judaizers that Paul was 
 hurting his converts by withholding from them the privileges 
 of the law, 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 4. iS 313 
 
 zealously seek you in no good way ; nay, they desire to 
 shut you out, that ye may seek them. But it is good to iJ 
 be zealously sought in a good matter at all times, and 
 
 tell: rather, 'in telling.' The form is participial. Paul is 
 not referring to what he is now saying, which of course could 
 not be the ground of offence and occasion of expostulation before 
 the Galatians had read it ; he is going back to his teaching during 
 his visits to the Galatians. 
 
 the truth : i. e. that they have the blessings of Christianity 
 solely on condition of faith in Christ and apart from the law 
 (cf. ii. 5, 14). 
 
 1*7. They: the Judaizing intruders. 
 
 zealously seek. The sense of ' zeal ' is not appropriate here. 
 'To desire one earnestly,' one of the meanings given in the 
 Grimm-Thayer Dictionary, is more suitable (cf. 2 Cor. xi. 2, 
 where the rendering is 'jealous'). In the O. T. the Septuagint 
 translators used the word for 'envy' (cf. Ps. xxxvi. [xxxvii.] 1; 
 Prov. xxiii. 17, xxiv. i\ Here it seems to be used for courting 
 one's goodwill and favour. 
 
 to shut you out. (1) Lightfoot understands this to refer 
 to the tendency of the false teaching which, by insisting on 
 ceremonial, would in fact exclude the Galatians from Christ. 
 But the idea of 'desiring' is not suitable to such a meaning. 
 Therefore (2) it seems better to take the phrase with a more 
 direct application. The Judaizers would desire to shut the 
 Gentiles out of the church, not indeed finals but until they 
 consented to circumcision, and in order to drive them to undergo 
 the rite. 
 
 seek them. : not simply accept their teaching. Paul implies 
 that personal ambition was at the bottom of this strenuous 
 proselytizing. 
 
 18. to be zealously sought. The same meaning for this word 
 must be preserved throughout, and also the same application of it. 
 Therefore the Apostle cannot mean that it is well for him to be 
 courted favourably by the Galatians during his absence as well as 
 when present with them. He must refer to the treatment they 
 receive. In itself it is well that the Galatians should have some 
 who desire to win them if onty it be for a good cause. This 
 desire Paul displayed while he was with them. It would be good 
 for them to experience the same thing during his absence if 
 anybody would shew the same solicitude. The Apostle does not 
 blame the Judaizers for being interested in the Galatians, but for 
 the kind of influence they exert. He does not wish to deprive the 
 Galatians of solicitous friends, if only those friends will shew their 
 solicitude for a good object. The next verse hints that he is really 
 
3 i4 TO THE GALATIANS 4. r 9 - 2 r 
 
 19 not only when I am present with you. My little children, 
 of whom I am again in travail until Christ be formed 
 
 20 in you, yea, I could wish to be present with you now, 
 and to change my voice; for I am perplexed about 
 you. 
 
 11 Tell me, ye that desire to be under the law, do ye 
 
 thinking of himself as the friend who desires to win the Galatians 
 during his absence as well as when present among them. 
 
 19. My little children : a mode of address found nowhere else 
 in Paul's writings, though common in John (cf. i John ii. i, 12, 18), 
 not only very affectionate in tone, but also, as the context shews, 
 implying some rebuke for the childishness of the Galatians and 
 their backwardness in religious knowledge and life. Unlike our 
 Lord in the gospels and John, Paul thinks of childhood especialry 
 in relation to its immaturity (cf. 1 Cor. xiii. 11). Yet the word 
 ' My' is personally affectionate. The Apostle regards himself as 
 a mother of his childish converts. 
 
 again. Their conversion was like a birth brought about 
 through the travail of the Apostle. He is now going through the 
 process again in endeavouring to bring them to the true Christian 
 life after their perversion by the Judaizers. 
 
 until Christ be formed in you. The word rendered 
 ' formed ' is very explicit, meaning brought into a certain form. 
 The idea seems to be that of the Christ life and character being 
 shaped in the lives of the Galatians. There is some confusion of 
 metaphor ; but the Apostle cannot be thinking of them as the 
 mother, since he has just applied the image to himself; and the 
 image as applied to the Galatians is not one he would be likely to 
 use (cf. Eph. iv. 13). 
 
 20. to change my voice : from the present tone of painful 
 expostulation. If he were with them he might see it possible to 
 change his manner of address in proportion as he saw them yield 
 to his persuasion. As it is, he is at a loss to know what to think 
 of them. 
 
 iv. 21 — v. r. The allegory of Hagar. Following the familiar 
 method of a Rabbinical allegory, Paul compares Abraham's free 
 wife and the handmaid Hagar to the two covenants, the 
 second represented by Sinai, where the bondage of the law 
 was given, and then Jerusalem, and the first by the heavenly 
 Jerusalem which is the mother of Christians, who like Isaac are 
 children brought forth according to promise. Just as Ishmael 
 persecuted Isaac, so now Jews persecute Christians. But the 
 Scripture commanded the handmaid and her son to be cast out. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 4. 22-24 315 
 
 not hear the law? For it is written, that Abraham had 22 
 two sons, one by the handmaid, and one by the free- 
 woman. Howbeit the son by the handmaid is born 2?, 
 alter the flesh ; but the son by the freewoman is born 
 through promise. Which things contain an allegory : 2 \ 
 for these women are two covenants ; one from mount 
 
 Since we are not such, but are the children of the freewoman, we 
 ought to hold to our liberty. 
 
 21. ye that desire, &c. : the Galatians.or at least those of them 
 who were hankering after Judaism. Paul is proceeding to an 
 argiimcntum ad homines. Let those who think so much of the law 
 listen to the law. 
 
 hear the law. The title 'the law' was used for the whole 
 Pentateuch, the narratives as well as the precepts. 
 
 22. one by the handmaid: Ishmael, Hagar's child (Gen. 
 xvi. 15). 
 
 one by the freewoman: Isaac, Sarah's child (Gen. xxi. 2). 
 
 23. While the birth of Ishmael was according to the course of 
 nature, the birth of Isaac was described as a consequence of God's 
 promise which enabled Sarah to bear a child in her old age. This 
 was the great historic promise, faith with regard to which was 
 reckoned to Abraham for righteousness (Gen. xv. 1-6). Thus 
 Isaac has two advantages over Ishmael : (i) The status of his 
 ir.o f .her, who is a freewoman, while Ishmael's mother is a slave ; 
 (2) the circumstances of his birth, which included a specific Divine 
 promise and its fulfilment, while Ishmael's birth was a mere natural 
 event. 
 
 24. an allegory. The word ' allegorize ' (Greek, aliegorucin) 
 means literally ' to say something different,' and it is used in Jewish, 
 and especially in Alexandrian, literature for giving a secondary 
 spiritual or metaphorical meaning to narratives which in their 
 first intention record external events. It is not used in the sense 
 in which Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress is an allegory, as something 
 written solely with the intention of teaching ideas through the 
 narrative of events that are onty suppositious ; but it is applied to 
 ancient history, without denying the actuality of what is there 
 stated, but seeing within it a deeper, secondaiy meaning. This 
 allegorical treatment of their own sacred history was common 
 among the Jews. Philo pushed it to an extreme, and under his 
 hands the original sense of the history, though not denied to be 
 true, is lost sight of and completely buried beneath a system of 
 philosophizing metaphors. 
 
 covenants. See note on iii. 15. 
 
316 TO THE GALATIANS 4. 25 
 
 Sinai, bearing children unto bondage, which is Hagar. 
 25 Now this Hagar is mount Sinai in Arabia, and answereth 
 
 one from mount Sinai : the covenant of the law (see Exod. 
 xxxiv. 10 ff.). 
 
 unto bondage : better, < for bondage ' ; Jews under the law 
 being regarded as children whose mother is the covenant of the 
 law. This Paul has already described as a condition of restraint 
 (iii. 23), equivalent to that of a bondservant (iv. 1). Mow he 
 calls it actual bondage, as he has described the condition of the 
 heathen when subject to their superstitions (iv. 8). 
 
 which is Hagar. The covenant of the law is represented by 
 Hagar. 
 
 25. Wow this Hag-ar is mount Sinai in Arabia. Another 
 reading is ' For Sinai is a mountain in Arabia,' and the MS. 
 authorities are about equally divided between the two ; but most of 
 the versions and citations in ancient writers support the latter, 
 which is accepted by most textual critics. This sentence is very 
 apposite to the argument. Paul has made a daring use of allegory 
 in comparing the law to Hagar the slave instead of Sarah the 
 wife. To strengthen his position he reminds his readers that 
 the scene of the law-giving was situated in the country of the 
 Arabs, who were considered to be her descendants. Israel went 
 to Sinai, to Arabia, to the land of Hagar. to the country of the 
 slave for the much-vaunted law. Some who retain the reading 
 in the text consider that the sentence contains a play upon 
 words, since diagar'is the Arabic for a 'rock 1 ; but Paul could not 
 expect the Greek-speaking Galatians to recognize this. 
 
 answereth to : lit. ' is in the same row or column with.' The 
 Greek word is used in militar}' language for a file or rank of 
 soldiers. Here it means that mount Sinai is in the same line 
 of comparison with Jerusalem in the allegory. This pushes the 
 argument further home. Jerusalem was the head quarters of 
 Judaism in Paul's day. Thus Jerusalem = Sinai = Hagar's 
 country = bondage. Lipsius proposes a much more elaborate and 
 recondite comparison. An ancient form of puzzle was to take the 
 ?.u:n of the numerical value of the letters of a word as a cryptogram 
 for the word. Thus in the Apocalypse 666, as ' the number of the 
 beast,' is understood to be the sum of the numerical values of 
 the Hebrew letters for ' Nero Caesar.' The grammarians use the 
 Greek word (stoichos), which appears in a compound form in our 
 text, for such a series of letters. Accordingly Lipsius understands 
 it to mean here a corresponding series of letter-numbers. Thus 
 out of the Hebrew letters for the present and the future Jerusalem 
 he gets the numbers 999 and 607, and arrives at similar totals 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 4. 26-28 317 
 
 to the Jerusalem that now is : for she is in bondage with 
 her children. But the Jerusalem that is above is free, 2 6 
 which is our mother. For it is written, 27 
 
 Rejoice, thou barren that bearest not ; 
 Break forth and cry, thou that travailest not : 
 For more are the children of the desolate than of 
 her which hath the husband. 
 Now we, brethren, as Isaac was, are children of promise. 28 
 
 with sentences that introduce the name 'Hagar.' This is mere 
 guess-work. 
 
 26. Jerusalem that is above. This expression was quite in 
 agreement with the Rabbinical teaching in which Paul had been 
 trained. The Rabbis used to speak of a heavenly Jerusalem, the 
 ideal city of the future, as already existing in upper regions and 
 destined to descend to earth in the Messianic era. We meet 
 with 'the heavenly Jerusalem' (Heb. xii. 22), and in Rev. xxi. 
 2, with ' the new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven.' 
 With Paul it scarcely seems to correspond to the church, or 
 Christianized society, as in Augustin's City of God. It is an 
 idea, the heavenly idea which is realized in Christian lives on 
 earth, and therefore thought of as their source, allegorically as 
 their mother. 
 
 free. This is the leading conception of the allegory, Christian 
 freedom contrasted with Jewish bondage. 
 
 27. Quoted from Isa. liv. 1. The context shews that the 
 prophet was referring to the deliverance of the Jews from over- 
 whelming calamities. Israel is pictured as a forsaken wife who is 
 to be restored and comforted. But the language has a manifest 
 reference to the story of Sarah, who indeed is mentioned earlier 
 (Isa. li. 2) ; and the Rabbis were accustomed to associate these two 
 passages. Paul would now compare this joy of Sarah at having 
 a child and descendants with the gladness of Christian privileges. 
 Thus Christians = restored Israel = Sarah when blessed with 
 a child. 
 
 28. we. Another reading is ' ye,' and the authorities are about 
 equally divided between them. With the reading 'we' in our 
 text Paul cannot now mean only himself and other Jewish 
 Christians, as in earlier passages (cf. iii. 24, iv. 3, 5). He must 
 be including his readers, since he addresses them as brethren in 
 a tone that implies that they share the privileges of God's children. 
 The transition has come gradually and easily. When Paul thought 
 of Jews becoming Christians by faith, just as Gentiles became 
 Christians by faith, he recognized that there was no distinction 
 
318 TO THE GALATIANS 4. 29-31 
 
 29 But as then he that was born after the flesh persecuted 
 him that was bom after the Spirit, even so it is now. 
 
 30 Howbeit what saith the scripture ? Cast out the handmaid 
 and her son : for the son of the handmaid shall not 
 
 31 inherit with the son of the free woman. Wherefore, 
 
 between them (cf. iii. 28). Christians, whether Jewish or Gentile, 
 are the true children of Sarah. 
 
 children of promise, i. e. born as children in consequence of 
 a Divine promise in contrast with those born merely in the course 
 of nature (cf. verse 23). Such was Isaac, and such are Christians, 
 who inherit God's promise to Abraham. 
 
 29. he . . . after the flesh. Ishmael, but now with a distinct 
 reference to the actual words used, so as to introduce the idea of 
 the carnality of the Jewish law in an allegorical use of the example 
 of Hagar's child. 
 
 persecuted : a reference to the incident in Gen. xxi. 9, 
 where the Hebrew only means 'laughing'; but the Septuagint 
 gives a longer phrase, probably corresponding to the original 
 Hebrew — 'playing with her son.' This incident was made 
 much of in later Jewish writings. Since it is connected with 
 a feast in honour of Sarah in the original narrative some mockery 
 seems to be intended. Possibly Paul was also thinking of the 
 later historical relations between the descendants of the two 
 mothers (cf. Ps. lxxxiii. 6, where the Ishmaelites appear in 
 a confederacy of the enemies of Israel'. 
 
 him . . . after the Spirit. A variation of the phrases 
 'through promise' (verse 23) and 'of promise' (verse 38), the 
 promise being attributed to the Spirit of God. No doubt the 
 change of language is made in order to get the contrast between 
 flesh and spirit, and so that between the external character of 
 Judaism and the spiritual character of Christianity. 
 
 30. Quoted from Gen. xxi. 10, but with an alteration towards 
 the end, where Paul has 'the son of the freewoman' in place 
 of 'my son, even with Isaac.' Thus Paul brings the passage 
 round more directly to the line of his argument. He must have 
 felt the desirability of changing its form, because in Genesis it 
 appears as a saying of Sarah, while Paul has introduced it simply 
 as a Scripture utterance. 
 
 31. Wherefore: the conclusion brought home to Christians. 
 It must be evident to every reader, however, that this can only 
 be admitted when the points of comparison in the allegory have 
 already been assumed. This allegory of Hagar cannot be re- 
 garded as a logical argument. By a little manipulation it would 
 be easy to construct one with a very different leSson. Philo 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 4. 31-0. i 319 
 
 brethren, we are not children of a handmaid, but of 
 the freewoman. With freedom did Christ set us free : 5 
 stand fast therefore, and be not entangled again in 
 a yoke of bondage. 
 
 allegorizes the same story, taking Abraham as the human soul, 
 Sarah as Divine wisdom, and Hagar as secular learning. But 
 as an illustration Paul's allegory vividly sets forth the truth he 
 is teaching. Of this passage, as of much else in the Apostle's 
 writings, wc must say that the conclusions are true, but the 
 arguments Rabbinical. 
 
 a handmaid : better than ' the handmaid ' as in the A. V. 
 There is no article in the Greek, and the idea is indefinite. As 
 Christians our origin is not in bondage. 
 
 the freewoman: i Jerusalem that is above,' described as 
 c our mother.' See note on verse 26. 
 
 v. 1. With freedom, &c. This reading must certainly be pre- 
 ferred to that of the A. V., ' Stand fast therefore in the liberty,' 
 which has the great weight of MS. authority against it. But Light- 
 foot prefers a reading which introduces a relative pronoun, and 
 connecting the sentence with the previous verse runs thus, 
 • Sons of the free by virtue of the freedom which Christ has 
 given us,' or preferably, 'of her who is free with that freedom 
 which Christ,' &c. But there is little MS. authority for this 
 reading, and most of the textual critics reject it. Accepting the 
 reading of the R. V. we must still connect this verse with its 
 predecessors rather than with what follows. It gives us the 
 practical conclusion of the allegory. 
 
 Christ set us free. In iii. 13 Paul had written of Christ 
 liberating Jews from the curse of the law (cf. iv. 5 . But now 
 the pronoun ' we ' includes Gentiles. He had written of both 
 as being in bondage to 'the elements' — Jews in iv. 3, and Gentiles 
 in iv. 9. This applied to Jewish ordinances and Gentile super- 
 stitions. Christ bought freedom from both. 
 
 standfast: in spite of temptations to swerve, such as came 
 from the Judaizing influences in Galatia. 
 
 therefore : because there has been a great act of liberation 
 at a heavy cost, as the previous arguments have shewn (cf. iii. 13. 
 It would be unreasonable to go back from this, flinging away all 
 its advantages. 
 
 again. Paul persists in his identification of Judaism with 
 heathenism. The Galatians who were adopting the Jewish law 
 had never been under it before ; but Paul regards it as equivalent 
 to their old superstitions. Therefore in taking it up they are 
 really entangling themselves a second time with a yoke of bondage. 
 
3 2o TO THE GALATIANS 5. 2-4 
 
 2 Behold, I Paul say unto you, that, if ye receive 
 
 3 circumcision, Christ will profit you nothing. Yea, I 
 testify again to every man that receiveth circumcision, 
 
 4 that he is a debtor to do the whole law. Ye are severed 
 
 a yoke: not 'the yoke' as in the A. V. The Jewish law is 
 not actually the same thing as the pagan superstitions, though the 
 consequent bondage is the same in both cases. 
 
 III. Practical Expostulation, v. 2— vi. 18. 
 
 v. 2-12. The Hanger of Jndaizing. The Apostle warns his 
 readers that in being circumcised they will come under an obliga- 
 tion to keep the whole of the Jewish law. Then in seeking 
 justification by means of law they stultify their relations with 
 Christ, for we look for our righteousness by faith in him with 
 whom this Jewish ritual counts for nothing. How was it that 
 the Galatians who were making progress have come to be thu:s 
 hindered? A mischievous leaven must be spreading through 
 them ; the person who has introduced it has incurred a heavy 
 responsibility. Paul trusts that the Galatians will resist this 
 influence. He reminds them that his own course would have 
 been easy enough if only he had fallen in with the policy of 
 the Judaizers. 
 
 2. Behold, I Paul: very emphatic. The Apostle is addressing 
 the Galatians with all the weight of his authority as their founder 
 and inspired director. At the same time he seems to be refuting 
 the calumny of those who claim his example in favour of the 
 Judaizing notions (cf. verse n). 
 
 if ye receive, &c. This implies that the Galatians had not 
 yet actually undergone the rite of circumcision, though they were 
 inclined to believe in its efficacy. 
 
 Christ will profit you nothing-. They cannot add legalism 
 to Christianity as a sort of counsel of perfection. In accepting 
 the former they renounce the latter. 
 
 3. testify: not ' bear witness/ but i solemnly assert as in the 
 presence of witnesses.' 
 
 again. Paul had not said this in any earlier part of the 
 Epistle. He must be alluding to what he had declared to the 
 Galatians during his second visit to them. 
 
 receiveth circumcision. The form of the Greek word 
 implies a voluntary act on their part. 
 
 a debtor to do the whole law. Possibly the Galatians 
 imagined that as Christians they might accept Judaism in a general 
 way without being bound by all the rigour of its legal system. 
 This dilettante method is impossible. There is no middle course. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS, 5. 5,6 321 
 
 from Christ, ye who would be justified by the law; ye 
 are fallen away from grace. For we through the Spirit 5 
 by faith wait for the hope of righteousness. For in 6 
 
 4. severed : lit. ' brought to nought.' Applied to a person the 
 word means the cessation of all connexion. In Rom. ii. 2 and 6 
 Paul uses it of the wife who is ' discharged from the law of the 
 husband' by his death, and so of Christians who are ' discharged 
 from the law.' The idea is that a voluntary submission to the 
 obligation of the law ipso facto nullifies any connexion with 
 Christ. 
 
 justified by the law. Paul here introduces the aim and 
 purpose of this singular perversion of the Galatians. They were 
 seeking justification, and supposing that they could obtain it 
 by means of law. That is why they thought it would be well 
 to undergo circumcision. 
 
 fallen away from grace : i. e. from the special grace of 
 justification on condition of faith. The acceptance of another 
 condition of justification implies the abandonment of the Christian 
 method. Lightfoot understands the expression ' fallen away ' to 
 correspond to the casting out of Hagar in the allegory. But 
 though the classic usage of the word would allow of this, it is 
 doubtful whether he has that illustration still in mind. 
 
 5. we : Christians, those who are living in the grace of 
 Christ. 
 
 through the Spirit: or ' in spirit ' ; there is no preposition 
 or article in the Greek, but merely the dative of the word for 
 spirit (pneumati). By using a capital ' S,' which was not in the 
 A. V., the Revisers indicate that the Spirit of God, not our own 
 spirit, is intended. Elsewhere, however, they use a small 's,' 
 indicating the human spirit, where the expression is very similar 
 (cf. Rom. viii. 13). Lipsius understands the word to mean 'the 
 Divine life-principle in believers.' Here, if Paul still has the 
 allegory of Hagar in mind, the expression might be due to a com- 
 parison with Isaac as the son ' born after the Spirit ' (iv. 29), 
 in which case only the Spirit of God could be intended ; but 
 as that is doubtful it is perhaps best to understand the word 
 in a sense very common with Paul, as meaning the human spirit 
 when under the influence of the Divine Spirit. 
 
 by faith. The order of the words requires the reading of the 
 R. V., which connects this expression with the verb ' wait,' and not 
 with the word ' righteousness ' as in the A. V. Paul is not here 
 thinking of justification by faith, but of the patience to wait which 
 is made possible by faith on the part of those who live the 
 spiritual life. 
 
 the hope of righteousness. This cannot mean the hope 
 P) Y 
 
322 TO THE GALATIANS 5. 7, 8 
 
 Christ Jesus neither circumcision availeth anything, nor 
 
 7 uncircumcision ; but faith working through love. Ye 
 were running well ; who did hinder you that ye should 
 
 8 not obey the truth ? This persuasion came not of him 
 
 of receiving righteousness in the future, because (1) the expression 
 ' waiting for ' implies that the word ' hope ' itself represents 
 something future, and therefore must mean ' the thing hoped for ' 
 (cf. Col. i. 5 ; Heb. vi. 18) ; and (2), in Paul's own peculiar sense 
 of the word, ' righteousness ' is a present possession of Christians 
 reckoned to them as soon as they are justified, not a future at- 
 tainment only to be hoped for, not enjoyed as yet. Accordingly 
 it must mean the future good we are hoping for which is associated 
 with righteousness as its source and condition, i. e. the great 
 Christian hope of eternal life. 
 
 6. Por: confirming the previous sentence. Our expectation 
 is based on our spiritual relations and our faith, not on deeds of 
 the law, because with Christ the external ordinances count for 
 nothing. 
 
 in : in communion with Christ, in living union with Christ, 
 and in all our spiritual relations with Christ. 
 
 neither circumcision . . . nor uncircumcision. The two 
 are put together as equally useless. Circumcision will do no more 
 good than uncircumcision, which, as all allow, can have no 
 religious efficacy. The only thing which will avail in us, whether 
 we be Jews or Gentiles, is faith shewing itself active in love. 
 
 working* through love. The Revisers suggest in their margin 
 'wrought' as an alternative for 'working' ; but Paul never uses 
 the word in a passive sense, nor does he teach that Christian 
 faith has to be produced by a previous experience of Christian 
 love. The idea is that faith when in action manifests itself in love. 
 Faith finds scope for activity in the region of love. 
 
 7. running well: a reference to the Greek athletics of the 
 stadium (cf. ii. 2 ; 1 Cor. ix. 26 ; Phil. iii. 14). Paul is thinking 
 of the earlier course of the Galatian churches. That part of their 
 race was excellently run. 
 
 who : in the singular, as though some one person were at the 
 bottom of this mischief ; we have another reference to this person 
 in verse 10. But though one takes the lead others are associated 
 with him (cf. verse 10). No name is given, and we have no means 
 of identifying the offender. 
 
 hinder : a word used for breaking up a road to impede 
 the advance of an army, but here evidently meaning simply 
 impeding the course of a runner in a race. 
 
 not ohey the truth. Paul takes for granted that the Galatians 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 5. 9-11 323 
 
 that calleth you. A little leaven leaveneth the whole 9 
 lump. I have confidence to you-ward in the Lord, that 10 
 ye will be none otherwise minded : but he that troubleth 
 you shall bear his judgement, whosoever he be. But 11 
 
 know his gospel to be true. Therefore in not living according to 
 its teaching they are not simply perverted in mind and thought, 
 they are acting disobediently. Truth is regarded as a sovereign 
 whose commands cannot be lightly neglected. 
 
 8. This persuasion : your being persuaded so to act. 
 
 him that calleth you : God. The present, as Lightfoot 
 justly remarks, is used because * the stress is laid on the person 
 rather than the act' (cf. i Thess. v. 24). 
 
 9. A proverb, also quoted in 1 Cor. v. 6. Lightfoot understands 
 the image to be applied to persons, the idea being l a small and 
 compact body disturbing the peace of the church.' Lipsius 
 considers the illustration of spreading leaven to be more suitable 
 to the doctrine taught by these people. But the context is con- 
 cerned with men, not with ideas. Paul has just referred to 
 some hinderer, and he will proceed to speak of a troubler. It is 
 reasonable therefore to think him to have a personal reference here 
 also. The illustration of leaven is always used in the N. T. in 
 an evil sense both by Christ (cf. Matt. xvi. 6) and by Paul (cf. 
 1 Cor. v. 7, 8), with the solitary exception of the Parable of the 
 Kingdom spreading like leaven (Matt. xiii. 33). The thought is 
 of the gradual, silent, insidious, but thorough spread of an evil 
 influence. The persons who exercise such an influence should never 
 have been admitted to the church, and being in, should be removed. 
 
 10. I: emphatic here, in the Greek, as in verses 2 and n. 
 The Judaizers hope to win the Galatians to their practices ; but 
 on the other hand Paul, for his part, cannot but believe in their 
 ultimate return to wiser ways. 
 
 to you-ward: a late Greek usage of the preposition cts, 
 meaning 'with reference to.' 
 
 in the Lord : a peculiar Pauline or contemporary Christian 
 phrase, meaning the association with Jesus Christ in life and 
 thought which his people enjoy. It is because both Paul and his 
 readers are thus living that he has hope for them. 
 
 none otherwise minded: than in that old time when 'ye 
 were running well.' 
 
 he that troubleth you : a single individual, as in verse 7, and 
 more definitely so here. 
 
 his judgement : the judgement that will be passed on him 
 by God. 
 
 whosoever he be. Certainly this cannot be Peter, as some have 
 said ; nor is it likely to be James, though Lipsius allows that 
 
3 2 4 TO THE GALATIANS 5. n 
 
 I, brethren, if I still preach circumcision, why am I 
 still persecuted? then hath the stumblingblock of the 
 
 identification to be more probable ; seeing that Paul has mentioned 
 both these men earlier, he would use the name again if he had it 
 in mind. Still, the phrase indicates some important personage 
 in the church. The Apostle is not overawed by his position. 
 Great as he may be in the estimation of his brethren he will come 
 under the judgement of God. 
 
 11. I: once again emphatic, and now with reference to his own 
 doings and a possible misconstruction of them. 
 
 still preach, circumcision : as he had done before his con- 
 version. The action of Paul in having Timothy circumcised when 
 the Apostle was visiting the very churches to which he was now 
 writing would afford his opponents a fine excuse for claiming the 
 authority of his example. There was a difference, since Timothy 
 was half a Jew by birth, while the Galatians were wholly 
 Gentiles ; and, besides, there is no proof that the circumcision 
 of Timothy was for his own advantage ; it seems to have been 
 effected in order that he might be free to work among Jews. 
 Still, even with these qualifications it does not look consistent with 
 Paul's uncompromising position in our Epistle. Accordingly the 
 narrative in Acts has been taken as an indication of the unhistoricity 
 of that work. But are we sure that Paul was never inconsistent' 
 In his eagerness to fit so hopeful a disciple as Timothy for evange- 
 listic work, himself confessedly ready to become all things to all 
 men if by any means he might win some, the Apostle might not 
 have considered the bearing of his action on the freedom of his 
 gospel from Judaism. The great controversy had not then broken 
 out. We cannot imagine Paul circumcising Timothy after writing 
 the strong words of the Epistle to the Galatians on the subject 
 of circumcision. 
 
 why . . . persecuted? Paul's persecutions came from the 
 Jews, who were opposed especially to the freedom of his gospel 
 and to his offer of it to the heathen without requiring the converts 
 to submit to Judaism. If he were preaching Judaism, what reason 
 would there be for such persecution? The fact that he has to 
 endure it is a proof that he does not preach Judaism. 
 
 stumblingblock : better than ' offence ' (A. V.). The Greek 
 word means primarily ' the trigger of a trap,' then a ' trap ' or 
 ' snare,' and so anything that trips up, catches, and hinders. 
 
 the cross : odious in the e}'es of all contemporaries as 
 a barbarous mode of execution, introduced by the Romans from 
 the usage of the Phoenicians, and only inflicted on slaves and 
 subject people. If Paul had preached salvation by circumcision, 
 he might have been silent about the cross. But he was preaching 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 5. 12-14 325 
 
 cross been done away. I would that they which un- 12 
 settle you would even cut themselves off. 
 
 For ye, brethren, were called for freedom; only use 13 
 not your freedom for an occasion to the flesh, but 
 through love be servants one to another. For the 14 
 
 salvation by means of the crucifixion of Christ. That was what 
 chiefly provoked the Jews to resist his work. 
 
 12. they. Paul passes to the plural. There is one leader in 
 the Judaizing movement; but others are associated with him in 
 troubling the church. 
 
 cut themselves off : i. e. 'sever themselves from connexion 
 with the church.' This meaning is adopted by Prof. Ramsay, 
 who vehemently opposes the alternative in the margin of the 
 R. V., 'mutilate themselves,' which is accepted by nearly all other 
 modern scholars. The latter meaning of the word is the usual 
 sense in which it is found in classic literature, and the only meaning 
 in the LXX (Deut. xxiii. i). It seems imperative therefore to 
 understand it so here. The horrible act referred to would be 
 familiar to readers in Asia Minor, as it was practised by devotees 
 of Cybele. Prof. Ramsay holds that for Paul to speak of it in 
 this connexion would be to descend to the scurrilous speech 
 that disgraces enraged orientals. But he could not have used 
 the term seriously in its literal sense, or as a mere insult. There 
 is an allusion to the rite of circumcision. In dismissing his 
 reference to the troublers he expresses the wish. that, if they are 
 urging that on the Galatians, it would be as well that they did 
 a more serious thing to themselves. If salvation is to be had 
 by the knife, the more effectual the use of that instrument the 
 better ; the Cybele fanatics are the saints to imitate ! The 
 utterance is ironical. 
 
 v. 13-15. Love the fulfilment of the law. Called to freedom 
 Christians should not abuse their liberty, but use it in the service 
 of love, which is the fulfilment of the law. 
 
 13. ye. The word is emphatic — 'you' as distinguished from 
 the Judaizers. 
 
 called, &c. The very purpose of the Divine call was to lead 
 out of bondage into a state of freedom. 
 
 not . . . for an occasion to the flesh: a warning against 
 Antinomianism. The subject is more fully discussed in Rom. vi. 
 
 but through love, &c. This is the use to be made of our 
 Christian liberty. It gives scope for love, not room for licence. 
 
 he servants : the verbal form of the word for bondage. The 
 Galatians were hankering after the bondage of the law. Here 
 is a better bondage, and one within the limits of Christian liberty. 
 
326 TO THE GALATIANS 5. 15-17 
 
 whole law is fulfilled in one word, even in this ; Thou 
 
 15 shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. But if ye bite and 
 devour one another, take heed that ye be not consumed 
 one of another. 
 
 16 But I say, Walk by the Spirit, and ye shall not fulfil 
 
 17 the lust of the flesh. For the flesh lusteth against the 
 
 Let them voluntarily enslave themselves to the loving service one 
 of another. 
 
 14. the whole law. Paul had said that circumcision made 
 a man a debtor to do the whole law (verse 3). Yet he could never 
 do it in the way of law. Now the Apostle teaches that if he 
 abandons the service of the law he will find a better way of 
 completely carrying out its requirements. 
 fulfilled : fully kept (cf. Rom. xiii. 8). 
 
 Thou shalt love, &c. : Lev. xix. 18, quoted by Jesus as 
 the second commandment, following that of love to God, on 
 which ' hangeth the whole law, and the prophets' (Matt. xxii. 40). 
 Possibly Paul derives this from the teaching of Jesus ; but, if so, 
 we should expect to see a reference to the first commandment. 
 Therefore, though he may have heard a general report of our 
 Lord's words on the subject, he does not seem to have been in 
 possession of an exact account of them. 
 
 v. 16-26. The Spirit and the flesh. Christians are urged to 
 live under the influence of the Spirit of God as a means of escape 
 from the tyranny of the senses. There is a conflict between the 
 two. A life under the influence of the Spirit is free from law. 
 The flesh produces a multitude of evil works against which Paul 
 warns his readers, for the practice of them will exclude from the 
 kingdom of God. On the other hand, the fruit of the Spirit is 
 seen in a number of graces ; there is no law against them. 
 Christians are people who have crucified the flesh ; therefore 
 they should live as becomes their new relation to the Spirit 
 without vanity or envy. 
 
 16. Walk: a common Hebraism indicating the course of daily life. 
 the Spirit. Here as elsewhere the Revisers suggest the 
 
 Holy Spirit by using a capital ' S ' where the A. V. has a small 
 's' indicating the human spirit (see note on verse 5). The 
 expression ' by the Spirit' (the Greek dative without a preposition) 
 points both to the power by means of which the life is to be 
 sustained and also to its character. 
 
 ye shall not : future, not imperative. If the life is maintained 
 in its relations to the Spirit of God, this will of itself be a safeguard 
 against the invasion of the lower desires. 
 
 17. lusteth: an old English word for 'desires.' It is more 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 5. 18-20 327 
 
 Spirit, and the Spirit against the flesh j for these are 
 contrary the one to the other; that ye may not do 
 the things that ye would. But if ye are led by the 18 
 Spirit, ye are not under the law. Now the works of the 19 
 flesh are manifest, which are these, fornication, unclean- 
 ness, lasciviousness, idolatry, sorcery, enmities, strife, 20 
 
 suitable for the flesh than for the Spirit ; yet in this case it is 
 used for both. Here is a conflict of desires, the lower desire 
 of sense meeting the higher desire inspired by the Spirit of God. 
 The result is a deadlock, or rather that the higher desires are 
 frustrated. 
 
 that: 'in order that,' not merely 'so that'; the word 
 indicates purpose. 
 
 the thing's that ye would: implying that the will sides with 
 the impulses of the Spirit ; the Apostle is writing to Christians. 
 This conflict is differently viewed in Rom. vii, where the better 
 self conflicts with the lower self and is reduced to despair in the 
 pre-Christian stage, the next chapter shewing how victory is 
 attained through Christ by means of a life influenced by the 
 Spirit of God. 
 
 18. are led: the present tense, 'are being led,' for the 
 continuous course of life. 
 
 the Spirit: undoubtedly the Divine Spirit here, therefore 
 probably also elsewhere throughout the passage. 
 
 not under the law : because being led by the Spirit. ' No 
 man can serve two masters.' 
 
 19. the works of the flesh : the operations of the lower nature 
 when this is allowed full sway to rule the man through his senses 
 and appetites. 
 
 manifest : especially in the shameless empire of the Caesars, 
 where little or no attempt was made to hide these corruptions. 
 But probably Paul is not merely referring to contemporary 
 circumstances. He means that there is no mistaking what this 
 self-abandonment to the lower life leads to. Dr. Jekyll cannot 
 keep the secret of Mr. Hyde. Meanwhile, the present is not an 
 academic discussion ; it treats of obvious facts. 
 
 20. idolatry: classed with these works of the lower nature, 
 because essentially sensuous in its nature and, too, observed with 
 immoral rites, especially in Asia Minor and Syria. Idolatry 
 must be distinguished from paganism. All pagans were not 
 idolaters. 
 
 sorcery: the black art was too commonly associated with 
 malignity and uncleanness. The resort to wizards was expressly 
 condemned in the O. T. (Isa. viii. 18). Sorcery and spiritualism 
 
328 TO THE GALATIANS 5. 21, 22 
 
 ar jealousies, wraths, factions, divisions, heresies, envyings, 
 drunkenness, revellings, and such like: of the which 
 I forewarn you, even as I did forewarn you, that they 
 which practise such things shall not inherit the kingdom 
 
 22 of God. But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, 
 
 were very fashionable in the decadent civilization of the Roman 
 Empire. Paul has already referred to the Galatians being be- 
 witched with the evil eye (iii. 1). 
 
 divisions : not 'seditions' (A. V.). There is no reference to 
 politics. 
 
 heresies: rather, • parties.' The word is used by the orator 
 Tertullus in speaking of ' the sect of the Nazarenes ' (Acts xxiv. 5), 
 and Paul takes note of it in his reply as though it were 
 inappropriate, saying, l the Way which they call a sect ' (verse 14). 
 It is derived from a word indicating choice, and it points to 
 narrow opinionativeness resulting in petty exclusiveness. It has 
 nothing to do with theological divergence from the standard of 
 doctrine, in the later sense of the word. 
 
 21. forewarn. An alternative, 'tell you plainly,' is in the 
 margin of the R. V. ; but there is no clear proof of that use of 
 the word in the N. T., and here it refers to the future — 'not 
 inherit.' 
 
 I did forewarn you : probably during Paul's second visit to 
 the Galatian churches. 
 
 practise : are in the habit of doing. 
 
 the kingdom of God. An expression singularly rare in Paul's 
 writings considering that it was the central topic of our Lord's 
 teaching. Meaning primarily both the rule of God and also the 
 realm, the sphere of that rule, it had come to have a specific sense 
 among the Jews as the realization of the Messianic ideal. Among 
 Christians it takes its form and character from the teaching of 
 Jesus Christ, who not only realized the Messianic ideal, but also 
 exalted it as the conception of a spiritual kingdom. Paul writes of 
 it as something to come (cf. Matt. vi. 10, ' Thy kingdom come '). 
 It is a future inheritance (cf. 1 Cor. vi. 9, 10, xv. 50). In 
 this passage we have a full, emphatic pronouncement against 
 Antinomianism. 
 
 22. the fruit of the Spirit contrasted with 'the works of the 
 flesh ' (verse 19). Those works were of a lower order, made, 
 produced, but not conceived of as the outgrowth of any true life. 
 On the other hand, the Spirit vitalizes, and therefore does not 
 simply do works, but rather develops fruit. Here is the idea of 
 the Christian character growing and ripening. 
 
 love : named first, in contrast with the impish mockery of it 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 5. 23-25 329 
 
 longsuffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, meekness, 23 
 temperance : against such there is no law. And they 24 
 that are of Christ Jesus have crucified the flesh with 
 the passions and the lusts thereof. 
 
 If we live by the Spirit, \>y the Spirit let us also walk. 25 
 
 that stood first in the black list ; and rightly first on its own 
 account as the fulfilling of the whole law (verse 14 ; cf. 1 Cor. xiii.). 
 
 joy : as distinguished from the pleasures of the life of sense. 
 
 peace: in all relations, with God, with our fellows, as con- 
 trasted with the enmities, &c, in the previous list, and in ourselves 
 as a state of calm. Joy and peace go together in Rom. xiv. 17. 
 
 longsuffering: the opposite to 'strife, jealousies,' &c. (cf 
 2 Cor. vi. 6). 
 
 kindness: more exactly, 'friendliness of disposition.' 
 
 goodness : active beneficence. 
 
 faithfulness : a better word than ' faith ' (A. V.). The original 
 Greek admits of either meaning. But as moral excellences, and 
 especially those that concern our relations with our fellow men, 
 are chiefly enumerated here the idea of fidelity to a trust is what 
 seems to be intended (cf. Rom. iii. 2, 3). 
 
 23. meekness:' especially opposed to the strife, &c, of the 
 earlier list. 
 
 temperance: self-control, as opposed to the outrageous 
 licence of the vices previously enumerated. It fitly brings the 
 list of fruits of the Spirit to a conclusion. Here we see the 
 victory of the Spirit of God over the lower appetites as promised 
 in verse 16. 
 
 24. they that are of Christ Jesus. The A. V. seems preferable 
 here : ' they that are Christ's ' (though we must add the word 
 ' Jesus' on the best MS. authority), the meaning being, ' they who 
 belong to Christ Jesus,' his people. 
 
 have crucified the flesh. An allusion to Paul's mystical 
 doctrine of union with Christ, according to which his people die, 
 rise, and ascend with him (cf. Col. ii. 20, iii. 1). The Christian 
 unites himself to Christ in the crucifixion. As Christ's body died 
 nailed to the cross, so his disciples' tyrannous appetites and passions 
 are killed by their spiritual union with him (cf. Rom. vi. 6;. The 
 past tense is used to indicate one definite act, as the crucifixion 
 was one event in the past. It points to the first surrender of the 
 converts to faith in Christ. 
 
 25. Not merely a justification of the mandate in verse 16. 
 Another word for walk is here used, meaning 'to go in a row,' 
 ' keep to the line.' In this way the outer life should correspond to 
 the inner life. 
 
33o TO THE GALATIANS 5. 26—6. 2 
 
 26 Let us not be vainglorious, provoking one another, 
 envying one another. 
 
 6 Brethren, even if a man be overtaken in any trespass, 
 ye which are spiritual, restore such a one in a spirit of 
 meekness ; looking to thyself, lest thou also be tempted. 
 
 2 Bear ye one another's burdens, and so fulfil the law of 
 
 26. vainglorious: thirsting for empty praise. Cf. Phil. ii. 3, 
 where 'vainglory' is associated with 'faction' and opposed to 
 'lowliness' and a humble opinion of oneself. 
 
 provoking- one another: by the self-assertion and pre- 
 tentiousness just mentioned. According to Mommsen urban 
 rivalries were common in Asia Minor. 
 
 vi. 1-5. On burden-bearing. The more spiritual should restore 
 a fallen brother with meekness, bearing his burden. It is a 
 mistake to think much of oneself. Each man has just his own 
 work to do. 
 
 1. overtaken: not overcome by sudden temptation, but suddenly 
 surprised and discovered. It is t in any trespass,' not 'into.' 
 
 trespass. The word 'fault' (A. V.) is too weak. A real sin 
 is meant by the Greek term. 
 
 spiritual: implying that the sin came from unspirituality. 
 
 restore : not simply bring him back to a place of honour, but 
 influence him personally so that his character may be rectified. 
 The word refers to the inner experience of the fallen man, not to 
 his status in society. It is the duty of the more spiritual members 
 of the church to lead their brethren who have fallen into sin back 
 to the better life, not to treat the offence with indifference, but 
 also not to regard the offender with contempt. 
 
 a spirit of meekness : a spirit that inclines to meekness. 
 Paul sees the difficulty of carrying out his advice without the pride 
 of superiority which would effectually frustrate all attempts at 
 restoring the offender (cf. 1 Cor. iv. 21). 
 
 thyself: the singular number, to make the appeal more direct 
 and personal. 
 
 2. Bear ye. The verb is in the present tense, indicating a con- 
 tinuous habit of life. Let this be your habit ; be continually 
 bearing 'one another's burdens.' 
 
 one another's burdens. The word 'one another' is in the 
 most emphatic position in the sentence. Paul concentrates atten- 
 tion on it, no doubt to contrast these burdens of sympathy with 
 the useless burdens of Judaism which the Galatians were taking 
 on themselves. The context shews that by 'burdens' he here 
 means especially things like the trespass just referred to. The 
 
TO THE GALATIANS G. 3-6 331 
 
 Christ. For if a man thinketh himself to be something, 3 
 when he is nothing, he deceiveth himself. But let each 4 
 man prove his own work, and then shall he have his 
 glorying in regard of himself alone, and not of his 
 neighbour. For each man shall bear his own burden. 5 
 But let him that is taught in the word communicate 6 
 
 idea is, that, if people are to wear a yoke, let it not be the useless 
 yoke of rigorous religious practices, but the serviceable yoke of 
 rescue work. 
 
 fulfil : a stronger word than that rendered ' fulfil ' in v. 14 ; 
 meaning literally to * fill up,' like a measure filled to the brim. He 
 who does this particularly delicate and difficult work of restoring 
 a brother effectually, most completely accomplishes the will of his 
 Master. 
 
 the law of Christ : the law Christ laid down, exhibiting it 
 in his own redeeming work, in contradistinction from the law 
 of Moses, which imposed the rite the Galatians were hankering 
 after. Though Paul repudiates the religion of law he has room 
 for law in the religion of grace. Thus he speaks of 'a law of 
 faith ' (Rom. iii. 27), ' the law of the Spirit of life ' (viii. 2), 
 and here of ' the law of Christ,' in each case meaning some 
 authoritative rule of conduct. 
 
 4. prove : test and try. 
 
 The meaning of the passage seems to be — Let not anybody 
 be puffed up with vainglory, especially by comparing himself 
 with other people. But let each man examine his own conduct 
 and what comes of it. Then if after the self-examination he 
 is honestly convinced that it is not a failure he may congratulate 
 himself. Still, this is a wholly private and personal matter. He 
 is not to compare himself with his neighbours in order to increase 
 his self-complacency ; much less is he to pose for his neighbours 
 to admire him. 
 
 5. his own burden : a different word for • burdens ' from that 
 in verse 2, which means a heavy weight, something distressing 
 to be borne. The word in this verse is used for a soldier's kit, 
 and also for anything to be carried, apart from any idea of its 
 weight. Therefore ' load ' which the Revisers suggest in their 
 margin is more appropriate. In the one case, the burden is 
 a defect of character ; in the other, it is the obligation of duty. 
 The contradiction between the two verses is only apparent and 
 verbal. We are to help each other out of evil waj's ; at the same 
 time each man must do his own duty. 
 
 vi. 6-10. On well-doing. The church teachers should receive 
 
332 TO THE GALATIANS 6. 7, 8 
 
 7 unto him that teacheth in all good things. Be not 
 deceived ; God is not mocked : for whatsoever a man 
 
 8 soweth, that shall he also reap. For he that soweth 
 
 temporal support. The harvest will be according to the sowing. 
 Patience in working for the harvest of well-doing will be rewarded. 
 Meanwhile every opportunity should be seized for doing good, 
 especially to our fellow Christians. 
 
 6. the word: a term used in the early church for the sum of 
 Christian truth as preached and taught. 
 
 communicate. This word is frequently used for making 
 contributions, but inasmuch as its original meaning involves the 
 idea of association, it indicates something more than the mere 
 act of giving, and excludes any patronizing. The giver bestows 
 himself with his gift, the idea being that he is sharing his goods 
 with the recipient. 
 
 him that teacheth. This Epistle contains no reference to 
 church officers as such. According to Acts xiv. 23 Paul and 
 Barnabas had appointed elders in every church on their return 
 from their first missionary journey through the district to which 
 we now know our Epistle was directed. There is no mention 
 of elders in the Epistle. Still, we cannot infer their non-existence 
 from mere silence. Moreover, this passage plainly implies that 
 there were recognized teachers, who, since they required support, 
 must have been definitely set apart for their work. Elsewhere 
 we read of ' teachers ' as a distinct order in the church (cf. 1 Cor. 
 xii. 28, 29; Eph. iv. n). But here another word is used, the 
 precise meaning of which is to ' catechize.' Jewish teaching 
 was catechetical, and in all probability early Christian teaching 
 was also. 
 
 The duty or custom of supporting the ministry is frequently 
 referred to by Paul (cf. 1 Cor. ix. 11 ; 2 Cor. xi. 7 ff. ; Phil. iv. 10 ff. ; 
 1 Tim. v. 17, 18). 
 
 7. mocied: a word meaning literally 'to turn up the nose.' 
 To connect this verse with its predecessor we must conclude 
 that Paul suspected the Galatians of meanness towards their 
 recognized instructors, while they were under the spell of the 
 Judaizing visitors. To pretend to be very religious while refusing 
 to make the necessary pecuniary sacrifices is a form of meanness 
 that cannot be practised in defiance of the notice of God. 
 
 whatsoever a man soweth, &c. Lightfoot calls this ' a 
 common proverb ' ; but his instances from Plato, Aristotle, and 
 the Bible (Job iv. 8 ; 2 Cor. ix. 6) illustrate the principle rather 
 than the phrase. Nothing could be more natural than thus to 
 draw the obvious and yet striking lessons of harvest over and 
 over again without the aid of any formal proverb. But Cicero 
 
TO THE GALATIANS G. 9 333 
 
 unto his own flesh shall of the flesh reap corruption ; 
 but he that soweth unto the Spirit shall of the Spirit 
 reap eternal life. And let us not be weary in well- 9 
 
 comes close to Paul's words here, writing, ' ut sementem feceris, 
 ita metes' {de Orat. ii. 65). 
 
 8. unto his own flesh . . . unto the Spirit. The preposition 
 ' unto ' or * into ' shews that the " flesh ' and the ' Spirit ' are here 
 regarded as seed-beds. In the previous verse the character of 
 the harvest is seen to be dependent on the nature of the seed. 
 Now the metaphor is changed, and the harvest depends on the 
 soil, as in our Lord's parable of the Sower (Mark iv. 3-9). 
 
 It is usual to take this as a contrast between a carnal and 
 a spiritual course of life. But Lipsius applies it to the contrast 
 between the Judaizing and the more spiritual Christian life, 
 taking the resort to circumcision as the one sowing, and the 
 life of faith taught by Paul as the other. Against the more 
 common view observe (1) the opening (verse 6) and closing 
 (verses 9, 10) sentences of the paragraph refer to generosity 
 of conduct ; (2) the phrase • his own flesh ' is evidently to be 
 contrasted with 'the Spirit,' the Revisers rightly printing that 
 word with a capital ' S ' to signify the Spirit of God in contrast 
 with a man's own flesh, or bodily life. Therefore the contrast 
 seems to be between living for self, and especially for the lower 
 self, as is usually the case with the purely selfish character, 
 and living for God in pursuit of the aims inspired by His Spirit. 
 
 of the flesh : lit. * out of,' as the harvest is drawn out of 
 the soil. 
 
 corruption: 'blighted and putrescent grain' (Lightfoot), 
 corresponding to a life perishing like a rotten thing. 
 
 eternal life: lit the 'life of the ages,' the word (aidm'os) 
 rendered 'eternal' meaning that which belongs to the age, or 
 the ages. Thus it points to a vast and indefinite future. 
 Practically it is used as equivalent to ' everlasting.' The compound 
 phrase ' eternal life ' is a well-known expression in N. T. teach- 
 ing and evidently among the early Christians. It is found in 
 the Synoptic records of the teaching of Jesus as a blessing of the 
 future (cf. Mark x. 30) ; so it is regarded by Paul here and 
 elsewhere (cf. Rom. v. 21). In John it is treated as a pre- 
 sent possession (cf. John v. 24), though the conception of it as 
 something future also appears in the Fourth Gospel (cf. vi. 27). 
 As a phrase in contemporary Jewish speech it would mean the 
 resurrection life, and the enjoyment of this in contrast with the 
 doom of lingering in the gloom of Hades as a dead soul without 
 a resurrection. Carried over to Christian thought, it still means 
 the life of the resurrection, even in John the life which, though 
 
334 TO THE GALATIANS 6. io, n 
 
 doing : for in due season we shall reap, if we faint not. 
 10 So then, as we have opportunity, let us work that which 
 
 is good toward all men, and especially toward them that 
 
 are of the household of the faith. 
 3i See with how large letters I have written unto you 
 
 begun here, outlasts death and realizes itself fully after the 
 resurrection. But Christianity deepens its meaning, bringing 
 out the rich spiritual nature of the gift — making much of the 
 substantive as well as the adjective, the life itself as well as 
 the fact that it is eternal. 
 
 9. be weary : lose courage, flag, in the long interval between 
 sowing and reaping. There is a play upon words in the Greek. 
 This verb is founded on a word meaning ' evil ' (kakon), and so 
 it stands in contrast to the word * well ' (kalon) in ' well-doing.' 
 
 well-doing : doing what is good and morally beautiful. 
 in due season: lit. 'at its own season,' i. e. when the grain 
 is ripe for harvest. 
 
 10. opportunity : the same word that is rendered ' season ' in 
 the previous verse. The harvest will come at its own season ; 
 then let us see to it that we seize the season for sowing when that 
 is with us. 
 
 that which is good. In this expression (to agathori), as well 
 as in the earlier one, the 'well' of 'well-doing' (to kalon), Paul 
 uses language familiar to every reader of Plato, the current 
 language of Greek ethics. There is a more distinctly moral tone 
 in the word rendered ' good,' as with that term in our language ; 
 and it is especially applied to the goodness shewn in kindness to 
 other people, for being good to them. 
 
 toward all men: the Christian duty of universal philan- 
 thropy ; and yet the early Christians were accused of misanthropy 
 and hated as ' enemies of the human race ' ! 
 
 the household : regarding Christians as all members of one 
 family. 
 
 the faith: a misleading rendering of the R. V., due to 
 pedantic exactness. It is true the article is found in the Greek 
 text. But this is possible before an abstract noun where we 
 should not have it in English ; and the Apostle may mean ' the 
 well-known experience of Christian faith.' Still, the A. V. render- 
 ing 'faith' without the article is really more accurate. The 
 expression 'the faith,' meaning 'the Christian religion,' is not 
 found so early as this. The whole phrase means ' the household 
 of those who share in the experience of Christian faith,' 'the 
 household of believers.' 
 
 vi. 11-18. Conclusion written by Paul himself. Writing with 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 6. i 2 335 
 
 with mine own hand. As many as desire to make a 12 
 
 his own hand in large letters, the Apostle gives a final warning 
 against the Judaizing intruders, whose honesty of purpose he does 
 not believe in. He will only glory in Christ, for neither circum- 
 cision nor uncircumcision count for anything, but only a renewed 
 life. He desires that he may be troubled no more with these 
 matters, and concludes with a brief benediction. 
 
 11. with how large letters: not 'how large a letter.' This 
 fact has been explained (i) as a sign of Paul's bad eyesight. The 
 willingness of the Galatians to pluck out their e3 T es and give 
 them to him (cf. iv. 15 and note) has been taken by some as a hint 
 of this trouble, which is then regarded as Paul's ' infirmity in the 
 flesh' (iv. 13), and 'thorn in the flesh' (2 Cor. xii. 7). (2) An 
 indication of his difficulty in writing owing to his hands having 
 been roughened by the manual labour of his craft, the tent-making, 
 and to his unfamiliarity with the use of the pen. (3) A sign of 
 the importance of what he is going to write. There is not 
 sufficient reason for his making the statement on either of the first 
 two grounds, except as a casual remark ; and the gravity of what 
 he adds, with its stern and almost angry tone, excludes any but 
 grave and serious reasons for what he says. Prof. Ramsay points 
 out that when a document was to be exposed in public ' attention 
 was often called to some specially important point, especially at 
 the beginning or end, by the use of larger letters.' Instances of 
 this may be seen in advertisements at Pompeii. 
 
 I have written. This is an instance of what grammarians 
 call the ' epistolary aorist,' a Greek verb used in a letter in the past 
 tense for what will be past when the letter is read, although it is 
 present while the letter is being written, the sentence being con- 
 structed from the reader's, not the writer's, standpoint. Paul is 
 not referring to the previous part of the Epistle : he is drawing 
 attention to the paragraph which he is in the act of writing. It 
 would be better to read ' write' with the A. V. and the margin of 
 the R. V. 
 
 with mine own hand. From this point, then, all that follows 
 was written in the original document by the author himself. In 
 common with many ancient authors Paul was in the habit of 
 dictating to an amanuensis. In Romans (xvi. 22) the amanuensis 
 gives his name as Tertius, adding his own salutation. We cannot 
 say how many of the Epistles this man may have written out for 
 Paul. Since the Apostle was accompanied by various attendant 
 evangelists at different times, probably the letters would not all be 
 dictated to the same person. The Apostle who obtained his liveli- 
 hood as a mechanic would not be able to keep a private secretary. 
 Slaves did this work in the Roman Empire ; but Paul owned no 
 slave, we may be sure. It was the Apostle's custom to authen- 
 
336 TO THE GALATIANS 6. 13 
 
 fair show in the flesh, they compel you to be circumcised ; 
 
 only that they may not be persecuted for the cross of 
 
 r 3 Christ. For not even they who receive circumcision 
 
 ticate his dictated letters with a few words in his own hand- 
 writing. Cf. 2 Thess. iii. 17, 'The salutation of me Paul with 
 mine own hand, which is the token in every epistle.' The short 
 personal letter to Philemon was written by the Apostle entirely 
 with his own hand, but he calls his friend's attention to the fact 
 as something exceptional (Philem. 19). 
 
 12. a fair show in the flesh: not meaning ' in the world and 
 among men,' nor 'in things observable by the senses,' but more 
 specifically 'in ordinances that are bodily and external.' Cf. 'in 
 3-our flesh ' (verse 13). The context shews that the reference is 
 to the Judaizers. 
 
 that they may not be persecuted. Persecution in these 
 primitive times came from the Jews, and it was directed especially 
 against those Christians who were of Jewish birth. The special 
 ground of the persecution was disloyalty to the law of Israel. 
 If Jewish Christians shewed themselves zealous in winning 
 proselytes to that law they might hope to escape. Paul roundly 
 declares that this is their only motive. He will not admit that 
 they realty believe in the law which they would impose on the 
 Galatians ; their own carelessness in regard to it reveals their 
 personal indifference to it. Neither will he allow that they have 
 the slightest genuine interest in the Galatians ; he holds that their 
 motive is purely selfish and of the meanest possible kind, leading 
 them to impose irksome obligations on other people simply in order 
 to gain a false reputation for zeal, so as to escape being suspected 
 themselves. Thus they appear in a very odious light. One cannot 
 but hope that the vehemence of his indignation carried Paul too far 
 in this wholesale condemnation of his opponents. No letter of the 
 Judaizers has been preserved to represent their view of the case. 
 Still, we may be sure that Paul was perfectly true to his convictions 
 in uttering this severe judgement, and the next verse certainly 
 points in that direction and goes some way to verify it. 
 
 for the cross of Christ : for preaching the cross instead of 
 Jewish ideas. Cf. v. 11 and note. 
 
 13. they who receive circumcision: the circumcision party, 
 the Judaizers, who indeed receive that rite themselves, though 
 they do not fulfil the obligations it imposes. 
 
 not even . . . keep the law. This can scarcely mean that 
 the Judaizers share in the common inability of all mankind to 
 perfectly fulfil the requirements of the Pentateuch, as Paul shews 
 elsewhere. The charge is too specific. A distinct laxity is meant. 
 The free atmosphere of the church made it easy to abandon 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 6. 14, 15 337 
 
 do themselves keep the law ; but they desire to have you 
 circumcised, that they may glory in your flesh. But far 14 
 be it from me to glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ, through which the world hath been crucified unto 
 me, and I unto the world. For neither is circumcision 15 
 
 the tiresome rigour of Judaism in many matters, and these 
 Judaizing Christians were availing themselves of this fact to 
 ease their own burdens. Thus their Judaism was more external 
 and formal even than that of the Pharisees. It consisted in little 
 more than submission to the rite of circumcision themselves and 
 pretentious zeal in forcing that rite on Gentile Christians. 
 
 that they may glory : exult and boast. 
 
 in your flesh : in regard to a rite that is only performed on 
 your bodies, apart from your spiritual condition, irrespective 
 of the question whether any change in that condition, such as 
 the becoming 'a new creature' (verse 15) which Paul aims at for 
 his converts, has taken place. 
 
 14. But far be it from me, &c. The pronoun i me ' is in the 
 most emphatic place in the sentence. Paul says in effect, ' What- 
 ever may be the grounds of exulting these people take up, as to 
 myself, for my part, I will not exult except,' &c. 
 
 in the cross. Paul had recognized that ' the cross ' was 
 a stumblingblock to many (v. 11), and the preaching of it a 
 reason why Christians were persecuted (vi. 12). Yet he never 
 obscured it, but set it in the most prominent place in his teaching. 
 When going to visit the clever people at Corinth, all he previously 
 determined was that he would preach to them about Christ in 
 regard to his crucifixion (1 Cor. ii. 2). Here, far from apologizing 
 for it, he makes it his one ground of exultation. This would 
 appear absolutely paradoxical in the view of contemporaries who 
 only thought of the cross as a cruel, disgraceful instrument of 
 execution. It is to be explained by what Paul saw in the cross. 
 (1) On Christ's side, the centre of his supreme act of love in 
 sacrificing himself for the redemption of the world ; (2) on the 
 Christian's side, the symbol of his crucifixion to the world, and 
 the influence by means of which his old evil life was destroyed 
 in order that he might live the new life in Christ. 
 
 the world . . . crucified unto me : ceasing therefore to live 
 as a power to fascinate, terrify, or hurt. 
 
 X unto the world : no longer concerning myself with it. 
 The scope of this verse must be determined by its context. 
 Paul is not here repudiating any interest in politics, business, 
 society, nature, art, or literature. He is contrasting his position 
 with that of the proselytizei s who are trimming their sails 
 (») Z 
 
338 TO THE CxALATIANS 6. 16 
 
 16 anything, nor uncircumcision, but a new creature. And 
 as many as shall walk by this rule, peace be upon them, 
 and mercy, and upon the Israel of God. 
 
 to catch the breeze of popular favour. He is perfectly indifferent 
 to this. It cannot really hurt him — for the world is crucified 
 as far as he is concerned ; he will not consider it — for he is 
 crucified as far as the world is concerned. 
 
 15. The first part of this verse resembles an earlier phrase in 
 the Epistle (v. 6), but with some alterations, (i) The former 
 passage begins with the words ' in Christ Jesus,' indicating that for 
 Christians both the rite and the absence of it count for nothing; 
 now that clause is dropped and the sentence is given absolutely 
 as of universal application. Even for those who are not Christians, 
 yes, even for Jews, when its true nature is known, this is seen 
 to be nothing. (2) Paul had said that it was of no avail ; now 
 he says that it is nothing at all, i. e. that in all considerations 
 of religion it does not find any place ; as far as they are concerned 
 it is not anything. (3) The former contrast was with ' faith 
 working by love ' — the Christian spiritual experience ; now the 
 contrast is with a new creature, indicating the most fundamental 
 change, and therefore the greatest possible difference in comparison 
 with a merely external rite. 
 
 a new creature. The phrase may mean (1) 'a new creation,' 
 i.e. 'a new act of creation' (cf. Rom. i. 20), and in favour of this 
 view is the contrast with circumcision as a process and supposed 
 means of salvation ; or (2) 'a new creature' as a newly created 
 being. While the Greek word (ktisis) admits of both meanings, 
 the latter is the more usual in the N. T. (cf. Rom. i. 25, viii. 39; 
 2 Cor. v. 17 ; Heb. iv. 13), and especially suits the phrase 'a new 
 creature ' in 2 Cor. v. 17. 
 
 16. walk: lit. 'walk in line,' like soldiers in a file or rank. 
 this rule : lit. l canon, ' a word used for a carpenter's or 
 survejror's measuring line ; here meaning the way of the Christian 
 life by faith in Christ and the power of his cross, as just indicated, 
 in distinction from the way of an external rite such as circumcision. 
 peace . . . and mercy. The usual greeting is 'grace and 
 peace.' Probably 'peace' is named first here because it is 
 especially needed in view of the troubles disturbing the Galatian 
 churches. Then ' mercy ' rather than ' grace ' may be mentioned, 
 (r) because these troubles call especially for the Divine pity and 
 saving grace, (2) because they reveal faults that need forgiveness, 
 and (3) because in distinction from the Jewish spirit of self-made 
 righteousness Paul has been insisting throughout on the gospel 
 of God's pity for man's helplessness received only on condition 
 of faith. 
 
TO THE GALATIANS 6. 17,18 339 
 
 From henceforth let no man trouble me: for I bear 1? 
 branded on my body the marks of Jesus. 
 
 The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with your 18 
 spirit, brethren. Amen. 
 
 the Israel of God: neither (1) only Jewish Christians, nor 
 2) Israel as such, but (3) all Christians as • the spiritual Israel,' 
 and therefore ' the true Israel ' in contrast with those who are 
 only Israel 'after the flesh' (1 Cor. x. 18; cf. Rom. ix. 8). These 
 are the ' children of promise ' (iv. 28). This idea of Christians 
 as the true Israel appears in 1 Pet. i. 1, where they are called 
 ' sojourners of the Dispersion.' Appearing here at the close of 
 the Epistle, it is a parting shot at the Judaizers, and a concluding 
 claim for Paul's contention maintained throughout the argument. 
 
 17. Prom henceforth. Paul would dismiss the subject. He 
 has completely disposed of the contentions of his opponents. 
 He hopes he may hear no more of them. 
 
 for, &c. The reason for this demand is now to be given. 
 It is to be found in the way in which the Apostle's status and 
 mission are duly authenticated. 
 
 the marks of Jesus. It was customary for slaves to be 
 cut or branded with marks which would identify them as their 
 master's property. Paul claims that he has such marks proving 
 him to be in the service of Jesus. The notion of the 'stigmata' 
 as the nail-prints in the hands and feet, reproduced in St. Francis, 
 is quite out of place in the time of Paul. The use of the simple 
 name 'Jesus,' according to the best MS. authority, without the 
 titles 'Christ' or ' Lord' which Paul nearly always applies, might 
 seem to point to our Lord in his earthly life. But 'Jesus' was 
 the personal name. Paul seems to use it here to indicate distinctly 
 that he is marked for the one Person, Jesus. The simplicity of 
 the phrase emphasizes the idea that he belongs to Jesus and to 
 Jesus only; then let no one else interfere with him. Deissmann, 
 relying on the analogy of contemporary documents, thinks that 
 Paul alludes to the ' protective marks ' of magical amulets. But 
 it is not probable that the Apostle would compare his Christian 
 experience to the doings of sorcery. His marks would be the 
 scars of persecution left by the stoning at Lystra, the lictor's rods 
 at Philippi, &c. 
 
 18. See note on 1 Thess. v. 28. This Epistle closes as abruptly 
 as it is opened, with the briefest possible salutations. Here are 
 no personal greetings. Paul will not omit his usual benediction, 
 and his last word is brethren, for he still owns the Galatians as 
 Christians in a brotherly relation with himself, and he wishes them 
 to receive the blessing of Christ. It is a Christian conclusion, and 
 one of well-wishing. That is all. 
 
 Z 2 
 
INDEX 
 
 [The Numerals refer to the Pages A 
 
 Abraham, u6ff.. 292, 298, 314. 
 
 Achaia, 13, 20, 22. 163, 258. 
 
 Acts, silence of, 62. 
 
 Acts of Paul and Thecla, 76, 82. 
 
 Adoption. 66, 308. 
 
 Advent, Second, 30, 43, 48, 55, 
 
 164, 205. 233, 251. 
 Allegory, 314. 
 Ambrose, St., 16. 
 Amphipolis, 6. 
 Amyntas, 75. 
 Ananias, 264. 
 Ancyra, 58, 59. 
 Andronicus. 257. 
 Angel, 83, 228, 262, 300, 312. 
 Antichrist, 37. 244. 
 Antioch in Pisidia, 59, 73 ff.. 77. 
 Antioch in Syria, 15, 77, 84, 95, 
 
 278. 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, 244. 
 Antony, 75. 
 Apocalypse, The, 39. 
 Apocalypse of Enoch, 46. 
 Apocalypses, Jewish, 30. 41. 
 Apollonia, 6. 
 Apostle, 257. 
 Apostles, 267. 
 Arabia, 267. 
 Archangel, 201. 
 Arethusa, Pass of, 7. 
 Asia Minor, interior of, 64, 102 
 Ask with. Galatia:s, 72, note. 
 Athens, 19. 21, 23, 174, 177. 
 
 196. 221. 
 
 Attalia, 77, 84. 
 Augustin, 317. 
 Authorized Version, 1331!'. 
 
 Balkans, 64, 77. 
 
 Barnabas. 67, 77tT. , 258, 270. 
 
 271, 276, 281. 
 Bartlet, Prof., 277. 
 Baur on 1 Thess., 17, 18. 
 
 — 2 Thess., 38. 
 
 — Galatians. 102, 276. 
 Bercea, 19. 
 
 i Bewitch, 289. 
 
 i Brethren, false. 273. 
 
 ; Browning, 226. 
 
 1 Burden-bearing, 330. 
 
 I Caesar, Decrees of, 11. 
 i Caligula, 243. 
 
 Calling, 231. 
 j Callistus, 196. 
 1 Catacombs. 196. 
 I Catullus, 196. 
 { Celtic fickleness, 101. 
 
 Cephas, no, 113, 272, 275. 
 
 Chrysostom, 254. 
 
 Church officers, 211. 
 
 Churches of God. 226. 
 
 Cilicia. 269. 
 
 Circumcision. 275, 322, 324. 
 
 Claudiconium, 75. 
 
 Claudius, 75, r73_ 
 
 Clement of Alexandria on 
 2 Thess.. 37. 
 
INDEX 
 
 341 
 
 Clouds, 20 1 . 
 
 Coin at Lystra, 76. 
 
 Coleridge, 214. 
 
 Colossians, 13. 
 
 Conybeare and Howson. 78, 
 
 note. 
 Corinth, 15, 19, 20, 22, 23. 97. 
 Covenant. 297. 
 Cross, 337. 
 Cybele, 105, 325. 
 
 Damascus, 264, 267, 268. 
 Day of the Lord, 204. 
 Decrees, 103. 
 Demons, 234. 
 Derbe, 59, 76, 84. 
 
 Eastern churches, 22. 
 
 Ebionites, 125, 171. 
 
 Egoism, 26. 
 
 Election, 161. 
 
 Enoch, Apocalypse oj\ 46. 
 
 Ephesians, 13. 
 
 Ephesus, 15, 96. 
 
 Epistle, Forged, 235. 
 
 Erastus, 258. 
 
 Eternal, 229. 
 
 Eusebius on 2 Thess., 38. 
 
 Famine, 271. 
 
 Fire, flaming, 228. 
 
 For, meaning 'on behalf of, '209. 
 
 Galatia, 15, 58 ff., 259. 
 
 — Visits to, 86. 
 
 Galatian churches, 77 ff., 259. 
 
 — cities, 73 ff. 
 
 — perversion, 260. 
 Galatians, Epistle to, 25, 58, 
 
 258, 289. 
 
 — compared with Romans, 9 iff. 
 
 — contents, 126 ft". 
 
 — date, 87 ff. 
 
 — literary style and charac- 
 teristics, 122 ff. 
 
 — occasion, 97. 
 
 Galatians, Epistle to, place of 
 origin, 95 ff. 
 
 — purpose, 106 ff. 
 
 — teaching, 112 ff. 
 Galatians, Who were the, 58 ff. 
 Garrod. Mr., 227, 228, 232, 234, 
 
 238, 247, 249. 
 Gaul, 58. 
 
 Gentile habits, 105. 
 Gentiles, 276, 280. 
 God of Peace, 217. 
 Godet on 1 Thess., 17. 
 Gospel, Paul's, 109, 272. 
 Greeks, 8. 
 
 Grenfell and Hunt, 297. 
 Gudelissin, 76. 
 
 Hagar, 314. 
 Harnack, dates, 196. 
 
 — on 1 Thess., 17. 
 
 Harris, Dr. Rendel,on 1 Thess., 
 
 24. 
 Heresies, 328. 
 Hermes, 83. 
 
 Hilgenfeld on 2 Thess., 36. 
 Holiness, 185. 
 Holtzmann on 1 Thess., 17. 
 Homer, 195, 200. 
 Hope, 196. 
 Hort, Judaistic Christianity, 277. 
 
 Iconium, 59. 
 Ignatius, 211. 
 Inheritance, 66. 
 Irenaeus on 1 Thess., 17. 
 
 — 2 Thess., 37. 
 Isaac, 315. 
 Isauria, 59. 
 Ishmael, 315. 
 
 James, no, 269, 272, 275. 
 James, Epistle of, 4, in. 
 Jason, n. 
 
 Jerusalem, 15. 104, 267, 268, 
 270. 
 
 — church, 111. 
 
 — council, 277. 
 
342 THESSALONIANS AND GALATIANS 
 
 Jerusalem above, 317 
 Jewish Christians, 99. 
 Jews, 8. 101. 
 John, no, 272, 275. 
 Josephus, 216, 278, 298. 
 Judaea, 171, 269. 
 Judaism, 50, 103. 
 Judaizing Christians, 18, 118, 
 125. 
 
 — Danger of, 320. 
 Junias, 257. 
 Junius, Letters of, 4. 
 Jus Italicum, 73. 
 
 Justify, the word, 1x4, 283. 
 Justin Martyr, 8. 
 
 — on 2 Thess., 37. 
 
 — on The Lord's Supper, 211. 
 
 Khatyn Serai, 75. 
 
 Kingdom of Heaven, 30, 169. 
 
 Konia, 74. 
 
 Laconia, 70. 
 
 Lactantius, 205. 
 
 Latin, Old, 1 Thess., 18. 
 
 Law. Place and function 0^299. 
 
 — Curse of, 293. 
 
 — of Christ, 331. 
 Lawless one, 240. 
 Leaven, 323. 
 Lex talionis. 213. 
 Light, Sons of, 203, 206. 
 Lightfoot on Galatians, 58 ff., 
 
 87, 258. 
 Literary style, Paul's, 47. 
 Literature, 129, 130. 
 Lord's brother, The, 269. 
 Love of brethren, 192. 
 Luther, 121, 283. 
 Lycaonia, 59, 75. 
 Lycus Valley, 13. 
 Lystra, 59, 75 ff., 312. 
 
 Macedonia, 5ff., 15, 19. 163, 
 
 i93> 258. 
 Magistrates, 11 
 
 Mahomet, 243. 
 Man of sin, 42, 50, 243 ff. 
 Marcion. 118. 
 
 Marcion's Canon on 1 Thess. 
 17- 
 
 — 2 Thess., 37. 
 Marks of Jesus, 339. 
 Massie, Prcf., 307. 
 Mediator, 300. 
 Messiah, 30. 
 Milan, 16. 
 Milton, 199, 230. 
 Minister, 177. 
 Miracles, 291. 
 Mithra. 309. 
 Montanism, 125. 
 Mosaic law, 104. 
 Moses, 300. 
 
 Muratorian Fragment on 
 1 Thess., 18. 
 
 — 2 Thess., 37. 
 Mysia, 71. 
 Mystery, 239. 
 
 Napoleon, 243. 
 Nazarenes, 171 
 Neapolis, 7. 
 Nero, 243. 
 Nestle, 193. 
 
 Newman's Apologia, 100. 
 Normans, 16. 
 
 North Galatia, Remoteness of, 
 63 ff. 
 
 Objections to South Galatian 
 
 theory, 68 ff. 
 Origen, 279. 
 
 Pamphylia, 311. 
 Paroitsia, 176, 195, 227, 233. 
 Patience of Christ, 251. 
 Paul, conversion, 263. 
 
 — description, 82. 
 dispute with Peter, 278. 
 
 — infirmity, 311. 
 
 — name and titles, 157 
 
INDEX 
 
 343 
 
 Paul, personal claim, io6fl 
 
 defence, 263. 
 
 Perga, 77, 311. 
 
 Pessinus, 58. 
 
 Pfieiderer on 1 Thess., 17. 
 
 Philippi, 6, 7, 10, 15, 165. 
 
 Philo, 218, 315. 
 
 Phrygia, 59, 71. 
 
 Phrygians, 65, 105. 
 
 Pisidia, 59. 
 
 Plato, 200, 213, 217. 
 
 Politarch, 11. 
 
 Polycarp on 2 Thess., 36, 37. 
 
 Prophesy ings, 216. 
 
 Proselytes, 8. 
 
 Pythoness, 10. 
 
 Ramsay, Prof., 12. 
 
 — on Galatia, 59 ff., 88. 
 Region, Phrygian and Galatian, 
 
 70. 
 Renan, 309. 
 
 Restraineth, He that, 238. 
 Revelation, 227, 264, 272. 
 
 — Book of, 43. 
 Righteousness, 288, 301. 
 Roman government, 244. 
 Rudiments of the world, 306. 
 Ruskin, 122. 
 
 Saints, 186, 230. 
 
 Saloniki, 5, 16. 
 
 Salutations, Opening, 223 
 
 Samothrace, 7. 
 
 Saracens, 16. 
 
 Satan, 19, 24, 174, 179, 241, 250. 
 
 Schmidt on 2 Thess., 38 
 
 Seleucus Nicanor, 73. 
 
 Shakespeare, 199, 230, 239, 283, 
 
 299. 
 Sibylline Oracle, 205. 
 Silas, 7, 19, 20, 157. 
 Silvanus, 21, 54, 157. 225. 
 Sinai, 316. 
 Sonship, 305. 
 Sophocles, 195. 
 
 Sorcery, 327. 
 
 South Galatians, 65 ff. 
 
 Steck, 102. 
 
 Sterrett, Prof., on Derbe. 76. 
 
 Sultan-Dagh, 74. 
 
 Syria, 269. 
 
 Syriac, 1 Thess., 18. 
 
 Tavium, 58. 
 
 Teachers, 352. 
 
 Tertullian on 1 Thess., 18. 
 
 — on 2 Thess., 37. 
 
 — thorn in flesh, 311. 
 Testament, 67. 
 Testament of Solomon, 307 
 Theocritus, 196. 
 Theodosius, 16. 
 Thessalonians, I, 133 ff, 157 ff. 
 
 — characteristics and leading 
 ideas, 26 ff. 
 
 — contents, 33 ff. 
 
 — genuineness, 1 7 ff. 
 
 — occasion, place, and date of 
 origin, 21 ff. 
 
 — relation to 2 Thess., 39 ff. 
 Thessalonians, II, 32, 222. 
 
 — characteristics, 54. 
 
 — contents, 56, 57. 
 
 — date and place of origin, 53 
 
 — genuineness, 36 ff. 
 
 — objects of the Epistle, 48. 
 Thessalonica, 4 ff. 
 
 — Church at, 12 ff., 158. 
 
 — Mission at, 165. 
 Thief in the night, 40, 204. 
 Thrace, 6. 
 
 Times and Seasons, 203. 
 Timothy, 7, 16, 19, 20, 21, 24, 
 
 25, 54- 158, 180, 225, 258.. 
 
 324- 
 Timothy's mission, 176. 
 Titus, 15, 258, 271, 273. 
 Token, Paul's, 256. 
 Traditions, 247, 265. 
 Trench, Synonyms, 203. 
 Trophimus, 259. 
 Trump of God. 201. 
 
344 THESSALONIANS AND GALATIANS 
 
 Turks, 16. 
 
 Turner, Mr., 271, 279. 
 
 Twelve Apostles, Teaching of, 
 
 257. 
 Tychicus, 259. 
 
 Vessel, 189. 
 Via Egnatia, 7. 
 
 Wills, Greek and Roman, 67. 
 Women, Chief, 9. 
 
 Word of the Lord. 163, i 9 8 
 Work with hands, 168, 194,33. 
 
 Xenop] 
 
 ion. 200. 
 
 Zahn on 1 Thess , \q. 
 Zeus, 83. 
 ZOckler, Dr., 96. 
 Zoska, 76. 
 
 OXFORD: HORACE HART 
 PRINTER TO THF. UNIVERSITY 
 
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