,t t\vt ^^^'^Him j^ ' ■^\jt*^^ "»<: PRINCETON, N. J. >A :as.s,5A \ Shelf.. Division Section, __ Number .Vi...l..i 4 "V.^ V' .y ' \vM4r ."%- 'i4 ^tW (X- f i^(/li^'><^^^^ ■ l// THE LUTHERAN COMMENTARY A PLAIN EXPOSITION OF THE; I^olp ^cripturejef of tf^c j^ctu €c^tamcnt BY SCHOLARS OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA EDITED BY HENRY EYSTER JACOBS Vol. XI. €{)c €f)ti^tiaii literature €o. MDCCCXCVIL ANNOTATIONS ON THE GENERAL EPISTLES OF JAMES, PETER, JOHN, AND JUDE BY REVERE F. WEIDNER, D.D., LLD. Professor of Systematic Theology in the Chicago Lutheran Theological Seminary IHew lor!? €fte €^x\^i\^\\ literature €o. MDcccxcvrr. Copyright, 1897, By the christian literature company INTRODUCTION GENERAL EPISTLES I, TJie Term ^'Catholic " or " General" Epistles. The seven Epistles which bear the names of James, Peter, John, and Jude have been known collectively in the Church since the fourth century as the Catholic or Gen- eral Epistles, but the meaning of this term has been a question of much dispute.^ It is best to use the word Catholic or General as meaning tiniversal, addressed to the Church in general, although this accurately only ap- plies in the case of i John, 2 Peter, and Jude, and is alto- gether inappropriate to 2 and 3 John, which are addressed to individuals. It is easy to understand how, at an early time, these two letters of John were placed by the side of his first Epistle, and then these seven Epistles re- garded as one collection, and appended to the Acts of the Apostles, where they are found in all the early MSS., and to which position they have been restored in all crit- ical editions of the Greek text 1 The word Catholic in this connection has been used in a threefold sense, — (i) in the sense of circular ov encycHcal, addressed to Christians in general ; (2) as synonymous with canonical ; (3) in the sense of orthodoxy as opposed to heretical. V Vi INTRO D UC TION. 2. The Canonicity of the General Epistles. During the first period of the history of the Canon (70-170 A. D.), 2 Peter is the only book of the N. T. which is not referred to as an apostolic and authoritative writing. During the second period (170-303 A. D.) all the General Epistles were known, but the Epistles of James and Jude were little used, and 2 Peter was barely known. This evi- dence, however, is of use, and not of doubt or inquiry, for the Canon was fixed in ordinary practice, and doubts were settled by custom and not by criticism. During the third period (303-397 A. D.) the Canon was authorita- tively established. Eusebius of Cssarea (about 325 A. D.), the historian of the early Church, speaks of " seven Catholic Epistles," and in a famous passage (//. E. III. 25) sums up the results of his inquiry into the evidence for the canonicity and apostolicity of the N. T. books furnished by the writings of the first three cent- uries. He places i John ai>d i Peter among the books universally aeknoivledged, and the Epistles of James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, among the disputed books. He does not say that these last five were universally regarded with suspicion, but that they were not univer- sally accepted by all as canonical. By Eusebius himself all the General Epistles were regarded as canonical. He is simply narrating what has been the case in the past, and it is clear that the doubts to which Eusebius refers were ceasing to exist. The Church held that a book to be canonical must have been written by an Apostle, or at least have Apostolic sanction. But as James, Jude, 2 and 3 John, did not claim to be written by Apostles, the question of their Apostolicity and authority arose. With regard to 2 Peter the question was more with refer- ence to its genuineness and authenticity. 3. TJie Order of the Seven General Epistles. The order INTRODUCTION. vii of the General Epistles as given in our English Bible is the one usually observed in the principal manuscripts, versions, and catalogues of the books of the N. T. The books are so arranged in the catalogues of Athana- sius, of Cyril of Jerusalem, of the Council of Laodicea, of Jerome, of Epiphanius, of Gregory Nazianzen, of John of Damascus, and others.^ Other arrangements, how- ever, also occur. The arrangement in Luther's German Bible is peculiar, and is found in no other catalogue or version, ancient or modern. The order is i and 2 Peter, I, 2, and 3 John, Hebrews, James, Jude, Revelation. This arrangement seems to have arisen from the peculiar views of Luther, who placed those books, about which he had some doubt, at the end of the New Testament. 4. The Importance of the General Epistles. In recent times great stress has been laid on the importance of the General Epistles, especially in their relation to Biblical Theology. We have no right to draw a distinction be- tween the canonical books of the N. T., placing some in the first and others in the second rank, as has been done in time past by some writers. A book either belongs to the Canon or it does not. If the external and internal evidence warrants us in accepting a book as a part of the inspired Word of God, then it no longer occupies a sec- ond place, for we must lay just as much stress upon its teachings as upon that of any other book. 5. Select Literature Covering t lie General Epistles. (i) Commentaries on the Greek Text. Alford, The Greek Testament, etc., 4 vols., 1880. Bengel, Gnomon, 3 vols., 1894. 1 The original texts can be found in Westcott, Canon of the N. T., pp. 539- 584, fifth ed., 1881. viil INTRODUCTION. Lange, Commentary on the General Epistles, 1868: Lange, Van Oosterzee, and Mombert, on James ; Fronmuller and Mombert, on Epistles of Peter ; Braune and Mombert, on Epistles of John ; Fronmuller and Mombert, on fude. Meyer, The General Epistles, 1887; originally pre- pared by Huther; edited by Dwight. Webster and Wilkinson, The Greek Testament, 2 vols., 1855, 1861. Weiss, Die Katholisehen Brief e, etc., Leipzig, 1892. Wordsworth, The New Testament in the Original Greek, 2 vols., 1877. (2) Commentaries on the English Text. Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges : Plump- tre, on James, 1890; Plumptre, on Epistles of Peter atid Jjide, 1879; Plummer, on Epistles of John, 1889. Ellicott, Neiu Testament for English Readers : Punchard, on fames; Mason, on / Peter; Plummer, on 2 Peter ; Sinclair, on Epistles of John; Plummer, on y7/, making 9 to I against it ; (4) for two sisters having the same name— one out of ten (^), making 9 to 1 against it ; (5) the probability in favor of the simultaneous realization of the four 4 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. (2) The second theory is that the brethren and sisters of Jesus are the children of Joseph hy ^ former marriage, and had really no blood relationship with Christ. This view is known as the Jialf-brotJicr theory, or, since it was so zealously advocated by Epiphanius about 367 A. D., as the EpipJianiaii theory. But this theory can only be regarded as a compromise. It is destitute of all positive arguments in its favor. There is not the slightest indica- tion in the Gospels that Joseph, previous to his marriage with the Virgin Mary, was a widower. Nor is this the only view known in the Early Church, and, as Schaff has shown, this theory is not free from suspicion of an ascetic bias, as being the first step towards the dogma of the perpetual virginity of the mother of our Lord. This theory is also exposed to the fatal objection, that if Joseph had elder children, then tJic Lord Jcsiis Himself ivonld not he Joseph's heir ; the eldest son, unless deprived, would have been entitled to the throne of David. But Jesus is always regarded as the legal heir of the throne of David (Matt. i. 16; Luke i. 27 ; Rom. i. 3 ; 2 Tim. ii. 8 ; Rev. xxii. 16). This last objection admits of no satisfac- tory answer, and utterly and finally disproves the half- brother theory .1 (3) The last theory is, that the brethren of our Lord are above stated hypotheses is g^j^^j,j^=rj^, making 4999 probabilities to i against the truth of the cousin theory. Among those who have embraced this view we may name in addition to Jerome, Augustine, and Roman Catholic Commentators in general, such Protestant scholars as Calvin, Calovius, Buddeus, Pearson, Gieseler, Theile, Baumgarten, Guericke, Hengstenberg, Keil, Philippi, Ellicott, Wordsworth, Tregelles, Faussett, and Lange. i This half-brother theory assumes that Joseph was an old man when he espoused the Virgin Mary, having at least four sons and two daughters, by his former wife, still living. Though there is nothing in the N. T. to prove such a theorv, it has a strong traditional support in the Apocryphal Gos- pels (especially the Gospel of Peter and the Protevangelium of James), SPECIAL INTKODUCTION. 5 the sons of Joseph and Mary, and therefore the younger brethren of Jesus. This gives to the word brother its natural meaning and this view is known as the brother theory, or, because it was strongly advocated by Helvi- dius, a Roman Christian, about 380 A. D., has been styled the Hclvidian theory. This interpretation is exegetically the most natural, and is upheld by the obvious meaning of Matt. i. 18, 25 ; Luke ii. 7. All the objections that have been raised against this theory have no foundation either in Scripture or in early tradition, and we cannot arrive at any other conclusion but that James was a son of Mary and Joseph. (See Excursus I., at end of this Epistle.) 3. A Brief Life of tJic AiitJior of tJie Epistle. Of the early life of James, the oldest of the four younger brethren of our Lord (Matt. xiii. 55 ; Mark vi. 3) nothing whatever is known, for we cannot accept any of the legends of the Apocryphal Gospels. His training must have been the same as that of Jesus, and he grew up to manhood in that humble home of Nazareth. Before Christ's resurrection James did not believe on Him (John vii. 5), and we can only surmise that he took a somewhat prominent part as the oldest of the brothers in trying to restrain Jesus when they thought He was beside Himself (Mark iii. 21), and he may have uttered the taunting words recorded by John (vii. 3, 4). We hear nothing defi- and is upheld by the ecclesiastical authority of the Eastern Church. It is the favorite theory of Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, Epipha- nius, Gregory of Nyssa, Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria ; it may in fact be regarded as the generally received opinion of the Greek Church, being embodied in the Greek, Syrian, and Coptic services, — Oct. 9th being dedi- cated to James, the son of Alphteus, and Oct. 23d to James, the brother of the Lord. In modern times this view has been maintained by Cave, Bas- nage, Thiersch, Renan, Morison, and has recently been advocated in a most scholarly manner by Lightfoot (as already cited), and accepted by Plumptre. 6 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. nite concerning James until after the resurrection. St. Paul tells us that the risen Lord appeared to James (i Cor. XV. 7), and this seems to have brought about his conversion as well as those of his brethren, for immedi- ately afterwards we find them in the company of the Apostles and other believers (Acts i. 13, 14). He seems to have been present at the election of Matthias (Acts i. 14-26), and evidently was a sharer in the supernatural gifts of the Holy Ghost poured out on the day of Pente- cost (Acts ii. I -21). From this time onward, on account of his high moral character and probably also on account of his relationship to Jesus, James occupied the most dis- tinguished position in the Christian Church, although we find no mention of him for about ten years. Paul, on his first visit to Jerusalem after his conversion (Acts ix. 27), speaks of James in such a connection (Gal. i. 18, 19) as to show his prominence, and he seems from this time on to have presided over the church at Jerusalem (Acts xii. 17; XV. 13, 19; Gal. ii. 9, 12; Acts xxi. 18, 19). Probably the last reference to James in the N. T. is found in Heb. xiii. 7. Entirely in accordance with these notices of Scripture is the universal testimony of the Early Church to the high ofificial dignity held by James, the Lord's brother in the church at Jerusalem.^ Both Heges- ippus and Josephus {Ant. XX. 91) give an account of his martyrdom, and it may be regarded as an established fact that James was killed by the fanatical Jews at the temple, shortly before the siege of Jerusalem, about 62 A. D. 4. TJie Genuineness of the Epistle. During the first three centuries considerable uncertainty prevailed regard- ing the identity of James, whether he was one of the twelve or not, and so some questioned the genuineness of 1 A long and interesting account of the life and death of James, written by Hegesippus, about 160 A. D., is preserved by Eusebius {H. E. II. 23). SPECIAL INTRODUCrWN. y this Epistle, and consequently its authenticity and author- ity. This uncertainty about the authorship was still further increased by the fact that it remained for a long time in the possession of exclusively Jewish-Christian circles, that its contents seemed to conflict with the views of Paul concerning Justification by faith, and that so little reference was made to the distinctive doctrines of Christianity. Eusebius classes it among the Antilcgomcna or disputed writings of the N. T. ; but he himself did not share in these doubts, for he expressly quotes the Epistle of James as Scriptures. We have two kinds of testimony at our command to prove that the Epistle is genuine, really written by James, the Lord's brother, Bishop of Jerusalem. (i) Internal Evidence, {a) The Epistle shows that the James who wrote it is no other than the James of Jeru- salem, who is so prominent in Acts xii. 17; xv. 13, 19; xxi. 18, 19. He was so well known and so pre-eminent that the writer's simple designation of himself as James, *' a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ," was sufificient for his readers. {U) That the writer could re- prove and warn the believing Jews of the Dispersion in such earnest words, is also a proof that this James was held in the highest esteem (Gal. ii. 9, 12), and that he was no other than James the Just. (r) The whole doc- trinal peculiarity of the Epistle is entirely in keeping with the portrait of James as given in the Acts and in the Epistles of Paul, and of James the Just or the Right- eous, as depicted by Josephus, and so fully described by Hegesippus in Eusebius. {d^ The writer was a Jew (ii. 21), writing to his Christian countrymen (i. 2; ii. 7; etc.), whom commercial enterprises (iv. 13) or persecution (i. i) had scattered over Syria and Asia Minor, and evidently one who, if he had not been a personal follower 8 • GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. of our Lord, had often heard Him speak. This internal evidence is of the strongest kind. As we study this Epistle we are persuaded that the author is James, the Lord's brother. The simple designation of the writer in the first verse is a proof of the genuineness of the Epistle. A forger would have added some other description as " James, the Lord's brother," or " James, the Bishop of Jerusalem." (2) External evidence. Although Origen {died 254 A. D.) is apparently the first who cites the Epistle as Scripture and as written by James, the external evidence in its favor is very strong, {a) Direct Evidence. We have satisfactory evidence that the Syrian Church, even before 150 A. D., accepted both the genuineness and the authenticity of this Epistle, as well as its canonicity, for it is found in the Peshito, the Old Syrian Version, which was regarded as authoritative by all the Syrian churches, and used in all their public services. They were best able to judge of the character of this Epistle, for they knew all the circumstances connected with its origin, for it is almost positively certain that James wrote this letter to the Christian Jews scattered in Syria. After the time of Origen (254 A. D.), and of Eusebius, writing about 314 A. D., the letter is universally acknowledged as belonging to the Scripture Canon. It is included in all the catalogues of the Bible which have come down to us from the churches of Egypt and Asia Minor, and the reason why its canonicity was for a long time questioned by the Western Church, though the Epistle was well known, lay in the fact that it did not profess to be writ- ten by an Apostle, that it was not addressed to Gentile churches, and that it seemed to contradict the teaching of Paul, {li) Indirect Evidence. The indirect evidence consists in the quotations and allusions found in the SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 9 writtings of the Early Church Fathers, and is of the greatest importance, showing that our Epistle was more widely known during the first three centuries than has been commonly supposed. Major calls attention to the remarkable fact that our earliest witnesses in favor of the Epistle belong to the church which was one of the latest to recognize the Epistle as canonical, viz., the church at Rome.i In proportion as the Gentile element in the church at Rome increased, the Judaistic Epistle fell into the background. Clement of Rome, in his Epistle to the Corinthians, written about 95 A. D., shows that he was acquainted with the Epistle of James, not only in that there are several unmistakable references, but especially in this that there are several attempts made by him to reconcile and combine the teaching of James and Paul concerning Justification.^ We need not lay stress upon the close resemblance of expression or allusions found in the " Teaching of the Twelve," in the Epistle of Barnabas (written at least before 100 A. D.), and in the book known as the " Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs," ^ because we know for certain that Hermas (no A. D.), a contem- porary of Clement of Rome, used this Epistle. The very topics dwelt on by James are those to which Hermas most frequently recurs.^ We have also the testimony of 1 Zahn explains this from the strong Jewish character of the church at Rome during the first century of its existence {Gcsch. dcs N. T. Kaiions, I. p. 03^- 2 So Lightfoot and Major. The latter (pp. li., Hi) gives the fullest list of striking parallels ever published. 3 Written evidently by a Jewish Christian, about the beginning of the second century. Lightfoot thinks that the writer's language is formed on the model of the Epistleof James {Galatians, note p., 1581 Major gives us almost three pages of citations from the original Greek text to illustrate the writer's dependence upon the Epistle of James. 4 Salmon ilntrod. p. 450) brings out this very strikingly. Major devotes nearly four pages to quotations from the original Greek of Hermas illustrating the importance of Hermas as a witness. lo GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. Justin Martyr {died 165 A. D.), of the Epistle of Diogne- tus (written about 150 A. D.), of Irenaeus id. 202), of Clement of Alexandria {d. 220), of Origen {d. 254), of the Clementine Homilies (early in the third century), of the Apostolical Constitutions/ of Lactantius (about 300 A. D.), of Athanasius {d. 373), of Chrysostom, and lastly of Didymus {d. 374), who was the teacher of Jerome and Rufinus, and who left a brief commentary on all the Catholic Epistles.^ There can be no question, therefore, as to the genuineness, authenticity, or canonicity of the Epistle of James. This is now settled and fully estab- lished. We cannot, however, close this discussion with- out referring to the unfavorable opinion which Luther always held with reference to this Epistle. His objec- tions were not critical, for he even starts from the erro- neous idea, that the letter professed to be written by James, the son of Zebedee. His arguments are altogether subjective and rest on a theory which makes private feel- ing and personal experience the supreme authority as to the doctrine and source of doctrine. Although the same position was taken by the Magdeburg Centuriators, by Hunnius, and a few others, the great theologians of the Lutheran Church have not accepted this opinion of Luther, although in modern times Strobel attempted to revive it. (See Excursus H.) 5. The Relation of the Epistle of James to the Old Testa- ment. Many commentators have called our attention to the frequency of the parallels between the language of this Epistle and that of the O. T., especially of the Wis- dom literature, including Ecclesiasticus and the Book of 1 Compiled in the fourth century, but incorporating materials of a much earlier date. 2 Major gives all references in full, quoting the most important passages in the original. SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. ii Wisdom.^ This Epistle has even been described as the Christian Book of Proverbs. The proverbial character of the Epistle and its peculiar feature of O. T. piety are only additional proofs of the genuineness of the book. 6. TJie Relation of the Epistle of James to the other Books of the New Testament. A careful reading of the Epistle, with this special object in view, shows that the writer was unquestionably one who had known the Lord and was familiar with His oral teaching. The remarkable coincidences between the Epistle and the Sermon on the Mount and certain passages in the Synoptists arise from the fact that both James and the Synoptists were familiar with the Oral Gospel, for it is almost positively certain that James wrote his Epistle before ever the Gospels were composed. It has been the general belief in the Church, since the time of Augustine, that there is a connection^ between the Epistle of James and the writings of Paul, and this has been usually explained on the supposition that James meant to controvert Paul's teaching on Justification. But, as has been pointed out by the most careful students of this Epistle, the argument of James with reference to faith and works has no bearing on Paul's doctrine ; and if one of these writers wrote with reference to the other, it is far more probable that Paul was acquainted with the Epistle of James than James with the Epistles of Paul. So, likewise, the treatment of the subject of faith in The Epistle to the Hebreivs is such as to suggest that the writer was acquainted with both the Epistle of James and that to the Romans. In Heb. xi., faith is exhibited not as in rivalry with works but as the cause and ground 1 In many cases the dependence of the Greek of James on the Greek Bible fSeptuagint) is very striking. A good reference Bible will supply the most important parallel passages. 12 GENERAL EPISTLE OP JAMES. of all the noble deeds of the Old Testament saints. In Hebrews, too, the evils of the Jewish Church are more developed, and the threatened judgments more immi- nent, than when James wrote, and no doubt Heb. xiii. 17 contains an allusion to the martyrdom of James himself. There are also many resemblances between this Epistle of James and i Peter. Everything goes to prove the pri- ority of our Epistle to that of Peter. In almost every case the common thought finds fuller expression in Peter, and we find that in the quotations from the O. T., which are common to James and Peter, the inexact references of the former are corrected and supplemented by the latter. Peter, evidently, was familiar with the Epistle of James and made use of it. 7. TIic Language and Style of the Epistle. A few scholars have sought to establish an Aramaic original, because they think that James could not have written such good Greek. The purity of the Greek idiom has also been made a ground for doubting the genuineness of the Epistle, for there can scarcely be any question that the Greek of this Epistle approaches more nearly to the standard of classical Greek than any other book of the N. T., with the exception, perhaps, of the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistle to the Hebrews. A careful study of the Greek text shows, however, that it is writ- ten in Greek by a Greek-speaking Jew.^ There is no reason why James should not be able to write such idiomatic Greek. The Greek language was certainly known and spoken in Palestine and Syria, and Galilee 1 Major on James, p. ccvii. " It is written in strong, simple Greek, used with no slight rhetorical skill by one who has something of his own to say, and saj's it with perfect freedom. If a translation, it is a translation of the stamp of our authorized English Version, or of Luther's German Version, which have become the recognized standards and models of excellence in their respective languages." SPECIAL introduction: 13 was studded with Greek towns, and the neighboring town of Gadara was celebrated as an important seat of learning and literature. James evidently continually read the Greek Bible, for he quotes the O. T. according to the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew. The style of the Epistle is remarkable for its rhetoric and rhythm. The sentences are short, simple, direct, con- veying weighty thoughts in weighty words, and giving the impression of a strong and serious individuality, as well as of a poetic imagination. ^ 8. TJic Persons Addressed. James writes this letter " to the twelve tribes which are of the Dispersion," but this inscription, plain and simple as it is, has been variously interpreted. (i) Some suppose that the Epistle was addressed to Christians in general, to all believers, whether Jews or Gentiles.^ They take the expression " twelve tribes " in a figurative sense to denote the " Israel of God " (Gal. vi. 16), in contrast to " Israel after the flesh " (i Cor. x. 18). But such an opinion is inadmissible and without any sup- port in the Epistle. A literal interpretation of the ex- pression is by far the best. There is no allusion what- ever to Gentile converts, and it is highly probable that when this letter was written no Gentile Christian Churches had been regularly formed and fully organized. (2) Others maintain that the Epistle was addressed to 1 See Major, p. cxciii. James makes no attempt at elaborate periods. There are only two sentences (ii. 2-4 ; iv. 13-15) in the whole Epistle which exceed four lines, while we find sentences of ten lines in i Peter, of twelve in Hebrews, and of twenty in Ephesians. Major has counted 140 simple sentences, having no subordinate finite verb, and he finds 42 sen- tences with a single subordinate clause. Short as are the sentences. Major claims that they are better formed and more rhythmical than are to be found elsewhere in the N. T. except in i Cor. xv. 2 So De Wette, Hengstenberg, Hofmann, Hilgenfeld, LUcke, Philippi, Lange, and others. 14 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. the Jews in general, whether behevers or not.^ But the contents of the Epistle refute this opinion, for the read- ers, whoever they were, were at least regarded as Chris- tians. (3) There can be only one true conclusion — the Epistle was addressed to Jewish Christians.^ It is very clearly evident that the Epistle throughout is addressed to Jews, and that these Jews were Christians who had acknowl- edged Jesus as their Lord and Christ. They are mixed up, however, with rich Jewish unbelievers, who persecute and oppress them, keeping back the hire of their labor- ers, slaves of lust and luxury (ii. 6, "] \ v. i-6j. The be- lievers .themselves are mostly poor (ii. 5), and the faith of many is still w^eak (i. 6-8, 13 ; iv. 11 ; v. 9), they are haughty to the poor, obsequious to the rich (ii. 1-9, 15, 16), and the few rich belonging to the Church (i. 10) are in danger of falling away through covetousness, worldli- ness, and pride (iv. 3-6, 13-16). As all the congregations established by Paul, especially after the council of Jerusalem (50 A. D.), were mixed congregations, in which Gentiles, as a rule, largely pre- dominated, we must seek these Jewish Christian churches among those founded before Paul began his missionary labors. That there were many such congregations we learn from Acts ii. 9-1 1 ; iv. 36 ; ix. 2, 10, 14, 19, 25 ; xi. 19, 20, and this is confirmed by the statement made by James in 58 A. D. as recorded in Acts xxi. 20. Among the three chief divisions of the Diaspora \.\\en recognized, the Babylonian, the Syrian, and the Egyptian, we must look for these churches where the Greek language was 1 So Grotius, Theile, Credner, Hug, Wordsworth, Bassett, and others. 2 So Beyschlag, Bleek, Huther. Wiesin.ger, Schaff, Lechler, Mangold, Weiss, Davidson, Alford, Sahnon, Gloag, Phnnmer, and the majority of modern critics. SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 15 most commonly used, among the Greek Jews or Hellen- ists scattered in the Syrian Dispersion, in the countries lying nearest to Judea, in Phoenicia, Syria, and Pro- consular Asia. For all the evidence seems to point to the Syrian Diaspora as the location of these Jewish- Christian congregations. 9. TJie Date of the Epistle. With reference to the date of the Epistle we need refer but to two views. There are some who maintain that this Epistle shows an in- timate acquaintance with the writings of Paul, especially of his controversial Epistles (Gal., i and 2 Cor., Romans), and that therefore this Epistle must have been written after the year A. D. 58.^ On the other hand, we have the strongest evidence to prove that this Epistle was written before A. D. 50, and that it is the oldest of all the N. T. writings.^ We may give the following reasons for an early date : (i) It was written to churches com- posed exclusively of Jewish Christians. It was not until A. D. 44 that any number of Gentiles were admitted into the Church (Acts xi. 20, 21). The letter must have been written shortly after this time. (2) There is no allusion whatever to the great controversy concerning circum- cision and the observance of the Mosaic law. This proves that this question had not yet arisen.^ (3) The i So Hug, De Wette, Credner, Bleek, Ewald, Lange, Guericke, Wiesinger, Reuss, Farrar, Wordsworth, and others. 2 An early date is assigned to this Epistle by Theile, Neander, Thiersch, Schneckenburger, Hofmann, Erdmann, Huther, Beyschlag, Schaff, Stanley, Mangold, Weiss, Nosselt, Lechler, Alford, Plumptre, Eadie, Lumby, Salmon, Gloag, Major, and others. 8 If the letter had been written after the Council of Jerusalem (A. D. 50), James would most assuredly have referred to the decree, and urged the Jews of the Dispersion to observe the conditions laid down, for the points at issue in the controversy were of such a burning character that James, on a later visit of Paul to Jerusalem in 58 A. D., called his attention to the matter (Acts xxi. 20-25), ^nc' the furious assault of the Jews on Paul turned on this very question (Acts xxi. 27-29). l6 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. Judaic tone of the Epistle (so strongly emphasized by Luther) is in favor of an early date. So far as this con- sideration goes, we should be led to assign the Epistle to the earliest possible date after the day of Pentecost. (4) The description given of church organization and church discipline implies an early date of the Epistle. No mention is made of bishops, but only of teachers and elders (iii. i ; v. 14), which were also recognized in the Synagogue. The congregation or church (v. 14) prob- ably still worshipped in the synagogue (ii. 2), for we know from the Acts that the Christian Jew frequented the Temple and Synagogue worship and for a long time observed the Jewish ritual. We conclude then with Gloag that we have in this Epistle of James "an inspired document of primitive Christianity, allied to the simple teaching of the Master, — before the religion of Christ was developed by the doctrinal statements of Paul and the profound intuitions of John."i All are agreed that the place where James, the Lord's brother, wrote this Epistle was Jerusalem. Commen- tators love to trace the local coloring of the Epistle, for 1 1 have purposely not used as an argument, in favor of an early date, the relation which James bears to the other writings of the N. T. Major, who has made a most minute comparison of this Epistle with all the X. T. writings, has shown very clearly that James has not used the other Epistles or known of tlic-m, liat that these writings show traces of our Epistle, and he adds (p. cxxv) : "After having given many years' study to this subject, I am convinced that the more closely it is examined, the more will this hypothesis of the priority of our Epistle be found to meet all ditficulties, and explain all the facts of the case." I have also not deemed it necessary, in view of the presentation of the evidence for the genuineness of the Epistle already given, to state and refute the theories of the negative Ger- man school of critics represented by Pfleiderer, Von Soden, Schwegler Holtzmann, and others, who hold that the larger part of the N. T., including the Epistle of James, is a forgery, belonging either to the close of the first or to the middle of the second century. SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 17 all the physical notices and illustrations correspond to the environment of the author. 10, The Aim of the Epistle. The whole character of the Epistle is purely practical. James is writing in the interest of morality, and his warnings are directed not so much against errors of doctrine as against errors of life. There is no polemical design in it, for there is no direct or indirect reference to the teaching of Paul. The Epistle is pre-eminently ethical and practical. 11. The Contents of the Epistle. The contents of an Epistle can best be ascertained by a careful analysis. On account of the proverbial character of this Epistle it is not easy, however, to trace a connected train of thought. I. James i. 1-18. Of Trial. 1. Address and Greeting (i. i). 2. Endure Trials with Patience (i. 2-4). 3. Believing Prayer gains Wisdom (i. 5-8), 4. The Perishableness of Riches (i. 9-1 1). 5. The Reward of the Endurance of Trial (\. 12). 6. The Development of Sin (i. 13-15). 7. The Perfect Gift of God (i. 16-18). II. James i. 19-27. Of True Religion. 8. The Evil Results of Wrath (i. 19-21). 9. Be ye Doers of the Word (i. 22-25). 10. The Essence of True Religion (i. 26-27). III. James ii. 1-13. Of Respect of Persons. 11. Warning against Respect of Persons (ii. 1-4). 12. Fulfil the Royal Law (ii. 5-9). 13. Live by the Law of Liberty (ii. 10-13). IV. James ii. 14-26. fudgnient shall be aeeording to Works. 14. God will Render to every Man According to his Works (ii. 14-26). 1 8 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. V. James iii. 1-18. Tlie Marks of True Wisdom. 15. Warnings against the Sins of the Tongue (iii. 1-12). 16. Trueand False Wisdom Contrasted (iii. 13-18). VI. James iv. 1-17. Of Worldliness. 17. Worldliness the Cause of Strife (iv. 1-3). 18. The Unfaithful Reproved (iv. 4-10). 19. Evil Speaking (iv. 11, 12). 20. The Uncertainty of Life (iv. 13-17). VII. James V. 1-20. Dcminciations a7id ExJiortations. 21. Warnings to the Rich Jews (v. 1-6). 22. Encouragements to Patience in Suffering (v. 7-1 1). 23. Warning against Swearing (v. 12). 24. General Exhortations (v. 13-18). 25. Be Active in Saving Souls (v. 19, 20). 12. Select Literature. In addition to the Literature given on the General Epistles (pp. vii, viii) we would call attention to the following: Bassett, Catholic Epistle of St. James, 1876. Beyschlag, Brief Jacobus, pp. 239, 1888, being the fifth edition of Huther's Commentary. Johnstone, Lectures Exegetical and Practical; (2d ed)., 1889. Major, The Epistle of St. James, London, 1892. Spitta, Der Brief des Jacobus, 1896. The three best Commentaries on the Greek text of the Epistle of James are those by Major ($4,00), Beyschlag- Huther in Meyer, and Wordsworth ; the three best on the English text are by Plumptre, Scott, and Plummer. 13. The Jacobean and Pauline Viezvs of Justification Reconciled. James explicitly says : " Ye see that by works a man is justified, and not only by faith " (ii. 24). Paul just as explicitly says : " We reckon therefore that a SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 19 man is justified by faith apart from the works of tlie law " (Rom. iii. 28 ; Gal. ii. 16) ; " for by grace have ye been saved through faith ; and that not of yourselves : it is the gift of God : not of works, that no man should glory " (Eph. ii. 8, 9), (i) Some suppose that there is here a real contradiction, and a sharp antagonism between the doctrinal systems of these two writers, — that Paul teaches the Protestant doctrine of justification by faith, and James the Romish doctrine of justification by works. They maintain that James wrote for the express purpose of correcting the Pauline doctrine.^ (2) There is a second class of theologians who adopt a middle view, that there is indeed a diversity of doctrine between Paul and James, but that this does not exclude a higher unity .^ (3) A third class of theologians affirms that there is really no contradiction between James and Paul, that the difference is mainly one of expression, that one wi"iter supplements the other, and that thus we have a much fuller statement of doctrine.^ Of these some think that James wTote to correct false inferences drawn from the Pauline ; doctrine others maintain that the Epistle was written without any reference, either direct or indirect, to Paul's teaching ; while still others maintain that Paul wrote with reference to the presentation of James. 1 Luther, as is well known, was of the opinion that the doctrine of James was opposed to that of Paul. (See E\.ciirsns\\.) In recent times much stress has been laid on this seeming contradiction by a certain line of critics like De Wette, Baur, Schwegler, Holtzmann, Hilgenfeld, and their school. 2 So Schmid, Lechler, Woldemar Schmidt, Kern, Weizssecker, Delitzsch (on Heb. xi. 31), and others. 8 So in substance Calvin, John Gerhard, Calovius, and in recent times Neander, Thiersch, Hofmann, Wiesinger, Hengstenberg, Lange, Philippi, Bleek, Huther, Beyschlag, Guericke, Schaff, Gloag, Alford, Plumptre, Light- foot, Scott, Salmon, Farrar, Major, and most modern commentators. 20 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. Upon three lines of thought the attempt has been made to reconcile these statements of James and Paul: (c^) It ^ has been held that the "works" of which James speaks are different from the " works " of which Paul speaks, — that James speaks of the zvorks of faith done in obedience to the moral law, the works of believers in a state of grace, while Paul speaks of the ceremonial zvorks of the lazv, of the works of the unregenerate, of legal works done with- out faith. It is undoubtedly true that there is such a difference in their use of the term zvorks, but this does not solve the difficulty. Paul is very explicit, — works, whether legal or evangelical, have nothing whatever to do with the justification of which he speaks, and zvorks of faith do not precede, but foUozv justification. Nor does James anywhere say that by zvorks, or by zvorks of fait Ji, a man is justified, in the sense in which Paul uses the word.^ ' (/;) It has been maintained that the word " faith " is used , in different senses by James and by Paul, — that James in his discussion (ii. 14-26) speaks of a speculative, dead faith, a mere lifeless profession of orthodoxy, consisting of mere intellectual knowledge and mental assent, while Paul speaks of a genuine, true, and active faith. This is the solution given by most modern theologians. All this, in a certain sense, is true, but this does not solve the problem. Many who take this position do not rightly apprehend Paul's doctrine of justification by faith.^ 1 Theophylact, GEcumenius, Bede, among the earlier, and Knapp, Gebser, and others among the modern writers, have tried to solve the problem in this way. 2 We mav take Gloag as a fair representative : " There are two distinct parts in the doctrine of Justification : the one, that a man is justified by faith in the merits of Christ, and the other, that the faith which justifies must be active. Paul dwells chiefly on the first part, and James on the second ; so that, instead of a contradiction in their views, there is a develop- ment of the truth " (Iiitrocf. pp. 78, 79I But the statement "the faith which justifies must be active " can in no possible way be made to agree with the SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 21 it) Others take the position that the word " justification " is used in different senses by the two writers, — that James speaks of a justification by works in the sight of vian, while in a state of justification ; Paul, on the other hand, speaks of the act of justification by faith in tlic sight of God} But this interpretation, though it seems to solve the difficulty, is, after all, not satisfactory, for the word " to justify " is never used in this sense. The justifica- tion of which James speaks is a justification in the sight of God, as well as the justification of which Paul speaks. We believe a careful and exact exegesis of James ii. 14- 26, in connection with its context, will afford a better solution.^ The true solution lies in this : (i) The Epistle was written by James before 50 A. D., at least prior to any book of the N. T., and prior to the writings of Paul. (2) There is no reference whatever, either directly or indirectly, in the argument of James, to the Pauline argu- ment. The two lines of argument as presented by the two writers, being aimed at totally different errors, neither cross nor touch each other. (3) In ii. 14-26 James warns those who, having been regenerated and justified (i. 18, 21, 25 ; ii. i), are now Pauline teaching. Every question of works is altogether excluded from the Pauline doctrine of Justification before God. The question with him is not whether faith is living or active, but whether it is a faith that rightly apprehends and appropriates the merits of Christ Jesus. ^ So in substance already Calvin, Calovius, John Gerhard, and in recent times, Hofmann, Lange, Philippi, and others. 2 Hengstenberg rightly maintains that "to justify " has with James and Paul the same meaning, but when he speaks of different stages of Justi- fication, and suggests that Paul speaks of the beginning of Justification, which is by faith only, and James of a more perfect Justification, he is simply adopting the Romish idea of Justification and confounding it with sanctification. 22 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. leading a mere lifeless profession of orthodoxy, irrespec- tive of moral conduct,without compassionate love (ii. 8, i6), that such an idle, barren faith (ii. 20) is dead (ii. 26), yes, dead in itself (ii. 17), utterly without avail in the sight of God, at the time that men shall be judged by the Gospel, (ii. 12), for then " judgment is without mercy to him that hath shewed no mercy" (ii. 13). James is but enforcing the same truths, taught so forcibly by Christ Himself, " By their fruits ye shall know them. Not every one that saith unto Me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven ; but he that doeth the will of My Father which is in heaven" (Matt. vii. 20, 21) ; " I say unto you, that every idle word that men shall speak, they shall give account thereof in the day of judgment. For by thy words tJion sJialt be justified, and by thy words thou shalt be condemned " (Matt. xii. 36, 37). (4) James uses the word justify in the same sense as Paul, to declare righteous in the sight of God, but he is not speaking, as Paul does, of the justification that takes place at the time when by faith we appropriate the merits of Christ, and receive the forgiveness of our sins, — but of that justification of which Christ also speaks in Matt. xii. 37, which takes place in the day of judgment, at the time when the final salvation (ii. 14) shall be awarded to the believer (ii. 12). In one sense this takes place at the par- ticular judgment which overtakes every individual at death ; in another sense it occurs at the final judgment at the last day, for this latter is but the grand and final com- pletion of a process begun in the case of each individual here on earth, and definitely determined at the moment of death. ^ 1 For the details of exegesis see notes on James ii. 14-26. Huther, Scott, and Major, in general, take the same position. ScoTT : "The subject of St. James is not so much Justification (according to scientific theological termin- THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. CHAPTER I. I. Address and Greeting. I. James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, to the twelve tribes which are of the Dispersion, greeting, I . James. The writer of the Epistle is James, a younger brother of our Lord, not one of the twelve (John vii. 5), who became a believer after our Lord's resurrection (i Cor. XV. 7; Acts i. 14), and who was at the head of the church at Jerusalem until his martyrdom in 62 A. D. A servant. Greek bondservant. One bought with a price (i Cor. vi. 20; vii. 23), bound for life, who must be continually engaged in the service of his Master. Observe ology), as it is Judgment by works ; including, however, in that expression the continuous Judgment which is always accompanying the course of human action, — the current record of the Book out of which mankind will be judged at the last day." Huther : "Paul denotes by the word to justify that declaration of righteousness or acquittal by God, by which the believer is placed in a new filial relation to God ; whilst James means that declara- tion of righteousness or acquittal by God, by which he who is born again as a child of God receives tlie salvation imparted at tlic Judgment. Justifica- tion (so called by Paul) is conditioned on the part of man only by faitli ; the future salvation, however, will only be adjudged to him in whom faith has proved itself to be a working principle. Paul also makes the attain- ment of salvation, or the future inheritance of the Kingdom of God, con- ditioned on the TOorfeof the Justified (Rom. viii. 4,13; xiii. 8-10 ; i Cor. vi. 7-11, 13 ; Gal. v. 6, 19-21 ; 2 Cor. v. 10 : Gal. v. 25." 23 24 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [i. i. the writer's great humility; he might have described himself as " the Lord's brother." Of God and of the Lord. The co-ordinate mention of God the P^ather and the Lord Jesus Christ implies their co-equal dignity. Jesus. The same as Saviour, the personal name by which our Lord was known among men (Matt. i. 21, 25). Christ. The Greek for Anointed, the official designation ascribed to our Lord, the same as the Hebrew Messiah (John i. 41). To the twelve tribes. The address is general, to the twelve tribes.-^ The letter was addressed to the Jewish believers residing among the dispersed tribes of Lsrael. (See Introd. pp. 13-15,) Which are of the Dispersion. At Christ's time " the Dispersion " was a technical term for the Hellenistic and other Jews who were scattered within and beyond the limits of the Roman Empire, out- side of Palestine. It is highly probable that James wrote more especially to the Syrian Dispersion. Many of these Christian Jews were scattered abroad by the persecution which arose against the Church at the time of the death of Stephen (Acts viii. i ; xi. 19). Greeting. Greek, ivisJictJi joy. A Greek form of salutation, found also in the letter of Lysias to Felix (Acts xxiii. 26), and in the Apostolic decree (Acts xv. 23). There is no announce- ment of grace and peace (the addition of mercy being peculiar to i and 2 Timothy), and in this respect this Epistle stands alone. 1 Plumptre : " The superscription is interesting as showing that tlie ten tribes of the kingdom of Israel, though they had been carried into a more distant exile than Judah and Benjamin, were thought of, not as lost and out of sight, but as still sharing the faith and hope of their fathers. . . . The legend as to the disappearance of the Ten Tribes, which has given rise to so many insane dreams as to their identification with the Red Indians of America, or our Anglo-Saxon forefathers, appears for the first time in the Apocryphal 2 Esdras (xiii. 39-47)." 2, 3-] CHAPTER I. 2. Endure Trials with Patience. 25 2-4. Count it all joy, my brethren, when ye fall into manifold tempta- tions ; knowing that the proof of your faith worketh patience. And let pa- tience have its perfect work, that ye may be perfect and entire, lacking in nothing. 2. Count it all joy. That is, entire, pure, unmixed joy (Phil. ii. 29). Every trial should be regarded as a ground for joy, unmixed with sorrow. In the same measure as believers grow in peace they grow also in Christian joy. Peace is the inward testimony that we have by faith found grace and salvation in Christ. Joy denotes not only that we have found peace, but also that we are living and moving in the new, blessed fulness of life in God. fly brethren. Also in ii. i, 14; iii. i, 10, 12; v. 12, 19; "brethren" alone, in iv. 11 ; v. 7, 9, 10; "my beloved brethren," i. 16, 19; ii. 5. This address shows fellowship in nationality and of faith with his readers. When ye fall into manifold temptations. Or trials ; here used of out- ward trials as in i Pet. i. 6, of afflictions of all kinds, in- cluding persecutions, oppression, and adversity. The inner trial, or temptation proper, arising from one's own lust, is referred to in i. 13, 14. 3. Knowing. A hint that they ought to know. That the proof of your faith. The same expression is found in I Pet. i. 7. Trial tests faith, and the testing of faith produces the grace of endurance. James, just as Paul, regards faith the very foundation of the Christian life (i. 6; ii. I, 5 ; V, 15). Faith is here used subjectively, in the sense of assured confidence in the Gospel, whose con- tents are Jesus Christ. Faith is the mother of all virtues, the root from which they spring. Worly it, and enticed. The thought is almost the same. When he is drawn away by his own lust. This evil lust does not, however, ex- clude the presence of an external tempter, who brings the temptation home and directs it ; but unless there was in 32 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [i. 15. each man *' his own lust," the external tempter would have no power. When lust awakes, there is formed a fancy picture which presents itself to lust with a mighty incitement and allurement. If man is able to put to flight this fancy picture, he conquers in the temptation, and the voice of truth is again distinctly heard within. The great danger lies in retaining this picture in the soul, for there lust gains inner strength and increases to passion. And enticed. The first effect of lust is to draxv azvay the man from his own true self, and the second to allure him to a definite bait. We have an example of this entice- ment, and the steps leading to it, in the history of the Fall of Eve (Gen. iii. 6; i John ii. 16). Her lust, her delight in beholding, ended with the sinful action. 15. Then the lust, when it hath conceived. In eveiy temptation there is great danger in dallying ; with each moment passion rises, and when lust increases to passion, " lust conceives," in that it becomes the fertiliz- ing, impelling, and compelling motive for the choosing and deciding will. Then sin is born, for lust beareth sin. With the inner decision sin is already born, for the man has now made his choice. Yet sin is finished only ^hcn by means of execution it becomes an action. And the sin, when it is fullgrown, bringeth forth death. It brings spiritual, bodily, and eternal death — inner and outer misery, a witness of the deceitfulness of sin (Heb. iii. 13 ; Eph. iv. 22). The thought of this verse is also illustrated by Rom. vi. 21-23; viii. 6; Matt. vii. 13, 14. English Commentators call attention to the marvellous allegory of Sin and Death in Milton's Paradise Lost (Book II. 745- 814), elaborated from this passage of James. 7. The Perfect Gifts of God. 16-18. Be not deceived, my beloved brethren. Every good gift and every perfect boon is from above, coming down from the Father of Hglits, with I. i6, 17.] CHAPTER I. 33 whom can be no variation, neither shadow that is cast by turning. Of his own will he brought us forth by the word of truth, that we should be a kind of firstfruits of his creatures. 16. Be not deceived, my beloved brethren. This is a link between verses 15 and 17, and partly refers to what precedes, but especially to what follows. The same phrase is found in 1 Cor. vi. 9; xv. 33 ; Gal. vi. 7. 17. Every good gift and every perfect boon. The whole clause is an hexameter line, and may be a quota- tion from an Hellenistic hymn. Other examples of verse quotations in the N. T. are found in Tit. i. 12 ; i Cor. xv. 33 ; Acts xvii. 28 ; possibly also in John iv. 35 ; Heb. xii. 13 ; I Tim. iii. 16. Some commentators draw a distinc- tion between^/// ox giving 2.\\6. boon, as if the former re- ferred to temporal gifts and the latter to spiritual gifts, but this is unnecessary. Only good gifts come from God, and all good gifts come only from God. Is from above. That is, from heaven. Coming down from the Father of lights. This explains " is from above." Bengel : "The title of Father is here peculiarly appropriate, as ' He brought us forth ' follows in the next verse. He stands to us in the place both of father and mother. Besides, He is the Father of lights in the kingdom of grace and glory ; and therefore much more is He the Light itself (i John i. 5). God is the Father of all lights, the lights of nature as well as of grace." With whom can be no variation. The meaning of the Greek is, there is no room for variation, negativing not only the fact but also the posibility of variation. (See Lightfoot on Gal. iii. 28.) The light of the heavenly bodies (sun, moon) is con- stantly changing, but with God, the Father of the lights, there is no change or variation, for God is incapable of change in His own nature. Neither shadow that is cast by turning. Nor shadow (in consequence) of cJiange. 3 34 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [i. i8. God's light outshines all, it cannot be obscured by any- thing ; no changes in this lower world can cast a shadow on the unchanging Fount of light, for God is incapable of being changed by the action of others {shadozu). (See Mai. iii. 6; Heb. xiii. 8.) 1 8. Of his own will. So far from God tempting us to evil, His zvill is the cause of our regeneration (Eph. i. 5 ; John i. 13). It was an act of His goodness and mercy (i Pet. i. 3 ; Tit. iii. 5). He brought us forth. The verb itself shows that the discourse is of the new birth, and not of the natural birth. By the word of truth. The Gospel is called the word of t rut Ji, because " truth in its entire reality is inherent in it " (Harless on Eph. i. 13). James says that the new birth takes place by means of the preached word, and so does Peter (i Pet. i. 23). James is writing to adults, who had been regen- erated to faith by the preaching of the Word, and who through that Word received the Holy Spirit that they might believe on Christ and be baptized into His name (ii. 7). And to this day unbaptized adults must first be regenerated to faith before they can be baptized. For it is certainly wrong to say that we are regenerated by faith. We are regenerated by the Holy Spirit to faith. It is the creative energy of God in us which produces faith. This new thing in us, the new birth in its strict sense, is the gracious presence of God the Holy Spirit in us. Peter, however, defines the " word of truth " more freely as '* the w^ord of good tidings which was preached " (i Pet. i. 25), and this word points also to baptism as a means of regen- eration (Acts ii. 38 ; John iii. 5 ; Tit. iii. 5). There is no conflict here. Baptism is nowhere regarded, either by James, Peter, or Paul, as an external or symbolical act, attesting simply to the fact of a regeneration which had already taken place. Paul especially lays stress on the I. 19.] CHAPTER I. 35 fact that the Hving fellowship with Christ begins in bap- tism, when the Spirit of God is communicated to us, and we put on Christ (Rom. vi. 3-5 ; Gal. iii. 27). Before his baptism the believer has no assurance of his justification (Acts xxii. 16; Eph. v. 56; Acts ii. 38), nor of the fact tliat the principle of the new life has been implanted in him. That we should be a kind of firstfruits. This ex- presses the aim of the new birth. Lev. xxiii. 10 and Deut. xxvi. 2 shed light on this passage. The offering of the " firstfruits " was a symbol of the consecration of the whole. HUTHER: " They are a kind of a firstfruits of God's creatures, because they, as being born of God, are dedicated to God first among all His creatures." These firstfruits are a pledge of a fuller harvest. Of his creatures. The whole creation, groaning and travailing in pain tc^ ?r until now, will finally partake in the blessings of redemption and be delivered from the bond- age of corruption (Rom. viii. 19-22). 8. The Evil Results of Wrath. 19-21. Ye know this, my beloved brethren. But let every man be swift to hear, slow to speak, slow to wrath : for the wrath of man worketh not the righteousness of God. Wherefore putting away all filthiness and over- flowing of wickedness receive with meekness the implanted word, which is able to save your souls. 19. Ye know this, my beloved brethren. Or, knozv ye, on the ground of their new birth, possessing *' the firstfruits of the Spirit " (Rom. viii. 23), James now presses upon his converts three things in particular. But let every man be swift to hear, slow to speak, slow to wrath. A general admonition applicable to all Christians, especially to those beginning the Christian life. Alford : " Be eager to listen, not eager to discourse ; the former may lead to implanting or strengthening the new life, the 36 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [i. 20, 21. latter to wrath and suddenness of temper, so often found in the wake of swift rejoinder and ready chat- tering." 20. For the wrath of man worketh not the righteous= ness of God. That is, righteousness in the sight of God, that which is right before God, The idea of righteous- ness wrought by God is here altogether unsuitable. 21. Wherefore putting away all filthiness and over- flowing of wickedness {jiialicc). In order that the growth of the heavenly seed of the Word may not be choked in our hearts, let us put off, like clothes, these filthy garments. Two classes of sins are referred to, the sensual and the malignant. The first class is opposed to holiness, consisting of sins against one's own personality (i Cor. vi. 18) ; the second to righteousness (2 Cor. vii. i), consisting of sins against one's neighbor. Receive with meekness the implanted {inborii) word. This implanted, rooted woxdi, whose property it is to root itself like a seed in the heart, is tlic ivord of trutJi through which we have been regenerated. Compare the parable of the Sower (^Matt. xiii. 3-23; also Matt. xv. 13; i Cor. iii. 6). It is the Gospel, which is able to save your souls, '' for it is the power of God unto salvation to every one that be- lieveth" (Rom. i; 16). The new birth from God is a creative act, and its immediate result affects the spiritual life of the whole man, inasmuch as he is thereby made partaker of a new vital energy, which is able to guide the ethical tendency of his nature in conformity with the will of God, because it is of God. We may draw this dis- tinction between regeneration and conversion, that re- generation as a divine act is accomplished in the spirit of man, the %vord is implanted, — while in conversion, that which takes place is accomplished in the mind of man, as a conscious, individual, and personal tendency of the I. 22-24.] CHAPTER I. 37 will. When the word of God, as Law and Gospel, makes the right impression on a human soul, a twofold effect will also be produced, namely, repentance and faith. 9. Be Ye Doers of the Word. 2:2-25. But be ye doers of the word, and not hearers only, deluding your own selves. For if any one is a hearer of the word, and not a doer, he is like unto a man beholding his natural face in a mirror : for he beholdeth himself, and goeth away, and straightway forgetteth what manner of man he was. But he that looketh into the perfect law, the law of liberty, and so continueth, being not a hearer that forgetteth, but a doer, that worketh, this man shall be blessed in his doing. 22. But be ye doers of the word. Of that word which is preached unto you, " the word of truth" (i. 18), " for we are his workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good works" (Eph. ii. 10). (See also Matt. vii. 24; John xiii. 17 ; I John ii. 6.) And not hearers only, deluding your own selves. The hearer deceives and ensnares himself when he infers that the mere hearing of the word by his outward ear will suflfice for him. 23. For if any one is a hearer of the word, and not a doer, he is like unto a man beholding his natural face (Greek, the face of his birth) in a mirror. The mirrors in use at this period were of polished metal, and as these presented very imperfect images, it was ea.sy to forget how one looked. 24. For he beholdeth himself, and goeth away, and straightway forgetteth what manner of man he was. So those who are only hearers of the word, soon forget how Scripture presents to each one the pictureof his own soul. Major: "The point of comparison here is that the Word will show us what needs to be cleansed and amended in our lives, as the mirror in regard to our bodies. It shows us what we actually are, in contrast with what our deceitful heart paints us (i. 26) ; it shows us also j8 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [1.25,26. what is the true ideal of humanity which we are called upon to realize in our lives." 25. But he that looketh into the perfect law, the laiv of liberty. That which James here calls " the perfect law of liberty " is nothing else than tlic zuord of truth (i. 18), the Gospel, by which Christians are regenerated. He calls this word of truth a law, not in the sense in which the word law is generally used, as a requirement made to man from without, but in the same sense as Paul speaks of the law of Christ " (Gal. vi. 2), " the law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus " (Rom. viii. 2), " a law of faith " (Rom. iii. 27), — as a rule or principle. He calls it the perfect law, probably on account of the saying of Christ recorded in Matt. v. 17, because it completes and realizes perfectly the object and meaning of the Mosaic law (Rom. iii. 31); and the law of liberty, probably because of Christ's saying recorded by John (viii. 32, 34), " the truth shall make you free," and " if the Son shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed." (See also Gal. v. i ; 2 Cor. iii. 17.) And so continueth, being not a hearer that forgetteth, but a doer that worketh, this man shall be blessed in his doing. He who appropriates the Gos- pel and continues in a life of obedience finds peace and blessedness in this life and in the world to come. On blessedfiess see i. 12. 10. The Essence of True Religion. 26, 27. If any man thinketh himself to be religious, while he bridleth not his tongue but deceiveth his heart, this man's religion is vain. Pure re- ligion and undetiled before our God and Father is this, to visit the father- less and widows in their affliction, and to keep himself unspotted from the world. 26. If any man thinketh himself to be religious. If he seemeth to be or imagines that he is truly serving God. The word religious here refers to external worship. While I. 27-1 CHAPTER I. 35 he bridleth not his tongue but deceiveth his heart. This external worship consisted in much-talking, in not bridling the tongue. To some zeal in talking about re- ligion is a sign of true religion. But such a one deceives himself, for there is no reality in his religion (Matt. xv. 1 8), — this man's religion is vain. 27. Pure religion and undefiled. Religion is here de- fined more particularly by two adjectives, the one pos- itive and the other negative. Perhaps we may with Bengel distinguish between the two, — " proceeding from pure love (internal), and removed from worldly dcfilcnient (external)." Before our God and Father. That is, in the sight of God who is our Father. Is this, to visit. That is, to care for, to look after and provide for. The fatherless and widows in their affliction. This had a special meaning to the Jewish Christians, for there was a special curse of God upon those who afBicted the father- less and widow (Deut, xxvii. 19). (See also Ps. Ixviii. 5.) And to keep himself unspotted from the world. Chris- tians must live in the world, but are not to be of the world (John xv. 19). They must preserve themselves from its contaminating influence. James without giving an exhaustive description of true religion lays stress upon two characteristic marks: (i) a manifestation of compas- sionate love, and (2) purity of life. CHAPTER 11. II. Warning against Respect of Persons. 1-4. My brethren, hold not the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Lord of glory, with respect of persons. For if there come into j'our synagogue a man with a gold ring, in fine clothing, and there come in also a poor man in vile clothing ; and ye have regard to him that weareth the fine clothing, and say. Sit thou here in a good place ; and ye say to the poor man. Stand thou there, or sit under my footstool ; are ye not divided in your own mind, and become judges with evil thoughts ? I. My brethren. (Sec i. 2.) Specially suitable here, where he is urging them to brotherly kindness. Hold not the faith. Margin of R.V., do ye, in accepting persons hold the faith . . . glory? It is simpler and more nat- ural to regard the sentence as in the imperative. Of our Lord Jesus Christ. That is the faith in our Lord (Acts iii. 6; Gal. ii. 16; Rom. iii. 23). See notes on i. i and i. 3. The Lord of glory. The order of the words in the Greek is remarkable. Some would interpret "the Christ of glory " (Lange), others, "our Lord of glory, Jesus Christ," referring to i Cor. ii. 8 (De Wette, Wie- singer), and still others, " of our glorious Lord Jesus Christ " (most modern commentators). But Bengel gives a perfectly natural and easy construction : " Glory is put in apposition with Lord, so that Christ Himself is called the Glory. Thus James both declares him to be the son of God (Lord), and publishes His resurrection from the dead {Glory). Christ is the Glory ; and there- fore faith in Him is glorious, and the faithful are glori- ous." Major and Bassett accept the same construction. Major would translate, "the faith of our Lord Jesus 40 11. 2, 3] CHAPTER 11. 41 Christ, who is the glory," and cites 2 Pet. i. 17; Col. i. 27; Rom. ix. 4; John xvii. 22 ; i. 14; Heb. i. 3, and refers to the similar construction in i Tim. 1. i, where all agree in translating, " Christ Jesus, who is our hope." With respect of persons. Here James refers to one form of the transgression of the spirit of true religion. In spirit- ual matters, no partiality is to be shown on account of worldly distinctions, whether at the administration of the Lord's Supper (i Cor. xi. 21), or in reproving sin (i Tim. V. 21), or in seating believers in Christian assem- blies for public worship, as Jure. 2. For if there come into your synagogue {assembly). For the first thirty years of the Christian Church there was a close connection between the Church and the Synagogue. It is plain that this meeting-place was open to all, Jews and Christians, but it is assumed that it was mainly under Christian direction. A man with a gold ring. The wearing of rings was customary among the Jews (Luke xv. 22), and is still so. For men to wear rings, especially ear-rings, is now regarded as a sign of effeminacy. In fine clothing. Orientals love to array themselves in gorgeous clothing. In the Early Church Christians were warned against fine clothing and the wearing of rings {Const. Apost. I. 3). And there come in also a poor man in vile clothing. We need not decide whether these two men are Christians or not. In each case we must suppose the man is a stranger, and each has his place assigned to him simply on the ground of the appearance of his clothing, whether it is " fine " or " shabby." 3. And ye have regard to him that weareth the fine clothing, and say, Sit thou here in a good place ; and ye say to the poor man, Stand thou there, or sit under my footstool. That is, sit on the floor, below or close to my 42 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [H- 4- 5- footstool. It is difficult to see how, in the face of these plain words of James, the system of renting pews can be defended or continued, as long as the free seats for the poor and strangers are placed in the least desirable part of the church. The inequalities of rank and station are sufficiently acknowledged in the distinctions of common life, without emphasizing it in the house of God. Stran- gers entering a place of worship should be provided with the most desirable seats. 4. Are ye not divided in your own mind? If we translate this difficult passage so, the thought is, you have not a single eye, you are double-minded (i. 8), you are influenced by worldly considerations, and look to the world, and not to Christ only ; you have fallen into a con- tradiction with your faith (ii. i). A more natural trans- lation is the one given in the margin of the R. V., Do yc not make distinctions among yonr selves? And become judges with evil thoughts. That is, judges biased by evil and unfair reasoning. James calls them judges, be- cause in their conduct they expressed their judgment. 12. Fulfil the Royal Law. 5-91 Hearken, my beloved brethren ; did not God choose~them that arc poor as to the world to be rich in faith, and heirs of the kingdom which he promised to them that love him ? But ye have dishonoured the poor man. Do not the rich oppress you, and themselves drag you before the judgment- seats ? Do not they blaspheme the honourable name by the which ye are called ? Howbeit if ye fulfil the royal law, according to the scripture, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself, ye do well : but if ye have respect of persons, ye commit sin, being convicted by the law as transgressors. 5. Hearken, my beloved brethren. (See notes on i. 2 ; ii. I.) Did not God choose them that are poor as to the world to be rich in faith ? Paul speaks in the same strain in that remarkable passage in i Cor. i. 27-29. The sphere within which this riches is imparted is in faith, so II. 6-8.] CHAPTER II. 43 far as they believe, and the riches itself consists in being "heirs of the kingdom." (Compare Luke vi. 20; xii. 31, 32.) And heirs of the kingdom, James is here speak- ing of the future kingdom of glory. Paul gives great prominence to the thought that believers are heirs, " if children, then heirs ; heirs of God, and joint-heirs with Christ " (Rom. viii. 17). Which he promised to them that love him. (See notes on i. 12.) 6. But ye have dishonoured the poor man. Instead of showing love and respect, causing him to forget his earthly surroundings, you have openly put him to shame. Do not the rich oppress you, and themselves drag you before the judgment=seats ? You certainly have no rea- son for showing such obsequious favor to the rich ; they are the very persons who are persecuting you because you are Christians. ^h.^sQ judgment-scats were evidently the Jewish tribunals, certainly not Christian courts of justice. 7. Do not they blaspheme. These blasphemers are unbelieving Jews, as in Acts xiii. 45. The honourable name by the which ye are called, or zvhich tvas called upon you. The question is whether the reference is to the name Christian, which was apparently in use at An- tioch before 45 A. D. (Acts xi. 26), and used afterwards by Agrippa (Acts xxvi. 28), and by Peter (i Pet. iv. 16), or whether it is the name of Christ which was invoked over each individual believer at the time of his baptism (Acts ii. 38). The reference to baptism seems to be the better explanation. 8. Howbeit if ye fulfil the royal law, according to the scripture, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. James had in mind not only Lev. xix. 18, but also the words of Christ recorded by the three Synoptists (Matt, xxii. 39; Mark xii. 31; Luke x. 27). Love to one's 44 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [n. 9. neighbor is called the royal law, because all other laws are contained in it, and love is the very essence of the Gospel. Paul says, " he that loveth his neighbor hath fylfiUed the law " (Rom. xiii. 8 ; Gal. v. 14), because if he has this love, no law is necessary; if he has it not, no law is sufficient, for this free impulse of love to one's neigh- bor is the fruit of the love of God shed abroad in our hearts through the Holy Ghost (Rom. v. 5). Ye do well. Well and good ; but this you can never do, as long as you respect persons. 9. But if ye have respect of persons, ye commit sin, being convicted by the law as transgressors. We need not here decide whether by tJie laiv James meant " the royal law " just mentioned, or the moral law in general, which latter, however, is most likely. The Word is the power of God unto salvation (Rom. i. 16; James i. 21), and in this Word we must abide (John viii. 31 ; xv, 7). In its twofold form as Law and Gospel, it has the power of convicting men of their sins, by working repentance and faith. There is a threefold use of the law: (i) Po- litical, to keep order in society ; (2) pedagogic, to awaken the conviction of sin, to alarm the conscience, and thus to become a schoolmaster to bring men to Christ ; and (3) didactic, to enlighten the regenerate. Through justi- fying faith the regenerate enters upon a new relation to God and to the law, and he becomes a partaker of a new life. This new life in Christ has become in us the principle of liberty, and Ave live our life after the impulse of the Spirit (Rom. viii. 14). This ideal life, however, only be- comes approximately realized. We are God's children only so that we likewise are to become such. No one at- tains to a perfectly harmonious life of liberty this side of the grave. A Christian, therefore, all his life, will need what is known as the didactic use of the law. n. 10-12.] CHAPTER II. 4^ 13. Live by the Law of Liberty. 10-13. For whosoever shall keep the whole law, and yet stumble in one foint, he is become guilty of all. For he that said, Do not commit adultery, said also, Do not kill. Now if thou dost not commit adultery, but killest, thou art become a transgressor of the law. So speak ye, and so do, as men that are to be judged by a law of liberty. For judgement is without mercy to him that hath shewed no mercy: mercy glorieth against judgement 10. For whosoever shall keep the whole law, and yet stumble in one point, he has become guilty of all. James seems to have in mind one who thinks himself to be religious (i. 26), and assumes that he is keeping the whole law. This verse contains a general statement, con- firming the thought that respect of persons, though it appears only as a transgression of the law of love, in- cludes the transgression of the whole law. This agrees with what Paul teaches, " whatsoever is not of faith is sin " (Rom. xiv. 23). 11. For he that said, Do not commit adultery, said also. Do not kill. Now if thou dost not commit adultery, but killest, thou art become a transgressor of the law. The spiritual nature and the unity of the law is more fully illustrated in this verse. There is only one Law- giver (iv. 12), and those who violate His will in one point violate His whole will. The order of the commandments here, as in Luke xviii. 20 ; Rom. xiii. 9, follows an ancient tradition, as old as the Septuagint, and shows how extensive the use of the Greek Bible was in the days of Christ. 12. So speak ye, and so do, as men that are to be judged. James sums up his exhortations. You have been regenerated (i. 18); the implanted Word (i. 2i)work- eth in you that faith (i. 3) which gives freedom to Christ (see notes on i. 25) ; you are now living under the Gospel, enjoying the glorious liberty of the children of God, and your responsibility is therefore so much the greater; 46 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [ii. 13, your ideal life is now higher than when under the law, and the judgment will be the more severe, for now you will be judged by a law of liberty, according to the priv- ileges you have enjoyed under the Gospel. 13. For judgement is without mercy to him that hath shewed no mercy. What a terrible warning to selfish, parsimonious, and worldly-minded professing Christians ! The failure to show mercy or consideration for others forbids us to expect mercy ourselves at the time of judg- ment. This is one aspect of the great law of divine retri- bution. This is simply a reproduction of Christ's plain teaching (Matt, vii, i ; v. 7 ; vi. 14). See also the parable of the Unmerciful Servant (Matt, xviii. 21-35) ^^^^1 the description of the Final Judgment (Matt. xxv. 41-46). flercy glorieth against judgement. That is, mercy tri- umphs over judgment. The principle laid down here is to supply the rule for the believer's daily life. He who shows mercy, who gives evidence of compassionate love (ii. 1-9), and shows his faith by his works (ii. 14-26) has the joyful confidence that he will be justified in the day of judgment (ii. 24), for mercy will triumph over the threatening power of judgment. James continually sup- ports his warnings by an appeal to the final judgment (v. 9, 12). He takes certain great truths for granted — the more responsibility one takes upon himself, so much heavier a judgment has one to expect (iii. i) ; the advent of the Messianic Judge of the world is near (v. 3, 7, 9) ; the miseries which will then befall the ungodly are already in the act of coming upon them (v. i) ; the day of their destruction is imminent (v. 5) ; the judgment shall consume the flesh of the godless as fire (v. 3), and over- take the soul of the unbeliever with eternal death (v. 20). All this is in perfect harmony with the teaching of the N. T. The statement of James that Christians are to be 11. 14-26.] CHAPTER 11. 47 judged "as men that are to be judged by a law of lib- erty " (ii. 12) reminds us very forcibly of the saying of Christ, " The word that I spake, the same shall judge them in the last day " (John xii. 48). 14. The Great Law of Retribution, Stated in II. 13, Illustrated. — At the Day of Judg- ment God will Render to every Man ac- cording TO HIS Works. — Faith apart from Works is Dead. 14-26. What doth it profit, my brethren, if a man say he hath faith, but have not works ? can that faith save him ? If a brother or sister be naked, and in lack of daily food, and one of you say unto them, Go in peace, be ye warmed and filled ; and yet ye give them not the things needful to the body ; what doth it profit ? Even so faith, if it have not works, is dead in itself. Yea, a man will say. Thou hast faith, and I have works : shew me thy faith apart from thy works, and I by my works will shew thee my faith. Thou believest that God is one ; thou doest well : the devils also believe, and shudder. But wilt thou know, O vain man, that faith apart from works is barren ? Was not Abraham our father justified bj' works, in that he offered up Isaac his son upon the altar ? Thou seest that faith wrought with his works, and by works was faith made perfect, and the scripture was fulfilled which saith, And Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned unto him for righteousness ; and he was called the friend of God. Ye see that by works a man is justified, and not only by faith. And in like manner was not also Rahab the harlot justified by works, in that she received the messengers, and sent them out another way ? For as the body apart from the spirit is dead, even so faith apart from works is dead. Although it is difificult to make a logical analysis of the whole Epistle, on account of its proverbial character, nevertheless we can readily trace a progress in the argu- ment. Christians are to be doers of the Word (i. 22 ; ii. 12), not hearers only (i. 21, 22, 25) ; he who assumes that he is religious, while he bridleth not his tongue (i. 26), deceiveth his own heart, for such a man's religion is vain ; pure religion has its distinctive marks (i. 27), and the faith that shows respect of persons (ii. i, 9) is not 48 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [ii. 14-18. that faith which triumphs and saves in the day of judg- ment (ii. 13), for then "judgment is without mercy to him that hath shewed no mercy." James now proceeds to illustrate this great law of retribution, and to discuss more fully the nature of such a lifeless profession of faith. 14. What doth it profit, my brethren, if a man say he hath faith. If he thinketh himself to be religious. But have no works. Who shows no mercy (ii. 13), who has respect of persons (ii. 9), who does not manifest com- passionate love (ii. 8), who does not keep himself un- spotted from the world (i. 27), who bridleth not his tongue (i. 26). Can that faith save him ? Can such a professed faith save him at the day of judgment, when "judgment is without mercy to him that hath shewed no mercy " (ii. 13)? 15, 16. If a brother or sister be naked, and in lack of daily food, and one of you say unto them. Go in peace, be ye warmed and filled ; and yet ye give them not the things needful to the body ; what doth it profit ? We have here a concrete illustration of the abstract principle stated in verse 14. John makes the same application (i John iii. 17). 17, Even so faith, if it have not works, is dead in itself. We have here the application of the preceding verses. James asserts that such professed faith, spoken of in verse 14, is imvardly dead, it has no life. 18. Yea, a man {But some one) will say, Thou hast faith, and I have works. James has not only shown that such professed faith is of no value, dead in itself, but he goes on to say that its existence is incapable of proof. He supports his foregoing argument by introducing, as it were, a friendly speaker. Shew me thy faith apart from tJiy works, and I by my works will shew thee my faith. II. 19-] CHAPTER JI. 49 Prove the existence of your faith, if you can, by any evi- dence except that of works ; while I, by my works, will exhibit my faith in the only way in which proof of it can be given. The only evidence of our faith which we can offer in this life in the sight of men is by displaying it by our works. 19. Thou believest that God is one. This is the better attested reading. Some ancient authorities read, tJiere is one God. Compare the great confession of the Jews, " Hear, O Israel : the Lord our God is one Lord " (Deut. vi. 4). It is not necessary to decide whether verse 19 is to be regarded as the words of the supposed friendly speaker of verse 18, or of James, for the latter accepts the great truth here taught, and continues the argument of verse 17 with the next verse. Thou doest well. Iron- ical. The devils [danoiis) also believe. In the N. T., the demons are spoken of as spiritual beings, at enmity with God, and having power to afflict man, not only with disease, but, as marked by the frequent epithet " un- clean," with spiritual pollution also. In Acts xix. 12, 13, they are defined as the " evil spirits." There is but one Devil, and the demons are " the angels of the devil " (Matt. XXV. 41). And shudder, for fear and horror of their punishment, " Art thou come hither to torment us before the time ? " (Matt. viii. 29). The thought is. Thou sayest thou hast faith, — yes, it may exist, such as it is, but it contains only the same elements of faith which the evil angels have, who shall not be saved, but who are reserved unto judgment (2 Pet. ii. 4), even unto ever- lasting punishment (Matt. xxv. 41). They realize their condition and shudder, but you do not even perceive your deplorable condition, for unless you repent, the same judgment shall overtake you. Mere intellectual knowledge and mental assent do not constitute true 4 50 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [ii. 20, 21. faith. Where confidence (loving trust) is lacking, there can be no salvation. 20. But wilt thou know, O vain man. That man is vam or empty, in whom the higher wisdom has found no entrance, who is puffed up with a vain conceit of his own spiritual insight. That faith apart from works is barren. That is idle, referring to the internal condition and nature of faith. Such faith profits and effects nothing. (Com- pare verse 1 7, dead in itse/f.) 21. Was not Abraham our father. James now cites the example of Abraham to show the contrast between a mere profession of faith, that cannot save (ii. 14) either now in this life or at the time of judgment (ii. 13), and true faith, that has works as its fruit (ii. 14, 17, 20). Justi- fied by works, in that he offered up Isaac his son upon the altar. Justified, not simply in the sense " he proved himself righteous" (Calvin, Philippi, etc.), in the sight of men, but especially "was declared righteous" in the sight of God, at the particular judgment that came upon Abraham at the time of his death. We must re- tain the judicial meaning of the word. God declared Abraham righteous on the ground of his works, and the work which in God's sight, as here stated, procured for him justification was the sacrifice of his son Isaac. James proves the reality and genuineness of Abraham's faith, not by all his works of faith, but he simply singles out one, the sacrifice of his son. With Paul, who has a different object altogether in view, it is Abraham's faith in the promise of a son that justifies (Gen. xv. 5, 6 ; Rom. iv. 3, 13-22); in the Epistle to the Hebrews the faith of Abraham is illustrated (i) by his sojourning in a land not his own (Heb. xi. 8-10), and (2) by offering up Isaac, in the faith that God would raise him up again from the dead (Heb. xi. 17-19). What James means to say in this II. 22.] CHAPTER II. gl verse is this, here is an example of the faith I mean, not simply your profession and idle talk. The question here arises, when did the justification by works, of which James (here and in verse 24) speaks, take place ? It is true indeed that Abraham was justified before God from the very moment he believed, and to this j ustifica- tion by faith James refers in verse 23, — but of this James is not here speaking, for he has specially in view the cold, barren orthodoxy of the Pharisaic Christian Jews, fruit- less in works. It is also true that men could only see Abraham's faith by its evidence, but of this justification in the sight of men James is not now thinking, nor did this justification of which James speaks take place at the time when the offering was made, that is not the thought of James, — for the participial sentence " in that he offered up " does not declare the time of justification, but what works procured for Abraham justification in God's sight. The whole context gives us the key to the solution. He is speaking of that justification that takes place when the final salvation shall be awarded to the believer (ii. 12, 14), whether we think of it as the partic- ular judgment at death, or of the final judgment at the last day, of which Christ also speaks, " For in the day of judgment, by thy words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words thou shalt be condemned " (Matt. xii. 36, 37). (See Introduction, pp. 18-22.) 22. Thou seest that faith wrought with his works, and by works was faith made perfect. Some would make this sentence interrogative as in the margin of R. v., Secst thou . . .perfect? This statement is an inference from the preceding statement. Abraham's faith was not dead in itself (ii. 17), nor idle and barren (ii. 20), but alive and active, zvorking, it brought forth fruit. There was a mutual relation between faith and 52 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [ii. 23, 24. works, faith was being tested and proved, and the prov- ing of Abraham's faith (i. 3) had its perfect work (i. 4), and faith became stronger and more perfect and vic- torious. 23. And the scripture was fulfilled which saith, And Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned unto him for righteousness. In the sacrifice of Isaac the statement of Gen. XV, 6, spoken some twenty years before, was fulfilled. The faith which Abraham had, at the time he believed in the promise of a son and heir, was not a dead, idle, and barren faith, but a true, genuine faith, and God reckoned it unto him for righteousness, purely because he believed God at that very time. The justification of which James speaks in verses 21 and 24 does not refer to the daily justi- fication of the believer, but to that justification which occurs at the time of judgment. And he was called the friend of God. These precise words are not found in the Hebrew nor in the Greek Bible. (See 2 Chron. xx. 7 ; Isa. xli. 8.) In Gen. xviii. 17 the Greek Bible reads " from Abraham, my son." 24. Ye see that by works a man is justified, and not only by faith. James does not here refer to the daily justification by which the believer daily receives forgive- ness of sins, in the Pauline sense of the word, but he is speaking of the day of judgment (ii, 13), when " judg- ment is without mercy to him that hath shewed no mercy," when the final salvation is awarded, and men are rewarded according to their works. Then, " not every one that saith unto Me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven ; but he that doeth the will of My Father which is in heaven " (Matt, vii. 21), for " by their fruits ye shall know them" (Matt. vii. 20). James does not in any way deny the glorious Pauline doctrine of justification by faith, nor has he denied this doctrine in ii. 14; he in fact II. 25, 26.] CHAPTER II. 53 explicitly grants that righteousness is reckoned through faith (ii. 23) in the strict Pauline sense, " for Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned unto him for righteous- ness ; " but what James wishes to make clear is, that at the time of judgment in the day when final salvation will be awarded (ii. 12, 13), then such professed faith in which these Pharisaic Jewish Christians prided and plumed themselves, which has not in it the very thing that constitutes true faith, confidence, trust, and love to God, will not avail before God, " for at the righteous judgment of God, he will render to every man according to his works " (Rom. ii. 6). 25. And in like manner was not also Rahabthe harlot justified by works, in that she received the messengers, and sent them out another way? James now gives another example of true faith ; possibly for the sake of contrast he selects Rahab the harlot. In Heb. xi. 31 her faith is also spoken of, and she is mentioned as being one of the ancestors of Christ (Matt. i. 5). The narrative in Josh, ii, 1-2 1 gives us the history of the genuineness of her f^ith. 26. For as the body apart from the spirit is dead. When Paul speaks of man as consisting of body, soul, and spirit (i Thess. v. 23), he does not mean three co- ordinate elements in man ; body and spirit are of distinct natures, but the soul is of one nature with the spirit. The spirit is the inward being of the soul, and the soul is the external nature of the spirit. It is the spirit that gives life to the soul, and it is the soul that animates the body. James uses a very forcible illustration. If the spirit leaves the body, and in this leaving taking also the soul with it, — for soul and spirit are never separated, — then the body is dead, — nothing is left but a corpse ; even so faith apart from works is dead. Yes, such a 54 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [ii. 26. mere lifeless profession, the assent of the intellect to certain dogmas or truths, such intellectual knowledge and men- tal assent, which some professing Christians, having become cold and indifferent to their first love, call faith, is nothing but a dead corpse, not only barren and idle (ii. 20), but dead in itself (ii. 17), — for all these are such who " profess that they know God, but by their works they deny Him " (Tit. i. 16). For a fuller discussion of the Jacobean and Pauline doctrine of justification, see Introd. pp. iS-22. CHAPTER III. 15. Warnings with Regard to Sins of the Tongue. 1-12. Be not many teachers, my brethren, knowing that we shall re- ceive heavier judgement. For in many things we all stumble. If any stumbleth not in word, the same is a perfect man, able to bridle the whole body also. Now if we put the horses' bridles into their mouths, that they may obey us, we turn about their whole body also. Behold, the ships also, though they are so great, and are driven by rough winds, are yet turned about by a very small rudder, whither the impulse of the steersman willeth. So the tongue also is a little member, and boasteth great things. Behold, how much wood is kindled by how small a fire ! And the tongue is a fire : the world of iniquity among our members is the tongue, which detileth the whole body, and setteth on fire the wheel of nature, and is set on fire by hell. For every kind of beasts and birds, of creeping things and things in the sea, is tamed, and hath been tamed by mankind : but the tongue can no man tame ; it is a restless evil, it is full of deadly poison. Therewith bless we the Lord and Father ; and therewith curse we men, which are made after the likeness of God : out of the same mouth cometh forth blessing and cursing. My brethren, these things ought not so to be. Doth the fountain send forth from the same opening sweet water and bitter ? can a iig tree, my brethren, yield olives, or a vine figs ? neither can salt water yield sweet. James now returns to the sins of the tongue already referred to in i. 19 and i. 26. These Christian Jews, like so many professing Christian of modern times, instead of being fruitful in works of compassionate love (ii. 1-9), were very anxious to give advice and instruction to others. I. Be not many teachers, my brethren. Let not many of you become teachers. Knowing that we shall receive heavier {greater) judgement. The responsibility of the teacher is greater than that of other Christians, SS 56 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [iii. 1-5. and if he teaches falsely, his condemnation will be the greater. James includes himself (tw) among the teachers whom he warns. In his letter sent out after the meeting of the Council in 50 A. D., James condemns certain teachers (Acts xv. 24). This verse is an echo of the say- ings of our Lord (Matt, xxiii, 8-10). " No one should publicly teach in the Church, unless he be regularly called" {Aiigs. Con/., Art. XIV.). 2. For in many things we all stumble. Bengel : " The Apostles do not even except themselves" (i John i. 8). If any stumbleth not in word, the same is a per= feet man. If a man is able to bridle his tongue (i. 26), he is a full-grown man in maturity of Christian character and upright conduct. The word perfect does not mean an absolutely sinless man. (See notes on i. 4.) Able to bridle the whole body also. Self-discipline, shown in controlling the tongue, is a proof that a man has his whole self under control. 3. Now if we put the horses' bridles into their mouths, that they may obey us, we turn about their whole body also. The reality of the power which the tongue pos- sesses is now illustrated by two comparisons. 4. Behold, the ships also, though they are so great, and are driven by rough winds, are yet turned about by a very small rudder, whither the impulse of the steers= man willeth. The bridle in the mouth of a horse, the rudder of a great ship, the tongue of a man, are small things in themselves, but by these the whole body in each case can be controlled. 5. So the tongue also is a little member, and boasteth great things. Not simply vain boasting either, for it is able to do very great things, either for good or evil. Behold, how much wood [hozu great a forest) is kindled by how small a fire ! The destructive power of the III. 6.] CHAPTER III. 57 tongue is now under consideration. A little spark can kindle a conflagation, so also the tongue can equally do great injury. 6. And the tongue is a fire. Like a spark it sets on fire not only the whole life of the individual, but ignites the soul of others. Tlie world of iniquity among our members is the tongue. The margin of R. V. punctuates differently and translates: And the tongue is a fire, that xvorld of iniquity : the tongue is among our members that zvhieh defileth, etc. The thought is the same. The tongue is eonstituted 2L world of iniquity among our mem- bers, because as the organ of ivratJi (i. 19, 20) it contains within itself the elements of all unrighteousness. The Greek verb used implies a development, as contrasted with its natural or original state. The tongue " is the universe of mischief, as containing within it all the ele- ments of mischief " (Wordsworth). Which defileth the whole body. Because " that which proceedeth out of the mouth, this defileth the man " (Matt. xv. 11), and " the things which proceed out of the mouth come forth out of the heart ; and they defile the man " (Matt. xv. 18, 19). And setteth on fire the wheel of nature (birth). That is, it sets on fire " the wheel of birth," revolving from birth and which will roll on until death, — "the whole of life from birth." The tongue keeps stirring up and fanning the spark of original sin which is rooted in each individual. And is set on fire by hell. The history of the generation of sin is now complete. The sin and lust of the individual, so graphically described in i. 14, 16, has its origin in hell proper, in Gehenna. The word Gehenna — in contradistinction to Hades, which is the place of departed spirits separated from the body — is always used in the N. T. to designate the place of pun- ishment for body and soul united (Matt. x. 28). It is ^8 GENERAL EPISTLE OE JAMES. [in. 7-10. " the lake of fire " into which finally, after the general resurrection and judgment, the wicked shall be cast (Rev. XX. 14, 15), as well as Satan himself (Rev. xx. 10). The thought of our passage is, the tongue is set on fire by- hell, that is, by him who has the centre of his kingdom there, by the devil himself. 7. For every kind {nature) of beasts and birds, of creeping things and things in the sea, is tamed, and hath been tamed by {jinio) mankind {the Juinian nature). This is literally true. 8. But the tongue can no man tame. Even the believer cannot tame it perfectly, " for in many things we all stumble (iii. 2). // is a restless evil, it is full of deadly poison. It keeps stirring up the power of sin still remaining in us. We can only tame the tongue in so far as we allow the Spirit of God to rule our hearts. If Ave wish to rule the tongue, we must rule our thoughts, and if we would rule our thoughts, we must begin with the heart, " for out of the heart come forth evil thoughts " (Matt. XV. 1 9V 9. Therewith bless we the Lord and Father ; and there= with curse we men. A proof that the tongue is a rest- less evil. A man may not only be double-minded (i. 7), but also doubled-tongued, — with the same tongue bless- ing God and cursing men made in the image of God. The combination Lord and Father as a designation of God occurs nowhere else in the Bible. In i. 27 we have our God and Father. Which are made after the likeness of God. After Gen. i. 26. Major : " Though the divine image is traceable in every child of man, yet it is only perfect in the Second Adam (Heb. i. 3 ; Col. i. 15 ; 2 Cor. iv. 4), into whose image the believer is being gradually transformed " (Col. iii. 10 ; Eph. iv. 24; 2 Cor. iii. i8\ 10. Out of the same mouth cometh forth blessing and III. 11-14.] CHAPTER HI. 59 cursing. My brethren, these things ought not so to be. Where there is the true spirit of blessing there can be no cursing. This mixture proves the unreality and insin- cerity of the blessing. 1 1 . Doth the fountain send forth from the same open- ing sweet ivafcr and bitter. In this first illustration James shows the iiimaturaliicss of such conduct. 12. Can a fig tree, my brethren, yield olives, or a vine figs? neither ca)i salt water yield sweet. In these three illustrations, also taken from nature, James shows the impossibility of a true worship coming from a heart where the spirit of wrath is working. Such a Christian profession is but a sham and hypocrisy. 16. True and False Wisdom Contrasted. 13-1S. Who is wise and understanding among you ? let him show by his good hfe his works in meekness of wisdom. But if ye have hitter jealousy and faction in your heart, glory not and lie not against the truth. This wisdom is not a wisdom that cometh down from above, but is earthly, sensual, devilish. For where jealousy and faction are, there is confusion and every vile deed. But the wisdom that is from above is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, easy to be intreated, full of mercy and good fruits, with- out variance, wdthout hypocrisy. And the fruit of righteousness is sow^n in peace for them that make peace. 13. Who is wise and understanding among you? This verse stands in close connection with iii. i, and the close of it carries us back to i. 19, " slow to speak." By understanding is meant the practical wisdom which comes from Christian experience. Let him shew by his good life his works in meekness of wisdom. His works are especially to be manifested in ivords. Let them be gentle and modest, in meekness of zvisdoin. This meek- ness is the result of true wisdom (i. 21). Defend the faith " with meekness and fear" (i Pet. iii. 15, 16). 14. But if ye have bitter Jealousy and faction in your 6o GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [iii. 15-17. heart. James refers to party-spirit of every kind. For if there is among you jealousy and strife, are ye not car- nal? (i Cor. iii. 3). Glory not and lie not against the truth. Some would interpret, " lie not against the facts of the case." Better, lie not against the Christian truth revealed in the Gospel. If you have such a bitter spirit in your hearts, your Christian profession is a lie (i John i.6). 15. This wisdom is not a wisdom that cometh down from above, but is earthly. We have here a description of false wisdom, negatively and positive!}', the last three objections in this verse forming a descending climax of wickedness. Such wisdom is earthly : it neither has its origin /n nor belongs to heaven. Sensual, that is, nat- 7iral, animal, belonging to the senses, opposing the Spirit, " having not the Spirit " (Jude 19). Devilish, that is demoniacal, a vivid description of this wisdom, both as to its origin and its nature. It comes from and is fed, set on fire, by hell (iii. 6), by Satan himself, the prince of demons. 16. For where jealousy and faction are, there is con- fusion and every vile deed. This gives the reason of the strong statement made in verse 1 5. Referring back to verse 14, he here names the fruit \\\{\c:\\ jealousy z.w^ strife bring forth. The God whom the believer seeks to glorify " is not a God of confusion, but of peace " (i Cor. xiv. 33). (See also 2 Cor. xii. 20; Phil. ii. 3.) 17. But the wisdom that is from above is first pure, then peaceable. The inner characteristic of true wisdom is purity, its outer, peaeeableness. (See Matt. v. 8, 9; 2 Cor. vi. 6.) Gentle. Compare " by the meekness and gentleness of Christ " (2 Cor. x. i). Easy to be intreated. Pliant, submissive, docile, easy to persuade. One Avord in Greek, only here in N. T. Full of mercy and good in. iS.] CHAPTER III. 6i fruits. Rich in the manifestation of active love. Mercy or compassion is the clearest proof of love (i. 27; ii. 13). Without variance or doubtfulness impartiality^. One word in Greek, only here in N. T, Whole-hearted, undi- vided, impartial. Witliout hypocrisy. Upright, genuine, unfeigned, — used of love (i Pet. i. 22 ; 2 Cor. vi. 6), of faith (i Tim. i. 5 ; 2 Tim. i. 5). " Neither making any pretensions to what it is not, nor disguising what it is" (Wordsworth). All these attributes are ascribed to wis- dom, because these graces are the fruit of true wisdom. 18. And the fruit of righteousness is sown in peace. The fruit ivhich yields or consists in righteousness is sown not in discord but in peace. For them that make peace. This is better than by them, although it is true that the believers who sow are the peacemakers, and these same persons also reap the harvest. They who sow the seed enjoy the fruit. (See Hcb. xii. 11 ; Gal. vi. 7.) Compare the portrait of true wisdom as drawn here by James, with that of love as portrayed in i Cor. xiii. CHAPTER IV. 17. WORLDLIXESS THE CAUSE OF STRIFE. 1-3. Whence come wars and whence coiuc fit^htings among you ? conic they not hence, even of your pleasures that war in your members ? Ye hist, and have not : yQ kill, and covet, and cannot obtain : ye tight and war ; ye have not, because \& ask not. Ye ask, and receive not, because ye ask amiss, that ye may spend /'/ in your pleasures. 1. Whence come wars and whence cotiic fightings among you ? This section is in close connection with what precedes. " A painful transition from the ideal to the actual, all the more striking from its abruptness " (Scott). Come they not hence, even of your pleasures that war in your members? The internal reason of all this strife lies in the fleshly lusts that dwell and rage in their bodies (Gal. v. 19, 20), which war not only against the soul (i Pet. ii. 11), and against the inner law of the mind (Rom. viii. 23), but also against everything which hinders the gratification of the desire of earthly riches (iv. 3). 2. Ye lust, and have not : ye kill, and covet [are jealous), and cannot obtain : ye fight and war. This is a general statement founded on O. T. history, showing to what sins a desire for earthly riches will lead. The extraordinary anti-climax "ye kill and covet" has long exercised the minds of commentators. It is probably best to punctuate : " Ye lust, and have not : ye kill. Also ye covet, and cannot obtain : ye fight and war." Two leading sins are referred to ; the first may be illus- 62 IV. 3, 4] CHAPTER IV. 63 trated by the sin of David (2 Sam. xi.j, the second by the sin of Ahab (i Kings xxi.j. Ye have not, because ye ask not. " This then was the secret of the restless cravings and the ever-returning disappointments. They had never once made their wants the subject of a true and earnest prayer." 3. Ye ask, and receive not, because ye ask amiss. Some have thought that these accusations could not have been addressed to Christian churches, and all kinds of forced explanations have been attempted. But every- thing is consistent. Among the believing Christians there were some false professors, as there are to this day, who sought for riches in ungodly and unrighteous ways. That ye may spend it in your pleasures. On the spirit of true prayer see notes on i. 5, 6. Petitionary prayer, if only it be offered in true faith in the name of Jesus, may have reference also to bodily wants, as we see from the Lord's Prayer, although these petitions must come in their proper place. 18. The Unfaithful Reproved. 4-11. Ye adulteresses, know ye not that the friendship of the world is enmity with God ? Whosoever therefore would be a friend of the world maketh himself an enemy of God. Or think ye that the scripture speaketh in vain ? Doth the spirit which he made to dwell in us long unto envying ? But he giveth more grace. Wherefore the scviptiivc saith, God resisteth the proud, but giveth grace to the humble. Be subject therefore unto God ; but resist the devil, and he will flee from you. Draw nigh to God, and he will draw nigh to you. Cleanse your hands, ye sinners ; and purify your hearts, ye doubleminded. Be afflicted, and mourn, and weep : let your laughter be turned to mourning, and your joy to heaviness. Humble yourselves in the sight of the Lord, and he shall exalt you. 4. Ye adulteresses. The word is to be taken in the figurative sense, of spiritual adultery, of souls who have broken their vows to God. There is no reference to dis- tinction of sex. We need not decide whether the refer- 64 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [iv. 5. ence is to individuals or to cliurches, — most likely the former. Know ye not. Probably with reference to the words of Christ (Matt. vi. 24). That the friendship of the world. The worldly spirit, and its lust (i John ii. 15,16). Is enmity with God. Because it pampers to the mind of the flesh ( Rom. viii. 7). Whosoever therefore would be a friend of the world. No man who makes worldly success his aim can be a friend of God. Maketh himself. Becomes, is constituted, by that very act an enemy of God. The same Greek word occurs in iii. 6, " the tongue maketh itself, is constituted the world of iniquity among our members." 5. Or think ye that the scripture speaketh {saith) in vain ? A small volume might be written on the history of the interpretation of this verse. Difficulties have been raised where none exist. The R. V. in the text gives us the correct thought. James urges his readers to give up their worldly spirit by two arguments, which he condenses into two piercing questions. There is no reference to any particular passage in the O. T., but to its general tenor, which ascribes jealousy to God (^Ex. xx. 5 ; xxxiv. 14, 15 ; Deut. xxxii. 21 ; Zech. viii. 2, etci). Doth the spirit which he made to dwell in us long unto envying ? The Revisers make two other attempts to translate this passage, as given in the margin, making both declarative sentences. — the spirit ichich he made to diveli in us he year net h for even unto jealous envy, or, tJiat spirit zi'hieh he made to dwell in us year net Ji for us even unto jealous envy. The thought of this difficult passage, whether regarded as a question or a simple statement, is, the Spirit which God made to dwell in us through bap- tism (ii. 7), and which continually comes through the preached Word ( i. 21), doth not lust after the friendship of the world, but, on the contrary, the Spirit in us jeal- iv. 6-8.] CHAPTER IV. 65 ously yearns for the entire devotion and consecration of our heart. 6. But he giveth more {a greater) grace. Encourage- ment to resist the worldly spirit. If you have the Spirit of God, the proof of it will be seen in your continual p-rowth in trrace. Wherefore the scripture saith, God re- sisteththe proud. From I'rov. iii. 34, according to the Greek Bible. Quoted also by i Pet. v. 5. But giveth grace to the humble. Humility is always the basis of all true growth in grace (Matt. v. 3-9). Absolute self-sur- render to God receives its reward by a richer supply of divine grace. 7. Be subject therefore unto God. Several exhorta- tions to humility follow, with suggestions how to attain this grace. But resist the devil, and he will flee from you. For we need not be under his dominion, although he is at the root of this worldly spirit, fanning its flame (iii. 15), the prince of this world (John xii. 31 ; xiv. 30. Compare especially Eph. ii. 2, 3 ; vi. 11, 12 ; i Pet. v. 8). The more strongly sin develops itself as self-exaltation, the more closely does man come to resemble the devil and his angels. 8. Draw nigh to God, and he will draw nigh to you. (See Ps. cxlv. 18.) We draw near to God not only in prayer, but in every kind of spiritual worship, in singing, in hearing God's word, in the Sacrament of the Lord's Sup- per, etc. Cleanse your hands, ye sinners ; and purify your hearts, (Compare Ps. xxiv. 4; Ixxiii. 13; i Pet. i. 22.) There can be no drawing nigh to God without a life of conversion. Although conversion may be regarded as a single event in a definite portion of man's life, the matter is by no means so that we are done with conver- sion once for all. We need to live continually in an active state of conversion, which consists of two parts, repent- 5 66 GENERAL EPTSTLE OF JAMES. [iv. 9-11. ance and faith, and both must be daily exercised. Ye doubleminded. Who would be friends with God and the world. (See note on i. 8.) 9. Be afflicted, and mourn, and weep. In this verse we have a description of the repentance required of the worldly-minded. Voluntarily abstain from the luxuries of life ; deny self and take up the cross. Bring your body into subjection (I Cor. ix. 27), and be also inwardly afflicted. Let your laughter be turned to mourning, and your joy to heaviness. James is speaking of " the godly sorrow which worketh repentance unto salvation " (2 Cor. vii. 10). Genuine repentance consists in this, that a man suffering from the stings of conscience allows him- self to be rebuked and condemned by the law, and ac- knowledges the justice of this condemnation with his whole heart. It is a deep internal pain, a contrition and sorrow, not for this or for that single sin simply, but it is a deep grief for his whole sinful and guilty state, and for his separation from God. 10. Humble yourselves in the sight of the Lord. This willingness to bow down before God characterizes the true repentance of the converted man, but this will- ingness springs not so much from the law as from the Gospel. And he shall exalt you. This exaltation is ours not only in this life, but it shall receive its consummation in the promised kingdom of glory. 19. Evil Speaking Rebuked. II, 12. Speak not one against anothei", brethren. He that speaketh against a brother, or judgeth his brother, speaketh against the law, and judgeth the law : but if thou judgest the law, thou art not a doer of the law, but a judge. One only is the lawgiver and judge, even he who is able to save and to destroy : but who art thou that judgest thy neighbour ? 11. Speak not one against another, brethren. James now passes to another exhortation, which however is close- IV. 12, 13] CHAPTER IV. 67 ly related to the abuse of the tongue so often already re- ferred to (i. 19, 26 ; ii, 12 ; iii. i-io). This evil-speaking, or slander, has its origin in pride (iv. 16). Among the vices there exists a mutual connection, and one vice easily leads to another. Pride is inseparable from despising your neighbor, and with this is conjoined envy, distrust, and slander. He that speaketh against a brother, or judgeth his brother, speaketh against the law. It seems James has here in view the law of love, the royal law of ii. 8, of love to neighbors, which view is also supported by the reference to " thy neighbor " in the next verse. And judgeth the law : but if thou judgest the law, thou art not a doer of the law, but a judge. He who speaks against a brother speaks against the law of love. He who speaks against a law, treats it as a bad law, and passes judgment upon it and says it ought not to be law. He becomes a judge and would propose a better law. 12. One only is the lawgiver and judge. But who art thou so ready to pass judgment ? Judgment belongs only to Him who has given the law. Even he who is able to save and to destroy : but who art thou that judgest thy neighbour ? James is always thinking of the day of judg- ment, as in ii. 14-26. We are reminded of Christ's say- ing, " Fear Him which is able to destroy both soul and body in Gehenna " (Matt. x. 28). (See also John v. 22 ; I Cor. iv. 3-5.) 20. The Uncertainty of Life. 13-17. Go to now, ye that say, To-day or to-morrow we will go into this city, and spend a year there, and trade, and get gain : whereas ye know not what shall be on the morrow. What is your life ? For ye are a vapour, that appeareth for a little time, and then vanisheth away. For that ye ought to say, If the Lord will, we shall both live, and do this or that. But now ye glory in your vauntings : all such glorying is evil. To him therefore that knoweth to do good, and doeth it not, to him it is sin. 13. Go to now, ye that say. These words are es- 68 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [iv. 14-17. pecially addressed to the rich, and to those who hve only for gain, who in their desire and plans for the acquisition of wealth too often forget God. To=day or to=morrow we will go into this city, and spend a year there, and trade, and get gain. The speaker is supposed to be di- lating on his plans, rehearsing the matter with his friends, with map in his hand. The whole scene reminds us of the parable of the Rich Fool (Luke xii. 15-21). 14. Whereas ye know not what shall be on the mor= row, What is your life? Prov. xxvii. i," Boast not thyself of to-morrow ; for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth." For ye are a vapour, that appeareth for a little time, A vapor, a breath. The Greek word is often used for smoke. (Compare Job viii. 9.) And then vanisheth away. (Compare Ps, cxliv. 4.) 15. For that ye ought to say. Literal Greek, Instead of your saying. If the Lord will. Paul often uses this expression (Acts xviii. 21 ; i Cor. iv. 19; Phil. ii. 24; etc.). In speaking or writing of future plans, it is a good habit to add " God willing," in Latin Deo volente, often ex- pressed by the letters D. V. But whether these words are expressed or not, the thought must always be in your heart. We shall both live, and do this or that. For both our life and our actions depend on the vc'\\\ of God. 16. But now ye glory in your vauntings: all such glorying is evil. Bexgel : " Their arrogance is ex- pressed in the words wezvill go . . . and get gain (iv. 13); their boasting in their presuming on time." The Greek word for vauntings is found only here and in i John ii. 16, " the vainglory of life." It implies confidence in one's cleverness, skill, strength, — self-reliance on the duration of earthly prosperity. 17. To him therefore that knoweth to do good, and IV. 17.] CHAPTER IV. 69 doeth it not, to him it is sin. In this verse we have a summing up of all that James had said before (i. 22 ; ii. 14; iii. I, 13; iv. 11). Compare the sayings of Christ (John ix. 41 ; Luke xii. 47; John xv. 22; xiii. 17). We not only coi/iinit many sins {sins of cominissioii), hwt we. ouiit very often to do those things which are well-pleasing to God {sins of omission). \ CHAPTER V. 21. Warnings to the Rich Jews. 1-6. Go to now, ye rich, weep and howl for your miseries that are coming upon you. Your riches are corrupted, and your garments are moth-eaten. Your gold and your silver are rusted ; and their rust shall be for a testimony against you, and shall eat your flesh as tire. Ye have laid up 3'our treasure in the last daj's. Behold, the hire of the labourers who mowed your fields, which is of you kept back by fraud, crieth out : and the cries of them that reaped have entered into the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth. Ye have lived delicately on the earth and taken your pleasure ; ye have nourished your hearts in a day of slaughter. Ye have condemned, ye have killed the righteous one ; he doth not resist j'ou. 1. Go to now, ye rich. Addressed not so much to rich Christian Jews as to the rich Jews who were everywhere persecuting the behevers. But these warnings are appH- cable to all who in any respect follow in their footsteps. Wordsworth : " Perhaps there is not a nobler speci- men of heroic courage and holy eloquence, and of poet- ical fervor, sublimity and pathos, in the range of Hebrew prophecy, than is to be found in this last chapter." Weep and howl for your miseries that are coming upon you. Like a prophet of old, James sees the judgment coming upon them, w'ith its accompanying miseries. These miseries were impending, hanging over them, for " the coming of the Lord was at hand " (v. 7, 8). Just as Christ, in Matt, xxiv., so here James draws no sharp line of distinction between the impending destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Advent of our Lord. 2. Your riches are corrupted, and your garments are moth=eaten. The verbs in Greek are in the perfect. In 70 V. 3, 4-] CHAPTER V. 7I a prophetical manner the future is described as having ah'eady taken place, ;is in Isa. liii, 3-10. 3. Your gold and your silver are rusted : and their rust shall be for a testimony against [unto) you. In the de- struction of their treasures they see depicted their own. Your heart is set on earthly things ; these perish, and in like manner you also are doomed to perish. (Compare Matt. X. 39.) And shall eat your flesh as fire. For the punishment of divine judgment shall overtake you as a devouring fire. MAJOR deduces a good practical applica- tion : *' As the rust eats into the metal, so selfish covet- ousness, of which it is the sign, shall eat into your materialized souls like a canker, destroying all the finer and more generous qualities." Ye have laid up your treasure in the last days. You think that you have made provision for the future. I will speak plainly with you ; you are treasuring up for yourselves wrath in the day of wrath (Rom. ii. 5, 6), and this time is near at hand. With James the last days meant the period immediately preceding the Second Coming of the Lord (v. 7, 8). 4. Behold, the hire of the labourers who mowed your fields, which is of you kept back by fraud, crieth out. Four sins are mentioned in Scripture as crying \.o Heaven : the murder of a brother (Gen. iv. 10), the sin of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen. xviii. 20), the oppression of Israel in Egypt (Ex. ii. 23, 24), and the withholding of wages (Lev. xix. 13; Deut. xxiv. 15). And the cries of them that reaped have entered into the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth. The expression Lord of Sabaoth occurs only here and Rom. ix. 29 in the N. T. (See Isa. v. 9.) It is characteristic of James that he gives the Hebrew form. The name expresses the omnipotence of God, His super- mundane power and glory, ruling the hosts of heaven (heavenly bodies and celestial spirits), and His provi- 72 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [v. 5-7. dence, interposing according to His free and sovereign will, in the affairs of the world. 5. Ye have lived delicately on the earth, and taken your pleasure ; ye have nourished your hearts in a day of slaughter. You have had your good things in this life, but now the day of reckoning, that day of wrath, is coming. By your luxurious living and self-indulgence you have fattened yourselves like sheep, unconscious of their doom. We have in this verse an echo of Christ's teaching (Luke xii. 19-21 ; xvi. 25). 6. Ye have condemned, ye have killed the righteous o)ic. Although none of the Jews of the Dispersion may have been guilty of aiding in the condemnation and cru- cifixion of Christ, James lays this sin upon the Jews as a nation. He doth not resist you. The present tense makes this passage somewhat difficult to understand. We know Christ did not resist His murderers, for He went to His death " as a lamb that is led to the slaughter " (Isa. liii. 7; i Pet. ii. 23); so now also James means to say. He does not resist these Jews in running to tJieir de- struction. He does not stand in their way of filling up the measure of their wickedness (Matt, xxiii. 32), for the impending judgment is inevitable. In the last three verses tJiree special sins of the Jews are condemned. 22. Encouragement to Patienxe in Suffering. 7-I1. Be patient therefore, brethren, until Ihe coming of the Lord. Be- hold, the husbandman waiteth for the precious fruit of the earth, being pa- tient over it, until it receive the early and latter rain. Be ye also patient ; stablish your hearts : for the coming of the Lord is at hand. Murmur not, brethren, one against another, that ye be not judged ; behold, the judge standeth before the doors. Take, brethren, for an example of suffering and of patience, the prophets who spake in the name of the Lord. Behold, we call them blessed which endure : ye have heard of the patience of Job, and have seen the end of the Lord, how that the Lord is full of pit\-, and merciful. 7. Be patient therefore, brethren. On patience, the V. 8.] CHAPTER V. 73 active grace of endurance, see notes on i. 3, 4. The Greek word here used means loiigsuffcring, a self-restraint which does not hastily retaliate a wrong. Literally, lo)ig- tcmpcrcd, the opposite to our slwrt-tcnipcrcd. Until the coming {presence) of tlie Lord. With the exception of 2 Cor. vii. 6, 7 ; 2 Thess. ii. 9 ; Phil. i. 26, the Greek word Paroiisia is always used in the N. T. to denote the visible return of Jesus from Heaven, the Second Ad- vent of Christ as opposed to His First Advent. Behold, the husbandman waiteth for the precious fruit of the earth. So let the Christian patiently wait for the precious fruit of his labor, for which he hopes. Being patient over it, until it {Ju) receive. //, that is, ihe fruit, not he, the husbandman, nor it, the earth. The early and latter rain. The early rain comes after the sowing in fall, the latter rain just before the ripening in spring. 8. Be ye also patient ; stablish your hearts. Only hearts strong and steadfast can endure wrong patiently, with longsufTering. It is God indeed who makes firm and strengthens the heart (i Pet. v. 10), who stablishes the heart unblamable in holiness before God at the coming of our Lord Jesus with all His saints (i Thess. iii, 13), but he who has been regenerated must co-operate with God and surrender himself to the love and Spirit of God working in him (Phil. ii. 12, 13). For the coming {pres- ence) of the Lord is at hand. (See notes on last verse.) James, without fixing any definite time, looked upon the Second Advent of Christ as very near. He be- holds "the Judge standing before the doors" (v. 9). With reference to the tii/ie of the Paroiisia, God the Father has reserved it to Himself alone to determine the day and the hour of the return of the Son of man (Matt. xxiv. 36 ; Mark xiii. 32). Those who speak of an " error " on the part of Jesus and His Apostles, in teaching the 74 GENERAL EriSTLE OF JAMES. [v. 9-11. nearness 'of the Second Advent, altogether misconceive the nature of BibHcal prophecy, which, so far as it regards its fulfihrient, always remains dependent on the historical development. In this development, the relation of man to the kingdom of God forms an essential factor, in con- formity with which the Father, who guides this develop- ment, alone determines the time and the hour. In a cer- tain sense there was a coming of Christ at the destruction of Jerusalem, and the beginning of judgment upon Israel, but this was but a type of Christ's final coming in His own glorified person, with His holy Angels (Matt. xvi. 27; Mark viii. 38). 9. Murmur not, brethren, one against another. The reference is to the conduct of Christians towards each other in time of affliction or oppression. That ye be not judged. "That ye fall not under judgment " (v. 12). Behold, the judge standeth before the doors. This strengthens the warning, as it points to the nearness of the judgment. The Judge is Christ. 10. Take, brethren, for an example of suffering and of patience, the prophets. James now cites examples of patience in suffering to encourage them. Most of the prophets endured persecution with patience, Moses, Elijah, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel being pre-eminent as patterns of endurance. Who spake in the name of the Lord. James, as well as his readers, believed that the O. T. came from God, and that the prophets delivered a message given to them by God. 1 1. Behold, we call them blessed which endured. (See notes on i. 12.) For God will surely reward them (Matt. v. I2\ Another reason why they should Qwdure pat ic?it/j. Ye have heard of the patience {endurance) of Job, On patience see notes on i. 3, 4. Job displayed his patience not only in his afflictions, but especially in his persistent V. 12.] CHAPTER V. 75 trust in God (Job i. 21), as shown by his repHes to his friends (Job ii. 10; xiii. 15; xvi. 19, 20; xix. 25-27). And have seen the end of the Lord. This evidently re- fers to the end of God's providential dealings with Job, his final prosperity, and the declaration of his integrity, and not to the death and sufferings of Christ, as main- tained by Augustine, Bede, Wetstein, Lange, Bassett, and others. From the end which the Lord gave to Job (xlii. 7-17), you see how that the Lord is full of pity. The Greek word for full of pity is found in no other Greek writer save Hermas, who evidently takes it from James. It means syiiipatJictic, almost the same as the tenderhearted of Eph. iv. 32 ; i Pet. iii. 8. And merciful. Mercy is God's free love to man from the point of view of man's need and helplessness. God pities us on account of our wretchedness — on account of the misery of sin. 23. Warning against Swearing. 12. But above all things, my brethren, swear not, neither by the heaven, nor by the earth, nor by any other oath : but let your yea be yea, and your nay, nay ; that ye fall not under judgement. 12. But above all things, my brethren, swear not, neither by the heaven, nor by the earth, nor by any other oath. An echo of our Saviour's words (Matt. v. 34-37). James wants his exhortation against swearing especially to be taken to heart. But let your yea be yea, and your nay, nay. He refers here to the needless and heedless swearing in ordinary conversation, a practice so common in ancient times, and of which so many ill-bred persons of modern times are guilty. The margin of R. V. translates let yours be the yea, yea, and the nay, nay. That ye fall not under judgement. At the time of judg- ment when men are to be judged by the Gospel (ii. 12). "That the condemnation does not extend to the solemn 76 GEXERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [v. 13, 14. judicial use of oaths we sec in the facts (i) that our Lord answered when questioned as on oath by Caiaphas (Matt. xxvi, 63, 64), and (2) that St. Paul at times used modes of expression which are essentially of the nature of an oath (2 Cor. i. 23 ; Rom. i. 9; Gal. i. 20: Phil. i. 18)" (Plumptre). There is nothing wrong or sinful in a solemn judicial oath, if the truth cannot otherwise be ascertained. 24. General Exhortations. 13-18. Is any among you suffering ? let him pray. Is any cheerful ? let him sing praise. Is any among you sick ? let him call for the elders of the church ; and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord : and the prayer of faith shall save him that is sick, and the Lord shall raise him up ; and if he have committed sins, it shall be for- given him. Confess therefore your sins one to another, and pray one for another, that ye may be healed. The supplication of a righteous man availeth much in its working. Elijah was a man of like passions with us, and he prayed fervently that it might not rain ; and it rained not on the earth for three years and six months. And he prayed again ; and the heaven gave rain, and the earth brought forth her fruit. 13. Is any among you suffering? Instead of mur- muring (V. 7), or of breaking out in oaths (v. 12), let him pray. Trouble, distress, affliction, are often veils beneath which the love of God conceals itself. Suffering may overtake the believer in the midst of, and as an aid to, the work of sanctification. Sufferings, however, serve not only to purify but also to edify. They bring us into more intimate communion with God — for they teach us to pray. On/rcnrrsee notes on i. 6. Is any cheerful? let him sing praise. (Compare Eph. v. 19.) 14. Is any among you sick? let him call for the elders of the church. Let him call thQ presbyters of the con- gregation to which he belongs. The term elder was an official title, taken from the Synagogue, given to the leaders of the local Christian church, to those " that labored . . . and were over " the congregation (i Thess. V. 14.] CHAPTER V. >j>j V. 12), "who had the rule . , . and watched in behalf of souls" (Heb. xiii. 17). That they did not differ in Apostolic times from the bisJiops or overseers, is evident from the fact that the two words are used indiscriminately in Acts XX. 17, 28, and in Tit. i. 5, 7, and further, the duty of prcsbytci's or elders is specifically described as being that of ovcrsigJit (i Pet. v. i, 2). Only two kinds of church officers are recognized in the N. T., presbyters, or bishops, and deacons (Phil. i. i ; i Tim. iii. i, 8). The word presbyter denotes the dignity of the office and comes from the Jewish Synagogue, the title bishop denotes the function of oversight and was borrowed from Greek institutions. And let them pray. This was the special object for which the presbyters were to come to him. Over him. Not simply for him, in his behalf, but " bending over," or " stretching their hands over." Anointing {having anointed) him with oil in the name of the Lord. In a firm and confident trust in Christ, for all cures could only be wrought in the name of Jesus Christ (Mark xvi. 17; Acts iii, 6; iv. 10; es- pecially Acts iii. 16). Anointing the sick with oil was customary in the East for the refreshing, strengthening, and healing of the body. Here the anointing is to be accompanied by a miraculous healing in answer to prayer. This command of James to anoint the sick takes us back to the earliest age of the Church, and is a mark of the very early date of this Epistle. In Mark vi. 13 we also read that the twelve, when out on their mission, " anointed with oil many that were sick and healed them." Whether there is any connection between this anointing with oil and Christ's promise of healing, by the laying on of hands (Mark xvi. 18), we cannot positively determine. Paul had this gift of healing (Acts xxviii. 8, 9), and such gifts were bestowed upon believers in Apostolic times by 78 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [v. 15. the Spirit according to the will of God (i Cor. xii. 9, 11, 28). It was not, in either case, the laying on of hands in itself, or the anointing of the sick with oil, that saved, but James ascribes the cure to the prayer of fait Ji (v. 15). They were to use ordinary medicine, but the prayer of faith will bring about a miraculous cure.^ 15. And the prayer of faith shall save him that is sick. The prayer that proceeds from faith. (See notes on i. 6.) The sick man is also supposed to have faith in Christ and praying. The effect of the prayer is that the sick man ivill reeover (shall save), stated more specifically 1 This anointing of the sick, with accompanying prayer, was continued in the Eastern and Western Churches, even after the miraculous gifts given in the ApostoHc Church had ceased. This custom, with a view to the restoration of health, is still practised in the Greek Cliurch, and may be used in any illness, but there is nothing throughout the whole oftice which suggests or implies that it should be administered only to persons in im- minent danger of death. Very interesting is the history of the develop- ment of the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church on this point. As is well known, the Roman Church appeals especially to this verse (besides Mark vi. 13 ; xvi. 17) for the support of her doctrine of the Sacrament of Extreme Unction. She lays special stress on the latter part of James v. 15, " And if behave committed sins, it shall be forgiven him," and connects this promise with the rite of Extreme Unction, for the spiritual comfort of the dying. But the facts are these. " There is no evidence, during the first eight centuries, of the anointing of the sick being deferred, as having only a spiritual efficacy, to the point of death, except the custom of an obscure sect of the Gnostics (the Heracleonites ). as described by Epiphanius " (Mayor). During the first centuries of the Church this anointing of the sick was not confined to the clergy ; it was frequently performed by the sick man or by his friends. It was not till A. D. 852 that the function of anointing is confined to the priest. "The restraint of the unction to the priest had momentous consequences. The original intention of it in re- lation to the Iicaling of the body was practically forgotten, and the rite came to be regarded as part of a Christian's immediate preparation for death. Hence, in the 12th century, it acquired the name of the last unction, Unctio Extrema (Peter Lombard), i. e. as the Catechism of Trent asserts, the last of those which a man received from the Church. In the 13th century it was placed by the schoolmen among the seven rites to which they then limited the application of the term sacrament" (Smith and Cheetham, Diet, of Christ. Antiquities, Articles Oil, Unction). V. 1 6.] CHAPTER V. jg ill the words and the Lord shali raise him up, from his sick-bed (Mark i. 31). The Roman Catholic interpreters refer this to spiritual comfort. And if he have committed sins. Not as if James thought that possibly this man was not guilty of any sins and needed no forgiveness (" for in many things we all stumble," iii. 2), but rather " even if his sickness can be traced to certain particular sins," if he repents and confesses his sin (v. 16), it shall be forgiven him. This whole verse reminds us of the miracles of healing performed by our Saviour as recorded by the Evangelists, and it is to be noted, that the for- giveness of sins was also often named, as associated with the cure of bodily infirmities (Matt. ix. 2 ; Luke viii. 48 ; John V. 14 ; etc.). James is here speaking with reference to the miraculous power of healing then existing in the Church, through faith in the name of Christ (Acts iii. 6, 16 ; iv. 10). The Order of Visitation of the Sick in use in the Lutheran Church is based upon this passage of James,^ and in her Orders for Ministerial Acts she provides also for an Order for the Coininunion of the Siek, as well as an Order for the Commendation of the Dying {CJinreJi Book, pp. 370-376). 16. Confess therefore your sins one to another, Christ lays down the principle that God will not forgive our trespasses if we do not forgive those who have injured us (Matt. vi. 15), and if we make no amends for the wrongs we have committed against our fellow-men (Matt. V. 24). James takes it for granted that in the case of the sick man there was such a confession of sin in the pres- i The Rubrics provide that " when a church-member is taken sick, notice thereof shall be given to the minister, that he may aid the sick per- son, with the Word and Sacrament, as the case may require. This should not be delayed to the last extremity, but the minister should be called in time, that the sick person may be examined, instructed, and comforted while able fully to understand what is done." (See Church Book, p. 350.) 8o GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [v. 17. enc€ of the presbyters, especially of sins towards God, but here in this verse there is no reference to any formal confession of sin to a pastor or presbyter, much less to auricular confession as practised in the Church of Rome. A general rule is laid down for Christians. Individ- ual believers ought to have such mutual confidence in each other, that, if they wrong each other, they should confess it to each other. And pray one for another, that ye may be healed, i. e. that ye may be saved, receive the forgiveness of your sius. Some would understand this literally, healed of bodily diseases, connecting closely with the miracle spoken of, and this interpretation seems to agree with the miraculous power of the prayer of Elijah cited in the next two verses, but the exhortation to confess is general, made not only for the sick, but the Jewish Christians in general, and for all. The supplication of a righteous man availeth much in its working, i. e. it worketh very effectually, for it is assumed that prayer is a power that works, which by its importunity and strong faith obtains an answer (Luke xi. 8, 9; xviii. 1-7). The great majority of expositors, however, wrongly regard the participle as qualifying sup- plication, in the sense of earnest, urgent, translating " the supplication of a righteous man, being earnest, availeth much." James is encouraging Christians to pray for one another. 17. Elijah was a man of like passions (natiire) with us. James now illustrates the power of prayer by the example of Elijah. He was one of us, of like disposition and nature. And he prayed fervently that it might not rain ; and it rained not on the earth for three years and six months. \S\\Q.x?\\y, lie prayed ivith prayer, ■&. Hebrew idiom, intensive, designating the earnestness of the prayer. The history to which James refers is recorded V. 1 8, 19.] CHAPTER V. 81 in I Kings xvii. i— xviii. 46. There is no discrepancy here because no mention is made in the O. T. narrative of the twofold prayer of Elijah. It is implied in the narrative. How long this drouth lasted is not stated in the O. T., but it was well known by the Jews, for such a memorable event was one of the glorious deeds of God to which they ever referred. Christ refers to this narrative when He speaks of "the days of Elijah, when the heaven was shut up three years and six months " (Luke iv. 25). 18. And he prayed again; and the heaven gave rain, and the earth brought forth her fruit. The reference is to I Kings xviii. 42. The references in the N. T. to this narrative only iiU out more fully the history as given in the O. T. Some commentators see something mystical in this three and one-half years of suffering, as it corre- sponds to " a time, times, and an half" (Dan. xii. 7), "forty and two months" (Rev. xi. 2), "a thousand two hundred and threescore days " (Rev. xii. 6), — the half of a prophetic week. In Rev. xi. 6 it is also stated that " the two witnesses" "have the power to shut the heaven that it rain not " during " a thousand two hundred and threescore days " (Rev. xi. 3). 25. Be Active in Saving Souls. 19, 20. My brethren, if any among you do err from the truth, and one convert him ; let him know, that he which converteth a sinner from the error of his way shall save a soul from death, and shall cover a multitude of sins. 19. My brethren, if any among you do err. Another practical precept, James returning to the subject of con- fession of sin and prayer of verse 16. It matters not whether the wanderer goes astray of his own will or is led astray by others. From the truth. Which is in Christ 82 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. [v. 20. Jesus. And one convert him. All are to aid in bringing back backsliders to the faith, not simply the pastors or presbyters. The word convert is here used (in Greek) in its active sense as in Luke i. 16, 17 {turn) and in Acts xxvi. 18 {tnrii). 20. Let him know. The one who converts another. Westcott and Hort with some ancient authorities read knoiv ye. The plural would call attention to a well- known fact as in i. 19, — that conversion leads to salvation. That he which converteth a sinner from the error of his way, James seeks to excite zeal in all believers for the conversion of the erring. God uses men as instru- ments in the work of saving souls. It is the duty of all to speak the Word of God in season to erring souls, but especially the privilege and duty of those to whom " the ministry of reconciliation " has been entrusted (2 Cor. V. 18-21). Shall save a soul. That is, the soul of him who is converted. From death. Spiritual and eternal death. And shall cover a multitude of sins. That is, the sins of the one who is converted. The Roman Catholic commentators generally understand the sins covered to be those of the person converting another, but to this there is no reference here. The saving of souls has, however, its own reward. Not only shall we be the means " of saving a soul from death," but "there shall be joy in heaven in the presence of the angels of God, over one sinner that repenteth " (Luke xv. 7, 10), and " they that be wise {tJie teachers) shall shine as the brightness of the firmament ; and they that turn many to righteousness as the stars for ever and ever " (Dan. xii. 3). The abrupt close of this Epistle is most remarkable. The nearest approach is found in i John. This abrupt- ness may be that of emphasis. EXCURSUS T. 83 Excursus I. The Hclvidian TJicory. The theory that the brethren of our Lord are the sons of Joseph and Mary, and there- fore the younger brethren of Jesus, is exegetically up- held by the statements given by Matthew and Luke. Matt. i. 18, " When his mother Mary had been betrothed to Joseph, before they came together she was found with child of the Holy Ghost;" Matt. i. 24, 25, "And Joseph . . . took unto him his wife ; and knezv her not till she had brought forth a son f Luke ii. 7, "And she brought forth her first-born son." There is but one true interpretation of these passages. Matthew goes into what may seem almost unnecessary detail in fixing a limit to the separation between husband and wife. It is here undoubtedly implied that, after the birth of Jesus, Joseph began his married life with Mary which up to this time had been expressly prohibited. Luke writing his Gospel many years after our Saviour's death, at a time when it was known whether Mary afterwards had given birth to other children or not, and in connection with frequent mention of the brethren of the Lord (viii.19, 20), speaks very naturally of Jesus as " the first-born son " of Mary. The remarkable narrative of our Saviour's childhood (Luke ii. 41-51) can be understood also more clearly, if we suppose that Mary had several younger children to attend to, and as the main care would have been given to the latter, it is easy to see how natural it was for them not to become aware earlier of the absence of their oldest child Jesus. The_^rjr/ objection against this theory is, that such a 84 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. view is opposed to the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary, and that this latter doctrine has been the senti- ment of the universal Church until comparatively recent times. But history shows that the idea of \\\q perpetual virginity of Mary arose from a false notion of the supe- rior sanctity of the unmarried life, based upon a one- sided interpretation of i Cor. vii. i ; Rev. xiv. 4, a teach- ing which has no authority in the Word of God (2 Tim. iv. 1-5). The consensus of belief in the perpetual vir- ginity of Mary does not begin until long after all his- torical evidence had been lost. Epiphanius and Jerome, who respectively contended for the half-brother and cousin theory, had no more means of real historical knowl- edge than we ourselves. Tertullian {died A. D. 220), who lived nearly two centuries before either Epiphanius or Jerome, appears to assume as a matter of course that the Lord's brethren were the children of Joseph and Mary {Adv. Marc. IV. 19 ; Dc Carue Christi, 7 ; De Monogamia, 8), and speaks as if in his day no one had any other view, and although Tertullian was inclined strongly to asceticism, he does not regard himself as con- tradicting an established tradition when denying Mary's perpetual virginity. Before the end of the fourth century there was no fixed, recognized tradition, though there was a growing feeling and sentiment in favor of Mary's perpetual virginity, which finally took a definite shape through the influence of the Athanasian expression " ever Virgin." Among the Latin Fathers the expression " semper virgo," ever virgin^ came into use, whence also naturally the doctrine was accepted by Luther and the Lutheran Reformers without laying it down as a confessional 2iX\\Q\Q{Concordia, ed. by Mueller, 299, 679, 24). But the real facts show that not only is there no scriptural foundation for this doc- EXCURSUS /. 85 trine, but there is also no foundation for this view in the tradition of the first three centuries. When we deal with the argument from tradition, we are not in search simply of sentiment and pious opinion, but of historical facts. The Cultus of the Virgvi JMary. It is very interesting, in this connection, to trace the history of the ivorship of the Blessed Virgin, and note the different stages by which the various doctrines included in this Cultus were de- veloped. Every form of this worship has its origin, not in the Bible, not in the Creeds, not in the teachings of the Fathers of the first three centuries, but in the Apoc- ryphal legends of the birth and death of the Virgin Mary. After the fourth century the doctrine of tJie perpetual vi7-ginity was not enough for the ascetic spirit of the age. Mary became the child of promise and of miracle like Isaac, but it was not until the twelfth century that the opinion became almost universal that she was preserved from actual sin, and by the fourteenth century the idea was suggested that Mary had also been free from original sin, but it was not until 1854 that the decree of her Ini- inacnlate Conception, — that she was conceived and born without original sin, — was passed by the Roman Church. The Roman Catholic Church now teaches that the Virgin Mary has been wholly exempt from all sin, original and actual, throughout her life and in her death. So likewise the ascetic spirit of the fourth century was not satisfied with the scriptural teaching of the miraculous conception of our Lord, but began to teach that His birth was also miraculous, that He came into the world without doing violence to the virginal and pure body of His mother, leaving her virginity entire. The doctrine of the Assump- tion of the Virgin, that at her death her body was trans- lated into heaven, can also be traced to legends which had their origin among unbelievers and heretics, and did 86 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. not begin to creep into the Church until the sixth cent, ury, but which novv has been ratified by the authority of both the Roman and the Greek Catholic Churches. Another form of this first objection is, that the idea that Mary, the mother of our Saviour, had other children, is abhorrent to Christian sentiment. This objection is but a natural result of the false asceticism which exalted virginity at the expense of married life. Lightfoot calls attention to the comparison used by some of the Fathers between the conception and burial of our Lord. As after death His body was placed in a sepulchre wherein never man before was laid, so they held it seemed fitting that the womb consecrated by His presence should not thence- forth have borne any offspring of man. But this is not a question of sentiment but of fact. A second objection raised against this theory is, that according to Scripture these brothers were not believers on Jesus (John vii. 5), but that Paul expressly calls James, the Lord's brother, an Apostle (Gal. i. 19; i Cor. xv. 7). But neither of these passages necessarily implies that James was one of the twelve, even if he is called an Apostle, for the term Apostle was not strictly confined to the twelve, being applied in the Acts not only to Paul, but also to Barnabas (Acts xiv. 4, 14), and Paul may even have used it of the wider circle of the disciples (i Cor. xv. 7). In Gal. i, 19 the restrictive clause save may refer to the verb alone, implying that Paul saw no Apostle except Peter, but that he also saw James, the Lord's brother. The same usage of this restrictive phrase is found in the Greek of Matt. xii. 4; Luke iv. 27; John xvii. 12; Gal. ii. 16; Rev. ix. 4; xxi. 27. A tliird objection is, if Mary had children of her own, Jesus would not when dying have recommended her to the care of John (John xix. 25-27). Lightfoot regards EXCURSUS I. 87 this objection as fatal to the brotJicr theory, and speaks of Mary " being consigned to the care of a stranger " {Galatians, p. 108). But John was no stranger in any sense. Jesus consigned His mother to His most intimate friend, the beloved disciple, the son of His mother's sister, Salome. We do not know all the circumstances of the case, but it is most probable (some would say positively certain) that the brethren of Jesus were not present at the crucifixion, Avhile John was present. We can also infer from i Cor. ix. 5 that the brothers of Jesus were married men, and had households of their own, while from incidental notices it seems that John was unmarried and in a better social position than our Lord's brothers, and had a residence in Jerusalem (Mark i. 20 ; Luke viii. 3 ; John xix. 27; xviii. 15). A fourth objection is, the brothers of Jesus act to- wards him as if he were a younger brother. This objec- tion has little weight, and the facts at our command are too few to lay much stress upon this argument either way. Matt. xii. 46-50; Mark iii. 31-34; Luke viii. 20, 21 ; Mark iii. 20, 21 ; vi. 4; Matt. xiii. 55-57 ; John ii. 12 ; vii. 1-9, bear upon this point. Many of our best modern scholars, such as Stier, Wies- eler, De Wette, Neander, Lechler, Bleek, Credner, Meyer, Huther, Beyschlag, Mangold, Weiss, Alford, Schaff, Eadie, Gloag, Farrar, Major, and others, accept this theory that the brethren of Jesus were the sons of Mary and Joseph. 88 GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. Excursus II. LntJicr on tJic Epistle of James. Luther gives two reasons why he will not accept the genuineness of the Epistle of James :( I) because he thinks it is in conflict with Paul's fundamental doctrine of justification by faith ; and (2) because it does not lay suf^cient stress upon the Passion, the Resurrection, and the Spirit of Christ. In this discussion we must not forget, as Arch- deacon Hare reminds us, 'that Luther "did not always weigh his words in jewellers' scales," and those writers who quote with such satisfaction Luther's graphic de- scription of the Epistle of James as " eine rechte stroherne Epistel, . . . denn sie doch kcine evangelishe Art an ihr hat," too often totally misrepresent him, for they do not take into consideration the context of the statement. It is not our aim to defend Luther in his view of the Epistle, but justice demands that the truth be known. It is very interesting to study the writings of Luther and trace his statements concerning this Epistle as given (i) in his seventh Thesis against Eck (1519^ (2) in his Baby- lonian Captivity (1520), (3) in his Postils, (4) in his pref- ace to James (1522), (5) in his preface to the New Testa- ment (1524), and (6) in his Table Talk. (See also Lu- ther's preface to James as published in the JTc/wrtr Bible, St. Louis, 1877.) After giving a general summary of the Christian life, he concludes the preface of his first edition of the translation of the N. T. (1524) (which is, however, omitted in the later editions) in these words: "From all this you can rightly judge between all the books, and distinguish which are the best. For St. John's Gospel, EXCURSUS II. 89 and St. Paul's Epistles, especially that to the Romans, and St. Peter's first Epistle, are the true marrow and ker- nel of all the books ; which properly also might be the first, and each Christian should be counselled to read them first and most, and make them as common by daily read- ing as his daily bread, . . . briefly St. John's Gospel and his first Epistle, St. Paul's Epistles, especially those to the Romans, Galatians, Ephesians, and St. Peter's first Epistle : tJicsc arc the books zvJiich show thcc CJirist, and teach all that is ncedfjil and blessed for thee to knoiv, even if you never see or hear any other book, or any other doctrine. Therefore is the Epistle St. James a rio-ht strawy Epistle compared with them, for it lacks all evan- gelical character," Again he says (also reprinted in the Weimar Bible of St. Louis, 1877) : " I admire the Epistle of St. James, though it was rejected by the ancients, and still hold it as good, for this reason that it lays down no teaching of man, and presses home the law of God, Yet to express my own opinion, without prejudice to any one, I do not hold it to be the writing of any Apostle, for these reasons : (i) It directly contradicts St. Paul and all other Scripture in giving righteousness to works. . . . (2) It professes to teach Christian people, and yet in such along instruction does not once notice the Passion, the Resurrection, and the spirit of Christ, The writer names Christ a few times, but he teaches nothing of Him, but speaks of general faith in God. For it is the office of a true Apostle to preach the Passion, Resurrection, and Ofifice of Christ, and to lay the foundation of faith in the same . . . and with this, all true holy books agree, that they wholly preach and urge Christ. That too is the right touchstone whereby to criticise all books, whether they urge Christ or not, for all Scripture testifies of Christ. . That which does not teach Christ is still not Apostolic, go GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. even if it were the teaching of St. Peter or St. Paul. Again that which preaches Christ, that were ApostoHc, even if Judas, Annas, Pilate, and Herod, preached it. ... I therefore cannot place it among the true Chief-books, but I will forbid no one to place and regard it as he pleases ; for there are many good sayings in it." In accord- ance with this general statement in the German (Lu- theran) Bibles the Epistles to the Hebrews, James, Jude, and Revelations arc placed at the end of the translation for the reason, as Luther says : " These four have been regarded in former times in a different light." The reader will notice that in the first paragraph a comparison is drawn between the Epistle of James and the writings of John, Paul, and Peter, and the test of comparison is its evangelical character (Gospel versus Law), and in this sense Luther sees very little of the pure Gospel in James. So likewise in the second paragraph quoted Luther uses the word " Apostolic " in the sense of Evangelical (Gospel). I will close this note with a few quotations. Westcott {Canon of tJie N. T. pp. 480-486) says: "Luther's judgments on the different books are given in detail in his prefaces. These are so full of life and so characteristic of the man, that they can never lose their interest ; and as a whole they form an important chapter in the history of the Bible. His comments on the Apocrypha have singular vigor and personal appre- ciation of the value of the several books ; nor does he show less freedom and boldness in dealing with the Anti- legomena of the New Testament. For him there is a Gos- pel within the Gospel, a New Testament within the New Testament. . . . The freshness and power of Luther's judg- ments on the Bible, the living sense of fellowship with the spirit which animates them, the bold independence and self-assertion which separates them from all simply critical EXCURSUS II. ' gi conclusions, combined to limit their practical accept- ance to individuals. Such judgments rest on no definite external evidence. They cannot be justified by the ordinary rule and measure of criticism or dogma. No Church could rest on a theory which makes private feel- ing the supreme authority as to doctrine and the source of doctrine. As a natural consequence the later Lu- therans abandoned the teaching of their great master on the written word. For a time the disputed books of the N. T. were distinguished from the remainder ; but in the early part of the seventeenth century this difference was looked upon as wholly belonging to the past." Y-Axx-AX {Messages of the Books, p. 412) remarks: "It is impossible not to admire the noble independence of a spirit which was free and bold because it was living and because it felt the Spirit of God as a fresh power. But Luther's condemnation of the Epistle rose from his not possessing the right clue to its comprehension." Collect. O Almighty God, who hast built Thy Church upon the foundation of the Apostles and Prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the Head Corner-stone : Grant us so to be joined together in unity of spirit by their doctrine, that we may be made a holy Temple acceptable unto thee ; through Jesus Christ, Thy Son, our Lord, who liveth and reigneth with Thee and the Holy Ghost] ever one God, world without end. Amen. SPECIAL INTRODUCTION TO THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. I. The Author of the Epistle. The author describes himself as " an Apostle of Jesus Christ " (i. i), and it has been the universal belief of the Christian Church of all ages, that the writer of the Epistle was Simon Peter, one of the twelve. The life of Peter as given in the Gospels is familiar to all. At first a disciple of John the Baptist, he was brought to Jesus by his brother Andrew (John i. 41, 42). He, as well as the rest of the twelve, was gradu- ally prepared for his work, receiving his first call at the beginning of the second year of our Lord's ministry (Matt. iv. 18-22; Mark i. 16-20; Luke v. i-ii), and his formal call, a few months later, in midsummer (Mark iii. 13-19; Luke vi. 12-16). Christ was especially drawn to Peter, for He saw in him a man with capabilities of char- acter fitted to hold the place of leader among the Apostles, in the trying times that should follow after His own death. From the very beginning Peter's enthusiasm and impetuosity led him to be a natural leader among the Apostles, and he soon acted as spokesman for them. When some at the close of the second year of our Lord's ministry threatened to desert Him, it was Peter who made answer in behalf of the twelve, " Lord, to whom shall we go ? . . . We know that thou art the Holy One of God " (John vi. 68, 69). A few months later, at 93 94 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. Caesarea Philippi, in answer to Christ's question to the twelve, "But who say ye that I am?" Peter, in the name of the twelve, but with a special confidence of personal conviction, made that memorable confession, " Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God " (Matt, xvi. i6), which gained for him the special approbation of our Lord. As an answer came those gracious words of our Saviour, which have been the occasion of endless con- troversies between Romish and Protestant theologians, " Blessed art thou, Simon, Bar-Jonah : . . . And I also say unto thee, that thou art Peter {Pciros), and upon this rock {petra) I will build my Church ; and the gates of Hades shall not prevail against it " (Matt. xvi. 17-19). (See Excursus I. at the close of this Epistle.) In Peter, Jesus saw that one among the Apostles whose activity would give the Church its greatest stability and consistency, and he was one of the most highly favored of the twelve, being privileged along with James and John to be the only witnesses of the healing of the daughter of Jairus (Mark v, 37), of the Transfiguration (Mark ix. 2), and of the agony in. Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 33). Like many impulsive men, there was in him a rashness and forwardness bordering upon presumption, and he did not stand the test at the hour of trial and danger. He represents, more completely perhaps than any in the N. T., the weakness of the natural and the strength of the spiritual man. Thrice, each time with greater vehemence, he denied his Lord in the hall of Caiaphas, but it needed only the glance of his Saviour's eye to bring him to himself. Although he had sinned deeply, he repented sincerely. On the morning of the resurrection, he who first among the Apostles needed the comfort was the first who received it, and the Lord as an assurance of forgiveness honored Peter with a special SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 95 appearance (Luke xxiv. 34 ; i Cor. xv. 5) ; and as Peter had thrice denied Him, so Jesus by His thrice repeated question, " Lovest thou Me ? " restored him fully as the leader of the Apostolic band, and gave him the com- mission to feed His sheep (John xxi. 15-17). In the first twelve chapters of the Acts, Peter stands forth as the recognized leader of the Apostles. In ac- cordance with the position assigned to him by Christ, it was Peter who suggests the choice of a twelfth Apostle to succeed Judas (Acts i. 16-22), it was his sermon on the day of Pentecost which added 3,000 souls to the Church (Acts ii. 41), and he also was permitted to preach the first sermon to the Gentiles and to receive them into the Church (Acts x. 1-48), In fact it is Peter who almost on all occasions takes the lead, — and we are justified in rec- ognizing him as the leader of the twelve during the first fifteen years after the founding of the Church, before Paul began his successful career, and before James be- came the head of the church at Jerusalem. In the per- secution raised by Herod Agrippa (A. D. 44), in which James the brother of John was killed (Acts xii. 2), Peter was cast into prison, from which he was miraculously re- leased (Acts xii. 3-17), and for a time quitted Jerusalem.^ Six years later (A. D. 50) we find Peter again in Jerusalem in attendance at the Council, but we find that Peter did not exercise the power which Romanists would attach to the primacy of Peter, for he neither presided at the Council, nor summoned it, nor dismissed it, and it was James who presided, and who passed final judgment (Acts XV. 13-21). At this council it was also decided 1 Acts xii. 17, "And he (Peter) departed, and went to another place." There is no evidence whatever for the view that Peter at this time went to Rome and there founded the Christian Church to which Paul afterwards wrote his letter. The Epistle to the Romans is decidedly opposed to any such legend. 96 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. that Paul should work among the Gentiles and Peter chiefly among the Jews (Gal. ii. 7-9). Shortly after took place that memorable meeting when, through an error of judgment, Peter brought upon himself the merited reproof of Paul (Gal. ii. 11-14). Paul grounds his reproof upon the inconsistencies of Peter, not upon his Judaizing ten- dencies. In this narrative we must admire Peter's sin- gular humility in submitting to public reproof, as much as the earnestness and wisdom displayed by Paul. From I Cor. i. 12 we infer that there were some Jewish converts in the church at Corinth, of a Judaizing character, who wished to impose the observance of the Mosaic law on the Gentiles, and who falsely regarded Peter as their leader, but Peter distinctly repudiates the idea that the Gentiles should be compelled to keep the Mosaic law (Acts xv. 10),^ and there is no reason to question his entire harmony at all times with the decision of the Apostolic Council (Acts XV. 23-29). We have no record of Peter's missionary journeys, but from his first Epistle we learn that he resided some time at Babylon, the ancient capital of the East (i Pet. v. 13), which at this time, and for several centuries later, was a chief seat of Jewish culture, and it was probably through the influence of the labors of Peter in the East that the great Christian schools at Edessa and Nisibis were finally established. It is most likely that he visited Corinth, and it may be considered a settled point that he did not visit Rome before the last year of his life.^ The Roman tradi- tion of Peter's twenty years' episcopate in Rome cannot 1 It is equally true, however, that all the Apostles, including Barnabas and Paul, acknowledged allegiance to the Mosaic law, and considered it prudent for Jcnis to keep it (Acts xviii. 18-21 ; xx. 16 ; especially xxi. 18- 24), for the sake of not giving offence to weak brethren. "^ Some writers of great learning (like Spanheim, DeWette, Baur, Zeller, Schwegler, Hase, Holtzmann, Lipsius, Winer, Pfleiderer, Hausrath, David- SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 97 be traced beyond the fourth century, and arose from chronological miscalculations. It is most likely that Peter reached Rome about A. D. 64, and that he perished in the great Neronian persecution which began in the month of July in that year. A credible tradition informs us that at his own request he was crucified with his head down- wards.^ 2. TJic Authenticity of tJic First Epistle of Peter. That the author of this Epistle Avas Peter the Apostle is universally acknowledged. The external evidence is of the strongest kind. Hardly any writing of the N. T. is more frequently quoted by the Early Fathers. The /«- ter?ial evidence is equally strong. Everywhere we find ref- erences in the Epistle showing that the writer had been son) deny that Peter was ever at Rome, and Ellendorf, a liberal Roman Catholic, maintains that Peter's residence at Rome can never be proved, — " Peter may have been at Rome ; it is possible that he was there about the year 65 or 66. But it is nothing more than possible, and the opposite is equally likely, or even more likely." On the other hand the fact of Peter's residence at Rome is regarded as sufficiently established by the testimony of the Early Fathers by such scholars as Lardner, Ewald, Credner, Olshau- sen, Gieseler, Huther, Keil, Wieseler, Bleek, Mangold, Schaff, Delitzsch, Rothe, Hilgenfeld, Weiss, Farrar, Cook, Lightfoot, Gloag, Plumptre, and the Roman Catholic theologians generally. Schaff : "The time of Peter's arrival in Rome, and the length of his residence there, cannot possibly be ascertained. The silence of the Acts and of Paul's Epistles allows him only a short period of labor there after 63. The Roman tradition of a twenty or twenty-five years' episcopate of Peter in Rome is unquestionably a colossal chronological mistake. Nor can we fix the year of his martyrdom, except that it must have taken place after July, 64, when the Neronian per- secution broke out. It is variously assigned to every year between 64 and 69." Church History, vol. i, p. 252. ' For the life of Peter see : Green (S. G.), The Apostle Peter, his Life and Letters, London, Plumptre; Ititrod. to Com in. on Epistles of Peter, pp. i- 59; Cook, in Smith's Bible Diet. ; Gloag, Iiitrod. to Catholic Epistles, Dis- sertation I ; Peter's Residence in Rome, pp. 144-160 ; Ellendorf, 1st Petnis in Rom iind Bishofder nvm. Gemeinde geivesen ? 1841. Translated in B/Ww- theca Sacra, 1858 ; Taylor, Peter the Apostle, 1879 ; Lightfoot, Conim. on Galatians, Dissertation III, St. Paul and the Three, pp. 129-212 ; Farrar, Earl\ Days of Christianity, pp. 60-66, 592, 593. 7 98 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. one of the personal followers of our Lord, Many unde- signed coincidences can also be traced between this Epistle and the speeches of Peter recorded in the Acts. The canonicityoi the Epistle has therefore been admitted from the earliest times, and it is already found in the Peshito, the old Latin, and all the most ancient versions, 3. T/tc Relation of the Epistle to that of James and to the Pauline Epistles. We have already seen that Peter was evidently familiar with the Epistle of James and probably made use of it. The Epistle also gives most unmistakable evidence, not only that Peter was in per- fect accord with the doctrinal system of Paul, but there can scarcely be any reasonable doubt that when Peter wrote he was perfectly familiar with the contents of the Epistles to the Romans and to the Ephesians.^ 4. The Persons Addressed. This letter is written to the elect saints (i. i, 5, 8 ; ii. 9), " sojourners of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia" (i, i), countries lying in Asia Minor, It was addressed to the Christians residing in those very countries in which Paul and his companions had labored during his second and third missionary journeys, although we have no scriptural information that Paul ever set his foot in the countries of Pontus, Cappadocia, and Bithynia, That there were many Jewish Christians among them we can plainly infer from the fact that they are called " sojourn- ers of the Dispersion " (i, i), and that the Epistle contains so many quotations from and references to the O, T. (i, 16, 24, 25 ; ii, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 22-24; "i- 10-12, 13; iv. 8; V. 5, 7), But it is equally clear that there were many Gentiles among these Christian churches, as can also be 1 There are at least 34 parallelisms between this Epistle and Romans, and 14 between it and Ephesians. Long lists of such references are given by commentators, and can easily be verified with a good Reference Bible. SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 99 clearly deduced from i. 14, 18; ii. 10; iii. 6; iv. 3. And all this is in perfect harmony with what we might expect in the congregations founded by Paul during his labors from 50 to 58 A. D. 5. TJie Time and Place of the Writing of tins Epistle. The precise date of the letter is uncertain. Peter may have written it shortly after the arrival of Mark at Babylon, in the fall of A. D. 63, or in the spring of A. D. 64, thus leaving still nearly a year for his journey to Rome, if we accept the date of his crucifixion as early as the fall of 64. From v. 13 we learn that the letter was written at Babylon. There is no reason whatever for taking this as a metaphorical designation of Rome, as is done by so many moderns.^ It has well been said, " A doctrinal epistle is not an apocalypse." The residence of Peter in Babylon on the Euphrates was on every account likely and appropriate. Mesopotamia was the centre of a large Jewish population. No field could be more in- viting to the Apostle of the Circumcision. This is the view adopted by Calovius, Gerhard, Bengel, Neander, Wieseler, Guericke, Steiger, Bleek, Lange, Fronmiiller, Huther, Keil, Alford, Wordsworth, and others. 6. TJie Aim of the Epistle. The aim is definitely stated by the Apostle as being an exhortation that they should " stand fast in the true grace of God " (v. 12), " and set their hope perfectly on the grace that is to be brought unto you at the revelation of Jesus Christ " (i. 13), in the midst of the fiery trials which had come upon them (i. 6, 7; ii. 12, 20, 21 ; iii. 17; iv. 12). The whole Epistle glo- rifies and testifies to the grace of God, and consists in an exhortation to continue in that grace. 1 So Jerome, Bede, Luther, Lardner, Olshausen, Wiesinger, Hofmann, Hengstenherg, Ewald, Thiersch, Schaff, Davidson, Salmon, Cook, Farrar, and of course all Roman Catholic commentators, lOO FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. 7. TJic Style and Character of tJic Epistle. The Epistle has an unmistakable and distinctive character of its own suited to its hortatory design. Its style is fervid and affectionate; practical rather than doctrinal or dialectical, AlfORD : " There is no Epistle in the sacred Canon, the language and spirit of which come more directly home to the personal trials and wants and weaknesses of the Chris- tian life. Its affectionate warnings and strong consola- tion have ever been treasured up close to the hearts of the weary and heavy-laden but onward-pressing servants of God. . . . The entire Epistle is the following out of our Lord's command to its writer, ' Do thou, when once thou hast turned again, stablish thy brethren ' (Lukexxii. 32)." 8. TJie Contoits of the Epistle. The practical nature of the Epistle can best be shown by the following analysis: I. I Peter i. 1-12. Introihiction. 1. Address and Greeting (i. i, 2). 2. Thanksgiving for the Hope of Salvation (i- 3-5). 3. Joy overcometh all Trial (i. 6-9). 4. The Greatness of the Mystery of Salvation ^. 10-12). II. I Peter i. 13 — ii. 10. Exhortations based on the Hope of Salvation. 5. Exhortation to Holiness (i. 13-16). 6. Exhortation to Godly Fear (i. 17-21). 7. Exhortation to Brotherly Love (i. 22-25). 8. Exhortation to Spiritual Growth (ii. i-io). III. I Peter ii. 11— iv. 6. Exhortations based on the Po- sition of Christians in this U^orld. 9. Exhortation to Abstain from Fleshly Lusts (ii. II, 12). 10. Exhortation to be Good Citizens (\i. 13-17). SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. loi 1 1 . Exhortation to Believing Servants (ii. 1 8-25). 12. Exhortation to Christian Wives (iii. 1-6). 13. Exhortation to Christian Husbands (iii. 7). 14. General Exhortations to all (iii, 8-17). 15. Enforced by the Sufferings and Exaltation of Christ (iii. 18-22). 16. Exhortation unto Holiness of Life (iv. 1-6). IV. I Peter iv. 7 — v. 11. Exhortations referring to CJiurch Life. 17. Exhortations suggested by the Impending Judgment (iv. 7-1 1). 18. Exhortations to Endure Persecution (iv. 12- 19). 19. Exhortation to the Presbyters (v. 1-4). 20. General Exhortations to all (v. 5-1 1). V. I Peter V. 12-14. Conclusion. 21. Salutation and Benediction (v. 12-14). 9. Select Literature. In addition to the literature given on the General Epistles in general, pp. vii, viii, we would call attention to the following : ]ohnsionQ, First Epistle of Peter, Edinburgh, 1888. Keil, Die Briefe des Petriis nnd Judas, 1883. Kuhl, Petrusbriefc und Judas, 1887 (the fifth im- provededition of Huther-Meyer). Leighton, First Epistle of Peter ; many editions. Lillie, Lectures on First and Second Peter, 1873, 'LuX.hQV, Epistles of Peter and Jude, 1859, translated by Gillett. Steiger, On i Peter, 1832. In English, 1836. Usteri, Kouimentar iiber i Petrusbriefc, 1887-89. The three best commentaries on the Greek text of the First Epistle of Peter are by Hiither, Fronmilller, aud Keil, and the three best commentaries on the Enghsh text are by Pluniptre, Cook, and Lillie. THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. CHAPTER I. I. Address and Greeting. I, 2. Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to the elect who are sojourners of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, accord- ing to the foreknowledge of God the Father, in sanctitication of the Spirit, unto obedience and sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ : Grace to you and peace be multiplied. I. Peter. The writer of this Epistle was Peter, one of the twelve Apostles. His original name was Simon or Symeon (Acts xv. 14). Peter is a Greek word mean- ing Rock, the same as the Aramaic Cephas. For the life of Peter and the date of the Epistle, see Introduction. An apostle of Jesus Christ. The word Apostle origin- ally means sent forth, but as referring to the twelve has a special signification. Peter had all the necessary qual- ifications for this office, (i) having received a direct call, and having been associated with Christ from the begin- ning (Acts i. 21) ; (2) having been an eye-witness of the resurrection (Acts i. 22) ; (3) having authority to preach everywhere (Luke xxiv. 47, 48 ; Acts i. 8) ; (4) possessing the powers of an Apostle (2 Cor. xii. 12). To the elect. Christians are called the elect inasmuch as God has chosen them out of the kingdom of the world to be His own. The election itself on God's part is simply the outcome of free love, excludes all claims of merit (Rom. ix. 11), 103 I04 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [1.2. and has its origin in grace alone (Rom. xi. 5). The elect are the personalobjectsof election, those who by faith have renounced all merit (Rom. xi. 7), and have entered upon that state of reconciliation and grace intended for them, and in whom God's saving purpose of free love is real- ized (Rom. ix. 11). Who are sojourners of the Dis= persion. The word sojourners is here not to be taken in its metaphorical sqx\sq, strangers on earth, as in ii. ii, but in its literal sense. The reference here is especially to Christian Jews, although the Gentile element may have largely predominated (i. 14, 18, 20; ii. 10; iii. 6 ; iv. 3, 4), The word Dispersion was used to designate the Jews living in Gentile lands, outside of Palestine. In Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. Peter names five provinces of Asia Minor in the order in which they would arise to one writing from the East. 2. According to the foreknowledge of God. This states the rule or standard according to which the be- liever's election takes place. The word forekfioiuledge is not to be taken in the sense of predestination or foreor- dination, but in its true sense of preseicnce. Peter also uses the word in Acts ii. 23, Avhere we must distinguish between the " determinate counsel " of God that Jesus should be delivered up, and the forcknotvledge that this would really take place. The verb is also used by Peter in i. 20 in the same sense, (i) The origin of the election of believers is the purely gratuitous grace of God (Rom. xi. 6) ; (2) the determining ground or the meritorious cause of our election lies in Christ (Eph. i. 4) ; (3) the rule or standard according to which it takes place is here stated as being the foreknozvledge of God; (4) the time of this election is given by Paul in Eph. i. 4 as taking place in Christ " before the foundation of the world," "from the beginning" (2 Thess. ii. 13). The election I. 2.] " CHAPTER I. 105 and the predestination of the believer are coincident in i'lvao., predestination being the mode in which this election takes place (Eph. i. 4, 5). There is no conflict when it is here stated by Peter that the rule or standard accord- ing to which election takes place is the fore knoiv ledge of God, and when, on the other hand, Paul makes the rule or standard of predestination " the good pleasure of His will " (Eph. i. 5), " the purpose of Him who worketh all things after the counsel of His will " (Eph. i. 11), for the divine decree of Predestination or Election is based (i) upon the QtQY\-\3.\ purpose of God in Christ Jesus (Eph. iii. 11), and (2) upon Wis forcknoivledgc, "for whom He fore- knew, He also foreordained to be conformed to the image of His Son " (Rom. viii. 29). The purpose of God is, that in Christ Jesus our Lord (Eph. iii. 1 1), all who be- lieve in Him (Eph. i. 13 ; iii. 12) shall be saved (i Tim. ii. 4). But God docs not deal in any arbitrary way, — it is an election through predestination according to the fore- knowledge of God, — a foreknowledge of zvhat is not stated here or elsewhere in the N. T., but it is clearly implied in Scripture, — a foreknowledge that the grace of God offered in Christ Jesus through the call (Rom. viii. 28 ; 2 Tim. i. 9), would not be rejected. It is arbitrary, and in the interest of a preconceived dogmatic system, to maintain that in this foreknowledge of God there can be no refer- ence whatever to the faith of believers, — but we must also, on the other hand, carefully guard against the error of supposing that our foreseen faith moved God to pre- destine us to salvation. So far from our faith being the ground ol our predestination, it is here definitely stated that faith is the result oi our election, elect unto obedience, which obedience most assuredly includes faith in Christ (" the obedience of faith," Rom. i. 5). But this is a mystery which we need not attempt to fathom, for it is io6 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [1.2. incomprehensible by our finite minds. The Father. The doctrine of the Trinity is very fully developed by Peter in this Epistle. Even in this first chapter he refers to the Father in verses 2, 3, 15, 17,21 ; to Christ inverses 1, 2, 3, 7, II, 13, 19; to the Holy Ghost in verses 2, 11, 12, 23. In sanctification of the Spirit. This states the means by which or t/ic sphere in ivhich the election to eternal salvation which has taken place is to be realized. So also 2 Thess. ii. 13. This holiness is the work of the Holy Spirit. In Eph. i. 4 Paul makes the additional statement that God " chose us in Christ, before the foundation of the world, that ice should be holy and with- out blemish before Him." Unto obedience. This de- scribes the end towards which the election of the believer is directed. This obedience includes faith in Christ (" the obedience of faith " Rom. i. 5), and the moral obe- dience which springs from faith (" obedience to the truth," i. 22). And sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ. This is the same blood of sprinkling referred to in Heb. xii. 24, and spoken of by John, as " cleansing us from all sin " (i John i. 7). In Christ we are to have continual forgiveness of sins. Grace to you and peace. By grace is meant God's free love to man ; peace is the state of blessedness which results from the reception of this grace. Be multiplied. LUTIIER: " It is as though Peter had said, ye have now peace and grace, but yet not in perfection ; therefore must ye continue to increase in them till the Old Adam die." (See notes on James i. 2.) 2. Thanksgiving for the Hope of a Heavenly Inheritance and of Salvation. 3-5. Blessed he the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who ac- cording to his great mercy begat us again unto a living hope by the resur- rection of Jesus Christ from the dead, unto an inheritance incorruptible, I. 3, 4.] CHAPTER I. 107 and undetiled, and that fadeth not away, reserved in heaven for you, who by the power of God are guarded through faith unto a salvation ready to be revealed in the last time. 3. Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. Paul opens 2 Corinthians (i. 3) and Ephesians (i. 3) with this same glorious ascription of praise to God. Who according to his great mercy begat us again. Peter gives this as the reason why God is to be praised. Mercy is that special form of the free grace of God which pities the misery and wretchedness of sinful man. It is God the Father who is the author of our regeneration {lure and James i. 18); the personal agent who brings about the new birth is the Holy Spirit (John iii. 5); the audible instrument which God uses is the Word (James i, 18; I Pet. i. 23); the visible instrument or channel is Baptism (i Pet. iii. 21 ; John iii. 5 ; Tit. iii. 5); the pro- curing cause of it, the Resurrection of Christ {Jicre and Col. ii. 12), including, of course, His sufferings and death. (See notes on James i. 18; i Pet. i. 23.) Unto a living hope. This defines more exactly the nature of the regen- eration of which Peter here speaks. It is not so much what we theologically call regeneration to fait Ji, but rather a regeneration to hope. We may say the first is brought about by the preaching of the Gospel in general, and the last by the preaching of the fact of the resurrection of Christ. Hope here denotes the subjective, inward condi- tion of the soul which makes the heart happy and joyful, and which waits in triumph for the certain fulfilment of the promises of God (Rom. v. 5). By the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. The very existence of Christian hope is here traced to the resurrection of Christ, for " if Christ hath not been raised, your faith is vain ; ye are yet in your sins " (i Cor. xv. 17). 4. Unto an inheritance. This clause also depends on lo8 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [i. 5. the verb begat and explains more fully the substance and object of the believer's hope. This inheritance is eternal life in the completed kingdom of God, " the salvation ready to be revealed in the last time," spoken of in the next verse. Incorruptible, The glorious nature of this heavenly inheritance is now stated and defined by three attributes. Each word is emphatic. This inheritance is absolutely imperishable, subject to no change, loss, or destruction, as silver and gold (i. 7, 18). And undefiled. As our Saviour is holy, tuidefiled, separated from sinners (Heb. vii. 26), so this inheritance is pure, free from every taint of sin, and no impure person can have a share in it (Rev. xxi. 27). And that fadeth not away. This attri- bute refers to the imperishable beauty of the inheritance. Reserved in heaven for you. Peter now assures his readers that this inheritance is intended for them, secure, but at the same time still concealed. This inheritance is " incorruptible " in its essence, " undefiled " in its purity, " unfading " and perpetual in its beauty and glory, heav- enly and spiritual (" reserved in heaven ") in its character. 5. Who by the power of God are guarded. This gives the reason of the hope that believers have of obtaining this inheritance. Believers are protected and kept safe, as in a garrison, by the pozvcr of God. Through faith. By faith salvation is received (Eph. ii. 8), and through faith salvation is kept. In both cases it is the gift and power of God. Unto a salvation. This salvation is eternal life, the complete salvation obtained for believers by the atoning work of Christ, consisting (i) negatively, of a full and eternal deliverance from sin, death, and wrath (Rom. ii. 5, 8, 9), and {2) positively, " the salvation which is in Christ Jesus with eternal glory " (2 Tim. ii. 10). Ready to be revealed. This salvation, already in exist- ence, will not be bestowed until in the last time. By I. 6, 7.] CHAPTER 1. 109 this last expression Peter means the time beginning with the return of Christ, the last times of the present stage of this world. 3. The Joy of Salvation Overcometh all Trials OF Faith. 6-9. Wherein ye greatly rejoice, though now for a Httle while, if need be, ye have been put to grief in manifold temptations, that the proof of your faith, being more precious than gold thatperisheth though it is proved by tire, might be found unto praise and glory and honour at the revelation of Jesus Christ : whom not having seen ye love ; on whom, though now ye see him not, yet believing, ye rejoice greatly with joy unspeakable and full of glory : receiving the end of your faith, even the salvation of youv souls. 6. Wherein ye greatly rejoice. Wherein, i. e. that by the power of God you are kept through faith unto salva- tion, ye nozv rejoice over your future salvation. Though now for a little while, if need be. If such be the will of God. Trials are not sent without a purpose (2 Cor. iv. 17). Ye have been put to grief in manifold temptations {trials). For " through many tribulations we must enter into the kingdom of God " (Acts xiv. 22). (See notes on James i. 2.) 7. That the proof of your faith. This designates the end or aim of the trials. (See notes on James i. 3.) Bein<^ more precious than gold that perisheth though it is proved by fire. It is the trial of faith which is here said to be more precious than gold, even the purest gold {tJioiigh it is proved by fire), for gold perisheth ; but faith, the more it is tried, does not only become the purer, but the stronger and more enduring, and instead of perishing, attains its end, " even the salvation of your souls " (i. 9). As gold receives a twofold trial, one when it is purified from dross and another when it is assayed, so faith has its double trial, one to purify it, and one to test or prove I lo FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [i. 8, 9. it, and it is suffering itself which accomplishes this double purpose, night be found unto praise and glory and honour. This is the great aim of all the trials which in the Providence of God come upon us. The reward of grace which true believers shall receive at the revelation of Jesus Christ consists (i) of \h.Q praise of their fidelity of faith (Matt. xxv. 21 ; i Cor. iv. 5 ; Rom. ii. 7, 10 ; 2 Thess. i. 5); (2) of the^/^rj, which the Father has given to Christ (i. II, 21 ; Acts iii. 13), and which He will com- municate to all that are His (iv. 13 ; v. i ; iv. 14) ; (3) of the lionor which Christ has promised to His faithful servants (John xii. 26; Rev. iii. 21; xxii. 4). (After Fronmuller.) 8. Whom not having seen ye love ; on whom, though now ye see him not, yet believing. In verse 3 the Apostle calls our attention to the liope of the believer, and here he speaks of love and faith. Our hope centres in Christ, " the hope of glory " (Col. i. 27), Him we love, and on Him we believe. There is a distinction between faith, love, and hope. Faith hangs on the word of prom- ise, love on that God who gives, and hope on the prom- ised inheritance. Faith receives and has, love gives, hope waits. Faith makes the heart firm, love softens it, hope expands it. Faith holds fast to what it has received, love gives up what it has received, hope triumphs over what is wanting. Ye rejoice greatly with joy unspeakable. The inner joy of the believer who has found peace with God and rejoices in the forgiveness of sins, who by the power of God is living and moving in the blessed fulness of the new life in Christ, is unspeakable, it cannot be ex- pressed in words, nor exhausted by words. And full of glory, — glorified. So great is this joy, that even now, while we are still in the body, it is invested with glory. 9. Receiving the end of your faith, even the salvation 1.10,11.] CHAPTER I. Ill of your souls. This gives the reason of their great joy. Salvation was in one sense already theirs, but Peter here refers to the completed salvation of which they should become partakers at Christ's Second Advent. 4. The Greatness of the Mystery of Salvation. 10-12. Concerning which salvation the prophets sought and searched diligently, who prophesied of the grace that slioiildcoiiie unto you • search- ing what time or what manner of time the Spirit of Christ which was in them did point unto, when it testified beforehand the sufferings of Christ, and the glories that should follow them. To whom it was revealed, that not unto themselves, but unto you, did they minister these things, which now have been announced unto you through them that preached the gospel unto you by the Holy Ghost sent forth from heaven ; which things angels desire to look into. 10. Concerning which salvation. The salvation of believers just spoken of, procured by the sufferings, death, and resurrection of Christ (verse 1 1). The prophets. Without the article in Greek, denoting prophets as a class. Sought and searched diligently. These two compound verbs (in Greek) are strongly emphatic, and express the earnest search. Who prophesied. This defines more closely the office of the prophets. WORDS\VORTH : " The prophets of old propJicsicd, but were not enabled fully to understand and interpret their own prophecies." Of the grace. As manifested in the whole plan of sal- vation. That should cojiic \xnto you. Destined for you. 11. Searching what tiun- or what manner of time. This special search of the prophets is here stated as having reference to the exact date of the coming of the Messiah, and the circumstances and character of the time of our Lord's first Advent. The zvhen of the fulfilment was un- known to the prophets. There may be a special refer- ence to Daniel (vii. 28 ; xii. 4, 8-1 3V The Spirit of Christ which was in them did point unto. '' No prophecy 112 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [1.11,12. ever came by the will of man : but men spake from God, being moved by the Holy Ghost" (2 Pet. i. 21). The Holy Ghost is here called the Spirit of Christ, because God the Holy Ghost, as the third Person of the Godhead, proceeds from the Son as well as from the P'ather. We have in this verse a strong testimony both for the doctrine of the Pre-existence of Christ (i Cor. x. 4), and for the doctrine of the Procession of the Holy Ghost from the Son as well as from the Father (Rom. viii. 9 ; Gal. iv. 6 ; John xiv. 26). When it testified beforehand. One word in Greek, defining the action of the Holy Spirit in the consciousness of the prophets. The Spirit revealed, attested beforehand the sufferings of {jmto) Christ. The sufferings appointed to Christ, which He should bear. Cook : " Peter was especially concerned to show that the sufferings of Christ were foretold, because one of the very chiefest points of controversy with the Jews referred to the question whether Christ was to suffer." (See Luke xxiv. 25, 26; Acts iii. 18; xxvi. 23.) And the glories that should follow them. Bexgel: " The glory of His resurrection, of His ascension, of the final judgment and the heavenly kingdom." The sufferings and the glory are closely united in the leading prophecies of Christ, typically in Ps. xxii, prophetically in Isa. liii. 12. To whom it was revealed, that not unto them- selves. This refers to the subject-matter of the revela- tion given to the prophets. But unto you, did they minister these things. The inspired utterances of the prophets concerning the Messiah were not so much for their own edification or of their own times, as for your edification, who now live in these days of the Gospel. Cook : "That both the prophets and their faithful hearers derived spiritual benefits from such instruction is certain, but it was a partial and, so to speak, reflected I. 12.] CHAPTER I. 113 light, caught from the far-off dawn of the rising of the sun of righteousness." Which now have been announced unto you. All these things pertaining to the mystery of sal- vation have now been made known to you through them that preached the Gospel unto you. Peter here refers to those who first preached the Gospel in Asia Minor, — to Paul and his companions. It is difficult to decide whether Peter includes himself or not. It is highly probable that he was a stranger to most of these churches of the Dispersion. By {in) the Holy Ghost {Spirit). The preaching of the Gospel in Apostolic times, like prophecy, proceeded also from the illumination and im- pulse of the Holy Spirit. Sent forth from heaven. Peter evidently refers to the outpouring of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 1-4), for since that day the Holy Spirit worketh in and through the Word which is entrusted to the Church. HUTHER: " Though the same Spirit was already in the prophets (verse ii.), He had not yet, at that time, been sent from heaven." Which things angels desire to look into. Here the mysteries of the Gospel are represented as ob- jects of deep contemplation and earnest inquiry, even to the angels (Eph. iii. 10). Peter gives us the key to the right interpretation of the Hebrew Prophets. What a remarkable and unique testimony to the inspiration of the O. T. Peter not only maintains that the minds of the prophets were moved and quickened by the Holy Spirit, so that what they spoke and wrote was not the result of their own intuition or reflection, " for no prophecy ever came by the will of man " (2 Pet. i. 21), but here in this passage he defi- nitely teaches that the Spirit of Christ presented ideas to their minds, and put words into their mouths, testifying beforehand of certain events Avhich should happen in the 114 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [i. 13, 14. kingdom of God, which, so far from originating them- selves, they were not even able to comprehend. 5. Exhortation to Holiness. 13-16. Wherefore girding up the loins of your mind, be sober and set your hope perfectly on the grace that is to be brought unto you at the revelation of Jesus Christ ; as children of obedience, not fashioning your- selves according to your former lusts in the time of your ignorance : but like as he which called you is holy, be ye yourselves also holy in all manner of living ; because it is written, Ye shall be holy ; for I am holy. 13. Wherefore. Since God has begotten us again unto a living hope of so glorious a salvation (3-12). Girding up. A figure referring to the tucking up of the dress of those about to compete for a prize. The loins of your mind. This girding was to be of a spiritual character, re- ferring to the disposition of the mind, — a preparation for spiritual combat. Be sober. Sobriety of the mind pre- supposes sobriety of body. Peter here names two condi- tions necessary for ts. perfect, undivided hope, — a proper girding of the mind and sobriety of the mind(iv. 7 ; v. 8). And set your hope perfectly on the grace that is to be {is being) brought unto you at the revelation of Jesus Christ. This future grace of the completed salvation is the object of our hope, which believers shall receive at the Second Coming of Christ. Sadler : " What is it to gird up the loins of our minds? It is surely to put out of the way anything which may hinder us in our race or in our conflict. If we find lawful things, pursuits, amusements, tastes, — otherwise innocent — hinder us, we are to put these things away, to tie them up so that they be no im- pediment." 14. As children of obedience. This is not a new ex- hortation, but explains more fully how our hope may become perfect. Not fashioning yourselves. The same I. 15, i6.] CHAPTER I. Ilg word as in Rom. xii. 2. According to your former lusts. In your unconverted state (Eph. ii. 1-3). In the time of your ignorance. This ignorance marks not only the time when these lusts raged in their hearts, but suggests also, the ground and origin of their lusts. In the just judgment of God, ignorance and denial of God lead to pride and folly, to godlessness and abominable shame (Rom. i. 18-32). The word ignorance is here used as in Acts xvii. 30 ; Eph. iv. 18, denoting the ignorance of the Gentiles, and this verse suggests that there were many Gentile Christians among these Jewish-Christian churches of the Dispersion (i. i). 15. But like as he which called you is holy, or, like the Holy One ivhich called yon. Peter, like Paul, ascribes the calling- to the Father. Be ye yourselves also holy in all manner of living. The daily life of those called must conform with the nature of Him who calls, for the special aim of God's calling and election is holiness (i. 2 ; Eph. ii. 4 ; i Thess. iv. 3, 7). 16. Because it is written, Ye shall be holy; for I am holy. This command occurs five times in Leviticus (xi. 44, 45 ; xix. 2 ; xx. 7, 26). God is our highest ideal of holiness. In Christ, in the example and pattern which the Redeemer has left us, we have the true ideal. 6. Exhortation to Godly Fear. 17-21. And if ye call on him as Father, who without respect of persons judgeth according to each man's work, pass the time of your sojourning in fear : knowing that ye were redeemed, not with corruptible things, with silver or gold, from your vain manner of life handed down from your fathers ; but with precious blood, as of a lamb without blemish and without spot, even the blood of Christ : who was foreknown indeed before the foundation of the world, but was manifested at the end of the times for your sake, who through him are believers in God, which raised him from the dead, and gave him glory ; so that your faith and hope might be in God. Il6 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [i. 17-19. 17. And if ye call on him as Father. Peter may refer here to the Lord's Prayer (Gerhard). BeHevers are not to forget that their heavenly Father is also the Judge, who without respect of persons judgeth according to each man's work. With God, at the day of judgment, there is no respect of persons (Rom. ii. 11), for " He will render to every man according to his works " (Rom. ii. 6; 2 Cor. v. 10). Though the Father is our Judge, this judgment has been committed to the Son (John v. 22 ; I Pet. iii. 22 ; iv. 5 ; v. 4 ; 2 Pet. ii. 9). Pass the time of your sojourning. Of your earthly life. In fear. A holy fear opposed to thoughtless security, — not a slavish fear, for this cannot co-exist with true love (i John iv. 18), but a holy awe which dreads to grieve the love of God. 18. Knowing that ye were redeemed, not with cor- ruptible things, with silver or gold. The ransom paid was, as is stated in Matt. xx. 28, the life of the Son of Man, "who gave Himself for us, that He might redeem us " (Tit. ii. 24). The price paid, with which we were bought (i Cor. vi. 20), is definitely stated in the next verse. From your vain manner of life handed down from your fathers. A description of the true essence of this earthly life, separated from the kingdom of God. The life of the natural man has no true foundation and is all vanity (Eph. iv. 17; 2 Pet. ii. 18). Fronmueller: " Its main stay and support lies in the force of habits, ideas, views, principles, and maxims transmitted from father to child through successive generations." Be- lievers are redeemed from the poivcr of sin, as well as from its guilt and curse. 10. But with precious blood. The ransom paid by Christ for us was His precious blood (Eph. i. 7 ; Rom. iii. 25; V. 9; Col. i. 20; Heb. ix. 12). This blood was so 1.20,21.] CHAPTER I. 117 precious because it was the blood of One who was not only a true man but also true God, so that with Paul we may say that "the Church has been purchased with the blood of God " (Acts xx. 28). And since it is by means of " His own blood " that Christ enters into the Holy of holies (Heb. ix. 12), it is clear that to God Him- self this ransom was paid (Heb. ix. 14 ; Eph. v. 2). As of a lamb. Peter has in view Isa. liii. 7. Without blem- ish and without spot. As with Paul (i Cor. v. 7), Peter saw in Christ the Paschal Lamb, perfectly pure within and unstained by sin from without (2 Cor. v. 21 ; Heb. vii. 26). (See Lev. xxii. 21.) Even the blood of Christ. The preciousness and redemptive power of this blood lies in this, that it is the blood of Christ, the divine Mediator, who offered Himself as a sacrificial lamb with- out blemish and without spot. 20. Who was foreknown indeed before the foundation of the world. Before the foundation of the world (John xvii. 24 ; Eph. i. 4) it was a part of God's plan, known and provided for, that Christ should redeem the world by His blood. But was manifested. At the time of His Incarnation. We have here a distinct testimony to the pre-existence of Christ. At the end of the times. This refers to the whole period reaching from the time of the Incarnation to the Second Advent of Christ. For your sake. This has reference not only to the original readers of this letter, but to all believers. 21. Who through him are believers in God. This has special reference to the Gentile Christians among his readers. Through Christ and His Gospel they become believers in the true God, as their own God and Father. Which raised him from the dead. The resurrection of Christ was an act of the Triune God, but it is especially ascribed to the Father (Acts iii. 15 ; iv. 10; Acts xiii. 30; Il8 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [1.22. Rom. iv. 24 ; vi. 4 ; etc.). And gave him glory. This glory was given to His human nature (John xvii. 22), for according to His divine nature Clirist always possessed this glory (John xvii. 5). What this glory was, which was given Him according to His human nature, is described by Paul in Eph. i. 20-23. So that your faith and hope might be in God. Their _/"(rr//// was to rest on Christ's resurrection, their Jiope on His glorification. The work of Atonement was indeed potentially accomplished when Christ shed His blood on the cross, but the Resurrection, Ascension, and Glorification at the right hand of God were the final acts of the work of redemption, necessary to complete the work which Christ came to perform. 7. Exhortation to Brotherly Love. 22-25. Seeing ye have purified your souls in your obedience to tlie truth unto unfeigned love of the brethren, love one another from the heart fer- vently : having been begotten again, not of corruptible seed, but of incor- ruptible, through the word of God, which liveth and abideth. For, All flesh is as grass. And all the glory thereof as the flower of grass. The grass withereth, and the flower falleth : But the word of the Lord abideth for ever. And this is the word of good tidings which was preached unto you. 22. Seeing ye have purified your souls. The forin of the Greek verb implies that this purification must always continue. The new life in the believer manifests itself in a twofold way, negatively , as purification or renova- tion, and positively, as sanctification. Purification or renovation consists in putting off the Old Man and the dominion of sin, in order that we may be renewed in the image of God. This purification does not refer so much to the outward life, for this is always implied, as to the inward consecration and purifying of all the desires and selfish aims of life (James iv. 8 ; i John iii. 3). This purification must progress from day to day (Eph. iv. 22), 1. 23-] CHAPTER I. 119 for we must die unto sin continually (i Pet. ii. 24 ; Rom. vi. 1 1). The positive side of the new life, saiictification (John xvii. 17, 19 ; i Thess. v. 23 ; i Cor. i. 2 ; Rom. xv. 16), is the putting on of the New Man (Eph. iv. 23, 24 ; Col. iii. 10; Rom. xiii. 14; vi. 19, 22), "in sanctification of the Spirit " (i Pet. i. 2). In your obedience to the truth. In i. 2, Peter lays stress on sanctification, the positive side of the new life, but here the additional truth is taught that purification (the negative side) is promoted by obedience to the truth, by believing what it proclaims and doing what it requires. Unto unfeigned love of the brethren. The truth, if not resisted, has a purifying power and will drive out all selfishness. If we truly love Christ and become members of His spiritual body, which is the Church, we cannot but love our brethren, whom Christ also loves. Love one another from the heart fervently. Many ancient authorities read y>'6i;// a clean heart. We are to love with " the persevering intens- ity of love." (See 2 Pet. i. 7.) Brotherly love must be true and pure {unfeigned) (i John iii. 18), as well as earnest and ardent, and no love can be pure unless the heart is clean. 23. Having been begotten again. (See notes on i. 3 ; James i. 18.) The brotherhood of Christians has its origin in the new birth, and it is this very fact that makes such intense love of the brethren possible. This new birth from God is a creative act (Eph. ii. 10), and for this reason the regenerate one is called a new creature, a new man (2 Cor. v. 17; Gal. vi. 15). Of the divine operation in itself by which we are regenerated we are not con- scious, save only in its results. It is effected as uncon- sciously to ourselves as our conception and birth in the natural life (John iii. 8). Not of corruptible seed, but of incorruptible. The origin of the new birth is now stated 120 I^rRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [1.24,25. in an emphatic way. Our natural birth is of corruptible seed, itself subject to death and bringing those begotten of it to corruption and death, but the new birth is oiit of {ek) incorruptible seed, the Word of God implanted in man (James i. 21). Through the word cf God. This is the outward instrument through which as a means the Holy Ghost implants and begets the new life and regen- erates us to faith. This Word of God is especially the Gospel in contrast to the Law. Which liveth and abideth. The relative refers to ivord, not to God, as in margin of R. V. These attributes define the inner es- sence of the Word. It is living (Heb. iv. 12), because it has life in itself, is endued with eternal, divine power, and therefore begets life in its turn. It is abiding, be- cause it remains forever in its nature, power, and effects, — its results are eternal and itself never perishes (after Fronmueller). 24. For, All flesh is as grass. This verse is almost a literal quotation from the Greek Bible of Isa. xl. 6-8, And all the glory thereof as the flower of grass. There- fore the new birth must take place through some means which has life and power, — through the living and abid- ing word, for this new life is to continue forever. The grass withereth, and the flower falleth. A type of the frailty of man. 25. But the word {saying) of the Lord abideth forever. And this is the word [saying] of good tidings which was preached unto you. LUTHER admirably says: "The Word is a divine and eternal power ; for although voice and speech pass away, the substance remains,— that is, the sense, the truth which the voice conveyed. The word falls into our hearts and lives, while the voice re- mains without and passes away. Therefore it is indeed a divine power ; yea, it is God Himself." CHAPTER II. 8. Exhortation to Spiritual Growth. i-io. Pulling away therefore all wickedness and all guile, and hypocrisies, and envies, and all evil speakings, as newborn babes, long for the spiritual milk which is without guile, that ye may grow thereby unto salvation ; if ye havetasled that the Lord is gracious : unto whom coming, a living stone, rejected indeed of men, but with God elect, precious, ye also, as living stones, are built up a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God through Jesus Christ. Because it is contained in scripture, Behold, I lay in Zion a chief corner stone, elect, precious : And he that believeth on him shall not be put to shame. P'or you therefore which believe is the preciousness : but for such as dis- believe, The stone which the builders rejected, The same was made the head of the corner ; and, A stone of stumbling, and a rock of offence ; for they stumble at the word, being disobedient ; whereunto also they were appointed. But ye are an elect race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for God's own possession, that ye may shew forth the excellencies of him who called you out of darkness into his marvellous light : which in time past were no people, but now are the people of God : which had not obtained mercy, but now have obtained mercj'. I. Putting away therefore, Closely connected with the exhortations of the preceding chapter. This putting aivay is a figure taken from clothing and is often used in Scripture (Eph. iv. 22; Col. iii. 8; James i. 21). AH wickedness {inalicc). Malice is that vicious disposition which seeks to injure our neighbor. And all guile, and hypocrisies, and envies, Bengel : " Guile wrongs ; hy- pocrisy deceives ; envy assails our neighbor ; all do wrong 121 122 FIRST ETISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [il. 2-4. to love'' (i. 22). And all evil speakings. Defamation of character, only here and 2 Cor. xii. 20 (backbitings). 2. As newborn babes. As having but lately been be- gotten into the kingdom of God. Long. The form of the verb denotes a strong, intense desire. For the spirit= ual {reasonable) milk. Peter here calls the Word of God milk, because by its indwelling divine power it nourishes the new life. There is no antithesis here between the milk (rudiments of the faith) and the meat (deeper truths) of the Word, as in i Cor. iii. 2 ; Heb. v. 12 ; vi. i. The Word \s spiritual {so also in Rom. xii. i , not to be trans- lated reasonable or rational), because it nourishes and builds up the soul and spirit, and is the means by which God bestows His Spirit. Which is without guile. Pure, unadulterated. Fronmueller: " The Word of God has the property that it exerts purifying, liberating, illuminat- ing, and consoling influences only in its purity and entire- ness." That ye may grow thereby. This states the pur- pose why the Apostle exhorts believers to long for and diligently to Jise the Word. The new life must be strength- ened and developed, and the means by which this is brought about is the Word. Unto salvation. For this is the final aim of all Christian growth. 3. If ye have tasted that the Lord is gracious. This does not express a doubt, for the Apostle takes it for granted that they had this inward experience. The ref- erence is to Ps. xxxiv. 8. Peter does not here refer to Adult Baptism or to the Lord's Supper (as some Com- mentators maintain), but more particularly to our daily justification. 4. Unto whom coming. The believer must continually come to the Lord Jesus Christ in prayer, "drawing near with a true heart in full assurance of faith " (Heb. x. 22), "with boldness" (Heb. iv. 16), that he may ever come n. 5-] CHAPTER II. 123 into closer communion with Him, A living stone. Christ is called a Stone or rock, " because after the manner of rocks, He remains ever the same, unchangeably power- ful and invincible ; because His Word is firm and immov- able, and because God has ordained and designed Him to be the foundation of His spiritual temple " (Fronmueller). He is called a living stone, because He is " the Living one," "alive for evermore" (Rev. i. 18), the author and giver of life (John xiv. 19). There is in Him nothing of death and decay, for He is absolute Light and Life (John xiv. 6; I John i. 5). Rejected indeed of men. The refer- ence is to Ps. cxviii. 22 (compare Matt, xxi, 42 ; Acts iv. 1 1). Christ was and is rejected not only by " the builders " (Ps. cxviii. 22 ; Acts iv. 11), but by men, by mankind in general, by Jews and Gentiles. Believers are regarded as the only exception. But with God. \\\ His sight. Elect, precious {honorable). Peter has reference to Isa. xxviii. 16, "a tried stone, a precious corner stone of sure foundation." This Christ is the chosen servant in whom God delighteth (Isa. xlii. i), preeious, held in honor. The contrast lies between the human judgment, rejected, leading to His crucifixion, and the divine, eJiosen, and honored, leading to His glorification. 5. Ye also, as living stones. Believers become living stones through the new birth, having through baptism become alive into God in Christ Jesus " (Rom. vi. 11). Are built up. The work of building is still going on. The end in view is the erection of a spiritual house. Luther : " The builders are the preachers ; the means used is the preached Word ; the Christians who hear the Gospel are they who are built up, — they are the stones which are to be fitted on Christ, the chief corner stone, so that we are to repose our confidence on Him, and let our hearts stand and rest upon Him." This spirit- 124 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [ii. 5. ual Jiouse is " the Church of the living God " (i Tim. iii. 1 5). As a house as a whole consists of different parts, so the Church of God is composed or built up of individual believers who are living stones in this spiritual house. There is no reference here to the thought, so often ex- pressed in the N. T., that the individual believer is " a temple of the living God" (2 Cor. vi. 16), in whom the Holy Spirit dwelleth (i Cor. iii. 16; vi. 19). In Eph. ii. 19-22 these two ideas, however, are both dwelt upon. To be a holy priesthood. Every believer has the great privilege of performing the office of a priest, drawing near to God and offering spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God through Jesus Christ. Peter here definitely teaches the universal priesthood oi all believers. This service is defined as a holy priesthood because its origin lies in the Holy Ghost, but especially because its aim is the sanctification and holiness of the believer. To offer up spiritual sacri= fices. This describes the activity of the Christian Church in all her members. The office of a priest is twofold, to offer sacrifice and to pray. As Christ our great High Priest offered His own body for us (Heb. x. 10 ; i Pet. ii. 24), and ever liveth to make intercession for us (ITeb. vii. 25 ; ix. 24), so all believers in the exercise of their uni- versal priesthood must offer up spiritual sacrifices, which consist in these two things: (i) a spiritual sacrifice of their bodies (Rom. xii. i\ including true self-denial on our part (Heb. xiii. 16; Phil. iv. 18), and the taking up of one's cross daily (Luke ix. 23) ; and (2) prayer and prai.se (Heb. xiii. 15 ; Rev. viii. 3, 4). There is no reference here whatever to preaching. The universal priesthood and the ministerial offiee are two distinct things. Accept= able to God through Jesus Christ. For our spiritual sacrifices have no value in themselves, and we can only draw near unto God through Christ (Heb. vii. 25), and He II. 6-8.] CHAPTER 11. 125 alone as our Mediator makes them acceptable to the Father (John xiv. 6 ; i Tim. ii. 5). 6. Because it is contained in scripture, Behold, I lay in Zion a cliief corner stone, elect, precious [honorable). A free quotation from Isa. xxviii. 16. (See also Rom. ix. 33.) This passage in Isaiah found its fulfilment in Christ. (See also Eph. ii. 20.) And hethat believeth on him (//) shall not be put to shame. So the Greek Bible in Isa. xxvii. 16, but the Hebrew reads, "he that believeth shall not make haste," i. e. like a coward flee. The thought is the same. We may say that the corner stone was laid at the time of the resurrection and glori- fication of Christ. J. For you [in your sight) therefore which believe is the preciousness (Jiononr). Believers shall not be put to shame, but shall be sharers in the honor which mystical union with that corner stone imparts. But for such as disbelieve. This includes not only those who actively resist, but all who do not believe on Christ (John iii. t6, 18, 36). The stone which the builders rejected. From the Greek Bible of Ps. cxviii. 22, also quoted by Peter in Acts iv. II. (See notes on i Pet. ii. 4.) The same was made the head of the corner. Primarily to believers, ^^•ho arc built upon Him ; but unbelievers also shall find by experience, to their own sorrow, that Christ is the head of the corner. Christ Himself also quotes Ps. cxviii. 22 and adds, " Every one that falleth on that stone shall be broken to pieces ; but on whomsoever it shall fall, it will scatter him as dust" (Luke xx. 18). 8. And, a stone of stumbling and a rock of offence, A quotation taken from Isa. viii. 14, also referred to by Paul (Rom. ix 32, 33). The exalted and glorified Christ is objectively (not only subjectively^ " a stone of stum- bling," a stone of destruction for unbelievers (Luke ii. 34; 126 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [ii. 9, especially Luke xx. 18). For they stumble at the word, being disobedient, or wJio stumble, being disobedient to the tvord. We prefer the translation as given in the margin of the R. V. Here Peter refers to the subjective condi- tion of unbelievers. They stumble, and this is their pun- ishment, because they are disobedient to the tvord. Whereunto also they were appointed. Scripture is very clear on this point. No one is appointed unto disobe- dienee, but all who do not believe on Christ are appointed unto stiimbling. This is the moral order of the universe (Rom. i. 24). God punishes sin with sin, unbelief with unbelief. Whatsoever a man soweth, that also shall he reap. 9. But ye are an elect race. The expression is taken from the Greek Bible of Isa. xliii. 20 {chosen people). (See also Deut. vii. 6, 7. See notes on i Pet. i. i.) A royal priesthood. From the Greek Bible of Ex. xix. 6 ; the Hebrew reads a kingdom of priests. For the nature of this universal priesthood see notes on ii. 5. It is called a royal priesthood, because the Church is a kingdom, of which all the members are priests (Rev. i. 6 ; v. 10), Avho serve the King with spiritual sacrifices (ii. 5). A holy nation. Also from Ex. xix. 6. (Compare Eph. V. 25-27.) A people for God's own possession. From the Greek Bible of Ex. xix. 5 ; Deut. vii. 6; Mai. iii. 17 ; but especially Isa. xliii. 21. "Our Saviour Jesus Christ gave Himself for us, that He might redeem us from all iniquity, and purify unto Himself a people for His oi^ni possession, zealous of good works" (Tit. ii. 14). That ye may shew forth the excellencies of him. Suggested by Isa. xliii. 21 (Greek Bible). These virtues or excellencies of God are His glorious attributes displayed in the plan of salvation. Who called you out of darkness into his marvellous light. It is God the Father who calls us (i Pet . v. II. IO-I2.] CHAPTER IT. 127 10) into His kingdom through the preaching of the Gospel. 10. Which in time past were no people, but now are the people of God : which had not obtained mercy, but now have obtained mercy. A reference to Hos. ii. 23. In Hosea these words apply to Israel; Paul in Rom. ix. 25 applies them to the Gentiles; Peter here says that they apply to the whole Church of God, as consisting of Jews and Gentiles. 9. Exhortation to Abstain from Fleshly Lusts. II, 12. Beloved, I beseech you as sojourners and pilgrims, to abstain from fleshly lusts, which war against the soul ; having j-our behaviour seemly among the Gentiles ; that, wherein they speak against you as evil- doers, they may by your good works, which they behold, glorify God in the day of visitation. 1 1. Beloved, I beseech you as sojourners and pilgrims. The word sojourno's emphasizes the idea that the home of the believer is in heaven, the stzowA pilgrims, that on earth he is a stranger. To abstain from fleshly lusts. This presents the negative aspect of sanctification. (See notes on i. 22,) These lusts are fleshly, because they have their origin and seat in the flesh (Gal. v. 16, 17 ; Eph. ii. 3 ; 2 Pet. ii. 18). There is to be an inward and outward abstinence on the part of the believer (Matt. xv. 19). The lust of the flesh (gluttony, drunkenness, sensuality) gives birth to all manner of evil. Which war. Very suggestive, — not only do these lusts hinder and obstruct, but they fight against the soul, which is to be saved and purified by obedience to the truth (i. 22). 12. Having your behaviour seemly. Their manner of life was to be beautiful and praisezvorthy by reason of purity of heart and life. Among the Gentiles. For the churches to which Peter wTote were in Gentile lands. 128 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER. [ii. 13. That, wherein they speak against you as evil=doers. This states the purpose of their good behavior. The Gentiles too often misunderstood and referred to evil motives the works. and life of believers. They may by your good works,, which they behold, glorify God in the day of visitation. The day of God's visitation is when He brings salvation or when He brings punishment. The context, however, shows that Peter is here referring to a gracious visitation of God to the Gentiles, who, by the good example of the believers, are brought to repentance and faith, and are thus led to glorify God. 10. Be Good Citizens. 13-17. Be subject to every ordinance of man for the Lord's sake : whether it be to the king, as supreme ; or unto governors, as sent by him for vengeance on evil-doers and for praise to them that do well. For so is the will of God, that by well-doing ye should put to silence the ignorance of foolish men : as free, and not using your freedom for a cloke of wicked- ness, but as bondservants of God. Honour all men. Love the brotherhood. Fear God. Honour the king. 13. Be subject to every ordinance {creation) of man. This section is a practical application of the exhortation of verse 12. Christians are to be subject to every insti- tution of human civil society. The moral life of society is developed in the Family, the State, and the Church. In ii. 5, Peter treats of the Church; in ii. 18 — iii. 7, of the Family; and here, ii. 13-17, of the State. The State is not a human invention, but a divine ordinance (Rom. xiii. I, 2). This does not, however, exclude the fact, as here stated (verses 13, 14), that the State is also a human ordinance ; for its administration and execution have, by means of a long historical development, been entrusted to the hands of sinful men. We are to obey and submit to all laws of the State that are not contrary to the divine law (Acts iv. 19, 20; V. 29). For the Lord's sake. For II. I4-I7-] CHAPTER II. 129 such is the will of Christ, who also once was subject in all things (Matt. v. 17). Whether it be to the king, as supreme. The Roman Emperor Nero is here referred to. 14. Or unto governors, as sent by [through) him for vengeance on evil=doers and for praise to them that do well. These governors were sent by the Emperors of Rome to administer justice. (See Rom. xiii. 3, 4,) Pilate, Felix, and Festus were such governors. 15. For so is the will of God, that by weIl=doing ye should put to silence the ignorance of foolish men. Lit- erally, injir;zle the ignorance, as if it had been speaking (verse 12). WORDSWORTH: "Observe the paradox, — miiazle by love'' 16. As free. This is to be connected with be stibjeet of verse 13. Their submission to authority is not that of slaves, but as of those who have found true freedom in Christ, and who submit themselves voluntarily because "it is the will of God " (verse 15), and " for the Lord's sake" (verse 13). And not using [having) your freedom for a cloke of wickedness [nialice). We have here a neg- ative definition of their freedom, followed also by the positive statement, but as bondservants of God. (See Rom. vi. 16-18.) Luther: "This is said especially for us, who have heard of Christian freedom, that we may not go on and abuse this freedom, making a cloak of it ; that is to say, under the name and show of Christian freedom do all that we lust after." 17. Honour all men. We have four exhortations in this verse, of which the first three form a climax, and in the last there is a return to the principal theme of the section. Believers are to honor all men, because they are God's creatures, and it is God's will that they .should be saved (i Tim. ii. 4). Love the brotherhood. (See notes on i. 22.) Fear God. (See notes on i. 17.) Live as in 9 I30 FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF PETER^ [rt. i8. the very presence of God, with an holy awe, dreading in any way, either by thought, word, or deed, to grieve the love of God. Honour the king. The Apostle is guided by the historical conditions of his time. We honor the emperor, king, president, or governor, when we obey the laws which are administered by the authority of govern- ment. II. The Suffering Christ an Example to Believ- ing Servants. 18-25. Servants, he in subjection to your masters with all fear ; not only to the good and gentle, but also to the froward. For this is acceptable, if for conscience toward God a man endureth griefs, suffering wrongfully. For what glory is it, if, when ye sin, and are buff eted /or /7, ye shall take it patiently ? but if, when ye do well, and suffer for it, ye shall take it patiently this is acceptable with God. For hereunto were ye called : because Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, that ye should follow his steps : who did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth : who, when he was reviled, reviled not again ; when he suffered, threatened not ; but committed hi nisclf to him that judgeth righteously : who his own self bare our sins in his body upon the tree, that we, having died unto sins, might live unto righteousness ; by whose stripes ye were healed. For ye were going astray like sheep ; but are now returned unto the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls. 18. Servants. That is JiouscJiold-scrvants, domestics, a milder term than the one that Paul uses {liondscTvants, Eph. vi. 5 ; Col. iii. 22), probably used by Peter to desig- nate the servants in the Jewish-Christian families. We have in this section another application of the exhorta- tion given in verse 12. Be in subjection to your masters with all fear. This means more than reverence (Eph. vi. 5). It is a fear, based upon the fear of God, of trans- gressing the will of the master. Not only to the good and gentle, but also to the froward. To those who are erooked, perverse, hard and unjust, who without cause have recourse to severity, blows, and reproaches. 19. For this is acceptable [grace), if for conscience II, 19-21.] CHAPTER II. 131 toward [of) God a man endureth griefs, suffering wrong= fully. If we suffer " for conscience' sal