SANSKRIT GRAMMAR. 31 o n b o u : MACMILLAN AND CO. PUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OR ©iforfi. SOLD ALSO BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO. WATERLOO PLACE, Pvblishers to the India Office. PRACTICAL GRAMMAR OF THE SANSKRIT LANGUAGE ARRANGED WITH REFERENCE TO THE CLASSICAL LANGUAGES OF EUROPE, FOR THE USE OF ENGLISH STUDENTS. / MONIER WILLIAMS, M. A. BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, ETC. THIRD EDITION, MUCH ENLARGED AND IMPROVED. (SMTorfo : AT THE CLARENDON PRESS. M.DCCC.LXIV, Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/practicalgrammarOOmoni PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. IN putting forth this third edition of my Sanskrit Grammar I am bound to confess that the great general development of Sanskrit learning, since the last edition, has compelled me almost to re-write the work for the third time. Any one who compares the present Grammar with its predecessor will see at once the difference between the two, not indeed in its structure and arrangement, nor even in the numbering of the rules*, hut in the fuller and more complete explanation of points of detail. Thanks to the criticisms of other scholars, (generally tendered in that tone of courtesy and spirit of humility which always characterize true learning,) I have been enabled to correct the errors which, notwithstanding all my efforts, unassisted as I was in the work of revision, crept into my last edition. But I dare not even now hope to have attained the standard of perfection. Sanskrit is far too vast and intri- * In some few instances I have been forced to vary slightly the num- bering of the rules; but as my edition of ‘the Story of Nala’ is more than half exhausted, and as Professor Johnson’s references to my Grammar in his new ‘ Hitopadesa’ are to my present edition, the variation will not be of much importance. b VI PREFACE TO THE cate a subject, and lias still too many untrodden fields of labour, to admit of such pretensions. All I can with truth affirm is, that I have done what I could to bring the pre- sent edition up to the level of the scholarship of the day ; and that if my life be spared to complete any further editions that may be required, it will be my duty to apply my energies again towards the same object. In deference to the increasing attention given by Con- tinental scholars to the study of the Veda, I have intro- duced more notices of Yedic peculiarities in the present work; and I have to thank my friend Dr. Kielhorn for his aid in adding to these notices, and in revising the proof-sheets as they issued from the press. Respect for the views of German scholars, to whose laborious research we English students of Sanskrit cannot be too grateful, has also induced me to make more references to the great native grammarian Panini, and generally to add more allusions to the technical phraseology of Indian gram- matical writers than in my last edition. Nevertheless, I do not venture to hope, that my method of teaching Sanskrit, addressing itself especially to the English mind, will ever approve itself to Continental students, any more than the Sanskrit Grammars published by German scholars commend themselves to my judgment. But doctors may disagree and yet respect each other’s opinions. The public, at least, must be the sole judge of the merits of opposite systems ; and harsh censure of each other’s statements in publications which are competing for public favour, is not only unproductive of good, and unbefitting the character of true scholars, but discreditable to the quarter whence such censure emanates. THIRD EDITION. vii I therefore decline all controversy; nor will I enter on the profitless task of defending my own theories against the attacks of rival grammarians, but simply say that my sole aim as Boden Professor is the promotion of a more general and critical knowledge of the Sanskrit language among my own fellow-countrymen, to whose rule a vast Eastern Empire has been committed, and who cannot hope, except through Sanskrit, to know the spoken dialects of India, or to understand the mind, read the thoughts, and reach the very heart and soul of the Hindus themselves. Oxfokd, June 1864. M. W. PREFACE TO THE PREVIOUS EDITION* IN 1846 I published a Grammar of the Sanskrit language, which I entitled ‘An elementary Grammar, arranged accord- ing to a new Theory.’ This work is now out of print, and a new edition is required. The increasing experience which, during the subsequent ten years, I have derived from my duties as Sanskrit Professor at the East-India College, where every student without exception is compelled by statute to acquire this language, has led me to modify some of the views I expressed in my first Grammar respect- ing the Indian grammatical system. I have consequently felt myself called upon to re-write the book ; and although I have seen no reason to depart materially from the arrangement originally adopted, yet I am confident that the present enlarged and more complete work will be found even better adapted than its predecessor to the practical wants of the European student. At the best, a grammar is regarded by an European as a necessary evil, only to be tolerated because unavoidable. Especially must it be so in the case of a language con- fessedly more copious, more elaborate and artificial, than any other language of the world, living or dead. The structure of such a language must of necessity be highly complex. To the native of Hindustan this complexity is a positive recommendation. He views in it an evidence and * I have slightly abridged this Preface. X PREFACE TO THE a pledge of the sacred and unapproachable character of the tongue which he venerates as divine. To him the study of its intricate grammar is an end, complete and satisfying in itself. He wanders with delight in its perplexing mazes ; and values that grammar most which enters most minutely into an abstract analysis of the construction of the lan- guage, apart from its practical bearing on the literature or even on the formation of his own vernacular dialect. But the matter-of-fact temperament of an European, or at least of an Englishman, his peculiar mental organization, his hereditary and educational bias, are opposed to all such purely philosophical ideas of grammatical investigation. A Sanskrit grammar intended for his use must be plain, straightforward, practical ; not founded on the mere abstract theory of native grammarians, not moulded in servile con- formity to Indian authority, but constructed independently from an examination of the literature, and with direct reference to the influence exercised by Sanskrit on the spoken dialects of India and the cognate languages of Europe. To the English student, as a general rule, all grammatical study is a disagreeable necessity — a mere means to an end — a troublesome road that must be passed in order that the goal of a sound knowledge of a language may be attained. To meet his requirements the ground must be cleared of needless obstacles, its rough places made smooth, its crooked places straight, and the passage over it facilitated by simplicity and perspicuity of arrange- ment, by consistency and unity of design, by abundance of example and illustration, by synoptical tables, bv copious indices, by the various artifices of typography. Before directing attention to the main features of the plan adopted in the present volume, and indicating the principal points in which it either differs from or conforms to the Indian system of grammatical tuition, I will endea- vour to explain briefly what that system is; on what prin- SECOND EDITION. xi ciples it is based ; and in what relation it stands to the literature. It might have been expected that in Sanskrit, as in other languages, grammatical works should have been composed in direct subservience to the literature. But without going the length of affirming that the rules were anterior to the practice, or that grammarians in their ela- borate precepts aimed at inventing forms of speech which were not established by approved usage, certain it is that in India we have presented to us the curious phenomenon of a vast assemblage of purely grammatical treatises, the professed object of which is not so much to elucidate the existing literature, as to be studied for their own sake, or as ancillary to the study of the more abstruse work of the first great grammarian, Panini. We have, moreover, two distinct phases of literature ; the one, simple and natural — that is to say, composed independently of grammatical rules, though of course amenable to them ; the other, ela- borate, artificial, and professedly written to exemplify the theory of grammar. The Vedas, indeed, the earliest parts of which are generally referred back to the 12th or 13th century b. c., abound in obsolete and peculiar formations, mixed up with the more recent forms of grammar with so much irregularity as to lead to the inference, that the lan- guage at that time was too unsettled and variable to be brought under subjection to a system of strict grammatical rules; while the simplicity of the style in the code of Manu and the two epic poems is a plain indication that a grammar founded on and intended to be a guide to the literature as it then existed, would have differed from the Paniniya Sutras as a straight road from a labyrinth. What then was the nature of Pan ini’s extraordinary work? It consisted of about four thousand Sutras or aphorisms, composed with the symbolic brevity of the most concise memoria technica. These were to the science PREFACE TO THE xii of Sanskrit grammar what the seed is to the tree, the bud to the full-blown flower. They were the germ of that series of grammatical treatises which, taking root in them, speedily germinated and ramified in all directions. Each aphorism, in itself more dark and mystic than the darkest and most mystical of oracles, was pregnant with an end- less progeny of interpretations and commentaries, some- times as obscure as the original. About one hundred and fifty grammarians and annotators followed in the footsteps of the great Father of Sanskrit grammar*, and, professing to explain and illustrate his dicta, made the display of their own philological learning the paramount aim and purpose of their disquisitions. It cannot be wondered, when all the subtlety of the Indian intellect expended itself in this direction, that the science of Sanskrit grammar should have been refined and elaborated by the Hindus to a degree wholly unknown in the other languages of the world. The highly artificial writings of later times resulted from such an elaboration, and were closely interwoven with it ; and although much of the literature was still simple and natural, the greater part was affected by that passion for the display of philo- logical erudition which was derived from the works of Panini and his disciples. Poetry itself became partially inoculated with the mania. Great poets, like Kalidasa, who in the generality of their writings were remarkable for majestic simplicity and vigour, condescended in some * It should be stated here, that Yaska, the well known explainer of the Yedic dialect, was doubtless earlier than Panini, who is himself now generally placed in the middle of the 4th century B. c. Panini, moreover, mentions the names of at least ten grammarians older than himself. The most illustrious followers of Panini were, 1. Ivatyayana, who wrote the Varttikas or Supple- mentary Rules. 2. Patanjali, who wrote the great commentary on Panini (Maha-bhashya), in which he often criticises the criticisms of his predecessor Katyayana. 3. Kaiyata, who, in his turn, commented on Patanjali. Yopadeva, a great authority in Bengal, lived probably in the 13th century of our era. SECOND EDITION. xiii of their works to humour the taste of the day by adopting a pedantic and obscure style; while others, like Bhatti, wrote long poems, either with the avowed object of exem- plifying grammar, or with the ill-concealed motive of exhi- biting their own familiarity with the niceties and subtleties of speech. Indeed it is to be regretted that the Pandits of India should have overlaid their system, possessing as it does undeniable excellences, with a network of mysticism. Had they designed to keep the key of the knowledge of their language, and to shut the door against the vulgar, they could hardly have invented a method more perplexing and discouraging to beginners. Having required, as a prelimi- nary step, that the student shall pass a noviciate of ten years in the grammar alone, they have constructed a com- plicated machinery of signs, symbols, and indicatory letters, which may have been well calculated to aid the memory of native teachers when printing was unknown, hut only serves to bewilder the English tyro. He has enough to do, in conquering the difficulties of a strange character, without puzzling himself at the very threshold in a labyrinth of symbols and abbreviations, and perplexing himself in his endeavour to understand a complicated cipher, with an equalty complicated key to its interpretation. Even Cole- brooke, the profoundest Sanskrit scholar of his day, imbued as he was with a predilection for every thing Indian, re- marks on the eight lectures or chapters, which, with four sections under each, comprise all the celebrated Paniniya Sutras, and constitute the basis of the Hindu grammatical system ; — ‘ The outline of Panini’s arrangement is simple, but numerous exceptions and frequent digressions have involved it in much seeming confusion. The first two lectures (the first section especially, which is in a manner the key of the whole grammar) contain definitions ; in the three next are collected the affixes by which verbs and c XIV PREFACE TO THE nouns are inflected. Those which appertain to verbs occupy the third lecture ; the fourth and fifth contain such as are affixed to nouns. The remaining three lectures treat of the changes which roots and affixes undergo in special cases, or by general rules of orthography, and which are all effected by the addition or by the substitution of one or more elements. The apparent simplicity of the design vanishes in the perplexity of the structure. The endless pursuit of exceptions and limitations so disjoins the general precepts, that the reader cannot keep in view their intended con- nexion and mutual relation. He wanders in an intricate maze, and the clue of the labyrinth is continually slipping from his hand.’ Again ; ‘ The studied brevity of the Pani- niya Sutras renders them in the highest degree obscure; even with the knowledge of the key to their interpretation, the student finds them ambiguous. In the application of them, when understood, he discovers many seeming con- tradictions ; and, with every exertion of practised memory, he must experience the utmost difficulty in combining rules dispersed in apparent confusion through different portions of Panini’s eight lectures.’ That the reader may judge for himself of the almost incredible brevity and hopeless obscurity of these gram- matical aphorisms, we here present him with the closing Sutra at the end of the eighth lecture, as follows : ‘ ^ a Will it be believed that this is interpreted to mean, ‘ Let short a be held to have its organ of utterance contracted, now that we have reached the end of the work, in which it was necessary to regard it as being otherwise V My aim has been, in the present work, to avoid the mysticism of Indian grammarians, without ignoring the best parts of their system, and without rejecting such of their technical symbols as I have found by experience to be really useful in assisting the memory. With reference to my first chapter, the student will SECOND EDITION. xv doubtless be impatient of the space devoted to the expla- nation of the alphabet. Let him understand at the outset, that a minute and accurate adjustment of the mutual rela- tionship of letters is the very hinge of the whole subject of Sanskrit grammar. It is the point which distinguishes the grammar of this language from that of every other. In fact, Sanskrit, in its whole structure, is an elaborate pro- cess of combining letters according to prescribed rules. Its entire grammatical system, the regular formation of its nouns and verbs from crude roots, its theory of declension and conjugation, and the arrangement of its sentences, all turn on the reciprocal relationship and interchangeableness of letters, and the laws which regulate their euphonic com- bination. These laws, moreover, are the key to the influ- ence which this language has exercised on the study of comparative philology. Such being the case, it is scarcely possible for a Sanskrit grammar to be too full, luminous, and explicit in treating of the letters, their pronunciation, classification, and mutual affinities. With regard to the second chapter, which contains the rules of Sandhi or euphonic combination, I have endea- voured as far as possible to simplify a part of the grammar which is the great impediment to the progress of beginners. There can be little doubt that the necessity imposed on early students of conquering these rules at the commence- ment of the grammar, is the cause Why so many who address themselves energetically to the study of the lan- guage are compelled after the first onset to retire from the field dispirited, if not totally discomfited. The rules for the combination and permutation of letters form, as it were, a mountain of difficulty to be passed at the very begin- ning of the journey; and the learner cannot be convinced that, when once surmounted, the ground beyond may be more smooth than in other languages, the ingress to which is comparatively easy. My aim has been to facilitate the XVI PREFACE TO THE comprehension of these rules, not indeed by omission or abbreviation, but by a perspicuous method of arrangement, and by the exhibition of every Sanskrit word with its equivalent English letters. The student must understand that there are two distinct classes of rules of Sandhi, viz. those which affect the final or initial letters of complete words in a sentence, and those which relate to the euphonic junction of roots or crude bases with affixes and termina- tions. Many of the latter class come first into operation in the conjugation of the more difficult verbs. In order, therefore, that the student may not be embarrassed with these rules, until they are required, the consideration of them is reserved to the middle of the volume. (See p. 147.) As to the chapter on Sanskrit roots and the formation of nominal bases, the place which it occupies before the chapter on declension, although unusual, scarcely calls for explanation ; depending as it does on the theory that nouns as well as verbs are derived from roots, and that the formation of a nominal base must precede the declension of a noun, just as the formation of a verbal base must be anterior to the conjugation of a verb. Consistency and clearness of arrangement certainly require that an enume- ration of the affixes by which the bases of nouns are formed should precede their inflection. The early student, however, may satisfy himself by a cursory observation of the eight classes under which these affixes are distributed. Some of the most uncommon, which are only applicable to single words, have been omitted. Moreover, in accordance with the practical character of the present Grammar, the servile and indicatory letters of Indian grammarians, under which the true affix is often concealed, if not altogether lost, have been discarded. For example, the adjective dhana-vat, ‘ rich,’ is considered in the following pages to be formed by the affix vat, and not, as in native Grammars, by matup ; and the substantive bhoj-ana, ‘ food,' is consi- SECOND EDITION. xvii dered to be formed with the affix ana, and not, as in native Grammars, by lyut. In my explanation of the inflection of the base of both nouns and verbs, I have, as before, treated both declension and conjugation as a process of Sandhi; that is to say, junction of the crude base, (as previously formed from the root,) with the terminations. But in the present Grammar I have thought it expedient to lay more stress on the general scheme of terminations propounded by native grammarians; and in the application of this scheme to the base, I have referred more systematically to the rules of euphonic combination, as essential to a sound acquaint- ance with the principles of nominal and verbal inflection. On the other hand, I have in the present work deviated from the Indian system by retaining u s as a final in the declension of nouns and conjugation of verbs, for the prac- tical reason of its being more tangible and easy to appre- hend than the symbol Visarga or h, which is less per- ceptible in pronunciation. (See the observations under changes of final s, p. 40.) Even in native Grammars those terminations, the finals of which are afterwards changed to Visarga, are always regarded as originally ending in s; and the subsequent resolution of s into h, when the termi- nation is connected with the base, is a source of confusion and uncertainty. Thus s is said to be the termination of the nominative case ; but the nominative of agni, ‘ fire,’ would according to the Indian system be written ^fVrr: agnik, which an Englishman would scarcely distinguish in pro- nunciation from the base agni. In the following pages, therefore, the nominative is given agnis ; and the liability of agnis to become agnih and agnir is explained under the head of changes of final s (at pp. 40, 41). This plan has also the advantage of exhibiting the resemblance between the system of inflection in Sanskrit and Latin and Greek. The difficulty experienced in comprehending the subject PREFACE TO THE xviii of Sanskrit conjugation has led me to give abundant exam- ples of verbs conjugated at full. I have of course deviated from the Indian plan of placing the third person first. I have, moreover, deemed it advisable to exhibit the English equivalents of Sanskrit words in the principal examples under each declension and conjugation, knowing by expe- rience the thankfulness with which this aid is received by early students, not thoroughly familiar with the Deva- nagari character. The numerous examples of verbs, pri- mitive and derivative, will be found to include all the most useful in the language. In previous Grammars it has been usual to follow the native method of giving only the 3d pers. sing, of each tense, with an occasional indication of any peculiarities in the other persons. The present Grammar, on the other hand, exhibits the more difficult tenses of every verb in full, referring at the same time for the explanation of every peculiar formation to the rule, in the preceding pages, on which it depends. This is especially true of the 2d and 3d preterite (or perfect and aorist), as these constitute the chief difficulty of the Sanskrit verb; and I have constantly found that even advanced students, if required to write out these tenses, will be guilty of inaccuracies, notwithstanding one or two of the persons may have been given for their guidance. In the chapter on compound words I have again endea- voured, without ignoring the Indian arrangement, to dis- embarrass it of many elements of perplexity, and to treat the whole subject in a manner more in unison with European ideas. The explanations I have given rest on actual examples selected by myself from ‘the Hitopadesa’ and other standard works in ordinary use. Indeed this chapter and that on syntax constitute the most original part of the present volume. In composing the syntax, the literature as it exists has been my only guide. All the examples are taken from classical authors, so as to serve SECOND EDITION. xix tlie purpose of an easy delectus, in which the learner may exercise himself before passing to continuous translation. The deficiency of native Grammars on this important sub- ject is only to be accounted for on the supposition that their aim was to furnish an elaborate analysis of the philosophical structure of the language, rather than a practical guide to the study of the literature. The exercises in translation and parsing, in the last chapter of this volume, will, it is hoped, facilitate the early student’s first effort at translation. In regard to the general scope of the hook, it remains to state that my aim has been to minister to the wants of the earliest as well as the more advanced student. I have therefore employed types of two different sizes ; the larger of which is, of course, intended to attract the eye to those parts of the subject to which the attention of the beginner may advantageously be confined. The smaller, however, often contains important matter which is by no means to be overlooked on a second perusal. Under the conviction that the study of Sanskrit ought to possess charms for the classical scholar, independently of its wonderful literature, I have taken pains to introduce in small type the most striking comparisons between this language and Latin and Greek. I am bound to acknowledge that I have drawn nearly all the materials for this import- ant addition to the book from the English translation of Bopp’s ‘Comparative Grammar,’ by my friend and colleague Professor Eastwick. One point more remains to be noticed. The want of an Index was felt to be a serious defect in my first Grammar. This omission is now supplied. Two full Indices have been appended to the present work, the one English, and the other Sanskrit. The latter will enable the student to turn at once to any noun, verb, affix, idiom or peculiar forma- tion explained in the foregoing pages. XX PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. In conclusion, I desire to take this opportunity of ex- pressing to the Delegates of the Oxford University Press my grateful and respectful sense of the advantages the volume derives from their favour and patronage*. M. W. EAST-INDIA COLLEGE, HAILEY BURY, January 1857. * Not the least of these advantages has been the use of a press which, in its appointments and general efficiency, stands unrivalled. The judgment and accuracy with which the most intricate parts of my MS. have been printed, have excited a thankfulness in my mind, which those only can understand who know the toil of correcting the press, when much Oriental type is interspersed with the Roman, and when a multitude of minute diacritical points, dots, and accents have to be employed to represent the Deva-nagari letters. CONTENTS PAGE Introductory remarks xxiii Chap. I. — Letters 1 Pronunciation 10 Classification 13 Accentuation 17 Method of writing 19 Chap. II.— Sandhi or euphonic permutation of letters 22 Sect. I. Changes of vowels 23 Sect. II. Changes of consonants 31 Chap. III. — Sanskrit roots, and the formation of the crude bases of nouns 48 Formation of the base of nouns by affixes 54 Chap. IV. — Declension of nouns. General observations 64 Sect. I. Declension of nouns whose bases end in vowels 72 Sect. II. Declension of nouns whose bases end in consonants .... 85 Sect. III. Adjectives 102 Sect. IY. Numerals 107 Chap. Y. — Pronouns 112 Chap. VI. — Verbs. General observations 120 Terminations 124 Summary of the ten conjugations 132 Formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses : Of group I. or verbs of the first, fourth, sixth, and tenth classes 1 39 Of groups II. and III 145 The new rules of Sandhi required for group II 147 Of group II. or verbs of the second, third, and seventh classes 150 Of gi’oup III. or verbs of the fifth, eighth, and ninth classes . . 158 Formation of the base in the six non-conjugational tenses : Perfect or second preterite ; formation of the base 160 First and second future; formation of the base 170 Pules for inserting or rejecting the vowel i 172 Aorist or third preterite ; formation of the base 178 Precative or benedictive; formation of the base 186 Conditional ; formation of the base 189 Infinitive ; formation of the base 190 Passive verbs; formation of the base 190 Causal verbs; formation of the base 195 Desiderative verbs ; formation of tbe base 202 Frequentative or intensive verbs; formation of the base 206 d xxii CONTENTS. PAGE Nominal verbs 209 Participles 212 Participial nouns of agency 228 Examples of verbs inflected at full : Table of verbs of the ten conjugations inflected at full 229 Table of passive verbs inflected at full 238 Auxiliary verbs conjugated 243 Group I. Verbs of the first class conjugated 244 Verbs of the fourth class conjugated 261 Verbs of the sixth class conjugated 265 Verbs of the tenth class conjugated 2/0 Group II. Verbs of the second class conjugated 273 Verbs of the third class conjugated 281 Verbs of the seventh class conjugated 285 Group III. Verbs of the fifth class conjugated 290 Verbs of the eighth class conjugated 295 Verbs of the ninth class conjugated 298 Passive verbs conjugated 303 Causal verbs conjugated 305 Desiderative verbs conjugated 306 Frequentative or intensive verbs conjugated 308 Chap. VII. — Indeclinable words. Adverbs 311 Conjunctions 315 Prepositions 316 Interjections 318 Chap. VIII. — Compound words. Sect. I. Compound nouns 319 Tat-purusha or dependent compounds 321 Dvandva or copulative (aggregative) compounds 324 Karma-dharaya or descriptive (determinative) compounds .... 32/ Dvigu or numeral (collective) compounds 328 Avyayi-bhava or adverbial (indeclinable) compounds 328 Bahu-vrihi or relative compounds 329 Complex compounds 334 Changes of certain words in certain compounds 337 Sect. II. Compound verbs 340 Sect. III. Compound adverbs 347 Chap. IX. — Syntax 348 Chap. X. — Exercises in translation and parsing 381 Scheme of the more common Sanskrit metres 388 English index 393 Sanskrit index 397 List of compound or conjunct consonants 407 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. SANSKRIT is the classical and learned language of the Hindus, in which all their literature is written, and which bears the same rela- tion to their vernacular dialects that Greek and Latin bear to the spoken dialects of Europe. It is one of the family called by modern philologists Arian * or Indo-European ; that is to say, it is derived, in common with the languages of Europe, from that primeval but extinct type, once spoken by a tribe in Central Asia, partly pastoral, partly agricultural, who afterwards separated into distinct nationalities, migrating first southwards into Aryavarta or Upper India — the vast territory between the Himalaya andVindhya mountains — and then northwards and westwards into Europe. In all probability Sanskrit approaches more nearly to this primi- tive type than any of its sister-tongues ; but, however this may be, comparative philology has proved beyond a donbt its community with Greek, Latin, Persian!, Gothic, Lithuanian, Slavonic, Keltic, and through some of these with Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, German, and our own mother-tongue. The word Sanskrit sanskrita or samskrita, see 6. f) is made up of the preposition sain (WT = crw, con), ‘together, 5 and the passive participle krita (wi \=f actus), ‘made, 5 an euphonic s being inserted (see 53. a. and 6. b. of the following Grammar). The com- pound means ‘ carefully constructed, 5 ‘ symmetrically formed 5 ( con - fectus, constructus). In this sense it is opposed to Prakrit (TTTWTT * More properly written Aryan, from the Sanskrit ^?T*T arya, ‘ noble,’ ‘ honour- able,’ ‘venerable,’ the name assumed by the race who immigrated into Northern India, thence called Aryavarta, ‘the abode of the Aryans.’ t Especially old Persian. Zand (or Zend), which is closely connected with old Persian, might be added to the list, although the reality of this language as any thing more than the vehicle of the sacred writings called Zand-Avasta (affirmed by the Parsi priests of Persia and India to be the composition of their prophet Zoro- aster) has been disputed. Comparative philologists also add Armenian. d 3 XXIV INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. prakrita), ‘ common,’ ‘ natural/ the name given to the vulgar dialects which gradually arose out of it, and from which most of the languages now spoken in Upper India are more or less directly derived. It is probable that Sanskrit, although a real language — once the living tongue of the Aryan or dominant races, and still the learned lan- guage of India, preserved in all its purity through the medium of an immense literature — was never spoken in its most perfect and systematized form by the mass of the people. For we may reason- ably conjecture, that if the language of Addison differed from the vulgar and provincial English of his own day, and if the Latin of Cicero differed from the spoken dialect of the Roman plebeian, much more must the most polished and artificial of all languages have suf- fered corruption when it became the common speech of a vast commu- nity, whose separation from the educated classes was far more marked. To make this hypothesis clearer, it maybe well to remind the reader, that, before the arrival of the Sanskrit-speaking immigrants, India was inhabited by a rude people, called ‘ barbarians 5 or ‘ outcastes 5 (MleiShas, Nishadas, Dasyus, & c.) by Sanskrit writers, but probably the descendants of various Scythian hordes who, at a remote period, entered India by way of Bilucistan * and the Indus. The more powerful and civilised of these aboriginal tribes appear to have retired before the Aryans into Southern India, and there to have retained their independence, and with their independence the indi- viduality and essential structure of their vernacular dialects. But in Upper India the case was different. There, as the Aryan race in- creased in numbers and importance, their full and powerful language forced itself on the aborigines. The weak and scanty dialect of the latter could no more withstand a conflict with the vigorous Sanskrit, than a puny dwarf the aggression of a giant. Hence the aboriginal tongue gradually wasted away, until its identity became merged in the language of the Aryans ; leaving, however, a faint and skeleton- like impress of itself on the purer Sanskrit of the educated classes, and disintegrating it into Prakrit, to serve the purposes of ordinary speech f. * The Brahui, a dialect of Bilucistan, still preserves its Scythian character. f The cerebral letters in Sanskrit, and words containing cerebral letters, are probably the result of the contact of Sanskrit with the language of the Scythian INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. XXV Prakrit, then, was merely the natural process of change and cor- ruption which the refined Sanskrit underwent in adapting itself to the exigencies of a spoken dialect* *". It was, in fact, the provincial Sanskrit of the mass of the community ; whilst Sanskrit, properly so called, became, as it is to this day, the language of the Brahmans and the accomplishment of the learned f. This provincial Sanskrit assumed of course different modifications, according to the circumstances of the district in which the corrup- tion took place ; and the various modifications of Prakrit are the intermediate links which connect Sanskrit with the dialects at pre- sent spoken by the natives of Hindustan. They have been analyzed and assorted by Vararuci, the ancient grammarian, who was to Prakrit what Panini was to Sanskrit grammar. The most noticeable varieties were the Mdgadhi, spoken in Magadha or Bihar ; the Mahdrashtri, spoken in a district stretching from Central to Western India ; and the Saurasem, spoken on the banks of the Jamna, in the neighbourhood of the ancient Mathura These patois modifications of Sanskrit are employed as the language of the inferior characters in all the Hindu dramas which have come tribes : and a non-Sanskrit, or, as it may be called, a Scythian element, may be traced with the greatest clearness in the modern dialects of Hindustan. In all of these dialects there is a substratum of words, foreign to Sanskrit, which can only be referred to the aboriginal stock. See the last note at the bottom of p. xxii. * It would be interesting to trace the gradual transition of Sanskrit into Prakrit. In a book called the Lalita-vistara, the life and adventures of Buddha are nar- rated in pure Sanskrit. It is probably of no great antiquity, as the Buddhists themselves deny the existence of written authorities for 400 years after Buddha's death (about b. c. 543). But subjoined to the Sanskrit version are gathds or songs, which repeat the story in a kind of mixed dialect, half Sanskrit, half Prakrit. They were probably rude ballads, which, though not written, were current among the people soon after Buddha’s death. They contain Vedic as well as more modern formations, interspersed with Prakrit corruptions (e. g. Slwfi$ for ST^Tf, which is Vedic; and wfirf for VTTVfifT, which is Prakrit), proving that the language was then in a transition state. t The best proof of this is, that in the Hindu dramas all the higher characters speak Sanskrit, whilst the inferior speak various forms of Prakrit. It is idle to suppose that Sanskrit would have been employed at all in dramatic composition, had it not been the spoken language of a section of the community. * Arrian (ch. VIII) describes the Suraseni as inhabiting the city of Methoras. XXVI INTRODUCTORY REMAR KS. down to us, some of which date as far back as the 2d century b. c., and the first of them is identical with Puli, the sacred language of the Ceylon Buddhists* * * § . Out of them arose Hindi (termed Hindustani or Urdu, when mixed with Persian and Arabic words), Marathi, and Gujarathi — the modern dialects spread widely over the country. To these may be added, Bengali, the language of Bengal, which bears a closer resemblance to its parent, Sanskrit, than either of the three enumerated above ; Uriya, the dialect of Orissa, in the pro- vince of Cuttack ; Sindhi, that of Sindh ; Panjabi, of the Pahjab ; Kdsmirian, of Kasmir; and Nipdlese, of Nipalf. The four languages of Southern India, viz. 1. Tamil J, 2. Telugu (the Andhra of Sanskrit writers) (), 3. Kanarese (also called Kannadi or Karnataka), and 4. Malayalam (Malabar) ||, although drawing largely from Sanskrit for their literature, their scientific terms, their religion, their laws, and their social institutions, are proved to be distinct in their structure, and are referred, as might have been expected from the previous account of the aborigines, to the Scy- thian, or, as it is sometimes termed, the Tatar or Turanian type ^f. * Pali, which is identical with the Magadhi Prakrit, is the language in which the sacred books of the Buddhists of Ceylon are written. Buddhist missionaries from Magadha carried their religion, and ultimately (after the decay of Buddhism in India) their language, into that island. Pali (meaning in Singhalese ‘ancient’) is the name which the priests of Ceylon gave to the language of the old country, whence they received their religion. t For an account of some of these dialects, see Prof. H. H. Wilson’s very instructive Preface to his ‘ Glossary of Indian Terms.’ J Often incorrectly written Tamul, and by earlier Europeans erroneously termed Malabar. The cerebral l at the end has rather the sound of rl. § Sometimes called Gentoo by the Europeans of the last generation. || A fifth language is enumerated, viz. Tulu or Tuluva, which holds a middle position between Kanarese and Malayalam, but more nearly resembles the former. It is spoken by only 150,000 people. Added to this, there are four rude and uncul- tivated dialects spoken in various parts of Southern India, viz. the Tuda, Kota, Gond, and Ku or Khond; all of which are affiliated with the Southern group. H This is nevertheless consistent with the theory of a remote original affinity between these languages and Sanskrit and the other members of the Indo-European family. The various branches of the Scythian stock, which spread themselves in all directions westward, northward, and southward, must have radiated from a common centre with the Aryans, although the divergence of the latter took place at a much INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. XXVII Sanskrit is written in various Indian characters, but the character which is peculiarly its own is the Nagari or Deva-nagari, i. e. that of ‘ the divine, royal, or capital city/ The earliest form of this character can scarcely be traced back to a period much anterior to the 3d century b. c.* * ; and the more modern, which is one of the most perfect, comprehensive, and philosophical of all known alphabets, is not traceable for several centuries after Christ. The first is the corrupt character of the various inscriptions which have been discovered on pillars and rocks throughout India, written in Magadhi Prakrit, spoken at the time of Alexander’s invasion over a great part of Hindustan. These inscriptions are ascertained to be addresses from the Buddhist sovereigns of Magadha to the people, enjoining the practice of social virtues and reverence for the priests. They are mostly in the name of Piya-dasi f (for Sanskrit Priya- darsi), supposed to be an epithet of Asoka, who is known to have reigned at some period between the 2d and the 3d century b. c. by his being the grandson of Candra-gupta, probably identical with Sandrakottus, described by Strabo as the most powerful Raja, immediately succeeding Alexander’s death. He was one of the kings of Magadha (Bihar), whose court was at Pali-bothra or Patali- putra (Patna), and who claimed the title of Samrats or universal monarchs ; not without reason, as their addresses are found in these inscriptions at Delhi, and at Kuttack in the south, and again as far west as Gujarat, and again as far north as the Panjab. The imperfect form of Nagari which the corrupt character exhibits is incompatible with Sanskrit orthography. It may therefore be conjectured that a more perfect alphabet existed, which bore the same relation to the corrupt form that Sanskrit bore to Prakrit. later period. It is to be observed, that in the South-Indian dialects the Scythian element constitutes the hulk of the language. It may be compared to the warp, and the Sanskrit admixture to the woof. In the Northern dialects the gram- matical structure and many of the idioms and expressions are still Scythian, but the whole material and substance of the language is Sanskrit. See, on this subject, the able Introduction of the Rev. R. Caldwell to his ‘ Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Languages,’ lately published. * Mr. James Prinsep placed the earliest form as far back as the 5th century b.c, t The regular Prakrit form would be Pia-dassi. Probably the spoken Prakrit of that period approached nearer to Sanskrit than the Prakrit of the plays. XX VI 11 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Nor does it militate against this theory that the perfect character is not found in any ancient inscription, as it is well known that the Brahmans, who alone spoke and understood the pure Sanskrit, and who alone would therefore need that character, never addressed the people, never proselytized, and never cared to emerge from the indolent apathy of a dignified retirement. An interesting table of the various modifications of the Deva- nagari alphabet, both ancient and modern, from the date of the earliest inscriptions to the present time, may be seen in Mr. Edward Thomas’ edition of Prinsep’s ‘ Indian Antiquities,’ vol. II. p. 52*. The perfection of the modern character, and the admirable manner in which it adapts itself to the elaborate and symmetrical structure of the Sanskrit language, will be apparent from the first chapter of the present Grammar. * This table, by the kind permission of Mr. Thomas, was lent to me by Mr. Stephen Austin of Hertford, the printer of the above work, and inserted in my second edition ; but as the table is more interesting to scholars generally than useful to the student of Sanskrit grammar, and as the increase of matter in the present volume makes space an object, I have preferred referring to the table as exhibited in Prinsep’s ‘ Indian Antiquities.’ NOTICE TO THE STUDENT. The publication at the Oxford University Press of ‘the Story of Nala’ (con- fessedly the best reading-book for beginners), as a companion to the present volume, with full vocabulary and copious grammatical references, has almost superseded the need for the exercises in translation and parsing appended to the previous editions of the Grammar. They have, therefore, been much abridged in the following edition. When the Sanskrit-English Dictionary, now being printed under the patronage of the Delegates of the Oxford Press, is completed, the student will be supplied with such facilities for translating the literature that a delectus at the end of the Grammar will be rendered unnecessary. Observe — ‘ The Sanskrit Manual,’ by the author of the present work, contains a complete series of progressive exercises intended to be used in connexion with the rules in the following Grammar, and adapted to facilitate its study. This Manual may be obtained from W. II. Allen & Co., London, or any bookseller. SANSKRIT GRAMMAR. CHAPTER I. LETTERS. I . THE Deva-nagari character, in which the Sanskrit language is written, is adapted to the expression of almost every known gradation of sound; and every letter has a fixed and invariable pronunciation. There are fourteen vowels (or without In * thirteen) and thirty- three simple consonants. To these may he added the nasal symbol, called Anusvdra, and the symbol for a final aspirate, called Visarga (see rule 6). They are here exhibited in the dictionary order f. All the vowels, excepting a, have two forms ; the first is the initial, the second the medial or non-initial. VOWELS. a, W T d, \Ti, I, nT 0 u, ^ ^u, c ri, ^ ^ n, <5 vJXh ^ e, ai, ^TT"T o, W T au. Nasal symbol, called Anusvdra , * m. Symbol for the final aspi- rate, called Visarga, ♦ h. CONSONANTS. Gutturals, k ^ kh ^9 ^ 9 h n- Palatals, ^ 6t H j n Cerebrals, Zt Z (h ^ d ^ dh n Dentals, fT t th ^ d V dh n Labials, tT p ^ ph ^ b ^ bh m Semivowels, ^ y Xr c5 l V Sibilants, ^ s ^ sh * s Aspirate, h * See rule 3. b. t The character ©5 h is n °t given, as being peculiar to the Vedas. See 16. a. + la the previous editions this letter was represented by ch, out of deference to - . / B <2 LETTERS. The compound or conjunct consonants (see rule 5) may be mul- tiplied to the extent of four or five hundred. The most common are given here; and a more complete list will he found at the end of the volume. THE MORE COMMON OF THE COMPOUND OR CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. 1$ kk, kt, ^ or ^ kr, li kl, U kv, ’SJ ksh, w khy, gn, rj gr, Tt gl, ghr, ^ n-k, ^ ng, ^ 66, ^ 66h, ?q 6y, jj, sT jh, ^ jv, ^ ii6, ^ h6h, >3 hj, £ tt, ty, (jg, dry, TI? nt, TT? nth, 71? yd, Ttr nn, tht my, w tt, rxr tth, ^ tn, ttt tm, tt ty, ■q or & tr, tv, w ts, sq thy, jj dg, H ddh, 3 dbh, ?r dm, dy, ^ dr, -g dv, «T dhy, sq dhv, nt, vg ?i d, ^ nn, ny, TT pt, 'nr py, tr pr, ST pi, bj, ^ bd, vvq by, tT br, «r bliy, »J bhr, wi mbh, wr mm, nr my, ^ ml, nr yy, # rk, if rm, ^T Ip, cT ll, ^T vy, vr, VI s6, fjtf sy, V 3 sr, VJ si, ^3, sv, V sht, TT shth, TUT shy, tq shy, tqf sk, w skh, TH st, qq sth, 7? sn, vr sm, vr sy, & sr, vr sv, m ss, sr hm, tt hy, hi, kty, ^ ktr, Hi ktv, TfTT kshn, TW kshm, T?q kshy, wq gny, t«t gbhy, vp gry, ^ n-kt, nky, "ST 66hy, 66 hr, TUf ndy, tsn, fRT tmy, tit try, WJ tsy, VJ ttr, ttv, ddy, gj ddhy, HI dbhy, dry, t^t nty, ttti mby, if rdr, *§ ryy, ■§ rvv, ? shir, TH sthn, TTT sty, ^3 str, r^q tsny, «q ntry, M rtsy, r^q* rtsny. The letters (except r) have no names like the names in Hebrew or Greek, but the consonants are enunciated with a ; and it is usual in designating any letter to add the word qnr kdra ; thus, THafin: a-kdra ‘ the letter a* q.qT n, jtt n, ■?! n, w m, when no vowel intervenes between these and a following consonant in the middle of the same word (thus the syllables in k, ih 6 , and, int, imp are correctly written ^*rr, ; and sometimes more shortly t 5 *, i\) ; but Anusvara is more usually sub- stituted for these nasals when final and resulting from the euphonic adaptation of the final m of accus. cases sing., nom. cases neut,, some adverbs and persons of the verb to a following word ; see 59. c. Anusvara is even used, though less correctly, for the final m 6 LETTERS. of such words when they stand in a pause (i. e. are not followed by another word) ; and has often been so used in this grammar for the convenience of typography. d. But Anusvara is not admitted as a substitute for the original final »T n of a pada or inflected word (as in accus. cases plur.,loc. cases of pronominals, the 3d pers. plur. and pres. part, of verbs, &c., see 54), unless the next word begin with 6, t, t, or their aspirates, when, by 53, a sibilant is interposed before the initial letter. e. And in the case of roots ending in jj or H m, these final nasals, if not dropped, pass into Anusvara before terminations or affixes beginning with a sibilant or h, but are not changed before semivowels ; thus HTT + TXT 7 T = HTTpr , (617), xpr + nrfw = TTTXTfw, *m + XT = Uixj (602), TT*T + T = xpj. /. Hence it appears that Anusvara is peculiarly the nasal of the three sibilants UT x s, Xf sh, XT s, and the aspirate ? h ; and that the true Anusvara always occurs before these letters. When it so occurs in the middle of simple words, as in x!T 3 T, Wfff, it would be better to represent it in English type by n ; thus, ansa, anhati, not arnsa, amhati. In order, however, not to multiply perplexing distinctions we have preferred in the grammar to make m the equivalent for Anusvara both in the middle and end of words (except only in the word Sanskrit, which is now Anglicised). 7. That Anusvara is less peculiarly the nasal of the semivowels is evident from e. above. Hence, before y, l, and v, *T m final in a word (not a root) may either pass into Anusvara or assimilate itself to these letters ; thus TW + TR = XTTTTf or XTIIR, XR + 75 T 3 i = 4 or Xl^ftcb; but in the latter case the nasal origin of the first member of the double letter is denoted by another nasal symbol called Anunasika (i. e. ‘ through the nose,’ sometimes called Candra-vindu, ‘ the dot in the crescent’), which is also applied to mark the nasality of a final 75 / deduced from a final *T n when followed by initial 75 l, see 56. a. And this Anunasika * is not only the sign of the nasality of XT y, 75 x l, and v, in the preceding cases, but also marks the nasality of vowels, though in a less degree than Anusvara, see 11. g. b. Observe — A final 5 m before ^fhm, y- hn, hy, hi. 5? hr, may either be changed to Anusvara or undergo assimilation with the second letter of the initial compound ; thus f^i ?Tc 5 XTfiT or ^TcRlri, f^i yTTT or JTTT, f ^5 or ftfixf N &c. (see 7, above). 8. The symbol Visarga, ‘ rejection,’ (called so as symbolising the rejection or suppression of a letter in pronunciation,) usually written thus :, but more properly in the form of two small circles °, is used to represent a weaker aspiration than the letter ? h, and that generally, hut not always, at the end of a word*. It expresses an euphonic transition of final XT s and T r into a kind of breathing. This symbol \ isarga is never the * Visarga is, of course, liable to appear in the middle of compound words. Nor can it be called final in the loc. plur. of nouns in s; as. tR:?* Sec p. 95. LETTERS. 7 representative of f h, but rather of a final aspirate, which, under certain circumstances, takes the place of final s and r. It may be conveniently represented by the English h. At the same time it should be borne in mind that Visarga (/«) is less than h, and is in fact no consonant, but only a symbol for s and r whenever the usual consonantal sound of these letters is deadened at the end of a sen- tence or through the influence of a k, p, or a sibilant commencing the next word. Observe, however, that all those inflections of nouns and persons of verbs, which as standing separate from other words are by some made to end in Visarga, may most conveniently be allowed to retain their final Tts; only bearing in mind that this s is liable at the end of a sentence, or when followed by certain consonants, to pass into a weak breathing, as in the French les or the English isle, viscount ; in all which cases it might be expressed by Visarga, thus &c. So again, in French infinitives, such as alter, the final r is silent ; and in many English words, such as bar, tar, the sound of r is very indistinct ; and these also might be written in Sanskrit with Visarga, ^rir: alleh, ^t: bah, &c. a. An Ardlia-visarga, ‘ half-visarga,’ or modification of the symbol Visarga, in the form of two semicircles X, is sometimes employed before k, kh, and p, ph. Before the two former letters this symbol is properly called Jilivd-muUya, and the organ of its enunciation said to be the root of the tongue. Before p and ph its proper name is Upadhmdmya, and its organ of utterance is then the lips. b. The Ardha-visarga is very rarely, if ever, seen in classical Sanskrit. In the Vedas the Upadhmamya occurs, but only after an Anus vara or Anunasika : thus, or trTfr, and in this case also the symbol Visarga may be used for it. The following are other marks : 9. The Virama, ‘ pause’ or ‘ stop,’ placed under a consonant (thus k), indicates the absence of the inherent a, by help of which the consonant is pronounced. Observe — Virama properly means the pause of the voice at the end of 'a sentence. By the natives it is employed like a mark of punctuation at the close of a sentence ending with a cpiiescent con- sonant, while the mark l is the only means of denoting the close of a sentence ending in a vowel, all the preceding words being written without separation, because supposed to be pronounced without pause. When, however, by simply extending the functions of the Virama we can make Sanskrit typography conform to modern European ideas so 8 LETTERS. as to enable proper spaces to be left between distinct words in such a sentence as the following ; sakrid duhkakarav ddydv antimas tu pade pade ; it seems better to break through the native rule which however theoretically correct would oblige us to write the first five words of the same sentence thus, sakridduhkakardvddyavantimastu. See r. 2 6 . 10. The mark s ( Avagraha , sometimes called Ardhakara , half the letter a), placed between two words, denotes the elision or suppres- sion ( abhinidhana ) of an initial a after u e or 0 final preceding. It corresponds to our apostrophe in some analogous cases. Thus, wsfq te ’pi for w *rfq te api. a. In books printed in Calcutta the mark s is sometimes used to resolve a long a resulting from the blending of a final a with an initial a or a j thus THTTSiTSfi f 01 . rT^rT^Tmpi, usually written ri'qlqa'tf. Sometimes a double mark ss denotes an initial long ^TT. The mark S is also used in the Veda as the sign of a hiatus between vowels, and in the pada text to separate the component parts of a compound or of other grammatical forms. b. The half pause I is a stop or mark of punctuation, usually placed at the end of the first line of a couplet or stanza. ^c. The whole pause II is placed at the end of a couplet like a full stop. d. The mark of repetition 0 indicates that a word or sentence has to he repeated. It is also used to abbreviate a word, just as in English we use a full point ; thus H 0 e stands for as chap, for chapter. PRONUNCIATION OP SANSKRIT VOWELS. 11. The vowels in Sanskrit are pronounced for the most part as in Italian or French, though occasional words in English may exem- plify their sound. a. Since a is inherent in every consonant, the student should be careful to acquire the correct pronunciation of this letter. There are many words in English which afford examples of its sound, such as vocal, cedar , zebra, organ. But in English the vowel u in such words as fun , bun, sun, more frequently represents this obscure sound of a ; and even the other vowels may occasionally be pronounced with this sound, as in her, sir, son. b. The long vowel d is pronounced as a in the English father, bard , cart ; as the i in pin, sin ; as the i in marine, police ; ? k as the u in push ; as the u in rude. c. The vowel ^ ri, peculiar to Sanskrit, is pronounced as the ri in merrily, where the i of ri is less perceptible than in the syllable LETTERS. 9 ri, composed of the consonant r and the vowel i *. ri is pro- nounced nearly as the ri in chagrin , being hardly distinguishable from the syllable ; but in the case of the vowels ri and ri there is a mere vibration of the tongue in the direction of the upper gums, whereas in pronouncing the consonant r, the tongue should actually touch them (compare 19 and 20): as the e in prey ; ^ 0 as in so; $ ai as ai in aisle ; au as au in the German baum or as ou in the English our. <5 Iri and Iri do not differ in sound from the letter l with the vowels ri and ri annexed, but as before remarked the vowel 05 Iri only occurs in one root, viz. e|TT klrip, ‘ to make and its long form is not found in any word in the language. As to the Vaidik ^ Ira or la, see 16. a. d. Hence it appears that every simple vowel in Sanskrit has a short and a long form, and that each vowel has one invariable sound ; so that the beginner can never be in doubt w T hat pronuncia- tion to give it, as in English, or whether to pronounce it long or short, as in Latin. e. Note, however, that Sanskrit possesses no short e and 0 in opposition to the long diphthongal sounds of e and 0. f. In comparing Sanskrit words with Greek and Latin, it will be found that the Sanskrit a usually answers to the Greek 0 as well as to e (especially in vocative cases) ; and rarely to a. In Latin, the Sanskrit 'ST a is represented by u as well as by a, e, and 0. Again, the Sanskrit a is generally replaced by the Greek '/] or o>, rarely by a long alpha. In Latin it is represented by long a or even by long e. g. Although for all practical purposes it is sufficient to regard vowels as either short or long, it should be borne in mind that native grammarians give eighteen different modifications of each of the vowels a, i, u, ri, and twelve of Iri, which are thus explained : — Each of the first four vowels is supposed to have three prosodial lengths, a short ( hrasva ), a long ( dirgha ), and a prolated ( pluta ) ; the long being equal to two, and the prolated to three short vowels. Each of these three modifi- cations may be uttered with a high tone, or a low tone, or a tone between high and low ; or in other words, may have the acute, or the grave, or the circumflex accent. This gives nine modifications to a, i, u, ri ; and each of these again may * That there is not, practically, much difference between the pronunciation of the vowel ri and the syllable ff ri may be gathered from the fact that some words beginning with ^ are also found written with ff , and vice versa ; thus, ftlf? and and ftfOT and Still the distinction between the definition of a vowel and consonant at 19 and 20 should be borne in mind. There is no doubt that in English the sound of ri in the words merrily and rich is different, and that the former approaches nearer to the sound of a vowel. c 10 LETTERS. be regarded either as nasal or non-nasal, according as it is pronounced with the nose and mouth, or with the mouth alone. Hence result eighteen varieties of every vowel, excepting Iri, e, ai, o, aw, which have only twelve, because the first does not possess the long and the last four have not the short prosodial time. A prolated vowel is marked with three lines underneath or with 3 on one side, thus ^TT or ’HT PRONUNCIATION OP SANSKRIT CONSONANTS. The arrangement of most of the consonants in the table at page i under the five heads of gutturals ( kanthya ), palatals ( tdlavya ), cere- brals ( murdhanya ), dentals ( dantiya ), and labials ( oshthya ), refers of course to the organ principally employed in pronouncing them, whether the throat, the palate, the top of the palate, the teeth, or the lips. This classification is more fully explained at 18. 12. ka, ^ fa, '3T ja, tj pa, ba are pronounced as in English. Observe that ^ fa is a simple consonantal sound, although repre- sented in English words by ch. It is a modification or softening of ka, just as ja is of ga, the organ of utterance being in the palate, a little in advance of the throat. Hence, in Sanskyit and its cognate languages, the palatals f and j are often exchanged with the gutturals k and g. See note p- 15. a. JT ga has always the sound of g in gun, give, never of g in gin. b. 7T ta, ^ da are more dental than in English, t being something like t in stick, and d like th in this; thus veda ought to be pro- nounced rather like vetha. But in real fact we have no sound exactly equivalent to the Indian dentals t and d. The sound of th in thin, this, is really dental, but, so to speak, over- dent alised, the tongue being forced through the teeth instead of against them. Few Englishmen acquire the correct pronunciation of the Indian dentals. They are said to be best pronounced by resting the end of the tongue against the inside of the front teeth and then suddenly removing it. 13. z ta, Z da. The sound of these cerebral letters is in practice hardly to be distinguished from the sound of our English t and d. Properly, however, the Sanskrit cerebrals should be uttered with a duller and deeper intonation, produced by keeping the tongue as far back in the head ( cerebrum ) as possible — that is, it should strike the palate rather above the front gums, not as in English, the gums themselves. A Hindu, however, would always write any English word or name containing t and d with the cerebral letters. Thus such words as trust, drip, London would be written frq, LETTERS. 11 a. Observe — The cerebral letters have probably been introduced into Sanskrit through the aboriginal dialects with which it came in contact. In Bengal the cere- bral T da and r£ dha have nearly the sound of a dull r. Thus f%3Tc<5! viddlah, ‘ a cat,’ is pronounced virdlah. In fact in some words both Z and 1 ? seem interchange- able with T and cZ thus 7^TT is only found in conjunction with palatal con- sonants, as in =1 116, nj, 3 <&> and sfjh. This last may be pronounced like ny, or like gn in the French campagne. In Bengal, however, it always has the sound of gy : thus FTSTT is pronounced ragya. The cerebral nasal FI n is found at the beginning of words and before vowels, as well as in conjunction with cerebral con- sonants. It is then pronounced, as the other cerebrals, by turning the tip of the tongue rather upwards. The dental and labial nasals «T na and ma are pronounced with the same organs as the class of letters to which they belong. (See 21.) 16. if ya, F ra, la, ? va ( antahstha , see r. 22) are pronounced as in English. Their relationship to and interchangeableness with ( samprasdrana ) the vowels i, ri, hi, u, respectively, should never be forgotten. See rule 22. a. When ? v is the last member of a con- junct consonant it is pronounced like w, as ^TTF is pronounced divdra ; but not after r, as sarva. To prevent confusion, however, ? will in all cases be represented by v, thus ?tf dvdra. a. The character 35 Ira (represented by l) is peculiar to the Vedas. It appears to be a mixture of the cF l and F r, representing a liquid sound formed like the cerebrals by turning the tip of the tongue upwards ; and it is often in the Veda a substitute for the cerebral ^ when between two vowels, as 3s? is for {na tya Z ta * Z tha * R ska ri ^ ri Z da* zdha* Zra 7T ta* n tha * * sa Iri In r' da * v dha* na ta t ipa* TR plia * ■ 3 'u "3i u ’Srt 0 w\au W ba* bha* H ma ^ va Note — Hindu grammarians begin with the letters pronounced by the organ furthest from the mouth, and so take the other organs in order, ending with the lips. This as a technical arrangement is perhaps the best, but the order of creation would be that of the Hebrew alphabet ; ist, the labials ; 2d, the gutturals ; 3d, the dentals. c. Observe, that although e, if ai, are more conveniently connected with the palatal class, and 0, au, with the labial, these letters are really diphthongal, being made up of a + i, a + t, a + u, a + u, respectively. Their first element is therefore guttural. d. Note also, that it is most important to observe which hard letters have kindred soft letters, and vice versa. The kindred hard and soft are those in the same line marked with a star in the above table'; thus g, gh, are the corresponding soft letters to k, kh; j,jh , to 6 , 6h, and so with the others. In order that the foregoing classification may be clearly under- stood, it is necessary to remind the student of the proper meaning of the term vowel and consonant, and of the relationship which the nasals, semivowels, and sibilants, bear to the other letters. 19. A vowel is defined to be a vocal emission of breath from the lungs, modified or modulated by the play of one or other of five organs, viz. the throat, the palate, the tongue, the teeth, or the lips f, but not interrupted or stopped by the actual contact of any of these organs. a. Hence a, ^ i, '3‘ u, ^ ri, <5 Iri, with their respective long forms, are simple vowels, belonging to the guttural, palatal, labial, t See Proposals for a Missionary Alphabet, by Prof. Max Muller. LETTERS. 15 cerebral, and dental classes respectively, according to the organ principally concerned in their modulation. But e, TT ai, ^ o, ^ au, are diphthongal or compound vowels, as explained above at 1 8. c.* So that e and ai are half guttural, half palatal ; o and au half guttural, half labial. b. The vowels are of course considered to be soft letters. 20. A consonant is not the modulation, but the actual stoppage, of the vocal stream of breath by the contact of one or other of the five organs, and cannot be enunciated excepting in conjunction with a vowel. a. All the consonants, therefore, are arranged under the five heads of gutturals, palatals, cerebrals, dentals, and labials, according to the organ concerned in stopping the vocal sound. b. Again, the first two consonants in each of the five classes, and the sibilants, are called hard or surd, because the vocal stream is abruptly and completely interrupted, and no murmuring sound (aghosha) allowed to escape : while all the other letters are called soft or sonant, because the vocal sound is less suddenly and com- pletely arrested, the effect of stopping it being attended with a low murmur ( ghosha ). c. Observe, that as the palatal stop is only a modification of the guttural, the point of contact being moved a little more forward from the throat towards the palate f ; so the cerebral ( murdlianya ) stop is a modification of the dental, the dif- ference being, that whereas in the dental consonantal sound the tip of the tongue is brought into direct contact with the back of the front teeth ; in the cerebral it is kept more back in the mouth and curled slightly upwards, so as to strike the gums or palate above the teeth, thus producing a more obtuse sound. d. The name cerebral is retained in deference to established usage. Perhaps a more correct translation of murdlianya would be supernal, as murdhan here denotes the upper part of the palate, and not the head or brain, which is certainly * If the two vowels a and i are pronounced rapidly they naturally form the sound e pronounced as in prey, or as a and i in sail; and so with the other diphthongs. The sound of ai in aisle may readily be resolved into a and i, and the sound of ou in out into a and u. t The relationship of the palatal to the guttural letters is proved by their fre- quent interchangeableness in Sanskrit and in other languages. See 17.6. and 176, and compare church with kirk, Sanskrit catvdr with Latin quatuor, Sanskrit 6a with Latin que and Greek kcu, Sanskrit jdnu with English knee, Greek yovv, Latin yenu. Some German scholars represent the palatals ^ and by k and f. 1 G LETTERS. not the organ of enunciation of any letter. But the inaccuracy involved in the word cerebral hardly justifies a change of name. As these letters are pronounced chiefly with the help of the tongue, they are more appropriately called linguals. 21. A nasal or narisonant letter is a soft letter, in the utterance of which the vocal stream of breath incompletely arrested, as in all soft letters, is forced through the nose instead of the lips. As the soft letters are of five kinds, according to the organ which interrupts the vocal breathing, so the nasal letters are five, guttural, palatal, cerebral, dental, and labial. See 15. 22. The semivowels y, r, /, v (called antahstha because in the first arrangement of the alphabet they stand between the other con- sonants and the sibilants) are formed by a vocal breathing, which is only half interrupted, the several organs being only slightly touched by the tongue. They are, therefore, soft or sonant consonants, approaching nearly to the character of vowels ; in fact, half vowels, half consonants. a. Each class of soft letters (excepting the guttural) has its own corresponding semivowel to which it is related. Thus the palatal soft letters ^ i, ^ i, u e, $ ai, tT j, have it y for their kindred semi- vowel. (Compare Sanskrit yuvan with Latin juvenis &c.) Similarly T r is the kindred semivowel of the cerebral soft letters ^ ri, ^ n, and sf (/; c 5 Z of the dentals In, In, and d *; and I r of 5 «, ■35 u, wt 0, ^TT au, and =r b. The guttural soft letters have no semi- vowel in Sanskrit, unless the aspirate k be so regarded. 23. The sibilants or hissing sounds (called ivinds by the native grammarians) are hard letters, which, nevertheless, strictly speaking, have something the character of vowels. The organs of speech in uttering them, although not closed, are more contracted than in vowels, and the vocal stream of breath in passing through the teeth experiences a friction which causes sibilation. a. Sanskrit does not recognise any guttural sibilation, though the palatal sibilant is really half a guttural. See 17.fi. The aspirate / h might perhaps be regarded as a guttural flatus or wind without sibilating sound. The labial sibilation denoted by the letter/, and the soft sibilation denoted by 2, are unknown in Sanskrit. b. In the S'iva-sutras of native grammars the letters are arranged in fourteen * That e 5 l is a dental, and kindred to ^ d, is proved hy its interchangeableness with d in cognate languages. Thus lacryma, §d.Kpvy.a. Compare also with Kay.Tr. ACCENTUATION. 17 groups : thus, a i u n — ri Iri k — e o n — ai au 6 — h y v r t — l n — h m n- n n m — jli bh u- — gh dli dh sh — j b g d d s — kh ph 6h th tli 6 t t v — k p y — s sh s r — h l. By taking the first letter of any series and joining it to the last of any other series various classes of letters are designated ; thus al is the technical name for the whole alphabet ; hal for all the consonants ; ac the vowels ; ak all the simple vowels ; an the vowels a, i, u, short or long ; ec the diphthongs ; yan the semivowels ; jas the soft consonants g, j, d, d, b ; jhas the same with their aspirates ; jhash the soft aspirates alone ; yar all the consonants except h j jhal all the consonants except the nasals and semivowels ; jliar all the consonants except the aspirate, nasals, and semivowels. ACCENTUATION. 24. Accentuation in Sanskrit is only marked in the Vedas, Only three names for the accents are generally recognised by grammarians ; viz. 1. Uddtta, raised,’ i. e. the elevated or high tone, marked in Roman writing by the acute accent; 2. Anu- ddtta, ‘not raised,’ i. e. the low or grave tone ; 3. Svarita, ‘sounded,’ i. e. the sus- tained tone, neither high nor low, but a combination of the two (samdhdra. Pan. I. 2. 32) which is thus produced. In pronouncing the syllable immediately following the high-toned syllable, the voice unable to lower itself abruptly to the level of the low intonation, is sustained in a tone not as high as the uddtta, and yet not so low as the anuddtta. A syllable uttered with this sustained mixed intonation is said to be svarita, sounded.’ These three accents, according to native grammarians, are severally produced, through intensifying, relaxing, and sustaining or throwing out the voice (dydma vis'rambha akshepa ); and these operations are said to be connected with an upward, downward, and horizontal motion ( tiryag-gamana ) of the organs of utterance, which may be illustrated by the movements of the hand in conducting a musical performance *. But although there are only three recognised names for the accents, there are in reality four tones. This may be proved (as Prof. Roth observes) by any one who tries to adjust the exact relationship between the sounds of the three accents above described. If they are arranged in regular musical series or progression, one link will be found wanting. The uddtta and svarita are names for (so to speak) positive sounds, and the anuddtta for negative ; but the neutral, general, accentless sound, which may be compared to a flat horizontal line, and lies as it were between the positive and negative, remains undesignated. Those grammarians, such as Panini, who recognise only three names for the accents, apply the name anuddtta to this neutral accentless sound also. Hence this name becomes unsuited to the low tone, properly so called, i. e. the tone which immediately precedes the high and is lower than the flat horizontal line taken to represent the general accentless sound. The fact is that the exertion * In native grammars the uddtta sound of a vowel is said to result from employing the upper half of the organs of utterance, and the anuddtta from employing the lower half. D 18 ACCENTUATION. required to produce the high tone ( uddtta ) is so great that in order to obtain the proper pitch, the voice is obliged to lower the tone of the preceding syllable as much below this flat line as the syllable that hears the uddtta is raised above it ; and Panini himself explains this lower tone by the term sannatara (for which the commentators have substituted the expression anudattatara), while he explains the neutral accentless tone by the term eka-sruti (called in the Pratisakhyas pradaya or pradita), i. e. the one monotonous sound in which the ear can perceive no variation. We have therefore really four tones in Sanskrit, and four expressions are now usually adopted to correspond. The name anudatta is confined to the neutral, indifferent, accentless or monotonous tone represented by the flat horizontal line. The expression anudattatara has been adopted to designate the lowest sound of all or that immediately preceding the uddtta, while the svarita (which in some respects corresponds with the Greek circumflex) denotes the mixed sustained sound which follows the uddtta. 25. The three accents are thus marked in the Rig-veda. When a syllable having a horizontal mark underneath ( anudattatara ) is followed by one bearing no mark, the one bearing no mark is uddtta ; and when followed by two syllables, bearing no mark, both are uddtta. The svarita accent is denoted by a small perpendicular stroke above tbe syllable. Thus in the word the syllable is anudattatara, is uddtta, and T is svarita. In the Pada text (if anudattatara be admitted) the horizontal stroke under a syllable may mark both the anudatta or neutral tone, and the anudattatara or low tone ; and if it extend under all the syllables of the same word, the whole word is anudatta accentless, thus TO. In the Sanihita, the stroke underneath marks the anudattatara and all such anudatta syllables as precede the first anudattatara syllable, but in the remainder of the sentence the absence of accent ( anudatta ) is denoted by the absence of all mark after the svarita until the next anudattatara. In fact all the syllables (in a word or sentence) which follow the svarita are supposed to be pronounced in the accentless tone until the anudattatara mark under a syllable appears again ; so that the absence of mark may denote both uddtta and anudatta. Properly, therefore, the anudattatara mark is the beginning of a series of three accents, of which the svarita is the end ; the appearance of this mark preparing the reader for an uddtta immediately following, and a svarita. The latter, however, may sometimes be retarded by a new uddtta syllable. Moreover, the svarita mark does not always imply an anudattatara mark preceding, as in the word at the beginning of a fine, where the svarita merely shows that the first syllable is uddtta. Again, in the Pada, where each word stands separately, there may be no svarita following an uddtta, as miTT I It must also be borne in mind that where a svarita is immediately followed by an uddtta syllable, the svarita becomes changed to anudattatara : thus in 'mi'ifn the svarita of Tf becomes so changed, because of the uddtta following. Again, as to the svarita mark, it may either indicate a dependent svarita. METHOD OF WRITING. 19 or an independent, i. e. either a svarita produced by an uddtta immediately preceding, or a svarita produced by the suppression of a syllable bearing the uddtta, as in Tf^TT contracted from n'>TWr, where the middle syllable is properly uddtta. In the latter case, if the syllable bearing the svarita is long, and another word follows beginning with an uddtta, then that syllable and all preceding sylla- bles in the same word receive the anuddttatara mark, and the figure 3 is inserted to carry the svarita, having also the anuddttatara mark beneath ; thus TFTT ^ HU, If the syllable bearing the independent svarita be short, then the figure 'I carries the svarita, with an anuddttatara under it ; thus !S 6 I rffT . Observe — The accent in Sanskrit is not confined to the last three syllables of a word, as in Greek and Latin. Observe also, that although the Sanskrit independent svarita is in some respects similar to the Greek circumflex, it should be borne in mind, that the latter is confined to long syllables, whereas the svarita may also he applied to short *. OP THE INDIAN METHOD OF WRITING. 2 6 . According to Hindu grammarians every syllable ought to end in a vowel f, and every final consonant ought to be attracted to the beginning of the next syllable ; so that where a word ends in a consonant, that consonant ought to be pronounced with the initial letter of the next word. Hence in some Sanskrit MSS. all the syllables are separated by slight spaces, and in others all the words are joined together without any separation. Thus the two words rrwr as id raja would in some books be written ?tt fit WT and in others WHf^TrfT. In Sanskrit works printed in Europe, the common practice is to separate only those words the final or initial letter of which are not acted on by the rules of combination. In such books as id raja would be written together, tsrnfftjTHr, because the final rf is the result of an euphonic change from caused by the following L r. There seems, however, but little reason for con- sidering the mere spaces left between the words of a sentence to be incompatible with the operation of euphonic laws ; especially as the * See on the subject of Vedic accentuation, Roth’s preface to the Nirukta : two treatises by Whitney in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. IV. p. 195 etc., and V. p. 387 etc. : Aufrecht, de accentu compositorum Sanscriticorum, Bonnae, 1847; reviewed by Benfey, Gottinger Gelehrte Anzeigen, 1848, p. 1995— 2010. t Unless it end in Anusvara or Visarga li, which in theory are the only conso- nantal sounds allowed to close a syllable. That Anusvara is not a full consonant is proved by the fact that it does not impede the operation of rule 70. D 2 20 METHOD OF WRITING. absence of such spaces must always cause more or less impediment even to the fluent reader. Therefore in many books recently printed in Europe, every uncompounded word capable of separation by the use of the Virama is separated. Thus pitur dhanam ddaddti is written fqHT and not fw§?RT^Tfw. The only cases in which separation is undesirable, are where the final vowel of one word blends with the initial vowel of the next into one long similar or dissimilar vowel, and where final u and i are changed into their corresponding semivowels v and y. The following words and passages in the Sanskrit and English character, are given that the Student, before proceeding further in the Grammar, may exercise himself in reading the letters and in transliteration ; that is to say, in turning Sanskrit letters into the English equivalents, and vice versa. To be turned into English letters. atai, aw, aira, w*?, tax, ip, ^t, ^3T, ini, gpg, fan, fm, l|, nr?, jpg, jpi, n, *jyi> wgro, ftm, f®$, at, gfhn, fM, ahs, fig^, inn:, asm:, pnT, a?TPn:, gTTcTtn: , in , wfagg, im:, n Z :, nti*, nfram, wm, nm, ntp- nnt, , n?:, fitn:, wont, wg, qn:, imp. pfint, PfiT, ntn:, TP, Tpn, "mw, psn, ppfin, r*tf, pip:, ni, 'st^, wro, n?, ptv: , |p^:, ip;p. To be turned into Sanskrit letters. Ada, asa, ali, ddi, dkhu, dgas , iti, tsah , ilia, uddra , trpanishad, uparodha, uru, dslia, rishi, eka, kakud, katu, koshah, gaura, ghat a, kaitya, ket, khalam, jetri, jhiri, tagara, damara, dhala, nama , tatas, tathd, trina, tushdra , deha , daitya, dhavala, nanu, nayanam , METHOD OP WRITING. 21 niddnam, pitri, bhauma, bheshajam, marus, mahat, yuga, rush, rudhis, lauha, vivekas, satam, shodasan, sukhin, hridaya, tatra, adya, buddhi, arka, kratu, amsa, an-ka, an-ga, ahcala, afijana, kantha, anda, anta, manda, sampurna. The following story has the Sanskrit and English letters interlineated. asti hastindpure vildso ndma rajakah tasya garda- wnrar i uto tth \ V3 O \ \ \ bho ’tibhdravdhanad durbalo mumursliur abhavat tatas tena ntwflT msrarwrwffa rajakendsau vydgliratarmand praShadyaranyasamipe sasyakshetre molitah tato durad avalokya vydghrabuddhya kshetrapa- thj: i %?nfq tayah satvaram paldyante atha kenapi sasyarakshakena dhusara- kambalakritatanutranena dhanuhkdndam sajjikritydvanatakdyena TJ^TPiT f^rf I 7nm rf ^ fj r§l TJTTfft ekante sthitam tatas tam ta dure drishtva gardabhah pushtango trt ^ i gardabhiyamiti matva sabdam kurvanas tadabhimukham dhdvitah rpra W?t n^ms^fpfrT sITSiT cftPPR tatas tena sasyarakshakena gardabho ’ yamiti jhatvd lilayaiva II vydpaditah. The following story is to be turned into Sanskrit letters. Asti sriparvatamadhye brahmapurdkhyam nagaram. Tatra saila- kikhare ghantakarno ndma rdkshasah prativasatiti janapravadah sru- yate. Ekadd ghantdm addya paldyamdnah kas6i6 cauro vydghrena SANDHI OR EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. 99 vydpdditah. Tatpdnipatitd ghanta vanaraih prdptd. Te vdnards tdm ghantam anukshanam vddayanti. Tato nagarajanair manushyah khd- dito drishtah pratikshanam ghantdravasta sruyate. Anantaram ghantdkarnah kupito manushydn khadati ghantam 6a vddayati ityu- ktvdijandh sarve nagardt paldyitdh. Tatah karalayd nama kuttinya vimrisya markata ghantam vddayanti svayam, vijhdya raja vijhdpitah. Deva yadi kiyaddhanopakshayah kriyate tadaham enarn ghantakarnam sddhayami. Tato rdijhd tushtena tasyai dhanam dattam. Kuttinya 6a mandatary, kritvd tatra ganesadigauravam darsayitva svayam vdnarapriyaphaldnydddya vanam pravisya phalanydkirndni. Tato ghantam parityajya vanardh phalasakta babhuvuh. Kuttini 6a ghantam grihitva nagaram dgata sakalalokapujydbhavat. Observe, that Anusvara at the end of a word, when a consonant follows, is most conveniently transliterated by m, and vice versa ; thus, brahmapurdkhyam nagaram elSPJTTI 3 ! HUT. Strictly, however, the m, being influenced by the following n, is equivalent in sound to n, and the two words might have been written brahmapnra- khyan nagaram U^TUTTWH HUT. Similarly, pratikshanam before ghantardvas is written ufrf KITT pratikshanam, though equivalent in sound to uTn pratikslia- nan-, in consequence of the following U- CHAPTER II. SANDHI OR EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. We are accustomed in Greek and Latin to certain euphonic changes of letters. Thus rego makes, in the perfect, not regsi, but reksi ( rexi ), the soft g being changed to the hard k before the hard s. Similarly, veho becomes veksi (vexi). In many words a final conso- nant assimilates with an initial ; thus arvv with yvca/xri becomes avyyvtofxrj • iv with Xd/x7rw, eWd/j-vrar. Suppressus is written for subpressus ; appellatus for adpellatus ; immensus for inmensus ; af- Jinitas for adfinitas ; offero for obfero, but in perfect obtuli; collo- quium for conloquium ; irrogo for inrogo. These laws for the euphonic junction of letters are applied throughout the whole range of Sanskrit grammar ; and that, too, not only in uniting different parts of one word, but in combining words in the same sentence. Thus, if the sentence “ Rara avis in terris” were Sanskrit, it would CHANGES OF VOWELS. 23 require, by the laws of Sandhi or combination, to be written Raravir ins terrih ; and might even be joined together thus, Raravirinsterrih. The learner must not be discouraged if he is unable to understand all the laws of combination at first. He is recommended, after reading those that are printed in large type, to pass at once to the declension of nouns and conjugation of verbs. To attempt to commit to memory a number of rules, the use of which is not fully seen till he comes to read and construct sentences , must only lead to a loss of time and patience. Sect. I.— CHANGES OF VOWELS. 37. It is to be observed that there are two distinct classes of rules of Sandhi; viz. 1. Those affecting the final or initial letters of complete words in a sentence ; 2. Those w 7 hich take effect in the formation of words by the junction of roots or crude bases with affixes or terminations. Of the latter, those which come into operation in the formation of verbs, are reserved till they are wanted (see ride 294), but those w 7 hich come into immediate application in the formation and declension of nouns will be explained here ; and amongst these, the changes of vowels called Guna and Vriddhi should be impressed on the memory, before another step is taken in the study of the Grammar. When the vowels ^ i and § t are changed to U e, this is called the Guna change, or qualification ; when i and i are changed to if ai, this is called the Vriddhi change, or in- crease *. Similarly, "g u and w u are often changed to their Guna wt 0, and Vriddhi au ; ri and ri to their Guna wr: ar, and Vriddhi WIT: dr ; and W a, though it have no corresponding Guna change, has a Vriddhi substitute in WT d. a. Observe — Native grammarians consider that a is already a Guna letter, and on that account can have no Guna substitute. Indeed they regard a, e, 0 as the only Guna sounds, and a, ai, au as the only Vriddhi; a and a being the real Guna and Vriddhi representatives of the vowels and It is required, however, that r should always be connected with a and d when these vowels are substituted for ri; and l, when they are substituted for Iri. 28. Let the student, therefore, never forget the following rules. * J Jvy (ecpvyov) is in the present (fievyw. Compare also the Sanskrit veda ( vaida ), ‘he knows,’ with Greek oitja 5 and compare XcXoma, perfect of Xnr, with the Sanskrit 2d preterite. "'-30. Again, let him never forget that ij is the kindred semivowel of ^ i, \ i, U e, and $ ai ; ^ v of ^ u, "gi u, 0, and au ; V r of ^ ri and ^ ri ; and c? l of og Iri and Iri. So that i, i, e, ai, at the end of words, when the next begins with a vowel, may often pass into y, y , ay, ay, respectively; u, u , 0, au, into v, v, av, dv ; and ri, ri, into r ; just as in English we often use y for i in holy, and w for u in cow, now, &c. [NB. Iri is not found as a final.] In order to impress the above rules on the mind, the substance of them is embodied in the following table : Simple vowels, a or a i or i u or u ri or ri Iri or Iri Guna substitute, e 0 1 ar 1 al 1 Vriddhi substitute^ a ai 1 au j dr 1 dl Simple vowels, iori u or u ri or ri Iri or Iri Corresponding semivowel, V V r ) Guna, e 1 0 1 Guna resolved, 1 a + i I 1 a+ u With semivowel substitute, I , ay 1 av Vriddhi, ai 1 au 1 1 f a + e 1 1 a + 0 Vriddhi resolved, 1 a + a + i 1 a + a + u . *a + i 1 * a + u With semivowel substitute, 1 dy 1 dv * Since e=a-\-i and o = o+w, therefore a e will equal a+a + i or d-\-i and « + o will equal a + a-f u or d+u. E 26 SANDHI OR EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. The succeeding rules will now explain themselves. They all result from the law that euphony abhors a hiatus between vowels ; see, however, note to r. 66. '*‘31. vi a or vit a, followed by the similar vowels vi a or vit d, blends into one long similar vowel : thus ■?f + vrftfT na + asti becomes ^nf^T ndsti, ‘ there is not.’ ’sfl'n + VPtT jivd + anta = jffcr jivdnta, ‘ the end of life.’ a. The same rule applies to the other vowels, \i, u, ^ ri, short or long : thus vrfv + adhi + isvara becomes vnffasR adhisvara, ‘ the supreme lord.’ + VrTUT ritu + utsava = •gpr^UT ritutsava, ‘ the festival of the season.’ fcnr + pitri + riddhi = fmrfe pitriddhi, ‘ the father’s pros- perity.’ 32. vi a or vit a, followed by the dissimilar vow'els ^ i, 7 m, ^ ri, short or long, blends with i or i into the Guna t? e ; with u or u into the Guna vft 0* ; with ri or ri into the Guna VR ar : thus MRT + §VR parama + isvara becomes tr^SR paramesvara, ‘ the mighty lord.’ fVfT + hit a + upadesa = hitopadesa, ‘ friendly in- struction.’ + VTT'Sfi gangd + udaka = gangodaka, ‘ Ganges-water.’ TThT + tava + riddhi = TTTf^ tavarddhi, ‘ thy growth.’ Hs?T + VJTU mahd -f rishi = maharshi, ‘ a great sage.’ Similarly, 7 T=T + o£c*il<, tava + Irikdra becomes TUR^R tavalkara, ‘ thy letter lri.’ 33. vi a or vit d, followed by the dissimilar vowels T* e, vfl 0, it ai, or ^1 au, blends with e into the Vriddhi ai ; with ai also into ai ; with 0 into the Vriddhi au ; with au also into au : thus tr + tjftnr para + edhita becomes tRfvft paraidhita , ‘ nourished by another.’ fcRri + tni vidyd + eva = fetfa vidyaiva, ‘ knowledge indeed.’ ?T^-f deva + aisvarya = devaisvarya, ‘ divine majesty.’ * The blending of a and i into the sound e is recognised in English in such words as sail, nail, &c.; and the blending of a and « into the sound o is exemplified by the French faute, baume, &c. CHANGES OF VOWELS. 27 4- (dpa 4- ojas — a/paujas, ‘ little energy. 5 JTjfT I y ganga I - ogha — ^ i g ciUj' g augha, tlie toirent of the Ganges. 5 4- ww jvara + aushadha = iftTVN jvaraushadha, 6 fever-medi- cine. 5 -A 34. ^ i, ^ u, ^ ri (short or long), followed by any dissimilar vowel, pass into their kindred semivowels; viz. i or i into y* ; u or u into v * ; ri or ri into r : thus + ^j=f agni + astra becomes agnyastra *, ‘ fire-arms. 5 WOT + 'JNR prati + uvaca = WPTWRT pratyuvdia, ‘ he spoke in reply. 5 rT + ^r^‘ tu + iddnhn — tviddnim *, ‘ but now. 5 FTF + WR?^ md.tr i 4- dnanda = HT^R^ mdtrananda , ‘ the mother’s joy-’ — 35. Final 7 ? e and ^ 0, followed by a, initial in another word, remain unchanged, and the initial a is cut off : thus -I- "srfict te + api becomes wsfq te ’pi, ‘ they indeed. 5 (See 10.) *ff 4- ^rn? so + api = Rsfiq so ’pi, ‘ he indeed. 5 +~ 36. But followed by any other vowel (except ^ a), initial in another word, are changed to ay and av respectively ; and the y of ay, and more rarely the v of av, may be dropped, leaving the a uninfluenced by the following vowel: thus H 4- ’SRTTT: te + dgatdh becomes rRRTTT: tayagatdh, and then 7T WRrrn ta dgatdh, ‘ they have come. 5 Similarly, f=j Silt + T? vishno 4- iha becomes Td nil i"d ^ vishnaviha, and then vishna iha, ‘ O Vishnu, here !’ a. And in the case of ij e and wt 0 followed by vowels in the same word, &c., even though the following vowel be ’H a or V e or WT 0, then e must still be changed to ay, and 0 to av, and both y and v must be retained : thus % + je + ati becomes wrfit jayati, ‘he conquers f.’ ’HR + 7j agne + e — vw?R agnaye, ‘ to fire. 5 * So in English we pronounce a word like million as if written millyon; and we ■write evangelist for euangelist. t In English we respect this law in writing, though not in pronouncing such words as saying, playing, &c. E 2 28 SANDHI Oil EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. + wfiT bho + ali = bhavati, ‘ he is/ jfr I ^ 'y A yt) I isvat a — 1 1 cjl gavisvut ci , owner* of kinc« + Wte.W go + okas = 7pft«F.w gavokas, ‘ the abode of cattle/ 37- ai and WT cm, followed by any vow el, similar or dissimilar, are changed to ay and av respectively : thus + wfq kasmai 4 - api becomes oR^TDtfa kasmayapi, ‘ to any one whatever/ T + w: rai + ah = THU rdyah , ‘ riches/ ^fr + ? i w dadau + annam = dadavannam, * he gave food/ + WT nau + au = nTTr navau, ‘ two ships/ a. If both the words he complete words, the y and v are occasionally dropped, hut not so usually as in the case of e at 36 : thus diWT wfq kasma api for obtHmfa kasmayapi , and dado, annam for dadavannam. 38. There are some exceptions (usually called pragrihya, ‘ to be taken out’) to the above rides. The most noticeable is that of the dual, whether of nouns or verbs, ending in r, u, or e. These are not acted on by following vowels : thus ?TTl TTifif hari etaw, ‘ these two Haris.’ f'-l Ud -JHI vishnu imau, ‘these two Vishnus;’ WH ‘these two are present ;’ ' these two cook ;’ WTTT ‘ we two he down.’ The same aj)plies to writ ami, nom. pi. m. of the pronoun Wt^TT. Prolated vowels remain unchanged, as WTn«$ «ti up 3 WgT ‘ Come, Krishna, here,’ &c. a. A vocative case in o, when followed by the particle iti, may remain unchanged, as fV’orfr sffl- vislino iti, or may follow 36. h. Particles, when simple vowels, and WT a and Wt o, as the finals of interjections, remain unchanged, as ? S/r) i indra, ‘ O, Indra!’ 7 TfTSI u umesa, ‘ O, lord of Uma!’ ^ a evarn, ‘Ah, indeed !’ Wlft 5^ aho indra, ‘ Ho, Indra !’ c. The wt 0 of »ft go, ‘ a cow,’ may become ini ava in certain cases, as + go-\-indra becomes gavendra, ‘ lord of kine ;’ and in others, as g airy a, ‘ relating to cows.’ d. Except the following from r. 32 : WET + = WWTfW ‘ a complete army ;’ U + WjT = TTH* ‘ a good argument ;’ TT + = MTS' ‘ proud WJ3* + = Til'll 7) ‘ influenced by joy’ [but WTsHT + -yd = regularly ; U + ■dJTT = TTItfr ‘principal debt.’ Similarly, ‘ debt of a blanket ;’ + ‘ debt of a cloth ;’ ‘ debt of a debt, compound interest.’ e. Except also from r. 32, TI -f- ^f-adfiT = KT frT ‘ he goes on,’ and ^7 + pfT = ■J'tTfacjfrf ‘ he approaches.’ Compare 260. a. f. The *95 u which takes the place of the TT of TT'? in the acc. pi. of such words as MT 7 TR, ‘a steer training for the plough,’ requires Yriddhi after a, as MFTf:. CHANGES OF VOWELS. 29 y. The B u of P«JiB may remain or be changed to B v before a vowel, as f^B or TBTTBi ‘ whether said.’ h. According to Sakalya, a , i, u, ri (short or long), final in a word, may option- ally either remain unchanged (but a long vowel must be shortened) before a word beginning with or follow the usual rule, thus pTW + BjfR or even &nvr + B?fB ‘ a Brahman who is a Rishi’ may be either or sT^lfR, but in no case sT5fT So in the case of i or u or ri, final in a word, followed by dissimilar vowels, thus is either or the discus armed here.’ But com- pounded words follow the usual rule, as + b^bs = b^bt ' 1 the water of the river.’ i. Verbs beginning with V or BTf do not generally blend these vowels with the final a of a preceding preposition, but cut it off; see rule 783 . k. and p. [But BB + But makes regularly BBfrT ‘ he approaches,’ and BB 4- BNB = BRNc! ‘ he in- creases.’] j. The particle BB when it denotes uncertainty is said to have the same effect on a preceding final a. k. The words BTT7T ‘a cat’ and BTtB ‘the lip’ may optionally have the same effect, and ftfB + vffBB may be either f?B'TBiB or f^BTBiB ‘a deity.’ l. So also the sacred syllable BTTB and the preposition VTT d may have the same effect, as %BTB + BT bb: = %btbt bb: ‘ Om! reverence to S'iva,’ and fijTB + Bf? (i. e. BTT with B%) = fsiRf? ‘ 0 S'lva, come !’ m. The following words illustrate the same irregularity : $IBi + BTBI = IjlBi'B ‘ a pot-herb BBS + BFU = B^Rt c jujube ;’ cJ 1 + ^717 = 1 g-rtl afT ‘ plough- handle ;’ Bit + W — BTWtB c the sun ;’ BBB + fBT= BB^BT ‘ intellect.’ The following table exhibits all the combinations of vowels at one view. Supposing a word to end in u, and the next word to begin with au, the student must cany his eye down the first column (headed “ final vowels 5 ’) till he comes to u, and then along the top horizontal line of “ initial vowels,” till he comes to au. At the junction of the perpendicular column under au and the horizontal line beginning u, will be the required combination, viz. v au. 30 TABLE OF THE COMMONEST CHANGES OF VOWELS. o 3 C cr -+ * ■ <» S' P" g. CD £ B. 5 p* t a n s CD 05 CD g 3 S' O P — p ® pi ^ 0 cr* © o p O* o o 2 c- P c “ £ o c c •t.i p cc p B‘ £- S- ® 1 1 3 P a> X o o -3 5T p p CT o g- Q P cr o 73 03 g s " 73 r-t- o ^r CO q ^ £J5 cr p fD P i-< cd ^ S' CD s c. s' aq pi s aq s' CD CD p P- CD S' s 5‘ CD - o "« “ aq cr cd « s CD 2 a © a © g . 3 H se Co CO Cl os . CO Co p> co Cl o A o O O ax f < o t*3 > t* << O H «^r Co — J CO s c cs Ov © ax a © *i CS «a . oa. o*. . ro . * ax a ax a a g Os CS a a CO Oo Co © • \ «S»s ^n. <**\ o>\ s. a ax a a OJ «g a a 34 © 5?\ 34 Co 40 © a o. a ro rO a a a a ax a ax a a g Oo as a a Oo 40 34 a ax 34 © S\ c; Sx Sv ax ax ax ‘ ax 2v a ax a a os g as <© <2 a a J" 1 Oo Os OS a o>v 4* 4- 40 •■**5 •*s »>q> *■** •>» •v OS . OS. Os Os © © — 4* 4* 4- CO os . O a a a gN a a a OS . o> . o». os. OJ . . C«s a^ a ax a a g as OS Co 4- 4- 4* Os 5^ g 40 ft a a a a a a a a a a a a CHANGES OP CONSONANTS. 31 Sect. II.— CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 39. Before proceeding to the combination of consonants, let the letters be again regarded as divided into two grand classes of Hard and Soft, as explained at 20. b. HARD OR SURD. SOFT OR SONANT. k kh 9 9 h n ■ h a a 6 ch / s j J h h y i i e ai t th sh d dh n r ri ri t th s d dh n l Iri Iri p ph b bli m V u u 0 au Note — In the following rules it may generally be observed, that final consonants have a tendency to adapt themselves to initial, rather than initial to final. GENERAL RULES. 40. If two hard or two soft consonants come in contact, there is generally no change ; and similarly, if a soft consonant ends a word, when a vowel follows : thus fi^TT Wcbi vidyut prakdsate, 4 the lightning shines/ ■grrnr f^qrafrr kumud vikasati , * the lotus blossoms/ drisad adhogaichati , 4 the rock descends/ 4- 3 T vidyut + su — vidyutsu , 4 in lightnings/ a. Observe, however, that the unaspirated form of a final letter is substituted for the aspirated, as oRffir citralikh 4- karoti becomes fi^gfi^oF' cSUtHT titralik karoti, 4 the painter forms and simi- larly, if two aspirated letters come in contact, the first must be written in the unaspirated form (see 5. a). 41. If any hard letter ends a word -when any soft initial letter follows, the hard (unless affected by some special rule) is changed to its own unaspirated soft (but see paragraph b, next page) : thus Tnjr 4- vdk 4- devi becomes vdgdevi , 4 the goddess of elo- quence/ 4- vdk 4- isa = vdgisa, 4 the lord of speech/ 32 SANDHI OR EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. fWd fc 4 W + fotffa citralikh + likhati = ifa TTfuJH frfwfd iitralig likliati, ‘ the painter paints.’ fa? + vit + bhava = fa-pre vidbliava, ‘ generated by filth.’ TTT? + f^RT=fi prut + vivdka = TnffaToR prdd-vivdka, ‘ a judge.’ a. There is an option allowed before nasals ; that is, when two words come together, the initial of the second word being a nasal, then the final of the first word is usually (though not necessarily *) changed to the nasal of its own class : thus HTHT + vak + may a becomes vdnmaya, ‘ full of words.’ fa? + vit + may a = fatTHH vinmaya, ‘ full of filth.’ ffaw + HIT cit + maya = fauuM rinmaya, ‘ formed of intellect.’ TTTT + HTW tat + mdtram = tanmatram, ‘that element.’ 7TTT + tat + netram = wh tan netram, ‘ that eye.’ + HUS ap + mulam = ammulam, ‘ water and roots.’ b. Observe particularly- — Rule 41 applies to terminations of nouns beginning with consonants, but not to terminations beginning with vowels. In the latter case, the final hard consonant is supposed to attract the initial vowel, and thus, losing its character of a final letter, is not made soft : thus =n"5F + fan vdk + bins becomes vdgbhis, ‘ by words ;’ but + ^TT vdt + d remains TPHT va- 6 a, ‘ by a speech’ (not ^TT'JTT vdj-d ). nfa? + fan sarit -f bins = HTTfaTT sa- rid-bhis, ‘ by rivers ;’ but HfarT + sarit + a remains HfaiTT sari-ta , ‘ by a river’ (not Hfr?T sarid-d). + H ritralikh + su is faf^faysTTH ritralik-su, ‘in painters;’ but -f- ^TT titralikh + d remains ritrali-khd , ‘by a painter’ (not ritralig-a). c. Similarly, in the case of verbal terminations beginning with vowels attached to roots ending in hard letters, rule 41 does not apply : thus tnr + ’S tfn pat + ati remains tr?rfa patati, and fapj-t-^rfa remains kshipati. And even in the case of verbal terminations beginning with m, v, or y, rule 41 does not generally apply : thus va 6 + mi re- mains vatmi, tekship + vas remains iekshipvas, and kship 4- yati remains kshipyati ; but iekship 4- did becomes regularly iekshibdhi. d. Of course, rule 41 does not apply to final sibilants, as they have no cor- responding soft letters. The rules for sibilants are given at 61. e. In the case of H? ‘ six,’ followed by the termination nam, the final nasal being * According to the Laghu-kaumudi (77) it is necessarily changed when the next word is a pratyaya or affix like maya. CHANGES OP CONSONANTS. 33 a cerebral affects also an initial n coming in contact with it; thus HWT. The same applies to T? + HNfrT, which is written THPTnr ' ninety-six.’ Similarly, ‘ six cities.’ Compare r. 58. b. 42. If a soft letter ends a word, root, or crude base, when any hard initial letter follows, the soft is changed to its own unaspirated hard : thus kumud + su becomes «pn*r kumutsu , loc. pi. of kumud, ‘ a lotus *rffTU + ^ samidh + su = samitsu, loc. pi. of samidh, ‘ fuel.’ Note — Similarly in Latin, a soft guttural or labial often passes into a hard before s and t ; thus reg-\-si becomes reksi (rexi), scrib -f- si = scripsi, rcg + tmn—rektum, &c. a. The same may optionally take place at the end of a sentence, or before a pause, as ijjej 1 rf ^TiT pkullati kumut or kumud. See Panini VIII. 4, 56. It is usual, however, to write the hard unaspirated form in such cases. b. Soft letters, which have no corresponding hard, such as the nasals, semi- vowels, and jr h, are changed by special rules. c. If the final be an aspirated soft letter, and belong to a root whose initial is *1 g or I d, rf d or b, then the aspiration, which is suppressed in the final, is transferred back to the initial letter of the root; as TU + H budh-\-su becomes bhutsu, loc. pi. of bu.dh, ‘one who knows.’ Similarly, ?U + TTTT dudh + tas becomes VWW dhattas, ‘ they two place and see 306. a, 299. a. b, 664 . Note — Greek recognises a similar principle in Tpe^ca, Ope^ogai ; Tpvcf), 6 pvn to) : cf. also the nom. i. e. 8 piK-g from the crude form Tpi %-. ‘43. The following consonants are not allowed to remain un- changed at the end of words*, that is to say, they undergo modifi- cations without reference to the following letters in a sentence ; and when they are combined with the initial letters of succeeding words, or with the initial strong consonants of affixes (see f. next page), these modifications must take place before 41 and 42 are applied. 1st, A conjunct quiescent consonant (with few exceptions) ; 2d, an aspirated quiescent consonant; 3d, the aspirate jr h ; 4th, the palatal letters ^ 6 , 6 h, it j, WjA (when radical, and not the result of the changes of final 7 T t and ^ d at 47) ; 5th, the sibilants 31 s and it sh. a. With regard to 1, as a general rule, a compound quiescent consonant at the end of a word is reduced to a simple one, and when a word ends in a single or conjunct quiescent consonant, and a termination to be affixed consists of a quiescent con- sonant, then, to avoid the concurrence of such consonants at the end, the first only is allowed to remain, and the termination is dropped : thus ^ darant 4- s leaves daran, ‘ going;’ aved-\-s becomes avets and then avet. (So eTvmcv for (TV7IT0VT ; and analogously, mu l si for mulg-si, sparsi for sparg-si, &c.) * Of course, however, roots and crude forms are first cited in their unchanged state; and are so found in dictionaries and vocabularies. F 34 SANDHI OR EUPHONIC COMBINATION OP LETTERS. Observe, however, that a radical Z, TT, or if, preceded hv T r, remains; as, " 3 *^; nora. of ' 3151 176. h. But in the case of such a word as abibhar at p. 231, the affix t in the third person is dropped, as not being radical. And in such a word as (nom. fsraft: ‘ desirous of doing’), the final quiescent sibilant, though belonging to the base, is dropped after r. See 1 66. a. b. With regard to 2, the unaspirated form is substituted for the aspirated. c. With regard to 3, a final ^ h is usually changed either to «R k or Z t. See 182, 305, 306, 17. a. (So in Arabic s h becomes 'i t.) d. With regard to 4, palatals, as being derived from gutturals (see 20. c), generally revert to their originals ; i. e. final ^ 6 and are usually changed to (see 12), but tj ih may become 3 t (176); jT j becomes ^ A: or *T y, but some- times Z t or ^ d. (So in cognate languages ch is often pronounced as k, or passes into k. Compare ‘ archbishop,’ ‘ archangel,’ ‘ church,’ ‘ kirk,’ &c. Again, ‘ nature" is pronounced like ‘ nachure,’ and y in English is often pronounced asy.) e. With regard to 5, final ST s and tT sh usually pass into either k or Z t. See 1 8 1 , 17. b ; and compare ‘ parish,’ ‘ parochial,’ ‘ nation’ for ‘ nashun,’ &c. f. The above changes must hold good, whatever may be the initial letter of a following word ; but rules 41 and 42 must be afterwards applied. They also hold good before all terminations or affixes beginning with strong consonants (i. e. all consonants except nasals and semivowels) ; but before vowels (except the affix a at 80. I) and weak consonants (i. e. nasals and semivowels) the finals remain unchanged. See 41.6, and va6 at 176, and vac at 650. SPECIAL RULES. 44. The special rules for the changes of consonants are very numerous, but since comparatively few words in Sanskrit end in any other consonants than 7 T t and z d, the nasals n and *T m, the dental sibilant 5T s, and the semivowel T r, it will be sufficient for all practical purposes to notice these special rules under four heads: 1st, Changes of final rT and Tfa = Tf^f fa*Tfa ‘ he cuts that,’ TT^ -f = rTrfE^t ‘ the fish of him.’ b. Final rT t or d assimilates in the same way with Z t,Z d, and their aspirates : thus ZZ + ; ZZ + = fTfH ; ZZ + ZWZ = ZZWZ- Observe — The converse does not take place in the contact of complete words ; thus ' c i7 7, not 77 7 those six but + rf = $£ he rules/ see 325 . Final IT t or ^ d may also assimilate with initial >T h and 7U n. c. When 6 h is between two vowels in a simple word, "rT t, change- able by 48. a. to ^ 6 , must be inserted ; thus the root TJ’S pra 6 h with vowel a following must be written pra 66 ha (as in Tfirai at 631). The same holds good when 75 6 h is initial and a previous syllable either of an inflected word, or of a crude form preceding in a com- pound, or of a prefix ends in a short vowel ; as, flc 37 *T ^TPTT or fic-yedl*!! ‘ the shadow of a rock : 5 so also, fa * + ^ = fail'd 4 he cuts ; 5 + fgpTiT = ’srfiSFrfr 4 he was cutting . 5 The same is obligatory after the preposition ^Tf and the particle HT ; as, ^TT + -ZuZ = 4 covered ; 5 HT + fafrT - JTT fiaa^TT 4 let him not cut. 5 In other cases after long vowels the insertion of ^ 6 is optional ; as, TT%zfanTT or 4 the shadow of a fig-tree ; 5 7 TT fa*rfa or 7 TT fi^Tfa 4 she cuts. 5 d. After final Z t, before initial *7 s, an augment TT t may be inserted; as, ZZ TT»jn or rh'fit ‘ being six.’ 49. If 7 T t or s d ends a word and the next begins with s immediately followed by a vowel, semivowel, or nasal, then t or d is changed to 6 , and the initial 51 s is usually changed to 7$ 6 h; * fa ci is the syllable of reduplication to form the perfect of fa<| chid, ^T a the augment to form the imperfect of all verbs ; but in the paradigms, words like fW'T'JI are, for the convenience of typography, printed ’Slfa'pT, &c. See p. 286 . F 3 36 SANDHI OR EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. thus wft 4- tat 4- srutvd = ta 6 tlirutva , ‘ having heard \ O N vS 0 that,’ but is allowable. \ O a. Similarly, the change of initial 3T s to "5 ih is optional after a final ^ ; thus ^ • e *‘ may either remain so or be written =rT3T t5fb Again, after a final Z t and ^ p this rule is said to he optional ; but examples are not likely to occur : though in Rig-veda III. 33, 1, we have fddTTSTnfl for f'-ibl? + the names of two rivers in the Panjab. 50. If 7T t ends a word, when initial jr h follows, the final w t is changed to tf d (by 41), and the initial ^ h optionally to v dh; thus THT 4- ?TfiT tat + liarati becomes tt? vrfir (or Trsrfw) tad dharati, ‘he seizes that but -pr? ^f?T tad liarati is allowable. 51. By a similar rule, and on the same principle, any consonant (except a nasal, semivowel, or sibilant) followed by W, must be softened if hard, and its soft aspi- rate optionally substituted for the initial ? ; thus =n"3i + vak-\- liarati becomes WHTtnifrr vdy gharati, ‘ speech captivates.’ Similarly, a6-\-hrasvah = ajjhrasvah, ‘ a short vowel.’ CHANGES OF THE NASALS. 52. If the letter tt n, preceded by a short vowel, ends a word, when the next begins with any vowel, the n is doubled : thus -4 I 4 H 4- dsan + atra becomes asann atra, ‘ they were there TrfWH 4- tasmin 4- udydne — tasminn udyane, ‘ in that garden.’ a. This applies equally to final ^ n ■ and TTT n (as TTTOT 4- vi 1 i+n = HrtispruT ‘ the soul evidently existent’); but these, especially the last, can rarely occur as finals. 53- If* n ends a word, when an initial ^ 6 , 7T /, or z (, (or their aspirates,) follows, a sibilant is inserted between the final and initial letter, according to the class of the initial letter ; and the ^ n then passes into Anusvara, see 6. h: thus 4- f%IT kasmin 4- Ht becomes kasmimsiit, ‘ in a certain person 4- 7TTTU asmin 4- tadage = ’SrfWFTTRT asmims taddge, ‘ in this pool 4- mahdn 4- tan-kali = mahamsh fan. kali, 1 a large axe. 5 The same holds good before "vS 6h (as, 7TTT)r57'y3f'tT ‘ he covers them ), and before ’SI th, Z th ; but the two latter are not likely to occur. If s immediately follows t in a conjunct consonant, as in the word 74R ‘ a sword- hilt,’ there is no change : thus THT a. A similar euphonic s is inserted between the prepositions sam, ava, pari, prati, and certain words which begin with k, as 4I43iTT, saniskara, RftRHT pari- shkara, HffTCofiTT pratishkara, &c. (see 70); just as in Latin, between the preposi- tions ab and ob, and c, q, and p. Also, between 34 ‘ a male,’ and a word beginning with a hard consonant, as ‘a cuckoo,’ thus 6*751 ", also when ^T*T, ‘ whom ?’ is repeated, thus «FTT3iR ‘ whom ?’ ‘ whom ?’ ‘ which of them ?’ CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 37 b. n at the end of a root, or incomplete word, is not amenable to this rule : thus ^r + frr han + ti is lianti, ‘ he kills.’ c. Except, also, TT3T7H prasdn (nom. of prasam, see 179. a); as, W 31 M KHtflT ‘ the peaceful man spreads TTSTT>T ‘ the peaceful man collects.’ 54. Rule 53 describes the only cases in which «T x », when originally the final of a word, can pass into Anusvara : thus in classical Sanskrit combinations like d M ■sjrrrnr or rTTH must not be written 7TT ^CTTIT, TTT ^ I fri. 55- ^ ^ n ends a word, when the next begins with ^T s, then »T n and ST s may be combined in either of the two following ways: 1 st, the final rj n may be changed to ?T n; thus H?rr?r + $n:: mahan + surah may be written ?T?T>T 3TT*. ‘ a great hero 2clly, the initial ST s may be changed to 6h ; thus *T?T>T s|7c: . a. Observe, that according to native authorities an augment t, changeable to c, may be inserted in both cases, thus ♦T^T'^T tlJTt or vjT', , but this is rarely done ; and in practice, both »T and ST are often left unchanged against the rule. b. Final sF 11 ■ may optionally insert an augment °S k when any sibilant begins the next word. Similarly, final 3!T n may insert Z t. So final *T n may insert IT t before TT s. Hence TfTT SHT may be either TTT^ STTT (or sTfT by 49. a) or may remain unchanged; the loc. pi. of 7Trp!T, ‘a good reckoner,’ is or and TPT TT1, ‘ he being,’ may be Wl; and some say the inserted letters may optionally be aspirated. The insertion of IT between a final *T and initial 7T is common in the Veda; but in later Sanskrit these insertions are not usual. 56. If ends a word, when the next begins with cZ l, the n assimilates with the l, and the mark is placed over the l, derived from n, to denote its nasality : thus '^'^TT'T -f- c?>TTf(T pakshdn + lunati becomes iGTfT or 1 T«( (rf>' TTHTtTf ‘ he clips the wings;’ see 7. Similarly, (V -f Wfj.it® — eWa.fJ.ir®', con-\-ligo = colligo. a. Final *T n, before TT j or flTjA, and »T h, is properly written in the palatal form »T , but in practice is often allowed to remain unchanged against the rule. h. Final »T n, before 1 d, dh, and TIT n, should be written in the cerebral form tiT. c. But final '«T n, before sh, remains unchanged ; as, TTHT R7 ‘ those six.’ 57. »T n as the final of crude bases is rejected before terminations and affixes beginning with consonants: thus + fkTT dhanin-\-bhis becomes NfdfHTT dhanibhis, ‘ by rich people;’ 4- dhanin-\-tva='Vlf’Tft dhanitva, ‘ the state of being rich.’ a. As the final of a root it is rejected before those terminations beginning with consonants (excepting nasals and semivowels) which have no indicatory P (see 307 and 323) ; thus + T*P is srfitT, but + tas is ?W?T, see 654. b. Also, when a word ending in is the first (or any but the last) member of a compound word, even though the next member of the compound begins with a vowel: thus THTH-f- rajan-\-purusha becomes rdja-purusha, ‘the king’s servant ;’ hi A H + rdjan ^-indra=XT^^ rajendra, ‘ the chief of kings ;’ 4-^r^T svdmin -+- artham— **4 i svdmyartham , ‘ on account of the master.’ Similarly, svdmin -j- vat=svdmivat, ‘ like the master.’ 38 SANDHI OR EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. 58. If d n [not final , and having immediately after it a simple vowel, diphthong, or one of the consonants «T n, d in, \y,\ v) follows any one of the three cerebral letters ^ ri (short or long), 7; r, it sh, in the same word [samana-pade), then d n must be changed to the cerebral tU n, even though a simple vowel or diphthong or any of the guttural and labial letters di k, d g,A jo, d h, (or their aspirates,) or Anusvara, or any of the letters z h, it y, d v, T n-, d in, either singly or combined together or with any vowel, intervene: thus f^pt + drrfd = fsprife (635); + RT = wit (152); dd + 37T = dddr(io7); j? + *rd==^rtir * causing to grow fat ;’ Sff^d + R = srf^TT ‘ horned ;’ + ddir = fniMl'M ‘ diffusive.’ Observe — In a word like ddfd, ‘ they do,’ t im- mediately after n, prevents the change. Similarly, p. 288. d ' n final in a word is not so changed ; thus p- 83, not ^"TclPT. a. And the intervention of any of the five palatal, cerebral, or first four dental consonants at page 1, (viz. d (, "Si ch, d j, di. jh, d h, Z t,Z fh, Z d, Z dk, TU n, d t, d th, d, M dh , ) or of 7Z l or of IjFT s or of IT s, prevents the operation of this rule, as in 4r*ufd ‘roads’ (n. pi. of d rHd ) ; dddT ‘worship;’ ddd ‘abandoning;’ d^dd ‘ playing;’ SUlIcid ‘by a jackal’ (149). Even the intervention of a guttural or palatal if conjunct with the d^ n may in some cases preclude any change, as in rijfll ri ‘ he satisfies ;’ UTdtfd ‘ he obtains ;’ ‘epjrrV he shakes’ (694); f^‘ casting ; cut’ (630); ‘ broken;’ THTfiTT, ddTPT ( 157). In the Veda, however, H mPl P«i is found; and fsjfCTT, ddd, and TTiin are by some considered the more correct forms, see 541, 544. It is certain that the intervention of nasals, semivowels, or h, though conjunct with the d, do not prevent this rule, as in (157). h. If two d w’s follow the letters causing the change, then the first alone becomes TIT, as in ddd % unless the two d n s are conjunct, when they both become TIT, as in P-4 vishanna f (540). c. Even in compound words where dj, dj, d, ^ are in the first member of the compound, and d occurs in the second member, the change to d may sometimes take place (especially when the separate ideas inherent in each word are lost sight of in a single object denoted), and sometimes is optional. When, however, the words do not, so to speak, merge their individuality in a single object, no change is generally allowed, but even in these cases it is impossible to lay down a precise rule. The following are a few examples : TTdPId ‘ the Ramayana,’ dnildd: ‘ an * Except a word like TTlfddrT redup. aorist of dd ‘ to breathe,’ with d. t The whole rule 58 is thus expressed in the first two Sutras of Panini VIII. 4, TdPdT d't d’. ddldd? I sfd. The vowel ri is supposed to be included in T- d? stands for the vowels, diphthongs, y, r, v, and h ; ^ for the guttural class ; ^ for the labial ; RUT for the preposition dT ; dd for Anusvara, singly or combined. CHANGES OE CONSONANTS. 39 animal’ (?), either ‘ a Rhinoceros’ or ‘ a goat,’ IsTTTO: ‘ having a sharp nose,’ but «1 1 f>S =hT ‘ a whip,' and HNHFHT ‘ a pronoun,’ or the Ganges of heaven,’ < 4 N»il^PT ‘ a plant ’ (where might he expected), or a mountain-stream,’ ’STT*J^T!i ‘ a mango-grove,’ (acc. of s?3T?V[) ‘ the killer of a Brahman,’ ‘ the whole day.’ See Pan. VIII. 4, 3, &c. d. Again, the prepositions ‘ARTT, HTT, VU, tffj;, and U generally cerebralize a following ^T, even when the preposition ^TT intervenes, but not always; thus VfTFTEL WKM ffi tJETTUT, TflTHTflT, RT'HJT, ’^TmT^IFT (but a c! ^ 'SI 4j ^ a 3> a a a 2 3 5 P ?d c 3 H a ip 3 td d3 p P 3 >a a % i =P sp 4 ip /n| il d i /*■ I’ I 3 /m| 3| jj rt ^ ^ ill a> d — f> a* f f a s •a- ^ "e S /Ml -2| -2| d d f! i 3 4 ? 5 P ? Tt> a O' ^Jo -4} O' a 3 p p ►* crq 02 H o o 2 a d r M - P" P iP p- rt> 3 a JJ 02 3/ 3 / d> 3 . 1 | iP **? d ip s £j ip 3= 3 S», 3? a as JJ d> a i 3 P_ 5 H S 3 a ta a r M % /H 0-3 Af f 'H aH 3. « i ,? 4 ip ip =J ^ a- a ss 2. a x a 3 //H O d W H as ta d r H P- O - * p crq 2 & I s “ 3? P P 2 P £D P go P. ^ ^ r a B. o' s' rr> §* ^ S 35 03 3 p. 3| n. IP d 53 a -$ ©N MM a 3 sa d r H G 2 44 SANDHI OR EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. 67. There is one common exception to 6 2, 63, 64 : sas, ‘he/ and tniH eshas, c this/ the nominative case masc. of the pronouns in* tad and THR ci tad (220, 223), drop the final s before any consonant, hard or soft ; as, H cfiftfir sa karoti, ‘ he does / irarfw sa ga 66 hati, ‘ he goes / esha patati, * this (man) cooks.’ But rules 64. a, 66 , and 63. a, are observed : thus, Trtsfij so ’pi, ‘ he also / *T TJ'R: sa eshah, ‘ he himself.’ Sometimes (but only to fill up a verse or suit the metre) sa may blend with a following vowel, as ifa: for ITR:. A remarkable agreement is observable here in the Greek 0 for og. Compare also the Latin qui for quis, and ille, iste, ipse, for illus, istus, ipsus. Bopp considers that the reason why sa dispenses with the termination s is, that this termination is itself derived from the pronoun sa. a. With regard to the second rule, there is an option allowed when an initial sibilant is compounded with another hard consonant. In that case, the preceding final s may be dropped ; as, ft ft hari skandati, ‘ Hari goes.’ b. A rare exception to the first rule occurs, when an initial IT t is compounded with a sibilant. In that case, the preceding final s becomes Visarga; as, *-ftt H frt harili tsarum grihnati, ‘ Hari grasps the hilt of (his) sword.’ 68. The preceding rules are most frequently applicable to s, as the final of the cases of nouns and inflections of verbs; but they come equally into operation in substantives or adjectives, whose base or crude form ends in as, is, and ~3'&us: thus, by 65, dakshus + ikshate becomes dakshur ikshate, ‘the eye sees;’ and dakshus-\-bhis=^"Ztffa( dakshurbhis, ‘by eyes.’ Similarly, by 64, HHH + 'STTHTfiT manas -\-jdndti = jTH I frl mano jdndti, ‘the mind knows ;’ and manas +bhis = HHTfHTT manobhis, ‘ by minds.’ a. Observe — All nouns ending in ^T is and us may be regarded as ending in ish and TU ush, which is the form they necessarily assume in declension before the terminations beginning with vowels (see 70, and compare 41. b ) : thus (akshus-\-d becomes cakshushd, ‘by the eye;’ but before con- sonants they must be treated as ending in the dental sibilant. See 165. 69. s at the end of the first member of a compound word, before hard letters of the guttural or labial classes f^i k, H p, or their aspirates), may follow 63, but is more usually retained, passing sometimes into U sh, according to 70 : thus FTtHT + tejas + kora, becomes either THH-dA or fTSTl'^ilL ‘causing light;’ + ^TT prddus + krita becomes 'RT?’ c ^iiT prdduslikrita, ‘made manifest;’ divas -\-pati = f^Fqfw‘ the lord of day.’ a. Again, in opposition to 64 and 65, a final H .5 is usually retained before affixes beginning with ^ v and H m, passing sometimes into H sh, according to 70 : thus TTjTTr+fiqH tejas+vin becomes tejasvin, ‘full of light;’ HTH+TL bhds+vara—VfYtSXbhdsvara, ‘radiant;’ and + RrT ardis -j-rnat = ^Hf^ WHT arCishmat, ‘ possessing flame.’ CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 45 b. An augment is inserted after TTW, in combination with oji and its deriva- tives, as in &c. 70. ^ s, not final , passes into 17 sh when preceded by any other vowel but ^ a or ^rr a ; also when preceded by the semivowel ^ r, or by oft k : thus ’Slffa + ^ agni + su becomes fafab agnishu, { in fires cfifa + fa karo + si = oftfafa karoshi, ‘ thou doest ; 5 fa*PC + fa bibhar + si — fa- nfa bibharshi, ‘ thou bearest f + TFT vdk + su = NT^T vakshu, ‘ in words.’ See 69. and 69. a. a. An intervening Anusvara or Visarga does not prevent the operation of this rule : thus, fTffa, ^TOfa, ffatil (or iffaj), b. In accordance with this rule, roots and then’ derivatives beginning with 17 will change their initials to ^ after the prepositions wfa wfa, fa, fa, Jlfa, ’TTfrT, Tsfa ; thus wfafa 5 ? from Ufa and fa ■4, fa mil from fa and 73T ; and the change may even be preserved though the augment a intervenes, as in "STfa^fW from far^T with fa, ’TtunniT from with faV ; and even in the reduplication of the 2d pret., as 7HfarT¥T (but not always in either case, as ^■NWIrT, ‘TTHirfaf). c. Tire root TrTfa changes its initial to 71 after ^TT, as W#iT. d. In a few roots the change is optional, as wfa^i^fiT or Tjfa^^fa, ffalfairT or fa^tfa. e. Even in compounds the initial s of the 2d member of the compound may be affected by rule 70, especially if a single object is denoted, as in IjfamjT, a proper name, ^rffal? ‘a frying-pan.’ So also in ’fafasfa, fart ^ W, gftpT, &c. f. In compounds formed with 7JTjr (rt 7fi|), the initial become ^ where s[ is changed to a cerebral ( pi A HH tzj & > hi M 3 ° H3 O k7 Co & Oh ?s- 0 a tr* < a O to 3 P- to « J— Cl. C - fA /** a a g- a 60 %$ 8n S' CO A »s CO s* a CO A a 0 sP a. 0 A a m 0 > t2j 0 ^ § s h 3 3 m J CO T H- 9 1* a 8° p a -a a «s». ON ”* On a g a ' P a On 0 -u a a Cn 53 14 * a a 'a a a ;H 1 - -» 8° S* a 8° p a -9 a N ON "* Cn a N S a ' a ' a «. a. a a On ON **. as a a a a * a N ^ a, 0 .. as ca vq a N a - “ •a* go a . »s a a Ot. ?r- ft- $lw p •a-* ON ** 04 on’^x 04 On ‘a - 04 ?5- ?5- ??- ?9 ?!- ?9 9 8° a ««. On 0 a a ^a •^r hi O ON Cn ON 4^ a i) *- <9s <9s <9s a N 9 go a +. «f Of. »♦. 0 *. 9 8° O a •9 9' O a a, ^a oo a. a a. a a. a, a a 9 8° O a "9 9* »s 0 a f—i a s +*as 8 Jjo $ a a s a a a s s » 8 S *$> 8° 0 a •ax . CN’Sn w "e on *ai _ a ®' , 5w 0 *. ■a JEI5 9 8° 0 a "9 -9* »s O a 'a 0 - ^ a- a- Ox a- O a- a- a- 9 8° p a *9 «s> « •9 ©s O a 4t* M a s 4h cq § S JaS s s § s s s a S s ? S g 9 8= 0 a •9 f>. *9 as O a a . •9 a N 0 1 a* as ?r- On 04 ON 04 ON 04 OX -+ Ca O — r 4 - NO *>' co N CON Co v COs COs CCs a 1 COs •551 8° p a T dp, T&tlabh, ‘obtaining;’ gr stu, T 5 TTT sums, ‘ praising ;’ gg yat, ‘ striving ;’ gg yam, ‘ restrain- ing ;’ ^pgr sak, ‘ being able ;’ gx^ tap, ‘ heating ;’ dah, ‘ burning ;’ gg mub, ‘ liberating ;’ g*r muh, ‘ being foolish ;’ ipi yndh, ‘ fighting ;’ ruh, ‘growing;’ has, ‘laughing;’ svap, ‘sleeping;’ hrish, gvg nand, I'm hldd, ‘ being glad ;’ WT sna, ‘ bathing ;’ TX rabh, ‘beginning;’ svar, ‘ sounding;’ sail, g^ vah, ‘bear- ing ;’ gr srnri, ‘ remembering ;’ gg arb, ‘ honouring.’ c. Observe, that it will be convenient, in the following pages, to express the idea contained in the root by prefixing to it the infinitive sign to. But the student must not suppose that the sound kship denotes any thing more than the mere idea of ‘ throwing nor must he imagine that in deriving nouns from it, we are deriving them from the infinitive, or from any part of the verb, but rather from a simple original sound, which is the common source of both nouns and verbs. 75. A cursory glance at the above list of common roots will serve to shew that there are two particulars in which they all agree. Every one of them is monosyllabic, and every one of them contains a single vowel, and no more. In other respects they offer consider- able diversity. Some consist of a single vowel only ; some begin with one or two consonants, and end in a vowel, but none end in H 50 SANSKRIT ROOTS either ^ a or au ; some begin with a vowel, and end in one or two consonants *; and some begin and end with one or two consonants f , inclosing a medial vowel ; so that a root may some- times consist of only one letter, as ^ i, ‘ to go and sometimes of five, as w? skand, 1 to move TT^r praiih, ‘ to ask.’ It is probable that those roots which consist of simple letters, such as ^r, ftr, &c., are the most ancient; and that those which have compound consonants, such as ^7^ &c., are less so. Those which have cerebral letters, such as 7*7 ‘ to roll,’ are probably derived from the aboriginal language of India. a. There are a few polysyllabic words recognised as roots, but they are generally the result of the accidental conjunction of a preposition with a monosyllabic root ; that is to say, the preposition has been so constantly used in conjunction with the root, that it has at length come to be regarded as part of the root : thus in the roots 7TTJTJT san-gram, ‘to fight,’ and avadhir, ‘to despise,’ the pre- positions 71 sam and ava have combined with the root in this manner. A few other polysyllabic roots are the result of a reduplication of the radical syllable ; (as, (V $ I daridrd, ‘to be poor;’ TfTrt jdgri, ‘to be awake;’ ■'l I W iakds, ‘to shine;’ vev(, ‘to go,’ ‘pervade;’) and a few are derived from nouns; as, ‘ to play,’ from kumara, ‘ a boy.’ b. «T re and 71 s at the beginning of a root are liable, according to 58 and 70, to be changed to W n and N $h. Hence most of these roots J are exhibited in Native Grammars as beginning with 7TT and U, because the Indian system requires that in exhibiting any general type of a class of words, that form should be taken which may occur even under the rarest circumstances. But in this Grammar, roots of which the initials are *T n and 71 s will be exhibited as beginning with these letters, by reason of their more frequent occurrence. c. According to Indian grammarians, roots are either uddtta or anudatta (see r. 24). Uddtta roots take the inserted 3( i in certain tenses (see r. 391), anu- ddtta roots reject this inserted vowel (Panini VII. 2, 10). Modern native gram- marians attach to roots certain symbolical letters or syllables (called anubandhas, ‘appendages,’ or technically it) to indicate peculiarities in their conjugation, * Rule 43, which requires that if a word ends in a conjunct consonant, the last member shall be rejected, is not applicable to roots, unless they are used as complete words in a sentence. Nevertheless, in the case of roots ending in a consonant, preceded by a nasal, the latter is often euphonically dropped, as becomes t One root, TSTfl s6yut, ‘ to drop,’ begins with three consonants. + But not all, ex. gr. the 71 of roots containing ^jT, or ^ generally remains, as in Tpl, as also the 71 of TT^, TTHT, 77H7, and a few others; and a few may be written with either 71 or R. AND THE FORMATION OF THE CRUDE BASES OF NOUNS. 51 which anubandlias or its may either have the uddtta accent to shew that the verb takes the Parasmai-pada (243) terminations only (such verbs being then called uddttetah ) ; or the anudatta to shew that it takes the Atmane-pada only (such verbs being anuddttetaJi) ; or the svarita to shew that it takes both (such verbs being svaritetah). See Panini I. 3, 12, 72, 78. The following is a list of Panini’s anu- bandlias (with one or two added by Vopadeva) : indicates that the past parti- ciple affixes (530, 553, called nishtha in native grammars) do not take the inserted i, P. VII. 2, 16. ^ that a nasal is inserted before the last letter of the root in all the tenses ; thus nid i shews that the present is ninddmi &c., P. VII. 1, 58. 3 TC that the 3d pret. is formed in two ways, either with form I (418) or form II (435) ; thus gkush ir shews that the 3d pret. is either aglioshisham &c. or agliusliam &c., and dris ir that the 3d pret. is either adrdlcsham or adars'am. \ that the past participle (530, 353) is formed without i, P. VII. 2, 14. T that the indeclinable participle (555) may optionally reject i, while the past part, always rejects it, P. VII. 2, 56, 15. "Si that i may optionally be inserted in the non-conjugational tenses, P. VII. 2, 15. that in the caus. 3d pret. the radical long vowel must not be shortened, P. VII. 4, 2. ^that the vowel may be either lengthened or shortened in the caus. 3d pret. that the 3d pret. takes form II (435) in the Parasmai, P. III. 1, 55. TT that Vriddhi is not admitted in the 3d pret. Parasmai, P. VII. 2, 5. that the past pass. part, is formed with na instead of ta, P. VIII. 2, 45. ^tT that a root is anudatta, i. e. that it rejects the inserted i. IF that a root is inflected in the Atmane, P. I. 3, 12. »T that a root is inflected in the Parasmai and Atmane, P. I. 3, 72. f 5 T that the past part, has a present signification, P. III. 2, 187. Z that a noun with the affix athu may be formed from the root ; thus tu-kshu indi- cates that kshavathu may be formed from kshu, P. III. 3, 89. ^ that a noun with the affix trima may be formed from the root ; thus du kri indicates that kri- trima may be formed from kri, P. III. 3, 88. H indicates that the vowel a must not be lengthened in forming the causal, that in the 3d sing. 3d pret. pass, (technically called din, 475) and indec. paid;, of repetition (567, technically named namul ) the vowel can be optionally lengthened or shortened, and that nouns of agency in a (580) can be formed from causal bases having short radical vowels, P. V. 4, 92, 93, 94. 'R that a noun may be formed from the root by adding the affix d (80. XXII), P. III. 3, 104. 76. The learner is recommended to study attentively the com- monest of these roots, or elementary sounds, as given at 74. b. He may rest assured, that by pausing for a time at the root, his progress afterwards will be more rapid, when he ascends to the branches which spring from it. For it must never be forgotten, that every word in Sanskrit, whether substantive, adjective, verb, or adverb, stands in close filial relationship to some radical sound. In fact, every root is a common bond of union for a large family of h 2 SANSKRIT ROOTS words, which might otherwise appear unconnected ; and words which, when viewed apart from the root, are isolated symbols, demanding a separate effort of memory for each separate idea which they express, fasten themselves readily on the mind when regarded as so many parts of one original idea, so many branches of a common stock. Thus, to take any one of the foregoing roots — as, for example, budfi, ‘to know ’ — we shall find that from it may be drawn out with great regularity, ist, a set of simple substantives; 2dly, of simple adjectives; 3dly, of simple verbs: thus, bodha or bodhana, ‘knowledge;’ buddhi, ‘intellect;’ bodhaka, ‘ an informer ;’ bauddha, ‘ a Buddhist ;’ budha, ‘ wise ;’ bnddhimat, ‘ intellectual ;’ and the follow- ing verbs, bodhati, ‘ he knows ;’ budhyate, ‘ it is known ;’ bodhayati, ‘ he informs;’ bubhutsate or bubodhishati, ‘ he wishes to know ;’ bobudhyate, ‘ he knows well.’ And the simple idea contained in the root may be endlessly extended by the pre- fixing of prepositions ; as, prabodha, ‘ vigilance ;’ prabudhyate, ‘lie awakes,’ &c. 77. In the next place we are to inquire what is the base or crude form of the noun. The student should understand, at the outset, the meaning and use of this form. It is an intermediate state between the root and nominative case, the naked form of the noun, which serves as the basis on which to construct its eight cases, beginning with the nominative. In a Greek or Latin dictionary we look for the noun under the nominative case ; but in Sanskrit we look for it under its crude state. Thus, bodha, bodhana, tat, pahtan, bhavat, are the crude bases under which the nominative cases bodhas, bodhanam, sas, pahia, bhavan, are to be sought. And here it may be observed, that the base of a noun is no mere gram- matical invention. It is, perhaps, more practically useful than the cases derived from it. It is that form of the noun which is always used in the formation of compound words, and in this respect may be regarded as the most general of cases. And since every Sanskrit sentence contains more compound words than simple, it may with truth be said, that the crude base is the form under which the noun most usually appears. We may conceive it quite possible that Greek and Latin grammarians might have proceeded on a similar plan, and that they might have supposed a root Xey, from which was drawn out the nouns A A t^tKog, XtKTOg, KaTaXoyr], eAAo- yog, and the verbs A tyu, Ka.Tcx.Xlyu, eXXoyeu : so also, a root scrib, from which was derived the nouns scriptio, scriptum, scriptor, scriptura ; and the verbs scribo, perscribo, ascribo: or a root nan, from which would come nauta, navis, nauticus. AND THE FORMATION OF THE CRUDE BASES OF NOUNS. 53 nuvalis, navigo, &c. Again, they might have supposed a crude base to each of these nouns, as well as a root; as, for instance, Ae£i and A €%iko of A and A e^iKog, and navi of navis j and they might have required the student to look for A under A e%i, A eyu under Aey, navis under navi, and navigo under nau. Further than this, they might have shewn that the base was the form used in the formation of compound words, as in Xe^iKoypa,cf)og and naviger. But Greek and Latin are too uncertain in their construction to admit of such an analysis being completely carried out. 78. It will be perceived from the foregoing remarks that the consideration of Sanskrit nouns must divide itself into two heads : 1st, the formation of the base; 2dly, the inflection or declension of the base ; that is, the adaptation of the crude base or modified root to a common scheme of case-terminations. a. In fact, it will appear in the sequel, that the same system applies both to nouns and verbs. As in verbs (see 248) the formation of a verbal base from a root precedes the subject of verbal inflection or conjugation, so in nouns it is necessary to the clear elucidation of the subject that the method of forming the nominal base from the root should be explained antecedently to declension. b. Indeed, it must be remembered that nouns, substantive and adjective, in Sanskrit are classified into separate declensions, accord- ing to the finals of their crude bases , not according to the finals of their cases ; and it becomes essential to determine the form of the final syllable of the nominal base before the various declensions can be arranged. ^79. The crude bases of nouns are formed either by adding certain affixes to the root, the vowel of which is liable, at the same time, to be gunated or vriddhied (which nouns are called kridanta, primary derivatives) ; or by adding certain affixes to the bases of nouns already formed (which nouns are then called taddhita, secondary deri- vatives). When, however, the root itself is used as a noun, no affix is required, but the root is then also the base. Hence it follows that the final syllable of nominal bases will end in almost any letter of the alphabet. Those bases, however, that end in vowels may be conveniently separated under four classes, each class containing masc., fern., and neuter nouns; the 1st ending in a, WF d, and ^ i; the 2d in ^ i ; the 3d in ' 3 ' u ; and the 4th in ^ ri. Those that end in consonants may also be arranged under four classes ; the 1st, 2d, and 3d, ending in w t (and d), vj • n, and is, respectively (compare 44) ; and the 4th comprising all other final consonants, 54 SANSKRIT ROOTS a. It will be afterwards shewn, that the first class of nouns, comprising bases in a, d, and i, is by far the most numerous; just as the first group of verbs, comprising bases ending in a and d, is the most numerous and important. See 109. Bearing in mind, therefore, that Sanskrit declension consists in building up a system of cases on a base, by attaching the case- terminations to that base — bearing in mind, moreover, that the whole distinction of declensions depends on the distribution of the bases of nouns under eight classes, according to their final syllables — we are now to explain more precisely, under each of these classes, the method of forming the nominal crude base by regular derivation from the root. Observe — It is not intended that the student should dwell long on the following pages printed in small type. He is recommended to read them over rapidly, and to note carefully the final letters of the base under each of the eight classes. Observe, moreover, that although all the bases of Sanskrit nouns, without exception, are derived from roots, there are many in which the connection between the noun and its source, either in sense or form, is not very obvious *. The following rules have reference only to those bases whose formation proceeds on clear and intelli- gible principles. FORMATION OF THE CRUDE FORM OR BASE OF NOUNS. 80. First Class. — Comprising Masculine and Neuter bases in a ; Feminine in ^ht a and \ 1. Formed by adding to ROOTS — [Note — Primary derivatives from roots are called in native grammars kridanta, while those from nouns already formed, or secondary derivatives, are called taddkita.] I. a, forming, 1st (nom. -as), after Vriddhi of medial a of a root, and Guna * This applies especially to nouns formed with the unadi affixes, so called from the affix un (i. e. u with an indicatory n), by which the words kdru, vayu, &c., are formed in the first Sutra. The import of these derivatives is not generally in accordance with the radical meaning, and even when it is so, usually receives an individual signification ; thus kdru, though it involves the general idea of doing, means especially ‘ an artizan.’ It is difficult to acquiesce in the derivation of some of these unadi words : thus purusha, ‘ a man,’ is said to come from pur, ‘to pre- cede ndku, ‘ an ant-hill,’ from nam, ‘ to bend ;’ kapila, ‘ tawny,’ from kam, ‘ to love,’ &c. AND THE FORMATION OF THE CRUDE BASES OF NOUNS. 55 of any other vowel, a large class of masculine substantives ; as, from the root div, ‘ to shine,’ deva, ‘ a deity.’ If a root ends in 6 or j, these letters are changed to k and g respectively; as, from pad, ‘to cook,’ paka, ‘cooking;’ from yuj, ‘to join,’ yoga, ‘joining.’ See 43. d. II. ^ a, forming, 2dly (nom. masc. -as, fern, -a, neut. -am), after Guna of a final, and sometimes Guna of a medial vowel, nouns of agency and adjectives as, from plu, ‘to swim,’ plava, ‘what swims;’ from srip, ‘to creep,’ sarpa, ‘what creeps.’ See 580. Adjectives of this form generally occur at the end of com- pounds; as, arin-dama, ‘foe-taming ;’ bliayan--kara,‘ fear-causing.’ Compare cor- responding formations in Greek and Latin ; as, l7nro-^afJLOg, veri-dicus, grandi- loquus, omni-vorus, &c. When 7 T ev and $vg are prefixed to these adjectives, they are susceptible of a passive sense, both in Sanskrit and Greek; as, 7 T 3 R ‘easy to be done;’ ‘ hard to be done,’ &c. Similarly, evcpopog, ^vgcpopog, SvgTop.og, & c. III. a, forming, 3dly (nom. -as, -a, -am), adjectives; as, from subli, ‘to shine,’ subha ‘ beautiful.’ Sometimes there is great variation from the root ; as in siva, ‘ propitious,’ from st, ‘to sleep;’ sundara, ‘beautiful,’ from dpi, ‘to respect:’ and sometimes the feminine may be formed in ij as, sundan. There are very few adjectives formed with this affix, IV. aka (nom. -akas, -aka or -ikd, • akam ), after Vriddhi of a final vowel or medial a, and Guna of any other vowel. Still more common than a to form adjectives and nouns of agency (see 582. b) ; as, from tap, ‘to burn,’ tapaka, ‘in- flammatory;’ from kri, ‘to do,’ kdraka, ‘a doer,’ ‘acting.’ Observe, -aka is gene- rally taken for the feminine of the adjectives, and -ikd for the feminine of the agents ; as, tapaka, karikd. Compare Greek forms like (pvkaxog. V. ana (nom. -anam), after Guna of the root, forming, 1st, a large class of neuter substantives ; as, from m, ‘ to guide,’ nay ana, ‘ the eye,’ ‘ guidance ;’ from da, ‘to give,’ dana, ‘a gift;’ from drip, ‘to make proud,’ darpana, ‘a mirror.’ Compare analogous Greek formations in coto ; as, opyavov, optTravov, & c. am, forming, 2dly (nom. -anas, -and, -anam), nouns of agency (see 582. c) and adjectives; as, from writ, ‘to dance,’ nartana , ‘a dancer;’ from subli, ‘to shine,’ sobhana, ‘bright.’ Compare Greek forms like ixavog, & c. The feminine of the agents is sometimes in -am. VI. •T na. A few abstract nouns are formed with na; as, yajna, ‘sacrifice,’ opa , cpvyrj’, and Latin fuga, &c. Occasionally there is Guna; as in lekhd, ‘a line,’ from likh, ‘to write ;’ jard, ‘old age,’ from jri, ‘ to grow old.’ This affix is frequently added to the desiderative form of a root ; as, from pipds, ‘ to desire to drink,’ pipdsa, ‘ thirst ;’ and rarely to the frequentative or intensive ; as, from loluy, ‘ to cut much,’ loluyd, ‘ cutting much.’ A few abstract nouns are formed with «TT na j as, trishna, ‘thirst,’ from trish : compare Greek nouns in vrj, as %uvy), (pepvrj. By adding to the bases of nouns — XXIII. ITT ta (nom. -fa), forming feminine abstract substantives; as, from purusha, ‘ a man,’ purushatd, ‘ manliness.’ This affix may be added to any norm in the language, and corresponds to the Latin tas in celeritas, &c. ; and the Greek Trig in KaKOTrjg, TrkaTVTr]g (qvj'HT). Also forming collectives ; as, ^^ITT ‘ a number of relations,’ from ‘ a relation.’ XXIV. WT tra (nom. -trd), forming a few substantives, and like neuters in tra (see VII) denoting ‘ the instrument’ or ‘means ;’ as, fTgT ‘ a tooth,’ ‘the instrument of biting,’ frem dams, ‘to bite ;’ hlcfi ‘ provisions,’ ‘ the means of going,’ from yd, ‘ to go.’ XXV. ^ { (nom. -{), forming a large class of feminine substantives, usually derived from masculines in a, by changing a to i ; as, from nada, ‘a river,’ fem. nadij from putra, ‘a son,’ fem. putri ; from nartaka, ‘a dancer,’ fem. nartakt. An affix dm is used to denote ‘ the wife of ;’ as, from Indra, (58) ‘the wife of Indra.’ Compare the Greek cava, in Oeaiva, & c. AND THE FORMATION OF THE CRUDE BASES OF NOUNS. 59 XXVI. ^/(nom. -{), forming, 2dly, the feminine of nouns of agency, like ddtri from ddtri, ‘a giver’ (129. 6), and kdrini from kdrin, ‘a doer’ (160). XXVII. ^ i (nom. -{), forming, 3dly, the feminine of many adjectives ; as of tanu, ‘thin’ (118. a), of dhanavat, ‘rich,’ and dhirnat, ‘wise’ (140. b ); of dhanin, ‘rich’ (160), and of comparative degrees like baliyas (167). Observe — The femi- nine of some adjectives formed with the affixes a, ya, ika, and eya (XI. XII. XIII. XIV), and of some adjectives like sundara, ‘beautiful,’ is also formed with {. XXVIII. A few roots standing by themselves as substantives, or with preposi- tions prefixed, or at the end of compounds, may come under this class ; as, bM, ‘ fear,’ ajna, ‘ an order,’ from sTT ‘ to know ;’ senani, ‘ a general,’ from send, ‘ an army,’ and m, ‘ to lead,’ &c. It will he more convenient, however, to consider the declension of monosyllabic nouns in under the 2d class. See 123, 126. 81. Second Class. — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter bases in \ i. Formed by adding to roots — I. \i, forming, 1st (nom. -is), a few masculine substantives; as, agni, ‘fire’ (derivation doubtful); kavi, ‘a poet,’ from ku, ‘to sound;’ a hi, ‘a snake’ ( €%< g, anguis), from amh, ‘to move;’ dhvani, ‘sound,’ from dhvan ; peshi, ‘a thunder- bolt,’ from pesh, ‘to crush,’ &c. When this affix is added to the root dhd, ‘to place,’ ‘to hold,’ a is dropped, and various prepositions are prefixed; as in sandhi, vidhi, nidhi, &c. Observe — A feminine noun of this kind formed from dhd is oshadhi, ‘an annual plant’ (also aushadhi). Also a few feminine nouns ; as, krishi, ‘ ploughing,’ from krish; lipi, ‘writing,’ from lip, &c. Compare Greek forms like y^aptg, eXirig, y.Yjvig (h W) . II. \i, forming, 2dly (nom. -i), one or two neuter substantives ; as, from vri, ‘to surround,’ vari, ‘water;’ from aksh, ‘to pervade,’ akshi, ‘the eye’ ( oculus , OKog ). III. \i, forming, 3dly (nom. -is, -is, -i), a few adjectives ; as, from su6, ‘to be pure,’ du6i, ‘pure;’ from bud.h, ‘to know,’ bodhi, ‘wise.’ IV. fir mi (nom. -mis), forming a few nouns ; as, bhumi, f., ‘ the earth,’ from bhu, ‘ to be’ {humus) ; rasmi, m., ‘ a ray,’ &c. v. fir ti (nom. -tis), forming abstract substantives feminine. This affix bears a great analogy to the passive participle at 531. The same changes of the root are required before it as before this participle ; and, in fact, provided the passive participle does not insert i, this substantive may always be formed from it, by changing ta into ti. But if i is inserted before ta, no such substantive can be formed ; thus, from va6, ‘to speak,’ ukta, ‘ spoken,’ ukti, ‘ speech ;’ from man, ‘to imagine,’ mata, ‘imagined,’ matt, ‘the mind;’ from dd, ‘to give,’ datta, ‘given,’ datti, ‘a gift;’ from pn, ‘to fill,’ purta, ‘filled,’ purti, ‘fulness.’ And when na is substituted for ta of the passive participle, ni is generally substituted for ti; as, from glai, ‘ to be weary,’ gldna, ‘ wearied,’ glani, ‘ weariness ;’ from lu, ‘ to cut,’ luna, ‘ cut,’ luni, ‘ cutting.’ This affix corresponds to the tio of the Latin, 60 SANSKRIT ROOTS added in the same way to passive participles ; as, actus, actio ; junctus, junctio ( yuktis ). Greek exhibits analogous forms in irldTiq, a. A few masculine nouns are formed with ti ; as, yati, ‘ a sage,’ from yam, ‘ to restrain;’ jhdti, ‘a relation,’ from jndj pati, ‘a husband’ (for pdti), from pa. Formed by adding to the bases of a few nouns ending in a — VI. ^ i (nom. -is), after Vriddhi of the first syllable, and after rejection of the final vowel. This affix forms a few patronymics ; as, daushyanti, ‘the son of Dushyanta,’ from dushyanta. 82. Third Class. — Masculine , Feminine, and Neuter bases in ^ u. Formed by adding to roots — I. ? u, forming, 1 st (nom. -us), substantives of the masculine, and one or two of the feminine gender; as, from bandli, ‘to bind,’ bandhu, m., ‘a kinsman;’ from kri, ‘ to do,’ ka'ru, m., ‘ an artificer ;’ from bhid, ‘ to cleave,’ bhidu, m., ‘ a thunderbolt;’ from tan, ‘to stretch,’ farm, f., ‘the body.’ II. u, forming, 2 dly (nom. -u), one or two neuter substantives; as, daru, ‘wood’ (also m.),from dri, ‘to cleave’ (tiopv) ; madhu, ‘honey’ (y.e6v), & c. III. T u, forming, gdly (nom. -us, -us or vt, -u), sometimes with change of the root, a few adjectives; as, from svad, ‘to taste,’ svadu, ‘sweet’ ($v); from tan, ‘to stretch,’ tanu, ‘thin’ (compare Taw); from langh, ‘to spring,’ laghu, ‘light’ (eA ayy ) ; from prath, ‘ to extend,’ prithu, ‘ broad ’ (TiXarv). This affix is often added to desiderative roots to form adjectives ; as, from pipds , ‘ to desire to drink,’ pipasu, ‘thirsty;’ from f5nftfcPT ‘ to desire to live,’ Hr) »f| fd'R ‘ desirous of living.’ Latin has added an i to all adjectives formed with u in the cognate languages ; as, tenuis for tanus ; gravis ( garuis ) for gurus (comparative gariyas), fiapvg. It has, however, substantives in u ; as, currus, acus, &c. IV. nu (nom. -mis, -nus, -nu), forming adjectives and substantives ; as, from tras, ‘to fear,’ trasnu, ‘timid;’ from bhd, ‘to shine,’ bhdnu, m., ‘the sun;’ from dhe, ‘ to drink,’ dhenu, f., ‘ a cow;’ from su, ‘ to bear,’ sunu, m., ‘ a son.’ (Compare Greek forms like A lyvvg.) v. ^5 ishnu (nom. -ishnus, -ishnus, -ishnu), with Guna of the root, forming adjectives ; as, from kshi, ‘ to perish,’ kshayishnu, ‘ perishing.’ VI. There are many other affixes to roots, forming nouns in w (nom. -us, -us, - u ); as, ^ ru, ^ nu, ^’T'^ dlu, ^ snu, dru, itnu, W tu, athu, ^ yu. Tire following nouns afford examples of these affixes ; bhtru, ‘timid ;’ asru, n., ‘a tear’ (for dasru, from dams, ‘to bite;’ compare 'baxpv, lacryma); sayd/u, ‘sleepy;’ sthdsnu, ‘ firm ;’ sardru, ‘ noxious ;’ gadayitnu, ‘ loquacious ;’ jantu, m., ‘an animal ;’ gantu, m., ‘a traveller;’ vepathu, m., ‘trembling;’ manyu, m., ‘uTath’ ([xevos); and mrityu, m., ‘ death.’ There are a few nouns in long u, which may conveniently be placed under this class. They consist chiefly of roots standing by themselves as substantives, or at AND THE FORMATION OF THE CRUDE BASES OF NOUNS. 61 the end of compounds : thus, Hf. ‘ the earth,’ ' the self-existent,’ &c. See 125. a, 126. b. 83. Fourth Class. — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter bases in ^ ri. Formed by adding to roots — I. "H tri, forming, 1st (nom. -td, -tri, -tri), nouns of agency of three genders, the same change of the root being required which takes place in the first future, and the same euphonic changes of t (see 386 and 581): thus, from kship, ‘to throw,’ ksheptri, ‘a thrower;’ from da, ‘to give,’ ddtri, ‘a giver;’ from budh, ‘to know,’ boddhri, ‘ a knower ;’ from sah, ‘ to bear,’ sodhri, ‘ patient.’ This corre- sponds to the Latin affix tor, and the Greek ty] p and rcop : compare dator, ^OTYjp. II* * tri, forming, 2dly (nom. -td), nouns of relationship, masculine and femi- nine ; as, pitri, ‘ a father,’ matri, ‘ a mother.’ 84. Fifth Class. — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter bases in w t (1 and d). Formed by adding to roots — I. W4 (nom. -t, in all genders), if the root ends in a short vowel : forming nouns of agency, substantives and adjectives, of three genders ; as, from kri, ‘ to do,’ krit, ‘ a doer ;’ from ji, ‘ to conquer,’ jit, ‘ a conqueror.’ This class of norms are rarely used, except as the last member of compounds : thus, karmakrit, ‘a doer of work.’ Roots already ending in t or d, taken to form adjectives or nouns of agency, fall under this class ; as, from vid, ‘ to know,’ dharmavid, ‘ one who knows his duty ;’ from to eat,’ ‘ an eater of flesh.’ There are also a few nouns falling under this class, formed by prefixing prepositions to roots ending in t or d or a short vowel ; as, from f'-fr. vid, ‘ to know, an agreement ;’ from Tint dyut, ‘to shine,’ vidyut, f., ‘lightning;’ from V^pad,‘ to go,’ sampad, f., ‘success;’ f., ‘ a mystical philosophical work,’ from sad. So also, samit, f., ‘ conflict,’ from i, ‘to go,’ with prep. sam. One or two roots ending in W or ? may stand by themselves as substantives : thus, HI* mud, {., ‘joy ;’ f^nr 6it, f., ‘ the mind.’ The practice of using roots at the end of compounds prevails also in Greek and Latin; as in y^ep-viip (~vif3), (3 ov-tt\y)% (-7 iXriy), & c., arti-fex {-fie), carni-fiex (-fic), pree-ses (- sid ), &c. And there is a very remarkable agreement between Sanskrit and Latin in the practice of adding t to roots ending in short vowels : thus, com-it {comes), ‘ a goer with ;’ equ-it {eques), ‘ a goer on horseback ;’ al-it {ales), ‘ a goer with wings ;’ super-stit {superstes), ‘ a stander by,’ &c. Greek adds a similar t to roots with a long final vowel; as, a-yvwT, a-mcor, &c. (See Bopp’s Comparative Grammar, 2d edition, 907, 910.) 62 SANSKBIT BOOTS II. ^iT it (nom. -it, in all genders), after Guna of the root, forming a few sub- stantives and adjectives ; as, from sri, ‘ to flow,’ Tlfirf sarit, f., ‘ a stream from v, cv, rpv, av, on and in; as, reurov = 'rTSpr (t eVrcov), eiKOV (-kxv), homin {homo), &c. II. man (nom. -ma), after Guna of the root, forming neuter substantives ; as, from kri, ‘ to do,’ karman, ‘ a deed.’ This affix corresponds to the Latin men, in regimen, agmen, stamen, & c. ; and to the Greek fJ-xv, in [xvr/jj.xv, tA rjfj.wv, &c. : but adjectives in man, like H ‘ prosperous,’ are rare in Sanskrit. A few nouns in man are masculine; as, dtman, ‘soul’ (nom. -ma) ; T*JT'^‘the hot season;’ 3 Rr*^‘fire;’ ‘sin;’ a border ;’ a stone.’ III. 4 *\van (nom. -vd, -vd, -va), forming a few substantives and adjectives ; as, seeing,’ ‘ a looker,’ from dris, ‘ to see.’ By adding to roots or to the base of nouns — IV. »i iman (nom. -ima), forming mascuhne abstract substantives. If the noun ends in a or u, these vowels are rejected ; as, from kala, ‘ black,’ kaliman, ‘blackness;’ from laghu, ‘ hght,’ laghiman, ‘lightness;’ from mridu, ‘soft,’ * Vat is not often found added to feminine bases. It occurs, however, occa- sionally; as, 41 -r( 1 4 rf * having a wife,’ fjTOTTrT ‘ crested.’ AND THE FORMATION OF THE CRUDE BASES OF NOUNS. 63 mradiman, & c. If it ends in a consonant, this consonant, with its preceding vowel, is rejected ; as, from mahat, ‘ great,’ mahiman, ‘ greatness.’ A medial ri before a simple consonant is changed to ra, but not before a double consonant ; as, from cjidil ‘ black,’ ‘ blackness.’ A final ri is gunated ; as, sariman, * going,’ from sri, ‘ to go ;’ stariman, ‘ a bed,’ from stri, ‘ to spread ’ (compare stra- men) ; hariman, ‘time,’ from hri , ‘to seize,’ &c. Iman is generally added to adjectives, and the same changes generally take place before it, that take place before the affixes iyas and ishtha (see 192) : thus, gariman, ‘weight;’ preman, ‘affection;’ drdghiman, ‘length;’ bhuman, ‘much;’ prathiman, ‘largeness,’ & c. By adding to ROOTS — V. in (nom. -{, -ini, -i), after Vriddhi of a final vowel and medial a, and Guna of any other medial vowel, forming nouns of agency of three genders (see 582. b) -, as, from kri, ‘to do,’ karin, ‘ a doer.’ Compare Greek and Latin forma- tions in CiV and on ; as, TiKTOV (-KTWv), edon ( edo ), &c. By adding to the base of nouns — VI. in (nom. -t, -ini, - i ), forming innumerable adjectives of possession. The final of a base is rejected before this affix ; as, from dhana, ‘ wealth,’ dhanin, ‘wealthy;’ from mala, ‘a garland,’ mdlin, ‘ garlanded;’ from vrlhi, ‘rice,’ vrihin, ‘ having rice.’ Compare Greek and Latin formations in cov and on ; as, yva.Q-cov, ‘ having cheeks ;’ nason ( naso ), ‘ having a nose.’ VII. f k^vin (nom. -vi, -vini, -vi), if the base ends in a or as, forming a few adjectives ; as, from medhd, ‘ intellect,’ medhavin, ‘ intellectual ;’ from tejas, ‘ splen- dour,’ tejasvin, ‘ splendid.’ Compare 69. a. VIII. faw min (nom. -mi, -mini, -mi)-, as, from vd 6 , ‘ speech,’ vagmin, ‘ eloquent ;’ from go, ‘ a cow,’ gomin, ‘ rich in herds ;’ from sva, ‘ own ’ (with lengthening of the final), svamin, ‘ owner.’ 86. Seventh Class. — Masculine, Feminine , and Neuter bases in ^TCT^as, ^ x is, and us. Formed by adding to roots — I. 'Sins (nom. -as), after Guna, forming a great many neuter substantives; as, from man, ‘to think,’ manas, ‘the mind;’ from sri, ‘to go,’ saras, ‘water.’ It also forms one or two masculine and feminine nouns ; as, vedhas, m., Brahma ;’ Candramas, m., ‘the moon;’ apsaras, f., ‘a nymph;’ ushas, {., ‘the dawn,’ from ush, ‘to glow :’ but in these the nominative is long (-as). II. is or us (nom. -is, -us). In place of as, the neuter affixes is or us are occasionally added ; as, from hu, ‘ to offer,’ havis, ‘ ghee ;’ from Caksh, ‘ to look,’ dakshus, ‘the eye.’ See 68. a. With as compare the Latin es in nubes (ifmfpiabhas), sedes (j^^sadas), & c. ; but especially the us and ur of words like gems, scelus, robur. Compare also the Greek formations Tiad-og, €$- 0 $, p.ev-o$, ipev^-of, & c. ; and such compounds as evp,evyjf, neut, evp.evef, &c. 64 DECLENSION; OR INFLECTION OF THE BASE OF NOUNS. 87. Eighth Class. — Masculine , Feminine , and Neuter bases in any Consonant, except w t and ^ d, ^n, ^s. Formed by using roots as adjectives, substantives, or nouns of agency — Any root may be used to form an adjective or a noun of agency, provided it be the last member of a compound word : thus, from ‘ to be able,’ sarvasak, ‘ omnipotent.’ Those roots which end in t or d, or in a short vowel, having t affixed, have been already noticed as falling under the fifth class. This eighth class is intended to comprise all other roots, ending in any consonant ,• as, ^TSf bhuj (nom. ‘an eater’) ; VT5T raj, m. (nom. TTE ‘a king’) ; 'HT«3' (nom. HT7 ‘an asker’) ; WV (nom. *pT ‘ aknower’); VT f. (nom. ) ; ‘a priest’ (nom. n. ‘blood’ (nom. ; and a few substantives formed by prefixing prepositions to roots; as, *fmi f. ‘fuel’ (nom. ^rfiTiT), from the root ‘to kindle’ (see 43 and 75, with note). A few roots standing by themselves as substantives may fall under this class : thus, TJV f. “battle’ (nom. ^TT ) ; Wf. ‘hunger’ (nom. "Erff) ; f. ‘speech’ (nom. TT«F), from va6, ‘to speak,’ the medial a being lengthened. Greek and Latin use a few monosyllabic roots in the same manner; as, oip (o7r), kc% (Aoy), &c. ; and Latin vox {voc), lex {leg), dux {due). CHAPTER IV. DECLENSION; OR INFLECTION OF THE BASE OF NOUNS, SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 88. Having explained how the crude base of nouns is generally formed, we have now to shew how it is inflected. As, in the last chapter, nouns, substantive and adjective, were arranged under eight classes, according to the final of their bases (the first four classes comprising those ending in vowels, the last four those ending in consonants), so it will be the object of the present chapter to exhibit their declension or inflection under the DECLENSION ; OR INFLECTION OF THE BASE OF NOUNS. 65 same eight classes. Moreover, as every class comprises adjectives as well as substantives, so it is intended that the declension of a masculine, feminine, and neuter substantive, exhibited under each, shall serve as the model for the declension of masculine, feminine, and neuter adjectives coming under the same class. 89. The learner will have already gathered that the noun has three genders, and that the gender is, in many cases, determinable from the termination of the base. Thus, nearly all bases in a, i, and those formed with the affix ti (r. 81. V), are feminine: nearly all nouns whose crudes end in ana , tva , ya, tra (see under 80), as, is, tis (86), and man (85. II), are neuter ; those in iman (85. IV) are generally masculine ; but those in a, i, u, and ri, are not reducible to rule. The nominative case is, however, in the first of these instances a guide to the gender ; as, devas, ‘ a deity, 5 is masculine ; but ddnam, ‘ a gift, 5 neuter. And in other cases the meaning of the word ; as, pitri, 1 a father/ is masculine ; and matri, 1 a mother/ feminine. 90. In Sanskrit, nearly all the relations between the words in a sentence are expressed by inflections. A great many prepositions exist in the language, but in the later or classical Sanskrit they are not often used alone in government with any case, their chief use being as prefixes to verbs and nouns. This leads to the neces- sity for eight cases, which are regularly built upon the base. These are called, x. nominative ( prathama or kartri) ; 2. accusative ( dvitiyd or karma)-, 3. instrumental ( tritiyd or karana ) ; 4. dative [taturtld or sampradana) ; 5. ablative ( paniamt or apdddna)-, 6. genitive ( shashtM or sambandha ) ; 7. locative ( saptami or adhikarana ) ; 8. vocative (sam- buddhi) *. Of these, the third and seventh are new to the classical student. The instrumental denotes the instrument or agent by which or by whom a thing is done; as, tena kritam, ‘done by him. 5 The loca- tive generally refers to the place or time in which any thing is done ; as, Ayodhydyam, ‘ in Ayodhyd purvakdle, ‘ in former time / bhumau, ‘ on the ground f. 5 Hence it follows that the ablative is generally * These cases will sometimes be denoted by their initial letters. Thus N. will denote nominative; I., instrumental. t Both these cases are used to denote various other relations. See the Chapter on Syntax, r. 805, 817. K CC DECLENSION ; OR INFLECTION OF THE BASE OF NOUNS. restricted to the sense from, and can rarely be used, as in Latin and Greek, to express other relations, such as by, with, in, &c. See 812. 91. According to the Indian system of teaching, each of these eight cases has three numbers, singular (ekavatana), dual ( dvivatana ), and plural ( bahuvalana ) ; and to each belongs a termination which is considered to be peculiarly its own, serving alike for masculine (pum - lin go), feminine ( stri-linga ), and neuter gender ( kliva or napumsaka- linga). Again, according to the native system, some of the termina- tions may be combined with memorial letters to aid pronunciation or assist the memory. Thus the proper termination of the nomina- tive singular is iff s (expressible by Yisarga : before k, kh, p, ph, and the sibilants, or at the end of a sentence, see 63) ; but the memorial termination is su, the letter u being only memorial. Similarly, the termination of the nominative plural is jas, the j being memorial. The two schemes of termination ( vibhakti , Pan. I. 4, 104), with and without the memorial letters, are here exhibited. The first is given in small type, as being of no importance excepting as subservient to the second. Terminations with memorial letters. (Observe — The memorial or servile letters are printed in capitals.) SING. DUAL. PLURAL. Nom. Jf sU* 0 -=N ^TT a u t1« Jas Acc. am auT* \ 7HT S'as Inst. Z1 Ta «TTP bhyam fa'P bhis \ Dat. T N e WTPT bhyam bhyas Abl. Tfa N asi **TPT bhyam bhyas Gen. cFP N-as \ os \ dm Loc. flF N-i •sdu os \ PU suP V> \ * The vowel u, which is of course merely memorial or servile, to enable the s, which is the real termination, to be pronounced, may possibly be used, in preference to any other vowel, to indicate that final s, in certain positions, is liable to be lique- fied into u. The object of the Z of in the acc. du. is to enable a pratyahara P7 (or before soft letters to be formed, denoting the first five inflections or strong cases. declension; or inflection of the base of nouns. 67 The same terminations without memorial letters. SING. DUAL. PLURAL. Nom. S \ ^f au as \ Acc. am — au — as Inst. ^TT a «rru bhyam f*TTT bins \ Dat. U e — bhyam WTW bhyas Abl. as — bhyam — bhyas Gen. — as ^TbfT os \ dm \ Loc. — os SU >3 Observe — The vocative is not given in the above general scheme, as it is held to be a peculiar aspect of the nominative, and coincides with the nom. in the dual and plural. In the singular it is sometimes identical with the base, sometimes with the nominative, and sometimes differs from both *. a. Observe also — The' terminations beginning with vowels will sometimes be called vowel-terminations ; and those beginning with consonants, including the nom. sing., consonantal-terminations. Similarly, those cases which take the vowel-terminations will some- times be called vowel-cases ; and those which take the consonantal, consonantal-cases. See also the division into strong, middle, and w r eak cases at 135. b. 93. Having propounded the above scheme, which for convenience will be called the memorial scheme of terminations, as the general type of the several case-affixes in the three numbers, Indian gram- marians proceed to adapt them to every noun, substantive and adjective, in the language, as well as to pronouns, numerals, and participles, whether masculine, feminine, or neuter. In fact, their theory is, that there is but one declension in Sanskrit, and that the base of a noun being given, and the regular case-terminations being given, the base is to be joined to those terminations according to the usual rules for the combination of final and initial letters, as in the following examples of the two bases, HT nau, f., ‘ a ship’ [navi, vav), and harit, m. f., 4 green.’ * In the first or commonest class of nouns the crude base stands alone in the vocative, just as the termination is dropped from the 2d sing, imperative in the first group of conjugations, see 247. K % 68 DECLENSION ; OR INFLECTION OF THE BASE OF NOUNS. 94. Norm. SINGULAR. voc. vtt^t naus nau + s DUAL. TRT ndvau nau 4- au. See 37. PLUEAL. HTCJT navas nau + as. 37. Acc. HNH ndvam nau 4- am. 37. ■ — ndvau — navas Inst. HRT ndvd nau + a. 37. HT«tr naubhyam nau + bhydm naubhis nau 4 - bhis Dat. *TR nave nau 4 - e. 37. — naubhyam »TT*nT naubhyas nau 4- bhyas Abl. navas nau 4- as. 37. — naubhyam — naubhyas Gen. HTTH navas nau + as. 37. HTTTU navos nau 4- os. 37. 4 Nth ndvam nau 4 - am. 37. Loc. HtPt navi nau + i. 37. — navos HUT naushu nau 4 - su. 70. 95 - SINGULAR. Nom. voc. ?frfT bar it harit 4- s. See 43. a. DUAL. ?"fT7TT haritau harit + au. 41. b. PLURAL. TfTTTH haritas harit + as. 41 . b. Acc. ?frtUT haritam harit 4- am. 41. b. — haritau — haritas Inst. ^fbn haritd harit 4 - d. 41. b. ?ft3TR haridbhydm harit + bh yam. 41. haridbhis harit 4- bhis. 41. Dat. hdrite harit 4- e. 41. b. — haridbhydm haridbhyas harit + bhyas. 41. Abl. irfuinT haritas harit 4- as. 41 .b. — haridbhydm — haridbhyas Gen. — haritas ^fCrUH tiaritos harit 4- os. 41 .b. rfcrR haritam harit + dm. 41 .b. Loc. harit i harit 4 -i. 4 i.b . — harit os ^TT7H haritsu harit 4- su. 40. DECLENSION ; OE INFLECTION OF THE BASE OF NOUNS. 69 9 6. Unfortunately, however, it happens, that of nouns whose bases end in vowels, ifr nau, ‘ a ship/ is nearly the only one that admits of this regular junction of the base with the case-endings ; and, although nouns whose bases end in consonants are numerous, and are generally declined as regularly as harit, yet they are nume- rically insignificant, compared with nouns in a, a, i, i, u, and ri, whose declension requires frequent changes in the final of the base, and various modifications, or even substitutions, in the terminations. 97. Thus in the first class of nouns ending in a (which will be found to comprise almost as many nouns as the other seven classes together; compare 80 with 81 — 87), not only is the final a of the base liable to be lengthened and changed to e, but also the termina- tion ina is substituted for d, the proper termination of the instru- mental sing. masc. ; ya for e of the dative ; t for as of the ablative ; sya for as of the genitive ; n for as of the accus. plural ; ais for bhis of the instrum, plural. And in many other nouns particular changes and substitutions are required, some of which are determined by the gender. (Compare the first group of verbal bases at 357. a.) The annexed table exhibits synoptically the terminations, with the most usual substitutions, throughout all the classes of nouns. SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL. N. *r (m.f.), (n.) ^T(m.f.),^(n.) Ac.'sm (m.f.), H* (m. f.n.) ’fr (m.f.),^(n.) I. ^ (m.f. n.), (m.n.) WTR (m. f. n.) D. Tj (m.f.n.), tj* (m.n.) with (m.f.n.) Ab.^w(m.f.n.),^,^(m.f.),r^ : (m.n.) wrR x (m.f.n.) G. w (m.f.n.), ^,T(m.f.),^*(m.n.) (m. f. n.) L. ^ (m. f. n.), (f.), (m. f.) (m. f. n.) ’STCT (m.f.), 1 (n.) ^,^r(m.f.),H*(m.),^(n.) (m. f. n.), inr* (m. n.) (m. f. n.) (m. f. n.) (m.f.n.) (m.f.n.) v t Observe — Those substitutions marked * are mostly restricted to nouns ending in a, and are therefore especially noticeable. a. Comparing the above terminations with those of Latin and Greek, we may remark that s enters into the nom. sing, masc., and m or n into the neuter, in all three languages. In regard to the Sanskrit dual au, the original termination was a, as found in the Vedas ; and a equals the Greek a, cu, and e. In nom. pi. masc. the s appears in many Latin and Greek words. In acc. sing., Sanskrit agrees 70 DECLENSION ; OR INFLECTION OF THE BASE OF NOUNS. with Latin, and frequently with Greek, as the Sanskrit m may be euphonically changed to n (v), if influenced by a dental following (see observation, p. 22). In the acc. pi. s appears in all three languages ; and when the Sanskrit ends in n, as in the first class of nouns, this n is probably for ns, since a preceding a is lengthened to compensate for the rejection of s. Compare some Vedic acc. plurals; cf. also <7 Bopp’s Comp. Gr. § 236, nnrovs acc. pi. in the Cretic dialect ; and Gothic forms, such as balgins, sununs. In inst. pi. bhis is preserved in the Latin nobis, vobis, and the Greek for v, and the Latin um w = 7T0^u>v, pedum). In loc. sing, the Sanskrit i is preserved in the dative of Greek and Latin words (f'Tftl = vvkti - — Compare the expression t y avTYj vvkt'i — = navi). In loc. pi. su answers to the Greek c n (HTU = vaval) . San- skrit bases in a prefix i to su : so that vrikaishu (29. b) = A VKolai. The voc. sing, in Greek is generally identical with the base, and the voc. dual and pi. with the nom., as in Sanskrit : thus A oye is the voc. sing, of A o'yos, rpiypes of t piYjpvjy, %c(.p'iev of yap lets, /3aai\ev of (3aT, &c. (compare 149) : thus, N. V. Ac. ’StTw, VlfW'fl', VTCsftftT; I. WPTT, &c. ; D. WFT, ’SffwwiT, & c . ; Ab. &c. ; G. ; L. or ^TWf?T, Hence, according to 58, ’’JrfVT akshi will make in I. sing. VTSTHT in D. viEW, &c. 80 INFLECTION OF BASES OF NOUNS ENDING IN VOWELS. Nouns ending in \ i and u. We have already shewn that feminine bases of more than one syllable ending in i, generally derived from masculines or forming the feminines of numerous adjectives and participles, are declined like nadi at io 6: thus, ‘an actress,’ Vpft ‘a daughter,’ ‘a goddess,’ ‘ a female friend,’ WTtf ‘ a woman,’ Rnft ‘ a tigress,’ vfcpft or VTTfft * a rich woman,’ and numerous others all follow nadi. 123. There are a few common monosyllabic words in long \ i primitively feminine, (i. e. not derived from masculine substantives, see nadi and putri at 80. XXV, and not the feminine forms of adjectives or participles, 80. XII. &c.,) whose declension must be noticed separately. They vary from the declension of Wcfl (106) by form- ing the nom. with , and using the same form for the voc., and by changing the final i to iy before the vowel-terminations : thus, f. * prosperity N.V. F 5 RT, fopiW; Ac. fopi, fourer; I. fsRT, vftfiR; D. f^R or IVv, Ah. f%RTT or f^RT^, sftaRT; G. ftlTK or f^RTTT , fvTWT or TjffanT ; L. f'-ufil or f^PTT, OtJ if| 7 T , a. Similarly are declined Ht f. ‘ fear,’ f. ‘ shame,’ and vt f. ‘ understanding thus, N. V. >Tt^T , f>RT, fmR; Ac. &c. ; I. fan, &c.; D. or ftR, &c. b. ^f.,‘ a woman,’ follows in N.V. sing., and varies also in other respects from ^fl ; thus, N. %nu> v. %tt, ; Ac. or %RT, or ; 1. fpi, uafrf** ; d. ; Ah. G. %TT* , ^tVTT j L. %VT, As the last member of a compound adjective, it shortens its final, and in some of its cases follows ayni and matij e. g. m. f. n. ‘ surpassing a woman :’ N. masc. -%*, ; Ac. -%T or 4 1 , or - %nw x ; I. -f^rnT,-%«U,&c.; D. &c.; Ab. -^T, &c.; G. -^TT ; L. -^T, &c. ; V. &c. The fem. form is like the masc., but Ac. pi. -wN; or -%PR X ; I. -%VT; D. -%V or Ab. -%VT* o r &c. For neut., see 126. 124. There are a few primitively feminine words not monosyllabic, such as c'JSfil' ‘ the goddess of prosperity,’ ‘fUSl ‘ a lute-string,’ rTTl * a boat,’ which; like 'Sft, take s in the nom. sing., but in other respects follow ; thus, N. 77 SRT, c5ST?R x ; Ac. cSHfrF, &c. ; V. But UTtt f. ‘ the brilliant (god- dess),’ as a derivative fem. noun, is N. sing. 125. Feminine nouns, not monosyllabic, ending in long Ti li, like WV^ a wife,’ are declined analogously to primitively feminine nouns of more than one syllable, ending in ^ i, i. e. like they follow the analogy of nadi except in N. sing., where s is retained. In the other cases 3 i u becomes v, wherever i is changed to y (see 34): thus, N. VRT, TRS; Ac. TV, TRT, TV*; I. TRT, TV«lf, INFLECTION OF BASES OF NOUNS ENDING IN VOWELS. 81 D. USE?, T»wii, WWjU ; Ab. WITT , ; G. WS3TU, 5fszftu, ^Wff ; L. WtU, TO: v. N> T , VS3U. Similarly, f. ‘a host f. ‘a mother-in-law.’ c, «. Again, monosyllabic words in u primitively feminine are declined analogously to vff f. at 123; u being changed to uv, wherever i is changed to iy : thus, Hf. ‘the earth:’ N. V. UTFT, U#T, HTH; Ac. UV, U#t, ipyU; I. UVT, U«lt, uftm 5 D. U# or uf , U«?T, U»W ; Ab. or UVW , URT, ; G. UqRT or UVTU » iVa'm, UVT or UUT; L. uf# or UTf, U#ft? , MV. Similarly, U f. ‘the eye-brow’ (oIm. ‘a thunderbolt,’ Wm. ‘a finger- nail,’ IjpTUm.f. ‘born again’ (N. V. Ac. &c. ; I.-t^TT; D. Ab. G. -«J 55 , -ft#. But if the sense is limited to a distinct female object, as ‘ a virgin widow remarried,’ the D. will be -"R ; Ab. G. -V#TU ; L. -¥#T, like WW). ^ \ Cx d. Similarly also, W flUfll' m. ‘a general,’ “JlWflii m. f. ‘the chief of a village;’ but these, hke take dm for the termination of the L. sing, even in the masc. : thus, N. V. #uuf!u, - 5 #T, --aw ; Ac. - 5 #, &c.; I. -ajT; L. WFiH, &c. This applies also to the simple noun m. f. ‘a leader,’ but the final becomes iy before vowel-terminations. e. But and m. ‘ self-existent,’ as a name of Brahma, follow U at Cv ^ C\ 125. a, taking only the first inflections : thus, D. -H# ; Ab. -UW 3 T, &c. f. Masculine non-compounds in i and u of more than one syllable, like UWi m. ‘who drinks’ or ‘cherishes,’ ‘the sun,’ 'flfl m. ‘a Gandharba,’ follow and Cv Cx ^ 5 ?c 5 ^at 126. b, except in Ac. sing, and plur. : thus, N. V. 'T c fl 5 T , xfttiT, 'HTOU ; Ac. Wf, xpqT, 'TUTU; and in L. sing, the final i combines with the i of the termination into i (31.0), not into yi : thus, L. sing. U 1 # (but irfisT from ??)• Again, THTOBt m. , ‘an antelope’ (surpassing the wind), as a compound, may follow fi rt ; but M 82 INFLECTION OF BASES OF NOUNS ENDING IN VOWELS. Vopadeva makes Ac. sing, and pi. follow Nut. When such nouns have a feminine, the Ac. plur. ends in s.- thus 'NTTT m. f., ‘ tawny,’ makes vs I V W for the Ac. pi. f. g. A word like TTNi f. ' ' superior understanding’ (formed from the compound verb IJHl), when used as a fern, noun, is treated as a polysyllable, and follows STFSNf except in D. Ab., &c., where it takes the second inflections (D. sing. THfl, &c.). But when used adjectively, in the sense ‘ having superior understanding,’ it follows sTFSNl throughout, both for masc. and fern., but may optionally for the fern, be declined like the fern, substantive. The voc. fern, may be TTnItT or nfv. Two rare nouns, ‘ one who loves pleasure’ and TTjf) ‘one who wishes for a son,’ also follow but in Ab. G. sintr. make TTtaTTt , TTiNTT . h. Monosyllabic nouns primitively feminine (like f., vt f., f., at 123, >3 f. ‘ the eye-brow ’), forming the last member of a compound adjective, still follow the declension of monosyllables, but use the first inflections only in the D. Ab. G. L. cases and G. plur., for the masc., and may optionally use them for the fem. : thus, N. 7 TiOf)"IT m. f., ‘ fearless,’ is U 7 ff*TN only in D. sing, m., or -fWq in D. sing. f. So also, Tpfl' m. f. ‘ intelligent,’ M '2 m. f. ‘ having pure thoughts,’ m. f. ‘ stupid,’ Tlnd m. f. ‘ having good fortune,’ TT^m. f. ‘ having beautiful brows thus, N. V. TT»|TT, -t|NT, -TJNW j Ac. TTHU, &c. According to Vopadeva, the voc. f. may be TT*?, but this alternative is generally restricted to those compounds which have one consonant before the final vowel : thus, ttmI; V. fem. ttnItt or TUN. 7 o 7 o \ o i. When primitively feminine nouns, not monosyllabic, occur at the end of compounds they preserve their fem. terminations (except in acc. pi.) though used as masc. adjectives (i. e. according to Pan. I. 4, 3, they retain their naxU character) ; thus m. ‘a man of many excellences,’ is thus declined: N. ■fltf), -TNT, -TUTT; V. -TTT, &c. ; Ac. -Tff, -TNT, -TffN; I. -TNT, -TfhNT, &c.; D. -TN, &c. ; Ab. G. -T^TTTT , &c. ; L. -TNT, & c. Similarly (but N. sing, will end in Tl^), NUTFS’S??! m. f. ‘ one who has surpassed Lakshmi,’ vs ra s+ft m. f. ‘ deprived of fortune, ’ UlfiTNU m. f. ‘ victorious over hosts ’ (N. NlfsrNJTTT, -TNT, -T^TT; V. C\ ' C\ V \ -N; Ac. -H, -INT, -TUT, Ac.pl. f. -JIN ; I. -TNT, -SUNT, & c . ; D. -Tq, &c.; Ab. -TN 1 TT , &c.); but the last three may follow Vopadeva’s declension of NTrTUbl at 126./. j. All adjectives ending in i and u shorten the final vowel for the neuter gender, and follow the declension of vari ; but in the I. D. Ab. G. and L. cases they may optionally take the masc. terminations : thus, N. V. sing. neut. TUffa; I. TTTrrTTJTT or TTHfUNT; D. WiTfHN or TTTTfHN, &c. N. V. Ac. sing. WF 5 f» 7 ; I. or -tNT, & c . N. V. Ac. T-TF5N ; I. -NNT or -TNT. N. V. Ac. NFNNfTT ; I. -’NNfTTTTT or -^ITTNT; D. or -NWf, &c. N. V. Ac. TyTUftl; I. -ftrRT or -TINT. FOURTH CLASS OF NOMINAL BASES INFLECTED. Masculine, feminine , and neuter bases in NJ ri. 127. Masculine bases in ri, declined like <^TTT datri, m., ‘ a giver/ and fqir pitri, m., ‘ a father/ The former is the model of nouns of agency (83); the latter, of nouns of relationship. INFLECTION OF BASES OF NOUNS ENDING IN TOWELS. 83 In nouns of agency like ddtri the final ri is vriddhied (28), and in nouns of relationship like pitri (except naptri, ‘ a grandson,’ and svasri, ‘ a sister’) gunated, in the strong cases (see p. 86) ; but the r of dr and ar is dropped in N. sing., and to compensate in the last case a is lengthened. In both, the final ri is gunated in L. V. sing., and ur is substituted for final ri and the initial a of as in Ab. G. sing. In Ac. G. pi. final ri is lengthened, and assumes n in G. pi. Hence the inflective bases ddtri, datar, datar, ddtri, ddtur j and pitri, pilar, pitri, pitur. This class answers to fic/ryp, naTYjp, pater, &c. ; ri being equivalent to ar .- and it is remarkable, that ddtdram:, ddtdras, &c., bear the same relation to pitaram, pitaras, & c., that & orypa , ^orypeg, 'doTYjpi, &c., bear to '/rare pa, 7 ca.re.peg, rtarepi, &c. Compare also the Latin datoris from da tor with patris from pater. a. Note — There is elision of s at the end of a conjunct consonant after r ■ hence in Ab. G. daturs and pitur s become ddtur and pitur. Compare 43. a. ^ f ^TrTT data UTTHTT datarau t$TinT.^ddtdras (SoTpjpeg) [ data ( rs rejected) datar -f - an datar -{-as f fTTWRU ddtdram Ac.-s 7 , , x ( datar + am — datarau qTIT’T datnn ddtri-\- n j ( ddtra ^TF«fT?I x ddtribhydm ddtribhis [ ddtri + a. 34. ddtri +bhy dm datri-\-bliis J datre [ ddtri -\-e. 34. — ddtribhydm ddtribhyas ddtri-\-bhyas ^ ddtur — ddtribhydm *[ ddtur -\-s (s rejected) — ddtribhyas f — ddtur G 'i datros ddtri + os. 34. UUFFTR ddtrmdm ddtri +w + dm J ^TiTlT datar i [ datar -j-i — datros UTiTT ddtrishu datri-\-su. 70. J ?T 7 iT datar [ datar ^TrTRT datarau ^TrrivU ddtdras datar + au datar + as ^ |fq 7 TT pita pitarau ftfi TK&^pitaras (tt are peg) [ pita (rs rejected) pitar-\-au pitar-\-as ^ | fVi vmjpitaram \_pitar-\-arn — pitarau fxnPT pitrin pitri-\-n I f ftJ^T pitrd \ pitri+d. 34. ftnr«n ^pitribhyam ■fawfW ^pitribhis pitri + bhyam pitri -{-bliis Fft H pitre \ pitri +e. 34. — pitribhyam frnjvqdT nd, Ac. I. *JT, D. *3, Ab. G. * 7 T , &c. It is doubtful, however, whether the forms are ever used, at least, by good writers. The following forms certainly occur: N. sing. ^TT, Ac. N. Ac. du. ^TTT, I. D. Ab. G. L. ^RT«T ; N. pi. Ac. ^T, D. Ab. G. WVIT or L. ^5 ; but in the inst. dat. gen. loc. sing., the corresponding cases of *TT are generally substituted. c. !htl? m., ‘a jackal,’ must form its strong cases (except V. sing.) and may form its weak cases (p. 86) from WF* N. -'B'TTT, -V 1 TU ; Ac. -FIT, -FTU, “FH or -FU ; I.-'gT or -F?n, -V«JT, &c. ; D. or -FF, &c.; Ab. -FT or -m &c.; G. -FT or -?m , -'em or -fm , -FTTT or -F*TT ; L. -Fit or -'ST, & c. ; V. -FT. As the last member of a compound adjective, in the neuter, WF alone is used. d. Nouns like m. ‘ a charioteer,’ i^F m. ‘ a carpenter,’ «TF m., ^Id m., WITT m., ‘ different kinds of priests,’ m. ‘a warrior,’ of course, follow ddtri. But fiFjF m., a charioteer,’ follows pitri. 129. Feminine bases in ^ ri belong to nouns of relationship, like mdtri, £ a mother’ (from md, ‘to create,’ ‘the producer’); and only differ from pitri in ace. plur., which ends in s instead of n : thus, TiTiTTT. Compare pyryp, puj-repa, voc. fjSjTcp. a. FIT svasri, ‘ a sister,’ however, follows dTH ddtri; but the Ac. pi. is still FU) . The lengthening of the penultimate is probably caused by the loss of the t from tri, preserved in the English sister. So soror for sostor. b. The feminine base of nouns of agency is formed by adding ^ i to the final ri : thus, EfiT + f, ffTcft ddtri, f., ‘ a giver ;’ and cj^ft f. ‘a doer.’ See 80. XXVI. Their declension follows nadi at 106. 130. The neuter base is thus declined : N. Ac. XoKg ). INFLECTION OF BASES OF NOUNS ENDING IN CONSONANTS. 87 N.V. • [ Fftff sarit *rfrffr saritau ^saritas (_san 7 +s(srejected. 43.0.) sarit -\-au. 41 .b. sarit+as. 41 .b. Ac. j saritam sarit + am. 41.6. — saritau — saritas ■ 1 ^rfTWT sarita saridbhydm saridbhis _ sarit + a sarit -\-bhy dm. 41. sarit -\-bhis. 41. D. j 1" muff sarite — saridbhydm saridbhyas [ sarit -{-e sarit -\-bhj as Ab. j \ uftffTT saritas [ sarit + as — saridbhydm — saridbhyas G. j \ — saritas *rf T3\\saritos wfyffTff saritam l sarit + os sarit -{-am L. - [ stfufir sariti — saritos saritsu [_ sarit -\-i 1 sarit-\-su. 40. 137. Neuter bases in w t are declined like \liarit, n., ‘green. 5 These only differ from the masculine and feminine in the N. du. ph, Ac. sing, du. and ph, the usual neuter terminations ^ 1, ^ i (see 97), being required, and n being inserted before the final of the base in N. Ac. pi. : thus, N. Ac. V. * 11 X 71 harit, srfijft hariti , harinti ; I. haritd, ^H'51 m haridbhyam, &c. 138. Masculine and feminine bases in ^ d, like v^UIrr dharma-vid, m. f., ‘knowing one’s duty 5 — a compound composed of the substan- dharma, ‘ duty,’ and the root vid, ‘ knowing.’ See 84. 1 . N.V. | -fffff -vit -ffffr -vidau -fUffTT -vidas -vid-{-s. 42, 43. a. -vid-\-au -vid-\-as Ac. | -vidam -vid-{-am — -vidau — -vidas ‘ 1 ’ -TffffT -vidd -vidbhydm -vidbhis L -vid-{-d -vid-\-bliyam -vid-\-bhis D. i \ -vide [ -vid-\-e — -vidbliyam -fffVJU -vulbhyas -vid+bhyas Ab. j r -f^TT -vidas [ -vid-\-as — -vidbhydm — -vidbhyas G. - \ — -vidas -ffffftir -vidos ^ \ -vidam l -vid + os -vid + dm L. < \ -ffffff -vidi l -vid-\-i — -vidos -fffNT -vitsu 'O -v id-\-su. 42. 88 INFLECTION OF BASES OF NOUNS ENDING IN CONSONANTS. 139. Neuter bases in ^ d are declined like VBUUT dharma-vid, n., ‘ knowing one’s duty,’ and k n., ‘ a day,’ takes its form, in the N. Ac. V. sing, and the middle cases, from an obsolete base, ahas : in the other cases it is like ndman : thus, N. Ac. V. (43. a), ^ or ’STlRl, ; I. ’SsftfvR; D. ^?T«rr, Ab. ’SyR, &c. ; G. ^|R, *?gt; L. or or At the end of compounds it may be declined as a masc. : thus, N. , &c.; I. ’srtFT, v. & c. If the negative ^R precedes, is regular : thus, N. "iiR^I, -finil, &c. ; Ac. Klj, &c. ; I. pi. 'tC 159. Masculine bases in ^rf in, declined like dhanin, m., c rich. 5 H tnfl dhani VRRT dhaninau vf^R^T dhaninas _ ci^awi^wand. 9 rejected. 43.0 ,57.) dhanin-]- au dhanin + as Ac. j dhaninam dhanin -f- am — dhaninau — dhaninas ■•I vf*RT dhanind vfjRTP* dhanibhyam VRfHTT dhanibhis _ dhanin -{-a dhani (n dropped. 57) -f bhyarr, 1 dhani(n dropped. 57) + bhis D.j \ vftfrf dhanine — dhanibhyam tlfiT«R dhanibhyas [ dhanin + e dhani (n dropped. 57) -\-bhy as Ab.* [ VRRW dhaninas [ dhanin -{-as — dhanibhyam — dhanibhyas — dhaninas vfcRftr dhaninas vftRR dhaninam L dhanin os dhanin-]- am, L. * f vf'Tf'T dhanini — dhaninos vfRg dhunishu [ dhanin -\-i c?Aani(wdropped. 57 )+s«. 7 o. V. * f dhanin tlfjRl dhaninau vf?R*T dhaninas [ dhanin. 92. dhanin-]- au dhanin-]- as 94 INFLECTION OF BASES OF NOUNS ENDING IN CONSONANTS. Observe — A great many adjectives of the forms explained at 85* VI. VII. VIII. are declined like vrfVpr for the masculine : thus, HVTfTH medhavin, ‘intellectual;’ N. -fcDTT, -fr?T*T, &c. Also a vast number of nouns of agency, like ‘ a doer,’ at 85. V: thus, N. -syrTTt, oFTfwr (58), ^rrfcjsrar, &c. 160. Note — The feminine base of such adjectives and nouns of agency is formed by adding ^ i to the masc. base; as, from vrf^, V PH'dl f.; from ^rrfr'JT, oRTfootf.; declined like nadi at 106: thus, N. vrnnt, -■afr, , &c. 1 61. The neuter is regular, and is like the declension of vdri as far as the gen. plur.: thus, N. Ac. vfn, \rfrpft, vntfn. But the gen. plur. not ; V. sing. vfn or 162. tlfxjTT m. ‘ a road,’ *?fxi«^m. ‘a churning-stick,’ and ‘a. name of Indra,’ are remarkable as exhibiting both affixes, an and in, in the same word. They form their N. V. sing, from the bases UrSRT , their other strong cases, from the bases *T^T 5 T, their Ac. pi., and remaining weak cases, from the bases nxf, ; in their middle cases they follow 159 regularly: thus, N. V. (163), ; Ac. ^^TPT, V^TRT, UX}T 7 ; I. tpzjT, TtftrfHTT; D. TtXf, &c. Similarly, N. V. Ji^TO, &c. ; &c. : I. &c. ; & c. Observe — The V. is the same as the N. a. The compound ‘ having a good road,’ is similarly declined for the masc.; the nom. fem. is -WL like nadi at 106; the neut. is N. Ac. nifPg -TSfl, -TjtHTfH, &c. ; V. or ; the rest as the masc. O vj \ \5 SEVENTH CLASS OF NOUNS INFLECTED. Masculine, feminine, and neuter bases in as, is, and us. > Note, that this class answers to Greek and Latin words like 7 rd. 9 o$, jJ-lvog, genus, scelus , &c. 163. Masculine and feminine bases in as, declined like (andramas, m., ‘the moon.’ The a of as is lengthened in N. sing, to compensate for the rejection of the ter- mination. I ■^•tHTTTT can dram as (andramasau ( andramasas |_ dandrarnds(s rejected. 43.0.) i7; Ac. W7T, rtumr, tjTW; I. TJTTT, WT, dfwi; D. &c.; Ab. W x , &c.; G. i* T ; L. f*, w; v. g*nr, w*tt, &c. 170. m., ‘ a name of the regent of the planet Sukra,’ forms N. sing, from a base (147). Similarly, m. ‘a name of Indra,’ and m. ‘time.’ The other cases are regular: thus, N. du. But 3 41 n «-i x may be optionally m the vocative sing. or TST*! or ^ 71*7*1. 1 71. »R7T , ‘ decay’ (yYjpag), though properly a neuter noun, supplies its con- sonantal cases (viz. N. V. sing. I. D. Ab. du. pi. L. pi.) from the feminine tRT (at 108. d). Its other cases may be either from tR 77 or TITT : thus, N. sing. »7TT ; V. "571 ; Ac. *R7T f or ^RT; I. 7773TT and TRtfT, '5RT«!T, iRTfuTT, &c. * There seems, however, difference of opinion as to the rejection of ij and some grammarians make the feminine tenyusM. t Since tRB certainly occurs, it may be inferred that the N. Ac. V. du. are *=Sv ^ * ^77*71 or 77T ; N. Ac. V. pi. ^ or tRRT . These forms are given in the grammar of I's'vara-iiandra Vidya-sagara, p. 51. o 98 INFLECTION OF BASES OF NOUNS ENDING IN CONSONANTS. EIGHTH CLASS OF NOUNS INFLECTED. Masculine , feminine , and neuter bases in any consonant, except w t (or \ d), n, * s. 172. This class consists principally of roots used as nouns, either alone or at the end of compounds, or preceded by prepositions and adverbial prefixes. Roots ending in ff t (or d), employed in this manner, are of common occurrence ; but their declension falls under the fifth class at 136. Roots ending in other consonants are not very frequently found, and the only difficulty in their declension arises from their combination with the consonantal terminations. 173. Whatever change of the final consonant, however, takes place in the nominative sing, is preserved before all the consonantal terminations; remembering only, that before such terminations the rules of Sandhi come into operation. 174. Before the vowel-terminations the final consonant of the root, whatever it may be, is always preserved. If in one or two nouns there may be any peculiarity in the formation of the accus. pi., the same peculiarity runs through the remaining weakest or vowel cases. The terminations themselves undergo no change, but the s of the nom. sing, is of course rejected by 43. a. There is generally but one form of declension for both masc. and fem.; the neuter follows the analogy of other nouns ending in consonants. 175. Masculine and feminine bases in off k, kh, *1 <7, \gk, declined like FH3IW sarva-s'ak, m.f., ‘omnipotent’ (from sarva, ‘all,’ and T5IW ‘ to be able’), and fe^few m. ‘a painter’ (from fe^ ‘ a painting,’ and feT? ‘to write’). N.V. -I$TW (43. a), -IjTWT (41.6), -Tfraratj Ac. -IJIW, -1ITWI, ; I. (41), -Srfhw, &c.j L. pi. - 3 P 3 * (70). N. V. -few ( 43 . 6, 43- «), (174), -fetsw; Ac. -few, &c.; I. - feT, &c.; I. -URTT, -xffwiT, & c.; L. pi. OTTO or TTRBTT. g. ‘ one who fries,’ makes N. V. *T7, HT3T, *i-nr)u; Ac. RT5T, &c. Simi- larly, fT^, ‘ one who cuts,’ makes, according to some, 77 , &c., and not '37, &c. h. m. f., ‘strong,’ makes N. V. '3i%, &c. ; Ac. di*f, &c. ; I. 7i*iT, &c. The neuter is N. Ac. V. uric, urji, unrji. But in these cases where a word ends in a compound consonant, the first member of which is r or l, the nasal may be optionally omitted in the plural, so that urji would be equally correct. 177. Masculine and feminine bases in ^ th, ^ dh, declined like m. f. ‘one who tells,’ TDJ f. ‘ battle.’ The final aspirate is changed to its unaspirated form before the consonantal terminations (43.6,41), but not before the vowel (41.6). N. V. -SfifT, 3T3T, Ac. 3P7, &c.; I. 3T3T, &c. N. V. 37, W, 7V7 ; Ac. 77, &c.; I. 7VT, 73JT, &c. In the case of 37 m. f., ‘ one who knows,’ the initial 7 b becomes 7 bh wherever the final V ' dh becomes t or d, by 175. b. and 42. c: thus, N. V. 77, 3VT, 777; Ac. 77, &c.; I. 37T, TTglT, &c.; L. pi. 773. a. The neuter is N. Ac. V. 3T7, 3T3% 3rfc7, &c.; 77, Ttft, d P*7, &c. 178. Masculine and feminine bases in 3 p, 7i ph, 3 b, 7 bh, declined like 77 m. f. ' one who defends,’ c77 m, f. ‘one who obtains.’ N. V. ”7, 77T, 773 ; INFLECTION OF BASES OF NOUNS ENDING IN CONSONANTS. 101 Ac. ipi, &C. ; I. JjqT, Ipreri, JTfsffW, &c. N. Y. eS 1 *, c 5 *TT, ; Ac. 0 ^cSTiT . 5th class. L’sfanT ‘prosperous’ ^hTTTT ^ThTTfl 106. N ^frETrT 6th class. ‘happy’ tt^I 106. 0 0 TTfe * When it is remembered that a is equivalent in pronunciation to u, the three genders of this adjective might be written priyus, priyd, priyum ; thus offering a pei-fect similarity to Latin adjectives in us. 104 ADJECTIVES. 189. 1st class. 2d class. Examples of compound adjectives. BASE. NOM. MASC. NOM. FEM. f [‘very learned’ [ 0 \ NOM. NEUT. O 3D CLASS. I [‘small bodied’ o \ 4th CLASS. ‘ very liberal’ 5th class. \ ‘ all-conquering 5 6th class. J TTH m ' W [ ‘ well-born 7th class. 8th class. [‘deprived of sense’ [ ‘ piercing the vitals’ =)?el 7 TF ^rtf-rnr WifHl o 0 \ v> 106. TrtftTH \ Trtnrrt N jnr^i 0 \ c C \ WR t \ 190. Examples of some other compound adjectives. ‘ a shell-blower’ (108. a.) snarer ‘ruined’ (123. b.) ^TF'sfta fTVra sweeper’ (126. b .) Cv \ c\ \ O ‘having a divine mother 7 (130.) W|T ‘rich’ (134. a.) 0 \ vy ‘having many cattle’ (134.0.) Tinfrir 0 \ srjjfra *Fl ■srpn ‘ having many ships’ (134. c.) ^TTtT O \ O \ 19 1. The degrees of comparison are formed in tw T o ways ; 1 st, by adding to the base 7 TV tara (nom. -taras, -tara, -taram, cf. Greek Tepos) for the comparative ; and 7T*T tama (nom. -tamas, -tamd, -tamam, cf. Latin timus, Greek toto?) for the superlative : thus, ■tn^T puny a, ‘ holy,’ ■qfWHT punyatara, ‘ more holy,’ uimrfH punyatama, ‘most holy,’ declined like nouns of the first class at 103. So also, dhanavat, ‘ wealthy,’ dhanavattara, ‘ more wealthy,’ dhanavattama , ‘ most wealthy.’ A final « is rejected ; as, dhanin, ‘ rich,’ dhunitara , ADJECTIVES. 105 ‘ more rich/ dhanitama, ‘ most rich / but these adjectives generally take the affixes at 192 (see the examples at 193). a. ‘ wise/ makes firing, Compare 168. a. ' 192. 2dly, by adding iyas (nom. -iyan, -iyasi, -iyas, Greek tun/, see declension below) for the comparative ; and ^ ishtha (nom. - ishthas , -ishtha, -ishtham, declined at 103, cf. Greek icrro?) for the superlative. a. Note, that while the base of the Sanskrit comparative affix strictly appears to end in n and s ( iyans ), the Greek has adhered to the n throughout (N. iydn = iccv, voc. iyan = tov) ; and the Latin has taken the s for its neuter ( iyas = ins, neuter of iorj s being changed to r, in the masc. and oblique cases). Compare Sanskrit gariyas with gravius. A 193. In general, before iyas and ishtha , the base disburdens itself of a final vowel, or of the more weighty affixes in, vin, vat, mat, and tri : thus, ‘ strong/ ‘more strong/ ‘strongest 5 (declined at 103) ; Tnf^ ‘wicked/ tjTtfizfW ‘ more wicked/ tjjfw ‘ most wicked / ‘ light/ ‘ lighter/ ‘ lightest / ‘intelligent/ irtfhrsT ‘ more intelligent/ irfalf ‘ most intelligent.’ Simi- larly, ‘ great/ ‘ greater/ ffiVs ‘ greatest.’ a. Compare (N. of svddiyas ) from svddu, ‘ sweet,’ with rfiiwv from $V} and with y$hj to{. The declension of masc. is here given in full (see 167). N. -^m^baUydn Ac. Welfare?? baliydmsam I. baliyasd D. baliyase Ab, haliyasas G. — haliyasas L. ’STcSl'vft? bally asi V. baity an baity dmsau — baliydmsau ^fafpqTR baliyobhyam — baliyobhyam — baliyobhyam baity asos — baltyasos baliydmsau baliydmsas haliyasas baity obhis baity obhy as — baltyobhyas baity asam baity ahsu cIcVt'hT^m' baliydmsas The declension of the neut. and fern, is explained at 167. 194. And besides the rejection of the final, the base often under- goes considerable change, as in Greek (compare e^Oiwi/, e^OtaTOf, from e-^Opos ) ; and its place is sometimes supplied by a substitute (compare /SeXr/mr, ( 3 eXri guru, ‘ heavy’ (/ 3apvy ) yT gara JR! yy ( gravius ) yfcy tripra, ‘ satisfied’ d I trapa \ srfyy cfHi dirgha, ‘ long’ TJTy drdgha ■^rytyy ^rfw ^ 3 ; 14, 1* ; 15* > NTSIfR 1 6, 17, =19 ; vreUTSR r 8, 3fc ; or ^rfjlRfrr 19, sa; ffjTfrl 20; TJofffTSTfw 21 ; ^Tf%flT 22; ^sfrf%f 7 T 23 ; ^fTTlflT 24; WpTMfiT 2,5 ; Mf|lJlffT 26 ; 27; wrf%rffT 28 ; ^f%frT or 3 UTf^T 7 T 29 ; fUuur 30 ; 3 1 ; ^TTf^^TT 3 2 ; 33 ; ^f#5ur 34 ; trwuT7T 35; ^^^36; ^rf^ir 37; wrfcHTrT 38; or - 3 UT^rrTfT- 5 Trr 39 5 ^ifTTiTH 40 ; ^^rrft^TfT 4 1 1 %^T- f%W or WT'^W I nCg»rrT 42 ; f«^^TfT5T7T or WW^TftUTflr 43 ; WgRTfr^TW 44 ; 45 ; Tre^TTTUTIT 46 ? ^^TTTSTrT 47 ; ^TST^RTft^UT or wv^nfrynT 48 ; ^^snfw?r or 49 ; m^ujtr 50 ; tru N^UJITT 51 ; fewOR or I 7 WUiriT 52; or cPUTrannn 33 ; ^•.tr^TSTTT 54 ; WUW 3 T 7 T 55 ; MTWURfT 56 ; TTUV^JTVnT 57 ; W^T^rT or WnT^T^nr 58 ; ^ 4 M^I 3 lrT or -gUT^f? 59 ; 60 ; 61 ; fiTVfv or -gmfs 62 ; or * 63 ; * 64 ; WVUJ 65 ; VTufu 66 ; TUITfv 67 ; VTVVfu or 68 ; PRVfe or ^URirffT 69 ; ^ufrT 70; IRRUflT 71 ; %TTNf7f or ^rasfrT J2; fcR^frl or cUVRUffl 73 ; ^WRTrfjT 74 ; tj^afTT 75 ; VTUUfrT 76 ; TTTRITrfTT 77 ; *re*UrffT or ^T^T^n^frT 78 ; ^nraflT or ^T#flT 79 ; wffrT 80 ; 8 1 ; SITilfrT 82 ; ^SfHlT 83 ; * These may also be written < 34 ^ 11 ?, See rules 62. a. and 63. P 2 108 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 84; ggTUTTfiT 85; ggTtflfg 86; ggT^flfg 87; WT#frT 88; g^T^llnr or gvgggfg 89 ; ggfa 90 ; ggrggfg 9 r ; fg-ggnr or grggffl 92 ; fk^RHT or ^glggfg 93 ; ggggfa 94; Wggfg95; ^^96 (41. d); TisnurfiT 97 ; grrggfir or gruiggnt 98 ; ggggfk or gigrnr n. (m) 99 ; ttit n. (also occasionally masc.*) xoo. trgr may be placed before the last numeral : thus, ggr 7 T 7 T or ggiTTiT. Similarly 200 is expressed by g 3Tg (nom. du. n.) or ^jg (nom. du. n.) or fg^nr (nom. sing, n.) ; 300 by ^ftrr ■^TfTTf'T (nom. pi. n.) or fg^lTT (nom. sing, n.) ; 400 by ^glfr SIFTlfg (nom. pi. n.) or grgisnr ; 500 by g^$TiT ; 600 by ggJTsT; and so on up to 1000, which is expressed by ggi? n. (occasionally m.) or ggigsP? n. or f.; 2000 by g ggH or fggg^ ; 3000 by pfhvr ggBTrcrr or fg'ggH ; and so forth. 199. The intervening numbers between 100 and 1000, and those between 1000 and 2000, are usually expressed by compounding the adjective gtfggi adhika,' ‘ more/ ‘ plus/ with the cardinal numbers : thus 101 may be expressed by ggiTfggr i. e. ‘a hundred plus one/ or more concisely ggTTfggr^nr. Similarly, urfgg TR or grfggnjriT 102 ; 3 TfT or ^fggr$TiT 103 ; f^TgfvtWrf 130 ; or grtuTTT 150; gfg^fggfl'^rrr 226 ; W^ihtrfNosf^ITT 383 ; T^TgftlgfwgglSR 485 ; 396 ; TrcqwftraragrT 666 ; or g^TRT- fggiggur 1600 ; ggg^fgcffgtggTSTTT 1666 t. In the same way the adjective gig ‘ less/ ‘minus/ is often placed before a cardinal number, to denote one less than that number, ‘ one’ being either expressed or understood : thus, grgfgSTfg or ggiTg- fg^iffr ‘ twenty minus one’ or ‘ nineteen’ (compare the Latin undevi- ffinti, i. e. units de viginti). And other cardinals, besides gg; ‘one/ are sometimes prefixed to gig, to denote that they are to be sub- tracted from a following number ; as, g^gtg tjnr or ggjgUTiT ‘ a hun- dred less five’ or ‘ ninety-five.’ a. The ordinals, however, are sometimes joined to the cardinals to express 1 1 1 and upwards : thus, ^r?r or ggrp”R3nt hi; fgUT ^TTT or fggngri 130 ; fg^T gglj or fg^rggST 1020. b. Single words are used for the highest numbers : thus, ^IgTT n. ‘ten thousand;’ * I have found 3 f "rf TgiTT; ‘ a hundred hundred’ and gTT^nTTJ ‘ seven hundred’ (agreeing with gTglTJ) in the Maha-bharata. t Similarly 2130 might be expressed by f^TgfVgTgrfg^lfriMW or - snrrfg or by using gT ; thus, f); I. ssyifkTT or ^nrfiriT ; D. Ab. wtjt»ttt or ; G. ; L. or WIT. \ 7 7 O O a. The numerals from tjwt ‘ five’ to ‘ nineteen ’ have no distinction of gender, but agree in number and case with the nouns to which they are joined : thus, treffaT: ttrIOt: ‘ by five women.’ 206. All the remaining cardinal numbers, from ‘ nineteen’ to 3m ‘ a hundred,’ ‘ a thousand,’ and upwards, may be declined in the singular, even when joined with masculine, feminine, or neuter nouns in the plural. Those ending in fir ti are feminine, and declined like Pint mati at 112 ; and those in IT t are also feminine, and declined like PTfurT sarit at 136 : thus, fq^THTT ‘with twenty men ;’ fq^rfir TTTT?T acc. pi. ‘twenty men;’ f^TfTT iprq: ‘with thirty men;’ fg^Trf TTTTiT acc. pi. ‘ thirty men.’ ^jtt ‘ a hundred’ and ‘ a thousand’ are declined like ftrq siva at 104; and all the higher numbers ac- cording to their finals: thus, ^nr ftnrt^r ‘a hundred ancestors;’ TTcffT- nrwiT fanTH ‘ a hundred and one ancestors ;’ fqTrfvriT ‘ with a thousand ancestors.’ 207. Although these numerals, from ‘Sv'Tfq^TfTT ‘nineteen,’ when joined with plural nouns, may he declined in the singular, yet they may often take a dual or plural ; as, f 47 Ttft‘ two twenties ;’ fcjjl HI ‘ two thirties fetSltl^T ‘ many thirties ;’ 3TTT ' ' two hundred ; ’ TJTTTTfvT ' 'hundreds; many thousands ‘ sixty thou- sand sons, ’ qfe ^pr?eTft!T; and the things numbered may be put in the geni- tive; thus, ^ HTJIJ TVTTVfT ‘two thousand chariots;’ HHTTHIOT VTTUTVfT ‘seven hundred elephants ;’ TJ^fi^ffT: 71 IT TUT ‘ twenty-one arrows.’ See other examples in syntax at 835. ORDINALS. 208. The ordinals are, ITSTH ‘first’* (compare Trpwros, primus) ; %7rfar ‘ second’ (Sevrepa) ; •Hwt'q ‘ third’ ( tertia ) ; declined like sarva and the pronominals at 237, 238 ; but qvm may be declined like * Other adjectives may be used to express ‘ first ;’ as, ^TTSIT, -ST, -S ; fllfrJPITT , -ITT, ; TH 7 JIT , - 7 JT, -rj ; *rf%pW N , -ht, -it. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. Ill siva (103) in N.V. plur. masc. or TTWPSl); and the other two in D. Ab. G. L. sing. m. f. n.; thus, D. m. n. fgrftvwr or flrfhim, f. or fwrftsnxi. See also 239. 209. 4 fourth 5 * (■ rerapros ) ; tppl 4 fifth ; 5 TH7 * sixth 7TTTH 4 seventh 5 ( Septimus ) ; 4 eighth ; 5 trs* ‘ninth 5 {norms) ; ‘tenth 5 '( decimus ) ; declined like siva at 103, 104, for the masc. and neut. ; and like nadi at 106 for the feminine: thus, Nom. m. ^rrihr, f. v> \ O (In tf^ET, &c., the old superlative affix ma may be noted.) 210. The ordinals from 4 eleventh 5 to 4 nineteenth 5 are formed from the cardinals by rejecting the final n : thus, from iJoRT^Fr 4 eleven, 5 4 eleventh 5 (Nom. m. f. n. inST^TCJ, -^T, 103, 106, 104). 2i 1. ‘Twentieth, 5 4 thirtieth, 5 ‘fortieth, 5 and 4 fiftieth, 5 are formed either by adding the superlative affix tama (196. a) to the cardinal, or by rejecting the final syllable or letter of the cardinal; as, from firarrfk 4 twenty, 5 fv’^TfrUTR or 4 twentieth 5 (Nom. m. f. n. -*ra, -*ft, -R ; -$T*T, -^T, 103, 106, 104). Similarly, or f^j ‘thir- tieth, 5 or WT^T 4 fiftieth, 5 &c. The intermediate ordinals are formed by prefixing the numeral, as in the cardinals : thus, fxijTuTrUI or Tr 3 ifT 3 T 4 twenty-first, 5 &c. 212. The other ordinals, from 4 sixtieth 5 to 4 ninetieth, 5 are formed by adding tama ; also by changing ti to ta in the case of another numeral preceding, but not otherwise : thus, from xrfV 4 sixty, 5 vfsTTU 4 sixtieth ; 5 but ^ for 4 sixtieth 5 can only be used when another numeral precedes, as or uxRvfsrUT 4 sixty-first, 5 fePTU or f^RfFFW 4 sixty-third : 5 from 4 ninety, 5 rfgfinra 4 ninetieth ; 5 but ^RrT for 4 ninetieth 5 can only be used when another numeral precedes. 213. 4 Hundredth 5 and ‘thousandth 5 are formed either by adding tama to ^nr and tFTjrsr, or simply by converting these ordinals into adjectives, declinable in three genders : thus, or ^nr 4 hundredth 5 (Nom. m. f. n. ^nTWTO, - 4 ; ^TrTCT, -tfi, -it). Similarly, -sfr, - 4 , or 4 thousandth. 5 214. The aggregation of two or more numbers is expressed by modifications of the ordinal numbers: thus, ‘a duad,’ ‘a triad,’ ‘the aggregate of four.’ 215. There are a few adverbial numerals; as, ‘ once,’ twice,’ ‘thrice,’ ^TT^ ‘four times. ’ f FTO may be added to cardinal numbers, with a * -TIT, -V ; TPZRT, -afT, -af — are also used for ‘fourth.’ V 7 7 ^ \ 7 7 112 PRONOUNS. similar signification ; as, IT -d rd U five times.’ The neuter of the ordinals may be used adverbially ; as, ‘ in the first place.’ 216. Numerical symbols. 1 ^ 8 M J t t “10 ^ ^ I 23 45 6 789 10 II 12 &C. CHAPTER V. PRONOUNS. FORMATION OF THE BASE. 217. Pronouns ( sarva-nama ) have no crude base analogous to that of nouns; that is, no state distinct from all inflexion, serving as the basis on which all the cases are constructed. The reason of this may be, that the pronouns in Sanskrit, as in all languages, are so irregular and capricious in their formation, that no one base would be equally applicable to all the cases. Thus in the 1st personal pronoun, the base of the nom. sing, would be ah, while that of the oblique cases sing, would be it ma. In the 2d, the base of the sing, is practically ?gr tva, while that of the dual and plural is ij yu. The 3d would have TT sa for the base of the nom. sing., and 7T ta for the other cases. a. The question then arises, What form of the pronoun is to be used in the formation of compound words? In the pronouns of the first and second persons, the ablative cases, singular and plural, and in the other pronouns, the nominative and accusative cases singular neuter, are considered as expressive of the most general and com- prehensive state of the pronoun. These cases, therefore, discharge the office of a crude base in respect of compound words. DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Observe — In Sanskrit, as in other languages, to denote the general and indefi- nite character of the first two personal pronouns, no distinction of gender is admitted. For the same reason, the formation of the nom. case of pronouns is made to resemble the neuter, as the most general state. This may also be the reason why the 3d pronoun sa drops the s of the nom. case before all consonants. There is no vocative case. PRONOUNS. 113 218. 'Rrth asmad, ‘ 1/ N. «/<<«?«, 4 I’ RTHR x dvdm, 4 we two’ HRR vayciin, 4 we’ Ac . TtTHmam or ht md, ( me’ — dvdm or RT nau , 4 us two’ ^trttr asman or tut nas , 4 us’ I. HUT may a ^THTWTR avdbhyam THTRTfHR asmdbhis D. Tf^mmahyarn or i? me — avdbhyam or Hr nau ^w*zmasmabhy am arenas Ab. HH mat or mattas * — avdbhyam hh?h asrnat G. HR mama or if me RTHHfR avayos or Hr nau hfrihr umiak am or HR nas L. Rfn mayi — avayos hrfjtr asmdsu 219. HHH7 yus/mad, ‘thou,’ ‘you.’ N. THR tvam, 4 thou’ hhr yuvdm , 4 you two’ HHR yuyam, 4 you’ or 4 ye’ Ac. JHTR tvdm or IHT tvd — yuvdm or HR vam HHTTR yushmdn or HR vets I. iHHT tvayd HHRTTR yuvdbhyam HHTTfHR yushmabhis D. h«R tubhyam or h te — yuvdbhyam or HR yam "^t^m/ushinabhyamor^vas Ab.wnf tvat or tvattas* — yuvdbhyam HRH yushmat G. HH lava or H te h^hIr [yuvayos or HTH vam HRT<*R yushmdkam or HR vas L. RfH tvayi — yuvayos HHTTR yushmdsu 220. htj tad, 4 he,’ ‘that’ N. RRsds (usually R sa Ac. 7TR tarn I. HR tena D. tasmai Ab. HRTTH tasmat, G. HTR tasya L, HfRTH tasmin N. RT sa, 4 she’ Ac. HTR tarn I. HHT tayd D. HR^ tasyai Ab. HTRTR x tasyds MASCULINE. , 4 he’ Hf tau , 4 they two’ — tau HTRTR tdbhydm — tdbhydm — - tdbhydm HHTR tayos — tayos FEMININE. H te — te HT*HTR tdbhydm — tdbhydm — tdbhydm H te, 4 they ,’ 4 those’ HTR tan HR tais \ H«TR x tebhyas — tebhyas HHTR tesham HR teshu HTR tas \ — tas HTfRR tdbhis \ HTRTR tdbhyas — tdbhyas * As mat is generally used in compounds, mattas and tvattas more commonly stand for the ablative ; see r. 719. Similarly, the ablative plural may be yushmattas, asmuttasj but these very rarely occur. t By rule 67, R will be the usual form. HR usually exists as r>, see 64. a. Q 114 PRONOUNS. G. rinu?T t as yds rpfttr (ay os WTOT ntdsdm L. rTWUT tasyam — tayos ?TfT tdsu NEUTER. N. Ac. »nr tat or TUf tad, te, (TTf^r tani ; the rest like the masculine. Compare the Greek article with the above pronoun. a. The above pronoun tad is sometimes used emphatically with the other pro- nouns, like ille and ipse: thus, ‘ Me ego ;’ TT ‘Uli nos;' R ‘Me tu ;* ft *T 4 illi vos;' PUt Me ipse;’ TTrT TTrnT id ipsum.' 221. There is a modification of the pronoun tad (rarely used), formed by combin- ing it with the relative ya : thus, N. , R7, R ; Ac. R, &c. Fern. 3 RT, R, kliU , &c. V a. Observe the resemblance of the Sanskrit personal pronouns to those of the dead and living cognate languages. Aham or ah is the Greek eyco (Alolic eyxv), Latin ego, German ich, Enghsh ‘ I mam or ma (the latter being the oldest form found in the Vedas) equals €jU.e, me; mahyam—mihi ; mayi — mei: the mat of the abl. sing, and of asmat, yushmat, corresponds to the Latin met in memet, nosmet, &c. : vayam or va is the English ‘ we ;’ asman = us; nas = nos; team —tu, ‘ thou ;’ team or tvd— te, ‘ thee tubhyam — tibi; tvayi=tui; yuyam—V[J.etg, English ‘you;’ vas = vos. The 3d personal pronoun corresponds to the Greek article : thus, tau = tam=TOV; tdbhyam = T'Siv, touv, &c. REFLEXIVE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 222. The oblique cases of dtman, i soul, 5 ‘self’ (declined at 147), are used reflexively, in place of the three personal pronouns, like the Latin ipse. Thus, atmdnam {me ipsum) anahdrena hanishyami, ‘ I will kill myself by fasting atmdnam {te ipsum) mritavad darsaya, ‘show thyself as if dead;’ atmdnam (se ipsum) nindati, ‘he blames himself.’ It is generally used in the singular, even when it refers to a plural ; as, abudhair atmd paropakaramkritah, ‘ foolish people make themselves the tools of others.’ a. The indeclinable pronoun svayarn is sometimes joined, in the sense of ‘ self/ to the three personal pronouns ; thus, ‘ I myself/ &c. DEMONSTRATIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 223. The third personal pronoun w? tad, ‘ he/ declined above at 220, is constantly used in a demonstrative sense, to signify ‘ that’ or ‘this;’ and by prefixing ^ e to it, another common pronoun is formed, more proximately demonstrative : thus, etad, ‘ this.’ Observe — The t of etad may optionally be changed to n in the Ac. sing. du. pi., I. sing., G. L. du., in all three genders : thus. PliONOUNS. 115 etad, ‘ this.’ MASCULINE. N. inmeshas(usvL.TmesJia) jo. T*m etau Ac.FrPT etarn or enam — etau or enau \ \ I. V 7 R etena or enena PHT«TR etdbhyam D. inTCR etasmai — etdbhyam Ab.TjrTWrrr etasmdt — etdbhyam G. TTfTRT etasya L . irfriw!? etasmin V 7 T ete 5 TfTT \etdn or 5T?TRc««re etais etebhyas j — etebhyas TTfl'QWetayos or vm^h^enayos tnnn*T eteshdm — et ay os or — enayos inmeteshu The feminine is N. F 3 T eshd, tjw ete, 7?7rPFT etas ; Ac. TTiTT or TFfT, or inrrtT or ; I. or utrt, vnT^i, ^nriftro; D. THT^, &c. The neuter is N. jhth or Vff, Uinf^T ; Ac. *nnT or THfir, TTff or TT^, Wfa or &c. a. Observe, that forms like tPT &c. for j?it &c. are enclitic, and ought not to be used at the beginning of a sentence. With the above pronoun compare the Latin iste, ista, istud : etam — istum, etasya — istius, etat = istud. 224. There is another common demonstrative pronoun, of which idam, ‘ this,’ the N. neuter, is considered to represent the most general state (compare the Latin is, ea, id). The true base, however, might rather be said to be the vowels ^ a and ^ i, the latter of which serves also as the source of certain pronominals, such as ^nr. See 234, 236, and 234. b. N. ay am, 4 this’ Ac. imam I. ^nL*T anena D. asmai Ab.'^TERTTT asmat N G. asya L. asmin \ MASCULINE. imau, ‘ these two’ — imau ^nwrPT dbhyam — dbhyam — dbhyam anayos — anayos ime, ‘these’ iman Trfcm^ebhis * ebhyas — ebhyas ttzttjt esham i?n eshu O * This is an example of the old form for the instr. pi. of masculine nouns of the first class, common in the Vedas. Q 2 116 PRONOUNS. FEMININE. N. ^pp itfam Ac. ^ptp imam I. ’'TPPT anayd D. pnp asyai Ab . ?PPTP asyds G. — asyds L. «sjptp asydtn ^P ime — ime ’POPTP dbhyam — dbhyam — dbhyam ^pptP anayos — anayos ^PIP imas — - - imas wfpp dbhis W«tP dbliyas — dbhyas ■^TTTTT*T disdm ^rnr dsu N. Ac. idam ^p ime $Hifp imdni 225. There is another demonstrative pronoun (rarely used, excepting in nom. sing.), of which ^IpP , ‘ this’ or ‘ that,’ is supposed to represent the most general state, though the base is ^TP amu, and in N. sing. ’PP asu. It is thus declined : Masc. N. -situ, PTP, PTPl ; Ac. ^IP, : PP, ; I. ^rpvpr, yWlfpP ; D. ^TPPT, 'ppwp, ’PPfwiP; Ab. ’PPPTTit, PP*PT, ^Pll«TO ; G. ’PPPt, ’PPPTP* v» 7 C\ 7 V O V C\ 7 \ 7 7 o \ ■ptftPT ; L. ’SP'PPP, ^PPPfP, 'PPlP. Fern. N. ^PP, ’PP, ’PPP ; Ac. ^PT, 'PP» O \ o V Vi 7 C\ C\ \ 7 C< C\ ^IPP ; I. ^prm, ^TP«TT, ’PPfpP ; D. ’PPPL ppvqT, 'ppvpp ; Ab. -PPPTTP, C \ O 7 Cv 7 Cv S .- 7 O 7 Cn 7 -CV \ y O \ &c.; G. ^TPPITP, ’PPPtP, ’PPPT; L. *TPPIT, ^PPP)P, ^PP. Neut. N. Ac. \3von 7 cv 7 o 7 o \ 7 c\0 RELATIVE PRONOUN. 226. The relative is formed by substituting p y for the initial letter of the pronoun tad, at 220 : thus, PP yad, ‘ who,’ ‘ which.’ MASCULINE. PT yau — yau PPPTP ydbhyam — ydbhyam — ydbhyam PPTP yayos — yayos The feminine and neuter follow the fern, and neut. of tad, at 220. Fem. N. pt yd, p ye, ptp yds r Ac. ptp yarn, &c. &c. Neut. N. Ac. PIT yat or pp yad, p ye, prfp ydmi ; the rest like the masculine. With the above pronoun compare the Greek relative og, Yj, 0 ; the Sanskrit y being often represented in Greek words by the spirit 11 s asper. N. PP yas Ac. pp yam I. PP yena D. pi yasmai Ab. PPTTW yasmat G. p?p yasya L. pffPP yasmin p ye, ‘ who’ or ‘ which’ PTP ydn PP yais P«TP yebhyas — yebhyas PPTP yeshdm PP yeshu PRONOUNS. 117 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 227. The interrogative differs from the relative in substituting k instead of y for the initial letter of the pronoun tad, at 220; and in making the N. Ac. sing. neut. instead of oflW * : thus, Masc. N. kas, ctff kau, ke, ‘ who?’ * which?’ ‘ what?* Ac. 3W karri, ‘ whom?’ &c. Fem. N. cfrr ka, iff ke, kds, &c. The N. Ac. Neut. are ftp? kim , ifi ke, ^Tfvf kdni. Although the real base of this pronoun is ka, yet kim is taken to represent the most general state, and occurs in a few compounds ; such as fsKqvj ‘ on what account ?’ ‘ why ?’ a. To the true base ka may be affixed ti, to form kati ( quot ), ‘how many ?’ The same affix is added to ta and ya, the proper bases of the third personal and relative pronouns, to form tati, ‘ so many’ (tot), and yati, ‘ as many.’ These are thus declined in pi. only: N. Ac. V. cFfw; I. ohfri fait ; Dat. Ab. 3 ifrT«HT; G. ; L. Note — The Latin quot and tot, which drop the final i, take it again in composi- tion ; as, quotidie, totidem, &c. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 228. The indeclinable affixes tit, api, and tana, affixed (in accord- ance with the rules of Sandhi) to the several cases of the interroga- tive pronouns, give them an indefinite signification ; as, kastit, ‘ somebody,’ ‘ some one/ 6 any one/ £ a certain one N. 'SfifigTT kastit 62. Ac. kahtit 59. I. «fi«iPqn^ kenatit D. 'SFWrfi^W kasmaitit Ab. ■sfiwrfeir kasmaitit 48. G. di+^f'qrT kasyatit L. chfi+i ^kasmimstit 53. MASCULINE. #Tfienr kautit \ — kautit f^TsT kabhy d ft 6 i t ■ — - kabhyantit kabhyantit kayostit 62. kayostit Vkefit, ‘some persons" <=bl FtyTT kdmstit 53. %fg?r kaisiit 62. ^r«rfvg-fT kebhyasiit kebhyasiit keshdhtit irtlfiqfT keshudit O X Similarly, Fem. Nom. cFrfigw, irfeir, 'SHTfw; Ac. ^T%rT, &c. : and Neut. Nom. Ac. fspfVff ‘ something/ ‘ any thing/ cFrfafi^fT, &c. 229. So also by affixing ’Slftl; as, Masc. Nom. «STsf^I (64. a) ‘some one,’ ‘a certain one,’ ^sfij (37, 35) • Ac. &c. ; I. ciGTffq, &c. (31) ; D. * Kat or kad, however ( = Latin quod), was the old form, and is retained in a few words; such as kattit, ‘perhaps;’ kadartha, ‘useless" (‘of what use?’); kadadhvan, ' a bad road’ (‘ what sort of a road ?’). 118 PRONOUNS. Ufa, &c. (37); Ab. ^RT^fa, &c. ; G. RRRlfa, &c. ; L. RfcRslfa, &c. (52). Fem. Nom. RiTfa, &c. ; Ac. RiTHfa, &c. ; I. ^RTlfa, &c. &c. Neut. Nom. faiRfa something,’ ‘ any thing,’ &c. The affix dana is rarely found, except in Nom. Masc. ‘ some one,’ ‘ any one ;’ and in Nom. Neut. fai=3"H ‘ something.’ 230. In the same way interrogative adverbs are made indefinite : thus, from kati, ‘how many?’ katidit, ‘a few;’ from kadd, ‘when?’ kadadit or kadadana or kaddpi, ‘ at some time ;’ from katham, ‘ how ?’ kathahdana, ‘ some how;’ from kva, ‘ where ?’ kvadit or kvapi, ‘ somewhere.’ POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 231. These are formed by affixing iya (80. XV) to those forms of the personal pronouns, ending in d, which are used as crude bases : thus, from R^ and ‘ I,’ H^fa madiy a (45), ‘ mine,’ and asmadiya, ‘ our ;’ from tR*? ‘ thou,’ rRNTT; G. TINTS, TTNNTTT, TIN NT ; L. TTNTWfT, TTNNTTT, TIN^ ; V. TIN, &C. Fem. N. tint sarva , tin sarve , ttnttt sarvas ; Ac. TINT, tin, ttnttt; I. TTNNT, TINTWif, TnftftlTT; D. TINTS, TTNBNT, TINT«ITT; Ab. TINTNTTT, &C.; V. tin (see 220). Neut. N. Ac. TIN, tin, TTNTfrn; V- tin. 238. Like sarva are declined NNN ‘both;’ ' ’ all TTNuTT ‘ one of two’ ( eaa - repog) ; W»N 1 T*T ‘ one of many ;’ TIN meaning ‘ all,’ but not when it signifies ‘equal;’ frm ‘ the whole;’ IN ‘other;’ NH ‘half.’ The N. Ac. sing, neuter of these will end in am, but TN is optionally JNrT . In N. V. pi. masc. «TN is or NHTTT. a. ^TVN ‘ inferior,’ NT ‘ other,’ ^TNT ‘ other,’ ’SINT ‘ posterior,’ ‘ west,’ NNT ‘ superior,’ ‘ north, ’ ‘ ’ south, ’ ‘right,’ N# ‘ ' east,’ ‘ prior,’ NTNTT meaning either ‘ outer’ or ‘ an under-garment,’ TN ‘ own’ (232), follow sarva, and option- ally siva, at 103, in abl. loc. sing. masc. and neut., and nom. voc. pi. masc. ; as. Hi or vIVLIH, &c. They can only be declined like pronominals when they denote relative position ; hence dakshindh (not dakshine) gathakah, ‘ clever singers.’ Moreover, the pronominal inflection is optional in certain compounds. 239. TNI, ‘ one,’ generally follows sarva, see 200 ; fN^N ‘ second,’ Tpfftf ‘ third,’ follow sarva and optionally siva in certain cases, as explained at 208 ; they make their feminine in a. 240. ’ 3 T 3 I ‘a few,’ Nit or ^ ‘half,’ NfTTNN ‘how few?’ ‘few,’ WI ‘first,’ VIh ‘last,’ Tg riM ‘twofold,’ NNTrTN ‘fivefold,’ properly follow sarva at 237; but may make their nom. voc. plur. masc. in as ; as, or TTNTTT ‘ few,’ &c. a. N>T, both’ ( ambo , ay.(pcv), is dechned only in the dual; NHT, NN’ONT, NTTNlTT ; though a pronominal, its declension being only dual, resembles siva. b. NITiffTN, srt In I , ‘one another,’ ‘mutual,’ make their nom. ace. sing. neut. in am, not at j and voc. in a. CHAPTER VI. VERBS. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 241. Although the Sanskrit verb ( dkhyata , kriya) offers many striking and interesting analogies to the Greek, nevertheless so pecu- liar and artificial is the process by which it is formed, that it would be difficult, in treating of it, to adopt an arrangement which would be likely to fall in with the preconceived notions of the classical student. VERBS. — GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 121 There are ten tenses and moods ( kala ). Seven of them are of common occurrence ; viz. 1. the present, 2. the imperfect (often called the first preterite), 3. the potential (or optative), 4. the imperative, 5. the perfect (often called the second preterite), 6. the first future, 7. the second future. Three are not so commonly used ; viz. 8. the aorist (often called the third preterite), 9. the precative (also called the benedictive), 10. the conditional. There is also an infini- tive mood, and several participles. Of these, the present, the three past tenses, and the two futures, belong to the indicative mood. As to the imperative, potential, precative, and conditional (see p. 122, 1. 4), these are moods susceptible of various times; but, as there is only one form for each, it can lead to no embarrassment to arrange them indiscriminately with the tenses of the indicative, and to call them tenses wdth the native grammarians. Four of the tenses, viz. the present, imperfect, potential, and im- perative, are called conjugational tenses, and are placed first in order, because the distinctive character of the ten Sanskrit conjugations is established by the form they assume (as will be explained after- wards at 248). a. Observe — The ancient Sanskrit of the Veda is more rich in grammatical forms than the later or classical Sanskrit. There is a Vedic subjunctive mood, technically called Let, which comprises under it a present, imperfect, and aorist ; the Vedic potential has distinct forms for the present, aorist, perfect, and future tenses; and the Vedic imperative distinct forms for the present, aorist, and perfect tenses. The Vedic infinitive, too, has ten or eleven different forms, though it is doubtful whether these are all to be assigned to different tenses. 242. Although the three past tenses are used without much distinction, yet it should be observed, that they properly express different degrees of past time. The imperfect or first preterite ( anadyatana-bhuta ) corresponds in form to the im- perfect of Greek verbs, and properly has reference to an event done at some time recently past, but before the current day. It may denote action past and continuing, or it may be used like the Greek aorist. The perfect or second preterite ( paro - ksha-bhuta ) is said to have reference to an event completely done before the present day at some remote period, unperceived by or out of sight of the narrator : it answers in form to the Greek perfect, but may also be used like the aorist. The aorist or third preterite refers to an event done and past at some indefinite period, whether before or during the current day : it corresponds in form and sense to the Greek 1st and 2d aorist, and sometimes to the pluperfect*. Again, * The fact is, that neither one of the three past tenses is very commonly used to represent the completeness of an action. This is generally done by employing R 122 VERBS. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. the two futures properly express, the first, definite, the second, indefinite futurity * * : the second, however, is the most used, and answers to the Greek future. The potential may generally he rendered in English by some one of the auxiliaries, ‘may,’ ‘ can,’ ‘ would,’ ‘ should,’ ‘ ought f.’ The conditional (or imperfect of the future) is occasionally used after the conjunctions yadi and 6et, ‘ if:’ it has an augment like the imperfect and aorist, and ought on that account to be classed with the tenses of the indicative. The precative or benedictive is a tense sometimes used in pray- ing and blessing ( asishi ). It is a modification of the potential. There is no tense exactly equivalent to the pluperfect in Sanskrit : the sense of this tense may often be expressed by the past indeclinable participle or by the past passive participle ; as, tasminn apakrante, ‘ after he had departed.’ See Syntax, 840, 899. a. The infinitive mood generally has an active, but is capable of a passive signification. a. Native grammars designate the moods and tenses by the following technical words : present, lat ; potential, lin ■ ; imperative, lot ; imperfect or first preterite, Ian-; perfect or second preterite, lit ; first future, lut ; second future, hit ; third preterite, lun- ; precative or benedictive, I'm- (asishi); conditional, Irin- . TheVedic subjunctive is called let. 243. Every tense has three numbers, singular, dual, and plural. To each tense belong two sets of active terminations; one for the active voice (properly so called), the other for a kind of middle or reflexive voice. The former of these voices is called by Indian grammarians P orasmai-pada (‘ word J directed to another’), because the action is supposed to be transitive, or to pass parasmai, ‘ to another (object’) ; the latter is called Atmane-pada ( 1 wordj directed the passive participle with an instr. case; or by adding vat to the pass, part., and combining it with the present tense of as, ‘ to be ;’ as, uktavdn asmi, ‘ I have said.’ See Syntax, 897. * The first future (lut) is said to be anadyatane, i. e. to be so far definite as to denote what will happen at a future period, not in the course of the current day (Panini III. 3, 15); whereas the second future may refer to immediate futurity, as, for instance, VJT 'TunftfT ‘ to-morrow I will go,’ ’SQ TT *T'fa'onf*T ‘ this very evening or to-morrow I will go.’ t The potential is said to be capable of the following senses : ‘commanding,’ ' directing,’ ‘ inviting,’ ‘ expression of wish,’ ‘ enquiring,’ ‘ requesting.’ Panini III. 3, 161. j; Pada is an inflected word as distinguished from an uninflected root. Pan. I. 4, 1 4. The term pada or voice has here reference to the scheme of terminations only ; so that in this sense there are only two voices in Sanskrit, and they are often used indiscriminately. Although the Atmane-pada has occasionally a kind of middle signification, yet it cannot he said to correspond entirely with the Greek middle VERBS. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 1 23 to oneself’), because the action is supposed to be restricted atmane, 4 to oneself.’ This distinction, however, is not always observed, and we often find both Parasmai and Aftmane employed indifferently for transitive verbs. Some verbs, however, are conjugated only in the Aftmane-pada, especially those which are neuter, or in which the direct fruit of the action accrues to the agent (see the distinction of Uddttetah and Anudattetah at 75. c) : thus, mud and rut meaning 4 to be pleased,’ ‘ please oneself ;’ bhuj meaning 4 to eat’ (not ‘ to protect’) ; da, 4 to give,’ with a prefixed, meaning ‘ to give to one- self,’ ‘ to take,’ are restricted to the Aftmane-pada. Sometimes, when a verb takes both padas, the iff t mane, without altering the idea expressed by the root, may be used to direct the action in some way towards the agent : thus, pataii means 4 he cooks,’ but patate, 6 he cooks for himself:’ yajati, 4 he sacrifices;’ yajate, ‘he sacrifices for himself :’ namati, 4 he bends;’ namate, ‘he bends himself;’ dar- sayati (causal), ‘ he shows ;’ darsayate, 4 he shows himself,’ ‘ appears karayati, 4 he causes to make ;’ karayate, 4 he causes to be made for himself :’ and yat, 4 to ask,’ although employing both voices, is more commonly used in the Aftmane, because the act of asking gene- rally tends to the advantage of the asker. a. Some verbs are restricted to particular padas when particular prepositions are used : thus the root ram with prep, vi (meaning ‘to cease’) is only Parasmai (P. I. 3, 83), but with prep, upa, is used in both voices. Again, kri with para (‘to reject’) and with anu (‘to imitate’) are Parasmai only. But,;* either with prep, vi or para (meaning ‘to conquer’) is restricted to the Atmane (P. I. 3, 19). So vis with prep, ni (meaning ‘ to enter’) and kri with vi (meaning ‘ to sell’) and dd with d (meaning ‘to take’) are Atmane only. See this subject more fully explained at 786. A b. Passive verbs are conjugated in the Aftmane-pada. Indeed, in all the tenses, excepting the first four, the passive is generally undistinguishable from the Aftmane-pada of the primitive verb. But in the present, imperfect, potential, and imperative (unlike the Greek, which exhibits an identity between the middle and pas- sive voices in those tenses), the Sanskrit passive, although still em- ploying the Aftmane-pada terminations, has a special structure of its own, common to all verbs, and distinct from the conjugational form voice. We prefer to regard the passive as a distinct derivative from the root, using the Atmane terminations. R 2 124 VERBS. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. of the Atmane-pada. Thus the Greek clkovu) makes for both the middle and passive of those four tenses, ist sing, a kovo/ulgu, ijKovo/utjv, aKovoL/JLrjv, aicouov. But the Sanskrit sru, ‘ to hear,’ makes for the conjugational form of the A^tmane, SpF, B 7 Eth 7 , ; while for the passive it is wpr, '2R. Compare 253, and see Bopp’s Comparative Grammar, 426, 733. 244. As in nouns the formation of an inflective base out of a root precedes the subject of declension, the root requiring some change or addition before the case-terminations can be affixed. ; so in verbs the formation of a verbal base out of a root must be antecedent to conjugation. Again, as in nouns every case has its own termination, so in verbs each of the three persons, in the three numbers of every tense, has a termination (1 vibhakti ), one for the Parasmai-pada, and one for the AT mane -pa da, which is peculiarly its own. Moreover, as in nouns, so in verbs, some of the termina- tions may be combined with memorial letters, which serve to aid the memory, by indicating that where they occur peculiar changes are required in the root. Thus the three terminations which belong to the ist, 2d, and 3d persons of the present tense, Parasmai-pada, respectively, are mi, si, ti; and these are combined with the letter P {miV, siP, tiV), to indicate that the roots of verbs of the second and third groups (see 257. b.c. and 293) must be modified in a particular w ay, before these terminations are affixed. 245. The annexed tables exhibit, ist, the scheme of terminations for Parasmai and Atmane-pada, with the most useful of the memorial letters (indicated by capitals), in all the tenses, the four conjugational being placed first ; 2dly, the same scheme without memorial letters. Observe — Since the various classes of roots require various changes in the terminations of some of the tenses, the figures, in the second table, will indicate the classes in which these changes occur. 246. Terminations with memorial letters. Parasmai-pada. Atmane-pada. Present tense. PERS. SING. DUAL. PLURAL. SING. DUAL. PLURAL. 1. ^*1 vas BTT mas We ■4? vahe it? mahe 2. ftm S! -p TW thas vj tha W se ^14 ilthe dhve 3. ffTq tiV TPfl fas "5TVnT anti 7 T te ^TTH ate ’H'fT ante VERBS. TERMINATIONS. 125 Imperfect or first preterite (requiring the augment a). i .^TSPT am AP F va X ma V FT? vahi maki 2.f?rcrsiP Ft tam F ta ^TTTT thus Wrare athdm X & 7 F dhvam 3 -f^VIP WTH tam TTF an \ ■377 ta X TSIFTF at dm FTFT anta Potential or optative. I . FTN yam FFF ydva STf*P?amaP aiP FTTFITF avahaiV '^nW?^dmahaii > 2.f^ hi rTF tam F ta W sva TFTTFTF dthdm -SSR dhvam X 3W{tuV FTF tam WFT antu O TtlH tam \ --i 1 fi 1 q at dm VIF 7 T «7 antdm X Perfect or second preterite. i.WMNaP F va ma 7 ? e vahe X make 2.^ thaP \ athus 0 \ " 3 ? a it se 3 TPF dthe SF dhve (^) 3 .FP 7 N«P ^FF atus V 3 \ us \ He WTF ate FV ire First future. I . Trrfa? tasmi FTWTT taspas TfTWST tasmas ■N FT^ take W1 JsJ ?■ tdsvahe TTTW'?' tdsmahe 2. Wtft? tasi Tn^'Btdsthas ri iT sye TFTFF syavahe S 3 TTUF sydmahe 2 . ^rftt syasi ^^Hsyathas'SZFQ syatha FFTT syase TF'F syethe FTffAF syadhve 3. VqffF syati WFT Hsyatas syanti X WF syate *N *S W syete syante Aorist or third preterite (requiring the augment a). 1 . sam FT sva FR sma fst si svahi ytf^ smahi 2. ulysts FW stam \ FT sta WPTstMs FKTMTF sathdm \ %%^dhvam (^) 3 . ^Tf rT sit trfTN stam sus V 3 \ FT sta TTflTPt sdtdm \ TtF sata Precative or benedictive. 1 . msiHydsam Vi Af yasva TTTFR yasma siya swahi FfhtfF simahi 2 . FTTT yds 'mmHydstam FTFT ydsta HfWlHsiskthds FjfaTT Htfmsiydstham '■ilt l^Hsi'dhvam 3.7m? ydt eft^\Hydstdm ^tST'Fyasaj sishta SttVTtffTV siydstdm WVF sir an X Conditional (requiring the augment a). 1 . sQHsyam syava TFTF syama *N SF sye SFTFff? sydvahi FiTWf? syamahi 2.V3Ht^syas WtFF syat am SSF syata SFFTF.syafMs SFTTF syethdm syadhvam 3. syat J^TrTfH syat dm S' idkvam may be used for idhvarn when a semivowel or h immediately precedes. IT? lengthens the i throughout ; ^ and all roots in long ri optionally do so in Atm. Form II. — Terminations resembling those of the imperfect or 1st preterite. 1. am ava or va dma or ma e or i avahi amahi 2. as or s at am or tam ata or ta athds etham or at ham a dhvam 3. at or t atdm or tam an or us ata etdm or atdm anta or ata Precative or benedictive. 1 . ydsam ydsva ydsma siya sivahi simahi 2. yds yastam ydsta sis ht has siydsthdm sidhvam 3 - ydt yastam ydsus sishta siydstam siran Many roots prefix i to the Xtmane, but not to the Parasmai, of the above : thus, 1. isliiya, &c. lengthens the i in this tense also, but no other root can do so. ♦fidR is used for sidhvam after any other vowel but a, and optionally after the prefixed i, when immediately preceded by a semivowel or h. Conditional (requiring the augment a). 1 . syam syava syama sye sydvahi 2 . syas syatam syata syathas sy etliam 3 - s yat syatdm syan syata syetdm syamahi syadhvam syanta Many roots prefix t to the above terminations throughout: thus, 1. ishyam, 2. ishyas, &c. lengthens this i ; ? and all roots in long ri optionally do so. YEE BS. — TERMINATIONS. 129 Observe — We shall in future speak of the ist, 2d, and 3d preterites under the name of imperfect, perfect, and aorist, respectively. a. If we examine the terminations exhibited above, we shall find that they are com- posed of two distinct elements, one marking person, number, and voice; the other, mood and tense. The terminations in which the former element prevails may be called simple, and belong to the present, imperfect, imperative, perfect, and 2d form of the aorist; those which include the second may be called compound, and are pecu- liar to the other tenses. Thus the terminations of the potential consist of i or i or yd a9 characterising the mood, and of am, s, t, va, tam, tarn, &c., as marking person, num- ber, and voice. So, also, in the 2d future the syllable sya prefixed to all the ter- minations, characterises the future tense, while the mi, si, ti, vas, thus, fas, &c., mark person, number, and voice. If, then, such initial parts of every termination as mark mood or tense were left out, an examination of the remaining parts would show that the present and imperfect are the prototypes of the terminations of all the other tenses, that is to say, that the formation of the terminations of every other tense may be referred back to one or other of these two. The present tense may in this way be connected with the two futures. These three tenses agree in showing a certain fulness of form, which is wanting in most of those connected with the imperfect. The terminations of the perfect, however, partake of the character of both the present and imperfect. In the Atmane-pada they very closely resemble the present. Many of them exhibit the same fulness as that tense, while some of the other terminations of the perfect show even more lightness than those of the im- perfect *. It should be observed, too, that the terminations of the imperative, though evidently connected with the imperfect, are in some instances even more full than those of the present. b. Although comparative grammarians have bestowed much labour on the elucida- tion of the origin of Sanskrit verbal terminations, the only point which may be asserted with probability is, that they stand in a certain relationship to the pro- nominal bases ma, tva, ta. The m of the first persons is related to the base ma j the t, th, sv, s, of the second persons, to the base tva of the second personal pronoun ; and the t, of the third person, to the base ta. We may also observe a community of character between the termination nti of the 3d plur. and the plural of neuter nouns like dhanavat ( dhanavanti ). But whether the v in the dual stands for m or relates to a pronominal base va occurring in a-vdm , va-yam ; whether the terminations of the dual and plural are formed from those of the singular by adding s as a mark of the plural, or by the composition of several pronominal bases ; whether the termi- nations of the Atmane-pada are formed from those of the Parasmai-pada by guna- tion or by composition of the latter with other bases, — these and others are questions which cannot be determined with any certainty. c. As an aid, however, in committing the terminations to memory, the student * Comparative grammar, however, has established that these terminations were originally as full as those of the present. § 130 VERBS. — TERMINATIONS. may observe that the letter m generally enters into the ist sing, l’asasinai ; s into the 2d sing. Parasmai and Atmane ; and t into the 3d sing, du, and pi. Paras- mai and Atmane of all the tenses. Moreover, that the letter v occurs in the ist dual, m in the ist plural of all the tenses, and dhv in every 2d plural Atmane-pada. In the imperfect and potential Atmane, and in the perfect Parasmai, th is ad* mitted, instead of s, into the 2d sing.; and in the 2d pi. of the last tense, th has been dropped, owing to the influence of the heavy reduplication. For the same reason the m and t are dropped in the ist and 3d sing, perfect. Observe also — When the ist dual Parasmai is vas, the 2d and 3d end in as (except the 3d du. ist future), and the ist plural is mas. When the ist dual Parasmai is va, the 2d and 3d end in tain, tdm (except in the perfect), and the ist plural in ma. When the ist dual Atmane is vahe, the ist plural is make, and the last letter of the remaining termina- tions is generally e. When the ist dual Atmane is vahi, the 2d and 3d end in dm , the ist plural is mahi, and the 2d plural is dhvain. d. The frequent occurrence of m in the ist sing., of $ in the 2d, of t in the 3d, of mas and ma in the ist pi., of ta in the 2d pi., and of ant in the 3d pi., suggests a comparison with the Greek and Latin verb. We may remark, that m, the charac- teristic of the ist person sing., is suppressed in the present tense active of all Greek verbs except those in fJ-t ( asmi = et(J.t, Dor. efJ.p .1 for ea/xi, dadami=$ i$a>fu), and also in Latin verbs (except sum and inquam) ; but and 0 answer to the Sanskrit a of bharami = epop.eSa. In the potential ist pi. bhare-ma = (pepoi-fJ.es (~/J.ev), fera-mus ; dadydma—biboiTiixes (-u.cn), dem us ; dadi-mahi = bthoi-ixeBa. In the 2d future, ddsyd-mas— ^oiTO-fxev, dekshyd-mas— 'tietK'Jo-fJ.ev. In the 2d pers. sing, active, the characteristic s has been preserved in all three languages : thus, in the present, the Sanskrit asi (for original assi) — eaat,es ; dadd-si — ^Jtbag, das ; blwra- si = (pepetf, fees ; vahasi = vehis. In the Atmane, the Sanskrit se (for sai, by 32) VERBS. TERMINATIONS. 131 answers exactly to the Greek crai of verbs in pu ( tishtha-se — tdTa-dou). In other Greek verbs, s has been rejected, and €ai contracted into rj, something in the way of Sanskrit (t vTiTVj for TV 7 TT 6 -dou). In the 2d dual, tlias — Greek t ov, and in the 1 / <■/ 2d plur. tha = re and tis j bhara-tkas — (pepe- tov ; tishtha-tha — idTa-re, statis bhara-tha = (pepe-Te, fer-tis. In the 2d pi. Atmane, bhara-dhve — (pepeade. As to the other tenses, in the 2d sing, imperfect, atarpas = (Tep7reg, avahas — vehebas, &c. So also, tam = tov, adat-tam = ebibc-rov, ta = re, adat-ta — ebibo-T€. In the Atmane, fMs is found for sas in the 2d sing, of the imperfect, as well as of the potential ; hence abhara-thds — eepepe-do, adat-thas = tbiPo-dO, dadi-thas = biboi- (t)o. In the 2d sing, potential, tishthes = idTOUYjs, stes ; dadyas— biboiyg, des ; vahes—vehas ; bhares — (pepotg, feras : in 2d du. bhare-tam = (pepoi-rov : in 2d pi. tishtheta = idTaivjTt, stetis ; dadydta — biboirjTf, detis ; bhareta=- (pepoire, feratis. In the 2d sing, imperative, hi and dhi answer to Greek Oi. Dhi was ori- ginally universal in Sanskrit (see 291), as in Greek verbs in pu ; e-dhi = i 248. The above terminations are supposed to be applicable to all verbs, whether primitive or derivative : and as in nouns, so in verbs, the theory of Indian grammarians is, that before these terminations can be affixed to roots, an inflective base must be formed out of the root. Ten different rules, therefore, are propounded for forming verbal bases out of roots in the first four tenses ; while all verbs are arranged under ten classes, according to the form of the base re- quired by one or other of these rules. In the other tenses there is one general rule for forming the base, applicable to all verbs of whatever class. s 2 132 VERBS. CONJUGATIONS. These ten classes of verbs are said to form ten conjugations ; and the four tenses, which alone are affected by these conjugational rules (viz. the present, imperfect, potential, and imperative), are called the conjugational tenses. It is evident, however, that the ten classes hardly form distinct conjugations in the classical sense of the term. They are rather ten rules for forming ten classes of verbs from roots; or, in other words, for moulding and fashioning ten classes of roots into the proper form for receiving a common scheme of termi- nations in four of the tenses only. / 249. Although it will be afterwards shown (at 257) that these ten classes may be grouped together under three general heads (I. comprising the 1st, 4th, 6th, and 10th classes; II. the 2d, 3d, and 7th; III. the 5th, 8tn, and 9th), yet it will be better in the first place to s;ive a brief summarv of the ten rules for forming the base of the four conjugational tenses in the ten classes of verbs, according to the Indian order. 1st class. Gunate the vowel of the root (unless it be a, or a long vowel not final ’, or a short vowel followed bv a double consonant, 28. h ) before every termination of the four tenses , and affix a — lengthened to d before initial m * and v — to the root thus gunated. 2d class. Gunate the vowel of the root (if capable of Guna, as in the last) before those terminations only which are marked with P in the scheme at 246. Before all the other terminations the ori- ginal vowel of the root must be retained. 3d class. Reduplicate the initial consonant and vowel (see 331) of the root, and gunate the radical but not the reduplicated vowel before the P terminations only, as in the 2d conjugation. 4th class. Affix ya — lengthened to t!T yd before initial m * and v — to the root, the vowel of which is generally left unchanged. 5th class. Affix *j nu to the root, and gunate this nu into no before the P terminations only. 6th class. Affix ^ a — lengthened to ^tr d before initial m* and V — to the root, which in other respects generally remains unchanged. 7th class. Insert na between the vowel and final consonant of the root before the P terminations, and Tf n before the other termi- * But not before m the termination of tiie ist sing, imperfect Parasmai. VERBS. CONJUGATIONS. 133 nations. Observe the peculiarity of this conjugation — that the conjugational na or n is inserted into the middle of the root, and not affixed. 8th class. Affix f m to the root, and gunate this u into o before the P terminations only. Observe — As all the roots, except one, in this class, end in n, the 8th conjugation will appear similar to the 5th. 9th class. Affix tit nd to the root before the P terminations ; ^1 m before all the others, except those beginning with vowels, where only n is affixed. 10th class. Gunate the radical vowel (if capable of Guna) through- out all the persons of all the tenses, and affix ^ ay a — lengthened to vf 33 T aya before initial m* and v — to the root thus gunated. 250. It will appear, from a cursory examination of the above rules, that the object of all of them, except the 2d, 3d, and 7th, is to insert a vowel, either alone or preceded by y or n, between the modified root and the terminations; and that the 1st, 4th, 6th, and 10th, agree in requiring that the vowel, which is immediately to precede the terminations, shall be a or a. It will appear, moreover, that the 2d, 3d, and "th, alone agree in not interposing a vowel be- tween the final of the root and the terminations ; and that the 5th, 8th, and 9th, agree in interposing either u , d, or i, after the letter n. a. It must never, however, be forgotten, that the conjugational characteristic, whatever it may be, has reference only to the four conjugational tenses (except only in the 10th conjugation), and that in the other tenses the base is formed according to one general rule for all verbs of whatever class ; or, in other words, that in these tenses all verbs, of whatever class, are as if they belonged to one common conjugation. b. It is evident, that a comparison between the difficulty of the Sanskrit and Greek verb would be greatly to the advantage of the former. The Greek verb has three voices^ and about ninety tenses and moods : the Sanskrit has only two voices, and not more than twenty tenses and moods. Besides which, a far greater number of verbs are susceptible of the three voices in Greek, than of the two in Sanskrit. Moreover, in Sanskrit there are no contracted verbs, and no difficulties resulting from difference of dialect; and although there are ten conjugations, yet these have * But not before m the termination of the i?t sing, imperfect Parasmai. 134 VERBS. FIVEFOLD MODIFICATION OF ROOTS. reference to four tenses only ; and, under some of these conjugations, only two or three common verbs are contained. 251. Hence it appears, that conjugation in Sanskrit is really conju- gation, i.e. a process of Saiidlii or ‘junction’ of a verbal base (formed out of a root according to ten rules for four of the tenses, and one general rule for the other six) with a common scheme of terminations, and that in conjugating a verb, two things have to be done; 1st, to form the base from the root, in the manner described above ; 2dly, to join the base with the terminations, according to euphonic rides. 252. Before proceeding to a detailed explanation of the formation of the vei'bal base of the simple or primitive verb, under the several classes, it will be worth while to specify the four other verbs deduci- ble from roots, and to explain how they are derived. a. It has been already shown, at 74, that there are a large number of monosyllabic sounds in Sanskrit, called roots, which are the source of verbs as well as nouns. These roots are in number about two thousand ; and the theory of grammarians is, that each of them may serve as the rough block out of which the inflective bases of five kinds of verbs may be fashioned: 1. of a primitive, transitive or intransitive ; 2. of a passive ; 3. of a causal, having often a causal and often merely a transitive signification ; 4. of a desiderative, giving a sense of wishing to the root; and 5. of a frequentative (or intensive), implying repetition, or heightening the idea contained in the root. b. It will be found, however, in practice, that a great number of these two thousand roots never occur at all in the form of verbs, and not always even in the form of nouns ; and that the verbs in real use are comparatively few. Of these, moreover, certain particular roots (such, for example, as W kri, ‘to do’) are made to do the work of others, and applied to the expression of the most various ideas by compounding them with prepositions and other prefixes. Nevertheless, theo- retically, from every root in the language may be elicited five kinds of verbal liases. c. The first, c*r primitive verb, is formed from the root, according to the ten different rules, already given, for the formation of the base in the first four tenses. The second, or passive, is formed according to the rule for the change of the root, required by the 4th class; viz. the addition of ya in the first four tenses. The third, or causal, is formed according to the rule for the change of the root, required by the 10th class; viz. the addition of ay a to the root in all the VERBS. FIVEFOLD MODIFICATION OF ROOTS. 135 tenses excepting the aorist. The fourth, or desiclerative, is formed by the addition of sa or isha, the root also undergoing redu- plication. The fifth, or frequentative, is formed like the passive, according to the rule required by the 4th class, and is, in fact, a reduplicated passive verb. It may also be formed analogously to the rule for the 3d class. Thus, take the root SP? subh, conveying the idea of ‘shining’ — from this are elicited, 1st, the primitive verbal base, sobha , ‘ to shine ;’ sdly, the passive, subhya, 4 to be bright 3dly, the causal, sobhaya, ‘ to cause to shine’ or ‘ illuminate ;’ 4thly, the desiderative, susobhisha, 4 to desire to shine ;’ ^thly, the frequentative or intensive, sosubhya or sosubh , 4 to shine very brightly.’ d. Note, that as every root may be the source of five different kinds of verbs, so every noun may be the source of a class of verbs (not much used) called nominal verbs. An explanation of these will be found after frequentatives at 518. 253. It has already been remarked, that the passive can hardly he considered a voice, according to the classical acceptation of the term. In Greek and Latin, a verb in the passive voice corresponds in form with the same verb in the active : thus audior corresponds with audio, a.KCVoy.a.1 with ockouco, the terminations or system of inflection only being changed. And in Greek, a verb in the passive corresponds with the same verb in the middle voice, both in the form and in the terminations of most of its tenses. But, in Sanskrit, the form of the passive varies entirely in the conjugational tenses from that of the active verb (unless that verb belong to the 4th conjugation), whilst the terminations may sometimes be the same, viz. those of the Atmane-pada. It is rather a distinct derivative from the root, formed on one invariable principle, without any necessary community with the conjugational structure of the active verb. Thus the root bhid, ‘ to divide,’ is of the 7th class, and makes bhinatti or bhinte, ‘ he divides dvish, 4 to hate,’ is of the 2d class, and makes dveshti or dvishte, ‘ he hates ;’ but the passive of both is formed according to one invariable rule, by the simple insertion of ya, without reference to the conjugational form of the active : thus, bhidyate, ‘ he is divided ;’ dvishyate, ‘he is hated.’ See 243. a. a. In fact, though it he a distinct form of the root, a passive verb is really nothing but a verb conjugated according to the rule for the 4th class restricted to the Atmane-pada : and to say that every root may take a passive form, is to say that roots of the 1st, 2d, 3d, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th classes may all belong to the 4th, when they yield a passive sense : so that if a root be already of the 4th class, its passive is frequently identical in form with its own Atmane- pada (the only difference being, that the accent in the former is on the syllable ya, and not, as in the Atmane of the primitive, on the radical syllable). b. It might even be suspected, that the occasional assumption of a neuter signi- fication and a Parasmai-pada inflection by a passive verb, was the cause which 136 VERBS. — FIVEFOLD MODIFICATION OF ROOTS. gave rise to a 4th class as distinct from the passive. Instances are certainly found of passive verbs taking Parasmai-pada terminations, and some passive verbs (e. g. jay ate, ‘he is born,’ from the root jan ; puryate, ‘ he is filled,’ from pri ; and tap- yate, ‘he is heated,’ from tap) are regarded by native grammarians as Atmane- verbs of the 4th class *. So that it seems not unlikely, that, by making a 4th class, grammarians meant to say that the passive form of verbs, or the addition of ya to the root, is also the form that may be used to express a neuter or intransi- tive signification ; the only difference requisite to be made between the two forms being that the one should take the Atmane-pada; the other, the Parasmai-pada inflection. This, at least, is clear that the Parasmai-pada form of the 4th class often yields a neuter signification ; and that the Atmane-pada of the same class is identical with the form used to yield a passive sense t- Hence it arises, that many roots appear in the 4th class as neuter verbs, which also appear in some one of the other nine as transitive. For example, yuj, ‘ to join,’ when used in an active sense, is conjugated either in the 7th conjugation, or in the causal ; when in a neuter, in the 4th. So also, push, ‘ to nourish ;’ kshubh, ‘ to agitate ;’ klis, ‘to vex;’ sidh, ‘to accomplish.’ 254. Similarly, although causal verbs are said to be distinct derivatives from the root, they are in point of fact verbs conjugated according to the rule for the 10th class, and inflected either in Parasmai or Atmane. To say, therefore, that every root may take a causal form, is to say that roots of the first nine classes may all belong to the 10th, when they take a causal sense ; and that if a root be origin- ally of the 10th class, it can then have no distinct form for its causal, the primitive verb and the causal being in that case identical (see 289). Indeed, it might be conjectured, that the occasional employment of a causal verb in a transitive, rather than a causal sense, was the reason for creating a 10th conjugation. It would cer- tainly simplify the subject, if this conjugation were not separated from the causal ; or, in other words, if the addition of aya to the root were considered in all cases as the mark of a causal verb ; especially as this affix is not the sign of a separate con- jugation, in the way of any other conjugational syllable ; for it is retained in most of the other tenses of the verb, not only in the first four, just as the desiderative ish is retained. 255. The subject of verbs, therefore, will divide itself into two * That the passive does occasionally take the terminations of the Parasmai-pada is shown by Professor Bopp, who gives several instances ; as, ihidyet for ihidyeta, ‘ it may be cut.’ Nala xiv. 6 ; mokshyasi for mokshyase, ‘thou shalt be liberated.’ Other instances may be found in Westergaard; as, vidyati for vidyate ; and is used in Nala xx. 39. for ‘he was seen.’ t The forms given for the aorists of such verbs as pad, ‘ to go,’ budh, ‘ to know’ (which are said to be Atmane-verbs of the 4th class), could only belong to passive verbs. The forms given by Westergaard are, apa'di, abodhi. See 475. FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS. 137 heads. In the first place, the formation of the base ; ist of primi- tive, 2clly of passive, 3dly of causal, 4thly of desiderative, 5thly of frequentative verbs ; with their respective participles. In the second place, the exhibition, at full, of the base, united to its terminations, under each of the five forms of verbs consecutively. Under the first head will be shown, how the root has to be changed before the terminations can be affixed ; while the mode of affixing the terminations to the root, thus changed, will at the same time be indi- cated. Under the second head, examples of the five forms of verbs beginning with primitives will appear conjugated in detail ; the base, or changed root, being combined with its terminations in regular sequence. PRIMITIVE VERBS. FORMATION OF THE BASE OF THE FIRST FOUR TENSES, IN THE TEN CLASSES. 256. A brief summary of the formation of the base, in the ten classes of verbs, has already been given at 249 ; and a great pecu- liarity has been noted — that the special rules for forming the base in the ten classes have reference only to the first four tenses, called conjugational, viz. the present, imperfect, potential, and imperative. Remember, that after passing these four tenses the conjugational structure of the base is forgotten ; and in the formation of the bases of the six remaining tenses all roots are as if they belonged to one general conjugation. Hence the last six tenses are called non-conjugational. The tenth class alone retains the conjugational structure of the base throughout most of the non-conjugmional tenses ; but as this class consists chiefly of causal verbs, no confusion can arise from this apparent in- consistency. Of the 2000 roots, more than half belong to the ist class, about 130 to the 4th, about 140 to the 6th, and all may belong to the 10th (see 289). Of the remaining roots, about 70 belong to the 2d, but not more than 20 are in common use ; about 20 to the 3d, of which not half are in common use ; about 24, of which hardly 6 are common, belong to the 7th ; about 30, of which 10 are common, to the 5th; about 10, of which only 2 are common, to the 8th; about 52, of which 15 are common, to the 9th. 257. Primitive verbs, therefore, separate themselves into ten classes, according as they form their conjugational tenses agreeably to one or other of the ten rules given at 249; and these ten classes may be segregated into three groups, which can be regarded as forming three distinct general conjugations, as follows : a. Group I. This (like the first class of nouns whose bases end T 138 FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS. in a and d) is by far the most important and comprehensive, as comprising verbs of the ist, 4th, 6th, and 10th classes, which agree in making their inflective bases end in a (liable to be lengthened to A). These also resemble each other in taking substitutions for some of the terminations, after the analogy of nominal bases ending in a and d. (See tbe substitutions indicated in the table at 249.) b. Group II. This comprises verbs of the 2d, 3d, and 7th classes, which agree in affixing the regular terminations (at 246) to the final letter of the root, without the intervention of a vowel, after the ana- logy of the last four classes of nouns whose bases end in consonants. c. Group III, comprising verbs of the 5th, 8th, and 9th classes, also affixes the regular terminations (at 246) to the root; but after the intervention of either u, A, or i, preceded by the consonant n. It will simplify the subject to adhere to the above grouping in giving a detailed explanation of the formation of the base under each class of verbs. 258. Observe — Although, to prevent confusion, it is advisable to preserve the Indian classification of verbs into ten classes; yet it is more in unison with the classical idea of a conjugation, to arrange all verbs under three classes and three conjugations, according to the above grouping. The classical student, therefore, may consider that verbs of the ist, 4th, 6th, and 10th classes constitute his first conjugation; verbs of the 2d, 3d, and 7th classes, his second conjugation; and verbs of the 5th, 8th, and 9th, his third conjugation. 259. In comparing Sanskrit verbs with Greek and Latin, it might be shown that group I, comprising the ist, 4th, 6th, and 10th classes, answers to the Greek ist conjugation in x, the eonjugational a being represented in Greek by 0 or e ( tarpamas = T(p 7 roy.(v, tarpatha = repneTe); and although the Greek ist conjuga- tion contains more subdivisions than the first group in Sanskrit, yet the inflection of these subdivisions is similar. As to the Sanskrit 10th conjugation, how'ever, it appears to correspond to Greek verbs in a£x and i^x, which, like the 10th, are generally found in company with other verbs from the same root : thus, KaOapi^x, ‘ I make pure’ ( Ka.6a.1pv ), artva^x, ‘ I groan’ (aTevx), where £ is substituted for ■4 y, as in £ea for ‘ barley.’ To this class also may be referred verbs in «a, eo >, and ox ; thus puraydmi = nepax, where the y has been dropped, and the two a’s combined. Latin verbs in io, like audio &c., seem to be related to the Sanskrit 4th class, as well as to the 10th : thus cupio answers to kupyami ; and the i of audiebatn answers to the ay a of the 10th, just as in Prakrit ay a is contracted into ^ e. The second and third groups of conjugations in Sanskrit (viz. the 2d, 3d, 7th, 5th, 8th, and 9th) answer to Greek verbs in (J-i : thus emi 2d conj. = €t[Xt, daddmi 3d conj. = The 7th conjugation, however, has no exact parallel in FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS. 139 Greek, but many Greek and Latin verbs resemble it in inserting a nasal into the middle of the root; see 342. a. The 5th and 8th conjugations answer to Greek verbs in vv and V\ and vv and v are lengthened before certain terminations, just as nu is gunated in Sanskrit: thus strinomi — (TTOpvvfJ. 1 , strinoshi — (TTOpvvs, strinoti — aropvvTC, strinumas = i in t/yeipov, & c.). a. But when the augment a is prefixed to bases beginning with the vowels \i, "3 u, and ri, short or long, it blends with them into it ai, au, dr (instead of e, 0, ar , by 32). Thus the base i£ 6 ha becomes in the 3d sing, imperfect ai 66 hal, the base "gif uha becomes ’srfer'H' auhata, and the base ridhno becomes WiiffTT ardhnot. b. This rule applies to two of the non-conjugational tenses also, viz. the aorist (or 3d preterite) and the conditional. Observe, that the imperfect, aorist, and conditional are the only three tenses that take the augment a. GROUP I. — FORMATION OF THE BASE IN THE 1ST, 4TH, 6TH, AND IOTH CLASSES OF VERBS. Before entering upon the formation of the base in this group, the student should turn back to the scheme at 247, and recollect that the 1st, 4th, 6th, and 10th classes of verbal bases ending in a and a take substitutions for some of the terminations (especially, in the po- tential Parasmai, and in the 2d and 3d dual of the present, imperfect, and imperative, i^tmane-pada), just as nominal bases ending in a and « require occasional substitutions in the case-affixes. In the 2d sing, imperative they reject the termination *. * Probably in consequence of the haste with which ‘command’ is generally expressed. T 2 140 GROUP I. (c. 1.)— formation of base of primitive verbs. (Group 1.) — First class, containing about iooo primitive verbs. 261. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. Gunate the vowel of the root (except when debarred by 28. b) before every termination of all the four tenses, and affix the vowel *1 a to the root so gunated. Remember, that this vowel ^ a is lengthened into 'srr a before the initial m and v of a termination, but not when in is final, as in the 1st sing, imperfect (1st preterite). 262. Thus, from the root '^jv budh, ‘ to know/ is formed the base bodha, lengthened into 'sftxTT bodhd before m and v (Pres. 1.* bodhd 4- mi = TUnfu bodhdmi, bodha + si = ^nvftr bodhasi, bodha + ti = «ftvflT bodhati ; Du. 1. bodhd + vas = cfrtrnDT bodhdvas, See.; Atm. Pres, bodha + i = ^\v bodhe by 32, bodha + se = TtVff bodhase, &c.). See table at 583. 263. Similarly, from ftr ji, ‘ to concpier’ (see 590), comes the base vr jaya, liable to be lengthened into 'JRT jayd, as before (36. a) ; from 'jft ni , ‘to lead/ the bases nay a and nay a ; from bhu, ‘to be’ (1 dh, which then becomes «r dh. \ * b. ‘ to fry/ ‘ to be immersed/ and ‘ to cut/ reject their last consonant, and the first two are treated as if ending in »r, the last as if ending in m. See 632, 633, 630. Combination of final V dh, bh, with IT t, VJ th, 7 T s. 298. Final w dh and bh, before ft t and m th, are changed, the one to <| d, the other to W b, and both t and th then become M dh : thus, rundh with tas or thas becomes equally runddhas ; labh + tahe = c 53 JT% labdhdhe ; bodh + tahe — ‘TrgTV. Note — A similar rule applies to final ti gh, which must be changed to g, but this can rarely occur. a. Observe — When final w dh is preceded by a conjunct tt n, as in rundh, then the final dh, which has become d (before t and th changed to dh), may optionally be rejected ; so that rundh 4- tas = or ; rundh 4- tarn = or 299. Final v dh and *T bh, before s, are changed by 42, the one to Tt t, the other to M p : thus, fttu runadh + fis si becomes TjUifrvT runatsi ; sedh + sydmi = setsydmi ; labh + sye = lapsye. a. If the initial of the syllable containing the final aspirate be g, d, b, or d, then the aspirate, which has been rejected in the final, is thrown back on the initial ; as, bodh + UT sye = vft^T bhotsye ; dadh + sva = dhatsva : and in the case of <*’4 the same applies before t and th, against 298. See 336, 664. Cf. 6 pe\]sw from rpeipcc. b. The aspirate is also thrown back on the initial, when final dh is changed to d, before the terminations dhve and dhvam. See 336, 664. Combination of final ms, V sh, TTs, with Tit, th, I? s, tj dh. 300. Final mi, before 71 1 and m th, is changed to t? sh ; and the t, th, take the cerebral form Z, Z thus, $ 5 T + /e = '|v; and fTZJ + thds = VRTTT. GROUPS II AND III FORMATION OF BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS. 149 301. Similarly, final ?fsh, before and vj th, requires the change of t, th, to 7, thus, *hr + ti - # fs ; and f?HT + thas 302. Final fis or fish, before vrs, is changed to k by 43. e, the TT6- then becoming M sh by 70 : thus, <13! + si = cjTgy ; l“Q + si — Irugf ; f3T + syami = ^nfh. a. Final Z j fcsh is also changed to c*r k ; as, 303. Final ^ s or fish, before \J clh, is changed to s d, the v dh becoming ? dh by 51 : thus, fi”^ + did = Similarly, fif? + dhvam = fiflF. A final fij may also follow this rule ; see 632, 651. a. Final "fiksh also becomes tr, k being dropped; as, ’sra + 304. Final if^s, before ”4 dh, is either dropped or changed to ? d : thus, takas 4 did = either takddhi or takaddhi ; m 4- did = ; ff^r + din = f?fA? or see 658, 673. a. Before vt s it is changed to t; as, vas + syami — vatsydmi. So optionally in 2d sing. impf. of 31TO , asds + 5 = asdts — a§at (or asds). Combination of final ? h with wt, 'sjth, 31 s, ^dh. 305. In roots beginning with ? d, like dull, ‘ to milk, 5 final ? h is treated as if it were 'W gh, and is changed to fig before Tr t and vj th, and both t and th then become *-? dh : thus, ?;? duh 4- tas or thas >5V becomes equally dugdhas ; 5? dah + tdsmi = dagdhasmi. Note— In the root tt? the final h is treated as if it were v dh, and becomes ? d , after which t and th both become dh. See 624. a. But if a root begin with any other letter than ~,d or ~^n, then its final ? h is dropped, and both the If t and ^ th of the termination become dh. Moreover, to compensate for the rejection of the final h, a radical vowel (except ri), if not gunated, is lengthened, and in the roots n? sah and ^ vah, ‘ to bear, 5 changed to 0 ; as, u? 4 ta = srg- ; yr? 4 ta — WS ; 73? leh 4- ti = Tyfu ledhi; yt? + tdsmi = ; sah 4 = vah + ta = ^s T. But IT? + ft = TO (Pan. VI. 3, n 1). b. ?? ‘to injure, 5 K? 4 to be foolish,’ f^ir 4 to love, 5 ^3? ‘to vomit, 5 optionally follow either 305 or 305. a. 306. Final 1? h, before 3T s, follows the analogy of final 3T s and ■q sh, and is changed to eft k, which blends with vr s into ksh : thus, leh with si becomes VI? + syami = yV^rfir. Similarly, in Latin, final h becomes k before s ; as, veksit ( vexit ) from veho. a. And if the initial of the syllable ending in ? h be f. d, fi g , fi b. 150 GROUP II. (c. 2 .)— FORMATION OF BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS. or IT d (the two latter, however, are not likely to occur), then the final ^ h is still changed to ^ k before 5 ; but the initial ^ d and n g are aspirated according to the analogy of 42. c ; thus, doh + si — vlfsi ; dah + syami = wnfb ; aguh + sam = ^rsr. b. In the root nah final h is treated as if it were dh, and becomes w t before TT s. Compare 182. e, and see 624. c. In roots beginning with ^ d, like , P'K, &c. Again, the prep, apa prefixed gives the sense of ‘ to go away ;’ thus. Pres. &c. : and the prep. gives the sense of ‘to know;’ as. Pres. WTfir. 312. So also other roots in ^ i and T u or "35 u change these vowels to iy and uv (compare 123 and 125. a) before the vowel-terminations; as, from vi, ‘to go,’ come ve, vi, and viy (Pres. 1. &c. ; Du. x. PI. 3. f^qf»iT)+. Simi- larly, *T, to bring forth’ (Atmane only), makes in Pres. S. Du. PI. 3. WT, ^ 4 TrT, W4 ri ; and in Impv. S. Du. PI. 1. 3 TV, B-TUT?, Guna being suppressed. * The imperative of vid is optionally formed with the syllable dm and the auxiliary verb Jcri (compare 384) : thus, S. 3. r. 1 or Panini III. 1, 41. And this root may optionally insert r in the 3d pi. Atm. of the pres., impf., and impv. : thus, f^TT or srfVq rT or ^f^rT, HT or f^TTT. t According to some the 3d pi. impf. of is as well as ->l fd 4 *T . 152 GROUP II. (c. 2.)— FORMATION OF BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS. 3 I 3- ^5 stu anc * *1 nu ’ * to Praise ;’ ^ ytt, ‘ to join,’ ‘ to mix;’ and ^ ru, ‘ to sound’ — follow 312, but take Vriddhi instead of Guna before the consonantal P termina- tions*. Hence the bases ?37 stau, W stu, and stuv ; see 648. Before the vowel P terminations both Vriddhi and Guna are generally (but not always) sup- pressed, and uv substituted, as in at 312. Note, that these roots may optionally insert an $ i before the consonantal P terminations ; and before this vowel Guna, not Vriddhi, is required. According to some authorities, however, ( is inserted before all the consonantal-terminations ; and, according to others, before all the consonants, except y, v, or m, not followed by an indicatory P. 314. ~St, 'to speak,’ can never take Vriddhi, like the roots at 313; but inserts an ^ « after Guna in the places where those roots optionally insert it, viz. before the consonantal P terminations. Hence the bases bram, bru, bruv. See 649. a. Before the vowel P terminations Guna is not suppressed, excepting in the 1st sing, impf., which may be either or 315- to lie down,’ ‘ to sleep’ (Atmane only), gunates the radical vowel before all the terminations, and inserts r in the 3d pi. pres., impf., and imperative, after the analogy of the 3d pi. potential. See 646. 316. ‘to cover’, takes either Vriddhi or Guna of the final u before the consonantal P terminations, except before the 2d and 3d sing, of the impf., where Guna only is admissible. Before the vowel-terminations it follows 312, but Guna is retained before the vowel P terminations, excepting in the 1st sing, impf. Hence the bases urnau, urno, urnu, and urnuv (Pres. Par. 1. ’5M0TIU or ; Du. 1. PI. 3. '3T7iT'qT7r, see 290. b; Impf. 1. or by 260. a, 2. &c. ; Pot. 1. "WTtli ; Impv. S. 1. 3. uRtiTjj or WfiT- Pres. Atm. 3. W^TTT, 'SprjVff). 317. ^TT ‘ to go,’ tJT ‘ to protect,’ vpf ‘ to eat’ (eclo). ‘ to sit,’ Atm., and other roots having a or a for their vowels, cannot be changed, but are themselves the inflective bases (Pres. 1. ITT yd-\-mi — ydmi, see 644 ; ad-\-mi—admi, 2. ad+si =atsi, 3. ad+ti—atti; Du. 3. ad+tas=attas, &e., see 652). With atti compare Lat. edit. a. ’SITS 'to sit’ is similar; thus as + e— ase, as+se — asse, as +te=zdste. The final of ds is dropped before dh, hence PL 2. ddhve, &c. b. ^RT ‘to eat,’ before the terminations of the 2d and 3d sing, imperfect, inserts the vowel a by special rule, see 632 ; and some other roots of this class require peculiar changes, as follows : — 318. daridra, ‘to be poor,’ follows 290. b, making its base daridri before the consonantal terminations not marked with P, and daridr before ati, us, atu (Pres. S. Du. PI. 3. ^fv^Tfrl, Impf. 1. j PI. 3. ; Pot. 3. rM^\a ; Impv. 1. ; Du. i.qfcfUT; PI. 3. 319. J for (2 d plur. perfect, Atmane). 372. £ is used instead of sij by the eight roots at 369, also in certain cases by the roots mentioned at 371. The usual rules of Sandhi must then be observed, as in from tT5l. a. ^ for may be optionally used by other roots when a semi- vowel or h immediately precedes, as or -f=r^ from 75, or -fzf^ from Anomalies in forming the base of the perfect ( second preterite). 373. Roots ending in ’UT a (as cfT da, ‘to give;’ MT dhd, ‘to place;’ *TT yd, ‘to go;’ TSfT sthd, ‘to stand’) drop the d before all the terminations except the tha of the 2d sing., and substitute au for the terminations of the 1st and 3d sing. Parasmai. Hence, from da comes the base dad (1.3. tpfr, 2. VI or Du.i.^. Atm. 1. 3. 2. &c. See 663). a. ‘to be poor’ makes 1. 3. ; Du. 3. PI. 3. or more properly takes the periphrastic form of perfect. See 385. b. t 4 ) I ‘ to grow old’ has a reduplicated base (1.3. 2. fif -rill'd or ftrfeni ; I)u. 1. ). Similarly, an uncommon root Atm. ‘to instruct’ makes 1. 3. c. fa ‘ to throw,’ ‘to destroy,’ ‘to perish,' must be treated in the sing, as if PEEFECT OE SECOND PEETEEITE. — FOEMATION OF THE BASE. 165 they ended in a; and o5t 9th c., ‘ to obtain,’ may optionally be so treated : thus, Sing. 1. 1WT, 2. or 3. HHT ; Du. 1. But Tit is 1. c 5 c 5 T or fe- c 5 Tlf, 2 . or eSf^T or or foxfire; Du. 1. fcSf^Db d. Most roots ending in the diphthongs *7 e (except 3f, ^T, &c., see next rules), 37 ai, ’ST au, follow 373, and form their perfect as if they ended in a : thus, 1st c. ‘to drink,’ 1st and 3d sing. ^*iT, 2. or rfSPRI, Du. 1. TfftFT ; H 1st c. ‘to sing,’ 1.3. afET, 2. sTfrlTW or tTSTT^T; S' istc. ‘to fade,’ 1.3. ^P'T; TJift 4th c. ‘ to sharpen,’ 1. 3. TfTipT. e. But ‘to call’ forms its base as if from ft, see 595 (1.3. &c.). /. 7 f Atm. ‘ to pity,’ ‘to protect,’ makes its base digi (1. 3. 2. &c.). g. ^ ‘to cover ’ makes vivyay, vivyay, and vivy (1.3. 2. ; Du. 1. or &c.). h. ^ ‘ to weave’ forms its bases as if from va or vav or vay (1.3. or T^PT, 2. or or ; Du. 1. ^TF-PT or or ^f4*^. Atm. 1. 3. ; and similarly, TfT, and & sru. i. to be’ is anomalous, and makes its base ’^THyT throughout ; see 585, 586. So TT ‘to bring forth’ makes in the Veda j. duu to cover’ (although properly requiring the periphrastic form of perfect, see 385) is reduplicated into In the 2d sing, it may reject Guna : thus, or 3d sing. ‘RWpTTX Du. 1. 3. ; Pi. 3. k. Roots ending in the vowel ri, preceded by a double consonant, and most roots in long ’RJr/’, instead of retaining this vowel and changing it to r by 364. d, gunate it into ar in the 2d sing., and throughout the whole tense, except the 1st and 3d sing, (and even in the 1st there may be optionally Guna by 368) : thus, from T*T smri, ‘ to remember,’ 1. sasmara or sasmara, 2. sasmartha, 3. sasmara; Du. 1 .sasmariva, &c. Atm. 1.3. sasmare. l. But V dhri, ‘ to hold,’ not being preceded by a double consonant, makes regu- larly 1. Sing. Du. PL rpITC, ?flGT. ?fUR. m. IT ‘ to fill,’ 3 T ‘ to injure,’ and 3 t 5T bhrajj, 6th c., ‘ to fry,’ makes either °THr5T or FtTFiT throughout. See 632. a. or ‘to go’ gunates the radical vowel throughout : thus, 1. 3. FTPT3, 2. ‘^TFI'f'SF^I ; Du. 1. FTTHTStF. 382. ‘to sleep,’ makes its bases ^TWPT and See 655. a. or fN ‘ to spit’ may substitute fT t for F t in the reduplication : thus, 1. 3. f7¥F or firire, fzvft or fiTFlF. 383. ‘to pierce,’ ^I^‘to encompass,’ ‘to deceive,’ Atm. ‘ to be pained,’ make their reduplicated syllable vi; and the first two roots change vya to vi before all the terminations, except the sing. Parasmai : thus, from vyadh comes sing, du. pi. 3. f^rtnTTT , fefFVTT; Atm. fafgv, &c. : from vyad, fWFT, fVf'-( ■'l riP , f^fN'^T : from vyath, fd --4 ’<7, f^aniTiT, See 615 and 629. a. IDT 1st c. Atm., ‘to shine,’ makes its reduplicated syllable di (i. 3. didyute). 384. ZC? grah, 9th c., ‘to take,’ makes its base and sTHj? (S. Du. PI. 3. But sing. 2. See 699. a. ‘ to conceal’ lengthens its radical vowel instead of gunating it in the sing. Paras. "JFV? &c. * This rests on Siddhanta Kaum. 134. Some grammarians make the base in du. and pi. &e. PERFECT OR SECOND PRETERITE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 169 b. ah, ‘to say,’ is only used in the perfect. It is defective in sing. du. pi. i. and pi. 2, and forms 2d sing, from (2. 'StTr^T, 3. ; Du. 2. 3. ’***$*; PI.3.W*). c. s|/ to say’ has no perfect of its own, hut substitutes either that of ^'^(375. c) or the above forms from Again, ‘to eat' has a perfect of its own, but may substitute that of N 3 T 378. Similarly, ^T 3 T ‘ to drive’ {ago) may substitute that of =fl. Periphrastic perfect. 385. Roots which begin with a vowel, long by nature or position {except the vowel a, as in wq ‘ to obtain / 364. a, and in ’ 3 TT>^ ‘ to stretch ;’ and except ‘ to go,’ 381. a; and roots having an initial a before tivo consonants, 371), and all roots of more than one syllable {except ‘ to cover,’ 375.,/; and except optionally WTn ‘ to awake,’ 375. p, and ‘ to be poor,’ 373. a), form their perfects by adding ^T\am to the root or base (which generally gunates its last vowel if ending in i, u, ri, short or long), and affixing the perfect of some one of the auxiliary verbs, as, ‘ to be / *1 bhu, ‘ to be / cji kri , ‘ to do.’ cl Observe— This dm may be regarded as the accus. case of an abstract noun formed from the verbal base. With W3TTC it becomes ■^Ddosn; or by 59. Thus, from s( 3 T, ‘ to rule/ comes 1st and 3d sing. or or tblP^sfiTT ; the last might be translated ‘ he made ruling/ and in the former cases the accusative may be taken adverbially. So also, from ‘to shine/ comes W1T ‘ he made shining.’ b. When the Atmane-pada inflection has to be employed, eg only is used: thus, ^ Atm., ‘to praise/ makes 1st and 3d sing. ‘ he made praising or praised.’ c. Roots of the 10th class also form their perfect in this way, the syllable dm blending with the final a of the base : thus, from ’qy fur, 10th c., ‘ to steal/ foray amdsa, ‘ I have or he has stolen.’ d. Also all derivative verbs, such as causals, desideratives, and frequentatives. See 490, 505, 513, 516. e. Also the roots ay, ‘to go;’ day. Atm., ‘to pity;’ as, Atm., ‘to sit;’ 'qrFT Ms, ‘to cough,’ ‘to shine’ &c.) *. And optionally the roots bht, 3d c., ‘to fear’ or fqH'qi’ddi'IT) ; jfl Tiri, 3d c., ‘to be ashamed’ (ftT|TTq or fjTgMT^T^iTT) ; H bhri, 3d c., ‘to bear’ (Wt or * Panini III. 1, 37, 35. 170 FIRST AND SECOND FUTURE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. fWT^TT;) ; ^ hu, 3d c., ‘ to sacrifice’ (^?TM or ^^^1=51 <*k) ; vid, 2d c., ‘ to know’ (f^ or ; dfusk, ist c., ‘ to burn’ (TTHf or WTWT^RiTT). f. The roots Atm., *P 7 , >nj, fVvL tj'H, whose peculiarity of conjuga- tional form is explained at 271, and Atm. ‘to blame,’ may optionally employ a periphrastic perfect, not derived from the root, but from the conjugational base : thus, or ^Tritb or TPTTbTiRnT, or 'U^JHIT^STT, or fhoal- xn^FTT, W or qrurm^Bn:, h «1 or b H 1 M 1=3 =hK , »J) IB ri or ■=i^rtlbl a dffi. g. Observe — Bases ending in i, u, or ri, short or long, are generally gunated before dm ; but ‘ to shine’ and ^^1 ‘ to go’ make ^HbTysfi, &c. 386. First and second future. Terminations of first future repeated from page 127. Parasmai. Atmane. tdsmi tdsvas tdsmas take tdsvahe tdsmahe tdsi tdsthas tastha tdse tdsdthe tadhve ta tdrau tdras td tdrau tdras Terminations of second future repe ated from page 128. syarni sydwas sydmas sye sydvahe sydmahe syasi syathas syatha syase syethe syadhve syati syatas syanti syate syete syante a. Observe — .The first future results from the union of the nora. case of the noun of agency (formed with the affix tri, see 83. I) with the present tense of the verb xSH as, ‘to be :’ thus, taking TH? ddtri, ‘ a giver’ (declined at 127), and combining its nom. case with as/ni and % he, we have ddtasmi and datdhe, ‘ I am a giver,’ identical with the ist pers. sing. Parasmai and Atmane of the ist fut., ‘I will give.’ So also ddtasi and datdse, ‘thou art a giver,’ or ‘ thou wilt give.’ In the ist and 2d persons dual and plur. the sing, of the noun is joined with the dual and plur. of the auxiliary. In the 3d person the auxiliary is omitted, and the 3d sing, dual and plur. of the ist future in both voices is then identical with the nom. case sing, dual and plur. of the noun of agency : thus, ddtd, a giver,’ or ‘ he will give;’ ddtarau, ‘two givers,’ or ‘they two will give,’ & c. * 387. The terminations of the second future appear also to be derived from the verb joined, as in forming the passive and 4th conjugational class, with the y of the root 1 (T ‘ to go,’ just as in English we often express the future tense by the phrase ‘ I am going.’ 388. Rule for forming the base in verbs of the first nine classes. Gunate the vowel of the root (except as debarred at 28. b, and ex- * The future signification inherent in the noun of agency ddtd, seems implied in Latin by the relation of dator to daturus. FIRST AND SECOND FUTURE.— FORMATION OF TI1E BASE. 171 cept in certain roots of the 6th class, noted at 390, 390. a ) through- out all the persons of both first and second future ; and in all roots ending in consonants (except those enumerated at 400 — 414), and in a few ending in vowels (enumerated at 392), insert the vowel ^ i between the root so gunated, and the terminations. 389. Thus, from fm ji, 1st c., ‘to conquer/ comes the base % je (1st Fut. je 4- tasmi — wrftf?, See. ; Atm. je + iahe — %rn%. 2d Fut. je + sy ami — wmrff, &c.; Atm .je + sye — ^m, by 70). Similarly, from vjT sru ) 5th c., 4 to hear/ comes the base sro (1st Fut. sro + tasmi — &c. ; 2d Fut. sro + syami — &c., by 70). a. So also, from ^ra budh, 1st c., ‘to know/ comes the base "TriM bodhi (1st Fut. bodhi + tasmi = See.; Atm. bodhi + take — 2d Fut. bodhi + syami — &c. ; Atm. bodhi + sye 390 . The roots ending in u and 'Si u of the 6 th class, forbidding Guna, are or ^ ‘ to call out,’ 3T or n ‘ to void excrement,’ IT or IT ‘ to be firm,’ «? or *T ‘ to praise,’ n ‘ to shake.’ These generally change their final u to uv: thus, &c. from W, but &c. from W ; 3TfsTWTT££f &c. from TT, but JTrTTftR' &c. from U. a. The roots ending in consonants of the 6 th class, not gunated, are W3T N ‘to contract,’ UVf ‘to sound,’ ‘ to make crooked,’ ‘to resist,’ ‘to oppose,’ or WZ ‘to cut,’ ‘to quarrel,’ ‘to break,’ TJ? ‘to embrace,’ ‘to enclose,’ or or of P°und,’ to break in pieces, to burst in pieces,’ 1£Z ‘ to revolve,’ ‘to roll,’ ‘to play,’ or ‘to be immersed,’ ^'S', "ETf, 7 VS \ * J W \ $ \ 7 VS \ 7 VS V 7 VS \ 7 VS v * 7 W?, all meaning ‘to cover/ U'J ‘to guard,’ ‘to hinder,’ ‘to bind,’ ‘ to strike,’ TT* ‘to let out,’ ‘ to emit,’ coZ ‘to adhere,’ VS \ vs\ ON vs\ r ? ‘to collect,’ fttr 1 to throw,’ UT Atm. ‘ to make effort,’ ‘ to cut,’ Wrt or \ 7 \ 7 O \ 7 VS \ OX ‘ to glitter,’ ‘to quiver,’ ‘to be firm,’ ‘to go,’ ZRZ ‘to eat,’ — nearly all uncommon as verbs. To these must be added 7 th c. ‘to tremble.’ b. ‘ to cover’ may either gunate its final or change it to uv (^.mfiUTTfw or fd 0 I fin , H uj I fW or O' O 7 c . AHa Atm. ‘ to shine,’ Atm. ‘ to go,’ drop their finals before the inserted i (^fwi| &c.). Similarly, to be poor’ &c., &c.). d. Roots in 1 ? e, Tf ai, 0 , change their finals to a : thus, ‘ to call’ (d^THlftH, STTWfiT). e. f*T ‘ to throw, ’ fft ‘ to perish,’ and Atm. ‘ to decay,’ must change, and 75^ to obtain’ may optionally change their finals to a (fiTrUffU, Bmuffi, &c. ; i^TrlTU, &c. ; ^JrTTftR or c5TiTTfw, &c. ; T'J'QU fti or o5l4rM I f*i, &c.). Compare 373 . c. f. Roots containing the vowel ri, as TUT ‘to creep,’ B’TT ‘ to handle,’ ‘to Z 2 172 FIRST AND SECOND FUTURE FORMATION OF THE BASE. touch, ’*V to draw,’ are generally gunated, but may optionally change the vowel ri to T. ra : thus, Wnftrf or WWlPeH &c., tTURnfh or & L K) I f*i &c. g. Reversing this principle, ‘ to fry’ may make either ytTTTC?! or HFTfW &c., or &c. h. The alternative is not allowed when i is inserted : thus, rPJ ‘ to be satisfied’ makes rTTTTftTT or (iptTfwr, but only KfUrTTfFU. Similarly, TJM ‘ to he proud.’ i. U A ‘ to let go,' ‘ to create,’ and V ‘ to see,’ necessarily change ri to ra : thus, yuifw, Er^qTftr, &c. ; TjFrfm, & c . j. ‘ to rub’, ‘ to clean,’ takes Vriddhi instead of Guna (tTlfsTHTfOT or HTRTfwi) • k. to be immersed,’ and »HJT ‘ to perish’ when it rejects i, insert a nasal : thus, ibKlfco, Hwfa, &c. ; ^Tfa, &c.; but ^mfw&c., ^%GTTfa&c. l . Atm., J]tr, VTT, ftTcF, tprr, tfn , ^TT, at 385. /, may optionally carry their peculiar conjugational form into the futures (^rffTiTT? or ^jrftrrnY, iffmftR or UTfarTTTff? or UTCTftnrrfeH, or fN^lftltHftn, or ^rfifY- WT%,&c.). m. ‘ to conceal’ lengthens its vowel when i is inserted. See 415. in. n. NTCT ‘ to be,’ to say,’ and ‘ to speak,’ have no futures of their own, and substitute those of , and I respectively} NT? ‘to eat’ may optionally substitute the futures of THT , and NTrT ‘ to drive’ of Nt 1 Nlffi rl ifw or NRTftfT &c.). Compare 384. c. o. The rules at 296 — 306 must, of course, be applied to the two futures : thus, TT? ‘ to tie’ makes "TrtMlfh &c. See 306. b. Observe — The above rules apply generally to the aorist, precative (Atmane), and conditional, as well as to the two futures. 391. It will be necessary here to give the rules for the insertion or rejection of the vowel ^ i. RULES FOR INSERTION OR REJECTION OF TIIE VOWEL ^ i, IN FORMING THE LAST FIVE TENSES AND DESIDERATIVE. a. Observe — These rules do not apply to form II of the aorist at 435, or to the Parasmai of the precative (benedictive) at 442, which can never insert i. b. The manifest object of the inserted i is to take the place of the conjugational vowel, and prevent the coalition of consonants. Hence it is evident that roots ending in vowels do not properly require the inserted i. Nevertheless, even these roots often insert it; and if it were always inserted after roots ending in consonants, there would be no difficulty in forming the last five tenses of the Sanskrit verb. Unfortunately, however, its insertion is forbidden in about one hundred roots ending in consonants, and the combination of the RULES FOR INSERTION OR REJECTION OF 173 final radical consonant with the initial t and s of the terminations will require an acquaintance with the rules already laid down at 296, &c. We now proceed to enumerate, 1st, the roots which insert i; 2dly, those which reject it ; 3dly, those w 7 hich optionally insert or reject it. Observe — In the following lists of roots the 3d sing, will sometimes be given between brackets, and the roots will be arranged in the order of their vowels. It is of the utmost importance that the attention of the student be directed to this subject, as the assumption or rejection of this inserted vowel is not confined to the two futures, but extends to many other parts of the verb ; insomuch, that if the first future reject ^ i, it is generally rejected in form I of the aorist, in the Xtmane-pada of the benedictive, in the conditional, infinitive mood, passive past participle, indeclinable past participle, future participle formed with the affix tavya, and noun of agency formed with the affix trij and often (though not invari- ably) decides the formation of the desiderative form of the root by s instead of ish. So that the learner, if he know the first future, will pass on with greater ease to the formation of these other parts of the verb, and may always look to this tense as his guide. For example, taking the root kship, ‘to throw,’ and finding the 1st future to be ksheptasmi, he knows that i is rejected. Therefore he understands w r hy it is that the 2d future is kshepsyami; the aorist, akshaipsam; the Xtmane of the benedictive, kshipstya j the conditional, akshepsyam ; the infinitive, ksheptum; the passive past participle, kshiptaj the indeclinable participle, kshiptva ; the future participle, ksheptavyaj the noun of agency, ksheptri ; the desiderative, dikshipsami. On the other hand, taking the root yad, ‘to ask,’ and finding the 1st future to be yadita, he knows that i is inserted, and therefore the same parts of the verb will be yddishyami, ayddisham, yadishiya, ayadishyam, yaditnm, yadita , yaditvd, yaditavya , ydditri, yiyadishdmi, respectively. Roots ending in vowels inserting ^ i ( except as indicated at 391. a). As before remarked, it is evident that roots ending in vowels do not properly require the insertion of another vowel. The following, however, take i : 392. Five of those in ^ i and ^ i, viz. f^i 4 to have recourse 5 (Tsrftnn, ■srftntrfTr), fa ‘ to sw 7 ell, 5 fl 5 to fly,’ 5ft ‘ to lie down,’ f«ER 4 to smile’ (in desid. alone). a. Six of those in u, viz. c to sneeze,’ 'gw 4 to sharpen,’ h ‘ to praise,’ ■g 4 to join,’ 4 to sound,’ ‘to roar,’ snu 4 to ooze’ (the last only when Parasmai *). * If ^ is inflected in the Xtmane, it may reject i. 174 RULES FOR INSERTION OR REJECTION OF ^ i . b. All in u, as to be’ (uf^nn, Hfrnrfw), except ^ and v (which optionally reject i), and except in the desiderative. See 395, 395. a. c. All in short ^ ri, in the 2d future and conditional, &c.,but not in the 1st future, as ^ ‘to do’ (o&frcjfjT, but ^t). d. Two in short ri (viz. ^ 4 to choose’ and ?TUT 4 to awake’) also in 1st future (Tfcn, ^TiniTHT, &c.). e. All in long ~% n, as T£ ‘ to pass’ (wforr, 393. Observe — ^ 4 to choose,’ and all roots in long ^ n, may optionally lengthen the inserted i, except in aorist Parasmai and pre- cative Atman e (^fcrr or WrTT, ^fcarfir or sTixqfTr, TTPCTf T or rffbn, &c.). Roots ending in vowels rejecting ^ i. 394. All in d, as r^T 4 to give’ OfTiTT, ^TFUftr). a. Nearly all in ^ i and \ {, as ftr ‘ to conquer,’ ^ ‘to lead’ (wr, ^aifw, &c.). b. Nearly all in short '3‘ u, as ^ ‘to hear’ (^ftHT, Tsfrarfft). c. Those in long "Si u generally in the desiderative only. d. All in short ri (except f) in the 1st future only, as ^ ‘ to do’ (o|^T, but ^fuerfaj. See 392. c. e. All in 7? e, ^ ai, 0. See 390. d. Roots ending in vowels optionally inserting or rejecting ^ i, either in all the last jive tenses and desiderative, or in certain of these forms only. 395. F or ^ 2d and 4th c. Atm. 4 to bring forth’ (^fhn or SlfVrtT, JrfoTff or a. V ‘to shake’ (VPnTT or vrtTTT, \rfVnrfw or utcrfTT, &c., but i must be inserted in aorist Parasmai, see 430), to purify,’ optionally in desiderative only (t^u, Atm.). b. ^ Atm. ‘to grow fat’ (unHT and 'ciTf^'rTT, and 'arrftl'aiR; but necessarily inserts i in desid.). c. 4 to go,’ ^ or ^ 4 to spread,’ 4 to cover,’ and ^ 4 to sound,’ all in 1st fut., and the latter two optionally in desiderative also (*f?rr, ^rfcrn or (?) mbit ; wwt, ^rftrn or ^ruhn ; wr or ; friFftnfH or frfwfiuffT or ftr^fbrnr ; ffc^riWHor 396. ^irjT 4 to be poor’ optionally in the desiderative (fefffhjrw or RULES EOR INSERTION OR REJECTION OF ^ i. 175 397. All roots in long n optionally in the desiderative, as w makes fimfbrffr or feiffefe. 398. fe, w, w, optionally in desiderative. Compare 392. Roots ending in consonants inserting ^ i. 399. As a general rule, all roots ending in ^ kh, T\g,n gh, jh , Z {, Z th, Zd,-% dh, 3JT n, R t, W th, ifi ph, W 6, H y, r, c \l, W V: thus, few £ to write 5 makes HferTT, &c. ; WW>T c to leap 5 makes wfenTT, ^feltqfrr. a. tjit ‘ to take 5 lengthens the inserted i in all the last five tenses, except the precative Parasmai (ifehrTT, Jjjffarfe), see 699. It rejects i in the desiderative. Roots ending in consonants rejecting ^ i. Observe — The rules at 296 — 306 must in all cases be applied. When a number is given after a root, it indicates that the root only rejects i if conjugated in the class to which the number refers. When a number is given between brackets, this refers to the rule under which the root is conjugated. 400. One in 'w k. — ^jefl 5. to be able (^TWT, TUWTW 679). 401. Six in W 6 . — WW to cook (trgrr, Wife ; WW to speak (650) ; few 7. to make empty (TUT, ; few 7. 3. to separate ; few to moisten, to sprinkle; WW to loosen (628). 402. One in W th. — TfW* to ask (STFl, 631). 403. Fifteen in *tj .- — to quit (596); tfW to honour; WW to sacrifice (597) ; 6. to fry (63 2) ; to be immersed (633) ; to break (669); T^ to colour, to be attached; "W^to adhere (597* a ) > to embrace ; fer^ to cleanse (ww, W’wrfe) ; few + 3. to tremble (tm, &c.) ; hit 6. to bend, 7. to enjoy (668. a) ; tjw to join (67 o) ; to break (few?!, &c.) ; ^3^0 create, to let go (6 25). 404. One in w t. — WTT to be, to turn, but only in 2d fut. Par., cond. Par.,aor. Par.,desid.Par. (This root is generally Atm. and inserts *,598.) 405. Fourteen in d . — w? to eat (65 2) ; WT to go (WWT, WT^fe) ; TIT to fall, to perish; TTT to sink; T 5 W 1. Parasmai, to mount , to leap ; to void excrement ; feur to be troubled (WWT, &c .) ; fsr to * inserts i in the desiderative. t WWT optionally inserts i in the desiderative. + When few belongs to the 7th c., it takes e. thus, fefWfTT, fefewfe. See 390. a. 176 RULES FOR INSERTION OR REJECTION OF ^ i. cut (66 7) ; to break (583) ; fq? 7. to recognise, 4. to be, to exist, 6. to find ; 4. to sweat ; ^ to pound, to crush (sftqT, sftwfrt) ; TTC to strike (634) ; to impel. 406. Thirteen in q dh. — qvq to bind (6 92); qj v to pierce (615) ; TTV to accomplish (TTjjT, TTWfri) ; TfTV 5. to accomplish ; fqv 4. to be accomplished (616) ; q>V to be angry (qft'gT, ^TwflT) ; WV to be hungry ; qv 4. Atm. to be aware (614) * ; q^i Atm. to fight ; TpJ to obstruct (671) ; 3 IV to be pure ; qq to increase, only in 2d fut. Par., contl. Par., aor. Par. ; 'STV to break wind, only in 2d fut. Par., cond. Par., aor. Par. (both these last insert i throughout the Atmane). 407. Two in ^ n . — -tR 4. Atm. to think (617) ; qq /0 kill (654), but the last takes i in 2d fut. and conditional. 408. Eleven in 17 p. — 7PT to burn (ttht, frcjqfq) ; qq to sow ; ^ to curse; ^"q to sleep (655); wq to obtain (681); fojq to throw (635); friq Atm. to distil ; feq to anoint; qq to touch (qTffT, ■gf^qfrT) ; 6. to break (cTtlTT, HTqqnr) ; qq to creep (390./). 409. Three in q bh . — qq to lie with carnally (qarr, qqqffr) ; Atm. to long after (with to begin, 601. a) ; Atm. to obtain (601). 410. Five in q m. — qq to go (602), but takes i in 2d fut. and cond. ; qq to bend (qqn, qqrfq) ; qq to restrain; iq Atm. to sport; q;q ‘to walk’ in the Atmane (qqn, s F UK). 41 1. Ten in 3 T s. — to bite (<*FT, -ivHlfrf) ; iqsr 6 . to point out (583) ; UUJT to enter (qUT, qqqfff) ; fxr3T to hurt ; fjqsr to become small ; ^31 to cry out (qvnn, qirfqfw) ; qsr 6. to hurt ; i. to see (390. i, 604, ■5m, ^qqfw); qur to handle (390./); wnn 6. to touch (390./, 636, qqFr, qqqqfir). 412. Eleven in q sh . — fiqq to shine (iqFT, qrqqfw) ; fqq^ to hate (657); fqq x 7. to crush, to pound; fqq to pervade, to sprinkle, &c.; %q 7. to distinguish (672) ; faqq 4. to embrace (301, 302) ; qq 4. to be satisfied (rftRT., qt’wfq) ; qq 4. to be sin ful ; qq x 4. to be nourished f (qTFT, qfqqftr) ; TJiq 4. to become dry (Tfm, THtqqfiT) ; ^ to draw (390./, 606). 413. Two in q s. — qq to eat (qqn, q?qifiT) ; qq x i. to dwell (607) }. * When qq belongs to the 1st c., it inserts i. t When qq belongs to the 9th c., it takes i (qtfqj. q'Vfq'tqffT)- J qqc. 2. Atm. ‘to put on,’ ‘to wear,’ inserts i (qfqq, qftpqw). RULES FOR INSERTION OR REJECTION OF ^ i. 177 414. Eight in ^ h. — ^ to burn (610); Tpfr to tie , to string to- gether (624); 31 ? to carry (61 1); to anoint (65 9); fh'? to make water (h^T 305. a, ; fe? 2. to lick (661) ; 2. to milk (66 o) * ; ^ to ascend (fkr, ft^rfir). Roots ending in consonants optionally inserting or rejecting ^ i, either in all the last jive tenses and desiderative, or in certain of these forms only. Observe — When no tenses are specified, the option applies to all except to form II of the aorist and the Parasmai of the precative (benedictive), which can never insert i. 415. Two in ^ L — or 7r5T 7. to contract ; tPST to cut (630). a. Three in j. — 7. to anoint (668, but necessarily inserts i in desid.) ; ^ to rub, to clean (390 .j, 651) ; *J35T to fry (optionally in desid. only, necessarily rejects i in other forms). b. Four in w t. — to fall (optionally in desid. only ; necessarily inserts i in futures and cond., and rejects it in aor.) ; ^jT 6. to cut (optionally in 2d fut., cond., and desid.; necessarily inserts i in 1st fut. and aor.); kill (optionally in 2d fut., cond., and desid.; necessarily inserts i in 1st fut. and aor.) ; rpr to dance (optionally in 2d fut. and desid., necessarily inserts i in 1st fut. and aor.). c. Four in ^ d. — to flow (optionally in all forms except 2d fut. and cond. Parasmai, and desid. Parasmai, where i is necessarily rejected) ; f]pT to be wet, to shine , and TP? to kill, to injure (the last two optionally in all forms except 1st fut., which necessarily inserts i ). d. Three in v dh. — tyi to perish ; ftni 1 . to rule, to restrain, to keep off ; 3 J 3 to prosper (the last optionally in desid. oidy, neces- sarily inserts i in other forms, see 680). e. Two in ?r n. — rR to stretch and w?T to honour, to give (both optionally in desid. only, necessarily insert i in other forms, see 583). f. Five in T17?. — g'tr to be ashamed ; irq 1. to defend ; K3 4. to be satisfied (618) ; ^3 4. to be proud ; crq to be capable (when it re- jects i, it is Parasmai only). g. Two in d/i. — 4. to desire (optionally in 1st fut., necessarily * c. 1, ‘to afflict,’ inserts i (ftf^TTT, &c.). A a 178 AOEIST OR THIRD PRETERITE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. inserts i in other forms # ) ; to deceive (optionally in desid. only, HHFfF or or vfarfF, necessarily inserts i in other forms). h. One in jt m. — FJF 1.4 .to bear (FlfFFT or FIFTT, F rftt g { F, -fF, or "S^FF, -fF). i. All in ^ iv (optionally in desid. only) ; as, f%F to play, ftrF to spit, Iff to sew. j. Two in F y . — FTF to honour ; 'crni or fqFF to be fat (but both necessarily insert i in desid., compare 395. b). k. Three in ST s. — fist 5. Atm. to pervade + (but necessarily in- serts i in desid., see 681. a) ; FTST 4. to perish (see 390. k, and 620) ; 9. to torment (697). l . Seven in ush. — to pervade; FFI fo cut in pieces, to carve (FfsjFT or FFT, or &c.) ; rF'ST to cut , to carve ; ^[F with f?T^ to extract (otherwise necessarily inserts i ) ; ^F 6. to wish (637) ; fx? to injure, to kill ; to injure (the last three optionally in 1st fut.,but necessarily insert i in other forms). m. Twelve in ? h. — FF Atm. to bear (optionally in 1st fut. only, necessarily inserts i in other forms, see 611. a) ; to take (ftfft or nrer, Sec.) ; rrr^ to penetrate ; *rnr to measure (mf^rTT or FT37, &c.) ; snih, to love (Fif^F! or or f?ft, &c.) ; ^ snuh, to love, to vomit ; FF to be perplexed (612) ; to conceal (f^ft or fIft, or xfrwfF, see 306. a, 390. m) ; ^ to bear malice, to seek to injure (623) ; F^ 6. 7. or F| 6. to kill (674) ; FF or to extol, to raise ; FT^ or 6. to kill. Aorist (third preterite). This complex and multiform tense, the most troublesome and in- tricate in the whole Sanskrit verb, but fortunately less used in clas- sical Sanskrit than the other past tenses, is not so much one tense, as an aggregation of several, all more or less allied to each other, all bearing a manifest resemblance to the imperfect or first preterite, but none of them exactly assignable to that tense, and none of them so distinct in its character or so universal in its application as to admit of segregation from the general group, under a separate title. 416. Grammarians assert that there are seven different varieties of * Except the aorist, following form II at p. 184. f FT 3 T 9, ‘to eat,’ inserts i. AORIST OR THIRD PRETERITE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 179 the Sanskrit aorist, four of which correspond more or less to the Greek ist aorist, and three to the 2d aorist, but we shall endeavour to show that all these varieties may be included under two distinct forms of terminations given in the table at p. 128, and again below, and at p. 184. 417. Form I is sub-divided like the terminations of all the last five tenses into (A) those which reject i, and (B) those which assume it ; A belongs to many of those roots at 394, 400 — 414, which reject i ; B to most of those at 392, 399, which insert it : but in the latter case the initial s becomes sh by 70, and in the 2d and 3d sing, the initial s is rejected, the i blending with the i, which then becomes the initial of those terminations. Moreover, in the case of roots which insert i the base is formed according to rules different to those wdiich apply in the case of roots which reject i. a. Form II at p. 184 resembles the terminations of the imperfect or first preterite, and belongs, in the first place, to some of those roots rejecting i, whose bases in the imperfect present some important variation from the root (see 436) ; in the second, to certain of the roots rejecting i, which end in ST s, ^ sh , or ^ h, and which have i u, or ri, for their radical vowel (see 439) ; in the third, to verbs of the 10th class and causals. Form I. 418, The terminations are here repeated from 247, p. 128. A. Terminations without ^i. Parasmai. 1 . sam sva sma 2. sis stam[tam ] sta \ta] 3. sit stam [ tarn ] sus Atmane. si svahi smahi sthas [ thas ] satham dhvam or dhvam sta [/a] satam sata 1 . isham 2 . is 3- ^ B. Terminations with \ i. Parasma 1. Atmane. ishva ishma ishi ishvahi ishmahi ishtam ishta ishthas ishathdm idhvam or idhvam ishtam ishus ishta ishatam ishata 419 . Observe — The brackets in the A terminations indicate the rejection of initial s from those terminations in which it is compounded with t and th, if the base ends in any consonant except a nasal or semivowel, or in any short vowel such as a, i, v, a a 2 180 AORIST OR THIRD PRETERITE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. or ri. Observe also, that initial s is liable to become sh by r. 70, in which case a following t or th is cerebralised. The substitution of dhvam for dhvam and idhvam for idhvam, in certain cases, is explained in the table at p. 128. 420. General rule for forming the base for those verbs of the first nine classes which reject and so take the A terminations. In Parasmai, if a root end in either a vowel or a consonant, vriddhi the radical vowel before all the terminations. In Atmane, if a root end in ^ i, ^ i, T u, or u, gunate the radical vowel ; if in ^ ri or any consonant, leave the vowel unchanged before all the terminations. Final consonants must be joined to the A terminations according to the rules propounded at 296 — 306. Observe — The augment ^ a must always be prefixed, as in the imperfect; but it will be shown in the Syntax at 889, that when the aorist is used as a prohibitive imperative, the particle md or md sma being prefixed, the augment is then rejected. a. When a root begins with the vowels 3 i, 'S' u, or ri, short or long, the augment is prefixed in accordance with 260. a, b. b. Thus, from ^ ‘ to lead’ come the two bases anai for Parasmai and ane for Atmane ( anai 4- sam = by 70 ; Atm. ane 4- si = ane 4- sthds = &c.) ; and from o& 8th c., ‘ to make, 5 come the two bases akdr for Parasmai and akri for Atmane ( akdr + sam = by 70, &c. ; Atm. akri 4- si = by 70, akri + thas = by 419, akri 4- ta = ^yri, &c.). See 682. Similarly, * 3d c., ‘ to bear. 5 See the table at 583. c. So, from ‘ to join’ come the two bases ayauj for Parasmai and ayuj for Atmane (Parasmai ayavj + by 296, ayauj + sva — ayauj + tam = by 419 ; Atm. ayuj + si = vrofaj by 296, ayuj + thas — 'flWW, ayuj + ta = ; and from 7th c., ‘to hinder, 5 the bases araudh and arudh (Parasmai araudh -f sam — ^TTTrfi by 299, Du. araudh + sva = araudh + tam — ^RJir ; Atm. arudh 4- si = arudh 4- thas = &c.). d. Similarly, from ‘to cook’ come the bases apac and apat [apdd + sam — by 296 ; Atm. apaf 4 - si = apa6 4 - thas = sgp pFgTP ET, &c.) ; and from ^ ‘to burn’ (610), the bases addh and adah ( addh 4- sam = by 306. a, addh 4 - tam = by 305 ; Atm. adah 4- si — ’arvfgj by 306. a, adah 4 - thas &c.). 421. By referring to 391.6. it will be easy to understand that most roots in i, i. AORIST OR THIRD PRETERITE. — FORMATION OF THE BASE. 181 short u, and short ri, take the A terminations. Most of those in a, e, ai, o, do so in the Atmane, and a few of those in a also in the Parasmai. a. IJT or ^ ‘to spread’ takes either A or B; and in Atmane when it takes A, changes ri to ir. See 678. b. ^or^T ‘to choose,’ ‘to cover,’ changes its vowel to ur, under the same circum- stances. See 675. c. Roots in e, ai, o, change these vowels to d as in the other non-conjugational tenses : thus, from ^ ‘ to cover,’ &c. (see 433), &c. Similarly, fa, fft, and optionally c 5 t, see 390. e (TSRTftfa &c., WHTfa &c.). d. <*T ‘ to give’ (see 663), TJT ‘to place’ (see 664), ‘to stand’ (see 587), f ‘to protect,’ ‘to pity,’ V ‘to drink’ (if in Atm.), ^ or ‘to cut’ (if in Atm.), change their finals in the Atmane to i (*?fcfa, ^rf^TPET 419, ^RTT, 2d pi. ^rffjr). In Parasmai they follow 438. e. *TT used for f ‘ to go,’ with ^ 5 RI prefixed, signifying ‘ to go over,’ ‘ to read’ (Atmane only), changes its final to i (’STUmTfa, -TfiFiH, -ifi'P, &c.). f. ' 3 T Atm. ‘ to cry out,’ H ‘ to void excrement,’ and 1J ‘ to be firm,’ all of the 6th class, preserve their vowels unchanged (^T^ffa, &c. ; ^T^TT, &c. ; &c.) ; IF may also make THllT 1 ?', and H may also make but the latter root is then generally regarded as n. 422. The following roots of those rejecting i, enumerated at 400 — 414, take the A terminations only, both for Par. or Atm.: Tp?; IfsT ; W 3 f, HIT, Hp, HtT?, xpp TT%X, T35? Atm., HjT, pTp TT 5 T; ^ Atm., Atm., If 5 W-F, 3 PJ, TRT, HTV, fafW, f^ 3 , faff, faf, W, pr, *3T, fW. b. The following take in the Parasmai only form II ; but in the Atmane the A form of I, or sometimes the B form of I : (Atmane doubtful), fTFf , faf 6. ‘to find’ (Atmane doubtful), 4. 7. (only Atmane), ^If, B’y, fpf , 4, ITT , fjT1 budh, 1st c., ‘to know,’ makes its base abodh ( abodhi - sham, &c.), see 583 ; and ^TT vrit, ‘ to be,’ avart ( avartishi , &c.) ; and Tmedh , ‘to increase,’ aidh ( aidhishi , &c., 260. b), see 600. 428. A medial a in roots ending in ^ and is lengthened in the Parasmai, but not in Atmane : thus, ‘ to go’ makes ‘ to blaze,’ ^ l fci'tf. The roots ‘ to speak’ and ‘ to go’ also lengthen the a in Parasmai ; but not in Atmane &c.). a. But those in never lengthen the a in Parasmai : thus, ‘ to sound’ makes The following roots also are debarred from lengthening the a - 4*1, ^7T, c5*T, HH, jpT, ^ ^ •(> ^5 'WV, One or two do so optionally ; as, 3PCT and >Tcf ‘ to sound.’ 429. Observe, that as the majority of Sanskrit verbs assume i, it follows that rule 427. a, b, will be more universally applicable than rule 420, especially as the former applies to the aorist of intensives, desideratives, and nominals, as well as to that of simple verbs. 430. The special rules for the two futures at 390. a — 0 will of course hold good for the aorist : thus the roots enumerated at 390 and 390. a &c.) for- bid Guna ; and H, V, H generally change their finals to uv &c., &c.) ; but when Hjs written it makes &c., see 421./, and V^may also make 1 fq 4, and «T, ^TW iHm. a. makes or or &c., and in Atmane vTi^fqfh or o b. According to 390. c. and drop their finals (’hqlfVfiT, &c. ; see also 433). 431. In the Atmane, ^ ‘ to choose,’ ‘to cover,’ and all roots in long ^ r(, such as ‘ to spread,’ may optionally lengthen the inserted i : thus, or &c., WrrTfrni or ; but in Parasmai only ’^TTITTR, ’^PTTItT. 43 2 - fV to swell’ and »TPJ ‘to awake’ take Guna instead of Vriddhi (’sraftni &c., see also 440. 0; &c.). a. according to 399. a. makes and by 390. m. makes ^Tnf^. The latter also conforms to 439 and 439. b. See 609. to kill’ forms its aorist from ( -.4 q UHl &c.), but see 422. b. 433. Many roots in >HT a, 1? e, ’^TT 0, and P' ai, with three in 4 m, viz. yam , ram , *PT nam, assume i, but in the Parasmai insert s before it ; final e, 0, and ai, being changed to a: thus, from TIT ‘to go’ comes ’h'M 1 &c. (see 644) ; from ^ft ‘ to sharpen,’ 9| 1 f« m, &c. ; from to restrain,’ &c. 184 AORIST OR THIRD PRETERITE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. to be poor’ makes adaridrisham or adaridrasisham, &c. 434. In the Atmane these roots reject the i and the s which precedes it, and follow 418: thus, from HT ‘to measure’ comes ^RTR, &e. (see 664.0); from ‘ to cover,’ (see 421. c) ; from TH ‘ to sport,’ ^TCffT, ’SIRT, &c. Form II. 435 - Resembling the imperfect or first preterite. Parasmai. Atmane. 1. am dva [ra] dm a [ ma\ c[i] avoid dmahi 2. as [s] atam \tam~\ ata \ta~\ athas etham [athdm\ adhvam 3 - at M atam [tarn] an [w.9] ata etdm \dtdni\ anta 436. Observe — No confusion arises from the similarity which this form bears to the imperfect or 1st preterite, as in all cases where the above terminations are used for the aorist, the imperfect presents some difference in the form of its base : thus, tr ‘ to go’ make s ugaWiam for its imperfect, agamam for its aorist (see 602) ; fWrf ‘ to break’ makes abhinadam for its imperfect, abhidam for its aorist (see 583). So again, the sixth conjugation, which alone can show T a perfect identity of root and base, never makes use of this form for its aorist, unless by some special rule the base of its imper- fect is made to differ from the root : thus, ‘ to smear 3 (cf. dXet- (poo), which makes alipam in its aorist, is alimpam in its imperfect (281). So in Greek, compare the imperfect eXenrov with the 2d aor. eXnrov ; eXdfxBavov with eXafiov ; eSd/u.vt]v with eSa/nov, &c. a. Note — This form of the Sanskrit aorist corresponds to the Greek 2d aorist (compare asthdm, asthus, asthat, with (otyjv, cs'Tvjf, ear rj), and the first form is more or less analogous to the 1st aorist. The substitution of i for e, and dtham, atam, for etham, etdm, in the Atmane of form II, is confined to a class of roots mentioned at 439. 437. Rule for forming the base in verbs of the first nine classes. In general the terminations are attached directly to the root; as in agamam, &c., abhidam , &c., at 436. So also, vtst ‘ to perish’ makes (also see 441,424). a. Observe, however, that most of the roots which follow this form in the Parasmai, follow form I at 418 in the Atmane : thus, fWtf ‘ to break’ makes abhitsi, &c., in Ntmane ; see the table at 583 : simi- larly, fsp* * to cut,’ see 66 7. And a few roots, which are properly restricted to the Atmane, have a Parasmai aorist of this 2d form : AORIST OR THIRD PRETERITE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 185 thus, Atm. ‘to shine/ ‘ to be pleasing/ makes Parasmai arutam, as well as Atman e arocishi. b. One or two roots in a, i, and e reject their finals ; and one or two in ri and ^jri gunate these vowels before the above terminations : thus, I ‘ to tell’ makes &c., &c. ; ' to swell,’ ‘ to call’ makes (see 595) ; ‘ to go,’ ’H'fK ; ‘to go/ ’ 3 TR ; ‘ to grow old,’ c. ^l‘ to see’ gunates its vowel , see 604). d. Penultimate nasals are generally dropped : thus, ‘ to stop’ makes ■atHM' ; ifU'd' ‘to distil,’ 5 * 5 *!^ ‘to mount,’ ^T«Sir; ; >jlJT ‘ to fall,’ e. A form ’SHIf occurs in the Veda, from 1 EJW‘ to eat,’ the medial a being dropped. 438. In the Parasmai certain roots ending in long ’ 3 TT a and ^ e con- form still more closely to the terminations of the imperfect, rejecting the initial vowel, as indicated by the brackets in the table at 435. In the 3d plur. they take m for an : thus, 3d c., ‘ to give,’ makes adam, adds, adat, addva, &c. ; 3d pi. adus, see 663. So also, VI 3d c., ‘to place/ makes adham, &.C., 664; and tsj? ist c., ‘to stand/ makes astham, &c., 587. a. Similarly, 1st c., ‘ to be/ except 1st sing, and 3d pi. &c. ; but 3d pi. w=PT, see 585). b. Observe, however, that some roots in d, like yd, ‘ to go,’ follow 433. c. And some roots in ^ e and ^TT 0, which follow 433, optionally follow 438 ; in which case e and 0 are changed as before to a: thus, N dhe, 1st c., ‘to drink,’ makes either adhasisham &c., or adham &c., also adadham, see 440. a i *ft so, 4th c., ‘to come to an end,’ makes either asasisham or asdm, see 613. d. In the Atmane-pada, roots like ?TT, VT, Wf, V, rfl, follow 421. d. e. ? ‘ to go’ makes its aorist from a root ^TT : thus, agam, agds, &c. Note — Adadam, the imperfect of the root da, ‘ to give,’ bears the same relation to its aorist addm that tOiiixv does to ttiojv. So also the relation of adham (aorist of dha, ‘to place’) to adadham (imperfect or 1st pret.) corresponds to that of ( 6 rjV to €Ti6y]V. Compare also abhavas and abhus with €vg. 439. Certain roots ending in 31 s, M sh, jf h, enclosing a medial i, u, or ri, form their aorists according to form II at 435; but whenever confusion is likely to arise between the imperfect and aorist, s is prefixed to the terminations, before which sibilant the final of the root becomes k by 302 and 306. Thus, fi*3T ‘ to point out/ the imperfect of which is makes &c. in aorist (compare the Greek 1st aorist e'Sei^a). Similarly, f§rq (2d c., ‘to hate/ makes adviksham &c. 637 ; 2d c., ‘ to milk/ makes adhuksham &c. by 30 6. a. See 660. B b 18G AO R I ST OR THIRD PRETERITE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. a. This class of roots substitutes i for e, and dthdm, dtam, for etham, etdm, in the Atmane terminations : thus, adikshi, adikshathds, adikshata, adikshavahi, adikshdthdm, Sec. ; 3d pi. adikshunta. b. A few roots in ^ h (viz. fo?, fi?'?', iJfT, optionally in the Atmane re- ject the initial a from the terminations of the 2d and 3d sing., 1st du., and 2d pi. : thus, fc 5 ?t may make , as rtl c ; Du. 1. as frf d? f? ; PI. 2. aM rtl d, 661 : and ‘to milk,’ ’ 3 ^ 3 VtJT, &c. See 66 1, 630, 609, 660. o\ o o V U7 y c. According to some authorities, a few roots (e. g. TliT, which gene- rally follow form I, A, in Atmane, may optionally conform to form II, taking the terminations i, dthdm, dtdm, rejecting initial a and d from the other terminations, and taking ata for anta : thus, atripi, atripthas, atripta, atripvahi, tkc. 440. Causal verbs and verbs of the 10th class make use of form II, but the base assumes both reduplication and augment (as in the Greek pluperfect) : thus, ist c., ‘to know/ makes in the causal aorist ^r^TV, &c. This will be explained at 492. a. A few primitive verbs besides those of the 10th class take a reduplicated base, analogous to causals (see 492) : thus, far ‘ to have recourse’ makes &c.; ftg 4 to swell’ makes fb( fyj ^ (also and ’STgfgt', see 432, 437. b) ; tf 1st c., ‘ to run,’ ; & ‘ to flow/ V ‘to drink/ oji^‘to love/ See. This last is defective when it belongs to the 1st c., having no conjugational tenses; but when it belongs to the 10th c. (Pres. ^TH^T, &c.) its aorist is 441. The following primitive verbs take a contracted form of reduplicated base : 2d c., ‘ to speak/ makes avoiam (from wr# for 650) ; Xjrt 1st c., ‘to fall/ *nr5T (from wmr; com- pare Greek eirntrov ) ; 2d c., ‘ to rule/ (from but the Atmane follows 427 ; see 658) ; 4th c., ‘ to throw/ (from WTWH, contracted into for WTflT 304. a, whence by trans- position --.3 |Pzj) ; rfSl 4th c., * to perish/ (from for 620, 436). Precative or benedictive. Terminations of precative or benedictive repeated from page 128. Parasmai. Atmane. yasarn yds ydt yasva yastam ydstdm yasma ydsta ydsus siya sivahi sishthds siydsthdm sishta siydstdm simahi sidhvam or sidhvam sir an Sidhvam is used for sidhvam when immediately preceded by any other PRECATIVE OR BENEDICTIVE FORMATION OF THE BASE. 187 vowel but a or d, and optionally ishidhvam for ishidhvam when im- mediately preceded by a semivowel or h. 442. Observe, that the terminations of this tense resemble those of the potential in the memorial scheme at p. 125. In the 2d and 3d singular they are identical. In the other persons of the Parasmai a sibilant is inserted, and in some of the Atmane, both prefixed and inserted. The only difference between the potential and precative of verbs of the 2d and 3d groups, at 290, will often be that the potential will have the conjugational characteristic : thus, bhid, 7th c., ‘ to break,’ will be bhindyat in the potential, and bliidydt in the precative. Compare the optative of the Greek aorist (ictYjv with the optative of the present (iiOoiYjV. 443. Rule for forming the base in verbs of the first nine classes. In the Parasmai, as a general rule, either leave the root unchanged before the y of the terminations, or make such changes as are required in the passive (see 463 — 472), or by the conjugational rule of the 4th class, and never insert i. In Atmane, as a general rule, prefix i to the terminations in those roots ending in consonants or vowels which take i in the futures (see 392, 399), and before this i gunate the radical vowel. Gunate it also in the Atmane in some roots ending in vowels which reject i : but if a root end in a consonant , and reject i, the radical vowel is generally left unchanged in the Atmane, as well as Parasmai. 444. Thus, from H 1st c., ‘ to be,’ come the base of the Parasmai bhu , and the base of the Atmane bhavi, by 36. a ( bhu 4 ydsam = &c., bhavi siya = ^ by 70). 445. Frequently, as already observed, before the y of the Parasmai terminations, the root is liable to changes analogous to those which take place before the y of the 4th conjugational class at 272, and the y of passive verbs at 465; and not unfrequently it undergoes changes similar to those of the perfect at 373, &c., as follows : — 446. A final d is changed to e in the Parasmai, but remains unchanged in the Atmane, as before the s of the 2d future terminations : thus, ?TT 3d c., ‘to give,’ makes TTlfi &c. for Parasmai, but Ifnffa &c. for Atmane-pada; NT ‘ to drink’ makes &c. a. But WT ‘to become old’ makes 4I I W & c., and ‘ to be poor’ drops its final even in Parasmai (rffiCoTHb &c. Compare 390. c). 447. Final \i and 7 u are lengthened in Parasmai, as before the y of passives, and gunated in Atmane, as before the s of the 2d future : thus, ‘ to gather’ makes & c., &c. ; and ? ‘to sacrifice’ makes FUlH &c., Ffifhr&c. n b 2 188 PRECATIVE OR BENEDICTIVE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. a. When ^ ‘to go’ is preceded by a preposition, it is not lengthened &c. ; othenvise b. and drop their finals as at 390. c (iftrVttftT &c.). 448. Final ^ ri is changed to ft ri in Parasmai, but retained in Atmane : thus, ‘ to do’ makes ftjBnft &c., and &c. After a double consonant ri is gu- nated in Parasmai, as well as before inserted i : thus, ‘ to spread’ makes W§TW &c., &c., or &c. t ’ C. # c a. It is also gunated in ri, ‘ to go,’ and ITTft ‘ to awake’ (^mnT, ni'iMl«, &c.). b. ^ ‘to cover,’ ‘to choose,’ makes either fdhlH or^TTft, ytftllor xftftfa or ’xfth?. 449. Final ^ ri is changed to tr in both voices, hut is gunated before inserted i in Atmane : thus, 7 T 1st c., ‘to cross,’ makes rfl^TXT &c., See., or rTfttfft &c., or rTftftfa &c. a. One root, ^ 10th c., ‘ to fill,’ makes (XT &c. Compare 448. a. 450. Of roots in 4 ? e, V to drink’ makes V^TTH &c. (which is also the precative of VT ' to hold’) ; ^ * to protect,’ dHIB. a. But ^ 'to call’ makes &c., and ^ i+ilfi Sec.; “R ‘to cover’ makes &c., and &c. ; and X ‘to weave’ makes &c., and XTftfal &c. Compare 465. c. 451. Final ft ai and 0 are often treated like final a at 446 : thus ft ‘ to sing’ makes H-M I -H &c. ; ft ‘ to waste’ and ftr ‘ to destroy’ make 401 IB ; ftl ‘ to cut,’ like ‘ to give,’ and ft ‘ to protect’ make But sometimes they are changed to a ■ thus, ft ‘ to preserve’ makes iftft &c. ; ft ‘ to purify’ makes ; ift ‘ to think’ either WTPUft or ; ft ‘ to be weary’ either or ftmft. 452. As already stated, if a root end in a consonant, there is no change in Parasmai, except the usual changes before y ; moreover, unlike the 2d future, there is no Guna in Atmane, unless the root take i; the other changes in Atmane are similar to those applicable before the s of the 2d future terminations (390. 0) : thus, 4 to milk’ makes IB &c., and VESfa &c., by 306. a ; fft^t ‘ to hate’ makes fftttnft &c., and &c., by 302 ; and ‘ to know’ makes "XUrnr &c., and fttftrtftr &c. See 443. a. Roots of the 10th class, however, retain Guna in the Parasmai, as well as in the Atmane, rejecting the conjugational ay a in the Parasmai only; see under Causals (495). 453. According to the usual changes in the 4th class and in passives, roots ending in a double consonant, of which the first member is a nasal, generally reject the nasal : thus, 4 T 5 T bhaiij, 7th c., makes bhajyasam, Sec. Compare 469. a. So again, according to 472, TT? ' to take’ makes in Parasmai J T 5 TTH Sec. ; H -os ‘to ask,’ &c.; ‘to fry,’ HISJTft (632); sPJI ‘to cut,’ ySSTfft (636); ^ ‘to pierce,’ fftwrft; ^ ‘ to deceive,’ fftajTft; $TTTT ‘to teach,’ ftlWlft &c. In the Atmane they are regular. b. So again, ^ i and"? u before r and v are lengthened : thus, to sound’ makes ’WtTTTf 5 and fftx ‘ to play,’ ft)=qlH. Compare 446. 454. 3^1 to speak,’ X'T ‘to say,’ Td ‘to sow,’ W 3 T to wish, to CONDITIONAL.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 189 dwell,’ T? ‘ to carry,’ and ‘ to sleep,’ substitute T u for W va in the Parasmai, and to sacrifice’ substitutes i for ya : thus, T^JTTT, XTUfTIT, st< 4 i«, &c. In the Atrnane they are regular ; as, from T? ; from < 44 . a. 4 H, and conform to 470 : thus, iTST'RT or V, | <4 1 &c.; compare 424.6. Observe — In addition to these rules, the other special changes which take place before the s of the 2d future terminations, noted at 390 and 390. a— 0, will apply to the Atrnane of the preca- tive : thus, ^ or at 390 makes or ejrfw^fa ; « tST at 390. g. makes or M'sffar ; «ejt at 390. 1. makes ojrRTftpffa or ; and 3Tti may be niqpy or t?t enquire even in Parasmai. Conditional. Terminations of conditional repeated from page 128. Parasmai. Atmane. syam syava sydma sye syavahi sydmahi syas syatam syata syathds syethdm syadhvam syat syatain syan syata syetdm syanta 455. Observe, that this tense bears the same relation to the 2d future that the imperfect does to the present. In its formation it lies half-way between the imperfect or first preterite and the second future. It resembles the imperfect in prefixing the augment a to the base (see 260), and in the latter part of its terminations : it resembles the second future in the first part of its terminations in gunating the radical vowel, in inserting ^ i in exactly those roots in which the future inserts i, and in the other changes of the base. 456. The rule for the formation of the base in verbs of the first nine classes after prefixing the augment ^ a, according to the usual rules, will be the same as for the 2d future at 388. Gunate the radical vowel, except as debarred by 28. b. &c., and insert i before the terminations if the futures insert i. When i is rejected, the rules of Sandhi must of course be observed, and all other changes as in the 2d future, see 388 — 415. 457. Thus, 1st c., 4 to know/ makes &c. ; ‘to milk’ makes &c. (see 414 and 306. a) ; ‘to hate/ &c. (see 412) ; ‘ to conceal/ or (415* m ) ; ‘ to be immersed/ (390. A). a. The augment will be prefixed to roots beginning with vowels according to the rules for the imperfect : thus, ‘ to cover’ makes ■smuP’im or ’hi hi ( 4 * 4 , see r. 260. a, b, and compare 390. b. b. ^‘to go,’ with prefixed (meaning ‘to read’), may optionally form its conditional from the root *TT (^TUTO or see 421. e). 190 INFINITIVE PASSIVE VERBS. f- Infinitive. 458. The termination of the infinitive is jR turn , like the turn of the Latin supine. Observe — The affix turn is probably the accusative of an affix tu, of which the affix tva of the indeclinable participle (see 555.0) is the instrumental case, and of which other cases are used as infinitives in the Veda. 459. Rule for forming the base in verbs of the ten classes. The base of the infinitive is identical with the base of the first future, and where one inserts ^ i, the other does also : thus, budh, 1 st c., ‘ to know,’ makes bodhitum ; figyq Jcship, 6th c., £ to throw 7 ,’ makes tsffm k sheptum. Moreover, all the rules for the change of the root before the t of the future terminations apply equally before the t of the infinitive. Hence, by substituting um for the final a of the 3d pers. sing, of the 1st future, the infinitive is at once obtained: thus, WT, TT|; ITTST, wfarlT, WRIT. So also, jr? makes ^rxv ; ^r, -jjte or t^xA or ; «pr, ^rfw. See 388 — 41 5. a. In the Veda, infinitives may he formed by any of the affixes, 71 %, rR, rffJT , w, tt, ^m, mg, b. The following examples will show how remarkably the Sanskrit infinitive answers to the Latin supine. S. WHT ‘to stand,’ L. statum; S. ! ‘to buy’ (RTWR, TnTWfb, &c.). a. fw ‘to smile’ makes fh I M 4 1 PR &c., and tTT'PR &c. * This may be derived from the root ^ i, ‘to go,’ just as the passive ya is sup- posed to be derived from yd. See 463. CAUSAL VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 197 * b. ‘to collect’ has four forms ; i. &c., 2. 'qqqi'fj? &c., 3. ^T'OTl'fW &c., 4. &c. c. 3d c., ‘ to fear,’ has three forms ; 1. * 7 PPTrf*f &c., 2. HTPJ &c.. Atm. only, 3. HfrR &c.. Atm. only. d. ^ 2d c., ‘to go,’ makes &c., especially with the preposition ‘over,’ ‘ I cause to go over,’ ‘ I teach.’ e. Three roots insert n ; 4th c., ‘to embrace,’ ‘to adhere,’ making (with prep. f^T in the sense of ‘ to dissolve’) &c., as well as - <51 4 b i (V, “^T®RTrf*T) and -cTTH^TlfH &c. ; in some senses, however, <6 1 * 4 VTT*? only can be used : Tft 9th c., ‘to please,’ makes iffarRlf^r (also RPPTifR) : and w 5th and 9th c., ‘to shake,’ Cs 486. fit 3d c., ‘to be ashamed,’ ^ ‘to flow,’ ‘to choose,’ and 'qj 1st c., ‘to go,’ insert^ after gunation : thus, f?qVTTfT &c., &c. a. and =Rt and e^'ficSJT ( see 39°- c ) drop their finals if*(, ijqinfe & c .). b. ^TPI ‘ to awake,’ in sense of ‘ to long for, ’ sT 4th c., ‘ to grow old,’ 5 in sense of ‘ to fear,’ *T ‘ to lead,’ take Guna ( sTPH^TTf^T). But 5 ‘ to tear,’ c. ‘ to swallow’ makes ^TTX-MI I f*< or 487. Roots ending in single consonants, enclosing a medial a, generally lengthen the a : thus, 1st c., ‘ to cook,’ makes ijifrT &c. There are, how- ever, many exceptions : thus, ‘ to be sick,’ ‘ to hasten,’ &c., do not lengthen the vowel. In ‘ to blaze,’ and some others, the lengthening is optional. a. Few roots in m lengthen the a : thus, q*T 1st c., ‘ to go,’ makes ^Wqrftr &c.; ‘ to be weary,’ 'zdH ti I iq &c. Some, however, optionally do so ; as, ‘ to bend,’ &c. One or two always lengthen the a ; as, ^*1 ‘ to love’ makes •SBTWf??- b. The roots Tf*?, and < 5 ^ (see 475. e) insert nasals (T^qffR &c.). 488. Other anomalies.- — ‘ to grow’ makes TT^'^STfH or Viqqifu ; j|d? or ^ ‘ to sound, ’ ; jpt ‘ to be corrupt,’ |WfsT ; ^ ‘ to kill,’ W*nfi? ; ‘to fall,’ ‘to perish,’ 'JTTrPnfe' ; TOTi ‘to quiver,’ f-UiiTVTUT or P^TIVTffT ; KfiPI ‘to increase,’ ; Vj-lTq ‘to shake’ as the earth, filTOfri &c. ; R»^‘to rub,’ (390. i ) ; ‘ to conceal,’ UljrqTfu (390. m). a. The roots nq, fq^, qq, qqr, qq, ^ 7 T, at 390. I, will have two forms (jffa’mfR or rftqTmtlfa &c., see 390. 1). b. ‘ to be finished’ makes its causal either or, with reference to X sacred rites, ‘ to fry’ either or ; but the last form may be from c. to clothe’ makes in the sense of ‘to hunt,’ IVTUTfu. Observe — The causal of verbs of the 10th class will be identical with the primi- tive ; see 289. The causals of causals will also be identical with the causals themselves. 198 CAUSAL VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. Non- conjugational tenses. 489. The changes of the root required to form the base of the conjugational tenses are continued in the non-conjugational. More- over, ay a is retained in all these tenses, except the aorist and except the benedictive, Parasmai ; but the last a of aya is dropped before the inserted ^ i, which is invariably assumed in all other conju- gational tenses. Perfect {second, preterite) of causals. 490. This tense must be of the periphrastic form, as explained at 385 ; that is, "sir am added to the causal base is prefixed to the perfect of one of the three auxiliary verbs, ‘ to be,’ to be,’ or ^ ‘ to do thus, * to know’ makes in causal perfect or ■srrwpmr or *. First and second future of causals. 491. In these tenses the inserted ^ i is invariably assumed between the base, as formed in the conjugational tenses, and the usual termina- tions : thus, makes -^tvftnrrfRT &c., cfmfliuufH &c. Aorist {third preterite) of causals and verbs of the 10 th class. 492. The terminations are those of form II at 435. In the formation of the base of this tense, the affix ay is rejected ; but any other change that may take place in the conjugational tenses, such as the insertion of p or y, is preserved. The base is a reduplicated form of this change, and to this reduplication the augment wr a is prefixed : thus, taking the bases bodhay and jdpay (causal bases of budh, ‘ to know,’ and ji, ‘ to conquer 5 ), and rejecting ay, w e have bodh and jap ; and from these are formed the bases of the aorist abubudh and ajijap (^RTtR abubudham &c., abubudhe &c., W*fl*rcR ajfjapam &c., wBrlrnT ajtjape &c., cf. the Greek pluperfect). 493. The rule for this reduplication is as follows : — The initial consonant of the root, with its vowel, is reduplicated, and the redu- plicated consonant follows the rules given at 331 ; but the redupli- cation of the vowel is peculiar. Reduplication of the vowel of the initial consonant in the causal aorist. a. Causal bases, after rejecting ay, will generally end in dy, dv, dr, or a consonant It may be questioned whether is found added to causals. CAUSAL VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 199 preceded by a, a, e, o, or ar. The usual reduplicated vowel for all these, except o, is \i. But "3 u is reduplicated for o, and sometimes also for av. The rule is, that either the reduplicated or base syllable must be long either by nature or position ; and in general the reduplicated vowel i or u is made long, and, to compensate for this, the long vowel of the causal base shortened, or, if it be Guna, changed to its cognate short vowel : thus, the causal base nay (from * 9 , rejecting ay) makes the base of the aorist aninay (■£{ anrnayam &c.); the causal base bhdw (from H ) makes aMbhav &c.) ; the causal base kar (from ^T), adikar ; gam (from TUT), ajigam ; pad (from T^), apipad ; pal (from '* 7 T), apipal; ved (from Pfd), avwid. But bodh (from W"*T), abubudh ; and sav (from H), asushav. b. Sometimes the reduplicated vowel is only long by position before two conso- nants, the radical vowel being still made short ; as, srdv (from makes asisrav or asusrav ; drdv (from ”5), adudrav or adidrav j tJTVT, abibhraj (also ababhrdj). c. Sometimes the reduplicated vowel remains short, whilst the vowel of the cau- sal base, which must be long either by nature or position, remains unchanged : thus, the causal base jiv (from may make (also Wrfi fiH) ; dint, adidint j kalp, adikalp. In such cases a is generally reduplicated for a or a; as, laksh makes alalaksh ; yad, ay ay ad ; vart (from writ), avavart, &c. d. Observe — If the base has ar, dr, ir, al (from radical ri, ri, or Iri), these are either left unchanged or ar, dr, (r may be changed to ^ Th and al to Iri : thus, vart (from ^rT) may make avivrit as well as avavart j kirt (from ^rTj either adikirt or adtkrit, & c. e. The following are other examples, some of which are anomalous : from pay (causal oi pa, ‘to drink’), &c. ; from sthdp (caus. of sthd, ‘to stand’), VrffT- fini &c. ; from ghrap (caus. of ghra, ‘to smell’), WOTfsTh &c., and &c. ; from adhydp (caus. of i, ‘to go,’ with adhi ), WSflyffrTU &c. ; from desht (caus. of desht, ‘to make effort’), or ; from hvay (caus. of hve, ‘ to call’), ^T*|- or from tvar (caus. of tvar, ‘to hasten’), ^TiTr^T 5 from star (caus. of stri or stri, ‘to spread’), vS rt U or ’SffrTTTTT ; from ddr (caus. of dri, ‘to tear’), from dyot (caus. of dyut, ‘ to shine’), ; from svdy (caus. of svi, ‘ to swell’), WFTJTT or ; from smdr (caus. of smri, ‘ to remember’), MWT ; from svap (caus. of ‘to sleep’), from kath (ioth c. ‘to tell’), or ; from J|T*rrfR ‘I cause to sleep’ makes irtsiRfiTTlfH ‘I desire to cause to sleep.’ a. The desiderative base of the causal of ‘ to go over,’ is either or ^(Vf^nT^fcR ; of the causal of ^ ‘to call,’ VRTVftR (as if from ^rtj); of the causal of stT ‘to know,’ sffwt (or regularly fwrqrtR or fsTsRftra) ; of the causal of fsg ‘to swell,’ TTTTRrtR (or regularly f^TRrtlR). DESIDERATIVE VERBS. 498. Every root in the ten classes may take a desiderative form. a. Although this form of the root is not often used, in classical composition, in its character of a verb, yet nouns and participles derived from the desiderative base are not uncommon (see 80. XXII, and 82. III). Moreover, there are certain primi- tive roots which take a desiderative form, without yielding a desiderative sense ; and these, as equivalent to primitive verbs (amongst which they are generally classed), may occur in classical Sanskrit. For example, jugups, ‘to blame,’ from rtTJ gup ; cikits, ‘to cure,’ from kit; titiksh, ‘to bear,’ from Trf 3 T tij ; JVfaTTT 1 m'mdms, ‘to reason,’ from man; bibliats, ‘to abhor,’ from cfrt 1 or 499. Desideratives take the terminations of the scheme at 247, with the substitutions required in the 1st, 4th, 6th, and icth classes ; and their inflection, either in the Parasmai or Atmane, is generally, though not invariably, determined by the practice of the primitive verb: thus, the root '&\\budh, 1st c., ‘to know,’ taking both inflec- tions in the primitive, may take both in the desiderative ( bubodhi - shami &c., or babodhishe & c., ‘I desire to know’); and To^labh, ‘to obtain,’ taking only the xVtmane in the primitive, may take only the iVtmane in the desiderative {/ipse &c., ‘I desire to obtain’). X 500. Ride for forming the base in the four conjugational tenses. Reduplicate the initial consonant and vowel of the root, and gene- rally, though not invariably, if the primitive verb inserts ^ i (see 392 — 415). affix ' ish or in a few roots fw (see 393); if it rejects i, then simply H s, changeable to vsA (by 70)*, to the root so reduplicated. The vowel a is then added, as in the 1st, 4th, 6th, and icth classes ; and, agreeably to the rule in those classes, this a becomes a before terminations beginning with m and v (but not before simple m). * See, however, 500 ./. DESIDERATIVE VERBS. — FORMATION OF THE BASE. 203 a. Thus, from fgpj kship, ‘ to throw,’ comes the base iikshipsa (Sikshipsa -f mi — f^f3r?Trm iikshipsdmi &c., ‘I desire to throw’); but from vid, ‘to know,’ taking inserted i, comes vividisha ( vividisha + mi — vividishami &c. In Adm. vivitsa ). b. Some roots, however, which reject the inserted i in other forms, assume it in the desiderative, and vice versa. Some, again, allow an option : thus, ‘ to be’ makes ftrqfFM? &c. or &c. See the lists at 392 — 415. c. The reduplication of the consonant is in conformity with the rules at 331 ; that of the vowel belonging to the initial consonant follows the analogy of causal aorists at 493 ; that is, the vowel ^ i is reduplicated for a, a, i, i, ri, ri, Iri, e, or ai; but the vowel T u for u, u, and 0 ; and also for the a of av or av preceded by any consonant except j, a labial or a semivowel: thus, from ST? ‘ to cook’ comes the base pipaksha by 296 ; from ‘ to ask’ comes yiyadishaj from sT."? ‘ to live,’ jijivishaj from ' 5"31 ‘to see,’ didriksha ■ from ‘ to serve,’ sisevisha; from H ‘ to sin g,’ jic/dsa j from sTT ‘to know,’ jij'ndsa (yiyvaaKO)): but from "gW ‘ to join’ comes yuyuksha; from ^ ‘to purify,’ pupusha ; from 'T^th c., ‘to know,’ bubhutsa, see 299. a; from causal base of *T ‘ to praise,’ nunavayisha • from causal base oi pit, ‘to purify ,’ pipavay isha. d. And if the root begin with a vowel the reduplication still follows the analogy of the same tense at 494 : thus, from ^T3T comes ; and with isha added, VrfTTTAre. Similarly, from vT? comes arjihislia; from 'S'?, ujihisha ; from §VT, icikshisha; from undidisha: see 494. Observe — In reduplication the vowel i takes the place of a, as being lighter; see 331. d. It is probably the result of a weakening of a. e. In desiderative bases formed from the causals of *to fall,’ ' to run,’ XT ‘ to go,’ 3 T ‘to leap,’ ^ ‘ to hear,’ ‘ to distil,’ and ST ‘ to flow,’ a or a may be repre- sented by either u or i : thus, the causal of X 3 ? makes or f. Observe — When the inserted s becomes sh by r. 70, the initial 7 ? of a root will not be affected by the vowel of the reduplicated syllable : thus, si6 makes sisiksha, not sishikshaj and sen makes sisevisha. Except, however, which makes VI? ; and except the desid. of causals, as fifTRMftR from causal of ftp*. 501. When a root takes the inserted i or ; (393)? and forms its desiderative with isha or isha, then final ^ ri is gunated : thus, TT ‘ to cross’ makes titarisha or titarisha (also titirsha, see 502). a. Moreover, initial and medial i, u, ri are often, but not always, gunated if followed by a single consonant : thus, ' 3 't? ‘ to go’ makes ocikhisha ; ‘ to wish eshishisha ; firy ‘ to play,’ didcvisha ; 'ATT ‘ to dance,’ ninartisha : but f?? ‘ to know,’ vividisha. X d d 2 204 DESIDERATIVE VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. b. An option, as to Guna, is however generally allowed to medial i and u : thus, 'to rejoice’ makes either mumodisha or mumudisha ; 'to become moist’ either ciklidisha or cikledisha; hut roots in iv (e. g. siv) are peculiar, see 502. b. c. ^ ‘ to go’ and P ‘ to sound,’ having no consonant, reduplicate the characteristic letter of the desiderative with i : thus, (used with the prepositions adhi and prati), so 'sfanr. 502. When a root rejects i and forms its desiderative with P sa, this sa if affixed to roots ending in vowels, has the effect of lengthening a final ^ i or u; of changing I? e, p ai, RT 0, to RT a; ^ n or ^ n to fr tr, or after a labial to "grr dr: thus, from f% comes titisha; from vr. susrusha; froirj pr, iiktrsha ; from P, jigasa; from tt, titirsha; from p, pupursha; from P, bubhursha; from P, mumursha. a. When it is affixed to roots ending in consonants, the radical vowel generally remains unchanged, but the final consonant combines with the initial sibilant, in accordance with the rules laid down at 296; as, from xru comes yuyutsa (299); from comes didhaksha (306. a); from dudhuksha; from PR, bubhiiksha. b. A medial long ri becomes ir, and final iv becomes yii or is gunated : thus, from PirT comes cikirtayisha ; from TAP, susyusha or sisevisha. c. Many of the special rules for forming the base in the last five tenses at 390. a — 0 apply to the desiderative: thus the roots at 390. a. generally forbid Guna ( 6 uku 6 isha &c.). d. So Pt 5 T makes bibhraksha or bibharksha or bibhrajjisha or bibliarjisha (390. y) ; PRl and «T 3 I, miman-ksha and ninan-kslia (390. k); P?, ninatsa (390. 0); ^fr^T, didaridrisha (390. c, but makes also didaridrasa) ; PiP, cikamisha or iikdmayisha ; PP, jugopisha or jvgopayisha or jugupsa (390. 1 ). 503. The following is an alphabetical list of other desiderative bases, some of them anomalous : PrfirfcP from PHT ' to wander ;’ pfjTfZP from RjT ' to trans- gress ;’ PlftftP from PJ ' to go fPT from RTP ' to obtain ;’ (or regularly PlfiTfPP) from PJP ' to prosper ;’ ffxpfpp or sfxpfPP from § ^ ‘ to envy ;’ ‘ 5 iTT'T T T or 'gnnpfpP or 3iPTPNM (390. b) from ' to cover P-dc^l q (or regularly fp- from fp 'to collect;’ TjTPTP (or regularly fRPfpP) from PP 'to go;’ fpp fcjP (or regularly TP b UP ) from P'to swallow’ (cf. 375. y) ; fpRlP from fp 'to conquer;' fViurH from PP 'to eat’ (used as desid. of H ) ; ffiUlP from * to kill ;’ fptffp from f? ‘ to send ;’ fpUKJ from ‘ to take ;' P?P from gT ' to call;’ fflPTP (or regularly fFTpfpP) from ^ ‘ to stretch ;’ fri riVT from 'KW ‘ to kill;’ fitlP from ' to give,’ ^ ‘to love,’ and iff 'to cut;’ fiTT’ftM from T* - 'to respect;’ or fi^TTP or fplffP from P ' to tear;’ or fifWTTTTP from DESIDERATIVE VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 205 9J7T 1 to shine from W ‘ to hold (or regularly from ‘ to play fvTTT from VT ‘to place’ and H ‘to drink;’ fVjOT or TftOT (or f^fOTH) from to deceive ;’ f^TR-T (or ftOTfrOT) from t51T ‘to fall’ and RiT ‘to go;’ fqxjfq^ or MhV from V ‘ to purify ;’ fVllfef 1 ? from UU ‘ to ask ;’ or O C~ CX 1 P t \ O C\ from H ‘ to bear ;’ fHOT from *TT ‘ to measure/ ffl ‘ to throw, ’HV to perish,’ and H ‘ to change ;’ ThMI fp 3 or THOT5T from ‘ to rub ;’ hVeI from (in the sense of ‘ desiring release from mundane existence,’ otherwise ; TifTj Pq M or V/P from H ‘ to join ;’ TVOT from TP’f ‘ to accomplish ;’ 1 TOT from VH ‘ to begin ;’ f?3OT from c5R ‘ to obtain ;’ or f^RTN 1 or RRR from R ‘ to choose ;’ Td’riT.f from ROT \ O d ‘to cut;’ f^IOT from '^TSi' ‘to be able ;’ fijTOTftf 1 ! (or f^TOT^OT) from fOT ‘to have re- course;’ TROTH (or fRHTRH) from HR ‘to obtain,’ ‘to give ;’ fHOTfOTI from TOT ‘ to smile ;’ fVl -f-=rfr V (or HIRPt) from TR ‘ to sound ;’ RM^ET from ‘ to sleep.’ Non-conjugational tenses of desideratives. 504. The perfect must be of the periphrastic form as explained at 385 ; that is, OTTH dm added to the desiderative base, as already formed, with sa, isha, or isha (500), is prefixed to the perfect of one of the auxiliaries kri, as, or bliu (see 385) : thus, from pipaksha (root pad, ‘to cook’) comes the perfect pipakshducakara, ‘I wished to cook;’ from bubodhisha (root budh, ‘to know’) comes bubodhisliancakara, bubod.hishamdsa, bubodhishdmbabhuva, ‘ he wished to know.’ a. In all the remaining tenses it is an universal rule, that inserted i be assumed after the desiderative base, whether formed by sa or isha, except in the precative (bened.) Parasmai : thus, from pac comes 1st fut. 1st sing, pipakshitdsmi &c. ; 2d fut. pipakshishydmi &c. ; aorist apipakshisham &c. (form 1, B, at 418) ; precative Parasmai pipakshyasam &c. ; Atmane pipakshisMy a &c. ; cond. apipakshishyam &c. So also, taking vividish (formed with isha from vid, ‘to know’), the 1st fut. is vividishitasmi ; 2d fut. vividishishyami ; aorist avividishisham &c. Similarly, from bubodhisha, 1st fut. bubodhishitasmi &c.; 2d fut. bubodhishishydmi j aorist abubo- dhishisham &c. b. The infinitive is formed regularly from the 1st future : thus, from bubodhi- sliita, ‘ he will wish to know,’ comes bubodhishitum, ‘ to wish to know.’ Passive of desideratives. 505. Desideratives may take a passive form by adding ya to the desiderative base after rejecting final a : thus, from bubodhisha comes bubodhishye, ‘ I am wished to know,’ &c. The non-conjugational tenses will not vary from the active Atmane- pada form of desiderative except in the aorist 3d sing., which will be abubodhishi instead of abubodhishishta. Causal of desideratives. 306. Desiderative verbs may take a causal form : thus, dudyushdmi, I desire to play’ (from div, ‘to play’), makes in causal dudyushayami, ‘ I cause to desire to play,’ &c. 206 FREQUENTATIVE VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. FREQUENTATIVE OR INTENSIVE VERBS. 507. Every one of the roots in nine of the classes may take a fre- quentative form. a. Nevertheless this form is. even less common in classical composition than the desiderative. In the present participle, however, and in nouns, it not unfrequently appears (see 80. XXII). It either expresses repetition or gives intensity to the radical idea : thus, from to shine’ comes the frequentative base dedipya (Pres. 3d sing, dedi'pyate, ‘ it shines brightly’), and the present participle dedipya- mdna, ‘shining brightly:’ so also, from 7TH ‘ to be beautiful’ comes sosubhya and sosubhyamdna ; from ‘ to weep,’ rorudya and rorudyamdna. b. Observe — There is no frequentative form for roots of the 10th class, or for polysyllabic roots (' 3 R& c to cover 3 excepted, which has for its first frequentative form IS'SVp, and for its second wfij), or for most roots beginning with vowels. Some few roots, however, beginning with vowels take the Atmane form of frequentative ; see examples at 51 1. o, A, 681. a. 508. There are two kinds of frequentative verb, the one a redu- plicated Xtmane-pada verb, with ya affixed, conforming, like neuter and passive verbs, to the conjugation of the 4th class, and usually, though not always, yielding a neuter signification ; the other a redu- plicated Parasmai-pada verb, following the conjugation of the 3d class of verbs. The latter is less common in classical Sanskrit than the former, and will therefore be considered last *. a. The terminations for the first form of frequentative will be those of the i^tmane at 247, with the usual substitutions required for the 4th class of verbs. For the second form they will be the regular Parasmai-pada terminations of the memorial scheme at 246. A'TMANE-PADA FREQUENTATIVES, FORMED BY REDUPLICATION AND AFFIX ya. 509. Rule for forming the base in the four conjugational tenses. Reduplicate the initial consonant and vowel of the passive base ac- cording to the rules for reduplicating consonants at 331, and gunate the reduplicated vowel (if capable of Guna), whether it be a long or short vowel : thus, from the passive base tfhl (of dd, ‘ to give’) comes * Intensive or frequentative forms are found in Greek, such as 7iamaXXcc, Saih'zXXa, or fJ.aip.'xu, Trap.(parJX', aXaXadx. FREQUENTATIVE VERBS FORMATION OF THE BASE. 207 the frequentative base dediya (Pres. i. dediya + i = "ft 7 , 2. dediya + se — &c.) ; from frfa (passive of hd, 'to quit’) comes jehiya ( jeJuye &c.) ; from STiij (of vt ‘ to spread’) comes testmya (also td- starya ) ; from htt (of ^ ‘ to purify’), popuy a ; from fftgr (of ‘ to know’), vevidya ; from mq (of 4 to know’), bobudhya (Pres. -^ftrufw, ike.). The conjugation of all four tenses corresponds exactly with that of the passive. 510. As to the reduplication of the vowel, if the passive base contain a medial a, long a is substituted : thus, papacy a from pacya j sasmarya from smarya. a. If it contain a medial "^fT a, 5 ? e, or o, the same are reduplicated ; as, yd- yddya from ydtya ; seshevya from sevya ; loloiya from lo6ya. b. If it contain a medial ri, then ari * is substituted in the reduplication ; as, ^0^5^ from drisya ; from sprisya, &c. ; WCFjJZp from siW; from Similarly, all is substituted for 3-7 Iri, in «pi making 511. If a passive base has ft ri before ya, this ft?u becomes Vt rz'in the fre- quentative base; as, from (passive of ^ ' to do’). a. If the base begin with 35 T a, as in ^? 25 ]" atya (from ~Z\Z ‘to wander’), the initial at is repeated, and the radical a lengthened : thus, at at y a (3d sing. ^TJISiffT). Similarly, ’ST^ITip? from -31131 ‘to pervade.’ b. ri, ‘to go,’ makes its base ararya. 512. If the passive base contain a nasal after short a, this nasal generally appears in the reduplicated syllable, and is treated as final H rn : thus, from 3 I 5 T ‘ to go’ comes *T7F=ET ‘ to walk crookedly ;’ from ‘ to wander,’ ; from Vltrr ‘ to kill,’ ^1^1. a. The passive bases and some others formed from roots con- taining nasals (as HST), may insert nasals, instead of lengthening the vowel in the reduplication : thus, &c. b. Anomalous forms. — ‘to go’ (making n?U) inserts ni : thus. Similarly, ‘ to fall,’ or ‘to go,’ yUI ‘to fall,’ ■Eft "to drop,’ £ 4^7 ‘to fall,’ ‘to go,’ ‘to deceive’ (spfhs^r, ijvfftw, Tnfftr^T, cr^SETFCr, &c.). MT ‘ to go’ makes ^Tf*. c. ‘ to kill’ makes ; HT ‘ to smell,’ ftlffa ; XRT ‘ to blow,’ ; &c.) ; ‘ to swallow,’ hftlv 5 ?. Non-conjug at ional tenses of Atmane-pada frequent at ives. 513. In these tenses frequentatives follow the analogy of passives, and reject the affix T? ya. Since, however, the base of the perfect is formed by affixing 3 HTH dm (as usual in all polysyllabic forms, see 385), and since, in all the other tenses, inserted i is assumed, a coalition of vowels might arise were it not allowed to retain y in all * This seems to support the idea that the original Guna of ri is ari. See 29. b. 208 FREQUENTATIVE VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. cases in which a vowel immediately precedes that letter * : thus, from If'O'ni is formed the perfect (or 2d pret.) 1st sing. Wfa’RTSi &c., rejecting ya ; but from comes &c., retaining y. Similarly in the other tenses: istfut. dedipitdhe, dediyitahe, &c. ; 2d fut. dedipishye, dediyishye, &c. ; aorist adedipishi, adediyiski, &c. ; precative (or bened.) dedipisMya, dediyishiya, &c. ; cond. adedi'pishye, adedi- yishye, &c. In the 3d sing, of the aorist (or 3d preterite) ^ i is not allowed to take the place of the regular terminations, as in the passive form. a. The infinitive, as formed in the usual manner from the 3d sing. 1st future, will be dedipitum &c. PARASMAI-PADA FREQUENTATIVES. 514. Ride for forming the base in the four conjugational tenses. The base is here also formed by a reduplication similar to that of Atmane-pada frequentatives ; not, however, from the passive, but from the root : thus, from the root pad comes pdpac ; from TWif vid comes vevid; from '^‘31 comes daridris; from ^ comes cankri. a. But in the Parasmai form of frequentative, ari and 'tH ar as well as ari may be reduplicated for the vowel ri ; so that 'rf'N may make M or or ; and or or Similarly, may make ■L or or b. Again, in roots ending in long ^jT ri, a is reduplicated for ^ ri, and this a is retained even when ri becomes ir : thus, ^ ‘to scatter’ makes 1. Cdkarmi ; PL 3. Cakirati. Similarly, from ‘ to cross’ come tatarmi and tatirati. c. In accordance with the rules for the 2d and 3d class (307, 332), the radical vowel is gunated before the P terminations of the scheme at 246. Hence, from vid come the two bases veved and vevid (Pres, vevedmi, vevetsi, vevetti ; Du. vevidvas, &c. ; Impf. avevedam, avevet, avevet, avevidva, & c. ; Pot. vevidyam, &c. ; Impv. vevedani, veviddhi, vevettu, vevedava, vevittam, &c.). d. Again, the base will vary in accordance with the rules of combination at 296 — 306, as in =? *! budh (Pres, bobodhmi, bobhotsi, boboddhi, bobudhvas, &c. ; see 298). So also, T? v ah makes in 3d sing. vavodhi (see 305. a) ; makes (305) 5 *1? makes *T'PTfiT (305 note) ; makes or if I $) 0 VI ; and TnjnTff or irwfjAi (305. b). e. And in further analogy to the 2d class (313, 314) long i is often optionally inserted before the consonantal P terminations (Pres, vevedimi, vev edishi, vevediti; Du. vevidvas, &e. ; Impf. avevedam, avevedis, avevedit, avevidva, &c. ; Impv. vevedani, veviddhi, vevediiu). 515. Lastly, when the root ends in a vowel, the usual changes take place of i and i to y or iy ; of u and u to uvj and of ri to r (see 312) : as in the roots bhi, * In passives this coalition of vowels is avoided by the change of a final vowel to Vriddhi, as of 6i to Cay, of hu to hdv, and of kri to kdr ; and by the change of final d to ay, as of dd to day ; see 474. NOMINAL VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 209 Vbhii, kri (Pres- ist sing, bebhemi, bob/tomi, iarkarmi j 3d plur. bebhyati, bobhi - vati, carkrati). a. Observe — Many of the anomalous formations explained under Atmane-pada frequentatives must be understood as belonging also to the Parasmai-pada : thus, Me (512. b) makes in Parasmai M'Pfafhr, MufTMfw, &c.; and so with the other roots at 512. b. b. ‘ 'to kill,’ 37 ‘to swallow’ (512. c), and some others have a separate Parasmai-pada form *TT dTO ; the last identical with pres, of 'jff'PJ). Non-conjugational tenses of Parasmai-pada frequentatives. 516. The perfect (or second preterite) follows the usual rule for polysyllabic bases (385), and affixes MTi*T dm with the auxiliaries : thus, from VV bndh, ‘ to know,’ comes bobudhdmdsa, bobudhambablvuva, bobudhducakdra j from Vu? vid, ‘ to know,’ comes vevidamdsa. Guna of a final and sometimes of a penultimate vowel is required before dm • thus, bobliu (from H ) becomes bobliavamdsa. So also, ^rf makes vdvartdmdsa. In the other tenses, excepting the benedictive, inserted i is invariably assumed ; and before this inserted i some roots are said to forbid the usual Guna change of the radical vowel in the ist future &c. : thus, budh is said to mak ebobudhitasmi j bln, ‘to fear,’ bebhyitasmi, &c. (374); 2d fut. bobudki- sliydmi, bebhyishydmi, &c. ; aorist abobudhistiam , abebhdyisliam, &c. ; pree. or bened. bobudhyasam, bebMydsam, &c. ; cond. abobudliisliyam, abebtiyishyam, &c. The rejection of Guna from the radical syllable, however, admits of question : thus, bhu, ‘ to be,’ makes, according to the best authorities, bliobhavitasmi, &c. The infinitive will be formed in the usual way from the ist future, see 513. a. Passive, causal , desiderative, and dcsiderative causal form of frequentatives. 517. Frequentatives are capable of all these forms. The passive, when the root ends in a consonant, will be identical with the Atmane-pada frequentative formed by reduplication and the affix ya : thus, from the frequentative base totud, ‘to strike often,’ comes totudye, ‘ I am struck often ;’ but from loluya {lu, ‘ to cut’), loluyye, &c. Again, from totud comes totudaydmi, ‘ I cause to strike often ;’ totudishami, ‘ I desire to strike often ;’ totudayishdmi, ‘ I desire to cause to strike often,’ a. The ya of the Atmane-pada frequentative if preceded by a consonant is rejected ; but not if preceded by a vowel : thus, loluya, frequentative base of Id, ‘ to cut,’ makes loldyishdmi, ‘ I desire to cut often.’ See 331. g. NOMINAL VERBS, OR VERBS DERIVED FROM NOUNS. 518. These are formed by adding certain affixes to the crude base of nouns. They are not in very common use. but, theoretically, there is no limit to their formation. They might be classed accord- ing to their meaning; viz. 1st, transitive nominals, yielding the e e 210 NOMINAL VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. sense of performing, practising, making or using the thing or quality expressed by the noun ; 2d, intransitive nominals, giving a sense of behaving like, becoming like, acting like the person or thing expressed by the noun ; 3d, desiderative nominals, yielding the sense of wishing for the thing expressed by the noun. It will be more convenient, however, to arrange them under five heads, according to the affixes by which they are formed, as follows : — 519. 1st, Those formed by affixing qr a (changeable to a before a syllable beginning with m and v) to a nominal base, after Guna of its final vowel (if capable of Guna). When the base ends in a, this vowel takes the place of the affix a. A final d absorbs the affix. Observe — The terminations of nominals will be those of the scheme at 247, making use of the substitutions required by the 1st, 4th, 6th, and 10th classes. a. Thus, from * Krishna,’ Pres. 1. 4 dill W ‘ I act like Krishna,’ 2. <* UflfTT, 3. ^unffT, &c. So, from ‘ a poet,’ Pres. 1. qqqifh ‘ I act the poet,’ 2. 444 fw, &c. ; and from ftr?‘a father,’ Pres. 1. ftnmfa ‘ I act like a father,’ 2. fhfrcfs, 3. fqTTTJff ; Atm. Pres. 1. fbnr, &c. : from HTc^T ‘a garland,’ Pres. 1. Hi (Alfa, 2. 3. HTc'S'rilT ; Impf. 1. ’HHIcAl, 2. &c. ; Pot. HTPSq, &c. : from FT ‘ own,’ Pres. 3. TqfrT ‘ he acts like himself.’ Sometimes a final i or u is not gunated ; as, from a beak,’ Pres. ■'t^TTrr, ‘he uses his beak,’ ‘ he pecks ;’ from qifq ‘ a poet,’ 4=4 TP 7 , 4=4 Oh, &c. Words ending in nasals preserve the nasals, and lengthen the preceding vowels ; as, U*TT*T"fH ‘ he acts like a king,’ ‘ it serves as a road,’ ^TTqfrT ‘ he acts like this.’ 520. 2dly, Those formed by affixing q ya to a nominal base. a. If a word end in a consonant, ya is generally affixed without change ; as, from qi'q ‘ a word,’ 4 1 *4 Rt ‘he wishes for words;’ from fl^q ‘ heaven,’ ‘he wishes for heaven’ (or, according to some, from rPHT‘ penance,’ ‘ he does penance ;’ from qq*T ‘ reverence,’ qqjqfiT ‘ he does reverence.’ Final n is dropped, and the next rule then applied : thus, from A! fiFf ‘ a king,’ Pres. Pot. U*rlqq ; from vfqq ‘ rich, ’ \J 7 ftq 7 fa, &c. b. A final qi a or qrr a is generally changed to \ t ; final ^ior?a lengthened ; final qj ri changed to ( TO rf or -frf ‘ he blackens :’ and sometimes in the Parasmai with a neuter sense ; as, from * crooked,’ ffiSHVTtT ‘ it is crooked ;’ from ‘ a slave,’ 1 -M Pri ‘ he is a slave.’ It corresponds to Greek desiderative denominatives in taw, as 6 a.va.Ttav & c. 521. 3dly, Those formed by affixing vrq ay a to a nominal base. This form is similar to that of causals and verbs of the 10th class, with w hich it is sometimes confounded. Like them it has generally an active sense. A final vowel must be dropped before ay a; and if the nominal base have more than one syllable, and end in a consonant, both the consonant and its preceding vowel must be dropped. a. Thus, from ‘cloth,’ Pres. 1. ‘I clothe,’ 2. 3. ^mPh, &c. ; from q*T*T ‘ armour,’ Pres. 1. ‘I put on armour,’ &c. ; from HbRII ‘ authority,’ iRmmufa ‘ I propose as authority ;’ from ‘ a garland,’ tl Hhrfa ‘ I crown ;’ from "qz ‘ a jar,’ q Ml f*t ‘ I make a jar’ or ‘ I call it a jar,’ &c. b. In further analogy to causals, a p is sometimes inserted between the base and ay a, especially if the noun be monosyllabic, and end in a. Before this V/i, Vriddhi is required: thus, from ‘own,’ Pres. ‘1 make my own.’ There are one or two examples of dissyllabic nouns : thus, from ‘ true,’ ^TiMlMMlfr, &c. ; and from ‘ substance,’ ^TMm*uf*i, &c. c. If the base be monosyllabic, and end in a consonant, Guna may take place ; as, from T 5 JV ‘ hunger,’ Vsfl ^ -M 1 f*<. d. Whatever modifications adjectives undergo before the affixes hjas and ishtha at 194, the same generally take place before ay a: thus, from ‘long,’ TJTWrffi ‘ I lengthen;’ from Zrf^fTqi ‘near,’ ‘I make near,’ &c. e. This form of nominal is sometimes neuter, as ‘he delays’ (from f%T ‘long’). According to Prof. Bopp, Greek denominatives in aw, ew, ow, t^w, cor- respond to this form ; as, TtoXefx-ow, yvvaiK-t^w. 522. 4thly, Those formed by affixing sya or *rcq asya to a nominal base, giving it the form of a future tense, generally with the sense of ‘ desiring,’ ‘ longing for.’ a. Thus, from TlflT ‘milk,’ Pres. 1. zfltJ-MTfa ‘I desire milk,’ 2. &c. ; e e 2 PRESENT PARTICIPLES; PARASMAI-PADA. 21 2 from T3 a bull,’ '3'RTtfTrT " (the cow) desires the bull from ^f’4 ‘ curds,’ £ I desire curds,’ &c. Compare Greek desideratives in T ‘ to become/ vrfr ; «sr ‘ to do/ cFir ; UT ‘ to smell/ HTW (58) ; ‘ to fly/ ‘ to decay/ ‘ to perish/ ; ‘ to embrace/ c^vr ; ]|ft ‘ to be ashamed/ $fhrr ; ‘ to cut/ 75/T ; ? ‘ to be afflicted/ r?T ; f^r ‘ to swell/ site a. But when they do retain i, gunation of the final vowel is re- quired as in the future : thus, 3ft ‘ to lie down’ makes ^iftrft ; and ■q ‘ to purify/ qRrf (also oil) ; and ^TFT ‘ to awake/ iTFITtw. 533. In certain cases the final vowel of the root is changed : thus, some roots in VTT a change a to i before ta; as, from WT sthd, ‘to stand,’ felri sthita ; from HT ‘ to measure,’ 'PTrT ; from 3 ft? T‘ to be poor,’ a. VT ‘ to place’ becomes f^lT ; ‘to give/ <^T. Observe — When prepositions are prefixed to datta, the initial da may be rejected : thus, atta for adatta, ‘ taken ;’ pratta for pradatta, ‘ bestowed / vyatta for vy adatta, ‘expanded/ nitta for nidatta, ‘given away/ paritta for paridatta, ‘delivered over / sut t a for sudatta, ‘ well given/ the i and u being lengthened. b. t!T‘to drink’ makes tfiR; but ^ I to quit, ^1 d , and to grow old, ®T^T ; ?I ‘ to go/ ^FT. c. Some roots in a take both na and ta ; as, from TTT ‘ to smell/ UTHI and UTW; from RT ‘ to blow/ with the preposition f*TT, fd'-f 1 t!J and f«T%T?T ; from "Vi[ (or %) ‘ to cook/ Tii mi or f^TT. 534. Roots in ri change ri to ir before na, which passes into W na by 58 ; as, from IT ‘to pass/ rFfxir ‘passed.’ But when a labial precedes, ri becomes ur ; as, from 0 or TIT, TpT or RllT ‘ full,’ ‘ filled.’ fe ev ev Ov * ^ 535. The root V dhe, ‘to suck/ becomes 'flrT ; hve, ‘to call/ RrT ; R ve, ‘to weave/ TfT; R vye, ‘ to cover/ RTST ; H ‘ to barter/ TfTfT. 536. Roots in U ai generally change ai to a before na or ta ; as, from mlai, ‘ to fade,’ *c 5 T»T mlana ; from "*4 ‘ to meditate/ RTfT (in the Veda VtrT) ; from ‘ to purify,’ ^TrT ; from ^ to rescue,’ d RI or ^TTT ; from 01 to grow fat/ &c. 21G PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. a. But from *T ‘to sing,’ jftrf ; from 7 ? ‘to waste,’ ^TTTT ; from ’ll ‘to waste,’ ■8ITH, see 548 ; from 5V ' to coagulate,’ 51 ^ or 50 n or SVPi ; from * to accu- mulate,’ 4 VT«T (with IT), wlrf or Trfb?. 537. Of the four or five roots in 0, TTf ‘to destroy’ makes ft?W (same as from ft? ' to bind’); 5 TT ‘to sharpen,’ ftlfT or VTTiT; ‘to tie,’ fifH ; ‘to cut,’ ViTiT and fvfff; tVT ‘ to instruct,’ it*) ri. 538. Those roots ending in consonants which take the inserted i in the last five tenses (399), generally take this vowel also in the past passive participle, but not invariably (see 542) ; and when i is assumed, ta is generally affixed, and not na ; as, from VIT pat , 1 to fall/ ttfrnr patita, ‘fallen/ a. ^ i, "S’ u, or vj ri preceding the final consonant of a root may occasionally take Guna, especially if the participle be used imper- sonally or actively ; as, from ft?J5 ‘ to sweat/ or ; from fgP? ‘to be unctuous/ or fgWT; from ffiT ‘to shine/ or ^r?nr; from vv ‘to bear/ viViT and VP. See Syntax, 895. b. 37^ ‘ to take’ lengthens the inserted i, making ^JFhr. See 399. a. 539. Roots ending in consonants which reject the inserted i in the last five tenses (400— -415), generally reject it in the past passive participle. They must be combined with ta, agreeably to the rules of Sandhi at 296, &c. Whatever change, therefore, the final con- sonant undergoes before the termination ta of the 1st future (see 400 — 415), the same will often be preserved before the ta of the past participle; so that, in many cases, the form of this participle resembles that of the 3d sing. 1st future, provided the final a be shortened, and the vowel of the root preserved unaltered : thus, taking some of the roots at 400 — 415 ; sivr (^T3iT), 3 TVi; ftr^t (iNtlj, ft?Vi; ftfte*T), ; TV*, 7 V 5 S; ViT, V 15 ; 7T3T, 7 ?P; snr and W3T, vp; ftrci, ftp-; vv, js; vy, Vs; fm, ft?*; <5V, 75* ; *v, vtr; fv, wx; 7531; <5*?, 753?; fV3T, f*P; fP; 7J3T, 1|P; ffP; VV, 5 P ; ; ^*, ^p; (415- m ) 5 ^ ^ (414) ; VT?, VT? ( 415 . m ) ; fev, 75te; Kf, ftjf, ft^v; VF, or 5^ (41 5 -*») ; ^ ^ (415- m )• 540. Most roots ending in d, forbidding the inserted s( i (403), take na instead of ta, and are combined with na, agreeably to 47 ; as, from *5 to go,' W ; from ftfW'' or ; from iWJT ‘ to thunder,’ ; from ‘Wsif ‘ to move’ (in some senses), ’Ssfj. So, from Tf5*T ‘to be immersed,’ rejecting one j, *? T *T ; from ‘to be ashamed,’ (as well as c^fefcT). H 7 ? ‘to adhere’ also makes co r fi. But ‘to forget,’ ; 771$ ‘ to be crooked,’ HTW. 542. Some roots which admit i necessarily or optionally in one or both of the futures, reject it in this participle : thus, 'v d ' to be bold’ makes Wy j ‘ to move’ makes ’SHlt (with prep.) also (7>rr§ ‘pained’); ‘ to make firm,’ I^gT ; ‘ ^° ext °V ‘to be mad,’ TTIS' ; ifi'hf ‘to shine,’ tfiTT ; *71*? ‘to perish,’ Wg' ; ‘to faint,’ 5T?T as well as s?r^7T ; |Ts£ ‘ to speak barbarously,’ '%¥ as well as ‘to dance,’ «|W. 543. If in forming the passive base (471), or in the reduplicated perfect (2d preterite, 375. c), the v or y contained in a root is changed to its semivowel u or i, the same change takes place in the past passive participle : thus, from ^7 va6, ‘ to say,’ "3U5 ukta ; from ^ ‘to speak,’ '5'f' s . 7T ", from T5T ‘ to wish,’ 'AT JT 77 ; from ’TTT ‘to dwell,’ gTWrT ; from ”1*7 ‘to sow,’ '3W ; from F ‘ to carry,’ 'Si'S' (with 5j, sTfE - ) ; from ‘ to sleep,’ ; from ‘ to sacrifice,’ s/7. a. Similarly, ‘ to play,’ Un or VW ; t3iT ‘ to hasten,’ TT/)’ (also r^PuT). 544. Some other changes which take place in forming the passive base (472) are preserved before ta : thus, from IjTTTT ‘to rule,’ ; from ’SEP? ‘to pierce,’ from to deceive,’ ; from ‘ to fry,’ *p? ; from Hf s7 ‘ to ask,’ ; from ‘ to cut,’ ^cRT? or V j-fj (58). a. When a root ends in a conjunct consonant, of which the first is a nasal, this nasal is generally rejected before ta; as, from ‘ to bind,’ WAT ; from *jT5T ‘ to fall,’ HT? ; from S43T ‘ to fall,’ ; from vL? ‘ to move’ and ‘ to anoint,’ ’Sra ; from TTW ‘to adhere,’ ; from T3 ‘ to colour,’ ; from to kindle,’ from 73R ‘ to be wet,’ or iTW ; from 7?T>t7 ‘ to ooze,’ ; from ‘ to as- cend,’ TidiTJ ; from ‘ to stop,’ 'ThiSf ; from ‘ to stop,’ 77737 ; from ‘ to deceive,’ <^3tf ; from >Ts| ‘ to break,’ TWTf ; from ‘ to bite,’ ; from TT^T ‘ to contract,’ rT^i. b. But not if ^ i is inserted ; as, from &7IS ‘ to break,’ id i ri ; from TS*aXarog, KpoKwrog, avXxrog, &c. 552. The inflection of past passive participles follows that of the first class of nouns at 103 ; thus exhibiting a perfect similarity to the declension of Latin participles in tus : thus, «pr krita, nom. sing, masc. fern. neut. cSU'H, or?rT, enfi. t V 6 * C a. The resemblance between Sanskrit passive participles in ta, Latin partici- ples in tu-s, and Greek verbals in t o-g, will be evident from the following examples: Sanskrit jnatas = (g)notus (ignotus), yvanog ; dattas— do.tusfoTOg ; srutas— clutus, xXvTog ; bhutas—fvTOg ; yuktas—junctus , ^evKTog ; labdhas — XrfUTog ; pitas — TTCTog ; bhritas =fertus, tpeprog ; dishtas = die tus, iteiKTog. And, bke Sanskrit, Latin often inserts an i, as in domitus (= Sanskrit damitas), monitus, &c. This is not the case in Greek, but e is inserted in forms like fJ-eveTog, epnerog. There are also examples of Latin and Greek formations in nu-s and vo-g, corresponding to the Sanskrit participle in na thus, plenus {— piirna ), magnus (from Sanskrit root mah), dignus (from Sanskrit dis, dik, Greek btiK) ; and ciTvyvo-g, cneyvo-g, aep-vo-g, &c. PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLES. These are of two kinds: 1st, those derived from the past passive participle ; 2dly, those belonging to the perfect. These later rarely occur. The former are much used to supply the place of a perfect tense active. PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLES DERIVED FROM PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLES FORMATION OF THE BASE. C 553. The base of these participles is easily formed by adding vat to that of the past passive participle : thus, from cpr ‘ made,’ WrTTrf ‘having made or who or what has made;’ from ‘burnt,’ ‘having burnt;’ from ‘said,’ ‘having said;’ from ‘ broken,’ fawnr ‘ having broken ;’ from wifair ‘ placed,’ ‘having placed,’ &c. a. For the declension of these participles see 140. a, b, c. Participles of the reduplicated perfect {2d preterite). 554. In these participles, either vas or ivas is added to the base of the reduplicated perfect, as formed in the dual and plural. Vas is added when the F f 2 220 PAST INDECLINABLE PARTICIPLES. base in the dual and plural (as it appears in its unchanged form before the termi- nations are added) consists of more than one syllable : thus, from vakri (root kri, ‘to do’), cakrivas ; from vivid (365), vividvas ; from 6i6i (374), didivas ; from nanrit (364, compare 45. a), nanritvas j from sasmar (374. k), sasmarvas. a. And ivas is added when the base in the dual and plural consists of one syllable only; as, from ten (375. a), tenivas ; from jagrn (376), jagmivas ; from jaksh (377), jakshivas. b. When vas is affixed, it will be necessary to restore to its original state, the final of a root ending in i, t, u, u, or ri, if changed before the terminations of the du. and plur. to y, v, r, iy , uv, or uv : thus, Pi? sri, changed by 374. e. to sisriy, becomes fijTf vl 4 « ; sic, changed to dikriy, becomes dikrivas; V, changed by 374. (j. to dud/tuv, becomes dudhuvas ; changed by 374. i. to babhuv, becomes babhuvas. In declension, the 3d pers. plur. with its termination us is the form of the base in the weakest cases (135. a), the final s becoming sh by 70 : thus, from jagmus, I . jagmushd ; from terms, I. tenusha, &c. See 168. c. Roots which take the periphrastic perfect (see 385) form the participles of this tense by adding the perfect participles of kri, bhu, and as, to am thus, from cur, 10th c., doraydmbabhuvas, dorayahdakrivas, dorayamdsivas. d. There is an Atmane-pada participle of the reduplicated perfect formed by changing ire, the termination of the 3d plur., into ana : thus, vividdna, didydna, jagmdna. See 526. a ; and compare the Greek perfect participle in fJ.evo : WTT^IT'T = t tTvy.fj.evog. e. The Parasmai-pada form of these participles is inflected at 168. Those of the Atmane-pada follow the inflection of the first class of nouns at 103. PAST INDECLINABLE PARTICIPLES. ^ 555- These fall under two heads: ist> as formed by affixing TT! tvd to uncompounded roots ; as, from bhu, ‘ to be,’ bhutvd, ‘having been:’ 2 dly, as formed by affixing ^ ya to roots compounded with prepositions or other adverbial prefixes ; thus, from anubhti, ‘ to perceive/ anubhuya, ‘ having perceived / from TTvlf 1 H sajji- bhu, ‘ to become ready,’ sajjibhuya , * having become ready.’ The sense involved in them is generally expressed by the English ‘ when/ ‘ after/ ‘ having/ or ‘ by :’ thus, tat kriivd, ‘ when he had done that/ ‘ after he had done that/ ‘ having done that/ ‘ by doing that.’ They are capable also of a passive sense, though this is rare. See Syntax. a. The affix tvd of this participle is thought by some to be the instrumental case of an affix tu, of which the infinitive affix turn is the accusative. The indeclinable participle has certainly much of the character of an instrumental case (see Syntax, 901); but the form of its base often varies considerably from that of the infinitive : PAST INDECLINABLE PARTICIPLES. 221 thus, vaktum, uktvd, from vats ycishtvm, ishtva, from y'aj, &c. 131*7, or ^fT are sometimes used for F5T in the Veda. Indeclinable participles formed with tva from uncompounded roots. 556. When the root stands alone and uncompounded, the inde- clinable participle is formed with i3T tva. This affix is closely allied to the IT ta of the past passive parti- ciple at 531, so that the rules for the affixing of 7 T ta to the root generally apply also to the indeclinable affix FTT tva, and the forma- tion of one participle then involves that of the other : thus, from fgfir Icshipta, ‘thrown, 5 fgp77 kshiptvd, ‘having thrown; 5 from VT 7 T ‘ done’ (root c$r), coFIT 4 bavins done; 5 from (root w), from ww (root ipj), Y?T; fr° m (root ^t), gWT; from gig (root m), WRI ; from giF 3 T (root Wl), 'bWPIT ; from ggh? (root sjg), ggfcgT; from g-farf (root gw s ), gfgjgr; from it?. (root gg), wig; from (root gw), g^T; from g,oT (root gg), from ffh (root NT), ffjgT; from (root gw), *Fsgr ; from wit (root 545), gfWT. a. Where i is inserted, there is generally gunation of final i, t, u, u, and of final gj ri and of medial gf ri ; and optional gunation of medial i, u (except as debarred by 28. b) : thus, WVRT from Nil ; gfgjgr (also g,gt) from g; wfcgT or grips! from w; or from flW; srfffigT or S>f 7 n 3 T from ug; gr%?T from gg ; or wfgfgT from go, b. But from f<*g, and £LhT ; from fgg, wfgjgT and T 5 f?sT. So f^g &c. The root gig makes (532. a); and initial i, u, be- fore single consonants, must be gunated ; as, makes gftigT. c. The roots in the list at 390. a. do not admit Guna : thus, fg^ can make only fgf*?igT. d. When there are two forms of the passive participle, there is often only one of the indeclinable: thus, makes WW and WTsfiT, but only wftfrsTT; V 3 vsf, vWh" and thTfiffT, but only e5fwTr3T ; and, vice versa, ( 543 ) only wfgff, but and WfT ; WW, Wte, but wf^T and WT^T ; WW, WW, but WlfWigT and 3TfT. So, some roots in nasals optionally insert i ; 7?W, firlT or WT'JTrST ; »7F3T or VifiirgiT ; gw, grTT^T or gifg^iT ; Wn3T or s&ggT or gtfssigT ; <3W, wtfit or grfgrgr. e. The penultimate nasal, which is rejected before ta ( 544 . a), is optionally so rejected before tva in W?J, 3EjH?r, or and : thus, from WT comes IIS, but TUT or TUT ; from wf^TrlT, vTIjiT or gmVF. f. 317 ? and *7 Iff optionally insert nasals ; ’ll! or WUiT> WJT or g^T, 390. k. PAST INDECLINABLE PARTICIPLES. 222 f). Some few roots necessarily retain their nasals : thus, makes 74 431 ; and 7 -M t!, or TTjf^r^T. 557- r l'h e on ty important variation from the passive participle occurs in those roots, at 531. a , which take na for ta. The change of ri to ir and ur (534) is preserved (unless i be inserted), hut tvd never becomes nva : thus, wt#, but TTfTRT (or wtfrTT ) ; from IT, 7 IW, but TT^r^T ; from V, ^ft, but ^ 7 ; from IgT, ft??, but fw^iT; from *T7pT, 7 T 7 TT, but *TW or HWl (556. e); from ^tT, but F^l ; from ?T, F^*T, but fVf^T ‘ having quitted’ (not distinguishable in form from fVr 3 T ‘ having placed,’ root NTi. 558. Observe, moreover, that verbs of the 10th class and causals, which reject the characteristic ay a before the it a of the past passive participle, retain ay before itvd : thus, TsnftrfT ' made to stand’ (from the causal base TETDTm ), but TTPintr^T ‘ having made to stand V^fnTTf ' thought’ (from f’=T ? vT 10th c., ‘to think’), hut 4 having thought.’ a. All derivative verbs of course assume i, and form their indeclinable participles analogously to causals : thus, ^rrfnfMr 3 T (from desid. of ^ni ), and (from freq. of ). In regard to the Atmane frequentatives, rTfc^ftlr^T is formed from c*t 75 Xr, and cc?Tn ?537 from [ya in the latter being preceded by a consonant). b. There are one or two instances of compounded roots formed with tvd: thus, tSTT«Tr^T (from 7 £f), Ramayana I. 2, 20; also Ramay. I. 74, 23. Especi- ally in the case of causals ; as, fvfTSrf^r^T c. When a, ‘ not,’ is prefixed, tvd is always used; as, ‘not having done,’ without having done ;’ ' not having given.’ Indeclinable participles formed with ya from compounded roots. 559. When a root is compounded with a preposition or any indeclinable prefix (except a, ‘ not,’ see 558. c), the indeclinable participle is formed by affixing ti ya, and the rules for annexing it to the root are some of them analogous to those which prevail in other cases in which ya is affixed ; see the rules for forming the con- jugational tenses in the fourth class at 272, for passives at 461, and for the precative or benedictive at 443. 560. But if a root end in a short vowel, instead of lengthening this vowel, rf t is interposed ; as, from ’Stpjj dsri, ‘ to take refuge’ (root rz with ^n), ’STTftOT asritya, ‘ having taken refuge ;’ from frrrg (root fiq with f?TT), ; from -SW, ; from 777=4 (root ^ with TFT), ; from ffRTT, ffRTTTq. The lengthening of the radical vowel by coalition does not prevent this rule ; as, from ^TiT uti (root ^ with ’SrfTT), ^Hrfrw atitya. a. WR ‘to awake’ gunates its final as in TttTIRTI and TsTJ * to destroy,’ ‘to waste;’ lengthens its final as in TTWln. PAST INDECLINABLE PARTICIPLES. 223 561. If a root end in long a, ^ i, or 3 u , no change generally takes place; as, from f- 7 ?T, from 'ATgrf, from nr A fV^r. a. If it end in long ^ ri, this vowel becomes ir, and after labial letters, ur : thus, from ‘ 5 T 7 ^, ’STAVT'A ‘ havino- scattered from t 0 * (root ‘ to fill’), (compare 534). 562. Final diphthongs pass into >HT a; as, from Tjfb^, (also -qfhfta) ; from wfkuf, TTlkuiT-T ; from ^QT, AiWn?, a. But with Wf makes 'STTsnj. In Epic poetry, with AZP7 makes W. b. fa ‘to throw,’ flT ‘to kill,’ DT ‘to measure,’ and B ‘to barter,’ all -*TPT. Similarly, rfl ‘to decay,’ -TfDT ; but eSl ‘to adhere,’ -c 5 TT? or -cTfa (see 390. e). fal and 'Sfl conform to the rule for the passive (- j'W, - :JTO ) • 563. A penultimate nasal is generally rejected, as in passives (see 469) : thus, from samasanj, TTTTi'H’Jcj' samdsajya ; from (used adverbially in the sense ‘violently’). a. Some few roots retain the nasal : thus, ^TT^nij makes '' 3 TT 5 T^r ; and ^Trfojfj b. ‘to acquire’ may insert a nasal after the prepositions ’SIT and T'T : thus, Sic. (otherwise -< 5 WT). 564. If a root end in a consonant the general rule is, that no change takes place ; as, from TnfapT nikship, fafafCT nikshipyaj from TTPC? (root ATT 7 with 17 ), TTTOT ; from ^ft"ST (root 4HT with fa), 'TiTPT. a. But roots in T or =T, preceded by i or u, lengthen these vowels, as in TTfw^l^T from ffa, fa^IfiH from TTFT. b. Four roots in ^T*T fasT, , TJJT, optionally reject the nasal, and interpose t between the final a and ya j as, from frpw, fapTW 0 r farjiHg. r fhe roots HTT, TTfT, -gjirr, %tt, W, ^T, HT* always reject the nasal ; as, from c. 7 S»T, and TTTT optionally reject the but instead of interposing t, lengthen the final a, as in passives (see 470) : thus, from TT 7 jT«T, TrWDT (or ?TW^T). 565. The changes which take place in certain roots before the ya of the passive (47 r > 47 2 ) are preserved before ya ; as, from ffpjTT, tjtht; from fa=TTT, from TT 4 TT, ifrOT ; from 7 TW 4 ?, from fa?J^, fa^ff; from A?|X1~, ATPT 34 ; from ^ 1 3 TV, TTTN *ST ; and so with all the roots at 471, 472. a. The roots at 390. 1 . have two forms : thus, from TTTJ comes -^"TTTTZT and -TfrSt, & e. b. There are one or two instances in which an uncompounded root takes <7 ; as, ’ 3 TTTT ‘having reverenced.’ Manu VII. 145. I. 4. Maha-bharata 3. 8017. " 3 'Or having resided,’ Nala V. 42 (from =TTT); IT 3 J ‘having taken,’ Astra-siksha 21. 566. In affixing *T ya to the bases of causal verbs of the 10th class, and the 3d class of nominals (see 521), the characteristic ATT! is generally rejected ; as, from Tr=ThJTT prabodhaya, ifaf IQ prabodhya ; from TTTTTTV, TRTPT ; from BViJ^PT, ; from fq’TRV, faqfa. a. It is, however, retained when the root ends in a single consonant and encloses 224 FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. short a thus, VTUU rtr ‘ having calculated* (JiTR with Us) ; ‘ having imagined’ (^Ti TV with ^TT) ‘ having narrated’ (*5Xf with < 5 ") . b. The final a of frequentative bases is of course dropped, and the final ya of both frequentatives and nominals, if preceded by a consonant ; as, from comes ; from oTt^IZU -sfrqtr • from 77 CTP?, -rl^TFU. Adverbial indeclinable participle. 5C7. There is another indeclinable participle yielding the same sense as those formed with Ira and ya, but of rare occurrence. It is equivalent to the accusative case of a noun derived from a root, used adverbially; and is formed by adding am to the root, before which affix changes of the radical vowel take place, similar to those required before the causal affix vStf (481) or before the 3d sing, aorist passive (see 475): thus, from in, ‘to lead,’ ndyam, ‘having led;’ from ‘to drink,’ VTO ‘having drunk;’ from ST, j from tf^, ; from fgJTI, ; from ‘ to kill,’ ’SfTTT. It often occupies the last place in a com- pound; as in the expression v 7 Rc 5 ’E?T'tT ‘having totally exterminated;’ and in the following passage from Bhatti : ‘ 3 TTO’ II ‘ The descendant of Kakutstha, smiling softly, repeatedly bending down the creep- ers, would pluck the blossoms ; descending to the streams, would sip (the waters); seating himself on some variegated rock, would recline in admiration (of the scene).’ Compare also the passage at the end of Act V. of Sakuntala ; sfifRTiT TiyWT ‘ repeatedly throwing up her arms she began to weep.’ a. These participles generally imply repetition of the action, as in the passage above, and in this sense are themselves often repeated ; as, ddyam, ddyam, ‘ having repeatedly given.’ FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 568. These are amongst the most common and useful of all par- ticiples, and may he classed under three heads : 1st, as formed with the affix 7pq tavya ; 2dly, as formed with aniya ; 3dly, as formed with bibhri bhint * s .g tanu puni * se she bodha nritya disa IS IS 0 s gs s> bibhr bhind s> Nj tanv und bodha nritya disa yojaya vid bibhr * bhind Si .g tanv und nti anti : ati PLURAL. bodha nritya disa yojaya bibhri bhint sa # g v 'o tanu mnd IS bodha nritya disa yojaya & bibhri bhind g \ tanu pun( cc g bodha nritya disa yojaya vit bibhri bhint g Nj tanu mnd IS < Q << DUAL. bodha nritya disa yojaya Si bibhri blunt £ • Nj> tanu ! Vi S S 05 IS £ cc bodhd nritya disa yojaya Si bibhri bhind •1 v s> tanu puni vas a < bodha nritya disa yojaya *i Si bibliar bhinat 0 .s tano 8 SING. bodha nritya disa yojaya vet * bibhar bhinat* cino tano puna* * si shi bodhd nritya disa yojaya ved bibhar bhinad cino tano pund I ROOT. Budh Nrit Dis Yuj Vid Bkri Bhid 'O Tan t£ CN 2 co vd i'- -+■ VO 6 ci co ^ irj CO C\ ^ 1 co Observe — The base is to be united with the terminations : thus, ist sing. Pres. Parasmai, bodhd -\-rni=.bodhd m i , 2d sing, bodha -\- si— bodhasi, 3d sing. bodha + ti=.bodhu.ti; ist dual, bod h d -\-v a s —bod h dv a s , &c. Atmane, bodha-\-i—bodlie , bodha+se=bodhase, &c. N\ henever the terminations of the ist, 4th, 6th, and 10th classes differ from those of the others, they are placed in the upper line. As to the optional dropping of the u of dinu and tanu, see 349. IMPERFECT or FIRST PRETERITE. 231 "R 53 8> v so >1 ’I s "53 V r<3 ?2 8 io § R 5 -2 8 "55 8> -O <2 '0 8 r 53 53 53 53 5! 53 53 53 hi ◄ 53 "§ 53 E .53 53 8* 53 0 s 2 • fO f'R "g R R 8 R § R R -2 "55 8> 52 r22 No Ps © 53 53 53 53 51 53 53 53 5^ 'R "R 'R -£* *E '53 No '53 8> 53 O 4 S ’ 5 !. "53 .§ R R R 53 8 R -8 -2 S3 "R 8^ 52 -O -52 No R 53 5! 53 53 53 53 53 5! 2 o 53 8> So E .53 >SQ 53 8* 53 0 s 2 "53 S ?2 R 8 R v g 'R '§ 8 1 55 8^ 52 <22 ■'o Q R 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 a 0 * pt* H z. hi & 53 E* 53 8> .53 '«0 53 s» 53 O 4 2 S "O S> R R a 8 'R -8 8 « -2 8 "55 8^ 52 -22 No s H '<1 R 53 <2 «2 53 5! 53 53 53 R^ «s> 'R -8 "R o 'R 'R ;co '53 53 O 5 2 "S* *5 "53 •S J R 8 -8 R '53 52 iS <2 'O E R 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 § 53 53 53 g> "b* R R R V CS o "E ^60 so S R C3 R -2 R "R 52 -<2 -22 "0 r 53' 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 R C*3 53 3 .53 cc 53 5S *?• So R • R v so 'R >o '5 >5 52 -22 No s-«. -8 r 53 53 53 52 5S 53 53 53 53 E§ 53 >3 .53 'so 53 R-i 53 O 5 2 <2 "53 ,R S3 8 8 8 R <3 R "53 52 <2 -22 v o So CS 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 R 1 *■* 2 53 8> so 53 53 Rs 53 * -X- 5^ 53 ^5? "53 R ?2 S> © <3 E R "R "o 5 * 52 <2 -S3 -52 .R R 8 so 53 53 53 53 53 53 R 8 J3 hi 3 R "R o 53 8> *E .53 >co 53 5^ 53 So sci* r-Q .g -R R 8 R R v «s> 8 R h^ |<3 R "R 52 iS -O Nj> R 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 R 55 So 'R "R © '53 8> *e 'R '«o '53 O 5 3 S. ^53 "53 .R J R R 8 R R -<3 R "53 52 -<2 -22 Nj 5Js 53 53 5! 53 53 53 53 53 R R -8 *'53 o 53 8> *E .53 >co 53 5^ 53 O 1 S. r5i JO ,R -R R J R '-s. 8 R 8 <3 R '5 52 -22 v so ^s '55 53 R 53 53 53 53 53 53 R R^ < Q hi <* o 53 R3 C3 53 8^ *E .53 so 53 53 SO <2 ■g R Jg R R 8 R Q <3 R "55 52 -52 v o Ss Oh 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 R R < § '53 "r O '53 8> *E 'R . 'so '53 5^ 53 O* E* "53 -R -R R R R 8 R -© R 52 -*53 -52 v o so 53 55 53 cs 53 53 53 53 R R 1 < HH 53 "R O 53 8> 55 53 5^ 53 5. 53 "5 R O O 'R T 4 'So O 4 ’E R 'So 53 O 4 C5 53 -R O 8 O R 'R 8 R 02 -© R '55 52 <2 -22 s o So 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 5! R 53 5S 5^ "e "R O 8> E v 53 ^o 53 O 4 "53 su 53 sCS -<2 53 R •iS» 5^ R 53 R 'R 8 <3 S "55 5^ 52 22 -C2 '■o E, 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 R 53 8 R e§ So 'so "53 S. R 6 On 06 O 0 I’ 5 £ eT - . Ci £ 0 id i'- w 4- vd 6 H cb l>» to GO CN •4 cd *4 C) bo c * o -8 -22 c r o S n 03 CO "O ^ n rO CQ ^ C3 O +2 & >» £ ^ 3 d C+H a s a & S 17:3 2 5:3 be « T3 M £Zj Cu 2 be c3 pin be Tj CO T3 0 O R 0 <20 O r0 POTENTIAL. 232 8 G 0 o ^ v 8 'C. '2 Gi '$> -c -G 8 8 8 a 1 -G S ~3 Gi -c -O No •^ a, •- < « g G 0 a -S' ,a '2- ag G Gi *!> t. -0 2 -G & .8 8 8 8 g 5 <5 S ^3 Gi -c No ■2 2 -g G 0 8 v 8 E. is G Gi 2 -G G # g 8 8 8 8 8 8 G 8 S as Gi r -c -c No G <3 ■S' a >1 G G3 8 < 0 -2 s* 2 -G 8 8 v 8 Q -o g G Gi •c -C No •^ O. a £ J a G 0 8 ^ 8 E. Gi o' 2 G 8 ^8 8 8 g < •c 8 "a Gi 5i -0 -G No **s s Ga H g "5 0 8 ;2* v 8 *E. -5 G G ’o' 2 G •S -G G 8 8 8 -Cl a "a Gi <2 -C No 'S 8 e Gi P. as % 0 ■f 3 ■|> "G -O # S 8 8 8 8 8 -c 8 G Gi -c '-0 G SING. bodha 8 - -2 c. ^ 8 G yojaya 2 Ss bibkr bliind auip tanv {thus G O a ■S' ,8 ■g- g G Gi G 'c* 2 .8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 V G> 8 8 5 s 8 G G> E. as -R G S 8 2 Cc 0 '£. S S' 2 -C 8 8 8 8 •S' -c 8 G Gi s> -c -C NO a. 8i 1-3 « g G - G Gi *E. -G G S «g 8 8 0 ■c. ^2 ’c 4 2 -C -G 8 8 8 Vq Ph -c 8 as Gi r -C — •** Gi 8 G 0 G 2 E. yg G Gi G o' T. G .8 8 2 8 8 8 8 G 8 g -c a ~a Gi -C c NO a. Gn g G - G Gi -G G G 8 V* g J '8 0 'C. as S' "G 8 8 § v 8 G -c a "a Gi -C -C No •G Gn PADA. DUAL. bodha nritya disa yojaya 'G E bibhri bhind 8 8 ‘'S tana Va 8 8 Sn itarn S 8 Gi < g G O G £ .a E. - G Gi G o' E. -c .8 >G 8 8 8 8 Na 8 8 8 8 io v 8 < Gi 8 G Gi & -c -C No a. •S Gi < 8 G G Gi as No Oh -G «G G 8 a 0 '£. «! o' -c -G 8 8 G -c 8 G Gi & -C No ■** ^1 •G Gn SING. 8 -g G 0 G ;§> V G E. P? G S' 'I' E. -G -O G # 8 8 8 G V* 8 &5 .«»» v 8 -c a as Gi -C -C No a, G» 8 -g 0 .Gi 8 G S' -s *E. -G -c .8 -G 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 s 8 •S' g G -c 8 G S> -C -O No Gi 1 ;e. ^ ‘s> eq 8 § 53 Si bodha nritya disa yojaya ved bibhar bhinad dinav tanav puna is <5 53 £ 53 < Q bodha nritya disa yojaya vid bibhr bhind s> .55 ’ v o tanv pun it dm at dm £ < DUAL. ^ ."S 0 -s 0 8 'e yojaya vid bibhr bhind § v S tanv pun ithdm dthdm H bodha nritya disa yojaya' ved bibhar bhinad s> 53 55 • tanav puna dvahai bodha nritya disa yojaya vit bibhri bhint nmp tanu pum tdm 6 £ M m bodha nritya disa 53 55 O* vit * bibhri bhint* 55 .8 No tanu 55 55 s>s 53 S> * shva bodha nritya disa yojaya ved bibhar bhinad 53 . 5 s No tanav puna •e* 53 bodha nritya disa yojaya vid bibhr * bhind S> .8 No tanv pun ntu antu * atn PLURAL. bodha nritya disa yojaya vit bibhri bhint dinu tanu mnd 53 bodha nritya disa yojaya ved bibhar bhinad S> 53 .55 tanav puna 53 v 5 : bodha nritya disa yojaya vit bibhri bhint nmp tanu pum s v 5 < Q < CS DUAL. bodha nritya disa yojaya vit bibhri bhint No tanu 1 is tam < (fl < bodha nritya disa yojaya ved bibhar bhinad S> 53 55 t No tanav pund ava < Ph bodha nritya disa yojaya vet bibhar bhinat O .55 No tano v 53 55 55 55 s 3 SING. bodha nritya disa yojaya vid f bibhri bhindf * •1 Ho *- § 53 1 Ss 1 * hi t dhi bodha nritya disa yojaya ved bibhar bhinad dinav tanav pund ani ROOT. 1. Budh 4. Nr it 6. Dis' 6 ►— H 2. Vid 3. Bhri 7. Bhid 5 • Ci 8. Tan £ ON 0 VC -t ON 00 TO (>• co ci H h Observe In the 2d sing., Parasraai, the roots of the 5th and 8th conj. are like those of the 1st group, and make dinu, tarn, rejecting the termina- tion. The 2d and 7th take dhi for hi by 291, and make viddhi, bhinddhi. Bhri makes bibhratu for bibhrantu in 3d pi. by 290. a. In the A'tmane, bodha + ai = bodhai and pund + ai—punai by 33, bodhci 4- ithdm = bodhethdm by 32. PERFECT or SECOND PRETERITE. 234 bubudh nanrit didis yojay + vivid babhr bibhid (icy ten | pitpuv j *> PLURAL. bubudh nanrit didis yojay f vivid babhri* bidhid 6 i(y ten pupuv idhve * dlive bubudh nanrit didis yojay t vivid babhri* bibhid & ■S' 8 1 «S 3 a, imahe * make r < p bubudh nanrit didis yojay t vivid babhr bibhid Si -g* s i- ■«S -S a. QJ V C ■< 1 c- H Z < £ H DUAL. bubudh nanrit didis yojay + i vivid babhr bibhid s •'S a a, dthe bubudh nanrit didis yojay t vivid babhri* bibhid (i(y ten pupuv ivahe *vahe $ 53 •§ ©> *6 S *© ^ vivid babhr bibhid (i(y ten pupuv SING. bubudh nanrit didis yojay t vivid babhri* bibhid (i(y ten pupuv ishe * she bubudh nanrit didis yojay + vivid babhr bibhid (icy ten pupuv j g =• 4 o t s 4 ■©» -O S "S vivid babhr j bibhid ! (i(y ten pupuv 00 Si PLURAL. bubudh nanrit didis yojay t * 4 3 £ "g <2 • b: • -s» *Ci (i(y ten pupuv 53 bubudh nanrit didis yojay f * I -§ 1 (i(y ten pupuv ima * ma bubudh nanrit didis yojay t ■« ^ | ! "§ r$ S> -Q O f i | ^ a. atus « 1 3 DUAL. bubudh nanrit didis yojay f vivid babhr bibhid S> 8 I •<*a Qj ~ 'o a. athus < 5» < bubudh nanrit didis yojay t vivid babhri * bibhid (i(y ten pupuv iva * va < bubodh nanart dides yojay f vived babhdr bibhed (i(ay tatdn pupae SING. bubodh nanart dides yojay f vived babhar* bibhed (i(ay ten pupav itha *tha bubodh nanart dides yojay t viced babhdr bibhed j 1 | Hi ^ **»H H O O 1 T! *2 ’S' ! « Q £ Vid Bliri * Bhid Si . •«s» i 'a i j — I. 4- 6. IO. N CO t> IO 00 ON fcjo h- 2 i be w c < s « „ a> x . -5 GO VO CO be e o M C c3 s 03 d - •*» OQ «— * rd be d o + ;5S V C o o 53 + CO vo r3 o c3 v « C ^O O 4 - >» a ^ S FIRST FUTURE. SECOND FUTURE. 235 v 53 _-A_- v c$ ^3 5* .s d o>5 S3 F3 ^ * ^ cr> VO o T 1" c3 > -a ^ rO (O 5- rJ*; SS ^ cq £' q 4 vd ^ S». *4 >4 V « *8 *8 8 S* v cs g V C2 v co v « t-8 v| c£ _0 ^ Vj 3 ■s I o £ 5 v e >5 V 5 S S ’§* * »«Ci v 8 ft ft £ ft B ^5 £ *C. 3 ~cr r-ce ft Pq 8 £ v o id oo* Oh C\ CO INFLECTION OF THE BASE OF PASSIVE VERBS FROM THE SAME TEN ROOTS. 238 £ m W Ph Ph a * * e 'e * * si si e 'e „ - Q Yuj Vid Bhri 1 Bind 'O Tan VO 6 ri cb r^. ib 00 Cs PERFECT. FIRST FUTURE. SECOND FUTURE. 239 AORIST. PRECATIVE. CONDITIONAL. 240 241 pH o Ph > I— I < Eh £ pq pq 55 Eh 55 pq 02 pq a * pq ph pp Ph Pj Pj •(* Co *^0 * vahe itlie ite \ * make dime nte t Observe — The 10 th class has no frequen- tative form. „ * * b 'e * * * ® ® ?*> s> * * B 'B « 'B B 'B * e 's 5 '£ v£> vS> -S' -g> f S 1 §> b 'b 'i i I - 1 - ^ ,-r ^ J* 3 3 3 3 ill ! tt rOrvps-^'^ 3 '^ EShO< 5 hOh^vS^?:? 2 ^^ O o 53 © PJ Pj Pj Pj Pj PJ PJ PJ Pj Pj © 5 -J O ~B~ 08 SS'B"B 55 ^HB~B-o-B NJ *0 -ka R, a |. -3 S Pq <; Q ^ m 4 vd 6 2 . Vid 3 . Bliri 7 . Bliid $3 • « '53 'O E-< 0 -, ib oo on ^ pq O 02 * * pq H H g; ^ 55 H pq 02 p pq w P? 02 Ph pq n M g -5 I (S S 5 H 2 w >* m •®j> 23 Pq i- '«o Q »v l-H Vid S*. § '6 Tan v s pq HH vd 6 rb ib 00 6\ M pq 02 55 pq Eh Eh 55 02 pq £> 02 <1 g Q Ph Ph B 'S g g o © =S Pq 53 V C3 * ?2n q^ v « 53 q^ q>> q>j c X «S x «p Pj ,53 N so Pj 53 o* ss 5£ ^3 q&p 'O £ <£ o ^ ib e 00 q^> ^t > p> s> "e * e v 5s 5* qsi <3 « v 5 " N © v g op cb e e ^3 ^3 ^3 * 53 v 53 q^ ^ 'o lO * « 'S 53 « V S fi 53 E-i 00 'cs v s Oh CS I 1 PARTICIPLES. t Cakrivas is added to yojayun for the participle of the perfect Parasmai, and 6 akrdna for that of the perfect A'tmane. CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERB as, ‘ TO BE. 5 243 Parasmai-pada (see 327). 584. Note, that although this root belongs to the 2d class, its inflection is ex- hibited here, both because it is sometimes used as an auxiliary, and because it is desirable that the student should study its inflection at the same time with that of the other substantive verb bhu, ‘to be,’ which will follow at 585, and which sup- plies many of the defective tenses of Two other roots in Sanskrit are some- times employed as substantive verbs, with the sense ‘to be,’ viz. ^1T 1st c. ‘to stand’ (see 269, 587), and 2d c. ‘ to sit’ (see 317. a). Indeed, the root as, here inflected, is probably only an abbreviation of as. All the cognate languages have two roots similar to the Sanskrit for the substan- tive verb ‘to be.’ Compare (pv and acr ( ecr ) in Greek, es (sum) and fu ( fui ) in Latin ; and observe how the different parts of the Sanskrit verbs correspond to the Greek and Latin: thus, asmi, asi, asti ; earn, ecrri ; sum, es, est. Compare also santi with sunt ; dstam, dstdm, with Yjarov, yj'Ttyjv ; dsma, dsta, with Yjdfxev, Yjare, &c. Present, ‘I am/ Potential, ‘ I maybe/ &c. PERS. SING. DUAL. PLURAL. SING. DUAL. PLURAL. ist,^rfW asmi svas smas \ syam Wl'I syava sydma 2d, asi sthas stha WTO syas VOCu'fsijdtani WfrT sydta 3d, asti stas \ STUrT santi ft? ITT syat Hfli Vmsyatam syus Imperfect or first preterite, ‘ I was/ Imperative, * Let me be/ as am asva W1W dsma asdni asdva ’HUTU asdma 'iST’fOw dsis dstam dsta Ufu edhi irTH stain UT sta AITtil rr dsit dstdm ?TT*i as an ^rT astu 0 fd lU stdm santu 0 Perfect or second preterite *, ‘ I was/ &c. Parasmai. Atmane. asa i All LMB as ^\fn^dsi(ha vW 1 d'G U dsatlius ’ 3 TT 3 T asa o \ asa asatus dsus o \ o \ ’HW dse Wlftl=fs* dsivahe asimahe r/si.s'/ie vil dsdthe WTpRScl asidhve WRT dse WSITIT dsdte WlftlT dsire Observe — The root as, ‘to be,’ has no derivative forms, and only two partici- ples, viz. those of the present, Parasmai and Atmane, TTrl sat, 3 TT*T sdna (see 524, 526). The conjugational tenses have an Atmane-pada, which is not used unless the root is compounded with prepositions. In this Pada ^ li is substituted for the root in 1st sing, pres., and 3 T s is dropped before dh in 2dplur. : thus. Pres. he, se, ste ; svahe, sdthe, sate ; smahe, dime, sate: Impf. asi, astlids, dsta ; asvahi, dsdthdm, dsatam j dsmahi, ddhvam, asata .- Pot. sty a, sit has, sita ; sivaki, siydthdm, siydtdm; simahi, sidhvam, sir an: Imp v. asai, sva, stdm j asavahai, sdthdm, sdtdm ; asdmahai, dhvam, satdm: see 327. * The perfect of as is not used by itself, but is employed in forming the perfect of causals and some other verbs, see 385, 490 ; in which case the Atmane may be used. The other tenses of as are wanting, and are supplied from bhu at 585. I i 2 244 INFLECTION OF THE BASE OF VERBS. Group I. Class I. EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGA- TIONAL CLASS, EXPLAINED AT 261. X 585. Root H bhu. Infin. vrfTfPR bhavitum, 4 to be’ or ‘ become.’ Parasmai-pada. Present tense , ‘ I am’ or ‘ I become.’ PERS. SING. DUAL. PLURAL. 1 st, HTrftt bhavami HTUDT bhavavas ‘FTTR'tT bhavamas \ 2d, bhavasi bhavathas \ bhavatha 3d, bhavati HTrW bhavatas \ bhavanti Imperfect or first preterite, ‘ I was.’ abhavam abhavdva abhavama abhavas \ abhavatam abhavata nbhavat V1H ^ (1 H abhavatam abhavan Potential, ‘ I may be.’ bhaveyam bhaveva bhavema H--IH bhaves \ ~N HTFW bhavetam \ *N HTiT bhaveta bhavet \ H^rTTR bhavetam \ bhaveyus Imperative, ‘ Let me be.’ bhavani bliavdva HWTH bhavdma bhava HTR*? bhavatam bhavata H--J rf bhavatu O HTrnR bhavatam \ ^=(»d bhavantu Perfect or second preterite, ‘ I was.’ babhuva C\ =TH Pd^ babhuviva Cv ^*TRH babhuvima Cn >4 babhuvitha C\ babhuvathus C\ O \ babhuva C\ babhuva Cs rltt babhuvatus Cv. O N babhuvus Cs.« \ First future, ‘ I will be.’ Hp^l dTpOT bhavitdsmi H rt 1 tj* H bhavitdsvas \ HPtniW^T bhavitdsmas Hp'tHlftt bhavitasi bhavitdsthas hR| rllPg bhavitastha HUIrll bhavita HLlrtiVr bhavitarau Hpq rt ittT bhavitdras Second future, ‘ I shall be.’ UII f*I bhavishyami HnimUTH bhavishyuvas bhavishydmas bhavishyasi bhavishyathas aj y bhavishyatha bhavishyati bhavishyatas Hfrmf'fT bhavishyanti CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP I. CLASS I. 245 Aorist or third preterite, ‘ I was’ or ‘ had been, 5 &c. abhuvam Cv \ tSRTcT abliuva cv abhuma Cv abhus Cv \ abhutam C- \ ^W5T abhuta Cv abhut ^STtffTW abhutam ^HS«T abhuvan Cv\ Cv \ Cv \ Precative or benedictive, ‘May I be.’ bhuyasam Mill-W bhuyasva iTXfWT bhuydsma '*^tV^bhuyds bhuyastam WTTtvT bhuyasta NSTrf bhuyat ^ 1 « |R hhuydstdm bliuyasus Conditional, (If) ‘ I should be.’ abhavishyam abhavishyava abhavishyama abhavisliyas abhavishyatam ^tHfVnnT abhavishyata '^wfqmTT abhavishyat ^MfTOIW abhavishyatam abhavishyan 58 6. Atmane -pada. Present tense. ‘ I am,’ & c. *v bhave bhavavahe *V r HSIH? bhavamahe bhavase bkavethe bhavadhve *fWrf bhavate *V *N HN'rT bhavete bhavante Imperfect or first preterite , ‘ I was.’ *S abhave abhavavahi ■?HVrTWf% abhavamahi abhavaihas \ abhavetham abhavadhvam "’HW--) ft abhavata vMSTTTR abhavetam ’SMS'S abliavanta Potential, ‘ I may be/ &c. ■UNS bhaveya HSSf? bhavevahi bhavemahi bhavethds 1 Vlf |fj bhaveydthdm VTSSSS bhavedhvam \ *tT5T bhaveta NS <11 til*? bhaveyatam H3G*T bhaveran \ Imperative, ‘ Let me be.’ ■2\ bhavai bhavavahai ■?v HSTR? bhavamahai, bhavasva WS^TPT bhavethdm VTSteR bhavadhvam NTrTTR bhavatdm *v ^TrJTN bhavetdm bhavantam Perfect or second preterite , ‘ I was/ &c. babhuve babhiivivahe babhuvimahe sWfSfl babhuvishe Cv WHSTST babhuvdthe CV 'SWfs&S (^) babhuvidhvi "WHS babhuve Cv "SH^TTI babhdvdte CV babhuvire 246 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. — GROUP I. CLASS I. RfVrTT? bhavitdhe bhavitdse bhavitd *rf=THT bhavishye RUTWTT bhavishyase HUjUTH bhavishyate First future, ‘ I will be,’ &e. HfawTFF bhavitdsvahe Hf^TTTW? bhacitdsmahe Hf«l ri I W I VJ bhavitasdthe bharitadhve Hf^rrTTTT bhavitdrau RfaTTTTTT bhavitdras \ Second f uture , ‘ I shall be,’ &c. hharishydoahe Hfq-orRt bhavishyamahe Wpfw'q bhavishyethe *rf-i bhaviskyadhve bhavishyete rrf bhavishyante Aorist or third preterite, ‘ I was’ or ‘ had been,’ &c. abhaviski abhavishvahi abhavishmahi i^I abhavishthas abhavishdtham (fran (556), -wq (559) ; Fut. pass. Rf~ rf=q (569), >Tq?ftq (570), HFq or >T 3 r (571). EXAMPLES OF OTHER VERBS OF THE FIRST CLASS IN THE ORDER OF THEIR FINAL LETTERS. Par. stands for Parasinai ; Atm. for Atmane ; I in [if. for Imperfect; Impv.for Imperative. 587. Root FIT. Inf. WITT * to stand’ (269, 269. a). Par. and A(tm. Pres, ffrurfu, fwffftr, frnrfTT ; frUFurw, ffrsTT^r ; frnrranr , raw, * These derivative verbs will be inflected at full at 703. 705, 706, 707. CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP I. CLASS I. 247 fwwfw. Atm. fair, fwrrir, fwvw; fto?, ftnra, ; fwwOTt, fwu^T, fWFW. Impf. wffOT, wfwWW, &C. Atm. wfWT?, &C. Pot. fWTOT, fWTTff, fwrnr; fwsv, &c. Atm. fwirw, fwww, fwirw; fwuwfv, fwwOTT, &c. Impv. frreTfu, fwv, fwww; fwwOT, &c. Atm. fwt, fww, frOTui ; frrsOTt, &c. Perf WOT (373), wfw^J or WOTOT, WOT; wfOTW, TOW, WOTWR; WTOTU, WOT, WOTTT. Atm. WOT, W?OTW, WOT; wfOTWI, WOTOT, WOTTW; WTOTUW, wfOTOT, WfOTT. 15 / Flit. OT7WTTOT, OTTWlfw, &C. Atm. OTTWTW, OTTWOT, &c. 2(1 Fut. OTTOTlfw, OTTOTfe, OTTOTfw, &c. Atm. OTTOT, OTOTOT, OTTOTW, &C. Aor. (438) WOTT, WOTTW, WOTTW; WOTTW, WOTTW, WOTlfTT ; WOTTW, WOTTW, WOTW. Atm. (438. d, 421. d) wfejfw, wfOTOTW, wfOTW; wfOTOTff, wfOTWOTT, -WTWT ; wfOTOTtW, Wf'OTW, WTOTWW. Prec. OTWTW, OTWOT, &c. Atm. OTT#W, OTTSffWTW, &c. Cond. WOTIOT, WOTTOTW, &c. Atm. WOTTOT, WOTTOTWTV, & c. Pass., Pres. OTlV (465); Aor. 3d sing. WOTlfw. Caus., Pres. OTTWfw, -V ; Aor. wfwfww, wfw- UOT. Des. fwwOTifw, &c. Freq. Tflfl'd or WTOTfw or WTOTlfw. Part., Pres. fwFn ; Past pass, fww ; Past indecl. fOTOTT, -OTOT, -FOT ; Fut. pass. OTTWOT, OTOTOT, OTW. 588. Root WT. Inf. WTW ‘to smell 5 (269). Par. Pres, fwwu, ftnrfw, &c. Impf. wfwsr, wfwww, &c. Pot. fWiiOT, fwiw, &c. Impv. fwwTfwr (58), fwra, &c. Perf. wst (373), wfww or iruTOT, wm; wraw, WUOTTT, WUTOT ; WW, WWW- 1st Fut. WTWTfm, ITTWlfw, &c. 2(1 Fut. utotttw, wTOTftr, &c. Aor. (438) wist, wtrrw, wwtw; wstot, wmw, WWTWT; WTfOT, WsTfW, WWW. Or by 433, WOTIOT, WWfOT, WTJOTtW ; wwifwOT, wmfwu, -nret ; wtnfww, -ftry, -ftnro. Free, trrmw, tjottot, &c. Or Tjirm, &c. Cond. WWTOT, WSTOTW, &c. Pass., Pres. tjot (465. a); Aor. 3d sing, wtnfw. Caus., Pres. 'SOTVTfw; Aor. wfwrSOT or wfwfiOT. Des. fwOTTOTfiT. Freq. wiflw, WOTlfu or ROTOT. Part., Pres. fwnr; Past pass. s?tw or truiT ; Past indecl. TUrWT, -WOT; Fut. pass. WTWOT, WOTTfa, 1OT. 589. Root WT. Inf tjtw ‘ to drink’ (269). Par. Pres. fcRTOT, OTWOT, &c. Impf. wfqw, wfwww, &c. Pot. fsRV, f*OTW, &c. Impv. fqWTTW, fww, &c. Perf. (373) W, or tpTOT, W ; uftsw, WWWW, tOTWW; qfqw, UW, W. 15 / Fut. NTWrfOT, urwrra, &c. 2 d Fut. WTOTTOT, OTOTfa, &c. Aor. (438) WWT, WWTW, WOTW ; WWOT, WWTW, WWTWT; WqOT, WWTW, wqw. Prec. UWOT, TROT, &c. Cond. WWTOT, WWTOTW, &c. Pass., Pres, xftw (465) ; Aor. 3d sing. WWTOT (475). Caus., Pres. WTiIWTOT, -W; Aor. wqiw (493. e). Des. fwOTOTfu. Freq. WRtv, WOTfw or WOTTOT. 248 CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP I. CLASS I. Part., Pres. fqqq; Past pass, qfq (533.6); Past indecl. qWr. -qrq; Put. pass, qTqq, qrqlq, qq. 590. Root fq. Inf. qq ‘ to conquer. 5 Par.* Pres. qqTfb, qqfq. qqfd; qqiqq, qqqq, qqqq ; qqtqq, qqq, qqfq. Impf qqq, qqqq, qqqq; qqqTq, qqqq, ~ qqqT ; qqqTH, qqqq, qqqq. Pot. qqq, qqq , qqq; qqq, qqq, qqqi ; qqq, qqq, q"qqq. Impv. qqrfq, qq, qqq ; qqrq, qqq, qqqf ; qqq?, qqq, qqqj. Per f fqniq (368, 374. b), fqqfqq or fqqq, fqqpq; fqf/qq (374), ftpqqq, fqrqqq ; fqfrqq, fqnr, fqrnTT. 1st Fut. qqrffFr, qqrra, qqT ; qqrcrq, qqmrq qqhj ; qqrwq, qqTTq, qqTtq. 2 d Fut. qunfa, qqfq, qrqfq ; q^junr, qqqq vnqqq ; qtqiqq, qtqq, qtqfiq. Aor. ^sqq (420. b), qqqfa?, qqqfq ; -qqiq, 'sqq, ^qvi ; qqq?, ^sq?, qqqq. Free, qrqTq qtqm, qfqTq; q^qTqr. qhnqj, qfqiqri ; qfrrrq?, qfqnq qfqnrrr. Cond. qrqtq, qqqq. qipqq ; ^qtqrq, qqsnf, qqqrqi ; qqnnu, qqtqq, qipqq. Pass., Pres, qtq, &c. ; Aor. 3 d sing, qqrfq. Cans., Pres. qiqqTfq ; Aor. qqfqq. Des. fqq^rrfq. Freq. qqfq, qqm or qqqtm. Part., Pres, qqq ; Past pass, fqq; Past indecl. fqjqT, -fqq; Fut. pass, qqq, qqqtq, qq or or q^q (571, 572). a. Like fq may be conjugated qt. Inf. qq ‘ to lead.’ But the Causal is qrqqiiq; Caus., Aor. qqiqq; Des. fqqtmfs?. In Epic poetr\ r the Perfect is sometimes qqiqfq for fqqiq, and the 2 d Fut. qfqxqTm for qtqTfq (especially when preceded by the prep. qr). 591. Root fq?. Inf. *R 7 T ‘ to smile. 5 Itm. Pres. q?q, qrqq, &c. Impf. qqrq, qwqqr??, &c. Pot. qrqq, qrqqrq, &c. Impv. rqq, qrq^, &c. Perf. (374. e) fqfqqf, fqfarfqq, fqfqrq ; fqfqfqqq, fqfqrqrq, fqfqrqrq ; fqfqrfqqq, fquqfqsq or -fqq, fquqfqf. zst Fut. iqqrq. wqrq, &c. 2 d Fut. TFpq, rqTqq, &c. Aor. qwft, qwET??, qwq ; qwrtqfq. qwqrqt, -qiqi ; qqrq?fq. qqrq, qrqqq. Prec. wqfq, &c. Cond. qqq. &c. Pass., q?fq, &c. ; Aor. 3c? sing, qtmfq. Caus., Pres, qqqqifq or qnqqTfq ; Aor. qftuqq or qfqtqq. Des. fqqifqq. Freq. qqflq, iron? or qqrqtfq. Part., Pres. qrqqTq ; Past pass, fqrq ; Past indecl. fwTjqr, -fpqqi ; Fut. pass, TJ?qq, qrqqfq, qrq. 592. Root 77. Inf ^TH ‘to run. 5 Par. Pres, ^qrfq, ^qfq, ^qfq : ^qTqq, ^qqq, ^qqq; ^Tqq, Tjqq, ^qfq. Impf. q^q, qr$qq, &c. * fq is not generally used in the Atmane, excepting with the prejiositions vi or para. See 243. a. t When fq is prefixed, the perfect is fqfttftqq against r. 70. CONJUGATION OF VERBS — GROUP I. CLASS I. 249 Pot. ■JVV, " 5 %^, &c. Impv. ■ 5 ^% ( 58 ), &c. Per/, p'R, JF ? ; (3 6 9) 5 (374- 9), SF’ ff4, fp^- fTrlTfpR. 2 d Fut. jTonfk, &c. Aor. (44° • «)> wp*, w ?; ^F T ^’ ^SF*’ ^IF™ 5 ^F m ’ ^F^’ *IF^ ^ rec - ftim, a. Like tr may be conjugated U (sometimes written ^). Inf. ?jf4 4 to flow/ 593. Root , RTFTR or jfffTtfir. Part., Pres. ^rit; Pass. FWR; Past pass. FIT; Past indecl. FRT, -FR; Fut. pass. STURT, STTRR, SR. a. n (268), Inf. UTF ‘ to sing,’ follows the analogy of 3f, the final diphthong being changed to d before all terminations beginning with t or s. Pres, urttu. Impf. urr, &c. Pot. upr. Impv. urtr. Perf. (373. d) rut. RfnR or w?, RUT ; RPR, RURR, RUITR ; RPR, RU, RUR. 1st Fut. rtttttVr. id Fut. rtrtIr. Aor. (433) RUTfRR, rrtr^r, wnln; ^RTfRR, rutr?, rrurr ; RmraR. RurfRu, rut- f?RR. Prec. rrtr (451). Cond. rrtr. Pass. rftRR (463); Aor. 3 d sing. RRTftr. Caus., Pres, RRurfR (483) ; Aor. rr'Itr. Des. fR- RTRTTR. Freq. RR^, FUtfR or rtuttr. Part., Pres. rrit ; Pass. rftirrrR ; Past pass. fitlT ; Past indecl. RtlRr, -ur ; Fut. pass, rtfrt, RT^ftR, JR. b. Like R may be conjugated u ‘ to be weary;’ R ‘to meditate;’ if ‘ to fade ;’ and all other roots in ai. c. Root RR. Inf. rrr ‘ to cook.’ Par. and Atm. Pres, urir. Atm. RR. Impf. rrr, RRRR, &c. Atm. RRR. Pot. rrr, rrr, &c. Atm. rrr. Impv. RRTfR, RR, &c. Atm. rr. Perf. rrtr or m RRRR or RfRR (370 ,d), RRTR; RfRR, RRRR, RRTTR; RTRR, RR, RRR. Atm. RR, RfRR, RR ; RTRRR* RRTR, RRTIT ; RfRRF, RfRR, RfRT. i st Fut. TRtfftfT. Atm. id Fut. r^tr. Atm. W I. Aor. (420. d) Rtim, IHRRnR, ^RratlT; RT7TTR, RRTR, UTO ; CONJUGATION OP VERBS.— GROUP I. CLASS I. 251 mrw, ’snrns, ^zrmzu Atm. ’snrffej, ^tRvnzr, ’srwfV, '^WT’^t, vnrariTT; vuttj 4 , ^rq^jTT. Free. zraTR. Atm. Cond. 73 wr. Atm. thzjvzt. Pass., Pres, tpa* ; Imp/, ^rq^xr ; Aor. 3d sing. ’SUTTfq. Caus., Pres. UT^vttu, zn~zr ; Aor . vrzftqzi. Des. fqxraTfn, fwq. Freq. tprozif, trurfaq or Part., Pres. ; Atm. zrhr; Pass . traprR; Past pass. ttB; Past indecl. xrifiT, -tR? ; Fut. pass, tj^q, trqzfhi, qua* or zra?. d. Root zprq. Inf. znfq'TT ‘to ask.’ Par. and Atm. Pres. zrr- qTfJT. Atm. zn%. Imp/ THznq, vrqRm, &c. Atm. Pot. zn^ni, zrrznr, &c. Atm. zrrzrq. Impv. zrreTfzr, ztr, &c. Atm. ztr%. Per/, zrqrq, Tnrrfq-q, w^; wfN^r, zpn^nrcr; wfw, w^r, zrqppr. Atm. zjqrrsrq, zprrzt; toM, w^ur ; w- fg*r|, wM (372. a), zjznfqT. 1 st Fut. znfqTnfVn. Atm. znfzj- fTT%. 2d Fut. TnfqTqifH. Atm. zrrfqzq. Aor. (427) ^zrrfspi, ’srmqhr ; ^rznf%®r, ^tznfznr, -vt ; ^raif^jr, -fas, . Atm. ^ht- fafq, -HVTfetm, vrtprfqv; ^mrfqtqfV, ^nnf^Err?if, -utttt ; wProff, wrfqs 4 , ^zuf^nr. Free, zrrsnzi. Atm. znfzudzr, Cond. ^zrrfsrai. Pass., Pres, zrrzq. Caus., Pres. zrreznfa; Aor. TFrqznzj. Des. fz?zpr- fqqTfu, -Zl. Freq. zqzrrzq, znzrrfCTT; 3d sing, zrrznfm. Part., Pres. zpr^w; Atm. znq?rr?r; Past pass, zrrfznr; Past indecl. zrrfqj^T ; Fut. pass. znfznr% zrrznffzr, zrrzq. e. Root spr. Inf ^ftfznr ‘to grieve/ Par. (Ep. rarely Atm.). Pres. sfpqTfu. Imp/ &c. Pot. sii^v, sflqzr, &c. Impv. Tjfmfu, &c. Per/, spftfzm, spifa; ^srfzpq, sppppr, ^UnqfTTT: 3 U 5 irqrr, ¥ 131 % 3T3UR. 1st Fut. ^rtfqWTfFT. 2d Flit, wfq- O O O \ OO 7 0o 7 000\ ~ ^ zmfu. Aor. (427. b) , wfxfiir; TstrnfzjR, vnjfrfqvi; ^TTTfev?, ^ftfsre, ^ftfzrnzr. Free, sranzr. Cond. TS^rf- fqzq. Pass., Pres. sra? ; Aor. 3d sing, vreituq. Caus., Pres. 3iR- ztTU?; Aor. ^STSpj. Des. 37¥rf-qUTm or IFSufznufu. Freq. UTUn^r, sflwfR ; 3d sing. Part., Pres, sfpq IT ; Pass, spsRR; Past pass. srf^TT and sftfqw ; Past indecl. ipfqun or snfqpqT, -y/si; Fut. pass, ^ftfqrw^r, ^ft^zr, %taj. 596. Root 7R. Inf. ws ‘ to abandon,’ ‘ to quit.’ Par. Pres. 7 JnTTf*T. Imp/. VTPR, ^TKRPf, &c. Pot. iq^A Impv. Tq^rifu, KR, &c. Per/. •fTUnTT, mqftfq Ol’ TITCRR (370. d), TOTtF ; TUqfzR, TTOTpR, 7T FRpr ; TnqRH, TT^tT, nTqzrzT . 1st Fut. Tq^TTR. 2 d Fut. fqRiTfu. Aor. (423, 296) wr^r, vnmvi'lK; vnznw, ’srwra;, k k 2 252 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. — GROUP I. CLASS I. ^wraxx. Free. nn^TTH. Cond. *nxnw, &c. Pass., Pres, wxxr ; Aw\ 3 d sing. ^nxrcfTX. Caus., Pres. IXTRxrrfxi ; Aor. ^fifixnT. Des. fdiXTBJxfa. Freq. mKliir, HTmnrr or HTmiftfH. Part.. Pres. T^T^TTT ; Past pass, r^; Past indecl. TTfiT, -?TX5T; Fut. pass, Knnftxr, txttixt ( 573)- 597. Root tnr. Inf. Tji ‘ to sacrifice,’ ‘ to worship.’ Par. and Atm. Pi •es. ifinfsT. Atm. xnr. Impf. *nrrT, 'STxnTXT, &c. Atm. ’Hxjix. Pot. xtiR. Atm. ■qvpj. Impv. xiinfxr, &c. Atm. xj%. Perf. (375. e) sptTrT, or xifsTH or ?xnj (297), sxrr?T; ffisTT, flTiTXT; inrxx, $31*. Atm. fffrq, f%; $f3T-j?, $5TT*, fw; fnTR¥, 1st Fut. wrfm (403). Atm. xtfi?. id Fut. xnxxnfxx (403). Atm. *tct. Aor. (422) ’inTTsi, ^TzriBfto, ^xnsrtw ; wim, ^xrt#, ^Txrnn ; ^txttexx, ’Hxtw, ^xntRxt. Atm. to, ^sn?? ; ^xr^rr^r, ^^rnrr; ^nm4 ^WrT. Prec. 2^7 TXT. Atm. xfTn'hl. Cond. ^TO. Atm. ^xxnsT. Pass., Pres, (471); Impf. (260.0); Aor. 3d sing. 'ssnnfjT. Caus., Pres. xjTWxrrfxr, -xf; Aor. ’HxfhrsT. Des. fxnr^Tfa, -%. Freq. xrrxnxf, xjTxrn-R or xrTxrivtfh. Part., Pres, xi tTTT ; Atm. xTtRTXT ; Pass. v?qfTT«T ; Past pass. ; Past indecl. -2151; Fut. pass. xr?^r. xjtT^-xj, or xn-xr. a. Root xx^ (270. d). Inf. xx3i ‘ to adhere,’ ‘ to embrace.’ Par. Pres. HsTirb*. Impf. ^?xx*r. Pot. xxirt. Impv. xxiTTfxT. Perf. xxxx^, XXXX%XI or v!7T3?xr, Trau ; XTTrf^XT, TTG^yTX, XXXT^TTTXX ; MWptfH, XX XX^, XXIX *3 XX. 1st Fut. xtjRrfifR, &c. id Fut. xxwfrr, &c. Aor. ^sxxra, -^fax, -■gftir; ’Rxxt^;, -^t; thxxtot, xsxxta;, 'snxTsm. Prec. xxixttxt, &c. Cond. &c. Pass., Pres. xx^if. Caus., Pres. xx^xiTfix ; Aor. X'TXXxr#. Des. fxxxhjTfxx, &c. Freq. xxmw, xrrxx^fb. Part., Pres, xxiht; Pass. xxxxpTR; Past pass. xr^i; Past indecl. XTW or xbliT, -XT?q ; Fut. pass. xx^5«x, xr^xfixr, ttsit or xxi?r. b. Root ?TT. Inf. fftfin? £ to shine.’ Atm. (and Par. in Aor.). Pres. ?TT7T. Impf WSTTR. Pot. sirax*. Impv. srtw. Perf. (383. a), frTSTfiTXX, f^ITTf ; f^TTTX?, f^WTTT ; ft^flTXX?, f^THT. is/ Fut. ^ftfrnnt. id Fut. #fw^. Aor. Wtfiffa, Wlfimxx, TRiftflTC ; ^SrrfiTX^fV, -fTimxjT, -ffTRTrlf ; -frTTTT?, -frfXR, -f(TXTW. Par. WIT, -rTXX, -TTrT ; - 1 TTXI, -ixw, -W7TT; -WTXX, -THT, -rXXT. Prec. STnTxfrxT. Cond. wrfrTW. Pass., Pres. 3j?r; Aor. 3d sing. ^x^frfrT. Caus., Pres. srfrxxnfxx ; Aor. wfl^ni. * The final j is sometimes incorrectly doubled (Pres. XXlWTfiX, XXlrffxT- XXWfw, &c.); but the root must not, therefore, he confounded with an uncommon root XXUT or XXX^, meaning * to go,’ ‘ to move,’ also 1st c., and making XHuTfiT &c. CONJUGATION OF VERBS — GROUP I. CLASS 1. 253 Des. or KSJffTR. Freq. ilW, 4lftf777 or 4i|7rtfj?. Part., Pres. fTfiRFI ; Past pass. llfrTrF or iftfirff ; Past indecl. IT 777141 or fftfflHT, -WW ; Put. pass. ifTfrTFPTT, iftfRfar, iff4. c. Root xrrT. Inf. tiffTR ‘ to fall.’ Par. Pres. Impf. 4417. Pot. 4714. Impv. xjwTf^. Per f. M or 447T (370./), 4fFf4, 44T7T; 4flT4, 477477, 4777777 ; 4f?W, 477, 47T7T. 1st Fut. 4f»777TftfT. 0.(1 Fut. trfk- ■Hrrft. Aor. 444 (441), 44477, 44477 ; 44 htu, w?, wsraf; 44474, 44?T7r, 477774. Prec. tottt. Cond. 44 fH 4 . Pass., Pres, 44; Impf. 447*1; Aor. 3d sing, 44TT7T. Caus., Pres, 47747f4, 47T4 and W4Tf?T, 4 T 774 ; Aor. 4tfl4H'. Des. f44frWT4 or fwTftt. Freq. 4414FT, 4414774 or 44l4Tflf4. Part., Pres. 47TTT; Pass. 4T44T4 ; Past pass. 4fT77T; Past indecl. 4fr774T, -4(4 ; Fat. pass. 447774, 47T414, 4774 or 474. 598. Root 477. Inf. 4fRW or 4fihf (73) 4 to be,’ ‘ to exist.’ Atm. (and optionally Par. in 2 d Fut., Aor., and Cond., when it rejects i). Pres. 4T7. Impf. 444. Pot. 4774. Impv. 477. Perf. 444, 4^fff4, 444 ; 44ffT#, 441TT4, 447TT7T ; 44f7T4?, 44frTS4, 44frfT. 1st Flit. 4f7777T?. 2d Fut. 4T44. Aor. 44T4UT, 44fffST77, 44T42 ; 44fffX4% -f44T4T, -ffi4T7?T; -fffS#, -f^RTT. Par. 73^77, -7T37, -7777 ; -77T4, -rid, -77 7! T ; -1TT4, -7(77, -774. Prec. 4TR4T4. Cond. 44TR4 or 4434. Pass., Pres. 4W. Cans., Pres. 47(4174 ; Aor. 441477 or 4444. Des. f44f44 or f4474rffT. Freq. 47^474, 4Ul4f?4 or uAuiftm, Part., Pres. 4^474 ; Past pass. 44 ; Past indecl. 4fffF4T or 4^47, -4t4; Fut. pass. 4^7774, 47T4t4. 414. 599. Root 44. Inf 4UJH ‘ to speak.’ Par. Pres. 44774. Impf 4744, 44^77, &C. Pot. 444. Impv. 4^TFf. Perf. (375. c ) 44RT, 44744, 44T4 ; 4Vfy4, 44437, ; 41437, 4T, 444. 1st Fut. 4f^77TTS7, 4U777TT4, &C. 2 d Fut . uf-T^rrff?, 4fv'<4u7, &C. Aor. (428) 44TUT4, 4747^77, 4747^77 ; 4741^4, ^4lf^¥, 4741447 ; ^4lf^W?, 4T4Tf4477. Prec. 473 14, 41TT4, &c. Cond. 4444, 474%'si?r, &c. Pass., Pres. 471 (471); Aor. 3d sing. 44Trk. Cans., Pres. 4744714 ; Aor. 4T#4. Part., Pres. 41*77; Pass. 4W4HT; Past pass. 4^4 (543); Past indecl. 4T447, -4H; Fut. pass. 447f4, 47414, 4717 Or W. a. Root 47 (270). Inf £ to sink.’ Par. Pres, (fAlTW. Impf. TSTfhi Pot. 4(44 Impv. T7i47f4. Perf. VHTTV, VT44 (375. a) or 377774, 3T3TT1T ; 3Frf<74, 777^77 , 47777? ; 77144, 47?, 77777. 1st Fut. 7747174. 2 d Fut. 77^7147. Aor. 47777? (436, 437), 4747^4, 477144; 4T4^T4, 447777, 474c?rTT ; 477474, 47744, 47744. Prec. 771 TT 7 T. Cond. 44 ^j. Pass., Pres. 411 ; Aor. 3d sing. 474Tf^. Caus., Pres. 4R?4Tf4 ; Aor. 47^44. Des. f44- 254 CONJUGATION OF VERBS GROUP I. CLASS 1. WTfa. Freq. TTT^ra, Trnrfa or TTnuflftT. Part., Pres. r}rr ; Past pass. (540); Past indecl. *r?RT, ; Fut. pass, TURfa, Trra. b. Root 'To- Inf. tjptfR ‘ to increase.’ Atm. (and Par. in Fut., Cond., and Aor.). Pres. tflj. Imp/', *rq\f, & c. Pot. RVtr. Impv. &c. Perf. tppr, Tffvre, TTfuRR, WP, (372. a), 1 st Fut. ffVrTT?. Par. RfuRTTm. 2 d Fut. Par. 'wrfT. Inf Ryw ‘ to take.’ Atm. Pres. R 5 >r, R5HTT, R5HR ; TRHUfR, R5R7f, cR^R; 7RHTR?, R5RJ4, R5RRt. Impf. RT7RR, ^H^TtT. CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP I. CLASS I. 255 ^Tc3*nT; ^rF5'4Pd%, ^pjinzTt, ^IcWtTi; WTSHTUf?, ^To5U?4, ^75^. Pot. 73^, T^RUT, 75H7T ; 73*Rf?, 75^41^1, T^RTTIT ; TSHUf?, 73H54, 73HT.FT. Impv. <3*, ToFRT, 75«7TT ; cWI^t, 73HRT, 73H7TT ; r^T^i, U5FRTT. Perf. (375. a), 'srfWv, t^htvt, tshttt ; Tsftu#, ^faT. 1 st Fut. 753TR (409), HAUTT, c53TT, &C. 2 cl Fut. (299), 755 ^rt^t, &c. Aor. (420, 299 ), fettssttft ( 298), 'STTTat; ^^re?T, ; THT^FRiV, Prec. US^fftN, TS’XffFW, &c. Cond. ’STcS^w, &c. Pass., Pres. 75«I ; Aor. Orff'S, FETTSTfa (475) or &c. Caus., Pres. &c. ; A or. ^7373»T. Des. fTTUT (503). Freq. 73T75R, T^T^FtflfFT. Part., Pres. 75WR ; Past pass. 7*31 ; Past indecl. 7*3fT, -'FJR ; Fut. pass. 753rar, 7*>TFrfaT, <*«?. a. Like 7?*? is conjugated i?T (with prep, ^ett a), ^TTCsi ‘ to begin.’ 602. Root rra (270). Inf. rug ‘to go.’ Par. Pres. JT33"rfa, UTsrfrf ; jt^uut, iranur; rrauru, ttsr, Impf. &c. Pot. irkfs, trst?, &c. Impv. rrsjTf^r, u^, &c. Perf. (376) tTUTK, ^nffTST or *n^, FRTH; VffruN, tfttjtt, FTR-rUT; ■jtuuu, jT 7 ??, Tf/grr. 1 st Fut. u^riftFr. 2 d Fut. rifh^rfu, riffCEife, TTfiraifTr, &c. Aor. (436) W, ; ^TUNTN, ^mrnr, XPUTTri; ’SrrTHTSTj, ^TUFUT, xtttfr. Free. umTF. Cond. wjJTfrjxg. Pass., Pres. TTT^r; Aor. 3 d sing. ^UITUT. Caus., Pres. riHanfFT; Aor. wsftrtfl. Des. fiTUfFUrrfir. Freq. or »T^*fK*T; see 709. Part., Pres. Jl^rT; Past pass. U7T; Past indecl. rTurr, -imr, -UKI (563. a, 560) ; Fut. pass, rua^r, ttfrFjt, ut^. self a. Root fut. Inf. frt ‘ to bend.’ ‘ n Pres. Furrfa. Atm. fut. Impf. wtft4. »/ . -N -r » A Atm. ^tfut. Pot. J . . Mnim. 21.UIJ. • J i-AUli. -1 M • JL \JV» FUR. Atm. frit. Impv. FunfFf. Atm. fr. Perf. (375. a) fttttu or ftfut, futffi or FrUR, fftr; ttTFR, frrft, XRrTFT; fr, futft, y Ox \ Atm. fr, %f*R, FTH; ^Ffm, %FTR; (372. a), FT far. 1 st Fut. f ruPgl Atm. FrFTTR. 2 d Fut. FTRTfiT. Atm. FfR. Aor. *?Fjftnr, w^thr, ^FifaR, ^ruffr?, ^rrfrRT; ^rfFTR, ^TFffFiv, ^rFTTFrvFr. Atm. ^Fjf?T, ^ft^ittt, FHFfUT ; Outfit, ^nruTHT ; ?TTUisr, ^FfUfT. Prec. fu^tu. Atm. FfTihr. Cond. ^TFTR. Atm. ^tftr. Pass., Pres, fur; Impf. fetfhr; Aor. 3 d sing. FHFrfk or ^FflfH. Caus. FunnfFT or FfRFlTfFT ; Aor. FsrFfFUT or %M4Tqd. Des. fFRFmTT. Freq. frj^, Fj^mfft or ft^fu. Part., Pres, fr^; Atm. fupuft ; Pass, furtuft ; Past pass. FfK ; Past indecl. ftfett, -ftfr or -FTrir ; Fut. pass, ftfrr, FU 7«ft"Fj, fttfr or F(7^. b. Root ^73 . Inf. ‘ to move.’ Par. Pres, R75TfFT. Impf. CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP I. CLASS I. 25 G 'STW. Pot. RF5F. Impv. ffj, &c. Perf. RRTF5 or FFF 5 , ^r? 5 ; ^tttttf ; %ferr, 15/ Fut. O V o \ * 7 o \ ■^fernfh?. 2 d Fut. ^fF 5 FnffT. Aor. *T^Tf? 5 F, *R3TFFiF, ^T^c^hr : *T^T- -ut; tsrttav'f, -fev, -fouF. Prec. ■ffftf. Cond. T'TFfe'aj. Pass., Pres. Caus., Pres. FTFFrfa or ^TF 3 FTfF. Dcs. f^rafOTlft- 7 . Freq. '^T^nS', Part., Pres. ^TSTT ; Past pass. ^rf?57r; Past hided. Ff?SFT, -FVF ; Fut. pass. FflFTTF?, FF 5 FTF, FFT or ^t^t. 603. Root Tfbr. Inf. ■jfifcUT ‘ to live.’ Par. Pres. rfrqrrfh. Imp f. ’HsflF. Pot. sfRpr. Impv. F)~TTVr, FiF, &c. Perf. fvrjffcl, fFrfiTFF, nrute ; fj^TTur^, ftnrhrgF, nTTT^rfF ; fwhr, ftr?rtfF. 1st Fut. TS^f^fmfw. 2 d Fut. Aor. wtfFF, ^nfhrl'F, ; ^nflf^nj, ^nrlfFST ; ^wtfF^F. Prec. FtenF. Cond. Pass., Pres. FUF ; Aor. yl sing, Caus., Pres. TftFSTfF ; Aor. ^fnnrte or FFrftTF. Des. Freq. Part., Pres. rftN.t ; Past pass, ; Past indecl. FifNiFT, - iftaj ; Fut. pass, yftfarpai, *rter. a. Root VFT. Inf. F 7 rF 77 ‘ to run,’ ‘ to wash.’ Par. and Atm. Pres. vmfF. Atm. utn. Impf. ^rurj. Atm. ^?vnr. Pot. w. Atm. FFTF. Impv. VTFTfF. Atm. UTN. Perf. ?VUT, FVTfFF, ^VTf^W, FURFF, -THF; ^VTfFF, T^TTF, . 1st Fut. VTTFTnffF. Atm. vnfefn?. 2d Fut. VTfrcnfF. Atm. NTfrit. Aor. ^\nfFV, ^uiuftF, ^nrnftw; -ftru, -f^gt ; ^tvTfVFT, -fa?, -fauF. Atm. FFtfafa, -from, -fa?; *?FTfaRrfa, &c. Prec. UTRTF. Atm. infaxjfa. Cond. ^TUTfacj. Atm. FUrfa'iF. Pass., Pres. vtft. Caus., Pres. VT- Ftnfa; Aor. : sfahfa. Des. fa>nfa*rrfF, -?. Freq. ?rufar. Part., Pres. VPTiT, VTFFTF ; Past pass. NT faff, FT 71 (‘ washed’) ; Past indecl. NTfarFT or VT7FT ; Fut. pass. infafR?, NUfafa, NR 7 . 604. Root ’(*'31 (270). Inf tj? ‘ to see.’ Par. Pres. F 3 FTfF, FtrtrfF, N3FT7T ; F3FRF, F3FFF, F3F7JF ; F3FTFF, F3FF, F3FU7T. Impf. THFJF, 7HF3FF , ; FFnjFTF, &C. Pot. F 3 FF, F3FF, F 5 F 7 T ; &c. Impv. trSFTTF, F 3 F, F 3 F 7 j ; F 3 FTF, &c. Perf. ffff T jr, fffffsfa or %; RRrfRR, xJRRRR ; RRifiPT, RRTR, RfRRTr. Atm. RRR, R«p; ^fW^, RRiRTR ; RyfRT, i st Fut. Rigrfc?. Atm. RtfrrR or WTR. 2 d Fut. R^irfu or Ry^urfr. Atm. RTW or Riv^r. Aor. RTRTRT, RJRiT^te, RrarljtR; RTRTRR, RTRTG 7 , rrupt; rtrrs& rirtp, rtrirNt. Or rtrirt, rirtr/Pu &c. Or Rreiw, wsppf, RicT^R; RrST^TR, Rtcff^R, RIRRIRT ; RTRiRfTR, RTRRTR, RIRRIR. C \ &c - 1st Fut. (415. m) faFFTfar or Ffarfat (305. a). Atm. nf^rUF or ifr- FTF. 2 d Fut. nfaaTTfa or FtSFTfa. Atm. nfa-af or ftff. Aor. *m- Cv Cv C\ fFF, FTFFfa, FTFFfa; ^ufarF, Fmfap, FTFlFPr ; ^ufa^T, FmfFF, ^Tjfa- F7T. Or ^TFFT (306. a), ^TfSm , FTFSJ 7 T; FTFSJTF, FTFFJF, W 5 JFT ; F7FFTTH, FTFSJF, Atm. ■FUfafa, FtfaFFTF, NUTfap, &c. Or FTFfar (439), ^FRTFTF or FT 7 JFTF, or FPTF; FfF^TFfF or FPT^fF, F^mn ; F)FmafF, or ftff, ^rpuF. Prec. nwrm. CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP I. CLASS I. 259 Atm. or Tpffa (306. a). Cond. or vrtrt^i, or wntel. Pass., Pres, nil ; Aor. 3d sing. vrnf?. Caus., Pres. n?*rrfH ; Aor. vnrn|. Des. wnvjTfn, -gj. Freq. *ftnw, wtntfw (3c? sing, gftntfe) or Part., Pres. n?7t ; Past pass, ns' (305. a ) ; Past indecl. nffinT or nfT or nffigi, -nw ; Put. pass, nfi=r run or nw or iffW. 610. Root ' \ * «T amuhyan Potential, ‘ I may be troubled/ _____ -Rsjipar muhyeyam RHR muhyeva RHIR muhyema niuhyes RtSTHR muhyetam WsUTT muhyeta RvM rf muhyet RHI fTPT muhyetam vi \ J ~V •1 ty muhyeyus Imperative, ‘ Let me be troubled/ ^^Tlf»T muhydni R tHR muhydva RH 7 TR muhydma muhya RHTHR muhyatam SHUT muhyatu RVITT muhyatu HfU ri IR muhyatam RHUR muhyantu Perfect or second preterite, ‘ I became troubled/ mumoha 0 v RRtVr mumuhiva mumuhima vi i v RRl fp ^ mumokitha * mumuhathus RR1? mumuha ^1*65 mumoha ^fl'SYnT mumuhatus ViO^ Vi \ mumuhus 00 vi \ First future t, ‘ I will be troubled/ Rl 1 ? infer mohitasmi rl 1 ts TT mohitasvas R1 f« rt l fRR mohitasmas jftr^rtlfR mohitasi RTfVfTTCSTR mohitdsthas mohitastha Rtfc hi mohita, Rt!?HTU mohitarau ♦S 1 Pf: r! HR mohitaras Second future t, ‘ I shall be troubled/ mohishydmi RriVornm moliishyavas mohishyamas Rtffrsrfp mohishyasi mohishyatkas RTffi <4 >4 mohishyatha RTfrotflt mohishyati RUV *4 fftl mohishyatas RTTV^rOfT mohishyanti * Or (305. a) or Wltm (305). t The 1st and 2d futures may optionally reject the inserted i; see under 412, CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP I. CLASS IV. 261 Aorist or third preterite (435), ‘I became troubled. 5 amuham amuhava amukdma SUHrfTT amuhas amuhatam amuhata O v \ O ^ \ O aniuhat ^lUUTTfH amuhatdm amuhan Precative or benedictive, ‘ May I be troubled.’ ■franw muhyasam ^TTUT muhydsva muhyasma muhyas TT'SnTrFf muhydstam U^iTInT muhydsta 3T?JTrr muhydt JUJfTfrTTH muliydstdm JTSTT « ^ muliydsus Conditional , ‘ I should be troubled. 5 ^•h ) amohishyam amohishyava N amohishydma wtfVnjiT amohishyas Wf%BTfT*T amohishyatam amohishyata VTinf^V^F amohishyat ^TRlf^ r! I *T amohishyatam amohishyan Pass., Pres. Aor. 3c? sing. Caus., Pres, Aor. Des. nmf^iTTUT or smfuRTfb or R^VJTftr. Freq. rfuufjl ; 3 d sing. Tfhfrfe or jfhftfol (305)- Part., Pres. Jtvnt ; Past pass. (305) or ^nj; Past indecl. jfrfVrSTT or or JFSSfT or snp, -q^f; Fat. pass. mf%tT3I or Tftipfhl, RTs?. EXAMPLES OF OTHER VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATIONAL CLASS IN THE ORDER OF THEIR FINAL LETTERS. 613. Root iff (27 6. a). Inf. httt £ to destroy 5 (with prepositions vi and ava, 4 to determine, 5 ‘to strive 5 ). Par. Pres. 1^ is of the ist c., it optionally inserts agTfta or afawifaa, aarrfa or afvmrfa, mafaa or mara. t The root aa is rarely conjugated in the 8th c. Atmane (see 684), when the aorist is mafafa, mafawta or maara, mafaw or maw, &c. See 424.6. CONJUGATION OF VERBS — GROUP I. CLASS IY. 263 aroia. Impf. wot. Pot. ipra. Impv. fTitrrftrr. Perf iraa, tnrfaa or rnr^ or RHa ; RRfqR or TTrTXg-, RRaaa, RERRR ; Rrffaa or RITO, TUTU, RRaa. 1st Fut. (390./) fTNTfer or or TrfuRTfw, &c. 2 d Fut. rTXT^Tfw or gtwrfa or Rfaanfa, &c. A or. (420) WTO, aiRT^fta, WT^ftrT; WP3#, WITT, WTUT ; WTTO, WTR, WTWa. Or WTO, WT- WiafiR (388. c), &c. Or wfaa, wafa, Wafa, &c. Or wa, auraa, • wara, waR, waRT ; waia, wntt, waa. Prec. RTOa. Cond. wro or or wfaTO Pass., Pres, tto; Aor. 3 d sing. wfa. Caus., Pres, Raarfa; Aor. wllja or W?nj. Des. fRR- TOfa or fR^arrfa or fRnfaRTTR. Freq. Ruhro, RUfaTO or Rutefar. Part., Pres. TO ; Past pass, rr ; Past indecl. rrt, -tto ; Fut. pass. Raa?, Raafta, rto 619. Root 3T*T (275). Inf. ^rfaR ‘to be appeased/ Par. Pres. WTOfa. Impf. wrn= 4 . Pot. ^rnw. Impv. ^TTKITfiT. Perf. WTR (368), frfaa (375.0), surtr; fjfaa, 51TO, fruRa ; Tim, fra, fraa. 1st Fut. ^ifWTf^T. 2 d Fut. STfarofa. Aor. argra, vurfaa, aryiUR; an^raia, RruraR, rujtrrt ; ^njiara, winter, Or anjrfaE, anjiaha , rt^irVr; ar^Tfroa, &c. Prec. ^rorra, Cond. wr^ifaai. Pass., Pres. ttot. Aor. $d sing. ^fa. Caus., Pres, ^amfa; Aor. wr^ft^ra, &c. Des. ffrsifaaTfa. Freq. ^TUiaf, ST 5 TTO ; yl sing, ST^ffa. Part., Pres. '^TTT^a; Past pass. 3ITRT ; Past indecl. ^TIERT or TifaiRT, -TTaq ; Fut. pass. TlfaTTO, DTaafrf, 620. Root a^T. Inf. aujTR or a# ‘to perish/ Par. Pres, a^arfa. Impf. wna. Pot, a^aa. Impv, auarfa. Perf. (375. a) aara or a a sr, affna or aaa (375- a )> *ran(i; affra or a^r, a^raa, airraa ; affra or a^a, a^r, asm. 1^ af^nnfta or auTfta (390. Jc). 2d Fut. affnaTfa or a^rrfa. Aor. (437) w^t, wsra, ara^nr; tourtr, wtctr, wr^nrr; w$na, ww, wa^ia. Or ara^r, &c. (437, 441). Prec. arma. Cond. arafsPR &c. or wer. Pass., Pres, asa ; Aor. yl sing. eietujt. Caus., Pres, ai^iaifa ; Aor. vratasT, Des. faaffrmfa, faa- apfa. Freq. RTasa, araftia ; 3c? sing. aTaftr or arafu. Part., Pres. a^aa/ Past pass, a? ; Past indecl. agT or agT, -aija ; Fut. pass. affnro, awta, aura. 621. Root aa*. Inf. a'lU ‘to be nourished/ ‘to grow fat/ Par. Pres, arofa. Impf. wrro. Pot. a tot. Impv. arofar. Perf. aata, aa^faa, aata; aafaa, aaaaa, aaaaa ; aafaa, aaa, aaaa. 1st Fut . TftETfta. 'id Fut. a'tenrfa. Aor. (436) w, ataaa, araa^; awa, * This root is also conjugated in the 9th conj. See 698, 264 CONJUGATION OF VERBS GROUP I. CLASS IV. ^tunr, ^thr. Free. wtjt. Cond. ww. Pass., Pres. V'cr ; A or. 3d sing. Caus., Pres. TftiRTTO ; Aor. ^PHR. Des. TrqTmmfH or VTlfimTfH or TmtTfH. Freq. TfttfffcR. CvS* O Os3 OO A \3 Part., Pres. trut ; Past pass, w; Past indecl. V"^T, -ipi; Fut. pass. tfrF^i, qurottr, xftai. 622. Root ^TTT. Inf. ^rfiTK ‘to throw.’ Par. Pres. ^TT^rftr, &c. Impf. ^nnf. Pot. Impv. Per/. *rnr, wm, ; ^TTTr^TTr , WR7R; ^TTffTH, W?T, ^TTTTT. 1st Fut. ^ffTHTTR. 2 d Fut. ^ftronfa. Aor. (441) wr, ^mR, ’HTWiT; ^TRzrre, writ, WRrri ; WRUT, ^TW?, ^TWR. Prec. ’HRR. Cond. wfttw. Pass., Pres. W*T; Aor. 3d sing. * rrftt. Caus., Pres. WRwftr ; Aor. wftnt. Des. WRRWR. Part., Pres. WWT; Past pass. wrt ; Past indecl. WTIWT or w^T, -wr ; Fut. pass. ^rfwR, Rjnffv, WR. 623. Root Inf. ■5^ or ‘ to injure,’ ‘ to bear malice.’ Par. Pres. Impf. Pot. tfini. Impv. "^wrfvr. Perf. iv^ jf Tf ^ or v #™ or $€**> ^ sF—’ WW lst Fut. (415. rn) rftT'mfwr or •^Tg-TftR or ^Tfi^TTR, &c. id Fut. ■uftftrrfo (306. a) or wf^R-rfa. Aor. W5?, w^r?*, wj^rfr ; w^rre, w^irir, WjinrT ; w^?TH, W$^iT, Prec. ^RR, &c. Cond. wfnpi (306. a) or w^rf^rni. Pass., Pres. ^ ; Aor. 3d sing. Caus., Pres. yr ?WR ; Aor. Des. ^rilRTR or or iRETTfa (306. a). Freq. ifr^R, pfnm. Atm. Impf. Atm. ^ >ot - Atm. HWV. Impv. YWrfa. Atm. Perf. (381) ^>m.. or Wff, wsi; WSWfW, TOWgV ; wPtsR, W«t5T, Or WKpj^vq or -sr^t, WHt#; &c. Atm. ^-ot%, srafsp?, &c. Or ^r>T^f, -sTuf^r, &c. 1st Fut. tfFTfw or ntiftfr. Atm. or 2 d Fut. >j^nfa or &c., >m or H^f. Aor. ^rsj, crater, rl ; ^OTT?, WT?T ; >H*JT^R, *TUTV, Or x?wra. Atm. ^>JYPT, WBfPIT, ^‘JWTWT ; Or ^>rt ; ^vranri ; x'Ttfw'V , ^wr^TT. Free. K1V4T3T. Atm. »JWhq or Cond. or Atm. iHaw or Pass., Pres. Ht 54 (472). Caus., Pres. *jTTTVTf?r ; Aor. or Des. fVtTEjTfiT, -■%, or f%>repfjl, -■% ; or f^^fsprif*?, -XT, or f^>Tr^irrf4, -V, &c. Freq. '^ThpT^', xrr^frrH ( ]d sing. ^TTijfv). Part., Pres. ^ P as l pass. HV ; Past indecl. HfT, ; Fut. pass. >3^ or or HViR'hr, ^-7q or 633. Root *Tt^ or »r?R . Inf. jus ‘ to be immersed,’ ‘ to sink.’ Par. Pres, xthtipr. Impf. ttht#. Pot. Impv. irwrfJT. Perf. JTH-rrf, XTUfTTU^ or SJTT^R. hhu( ; TTKfSTTj WttPJTT. UHttUTU ; *T*TrSI*T. *Th ti|, CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP I. CLASS VI. 269 HSRfTT. ist Fut. Hwftsr. id Fut. jferrfq. Aor. (424) 'srara, 'm'i- ^far, qmTsfhr; quri^r, ^tt#, whsi; qmts$r, qmbR, ^mispr. Free. fTrHfU?. Cond. -hh AM. Pass., Pres. *friq. Caus., Pres. srsfRTfq ; Aor. qjfWbi. Des. fan SKlfu. Freq. htHtHI, RUTfrTB (3d sing. HTBTqi). Part., Pres. ?TW(\; Past pass. qrq ; Past indecl. qw, SUIT, -sh-ht ; Fut. pass. 634. Root TUT. Inf. TTfW ‘ to strike,’ ‘ to hurt.’ Par. and Atm. Pres. jprrfr. Atm. h?. Impf. Atm. ^nr^. Pot. RRV. Atm. Tpirq. Irnpv. RRUn. Atm. qq. Per/. RiTT?, WfTrf^q, Wife ; HrT- m SiFjPU !$**»*» IIJS’ 333^: ^ tm - 3I^» 13^» WfTSTq, rUTST^ ; ftwfeq%, 7 < rTUUt . I st Fut. RTWTfsU. Atm. 00 A ^ OO ^ ^ 0'5> ' ’ OO ^ TOWt^. 2d Fut. (fr^nfiT. Atm. Him. Aor. WfiBT, Vl.fTUfl'U, ^TfTT tT; wr^r, wmvr, ^nrrwT ; wu^t, q?qhr, wrrusr. Atm. w^ti, ^TrT^r ; Wr^ff, WRTTCT, Wf^THT ; WrSRf?, W^s 4 , Prec. O O v O O O 7 Ov v3 jjSTO. Atm. q^q (452). Cond. wt(W. Atm. wtw. Pass., Pres. wir ; Aor. 3c? sing. Caus., Pres. rffcqTfq ; Aor. Des. RWpFrrfu, -UT. Freq. TflR^T, rfnTTfe (36? sing, rftrftfw). Part., Pres. rfsTTT; Past pass. rTS ; Past indecl. w^T, -RtH ; Fut. pass, ffprqfau fff^T- 635. Root fgfq. Inf. vn? ‘to throw.’ Par. and Atm. Pres. fgprrfH. Atm. f^q. Impf. qrfm. Atm. qrfRiq. Pot. feqv. Atm. f^rqq. Irnpv. raqT%. Atm. fsTV. Perf. fqvrq, fquifqq, fqvrq ; fqfsjfqq, fqfgiqqq, fqfgpTiUR; fqfojfqq, fqfifq, . Atm. fqfgfq, fqfgr- fqq, fqfsjq ; fqfgrfqqv, fqfsjqiq, fqfsrqTTT ; fqfgjfqq^, fqf^rfqsi, fqfgjfqt. 1st Fut. ^nrifw. Atm. TJpSTir. id Fut. •gjhwfq. Atm. vr^r. Aor. qrtpsr, miqfnr ; qrtpt^r, vmu, q|qR, vrsuT, qrtjqm Atm. qrfs^fqr, qrfsjrqTq, ^rfvra- ; mgr^vff, qrf^rqf, qrfaTWrJT ; qif 3 p-Frf*r, qrfgpsnT. Prec. fgpznq, &c. Atm. fgrqftq. Cond. qi^' c -Tq. Atm. qrawr. Pass, f^q ; Aor. 3d sing. ^rafq. Caus., Pres. Rrqqifff ; Aor. ^fqfgfq. Des. fqf^wrfi-T, -qr. Freq. qfgfiq, %irfT?r (710, 294. a). Part., Pres. fgfqiT; Past pass. fsru; Past indecl. fern, -fspq ; Fut. pass, qrqqftq, uuq. a. Root fq$r. Inf. q# ‘ to enter.’ Par. Pres, fq^nfq, fq^iftr, &c. Impf. qrfq^T, &c. Pot. fqjR, fq^H, &c. Irnpv. fqjlTuT, fN 3 T, &c. Perf. fqq^T, fqq%q, fqq^f ; fqfuPjIV, fqfq^rqq, fqfq^rgq ; fqiqfwr, fqfqjj, 1 st Fut. quifer. id Fut. qsFnfq. Aor. ^fqw, -'SJW, -RTR ; ^ifqsnq, -qilf, -ATRT ; qrfqRTTH, -VTiT, -Rjq. Prec. fq^qm. Cond. Pass., Pres, fqjq ; Aor. 3d sing. q?qfgr. Caus., 270 CONJUGATION OF VERBS— GROUP I. CLASS VI. Pres, iujnrrfu ; A or. Des. urnrarm. Freq. {3d sing. k%fv). Part., Pres. ; Past pass, fir? ; Past indecl. -fosR ; Put. pass, ^sprhj, 636. Root R^r. Inf. un* or *nv ‘ to touch.’ Par. Pres, RJilfh. Imp/. ?mujT. Pot. R 7 P 7 . Impv. RTTTfa. Perf. tirCStr, ; VRfijR, tjWUJTZITT, tiPCTSTTra ; qRTftm, URsm . 1st Fut. «nhfm or RVTTR. 2 d Fut. WCTTTHor TJUPrifir. Aor. 5 HRrit, ^TT^rf ; ^TFRm, ^TPqfp, ^qiVI; ^TRTWT, ^W, ^naNt. Or ^mrrei, ^rorm'fa, &c. Or wrvt, -hj-uaiu, ’JO-MilJrfT ; wmH, ^RETiT, . Prec. PR 3 THT. Cond. ’SWU&j or Pass., Pres. rsr; Aor. 3c? sing. Caus., Pres. RTRlfu ; Aor. ^URtsi or WTtFUST. Des. fq^pfifir. Freq. or trrPnnJH. Part,, Pres. R3T7T; Past pass. R? ; Past indecl. wjf T, -RR ; Fut. pass. «nraj or tnu«i, PEnnWkr. wpv. 637. Root (282). Inf. vftrw or ^ ‘to wish.’ Par. Pres. T^TTU. Irnpf ir&. Pot. Impv. j^Tfq. Perf. (36 7), trr, ^RR; ffRR, tRVR, fRITR; ffRR, |r, Irr. 1st Fut. THRHTnR or uvTfw. 2 d Fut. RfRRnfR. Aor. vfaR, urIr, vvOt; urr, vfRR, RfRVT; i 7 ft(U-r, RfRRR. Prec. irjtr. Cond. in rot. Pass., Pres. Aor. 3d sing. vfa. Caus., Pres. rrrttr; Aor. FfRR. Des. RfRfRRTfR. Part., Pres. f&Tf ; Past pass. ; Past indecl. or ?fR 7 RT, -IR ; Fut. pass. TT 2 R or RfcnUR, RRRftR, RRI. EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE TENTH CONJU- GATIONAL CLASS, EXPLAINED AT 2S3. 638. Root 6ur. Infin. kkfRHR (orayitum, ‘ to steal.’ Parasmai-pada. Atmane-pada. ktTRTfR ktTRfR RkRfiT Present tense , * I steal.’ kkRTRR ktPRRR \ rtvrrr ktTRTRR ^flTTTR RTTRTRT kkR rttrr kkRR ktTRTR? RTTRR RkRST RTTRTR? ■RTCRlR ktURRT Imperfect or first preterite, ‘ I was stealing,’ or ‘ I stole.’ RTRtTRR ^ikkRTR ^TRkRTR *TRkRW *TRkRrr RtkkRH ^RkRiri RTxfkRR ^RkR WkRTRr? ^TRTTRTRT? ^ktTRRiR -*4kW ^rkfruR \ Wttrr RTRkRrii wturri CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP I. CLASS X. 271 kkmfk ^TTTI ktHTH Potential, ‘ I may steal/ ktC^ kk?R kk^r kknT% kkinr kirk^TTr kk^uk krku4 kk*!rIT kk*nm va \ kkkfi kk^nrnri krnuvr Imperative, ‘ Let me steal. 5 kru*TTH kiwki kktmf kTTXm krtw kkk^r kk^s4 ^K^rti klw* kkAI rl 1 ktTtrfn kkwT Perfect or second preterite , * I stole, 5 or ‘ I have stolen. 5 ’srtTTTRTO kk*rprrkrq kk^rurreTj* kkTmmr klUmHlWf^ kk^TTHRm k kft n rfw ^kfq ' Hlfa kkfmrr rniwuh kkftnjrftr C\0 \ kkr* \ kkrnr xNkfkcj xr^nxfiunTr \ W^WWrT First future, kkftnn^m ^kftnrnsra \ \ kkUl rUP^RT ^xfVfflW \ kkknrro '^KitiiiK H kkwai kkmwg c ; I will steal. kkftnrr? ^kfkirra *V ^ Kl-MHT -^TjSlk -w -^rk C 4 -^fw: kkknTnrrk kkftrtrrar kkrkrrRT Second future, 4 1 shall steal. 5 ■'ftefawiNW kkfmmRTT \ \ ^TufwqTI ^TUfvnqvr kkkm ^trftroiir kkfWff ^kftusireg kkkrsrmt kTrfqktk ^tT , fi pq H ^rtrfwff Aorist or third preterite, ‘I stole. 5 CvO XT^^TTr Cvo C\v5 CsO ^T^GT CvO Cvo v \W^I^TVJT CxO ^kkfT ^-d-dA^ef cn o ’ST^^yfT c- o Precative or benedictive, ‘ May I steal.’ kTOT^T ^krrer klVTOTT ktVTFT ^TM ^fkfMta -fqvfMV -ftnffakr kkkufkTTT -ftnfhrrFiT -ftreM \ kkfwte -fcrq'hTTOT -ftr^T'JT Conditional, * I should steal. 5 ^■-^krujtr ^rcfqmiH ^T^RUUUri xr^llf^nirr wt^ftrorfri wrtfw?r -fqtqnf? -filTZjTJlf^ ^TtfwmTT -fwqf -fq-HTs4 -fwin -ftr ant 272 CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP I. CLASS X. 639. Pass., Pres, ’gtrf ; Aor. 3c? sing, Caus. same as the Primitive verb. Des. Part., Pres. Past pass, ^UOT or ^TficrT ; Past indecl. ; Put. pass. ^rtfTn^r, ^tTTflTT, ■gro. EXAMPLES OF OTHER VERBS OF THE TENTH CONJUGATIONAL CLASS IN THE ORDER OF THEIR FINAL LETTERS. 640. Root tj or tit. Inf. Trrftnr ‘ to fill Par. Pres. VTtrrfJT. Impf. Pot. ■qrcra. Impv. T^ctrTftrr. Perf. wiwm. 1st Fut. TjrftnTTftfT. 2 d Fut. TTifranfu. Aor. ^Trrji. Free. Cond. w- fitrnt. Pass., Pres, Aor. 3 d sing. ’Strfr or ^Tift?. Caus. like the Primitive. Des. Tnjjftrerfir. Part., Pres, •qncxnr ; Past pass, tiitt or TjfTfT or tr# ; Past indecl. TjrftngT or g#r, -Tjg ; Fut. pass. UTfarCq, Cv C\ C\ C\ C\ Tirnihl, tr 4 . C" Cv 641. Root Inf. figgrfxnj ‘ to think/ Par. Pres. fa»rPnf*T. Impf. ’sfiggrg. Pot. fWtnt. Impv. f^rxrrfVr. Perf. fwimRTTr. 1st Fut. f^fqmfvfr. 2d Fut. fignTftranfa. Aor. ^rfaf«Pir. Free, figwifi. Cond. ^rfig^fq-oi. Pass., Pres. figzjg. Caus. like the Primitive. Des. f^fa^friTiTfa. Part., Pres. fig^nriT; Xtm. fi^nUIR (527); Past pass. fi^f^nT ; Past indecl. f^fxrF^T, -fgzfg ; Fut. pass, fig^vflq, 642. Root ^T§. Inf ^firg (with prep. TF, ‘ to ask,’ * to seek/ A/m. Pres. tTgv. Impf Pot. ^C44ti. Impv. ^rgri. Perf. 'srifrTTCSR. 1st Fut. ^fxnnf . 2 d Fut. Aor. wrfiro, '’HrfiTWHT. &c. Prec. Cond. ^r§firir. Pass., Pres. Caus. like the Primitive. Des. ^f^ftnrrfH, -v. Part., Pres. TO (527) ; Past pass. Tufvhr ; Past indecl. Fut. pass. ^r§fzr?ni?, ^rshffrr, wzg. 643. Root grg. Inf. grgftrg c to say,’ ‘ to tell/ Par. Pres. oiryqifjT. Impf TSctrqzr. Pot. grqgx’. Impv. zfc-ggrfg. Perf zfivprram 1st Fut. cfi^fiqinfRT. 2 d Fut. Aor. or ^rglgrg. Prec. wra. Cond. ^os^rfxpii. Pass, ofr^, &c. Caus. like the Primitive. Des. Part., Pres. zf^-qrT ; Past pass. ofifilTH ; Past indecl. grg- farST, (566. a ) ; Fut pass, groftnur, cjrepftg, zpsg. a. Root 'gv. Inf. tn^finr ‘ to proclaim.’ Par. Pres. xftggTfH. Impf WRg. Pot. Impv. Tftqxnftrr (58). Perf. VTTITTT^r.TT. * This root forms its base THTTJ pdraya from TJ, and TltTI puraya from WT ; but the meaning of THTTIlfT is rather ‘ to fulfil,’ ‘ to accomplish/ ‘ to get through.’ CONJUGATION OP VERBS GROUP IT. CLASS IT. 273 i st Fut. tfteftnnftR. 2 d Fut. ^rPrftrarrfa. Aor. wsjvv. Free, ■sfmim. Cond. ^TfrqiTj-ci. Pass., Pres, xfrw; Aor. 3 d sing. Caus. like the Primitive. Des. Part., Pres, vfuntW; Past pass. NTTR7T ; Past indecl. ’sft'qfvFSTT, -xfpi?; Fut. pass. Tjfaftnrej, ^TWfv, -sfror. b. Root H'SJ. Inf. ‘ to eat/ ‘ to devour.’ Par. Pres. UW- xufff. Imp/. viuri'JT. Pot. Impv. w^pnftn'. Per/. msTTRU?. 1 st Fut. Hwfvrnfsr. 2 d Fut. vr^fiptrFf*T. Aor. ^?w. Free, vr^jra. Cond. ^OTgjfirEt. Pass. ffPi. Des. Part., Pres. vrSTXTTr ; Past pass. mSTrT ; Past indecl. ; Fut. pass. Uwf4rV4, H^trfhr, *T^T. EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJU- GATIONAL CLASS, EXPLAINED AT 307. 644. Root 4T yd. Infin. Trnpr yatum, c to go.’ Parasmai-pada only. Present, ‘ I go.’ ^ITUT yami yavas yatnas 41^7 ydsi ^TI^PET ydthas 4T«I yatha VTUT ydti VTrfTT ydtas VTfifT yanti Imperfect or first preterite, ‘ I was going,’ or 1 1 went.’ WIH ay dm ^TTPT ayava sH4IH aydma ^1414 ay as <4 1 rl *T ay at am ’H 4 [ H ayata ay at ^ 4 1 n fU ayatam ’STV'PT ay an * Potential, 4 1 may go.’ TXXHT^ydydm 4HT4 yaydva 41414 y aydma 41*114 ydyas *u*urT^ y ayatam *1 1 4 IrT yaydta 4 1 *11 Ay ay at 4 1 4 1 ri XHydydtdm 4T VOfifyayus Imperative, 4 Let me go.’ vrftf yani *UN ydva 4TU yama *llfV yahi 41rt4 ydtam 4T7T yata 4T7J yatu 47RTR ydtdm *U«-^ yantu 645. Root \i (310). Infin. etum, ‘ to go.’ For ^ with adhi, a, &c., see 3 1 1 . Present, 4 I go.’ VTO emi t ivas imas vffT eshi ithas itha VftT eti itas vfciT yanti ( 34 ) Imperfect ox first preterite, 4 1 was going,’ or ‘ I went.’ ay am ( 37 ) tT4 aiva ( 26 o.a)tm aima "\ ' s - *N ais ( 33 ) VrW aitam 7T?T aita ITrT ait TrTTR aitam ’Hi 4*1 dyan J Potential, 4 I may go.’ V*™ iyam iyava ? 5 araia, a?, aai ; arvrra, aa, araR or aaap Perf. aara, aaTfaa or aam (370. e), aara ; aafaa or aarfaa, aaaaa or aaraaa, aaaaa or aararm ; aafaa or aaifaa, aaa or aara, CO\ O V t ON O \ 7 d 7 t * For these forms are sometimes substituted 2d sing, arm, 3d sing. ana ; 2d du. Wsinja, 3d du. m?aa ; 3d pi. anjia; all from the perfect of a defective root ’Sa, with a present signification. t According to some, the 3d pi. of the imperfect is also wanting. CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP II. CLASS II. 277 or hrirr. ist Fut. mtrfw or RTfvrHrfer (415. a). 2 d Fut. RTwfa or RTTRomR. Aor. rrtIt, RRTRfftT, ^fuvftrr; rruw, Rratv, rhtttt ; RRTefr, rwtr, rtrtsIr. Or Rmrflpj, RTRTRfiR, ^RTWiR; rthttrir, & c. Free, rritr. Cond. RTHTER or RrarfRW. Pass., Pres, w&f ; Aor. 3d sing, RTRlfR. Caus., Pres. riTRRTft? ; Aor. RmRTR or ^TJrtalT. Des. or fRREJTTR or firoif^RTfR. Freq. srfK UTT-, rriIrr (3d sing. -mfu). Part., Pres. srrRR; Past pass. rr; Past indecl. Uf r or Rrf#r 3 T, ; Fut. pass. STTFSf or HTf 5 TR=R, RTRpflR, RFR or Ri3\ 652. Root ^ (317). Inf. rtr 4 to eat.’ Par. Pres, ’srFsr, RlftR, ^fw; RlRRj RTRR; RTRPF1, WrR, RT^f (3°5) ; S®^’ s 7 ^’ ^ tm - p, v«j, x feffe, &c. ist Fut. ferrffe. Atm. felt- 2 d Put. c^wufe Atm. few. Aor. (439) wfegf, --spr, -W 3 T ; -WU?, -fe, -WiTT ; -WR, -W 7 T, -VUT. Atm. (439. b ) wfefe, vrfesiWTFf or wfeWTCT, wfeWFT or W?fe; wfewrefe or wfefeV, -wife, -wfe; wfewrefe wfewre or wfehf, wfferer. Free, fewfe Atm. ffesfe, &c. Cond. wfev. Atm. wfew, &c. Pass., Pres, few; Aor. 3d sing. Ffeft. Caus., Pres. ferefe; Aor. wfeffe. Des. fefemm, -VT. Freq. fefew, fefe (3d sing, fefe). Part., Pres. fe? 7 T; Atm. fferR; Past pass, ufe ; Past indecl. fep, -few ; Fut. pass. feufe fer. EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGA- TIONAL CLASS, EXPLAINED AT 330. 662. Root F hu. Infin. fere hotum, ‘ to sacrifice/ Parasmai-pada. Present tense, ‘ I sacrifice.’ W^juhuvas or ii\£'qV juhuthas juhutas juhomi FFtfw juhoshi juhoti FFRTT juhumas or FFV juhutha W^ffT juhvati 282 CONJUGATION OF VERBS GROUP II. CLASS III. Imperfect or first preterite , ‘ I was sacrificing.’ ajuhavam ajuhuva ^T^ipi ajuhuma ^■ 5 T?rt 7 T aj uh os ajuhutam ajuhuta ^^cTTFT ojuhot ajuhutdm ^*jffi* s ajuhavus (330) Potential, ‘ I may sacrifice.’ ■^■^TfTn juliuyam ^IpTR juhuyava ^?VG <7 juhuydma ■jpnrnr j u h uyas ^VT?T 7 .U juhuydt am '^'?' 3 TnT juhuydta 'jjTVVTrf juhuydt 'STpnTTRT juhuydt dm ’T'^^nT juhuvus 0 - 3 r 0 v 7 * Imperative, ‘ Let me sacrifice.’ juhavani sj'^cn'l juhavava ^r?TTH juhavdma juhudhi (291) VnnTU juhutam O O N* 7 TfFH jukuta \3 * juhotu aJS'ftW juhutam *^Hjuhvatu Perf (374- d) W?l~, or wgrt, ^T?UT ; ^T?m, O^ OO 7 OO O N vnjfsra, 7 T?*r, Or VffnTFg^rri, &c. ; see 38 5. e. 1st Oi O \ 7 0,3 7 O O 7 O v.) O N O 7 U U Fut. 2d Fut. FAwrfir. Aor. ^?N, ^^ufhr ; wr, ■55 {TH?, wr?Ta'T ; ^?TF, WRTT. Free. Cond. * r?>ai. Pass., ON Cv Pres. ?tt ; Aor. 3d sing. Caus., Pres. ^TWTrfu ; Aor. Des. ■■SrTtjTftr. Freq. Tfr^Tm or Part., Pres. *pnt; Past pass. Hr! ; Past indecl. jrjs?T, -JW ; Fut. pass. jrVirai, *ra? or ?r^r. EXAMPLES OF OTHER VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATIONAL CLASS IN THE ORDER OF THEIR FINAL LETTERS. 663. Root (335). Inf. ^tjt ‘ to give.’ Par. and Atm. Pres. I^T; ^rrm, q'JTTrf ; ^wif , v#, uvft. Perf. (373) ftVra or ; ftto, ^ro, ^VfTCT;| ftuu, RR, fWtff or fafira, fs?*ft 7 ii or fVfVnri; rhvth, or 1 ¥wrg (34). Per/. (374) fqHTtr, or faiRT, RTHR ; Rf«R, f^«rp;, f¥«r?m; f¥f«m, fe«T, fawm. Or fwqUloiiTI (385. c). I st Fut. HTrrfnr. 2 d Fut. Aor. ¥hu, , ^wtrfrr; ^THPT ; ’SHU, Prec. Ht^rnr. Cond. Pass., Pres. vrtxi ; Aor. 3d sing, Caus., Pres. vrnRTfa or -if, or *rpR or HfaTO; Aor. ^¥brJf or wb?q or ^rrlfuu. Des. RH^RTR. Freq. inflif or ifHR or ¥vrq^fjr. Part., Pres. f¥»rf (141. a) ; Past pass. *rhr; Past indecl. vrtRT, -«¥ ; Fut. pass. HrRT, HfR'fa, HU. a. Root |ft. Inf. gir ‘to be ashamed.’ Par. Pres. fjrgfH, fWgfa, fVgfrr ; f*rghTH, fwgFsjH, fvrgfrnr; fsrfflfm, f¥irftr, ftifg-JifTT (123. a). Impf. ^fftrjni, RfWgn ; ^rfjTgte, ^rftrgtw, ^fw? 1 WT; Rfjfghr, RfjTgRT (332). Pot. f^rfai. Impv. fjTgTrrfvT, fWgW ; f*r|RR, TlTg^rT, f¥f3WT ; flTflTTH, ffT?T7r, Per/. fSTITXt, fwgfjR or f*rN, fsTfR; ftrfffiR (374. e), fafg-trspr, fafgTnm; ftrffftm, firf^V, fjtfg-gH. ist Fut. gmfsR. 2 d Fut. gttnfH. Aor. ^fifi w ; ¥gR, -i, -pt; ^|r, -v, -rt. Prec. g'hrm. Cond. ^TgR. Pass., Pres. ; Aor. 3d sing, ’jrgrftl. Caus., Pres. fWfa; Aor. t. Des. ftrgbnfa. Freq. tRUT or * According to Foster ; but these alternatives are doubtful, t So Foster. Westergaard gives CONJUGATION OP VERBS. — GROUP II. CLASS VII. 285 WjnftfJT. Part., Pres. ftrffrqw (141. a ) ; Past pass, jrfar or ftrr ; Past indecl. jr^T ; Put. pass. fiua?, fwfa, fV. b. Root »FT. Inf. wftrw 4 to produce. 5 Par. Pres. Tpif??, ^nrixfr; srspw, srarxTCr , vnrr?m; *r*P*ra s vrto, ^Tsffrr. Impf. ^r^PT, tI^T (292. a), ^TrppT ; ^30077, W 5 T®TTrTT ; THjTTpff, 73 H^ll »t, ^nrU 7 T. Pot. tHRU or 3 TnTVt. Impv. *TsHTf?r, >T^rf%, SHFiT ; sTtRT^, sT^ffiT, sranri ; sT'ST^m, ■jnruT, Perf ^rtR or *nR, smfire, sTtTR; wfVw, WIRT ; ■rifsR, *Tsra\ 1 st Fut. wftpnfw. id Put. rTUT^Tfu. Aor. THrTTfVR, ^TtTFTiW; &c. Or ^PTUTti, &c. ; see 427. Prec. vritit or vrrem. Cond. T^fTR?. Pass., Pres. tJR (compare 617. a) or vrt; Aor. 3 d sing. Caus., Pres. 'SPTCTfil ; Aor. W^FT. Des. ftrsrfirt Freq. sTHTU! or W^ 5 Part., Pres. yfsTfT (141. a); Past pass. tTTTT, STfaw ; Past indecl. TflxTr^T, -"fRT, -sfTXf ; Fut. pass. *TftTrf3J, 5ppi^[j jRT. EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE SEVENTH CONJU- GATIONAL CLASS, EXPLAINED AT 342. 667. Root fg^r 6 hid. Infin. bhettum , ‘ to cut. 5 Parasmai-pada. Present tense, ‘ I cut. 5 PtfH Pa dhinadmi flFfFT dhindvas fS'TJR dhindmas f^nfrTT d hinatsi dhinthas (345) fVRif dhintha( 345) fa.H Ps dhinatti 'fe'-fT'ff dhintas (345) dhindanti Imperfect or first preterite , ‘I was cutting, 5 or ‘ I cut. 5 adhinadam adliindva THf^FW adhindma adhinat (292) adhintam adhinta adhinat (292) ■^f^rTT 5 ? adhintam adhindan Potential, ‘ I may cut. 5 r^r^TTR dhindydm fspUr? dhindyava fspETHT dhindyama iWsi RT dhindyas f^oTTrUT dhindyatam fSFUTW dhindyata 1 4 shindy at fvFc 3 TrtR dhindyatam. TEF?XR dhindyas Imperative, ‘ Let me cut. 5 rSpT^Tf»T chinaddni dhinadava dhinadama chinddhi * ■p^VSJT dhintam (345) fspiT dhinta (345) r^rj-^ dhinattu r«H Ps4-*I | adhinthas arf?}vl aihinta arfVs achindvahi ■-H 1 1> Ti l *TTa adhinddthdm arfsiir; I H W aihinddtdm g,’ or ‘ I cut.’ aihindmahi arftf ^a athinddhvam 4 N arfaapT adhindata fa^ht dhindiya dhindithas r«^1iT dhindita Potential , ‘ I may cut.’ dkindivahi dhindiyathdm fW^t^nTTW dhindiyatam fa^Nf? dhindimahi faa^R^PT dhindi'dhvam Pq^I *,*T chindfran faa^ dhinadai chintsva fSF?TT^ dhintdm Imperative, ‘ Let me cut.’ TtT’T'TUr?’ dhinadavahai dhindatham fa^Tina ihinddtdm fsjaaTa^T dhinadamahai dhinddhvam hp?, WoFJRT, k^st, >hw, O 7 O O 7 O \ O VV 3 \0 V V 3 O Atm. >F§r, uvr, WfT. Impf. O \d O O V 5 O O O ^ , swtw, vvRi? ( 292 ), ^ii, sw?R, vrm$i; *mvj 7 , ^4^, o * O \ v s /7 O V O O 7 o 7 O ' O V 3 \ Atm. vnpFsnsr, vnrsnvrr, vujffrfv, vnjrs 4 , vjjp^TT. Pot. wraji. Atm. Irnpv. *ut?itut, w?v, ; UWR, w=js, ; Un^TTU, H^r. Atm. UIR, U^RT ; V 3 O O 7 O 7 O 7 O 7 O 7 O O VJ 7 O 7 ^ VR^Tsf, H^UST, N'^rnTT ; ^RyTTW, W*S3, WnT. Perf. WTff, NHtfjUT, v 3 ' O O O Vd O •'O 7 ^ VmR : ^uftrv, VN^TTP, ^W5T7f H ; VUtVJU, ^NsT, VNVU. Atm. ~u%, O 7 'SO 7 ^0 0\ 7 000\ 7 0v> 7 vA v* 7 VS v$ 4» \ O O 7 «p?% ; -fUsT, -vrrif, - tTIW ; -frUR, -(%«?, -fsR. 1st Fut. Hbrvffel. Atm. iUVm?. 2 d Fut. mwfu. Atm. HIVV. Aor. vimvf, -vfhff, -^ffa; vtht#, -w; ^.wiw, ~myp. Atm. wfg, ^rwr?r, ^JgyT%, ^iT^TXff, VsHAIffTT ; ^TUSUtV, VTUSTR. Prec. ^n?T. Atm. u^v. Cond. Atm. vruu^f. Pass., Pres. w#; Aor. 3d sing. ^r^rrfsT. Caus., Pres. HtsftnfH, -R; Aor. Des. -^. Freq. '^tvrffvH. Part., Pres. >p? 7 T ; Atm. ^r?T; Past pass. «A^i; Past indecl. u^jT, -^vq; Fut. pass. hIvr^v, m^r or mn[. 669. Root ( 347 )- Inf. 4 ^ £ to break.’ Par. Pres. htPsh, vnrfvr, uvj'u, uwuru Impf. (292), VTiT?T^; VRV=S, VUT^^. Pot. ^WT. Irnpv. U^Tflf^, 4 fhr, Ur;, H^i, iU 3 ^T. Perf. W, or 1st Fut. w^v^r. 2d Fut. iuuuTH. Aor. ^htvt, -v/tu, -VJ'fTT ; VTHUR, ^HT#, -W,T ; ^MTWT, VUU^?, Prec. NWUI ( 453 )- Cond. Pass., Pres, (469); Aor. 3d sing. ’HvrrfjT. Caus., Pres. Aor. Des. fNHvnfu. Freq. RHfrH. Part., Pres. H'g"ti ; Past pass. ; Past indecl. uwr or vrfiT, -m?r ; Fut. pass, TOf. 670. Root Tpr. Inf. Tpf^ ‘to join,’ ‘to unite.’ Par. and Atm. 288 CONJUGATION OF VERBS— GROUP II. CLASS VII. Pres. ipTfifr, qq%, &c. ; like HIT 668. a. Atm. qq, &c. Imp/. ^qqq, qqqqr (292), ^rrcjt: ^qqsj, &c. Atm. ^?qi%, ^rqqqm, &c. Pot. q?qT. Atm. ggfa. Impv. qqqrfa, qfrq, "sq^i; qqqTq, &c. Atm. qqq, w, trt, & c. Per f. qqbr, qq>fqq, qq'iq ; Traftn, &c. ; like 668. a. Atm. *[qq. is/ Put. qlgilfFT. Atm. tffaR. 2 d Put. qTWW. Atm. qTOT. A or. w#, -qq, -»rrT ; -ifR, -^TTT, -qRT; -*TR, -qq, -tITT. Or qqTvj, -qfiq, -TSftq ; qqm, &c. Atm. ^TVf^T, ^Tqqqiq, ^rqq; ; qq^rfg, &c. Free. qqnq. Atm. qqflq. Cond. ■qqtej. Atm. qqfqq. Pass., Pres, q 5 q; Aor. 3d sing, qqrfq, see 702. Caus., Pres, qtqqrfq; Aor. qqgq. Des. qgqpfq, -■%. Freq. qtqqr, qnrtfrq. Part., Pres. q^q ; Atm. qqrq; Past pass, qqi; Past indecl. qil, -qqr ; Put. pass, qrqpq, qtqq^q, qVq or q'liq. 671. Root ^q. Inf. ‘ to hinder/ Par. and Atm. Pres. Ij ill fur, FFrfiq, Fwfg; ^«znr, F 51 ^^ F*3F*; ^am, F*g*, F’Ffq. Atm. F 7 ^, fff, F 7 i * ; ^rrq, F^nrr ; f 7 **!, F^f* f^nf. Imp/. qqFV, 'q^qrw or ^f^ or (292), ^tqqnr or ^qiq; qq 7 ^ qF 7 ^ ; *r^wr, qF 7 ^, qF^q. Atm. qF'-giF, ^vg ; ^rqqrrqi, qqqnFT ; qF^Jifg, qF 7 #, qF^lF. Pot. f 7 *^- Atm. F^dq. Impv. F^Tfq, F^ FF¥ ; F^TF, F 7 ^ *> F^T * ; v.* FWIH, F 7 ^* F 7 ^- Atm. FFV, F ; F, F'^T; FFqTqg, F^Tqt, F^nni; fw!?, f 7 #, f^ft. Perf fctv, F^rfim, f t ^; FF^ft. FFVqq, FF'nra; FFC-w, FFN, fF^F Aim. FFN, FFfqv, ffn ; FFfqqg, FFVTq, FFNTF ; FFTVB?, FFtV^, FFftra\ 1st Fut. flglfm. Atm. FTgTg. 2 d Fut. flffinfu. Atm. FtST. Aor. qFN, -vw, -VF; -vrq, -vf, -q?ri ; -qur, -qq, -qq. Or qTirqf, qurqftq, qfTqftF ; qrrrFi, qqg, quTgi; qrbm, qqg, qtfcqq. Atm. FF^ff, ^FgTF, ^Fl 1 ; qTFf^lg, qFfFiqt, qTFfFTFT; qFFRfg, qFf> ^FFIF. Free. f^TF. Atm. FFflq. Cond. qnw. Atm. qvrqq. Pass., Pres. F^ ; Aor. 3 d sing. qiFtfq. Caus., Pres, vtqqifq ; Aor. qtFFN. Des. ^F^llq, -Tq. Freq. FtF^, FTlfw?. Part., Pres. F^f; Atm. F^F; Past pass. FI ; Past indecl. FgT, -F^F ; Fut. pass. TVg^q, ftqqtq, TTiq. 672. Root f^nt. Inf. ‘ to distinguish/ ‘to separate,’ ‘to leave remaining.’ Par. Pres, fsiqfqr, %qf%, fuiqfv ; fsi^R, ftjtRq, fjgqm, ftjq, fjiqfq. Impf. qfsrqu, (292), qftgtq, qf^rv, qfqvf ; qftuq, qfsiv, qf 3 Tqq . Pot. fi^tqT. Impv. f^iqqTfqr, * F*qq may be written for F'SF- Similarly, F*F for F 7 *? F”F for F 7 ?* &c. See 298. a. CONJUGATION OF VEKBS.— GROUP II. CLASS VII. 289 or %fijg (303, compare 345), f$R|; f^RPn^, f^i#, f^m ; fi?FPTTR, f^T¥, fifTW. Perf. % 3 U 7 , 1w*T; %f3I- 7 RR 7 , %f3T*np; fg i fyfq H, fsT%RT 7 . 1 st Put. SfUrftTT. id Put. WITfa. Aor. wf^PT, -RTT, -*[71; -T7U7, -B77, -*r77T; -*TU7, -*177, -*7*7 . Prec. fymm. Cond. ^rjnw. Pass., Pres. %^T; Aor. yl sing. 51 fV. Caus., Pres. ; Aor. ^fffsTR. Des. Freq. %%or, ^T%f*R. Part., Pres. f^TVTT ; Past pass. %? ; Past indecl. %?T, -f^-QT ; Put. pass. 7JtRTil*T, 673. Root f^^r. Inf. ‘ to injure. 5 Par. Pres. f^T%; f^^nr, f^q* 7 , ffHTT; f^wr, ftw, f?*rfaT. Imp/. ^fVrirt or ^rf^rf^r (292. a, 304. a), ^nV^TTTj P ^ 74 , ^7%ftt; ^rf^R, isrfi^7, ^f?^. Pot. f^qi. Impv. f?G*nfq, or (304), f?W ; fu#, %F 7 T; flRWi, ff* 7 , f?Rf« 7 . Perf. f 7 Tf? 7 T, fsrf^ftro, ftrf^r; ftrf^ftnr, fwf^r, 1 st Put. ftfaTrrfer. 2 d Put. f^ftranftr. Aor. ^rfTrftur, ^ff^rhr; ^rfumui ; ^rf^muTT. Prec. Cond. ^rf^ftrcr. Pass., Pres. ; Aor. 2,d sing, Caus., Pres, fiRrrnfa ; Aor. Des. f^ PgpJ HRr fq . Freq. ^f^T, ^fttr. Part., Pres. f?7T77; Past pass, f^ftnr; Past indecl. f^ffTr4T, -fTRtl ; Fat. pass. ffftnrai, f^PTfa, 674. Root W1C Inf. Tlf^TT or 7 T^ ‘ to injure, 5 ‘ to kill.’ Par. Pres. 777 ^ (306), Tpfe (305. a); 773^, RW* (345)* W*s’ ThW, 7 RK, TTffa. Impf. VTTTO?, '577773? or ^7773? (292), 'RRVT? or DITTO'S ; ^njST, 'SriTTS, ^TiTTJST ; '^TlfST, THrGKi, ^ 777 ^ 7 *. Pot. 7 T?IT. Impv. C N C C C C C N C (s66 306. c)j j fl*l! ^ 1 ^ 5 I ciaM) fj ^ r fl* t c co 4 cc c ' c c v Perf. 777 ft, TTTTff^ or 7777 #, 7777 ?; 77 ?f??, Tfrfs! 77??7m ; 77 ?f? 7 T, 7777 ?, i st Put. ?f?77rfw or 7 T#Tf^FT. 2 d Fut. Trff'arrTH or TTCTlfB Aor. ^TTlffu, -fftf, -ft? ; -f?u, -ffur ; -ff'TT, -ft?, -ft?*. Or rf VJJ, — isj q, , "K|i c lj -T 5 J 77 , “ K 1 d T ; — V5j ( 4 , "^ 77 , - tej q. Prec, Cond. ^ 77 ff*E 7 or ’377^7. Pass., Pres, tjvi ; Aor. 3 d sing, wff . Caus., Pres. 77?4lf77 ; Aor. ^ 7777 ? or wfa?. Des. f7777f??Tfa or PdHHjlPH. Freq. TR'fatr, Trrhrfir (3c? sing. Ti^TTft). Part., Pres. tt?? ; Past pass. (305. a) 77 ? ’, Past indecl. 7ffti?T or tt^t, -77?i ; Fut. pass. 7 rf| 77 *q or 7 rt% Trfvr'hT, tri. * Final ^7 5 preceded by a or a remains unchanged before the terminations si and se; see 62. b. 290 CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP III. CLASS V. EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE FIFTH CONJU- GATIONAL CLASS, EXPLAINED AT 349. 67 5. Root R vri. Infin. RftjTH varitum or varitum, ‘ to cover,’ ‘ to enclose,’ ‘ to surround,’ ‘to choose* *.’ Note, that the conjugational ^ nu becomes tjwm after by 58. Parasmai-pada. Present tense, * I cover.’ WUh vrinomi ^Tn^lT vrinuvas t d 0 \ • • 1 TOIRT vrinumast dO \ • + -RURf vrinoslii vrinuthas vrinutha dO * * ^Tlftfw vrinoti vrinutas ^TRUrT vrinvanti Imperfect or first preterite , ‘ I was covering,’ or ‘ I covered.’ avrinavam avrinuva § do * * y ^ r?rtftT, vwrfn ; vnnn or v^nr, vttww, vtthtt ; ynnn or warn, V 7 TST, Atm. vnn, vn#; VWW or vn^r, C'O \ Cv Cvvi 7 C\ Cv 7 C\j 7 Cvo 7 Cvv> ' Cv ^ HrT^’ ; or yvra'. Impf. wirn^r, wywtn, winfur; w>nre or win*?, wirfrii, winrwi; winre or wv*t, wvwtt, Atm. wvfcr, wy^piTw, wiyrir; winrrf# or w*prfV, wv^itwt, Wir*WT 7 TT; Wtf^nf#, WV*Ts 4 , WV^TT. Pot. yyUT. Atm. >pft*T. Irnpv. *nprrfw, w^T, vrfhr; tnnrra, vnw, wwiri; vwn, vwtt, wrw. Atm. vfR, vjpr, i/wwi; y^nt, y^nwr, yprnri ; y^Rrot, yg*4, vs^rr. Perf. (374. g) jot, «prf%W or jvhl, JVTT; jyfR, JfTyw, JTO!; STf* SJR- Atm - n*» S^» $¥*’ ’ TTvfw*^, **vfet3 or -£, 1st Fut. v unufw or vunffR. Atm. OO OV 3 ; %fa>a, 'sr^aw, iaanw; srfan, ^pr, 1st Fut. ^raafnr. id Fut. ST^rrfn. Aor. ar^iar, -aw, -ara; -ana, -nra, -araf ; -arm, -aar, -a«^. Or ar^ifaar, -aftw, -affar; ^Harfaaa, -fail, -t?t; ^TjTfarw, -fl+y, -fnraw. Free, ^rnarn. Cond. ^w^raa. Pass., Pres. ^inn; Aor. 3d sing, aqnfa. Caus., Pres, ^nanufa ; Aor. arait^. Des. f^lfaaTfa or fsrwrfn, -aj t (503). Freq. ^rjiarfl or ^laitfa. Part., Pres. ^Ta; Atm. TT^ara ; Past pass. $rii; Past indecl. ^iw, -^mn; Fut. pass. ^ rana, 5iar?fla, sinn. 680. Root aja. Inf. arfla 4 to prosper,’ 4 to flourish,’ 4 to increase.’ Par. Pres, ^pftfn, ^pftfn, njirtfa ; ^rpw, ’s^raaw, ^aw ; ^ww, ^fjfa> Tirana. Impf. (260. a) arrila, ^nfifa, aniffar; arr^a, arr^a, * ^ ia also conjugated in the 4th class, Parasmai and Atmane (Pres. 3Ftarfa &c., $iaa) ; but it may then be regarded as a passive verb. See 253. b. t This form of the Des. generally means ‘ to learn,’ and is said by some to come from a root f^THT. 294 CONJUGATION OP VERBS.— GROUP III. CLASS V. wibri; *n|br, ^njbr, ^r^r. Pot. rphri. Impv. ^rrrfVr, ^prf?, -7TT ; Rprw. Per f. 'strv, RRpR ^irv; ^Rftnr, rr>rr, rtrittR ; ^Rfv*, wrv, rrvr i st Fut. ^ifthnfR. 2 d Fut. ^rfwrfjT. A or. Rfihi, Rr>rfa, wrfvR, RTfUF, -FT ; ^rfNR, RpVV, *TTfv*R. Or ^TR, -W, -VH ; -VR, &C. Prec. rjwr. Cond. Rirrf^QT. Pass., Pres. Rpzi ; Aor. 3 d -sing. Rfv. Caus. 's'RXItPr ; Aor. ^rffv. Des. ^PfftRrftr or SriiTpR (503). Part., Pres. Rfiprw ; Past pass. Rpr; Past indecl. ^Purt or Rjip, -RfR 5 Fut. pass. ^rPibiR, Rwtir, ^jwi. 681. Root ’Trrtr. Inf. ‘to obtain.’ Par. Pres. -nisiPu, ^rreftfa, rsftfir ; wstr, rrw, ^trir ; ^rtgr, wjr, ^iTTRfbr. Impf. R7R, ?nTTR, WTjfbT; W?, WS"iT, -RT : ^TTJR, WIR, RT7PR. Pot. ^TIRT. Impv. ^TTUnfFf, ^Rf?, ’HTTTTR ; W5TTTR, ^TRiT, -7TT ; ^HTTTTW, ■s'rrcnr, ^tr'rt. Perf. ^tr, ’Htrr, ^tr; ^rrfcR, ^ntrsm, ^rfr ; RTPR, WR, W3Tm. Or ^uniini, rt%tr, ^nnnF ; ^rrf^TFRT, ^fuTFTTn ; wnsTRi?, wPrr, ^nfuTR. Prec. or W7TR. Cond. ’FrfijT'CT or ^tr. Pass., Pres. "RlJtt ; Aor. 3 d sing. RTHST. Caus., Pres. ^ISTHIR ; Aor. W%^T. Des. ^rf^if^TF. Freq. (51 1. a). Part., Pres. R?R; Past pass. ^rnjiTT or ; Past indecl. RHRrVT or ^T, ; Fut. pass. vifji h or ’STTR. CONJUGATION OP VERBS.— GROUP III. CLASS VIII. 295 EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE EIGHTH CONJU- GATIONAL CLASS, EXPLAINED AT 353. 682. Root 'gr kri. Infin. oFffH kartum, ‘to do’ (355). Parasmai-pada. Present tense, ‘ I do/ karomi kurvas O \ * kurmas 0 \ karoshi kuruthas kurutha ^UlfTT karoti ■^■^tT 7 T kurutas oH dP'd kurvanti Imperfect or first preterite, ‘I was doing,’ or ‘ I did.’ akaravam akurva (73) ^TSFiH akurma (73) akaros \ akurutam ri akuruta ^T 3 iVf!T akarot akurutam ^STcjrf’JT akurvan 0 \ Potential, ‘ I may do, ,’ &c. f cftOR * kurt/dm c. WVT 3 kuryava kuryama kuryas ^VTTTN kuryatam C. sp^lrt kuryata ofi*!! rt kuryat H«+i^|Vl(|H akurvatham va \ vi <* akurudhvam V» \ ^Tej<\rt akuruta t f r ^T^TTrnH akurvatam 0 \ akurvata kurvlya Potential, ‘ I may do.’ kurmcahi ejqfl^r^ kurvimahi afiql’illW kurvithas kurviyatham kurvidhvam \ ri kurvtia <*'-dqlrli^ kurviydtam kurviran karavai Imperative, * Let me do.’ karavavahai karavamahai cm\k* kurushva °R V 1 V 41 JH kurvdthdm O N kurudhvam kurutdm kurvatam kurvatam O \ Perfect or second preterite, ‘ I did,’ or * : I have done.’ *s •q ffi dakre ■q M ^ dakrivahe dakrimahe dakrishe M 5hl W dakrathe ^ofT^ - dakridhve dakre ^BiTiT dakrdte ■qfqiA dakrire CONJUGATION OP VERBS.— GROUP III. CLASS VIII. 297 C -\ f cFfTT? kartahe kartase °hrt I kartd ■ karishye karishya se RiTTEUT karishyate First future, ‘I will do.’ C. *S / C N RirTTW? kartasvahe I W? kartasmahe fa or VRTffa. Part., Pres. TpTrT; Atm. v^tv; Past pass, tru ; Past indecl. ViRT, -V^l; Fut. pass. vf'TrTR, R h"iV, VIR or VR. 688. Root siT (361). Inf. ^mr ‘to know.’ Par. and i^tm. Pres. VRTR, VFTTUU, VUTTffi; STTVHr* , VFTfav, VTVTTTV ; ffrFftV?!, HRIV, VTVf^T. A'tm. 5fR, VTvRl, ; VUTiW, WTVTV, VRT 7 I; VRfaf, HUTt^, VRTT. Imp/'. ^TRRT, RRRm, IHirRTF; RVUTR, ^iVR 0 nr, ^VT- Tfhrr; vrvnfiu, ■rrrr. Atm. ^rrHur, vrirth ; ^TVRTVT, ^RRUTT ; ^TRRMv , RRRrT. Pot, vnfhn. Xtm. 5 (TTJ^. Impv. RRTfR, RTVtf%, VRTH ; *TRTV, VR1R, vrrftrTT; rttr, vurhr, nr^. Atm. hr, »ttvNt, RiRTni ; rtrur, VTVTVT, RTVTflf; RTVrut, RT«TTiT. Perf. (373) WR. R%V, Q q 2 300 CONJUGATION OF VERBS.— GROUP III. CLASS IX. »Tsn; w^nr, 'stshtr ; wflm, tr, *tir. Atm. nil, »rivra, »rit ; wro, »rt 7 t; Trfsm?, 7 rf?t. ist Fut.ftnnfm. 2d Fut. srrcsrrfcr. Aor. (433) wrOt, wrtffa; WTfav, -vt ; WTftr% -ftru, -fffNrr. Atm. VT5nf?r, wtwht, wrer; wrafv, wt- rr, -imi; WTfm>, wts 4 , wt?ht. Prec.^n m or $trr. Atm. sHirhT. Cond. *?srmi. Atm. WRf. Pass., Pres. (465. a) Per/ '. »i% (473) ; 1st Fut. smn^ or srrftriTT? (474) ; 2 d Fut. sTtr or $nfq^T ; Aor. yl sing. ^Tftf. Caus., Pres. sTTWR or sTtpnfR Aor. ^fjTsnj. Des. fiRR (-^rfa Ep.). Freq. tIRR, ^TUTfi? or sniffa. Part., Pres. TfRiT; Atm. sTRUT ; Past pass. $1171 ; Past indecl. sTTrJT, -sTTV ; Fut. pass. sTttrt, sTRfa, ir. 689. Root gft. Inf. ifriT ‘ to buy/ Par. and Atm. Pres, sffanffT ; , sjftvfhR, ^VtlTTTT ; stftolfal, sfitmfTT. Atm. sjrtfnr, gffciVcT, jfrkiiw ; jSWNir, 77 ft VTR, wfanw ; ssWfa?, WtastST, ■afbnw. Impf. ^T^vtVIT, RTfOviR , ^^FTTrr ; liVlb, WNftiT, ^WfTTT; ^wbribr, 'srgfhrfftr, ^srgftiR. Atm. vns^fvr, wfafarrcr, vTgrtirfto; vrterff, ’HflR'krRT, ^ssfaiTiTT ; ^^nfbnv, ^rgrtafh*, wartviTr. Pot. wt- vftvr. Atm. gffanfrr. Impv. whnTf^T, ■grtaftff, ^Nnw; tjOvitn, wWfcr, wtartaT ; jfffrnm, sskftrr, tsttrt. Atm. ^vr, srrhrfter, •gftvffrri ; gihrrRt, ■^fonror, TTfamri ; wbrnr^^, gfNfHsr, ^hjnrf. Per/. (374. e) fVstR, or fagR, fa-giR ; fsfjfiftR, fafgizppr , fafarcim ; fgfgsftrR, f^faw, fqfarro. Atm. fgfgR, fqfsfqv, fgfaw ; fsrfaifti^, RT?T; fafssftm?, or -|-, f^fgiftrT. 1st Fut. ifiTTTf^. Atm. isrn?. 2 d Fut. iraufit. Atm. -gm. Aor. ^fgre, -Ttrr; -V, -VT; 4^1, -V, -*R. Atm. ’STSfa, -¥R, -R ; THTPRf?, -RUTT, -VTTtT ; 7 S 37 RfV, THTSTTn. Prec. -gstam Atm. giTsfhg. Cond. TS-gw. 4 Atm. Pass., Pres. gfrg ; Aor. yl sing. rtstr. Caus., Pres. sSTTreTiTT ; Aor. ’SrtVgR. Des. fqgftqTfa, -V. Freq. %g?tg, ^ 77 R or Rgrqtfa. Part., Pres. "gftvnT ; Atm. gffarR; Past pass. Win ; Past indecl. 7 /tr 3 T, -grta ; Fut. pass, ^trinTir, 7?R. 6 90. Like gfl is tfl ‘ to please/ Pres. TTfanfa ; Atm. ifivr. Caus. TTlvrinfTT or JJTWfr; Aor. THfatlVT or ’RfaTUpIT *. Des. fcnfbTTftT. Freq. WR. 691. ‘ to cut/ follows tf, * to purify/ at 583 ; thus, Pres, ; Atm. ■?;%. Pot. trttu ; Atm. 75^ft7T. Per/. 7 TF 5 TV ; Atm. 7 VFSV. 1st Fut. cSfwrffR. 2 d Fut. T^fN^Tfir. Aor. * Foster gives VTfcTUrrr ; Westergaard, wfillutVL CONJUGATION OP VERBS.— GROUP III. CLASS IX. 301 692. Root spy. Inf. ‘ to bind/ Par. Pres. "3111 nr, ^rjnfrr ; -snflspr, 'sraftepr, N#fh?F ; wyhr, wirfcr. Impf. ^nti, wsmpr, ^RyTri; TFunrhr, -ft; ^raifbr, th^wf. Pot. Fytvh Impv. FUTfsT, nutf (357. a), futh; Fyur, fuTf, -tit; tp, F}Tx\ O O FmyF. Pot. VTylzd. Impv. fujttVt, Fraprr (357. a , 58), ftijtf; FppF, -ttt ; wyiH, wt^f, fttpf. Perf. qsfM, FsrtfWF, fftm ; FFGTF, FFWFTT, ->TFTT ; ^FTfuF, FFW, FFM^T. 1st Fut. FTtfiTFlfpi. id Fut. FftfiranfF. Aor. wffOT, -Fte, -f!f , &c. Or Tfwi, -w, -HfT ; -*TTF, -«rr, -H7TT ; -vrur, -kf, -vt^t. Free. VJ«UH. Cond. ^UFtfu-Hi. Pass., Pres. ^«i ; Aor. 3d sing. ^uUrk. Caus., Pres. VTTGUTftr ; Aor. * Some authorities give •^FSTHT in 2d sing. Impv. ; and the option of TnjTFJ in the 1st and 3d of the Perf. Compare 339. t Also neuter, 4th c. ‘ to he agitated ;’ Pres. VT«Ur <7 612. 302 CONJUGATION OP VERBS. — GROUP III. CLASS IX. HREH. Des. EETfHHTTH or EEjfHmfH. Freq. ETETfHT (3c? sing, Rtsfrfa*). Part., Pres. evh ; Past jiass. vpi or EWiT ; Past indecl. EatT or eFh;ht, -er : Fut. pass, ETfHHE, HftHEto (58), nftR. 695. Root htih*. Inf. HTf*HH ‘to stop/ ‘to support.’ Par. Pres. E HI fit ; like EH 694. Imp/. EHPJT. Pot. THTHfHT. Impv. EtfTfH, HTHTH (357. a), EtfTH ; HTtfR, EyllT, — 7TT ; EVTH, HTVftlT, EtfHT. Per/. HHT*H, HEf*HH, HER ; HEf^R, HHPFH^H, -THHH ; HEf*HH, H¥W, he*hh. 1 st Fut. EfRHrffH. 2 d Fut. ^fwraiTfa. Aor. -*HlH, -wffH, &C. Or EEH, -HH, -HIT; -HR, -HIT, -HITT; -HTH, -HIT, -HH. Prec. ERIE. Cond. EETEE. Pass., Pres. ER. Caus., Pres. rjHmTTH ; Aor. EHE*H. Des. fHEWETH. Freq. HTER, TTTERTH or '(TWRtffl. Part., Pres. HTyir ; Past pass. EE ; Past indecl. EET or Ef*HET ; Fut. pass. Ef*HIRl, iwfi^ E*R. 696. Root EE +. Inf. EfEH ‘ to eat/ Par. Pres, EETW, eetth, EElfH ; EEhlH, EE^HH, EETHH; EE^H, EHUtH, EEfHT. h»pf. htet, eteth, eteth; ete'In, ete^h, -itt; EfEtH- hte”1h, hteh . Pot. ee^ht. Impv. eetIh, eeth (357. «), eetj ; eer, ee^h, -ht ; EETH, EE^H, IH^. Perf. ETE, ETTEH, ETE ; ETfEH, ETEHH, ETEHH ; ETfEH, ETEs ETEH. 1st Fut. Ef^VTlfHT. 2 d Fut. EfEHTTfH. Aor. ETfEH, ETE^H, ETE^H; ETfER, ETTET7, ETfER ; ETfEHT, Hlfgit?, et%hh. Prec. E'jorn. Cond. ETfgrE. Pass., Pres. eet. Caus., Pres. ETEHTIH ; Aor. ETfEE- Des. EfElEHnH. Freq. EETTH (508. a). Part., Pres, eeh; Past pass. EfgiH ; Past indecl. EfEHT, -Era ; Fut. pass. EfgTTTE, eehIh, Ergn. 697. Root fliST. Inf. ififElj or ifiH ‘ to harass/ Par. Pres. f^TETTO ; like ee 696. Impf. EfgrET, etweth, ereth ; e%er, EIRETH, -ITT; Ef^TE^H, EfgiETH, EfiTEH. Pot. WETVT. Impv. f^rETTH, fwnr, &c. Perf. f^isE, TH^fEH or fnire, fnirE ; fRfarfgR or fEfgiE (371), fEfmjTE/T, -EHH ; MlifEH or faf^E. fE%EH. 1st Fut. ^fETUfHT or wrffH. 2 d Fut. ^T^ETTH or ijTH^TTH. Aor. E-gifEV, -E^H, -E^H; E^fifE 1 ^, -fE^, HITTER, -TEV, -fEVH. Or EfUE, -EH, -EH; -ER, -EH, -EHT ; -ETH, -EH, -EH ( 439 )* Prec. fgnRTH. Cond. EififEE or ESFiET. Pass., Pres. ; Aor. 3d sing. E^ifE- Caus., Pres. ^ehtIh ; Aor. ETHf^E Des. fHRifEHTfH or fR^fEHTfH or fnffiETTH. Freq. H%E7, RijifgH. Part., Pres. %EH; * This root also follows the 5th conjugation ; thus, Pres. HT^JTfH. See 675. t This is a different root from EE 5th conjugation. See 682. CONJUGATION OP PASSIVE VERBS. 303 Past pass. or f^%iT ; Past indecl. f^ifT or fgif^rr*T, ; Fut. pass, or ijunAiv, stcr. 698. Root tm. Inf. mfuir ‘to nourish.’ Par. Pres. tra'Ilftr, y V9 \ ^ \3 O 311mm, xrcnTfir; trothr, wiftr. Impf *?WT, VT^Wim, ^'JTTTrT ; ^TVTJtfiN, ^tpfftT, -tit ; ^PTwte, ^T^Un^TT, ^5^. Pot. tjwivT. Impv. mpnm, wpr (357. a), ^sfitit; mimq, ^'Pfiri, -ITT ; 3W1TH, VuriTfr, 311mm For the rest, see 33 4th c., 621. 699. Root (359, 399. a). Inf. gifft ‘to take/ Par. and Atm. Pres. ir^TfsT, y^rm, jpgftTi ; sr^hrcr; T^> Atm - ^ %i"i U'? , J j %(fE Impf. W J j ? ^T J | '•> S-fH ^ ? vut^kt; ^3^3. Atm. wnf^, ^ ’SPT^TqT, W^TrTT; VT^fW?, PoL Atm - Im P V - T^*’ ; T^h iT^fhr, Atm. 1T%, 3 J^T^t, ^T^T, U-^niT ; JT^JTTlt, *T^s 4 , n^HT. Perf. (3 8 4) m -Srcrf^T, ^1? ; SPJf^T, VfJTHWTT; *ppr, »rn?iT Atm. -iTUF, TinfVv, srft ; sinful, Trimm, ^n^rni ; wnfArft, ^Tnf?i4 or -ir, ist Fut. Tj^twifTH (399. a). Atm. grrhirm 2 d Fut. Tjftarfrr. Atm. Aor. ^t^tt ; vrir^hm. Atm. vrirAtem, fts 4 , Prec. jpsTTT. Atm. Cond. Atm. Pass., Pres, nft ; Perf. ; 1st Fut. Uplift or UTffirft ; 2 d Fut. zjmft? or TjTffft ; Aor. 3d sing. , 3d pi. or ^T- f^mr. Caus., Pres. irT^nffr; Aor. Des. f^mw, (503). Freq. urmi?, Tn?jfo (3c? sing, iTTiJTfe) or TrrjjmifR (71 1). Part., Pres. Atm. ■ Past pass . JpultT ; Past indecl. JT^h^T, -JT?r ; Fut. pass. H^trRT, JJ^rvr'hT, ^TW- EXAMPLES OF PASSIVE VERBS, EXPLAINED AT 461. 700. Root r*T da (465). Infin. WR^ datum, ‘to be given/ Present, ‘ I am given/ Aft diye n't M H ^ diydvahe diydmahe Thft di'yase diyethe diyadhve diyate AftA diyete diyante 304 CONJUGATION OF PASSIVE VERBS. Imperfect or first preterite, ‘ I was given.’ adiye M 1 'A G? adiyavahi adiyamahi Al r*! lIvntT adtyathas adiyethdm adtyadhvam adiyata adiyetam il-rf adiyanta Potential, ‘ I may be given.’ diyeya fffaT'jfji diyevahi diyemahi q 1 tt diyethus diyeydthdm diyedhvam fflVtT dtyeta tflVTITfTTH diyeydtdm dvyeran Imperative, ‘ Let me be given.’ diyai 1) 1^1% dtydvahai diyamahai rffTTR diyasva rfNRIH diyethdm rfHlRIT diyadhvam ^^nn*T diyatdm 'ftVTTTH diyetum diyantam Perfect or second preterite, ‘ I have been given.’ dade dadivahe ^ frpT? dadimahe dadishe dadathe dadidhve <5 ^Hf,tf^addyi,‘ it was given,’ fjR fsiITUV ’srfaR *rfaRwi> fairer fjRR fjRR vrf^iVRT farcn farcw vdRRTTT ’SlflJiTPtT CONJUGATION OF CAUSAL VERBS. 305 Potential, ‘ I may be made/ | Second preterite. fjRER faTOTr> few? roarer "aaiHa f^ippTTT fawroT faros? tVtFT rViMiiri nfiirrFr ■s ^faTO Imperative, ‘Let me be made/ > . First future faro fffiXfTR? r c. "n J ^uTT?r 35 rfraF <*ti 1 wa, &c. faros? 1 or an-fion? wifitrrra? arTfbrreRf, &c ff&rorri f^^nrt faTO?ri Second fut. anTTO or afffrro, &c. SING. or ^TcjrrfrfR ■>.H <* ’i) |TT or ’.H=fiTKVTTT Aorist or third preterite. DUAL. or -H o*i i fu^rf? or , ?nRrfbrf*iT or ^BTftRTITT PLURAL. ^rwriir or ^TTT' t *rf? or -it t 4 * ^®iiRrr or iS^TfcttW ^ToRlfc ‘it was done 5 Prec. •siT^Txr or gnfbffa. Corn!, ^rcFftttr or ^r^rrnc^i. 7 02. Example of a passive from a root ending in a consonant : Root 5 pT yuj. Infin. yoktum, ‘ to be fitting/ Pres. Tpr, ^iw, &c. Impf. &c. Pot. Impv. &c. Perf. zrafire, &c. ist Put. Tftwt, ifriro, irt^T, &c. 2 d Fut. *rt^, &c. Aor. '^rgcpqm, ^nuftr; &c. Prec. Cond. ’Htpupt. EXAMPLE OF CAUSAL VERBS, EXPLAINED AT 479. 703. Root bhu. Infin. vrr^ftrrR bhdvayitum, ‘ to cause to be/ Parasmai-pada. Atmane-pada. Present, ‘ I cause to be/ RTwrfir HTqiTRTT ^rraaiaa HTaa Riaajaa HTaafa VTRTRI^T Hl'-DIV HTaait *TaaTO «Taas? »TTW7T \ UTaaTT maaa H N i| *A Imperfect or first preterite , ‘ I was causing to be,’ or ‘ I caused, 5 &c. ^WEPPT \ ^wiaara ^rvrRV'R aimaa aWTaaiaf^ aWTaaFTf^ \ awaTOrT aTvnaaw \ awiaaaT amTaas? ^HTTmr \ ^TRURrrt annaa? ^tHTTmr awaafTT *Wiaaar Potential, ‘ I may cause to be/ >naaa VTiaaa maa* t VTTaaaf? HTaaafa \ Ruum waair maaara araaaiaT maasa Hraarr HUnirTT vi \ RUUTW HITVWT HTaaT^ r r 300 CONJUGATION OF CAUSAL VERBS. Imperative, ‘ Let me cause to be/ *rnrq'R htwr vn^X7 itmuf HTWrT vturh m^nri rnwg HPR HmntT Guntur? hulw HTTHrlT HTWrtT Perfect or second preterite, * I caused to be.’ HT^RT^RTT mw^p HPPTRRU O \ in^qr^T: mw^npim HT^nrursfi HT^Trnprh HURim'sKR VTTTtn^iB? HUUTraf^T First future, ‘I will cause to be/ HP?fafTTftR HP-lfilrflWT HRfjTTUrrTTT HrrftnrrftT mwfqrrrcsr Hr'jfqRT HUtfqFRT WTTftnTrOT HT^rfmrnt HRfmTT HRRHTO? vrrrPq'aTO Second future, ‘ I shall or will cause to be/ ^rrftmrfa ^rrafirarreH >rrefq*qiB*T m'jfq'ajftt ^rurfqRN* vnqfqRR KwftmRTT >rRftrnifjfr HUqfqtq HT^fq'SHT HT^fqtqTr HT^ftrar^t >qqfqTqq Aorist or third preterite, ‘ I caused to be/ ’'Rbrq* ^R^JT^T ^ToflHTR , 3nift>R7T ^RfUTiT ^RbtTrqfV HRf?nnw? mqfqTncw wqfquiiB^ MHIWiq Hiqfqaj^l ^ufi»uisq ^iRTT whtIhwt vRfaq rf Precative or benedictive, ‘ May I cause to be/ iTrsiTTTSI >hto mRTWT vrrtftpftTT HTTpqtf^nr mTfqqbrir «TRTTT HTRT^T HTRUFT >TRfti^hn7siT HvrnuftR mRTw HTRT*TT majuro 0 \ mq-fqxftv HRfipfftrreTT HrqfmfftR Conditional , ‘ I should cause to be/ WHPtUTOH ^WRfqurR ^MT^ftwnT ^HT^fqTqTT ’SW^fqTmr ^VTPTfqTiTrT \ ’WFlftrciTf ^THTTPqRHT ’JWUqfanR ^rqftra wnrftrnnuf? ^mT^rftrorqR ’Rm^ftntpqT ^ouqfqurR ^wrefiwa' ^trurfwrn wraftn»riT 704. After this model, and after the model of primitive verbs of the 10th class at 638, may be conjugated all causal verbs. EXAMPLES OF DESIDERATIVE VERBS, EXPLAINED AT 498. 703. Root *r hhu. Infin. •^nfqwH bubhushitum, ‘ to wish to be/ • ** C\ ^CnVJN 7 Parasmai-pada. Atmane-pada. Present, * I wish to be/ v» cv 0 ©- \ O Cn w*tr^ O C\ ^ cTvnrvjrr O Cs \ O Cv 0 C' cTHqtVl O C- ^wqfrr 0 e- O Cv \ TS™ O C\ CONJUGATION OF DESIDERATIVE VERBS. 307 Imperfect or first preterite, ‘I was wishing to be/ or £ I wished/ &c. O c\ \ aST^T^R o C\ ^WWTR o c\ V3 Cv ^ra^urufi? O Cv \ O Cv O Cv O Cv \ ^viwr O Cv O Cv r O Cv V ^tNHWrTT O Cv *TW**PT O Cv \ O Cv ^rWlrTT Cv O Cv Potential, ‘ I may wish to be/ O Cv ■SWEUT O Cv ^>T^T O Cv O Cv ^THWfk O Cv ^ WH? O Cv \ ^J57T O Cv WWRT ^5 Cv \ •cT^qin^ri o Cv ^wk$£ O Cv O Cv \ W^rlT O cv TO WfiT O Cv ^q^TrTT O cv Imperative, ‘ Let me wish to be.’ w^Tftrr O Cv wvnrre O Cv ■=WTR O Cv O Cv ■p^t O Cv O CN ^*R 1 T O Cv O Cv O Cv O Cv ^T*R7T o cv o O c\ O Cv O ^*RTTT O Cv O.CN ■^HWnTT OCv Perfect or second preterite, ‘ I wished to be.’ O Cv O C\ t O Cv t O Cv O Cv C O Cv O Cv ON O Cv O Cv C O Cv *V o Cv <* <1 TiMI^=CK *rra O Cv ON O Cv ON ^WT^i v5 Cv O Cv OCv First future, ‘ I will wish to be.’ * WmVTTTftFr Cv O Cv \ o c- \ ^THfbrrr? (jCv ' ^fWrfT^% Wwrfa a'HfvTrn^rTT wfWTW ■sTHrqrrFmr Tif™ wrtRTTT O Cv winn O Cv ^HfqrlTUT O Cv wtfkr rrcrr Second future, ‘ I will or shall w ish to be.’ ^rftrEnfa O Cv ■cmfqarreTT O Cv \ O Cv \ ^vrfaar O Cv O Cv - ■^vrfMufw a^rnrarq W^fxiatTT O Cv smfrpufir O cv O Cv N wwfii ii| r* O Cv ■snifTTSjw O Cv avrfqaiTr O Cv Aorist or third preterite , ‘ I wished to be.’ O Cv \ O C\ w^rftra O Cv O Cv O Cv ^qvrfETErrnt O Cv O Cv >5TWH^7T o Cv \ O Cv O Cv Ox OCv ^cr^fWAT O Cv ?T^rfwn O Cv Precative or benedictive, ‘ May I wish to be.’ O Cv \ wan^r O C\ *^nmFT O cv O Cv wvrfipfNff O Cv ■wajm cTVrrmTFT NHafTTrT WVrfhWTTT o Cv \ ^VTftrq-fnTWT ■^anw O Cv \ wanHT O Cv WHUjlUTt O Cv O \ w^fw-m^T OCn Nvrfaa^TU Vjcv N Conditional, ‘ I should wish to be.’ ^TcnjftnqH ^>|finirR ■^r^trfqwjTR o cv ^rswfiT 1 ^ O Cv ^r^rfharra-r? ■nr'wrfaapn •g?'^*rfaanr ^^vrfTTsjs4 ^r^vrPwff O Cv v ^r^rumrii ^wfqanr O Cv x ^r^fETHTW v5 Cv ^■^HfaanTT oc OCv * Or R r 2 308 CONJUGATION OP FREQUENTATIVE OR INTENSIVE VERBS. EXAMPLES OF FREQUENTATIVE OR INTENSIVE VERBS, EXPLAINED AT 507. 706. Root *r bhu. Infin. ^£fVr?PT bobhuyitum, ‘ to be repeatedly/ Atmane-pada form (509). Present, ‘ I am repeatedly/ ■sfTHUTUV UTUVR C\ ^rTHUUI Cv Imperfect or first preterite, ‘ I M as i frequently/ C\ ^un^rEnufV ^RT^WT M?*fr^rcs 4 C\ WtH^fTT ^^tvrw Potential, ‘ I may be freque :ntly/ -EfrvrtRT? UTHVuf? =nmrzrrvT Rtninr «fr*WHT RTVRVU Imperative, ‘ Let me be freqi lently/ C\ uthutuv RTHRR UTHWr Cv UTHXRIT Perfect or second preterite, ‘ I was frequently/ C\ TTHtU^iTR «\ *N ■V r* ^ 1 ^ jfiTTT R 1 =3 1 S*T First future, ‘ I m ill be frequently/ UI^rfVfTTV UTHnnrrvrv U>fnTrTTWV ■UtHfaiTUT ^Hnnrrum Cv UTHfUrTTR UTHTUTIT UmfWRT URRUTV'U Second future, e I will or shall be frequently/ cffHfil'auV? ■sft*fxpira wt^rftraiR ^fr^rnraH Aorist or third preterite, ‘ I M as frequently/ sTsrbrftjfa C\ ^R^rftnsrf^ ^TTtHftTSTW wr^fqTTTqi or ^R^fWTTT CONJUGATION OF FREQUENTATIVE OR INTENSIVE VERBS. 309 Precative or benedictive, * May I be frequently.’ C\ RTUnRtVTRT or -ft 7 T >> Vi RWfTT C\ Perfect or second preterite, 4 1 was frequently.’ &c. &c. RtipngHf^FI, &c. or or or or sftwR Rt*rfRT or RWfvN ^fwfuu or Rfufuu ^rfrsi or Rhf? or ^TT*R RbTR or NT^R or Rt>UTO or ROR^T \i vi \ C"si \ First future, * I will be frequently.’ Rfvrf-THif^ RtvrfaiTTRTr RTHfaTTTWU RTHfwrfR uTufwiwtT VMf^l ri 1 F4 RtURrU RMfwrvr RMfTfrrru 310 CONJUGATION OP FREQUENTATIVE OR INTENSIVE VERBS. Second future, ‘ I will or shall be frequently.’ VWfRRTfR RRfVRRR RTHfRITTR Rbrfanifa «ftnf^ui*jR ^n^Ruivj TTvif^^lfw RfafaonTR RtHRRRT Aorist or third preterite , ‘ I was frequently.’ RRtfRR rrtrr RRTHR ’FRIRR RRtHR RRtfrT RRfaR \ rrtrrt RRfaRR Cv \ or or or RRfaTR*7R RRTHrf'-I R RRfanrfa RRMrfa? RRRIRy RRTRRfa \ vRbrrfRVT RTtRifavR 0 \ Precative or benedictive, * May I be frequently.’ RfaRTR RTRRTR RfaRTR C\ \ RtRRRT WWW RTHRTR RfaRRTT #rar C\ \J \ Conditional , ‘ I should be frequently.’ ’.H «Tl*rf%'OT*T ^RfaR-niR ^RfafaxtHR RRfafwiT ^RMfaRH R-Rfafacnr \ RRTHfRnTfff trthRRR 708. Root c to kill’ (323, 65 4). Parasmai form of Frequenta- tive, £ to kill repeatedly.’ Pres. or Riprlftr, STf fa or RjpTTR, or q- Hi frT ; »i , Tig-’qti, >Tf?nT ; >1 »ti *1 , iT^-% or jfafa. Impf. wsnpr, ^ *1 q - 'i or ^Tn^ '^or »i g- H~l ri ; ^T*TfTT, - 7 TT ; Wip*T, WfTT, or . Pot. Impv. ^npTTf'T, *rsrfa, or Rif ; »nprR, RifR, -tit ; ripttjt, Rifft, or RATT. Perf. Wq-iiy»R or »I^ «ii^otiTT, &c. &c. 709. Root tr ‘ to go’ (602, 270). Parasmai form of Frequenta- tive, ‘ to go frequently.’ Pres. R^ffa or Rjffa or R^lfa, RlffR or jT^hUtt ; RtfR'A, Rtf*JW , RjfTTR; R]fRR, RlfR, ^T^rfvr or Impf. RRjj'Hj tT^R or >3 H j^-nfa , RR^R or ^TrTjfRTrT ; ’S*i^-R, RR^tt, -HT ; RRlf-R, RRTfR, RRjfRR or rrtrit . Pot. t. Impv. R^RTfa, ltd'll or R rf ; R Rtfri, R^RI ; R^RTR, R fin. R^fRiT or RJRR. Perf. RSRT*f*R or R^ruRRin: , &c. &c. 710. Root fierq ‘ to throw’ (635). Parasmai form of Frequentative. Pres. %Rffa or ^frnftfa, RRfR or Rfapfifa. RHtfa or ^rfi’rqlfrt ; INDECLINABLE WORDS. ADYERBS. 311 %TTrnT7T ; %f^«*TTT, %f^sr, Impf. ^%£nr, or ^rfi^tffar, ^irtr or ^re%qt?r ; -■jjt ; ^fsm, ^fgjTT, ^fspjTT. Pot. ^fs^qT, &c. Impv. 'W^tnftrr, ^f^far, or ; ^trhtt^, %fmr, -ttt ; 'wirwur, ^raraw. Perf or ^faWT^^TT, &c. &c. 7 1 1. Root jjw ‘ to take’ (699, 359). Parasmai form of Frequenta- tive. Pres. or WT^Wr, wnrffIT (306. a ) or iny^lfa, WTljrfe (303. a) or »lit!^lfrr ; sTTW^^T, SfPpnT, tTRTS^T; WNJsi^T, *pqd, WTW^'TrT. Impf. ^nrrtr? (292. b, 43. c) or or wwrsreur; ^WPT^, ^TWiip', -Kvg), ‘quickly;’ riUllI' ‘ silently ;’ ‘reciprocally,’ ‘together.’ /. Of time: — ‘to-day,’ ‘now;’ ‘to-morrow;’ WTST ‘yesterday;’ ‘ the day after to-morrow ;’ ‘ now ; ’ 7JTT ‘ formerly ;’ VTW , WtTWTW, SITWi, ‘before;’ ^|IRT ‘ at once ;’ ‘ instantly ;’ TIW ‘ after death ;’ WC afterwards ;’ 7TTW ‘ ever ;’ * *nw ' never;’ ^TSRgST, ‘another day,’ ‘ next day.’ g. Of place. ‘ here ;’ IS ‘ where ?’ WfeW ‘ without.’ h. Of doubt. few, fefew, ^fuWTN, TFT, WWTft, WWTf> fer(, few, ‘ perhaps,’ &c. i. V?fq ‘ even,’ TTW ’ indeed,’ s, ‘ just,’ are placed after words to modify their sense, or for emphatic affirmation. IJW, §W, W, are particles of this kind used in the Veda. Observe — Some of the above are properly conjunctions; see 727. Adverbial Affixes. 718. few /'it, wrftj api, and /ana, may form indefinite adverbs of time and place , when affixed to interrogative adverbs ; As, from Wi^T ‘when?’ Wirfffew, WTWTfe, and WfifTWW, ‘sometimes;’ from and In ‘where?’ ^<^few, Uifew, Hilfe ‘somewhere;’ from WTjW whence ?’ cWWferW and WTW'Ttf W ‘ from somewhere ;’ from wrfw ‘ how many?’ WSffffew ‘ a few ;’ from Wife ‘ when ?’ wfeferT ‘ at some time ;’ from wfe ‘ how ?’ WiWWfe, cFVlW, ' ’ somehow or other,’ ‘ with some difficulty.’ Compare 228, 230. a. foUowing a word, generally signifies ‘ even,’ but after numerals, ‘ all,’ as ‘ all three ;’ TTWsftJ ‘ all together.’ 719. ww tas (changeable to w: or wf by 63, 64) may be added to any noun, and to some pronouns, to form adverbs ; As, from VT^WW ‘ with effort;’ from THTfe wfewTT ‘ from the beginning ;’ from W (the proper base of the pronoun W<^), WW?t ‘thence,’ ‘then,’ ‘thereupon,’ therefore:’ similarly, WW^T ‘whence,’ ‘since,’ ‘because;’ WTfTW, TjWW, ^StWWW, hence,’ ‘hereupon.’ Observe — In affixing tos to pronouns, the base W is used for Wi^, ’W for WWW, ^ for fe, ^ for V for VW, ^ for fe.W. a. This affix usually gives the sense of the prepositions with and from, and is 314 INDECLINABLE WORDS. — ADVERBS. often equivalent to the ablative case ; as in ‘ from me rd ‘ from thee* * ;’ fonffTTT ' from the father ; from an enemy.’ b. But it is sometimes vaguely employed to express other relations ; as, 1 T8TT^T ‘ behind the back;’ ’STHTinT ‘ to another place,’ ‘ elsewhere ;’ H’dBrTTr ‘ in the first place;’ riTT ‘here and there,’ ‘hither and thither;’ WT*?nTTf ‘on all sides ;’ 13*0 MTTH ‘ in the neighbourhood ;’ ft LrftT, ^TJJTfTT , ‘ in front ;’ '^TfWrTtT ‘ near to ;’ ’ in pomp or state.’ c. rTTIT is an affix which generally denotes ‘ place’ or ‘ direction ;’ as, from WTO , ■>x ft W ITT ‘ downwards ;’ from Tftfr (which becomes Tqft*), above.’ 720. W tra, forming adverbs of place ; As, ’Sfo? ‘ here ;’ 7T, TT, q, are expletives, often used in poetry to fill up the verse. PREPOSITIONS. 729. There are about twenty prepositions (see 783), but in later Sanskrit they are generally prefixes, qualifying the sense of verbs (and then called upasarga ) or of verbal derivatives (and then called gati). About ten may be used separately or detached in govern- ment with the cases of nouns (and then called karma-pravaianiya ) ; e. g. qq, qfk, qrfq, q?fq, qrfW, qfr, qrq, and qq ; but of these the first three only are commonly found as separable particles in classical Sanskrit. 730. q«T d, generally signifying 4 as far as,’ 4 up to,’ 4 until,’ with an ablative case ; as, qrrqJT£TiT 4 as far as the ocean qiiqqfq 4 up to Manu :’ and rarely with an accusative ; as, qrrqnrtq 4 for a hundred births.’ INDECLINABLE WORDS. — PREPOSITIONS. 317 a. d may sometimes express ‘ from as, ^TTHToTTT ‘ from the beginning; 5 ‘ from the first sight. 5 b. It may also be compounded with a word in the accusative neuter forming with it an Avyayi-bhava (see 760) ; thus, WTOrS ‘ as far as the girdle 5 (where is for TOwT). c. ufk prati , generally a postposition, signifying ‘ at, 5 ‘ with regard to, 5 ‘ to, 5 ‘ towards, 5 ‘ against, 5 with accusative ; as, lift ‘ at the Ganges ; 5 VR jrfft e with regard to justice ; 5 51# Ifft ‘ against an enemy. 5 It may have the force of apud ; as, sit Hft f as far as regards me. 5 When denoting ‘ in the place of, 5 it governs the ablative. d. R«T ‘ after, 5 with accusative, and rarely with ablative or geni- tive ; as, { along the Ganges; 5 or WlffSH ‘ after that. 5 e. srft, and more rarely and wfW, may be used distributively to signify ‘ each,’ ‘ every thus, W2?JT*J ‘ tree by tree.’ They may also be prefixed to form Avyayi-bhavas ; or ^'1 -irUr«3*r, iRW, ‘ Rama, Lakshmana, and Bharata ;’ ^ir^Trvr^^STofiUTH ‘ the deer, the hunter, the serpent, and the hog. 5 The learner will observe, that although the last member of the compound is inflected in the plural, each of the members has here a singular acceptation. But a plural signification may often be inherent in some or all of the words constituting the compound ; thus, ‘ Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vais'yas, and Sudras ; 5 ‘ friends, neutrals, and foes 5 (for fJTWrftr, frl ‘ sages, gods, ancestors, guests, and spirits 5 (for , ^rfirsPTtf , ipTTH' ‘ lions, tigers, and serpents ; 5 J dogs, vultures, herons, ravens, kites, jackals, and crows. 5 749. So also when more than two inanimate objects are enume- rated, the last may be inflected in the plural ; as, ‘virtue, wealth, enjoyment, and beatitude 5 (for ’SWT, cfi-puET, jfrgpgj ; ^rT«R^r^T?TTf^ ‘ sacrifice, study, and liberality 5 (for ^PT ^). In some of the following a plural signification is inherent ; as, twitm 'ChciiR ‘ flowers, roots, and fruits ; 5 ^VTTrTU n TOTOT ‘ of the unborn, the dead, and the foolish 5 (for ^T^ffiTRT, JTrTRT, JPTTOT ‘ eyes, mind, and disposition ; 5 TT^rSFITWyT- ‘ sickness, sorrow, anguish, bonds, and afflictions ; 5 ‘ wood, water, fruit, roots, and honey. 5 750. So also when only two animate or inanimate objects are enumerated, in which a plural signification is inherent, the last is 326 COPULATIVE COMPOUNDS (DVANDVA). inflected in the plural ; as, ‘ gods and men ;’ q^r^qig - ^ ‘ sons and grandsons tTTrffaniTm ‘ falls and rises ;’ ITRrrrMfWR ‘ ramparts and trenches ‘ in pleasures and pains’ (for TT , -cTT, - 7 %, ‘ having very little water ;’ tUldn ^fgTT, -flfTT, -f^T, ‘ of wise intellect’ (119); ftpi*TT®W, -VT, -V, ‘having a dear wife ;’ >- 4 TVTTT , -ITT, _ *f, ‘not to be reconciled;’ NV7TTTTRTT , agreeing with TT*TT, ‘ a king who conceals what ought to be concealed.’ 767. Although a passive participle is not often prefixed to a. noun in an absolute sense, this kind of combination prevails most extensively in the formation of relative compounds ; as, MTTT^iTNTTT, -NTT, -NT, ‘ whose time has arrived.’ a. Other examples are, frnjfT^-jnr, -vt, -v, ‘ whose passions are subdued ;’ Sllt^VlTTTT, -WTTT, - rRT , ‘ whose mind is composed;’ TTg^^NTTTTT, -1TTTT, -ITU, ‘ whose mind is rejoiced’ (see 164) ; HTITT^ITT, -^IT, -?T ‘ whose hopes are broken ;’ vuTT, -iSIT, -t^T, ‘whose kingdom is taken away;’ THTJ? rfjNsTTTT, -tTTTT, -sTNT, ‘ whose glory is boundless ;’ ’SrrcTTPTNJ^T, -TVIT, -IV, ‘ whose death is near ;’ ■^ilT' oFTTTTT , -*TT, -H, ‘ whose desire is accomplished,’ i. e. ‘ successful ;’ yfT*Tt- ti « i « , -TfT, -IT, ‘ one who has finished eating;’ ^iTTVTTnTJTT^j H , -TtTf, ‘one by whom the Sastras have not been read;’ , -VT, -V, or ^rt^TfVTT, ‘ whose heart is pierced ; ’ -fTT, -gJ, ‘ who has conquered his enemies ;’ -$TT, -M, ‘having the hair cut ;’ ferijijMTT, -ITT, -IT, ‘eating sparingly ;’ VTPTDITT, -VT, -V, ‘ purified from sin.’ RELATIVE COMPOUNDS (BAHU-VRlHl). 333 b. Occasionally the feminine of the adjective appears in the compound ; as, ‘ having a sixth wife.’ Compare 755. a. c. The affix lea is often added; as, , -^iT, -'3s, ‘reft of fortune;’ 7frrfisT®S?r, -3"dif, ‘ shorn of (his) beams.’ d. Examples of Greek and Latin compounds of this kind are, [xeyaXo-Kifl7T, -vfrff, -fW, ‘fearless’ (123.6); nVj^n*- VH , -VT, -V, ‘ of that kind,’ ‘ in such a state ;’ d « fs W, , -1%, * weak- minded ; ’ -fircr, -fk, ‘ill-natured’ (see 72); 7THWW, -7^, -7?, OCX \ ' 1 / ' \j\> v ' ‘handsome-faced;’ -fllTT, ‘ of good understanding.’ Some of the above may be regarded as relative forms of Descriptive compounds, formed with indeclinable prefixes; see 756. Similar compounds in Greek and Latin are, av-v][j.epog, ev-drjXcg, in-imicus, in-felix, dis-similis, semi-plenus. e. Observe — The adverbial prefixes JTland 77 (726. d.f) impart a passive sense to participial nouns of agency, just as ^va and eu in Greek ; thus, ‘ difficult t c. ( ^ to be done,’ 773R easy to be done ;’ i 5W ‘ biting their lips and having red eyes’ (agreeing with VTSfR^T); ‘ injuring another by action or by intention.’ 772. The substantive Wff?, ‘ a beginning,’ often occurs in complex relative 336 ANOMALOUS COMPOUNDS. compounds, with the force of et cetera, as in simple relatives at 764; thus, 3T3TTU- n_<*l r; Tf4T ‘ parrots, starlings, &c.’ (agreeing with ‘ birds beginning with parrots and starbngs’), the whole being the relative form of dependent, involving an aggregative ; £ ifg ‘ peace, war, &c.’ (agreeing with under- stood) ; viXT, -^T, ‘possessed of houses, temples, &c. -^i, -•#, ‘ possessed of elephants, horses, trea- suries, and other property.’ a. Similarly, ’37 M in the example 4 ?t*Urp : yj& IH ( agreeing with ‘garlands possessing the best odour and other qualities’). 773. Long complex compounds may be generally translated by beginning at the last word and proceeding regularly backwards, as in the following ; «T- by the music of the voice of the cuckoo, blended with the hum emitted by the swarms of joyous bees.’ 774. ?HW3i or as occupying the last place in a complex relative, denotes ‘composed of;’ thus, y -Wi "^TT 'd Mdifd t <*^<*'3TW'3i WcZ ‘a force consisting of elephants, horses, chariots, infantry, and servants ;’ Hi' >1 ^ ‘ the two actions consisting of the good and evil done in a former birth.’ 775. Complex compounds may sometimes have their second or middle member elided or omitted ; thus, w6isU*1 > ^l'3r'rtcM is really a complex compound, the whole being a descriptive, involving a dependent ; but the middle member Wri is elided : see 745. a. Similarly, 'SIT^TTftf^T ‘ the era-king’ is for 1 cUflJTr’TU xf=l*T ‘the king (beloved) by the era ;’ for ItJlTjft ‘ Urvasi gained by valour.’ a. Complex compounds expressive of comparison are not uncommon ; as, »| 0=1 -73T, -< 55, ‘unsteady as a trembbng drop of water;’ H f A dV<5^iTtxrWT c51T , -<3T, -75, ‘tremulous as water on the leaf of a lotus;’ the last two examples are complex. Compare 758. a. b. A peculiar compound of this kind is formed from Dvandvas by adding the affix tyaj thus, ^14 ri ir5TXTJT, -MT, -XT, ‘like the story of the crow and the palm tree ;’ , -X?T, -XT, ‘ bke the story of the hawk and the pigeon.’ c. The substantive verb must often be supplied in connexion w’ith a relative com- pound ; as, 1 his success was proportionate to his undertakings ;’ xtflTWftT ‘ on his drinking water,’ for TUT tfftr XTfiT. 776. Complex compound adverbs, or indeclinable compounds, involving other compounds, are sometimes found; as, ^xprfvrf^TMTrt ‘ not differently from one’s own house T x; ‘ after utter- ing a sound ‘ regardlessly of the curving of her waist bending under the weight of her bosom ifsn ^TT ‘ as seen and heard.’ ANOMALOUS COMPOUNDS. 777. There are certain compounds which are too anomalous in their formation to admit of ready classification under any one of the preceding heads. CHANGES OF CERTAIN WORDS IN CERTAIN COMPOUNDS. 837 a. 5 IT, 1TTO, HTW, affixed to crude bases, form anomalous com- pounds ; see 80. XX. XXI. b. There is a common compound formed by placing vrVR after a crude base, to express ‘another,’ ‘other;’ as, or TTSITult ‘ another place;’ UWTuftFT along with another king ;’ W^TuTTTniT ‘ other births.’ c. Similarly, HT3 is added to express ‘ mere;’ see 919. C. c: d. V? or Vji oh or (meaning literally ‘ preceded by ) may be added to crude bases to denote the manner in which any thing is done; as, 'Si'UrTTT ‘with anger;’ ‘ he gave food with reverence.’ See 792. e. A peculiar compound is formed by the use of an ordinal number as the last member ; thus, TTTTTrPg iUmG ‘ accompanied by the Sarasa ;’ TfiflliltilsfTr (agreeing with VTRH ) ‘having Sita for his third (companion),’ i. e. including Lakshmana; WVT'%rffrlTT (Wc57T) ‘ Nala made double by his shadow ;’ WTWWUT: (^RTTTT.) the Pandavas with their mother as the sixth ;’ ^TTWPT'T^RK ' the Vedas with the Akhyanas as a fifth.’ f. The following are peculiar; ififq rT VPff ' a fighter who abandons life;’ --W TTpG •M « , -VT, -V, ‘having no fear from any quarter;’ -^T, -W, never before seen ;’ H H jTTWtfNW: ‘ one who has lodged seven nights.’ g. With regard to compounds like iTuT'afTR ‘ desirous of going,’ see 871. h. The Veda has some peculiar compounds ; e.g. vidad-vasu, ‘ granting wealth;’ yavayad-dveshas, ‘defending from enemies;’ kshayad-vira, ‘ruling over men.’ These are a kind of inverted Tat-purusha. CHANGES OF CERTAIN WORDS IN CERTAIN COMPOUNDS. 778. The following is an alphabetical list of the substitutions and changes which take place in the final syllables of certain words when used in certain compounds. m. at end of various compounds for n. ‘the eye;’ e.g. ‘ a bull’s eye (window);’ -Tfft, -VT, ‘red-eyed.’ for f. ‘ the finger ;’ e. g. -75T, -75, ‘measuring two fingers.’ m . for i~c5 v 1 ) X m. ‘joining the hands in reverence.’ for ’SISePT m. ‘ a road ;’ e.g. TTT^TT, -J^T, ‘ distant (as a road).’ in Dvandvas for ^ fiVV m. ‘ a bull ;’ e. g. "N • ^ <- or -IT cow and bulk’ ’SHTH in Karma-dharayas for n. a cart,’ ‘ a carriage ;’ e. g. RVD7H+T ‘ a large cart.’ in Karma-dharayas for n . ‘ iron.’ in Karma-dharayas for in. ‘ a stone.’ ^JFT in Dvigus and relative compounds for ; e. g. ‘ a car drawn by eight oxen ;’ UlrtH, -757, -75, ‘ having eight receptacles.’ in Dvandvas for WtTrT m. n. ‘the knee;’ e.g. ‘3I^hri*T ‘thigh and knee.’ for f. ‘an angle;’ e. g. -TjfT, ‘ quadrangular.’ TSTjf or for n. ‘ a day ;’ e. g. PcfiltiTT ‘the period of one day ;’ ‘ a holy-day ;’ ‘the lord of x x 338 CHANGES OF CERTAIN WORDS IN CERTAIN COMPOUNDS. day.’ TtyT for y£*T n. ‘ a day;’ e. g. Nql WiN the forenoon.’ i(N for f. * water ;’ e. g. an island >t! <*tN"N ‘ an island.’ — «7 for ‘ a wound.’ TEf in Karma-dharayas for TSTN m - ' an ox e - g- NfttEJ'T ‘ a large ox.’ 37^ for TTNi n. ‘ water ;’ e. g. - 37^®7W7T ‘ a water-jar 55 tl CtiN ‘ the sea of milk.’ — TTTT in Karma-dharayas for 7R7T n. ' the breast;’ e. g. y ■-’d I7NTN, - 7 ft, -ft, ' broad-chested as a horse.’ TNITTF an old dual form in Dvandvas for <3 m. f. ‘the dawn;’ e. g. 3NTH f ftft ‘dawn and sun.’ TJWn (f. for "TTNN n. ‘ an udder ;’ e. g. ftbTGift ‘having a full udder.’ — 35X1 for TIN f. ‘ water ;’ e. g. 7HNMTT, -ttt, -ft, ‘waters.’- — NFT for NjpN; see 779 . NINiT for <*<*<7 m. 'the top,’ ‘ head ;’ e. g. ‘ three-peaked (mountain).’— Nr[ or NiT or NIN for NT expressing inferiority or diminution ; e. g. Nii ml or X^V'iSJT or NT3TTPI ‘ slightly warm ;’ NiT75TT ‘ a bad letter;’ 'Nr?N7j'N7T ‘ a coward.’ =Sl at end of Bahu-vrihis for NiFFT m. ‘ the palate ;’ e. g. fV^lejjirf ‘ having no palate.’ ^75T for m. ‘ the belly.’ FJTT for 7317ft ; e. g. 3TV.;TT, -TNT, -TN, ‘ grass-toothed,’ ‘ graminivorous.’ — Tlfft for 7TTTT f. ‘ a wife ;’ e. g. WNjTTTfftTT ‘ having a young wife.’— — $T and si in Bahu-vri- his for «rFT n. ‘ the knee ;’ e. g. MTT7T, -sTN, -sT, or NTTTT, -'TIT, -ft, ‘ bandy-kneed.’ 7T3T for 7TSj'«T m. 'a carpenter;’ e. g. ftTTTTsITT ‘an independent carpenter;’ 57irnT5«J7T ‘ the village carpenter.’ — — ITNTT in Karma-dharayas (preceded by TIN, TFT. or NFM) for TTNTT n. ' darkness ;’ e. g. ^TNTFTft ‘ slight darkness.’ for ?NN ; see 779 . — -T^cT (f. Tfilft) for T^tT m. ‘a tooth;’ e. g. TT^*?, -T^fT, ' having beautiful teeth.’— — TN for n iNT ‘ a wife ;’ e. g. T*-Mrtft ‘ husband and wife' (according to some, ‘ the two lords of dama the house’). f^N at end and fftNT at beginning for m. ' the day ;’ e. g. Tnrfftft * night and day ;’ TTNT fd 31 ‘ day and night.’ TN at end for TF ‘ yielding milk;’ e.g. cf’ttrTNT ‘the cow of plenty.’ — *5 TNT an old dual form for TTfN f. ‘heaven;’ TVfNTMrNXQT du. ‘heaven and earth.’ — NTNN at end of Bahu-vrihis for VN7T n. ‘ a bow ;’ e. g. d 4 NX-NT, -7NT, -TN, ‘a strong archer.’ — -NN*? at end for NN m. ‘ virtue,’ ‘ duty;’ e. g. Ni itliJMNT, -NT, -ft, ‘ virtuous .’ — xjt for f. ‘ a load ;’ e. g. TT5TNT7T ‘ a royal load.’ — N at the beginning of a few compounds for 7H ' not ;’ e. g. TTNTT'NiTT ‘ a eunuch.’ — TFT for «TTft ‘ a river;’ e. g. NNJ7TT ‘ the Panjab.’ nTT or nTJ for «Tf I « <*7 ‘ nose ;’ e. g. FTTj'tnN, -TJT7T, -TUN, or 73T7HTTTT, -717, -ft, ‘ sharp-nosed.’ TP? for NTW f. ‘the navel;’ e. g. NTTNINTT ‘ lotus -naveled,’ a name of Vishnu. — NTN for ftt f . ‘ a ship e. g. NT-i r| 1 -1 ‘ half of a boat.’ — NN for NTN7? m. ‘ a road ;’ e g. 77 NN7T ' a good road.’ — N'T and NTT' 1 fern. NTft) for NTT m. ‘ the foot; - c. g. NfftN ‘ coldness CHANGES OF CERTAIN WORDS IN CERTAIN COMPOUNDS. 339 of the feet ;’ TgPTTR, -Mfffr, -MR, ‘ a biped ‘ a quadruped.’— MA for HTR m. " the foot ;’ e. g. -HT, -if, ‘ going on foot.’- — ~YiT for '^'n^TT f. ‘ an army.’ — in Dvandvas for m - * a ma le e. g. $pffa|AT nom. du. ‘ man and woman.’ AHA end of Bahu-vrihis (preceded by NT, * 1 , or R^) for TfMT f. ‘ people,’ ’ progeny;’ e. g. HATTHTA, - ?11 W , -ATT, ‘ having a numerous progeny.’ sTU for A 1 TH m. ‘ a Brahman ;’ e. g. ‘ a contemptible Brahman.’ HR for HUT f. ‘the earth;’ e. g. TfFHRTT ‘land towards the north.’ HN in Dvandvas for Hf. ‘ the eye -brow ;’ e. g. vTf^THN ‘ eye and brow.’ WRA in Dvandvas for UrtW n . ‘ the mind;’ e. g. UT^ij'T'U nom. du. n. ‘speech and heart.’ and Msf) 1 (pre- ceded by ftTiTT, HTFTT, &c., 754. a) for WRIT ' great;’ e. g. TUTTfURTT ‘ grandfather.’ — HyT at beginning of Karma-dharayas and Bahu-vrihis for AAA m. f. n. ‘ great;’ but in Tat-purusha or dependent compounds '^Wl\ is retained, as in ‘ recourse to the great ;’ also before HA ‘ become,’ and words of a similar import, as 7 TM ‘ one who has become great ;’ but ARTHTT ‘ an element.’ — AM or MIf at end of Bahu-vrihis (preceded by r§°, YcR, &c.) for A IT A m. 'the head e. g. TITAUA, -NT, -•'‘11 ) may be made neuter at the end of certain compounds ; e. g. SRJ-aa ‘ the shade of sugar-canes ;’ fyiTTJfl ‘ an assembly of princes ; an assembly of women ;’ (or -’3TT) ‘a night when dogs howl.’ d. A sibilant is sometimes inserted between two members of a compound ; as, mtfui!, ‘ expiation of sin,’ for TTTTf^W ; ‘ a spot trodden by kine.’ 780. Numerals, when preceded by particles, prepositions, or other numerals, may change their finals to a ; or if their final letter be a consonant, may either drop that consonant or add ’S? a to it ; thus, fVc? (nom. -eTT*T, -^‘tq be within;’ ‘to walk in the midst.’ e. VHT apa, ‘ off,’ ‘ away,’ ‘from’ ( ano ) ; as, (from and ^), ‘to go away;’ ‘ to lead away;’ ‘to abstract;’ ‘ to bear away.’ It also implies ‘ detraction;’ as, ’-S n d ‘ to defame.’ /. ^P<4 api, ‘ on,’ ‘ over’ (e7n), only used noth VT and *T¥; as, WpclVT ‘ to cover over;’ d y ‘ to bind on.’ The initial a is often rejected, leaving fUMT, g. abhi, ‘ to,’ ‘ unto,’ ‘ towards ;’ as, ^rfvPIT, ‘ to go towards ;’ ^rfW- VT^ ‘ to run towards ;’ ^TfW‘^51 ‘ to behold ;’ or (see MT at 664) ‘ to address,’ ‘ to accost,’ ‘to speak to,’ ‘ to salute.’ h. ava, ‘down,’ ‘off;’ as, ‘to descend;’ ‘to look down ;" ‘ to throw down,’ ‘ to scatter;’ ‘ to cut off.’ It also implies ‘disparagement;’ as, ’SHTsTT ‘to despise;’ ^TTPsp^ ‘to insult.’ With VT (3d c. ^^vnPri), ‘ ' to attend.’ The initial a may be optionally rejected from ‘ bathing.’ i. a, ‘ to,’ ‘towards,’ ‘ near to’ (Latin ad); as, ’h I Pd ‘ to enter;’ ^T3i*T ‘ to go towards;’ ‘to mount up.’ When prefixed to *TH, ^T, and ‘to go,’ 342 COMPOUND VERBS. and t^T ‘ to give,’ it reverses the action; thus, -aiM*, WT, 7?, ‘to come ;’ ^UTcT to take. With ‘ to practise.’ j. Tr[ ud or TiT id, ‘ up,’ ‘ upwards,’ ‘ out’ (opposed to f*f) ; as, T*3T (48), Tf?, to go up,’ ‘ to rise’ (pres. T<7*ITfi7, 1st conj.) ; ‘ to fly up ;’ 7 , ‘to despise,’ and with ‘to avoid.’ It sometimes merely gives intensity or completeness to the action ; as, mPTn^T ‘ to abandon altogether;’ *Tf7$rF ‘ to ascertain completely.’ p. H pra, ‘ before,’ ‘ forward’ (7 rpo, pro, pro ) ; as, H7R , H77*?, to proceed ;’ 77*R ‘ to set before,’ ‘ to present;’ W ‘ to begin;' HTTT ‘ to proceed,’ ‘ to begin;’ TTNTT ‘ to run forward ;’ ‘ to set out,’ ‘ to advance ;’ 71*7^ to be superior,’ ‘ to prevail ; ’ TT^JT 'to foresee.’ With c?*7, ‘ to deceive.’ Observe — H with ^■oa.Pn ‘ he goes,’ makes TTTrS'ffi (or Tnwffi) ‘ he goes on quickly;’ H with causal base of SV to go,’ makes TRinfff ‘ I send.’ Similarly, IT + 77*TrT — MTtr ' he trembles ;’ and 3T + ^Ttirf?r (from T*T ) = TTf^Prl ‘ he burns.’ See 784. a. The r of pra influences a following nasal hy 58; as, 7775*7 ‘ to bend before,’ ’ to COMPOUND VERBS. 343 salute.’ Sometimes If does not alter the sense of a root, as in WTO to obtain (5th c.; see 681). q. wfrT prati, ‘ against,’ ‘ to,’ ‘ towards,’ ‘ back again’ (wpos ) ; as, ‘ to fight against ;’ II rd ‘ to go towards ’ (pres. IT^lfH) ; to go towards,’ to return ;’ wflTf ‘ to counteract;’ ‘ to beat back,’ ‘ to repel;’ sTiTiTW ‘ to answer;’ IffiTeR ‘to recover;’ IjffRd ‘to lead back;’ TjffDnfR ‘to re-salute.’ With ‘ to promise ;’ with ‘ to arrive at,’ ‘ to obtain ;’ with f'Sf , ‘ to wait for,’ ‘ to expect.’ Sometimes it alters the sense very slightly ; as, ‘ to dwell near or at.’ r. fq vi, ‘ apart,’ ‘ asunder,’ implying ‘ separation,’ ‘ distinction,’ ‘ distribution,’ ‘ dispersion’ (Latin dis, se); as, TTUT ‘to wander about;’ ‘ to vacillate;’ fq<£ ‘to roam for pleasure;’ fwWT ‘to dissipate;’ ‘to tear asunder;’ ‘to divide;’ fwfw^‘to distinguish.’ Sometimes it gives a privative signification; as, "SWlpf ‘to disunite;’ FR? ‘to forget;’ fWlu ‘to sell.’ With ‘to change for the worse.’ Sometimes it has little apparent influence on the root ; as, fvWTf ‘ to perish,’ or ‘ to perish entirely ;’ Tvf"'4Vf ‘ to think.’ s. UU sam, ‘with,’ ‘together with’ (aw, cob); as, ufl, ‘to collect;’ ‘ to join together ;’ UjtU ‘ to meet together ;’ ‘ to happen ;’ ‘ to contract.’ With 'Si it signifies ‘to perfect,’ and W is inserted, <4 TV. It is often prefixed without altering the sense ; as, ‘ to be produced.’ t. HfT dus or cV dur, ‘ badly,’ and u su, ‘well,’ are also prefixed to verbs ; see 726. d.f. u. Also other indeclinable prefixes ; thus, Vnrft? ‘ decline’ is compounded with if ‘ to go,’ in the 3ense of ‘ to go down,’ ‘ to set ;’ TrfVW ‘ across,’ with WT in the sense of ‘to conceal,’ with TR ‘ to disappear,’ with ‘ to revile;’ ^{TT with VT ‘ to believe.’ 784. Two prepositions are often combined with a root ; as, ^377*77 (fq + ~n) ‘ to open (10th c.) ‘ to kill ;’ (-g-q + w) ‘ to go tinder,’ ‘ to undergo,’ ‘ to arrive at ;’ ww (tut +VT + root ‘ to as- semble f IfbajWW (w + fu, 58) ‘to prostrate one’s self;’ ini' (TT4-‘?rT + root 1) ‘ to raise up ;’ and occasionally three ; as, JRrrif (w 4- fq 4- ^?t) ‘to predict;’ mtUfTl (qfir + + wn - ) ‘to answer.’ Other com- binations of three prepositions, occasionally prefixed to roots, are 4- + iht ; vmq -}- fi + urr ; i + wfe + 1 ; ¥ii + ^ + n; wi 4 - 4- fi. a. Observe — Final Vf a and 1ST a of a preposition combine with the initial ri of a root into dr, and are rejected before initial If e and VJT o (except in forms from the roots ^ i, ‘to go,’ and ‘to increase). See 38 e. i; and see IT and ■3" *7 above : but in other cases prepositions ending in vowels combine with roots beginning with vowels according to the rules of Sandhi ; thus, THT with 3) ‘ to go’ becomes (32), and in pres. (VTT + TJM 33), &c.; in impf. ITUT, TTTT (645, 33), & c. ; in pot, (iSIT 4- ip7V)> &c. ; in impv. (^T 4- Iffl), &c. Similarly, Hq with ufu becomes VTbfh by 33. 344 COMPOUND VERBS. b. Observe also, a sibilant is generally inserted between the prepositions Tq, Mft, TrfrT, WFT , and the roots Tf ' to do’ and ^ ‘ to scatter;’ see above under 1 3 TX and WT. Similarly, from TTT and ojT is formed '-W '-! Hit. ‘ excrement.’ c. The final i of ’Sjfff, nfir, xrfr, fjf, is optionally lengthened in forming certain nouns from compound verbs; as, ’.HrfltUT, TTFr^TT, XTUlfTO, 'jftcfiTT. 785. In conjugating compound verbs formed with prepositions, neither the augment nor the reduplication change their position, but remain attached to the root*; as, wrrcj, impf. of iff, with xrfx ; TmfVsT, impf. of fqsr, with TXT; ’'Urfin?, impf. of WT, with ; mTTTXTR, perf. of with TTffT ; ITTW?n:, perf. of with IT and TfT. a. In the Veda, as in Homer, prepositions may be separated from the root by other words ; as, ^TT TTT ‘ let them enter thee.’ 786. Grammarians restrict certain roots to either Parasmai-pada or Atmane-pada when in combination with particular prepositions or when peculiar meanings are involved f. Some instances have been already given at 243. a. Most of the examples specified by Panini in the 3d ch. of his 1st Adhyaya are here added. The 3d sing, present will be given, the termination either in ti or te marking the pada to which in each case the root is supposed to be limited. TT?T ‘ to throw’ is generally Parasmai, and TIT ‘ to reason’ is generally Atmane, but combined with any prep, may take either pada. 3 i ‘to do;’ anu-karoti, ' he imitates ;’ para-karoti, ‘ he does well ;’ adhi-kurute, ‘ he overcomes ;’ ut-kurute, ‘he informs against,’ ‘reviles;’ ud-a-kurute, ‘he reviles;’ vpa-kurute, ‘he wor- ships ;’ upa-s-kurute (784. b), ‘ he prepares ;’ upa-s-karoti, ‘ he polishes ;’ para- karoti, ‘ he rejects ;’ pra-kurute, ‘ he offers violence,’ ‘ he recites (stories).’ ^ ‘ to scatter;’ apa-s-kirate (784. b), ‘ he (the cock) throws up earth;’ but apa-kirati, he scatters (as flowers).’ ‘ to go ;’ a-kramate, ‘ he (the sun) ascends ;’ but d-krdmati when not in the sense of ‘ the rising of a luminary, &c. ;’ vi-kramate, 1 he (the horse) steps out;’ but vi-lcramati, ‘ it (the joint) splits in two;’ upa- kramate or pra-kramate, ‘ he is valiant ;’ but npa-kramati, ‘ he approaches ;’ and pra-kramati, ‘ he departs.’ ’3ft ‘to buy;’ ava-Mnite, pari-krmite, ‘ he buys;’ vi-kriiiite, ‘ he sells;’ but kri alone takes either pada. "Sfi? ‘ to play;’ a-kridatc or anu-kriclate, ‘ he sports ;’ pari-krldate, ‘ he plays about ;’ sair{sam)-kridate, ‘ he * There are a few exceptions to this rule in the Maha-bharata ; as in ’-M R = 3 CfT (Maha-bhar. Selections, p. 33). t In Epic poetry, however, there is much laxity; e. g. XflT and TTT§, which are properly Atmane-pada, are found in Parasmai. Instances of passive verbs taking Parasmai terminations have been given at 253. b. On the other hand, ‘ to rejoice,’ which is properly a Parasmai-pada verb, is found in the Atmane. COMPOUND VERBS. • 345 plays but san-(sam)-kridati,‘ it (the wheel) creaks. fsrr to throw;’ ati-kshipati, ' he throws beyond abhi-kshipati, ‘ he throws on prati-kshipati, ‘ he throws back or towards .’ — ‘ to sharpen;’ san-{sam)-kshnute, ‘he sharpens.’ UU 'to go;’ d-gamay ate, ‘ he delays or waits patiently ;’ vy-ati-gaddhanti, they go against each other;’ san-(sam)-gaddhati when motion towards any thing is implied, as ‘ he goes towards (the village);’ but Atmane in the sense of ' he goes with’ or ‘ agrees with.’ ‘to swallow;’ sa«-(for sam)-girate, ‘ he promises,’ ' he pro- claims ;’ but san--girati, ‘ he swallows;’ ava-girate, ‘ he swallows.’— ‘ to go ; ud(ior ud)-darate, ' he goes astray;’ ud-carati, ‘ it (the tear) overflows;’ sanj for sam)-carate or sa rn - ud-ri- da rate, ‘he goes in a chariot.’ — f*T ‘to conquer ;’ see 243. a. sTT ‘to know;’ apa-janite, ‘he denies (the debt);’ prati-jdmte or sah-janite, ' he acknowledges.’ Without a prep, this root is restricted to either pada if certain meanings are involved ; as, sarpisho (for sarpisha) janite, ' he engages (in sacrifice) by means of ghee;’ gam janite, ‘he knows (his own) cow;’ svdm gam janati or jdmte, ‘ he knows his own cow." — rft ‘to lead;’ unitor: vd)- nayate, ‘ he lifts up;’ upa-nayate, ‘ he invests (with the sacred thread);’ vi-nayate, ‘ he pays,’ or ‘ he grants,’ or ‘ he restrains ;’ vi-nayati, ‘ he takes away’ (as ‘ the anger of his master’); vi-nayati, ‘he turns away (his cheek).’ Without a prep, this root is Atmane if it means ‘ to excel,’ or ‘ to ascertain.’ ‘ to praise ;’ a-nute, ' he praises.’ fP? to burn ;’ ut-tapate or vi-tapate, ‘ he warms;’ ut-tapate or vi-tapate, ‘ he warms (his own hand, &c.).' Without a prep, this root is Atmane, 4th c., if it means ‘ to perform penance.’ cfT ‘ to give ;’ a-datte, ‘ he receives;’ vy-d-dadati, ‘he opens (his mouth);’ v y-d-datte, ‘he opens (the mouth of another);' sam- yacchate, ‘ he gives’ (as ddsyd, ‘to the female slave,’ the instr. being used for the dative) to see;’ sam-pasyate, ‘ he considers thoroughly.’ ' to ask for;’ always Atmane if used with gen. c., as madhuno nathate, ' he asks for honey. TH5 ‘to ask;’ d-pricchate, ‘he bids adieu to;’ sam-pricchate, 'he interrogates. — JJvT to eat’ is Atmane if it means ‘to eat,’ ' to possess,’ or ‘ to suffer ;’ but Parasmai if it means ‘ to protect.’ — UV ‘ to bear ;’ pari-mrishyati, ‘ he endures or forgives.’ V' 4 ? ' to restrain;’ a-yacchate, ‘ (the tree) spreads ;’ d-yacdhate , ' he stretches out (his hand);’ but a-yacchati, ' he draws up’ (as a rope from a well); upa-yacihate, 'he takes (a woman) to wife ;’ but upa-yacchati, ' he takes the wife (of another);' a-yaddhate, ‘ he puts on (clothes);’ ud-yad 6 hate , ‘ he takes up (a load);’ but ud-yaddhati, ‘he studies vigorously (the Veda, &c.);’ sam-yacdhate, ‘ he collects’ (or stacks as rice, &c.) — ‘ to join ;’ ud-yun-kte, ‘ he makes effort;’ anu-yun-kte, 'he examines;’ ni-yun-kte, 'he appoints;’ pra-yun-kte, he applies;’ but pra-yunakti, ‘ he sets in order (sacrificial vessels).’ ‘to sport;’ vpa-ramati, ‘ he causes to refrain*;’ a-ramati, ‘he rests;’ see also vi- ramati 243. a. — ‘ to cut;’ vy-ati-lunite, ‘ he performs cutting (of wood) which was the office of another.’ Vc ' to speak;’ anu-vadate, ‘ he speaks after or like' (with gen.); but anu-vadati, ‘he imitates’ (as giram , ‘a voice,’ acc. c.); upa- vadate, ‘ he coaxes," ‘ he advises;’ vi-pra-vadante or vi-pra-vadanti, ‘ they dispute;’ This is an instance of a simple verb involving the sense of a causal. 34 G COMPOUND VERBS. sam-pra-vadante, ‘they speak together;' but sam-pra-vadanti, ‘ they (the birds) sing together apa-vadate . ‘ he reviles improperly but apa-vadati, ‘ he speaks against.’ Without prep, vad is Atmane/ to be learned in interpreting’ (the Sastras), or ‘ to be earnest in the study of any thing’ (as agriculture, &c.). h?- ‘ to carry;’ pra-vahati, ‘it (the river) flows along.’- — ‘to know;’ sam-vitte, he is conscious;’ sam-vidate or sam-vidrate, they are conscious’ (308). Td 3 ( ‘ to enter;’ see 243. a. HFl 1 ? ‘to swear;’ supate, ‘he swears at’ (with dat.). ^ ‘to hear;’ sam-srinoti, ‘ he hears (the speech);’ but sam-srinute, ‘ he hears well’ (intransitively). WT ‘ to stand;’ ava-tishthate, ‘ he waits patiently;’ pra- tishthate, ‘ he sets out ;’ vi-tishthate, ‘ he stands apart;’ san( for sam)-tishthate, ‘ he stays with;’ upa-tishthate, ‘he worships,’ ‘he attends on.’ Without prep, sthd takes the Atmane when it denotes ‘ adhering to,’ ‘ depending on,’ as tishthate Krishnnya , ‘ he places his trust in Krishna;’ but vpa-tishtliati , ‘ he waits on’ (not in a religious sense, and governing an accus. c.); ut-tishthate, ‘ he aspires’ (as ‘ to salvation’); but ut-tishthatif he rises’ (as ‘from a seat'). fT'T ‘to strike;’ a-hate (see 654), ‘ he or it strikes’ (‘ himself or itself,’ the object being omitted); but d-hanti vrishabham, ‘ he strikes the bull.’ T? ‘ to sound ;’ sam-scarate‘ it sounds clearly.’- — ^ ‘ to seize ;’ ami -liar ate, ‘ he takes after (the disposition of his father or mother),’ otherwise anu-harati. ‘to call;’ upa-livayate or ni-livayate or vi-hvayate or sam-hvayate, ‘ he calls,’ ‘ he invokes ;’ d-hvayate, ‘ he challenges’ (as an enemy); but d-hvayati, ‘ he calls (his son).’ a. Some causals are also restricted to either Parasmai or Atmane, according to the preposition prefixed or the meaning involved; thus the causal of with MiT, meaning ‘ to bewitch,’ is limited to the Atmane. So also, ‘ to be greedy,’ when its causal means ‘ to deceive,’ is restricted to the Atmane : and the causal of =n 3 T, meaning ‘ to deceive,’ takes the Atmane; meaning ‘ to avoid,’ the Parasmai. Again, ^ in the causal, when joined with mithyd, and signifying ‘ to pronounce badly,’ takes the Parasmai ; but only in the sense of doing so once. In the sense of ‘ causing a false alarm’ it requires the Atmane; but the above specimens will suffice to show the little profit likely to he derived from pursuing this part of the subject farther. Compound Verbs formed by combining Adverbs with the roots c? kri and i? bhu. t • ‘•x 787. These are of two kinds; 1st, those formed by combining adverbs with ^ ‘ to make 5 and to become;’ 2dly, those formed by combining nouns used adverbially with these roots. a. Examples of the first kind are, ‘ to adorn ;’ 4 to make manifest’ (see 72) ; ‘to eject;’ * to place in front,’ £ to follow ;’ fcRT^i ‘ to deprive ;’ *Tr^l 4 to entertain as a guest ;’ pr'pt; 4 to revere ^rraT^, HTcw, ‘ to become manifest,’ &c. 788. In forming the second kind, the final of a crude word, being COMPOUND ADVERBS. 347 a or a, is changed to i; as, from TTSfl^i 6 to make ready,’ *T 5 jft»T ‘ to become ready from osm?, £ to blacken from xrft^rr ‘ a ditch/ ‘ to convert into a ditch and sometimes a becomes a; as, Tirere ‘to please,’ from fire. A final i or u is lengthened ; as, from Slfkr, vusftvr ‘ to become pure from ‘ to lighten/ A final ri is changed to ft ri ; as, from mw, ‘ to become a mother.’ A final as and an become i; as, from Tpppff, to be of good mind ;’ from ‘ to be a king.’ a. But the greater number of compounds of this kind are formed from crude nouns in a. The following are other examples: ‘ to esteem as a straw/ *T 3 fh| ‘to stiffen/ TTSfffwh* ‘ to fix the mind on one object / to make one’s own,’ ‘to claim as one’s own/ to become friendly.’ Substantives are sometimes formed from these; as, ‘the state of being friendly,’ ‘ friendship.’ b. Observe — This change of a final to i before kri and bhu is technically said to be caused by the affix • ; -S C.» c . ♦TOT rf TTOi3i*f * there is no need of me as a servant;’ WTO there is use for a straw.’ 809. ‘ The price’ for which any thing is done may be in the instrumental; as, WW (^Tfff <*TUr?) ‘ for five Puranas he becomes a slave ; ’ (^pflUf?) ‘they fight for great rewards.’ Similarly, TIP 3 T^'Rt^T I T , T^?i «T (^ 1 ^ *T c 5 ^TfT) ‘ fortune is not obtained at the price of the sacrifice of life.’ a. So also ‘difference between ’ two things; as, itrVT ^ ‘ there is great difference between you and the ocean.’ b. ‘ Separation from,' either with or without ; as, IVR'PTt ‘separation from a husband’ (or *T;|t Ti?T Similarly, ^ ‘ separation from Hari.’ c. The English expression ‘ under the idea that ’ is expressed by the instrumental case of the substantive , as, ^TSTVSIT ‘ under the idea that he was a tiger.’ Double Listrumental. 810. Sometimes when two substantives come together, expressing parts' of a common idea, they are both placed in the instrumental, instead of one in the genitive ; as, trT^UT ‘ (an odour is emitted) by the bakul-plants by their flowers’ (for Similarly, rTR ipqTWST ' ‘ (he caused her to revive) by her attendants by sandal-water.’ Dative case. 8x1. This case is of very limited applicability, and its functions, iri’espectively of the influence of verbs, are restricted to the expression of ‘ the object ,’ ‘motive,’ or ‘ cause’ for vrhich any thing is done, or ‘ the result’ to which any act tends ; as, ‘ for self-aggran- dizement;’ wqrBrfd^TTT'XT ‘ for the counteraction of calamity;’ ^ ^IT^f ^ S?fa"q^T £ arms and books (lead) to renown.’ a. When, as in the last example, ‘ the result’ or ‘end’ to which any thing leads is denoted by this case, the verb is seldom expressed, 35*2 SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. but appears to be involved in the case itself. The following are other examples: 3^ f^nfairr" sjttt Turfa 3733 ‘where there is admixture of poison, then even nectar (leads) to death;’ HtTHUT JTefTl3T3 3 ‘ advice to fools (leads) to irritation, not to conciliation 3 T 3 T: WI 3 T 3 3 ‘ that old husband was not to her liking VilTT fTWT ^13 3 ‘ that king was not to her liking.’ b. It will be seen hereafter that certain verbs of giving and relating govern the dative. Substantives derived from such verbs exercise a similar influence ; as, 3n3W cT~*f ‘the giving to another;’ 3733 ‘the telling to another.’ c. Words expressive of ‘ salutation’ or ‘ reverence’ are joined with the dative; as, 33T3TT3 331 ‘ reverence to Ganesa ; ’ * ‘ health to thee.’ Ablative case. 812. The proper force of the ablative case is expressed by ‘ from ;’ as, 'pfbTTiT ( 3 VP 3 : STVSTTYf) ‘ from avarice anger arises ;’ filt: 37T3 ‘ falling from a mountain;’ ^TTTOT 3T3T7T ‘from the mouth of the spies.’ 813. Hence this ease passes to the expression of various correlative ideas; as, ^TfTvnr f«jrf%7r x ' ' a portion of (from) their food :’ and like the instrumental it very commonly signifies ‘ because,’ ‘ by reason of,’ ‘ in consequence off as, UrUVfqmT ^T'-TUfT ‘ on account of the slaughter of cows and men;’ SlTfT (Vi? f^rfffi) ' he blames his son for entering inopportunely ;’ * through fear of punishment ;’ 3?trrr3t(kp7 b ( rl ‘ by reason of my good fortune ;’ Tfic^rfr S fnTrUTTT ' because (there is) no difference as to the result.’ a. ‘ According to;’ as, 3T3V ^ ^ -~ll rl ‘ according to the advice of the minister. Abstract nouns in 73 are often found in this case to express some of these ideas ; as, TTT H 3 H( J inrr3'^'r3TfT ‘ by reason of the unsteadiness of his mind especially in the writings of commentators ; as, 3>AtB|l!i73T'ff ‘ according to what will be said hereafter;’ ri rl « 3 rtH^Trf^ ‘ according to the division of touched, slightly touched, slightly open, open and contracted.’ 814. It also expresses ‘ through the means’ or ‘ instrumentality of;’ as, 7TXI | 1 rf t . 3T3r3cIl caught in the toils through the instrumentality of the jackal;’ 'll 3)13- VJ3fT?rRT? (sqTV: IfTlf^TT! 337T) ‘ the alleviation of disease is not effected by the mere knowledge of the medicine.’ a. ‘ The manner ’ in which any thing is done is often expressed by the ablative ; it is then used adverbially (compare 715); as, 3(jTlrT ' with diligence,’ or' diligently ;’ 3c5TTT ‘ forcibly ;’ ^TTvTHTTT ' with wonder ;’ 4 93 [TT7T ‘ figuratively ;’ d-d GIT ‘ tearing up by the roots or by the ablative affix rf3 ; as, ‘at one’s own pleasure’ (see 719. a. b). b. This case also denotes ‘after;’ as, 7IT?T)fVh*7 (iPTraTT ) ‘ one ought not to accept a present from any one;’ (T«T i^l-rif) ‘the wood is to be abandoned by us;’ *T Wt rtm 1 he is blessed from whom sup- pliants do not depart in disappointment;' T^TIAsirT UTU ‘ meat cooked by Nala.’ d. ‘Difference between two things' is expressed by this case; as, Af3T+H'3i*r|'^ ‘there is great difference between the master and the servant.’ Com- pare 809. a. •SYNTAX OF NOUNS OF TIME. 354 р. In native grammars it expresses 1 in place of;' as, "3 Olf U’TTt ‘ an in place of ri is followed by ra.' Locative case. 817. The locative, like the genitive, expresses the most diversified relations, and frequently usurps the functions of the other cases. Properly it has the force of ‘ in’ 4 on,’ or ‘ at,’ as expressive of many collateral and analogous ideas; thus, TT^T ‘ in the night;’ tjw * in the village ;’ rjg * on the back ;’ Fsfq fwm: ‘ confidence in you ;’ qfg; 4 rain on desert ground ;’ ‘ at the first desire of eating ;’ qfkuzsT utfqfvt ‘ a tree planted in the earth.’ 818. Hence it passes into the sense towards ;' as, ‘ZfHT ^ mci ^ leni- ency towards an enemy as well as a friend rHTT ‘ compassion towards all creatures;’ 7T;fr?T tSTifoU ‘ upright towards friends ;’ ri*T «Tt fNT^fl NT ^Txft ‘ Is your master attached or adverse to you ?’ ’SPTTftfag ‘ neglectful of his dependants.’ SYNTAX OF THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 829. Adjectives in the comparative degree require the ablative case ; as, irrciiwf sfq jttIwI ‘ a wife dearer even than one’s life N cY^N 3(TrT TTTN?rT: RTfiir vnvfw ‘they began the business ;’ TTrrT»T ^ STOT ‘grieve not for the departed;’ TJTFSl- WTfVTTOTT W^flT ‘he deserves the sovereignty of the universe;’ ‘ he lies down in a cave of the mountain;’ TTT '8?1 t ftpTOfl' »T f»TWTOrq P^Oddl ‘ his own acts lead a man to eminence or the reverse ; ’ ftTSTVTHT* TTT*T ' he taught them the use of arms.’ Instrumental case after the Verb. 848. Any verb may be joined with the instrumental, to express * the agent / ‘ instrument or ‘ cause,’ or * manner ’ of the action ; as, vai VTWV f nrfiT ‘ the flower fades by reason of the wind ■aflrfcT ‘ he plays with dice inft sfhr VVT fvRTwfir ‘ the cloud puts out the fire with its rain;’ tiam »flvfTT ‘ he lives happily.’ See 865. a. In this sense many causals take an instrumental; as, 7TT (RblvJt. ‘ he caused her to eat sweetmeats ;’ vfsj’fir: fmjiiH Ah<;4Pd ‘ he causes the pieces to be eaten by the birds.’ 849. After verbs of motion this case is used in reference either to the vehicle by xchich, or the place on which, the motion takes place ; as, TW U ill Pd ‘ he goes in a chariot ;’ 44^U.Pri ‘ he goes on horseback ;’ HHHW J H«Pri ‘ he goes on the road;' uvaPrt ‘he goes through a field of corn;' *1 IHA *ll<*ul ‘ he navigated the ocean in a boat .’ Similarly, AJfcll'I -M « 1 1 y Pci <4 ‘ tears flowed through the eyes.’ a. After verbs of carrying, placing, &c., it is used in reference to ‘the place’ on which any thing is carried or placed; as, f|T ^TfT ‘ he bears fagots on his head ^^TI T5HT ‘ the dog is borne on the shoulders' Vi is found with this case in the sense of placing ; as, fijTTVT ^TViTTH 1 he placed his son on his head.’ The following are other examples: Pjl ueaPri ‘the master goes in company with the pupil ;’ hPn ‘ a ruler ought to be possessed of discrimination ;’ •T'tn nT ri ‘ I must become your companion ;’ ’SfT^PTT HT^TTT'^- the lady must be seated in the carriage.’ 376 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 906. Similarly, the neuter of 71^*1 may he adverbially used, and impart at the same time a passive sense to the infinitive ; thus, qq«B J for qqq: 3pm: &c. ‘ the breeze is able to be embraced by the limbs ’ (S'ak. Act III). Again, qriT qTrTK ‘the breezes are able to be drunk by the hollowed palms ;’ TJiqqq ^H '41 w ‘ great successes are able to he obtained.’ 907. It is not uncommon to find this participle standing merely in the place of a future tense, no propriety or obligation being implied, just as the past passive participle stands in the place of a past tense ; thus, T^qqq qJTTJiT- qjfqqT qqpq ‘ in all probability this hunter will go in quest of the deer’s flesh,’ where •M'H'q is used impersonally ; FIT 771 %: f< 4 if-Ud qqrq ‘ when the people see you, they will utter some exclamation qf^ qTJht qfiffl Tv^T fFTT ^rfqirqn ‘ if the bird falls, then it shall be eaten by me.’ See also the eleventh sentence of the story at 930. 908. The neuter of this participle is sometimes used infinitively or substantively, as expressive merely of ‘ the indeterminate action’ of the verb, without implying ‘ necessity’ or ‘fitness.’ In such cases ^TIT may be added; thus, H^Uin'qq ?fq ‘ the being about to deceive,’ ‘ deception’ (Hitop. 1 . 416); ‘ the being about to die,’ ‘ dying:’ but not always; as, nftfqfpq ” life.’ Participial Nouns of Agency. 909. The first of these nouns of agency (580) is constantly used in poetry as a substitute for the present participle; implying, however, ‘habitual action," and therefore something more than present time. It is sometimes found governing the same case as the present participle, but united with the word which it governs in one compound ; thus, qT^jq ‘ city-conquering ;’ fiprqq ‘ speaking kind words;’ ‘going in the water;’ qTfqj»T ‘lake-born.’ But the word governed is often in the crude base ; thus, ‘ light-making’ (see 69), from tejas and lerij H n't ^ f , ‘mind-captivating,’ from manas and hri (64); , ‘giving much,’ from balm and da; ’M i rH d , ‘ self-knowing,’ from utman and jha ( 57 - *)• 910. The second (581) is sometimes, but rarely, found as a participle governing the case of the verb; thus, 4i n nnt ntr^ttnnt ' ’ Was she indeed married by me formerly ?’ 913. 7TNT ‘so,’ ‘likewise’ (727. b), frequently supplies the place of N; thus, NTuiOft INTNIm N TUN rNN^Tul N TT^TT ‘ both Anagata-vidhata and Pratyutpanna- matis’ (names of the two fish in Hitop. book IV). 914. ‘for,’ IT ‘ but,’ NT ‘ or’ (727. d, 728. a), like N, are excluded from the first place in a sentence ; thus, ^NTN'vtR'lt NTNT jU.R f? NftNNTT ‘ for happiness formerly scorned turns to misery;’ fNNNN 7T ‘but on the contrary;’ NNT TNN NT J plT!T NT ‘ either abandon her or take her.’ 9I5- NiV if’ and NTT ‘ if’ (727. b) may govern the potential or conditional (see 891), but are also used with the indicative; thus, NTT TftNfrr pJTfhT NTJNfrT ‘ if he live, he will behold prosperity ;’ Ni% NNT NNfNNN ^fFT ‘ if there is need of me;’ 7TOJIT NTT NfUNNiT Nt TfftTjjU ‘ If avarice were abandoned, who would be poor ?’ Prepositions and Adverbs. 91 6. Prepositions are often used in government with nouns. See 729, 730. a. b. c. d. e. f g. The following examples illustrate the construction of adverbs as described at 731. 917. NTTNftUN^y d l rl ‘as far as the wrist;’ 'NTNNTN ‘till death;’ NTTNNTTTN ‘to the completion;’ ^7T V? rTKJ NumhlTT ‘till the completion of his vow;’ 378 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS, PREPOSITIONS, ADVERBS, &C. till his release from the body;’ ^rrST'WTTTT ‘ from birth;’ «T bjrl TJlbb: bib ‘ the restraint of crime cannot be made without punishment;’ "ST 7 T TpTTTf*T HTTrT ‘for a hundred births;’ TPrfbbT bibb 'up to the serpent’s hole;’ bbpIT ‘along with his son;’ ?b ‘ without cause;’ ’H’MtlN'T fb*TT ‘without fault;’ fbbTT^ bf?T ffTIPbl ‘creeping out of the hole ;’ bTTBl chTibPTTb Ijpfb ‘ from the moment of seeing (him);’ sTbTTPifb 'from birth;’ rTrTt H^fb ‘from that time forward;’ "Jb «-f-M d I d TT*TfVr ‘from the time of investiture ; bTb, or more usually ^FTTH, for the sake of wealth; bPTTI bib or W^.'cT ‘for her sake;' VcJ.eibtP for the sake of a son;’ bfbfH rJ ‘ on that account TTb biTTTTTb ‘ on thy account .’ Tbfp , with the genitive, occurs rather frequently, and with some latitude of meaning ; thus, «TWT Tbfr ‘ above the navel;’ fbbTT bTb "bbfr bbTb ‘the lion fell upon him;’ *PT d bfll fb^TfTTi: ‘ changed in his feelings towards me ;’ bb bbtl! ^ iTt ‘ not behaving properly towards thee ;’ bblT ‘angry with his son;’ rr sftferN wt ^;^qT 3 sTT^ ^fRhst ^ i ‘ As long as it shall be lived by this sage, so long this disgraceful story of my original condition will not die away.’ 1 2th. ifa ^pfT I ‘ Thus reflecting, o o o he prepared (was about) to kill the sage.’ i 3 th. hRto rTFT fa^lfar? WnT nfa^T O \ O \ C\ wftrei » R1 *T mRTIV II 78.1. j TTf^ 'SI'Cl fwnift TSTCRl^ ififfiil II Tnrnftram H^JT rre^: tkt* wrw ii ♦ N O fftilT TftsrH -37IT SB#?: tSTj H SmfH II N <* Tlf^T HTTTTTT TWt^i «%fw for ^ W^m^lll X C\ • x ’O’ ^ff:77TT^ xjmTarf^snb* f' 701 *N T^rT II r w ^r*TRT*r ^xj*tFr ii O X -*V ♦ 47T.650 *S W?T[ra ^ Twra sqTjq cfi?H ^W II wa-w ^wr 11 C ♦ ♦ X OX ^fttrT ^TfaUT^R II 934. II II Fable. 22 * ^ ^ *s 303 —v 743. » ♦ O. Wfm ^RRT *NT- v • o “**• a 784.545 8?8, 607 ^V«0 • 302 ^ 770 a Rl^R '3“ c lT T TTTT R? I TRT ^RT: *RnTOTOT- X ♦ ♦ ran: tjt 1 nirr’Tj; »! i <*. 4 ' i q^ i : %afc4 lf%WTT I TSPJ ^RTfw ffT fPtfr^T nfWT I €t Wf f^HDIT ’rjfi' WTT H^TTR TTfTJTT^T^T- 743 . a ^ a 701 7X3. a ^ 73X 337 • s >f ^ 997 b • 603 ^T3TaT TT raw I TTTT TTWTT TT^ TT’nW n^TTT EXERCISES IN TRANSLATION AND PARSING. 387 ^ 8 * 0 . 78$ ^ •N ^ ^ 0 ?R A- • *V 290 ♦ •s, 104. 832 . a sra i w^T%iT fkpih ht*t n^n w*rr ^tr: st? i •ft'* 2 l 8 "^O 900 **- ^ ♦ A ^ T ^TWT^H ^TT^T WiWWT ^jfeRFT I W ^ f^lrf f^TT TT1T wfrRf : I ww ^xn^wrfwmn w i ww ^ 7S..S6l 1.3 ♦ <>33 ioS *V 10, /*. ♦ «N I ppi flWTWftTlW I _Zl 9 -d 74 " A 2io • 602 ♦ 710 ^ *S 208 Sf W ■RUriT^H m I 7 TC ijf I rTrf^T WiflW- ftrffiT 1 w W "W^W ^TW Tm I ^ifr WW ^T^TW 73t *s *730 ^ 7 89, *02 '»' v 2lR XPp^r*C sfitflWT: 1 I *TfFTOTT n°A^ ^ ♦ ^ «*\ * 8 3 840, 783 -v ^TF 5 m^? r^M *Rg i w^twtiw wt TTi^m wfn&raf^ to^tt ^?n%fTWR isttw i WW%%W jf¥f W I ^fT Wm: ft&W?* I faf^f UWW fwffr? I rfW •V ^ *N A\ ^ ♦ 218 AN 122 ^T^TIT 5 ww^tot|w I ^W^mw- ^5 ^n^rm 1 ftm^imferf 1 w?rra^m iriTtErfH 1 o> w); = a bacchic ); T = a cretie (—»-»—); = an anapaest (o w -); 7 T = an anti- bacchic ( w); W = an amphibrach (w — w). Sloka or Anushtubh (8 syllables to the half-line or Pada). 935. The commonest of all the infinite variety of Sanskrit metres is the Sloka or Anushtubh. This is the metre which chiefly prevails in the great epic poems. It consists of four half-lines of 8 syllables or two lines of 16 syllables each, but the rules which regulate one line apply equally to the other ; so that it is only necessary to give the scheme of one line, as follows : — 123456 7 8 |j 9 10 ix 12 13 14 15 16 ♦ • ♦ ♦ kj \j — \j ♦ Note — The mark ♦ denotes either long or short. The ist, 2d, 3d, 4th, 9th, 10th, nth, and 12th syllables may be either long or short. The 8th, as ending the half-line, and the 16th, as ending the line, are also common. Since the line is considered as divided into two parts at the 8th syllable, it is an almost universal rule that this syllable must end a word, whether simple or compound* . The 5th syllable ought always to be short. The 6th may be either long or short ; but if long, then the 7th ought to be long also ; and if short, then the 7th ought to be short also. But occasional variations from these last rules occur. The last 4 syllables form two iambics; the 13th being always short, the 14th always long, and the 15th always short. Every Sloka, or couplet of two lines, ought to form a complete sentence in itself, and contain both subject and predicate. Not unfrequently, however, in the Ramayana and Maha-bharata, three lines are united to form a triplet. 936. In the remaining metres determined by the number of sylla- bles in the half- line, each half-line is exactly alike ( sama ); so that * There are, however, rare examples of compound words running through a whole line. SCHEME OF THE MORE COMMON SANSKRIT METRES. 389 it is only necessary to give the scheme of one half-line, or quarter of the verse (Pada). Note, that in printed books each quarter of the verse, if it consist of more than 8 syllables, is often made to occupy a line. 937. Trishtubh (11 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 22 varieties. The commonest are — 123 45678 9 10 11 938. Indra-vajrd, — — — — <_> w — — « J 2 3 45678 9 10 11 II 939. Upendra-vajra, w — w — — — vj — . |l There is generally a caesura at the 5th syllable. Note — The above 2 varieties are sometimes mixed in the same stanza; in which case the metre is called Upajati or Akhyanaki. 1 23 45 6 78 9 10 11 II 940. Rathoddhata, — w — — ^ — w — || 941. Jagati (12 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 30 varieties. The commonest are — 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 || 942. Vamsa-sthavila, w — w — — w w — w — * || 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 || 943. Druta-vilambita, v — w ^ ^ -r || 944. Atijagati (13 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 16 varieties. The commonest are — 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 Jo 11 12 13 || 945. Mahju-bhdshin{, \j \j — v-> — v ^ — w-r-|! J 2 3 4 S <5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 || 946. Praharshint, — — — ^ — vj — w — — || 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 || 947. Rudird or Prabhavatd, <-< — w — <-> w w — w — v_/ — r- j | 948. Sakvari or Sakkart or Sarkari (14 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 20 varieties. The commonest is — 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 j| 949. Vasanta-tilaka, — — <-< — w w — w <_< — w — — II 950. Atisakvari or Atisakkari or Atisarkari (15 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 18 varieties. The commonest is — 123 4 S 6 7 8 || 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 |j 951. Mdlini or Mdnini, w w o — — || — v^— — w— t-|| There is a caesura at the 8th syllable. * The mark — is meant to show that the last syllable is long at the end of the half-line, but long or short at the end of the line. 390 SCHEME OF THE MORE COMMON SANSKRIT METRES. 952. Ashti (16 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 12 varieties ; none of which are common. 953. Aty ashti (17 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 17 varieties. The commonest are — 1 2 3 4 5 6 II 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 i| 954. S'ikharinij w — — — — — || W w vj w w -^ | Cues ura at the 6th syllable. 1 2 3 4 ji 5 6 78 9 iol 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 || 955. Mandakranta, — — — — |i w — — w — — j Csesura at the 4th and 10th syllables. 1 2 34 s 6 I 7 8 9 10 i| 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 j 956. Harim, w wwww — | — — — — II'-' — — w -r \ Caesura at the 6th and 10th syllables. 957. Dhriti (18 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 17 varieties ; one of which is found in the Raghu-vams'a— - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 j | 958. Mahd-mdlikd, w ^ w — w — — \j — — w — — w — 959. Atidhriti (19. syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 13 varieties. The commonest is — 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 || 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 J| 960. S'ardula-vikndita, w w — w — ^ ^ w - | j — — w — — — | Caesura at the 12th syllable. 961. Kriti (20 syllables to the half-line). Of these there are 4 varieties ; none of which are common. 962. Prakriti (21 syllables to the half-line). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 || 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 | 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 || 963. Sragdliard, w || u o u u u u - | — w — — — — j; Caesura at the 7th and 14th syllables. 964. Of the remaining metres determined by the number of syllables in the half-line, Akriti has 22 syllables, and includes 3 varieties; Vikriti 23 syllables, 6 varieties ; San-kriti 24 syllables, 5 varieties ; Atikriti 25 syllables, 2 varieties ; Utkriti 26 syllables, 3 varieties ; and Danclaka is the name given to all metres which exceed Utkriti in the number of syllables. 965. There are two metres, however, peculiar to the Vedas, called Gayatri and Ushnih. The first of these has only 6 syllables to the quarter-verse, and includes 11 varieties ; the second has 7 syllables to the half-line, and includes 8 varieties. a. Observe, that when the half-line is so short, the whole verse is sometimes written in one line. SCHEME OF THE MORE COMMON SANSKRIT METRES. 391 b. Observe also, that great license is allowed in Vaidik metres : thus in the 966 . Gdyatri, which may be regarded as consisting of a triplet of 3 divisions of 8 syllables each, or of 6 feet of 4 syllables each, generally printed in one line, the quantity of each syllable is very irregular. The following verse exhibits the most usual quantities : 1 2 3 a b a b a b but even in the b verse of each division the quantity may vary. zd class of Metres, consisting of tivo lines, determined by the number of syllables * in the whole line {each whole line being alike, ardha-sama ). 9 67. This class contains 7 genera, but no varieties under each genus. Of these the commonest are — 968. Vaitdliya (2 1 syllables to the whole line). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 || 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 | KJ — ^ KJ — KJ — W | KJ KJ — — \y W — KJ — * I I ’ j ; ' ' i i - 1 - - ; There is a caesura at the 10th syllable. ' 1 ! ' ) 1 - -\ 969. Aupacdhandasika (23 syllables to the whole line). The scheme of this metre is the same as the last, with, a long syllable added after the 10th and last syllable in the line ; the caesura being at the nth syllable. 970. Pushpitdgra (25 syllables to the 'whole line). 1 2345 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 ’ |i 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 | wwwwww — iu — KJ — — — w O' — «| There is a caesura at the 12th syllable. 3/ w) ; any one of which may he employed. Of this class of metres the commonest is the 972. Ary a or Gat ha. Each line consists of seven and a half feet ; and each foot contains four instants, excepting the 6th of the second line, which contains only one, and is therefore a single short syllable. Hence there are 30 instants in the first line, and 27 in the second. The half-foot at the end of each line is generally, but not always, a long syllable; the 6th foot of the first line must be either an amphibrach or proce- leusmaticus; and the 1st, 3d, 5th, and 7th feet must not be amphibrachs. The caesura commonly takes place at the end of the 3d foot in each line, and the measure is then sometimes called Pathya. The following are a few examples : { { { { { 973. The Udgiti metre only differs from the Aryd in inverting the lines, and placing the short line, with 27 instants, first in order. 974. There are three other varieties: — In the Upagiti, both lines consist of 27 instants; in the Gtti, both consist of 30 instants; and in the Aryagiti, of 32. yj yj — I yj yj — I yj yj — W \J 2 KJ — — V-/ 3 u — V-/ — 3 w w — 3 2 — V-/ w I — — KJ KJ I — 'U W 2 3 KJ — W KJ — — U V KJ — KJ 2 KJ KS V W 3 — W 4 — KJ W 4 — 4 — W KJ KJ \J KJ 4 7 — w — w 5 6 — ^ KJ V — 5 6 — KJ KJ — KJ 5 ^ — KJ W KJ — W 5 ^ — W W KJ — KJ W W — S 6 7 I VJ VJ W U | W U — W V-/ — I KJ I — — INDEX I. Observe — The numbers refer to the number of the rule, Abstract nouns, 80. IX. X.XII.XXIII. 81.V. 85. IV. Accentuation, 24. Adjectives, 184 ; syntax of, 824. Adverbial compounds, 760. Adverbs, 712 ; syntax of, 917. Affixes; forming nouns, substantive and adjective, 80; forming adverbs, 718. Agency, nouns of, 579. Aggregative compounds, 746. Akriti, a kind of metre, 964. Alphabet, 1 — 26. Anomalous compounds, 777. Anubandhas, 75. c. Anunasika, 7. Anushtubh, a kind of metre, 935. Anusvara, 6. Aorist, see Third preterite, Aptotes, 712. Ardha-visarga, 8. a. Ardhakara, 10. Arya, a kind of metre, 972. Aryagiti, a kind of metre, 974. Ashti, a kind of metre, 952. Atidhriti, a kind of metre, 959, Atijagati, a kind of metre, 944. Atikriti, a kind of metre, 964. Atis'akvari, a kind of metre, 950. Atmane-pada, 243, 786. Atyashti, a kind of metre, 953. Augment a, 260, 260. a. b. Avyayi-bhava compounds, 760. Babu-vrihi compounds, 761. Base, of nouns, 74, 77 ; formation of base of nouns, 79, 80 — 87 ; inflection of, 88 — 183 ; of verbs, 244 ; formation of the base of verbs, 256 — 517. Benedictive, 242 ; terminations of, 246 ; formation of the base of, 442 ; syntax of, 890. Cardinals, 198 ; declension of, 200. Cases of nouns, 90. Causal verbs, 479; terminations of, 480 ; formation of the base of, 481 ; passive form of, 496 ; syntax of, 847. Candra-vindu, 7. Classes, of nouns, 79 ; of verbs, see Con- jugation. Classification of letters, 18. Collective or Dvigu compounds, 759 ; nouns, 80. XII. XXIII. Combination (euphonic) of vowels, 27 ; of consonants, 39 ; of the finals of Verbal bases with terminations, 296. Comparative degree, 191, 194; syntax of, 829. Comparison, degrees of, 191, 192; syntax of, 829. Complex compounds, 770. Compound consonants, 5. Compound verbs, 782,787. Compound words, 733 — 737 ; Tat-puru- sha or Dependent, 739 ; Dvandva or Copulative (Aggregative), 746 ; Kar- ma-dharaya or Descriptive (Determi- native), 755 ; Dvigu or Numeral (Col- 3 E 394 INDEX I. lective), 759; Avyayi-bhava or Ad- verbial (Indeclinable), 760; Bahu- vrihi or Relative, 761 ; Complex, 770; Anomalous, 777; changes undergone by certain words at the end of, 778. Conditional, 242 ; terminations of, 246, 247 ; formation of the base of, 456 ; syntax of, 891. Conjugational tenses, 241, 248. Conjugations of verbs, summary of, 249; three groups of, 257 ; first group of, 259 ; second and third groups of, 290. 1st conj., 261 ; examples, 587 : 2d conj., 307 ; examples, 644 : 3d conj., 330; examples, 662 : 4th conj., 272 ; examples, 612 : 5th conj., 349; exam- ples, 675 : 6th conj., 278 ; examples, 625 : 7th conj., 342 ; examples, 667: 8th conj., 353; examples, 682: 9th conj., 356; examples, 686 : iothconj., 283 ; examples, 638. Conjunction (euphonic), see Combina- tion. Conjunctions, 727; syntax of, 912. Consonants, 1 ; method of writing, 4 ; compound, 5; pronunciation of, 12; combination of, 39. Copulative compounds, see Dvandva. Crude form or base, 77. Dandaka, a kind of metre, 964. Declension ; general observations, 88 ; of nau, ‘a ship,’ 94; of 1st class of nouns in a, a, i, 103 — 109 ; of 2d class in i, no, 112, 114; of 3d class in u, in, 113, 1 15; of nouns in { and u, 123 — 126; of 4th class in ri, 127 — 130; of 5th class in t and d, 136 — 145; of 6th class in an and in, 146 — 162 ; of 7th class in as, is, and us, 163 — 17 1 ; of 8th class in any other consonant, 172 — 183. Degrees of comparison, 191, 192; syntax of, 829. Demonstrative pronouns, 223. Dependent compounds, 739 — 745. Derivative verbs, 460. Descriptive compounds or Karma-dha- raya, 755. Desiderative verbs, 498 ; terminations of, 499 ; formation of the base, 500 ; causal form of, 506; nouns, 80. XXII; adjectives, 82, hi. Determinative compounds, see Descrip- tive. Deva-nagari alphabet, 1. Dhriti, a kind of metre, 957. Dvandva compounds, 746. Dvigu compounds, 759. Euphonic combination of vowels, 27 ; of consonants, 39. Examples of verbs, see Conjugations. First preterite, 241, p. 121 ; terminations of, 246, 247 ; formation of base of, 260, 261, 272, 278, 283, 307, 330, 342, 349- 353. 35 6 ; syntax of, 884. Frequentative verbs, 507; Atmane-pada frequentatives, 509 ; Parasmai-pada frequentatives, 514 ; nouns, 80. XXI I. Future, first and second, 386 ; termina- tions of, 246, 247 ; formation of the base of, 388; syntax of, 886, 887. Gayatri, a kind of metre, 965, 966. Genders of nouns, 89. Giti, a kind of metre, 974. Guna change of vowels, 27, 28,29; roots forbidding Guna, 390. Hard consonants, 18. a. b, 20. b, 39. i, rejected from itha in 2d sing, per- fect, 370 : roots ending in vowels inserting i, 392; rejecting i, 394; optionally inserting or rejecting i, 395 : roots ending in consonants in- serting i, 399; rejecting i, 400 ; option- ally inserting or rejecting i, 415. Imperative, 241, p. 121 ; terminations of, 246, 247 ; formation of the base of, 261, 272, 278, 283, 307, 330, 342, 349, 353. 35 6 J syntax of, 882. INDEX I. 395 Imperfect tense, see First preterite. Indeclinable compounds, 760. Indeclinable words, 712 ; syntax of, 912. Indefinite pronouns, 228. Indicative mood, 241, p. 121. Infinitive, 458 ; formation of the base of, 459 ; syntax of, 867 ; Vedic, 459. a, 867.6. Intensive verb, see Frequentative. Interjections, 732 ; syntax of, 926. Interrogative pronouns, 227. Jagati, a kind of metre, 941. Karma-dharaya compounds, 755. Kriti, a kind of metre, 961. Let, the Vedic mood, 241. a, 891. a. Letters, 1; classification of, 18; euphonic combination of, 27. Metre, schemes of, 933. Monoptotes, 712. Moods, 241, 242. a. Multitude, nouns of, 80. XII. XXIII. Nagari alphabet, 1. Nominal verbs, 518 — 523. Nouns, formation of base of, 74; de- clension of, see Declension ; syntax of, 802. Numbers, of nouns, 91; of verbs, 243. Numerals, 198 — 215; syntax of, 206, 833; compounded, 739. Numerical symbols, 216. Optative, see Potential or Benedictive. Ordinals, 208. Pada or voice, 243 ; restriction of, 786, 243. a. Parasmai-pada, 243, 786. Parsing, exercises in, 930. Participial nouns of agency, 379. Participles, present, 324, 326 ; past passive, 330 ; past active, 353 ; of the perfect, 554; past indeclinable, 533; adverbial indeclinable, 567 ; fu- ture passive, 568 ; of the 2d future, 578 ; syntax of, 892. Particles, 717. Passive voice, 243. a, 233; passive verbs, 461; terminations of, 462; formation of the base of, 463 ; ex- amples of, 700. Patronymics, 80. XII. 81. VI. Perfect, see Second preterite. Persons of the tenses, 244. Possessive adjectives, 84. I. II. p. 62, 83. VI. VII; pronouns, 231. Potential, 241, p. 121 ; terminations of, 246, 247; formation of the base of, 261, 272, 278, 283, 307, 330, 342, 349, 353> 35 6 ; syntax of, 879. Prakriti, a kind of metre, 962. Precative, see Benedictive. Prepositions, 729, 783; syntax of, 916. Present, 241, p. 121 ; terminations of, 246, 247; formation of the base of, 261, 272, 278, 283, 307, 330, 342, 349, 353> 35 6 5 syntax of, 873. Preterite, see First preterite. Second preterite. Third preterite. Pronominals, 236, 240. Pronouns, 217; syntax of, 836. Pronunciation, of vowels, n ; of conso- nants, 12. Prosody, 935. Reduplication, rules for, 330, 331, 367. Relative pronouns, 226; compounds, 76 1 . Root, 74? 75 * Sakvari, a kind of metre, 948. Sandhi, rules of, see Combination. San-kriti, a kind of metre, 964. Second preterite, 364 ; syntax of, 885. Soft letters, 18. a, 20. 6, 39. Sonant letters, 18. a. b, 20. b, 39. Strong cases explained, 133. a. Strong forms in verbal terminations, 246. c. Superlative degree, 191, 192. Surd consonants, 18. a. b, 20. b, 39. Symbols, 6. Syntax, 794. Tables of verbs, 583. 3 E 2 396 INDEX I. Tat-purusha compounds, 739 — 745. Tenses, 241, p. 121. Terminations, of nouns, 91 ; of verbs, 246 — 248. Third preterite, 415; syntax of, 888. Translation, exercises in, 930. Trishtubh, a kind of metre, 937. Udgiti, a kind of metre, 973. Upagiti, a kind of metre, 974. Ushnih, a kind of metre, 965. Utkriti, a kind of metre, 964. Vaitaliya, a kind of metre, 968. Verb, 241 ; syntax of, 839. Vikriti, a kind of metre, 964. Virama, 9. Visarga, 8, 61. Voices, 243; roots restricted to, 786, 243. a. Vowels, 1, 2; method of writing, 4; pronunciation of, 1 x ; combination of, 27. Vriddhi change of vowels, 27, 28, 29. a. Weak cases explained, 135. a. Writing, method of, 26. INDEX II. Observe — The numbers refer to the number of the rule. ’ST affix, 8o. I. II. III. XII; augment, 260. 'ST'^i affix, 80. IV. ■srfsil ‘ an eye,’ 123. ’STfr* ‘ fire,’ no. ’STjJ term of grammar, 74, ‘ to stretch,’ 385. to anoint,’ 347, 668. srfinm ‘ victorious over hosts,’ 126. c. ‘ who surpasses Lakshmi,’ 126. f. ’STJ affix, 83. VI. ’ST^ ‘to eat,’ 317, 652. ■ST^TT ‘ eating,’ 141. c. this’ or ‘that,’ 225, Wifi’ to read,’ 31 1, 367. d. 'STS?*? ‘ a road,’ 148. ^T? ‘ to breathe,’ 326. ST? affix, 80. V. 85. I. VJr| ^ ‘ an ox,’ 182. /. SPTTT ‘ another,’ 777. b. ^THT ‘ other,’ 236. ST? ‘ water,’ 178. b, STiTTi? ‘ with reference to,’ ‘ than,' 833. a, 'ST'^T.IT ‘ a nymph,’ 163. a, ST*jT ‘ a mother,’ 108. c, **‘to go,’ 385. c. ’SIT affix, 80. VIII. to worship,’ 367. a. ST? ‘to ask,’ 642. STO?*? ‘ the sun,’ 157. ST?? ‘ a horse,’ 158. SHT ‘ to deserve,’ 608. ’SW affix, 80. VIII. STc 5 ‘ enough,’ 901. a, 918, vi«h ‘ a few,’ 240. narrow-minded,’ 1 19. vW ei ‘ possessed of little learning,’ 108. to despise,’ 75. a. ‘ a kind of priest,’ 176 ./. southern,’ 176. b, STUT ‘ to eat,’ 357. a, 696. STST ‘to obtain,’ ‘to pervade,’ 367. b, 681. a, ’ST'pnr ‘ a stone,’ 153. ^‘to be,’ 322, 364. a, 369, 584. SH? ‘ to throw,’ 622, STCT affix, 86. I. ’SHpr ‘ blood,’ 176. d. Slfw ‘ a bone,’ 122. ST*R? ‘ I,’ 218. *¥‘ to say,’ 384. ‘a day,’ 156. STT affix, 80. XXII. srra> affix, 80. vm. STT?r<5 e*0 ‘ deprived of fortune,’ 126. i. 398 INDEX II. ^TrUTNf ‘ composed of,’ ‘consisting of,’ 769 /, 774- i+tTT ‘ soul,’ ‘self,’ 147, 222. ‘ beginning with,’ ‘ et cetera,’ 764, 772. ^TTN ‘ to obtain,’ 351, 369, 681. ’STRWT ‘beginning from,’ 925, 793. b. affix, 82. YI. ’-H I ‘tawny,’ 126./. *TT 75 affix, 82. VI. ^nf?TU ‘ a blessing,’ 166. WU ‘ to sit,’ 317, ^ 5 TU^‘ to remain,’ with pres, part., 877. ^ ‘ to go,’ 310, 367. c, 645. ^ affix, 81. I. II. III. VI; inserted, 392, &c. affix, 80. XIII. affix, 84. II. 2 ^ 7 T affix, 80. XXI. c. other,’ 236. so,’ 927. 3 ^ affix, 82. VI. ' o ^ ‘this,’ 224. affix, 85. V. VI. ^»T affix, 80. XVI. to kindle,’ 347. affix, 85. IV. affix, 80. VIII. ^75 affix, 80. VIII. to wish,’ 282, 367, 637. affix, 192, 80. XIX. affix, 82. V. affix, 86. II. | affix, 80. XXV. XXVI. XXVI 1 . to see,’ 605. ‘ to praise,’ 325. so like,’ 234. affix, 80. XVI. affix, 80. XV. affix, 192. to rule,’ 325, 385. N affix, 82. I. II. III. NNT affix, 80. VIII. NT? ‘ to move,’ 367. a. N'rNFS'N'CTU' ‘ having lotus eyes,’ 166. c, northern,’ 176. b. with reference to,’ 924. ■ 3 ^ ‘ to moisten,’ 347. T^NT ‘ near a cow,’ 134. n. ‘a shoe,’ 183. NT affix, 80. VIII. N 75 affix, 80. VIII. ‘ Venus,’ 170. NN ‘ to hum,’ 385. e. Nfunf a kind of metre, 182. b, 965. T'UN ‘the hot season,’ 148. NTT affix, 86. II. NVNT affix, 80. VIII. NfJf ‘ strong,’ 176. h. NOT ‘to cover,’ 316. ^ ‘ to go,’ 334, 378. NJUT ‘ to go,’ 684. a priest,’ 176. e. NfN ‘ to flourish,’ 367. a, 680. a name of Indra, 162. ‘ to go,’ 358. UNi ‘ one,’ 200. UTT^ ‘ this,’ 223. UN ‘to increase,’ 600. UN affix, 80. XIV. UU affix, 80. VIII. Ni affix, 80. VIII. XVII. NiffTTNW ‘ a few,’ 230. NN ‘to say,’ 286, 643. NTfllNU, ‘ smaller, &c., 1 94 ■ NiU ‘ to love,’ 440. a. INDEX II. 399 c. - an action, 152. ^ie?T affix, 80. XXI. ‘ any one,’ 228. ^rpf ‘desirous,’ with infinitive, 871. ‘ a doer,’ 159. ^TTff ' to shine,’ 385. c. ‘ who ?’ ‘ what ?’ 227. ‘ why ?’ 921. fsRiT ' ’ how many,’ 234. b. ‘ to pain,’ ‘ to be pained,’ 362. ‘to play,’ 75. a. ‘ a girl,’ 107. ■^TrT n. ‘ a lotus,’ 139. a. ^ ‘to play,’ 271. a. doing,’ 141. c. <|r ‘ to sound,’ 432. f ‘ to do,’ 355, 364, 366, 369, 682, 683, 701. ‘ to cut,’ 281. T ‘ a day,’ 156. a. a quarterof the sky,’ 181 ; ‘to point out,’ ‘to exhibit,’ 279, 439. a, 583. to anoint/ 659. -fTVV to shine,’ 319. evil-minded,’ 164. a. IV to milk,’ 329, 66 o ; ‘a milker,’ 182. ■^W^a thunderbolt,’ 126. c. TV to see,’ 1 8 1 , 270, 604; causal, 704. a looker,’ 148. ‘to tear,’ ‘to rend,’ 358, 372. e. I ‘ to pity,’ 379. a worshipper of the gods,’ 176. e. affix, 80. XXI. ' ' an arm,’ 166. d. ' \ ?TTT ‘ to shine,’ 597. b. ■5 ‘ to run,’ 369, 592. to injure,’ 623. N one who injures,’ 182. INN affix, 80. XX. !"R ‘ a door,’ 180. f^T ‘ two,’ 201. fgpRTiT ‘ having two mothers,’ 130. TfTN ‘to hate,’ 309, 657. f¥N ‘ one who hates,’ 181. NNNTT ‘ rich,’ 140. NfNN ‘ rich,’ 159, 160, 161. NNrN'T ‘ knowing one’s duty,' 138. NT ‘ to place,’ 336, 664. NTTT ‘ a root,’ 74. NTNN ‘ a house,’ 153. NTN ‘ to run,’ ‘ wash,’ 603. a. ^‘understanding/ 123. nInh ‘ wise,’ 140. a. N^to agitate,’ 280, 358, 372. b, 677. N ‘ to hold,’ 285. N ‘ to drink,’ 438. b, 440. a. NN ‘ a cow,’ 113. TNT ‘ to blow,’ 269. TN ‘to meditate/ 268, 595. b. 14 ^ ‘ to be firm/ 432. affix, 80. VI. Nft ‘ a river/ 106. «TN ‘ a grandson,’ 128. a. NN ‘ to bend,’ 433, 602. a. N 3 T ‘ to perish,’ x8i, 620. N"? ‘ to bind,’ 624, 183. NTNN ‘ ’ a name,’ 152. fNT^‘to purify,' 341. fWiT or ‘ adverbs,’ 712. Nl ‘ to lead,’ 372, 590. a. «T ‘to praise,’ 280, 313, 396. a. N affix, 82. IV. VI. N ‘ a man,’ 128. t ’ NrT ‘ to dance,’ 274, 364, 583. N ‘ to lead,’ 358. NT^NN, ‘ nearer, &c.,’ 194. NT ‘ a ship/ 94. NN ‘ to cook/ 267, 595. c. NNrT ‘cooking,’ 14 1. NNFT ‘ five,’ 204. NTT ‘ to fall,’ 441, 597. c. NffT ‘ a lord,’ 121. NftpT ‘ ’ a road/ 162. ^ ‘to go,’ 434. NNT ‘ the sun,’ 126./. NXNNil ‘ the best buyer,' 126. a. NffNN ‘ a cleanser,’ 176. e. NfCNTN ‘ a religious mendicant/ 176. e. NT ‘to drink,’ 269, 589. NT ‘ to protect/ 317. NH?f ‘ pale,’ 187. NTN ‘ a foot,’ 145. NTWN ‘ sin,’ 148. f'pT ‘ flesh-eater,’ 176. HT^ affix, 80. XX. HT?T‘ merely,’ ‘ even,’ 919. fa affix, 81. IV. fa?* ‘ ’ to be viscid,’ 277. sr to let go,’ ‘to loose,' 281, 628. H? ‘to be troubled,’ 612. H? ‘ foolish,’ 182. O \ the head,’ 150, H ‘ to die,’ 280, 626. HIT ‘ a deer,’ 107. H*T ‘ to cleanse,’ ‘ to wipe,’ 321, 651. tender,’ 118. a, 187. one who touches,’ 18 1. HH ‘ one who endures,’ 181. HVTfaH ‘ intellectual,’ 159. TJT ‘ to repeat over,' 269. IT ‘ to fade,’ 268, 374, 595. b. xi affix, 80. X. XI. xr^nr‘ the liver,’ 144. XT3T ‘ to sacrifice,’ 375. e, 597. xnjrf ‘ a sacrificer,’ 148. who,’ 226. xrf^ ‘if,’ 880. a, 891, 915. HH to restrain,’ 270, 433. HTsSt ‘ a buyer of barley,’ 126. b . XTT ‘to go,’ 317, 644. XTT’H ‘ to ask,’ 364, 392, 395. d. XTTXriT ‘ as many,’ 801, 838, 876. H ‘to join,’ ‘to mix,’ 313, 357, 39 6 - 583, 686, 687. H affix, 82. VI. O 7 to join,’ 346, 670. to be fitting,’ 702. ‘ a youth,’ 153. HHTl*‘you,’ 219. T affix, 80. VII. TT3T ‘ to preserve,’ ‘ defend, 60 6. b . TH (with ’5TT) ‘ to begin,’ 601. 0. 7.H ‘ to sport,’ 433. HT*! ‘ to shine,’ 375 ./. ^T*T ‘ a ruler,’ 176. e. VnTH‘a king,’ 149. W* ‘ a queen,’ 150. 0. fa ‘ to go,’ 280. ^ ‘ to go,’ 338. ‘ to sound,’ 313, 396. a. affix, 82. VI. to weep,’ 326, 653. to hinder,’ 344, 671. hindering,’ 141. c. HTH ‘ composed of,’ ‘ consisting of,’ 769-/. 774- T wealth, 132. rtHH ‘ hair,’ 133. 3 F 3 404 INDEX II. 75 affix, 80. VIII. ‘ fortune,’ 124. ‘ lightness,’ 150. ‘ lightest,’ 193. co <4*^ ‘ lighter, ’ 193. to take,’ 601. cTVr ‘ one who obtains,’ 178. foy ‘ to anoint,’ 281, 437. fc 5 f ‘ to lick,’ 329, 661 ; ‘ one who licks,’ 182. to adhere,’ 358. ‘to break,’ 281. <5 ‘ to cut,’ 358, 691. o 53 Vedic mood, 241. a, 891. a. y affix, 80. VIII. yy ‘to speak,’ 319, 650. yy affix, 84. IV, yy ‘ like,’ 922. yy ‘ to speak,’ 599. y*J ‘ a wife,’ 125. y»T ‘ to ask,’ 684. yy affix, 85. III. ytf ‘ to sow,’ 375. c. y*T ‘ to vomit,’ 375. d. affix, 80. VIII. yf*?»T ‘ a road,’ 153. yy«T ‘ armour,’ 153. yyiH ‘ a frog,’ 126. c. y?S affix, 80. XVI. ysy ‘ one who leaps,’ 183. y^I ‘ to choose,’ ‘ to desire,’ 324, 656, yy ‘ to dwell,’ 607 ; ‘ to wear,’ 657. a. to carry,’ 61 1. yi ‘ or,’ 914. yT’y ‘ speech,’ 176. yTTnnfl ‘ an antelope,’ 126./, yiT ‘ water,’ 180. yrfv‘ water,’ 114. yTf ‘bearing,’ 182. c. fyy ‘ to distinguish,’ 346. fyy ‘ to separate,’ 341. fy ‘ to know,’ 308, 583 ; ‘ to find,’ 281 . fy^y ‘wise,’ 168. a. fy^ affix, 85. VII. fyvrryi term of grammar, 91, 244. iysry; 1 splendid,’ 176. e. fyfyEI 4 desirous of entering,’ 166. fysr 4 one who enters,’ ‘ a man of the agricultural tribe,’ 181 ; ‘to enter,’ 635. a. Tyyyi? 4 all-sustaining,’ 182. c. f gyjy jT ‘ the creator of the world,’ 1 76. e. fyy ‘to divide,’ 341. H ‘ to go,’ 312. ^ ‘ to surround,’ 369. ^ ‘to choose,’ ‘to cover,’ 675, yy ‘ to be,’ ‘ to exist,’ 598. yy ‘ to increase,’ 599. b. y^y ‘ great,’ 142. a. y 4 to choose,’ 358. See y. y to weave, 379. yyj^ ‘ a loom,’ 150. yyf ‘ to go,’ 4 to pervade,’ 75. a, 319, *N t y^yy ' a house,’ 153. ‘ to deceive,’ 282, 383, 629. yjy 4 to be pained,’ 383. yjy ‘ to pierce,’ 277, 613. yjy ‘ to spend,’ 383. to cover, 379. ‘ sky,’ 153. ‘ to cut,’ 282, 630. 4 one who cuts,’ 176. g. sft 4 to choose,’ 358. to choose,’ 358. 5I0F ‘ to be able,’ 679, 400. ’ ordure,’ 144. INDEX II. 405 to fall,’ ‘ to perish,’ 270. to be appeased,’ 619. TjrrfcTWTsi 1 bearing rice,’ 182. c. snR‘ to rule,’ 290. 6, 328, 658. ^ITRrT ‘ruling,’ 141.0. f$PT‘ the god S'iva,’ ‘ prosperous,’ 103, 104, 105. to distinguish,’ 672. $rV to lie down,’ 315, 646. Snr ‘ to grieve,’ 595. e. srfR ‘ pure,’ 1 1 7, 1 19. a, 187. STfR^RR* having brilliant rays,’ 166. c. ST’jTtft ‘ having pure thoughts,’ 126. h. 5TR ‘to shine,’ 2^2. STR ‘ fortunate,’ 187. STRTR ‘fire,’ 148. 3T ‘ to dissolve,’ 372. e. ST ‘ to hurt,’ 358. sfr to sharpen,’ 374. ’R'R ‘ to loose,’ ‘to string,’ 362, 375./, 693. a. fa ' to have recourse,’ 367. a, 395. a, 440. a. ‘ prosperity,’ 123. ^ ‘to hear,’ 352, 372. b, 369, 676. ‘ a dog,’ 155. a mother-in-law,’ 125. ‘ to breathe,’ 326, fV to swell,’ 395. a, 437. a. HJii'qT? ‘ Indra,’ 182. d. \ R for R?T ‘ with,’ 790. a. Rf^R ‘ a thigh,’ 122, Rfe ‘ a friend,’ 120. RRR ‘an associate,’ 166. R^‘ to adhere,’ 426, 597. a. RlfTR ‘to fight,’ 75. a. to sink,’ 270, 599. a. RR ‘ to give,’ 354, 426, b, 684 RRTR ‘ possessed of,’ * furnished with,’ 769. d. RRRR ‘fit,’ 176.6. RftrT ' ' a river,’ 136. RR ‘ all,’ 237. C. c RR^Toft omnipotent,’ 175. RPR?!! from RfRR ‘ghee,’ 195. RRT^ ‘ a charioteer,’ 1 28. d. R^‘ to bear,’ 61 1. a. \ RTi? affix, 789. RTR‘good,’ 187. RTRR ‘ conciliation,’ 153. fRR ‘ to sprinkle,’ 281. to accomplish,’ 364. fRR ‘to succeed,’ 273, 616, rTrr s 'a border,’ 150. R ‘to bring forth,’ 647. R ‘ to press out juice,’ 677. a. R*ft ‘ one who loves pleasure,’ 126. y. Rrft ‘ who wishes for a son,’ 126. y, RRR ‘ well-sounding,’ 166. b , RRt ‘ intelligent,’ 126. h. RRfT ‘ beautiful,’ 187. RRfRR ‘ having a good road,’ 162. a, RRTR ‘ having beautiful feet,’ 145. R^‘ having beautiful eyebrows,’ 126. h. RRRR ‘well-intentioned,’ 164. a. O \ 7 “ ***** very injurious,’ 181.6. Rj to bring forth,’ 312, 647. R ‘to go,’ 369, 437- «• *r to create,’ 625. RR ‘to creep,’ 263. RRTRt ‘ a general,’ 1 26. d, •N ( RR to serve,’ 364. RT ‘ to destroy,’ 27 6. a, 613, RtRRT ‘ a drinker of Soma juice, 108. a. ‘ to stop,’ 695, 406 INDEX II. ' to praise,’ 313, 369, 648. ‘ to spread,’ 678. ‘ to cover,’ ‘ to spread,’ 358, 678. a woman,’ 123. c. WT ' to stand,’ 269, 587. G ‘ to flow,’ ‘ to trickle,’ 369, 396. a, 592. a. ^3 affix, 82. VI. ‘ to expand,' 388. b. ‘to glitter,’ 388. b. WfST ‘ to touch,’ 636. ‘to desire,’ 288. W particle, 878. ftfT ‘ to smile,’ 591. W ‘to remember,’ 372. c, 594. ^ ‘ own,’ 232. ‘to sound," 375./. ‘ to sleep,’ 326, 655. or ‘ self-existent,’ 126. e. ‘ a sister,’ 129. a. IT to kill,’ 323, 654 ; freq., 708. ?fTW x ‘ green,’ 95, 136, 137. ‘ ghee,’ 165. ?T‘ to quit,’ ‘ to abandon,’ 337, 665. t-T?T ‘ a Gandharba,’ 108. b. ‘ to send,’ 378. ‘ for,’ 914. fiN‘ to injure,’ 673. ? ’ to sacrifice,’ 333, 662. ‘a Gandharba,’ 126./. ^ ‘ to seize,’ 593. ‘ to be ashamed,’ 333. a, 666. a. ‘ shame,’ 123. 3f ‘ to call,’ 595. LIST OF COMPOUND CONSONANTS. CONJUNCTIONS OF TWO CONSONANTS. U5 kka, W kkha, kna, kta, wr ktha, kna, kma, ^*1 kya, ^or^i kra, Ui kla, IS kva, ksha. khya, ^ khva. ffdha, gna, gbha, * ^ gma, gya, T{ gra , gla, ^ gva. ¥T ghna, ^2J ghya, Tf ghra, R ghva. n-ka, ^ n-kha, n-ga, fij* n-gha, nbha, W nma. tea, bbha, w bha, bma, fya- WT %«, ^ thru. jj a , jjha, ST jna, jrna, jya, 1? jra, ^ jva. hba, >iS^ nbha, ^ hja. ^ tta, Z ttha. P yra, ^ yva. rka, rkha, P rga, rgha, ^ rba, *5. rbha, Tj rja, T[l rna, rf rta, ^ rtlia, ^ rda, rdha, M rpa, rba, R rbha, P rma, If rya, rva, rsa, rsha, rlia. 408 LIST OF COMPOUND CONSONANTS. ^5 Ika, Iga, ^ Ida, Ipa, Iba, Ibha, hna, lya, ^ lla, Iva, Isha, lha. vna, vya, ^ vra, via, W vva. sia, q sna, ’SJT sya, sra, ^ sla, sva. shka, shta, ^ shtha, WT shna , shpa, ^ shma, shya, ^4 shva. ska, skha, W sta, W stha, sna, spa, spha, sma, sya, "^T sra, sva, w ssa. hna, |? hna, hma, liya, ^ hra, ^ Ida , ^ hva. CONJUNCTIONS OF THREE CONSONANTS. m\ or kkna *, kshna, *4*^ kthna t, kshma, kkya, <4^54 kkhya, cfM ktya, <4*^5 kthya, 33^1 kshya, ktra, ktva, kshva. gyhya, gdhya, J ^ gnya, gbhya, W grya, TSq gdhva. n-kta, fjjJ n ktya, ^ n khya, |^J ngya, W n-ghya, n ksha. clya, 66hya, ^ (6hra, tthva. jjha, ' «i 3r5§T jjva. nhya, hihya, ^ hiva, njva. ttya. ddya, ^ dbhya. Vtya, Vt^ya, ndya, (J^ ndra. tkra , tnya, tpra, tAJI tsna, Tpi ttya, r«*s unya, tmya, trya, PRT tsya, ^ ttra, ^ ttva, trva, ■r^ tsva. ddya, "SJ ddhya, dbhya, dry a, I£I dvya. dhvya X, ^ dhnva. nddha, ntma, ndma, ndhma, *tM ntya, *^4 nthya, ®“SI ndya, nnya, ntra, ndra, ndhra, *t4 ntva, 'W ndva, ndhva, nyva, ^ ntsa. psna, 9T ptya, psya, ptra, WJ pnva, ^ ptva, $T plva, psva fj. bjya, bdhya, bbhya, bbhra, * As in ^JipnT from TTsjj'JT . X Wtvq>: from at 187. f H <*^JI from Ttf^T at 122. § H U-Tl: from LIST OF COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 409 oSEf bdhva. bhrya. "Wif mpya, *®M mbya, mb! a, VRf mbhya, Hi mpra, mbhra. rksha , If rshta, rnna, ^ rtta, rddha, ^ rgya, TO — S- ^ ^ c c <2( rghya, rtya, |llif rnya, rtya, TEf rpya, I' rbba, -m _S ^ ryya, ^JT rshna, rhma. Ikya, tyya, Ipta, Ipya. sly a, srya. ^ shtya, shnya, ^ shtra, ^ shlva. stya, stra, stva, *3 sthna, sthya, snva, m smya, T&L srya, srva. hnya, ?E2T hmya, U hmya. CONJUNCTIONS OF FOUR CONSONANTS. ktrya, kshmya. ^ n-kshna, n-kshma *, W* nktya, f^? n-kshya, 1|f nktra, ^ n-kshva. ndrya. r^? ttrya, tsnya, r^f tsmya. 'ST ddhrya. ntrya, ntsya, ntsva, ndhrya. ptrya. rkshya, rttya, c __ rtrya, rtsya, "W rddhra. Iptya, Ipsma, Ipsya. shtrya. CONJUNCTIONS OF FIVE CONSONANTS. ||f n-kshnva f, r^T rtsnya W$ n-ktryat. r ddhrya. i* $ rn-kshma rn-kshva §, * ^ 1 4 i g;'fu Intens. of t from rHTl. ' \ N ^ O X *1^=41: from § As in ^rTTifU, from root NOTES AND CORRECTIONS. Page 28, rule 38. b. This rule would he more clearly expressed by omitting * and ^TT d; ’ thus, “ Particles, when simple vowels, and 0, as the final of an intellec- tion, remain unchanged.” But a is, of course, included under particles consisting of a single vowel. Not, however, when it is used adverbially in the sense ‘ slightly,’ as in a + ushna = oshna, ‘ slightly warm.’ P. 32, r. 41. b. With reference to see p. 98 note. P. 45, r. 70. With reference to this rule, compare r. 175. d. Add also, an ex- ception to 70. b. in the root sad preceded by prati Compare also r. 500. /, which does not apply if a prep, is prefixed ; thus is correct from root sid with abhi. P. 47, 2d col. of the table, for 17. e. read 71. e. P. no, r. 208, 1 . 2, for ‘ sarva and the pronominals’ read ‘ siva;’ 1 . 4, for ‘ siva (103) ’ read ‘ sarva' P. 120, r. 239, 1 . 2, read ‘ follow siva and optionally sarva in certain cases, &c.’ P. 120, r. 240, 1 . 2, after ‘ fivefold ’ add ‘ and all in taya ’ P. 120, r. 240, 1 . 2, read ‘follow siva at 103; but may make their nom.voc. plur. masc. in e ’ P. 138, 1 . 6, for 249 read 247. P. 149, r. 304. a, compare r. 62. b. P. 163, 1 . 17, for 397, 398, read 392. P. 165, 1 . 5, for ^TT au read o P. 168, r. 381, compare r. 48. c. P. 169, 1 . 12, for 371 read 367. b. P. 174, r. 393, compare note to 627. V I ' .