<y-  L^e&*i » 
 
 DICTIONARY    OF    BIOGRAPHY  j 
 
 COMPRISING   THE 
 
 MOST    EMINENT    CHARACTERS 
 
 OF 
 
 ALL  AGES,  NATIONS,  AND  PROFESSIONS. 
 
 "  No  species  of  writing  seems  more  worthy  of  cultivation  than  biography,  since  none  can  be  mor 
 delightful  or  more  useful.    None  can  more  certainly  enchain  the  heart  by  irresistible  interest,  ot 
 more  widely  diffuse  instruction  to  every  diversity  of  condition." — Johnson. 
 
 BY  R.  A.  DAVENPORT. 
 
 FIRST   AMERICAN   EDITION,   WITH   NUMEROUS   ADDITIONS,    CORRECTIONS 
 
 AND   IMPROVEMENTS. 
 
 AND 
 
 ILLUSTRATED  BY  TWO  HUNDRED  FINE  PORTRAITS,  ON  WOOD. 
 
 EXETER: 
 
 PUBLISHED  BY  J.  &  B.  WILLIAMS. 
 1843. 
 
•  »>  ♦  »       ♦ 
 
 Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1832,  by  S.  G.  Goodrich, 
 in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 The  English  work,  of  which  this  is  substantially  a  reprint, 
 was  prepared  with  care  and  accuracy,  and  brought  down  to 
 the  end  of  the  year  1831.  Yarious  alterations  and  improve- 
 ments have  been  made,  and  several  European,  and  about 
 three  hundred  American  names  have  been  added  in  the  pres- 
 ent edition.  It  is  now  believed  to  be  a  correct  and  conveni- 
 ent manual  of  biography,  and  well  adapted  to  the  wants  of 
 the  American  Public. 
 
DICTIONARY   OF  BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 ABA 
 
 AA,  van  der,  the  name  of  an  ancient  and 
 distinguished  family  in  the  Netherlands. 
 Gerard  van  der  Aa,  and  his  sons  Adolphus 
 and  Philip,  bore  a  prominent  part  in  the 
 noble  resistance  to  the  tyranny  of  Philip 
 II.  and  his  agents,  and  contributed  greatly 
 to  the  liberation  of  the  United  Provinces 
 from  the  Spanish  yoke. 
 
 AAGESEN,  Svend,  a  Danish  histori- 
 an, better  known  by  his  Latin  name  of 
 Sueno  Agonis,  flourished  about  the  year 
 1186,  and  seems  to  have  been  secretary  to 
 Archbishop  Absalom,  the  minister  of  state, 
 who  directed  him  to  write  a  compendium 
 of  the  history  of  Denmark.  Aagesen  is 
 also  the  author  of  a  History  of  the  Military 
 Laws  of  Canute  the  Great. 
 
 AARON  of  Alexandria,  a  Christian 
 priest  and  physician,  flourished  early  in 
 the  seventh  century.  His  work,  entitled 
 Pandects,  in  thirty  books,  is  a  commenta- 
 ry, of  no  great  merit,  on  tha  writings  of 
 the  Greek  physicians.  Aaron  was  the  first 
 who  wrote  on  the  smallpox,  which  disease 
 he  considers  to  be  of  Egyptian  origin. 
 
 AARSENS,  Francis  van,  a  Dutch 
 statesman,  the  son  of  the  secretary  of  state 
 to  the  United  Provinces,  was  born  at  the 
 Hague,  in  1673,  and  was  early  placed  un- 
 der the  care  of  Duplessis  Mornay.  He 
 was  at  first  agent,  and  subsequently  am- 
 bassador, from  Holland  to  the  court  of 
 France  ;  but  after  having  resided  there  for 
 fifteen  years,  and  been  in  high  favour,  he 
 gave  such  offence  that  he  was  recalled. — 
 On  returning  to  his  own  country,  he  took 
 an  active  and  dishonourable  part  in  the 
 proceedings  against  Barneveldt.  The  re- 
 mainder of  his  life  was  spent  in  diplomatic 
 missions  to  Venice,  the  Italian  and  Ger- 
 man princes,  England,  and  France.  In 
 the  latter  country  he  gained  the  esteem  of 
 the  wily  Richelieu,  who  declared  that  he 
 had  never  known  more  than  three  great 
 politicians,  Oxenstiern,  Viscardi,  and  Aar- 
 sens.     He  died  in  1741. 
 
 ABAUZIT,  Firmin,  a  French  writer, 
 was   born  at  Uzes,  in   1679,  and  died  at 
 
 ABB 
 
 Geneva,  in  1767.  Though  he  published 
 very  little,  he  acquired  an  extensive  scien- 
 tific reputation,  and  was  esteemed,  for  his 
 genius,  judgment,  and  profound  learning, 
 by  the  most  eminent  men  of  the  age,  many 
 of  whom  consulted  him  upon  difficult  ques- 
 tions. "  You,"  said  Newton,  "  are  a  fit 
 person  to  judge  between  Leibnitz  and 
 me."  Rousseau  has  given  a  flowing 
 panegyric  upon  him  in  the  Nouvelle  He- 
 loise.  The  modesty  of  Abauzit  was  not 
 less  conspicuous  than  his  erudition. 
 
 ABBADIE,  James,  a  Protestant  theo- 
 logian, was  born  at  Nay,  in  Beam,  in 
 1657,  accompanied  Marshal  Schomberg  to 
 England,  and  was  with  him  at  the  battle 
 of  the  Boyne.  Till  he  was  promoted  to 
 the  deanery  of  Killaloe,   he  officiated  at 
 
 the  French  church  in  the  S 
 
 avoy. 
 
 As  a 
 
 preacher  he  was  much  admired ;  but  was 
 at  length  obliged  to  quit  the  pulpit  by  the 
 failure  of  his  memory.  He  died  in  Mary- 
 lebone,  in  1727.  Abbadie's  principal  work 
 is  his  Treatise  on  the  Truth  of  the  Chris- 
 tian Religion,  which  has  been  equally  and 
 justly  applauded  by  Protestants  and  Cath- 
 olics. His  compositions,  though  formed  in 
 his  mind,  were  sometimes  not  committed 
 to  paper  till  the  moment  when  they  were 
 sent  to  the  press. 
 
 ABBOT,  George,  archbishop,  born  m 
 1562,  and  educated  at  Oxford,  was  the 
 second  son  of  a  clothworker,  at  Guildford, 
 
4  ABB 
 
 in  Surrey.  He  was  successively  master  of 
 University  College,  dean  of  Winchester, 
 vice-chancellor  of  Oxford,  bishop  of  Litch- 
 field, and  of  London,  and  archbishop  of 
 Canterbury.  Of  Calvinism  he  was  a 
 zealous  friend,  and  displayed  great  acri- 
 mony against  the  followers  of  Arminius.— 
 James  I.  he  offended  by  opposing  the 
 Book  of  Sports,  and  the  divorce,  of  the 
 countess  of  Essex ;  and  Charles  I.  by  re- 
 fusing to  license  a  slavish  sermon  which 
 Sibthorpe  had  preached  to  justify  one  of 
 Charles's  unconstitutional  proceedings. — 
 For  this  last  honourable  act  he  was  sus- 
 pended from  his  functions,  but  was  soon, 
 though  not  willingly,  restored  to  them. 
 Laud  and  Buckingham  were  his  inveterate 
 enemies. — A  case  of  deep  sorrow  to  him,  in 
 his  latter  days,  was,  his  having  accident- 
 ally, while  aiming  at  a  deer,  shot  one  of 
 Lord  Zouch's  keepers.  He  died  in  1633, 
 and  was  buried  at  Guildford.  He  wrote 
 several  theological  works,  among  which 
 are  six  Latin  Lectures  on  Divinity,  and  an 
 Exposition  of  the  prophet  Jonah. 
 
 ABBOT,  Robert,  the  elder  brother  of 
 the  archbishop,  was  born  in  1550,  was 
 educated  at  Oxford,  and  soon  became  a 
 very  popular  preacher,  and  acquired  the 
 reputation  of  being  one  of  the  first  polemi- 
 cal divines  of  the  age.  James  I.  whose 
 chaplain  he  was,  did  him  the  honour  to 
 print  his  own  Commentary  on  the  Apoca- 
 lypse along  with  Abbot's  Antichristi  De- 
 monstrate. After  having  obtained  several 
 valuable  preferments,  he  was  raised,  in 
 1615,  to  be  bishop  of  Salisbury,  but  he 
 enjoyed  his  elevation  little  more  than  two 
 years. 
 
 ABBT,  Thomas,  a  German  writer,  born 
 in  1738,  was  a  native  of  Ulm,  and,  at  the 
 age  of  only  thirteen,  published  a  disserta- 
 tion of  considerable  merit,  entitled  Histo- 
 rian Yitee  Magistral.  Abandoning  theology, 
 he  directed  his  studies_  to  philosophy  and 
 mathematics,  and  was  successively  profes- 
 sor of  the  former  at  the  university  of  Frank- 
 fort, and  of  the  latter  at  that  of  Renteln, 
 in  Westphalia.  He  died  at  the  early 
 age  of  twenty-eight,  universally  lamented. 
 Among  his  numerous  works,  all  bearing 
 the  stamp  of  genius,  his  Treatise  on  Merit 
 is  conspicuous;  it  gained  him  the  friend- 
 ship of  the  reigning  prince  of  Schaumburg- 
 Lippe,  who  made  him  one  of  his  counsel- 
 lors, buried  him  in  his  own  chapel,  and 
 wrote  his  epitaph. 
 
 ABEILLE,  Gaspah,  a  French  dramat- 
 ic writer,  was  born,  in  1648,  at  Riez,  in 
 Provence,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1718.  He 
 wrote  several  tragedies,  comedies,  and 
 operas,  which  have  been  long  consigned 
 to  oblivion.  His  poems  have  shared  the 
 same  fate.  In  private  life  he  was  much 
 esteemed.  His  conversation  was  animated, 
 and  he  had  the  art  of  giving  piquancy 
 
 ABE 
 
 even  to  the  commonest  bon-mots.  His 
 face,  which  was  ugly  and  wrinkled,  had 
 such  an  extraordinary  flexibility,  that, 
 when  he  was  reading  a  drama  or  a  tale, 
 he  could  vary  his  features  to  suit  the  va- 
 rious characters,  as  effectually  as  though 
 he  had  assumed  a  mask  for  each  person- 
 age. 
 
 ABELARD,  or    ABAILARD,   Peter, 
 
 celebrated  for  his  erudition  and  his  unfor- 
 tunate love,  was  born  at  Palais,  near 
 Nantes,  in  Britanny,  in  1079.  Devoted  to 
 learning  from  his  infancy,  he  early  acquir- 
 ed all  the  knowledge  and  science  of  the 
 age ;  scholastic  philosophy  was  especially 
 cultivated  by  him.  After  having  studied 
 under  William  de  Champeaux,  and  other 
 eminent  masters,  he  opened  a  school  of 
 theology  and  rhetoric,  which  was  soon 
 attended  by  more  than  three  thousand  pu- 
 pils of  all  nations.  While  he  was  thus  in 
 the  zenith  of  his  popularity,  he  became 
 enamoured  of,  and  was  beloved  by,  his 
 pupil  Heloise,  the  young,  beautiful  and 
 accomplished  niece  of  Fulbert,  canon  of 
 Paris.  Their  imprudent  intercourse  gave 
 birth  to  a  son.  They  were  at  length  pri- 
 vately married ;  but  the  lady,  with  a  sin- 
 gular perversion  of  judgment,  preferred 
 being  considered  as  the  mistress  of  Abel- 
 ard,  and  denied  the  marriage  to  her  uncle. 
 Irritated  at  Abelard,  who  nad  placed  his 
 wife  in  a  monastery,  Fulbert  basely  hired 
 ruffians,  who  broke  into  the  chamber  of 
 the  husband  at  night,  and  emasculated 
 him.  The  unfortunate  victim  then  hid  his 
 sorrows  and  his  shame  in  a  cloister,  and 
 Heloise  took  the  veil.  His  subsequent  life 
 was  not  more  tranquil.  His  theological 
 doctrines  were  censured  as  heterodox ;  he 
 was  condemned  by  a  council ;  was  driven 
 from  place  to  place ;  and  was  even  impris- 
 oned. The  tempestuous  existence  of  Abel« 
 ard  was  closed  in  1142,  at  the  monastery 
 of  St.  Marcellus,  near  Chalons.  (See 
 Heloise.) 
 
 ABELL,  John,  an  English  musician, 
 celebrated  for  his  vocal  powers,  and  his 
 performance  on  the  lute.  Being  a  Catho- 
 lic, he  was  dismissed  from  the  Chape1 
 Royal,  in  1 688,  after  which  he  went  abroad 
 
ABE 
 
 His  talents  gained  him  large  rewards,  but 
 he  squandered  his  money  so  rapidly,  that 
 he  was  often  compelled  to  travel  on  foot, 
 with  his  lute  at  his  back.  Having  refused 
 to  sing  to  the  king  of  Poland,  the  despotic 
 monarch  ordered  him  to  be  drawn  up  in  a 
 chair  to  a  considerable  height,  while  seve- 
 ral bears  were  turned  loose  into  the  hall 
 below  him,  and  then  gave  him  his  choice 
 of  singing  or  being  let  down  and  devoured. 
 Abell  preferred  the  first ;  he  returned  to 
 England,  and  was  at  Cambridge  towards 
 the  end  of  Q,ueen  Anne's  reign;  but  the 
 time  of  his  death  is  not  known. 
 
 ABEN-EZRA,  Abraham,  a  rabbin,  sur- 
 named  the  Wise,  the  Great,  the  Admirable, 
 was  born  at  Toledo,  in  1119,  and  is  be- 
 lieved to  have  died  at  Rhodes,  in  1174. 
 He  was  at  once  an  able  astronomer,  phi- 
 losopher, poet,  philologist,  grammarian, 
 and  commentator  on  the  Scriptures.  He 
 travelled  extensively  in  England,  Italy, 
 and  Greece. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE,  John,  a  horticultu- 
 rist, was  the  son  of  a  person  of  the  same 
 profession,  near  Edinburgh.  At  the  age 
 of  eighteen  he  came  to  London,  and  was 
 employed  in  one  of  the  royal  gardens.  He 
 died  in  1806,  aged  eighty.  Various  works 
 on  gardening  were  published  by  him  ;  but 
 the  most  popular  is  the  Gardener's  Calen- 
 dar, which  was  originally  given  to  the 
 world  as  the  production  of  Mr.  Mawe, 
 who  was  at  that  time  better  known  to  the 
 public  than  the  real  author  was. 
 
 ABERCROMBY,  Patrick,  a  physi- 
 cian, was  a  native  of  Forfar,  born  in  1656, 
 and  educated  at  St.  Andrew's.  He  abjur- 
 ed the  Protestant  faith,  and  was  appointed 
 physician  to  James  II.  The  date  of  his 
 death  is  not  exactly  known ;  some  stating 
 it  to  be  1716,  and  others  1726.  The  Mar- 
 tial Achievements  of  Scotland,  in  two  vol- 
 umes folio,  is  his  principal  work. 
 
 ABERCROMBY,  Sir  Ralph,  was 
 bom  in  1738,  at  Tillibodie,  in  Clack- 
 mannanshire, entered  the  army  when  only 
 eighteen,  and  served  with  honour  during 
 the  seven  years'  war  and  the  American 
 war.     In  1787,  he  attained  the  rank  of 
 
 ABS  6 
 
 major-general.  During  the  disastrous  cam- 
 paign of  1794  and  1795,  in  Flanders  and 
 Holland,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
 activity  and  skill,  and  was  rewarded  with 
 the  order  of  the  Bath.  In  1796,  he  held 
 the  chief  command  in  the  West  Indies, 
 and  reduced  Grenada,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vin- 
 cent, Trinidad,  Demarara,  and  Essequibo. 
 After  his  return,  he  commanded  in  Ireland 
 and  Scotland,  and,  in  1799,  bore  a  con- 
 spicuous part  in  the  expedition  to  Holland. 
 Had  he  been  at  the  head  of  it,  that  ex- 
 pedition would  most  probably  have  had  a 
 less  disgraceful  termination.  His  last 
 service  was  performed  in  Egypt,  which,  in 
 1801,  he  was  sent  to  rescue  from  the 
 French.  In  spite  of  a  vigorous  opposition, 
 he  made  good  his  landing,  and  also  defeat- 
 ed the  enemy  on  the  13th  of  March.  The 
 British  army  was  again  attacked,  on  the 
 21st,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Alexandria, 
 and  an  obstinate  battle  ensued,  Avhich  end- 
 ed in  the  total  defeat  of  the  French.  Un- 
 fortunately, however,  the  victors  bought 
 their  success  with  the  loss  of  their  general. 
 In  the  course  of  a  charge,  Sir  Ralph  was 
 unhorsed,  and  wounded  in  two  places,  but 
 succeeded  in  disarming  his  adversary,  and 
 remained  on  the  field  throughout  the  day. 
 He  died,  however,  a  week  afterwards,  and 
 was  interred  at  Malta.  Parliament  voted 
 a  monument  to  his  memory,  which  has  been 
 erected  in  St.  Paul's,  and  a  pension  to 
 his  family ;  and  his  widow  was  created  a 
 baroness,  with  reversion  of  the  title  to  his 
 male  heirs. 
 
 ABERNETH  Y,  John,  a  dissenting  min- 
 ister, born  at  Coleraine,  in  Ireland,  in  1680, 
 died  in  1740.  He  is  the  author  of  some 
 controversial  tracts,  and  of  six  volumes  of 
 sermons,  which  bear  testimony  to  his  tal- 
 ents and  theological  knowledge. 
 
 ABLANCOURT,  Nicholas  Perrot 
 d',  a  member  of  the  French  academy,  was 
 born  at  Chalons  sur  Marne,  in  1606,  and 
 died  in  1 664.  Like  our  Philemon  Holland, 
 d'Ablancourt  was  an  indefatigable  transla- 
 tor. He  translated  several  of  the  classics, 
 among  which  are  Lucian,  Xenophon,  Arri- 
 an,  Thucydides,  Caesar,  and  Tacitus. 
 
 ABSALOM,  Archbishop,  whose  real 
 name  was  Axel,  was  born  in  the  Danish 
 island  of  Zealand,  in  1128.  He  rose  to 
 be  primate  of  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Nor- 
 way, and  was  at  once  minister  and  general 
 under  Waldemar  I.  and  Canute  VI.  As  a 
 statesman,  a  churchman,  and  a  warrior, 
 he  was  equally  estimable.  How  boldly 
 he  maintained  the  independence  of  his 
 country,  may  be  seen  in  his  answer  to  the 
 Emperor  Frederic  Barbarossa's  ambassa- 
 dor. "  Learn,  Count  Siegfrid,"  said  he, 
 "  that  Denmark  is  not  Thuringia;  tell  thy 
 master  that,  to  dispose  of  this  kingdom,  it 
 must  be  conquered ;  and  that  the  conquest 
 can  be  achieved  only  by  those  who  wear 
 
6  ABU 
 
 coats  of  mail  and  steel  gauntlets  ;  let  him 
 know  that  the  Danes  have  swords  by  their 
 sides,  with  which  they  maintain  their 
 liberty,  and  prove  their  right  to  their  con- 
 quests ;  tell  him,  in  short,  that  the  king  my 
 master  cares  very  little  for  the  emperor 
 of  Germany's  friendship,  and  has  no  fear 
 at  all  of  his  anger."  This  spirited  prelate 
 died  at  the  age  of  seventv-four. 
 
 ABUBEKER,  or  ABU-BECR,  the  fa- 
 ther of  Ayesha,  the  favourite  Avife  of  Ma- 
 homet. He  was  a  steady  and  useful  fol- 
 lower of  the  pseudo-prophet,  for  the  truth 
 of  whose  revelations  and  pretended  mira- 
 cles he  readily  vouched.  In  the  year  652, 
 he  was  chosen  to  succeed  him,  but  he  died 
 after  having  held  the  caliphate  only  two 
 years  and  three  months. 
 
 ABU-HANIFAH,  surnamed  al  Noo- 
 man,  the  founder  of  the  Hanefites,  one  of 
 the  four  orthodox  sects  of  Islamism,  was 
 born  at  Cufa,  in  699,  and  was  originally  a 
 weaver,  but  afterwards  studied  the  law. — 
 Being  a  partisan  of  the  house  of  Ali,  he 
 was  thrown  into  prison,  and  poisoned,  at 
 Bagdad,  in  767,  by  Abdallah  II.  There 
 is  an  anecdote,  which  testifies  strongly  to 
 his  forbearance  and  forgiving  spirit.  Hav- 
 ing received  a  blow  from  a  brutal  man,  he 
 merely  said,  "  Were  I  vindictive,  I  should 
 return  violence  for  violence ;  were  I  an  in- 
 former, I  should  accuse  you  to  the  caliph ; 
 but  I  like  better  to  pray  to  God,  that  he 
 will  allow  me  to  enter  into  heaven  with 
 vou  at  the  day  of  judgment." 
 "  ABUL-FARAI,  or  ABULPHARAGI- 
 US,  Gregory,  was  born  in  1226,  at  Mala- 
 tia,  in  Armenia.  He  was  of  the  Christian 
 sect  of  the  Jacobites,  and  died  bishop  of 
 Aleppo,, in  1263.  His  Universal  History 
 was  translated  into  Latin,  by  Dr.  Pococke. 
 ABUL-FAZEL,  deemed  the  best  and 
 most  learned  writer  of  the  east,  of  whom 
 it  was  said  that  monarchs  dreaded  his  pen 
 more  than  they  did  the  sword  of  his  mas- 
 ter, was  the  secretary  and  vizier  of  the 
 Mog-ul  emperor  Akbar,  and  was  murdered 
 in  1604,  by  order  of  Sultan  Selim,  son  of 
 Akbar,  who  was  jealous  of  his  influence. 
 His  loss  was  deeply  lamented  by  his  sove- 
 reign. He  wrote  a  History  of  the  Mogul 
 Emperors,  down  to  the  year  1594,  and 
 superintended  the  compiling  of  the  Ayeen 
 Akbery,  or  Institutes  of  the  Emperor  Ak- 
 bar. 
 
 ABUL-FEDA,  Ismael,  prince  of  the 
 Syrian  city  of  Hamah,  was  born  in  1273, 
 and  was  equally  remarkable  for  his  military 
 and  literary  talents,  and  for  his  love  of 
 science.  In  early  life,  he  repeatedly  dis- 
 tinguished himself  by  his  valour ;  and,  after 
 his  accession  to  his  principality,  from 
 which  he  had  beei:  excluded  for  twelve 
 years,  he  sedulously  cultivated  literature, 
 and  patronized  learned  men.  His  death 
 took   place    in    1331.     He    wrote    many 
 
 ACC 
 
 works,  of  which  the  chief  are,  his  Abridg- 
 ed History  of  the  Human  Race,  and  his 
 geography,  entitled  The  True  Situation  of 
 Countries. 
 
 ABUL-GHAZI-BEHADER,  khan  of 
 the  Tartars,  descended  on  both  sides  in  a 
 direct  line  from  Genghis  Khan,  was  born, 
 in  the  capital  of  Kharism,  in  1605.  After 
 having  reigned  with  honour  for  twenty 
 years,  he  resigned  the  throne  to  his  son, 
 and  devoted  his  hours  of  retirement  to 
 writing  a  Genealogical  History  of  the  Tar- 
 tars.   He  died  in  1663. 
 
 ACACIUS,  bishop  of  Amida,  on  the 
 Tigris,  immortalized  himself  by  an  act  of 
 Christian  charity,  which  he  performed 
 during  the  war  between  Theodosius  the 
 Younger  and  Varanes,  king  of  Persia. 
 About  the  year  420,  he  sold  the  church 
 plate  of  his  diocess,  to  ransom  and  send 
 back  to  their  country  seven  thousand  Per- 
 sian slaves.  Varanes  was  so  much  affected 
 by  this  generosity,  that  he  requested  an  in- 
 terview with  the  bishop,  and  subsequently 
 concluded  a  peace. 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI,  Donatus,  sprung  from 
 an  ancient  Florentine  familyr,  and  was  born 
 at  Florence  in  1428.  The  most  eminent 
 masters  were  employed  to  form  his  mind, 
 and  he  soon  became  an  accomplished  man, 
 and  one  of  the  first  hellenists  of  the  age, 
 and  was  admitted  to  the  literary  conversa- 
 tions which  were  held  under  tne  auspices 
 of  Lorenzo  di  Medici.  He  filled  several 
 offices  in  the  state,  and,  in  1473,  was  made 
 gonfalonier  of  the  republic.  He  died,  in 
 1478,  at  Milan,  while  on  an  embassy,  and 
 his  body  was  transported  to  Florence,  and 
 buried  at  the  public  charge.  So  disinter- 
 ested was  Acciajuoli,  that  he  left  his  five 
 children  without  fortune ;  but  his  grateful 
 country  portioned  his  two  daughters,  and 
 provided  for  his  sons.  His  principal  works 
 are  his  Commentaries  on  the  Ethics,  and 
 on  the  Politics,  of  Aristotle. 
 
 ACCIUS,  or  ATTIUS,  Lucius,  a  Ro- 
 man tragic  poet,  was  born  in  the  year  of 
 Rome  584.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
 tragedies,  the  subjects  of  which,  with  a 
 single  exception,  were  borrowed  from  the 
 Greek  theatre.  His  style  was  unpolished ; 
 yet  so  highly  was  he  esteemed,  that  a  citi- 
 zen was  severely  reprimanded  by  the  mag- 
 istrate, for  having  mentioned  his  name  in  a 
 disrespectful  manner.  Accius  was  also  the 
 author  of  Historical  Annals  in  verse,  and 
 of  other  works.  Of  his  productions  onby  a 
 few  verses  are  now  extant. 
 
 ACCORSO,  or  ACCURSIUS,  Fran- 
 cis, an  Italian  lawyer,  born  at  Florence, 
 but  whether  in  1151,  or  1132,  is  a  matter 
 of  dispute.  He  resigned  his  professorship 
 at  Bologna,  to  devote  himself  to  the  com- 
 posing of  a  work  explanatory  of  the  laws; 
 he  completed  it  in  seven  years,  and  it 
 bears  the  name  of  The  Great  Gloss.     Thi» 
 
ACH 
 
 immense  collection,  which  contains  the 
 decisions  of  preceding  jurists,  with  his 
 comments,  occupies  six  folio  volumes,  and 
 has  been  as  much  undervalued  by  some 
 persons  as  overpraised  by  others.  He  died 
 at  Bologna,  in  1229.  His  daughter  was 
 celebrated  for  her  erudition,  and  lectured, 
 in  the  university  of  Bologna,  on  the  Roman 
 law. 
 
 ACCORSO,  or  ACCURSIUS,  Mari- 
 angelus,  an  eminent  critic,  who  flourish- 
 ed in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
 was  born  at  Aquila,  in  the  Neapolitan 
 territory.  Charles  V.  held  him  in  much 
 esteem.  He  lived  thirty-three  years  at  the 
 court  of  that  monarch,  who  employed  him 
 on  various  missions  in  Germany,  Poland, 
 and  other  northern  countries.  Collecting 
 of  old  MSS.  was  his  predominant  passion, 
 but  he  was  also  a  man  of  wit  and  of  elegant 
 accomplishments.  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 
 and  several  classic  authors,  are  indebted 
 to  him  for  numerous  and  valuable  correc- 
 tions. Having  been  wrongfully  accused  of 
 plagiarism,  he  indignantly  asserted  his 
 innocence,  by  a  singular  kind  of  oath, 
 which  is  to  be  found  in  his  fable,  entitled 
 Testudo. 
 
 ACHARD,  Francis  Charles,  an 
 eminent  chemist,  a  native  of  Prussia,  was 
 born  in  1754,  and  died  in  1821.  To  his 
 experiments  and  exertions  the  manufacture 
 of  sugar  from  the  beet  root  is  greatly  in- 
 debted for  the  perfection  which  it  has  ac- 
 quired. 
 
 ACHENWALL,  Godfrey,  a  celebrat- 
 ed publicist,  was  born  in  1719,  at  Elbing, 
 in  Prussia.  In  1746  he  taught  history, 
 statistics,  and  the  law  of  nations,  at  Mar- 
 burg, whence,  in  1748,  he  removed  to 
 Gottingen,  where  he  became  a  professor, 
 and  his  lectures  were  in  high  repute.  He 
 died  in  1770.  Achenwall  was  the  creator 
 of  the  science  of  statistics.  Among  his 
 chief  works  are  The  Elements  of  Natural 
 Law,  and  the  Constitutions  of  the  European 
 Kingdoms  and  States. 
 
 ACHERY,  Dom  John  Luke  d',  a 
 French  benedictine  and  antiquary,  was  a 
 native  of  St.  Quentin,  born  in  1609,  and 
 early  embraced  a  monastic  life.  Indefati- 
 gable in  his  studies,  he  lived  perfectly  re- 
 tired, seldom  indulging  in  visits,  or  even 
 in  conversation.  His  works  are  numerous 
 and  voluminous,  and  display  great  erudi- 
 tion. The  best  known  of  them  is  his  Spici- 
 legium,  in  thirteen  quartos,  which  contains 
 an  immense  number  of  valuable  and  curious 
 pieces  relative  to  the  middle  age.  He  died 
 in  1685,  at  the  abbey  of  St.  Germain  de 
 Pres. 
 
 ACHILLES  TATIUS,  a  native  of 
 Alexandria,  lived  about  the  end  of  the 
 second  century.  He  was  converted  to 
 Christianity,  and  became  a  bishop.  He  is 
 the  author  of  a  History  of  Great  Men. 
 
 ACU  7 
 
 Treatises  on  the  Sphere  and  on  Tactics, 
 and  a  romance,  entitled  The  Loves  of 
 Clitophon  and  Leucippe. 
 
 ACIDALIUS,  Valens,  a  German  crit- 
 ic, was  born  at  Wittstock,  in  1567,  and 
 died  in  1595.  He  studied  medicine  in 
 Italy,  but  never  practised.  He  wrote  com- 
 ments on  Quintius  Curtius,  Paterculus, 
 Plautus,  Tacitus,  and  other  classic  authors. 
 A  short  time  before  his  death,  he  was  ex- 
 posed to  much  odium,  as  the  supposed 
 author  of  a  satirical  tract,  denying  women 
 to  be  rational  beings  ;  which  tract,  howe- 
 ver, he  appears  only  to  have  transcribed, 
 and  recommended  to  his  printer  as  a  witty 
 production. 
 
 ACKERMANN,  Conrad,  a  celebrated 
 actor,  whom  the  Germans  consider  as  the 
 creator  of  their  stage,  was  born  in  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  eighteenth  century.  In 
 1765,  he  undertook  the  management  of  the 
 Hamburgh  theatre  ;  a  circumstance  which 
 formed  an  epoch  in  the  dramatic  history  of 
 Germany.  Lessing  aided  him  with  all  the 
 weight  of  his  powerful  talents.  Ackermann 
 excelled  in  comic  parts.  His  wife  also  was 
 an  admirable  actress.  He  died  at  Ham- 
 burgh, in  1771. 
 
 ACOSTA,  Uriel,  a  Portuguese  gentle- 
 man, born  at  Oporto,  towards  the  end  of 
 the  sixteenth  century,  of  a  family  origi- 
 nally Jewish,  was  a  man  of  learning  and 
 talent ;  but  his  life  was  rendered  a  burthen, 
 by  the  endless  persecutions  which  the  fickle- 
 ness of  his  religious  opinions  brought  upon 
 him.  Born  a  Christian,  he  apostatized  to 
 Judaism,  and  ended  by  being  a  deist  and 
 a  materialist.  He  shot  himself  in  1647. — 
 In  his  Exemplar  Vitse  Humanae,  he  gives 
 an  account  of  some  of  the  miseries  which 
 he  had  suffered. 
 
 ACROPOLITA,  George,  a  Byzantine 
 statesman  and  historian,  was  born  at  Con- 
 stantinople, in  1220,  filled,  with  great  rep- 
 utation, some  of  the  highest  offices  of  the 
 Greek  empire,  and  died  about  the  year 
 1282.  Gregorius  Cyprius,  the  patriarch, 
 says  of  him  that  "  he  was  equal  to  Aris- 
 totle in  philosophy,  and  to  Plato  in  divine 
 things  and  attic  eloquence."  This  praise 
 is,  undoubtedly,  exaggerated,  but  it  proves 
 that  Acropolita  was  no  ordinary  character. 
 A  Chronicle  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  from 
 1204  to  1260,  is  his  chief  work. 
 
 ACUNA,  Don  Antonio  Osorio  d',  a 
 Spaniard,  of  a  noble  family,  was  bishop  of 
 Zamora,  under  the  reigns  of  Ferdinand  the 
 Catholic  and  Charles  V.  When,  in  de- 
 fence of  their  liberties,  the  Spanish  com- 
 mons formed  the  union  which  was,  not  un- 
 worthily, denominated  "  the  holy  league," 
 he  became  one  of  its  most  distinguished 
 leaders.  Though  in  his  sixtieth  year,  he 
 fought  at  the  head  of  five  thousand  men 
 with  all  the  ardour  of  yoath.  After  the 
 fatal  defeat  of  the  army  of  the  commons 
 
8 
 
 ADA 
 
 at  Villalar,  in  1521,  Acuna  was  taken 
 prisoner,  and  beheaded  in  the  castle  of  Si- 
 mancas. 
 
 ACUNA,  Ferdinand  d',  a  native  of 
 Madrid,  was  born  in  the  beginning  of  the 
 sixteenth  century,  and  died  in  1580,  having 
 acquired  reputation  in  arms  and  in  poetry. 
 His  poems  gained  him  the  approbation  of 
 his  contemporaries,  and  especially  of  the 
 celebrated  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  who  was 
 his  friend. 
 
 ADALBERT,  St.  bishop  of  Prague,  is 
 considered  as  the  apostle  of  Bohemia, 
 Hungary,  and  Prussia.  He  was  martyred 
 by  the  infidels  in  997,  and  Boleslaus,  prince 
 of  Poland,  ransomed  his  body  with  an 
 equal  weight  of  gold.  The  Poles  venerate 
 him  as  the  author  of  the  warlike  hymn 
 Boga  Rodzica,  which  they  were  accustomed 
 to  sing  before  a  battle. 
 
 ADALBERT,  or  ADELBERT,  created 
 archbishop  of  Bremen  and  Hamburgh,  in 
 1043,  was  one  of  those  churchmen  of  a 
 dark  age  who  employed  great  talents  in 
 promoting  the  interests  of  their  own  order, 
 at  the-expense  of  both  monarchs  and  peo- 
 ple. Ambitious,  subtle,  magnificent,  and 
 eloquent,  he  spent  his  whole  fife  in  endeav- 
 ouring to  aggrandize  his  see,  which  he  as- 
 pired to  raise  to  the  rank  of  a  patriarchate. 
 S'et,  on  one  occasion,  he  refused  the  tiara. 
 While  acting  as  regent,  during  the  minority 
 of  Henry  IV.  of  Germany,  he  excited  uni- 
 versal hatred  by  his  despotic  conduct.  To- 
 wards the  close  of  his  career,  he  lost  two 
 thirds  of  his  domains  ;  and  he  at  length 
 died,  in  1072,  when  he  was  beginning  to 
 recover  his  ascendancy. 
 
 ADAM  DE  LA  HALE,  supposed  to  be 
 one  of  the  earliest  of  the  French  dramatists, 
 Jived  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Some  of 
 his  pieces  are  extant.  He  led  a  dissipated 
 life,  and  ended  his  days  in  a  convent. 
 
 ADAM,  Alexander,  a  schoolmaster 
 and  compiler,  was  born  at  Rufibrd,  in  the 
 shire  of  Moray,  in  1741,  and  died  in  1S09. 
 He  obtained  the  degree  of  LL.D.  and  was 
 for  many  years  head  master  of  the  high 
 school  at  Edinburgh.  He  compiled  Ro- 
 man Antiquities,  a  Latin  Lexicon,  and 
 other  school  books. 
 
 ADAM,  Robert,  an  architect,  was  born, 
 in  1723,  at  Kirkaldy,  in  Fife,  was  educat- 
 ed at  Edinburgh  university,  learnt  the 
 principles  of  architecture  from  his  father, 
 and  studied  the  art  in  Italy.  After  his  re- 
 turn, he  published,  in  a  sjnendid  folio,  with 
 engravings,  an  Account  of  Diocletian's  Pal- 
 ace at  Spalatro,  was  appointed  architect  to 
 his  majesty,  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal 
 and  Antiquarian  Societies,  and  subsequent- 
 ly elected  M.  P.  for  the  shire  of  Kinross. 
 Many  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  the  age 
 were  his  friends.  In  conjunction  Avith  his 
 brother  James,  he  erected  numerous  man- 
 sions, and  public  buildings,  among  which 
 
 ADA 
 
 is  the  Adelphi.     He  died  in  1792,  and  his 
 brother  in  1794. 
 
 ADAMS,  John,  a  distinguished  patriot 
 of  the  American  revolution,  was  born,  in 
 1735,  at  Braintree,  Massachusetts.  He 
 was  educated  at  the  university  of  Cam- 
 bridge, and  received  the  degree  of  master 
 of  arts  in  1758.  At  this  time  he  entered  the 
 office  of  Jeremiah  Gridley,  a  lawyer  of  the 
 highest  eminence,  to  complete  his  legal 
 studies  ;  and  in  the  next  year  he  was  admit- 
 ted to  the  bar  of  Suffolk.  Mr.  Adams  at  an 
 early  age  espoused  the  cause  of  his  country, 
 and  received  numerous  marks  of  the  public 
 confidence  and  respect.  He  took  a  prom- 
 inent part  in  every  leading  measure,  and 
 served  on  several  committees  which  report- 
 ed some  of  the  most  important  State  papers 
 of  the  time.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
 the  Congress,  and  was  among  the  foremost 
 in  recommending  the  adoption  of  an  inde- 
 pendent government.  It  has  been  affirmed 
 by  Mr.  Jefferson  himself,  "  that  the  great 
 pillar  of  support  to  the  declaration  of  in- 
 dependence, and  its  ablest  advocate  and 
 champion  on  the  floor  of  the  house,  was 
 John  Adams."  In  1777,  he  was  chosen 
 commissioner  to  the  court  of  Versailles,  in 
 the  place  of  Mr.  Dean,  who  Avas  recalled. 
 On  his  return,  about  a  year  afterwards, 
 he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  convention 
 to  prepare  a  form  of  government  for  the 
 State  of  Massachusetts,  and  placed  on  the 
 sub-committee  chosen  to  draught  the  pro- 
 
 i'ect  of  a  constitution.  Three  months  after 
 lis  return,  Congress  sent  him  abroad  with 
 two  commissions,  one  as  minister  plenipo- 
 tentiary to  negotiate  a  peace,  the  other  to 
 form  a  commercial  treaty  with  Great  Brit- 
 ain. In  June  1780,  he  was  appointed  in 
 the  place  of  Mr.  Laurens  ambassador  to 
 Holland,  and  in  1782  he  repaired  to  Paris, 
 to  commence  the  negotiation  for  peace, 
 having  previously  obtained  assurance  that 
 Great  Britain  would  recognize  the  inde- 
 pendence of  the  United  States.  At  the 
 close  of  the  war  Mr.  A.  was  appointed  the 
 first  minister  to  London.  In  1789  he  was 
 elected  vice-president  of  the  United  States, 
 and  on  the  resignation  of  Washington,  suc- 
 ceeded to  the  presidency  in  1797.  After 
 his  term  of  four  years  had  expired,  it  was 
 found,  on  the  new  election,  that  his  adver- 
 sary, Mr.  Jefferson,  had  succeeded  by  the 
 majority  of  one  vote.  On  retiring:  to  his 
 farm  in  Q,uincy,  Mr.  A.  occupied  himself 
 with  agriculture,  obtaining  amusement  from 
 the  literature  and  politics  of  the  day.  The 
 remaining  years  of  his  life  were  passed  in 
 almost  uninterrupted  tranquillity.  He  died 
 on  the  fourth  of  July  1826,  with  the  same 
 words  on  his  lips,  which  fifty  years  be- 
 fore, on  that  glorious  day,  he  had  uttered 
 on  the  floor  of  Congress — "  Independence 
 forever."  Mr.  Adams  is  the  author  of 
 An  Essay  on  Canon  and  Feudal  Law 
 
ADA 
 
 a  series  of  letters  published  under  the  sig- 
 nature of  Novanglus ;  and  Discourses  on 
 Davila. 
 
 ADAMS,  Samuel,  one  of  the  most  re- 
 markable men  connected  with  the  Ameri- 
 can revolution,  was  born  at  Boston  in  1722. 
 He  was  educated  at  Harvard  College,  and 
 received  its  honours  in  1740.  He  was  one 
 of  the  first  who  organized  measures  of  re- 
 sistance to  the  mother  country ;  and  for 
 the  prominent  part  which  he  took  in  these 
 measures  he  was  proscribed  by  the  British 
 government.  During  the  revolutionary  war, 
 he  was  one  of  the  most  active  and  influen- 
 tial asserters  of  American  freedom  and  in- 
 dependence. He  was  a  member  of  the 
 legislature  of  Massachusetts  from  1766  to 
 1774,  when  he  was  sent  to  the  first  Con- 
 gress of  the  old  Confederation.  He  was 
 one  of  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of 
 1776,  for  the  adoption  of  which  he  had  al- 
 ways been  one  of  the  warmest  advocates. 
 In  1731  he  retired  from  Congress,  but  only 
 to  receive  from  his  native  state  additional 
 proofs  of  her  confidence  in  his  talents  and 
 integrity.  He  had  already  been  an  active 
 member  of  the  convention  that  formed  her 
 constitution ;  and  after  it  went  into  effect, 
 he  was  placed  in  the  senate  of  the  state, 
 and  for  several  years  presided  over  that 
 body.  In  1789  he  was  elected  lieut.  gov- 
 ernor, and  held  that  office  till  1794;  upon 
 the  death  of  Hancock,  he  was  chosen  gov- 
 ernor, and  was  annually  re-elected  till  1797, 
 when  he  retired  from  public  life.  He  died 
 in  1803.  The  following  encomium  upon 
 Mr.  Adams  is  from  a  work  upon  the  Amer- 
 ican Rebellion,  by  Mr.  Galloway,  publish- 
 ed in  Great  Britain  1780  :  "  He  eats  little, 
 drinks  little,  sleeps  little,  thinks  much,  and 
 is  most  indefatigable  in  the  pursuit  of  his 
 object.  It  was  this  man,  who  by  his  supe- 
 rior application,  managed  at  once  the  fac- 
 tions in  Congress  at  Philadelphia,  and  the 
 factions  of  New-England." 
 
 ADAMS,  Hannah,  a  native  of  New- 
 England,  whose  literary  labours  have  made 
 her  name  known  in  Europe,  as  well  as  in 
 her  native  land.  Among  her  works  are 
 the  View  of  Religions,  History  of  the  Jews, 
 Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion,  and 
 a  History  of  New-England.  She  was  a 
 woman  of  high  excellence  and  purity  of 
 character.  She  died  in  1831,  at  the  age 
 of  76. 
 
 AD  ANSON,  Michael,  a  celebrated 
 botanist,  was  born,  in  1727,  at  Aix,  in 
 Provence.  His  whole  life  was  devoted  to 
 the  improvement  of  botanical  science.  He 
 sacrificed  his  patrimonial  property,  for  the 
 purpose  of  exploring  Senegal,  where  he 
 remained  five  years,  and  made  a  multitude 
 of  observations  in  all  the  departments  of 
 natural  history.  In  1775,  he  presented  to 
 the  Academy  of  Sciences  120  MS.  volumes, 
 and  76,000  figures  of  plants,  intended  to 
 
 n 
 
 ADD 
 
 9 
 
 farm  the  basis  of  an  immense  work  which 
 he  had  planned.  The  revolution  reduced 
 him  to  penury,  and  in  his  latter  days  he 
 was  partly  indebted  for  subsistence  to  the 
 devoted  attachment  of  a  female  domestic 
 and  her  husband.  Napoleon,  however, 
 heard  of  his  situation,  and  snatched  him 
 from  want.  Adanson  was  small  in  stature, 
 and  at  first  sight  his  countenance  was  not 
 pleasing.  He  was,  in  the  highest  degree, 
 disinterested  ;  but,  towards  the  close  of  his 
 life,  his  temper  was  somewhat  soured  by 
 misfortune  and  age.  He  died  in  1806. 
 His  chief  published  works  are  his  Voyage 
 to  Senegal,  and  his  Families  of  Plants. 
 
 ADDISON,  Lancelot,  a  native  of 
 Westmoreland,  born  in  1632.  was  educated 
 at  Oxford,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
 by  his  ability  and  application.  During 
 the  period  of  the  Commonwealth,  he  lived 
 retired  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Petworth, 
 but  was  active  in  disseminating  church  and 
 king  principles.  After  the  restoration,  he 
 was  chaplain  at  Dunkirk,  and  at  Tangier, 
 and  subsequently  obtained  the  living  of 
 Milston,  in  Wilts,  and  was  made  a  prebend, 
 a  dean,  and  an  archdeacon.  He  died  in 
 1703.  His  literaryr  talents  were  consider- 
 able, and  he  published  several  works,  most- 
 ly theological. 
 
 ADDISON,  Joseph,  one  of  the  orna- 
 ments of  English  literature,  was  the  son 
 of  dean  Addison,  and  was  born  at  Milston 
 in  1672.  At  his  birth,  it  is  said  that  he 
 was  supposed  to  be  dead  born,  and  was 
 accordingly  laid  out.  The  Charter  House, 
 at  which  he  became  acquainted  with 
 Steele,  and  the  Colleges  of  Queen's  and 
 Magdalen  at  Oxford,  have  the  honour  of  his 
 education.  The  first  written  proofs  which 
 he  gave  of  his  talents  were  Latin  poems, 
 of  very  superior  elegance.  Some  English 
 poems,  a  translation  of  the  fourth  Georgic, 
 and  a  Discourse  on  the  Georgics,  sustained 
 his  reputation,  and  his  praise  of  King 
 William  gained  him  the  patronage  of  Lord 
 Sorners.  In  1699,  Somers  obtained  for 
 him  an  annual  pension  of  £.300  to  enable 
 him  to  travel  in  Italy.  In  that  country 
 he  remained  nearly  three  years,  when,  his 
 
10 
 
 ADD 
 
 pension  being  lost  by  the  death  of  King 
 William,  necessity  drove  him  home.     Dur- 
 ing his  absence,  he  collected  materials  lor 
 a  narrative  of  his  tour,  and  wrote  his  Let- 
 ter to    Lord   Halifax,  his    Dialogues    on 
 Medals,   and  four  acts  of  Cato.     On  his 
 return,  he  published  his  Travels.     It  was 
 not,  however,  till  1704  that  fortune  began 
 to  smile  upon  him.     At  the  suggestion  of 
 Halifax,   he  was   then  employed   to  cele- 
 brate   in  verse    the    splendid    victory  of 
 Blenheim ;  and,  as  soon  as  he  had  shown 
 his  patrons  the  simile  of  the  angel,  he  was 
 rewarded  with  the  place  of  Commissioner 
 of  Appeals.     In   1705,  he  attended  Lord 
 Halifax  to  Hanover;  in  1706,  he  was  ap- 
 pointed under  secretary  of  state ;   and  in 
 1709,  he  went  over  to  Ireland  as  secretary 
 to   the    lord    lieutenant,  the    Marquis   of 
 Wharton,   and  also    received    the  almost 
 sinecure  office  of  keeper  of  the  records  at 
 Dublin,   with  a  salary  of  £.300   a  year. 
 During  this  period,  he  wrote  the  opera  of 
 Rosamond,    and    contributed    a    prologue 
 and  some  scenes  to  Steele's  Tender  Hus- 
 band.    The  Tatler  was  begun  by  Steele 
 while  Addison  was  in  Ireland,  and  with- 
 out the  knowledge  of  the  latter,  who,  how- 
 ever, soon  detected  his  friend,  and  came 
 forward  to  his  aid.   In  1711,  in  conjunction 
 with    Steele,    he    began    the     Spectator, 
 which  alone  would  immortalize  his  name. 
 As  an  essayist,  he  subsequently  contribut- 
 ed to  the  Guardian,  the  Lover,  the  Whig 
 Examiner,   the   Freeholder,   and  the   Old 
 Whig.     In  1713,  his  Cato,  to  which  Pope 
 gave  a  prologue,  was  brought  upon  the 
 stage,  and  the  state  of  parties  at  that  time, 
 at  least  as  much  as  its  intrinsic  merit,  en- 
 sured its  complete  success.     It  did  not, 
 however,  escape   from  the  critics,  among 
 whom    Dennis  was    conspicuous   for    his 
 acuteness  and   bitterness.     This   tragedy, 
 the  comedy  of  the  Drummer,  and  the  opera 
 of  Rosamond,  constitute  the  whole  of  Ad- 
 dison's dramatic  efforts.     He  projected  a 
 tragedy  on    the    death    of   Socrates,    but 
 went   no   further.     In   1716,   after  a  long 
 courtship,  he  married  the  countess  dowager 
 of  Warwick ;  a  union  which  was  produc- 
 tive of  nothing  but  one  daughter  and  infeli- 
 city.    The  lady  was  a  woman  vain  of  her 
 rank,  who  had  the  folly  to  think  that  she 
 had  honoured  a  commoner  of  genius   by 
 giving  him  her  hand ;  and  the  result  was 
 such    as  was    naturally  to   be   expected. 
 Though  Hymen  frowned  on  him,  his  ambi- 
 tion was  gratified  in  the  following  year  by 
 the   post  of  secretary  of  state.     But  the 
 toil,  his  own  inaptitude  for  business,  and 
 his  sufferings  from  asthma,  soon  compelled 
 him  to  resign  it,  and  he  received  a  yearly 
 pension  of  £.1500.     After  his  retirement, 
 he  completed  his  Treatise  on  the  Christ- 
 ian Religion,  and  was  engaged  in  a  politi- 
 cal contest  with  his  old  friend  Steele  whom 
 
 ADR 
 
 he  treated  with  a  contemptuous  asperity 
 that  cannot  easily  be  defended.  He  died 
 at  Holland  House,  on  the  17th  of  June, 
 1719.  In  his  last  moments,  he  sent  for 
 Lord  Warwick,  whom  he  was  anxious  to 
 reclaim  from  irregular  habits  and  errone- 
 ous opinions,  and,  pressing  his  hand,  faint- 
 ly said,  "  I  have  sent  for  you  that  you 
 may  see  in  what  peace  a  Christian  can 
 die."  As  a  man,  Addison  was  of  blame 
 less  morals ;  as  a  statesman,  he  was  ill 
 calculated  for  office,  for  he  had  not  the 
 nerve,  promptitude  of  action,  and  readi- 
 ness of  resource,  which  are  more  necessary 
 in  such  a  character  than  even  the  loftier 
 intellectual  powers  ;  as  a  poet  and  drama- 
 tist, he  cannot  aspire  to  more  than  a  place 
 in  the  second  class,  and,  perhaps,  not  a 
 high  place  in  that  class ;  but  as  an  essay- 
 ist, he  stands  unrivalled  for  ethic  instruc- 
 tiveness,  skill  in  delineating  lite  and  man- 
 ners, exquisite  humour,  fine  imagination, 
 and  a  dulcet,  graceful,  idiomatic  flow  of 
 language,  which  amply  justifies  the  eulogi- 
 um  of  Johnson,  that  "  whoever  wishes  to 
 attain  an  English  style,  familiar  but  not 
 coarse,  and  elegant  but  not  ostentatious, 
 must  give  his  days  and  nights  to  the  vol- 
 umes of  Addison." 
 
 ADELARD,  or  ATHELARD,  an  Eng- 
 lish Benedictine  monk,  who  lived  under 
 the  reign  of  Henry  I.  Already  possessed 
 of  superior  knowledge  to  most  of  his  con- 
 temporaries, he  resolved  to  increase  it  by 
 travelling,  and  accordingly  visited  not  on- 
 ly various  parts  of  Europe,  but  also  Egypt 
 and  Arabia.  From  the  Arabic,  he  trans- 
 lated into  Latin,  with  other  works,  the 
 Elements  of  Euclid,  before  any  Greek 
 copy  had  been  discovered.  Some  of  his 
 MSS.  on  mathematics  and  medical  sub- 
 jects are  still  preserved  at  Oxford. 
 
 ADELUNG,  John  Christopher,  an 
 eminent  German  lexicographer  and  litera- 
 ry character,  was  born,  in  1734,  at  Span- 
 tekow  in  Pomerania,  became  professor  at 
 the  Erfurt  gymnasium,  removed  thence  to 
 Leipsic,  and  was  subsequently  appointed 
 librarian  to  the  elector,  at  Dresden,  where 
 he  died  in  1806.  He  was  never  married; 
 it  was  said  of  him,  that  his  writing  desk 
 was  his  wife,  and  the  seventy  volumes 
 which  he  wrote  were  his  children.  Ade- 
 lung  was  an  agreeable  companion,  and 
 loved  good  cheer  ;  he  was  so  fond  of  pro- 
 curing a  variety  of  foreign  wines,  that  his 
 cellar,  which  he  used  to  call  his  Bibliothe- 
 ca  selectissima,  contained  forty  kinds.  In 
 this  country  he  is  best  known  by  his  Gram- 
 matical and  Critical  Dictionary  of  the 
 German  Language,  in  five  vols.  4to.  As 
 an  original  writer,  however,  he  is  of  no 
 mean  class. 
 
 ADRIAN,  Publius  iEnus,  the  fif- 
 teenth Roman  emperor,  was  of  a  Spanish 
 family,  and,  according  to  some  historians, 
 
JESC 
 
 was  a  native  of  Spain,  though  others  affirm 
 Rome  to  have  been  his  birthplace.  He 
 was  born  a.  d.  76,  and  served  early  in 
 Spain  and  Maesia.  Having  married  thp 
 niece  of  the  empress  Plotina,  he  rose  rap- 
 idly by  the  aid  of  her  influence  and  his 
 own  merit,  and  filled  the  offices  of  questor, 
 consul,  tribune  of  the  people,  and  pre  tor. 
 For  his  conduct  in  the  Dacian  war,  Tra- 
 jan gave  him  the  diamond  which  he  him- 
 self had  received  from  Nerva,  as  the  sign 
 of  adoption.  On  the  death  of  Trajan,  in 
 the  year  117,  Adrian  succeeded  to  the  em- 
 pire. During  his  long  reign  of  twenty-one 
 years,  he  visited  almost  every  part  of  his 
 dominions.  While  in  Britain,  he  built  the 
 famous  wall  between  the  Solway  and  the 
 Tyne,  to  prevent  the  incursions  of  the 
 Caledonians.  The  Jews  having  revolted, 
 he  defeated  and  almost  exterminated  them. 
 Adrian  had  a  robust  constitution,  went 
 bareheaded,  and  usually  made  long  march- 
 es on  foot ;  he  had  an  extraordinary  me- 
 mory, was  condescending,  enacted  many 
 good  laws,  and  loved  poetry  and  the  arts 
 and  sciences.  On  the  other  hand  he  was 
 suspicious,  not  unfrequently  cruel,  and  dis- 
 graced himself  by  his  unnatural  passion 
 for  Antinoiis.  He  died  at  Bake,  in  his 
 sixty-second  year;  having,  for  some  time 
 previously,  been  so  tormented  by  disease, 
 as  to  entreat  his  friends  to  terminate  his 
 existence.  A  few  days  before  his  death 
 he  composed  the  Latin  lines  to  his  soul, 
 which  have  been  often  translated  into  vari- 
 ous languages. 
 
 .ELIAN,  Claudius,  an  historical  wri- 
 ter, born  at  Praeneste  about  the  year  160, 
 was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  at  Rome,  under 
 the  emperor  Antoninus.  He  is  the  author  of 
 Various  History,  and  a  History  of  Animals, 
 in  Greek,  of  which  language  he  was  a  per- 
 fect master. 
 
 JELIANUS,  Meccius,  a  Greek  physi- 
 cian of  the  second  century,  was  the  master 
 of  Galen,  who  mentions  him  in  terms  of 
 high  praise.  He  was  the  first  who  made 
 use  of  the  theriaca  as  a  remedy  and  pre- 
 servative against  plague. 
 
 .ESCHINES,  a  philosopher  of  Athens, 
 a  disciple  of  Socrates,  by  whom  he  was 
 much  esteemed,  visited  the  court  of  Dio- 
 nysius,  at  Syracuse,  and  was  rewarded  by 
 him  for  his  Socratic  dialogues.  He  re- 
 turned to  Athens,  and  taught  philosophy 
 and  oratory.  Three  of  his  dialogues  on 
 moral  philosophy  are  extant. 
 
 iESCHINES,  a  celebrated  orator,  the 
 rival  of  Demosthenes,  was  born  at  Athens 
 b.  c.  327,  of  a  respectable  family.  Being 
 worsted  in  his  struggle  with  Demosthenes, 
 he  retired  to  Rhodes,  and  opened  a  school 
 of  rhetoric.  He  died  at  Samos,  aged 
 seventy  five.  Of  his  orations  only  three 
 are  extant;  twelve  epistles  are  also  attri- 
 buted to  him. 
 
 AET 
 
 11 
 
 .ESCHYLUS,  one  of  the  three  great 
 tragic  writers  of  Greece,  and  the  improver 
 of  the  scenic  art,  was  born  at  Athens  about 
 400  years  b.  c.  With  his  brothers  Cyn- 
 egirus  and  Aminius,  he  distinguished  him- 
 self at  Marathon,  Plataea,  and  Salamis. 
 But  neither  his  valour  nor  his  transcend- 
 ent genius  could,  at  a  later  period,  shield 
 him  from  a  charge  of  impiety,  and  a  con- 
 sequent sentence  of  death,  which  would 
 have  been  executed,  had  not  his  brother 
 Aminius  saved  him,  by  throwing  off  his 
 own  cloak,  and  showing  to  the  judges  his 
 arm,  reft  of  a  hand  at  the  battle  of  Salamis. 
 ^Eschylus  was  pardoned ;  but,  disgusted 
 with  the  manner  in  which  he  had  been 
 treated,  and  perhaps  also  by  the  triumph 
 of  his  rival  Sophocles,  he  withdrew  to  Si- 
 cily. There,  in  his  sixty-ninth  year,  he 
 was  killed  by  an  eagle  letting  fall  a  tor- 
 toise on  his  bald  head,  which  the  bird  mis- 
 took for  a  stone.  Unfortunately,  of  ninety 
 tragedies  which  he  wrote,  only  seven  have 
 reached  us.  Sublimity  is  the  characteris- 
 tic of  jEschvlus. 
 
 JESOP,  the  prince  of  fabulists,  and  of 
 whom  so  many  fables  have  been  written, 
 was  a  native  of  Phrygia,  who  flourished 
 about  600  years  before  Christ.  The  ac- 
 count which  is  given  of  his  repulsive  de- 
 formity seems  to  be  entitled  to  no  credit. 
 It  appears  that  he  was  a  slave  at  Athens, , 
 procured  his  freedom  by  his  virtue  and 
 talents,  and  was  patronised  by  Croesus, 
 who  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  Delphi,  the 
 inhabitants  of  which  city,  in  revenge  for 
 his  having  censured  and  ridiculed  them, 
 brought  against  him  a  calumnious  charge 
 of  sacrilege,  and  precipitated  him  from  a 
 rock. 
 
 jESOP,  Clodius,  a  Roman  actor,  the 
 contemporary  and  rival  of  Roscius,  was, 
 like  him,  the  friend  of  Cicero,  to  whom  he 
 gave  lessons  in  oratorical  action.  He  was 
 luxurious  and  extravagant,  yet  he  died 
 worth  a  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  pounds. 
 At  one  of  his  feasts  there  was  served  up  a 
 pie  made  of  singing  birds,  which  cost  near- 
 ly nine  hundred  pounds.  He  left  a  son, 
 who  surpassed  him  in  profuseness. 
 
 AETIUS,  a  physician,  who    lived   to- 
 
12 
 
 AGA 
 
 wards  the  end  of  the  fifth,  or  beginning  .if 
 the  sixth  century,  was  a  native  of  Amida 
 in  Mesopotamia.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
 work  in  Greek,  entitled  Tetrabiblos,  which 
 is  a  sort  of  compendium  of  all  the  medical 
 knowledge  of  that  period.  Aetius  excelled 
 in  treating  disorders  of  the  eyes.  He  has 
 sometimes  been  confounded  with  Aetius,  a 
 heretic  of  the  fourth  century,  who  original- 
 ly practised  medicine. 
 "  AETIUS,  a  Roman  general,  was  a  na- 
 tive of  Moesia,  but  of  Scythian  descent. 
 He  learned  the  art  of  war  under  Alaric, 
 to  whom  he  had  been  given  as  a  hostage. 
 When  the  usurper  John  attempted  to  seize 
 the  throne,  Aetius  raised  for  him  an  army 
 of  Huns,  but  he  subsequently  submitted  to 
 Valentinian,  who  took  him  into  favour,  and 
 conferred  on  him  the  title  of  count.  A  ri- 
 valship  for  power  ensued  between  him  and 
 Count  Boniface,  which  terminated  in  the 
 death  of  the  latter,  who  was  slain  in  bat- 
 tle. The  character  of  Aetius  was  stained, 
 in  this  struggle,  by  the  unworthy  means  to 
 which  he  had  recourse.  He  soon,  howev- 
 er, covered  himself  with  glory  by  his  con- 
 duct in  Gaul.  After  having  thrice  van- 
 quished the  Burgundians  and  Franks,  he 
 marched  against  the  terrible  Attila,  who 
 )iad  invaded  Gaul  with  innumerable  hordes 
 of  Huns.  A  decisive  battle  was  fought,  in 
 451,  on  the  plains  of  Chalons,  in  which 
 Attila  was  entirely  defeated ;  more  than 
 three  hundred  thousand  men  fell  on  both 
 sides.  The  fame  which  the  victor  thus 
 acquired  excited  the  jealousy  and  fears  of 
 the  dastardly  Valentinian,  who,  in  454,  in- 
 vited him  to  the  imperial  palace,  and  sud- 
 denly assassinated  him  with  his  own  hand. 
 
 AFRANIUS,  Lucius,  a  Latin  comic 
 poet,  lived  about  a  century  b.  c.  Cicero 
 and  Quintillian  mention  him  with  praise  ; 
 Horace  speaks  of  him  as  an  imitator  of 
 Menander.  He  did  not,  however,  confine 
 himself  to  subjects  borrowed  from  the 
 Greek  theatre,  but  described  the  manners 
 and  satirized  the  follies  of  his  country. 
 Obscenity  was  the  fault  of  his  writings,  all 
 of  which  are  now  lost. 
 
 AGASIAS,  an  Ephesian  sculptor,  of 
 whom  nothing  is  known  but  that  we  are 
 indebted  to  his  chisel  for  the  fine  statue 
 which  bears,  though  no  doubt  erroneously, 
 the  name  of  the  dying  gladiator.  He  has 
 been  said  to  be  the  disciple,  or  the  son,  of 
 Dasitheus. 
 
 AGATHIAS,  an  historian  and  poet  of 
 the  sixth  century,  was  a  native  of  Myrine 
 in  Asia,  and  practised  as  a  barrister  at 
 Constantinople.  He  wrote,  in  five  books, 
 a  continuation  of  Procopius's  history,  and 
 collected  the  works  of  the  Greek  epiVrain- 
 matists  who  lived  posterior  to  the  reign  of 
 Augustus.  Many  of  his  own  epigrams  are 
 preserved  in  the  third  volume  of  Brunk's 
 Analects. 
 
 AGN 
 
 ACATHOCLES,  tyrant  of  Sicily,  was 
 the  sua  of  a  potter.  From  the  rank  of  a 
 private  soldier  he  raised  himself  not  only 
 to  that  of  general,  but  also  to  be  master  of 
 Syracuse  and  of  the  whole  of  Sicily.  Being 
 defeated  in  Sicily,  and  his  capital  besieged 
 by  the  Carthaginians,  he  conceived  the 
 daring  project  of  attacking  Carthage  itself; 
 and  this  scheme  he  carried  into  effect  with 
 such  spirit  and  military  genius,  that  he 
 brought  Carthage  to  the  brink  of  ruin. 
 After  his  return  home,  he  underwent  many 
 vicissitudes,  and  was  at  length  poisoned, 
 in  his  seventy-second  year,  b.  c.  289,  by 
 his  son  Arcagathus.  He  was  a  sanguinary 
 and  faithless  being,  but  of  transcendent 
 talents  and  popular  manners. 
 
 AGELADAS,  or  AGELAS,  a  celebrat- 
 ed Grecian  sculptor,  a  native  of  Argos, 
 flourished  in  the  fifth  century  b.  c.  An 
 infant  Jupiter  and  a  beardless  Hercules 
 were  among  the  most  admired  of'his  works. 
 Myron  and  Polycletes  were  his  pupils.  He 
 is  said  to  be  the  first  who  correctly  imitat- 
 ed the  veins,  muscles,  and  hair. 
 
 AGESANDER,  a  Rhodian  sculptor, 
 flourished  in  the  fifth  century  b.  c.  ;  and, 
 in  conjunction  with  his  son  Athenodorus 
 and  Polydorus,  produced  that  admirable 
 group  of  Laocoon  and  his  Children,  which 
 is  a  masterpiece  of  art. 
 
 AGESILAUS  II.,  king  of  Sparta,  the 
 son  of  Archidemus,  was  lame,  deformed, 
 and  of  diminutive  stature,  but  he  nobly 
 redeemed  these  defects  by  the  qualities  of 
 his  head  and  heart.  He  defeated  the  Per- 
 sians, the  Athenians,  and  the  Boeotians,  and 
 obtained  victories  in  Egypt.  He  died,  b 
 c.  361,  at  Menelas,  on  the  African  coast, 
 at  the  age  of  eighty-four,  having  reigned 
 fortv-four  vears. 
 
 AGIS  IV.,  the  greatest  of  the  Spartan 
 kings,  was  the  son  of  Eudadimas  II.,  and 
 ascended  the  throne  b.  c.  243.  Though 
 brought  up  in  the  lap  of  ease,  he  relinquisn- 
 ed  all  pleasures,  and  endeavoured  to  restore 
 the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  in  order  to  reinvigo- 
 rate  the  declining  republic.  He  was  re- 
 warded with  death  by  his  degenerate  and 
 ungrateful  countrymen.  His  fate  has  been 
 the  subject  of  tragedies,  by  several  authors. 
 
 AGLIONBY,  John,  a  divine,  a  native 
 of  Cumberland,  was  educated  at  Queen's 
 College,  Oxford,  and  was  afterwards  chap- 
 lain to  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  principal  of 
 Edmund  Hall.  He  died  in  1610,  aged 
 forty-three,  at  Islip,  of  which  place  he  was 
 rector.  He  was  one  of  the  translators  of 
 the  New  Testament. 
 
 AGNESI,  Maria  Gaetana,  a  native 
 of  Milan,  born  in  171S,  gave  early  indica- 
 tions of  extraordinary  abilities,  devoted 
 herself  to  the  abstract  sciences,  and  at  the 
 age  of  nineteen  supported  a  hundred  and 
 ninety-one  theses,  which  were  afterwards 
 published.     In  mathematics  she  attained 
 
AGR 
 
 such  consummate  skill,  that  the  pope  allowed 
 her  to  succeed  her  father,  as  professor  at 
 Bologna.  Her  knowledge  of  ancient  and 
 modern  languages  was  also  extensive.  She 
 died,  in  1799,  at  Milan,  where,  several 
 years  before,  she  bad  taken  the  veil.  Her 
 great  work  is  intitled  Analytical  Institu- 
 tions, and  lias  been  translated  by  professor 
 Colson. 
 
 AGNOLO,  Baccio  d',  a  Florentine 
 sculptor  anil  architect,  born  in  1460,  and 
 died  in  1543,  was  originally  a  sort  of  or- 
 namental carver  in  wood;  lie  became  a 
 sculptor  in  the  same  material,  and,  lastly, 
 an  eminent  architect,  and  embellished  Flo- 
 rence with  many  splendid  edifices. 
 
 AGORACRITES,  a  Greek  sculptor, 
 born  at  Faros  in  the  fifth  century  B.  c, 
 was  the  favourite  pupil  of  Phidias,  and 
 was  worthy  of  that  distinction.  One  of 
 his  most  celebrated  works  was  a  statue  of 
 Venus. 
 
 AGRICOLA,  Cneius  Julius,  a  Ro- 
 man general,  was  born  A.  D.  40,  at  Frejus, 
 in  Gaul.  He  served  early  in  Britain,  un- 
 der Suetonius  Paulinos,  and  filled  several 
 high  offices  under  the  reign  of  Nero.  Ves- 
 pasian, whose  cause  he  had  espoused,  sent 
 him  into  Britain  to  reduce  the  twentieth 
 legion  to  obedience,  and  on  Agricola's  re- 
 turn he  was  made  a  patrician,  and  governor 
 of  Aquitania.  In  the  year  77  he  became 
 consul  with  Domitian,  and  in  the  following 
 year  he  was  appointed  to  command  in  Brit- 
 ain. There  he  conciliated  the  natives,  ex- 
 tended his  conquests,  built  a  line  of  forts 
 from  the  Clyde  to  the  Forth,  and  defeated 
 Galgacus,  the  champion  of  Caledonian  in- 
 dependence. Jealous  of  his  successes,  Do- 
 mitian recalled  him,  defrauded  him  of  the 
 triumph  which  was  his  due,  and  is  said  at 
 last  to  have  put  an  end  to  the  hero  by  poi- 
 son, a.  D.  93.  Tacitus,  the  son-in-law-  of 
 Agrippa,  wrote  a  life  of  him  which  is  wor- 
 thy of  its  subject. 
 
 AGRICOLA,  Georgf  a  physician, 
 and  the  most  eminent  metallurgist  of  his 
 age,  was  born  in  1494  at  Glauchen,  in 
 Misnia.  Several  works  on  mineralogy  and 
 metallurgy  proceeded  from  his  pen,  but  the 
 chief  of  them  is  in  twelve  books,  and  is  in- 
 titled  De  re  metallica.  He  was  the  first 
 mineralogist  wdio  appeared  after  the  revi- 
 val of  science.  He  died  at  Chemnitz  in 
 1555,  and  as  he  had  been  hostile  to  the 
 Lutherans,  they  revenged  themselves  by 
 refusing  him  a  grave  among  them;  so  that 
 he  was  buried  at  Ziest. 
 
 AGRICOLA,  John,  a  German  divine, 
 whose  real  name  was  Schnitter,  was  born 
 at  Eiskben,  in  1490  or  1492,  and  was  a 
 disciple  of  Luther,  and  a  popular  minister. 
 The  sect  of  the  Antinomians  was  founded 
 by  him;  but  it  appears  to  be  a  calumny 
 that  he  taught  the  inutility  of  good  works. 
 His  opinions  gave  extreme  offence  to  L.u- 
 
 AGU 
 
 18 
 
 ther  and  other  reformers.  Agricola  was 
 one  of  the  divines  whom  Charles  V.  em- 
 ployed in  composing  the  Interim.  Besides 
 his  controversial  and  theological  works,  he 
 left  a  Collection  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
 German  proverbs,  with  a  commentary.  He 
 died  at  Berlin  in  1566. 
 
 AGRICOLA,  Rodolfh,  whose  real 
 name  was  Huessman,  was  born,  in  1443, 
 near  Groningen,  studied  under  Thomas  a 
 Kempis,  travelled  into  Italy,  and  acquired 
 such  a  mastery  of  languages,  literature,  and 
 the  elegant  arts,  as  was  very  uncommon  in 
 that  age.  He  returned  in  1477,  became 
 professor  at  Heidelberg,  and  contributed 
 greatly  to  spread  classical  taste  and  knowl- 
 edge throughout  Germany.  He  died  in 
 1485. 
 
 AGRIPPA,  Menknius,  named  consul 
 in  the  year  of  Rome  251,  is  celebrated  for 
 having  defeated  the  Sabines,  and  still  more 
 for  having,  by  means  of  the  ingenious  apol- 
 ogue of  the  belly  and  the  members,  appeas- 
 ed the  anger  of  the  Plebeians,  who,  indig- 
 nant at  the  tyranny  of  the  Patricians,  had 
 withdrawn  to  the  Mons  Sacer. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus  ViPSANius,aRo- 
 man  general,  the  friend  of  Augustus,  was 
 born  in  the  year  of  Rome  690.  He  fought, 
 with  great  valour,  at  Actium  and  Philippi, 
 and  obtained  several  victories  in  Gaul  and 
 Germany,  for  which  he  refused  the  honours 
 of  a  triumph.  Rome  was  embellished  by 
 him  with  magnificent  edifices,  one  of  which, 
 the  Pantheon,  is  still  an  object  of  admira- 
 tion. He  married  first  the  niece,  and  af- 
 terwards the  daughter,  of  Augustus;  and 
 died,  universally  lamented,  in  the  fifty-first 
 year  of  his  age. 
 
 AGRIPPA,  Henry  Cornelius,  a 
 man  of  extraordinary  abilities,  born  a*. 
 Cologne,  in  1486,  was,  by  turns,  a  soldier, 
 philosopher,  physician,  chemist,  lawyer, 
 and  writer,  and  in  all  these  discordant  char- 
 acters displayed  eminent  talent.  So  su- 
 perior in  knowledge  was  he  to  his  contem- 
 poraries, that  he  was  believed  to  be  a  ma- 
 gician, and  to  be  accompanied  by  a  famil- 
 iar spirit  in  the  shape  of  a  black  dog.  Yet, 
 notwithstanding  his  intellectual  superiority. 
 he  lived  an  unquiet,  embarrassed,  wander- 
 ing life,  often  persecuted,  and  often  involv- 
 ed in  quarrels,  and  is  said  to  have  at  length 
 died  in  a  hospital  at  Grenoble,  in  1535. 
 The  most  celebrated  of  his  works  are  his 
 Vanity  of  the  Sciences,  and  his  Occult 
 Philosophy. 
 
 AGUESSEAU, Henry  Francis  D',a 
 native  of  Limoges,  born  in  1668,  was  a  son 
 of  the  intendant  of  Languedoc,  and  early 
 distinguished  himself  at  the  bar  by  his  elo- 
 quence and  legal  knowledge.  After  hav- 
 ing, with  honour  to  himself,  and  great  ad- 
 vantage to  the  interests  of  justice,  filled  die 
 offices  of  advocate  and  procurator  general, 
 he  was  raised,  in  1717,  to  be  chancellor* 
 
14  AIK 
 
 From  that  office  he  was  twice  removed, 
 and  was  even  exiled,  but  was  finally  re- 
 stored in  1737,  and  held  the  seals  till  his 
 death,  which  took  place  in  1751.  Tt  was 
 said  of  d'Aguesseau,  that  he  thought  like 
 a  philosopher,  and  spoke  like  an  orator. 
 His  forensic  and  other  works  form  13  vols. 
 in  4to. 
 
 AHRENDT,  an  eminent  antiquary  and 
 palaeographer,  was  a  native  of  Holstein, 
 and  journeyed  on  foot  through  Norway, 
 Sweden,  Denmark,  France,  Spain,  and 
 Italv,  to  study  Scandinavian  and  Runic 
 remains,  and  the  alphabets  of  the  ninth, 
 tenth,  and  eleventh  oenturies.  He  was  con- 
 tinually travelling,  and  the  singularity  of 
 his  manners  and  appearance  involved  him 
 in  several  unpleasant  adventures.  He  died 
 in  1824,  as  he  was  returning  from  Italy. 
 
 AIG.XAN,  Stephen,  a  member  of  the 
 French  Academy,  was  born,  in  1773,  at 
 Beangency  but  Loire.  He  adopted  the 
 principles*  of  the  revolution,  and  when  only 
 nineteen,  held  a  legal  situation  in  the  dis- 
 trict of  Orleans.  Subsequently  he  tilled 
 various  offices  undo-  Napoleon.  He  died 
 in  1S24.  He  is  the  author  of  several  dra- 
 mas and  poems,  and  of  a  verse  translation 
 of  the  Iliad,  which  was  severely  handled 
 by  the  critics.  He  also  translated  the  Vi- 
 car of  Wakefield,  and  other  works  from 
 the  English. 
 
 AIKIN,  John,  M.  D.  (the  brother  of 
 Mrs.  Barbauld)  was  born  at  Kibworth,  in 
 Lancashire,  in  1747,  educated  at  Warring- 
 ton and  Edinburgh,  and  took  his  degree  at 
 Leyden,  in  1784.  He  first  settled  as  a  sur- 
 geon at  Chester,  whence  he  removed  to 
 Warrington.  It  was  at  the  latter  place 
 that  he  commenced  his  career  as  an  author, 
 by  publishing,  in  conjunction  with  his  sister, 
 a"  volume  of  Miscellanies.  After  having 
 taken  his  degree,  he  fined  his  residence  at 
 Yarmouth,  where  he  remained  for  sonic 
 veais.  He  then  removed  to  the  metropo- 
 lis, m  which,  or  its  vicinity,  he  continued 
 till  his  decease.  He  died  in  December, 
 1822,  at  Stoke  Newington.  Dr.  Aikin 
 was  a  man  ol  erudition  and  an  elegant 
 writer.  Besides  producing  a  Life  of  duet, 
 a   Medical    Biography,  and   other  original 
 
 AKE 
 
 works,  he  edited  the  first  twenty  volumes 
 of  tiie  Monthly  Magazine ;  the  A  theme  um  ; 
 and  various  editions  of  poets;  and  was 
 one  of  the  writers  of  a  General  Biogra- 
 phical Dictionary,  in  10  volumes  4to. 
 
 AIRMAN,  William,  a  Scotch  painter, 
 born  in  1682,  was  originally  intended  for 
 the  Jaw,  but  was  allowed  to  follow  the 
 bent  of  his  inclination  for  painting.  After 
 having  travelled  in  Italy,  Turkey,  and  the 
 Levant,  he  returned  home  in  1712,  was 
 patronised  by  the  Duke  of  Argyle  and 
 Lord  Burlington,  and  became  fashionable 
 as  a  delineator  of  portraits.  He  died  in 
 1731.  Aikman  was  the  friend  of  Allan 
 Ramsay  and  of  Thomson,  the  latter  of 
 whom  he  assisted  with  his  interest;  and 
 Thomson,  in  return,  bewailed  the  artist's 
 death  in  an  elegy  which  contains  some 
 lines  of  exquisite  pathos. 
 
 AITGN,  William,  an  eminent  gar- 
 dener and  botanist,  was  born,  in  1781, 
 near  Hamilton,  in  Lanarkshire.  The  cel- 
 ebrated Millar  obtained  him  a  place  in  one 
 of  the  royal  gardens,  and  in  1759  he  was 
 appointed  botanical  superintendent  at  Kew. 
 In  17S9,  he  published,  in  3  volumes  Svo., 
 his  Hortus  Kewensis.     lie  died  in  1793. 
 
 AL\SWORTH,  Robert,  a  gramma- 
 rian, born  in  1660,  at  Wdodyale,  in  Lan- 
 cashire, kept  a  boarding  school  at  Bolton, 
 and  at  various  villages  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  London.  His  exertions  being 
 rewarded  by  a  competency, he  retired  from 
 business,  and  amused  his  leisure  by  col- 
 lecting old  coins  and  curiosities  at  brokets' 
 and  other  shops.  Ainsworth  was  a  Fellow 
 of  the  Antiquarian  Society,  and  published 
 some  tracts  on  antiquities;  but  his  princi- 
 pal and  most  useful  work  is  his  Latin  and 
 English  Dictionary,  which  has  passed 
 through  numerous  editions.  He  died  in 
 1743." 
 
 AKBAR,  Mohammed,  one  of  the 
 greatest  of  the  Mogul  sovereigns,  was  only 
 fourteen  years  of  age  when,  in  1555,  he 
 succeeded  his  father  Humaoon.  The  total 
 deieac  of  the  Patans,  in  the  following  year, 
 was  one  of  the  first  events  that  signalized 
 his  reign.  He  held  the  throne  for  fifty 
 years,  during  a  considerable  part  of  which 
 time  he  had  to  contend  against  insurrec- 
 tions and  foreign  enemies.  His  arms 
 were  successful  in  all  quarters.  Akbar 
 was  valiant,  generous,  and  the  friend  and 
 libera]  patton  of  learning;  he  displayed  a 
 clemency  uncommon  in  an  oriental  mon- 
 arch; and  a  freedom  from  bigotry  which 
 was  equally  surprising  in  a  Mussulman. 
 lie  died  in  1605, and  his  death  was  caused, 
 or  accelerated,  by  grief  for  the  loss  of  a 
 favourite  son. 
 
 AKENSIDE,  Mark,  born,  in  1721,  at 
 Newcastle  upon  Tyne,  was  the  son  of  a 
 respectable  butcher,  who  sent  him  to  study 
 divinity  at  Edinburgh,   to  qualify   him  for 
 
ALA 
 
 becoming  a  dissenting  minister.     Prefer- 
 ring, however,  the  medical  profession,  he 
 
 wenl  to  Lcyden,  where,  in  1744,  he  took 
 his  doctor's  degree.  In  that  year  he  pub- 
 lished the  Pleasures  of  Imagination,  for 
 which  Pope  is  said  to  have  advised  Dods- 
 ley  not  to  make  a  niggardly  offer,  as  the 
 author  was  no  every-day  writer.  His 
 Epistle  to  Curio  (Pulteney),and  ten  Odes, 
 appeared  in  the  following  year.  He  first 
 settled  as  a  physician  at  Northampton ; 
 but,  being  unsuccessful  there,  he  removed 
 first  to  Hampstead,  and  next  to  London; 
 his  friend  Mr.  Dyson  generously  allowing 
 him  three  hundred  pounds  a  year,  to  ena- 
 ble him  to  make  the  necessary  appearance. 
 Gradually  he  rose  in  reputation,  and  would, 
 perhaps,  have  succeeded  to  the  full  extent 
 of  his  wishes,  had  he  not  been  carried 
 off  by  a  putrid  fever  in  1770.  Akenside 
 was  a  learned  man,  and  an  advocate  for 
 civil  and  religious  liberty;  but  he  is  accu- 
 sed of  having  been  vain  and  irritable, — a 
 charge  which  has  often  been  brought 
 against  men  of  genius,  conscious  of  their 
 own  worth,  and  repelling  the  insolence  of 
 dunces.  His  Pleasures  of  Imagination 
 will  be  read  as  long  as  the  English  lan- 
 guage endures ;  it  is  a  poem  which  clothes 
 lofty  thoughts  in  highly  poetical  diction, 
 and  masterly  blank  verse.  His  Odes, 
 though  not  equal  to  his  great  work,  have 
 been  unjustly  depreciated  by  Johnson.  It 
 is  unnecessary  to  say  any  thing  of  his  pro- 
 fessional productions. 
 
 AKERBLAD,  a  Swedish  philologist, 
 died  at  Rome,  in  1819,  in  the  prime  of 
 life.  He  had  an  extensive  knowledge  of 
 Egyptian  antiquities,  discovered  the  key  to 
 some  Coptic  characters,  and,  had  he  lived, 
 would  perhaps  have  deserved  to  rank  with 
 Dr.  Young  and  M.  Champollion,  those  able 
 elucidators  of  hieroglyphic  lore. 
 
 ALAMANNI,  Louis,  a  poet,  born  at 
 Florence,  in  1495,  of  one  of  the  most  dis- 
 tinguished families  of  the  republic.  He 
 was  compelled  to  flv  from  his  country,  in 
 consequence  of  having  conspired  to  kill 
 Cardinal  Julio  de  Medici,  returned  in  1527. 
 and  was  again  forced  to  withdraw  on  the 
 
 ALB  15 
 
 restoration  of  the  Medici.  Francis  I.  of 
 France  gave  him  an  asylum,  and  even  ap- 
 pointed him  his  ambassador  to  Charles  V. 
 after  the  peace  of  Crepy.  Alamanni  had 
 previously  addressed  Francis  in  a  poem, 
 in  which,  alluding  to  the  imperial  eagle, 
 he  said, 
 
 "  rapacious  eagle  he, 
 
 Two  beaks  who  bears,  that  more  he  may 
 devour." 
 
 In  his  speech,  on  being  presented,  he  com- 
 menced several  of  his  periods  with  the 
 word  Eagle,  on  which  Charles  repeated 
 aloud  the  above  cited  verses.  Alamanni, 
 however,  without  hesitation,  made  such  a 
 reply  as  won  for  him  the  esteem  of  Charles. 
 He  died,  at  Amboise,  in  1566.  Of  his  nu- 
 merous works,  among  which  are  two  heroic 
 poems,  each  in  twenty-four  books  (Giron 
 the  Courteous  and  the  Avarchide),  his  di- 
 dactic poem  on  Agriculture  is  the  most 
 popular. 
 
 ALAND,  Sir  John  Fortescue,  an 
 eminent  lawyer,  was  born  in  1670,  and 
 educated  at  Oxford.  In  1714  he  was  ap- 
 pointed solicitor  general  to  the  prince  of 
 Wales,  and,  the  next  year,  to  the  king. 
 He  was  successively  a  judge  in  the  ex- 
 chequer, the  king's  bench,  and  the  common 
 pleas.  In  1746,  he  resigned  his  office  in 
 the  common  pleas,  and  was  created  an 
 Irish  peer,  under  the  title  of  Lord  For- 
 tescue. He  died  soon  after.  He  was  the 
 friend  of  Pope,  to  whom  he  furnished  the 
 burlesque  case  of  Stradling  versus  Styles. 
 His  nose,  which  was  remarkable  for  its  flat- 
 ness, drew  down  on  him  a  repartee  from 
 a  one-armed  sergeant.  "  You  argue  this 
 matter  rather  lamely,"  said  Aland.  "  I 
 will  make  it  as  plain  as  the  nose  on  your 
 lordship's  face,"  retorted  the  counsel. 
 
 ALARIC  I.,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  de 
 scended  from  the  noble  family  of  the  Balti, 
 served  for  some  years  in  the  Roman  ar- 
 mies, but,  in  consequence  of  being-  refused 
 preferment-,  he  revolted  a.  d.  396,  and 
 ravaged  Pannonia,  Dacia,  and  Greece. 
 After  a  short  pause  from  hostilities,  he  in- 
 vaded Italy  in  the  year  400,  and  carried 
 off  an  immense  spoil  and  manv  captives. 
 This  predatory  incursion  he  several  times 
 renewed,  and,  though  more  than  once  de- 
 feated, he  at  length,  in  410,  compelled  Rome 
 to  open  its  gates.  He  died  in  the  following 
 year,  while  he  was  meditating  the  conquest 
 of  Sicily  and  Africa. 
 
 ALBANO,  Francis,  denominated  the 
 painter  of  the  Graces,  and  the  Anacreon 
 of  painting,  was  born,  at  Bologna,  in  1578, 
 and  was  a  pupil  of  Calvart  and  the  Ca- 
 racci.  Guido  was  his  fellow  student,  and 
 aided  him  by  his  counsels.  Albano  excels 
 in  the  delineation  of  female  and  infantine 
 beauty;  in  every  thing  that  requires  soft- 
 ness and  elegance.     The  landscape  scenery 
 
16 
 
 ALB 
 
 of  his  pictures  is  also  admirable.  He  died 
 in  1660. 
 
 ALBERONI,  Julius,  Cardinal,  a  great 
 though  not  fortunate  statesman,  was  the 
 son  of  a  gardener,  and  was  born,  in  1664, 
 at  Firenzuola,  a  village  in  the  Parmesan. 
 He  had  risen  in  the  church  to  the  dignity 
 of  canon,  when  he  became  known  to  the 
 duke  of  Vend  >me,  the  French  general,  who 
 was  struck  with  his  manners  and  conver- 
 sation, made  him  his  secretary,  and  took 
 him  to  the  army  in  Spain,  where  he  em- 
 p]  >ved  him  in  various  secret  missions  for 
 the  service  of  Philip  V.  The  duke  of 
 Parma  afterwards  appointed  him  his  polit- 
 ical agent  at  Madrid.  While  filling  that 
 post,  he  acquired  the  confidence  of  Philip, 
 and  succeeded  in  bringing  about  a  marriage 
 between  that  monarch  and  the  princess  of 
 Parma.  His  subsequent  rise  was  rapid. 
 Jb>  was  made  archbishop  of  Valencia,  car- 
 dinal, and  prime  minister.  Ambitious  of 
 restoring  Spain  to  her  pristine  glory,  lie 
 introduced  many  domestic  reforms,  in- 
 creased and  re-inspirited  the  naval  and 
 military  force,  planned  confederacies  with 
 other  powers,  wrested  Sardinia  from  the 
 emperor,  invaded  Sicily,  and  projected  the 
 dethroning  of  George  I.,  and  the  expul- 
 sion of  the  duke  of  Orleans  from  the 
 Preach  regency.  The  union  of  England 
 and  France,  and  the  invasion  of  Spain  by 
 the  latter  in  1720,  compelled  his  sovereign 
 to  dismiss  him,  as  the  price  of  peace.  Al- 
 heroni  retired  to  Italy,  where  he  was  per- 
 se ailed  for  three  years,  and  even  imprison- 
 ed ;  but  he  at  length  recovered  his  liberty 
 aid  his  clerical  dignities,  and  was  more 
 than  once  near  being  elevated  to  the  papal 
 throne.  He  died  in  1752.  Shallow  per- 
 sons have  laughed  at  the  projects  of  Alber- 
 oni;  but  those  projects  could  have  been 
 conceived  only  by  a  man  of  genius,  would 
 have  raised  Spain  in  the  eyes  of  the  world, 
 and  were  frustrated  by  circumstances  which 
 could  neither  be  foreseen  nor  controlled. 
 
 ALBERTI,  or  de  ALBERTIS,  Leo 
 B  \.  PTIST,  an  eminent  writer,  painter,  sculp- 
 tor, and  architect, denominated  the  Floren- 
 tine Vitruvius,  sprung  from  one  of  the  oldest 
 families  of  Florence,  was  born  in  that  city, 
 in  13.98  or  1400,  took  orders,  and  became 
 a  canon  and  abbot.  At  the  age  of  twenty 
 he  wrote  a  Latin  comedy,  which  was  at 
 first  believed  to  be  the  work  of  Lepidus, 
 an  ancient  dramatist.  But,  though  his  abil- 
 ities as  a  writer,  painter,  and  sculptor, 
 were  great,  he  is  principally  indebted  for 
 his  fame  to  his  architectural  talents,  of 
 which  many  striking  proofs  remain  at  Flo- 
 rence, Rome,  Mantua,  and  Rimini.  He 
 died  in  1490.  Alberti  was  an  indefatiga- 
 ble student,  amiable,  generous,  and  entirely 
 free  from  envious  feelings. 
 
 ALBERTI,  Aristotle,  a  Bolognian 
 architect  and  engineer,  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
 
 ALB 
 
 tury,  who  is  said  to  have  removed  entire 
 the  tower  of  St.  Mary,  with  all  it's  bells, 
 to  a  distance  of  thirty  paces,  and  set  upright 
 another  which  leaned  five  feet.  For  hi? 
 services  in  Hungary  he  was  knighted,  and 
 had  the  extraordinary  privilege  of  coining 
 money  in  his  own  name. 
 
 ALBERTINELLI,  Mariotto,  a  cele- 
 brated Florentine  painter,  died  in  1520,  at 
 the  age  of  forty-five.  He  was  a  fellow  pu- 
 pil, and  in  close  friendship,  with  Baccio 
 della  Porta,  and  so  identical  was  their 
 style,  that  Baccio  having  left  unfinished 
 his  picture  of  the  Last  Judgment,  his  friend 
 completed  it  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
 seemed  to  be  entirely  by  one  hand.  Al- 
 bertinelli  was  of  a  changeful  disposition, 
 and  was  too  much  addicted  to  pleasure. 
 
 ALBERTUS  MAGNUS,  whose  epithet 
 of  great  was  given  him  for  his  extraordi- 
 nary acquirements,  was  of  a  noble  family, 
 was  born  at  Lauingen,  in  Swabia,  either 
 in  1193  or  1205,  and  studied  at  Pavia. 
 After  entering  the  Dominicans,  he  lectured 
 on  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  with  unpre- 
 cedented success,  was  made,  in  1254,  pro- 
 vincial of  his  order  in  Germany,  and  set- 
 tled at  Cologne,  where  he  died  in  1280. 
 Albertus  constructed  an  automaton,  said  to 
 be  capable  of  moving  and  speaking,  which 
 was  destroyed  by  his  disciple  Thomas 
 Aquinas,  who  imagined  it  to  be  a  work  of 
 the  devil ;  and  he  performed  many  curious 
 experiments,  which  in  that  age  of  dark- 
 ness were  attributed  to  magic.  His  phi- 
 losophical and  other  compositions  have 
 been  collected  in  21  folio  volumes  ;  many 
 of  the  pieces  in  this  enormous  mass  are, 
 however,  erroneously  ascribed  to  him. 
 
 ALBINOVANUS,  C.  PEDO,.a  Latin 
 poet,  a  friend  of  Ovid,  by  whom,  and  by 
 Martial  and  Seneca,  he  is  highly  praised. 
 He  composed  elegies,  epigrams,  and  other 
 poems  ;  but  nearly  the  whole  of  his  works 
 are  lost.  Of  the  two  elegies  that  remain, 
 there  is  a  tame  English  translation. 
 
 ALBINUS,  Bernard,  a  German  phy- 
 sician, whose  real  name  was  Weiss,  was 
 born  at  Dessau,  in  1653,  and,  after  study- 
 ing at  Leyden,  where  he  took  his  degree, 
 and  travelling  through  France  and  Flan- 
 ders, was  made  professor  at  Frankfort  on 
 the  Oder,  and  afterwards  physician  to  the 
 elector  of  Brandenburg,  who  heaped  wealth 
 and  honours  on  him.  In  1702  he  became 
 professor  at  Leyden,  where  he  died  in  1721. 
 His  medical  works  are  numerous,  and  were 
 much  esteemed.  Albinus  had  the  merit  of 
 resigning  a  rich  sinecure  canonship,  be- 
 cause it  so  increased  his  fortune,  that  he 
 feared  dissatisfaction  and  envy  might  be 
 excited  among  the  members  of  his  profes- 
 sion. 
 
 ALBINUS,  Bernard  Sicfried,  a 
 son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Frank- 
 fort  on    the  Oder,    in  1697,  and  died  at 
 
ALB 
 
 Leyden,  in  1750.  Educated  under  men  of 
 great  anatomical  knowledge,  he  became 
 one  of  the  most  eminent  anatomists  of  the 
 age;  and  when  only  twenty-two,  he  was 
 appointed  professor  at  Leyden.  Among 
 hi?  excellent  works  may  be  distinguished 
 his  History  of  the  Bones,  and  his  History 
 of  the  Muscles.  His  brother,  Christian 
 Bernard,  was  also  eminent  in  the  same 
 science. 
 
 ALBIZZI,  Bartholomew,  .known 
 alsi  as  Bartholomew  of  Pisa,  was  a  Fran- 
 ciscan monk,  born  in  the  fourteenth  centu- 
 ry, and  is  indebted  for  a  somewhat  sinister 
 celebrity  to  his  absurd  volume  on  The  Con- 
 formities of  St.  Francis  with  Jesus  Christ, 
 in  which  he  places  the  actions  of  his  fa- 
 vourite saint  on  an  equality  with  those  of 
 the  Saviour.  As  a  testimony  of  their  ap- 
 probation, the  order  made  him  a  present 
 of  the  dress  worn  by  St.  Francis  when 
 alive.  Albizzi  died  in  1401.  His  volume 
 is  rarelvto  be  found  mmiutilated. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE,  Alphonso  d\  de- 
 nominated the  Great,  and  the  Portuguese 
 Mars,  was  born  at  Lisbon,  in  1452,  of  a 
 family  which  drew  its  origin  from  the  kings 
 of  Portugal.  Having  previously,  by  his 
 valour,  twice  acquired  honour  on  the  Mo- 
 zambique coast,  and  in  India,  he  was,  in 
 150S,  appointed  viceroy  of  the  settlements 
 in  the  latter  country.  "With  a  very  inade- 
 quate force  he  reduced  Goa,  Malacca,  Or- 
 ranz,  and  various  other  places,  and  raised 
 the  Portuguese  oriental  empire  to  a  height 
 of  power  which  it  had  never  attained  be- 
 f  >re.  In  spite,  however,  of  his  splendid 
 services,  he  was  doomed  to  experience  the 
 proverbial  ingratitude  of  monarchs.  Lopez 
 Soarez,  his  personal  enemy,  was  appointed 
 to  replace  him,  and  this  disgrace,  which  he 
 keenly  felt,  seems  to  have  aggravated  a  dis- 
 order under  which  he  was  labouring,  and 
 thus  to  have  hastened  his  death.  He  died 
 at  Goa  in  1515,  and  "his  last  sighs  re- 
 proached the  faith  of  kings."  Emanuel, 
 -\\hen  too  late,  bitterly  regretted  the  loss  of 
 such  a  servant,  and,  as  a  proof  of  his  re- 
 pentance, lavished  favours  on  Blaise,  the 
 son  of  Alphonso,  and  made  him  assume  his 
 father's  christian  name.  Blaise  published 
 Memoirs  of  his  illustrious  parent. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE,  Matthias  d',  a 
 Portuguese  general,  was  sent  to  Brazil  in 
 1623,  and  successfully  defended  the  prov- 
 ince of  Pernambuco  against  the  Dutch,  but 
 was  recalled  in  1635.  He  embraced  the 
 party  of  Braganza,  was  made  commander 
 of  the  army  in  1643,  obtained  various  ad- 
 vantages, and,  the  next  year,  gained  the 
 decisive  victory  of  Campo  Mayor,  for 
 which  he  was  "created  count  of  Alegrete, 
 and  a  grandee  of  Portugal.  Being  thwarted 
 by  his  officers  in  the  ensuing  campaign,  he 
 repaired  to  court  to  make  complaints>  was 
 
 ALC  17 
 
 coldly  received,  and  died   soon  after  of 
 vexation. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE  COELHO,  Ed- 
 ward d',  marquis  of  Basto,  a  native  of 
 Portugal,  fought  with  great  bravery  against 
 the  Dutch  in  the  Brazilian  war,  continued 
 faithful  to  Spain  after  Brazil  was  repos- 
 sessed by  the  Portuguese,  retired  to  Mad- 
 rid, where  he  wrote  a  history  of  the  con- 
 test in  the  colony,  and  died  in  1668. 
 
 ALCJ3US,  a  celebrated  Greek  lyric 
 poet,  who  flourished  about  600  years  E.  c 
 at  Mitylene,  in  the  isle  of  Lesbos,  was  a 
 contemporary  of  Sappho,  of  whom  he  is 
 said  to  have  been  also  a  rejected  lover.  As 
 a  poet,  he  was  worthy  of  the  highest  praise ; 
 as  a  man,  he  had  few  claims  to  esteem.  In 
 a*  battle  against  the  Athenians,  he  threw 
 away  his  arms,  and  took  flight;  and, after 
 having  brutally  lampooned  Pittacus  for  per- 
 sonal defects,  and  raised  against  him  an 
 insurrection,  he  was  reduced  to  accept  a 
 pardon  from  him.  Of  his  works,  only  a 
 few  fragments  remain.  He  was  the  invent- 
 or of  the  Alcaic  measure. 
 
 ALCALA  Y  HENARES,  Alphonso 
 de,  a  Spaniard,  bom  in  1599,  who  settled 
 at  Lisbon,  where  he  died  in  1682,  was  by 
 profession  a  merchant,  but  amused  himself 
 with  literature.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
 work  intitled  Viridiarum  Anagrammati- 
 cuin,  and  of  five  Tales,  in  the  latter  of 
 which  productions  he  has  displayed  much 
 perverse  ingenuity,  each  tale  having  one  of 
 the  five  vowels  wholly  excluded  from  it. 
 
 ALCAMENES,  a  statuary,  the  pupil 
 and  rival  of  Phidias,  was  a  native  of  Ath- 
 ens. His  most  celebrated  works  were,  a 
 Venus  Aphrodite,  a  Juno,  a  Vulcan,  and 
 the  Battle  of  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithse,on 
 the  pediment  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olym- 
 pius. 
 
 ALCAZARA,  Bartholomew  de,  a 
 Spanish  poet,  born  at  Seville,  was  a  con- 
 temporary of  Cervantes.  He  particularly 
 excelled  in  epigrams.  His  compositions 
 of  that  kind  were  collected,  in  1605,  by 
 Peter  Espinosa,  in  his  Flowers  of  Illustri- 
 ous Poets. 
 
 ALCIATI,  Andrew,  an  eminent  civil- 
 ian, was  born  at  Milan  in  1492.  So  early 
 did  he  acquire  a  consummate  knowledge  of 
 jurisprudence,  that  at  the  age  of  fifteen  he 
 wrote  a  work  of  great  merit  on  the  sub- 
 ject. He  was  appointed  law  professor  at 
 Avignon,  and  afterwards  at  Milan,  in  which 
 city  jealousv  of  his  success  excited  such  a 
 host  of  persecuting  enemies  that  he  was 
 obliged  to  take  refuge  in  France,  where 
 Francis  I.  gave  him  the  professional  chair 
 at  Bourges.  Alciati,  however,  was  re- 
 called to  his  country  by  Francis  Sforza. 
 He  successively  taught  at  Pavia,  Bologna, 
 and  Ferrara,  and  died  at  Pavia  in  1550. 
 He  was  greedy  of  money,  and  was  equally 
 
18 
 
 ALC 
 
 greedy  of  good  cheer.  His  numerous  pro- 
 ductions, in  law  and  literature,  occupy  four 
 folio  volumes  in  the  last  edition. 
 
 ALCIBIADES,  a  famous  Athenian  ge- 
 neral and  statesman,  born  B.  c.  450,  the 
 son  of  Clinias,  and  of  Dionomache,  the 
 sister  of  Pericles,  was  a  disciple  of  Soc- 
 rates. In  416  he  was  charged  with  the 
 expedition  to  Sicily,  of  the  conquest  of 
 which  inland  he  was  himself  the  adviser. 
 Being  accused  of  impiety  during  his  ab- 
 sence, his  property  was  confiscated,  and  he 
 w.i*  compelled  to  seek  refuge  at  Sparta. 
 He  was  subsequently  obliged  to  fly  from 
 thence  to  Tissaphernes,  one  of  the  Persian 
 satraps.  In  407  he  was  recalled  by  his 
 countrymen,  and,  under  his  command,  they 
 recovered  their  ascendency  over  the  Spar- 
 tans. Having,  however,  again  become  an 
 object  of  popular  displeasure,  he  sought 
 the  protection  of  Pharnabazus,  another 
 Persian  satrap,  by  whom,  at  the  instiga- 
 tion of  Lysander,  he  was  put  to  death  in 
 the  year  404. 
 
 ALCIPHRON,  a  Greek  writer,  of  the 
 third  century  B.  c.  His  letters,  which 
 have  been  translated  by  Beloeand  Monroe, 
 give  an  excellent  picture  of  Grecian  cus- 
 toms and  manners.  It  has,  however,  been 
 suspected  that  they  are,  in  reality,  a  pro- 
 duction of  the  fourth  century  of  the  Chris- 
 tian era. 
 
 ALCMAN,  an  ancient  Greek  lyric  poet, 
 was  born  at  Sardis,  in  Lydia,  about  the 
 year  670  B.  c,  and  was  admitted  a  citizen 
 of  Sparta.  Of  his  works,  consisting  of  a 
 drama,  and  six  books  of  verses  in  the 
 Doric  dialect,  only  a  few  lines  are  preserv- 
 ed.    He  died  of  the  morbus  pediculosus. 
 
 ALCOCK,  John,  an  English  prelate, 
 born  at  Beverley,  in  Yorkshire,  and  educa- 
 ted at  Cambridge.  He  obtained  a  deanery 
 in  1461,  and  rapidly  rose  to  the  highest 
 offices  in  church  and  state.  He  was  bish- 
 op of  Rochester,  Worcester,  and  Ely,  and 
 twice  lord  chancellor;  was  a  man  of  infi- 
 nite liberality  and  learning,  and  an  ex- 
 cellent architect.  Jesus  College,  Cam- 
 bridge, and  a  grammar  school  and  chapel 
 at  Hull,  were  founded  by  him;  and  he  j 
 erected  various  elegant  edifices.  He  died 
 in  1500.  Alcock  wrote  several  theological 
 works,  and  was  famous  for  preaching  long 
 sermons. 
 
 ALCUIX,  or  ALCUINUS,  Flaccus 
 Albixus,  a  native  of  Yorkshire,  one  of 
 the  most  learned  men  of  his  age,  at  once 
 a  theologian,  philosopher,  orator,  historian, 
 poet, mathematician, and  linguist,  was  sent 
 on  an  embassy  from  Oft'a  to  Charlemagne, 
 who  took  him  into  his  service  and  friend- 
 ship, and  rewarded  him  munificently.  Al- 
 cuin  was  employed  by  that  sovereign  in 
 negotiations,  and  in  disseminating  know- 
 ledge, and  founded  many  schools  at  Paris, 
 
 ALD 
 
 Aix  la  Chapelle,  and  other   places.     He 
 died  in  804,  aged  nearly  seventy. 
 
 ALDERETE,  Diego  Gracian  DE,a 
 learned  Spaniard,  born  towards  the  close 
 of  the  fifteenth  century,  died,  aged  nearly 
 I  ninety,  under  the  reign   of  Philip   II.,  to 
 whom,  as  well  as  to  Charles  V.,  he  was 
 private  secretary.     He  was   a  good  man, 
 iin  great  credit  with  his  sovereigns,  and 
 much  respected  at  court.     Spanish   litera- 
 ture is  indebted  to  him  for  elegant  trans- 
 I  lations    of    Xenophon,    Thucydides,    and 
 I  other  Greek  writers. 
 
 ALDHELM,  or  ADELM,  St.,  an  emi- 
 inent  scholar  of  the  seventh  century,  rela- 
 ted to  king  Ina,  was  born  at  Malmesbury, 
 where  he  built  a  stately  monastery,  of 
 which  he  was  abbot  more  than  thirty  years. 
 In  705  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Sher- 
 burne, and  died  in  709.  He  was  a  man  of 
 extensive  learning,  the  first  Saxon  who 
 wrote  prose  and  verse  in  Latin,  was  skilled 
 in  music  and  mathematics,  and  was  de- 
 clared by  king  Alfred  to  be  the  best  of  all 
 the  Saxon  poets. 
 
 ALDRICH,  Henry,  a  learned  divine, 
 born  at  London  in  1647,  was  educated  at 
 Westminster  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
 and  became  D.  D.  in  16S1.  As  a  contro- 
 versialist against  the  catholics,  he  so  dis- 
 tinguished himself  that,  at  the  Revolution, 
 he  was  rewarded  with  the  deanery  of  Christ 
 Church.  In  that  station  his  conduct  was 
 exemplary.  In  1702  he  was  chosen  prolo- 
 cutor of  the  Convocation.  He  was  one  of 
 the  joint  editors  of  Clarendon's  History 
 He  died  in  1710.  Aldrich  was  a  good 
 Latin  poet,  was  skilled  in  musical  compo- 
 sition, and  has  left  striking  proofs  of  archi- 
 tectural talent  in  his  designs  of  Peckwater 
 Square,  All  Saint's  Church,  and  Trinity 
 College  Chapel. 
 
 ALDROVANDUS,  Ulysses,  a  natu- 
 ralist, born  in  1527,  at  Bologna,  in  which 
 city  he  became  professor  of  philosophy  and 
 physic.  He  spent  nearly  his  whole  life 
 and  fortune  in  collecting  materials  for  his 
 Natural  History,  in  13  vols,  folio,  of  which, 
 however,  only  four  were  publi>hed  by  him- 
 self. It  is  said  that  he  died  poor  and 
 blind,  in  1605,  at  a  hospital  in  Bologna; 
 but  the  truth  of  this  is  now  doubted.  The 
 senate  of  his  native  city  subsequently  voted 
 a  considerable  sum  to  continue  the  publi- 
 cation of  his  work. 
 
 ALDRUDE,  countess  of  Bertinoro,  a 
 native  of  Italy,  rendered  herself  celebrated 
 towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  by 
 her  eloquence  and  her  courage.  She  was 
 left  a  widow  in  the  bloom  of  youth,  and 
 her  court  became  the  resort  of  all  the 
 Italian  chivalry.  Ancona  was  besieged  by 
 the  imperial  troops,  and  was  reduced  to 
 extremity.  Aldrude,  however,  harangued 
 her  courtier  knights,  led  them  to  the  relief 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 19 
 
 pally   the   last,  who   poured   forth  to   his 
 
 of   the   place,   and   succeeded    in    saving  |  Aristotle,  were  his  instructors,  but  princi- 
 Ancona. 
 
 ALEMAN,  Matthew,  a  native  of  Se- 
 ville, was  born  about  the  middle  of  the 
 sixteenth  century,  and  was  one  of  the  su- 
 perintendants  and  comptrollers  of  the 
 finances  to  Philip  II.  He  is  the  author  of 
 several  works,  but  his  fame  rests  upon  his 
 Life  of  Gusman  d'Alfarache,  which  has 
 been  translated  into  several  languages. 
 
 ALEMBERT,  John  le  Rond  d',  born 
 at  Paris  in  1717,  was  the  natural  son  of 
 M  Destouches  and  the  celebrated  Madame 
 de  Tencin.  He  was  left  on  the  steps  of  a 
 church  by  his  unworthy  parents,  and  was 
 so  weak  that,  instead  of  sending  him  to  the 
 Foundling  Hospital,  the  commissary  of  po- 
 lice intrusted  him  to  the  care  of  a  poor 
 glazier's  wife.  Repenting  of  his  barbarity, 
 his  father  subsequently  settled  on  him  an 
 annuity  of  fifty  pounds.  D'Alembert  was 
 brought  up  at  Mazarin  College,  where  he 
 made  surprising  progress  in  mathematics. 
 On  his  quitting  the  college  he  went  to  re- 
 side with  his  nurse,  with  whom  he  continu- 
 ed for  forty  years,  and  loved  her  with  filial 
 affection.  He  was  admitted  a  member  of 
 the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1741,  and  soon 
 acquired  a  distinguished  reputation  by  se- 
 veral mathematical  works.  His  merit  at 
 length  obtained  for  him  a  pension  from 
 the  government.  He  next  cooperated  with 
 Diderot  in  compiling  the  Encyclopaedia, 
 for  which  he  composed  the  preliminary 
 discourse.  Nor  was  he  only  celebrated  as 
 a  mathematician ;  for  he  gave  to  the  world 
 several  valuable  historical  and  philosophi- 
 cal productions.  Among  them  are  the 
 Eulogies  on  the  Members  of  the  French 
 Academy,  of  which  body  he  became  secre- 
 tary in  1772.  Splendid  offers  were  made 
 to  him  by  the  empress  Catherine  and  the 
 king  of  Prussia,  if  he  would  quit  his  coun- 
 try; but  they  were  refused.  D'Alembert 
 died  in  1783. 
 
 ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT,  son  of 
 
 Philip  of    Macedon,  was   born    at    Pella, 
 
 B.  c    356,  and  very  early  gave  indications 
 
 of  that    spirit  which  blazed  forth  in    his 
 
 iper   years.     Leonidas,  Lysimachus,  and 
 
 eager  pupil  ail  the  treasures  of  a  mighty 
 mind.    From  Lysimachus  the  youthful  hero 
 received  only  injury,  his  disposition  being 
 corrupted  by   the  mercenary  adulation  of 
 his  tutor.     During   the    life  of  his  father, 
 his  undaunted  courage  was   displayed    on 
 various    occasions,  particularly  at  Chero- 
 na?a.     Alexander  ascended  the  "throne  in  his 
 twentieth  year,  and  immediately  prepared 
 to  execute  his  father's  projected  invasion  of 
 Persia.     It  was  previously  necessary,  how- 
 ever, to  chastise  the  neighbouring  barbari- 
 ans, and  to  rivet  the  chains  of  the  Greeks, 
 and  this  he  rapidly  accomplished.    Thebes, 
 having  revolted,  was  destroyed,  with  the 
 exception  of  the  house  of  Pindar.     At  the 
 head  of  nearly  forty  thousand  men,  Alex- 
 ander now  (b.  c.  334)  crossed  the  Helles- 
 pont, defeated  the  forces  of  Darius  on  the 
 banks  of  the  Granicus,  and   in  one  cam- 
 paign,   reduced  Asia  Minor.     In  the  fol- 
 lowing year  a  dangerous  illness  for  a  time 
 arrested  his  arms;   but,  on  his  recovery,  he 
 utterly  routed  the  Persians,  to  the  number 
 of  six  hundred  thousand  men,  at  the  battle 
 of  Issus,    and    took    prisoners    the    whole 
 family  of  Darius.     He  then  subdued  Tyre, 
 where  he  disgraced  himself  by  his  barba- 
 rity ;   Egypt,  where  he  ordered  Alexandria 
 to  be  built;     and  penetrated    into  Libya, 
 where  he  caused  the  Ammonian  oracle  to 
 declare  him  the  son  of  Jupiter.    Resuming, 
 next  year,  his  operations  against  the  Per- 
 sian monarch,  he  completely  defeated  him 
 at  Arbela,  and  this  battle  decided  the  fate 
 of  Persia.     Pausing  awhile  from  conquest, 
 he    indulged    in    cruelty    and    debauchery, 
 burned  Persepolis,  to  gratify  the  courtesan 
 Thais,  murdered  his  veteran  general  Pai- 
 menio,  and  shortly  after,  in  a  fit  of  intoxi- 
 cation, stabbed  his  friend  Clytus.     Having 
 put  down  some  insurrections,  he  pursued 
 his  course  to  India,  crossed  the  Indus,  and, 
 after  many  sanguinary  contests  with  Porus 
 and  other  kings,  he  pushed  forward  beyond 
 the  Hydaspes,  where,   at   length,  his  pro- 
 gress   was  stopped,  by  the    refusal  of  his 
 soldiers  to  advance  any  further.     On  the 
 
20  ALE 
 
 banks  of  the  Hydaspes  he  built  the  cities 
 of  Nicaea  and  Bucephala,  and  then  began 
 his  retrograde  movement  ;  dispatching 
 Nearchus,  with  the  fleet,  down  the  Indus, 
 to  the  Persian  gulf.  After  a  toilsome 
 march  he  reached  Susa,  whence  lie  pro- 
 ceeded to  Ecbatana,  and  lastly,  to  Babylon. 
 In  the  latter  city  his  career  was  closed.  A 
 fever,  said  to  he  caused,  or  aggravated,  by 
 excess  of  drinking,  carried  him  off,  on  the 
 12th  of  April,  B.  c.  323,  in  the  thirty- 
 third  year  of  his  age,  and  the  thirteenth 
 of  his  reign.  His  remains  were  interred 
 at  Alexandria.  The  praise  of  valour,  mili- 
 tary genius,  extensive  views,  a  love  of 
 learning,  and,  occasionally,  noble  feelings, 
 must  be  awarded  to  Alexander;  but  his 
 character  is  deeply  stained  with  vanity, 
 arrogance,  and  cruelty,  and  with  a  reckless 
 lust  of  victory,  dominion,  and  fame,  to 
 gratify  which  the  blood  and  tears  of  millions 
 of  his  fellow  beings  were  unsparingly  shed. 
 
 ALEXANDER  SEVERUS,  one  of  the 
 best  of  the  Roman  emperors,  was  a  native 
 of  Acra,  in  Phoenicia,  born  about  a.  d.  209, 
 and  was  carefully  educated  by  his  mother 
 Mam.ea.  Adopted  by  his  cousin  Helioga- 
 balus,  he  soon,  by  his  popularity,  excited 
 the  hatred  of  that  despicable  being,  who 
 made  a  fruitless  attempt  to  poison  him. 
 When  the  tyrant  was  slain  by  the  pretorian 
 guards,  they  elevated  Severus  in  his  stead. 
 Though  in  a  tew  instances  he  displayed 
 weakness,  the  youthful  monarch  adorned 
 the  throne  by  his  virtues  and  his  love  of 
 literature;  but,  in  the  year  235,  he  was  un- 
 fortunately murdered  in  a  mutiny  of  the 
 army,  occasioned  by  his  eflorts  for  the  res- 
 toration of  discipline. 
 
 ALEXANDER,  Nevskoi,  a  Russian 
 saint  and  hero,  the  son  of  the  grand  duke 
 Jaroslaf,  was  born  in  1218.  At  the  battle 
 of  the  Neva,  he  was  victorious  over  the 
 combined  Swedes,  Danes,  and  Teutonic 
 knights ;  he  defeated  the  Tartars ;  and  he 
 emancipated  Russia  from  the  tribute  paid 
 by  her  to  the  successors  of  Genghis  Khan. 
 He  died  at  Gorodetz,  in  1262.  National 
 gratitude  enrolled  him  among  the  saints, 
 and  Peter  the  Great  instituted  an  order  of 
 knighthood,  which  bears  his  name. 
 
 ALEXANDER  VI.,  Pope.  This  dis- 
 grace to  the  papal  chair,  whose  family 
 name  was  Borgia,  was  born  at  Valencia, 
 in  Spain,  in  1431,  and  succeeded  Pope 
 Innocent  VIII.  in  1492.  His  life  was  a 
 series  of  crimes.  By  his  concubine  Va- 
 nozzi,  ne  had  five  children,  worthy  of  such 
 a  father,  and  of  these  Caesar,  the  most  in- 
 famous, was  his  favourite.  In  all  his  poli- 
 tical connexions  he  was  treacherous,  be- 
 yond the  usual  measure  of  treachery  in 
 politicians.     The  pontifical  claims  to  su- 
 
 Eremacy  lost  nothing  in  his  hands.     It  was 
 e  who  divided  between  the  Spaniards  and 
 Portuguese  the  recently  discovered  realms 
 
 ALE 
 
 of  America,  by  drawing  a  line  from  pole 
 to  pole,  a  hundred  leagues  to  the  westward 
 of  the  Azores,  and  assigning  to  the  for- 
 mer people  all  the  realms  to  the  west  of  it, 
 and  to  the  latter,  all  those  to  the  east. 
 This  hateful  pontiff  died  in  the  vear 
 1503;  and  is  said  to  have  fallen,  by  mis- 
 take, a  victim  to  poison,  which  he  and  his 
 son  Ctesar  had  prepared  fur  others. 
 
 ALEXANDER,  Polyhistor,  a  philo- 
 sopher, geographer,  and  historian,  a  native 
 of  Phrvgia,  lived  early  in  the  first  century 
 B.  c,  was  made  prisoner  in  the  wars 
 against  Mithridates,  and  was  bought  by 
 Cornelius  Lentulus,  who  confided  to  him 
 the  education  of  his  children,  and  after- 
 wards liberated  him.  He  was  burnt  in  his 
 house  at  Laurentum,  and  his  wife  destroyed 
 herself  from  grief  for  his  loss.  Forty-two 
 works  were  written  by  him,  none  of  which 
 are  extant. 
 
 ALEXANDER,  Pseudomantis,  a 
 celebrated  impostor,  was  born  at  Abonoti- 
 chos,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  flourished  in  the 
 reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  By  dint  of 
 boundless  impudence,  and  such  tricks  as  ev- 
 ery slight-of-hand  man  can  now  excel,  he 
 contrived,  for  twenty  years,  to  have  innu- 
 merable devoted  admirers,  and  to  raise  an 
 enormous  income  from  their  credulity.  He 
 died  of  an  ulcer  in  his  leg,  at  the  age  of 
 seventy  years. 
 
 ALEXANDER,  Trallianus,  a  na- 
 tive of  Tralles,  in  Asia  Minor,  was  cele- 
 brated, as  a  philosopher  and  a  professor  of 
 the  medical  art,  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
 century.  Dr.  Friend  regards  him  as  one 
 of  the  best  practical  physicians  of  antiqui- 
 ty. He  was  among  the  first,  perhaps  the 
 first,  who  made  a  liberal  internal  use  of 
 preparations  of  iron. 
 
 ALEXANDER,  Sir  William,  a 
 Scotch  poet  and  statesman,  born  in  1580, 
 was  made  a  knight,  and  gentleman  usher 
 to  Prince  Charles,  in  1613  ;  received  a 
 grant  of  Nova  Scotia,  in  1621 ;  was  ap- 
 pointed secretary  of  state  for  Scotland,  in 
 1626;  and,  in  1630  and  1633,  was  cre- 
 ated viscount  and  earl  of  Stirling.  He 
 died  in  1640.  His  poems  and  tragedies 
 have  considerable  merit,  and  were  praised 
 by  contemporary  poets,  and  also  by  Addi- 
 son. 
 
 ALEXANDER,  Noel,  a  learned  Do- 
 minican, professor  of  theology,  and  doctor 
 of  the  Sorbonne,  was  born  at  Rouen,  in 
 1639,  and  died  at  Paris,  in  1724,  after 
 having  been  for  some  years  blind.  He  is 
 the  author,  among  other  works,  of  an  Ec- 
 clesiastical History,  in  26  vols.  8vo.  and 
 of  a  History  of  the  Old  Testament  ;  the 
 former  of  which,  being  favourable  to  the 
 liberties  of  the  Gallican  church,  was  pro- 
 scribed by  Innocent  XL 
 
 ALEXANDER  I.  emperor  of  Russia 
 and  king  of  Poland,  was  born,   December 
 
ALE 
 
 22  1777,  and,  on  the  murder  of  his  father, 
 in  1801,  lie  succeeded  to  the  throne.     Till 
 
 ALF 
 
 21 
 
 1805,  his  attention  was  confined  to  his  own 
 dominions;  but,  in  that  year,  he  coalesced 
 with  Austria  against  Fiance.  The  coali- 
 tion, however,  was  broken,  by  the  success 
 of  Napoleon  at  Austerlitz.  In  the  follow- 
 ing year,  he  joined  with  Prussia  ;  but,  in 
 1807,  after  having  been  defeated  at  Fried- 
 land,  he  signed,  at  Tilsit,  a  peace  with  the 
 French  emperor,  very  soon  after  which  he 
 became  one  of  his  closest  allies.  The  in- 
 terval between  1807  and  1812,  was  filled 
 up  with  the  seizure  of  Finland,  and  a  war 
 against  Turkey.  In  the  latter  year  hostili- 
 ties were  again  commenced  between  France 
 and  Russia,  and  were  actively  continued 
 till  the  downfal  of  Napoleon.  During  the 
 campaigns  of  1813  and  1814,  Alexander 
 bore  a  share  in  the  dangers  of  the  field. 
 On  the  conclusion  of  peace,  he  visited 
 England.  As  the  reward  of  his  military 
 assistance,  Poland  was  erected  into  a  king- 
 dom by  the  congress  of  Vienna,  and  he 
 wa«  crowned  in  1815.  He  died  at  Tagan- 
 rok,  in  November,  1825.  His  talents  were 
 above  mediocrity ;  and  he  did  much  to  ame- 
 liorate the  condition  of  his  subjects. 
 
 ALEXANDER,  William,  a  major- 
 general  in  the  American  army,  during  the 
 revolutionary  war,  was  born  in  the  city  of 
 New-York,  but  passed  a  portion  of  his 
 life  in  New-Jersey.  He  acted  an  impor- 
 tant part  throughout  the  revolution,  and 
 distinguished  himself  particularly  in  the 
 battles  of  Long  Island,  Germantown,  and 
 Monmouth.  He  died  at  Albany,  in  1783, 
 at  the  age  of  fifty-seven  years,  leaving  be- 
 hind him  the  reputation  of  a  brave  officer 
 and  a  learned  man. 
 
 ALEXANDRINI,  Julius,  a  physician, 
 who  died  at  Trent,  in  1590,  aged  eighty- 
 five,  was  the  author  of  various  medical 
 works,  some  of  which  are  in  verse.  He 
 was  the  first  who  endeavoured  to  show  the 
 connexion  between  the  passions  of  the  mind 
 and  the  diseases  of  the  bodv. 
 
 ALEXIS  DEL  ARCO,  a  Spanish 
 painter,  known  also  under  the  name  of  el 
 
 Sordillo  de  Pereda,  because  he  was  deaf 
 and  dumb,  and  the  pupil  of  Pereda.  He 
 was  born  at  Madrid,  in  1625,  and,  in  spite 
 of  his  natural  defects,  acquired  considera- 
 ble reputation,  especially  in  portraits.  His 
 drawing  and  colouring  are  good.  Alexis 
 died  at  Madrid,  in  1700. 
 
 ALFARABT,  or  ALFARABIUS,  so 
 called  from  Farab,  his  birth  place,  but 
 whose  real  name  was  Mohammed,  was 
 born  in  the  tenth  century.  He  studied  at 
 Bagdad,  travelled  through  many  countries, 
 and  became  the  most  eminent  of  Arabic 
 philosophers.  He  is  said  to  have  spoken 
 seventy  languages ;  many  of  them,  no  doubt, 
 were  only  dialects.  He  died,  in  950,  at 
 Damascus;  the  sultan  of  %hich  city  was 
 his  patron.  Among  his  works  are  several 
 treatises  on  Aristotle;  a  Treatise  on  Mu- 
 sic; and  an  Encyclopaedia,  the  MS.  ot 
 which  is  in  the  library  of  the   Escurial. 
 
 ALFIERI,  Victor,  the  most  eminent 
 of  Italian  tragic  poets,  was  born  at  Asti, 
 in  Piedmont,  in  1749.  His  family  was  rich 
 and  noble.  In  his  early  youth  he  gave  no 
 promise  of  that  talent  which  he  finally  dis- 
 played; he  learned  little  or  nothing,  and 
 the  violence  of  his  temper  was  a  bar  to  his 
 obtaining  esteem.  At  the  age  of  sixteen, 
 he  became  his  own  master,  and  the  seven 
 succeeding  years  were  spent  in  travelling, 
 as  fast  as  horses  could  carry  him,  over  the 
 greatest  part  of  Europe,  and  in  adventures 
 which  were  marked  only  by  dissipation  and 
 licentiousness.  After  his  return  to  Turin, 
 love  inspired  him  with  the  spirit  of  poetry ; 
 and,  in  1775,  he  produced  his  tragedy  of 
 Cleopatra,  and  a  burlesque  upon  it.  Thence- 
 forth he  continued  constant  to  the  Muses 
 and  to  study ;  and  the  result  was  no  less 
 than  fourteen  dramas  in  seven  years,  be- 
 sides many  compositions  in  verse  and  prose. 
 He  mastered  Latin,  French,  and  other  lan- 
 guages, of  which  till  then  he  had  been  ut- 
 terly ignorant;  and,  even  at  the  late  age  of 
 forty-eight,  he  began  Greek,  and  acquired 
 such  a  knowledge  of  it  as  to  translate  sev- 
 eral works.  In  France,  where  he  next 
 settled  with  the  Pretender's  widow,  the 
 countess  of  Albany,  whom  he  married,  he 
 composed  five  more  tragedies.  The  fall  of 
 the  throne,  in  1792,  drove  him  from 
 France;  his  property  there  was  unjustly 
 confiscated;  and  Alfieri  ever  after  enter- 
 tained a  deadly  hatred  of  that  country. 
 Worn  out  by  his  incessant  literary  labours, 
 he  died  at  Florence,  in  1803,  and  over  his 
 remains  his  widow  erected  a  monument  by 
 Canova.  In  the  following  year  came  forth 
 his  posthumous  works,  in  thirteen  vol- 
 umes, two  of  which  are  occupied  by  his 
 auto-biography.  As  a  tragic  writer,  Alfieri 
 has  had  many  imitators  in  Italy,  but  his 
 throne  is  still  unshared  by  any  rival,  no 
 one  has  yet  equalled  him  in  nervous  dia- 
 
22 
 
 ALG 
 
 logiie,  in  grandeur  of  style,  or  in  the  delin- 
 eation of  strong  passions  and  energetic 
 characters. 
 
 ALFRED,  justly  denominated  the 
 Great,  the  youngest  son  of  Ethel  wolf, 
 was  born  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  in 
 849.  and  succeeded  to  the  English  throne, 
 in  871,  on  the  death  of  Ethelred,  the  last 
 survivor  of  his  brother.  From  his  acces- 
 sion to  the  year  877,  he  was  engaged  in 
 almost  continual  contests  with  the  Danes, 
 who,  at  last,  compelled  him  to  abandon  the 
 throne,  and  conceal  himself,  in  disguise,  in 
 the  cottage  of  one  of  his  herdsmen.  It  was 
 while  he  was  thus  concealed,  that  he  was 
 harshly  reproved  by  his  hostess,  for  having 
 allowed  some  cakes  to  be  burned,  the  bak- 
 ing of  which  she  had  directed  him  to  watch. 
 He  next  retired,  with  a  few  followers,  to 
 the  isle  of  Athelney,  where  he  remained  till 
 lie  was  called  again  into  the  field  by  a  vic- 
 tory which  the  earl  of  Devonshire  had  ob- 
 tained over  the  enemy.  Summoning  round 
 him  his  nobles,  he  completely  routed  the 
 Danes  at  Eddington,  and  recovered  his 
 throne.  During  a  part  of  the  remainder 
 of  his  reign,  he  had  to  contend  against  re- 
 peated invasions,  but  was  uniformlv  suc- 
 cessful in  repelling  them.  By  sea  and  land 
 he  fought  no  less  than  fifty-six  battles. 
 As  soon  as  he  resumed  his  author ity,  he 
 began  to  cultivate  the  arts  of  peace.  He 
 reformed  the  laws ;  established  trial  by 
 jury;  divided  the  country  into  shires  and 
 hundreds ;  encouraged  commerce  and  mar- 
 itime discovery;  invited  learned  men  from 
 all  quarters;  endowed  seminaries ;  restor- 
 ed, if  not  founded,  the  university  of  Oxford  ; 
 and  gave  lustre  to  literature,  in  the  eyes 
 of  the  people,  by  himself  composing  and 
 translating  numerous  works,  on  a  variety 
 of  subjects.  This  exemplary  sovereign 
 died  a.  d.  900  (or  901),  and  was  succeed- 
 ed by  his  son,  Edward  the  Elder. 
 
 ALGAROTTI,  Francis,  an  Italian 
 author,  of  multifarious  knowledge  and  tal- 
 ent, was  the  son  of  a  merchant,  and  was 
 born  at  Venice,  in  1712.  The  learned  lan- 
 guages, tlie  elegant  arts,  and  the  abstruse 
 
 ALI 
 
 sciences,  -were  all  known  to  him.  At  the 
 age  of  twenty -one,  he  wrote  his  Newtoni- 
 an ism  for  the  Ladies,  intended  to  render 
 the  discoveries  cf  Newton  comprehensible 
 to  the  fair  sex.  He  was  as  much  beloved 
 for  his  manners  and  virtues  as  admired  for 
 his  abilities.  Frederick  the  Great  made 
 him  his  chamberlain,  and  gave  him  the  title 
 of  count,  the  king  of  Poland  appointed  him 
 a  privy  counsellor,  and  the  Pope  and  many 
 Italian  princes  highly  distinguished  him. 
 He  died  at  Pisa,  in  1764.  The  first  edi- 
 tion of  his  works  is  in  four  volumes  8vo. 
 
 ALHAZEN,  an  Arabian  astronomer,  ot 
 the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  was  a  na- 
 tive of  Bassora.  Having  vaunted  that  he 
 could  render  regular  the  inundations  of  the 
 Nile,  the  caliph  Hakem  employed  him  to 
 accomplish  that  purpose,  and  rewarded 
 him  beforehand.  Alhazen,  however,  hav- 
 ing examined  the  course  of  the  river,  dis- 
 covered the  folly  of  his  scheme,  and  feigned 
 madness  to  avert  the  wrath  of  the  caliph. 
 He  died  at  Cairo,  in  1038.  His  Treatise 
 on  Optics  has  been  translated  by  Rismer, 
 and  that  on  Twilight  by  Gerard  of  Cremo- 
 na. Kepler  is  said  to  have  taken  many 
 ideas  from  the  latter  work. 
 
 ALI,  the  cousin,  son-in-law,  and  fast 
 friend,  of  Mahomet,  distinguished  himself 
 so  greatly,  by  his  activity  and  valour  in 
 j  the  service  of  that  impostor,  that  he  gave 
 |  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  After  the 
 death  of  the  pseudo-prophet,  Ali  was  ex- 
 cluded from  the  caliphate,  by  the  intrigues 
 I  of  Ayesha.  He  succeeded  to  it,  however, 
 in  655,  on  the  death  of  Othman;  but  his 
 I  reign  was  a  perpetual  struggle  against  his 
 j  enemies  in  the  field ;  and  at  the  end  of  four 
 |  years  he  was  assassinated.  By  the  Per- 
 j  sians,  who  venerate  him  as  a  martyr,  he  is 
 considered  as  the  only  successor  of  Ma- 
 i  hornet,  for  which  the  Turks  detest  them  as 
 |  heretics.  Ali  had  a  well  informed  mind, 
 and  was  brave,  generous,  and  a  hater  of 
 treachery. 
 
 ALI  BEY,  born  in  the  neighbourhood 
 of  the  Caucasus,  about  1728,  was  sold  into 
 Egypt,  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  fourteen 
 years,  as  a  slave;  became  one  of  the  twen- 
 ty-four bevs  who  governed  that  country; 
 and,  in  1756,  attained  the  supreme  power, 
 and  threw  oft'  his  obedience  to  the  Porte. 
 In  conjunction  with  Shiek  Daher,  who  had 
 also  revolted  in  Syria,  he  several  times  de- 
 feated the  Turkish  armies;  but,  at  length, 
 he  was  overthrown,  by  the  treason  of  one 
 of  his  own  generals,  and  was  either  pois- 
 oned or  died  of  his  wounds.  Among  other 
 plans,  formed  during  his  success,  Ali  med- 
 itated the  revival  of  the  ancient  mode  of 
 carrying  on  the  commerce  of  Europe  with 
 India,  bv  way  of  the  Red  Sea. 
 
 ALI,TEPELiNi,Pachaof Januina.  This 
 extraordinary   man  was    descended  from 
 
ALK 
 
 an  illustrious    Albanian   family,  and  was 
 oorn  at  Tepelini,  in  Albania,  in  1744.  He 
 
 ALL 
 
 28 
 
 lost  his  father  when  he  was  only  sixteen, 
 and  made  brave  but  fruitless  efforts  to  de- 
 fend his  paternal  inheritance  against  the 
 neighbouring  pachas.  After  having  sus- 
 tained several  defeats,  he  was  taken  pris- 
 oner; but,  at  length,  recovered  his  liberty, 
 and  withdrew  into  a  solitary  retreat.  This 
 latter  circumstance  is  said  to  have  led  to 
 his  subsequent  greatness.  While,  lost  in 
 reverie,  he  was  one  day  involuntarily  push- 
 ing a  stick  backward  and  forward  in  the 
 sand,  his  attention  was  roused  by  the  stick 
 meeting  with  resistance  from  a  solid  body. 
 He  looked,  and  saw  in  the  sand  a  box, 
 which  proved  to  be  filled  with  gold.  With 
 this  treasure  he  was  enabled  to  raise  two 
 thousand  men,  and  take  the  field  against 
 his  enemies.  He  was  victorious,  and  en- 
 tered triumphantly  into  his  native  place. 
 From  that  period,  during  fifty  years  of 
 constant  warfare,  he  was  uniformly  suc- 
 cessful, and  he  brought  under  his  sway  a 
 wide  extent  of  territory,  which  the  Porte 
 sanctioned  his  holding,  with  the  title  of 
 pacha.  He  received  agents  from  foreign 
 powers,  and  alternately  intrigued  with 
 England,  France,  and  Russia.  At  length, 
 in  the  spring  of  1820,  he  threw  off  the 
 mask,  and  declared  himself  king  of  Epi- 
 rus.  After  a  brief  struggle,  however,  lie 
 was  deserted  by  the  majority  of  his  troops, 
 and  even  by  his  sons,  and  was  compelled 
 to  take  refuge  in  a  fort,  which  he  had  con- 
 structed in  an  island  of  the  lake  of  Jannina. 
 From  that  retreat  he  was  at  last  decoyed, 
 by  the  Turkish  general,  under  pretence 
 that  the  Porte  had  pardoned  him,  and  he 
 was  then  assassinated;  but  not  till  he  had 
 slain  two  of  his  assailants,  and  dangerously 
 wounded  a  third.  He  perished  on  the  5th 
 of  February,  1822.  Ali  was  brave,  intel- 
 ligent, and  active ;  but  sanguinary  and  per- 
 fidious in  the  highest  degree. 
 
 ALKMAAR,  Henry  of,  whose  real 
 name  is  believed  to  be  Nicholas  Bauman, 
 and  who  flourished  towards  the  latter  end 
 of  the  fifteenth  century,  is  the  author  of 
 
 the  popular  German  satire  of  Reynard  the 
 Fox,  which  Goethe  has  deemed  worthy  of 
 being  modernized,  and  paraphrased  in 
 hexameters  It  has  been  translated  into 
 several  languages.  Bauman  is  said  to  have 
 been  an  East  Frieslander,  and  a  civilian, 
 and  to  have  died  in  1501. 
 
 ALLEGRI.     See  CORREGTO. 
 
 ALLEN,  Ethan,  a  brigadier  general 
 in  the  revolutionary  army,  was  born  in 
 Salisbury,  Connecticut,  but  was  educated 
 principally  in  Vermont.  In  1775,  soon 
 after  the  battle  of  Lexington,  he  collected  a 
 body  of  about  three  hundred  Green  Moun- 
 tain boys,  as  they  were  called,  and  march- 
 ed against  the  fortresses  of  Ticonderoga 
 and  Crown  Point;  and  in  each  of  these 
 enterprizes  he  was  successful.  He  was 
 shortly  after  taken  prisoner  and  sent  to 
 England;  of  the  events  of  his  captivity  he 
 has  himself  given  an  interesting  narrative. 
 On  release  from  his  confinement  he  repaired 
 to  the  head  quarters  of  general  Washing- 
 ton, where  he  was  received  with  much 
 respect.  As  his  health  was  much  injured, 
 he  returned  to  Vermont,  after  having  made 
 an  offer  of  his  services  to  the  commander 
 in  chief  in  case  of  his  recovery.  He  died 
 suddenly  at  Colchester,  in  1789.  Among 
 other  publications  Allen  was  the  author  of 
 a  work  entitled  Allen's  Theology,  or  the 
 Oracles  of  Reason,  the  first  formal  at- 
 tack upon  the  Christian  religion  issued  in 
 the  United  States.  He  was  a  man  of  an 
 exceedingly  strong  mind,  but  entirely  rough 
 and  uneducated. 
 
 ALLEN,  or  ALLEYN,  Thomas,  an 
 emi'.ent  mathematician,  was  born,  in  1542, 
 at  Uttoxeter,  in  Staffordshire,  and  educat- 
 ed at  Oxford.  Selden  and  Camden  speak 
 in  the  highest  terms  of  his  extensive  know- 
 ledge. Such  was  his  mathematical  skill, 
 that  the  vulgar  regarded  him  as  a  magician 
 His  acquaintance  was  courted  by  the  great, 
 and  the  earl  of  Leicester,  who  always  con- 
 sulted him  on  important  affairs,  offered 
 him  a  bishopric,  but  his  love  of  study  and 
 retirement  induced  him  to  decline  the 
 tempting  offer.  He  died  in  1632.  He 
 published,  in  Latin,  the  Second  and  Third 
 Books  of  Ptolemy  on  the  Stars,  with  an 
 expos  h  ion 
 
 ALLEYN,  Edward,  a  celebrated  act- 
 or, was  born  in  London,  in  1566,  and,  after 
 having  acquired  both  popularity  and  riches, 
 became  proprietor  of  the  Fortune  play- 
 house, and  joint  proprietor  of  the  Royal 
 Bear  Garden,  by  which  his  fortune  was 
 still  further  increased.  The  wealth  thus 
 obtained,  he  nobly  devoted  to  the  founda- 
 tion of  Dulwich  College,  which  was  com- 
 pleted in  1617,  and  in  which  he  and  his 
 wife  resided  till  their  decease.  He  died  in 
 1626.  Vulgar  credulity  long  believed,  that 
 the  charitable  Alleyn  was  induced  to  found 
 
 ■ 
 
24  ALO 
 
 this  college  in  consequence  of  his  having 
 been  terrified  by  the  appearance  of  a  real 
 demon,  while  he  was  playing  the  part  of 
 one. 
 
 ALLIOXI,  Charles,  a  Piedraontpse 
 physician  and  botanist,  was  born  in  1725, 
 and  died  in  1804,  a  man  of  extensive 
 knowledge,  and  a  member  of  many  learned 
 societies  His  works,  chiefly  botanical, 
 are  numerous,  but  the  most  prominent  of 
 them  is  his  Piedmontese  Flora,  in  three 
 folio  volumes,  with  plates.  His  name  was 
 given,  bv  Leoflling,  to  a  genus  of  plants. 
 
 ALMAGRO,  Diego  d',  one  of  the  Spa- 
 nish conquerors  of  America,  born  about 
 the  year  1463,  is  believed  to  have  been  a 
 foundling.  Though  an  uneducated  man, 
 he  rose  in  the  military  service,  acquired 
 wealth  and  influence  at  Panama,  and,  in 
 conjunction  with  Pizarro,  conquered  the 
 empire  of  Peru.  A  contest  for  supremacy 
 soon,  however,  took  place  between  him 
 and  Pizarro,  which  ended  in  his  downfall. 
 He  was  strangled  in  prison,  in  1538.  His 
 son,  Diego,  avenged  his  father's  death,  by 
 the  assassination  of  Pizarro,  hut  was  ulti- 
 mately overcome,  in  1542,  and  beheaded 
 bv  Castro  de  Vaca. 
 "  ALMODOVAR,  the  duke  of,  a  native 
 of  Spain,  was  successively  ambassador  to 
 the  courts  of  Russia,  Portugal,  and  Eng- 
 land. On  his  retirement  from  public  life, 
 he  devoted  himself  to  the  cultivation  of 
 literature.  He  published,  at  Madrid,  a 
 species  of  literary  journal,  and  translated 
 Ravnal's  history  of  the  Indies.  He  died, 
 at  Madrid,  in  1794. 
 
 ALMOX,  John,  born  at  Liverpool,  in 
 1738,  served  his  apprenticeship  to  a  book- 
 seller, went  to  sea,  and,  lastly,  settled   in 
 
 ALP 
 
 wrested  from  them  some  of  their  provinces, 
 and  was  besieging  Siam  when  death  put  a 
 stop  to  his  progress.  He  died  in  1760,  in 
 the  fiftieth  year  of  his  age. 
 
 ALPHONSO  HI.  (called  the  Great) 
 king  of  Leon  and  Asturias,  was  born  in 
 848,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Ordogno,  in 
 his  eighteenth  year.  The  early  part  of  his 
 reign  was  spent  in  repressing  his  factions 
 nobles.  This  being  accomplished,  he  at- 
 tacked the  Moors,  gained  numerous  victo- 
 ries, and  considerably  enlarged  his  king- 
 dom. The  taxes,  however,  which,  his  wars 
 occasioned,  excited  revolt,  in  which  his 
 wife  and  eldest  son  joined,  and  Alphonso 
 was  compelled  to  abdicate.  He  died  it 
 Zamora,  in  912.  A  Chronicle,  from 
 Wamba's  reign  to  Ordogno's,  is  attribu- 
 ted to  him. 
 
 ALPHONSO  X.  (surnamed  the  As- 
 tronomkr  and  the  Philosopher)  Avas 
 born  in  1203,  succeeded  to  the  tirone  of 
 Leon  and  Castile  in  1253,  and  mdae  vain 
 efforts  to  ascend  the  imperial  throne,  to 
 which  he  had  been  elected  by  a  faction. 
 After  a  stormy  reign,  he  was  deposed,  in 
 1282,  by  the  nobles  and  his  own  son,  and 
 he  fruitlessly  endeavoured  to  recover  his 
 authority  by  the  aid  of  the  Moors.  He 
 died  in  1284.  Alphonso  was  by  far  the 
 most  learned  prince  of  his  age.  Spain  is 
 indebted  to  him  for  the  Alphonsine  Tables, 
 and  the  code  of  laws  denominated  Las 
 Partidas. 
 
 ALPHONSO  V.  (surnamed  the  Mag- 
 nanimous) kins  nf  Arragon,  Naples,  and 
 Sicilv.  succeeded  his  father  in  1416,  and 
 almost  his  first  act  was  the  generous  one 
 of  destroying,  without  reading  it,  a  list  of 
 nobles    who  had    conspired    against    him. 
 
 London,  in  1759,  and  became   a   political  i  Ho  died  in  1458,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
 writer,  and  afterwards   a   bookseller.     He   four,   after  an   active  and  brilliant  reign, 
 died    in   1805.      His  principal   works  arc   His   valour  was  often   proved   in  his  con- 
 tinual  wars;    lie  was  eloquent,  courteous, 
 and  humane;    loved,  understood,  and  pro- 
 tected literature  and  the  sciences  ;  abhorred 
 "citv;    and  had  but  one  defect,  that  of 
 
 Reviews  of  the  Reign  of  George  II.,  and 
 of  the  first  Mr.  Pitt's  Administration; 
 Anecdotes  of  Lord  Chatham;  and  Biogra- 
 phical Anecdotes  of  eminent  Persons.  The 
 first  regular  publication,  in  numbers,  of 
 the  Parliamentary  Debates,  was  begun  by 
 Almon,  in  1774. 
 
 ALOMPRA,    ALOMPRAW,    or    LU- 
 
 nup 
 
 an  immoderate  fondness  for  women. 
 
 ALPHONSO  I.  Henriquez,  the 
 founder  and  legislator  of  the  Portuguese 
 monarchy,  was  born  in  1094,  and  assumed 
 
 ONG-PRAW,  a  Rinnan  of  low  extrac-,  the  title  of  king  after  the  celebrated  battle 
 tion,  known  by  the  humble  name  of  I  of  Ourique,  or  Castro  Verde,  which  he 
 Aumdzea,    or    the     huntsman,    sained    a  I  gained  over  the  Moors,  in  1139.     He  died 
 
 crown,  and   immortalized  his  memory,  by 
 delivering  his  countrv  from  the  voke  of  the 
 
 Peguans.     About    the    vear  1753,  though  i  seven  feet  high 
 
 in  1185,  and  was  buried  at  Coimbra.    Al- 
 phonso was  of  extraordinary  stature,  being 
 
 only  the  chief  of  an  inconsiderable  village, 
 he  took  up  arms  against  the  Peguan  mon- 
 arch. The  flames  of  insurrection  were 
 rapidly  spread  by  him,  his  valour  and  pru- 
 dence were  conspicuously  displayed,  and, 
 after  a  desperate  struggle  of  four  years. 
 the    sovereign    of    Pegu    was    dethroned. 
 
 ALPINI,  Prosper,  a  celebrated  bot- 
 anist, was  born  at  Marostica,  in  the  Ve- 
 netian states,  in  1553,  and  quitted  the 
 army  to  study  physic  and  botany.  In  these 
 sciences,  especially  in  the  latter,  he  ac- 
 quired much  celebrity.  He  resided  three 
 vears  in  Egypt,  with  the  Venetian  consui, 
 
 Alompra  afterwards  attacked  the  Sia:nese,l  and  gained  an  intimate  knowledge  of  every 
 
ALT 
 
 thing  relative  to  that  country.  For  some 
 years  before  his  death,  which  took  place  in 
 1616,  he  was  professor  of  botany  at  Padua. 
 He  wrote  several  valuable  medical  and 
 botanical  works.  A  genus  of  plants  takes 
 from  him  the  name  of  Alpinia. 
 
 ALSTEDIUS,  John  Henry,  aGerman 
 divine,  was  born,  in  1588,  at  Herborn,  in 
 Nassau,  was  professor  of  philosophy  and 
 theology  in  his  native  town,  and,  subse- 
 quently, at  Weissemberg,  in  Transylvania. 
 He  died  at  the  latter  place  in  1638.  Alsr 
 tedius  was  such  ah  indefatigable  writer, 
 that  his  name  was  anagrammatized  into 
 sedulilas  (activity)  by  some  of  the  word- 
 distorters  of  that  age.  Among  his  numer- 
 ous works  may  lie  mentioned,  a  Treatise 
 on  the  Millenium,  asserting  that  it  will 
 commence  in  1694;  an  Encyclopaedia ;  and 
 a  Biblical  Encyclopaedia,  in  which  he  ab- 
 surdly attempts  to  prove,  that  the  princi- 
 ples and  materials  of  all  the  arts  and 
 sciences  should  be  sought  for  in  the  Scrip- 
 tures. 
 
 ALSOP,  Richard,  a  man  of  letters, 
 was  born  at  Mjddletown  in  Connecticut, 
 and  resided  in  that  place  during  most  of 
 his  life.  His  works  are  numerous,  and 
 embrace  a  great  variety  of  subjects.  He 
 was  one  of  the  contributors  to  ihe  Echo, 
 a  journal  that  obtained  considerable  ce- 
 lebrity in  its  iay  for  humour  and  smart- 
 ness. He  published  Various  translations 
 from  the  French  and  Italian,  and  left  in 
 manuscript  a  poem  of  considerable  length 
 called  the  Charms  of  Fancy.  He  died  in 
 1815,  at  the  age  of  57. 
 
 ALSTON,  Charles,  a  Scotch  physi- 
 cian, born  in  1683,  was  educated  at  Glas- 
 gow and  Leyden,  and  settled  at  Edinburgh, 
 where  he  lectured  on  botany  and  ihe  ma- 
 teria medica.  His  lectures  on  the  latter 
 subject  were  published  by  Dr.  Hope,  in 
 1770,  in  two  quarto  volumes.  Alston  is 
 also  the  author  of  Tirocinium  Botanicum 
 Edinburgense,  in  which  he  makes  a  formi- 
 dable attack  on  the  Linnaean  system.  He 
 died  in  1760.  Mutis  lias  given  the  name 
 of  Alstonia  to  a  new  genus  of  plants. 
 
 ALSTROEMER,  Jonas,  a  Swede,  who 
 deserves  to  be  numbered  among  national 
 benefactors,  was  born,  in  1685,  of  poor 
 parents,  in  the  province  of  Westrogothia, 
 made  a  fortune  in  England,  by  commercial 
 speculations,  and  then  returned  to  his  na- 
 tive land.  He  introduced  into  Sweden 
 improved  breeds  of  sheep,  the  use  of  pota- 
 toes, and  the  cultivation  of  dying  drugs, 
 established  refineries  of  sugar,  and  con- 
 tributed to  the  formation  of  the  Levant  and 
 East  India  companies.  For  these  services 
 he  was  ennobled,  and  had  a  statue  erected 
 to  him  on  the  Exchange.  He  died  in  1761. 
 Claude,  one  of  his  sons,  was  a  pupil  of 
 Linnaeus. 
 
 ALTHUSEN,orALTHUSIUS,JoHN, 
 2 
 
 ALV 
 
 25' 
 
 a  German  civilian,  was  born  about  the 
 middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  died 
 early  in  the  seventeenth.  He  was  pro- 
 fessor of  law  at  Herborn,  and  syndic  of 
 Bremen.  In  1603,  he  published  his  Po- 
 litica  Methodice  Digesta,  in  which  he 
 boldly  taught  that  kings  are  nothing  more 
 than  magistrates,  that  to  the  people  belongs 
 the  sovereignty,  and  that,  as  a  natural 
 consequence,  they  may  change  and  even 
 punish  their  rulers.  Althusen  is  the  au- 
 thor of  several  other  works,  the  principal 
 !  of  which  is  a  Latin  Treatise  on  Roman 
 I  Jurisprudence. 
 
 ALVA,  Ferdinand  Alvarez  de 
 Toledo,  duke  of,  a  descendant  of  one 
 of  the  most  illustrious  families  in  Spain, 
 which  he  disgraced  by  his  crimes,  was 
 born  in  1508,  entered  the  army  early,  and 
 served  in  Italy,  Hungary,  and  Africa.  He 
 became  a  general  in  1538;  but  his  first 
 marked  exploit  was  his  gaining,  in  1547, 
 the  battle  of  Muhlberg.  From  that  time, 
 he  distinguished  himself  as  a  warrior  and 
 a  statesman.  In  1566,  he  was  sent  into 
 Flanders,  as  viceroy,  to  crush  the  rising 
 spirit  of  the  Flemings ;  and  he  exercised 
 his  authority  with  the  most  infamous  bar- 
 barity. Eighteen  thousand  individuals 
 perished  on  the  scaffold,  and  more  than 
 one  hundred  thousand  emigrated.  After 
 his  recall,  he  was  sent  for  a  while  into  exile, 
 but  was  soon  restored  to  favour,  and  em- 
 ployed in  reducing  Portugal  to  subjection. 
 This  sanguinary  monster  died  in  1582. 
 
 ALVARADO,  Don  Pedro,  one  of  the 
 conquerors  of  Spanish  America,  was  born 
 at  Badajoz.  He  accompanied  Cortes  in 
 his  Mexican  expedition,  produced  an  in- 
 surrection in  Mexico,  by  his  cruelty  and 
 rapacity,  and  narrowly  escaped  with  life. 
 He  was  subsequently  appointed  to  the 
 government  of  Guatimala;  had  violent 
 contests  with  Pizarro;  made  discoveries 
 on  the  Californian  coast;  and  was,  at 
 length,  killed  in  1541. 
 
 ALVARADO,  Alphonso  d',  born  at 
 Burgos,  accompanied  Pizarro  in  his  expe- 
 dition against  Peru,  distinguished  himself 
 greatly  on  various  occasions,  particularly 
 at  the  battle  of  Salinas,  was  appointed 
 captain-general,  acted  with  such  cruelty 
 that  he  excited  a  revolt,  was  defeated  by 
 the  revolters,  and  died,  in  1553,  partly 
 from  vexation  that  he  had  been  vanquished. 
 
 ALVAREZ,  Francis,  a  native  of  Por- 
 tugal, born  at  Coimbra,  towards  the  end 
 of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  almoner  to 
 King  Emanuel,  and  was  sent,  in  1515,  as 
 secretary,  with  Galvao,  on  an  embassy  to 
 Abyssinia.  After  residing  in  that  country 
 twelve  years,  he  returned,  was  rewarded 
 with  a  rich  benefice,  and,  in  1540,  pub- 
 lished a  folio  volume,  bearing  the  title  of 
 True  Information  concerning  the  Country 
 of  Prester  John,   according   to  what  was 
 
26 
 
 A  MB 
 
 Been  by  Francis  Alvarez.  His  work  con- 
 tains much  curious  information. 
 
 ALXINGER,  John  Baptist  p',  a 
 German  poet,  born  at  Vienna,  in  1755,  of 
 a  rich  family,  early  acquired  a  thorough 
 knowledge  of  the  classics.  Though  he  b?- 
 carae  a  doctor  of  laws,  and  held  the  title 
 of  court  advocate,  he  availed  himself  of 
 his  legal  station  only  to  make  up  disputes, 
 or  plead  for  the  poor.  Poetry  was  his  fa- 
 vourite pursuit.  Besides  minor  pieces,  he 
 wrote  Doolin  of  Mentz,  and  Bliomberis, 
 two  chivalresque  epics,  in  Wieland's  style. 
 AJxinger  was  liberal,  and  firmly  attached 
 to  his  friends.     He  died  in  17!>7. 
 
 AMAK,  a  Persian  poet  of  the  eleventh 
 century,  is  believed  to  have  been  a  native 
 of  Bokhara,  and  was  patronised  by  Sultan 
 Khedar  Khan,  who  placed  him  at  the  head 
 ot  a  poetical  academy.  His  mosl  celebrated 
 work  is.  The  Loves  of  Joseph  and  Znleika. 
 Amak  lived  to  a  \ery  advanced  age,  ami 
 was  more  favoured  by  fortune  than  bards 
 in  general  are;  his  slaves  were  numerous, 
 and  he  possessed  thirty  riding'  horses,  rich- 
 ly eaparisoned. 
 
 AMALTHiEUS,  Jerome,  a  member 
 ol  a  family  which  produced  many  literary 
 men,  was  born  in  Friuli,  in  1506,  and  be- 
 came eminent  as  a  physician,  philosopher, 
 and  Latin  poet.  For  many  years  he  taught 
 medicine  and  moral  philosophy  at  Padua. 
 He  died  in  1574.  Of  the  merit  of  his  po- 
 etry a  judgment  may  be  formed  from  his 
 beautiful  epigram  on  Aeon  and  Leonilla, 
 which  has  been  so  often  translated. 
 
 AMBOISE,  George  d',  cardinal, 
 born  in  1460,  of  a  noble  French  family,  at 
 Chaumont  sur  Loire,  A\as  a  bishop  at  four- 
 teen, and  was  successively  archbishop  of 
 Narbnnne  and  of  Rouen.  Louis  XII.  ob- 
 tained for  him  the  rank  of  cardinal,  and 
 appointed  him  his  prime  minister,  in  which 
 post  he  maintained  domestic  tranquillity, 
 diminished  the  taxes,  improved  the  manner 
 of  administering  justice,  and  reformed  the 
 religious  orders.  As  papal  legate,  he  act- 
 ed with  equal  uprightness.  D'Amboise  as- 
 pired to  he  pope,  but  was  defeated  by  a 
 stratagem  of  Julian  de  la  Rovere.  He  died, 
 in  1510,  at  Lyons,  and  is  said,  on  hL» death 
 bed,  to  have  often  exclaimed  to  the  friar, 
 his  attendant,  "  Brother  John!  why  have  I 
 not  all  my  life  been  brother  John?''  Prob- 
 ably he  then  renented  of  having  incited  his 
 master  to  war  against  the  Venetians,  in 
 revenge  for  their  having  contributed  to  ex- 
 elude  him  from  the  papal  throne. 
 
 AMBROSE,  St.,  a  son  of  the  prefect 
 of  Gaul,  was  born  at  .Aries,  in  340,  and 
 received  an  excellent  education.  Being 
 made  governor  ot'  Liguria,  he  fixed  his  re- 
 sidence at  Milan.  Auxentius,  the  bishop 
 of  that  city,  having  died,  an  assembly  was 
 heid  to  elect  a  successor,  at  which  a  tumult 
 took  place.     AH  at  once  a  child  exclaimed. 
 
 AME 
 
 "Let  Ambrose  be  our  bishop!"  and  the 
 multitude,  who  looked  upon  this  as  a  sug- 
 gestion from  Heaven,  accordingly  elected 
 him.  Nor  did  he  prove  himself  unworthy 
 of  the  episcopal  dignity.  H  is  firmness  was 
 nobly  displayed,  in  refusing  to  allow  the 
 Emperor  Theodosius  to  enter  the  church, 
 till  lie  had,  as  far  as  possible,  atoned  for 
 the  massacre  of  Thessalonica.  He  died  at 
 Milan,  in  387.  His  works  form  two  folio 
 volumes.  He  is  the  author  of  the  Te  Deum 
 Laudamus. 
 
 AMEILHON,  Hubert  Pascal,  a  ju- 
 dicious French  historian,  and  a  member  of 
 tbe  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  of  the 
 Institute,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  1730,  and 
 died  in  1811.  Besides  many  minor  essays 
 and  dissertations,  he  wrote  the  History  of 
 the  Commerce  of  the  Egyptians  under  the 
 Ptolemies,  and  a  continuation  of  Le  Beau's 
 History  of  the  Lower  Empire. 
 
 AMELOT  DE  LA  HOUSSAYE, 
 Abraham  Nicholas,  was  born  at  Or- 
 leans, in  1634,  and  died  poor  at  Paris,  in 
 1736.  At  the  age  of  thirty-five  he  was  ap- 
 pointed secretary  to  the  French  ambassa- 
 dor at  Venice,  in  which  city  he  resided 
 several  years.  He  translated  Tacitus,  Vel- 
 ferus's  History  of  the  Government  of  Venice, 
 and  other  works,  published  the  Letters  of 
 Cardinal  d'Ossat,  and  wrote  some  original 
 pieces,  which  are  now  forgotten. 
 
 AMELUNGHI,  Jerome,  surnamed, 
 from  his  deformity  and  the  place  of  his  birth, 
 the  Hunchback  of  Pisa,  an  Italian  poet, 
 appears  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  bur- 
 lesque poetry  among  his  countrymen.  He 
 published  his  War  of  the  Giants,  in  1566, 
 under  the  name  of  Forabosco.  It  was  ac- 
 companied by  the  War  of  the  Dwarfs,  at- 
 tributed to  Francis  Aminta,  but  which, 
 most  probably,  was  bv  Amelunghi. 
 
 AMERBACH,  John,  a  celebrated  print- 
 er of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  born  at 
 Rutlingen,  in  Swabia,  but  settled  at  Basil. 
 His  editions  are  much  valued  for  their  cor- 
 rectness. Amerbach  was  the  inventor  of 
 the  Roman  type,  which  he  substituted  for 
 the  old  gothic  and  italic.  It.  was  first  used 
 in  a  reprint  of  St.  Augustine's  works.  He 
 died  in  1515. 
 
 AMERICUS  VESPUCIUS.  See  Ves- 
 pucci. 
 
 AMES,  Fisher,  one  of  tbe  most  elo- 
 quent of  American  writers  and  statesmen, 
 was  born  at  Dedham  in  Massachusetts,  in 
 the  year  1758.  He  was  educated  at  Harv- 
 ard College,  where  he  received  his  degree 
 in  1774.  About  ^v\en  years  afterwards  he 
 began  the  practice  of  the  law,  and  an  op- 
 portunity soon  occurred  for  the  display  of 
 his  superior  qualifications  both  as  a  speak- 
 er and  ej-say  writer.  He  distinguished 
 himself  as  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
 convention  for  ratifying  the  Constitution 
 in  17S8,  and  from  this  body  passed  to  die 
 
AMI 
 
 house  of  representatives  in  the  State  legis- 
 lature. Soon  after  he  was  elected  the  first 
 representative  of  the  Suffolk  district  in  the 
 Congress  of  the  United  States,  where  he 
 remained  with  the  highest  honour  during 
 the  eight  years  of  Washington's  administra- 
 tion. On  the  retirement  of  the  first  Presi- 
 dent, Mr.  Ames  returned  to  the  practice 
 of  his  profession  in  his  native  town.  Dur- 
 ing the  remaining  years  of  his  life  his  health 
 was  very  much  impaired,  but  his  mind  still 
 continued  deeply  interested  in  politics,  and 
 he  published  a  considerable  number  of  es- 
 says on  the  most  stirring  topics  of  the  day. 
 He  died  in  1808.  In  the  following  year 
 his  works  were  issued  in  one  volume  octa- 
 vo, prefaced  by  a  biographical  notice  from 
 the  pen  of  his  friend,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Kirk- 
 land. 
 
 AMES,  Joseph,  a  typographical  anti- 
 quary, was  born,  in  1689,  at  Yarmouth, 
 in  Norfolk,  served  his  time  to  a  plane 
 maker  in  London,  and  subsequently  be- 
 came an  ironmonger  and  ship-chandler  in 
 Wapping.  He  died  in  1759.  Ames  was 
 a  fellow  of  the  Royal  and  Antiquarian 
 Societies,  and  secretary  of  the  latter  socie- 
 ty. His  principal  works  are,  his  Typo- 
 graphical Antiquities  (which  has  since 
 been  greatly  enlarged  by  Herbert  and 
 Dibdin),  and  the  Parentalia,  or  Memoirs 
 of  the  Family  of  Wren,  the  latter  of  which 
 he  drew  up  from  the  MSS.  of  Wren. 
 
 AMHERST,  Jeffery,  lord,  born  in 
 1717,  at  Riverhead,  in  Kent,  was  a  de- 
 scendant of  an  ancient  family.  At  the  age 
 of  fourteen  he  entered  the  army,  and,  at 
 the  battles  of  Roucoux.  Dettingen,  and  Fon- 
 tenoy,  was  aid-de-camp  to  Lord  Ligonier. 
 In  1758,  being  then  a  major-general,  he 
 reduced  Louisbourg  and  its  dependencies. 
 Being  appointed  chief  commander  in  Amer- 
 ica, he  took  several  forts,  and  contributed 
 to  the  conquests  of  Canada,  and  was  re- 
 warded with  the  order  of  the  Bath  and  a 
 peerage.  Between  1763  and  1795,  he  held 
 many  high  military  situations,  among 
 which  was  that  of  commander  in  chief. 
 In  1796  he  was  made  field  marshal,  and 
 in  the  following  year  he  died. 
 
 AMHURST, "  Nicholas,  a  political 
 writer,  was  born  at  Marden,  in  Kent,  and 
 educated  at  Oxford,  whence  he  was  ex- 
 pelled, for  which  he  avenged  himself  by 
 bitterly  satirising  that  university,  in  his 
 Terrae  Filius.  He  then  settled  in  London, 
 and  published  a  volume  of  Miscellanies, 
 and  a  poem  called  The  Convocation.  He 
 was  next  engaged  in  The  Craftsman,  and 
 carried  it  on  for  many  years,  with  infinite 
 spirit  and  success.  When  his  party  made 
 theii  peace  with  the  crown,  they  deserted 
 him,  and  he  soon  after  died  of  a  broken 
 heart,  in  1742. 
 
 AMILCAR,  sumamed  Barcas,  a  Car- 
 thaginian general,  sprung   from   a  family 
 
 AMM  27 
 
 anciently  the  kings  of  Tyre.  He  was  eany 
 entrusted  with  military  command,  and  for 
 five  years  distinguished  himself  in  Sicily, 
 against  those  universal  robbers  the  Romans. 
 The  defeat,  however,  of  Hanno,  by  the 
 consul  Lutatius,  induced  Carthage  to  make 
 peace.  On  Amilcar's  return  he  quelled 
 the  formidable  rebellion  of  the  mercenary 
 troops,  defeated  the  Numidians,  and  re- 
 stored tranquillity.  Spain  was  the  next 
 scene  of  his  services.  There,  he  conquer- 
 ed several  nations,  and  founded  Barcelona. 
 After  having  remained  in  that  country  nine 
 years,  he  was  slain  in  a  battle  against  the 
 Vettones.     He  was  the  father  of  Annibal. 
 
 AMIOT,  Father,  a  Jesuit  missionary, 
 was  born  at  Toulon,  in  1718,  and  died 
 at  Pekin,  in  1794.  During  a  residence  of 
 forty-three  years  in  China,  he  obtained  a 
 profound  knowledge  of  the  arts,  antiquities, 
 and  history  of  that  empire,  and  of  the  Chi- 
 nese and  Tartar  languages.  On  these  sub- 
 jects he  wrote  many  valuable  dissertations. 
 He  is  also  the  author  of  a  Life  of  Confucius, 
 and  of  a  Tartar-mantcheou  Dictionary,  in 
 three  quarto  volumes. 
 
 AMMIANUS,  Marcellinus,  a  Latin 
 historian,  was  a  native  of  Antioch,  born  in 
 the  fourth  century,  and,  in  his  youth,  serv- 
 ed with  distinction  in  Germany,  Gaul,  and 
 Persia.  Retiring  from  a  military  Hie,  he 
 went  to  reside  at  Rome,  where  he  wrote  a 
 valuable  History  of  the  Roman  Emperors, 
 from  Nerva  to  Valens.  It  consisted  of 
 thirty-one  books,  of  which  the  first  thirteen 
 are  lost.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  work 
 in  Greek,  on  the  Grecian  orators  and  his- 
 torians, of  which  onlv  a  fragment  remains. 
 He  died  a.  d.  390. 
 
 AMMIRATO,  Scxpio,  a  Neapolitan, 
 born  at  Lecce,  in  1531,  was  designed  for 
 the  law,  but  abandoned  it  for  literature. 
 After  many  adventures  and  wanderings,  he 
 settled  at  Florence,  under  the  patronage  of 
 the  Grand  Duke  Cosmo,  who  employed 
 him  to  write  the  History  of  Florence. 
 This  is  his  principal  work.  He  died  in 
 1601. 
 
 AMMONIUS,  a  peripatetic  philosopher, 
 who  was  one  of  the  masters  of  Plutarch. 
 He  endeavoured  to  reconcile  the  doctrine 
 of  Aristotle  with  that  of  Plato.  Plutarch 
 wrote  his  life,  which  is  lost. 
 
 AMMONIUS-SACCAS,  or  SACCO- 
 PHORUS,  a  philosopher  of  Alexandria, 
 lived  towards  the  end  of  the  second  centu- 
 ry. Though  born  in  poverty,  and  earning 
 a  subsistence  by  carrying  sacks  of  wheat 
 (whence  his  name  of  Saccophorus),  he  stu- 
 died philosophy  with  ardour.  He  is  con- 
 sidered as  the  founder  of  the  mystic  philos- 
 ophy, known  as  the  Alexandrian,  or  neo- 
 platonic.  Plotinus,  Longinus,  and  Origen, 
 were  among  his  pupils.  His  system  was, 
 in  fact,  a  jumble  of  heterogenous  opinions, 
 borrowed  from  various  schools.     He  is  said 
 
28 
 
 AMY 
 
 to  have  apostatized  from  Christianity,  but 
 this  is  denied  by  some.  There  was  anoth- 
 er Ammonius,  an  eclectic  philosopher,  wlio 
 lived  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century. 
 
 AMO,  Anthony  William,  a  negro, 
 born  on  the  Gold  Coast,  about  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  brought 
 to  Holland,  in  1707,  and  presented  to  the 
 duke  of  Brunswick,  who  sent  him  to  the 
 university  of  Halle,  whence  he  removed  to 
 Wittenberg.  He  hnd  a  perfect  knowledge 
 of  astronomy,  and  spoke  Hebrew,  Greek, 
 Latin,  German,  Dutch,  and  French.  Af- 
 ter his  patron's  death,  lie  fell  into  a  deep 
 melancholy,  and  at  length  quitted  Europe, 
 to  lead  a  solitary  life  in  his  own  country. 
 He  died  in  one  of  the  Dutch  company's 
 forts. 
 
 AMONTON3,  William,  was  born  at 
 Paris,  in  1663.  Early  in  youth,  he  be- 
 came deaf,  and,  being  thus  partly  cut  off 
 from  society,  he  sought  for  resources  in 
 the  cultivation  of  his  talents.  He  learned 
 drawing  and  architecture,  and  was  em- 
 ployed on  several  public  works.  But  his 
 attention  was  principally  directed  to  me- 
 chanics and  natural  philosophy.  Several 
 improvements  were  made  by  him  in  the 
 construction  of  barometers,  thermometers, 
 and  hygrometers,  and  he  was  the  original 
 inventor  of  the  telegraphic  art.  Amon- 
 tons  died  at  Paris,  at  the  age  of  forty- 
 two. 
 
 AMORY,  Thomas,  Dr.,  a  dissenting 
 divine,  born  at  Taunton,  in  1700,  was  an 
 active  and  valuable  minister.  He  died  in 
 1774.  He  wrote  two  volumes  of  sermons, 
 and  the  Lives  of  Grove,  Benson,  and 
 Chandler. 
 
 AMORY,  Thomas,  a  son  of  counsellor 
 Amory,  secretary  for  the  forfeited  estates 
 in  Ireland,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 brought  up  to  the  medical  profession,  but 
 he  never  practised.  His  character  was  a 
 singular  one;  he  lived  recluse,  shunned 
 company,  and  never  left  home  till  the 
 evening  He  died  in  1789,  aged  ninety- 
 seven.  Amory  is  the  author  of  3Iemoirs 
 concerning  the  Lives  of  certain  Ladies  of 
 Great  Britain,  and  of  the  Life  of  John 
 Bunele. 
 
 AMYOT,  James,  was  born  at  Meiun, 
 in  1513.  His  parents  were  so  poor  that, 
 while  he  was  finishing  his  education  at 
 Paris,  all  the  aid  they  could  give  him  was 
 a  weekly  loaf.  It  is  said,  also,  that,  unable 
 to  purchase  oil  or  candles,  he  studied  by 
 fire  light.  On  leaving  college,  however, 
 his  merit  gained  him  friends,  and  he  at 
 length  rose  to  be  preceptor  of  the  king's 
 children.  Francis  I.  gave  him  an  abbey; 
 Charles  IX.,  his  pupil,  appointed  him 
 grand  almoner  of  France;  and  Henry  III. 
 made  him  a  commander  of  the  order  of 
 the  Holy  Ghost.  One  of  his  defects  was 
 an  excessive  love  of  money.     He  died  at 
 
 ANA 
 
 Auxerre,  in  1593.  Among  his  various 
 works,  chiefly  translations,  the  most  cele- 
 brated is  his  version  of  Plutarch,  which 
 remains  unsurpassed  in  the  French  lan- 
 guage. 
 
 AMYRAUT,  MOSES,  a  French  Prot- 
 estant divine,  born  at  Bourgeuil,  in  1596, 
 was  educated  for  the  civil  law,  but  pre- 
 ferred theology,  and  became  professor  of 
 divinity  at  Saumur.  In  that  profession 
 he  acquired  the  highest  reputation.  Such 
 was  his  influence  that  he  succeeded  in 
 introducing  the  doctrines  of  Arminius  into 
 the  Fiench  reformed  churches,  to  the  great 
 displeasure  of  the  zealous  Calvinists.  Be- 
 ing a  friend  to  the  doctrine  of  passive  obe- 
 dience, he  was  looked  on  with  a  favourable 
 eye  by  Richelieu  and  Mazarine.  Amy- 
 raut  was  a  man  of  moderation  and  can- 
 dour, and  had  the  rare  fortune  to  be 
 esteemed  by  men  of  all  sects.  His  theo- 
 logical works  are  numerous.  He  died  in 
 1664. 
 
 ANACHARSIS,  a  Scythian  philoso- 
 pher, was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Athens, 
 about  592  b.  c,  became  the  friend  and 
 disciple  of  Solon,  and  was  the  first  for- 
 eigner who  was  made  a  citizen  of  Athens. 
 After  he  quitted  Athens,  he  travelled  into 
 other  countries,  and  then  returned  to 
 Scythia,  where  he  was  killed  by  some  of 
 his  own  countrymen.  There  is  considera- 
 ble pith  and  point  in  some  of  his  recorded 
 sayings. 
 
 ANACREON,  a  celebrated  Greek  poet, 
 born  about  530  B.  c.  at  Teos,  in  Ionia, 
 was,  according  to  Plato,  of  a  family  which 
 reckoned  Codrus,  the  last  king  of  Athens, 
 among  its  ancestors.  Polycrates,  of  Sa- 
 mos,  invited  him  to  his  court,  and  granted 
 him  his  friendship.  On  the  death  of  Poly- 
 crates,  the  poet  went  to  Athens,  and  resided 
 with  Hipparchus,  till  the  latter  was  assassi- 
 nated; he  then  returned  to  Teos,  where 
 he  continued  till  the  revolt  of  Histseus 
 compelled  him  to  remove  to  Abdera,  where 
 he  finallv  settled.  A  grape  stone  choked 
 him,  in  his  eighty-fifth  year,  while  he  was 
 in  the  act  of  drinking.  Only  a  part  of  his 
 works  is  extant ;   but  the  Odes  which  time 
 
ANA 
 
 has  spared,  are  masterpieces  of  their  kind. 
 No  one  has  ever  equalled  Anacreon  in  sweet- 
 ness and  elegance.  Of  his  morals  little  that 
 is  favourable  can  be  said ;  they  were  tainted 
 by  intemperance  and  impurity  of  the  worst 
 kind.  His  poems  have  been  often  translated 
 into  English,  but  the  version  by  Moore  is 
 far  superior  to  every  other. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS,  a  Grecian  philoso- 
 pher, born  at  Clazomene,  in  Ionia,  B.  c. 
 500,  became  a  disciple  of  Anaximenes,  at 
 Miletus,  and  next  settled  at  Athens,  where 
 he  taught  philosophy,  and  numbered  the 
 most  eminent  men  of  the  age  among  his 
 pupils.  Being  falsely  accused  of  impiety, 
 he  was  condemned  to  death ;  but  the  sen- 
 tence was  commuted  for  banishment,  and 
 he  retired  to  Lampsacus,  where  he  died 
 428  years  b.  c.  His  philosophical  doc- 
 trines, though  in  some  points  erroneous, 
 were  far  superior  to  those  of  his  contem- 
 poraries. It  was  he  who  first  assigned  the 
 creation  of  all  things  to  a  purely  spiritual 
 cause. 
 
 ANAXARCHUS,a  philosopher  of  Ab- 
 dera,  accompanied  Alexander  the  Great  in 
 his  Asiatic  expedition,  and,  on  various  oc- 
 casions, reproved  the  pride  and  presumption 
 of  that  conqueror.  Yet  his  enemies  have 
 not  scrupled  to  accuse  him  of  adulation. 
 It  is,  however,  not  probable  that  he  could 
 be  a  sycophant,  who  is  acknowledged  to 
 have  sometimes  spoken  the  honest  truth ; 
 and  who  taught  that  virtue  is  the  sovereign 
 good,  and  that  the  happiness  of  a  real  sage 
 is  independent  of  external  objects.  Nico- 
 creon,  tyrant  of  Cyprus,  whom  he  had 
 offended,  is  said  to  have  pounded  him  to 
 death  in  a  mortar,  after  the  death  of 
 Alexander;  but  the  truth  of  this  story  is 
 doubtful 
 
 ANAXIMANDER,  a  Grecian  philoso- 
 pher, born  at  Miletus,  610  years  B.  c,  was 
 the  disciple  and  successor  of  Thales,  the 
 founder  of  the  Ionic  sect.  He  is  said  to 
 have  discovered  the  obliquity  of  the  eclip- 
 tic, fixed  the  epoch  of  the  equinoxes  and 
 solstices,  invented  the  sphere  and  the 
 gnomon,  and  taught  that  the  earth  re- 
 volves, and  that  the  sun  is  a  globe  of  fire. 
 Some  of  his  philosophical  opinions,  how- 
 ever, were  grossly  absurd.  He  died  547 
 years  B.  c. 
 
 ANAXIMENES,  a  philosopher  of  Mi- 
 letus, was  the  disciple  and  successor  of 
 Anaximander.  According  to  his  system, 
 all  things  originated  from  the  air;  the  sun, 
 moon,  and  stars  were  formed  from  detached 
 parts  of  the  earth ;  the  earth  was  a  plain 
 figure,  and  the  heavens  were  a  solid  con- 
 cave one,  in  which  the  stars  were  fixed 
 like  nails.     He  died  504  years  B.  c. 
 
 ANAXIMENES,  a  native  of  Lampsa- 
 cus, was  a  philosopher,  orator,  and  histo- 
 rian, and  one  of  the  preceptors  of  Alexan- 
 der the  Great.     He   wrote  lives  of  Philip 
 
 AND 
 
 29 
 
 and  Alexander,  and  a  History  of  Greece, 
 all  of  which  are  lost.  By  a  stratagem,  he 
 saved  his  natal  city  from  ruin.  Lampsacus 
 having  sustained  a  long  siege  against  Alex- 
 ander, he  resolved  on  its  destruction,  and 
 foreseeing  that  Anaximenes  would  plead 
 for  it,  he  positively  swore  to  do  the  con- 
 trary of  what  his  preceptor  should  desire. 
 Aware  of  this,  Anaximenes  requested  him 
 to  destroy  it;  and  the  necessary  conse- 
 quence was,  that  Lampsacus  was  saved. 
 
 ANCHIETA,  Joseph,  a  Portuguese 
 Jesuit,  denominated  the  Apostle  of  the 
 New  World,  was  born  in  1533,  in  the 
 island  of  Teneriffe.  In  1553  he  landed  in 
 Brazil,  and  there,  in  conjunction  with 
 Nobrega,  he  for  many  years  exerted  him- 
 self strenuously  in  converting  and  civiliz- 
 ing the  Indian  tribes;  displaying  a  cour- 
 age, fortitude,  and  Christian  spirit  which 
 have  seldom  been  equalled.  He  died  in 
 1597. 
 
 ANDERSON,  Edmund,  Sir,  a  native 
 of  Lincolnshire,  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
 went  from  thence  to  the  Inner  Temple, 
 was  made  a  judge  about  1571,  and  chief 
 justice  of  the  Common  Pleas  in  1582,  and 
 died  in. 1605.  He  was  one  of  the  commis- 
 sioners for  trying  the  Queen  of  Scots. 
 Anderson  was  of  an  intolerant  spirit,  and 
 an  inveterate  enemy  to  the  principles  of 
 liberty.  His  Reports  of  Cases,  and  his 
 Resolutions  and  Judgments  in  the  Courts, 
 were  published  after  his  death. 
 
 ANDERSON,  Alexander,  a  native 
 of  Aberdeen,  professor  of  mathematics  at 
 Paris,  flourished  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
 tury, and  published  several  mathematical 
 works;  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
 Supplementum  Apollonii  Redivivi,  and 
 some  of  Vieta's  posthumous  productions. 
 
 ANDERSON,  James,  a  Scottish  ad- 
 vocate, eminent  as  an  antiquary,  was  born 
 at  Edinburgh,  in  1662,  and  died  in  1728. 
 He  published  Collections  relative  to  the 
 History  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scotland,  four 
 vols,  quarto;  Selectus  Diplomatum  et  Nu- 
 mismatum  Scotia?  ;   and  other  works. 
 
 ANDERSON,  Adam,  a  native  of  Scot- 
 land, was  for  forty  years  a  clerk  in  the 
 South  Sea  House;  he  Mas  also  a  trustee 
 for  establishing  the  colony  of  Georgia,  and 
 one  of  the  court  of  assistants  of  the  Scotch 
 Corporation.  He  died  in  1765.  He  is  the 
 author  of  that  laborious  and  useful  work, 
 the  Historical  and  Chronological  deduction 
 of  the  Origin  of  Commerce,  the  best  edi- 
 tion of  which  is  in  tour  volumes  quarto. 
 
 ANDERSON,  Walter,  a  Scottish 
 clergyman  and  historian,  who  died  in  1800, 
 at  his  living  of  Churnside,  which  he  had 
 held  for  half  a  century.  In  1769,  he  pub- 
 lished a  History  of  France,  during  the 
 reigns  of  Francis  I.  and  Charles  IX., 
 which,  jh  1773  and  1783,  he  continued 
 down  to  the  peace  of  Munster.     He  is  also 
 
30  AND 
 
 the  author  of  the  Philosophy  of  ancient 
 Greece  investigated;  and  of  a  Life  of  Croe- 
 sus. 
 
 ANDERSON,  James,  a  Scotch  agri- 
 culturist, and  miscellaneous  writer,  was 
 born  at  Hermiston,  near  Edinburgh,  in 
 1739,  and  commenced  farming,  as  master, 
 at  the  early  age  of  fifteen.  His  exertions 
 were  successful.  He  was  as  active,  though 
 not  quite  as  precociously,  with  his  pen  as 
 with  his  aratory  instruments,  and  produc- 
 ed many  valuable  works.  His  fust  produc- 
 tion was  a  series  of  Essays  on  Planting, 
 collected  into  a  volume  in  1777,  which  as- 
 sisted to  obtain  for  him  the  degree  of 
 LL.  D.  from  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
 Besides  bis  original  compositions,  chielh  ag- 
 ricultural, lie  edited  the  P»ee  and  the  Recre- 
 ations in  Agriculture,  and  contributed  to 
 the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  and  the1 
 Monthly  Review.     He  died  in  1S08. 
 
 ANDERSON,  George,  born  at  Wes- 
 ton,  in  Buckinghamshire,   in    1769,    was 
 originally  a  day  labourer;   but,  in  conse- ; 
 quence    of  his    displaying   great   skill    in 
 arithmetic,  the  Rev.  Mr.  King  sent  him  to : 
 Wadham  College,  and  afterwards  procured 
 him  a  situation  under  the  Board  of  Con-j 
 troul.     He  rose  to  be  accomptant  general. 
 His  death  took  place  in  1796.     He  trans-, 
 lated  the  Arenarius  of  Archimedes;    and 
 wrote  A  General  View  of  the  East  India  { 
 Company's  Affairs. 
 
 ANDRADA,    Thomas  d',    a    Portu- 
 guese, better  known  under   the  name    of 
 Thomas  of  Jesus,  was  the  reformer  of  the  j 
 barefooted  Augustine  friars,  and  belonged  | 
 to  a  fa.mil v  which  numbered  literary  men 
 and   learned    theologians   among  its  mem- 1 
 bers.      His  claim    to   biographical    notice 
 rests,  however,  on  still  higher  grounds  than  [ 
 theirs.     He  was  taken  prisoner  in  Sebas-  | 
 tian's    fatal    expedition    to    Africa;     and 
 though  money  was  sent  over  for  his  ran- 
 som, he  applied  it  to  the  benefit  of  his  com-; 
 panions  in  misfortune,  and  voluntarily  re- 
 mained in  slavery,  that  he  might  console 
 and  support  them.     In  the  performance  of 
 this  pious  office  he  died.     While  in  captiv- 
 ity he  wrote  a   work  intitied  the  Suffer- 
 ings of  Jesus. 
 
 ANDRE,  John,  an  adjutant  general  in 
 the  British  army  in  North  America  during 
 the  revolutionary  wai.  Being  employ- 
 ed to  negociate  with  Arnold  the  delivery 
 of  the  works  at  West  1'omt,  he,  was  appre- 
 hended in  disguise  within  the  American 
 lines.  He  was  condemned  as  a  spy  from 
 the  enemy,  and,  according  to  the  establish-, 
 ed  usages  of  war,  was  executed  in  1780,; 
 at  the  age  of  twenty-nine  years.  A  monu- 
 ment has  been  erected  to  his  memory  in 
 Westminster  Abbey.  He  is  the  author  of 
 a  poem  entitled  The  Cow  Chase. 
 
 AN  DREAD  A,  Ferdinand,  a  Porta-; 
 guese  admiral      He  commanded,  in   1518,' 
 
 AND 
 
 [  the  first  European  fleet  which  ever  visited 
 I  the  coast  of  China.     When  he  was  depart- 
 ;  ing  from  a  port,  he  proclaimed  that  if  any 
 j  native  had  been   injured  bv  a  Portuguese, 
 and  would  come  forward,  he  should  receive 
 reparation,    and     the    offender    should    be 
 punished.     His  equity  and  moderation  Mere 
 on    the   point   of  being   rewarded,   by   the 
 general  opening  of  the  Chinese  ports  to  his 
 countrymen,  when  all  his  hopes  were  frus- 
 trated, by  the  arrival  of  another  fleet,  un- 
 der his  brother  Simon,  a  man  of  an  oppo- 
 site character,  who  excited  universal  dis- 
 gust by  his  rapacity  and  violence. 
 
 ANDREINI,"  ISABELLA,  an  eminent 
 comic  actress,  but  still  more  celebrated  for 
 her  literary  talents  and  accomplishments, 
 was  born  at  Padua,  in  1562,  and  display- 
 ed Such  extraordinary  precocity  of  genius, 
 that  she  composed  a  pastoral  when  she  was 
 scarcely  able  to  read.  She  was  well  vers- 
 ed in  philosophy  and  languages,  sang  and 
 played  divinely,  was  beautiful,  and  crowned 
 the  whole  by  irreproachable  morals.  She 
 died  at  Lyons,  in  1604.  Her  compositions 
 consist  of  poems,  letters,  and  dialogues. 
 Francis,  her  husband,  an  actor,  was  in- 
 consolable for  her  loss;  he  was  a  man  of 
 considerable  abilities,  and  was  the  author 
 of  three  dramas,  and  of  some  miscellaneous 
 pieces. 
 
 ANDREINI,  John  Baptist,  the  son 
 of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Florence,  in 
 1578.  Like  his  parents,  he  was  on  the 
 stage ;  and,  like  them,  he  possessed  talents. 
 As  an  actor  he  was  admired  in  Italy  and 
 France.  His  poems  and  dramas  are  not 
 without  merit,  but  they  betray  a  deficiency 
 of  judgment,  and  their  style  is  deplorably 
 vitiated  by  the  bad  taste  which  the  exam- 
 ple of  Marino  rendered  prevalent  at  that 
 period.  His  Adamo,  a  sacred  drama,  has 
 acquired  celebrity,  from  the  circumstance 
 of  some  persons  having  maintained  that  it 
 gave  Milton  the  first  idea  of  Paradise  Lost. 
 
 ANDREOSSI,  Francis,  a  mathema- 
 tician and  engineer,  was  born  at  Paris,  in 
 1633,  and  died  in  1688.  He  was  employ- 
 ed by  Riquet,  to  assist  in  forming  the  canal 
 of  Languedoc;  and,  after  the  lapse  of  more 
 than  a  century  and  a  quarter,  a  strenuous 
 but  ineffectual  attempt  was  made,  by  one 
 of  his  descendants,  to  claim  for  him  the 
 honour  of  having  projected  that  magnifi- 
 cent work.  He  was,  however,  a  man  of 
 taient,  and  succeeded  to  the  superintend- 
 ance,  on  the  death  of  Riquet.  He  publish- 
 ed a  map  of  the  canal  in  three  folio  sheets. 
 
 ANDREOSSI,  Count  Anthony  Fran- 
 cis, eminent  as  a  soldier,  diplomatist,  and 
 writer,  was  born  at  Castlenaudary,  in  Lan- 
 guedoc, in  1761,  was  a  lieutenant  of  artil- 
 lery at  twenty,  and  served  with  distinction 
 in  Italy  and  Egypt.  Napoleon  raised  him 
 to  the  ranks  of  general  and  count.  He  was 
 successively  ambassador  to  London,  Vien- 
 
AND 
 
 na,  and  Constantinople.  On  the  return  of 
 Napoleon  from  Elba,  Andreossi  espoused 
 his  cause ;  and  he  was  one  of  the  commis- 
 sioners chosen  to  treat  with  the  allies  by 
 the  provisional  government.  He  died  in 
 1827.  Among  his  works  are,  a  History  of 
 the  Canal  of Languedne;  the  Campaign  of 
 the  Gallo-Batavian  Army  on  the  Mayn  and 
 Rednitz ;  and  Constantinople  and  the  Thra- 
 cian  Bosphorus. 
 
 ANDREW  OF  CYRENE,  a  Jew, 
 whom  Eusebius  surnames  Lucuas,  v. as 
 an  impostor,  who,  under  the  reign  of  Tra- 
 jan, had  the  art  to  persuade  his  fellow  coun- 
 trymen, that  he  was  ordained  to  be  their 
 liberator.  He  incited  the  Jews  to  a  revolt, 
 which  extended  through  Egypt,  Libya,  and 
 the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  during  which  the 
 most  horrible  cruelties  were  committed  on 
 both  sides.  It  was  not  suppressed  till  after 
 many  sanguinary  battles  had  been  fought. 
 
 ANDREWS,  Lancelot,  an  eminent 
 divine,  born  at  London,  in  1565,  was  edu- 
 cated at  Cambridge,  where  he  became  so 
 celebrated  for  his  preaching  and  his  theo- 
 logical acquirements,  that  he  obtained  the 
 patronage  of  the  Earl  of  Huntingdon  and 
 Sir  Francis  Walsingham;  and,  in  no  long 
 time,  rose  to  be  master  of  Pembroke  Hall 
 (his  own  college),  chaplain  to  Queen  Eliza- 
 beth, and  dean  of  Westminster.  He  might 
 have  had  a  bishopric  from  Elizabeth,  if  he 
 would  have  submitted  to  the  spoliation  of 
 its  revenues.  Under  her  successor  he  at- 
 tained that  dignity.  James  was  pleased 
 with  his  preaching,  and  still  more  with  his 
 defence  of  him  against  Bellarmin,  who  had 
 attacked  the  monarch's  book  on  the  Rights 
 of  Kings.  The  divine  was  successively 
 raised  to  the  sees  of  Chichester,  Ely,  and 
 Winchester,  and  was  appointed  lord  almo- 
 ner, and  a  privy  counsellor  of  England  and 
 Scotland.  He  died  in  1626.  Milton  wrote 
 a  Latin  elegy  on  his  death.  His  works 
 attest  his  erudition;  but  are  deformed  by 
 the  bad  taste  and  pedantry  of  the  age  in 
 which  he  lived.  Andrews  was  charitable, 
 munificent,  and  a  patron  of  learning.  Wal- 
 ler has  recorded  an  instance  of  this  pre- 
 late's wit.  Neile,  bishop  of  Durham,  and 
 Andrews,  were  standing  behind  the  king's 
 chair  at  dinner,  when  James  suddenly  turn- 
 ed to  them,  and  said,  "  My  lords,  cannot  I 
 take  my  subjects'  money  when  I  want  it, 
 without  all  this  formality  in  parliament]" 
 Bishop  Neile  quickly  replied,  "  God  for- 
 bid, sir,  but  you  should ;  you  are  the  breath 
 of  our  nostrils."  On  this  the  king  said  to 
 the  bishop  of  Winchester,  "Well,  my  lord, 
 and  what  say  you1?"  "  Sir,"  replied  An- 
 drews, "  I  have  no  skill  to  judge  of  par- 
 liamentary cases."  The  king  answered, 
 '*  No  puts  oft',  mv  lord ;  answer  me  present- 
 ly." "Then,  sir,"  said  he,  "I  think  it 
 lawful  for  you  to  take  my  brother  Neile's 
 money,  for  he  offers  it." 
 
 AND 
 
 31 
 
 ANDREWS,  James  Pettit,  was  born 
 at  Shaw-house,  near  Newbury,  in  Berk- 
 shire, in  1737,  and  died  at  Brompton  in 
 1797.  In  his  youth,  he  was  an  officer  in 
 the  Berks  militia,  and  was  a  police  magis- 
 trate at  the  time  of  hi*  decease.  He  is  the 
 author  of  a  History  of  Great  Britain,  con- 
 nected with  the  Chronology  of  Europe; 
 a  Continuation  of  Henry's  English  History; 
 and  other  works  of  merit.  A  pamphlet 
 from  his  pen  occasioned  the  first  statute 
 that  was  passed  for  the  protection  of  chim- 
 ney-sweepers. 
 
 ANDREWS,  Miles  Peter,  was  the 
 second  son  of  an  eminent  London  merch- 
 ant, and  became  principal  proprietor  of  the 
 lucrative  Dartford  Powder  Mills,  on  the 
 death  of  his  brother.  On  receiving  this 
 accession  of  fortune,  he  purchased  a  splendid 
 mansion  in  Cleveland  Row,  mingled  with 
 the  circles  of  fashion,  and  devoted  his  leis- 
 ure hours  to  writing  for  the  stage;  theatri- 
 cals being  his  favourite  amusement.  Of 
 his  nine  comedies  not  one  is  now  acted. 
 Many  prologues  and  epilogues  were  contri- 
 buted by  him  to  other  dramatists.  An- 
 drews was  of  a  hospitable  disposition,  and 
 kind  to  men  of  letters.     He  died  in  1814. 
 
 ANDRIEU,  Bertrand,  was  born  at 
 Bordeaux  in  1761,  and  died  at  Paris  in 
 1822;  he  distinguished  himself  greatly  as 
 an  engraver  of  medals,  of  which  art  he  is 
 considered  as  the  restorer  in  France.  A 
 large  part  of  the  medals  in  the  royal  cabi- 
 net and  library,  which  are  looked  upon  as 
 masterpieces,  are  the  Avork  of  Andrieu. 
 
 ANDROMACHUS,  head  physician  of 
 Nero,  was  the  inventor  of  that  heterogene- 
 ous and  absurd  composition  the  Theriaca, 
 known  by  the  moderns  as  Venice  treacle, 
 and  which  was  long  supposed  to  be  a  sove- 
 reign antidote  against  poison.  The  Greek 
 verses,  addressed  to  Nero,  in  which  he 
 describes  the  composition  of  this  boasted 
 remedy,  are  still  in  existence. 
 
 ANDRONICUS,  of  Cyrresthes  in  Ma- 
 cedonia, an  architect,  built  the  octagonal 
 Tower  of  the  Winds  at  Athens,  and  invent- 
 ed weathercocks.  The  tower  is  now  con- 
 verted into  a  mosque  for  dervises.  It  has 
 more  than  once  been  imitated  in  modern 
 buildings. 
 
 ANDRONICUS,  Livius,  the  most  an- 
 cient of  the  Latin  comic  poets,  lived  about 
 240  years  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
 Greek  slave,  and  to  have  acted  in  his  own 
 pieces.  Andronicus  also  composed  hymns 
 in  honour  of  the  gods.  Nothing  remains  of 
 his  works,  except  some  insulated  verses. 
 
 ANDRONICUS,  of  Rhodes,  a  peripate- 
 tic philosopher,  who  flourished  at  Rome  63 
 years  B.C.,  was  the  first  who  arranged  the 
 inedited  works  of  Aristotle,  and  composed 
 summaries  and  tables  of  the  different  books. 
 He  also  wrote  commentaries  on  them,  which 
 are  lost. 
 
32  ANG 
 
 ANDROUETDU  CERCEAU,  James. 
 
 an  eminent  French  architect  of  the  six- 
 teenth century,  was  a  native  of  Orleans, 
 or,  aa  some  say,  of  Paris  He  began  the 
 Pont  Neuf  in  1578,  built  several  magnifi- 
 cent mansions,  and  was  chosen  by  Henry 
 IV.  to  continue  the  gallery  of  the  Louvre. 
 Androuet.  however,  did  not  complete  the 
 latter  undertaking";  he  being  compelled  to 
 leave  Fiance  because  he  was  a  protestant. 
 The  place  and.  time  of  his  death  are  un- 
 known* He  left  several  works  on  bis  art, 
 of  which,  the  engravings  were  executed  by 
 himself. 
 
 ANEURIN,  a  British  poet  and  chief- 
 tain, wh  >  was  called  the  prince  of  the 
 bards.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
 battle  of  Cattraeth,  which  conflict  he  made 
 the  subject  of  a  poem.  None  of  his  compo- 
 sitions are  extant,  except  that  piece,  and 
 another,  intitled  the  Odes  of  the  Months. 
 Aneurin  died  about  a.  d.  570.  He  has 
 been  .-apposed  to  be  the  same  person  with 
 Gildas. 
 
 ANGELIO,  or  DEGLI  ANGELI,  Pe- 
 TER,  a  modern  Latin  poet,  born,  in  1517, 
 at  Barga,  in  Tuscany,  was  master  of  Greek 
 and  Latin  at  ten  years  of  age,  relinquished 
 the  study  of  law  for  literature,  was  obliged 
 to  quit  Bologna  in  consequence  of  having 
 written  some  satirical  verses,  and  became, 
 during  three  vears,  a  copyist  of  Greek 
 tfSS.  for  the  French  ambassador  at  Ven- 
 ice. He  visited  Constantinople,  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, and  Greece,  passed  through  several 
 adventures,  in  which  he  manifested  his  cour- 
 age, and  was,  from  1546  to  1575,  profes- 
 
 r  of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Reggio,  and  at 
 Pisa.  He  subsequently  resided  at  Rome, 
 and  at  Florence,  under  the  liberal  patron- 
 age  of  Ferdinand  de  Medicis,  and  at  length 
 died  at  Pisa,  in  1596.  His  principal  works 
 are  the  Cvnogeticon,  a  poem  in  six  books, 
 and  the  Syrias,  in  twelve  books,  on  the  de- 
 liverance of  the  holv  land. 
 
 ANGOSCIOLA,  or  ANGUSSALA, 
 SOPHOHISBA,  an  Italian  lady,  of  a  noble 
 (Ycmonese  family,  born  in  1535,  manifest- 
 ed an  early  love  of  drawing,  and  was  put 
 under  the  tuition  of  Gatti.  In  a  short 
 time  she  became  a  complete  mistress  of 
 painting,  and  acquired  a  high  reputation. 
 Philip  II.  invited,  her  to  Spain,  patronised 
 her  liberally,  and  rave  her  in  marriage  to 
 Don  Fabricio  de  Moncada,  who  took  her 
 to  Sicily,  his  native  country.  After  his 
 death,  she  married  a  noble  Genoese.  At 
 the  age  of  sixty-seven,  she  lost  her  sight; 
 but  she  continued  to  be  the  charm  of  the  en- 
 lightened society  which  she  collected  around 
 her.     She  died  at  Genoa,  about  1620. 
 
 ANGUILLARA,  John  Andrew 
 dell',  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Italian 
 poets  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  born  at 
 Sutri,  in  Tuscany,  about  15i7;  the  period 
 of  his  death   is  unknown,  but  must  have 
 
 ANN 
 
 been  subsequent  to  1564.  His  principal 
 work  is  his  Translation  of  Ovid's  Meta- 
 morphoses, which,  though  often  unfaithful, 
 and  sinning  against  good  taste,  has  great 
 merit.  For  the  representation  of  his  trag- 
 edy ofCEdipus,  a  theatre  was  built  at  Vi- 
 ceiaza  by  the  celebrated  Palladio.  Anguil- 
 lara,  however,  lived  and  died  in  poverty. 
 
 ANICHj  P  ET  E R ,  the  son  of  a  peasant, 
 near  Inspruck,  in  the  Tyrol,  was  born  in 
 1723,  and  his  early  youth  was  spent  in  ag- 
 ricultural labours.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
 eight,  however,  his  thirst  for  knowledge 
 induced  him  to  go  to  the  college  of  Inspruck, 
 where,  under  the  tuition  of  the  Jesuits,  he 
 soon  became  an  excellent  geometer  and 
 astronomer,  and  one  of  the  first  mechani- 
 cians in  Europe.  He  constructed  globes 
 and  mathematical  instruments,  and  at  length 
 undertook  a  general  survey  of  the  Tyrol, 
 on  an  extensive  sr-ale,  which  he  completed 
 in  an  admirable  manner.  The  empress 
 granted  him  a  trifling  pension,  but  he  did 
 not  enjoy  it  more  than  two  months.  He 
 died  in  1766. 
 
 A.MELLO,  Thomas,  commonly  called 
 Mas  aniello,  a  native  of  Amalfi,  born 
 in  1623,  though  only  an  humble  seller  of 
 fish  at  Naples,  shook  to  its  basis  the  au- 
 thority of  the  Austrian  government  over  his 
 native  country.  After  having  long  oppres- 
 sed the  people,  the  duke  of  Arcos,  the  Aus- 
 trian viceroy,  imposed,  in  1646,  a  tax  upon 
 all  sorts  of  fruit ;  an  onerous  impost  on  the 
 poor,  as  fruit  constituted  nearly  their  sole 
 food.  Stimulated  by  Aniello,  the  multi- 
 tude rose,  destroyed  the  toll-houses,  and 
 rifled  the  palace  of  the  viceroy,  who  with 
 difficulty  made  his  escape  to  a  church.  All 
 power  remained  in  the  hands  of  Aniello, 
 who  was  at  the  head  of  more  than  an  hun- 
 dred and  fifty  thousand  men,  besides  vast 
 numbers  bf  armed  women;  and  the  vice- 
 rov  was  at  length  under  the  necessity  of 
 yielding  to  the  demands  of  the  populace. 
 Aniello,  however,  did  not  long  enjoy  his 
 triumph,  for  he  was  shot  by  four  assassins, 
 who  were  employed  by  the  viceroy. 
 
 ANNA  COMNENA,  daughter  of  the 
 Greek  emperor  Alexis  I.,  was  born  in  1083, 
 and,  after  her  father's  death,  conspired  to 
 place  the  crown  on  her  husband's  head,  to 
 the  prejudice  of  her  brother  John.  Her 
 scheme  was  frustrated,  but  her  brother 
 treated  her  with  lenity,  and  she  spent  the 
 rest  of  her  days  in  retirement  and  literary 
 pursuits.  Her  death  took  olace  in  1148. 
 She  is  the  author  of  the  Alexiad,  in  fifteen 
 books,  a  history  of  her  father's  reign;  a 
 work  of  merit,  but  in  which  filial  affection 
 sometimes  does  violence  to  truth. 
 
 ANNETT,  Peter,  a  deistica.  waiter, 
 said  to  be  a  native  of  Liverpool,  and  edu- 
 cated as  a  protestant  dissenting  minister. 
 He  is  the  author,  among  other  things,  of 
 The  Historv  of  the  Man  after  God's  own 
 
ANN 
 
 Heart,  and  the  Free  Inquirer,  for  which 
 latter  work  he  was  pilloried  and  imprison- 
 ed. While  Annett  was  in  the  King's 
 Bench,  his  necessities  were  relieved  by 
 archbishop  Seeker.     He  died  in  1778. 
 
 ANQ 
 
 83 
 
 ANNIBAL,  one  of  the  greatest,  perhaps 
 the  greatest,  general  of  antiquity,  was  a 
 Carthaginian,  the  son  of  Amilcar  Barcas, 
 and  was  born  247  years  B.C.  When  he 
 was  only  a  child,  his  father  made  him 
 swear  at  the  altar  eternal  enmity  to  the 
 Romans,  and  never  was  vow  better  kept. 
 At  the  age  of  twenty-five,  he  succeeded  to 
 the  command  of  the  army  in  Spain,  on  the 
 death  of  Asdrubal.  In  three  years  he  re- 
 duced Spain  to  subjection,  and  completed 
 his  achievement  by  the  destruction  of  Sa- 
 guntum,  an  ally  of  the  Romans.  Hence 
 arose  the  second  Punic  war.  Having 
 conceived  the  daring  scheme  of  attacking 
 Rome  in  the  very  centre  of  her  power,  An- 
 nibal  passed  the  Pyrenees  with  a  formida- 
 ble army  (b.c.  218),  traversed  Gaul,  cros- 
 sed the  Alps,  in  spite  of  almost  insurmount- 
 able obstacles,  and  penetrated  into  Italy, 
 where,  at  the  outset,  he  vanquished  Scipio 
 on  the  Ticino,  and  Sempronius  on  the 
 Trebbia.  In  the  following  year,  he  entire- 
 ly defeated  Flaminius,  at  the  battle  of 
 Thrasymene.  Fabius,  by  his  prudent  ma- 
 noeuvres, for  a  while  held  him  at  bay;  but 
 the  battle  of  Canna;,  brought  on  (e.  c.  216) 
 by  the  presumption  of  Varro,  reduced  Rome 
 to  the  verge  of  ruin.  More  than  forty 
 thousand  Romans  perished  on  that  terrible 
 day.  The  force  of  Annibal,  however,  not 
 being  sufficient  for  the  reduction  of  the 
 city  of  Rome,  he  bent  his  march  to  Ca- 
 pua, which  opened  its  gates  to  him,  and 
 he  there  took  up  his  winter  quarters.  It 
 has  been  idly  said,  that  the  luxury  of  Ca- 
 pua proved  fatal  to  Annibal  and  his  army. 
 But  this  ridiculous  assertion  is  refuted  by 
 the  fact  that,  though  faction  deprived  him 
 of  succours  from  home,  he  kept  his  ground 
 in  Italy  for  more  than  twelve  years  after 
 the  battle  of  Cannae,  and  did  not  quit  it  till 
 he  was  recalled  te  defend  Carthage  against 
 Scipio.  The  decisive  battle  of  Zama, 
 which  was  fought  B.C.  201,  compelled  the  > 
 2+t 
 
 Carthaginians  to  submit  to  a  humiliating 
 peace.  His  countrymen  now  conferred  on 
 Annibal  the  pretorship,  and  he  began  to 
 introduce  the  reforms  which  were  necessa- 
 ry to  give  vigour  to  the  state;  but  the 
 mean  dread  and  hatred  of  the  Romans  pur- 
 sued him,  and  they  sent  commissioners  to 
 insist  on  his  being  delivered  into  their 
 hands.  He  was  compelled  to  fly;  and  the 
 remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  almost 
 continual  wanderings,  and  endeavours  to 
 excite  hostility  against  the  Roman  domi- 
 nation. Having  failed  in  inspiring  Auti- 
 ochus,  king  of  Syria,  with  Ids  own  spirit 
 and  fortitude,  he  lastly  took  refuge  with 
 Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia,  and  at  the 
 court  of  that  contemptible  monarch  he 
 poisoued  himself,  B.  c.  1S3,  in  the  sixty- 
 fourth  year  of  his  age,  to  avoid  being  sur- 
 rendered up  to  those  whom  he  had  so  often 
 vanquished. 
 
 ANNIUS,  of  Viterbo,  whose  real  name 
 was  John  Nanni,  was  a  Dominican, 
 born  at  Viterbo,  about  1432,  and  died  at 
 Rome,  in  1502.  He  was  a  learned  man, 
 but  disgraced  his  learning  by  applying  it 
 to  purposes  of  deception.  He  forged  vari- 
 ous works,  which  he  pretended  to  be  the 
 compositions  of  Berosus,  Fabius  Pictor, 
 and  many  other  ancient  writers.  These  he 
 published  with  a  commentary,  and  it  was 
 some  time  before  the  cheat  was  discovered. 
 ANQUETIL,  Louis  Peter,  a  French 
 historian,  born  at  Paris,  in  1723,  was  edu- 
 cated for  the  church,  and  obtained  much 
 celebrity  as  a  theologian.  Under  the  reign 
 of  Napoleon,  he  was  a  member  of  the  In- 
 stitute, and  was  employed  by  the  minister 
 of  the  foreign  department.  Anquetil  was 
 an  indefatigable  student ;  ten  hours  of  each 
 day  were  devoted  to  study.  He  was  more 
 than  eighty  when  he  began  his  History  of 
 France,  which  extends  to  fourteen  volumes. 
 He  died  in  1808.  Of  his  works,  the  prin- 
 cipal are,  the  Spirit  of  the  League;  the 
 History  of  France;  and  a  Summary  of 
 Universal  History. 
 
 ANQUETIL  DU  PERRON,  Abra- 
 ham Hyacinth,  the  brother  of  Louis 
 Peter,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  1731,  and 
 was  intended  for  the  church,  but  devoted 
 himself  almost  solely  to  the  study  of  the 
 oriental  languages  Such  was  his  fondness 
 for  those  languages,  that,  a  Zend  MS.  hav- 
 ing fallen  into  his  hands,  he  actually  enlist- 
 ed as  a  common  soldier,  in  an  expedition 
 to  India,  in  order  to  have  an  opportunity 
 of  learning  the  Zend,  Pehlevi,  and  San- 
 scrit. He  remained  in  India,  encountering 
 many  hardships,  till  1762,  when  he  return- 
 ed to  Europe,  with  one  hundred  and  eighty 
 MSS.  A  pension  and  the  situation  of 
 oriental  interpreter  in  the  king's  library 
 were  given  to  him.  He  died  in  1805. 
 His  productions  consist  of,  a  Translation 
 of  the  Zendavesta ;   and  of  a  Persian  work, 
 
34 
 
 ANS 
 
 entitled  Secrets  not  to  be  revealed ;  Ori- 
 ental Legislation;  Historical  and  Geo- 
 graphical Researches  in  India;  India  as 
 connected  with  Europe;  and  a  Treatise  on 
 the  Dignity  of  Commerce. 
 
 A.N'SELM,  a  native  "f  Aoste,  in  Pied- 
 mont, was  born  in  1033.  He  was  arch- 
 bishop iif  Canterbury  in  the  reigns  of  Vi  il- 
 liam  Rufus  and  Richard  I.  He  was  a 
 strenuous  supporter  of  Papal  supremacy, 
 and  was  the  first  who  enforced  clerical 
 celibacj  in  England.  Anseim  was  a  learn- 
 ed mail,  according  to  the  learning  of  the 
 age  in  which  he  lived,  and  his  works  dis- 
 play acuteness  of  intellect.  He  was  canon- 
 ized in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 
 
 ANSON,  George,  Lord,  was  born,  in 
 1697,  at  his  father's  seat  in  Staffordshire, 
 and  manifested  early  an  inclination  to  the 
 sea.  He  first  obtained  a  command  in  1722. 
 but  did  not  acquire  celebrity  till  he  was 
 placed  at  the  head  of  an  expedition  to  the 
 South  Sea,  in  1740.  After  losing  all  his 
 ships  but  one,  and  encountering  many 
 difficulties,  but  not  without  having  severely 
 harassed  the  Spanish  settlements,  he  was 
 so  fortunate  as  to  capture  a  rich  galleon, 
 on  her  passage  from  Acapulco  to  Manilla, 
 and  to  reach  England  in  safety,  after  an 
 absence  of  nearly  four  years.  He  was 
 successively  made  rear-admiral  of  the  blue, 
 a  lord  of  the  admiralty,  rear-admiral  of 
 thr-  white,  and  vice-admiral  of  the  blue.  In 
 1747,  he  defeated  a  French  scpiadron,  and 
 captured  six  men  of  war,  and  four  East 
 Indiamen.  He  was  rewarded  with  a 
 barony,  and  rose  through  all  the  inter- 
 mediate ranks  of  the  navy  till  he  became 
 admiral,  and  commander  in  chief  of  the 
 British  fleet.  Lord  Anson  died  in  1762. 
 He  was  a  brave  and  skilful  seaman,  but 
 had  little  knowledge  of  the  world,  and  his 
 love  of  plav  made  him  the  dupe  of  sharp- 
 ers. 
 
 AXSPACH,  the  Margravine  of,  Lady 
 Elizabeth  Berkeley,  the  youngest  daughter 
 of  die  Earl  of  Berkeley,  was  born  in  1750, 
 and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  was  married 
 to  the  Hon.  Mr.  Craven,  afterwards  Lord 
 Craven.  After  a  union  of  thirteen  years, 
 the  ill  conduct  of  her  husband  compelled 
 her  to  separate  from  him.  She  travelled 
 on  the  continent,  and  an  attachment  took 
 place  between  her  and  the  Margrave  of 
 Anspach,  who  married  her  in  1791,  and 
 came  to  reside  with  her  in  England.  The 
 British  court,  however,  refused  to  receive 
 her,  and  she  was  disowned  by  her  daugh- 
 ters. She  died  in  1827.  The  Margravine 
 f assessed  considerable  talents.  Among  her 
 iterary  productions  are  her  own  Memoirs; 
 her  Travels;  and  some  dramatic  nieces  and 
 poems 
 
 ANSTEY,  Christopher,  a  poet, 
 born  in  1721,  was  educated  at  Bury  St. 
 Edward's,  Eton,  and  King's  College,  Cam- 
 
 ANT 
 
 bridge.  At  college  he  obtained  a  fellow- 
 ship, which  he  resigned  in  1754,  on  his 
 succeeding  to  his  patrimonial  property. 
 for  some  time  he  blended  the  occupations 
 of  a  countrj  gentleman  with  literary  pur- 
 suits; but,  afterwards,  resided  principally 
 at  Bath.  In  1766  appeared  his  New  Bath 
 Guide,  which  obtained  rapid  and  deserved 
 popularity.  It  has  been  often  imitated, 
 but  its  wit,  humour,  and  playfulness,  have 
 nol  yet  been  equalled.  Anstey  produced 
 'several  other  poems,  all  of  considerable 
 merit,  but  inferior  to  the  New  Bath  Guide, 
 lie  died  in  lb05. 
 
 ANSTIS,  John,  an  antiquary,  was 
 born  at  St.  Neots,  in  Cornwall,  in  1669, 
 and  was  educated  at  Exeter  College,  Ox- 
 ford, whence  he  removed  to  the  Middle 
 Temple.  In  1702,  he  was  elected  M.  P 
 for  St.  Germain's,  and  in  1713  was  ap- 
 pointed gaiter  king  at  arms.  He  died 
 in  1744.  Of  his  works,  all  of  which  are 
 heraldic,  the  principal  is  the  Register  of 
 the  Order  of  the  Garter,  in  two  lolio  vol- 
 umes. 
 
 ANTHEM1US,  a  native  of  Tralles,  in 
 Lydia,  was  at  once  an  architect,  sculptor, 
 and  able  mathematician.  Justinian  em- 
 ployed him  to  rebuild  the  church  of  Saint 
 Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  which  still  re- 
 mains a  magnificent  monument  of  his 
 talents,  though  he  did  not  live  to  finish  it. 
 From  certain  facts,  which  history  has  pre- 
 served respecting  Anthemius,  it  appears 
 that  he  had  no  slender  portion  of  chemical 
 knowledge,  and  that  he  must  have  invented 
 a  composition  closely  resembling,  if  not  the 
 same  with,  gunpowder.     He  died  in  534. 
 
 ANTHLNG,  Frederic,  known  by 
 his  biography  of  the  famous  field-marshal 
 Suwarrof,  whose  companion  in  arms  he  had 
 been.  He  was  born  in  Gotha,  travelled 
 through  Europe,  and  went  to  St.  Peters- 
 burgh,  where  he  supported  himself  by  cut- 
 ting profiles  on  paper,  and  died  in  1805. 
 
 ANTHONY,  St.,  the  founder  of  mo- 
 nastic institutions,  was  an  Egyptian,  born 
 near  Heraclea,  in  the  year  251.  Taking 
 literally  the  scriptural  injunction  to  give 
 all  to  the  poor,  he  distributed  to  them  the 
 whole  produce  arising  from  the  sale  of  his 
 property,  and  then  retired  into  the  desert, 
 whither  his  reputation  for  sanctity  drew 
 crowds  of  disciples.  He  died  at  the  ad- 
 vanced age  of  one  hundred  and  five. 
 
 ANTIGONUS,  one  of  the  generals  of 
 Alexander  the  Great,  was  the  son  of 
 Philip,  a  Macedonian  nobleman.  On  the 
 partition  of  Alexander's  empire,  Pampby- 
 lia, Lycia, and  Phrygia  .Major  were  assign- 
 ed to  Antigonus,  to  which  Lycaonia  was 
 subsequently  added.  After  having  de- 
 stroyed Eumenes,  he  reduced  Asia  Minor 
 and  Syria,  and  assumed  the  title  of  king 
 of  Asia.  Several  leagues  were  formed 
 against  him, over  which  he  triumphed;  but 
 
ANT 
 
 he  was  at  length  defeated  and  slain,  at 
 the  battle  of  Ipsus,  which  he  fought  with 
 Seleucus,  Cassander,  and  Lysjmachus, 
 301  years  n.  c.  Antigonus  was  a  man  of 
 great  talents,  and  amiable  in  domestic 
 lite. 
 
 ANTIGONUS  SOCH.F.US,  a  Jew, 
 lived  in  the  time  of  the  high  priest  Elea- 
 zar,  about  300  \ears  b.  c,  was  a  disciple 
 of  Simeon  the  Just,  and,  in  contradiction 
 to  the  Pharisees,  hell  that  men  might  to 
 serve  God  solely  for  the  love  of  him,  with- 
 out the  hope  of  temporal  reward;  a  doc- 
 trine whicn  his  followers  Sadoe  and 
 Baithosns  pushed  so  far,  a>  to  teach  that 
 no  future  recompense  ought  to  be  expected, 
 and.  consequently,  that,  limre  would  be  no 
 resurrection.  Hence  arose  the  sect  of  the 
 Sadducees. 
 
 ANTISTHENES,  founder  of  the  sect 
 of  Cynics,  was  born  at  Aliens,  I?,  c.  423, 
 and  was  first  instructed  by  the  sophist 
 Gorgiasj  and  afterwards  by  Socrates. 
 Thf  lessons  of  the  latter  he  nob!v  repaid 
 by  avenging  him,  it  being-  he  who  procured 
 the  death  of  Melitus,  and  the  banishment 
 of  Anytus,  the  two  accusers  of  Socrates. 
 Mis  works  are  lost,  with  the  exception  of 
 a  few  apophthegms;  for  two  declamations 
 and  some  letters,  which  are  attributed  to 
 him,  are  believed  to  be  spurious.  From 
 his  book  on  physics  Cicero  quotes  a  re- 
 markable sentence — "  The  gods  of  the 
 people  are  many,  but  the  God  of  nature  is 
 one."     Diogenes  was  his  disciple. 
 
 ANTOINETTE,  Maria,  arch-duch- 
 ess of  Austria,  daughter  of  the  emperor 
 Francis  I.  and  of  Maria  Theresa,  was 
 born  at  Vienna  in  1755.  On  the  16th  of 
 May,  1770,  she  married  the  dauphin  of 
 France,  afterwards  Louis  XVI.,  and  her 
 arrival  in  France  was  celebrated  with 
 every  demonstration  of  public  joy.  The 
 ferocious  events  of  the  revolution  brought 
 on  the  memorable  sixth  of  October,  when 
 the  sanguinary  mob  of  Paris  appeared  at 
 Versailles,  threatening  aloud  that  they 
 would  tear  her  to  pieces.  Forced  to  ac- 
 company the  king  to  Paris  in  a  journey 
 of  six  hours,  while  the  heads  of  two  of 
 her  murdered  body-gaards  were  raised  on 
 pikes  bv  the  side  of  her  carriage,  and 
 while  insults,  threats  and  blasphemies 
 every  moment  rent  the  air,  she  preserved 
 a  singular  and  noble  serenity.  On  the 
 twentieth  of  June,  and  the  tenth  of  Au-j 
 gust,  1792,  those  days  of  horror  and  an- 
 archy, she  again  saw  herself  insulted,  and 
 saved  with  difficulty  from  the  hands  of  as-' 
 sassins;  and  in  the  assembly  she  heard 
 unmoved,  the  decrees  which  robbed  the 
 monarch  of  his  throne.  She  was  executed  ! 
 in  1793,  by  order  of  the  revolutionary  tri-  j 
 bunal.  She  was  then  near  thirty-eight,; 
 but  it  is  remarkable  that  her  misfortuiies 
 had  changed  the  colour  of  her  hair  to  a  sil- 1 
 
 ANT  35 
 
 I  very  white.  The  mind  of  Antoinette  was 
 naturally  powerful,  and  had  been  carefully 
 ;  cultivated. 
 
 ANTOJVtDES,  John,  sumamed  Van- 
 (hv  Goes,  from  his  native  town  of  Goes, 
 in  Zealand,  was  bom  in  1647.  He  dis- 
 played an  early  talent  for  poetry,  and  soon 
 rose  to  a  high  rank  among  the  poets  of  his 
 country.  He  is  the  author  of  several 
 works,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  is  a 
 Descriptive  Poem,  in  four  cantos,  on  the 
 River  Y.  He  died  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
 eight. 
 
 ANTONINUS  PIUS, Titus  Aureli- 
 ts  FuLVius,a  Roman  emperor,  was  born 
 at  Lanuvium,  a.  d.  86,  raised  to  the  consul- 
 ship in  120,  and  in  13S  succeeded  Adrian, 
 by  whom  he  had  been  adopted.  His  reign, 
 which  lasted  twenty-three  years,  was  a 
 happy  period  for  the  Roman  people.  Cle- 
 ment, equitable,  modest,  and  virtuous,  he 
 was  a  model  for  sovereigns,  and  his  death, 
 which  took  place  A.  d.  161,  was  justly  re- 
 garded as  a  public  calamity. 
 
 ANTONINUS,  Marcus  Annius  Au- 
 relius,  surnamed  the  Philosopher,  was 
 born  A.  I).  121,  and  adopted  by  Antoninus 
 Pius,  who  gave  him  his  daughter  Faustina 
 to  wife.  At  a  very  early  age  he  was  deep- 
 ly imbued  with  the  stoical  philosophy.  On 
 his  accession,  he  associated  Lucius  Verus 
 with  himself  in  the  government  of  the  em- 
 pire. After  the  death  of  Verus,  in  169, 
 Marcus  Aurelius  carried  on  the  Pannonian 
 •  war  in  person,  during  five  campaigns,  in 
 which  he  endured  the  toils  of  a  military 
 life,  and  the  rigour  of  the  climate,  without 
 a  murmur.  From  this  war  he  was  called 
 away  by  the  revolt  of  Avidius  Cassius, 
 which,  however,  was  soon  ended  by  Avidius 
 falling  a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  of  his  own 
 officers.  After  an  absence  of  eight  years, 
 Marcus  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  re- 
 mained but  a  short  time,  and  then  departed 
 to  take  the  field  against  the  Marcomanni. 
 On  this  expedition  he  died,  of  a  pestilential 
 disorder,  at  Vindobonum,  now  Vienna,  a. 
 d  180.  The  whole  Roman  empire  mourned 
 his  death,  and  his  name  was  enrolled  among 
 its  tutelary  deities.  The  sorrow  which 
 his  loss  excited  was  but  a  just  tribute  to 
 his  public  and  private  virtues.  His  Medi- 
 tations, which  do  honour  to  his  heart,  have 
 descended  to  us,  and  have  been  translated 
 into  many  languages. 
 
 ANTONIO,  of  Palermo,  was  born  in 
 1394,  and  died  at  Naples,  in  1471.  He 
 was  in  the  service  of  Alphonso  of  Arragon. 
 He  composed  various  pieces  in  prose  and 
 verse;  and  is  said  to  have  sold  one  of  his 
 sstates,  to  procure  money  for  the  purchase 
 of  a  manuscript  Livy,  copied  by  Poggio. 
 
 ANTONICS,  Marcus,  commcnTy  cal- 
 led Mark  Anthony,  was  grandson  of 
 the  celebrated  orator  of  the  same  name. 
 Anthony  was  left  an  orphan  when  young, 
 
3«  APC 
 
 and  he  speedily  wasted  his  whole  fortune 
 in  riotous  excesses.  After  having  served 
 in  Syria  and  Egypt,  he  joined  Caesar  in 
 Gaul,  by  whom  lie  was  supplied  with  the 
 means  of  returning  to  Rome,  and  obtaining 
 tiie  questorship,  and  subsequently  the  tri- 
 bunesVrp.  lie  ably  seconded  Cesar  inhis 
 struggle  forsupreme  power,  and  was  made 
 joint  consul  with  him.  It  was  lie  who,  at 
 the  festival  of  theLupercalii,  thrice  offered 
 Caesar  the  imperial  diadem.  He  hoped, 
 on  the  death  of  the  dictator,  to  obtain  the 
 sovereign  power,  and  he  succeeded  in  pro- 
 curing the  expulsion  of  Brutus  and  Cassius 
 from  Rome.  They,  however,  formed  a 
 union  with  Octavius,and  a  contest  ensued, 
 which,  ended  in  Qctavius  joining  him,  and, 
 with  Lepidus,  forming  the  second  triumvi- 
 rate. A  bloody  proscription  followed,  of 
 which  Cicero  was  one  of  the  victims. — 
 The  defeai  of  Brutus  and  Cassius.  at  1'hil- 
 ippi,  which  was  chiefly  occasioned  by  the 
 talent  and  valour  of  Anthony,  left  the  tri- 
 umvirs uncontrolled  masters  of  the  world. 
 In  the  east,  which  was  his  portion  of  the 
 spoil,  he  reigned  with  exceeding  splendour. 
 There  he  became  enamoured  of  Cleopatra, 
 queen  of  Egypt,  and  his  passion  led  him 
 to  divorce  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Octavius, 
 whom  he  haul  married  after  the  death  of 
 Fulvia.  A  war  was  the  consequence,  in 
 which  lie  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Ac- 
 tium,  and,  being  eventually  almost  wholly 
 deserted  by  his  troops,  he  fell  upon  his 
 sword,  in  the  fifty-sixth  war  of  his  age,  b. 
 (     30. 
 
 A.WARI,  a  celebrated  Persian  poet,  a 
 native  of  Khorasan,  was  patronised  by 
 Sultan  Sangiar;  but,  being  a  dabbler  in 
 astrology,  he  had  the  folly  to  predict  that 
 a  destructive  tempest  would  happen  on  a 
 certain  day,  which  day,  however,  proved 
 to  be  unusually  calm.  This  unlucky  prog- 
 nostication, which  had  spread  universal 
 >r  among  the  people',  lost  him  the  fa- 
 vour of  the  sultan,  and  he  retired  to  Balk, 
 where  be  died  in  the  year  1200. 
 
 LNVILLE,  John  Baptist  Boub- 
 GVjIGNON  i>',  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
 modern  geographers,  was  born  at  Paris, 
 in  hi.97,  and  his  attention  was  firsl  attract- 
 ed to  geographical  studies  by  a  map  coming 
 into  his  hands  when  he  was  only  twelve 
 years  old.  From  that  time,  all  the  leisure 
 moments  of  his  youth  were  employed  in 
 tracing  out  on  charts  the  inarch  of  armies. 
 and  the  boundaries  of  empires.  As  he 
 grew  up,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  sci- 
 ence of  geography,  and  the  numerous  and 
 valuable  maps  and  works  which  he  pub- 
 lished left  hiin  without  a  rival.  For  fifty 
 years  he  is  said  to  have  laboured  fifteen 
 hours  a  day.     He  died  in  1782. 
 
 APCHON,  Cl.  Mark  Ant.  d',  a  na- 
 tive of  Montbrison,  in  France,  was  brought 
 up  to  the  military  profession,  which,  how- 
 
 API 
 
 ever,  he  quitted  for  the  church.  He  rose 
 to  be  bishop  of  Dijon,  and  archbishop  of 
 Audi,  and  was  a  bright  example  of  virtue 
 and  charity.  In  a  violent  conflagration, 
 he  intrepidly  risked  his  own  life  to  snatch 
 two  children  from  the  flames.  This  excel- 
 lent prelate  died  at  Paris,  in  1783,  in  his 
 sixtieth  year. 
 
 APELLES,  the  most  celebrated  of  an- 
 cient painters,  is  said  by  Pliny  to  have 
 been  born  at  Cos,  but  others  assign  Ephe- 
 6ns  as  his  birthplace.  He  was  contempo- 
 rary w  ith  Alexander  the  Great,  who  held 
 his  talents  in  such  estimation,  that  he 
 would  permit  no  other  artist  to  paint  his 
 picture ;  and  even  gave  up  to  hnu  the  beau- 
 tiful Campaspe,  his  mistress,  with  whom 
 the  painter  had  fallen  in  love.  Exquisite 
 grace  was  the  principal  characteristic  of 
 his  style.  The  time  and  place  of  his  death 
 are  unknown. 
 
 APER,  Marcus,  a  Latin  orator,  was  a 
 j  Gaul  by  birth,  and   distinguished   himself 
 as   an   advocate   at  the  Roman   bar.     He 
 I  also  took  a  part  in  politics,  and  was  suc- 
 cessively senator,    questor,     tribune,  and 
 pretor.     The  celebrated  Dialogue  of  Ora- 
 tors, which  has  been  attributed  to  Tacitus 
 land  Quintilian,  is  now   generally  believed 
 I  to  be  of  his  composition.     He   died  about 
 
 A.    D.  51. 
 
 APIAN,  Peter,  a  mathematician  and 
 astronomer  of  eminence,  was  born  in  Mis- 
 nia,  in  1495,  and  became  professor  of  ma- 
 thematics at  Ingolstadt.  Charles  V.  es- 
 teemed his  talents  so  highly  that  he  knight- 
 ed him,  and  made  him  a  present  of  three 
 thousand  pieces  of  gold.  He  died  in  1552, 
 and  his  son,  Philip,  succeeded  him  as  ma- 
 thematical professor.  Alpian  was  the 
 first  to  make  known  that  the  tails  of  com- 
 ets are  always  projected  in  an  opposite  di- 
 rection from  the  sun,  and  to  propose  the 
 discovery  of  the  longitude  by  lunar  obser- 
 vations. 
 
 APICIUS,a  name  which  seems  to  have 
 been  consecrated  to  gluttony.  There  were 
 three  Romans  who  bore  it ;  the  first  under 
 Sylla,  the  second  under  Augustus  and  Ti- 
 berius, the  third  under  Trajan.  The  sec- 
 ond is  the  most  notorious;  he  is  commem- 
 orated by  Seneca,  Pliny,  Juvenal,  and 
 Martial.  The  treatise  De  Re  Culinaria 
 is  attributed  to  him.  He  poisoned  him- 
 self, on  discovering  that  his  fortune  was 
 too  much  diminished  to  allow  of  his  indulg- 
 ing in  the  luxury  of  the  table  to  the  same 
 extent  that  he  had  done.  The  third  Api- 
 cius  is  more  advantageously  known  as  the 
 inventor  of  a  mode  of  pickling  oysters. 
 
 Ai'lO.X,  an  Egyptian  grammarian,  of 
 considerable  talents,  but  full  of  boastful 
 vanity  (for  which  latter  quality  Tiberius 
 called  him  the  drum  of  the  world),  was 
 born  in  Egypt,  during  the  first  century  of 
 our  era,  and  was  a  bitter  enemy  of  the- 
 
APO 
 
 Jews.  He  not  only  ridiculed  them  in  his 
 writings,  but  is  also  said  to  have  stimula- 
 ted Caligula  to  persecute  them.  His  mis- 
 representations were  refuted  by  Josepbus. 
 
 APOLLODORUS,  an  Athenian  paint- 
 er, flourished  about  408  years  B.  c.  He 
 was  the  first  who  blended  and  harmonized 
 the  colours,  and  made  a  proper  distribu- 
 tion of  the  shadows.  He  considered  him- 
 self as  the  prince  of  painters;  but,  in  his 
 latter  days,  his  glorv  was  eclipsed  by  lhat 
 of  Zeuxis. 
 
 APOLLODORUS,  a  native  of  Damas- 
 cus, was  celebrated  as  an  architect,  in  the 
 reigns  of  Trajan  and  Adrian.  He  con- 
 structed Trajan's  forum,  the  gigantic 
 bridge  over  the  Danube,  and  many  other 
 admirable  structures.  His  plain  speaking 
 cost  him  his  life.  A  temple  of  Venus  hav- 
 ing been  erected,  from  a  faulty  design  by 
 Adrian,  Apollodorus  criticised  it,  and  ex- 
 claimed, that  if  the  goddess  should  wish  to 
 go  out,  she  could  not  do  it  without  break- 
 ing her  head  against  the  door  frame.  To 
 avenge  himself  for  this  sarcasm,  the  des- 
 pot put  him  to  death,  about  the  year  130. 
 
 APOLLONIUS,  an  Athenian  sculptor, 
 said  to  have  lived  soon  after  Alexander  the 
 Great,  produced  the  statue,  believed  to  be 
 a  reposing  Hercules',  of  which  the  body, 
 all  that  remains,  is  known  by  the  name  of 
 the  Belvedere  Torso.  Mutilated  as  this 
 statue  is,  it  is  one  of  the  finest  remains  of 
 art  that  has  descended  to  us  from  ancient 
 times. 
 
 APOLLONIUS,  of  Rhodes,  an  emi- 
 nent statuary,  who  sculptured,  in  conjunc- 
 tion with  Tauriscus,  the  fine  group  which 
 is  called  the  Farnese  Bull,  the  remains  of 
 which  were  found  in  the  baths  of  Caracal- 
 la.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  some 
 years  subsequently  to  Alexander  the  Great. 
 
 APOLLONIUS,  a  native  of  Perga,  in 
 Pamphylia,  is  one  of  the  four  authors  who 
 have  a  title  to  be  considered  as  the  fathers 
 of  the  science  of  mathematics.  Euclid, 
 Archimedes,  and  Diophantus  are  the  other 
 three.  He  flourished  at  Alexandria,  under 
 the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philopator,  200  years 
 E.  c.  The  only  part  of  his  works  which 
 has  survived  is  a  Treatise  on  Conic  Sec- 
 tions, in  eight  books,  of  which  only  the 
 first- four  are  extant  in  the  original  lan- 
 guage ;  three  have  been  translated  from 
 the  Arabic,  and  the  fourth  was  restored  by 
 Halley,  from  other  sources. 
 
 APOLLONIUS,  surnamed  Rhokius, 
 a  Greek  poet,  was  a  native  of  Alexandria, 
 or,  as  some  say,  of  Naucrates,  and  was 
 bom  about  194  years  B.  c.  Callimacims 
 was  his  tutor,  and,  conceiving  himself  to 
 have  been  treated  ungratefully,  he  took 
 his  revenge  bv  satirising  his  pupil.  Apol- 
 lonius  taught  rnetoric  at  Rhodes,  and  vas 
 subsequently-  made  librarian  at  Alexandria. 
 His  poem  on    the  Argonaut ic    expe  lition 
 
 APU 
 
 37 
 
 has  many  beauties,  some   of  which  Virgil 
 did  not  disdain  to  copy. 
 
 APOLLONIUS,  Tyaneus,  a  native 
 of  Tyana,  in  Cappadocia,  a  follower  of  the 
 doctrine  of  Pythagoras,  was  born  about 
 the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era. 
 His  history  is  so  interwoven  with  fables, 
 that  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
 separate  the  true  from  the  false.  That  he 
 must  be  called  an  impostor  is  certain,  for 
 he  pretended  to  divine  attributes:  but  his 
 doctrines  and  his  morals  were,  neverthe- 
 less, pure.  Several  of  the  Roman  emperors 
 honoured  him,  temples  were  erected  to 
 him,  and  his  memory  was  revered  till  the 
 downfall  of  paganism.  He  is  said  to  have 
 travelled  into  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  India, 
 and  Egypt,  and  to  have  settled  at  Ephesus, 
 where  he  is  supposed  to  have  died,  at  the 
 age  of  ninety-seven,  during  the  reign  of 
 Nerva.  The  miracles  which  he  was  pre- 
 tended to  have  performed  were  opposed  by 
 the  pagans  to  those  of  Jesus  Christ.  Of 
 the  works  of  Apollonius  nothing  remains 
 but  his  Apology  to  Domitian,  and  eighty- 
 four  epistles. 
 
 APOLLONIUS,  surnamed  Dyscolus, 
 from  his  moroseness,  was  a  native  of  Alex- 
 andria, flourished  about  A.  D.  136,  and  is 
 the  author  of  the  first  extant  Treatise  on 
 Syntax.  He  was  the  father  of  Herodian, 
 a  famous  grammarian. 
 
 APPIAN,  a  Greek  historian,  born  at 
 Alexandria,  lived  under  the  emperors  Tra- 
 jan, Adrian,  and  Antoninus,  and  was  a 
 pleader  at  Rome.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
 Roman  History,  originally  consisting  of 
 twentv-four  books,  a  work  of  great  merit, 
 but  of  which,  unfortunately,  only  a  part 
 has  escaped  the  ravages  of  time. 
 
 APPIANI,  Andrew,  a  celebrated 
 Italian  painter,  was  born  in  the  Upper 
 Milanese,  in  1754.  He  died  in  1818, 
 while  executing  an  immense  work  in  the 
 palace  of  Milan.  Appiani  often  proved 
 himself  no  unworthy  rival  of  Corregio,  and 
 particularly  excelled  in  fresco  paintings. 
 He  was  a  member  of  the  Italian  Institute, 
 and  was  patronised  by  Napoleon,  who  gave 
 him  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honour  and 
 nominated  him  his  paintei. 
 
 APRES  DE  MANNEVILLETTE, 
 John  Baptist  Nicholas  Denis  d', 
 a  French  hvdrographer,  was  born  at  Havre, 
 in  1707,  and  brought  up  to  the  naval  ser- 
 vice. He  died  in  1780.  To  him  the  naval 
 profession  is  indebted  for  the  Oriental 
 Neptune,  an  excellent  collection  of  charts 
 of  the  eastern  seas,  the  first  edition  of 
 which  appeared  in  1743.  A  supplement 
 was  published  after  his  death.  He  de- 
 rived much  valuable  assistance  from  the 
 friendship  of  Dalrymple. 
 
 APULEIUS,  Lucius,  a  philosopher  of 
 the  Platonic  school,  was  born  at  Madaura, 
 in   Africa,   in    the    second   century.     His 
 
38  ARA 
 
 thirst  of  knowledge  led  him  to  travel  much, 
 and  this,  and  his  liberality  to  his  teachers, 
 having  exhausted  his  fortune,  he  settled  at 
 Rome,  and  practised  at  the  bar.  Thence 
 he  returned  to  Carthage,  where  he  married 
 a  rich  widow  named  Pudentilla.  Enraged 
 at  being  thus  shut  out  from  sharing  in  her 
 property,  her  relations  accused  him,  before 
 the  proconsul,  of  having  won  her  by  ma- 
 gical arts  He,  however,  refuted  them  in 
 an  eloquent  defence,  which  is  still  extant. 
 The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown.  Of 
 that  part  of  his  works  which  has  been  pre- 
 served, The  Golden  Ass,  in  eleven  books, 
 is  the  most  celebrated. 
 
 AQUTNAS,  St.  Thomas,  a  celebrated 
 theologian,  to  whom  the  hyperbolical  ad- 
 miration of  the  dark  ages  gave  the  sound- 
 ing titles  of  the  Angelical  Doctor,  the  Fifth 
 Doctor  of  the  Church,  the  Eagle  of  Divines, 
 and  the  Angel  of  the  Schools.  He  was 
 descended  from  the  counts  of  Aquino,  in 
 Calabria,  born  in  1224,  and  educated  at 
 tne  university  of  Naples.  At  the  .age  of 
 seventeen  he  entered  into  the  Dominican 
 order,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  his  mother ; 
 and  when  only  twenty-four  he  taught  dia- 
 lectics, philosophy,  and  theology,  in  the 
 university  of  Paris,  with  great  applause. 
 After  having  lectured  on  divinity  in  several 
 universities,  he  settled  at  Naples,  the  arch- 
 bishopric of  which  city  he  refused.  He 
 died  in  1274,  and  Mas  canonized  in  1323. 
 The  Roman  Catholic  Church  considers  his 
 writings  as  of  high  authority;  and  they 
 gave  rise  to  a  sect  which  bore  the  name  of 
 the  Thomists.  They  form  seventeen  vol- 
 umes; the  most  celebrated  of  them  is  the 
 Sumrua  Theologise.  One  anecdote  is  re- 
 corded of  his  readiness  of  repartee.  S  bow- 
 ing him  in  his  closet  a  heap  of  wealth,  the 
 pope  said,  "  You  see  the  time  is  gone  by 
 when  the  church  could  say  '  silver  and  gold 
 have  I  none.'"— "True,  holy  father," 
 replied  Aquinas;  "and  so  is  the  time 
 when  she  could  say  to  the  palsied,  '  take  up 
 thy  bed  and  walk.'"' 
 
 ARAGON,  Tullia  r>',  a  descendant 
 of  an  illegitimate  branch  of  the  regal  house 
 of  Aragon,  was  celebrated  in  Italy,  towards 
 the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  for  her 
 beauty,  wit,  learning,  and  varied  accom- 
 plishments. Her  merits  were  the  favourite 
 theme  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  the  age. 
 She  is  the  author  of  Poems,  a  Dialogue  of 
 Love,  and  II  Meschino,  a  poem  in  thirty- 
 six  cantos. 
 
 ARAM,  Eu  g  EB  E,  a  native  of  Yorkshire, 
 and  son  of  a  gardener,  was  born  in  1704. 
 His  genius  displayed  itself  while  he  follow- 
 ed the  humble  occupation  of  his  father. 
 He  rapidly  acquired  a  knowledge  of  ma- 
 thematics, and  with  the  most  unwearied 
 zeal  mastered  the  Latin  of  Lilly's  gr  uninar, 
 and  afterwards  Camden's  Greek,  till  this 
 self-taught  classic  advanced  gradually  but 
 
 ARA 
 
 surely  to  a  comprehension  of  the  most  diffi- 
 cult authors  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  litera- 
 tures. He  also  studied  and  made  himself 
 perfect  in  Hebrew,  and  with  these  great 
 acquirements  he  gained  his  livelihood,  by 
 engaging  in  several  schools  in  the  south  of 
 England.  In  1757,  he  came  to  the  free 
 school  at  Lynn,  a  perfect  master  of  the 
 most  abstruse  studies,  and  acquainted  with 
 heraldry  and  botany.  He  had  begun  to 
 make  collections  for  radical  comparisons 
 between  the  modern  and  ancient  languages, 
 and  already  more  than  three  thousand  words 
 were  selected  to  establish  this  surprising 
 affinity  in  a  comparative  lexicon,  when  his 
 labours  were  arrested  by  the  hand  of  jus- 
 tice. He  was  taken  up  at  Lynn  in  1758, 
 for  the  murder  of  Daniel  Clark,  a  shoema- 
 ker of  Knaresborough,  who  had  disappeared 
 thirteen  years  before,  and  after  a  trial  in 
 which  he  defended  himself  with  singular 
 coolness  and  ability,  he  was  found  guilty 
 of  the  crime,  and  after  attempting  to  com- 
 mit suicide,  he  was  executed  at  York  in 
 1759.  He  acknowledged  the  justice  of 
 the  sentence,  and  alleged  his  suspicion  of 
 an  unlawful  intercourse  between  Clark  and 
 his  wife,  as  his  motive  for  the  commission 
 I  of  the  murder. 
 
 ARANZI,    or   ARANTIUS,   Julius 
 
 |C/esar,  a  celebrated   anatomist,  a  pupil 
 
 !  of  Vesalius  and   of  Maggius,  was  born,  in 
 
 1 1530,  at  Bologna,  in  which  city  he  became 
 
 professor  of  surgery  and  anatomy.     He  held 
 
 the  professional  chair  for  thirty-two  years, 
 
 and  greatly  distinguished  himself.     Aranzi 
 
 threw    light  on    the   muscular  system,  the 
 
 theory  of  the  circulation,  and  the  structure 
 
 ( of  the  foetus  and  its  appendages.     He  died 
 
 ,  in  1589. 
 
 AR ATI'S,  a  Greek  poet,  born  at  Soles, 
 !  in  Cilicia,  is  the  author  of  a  Greek  astro- 
 nomical poem,  intitled  Phenomena,  which 
 !  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Cicero,  and 
 quoted  by  St.  Paul.  His  other  works  are 
 lost.  He  was  patronised  by  Ptolemy  Phi- 
 [  ladelphns. 
 
 ARATUS,  of  Sicyon,  one  of  the  great 
 j  men  of  the  declining  age  of  Greece,  was 
 j  born  B.  C,  273.  At  the  age  of  only  twenty, 
 i he  delivered  Sievon,his  native  place,  from 
 |  the  tyranny  of  Nicocles,  but  would  not 
 allow  a  drop  of  blood  to  be  shed.  Being 
 entrusted  with  the  government,  he  joined 
 the  Achaean  league,  and  was  advanced  to 
 he  general  of  the  confederacy.  In  this 
 capacity,  he,  bv  an  admirable  stratagem, 
 recovered  the  citadel  of  Corinth  from  the 
 Macedonians.  Circumstances,  however, 
 subsequently  rendered  it  necessary  for  him 
 to  unite  with  Maccdun,  and  he,  accord- 
 ingly, became  the  ally  of  Antigonus,  and, 
 next,  df  Philip.  The  latter  monarch  is 
 suspected  to  have  caused  his  death  by  slow 
 poison  He  died  B.  c.  216,  sincerely 
 lamented  by  his  fellow  citizens.     His  Com- 
 
ARC 
 
 roentaries,  containing  the  history  of  his 
 own  actions  and  times,  are,  unfortunately, 
 lost. 
 
 ARC 
 
 39 
 
 ARBUTHNOT,  John,  Dr.,  was  the 
 
 son  of  a  Scutch  episcopal  clergyman,  and 
 was  born  at  Arbuthnot,  near  Montrose, 
 soon  after  the  Restoration.  Having  com- 
 pleted his  studies,  and  taken  his  medical 
 degree,  at  Aberdeen,  he  proceeded  to  Lon- 
 don, where,  for  some  time,  he  supported 
 himself  by  teaching  the  mathematics.  In 
 1704,  the  merits  of  his  paper,  On  the  Re- 
 gularity of  the  Births  of  the  two  Sexes, 
 procured  his  admission  into  the  Royal 
 Society.  He  rose  in  his  profession  to  be 
 the  queen's  physician  in  ordinary,  and  a 
 fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians;  but 
 his  practice  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
 extensive.  Acquainted  with  Pope,  Swift, 
 and  the  other  wits  of  the  age,  he  took  a 
 share  in  their  literary  enterprises,  and 
 contributed  largely  to  the  Memoirs  of 
 Martinus  Scriblerus.  The  History  of  John 
 Bull,  A  Treatise  on  the  Scolding  of  the 
 Ancients,  and  The  Art  of  Political  Lying, 
 with  many  other  pieces  of  wit  and  humour, 
 were  the  offspring  of  his  pen.  After  long 
 lingering  under  asthma  and  dropsy,  which 
 he  bore  with  exemplary  patience,  he  died 
 in  February,  1735.  Swift  gave  his  cha- 
 racter in  few  words — "He  has,"  said  he, 
 "  morQ  wit  than  all  our  race,  and  his  hu- 
 manity is  equal  to  his  wit."  Nor  is  there 
 any  thing  of  the  exaggeration  of  friendship 
 in  this  praise.  Among  his  serious  works, 
 part  of  which  are  medical,  may  be  named 
 his  Tables  of  Ancient  Coins,  Weights,  and 
 Measures. 
 
 ARCHIAS,  Aulus  Licinius,  a  Greek 
 poet,  a  native  of  Antioch,  the  contemporary 
 and  friend  of  Cicero  and  Lucullus,  the 
 former  of  whom  pronounced  on  his  behalf 
 the  eloquent  oration  Pro  Archia  Poeta. 
 Archias  wrote  a  verse  History  of  the  Cim- 
 bric  war,  and  other  works ;  but  only  a  few- 
 epigrams  of  his  are  extant. 
 
 ARCHILOCHUS,  a  Greek  poet  and 
 musician,  born  about  the  year  700  B.  c, 
 was  the  son  of  Telesicles  of  Paros,  a  man 
 of  high  rank      He    is  celebrated   for  his 
 
 splendid  talents,  the  bitterness  of  his  satire, 
 the  invention  of  iambic  verse,  and  his  cow- 
 ardice. In  battle  he  threw  away  his  shield, 
 to  fly  more  expeditiously;  an  action  which 
 he  defended  by  saying,  that  "  it  was  easiei 
 to  get  a  new  buckler  than  a  new  exist- 
 ence." Such  was  the  deadly  virulence  of 
 his  invective,  that  Lycambes  hanged  him- 
 self in  consequence  of  having  been  exposed 
 to  it;  a  visitation,  however,  which  he 
 brought  on  his  own  head,  by  marrying  his 
 daughter  to  a  rich  suitor,  after  he  had 
 promised  her  to  Archilochus.  The  poet 
 was  at  last  killed,  by  Corax  of  Naxos. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
 brated geometricians  and  mechanicians  of 
 antiquity,  was  born  at  Syracuse,  about  the 
 year  287  B.  c,  and  was  related  to  King 
 Hiero.  He,  nowever,  took  no  part  in 
 state  affairs,  but  devoted  himself  to  the 
 cultivation  of  the  sciences.  As  a  mathe- 
 matician he  had  few  rivals ;  as  a  mechani- 
 cian he  had  none.  The  combination  of  pul- 
 leys for  raising  vast  weights,  the  endless 
 screw,  and  the  screw  which  bears  his 
 name,  were  invented  by  him.  He  is  also 
 said  to  have  constructed  a  machine,  which 
 represented  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bod- 
 ies. But  it  was  in  defence  of  Syracuse, 
 when  that  city  was  besieged  by  Marcellus, 
 that  his  inventive  genius  was  the  most 
 splendidly  displayed.  By  his  mechanical 
 inventions  the  besieging  force  was  long 
 held  at  bay.  Among  these  was  a  burning 
 glass,  composed  of  reflecting  mirrors,  by 
 which  he  fired  the  hostile  fleet.  The  city 
 was  at  last  taken  by  storm,  and  Archi- 
 medes fell  by  the  hand  of  a  soldier,  B.  c. 
 212,  in  the  seventy-fourth  year  of  his  age. 
 Several  of  his  works  are  extant. 
 
 ARCHYTAS,  a  Pythagorean  philoso- 
 pher, born  at  Tarentum,  about  408  years 
 b.  c,  was  at  once  a  mathematician,  a 
 general,  and  a  statesman,  and  was  eminent 
 in  each  of  these  pursuits.  He  was  seven 
 times  at  the  head  of  the  government,  and 
 often  commanded  the.  army,  without  ever 
 being  vanquished.  As  a  mechanician,  he 
 invented  the  screw,  the  crane,  and  various 
 hydraulic  mechanics.  To  the  philosophy 
 of  Archytas,  Aristotle  was  indebted  for 
 many  ideas.  He  was  shipwrecked  on  the 
 coast  of  Apulia.  His  only  extant  produc- 
 tion is  a  metaphysical  work  On  the  Uni- 
 verse. 
 
 ARCO.\,  Le  mice  a  up  i)',  a  French 
 general  and  engineer,  was  born  at  Pontar- 
 lier,  in  1733,  and  died  in  1800.  He  was 
 intended  for  the  church ;  but,  from  an  early 
 age,  the  time  that  he  should  have  dedicated 
 to  languages  and  theology,  he  spent  in 
 drawing  plans  of  fortifications.  His  picture 
 having  been  painted  as  an  abbe,  he  oblite- 
 rated the  clerical  dress,  and  replaced  it  by 
 that  of  an  engineer ;  and  this  silent  hint 
 induced    his    parent    to    compiy  with   hw 
 
40  ARE 
 
 wishes.  D'Arcon  distinguished  himself, 
 during  the  seven  years  Avar,  in  the  defence 
 of  Cassel.  In  1780,  he  invented  the  float- 
 ing batteries,  which  were  intended  to  re- 
 duce Gibraltar.  They  failed  ;  not,  howev- 
 er, bv  his  fault;  and  became  an  object  of 
 ridicule  with  thuse  who  measure  merit  by 
 success:  they,  nevertheless,  did  honour  to 
 the  genius  of  the  projector.  D'Arcon  is 
 the  author  of  several  works  on  his  profes- 
 sion, which,  though  faulty  in  style,  display 
 talent  and  skill. 
 
 ARDERN,  John,  an  English  surgeon, 
 settled  at  Newark,  in  1349,  and  removed 
 to  London,  in  1370,  in  consequence  of  his 
 extensive  reputation.  The  title  of  reviver 
 of  surgery  in  England  in  the  fourteenth 
 century  has  been  given  to  him.  He  Avas 
 particularly  successful  in  the  cure  of  fistula, 
 the  mode  of  operating  for  which  he  much 
 improved. 
 
 ARETAPHILA,  a  female  of  Cyrene, 
 Avho  lived  about  the  time  of  the  Avars  be- 
 tween Mithridates  and  the  Romans,  deliv- 
 ered her  country  from  the  tyranny  of  Nico- 
 crates,  and  of  his  brother  Lysander,  the 
 former  of  Avhom  had  murdered  her  hus- 
 band. After  having  given  Avise  laAvs  and 
 institutions  to  the  Cyreneans,  she  refused 
 to  accept  the  sovereign  authority,  and  re- 
 tired to  a  private  station. 
 
 ARETINO,Guido,  or  Guido  d'Arez- 
 zo,  born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany,  about  the 
 year  995,  Avas  a  Benedictine  monk.  To 
 him  music  is  indebted  for  the  invention  of 
 the  gamut,  and  other  discoveries.  His 
 merit  excited  such  envy  among  his  confra- 
 ternity, that  he  was  obliged  to  quit  his 
 ci mvcnt ;  but  for  this  he  Avas  amply  indem- 
 nified bv  the  praise  and  the  patronage  of 
 the  pope.  The  time  of  his  death  is  not 
 recorded. 
 
 ARET1NO,  Leonard,  so  called  from 
 Arezzo,  Avhere  he  Avas  born  in  1S69,  but 
 as  hose  real  name  Avas  Bruni,  Avas  an  Italian 
 historian,  of  considerable  merit,  and  es- 
 teemed for  his  virtues.  He  was  secretary 
 to  several  popes,  and  chancellor  to  the 
 Florentine  republic.  He  died  at  Florence, 
 in  1444.  His  principal  Avorks  are,  a  His- 
 tory of  his  OA\n  Times;  a  History  of  Flo- 
 rence; and  his  Letters,  which  contain 
 much  information  respecting  the  literature 
 of  that  aye. 
 
 ARETINO,  Peter,  a  celebrated  satir- 
 ist, or  rather  libeller,  was  a  native  of  Arez- 
 'zo,  in  Tuscany,  and  was  bom  in  1492.  He 
 acquired  the  title  of  the  Scourge  of  Prin- 
 ces, and  Avas  so  vain  of  his  poAver,  that  lie 
 caused  a  medal  to  be  struck,  on  which  he 
 styled  himself  the  divine  Aretino,  and  re- 
 presented himself  seated  on  a  throne  re- 
 ceiving the  envoys  of  sovereigns.  By  some 
 monarchs,  among  Avhom  Avas  Charles  V. 
 and  Francis  I.  he  Avas  bribed  to  silence; 
 but  others  insured  his  forbearance,  or  pun- 
 
 ARG 
 
 ished  his  aggression,  by  the  more  proper 
 means  of  corporeal  chastisement.  Such  was 
 his  propensity  to  run  a  muck,  that  he  was 
 said  to  have  spared  the  Deity  in  his  satire 
 only  because  he  did  not  know  him.  Some 
 of  his  compositions  are  of  the  grossest  ob- 
 scenity. Yet  he  Avrote  hymns,  devotional 
 pieces,  and  lives  of  saints!  He  died  at 
 Venice,  in  1556. 
 
 ARGENS,  John  Baptist  de  Boy- 
 er,  Marquis  d',  born  at  Aix,  in  Provence, 
 in  1704,  Avas  the  son  of  the  solicitor  general 
 to  the  parliament,  and  was  intended  for  the 
 law,  but  entered  the  army  against  the  wish 
 of  his  father,  and,  after  many  curious  ad- 
 ventures, Avas  disinherited.  A  fall  from 
 his  horse  having  incapacitated  him  for  mil- 
 itary service,  he  settled  in  Holland,  took 
 up  the  pen  for  his  livelihood,  and  produced 
 his  JeAvish,  Chinese,  and  Cabalistic  Let- 
 ters. Frederic  the  Great  invited  him  to 
 Potsdam,  made  him  his  chamberlain,  and 
 gave  him  his  friendship  and  a  pension.  He 
 died  at  Aix,  in  1771,  Avhile  on  a  visit  to 
 his  family.  His  numerous  Avorks,  once 
 popular,  are  fallen  into  greater  neglect 
 than  they  deserve,  considering  the  talent 
 and  erudition  which  they  display. 
 
 ARGENSOLA,  Lupercio  Leonar- 
 do d',  a  Spanish  historian  and  poet,  born 
 at  Balbastro,  in  Aragon,  about  1565,  was 
 secretary  of  Avar  and  state  at  Naples,  un- 
 der the  Aiceroy  count  de  Lemos.  He  died, 
 in  1613,  in  the  Neapolitan  capital  He  is 
 the  author  of  poems,  and  of  three  tragedies, 
 Isabella,  Philip,  and  Alexander. 
 
 ARGENSOLA,  Bartholomew,  bro- 
 ther of  Lupercio,  born  in  1566,  Avas  canon 
 of  Saragossa  and  chaplain  of  the  Empress 
 Maria  of  Austria,  accompanied  his  brother 
 to  Naples,  Avas  appointed,  after  his  return, 
 historiographer  of  Aragon,  and  died  at  Sa- 
 ragossa, in  1631.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
 History  of  the  Conquest  of  the  Moluccas, 
 and  a  Continuation  of  Zurita's  History  of 
 Aragon.  It  was  said  of  the  tA\o  brothers, 
 that  the  perfect  resemblance  of  their  tal- 
 ents made  their  countrymen  believe  them 
 to  be  tAvins  of  Apollo  and  a  Muse* 
 
 ARGOLI,  John,  the  son  of  a  celebrated 
 mathematician,  Avas  born  in  1609,  at  Tag- 
 liacozzo,  in  the  Neapolitan  territory,  and 
 died  about  the  year  1660.  Several  philo- 
 logical and  archaeological  Avorks  proceeded 
 from  his  pen,  but  he  is  best  knoAvn  as  a 
 poet.  When  only  fifteen,  he  Avrote  his 
 Idyl  on  the  silkworm,  and  tAvo  years  sub- 
 sequently his  Endyniion,  in  tAvelve  cantos, 
 which  he  completed  in  seven  months,  during 
 Avhich  period  he  shut  himself  up,  and  suf- 
 fered no  one  to  enter  his  room,  except  to 
 bring  his  lood. 
 
 ARGONNE,  Noel,  called  Dom  Bona- 
 venture  d',  born  at  Paris,  in  1634,  died 
 in  1704.  He  Avas  originally  a  barrister, 
 but  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight  entered  the 
 
ARI 
 
 Carthusian  order.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
 Treatise  on  the  Reading  of  the  Fathers, 
 and  of  another  untitled  Education,  Max- 
 ims and  Reflections  of  M.  de  Moncada, 
 &c. ;  but  he  is  best  known  by  his  Histori- 
 cal and  Literary  Miscellanies,  published 
 under  the  name  of  Vigneuil  Marville 
 
 ARGUIPO,  Don  Juan  d',  a  Spanish 
 poet,  and  the  Maecenas  of  his  literary  con- 
 temporaries, was  born  at  Seville,  in  the 
 seventeenth  century.  Lopez  de  Vega  ded- 
 icated to  him  many  of  his  works.  So  lib- 
 eral wras  Arguipo,  to  men  of  talent,  that 
 his  fortune,  though  large,  was  insufficient 
 to  keep  pace  with  his  excess  of  generosity. 
 
 ARIAS  MONTANUS,  Bknedict,^ 
 Spanish  orientalist,  born  in  Estremadura, 
 in  1527,  died  in  1598.  In  addition  to  his 
 thorough  knowledge  of  the  oriental  and 
 classical  languages,  he  spoke  fluently  the 
 German,  Flemish,  French,  and  Portuguese. 
 Philip  II.  of  Spain  confided  to  him  the 
 editing  of  the  Polyglot  Bible,  which  is 
 known  as  the  Antwerp  or  Royal  Bible. 
 Arias  was  as  remarkable  for  his  modesty 
 and  disinterestedness  as  for  his  learning; 
 a  bishopric  was  offered  to  him,  but  he  pre- 
 ferred the  retirement  of  his  hermitage,  and 
 his  only  bed  was  a  cloak  spread  upon  the 
 bare  boards.  Among  his  most  esteemed 
 works  is  his  Treaties  on  Jewish  Antiqui- 
 ties. 
 
 ARIOSTO,  Lewis,  a  poet,  one  of  the 
 boasts  of  Italian  literature,  was  of  a  family 
 allied  to  the  dukes  of  Ferrara,  and  was 
 born  at  Reggio,  in  Lombardy,  in  1474. 
 His  father  wishing  him  to  follow  the  pro- 
 fession of  the  civil  law,  he  studied  five 
 years  at  Padua ;  but  was  at  length  allowed 
 to  follow  the  bent  of  his  own  inclinations. 
 The  duke  of  Ferrara  invited  him  to  his 
 court,  where  he  became  a  favourite  of  car- 
 dinal Hippolito  of  Este,  who  retained  him 
 fifteen  years  in  his  service.  While  thus 
 engaged,  he  began  his  Orlando  Furioso. 
 Cardinal  Bembo  had  advised  him  to  com- 
 pose only  in  Latin;  but,  luckily,  Ariosto 
 declined  to  follow  his  advice.  It  was  in 
 1515  that  the  Orlando  was  given  to  the 
 world.     The   duke  of  Ferrara   employed 
 
 ARI  41 
 
 Ariosto  in  various  embassies,  and  nomi- 
 nated him  to  the  government  of  Grafignana. 
 While  holding  the  latter  oflice,  he  is  said 
 to  have  fallen  in  with  a  party  of  banditti, 
 who  infested  the  Apennines,  but  who,  on 
 hearing  his  name,  conducted  him,  to  his 
 castle  with  the  utmost  respect.  He  died 
 at  Ferrara,  in  1533.  Besides  his  great 
 work,  he  is  the  author  of  satires,  dramas, 
 and  miscellaneous  poems.  It  is,  however, 
 on  the  Orlando  that  his  fame  principally 
 rests;  and,  while  the  most  splendid  fancy, 
 and  the  most  exquisite  powers  of  descrip- 
 tion, continue  to  charm  mankind,  that  fame 
 can  never  die. 
 
 ARISTJEAT/TUS,  a  Greek  writer  of 
 the  fourth  century,  the  friend  of  the  rheto- 
 rician Libanius,  was  born  at  Niciea,  and 
 perished  at  Nicomedia,  in  the  earthquake 
 of  A.  d.  35S.  He  is  the  author  of  two 
 books  of  Love  Epistles,  part  of  which 
 were  translated  by  Tom  Brown,  and,  more 
 recently,  by  Halhed  and  Sheridan. 
 
 ARI^TARCHUS,  a  native  of  Samos, 
 supposed  to  have  flourished  about  280 
 .years  B.  c.  was  the  firs":  who  asserted  the 
 double  motion  of  the  earth,  round  its  axis 
 and  round  the  sun.  He  also  invented  a 
 particular  kind  of  sun  dial.  A  treatise  of 
 his  is  extant,  on  the  dimensions  and  dis- 
 tance of  the  sun  and  moon. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS,  the  grammarian  and 
 critic,  Avas  a  native  of  Samothrace,  born 
 160  years  B.C.,  resided  at  Alexandria,  and 
 was  tutor  to  the  children  of  Ptolemy  Phi- 
 lometer,  by  which  monarch  he  was  much 
 esteemed.  He  revised  Homer's  poems, 
 and  scrutinized  each  verse  with  such  critical 
 rigour,  that  his  name  has  ever  since  been 
 applied  to  all  very  rigid  censors.  Finding 
 himself  attacked  by  a  cureless  dropsy,  he 
 starved  himself  to  death,  in  the  isle  of 
 Cyprus,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two. 
 
 ARISTIDES ,  an  Athenian,whose  equity 
 and  integrity  gained  for  him  the  glorious 
 appellation  of  the  Just,  was  the  son  of 
 Lvsimachus.  Being  an  admirer  of  the  laws 
 of  Lycurgus,  he  preferred  an  oligarchy  to 
 a  democracy,  and  was,  consequently,  the 
 great  opponent  of  Themistocles,  the  head 
 of  the  democratical  party.  The  dissensions 
 between  these  two  eminent  men  were  so 
 prejudicial  to  the  common  weal,  that  Aris- 
 tides  himself  once  exclaimed,  that  "  the 
 Athenians  would  never  prosper  till  he  and 
 Themistocles  were  consigned  to  the  dungeon 
 for  condemned  criminals."  The  selfdenial 
 and  patriotism  of  Aristides  were  strongly 
 manifested  by  his  giving  up  his  share  of 
 the  command  to  Miltiades,  before  the  battle 
 of  Marathon;  and  his  conduct  after  the 
 battle,  when  entrusted  to  divide  the  spoils, 
 was  equally  praiseworthy.  In  the  year 
 491  B.  c.  he  was  archon,  or  chief  magis- 
 trate ;  an  office  which  he  filled  with  high 
 reputation.     Themistocles,  however,  sue 
 
42 
 
 ARI 
 
 ceeded  in  having  him  sentenced  to  banish- 
 ment by  ostracism.  On  this  occasion,  a 
 voter  who  could  not  write,  and  did  not 
 know  him,  met  him,  and  asked  him  to  in- 
 scribe the  name  of  Aristides  on  the  shell 
 for  him.  "  Did  Aristides  ever  injure  you  !  " 
 said  the  patriot.  "  No,"  replied  the  man, 
 "but  I  am  weary  of  hearing  him  called 
 the  Just."  Aristides  wrote  his  own  name, 
 And  returned  the  shell.  Being  recalled 
 from  banishment,  when  Xerxes  was  pre- 
 paring to  invade  Greece,  he  laid  all  private 
 differences  aside,  and  acted  in  perfect  con- 
 cert with  Themistocles.  At  the  battle  of 
 Platrea  he  commanded  the  Athenian  forces, 
 and  fought  bravely,  and,  subsequent  to  the 
 battle,  his  wisdom  put  an  end  to  a  danger- 
 ous quarrel  which  arose  between  the  con- 
 federates. He  died  of  old  age  about  467 
 vears  B.  c,  and  did  not  leave  sufficient 
 property  to  defray  the  expense  of  his 
 funeral.  He  was  buried  at  the  public  cost, 
 a  pension  and  an  estate  were  given  to  his 
 son,  and  suitable  portions  to  his  daugh- 
 ters. 
 
 ARISTIDES,  of  Miletus,  a  Greek  wri- 
 ter, who  flourished  in  the  second  century 
 before  the  Christian  era,  is  the  author  of 
 various  historical  works  blended  with  fable ; 
 but  is  better  known  as  the  author  of  The 
 Milesiacs,  a  collection  of  obscene  tales. 
 Plutarch  tells  us,  that  Surena,  after  his 
 victory  over  Crassus,  found  these  tales  in 
 the  baggage  of  Rustius,  and  sent  them  to 
 the  senate  of  Seleucia,  as  a  proof  of  the 
 dissolute  manners  of  the  Romans. 
 
 ARISTIDES,  ^Elius,  an  orator  and 
 sophist,  was  born  at  Adriani,  in  Mysia, 
 A.  D.  129,  travelled  four  times  through  the 
 whole  of  Egypt,  penetrated  into  Ethiopia, 
 and  at  last  settled  at  Smyrna,  where  his 
 eloquence  gained  him  high  reputation. 
 Smyrna  having  been  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
 quake, a.  D.  178,  he  so  pathetically  de- 
 scribed the  calamity  to  Antoninus,  that  the 
 emperor  instantly  ordered  the  city  to  be 
 rebuilt.  For  this  service  the  grateful  in- 
 habitants erected  a  statue  to  Aristides,  in 
 the  temple  of  Esculapius.  His  works  were 
 published  at  Oxford,  by  Jebb.  in  two 
 quarto  volumes. 
 
 ARISTIPPUS,  a  native  of  Cyrene, 
 whence  the  sect  which  he  founded  was 
 called  the  Cyrenaic,  flourished  about  400 
 years  B.  c.  He  quitted  his  native  place 
 to  become  the  disciple  of  Socrates;  but  he 
 soon  found  the  doctrines  of  his  master  too 
 rigid,  and  deviated  widely  from  them. 
 His  extravagance  having  injured  his  for- 
 tune, he  opened  a  school  of  rhetoric,  and 
 was  the  first  of  the  Socratists  who  taught 
 for  gain.  After  several  adventures  at 
 ./Egina,  Corinth,  and  Rhodes,  he  visited 
 the  court  of  Dionysius  at  Syracuse,  and 
 appears  to  have  resided  there  for  a  con- 
 siderable time.    He,  however,  returned  to 
 
 ARI 
 
 Athens.  The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown, 
 but  must  have  been  subsequent  to  B.C.  366. 
 Aristippus  was  a  man  of  wit  and  elegant 
 manners,  but  is  charged  with  having  been 
 too  much  addicted  to  pleasure. 
 
 ARISTOGJTON,  an  Athenian,  who,  in 
 conjunction  with  his  friend  Harmodius, 
 formed  a  conspiracy  against  the  tyrants 
 Hipparchos  and  Hippias,  B.  c.  516.  Hip- 
 parchus  was  slain,  but  Hippias  escaped, 
 and  caused  them  to  be  put  to  death.  The 
 Athenians,  afterwards,  paid  almost  divine 
 honours  to  their  memory. 
 
 ARISTOMENES,a  Greek  warrior  and 
 patriot,  was  die  son  of  Nicomedes,  a  de- 
 scendant of  the  ancient  Messenian  kings- 
 Indignant  at  the  subjection  in  which  his 
 countrymen  were  held  by  the  Spartans, 
 he  raised  the  banner  of  freedom,  B.  c  685, 
 and,  by  acts  of  almost  romantifc  valour, 
 long  made  head  against  the  oppressors. 
 He  died  at  Rhodes,  while  on  a  visit  to  his 
 son-in-law.  A  colony  of  Messenians,  under 
 his  son,  founded  Messina,  in  Sicily,  B.  c. 
 668. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES,  an  Athenian  comic 
 dramatist,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
 fifth  century  B.  c.  and  was  contemporary 
 with  Euripides,  Plato,  and  Socrates.  The 
 latter  philosopher  he  attacked  in  his  com- 
 edy of  The  Clouds,  and  is  thereby  supposed 
 to  have  contributed  to  the  unjust  death  of 
 the  object  of  his  satire  This  popular  idea, 
 however,  appears  manifestly  absurd,  when 
 we  consider  that  twenty  years  elapsed  be- 
 tween the  representation  of  The  Clouds 
 and  the  death  of  Socrates.  Aristophanes 
 was  the  author  of  fifty-four  comedies,  of 
 which  only  eleven  have  descended  to  us. 
 His  style  has  always  been  admired  for  its 
 Attic  elegance;  his  wit  for  its  poignancy; 
 and  his  delineation  of  manners  for  its  per- 
 fect fidelity. 
 
 A  RISTOTLE,often  called  the  Stagirite, 
 a  Grecian  philosopher,  was  the  son  of 
 Nicomachus,  physician  to  Amyntas,  king 
 of  Macedon,  and  was  born  at  Stagyra,  in 
 Thrace,  b.  c.  3S4.  He  lost  his  parents 
 while  in  his  childhood,  and  at  the  age  of 
 seventeen  became  the  disciple  of  Plato, 
 
ARL 
 
 who  valued  him  highly,  and  with  whom 
 he  remained  for  twenty  years.  During 
 this  period  he  was  unwearied  in  his  atten- 
 tion to  study,  and  his  acquirements  were 
 commensurate  with  his  diligence.  Such 
 was  his  fame  for  learning  that,  B.  c.  341, 
 he  was  chosen  by  Philip  of  Macedon  to 
 educate  Alexander,  who  was  then  fourteen 
 years  of  age,  and  in  this  occupation  he 
 spent  eight  years.  After  the  departure  of 
 Alexander  on  his  Asiatic  expedition,  Aris- 
 totle returned  to  Athens,  where  he  opened 
 his  school,  in  a  building  called  the  Lyceum, 
 and  founded  the  sect  of  Peripatetics,  so 
 called  from  his  having  walked  about  while 
 he  lectured.  When  he  had  pursued  this 
 course  for  thirteen  years,  he  was  com- 
 pelled to  quit  Athens,  in  consequence  of  a 
 frivolous  and  calumnious  charge  of  impiety 
 being  brought  against  him.  He  withdrew 
 to  Chalcis,  in  Euba^a,  where  he  died  in 
 the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age.  Aristotle 
 was  versed  in  every  science  then  known  ; 
 and  he  illustrated  them,  in  his  writings, 
 with  all  the  resources  of  a  mighty  mind. 
 Though  his  works  have  lost  much  of  the 
 authority  which  they  once  possessed,  yet 
 his  name  will  ever  be  venerated  as  that  of 
 one  of  the  greatest  philosophers  of  ancient 
 times. 
 
 ARIUS,  a  presbyter  of  the  church  of 
 Alexandria,  the  founder  of  the  Arian  sect, 
 flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
 century ;  whether  he  was  a  native  of  Alex- 
 andria, or  of  Libya,  is  not  ascertained. 
 His  disputes  with  bishop  Alexander,  res- 
 pecting the  second  person  in  the  Trinity, 
 gave  rise  to  a  schism  in  the  church,  and  to 
 infinite  persecution.  He  owned  Christ  to 
 be  God;  but  denied  him  to  be  coequal 
 and  coeternal  with  the  Father.  This  opinion 
 was  pronounced  heretical  by  the  Nicene 
 council,  and  Alius  was  banished.  He  was, 
 however,  ultimately  recalled ;  but  there 
 seems  to  be  every  reason  to  believe  that 
 his  opponents  cut  short  his  triumph  by 
 poisoning  him,  a.  D.  336. 
 
 ARKWRIGHT,  Sir  Richard,  an 
 English  manufacturer,  to  whom  his  country 
 is  highly  indebted  for  improvements  in  cot- 
 ton spinning,  was  born  at  Preston,  in  Lan- 
 cashire, in  1732,  and  was  originally  in  the 
 humble  situation  of  a  country  barber.  He 
 afterwards  became  a  travelling  hair  mer- 
 chant. Having  a  talent  for  mechanics,  he 
 turned  his  attention  to  the  inventing  a  ma- 
 chine for  spinning  cotton ;  or,  as  his  oppo- 
 nents contended,  availed  himself  of  the  ideas 
 of  others ;  and,  after  many  trials  and  fail- 
 ures, succeeded  in  accomplishing  his  pur- 
 pose. His  patent  was,  indeed,  ultimately 
 set  aside ;  but  not  before  he  had  amassed  a 
 princely  fortune,  as  the  proprietor  of  im- 
 mense cotton  worKs,  at  Cromford,  in  Der- 
 byshire.    He  died  in  1792. 
 
 ARLOTTO-MAINARDO,  a  Florentine, 
 
 ARM  43 
 
 born  in  1395,  died  in  1483,  was  a  parish 
 minister  in  the  bishopric  of  Fiesole.  His 
 fame,  which  was  extensive,  was  not  ac- 
 quired by  any  thing  connected  with  his  pro- 
 fession, but  by  his  jests  and  facetious 
 speeches,  which  were  in  every  body's 
 mouth,  and  gained  him  large  presents  from 
 several  princes.  Arlotto,  however,  was 
 not  a  mere  joker;  he  mingled  good  sense 
 with  his  wit,  and  performed  benevolent 
 actions.  A  collection  of  his  witty  sayings 
 was  published  after  his  death. 
 
 AllMINIUS,  or  HERMANN,  the  de- 
 liverer of  Germany,  was  the  son  of  Sig- 
 uier, a  chief  of  the  Cherusci.  Sent  to 
 Rome  as  a  hostage,  he  was  educated  there, 
 served  with  distinction  in  the  Roman  ar- 
 mies, and  was  made  a  citizen  and  knight 
 by  Augustus.  He  was  not,  however,  to  be 
 seduced  by  benefits  received  from  the  op- 
 pressors of  his  country.  Having  incited 
 the  Germans  to  revolt,  he  defeated  and 
 slew  Varus,  and  nearly  exterminated  the 
 Roman  army,  in  the  denies  of  Teutberg, 
 A.  D.  9;  and  he  subsequently  baffled  all  the 
 efforts  of  Germanicus  to  subdue  him.  He 
 was  assassinated  in  ihe  thirty-ninth  yeai 
 of  his  age,  a.  D.  20. 
 
 ARMINIUS,  James,  whose  real  name 
 was  Harmensen,  a  celebrated  divine, 
 was  born  in  the  year  1560,  at  Oudewater, 
 in  Holland.  He  lost  his  father  in  infancy; 
 and  his  mother,  sister,  and  brother  were 
 put  to  the  sword  by  the  Spaniards,  while 
 he  was  at  the  university  of  Marpurg.  In 
 158S,  he  became  a  preacher  at  Amsterdam, 
 and,  afterwards,  was  appointed  professor 
 of  divinity  at  Leyden.  Being  engaged  to 
 refute  a  work  against  Beza's  doctrine  of 
 predestination,  he  was  converted  by  the 
 writer's  arguments;  and  his  teaching  the 
 new  doctrines  that  he  had  espoused  gave 
 such  deadly  offence  to  the  bigoted  Calvin- 
 ists,  that  they  spared  no  pains  to  embitter 
 his  existence.  He  died  in  1609,  worn  out 
 by  continued  persecution.  Arminiuswas 
 learned,  eloquent,  amiable,  tolerant,  and 
 virtuous.  His  motto  was  "  a  good  con- 
 science is  paradise."  His  followers  bear 
 the  name  of  Arminians;  and  in  Holland 
 that  of  Remonstrants;  the  latter  appella- 
 tion they  derive  from  a  remonstrance  ad- 
 dressed to  the  states    of  Holland,  in  1610. 
 
 ARMSTRONG,  John,  a  poet  and  phy- 
 sician, was  born  at  Castleton,  in  Roxburgh- 
 shire, about  1709,  was  educated  and  took 
 his  degree  at  Edinburgh,  and  settled  in 
 London.  In  1760,  he  was  appointed  phy- 
 sician to  the  army  in  Germany,  whence  he 
 returned  in  1763.  He  made  the  tour  of 
 Italy,  with  Fuseli,  the  painter,  in  1771, 
 and  died  in  1779.  His  practice  was  limited, 
 but  he  contrived  to  save  a  considerable 
 sum  of  money.  He  is  the  author  of  sev- 
 eral poems  and  prose  compositions,  some 
 of  the  latter  of  which  are  on  medical  sub- 
 
44 
 
 ARN 
 
 jects.  The  work  to  which  he  owes  his  per- 
 manent reputation  is  The  Art  of  preserv- 
 ing Health,  a  poem,  which  is  superior  to 
 anj'  other  didatic  production  in  verse. 
 
 ARNALL,  William,  a  political  writer, 
 under  the  administration  of  Sir  Robert 
 Walpole,  of  which  minister  he  was  one  of 
 the  hired  defenders,  was  bred  an  attorney, 
 but  turned  to  literature,  and  succeeded 
 Concanen  in  the  British  Journal.  But  his 
 principal  engine  in  the  premier's  behalf 
 was  The  True  Briton.  Though  he  is  said 
 to  have  received  from  the  treasury  eleven 
 thousand  pounds  in  four  years,  he  fell  into 
 want,  and  put  an  end  to  his  existence  in 
 1741,  when  only    twenty-six  years  of  age. 
 
 ARNAUD,  Daniel,  a  troubadour  of 
 the  twelfth  century,  was  born  of  noble  pa- 
 vents  in  the  province  of  Perigord.  Dante 
 praises  his  prose  as  well  as  his  verse  pro- 
 ductions, and  Petrarch  styles  him  "  the 
 grand  master  of  love."  He  was  a  musi- 
 cian also,  and  the  inventor  of  a  species  of 
 composition  named  sestine. 
 
 ARNAUD,  de  Villf.  Neuve,  so  called 
 from  the  place  of  his  birth,  believed  to  be 
 near  Montpelier,  was  a  highly  talented 
 physician  and  philosopher,  born  about  the 
 middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  In  pur- 
 suit of  knowledge  he  travelled  into  Italy 
 and  Spain,  in  which  latter  country  he  ac- 
 quired, from  the  Arabian  doctors,  profound 
 ykill  in  medicine.  Being  suspected  of  her- 
 esy, he  was  compelled  to  quit  France,  and 
 retire  into  Sicily.  He  perished  by  ship- 
 wreck in  1310. 
 
 ARNAUD,  Francis  Baculard  d', 
 a  dramatist  and  poet,  born  at  Paris  in 
 1718,  died  in  that  city  in  1805.  He  was 
 of  a  noble  Provencal  family,  and  was  early 
 countenanced  by  Voltaire,  who  gave  him 
 both  money  and  advice.  Before  he  was 
 seventeen  he  wrote  three  tragedies.  After 
 having  resided  for  some  time  at  Berlin,  as 
 the  friend  of  the  great  Frederic,  he  re- 
 turned to  Paris,  where  he  applied  himself 
 wholly  to  literature,  and  at  length  became 
 indigent.  Of  his  tragedies  only  the  Count 
 de  Comminges  was  acted.  His  poems  and 
 romances  are  numerous. 
 
 ARNAULD,  Henry,  a  French  eccle- 
 siastic, the  son  of  an  eminent  advocate, 
 was  born  in  1597,  and,  after  having  been 
 entrusted  with  important  missions  to  Rome, 
 and  other  Italian  courts,  was  made  bishop 
 of  Angers,  in  1649,  and  thenceforth  de- 
 voted himself  strictly  to  the  performance  of 
 his  episcopal  duties.  His  piety  and  char- 
 ity were  exemplary,  and  the  only  time, 
 during  nearly  half  a  century,  that  he  quit- 
 ted his  diocese,  was  to  reconcile  the  prince 
 of  Tarento  with  his  father.  Angers  having 
 revolted,  the  queen  mother  threatened  that 
 city  with  severe  vengeance,  and  was  long 
 inflexible.  Arnauld  at  length  saved  it,  by 
 saying,  when  he  administered  to  her  the 
 
 ARN 
 
 sacrament,  "  Receive,  madam,  your  God, 
 who  pardoned  his  enemies,  even  when  he 
 was  dying  on  the  cross."  To  a  friend, 
 who  told  him  that  he  ought  to  take  one  day 
 in  the  week  for  recreation,  he  replied,  "  I 
 will  readily  do  so,  if  you  will  point  out  anv 
 day  on  which  I  am  not  a  bishop."  This 
 worthy  prelate  died  in  1692,  deeply  la- 
 mented by  his  flock,  who  considered  him 
 as  a  saint,  and  eagerly  sought  to  obtain 
 even  the  merest  trifles  that  had  once  be- 
 longed to  him.  His  Negotiations  in  Italy 
 were  published,  in  1748,  in  five  volumes. 
 
 ARNAULD,  Anthony,  brother  of 
 Henry,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  1612,  studied 
 in  the  colleges  of  Calvi  and  the  Sorbonne, 
 and  took  his  doctor's  degree  in  1641.  The 
 publishing,  in  1643,  of  his  work  on  Fre- 
 quent Communion,  which  was  virulently 
 attacked  by  the  Jesuits,  was  his  first  ap- 
 pearance on  the  arena  of  controversy, 
 where,  during  the  remainder  of  his  life,  he 
 made  so  conspicuous  a  figure.  He  next 
 espoused  the  cause  of  Jansenius,  for  which 
 he  was  expelled  from  the  Sorbonne.  The 
 result  of  this  was,  that  he  was  compelled 
 to  live  in  retirement  till  the  year  1668,  and, 
 while  thus  secluded,  he  produced  many 
 treatises.  The  Calvinists  were  the  next 
 objects  of  his  attack ;  after  which  he  had  a 
 contest  with  Malebranche.  The  intrigues 
 of  his  enemies  having  rendered  it  necessary 
 for  him  to  quit  France,  he  withdrew  to  the 
 Netherlands,  where  he  continued  hostili- 
 ties against  the  Jesuits  and  Protestants. 
 He  died  at  Brussels,  in  1694.  Arnauld 
 was  a  man  of  extensive  erudition,  and  an 
 indefatigable  and  excellent  writer  on  a  va- 
 riety of  subjects,  literary  and  philosophical 
 as  well  as  theological.  His  works  extend 
 to  no  less  than  forty-five  quarto  volumes. 
 Though  in  social  life  his  manners  were  mild 
 and  simple,  he  was  of  an  impetuous  dispo- 
 sition. Nicole,  his  fellow  labourer  in  some 
 of  his  controversies,  having  declared  to  him 
 that  he  was  tired  of  ceaseless  warfare,  and 
 wished  to  rest,  "Rest!"  exclaimed  Ar- 
 nauld, "  will  you  not  have  all  eternity  to 
 rest  in  V 
 
 ARNE,  Thomas  Augustus,  the  son 
 of  an  upholsterer,  was  born  in  1710,  edu- 
 cated at  Eton,  and  brought  up  to  the  law; 
 but,  during  his  clerkship,  he,  by  stealth, 
 made  far  greater  progress  in  the  principles 
 of  harmony  >han  in  the  legal  drudgery  to 
 which  he  was  condemned.  Finding  it  in 
 vain  to  contend  against  nature,  his  father 
 alloAved  him  to  pursue  the  study  of  music. 
 Arne  first  came  before  the  public,  as  a 
 composer,  in  Addison's  opera  of  Rosamond, 
 which  was  acted  in  1733.  His  next  great 
 effort  was  the  setting  of  Milton's  Comus, 
 in  1738.  From  that  period  his  popularity 
 continued  to  increase;  and  in  songs  he 
 was  confessedly  without  a  rival.  In  1759, 
 the  university  of  Oxford  conferred  on  him 
 
ARN 
 
 the  degree  of  doctor  in  music.  He  died 
 in  1778.  Arne  composed  at  least  thirty 
 pieces  for  the  stage,  among  which,  besides 
 those  already  mentioned,  may  be  noticed 
 the  opera  of  Artaxerxes,  and  the  masque 
 of  Alfred.  In  the  latter,  was  first  g\\en 
 to  the  world  the  spirit  stirring  song  of 
 Rule  Britannia. 
 
 ARNOBIUS,  (denominated  the  Elder, 
 to  distinguish  him  from  a  bishop  of  Gaul) 
 taught  rhetoric  at  Sicca,  in  Africa,  avid 
 was  originally  a  zealous  idolater.  During 
 the  persecution  under  Diocletian,  however, 
 he  was  converted  to  the  Christian  faith,  in 
 defence  of  which  he  wrote  an  animated 
 treatise,  in  seven  books,  which  is  still  ex- 
 tant. The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown. 
 Lactantius  was  his  disciple. 
 
 ARNOLD,  of  Brescia,  an  Italian  monk, 
 of  the  twelfth  century,  was  a  disciple  of 
 Abelard.  He  was  charged  with  heresy; 
 but  it  is  probable  his  real  crime  was  his 
 having  taught  that  the  church  ought  to  be 
 divested  of  its  worldly  possessions,  and 
 reduced  to  its  primitive  simplicity.  Being 
 condemned  by  the  council  of  Lateran,  he 
 fled  to  Switzerland ;  but,  some  years  after, 
 he  went  to  Rome,  hoisted  there  the  stand- 
 ard of  civil  and  clerical  reform,  accom- 
 plished his  purpose,  and  for  ten  years  pos- 
 sessed the  chief  power.  Adrian  IV.  suc- 
 ceeded in  expelling  him,  and  he  retired 
 to  Tuscany;  there,  however,  he  was 
 seized,  and  was  taken  back  to  Rome, 
 where  he  died  by  the  hands  of  the  execu- 
 tioner, A.  D.  1155.  Arnold  was  a  man 
 of  great  eloquence  and  erudition,  and  of 
 an  irreproachable  character. 
 
 ARNOLD,  Benedict,  known  for  his 
 distinguished  services,  and  daring  treach- 
 ery in  the  American  Revolution,  was  born 
 in  Connecticut  of  an  obscure  parentage, 
 and  received  an  education  suitable  to  his 
 humble  condition.  Eager  for  renown,  an:«l 
 greedy  of  money,  he  embraced  the  cause 
 of  his  countrymen  at  an  early  period,  and 
 took  the  command  of  a  company  of  volun- 
 teers at  New  Haven.  He  soon  won  a  high 
 military  reputation,  and  was  employed  by 
 Washington  in  expeditions  that  required 
 the  highest  skill  and  courage,  and  placed 
 in  the  command  of  posts  of  the  highest  im- 
 portance. When  the  English  evacuated 
 Philadelphia,  Arnold  was  directed  to  take 
 possession  of  that  city  with  some  troops 
 of  the  Pennsylvania  line.  Here  he  was 
 guilty  of  the  most  profligate  extravagance 
 and  the  meanest  peculation.  Charges  were 
 preferred  against  him,  he  was  tried  before 
 a  court  martial,  and  condemned  to  be  re- 
 primanded by  the  commander  in  chief. 
 He  immediately  quitted  the  army,  and 
 thenceforth  nourished  an  implacable  hatred 
 against  the  cause  which  he  had  so  bril- 
 liantly defended.  Having  subsequently 
 entered   into   a   correspondence  with   Sir 
 
 ARR 
 
 45 
 
 Henrj  Clinton,  and  a  direct  communica- 
 tion with  the  English  general  having  been 
 established,  it  was  agreed  between  them 
 that  Arnold  should  dissemble  his  real  feel- 
 ings and  make  every  effort  to  obtain  a 
 command  from  general  Washington.  He 
 was  but  too  successful,  and  the  fortress  of 
 West  Point,  a  military  station  of  very 
 great  importance  was  confidently  intrusted 
 to  him.  This  fortress  he  bargained  with 
 gtnei  al  Clinton  to  deliver  into  his  hands ; 
 and  the  price  of  his  treachery  was  the 
 promise  of  30,000  pounds  sterling,  and  the 
 rank  of  brigadier  general  in  the  British 
 army.  The  treason  was  discovered  by  the 
 accidental  arrest  of  Andre,  the  agent  of 
 the  British  general  in  effecting  the  nego- 
 ciation.  Arnold  escaped  with  difficulty 
 on  board  a  British  ship  of  war,  and  on  the 
 conclusion  of  the  war  was  rewarded  by  nia 
 employers  with  a  pension.  He  died  in 
 London  in  1801. 
 
 ARNOLD,  Dr.  Samuel,  an  eminent 
 musical  composer,  was  born  at  London, 
 in  1739,  and  received  his  scientific  instruc- 
 tion from  Mr.  Gates  and  Dr.  Nares.  About 
 the  year  1760,  he  became  composer  to 
 Covent  Garden  theatre,  and  in  1776  was 
 engaged  to  conduct  the  musical  department 
 at  the  Haymarket  theatre.  In  1767,  ho 
 brought  out  the  oratorio  of  the  Cure  of 
 Saul,  which  was  succeeded  by  several 
 others.  His  Prodigal  Son  was  performed 
 at  the  instalment  of  Lord  North  as  chan- 
 cellor of  Oxford.  In  1771  he  purchased 
 Marylebone  Gardens,  for  which  he  com- 
 posed several  excellent  burlettas.  Till  the 
 close  of  life,  he  continued  to  increase  in 
 fortune  and  reputation.  He  died  in  1802. 
 Besides  his  Oratorios,  Operas,  and  other 
 compositions,  the  public  is  indebted  to 
 him  for  a  splendid  and  uniform  edition  of 
 Handel,  and  four  volumes  of  cathedral 
 music,  in  continuation  of  Dr.  Boyce'a 
 work. 
 
 ARNOLFO  DI  LAPO,  an  Italian  ar- 
 chitect,  born  in  1232,  died  in  1300.  He 
 fortified  Florence,  and  erected  many  pala- 
 ces and  other  buildings  in  that  city;  but 
 his  masterpiece  is  the  celebrated  cathedral 
 of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  a  majestic  edi- 
 fice, which,  however,  he  did  not  live  to 
 finish,  the  cupola  being  the  work  of  Bru- 
 nelleschi. 
 
 ARRIA,  a  Roman  lady,  the  wife  of 
 Crecina  Pnetus,  whose  fortitude  and  con- 
 jugal affection  have  immortalized  her 
 name.  Several  acts  of  noble  firmness  were 
 crowned  by  that  which  terminated  her 
 existence.  Her  husband,  having  rebelled 
 against  Claudius,  was  ordered  to  destroy 
 himself.  Seeing  him  hesitate,  Arria 
 plunged  the  poniard  into  her  own  breast, 
 and  then  presented  it  to  him,  saying,  at 
 the  same  time,  "  Partus,  it  is  not  painful!" 
 
 ARRIAN,  Flavius,  a  Greek  historian, 
 
46 
 
 ART 
 
 born  in  the  second  century,  at  Nicomedia, 
 was  the  disciple  of  Epictetus,  and  bore 
 arras  under  Adrian,  who  made  him  go- 
 vernor of  Cappadocia.  That  province  he 
 defended  against  the  Alans,  and  was  re- 
 warded with  the  consular  dignity,  the  title 
 of  senator,  and  the  high  priesthood  of 
 Ceres  and  Proserpine.  Several  of  his 
 works  are  lost;  among  those  which  remain 
 are  The  Expedition  of  Alexander,  and  the  {and  that  he  was   mortally  wounded,  A.  D. 
 
 ASC 
 
 and  killed,  at  the  battle  of  Rosbecq,  in 
 November,  1382. 
 
 ARTHUR,  a  British  prince,  said  to 
 have  been  the  son  of  Uther,  whom  he  suc- 
 ceeded in  the  year  516.  His  history  is  so 
 blended  with  the  wildest  fiction,  that  it  is 
 difficult  to  collect  the  truth.  It  appears, 
 however,  that  he  carried  on  war  success- 
 fully against  the  Saxons,  Scots,  and  Picts, 
 
 Manual  of  Epictetus 
 
 542,  in   a  contest    with  Mordred,  his   re- 
 
 ARROWSMITH,  Aaron,  an  eminent  volted  nephew, 
 constructor  of  maps  and  charts,  and  hydro- 1  ARTIGAS,  Don  John,  was  born  at 
 grapher  to  his  majesty,  was  a  native  of  j  Monte  Video,  in  1760,  and  was  originally 
 the  metropolis,  and  died,  at  the  age  of  !in  the  Spanish  service,  but  quitted  it  to 
 seventy-four,  in  May,  1823.  Many  of  his  fight  for  the  independence  of  his  country, 
 maps  are  on  a  large  scale,  and  finely  en- 1  After  having  greatly  contributed  to  estab- 
 graved.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned '  lish  the  republic  of  Buenos  Ayres,  he  be- 
 his  India,  Alpine  Countries,  Southern  came  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  govern- 
 It.iJv,  Environs  of  Constantinople,  &c.  &c.   ment  of  that  state,  was  declared  a  traitor, 
 
 ARSACES  I.  the  founder  of  the  Par-  and  compelled  to  take  up  arms.  For  some 
 thian  monarchy,  and  of  the  dynasty  of  the  years  he  kept  possession  of  the  territory 
 Arsacides,  flourished  about  250  years  b.  c. 'called  the  Banda  Oriental.  At  length, 
 Irritated  by  an  unnatural  insult  which  the  |  however,  he  was  defeated,  and  compelled 
 
 governor  of  the  province  had  offered  to 
 his  young  brother,  he  raised  the  standard 
 of  revolt  in  Parthia  against  Seleucus,  suc- 
 ceeded in  emancipating  his  countrymen, 
 and  was  rewarded  by  them  with  the 
 diadem.  He  conquered  Hyrcania,  and 
 reigned  prosperously  for  thirty-eight  year 
 
 to  seek  refuge  in  Paraguay,  where  he  died 
 in  1826. 
 
 ARUNDEL,  Thomas,  second  son  of 
 the  earl  of  Arundel,  was  born  in  1353, 
 became  bishop  of  Ely  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
 two,  and  was  successively  lord  chancellor, 
 archbishop  of  York,    and    archbishop    of 
 
 ARTEDI,   Peter,   a  Swedish  physi- ; Canterbury,  to    which  latter  see    he    was 
 
 cian  and  naturalist,  born  in  1705,  was 
 drowned  at  Amsterdam  in  his  thirtieth 
 vear.  He  was  the  fellow  student  and 
 bosom  friend  of  Limueus,  who,  in  honour 
 of  him,  gave  the  name  of  Artedia  to  one 
 class   of  umbelliferous   plants.     His    only 
 
 raised  in  1396.  He  was  banished  for  his 
 resistance  to  Richard  II.,  but  was  restored 
 to  the  primacv  on  the  accession  of  Henry 
 IV.  Arundel  was  a  rigorous  persecutor 
 of  the  Lollards  or  Wickliffites,  and  forbad 
 the  translation  of  the    Scriptures   into  the 
 
 work  is  the  Ichthyologia,  or  History  of  vulgar  tongue.  He  died,  in  1413,  of  an 
 Fishes,  which  was  published  by  Linnaeus,  j  inflammation  of  the  throat,  and  as  his  dis- 
 afier  the  author's  death.  I  ease  happened  shortlv  after  he  had  excora- 
 
 ARTEMON,    a    native  of   Clazomene,  municated  Sir  John  Oldcastle,  the  Lollards 
 was  a  contemporary  of  Pericles,  whom  he  attributed  it  to  divine  vengeance, 
 accompanied  to  the  siege  of  Samos.     He  |      ARUNDEL,  Thomas  Howard,  earl 
 is  said  to  have  invented  the  battering  ram  |  of,  a  nobleman    of  taste,  learning,  and  a 
 
 and  the  testudo. 
 
 ARTEVELLE,  James,  a   brewer   of 
 
 munificent  spirit,  in  the  reigns  of  James  I. 
 and  Charles  I.     He    sent    Petty    into   the 
 
 Ghent,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  acquired  Levant,  in  search  of  antiquities,  who  ob- 
 by  his  eloquence,  talents,  and  riches,  attained  for  him,  among  other  things,  the 
 more  powerful  influence  over  the  Flemings  celebrated  Arundelian  marbles,  which  the 
 than  their  sovereigns  had  ever  possessed,  earl's  grandson  afterwards  presented  to  the 
 He  even  succeeded  in  compelling  the  count  university  of  Oxford.  Arundel  left  Eng- 
 of  Flanders  to  take  refuge  in  France;  land  when  the  civil  war  commenced,  and 
 after  which  he  formed  an  alliance  with  died  at  Padua,  in  1646. 
 Edward  III.  and  strove  to  transfer  the  ARUNDEL,  Blanche,  lady,  a  daugh- 
 Flemish  sovereignty  to  the  Black  Prince,  ter  of  the  earl  of  Worcester,  and  wife  of 
 He  was  slain  in  a  tumult  at  Ghent,  in  1345.  Lord  Arundel  of  Wardour,  merits  to  be 
 ARTEVELLE,  Philip,  the  son  of  enrolled  among  heroines  for  her  noble  de- 
 James,  was  chosen  by  the  Flemings  as  fence  of  Wardour  Castle.  With  only 
 their  leader,  when  they  revolted  against  twenty-five  men,  she  held  out  a  siege  of 
 their  Count,  in  1382.  His  first  act  was  to  ten  days  against  Sir  Edward  Hungerford's 
 avenge  the  murder  of  his  father.  He  de-  force  of  thirteen  hundred  men,  and  at 
 feated  the  Count,  and  made  himself  master  length  obtained  honourable  terms.  She 
 of  P>ruges;  but  the  French  having  sent  a  died  in  1669,  aged  sixty-six. 
 numerous  army  to  the  assistance  of  the'  ASCHAM,  Roger,  a  learned  writer, 
 dethroned  prince,  Artevelle  was  defeated  born,  in  1515,  at  Kirby  Wiske,  in  York* 
 
ASG 
 
 shire,  was  educated  at  St.  John's  College, 
 Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degrees, 
 and  obtained  a  fellowship,  and  the  places 
 of  Greek  professor  and  university  orator. 
 In  1544,  he  published  his  Toxophihis, 
 which  Henry  VIII.  rewarded  with  a  pen- 
 sion of  ten  pounds  In  1548,  he  became 
 classical  tutor  to  the  Princess  Elizabeth, 
 which  office  he  threw  up  after  having  held 
 it  two  years,  and  accompanied  the  English 
 ambassador  to  Germany,  as  his  secretary. 
 He  was  Latin  secretary  to  Mary,  and  to 
 his  former  pupil  Elizabeth.  Being  of 
 careless  habits,  and  fond  of  cockfighting 
 and  gaming,  he  died  poor,  in  1568.  As  a 
 scholar  and  a  writer  he  stands  high  in 
 estimation.  Of  his  works  those  most  fre- 
 quently read  are  the  Toxophilus  and  the 
 Schoolmaster. 
 
 ASDRUBAL,  son-in-law  of  Amilcar, 
 the  father  of  Annibal,  was  elected  as  general 
 by  the  army  in  Spain,  after  the  death  of 
 Amilcar,  whom  he  had  accompanied  thither. 
 Annibal  served  under  him  during  three 
 campaigns.  Asdrubal  extended  the  Car- 
 thaginian conquests  in  that  country,  and 
 built  New  Carthage,  now  Carthagena,  to 
 secure  them.  After  having  governed  for 
 eight  years,  he  was  assassinated  (b.  c. 
 220)  by  a  Gaulish  slave,  whose  master  he 
 had  put  to  death. 
 
 ASDRUBAL  BARCA,  brother  of  An- 
 nibal, was  left  to  command  in  Spain  by 
 Annibal,  and  obtained  many  successes  in 
 that  country.  His  brother  standing  in 
 need  of  assistance,  Asdrubal  crossed  the 
 Alps,  and  was  advancing  along  the  coast 
 of  the  Adriatic,  when  he  was  met  by  the 
 Romans,  near  the  Metaurus  (b.  c.  207), 
 was  defeated,  and,  with  fifty-six  thousand 
 of  his  troops,  was  slain.  His  head  was 
 cut  off,  and  thrown  into  Annibal's  camp, 
 who,  at  sight  of  it,  is  said  to  have  confess- 
 ed that  his  hopes,  and  those  of  Carthage,! 
 were  annihilated. 
 
 ASELLI, Caspar  ,  a  native  of  Cremona,  I 
 flourished  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  I 
 and  was  professor  of  anatomy  at  Pavia. 
 Anatomical  science  is  indebted  to  him  for 
 the  important  discovery  of  the  lacteal  ves- 
 sels, which  he  first  observed  while  dissect- 
 ing a  dog.     He  died,  in  1626,  at  Milan. 
 
 ASGILL,  John,  an  English  barrister, 
 born  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
 century,  a  man  of  great  talents  and  humour, 
 was  expelled  from  the  Irish  parliament, 
 and  then  from  the  English,  for  writing  a 
 book  in  which  he  maintained  that  man 
 might  be  translated  to  heaven  without 
 passing  through  death.  For  this,  though 
 he  strenuously  asserted  his  belief  in  the 
 Scriptures,  he  was  persecuted  as  a  blasphe- 
 mer and  an  infidel.  The  last  thirty  years 
 of  his  life  were  spent  in  the  King's  Bench, 
 where  he  continued  to  preserve  his  spirits 
 
 ASP 
 
 47 
 
 unbroken,  and   at  length  died,  in  1738,  at 
 a  very  advanced  age. 
 
 ASHMOLE,  Ei.ias,  an  antiquary, born 
 at  Litchfield,  in  1617,  settled  at  London  in 
 1638,  as  a  chancery  solicitor,  but  became 
 a  student  of  Brazennse  College  at  the 
 breaking  out  of  the  civil  war.  He,  how- 
 ever, did  not  confine  himself  to  collegiate 
 pursuits,  for  he  served  the  king  in  the  ord- 
 nance department,  both  at  Oxford  ana 
 Worcester.  On  the  downfal  of  the  royal 
 cause,  he  went  to  London,  and  wasted  his 
 time  in  studying  the  occult  sciences,  on 
 which  he  published  several  works.  After 
 the  Restoration  he  received  the  reward  of 
 his  loyalty,  being  appointed  Windsor  her 
 aid,  and  a  commissioner  of  excise.  The 
 former  office  he  resigned  in  1675.  He 
 died  in  1692.  His  great  production  is  the 
 History  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter.  In 
 1683,  he  gave  his  cabinet  of  curiosities  to 
 the  university  of  Oxford,  to  which  he  af- 
 terwards added  his'library  and  his  MSS. 
 This  was  the  commencement  of  the  Mu- 
 seum Ashmoleanum. 
 
 ASPASIA,  a  celebrated  Grecian  cour- 
 tesan, was  a  native  of  Miletus,  in  Ionia, 
 who  settled  at  Athens,  where  she  acquired 
 great  influence  by  her  beauty  and  talents. 
 Her  skill  in  politics,  philosophy,  and  rheto- 
 ric was  extensive,  and  her  eloquence  was 
 of  a  superior  order.  Socrates  was  her 
 friend,  or,  as  some  say,  her  lover;  and 
 Pericles  was  so  fondly  attached  to  her, 
 that,  in  order  to  marry  her,  he  divorced 
 his  wife.  After  the  death  of  Pericles,  she 
 was  united  to  Lysicles,  an  obscure  man, 
 whom  she  raised  to  importance  in  the 
 state.  Cyrus  gave  the  name  of  Aspasia  to 
 his  favourite  mistress  Milto,  in  compliment 
 to  her  charms. 
 
 ASPINWALL,  William,  was  born  in 
 Brookline,  Massachusetts,  in  1743,  and 
 was  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in 
 1764.  Immediately  afterwards  he  began 
 the  study  of  medicine,  and  completed  his 
 course  at  the  hospital  of  Philadelphia,  in 
 the  university  of  which  city  he  received 
 his  medical  degree  about  the  year  1768. 
 He  acquired  great  skill  and  celebrity  in 
 inoculating  for  the  small-pox,  and  erected 
 hospitals  for  the  purpose  in  Brookline, 
 where  large  numbers  resorted.  As  a  phy- 
 sician, Dr.  A.  obtained  great  distinction, 
 and  devoted  himself  with  unremitting  zeal 
 for  forty-five  years  to  the  duties  of  a  very 
 extensive  practice.  For  some  years  before 
 his  death  he  was  afflicted  with  blindness, 
 a  misfortune  which  he  bore  with  tranquillity 
 and  resignation.      He  died  in  1823. 
 
 ASPRE MONT,  F ran cis,  Viscount  d', 
 was  governor  of  Bayonne,  in  the  reign  of 
 the  monster  Charles  IX.,  and  is  immor- 
 talized by  his  heroic  answer  to  that  mo- 
 narch, who  had  commanded  him  tomassa» 
 
48 
 
 AST 
 
 ere  the  Calvinists.  "  Sire,"  replied  he, 
 "  among  the  citizens  and  soldiers,  I  have 
 found  men  devoted  to  your  majesty,  but 
 not  a  single  executioner.  They  and  I, 
 therefore,  entreat  you  to  make  use  of  our 
 arms  and  our  lives  only  in  things  which 
 arc  possible,  however  dangerous  they  may 
 be." 
 
 ASSAS,  Nicholas,  Chevalier  a",  cap- 
 tain of  the  French  regiment  of  Auvergne, 
 acquired  imperishable  fame  by  devoting 
 himself,  in  the  campaign  of  1760,  on  the 
 Rhine,  for  the  safety  of  the  army  to  which 
 he  belonged.  While  on  a  reconnoitring 
 party',  he  was  seized  by  a  hostile  column, 
 which  was  advancing  to  surprise  the 
 French.  Though  threatened  with  death 
 if  he  uttered  a  word,  he  unhesitatingly 
 gave  the  alarm,  and  instantly  fell,  pierced 
 with  numerous  wounds.  Louis  XVI.  grant- 
 ed a  perpetual  pension  of  one  thousand 
 francs  to  the  eldest  descendant  of  the  Ass- 
 as'  family. 
 
 ASSER,  a  celebrated  Jewish  doctor, 
 born  at  Babylon,  in  353,  was  the  principal 
 compiler  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  At 
 the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  made  president 
 of  the  academy  at  Sora,  and  attained  the 
 highest  repute  as  a  teacher.  His  scholars 
 were  two  thousand  four  hundred  in  num- 
 ber.    He  died  in  427. 
 
 ASSER,  or  ASSERIUS,  Menkven- 
 8  IS,  a  learned  ecclesiastic,  supposed  to 
 ha\e  beeri  a  native  of  Wales,  was  educated 
 at  Saint  David's,  of  which  city  he  subse- 
 quently was  archbishop.  Being  invited  to 
 the  court  of  Alfred  the  Great,  he  became 
 the  friend,  chaplain,  and  instructor  of  that 
 monarch,  who  rewarded  him  with  the  two 
 rich  monasteries  of  Ambrosebary  and 
 Barnwell,  and,  afterwards,  with  the  bish- 
 opric of  Exeter,  and,  lastly,  that  of  Sher- 
 borne. He  died  about  909.  His  prin- 
 cipal ascertained  work  is  a  Life  of  his 
 patron    Alfred. 
 
 ASTELL,  Mary,  the  daughter  of  a 
 merchant  at  Newcastle,  was  born  in  1668, 
 and  learnt  Latin  and  French,  mathematics 
 and  philosophy,  from  her  uncle,  a  clergy- 
 man. About  her  twentieth  year  she  set- 
 tled at  Chelsea,  and  continued  to  reside  in 
 the  neighbourhood  of  London  during  the 
 remainder  of  her  life.  A  cancer  termina- 
 ted her  existence  in  l^ol.  Her  works 
 chiefly  relate  to  religious  <■.  ijroversv,  and 
 advocate  high  church  principals.  Locke 
 and  TillotSOU  were  among  the  objects  of 
 her  attacks. 
 
 ASTLE,  Thomas,  an  archeeologist^on 
 of  the  keeper  of  Need  wo  od  Forest,  was 
 born  at  Yoxall,  in  Staffordshire,  and  was 
 educated  for  an  attorney.  Very  early,  he 
 displayed  a  love  of  antiquities,  and  a  tal- 
 ent for  decyphering  ancient  records.  In 
 1763  he   obtained  the    patronage    of  Mr 
 
 ATH 
 
 Grenville,  then  prime  minister,  and  was 
 employed  in  a  commission  to  superintend 
 the  regulating  the  records  at  Westminster 
 B«  the  death  of  his  fatner-in-law,  Mr. 
 M  rant,  in  1770,  he  obtained  an  estate. 
 After  having  filled  several  minor  offices, 
 he  became  keeper  of  the  records  in  the 
 Tower,  in  which  situation  he  died  in  1803. 
 His  principal  work  is  the  Origin  and  Pro- 
 gress of  Writing. 
 
 ASTRUC,  John,  a  celebrated  French  \ 
 physician,  was  born  at  Sauve,  in  1684, 
 and  studied  medicine  at  Montpelier,  where 
 he  subsequently  became  professor.  In 
 1743,  he  was  appointed  king's  physician, 
 and  professor  of  the  royal  college  of  Paris. 
 For  a  while  he  resided  at  Warsaw,  as  first 
 physician  to  the  Polish  monarch;  but  he 
 returned  to  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1766. 
 His  medical  works  are  numerous,  and 
 have  considerable  merit;  but  he  is  said  to 
 "  have  contributed  nothing  to  the  fortunate 
 revolution  by  which  medicine  was  brought 
 back  to  the  safe  and  good  principles  of 
 Hippocrates." 
 
 ATAIDE,  Dom  Louis  d',  a  Portu- 
 guese noble,  distinguished  himself  early 
 under  Stephen  deGama,  and,  for  his  ser- 
 vices, was  made  a  knight  at  the  age  of 
 twenty-two.  On  his  return  to  Europe,  he 
 accompanied  Charles  V.  to  the  battle  of 
 Muhlberg,  and  was  rewarded  by  him  for 
 his  valour  and  good  counsel.  In  1569,  he 
 was  appointed  viceroy  of  India,  at  a  pe- 
 riod when  all  the  native  powers  were  com- 
 bined to  expel  the  Portuguese.  He  baffled 
 all  their  efforts,  restored  order  in  the  ad- 
 ministration, and  returned  to  Lisbon  in 
 1575.  Being  a  second  time  sent  out,  as 
 viceroy,  he  died  at  Goa,  in  15S0. 
 
 ATHA,  a  celebrated  impostor  of  the 
 eighth  century,  was  a  native  of  Meron, 
 and  originally  a  fuller.  He  entered  as  a 
 soldier  in  the  army  of  Abu  Moslem,  the 
 leader  of  a  sect,  the  head  of  which  he 
 became  on  the  death  of  Abu.  He  pre- 
 tended that  the  divine  spirit,  after  having 
 inspired  Adam,  Noah,  the  great  prophets, 
 and  Abu,  had  been  transmitted  to  him. 
 Being  besieged  in  the  castle  of  Kech,  by 
 the  array  of  the  caliph,  he  set  fire  to  the 
 place,  and  destroyed  himself,  his  wives 
 and  all  his  followers  willingly  sharing  his 
 fate ;  some  say  they  all  took  poison.  Hav- 
 ing lost  an  eye  in  battle,  he  wore  a  golden 
 veil,  whence  he  had  the  name  of  Mokanna. 
 He  is  the  hero  of  Mxmre's  Veiled  Prophet 
 in  the  poem  of  Lalla  Roohk. 
 
 ATM  ANA  SII'S,  St.,  one  of  the  fa- 
 ther's of  the  church,  was  born  at  Alexan- 
 dria, of  heathen  parents,  about  a.  d.  296, 
 and  was  instructed  by  the  patriarch  of 
 that  city",  who  made  him  his  secretary. 
 <>n  the  death  of  the  patriarch,  Athanasius 
 was  elected   to  succeed  him.     From  that 
 
ATK 
 
 peu'od  his  life  was  a  perpetual  struggle 
 against  Arias  and  theArians,  whom  he  ab- 
 horred, and  was  marked  by  an  alternation 
 of  defeats  and  triumphs ;  he  being  banished, 
 or  recalled,  according  as  the  head  of  the 
 government  was  favourable  to  the  Arians 
 or  their  antagonists.  On  the  accession  of 
 Jovian  the  victory  of  Athanasius  was  com- 
 plete, and  he  remained  in  possession  of  his 
 see  till  his  death,  in  371.  His  works 
 compose  three  folio  voiiunes.  For  the 
 creed  falsely  called  the  Athanasian  he  is 
 not  responsible;  it  is  supposed  to  be  the 
 work  of  Vigilius,  an  African  bishop  of  the 
 fifth  century. 
 
 ATHENAIS,  Empress  of  the  West, 
 was  the  daughter  of  an  Athenian  sophist, 
 who  cultivated  her  natural  talents  by  a 
 careful  education.  Charmed  by  the  mai- 
 den's learning,  grace,  and  modesty,  Pulche- 
 ria,  sister  of  Theodosius  the  Younger, 
 recommended  her  to  him  for  a  wife.  Athc- 
 nais  renounced  Paganism,  and  took  the 
 name  of  Eudoxia.  The  emperor,  how- 
 ever, soon  became  jealous  of  her,  and  the 
 was  banished  to  Jerusalem,  where  she 
 died,  in  460,  after  an  exile  of  more  than 
 twenty  years.  She  produced  several 
 works,  among  which  was  an  hexameter 
 verse  translation  of  part  of  the  Old  Tes- 
 tament. 
 
 ATHEN^EUS,  a  native  of  Naucratis, 
 in  Egypt,  was  a  celebrated  grammarian 
 of  the  third  century.  All  that  remains  of 
 his  writings  is  the  Deipnosophists,  or  Ta- 
 ble Talk  of  the  Learned,  in  fifteen  books, 
 which  is  nearly  perfect,  and  is  a  treasure 
 of  erudition.  The  extensive  reading  and 
 tenacious  memory  of  Athenaeus  have  made 
 him  be  denominated  the  Varro,  «  r  Pliny, 
 of  the  Greeks. 
 
 ATHENION,  a  Cilician  slave,  in  con- 
 junction at  first  with  Salvius,  and  after- 
 wards as  supreme  chief,  headed  the  slaves 
 of  Sicily,  during  their  struggles  with  the 
 Romans  to  obtain  their  liberty.  He  more 
 than  once  defeated  the  Roman  armies,  and 
 he  kept  the  field  for  four  campaigns,  but 
 was  at  length  slain  by  the  consul  Aquilius, 
 101  years  B.C. 
 
 ATKYNS,  Sir  Robert,  an  English 
 judge,  born  in  Gloucestershire,  in  1621, 
 was  educated  at  Oxford,  studied  the  law  at 
 Lincoln's  Inn,  was  made  a  knight  of  the 
 Bath  at  the  Restoration,  and  in  1672  was 
 appointed  one  of  the  judges  of  the  court  of 
 common  pleas.  Disgusted,  however,  with 
 the  arbitrary  proceedings  of  the  govern- 
 ment, he  resigned  the  judgeship  in  1679, 
 and  retired  into  the  country.  While  in  his 
 retreat,  he  manifested  his  love  of  libertv  on 
 various  occasions.  At  the  Revolution  he 
 wag  made  lord  chief  baron  of  the  exche- 
 quer, and,  the  year  after,  speaker  of  the 
 house  of  lords.  In  1695  he  laid  down  his 
 offices,  and  again  withdrew  into  the  coun- 
 
 ATT 
 
 40 
 
 try,  where  he  died  in  1709.  Atkyns  was 
 a  sound  lawyer,  a  firm  friend  of  the  consti- 
 tution, and  an  honest  and  virtuous  man. 
 His  Legal  Tracts,  one  volume  octavo,  are 
 much  valued. — His  son,  Sir  Robert, 
 who  was  born  in  1646,  and  died  in  1711, 
 sustained  with  honour  the  character  of  a 
 country  gentleman,  and  is  the  author  of  a 
 History  of  Gloucestershire. 
 
 ATTERBURY,  Francis,  an  English 
 prelate,  was  born  in  1662,  at  Milton 
 Keynes,  in  Buckinghamshire,  of  which 
 parish  his  father  was  rector.  He  was  ed- 
 ucated at  Westminster  and  Oxford,  and 
 while  at  college  is  supposed  to  have  borne 
 an  anonymous  part  in  the  contest  between 
 Bentley  and  Boyle.  Having  taken  orders, 
 he  came  to  London,  in  1693.  Among  his 
 first  preferments  was  the  office  of  chaplain 
 in  ordinary  to  William  and  Marv,  and 
 thenceforward  he  continued  to  advance  in 
 his  profession.  In  1700,  he  became  arch- 
 deacon of  Totness;  in  1704  dean  of  Carl- 
 isle ;  and  in  1712  dean  of  Christ  Church. 
 During  this  time  he  was  much  admired  as 
 a  preacher,  and  was  more  than  once  en- 
 gaged in  controversy,  as  a  champion  of 
 high  church  principles.  In  1713,  he  ob- 
 tained the  bishopric  of  Rochester,  and 
 deanery  of  Westminster,  and  is  said  to 
 have  looked  forward  to  the  primacy ;  but 
 all  his  prospects  were  blighted  by  the  death 
 of  Queen  Anne.  There  seems  little  reason 
 to  doubt  that,  on  her  demise,  he  urged  the 
 proclaiming  of  the  pretender,  and  was  in- 
 dignant at  his  friends  for  their  timidity  in 
 declining  to  act  on  his  suggestion.  Such 
 a  person  was  not  likely  to  be  a  good  sub- 
 ject to  the  newly  introduced  house  of 
 Brunswick.  Accordingly,  on  every  occa- 
 sion, he  manifested  his  hatred  of  it.  At 
 length,  in  1722,  he  was  apprehended  on 
 suspicion  of  treason,  and  committed  to  the 
 Tower,  and  a  bill  of  pains  and  penalties 
 was  brought  into  parliament  against  him. 
 He  defended  himself  with  spirit  and  elo- 
 quence, but  was  condemned  to  deprivation 
 of  his  offices  and  to  exile.  He  died  at 
 Paris,  in  1731.  As  a  preacher  and  a 
 writer,  Atterbury  is  entitled  to  much 
 praise;  as  a  minister  of  the  gospel,  and 
 a  politician,  he  deserves  at  least  an  equal 
 portion  of  censure. 
 
 ATTICUS,  Titus  Pomponius,  a  Ro- 
 man knight,  who  acquired  his  surname 
 from  his  attachment  to  Athens,  where  he 
 long  resided,  and  his  familiarity  with  its 
 manners  and  language.  He  never  took 
 any  part  in  public  affairs,  but  his  virtues 
 and  talents  won  for  him  the  esteem  of  men 
 of  opposite  parties.  Cicero  was  one  of 
 his  particular  friends.  He  composed  sev- 
 eral works,  which  are  lost  He  died,  aged 
 seventy-seven,  B.  c.  32. 
 
 ATTILA.  king  of  the  Huns,  whose  ra- 
 vages gained  him  the  appellation  of  the 
 
50  AUB 
 
 Scourge  of  God,  began  his  career  by 
 ravaging  the  empire  of  the  East,  and 
 making  tributary  the  younger  Theodosius, 
 after  which  he  traversed  western  Germany, 
 and  entered  Gaul,  A.  D.  450,  at  the  head 
 of  five  hundred  thousand  men.  Being 
 repulsed  from  before  Orleans,  he  retired 
 Co  the  neighbourhood  of  Chalons,  where 
 he  fought  a  sanguinary  battle  with  Aetius 
 and  Theodoric,  in  which  he  lost  more  than 
 one  fourth  of  his  army.  In  452  he  deso- 
 lated Italy,  and  destroyed  Aquilea  and 
 several  other  cities.  He  returned  to  Pan-' 
 nonia,  and  died,  in  453,  bv  the  breaking1 
 of  a  blood  vessel. 
 
 ATWOOD,    George,    a   mathemati- 
 cian, born  in  London,  in  1745,  was  edu- 
 cated at  Westminster    and   Trinity   Col- 
 lege,   Cambridge,    and    early    manifested 
 eminent  mathematical   talents.     In  1784, 
 he  published  the  Lectures  on  Experimental 
 Philosophy,  which  he  had  delivered  before 
 the  whole  university,   and   also  a  Treatise 
 on   the  Rectilinear   Motion  and   Rotation  | 
 of  Bodies.     Mr.   Pitt,  who  was  his  friend  I 
 at  college,  gave  him  a  sinecure  office,  that  j 
 he  might  devote   the    major    part  of  his ! 
 time   to  financial  calculations;     in   which; 
 he  proved  exceedingly  useful  to  the  minis- j 
 ter.     Atwood    died,  unmarried,   in    1807.; 
 Besides  the   works  already  mentioned,  he  | 
 published  Treatises  on  the  Construction  of 
 Arches,  and  on  the  Stability  of  Ships. 
 
 AUBERT,  John  Louis,  Abbe,  profes- 
 sor of  literature  in  the  royal  college,  was 
 born  at  Paris,  in  1731,  and  died  in  1814. 
 His  poetry,  in  general,  is  characterized  by 
 ease  and  elegance;  but  he  particularly 
 excelled  in  the  apologue.  For  some  of  his 
 efforts  in  the  latter  species  of  composition 
 he  was  warmlv  applauded  by  Voltaire,  and 
 his  countrvmen  considered  him  as  no  un- 
 worthv  follower  of  La  Fontaine. 
 
 AUBIGNAC,  Francis  Heuelin,  Ab- 
 be d',born  at  Paris  in  1604,  died  in  1676. 
 The  bar  was  his  original  profession,  but 
 he  quitted  it  for  the  church,  and  was  pat- 
 ronised by  Richelieu,  who  entrusted  trim 
 with  the  education  of  his  nephew,  the  duke 
 de  Fronsac.  He  was  intimate  with  all 
 the  literary  men  of  the  age,  and  obtained 
 considerable  reputation-;  but  his  tragedies 
 and  romances  are  now  forgotten.  His 
 tragedy  of  Zenobia  being  hissed,  he  in- 
 dignantly pleaded  that  it  was  written  in 
 strict  conformity  with  the  rules  of  Aris- 
 totle. "  I  give  you  credit,"  replied  the 
 great  Conde  to  bun,  "  for  having  so  care- 
 fullv  followed  fne  rules  of  Aristotle;  but  I 
 cannot  forgive  Aristotle's  rules  for  having 
 made  vmi  produce  such  a  wretched  play. 
 
 AUBIGN K.Theodore  Agrii-paV, 
 was  born  in  1550,  at  St.  Maury,  in  Sain- 
 tonge,  and  died  at  Geneva,  in  1630.  He 
 was  of  a  noble  family.  At  eight  years  old, 
 be  translated  Plato  into  French.     D'Ah- 
 
 AUC 
 
 bigne  was  a  Protestant,  and,  on  the  death 
 of  his  father,  he  entered  into  the  army  of 
 the  prince  of  Conde.  Henry  IV.,  when 
 only  king  of  Navarre,  took  him  into  his 
 service,  lived  for  many  years  in  habits  of 
 the  closest  friendship  with  him,  and  em- 
 ployed him,  with  equal  advantage  to  the 
 royal  cause,  in  the  council  and  in  the  field. 
 His  frankness,  however,  at  length,  lost  him 
 the  favour  of  the  monarch,  and  he  with- 
 drew to  Geneva,  where  he  spent  the  rest 
 o(  his  days  in  literary  pursuits.  Besides 
 a  Universal  History,  from  1550  to  1561, 
 he  wrote  several  works  in  verse  and  prose. 
 
 AUBREY,  John,  an  English  antiqua- 
 ry, born,  in  1625  or  1626,  at  Easton  Pier- 
 cy,  in  Wiltshire,  was  educated  at  Oxford 
 and  the  Inner  Temple.  By  lawsuits  he 
 was  unfortunately  reduced  to  indigence, 
 but  he  bore  his  ill  fate  with  a  fortitude  that 
 does  honor  to  his  character.  Lady  Long, 
 of  Drayeot,  in  Wilts,  supported  him  in 
 his  latter  years.  He  died  in  1700.  Au- 
 brey  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
 Royal  Society;  wrote  several  antiquarian 
 works,  and  contributed  to  the  Monasticon 
 Anglicanum;  and  possessed  considerable 
 abilities,  but  was  exceedingly  credulous 
 and  superstitious. 
 
 AUBUSSON,  Peter  d',  who  obtain- 
 ed the  title  of  the  Buckler  of  the  Church, 
 was  at  first  in  the  service  of  the  Emperor 
 Sigismund  of  Luxemburgh,  and  fought  un- 
 der him  against  the  Turks,  in  Hungary. 
 Having  entered  the  order  of  St.  John  of 
 Jerusalem,  he  became  grand  master,  and, 
 in  1480,  after  a  gallant  defence  of  two 
 months,  compelled  Mahomet  II.  to  raise 
 the  siege  of  Rhodes.  D'Aubusson  has 
 been  accused,  but  it  appears  wrongfully, 
 of  treachery,  in  giving  up  Prince  Zizim  to 
 the  Pope.  He  died,  in  1503,  of  melan- 
 choly, occasioned  by  this  charge,  and  by 
 the  failure  of  a  project  for  a  new  crusade 
 against  the  infidels. 
 
 AUCKLAND,  William  Eden,  Lord, 
 a  British  statesman  and  diplomatist,  the 
 third  son  of  Sir  Robert  Eden,  of  West 
 Auckland,  Durham,  was  educated  at  Eton 
 and  Christ  Church  College,Oxford,  and  was 
 called  to  the  bar  in  1769.  Inl772,  be  was 
 appointed  under  secretary  of  state ;  in  177S, 
 he  accompanied  the  commissioners  sent  to 
 negotiate  with  the  Americans;  in  1780,  he 
 went  to  Ireland  with  the  viceroy,  Lord 
 Carlisle,  as  chief  secretary ;  in  1786  and 
 1787,  he  negotiated  the  commercial  treaty 
 with  France;  in  1788,  he  was  ambassador 
 to  Spain  ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  ob- 
 tained an  Irish  peerage,  and  was  sent  as 
 ambassador  to  Holland.  For  his  exertions 
 in  the  latter  capacity,  he  was  rewarded 
 with  a  British  peerage  in  1793,  and  he 
 then  retired  from  diplomatic  life.  In  par- 
 liament, however,  he  continued  to  take  an 
 active  part.     He  died  in  1814.    His  chief 
 
AUG 
 
 works  are,  the  Princ  iples  of  Penal  Law; 
 Five  Letters  to  the  Earl  of  Carlisle;  Re- 
 marks on  the  apparent  Circumstances  of 
 the  War;    and  speeches. 
 
 AUDEBERT,  John  Baptist,  was 
 born  atRochefort,  in  France,  in  1759,  and 
 died  in  1S00,  an  excellent  and  indefatigable 
 artist.  Originally  a  miniature  painter,  he 
 quitted  that  profession  to  become  a  natu- 
 ralist and  engraver  pf  natural  history.  His 
 coloured  engravings  of  birds,  in  which  he 
 employed  oil  colours  and  gold,  are  the 
 most  perfect  of  their  kind.  His  great 
 works,  each  forming  a  folio  volume,  are 
 the  History  of  Monkeys,  and  the  History 
 of  Humming  Birds. 
 
 AUDOUIN,  Peter,  a  French  engra- 
 ver, was  born  in  1768,  and  died  at  Paris, 
 in  1822.  He  was  a  prolific  artist,  his  bu- 
 rin having  produced  nearly  a  hundred 
 plates,  but  he  ranks  only  in  the  second  class 
 of  his  profession.  Among  his  best  works 
 are  reckoned,  Christ  in  the  tomb;  the 
 handsome  female  gardener,  from  Raphael; 
 and  a  figure  of  Charity. 
 
 AUDRAN,  Charles,  a  French  engra- 
 ver, uncle  of  the  celebrated  Gerard  /Yudran, 
 was  born  at  Paris,  in  1594,  and  died  in 
 1674.  It  was  in  Italy  that  he  perfected 
 himself  in  the  art  of  engraving,  and  his 
 works  are  chiefly  from  Italian  masters. 
 The  most  esteemed  of  them  is  an  Annun- 
 ciation, from  Annibal  Caracci,  and  an 
 Assumption,  from  Domenichino. 
 
 AUDRAN,  Gerard,  one  of  the  most 
 celebrated  historical  engravers,  was  born 
 at  Lyons,  in  1640.  After  having  studied 
 at  Rome  for  three  years,  he  was  called 
 home,  at  the  suggestion  of  Colbert,  and 
 obtained  a  pension,  and  the  appointment 
 of  royal  engraver,  from  Louis  XIV.  For 
 that  monarch  he  engraved  Le  Brun's  Bat- 
 tles of  Alexander,  and  this  masterpiece  put 
 the  seal  to  his  reputation.  The  Academy 
 of  Painting  nominated  him  one  of  its  coun- 
 sellors. His  works  are  numerous,  and  all 
 highly  esteemed.  He  died  in  1703.  Seve- 
 ral of  his  relations  excelled  in  the  same 
 art. 
 
 AUGER,  Ath  an  a sius,  a  French  eccle- 
 siastic, was  born  at  Paris  in  1734,  and 
 died  there  in  1792.  He  translated  Demos- 
 thenes, and  other  Greek  orators,  but  his 
 versions,  though  correct,  are  deficient  in 
 spirit.  His  best  work  is  the  Constitution 
 of  the  Romans  under  the  Rings,  and  dur- 
 ing the  Period  of  the  Republic,  on  which 
 he  was  occupied  more  than  thirty  years. 
 
 AUGER,  Louis  Simon,  a  member  of 
 the  French  Academy,  was  born  at  Paris, 
 in  1772,  and  put  an  end  to  his  existence 
 in  1829.  He  was  a  man  of  much  erudition 
 and  talent.  He  conducted  several  Jour- 
 nals ;  was  one  of  the  principal  authors  of 
 the  Universal  Biography;  wrote  Eulogies 
 on  Boileau  and  Corneille ;  and  edited  and 
 
 AUG 
 
 51 
 
 commented    upon   a   variety   of  standard 
 works. 
 
 AUGEREAU,  Peter  Francis 
 Charles,  marshal  of  France,  duke  of 
 Castiglione,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  1757, 
 entered  the  army  early,  served  in  the 
 French  and  Neapolitan  ranks,  became  a 
 fencing  master  at  Naples,  returned  to 
 France  in  1792,  distinguished  himself,  as 
 brigadier  general,  against  the  Spaniards, 
 was  sent  into  Italy,  as  general  of  division, 
 and  acquired  high  reputation  under  Bona- 
 parte,  especially  at  Castiglione  and  Ar- 
 cole.  After  having,  between  1797  and 
 1804,  filled  several  high  commands,  he 
 was  raised,  in  the  latter  year,  to  the  rank 
 of  marshal.  In  the  campaigns  of  1805, 
 1806,  1S07,  1809,  1812,  and  1813,  he  bore 
 an  active  part,  and  enhanced  his  reputa- 
 tion ;  but  his  conduct  in  1814,  when  he 
 was  entrusted  with  the  defence  of  the  de- 
 partments between  the  Rhone  and  the 
 Alps,  was  severely  criticised.  He  was 
 even  suspected  of  having  betrayed  his 
 trust;  and  this  suspicion  was  not  weaken- 
 ed by  his  being  one  of  the  first  to  submit 
 to  the  Bourbons,  and  even  to  abuse  his  late 
 sovereign,  for  which  he  was  amply  re- 
 warded by  Louis  XVIII.  When  Napoleon 
 returned,  Augereau  would  have  rejoined 
 his  standard,  but  his  services  were  rejected. 
 He  died  in  1816,  little  regretted  by  any 
 party,  his  want  of  principle  having  thrown 
 a  shade  over  the  lustre  of  his  military 
 talents. 
 
 AUGUSTINE,  St.,  a  celebrated  father 
 of  the  church,  was  born,  in  354,  at  Tag- 
 aste,  in  Africa,  and  his  early  youth  was 
 idle,  dissipated,  and  incontinent.  When 
 he  was  nineteen  he  became  a  Manichean, 
 and  remained  so  for  ten  years.  During 
 that  period  he  taught  rhetoric  and  gram- 
 mar at  Tagaste,  Carthage,  and  Rome. 
 From  the  latter  city,  in  3S3,  he  removed 
 to  MHan,  where  he  was  appointed  profes- 
 sor of  rhetoric.  There,  by  the  sermons  ot 
 Ambrose,  and  the  arguments  of  two  pious 
 men,  he  was  converted  to  the  catholic 
 faith.  In  386,  he  relinquished  his  profes- 
 sion for  the  study  of  theology;  in  391,  he 
 was  ordained  presbyter;   and,  in  393,  he 
 
52 
 
 AUG 
 
 was  appointed  joint  bishop  of  Hippo. 
 The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  the 
 duties  <  f  his  office,  and  in  perpetual  con- 
 troversy with  heretics,  towards  whom  lie 
 manifested  an  intolerance  which,  especially 
 considering  his  own  past  errors,  was  little 
 to  his  credit.  He  died  in  4S0.  His  works 
 form  eleven  folio  volumes. 
 
 A  I  ( J I  STl  \  E,  or  AUSTIN,  St.,  com- 
 monly denominated  the  Apostle  of  the 
 English,  flourished  about  the  close  of  the 
 sixth  century.,  and  was  originally  a  monk 
 at  Rome.  Pope  Gregory  I.  sent  him,  with 
 forty  of  his  fraternity,  to  convert  the 
 Anglo  Saxons.  Their  exertions  were  suc- 
 cessful, and  Ausrustine  became  the  first 
 archbishop  of  Canterbury.  In  his  exer- 
 tions to  hi  ing  the  Welsh  bishops  under  the 
 papal  yoke  he  failed,  and  he  covered  him- 
 self with  infamy  by  the  sanguinary  means 
 which  he  adopted  to  revenge  his  disap- 
 pointment. This  haughty  prelate  died 
 early  in  the  seventh  century. 
 
 AUGUSTULUS,  Romulus,  the  last 
 emperor  of  the  West,  was  proclaimed  at 
 Ravenna,  in  475,  by  his  father,  the  patri- 
 cian Orestes,  who,  however,  retained  the 
 power  in  his  own  hands.  Augustulus  did 
 not  long  hold  even  his  nominal  sovereignty  ; 
 for,  in  476,  he  was  conquered  and  de- 
 throned by  Odoacer,  king  of  the  Heruli. 
 His  life  was  spared,  and  a  pension  was  al- 
 lowed him. 
 
 AUGUSTUS,  Caius  Julius  Cjesar 
 Ottayi am rs,  a  Roman  emperor,  known 
 before  his  accession  by  the  name  of  Octa- 
 vius,  was  the  nephew  and  adopted  son  of 
 Julius  Caesar.  He  was  born  at  Rome,  B.  C. 
 63.  When  he  was  only  four  years  of  age 
 he  lost  his  father;  after  which  event  he 
 was  brought  up  by  Caesar.  At  the  time 
 when  his  uncle  was  assassinated,  Octavius 
 was  in  Epirus,  whence  he  immediately  re- 
 turned to  secure  his  inheritance.  He  was 
 then  only  eighteen,  and  was  derided  by  his 
 enemies  as  a  boy;  but  his  talents  soon  ac- 
 quired for  him  extensive  influence.  At 
 first,  he  joined  the  party  which  was  hos- 
 tile to  Antony,  but  was  soon  reconciled  to 
 him,  and,  in  conjunction  with  that  leader 
 and  Lepidus,  formed  the    famous  second 
 
 AUN 
 
 triumvirate.  In  this  partition  of  power 
 the  west  fell  to  his  share,  and  in  the  exer- 
 ci.-e  of  his  authority  he  deeply  stained  his 
 character  by  a  merciless  proscription,  of 
 which  Cicero  was  one  of  the  victims.  Af- 
 ter having  borne  a  part  in  the  battle  of 
 Philippi,  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  divi- 
 ded among  his  veterans  the  estates  of  the 
 vanquished.  Lepidus  was  now  compelled 
 to  resign  his  portion  of  the  tyranny,  and 
 the  empire  of  the  world  was  divided  be- 
 tween Octavius  and  Antony.  Disputes 
 speedily  arose,  but  a  temporary  reconcil- 
 iation was  effected  by  the  marriage  of  An- 
 tony to  the  sister  of  Octavius.  Enamoured, 
 however,  of  Cleopatra,  Antony  deserted 
 Octavia,  and  her  brother  took  up  arms  to 
 avenge  her.  The  contest  between  the  ri- 
 vals was  terminated  by  the  complete  defeat 
 of  Antony,  at  the  battle  of  Actium,  and  his 
 subsequent  death.  After  this  victory,  Oc- 
 tavius added  Egypt  to  the  Roman  empire. 
 He  then  revisited  Rome,  celebrated  three 
 triumphs,  closed  the  temple  of  Janus,  re- 
 ceived from  the  senate  the  titles  of  Impe- 
 rator  and  Augustus,  and  remained  in  full 
 possession  of  absolute  sway.  In  this  ex- 
 alted rank  he  was  no  less  remarkable  for 
 moderation  and  clemency,  than  he  had  be- 
 fore been  for  qualities  diametrically  oppo- 
 site. Literature  flourished  under  his  aus- 
 pices; he  enacted  many  salutary  laws; 
 and  so  embellished  the  Roman  capital,  that 
 he  was  declared  "  to  have  found  it  of  brick, 
 and  left  it  of  marble."  He  is  said  to  have 
 twice  resolved  to  retire  into  private  life, 
 but  to  have  been  dissuaded  by  Mecsenas. 
 Agustus  died  of  a  dysentery,  at  Nola,  in 
 the  seventy-sixth  year  of  his  age. 
 
 AULISIO,  Dominic,  an  Italian,  of 
 consummate  erudition,  was  born  at  Naples, 
 in  1639.  At  nineteen  he  was  capable  of 
 giving  lectures  in  poetry  to  the  Neapolitan 
 nobles.  He  was  professor  of  civil  law  at 
 the  age  of  twenty-live.  There  were  few 
 sciences  of  which  he  was  not  master,  and 
 his  knowledge  of  all  the  oriental  and  Eu- 
 ropean languages  was  profound.  He  pub- 
 lished several  works  on  law  and  antiqui- 
 ties, and  left  others  in  manuscript.  He 
 died,  at  Naples,  in  1717. 
 
 AULUS  GELLIUS,  a  Latin  gramma- 
 rian, is  the  author  of  a  work,  in  twenty 
 books,  intitled  Attic  Nights,  because  it 
 was  composed  at  Athens,  during  winter 
 evenings.  It  was  originally  written  for 
 the  instruction  of  his  children,  and  is  valu- 
 able, in  consequence  of  its  containing  many 
 fragments  from  writers  whose  compositions 
 are  lost.  Aldus  Gellius  was  a  judge  at 
 Rome,  and  died  in  the  beginning  of  the 
 reign  of  M.  A.  Antoninus. 
 
 AUNGERV1LLE,  Richard,  or  Rich- 
 ard of  Bury,  born  at  St.  Edmundsbury,  in 
 1281,  and  "educated  at  Oxford,  was  tutor 
 to  Prince  Edward,  who,  when  he  became 
 
AUV 
 
 AVA 
 
 53 
 
 Edward  III.,  successively  made  him  bishop  |  de  t.a  Tour  d',  a  French  rej.uDlican,dis' 
 
 of  Durham,  high  chancellor,  and  treasurer  tinguished  by  his  learning  and  his  heroic 
 
 of  England.     Aungerville  merited  his  pre-' 
 
 ferments;   he  was  munificent,    charitable, 
 
 and    learned,    a    patron    of  learning,   and 
 
 possessed   more  books   than  all   the  other 
 
 bishops  of  England  united.     lie  formed  aj 
 
 library  at  Oxford,  for  the  use  of  students. 
 
 His  Philobiblos,  in  twenty  chapters,  does 
 
 honour  to  him. 
 
 AURELIAN,  Lucius  Domitius  Au- 
 reliancs,  a  Roman  emperor,  was  born  in 
 Pannonia,  about  the  year  220,  early  dis- 
 tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  Mogun-j 
 tiacum,  commanded,  in  259,  the  armies  of 
 Illyria  and  Thrace,  and  was  raised  to  the ! 
 empire  in  270.  He  drove  back  the  Goths, ! 
 Vandals,  Sarmatians,  and  Marcomanni,  qualities,  was  descended  from  an  illegiti- 
 vanquished  and  took  prisoner  Zenobia,  and  mate  branch  of  the  house  of  Bouillon,  and 
 defeated  Firmius  in  Egypt,  and  Tetricus  was  born  in  1743,  at  Carhaix,  in  Lower 
 in  Gaul.  On  the  return  of  peace,  he  em- I  Britanny.  He  served  with  honour  in  the 
 bellished  Rome,  reformed  the  laws,  and  army  during  the  American  war,  and  was 
 diminished  the  taxes.  He  was  assassina-  living  in  retirement,  on  his  half  pay,  when 
 ted,  in  275,  by  his  soldiers,  whom  Mnesth-  the  revolution  called  him  again  into  the 
 eus  had  excited  to  mutiny.  \  field.     Though  he  refused  any  higher  rank 
 
 AURENGZEBE,  the  Great  Mogul,  or  than  that  of  captain,  he  was  entrusted  with 
 Emperor  of  Hindostan,  was  born  in  1619,  the  command  of  a  corps  of  eight  thousand 
 and  was  the  third  son  of  Shah  Jehan.  In  grenadiers,  at  the  head  of  which  he  signal- 
 his  youth  he  assumed  a  hypocritical  ap-  ized  himself  on  the  Spanish  frontier.  The 
 pearance  of  sanctity,  but  at  length  threw  peace  with  Spain,  in  1795,  allowed  him  to 
 oft' the  mask, dethroned  his  father,  in  166*0,  return  to  his  studies;  but  he  once  more 
 and  murdered  his  brothers.  It  must  be  quitted  them,  in  1799,  for  the  benevolent 
 owned,  however,  that  he  made  some  good  purpose  of  taking  the  place  of  a  friend's 
 laws,  administered  justice  impartially,  and  only  son,  who  had  been  drawn  for  the  con- 
 extended  greatly  the  limits  of  his  empire,  Iscription.  In  the  following  year,  Bona- 
 both  northward  and  southward.  During  parte  conferred  on  him  the  honourable  title 
 the  major  part  of  the  last  fifteen  years  of  ,of  First  Grenadier  of  France.  He  fell, 
 his  life  he  was  constantly  in  the  field,  i  universally  lamented,  at  the  battle  of  Neu- 
 Embassies  were  sent  to  him,  not  only  from  burg,  in  1800.  La  Tour  d'Auvergne  was 
 the  neighbouring  states,  but  also  from  the 'humane,  singularly  disinterested,  knew  all 
 European  powers.  He  died  in  1707,  and  the  European  languages,  and  was  thorough- 
 with  his  death  began  the  decline  of  the  ly  versed  in  ancient  history.  He  is  the 
 mogul  empire.  author  of  a  Franco-Celtic   Dictionary;   a 
 
 AUSONIUS,  Decius,  or  DECIMUS  Glossary  of  Forty-five  Languages;  and 
 MAGNUS,  a  Latin  poet  of  the  fourth  cen-1  other  philological  works, 
 tury,  was  born  at  Bordeaux,  and  became  j  AUZOUT,  Adrian,  a  celebrated 
 professor  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  in  his;  French  mathematician,  and  member  of  the 
 native  city;  in  which  office  he  acquired  |  Academy  of  Sciences,  was  born  at  Rouen, 
 such  reputation,  that  the  Emperor  Valen-  |  and  died  in  1691.  He  is  said  to  have  in- 
 tinian  appointed  him  preceptor  to  his  son  vented  the  micrometer  with  moveable 
 Gratian.  When  the  latter  inherited  the!  threads,  and,  with  Picard,  to  have  been 
 throne,  he  rewarded  hirn  by  nominating  the  first  who  applied  the  telescope  to  the 
 him  pretorian  prefect  of  Gaul,  and,  after-:  astronomical  quadrant;  though,  this  honour 
 wards,  consul.  The  period  of  Ausonius's | is  claimed  for  Mr.  Gascoigne,  an  English- 
 death  must  have  been  subsequent  to  392.  man.  The  truth  appears  to  be,  that  both 
 It  is  doubtful  whether  he  was  a  Christian. !  parties  are  entitled  to  the  merit  of  origin- 
 His  poems  manifest  talent,  but  are  stained  ality,  the  French  astronomers  having  been 
 by  obscenity.  j  ignorant  of  Gascoigne's  discovery. 
 
 AUTREAU,  James,  a  French  painter I  AVALOS,  Ferdinand  Francis  d',' 
 and  dramatist,  died  in  1745,  at  the  age  of  I  marquis  of  Pescara,  a  Neapolitan,  of  an 
 eighty-nine.  He  was  sixty  before  he  began  illustrious  family,  entered  the  military  ser- 
 to  write  for  the  stage.  His  works  compose  j  vice  in  1512,  at"  the  age  of  twenty-one,  and 
 four  volumes.  Though  many  of  them  were  j  was  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Ravenna, 
 successful,  he  closed  his  existence  in  pov-  While  a  captive,  he  amused  himself  with 
 ©rty.  I  writing    a    Dialogue    on   Love,    which  ha 
 
 AUVERGNE,     Theophilus    M a £ o  j  dedicated  to    his  wife,  the   accomplished 
 
54 
 
 AVE 
 
 Victoria  Colonna,  herself  a  poet.  His 
 liberation  took  place  in  the  following  year, 
 and  he  distinguished  himself  greatly  on 
 various  occasions,  particularly  at  the  battles 
 of  Vicenza,  Bicocca,  and  Pavia.  He 
 died,  at  Milan,  in  1525. 
 
 AVALOS,  Alphonso  d',  marquis  del 
 Vasto,  and  nephew  of  Ferdinand,  was  born 
 at  Naples,  in  1502,  and  first  served  under 
 his  uncle.  The  brilliant  valour  which  he 
 displayed  at  the  siege  of  Pavia  gained  him 
 the  command  of  the  imperial  army,  on  the 
 death  of  Pescara.  He  subsequently  acquir- 
 ed high  reputation,  and  was  made  captain- 
 general  of  the  duchy  of  Milan.  Avalos 
 was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Ceri soles,  but 
 he  prevented  the  conqueror  from  making 
 advantage  of  his  victory.  He  died  in 
 1546.  The  French  writers,  who  admit 
 his  bravery  and  military  talents,  accuse 
 him  of  harshness,  vanity,  and  perfidy. 
 
 AVANZI,  Nicholas,  a  native  of  Ve- 
 rona, and  an  engraver  of  cameos  and  prec- 
 ious stones,  gained  much  praise  by  a  Nativ- 
 ity of  Jesus  Christ,  engraven  on  a  small 
 piece  of  lapis  lazuli,  which  is  considered 
 as  a  masterpiece  in  this  branch  of  art. 
 
 AVAUX,  Claude  de  Mesmes,  Count 
 d',  an  able  French  statesman  and  diploma- 
 tist, rendered  eminent  services  to  his  coun- 
 try, as  ambassador  to  Venice,  Rome,  Turin, 
 Germany,  Denmark,  Poland,  and  Sweden. 
 He  also  filled  w  ith  honour  several  consid- 
 erable offices  under  the  government.  D'- 
 Avaux  was  well  versed  in  languages,  lite- 
 rature, and  history,  was  at  once  preposses- 
 sing and  dignified  in  his  manners,  and 
 wrote  and  spoke  with  facility  and  elegance, 
 lie  died,  in  1650,  at  the  age  of  fifty-five. 
 
 AVAUX,  John  Anthony,  Count  d', 
 followed  the  same  career  as  Claude,  his 
 great  uncle,  and  with  equal  ability  and 
 success.  He  concluded  the  treaty  of  Nim- 
 eguen,  and  was  afterwards  ambassador  at 
 Amsterdam,  London,  and  Stockholm.  He 
 died  in  1709,  ajjed  sixty-nine.  His  Nego- 
 tiations in  Holland  were  published,  in  six 
 volumes,  by  the  Abbe  Mallet. 
 
 AVELLANEDA,  Alphonso  Ferdi- 
 nand D',a  Spanish  author  of  the  sixteenth 
 century,  was  a  native  of  Tordesillas.  He 
 continued  Don  Quixote,  to  the  great  dis- 
 pleasure of  Cervantes,  who,  in  his  second 
 part,  does  not  spare  the  interloper.  Avel- 
 '■aneda's  work,  though  far  inferior  to  the 
 nriMiant  original,  is  not  without  merit.  It 
 has  been  translated  into  English. 
 
 AVERANI,  Benedict,  a  native  of 
 Florence,  born  in  1645,  was  so  fond  of 
 learning  that,  even  in  childhood,  he  prefer- 
 red reading  to  boyish  amusements,  and 
 made  an  extraordinary  progress  in  his 
 studies.  Arithmetic,  astronomy,  mathe- 
 matics, and  Greek,  he  acquired  without 
 the  aid  of  a  master;  the  latter  so  perfect- 
 ly in  the  short  space  of  six  months,   as  to 
 
 AVI 
 
 be  able  to  teach  it.  His  memory  was  pro- 
 digious, and  he  could  pour  forth  poetry  ex- 
 temporaneously in  the  Latin  and  Italian 
 languages.  He  died,  in  1707,  at  Pisa,  of 
 which  university  he  was  one  of  the  pro- 
 fessors. 
 
 AVERROES,  or  ABN  ROSCH,  an 
 Arabian  philosopher  and  physician  of  the 
 twelfth  century,  was  the  son  of  the  chief 
 magistrate  of  Cordoba,  whom  he  succeeded 
 in  his  office.  He  was  invited  to  Morocco, 
 to  superintend  the  administration  of  justice 
 in  that  city;  but  this  honour  brought  on 
 him  many  enemies,  and  much  persecution, 
 by  which  his  life  was  endangered.  Juris- 
 prudence, mathematics,  and  medicine, 
 were  among  his  studies ;  but  he  was  rather 
 a  theoretical  than  a  practical  physician,  as 
 is  proved  by  his  work  intitled  Collyget, 
 in  seven  books.  Averroes  was  the  first 
 translator  of  Aristotle,  and  was  also  a 
 voluminous  commentator  on  that  philoso- 
 pher's works.  He  died,  at  Morocco,  in 
 the  vear  1198. 
 
 AVICENNA,  or  ABU-EBN-SINA,  a 
 celebrated  physician  and  philosopher,  was 
 born  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bokhara,  in 
 the  year  980,  and  before  he  was  ten  years 
 old  knew  the  Koran  by  heart,  and  was 
 acquainted  with  the  principles  of  law  and 
 literature;  after  which  he  acquired  every 
 science  then  known,  but  made  medicine 
 the  particular  object  of  his  study.  Though 
 his  fame  was  widely  spread,  and  though 
 he  was  vizier  and  physician  to  several 
 princes,  he  lived  an  agitated  life,  and  died 
 at  last,  in  1037,  at  Hamadan,  a  victim  to 
 his  own  excesses,  and  to  poison,  which 
 was  given  him  by  a  slave.  Avicenna  was 
 a  voluminous  author,  on  a  variety  of  sub- 
 jects, and  his  Medical  Canons  were  long 
 exclusively  followed  in  the  European  medi- 
 cal schools;  but  his  works  are  now  en- 
 tirelv  neglected. 
 
 AVIENUS,  Rufus  Festus,  a  Latin 
 poet,  who  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
 century,  translated  into  his  own  language 
 the  Phenomena  of  Aratus,  the  Description 
 of  the  Earth  by  Dionysius,  and  forty-two 
 of  yEsop's  Fables.  He  also  wrote  a  poem 
 in  iambic  verse,  Ora  Marit:ma,  which  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  borrowed  from  Car- 
 thaginian writers:  only  one  book  of  it  is 
 extant.  The  version  of  the  fables  has,  by 
 some  critics,  been  attributed  to  Flavins 
 Avienus,  who  lived  two  hundred  and  forty 
 years  before  Rufus. 
 
 AVILA  Y  ZUNIGA,  Louis  d\  born 
 at  Placentia,  in  Spain,  distinguished  him- 
 self as  a  diplomatist,  warrior,  and  historian, 
 under  Charles  V.  He  acted  as  ambassa- 
 dor from  his  sovereign  to  the  council  of 
 Trent,  commanded  the  cavalry  at  the  siege 
 (if  Metz,  and  recorded  the  events  of  the 
 period  in  which  he  flourished.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Commentaries  on  the  War  car- 
 
AYA 
 
 ried  on  in  Germany,  by  Charles,  in  1546 
 and  1547;  and  also  on  the  war  which  that 
 monarch  waged  in  Africa.  The  last  of 
 these  works  was  never  printed,  and  is  now 
 lost.  Charles  V.  so  much  admired  d'Avila's 
 writings,  that  he  deemed  himself  more  for- 
 tunate than  Alexander,  in  having  such  an 
 historian. 
 
 AVILA,  John  d',  a  Spanish  priest, 
 was  born  in  New  Castle,  about  the  year 
 1500.  At  the  age  of  thirty,  he  began  to 
 journey  through  the  Andahisian  mountains 
 and  forests,  enforcing  the  doctrines  of  the 
 gospel,  both  by  precept  and  example.  This 
 course  of  conduct  he  pursued  for  forty 
 years,  till  he  died,  in  1569,  and  it  gained  him 
 the  appellation  of  the  Apostle  of  Andalusia. 
 He  was  also  the  author  of  several  theolo- 
 gical works. 
 
 AVISON,  Charles,  a  musical  com- 
 poser, is  believed  to  have  been  born  at  or 
 near  Newcastle,  in  which  town  he  was 
 organist,  first  to  St.  John's  church,  and 
 afterwards  to  St.  Nicholas's.  In  his  youth 
 he  travelled  into  Italy,  and  received  in- 
 structions from  Geminiani.  He  died  at 
 Newcastle,  in  1770.  He  is  the  author  of 
 an  Essay  on  Musical  Expression,  in  which, 
 not  much  to  the  credit  of  his  judgment,  he 
 endeavours  to  depreciate  Handel. 
 
 AVOGADRO,  Lucia,  an  Italian  poetess, 
 flourished  about  the  year  1560,  displayed 
 early  poetical  talents,  and  won  the  praise 
 of  even  Tasso.  Of  her  compositions  only 
 a  few  lyric  pieces  are  extant;  but  they 
 justify  the  applause  which  was  bestowed 
 upon  her.     She  died  in  1568. 
 
 A VOGRADO,  Jerome,  who  flourished 
 at  Brescia,  in  1486,  was  the  son  of  a  civi- 
 lian, of  a  noble  family.  He  cultivated 
 literature,  and  was  the  Mecasnas  of  men  of 
 letters.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
 editor  of  the  collected  works  of  Vitruvius. 
 
 AVRIGNY,  Hyacinth  Robillard 
 d',  a  Jesuit  and  historian,  was  born  at 
 Caen  in  1675,  and  died  in  1719.  During 
 his  life  time  he  lived  in  obscurity,  but  he 
 achieved  posthumous  fame  by  two  excel- 
 lent historical  works  which  he  left  behind 
 him.  These  are  Memoirs  relating  to 
 General  and  to  Ecclesiastical  History,  from 
 1600  to  1716,  each  work  consisting  of  four 
 volumes.  D'Avigny  is  said  to  have  died 
 of  chagrin,  occasioned  by  the  extensive 
 alterations  which  were  made  in  his  manu- 
 scripts by  Father  Lallemant,  to  whose 
 revision  the  superiors  of  the  Jesuits  had 
 compelled  him  to  submit  them. 
 
 AYALA,  Peter  Lopez  d',  aSpanish 
 statesman,  historian,  and  general,  was 
 born  in  Murcia,  in  1332,  and  served  under 
 four  Castilian  monarchs,  both  in  the  coun- 
 cil and  the  field,  and  with  equal  applause 
 in  both.  Fond  of  learning,  he  was  at  once 
 the  most  brave,  eloquent,  and  erudite  man 
 in  Spain.     He  translated  Livy,  and  other 
 
 AYS  55 
 
 authors,  and  wrote  a  Chronicle  of  the 
 Kings  of  Castile.     He  died  in  1407. 
 
 AYESHA,  the  second  and  most  beloved 
 of  all  Mahomet's  wives,  was  the  daughter 
 of  Abubeker.  She  accompanied  her  hus- 
 band in  all  his  expeditions.  After  his 
 death  she  made  an  obstinate  opposition  to 
 Ali,  but  was  at  length  defeated  by  him  in 
 a  pitched  battle.  She  died  at  Mecca,  in 
 the  year  677.  Her  memory  is  venerated 
 by  the  Mussulmans,  who  give  her  the  title 
 of  Prophetess,  and  consider  her  as  one  of 
 the  four  incomparable  women  who  have 
 appeared  on  earth. 
 
 AYLMER,  John,  an  English  prelate, 
 born  at  Aylmer  Hall,  in  Norfolk,  in  1521, 
 was  educated  at  Cambridge.  Lady  Jane 
 Grey  was  subsequently  under  his  tuition. 
 Having  rendered  himself  obnoxious  by  his 
 protestant  zeal,  he  retired  to  Zurich,  on 
 the  accession  of  Mary.  On  Elizabeth 
 ascending  the  throne  he  returned,  and,  in 
 1576,  was  made  bishop  of  London.  The 
 rigour  with  which  he  persecuted  the  Puri- 
 tans was  little  in  accordance  with  the  spirit 
 of  Christianity.  He  was,  in  truth,  of  an 
 arrogant  and  arbitrary  disposition.  He 
 died  exceedingly  rich,  in  1594,  though,  at 
 the  age  of  forty,  he  had  declaimed  against 
 the  superfluous  wealth  of  churchmen.  Ayl- 
 mer is  the  author  of  an  answer  to  Knox's 
 attack  upon  female  sovereigns. 
 
 AYLOFFE,  Sir  Joseph,  of  Frara- 
 field,  Sussex,  an  antiquary,  was  born  about 
 1708,  and  educated  at  Winchester  and  Ox- 
 ford. He  was  keeper  of  the  state  papers, 
 in  the  Paper  Office,  and  a  fellow  of  the 
 Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies.  Leland's 
 Collectanea,  the  Liber  Niger,  and  other 
 works  of  the  kind,  were  edited  by  him; 
 he  contributed  to  the  Archaeologia ;  and 
 he  published  the  Universal  Librarian,  and 
 Calendars  of  the  ancient  Charters,  &c.  in 
 the  Tower.     He  died  in  17S3. 
 
 AYOLAS,  John  de,  a  Spaniard, 
 governor  of  Buenos  Ayres,  in  1536,  ob- 
 tained great  advantages  over  the  Indians, 
 and  founded  the  city  of  Assumption;  but, 
 in  an  attempt  to  open  a  communication  by 
 land  with  Peru,  he  and  his  troops  were 
 destroyed  by  the  savages. 
 
 AYRENHOFF,  C.  Von,  an  officer  of 
 high  rank  in  the  imperial  service.  He 
 produced,  with  great  success,  a  consider- 
 able number  of  tragedies  and  comedies, 
 of  the  former,  his  Aurelius,  Antiope,  and 
 Cleopatra,  and  of  the  latter,  the  Noble 
 Passions,  are  considered  as  the  best.  He 
 died  towards  the  latter  end  of  the  eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 AYSCOUGH,  Samuel,  the  son  of  a 
 tradesman  in  Nottingham,  was,  in  early 
 life,  in  consequence  of  his  father's  bank- 
 ruptcy, compelled  to  fill  several  menial 
 situations.  On  coming  to  town,  he  ob- 
 tained  a  place  of  the   same  kind  in   the 
 
56 
 
 BAB 
 
 British  Museum,  where  he  displayed  so 
 much  diligence,  and  desire  of  gaining 
 know  ledge,  that  he  was  raised  to  he  assist- 
 ant librarian.  lie  afterwards  took  orders, 
 and  had  respectable  cliurcli  preferment. 
 A  rariety  of  laborious  indexes  and  cata- 
 logues were  compiled  by  him,  of  which  the 
 in  >st  important  are  an  Index  to  Shakspeare, 
 ;i  id  :i  Catdl  »g "ic  of  the  British  Museum. 
 lie  died  in  1804,  at  the  age  of  fifty-nine. 
 
 AYSCOUGH,  George  Edward,  a 
 military  officer;  was  the  son  of  the  dean  of 
 Bristol,  and  nephew  of  Lord  Lyttletott. 
 lie  is  the  author  of  Seratramis,  a  tragedy) 
 •  ir  which  Sheridan  wrote  a  prologue,  and 
 t»f  Letters  from  an  Officer  in  the  Guards, 
 giving  an  account  of  France  and  Italy. 
 Ayscough  died,  in  1779,  of  a  consump- 
 tio  i. 
 
 AYSCUE,  Sir  George,  an  admiral, 
 was  a  descendant  of  a  good  Lincolnshire 
 family,  entered  the  naval  service  in  his 
 y.mth,  and  was  knighted  by  Charles  I.  In 
 the  struggle  between  the  parliament  and 
 tlw  king,  however,  lie  adhered  to  the  former, 
 reduced  Sicily,  Barbadoes,  and  Virginia 
 t  i  obedience,  and  acted  with  spirit  in  the 
 war  against  Holland.  In  1666,  while  en- 
 gaged with  the  Dutch,  his  ship  struck  on 
 a  sand  bank,  and,  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts, 
 he  was  obliged  to  surrender.  His  subse- 
 quent life  was  spent  in  retirement. 
 
 AZARA,  Don  Joseph  Nicholas  d', 
 a  native  of  Arragon,  was  born   in    1731, 
 
 BAC 
 
 and  studied  at  Salamanca,  where  he  highly 
 distinguished  himself.  He  manifested  also 
 a  taste  for  the  fine  arts,  and  contracted  a 
 friendship  with  Mengs,  the  painter.  In 
 1765  he  entered  on  the  diplomatic  career, 
 and  was  sent  to  Rome,  as  agent  for  eccle- 
 siastical affairs.  On  the  death  of  the 
 ambassador  there.  Azara  was  appointed  to 
 succee  I  him.  lie  continued  at  Rome  till 
 he  was  driven  from  thence  by  the  French 
 invasion-  Subsequently,  he  was  named 
 ambassador  to  Paris.  Azara  died  in  1804. 
 He  wrote  a  Life  of  Mengs,  and  a  Funeral 
 Eulogium  on  Charles  II T.,  and  translated 
 Middleton's  Life  of  Cicero,  and  various 
 other  works. 
 
 AZNAR,  Count  of  Gascony,  was  sent, 
 in  S24,  by  Pepin,  king  of  Aquitaine,  to 
 put  down  a  revolt  of  the  Navarrese  Gas- 
 cons, a  task  which  he  accomplished.  Pepin, 
 however,  having  subsequently  given  him 
 cause  for  discontent,  Aznar  put  himself  at 
 the  head  of  the  same  Gascons^  passed  the 
 Pyrenees,  in  831,  seized  on  a  part  of  Na- 
 varre, and  became  the  founder  of  the  king- 
 dom of  that  name.     He  died  in  836. 
 
 AZUNI,  Dominic  Albert,  an  Ital- 
 ian civilian,  was  born  in  Sardinia  in  1760, 
 and  died  in  that  island  in  1827.  Among 
 his  works,  all  of  which  are  much  esteemed, 
 are  a  History  of  Sardinia;  a  Dictionary 
 of  Mercantile  Jurisprudence;  and  a  Sys- 
 tem of  the  Principles  of  the  Maritime  Law 
 of  Europe. 
 
 B 
 
 BABA,  a  Turkish  sectary,  who  made 
 his  first  appearance  in  the  city  of  Amasia, 
 in  the  year  1240,  pretended  to  be  sent  by 
 God,  and  succeeded  in  raising  a  numerous 
 army,  with  which  he  ravaged  Anatolia. 
 It  required  the  united  forces  of  the  Franks 
 and  the  Mussulmans  to  vanquish  this  im- 
 postor. 
 
 BABEK,  Khorf.mi,  or  Harrami,  a 
 celebrated  Persian  impostor,  denominated 
 the  Libertine,  and  the  Impious,  appeared  as 
 the  apostle  of  a  new  religion  in  the  early 
 part  of  the  ninth  century.  His  doctrines 
 are  said  to  have  been  a  compound  of  the 
 errors  of  various  sects.  For  twenty  years 
 he  foiled  all  the  caliph's  generals,  and 
 struck  terror  even  into  Bagdad ;  but  he 
 was  at  length  taken,  A.  D.  837.,  and  put  to 
 a  barbarous  death. 
 
 BABRIUS,  or  BABRIAS,a  Greek  po- 
 et, the  period  of  whose  existence  is  un- 
 known. It  appears  certain,  however,  that 
 ne  lived  prior  to  Phaedrus.  Tyrwhitt 
 thinks  that  he  flourished  a  little  before  the 
 reign  of  Augustus,  and  Coray  imagines 
 nim  to  have  been  a  contemporary  of  Bion 
 
 and  Moschus.  He  made  an  elegant  ver- 
 sion of  iEsop's  Fables,  in  Greek  iambic 
 verse,  which,  with  the  exception  of  some 
 fragments,  is  unfortunately  lost. 
 
 BABUR,  or  BABR,  Mohammed,  the 
 great  grandson  of  Tamerlane,  was  born  in 
 14S3,  and  in  1494  was  proclaimed  sovereign 
 of  the  Mogul  empire  in  western  Tartary 
 and  Khorassan.  Some  years  were  spent 
 in  struggles  for  the  throne  with  various  ri- 
 vals ;  after  which  he  subdued  Candahar  and 
 Cabulistan.  In  1525  he  invaded  Hindos- 
 tan,  defeated  the  Indians  at  the  battle  of 
 Panniput,  and  made  himself  master  of  the 
 country.  He  died  in  1530.  His  posterity 
 reigned  over  India  for  two  centuries  and 
 a  half.  Babur  wrote  a  history  of  his  own 
 life. 
 
 BACCALAR  Y  SANNA,  Vincent, 
 Marquis  of  San  Felipe,  a  Spanish  general 
 and  statesman,  under  Charles  II.  and 
 Philip  V.,  was  a  native  of  Sardinia,  born 
 about  1650,  and  died  in  1726.  He  is  the 
 author  of  a  History  of  the  Hebrew  Mon- 
 archy, and  of  Memoirs  of  the  History  of 
 Philip  V.  from  1690  to  1725. 
 
BAC 
 
 BACCHYLIDES,  a  Greek  lyric  poet, 
 the  nephew  of  Simonides,  a  native  of  Cos, 
 was  the  rival  of  Pindar,  and  flourished 
 about  450 years  B.  c.  Hiero preferred  him 
 to  Pindar,  and  Horace  imitated  him.  Only 
 a  few  fragments  of  his  works  are  extant. 
 
 BACCICI.  The  real  name  of  the  art- 
 ist thus  called  was  John  Baptist  Gaul- 
 li.  He  was  a  native  of  Genoa,  born  in 
 1639,  and  died  in  1709.  In  portraits  and 
 historical  paintings  he  acquired  great  rep- 
 utation; he  particularly  excelled  in  fore- 
 shortening his  figures,  and  giving  force  and 
 relief  to  them.  To  give  animation  to  his 
 portraits,  he  made  those  who  sat  to  him 
 talk  and  gesticulate;  he  did  not,  he  said, 
 want  to  paint  statues.  Gaulli  was  of  a  vi- 
 olent temper,  which  caused  him  the  loss  of 
 his  son,  who  drowned  himself,  in  conse- 
 quence of  having  received  a  blow  from  his 
 father  before  a  large  companv. 
 
 BACCIO  BELLA  PORTA,  better 
 known  under  the  name  of  FraBartolo- 
 meo  di  San  Marco,  an  eminent  paint- 
 er, was  born,  in  1469,  at  Savignano,  in 
 Tuscany.  For  a  while  he  abandoned  the 
 pencil,  to  become  a  Dominican  monk,  but 
 he  resumed  it,  and  was  more  successful 
 than  ever.  Many  of  his  productions  are 
 excellent ;  but  his  St.  Mark,  St.  Sebastian, 
 aad  Marriage  of  St.  Catharine,  are  mas- 
 terpieces of  art.  He  was  the  first  who 
 painted  drapery  in  a  finished  style,  and 
 made  use  of  the  jointed  lay  figure.  He 
 died  in  1517. 
 
 BACELLAR,  Anthony  Barbosa,  a 
 celebrated  Portuguese  civilian,  historian, 
 and  lyric  poet,  was  born  at  Lisbon,  in  1610. 
 His  defence  of  the  right  of  the  house  of  Bra- 
 ganza  to  the  throne,  gained  him  the  favour 
 of  the  court,  and  opened  his  way  to  hon- 
 ours and  fortune;  but  it  diverted  his  at- 
 tention from  poetry,  in  which  he  had  early 
 acquired  reputation.  He  is  the  author  of 
 an  historical  work  on  the  War  of  Brazil, 
 and  of  another  on  the  Campaign  of  1659 
 in  Portugal.     He  died  in  1663. 
 
 BACH,  John  Sebastian,  one  of  the 
 most  eminent  of  German  musicians,  was 
 born  at  Eisenach,  in  1685,    and  died  at 
 
 BAC 
 
 57 
 
 a  part  in  the  proceedings  of  the  faction  of 
 the  Fronde,  and  it  was  to  him  that  the  fac- 
 tion owed  its  name.  In  conjunction  with 
 his  friend  Chapelle,  he  wrote  the  celebra- 
 ted Journey  to  Montpellier,  in  alternate 
 prose  and  verse,  which  is  consideied  as  a 
 masterpiece  of  the  kind.  He  died  in 
 1702.     (See  Chapelle.) 
 
 BACHELIER,  J.  J.,  a  French  painter, 
 born  in  1724,  who  died  in  1805,  was  di- 
 rector of  the  royal  manufactory  of  Sevres. 
 The  lost  process  of  encaustic  painting,  and 
 the  composition  which  the  ancients  used  tc 
 preserve  marble  from  being  injured  by  the 
 air,  were  rediscovered  by  him.  He  gener- 
 ously devoted  sixty  thousand  francs  (two 
 thousand  five  hundred  pounds)  to  the  estab- 
 lishment of  a  school  for  gratuitously  teach- 
 ing to  artisans  the  principles  of  drawing. 
 
 BACLER  D'ALBE,  Baron  Auiskrt 
 Louis,  a  French  painter  and  geographical 
 engineer,  was  born  at  St.  Pol,  in  1761, 
 and  died  at  Paris,  in  1824.  He  was  con- 
 stantly employed  by  Napoleon,  was  in 
 great  favour  with  him,  and  was  director  of 
 his  topographical  cabinet.  His  map  of 
 the  theatre  of  war  in  Italy  is  on  an  exten- 
 sive scale,  and  of  beautiful  execution.  He 
 also  published  several  picturesque  works. 
 
 BACON,  Roger,  an  English  monk, 
 born  at  Ilchester,  in  Somersetshire,  in  1214, 
 was  educated  at  Oxford  and  at  Paris,  en- 
 tered the  Franciscan  order  in  his  twenty- 
 fifth  year,  and  returned  to  Oxford.  His 
 lectures  and  experiments,  in  which  he  dis- 
 played talent  and  knowledge  far  transcen- 
 ding what  was  possessed  by  his  contempo- 
 raries, soon  excited  wonder  and  envy. 
 His  admirers  gave  him  the  deserved  title  of 
 "  the  wonderful  doctor ; "  his  stupid  and  ma- 
 lignant enemies  accused  hirn  of  magic 
 The  latter  prevailed.  His  lectures  wei-. 
 interdicted,  and  he  was  confined  to  his 
 cell.  His  seclusion  lasted  ten  years,  dur- 
 ing which  he  composed  many  excellent 
 works.  He  himself  collected  several  of  his 
 writings,  and  gave  to  the  collection  the  title 
 of  Opus  Majus.  After  having  obtained  his 
 liberty,  he  died  in  1292.  Gunpowder,  the 
 camera  obscura,  the  burning  glass,  and  the 
 Leipsic,  in  1754.     He  was  an  inimitable  |  telescopic  properties  of  convex  and  concave 
 
 performer  on  the  organ,  and  left  many  com- 
 positions of  high  scientific  merit.  Bach 
 had  eleven  sons,  all  musicians,  four  of  whom 
 attained  celebrity;  namely,  William 
 Frederic;  Charles  Philip  Eman- 
 uel; John  Christopher  Frederic; 
 and  John  Christian:  of  these  the  sec- 
 ond and  the  fourth  were  the  most  famous. 
 Haydn  is  supposed  by  Dr.  Burney  to  have, 
 in  some  degree,  taken  Charles  Philip  as 
 his  model. 
 
 BACHAUMONT,  Francis  le  Coig- 
 HEUX  de,  a  native  of  the  French  metro- 
 polis, born  in  1624,  was  the  son  of  a  pres- 
 ident of  the  parliament  of  Paris.     He  took 
 3* 
 
 glasses,  seem  to  have  been  known  to  him; 
 and  his  acquirements  in  every  science  were 
 truly  surprising.  He  wrote  about  eighty 
 treatises. 
 
 BACON,  Sir  Nicholas,  father  of  the 
 celebrated  Lord  Verulam,  was  born  at  Chis- 
 elhurst,  in  Kent,  in  1510,  and  studied  at 
 Cambridge  and  Gray's  Inn.  Henry  VIII. 
 gave  him  various  manors  in  Suffolk,  be- 
 longing to  the  dissolved  monastery  of  St. 
 Edmundsbury;  and  Elizabeth,  with  whom 
 also  he  was  a  favourite,  made  him  a  privy 
 counsellor  and  keeper  of  the  great  seal. 
 The  latter  oflice  he  retained  for  twenty 
 years,  till  his  death,   which  took   place  in 
 
56 
 
 BAC 
 
 1579.  He  was  a  good  speaker,  a  prudent 
 statesman,  and  an  equitable  judge.  Sev- 
 eral of  his  MSS.  on  law,  politics,  and  the- 
 ology are  extant. 
 
 BACON,  Anne,  second  wife  of  Sir 
 Nicholas,  and  mother  of  Lord  Verulam, 
 was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Anthony  Cook,  tu- 
 tor of  Edward  VI.,  she  was  born  about 
 1528,  and  died  about  1600.  Lady  Bacon 
 was  a  woman  of  talent  and  acquirements. 
 She  understood  the  ancient  and  modern 
 languages;  and  translated  from  the  Italian 
 the  Sermons  of  Achiuus,  and  from  the 
 Latin,  Bishop  Jewel's  Apology  for  the 
 Church  of  England. 
 
 BACON,  Sik  Nathaniel,  the  son  of 
 Sir  Nicholas,  by  bis  first  wife,  was  a  paint- 
 er of  no  mean  merit.  He  travelled  and 
 studied  in  Italy,  but  belongs  to  the  Flem- 
 ish school.  Several  of  his  pictures  are,  or 
 recently  were,  extant.     He  died  about  1615. 
 
 BACON,  Nathaniel,  a  leader  of  in- 
 surgents in  Virginia  while  under  the  royal 
 g  *■  lament,  was  an  Englishman  of  fine 
 talents,  commanding  person,  and  singular 
 eloquence.  He  was  educated  to  the  pro- 
 fession of  the  law,  and  came  to  Virginia 
 about  the  year  1675  with  a  high  reputation 
 for  ability  and  legal  knowledge,  which  soon 
 rendered  him  conspicuous,  and  obtained 
 him  a  seat  in  the  provincial  Council.  Va- 
 rious obnoxious  measures  of  the  British 
 government  had  at  that  time  exasperated 
 t  Lie  people  of  the  colony,  and  induced  them 
 to  take  up  arms.  Bacon  was  elected  their 
 leader,  and  after  keeping  the  colony  in  a 
 state  of  anarchy  and  continual  alarm  for 
 several  months,  he  died  suddenly  in  the 
 year  1677,  and  tranquillity  was  soon  re- 
 stored. This  rebellion  cost  the  colony  one 
 hundred  thousand  pounds. 
 
 BACON,  Sir  Francis,  Viscount  of 
 St.  Albans,  whom  Pope,  in  one  emphatic 
 line,  has  truly  characterized  as  "  the  \\  best, 
 brightest,  meanest  of  mankind,"  was 
 the  son  of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  and  was 
 born  January  22,  1561.  The  promise  of 
 his  future  talents  was  so  early  displayed, 
 that  Queen  Elizabeth  was  accustomed 
 to  call  him  her  "young  lord  keeper." 
 Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  had  the  hon- 
 
 BAC 
 
 our  of  his  education;  and,  while  there, 
 before  he  was  sixteen,  he  began  to  dissent 
 from  the  Aristotelian  philosophy.  On  his 
 return  to  England,  after  having  accompa- 
 nied Sir  Amius  Paulet  to  France,  he  en- 
 tered of  Gray's  Inn,  and,  at  the  age  of 
 eight  and  twenty,  became  one  of  the  queen's 
 counsellors.  Being  the  friend  of  Essex, 
 t  >  whom  Cecil  was  hostile,  Bacon  was 
 shut  out  from  preferment.  For  this,  how- 
 ever, E;sex  generously  compensated  him, 
 by  the  gift  of  a  considerable  estate.  The 
 reward  which  Essex  received  was,  that 
 Bacon  pleaded  against  him  on  his  trial, 
 and,  afterwards,  wrote  a  pamphlet  to  blast 
 the  memory  cf  his  benefactor.  Having, 
 previously  to  the  accession  of  James  I., 
 contrived  to  obtain  the  good  graces  of  the 
 Scottish  party,  that  monarch,  as  soon  as 
 he  ascended  the  throne,  knighted  him,  and 
 gave  him  pensions  to  the  amount  of  one 
 hundred  pounds  per  annum.  But  it  was 
 not  till  1607  that  he  obtained  the  long 
 coveted  post  of  solicitor  general.  In  1611, 
 he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  marshal's 
 court;  and  in  1613, attorney  general.  As 
 a  crown  lawyer,  he  was  slavishly  obse- 
 quious to  the  sovereign,  and  a  dangerous 
 enemy  of  freedom.  At  length  he  attained 
 the  summit  of  his  ambition.  In  1617,  he 
 was  made  lord  keeper;  in  1619,  lord  high 
 chancellor,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Veru- 
 lam; and,  in  1620,  he  was  created  Vis- 
 count St.  Albans. 
 
 Fortunately  for  posterity,  the  mind  of 
 Bacon  was  not  wholly  engrossed  by  am- 
 bition ;  philosophy  and  science  held  a  large 
 place  in  it.  His  great  labour,  the  Novum 
 Organon,  was  given  to  the  world  in  1620. 
 He  had  already  published  his  Essays;  the 
 Advancement  of  Learning;  the  treatise  on 
 the  Wisdom  of  the  Ancients;  and  some 
 other  works. 
 
 But,  at  the  very  moment  when  the  tri- 
 umph of  his  genius  was  completed,  his 
 political  downfal  was  near  at  hand.  In 
 1621,  he  was  accused  in  parliament  of  gross 
 bribery  and  corruption.  He  pleaded  guilty, 
 and  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  forty 
 thousand  pounds;  to  be  imprisoned  during 
 the  royal  pleasure;  and  to  be  rendered  in- 
 capable of  filling  any  office,  sitting  among 
 the  peers,  and  coming  within  the  verge  of 
 the  court.  The  fine  and  imprisonment, 
 how  ever,  were  soon  remitted,  and  a  pension 
 was  even  granted  to  him.  The  remainder 
 if  hia  life  was  spent  in  retirement,  and  in 
 the  ardent  pursuit  of  literature  and  sci- 
 ence; often  embittered  by  the  embarrass- 
 ments which  arose  from  his  habits  of  lavish 
 expenditure.  He  died  atHighgate,on  the 
 9th  of  April,  1626.  As  a  courtier  and  a 
 politician,  he  merits  no  small  severity  of 
 ensure  ;  as  a  man  of  genius  and  a  philoso- 
 pher, no  language  can  be  too  lofty  for  his 
 praise 
 
BAD 
 
 BACON,  John,  an  eminent  sculptor, 
 corn  in  Southwark,  in  1740,  was  originally 
 a  painter  of  porcelain,  and  a  modeller  of 
 china  figures.  Having,  however,  a  genius 
 for  sculpture,  he  applied  himself  to  the 
 study  of  the  art  with  such  diligence  as  to 
 acquire  great  proficiency  in  it.  It  was 
 about  the  year  1763  that  he  began  to  work 
 in  marble;  and,  from  that  period  he  yearly 
 increased  in  skill  and  reputation.  His 
 statue  of  Mars  first  brought him  into  public 
 notice.  He  died  in  1799,  respected  as  an 
 artist  and  a  man  Among  his  principal 
 works  may  be  reckoned  the  statues  of 
 Judge  Blackstone,  Johnson,  and  Howard; 
 a  bust  of  George  III. ;  and  the  monuments 
 of  Lord>  Chatham,  Mrs.  Draper,  and  Guy, 
 the  founder  of  the  hospital. 
 
 BADCOCK,  Samuel, anEnglish  divine 
 and  writer,  was  born,  in  1747,  at  South 
 Moulton,  in  Devonshire,  and  was,  for  some 
 years,  a  dissenting  minister,  but  at  length 
 conformed  to  the  church,  and  became  as- 
 sistant preacher  at  the  Octagon  Chapel, 
 Bath.  He  died  in  London,  in  1788.  As 
 a  pulpit  orator,  he  was  much  admired ; 
 and  as  a  literary  man,  he  displaced  talents 
 far  above  mediocrity.  He  was  one  of  the 
 best  writers  in  the  Monthly  Review;  was 
 a  correspondent  of  several  magazines ;  and 
 contributed  largely  to  Dr.  White's  Bamp- 
 ton  Lectures:  but  published  nothing  sepa- 
 rately, except  a  Sermon,  and  a  pamphlet 
 on  Dr.  Priestley. 
 
 BADEN,  James,  a  Dane,  born  in  1735, 
 is  considered  as  one  of  the  founders  of 
 Danish  literature.  In  1760,  on  his  return 
 from  his  travels,  he  gave,  at  Copenhagen, 
 the  first  course  of  lectures  on  the  belles 
 lettres  that  had  ever  been  delivered  in  the 
 language  of  the  country.  He  was  profes- 
 sor of  eloquence  and  Latin  in  the  university 
 of  Copenhagen,  and  held  other  offices  con- 
 nected with  public  instruction.  His  Critical 
 Journal,  from  1768  to  1779,  contributed 
 much  to  improve  the  Danish  taste.  He 
 translated  Tacitus,  and  other  classics,  and 
 published  a  Latin  and  Danish  Dictionary, 
 and  several  grammars. 
 
 BADGER,  Louis,  a  native  of  Lyons, 
 has  immortalized  his  memory  by  an  heroic 
 instance  of  fraternal  affection.  To  save  his 
 brother,  who  had  assisted  in  defending 
 Lyons  against  the  republicans,  and  who 
 was  consequently  exposed  to  the  penalty 
 of  death  after  the  surrender,  he  assumed 
 his  name,  and  cheerfully  suffered  for  him. 
 
 BADIA  Y  LEBLICH,  Domingo,  a 
 Spaniard,  was  born  in  1766,  and  educated 
 at  Valencia.  Being  well  skilled  in  Arabic, 
 he  resolved  to  travel  in  the  East;  and,  ac- 
 cordingly, after  having  been  personally 
 qualified  to  pass  as  a  Mahometan,  he  as- 
 sumed the  name  of  Ali  Bey.  Under  his 
 dibguise  he  visited  Tripoli,  Egypt,  Mecca, 
 and  Syria  undiscovered,    and   was  every 
 
 BAI 
 
 59 
 
 where  received  with  favour,  as  a  true  be- 
 liever. On  his  return  to  Spain,  he  espoused 
 the  cause  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and,  after 
 the  battle  of  Vittoria,  he  took  refuge  in 
 France.  He  died  in  1824.  His  Travels 
 in  Africa  and  Asia  were  published  in  two 
 quarto  volumes. 
 
 BAFFIN,  William,  an  able  English 
 navigator,  was  born  in  1584,  and  acted  as 
 pilot  to  several  of  the  voyagers  to  the  arctic 
 regions.  Geographers  have  given  his  name 
 to  the  vast  bay  which  he  explored,  and 
 which  commences  at  Davis's  Straits.  Its 
 existence  has  been  doubted,  but  has  re- 
 cently been  verified.  Baffin  proposed  to 
 attempt  a  passage  round  Northern  and 
 Eastern  Asia,  but  could  not  obtain  sup- 
 port. He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Or- 
 muz,  in  1622. 
 
 BAGE,  Robert,  a  novel  writer,  was 
 born,  in  1728,  at  Darley,  in  Derbyshirer 
 was  nearly  self-educated,  and  for  manv 
 years  carried  on  the  business  of  a  paper 
 maker,  at  Tamworth,  where  he  died  in 
 1801.  As  a  writer,  he  is  much  above 
 mediocrity.  His  first  publication,  which 
 appeared  in  1781,  was  Mount  Kenneth. 
 It  was  succeeded  by  Barham  Downs,  the 
 Fair  Syrian,  James  Wallace,  Hermsprong, 
 and  other  productions  of  the  same  spe- 
 cies. 
 
 BAGLIVI,  George,  an  eminent  phy- 
 sician, was  born  at  Ragusa,  in  1668,  and 
 was  educated  at  Naples  and  Padua.  Cle- 
 ment XIV.,  on  the  ground  of  his  great 
 merit  appointed  him,  while  yet  young, 
 professor  of  surgery  and  anatomy  in  the 
 college  of  Sapienza,  at  Rome.  Baglivi  is 
 entitled  to  the  praise  of  having  contributed 
 to  bring  back  medical  science  to  proper 
 principles.  He  died  in  1706.  His  works 
 have  been  collected  into  a  quarto  volume. 
 
 BAGOLINO,  Sebastian,  a  native  of 
 Alcamo,  in  Sicily,  born  in  1560,  was  re- 
 markable for  the  variety  of  his  talents; 
 he  being  at  once  poet,  painter,  and  musi- 
 cian, and  speaking  with  equal  facility  and 
 eloquence  in  Latin,  Spanish,  and  Italian. 
 He  was  a  fertile  writer,  but  only  a  few  of 
 his  works  were  published.  He  died  in 
 1604. 
 
 BAGRATION,  Prince,  a  Russian  gene- 
 ral, senator,  and  counsellor  of  the  emperor, 
 signalized  himself  in  the  Polish  campaigns 
 of  1793  and  1794,  and  the  Italian  cam- 
 paign of  1799;  in  the  latter  of  which  Su- 
 varoff  gave  him  the  title  of  "  his  right 
 arm."  In  1805,  1806,  and  1807,  he  en- 
 hanced his  reputation  in  the  field.  The 
 command  of  the  second  Russian  army  was 
 entrusted  to  him  in  1812;  and,  though 
 closely  pressed  by  a  superior  force,  he  ef- 
 fected his  junction  with  the  other  armies. 
 He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
 Borodino. 
 BAIF,  John  Anthony  DE,the  son  of 
 
00 
 
 BA1 
 
 BAK 
 
 bring  it  back  to  natural  principles.  The 
 disease  called  croup,  which  has,  in  these 
 times,  been  supposed  to  be  a  new  disease, 
 appears  to  have  been  observed  by  him. 
 His  works  form  four  volumes  in  quarto. 
 BAILLY,  John   Silvain,    a  French 
 
 Lazarus  Baif,  who  was  himself  a  man  of 
 talent  and  learning,  was  born  at  Venice, 
 where  his  father  was  ambassador,  in  1532. 
 At  an  early  age  lie  became  the  friend  of 
 Ronsard,  and  published  a  volume  of  poems. 
 Poetry  was,   thenceforth,  his  occupation, 
 
 and  no  important  event  took  place  without  I  astronomer  and  literary  character  of  emi- 
 his  celebrating  it;  but  he  was  scantily  re-!nence,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  1736,  and  at 
 warded,  and  complained  heavily  of  in-  an  early  period  manifested  an  indefatiga- 
 gratitude  and  ill  fortune.  He  died  poor,  |ble  ardour  in  the  pursuit  of  science  and 
 in  1570.  He  was  the  lirst  who  founded  in  I philosophy.  The  reputation  which  he  ac- 
 France  an  academy  of  poetry  anil  music,  i  quired  was  commensurate  with  his  exer- 
 but  the  institution  was  short  lived.  tions.     Politics,   however,    at   last    fatally 
 
 BAILEY,  Nat  ha  it,  a  grammarian  and  interfered   with  his  scientific  occupations. 
 
 After  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution, 
 he  was  an  active  member  of  the  national 
 assembly,  and  was  next  chosen  mayor  of 
 Paris.  In  the  latter  capacity,  he  excited 
 the  inextinguishable  hatred  of  the  jaco- 
 bins, by  using  military  force  to  disperse 
 one  of  their  insurrectionary  meetings. 
 They  avenged  themselves  when  they  had 
 
 lexicographer,  died  in  1742,  at  Stepney, 
 where  he  kept  a  school.  He  edited  sever- 
 al school  books,  and  compiled  a  Household 
 Dictionary,  and  Antiquities  of  London  and 
 Westminster;  but  his  best  known  work 
 is  an  English  Etymological  Dictionary, 
 which,  nith  successive  enlargements,  pas- 
 sed through  many  editions. 
 
 BAILLET,  Adrian,  a  laborious  and  seized  the  reins  of  government;  and,  on  the 
 learned  French  writer,  was  born,  of  poor  1 11th  of  November,  1793,  Bailly  was  sent 
 parents,  at  Neuville,  in  Picardy,  in  164'). .  to  the  scafTold  with  circumstances  of  the 
 He  took  orders,  obtained  a  small  living,  most  disgusting  barbarity.  Of  his  works, 
 and  was  afterwards  made  librarian  to  M.jthe  most  celebrated  are,  his  Histories  of 
 Lamoignon.  He  wrote  various  theological,  [Ancient,  of  Modern,  and  of  Oriental  As- 
 historical,  and  other  works ;  among  which  tronomv;  Letters  on  Plato's  Atlantis; 
 are   Lives  of  the  Saints,  3  vols,  folio;    the  and  Letters  on  the  Origin  of  the  Sciences. 
 
 BAL\BR1DGE,  John,  a  physician  and 
 astronomer,  was  born,  in  1582,   at  Ashbv 
 
 Life  of  Descartes,  2  vols.  4to. ;    a  History 
 
 of  Holland,  4  vols.   12mo.;    and   lives  of' 
 
 celebrated    Children,  2  vols.   12mo.     The  i  de  la  Zouch,  and  was  educated  at  Eman- 
 
 work,  however,  by  which  he  is  best  known,   uel  College,  Cambridge.     So  high  a  repu- 
 
 is  his  Jugemens  des  Savaus,  9  vols.  12mo 
 He  died  in  1706. 
 
 BAILLIE,  William,  an  English  ama- 
 teur artist,  was  born  about  1736,  and  was 
 originally  a  captain  of  cavalry;  but  quit- 
 ted the  army,  in  order  to  devote  himself 
 to  engraving.  He  displayed  much  talent, 
 and  produced  about  a  hundred  plates,  sev- 
 eral of  which  are  from  Rembrandt.     He 
 
 tation  did  he  acquire  for  scientific  knowl- 
 edge, that  Sir  Henry  Savile  chose  him  to 
 be  his  first  astronomical  professor  at  Ox- 
 ford. He  died  in  that  city,  in  1643.  He 
 published  a  Description  of  the  late  Comet; 
 Canicularia;  and  an  edition  of  Proclus  on 
 the  Sphere;  and  left  many  manuscript  ob- 
 servations. 
 
 BAKER,  Sir  Richard,  was  born  at 
 
 died   at  the   beginning  of  the  nineteenth  i  Sissinghurst,  in  Kent,  in  1568,  was  knight- 
 century,  ed  by  James  I.,  and  in  1620  was  high  sher- 
 BAILLIE,  Matthew,  the  son  of  a  di-jilf  of  Oxfordshire.     An   unfortunate  mar- 
 
 viuitv  professor  at  Glasgow,  was  born  in 
 1760,  and  was  educated  at  his  native  city 
 and  at  Oxford,  at  which  latter  place  he 
 took  his  degree  of  M.  D.  Being  a  nep- 
 hew of  Dr.  William  Hunter,  he  was  so 
 fortunate  as  to  receive  the  valuable  instruc- 
 tions of  that  celebrated  man.  Aided  by 
 this  advantage,  and  his  own  great  talents, 
 he  soon  obtained  an  extensive  medical 
 practice  in  the  metropolis,  and  accumulat- 
 ed a  large  fortune.  Dr.  Baillie  died  in 
 1824.  He  is  the  author  of  the  Morbid  An- 
 atomy of  the  Human  Body:  a  work  of  su- 
 perior excellence. 
 
 BAILLOU,  William  de,  a  physician, 
 called  the  French  Sydenham,  was  born  at 
 Paris,  in  1538,  and  died  in  1616.  He 
 was  one  of  those  who  contributed  to  eman- 
 cipate the  medical  art  in  France  from  the 
 shackles   of  the  Arabian    school,  and   to 
 
 riage  ruined  him,  and  he  was  incarcerat- 
 ed in  the  Fleet,  where  he  wrote  his  Chro- 
 nicles of  the  Kings  of  England,  and  other 
 works,     lie  died,  a  prisoner,  in  1645. 
 
 BAKER,  Thomas,  an  eminent  mathe- 
 matician, was  born  at  Ilton,  in  Somerset- 
 shire, in  1625,  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
 and  became  minister  of  Bishop's  Nyramet, 
 in  Devonshire.  He  died  in  1690.  He  is 
 the  author  of  the  Geometrical  Key,  or  the 
 diate  of  Equations  Unlocked. 
 
 BAKER,  Thomas,  an  antiquary,  born 
 at  Lanchester,  Durham,  in  1656,  became 
 a  fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
 and  obtained  the  living  of  Long  Newton. 
 The  living  he  resigned,  because  he  would 
 not  take  the  oaths  to  William  III.;  from 
 the  fellowship  he  was  expelled  for  refusing 
 to  take  them  to  George  I.  He  died  in 
 1740,  with  the  character  of  an  amiable. 
 
BAL 
 
 worthy,  and  learned  man  His  Reflections 
 on  Learning  went  through  several  edi- 
 tions; but  the  work  has  long  ceased  to  be 
 valued.  His  manuscript  collections  on  the 
 antiquities  of  Cambridge  form  thirty-nine 
 folio  volumes,  and  were  intended  as  the 
 basis  of  a  history  similar  to  that  of  Antho- 
 ny Wood. 
 
 BAKER,  Henry,  a  naturalist,  was 
 born  at  London,  in  1698,  and  made  a  con- 
 siderable fortune  by  instructing  the  deaf 
 and  dumb.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
 and  Antiquarian  Societies,  and  of  the  So- 
 ciety of  Arts;  and  left  to  the  first  of  these 
 an  annuity  of  a  hundred  pounds,  for  a 
 yearly  oration  on  experimental  philosophy, 
 or  natural  history.  He  published  the  Mi- 
 croscope made  easy ;  the  Universe,  a  po- 
 em ;  the  Universal  Spectator ;  and  other 
 works. 
 
 BAKER,  Sir  George,  Bart.,  was 
 born  in  Devonshire,  i.i  1722,  educated  at 
 Eton  and  Cambridge,  rose  to  high  practice 
 as  a  physician  in  London,  and  was  ap- 
 pointed physician  to  the  king  and  queen. 
 He  was  also  president  of  the  College  of 
 Physicians,  and  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
 ciety. He  died  in  1S19.  He  published 
 some  medical  tracts,  which  he  afterwards 
 collected  under  the  title  of  Opuscula,  and 
 was  a  contributor  to  the  Philosophical  and 
 Medical  Transactions 
 
 BAKEWELL,  Robert,  a  grazier,  was 
 born  in  1726,  at  Dishley,  in  Leicester- 
 shire, on  the  estate  of  his  father,  and  ob- 
 tained celebrity  by  his  strenuous  efforts  to 
 improve  tbe  breed  of  cattle.  In  further- 
 ance of  this  object,  he  travelled  over  Eng- 
 land, Ireland,  and  Holland.  His  efforts 
 were  eminently  successful.  His  rams  were 
 let  at  enormous  prices;  a  single  ram  hav- 
 ing brought  eight  hundred  guineas  in  one 
 season.     He  died  in  1795. 
 
 BALBINUS,  Dkcimus  Ccelius,  was 
 elected  Roman  emperor,  in  conjunction 
 with  Maximus,  after  the  death  of  the  Gor- 
 dians,  a.  d.  237.  After  a  little  more  than 
 a  year,  he,  as  well  as  his  colleague,  was 
 murdered  by  the  Praetorian  guards. 
 
 BALBOA,  Vasco  Nunez  df,  was 
 born  in  Spain,  a.bout  1475,  and,  having 
 dissipated  his  property,  sought  to  amend 
 his  fortune  by  his  exploits  in  the  New 
 World.  After  having  distinguished  him- 
 self greatly  on  the  coast  of  Darien,  he  pen- 
 etrated into  the  interior,  discovered  the 
 Pacific  Ocean,  and  obtained  in  format  ion 
 respecting  the  empire  of  Peru.  Jealous 
 of  his  talents  and  success,  his  enemies  at 
 length  accused  him  of  treason,  and  he  was 
 beheaded  in  1517. 
 
 BALD1,  Bernardin,  an  Italian,  of 
 almost  universal  genius,  was  born  at  Ur- 
 bino,  in  1553,  and  was  made  abbot  of 
 Guastalla,  by  the  sovereign  of  that  state. 
 He  was  at  once  a  theologian,   mathemati- 
 
 BAL 
 
 61 
 
 cian,  philosopher,  historian,  geographer, 
 antiquary,  orator,  and  poet;  understood 
 the  ancient  and  oriental  languages,  and  al- 
 most all  the  European;  had  a  prodigious 
 memory,  a  sound  judgment,  and  indefati- 
 gable application.  Baldi  is  the  author  of 
 several  poems  and  scientific  works.  He 
 died  in  1617. 
 
 BALDINUCCI,  Philip,  a  native  of 
 Florence,  born  in  1624,  was  a  painter, 
 sculptor,  and  writer.  Though  he  display- 
 ed talents  in  the  first  two  of  these  pursuits, 
 he  owes  his  permanent  fame  to  his  literary 
 labours.  He  is  the  author  of  Lives  of  the 
 Painters,  from  1260  to  1670;  and  the 
 Lives  of  celebrated  Engravers.  To  the  first 
 of  these  works  the  finishing  hand  was  put 
 by  his  son.     He  died  in  1696. 
 
 BALDWIN,  Abraham,  eminent  as  a 
 statesman,  and  president  of  the  university 
 cf  Georgia,  was  graduated  at  Yale  College 
 in  1772.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
 vention which  formed  the  constitution  of 
 the  United  States  in  1787,  and  held  a  seat 
 successively  in  both  houses  of  Congress. 
 He  died  at  Washington  in  1807. 
 
 BALE,  John,  an  English  divine,  was 
 born,  in  1495,  at  Cove,  in  Suffolk,  was 
 educated  at  Norwich  and  Cambridge,  and 
 became  a  zealous  convert  from  popery  to 
 protestantism.  Under  Edward  VI.  he  was 
 made  bishop  of  Ossory,  and  excited  the 
 hatred  of  the  Irish  catholics  by  his  reform- 
 ing zeal.  When  Mary  ascended  the  throne, 
 he  fled  to  Basil,  but  returned  on  the  acces- 
 sion of  Elizabeth,  and  was  appointed  a 
 prebend  of  Canterbury.  He  died  in  1563. 
 His  works  are  numerous;  but  chiefly  con- 
 troversial; and  his  writings  of  this  class, 
 some  of  which  were  published  under  the 
 name  of  Harrison,  are  abundantly  acri- 
 monious. He  appears  to  have  been  the 
 last  writer  of  those  religious  dramas  called 
 Mysteries.  The  work  by  which  principal- 
 ly he  is  remembered  is  his  Latin  Account 
 of  the  Lives  of  eminent  British  Authors. 
 
 BALE\,  Henry  Van,  an  eminent 
 Flemish  painter,  was  born  at  Antwerp, 
 studied  in  Italy,  and  rose  to  high  reputa- 
 tion. His  death  took  place  in  1632. 
 Vandyke  received  his  first  instructions 
 from  him. 
 
 BALES,  Peter,  a  great  master  of  pen- 
 manship, was  born  in  1547,  and  died,  in 
 indigence,  about  the  year  1610.  Some  of 
 his  performances  were  astonishing  for  their 
 minuteness  and  perfect  legibility.  Bales 
 taught  his  art  at  Oxford  and  London,  and 
 was  employed  bv  Walsinghain,  in  coun- 
 terfeiting hand  writings,  for  the  purpose 
 of  detecting  treasonable  correspondence. 
 He  is  the  author  of  the  Writing  School- 
 njaster. 
 
 BALGUY,  John,  an  eminent  divine, 
 was  born  at  Sheffield,  in  1686,  and  educa- 
 ted at  Cambridge.     He  entered  the  church  • 
 
62 
 
 BAL 
 
 but,  though  an  excellent  writer  and  minis- 
 ter, he  never  had  any  other  preferment 
 than  the  vicarage  of  North  Allerton,  and 
 a  prebend  in  the  church  of  Salisbury.  In 
 the  Bangorian  controversy  he  drew  the 
 pen  on  the  side  of  Bishop  Hoadley;  and, 
 in  reply  to  Lord  Shaftesbury,  he  published 
 Two  Letters  to  a  deist;  and  the  Founda- 
 tion of  Moral  Virtue.  Of  his  other  works, 
 the  principal  is  two  volumes  of  Sermons. 
 He  died  in  1748. — His  son,  Thomas,  who 
 was  born  in  1716,  and  died  in  1795,  was 
 archdeacon  of  Winchester,  and  printed  his 
 Sermons  and  Charges,  and  some  other  the- 
 ological pieces. 
 
 BALLARD,  Georgk,  born  at  Camp- 
 den,  in  Gloucestershire,  was  originally  a 
 stay  and  habit  maker;  but  devoted  his 
 leisure  hours  to  study,  and  made  himself 
 master  of  the  Saxon  language.  A  subscrip- 
 tion was  raised  to  educate  him  at  Oxford, 
 and  he  ultimately  became  beadle  of  the 
 university,  which  post  he  held  till  his 
 death,  in  1755.  In  1752,  he  published  his 
 Memoirs  of  British  Ladies.  Many  of  his 
 manuscript  collections  are  in  the  Bodleian 
 library. 
 
 BA'LSHAM,  BEDESALE,  or  BELE- 
 SALE,  Hugh  de,  who,  in  1247,  was  cho- 
 sen bishop  of  Ely,  is  believed  to  have  been 
 a  native  of  Balsham,  in  Catnbridgeshiie. 
 He  died  in  1286,  and  was  buried  in  Ely 
 Cathedral.  St.  Peter's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge, was  founded  by  him  in  1280. 
 
 BALUE,  John  la,  a  French  prelate 
 and  statesman,  was  a  native  of  Poitou,  of 
 an  obscure  family,  and  was  born  in  1421. 
 At  his  outset  in  life,  he  signalized  himself 
 by  fraudulently  appropriating  property,  of 
 which  he  was  left  the  executor.  Having 
 obtained  the  confidence  of  Louis  XL,  he 
 was  loaded  with  preferments  by  that  mo- 
 narch, and  was  his  prime  minister  in  all 
 but  the  name.  He,  however,  betrayed  his 
 royal  patron,  and  was  punished  by  eleven 
 years  incarceration  in  an  iron  cage,  only 
 eight  feet  square.  While  in  the  height  of 
 power,  he  had  been  created  a  cardinal; 
 and  papal  inthience  at  length  obtained  his 
 release  from  imprisonment.  He  settled  in 
 Italy,  and  died,  in  1491,  bishop  of  Preneste. 
 
 BALZAC,  John  Louis  Guezde,w1io 
 is  considered  as  one  of  the  restorers  of  the 
 French  language,  was  born  at  Angonl"ine, 
 in  1594.  He  was  in  the  service  of  the 
 duke  of  Epernon;  and,  afterwards, in  that 
 of  cardinal  la  Valet te,  whom  he  accom- 
 panied to  Rome.  On  his  return,  he  retired 
 to  his  estate.  Richelieu  gave  him  a  pension, 
 and  appointed  him  a  counsellor  <4  state. 
 and  historiographer  of  France.  He  died 
 in  1655.  Among  his  principal  works  may 
 be  mentioned  his  Letters;  the  Prince;  the 
 Christian  Socrates;  and  Aristippus.  It 
 was  he  who  first,  gave  precision,  elegance, 
 and  correctness  to  French  prose. 
 
 BAN 
 
 BANCROFT,  Richard,  an  English 
 prelate,  was  born  at  Fame  worth,  in  Lan- 
 cashire, in  1544,  and  was  educated  at 
 Christ  College,  Cambridge.  In  1584,  he 
 obtained  the  living  of  St.  Andrew's,  Hol- 
 born,  and  thenceforward  continued  rising 
 in  his  profession,  till,  in  1597,  he  obtained 
 the  bishopric  of  London,  and  in  1604,  the 
 archbishopric  of  Canterbury.  Bancroft  was 
 a  violent  assertor  of  the  privileges  of  his 
 order,  and  an  intolerant  assailant  of  those 
 who  dissented  from  the  church.  His  lite- 
 rary exertions  seem  to  have  been  confined- 
 to  a  sermon  and  two  tracts  against  the 
 Puritans,  and  an  unpublished  letter  on 
 pluralities.     He  died  in  1610. 
 
 BANDELLO,  Matthew,  an  Italian 
 dominican,  was  born  at  Castelnuovo  di 
 Scrivia,  in  1480.  Though  belonging  to  a 
 religious  order,  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
 was  spent  in  secular  pursuits.  He  was 
 preceptor  to  the  celebrated  Lucretia  Gon- 
 zaga,  was  employed  in  negotiations  by 
 Italian  princes,  and  resided  with  various 
 noble  personages.  In  1550,  he  was  made 
 bishop  of  Agen,  in  France.  His  death 
 occurred  subsequently  to  1561.  His  great 
 work  is  his  Tales,  which  is  reckoned 
 among  the  classical  productions  of  modern 
 Italy. 
 
 BANDINELLI,  Baccio,  a  celebrated 
 sculptor,  the  son  of  a  goldsmith,  was  born 
 at  Florence,  in  1487.  He  gave  the  first 
 indication  of  nis  talent  in  boyhood,  by 
 making  a  gigantic  figure  out  of  snow.  In 
 manhood,  he  realized  the  promise  of  his 
 early  years,  and  his  productions  were 
 much  admired.  Among  his  best  works  aie, 
 a  copy  of  the  Laocoon ;  an  Orpheus;  and 
 a  Hercules  binding  Cacus.  Painting,  also, 
 he  attempted,  but  did  not  succeed.  Ban- 
 dinelli  was  vain,  proud,  and  envious.  He 
 died  in  1559. 
 
 BANIER,  or  BANNER,   John  Gus- 
 tafeson,  a  celebrated  Swedish  field  mar- 
 shal, was  born  at  Diursholm,  in   Upland, 
 in  1596.     He  began  his  career  in  Livonia, 
 in    1625,    served  with    distinction    in    the 
 Polish   campaigns  of   Guslavus    Adolphus, 
 and  obtained  the  rank  of  general.     At  the 
 battle  of  Leipsic,  in  1630,  that  heroic  mo- 
 narch  confessed   that,  "  next   to  God,  he 
 owed  the  victory  to  Banier."     But  it  was 
 after  the  death  of  Gustavus  that  the  genim, 
 !  of    Banier    shone    forth    with    full    lustre. 
 After  the  loss  of  the  battle  of  Nordlingen, 
 I  he    upheld    the    sinking    fortunes    of    the 
 Swedes,  baffled   all  the  eftbrts  of  the  ene- 
 !  my,  and  gained  several  victories,  and   was 
 'known  by  the  glorious  title  of  the  Second 
 [Gustavus.      He  died  in  1641. 
 
 BANIER,  An  i ■hunt,  a  native  of  Au- 
 
 vergue,  born  in  1673,  was  educated  in  the 
 
 i  Jesuit   college  of   Clermont,    took    orders, 
 
 In  tame    an    abbe,  and  was    employed  by 
 
 i  president  DumeU  as  preceptor  to  his  sons 
 
BAN 
 
 He  was  a  Member  of  the  Academy  of 
 Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres,  to  the 
 Transactions  of  which  body  he  contributed 
 largely.  His  principal  work,  which  is  a 
 valuable  one,  is  Mythology  and  Fable  ex- 
 plained by  History.     He  died  in  1741. 
 
 BANKS,  John,  a  dramatist,  was  orig- 
 inally a  lawyer,  but  relinquished  his  pro- 
 fession to  write  for  the  stage.  Between 
 1677  and  1696,  he  produced  seven  trage- 
 dies, of  which  the  best  known  is  The 
 Unhappy  Favourite.  The  time  of  his  birth 
 and  of  his  death  is  equally  unascertained. 
 He  was  buried  in  St.  James's  Church, 
 Westminster.  His  style  and  versification 
 are  bad,  but  he  has  considerable  pathos. 
 
 BANKS,  Thomas,  an  eminent  sculptor, 
 was  born,  in  1735,  m  Gloucestershire,  and 
 was  brought  up  under  Kent,  the  architect. 
 His  genius,  however,  led  him  to  sculphvre. 
 Having  gained  prizes  from  the  Royal 
 Academy,  he  was  sent  by  that  body  to  study 
 in  Italy.  After  having  completed  his  stud- 
 ies, he  resided  two  years  in  Russia,  and 
 the  empress  purchased  his  statue  of  Cupid. 
 On  his  return  home,  he  attained  high  repu- 
 tation, and  was  much  employed  till  his 
 death,  in  1805. 
 
 BAR 
 
 89 
 
 BANKS,  Sin  Joseph,  was  born,  in 
 1743,  at  Revesby  Abbey,  in  Leicestershire, 
 and  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford.  His 
 love  of  travelling,  and  of  natural  histo- 
 ry, prompted  him  to  explore  foreign  coun- 
 tries; and,  accordingly,  in  1763,  he  made 
 a  voyage  to  Labrador  and  Newfoundland; 
 in  1768,  accompanied  the  great  navigator 
 Cook;  and,  in  1772,  visited  Iceland  and 
 the  Western  Isles  of  Scotland.  While 
 with  Captain  Cook,  he  nearly  lost  his  life 
 by  the  intense  cold,  at  Terra  del  Fuego. 
 On  his  return,  the  university  of  Oxford 
 conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
 laws.  In  1778,  he  obtained  the  order  of 
 the  Bath,  and  the  presidency  of  the  Royal 
 Societv;  but,  after  having  held  the  latter 
 about  five  years,  his  conduct  so  deeply 
 offended  many  scientific  members,  that  a 
 schism  was  on  the  point  of  taking  place. 
 The  differences  were,  however,  arranged, 
 and  he  held  his  seat  till  he  died,  on  the 
 9th  of  May,  1820.     He  wrote  some  papers 
 
 in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  and  a 
 tract  on  the  Rust  in  Wheat.  His  collec- 
 tion of  books  on  natural  history  was  the 
 most  complete  in  Europe. 
 
 BANNAKER,  Benjamin,  a  negro  of 
 Maryland,  who  died  in  1807.  By  dint  of 
 talents,  without  any  other  assistance  than 
 Ferguson's  works  and  Mayer's  Tables,  he 
 acquired,  in  his  leisure  hours,  a  complete 
 knowledge  of  mathematics,  and  for  many 
 years  calculated  and  published  die  Mary- 
 land Ephemerides. 
 
 BARAHONA  Y  SOTO,  Louis,  a 
 Spanish  physician  and  poet,  a  native  of 
 Luceria,  in  Andalusia,  continued,  under 
 the  title  of  the  Tears  of  Angelica,  the  ro- 
 mance of  Ariosto,  and  executed  his  task 
 in  such  a  manner  as  to  gain  the  applause 
 of  Cervantes.  He  is  also  the  author  of 
 some  eclogues,  stanzas,  and  sonnets. 
 
 BARATIER,  John  Philip,  a  youth  of 
 uncommonly  premature  talents,  was  born 
 in  1721,  at  Schwabach,  in  the  margraviate 
 of  Anspach .  At  four  years  of  age,  he  spoke 
 in  Latin,  German,  and  French;  at  six, 
 he  mastered  the  Greek;  and  at  eight,  he 
 became  a  proficient  in  Hebrew.  Mathe- 
 matics and  astronomy  he  learned  in  three 
 months.  The  law  of  nations,  ancient  and 
 modern  literature,  architecture,  medals  and 
 inscriptions,  Greek,  Roman,  and  oriental 
 antiquities,  and  the  deciphering  of  hiero- 
 glyphics were  all  objects  of  his  studies 
 He  died  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  He  trans- 
 lated, from  the  Hebrew,  Benjamin  of  T.u 
 dela's  Travels,  and  published  Anti-Art" 
 monius,  and  other  works. 
 
 BARBAULD,  Anna  Letitia,  was 
 born  at  Kibworth,  in  Leicestershire,  in 
 1743,  and  received  an  excellent  education 
 from  her  father,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Aikin.  In 
 1772,  she  published  a  volume  of  poems, 
 which  gave  her  a  high  place  among  her 
 poetical  contemporaries ;  and,  in  the  fol- 
 lowing year,  she  joined  her  brother  in 
 giving  to  the  press  a  volume  of  Miscella- 
 nies. Her  marriage  took  place  in  1774. 
 For  the  last  forty  years  of  her  life,  she 
 resided  in  the  vicinity  of  the  metropolis; 
 first  at  Hampstead,  and  next  ;  t  Stoke 
 Newington,  at  which  latter  place  she  died, 
 
64 
 
 BAR 
 
 on  the  9th  of  April,  1825.  Her  literary 
 productions  are  numerous.  Among  the 
 most  prominent  of  them  may  be  named, 
 Early  Lessons  and  Hymns,  in  prose;  a 
 poetical  Epistle  to  Mr.  Wilberforce  ; 
 Eighteen  Hundred  and  Eleven,  a  poem; 
 and  Biographical  and  Critical  Essays, 
 prefixed  to  a  selection  from  the  Tatler, 
 Spectator,  and  Guardian,  to  Richardson's 
 Correspondence,  and  to  an  edition  of  the 
 best  English  novels. 
 
 BARBAZAN,  Arnold  William,  a 
 valiant  and  noble  minded  French  general, 
 who  lived  under  the  reigns  of  Charles  VI. 
 and  VII.  His  strict  probity,  and  eminent 
 services  to  the  crown,  gained  for  him  the 
 glorious  appellations  of  "  the  Irreproacha- 
 ble Knight,"  and  "  the  Restorer  of  the 
 Kingdom."  After  a  victorious  career,  he 
 died,  in  1432,  of  the  wounds  which  he  re- 
 ceived at  the  battle  of  Bullegneville.  He 
 was  interred  in  the  royal  cemetery  of  St. 
 Dennis,  and  with  regal  honours. 
 
 BARBAROSSA,  Aruch,  a  Turkish 
 pirate,  who  murdered  the  prince  of  Algiers, 
 whom  he  had  been  invited  to  succour,  and 
 usurped  his  throne.  He  afterwards  sub- 
 dued Tunis  and  Tremecen ;  but  was  ulti- 
 mately slain,  in  1518,  in  an  engagement 
 with  the  Spaniards. 
 
 BARBAROSSA,  Hf.yraddin,  or 
 Khair-Eddin,  the  brother  of  Aruch, 
 succeeded  to  him  in  the  sovereignty  of 
 Algiers,  and  put  his  kingdom  under  the 
 protection  of  the  Porte.  Soli  man  II. 
 gave  him  the  command  of  the  Turkish 
 marine,  and  he  subjugated  Tunis,  but  was 
 driven  from  it  by  the  Spaniards,  under 
 Charles  V.  He  afterwards  ravaged  Italy, 
 reduced  Yemen  to  the  Turkish  dominion, 
 and  performed  various  naval  exploits.  He 
 died  in  1547. 
 
 BARBEYRAC,  John,  a  native  of  Be- 
 ziers,  in  Erance,  was  born  in  1674,  and 
 quitted  his  country  with  his  parents,  on 
 the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantz.  He 
 was  successively  professor  of  belles  lettres, 
 law,  and  history,  at  Berlin,  Lausanne,  and 
 Groningen;  and  died  in  1729.  Barbeyrac 
 translated,  among  other  works,  the  writ- 
 ings of  Pufiendorf,  Grotius,  and  Cumber- 
 land, on  the  law  of  nations,  and  published 
 a  1 1  i.-tory  of  Ancient  Treatises ;  a  Treatise 
 on  Gaming;  and  a  Treatise  on  the  Mo- 
 rality of  the  Father-. 
 
 BARBIE  DUBOCACE,  John  Denis, 
 a  geographer,  the  only  pupil  of  d'Anville, 
 and  not  unworthy  of  hid  master,  was  born 
 at  Paris,  in  1760,  became  geographer  for 
 foreign  affairs  to  Napoleon,  and  was  a 
 member  of  the  Institute,  and  of  other  sci- 
 entific bodies.  He  died  in  1826.  His 
 productions  are  numerous  and  valuable. 
 Among  them  are  the  maps  to  the  Voyage 
 of  Anacharsis;  a  fine  map  of  the  Morea; 
 and    the    maps    and  various    geographical! 
 
 BAR 
 
 notices  in  Choiseul  Goufijer's  Picturesque 
 Journey  in  Greece. 
 
 BAliBIER,  Anthony  Alexander, 
 born  in  1765,  at  Colommiers,  in  France, 
 was  educated  for  the  church,  but  quitted  it, 
 and  was  successively  librarian  to  the  Di- 
 rectory, to  i\a|xtleon,  and  to  Louis  XVIII. 
 From  the  service  of  Louis,  however,  he 
 was  dismissed  in  1822,  and  this  circum- 
 stance preyed  upon  his  spirits,  and  proba- 
 bly aggravated  the  disease,  an  aneurism, 
 of  which  he  died  in  1825.  Of  his  biblio- 
 graphical works,  all  of  which  are  esteem- 
 ed, the  principal  is  a  Dictionary  of  Anony- 
 mous and  Pseudonymous  Works,  4  vols 
 Svo. 
 
 BARBIER  D'AUCOUR,  John,  a 
 French  literary  character,  was  born  at  Lan- 
 gres,  about  1641,  and  qualified  himself  to  act 
 as  counsel;  but  having,  in  his  first  speech, 
 been  unable  to  proceed  further  than  a  few 
 sentences,  he  thenceforth  confined  himself 
 to  chamber  practice.  He  lived  and  died 
 in  poverty.  His  death  took  plaoa  in  1694. 
 Of  his  works,  chiefly  critical,  the  Senti- 
 ments of  Cleanthes,  which  is  an  excellent 
 examination  of  Bouhour's  Conversations 
 of  Aristus  and  Eugenius,  is  the  only  one 
 that  is  now  read. 
 
 BARBOUR,  John,  a  Scotch  poet,  born 
 about  1316,  and  died  in  1396,  was  chap- 
 lain to  David  Bruce,  who  employed  him 
 in  several  embassies.  He  is  the  author  of 
 a  verse  history  of  the  Life  and  Actions  ol 
 Robert  Bruce. 
 
 BARCLAY,  or  BERCLAY,  Alexan- 
 der, a  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
 but  whether  a  native  of  England  or  of 
 Scotland  is  not  known,  was  educated  at 
 Oriel  College,  Oxford ;  subsequently  trav- 
 elled into  Germany,  Italy,  and  France; 
 and  died,  in  1552,  minister  of  Allhallows, 
 Lombard  Street.  Of  his  various  works, 
 the  principal  is  the  Shyp  of  Fobs,  partly 
 translated  from  Brandt,  and  printed  bv 
 Pynson  in  1509. 
 
 BARCLAY,  William,  born  in  Aber- 
 deenshire, in  1541,  emigrated  to  France, 
 and  became  counsellor  of  state  to  the  duke 
 of  Lorraine,  and  afterwards  professor  of 
 civil  law  at  Angers,  where  he  died  in 
 1606.  Barclay  was  one  of  the  most  emi- 
 nent civilians  of  his  time.  Of  his  works, 
 the  principal  are,  a  Treatise  against  Re- 
 publican Doctrines,  and  another  against 
 the  Power  assumed  over  Princes  by  the 
 Pope. 
 
 BARCLAY,  John,  son  of  the  preceding, 
 was  born,  in  1582,  at  Pont  a  Mousson, 
 and,  after  the  death  of  his  father,  visited 
 England,  where  he  was  patronised  by 
 •lames  I.,  and  resided  for  ten  years  He 
 then  removed  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in 
 1621.  He  wrote  several  works,  of  which 
 the  best  known  are,  Euphorraion,  a  satire; 
 and  Argenis,  a    romance:  both  in  Latin 
 
BAR 
 
 The  Argenis  has  been  four  times  transla- 
 ted into  English. 
 
 BARCLAY,  Robert,  the  celebrated 
 vindicator  of  the  Quakers,  was  born,  in 
 1648,  at  Gordonstown,  in  Scotland,  and 
 was  the  son  of  a  colonel.  By  his  uncle, 
 the  principal  of  the  Scotch  college  at  Paris, 
 to  whom  he  was  entrusted  at  an  early  age, 
 he  was  brought  up  a  catholic  ;  but,  hearing 
 of  this,  hTs  father  took  him  horn?,  and 
 having  himself  become  a  quaker,  he  pre- 
 vailed on  his  son  to  follow  his  example. 
 At  the  age  of  two  and  twenty  the  convert 
 began  to  distinguish  himself  as  a  defender 
 of  the  Society  of  Friends,  by  the  publish- 
 ing of  a  tract  in  titled  Truth  cleared  of 
 Calumnies;  which  was  followed  by  other 
 works  of  a  similar  kind.  His  great 
 work,  however,  which  appeared  in  1676, 
 is  his  justly  celebrated  Apology  for  the 
 Quakers,  the  English  translation  of  which 
 he  dedicated  to  Charles  II.  Barclay  vis- 
 ited a  considerable  part  of  England,  Hol- 
 land, and  Germany,  in  company  with  Wil- 
 liam Penn ;  and  died  on  his  estate  of  Urie, 
 in  Scotland,  in  1690. 
 
 BARCLAY  DE  TOLLY,  a  Russian 
 field  marshal,  and  minister  of  war,  distin- 
 guished himself  in  the  German  and  Polish 
 campaigns  of  1806  and  1807,  and  succeed- 
 ed Kutusow  as  commander  in  chief.  At 
 the  battle  of  Leipsic,  he  headed  the  Rus- 
 sian troops.  In  1814  he  commanded  them 
 in  Champagne,  and  in  the  following  year 
 he  again  led  them  into  France,  with  the 
 title  of  prince.     He  died  in  1818. 
 
 BARCOCHEBAS,  BARCHOCHE- 
 BAS,  or  BARCOCHAB,  a  Jewish  delu- 
 der,  who,  in  the  reign  of  Adrian,  declared 
 himself  to  be  the  Messiah.  His  original 
 name,  a  very  appropriate  one,  is  said  to 
 have  been  Bar  Coziba  (the  son  of  ly- 
 ing), which  he  changed  into  Barcochebas 
 (the  son  of  a  star).  Having,  by  audacity 
 and  some  juggling  tricks,  cheated  multi- 
 tudes of  the  Jews  into  a  belief  of  his 
 divinity,  they  revolted  against  the  Romans. 
 After  the  war  had  lasted  for  two  years,  Ju- 
 lius Severus  besieged  them  in  Bether,  took 
 the  city  by  assault,  and  the  pseudo  messiah 
 and  fifty  thousand  of  his  followers  were 
 slain.  Though,  in  a  religious  point  of 
 view,  Barcochebas  was  an  impostor,  it 
 must  be  allowed  that  he  possessed  patriot- 
 ism, courage  and  talents. 
 
 BARDESANES,  a  heretic  of  the  sec- 
 ond century,  born  in  Syria,  was  a  man  of 
 great  genius  and  learning,  and  had  trav- 
 elled into  India  to  acquire  knowledge.  He 
 adopted  the  doctrine  of  two  principles, 
 and  taught  that  Christ  descended  from 
 heaven  not  with  a  real  but  an  aerial  body, 
 to  recover  mankind  from  the  corruption 
 into  which  they  had  been  plunged  by  the 
 prince  of  darkness. 
 
 BARETTI,  Joseph,  a  native  of  Tu- 
 
 BAR 
 
 65 
 
 rin,  born  about  1716,  came  to  England,  in 
 1750,  after  having  spent  his  paternal  pro- 
 perty ;  he  acted  as  a  teacher  of  languages, 
 and  acquired  the  friendship  of  Dr.  John- 
 son, who  ultimately  introduced  him  as  tutor, 
 to  the  family  of  Mr.  Thrale.  In  1760  he 
 revisited  Italy,  and  commenced  a  paper, 
 called  the  Literary  Scon'rge,  which  did  not 
 succeed.  He  returned  to  England,  and 
 was  appointed  foreign  secretary  to  the 
 Royal  Academy,  and  pensioned  by  gov- 
 erment.  He  died  in  178ft.  Baretti  was  a 
 man  of  integrity,  and  of  considerable  jynv- 
 ers.  Besides  an  Italian  Dictionary,  and 
 various  school  books,  and  minor  works, 
 he  published  Travels  through  Fiance, 
 Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  in  four  octavo 
 volumes. 
 
 BARKER,  ROBERT,  inventor  of  the 
 panorama,  was  born  at  Kells,  in  Ireland, 
 about  1740;  and,  having  failed  in  business, 
 became  a  miniature  and  portrait  painter. 
 He  settled  at  Edinburgh,  in  that  capacity; 
 and,  while  viewing  the  landscape  from  the 
 Calton  Hill,  was  first  struck  with  the  idea 
 of  representing  similar  scenes  in  a  circular 
 picture.  Eminent  artists  treated  the  project 
 as  chimerical;  but  he  persisted,  and  ulti- 
 mately succeeded  in  accomplishing  what 
 may  be  considered  as  the  triumph  of  picto- 
 rial illusion.  It  was  in  17S7  that  his  first 
 attempt  was  exhibited;  and  his  exhibition 
 soon  became  so  popular  that  he  gained  a 
 considerable  fortune.  He  died,  in  Saint 
 George's  Fields,  in  1806. 
 
 BARLAAM,  a  Greek  monk,  who,  in 
 1339,  was  sent  into  the  west,  by  the  younger 
 Andronicus,  the  Greek  emperor,  to  solicit 
 assistance  against  the  Turks,  and  to  nego- 
 tiate an  union  between  the  Latin  and  Greek 
 church.  On  his  return,  he  was  censured, 
 as  heterodox,  by  a  council ;  upon  which  he 
 went  back  to  Italy,  and  obtained  the  bish- 
 opric of  Hieracium,  in  Calabria.  He 
 died  about  1348.  Barlaam  introduced  the 
 study  of  Grecian  literature  into  Italy;  and 
 Petrarch  and  Boccacio  were  his  disciples. 
 
 BARLOW ,Thom  AS,an  English  prelate, 
 was  born,  in  1607,  at  Langhill,  in  West- 
 moreland, and  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
 was  raised  to  the  bishopric  of  Lincoln,  in 
 1675,  and  held  it  till  his  death,  in  1691. 
 His  principles  were  anything  but  inflexi- 
 ble. He  wrote  against  popery  during  the 
 reign  of  Charles  II. ;  vindicated  the  regal 
 power  of  dispensing  with  the  laws,  under 
 James  II. ;  and,  finally  gave  his  allegiance 
 to  William  III.  Nor  did  he  properly  ful- 
 fill his  episcopal  duties.  He  was,  however, 
 a  learned  and  a  tolerant  man.  His  woiks 
 consist  of  some  tracts;  a  Collection  of 
 Cases  of  Conscience  Resolved;  and  Genu- 
 ine Remains. 
 
 BARLOW,  Jo k  L,  an  American  poet  and 
 diplomatist,  was  born  at  Reading,  in  Con- 
 necticut, about  the  year  1755.     His  father 
 
66 
 
 BAR 
 
 died  while  he  was  yet  a  lad  at  school,  and 
 left  him  little  more  than  sufficient  to  defray 
 the  expenses  of  a  liberal  education.  He 
 was  first  placed  at  Dartmouth  College, 
 New-Hampshire,  then  in  its  infancy,  and 
 after  a  very  short  residence  there  removed 
 to  Yale  College,  New-Haven.  From  this 
 institution  he  received  a  degree  in  1778, 
 when  he  first  came  before  the  public  in  his 
 poetical  character,  by  reciting  an  original 
 poem  which  was  soon  after  published.  On 
 leaving  College  he  was  successively  a  chap- 
 lain in  the  revolutionary  army,  an  editor,  a 
 bookseller,  a  lawyer,  and  a  merchant.  He 
 next  visited  England,  and  published  in 
 London  the  first  part  of  Advice  to  the  priv- 
 ileged Orders;  anil  in  the  succeeding  year 
 a  poem  called  The  Conspiracy  of  Kings. 
 In  the  latter  part  of  1792,  he  was  appoint- 
 ed one  of  the  deputies  from  the  London 
 Constitutional  Society  to  present  an  address 
 to  the  National  Convention  of  France. 
 Information  of  the  notice  which  the  Brit- 
 ish government  had  taken  of  this  mission, 
 led  him  to  think  that  it  would  be  unsafe  to 
 return  to  England,  and  he  continued  to  re- 
 side in  Paris  for  about  three  years.  It  was 
 about  this  time  that  he  composed  his  most 
 
 Sopular  poem,  entitled  Hasty  Pudding, 
 ie  was  subsequently  appointed  Consul  for 
 the  United  States  at  Algiers,  with  powers 
 to  negotiate  a  peace  with  the  Dey,  and  to 
 redeem  all  American  citizens  held  id  slavery 
 on  the  Coast  of  Barbary.  After  discharg- 
 ing these  duties  he  returned  to  Paris,  and 
 again  engaging  in  trade,  amassed  a  consid- 
 rable  fortune.  In  1805  he  returned  to  his  na- 
 tive country  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Wash- 
 ington, where  he  displayed  a  liberal  hos- 
 pitality, and  lived  on  terms  of  intimacy 
 with  most  of  our  distinguished  statesmen. 
 He  now  devoted  himself  to  the  publication 
 of  the  Colurnbiad,  which  was  based  upon 
 a  poem  written  while  he  was  in  the  army, 
 and  published  soon  after  the  close  of  the 
 war,  under  the  title  of  The  Vision  of 
 Columbus.  This  was  issued  in  a  style  of 
 elegance  which  few  works,  either  American 
 or  European,  have  ever  equalled.  In  1811, 
 he  was  appointed  Minister  to  France,  and 
 in  October  of  the  following  year  was  in- 
 vited to  a  conference  with  the  emperor 
 Napoleon  at  Wilna.  He  immediately  set 
 off  on  this  mission,  travelling  day  and 
 night;  but  sinking  under  the  fatigue,  and 
 want  of  food  and  sleep  to  which  he  was 
 obliged  to  submit,  he  fell  into  a  state  of 
 debility  and  torpor  from  which  he  never 
 recovered.  He  died  In  December,  1812, 
 at  Zarnawica,  a  village  in  Poland  near 
 Cracow. 
 
 BARLOWE,  Willi  am,  son  of  William 
 Barlowe,  bishop  of  Chichester,  was  born 
 in  Pembrokeshire,  educated  at  Oxford, 
 rose  to  be  archdeacon  of  Salisbury,  and 
 died  in  1625.     Barlowe  was  the  first  who 
 
 BAR 
 
 displayed  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
 properties  of  the  loadstone;  taught  the 
 proper  mode  of  making  compasses,  touch- 
 ing magnetic  needles,  and  cementing  load- 
 stones; and  discovered  the  difference  be- 
 tween iron  and  steel  for  magnetic  purposes. 
 He  is  the  author  of  the  Navigator's  Sup- 
 ply; Magnetical  Advertisement;  and  an 
 Answer  to  Dr.  Ridley. 
 
 BARNARD,  Sir  John,  born  at  Read- 
 ing, in  Berkshire,  in  1685,  was  brought 
 up  a  quaker,  but  conformed  to  the  church 
 when  he  was  nineteen.  He  was  a  wine 
 merchant  by  trade  ;  and,  in  his  thirty-sixth 
 year,  having  distinguished  himself  by  ably 
 pleading  at  the  bar  of  the  lords  the  cause 
 of  the  wine  merchants,  he  was  elected  one 
 of  the  city  members,  and  sat  in  parliament 
 for  forty  years.  He  also  filled  the  offices 
 of  sheriff  and  lord  mayor.  Barnard  was  so 
 universally  respected  for  sound  sense  and 
 integrity,  that,  long  before  his  death, 
 which  took  place  in  1764,  his  fellow  citi- 
 zens erected  his  statue  in  the  Royal  Ex- 
 change. 
 
 BARN  AVE  ,AnthonyPeterJoseph, 
 a  native  of  Grenoble,  was  born  in  1761, 
 practiced  in  his  native  city  as  a  barrister, 
 was  elected  a  member  of  the  states  general 
 in  1789,  and  had  a  seat  in  the  two  succeed- 
 ing legislative  bodies.  Possessed  of  splen- 
 did talents,  and  extraordinary  eloquence, 
 he  became  very  popular.  His  popularity, 
 however,  declined  on  his  adopting  moderate 
 principles.  He  retired  from  public  life, 
 but  his  political  enemies  did  not  forget  him, 
 and  he  was  condemned  to  the  guillotine  in 
 October,  1793. 
 
 BARNES,  Joshua,  an  eminent  Greek 
 scholar,  born  at  London,  in  1654,  was 
 educated  at  Christ's  Hospital  and  Cam- 
 bridge, at  which  latter  seminary  he  became 
 professor  of  Greek,  in  1695.  In  1700,  he 
 married  a  widow  of  great  fortune,  and 
 died  in  1712.  Barnes  was  said  by  his 
 enemies  to  have  a  good  memory  and  a  de- 
 fective judgment;  and,  accordingly,  they 
 proposed  as  his  epitaph,  "Joshua  Barnes, 
 Felicis  Memoriae,  Judicium  Expectans." 
 Besides  editions  of  Euripides,  Anacreon, 
 and  Homer,  he  published  a  History  of  Ed- 
 ward III. ;  SacredPoems ;  and  other  works. 
 
 BARNEVELDT,  John  d'Olden,  a 
 celebrated  Dutch  statesman,  was  born 
 about  1549,  and  filled  many  high  offices, 
 with  great  integrity  and  patriotism;  among 
 them  was  that  of  grand  pensionary  of  the 
 states  of  Holland.  Being,  however,  a 
 strenuous  opponent  of  the  ambitious  pro- 
 jects of  Prince  Maurice,  that  prince  suc- 
 ceeded in  procuring  him  to  be  condemned 
 to  death,  on  the  shamelessly  false  pretence 
 of  having  betrayed  his  country  to  the  Span- 
 iards.   The  sentence  was  executed  in  1619 
 
 BARNEY,    Joshua,   a   distinguished 
 aval  commander    in   the   service  of  the 
 
BAR 
 
 United  States,  was  born  at  Baltimore,  Ma- 
 ryland, in  1759.  He  went  to  sea  at  a  very 
 early  age,  and  when  the  war  commenced 
 between  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies, 
 Barney  offered  his  services  to  the  latter, 
 and  obtained  the  situation  of  master's 
 mate  in  the  sloop  of  war  Hornet.  During 
 the  war  he  was  several  times  taken  pris- 
 oner by  the  enemy,  and  displayed  on  nu- 
 merous occasions  great  valour  and  enter- 
 prise. In  1795  he  received  the  commission 
 of  Captain  in  the  French  service,  but  in 
 1800  resigned  his  command  and  returned 
 to  America.  In  1812,  when  war  was  de- 
 clared against  Great  Britain,  he  offered 
 his  services  to  the  general  government,  and 
 was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  flo- 
 tilla for  the  defence  of  the  Chesapeake. 
 While  in  this  situation,  during  the  summer 
 of  1814,  lie  kept  up  an  active  warfare  with 
 the  enemy;  and  in  the  latter  part  of  July, 
 he  was  severely  wounded  in  a  land  engage- 
 ment near  Bladensburg.  In  the  following 
 year  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Europe. 
 He  died  at  Pittsburg  in  1818,  in  the  sixti- 
 eth year  of  his  age. 
 
 BAROCCIO,  Frederic,  an  Italian 
 painter,  was  born  at  Urbino,  in  1528. 
 Raphael  and  Correggio  were  his  models  in 
 design  and  colouring,  and  he  was  no  un- 
 worthy follower  of  those  great  masters.  He 
 died  in  1612,  after  having  suffered  severely 
 for  the  major  part  of  his  life,  from  the 
 effects  of  poison  given  to  him  by  some 
 of  his  base  rivals,  who  envied  his  suc- 
 cess. 
 
 BARON,  Michael  (whose  real  name 
 was  Boyron),  was  born  at  Issoudun,  in 
 1653,  and  was  the  son  of  an  actor,  who 
 had  been  brought  up  to  trade.  He  had  a 
 fine  person,  and  displayed  such  admirable 
 talents,  that  he  was  considered  as  the  Ros- 
 cius  of  France.  His  vanity  was  at  least 
 equal  to  his  talents.  Baron,  however, 
 was  not  without  other  claims  to  respect 
 than  those  derived  from  his  theatrical  pow- 
 ers. He  is  the  author  of  seven  comedies, 
 which  are  above  mediocrity.  He  died  in 
 1729. 
 
 BARONIUS,  CjE s a r,  an  ecclesiastical 
 historian,  was  born,  in  1538,  at  Sora,  in  the 
 Neapolitan  Territory,  entered  the  church, 
 and,  in  1598,  rose  to  the  dignity  of  cardi- 
 nal. But  for  the  opposition  of  the  Span- 
 ish court  he  would  have  filled  the  papal 
 chair.  His  death  took  place  in  1607.  He 
 wrote  several  works;  but  the  production 
 on  which  his  fame  rests  is  the  Ecclesiasti- 
 cal Annals,  from  tlte  first  to  the  twelfth 
 century. 
 
 BARRALIER,  H.  F.  N.  D.,  a  youth 
 of  precocious  talents,  was  born  at  Mar- 
 seilles, in  1805,  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
 languages  with  extraordinary  facility,  and, 
 before  he  was  sixteen,  wrote  a  Discourse 
 on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul ;   a  Trea- 
 
 BAR 
 
 67 
 He 
 
 tise  on   Morality ;   and  some  poems, 
 died  in  1821. 
 
 BARRAS,Paul  John  Francis, Count 
 de,  a  prominent  character  of  the  French 
 revolution,  was  born,  in  1755,  at  Fox,  in 
 the  department  of  the  Viu%,  and  was  of  so 
 ancient  a  family  that  it  was  proverbially 
 said  to  be  "  as  old  as  the  rocks  of  Pro- 
 vence." After  having  served  with  applause 
 in  India,  lie  returned  to  Paris,  where  he 
 wasted  his  patrimony  in  dissipation.  When 
 the  revolution  broke  out  he  espoused  its 
 principles,  and  he  subsequently  assisted  in 
 dethroning  the  monarch,  and,  as  a  member 
 of  the  Convention,  voted  for  his  death. 
 To  the  overthrow  of  the  Girondist  party 
 he  also  contributed.  The  Jacobins,  how- 
 ever, regarded  him  with  suspicion,  and 
 their  fears  were  justified  by  his  lending 
 his  strenuous  aid  to  effect  the  downfall  of 
 Robespierre.  When  the  directorial  gov- 
 ernment was  established,  Barras  became 
 one  of  the  five  directors,  and  he  held  this 
 high  office  till  1799.  While,  in  the  latter 
 year,  he  was  secretly  negotiating  the  resto- 
 ration of  the  Bourbons,  the  directory  was 
 dissolved  by  Napoleon,  and  Barras  retired 
 to  Brussels.  After  having  been  foiled  in 
 some  political  intrigues  in  1813  and  1814, 
 he  lived  in  privacy  till  his  decease,  which 
 took  place  on  the  29th  of  January,  1829. 
 
 BARREAUX,  James  Vali.ee  des, 
 born  at  Paris,  in  1602,  was  famous  as  an 
 epicurean,  a  man  of  wit,  and  a  writer  of 
 songs  and  pleasant  verses.  He  was  a  man 
 of  fortune,  and  his  whole  life  was  spent  in 
 the  pursuit  of  pleasure.  He  died  in  1673. 
 Of  his  works  nothing  is  extant,  but  a  re- 
 pentant Sonnet,  composed  during  illness; 
 and  even  this  is  denied  to  him  by  Voltaire, 
 who  ascribes  it  to  the  abbe  de  Lavau. 
 
 BARRET,  George,  an  eminent  land- 
 scape painter,  was  born  in  Dublin,  about 
 1728;  and,  with  little  or  no  instruction, 
 acquired  reputation  as  an  artist.  He  gained 
 prizes  from  the  Dublin  Society,  and  from 
 the  London  Society  of  Arts.  The  estab- 
 lishment of  the  Royal  Academy  was,  in  a 
 great  degree,  brought  about  by  his  exer- 
 tions.    He  died  in  1784. 
 
 BARRINGTON,  John  Shute,  the 
 first  viscount  Barrington,  born  in  1678, 
 was  the  son  of  a  merchant,  named  Shute,  but 
 changed  his  name  on  a  fortune  being  left 
 him.  He  was  a  member  of  parliament, 
 held  various  offices  under  government,  was 
 created  an  Irish  baron  and  viscount  in 
 1720,  and  died  in  1734.  He  is  the  author 
 of  Miscellanea  Sacra,  2  vols.  8vo.,  and 
 other  works. — His  eldest  son,  William 
 Wildman,  who  was  born  in  1717,  and 
 died  in  1795,  held  several  high  offices, 
 among  which  were  those  of  secretary  at 
 war,  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
 
 BARRINGTON,  Daines,  fourth  son 
 of  Viscount  Barrington,  was  born  in  1727, 
 
68  BAR 
 
 and  died  in  1800.  He  was  educated  at 
 Oxford  and  the  Inner  Temple,  and  rose  to 
 be  second  justice  of  Chester.  His  prin- 
 cipal works  are  Observations  on  the  Sta- 
 tutes; the  Naturalists'  Calendar;  .Miscel- 
 lanies; and  Tracts  on  the  Possibility  of 
 reaching  the  North  Pole.  It  was  at  his 
 suggestion  that  the  arctic  voyage  of  Captain 
 Phipps  was  undertaken. 
 
 BARRINGTON,  Samuel,  fifth  son  of 
 Lord  Barrington,  was  born  in  1729,  en- 
 tered early  into  the  navy,  distinguished 
 himself  in  the  wars  that  ended  in  174S 
 and  1762,  was  made  rear-admiral  in  1778, 
 took  St.  Lucia,  in  the  face  of  a  superior 
 
 BAR 
 
 French  Jesuit,  born  in  1741,  at  \illeneuve 
 de  Berg,  was  conductor  of  the  Ecclesias- 
 tical Journal,  from  1787  to  1792,  but  waa 
 obliged  to  fly  to  England  after  the  deposi- 
 tion of  Louis  XVI.  When  the  consulate 
 was  established,  he  returned  to  France. 
 His  best  known  work  is,  Memoirs  for  a 
 History  of  Jacobinism,  5  vols.  8vo. ;  a 
 production  which  blends  some  facts  with 
 much  fiction,  and  proves  either  the  credu- 
 lity or  the  bad  faith  of  the  author. 
 
 BARRY,  Girald,  usually  known  by 
 the  appellation  of  Giraldus  Cambren- 
 sis,  was  born  in  1146,  in  Pembrokeshire, 
 uul  descended  of  a  noble  family,  allied  to 
 
 force,  was  wounded   in   the  engagement  of  '■  the  princes   of  the  country.     He  received 
 
 the  1st  of  July,  1779,  and  died  in  1S00. 
 
 BARROS,  John  dos,  one  of  the  best 
 of  the  Portuguese  historians,  was  born  at 
 Viseu,  in  1496,  held  various  highly  im- 
 portant offices  in  the  colonies,  and  died  in 
 1570.  Barros  is  the  author,  among  other 
 things,  of  a  Romance;  Moral  Dialogues; 
 and  the  first  Portuguese  Grammar  that  was 
 published.  But  his  great  work  is  a  His- 
 tory of  Portuguese  Asia,  in  four  decades 
 which  is  looked  upon  as  a  classical 
 duction. 
 
 BARROW,  Isaac,  a  divine  and  mathe- 
 matician, born  in  1630,  was  the  son  of  a 
 linendraper  ef  London,  and  was  educated 
 at  the  Charterhouse  and  at  Cambridge. 
 After  his  education  was  completed,  he  tra- 
 velled in  France,  Italy,  and  the  Levant, 
 and  resided  for  a  year  at  Constantinople. 
 In  his  voyage  to  Smyrna,  the  ship  was 
 attacked  by  an  Algerinc,  and  Barrow  dis- 
 played an  undaunted  courage  which  much 
 contributed  to  the  success  of  the  engage- 
 ment. In  1659,  he  returned  to  England, 
 successively  filled  several  professorships, 
 was  made  master  of  Trinity  College  in 
 1672,  vice  chancellor  in  1675,  and  died  in 
 1677.  In  wit,  in  learning,  in  scientific 
 knowledge,  in  versatile  talent,  Barrow  had 
 few  rivals.  His  numerous  mathematical 
 productions  attest  his  excellence  as  a  geo- 
 meter;  and  his  theological   works,  which 
 
 an  excellent  education,  obtained  several 
 preferments  in  the  church,  and  was  ap- 
 pointed chaplain  to  Henry  II.,  but  though 
 more  than  once  chosen  bishop  of  St.  Da- 
 vid's, he  could  never  obtain  the  papal  con- 
 firmation of  his  dignity.  He  died  in  re- 
 tirement about  1220.  He  was  a  man  of 
 varied  talents,  and  his  writings  are  vo- 
 luminous. His  principal  works  are  his 
 Irish  Topography,  and  his  Itinerary  of 
 pro- 1  Wales. 
 
 BARRY,  Sp ranger, an  eminent  actor, 
 was  born  at  Dublin,  in  1719,  on  the  stage 
 of  which  city  he  first  appeared,  in  1744, 
 with  great  success.  In  1746,  he  came 
 forward  in  London,  and  was  long  con- 
 sidered as  no  unworthy  rival  of  Garrick. 
 He  died  in  1774 
 
 BARRY,  James,  a  painter,  born  at 
 Cork,  in  1741,  displayed  an  early  taste  for 
 drawing,  and  before  he  was  twenty-two 
 produced  a  picture  which  gained  him  the 
 patronage  of  Edmund  Burke,  who  fur- 
 nished him  with  the  means  of  studying  in 
 Italy-  Barry  returned  to  England  in  1771, 
 and  in  1777  began  his  series  of  pictures  at 
 the  house  of  the  Society  of  Arts.  He  be- 
 came a  royal  academician,  and  in  1782 
 was  chosen  professor  of  painting ;  but  from 
 both  these  situations  he  was  expelled  in 
 1799,  in  consequence  of  his  political  opin- 
 ions having  given  offence.  His  death 
 took  place  in  1806.  Barry  was  a  man  of 
 genius,  but  eccentric,  misanthropic,  and 
 negligent  of  the  decorums  of  life.  His 
 |  literary  works  have  been  published  in  two 
 volumes  quarto. 
 
 BARRY,  John,  a  distinguished  naval 
 officer  in  the  service  of  the  United  States, 
 was  born  in  Ireland  in  1745.  He  arrived 
 in  America  when  only  14  or  15  years  old, 
 and  obtained  employment  from  some  of 
 the  most  respectable  merchants  of  the  day, 
 until  the  commencement  of  hostilities  be- 
 tween the  colonies  and  the  mother  country. 
 Embracing  the  cause  of  the  colonies,  his 
 reputation    for  skill  and    experience  pro- 
 
 fill  three  volumes,  are"  equally  honourable  cured  for  him  one  of  the  first  naval  com 
 to  him  as  a  divine.  missions  from  congress.     During  the  war 
 
 BARRUEL,     Abbe     Augustin,      a '  he  served  with  great  benefit  to  his  country 
 
BAR 
 
 and  credit  to  himself,  and  after  the  cessa- 
 tion of  hostilities  he  was  appointed  to 
 superintend  the  building  of  the  frigate 
 United  States  in  Philadelphia,  which  was 
 designed  for  his  command.  He  was  highly 
 respected  in  private  life,  and  died  much 
 lamented  and  honoured  in  1S03. 
 
 BART  AS,  William  dk  Sallust  du, 
 a  French  poet,  warrior,  and  statesman, 
 was  born  at  Mo  itfort,  in  1544.  During 
 the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  he  displayed  equal 
 talents  as  a  negotiator  and  a  soldier.  He 
 negotiated  with  success  in  England,  Scot- 
 land, and  Denmark;  and  he  fought  gal- 
 lantly on  various  occasions,  particularly  at 
 the  battle  of  Ivry.  He  died  in  1590.  He 
 was  a  voluminous  writer,  but  his  works, 
 though  often  poetical,  are  in  such  a  barba- 
 rous taste,  that  they  are  now  entirely 
 neglected.  His  Weeks,  and  several  other 
 of  his  poems,  were  translated  into  English 
 by  Sylvester. 
 
 BARTH,  John,  a  celebrated  French 
 naval  officer,  was  born  at  Dunkirk,  in 
 1651,  and  was  the  son  of  a  fisherman.  By 
 his  extraordinary  bravery  and  success  he 
 acquired  a  distinguished  reputation.  Des- 
 perate courage,  however,  not  consummate 
 skill,  seems  to  have  been  his  chief  quality; 
 and,  though  he  rose  to  high  rank  in  his 
 profession,  he  retained  the  manners  of  his 
 original  station.     He  died  in  1702. 
 
 BARTHE,  Nicholas  Thomas,  a 
 French  dramatist,  was  born  at  Marseilles, 
 in  1734,  and,  when  very  young,  went  to 
 Paris,  where  he  died  in  1785.  He  is  the 
 author  of  the  Selfish  Man ;  the  Jealous 
 Mother ;  and  other  dramas  ;  and  of  vari- 
 ous poems  and  fugitive  pieces.  When 
 Colardeau,  the  poet,  was  on  his  deathbed, 
 Barthe  persisted  in  reading  to  him  the 
 whole  of  the  Selfish  Man.  As  soon  as  the 
 author  had  concluded,  Colardeau  said  to 
 him,  "  You  have  forgotten  one  essential 
 trait  in  your  leading  character ;  that  of  a 
 man  who  comes  to  read  a  five  act  comedy 
 to  a  dying  friend." 
 
 BARTHELEMY,  John  James,  was 
 born  hi  1716,  at  Cassis,  in  Provence,  edu- 
 cated at  the  Jesuit's  College  at  Marseilles, 
 and,  with  some  knowledge  of  mathematics 
 and  astronomy,  acquired  a  proficiency  in 
 the  ancient  and  oriental  languages,  and  in 
 antiquities.  In  1753  he  was  made  keeper 
 of  the  royal  cabinet  of  medals,  and  in  1755 
 he  visited  Italy,  and  explored  the  treasures 
 of  Herculaneum.  On  his  return,  he  was 
 patronised  by  the  duke  de  Choiseul,  who 
 
 fave  him  a  pension  and  two  valuable  offices. 
 n  178S,  appeared  his  Travels  of  Ana- 
 charsis,  on  which  he  had  been  thirty  years 
 employed,  and  which  has  stamped  his  fame. 
 He  died  in  1795.  Besirles  the  Travels  of 
 Anacharsis,  he  is  the  author  of  the  romance 
 of  Carite  and  Polvdore;  Travels  in  Italy; 
 and   various    erudite    works.     He    was    a 
 
 BAR  69 
 
 member  of  the  French  Academy,  and  of 
 the  most  celebrated  foreign  societies. 
 
 BAUTHES,  Paul  Joseph,  a  celebra- 
 ted French  medical  practitioner  and  writer, 
 was  born  at  Montpellier,  in  1734,  and  died 
 in  1806.  He  was  one  of  the  physicians  of 
 Napoleon.  Though  it  has  been  said  of 
 him,  that  he  destroyed  more  old  errors 
 than  he  discovered  new  truths,  the  French 
 consider  him  as  the  regenerator  of  physi- 
 ology and  medical  philosophy.  Among  his 
 principal  works  may  be  mentioned,  New 
 Elements  of  the  Science  of  Man;  and 
 New  Mechanism  of  the  3Iotions  of  Men 
 and  Animals. 
 
 BARTHOLINE,  Caspar,  a  celebrated 
 physician,  was  born  at  Malmoe,  in  Scania, 
 in  1585,  and  was  long  professor  of  medi- 
 cine in  the  university  of  Copenhagen ;  but, 
 late  in  life,  relinquished  medicine  for  the- 
 ology, and  became  theological  professor. 
 He  died  in  1629.  His  principal  work  is, 
 Institutiones  Anatomical,  which  was  en- 
 larged by  his  son. 
 
 BARTHOLINE,  Thomas,  second  sou 
 of  Caspar,  was  born  at  Copenhagen,  in 
 1616,  studied  at  Leyden,  Padua,  and  Ba- 
 sil, and  acquired  extensive  erudition  and 
 knowledge  of  languages.  For  fourteen 
 years  he  was  professor  of  anatomy  in  his 
 native  city.  His  works  are  numerous,  and 
 of  great  merit;  and  to  him  is  attributed 
 the  discovery  of  the  lymphatic  vessels.  He 
 had  two  sons — G  a  spar,  born  at  Copen- 
 hagen, in  1650,  an  eminent  anatomist  and 
 physician,  author  of  several  excellent  trea- 
 tises;— and  Thomas,  professor  of  history 
 and  civil  law,  and  keeper  of  the  royal 
 archives,  in  the  Danish  metropolis,  who, 
 among  other  things,  published  Antiquitates 
 Danic.e ;  and  De  Causis  Mortis  a  Danis 
 gentilibus  contempts. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW  OF  THE  MAR- 
 TYRS, a  Portuguese  prelate,  so  called  from 
 the  church,  at  Lisbon,  in  which  he  was 
 baptised,  was  born,  in  1514.  In  spite  of 
 his  own  opposition,  his  virtues  raised  him 
 to  be  archbishop  of  Braga.  Eight  years 
 before  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1590, 
 he  resigned  his  see.  Bartholomew  was 
 hostile  to  the  pride  and  luxury  of  church- 
 men, and  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal 
 and  charity,  during  a  famine  and  plague 
 which  desolated  the  city  of  Braga.  He 
 wrote  some  religious  works. 
 
 BART  LETT,  Josiah,  governor  of 
 New-Hampshire,  was  born  in  Massachu- 
 setts in  1729.  Without  the  advantages  of  a 
 preparatory  liberal  education,  he  began  the 
 study  of  medicine  at  a  very  early  age,  and 
 commenced  the  practice  of  his  profession  at 
 Kingston  N.  H.  in  the  year  1750.  He  soon 
 obtained  very  considerable  reputation,  and 
 was  elected  a  member  of  the  legislature 
 of  his  province.  When  the  troubles  com- 
 menced between  the  colonies  and  the  moth 
 
70 
 
 BAR 
 
 BAS 
 
 er  country,  Dr.  Bartlett  espoused  the  pop-  ]  mother  was  the  sister  of  the  celebrated  Rit* 
 ular  cause,  and  in  1775  was  elected  to  the  Uenhouse.     In  1786  he  went  to  Great  Brit- 
 
 continental  Congress.  He  was  re-elected 
 in  the  ensuing  year,  and  had  the  honour  of 
 being  the  first  to  vote  for,  and  the  first  af- 
 ter the  president,  to  sign  the  declaration  of 
 independence.  In  1779  Dr.  Bartlett  was 
 appointed  chief-justice  of  the  court  of 
 common  pleas,  and  in  1788  he  was  ad- 
 vanced to  the  head  of  the  bench.     In  1793 
 
 a  in  and  pursued  his  medical  studies  at 
 Edinburgh  and  London.  He  afterwards 
 visited  Gottingen,  and  there  obtained  the 
 degree  of  Doctor  in  Medicine.  On  his 
 return  from  Europe  in  1789,  he  established 
 himself  as  a  physician  in  Philadelphia,  and 
 soon  obtained  an  extensi  e  practice.  In 
 the  same  year  he  was  appointed  professor 
 
 he  was  elected  first  governor  of  the  State,  |  of  natural  history  and  botany  in  the  college 
 
 and  filled  the  office  with  his  accustomed 
 fidelity  until  the  infirm  state  of  his  health 
 obliged  him  to  retire  wholly  from  public 
 Ktv-iness.  He  died  in  1795,  much  res- 
 pected for  his  ability  and  integrity. 
 
 BARTOLI,  or  BARTOLUS,  one  of  the 
 most  celebrated  civilians  of  the  middle  age, 
 was  born  at  Sasso  Ferrato,  in  Italy,  about 
 
 of  Philadelphia.  On  the  resignation  of 
 Dr.  Griffiths  he  was  appointed  professor 
 of  materia  medica ;  and  succeeded  Dr.  Rush 
 in  the  department  of  the  theory  and  prac- 
 tice of  medicine.  He  died  in  1815.  His 
 chief  publication  is  Elements  of  Zoology 
 and  Botany. 
 
 BARTRAM,  John,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
 
 the  year  1313,  and  died  at  Perugia,  in  tinguished  of  American  botanists,  was  born 
 1356.  He  was  law  professor  in  several  of  |  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1701.  He  was  a  simple 
 the  Italian  universities,  and  contributed  farmer,  self  taught  in  the  science  of  botany, 
 more  than  any  other  person  to  aggrandize  and  in  the   rudiments   of  the  learned  lan- 
 
 and  elucidate  the  science  of  jurisprudence 
 Accordingly,  he  was  denominated  the  Cori- 
 pheus  of  law  expounders,  the  lanthern  of 
 equity,  the  star  of  lawyers,  and  the  master 
 of  truth.  His  commentaries  on  the  Roman 
 Law,  and  his  Treatises,  were  printed  at 
 Venice,  in  1590. 
 
 BARTOLl,  Daniel,  a  learned  Jesuit, 
 esteemed  one  of  the  purest  and  most  per- 
 spicuous of  the  Italian  writers,  was  born 
 at  Ferrara,  in  1608,  and  died  at  Rome,  in 
 1685.  His  principal  work,  in  six  volumes 
 folio,  is  a  history  of  the  society  to  which 
 he  belonged.  His  other  writings  ha\e 
 been  collected  in  three  quarto  volumes. 
 
 BARTOLOZZI,  Francis, an  engraver 
 of  great  merit,  was  born  at  Florence,  in 
 1728,  and  was  taught  painting  by  Hugford, 
 after  which  he  applied  to  engraving.  In 
 1764  he  came  to  England,  and  five  years 
 subsequent  to  his  arrival  was  admitted  a 
 member  of  the  Royal  Academy.  The  pro- 
 ductions of  his  graver  were  numerous  and 
 highly  esteemed.  Poverty,  however,  com- 
 pelled him,  in  1802,  to  accept  an  invitation 
 from  the  prince   regent  of  Portugal,    who 
 
 guages,  medicine,  and  surgery.  So  great 
 was  his  progress  in  his  favourite  pursuit, 
 that  Linnaeus  pronounced  him  the  "  great- 
 est natural  botanist  in  the  world."  He 
 contributed  much  to  the  gardens  of  Europe, 
 and  received  honours  from  several  foreign 
 societies  and  academies.  At  the  time  of 
 his  death,  which  happened  in  1777,  he 
 held  the  office  of  American  botanist  to 
 George  III.  of  England. 
 
 BARTRAM,  William,  a  celebrated 
 naturalist,  son  of  the  preceding,  yvas  born 
 in  Pennsylvania,  in  1739.  In  early  life  he 
 was  occupied  with  mercantile  pursuits,  but 
 an  attachment  to  natural  science  induced 
 him  to  relinquish  them,  and  in  1773  he 
 embarked  for  Charleston,  with  the  inten- 
 tion to  visit  the  Floridas  and  the  western 
 parts  of  Georgia  and  Carolina,  to  examine 
 their  natural  productions.  In  this  employ- 
 ment he  was  engaged  nearly  five  years ; 
 and  in  1790  he  published  an  account  of 
 his  travels  and  discoveries  in  one  volume 
 octavo.  After  his  return  from  his  travels, 
 lie  devoted  himself  to  science,  and  was 
 elected  a  member  of  several  learned  socie- 
 
 in  1815. 
 
 BARTON,  Elizabeth,  a  religious 
 impostor,  known,  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
 VllL,  by  the  denomination  of  the  Holy 
 Maid  of  Kent,  was  originally  a  servant  at 
 Allington;  but  was  tauglit  by  the  priests  to 
 throw  her  face  and  limbs  into  contortions, 
 to  pretend  to  prophetical  powers,  and  to 
 denounce  divine  vengeance  upon   heretics 
 
 gave  him  a  pension,  and  he  died  at  Lisbon  ties   both  at   home  and   in   Europe.     His 
 
 contributions  to  the  natural  history  of  our 
 country  have  been  highly  valuable.  He 
 died  suddenly,  in  1823. 
 
 BARUFFALDI,  Jerome,  an  Italian 
 poet  and  literary  character,  was  born  at 
 Ferrara,  in  1675,  and  died  in  1753.  His 
 works,  in  his  native  language  and  in  Latin, 
 amount  to  more  than  an  hundred,  among 
 which  are  five  dramatic  pieces.     His  poem 
 
 Venturing,  however,  to  aim  her  predictions  intitled  II  Canapaja,  the  subject  of  which 
 against  the  king,  she  and  her  associates !  is  the  culture  of  hemp,  is  considered  as  his 
 were  executed  at  Tyburn,  for  high  treason, '.  best  production,  and  ranks  among  the  most 
 in  1534.  I  esteemed     specimens   of    Italian   didactic 
 
 BARTON,  Benjamin  S.,  professor  iii|  poetry, 
 the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  was  born  at       BASEDOW,  John  Baptist,  a  Ger- 
 Lancaster,    Pennsylvania,    in    1766.     His!  man  theologian  and   writer,  was  born  at 
 
BAS 
 
 Hamburgh,  in  1723,  and  died  at  Magde- 
 ourgn,  in  1790.  His  works  are  numer- 
 ous; and  some  of  his  theological  produc- 
 tions drew  on  him  vehement  persecution 
 for  their  alleged  heterodoxy-  One  of  the 
 great  objects  of  Basedow's  life  was  to  in- 
 troduce a  reform  into  the  system  of  educa- 
 tion, and  he  pursued  it  with  indefatigable 
 zeal.  In  manners  he  was  unpolished;  and 
 he  was  too  fond  of  wine;  but  he  was  a 
 man  of  talent,  learning,  and  good  inten- 
 tions. 
 
 BASIL,  St.,  surnamed  the  Great,  a 
 celebrated  father  of  the  Greek  church,  was 
 born,  in  326,  at  Caesarea,  in  Cappadocia, 
 and,  after  having  studied  at  Athens,  he 
 for  a  while  taught  rhetoric  and  practised 
 at  the  bar.  These  occupations,  however, 
 he  relinquished  for  a  monastic  life,  and 
 became  the  founder  of  a  convent  in  Pontus. 
 In  370,  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Csesarea ; 
 filled  the  episcopal  seat  with  much  piety 
 and  courage;  and  died  in  379.  His 
 works  compose  three  folio  volumes. 
 
 BASINGE,  John  de,  or  BAS1NG- 
 STOCHIUS,  so  called  from  Basingstoke, 
 the  place  of  his  birth,  was  educated  at 
 Oxford  and  Paris;  travelled  to  Athens, 
 and  became  an  excellent  Greek  scholar ; 
 and,  on  his  return,  obtained  the  arch  dea- 
 conries  of  London  and  Leicester.  He 
 died  in  1252.  Basinge  brought  many 
 JVISS.  from  Greece,  and  contributed  much 
 to  spread  in  his  own  country  a  knowledge 
 of  the  Greek  language. 
 
 BASKERVILLE,  John,  one  of  the 
 most  celebrated  English  printers  and  type 
 founders,  was  born,  in  1706,  at  Wolverley, 
 in  Worcestershire,  and  was  originally  a 
 writing  master,  and  next  a  japanner.  In 
 1750,  he  turned  his  attention  to  letter- 
 founding,  and  at  length  produced  types 
 which  were  long  unrivalled.  To  the  busi- 
 ness of  a  letter-founder  he  added  that  of  a 
 printer,  and  editions  of  many  classic  and 
 standard  authors  issued  from  his  press. 
 He  died  in  1775.  Baskervilie  was  not 
 without  a  portion  of  that  singularity  which 
 is  supposed  to  be  a  concomitant  of  talent. 
 
 BASNAGE,  Benjamin,  a  French  pro- 
 testant  minister,  was  born,  in  15S0,  at 
 Carentan,  in  Normandy,  and  died  in  1652. 
 His  Treatise  on  the  Church  was  once  held 
 in  much  estimation. 
 
 BASNAGE  DE  BEAUVAL,  James, 
 an  eminent  protectant  divine,  was  born  at 
 Rouen,  in  1653,  and  educated  at  Saamur 
 and  Geneva.  When  the  edict  of  Nantz 
 was  revoked,  he  retired  to  Rotterdam,  and, 
 in  1709,  was  chosen  one  of  the  Walloon 
 pastors  at  the  Hague.  Being  in  favour 
 with  the  grand  pensionary  Heinsius,  and 
 still  preserving  his  attachment  to  France, 
 he  rendered  such  services  to  his  country, 
 in  facilitating  the  treaty  of  alliance  with 
 Holland,  that  he  was  rewa.5  *ed  with  his 
 
 BAS  71 
 
 recall  and  the  restoration  of  his  property. 
 He  died  in  1723.  Basnage  was  a  man  of 
 erudition,  sincerity,  and  virtue;  and  of 
 such  enlarged  political  views  and  talents, 
 that  Voltaire  declared  him  to  be  more  fit 
 for  a  minister  of  state  than  of  a  parish. 
 Among  his  principal  works  are,  a  History 
 of  the  Church;  a  History  of  the  Jews;  a 
 History  of  the  Religion  of  the  Reformed 
 Church;  and  Annals  of  the  United  Pro- 
 vinces. 
 
 BASNAGE  DE  BEAUVAL,  Henry, 
 brother  of  James,  was  born,  in  1656,  at 
 Rouen,  became  an  advocate  in  1679,  and 
 in  1689  retired  to  Holland,  where  he  died 
 in  1710.  He  succeeded  Bayle  in  writing 
 the  History  of  the  Works  of  the  Learned; 
 and  he  performed  his  task  in  a  manner 
 which  did  honour  to  his  candour  and  tal- 
 ents. 
 
 BASSI,  Laura  Maria  Catherine 
 (by  marriage  Veratti,)  a  learned  Italian 
 lady,  was  born  at  Bologna,  in  1711,  and 
 her  talents  were  carefully  cultivated  by 
 education.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  she 
 publicly  sustained  a  philosophical  thesis, 
 and  received  a  doctor's  degree.  The  sen- 
 ate of  her  native  place  conferred  on  her 
 the  professorial  chair  of  philosophy,  and 
 she  continued  to  teach  till  her  decease,  in 
 1778.  She  was  well  versed  in  Greek, 
 metaphysics,  geometry,  algebra,  and  natu- 
 ral philosophy;  is  said  to  have  written  an 
 epic  poem  on  the  Italian  wars;  and  was 
 an  unaffected,  amiable,  and  virtuous  woman. 
 
 BASSOMPIERRE,  Francis  de,  a 
 French  marshal,  of  a  noble  family,  was 
 born,  in  1579,  in  Lorraine;  served  against 
 the  duke  of  Savoy  and  the  Turk»,  in  1602 
 and  1603;  and  was  patronised  by  Henry 
 IV.  Louis  XIII.  made  him  a  marshal, 
 and  employed  him,  as  a  general  and  as  an 
 ambassador.  Having,  however,  given  of- 
 fence to  the  despotic  Richelieu,  he  was 
 thrown  into  the  Bastile,  where  he  was  de- 
 tained for  twelve  years.  He  died  in  1646. 
 Bassompierre  was  an  accomplished  and 
 handsome  man ;  and  was  so  much  the  fa- 
 vourite of  the  court  ladies,  that  he  is  said 
 to  have  destroyed  more  than  six  thousand 
 tender  letters  from  the  most  eminent  of 
 them,  when  he  heard  that  he  was  to  be 
 imprisoned.  He  is  the  author  of  his  own 
 Memoirs ;  of  an  Account  of  his  Embassies ; 
 and  of  Remarks  on  Dupleix's  Lives  of 
 Henry  IV.  and  Louis  XIII. 
 
 BASTWICK,  John,  a  physician,  born 
 at  Writtle,  in  Essex,  in  1593,  was  educat- 
 ed at  Cambridge,  and  took  his  degree  at 
 Padua.  Having  offended  the  heads  of  the 
 church  by  his  publications,  he  was  twice 
 prosecuted  by  the  tyrannical  high  commis- 
 sion court.  The  first  time,  he  was  heavily 
 fined  and  imprisoned;  the  second,  he  was 
 sentenced  to  pay  five  thousand  pounds,  to 
 lose  his  ears  in  the  pillory,  and  to  undergo 
 
72 
 
 BAT 
 
 perpetual    imprisonment.     In   1640,  how-| 
 ever,  the  house  of  commons  released  and 
 indemnified  him.     He  died,  it  is  supposed, 
 about  1650. 
 
 BATE,  Gk org e,  was  born,  in  160S, 
 at  Maid's  Morton,  in  Buckinghamshire, 
 and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  Such  was 
 his  happy  flexibility  of  principle,  that  he 
 was  successively  physician  to  Charles  1., 
 Oliver  Cromwell,  and  Charles  II.  He 
 was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal 
 Society.  Bate  died  in  1669.  His  chief 
 work  is  a  narrative,  in  Latin,  of  the  civil 
 war,  which  bears  the  title  of  Elenchus 
 Motuum,  &c.  The  Royal  Apology  is  also 
 attributed  to  him. 
 
 BATH,  William  PULTEXEY,  Earl 
 of,  a  descendant  of  an  ancient  family,  was 
 born  in  1682,  and  educated  at  Westmin- 
 ster, and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  On 
 his  return  from  his  travels,  he  was  elected 
 to  the  house  of  commons,  and  became  one 
 of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  whig  party. 
 At  first  he  was  the  friend  of  Walpole,  but 
 at  length  was  converted  into  one  of  his 
 most  determined  and  formidable  oppo- 
 nents, both  in  Parliament  and  in  the  paper 
 called  the  Craftsman.  In  revenue,  he  was 
 struck  out  of  the  list  of  privy  counsellors 
 and  the  commission  of  the  peace.  When, 
 however,  his  party  came  into  power,  in 
 1741,  he  was  created  Earl  of  Bath*  In 
 this  instance,  as  it  has  been  in  many 
 others,  the  title  was  an  extinguisher  of 
 popularity.  He  died  on  the  Sth  of  June, 
 1764. 
 
 BATHURSTj  Ralph,  born  in  1620, 
 at  Howthorpe,  in  Northamptonshire,  was 
 educated  at  Coventry  school  and  Oxford. 
 and  studied  for  the  church,  but,  during  the 
 civil  wars,  acted  as  a  physician.  He  re- 
 sumed his  clerical  character  on  the  resto- 
 ration, and  became  dean  of  Wells  and  vice 
 chancellor  of  Oxford.  He  died  in  1704. 
 Bathurst  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
 Royal  Society.  As  a  Latin  orator  and 
 poet  lie  stands  deservedly  high. 
 
 BATHURST,  Allen,  Earl,  the  son  of 
 a  baronet,  was  born  in  1684,  educated  at 
 Oxford,  aud,  in  1705.  was  chosen  member 
 for  Cirencester.  His  Tory  principles 
 were  rewarded  by  his  becoming  one  of  the 
 twelve  peers  whom  Queen  Anne  so  uncon- 
 stitutionally created  in  1711.  Walpole's 
 administration  he  warmly  opposed,  and, 
 on  its  downfall,  h"  was  made  a  privy 
 counsellor.  On  the  accession  of  George 
 111.  Bathurst  obtained  a  pension,  and.  in 
 1772,  an  earldom.  He  died  in  1775. 
 With  Pope,  Boiingbroke,  and,  iu<i< 
 the  celebrated  men  of  the  age,  he  was  on 
 terms  of  intimate  friendship;  he  was  a 
 man  of  parts,  wit,  and  tasie;  and  he  pre- 
 served his  spirits  unbroken,  and  his  temper 
 unsoured,  till  his  decease  in  his  ninety-first 
 year 
 
 BAU 
 
 BATHURST,  Henry,  Earl,  the   son 
 
 of  the  above,  was  born  in  1714,  brought 
 op  to  the  law,  and  rose  rapidly  in  his  pro- 
 fession. In  1754,  he  became  chief  justice 
 of  the  common  pleas;  and  in  1771  was 
 created  bamn  Apsley,  and  made  lord  chan- 
 cellor. In  1778  he  resigned  the  seals,  and 
 died  in  1794.  He  is  author  of  the  Theory 
 of  Evidence;  and  a  pamphlet  called  the 
 Case  <if  Miss  Suordfeger. 
 
 BATHYLLUS,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
 brated pantomimists  of  antiquity,  was  born 
 at  Alexandria,  and  was  a  slave  of  3Ia'ce- 
 nas,  who,  however,  enfranchised  him.  He 
 was  the  rival  of  Pylades,  and  the  Roman 
 people  took  a  warm  part  in  the  jealousies 
 and  disputes  of  these  stage  heroes.  The 
 time  of  his  death  is  uncertain. 
 
 BATONI,  PoMPEY,an  Italian  painter, 
 was  born  at  Lucca,  in  1708,  and  early 
 manifested  a  high  degree  of  talent  and  a 
 passionate  fondness  for  his  art.  Nature, 
 the  antique,  and  the  works  of  Rall'aelle, 
 were  the  objects  of  his  study;  and  his 
 success  was  such  as  might  be  expected 
 from  his  choice  of  models.  He  is  con- 
 sidered as  the  restorer  of  the  modern 
 Roman  school.     He  died  at  Rome,  in  1787. 
 
 BATTEUX,  Chakles,  a  member  of 
 the  French  Academy,  and  of  the  Academy 
 of  Inscriptions,  was  born  in  1713,  and 
 was  a  professor  of  rhetoric  at  the  aye  of 
 twenty.  He  died  in  1780.  His  principal 
 works,  besides  translations  from  the  clas- 
 sics, are  a  Course  of  Belles  Lettres,  in 
 5  vols. ;  Elementary  Course  for  the  use 
 of  die  Military  School,  in  45  vols.;  and 
 Memoirs  on  the  History,  Sciences,  &c.  of 
 the  Chinese,  in  15  vols,  quarto. 
 
 BATTISHILL,  Jonathan,  an  emi- 
 nent musician,  was  born  in  London,  in 
 173S,  and  died  at  Islington,  in  1801. 
 His  anthems  and  hymns,  and  his  catches 
 and  glees,  are  highly  esteemed.  The  most 
 popular  of  his  s(»ir_r<  is    Kate  of  Aberdeen. 
 
 BAUDELOUUE,  John  Louis,  an 
 eminent  French  surgeon  and  man  midwife, 
 was  born  in  Picardy,  in  1746,  and  died  in 
 1810.  Such  was  his  reputation  that  Napo- 
 leon appointed  hjin  priucipal  midwife  to 
 the  Empress  .Maria  Louisa.  lie  had  t'ae 
 merit  of  simplifying  his  art,  and  discard- 
 ing the  unnecessary  use  of  instruments 
 His  Principles  of  Rfidwifsrv,  and  Ait  of 
 Midwifery,  arc  considered  as  standard 
 works.  The  first  was  reprinted  at  the  ex- 
 pense of  (he  government,  for  the  instruc- 
 tion of  country  female  practitioners. 
 
 BAUHJN,  Johs,  a  celebrated  botan- 
 ist, was  born  at  Basil,  in  1541,  and  made 
 su.h  progress  in  botany,  that,  before  he 
 was  eighteen,  he  corresponded  with,  and 
 was  highly  valued  by  Conrad  Gesner.  The 
 whole  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  botanical 
 pursuits.  In  1570,  hi-  was  appointed  phy- 
 sician   to    the    duke    of    Whtemberg,    in 
 
BAU 
 
 which  office  he  died,  at  Montbelliard,  in 
 1613.  His  principal  work  is  a  General 
 History  of  Plants,  which  was  not  publish- 
 ed till  nearly  forty  years  after  his  death. 
 
 BAUHIN,  Gaspar,  born  at  Basil,  in 
 1560,  was  the  brother  of  John,  and,  like 
 him,  an  excellent  botanist.  In  1596,  he 
 was  chosen  one  of  the  physicians  of  the 
 duke  of  Wirtemberg;  and,  in  1614,  first 
 medical  professor  at  Basil.  He  died  in 
 1624.  His  anatomical  works  are  numer- 
 ous. Of  his  botanical  works,  the  princi- 
 pal are  Phytopinax;  and  Pinax.  His 
 son,  John  Gaspar,  who  was  also  a  man 
 of  talent  and  a  botanist,  published  the  first 
 volume  of  theTheatrum  Botanicum  which 
 his  father  left  in  manuscript. 
 
 BAUME,  Nicholas  Augustus  de 
 la,  Marquis  of  Montrevel,  and  a  marshal 
 of  France,  was  born  in  1636,  and  distin- 
 guished himself  from  his  earliest  youth  by 
 his  daring  valour.  Yet,  after  having  re- 
 peatedly braved  death  in  the  field  of  bat- 
 tle, he  died,  in  1716,  of  fright,  occasioned 
 by  the  most  ridiculous  superstition.  The 
 contents  of  a  saltcellar  having  been  acci- 
 dentally thrown  on  him,  he  turned  pale, 
 exclaimed  that  he  was  a  dead  man,  and 
 expired  in  four  days. 
 
 BAUME,  Anthony,  a  French  apothe- 
 cary, who  acquired  considerable  reputation 
 as  a  chemist,  was  bom  at  Senlis,  in  1728, 
 and  died  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  in  1804. 
 His  whole  life  and  fortune  were  devoted 
 to  the  improvement  of  chemistry.  Among 
 other  works,  he  is  the  author  of  Experi- 
 mental and  Analytical  Chemistry;  Manual 
 of  Chemistry;  and  Elements  of  Phar- 
 macy. 
 
 BAUSSET,  Cardinal  Louis  Francis 
 de,  an  eminent  French  prelate,  born  at 
 Pondicherry,  in  1748,  was  educated  in 
 France,  and  wras  made  bishop  of  Alais 
 before  the  revolution.  That  bishopric  he 
 resigned  in  1802.  Napoleon  patronised 
 him;  and  Louis  XVIII.  made  him  a  peer, 
 and  obtained  for  him  the  cardinal's  hat. 
 He  died  in  1824.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
 History  of  Fenelon,  4  vols.;  and  of  a 
 History  of  Bossuet,  4  vols. ;  both  works 
 of  merit,  but  of  which  the  first  is  far  su- 
 perior to  the  second. 
 
 BAUTRU,  William,  Count  de  Seran, 
 a  French  academician,  was  born,  in  1558, 
 at  Angers,  and  filled  several  important 
 diplomatic  missions.  Bautru  had  the  rep- 
 utation of  a  man  of  wit  and  repartee,  and 
 for  this  reason  was  a  favourite  at  court ; 
 but  many  of  his  jokes  were  abortions,  and 
 his  character  was  not  unstained.  He  died 
 in  1665.  Among  his  best  things  may  be 
 reckoned  the  following.  Having  found  an 
 exceedingly  ignorant  librarian  at  the  Escu- 
 rial,  he  advised  the  Spanish  monarch  to 
 make  him  his  minister  of  finance ;  and 
 when  asked  why,  he  replied,  "  because  he 
 
 BAX 
 
 73 
 
 never  meddles  with  what   is  entrusted  to 
 him." 
 
 BAXTER,  Richard,  an  eminent  non- 
 conformist divine,  was  born  at  Rowton, 
 in  Shropshire,  in  1615,  and  for  many  years 
 was  a  school-master,  first  at  Wroxeter,  and 
 then  at  Dudley ;  but,  in  1640,  he  became 
 minister  of  Kidderminster.  Though  he 
 acted  as  chaplain  in  the  parliamentary 
 armies,  he  was  hostile  to  Cromwell's  usur- 
 pation, and  even  defended  monarchy  in 
 Ins  presence.  At  the  restoration  he  was 
 made  one  of  the  king's  chaplains,  and  was 
 offered  the  bishopric  of  Hereford,  which 
 he  declined.  He  was,  however,  soon  in- 
 volved in,  and  suffered  much  by,  the  gene- 
 ral persecution  of  the  non-conformists  ; 
 and  in  1685  he  was  tried  before  the  brutal 
 Jefleries,  grossly  insulted  by  him,  and  sen- 
 tenced to  fine  and  imprisonment;  but  the 
 punishment  was  shortly  after  remitted  by 
 the  king.  Baxter  died  in  1691.  No  less 
 than  a  hundred  and  forty-five  treatises 
 were  produced  by  his  pen;  some  of  which 
 were  extremely  popular.  In  his  theolo- 
 gical doctrines  he  held  a  course  between 
 Calvinism  and  Arminianism,and  gave  rise 
 to  a  sect  bearing  the  name  of  Baxterians. 
 
 BAXTER,  William,  a  nephew  of 
 Richard,  was  born,  in  1650,  at  Lanlugan, 
 in  Shropshire,  and  died  in  1723.  Though 
 at  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was  unable  to 
 read,  he  subsequently  attained  a  high  de- 
 gree of  learning.  Among  his  works  are, 
 editions  of  Anacreon  and  Horace ;  a  Latin 
 Grammar;  and  a  Dictionary  of  British 
 Antiquities 
 
 BAXTER,  Andrew,  an  eminent  meta- 
 physician, was  born,  in  1686  or  1687,  at 
 Aberdeen,  and  educated  at  King's  College, 
 in  that  city;  after  which  he  gained  a  sub- 
 sistence by  teaching  private  pupils.  He 
 died  at  Whittington,  in  East  Lothian,  in 
 1750.  His  works  are,  an  Inquiry  into  the 
 Nature  of  the  Human  Soul,  a  production 
 which  Warburton  highly  praised;  and 
 Matho,  sive  Cosmotheoria  Puerilis,  which 
 the  author  afterwards  translated  and  en- 
 larged. In  his  Inquiry,  he  maintains  the 
 doctrine  that  dreams  are  caused  by  the 
 agency  of  separate  immaterial  beings. 
 
74 
 
 BAY 
 
 BAYARD,  Peter  du  Terraie  de, 
 a  French  military  commander,  born  of  a 
 noble  family,  in  the  valley  of  Gresivuudan, 
 in  DauphinVjin  1476,  whose  valour,  virtue, 
 generosity,  and  courtesy,  gained  him  the 
 glorious  appellation  of  "  the  fearless  and 
 irreproachable  knight."  Such  was  the 
 reverence  felt  for  his  character,  that  Fran- 
 cis I.  chose  to  receive  the  order  of  knight- 
 hood from  his  hand.  In  numerous  battles 
 and  sieges,  particularly  at  the  bridge  of 
 Garigliano,  at  Agnadel,  Ravenna,  Marig- 
 nano,  and  Mezieres,  he  displayed  admi- 
 rable bravery  and  talents.  He  was  mor- 
 tally wounded,  in  1524,  at  Romagnano,  in 
 the  Milanese,  while  covering  the  retreat 
 of  the  French  army.  Finding  that  his 
 end  was  approaching,  he  refused  to  be 
 carried  away.  "  1  will  not,  on  the  point 
 of  death,"  said  he,  "  turn  my  back  to  the 
 enemy  for  the  first  time.  Place  me  so  that 
 I  may  face  them."  The  constable  of 
 Bourbon  having  expressed  his  sorrow  fol- 
 ium, he  replied,  "  It  is  not  I  who  am  to 
 be  pitied,  but  you,  who  are  fighting  against 
 your  king  and  your  country."  As  his 
 corse  passed  through  the  states  of  the  duke 
 of  Savoy,  in  its  way  to  Grenoble,  that 
 prince  paid  to  it  the  same  funeral  honours 
 as  were  destined  to  the  remains  of  princes 
 of  his  own  family. 
 
 BAYER,  John,  a  native  of  Augsburg, 
 born  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
 tury, was  a  minister  of  the  gospel,  but 
 owes  his  fame  to  his  astronomical  talents, 
 which  also  caused  him  to  be  ennobled  by 
 the  emperor.  In  1603,  he  published  his 
 Uranometria,  containing  folio  charts  of  all 
 the  constellations,  with  a  nomenclature; 
 the  stars  being  denoted,  according  to  their 
 magnitude,  bv  Greek  letters.  This  work 
 he  subsequently  enlarged  and  improved. 
 The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown. 
 
 BAYER,  Theophilus  Sigfried, 
 supposed  to  be  a  grandson  of  the  astrono- 
 mer, was  born,  in  1694,  at  Keenigsberg, 
 and  died  in  1738.  Of  the  oriental  lan- 
 guages, especially  the  Chinese,  he  had  an 
 extraordinary  knowledge.  His  produc- 
 tions, on  chronology,  history,  and  philo- 
 logy, are  numerous.  Among  the  principal 
 are,  the  Museum  Sinicum;  and  the  His- 
 toria  Asrhoena. 
 
 BAYLE,  Peter,  one  of  the  most  emi- 
 nent of  modern  philosophers  and  critics, 
 was  the  son  of  a  protcstant  minister,  and 
 was  born  in  1647,  at  Carlat,  in  France* 
 In  his  youth  he  manifested  uncommon 
 talents,  and  studied  so  intensely  as  to  do 
 permanent  injury  to  his  health.  For  a 
 while  he  was  seduced  to  the  catholic  reli- 
 gion, but  he  soon  abandoned  it.  In  1675, 
 after  having  for  some  time  subsisted  by 
 private  tuition,  he  became  professor  of 
 philosophy  at  Sedan;  and  when,  six  years 
 subsequently,    the   college   of  Sedan   was 
 
 BAY 
 
 suppressed,  he  obtained  the  same  professor- 
 ship at  Rotterdam.  The  latter,  however, 
 he  was  deprived  of,  in  1696,  by  the  calum- 
 nies and  exertions  of  his  quondam  friend 
 Jurieu,  who  never  ceased  to  persecute  him. 
 Bayle  died  at  Rotterdam,  in  1706,  of  a 
 disease  in  the  chest.  His  works  are  nu- 
 merous; they  compose  eight  folio  volumes, 
 of  which  four  are  occupied  by  his  justly 
 celebrated  Critical  Dictionary.  Among 
 the  principal  of  his  minor  productions  may 
 be  mentioned  his  Thoughts  on  Comets; 
 Reply  to  the  Questions  of  a  Provincial; 
 and  Intelligence  of  the  Republic  of  Letters. 
 The  latter,  which  is  an  excellent  review, 
 was  commenoed  ia  1684,  and  continued 
 for  three  years. 
 
 BAYARD,  James  A.,  an  eminent 
 American  lawyer  and  politician,  was  born 
 in  Philadelphia,  in  1767,  and  educated  at 
 Princeton  college.  In  the  year  1784  he 
 engaged  in  the  study  of  the  law,  and  on 
 admission  to  the  bar  settled  in  the  state  of 
 Delaware,  where  he  soon  acquired  prac- 
 tice and  consideration.  He  was  elected 
 to  a  seat  in  congress  towards  the  close  of 
 the  administration  of  Mr.  Adams,  and  first 
 particularly  distinguished  himself  in  con- 
 ducting the  impeachment  of  senator  Blount. 
 In  1804  he  was  elected  to  the  senate  of 
 the  United  States  by  the  legislature  of 
 Delaware,  and  remained  for  several  years 
 a  conspicuous  member  of  that  assembly. 
 In  1813  he  was  appointed  by  President 
 Madison  one  of  the  ministers  to  conclude 
 a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  and 
 assisted  in  the  successful  negociations  at 
 Ghent,  in  the  following  year.  He  then 
 received  the  appointment  of  minister  to 
 the  court  of  St.  Petersburgh,  but  an  alarm- 
 ing illness  induced  him  to  return  immedi- 
 ately to  the  United  States.  He  died  soon 
 after  his  arrival  home,  in  July  1815. 
 
 BAYLEY,  Richard,  an  eminent  phy- 
 sician, was  born  at  Fairfield,  Connecticut, 
 in  the  year  1745.  Having  completed  his 
 medical  studies,  and  attended  the  lectures 
 and  hospitals  in  London  for  more  than  a 
 year,  he  commenced  practice  in  New  York 
 in  1772.  In  the  autumn  of  1775,  he  re- 
 visited London,  and  in  the  following  spring 
 returned  to  New-York,  in  the  capacity  of 
 surgeon  in  the  English  army  under  Lord 
 Howe.  This  post  he  resigned  in  1777, 
 and  during  the  rest  of  his  life  continued 
 the  practice  of  his  profession  in  the  same 
 city.  In  1792  he  was  appointed  professor 
 of  anatomy  in  Columbia  college,  and  in 
 1793  became  professor  of  surgery,  which 
 was  his  favourite  subject.  He  published  a 
 treatise  on  the  Croup,  and  a  work  on  the 
 Yellow  Fever.     He  died  in  1801. 
 
 BAYLY,  Lewis,  a  native  of  Caermar- 
 then,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and,  in 
 1616,  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Bangor. 
 He  died  in  1634.     The  Practice  of  Piety, 
 
BEA 
 
 a  work  which  was  long  popular,  and  went 
 through  sixty  English  editions,  besides  seve- 
 ral in  Welsh,  was  written  bv  this  prelate. 
 BEATON,  or  BETHUNE,  Cardinal 
 David,  primate  of  Scotland,  was  born  in 
 1494,  filled  several  high  offices,  was  made 
 cardinal  in  1538,  and  the  next  year  suc- 
 ceeded his  uncle  as  archbishop  of  Saint 
 Andrew's.  An  attempt  which  he  made  to 
 share  in  the  regency,  after  the  death  of 
 James,  at  Solway  Moss,  occasioned  his 
 imprisonment ;  but  he  was  •  liberated  by 
 the  earl  of  Arrant,  and  appointed  high 
 chancellor.  The  reformers  he  persecuted 
 fiercely,  and  is  said  to  have  witnessed  the 
 burning  of  George  Wishart.  He  was  as- 
 sassinated in  May,  1546. 
 
 BEATTIE,  James,  LL.  D.,  was  born, 
 in  1735,  at  Laurencekirk,  in  Kincardine- 
 shire, and  educated  at  Marischal  College, 
 Aberdeen.  After  having  for  some  time 
 acted  as  a  country  parochial  schoolmaster, 
 he  was,  in  1761,  chosen  professor  of  mora! 
 philosophy  at  Marischal  College.  In  the 
 same  year  he  made  his  first  public  appear- 
 ance as  a  poet,  in  a  volume  of  original 
 Poems  and  Translations.  With  these 
 poems  he  was  afterwards  dissatisfied,  and 
 he  endeavoured  to  suppress  them.  His 
 Essay  on  Truth,  published  in  1770,  became 
 highly  popular,  and  procured  him  the  de- 
 gree of  LL.  D.,  from  the  university  of  Ox- 
 ford, and  a  private  interview  and  a  pension 
 from  George  III.  Solicitations  were  also 
 made  to  him  to  enter  the  church  of  Eng- 
 land; but  he  declined,  in  the  fear  that  his 
 motives  might  be  misrepresented.  In  the 
 same  year,  he  gave  to  the  world  the  first 
 book  of  the  Minstrel ;  and  the  second  book 
 in  1774.  This  work  sealed  his  fame  as  a 
 poet.  He  subsequently  produced  Disserta- 
 tions ;  Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion ; 
 Elements  of  Moral  Science;  and  an  Ac- 
 count of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  his  eldest 
 Son.  After  having  languished  for  some 
 time  in  a  melancholy  state,  and  suffered 
 two  paralytic  strokes,  he  expired  at  Aber- 
 deen, in  August,  1803. 
 
 BEATTIE,  James  Hay,  the  eldest  son 
 of  the  above,  was  born  in  1768,  assisted 
 his  father  in  the  professorship  at  the  age 
 of  nineteen,  and  died  in  1790.  His  poems 
 and  miscellaneous  pieces  were  published 
 by  his  father. 
 
 *  BEAUCHAMP,  Joseph,  was  born,  in 
 1752,  at  Vesoul,  in  France,  and  blended 
 his  theological  studies  with  the  astronomi- 
 cal lessons  of  Lalande.  Being  employed 
 in  the  Levant,  first  as  vicar  general,  by 
 his  uncle,  a  bishop;  next,  as  consul,  by 
 the  government ;  he  made  numerous  astro- 
 nomical observations,  constructed  a  map 
 of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  surveyed 
 the  Black  Sea.  Bonaparte  invited  him  to 
 Egypt;  but  he  was  taken  on  his  passage, 
 and  imprisoned  for  three  years  as  a  spy. 
 
 BEA 
 
 75 
 
 He  was  released  in  1801,  but  his  health 
 was  ruined,  and  he  died  in  the  same  year. 
 BEAUCHATEAU,  Francis  Mat- 
 thias Chatelet  de,  a  precocious 
 genius,  born  at  Paris,  in  1645,  was  the  son 
 of  an  actor.  At  seven  years  of  age  he 
 spoke  several  languages,  and  wrote  verses 
 almost  extempore  upon  a  given  subject ; 
 and  at  twelve  he  published  a  volume  of 
 poems,  under  the  title  of  the  Young  Apol- 
 lo's Lyre,  for  which  pensions  were  given 
 to  him  by  cardinal  Richelieu  and  chancellor 
 Seguier.  After  having  visited  England, 
 he  went  to  Persia,  in  1661,  and  his  subse- 
 quent fate  is  unknown. 
 
 BEAUFORT,  Margaret,  Countess 
 of  Richmond  and  Derby,  daughter  of  the 
 duke  of  Somerset,  was  born,  in  1441,  at 
 Bletsoe,  in  Bedfordshire,  and  died  in  1509. 
 She  was  thrice  married — to  the  earl  of 
 Richmond,  to  Sir  Henry  Stafford,  and  to 
 Lord  Stanley.  Her  son  by  her  first  hus- 
 band was  afterwards  Henry  VII.  Christ's 
 and  St.  John's  Colleges,  Cambridge,  and 
 the  divinity  professorship,  were  founded 
 by  her.  She  wrote  the  Mirroure  of  Golde 
 for  a  sinful  Soul;  and  translated  the  first 
 book  of  Thomas  a  Kempis. 
 
 BEAUHARiNOIS,  Eugene,  son  of 
 the  Empress  Josephine,  by  her  first  hus- 
 band, was  born  in  1780.  When  his  mother 
 married  Bonaparte,  Eugene  entered  the 
 army,  and  was  his  father  in  law's  aid-de- 
 camp in  Italy  and  Egypt.  In  1804,  he 
 was  created  a  French  prince,  and  vice- 
 chancellor  of  state.  In  1805  he  was  ap- 
 pointed viceroy  of  Italy,  which  office  he 
 held  till  1814.  He  governed  with  mild- 
 ness and  equity.  In  the  campaigns  of 
 1809,  1812,  1813,  and  1814,  he  acquired 
 distinguished  reputation;  particularly  at 
 Raab,  Wagram,  Borodino,  and  Viazma, 
 and  in  defending  Italy  against  a  far  supe- 
 rior force.  On  the  downfall  of  his  patron, 
 he  retired  into  the  states  of  the  Bavarian 
 monarch,  whose  daughter  he  had  married, 
 and  who  now  made  him  duke  of  Leuchten- 
 berg.     He  died  February  21,  1824. 
 
 BEAUMARCHAIS,  Peter  Augus- 
 tin  Caron  de,  an  eminent  French  dra- 
 matic writer,  born  at  Paris,  in  1732,  was 
 the  son  of  a  watchmaker,  and,  when  young, 
 invented  a  new  kind  of  escapement.  His 
 talents,  however,  and  his  proficiency  in  mu- 
 sic, soon  raised  him  above  the  sphere  of 
 his  profession.  Having  made  some  im- 
 provements on  the  harp,  he  was  introduced 
 to  the  daughters  of  Louis  XV.  They  en- 
 gaged him  to  teach  them  the  harp  and  gui- 
 tar, and  admitted  him  on  the  footing  of 
 friendship  to  their  private  concerts  and 
 parties.  Here  he  became  acquainted  with 
 the  rich  financier,  Paris  Duverney,  aided 
 by  whom  he  engaged  in  speculations  from 
 which  he  derived  an  ample  fortune.  While 
 thus  occupied  he  did  not  neglect  literature. 
 
76 
 
 BEA 
 
 In  1767,  he  produced  the  drama  of  Eugenia, 
 and  in  1770,  that  of  the  Two  Friend*--.  But 
 it  was  to  a  lawsuit  that  he  was  lirst  in- 
 debted for  his  astonishing  popularity  as  an 
 author.  The  memorials  and  pleadings 
 which  he  drew  up  were  at  once  so  full  of 
 sound  reasoning,  and  of  exquisite  wit, 
 satire,  and  comic  spirit,  that  all  France 
 admired  them.  He  sustained  his  reputation 
 by  the  Barber  of  Seville,  in  1775,  and  the 
 Marriage  of  Figaro,  in  1784.  Subsequently 
 he  brought  out  the  opera  of  Tarare,  and 
 the  drama  of  the  Guilty  Mother,  which 
 were  inferior  to  his  former  pieces.  His 
 latter  days  were  not  fortunate.  He  nearly 
 exhausted  his  property  by  unlucky  specu- 
 lations, among  which  was  an  expensive 
 edition  of  Voltaire,  and  he  was  imprisoned 
 during  the  reign  of  terror.  He  died  of 
 apoplexy,  in  1799.  His  collected  works 
 form  seven  volumes  octavo. 
 
 BEAUMELLE,  Laurence  Angli- 
 viel  DE  LA,  a  French  critic  and  writer, 
 was  born  at  Vallaragues,  in  Languedoc,  in 
 1727,  and  was  for  some  time  professor  of 
 belles  lettres  in  Denmark,  in  which  coun- 
 try his  health,  however,  did  not  permit  him 
 to  remain.  At  Berlin  he  met  and  quarrelled 
 with  Voltaire,  and  the  quarrel  was  contin- 
 ied  through  life.  Voltaire,  nevertheless, 
 could  not  deny  that  his  antagonist  was  a 
 nan  of  wit.  In  France  La  Beaumelle  was 
 twice  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile,  for  speak- 
 ing truth  too  boldly.  He  died  in  1773.  His 
 hief  works  are,  a  Defence  of  the  Spirit 
 >f  Laws;  My  Thoughts;  Letters  to  Vol- 
 aire;  and  a  Commentary  on  the  Hen- 
 iade. 
 
 BEAUMONT,  Sir  John,  son  of  a 
 judge,  an  elder  brother  of  the  dramatist, 
 was  born,  in  1582,  at  Grace  Diou,  in  Lei- 
 cester, was  made  a  baronet  in  1626,  and 
 lied  in  1628.  He  is  the  author  of  Bos- 
 worth  Field,  a  poem;  and  of  other  poems 
 md  translations;  which  have  considerable 
 merit. 
 
 BEAUMONT,  Francis,  a  dramatic 
 writer,  eminent  in  an  age  which  was  fer- 
 tile in  such  characters,  was  born  at  Grace 
 !)ieu,  in  1585.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
 ford, and  became  a  student  of  the  Inner 
 Temple.  In  1612  his  Ma.-k  of  the  Inner 
 Temple  and  Gray's  Inn  was  acted  and 
 nubhshed.  He  had  already  formed  a  dra- 
 matic connection  with  Fletcher;  for  their 
 irst  joint  play  was  produced  in  1607. 
 vhat  connection  continued  till  the  death  of 
 '"eaumont,  in  1616.  So  close,  indeed, 
 was  their  friendship,  that  they  lived  toge- 
 ther, and  seemed  almost  to  be  animated  by 
 >ne  mind.  Besides  his  plays  and  mask, 
 Beaumont  wrote  some  poems  which  entitle 
 dm  to  an  honourable  place  among  British 
 poets. 
 
 BEAUMONT,  Joseph,  an  ecclesiastic 
 •nd   poet,  born  in  1615,  at  Hadleigh,  in 
 
 BEC 
 
 Suffolk,  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He 
 was  expelled  from  his  fellowship  during 
 the  civil  wars;  but,  after  the  restoration, 
 was  made  master  of  Jesus  College,  and 
 afterwards  of  Peter-house,  and  divinity 
 professor.  He  died  in  1699.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Psyche,  a  poem;  Poems  in 
 English  and  Latin,  with  Remarks  on  St. 
 Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Colossians. 
 
 BEAUSOBRE,  Isaac,  a  protestant  the- 
 ologian, bom  in  1659,  at  Niort,  in  Poitou, 
 was  compelled  to  quit  France  by  the  revo- 
 cation of  the  edict  of  Nantz,  and  took  ref- 
 uge in  Holland,  and  subsequently  in  Prus- 
 sia. In  the  latter  country  he  became  king's 
 chaplain,  and  held  various  ecclesiastical 
 offices.  He  died  in  1738.  His  principal 
 works  are,  a  Critical  History  of  Maniche- 
 ism;  a  History  of  the  Reformation,  from 
 1517  to  1630;  and  Sermons.  His  two 
 sons,  Charles  Louis,  and  Louis,  were 
 men  of  talent  and  authors.  The  latter  was 
 educated  at  the  expense  of  Frederic  the 
 Great,  who  continued  his  patronage  to  him 
 throughout  his  life. 
 
 BEAUZEE,  Nicholas,  an  eminent 
 French  grammarian,  was  born  at  Verdun, 
 in  1714,  and  died  at  Paris,  in  1789.  Ov 
 the  death  of  Dumarsais,  Beauzee  was  en- 
 gaged to  write  the  grammatical  articles  in 
 the  Encyclopedia.  He  produced,  besides 
 other  works,  excellent  translations  of  Sal- 
 lust  and  Quintus  Curtius;  an  enlarged  edi- 
 tion of  Girard's  Synonymes;  an  abridged 
 Exposition  of  the  Historical  Proofs  of 
 Religion;  and  a  General  Grammar,  or 
 Analytical  Exposition  of  the  Elements  of 
 Languages. 
 
 BECCARIA,  John  Baptist,  an  eccle- 
 siastic, and  a  philosopher  of  great  merit, 
 was  born,  in  1716,  at  Mondovi,  in  Pied- 
 mont, filled  professorships  at  Palermo  and 
 Rome,  and  was  recalled  to  Turin,  to  be- 
 come professor  of  experimental  philosophy, 
 and  tutor  to  the  princess  of  Savoy.  All 
 his  hours  were  devoted  to  scientific  pur- 
 suits. His  knowledge  extended  to  all 
 branches  of  philosophy ;  but  he  is  princi- 
 pally celebrated  for  his  researches  into  the 
 nature  of  the  electrical  fluid;  on  which 
 subject  he  published  Letters  on  Electricity ; 
 and  other  works.  He  died  at  Turin,  in 
 1781. 
 
 BECCARIA,  Marquis  Cjesar  Bone- 
 sana,  an  eminent  Italian,  was  born  at 
 Milan,  in  1735.  About  1763  he  formed  a 
 literary  society  in  that  city,  the  members 
 of  which  produced  a  periodical  work  inti- 
 tled  the  Coffee  House.  Beccaria  con- 
 tributed largely.  In  1764,  appeared  his 
 Treatise  on  Crimes  and  Punishments, 
 which  was  translated  into  several  langua- 
 ges, and  universally  admired.  In  1768  the 
 Austrian  government  established  a  profes- 
 sorship of  political  economy  at  Milan,  and 
 appointed  Beccaria  the  professor.     He  died 
 
SEC 
 
 in  1793.     His  Lectures  were  published  in 
 1804. 
 
 BECHER,  or  BECCHER,  John  Joa- 
 chim, a  celebrated  German  chemist,  was 
 born,  in  1645,  at  Spire.  At  various  periods 
 he  held  the  offices  of  medical  professor  at 
 Mentz,  aulic  counsellor  at  Vienna,  and 
 principal  physician  to  the  elector  of  Bava- 
 ria. But  his  life  was  a  wandering  and 
 troubled  one,  and  he  often  quarrelled  with 
 his  patrons.  Becher  had  great  mechanical 
 knowledge,  but  was  still  more  eminent  as 
 a  chemist;  he  was,  indeed,  one  of  the  first 
 who  studied  chemistry  on  philosophical 
 principles.  He  died  at  London,  in  1685. 
 His  principal  work  is  intitled  Physica 
 Subterranea. 
 
 BECKET,  Thomas  a,  a  celebrated  En- 
 glish prelate,  the  son  of  a  merchant,  was 
 born  at  London,  in  1119,  studied  at  Oxford, 
 Paris,  and  Bologna,  and,  on  his  return 
 home,  entered  the  church.  Henry  II.  made 
 him  high  chancellor  and  preceptor  to  prince 
 Henry,  in  115S,  admitted  him  to  the  closest 
 intimacy  and  confidence,  and,  in  1162, 
 raised  him  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
 bury. Becket  now  entirely  gave  up  his 
 courtier  habits,  assumed  a  rigid  austerity 
 of  manners,  and  became  a  stubborn  cham- 
 pion of  the  exorbitant  privileges  of-  the 
 clergy.  A  violent  contest  ensued  between 
 the  sovereign  and  the  prelate,  and  the  lat- 
 ter was  at  length  obliged  to  fly  from  the 
 kingdom.  In  1170,  however,  he  was  re- 
 stored, and  he  instantly  recommenced  his 
 resistance  to  the  monarch.  Irritated  by 
 this  fresh  disobedience,  Henry  uttered  a 
 hasty  speech,  which  three  of  his  knights, 
 not  unnaturally,  construed  into  a  command 
 to  rid  him  of  the  pertinacious  archbishop. 
 Thev  accordingly  hastened  to  England,  and 
 murdered  Becket  in  Canterbury  Cathedral, 
 on  the  22d  of  December,  1170.  He  was 
 canonized  two  years  afterwards. 
 
 BECKMANN,  John  Anthony,  a  na- 
 tive of  Hoya,  in  Hanover,  was  born  in  1739, 
 travelled  in  Russia  and  Sweden,  and,  in 
 1766,  was  chosen  professor  at  Gottingen, 
 where,  for  nearly  half  a  century,  he  lec- 
 tured, with  great  applause,  on  subjects 
 connected  with  rural  and  political  econo- 
 my and  technology.  He  died  in  1S11. 
 His  works  are  numerous.  Among  ihe 
 principal  are  a  History  of  Discoveries  and 
 Inventions;  History  of  the  earliest  Voya- 
 ges made  in  Modern  Times;  and  Elements 
 of  Rural  Economy. 
 
 BECLARD,  Peter  Augustus,  one  of 
 the  most  eminent  of  modern  anatomists, 
 was  bom  at  Angers,  in  1785.  At  a  very- 
 early  period  he  obtained  the  first  anatomi- 
 cal, physiological,  philosophical,  and  che- 
 mical prizes;  and  from  1818  to  1825,  in 
 which  latter  year  he  died,  he  was  cele- 
 brated as  a  lecturer  on  physiology  and 
 anatomy.     He  is  the  author  of  Anatomical 
 
 BED  77 
 
 Memoirs;  and  he  published  an  edition  of 
 Bichat's  Treatise  of  General  Anatomy, 
 with  additions. 
 
 BED  A,  or  BEDE,  usually  denominated 
 the  Venerable  Bede,  one  of  the  most 
 eminent  ecclesiastics  and  writers  of  the 
 time  in  which  he  lived,  was  born,  in  672 
 or  673,  in  the  vicinity  of  Wearmouth,  in 
 the  county  of  Durham.  His  fame  was  so 
 great,  that  Pope  Sergius  invited  him  to 
 Rome,  but  he  never  quitted  his  native 
 country.  His  greatest  work  is  his  English 
 Ecclesiastical  History;  but  he  wrote  on  a 
 variety  of  subjects,  and  with  high  talent. 
 His  last  labour  was  the  translation  of  Sain; 
 John's  Gospel  into  Saxon.  A  few  minutes 
 after  he  had  dictated  the  concluding  sen- 
 tence of  it  he  expired,  in  May,  735. 
 
 BEDDOES,  Thomas,  a  physician, 
 born  at  Shifnal,  in  Shropshire,  in  1760 
 was  educated  at  Oxford  and  Edinburgh. 
 He  obtained  the  chemical  professorship  a; 
 Oxford,  but  lost  it  by  his  political  princi- 
 ples. He  afterwards  settled  at  Clifton, 
 near  Bristol,  where  he  died  in  1808.  Hi.- 
 chemical,  scientific,  and  other  works,  art 
 numerous,  and  display  considerable  talent. 
 
 BEDELL,  William,  a  divine,  emi- 
 nent fir  piety,  learning,  and  benevolence. 
 Avas  born  at  Black  Notley,  in  Essex,  edu- 
 cated at  Cambridge,  and  travelled  into 
 Italy,  where  he  became  the  friend  of  the 
 celebrated  Father  Paul.  After  his  return 
 he  obtained  church  preferment,  and,  in 
 1629,  was  made  bishop  of  Kilmore,  in 
 Ireland.  He  held  that  see  till  the  breaking 
 out  of  the  rebellion,  when  he  was  ejected, 
 but  was  not  injured,  his  virtues  having 
 acquired  universal  esteem.  He  died  in 
 1641.  The  rebels  fired  a  volley  over  his 
 grave,  in  honour  of  him,  and  exclaimed, 
 "  May  the  last  of  the  English  "rest  in 
 peace  !" 
 
 BEDFORD,  John,  Duke  of,  third  son 
 of  Henry  IV.,  distinguished  himself  in 
 early  youth  at  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury, 
 was  appointed  regent  of  France,  by  the 
 will  of  Henry  V.,  in  1422,  and  sustained 
 the  glory  of  the  English  arms  till  his 
 death,  in  1435.  He  died  at  Rouen.  It  is 
 to  bo   regretted,  that   the  memory  of  this 
 
^  BEL 
 
 brave  and  able  man,  who  also  loved  the 
 arts,  is  stained  by  the  death  of  Joan  of  Arc. 
 
 BEETHOVEN,  Ludwig  Von,  a  cele- 
 brated composer,  the  son  of  a  tenor  singer 
 in  the  elector  of  Cologne's  chapel,  wai 
 born,  in  1770,  at  Bonn.  His  early  genius 
 induced  the  elector  to  send  him  to  Vienna, 
 to  study  under  Haydn,  and  he  settled  in 
 the  Austrian  capital.  His  compositions, 
 which  are  numerous,  rank  him  very  high 
 among  musical  composers.  He  died  in 
 1827. 
 
 BEHAIM,  or  BEHEM,  Martin,  a 
 cosmographer  and  navigator,  was  born,  of 
 a  noble  family,  at  Nuremberg,  about  14S0, 
 and  died  at  Lisbon  in  1506.  Behaim  was 
 employed  by  the  Portuguese  monarch,  and 
 either  discovered  Fayal,  or  settled  a  colony 
 of  Flemings  there.  The  discovery  of  Bra- 
 zil, and  the  straits  of  Magellan,  in  1484, 
 are  even  claimed  for  him,  which  would 
 make  hirn  the  first  discoverer  of  the  west- 
 ern world ;  and  it  must  be  owned  that  the 
 evidence  in  his  favour  is  not  without 
 weight. 
 
 BE11N,  Aphra,  known  by  the  poet- 
 ical name  of  Astrea,  a  dramatist  and  mis- 
 cellaneous writer,  was  born  in  the  reign 
 of  Charles  L,  and  went,  when  young,  with 
 her  family  to  Surinam,  where  she  became 
 acquainted  with  the  African  prince  Oroo- 
 nooko,  on  whose  story  she  founded  a  novel, 
 which  Southerne  dramatized.  On  her 
 coming  back  to  England,  she  married 
 Mr.  Behn.  Charles  II.  employed  her  to 
 gain  intelligence  on  the  continent,  for 
 which  purpose  she  resided  at  Antwerp; 
 and  is  said  to  have  furnished,  as  to  the 
 intended  Dutch  attack  on  Chatham,  infor- 
 mation which  was  unfortunately  disre- 
 garded. After  her  return  to  her  native 
 country,  the  rest  of  her  life  was  spent  in 
 literary  labour,  and  in  the  company  of 
 wits  and  men  of  talent.  She  died  in  1689. 
 Her  works  consist  of  novels,  poems,  and 
 seventeen  plays.  Pope,  in  language  which 
 might  safely  have  been  stronger,  alludes 
 to  the  gross  licentiousness  which  disgraces 
 her  dramas. 
 
 BEKKEll,  Balthazar,  a  Dutch  di- 
 vine and  writer,  was  born,  in  1634,  at 
 Warthuisen,  in  the  province  of  Groningen, 
 and  was,  in  1660,  appointed  minister  of 
 Franeker,  in  the  same  province,  which 
 situation,  however,  he  was  compelled  to 
 quit,  on  account  of  his  being  persecuted  on 
 a  charge  of  heterodoxy.  In  1679,  he  set- 
 tled at  Amsterdam,  where,  in  1691,  he 
 published  his  World  lieu  itched,  a  work 
 which  denies  the  possibility  of  demoniacal 
 influence,  and  which  raised  against  hi.u  a 
 furious  clamour,  and  caused  his  dept  sition 
 from  the  pastoral  office.  He  died  in  1698. 
 His  Researches  concerning  Comets  is  one 
 of  his  best  productions. 
 
 BELIDOR,  Bernard  Forest  we,  a 
 
 BEL 
 
 native  of  Catalonia,  born  in  1697,  die* 
 played  such  an  early  proficiency  in  the 
 mathematical  sciences,  that,  when  quite 
 young,  he  was  appointed  roval  professor 
 at  the  artillery  school  of  La  Fere.  Other 
 situations  of  the  same  kind  were  after- 
 wards conferred  on  him,  and  he  was  in- 
 spector of  artillery  when  he  died,  in  1761, 
 at  Paris.  Of  his  works,  the  most  celebra- 
 ted are  his  Treatise  on  Fortifications; 
 Science  of  Engineers ;  Hydraulic  Archi- 
 tecture;  and  French  Bombardier. 
 
 BELISARIUS,  a  Roman  general,  one 
 of  the  most  celebrated  of  his  age,  first  ser- 
 ved with  distinction  in  the  guards  of  Jus- 
 tinian, and  subsequently  rose  to  military 
 eminence  under  that  emperor.  He  defeat- 
 ed Cabades,  and  subsequently  Cosroes, 
 king  of  Persia,  dethroned  Geliiner,  king 
 of  the  Vandals,  routed  the  Goths  in  Sicily 
 and  Italy,  and  performed  other  glorious 
 actions.  Justinian,  however,  confiscated 
 his  estates,  but  at  length  restored  them, 
 and  took  him  again  into  favour.  He  died 
 a.  D.  565.  The  story  of  his  blindness 
 and  being  reduced  to  beg  is  a  fiction. 
 
 BELKNAP,  Jeremy,  an  American 
 historian  and  divine,  was  born  at  Boston, 
 Massachusetts,  in  1744,  and  was  graduated 
 at  Harvard  College  in  1762.  He  was  first 
 settled  in  the  Christian  ministry  at  Dover, 
 New  Hampshire,  and  afterwards  in  his  na- 
 tive town.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
 of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society, 
 and  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  pro- 
 motion of  its  objects  and  interests.  His 
 published  works  are  the  History  of  New 
 Hampshire,  American  Biography,  and  a 
 number  of  political,  literary  and  religious 
 tracts.  His  writings  are  characterized  by 
 great  research,  clear  arrangement,  and  per- 
 spicuity of  style.  He  died  at  Boston  in 
 1798. 
 
 Bell,  John,  an  eminent  surgeon  of 
 Edinburgh,  and  a  man  of  very  considera- 
 ble literary  talents,  died  at  Rome,  in  1820. 
 He  is  the  author  of  the  Anatomy  of  the 
 Human  Body;  Principles  of  Surgery 
 and  other  anatomical  and  surgical  works; 
 and  of  excellent  Observations  on  Italy. 
 
 BELLA,  Stefano  della,  an  emi- 
 nent Florentine  engraver,  born  in  1610, 
 was  for  a  considerable  time  employed  by 
 Cardinal  Richelieu,  to  engrave  the  con- 
 quests of  Louis  XIII. ;  and,  after  his  re- 
 turn home,  was  liberally  patronised  by  the 
 house  of  Medici.  His  death  took  place  in 
 1684.  The  number  of  his  plates  is  said  to 
 amount  to  one  thousand  four  hundred. 
 
 BELLARMIN,  Cardinal  Robert,  the 
 great  champion  of  the  Roman  catholic 
 church,  was  born,  in  1542,  at  Monte-Pul- 
 ciano,  in  Tuscany,  and  entered  the  Jesuits' 
 college  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  Such  an 
 idea  was  entertained  of  his  learning,  that  he 
 was  sent  into  the  Low  Countries  to  check 
 
BEL 
 
 the  progress  of  the  Reformers,  and  he  resi- 
 ded there  some  years.  In  1599,  he  was 
 created  cardinal,  and  in  1602,  archbishop 
 of  Capua.  He  died  in  1621.  His  great 
 work  is  intitled  a  Body  of  Controversy, 
 and  is  the  arsenal  from  which  the  catholic 
 theologians  generally  supply  themselves 
 with  their  polemical  weapons. 
 
 BELLAY,  Cardinal  John  du,  a  French 
 prelate  and  statesman,  was  born  in  1492. 
 Francis  I.  employed  him  in  several  nego- 
 tiations, raised  him  to  the  archbishopric 
 of  Bordeaux,  and  entrusted  him  with  the 
 defence  of  Paris,  when  Charles  V.  invaded 
 France.  Yet,  though  in  all  these  offices 
 he  displayed  high  talents,  he  was  slighted 
 after  the  death  of  Francis ;  and  he  accord- 
 ingly retired  to  Rome,  where,  in  1560,  lie 
 died  bishop  of  Ostia.  He  obtained  the 
 cardinal's  hat  in  1535.  Bellay  was  a 
 scholar  and  a  lover  of  learning.  He  in- 
 duced the  king  to  found  the  Royal  College 
 at  Paris ;  he  patronised  Rabelais ;  and  he 
 wrote  prose  and  verse,  in  Latin  and 
 French,  with  great  elegance. 
 
 BELLAY,  Joachim  du,  who  was  call- 
 ed the  French  Ovid  and  Catullus,  was 
 born  at  Lire,  in  Anjou,  about  1524,  and 
 died  in  1560.  He  was  a  nephew  of  the 
 cardinal,  but  lost  his  favour,  inconsequence 
 of  being  charged  with  immorality  and 
 irreligion.  Among  the  poets  of  that  day 
 he  was  considered  as  holding  the  next 
 place  to  Ronsard. 
 
 BELLEAU,  Remi,  a  French  poet,  so 
 celebrated  in  his  day  as  to  be  one  of  the 
 seven  poets  who  were  called  the  Pleiads, 
 was  born  at  Nogent  le  Rotrou,  in  1528, 
 served  under  the  Marquis  of  Elbeuf,  in 
 Italy,  and  was  appointed  tutor  to  his  son. 
 He  died  in  1577.  His  most  curious  pro- 
 duction is  a  macaronic  poem  on  the  war 
 against  the  Huguenots. 
 
 BELLEISLE,  Charles  Louis  Au- 
 gustus FouquET,  Count  de,  a  French 
 marshal,  was  born  in  1684,  entered  early 
 into  the  army,  and  distinguished  himself 
 on  various  occasions.  In  1742,  he  com- 
 manded in  Bohemia,  and  acquired  high 
 reputation  by  his  masterly  retreat  from 
 Prague.  In  1757,  he  was  appointed  war 
 minister,  and  till  his  decease,  which  hap- 
 pened in  1761,  he  possessed  great  influence 
 in  the  council. 
 
 BELLENDEN,  or  BELLENDENUS, 
 William,  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in  the 
 latter  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was 
 educated  at  Paris,  and  was  professor  of 
 belles  lettres  there,  in  1602.  The  time  of 
 his  death  is  unknown.  He  is  the  author 
 of  three  Latin  tracts,  elegantly  written, 
 which  he  collected  into  a  volume  in  1616, 
 and  published  under  the  title  of  Bellen- 
 denus  de  Statu.  To  this  work  Dr.  Mid- 
 dleton  is  supposed  to  be  considerably  in- 
 debted     It  was  republished,  in  1787,  with 
 
 BEL 
 
 79 
 
 a  Latin  preface  by  Dr.  Parr,  which  ex- 
 cited much  attention,  from  its  reference  to 
 the  political  characters  of  that  period. 
 
 BELLOY,  Peter  Laurence  Bur- 
 ette de,  a  French  dramatic  writer,  and 
 member  of  the  Acadamy,  was  born  at  St. 
 Flour,  in  1727.  Being  destined  by  his 
 uncle  to  the  profession  of  the  law,  which 
 he  detested,  he  eloped,  and  for  some  years 
 was  an  actor  in  the  theatres  of  the  north 
 of  Europe.  This  step  made  his  uncle  a 
 determined  enemy.  After  the  death  of 
 that  relative,  he  returned  to  France,  and 
 acquired  reputation  as  a  writer  of  tragedy. 
 He  produced  the  Siege  of  Calais,  which 
 was  extremely  popular;  Titus;  Zelmira; 
 Gaston  and  Bayard ;  Gabrielle  de  Vergv  ; 
 and  Peter  the  Cruel.  The  failure  of  the 
 latter  play  is  said  to  have  brought  on  an 
 illness,  of  which  he  died  in  1775. 
 
 BELOE,  William,  a  divine  and  critic, 
 was  born  at  Norwich,  in  1756  and  educa- 
 ted at  Cambridge.  After  having  been  as- 
 sistant to  Dr.  Parr,  who  was  then  head 
 master  of  Norwich  school,  he  took  orders, 
 and  obtained  church  preferment.  He  was, 
 Anally,  rector  of  Allhallows,  a  prebendary 
 of  St.  Paul's,  and  librarian  of  the  British 
 Museum.  The  latter  situation,  however, 
 he  lost,  in  consequence  of  a  visitor  to  the 
 Museum  having  pmloined  some  valuable 
 prints.  In  conjunction  with  Dr.  Nares, 
 he  established  the  British  Critic.  He  is 
 the  author  of  Anecdotes  of  Literature  and 
 Scarce  Books;  the  Sexagenarian;  and 
 other  works;  and  the  translator  of  Hero- 
 dotus and  Aldus  Gellius.     He  died  in  1817. 
 
 BELON,  Peter,  an  eminent  French 
 naturalist  and  physician  of  the  sixteenth 
 century,  was  born  in  Maine,  about  1518, 
 travelled  into  Palestine,  Greece,  Arabia, 
 and  England;  published,  in  1553,  a  very 
 interesting  account  of  his  travels  ;  and  was 
 assassinated  in  1564.  He  is  the  author  of 
 several  valuable  works  on  natural  history, 
 particularly  on  fishes.  Belon  is  considered 
 as  the  inventor  of  comparative  anatomy, 
 and  one  of  the  founders  of  natural  historv. 
 
 BELSHAM,  William,  an  historical, 
 political,  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was 
 born  in  1752,  and  died  in  1827.  He  is 
 the  author  of  many  productions,  of  which 
 the  principal  are  Essays,  Philosophical, 
 Historical,and  Literary,  published  in  1785 ; 
 and  a  history  of  Great  Britain,  from  the 
 Revolution  to  the  Peace  of  Amiens.  Little 
 can  be  said  in  favour  of  him  as  an  historian. 
 
 BELSUNCE  DE  CASTLE  MORON, 
 Henry  Francis  Xavier  de,  a  virtu- 
 ous and  humane  French  prelate,  was  born 
 in  1671,  at  the  castle  of  La  Force,  in  Per- 
 igord.  In  1709,  he  was  made  bishop  of 
 Marseilles,  and  when  that  city  was  visited 
 by  the  plague,  in  1720,  instead  of  desert- 
 ing his  flock,  he  hourly  hazarded  his  life  to 
 afford  them  succour  and  consolation.     As 
 
80 
 
 BEN 
 
 a  reward,  he  was  offered  the  rich  bishopric 
 of  Laon,  which  conferred  the  title  of  duke ; 
 out  he  replied,  that  "he  would  not  quit  a 
 church  to  which  he  had  devoted  his  life." 
 A  college  was  founded  by  him  in  his  epis- 
 copal city.  This  exemplary  pastor,  who 
 died  in  1755,  wrote  a  History  of  the  Bish- 
 ops of  his  Diocese;  Pastoral  Instructions; 
 and  the  Life  of  Mademoiselle  de  Foix. 
 
 BELZONI,  John  Baptist,  one  of  the 
 
 most  eminent  travellers  in  Egypt,  was 
 burn  at  Padua,  in  Italy,  came  to  England 
 in  1803,  and  resided  in  this  country  for 
 nine  years.  Being  involved  in  pecuniary 
 difficulties,  he  for  a  while  obtained  a  sub- 
 sidence by  displaying  feats  of  strength  and 
 activity  at  Astley's  Amphitheatre;  for 
 which  his  colossal  stature  and  muscular 
 powers  particularly  qualified  him.  From 
 1815  to  1S19  he  was  incessantly  occupied 
 in  exploring  and  bringing  to  light  the  an- 
 tiquities of  Egypt.  The  talent  which  he 
 displayed,  and  the  success  which  he  met 
 with,  in  this  pursuit,  are.  extraordinary. 
 Few  men,  indeed,  could  have  accomplished 
 as  much  as  Bel/.oni.  In  1820,  he  published 
 a  Narrative  of  his  Operations,  quarto,  with 
 forty-four  illustrative  plates;  and,  in  the 
 following  year,  he  exhibited  a  model  of  a 
 splendid  tomb  which  he  had  discovered 
 near  Thebes.  In  1823,  he  sailed  to  the 
 coast  of  Guinea,  with  the  intention  of  pene- 
 trating to  Houssa  and  Timbuctoo;  but,  on 
 the  third  of  December,  his  career  was,  un- 
 fortunately, arrested  by  the  hand  of  death. 
 He  died,  of  the  dysentery,  at  Benin. 
 
 BEMBO,  Peter,  a  cardinal  and  noble 
 Venetian,  one  of  the  restorers  of  literature, 
 was  born  at  Venice  in  1470,  studied  under 
 Urticio  and  Lascaris,  and  completed  his 
 education  at  Padua.  In  his  twenty -eighth 
 year  he  published  his  poem  of  Azal'ini, 
 which  gained  much  popularity.  After  hav- 
 ing lived  six  years  at  the  court  of  Urbino, 
 he  went  to  Rome  in  1512.  Leo  X.  made 
 him  his  sccretarv;  and  Paul  III.  created 
 him  a  cardinal  and  bishop  of  Gubbio.  He 
 died  in  1547.  His  works  form  four  folio 
 volumes;  the  principal  of  them  is  his  His- 
 tory of  Venice 
 
 BENBOW,  John,    a  gallant  English 
 
 BEN 
 
 admiral,  was  born  at  Shrewsbury,  about 
 1650,  began  his  career  in  the  merchants* 
 service,  and  was  promoted  to  a  sloop  of 
 war,  by  James  II.,  for  his  conduct  in  ar. 
 action  with  an  Algerine  rover.  During 
 the  reign  of  William  III.  he  was  actively 
 employed,  and  raised  to  the  rank  of  vice 
 admiral.  In  1702,  he  brought  the  French 
 admiral  Ducasse  to  action  in  the  West 
 Indies,  displayed  admirable  bravery  and 
 skill,  and  would  have  obtained  a  complete 
 victory,  but  for  the  cowardice  or  disaffec- 
 tion of  some  of  his  captains.  One  of  his 
 legs  was  shot  away  in  the  engagement ;  but 
 he  would  probably  have  recovered,  had  not 
 his  wounded  feelings  aggravated  his  bodily 
 sufferings.     He  died  at  Jamaica. 
 
 BENEDICT,  St.,  one  of  the  origina- 
 tors of  monastic  institutions  in  the  west, 
 was  born  at  Nursia,  in  Italy,  in  480.  Early 
 in  life,  he  retired  into  a  desert,  and  spent 
 three  years  in  a  cavern.  Being  discovered, 
 his  sanctity  drew  to  him  such  numbers  of 
 people,  that  he  founded  twelve  convents. 
 In  529,  he  went  to  Monte  Cassino,  built  a 
 monastery  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of 
 Apollo,  gave  rise  to  the  Benedictine  order, 
 and  died  in  543  or  547. 
 
 BENEDICT  Xin.,  Pope,  a  son  of  the 
 duke  of  Gravina,  a  Neapolitan  nobleman, 
 was  born  in  1649,  and  was  raised  to  the 
 papal  chair  in  1724.  He  was  pious,  vir- 
 tuous, and  liberal;  but,  unfortunately, 
 placed  too  much  confidence  in  Cardinal 
 Coscia,  his  minister,  who  shamefully  op- 
 pressed die  people.  A  fruitless  attempt 
 which  he  made  to  reconcile  the  Romish, 
 Greek,  Lutheran,  and  Calvinist  churches, 
 bears  honourable  testimony  to  his  tolerant 
 spirit.  His  theological  works  form  three 
 folio  volumes.     He  died  in  1730. 
 
 BENEDICT  XIV.,  Pope,  whose  name 
 was  Prosper  Lameertini,  was  of  an 
 illustrious  family  at  Bologna,  in  which  city 
 he  was  born,  in  1675.  After  having  been 
 bishop  of  Ancona,  and  archbishop  of  Bo- 
 logna, he  was  elected  pope  in  1740.  He 
 protected  the  arts  and  sciences,  endeavour- 
 ed to  heal  the  dissentions  and  reform  the 
 discipline  of  the  church;  and  displayed  such 
 a  liberal  spirit,  that  he  was  sometimes  call- 
 ed the  Protestant  Pope.  In  private  life 
 he  was  extremely  amiable.  He  died  in 
 1758.  His  works  fill  sixteen  volumes  in 
 folio. 
 
 BENEZET,  St.,  or  Little  Benedict,  so 
 called  on  account  of  his  shortness,  was  a 
 native  ofVivarais,  born  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
 tury, and  is  said  to  have  been  originally  a 
 shepherd.  Many  accidents  occurring  at 
 the  passage  of  the  Rhone,  at  Avignon,  he 
 meditated  on  them  till  he  imagined  himself 
 inspired  by  Heaven  to  procure  the  erection 
 of  a  bridge  there;  and  he  succeeded  in  ac- 
 complishing his  project.  The  bridge  was 
 begun  in  1177,  and  he  superintended  the  e*» 
 
BEN 
 
 eeution  of  it  till  his  death  in  1184 ;  for  which 
 good  work  he  was  sainted. 
 
 BENEZET,  Anthony,  a  philanthro- 
 pist, was  born  in  1713,  at  St.  Quentin,  in 
 Picardy,  of  protestaat  parents,  who  first 
 settled  in  London,  and  afterwards  at  Phil- 
 adelphia. He  was  intended  for  a  mer- 
 chant, but  apprenticed  himself  to  a  cooper, 
 and  subsequently  became  a  schoolmaster, 
 and  a  member  of  the  society  of  Friends. 
 His  whole  life  was  spent  in  acts  of  benevo- 
 lence, and  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  oppo- 
 nents of  the  atrocious  slave  trade.  A  few 
 hours  before  his  death,  he  rose  from  his 
 bed,  to  give,  from  his  bureau,  six  dollars 
 to  a  poor  widow.  His  funeral  was  attend- 
 ed by  thousands;  and  at  the  grave,  an 
 American  officer  exclaimed,  "  I  would 
 rather  be  Anthony  Benezet  in  that  coffin, 
 than  George  Washington  with  all  his  fame." 
 Benezet  died  at  Philadelphia  in  1784.  He 
 is  the  author  of  a  Caution  to  Great  Britain 
 and  her  colonies;  and  an  Historical  Ac- 
 count of  Guinea. 
 
 BENGER,  Elizabeth  OGiLVY/was 
 born  at  Welles,  in  1778,  and  had  to  strug- 
 gle with  many  difficulties  in  early  life.  So 
 few  books  could  she  procure,  that  she  used 
 to  read  the  open  pages  of  the  new  publica- 
 tions in  the  window  of  the  only  booksel- 
 ler's shop  in  the  little  town  which  she  in- 
 habited, in  Wiltshire,  and  return,  day 
 after  day,  in  the  hope  of  finding  another 
 page  turned  over.  She,  nevertheless,  ac- 
 quired a  respectable  portion  of  learning. 
 On  her  removal  to  London,  she  obtained 
 reputable  literary  friends  and  patronage, 
 and  was  generally  esteemed  for  her  virtues, 
 manners,  and  talents.  She  died  January 
 tlie  9th,  1827.  Besides  a  drama,  two 
 novels,  and  poems,  she  wrote  Memoirs  of 
 Mrs.  Hamilton,Tobin,  and  Klopstock ;  and 
 Lives  of  Anne  Boleyn,  Mary  Queen  of 
 Scots,  the  Queen  of  Bohemia,  and  Henry 
 IV.  of  France. 
 
 BENJAMIN  OF  TUDELA,  a  Jewish 
 rabbi,  was  born  about  the  middle  of  the 
 twelfth  century,  at  Tudela,  in  Navarre. 
 Little  more  is  known  of  his  life  than  that 
 he  travelled  with  the  design  of  visiting  all 
 the  European  synagogues.  His  Itinerary, 
 written  in  Hebrew,  did  not  see  the  light 
 till  1543,  when  it  appeared  at  Constanti- 
 nople. Baraiier  translated  it  into  French, 
 and  wrote  a  dissertation  to  prove  that  it  is 
 a  compilation,  and  not  the  narrative  of  a 
 real  journey. 
 
 BENNITSKI,  Alexander  Petro- 
 vitsch,  a  Russian  poet,  who  died  in  1808, 
 at  the  age  of  twenty-eight,  is  the  author  of 
 a  variety  of  tales,  fables, and  other  pieces; 
 among  which  may  be  mentioned  Ibrahim, 
 or  the  Generous  Man,  a  tale;  Komala,  a 
 poem;   and  a  translation  of  Ossian. 
 
 BENSERADE,  Isaac,  a  French  wit 
 and  poet,  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
 4| 
 
 BEN 
 
 81 
 
 emy,  was  born  in  1612,  at  Lyons  le  Foret. 
 in  Normandy.  He  was  patronised  first  by 
 Richelieu,  and  afterwards  by  Mazarine  and 
 Louis  XIV.,  and  was  a  great  favourite  ai 
 court,  in  consequence  of  his  conversational 
 powers.,  his  readiness  of  repartee,  and  the 
 facility  with  which  he  composed  verses  foi 
 the  court  ballets.  In  his  later  years  his 
 popularity  declined.  He  died  in  16.91.  His 
 works  consist  of  poems,  theatrical  pieces, 
 and  Ovid's  Metamorphoses  put  into  Ron- 
 deaux.  His  famous  Sonnet  on  Job,  and 
 that  of  Voiture  on  Urasia,  divided  the 
 courtiers  into  two  parties,  under  the  title 
 of  Jobelins  and  Uranians. 
 
 BENTHAM,  James,  an  antiquary,  was 
 born  at  Ely,  in  1706,  was  educated  at 
 Cambridge,  and  obtained  several  church 
 preferments ;  the  last  of  which  were  a  pre- 
 bend of  Ely  and  the  rectory  of  Bow-Brick- 
 hill.  In  1771,  he  published  the  History 
 and  Antiquities  of  Ely  Cathedral,  a  work 
 which  displays  great  knowledge  of  ancient 
 architecture.     He  died  in  1794. 
 
 BENTIVOGLIO,  Hercules,  born  at 
 Bologna,  in  1506,  was  patronised  by  tin 
 duke  of  Ferrara,  and  was  eminent  as  a  ne- 
 gotiator and  a  poet.  He  died  in  1583.  His 
 works  consist  of  poems  and  two  comedies. 
 
 BENTIVOGLIO,  Cardinal  Guy,  was 
 born  at  Ferrara,  in  1579,  was  successively 
 legate  in  Flanders  and  in  France,  obtained 
 the  cardinal's  hat  in  1621,  and  Avould  pro- 
 bably have  been  pope,  in  1644,  had  he  not 
 died  while  the  conclave  was  sitting.  He 
 is  the  author  of  several  works  of  merit; 
 the  principal  of  which  is  a  History  of  the 
 War  in  Flanders. 
 
 BENTIVOGLIO,Hippolytus,  born  at 
 Ferrara,  in  the  latter  end  of  the  sixteenth 
 century,  was  a  man  of  varied  accomplish- 
 ments, and  eminent  as  a  dramatic  and 
 lyric  poet.  Among  his  dramas  may  be 
 mentioned,  Annibal  at  Capua,  and  Achilles 
 at  Scyros.  His  son  Cornelius,  who 
 was  born  in  1668,  and  died  in  1739,  was 
 also  a  poet,  and  attained  the  dignity  of 
 cardinal.     He  translated  Statius. 
 
 BEJNTLEY,  Richard,  one  of  the  most 
 eminent  of  English  cwtics  and  scholars, 
 was  born,  in  1662,  at  Oulton,  near  Wake- 
 
82 
 
 BEN 
 
 field,  in  Yorkshire,  and  was  educated  at  I 
 St.  John's  College, Cambridge.  He  took  his 
 degree  of  M.  A.  at  that  university  in  1684,  i 
 and  at  Oxford  in  1689.  Stillingfleet,  bishop  [ 
 of  Worcester,  to  whose  son  he  had  been  | 
 tutor,  made  him  his  chaplain,  and,  in  1692, 
 gave  him  a  prebend  in  his  cathedral.  In 
 1693,  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  royal 
 library  at  St.  James's,  and  in  1694,  he 
 published  his  Discourses  against  Atheism, 
 which  he  had  delivered  as  preacher  of  the 
 lectures  instituted  by  Boyle.  Having  de- 
 nied the  genuineness  of  the  Epistles  o( 
 Phalaris,  he  was  engaged  in  a  warm  con- 
 troversy with  all  the  leading  wits  of  the 
 age.  His  antagonists  claimed  a  triumph, 
 hut  posterity  has  decreed  in  his  favour. 
 In  1700,  he  was  appointed  master  of  Trin- 
 ity College,  Cambridge;  but  this  prefer- 
 ment was  not  a  bed  of  roses;  it  involved 
 him  in  disputes  with  the  vice-master  and 
 some  of  the  fellows,  which  ended  in  a  law- 
 suit of  twenty  years'  duration.  In  1717, 
 a  demand  which  he  made  of  fees,  brought 
 on  him  another  litigation,  and  he  was  even 
 degraded  from  his  offices  in  the  university. 
 After  a  struggle  of  eleven  years,  however, 
 the  court  of  king's  bench  decreed  in  his 
 favour.  Thenceforth,  he  enjoyed  his  col- 
 lege honours  and  emoluments  in  quiet,  till 
 lis  death,  in  1742.  His  editions  of  Horace, 
 Terence,  and  Phsedrus ;  his  Annotations 
 on  Aristophanes;  his  Notes  on  Menander; 
 and  his  Dissertation  on  the  Epistles  of 
 Phalaris,  establish  his  character  as  a  pro- 
 found scholar.  His  edition  of  Paradise 
 Lost,  with  conjectural  emendations,  is,  on 
 the  contrarv,  a  decided  failure. 
 
 BENTLEY,  Richard,  the  only  son  of 
 Dr.  Bentley,  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
 lege, by  his  father.  He  was  a  man  of  ele- 
 gant talents,  but  imprudent,  and  conse- 
 quently often  embarrassed.  At  length,  he 
 obtained  a  small  place  and  a  pension,  which 
 gave  comfort  to  his  latter  days.  He  died 
 in  1782.  Bentley  is  the  author  of  three 
 plays,  Philodamus,  the  Prophet,  and  the 
 Wishes;  and  of  Patriotism,  a  satirical 
 poem. 
 
 BENYOWSKY,  Maurice  Augus- 
 tus, Count  de,  a  native  of  Hungary,  bom 
 in  1741,  was  a  nobleman  of  that  kingdom 
 and  of  Poland.  Having  joined  the  Polish 
 confederacy  against  the  infamous  ambition 
 of  Russia,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  ban- 
 ishedto  Kamtschatka.  The  governor  there 
 employed  him  as  tutor  to  Ids  daughters, 
 and  Benvowsky  gained  the  affection  of  one 
 of  them.  By  means  of  a  conspiracy  among 
 the  exiles,  ne  overpowered  the  military, 
 and  made  his  escape  in  a  vessel  with  his 
 companions  and  his  mistress.  .After  many 
 romantic  adventures,  he  was  at  last  slain 
 by  the  French,  in  1786,  while  he  was  en- 
 deavouring to  establish  an  independent 
 sovereignty  in  the  island  of  Madagascar. 
 
 BER 
 
 BERAUD,  Laurence,  a  native  of  Lv» 
 ons,  born  in  1703,  belonged  to  the  society 
 of  Jesuits,  and  was  eminent  as  an  astrono- 
 mer, meteorologist,  and  natural  philoso- 
 pher. Lalande,  Montucla,  and  other  cele- 
 brated men,  were  his  pupils.  He  died  in 
 1777. 
 
 BERENGER,  or,  BERENGARIUS, 
 archdeacon  of  Angers,  was  born  at  Tours, 
 at  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century, 
 and  was  a  disciple  of  Fulbert  of  Chartres. 
 He  died  in  1088.  His  disbelief  of  the  doc- 
 trine of  transubstantiation  drew  down  upon 
 him  much  persecution;  he  was  excommu- 
 nicated, and  deprived  of  his  benefices; 
 but  he  at  length  conformed  to  the  tenets  of 
 the  church. 
 
 BERENGER,  James,  a  physician  and 
 anatomist  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was 
 born  at  Carpi,  in  Italy,  and  is  often  called 
 by  the  name  of  his  birthplace.  He  was 
 one  of  the  first  who  practised  dissection  to 
 a  considerable  extent,  and  he  made  several 
 important  anatomical  discoveries.  Beren- 
 ger  was  almost  among  the  earliest  of  those 
 who  employed  mercury  in  cases  of  lues. 
 He  died,  in  1550,  at  Ferrara. 
 
 BERENICE.  The  name  of  several  fe- 
 males, most  of  them  Egyptian  princesses. 
 The  most  celebrated  of  them  was  the 
 daughter  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  who 
 married  her  brother  Euergetes.  Being 
 passionately  attached  to  him,  she  made  a 
 vow  to  consecrate  her  beautiful  locks  to 
 Venus,  in  case  of  his  safe  return  from  a 
 dangerous  expedition.  He  came  home  un- 
 hurt, and  she  performed  her  vow.  Conon, 
 the  astronomer,  published  that  they  had 
 been  placed  among  the  stars,  and  he  gave 
 to  a  constellation  the  name  of  Berenice's 
 hair,  which  it  still  retains.  She  was  put 
 to  death,  by  her  own  son,  B.C.  221. 
 
 BERENICIUS,  a  strange  character, 
 whose  name  and  country  are  unknown. 
 He  appeared  in  Holland  in  1670,  and  gain- 
 ed a  livelihood  by  sweeping  chimneys  and 
 grinding  knives.  But,  notwithstanding  the 
 lowness  of  his  occupation,  he  was  a  man 
 of  genius  and  extensive  learning.  He  could 
 turn  a  Flemish  conversation  into  extempore 
 Latin  verse,  and  a  newspaper  into  Latin  or 
 Greek.  He  was  at  last  smothered  in  a 
 bog  while  drunk.  The  Georgarchonioma- 
 chia  is  attributed  to  him. 
 
 BEKGERAC,  Savinian  Cyrano 
 DE,  was  born  about  1620,  at  the  castle  of 
 Bergerac,  in  Perigord,  received  but  an  in- 
 different education,  and  obtained  a  com- 
 mission in  the  army.  He  was  equally 
 brave  and  quarrelsome;  being  perpetually 
 engaged  in  duels,  cither  as  principal  or 
 second.  His  nose  was  exceedingly  deform- 
 ed, and  whoever  looked  at  it  was  sure  to 
 be  called  into  the  field.  Having  received 
 two  severe  wounds  in  war,  he  retired  from 
 the  army,  and  amused  himself  with  litera- 
 
BER 
 
 ture.  He  is  the  author  of  Agrippina,  a 
 tragedy ;  the  Pedant  Tricked,  a  comedy ; 
 a  Journey  in  the  Moon;  and  a  Comic  His- 
 tory of  the  States  and  Empires  of  the  Sun. 
 Moliere,  Fontenelle,  Swift,  and  Voltaire, 
 are  supposed  to  have  borrowed  some  ideas 
 from  him.     He  died  in  1655. 
 
 BERGHEM,  or  BERCHEM,  Nicho- 
 las, one  of  the  most  celebrated  Flemish 
 landscape  painters,  was  born  at  Haarlem, 
 in  1624,  and  died  in  1683.  It  has  justly 
 been  observed  of  him,  that  he  painted 
 every  part  of  his  subjects  so  extremely  well, 
 as  to  render  it  difficult  to  determine  in 
 which  he  excelled.  Of  so  cheerful  a  tem- 
 per was  he  that  he  always  sang  when  he 
 worked;  and  he  was  an  indefatigable  art- 
 ist. Berghem  also  executed  some  etchings. 
 
 BERGMANN,  Sir  Torbern,  a  na- 
 tive of  Sweden,  was  born  in  West  Goth- 
 land, in  1735,  and  died  in  17S4.  He  was 
 professor  of  chemistry  at  Upsal,  and  a 
 member  of  nearly  all  the  learned  societies 
 in  Europe.  His  knowledge  was  extensive 
 in  mathematics,  natural  history,  and  vari- 
 ous branches  of  science ;  but  it  is  to  his 
 chemical  labours  that  he  is  indebted  fur  his 
 fame.  The  laws  of  elective  attraction,  or 
 chemical  affinity,  formed  a  prominent  ob- 
 ject of  his  successful  researches;  in  analy- 
 sis he  particularly  excelled ;  and  some  of 
 the  mineral  acids  were  discovered  by  him. 
 
 BERING,  BEERING,  or  BEHRING, 
 Vitus,  a  Danish  navigator,  who,  in  1704, 
 entered  into  the  service  of  Russia,  under 
 Peter  the  Great,  and  distinguished  himself 
 against  the  Swedes.  In  1728,  1729,  and 
 1741,  he  was  employed  in  voyages  of  dis- 
 covery on  the  coast  of  Asia  and  America, 
 and  in  his  last  voyage  was  shipwrecked, 
 and  died  on  an  island  which  has  been 
 named  from  him.  The  name  of  Bering 
 was  given  by  Captain  Cook  to  the  strait 
 which  divides  Asia  from  America. 
 
 BERKELEY,  George,  an  eminent 
 prelate  and  metaphysical  philosopher,  to 
 whom  Pope,  with  little  of  poetical  exagger- 
 ation, has  attributed  "  every  virtue  under 
 heaven,"  was  born  at  Kiterin,  near  Thom- 
 as Town,  in  Ireland,  in  1684.  He  was 
 educated  at  Kilkenny  school  and  at  Trinity 
 College,  Dublin.  In  England,  he  became 
 acquainted  with,  and  beloved  by,  Pope, 
 Swift,  Addison,  and  all  the  other  wits  and 
 great  men  of  the  age.  The  duke  of  Graf- 
 ton, on  being  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of 
 Ireland,  made  him  one  of  his  chaplains, 
 and  in  1724  Berkeley  obtained  the  deanery 
 of  Derry.  In  1728  he  sailed  to  America, 
 for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  missiona- 
 ry college,  for  the  conversion  of  the  In- 
 dians ;  but,  after  he  had  resided  two  years 
 there,  the  scheme  was  frustrated,  by  Sir 
 Robert  Walpole  withholding  the  funds 
 which  were  necessary.  In  1733,  Berkeley 
 was  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Cloyne, 
 
 BER 
 
 83 
 
 and  though  he  was  subsequently  offered  a 
 see  of  twice  the  value,  he  refused  to  give 
 up  his  flock.  He  died  suddenly,  in  Janu- 
 ary, 1753.  His  works  have  been  collected 
 in  three  quarto  volumes.  It  is  in  the  Prin- 
 ciples of  Human  Knowledge,  and  the  Dia- 
 logues between  Hylas  and  Philonous,  that 
 he  developes  his  curious  theory  of  the  non- 
 existence of  matter. 
 
 BERKLEY,  Sir  William,  a  native 
 of  London,  educated  at  Merton  College, 
 Oxford,  and  for  many  years  governor  of 
 the  province  of  Virginia.  He  made  a  col- 
 lection of  the  laws  of  the  provinces ;  pub- 
 lished an  account  of  the  country,  in  folio ; 
 and  was  also  the  author  of  a  tragi -comedy 
 called  The  Lost  Lady.  He  returned  to 
 England  and  died  in  1677. 
 
 BERKENHOUT,  John,  a  physician 
 and  literary  character,  born  at  Leeds,  Mas 
 the  son  of  a  Dutch  merchant,  and,  after 
 having  served  in  the  Prussian  and  English 
 military  service,  studied  physic  at  Edin- 
 burgh, and  took  his  degree  at  Leyden.  He 
 went  to  America  with  the  British  commis- 
 sioners in  1778,  and  on  his  return  received 
 a  pension.  He  died,  aged  about  sixty,  in 
 1791.  He  is  the  author  of  various  works, 
 among  which  may  be  mentioned  Biographia 
 Literaria;  a  continuation  of  Campbell's 
 Lives  of  the  Admirals ;  and  outlines  of  the 
 Natural  History  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
 land. 
 
 BERNARD  OF  MENTHON,  arch- 
 deacon of  Aosta,  was  born  in  923,  near 
 Annecy,  in  Savoy,  and  was  celebrated 
 among  his  contemporaries  for  his  learning 
 and  piety ;  but  his  claims  to  the  notice  of 
 later  ages  rest  on  his  having  been  the  be- 
 nevolent founder  of  the  two  admirable  in- 
 stitutions on  the  Great  and  Little  Saint 
 Bernard,  by  means  of  which  the  lives  of  so 
 many  travellers  have  been  saved.  He  died 
 in  1008. 
 
 BERNARD  OF  THURINGIA,  a  fa- 
 natical hermit  of  the  tenth  century,  who 
 threw  almost  all  Europe  into  consternation, 
 by  preaching  that  the  end  of  the  world  was 
 at  hand.  Multitudes  relinquished  their  oc- 
 cupations, and  became  pilgrims;  and  oth- 
 ers were  so  frightened  at  an  eclipse  of  the 
 sun,  which  then  occurred,  that  they  hid 
 themselves  in  caverns  and  holes  in  the 
 rocks.  The  terror  spread  by  this  man  was 
 not  wholly  removed  till  towards  the  end 
 of  the  eleventh  century. 
 
 BERNARD,  St.,  the  first  abbot  of 
 Clairvaux,  was  born  at  Fontaine,  in  Bur- 
 gundy, in  1091,  of  noble  parents.  All 
 ecclesiastical  dignities  he  constantly  refus- 
 ed ;  but  his  virtues  and  talents  gained  him 
 a  higher  influence  in  the  christian  world 
 than  was  possessed  even  by  the  pope  him- 
 self, and  the  disputes  of  the  church  were 
 often  referred  to  his  arbitration.  His  elo- 
 1  quence   was    powerfully   displayed   in  the 
 
84  BER 
 
 multitudes  that  he  induced  to  assume  the 
 characters  of  crusaders.  He  died  in  1153. 
 There  are  editions  of  his  works  in  six  vol- 
 umes, and.  in  two  volumes,  folio. 
 
 BERNARD,  Claude,  a  native  of  Di- 
 jon, horn  in  15SS,  who  assumed  the  title 
 of  "  the  poor  priest,"  is  worthy  of  com- 
 memoration for  his  ardent  and  persevering 
 charity.  His  whole  life  was  devoted  to 
 assisting  the  poor,  attending  the  sick  in 
 the  hospitals,  and  preparing  criminals  for 
 death.  For  these  purposes  he  not  only  soli- 
 cited benefactions  from  the  rich,  but  sold  his 
 own  inheritance,  which  was  worth  nearly 
 twenty  thousand  pounds.    He  died  in  1641. 
 
 BERNARD,  Edward,  a  divine  and 
 mathematician,  was  born,  in  1638,  at  Paul- 
 er's  Perry,  in  Northamptonshire,  and  was 
 educated  at  Merchant  Tailors  School  and 
 at  Oxford.  In  1673,  he  succeeded  Sir 
 Christopher  Wren,  as  Savilian  professor 
 of  astronomy.  Ho  died  in  1696.  Among 
 his  works  are,  some  astronomical  papers  in 
 the  Philosophical  Transactions;  a  Treat- 
 ise of  the  Ancient  Weights  and  Measures; 
 Private  Devotions ;  and  Etymologicum 
 Britannicum. 
 
 BERNARD,  James,  was  born  at  Ny- 
 Ofis,  in  Dauphinc,  and  educated  at  Geneva, 
 lie  afterwards  settled  in  Holland.  He  con- 
 tinued l^e  Caere's  Universal  Library,  and 
 Bayle's  Intelligence  of  the  Republic  of 
 Letters,  and  published  several  works,  one 
 of  which  was  a.  Supplement  to  Moreri.  He 
 died  at  LeydejB,  in  1718,  at  the  age  of  sixty. 
 
 BERNARD,  John  Frederic, abook- 
 seller  of  Amsterdam,  at  the  beginning  of 
 the  eighteenth  century,  Avas  a  man  of  talent 
 and  learning,  and  the  author  and  editor  of 
 several  works,  among  which  may  be  men- 
 tioned a  Collection  of  Voyages  to  the 
 North;  Memoirs  of  Count  de  Brienne; 
 Religious  Ceremonies  and  Customs  of  all 
 Nations,  in  nine  folio  volumes;  and  An- 
 cient and  Modern  Superstitions,  in  two  vol- 
 umes folio.     He  died  about  1751. 
 
 BERNARD, Peter  Joseph, a  French 
 poet,  the  son  of  a  sculptor,  was  born,  in 
 1710,  at  Grenoble,  was  taken  into  Italy, 
 by  the  marquis  de  Pezay,  in  1734,  and 
 fought  at  the  battles  of  Parma  and  (Juas- 
 talla,  and  was  subsequently  patronised  by 
 the  marshal  de  Coigny,  on  the  express  con- 
 dition of  his  not  making  verses.  On  the 
 death  of  the  marshal,  Bernard  devoted 
 himself  to  society  and  to  the  Muses.  His 
 conversation  being  delightful,  his  eouipanv 
 was  eagerly  sought.  In  the  latter  part  of 
 his  life,  he  sunk  into  a  state  of  mental  im- 
 becility. His  poems  are  elegant  but  vo- 
 luptuous. Among  his  principal  works  are 
 the  Art  of  Love;  Phrosine  and  Melidor; 
 and  the  opera  of  Castor  and  Pollux.  Vol- 
 taire styled  him  le  gentil  Bernard,  and  the 
 epithet  remains  attached  to  his  name.  He 
 died  in  1775. 
 
 BER 
 
 BERNARD,  Sir  Thomas,  a  philan- 
 thropist and  scholar,  was  born  at  Lincoln, 
 in  1759.  He  received  his  education  at 
 Harvard  College  in  New-England,  and  on 
 his  return  to  his  native  country  became  a 
 student  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  was  the  pro- 
 jector of  the  Society  for  bettering  the  Con- 
 dition of  the  Poor,  and  an  active  promoter 
 of  many  other  charities.  He  died  at  Lea- 
 mington Spa,  in  1818.  Besides  various 
 pamphlets,  he  is  the  author  of  Spurina,  or 
 the  Comforts  of  Old  Age. 
 
 BERNARDEZ,  Diego,  a  poet,  born 
 in  the  province  of  Entre  Minho  e  Douro, 
 who  died  in  1596,  is  denominated  the  Por- 
 tuguese Theocritus  by  his  countrymen. 
 His  pastoral  poems,  under  the  title  of  the 
 Lyma  (the  name  of  a  river),  appeared  at 
 Lisbon  on  the  year  of  his  decease,  and 
 have  passed  through  numerous  editions. 
 He  succeeded  also  in  other  kinds  of  poe- 
 try. Bernardez  was  a  warrior  as  well  as 
 a  poet ;  and,  after  having  fought  with  chiv- 
 alric  bravery,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
 Moors  at  the  fatal  battle  of  Alcazarquivir. 
 
 BERNARDIN  DE  SAINT-PIERRE, 
 James  Henry,  was  born  at  Havre,  in 
 1737,  and  is  said  to  have  been  a  descendant 
 of  the  celebrated  Eustace  de  St.  Pierre, 
 tl»e  patriotic  mayor  of  Calais.  At  the  age 
 of  twenty  he  entered  into  the  engineer  ser- 
 vice; and  he  successively  served  at  Malta, 
 in  Russia,  and  in  Poland.  On  his  revisit- 
 ing his  native  country,  he  obtained  a  cap- 
 tain's commission  in  the  engineer  corps, 
 and  was  sent  to  the  Isle  of  France,  from 
 whence,  however,  after  a  residence  of  three 
 years,  he  returned,  with  no  other  fortune 
 than  a  collection  of  shells  and  insects,  and 
 a  narrative  of  his  voyage.  The  latter, 
 which  was  his  first  literary  effort,  was 
 published,  in  1773;  and  he,  thenceforth, 
 devoted  himslf  to  literature.  His  Studies 
 of  Nature  appeared  in  17S4,  and  passed 
 rapidly  through  several  editions.  Paul 
 and  Virginia  was  published  in  17S8,  and 
 this  delightful  tale  acquired  an  unprece- 
 dented popularity,  and  set  the  seal  on  his 
 reputation.  During  the  reign  of  terror,  he 
 narrowly  escaped  the  scaffold.  From  Na- 
 poleon and  his  brother  Josephfhe  received 
 
BER 
 
 pensions,  which  gave  comfort  to  his  latter 
 days.     He  died  in  1814.     His  Harmonics 
 
 of  "Nature  was  given  to  the  press  after  his 
 death.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is 
 in  twelve  octavo  volumes.  The  philosophy 
 of  St.  Pierre  is  occasionally  eccentric; 
 but  the  purity  of  his  morality,  and  the 
 beauty  of  his  style,  deserve  the  highest 
 praise. 
 
 BERNERS,  or  BARNES,  Juliana, 
 a  sister  of  Lord  Berners,  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  born  about  the  year  1388,  and 
 was  a  native  of  Essex.  She  was  prioress 
 of  Sopewell  Nunnery,  and  wrote  the  Boke 
 of  Hiuvkvng  and  Huntyng,  which  was  one 
 of  the  first  works  that  issued  from  the 
 English  press. 
 
 BERN!,  Francis,  one  of  the  m-;st 
 eminent  Italian  poets  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
 tury, was  born  at  Lamporecchio,  in  Tus- 
 cany, and  died  of  poison,  in  1536.  He 
 remodelled  Bojardo's  Orlando  Innamoralo. 
 His  Rime  Burlesche,  and  his  Latin  poems, 
 are  to  be  found  in  various  collections. 
 
 BERNI,  Count  Francis,  a  civilian, 
 orator,  and  poet,  was  born  at  Ferrara,  in 
 1610,  and  died  in  1673.  He  was  greatly 
 in  favour  with  Pope  Innocent  X.,  Alex- 
 ander VII.,  and  Clement  IX.,  and  with 
 two  successive  dukes  of  Mantua.  He  ex- 
 celled in  dramatic  pieces,  of  which  he 
 wrote  eleven.  A  volume  of  his  miscella- 
 nies was  published  with  the  title  of  Aca- 
 demia. 
 
 BERNIER,  Francis,  a  physician  and 
 traveller,  was  born  at  Angers.  In  1655, 
 after  having  passed  through  Syria  and 
 Egypt,  he  visited  India,  where  he  resided 
 for  some  years,  as  physician  to  Aururig- 
 zebe.  On  his  return  to  France  he  pub- 
 lished his  Travels,  a  work  of  great  interest 
 and  authenticity.  He  died  at  Paris,  in 
 1688.  Bernier  was  universally  admired 
 for  the  graces  of  his  mind  and  person. 
 His  principal  work,  besides  his  Travels,  is 
 an  Abridgment  of  Gassendi's  Philosophy, 
 in  eight  volumes. 
 
 BERNINI,  John  Laurence,  who  was 
 at  once  a  painter,  a  sculptor,  and  an  archi- 
 tect, and  whom  his  contemporaries  de- 
 nominated the  modern  Michael  Angelo, 
 was  born  at  Naples,  in  1598.  At  the 
 early  age  of  eight  years,  he  manifested  his 
 genius  by  sculpturing  the  head  of  a  child 
 in  marble.  Some  of  his  finest  works  were 
 produced  before  he  was  twenty.  He  was 
 patronized  by  popes  Urban  VIII.,  Alex- 
 ander VII.,  and  Innocent  X.,  and  was 
 invited  to  France  by  Louis  XIV.  His 
 finest  productions  are  at  Rome.  He  died 
 in  that  city  in  1680.  Bernini  had  a  fine 
 genius;  but  he  is  accused  of  mannerism, 
 and  of  having  often  violated  the  principles 
 of  true  taste. 
 
 BERNIS,  Cardinal  Francis  Joachim 
 de   Pierres    DEj   a   French   poet   and 
 
 BER 
 
 85 
 
 statesman,  was  born  at  St.  Marcel  de 
 I'Avdeche,  in  1715.  In  early  life,  he  pub- 
 lished some  light  poetrv,  which  gained  him 
 the  patronage  of  Madame  de  Pompadour, 
 through  whose  influence  he  was  pensioned, 
 and  received  into  the  Academy;  he  was 
 subsequently  employed  to  negotiate  in  Italy, 
 Spain,  and  Austria,  promoted  to  be  minis- 
 ter for  foreign  affairs,  and  gratified  with 
 the  dignity  of  cardinal.  In  1764,  he  was 
 made  archbishop  of  Alby,  and  in  1769  was 
 sent  ambassador  to  Rome.  The  revolution 
 deprived  him  of  his  revenues;  but  he  ob- 
 tained a  pension  from  Spain.  He  died  at 
 Rome  in  1794.  He  left  behind  him  a 
 poem,  with  the  title  of  Religion  Avenged. 
 
 BERNOUILLI,  James,  an  eminent 
 mathematician,  was  born  at  Basil,  in  1654, 
 and  died  in  1705.  He  was  originally  in- 
 tended for  the  church,  but  studied  geome- 
 try and  astronomy  in  secret,  contrary  to 
 the  wishes  of  his  father,  which  made  him 
 take  for  his  device  Phaeton  conducting  the 
 car  of  the  sun,  with  the  motto  Invito  patre 
 sidera  verso.  He  was  professor  of  mathe- 
 matics at  Basil,  and  a  member  of  many 
 learned  societies.  His  works  were  pub- 
 lished complete  in  1744. 
 
 BERNOUILLI,  John,  brother  of  the 
 preceding,  was  born  at  Basil,  in  1667, 
 became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Gro- 
 ningen,  and  succeeded  his  brother  at  Basil. 
 He  died  in  1748.  His  works  form  four 
 quarto  volumes;  and  his  correspondence 
 with  Leibnitz  occupies  two  more.  He 
 was  the  master  of  Euler.  His  eldest  son, 
 Nicholas,  was  also  a  mathematician  of 
 talent.  He  died  in  1726,  at  Petersburgh, 
 where  he  was  professor  of  mathematics. 
 He  was,  however,  far  exceeded  by  his 
 brother. 
 
 BERNOUILLI,  Daniel,  was  born 
 at  Groningen,  in  1700,  and  died  in  1782. 
 He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  an 
 eminent  family,  and  his  manners  were  as 
 modest  as  his  science  was  extensive.  He 
 is  the  author  of  the  first  published  treatise 
 on  Hydrodinamics ;  and  of  many  other 
 valuable  works. — Several  other  members 
 of  this  family  excelled  in  the  abstract  sci- 
 ences. 
 
 BERNOUILLI,  John,  grandson  of  the 
 abovementioned  John,  was  born  at  Basil, 
 in  1744,  and  died,  in  1807,  at  Berlin, 
 where  he  was  director  of  mathematics  in 
 the  Royal  Academy.  He  was  also  a  vo- 
 luminous writer.  Among  his  principal 
 works  are,  Travels  in  Germany,  Switzer- 
 land, &c.  3  vols.;  and  in  Prussia,  Russia, 
 and  Poland,  6  vols.;  a  Collection  of  Voy- 
 ages and  Travels,  16  vols.;  and  Archives 
 of  History  and  Geography,  S  vols. 
 
 BERNSTORF,  John  Haktwig  Er- 
 nest, Count  de,  a  native  of  Hanover, 
 born  in  1712,  settled  in  Denmark,  where 
 he   became   prime    minister,   and   distin- 
 
56 
 
 BER 
 
 (ruighed  himself  by  his  successful  adminis- 
 tration, and  his  encouragement  of  manu- 
 factures, commerce,  arts  and  sciences.  He 
 enfranchised  his  peasants,  and  they  ex- 
 pressed their  gratitude  by  erecting  an  obe- 
 lisk in  honour  of  him.  In  1770  lie  was 
 removed  from  his  office,  and  he  died  at 
 Hamburgh,  in  1772. 
 
 •  BERNSTORF,  Andrew  Peter, 
 Count  de,  the  nephew  of  John,  was,  like 
 his  uncle,  a  native  of  Hanover,  where  he 
 was  born  in  1735.  Like  him,  he  filled  the 
 office  of  Danish  prime  minister;  and  like 
 him,  too,  he  governed  with  wisdom,  and 
 introduced  numerous  reforms  of  the  utmost 
 importance.  He  procured  the  enfranchise- 
 ment of  the  peasants,  improved  the  crimi- 
 nal code,  abolished  monopoly,  and  estab- 
 lished a  new  system  of  finances.  This 
 able  statesman  died  in  1797. 
 
 BEROSUS,  a  priest  of  Belus,  at  Baby- 
 lon, in  the  time  of  Alexander,  wrote  a 
 History  of  Chaldea,  which  is  now  lost; 
 and  is  said  to  have  opened  a  school  of 
 astronomy  at  Cos,  and  invented  a  new  sun 
 dial.  Some,  however,  believe  the  historian 
 and  the  astronomer  to  have  been  different 
 persons. 
 
 BERQUEX,or  BERKEN,  Lewis  de, 
 a  native  of  Bruges,  was  the  first  who  in- 
 vented, in  1456,  the  art  of  cutting  and 
 polishing  diamonds,  by  means  of  a  wheel 
 and  diamond  powder.  His  grandson, 
 Robert,  published  the  Wonders  of  the 
 East  Indies,  or  a  Treatise  on  Precious 
 Stones. 
 
 BERQUIX,  Arnold,  an  elegant  and 
 amiable  writer,  who  devoted  his  pen  to 
 the  instruction  of  youth,  was  born  at  Bor- 
 deaux, in  1749,  and  died  at  Paris,  in  1791. 
 His  works,  consisting  of  Idylls;  the 
 Children's  Friend;  the  Youth's  Friend; 
 the  Little  Grandison;  the  Family  Book; 
 and  several  similar  productions,  form 
 twenty  volumes.  The  Children's  Friend 
 is,  in  part,  imitated  from  the  German  of 
 Weiss. 
 
 BERRUYER,  Joseph  Isaac,  a  Jesuit, 
 was  born  at  Rouen,  in  1682,  and  died  at 
 Paris,  in  1758.  He  acquired  a  sinister 
 kind  of  celebrity  by  his  History  of  the 
 People  of  God,  in  eleven  quarto  volumes; 
 a  work  founded  on  the  Bible,  and  written 
 with  some  degree  of  elegance;  but  the 
 events  in  which  are  tricked  out  in  all  the 
 meretricious  ornaments  of  romance,  and 
 are  sometimes  even  indecently  described. 
 The  reading  of  il  was  prohibited  by  seve- 
 ral French  prelate- ;  tw  o  popes  condemned 
 it;  and  Ale  parliament  of  Paris  summoned 
 the  author  before  them;  all  which,  of 
 course,  only  procured  for  it  an  accession 
 of  readers. 
 
 BERTAUT.  John,  a  French  poet,  was 
 born  at  Caen,  in  1552,  and  died  in  1611. 
 He  was  bishop  of  See^.,  mm  ailbonei    u> 
 
 BER 
 
 Mary  de  Medieis.  Though  occasionally 
 deformed  by  the  defects  of  the  age,  his 
 poems  have  a  considerable  degree  of  feel- 
 ing, sweetness,  and  elegance.  His  Stan- 
 zas, beginning  "  Felicite  passce,"  are  still 
 popular. 
 
 BERTHIER,  Alexander,  a  distin- 
 guished officer,  was  born  at  Versailles,  in 
 1753,  served  in  America  during  the  war  of 
 independence,  and  attained  the  rank  of 
 major-general  in  1792.  After  having 
 fought  gallantly  in  Vendee,  he  was  made 
 general  of  division,  and  was  placed  at  the 
 head  of  Bonaparte's  staff  in  Italy.  He 
 afterwards  acted  in  the  same  capacity 
 with  him  in  Egypt.  In  both  countries  he 
 signalized  his  talents  and  bravery.  On 
 the  establishment  of  the  consulate,  he  be- 
 came minister  of  the  war  department.  He 
 was  subsequently  raised  to  be  a  marshal, 
 vice  constable  of  the  empire,  and  prince 
 of  iVeufchatel  and  Wagram.  Unlimited 
 confidence  was  reposed  in  him  by  Napo- 
 leon. On  the  first  restoration  of  Louis 
 XVIII.  Berthier  immediately  recognized 
 his  authority,  and  was  created  a  peer;  but 
 when  IVapoleon  returned,  his  old  com- 
 panion and  confidant  withdrew  to  Bam- 
 berg, where,  in  a  fit  of  frenzy  or  remorse, 
 he  threw  himself  from  a  window,  and  died, 
 on  the  1st  of  June,  1815. 
 
 BERTHOLLET,  Claude  Louis,  an 
 eminent  chemist,  was  born  at  Talloire,  in 
 Savoy,  in  1748,  and  studied  medicine  at 
 Turin.  Having  been  appointed  physician 
 to  the  duke  of  Orleans,  he  settled  at  Paris, 
 and  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
 Sciences.  His  chemical  researches  were 
 extensive,  and  the  results  highly  important. 
 In  1799  he  accompanied  Bonaparte  to 
 Egypt;  and,  under  the  empire,  he  was 
 made  a  senator  and  an  officer  of  the  legion 
 of  honour.  He  was,  however,  one  of  the 
 first  to  desert  Napoleon,  and  was  rewarded 
 with  the  title  of  count.  He  died  in  1822. 
 Among  his  principal  works  are,  Elements 
 of  the  Art  of  Dyeing;  Essay  on  Chemical 
 Statics;  and  Inquiry  into  the  Laws  of  Af- 
 finity. 
 
 B'ERTHOUD,  FKRDiNAND,one  of  the 
 tQjoei  eminent  median  ie<?  and  maker;  of 
 
BES 
 
 chronometers,  was  born  at  Plancemont,  in 
 Neufchatel,  in  1727,  and  settled  at  Paris, 
 in  the  neighbourhood  of  which  city  he  died, 
 in  1807.  He  is  the  author  of  a  History  of 
 the  Measuring  of  Time  by  means  of  Clocks, 
 two  volumes  quarto ;  and  of  several  other 
 valuable  works  relative  to  his  art.  His 
 nephew,  Louis,  inherited  his  talents. 
 
 BERTIN,  Anthony,  one  of  the  most 
 elegant  of  the  French  amatory  poets,  was 
 born  in  1752,  in  the  isle  of  Bourbon,  and 
 educated  in  France.  He  died  at  St.  Do- 
 mingo, in  1790.  His  elegies,  in  four 
 books,  published  in  1782,  under  die  title  of 
 the  Loves,  are  his  principal  productions, 
 and  do  honour  to  his  poetical  talents. 
 
 BERTINAZZI,  Charles  Anthony, 
 better  known  under  the  name  ofCARLiNi, 
 was  born  at  Turin,  in  1713,  and  was  at 
 first  an  ensign,  but  exchanged  a  military 
 for  a  theatrical  life.  For  more  than  forty! 
 years  he  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished] 
 comic  actors  at  Paris.  He  was  also  cele- 
 brated for  his  gaiety  and  wit.  He  died  in 
 1783. 
 
 BERTRANDI,  John  Ambrose  Ma-| 
 Ria,  an  eminent  Italian  anatomist  and  sur- 1 
 geon,  was  born  at  Turin,  in  1723,  and  died 
 in  1765.  He  was  professor  of  surgery  and 
 chemistry  in  his  native  city,  and  head  sur- 
 geon to  the  king.  His  works  form  thir- 
 teen vols.  8vo.  The  principal  of  them  is 
 a  Treatise  on  Surgical  Operations. 
 
 BERWICK,  James  Fitzjames,  Duke 
 of,  a  natural  son  of  James  II.,  was  born, 
 in  1671.  at  Moulins,  in  France,  and  served 
 with  distinction  in  Hungary,  Ireland,  and 
 Flanders.  In  1704,  he  commanded  in 
 chief,  the  French  troops  in  Spain ;  in  the 
 following  year,  he  was  opposed  to  the  Lan- 
 guedocian  insurgents;  and  in  1706,  being 
 then  afield  marshal,  was  again  at  the  head 
 of  the  army  in  Spain,  and  gained  the  battle 
 of  Almanza.  In  four  subsequent  cam- 
 paigns, he  successfully  defended  Dauphine 
 against  the  attempts  of  the  duke  of  Savoy. 
 His  last  service  in  the  succession  war  was 
 the  reduction  of  Barcelona.  In  1734,  he 
 was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  French  ar- 
 my on  the  Rhine,  and  was  killed  on  the 
 12th  of  June,  at  the  siege  of  Philipsburg. 
 He  is  the  author  of  his  own  Memoirs.  By 
 Lord  Bolingbroke  he  is  considered  as  the 
 best  great  man  that  ever  lived. 
 
 BESSARION,  Cardinal  John,  a  native 
 of  Trebizond,  born  in  1395,  was  made 
 bishop  of  Nicsea,  by  John  Paleologus,  and 
 sent  by  him  into  Italy,  to  negotiate  the 
 union  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches. 
 Pope  Eugene  IV.  gave  him  a  cardinal's 
 hat.  Bessarion's  efforts,  however,  gave 
 such  offence  to  those  of  his  own  commun- 
 ion, that  he  thought  it  prudent  to  remain 
 at  Rome;  and  Pius  II.  gave  him  the  title 
 of  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  He  was 
 very  near  being  elected  pope  on  the  death  of 
 
 BET 
 
 87 
 
 Nicholas.  His  death  took  place  at  Ra- 
 venna, in  1472.  Bessarion  was  a  man  of 
 talent,  and  a  promoter  of  literature.  The 
 work  by  which  he  is  best  known  is  his 
 Defence  of  Plato. 
 
 BESSIERES,  John  Baptist,  Duke 
 of  Istria,  a  French  marshal,  was  born  in 
 Poitou,  in  1769,  and  entered  the  army  in 
 1792.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Italy 
 and  in  Egypt,  and  at  Austerlitz,  Jena,  and 
 Eylau ;  commanded  a  corps  in  Spain ;  and 
 the  cavalry  of  the  imperial  guard  in  1812 
 and  1813.  He  was  killed  in  the  combat 
 that  preceded  the  battle  of  Lutzen ;  and 
 his  loss  was  greatly  regretted  by  Napoleon. 
 Bessieres  was  a  general  of  talent,  and  an 
 honourable  man. 
 
 BETHENCOURT,  John  de,  a  cele- 
 brated adventurer,  of  a  noble  family,  born 
 in  Normandy,  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
 was  chamberlain  to  Charles  VI.  Wishing 
 to  avoid  bearing  a  part  in  the  dissensions 
 by  which  France  was  desolated,  he  resolved 
 to  undertake  the  conquest  of  the  Canaries. 
 This  purpose  he  accomplished  at  the  head 
 of  a  band  of  resolute  men,  and  received 
 the  investiture  of  the  islands,  as  sovereign, 
 from  Henry  III.  ofAragon.  He  died,  in 
 1425,  on  his  estate  in  Normandy. 
 
 BETHLEM-GABOR,  the  son  of  a  poor 
 Transylvanian  calvinist  gentleman,  was 
 patronised  by  Gabriel  Battori,  then  de- 
 throned him,  and,  in  1613,  proclaimed 
 himself  prince  of  Transylvania.  In  1618, 
 he  reduced  Hungary,  assumed  the  title  of 
 king,  and  invaded  Austria  and  Moravia; 
 whence,  however,  he  was  expelled  by  Til- 
 ly. A  treaty  ensued,  and  he  relinquished 
 his  Hungarian  conquests ;  but  remained 
 sovereign  of  Transylvania  till  his  death,  in 
 1629. 
 
 BETTERTON,  Thomas,  a  celebrated 
 actor,  was  born,  in  1635,  at  Westminster, 
 and  began  life  as  an  apprentice  to  a  book- 
 binder. At  the  age  of  twenty,  however, 
 he  went  upon  the  stage,  and  ultimately  ac- 
 quired a  high  degree  of  reputation  as  a 
 tragic  actor ;  especially  in  some  of  Shak- 
 speare's  principal  characters.  In  1695,  he 
 opened  a  new  theatre  in  Lincoln's  Inn 
 Fields;  but  this  speculation  was  unsuccess- 
 ful. He  died  in  1710.  Several  pieces 
 were  altered  by  him  for  the  stage. 
 
 BETTINELLI,  Xavier,  an  elegant 
 Italian  writer,  was  born  at  Mantua,  in 
 1718,  and  became  a  member  of  the  society 
 of  Jesuits.  For  some  years  he  had  the  di- 
 rection of  the  college  of  nobles  at  Parma, 
 and  afterwards  was  professor  of  eloquence 
 at  Modena.  He  continued  his  literary  ca- 
 reer till  his  death,  which  took  place  at 
 Venice,  in  1808.  His  works  occupy  24 
 vols.  12mo.,  of  which  two  are  occupied  by 
 tragedies,  and  three  by  poems.  Of  his 
 prose  works,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  is 
 Letters  of  Virgil.     Bettinelli  was  an  ele- 
 
88  BEZ 
 
 gant   minded,    an   amiable,  and   a    pious 
 man. 
 
 BEUCKELS,  William,  a  fisherman, 
 a  native  of  Dutch  Flanders,  is  one  of  those 
 men  who  have  a  claim  to  be  considered  as 
 benefactors  of  their  country.  About  the 
 beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  he  dis- 
 covered the  art  of  curing  and  barrelling 
 herrings;  a  discovery  which  proved  in  the 
 highest  degree  beneficial  to  his  native  land. 
 His  countrymen  erected  a  statue  to  his 
 memory,  and  his  tomb  was  visited  by 
 Charles  V.     Beuckels  died  in  1449. 
 
 BEURNONVILLE,  Peter  Riel, 
 Count  de  Beurnonville,  a  French  marshal, 
 was  born  in  Burgundy,  in  1752,  served  in 
 the  East  Indies,  and  under  Dumourier,  and 
 was  made  minister  of  war  in  1793-  He 
 was  one  of  the  republican  commissioners 
 whom  Dumourier  gave  up  to  the  Austrian?, 
 and  was  imprisoned,  at  Olmutz,  till  1795. 
 On  his  return  to  France,  he  was  appointed 
 to  the  command  of  the  armies  of  the  Sam- 
 bre  and  the  Meuse,  and  of  Holland.  During 
 the  consulate  he  was  ambassador  at  Berlin 
 and  Madrid ;  and,  under  the  empire,  was 
 grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  sena- 
 tor and  count.  He  voted  for  the  deposi- 
 tion of  Napoleon,  followed  Louis  to  Ghent, 
 was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  marshal, 
 and  died  in  April,  1821. 
 
 BEVERIDGE,  William,  an  English 
 prelate,  and  an  eminent  orientalist  and 
 theologian,  was  born  at  Barrow,  in  Leices- 
 tershire, in  1636,  and  educated  at  St. 
 John's  College,  Cambridge.  Before  he  was 
 twenty,  he  acquired  a  critical  knowledge  of 
 the  oriental  languages.  He  was  offered 
 the  see  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1691,  but 
 declined  it,  on  conscientious  motives.  In 
 1704,  however,  he  was  made  bishop  of  St. 
 Asaph.  He  died  in  1707.  Of  his  volu- 
 minous works,  part  posthumous,  his  Ser- 
 mons, above  one  hundred  and  fifty  in  num- 
 ber, and  his  Private  Thoughts  on'Religion, 
 are,  perhaps,  the  best  known. 
 
 BEWICK,  John  and  Thomas,  reviv- 
 ers of  the  art  of  wood  engraving,  which, 
 till  their  time,  was  sunk  to  the  lowest  state, 
 resided  at  Newcastle  upon  Tyne,  where,  in 
 1790,  they  published  a  History  of  Quadru- 
 peds, which  was  succeeded,  in  1797,  by  a 
 History  of  British  Birds.  John  Bewick 
 died  in  1795,  and  his  brother  Thomas  in 
 1828. 
 
 BEZA,  or  BEZE,  Theodore,  oneof 
 the  most  eminent  of  the  reformers,  was  born 
 at  Vezelai,  in  the  Nivernois,  in  1519,  and 
 was  originally  a  catholic,  and  intended  for 
 the  law.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  he  gained 
 an  unenviable  reputation,  by  the  composi- 
 tion of  Latin  poetry  which  was  at  once  ele- 
 gant and  licentious,  and  which,  some  years 
 afterwards,  he  published  under  the  title  of 
 Juvenile  Poems.  Though  not  in  orders,  he 
 possessed  benefices  of  considerable  value. 
 
 BIA 
 
 These,  however,  he  abandoned  in   1548, 
 and  retired  to   Geneva,  where  he  publicly 
 
 abjured  popery.  To  this  he  was  induced 
 by  his  having  meditated,  during  illness, 
 upon  the  doctrines  which  he  had  heard 
 from  his  protestant  tutor,  Melchior  Wol- 
 raar;  and,  perhaps,  also,  in  some  measure, 
 by  his  attachment  to  a  lady,  whom  he 
 carried  with  him  to  Geneva,  and  married. 
 He  now  accepted  the  Greek  professorship 
 at  Lausanne,  which  he  held  for  ten  years 
 It  was  while  he  was  thus  occupied  thai 
 he  produced  his  tragedy  of  Abraham's 
 Sacrifice,  his  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment, and  his  hateful  defence  of  the  right 
 of  the  magistrate  to  punish  heritics.  In 
 1559  he  removed  to  Geneva,  and  became 
 the  colleague  of  Calvin,  through  whom 
 he  was  appointed  rector  of  the  academy, 
 and  theological  professor.  Two  years 
 after  this,  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
 conference  at  Poissy,  and  was  present  at 
 the  battle  of  Dreux.  He  returned  to  Ge- 
 neva, in  1563,  succeeded  Calvin  in  his 
 offices  and  influence,  and  was  thence- 
 forward considered  as  the  head  of  the  cal- 
 vinistic  church.  After  an  exceedingly  ac- 
 tive life,  he  died  on  the  13th  of  October, 
 1605.  His  theological  works  are  numer- 
 ous, but  are  now  nearly  forgotton. 
 
 BEZOUT,  Stephen,  a  celebrated 
 mathematician,  and  mathematical  exam- 
 iner of  the  naval  and  artillery  schools,  was 
 born  at  Nemours,  in  1730,  and  died  in  the 
 Gatinois,  in  1783.  He  is  the  author  of 
 a  General  Theory  of  Algebraic  Equations ; 
 and  two  Courses  of  Mathematics,  the 
 one  in  four  volumes,  the  other  in  six,  for 
 the  use  of  the  royal  marine  and  artillery 
 schools.  One  anecdote  proves  the  kind- 
 ness and  courage  of  Bezout.  Though  he 
 had  never  had  the  small  pox,  he  ventured 
 to  the  bedside  of  two  youths  of  the  naval 
 academy,  who  were  labouring  under  it, 
 and  who  would  have  been  thrown  back  a 
 year  in  their  promotion,  had  he  not  ex- 
 amined them. 
 
 BIANCHI,  John  Baptist,  a  cele- 
 brated Italian  naturalist,  was  born  at  Tu- 
 rin, in  1681,  took  his  doctor's  degree  at 
 the  early  age  of  seventeen,  and  was  pro- 
 
BIC 
 
 fessor  at  Turin  till  his  death,  in  1761. 
 His  anatomical  works  are  numerous ; 
 among  them  may  be  mentioned  Ductus 
 Lacrymalis  Novi;  De  Lacteorum  Vaso- 
 rum;  Lettera  sull'insensibilita  ;  and  Histo- 
 ria  Hepatica. 
 
 BIANCHI,  John  an  Italian  naturalist, 
 better  known  under  the  Latin  name  of 
 Janus  Flancus,  was  born  at  Rimini,  in 
 1693,  and  died  there  in  1775.  He  was 
 eminent  as  a  naturalist,  physician,  and  an- 
 atomist; collected  in  his  travels  a  hue  cabi- 
 net of  natural  history;  and  was  the  reviver 
 of  the  Academy  of  the  Leincei. 
 
 BIANCHIM,  Francis,  an  eminent 
 Italian  mathematician  and  antiquary,  was 
 born  at  Verona,  in  1662,  and  died  in  1729. 
 He  was  patronised  by  three  popes,  enno- 
 bled by  the  Roman  senate,  corresponded 
 with  the  most  celebrated  men  of  his  time, 
 and  displayed  the  must  persevering  activity 
 and  talent  in  mathematical  and  antiquarian 
 pursuits.  His  works  are  numerous,  and 
 distinguished  by  erudition ;  among  them 
 are  Memoirs  on  the  Comets  of  1684  and 
 1702;  the  first  part  of  a  Universal  His- 
 tory; and  Miscellaneous  Pieces. — His 
 nephew  Joseph  was  also  a  man  of  learn- 
 ing and  an  author. 
 
 BIAS,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece, 
 who  flourished  about  b.c.  565,  was  a  na- 
 tive of  Priene,  one  of  the  principal  cities 
 o(  Ionia.  He  was  equally  remarkable  for 
 his  virtues  and  his  knowledge.  When 
 the  cause  of  his  friends  was  just,  he  would 
 plead  for  them  before  the  tribunals;  but 
 he  would  never  lend  his  talents  to  injus- 
 tice; whence  the  phrase,  "  a  cause  of  the 
 Frienian  orator,"  was  used  to  signify  a 
 good  cause.     He  died  at  an  advanced  age. 
 
 BIBBIENA,  Cardinal  Bernard, 
 whose  name  was  Dovizze,  was  born  at 
 Bibbiena,  in  1479,  rose  to  the  dignity  of 
 cardinal  in  1513,  and  died  suddenly  in 
 1520,  supposed  to  have  been  poisoned. 
 Bibbiena  ranks  among  the  restorers  of  the 
 Italian  theatre;  his  comedy,  intitled  La 
 Calandria,  being  the  first  that  was  written 
 according  to  the  rules  of  the  ancients. 
 
 BICHAT,  Marie  Francis  Xavier, 
 a  French  physician  and  physiologist,  was 
 born  at  Thoisette,  in  Bresse,  in  1771,  and 
 was  a  pupil  of  Petit  and  of  Dassault.  He 
 succeeded  Dussault  as  medical  professor 
 at  the  Hotel  Dieu,  and  retained  the  situa- 
 tion till  his  decease,  in  IS02.  His  talents 
 were  of  a  high  order,  and  his  countrymen 
 look  upon  him  as  the  man  who  raised 
 pathological  anatomy  to  the  dignity  of  a 
 science.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Treatise 
 on  the  Membranes;  Physiological  Re- 
 searches on  Life  and  Death ;  and  Anatomy 
 in  general,  as  applied  to  Physiology  and 
 Medicine.  This  last  work,  which  is  in 
 four  volumes,  is  regarded  as  his  master- 
 piece 
 
 BID  S9 
 
 BIDDLE,  Nicholas,  an  American 
 naval  officer,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  in 
 1750.  He  entered  the  British  fleet  in 
 1770,  having  previously  served  several 
 years  as  a  seaman  on  board  merchant 
 ships.  On  the  commencement  of  hostili- 
 ties between  the  colonies  and  the  mother 
 country,  he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  and 
 received  from  Congress  the  captaincy  of 
 the  Andrew  Doria,  a  brig  of  14  guns, 
 employed  in  the  expedition  against  New- 
 Providence.  Towards  the  close  of  1776, 
 he  received  command  of  the  Randolph,  a 
 new  frigate  of  32  guns,  with  which  he 
 soon  captured  a  Jamaica  fleet  of  four  sail 
 richly  laden.  Tliis  prize  he  carried  into 
 Charleston,  and  was  soon  after  furnished 
 bv  the  government  of  that  town  with  four 
 additional  vessels,  to  attack  several  Brit- 
 ish cruisers,  at  that  time  harassing  the 
 commerce  of  the  vicinity.  He  fell  in  with 
 the  royal  line  of  battle  ship  Yarmouth,  of 
 64  guns,  on  the  7th  of  March,  1778,  and 
 after  an  action  of  twenty  minutes,  perish- 
 ed with  all  his  crew  except  four,  by  the 
 blowing  up  of  the  ship. 
 
 BIDDLE,  John,  an  eminent  Socinian 
 writer  and  preacher,  was  born  at  Wootton 
 under  Edge,  in  1615,  was  educated  at  Ox- 
 ford, and,  in  1641,  became  master  of 
 Gloucester  Free  School.  From  this  office, 
 however,  he  was  expelled,  in  consequence 
 of  his  having  oppugned  the  doctrine  of  the 
 Trinity.  For  the  same  cause  he  was 
 twice  imprisoned,  was  in  peril  of  his  life, 
 and  was  banished  to  Sicily.  Cromwell 
 liberated  him  in  1658,  and  he  became  pas- 
 tor of  an  independent  congregation.  In 
 1662,  he  was  again  apprehended,  fined  a 
 hundred  pounds,  and  committed  to  prison, 
 where  he  died  of  the  gaol  fever,  in  Sep- 
 tember. Biddle  was  a  virtuous  and  be- 
 nevolent man.  He  is  regarded  as  the  fa- 
 ther of  the  modern  unitarians. 
 
 BIDLAKE,  John,  born  at  Plymouth, 
 in  1755,  was  a  divine,  who  attained  some 
 reputation  as  a  poet.  He  took  his  degree 
 at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  was  ap- 
 pointed master  of  Plymouth  school.  In 
 1811,  while  delivering  a  Bampton  lecture, 
 he  was  seized  with  an  epileptic  fit,  which 
 brought  on  total  blindness.  He  died  in 
 1S14.  He  published  three  volumes  of 
 sermons  and  lectures;  Eugenio,  a  tale; 
 Virginia,  a  tragedy;  the  poems  of  the 
 Sea,  the  Country  Parson,  the  Summer's 
 Eve,  and  Youth;  and  a  volume  of  minor 
 poetry. 
 
 BIDLOO,  Godfrey,  an  eminent  ana- 
 tomist, born  in  1649,  at  Amsterdam,  was 
 successively  anatomical  professor  at  the 
 Hague  and  at  Leyden.  He  quitted  his 
 situation  at  the  latter  place  to  be  physician 
 to  King  William,  but  resumed  it  on  the 
 monarch's  death.  He  is  the  author  of  va- 
 rious works   all  meritorious   but  his  fame 
 
90 
 
 BIL 
 
 rests  chiefly  on  the  Anatomy  of  the  Human 
 Body,  in  Latin,  which  is  illustrated  by  one 
 hundred  and  fourteen  plates.  He  died  in 
 1713. 
 
 BIELFELD,  James  Frederic,  Bar- 
 on de,  was  born  at  Hamburgh,  in  1716, 
 and  was  tutor  to  the  king  of  Prussia's 
 brother,  and  afterwards  curator  of  the 
 universities,  and  a  privy  counsellor.  He 
 died  in  1770.  Two  of  his  best  works, 
 Political  Institutions,  and  Elements  of 
 Universal  Erudition,  have  been  translated 
 into  English. 
 
 BIEVRE,  Marechal,  Marquis  de,  a 
 eon  of  the  king's  head  surgeon,  was  born 
 at  Paris,  in  l747,  and  acquired  a  reputa- 
 tion by  his  repartees,  and,  especially,  by 
 his  pertinacious  spirit  of  punning;  no 
 word  or  expression  escaped  him  on  which 
 he  could  make  a  pun.  He  was,  however, 
 capable  of  better  things;  for,  among  other 
 works,  he  produced  two  comedies,  the 
 Seducer,  and  the  Reputations,  the  first  of 
 which  has  considerable  merit.  He  died 
 in  1789.  Even  on  the  brink  of  the  grave 
 he  persisted  to  pun.  His  decease  took 
 place  at  Spa,  and  just  before  it  he  said  to 
 a  friend,  "  Je  pars  de  Spa  (de  ce  pas)." 
 His  jests  have  been  collected  into  a  vol- 
 ume, called  Bievriana. 
 
 BILFINGER,  George  Bernard,  a 
 man  of  almost  universal  learning,  was  born 
 at  Canstadt,  in  Wurtemberg,  in  1693.  In 
 1725,  being  then  professor  of  logic  and 
 metaphysics  at  Petersburgh,  his  Disserta- 
 tion, on  the  cause  of  the  weight  of  bodies, 
 gained  the  prize  offered  by  the  Prussian 
 Academy  of  Sciences.  His  reputation 
 caused  him  to  be  recalled  to  Wurtemberg, 
 where  the  duke  appointed  him  a  privy 
 counsellor,  and  placed  unbounded  confi- 
 dence in  him.  Bilfinger  did  much  for  the 
 advancement  of  education,  agriculture, 
 and  commerce,  in  his  native  country.  He 
 died  in  1750.  Among  his  works  may  be 
 mentioned  Dilucidationes  Philosophical  ; 
 and  De  Harmonia  Anima  et  Corporis  Hu- 
 man i. 
 
 BILLINGTON,  Elizabeth,  the  most 
 celebrated  English  singer  of  her  day,  was 
 born  in  England  in  1770,  being  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Mr.  Weichsell,  a  German.  At  the 
 age  of  fourteen  she  made  her  first  appear- 
 ance as  a  singer,  at  Oxford,  and  two  years 
 afterwards  married  Mr.  Billington,  whom 
 she  accompanied  to  Dublin.  Here  she 
 made  her  debut  in  the  opera  of  Orpheus 
 and  Euridice.  On  returning  to  London, 
 she  appeared  at  Covent  Garden  with 
 great  success,  and  rapidly  acquired  a  high 
 reputation.  She  afterwards  visited  the 
 continent  to  avail  herself  of  the  instruc- 
 tions of  the  masters  of  the  art  in  Paris  and 
 Italy.  In  1796  she  appeared  at  Venice 
 and  at  Rome,  receiving  every  where  the 
 loudest  expressions  of  applause.     In  1801 
 
 BIR 
 
 she  returned  to  the  London  stage,  and  as- 
 tonisked  the  whole  world  by  her  Mandane, 
 a  performance  that  has  never  since  been 
 equalled  in  English  opera.  In  1817  she 
 quitted  England  for  ever,  and  died  after  a 
 short  illness  at  an  estate  she  had  pur- 
 chased in  the  Venetian  territories. 
 
 BILSON,  Thomas,  a  prelate,  born  at 
 Winchester,  in  1536,  where,  and  at  Ox- 
 ford, he  was  educated.  The  Perpetual 
 Government  of  Christ's  Church,  which  he 
 published  in  1593,  led  to  his  obtaining  the 
 see  of  Worcester,  whence  he  was  transla- 
 ted to  that  of  Winchester.  In  the  Hamp- 
 ton Court  conference  he  bore  a  prominent 
 part;  and,  in  conjunction  with  Bishop 
 Smith,  had  the  revision  of  the  new  trans- 
 lation of  the  Bible.  He  died  in  1616.  He 
 produced  various  controversial  works  and 
 sermons. 
 
 BINGHAM,  Joseph,  an  eminent  di- 
 vine, was  born  at  Wakefield,  in  Yorkshire, 
 in  1668,  and  educated  at  Oxford,  where 
 he  obtained  a  fellowship,  which  he  resign- 
 ed, in  consequence  of  being  censured  for 
 heterodox  opinions  concerning  the  Trinity. 
 He  then  retired  to  his  living  of  Head- 
 bourne  Worthy,  in  Hampshire.  In  1712, 
 he  obtained  the  rectory  of  Havant;  in 
 1720,  he  was  nearly  ruined  by  the  South 
 Sea  bubble;  and  he  died  in  1723.  His 
 Origines  Ecclesiastical  is  a  valuable  work. 
 
 BION,  a  Greek  pastoral  poet,  a  native 
 of  Smyrna,  was  a  contemporary  of  Theo- 
 critus, and  the  friend  of  Moschus;  and  is 
 said  to  have  died  by  poison,  about  B.  c. 
 300.  Some,  however,  maintain,  that  he 
 lived  a  century  later  than  Theocritus.  His 
 Idvllia  are  remarkable  for  elegance  and 
 pastoral  sweetness. 
 
 BIOIV,  a  Greek  philosopher,  of  Borys- 
 thenes,  in  Scythia,  died  about  B.  c.  240. 
 He  was  first  a  cynic,  then  a  disciple  of 
 Theodorus,  the  atheist,  and  lastly  of  Theo- 
 phrastus.  Bion  was  skilled  in  music  and 
 poetry,  and  had  a  talent  for  repartee. 
 
 BIRAGUE,  Clement,  an  engraver  of 
 precious  stones,  was  a  native  of  Milan, 
 and  flourished  in  Spain,  about  the  middle 
 of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  the  in- 
 ventor of  engraving  on  the  diamond,  and 
 his  first  work  of  that  kind  was  a  portrait 
 of  the  unfortunate  Don  Carlos. 
 
 BIRCH,  Thomas,  a  miscellaneous  wri- 
 ter, of  more  research  than  elegance,  was 
 born  in  Clerkenwell,  in  1705,  and  was  orig- 
 inally a  quaker.  He  took  orders,  obtained 
 various  church  preferments,  and  was  made 
 D.  D.  and  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the 
 Royal  Society.  He  was  killed  by  a  fall  from 
 his  horse,  in  1766.  Among  his  numerous 
 works  are  a  History  of  the  Royal  Society  ; 
 Lives  to  Houbraken  and  Vertue's  heads; 
 Memoirs  of  Queen  Elizabeth;  Lives  of 
 Boyle,  Tillotson,  Greaves,  Ward,  Raleigh, 
 and  Henry  Prince  of  Wales. 
 
BIR 
 
 BIRD,  William,  an  eminent  musician, 
 who  flourished  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign, 
 died  in  1623,  at  the  age  of  eighty.  He 
 composed  a  great  number  of  pieces  of  sa- 
 cred music;  and  "  Non  nobis,  Domine," 
 is  generally  attributed  to  him. 
 
 BIRD,  Edward,  R.  A.  a  painter  of 
 considerable  merit,  especially  in  comic  sub- 
 jects. He  was  patronised  by  the  marquis 
 of  Stafford,  and  was  appointed  historical 
 painter  to  the  Princess  Charlotte  of  Wales. 
 He  died  at  Bristol,  in  1819. 
 
 BIREN,  John  Ernest  de,  Duke  of 
 Courland  and  Semigallia,  was  born  in 
 1687,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  a 
 Courland  peasant.  He,  however,  was  well 
 educated,  and  had  a  handsome  person ; 
 and  by  these  means  he  obtained  an  un- 
 bounded influence  over  Anne,  duchess  of 
 Courland,  the  daughter  of  Peter  I.  When 
 she  ascended  the  throne  of  Russia,  she 
 committed  the  reins  of  government  to  Biren, 
 who  ruled  tyrannically,  but  with  talent.  In 
 1737  she  made  him  duke  of  Courland,  and 
 on  her  death,  in  1740,  left  him  the  regency 
 of  Russia.  A  revolution  banished  him  to 
 Siberia ;  but  he  was  afterwards  allowed  to 
 reside  at  Yaraslof.  He  was  recalled  by 
 Peter  III.,  and  his  duchy  was  restored  to 
 him  by  Catherine.  After  having  reigned 
 six  years  with  great  mildness,  he  resigned 
 the  throne  to  his  son,  and  died  in  1772,  at 
 Mittau. 
 
 BIRKENHEAD,  Sir  John,  an  active 
 political  writer,  was  born  in  1615,  and  was 
 the  son  of  a  saddler  at  Northwich,  in 
 Cheshire.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
 and  became  amanuensis  to  Laud,  who  pro- 
 cured him  a  fellowship  at  All  Souls.  Du- 
 ring the  civil  wars  he  conducted  the  Mer- 
 curius  Aulicus,  and  wrote  many  pieces  on 
 the  king's  side,  for  which  he  was  often 
 imprisoned.  At  the  restoration,  he  was 
 rewarded  by  knighthood,  and  by  various 
 offices,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  par- 
 liament.    He  died  in  1679. 
 
 BIRON,  Armand  de  Gontaut,  Ba- 
 ron de,  a  celebrated  French  marshal,  was 
 born  about  1524,  in  Perigord,  began  his 
 military  career  in  Piedmont,  and  continued 
 it  in  France,  during  the  civil  wars.  He 
 fought  at  Dreux,  St.  Denis,  and  Montcon- 
 tour.  In  1560,  he  concluded  the  peace 
 between  the  protestants  and  catholics.  Bi- 
 ron  was  one  of  the  first  who  recognised  the 
 title  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  highly  valued 
 by  him.  He  was  killed  at  the  siege  of 
 Epernay,  in  1592. 
 
 BIRON,  Charles  de  Gontaut, 
 Duke  of,  son  of  Armand,  was  born  in  1561. 
 He  acquired  great  glory  at  the  battles  of 
 Arques  and  Ivry,  the  combat  of  Aumale, 
 and  the  sieges  of  Paris  and  Rouen.  Hen- 
 ry IV.  loaded  him  with  honours,  consider- 
 ed him  as  one  of  his  bosom  friends,  and 
 appointed  him  his  ambassador  to  England, 
 
 BLA 
 
 91 
 
 the  Netherlands,  and  Switzerland.  He 
 even  exposed  himself  to  save  his  life,  at 
 the  skirmish  of  Fontaine-Francaise.  Biron, 
 nevertheless,  conspired  with  Spain  and 
 Savoy  against  his  sovereign,  and  was  con- 
 sequently beheaded  in  1602. 
 
 BISHOP,  Samuel,  a  divine,  born  at 
 London,  in  1731,  was  educated  at  Merchant 
 Tailors'  and  at  Oxford,  and  became  mas- 
 ter of  Merchant  Tailors'  school,  and  rector 
 of  St.  Martin  Outwich,  and  Ditton,  in 
 Kent.  He  died  in  1795.  His  poems, 
 many  of  which  have  considerable  merit, 
 form  two  quarto  volumes. 
 
 BISSET,  Bobert,  a  native  of  Scot- 
 land, was  bred  at  Edinburgh,  for  the  church, 
 but  took  the  degree  of  D.  C.  L.,  and  be- 
 came a  schoolmaster,  at  Chelsea,  in  which 
 profession,  however,  he  failed.  He  then 
 devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  died  in 
 1805,  at  the  age  of  46  years.  Among 
 other  things,  he  is  the  author  of  a  History 
 of  the  Reign  of  George  III. ;  a  Life  of 
 Burke ;  a  Sketch  of  Democracy ;  Douglas, 
 a  novel;  and  Lives  appended  to  an  edition 
 of  the  Spectator. 
 
 BITAUBE,  Paul  Jeremiah, .a  na- 
 tive of  Konigsberg,  in  Prussia,  the  son  of 
 French  refugee  parents,  was  born  in  1732, 
 educated  as  a  protestant  divine,  and  became 
 a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Berlin. 
 He  settled  at  Paris,  was  incarcerated  dur- 
 ing the  revolution,  and  was  subsequently 
 admitted  into  the  Institute,  and  made  one 
 of  the  first  members  of  the  legion  of  hon- 
 our. He  died  in  1808.  His  works  have 
 been  collected  in  nine  volumes  octavo.  The 
 principal  of  them  are,  Joseph,  a  poem; 
 the  Batavians,  a  poem;  and  a  translation 
 of  Homer. 
 
 BIVAR,  Don  Rodrigo  Diaz  de,  a 
 Spanish  hero,  known  in  history  and  ro- 
 mance under  the  name  of  the  Cid,  was 
 born  at  Burgos,  about  1040.  In  numerous 
 encounters  with  the  Moors  he  displayed 
 astonishing  valour ;  and  though  he  was 
 twice  unjustly  banished,  he  still  fought  in 
 behalf  of  his  country.  He  died,  in  1099, 
 at  Valencia,  which  city  he  had  conquered 
 at  the  head  of  a  few  knights  who  followed 
 his  fortunes. 
 
 BLACK,  Joseph,  an  eminent  modern 
 chemist,  was  born  at  Bordeaux,  in  1728, 
 of  British  parents,  was  educated  at  Bel- 
 fast, Glasgow,  and  Edinburgh,  and  studied 
 chemistry  under  Dr.  Cullen.  He  took  his 
 doctor's  degree  in  1754,  and  in  1765  ob- 
 tained the  chemical  professorship  at  Edin- 
 burgh. His  death  took  place  December  6, 
 1799.  His  various  discoveries,  particularly 
 with  respect  to  fixed  air  and  latent  heat, 
 have  immortalized  his  name  in  the  records 
 of  philosophy.  His  Lectures  on  Chemistry 
 were  published  in  1803,  by  Professor  Rob- 
 inson. 
 BLACKBURNE,  Francis,  a  theolo- 
 
92 
 
 BLA 
 
 gian,  was  born  at  Richmond,  in  Yorkshire, 
 n  1705,  and  Avas  educated  at  Cambridge. 
 In  1750,  he  was  made  archdeacon  of 
 Cleveland.  He  was  a  friend  to  religious 
 liberty,  and  hostile  to  confessions  of  faith. 
 On  this  subject  he  was  deeply  involved  in 
 controversy.  The  most  celebrated  of  his 
 performances  on  it  is  the  Confessional, 
 which  appeared  in  1776.  His  works  have 
 been  collected  in  six  volumes  octavo.  He 
 died  in  1787. 
 
 BLACKLOCK,  Thomas,  a  divine  and 
 poet,  was  born  at  Annan,  in  Dumfries,  in 
 1721,  and  lost  his  sight  by  the  small  pox, 
 when  he  was  only  six  months  old.  To 
 amuse  and  instruct  him,  his  father  and 
 friend  used  to  read  to  him,  and  by  this 
 means  he  acquired  a  fund  of  information, 
 and  even  some  knowledge  of  Latin.  At 
 the  age  of  twelve  he  began  to  versify,  and 
 his  devotion  to  the  Muses  was  continued 
 through  life.  Considering  his  circumstan- 
 ces, his  poems  have  great  merit.  He  studi- 
 ed at  the  university  of  Edinburgh  for  ten 
 years,  and  his  progress  in  the  sciences  was 
 very  considerable.  He  was  ordained  min- 
 ister of  Kircudbright,  but,  being  opposed 
 by  the  parishioners,  he  retired  on  an  annu- 
 ity, and  received  students  at  Edinburgh  as 
 boarders,  and  assisted  diem  in  their  studies. 
 Besides  his  poems,  he  is  the  author  of  some 
 theological  works,  and  an  article  on  the 
 education  of  the  blind:  the  latter  was 
 printed  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 
 He  died  in  July,  1791,  regretted  by  all  his 
 friends. 
 
 BLACKMORE,  Sir  Richard,  a  poet 
 and  physician,  was  born  in  Wiltshire,  ed- 
 ucated at  Oxford,  took  his  degree  at  Padua, 
 and  was  knighted  by  William  III.  who 
 also  appointed  him  his  physician.  He  was 
 afterwards  physician  to  Queen  Anne.  In 
 1696,  he  published  his  first  poem,  Prince 
 Arthur,  which  was  rapidly  succeeded  by 
 other  works ;  nor  was  he  deterred  from 
 pursuing  his  career  by  the  ridicule  which 
 was  heaped  upon  hiin  by  Dry  den,  Pope, 
 and  nearly  all  the  wits  of  the  age,  whose 
 dislike  of  htm  was  sharpened  by  his  whig 
 principles.  He  is  the  author  of  nearly 
 thirty  works,  in  verse  and  prose;  of  the 
 latter  many  are  on  medical  subjects.  His 
 best  poem  is  intitled  Creation.  Blackmore 
 was  an  indifferent  poet,  but  he  was  un- 
 doubtedly possessed  of  considerable  talent, 
 and  was  a  pious  and  worthy  man.  He 
 died  in  1729. 
 
 BLACKSTO.\E,  Sir  William,  an  em- 
 inent lawyer,  was  the  third  son  of  a  silk 
 mercer,  and  was  born  in  London,  in  1723. 
 After  having  been  for  several  years  at  the 
 Charter  House,  he  completed  his  education 
 at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  and  at  both 
 seminaries  displayed  superior  talent.  When 
 he  was  only  twenty,  he  composed,  for  his 
 own  use,  a  Treatise  on   the  Elements  of 
 
 BLA 
 
 Architecture.     Having    chosen    the    pro- 
 fession of  the  law,  and  entered  the  Middle 
 
 Temple,  in  1741,  he  wrote  his  elegant  val- 
 edictory poem,  the  Lawyer's  Farewell  to 
 his  Muse.  In  1743,  he  was  elected  a  fellow 
 of  All  Souls,  and  in  1746,  he  was  called  to 
 the  bar,  and  went  the  circuit,  but  obtained 
 little  practice.  He  remained  in  compara- 
 tive obscurity  till  1753,  when  he  began  to 
 deliver,  at  Oxford,  his  lectures  on  the  En- 
 glish laws ;  which,  in  1765  and  the  four  fol- 
 lowing years,  he  published,  with  the  title  of 
 Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  England. 
 In  consequence  of  these  lectures,  he  was 
 elected  Vinerian  professor  of  law  in  the 
 university,  and  obtained  a  great  accession 
 of  business.  In  1761,  he  sat  in  parliament 
 as  member  for  Hindon,  and  was  made 
 king's  counsel,  and  solicitor-general  to  the 
 queen.  In  1770,  he  was  offered  the  place 
 of  solicitor-general,  but  declined  it,  and 
 was  made  a  judge  of  the  king's  bench, 
 whence  he  was  soon  after  transferred  to 
 the  common  pleas.  He  died  in  1780. 
 His  Law  Tracts  were  published  in  1762, 
 and  his  Reports,  two  volumes  folio,  after  his 
 death.  Blackstone  was  the  first  who  wrote 
 on  the  dry  and  repulsive  subject  of  En- 
 glish law  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  excite 
 disgust  in  a  reader  of  taste.  Like  almost 
 all  lawyers,  he  leans  to  the  side  of  prero- 
 gative ;  nor  is  there  much  more  of  en- 
 largement in  his  principles  of  religious 
 liberty.  For  this  reason  he  was  exposed 
 to  attack  from  Priestley,  Bentham,  and 
 Junius. 
 
 BLACKWELL,  Elizabeth,  a  wo- 
 man of  considerable  talent,  who,  to  provide 
 subsistence  for  her  husband,  who  was  in 
 prison  for  debt,  published,  in  two  volumes 
 folio,  1737  and  1739,  a  Herbal,  containing 
 five  hundred  plates,  drawn,  engraved,  and 
 coloured  by  herself.  Her  husband,  Alex- 
 ander, was  born  at  Aberdeen,  brought 
 up  as  a  physician,  and  went  to  Sweden, 
 about  1740,  where  he  was  beheaded  on  a 
 charge  of  being  concerned  in  Count  Tes- 
 sin's  plot. 
 
 BLACKWELL,  Thomas,  brother  of 
 Alexander,  was  born  at  Aberdeen,  in  1701, 
 and  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  became  Greek 
 
BLA 
 
 professor  at  Marischal  College,  of  which, 
 in  1748,  he  was  appointed  principal.  He 
 died  in  1757.  He  is  the  author  of  an 
 Inquiry  into  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
 Homer;  Letters  concerning  Mythology; 
 and  Memoirs  of  the  Court  ot  Augustus. 
 The  bad  taste  which  marked  the  style  of 
 the  latter  work,  drew  down  upon  its  au- 
 thor the  caustic  criticism  of  Johnson. 
 
 BLAEU,  William,  a  printer  and  geo- 
 grapher of  Amsterdam,  the  scholar  and 
 friend  of  Tycho  Brahe,  was  born  at  Am- 
 sterdam, in  1571,  and  died  in  1638.  His 
 great  work  is  his  Theatrum  Mundi,  three 
 volumes  folio,  which  was  republished  in 
 fourteen  volumes,  by  his  sons  John  and 
 Cornelius;  the  former  of  whom  pro- 
 duced valuable  geographical  works  on  Bel- 
 gium, Italy,  and  Piedmont. 
 
 BLAIR,  Robert,  a  divine  and  poet, 
 was  born  at  Edinburgh,  in  1699,  and  edu- 
 cated at  that  university.  He  was  minister 
 of  Athelstaneford,  in  East  Lothian,  where 
 he  died  in  1747.  His  poem  of  the  Grave  is 
 popular,  and  deservedly  so,  and  has  obtain- 
 ed him  a  place  among  our  standard  poets. 
 
 BLAIR,  John,  a  chronologist,  was  a 
 native  of  Edinburgh,  and  a  near  relation 
 of  Dr.  Hugh  Blair,  who  materially  assisted 
 him  in  the  composition  of  his  principal 
 work,  the  Chronology  and  History  of  the 
 World,  which  was  published  in  1754,  and 
 to  which  he  afterwards  added  maps  of 
 ancient  and  modern  geography.  This 
 work  procured  him  considerable  church 
 preferment.     He  died  in  1782. 
 
 BLAIR,  Dr.  Hugh,  was  born  at  Edin- 
 burgh, in  1718,  and  was  the  son  of  a  mer- 
 chant. He  was  educated  at  the  university 
 of  his  native  city,  and  was  licensed  to 
 preach  in  1741,  when  he  became  minister 
 of  Colessie,  in  Fife.     In  1743  he  was  ap- 
 
 Eointed  minister  of  the  Canongate,  Edin- 
 urgh;   in  1754  he  was  removed  to  Lady 
 
 BLA  93 
 
 lished  in  1783.     The  first  volume  of  hia 
 Sermons  was   published  in  1777,  and  ac. 
 quired  such   a  rapid   popularity,  that  he 
 not  only  obtained  a  large  sum  of  money  for 
 the  succeeding  volumes,  but  was  rewarded 
 with  a  pension  of  two  hundred  pounds  per 
 annum.     Dr.  Blair  died  at  Edinburgh,  in 
 1800.     In  his  Sermons  his  style  is  elegant, 
 and    he    enforces    the    moral    duties    with 
 great  felicity  of  language  and  argument. 
 His  lectures  still  remain  a  standard  work. 
 BLAKE,    Robert,   one  of    the   most 
 celebrated   of  British   admirals,  was  born 
 at  Bridgewater,  in  1599,  and  educated  at 
 Wadham  College,  Oxford.     By  the  interest 
 of  the  puritans,  he  was  elected  member  for 
 Bridgewater,    in    1640.      In  the    struggle 
 between    Charles    I.    and    his    people,    he 
 espoused  the  cause  of  liberty,  and   distin- 
 guished himself  by  his  gallant  defence  of 
 Taunton,  and  other  exploits.     In  1649  he 
 was  put  in  command  of  the  fleet.     His  first 
 achievement  was  the  destruction  of  Prince 
 Rupert's    squadron,  at    Malaga.     In  1652 
 and  1653  he  fought  four  desperate  engage- 
 ments  with   the   Dutch    fleet,  under  Van 
 Tromp,  in  two  of  which  the  enemy  were 
 defeated  with  great  loss.     The  next  theatre 
 of  Blake's  glory  was   the  Mediterranean, 
 to  which   he  sailed  in  1654,  and  where  he 
 destroyed  the  Tunisian  castles  of  Goletta 
 and    Porto    Ferino,    and    intercepted    the 
 Spanish  plate  fleet.     Having  received  in- 
 telligence that  another  plate  fleet  was  lying 
 at    Santa   Cruz,    in    Tenerifle,    he    eailed 
 thither,  forced  his  way  into  the  harbour, 
 burned  the  ships,  and  came  out    without 
 having  suffered  any  loss.     His  health  was 
 now  entirely  broken,  and  he  bent  his  course 
 homeward,  but  expired  August  27,  1657, 
 while    the    fleet   was    entering    Plymouth 
 Sound.     His  body  was  interred  by  a  pub- 
 lic funeral,  in  Henry  the  Seventh's  Chapel ; 
 but  on   the  restoration    of  Charles  II.  it 
 was  torn  from  its  resting  place,  and  buried 
 in  a  pit  in  St.  Margaret's  churchyard;   a 
 base  act,  well  worthy  of  a  monarch  who 
 became  a  traitor  to  his  country  and  a  pen- 
 sioner of  France.     Blake   was  not  merely 
 a  man  of  courage  and  talent ;   he  was  pious", 
 just,  and  singularly  disinterested. 
 
 BLAKE,  Joachim,  a  Spanish  general, 
 was  born  at  Velez  Malaga,  and  served, 
 first  as  captain,  and  next  as  major,  in  the 
 war,  from  1793  to  1795,  between  France 
 and  Spain.  When  Napoleon  seized  the 
 crown  of  Spain,  Blake  espoused  the  cause 
 of  his  country;  but  with  more  valour  and 
 than    success.     Though    defeated    at 
 
 Yester's;  and  in  1759  to  the  High  Church, !  Rio  Seco  and  Espinosa,  he  still  sustained 
 where  he  continued  during  the  remainder  j  his  military  character.  In  1810  he  was 
 of  his    life.     A  professorship    of  rhetoric! appointed  one  of  the  regency,  from  whicn 
 
 and  belles  lettres  having  been  founded  by 
 his  majesty,  in  1762,  Dr.  Blair  was  ap 
 pointed  professor;   and  here  originated  his jvicdro,  he 
 
 rank  he  was  transferred   to  that  of  captain 
 
 general.     Having  been  defeated  at    Mur- 
 
 lmt  himself  up  with  his  army 
 
 Lectures  on  Composition,  which    he  pub-  |  in  Valencia,  but  was  at    length  compelled 
 
94 
 
 to  surrender 
 
 BLA 
 
 In  1820,  on  the  establish- 
 ment of  the  constitution,  he  was  admitted 
 into  the  council  of  state;  and  his  attach- 
 ment to  that  constitution  subsequently  ex- 
 posed him  to  danger-  He  died  at  Valla- 
 dolid,  in  1827. 
 
 BLAK.ELY,  Johnston,  a  captain   in 
 the    United   States'  navy  during   the    iate 
 
 BLO 
 
 BLETTERIE,  John  Philip  RenA 
 DE  LA,  was  born  at  Rennes,  in  1696,  and 
 died  in  1772.  He  was  professor  of  elo- 
 quence at  the  Royal  College,  and  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Academy  of  Belles  Lettres.  He 
 wrote  Lives  of  Julian  and  Jovian;  and 
 translated  part  of  Tacitus.  Gibbon  highly 
 praises  the  Lives,  and  his  countrymen 
 war,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1781.  Two  consider  them  as  models  of  impartiality, 
 years  after,  his  father  emigrated  to  the  precision,  elegance,  and  judgment. 
 United  States  and  settled  in  North  Caro- j  BLIN  DE  SAINMORE,  Andrew 
 lina.      Young  Blakely  was  placed,  in  1796, ;  Michael  Hyacinth,  was  born  at  Paris, 
 
 at  the  university  of  North  Carolina,  but 
 circumstances  having  deprived  him  of  the 
 means  of  adequate  support,  he  left  college, 
 and  in  1S00  obtained  a  midshipman's  war- 
 rant. In  1813  he  was  appointed  to  the 
 command  of  the  Wasp,  and  in  this  vessel 
 took  his  Britannic  Majesty's  ship  Reindeer, 
 after  an  action  of  nineteen  minutes.  The 
 Wasp  afterwards  put  into  L 'Orient ;  from 
 which  port  she  sailed  August  27.  On  tlie 
 evening  of  the   first   of  September,  1814, 
 
 in  1733.  At  the  very  outset  of  his  career 
 he  lost  all  his  fortune,  but  his  literary 
 talents  procured  hiin  friends,  and  he  suc- 
 cessively filled  several  honourable  offices 
 connected  with  literature,  the  last  of  which 
 was  that  of  conservator  of  the  library  of 
 the  arsenal.  He  died  in  1807.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Orpheus,  a  tragedy,  and  of  many 
 herujc  epistles  and  fugitive  poems  of  no 
 common  merit. 
 
 BLOCH,  Mark  Eleazar,  a  Jewish 
 
 she  fell    in  with   four  sail,  at  considerable  \  physician   and   ichthyologist,  was  born,  in 
 
 distances  from  each  other.  One  of  these 
 was  the  brig-of-war  Avon,  which  struck 
 after  a  severe  action;  but  captain  B.  was 
 prevented  from  taking  possession  by  the 
 approach  of  another  vessel.  The  enemy 
 reported  that  they  had  sunk  the  Wasp  by 
 the  first  broadside,  but  she  was  afterwards 
 spoken  by  a  vessel  off  the  Western  Isles. 
 After  this  we  hear  of  her  no  more.  Cap- 
 tain Blakelv  was  considered  a  man  of  un- 
 common courage  and  intellect. 
 
 BLAN CHARD,  James,  an  eminent 
 painter,  who  bears  the  honourable  denomi- 
 nation of  the  French  Titian,  was  born  in 
 1600,  and  died  in  1638.  He  was  an  inde- 
 fatigable artist,  and  left  many  pictures. 
 His  finest  work  is  the  Descent  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  which  is  considered  as  one  of  the 
 best  productions  of  the  French  school. 
 
 BLANCHET,  Francis,  the  son  of  pa- 
 rents in  humble  life,  was  born  in  1707,  at 
 Angerville,  and  educated  at  the  college  of 
 Louis  XIV.  He  was  first  a  professor  in 
 two  provincial  colleges,  next  employed 
 himself  in  private  tuition,  and,  lastly,  ob- 
 tained an  office  in  the  king's  library  and 
 cabinet.  He  died  in  1784,  after  a  painful 
 illness  of  many  years.  Blanchet  was  one 
 of  the  most  amiable  of  men,  and  the  most 
 affectionately  paternal  of  tutors.  As  an 
 author  he  has  great  merit.  His  Apologues 
 and  Tales  are  told  with  spirit  and  grace. 
 
 BLAYNEY,  Benjamin,  a  divine  and 
 biblical  ciitic,  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
 where  he  became  M.  A.  in  1753,  and  D.  D. 
 in  1787.  He  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
 that  university,  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
 and  rector  of  Polshot,  Wilts.  He  died  in 
 1801.  He  translated  Jeremiah,  the  La- 
 mentations, and  Zechariah ;  edited  the 
 Oxford  Bible  in  1769;  and  wrote  a  Dis- 
 sertation on  Daniel's  Seventy  Weeks. 
 
 1723,  at  Anspach,  in  Franconia,  of  parents 
 so  poor  that  they  could  give  him  no  edu- 
 cation; and,  accordingly,  at  the  age  of 
 nineteen,  he  was  ignorant  even  of  Ger- 
 man. By  dint  of  application,  however, 
 he  acquired  Latin,  and  a  knowledge  of 
 anatomy  and  surgery,  and  obtained  a  doc- 
 tor's degree.  His  great  work  is  a  Natural 
 History  of  Fishes,  in  twelve  quarto  vol- 
 umes, with  four  hundred  and  thirty-two 
 plates.     He  died  in  1799. 
 
 BLOCK,  Joanna  Koerten,  an  artist 
 of  a  singular  kind,  was  born  at  Amster- 
 dam, in  1650,  and  died  in  1715.  She  ex- 
 celled in  cutting  landscapes,  sea  pieces, 
 flowers,  and  even  portraits,  out  of  paper, 
 with  the  most  perfect  resemblance  to  na- 
 ture. Her  productions  sold  at  enormous 
 prices,  and  she  was  patronised  by  several 
 sovereigns. 
 
 BLONDEL,  D  a  vid,  a  protestant  writer 
 and  minister,  was  born,  in  1591,  at  Chalon9 
 sur  Marne.  In  1650  he  was  invited  to 
 Amsterdam,  to  succeed  Vasorius,  as  pro- 
 fessor of  history,  and  he  died  there  in  1655, 
 after  having  lost  his  sight  in  consequence 
 of  the  humidity  of  the  climate.  Blondel 
 was  a  man  of  learning,  had  a  minute  ac- 
 quaintance with  history,  and  was  a  fluent 
 speaker.  Among  his  works,  one  of  the 
 most  curious  is  his  refutation  of  the  silly 
 story  of  Pope  Joan.  He  has  the  merit  of 
 having  written  in  favour  of  liberty  of  con- 
 science. 
 
 BLONDEL,  Francis,  an  eminent 
 French  architect  and  diplomatist,  was 
 born,  in  1617,  at  Ribemont,  in  Picardy. 
 After  having  been  sent  as  envoy  to  Con- 
 stantinople, he  was  appointed  counsellor  of 
 state,  one  of  the  dauphin's  preceptors,  pro- 
 fessor of  the  royal  college,  and  member  of 
 the  Academy  of  Sciences.     The  noble  tri- 
 
BLO 
 
 umphal  arch  of  St.  Denis  was  erected  by 
 him.  He  wrote  various  works,  on  literary, 
 architectural  and  military  subjects.  His 
 death  took  place  in  1686. 
 
 BLONDEL,  James  Francis,  was 
 born  at  Rouen,  in  1705,  and,  like  his  un- 
 cle, was  an  architect  of  great  talent.  The 
 merit  of  a  course  of  architectural  lectures, 
 which  he  delivered  at  Paris,  obtained  him 
 the  appointment  of  professor  at  the  acade- 
 my. In  his  final  illness,  he  had  himself 
 removed  to  his  school  at  the  Louvre,  that 
 he  might  yield  up  his  last  breath  where  he 
 had  taught  his  art.  He  died  in  1775.  J. 
 F.  Blondel  is  the  author  of  French  Archi- 
 tecture, four  volumes  folio ;  a  Course  of 
 Civil  Architecture,  nine  volumes  octavo; 
 and  other  works  of  a  similar  kind. 
 
 BLOOD,  Thomas,  a  singular  despera- 
 do, was  originally  an  officer  in  Cromwell's 
 army.  His  iirst  remarkable  enterprise 
 was  an  attempt  to  surprise  the  castle  of 
 Dublin,  which  was  frustrated  by  the  duke 
 of  Ormond.  He  subsequently  seized  the 
 duke  in  the  streets  of  London,  with  the 
 intention  of  hanging  him  at  Tyburn,  and 
 was  very  near  accomplishing  his  purpose. 
 His  last  exploit  was  an  attempt  to  carry 
 away  the  crown  and  regalia  from  the 
 Tower.  For  some  inexplicable  reason, 
 Charles  II.  not  only  pardoned  him,  but 
 gave  him  an  estate  of  five  hundred  pounds 
 per  annum.     He  died  in  1680. 
 
 BLOOMFIELD,  Robert,  a  poet,  born 
 at  Honington,  in  Suffolk,  in  1766,  was 
 the  son  of  a  tailor,  and  was  early  left  fath- 
 erless. He  was  taught  to  read  by  his 
 mother,  who  kept  a  village  school,  and  this 
 was,  in  fact,  his  only  education.  At  the 
 age  of  eleven  he  was  employed  in  such 
 husbandry  labour  as  he  could  perform ; 
 but,  his  constitution  being  delicate,  he  was 
 subsequently  apprenticed  to  the  trade  of 
 shoemaking,  at  which  he  worked  as  a 
 journeyman  for  many  years.  His  leisure 
 hours  were  spent  in  reading  and  in  the 
 composition  of  verses.  His  poem  of  the 
 Farmer's  Boy  was  at  length  brought  be- 
 fore the  public,  by  the  benevolent  exertions 
 of  Capel  Loft,  and  it  procured  the  author 
 both  fame  and  profit.  He  subsequently 
 published  other  poems,  among  which  may 
 be  mentioned  Wild  Flowers,  and  the  Banks 
 of  the  Wye.  Ill  health  and  misfortune 
 clouded  the  latter  years  of  this  modest  and 
 meritorious  writer,  and  he  died  in  1823, 
 when  he  was  almost  on  the  verge  of  insanity. 
 
 BLOUNT,  Sir  Henry,  was  born  at 
 Tittenhangher,  in  Hertfordshire,  in  1602; 
 travelled  in  the  East  in  1634,  1635,  and 
 1636 ;  fought  under  the  banner  of  Charles ! 
 at  Edsjehill;  was,  nevertheless,  employed 
 by  Cromwell ;  and  died  in  1682.  He  is 
 the  author  of  a  Voyage  to  the  Levant; 
 the  Exchange  Walk,"  a  satire  ;  and  other 
 works. 
 
 BLU  95 
 
 BLOUNT,  Sir  Thomas  Pope,  eldest 
 son  of  Sir  Henry,  was  born  in  1649  and 
 died  in  1697.  He  produced  Censura  Cele- 
 briorum  Auctorum;  DeRePoetica;  Es- 
 says on  several  subjects;  and  Natural  His- 
 tory. 
 
 BLOUNT,  Charles,  the  youngest  son 
 of  Sir  Henry,  was  born  in  1654,  and  made 
 himself  conspicuous  by  his  deistical  opin- 
 ions, and  by  considerable  talent.  His  An- 
 ima  Mundi  was  suppressed,  and  publicly 
 burnt.  This  work  he  followed  up  by  three 
 of  the  same  kind.  The  Life  of  Apodonius 
 Tyaneus ;  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephes- 
 ians;  and  Religio  Laici.  Of  the  Revolu- 
 tions of  1688  he  was  a  warm  friend;  but 
 he  acted  little  in  consonance  with  its  prin- 
 ciples, when  he  published  his  King  Will- 
 iam and  Queen  Mary  Conquerors,  to  assert 
 their  right  to  the  crown  by  conquest.  The 
 commons  ordered  this  tract  to  be  burnt  by 
 the  hangman.  He  shot  himself,  in  1693, 
 in  consequence  of  the  sister  of  his  deceased 
 wife  having  refused  to  marry  him. 
 
 BLOUNT,  Thomas,  was  born  at  Bar- 
 desley,  in  Worcestershire,  in  1618,  and 
 died  in  1679.  He  published  Glossograph- 
 ia ;  a  Law  Dictionary ;  and  various  other 
 works ;  the  most  curious  and  valuable  of 
 which  is,  Fragmenta  Antiquitatis,  or  An- 
 cient Tenures  of  Land,  and  Jocular  Cus- 
 toms of  Manors. 
 
 BLOW,  John,  a  musician,  was  born, 
 in  1648,  at  North  CaHingham,  in  Notting- 
 hamshire, received  a  doctor's  degree  from 
 Archbishop  Sancroft;  and,  on  the  death 
 of  Pureed,  became  organist  of  Westmin- 
 ster Abbey.  He  died  in  1708.  His  secu- 
 lar compositions,  were  collected,  in  1700, 
 under  the  title  of  Amphion  Anglicus.  His 
 church  music  receives  qualified  praise  from 
 Dr.  Burney. 
 
 BLUCHER,  Gebaral  Lebrecht 
 Von,  a  celebrated  general,  was  born  at 
 Rostock,  in  1742,  entered  the  Swedish 
 service  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  was 
 made  prisoner  by  the  Prussians.  He  join- 
 ed the  banners  of  Frederic  the  Great, 
 served  during  the  seven  years  war,  and 
 rose  to  the  rank  of  captain ;  but,  being 
 disgusted  at  some  real  or  imagined  slight. 
 
96  BLU 
 
 he    demanded   his    dismission    in    such    a 
 haughty  manner,  that  Frederic  granted  it 
 in    the    following    pithy  terms — "  Captain 
 Blucher  has  permission  to  quit  the  service, 
 and  to  go  to  the  devil,  if  lie  pleases."    For 
 many  years   Blucher  lived   in   retirement, 
 engaged   in  agricultural   pursuits;   but,  in 
 1786,  he  was  recalled  to  the  army,  with  the 
 rank  of  major.     In  the  campaigns  of  1792, 
 1793,  and  1794,  he  bore  an  active   part, 
 and  rose  to  be  major-general.     It  was  not 
 till  1806  that  he  had  an  opportunity  of&gaih 
 displaying  his    military    talents.     In    that 
 year  lie  commanded  the  advanced  guard  at 
 Auerstadt,  and  also  distinguished  himself 
 by  his  obstinate  defence  of  Lubeck,  where 
 he  was  taken  prisoner.     He  was,  however, 
 speedilv  exchanged  for  the  duke  of  Belluno. 
 In  1813,  he  was  once  more  called  into  the 
 field,  and  displayed  astonishing  ardour  and 
 activity.     He  signalized  himself  at  Lutzen, 
 utterly  defeated   Macdonald  on  the  Katz- 
 bach,"and  contributed  greatly  to  the  victory 
 of  Leipsic.     His  unintermitting  exertions 
 gained  him  the  rank  of  field  marshal,  and, 
 from  the  allied  troops,  the  appellation  of 
 "  Marshal  Forward."     In   the   campaign 
 of  1814,  he  was  alternately  victorious  and 
 defeated;     he    sustained    heavy    losses    at 
 Champ    Aubert,   Montmirail,   and    Vaux- 
 champs,  but  triumphed   at  Dienville   and 
 Laon,  and  in  the   attack  upon  Paris.     At 
 the    conclusion   of  the    contest    he   visited 
 England,  and  was  received  with  enthusi- 
 asm.    When  the  war  again  broke  out,  he 
 was  once  more  entrusted  with  the  com- 
 mand of  the  Prussian  troops.     On  the  six- 
 teenth of  June,  1815,  he   was  defeated  at 
 Ligny,  by  Napoleon,  and  narrowly  escaped 
 with*  his  life,   he   being  thrown   from  his 
 horse,  and  charged  over  by  both  the  French 
 and    Prussian    cavalry.     He,  nevertheless. 
 brought  up  his  army  in  time  to  render  the 
 battle  of  Waterloo   decisive.     His   subse- 
 quent conduct  at  Paris  was   not  that  of  a 
 generous  enemy.     For  his  service   he   re- 
 ceived   the   title   of  Prince  of  Wahlstadt. 
 He  died  at  Krilowitz,  September  12,  1819. 
 Blucher  was  intrepid,  indefatigable, prompt 
 in  his  movements,  and   undismayed  by   re- 
 verses;  but  he  did  not  belong  to  the  higher 
 class  of  military  leaders;   he  is  believed  to 
 have  been  but  an  indifferent  strategist,  and 
 to  have  been  indebted  to  general  Gniescnau 
 for  his  most  successful  plans  of  operation. 
 
 BLUM,  Joachim  Christian,  a  Ger- 
 man poet  and  literary  character,  was  born 
 at  Rathenau,  in  Brandeburg,  i:>  1738.  His 
 works  consist  of  lyric  poems,  idylls,  epi- 
 grams, a  drama,  My  Walks,  and  a  Dic- 
 tionary of  German  Proverbs.  Blum,  who 
 was  much  esteemed,  died  in  1790. 
 
 BLUMAUER,  Aloys,  an  Austrian,  was 
 born  at  Steyer,  in  1755,  and  in  his  youth 
 belonged  to  the  society  of  Jesuits.  He 
 acquired  reputation  as  a  satirical  and  bur- 
 
 BOC 
 \ 
 
 lesque  poet.  Of  his  productions,  which 
 extend  to  eight  volumes,  the  Printing 
 House;  the  Eulogium  of  the  Ass;  an  Ad- 
 dress to  the  Devil;  and  the  Eneid  Tra- 
 vestied, are  the  most  popular.  He  died  in 
 1798. 
 
 BOADICEA,  BOUDICEA,  or  BON- 
 DUCA,  a  British  heroine,  the  widow  of 
 Prasutagus,  and  queen  of  thelceni.  Hav- 
 ing been  basely  treated  by  the  Romans,  she 
 raised  the  Britons  in  arms  against  them, 
 and  obtained  several  advantages;  but  was 
 at  length  utterly  defeated  by  Suetonius 
 Paulinus,  A.  D.  61,  and  died  of  grief,  or 
 by  poison. 
 
 BOBROFF,  Simon  SERGiEViTscH,a 
 Russian  poet,  who  died,  in  1810,  at  Saint 
 Petersburgh,  enjoyed  considerable  reputa 
 tion.  His  best  poem  is  said  to  be  the 
 Chersonide,  or  a  Summer's  Day  in  the 
 Crimea.  His  lyrical  works  have  been  col- 
 lected in  four  volumes. 
 
 BOCCACCIO,  John,  one  of  the  classic 
 writers  of  modern  Italy,  was  the  son  of  a 
 Florentine  merchant,  and  was  born  at 
 Paris,  in  1313.  He  early  devoted  himself 
 to  poetrv,  but  he  was  discouraged  by  the 
 superior  merit  of  his  friend  Petrarch,  and 
 committed  to  the  names  many  of  his  own 
 lvrical  and  amatory  verses.  As  a  prose 
 writer,  however,  he  deservedly  acquired 
 fame.  His  principal  work  is  the  Decame- 
 ron, a  collection  of  tales,  many  of  which, 
 unfortunately,  are  deformed  by  licentious- 
 ness. The  Valdarfer  edition  of  the  Deca- 
 meron, published  in  1471,  was  sold  at  the 
 Roxburgh  sale  for  the  enormous  sum  of 
 two  thousand  two  hundred  and  sixty  pounds. 
 Boccaccio  first  introduced  the  works  of 
 Homer  and  other  Greek  writers  into  Tus- 
 cany.    He  died  in  1375,  at  Certaldo. 
 
 BOCCAGE,  Mary  Anne  lb  Page 
 DU,  a  French  poetess  of  considerable  merit, 
 and  possessed  of  great  accomplishments 
 and  benevolence,  was  born  at  Rouen,  in 
 1710,  and  died  in  1802.  Her  principal 
 works  are,  an  imitation  of  Paradise  Lost; 
 the  Colombiad,  an  epic  poem;  and  the 
 Amazons,  a  tragedy. 
 
 BOCCALIM,  Trajan,  an  Italian  sat- 
 irist, the  so>i  of  an  architect,  was  born,  in 
 1556,  at  Loretto.  He  successively  held 
 various  governments  in  the  pope's  domin- 
 ions ;  but  his  satirical  writings  having  ren- 
 dered him  obnoxious,  and  complaints  hav- 
 ing also  been  made  of  his  administration, 
 he  retired  to  Venice,  where  he  died  in  1613. 
 It  has  been  asserted  that  he  was  beaten  to 
 death  with  sand  bags,  by  four  hired 
 ruffians,  but  this  story  is  a  fiction.  His 
 chief  work  is  intitled  News  from  Parnas- 
 sus. 
 
 BOCTI,  John,  a  Flemish  poet,  denomi- 
 nated the  Belgic  Virgil,  was  born  at  Brus- 
 sels, in  1555.  He  accompanied  Cardinal 
 Radzivil  to  Rome,  studied  theology  there 
 
BOD 
 
 under  Bellarmin,  and  afterwards  travelled 
 into  Poland,  Livonia,  and  Russia.  The 
 duke  of  Parma  appointed  him  secretary  to 
 the  town  house  of  Antwerp.  He  died  in 
 1609,  and  his  poems  were  collected  by  his 
 son  Ascanius,  who  was  himself  a  poet. 
 
 BOCHART,  Samuel,  an  eminent  di- 
 vine and  oriental  scholar,  the  son  of  a 
 protestant  clergyman,  was  born  at  Rouen, 
 in  1599,  educated  at  Paris,  Oxford,  and 
 Leyden,  and  became  minister  at  Caen.  He 
 died  of  apoplexy,  in  1667.  His  principal 
 works  are  Phaleg  and  Canaan,  seu  Geo- 
 graphia  Sacra;   and  Hierozoicon. 
 
 BOCK,  Jerome,  a  German  botanist, 
 ■>etter  known  under  his  Latin  name  of 
 Tragus,  was  born  at  Heidesbach,  in  1498, 
 <vas  a  schoolmaster,  and  then  a  physician, 
 and  died  at  Hornbach,  in  1554.  Bock 
 aiay  be  considered  as  one  of  the  founders 
 of  modern  botany;  he  was  the  first  who 
 endeavoured  to  form  a  natural  botanical 
 arrangement.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Her- 
 bal of  German  Plants. 
 
 BODE,  Christopher  Augustus,  a 
 learned  German  orientalist,  was  born  at 
 Wernigerode,  in  1723,  and  acquired,  by 
 his  own  exertions,  the  Arabic,  Syriac, 
 Chaldee,  Samaritan,  Ethiopian,  rabbinical 
 Hebrew,  Armenian,  Turkish,  and  Coptic 
 languages.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy 
 in  the  university  of  Helmstadt.  He  died 
 in  1796.  His  principal  works  consist  of 
 translations  of  the  Scriptures  from  the  ori- 
 ental languages. 
 
 BODIN,  John,  a  French  lawyer  and 
 literary  character,  was  born  at  Angers, 
 about  1580,  and  was  brought  up  to  the 
 bar,  but  retired  from  it  for  want  of  success. 
 For  awhile  he  enjoyed  the'  favour  of  Henry 
 III.,  which,  however,  he  lost  by  his  patri- 
 otic conduct.  He  died,  in  1596,  at  Laon, 
 where  he  was  chief  magistrate.  Among 
 his  works,  the  most  remarkable  are,  a 
 treatise  on  government,  intitled  De  la 
 Republique,  and  another,  called  Demon- 
 omania,  in  which  he  asserts  the  existence 
 of  witchcraft. 
 
 BODLEY,  Sir  Thomas,  a  native  of 
 Exeter,  born  in  1544,  was  educated  at 
 Geneva  and  Oxford,  and  was  employed  by 
 Queen  Elizabeth  in  various  embassies.  In 
 1597  he  retired  from  public  business.  His 
 noble  foundation  of  the  Bodleian  library  at 
 Oxford,  for  which  he  spared  no  expense  to 
 procure  books  and  manuscripts,  and  to 
 which  he  bequeathed  nearly  all  his  property, 
 has  immortalized  his  name.  He  was 
 knighted  at  the  accession  of  James  I.,  and 
 died  January  the  ISth,  1612. 
 
 BODMER,  John  Jacob,  a  Swiss  poet, 
 was  born  at  Griefenberg,  near  Zurich,  in 
 1698,  and,  after  having  declined  the  church, 
 and  made  a  brief  trial  of  a  mercantile  situ- 
 ation, he  obtained  a  college  tutorship  at 
 Zurich,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
 5 
 
 BOE 
 
 97 
 
 He  wrote  an  epic  poem  ca.led  Noah, 
 translated  the  Iliad,  the  Paradise  Lost,  and 
 other  works,  and,  in  conjunction  with  his 
 friend  Breitinger,  published  a  paper  on  the 
 model  of  the  Spectator.     He  died  in  1783. 
 
 BODONI,  John  Baptist,  a  celebrated 
 Italian  printer,  was  born  in  1740,  at  Sa- 
 luzzo,  in  Piedmont.  He  had  at  first  the 
 direction  of  the  ducal  press  at.  Parma,  at 
 which  many  of  hisbest  works  were  printed, 
 and  afterwards  established  a  printing  office 
 of  his  own,  which  soon  became  famous 
 throughout  Europe  for  its  splendid  produc- 
 tions. Napoleon  gave  him  a  pension  of 
 three  thousand  francs,  and  a  present  of 
 eighteen  thousand.  Bodoni  is  the  author 
 of  a  Letter  on  Printing ;  and  a  Typograph- 
 ical Manual:  the  latter  wa3  a  posthumous 
 publication.     He  died  in  1813. 
 
 BOECE,  or  BOETHIUS,  Hector,  a 
 Scottish  historian,  was  born  at  Dundee, 
 about  1470,  and  educated  at  Perth  and 
 Paris.  He  was  the  first  person  appointed 
 principal  of  King's  College,  Aberdeen. 
 He  wrote  in  Latin,  a  Life  of  Elphinstone, 
 the  founder  of  the  college ;  and  also  a  His- 
 tory of  Scotland,  elegant  in  style,  but  filled 
 with  fictions.     He  died  about  1550. 
 
 BOEHM,  BOEHMEN,  or  BEHMEN, 
 Jacob,  a  German  fanatic,  was  born,  in 
 1575,  in  a  small  village,  near  Goerlitz,  in 
 Lusatia,  and  was  by  trade  a  shoemaker. 
 Insanely  believing,  or  artfully  affecting  to 
 believe,  that  he  was  favoured  with  revela- 
 tions and  inspirations  from  the  Deity,  he 
 published  numerous  works,  and  gained 
 many  followers.  Mosheim  justly  charac- 
 terizes his  productions  as  "  a  strange  mix- 
 ture of  chemical  terms,  mystical  jargon, 
 and  absurd  visions."  They  also  at  least 
 verge  on  spinosism  and  manicheism.  Yet 
 the  pious  Law  became  the  English  editor 
 of  them.     Boehm  died  in  1624. 
 
 BOERHAAVE,  Herman,  one  of  the 
 most  eminent  of  modern  physicians,  was 
 born,  in  1668,  at  Voorhout,  near  Leyden. 
 His  father,  the  minister  of  Voorhout,  edu- 
 cated him  for  his  own  profession,  and  he 
 made  an  honourable  progress  in  his  studies. 
 But,  on  the  death  of  his  parent,  who  left 
 him    slenderly   provided  for,  he  obtained 
 
98 
 
 BOG 
 
 a   subsistence   by    mathematical    lectures, 
 and  at  length  devoted  himself  to  the  medi- 
 cal profession.     For  that  profession  lie  had 
 imbibed  an   early   liking,   by  the  circum- 
 stance of  his    having  cured    himself  of  an 
 ulcer  in  the   thigh,   which  had    toiled    the 
 faculty  for  six  years.      He  took  the  degree 
 ofM.  D.  at  the  university  of  Harderwiek, 
 in  1693.     At  first  his  success  was  limited, 
 but  at  length  he  became  professor  of  physi- 
 cal botany  at   Leyden,  and  his  lectures  at 
 once  enhanced  the  fame  of  the  university  i 
 and  established  his  own.     In   1714  he  be- 
 came rector   of    the  university.     Patients 
 thronged   to  him  from  all  quarters,  wealth 
 consequently  flowed   in  upon  him,  and  he ! 
 confessedly   stood   at   the  head  of  modern 
 physicians.     From  his  multifarious  knowl- 
 edge, Boerhaave  has  been  called   the  Vol- 
 taire of  science.     He  died  September  the: 
 23d,    1738.      His    works   are   numerous; 
 among   the  principal  may  be    mentioned,! 
 Institutiones  Mediae;    Aphorismi  de  Cog-  i 
 noscendis     et     Curandis    Movbis;     Index 
 Plantarum ;    and  Elementa  Chimi.e. 
 
 BOETHIUS,AniciusManliusTor- 
 Quatus  Severinus,  a  Latin  statesman, 
 philosopher,    and   writer,   was  of  a  noble 
 Roman  family,  and  was  born    in  455.     He 
 was  thrice  consul,  and  was  for  many  years 
 a  favourite  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Goths. 
 His  zeal  fur  orthodoxy,  however,  at  length! 
 excited  the   anger  of  Theodoric,  who  was 
 an  Arian.     Boethius  was  unjustly  charged  : 
 with  treason,  his  property  was  confiscated, 
 and  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he 
 was  beheaded   in  526.     While  a  captive, 
 he  wrote  his  famous  Consolations  of  Phi- 
 losophy ;    a  work  which  has  been  transla-  j 
 ted  by  two  of  the  most  illustrious  of  the 
 British  sovereigns,  Alfred  and  Elizabeth.' 
 The  whole  of  his  compositions  occupy  two  I 
 folio  volumes. 
 
 BOETTCHER,  John  Frederic,  a 
 native  of  Brandenberg,  was  born  about  the  j 
 end  of  the  seventeenth   century;   he  lived  j 
 with   an  apothecary  at  Berlin,   where  he 
 studied   alchemy,   and  was  obliged   to  flyj 
 from  that  city,  in  consequence  of  a  report! 
 that  he  had  discovered  the  philosopher's  i 
 stone.     On    Boettcher's   taking  refuge    in 
 Saxony,  the  electors  shut  him  up  in  Ko-J 
 nigstein,  and  insisted  on  his  prosecuting , 
 his  search  for  the  long  sought  stone.     The1 
 alchemist  failed  of  course,  but  he  was  in- 
 demnified by  the  discovery  of  the  mode  of 
 making    that  beautiful    species    of  porce-  j 
 lain  which  is   now  known  as  the  Saxon  or 
 Dresden.     For   this  he  was  ennobled  by 
 the  elector.     He  died  in  1719. 
 
 BOGDANOVITSCH,  Hippolytus 
 Theodorovitsch,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
 tinguished Russian  literary  characters  of 
 the  reign  of  Catherine,  was  born  in  Little 
 Russia,  in  1743,  was  employed  as  a  diplo- 
 matist, and  in  other  official  situations,  and 
 
 BOI 
 
 died  ui  1S03.  He  is  the  author  of  various 
 works;  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
 Donschenka,  a  romantic  poem;  Russian 
 Proverbs;  the  Slavi,  a  drama;  and  an 
 Historical  Picture  of  Russia.  He  also 
 edited  two  journals,  intitled*  Innocent 
 Amusement,  and  the  St.  Petersburgh 
 Courier. 
 
 BOHEMOND,  Mark,  a  Norman  ad- 
 venturer, son  of  the  celebrated  Robert 
 Guiscard,  was  distinguished  in  his  youth, 
 by  deeds  of  arms,  in  Italy  and  the  eastern 
 empire,  which  he  surpassed  in  Palestine 
 during  the  first  crusade.  He  made  himself 
 master  of  Antioch,  in  1097,  and  founded 
 a  principality  which  existed  for  nearly 
 two  centuries.  He  was  taken  prisoner  in 
 Mesopotamia,  but  succeeded  in  obtaining 
 his  liberty  after  a  captivity  of  two  years. 
 While  taking  measures  to  renew  his  at- 
 tempts against  the  Greek  empire,  he  died, 
 in  1111,  in  Apulia. 
 
 BOIARDO,  Matteo  Maria,  Count 
 of  Scandiano,  an  Italian  poet,  was  born, 
 about  1434,  at  Scandiano,  in  the  duchy  of 
 Modena,  was  educated  at  Ferrara,  and 
 held  several  honourable  offices,  among 
 which  was  that  of  governor  of  Reggio. 
 He  died  at  Reggio,  in  1494.  Boiardo  is 
 the  author  of  several  productions  of  merit, 
 but  his  fame  rests  on  his  poem  of  Orlando 
 Innamorato,  which  was  the  first  example 
 of  epic  romance,  and  led  the  way  to  the 
 Orlando  of  Ariosto. 
 
 BOILEAU,  James,  an  elder  brother 
 of  the  celebrated  poet,  born  at  Paris,  in 
 1635,  was  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  a 
 canon,  and  dean  and  grand  vicar  of  Sens. 
 He  died  in  1716.  He  is  the  author  of 
 several  theological  and  other  works  in  the 
 Latin  language,  the  most  celebrated  of 
 which  is  the  Historia  Flagellantium. 
 James  Boileau,  like  his  brother,  was  caustic 
 and  witty.  Being  asked  why  he  always 
 wrote  in  Latin,  he  replied,  "  for  fear  the 
 bishops  should  read  me,  in  which  case  I 
 should  be  persecuted."  The  Jesuits  he 
 designated  as  men  "  who  lengthened  the 
 creed,  and  abridged  the  decalogue.'' 
 
 BOILEAU-DESPREAUX,  Nicho- 
 las, one  of  the  most  eminent  of  French 
 satirists  and  poets,  was  born,  in  1636,  at 
 Crone,  near  Paris.  In  his  youth  he  labour- 
 ed under  ill  health,  was  considered  as  good 
 natured  but  dull,  and  seems  to  have  been 
 slighted  by  his  relatives.  He  was  educated 
 for  the  bar,  and  received  as  an  advocate; 
 but  soon  deserted  the  profession,  to  the 
 great  annoyance  of  his  kindred,  particu- 
 larly of  his  brother  in  law,  Dongois,  who. 
 declared  that  Nicholas  would  be  nothing 
 but  a  fool  all  his  life.  In  the  study  of 
 divinity  he  was  not  more  successful.  At 
 length  he  devoted  himself  to  literature; 
 and,  at  the  age  of  thirty,  astonished  his 
 friends,  and  delighted  France,  by  his  first 
 
BOI 
 
 seven  Satires.  His  fame  was  at  once 
 established.  The  reputation  which  he  had 
 thus  acquired,  he  supported  by  the  publi- 
 cation of  additional  Satires,  the  Art  of 
 Poetry,  Epistles,  in  the  manner  of  Horace, 
 and  the  mock  heroic  poem  of  the  Lutrin. 
 The  latter  appeared  in  1674.  His  talents 
 gained  him  the  favour  of  Louis  XIV.,  who 
 gave  him  a  pension,  and  made  him  royal 
 historiographer,  in  conjunction  with  Ra- 
 cine, In  1684  he  became  a  member  of 
 the  French  Academy.  Till  the  close  of 
 his  days  Boileau  continued  in  habits  of 
 close  friendship  with  the  most  eminent  of 
 his  contemporaries;  and  though,  during 
 his  life,  and  since  his  decease,  many 
 attacks  have  been  made  on  him,  he  still 
 retains  his  lofty  station  on  the  French 
 Parnassus.  Boileau  is  to  France  that 
 which  Pope  is  to  England.  He  died,  on 
 the  13th  of  March,  1711,  of  a  dropsy  in 
 the  chest. 
 
 BOISROBERT, Francis  Metel  de, 
 a  French  wit  and  comic  writer,  was  born 
 at  Caen,  about  1592,  and  was  a  favourite 
 of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who,  among  other 
 benefices,  gave  him  the  abbey  of  Chatillon 
 sur  Seine.  Boisrobert,  however,  was  more 
 attentive  to  gaming,  good  living,  and  the- 
 atrical amusements,  than  to  clerical  duties. 
 He  died  in  1662.  His  poems  and  other 
 works,  including  eighteen  plays,  are  now 
 forgotten.  It  was  on  the  suggestion  of 
 Boisrobert  that  Richelieu  founded  the 
 French  Academy. 
 
 BOISSY,  Louis  de,  a  native  of  Vic,  in 
 Auvergne,  was  born  in  1694,  and  com- 
 menced his  literary  career  as  a  satirist; 
 but  soon  relinquished  satire,  and  became 
 a  writer  of  comedies.  Though  many  of 
 his  pieces,  which  are  forty  in  number, 
 were  eminently  successful,  he  sank  into 
 such  poverty,  that  he  and  his  wife  shut 
 themselves  up,  and  resolved  to  perish  of 
 hunger;  and  they  were  saved  only  by  the 
 chance  entrance  of  a  friend.  Hearing  of 
 this  circumstance,  Madam  de  Pompadour 
 patronised  the  unfortunate  author,  and  ob- 
 tained for  him  the  editorship  of  the  Gazette 
 de  France  and  of  the  Mercure.  Boissy 
 died  in  1758.  His  comedies  form  nine 
 volumes. 
 
 BOISSY  D'ANGLAS,  Francis  An- 
 thony, Count  de,  an  eminent  French 
 legislator  and  literary  character,  was  born 
 in  the  vicinity  of  Annonay,  in  1756,  and 
 originally  held  a  considerable  situation  in 
 the  household  of  Monsieur,  brother  of 
 Louis  XVI.  He  sat  in  the  national  assem- 
 bly, and  in  the  convention,  and  uniformly 
 displayed  a  pure  and  enlightened  love  of 
 liberty.  Few  men  passed  through  the 
 revolution  with  a  character  so  unstained 
 as  Boissy  d'Anglas.  When,  in  1795,  an 
 infuriated  jacobin  mob  broke  into  the  hall 
 of  the  convention,  while  he  was  sitting  a? 
 
 BOL 
 
 99 
 
 president,  and  a  hundred  muskets  were 
 pointed  at  him,  and  the  bleeding  head  of 
 one  of  his  colleagues  was  raised  to  his 
 face,  he  preserved  an  immovable  courage 
 and  dignity.  In  1797,  he  was  elected  a 
 member  of  the  council  of  five  hundred; 
 and,  in  September,  he  was  sentenced  to 
 banishment,  but  succeeded  in  escaping. 
 Napoleon  made  him  a  senator  and  com- 
 mander of  the  legion  of  honour.  Louis 
 XVIII.  created  him  a  peer,  in  1S14;  but 
 Boissy  having  subsequently  recognised  the 
 authority  of  Napoleon,  he  was  deprived  of 
 his  title.  It  was,  however,  soon  restored. 
 He  died  at  Paris,  in  1826.  He  was  the 
 author  of  various  tracts  and  published 
 speeches;  an  Essay  on  the  Life  of  Males- 
 herbes ;  and  the  Literary  and  Poetical 
 Studies  of  an  Old  Man,  or  Miscellany  of 
 Verse  and  Prose,  6  vols.  12mo. 
 
 BOLEN,  or  BOLEYN,  Anne,  daugh- 
 ter of  Sir  Thomas  Bolen,  was  born  in  1507, 
 attended,  when  only  seven  years  old,  the 
 Princess  Mary  to  France,  returned  thence 
 in  1527,  and  was  appointed  maid  of  honour 
 to  Catherine  of  Arragon.  The  lustful 
 tyrant  Henry  VIII.  became  enamoured  of 
 her,  and,  after  having  obtained  a  divorce, 
 married  Anne  in  1533.  In  September  she 
 gave  birth  to  a  princess,  afterwards  Queen 
 Elizabeth.  Having  transferred  his  affec- 
 tions to  Jane  Seymour,  Henry  accused  the 
 unfortunate  Anne  of  violating  the  marriage 
 vow,  and,  on  this  pretext,  she  was  be- 
 headed, May  the  19th,  1536. 
 
 BOLINGBROKE,  Henry  St.  John, 
 Lord  Viscount,  son  of  Sir  Henry  St.  John, 
 was  born  at  Battersea,  in  1672,  and  edu- 
 cated at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
 He  obtained  a  seat  in  parliament  in  1700, 
 and  in  1704  was  appointed  secretary  of 
 war  and  the  marines,  but  resigned  the 
 secretaryship  in  1707.  In  1710,  he  again 
 formed  a  part  of  the  ministry,  as  secretary 
 of  state,  and  had  a  principal  share  in  the 
 peace  of  Utrecht.  In  1712  he  was  created 
 Viscount  Bolingbroke;  but,  dissatisfied 
 with  not  having  obtained  an  earldom,  and 
 with  other  circumstances,  he  became  the 
 enemy  of  his  colleague  Harley,  of  whom  he 
 had  long  been  the  friend.    On  the  accession 
 
100 
 
 BOL 
 
 of  George  I.   an  impeachment  of  Boling- 
 broke  being  meditated,  he  fled  to  France. 
 and,  at  length,  accepted  the  office  of  secre- 
 tary to  the  pretender.     He  was  soon,  bow- 
 ever,  dismissed  from  this  new  sen  iee,  ami, 
 in    the    meanwhile,    had    been    impeached 
 and   attainted  in  England.     After  a  resi- 
 dence   in    France  till    1723,  he   was  par-j 
 doned,  and  his  estates  were  restored,  bntj 
 he  was  not   allowed   to   sit   in  the  house  of 
 peers.     More   indignant  at  this  exclusion 
 than    gratified  by  his  pardon,  he  became 
 one  of  the  chief  opponents  of  Sir  R.  Wal- 
 pole,  and  by  the  power  of  his  pen  contri- 
 buted   greatly   to    the    overthrow    of  that] 
 minister.     In  1735,  he  again  withdrew  to,' 
 France,  and   remained  there  till  the  death  i 
 of  his  father,  after  which  event  he  sett  lid 
 at  Battersea,  where    he  resided  till  1751, 
 when   he   died  of   a    cancer    in    the    face. 
 Bolingbroke    was  intimate    with    and  be- 
 loved by  Pope,  Swift,  and  the   most  emi- 
 nent men  of  his  age;   his  talents  were  of 
 the   first   order ;   he    possessed    great    elo- ! 
 quence;   and,  in  point  of  style,  his  writings  ! 
 rank  among  the  best  in  the   English  lan- 
 guage.    His  compositions  were  published 
 by  Mallet  in  five  quarto  volumes. 
 
 BOLIVAR,  SlMON,    the  great  captain! 
 ot  South  America,  was  born  in  the  city  of 
 Caracas    in    1783.      After    acquiring    the  | 
 first  elements  of  a  liberal  education  at  home,  I 
 he  repaired  to  Europe  to  complete  his  stu- 
 dies at   Madrid.     From   Spain  he    passed 
 into  France,  and  resided  for  a  considerable 
 period  at  Paris,  where  he   was  a   witness! 
 of  some   of  the  later  events  of  the  revolu- 1 
 tion.     He    returned   to    Madrid    in    1802, 
 where  he  married  the  daughter  of  Don  B. ! 
 Toro,  and  embarked  with  her  for  America) 
 in  1809.     He  lived  for  a  while  in  a  retired 
 manner    on    his    estates  at   Caracas,    but  | 
 the  premature   death   of  his   wife   induced 
 hirn  again  to  visit  Europe  as  a  relief  to  his! 
 sorrow  for   her  loss.     On   his    return,   lie 
 was  one  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  revo- 
 lutionary movements  in  Caracas  in  1810, ' 
 and  received   a  colonel's  commission  from  \ 
 the  new  patriotic  government.     He  gradu- 
 ally rose  by  the   weight  of  his  talents  and 
 services   to   higher    offices,    and    in  1S14, 
 a   convention    of  the    principal    civil    and! 
 military    officers     at     Caracas     confirmed 
 the  dictatorial   powers  that  circumstances! 
 had  already  thrown  upon  him.     After  va- 
 rious   reverses  of  fortune   in  the  patriotic 
 cause,  Bolivar,  in  1816,  was  recognized  asi 
 supreme  chief,  and  before  the  close  of  the 
 ensuing  year   had   fixed   his  head-quarters 
 at  Angostura.     The  campaign  of  1819  was 
 distinguished  by  several  splendid  victories, 
 and   Bolivar  was  universally  hailed  as  the 
 liberator  and  father  of  his  country.    Taking 
 advantage    of  the    favourable   moment,  he 
 obtained   the  passage  of  a  law,  by  which 
 the  republics  of  New  Grenada  and  Vene- 
 
 BOL 
 
 zuela  were  united  in  a  single  state  under 
 the  title  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia.  The 
 present  constitution  was  adopted  in  1821, 
 and  Bolivar  was  chosen  the  first  president 
 In  1825  he  was  declared  perpetual  pro- 
 tector of  the  republic  of  Bolivia,  a  state 
 which  had  detached  itself  from  the  govern- 
 ment of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  been  named  in 
 honour  of  the  liberator.  For  this  republic 
 he  was  requested  to  prepare  a  constitution; 
 which  he  accordingly  completed,  and  pre- 
 sented to  the  congress  of  Bolivia  in  May, 
 
 1826.  This  famous  code  was  accompanied 
 by  an  address  expressive  of  his  sentiments 
 in  respect  to  the  form  of  government  ne- 
 cessary for  the  new  republics  of  the  South. 
 Some,  of  the  provisions  of  this  code  were 
 considered  anti -republican,  and  excited 
 the  liveliest  apprehensions  among  the 
 friends  of  liberty.  A  rebellion  now  de- 
 manded his  immediate  return  to  Colombia, 
 where  all  signs  of  insurrection  vanished  at 
 his  approach.  Bolivar  had  been  re-elected 
 to  the  office  of  president,  and  should  have 
 been   qualified   anew  as  such  in    January 
 
 1827.  But  in  February  he  addressed  a 
 letter  to  the  president  of  the  senate,  re- 
 nouncing the  presidency  of  the  republic, 
 and  declaring  his  intention  to  repel  the 
 accusations  that  had  been  made  against 
 him,  by  a  voluntary  retirement.  Notwith- 
 standing the  distrust  of  Bolivar  entertained 
 by  the  friends  of  the  republic,  he  was  re- 
 appointed to  the  presidency,  and  again 
 accepted  it,  taking  the  oaths  prescribed  by 
 the  constitution,  in  the  September  follow- 
 ing, at  Bogota.  In  1828  he  assumed  the 
 chief  power  in  Colombia,  by  a  decree, 
 dated  Bogota,  Aug.  27,  which  invested 
 him  with  almost  unlimited  authority,  but 
 provided  that  he  was  to  be  assisted  m  the 
 exercise  of  executive  powers  by  the  coun- 
 cil of  ministers.  In  January,  1830,  Boli- 
 var issued  a  proclamation  resigning  his 
 military  and  political  offices;  and  in  May 
 the  constituent  congress  of  Colombia 
 elected  Joaquin  Mosquera  president.  In 
 the  September  following,  having  been  re- 
 appointed, Bolivar  accepted  the  presidency, 
 and  on  the  seventeenth  of  December  died 
 at  San  Pedro  Alejandrino,  a  country  seat 
 about  a  league  from  Santa  Martha.  His 
 body  was  embalmed  and  laid  in  state  for 
 three  days ;  the  people  flocking  in  crowds 
 to  look  upon  the  remains  of  their  liberator. 
 Four  days  previous  to  his  death,  he  issued 
 a  decree  to  the  citizens  of  Colombia,  which 
 concluded  in  the  following  words:  "  Co- 
 lombians— I  leave  you — but  my  last  prayers 
 are  offered  up  for  the  tranquillity  of  Colom- 
 bia— and  if  my  death  will  contribute  to 
 this  desirable  end,  by  a  discontinuance  of 
 party  feeling,  and  consolidate  the  union,  1 
 shall  descend  with  feelings  of  contentment 
 into  the  tomb  whidi  will  60on  be  prepared 
 for  me." 
 
BON 
 
 BOLLANDUS,  John,  a  Jesuit,  born 
 in  the  Netherlands,  in  1596,  was  chosen 
 by  his  fraternity  to  carry  into  effect  Ross- 
 weide's  plan  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  or 
 Lives  of  the  Saints.  He  completed  five 
 folio  volumes,  the  first  part  of  which  he 
 published  in  1643.  Since  his  decease,  in 
 1663,  the  work  has  been  continued,  by 
 Henschenius  and  others,  t<>  the  extent  of 
 fifty-three  volumes,  and  is  still  incomplete. 
 
 BOLTON,  Edward,  an  English  anti- 
 quary, the  time  of  whose  birth  and  death 
 is  unknown.  He  was  a  catholic,  and  a 
 retainer  of  the  first  duke  of  Buckingham. 
 Of  his  productions,  the  principal  is  Nero 
 Qtesar,  or  Monarchy  Depraved ;  a  curious 
 work,  which  was  published  in  1624,  and 
 dedicated  to  his  patron. 
 
 BOMBELLT,  Raphael,  one  of  the 
 most  celebrated  Italian  algebraists  of  the 
 sixteenth  century.  He  was  the  first  who 
 invented  a  uniform  method  of  resolving 
 equations.  His  Treatise  of  Algebra  was 
 printed  at  Bologna,  in  1572  and  1579. 
 
 BONA,  or  BONNA,  a  shepherdess  of 
 the  Valteline,  was  first  the  mistress,  and 
 subsequently  the  wife,  of  Peter  Bruuoro, 
 an  Italian  warrior.  She  gave  numerous 
 proofs  of  heroic  courage.  In  the  wars  of 
 the  Venetians  she  greatly  distinguished 
 herself,  particularly  in  taking  by  assault 
 the  castle  of  Pavona.  She  assisted  her 
 husband  in  defending  Negropont,  and,  after 
 his  death,  expelled  the  Turks  from  the 
 island.     She  died  in  1466. 
 
 BONAPARTE.     See  Napoleon. 
 
 BONARELLI  DELL A  ROVERE, 
 Guy  Ubaldo,  an  Italian  diplomatist  and 
 literary  character,  was  born  at  TJrbino,  in 
 1563,  was  employed  in  many  important 
 negotiations  by  the  dukes  of  Modena  and 
 Ferrara,  and  died  in  1608.  His  pastoral 
 of  Phillis  of  Scyros,  which  is  considered 
 as  standing  next  in  merit  to  the  Aminta 
 and  the  Faithful  Shepherd,  is  his  princi- 
 pal work. 
 
 BONARELLI  DELLA  ROVERE, 
 Prosper,  brother  of  Guy  Ubaldo,  died  at 
 Ancona,  in  1659.  He  is  the  author  of 
 Soliman,  a  tragedy,  nine  musical  dramas, 
 and  various  comedies,  letters,  and  miscel- 
 laneous poems. 
 
 BON  CHAMP,  Arthur  de,  a  cele- 
 brated general  of  the  Vendean  royalists, 
 was  born  in  Anjou,  in  1759,  and  3erved 
 with  distinction  in  the  army,  during  the 
 American  war.  In  1793,  he  was  chosen 
 one  of  the  principal  Vendean  leaders,  and 
 he  distinguished  himself  by  his  talents  and 
 valour  in  numerous  combats.  On  the  17th 
 of  October,  1793,  he  was  mortally  wounded 
 at  the  battle  of  Chollet.  Bonchamp  was  a 
 man  of  abilities  and  humanity.  The  last 
 act  of  his  life  was  the  saving  of  five  thou- 
 sand prisoners,  whom  the  exasperated 
 royalists  were  about  to  massacre. 
 
 BON 
 
 101 
 
 BOND,  John,  a  critic  and  grammarian, 
 was  born  in  Somersetshire,  in  1550,  was 
 educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford,  be- 
 came  master  of  Taunton  grammar  school, 
 and  afterwards  a  physician,  and  died  in 
 1612.  He  wrote  Annotations  on  Horace 
 and  Persius. 
 
 BONER,  a  German  fabulist,  who  lived 
 in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  century, 
 of  whose  life  no  particulars  are  recorded. 
 His  Fables,  partly  borrowed  from  the  Latin, 
 form  a  valuable  portion  of  what  has  been 
 handed  down  to  us  of  the  poems  of  the 
 Minnesinger.  The  first  edition  of  them 
 appeared  in  1461,  and  is  one  of  the  earliest 
 printed  books. 
 
 BONIFACE,  St.,  whose  real  name  was 
 Wilfrid,  was  born  at  Crediton,  in  De- 
 vonshire, about  a.  d.  680;  travelled, 
 about  716,  through  many  parts  of  Germany 
 (of  which  he  is  called  the  apostle),  to  con- 
 vert the  heathens ;  was  consecrated  a 
 bishop,  at  Rome,  by  Gregory  II.  in  723; 
 returned  to  Germany,  and  reclaimed  the 
 Bavarians  from  paganism ;  and  was,  finally, 
 massacred  in  Friesland,  in  755. 
 
 BONINGTON,  Richard  Parkes,  a 
 painter,  who  died,  in  1802,  at  the  early 
 age  of  twenty-six,  was  born  in  London, 
 was  first  a  pupil  of  Gros,  at  Paris,  and 
 afterwards  studied  in  Italy.  Bonington 
 was  a  man  of  genius,  and  his  premature 
 (■tth  was  a  heavy  loss  to  the  pictorial  art. 
 He  excelled  in  various  departments  of 
 painting.  Among  his  finest  pictures  is  a 
 view  on  the  great  canal  of  Venice. 
 
 BONNEFONS,  or  BONNEFONIUS, 
 John,  a  Latin  erotic  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1554,  at  Clermont,  in  Auvergne;  studied 
 civil  law,  under  Cujas;  practised  as  a 
 barrister ;  was  made  lieutenant-general  of 
 the  bailiwick  of  Bar-sur-Seine ;  and  died 
 in  1614.  His  collection  of  amatory  poems, 
 under  the  title  of  Pancharis,  ranks  him 
 among  the  best  modern  writers  in  the  Ro- 
 man language. 
 
 BONNER,  Edmund,  a  prelate,"  damn- 
 ed to  everlasting  fame,"  under  the  appel- 
 lation of  "  bloody  bishop  Bonner,"  was 
 the  son  of  a  peasant,  at  Hanley,  in  Wor- 
 cestershire, and  was  educated  at  Pembroke 
 College,  Oxford.  Henry  VIII.  made  him 
 his  chaplain,  bishop  of  Hereford,  and  then 
 of  London,  and  employed  him  on  embas- 
 sies to  France,  Germany,  and  the  pope. 
 He  was  imprisoned  and  deprived  of  his 
 bishopric,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. ; 
 but  was  restored  by  Mary,  and  signalised 
 himself  by  his  vindictive  and  persecuting 
 spirit.  Queen  Elizabeth  imprisoned  him  in 
 the  Marshalsea,  and  he  died  there,  in  1569, 
 after  ten  years'  confinement.  Bonner  was 
 a  man  of  learning  and  talent;  but  so  san- 
 guinary, that,  in  allusion  to  his  excessive 
 corpulence,  he  was  said  to  have  abundance 
 of  guts,  but  no  bowels. 
 
102  BON  BOO 
 
 BONNET,  or  BONET,  Theophilu?,  I  tioned  his  Treatises  on  Geometry,  Tngo- 
 
 a  physician,  was  born  at  Geneva,  in  1620, 
 where  he  died  in  1689.  His  fame  princi- 
 pally rests  on  his  having  been  the  first 
 pathological  anatomist.  The  work  which 
 gives  him  this  claim  is  named  Sepulchre- 
 turn,  sen  Anatomia  Practica.  He  also 
 wrote  Pharos  Medicorum,  and  compiled 
 various  medical  treatises. 
 
 BONNET,  Charles,  a  celebrated  na- 
 turalist, was  born  at  Geneva,  in  1720,  and 
 was  designed  for  the  law,  but  was  inspired 
 with  an  irrepressible  love  of  natural  his- 
 tory, by  chancing  to  peruse  a  book  on  that 
 science.  His  whole  subsequent  life  was 
 devoted  to  natural  history  and  physiology, 
 and  his  discoveries  were  numerous.  He 
 died  of  a  dropsy  in  the  chest,  May  the 
 20th,  1793.  His  works  form  nine  vol- 
 umes in  quarto,  and  many  of  them  have 
 been  translated  into  various  languages. 
 The  Contemplation  of  Nature,  two  volumes 
 octavo,  is  one  of  his  most  popi  lar  produc- 
 tions. 
 
 BONNEVAL,  Claude  Alexander, 
 Count  de,  born  in  1675,  of  a  noble  Limou- 
 sin family,  sigualized  his  valour  under 
 Tourville,  Catinat,  and  VendOme ;  quitted 
 his  country  in  consequence  of  a  dispute 
 with  the  minister  Chamillard;  entered  the 
 Austrian  service;  and  bore  a  distinguished 
 part  in  many  achievements,  particularly 
 in  forcing  the  lines  before  Turin,  and  de- 
 feating the  Turks  at  Pelerwaradin.  An 
 1720,  his  haughty  and  intractable  dispo- 
 sition involved  him  in  a  quarrel  with  the 
 court  of  Vienna,  and  he  was  compelled  to 
 fly.  He  took  refuge  in  Turkey,  where  he 
 became  a  Mahometan,  under  the  name  of 
 Achmet  Pacha,  and  was  made  master  of 
 the  ordnance.  He  died  in  1747,  at  the 
 moment  when  he  was  said  to  be  intending 
 to  escape  from  the  Turkish  dominions. 
 
 BONNIVET,  William  Gouffier 
 de,  admiral  of  France,  distinguished  him- 
 self at  the  siege  of  Genoa,  in  1507,  and  at 
 the  battle  of  Spurs,  in  1513.  Francis  I. 
 also  employed  him  as  a  negotiator  in  Eng- 
 land and  Germany.  Bonnivet  afterwards 
 commanded  in  Spain  and  the  Milanese, 
 opposed  peace,  committed  many  military 
 faults,  and  fell,  at  last,  at  the  battle  of  Pa- 
 via,  in  1525,  which  was  fought  by  his  ad- 
 vice. It  was  mainly  by  his  intrigues  that 
 the  constable  of  Bourbon  was  driven  into 
 rebellion 
 
 BONNYCASTLE,  John,  was  a  native 
 of  Whitchurch,  in  Bucks,  and,  after  hav- 
 ing been  tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  earl  of  Pom- 
 fret,  was  appointed  one  of  the  mathemati- 
 cal masters  at  Woolwich.  He  resided 
 there  for  forty  years,  and  became  professor 
 of  mathematics  to  the  Royal  Military 
 Academy.  He  died  in  1821.  As  a  man 
 of  science  he  enjoys  a  deserved  reputation. 
 Among  his  various  works    may  be  men- 
 
 nometrv,   Algebra,   and  Astronomy;    and 
 his  contributions  to  Rees's  Cyclopaedia. 
 
 BONOMI,  Joseph,  an  architect,  was 
 a  native  of  Italy,  but  spent  a  great  part 
 of  his  life  in  England,  and  was  one  of  the 
 associates  of  the  Royal  Academy.  His 
 architectural  talents  were  of  a  high  order. 
 He  died  in  March,  1S08,  at  the  age  of 
 sixty-nine. 
 
 BOONE,  Daniel,  one  of  the  earliest 
 settlers  in  Kentucky,  was  born  in  Virginia, 
 and  was  from  infancy  addicted  to  limiting 
 in  the  woods.  He  set  out  on  an  expedi- 
 tion to  explore  the  region  of  Kentucky, 
 in  May,  1769,  with  five  companions.  Af- 
 ter meeting  with  a  variety  of  adventures, 
 Boone  was  left  with  his  brother,  the  only 
 white  men  in  the  wilderness.  They  passed 
 the  winter  in  a  cabin,  and  in  the  summer 
 of  1770  traversed  the  country  to  the  Cum- 
 berland river.  In  September,  1773,  Boone 
 commenced  his  removal  to  Kentucky  with 
 his  own  and  five  other  families.  He  was 
 joined  by  forty  men,  who  put  themselves 
 under  his  direction;  but  being  attacked  by 
 the  Indians,  the  whole  party  returned  to 
 the  settlements  on  Clinch  river.  Boone 
 was  afterwards  employed  by  a  company  of 
 North  Carolina,  to  buy,  from  the  Indians, 
 lands  on  the  south  side  of  the  Kentucky  river. 
 In  April,  1775,  he  built  a  fort  at  salt- 
 spring,  where  Boonesborough  is  now  situ- 
 ated. Here  he  sustained  several  sieges 
 from  the  Indians,  and  was  once  taken  pris- 
 oner by  them  while  hunting  with  a  number 
 of  his  men.  In  1782  the  depredations  of 
 the  savages  increased  to  an  alarming  ex- 
 tent, and  Boone,  with  other  militia  officers, 
 collected  176  men,  and  went  in  pursuit  of 
 a  large  body,  who  had  marched  beyond  the 
 Blue  Licks,  forty  miles  from  Lexington. 
 From  that  time  till  1798,  he  resided  alter- 
 nately in  Kentucky  and  Virginia.  Tn  that 
 year,  having  received  a  grant  of  2000 
 acres  of  land  from  the  Spanish  authorities, 
 he  removed  to  Upper  Louisiana,  with  his 
 children  and  followers,  who  were  presented 
 with  800  acres  each.  He  settled  with 
 them  at  Charette,  on  the  Missouri  river, 
 where  he  followed  his  usual  course  of  life, 
 — hunting  and  trapping  bears, — till  Sep- 
 tember, 1822,  when  he  died  in  the  eighty- 
 fifth  year  of  his  age.  He  expired  while 
 on  his  knees,  taking  aim  at  some  object, 
 and  was  found  in  that  position,  with  his 
 gun  resting  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 
 
 BOOTH,  Barton,  a  celebrated  actor 
 in  the  reigns  of  Anne  and  George  I.,  was 
 born,  in  1681,  in  Lancashire,  and  was  edu- 
 cated at  Westminster  school,  under  Dr. 
 Busby.  At  the  age  of  seventeen,  how- 
 ever, he  joined  a  strolling  company  of 
 players;  his  talents,  at  length,  gained  him 
 a  footing  on  the  regular  theatre;  his  popu- 
 larity continually  increased ;   and  his  per- 
 
BOR 
 
 fbfmance  of  Cato,  in  1712,  set  the  seal 
 upon  his  histrionic  reputation.  In  1715, 
 ne  became  one  of  the  joint  patentees  and 
 managers  of  Drury  Lane  theatre.  He  di- 
 ed in  1733.  Booth  was  the  author  of  a 
 mask  called  Dido  and  Eneas,  and  of  some 
 eongs  and  minor  pieces. 
 
 BORDA,  John  Charles,  a  celebra- 
 ted mathematician  and  astronomer,  was 
 born  at  Dax,  in  Gascony,  in  1733;  served 
 as  an  engineer  in  the  French  army  in  1757; 
 then  became  a  naval  officer;  accompanied 
 Pingre,  in  1771,  on  a  voyage  to  the  South 
 Sea,  to  make  experiments  on  timekeepers ; 
 was  captain  of  the  Solitaire,  in  1781,  and 
 displayed  great  gallantry  in  an  action  with 
 the  English ;  was  employed  with  Delam- 
 bre  and  Mechain  in  measuring  an  arc  of 
 the  meridian;  and  died  in  March,  1799. 
 He  invented  the  reflecting  circle,  and  a 
 mensuration  rod,  and  made  many  improve- 
 ments in  hydraulics,  and  experiments  to 
 determine  the  length  of  the  pendulum. 
 
 BORDE,  or  BOORDE,  Andrew,  a 
 physician,  born  at  Pevensey,  about  1500, 
 was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  travelled  all 
 over  Christendom,  and  a  part  of  Africa. 
 He  settled  at  Winchester,  and  afterwards 
 at  London,  at  which  latter  city  he  died  in 
 the  Fleet,  in  1549.  He  is  the  author  of 
 various  works,  among  which  are  a  Book 
 of  the  Introduction  of  Knowledge ;  the 
 Breviary  of  Health ;  and  Merrye  Tales  of 
 the  Madmen  of  Gotham. 
 
 BORDELON,  Laurence,  a  volumin- 
 ous writer  of  novels,  dramas,  and  miscel- 
 laneous works,  was  born  at  Bourges,  in 
 1653,  and  died  at  Paris,  in  1730.  Of  his 
 works  the  best  known  are,  Curious  Varie- 
 ties; the  Extravagant  Fancies  of  M. 
 Ouffle;  and  Dialogues  of  the  Living.  In 
 company  one  day,  Bordelon  said,  "  my 
 works  are  my  deadly  sins;"  to  which  a 
 bystander  replied,  "  the  public  does  pen- 
 ance for  them." 
 
 BORELLI,  John  Alphonso,  a  phi- 
 losopher and  mathematician,  was  born  in 
 1608,  studied  at  Rome,  and  became  pro- 
 fessor of  natural  philosophy  and  mathe- 
 matics at  Pisa  and  Florence.  From  the 
 latter  city  he  went  to  Messina,  where  he 
 had  once  held  a  professorship;  but,  in 
 1674,  he  was  banished  from  it  for  political 
 reasons.  He  settled  at  Rome,  and  died 
 there  in  1679.  He  was  the  first  who  ap- 
 plied mathematical  calculation  and  me- 
 chanical principles  to  explain  muscular 
 action.  Among  his  numerous  produc- 
 tions, his  posthumous  work,  De  Motu  Ani- 
 malium,  is  the  only  one  which  is  remem- 
 bered . 
 
 BORGHESE,  Marie  Pauline,  prin- 
 eess,  originally  Bonaparte,  sister  of  Na- 
 poleon, was  born  in  1780,  at  Ajaccio. 
 Her  first  husband  was  general  Leclerc, 
 and,  after  his  death  in  1802,  she  married 
 
 BOR 
 
 103 
 
 the  prince  Camillo  Borghese.  With  Na- 
 poleon, who  loved  her  tenderly,  she  had 
 many  disputes,  and  as  many  reconcilia- 
 tions; for  if  he  was  capricious,  she  was 
 also  proud.  Before  the  battle  of  Water- 
 loo she  placed  all  her  diamonds,  which 
 were  of  great  value,  at  his  disposal;  and 
 they  were  in  his  carriage,  which  was  ta- 
 ken in  that  battle,  and  exhibited  in  Lon- 
 don. She  lived,  afterwards,  separated 
 from  her  husband,  at  Rome;  where  her 
 house  was  the  centre  of  refined  and  fash- 
 ionable society.  She  died  at  Florence,  in 
 June,  1825. 
 
 BORGIA,  Cesar,  the  wicked  offspring 
 of  a  wicked  parent,  was  the  natural  son  of 
 Pope  Alexander  VI.  His  father  made 
 him  an  archbishop  and  cardinal ;  but  he 
 was  afterwards  secularized,  and  the  French 
 king  created  him  duke  of  Valentinois. 
 He  is  said  to  have  caused  his  brother,  and 
 several  other  persons,  to  be  assassinated. 
 After  having  performed  many  splendid 
 military  actions,  and  sustained  many  re- 
 verses of  fortune,  he  was  slain,  in  1507,  at 
 the  siege  of  Viana. 
 
 BORJA,  or  BORGIA,  Francis  DE,a 
 Spanish  poet  and  statesman,  a  descendant 
 from  Pope  Alexander  VI. ,  was  appointed 
 viceroy  of  Peru,  in  1614,  and  governed 
 that  province  in  a  manner  which  was 
 honourable  to  him.  He  returned  to  Spain 
 in  1621,  and  cultivated  literature  till  his 
 decease,  which  occurred  in  1638.  As  a 
 poet,  he  is  most  esteemed  for  his  lyrical 
 compositions, 
 
 BORLACE,  Edmund,  the  son  of  one  of 
 the  lords  justices  of  Ireland,  was  educated 
 at  Dublin,  and  settled  as  a  physician  at 
 Chester,  where  he  died  in  1682.  His 
 principal  work  is  a  History  of  the  Irish 
 Rebellion. 
 
 BORLASE,  William,  an  antiquary 
 and  topographer,  was  born,  in  1695,  at 
 Pendeen,  in  Cornwall,  was  educated  at 
 Oxford,  and,  till  the  end  of  his  days,  was 
 rector  of  Ludgvan  and  vicar  of  St.  Just, 
 in  his  native  country.  The  first  of  these 
 preferments  he  obtained  in  1722.  In  1749 
 he  was  made  F.  R.  S.  and,  in  1766,  LL.  D. 
 He  died  in  1772.  His  chief  works  are, 
 the  Antiquities  of  Cornwall ;  Observations 
 on  the  Scilly  Islands;  and  a  Natural  His- 
 tory of  Cornwall. 
 
 BORN,  Ignatius,  Baron,  a  mineralo- 
 gist and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born, 
 in  1742,  at  Calrsburg,  in  Transylvania, 
 and,  in  1772,  obtained  an  appointment  in 
 the  department  of  the  mines  at  Prague. 
 His  mineralogical  talents  induced  the  Em- 
 press Maria  Theresa,  to  fix  him  at  Vienna, 
 and  he  was  in  high  favour  with  her  suc- 
 cessor Joseph  II.  He  died  in  August, 
 1791.  Born  was  a  zealous  member  of  the 
 Illuminati,  and  poignantly  ridiculed  the 
 monks  in  his  Monachologia.     His  works 
 
104 
 
 BOS 
 
 principally  relate  to  mineralogy  and  min- 
 ing, and  are  much  valued.  The  process  of 
 amalgamation  was  greatlv  improved  bv  him. 
 
 BORROMEO,  Charles,  a  cardinal, 
 justly  celebrated  for  his  virtues,  was  of  an 
 illustrious  Lombard  family,  and  was  born, 
 in  1538,  at  the  castle  of  Arona,  in  the  Mi-I 
 lanese.     He  was  created   a   cardinal   and] 
 archbishop   of   Milan,   by   his  uncle  Pope  | 
 Pius  I V\     He  was  a  model  of  piety  and  of  j 
 charity,  and  a  munificent  patron  of  learn- 
 ing.    His  efforts   to  reform  the  monastic 
 orders   drew  on  him  the    vengeance  of  a 
 fanatical  monk,  who   attempted,  but,  hap- 
 pily, without  success,  to  assassinate  him. 
 Borromeo  died    in  1584;    in  1610,  he  was 
 canonized;   and  in  1697  a  colossal  bronze 
 statue    of   him,    sixty-six    feet    high,  was 
 erected  at  Arona.     His  theological  works 
 occupy  five  folio  volumes. 
 
 BORROMEO,  Frederic,  cousin 
 german  of  Cardinal  Charles,  was  also  a 
 cardinal,  created  in  1587,  and  archbishop 
 of  Milan  in  1595.  He  died  in  1631,  at 
 the  age  of  sixty-eight.  He  founded  the 
 famous  Anibrosian  library,  and  two  Acad- 
 emies, at  Milan;  is  the  author  of  various 
 theological  works;  and  emulated  his  cousin 
 in  piety  and  virtue. 
 
 BORROMINI,  Francis,  an  Italian 
 architect,  was  born  at  Bissona,  in  the 
 Milanese,  in  1599,  wasa  pupil  of  Maderno, 
 and  succeeded  him  as  architect  at  St. 
 Peter's  at  Rome.  His  public  works  are 
 numerous;  but,  though  he  was  of  undoubt- 
 ed talent,  his  taste  was  faulty.  Jealousy 
 of  his  rival  Bernini's  success  is  said  to 
 have  rendered  him  insane,  and,  in  a  fit  of 
 frenzy,  he  put  an  end  to  his  own  existence, 
 in  1667. 
 
 BOS,  Lambert,  an  eminent  philologer 
 and  scholar,  was  born,  in  1670,  at  Wor- 
 cmo,  in  Friesland;  became  a  Greek  pro- 
 fessor at  Franeker,  in  1704;  and  died,  of 
 consumption,  in  1717.  His  most  popular 
 production  is  an  excellent  work  on  Greek 
 ellipses.  He  published  an  edition  of  the 
 Septuagint,  with  a  prolegomena  and  vari- 
 ous readings. 
 
 BOSC,  Louis  Augustus  William, 
 a  French  naturalist  and  agricultural  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1759,  at  Paris,  and  died 
 there  in  1828.  In  1784  he  was  appointed! 
 secretary  of  the  post  office,  and  was  sub- 
 sequently promoted  to  a  still  higher  sta- 
 tion in  that  office.  In  1793  he  was  driven 
 from  his  place  by  the  jacobins,  and  he  took 
 up  his  residence  in  the  forest  of  Montmo- 
 renci,  where  he  lived  for  three  years  in 
 solitude,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
 of  natural  history,  to  which  he  had  always 
 been  partial.  His  latter  years  were  wholly 
 devoted  to  science.  Among  his  numerous 
 works  are  a  History  of  Shells,  Worms, 
 &c. ;  two  Dictionaries  of  Agriculture;  and 
 a  New  Dictionary  of  Natural  History. 
 
 BOS 
 
 BOSCAN-ALMOGAVER,    John,    a 
 
 celebrated  Spanish  poet,  was  born  at  Bar- 
 celona, in  1494,  served  in  the  army  when 
 young,  and  was  admitted  to  the  court  of 
 Charles  V.,  who  valued  him  much.  He 
 was  also  entrusted  with  the  education  of 
 the  duke  of  Alba.  The  use  of  hendeca- 
 syllabic  verse  was  introduced  by  him  into 
 the  Spanish  language,  or,  at  least,  was 
 rendered  popular.  His  poems  were  print- 
 ed in  conjunction  with  those  of  his  friend 
 Garcilasso. 
 
 BOSCAWEN,  Edward,  a  brave  and 
 skilful  admiral,  second  son  of  Viscount 
 Falmouth,  was  born,  in  1711,  in  Corn- 
 wall, entered  the  navy  early,  and  in  1740 
 obtained  the  command  of  the  Shoreham, 
 whence,  in  1744,  he  was  removed  to  the 
 Dreadnought.  He  distinguished  himself 
 at  Porto-Bello  and  Carthasrena,  and,  under 
 Anson,  in  the  battle  off  Cape  Finisterre. 
 Being  made  rear-admiral,  and  sent  with  a 
 squadron  to  the  East  Indies,  he  failed  in 
 an  attempt  on  Pondicherry,  but  took  Ma- 
 dras. On  his  return,  he  was  appointed 
 one  of  the  admiralty  board.  In  1755,  he 
 captured  two  sail  of  the  line;  in  1758,  as- 
 sisted in  reducing  Louisbourg;  and  in  1759, 
 completely  defeated  a  French  fleet  off 
 Cape  Lagos.  A  pension,  the  thanks  of 
 parliament,  and  the  rank  of  general  of  the 
 marines,  were  the  rewards  of  these  servi- 
 ces.    He  died  in  January,  1761. 
 
 BOSCAWEN,  William,  a  nephew  of 
 the  admiral,  was  born  in  1752,  and  edu- 
 cated at  Eton,  Oxford,  and  the  Middle 
 Temple;  became  a  commissioner  of  bank- 
 rupts and  of  the  victualling  board;  and 
 died  in  1811.  He  published  a  Translation 
 of  Horace ;  the  Progress  of  Satire  ;  and  a 
 Treatise  of  Convictions  on  Penal  Statutes. 
 
 BOSCOVICH,  Roger  Joseph,  a  na- 
 tive of  Ragusa,  born  in  1711,  was  educa- 
 ted by  the  Jesuits,  at  Rome,  entered  their 
 order,  and  displayed  such  early  talents, 
 that,  even  before  he  had  completed  his 
 studies,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
 mathematics  and  philosophy  at  the  Roman 
 College.  He  was  employed  by  Pius  VI. 
 on  various  public  undertakings;  among 
 others,  the  draining  of  the  Pontine  marshes ; 
 and  was  afterwards  patronised  by  the  grand 
 duke  of  Tuscany,  and  the  king  of  France, 
 the  latter  of  whom  gave  him  the  place  of 
 director  of  optics  for  the  navy.  Bosco- 
 vich  died  at  Milan,  in  1787.  His  collective 
 philosophical  works  form  five  quarto  vol- 
 umes. Among  them  is  a  very  elegant  Latin 
 poem  on  eclipses.  , 
 
 BOSSU,  Rene  le,  a  French  critic, 
 born  at  Paris,  in  1631,  died  in  1680,  sub- 
 prior  of  the  abbey  of  St.  John  of  Chartres. 
 His  principal  work  is  a  Treatise  on  Epic 
 Poetry,  which  was  once  popular,  but  ii 
 now  almost  forgotten. 
 
 BOSSUET,  James  Benignus,  one  of 
 
BOS 
 
 the  most  eloquent  of  French  preachers,  and 
 Acute  of  controversialists,  was  born,  in 
 1627,  at  Dijon,  and  after  having  studied 
 at  the  college  of  Navarre,  he  became  canon 
 of  Metz.  From  Metz  his  reputation  spread 
 to  the  capital,  and  he  was  invited  to  Paris, 
 to  preach  before  the  queen  mother  and  the 
 king.  There  his  fame  .soon  eclipsed  that 
 of  all  his  predecessors  and  contemporaries. 
 In  1669ne  was  made  bishop  of  Condom ; 
 in  1670  preceptor  to  the  dauphin;  and,  in 
 1681 ,  bishop  of  Meaux.  He  died  in  1704. 
 His  Funeral  Orations  are  masterpieces  of 
 eloquence ;  and  in  his  controversy  with  the 
 protestants  be  displays  admirable  learning 
 and  skill.  Of  his  works,  which  form 
 twenty  quarto  volumes,  the  principal  are 
 his  Sermons;  Discourse  on  Universal  His- 
 tory; Exposition  of  the  Catholic  Faith; 
 and  History  of  the  Variations  of  the  Pro- 
 testant Churches. 
 
 BOSSUT,  Charles,  an  eminent  ma- 
 thematician, was  born  in  the  Lyonese,  in 
 1730,  studied  in  the  Jesuits'  college  at  Ly- 
 ons, was  taught  mathematics  by  d'Alem- 
 bert,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  was 
 professor  of  the  engineers'  school  at  Metz. 
 He  died  in  1814,  universally  regretted, 
 both  as  an  individual  and  as  a  man  of  sci- 
 ence. His  chief  works  are,  a  History  of 
 Mathematics;  and,  a  Course  of  Mathema- 
 tics ;  the  last  of  which  is  highly  popular. 
 
 BOSTON,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  divine, 
 was  born  at  Dunse,  in  1676,  and  died  min- 
 ister of  Ettrick,  in  1732.  He  is  chiefly 
 remembered  by  his  Human  Nature  in  its 
 Fourfold  State;  a  work  which  has  gone 
 through  numerous  editions. 
 
 BOT 
 
 105 
 
 BOSWELL,  James,  the  biographer  of 
 Dr.  Johnson,  was  the  son  of  a  Scotch 
 judge,  and  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  in  1740. 
 In  1763  he  began  his  travels,  in  the  course 
 of  which  he  visited  Corsica.  Of  that 
 island  he  afterwards  gave  an  account,  with 
 Memoirs  of  General  Paoli.  Having  been 
 admitted  an  advocate  of  the  Scottish  courts, 
 he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  celebrated 
 Douglas  cause,  and  also  wrote  a  pamphlet 
 on  the  subject.  In  1773  he  attended  John- 
 eon  to  the  Hebrides;  an  excursion  of 
 which  he  published  a  journal,  in  1785.  He 
 
 was  called  to  the  English  bar,  but  had 
 little  practice,  and  never  obtained  any 
 other  legal  preferment  than  the  recorder- 
 ship  of  Carlisle.  Of  Johnson  he  was  for 
 more  than  twenty  years  the  intimate  friend, 
 and  his  Life  of  that  eminent  character, 
 which  appeared  in  1790,  deservedly  ranks 
 him  among  the  most  amusing  and  interest- 
 ing of  biographers.  Boswell  likewise  pro- 
 duced the  Hypochondriac,  a  series  of  pa- 
 pers in  the  London  Magazine,  and  some 
 fugitive  pieces.  He  died  May  the  19th, 
 1795. 
 
 BOTELLO,  Don  Nuno  Alvarez  de, 
 one  of  the  most  celebrated  Portuguese  vice- 
 rovs  of  India.  He  sailed  from  Lisbon  in 
 1624,  and  gained  several  victories  over 
 the  Dutch.  In  1628,  he  assumed  the  gov- 
 ernment of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in 
 Hindostan,  succoured  Malacca,  and  de- 
 stroyed the  besieging  Achenese  army  and 
 fleet;  for  which  he  received  the  title  of 
 father  of  the  country.  After  having  ob- 
 tained other  successes,  he  was  unfortunately 
 killed,  in  1629,  by  being  crushed  between 
 his  own  and  an  enemy's  vessel. 
 
 BOTH,  John  and  Andrew,  Dutch 
 painters,  natives  of  Utrecht,  and  pupils  of 
 Blomaert,  were  as  remarkable  for  their 
 fraternal  affection  as  for  their  talents. 
 They  studied,  lived,  and  painted  together, 
 and  seemed  to  have  but  one  mind.  John 
 excelled  in  landscapes,  Andrew  in  figures. 
 Andrew  was  drowned  at  Venice,  in  1650, 
 and  his  brother  pined  with  grief  for  his 
 loss,  and  died  at  Utrecht,  in  1656. 
 
 BOTT,  John  de,  an  engineer,  born  at 
 Florence,  in  1670,  of  French  parents,  served 
 successively  the  prince  of  Orange  (William 
 III.),  the  elector  of  Brandenberg,  and  the 
 elector  of  Saxony.  He  fortified  Wesel, 
 and  erected  the  arsenal  at  Berlin,  and  sev- 
 eral fine  edifices  at  Dresden.  He  died  in 
 1745. 
 
 BOTTARI,  JoHNGAETANO,a  learned 
 Italian  prelate,  was  born  at  Florence,  in 
 1689,  and  died  at  Rome,  in  1775-  The 
 CrusCa  Academy  intrusted  to  him  the  su- 
 perintendence of  the  new  edition  of  its  Dic- 
 tionary ;  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  placed 
 him  at  the  head  of  his  printing  establish- 
 ment; and  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  made  him 
 librarian  of  the  Vatican,  his  almoner,  and 
 a  canon.  Bottari  is  the  author  of  various 
 works,  relative  to  literature  and  the  arts. 
 
 BOTZARIS,  Mark,  one  of  the  gallant 
 defenders  of  liberty  in  modern  Greece,  was 
 born  in  Albania,  in  1780,  and  is  said  to 
 have  been,  at  an  early  period  of  his  life,  in 
 the  French  service."  When  the  Greeks 
 rose  to  throw  off  the  Ottoman  yoke,  he  ar- 
 dently espoused  the  cause  of  his  country, 
 and  was  chosen  stratarch  of  Western 
 Greece.  The  Turks  having  invaded  Eto- 
 lia  with  a  large  army,  he,  at  the  head  of 
 two  hundred  and  fifty  volunteers,  made  a 
 
106 
 
 BOU 
 
 nocturnal  attack  on  the  enemy's  camp,  and 
 put  great  numbers  of  them  to  the  sword ; 
 out,  towards  the  close  of  the  contest,  he 
 received  a  mortal  wound.  His  compan- 
 ions in  arms,  by  a  desperate  effort,  suc- 
 ceeded in  bearing  him  from  the  field,  and 
 lie  expired  at  Mlssolonghi  on  the  following 
 dav,  August  23,  1823. 
 
 BOUCHARDON,  Edmk,  a  celebrated 
 French  sculptor,  was  born,  in  1098,  at 
 Chaumont  in  Bassigni,  and  died  in  1762. 
 Among  his  principal  works  are,  a  part  of  the 
 figures  of  the  fountain  of  Neptune  at  Ver- 
 sailles; the  monument  of  the  duchess  of 
 Lauraguais;  and  the  fountain  of  Grenelle 
 Street.  He  designed  also,  particularly  in 
 red  chalk,  with  admirable  spirit  and  taste. 
 
 BO.UDINOT,  Elias,  a  descendant  of 
 one  of  the  Huguenots,  was  born  in  Phila- 
 delphia, in  1740.  He  received  a  liberal 
 education,  and  entered  into  the  practice  of 
 the  law  in  New-Jersey,  where  he  soon  rose 
 to  considerable  eminence,  in  1777  he  was 
 chosen  a  member  of  Congress,  and  in  1782 
 was  elected  president  of  that  body.  On 
 the  return  of  peace  he  resumed  his  profes- 
 sion, but  in  1789,  was  elected  to  a  seat  in 
 the  house  of  representatives  of  the  United 
 States,  which  he  continued  to  occupy  for 
 six  years-  He  was  then  appointed  by 
 Washington  Director  of  the  National  Mint, 
 in  which  office  he  remained  for  about 
 twelve  years.  Resigning  this  office  he  re- 
 tired to  private  life,  and  resided  from  that 
 time  in  Burlington,  New-Jersey.  Here  he 
 passed  his  time  in  literary  pursuits,  lib- 
 eral hospitality,  and  in  discharging  all  the 
 duties  of  an  expansive  and  ever  active  be- 
 nevolence. Being  possessed  of  an  ample 
 fortune,  he  made  munificent  donations  to 
 various  charitable  and  theological  institu- 
 tions, and  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
 efficient  friends  of  the  American  Bible  So- 
 cietv.  Of  this  institution  he  was  the  first 
 president,  and  it  was  particularly  the  ob- 
 ject of  his  princely  bounty.  He  died  in 
 October,  1821. 
 
 BOUCICAUT,  John  le  Maingre 
 de,  a  marshal  of  Fiance,  one  of  the  bravest 
 and  best  of  his  countrymen,  was  born  at 
 Tours,  in  1364;  served  at  the  age  of  twelve 
 years  under  Dugnesclin;  acquired  distin- 
 guished honour  at  the  battle  of  Nicopolifl, 
 in  1396,  where,  however,  he  was  taken 
 prisoner;  governed  the  city  of  Genoa  for 
 nine  years  with  humanity  and  integrity; 
 was  made  captive  at  the  battle  of  Azincour, 
 which  was  fought  against  his  advice;  and 
 died  in  England,  in  1421,  after  a  captivity 
 of  six  years. 
 
 BOUFFLERS,  Louis  Francis,  Duke 
 of,  an  eminent  French  marshal,  was  born 
 in  1644;  served  with  distinction  under 
 Crequi,  and  Turenne;  immortalized  him- 
 self by  his  defence  of  Lisle,  in  1708,  and 
 bis  retreat  after  the  battle  of  Malplaquct; 
 
 BOU 
 
 and  died  in  1711.  He  was  no  less  re- 
 markable for  generosity,  probity,  and  mod- 
 e.-'tv,  than  for  military  talent. 
 
 BOUFFLERS,  Stanislaus,  Marquis 
 of,  a  descendant  of  the  duke,  was  born  at 
 Luneville,  in  1737,  and  was  celebrated  for 
 wit,  talents,  accomplishments,  and  elegance 
 of  manners.  He  early  embraced  a  military 
 life,  and  became  a  knight  of  Malta,  and 
 governor  of  Senegal.  During  the  revolu- 
 tion he  emigrated  to  Berlin,  and  was  chosen 
 a  member  of  the  Academy  of  that  city. 
 He  died  at  Paris,  in  1815.  His  poems 
 are  polished  and  playful,  but  some  of  them 
 are  licentious ;  his  prose  works  also  have 
 considerable  merit. 
 
 BOUGALWILLE,  Louis  Anthony 
 de  (brother  of  John  Peter,  who  trans- 
 lated the  Anti-Lucretius,  and  wrote  a 
 Parallel  between  the  Expeditions  of  Alex- 
 ander and  Kouli  Khan),  was  born  at  Paris 
 in  1729.  In  Canada  he  acted  as  aid-de- 
 camp to  Montcalm,  and  displayed  such 
 bravery  in  many  actions,  that  he  obtained 
 the  rank  of  colonel,  and  a  gift  of  two  can- 
 non. He  next  made  a  voyage  round  the 
 world,  which  was  completed  in  1769. 
 The  narrative  of  it  was  published  in  1772. 
 He  rose  to  high  military  and  naval  rank ; 
 but  retired  from  the  service  in  1790.  Un- 
 der the  empire  he  was  made  a  senator,  and 
 a  member  of  the  Institute.  The  Royal  So- 
 ciety also  chose  him  one  of  its  members. 
 He  died  in  1811.  Besides  his  Voyage,  he 
 gave  to  the  press  a  Treatise  on  the  Inte~ 
 gral  Calculus,  2  vols.  4to. 
 
 BOUGEANT,  William  Hyacinth, 
 a  Jesuit,  born  at  Quimper,  in  1690,  who 
 died  at  Paris,  in  1743,  is  the  author  of 
 various  works  of  merit;  among  the  most 
 prominent  of  which  are  a  History  of  the 
 Treaty  of  Westphalia,  and  a  volume  on 
 the  Language  of  Beasts.  The  latter  pro- 
 duction, in  which  he  maintains  that  beasts 
 are  animated  by  demons,  was  merely  meant 
 as  a  pleasantry;  but  some  stupid  animals 
 about  the  court  having  taken  him  seriously, 
 they  procured  his  temporary  exile.  His 
 end  is  said  to  have  been  hastened  by  the 
 virulence  of  his  literary  assailants. 
 
 BOUGUER,  Peter,  eminent  as  a 
 mathematician  and  hydrographer,  was  born 
 at  Croisic,  in  Lower  Britanny,  in  1698, 
 and  at  thirteen  possessed  such  mathematical 
 knowledge  that  he  publicly  foiled  a  pro- 
 fessor. He  was  sent  with  Condamine  and 
 others  to  measure  a  degree  in  South  Amer- 
 ica; a  task  on  which  they  were  ten  years 
 employed.  Bouguer  invented  the  helio- 
 meter,  and  made  numerous  observations 
 on  the  pendulum,  the  atmosphere,  the  ex- 
 pansion of  metals,  and  other  subjects. 
 He  died  in  1758.  Among  his  works  aie 
 Treatises  on  the  Construction  of  Ships; 
 'in  Navigation  ana  Pilotage:  and  on  Light. 
 
 BOUHOURS,  Dominic,  a  critic,  man 
 
BOU 
 
 of  letters,  and  member  of  the  Society  of 
 Jesus,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  1628,  and  was 
 tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  duke  of  Longue- 
 ville  and  the  son  of  Colbert.  He  died  in 
 the  French  capital,  in  1702.  His  princi- 
 pal works  are,  Conversations  of  Aristus 
 and  Eugenius;  Remarks  and  Doubts  on 
 the  French  Language;  and  the  Art  of 
 forming  a  correct  Judgment  on  Literary 
 Productions., 
 
 BOUILLE,  Francis  Claude  Amour, 
 Marquis  de,  a  native  of  Auvergne,  was 
 born  about  1738,  and  commanded  with 
 great  success  in  the  West  Indies  during 
 the  American  war.  When  the  French 
 revolution  began,  he  warmly  espoused  the 
 royal  cause,  and  was  compelled  to  emi- 
 grate. After  having  vainly  endeavoured 
 to  rouse  Russia  and  Sweden  to  a  war 
 against  France,  he  settled  at  London,  where 
 he  died,  November  14, 1800.  His  Memoirs 
 of  the  French  Revolution  is  a  valuable 
 work. 
 
 BOULAINVILL1ERS,  Henry,  Count 
 de,  a  native  of  Normandy,  was  born  at 
 St.  Saire,  in  that  province,  in  1658,  and 
 died  in  1752.  As  an  historian  he  is  depre- 
 ciated by  Henault,  but  Montesquieu  and 
 Voltaire  speak  of  him  with  considerable 
 respect.  He  was  an  idolater  of  the  feudal 
 times,  which  he  considered  as  the  golden 
 age  of  the  monarchy!  He  is  the  author 
 of  a  History  of  the  Ancient  Government  of 
 France ;  the  State  of  France ;  the  Life 
 of  Mahomet;  a  History  of  the  Arabs;  and 
 various  other  works. 
 
 BOULANGER,  Nicholas  Anthony, 
 a  native  of  Paris,  was  born  in  1722,  and 
 died  in  1759.  He  was  brought  up  as  an 
 engineer,  and  appointed  superintendant  of 
 roads  and  bridges.  In  his  principles  he 
 was  deistical.  He  contributed  some  arti- 
 cles to  the  Encyclopedia,  and  wrote  Anti- 
 quity Unmasked;  and  an  Inquiry  into  the 
 Origin  of  Eastern  Despotism.  Damila- 
 ville's  obnoxious  work,  intitled  Christianity 
 Unmasked,  has  erroneously  been  attributed 
 to  Boulanger. 
 
 BOULTER,  Hugh,  an  eminent  prelate, 
 was  born  in  London,  or  its  vicinity,  in 
 1671,  and  was  educated  at  Merchant 
 Tailors'  school,  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
 After  having  enjoyed  the  minor  prefer- 
 ments of  minister  of  St.  Olave,  South wark, 
 archdeacon  of  Surrey,  chaplain  to  the  king, 
 dean  of  Christ  Church,  and  bishop  of  Bris- 
 tol, he  was,  in  1724,  nominated  archbishop 
 of  Armagh,  and  primate  of  all  Ireland, 
 which  dignities  he  held  till  his  death,  in 
 1742.  He  was  also  thirteen  times  one  of 
 the  lords  justices  of  Ireland.  Boulter  was 
 an  able  and  benevolent  man,  and  did  much 
 to  relieve  the  wants  of  the  country  in  which 
 he  was  placed;  but  his  policy  was  narrow, 
 as  it  tended  to  keep  the  Irish  in  a  state  of 
 perpetual  depression,  and  consequently  of 
 
 BOU 
 
 107 
 
 hostility  against  those  whom  tney  consid- 
 ered as  their  oppressors. 
 
 BOULTON,  Matthew,  an  eminent 
 engineer,  was  born  at  Birmingham,  in 
 1728,  and  established  there  a  manufactory 
 of  hardware,  in  which  he  brought  works 
 in  polished  steel  to  the  highest  perfection. 
 In  1762,  he  built  his  immense  manufactory, 
 at  Soho,  two  miles  from  Birmingham,  and 
 in  1769  he  entered  into  partnership  with 
 the  celebrated  James  Watt.  From  that 
 time  their  establishment  became  famous 
 throughout  Europe  for  its  steam  engines, 
 and  numerous  other  productions.  Boulton, 
 who  was  a  fellow  of  the  London  and  Edin- 
 burgh Royal  Societies,  and  an  associate  of 
 other  scientific  institutions,  died,  at  Soho, 
 August  17,  1809. 
 
 BOURBON,  Charles,  Duke  of,  son 
 of  the  count  of  Montpensier,  was  born  in 
 1489,  and  received  the  constable's  staff, 
 from  Francis  I.,  at  the  age  of  twenty-six. 
 He  displayed  consummate  valour  at  the 
 battle  of  Marignan,  and  was  made  viceroy 
 of  Milan.  Unfortunately,  however,  the 
 persecution  inveterately  carried  on  against 
 him  by  Louisa,  the  king's  mother,  whose 
 love  he  had  rejected,  at  length  drove  him 
 into  rebellion.  He  gave  his  services  to  the 
 emperor,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  of 
 Pavia.  He  was  slain  in  an  assault  upon 
 Rome,  on  the  5th  of  May,  1527. 
 
 BOURCET,  Peter  Joseph  de,  a 
 French  officer  and  topographer,  was  born 
 in  1700,  at  Usseaux,  in  the  valley  of  Pra- 
 gelas,  served  with  distinction  in  the  cam- 
 paigns of  1733, 1741,  and  1756,  and  died  a 
 lieutenant-general,  in  1780.  He  is  the  au- 
 thor of  a  fine  map  of  Upper  Dauphine ; 
 Military  Memoirs  on  the  Frontiers  of 
 France  and  Piedmont;  and  Historical  Me- 
 moirs of  the  War  in  Germany,  from  1757 
 to  1762. 
 
 BOURCHIER,  Thomas,  son  of  the 
 earl  of  Eu,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  be- 
 came chancellor  of  tiiat  university,  and  was 
 successively  bishop  of  Worcester  and  of 
 Ely,  and,  in  1454,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
 bury. He  was  subsequently  made  a  cardi- 
 nal and  lord  chancellor ;  and  died  in  1486. 
 Three  English  sovereigns  were  crowned  by 
 him.  He  is  said  to  have  introduced  print- 
 ing into  England,  in  1464;  but  this  is 
 doubted. 
 
 BOURCHIER,  John,  Lord  Berners, 
 was  born  about  1469,  and  was  educated 
 at  Oxford.  In  1495  he  took  an  active 
 part  in  suppressing  the  Cornish  rebellion, 
 and  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege 
 of  Terouenne.  Henry  VIII.  made  him 
 chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  after- 
 wards governor  of  Calais.  Lord  Berners 
 died  at  Calais,  in  1532.  His  love  of  lite- 
 rature was  as  remarkable  as  his  valour. 
 He  wrote  various  pieces,  and  translated 
 some  French  romances;  but  his  greater 
 
108  BOU 
 
 work  is  his  translation  of  Froissart's  Chro- 
 nicle 
 
 BOURDALOUE,  Louis,  a  Jesuit,  and 
 a  French  preacher  of  consummate  elo- 
 quence, was  born  at  Bourses,  in  1632. 
 The  reputation  which  he  acquired  by 
 preaching  in  the  country  induced  his  supe- 
 riors to  send  him  to  Paris,  where  he  imme- 
 diately acquired  popularity,  and  became 
 the  favourite  preacher  of  Louis  XIV.,  who 
 pent  him  into  Langnedoc,  to  convert  the 
 protestants.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was 
 spent  in  visiting  the  sick  and  the  prisons, 
 and  in  other  works  of  charity.  He  died, 
 universally  regretted,  in  1704.  His  sermons 
 occupy  sixteen  volumes,  and  have  often 
 been  reprinted. 
 
 BOURDON1,  Sebastian,  a  painter  of 
 merit  in  various  styles,  but  particularly 
 in  landscape,  was  born  at  Montpelier,  in 
 1616,  and  studied  at  Rome,  where  he  was 
 the  friend  of  Claude  Lorraine.  In  1652, 
 wishing  to  a\oid  the  civil  wars  which 
 threatened  France,  he  visited  Sweden,  and 
 was  patronised  by  Christina.  She  made 
 him  a  present  of  some  pictures  which 
 Gustavus  had  brought  from  Dresden ;  but, 
 on  examining  them,  Bourdon  disinterest- 
 edly told  her  that  she  ought  not  to  part 
 with  so  valuable  a  collection.  Christina 
 afterwards  took  thein  to  Rome,  and  they 
 at  length  formed  a  part  of  the  famous 
 Orleans  gallery.  Bourdon  died  at  Paris, 
 in  1671.  He  was  an  engraver  as  well  as  a 
 painter. 
 
 BOURGEOIS,  Sir  Francis,  whose 
 parents  were  Swiss,  was  born  in  London, 
 in  1756,  and  was  designed  for  the  army, 
 but  displayed  such  an  attachment  to  paint- 
 ing that  he  was  placed  under  Louther- 
 bourg.  After  having  travelled  for  improve- 
 ment, he  became  a  royal  academician.  In 
 1791  he  was  appointed  painter  to  the  king 
 of  Poland ;  and,  in  1794,  landscape  painter 
 to  George  III.  He  died  in  1811.  The 
 splendid  collection  of  pictures  wdiich  Mr. 
 Desenfans  had  bequeathed  to  him,  Sir 
 Francis  left  to  Dulwich  College;,  with  ten 
 thousand  pounds  to  build  a  gallery  for  them. 
 
 BOURGOING,  John  Francis, Baron 
 de,  was  born  at  Nevers,  in  1748,  served 
 early  in  the  army,  and  successively  acted 
 as  secretary  of  legation,  and  lastly  as 
 ambassador  at  various  courts.  He  died, 
 envoy  at  Dresden,  in  1811.  Of  his  w til- 
 ings the  principal  are,  the  Picture  of  Mod- 
 ern Spain,  3  vols.;  and  Historical  and 
 Philosophical  Memoirs  of  Pius  VI. 
 
 BOURIGNON,  ANTOiNKTTA,a  fanat- 
 ic, born  at  Lisle,,  in  1616.  So  frightful 
 was  her  appearance  at  her  birth,  that  her 
 parents  hesitated  whether  they  ought  not 
 to  destroy  her  as  a  monster.  As  she  grew 
 up,  however,  her  appearance  improved, 
 and  she  gave  signs  of  considerable  talent. 
 Having   an   aversion   to    matrimony,  she 
 
 BOU 
 
 twice  eloped  from  home  to  avoid  it.  The 
 reading  of  mystical  works  inflamed  ner 
 imagination,  and  she  believed  that  she  had 
 visions  and  ecstatic  trances,  in  which  she 
 was  commanded  to  restore  the  true  evan- 
 gelical spirit  in  the  world.  She  wandered 
 about  incessantly,  and  was  expelled  from 
 many  countries ;  but  she  made  numerous 
 proselytes,  among  whom  were  men  of  abil- 
 ities. The  virtue  of  charity  she  certainly 
 did  not  possess;  for  she  never  gave  alms. 
 She  died  at  Franeker,  in  Holland,  in  1680. 
 Her  reveries  fill  twenty-two  volumes. 
 
 BOURLIE,  Anthony  df.  Guiscard, 
 Abbe  de  la,  who  is  known  in  English 
 history  as  the  marquis  de  Guiscard,  was 
 boru  in  Quercy,  in  1658,  and  entered  the 
 church.  For  some  crime,  however,  he  was 
 compelled  to  fly.  Failing  in  an  attempt 
 to  spread  the  revolt  of  the  Cevennes,  he 
 took  refuge  in  England,  where  he  received 
 a  pension  from  Queen  Anne's  ministers; 
 but,  having  betrayed  them  to  his  own  gov- 
 ernment, he  was  summoned  before  the 
 privy  council.  There  he  stabbed  Mr. 
 Harley,  and,  in  return,  was  so  danger- 
 ously wounded  by  some  of  the  counsellors, 
 that  he  died  in  Newgate,  in  1711. 
 
 BOURNE,  Vincent,  one  of  the  most 
 elegant  of  modern  Latin  poets,  was  educat- 
 ed at  Westminster  and  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge,  took  his  degree  of  M.  A.  in 
 1721,  and  died  undermaster  of  Westmin- 
 ster school  in  1747.  Cowper  describes  him 
 as  having  been  the  neatest  of  all  men  in 
 his  vers:f:iation,  the  most  slovenly  in  his 
 person ;  and,  as  a  poet,  he  thinks  him  not 
 at  all  inferior  to  Ovid. 
 
 BOURRIT,  Mark  Theodore,  a  na- 
 tive of  Geneva,  born  in  1739,  and  died  in 
 1S19,  was  a  chanter  in  the  cathedral  of  his 
 native  city.  He  is  known  to  the  public 
 by  his  various  journeys  to  the  Alps,  and 
 particularly  to  the  glaciers  and  Mont  Blanc  ; 
 of  which  he  published  narratives  in  1772 
 and  1785.  The  last  of  these  works  was 
 reprinted  in  1789,  with  a  Description  of 
 the  Glaciers  of  the  Pennine  and  Rhetian 
 Alps. 
 
 BOURSAULT,  Edmund,  a  French 
 writer,  was  born  at  Muci  l'Eveque,  in  Bur- 
 gundy, in  163S,  and  though  his  father,  a 
 dissipated  officer,  to  prevent  him  from 
 knowing  more  than  himself,  would  give 
 him  no  education,  he  acquired  a  consum- 
 mate knowledge  of  the  French  language. 
 He  wrote  several  comedies,  particularly 
 Esop  in  Town,  and  Esop  at  Court,  three 
 romances,  and  other  works  of  considerable 
 merit,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  Let- 
 ters to  Babet  Boursault  was  a  man  of  a 
 modest  mind  and  a  forgiving  spirit.  He 
 died  in  1701 
 
 BOUSMARD,  M.  de,  a  military  engi- 
 neer, after  having  been  in  the  French  ser- 
 vice, passed,  in  1792,  into  that  of  Prussia* 
 
BOW 
 
 and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He 
 was  killed,  by  a  bomb,  at  the  siege  of 
 Dantzick,  May  22,  1807.  He  is  the  author 
 of  a  valuable  Essay  on  Fortification,  in 
 four  quarto  volumes,  with  a  volume  of 
 plates;  and  of  a  Defence  of  Vauban,  who 
 ha«n>een  attacked  by  Laclos. 
 
 BOWDLER,  Thomas,  the  son  of  a 
 physician  at  Bath,  was  born  in  1754,  and 
 died  in  1825.  He  wrote  Reform  and  Ru- 
 in ;  Letters  written  in  Holland ;  and  edited 
 the  Family  Shakspeare;  and  an  expurgat- 
 ed edition  of  Gibbon's  History.  His  two 
 sisters,  Jane  and  Hannah,  and  his  brother 
 John,  all  possessed  literary  talents. 
 
 BOWDICH,  Thomas  Edward,  a  na- 
 tive of  Bristol,  where  he  was  born  in  1793, 
 received  a  good  education,  and  engaged  in 
 trade  at  his  native  place,  but  relinquished 
 it  to  become  a  writer  in  the  service  of  the 
 African  Company.  In  1816,  he  was  sent 
 on  a  mission,  from  Cape  Coast  Castle,  to 
 the  king  of  Ashantee.  Of  this  embassy  he 
 subsequently  published  a  valuable  narra- 
 tive. By  his  exposures  and  representa- 
 tions government  was  induced  to  dissolve 
 the  company.  Eager  to  pursue  his  discov- 
 eries in  Africa,  he  again  visited  that  coun- 
 try; but,  unfortunately  for  geography  and 
 science,  disease,  brought  on  by  anxiety  and 
 toil,  closed  his  career,  on  the  10th  of  Jan- 
 uary, 1824,  shortly  after  he  reached  the 
 river  Gambia. 
 
 BOWDOIN,  James,  a  governor  of 
 Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Boston  in  the 
 year  1727,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
 College  in  1745.  He  took  an  early  stand 
 against  the  encroachments  of  the  British 
 government  upon  the  provincial  rights,  and 
 in  1774  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  first 
 Congress.  The  state  of  his  health  prevent- 
 ed his  attendance,  and  his  place  was  after- 
 wards filled  by  Mr.  Hancock.  In  1778  he 
 was  chosen  president  of  the  convention 
 which  formed  the  constitution  of  Massa- 
 chusetts, and  in  1785  was  appointed  gov- 
 ernor of  that  State.  He  was  a  member 
 of  the  Massachusetts  convention  assembled 
 to  deliberate  on  the  adoption  of  the  Con- 
 stitution of  the  United  States,  and  exerted 
 himself  in  its  favour.  He  was  the  first 
 president  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
 ences established  at  Boston  in  1780,  and 
 was  admitted  a  member  of  several  foreign 
 societies  of  distinction.  He  died  at  Boston 
 in  1790. 
 
 BOWER,  Archibald,  a  native  of 
 Dundee,  born  in  1686,  was  educated  at 
 St.  Omer,  entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits, 
 and  became  a  counsellor  of  the  inquisition, 
 at  Macerata,  in  the  papal  states.  He, 
 however,  fled  to  England,  in  1726,  embrac- 
 ed the  protestant  faith,  and  was  patronised 
 by  persons  of  eminence.  But  his  sincerity 
 was  much  doubted,  and  his  conduct  was 
 attacked   by   many,    particularly   by    Dr. 
 
 BOY 
 
 109 
 
 Douglas,  the  detector  of  Lauder.  He 
 died  in  1766.  Bower  conducted  the  His- 
 tpria  Literaria;  wrote  a  very  indifferent 
 History  of  the  Popes;  and  contributed 
 largely  to  the  Universal  History. 
 
 BOWYER,  William,  an  eminent 
 scholar  and  typographer,  was  born  in  Lon- 
 don, in  1699,  and,  after  having  been  for 
 some  time  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge, became  a  partner  with  his  father 
 in  the  printing  business.  He  was  printer 
 to  various  learned  bodies,  and  to  the  house 
 of  lords.  He  published  several  philologi- 
 cal  tracts,  and  added  notes  to  many  erudite 
 works  from  his  press;  but  his  principal 
 production  is  an  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment in  Greek,  with  conjectural  emenda- 
 tions.    He  died  in  1777. 
 
 BOYCE,  William,  was  born  in  Lon- 
 don, in  1710,  and  studied  music  under 
 Greene,  the  organist  of  St.  Paul's.  Not- 
 withstanding that  he  unfortunately  became 
 deaf  in  his  youth,  he  attained  to  high  emi- 
 nence in  his  profession.  He  became  Mus. 
 D.,  master  of  the  king's  band,  and  organ- 
 ist and  composer  to  his  majesty.  Both  in 
 sacred  and  secular  compositions  he  dis- 
 played great  talent.     He  died  in  1779. 
 
 BOYD,  Mark  Alexander,  a  Scotch 
 poet,  who  was  considered  as  a  second 
 "  admirable  Crichton,"  was  born  in  Gallo- 
 way, in  1562,  studied  at  Glasgow  and  Par- 
 is, wandered  over  the  continent  for  four- 
 teen years,  and  died  at  his  father's  seat, 
 at  Pinkhill,  in  1601.  Some  of  his  Latin 
 poems  are  in  the  Deliciae  Poetarum  Scot- 
 orum ;  and  many  of  his  manuscripts  are 
 said  still  to  exist. 
 
 BOYD,  Hugh  Macaulay,  whose  ori- 
 ginal name  was  Macaulay,  was  born  in 
 Ireland,  in  1746,  and  educated  at  Trinity 
 College,  Dublin.  For  some  time  he  was 
 a  political  writer  in  London;  after  which 
 he  accompanied  Lord  Macartney  to  Ma- 
 dras, where  he  died  in  1791.  The  Letters 
 of  Junius  have  absurdly  been  attributed  to 
 his  pen.  His  incompetence  to  produce 
 those  Letters  is,  however,  amply  proved 
 j  by  his  own  works,  which  have  been  col- 
 !  lected  in  two  volumes.  Talent  he  had,  but 
 i  far  indeed  inferior  to  the  talent  of  Junius. 
 BOYDELL,  John,  was  born  in  Staf- 
 i  fordshirc,  in  1719,  and  was  originally 
 !  an  engraver.  Toms  was  his  preceptor  in 
 :  the  art.  Having  gained  some  money  by 
 I  his  talents  and  industry,  he  commenced 
 |  business  as  a  printseller,  and  soon  became 
 j  one  of  the  most  eminent  in  Europe.  En- 
 j  terprising  and  liberal,  he  was  a  great  en- 
 ;  courager  of  painters  and  engravers.  The 
 i  most  celebrated  artists  were  employed  by 
 'him  to  paint  pictures  for  the  Shakspeare 
 !  Gallery,  of  which,  in  consequence  of  his 
 j  trade  being  injured  by  the  continental  war, 
 he  at  length  disposed  by  lottery.  After 
 'having   been   sheriff,  alderman,  and  lord 
 
110 
 
 BRA 
 
 BRA 
 
 mayor  of  London,  he  died  December  the  lately  attached,  and  with  whom  he  had  lived 
 
 12th,  1804. 
 
 BOYER,  An  el,  a  French  huguenot, 
 born  at  Castries,  in  1664,  quitted  France 
 on  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantz, 
 and  settled  in  London.  lie  died  in  1729. 
 He  published  various  Useful  works,  partly 
 compilations,  among  which  are  his  Politi- 
 cal State  of  Europe;  History  of  King 
 William;  and  Annals  of  Queen  Anne: 
 but  he  is  best  known  by  his  French  and 
 English  Dictionary  and  Grammar. 
 
 BOYLE,  Robert,  a  philosopher,  who 
 ranks  with  Bacon  and  with  Newton,  was 
 the  seventh  son  of  the  celebrated  earl  of 
 Cork,  and  was  born  at  Lismore,  in  Iie- 
 laud,  January  the  26th,  1626;  the  year 
 that  Bacon    die. I.     Eaton  has  the  honour 
 
 for  the  most  part  of  nearly  half  a  century. 
 His  numerous  works  have  been  collected 
 in  five  volumes  folio,  and  also  in  six  vo- 
 lumes (|tiarto. 
 
 BOYLE.  See  Burlington,  Corke, 
 Orb  kry. 
 
 BOYLSTON,  Zabdiel,  was  born  at 
 Brookline,  Massachusetts,  in  1684.  He 
 studied  medicine  at  Boston,  and  entered 
 into  the  practice  of  his  profession  in  that 
 place.  In  1721,  when  the  small-pox  broke 
 out  in  Boston  and  spread  alarm  through 
 the  whole  country,  the  practice  of  inocu- 
 lation was  introduced  by  Dr.  Boylston, 
 notwithstanding  it  was  discouraged  by  the 
 rest  of  the  faculty,  and  a  public  ordinance 
 was  passed  to  prohibit  it.  He  persevered 
 in  his  practice  in  spite  of  the  most  violent 
 opposition,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of 
 seeing  inoculation  in  general  use  in  New 
 England,  for  some  time  before  it  became 
 common  in  Great  Britain.  In  1725  he 
 visited  England,  where  he  was  received 
 with  much  attention,  and  was  elected  a 
 fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Upon  his  re- 
 turn, he  continued  at  the  head  of  his  pro- 
 fession for  many  years,  and  accumulated  a 
 large  fortune.  Besides  communications  to 
 the  royal  society,  he  published  two  trea- 
 tises on  the  Small  Pox.     He  died  in  1766. 
 
 BOYSE,  Samuel,  the  son  of  a  dissent- 
 ing minister,  was  born  at  Dublin,  in  1708. 
 
 of  his  early  education,  which  was  perfect- j  He  embraced  literature  as  a  profession, 
 ed  by  private  tutors,  and  lastly  at  Geneva,  'and  was  employed  in  various  compilations, 
 After  having  travelled  over  various  parts  and  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine.  His 
 of  the  continent,  be  settled  in  England,  poetical  powers  obtained  for  him  the 
 and  devoted  himself  to  scieive,  ••►•penally  :  patronage  of  the  duchess  of  Gordon,  and 
 to  natural  philosophy  and  to  chemistry;  I other  persons  of  rank  and  fortune,  but 
 and  till  the  close  of  his  existence,  he  unre- 1  patronage  was  bestowed  in  vain  on  Bovse, 
 mittingly  persevered  in  his  scientific  pur- !  who  was  negligent  and  fond  of  low  dissi- 
 suits.  Of  the  Royal  Society  he  was  oneipation.  After  having,  for  several  years, 
 of  the  first  members,  but  he  declined  the  I  experienced  every  variety  of  wretchedness, 
 office  of  president,  as  he  did  also  that  of  he  expired,  in  1749,  at  a  miserable  lodging 
 provost  of  Eton  College.  Philosophy,]  in  Shoe  Lane.  Some  of  his  poems  have 
 however,  did  not  wholly  engross  his  time;  been  admitted  into  the  collected  works  of 
 much  of  his  leisure  was  given  to  theological  the  British  poets.  Of  his  productions,  the 
 studies,  to  the  composition  of  moral  and  principal  is  The  Deity,  a  religious  poem, 
 religions  works,  and  to  the  advancement  I  which,  in  spite  of  many  faults,  is  hotiour- 
 of  religion,  for  which  latter  object  he   ex-  |  able  to  his  talents. 
 
 ponded   very    considerable    sums.      Among 
 his  pious  acts  was  the  founding  of  a  lecture 
 
 BRACCIOLINI,  Francis,  an  Italian 
 poet,  was   horn   at    Pistoia,  in  1566,  and 
 
 for  the  defence  of  natural  and  revealed  re-  died  in  1645.  lie  was  secretary  to  car- 
 ligion.  As  an  experimental  philosopher,  J  dinai  Barbarini,  and  having  celebrated 
 he  displayed  indefatigable  ardour,  ana  un- 1  that  prelate's  elevation  to  the  popedom 
 common  penetration  and  .-kill,  and  he,  (Urban  VIII.),  his  patron  gave  him  the 
 undoubtedly,  opened  the  way  to  many  mo-  surname  of  dell' Api,  in  allusion  to  the  bees, 
 <\rvw  discoveries.  As  a  man,  his  character  which  are  ilu.-  arms  of  the  Barbarini  family. 
 was  of  the  roost  estimable  kind ;  his  man-  Bracciolini  was  a  fertile  and  not  cor- 
 ners were  singularly  mild  and  courteous  J  temptible  poet,  in  various  styles.  His 
 and  he  possessed  piety  without  bigotry,  principal  works  are,  an  heroic  poem,  called 
 learning  without  arrogance,  and  charity  the  Cross  Reconquered  J  and  a  mock  heroic 
 without  ostentation.  Boyle  was  never  poem,  Le  Scherno  degli  Dei,  'n  ridicule 
 married.      He  died  on  the  :10th  of  Decern-  of  the  heathen  deities. 
 
 ber,  1691,  a  week  after  his  favourite  sister,;  BRACTOT^,  HENRY  DE,  a  native  of 
 Lady  Ranelagh,  to  whom  he  was  affection-!  Devonshire,  and  educated  at  Oxford,  was 
 
BRA 
 
 made  one  of  the  judges  itinerant  by  Henry 
 III.  in  1244.  The  time  of  his  death  is 
 unknown.  He  owes  his  fame  to  his  valu- 
 able work  on  the  Laws  and  Ciistoms  of 
 England,  which  was  first  published  in  1569. 
 
 BRADBURY,  Thomas,  a  dissenting 
 minister,  born  at  Wakefield,  in  1677,  be- 
 came the  successor  of  Daniel  Burgess,  and 
 an  imitator  of  that  preacher's  style  of 
 pulpit  eloquence.  He  died  in  1759.  His 
 Sermons  possess  considerable  merit,  and 
 his  character  was  much  esteemed. 
 
 BRADDOCK,  Edward,  major-general 
 of  the  British  army,  and  commander  of 
 the  detachment  engaged  in  the  expedition 
 against  the  French  on  the  river  Ohio,  in 
 1755,  arrived  in  Virginia  in  February  of 
 that  year,  and  in  the  spring  marched 
 against  fort  Du  Quesne.  On  his  march 
 thither  he  fell  into  an  ambuscade  of  the  In- 
 dians, by  which  he  lost  nearly  one  half  of  his 
 troops,  and  received  himself  a  mortal  wound. 
 
 BRADFORD,  William,  the  second 
 governor  of  Plymouth  colony,  was  born  in 
 England  in  158S.  In  1608  he  removed  to 
 Holland,  that  he  might  enjoy  the  benefits 
 of  religious  freedom,  and  in  1620  he  em- 
 barked for  America  with  the  church  of  Mr. 
 Robinson.  After  their  arrival  at  Plymouth, 
 he  distinguished  himself  by  his  talents  and 
 activity,  and  in  1621  was  chosen  chief 
 magistrate ;  he  was  continued  in  this  office, 
 with  the  exception  of  a  few  years,  till  1657, 
 when  he  died.  He  was  much  loved  and 
 revered  for  his  public  spirit,  wisdom,  and 
 piety. 
 
 BRADFORD,  William,  an  eminent 
 lawyer,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1755. 
 After  graduating  at  Princeton  College,  he 
 pursued  the  study  of  the  law,  and  in  1779 
 was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  the  supreme 
 court  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1780  he  was 
 appointed  attorney-general,  and  in  1791 
 he  was  made  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court 
 of  his  native  state.  In  1794  lie  was  ap- 
 pointed attorney-general  of  the  United 
 States,  and  held  this  office  till  his  death. 
 In  1793,  he  published  an  Inquiry  how  far 
 the  Punishment  of  Death  is  necessary  in 
 Pennsylvania.  He  died  in  1795.  He  was 
 a  man  of  integrity,  industry,  and  talent. 
 
 BRADLEY,  Dr.  James,  an  eminent 
 astronomer  and  mathematician,  was  born, 
 in  1902,  at  Shireborn,  in  Gloucestershire, 
 educated  at  Baliol  College,  Oxford,  and 
 took  orders,  but  resigned  two  livings,  in 
 order  to  give  himself  up  wholly  to  astro- 
 nomy. He  was  successively  Savilian  pro- 
 fessor at  Oxford,  lecturer  on  astronomy 
 and  experimental  philosophy,  and  astrono- 
 mer royal.  The  latter  office  he  held,  with 
 high  reputation,  from  1741  till  his  death 
 in  1672  In  1751,  George  II.  offered  him 
 the  rich  living  of  Greenwich,  but  Bradley 
 declined  it  as  incompatible  with  his  odier 
 studies:    a  pension    of  two    hundred    and 
 
 BRA 
 
 111 
 
 fifty  pounds  was,  in  consequence,  conferred 
 on  him.  Bradley  immortalized  his  name, 
 and  extended  the  bounds  of  astronomical 
 science,  by  his  discoveries  of  the  aberra- 
 tion of  the  fixed  stars,  and  the  nutation  of 
 the  earth's  axis.  A  part  of  his  voluminous 
 and  valuable  observations,  made  at  the 
 royal  observatory,  was  published   in  1798. 
 
 BRADLEY,  Richard,  a  once  popular 
 writer  on  gardening  and  husbandry,  was  a 
 member  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  profes- 
 sor of  botany  at  Cambridge.  The  date  of 
 his  birth  is  unknown;  he  died  in  1732. 
 The  original  idea  of  the  kaleidoscope  has 
 been  erroneously  attributed  to  him.  Among 
 other  works,  he  wrote  a  History  of  Succu- 
 lent Plants;  the  Gentleman's  and  Garden- 
 er's Kalendar;  a  General  Dictionary  of 
 Husbandry  and  Gardening;  and  a  Botani- 
 cal Dictionary. 
 
 BRADSHAW,  John,  celebrated  as 
 president  of  the  tribunal  by  which  Charles 
 I.  was  tried,  is  said  by  some  to  have  been 
 born  in  Derbyshire,  and  by  others  in 
 Cheshire,  in  1586.  He  studied  the  law  in 
 Gray's  Inn.  In  the  contest  between  Charles 
 and  the  people,  Bradshaw  espoused  the 
 cause  of  the  latter.  The  parliament  made 
 him  chief  justice  of  Chester,  and  he  was 
 also  chosen  to  preside  in  the  high  court  of 
 justice  which  sat  upon  the  king.  Crom- 
 well, to  whose  usurpation  he  was  hostile, 
 deprived  him  of  the  chief  justiceship. 
 Bradshaw  died  in  1659;  and,  at  the  resto- 
 ration, his  remains  were  disinterred,  and 
 hanged  at  Tyburn. 
 
 BRADWARDINE,  Thomas,  denomi- 
 nated the  profound  doctor,  was  born  at 
 Hortfield,  in  Cheshire,  late  in  the  thir- 
 teenth century,  and  educated  at  Merton 
 College,  Oxford.  He  was  the  confessor  of 
 Edward  III.,  and  attended  him  to  France. 
 In  1349,  he  was  made  archbishop  of  Can- 
 terbury, but  died  six  weeks  subsequently. 
 Bradwardine  was  scarcely  less  eminent  as 
 a  mathematician  than  as  a  theologian. 
 Among  his  works  are,  De  Causa  Dei;  and 
 Geometria  Speculativa. 
 
 BRADY,  Robkrt,  a  physician  and  his- 
 torian, a  native  of  Norfolk,  was  educated 
 at  Caius  College,  Cambridge;  of  which 
 college  he  became  master.  He  was  also 
 keeper  of  the  records  in  the  Tower,  regiua 
 professor  of  physic  at  Cambridge,  physi- 
 cian to  James  II.,  and  one  of  the  represen- 
 tatives for  Cambridge.  He  died  in  1700. 
 His  principal  works  are,  an  Introduction 
 to  the  old  English  History;  a  Complete 
 History  of  England;  and  a  Treatise  on 
 Burghs.  Gilbert  Stuart  justly  observes  of 
 Brady,  that  "  he  prostituted  an  excellent 
 understanding,  and  admirable  quickness, 
 to  vindicate  tyranny,  and  to  destroy  the 
 tights  of  his  nation." 
 
 BRADY,  Nicholas,  a  divine  and 
 poet,  born  in  1659,  at  Bandon,  in  Ireland, 
 
u»  BRA 
 
 was  educated  at  Westminster,  Oxford,  and 
 Dublin;  obtained  various  preferments  in 
 England,  among  which  was  that  of  chap- 
 lain to  William  III.;  and  died  in  1726. 
 He  translated  the  Eneid,  and  wrote  a  tra- 
 gedy, and  three  volumes  of  sermons ;  but  is 
 now  remembered  only  by  his  version  of  the 
 Psalms,  executed  in  conjunction  with  Tate. 
 
 BRAHE,  Tycho,  who  has  been  called 
 the  restorer  of  astronomy,  was  born  at 
 Knudstorp,  in  Scania,  in  1546,  of  a  noble 
 family.  His  love  of  astronomy  was  early 
 manifested,  and  his  discovery,  in  1572,  of 
 anew  star  in  the  constellation  Cassiopeia 
 made  him  known  to  the  scientific  world. 
 After  many  travels  and  adventures,  he  was 
 patronised  by  his  sovereign,  Frederic  II., 
 who  gave  him  a  pension,  and  the  island  of 
 Hwen,  in  the  Sound,  on  which  Bralie  built 
 a  splendid  observatory,  named  Uraniburgh. 
 There  he  resided  nearly  twenty  years,  as- 
 siduously labouring  in  his  astronomical  pur- 
 suits. Soon  after  the  death  of  Frederic, 
 however,  Brahe  lost  his  pensions,  became 
 an  object  of  persecution,  and  was  compel- 
 led to  quit  his  country.  The  Emperor 
 Rudolph  invited  him  to  Prague,  and  the 
 expatriated  astronomer  settled  there,  in 
 159S;  but  he  did  not  long  survive  this  re- 
 moval, for  he  died  in  the  Bohemian  capi- 
 tal, in  1601.  Brahe  discovered  two  new 
 inequalities  in  the  motion  of  the  moon, 
 made  other  valuable  observations  on  that 
 satellite,  was,  perhaps,  the  first  who  had 
 correct  ideas  of  the  nature  of  comets,  and, 
 with  less  happiness,  invented  a  new  plane- 
 tary system,  which  was  vainly  intended  to 
 supersede  that  of  Copernicus.  He  is  the 
 author  of  a  Treatise  on  the  New  Phenom- 
 ena of  the  Heavens;  and  other  astronomi- 
 cal works. 
 
 BRAIDWOOD,  Thomas,  a  native  of 
 Edinburgh,  the  first  person  in  Great-Brit- 
 ain, who  to  any  extent,  undertook  to 
 afford  instruction  to  the  deaf  and  dumb. 
 In  1763  he  began  to  practice  his  valuable 
 art;  and,  in  1783,  he  removed  his  estab- 
 lishment from  Edinburgh  to  Hackncv.  He 
 died  in  1806.  His  daughter,  who  died  in 
 1819,  also  conducted  a  seminary  of  the 
 same  kind. 
 
 BRAINARD,  J.  O.C.,  a  poet  and  man 
 of  letters,  was  born  in  Connecticut,  and 
 was  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1815. 
 He  studied  the  profession  of  the  law  and 
 entered  into  practice  ;it  >liddletown,Conn. ; 
 but  not  finding  the  degree  of  success  that 
 he  expected,  he  returned  in  a  short  time 
 to  his  native  town,  whence  be  removed  to 
 Hartford,  to  undertake  the  editorial  charge 
 of  the  Connecticut  .Mirror.  His  poems 
 were  chiefly  short  piece*,  composed  for  (he 
 Columns  of  this  paper,  and  afterwards  col- 
 lected in  a  volume.  Thev  display  much 
 pathos,  boldness,  and  originality.  Brain- 
 ard  died  of  consumption  in  1828. 
 
 BRA 
 
 BRAINERD,  David,  the  celebrated 
 missionary,  was  born  at  Haddara,  Con- 
 necticut, in  1718.  From  an  early  period 
 he  was  remarkable  for  a  religious  turn  of 
 mind,  and  in  1739  became  a  member  of 
 Yale  College,  where  he  was  distinguished 
 for  application  and  general  correctness  of 
 conduct.  He  was  expelled  from  this  in- 
 stitution in  1742,  in  consequence  of  having 
 said,  in  the  warmth  of  his  religious  zeal, 
 that  one  of  the  tutors  was  as  devoid  of 
 grace  as  a  chair.  In  the  spring  of  1742 
 he  began  the  study  of  divinity,  and  at  the 
 end  of  July  was  licensed  to  preach.  Having 
 received  from  the  society,  for  propagating 
 Christian  knowledge,  an  appointment  as 
 missionary  to  the  Indians,  he  commenced 
 his  labours  at  Kaunameek,  a  village  of 
 Massachusetts,  situated  between  Stock- 
 bridge  and  Albany.  He  remained  there 
 about  twelve  months,  and  on  the  removal 
 of  the  Kaunameeks  to  Stockbridge,  he 
 turned  his  attention  towards  the  Delaware 
 Indians.  In  1744  he  was  ordained  at 
 Newark,  New  Jersey,  and  fixed  his  resi- 
 dence near  the  forks  of  the  Delaware  in 
 Pennsylvania,  where  he  remained  about  a 
 year.  From  this  place,  he  removed  to 
 Crosweeksung,  in  New  Jersey,  where  his 
 efforts  among  the  Indians  were  crowned 
 with  great  success.  In  1747,  he  went  to 
 Northampton,  Massachusetts,  where  he 
 passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  the 
 family  of  the  celebrated  Jonathan  Edwards. 
 He  died  after  great  sufferings  in  1747. 
 His  publications  are  a  narrative  of  his 
 labours  at  Kaunameek,  and  his  journal  of 
 a  remarkable  work  of  grace  among  a  num- 
 ber of  Indians  in  New  Jersey  and  Penn- 
 sylvania, 1746. 
 
 BRAMAH,  Joseph,  an  eminentmecha- 
 nician  and  engineer,  born  in  1749,  at 
 Stainsborough,  in  Yorkshire,  was  appren- 
 ticed to  a  carpenter ;  but  very  early  evinced 
 his  genius  for  mechanics.  Removing  to 
 London,  he  commenced  business,  and  laid 
 the  foundation  of  his  fortune  by  an  im- 
 provement on  water-closets.  He  became, 
 however,  still  better  known  by  his  inge- 
 nious locks,  which  cannot  be  picked,  and 
 for  which  he  obtained  a  patent.  Many 
 other  inventions  followed;  among  which 
 one  of  the  most  useful  is  the  hydraulic 
 press,  on  the  principle  of  the  hydrostatic 
 paradox:  the  power  of  this  press  may  be 
 said  to  be  unlimited,  and  is  of  extensive 
 application.     Bramah  died  in  1815. 
 
 BRA. M ANTE  D'URBINO,  Francis 
 Lazarus,  an  Italian  architect,  born  at 
 Castel  Durante,  in  1444,  was  much  es- 
 teemed and  employed  by  Pope  Julius  II. 
 He  executed  many  great  works,  at  Rome 
 and  other  cities;  but  his  fame  principally 
 rests  upon  his  having  planned  and  begun 
 Saint  Peter's  Church ;  which,  however,  be 
 did  not  live  to  finish,  as  he  died  in  1514. 
 
BRA 
 
 Raphael  was  his  cousin,  and  was  instructed 
 by  him  in  architecture.  Bramante  was 
 an  amiable  man,  and  was*  skilled  in  poetry, 
 painting,  engraving,  and  music,  lie  is 
 said  to  have  invented  a  mode  of  construct- 
 ing arches,  by  casting  a  sort  of  artificial 
 stone  in  moulds. 
 
 BRAMHALL,  John,  an  eminent  pre- 
 late, was  born  at  Pootefract,  in  1593,  and 
 educated  at  Sidney  College,  Cambridge. 
 After  having  obtained  several  preferments 
 in  England,  and  been  one  of  the  king's 
 high  commissioners,  he  went  to  Ireland, 
 where  he  rose  to  be  bishop  of  Londonder- 
 ry, and  took  an  active  part  in  church  af- 
 fairs. In  1641,  however,  articles  of  trea- 
 son were  exhibited  against  him,  but  the 
 proceedings  were  subsequently  dropped. 
 During  the  civil  wars  he  was  highly  ser- 
 viceable to  the  royal  cause ;  and  when  the 
 parliament  triumphed  he  withdrew  to  Brus- 
 sels. After  the  restoration  he  was  made 
 archbishop  of  Armagh.  He  died  in  1663. 
 Like  Laud,  Bramhall  was  a  high  church 
 and  prerogative  champion,  but  had  more 
 temper  and  moderation.  His  works  form 
 a  folio  volume. 
 
 BRANCAS-LAURAGATS,  the  Duke 
 of,  a  French  nobleman,  equally  remarkable 
 for  his  generosity,  wit,  and  love  of  science, 
 avus  born  in  1735,  and  died  in  1824.  He 
 had  a  share  in  discovering  the  basis  of  the 
 diamond,  improved  the  manufacture  of 
 porcelain,  and  contributed  greatly  to  spread 
 inoculation  throughout  France.  He  is  the 
 author  of  several  literary,  scientific,  and 
 political  works  ;  among  which  are  the 
 tragedies  of  Clytenmestra  and  Jocasta. 
 
 BRAND,  John,  a  native  of  Newcastle 
 on  Tyne,  born  in  1743,  was  originally  a 
 shoemaker,  but  fortunately  obtained  the 
 means  of  being  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
 died,  in  1806,  rector  of  St.  Mary  Hill, 
 London,  and  secretary  of  the  Antiquarian 
 Society.  His  principal  works  are,  a  His- 
 tory of  Newcastle,  two  volumes  quarto ; 
 and  Observations  on  Popular  Antiquities. 
 
 BRAND,  John,  a  divine,  and  political 
 writer,  took  his  master's  degree  at  Cains 
 College,  Cambridge,  in  1769,  and  obtained 
 the  livings  of  St.  George,  Southwark,  and 
 Wickham  Skeiah,  in  Suffolk,  which  he  re- 
 tained till  his  decease,  in  1808.  His  chief 
 productions  are,  a  Defence  of  Mr.  Reeves; 
 Historical  Essay  on  Political  Associations; 
 and  a  Vindication  of  Marquis  Wellesley, 
 on  the  Oude  charge. 
 
 BRANDES,  John  Christian,  an  ac- 
 tor and  dramatist,  was  born  at  Stettin,  in 
 1735,  and  died  at  Berlin,  in  1799,  after  a 
 life  of  singular  vicissitude.  He  was  an 
 indifferent  actor;  but  as  an  author  he  had 
 merit,  and  has  been  called  the  Goldoni  of 
 Germany.  His  works  form  eight  octavo 
 Yolumes.  He  also  wrote  his  own  Memoirs. 
 BRANDT,  Sebastian,  was  born  at 
 
 BRA  118 
 
 Strasburgh,  in  1454,  and  was  successively 
 professor  of  law  at  Basle  and  Strasburgh, 
 ot  which  latter  city  he  became  syndic  and 
 chancellor.  He  died  in  1520.  "He  is  the 
 author,  among  other  works,  of  a  satire 
 called  the  Ship  of  Fools,  which  has  been 
 translated  into  several  languages. 
 
 BBANDT,  Gerard,  a  poet  and  divine, 
 was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1626,  and  died 
 there  in  1685.  He  was  pastor  of  a  con- 
 gregation of  Remonstrants.  His  most  im- 
 portant works  are,  a  History  of  the  Re- 
 formation in  the  Low  Countries,  four  vol- 
 umes quarto;  a  Life  of  De  Ruyter;  and 
 Latin  Poems. 
 
 BRANDT,  a  noted  half-blooded  Indian 
 Chief  of  the  Mohawk  tribe,  was  educated 
 by  Dr.  Wheelock,  of  Dartmouth  College, 
 and  made  very  considerable  attainments  in 
 knowledge.  In  the  revolutionary  war  he 
 attached  himself  to  the  British,  and  headed 
 the  party  which  destroyed  the  beautiful 
 village  of  Wyoming.  He  resided  in  Canada 
 after  the  war,  and  died  there  in  1807. 
 
 BRANTOME,  so  called  from  an  abbey 
 which  he  possessed,  but  whose  name  was 
 Peter  de  BOURDEILLES,  was  born  in 
 Perigord,  in  1527,  served  in  the  army  with 
 reputation,  was  gentleman  of  the  bed- 
 chamber to  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  III.  of 
 France,  and  died  in  1614,  at  his  castle  of 
 Richemont.  His  Memoirs  of  his  Contem- 
 poraries, which  have  been  repeatedly  print- 
 ed, together  with  the  supplement,  form 
 fifteen  volumes.  It  is  truly  observed  of 
 Brantome,  by  M.  de  Barante,  that  he  is 
 one  of  the  most  attractive  and  useful  of 
 modern  historians,  his  narratives  being  a 
 living  and  animated  picture  of  the  whole 
 age  in  which  he  lived. 
 
 BRATHWAYTE,  Richard,  a  poet, 
 was  born  at  Warcop,  in  Westmoreland,  in 
 1588,  educated  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
 became  a  captain,  justice,  and  deputy  lieu- 
 tenant for  Westmoreland,  and  died  in 
 1673.  His  works  are  numerous:  among 
 them  are  the  Golden  Fleece;  the  Poet's 
 Willow;  the  Prodigal's  Tears ;  and  Spirit- 
 ual Spicery.  The  best  known  of  them  is 
 Itinerarium  Barnabii,  or  Drunken  Barna- 
 by's  Journal. 
 
 BRAY,  Sir  Reginald,  a  statesman  and 
 architect,  the  second  son  of  Sir  Richard 
 Bray,  was  a  favourite  of  Henry  VII. ,  who 
 conferred  on  him  many  honours  and  im- 
 portant offices.  He  died  in  1503,  with 
 the  character  of  a  virtuous,  charitable,  and 
 able  man.  His  architectural  skill  is  prov- 
 ed by  Henry  the  Seventh's  Chapel,  in 
 Westminster  Abbey,  and  St.  George's 
 Chapel  at  Windsor,  the  former  of  which 
 was  built,  and  the  latter  completed,  under 
 his  direction. 
 
 BRAY,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  was  born  at 
 Marton,  in  Shropshire,  in  1656,  and  died 
 in  1730,  rector  of  St.  Botolph's  Aldgate. 
 
114  BRE 
 
 His  whole  life  was  spent  in  efforts  to  pro- 
 mote religion  and  works  of  utility  and 
 charity.  He  was  the  originator  of  paro- 
 chial libraries  for  the  clergy,  and  mainly 
 contributed  to  the  establishment  of  the 
 Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 
 
 BREBEUF, William  uk,  b  poet, born 
 at  Thorigny,  in  Normandy,  in  1618,  w  as 
 disappointed  of  the  promised  patronage  of 
 Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  retired  to  Venoix, 
 near  Caen,  where  he  died  in  1661,  after 
 having  for  more  than  twenty  years  been 
 the  victim  of  continual  fever.  Brebeuf  was 
 a  pious,  gentle,  and  modest  man,  of  no 
 mean  talents.  His  principal  works  are  a 
 translation  of  Lucan's  l'harsalia ;  a  Sati- 
 rical Travesty  on  the  first  book  of  Lucan ; 
 and  Miscellaneous  Poems. 
 
 BREGUET,  Abraham  Louis,  one  of 
 the  most  eminent  watch  and  chronometer 
 makers  in  Europe,  was  born  in  Switzer- 
 land, in  1747,  and  settled  at  Paris,  after 
 having  served  his  apprenticeship  at  Ver- 
 sailles. At  his  outset  in  life  he  had  severe 
 pecuniary  difficulties  to  contend  with,  but 
 he  surmounted  them  by  perseverance  and 
 talent,  and  established  the  most  celebrated 
 manufactory  on  the  continent.  His  im- 
 provements in  watches  and  time  pieces 
 were  numerous  and  highly  important.  He 
 died  in  1823.  His  business  and  his  talents 
 are  inherited  bv  his  son. 
 
 BRE1TKOPF,  John  Gottlieb  Em- 
 manuel, one  of  the  most  eminent  of  Ger- 
 man printers  and  letter-founders,  was  born 
 at  Leipsic,  in  1719,  and  died  there  in  1794. 
 The  whole  of  his  life  was  spent  in  improv- 
 ing typography  and  the  art  of  casting 
 types.  He  gave  elegance  to  the  German 
 letter,  rendered  types  twice  as  durable  as 
 usual,  and  invented  musical  types  and 
 moveable  characters  for  printing  Chinese. 
 Breitkopf  is  the  author  of  an  Essay  on  the 
 Invention  of  Printing;  and  an  Essay  on  the 
 Origin  of  Plaving  Cards. 
 
 BRENNUS,  a  general  of  the  Gauls, 
 who  invaded  Italy,  about  391  years  B.  c, 
 defeated  the  Romans  at  the  battle  of  Allia, 
 and  captured  and  ransomed  Rome,  but  was 
 at  length  expelled  from  Italy  by  Carnil- 
 lus. — Another  Brennus  invaded  Greece, 
 at  the  head  of  one  hundred  and  seventv- 
 five  thousand  Gauls,  about  125  years  B.C. 
 After  having  committed  great  ravages,  he 
 was  completely  defeated,  and,  in  conse- 
 quence, put  an  end  to  his  own  existence  by 
 poison. 
 
 BREREWOOD,  Edward,  a  mathe- 
 matician, was  born  at  Chester,  in  1565, 
 studied  at  Oxford,  was  appointed,  in  1596, 
 the  first  astronomical  professor  at  Gresham 
 College,  and  died  in  1613.  He  is  the  au- 
 thor of  De  Pondcribus  et  Pretiis  Veterum 
 Nummorum;  Inquiries  touching  the  Diver- 
 sity of  Languages  and  Religions;  and  va- 
 rious other  works. 
 
 BRI 
 
 BRETON,  Nicholas,  a  poet  who  en- 
 joyed considerable  reputation,  in  the  reign 
 of  Elizabeth,  as  a  writer  of  pastorals  and 
 madrigals,  was  a  native  of  Staffordshire . 
 His  ballad  of  Phillis  and  Corydon,  in 
 Percy's  collection,  is  a  pleasing  specimen 
 of  his  talents. 
 
 BREUGHEL.  There  were  four  eminent 
 painters  of  this  name.  Pet  E R,  commonly 
 known  as  Old  Breughel,  from  his  being  the 
 father  of  Peter  the  younger,  and  the  Droll, 
 from  his  choice  of  Subjects,  waS  born  near 
 Breda,  in  1510,  excelled  in  landscape  and 
 ludicrous  pictures,  and  died  in  1570.  John, 
 his  son.  called,  from  his  dress,  Velvet 
 Breughel,  was  born  at  Brussels,  in  1560, 
 attained  high  reputation,  and  died  in  1625. 
 He  sometimes  painted  in  conjunction  with 
 Rubens.  Peter,  the  younger,  another 
 son  of  the  elder,  denominated  Hellish 
 Breughel,  from  his  love  of  the  horrible, 
 died  in  1642.  Abraham,  a  native  of 
 Antwerp,  surnamed  the  Neapolitan,  was 
 •born  in  1672,  excelled  in  fruit  and  flowers, 
 I  and  died  at  Naples. 
 
 BREWER,  Anthony,  a  dramatic  wri- 
 
 I  ter,  of  the  reign  of  James  I.     Though  he 
 
 [enjoyed  great  reputation,  nothing  is  known 
 
 jof  his  life.     Six  of  his  pieces  are  extant. 
 
 j  Bv  acting  at  Cambridge    in   one  of  these, 
 
 named   Lingua,  or  the   Five   Senses,   the 
 
 dormant  ambition  of  Cromwell  is  said  to 
 
 have  been   first    awakened.      This   story, 
 
 however,  is  exceedingly  apocryphal. 
 
 BRIDAINE,  JaH£S,  a  French  ecclesi- 
 astic, born  near  Uzes,  in  1701,  was  cele- 
 brated for  his  eloquence,  and  for  his  inde- 
 fatigable zeal  in  travelling  to  almost  every 
 part  of  France  to  preach.  In  the  course 
 of  his  life  he  undertook  two  hundred  and 
 fifty-six  journeys  through  the  kingdom,  and 
 there  was  scarcely  a  village  where  he  did 
 not  display  his  powers.  His  Spiritual 
 Songs  have  gone  through  forty-seven  edi- 
 tions.    He  died  in  1767. 
 
 BRIDEL,  SAMUEL  de,  a  poet  and  bo- 
 tanist, was  born,  in  1761,  at  Grassier,  in 
 the  Pays  de  Vaud,  became  tutor  to  the 
 princes  of  Saxe  Gotha,  was  subsequently 
 employed  in  negotiations  by  the  duke  of 
 Saxe  Gotha,  and  died  in  1828.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Poetical  Recreations;  a  collec- 
 tion of  Miscellaneous  Poems;  Muscologia 
 Recentiorum,  six  volumes  quarto;  Bryo- 
 logia  Univ.,  two  volumes  octavo;  and 
 other  works. — His  brother  John  Louis, 
 born  in  1759,  and  died  in  1821,  was  also 
 a  man  of  talent. 
 
 BRIDGEMAN,  Sir  Orlando,  the  son 
 of  the  bishop  of  Chester,  was,  after  the 
 restoration  of  Charles  II.,  successively 
 made  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer,  chief 
 justice  of  the  common  pleas,  and  lord 
 keeper.  Of  the  latter  office  he  was  de 
 prived  in  1672.  The  period  of  his  death 
 it  uncertain.     Ho  is  the  author  of  Convey- 
 
BRI 
 
 ances;  being  Select  Precedents  of  deeds 
 and  instruments. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER,  Francis  Eger- 
 ton,  Duke  of,  who  deserves  to  he  com- 
 memorated as  the  individual  who  first  de- 
 monstrated to  his  country  the  henefits  of 
 canal  navigation,  was  born  in  1736,  and 
 succeeded  to  the  title  in  1748.  Seconded 
 by  the  genius  of  Brindley,  he  expended 
 large  sums  in  forming  canals,  and  was  at 
 length  amply  repaid.  His  first  canal,  from 
 Worsley  to  Manchester,  was  opened  in 
 1760.     He  died  in  1803. 
 
 BRIDPORT,  AlexanderHood,  Ad- 
 miral Lord,  the  youngest  brother  of  Vis- 
 count Hood,  like  his  relative,  entered  the 
 navy  early,  and,  like  him,  distinguished 
 himself  on  many  occasions,  as  an  able  and 
 gallant  seaman.  He  bore  a  part  in  the  ac- 
 tion of  the  first  of  June,  1794,  and,  in 
 June,  1795,  defeated  a  French  squadron, 
 and  captured  three  sail  of  the  line.  He 
 M'as  created  an  Irish  peer  in  1794,  an 
 English  peer  in  1796,  and  died  in  1814. 
 
 BRIGGS,  Henry,  a  mathematician, 
 born  near  Halifax,  in  1536,  was  educated 
 at  St.  John's,  Cambridge,  and  was  first 
 professor  of  geometry  at  Gresham  College, 
 and  afterwards  at  Oxford.  He  resided  at 
 Oxford  till  his  decease,  in  1630.  Briggs 
 was  a  friend  of  Lord  Napier,  and  mainly 
 contributed  to  improve  and  diffuse  the 
 valuable  invention  of  logarithms.  To  him 
 also,  in  fact,  belongs  the  discovery  of  the 
 binomial  theorem,  the  differential  method, 
 and  other  things,  which  have  been  attri- 
 buted to  a  later  period.  Among  his  works 
 are,  Arithmetica  Logarithmica;  Trigono- 
 metria  Britannica  (completed  by  Gelli- 
 brand) ;  and  Tables  for  the  Improvement 
 of  Navigation. 
 
 BRILLAT-SAVARIN,  Anthelme, 
 was  born  at  Belley,  on  the  Savoy  frontier 
 of  France,  in  1755,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
 death,  in  1826,  filled  a  place  in  one  of  the 
 higher  French  tribunals.  He  produced 
 various  works ;  hut  is  best  known  by  his 
 Physiology  of  Taste,  or  Meditations  of 
 transcendental  Gastronomy,  which  has 
 passed  through  several  editions. 
 
 BRINDLEY,  James,  born  in  1716,  at 
 Tunsted,  in  Derbyshire,  received  but  a 
 slender  education,  and  was  originally  a 
 millwright.  His  mechanical  genius,  how- 
 ever, soon  manifested  itself,  and  he  com- 
 menced business  as  an  engineer,  in  which 
 he  acquired  considerable  practice  and  repu- 
 tation. But  the  circumstance  which  first 
 raised  him  into  eminence  was  his  being 
 employed  by  the  duke  of  Bridgewater,  in 
 1759,  to  form  the  canal  from  Worsley  to 
 Manchester.  When  Brindley  first  pro- 
 posed to  carry  this  canal  over  the  naviga- 
 ble river  Irwell,  by  means  of  an  aqueduct, 
 an  eminent  engineer  sneeringly  remarked, 
 that  "  he  had  before  heard  of  castles  in 
 
 BRI 
 
 115 
 
 die  air,  but  had  never  till  then  been  shown 
 where  one  was  to  be  built."  The  bold 
 projector,  however,  was  completely  suc- 
 cessful. Thenceforth  he  was  fully  occu- 
 pied in  canals  and  other  hydraulic  worke. 
 Among  these  canals  may  be  mentioned  the 
 Grand  Trunk,  Birmingham,  Droitwich, 
 and  Chesterfield.  Brindley  died  in  1772. 
 So  impressed  was  he  with  the  superiority 
 of  canals  over  rivers,  that  he  is  said  to 
 have  told  a  committee  of  the  house  of  com- 
 mons, that  the  latter  were  created  only  for 
 the  purpose  of  feeding  the  former. 
 
 BR1NVILLIERS,  Mary  Margaret, 
 Marchioness  de,  a  woman  whose  crimes 
 have  gained  her  a  niche  in  the  temple  of 
 infamy,  was  the  wife  of  the  marquis  de 
 Brinvilliers,  whom  she  married  in  1651. 
 Having  entered  into  an  illicit  connexion 
 with  St.  Croix,  a  young  Gascon  officer, 
 who  had  been  taught  the  art  of  compound- 
 ing the  most  subtle  poisons  by  the  cele- 
 brated Italian  Exili,  she  became  a  deter- 
 mined poisoner,  and  her  father,  sister, 
 two  brothers,  and  many  other  persons, 
 fell  victims  to  her  diabolical  skill.  She 
 was  at  length  detected,  put  to  the  torture, 
 beheaded,  and  burned,  in  1676.  At  her 
 execution  she  displayed  extraordinary  cour- 
 age, and  the  stupid  mob  afterwards  sought 
 for  her  bones,  in  the  belief  that  she  was  a 
 saint  ! 
 
 BRIOT,  Nicholas,  a  French  engra- 
 ver of  the  mint,  under  the  reign  of  Louis 
 XIII.,  for  whom  his  countrymen  claim  the 
 invention  of  the  balance  press,  which  su- 
 perseded the  hammer  in  coining.  That 
 machine,  however,  appears  to  have  been 
 invented,  long  before,  by  Bruchet,  and  to 
 have  been  used,  both  in  England  and 
 France ;  though  it  had,  undoubtedly,  fallen 
 into  disuse,  till  reintroduced  by  Briot,  first 
 in  England,  and  next  in  his  own    country. 
 
 BRISSON,  Mathurin  James,  a 
 French  naturalist,  was  born  at  Fontenay 
 le  Compte,  in  1723,  and  died  in  1806. 
 Among  his  numerous  works,  which  possess 
 considerable  merit,  are  his  Ornithology; 
 Specific  Gravity  of  Bodies;  and  Physico- 
 Chenncal  Elements  or  Principles. 
 
 BRISSOT,  John  Peter,  one  of  the 
 most  active  of  the  French  revolutionists, 
 and  from  whom  a  faction  was  denomina- 
 ted, was  born  near  Chartres,  in  1757,  and 
 was  originally  brought  up  to  the  law.  He, 
 however,  abandoned  that  pursuit,  and  be- 
 came a  literary  character,  and  editor  of 
 the  Courier  de  l'Europe.  His  first  works 
 of  any  importance  were  a  Theory  of 
 Criminal  Law,  and  a  Philosophical  Library 
 of  Criminal  Law.  After  having  visited 
 England,  he  returned  to  Paris,  was  patron- 
 ised by  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  was  sent 
 to  the  Bastile  for  an  alleged  libel.  A  sec- 
 ond time  he  was  on  the  point  of  being 
 imprisoned,  but  he  made  his  escape.    In 
 
116 
 
 BRO 
 
 178S  he  went  to  America;  but  he  did  not! 
 long   remain    there.      He   came   back   to 
 France  in  1789,  published  his  Travels,  and  j 
 became    an    active   political    writer,    par- 
 ticularly in  the  journal  called  the   French 
 Patriot.      To   royalty    he   was   decidedly 
 hostile.     In  1791  he  was  elected  a  member  t 
 of  the  legislative  assembly,  and  he  bore  a. 
 prominent  part    in    it,  as    well    as  in  its 
 successor,  the  convention.     The  war  be- 
 tween   France    and    Austria    and     Great 
 Britain  was   brought  about  chiefly  by  his 
 exertions  and  intrigues.     After  die  death 
 of  Louis  XVI.  the  jacobin  faction  gained 
 the  ascendancy,  and  Brissot  was  at  length! 
 sent  to  the  scaffold,  on  the  31st  of  October, 
 1793. 
 
 BRITTON,  Thomas,  a  native  of  Hig-i 
 ham  Ferrers,  was  bom  in  1654,  and,  from 
 his  trade  and  his  musical  taste,  was  known; 
 as  "  the  musical  small  coal  man."  Though 
 he  cried  his  small  coal  about  the  streets, 
 he  gave  conceits  at  his  humble  dwelling, 
 at  which  some  of  the  most  eminent  pro- 
 fessors and  persons  of  fashion  attended. 
 He  was  also  a  proficient  in  chemistry,  and 
 a  collector  of  books  and  curiosities.  Brit- 
 ton  was  at  last  frightened  to  death,  in 
 1714,  by  a  brutal  ventriloquist,  who  pre- 
 dicted to  him  his  approaching  end.  The 
 terrified  votary  of  music  took  to  his  bed, 
 and  died  in  a  few  days. 
 
 BROCKLESBY,  Richard,  a  physi- 
 cian, was  born  at  Minehead,  in  1722,  took 
 his  degree  at  Leyden,  in  1745,  and,  after 
 having  been  physician  to  the  army  in  Ger- 
 many, settled  in  London,  where  he  became 
 popular.  He  died  in  1797.  Brocklesby 
 was  a  liberal  minded  man,  and  was  in 
 habits  of  friendship  with  the  most  eminent 
 of  his  contemporaries.  Some  medical 
 tracts,  and  a  Dissertation  on  the  Music  of 
 the  Ancients,  are  bis  only  productions. 
 
 BROGLIE,  Victor  Francis,  Duke 
 de,  a  French  general,  was  born  in  1718, 
 and  bore,  with  considerable  reputation,  a 
 part  in  the  wars  carried  on  by  his  country 
 during  the  last  century,  between  1734,  and 
 1761.  From  1759  to  1761,  he  commanded 
 in  chief  in  Germany.  In  1789  he  emigra- 
 ted, and  in  1792  he  was  at  the  head  of  a 
 corps  of  emigrants  in  Champaigne.  He 
 died,  in  1804,  at  Munster. 
 
 BROME,  Richard,  a  dramatist,  who 
 died  in  1652,  was  originally  a  servant  of 
 Ben  Jonson,  but  nothing  further  is  known 
 of  his  life.  His  plays,  which  are  fifteen 
 in  number,  possess  considerable  merit. 
 The  Jovial  Crew  was  revived  with  ap- 
 plause at  Covent  Garden,  in  the  middle 
 of  the  last  century. 
 
 BROME,  Alexander,  who  was  born 
 in  1620,  and  died  in  1666,  was  a  spirited 
 and  fertile  writer  of  satires,  songs,  and 
 epigrams  against  the  parliament  party, 
 during  the  struggle  between  the  people  and 
 
 BRO 
 
 the  crown.  He  also  wrote  the  Cunning 
 Lovers,  a  comedy;  translated  part  of 
 Horace ;  and  published  an  edition  of  ten 
 of  Richard  Brome's  plays.  His  own  com- 
 positions form  an  octavo  volume. 
 
 BROMFIELD,  William,  an  eminent 
 surgeon,  the  pupil  of  Ranby,  was  born  at 
 London,  in  1712.  In  conjunction  with  the 
 Rev.  M.  Madan,  he  founded  the  Lock 
 Hospital,  of  which  he  became  first  surgeon. 
 He  was  also  surgeon  to  the  St.  George's 
 Hospital,  and  to  the  queen's  household 
 He  died  in  1792.  His  principal  work  is 
 Chirurgical  Cases  and  Observations,  2 
 vols,  octavo. 
 
 BRONGNIART,  Augustus  Louis, 
 apothecary  to  Louis  XVI.,  was  one  of  xhose 
 who  earliest  and  most  sedulously  contri- 
 buted, by  his  lectures,  to  diffuse  a  know- 
 ledge of  physics  and  chemistry  in  France. 
 He  died  at  Paris,  in  1804.  Besides  many 
 scientific  essays,  he  is  the  author  of  an  An- 
 alytical Description  of  the  Combinations 
 and  Decompositions  of  various  Substances. 
 
 BROOKE,  Henry,  a  writer  of  consid- 
 erable merit,  was  born  in  1706,  at  Ranta- 
 van,  in  Ireland,  and  was  bred  to  the  bar. 
 In  his  youth  he  was  the  friend  of  Swift  and 
 Pope,  the  latter  of  whom  is  said  to  have 
 assisted  him  in  his  poem  called  Universal 
 Beauty,  which  appeared  in  1732.  Dar- 
 win appears  to  have  made  the  versifica- 
 tion of  this  poem  the  model  of  his  own. 
 Brooke's  next  production  was  the  tragedy 
 ofGustavus  Vasa,  which,  in  consequence 
 of  its  supposed  political  tendency,  the  li- 
 censer would  not  allow  to  be  acted.  The 
 author,  however,  published  it  by  subscrip- 
 tion, and  gained  a  thousand  pounds.  Re- 
 turning to  Ireland,  he  obtained  the  post  of 
 barrack  master,  and  resided  in  his  native 
 land  till  his  decease,  in  1783.  In  his  lat- 
 ter days,  his  intellectual  faculties  were 
 much  weakened.  One  of  the  most  popu- 
 lar of  his  works  is  the  Fool  of  Quality,  in 
 five  volumes.  His  dramatic  and  miscella- 
 neous works  form  four  volumes  octavo. 
 
 BROOKE,  Frances,  whose  maiden 
 name  was  Moore,  was  the  daughter  of  a 
 clergyman.  The  time  of  her  birth  is  un- 
 known;  she  died  in  1789.  Her  first  liter- 
 ary production  was  a  periodical  work,  cal- 
 led the  Old  Maid,  which  came  out  in  1755 
 and  1756.  She  wrote  the  tragedies  of 
 Virginia  and  the  Siege  of  Sinope;  the 
 musical  dramas  of  Rosina  and  Marian ; 
 the  novels  of  Lady  Julia  Mandeville,  Emi- 
 ly Montague,  the  Excursion,  and  the  Me- 
 moirs of  the  Marquis  de  St.  Forlaix;  and 
 translated  Lady  Catesby's  Letters,  and 
 Millot's  History  of  England. 
 
 BROOKS,  John,  the  son  of  a  respect- 
 able farmer,  was  born  in  Medford,  Massa- 
 chusetts, in  the  year  1752.  After  receiv- 
 ing a  common  school  education,  he  waa 
 placed  with  Dr.  Tufu  to  study  the  profw- 
 
BRO 
 
 ■ion  of  medicine.  On  completing  his  stud- 
 ies, he  commenced  practice  in  the  neigh- 
 bouring town  of  Reading,  a  short  time  be- 
 fore the  commencement  of  the  revolution. 
 When  this  event  occurred,  he  was  appoint- 
 ed to  command  a  company  of  minute  men, 
 and  was  soon  after  raised  to  the  rank  of 
 major  in  the  continental  service.  He  was 
 distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  military 
 tactics,  and  acquired  the  confidence  of 
 Washington.  In  1777,  he  was  appointed 
 lieutenant-colonel,  and  took  a  conspicuous 
 part  in  the  capture  of  Burgoyne  at  Sara- 
 toga. On  the  disbanding  of  the  army, 
 Colonel  Brooks  resumed  the  practice  of 
 medicine  in  Medford  and  the  vicinity,  and 
 was  soon  after  elected  a  member  of  the 
 Massachusetts  Medical  Society.  He  was 
 for  many  years  major-general  of  the  mili- 
 tia of  his  county,  and  his  division  render- 
 ed efficient  service  to  the  government  in  the 
 insurrection  of  1786.  General  Brooks  also 
 represented  his  town  in  the  general  court, 
 and  was  a  delegate  to  the  State  convention 
 for  the  adoption  of  the  federal  constitution. 
 In  the  late  war  with  England,  he  was  the 
 adjutant-general  of  governor  Strong,  whom, 
 on  his  retirement  from  office,  he  was  chos- 
 en to  succeed.  He  discharged  the  duties 
 of  chief-magistrate  with  much  ability  for 
 seven  successive  years,  when  he  retired  to 
 private  life.  His  remaining  years  were 
 passed  in  the  town  of  Medford,  where  he 
 died  in  1825. 
 
 BROOME,  William,  was  the  son  of 
 humble  parents  in  Cheshire,  and  received 
 his  education  at  Eton  and  Cambridge. 
 Pope  employed  him  in  making  notes  from 
 Eustathius,  for  the  Iliad,  and,  afterwards, 
 made  him  one  of  his  associates  in  trans- 
 lating the  Odyssey.  Broome  complained 
 of  his  scanty  remuneration,  and  Pope,  in 
 revenge,  gave  him  a  place  in  the  Dunciad. 
 He  died  vicar  of  Eye,  in  Suffolk,  in  1745. 
 Besides  his  share  in  the  Odyssey,  he  pro- 
 duced a  volume  of  poems,  and  translated 
 part  of  Anacreon. 
 
 BROSSES,  Charles  de,  born  in 
 1709,  died  in  1779,  was  first  president  of 
 the  parliament  of  Burgundy ;  but  devoted 
 his  leisure  hours  to  literature.  He  was  the 
 schoolfellow,  and,  through  life,  the  attach- 
 ed friend  of  Buffon.  Of  his  works  '  the 
 principal  are  Letters  on  Herculaneum; 
 History  of  Voyages  to  the  Southern  Re- 
 gions; and  a  History  of  Rome,  partly  from 
 Sallust.  He  was  also  a  liberal  contributor 
 to  the  Encvclopedia. 
 
 BROTIER,  Gabriel,  a  French  Jesuit, 
 born  at  Tannav,  in  1723,  was  librarian  to 
 the  college  of  Lewis  the  Great;  and,  after 
 his  order  was  suppressed,  he  spent  the  last 
 twenty-six  years  of  his  life  with  a  friend. 
 He  died  at  Paris,  in  1789.  Brotier  was 
 an  excellent  classical  scholar,  and  publish- 
 
 BRO 
 
 117 
 
 ed  editions  of  various  classics,  among 
 which  his  Tacitus  stands  preeminent 
 
 BROTIER,  Andrew  Charles,  a 
 nephew  of  Gabriel,  was  born  at  Tannay, 
 in  1751,  and  became  professor  of  mathe* 
 matics  at  the  Paris  military  school.  In 
 1797,  he  vvas  deeply  implicated  in  a  royal- 
 ist conspiracy,  for  which  he  was  transport- 
 ed to  Guiana,  where  he  died  in  1798.  He 
 published  some  posthumous  works  of  his 
 uncle,  and  translated  Aristophanes  and 
 Plautus. 
 
 BROUGHTON,  Thomas,  a  divine  and 
 literary  character,  was  born  in  London,  in 
 1704,  studied  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  and 
 died,  vicar  of  Bedminster,  St.  Mary  Red- 
 clifFe,  Bristol,  and  a  prebendary  of  Salis- 
 bury, in  1774.  He  was  one  of  the  princi- 
 pal contributors  to  the  Biographia  Brit- 
 annica;  and  also  wrote  several  works, 
 among  which  is  a  Dictionary  of  all  Reli- 
 gions, two  volumes  folio. 
 
 BROUSSONET,  Peter  Augustus 
 Maria,  a  French  naturalist,  was  born  at 
 Montpelier,  in  1761,  became  a  member  of 
 the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  of  the  Royal 
 Society,  consul  at  Teneriflfe,  and,  lastly, 
 professor  of  botany  at  his  native  place, 
 where  he  died  in  1807.  Among  his  prin- 
 cipal works  are  his  Ichthyologia ;  and  a 
 kind  of  Farmer's  Journal,  which  extended 
 to  eight  volumes  quarto.  Broussonet  was 
 the  first  who  introduced  merino  sheep  and 
 Angora  goats  into  France.  During  the 
 last  months  of  his  life,  in  consequence  of  a 
 fall,  he  entirely  lost  the  power  of  remem- 
 bering proper  names  and  nouns;  while,  on 
 the  contrary,  French  and  Latin  adjectives 
 crowded  into  his  memory,  and  he  used 
 them  to  designate  those  objects  of  which 
 he  wished  to  speak. 
 
 BROWN,  Robert,  the  founder  of  the 
 sect  of  Brownists,  was  born  at  Northamp- 
 ton, and  was  related  to  Lord  Burleigh. 
 He  pursued  his  studies  at  Cambridge. 
 About  1580,  he  began  to  attack  the  gov- 
 ernment and  liturgy  of  the  church,  had 
 many  followers,  and  was  soon  imprisoned 
 by  the  ecclesiastical  commissions,  but  was 
 liberated  by  the  interest  of  Lord  Burleigh. 
 He  then  settled  at  Middleburgh,  in  Hol- 
 land, collected  a  congregation,  and  wrote 
 a  book,  intitled  a  Treatise  of  Reforma- 
 tion without  tarrying  for  any  ■  Man.  In 
 1585,  however,  he  returned  to  England, 
 became  engaged  in  contests  with  the  bish- 
 ops, was  disowned  by  his  father,  and  was, 
 at  length,  excommunicated.  Conviction, 
 or,  perhaps,  policy,  now  induced  him  to 
 conform,  and,  in  1590,  he  obtained  a  living 
 in  Northamptonshire.  His  end  was  in 
 unison  with  his  life.  At  the  age  of  more 
 than  eighty,  he  was  committed  to  gaol, 
 for  striking  a  constable  and  abusing  a  ma- 
 gistrate, and  he  died,  in  1630,  shortly  after 
 
118  BRO 
 
 his  committal.  He  used  to  boast,  "  that 
 he  had  been  incarcerated  in  thirty-two 
 prisons,  in  some  of  which  he  could  not  see 
 his  hand  at  noonday."  His  sect  long 
 survived  him.  In  the  civil  wars  it  bore 
 the  name  of  the  Independents. 
 
 BROWN,  Thomas,  a  writer  of  talent 
 and  of  considerable  though  coarse  wit,  was 
 the  son  of  a  farmer  at  Shilhul,  and  was 
 educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  but 
 quitted  college  on  account  of  his  irregular- 
 ities. For  a  while  he  was  a  school-master 
 at  Kingston,  in  Surrey.  Quitting  this  sit- 
 uation, however,  he  settled  in  London,  as 
 an  author  hv  profession,  and  gained  noto- 
 riety by  his  Lampoons,  his  humour,  and  his 
 conversational  powers.  He  died  in  1704. 
 His  works  form  4  vols.  12  mo. 
 
 BROWN,  Ulysses  M aximilian,  an 
 Austrian  field-marshal,  the  son  of  an  expa- 
 triated Irish  officer,  was  born  at  Basil,  in 
 1705;  served  with  distinction  against  the 
 Turks,  and  at  the  battles  of  Parma  and 
 Cnastalla;  was  made  field-marshal  in 
 1739;  signalized  his  talents  in  Italy,  from 
 1714  to  1746,  particularly  at  the  battle  of 
 Placentia;  and  died  in  the  Bohemian  cap- 
 ital in  1757,  of  the  wounds  which  he  receiv- 
 ed at  the  battle  of  Prague. 
 
 BROWN,  John,  D.  D.,  a  man  of  mul- 
 tifarious talents,  some  of  whose  works 
 once  enjoyed  great  popularity,  was  born  at 
 Rothbury,  in  Northumberland,  in  1715, 
 and  was  educated  at  St.  John's  College, 
 Cambridge.  He  took  orders,  but  in  the 
 year  1745,  he  acted  with  much  spirit  as  a 
 volunteer  against  the  rebels.  In  the  church 
 he  obtained  considerable  preferment,  and 
 he  was  indefatigable  as  a  writer.  He  put 
 an  end  to  his  existence,  in  a  fit  of  insanity, 
 in  1766.  His  poems  and  tragedies  have 
 merit.  But  the  work  by  which  he  most 
 attracted  public  notice  was  his  Estimate 
 of  the  Manners  and  Principles  of  the 
 Times,  published  in  1757,  in  which  his 
 countrymen  are  represented  as  being  sunk 
 into  a  state  of  utter  degeneracy.  It  ran 
 through  seven  editions  in  one  year.  Splen- 
 did British  victories  soon,  however,  proved 
 the  falsehood  of  its  assertions.  Of  his  oth- 
 er productions,  one  of  the  best  is,  Essays 
 on  Lord  Shaftesbury's  Characteristics. 
 
 BROWN,  LANCELOT,  b  landscape  gar- 
 dener (commonly  known  by  the  designation 
 of  Capability  Brown,  from  his  frequent  use 
 of  the  phrase  "  this  spot  has  great  capabil- 
 ities"), was  born  at  Kirharle,  in  Northum- 
 berland, in  1715;  attained  liip.li  reputation 
 in  laving  out  grounds;  made  a  large  for- 
 tune, and  wis  nigh  sheriff*  for  Huntingdon- 
 shire;  and  died  in  1782. 
 
 BROWN,  John,  a  self  educated  Scotch 
 divine,  was  born,  in  1722,  at  Kerpoo,  in 
 Perthshire,  became  a  minister  and  school- 
 master, and  died    in  1787.      His   principal 
 
 BRO 
 
 works  are,  the  Self  Interpreting  Bible,  2 
 vols.  4to.;  and  a  Dictionary  of  the  Bible, 
 2  vols.  Svo. 
 
 BROWN,  John,  celebrated  as  the  pa- 
 rent of  the  Brunonian  system  of  medicine, 
 was  born,  in  1735,  at  Buncle,  in  Berwick- 
 shire, and  originally  studied  with  a  view 
 to  the  church,  but  afterwards  commenced 
 the  study  of  physic.  For  a  while  he  was 
 patronised  by  Dr.  Cullen.  He,  however, 
 quarrelled  with  that  gentleman,  and  be- 
 came his  active  opponent.  After  many 
 struggles  and  vicissitudes  he  settled  in  Lon- 
 don, in  1786,  and  died  there  in  October, 
 1788,  leaving  a  numerous  family  in  want. 
 His  misfortunes  principally  arose  from  his 
 habits  of  intemperance.  His  medical  sys- 
 tem is  developed  in  his  Elementa  Medi- 
 cine, and  has,  at  least,  the  merit  of  simpli- 
 city, as  it  classes  all  diseases  under  two 
 heads — those  of  deficient  and  those  of  re- 
 dundant excitement. 
 
 BROWN,  John,  an  eminent  landscape 
 engraver,  was  a  fellow  pupil  of  Woollet, 
 and  for  some  time  worked  in  conjunction 
 with  him.  Their  teacher's  name  was  Tin- 
 ney.  Brown  acquired  considerable  repu- 
 tation for  the  taste  and  spirit  of  his  burin, 
 and  became  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
 Academy.  He  died,  at  the  age  of  sixty, 
 in  October,  1801. 
 
 BROWN,  William,  a  celebrated  gem 
 engraver,  was  born,  in  1748.  At  the  com- 
 mencement of  his  career  he  was  patronised 
 by  Catherine  of  Russia,  and  subsequently 
 by  Louis  XVI.  The  French  revolution 
 drove  him  from  Paris,  and  he  settled  in 
 London,  where  he  produced  many  excel- 
 lent works.     He  died  in  1825. 
 
 BROWN,  John,  a  painter,  was  born 
 at  Edinburgh,  in  1752,  resided  ten  years 
 in  Italy,  and  acquired  there  a  knowledge 
 of  all  the  elegant  arts.  On  his  return,  he 
 settled  at  Edinburgh,  in  which  city  he 
 died  in  1787.  He  was  the  intimate  friend 
 of  Lord  Monboddo,  to  whom  he  addressed 
 his  Letters  on  the  Poetry  and  Music  of  the 
 Italian  Opera.  They  were  published  by 
 the  learned  judge  in  1789. 
 
 BROWN,  Charles  Brockden,  an 
 American  novelist  and  man  of  letters,  was 
 born  in  Philadelphia  in  January  1771. 
 After  a  good  school  education,  he  com- 
 menced the  study  of  the  law  in  the  office 
 of  an  eminent  member  of  the  bar.  Dur- 
 ing the  preparatory  term,  his  mind  was 
 much  engaged  in  literary  pursuits,  and 
 when  the  time  approached  for  his  admis- 
 sion into  the  courts,  he  resolved  to  aban- 
 don the  profession  altogether.  His  passion 
 for  letters,  and  the  weakness  of  his  physi-  . 
 cal  constitution,  disqualified  him  for  the 
 bustle  of  business.  His  first  publication 
 was  Alcuin,  a  Dialogue  on  the  Rights  of 
 Women,  written  in  the  autumn  and  winter 
 
BRO 
 
 of  1797.  The  first  of  his  novels,  issued 
 in  1798,  was  Wieland,  a  powerful  and 
 original  romance,  which  soon  acquired  rep- 
 utation. After  this,  followed  Ormond, 
 Arthur  Mervyn,  Edgar  Huntley  and  Clara 
 Howard,  in  rapid  succession,  the  last  being 
 published  in  1801.  The  last  of  his  novels, 
 Jane  Talbot,  was  originally  published  in 
 London,  in  1804,  and  is  much  inferior  to 
 its  predecessors.  In  1799,  Brown  publish- 
 ed the  first  number  of  the  Monthly  31a^a- 
 zine  and  American  Review  ;  a  work  which 
 he  continued  for  about  a  year  and  a  half 
 with  much  industry  and  ability.  In  1805 
 he  commenced  another  journal  with  the 
 title  of  the  Literary  Magazine  and  Amer- 
 ican Register;  and  in  this  undertaking  he 
 persevered  for  five  years.  During  the 
 same  interval  he  found  time  to  write  three 
 large  political  pamphlets,  on  the  Cession 
 of  Louisiana,  on  the  British  Treaty,  and 
 on  Commercial  Restrictions.  In  1S06,  he 
 commenced  a  semi-annual  American  Regis- 
 ter, fi\e  volumes  of  which  he  lived  to  com- 
 plete and  publish,  and  which  must  long  be 
 consulted  as  a  valuable  body  of  annals. 
 Besides  these  works,  and  many  miscella- 
 neous pieces  published  in  different  periodi- 
 cals, he  left  in  manuscript  an  unfinished 
 system  of  geography,  which  has  been  rep- 
 resented to  possess  uncommon  merit.  He 
 died  of  consumption  in  1810. 
 
 BROWN,  John,  was  born,  in  1736,  in 
 Providence,  Rhode  Island,  and  was  a  lea- 
 der of  the  party  which,  in  1772,  destroyed 
 the  British  Sloop  of  War  Gasper  in  Nar- 
 vaganset  Bay.  He  became  an  enterprising 
 and  wealthy  merchant,  and  was  the  first  in 
 his  native  state  who  traded  with  the  East 
 Indies  and  China.  He  was  chosen  a  mem- 
 ber of  Congress,  and  was  a  generous 
 patron  of  literature,  and  a  great  projector 
 of  works  of  public  utility.  He  died  in 
 1803. 
 
 BROWN,  Dr.  Thomas,  a  man  eminent 
 as  a  metaphysician,  moral  philosopher,  and 
 poet,  was  born  at  Kirkmabreck,  in  Scot- 
 land, in  1777,  and  displayed  an  early 
 acuteness  and  thirst  for  knowledge.  His 
 first  education  was  received  in  the  vicinity 
 of  London,  and  was  completed  at  the 
 university  of  Edinburgh.  At  the  age  of 
 twenty,  he  wrote  a  masterly  answer  to 
 Darwin's  Zoonomia.  In  1810,  he  suc- 
 ceeded Mr.  Stewart,  at  Edinburgh,  as 
 professor  of  moral  philosophy,  and  soon 
 gained  universal  admiration  as  a  lecturer, 
 by  his  eloquence  and  talents,  and  affection 
 by  his  kindness  to  the  students.  His  bril- 
 liant career  was  unfortunately  cut  short, 
 by  consumption,  on  the  2d  of  April,  1820. 
 As  a  philosopher,  his  reputation  is  estab- 
 lished by  his  inquiry  into  the  Relation  of 
 Cause  and  Effect;  Lectures  on  the  Philos- 
 ophy of  the  Human  Mind;  and  Physiologv 
 of  die  Mind:  as  a  poet,  by  his  poems,  in 
 
 BRO 
 
 119 
 
 two  volumes;  Agnes;  the  Wanderer  of 
 Norway;  and  the  Paradise  of  Coquettes. 
 BROWN,  William,  a  poet,  born  in 
 1590,  was  a  native  of  Tavistock,  and  was 
 educated  at  Oxford.  In  1624,  he  became 
 tutor  to  the  earl  of  Caernarvon,  who  fell 
 at  the  battle  of  Newbury,  and  he  subse- 
 quently resided  in  the  family  of  the  earl 
 of  Pembroke.  His  death  is  supposed  to 
 have  taken  place  about  1645.  His  Bri- 
 tannia's Pastorals,  which  were  published 
 in  his  twenty-third  year,  and  his  Shepherd's 
 Pipe,  have  great  merit.  Discursiveness 
 and  an  occasional  quaintness  are  the  faults 
 of  his  poetry,  but  they  are  redeemed  by  a 
 lively  fancy,  much  power  of  description, 
 and  flowing  numbers. 
 
 BROWNE,  Sir  Thomas,  a  physician 
 and  eminent  writer,  was  born  in  London, 
 in  1605,  and  educated  at  Winchester  and 
 Oxford.  He  took  his  degree  at  Leyden, 
 and  settled  at  Norwich,  where  he  gained 
 extensive  practice.  His  Religio  Medici 
 having  been  surreptitiously  published,  he 
 gave  to  the  world  a  correct  edition  in  1642, 
 which  was  soon  translated  into  several 
 languages,  and  repeatedly  reprinted.  It 
 was  attacked  by  many  writers,  some  of 
 whom,  with  equal  absurdity  and  injustice, 
 accused  the  author  of  being  an  infidel, 
 and  even  an  atheist.  This  work  was  fol- 
 lowed by  his  celebrated  Treatise  on  Vulgar 
 Errors ;  and  Hydriotaphia,  or  a  Treatise 
 on  Urn  Burial,  published  together  with 
 the  Garden  of  Cyrus.  He  died  in  1682. 
 Browne  was  a  man  of  great  benevolence, 
 and  of  extensive  erudition.  His  style  is 
 singular  and  pedantic,  but  has  generally 
 strength,  and  often  felicity  of  expression. 
 — His  son  Edward,  who  was  born  about 
 1642,  and  died  in  1708,  was  president  of 
 the  College  of  Physicians,  and  is  the  author 
 of  an  Account,  in  2  vols.  4to.,  of  his  own 
 7 ravels  in  Austria,  Hungary, Thessalv,  and 
 Italv. 
 
 BROWNE,  Simon,  was  born  at  Shep- 
 ton  Mallet,  in  1680,  and  became  a  dissent- 
 ing minister,  first  at  Portsmouth,  and  next 
 in  the  Old  lewry,  in  which  latter  situation 
 be  remained  till  1723,  when  his  reason 
 was  shaken  by  the  loss  of  his  wife  and  hia 
 
120  BRO  BRU 
 
 only  son.  The  monomania  which  afflicted  [was  born  in  1703,  and  was  originally  a 
 him  was  of  an  extraordinary  kind.  Though  ipencutter;  but,  through  the  interest  of 
 retaining  the  power  of  reasoning  acutely,  Harvey,  he  obtained  orders,  and  the  living 
 he  believed  that  God  "  had  annihilated  inlof  Olney,  in  Buckinghamshire.  He  died 
 him  the  thinking  substance,"  and  th;it  in  1787,  at  Morden  College,  of  which  he 
 though  he  seemed  to  speak  rationally,  he  was  chaplain.  He  is  the  author  of  several 
 had  "  no  more  notion  of  what  he  said  than  works,  the  principal  of  which  are  Piscatory 
 a  parrot."  Imagining  himself  no  longer  Eclogues;  and  Sunday  Thoughts.  Browne 
 a  moral  agent,  he  refused  to  bear  a  part  in  was  a  great  lover  of  angling,  and  published 
 any  act  of  worship.  While  in  this  state,! an  edition  of  Walton's  Angler, 
 however,  he  continued  to  write  forcibly,  |  BROWNE,  Isaac  Hawkins,  a  native 
 and,  among  other  things,  produced  a  De-lof  Burton  upon  Trent,  was  born  in  1706, 
 fence  of  the  Religion  of  Nature,  and  the  |  studied  at  Westminster,  Cambridge,  and 
 Christian  Revelation,  against  Christianity  Lincoln's  Inn;  was  called  to  the  bar;  and 
 as  old  as  the  Creation.  To  this  he  prefixed  became  M.  P.  for  Wenloek.  Though  a 
 a  dedication  to  Queen  Caroline,  in  which 'man  of  infinite  wit,  he  was  mute  in  par 
 
 he  affectinglv  expatiated  on  his  soulless 
 state.  His  friends  suppressed  this  melan- 
 choly proof  of  his  singular  insanity;  but 
 it  is  preserved  in  the  Adventurer.  He 
 died  in  1732.  He  is  the  author  of  hymns, 
 sermons,  and  various  controversial  and 
 theological  pieces. 
 
 BROWNE,  Sir  William,  a  physician, 
 an  eccentric  but  amiable  character,  was 
 born  in  1692,  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
 settled  at  Lynn,  whence  he  removed  to 
 London,  where  he  died  in  1774.  In  dress, 
 Btvle,  and  manners,  he  was  a  complete 
 odditv;  a  circumstance  which  exposed 
 him  to  the  shafts  of  satire.  He  had,  how- 
 ever, the  good  sense  and  dignity  of  mind 
 to  smile  at  such  attacks.  At  Lynn,  he 
 nailed  to  his  house  door  a  pamphlet  which 
 was  written  against  him:  and  when  Foote 
 caricatured  him,  in  the  Devil  on  Two 
 Sticks,  Browne  sent  him  a  note,  praising 
 the  accuracy  of  the  mimic's  personation, 
 and  sending  him  his  own  muff,  to  complete 
 the  picture.  Browne  left  three  gold  medals 
 to  be  yearly  /wen  to  Cambridge  under- 
 graduates, for  Creek  and  Latin  compo- 
 sitions; and  founded  a  scholarship  at 
 Petcrhouse,  where  he  was  educated.  He 
 translated  Gregory's  Elements  of  Diop- 
 trics; and  collected,  under  the  title  of 
 Opusrula.  his  own  light  pieces. 
 
 Iiament.  He  is  the  author  of  an  excellent 
 Latin  poem,  on  the  Immortality  of  the 
 Soul,  which  has  been  more  than  once 
 translated;  and  also  of  Poems.  Of  his 
 minor  poems,  the  Pipe  of  Tobacco,  in 
 which  he  admirably  imitates  six  poets  of 
 that  period,  is  the  best  known,  and  is  de- 
 servedly popular.     He  died  in  1766. 
 
 BROWNE,  Patrick,  a  botanist  and 
 physician,  was  born  at  Crossboyne,  in 
 Ireland,  in  1720,  and  studied  physic  at 
 Paris  and  Leyden.  He  then  went  to  the 
 West  Indies,  which  he  had  visited  in  his 
 youth,  and  finally  took  up  his  abode  at 
 Jamaica.  Returning  at  length  to  Ireland, 
 he  died  in  1720,  at  Rtisbrook,  in  the  county 
 of  Mayo.  Hi*  chief  work  is  the  Civil  and 
 Natural  History  of  Jamaica. 
 
 BROWNE,  William  George,  an 
 English  traveller,  a  man  of  fortune,  who 
 penetrated  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  and 
 was  the  first  who  gave  an  accountr.nf  the 
 African  kingdoms  of  Darfur  and  Bornou. 
 His  Travels  in  Africa,  Egypt,  and  Assyria, 
 from  1792  to  1798,  were  published  in  1799. 
 About  the  year  1814  he  was  murdered,  in 
 Persia,  while  on  his  way  to  explore  the  re- 
 gions south  of  the  Caspian. 
 
 BRUCE,  Robert,  the  deliverer  of 
 Scotland  from  the  English  yoke,  was  a  de- 
 scendant, by  the  female  side,  from  David, 
 
 BROWNE,  George,  Count  de,  an  [brother  of  William  I.  Like  his  father, 
 Irish  catholic,  born  in  1698.  entered  into  the  who  was  a  competitor  for  the  crown  with 
 Russian  service.  He  saved  the  Empress  Baliol,  he  at  first  fought  under  the  English 
 Anna  Ivanovna  from  the  conspiracy  of  the  banner*.  He,  however,  at  length,  asserted 
 guards,  and  served  with  distinction  under  his  right  to  the  sovereignty,  and  was 
 Lascy,  Munich,  and  Keith.  On  the  banks  crowned  at  Scone,  in  1306.  After  many 
 of  the  Volga   he   stopped    with    only   three j reverses,  he   totally  defeated  Edward  II., 
 
 thousand  men  the  whole  Turkish  army. 
 He  was,  however,  taken  prisoner  by  the 
 Turks  and  sold  as  a  slave,  but   escaped. 
 
 in  1314.  at  Bannockburn,  and  thus  estab- 
 lished himself  firmly  on  the  throne.  He 
 died    in   1329.     Tradition  says  that,  after 
 
 In  the  seven  years   war,  he  distinguished  one  of  the  defeats  which  he  sustained  at 
 
 himself  at   the   battles   of  Prague,    Kollin,  the  outset  of  his   career,   when  Bruce  was 
 
 Jaegendorf,  and    ZorudortV.      His   services  hiding  from   his  enemies,  and  almost  dis- 
 
 were    rewarded    with    the    government   of  posed   to   relinquish  his  enterprise   in   des- 
 
 Livonia.      After  having  held  it  thirty  years,  pair,  he  was  animated  to  perseverance  by 
 
 he    wished    to    retire,   but    Catherine    II.  the   example   of  a   spider,    which   he   saw 
 
 replied,  "  death  alone  shall  part  us."     He  foiled  in  nine  attempts  to  reach  a  certain 
 
 died  in  1792. 
 
 BROWNE,  Mosrs,  a  divine  and  poet, | in  the  tenth. 
 
 point,  but  which  persisted,  and  succceeded 
 
BRU 
 
 BRUCE,  James,  a  celebrated  traveller, 
 was  bora  in  1730,  at  Kinnaird  House,  in 
 Stirlingshire.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow 
 and  Edinburgh.  After  having  been,  for  a 
 short  time,  in  the  wine  trade,  he  relin- 
 quished it,  and,  in  1763,  was  appointed 
 consul  at  Algiers.  While  holding  this  of- 
 fice, he  explored  a  part  of  Northern  Afri- 
 ca, proceeded  to  Cyprus,  Syria,  and  Asia 
 Minor,  and  made  drawings  of  Palmyra  and 
 Balbcck.  In  1768,  he  began  his  famous 
 expedition  to  Abyssinia,  to  discover  the 
 sources  of  the  Nile,  and  he  reached  the 
 Abyssinian  capital  in  February,  1770, 
 where  he  soon  acquired  considerable  influ- 
 ence at  court,  by  his  manners,  courage, 
 multifarious  knowledge,  and  personal  ap- 
 pearance. That  he  reached  what  some 
 have  considered  as  the  source  of  the  Nile  is 
 certain ;  but  it  is  at  least  doubtful  whether 
 the  springs  which  he  visited  form  the  real 
 head  of  the  Nile.  He  did  not  return  to  his 
 native  country  till  1778,  and  the  narrative 
 of  his  Travels  did  not  appear  till  1790, 
 when  it  came  forth  in  four  quarto  volumes. 
 That  narrative  excited  infinite  criticism 
 and  cavil,  and  has,  in  feci,  been  treated 
 with  disgraceful  illiberally.  Bruce  was 
 killed  by  a  fall  down  stairs,  in  April,  1794. 
 
 BRUCE,  Michael,  a  poet,  born  at 
 Kinneswood,  in  Scotland,  in  1746,  was  a 
 village  schoolmaster,  and  died  at  the  early 
 age  of  twenty-one,  after  having  long  eon- 
 tended  with  poverty  and  sickness.  His 
 poems  have  much  merit.  One  of  them,  on 
 his  approaching  end,  is  truly  pathetic. 
 
 BRUCKER,  John  James,  a  learned 
 Lutheran  clergyman,  was  born  at  Augs- 
 ourg,  in  1696,  and  died  minister  of  Saint 
 Ulric's,  in  his  native  city,  in  1770.  Of  his 
 works,  the  most  valuable  and  the  best 
 known  is  the  History  of  Philosophy,  in  6 
 vols.  4to.,  of  which  Dr.  Enfield  published 
 an  English  abridgment.  Brucker  was 
 nearly  fifty  years  employed  on  it;  and  it 
 displays  a  degree  of  erudition,  judgment, 
 and  impartiality,  which  is  highly  honour- 
 able to  its  author. 
 
 BRUEYS,  David  Augustin,  a 
 French  dramatic  writer,  was  born  at  Aix, 
 in  1640,  and  died  at  Montpelier,  in  1723. 
 The  comedies  of  Brueys,  two  of  which 
 were  written  in  conjunction  with  Palaprat, 
 are  full  of  comic  spirit.  He  also  wrote 
 three  tragedies.  At  his  outset  in  life  he 
 was  a  protestant,  but  was  converted  by 
 Bossuet,  and  obtained  ecclesiastical  pre- 
 ferments. Like  most  apostates,  he  be- 
 came violently  hostile  to  the  church  which 
 he  had  deserted. 
 
 BRUEYS,  Francis  Paul,  a  French 
 naval  officer,  born  about  1750,  became  an 
 admiral  during  the  revolution,  and  was 
 entrusted  with  the  command  of  the  squa- 
 dron which  conveyed  the  army  of  Bona- 
 parte to  Egypt.     He  was  killed  at  the  bat- 
 
 BRU 
 
 121 
 
 tie  of  the  Nile,  in  1798.  When  mortally 
 wounded,  he  refused  to  go  below.  "  A 
 French  Admiral,"  said  he,  "ought  to  die 
 on  his  quarter  deck." 
 
 BRUGNATELLI,  Louis,  a  chemist 
 and  physician,  was  born  at  Pavia,  in 
 1761,  was  medical  and  chemical  professor 
 in  that  university,  and  died  in  1818.  Sci- 
 ence is  indebted  to  him  for  numerous  ex- 
 periments, and  also  for  discoveries  with 
 respect  to  the  gastric  juice  and  to  combus- 
 tion. He  is  the  author  of  Elements  of 
 Chemistry ;  and  was  the  editor  of  several 
 scientific  journals. 
 
 BRUMOY,  Peter,  a  Jesuit  and  au- 
 thor, was  born  at  Rouen,  in  16S8;  dis- 
 tinguished himself  as  a  theologian,  critic, 
 and  teacher  of  mathematics;  and  died  in 
 1742.  He  continued  the  History  of  the 
 Gallican  Church,  and  produced  other 
 works;  but  his  reputation  chiefly  rests  on 
 his  Greek  Theatre,  in  3  vols.  4to.  His 
 Latin  Poems,  especially  those  on  the  Pas- 
 sions and  on  Glass  Making,  are  much 
 above  mediocrity. 
 
 BRUNCK,  Richard  Fran  cis  Fred- 
 erick, an  eminent  critic,  was  born  at 
 Strasburg,  in  1729,  and  died  there  in  1803. 
 The  learned  world  is  indebted  to  him  for 
 the  Greek  Anthology,  and  for  excellent 
 editions  of  Apollonius  Rhodius,  Aristopha- 
 nes, Sophocles,  Virgil,  Plautus,  and  Te- 
 rence. His  latter  days  were  clouded  with 
 pecuniary  difficulties,  which  compelled  him 
 to  sell  a  considerable  part  of  his  library. 
 
 BRUNE,  William  Mary  Ann,  a 
 French  marshal,  was  born  at  Brive  la 
 Gaillarde,  in  1763;  espoused  warmly  the 
 cause  of  the  revolution;  and,  after  having 
 been  a  printer  and  an  editor  of  a  paper,  he 
 entered  the  army  in  1793.  In  1796  and 
 1797  he  served  under  Bonaparte,  and  his 
 distinguished  merit  gained  him  rapid  pro- 
 motion. In  1799,  he  was  commander  in 
 chief  of  the  united  French  and  Dutch  forc- 
 es, and  displayed  high  military  talents  in 
 the  defence  of  North  Holland  against  the 
 duke  of  York,  whom  he  reduced  to  a  mor- 
 tifying capitulation.  Under  the  consular 
 government,  he  had  a  prominent  share  in 
 the  pacification  of  the  royalist  provinces. 
 From  1803  to  1805,  he  was  ambassador  to 
 Constantinople;  and,  during  his  absence, 
 was  made  a  marshal.  Having,  in  1807, 
 been  appointed  governor  of  the  Hanseatic 
 cities,  he  gave  dissatisfaction  to  Napoleon, 
 who,  during  the  remainder  of  his  first  reign, 
 did  not  employ  him.  Brune  submitted  to 
 the  Bourbons;  but,  being  slighted  by  them, 
 he  joined  Napoleon  on  his  return  from 
 Elba,  who  gave  him  a  command  in  the 
 south  of  France.  After  the  second  abdica- 
 tion of  the  emperor,  Brune  was  assassinated 
 at  Avignon,  August  2,  1815,  by  a  band  of 
 royalist  murderers,  who  wete  allowed  to 
 remain  unpunished. 
 
122  BRU 
 
 BRUNELLESCHI,  Philip,  the  son  of 
 a  notary,  was  born  at  Florence,  in  1377, 
 and  was  originally  apprentice  to  a  gold- 
 smith; but  a  journey  to  Rome  inspired  him 
 with  a  love  of  architecture,  lie  sedulously 
 studied  the  principles  of  the  art,  and  be- 
 came the  classical  restorer  of  it  in  Italy. 
 He  erected  many  grand  structures;  partic- 
 ularly the  admirable  dome  of  the  cathedral, 
 the  .churches  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  St. 
 Lorenzo,  and  the  Pitti  Palace,  at  Florence, 
 and  the  monastery  of  Fiesole.  Brunelleschi 
 was  also  a  sculptor,  an  engineer,  and  a  poet. 
 He  died  in  1444. 
 
 BRUNO,  St.,  the  founder  of  the  Car- 
 thusian order,  was  born  at  Cologne,  in 
 1030;  established  the  first  house  of  his 
 order,  in  1084,  at  the  Chartreuse,  in  Dau- 
 phine ;  was  invited  into  Italy,  by  Pope 
 Urban  II.;  refused  the  archbishopric  of 
 Reggio;  founded  a  second  monastery  in 
 the  mountains  of  Calabria;  died  in  1101; 
 and  was  canonized  in  1514. 
 
 BRUNO,  Jordano,  was  born  at  Nola, 
 in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  about  the  mid- 
 dle of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  was  orig- 
 inallv  a  Dominican,  but  quitted  his  convent, 
 Med  to  Geneva,  and  embraced  the  protestant 
 religion.  Beza  and  Calvin,  however,  ex- 
 pelled him  from  that  city.  After  having 
 visited  France,  England,  and  Germany,  he 
 settled  at  Padua.  There  he  was  arrested, 
 and  was  sent  to  Rome,  where,  after  two 
 years  imprisonment,  he  was  burnt,  in  1600. 
 Of  his  numerous  philosophical  works  the 
 most  celebrated  is  the  Demolition  of  the 
 Triumphant  Beast,  a  satire  on  superstition, 
 which  has  unjustly  been  charged  with  athe- 
 istical principles. 
 
 BRUNSWICK,  Ferdinand,  Duke  of, 
 was  born  in  1721,  and,  after  his  return 
 from  his  travels,  entered  into  the  Prussian 
 service,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
 Silesian  war.  In  the  seven  years'  war,  he 
 was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  combined 
 British  and  Hanoverian  forces,  manifested 
 talents  of  the  first  order,  and  defeated  the 
 French  on  many  occasions,  especially  at 
 Creveldt  and  Minden.  The  peace  of  1763 
 terminated  bis  military  career;  and  he  died 
 at  Brunswick,  July  3,  1792. 
 
 B  R  U  N  S  W  I  C  K  LUNENBURG, 
 Charles  William  Fi.umxa.nd,  Duke 
 of,  nephew  of  Ferdinand,  was  born  in  1735, 
 studied  the  art  of  war  under  his  uncle  and 
 Frederic  of  Prussia,  and  gained  great  repu- 
 tation in  the  seven  years'  war,  and  in  the 
 war  of  1778  with  Austria.  In  1780,  he 
 succeeded  to  the  duchy,  and  proved  himself 
 the  friend  of  internal  improvement  and  of 
 literature.  He  resumed  his  military  career 
 in  1787,  when,  at  the  head  of  the  Prussian 
 army,  he  restored  the  authority  of  the  Btadt- 
 holder  in  Holland.  In  his  next  enterprise 
 he  was  unsuccessful.  Having  invaded 
 France,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  Austrian 
 
 BRU 
 
 and  Prussian  force,  and  published  a  violent 
 and  impolitic  manifesto,  he  was  compelled 
 to  retreat,  by  an  inferior  army  under  Du- 
 mourier.  In  1794  he  resigned  the  com- 
 mand. Till  1806,  he  was  occupied  with 
 the  peaceful  labours  of  government ;  but  in 
 that  year  he  was  appointed  leader  of  the 
 Prussian  army,  and  was  mortally  wounded 
 at  the  fatal  battle  of  Auerstadt.  He  ex- 
 pired at  Altona,  on  the  10th  of  December. 
 BRUNSWICK  WOLFENBUTTEL 
 OELS,  Frederic  Augustus,  Prince 
 of,  a  younger  brother  of  the  preceding, 
 was  born  in  1740,  and  gained  applause  as 
 a  general' officer  in  the  Prussian  service; 
 but  his  highest  fame  is  derived  from  his 
 literary  talents.  He  is  the  author  of  several 
 works,  among  which  are,  Critical  Remarks 
 on  the  Character  of  Alexander  the  Great; 
 and  a  Military  Life  of  Prince  Frederic 
 Augustus  of  Brunswick  Lunenburg.  He 
 died  at  Weimar,  in  1805. 
 
 BRUNSWICK  WOLFENBUTTEL, 
 Maximilian  Julius  Leopold,  Prince 
 of,  a  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
 1751,  and  commanded  a  regiment  in  garri- 
 son at  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  where  he 
 was  universally  beloved  for  his  benevo- 
 lence, and  his  charity  to  the  poor.  In 
 1785,  a  terrible  inundation  of  the  Oder 
 spread  destruction  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
 Frankfort.  To  save  the  life  of  a  family 
 surrounded  by  the  waters,  the  prince  hero- 
 ically put  off  in  a  boat,  but  he  was  swept 
 away  by  the  torrent,  and  perished,  to  the 
 deep  regret  of  every  friend  of  humanity. 
 
 BRUNTON,  Mary,  the  daughter  of 
 Colonel  Balfour,  was  born  in  Barra  island, 
 one  of  the  Orkneys,  in  1776,  married  a 
 minister  of  the  Scotch  church  in  1796,  and 
 died  in  1818,  equally  admired  for  her  tal- 
 ents and  beloved  for  her  disposition  and 
 virtues.  She  is  the  author  of  Discipline, 
 and  of  Self  Control,  two  excellent  novels ; 
 and  she  left  an  unfinished  tale  called  Em- 
 meline,  and  some  minor  pieces,  which  her 
 husband  published. 
 
 BRUTUS,  Lucius  Junius,  the  founder 
 of  the  republican  government  in  Rome, 
 was  a  grandson  of  Tarquin  the  Elder,  by 
 Tarquinia.  His  father  and  elder  brother 
 having  been  murdered  by  Tarquin  the 
 Proud,  Brutus,  for  several  years,  simula- 
 ted insanity  to  save  his  own  life;  but,  on 
 the  violation  of  Lucretia,  by  Tarquin,  he 
 threw  off  the  mask,  and  animated  the  Ro- 
 mans  to  become  free.  His  sons  having 
 conspired  against  the  republic,  he  himself 
 sentenced  them  to  death.  He  was  slain 
 B.  c.  505.  in  a  single  combat  with  Aruns, 
 who  also  fell  at  the  same  moment. 
 
 BRUTUS,  Marcus  Junius,  a  de- 
 scendant of  Lucius  Junius,  and  nephew  of 
 Cato,  espoused  the  cause  of  Pompey;  but, 
 after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  he  was  re- 
 ceived  into  favour  by  the  conqueror,  en-. 
 
BRY 
 
 trusted  with  the  government  of  Cisalpine 
 Gaul,  and  made  praetor  of  Rome.  He, 
 nevertheless,  joined  in  the  conspiracy  of 
 Cassius  and  others,  and  assisted  in  putting 
 Caasar  to  death.  Being  finally  vanquished, 
 at  the  battle  of  Philippi,  B.  c.  42,  he  ter- 
 minated his  own  existence,  in  the  forty- 
 third  year  of  his  age.  Of  all  the  conspi- 
 rators, Brutus  alone  is  believed  to  have 
 been  actuated  by  purely  patriotic  motives. 
 
 BRUYERE,  Johnde  la,  a  celebrated 
 French  writer,  was  born,  in  1644,  at 
 Dourdan,  in  the  Isle  of  France;  was  ap- 
 pointed historical  tutor  to  the  duke  of 
 Burgundy,  who  subsequently  pensioned  and 
 retained  him  about  his  person ;  was  admit- 
 ted into  the  French  Academy,  in  1693; 
 and  died,  of  apoplexy,  in  1697.  His  ad- 
 mirable Characters  appeared  in  1687. 
 Delille  justly  observes,  that  "  he  who 
 would  describe  La  Bruyere  ought  to  pos- 
 sess his  genius,  and  that  inimitable  tal- 
 ent which  comprises  so  much  sense  in  a 
 phrase,  so  many  ideas  in  a  word,  and  ex- 
 presses in  so  novel  a  manner  that  which 
 has  before  been  said,  and  in  so  pointed  a 
 manner  that  which  has  never  been  said 
 before."  La  Bruyere  also  translated  the 
 Characters  of  Theophrastus ;  and  wrote 
 Dialogues  on  Quietism. 
 
 BRUYN,  Cornelius  le,  a  native  of 
 the  Hague,  where  he  was  born  in  1652, 
 acquired  reputation  both  as  a  painter  and 
 a  traveller ;  but  particularly  in  the  latter 
 capacity.  In  two  voyages,  which  lasted 
 several  years,  he  visited  Italy,  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, Egypt,  the  Archipelago,  Russia,  Per- 
 sia, and  the  Indian  continent  and  isles. 
 He  returned  to  his  native  country  in  1708. 
 The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown.  His 
 Voyages  form  2  vols,  folio. 
 
 BRUYN,  Nicholas,  a  Dutch  poet, 
 who  was  born  at  Amsterdam,  in  1671,  is 
 the  author  of  seven  tragedies,  and  of  many 
 poems,  which  have  been  collected  in  eleven 
 volumes.  His  tragedies  still  keep  pos- 
 session of  the  stage.  Among  his  best  po- 
 ems are  three  descriptive  pieces,  illustra- 
 tive of  the  beauties  of  North  and  South 
 Holland,  and  of  the  river  Vecht. 
 
 BRUYS,  Peter  de,  a  native  of  Dau- 
 phine,  who  was  burnt,  as  a  heretic,  at  St. 
 Gilles,  in  Languedoc,  in  1130,  was  the 
 founder  of  a  sect  called  Petrobrussians. 
 He  opposed  transubstantiation,  infant  bap- 
 tism, and  the  use  of  churches,  crucifixes, 
 and  prayers  for  the  dead. 
 
 BRYAN,  Michael,  an  eminent  con- 
 noisseur in  the  fine  arts,  who  was  at  one 
 period  a  picture  dealer,  was  born  in  1757, 
 and  died  in  1821.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
 valuable  Biographical  and  Critical  Dic- 
 tionary of  Painters  and  Engravers,  2  vols. 
 4to. 
 
 BRYANT,  Jacob,  a  philologist  and 
 antiquary,  was  born  at  Plymouth,  in  1715. 
 
 BLC 
 
 123 
 
 and  received  his  education  at  Eton  and 
 King's  College,  Cambridge.  The  duke  of 
 Marlborough,  to  whom  he  had  been  tutor, 
 gave  him  a  place  in  the  ordnance  depart- 
 ment. He  settled  at  Cypenham,  in  Berk- 
 shire, and  died  November  14,  1804,  of  a 
 mortification  in  the  leg,  occasioned  by 
 bruising  the  skin  against  a  chair.  Bryant 
 was  an  indefatigable  and  a  learned  writer, 
 but  fond  of  paradox.  He  wrote  one  work 
 to  maintain  the  authenticity  of  the  pseudo 
 Rowley's  poems,  and  another  to  prove 
 that  Troy  never  existed.  His  principal 
 production  is  a  New  System  or  Analysis 
 of  Ancient  Mythology,  in  three  volumes 
 quarto,  which  was  published  in  1774  and 
 1776.  It  is  ingenious  and  erudite;  but 
 often  fanciful  and  erroneous.  Among  his 
 other  compositions  are,  Observations  rela- 
 tive to  Ancient  History;  a  Treatise  on 
 the  authenticity  of  the  Scriptures;  Obser- 
 vations on  the  Plagues  of  Egypt ;  and  Dis- 
 sertations on  the  Prophecy  of  Balaam,  &c. 
 
 BRYDONE,  Patrick,  a  native  of 
 Scotland,  was  born  in  1741,  and  travelled 
 in  Italy,  as  companion  to  Mr.  Beckford 
 and  other  gentlemen.  He  was  appointed 
 comptroller  of  the  stamp  office,  which  situ- 
 ation he  held  till  his  decease,  in  1819. 
 The  publication  of  his  Travels  in  Sicily 
 and  Malta,  gained  him  admission  to  the 
 Royal  Society,  to  the  Transactions  of 
 which  body  he  contributed  several  papers. 
 The  narrative  of  his  travels  is  well  writ- 
 ten; but  much  dissatisfaction  was  excited 
 by  some  of  his  statements,  which  militate 
 against  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation. 
 
 BUACHE,  Philip,  a  geographer,  the 
 pupil  and  son  in  law  of  William  Delisle, 
 was  born  at  Paris,  in  1700,  and  died  in 
 1773.  Buache  published  many  charts  and 
 maps,  and  some  geographical  works.  He 
 maintained  the  existence  of  a  southern 
 continent.,  and  framed  a  system  of  physi- 
 cal and  natural  geography,  which  has  been 
 overturned  by  subsequent  discoveries. 
 
 BUAT  NANCAY,  Louis  Gabriel, 
 Count  du,  a  learned  French  writer,  was 
 born  at  Livarot,  in  Normandy,  in  17S2, 
 was  a  pupil  of  Folard,  became  envoy  at 
 Dresden  and  Ratisbon,  and  died  in  1787. 
 His  principal  works  are,  the  Ancient  His- 
 tory of  the  European  nations;  the  Origins, 
 or  the  Ancient  Government  of  France, 
 Germany,  &c. ;  and  the  Maxims  of  Mo- 
 narchical Government. 
 
 BUC,  George,  an  historian  and  anti- 
 quary, a  native  of  Lincolnshire,  was  one 
 of  the  gentlemen  of  the  bedchamber  to 
 James  I.,  who  made  him  master  of  the 
 revels,  and  knighted  him.  He  wrote  the 
 Art  of  Revels;  the  Third  Universitie  of 
 England;  and  a  Life  of  Richard  III.  The 
 latter,  in  which  he  vindicates  the  character 
 of  that  monarch,  is  the  best  known  of  his 
 works        Malone    attributes     it     to     Sir 
 
124 
 
 BUC 
 
 George's   son,   but   Ritson   maintains  the 
 claim  of  the  father. 
 
 BUCER,  Martin,  one  of  the  fathers 
 of  the  Reformation,  was  born,  in  1491, 
 at  Schlestadt,  in  Alsace.  He  was  a  Domi- 
 nican, but  was  converted  to  protestantism 
 by  Luther.  The  new  doctrines  were  in- 
 troduced by  him  at  Strasburgh,  where  he 
 was  minister  and  professor  of  theology  for 
 twenty  years.  Bucer  laboured,  but  in 
 vain,  to  reconcile  the  disputes  of  Luther 
 and  Zuingle.  In  154S  he  went  to  Augs- 
 burgh  to  sign  the  Interim ;  after  which  he 
 was  invited  to  England  by  Cranmer.  He 
 died,  in  1551,  ;it  Cambridge,  where  he  was 
 theological  professor.  During  the  reign 
 of  the  persecuting  Mary,  his  bones  were 
 disinterred  and  committed  to  the  ilames. 
 His  works  are  numerous. 
 
 BUCHAN,  William,  a  Scotch  physi- 
 cian, was  born  at  Ancram.  in  1729,  educa- 
 ted at  Edinburgh,  and  became  physician 
 to  the  Foundling  Hospital  at  Ackworth, 
 in  Yorkshire.  He  afterwards  practised  in 
 London  with  tolerable  success.  Buchan, 
 however,  was  too  fond  of  society  to  attend 
 diligently  to  his  profession.  He  was  first 
 brought  into  repute  by  his  Domestic  Medi- 
 cine, which  was  published  in  1770,  and 
 acquired  extensive  popularity.  His  book, 
 though  it  is  creditable  to  the  author's  tal- 
 ent and  knowledge,  has  done  no  small  mis- 
 chief, by  its  effect  on  the  hypocondriacal, 
 and  by  its  inducing  many  ignorant  persons 
 to  tamper  with  their  maladies.  Buchan 
 died  in  1805.  Besides  his  Domestic  Medi- 
 cine, he  wrote  a  Treatise*  on  Lues;  and 
 Advice  to  Mothers. 
 
 BUCHAN,  Elizabeth,  a  Scotch 
 fanatic,  the  wife  of  a  maker  of  delft  at 
 Glasgow,  began,  about  1779,  to  prophecy 
 the  approaching  end  of  the  world,  and  to 
 exhort  her  hearers  to  abandon  worldly 
 connections  and  pursuits,  in  order  to  be 
 ready  to  receive  Christ.  This  insane  wo- 
 man gained  a  considerable  number  of  fol- 
 lowers, who  were  called  Buchanists.  She 
 died  in  1791 ;  and  on  her  deathbed  is  said 
 to  have  declared  herself  to  be  the  Virgin 
 Mary,  and  promised  to  return  to  life. 
 
 BUCHANAN,  Georgf,  one  of  thej 
 boasts  of  Scottish  literature,  was  born,  in  i 
 1506,  at  Killairn,  in  Dumbartonshire,  and,! 
 after  having  punned  his  studies  at  Paris j 
 and  St.  Andrew's,  and  served  for  a  while 
 in  the  army,  lie  was  appointed  tutor  to  thei 
 earl  of  Cassilis,  with  whom  he  remained' 
 in  France  during  five  years.  Returning 
 from  Paris  with  the  earl,  he  was  made 
 tutor  to  the  natural  son  of  James  V.  Two; 
 satires  which  he  wrote  on  the  monks  soon 
 drew  down  their  vengeance  upon  him,; 
 and  he  was  imprisoned,  but  was  fortunate  | 
 enough  to  escape.  Once  more  visiting  the) 
 continent,  he  successively  taught  at  Paris, 
 at  Bordeaux,  and  at  Coimbra,  at  which1 
 
 BUC 
 
 latter   city   the   freedom   of  his  opinions 
 again  caused  his  imprisonment.     He  next 
 
 spent  four  years  at  Paris,  as  tutor  to  the 
 marshal  de  Brissac's  son.  During  this 
 continental  residence,  he  composed  his  Bap- 
 tistes  and  Jepthes,  translated  the  Medea 
 and  Alcestes  of  Euripides,  and  began  his 
 Latin  version  of  the  Psalms.  In  1560 
 he  returned  to  his  native  land,  and  em- 
 braced protestantism.  Yet  he  had  the 
 favour  of  the  court,  obtained  a  pension 
 from  Mary,  was  made  principal  of  St.  Leo- 
 nard's College,  at  St.  Andrew's,  and  was 
 chosen  as  preceptor  to  James  VI.  When 
 subsequently  reproached  with  having  made 
 his  royal  pupil  a  pedant,  Buchanan  is  said 
 to  have  replied,  that  "  It  was  the  best  he 
 could  make  of  him."  After  having  accom- 
 panied Murray  to  England,  to  prefer  char- 
 ges against  the  unfortunate  Mary,  he  pub- 
 lished, in  1571,  his  virulent  Detectio 
 3Iariae  Regni.  The  prevailing  faction 
 made  him  one  of  the  lords  of  the  council, 
 and  lord  privy  seal,  and  Elizabeth  gave 
 him  an  annual  pension  of  one  hundred 
 pounds.  In  1579,  however,  he  forfeited  all 
 royal  favour,  by  his  bold  and  masterly 
 work,  De  Jure  Regni,  which  asserts  the 
 rights  of  the  people.  The  closing  years 
 of  his  life  were  spent  in  the  composition 
 of  his  History  of  Scotland ;  a  work  of 
 which  the  style,  but  not  the  matter,  is 
 worthy  of  praise.  Buchanan  died  poor, 
 in  1582.  As  a  Latin  poet,  he  ranks  among 
 the  highest  of  the  moderns ;  as  an  historian 
 he  is  elegant  and  vigorous,  but  partial  and 
 deficient  in  judgment;  as  a  man  he  was 
 unamiable;  and  as  a  politician,  he  was 
 unscrupulous  and  violent. 
 
 BUCHANAN,  Claudius,  D.  D.,  a  di- 
 vine, was  born,  in  1766,  at  Cambuslang, 
 near  Glasgow,  and,  after  having  been  a 
 tutor,  and  an  attorney's  clerk  in  London, 
 was  patronised  by  Mr.  Thornton,  who 
 enabled  him  to  complete  his  education  at 
 Cambridge.  He  was  appointed  one  of 
 the  East  Indian  company's  chaplains  in 
 Bengal ;  and  was  the  first  vice-provost  and 
 classical  professor  of  the  college  at  Fort 
 William.  During  his  vice-provostship,  he 
 gave  prizes    to  the    Oxford,    Cambridge, 
 
aDd  Glasgow  universities,  for  sermons  and 
 essays,  on  the  propagation  of  religion  in 
 the  east.  He  returned  to  England  in  1806, 
 and  died  in  1815,  while  superintending  an 
 edition  of  the  Syriac  Testament,  for  the 
 use  of  eastern  christians.  He  is  the  author 
 of  Christian  Researches  in  Asia;  and  of 
 various  works  connected  with  the  same 
 subject. 
 
 BUCHOZ,  P.  Josefh,  a  naturalist  and 
 botanist,  one  of  the  most  industrious  and 
 multifarious  of  compilers,  was  born  at 
 Metz,  in  1737,  and  died  at  Paris,  in  1807. 
 His  labours  form  more  than  three  hundred 
 Tolumes,  of  which  ninety-five  are  folios; 
 and,  as  may  well  be  expected,  they  are 
 crude,  and  disfigured  by  many  errors. 
 Among  them  are,  a  History  of  the  Plants 
 of  Lorraine,  in  13  vols. ;  a  Natural  History 
 of  Fiance,  in  14  vols. ;  and  a  Universal 
 History  of  die  Vegetable  Kingdom,  with 
 more  than  one  thousand  two  hundred 
 plates. 
 
 BUCKHOLD,  or  BOCCOLD,  John, 
 known  as  John  of  Leyden,  from  the  place 
 of  his  birth,  was  a  fanatic  of  the  sixteenth 
 century.  Headed  by  Buckhold,  and  by 
 Matthias,  a  baker,  the  anabaptists  made 
 themselves  masters  of  Monster;  in  which 
 city,  however,  they  were  soon  besieged 
 by  the  bishop.  Matthias  being  killed  in 
 a  sally,  Buckhold  succeeded  him,  assumed 
 the  titles  of  king  and  prophet,  married 
 fourteen  wives,  and  committed  numerous 
 enormities.  After  the  surrender  of  the 
 city,  in  1536,  he  was  put  to  death  by  the 
 most  horrible  torments,  in  the  twenty-sixth 
 year  of  his  age. 
 
 BUCKINCK,  Arnold,  a  German,  the 
 places  and  dates  of  whose  birth  and  death 
 are  unknown,  was  the  first  person  who 
 engraved  maps  upon  copper;  and  he  at 
 once  brought  the  art  to  considerable  per- 
 fection. The  only  work  which  he  appears 
 to  have  illustrated  is  an  edition  of  Ptolemy, 
 published  at  Rome,  in  1478. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM,  George  VILL- 
 IERS,  Duke  of,  the  unworthy  favourite  of 
 James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  was  born,  in  1592, 
 at  Brookesby,  in  Leicestershire,  and  was 
 the  son  of  Sir  George  Villiers.  Having 
 attracted  the  notice  of  James  I.  in  1615, 
 that  monarch  appointed  him  his  cupbearer, 
 became  his  tutor,  and  rapidly  and  succes- 
 sively raised  him  to  be  gentleman  of  the 
 bedchamber,  lord  admiral  of  England,  war- 
 den of  the  cinque  ports,  master  of  the  horse, 
 baron,  earl,  marquis,  and  duke.  More  a 
 sovereign  than  the  sovereign  himself,  the 
 dispensation  of  all  graces  and  favours  was 
 in  his  hand,  and  his  insolence  and  tyranny 
 excited  general  disgust  in  the  nation.  His 
 strange  expedition  to  Madrid,  and  his  con- 
 duct there,  is  said  to  have  weakened  the 
 infatuation  of  James  I.  for  him,  and  had 
 that  monarch  lived,  Villiers  might,  per- 
 
 BUC 
 
 123 
 
 haps,  have  lost  his  power.  But  the  acces- 
 sion of  Charles  I.,  in  1625,  rendered  the 
 favourite  still  more  potent.  In  vain  the 
 parliament  attacked  him  ;  it  was  dissolved, 
 and  he  enjoyed  a  complete  triumph.  He 
 next  plunged  the  nation  into  a  war  with 
 France  ;  and  being  entrusted  with  the 
 command  of  an  army,  he  lost  the  flower 
 of  it  in  an  ill  conducted  attack  on  the  isle 
 of  Rhe.  He  returned  to  England  to  refit 
 his  shattered  armament,  and  was  again 
 about  to  sail  when  he  was  assassinated  at 
 Portsmouth,  on  the  23d  of  August,  1628, 
 by  a  lieutenant  by  the  name  of  Felton. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM,  George  VILL- 
 IERS, Duke  of,  son  of  the  preceding 
 duke,  was  born  in  1627,  studied  at  Cam- 
 bridge, served  the  king  zealously  in  the 
 civil  wars,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
 Worcester.  By  marrying  a  daughter  of 
 Lord  Fairfax,  he  recovered  a  considerable 
 part  of  his  forfeited  estates;  and,  at  the 
 Restoration,  he  was  made  a  lord  of  the  bed- 
 chamber, master  of  the  horse,  and  lord 
 lieutenant  of  Yorkshire.  These  honours, 
 however,  he  lost  in  1666,  for  being  engaged 
 in  a  conspiracy  against  the  king;  but  he 
 recovered  the  royal  favour,  was  once  mere 
 "  the  life  of  pleasure  and  the  soul  of  whim" 
 at  court,  and  was  employed  as  ambassador 
 to  France.  Villiers  was  one  of  the  most 
 versatile,  projecting,  and  profligate  of 
 mankind.  Dryden  has  drawn  his  charac- 
 ter admirably,  under  the  name  of  Zimri. 
 This  witty  and  unprincipled  nobleman 
 died,  at  Kirby  Moorside,  in  Yorkshire, 
 April  16,  1688,  of  a  fever  caught  in  fox- 
 hunting. Of  his  works,  the  most  celebra- 
 ted is  the  comedy  of  the  Rehearsal,  which, 
 undoubtedly,  affords  a  decisive  proof  that 
 his  talents  were  of  a  superior  order. 
 
 BUCKTNGHAMSHIRE,John  SHEF- 
 FIELD, Duke  of,  the  son  of  the  earl  of 
 Mulgrave,  was  born  in  1649 ;  served  under 
 Turenne;  relieved  Tangier;  took  a  part 
 in  the  revolution  of  l688 ;  was  created 
 marquis  of  Normandy  and  duke  of  Buck- 
 inghamshire; and  died  in  1720.  Bucking- 
 ham House  was  erected  by  him.  His 
 poetical  and  prose  works  form  two  vol- 
 umes. 
 
 BUCKMINSTER,  Joseph  Stevens, 
 a  celebrated  pulpit  orator,  was  born  in  Ports- 
 mouth, New-Hampshire,  in  1784.  His 
 male  ancestors,  on  both  sides,  for  several 
 generations,  were  clergymen,  and  some  of 
 them  of  considerable  eminence.  He  was 
 graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1800, 
 with  much  distinction;  and  spent  the  ensu- 
 ing four  years  in  the  study  of  theology  and 
 general  literature.  He  was  ordained  min- 
 ister over  the  church  in  Brattle-street, 
 Boston,  in  January,  1805.  In  the  ensuing 
 year  he  embarked  for  Europe  with  the 
 hopes  of  repairing  his  constitution,  which 
 had  suffered  much  from  attacks  of  epilepsy 
 
126 
 
 BUD 
 
 BUT 
 
 He  returned  in  the  autumn  of  1807,  and  I  more  in  vain  attempts  to  obtain  a  seat  in 
 resumed  the  exercise  of  his  profession;  his  the  house  of  commons;  and  at  last  he  be- 
 sermons  placing  him  in  the  first  rank  of  j  came  involved  in  lawsuits  and  embarrass- 
 populvir  preachers.  In  1810  he  superinten-  'merits.  The  finishing  stroke  was  put  to 
 ded    an    American  edition  of  Griesbach's   his  fate,  by  the  setting  aside  the  will  of 
 
 Greek  Testament,  and  wrote  much  in  \  indi 
 cation  of  tii  is  author's  erudition,  fidelity  and 
 
 Dr.  Matthew  Tindall,  in  which  appeared 
 be()iiest    of   two     thousand     pounds    to 
 
 accuracy.     In  1811,  he  was  appointed  thelBudgell.     His  difficulties,  and  the  digrace 
 first  lecturer  on  Biblical  Criticism  at  the!  of  having  a  forgery  attributed  to  him,  stung 
 
 university  of  Cambridge,  on  the  foundation 
 
 established  by  Samuel  Dexter.      He  imme- 
 diate! v   began  a  course   of  laborious    and 
 
 him  to  the  heart,  and  he  ended  his  exist- 
 ence by  throwing  himself  into  the  Thames, 
 .May  4,   1737.      Besides  the  works  already 
 
 extensive  preparation  for  the  duties  of  this  (mentioned,    he    established    a    periodical 
 office,  but   was   interrupted  by  a  violent  called  the  Bee;  assisted  in  the  Craftsman ; 
 
 attack  of  his  old  disease,  which  prostrated 
 his  intellect,  and  gave  a  .-hock  to  his  frame 
 which  he  survived  but  a  few. days.  He 
 died  in  1812,  at  the  completion  of  his 
 twenty-eighth  year.  Two  volumes  of  his 
 sermons  have  been  collected  and  published 
 since  his  decease;  one  in  1814,  the  other 
 in  1829.  The  first  was  prefaced  with  a 
 well-written  biographical  sketch. 
 
 BUCQUOI,  Charles  Bonaventure 
 dk  Longuf.val,  Count  de,  an  eminent 
 general,  was  born  in  1551,  entered  early 
 into  the  Spanish  service,  and  signalized  his 
 valour  in  the  Low  Countries.     In  1620,  in 
 
 and  wrote  the  History  of  Cloomenes;   and 
 Memoirs  of  the  Family  of  the  Boyles. 
 
 BUFFIER,  Claude,  a  Jesuit,  was  born 
 in  Poland,  of  French  parents,  in  1661,  and 
 studied  at  the  college  of  Rouen,  where  he 
 afterwards  held  the  situation  of  theological 
 professor.  He  died  in  1737.  Burner  was 
 employed  in  the  Memoires  de  Trevoux, 
 and  likewise  produced  a  great  number  of 
 theological,  metaphysical,  biographical, 
 and  geographical  works.  Several  of  them 
 were  collected  in  a  folio  volume,  with  the 
 title  of  a  Course  of  Sciences  on  new  and 
 simple  Principles.     Though  sometimes  su- 
 
 and  instructive  writer. 
 
 conjunction  with  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  he  I  perficial,  he  is,  on  the  whole,  an  elegant 
 entirely  defeated  the  protestant  army  near 
 Prague;  but  he  stained  his  laurels  by  his 
 subsequent  cruelties.  After  having  reduc- 
 ed Moravia,  he  was  killed,  in  1621,  at  the 
 siege  of ,  Neuhausel. 
 
 BUDE,  or  BUDiEUS,  Willi  am,  born 
 at  Paris,  in  1467,  where  he  died  in  1540, 
 spent  a  youth  of  dissipation,  but  at  length 
 applied  himself  so  closely  to  study,  that 
 his  classical  acquirements  gained  for  him 
 the  title  of  the  Prodigy  of  France.  He 
 was  employed  on  embassies  by  Louis  XII. 
 and  Francis  I.,  to  the  latter  of  whom  he 
 retaiy  and  librarian.  Bude  trans- 
 lated some  treatises  from  Plutarch,  and 
 wrote  several  works,  the  chief  of  which 
 are,  his  Tractatus  de  Asse;  and  Commen- 
 tarii  Lingufe  Grecse. 
 
 BIDGELL,  Eustace,  was  born  at 
 St.  Thomas,  near  Exeter,  about  16S5,  and 
 educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  Addi- 
 
 BUFFOX,  George  Louis  le  Clerc, 
 Count  de,  the  Pliny  of  France,  was  the 
 sou  of  a  counsellor  of  the  parliament  of 
 Dijon,  and  was  born  September  7,  1707, 
 at  Montbard,  in   Burgundv.     He    studied 
 
 son,  who  was  related  to  him,  took  him  to  the  law  at  Dijon,  but  never  practised  it; 
 Ireland,  as  one  of  his  clerks,  and  in  that  (his  inclinations  leading  him  to  mathemati- 
 country   Budgell    rose   to    offices  of  great  I  cal  and  physical  science,  and  Euclid  being 
 
 trust  and   profit,   and  to  be  a  member  of 
 the  Irish   parliament.      While   filling  those 
 
 his   constant    pocket    companion.       After 
 having  travelled   into  Italy  and    England, 
 
 offices  with  diligence  and   honour,  In;  con-  he  succeeded  to  his  paternal  estate  at  Mont- 
 tributed  to  the   Spectator   and  Guardian, !  bard,  between  whicn    and   Paris    his  time 
 
 translated  the  Characters  of  Theophrastus 
 
 and  wrote  various  pieces  in  verse.  The 
 tide  of  fortune,  however,  at  length  turned 
 against  him.  He  was  dismissed  from  his 
 office  of  accomptant  and  comptroller  gene- 
 ral in  Ireland,  for  satirizing  the  lord  lieu- 
 tenant, who  had  treated  him  ill;  he  lost 
 twenty  thousand  pounds  in  the  South  Sea 
 
 was  spent.  In  1739  he  was  appointed 
 keeper  of  the  royal  garden  and  cabinet  at 
 Paris,  the  treasures  of  which  he  greatly 
 increased.  His  patent  of  nobility  he  ob- 
 tained in  1771.  He  was  also  a  member 
 of  the  French  Academy,  and  of  the  Acad- 
 emy  of  Sciences.  Button  died  April  the 
 16th,  1788.     As  a  man,  he  was  fond  of 
 
 Duoble  ;    he   spent    five    thousand    pounds  i  dress  and   display,  lax  in  his  morals,  and 
 
BUL 
 
 immeasurably  vain.  Newton,  Bacon,  Leib- 
 nitz, Montesquieu,  and  himself,  were  the 
 only  persons  whom  he  would  allow  to  be 
 great  geniuses!  His  first  literary  works 
 were,  Translations  of  Hales's  Vegetable 
 Statics,  and  Newton's  Fluxions.  But  for 
 his  fame  he  is  indebted  to  his  Natural 
 History,  in  thirty-six  volumes,  which  has 
 been  naturalized  in  almost  every  European 
 language.  Though  always  immethodical, 
 though  often  inaccurate,  and  though  full  of 
 the  wildest  theories,  it  is  undoubtedly  an 
 astonishing  work,  whether  we  consider  the 
 extent  of  its  information,  the  spirit  of  its 
 descriptions,  or  the  eloquence  of  its  style. 
 
 BULL,  John,  a  doctor  of  music,  was 
 born  in  Somersetshire,  about  1563,  "and 
 died  at  Lubeck,  in  1622.  He  was  organist 
 to  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  first  musical  pro- 
 fessor at  Gresham  College,  and  chamber 
 musician  to  James  I.  More  than  two 
 hundred  pieces,  chiefly  for  the  organ  and 
 virginals,  were  composed  by  him ;  and  it 
 seems  to  be  now  fully  established,  that  we 
 are  indebted  to  him  for  the"  national  an- 
 them of  God  save  the  King. 
 
 BULL,  George,  an  eminent  prelate 
 and  theologian,  born  at  the  city  of  Wells, 
 in  1634,  was  educated  at  Tiverton  and 
 Oxford,  and  was  ordained  at  the  age  of 
 twenty-one.  Having  passed  through  the 
 roiror  dignities  of  the  church,  he  was  made 
 Ijishop  of  St.  David's  in  1705,  and  died  in 
 1709.  His  HarmoniaApostolica  was  pub- 
 lished in  1669,  to  the  great  annoyance  of 
 the  Calvinists;  his  main  work,  Defensio 
 Fidei  Nicenae,  appeared  in  1685;  and  his 
 Judicium  Eccleshe  Catholicum,  in  1694. 
 For  the  latter  production  he  received  the 
 thanks  of  Bossuet  and  various  French  di- 
 vines. He  likewise  produced  other  pieces 
 of  less  note,  and  many  sermons. 
 
 BULL,  William,  M.D.  was  the  firs*: 
 white  person  born  in  South  Carolina,  and 
 is  supposed  to  be  the  first  American  who 
 obtained  a  degree  in  medicine.  He  was  a 
 pupil  of  the  great  Boerhaave,  and  acquired 
 some  literary  and  professional  distinction. 
 In  1734  he  defended  and  published  at  the 
 university  of  Leyden,  his  inaugural  thesis 
 De  Colica  Pictonum.  After  returning  from 
 Europe  to  his  native  state,  he  was  suc- 
 cessively a  member  of  the  Council,  speaker 
 of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  Lieu- 
 tenant Governor.  When  the  Britisli  troops 
 removed  from  South  Carolina  in  1782,  he 
 accompanied  them  to  England,  and  died  in 
 London,  in  1791,  in  the  eighty-second  year 
 of  his  age. 
 
 BULLET,  Peter,  an  eminent  French 
 architect,  the  pupil  of  F.  Blonde),  was 
 born  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
 century,  and  constructed  several  magnifi- 
 cent edifices,  particularly  the  gate  of  St. 
 Martin,  and  the  church  of  St.  Thomas 
 Aquinas,  at  Paris.     He  also  wrote  a  Trea- 
 
 BUN 
 
 127 
 
 tise  on  Practical  Architecture ;  a  Treatise 
 on  Levelling ;  and  other  works.  The  date 
 of  his  death  is  not  recorded. 
 
 BULLET,  John  Baptist,  born  in 
 1699,  at  Besancon,  was  professor  of  theo- 
 logy in  the  university  of  that  city,  and  died 
 in  1775.  He  is  the  author  of  several  theo- 
 logical works,  among  which  is  a  History 
 of  the  Establishment  of  Christianity;  but 
 his  principal  production  is  Memoirs  on 
 the  Celtic  Language,  in  3  vols,  folio. 
 
 BULLIARD,  Peter,  a  native  of  the 
 Barrois,  in  France,  where  he  was  born 
 about  1742,  combined  the  talent  of  an  artist 
 with  that  of  an  eminent  botanist.  He 
 himself  designed  and  engraved  the  plates 
 which  embellish  his  works.  He  died  in 
 1703.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Parisian 
 Flora;  a  History  of  the  Poisonous  Plants 
 of  France ;  a  History  of  French  Champig- 
 nons;  and  other  productions. 
 
 BULLINGER,  Henry,  one  of  the 
 early  reformers,  was  born  in  the  canton  of 
 Zurich,  at  Baumgarten,  in  1504.  The 
 works  of  Melancthon  converted  him  to 
 protestantism,  and  he  became  closely  con- 
 nected with  Zuingle,  to  whom  he  suc- 
 ceeded as  pastor  of  Zurich.  He  was  one 
 of  the  authors  of  the  Helvetic  Confession, 
 and  assisted  Calvin  in  drawing  up  the 
 Formulary  of  1549.  Bullinger  was  a  mod- 
 erate and  conscientious  man ;  and  it  is 
 much  to  his  honour  that,  on  the  ground  of 
 it  being  inconsistent  with  Christianity  for 
 any  one  to  hire  himself  out  to  slaughter 
 those  who  had  never  injured  him,  he  suc- 
 cessfully opposed  a  treaty  for  supplying 
 France  with  a  body  of  Swiss  mercenaries. 
 He  died  in  1575.  His  printed  works  form 
 ten  folio  volumes. 
 
 BULOW,  Henry  William,  a  native 
 of  Prussia,  born  at  Falkenberg,  adopted 
 the  military  profession,  and  bore  a  part  in 
 the  ephemeral  insurrection  of  the  Nether- 
 lauds  against  the  Emperor  Joseph;  after 
 which  he  visited  America  on  an  abortive 
 commercial  speculation;  and  next  became 
 a  Swedenborgian  preacher  in  that  country. 
 On  his  return  to  Europe,  he  resorted  to 
 his  pen  for  subsistence,  and  wrote  various 
 military  works.  Of  these,  the  most  cele- 
 brated is,  Principles  of  Modern  War,  in 
 which  he  proposes  a  new  stratagetical  sys- 
 tem, that  has  excited  much  controversy. 
 His  History  of  the  Campaign  of  1805 
 having  given  offence  to  Russia,  he  was  in 
 career  a  ted,  and  he  died  in  prison,  at  Riga, 
 in  July,  1807. 
 
 BUNYAN,  John,  the  author  of  the 
 Pilgrim's  Progress,  an  admirable  allegory, 
 which  enjoys  an  unexampled  but  deserved 
 popularity,  was  of  humble  birth,  being  the 
 son  of  a  travelling  tinker,  and  was  born, 
 in  1628,  at  Elstow,  in  Bedfordshire.  For 
 some  time  he  followed  his  father's  occupa- 
 tion, and  led  a  wandering  dissipated  life, 
 
/ 
 
 128 
 
 BUO 
 
 after  which   he  served  in  the  parliament 
 army,  and  was  at  the  siege  of  Leicester 
 
 Religion  having  now  made  an  impression 
 on  his  minu,  lie  joined  the  anabaptists,  and, 
 about  1655,  became  a  teacher  among  them 
 at  Bedford.  Subsequent  to  the  restoration, 
 his  preaching  brought  him  within  the  gripe 
 of  the  law,  and  he  was  for  nearly  thirteen 
 years  immured  in  Bedford  gaol,  where  he 
 supported  himself  and  his  family  by  tagging 
 laces.  His  leisure  hours  were  spent  in 
 writing  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  and  other 
 works,  similar  in  kind,  but  inferior  in 
 merit.  He  was  at  last  released,  through 
 the  interposition  of  Bishop  Barlow  of  Lin- 
 coln, and  he  resumed  his  ministry  at  Bed- 
 ford. His  death  took  place  at  London, 
 in  1688.  His  works  form  two  folio  vo- 
 lumes. Bunvan  had  a  talent  for  repartee. 
 A  quaker  visited  him  in  Bedford  gaol,  and 
 declared  that,  by  order  of  the  Lord,  he  had 
 sought  for  him  in  half  the  prisons  of  Eng- 
 land. "  If  the  Lord  had  sent  you,"  re- 
 plied Bunvan,  "you  need  not  have  taken 
 bo  much  trouble  to  find  me  out;  for  the 
 Lord  knows  that  I  have  been  a  prisoner  in 
 Bedford  gaol  for  the  last  twelve  years." 
 
 BUONAMICI,  Castruccio,  a  native 
 of  Lucca,  born  in  1710,  at  which  city  he 
 died  in  1761,  after  having  been  in  the 
 military  service  of  the  king  of  Naples,  is 
 considered  as  one  of  the  most  elegant  of 
 Woden  Latin  writers.  His  principal  work 
 is,  his  Commentaries  on  the  War  in  Italy: 
 it  gained  him  the  title  of  count  from  the 
 duke  of  Parma,  and  a  present  from  the 
 Genoese  republic,  and  was  translated  into 
 English  and  French. 
 
 BUOIVAROTTI,  Michael  Angelo, 
 more  generally  known  under  the  name  of 
 Michael  Angelo,  was  at  once  preeminent 
 as  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect,  and 
 was  no  mean  poet.  He  was  6orn  at  Arezzo, 
 in  1474,  of  a  noble  but  poor  family,  and 
 his  love  of  the  arts  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  first  inspired  by  his  being  nursed  in 
 a  village  which  contained  many  carvers 
 and  sculptors  in  stone.  Ghirlandaio  was 
 his  tutor  in  painting;  and  while  under 
 that  master,  he  amused  himself  with  mo- 
 delling figures  in  clay,  from  the  antiques 
 
 BUO 
 
 in   the   gardens   of  Lorenzo  de  Medicis. 
 One  of  these  productions  obtained  him  the 
 patronage   of  Lorenzo,  who  received  him 
 into  his  family.     Here,  among  other  works, 
 he   executed  an  admirable  basso  relievo, 
 the    Battle   of  the    Centaurs.      After    the 
 death  of  his  patron,  Buonarotti  pursued  his 
 career  at  Bologna,  and  then  again  at  Flo- 
 rence.    In  the  latter  city  he  sculptured  his 
 David  and   Goliath,  and  painted  a  battle 
 piece  for  the  ducal  palace.     His  reputation 
 now  caused   him  to  be  invited  to  Rome  by 
 the    pope,    and    that    reputation    was    en- 
 hanced by  the  works  he  performed  there, 
 both    in    sculpture    and    painting;    among 
 them    was   the   statue  of  Moses,  the  pic- 
 ture  of  the    Holy  Family,    and  the  car- 
 toon of  the  War  of  Pisa.     Having  taken 
 umbrage  at  the  manner   in   which  he  was 
 treated  by  Julius  II.  he  suddenly  departed 
 from  Rome;   but    the    pontiff,  not   without 
 difficulty,  induced  him  to  return,  and  then 
 employed    him    in    casting  his  statue    in 
 bronze,  and   in  painting  the   dome  of  the 
 Sistine  chapel.     The  latter  task  he  accom- 
 plished  in  twenty    months.     It    was  not, 
 however,  till  several  years  later,  that  he  ex- 
 ecuted his  noble  composition  of  the  Last 
 Judgment,  in  the  same  chapel.     Under  the 
 pontificate  of  Leo  X.  the  talents  of  Michael 
 Angelo  were  wasted    in  opening    marble 
 quarries  and  constructing  roads.      Under- 
 that  of  Adrian  VI.  he  was  chietly  occupied' 
 on  the  monument  of  Julius   II.      In  the 
 years  1529  and  1530,  he   was  engaged   in 
 toils  which  have  nothing  in  common  with  the 
 fine  arts.      He  was  chosen  engineer  and 
 superintendant  of  their  fortifications  by  the 
 Florentines,  during  their  brief  struggle  for 
 their  liberty,  and  in    this  new  capacity  he 
 acquitted  himself  with  honour.     After  the 
 restoration  of  peace,  Clement  VII.   recal- 
 led him  to  Rome,  and  confided  to  him,  on 
 the  death  of  San  Gallo,  the  glorious  labour 
 of  carrying  on  the   building  of  St.  Peter's. 
 For  seventeen   years,  till  the  time  of  his 
 death,   February   17,   1563,   Michael  An- 
 gelo continued  his  exertions  to  make  that 
 magnificent  structure  one  of  the  wonders  of 
 the  world ;  nor  would  he  accept  of  any  re- 
 muneration  whatever.      The  other   works 
 which   he  executed  during   his   last  resi- 
 dence at  Rome  are  too  numerous  to  be  de- 
 scribed within  our  narrow  limits.     "  Sub- 
 limity of  conception,  grandeur  of  form,  and 
 breadth    of  manner,"   says  Fuseli,   "  are 
 the  elements  of  Michael    Angelo's  style; 
 and  by  these  principles  he  selected  or  re- 
 jected the  objects  of  imitation.     As  painter, 
 sculptor,  or  architect,  he  attempted,  and 
 beyond  any  other  man  succeeded,  to  unite 
 magnificence  of  plan,   and   endless  variety 
 of  subordinate  parts,  with  the  utmost  sim- 
 plicity and  breadth."     The  poetry  of  this 
 great  man   is  stamped  with  the  same  fea- 
 tures as  the  creations  of  his  hand.     Hi* 
 
BUR 
 
 personal  character  is  well  described  by 
 Quatremere  de  Quincy:  "  In  his  youth,  he 
 knew  no  other  want  than  that  of  occupying 
 his  mind,  no  other  pleasure  than  that  of 
 cultivating  the  arts.  When  at  a  more  ad- 
 vanced age  he  became  rich,  he  despised 
 luxury,  and  was  careless  of  even  the  con- 
 veniences of  life.  To  sleep  in  his  clothes, 
 to  live  often  upon  bread  and  water  alone, 
 and  to  pass  the  nights  in  toil,  or  in  solitary 
 rambles,  are  among  the  least  of  the  traits 
 which  may  characterize  his  habits  of  liv- 
 ing. Had  he  lived  among  the  Greeks,  he 
 would  have  been  admired  as  a  philosopher 
 before  he  had  been  praised  as  an  artist ; 
 but,  indisputably,  he  would  have  been  of 
 the  sect  of  Zeno.  Economy,  frugality,  dis- 
 interestedness, austerity  of  morals,  inflex- 
 ibility of  purpose,  contempt  of  fortune,  and 
 even  of  glory ;  such  were  the  stoical  virtues 
 which  he  always  professed.  Michael  An- 
 gelo  was  beloved  and  sought  after  by  the 
 great;  but  he  shunned  them."  Yet  with 
 these  severe  virtues  he  was  kind  hearted, 
 and  was  sometimes  singularly  indulgent  to 
 the  weakness  or  vanity  of  others. 
 
 BUONAROTTI,  Michael  Angelo, 
 the  Younger,  a  nephew  of  the  great  Mi- 
 chael Angelo,  was  born  at  Florence,  in 
 1558,  and  died  in  1646.  He  was  a  patron 
 of  literature  and  the  arts;  a  member  of  the 
 Florentine  and  Crusca  Academies;  wrote 
 two  comedies,  la  Tancia,  and  la  Fiera,and 
 two  mythological  scenic  representations; 
 and  published  an  edition  of  his  uncle's  po- 
 ems. His  comedy,  as  it  is  called,  of  la 
 Fiera,  is,  in  fact,  a  series  of  five  comedies 
 on  the  same  subject. 
 
 BURCH,  Edward,  one  of  the  most 
 eminent  of  modern  gem  engravers,  whose 
 productions  almost  rival  those  of  antiquity, 
 was  born  about  1740;  was  chosen  librarian 
 of  the  Royal  Academy  on  the  death  of 
 Wilson;  and  held  that  situation  till  his 
 death  in  1814. 
 
 BURCHIELLO,  an  Italian  poet,  whose 
 real  name  was  DoiMinico,  was  born  at 
 Florence,  in  1380,  and  died  at  Rome,  in 
 1448.  Burchiello  was  a  barber,  and  his 
 shop  was  the  resort  of  all  the  wits  of  the 
 city.  Such  celebrity  did  this  humble  abode 
 obtain,  that  the  representation  of  it  was 
 painted  in  the  Medicis  gallery.  With 
 much  wit  and  elegance,  his  poems  are  in 
 style  the  most  eccentric,  and  often  unintel- 
 ligible, that  can  be  imagined. 
 
 BURCKHARDT,  John  Charles, 
 was  born  at  Leipsic,  in  1773,  and  began  to 
 study  mathematics  even  in  his  childhood. 
 Reading  Lalande's  works  decided  him  to 
 become  an  astronomer,  and  he  learned  al- 
 most all  modern  languages,  to  read  astro- 
 nomical books.  His  ardour  for  calculation 
 was  indefatigable.  Baron  Zach,  with 
 whom  he  resided  for  two  years,  recommen- 
 ded him  to  Lalande,  who  treated  him  like 
 6t 
 
 BUR 
 
 129 
 
 a  son.  Burckhardt  was  naturalized  in 
 France,  in  1799;  succeeded  Lalande  at  the 
 observatory  of  the  Military  School;  and 
 died  in  June,  1815.  He  wrote  various  sci- 
 entific works,  and  translated  Laplace's 
 Celestial  Mechanism  into  German. 
 
 BURCKHARDT,  John  Lewis,  the 
 son  of  a  Swiss  colonel,  was  born  at  Lau- 
 sanne, in  1784,  and  studied  at  Leipsic  and 
 Gottingen.  Being  of  an  enterprising  dis- 
 position, he  offered  his  services  to  the  Af- 
 rican Association,  to  explore  Africa.  They 
 were  accepted ;  and,  after  he  had  acquired 
 Arabic  and  a  knowledge  of  physic  and  sur- 
 gery at  Cambridge,  he  sailed  in  1809.  In 
 Syria  he  remained  two  years  and  a  half,  in 
 the  character  of  a  mussulman,  and  learned 
 the  spoken  Arabic  dialects.  His  first  jour- 
 ney included  Nubia,  the  eastern  coast  of 
 the  Red  Sea,  Mecca,  and  Medina.  He 
 reached  Cairo  in  1815,  and  was  preparing 
 to  penetrate  to  Timbuctoo,  when  he  died 
 of  a  dysentery. 
 
 BU'RDON,  William,  born  at  New- 
 castle upon  Tyne,  in  1764,  was  educated  at 
 Emanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and  died  in 
 London,  in  May,  1818.  He  is  the  author 
 of  various  works,  the  principal  of  which 
 are,  Materials  for  Thinking ;  a  Life  of  Bon- 
 aparte ;  and  Thoughts  on  Politics,  Moral- 
 ity, and  Literature. 
 
 BURETTE,  Peter  John,  a  native  of 
 Paris,  born  in  1665,  was  the  son  of  a  sur- 
 geon who  cultivated  music.  His  delicate 
 health  prevented  him  from  being  sent  to 
 school,  and  he  studied  only  music ;  which 
 he  acquired  so  perfectly  that,  in  his  eighth 
 year,  he  played  before  Louis  XIV.  When  % 
 he  was  eighteen,  however,  he  resolved  to 
 become  a  physician  ;  and.,  accordingly,  he 
 dedicated  himself  to  learning,  and  rapidly 
 obtained  all  the  college  degrees.  In  the 
 oriental  languages  his  knowledge  was  pro- 
 found. After  having  been  medical  and  surgi- 
 cal professor,  royal  censor,  and  a  member 
 of  several  academies,  he  died  in  1747.  For 
 thirty-seven  years  he  was  one  of  the  editors 
 of  the  Journal  des  Savans,  and  he  wrote 
 numerous  erudite  papers  in  the  Transactions 
 of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 
 
 BURGER,  Godfred  Augustus,  a 
 poet,  was  born  at  Wolmerswende,  in  the 
 principality  of  Halberstadt,  in  1748,  and 
 displayed  an  early  fondness  for  poetry, 
 though  he  made  but  slow  progress  in  his 
 learning.  He  was  originally  intended  for 
 the  church,  but  he  never  entered  it.  Bur- 
 ger was,  indeed,  for  several  years,  too  idle 
 and  dissipated  to  apply  seriously  to  any 
 regular  occupation.  In  poetry,  however, 
 he  acquired  a  splendid  reputation,  partic- 
 ularly in  the  ballad  style.  His  Leonora, 
 his  Wild  Huntsman,  and  some  of  his  other 
 compositions,  have  been  translated  into 
 English,  and  become  highly  popular.  Bur- 
 ger was  thrice  married ;  his  first  wife  to 
 
130  BCJR 
 
 made  unhappy ;  his  third  wife  made  him 
 ■O,  and  he  obtained  a  divorce;  his  second, 
 
 rter  of  his  first,  to  whom  be  a as 
 madly  attached,  he  lost  soon  after  their 
 union.  In  1779,  Burger  obtained  the  editor- 
 ship of  the  Almanack  of  the  .Mux.-;  ami  in 
 was  appointed  professor  of  beUee 
 lettree  at  Gottingen  tie  died  in  June. 
 1794,  having  for  a  considerable  time  pre- 
 vious!} languished  in  indigence,  sickness, 
 and  Borrow.  1 1  is  works  form  four  octavo 
 volumes. 
 
 BURG!  -.  Daniel,  an  able  but  ec- 
 centric dissenting  divine,  was  born,  in 
 1  ii '"..  .  .  in   Middlesex;   was  edu- 
 
 cated at  Westminster  and  <  Oxford  ;  resided 
 H  Ireland,  from  1667  to  1674,  as  chaplain 
 and  schoolmaster;  was  imprisoned,  under 
 i  of  uniformity,  after  his  return  to 
 .ii;  became  an  exceedingly  popular 
 minister,  for  mam  years,  in  London;  and 
 died  in  1 7 1:5.  His  piety  and  learning  were 
 alloyed  by  too  much  of  humour  and  droll- 
 
 i  moo,  he  declared,  that  the 
 
 I  win  the  descendants    of  Jan  li  were 
 
 i  -  «ras,  'li.it  God  would  not 
 
 1  ive  his  (In  sen  people  called  Jucohites. 
 Iii  another,  he  exclaimed,  "  if  you  want  a 
 cheap  suit,  you  will  go  to  Monmouth  street ; 
 
 if  a  .-nit  for  life,  you  will  uro  to  ihe  court  of 
 
 chancery;  but  for  an  eternally  durable  suit, 
 iusl  -_'"  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  put  on  his 
 ■  i  i  .iiti  lusness." 
 BURGH,  James,   the  author  of  the 
 Dignity  of  Human  .Nature;    Political  Dis- 
 ttiont  ;  and  other  wnks  of  merit  ;  was 
 born,  in  1714.  at  Madderty,  in  Perthshire, 
 a  i.!  was  educated  at  St.  Andrew's.     After 
 .  been  a  linen  draper,  an  assistant  at 
 tinar  school,  and  a  corrector  in  Bow- 
 printing   office,  he  opened  an  acade- 
 my at  Si  .ion,  which  he  conduc- 
 nineteen  years.     He  died  in  177;*). 
 BURGOYNE,  Lieut.  Gen.  .!<>n>.  was 
 a  natural  bob  of  Lord   Bingley;   entered 
 
 early  into  the  annv;  and  in  1762 displayed 
 much  talent  and  enterprise,  in  command 
 of  ,i  party  of  the  British  troops  in  Portugal. 
 In  the  Ajnerican  war,  he  led  the  annv 
 which  «a-  to  penetrate  from  Canada  into 
 the  n  v  ''led  provinces.  At  first,  he  was 
 'd  :  but,  insuperable  obstacles  tbick- 
 ening  round  him.  he  was  ultimately  com- 
 
 Cto  surrender  al  Saratoga.    Disgusted 
 e  conduct  of  the  ministry  after  his 
 return,  he    r<  II   his  employments. 
 
 i!  idied  in  August,  17!'*J.     Burgoyne wrote 
 ill  -  dramas  of  the  Heiress,  the  .Maid  of  the 
 
 Oak-,  the  Lord  of  the  Manor,  and  Richard 
 
 BUR 
 
 versify  of  Vienna.  He  is  believed  to  have 
 died  about  1358.  His  memory  has  been 
 perpetuated  by  his  dilemma  of  the  ass  be- 
 tween two  bundles  of  hay,  which  he  used  to 
 illustrate  the  doctrine  of  free  will,  and  which 
 has  grown  into  a  proverb. 
 
 I '.  I  I  i  I  ( '  N  Y ,  J  o  h  n  L  f.  v  f.  s<iu  e  ,  a  French 
 writer,  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
 tions, was  bom  at  Rheims,  in  1691,  and 
 died  at  Paris,  in  1785.  He  wrote  Histo- 
 ries of  Pagan  Philosophy;  Sicily;  and  the 
 Constantinopolitaq  empire;  Lives  of  Gro- 
 tius,  Erasmus,  Bossuet,  and  Cardinal  da 
 Perron;  B  Treatise  on  the  Papal  Authori- 
 ty;  and  numerous  other  productions. 
 
 BURKE,  Edmund,  whose  name  fills  so 
 large  a  space  in  our  political  and  literary 
 annals,  was  the  son  of  an  eminent  attorney, 
 and  was  born  at  Dublin,  January  1,  1730. 
 After  having  received  his  early  education 
 from  Abraham  Shackleton,a  quaker  school- 
 master of  Ballytore,  he  went  to  Trinity 
 College,  Dublin,  in  1746,  where  he  re- 
 mained three  years,  and  pursued  an  exten- 
 sive course  of  study,  on  a  plan  of  his  own. 
 In  1753,  he  entered  as  a  law  student  at 
 the  Temple,  but  applied  himself  almost 
 wholly  to  literature;  his  unremitting  atten- 
 tion to  which  at  length  injured  his  health. 
 During  his  illness  he  became  an  inmate  in 
 the  house  of  Dr.  i\  it  gent,  a  physician,  to 
 whose  daughter  he  was  afterwards  united. 
 This  union  he  always  described  as  the  chief 
 blessing  of  his  life.  His  first  acknowledged 
 work,  which  was  of  course  published  anony- 
 mously, was  his  Vindication  of  Natural 
 Society;  an  admirable  imitation  of  Lord 
 Bolingbroke's  style  and  manner  of  reason- 
 ing, which  deceived  even  some  of  the  best 
 judges.  This  was  followed,  in  the  ensuing 
 year,  by  his  Essay  on  the  Sublime  and 
 Beautiful.  It  completely  established  his 
 reputation  as  a  man  of  genius  and  a  fine 
 writer,  and  brought  him  acquainted  with 
 
 I  ome  pamphlet.-  in  his  own  |  some  of  the  most  eminent  personages  of  the 
 
 defence;  and  a  Probationary  <)de.  His   political  career  did   not    com- 
 
 I'.i  i:D>  LN,JoHB,a  native  ofBethune, ]  mence  till  1761,  when  he  accompanied  the 
 
 bom  in  the  fourteenth  century, ,  Irish  secretary,  William  Gerard  Hamilton, 
 
 a  nominalist  philosopher,  i  of  the   to  Ireland.     Nor  can  he  be  said  to  have 
 
 univer-ity   of  Puis;  and  has,  but  or -   entered  fully  nn  that  career  till  1765,  when 
 
 oasly,  been  ie  founder  of  the  uui- 1  he  became  the  private  secretary  and  friend 
 
BUR 
 
 of  the  marquis  of  Rockingham,  then  the  first 
 lord  of  the  treasury,  who  brought  him  into 
 parliament,  as  member  for  Wcudover. 
 Thenceforth  he  took  a  prominent  part  in 
 the  debates  of  the  house  of  commons.  In 
 1774,  without  any  solicitation  on  his  part, 
 he  was  elected  for  Bristol;  but  this  seat  he 
 lost  at  the  next  election,  in  consequence  of 
 his  having  displayed  too  much  liberality  of 
 principle,  with  respect  to  the  catholics  and 
 to  Ireland.  He  subsequently  sat  for  Mal- 
 ton.  In  the  mean  while  he  gave  to  the 
 public  his  Observations  on  Grenville's  State 
 of  the  Nation ;  a  Short  Account  of  a  late 
 short  Administration;  Thoughts  on  the 
 Causes  of  the  present  Discontents;  and  his 
 speeches  on  American  Affairs.  To  the 
 impolitic  contest  with  America  he  made  a 
 strenuous  and  eloquent  resistance  as  a  sen- 
 ator. On  the  downfall  of  Lord  North's 
 ministry,  Burke  obta  ined  the  office  of  pay- 
 master-general, and  a  seat  in  the  council; 
 and  he  availed  himself  of  this  opportunity 
 to  carry  his  celebrated  reform  bill,  which 
 he  had  previously  brought  forward  in  vain. 
 The  expulsion  of  the  coalition  ministry  of 
 course  deprived  him  of  his  office.  The 
 prosecution  of  Mr.  Hastings,  and  the  op- 
 position to  Mr.  Pitt's  regency  bill,  were 
 among  his  next  and  greatest  parliamentary 
 efforts.  Though  the  former  of  these  has 
 drawn  down  upon  him  much  censure,  and 
 even  calumny,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
 oe  undertook  it  as  a  sacred  and  imperative 
 duty.  This  is  irrefragably  proved  by  his 
 recently  published  letters  to  Dr.  Lawrence. 
 When  the  French  revolution  took  place,  he 
 early  foresaw  the  result,  and,  in  1790,  he 
 produced  his  celebrated  Reflections  on  that 
 event.  A  breach  between  him  and  Mr. 
 Fox  was  also  occasioned  by  their  difference 
 of  opinion  on  this  important  subject.  In 
 1794,  he  retired  from  parliament,  and  a 
 pension  of  one  thousand  two  hundred 
 pounds  a  year  was  bestowed  on  him  by  the 
 government.  From  the  time  when  his  Re- 
 flections were  published,  till  his  decease, 
 his  literary  hostility  to  the  doctrines  of 
 revolutionary  France  was  continued  with 
 unabated  vigour.  The  last  work  which  he 
 gave  to  the  press  was  Two  Letters  on  a 
 Regicide  Peace:  the  concluding  two  were 
 posthumous.  He  died  on  the  8th  of  July, 
 1 797.  His  compositions  have  been  collected 
 in  sixteen  volumes  octavo.  In  private  life 
 Burke  was  amiable  and  benevolent;  in 
 public,  indefatigable,  ardent,  and  abhorrent 
 of  meanness  and  injustice.  It  was  this 
 latter  quality  which  rendered  him  a  perse- 
 vering advocate  of  the  Irish  catholics.  As 
 an  orator  he  ranks  among  the  first  of  mod- 
 ern times;  and  as  a  writer,  whether  we 
 consider  the  splendour  of  his  diction,  the 
 richness  and  variety  of  his  imagery,  or  the 
 boundless  stores  of  knowledge  which  he 
 displays,   it   must   be    acknowledged   that 
 
 BUR  131 
 
 there  are  few  who  equal,  and  none  who 
 transcend  him. 
 
 BURKITT,  William,  a  divine,  born 
 in  1650,  at  Hitcham,  in  Suffolk,  was  edu- 
 cated at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  and 
 became  vicar  of  Dedham,  in  Essex,  in 
 1692,  where  he  died  in  1703.  His  Prac- 
 tical Exposition  of  the  New  Testament  has 
 gone  through  many  editions,  and  still  con- 
 tinues to  be  popular. 
 
 BURLAMAQUI,  John  James,  bom 
 at  Geneva,  in  1694,  and  who  died  there  in 
 1748,  was  at  first  professor  of  law  in  his 
 native  city;  resided  for  some  years  at 
 Hesse  Cassel,  with  the  prince,  who  had 
 been  his  pupil;  and  then  returned  to  Ge- 
 neva, where  he  became  a  member  of  the 
 sovereign  council.  His  great  works  are, 
 the  Principles  of  Natural  Law;  the  Prin- 
 ciples of  Political  Law;  and  the  Princi- 
 ples of  the  LaAv  of  Nature  and  Nations. 
 
 BURLEIGH,  William  CECIL,  Lord, 
 whom  one  of  his  early  biographers  charac- 
 terizes as  "  the  oldest,  the  gravest,  and  the 
 greatest  statesman  in  Christendom,"  was 
 born,  in  1520,  at  Bourne,  in  Lincolnshire, 
 was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge, and  studied  the  law  at  Gray's  Inn. 
 In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  he  was 
 patronised  by  the  protector  Somerset,  was 
 knighted,  and  became  a  privy  counsellor, 
 master  of  requests,  and  secretary.  With 
 Elizabeth  he  was  in  still  higher  favour, 
 which,  indeed,  he  earned  by  his  political 
 sagacity  and  his  devotion  to  her.  Leicester 
 endeavoured,  but  in  vain,  to  overthrow  him, 
 and  is  even  said  to  have  aimed  against  his 
 life.  In  1571,  he  was  created  Lord  Burleigh, 
 and,  in  the  following  year,  he  was  appointed 
 lord  high  treasurer,  and  received  the  order 
 of  the  Garter.  To  Burleigh  must,  in  a 
 great  measure,  be  attributed  the  sufferings 
 and  death  of  the  unfortunate  Mary,  queen 
 of  Scots.  He  died  in  1598.  Burleigh, 
 though  not  a  man  of  genius,  was  a  man  of 
 great  parts  and  prudence,  whose  state  pol- 
 icy was  not  always  reconcilable  with  the 
 principles  of  morality.  Of  literary  merit 
 he  was,  to  say  the  least,  no  patron ;  and, 
 accordingly,  he  is  alluded  to  with  much 
 bitterness  by  many  of  his  contemporary 
 poets. 
 
 BURLINGTON  and  CORKE,  Rich- 
 ard BOYLE,  Earl  of,  was  born  in  1695, 
 was  made  a  knight  of  the  garter,  in  1730, 
 and  died  in  1753,  when  the  title  of  Bur- 
 lington became  extinct.  Lord  Burlington 
 was  a  man  of  a  liberal  mind,  and  possessed 
 an  admirable  taste  in  architecture.  He  was 
 the  first  patron  of  bishop  Berkeley,  and 
 Pope  dedicated  to  him  his  fourth  epistle. 
 His  residence  atChiswick,  the  dormitory 
 at  Westminster  school,  and  other  buildings, 
 were  designed  by  him,  and  he  improved 
 the  mansion  built,  in  Piccadilly,  by  h» 
 father. 
 
132  BUR  BUR 
 
 BURMAN,  Pktf.r,  an  emi'nent  critic,; London,  where  he  was  made  a  fellow  of 
 
 was   born   at    Utrecht,    in   1668,   and  was   the    Royal    Society,  he    took  orders,  and 
 
 profeMor  of  history,  eloquence,  and  Greek,  was  presented  to  the   living  of  Saltonn. 
 
 Erst  at  Utrecht, and  afterwards  at  Leyden.   While  lie  held  this  living,  his  honest  zeal, 
 
 He  subsequently   became  professor  of  his- 1 in    drawing    up    a    memorial  against    the 
 1 01  \    and    chiel 
 Provinces.     He 
 
 Librarian   to  the    United  abuses  committed  by  the  Scottish  bishops, 
 
 died    in    1741.     Besides 'excited    the     indignation     of    Archbishop 
 
 publishing  valuable   editions   <>f  many  of  Sharpe,  who    would  fain   have   punished 
 the  Latin  classics,  and  an  edition  of  Bu-jhis  boldness  by  depriving  and  excommu- 
 
 chanan'a  Rrorks,  he  wrote  Latin  poems,  ideating  him.  Between  1665  and  1673, 
 and  various  critical  and  philological  disser-1  Burnet  was  made  professor  of  divinity  at 
 listles.  J  Glasgow,  and  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the 
 
 tations,  discourses,  and  ei 
 
 BURMAN,  John,  a  physician  and  bot-jking;  twice  declined  a  Scottish  bishopric; 
 ania,  the  pupil  of  Boerhaave,  and  nephew! and  wrote,  among  other  productions,  Me- 
 of  the  celebrated  critic,  was  born  in  1707,  [moirs  of  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  and  a 
 and  died  in  1780.  He  was  professor  of  bot-  work,  of  which,  no  doubt,  he  soon  repen- 
 anv  at  Amsterdam.  Burman,  among  other  j  ted,  in  defence  of  the  regal  prerogatives 
 things,  published  a  Catalogue  of  Ceylonian  I  of  the  crown  of  Scotland.  The  court 
 Plants,  in  which  Liniueus  assisted  him  ;  |  favour  which  he  had  thus  gained,  he,  how- 
 aad    Descriptions    of    tare    African     and  |  ever,  soon  lost,  by  his  opposition  to  popery, 
 
 American  Plants ;  and  translated  into  Latin 
 Ruinphius's  Herbal  of  Amboyna. 
 
 BURMAN,  PETER,  brother  of  the  bot- 
 anist, was  born  at  Amsterdam,  in  1714, 
 and   was   brought  up  by  his   uncle,  whom 
 
 and  he  was  struck  out  of  the  list  of  chap- 
 lains. Settling  in  London,  he  was  appoin- 
 ted preacher  at  the  Rolls  Chapel,  and  lectu- 
 rer of  St.  Clement's,  and  became  popular. 
 His    literary    labours    were    indefatigably 
 
 he  assisted  in  his  critical  labours,  and  of I continued.  The  most  important  of  these 
 whom  he  was  no  unworthy  rival  in  eru-jwas  the  History  of  the  Reformation,  the 
 dition.  He  was  professor  of  eloquence  at  first  volume  of  which  came  forth  in  1679. 
 Franeker,  and  afterwards,  professor  of )  For  this  he  received  the  thanks  of  both 
 poetry,  librarian,  and  keeper  of  the  gvm-  [  houses  of  parliament.  His  known  hostility 
 nasium,  at  Amsterdam,  where  he  died  of  j  to    the  designs  of  the   court,  his    having 
 
 attended  Lord  Russel  on  the  scaffold,  and 
 having  preached,  on  the  5th  of  November, 
 an  obnoxious  sermon,  at  length  occasioned 
 
 an  apoplexy  in  1778.  He  wrote  a  volume 
 of  Latin  poems,  and  edited  Aristophanes, 
 Claudius,  Propertius,  and  other  classical 
 writers.     Like  bis  uncle,  lie  was  irascible,  him  to  be  deprived  of  his  lectureship  and 
 
 and    was    frequently     engaged     in    violent 
 literary  quarrels. 
 
 BURN,  Richard,  a  native  of  Kirkby 
 Stephen,  in  Westmoreland,  was  educated 
 at  Oxford,  and  became  vicar  of  Orton,  in 
 his  native  county,  a  magistrate,  and  chan- 
 cellor of  Carlisle.  He  died  in  1789.  He 
 is  the  author  of  the  useful  book  known  as 
 Burn's  Justice;  a  similar  work  on  Eccle- 
 siastical Law  ;  a  History  of  the  Poor  Laws; 
 and,  in  conjunction  with  Nicholson,  a  His- 
 tory of  Westmoreland  and  Cumberland. 
 
 BURNET, 
 
 the  ofiice  of  preacher  at  the  Rolls.  On 
 the  death  of  Charles,  Burnet  travelled 
 through  France,  Italy,  and  Switzerland, 
 and,  in  1687,  settled  at  the  Hague,  where 
 he  was  high  in  the  confidence  of  the  I'rince 
 of  Orange,  and  assisted  in  forming  the 
 plans  for  the  liberation  of  his  country. 
 A  prosecution  for  treason  was  set  on  foot 
 against  him  at  home,  and  James  required 
 the  States  to  deliver  him  up.  But  Burnet 
 had  now  married  a  Dutch  lady  of  fortune, 
 and  the  States  refused  to  give  up  one  who 
 was  thus  become  a  naturalized  subject. 
 In  168S  he  attended  the  Prince  of  Orange 
 to  England  as  chaplain  ;  and,  in  the  follow- 
 ing year,  was  made  bishop  of  Salisbury. 
 A  Pastoral  Letter,  which  he  addressed  to 
 the  clergy  of  his  diocese,  asserting  the 
 right  of  William  and  Mary  to  the  crown 
 by  conquest,  excited  the  anger  of  parlia- 
 ment, and  was  burnt  by  the  common 
 executioner.  In  1698  he  was  appointed 
 preceptor  to  the  duke  of  Gloucester;  in 
 1704  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
 carried  into  effect  his  scheme  for  the  aug- 
 mentation of  small  livings;  and  in  March, 
 1714-15,  he  died,  in  his  seventy-second 
 year.     He  left  a  History  of  his  own  Times, 
 
 Scotch  lawyer,  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  in  |  which  was  published  by  his  son  Thoimw 
 1643,  and  was  educated  at  Aberdeen.  After  Burnet.  Burnet's  character  has  been  the 
 having  travelled   in   Holland,  and  visited!  theme  of  invective  and  ridicule  to  tories; 
 
BUR 
 
 but  he  was  an  honest,  benevolent,  and  pious 
 man,  and  a  sincere  friend  to  the  liberties 
 of  his  country. 
 
 BURNET,  Thomas,  a  philosopher  and 
 divine,  born  at  Croft,  in  Yorkshire,  about 
 1635,  was  educated  at  Cambridge;  was 
 travelling  tutor  to  the  sons  of  several 
 noblemen ;  was  appointed  master  of  the 
 Charterhouse,  in  1685;  became  chaplain 
 and  clerk  of  the  closet  to  King  William; 
 and  died  in  1715.  As  master  of  the  Char- 
 terhouse, he  distinguished  himself  by  boldly 
 resisting  the  attempts  of  James  II.  to  make 
 a  Roman  catholic  a  pensioner  of  the  estab- 
 lishment. As  a  literary  character,  he  ac- 
 quired reputation  by  various  works  of  merit, 
 but  particularly  by  his  Telluris  sacra 
 Theoria,  which  he  subsequently  translated 
 into  English,  with  the  title  of  the  Sacred 
 Theory  of  the  Earth,  and  which,  though 
 its  philosophy  is  radically  defective,  will 
 always  be  admired,  for  the  sublimity  of 
 its  imagery  and  the  eloquence  of  its  style. 
 
 BURNET,  William,  the  son  of  Bishop 
 Burnet,  was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1688. 
 After  having  held  the  office  of  comptroller 
 of  the  customs  in  England,  he  was  in,  1720 
 appointed  governor  of  New-York  and  New- 
 Jersey.  In  1728  he  was  appointed  to  the 
 government  of  Massachusetts  and  New- 
 Hampshire  ;  where  his  administration  was 
 rendered  unpleasant  by  a  controversy  with 
 the  assembly.  He  died  at  Boston  in  1729. 
 He  was  a  man  of  learning,  and  published 
 several  works  on  theological  and  philosoph- 
 ical subjects. 
 
 BURNET,  James.     See  Mokboddo. 
 
 BURNEY,  Charlie,  a  doctor  of  mu- 
 sic, and  literary  character,  was  born  at 
 Shrewsbury,  in  1726,  and  studied  music 
 under  Dr  Arne.  In  1749,  he  produced,  at 
 Drury  Lane,  the  musical  pieces  of  Alfred, 
 Robin  Hood,  and  Queen  Mab.  He  then 
 settled  at  Lynn,  where  he  resided  nine 
 years,  during  which  period  he  was  employ- 
 ed on  his  General  History  of' Music,  the 
 first  volume  of  which,  however,  he  did  not 
 give  to  the  press  till  1776.  In  1760  he 
 returned  to  the  capital,  and  in  1766  brought 
 out,  at  Drury  Lane,  an  English  version 
 of  the  Devin  du  Village.  In  1770  and 
 1772,  he  travelled  through  France  and 
 Italy,  and  Germany  and  the  Netherlands; 
 of  which  tours  he  published  interesting 
 narratives.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
 Roval  Society  after  his  second  return,  and 
 contributed  to  their  Transactions  an  Ac- 
 count of  young  Crotch.  He  died  in  1814, 
 at  Chelsea  Hospital,  of  which  he  was 
 organist.  Besides  the  productions  already 
 mentioned,  and  many  musical  compositions, 
 he  produced  several  works,  one  of  the 
 chief  of  which  is,  a  Life  of  Metastasio,  in 
 three  volumes. 
 
 BURNEY,  Charles,  second  son  of  the 
 musical  composer,  was  born  at  Lynn,  in 
 
 BUR 
 
 1S3 
 
 1757,  and  educated  at  the  Charter  House, 
 Cains  College,  Cambridge,  and  Aberdeen. 
 After  having  been  an  assistant  to  an  acade- 
 my at  Highgate,  and,  afterwards,  to  Dr. 
 Rose,  of  Chiswick,  whose  daughter  he 
 married,  he  established  a  school  at  Ham- 
 mersmith, which  at  a  subsequent  period  he 
 removed  to  Greenwich.  He  obtained  the 
 livings  of  Deptford  and  of  Clifie,  and  a 
 prebend  at  Lincoln,  and  was  appointed  one 
 of  the  king's  chaplains.  He  died  Decem- 
 ber 28,  1817.  Dr.  Burney  was  one  of  the 
 most  consummate  Greek  scholars  in  Europe. 
 His  classical  acciuirements  were  first  Ola* 
 plaved  in  his  criticisms  in  the  Monthly 
 Review.  He  published  an  Appendix  to 
 Scapula;  an  edition  of  the  Choral  Odes 
 of  /Eschylus;  and  other  erudite  works. 
 His  valuable  library  was  purchased  for  the 
 British  Museum. 
 
 BURNEY,  Rear  Admiral  James,  a  son 
 of  the  historian  of  music,  was  born  in 
 1739;  accompanied  Captain  Cook  in  two 
 of  his  voyages  ;  was  much  beloved  by 
 Johnson ;  and  displayed  a  respectable  por- 
 tion of  the  literary  talent  of  his  family,  in 
 a  History  of  Voyages  of  Discovery,  5  vols. 
 4to;  an  Account  of  the  Russian  Eastern 
 Voyages ;  and  some  philosophical  tracts. 
 He  died  of  apoplexy  in  1820. 
 
 BURNS,  Robert,  a  poet  of  whom 
 Scotland  has  reason  to  be  proud,  though 
 her  scanty  patronage  of  him  ought  to  make 
 her  blush,  was  the  son  of  a  small  farmer 
 and  gardener,  and  was  born  near  Ayr,  in 
 1759.  Some  education  he  received,  and 
 he  acquired  the  French  language  and  prac- 
 tical mathematics.  Reading  was  his  delight, 
 and  every  leisure  moment  was  devoted  to 
 it.  The  perusal  of  some  of  the  best  English 
 poets  gave  him  a  taste  for  poetry,  and  love 
 inspired  him  to  pour  forth  his  feelings  in 
 verse.  At  his  outset  in  life,  Burns  was 
 engaged  in  the  labours  of  agriculture.  He 
 then  became  a  flax  dresser,  at  Irvine; 
 but  his  premises  were  destroyed  by  fire. 
 In  conjunction  with  his  younger  brother, 
 he  next  took  a  small  farm,  and  in  this 
 also  he  was  unsuccessful.  Fortune  now 
 seemed  resolved  to  thwart  all  his  wishes; 
 for   a   female   whom  he   loved,  and  who 
 
)34 
 
 BUR 
 
 was  pregnant  by  him,  was  refused  to  him 
 by  her  parents,  and  he  was  at  once  in 
 danger  from  tlie  kirk  and  the  Magistrate. 
 In  this  situation,  he  resolved  to  print  hi* 
 poem.-,  fur  the  purpose  of  raising  some 
 naooey,  and  then  to  seek  his  fortune  in  the 
 West  Indies,  as  an  assistant  overseer. 
 His  passage  was  actually  engaged  when 
 a  letter  from  \)r.  Black!  xk,  recommend- 
 ing a  visit  to  Edinburgh,  put  an  end  to 
 his  scheme  of  emigration,  in  the  Scottish 
 capital  his  poemfl  had  excited  universal 
 admiration.  Brighter  prospects  thus  open- 
 ed upon  him.  Tor  more  than  twelve 
 months  he  remained  in  Edinburgh,  invited, 
 feasted,  praised,  and  caressed,  by  the  fair 
 and  the  great  :  at  length,  with  the  sum 
 of  five  hundred  pounds,  the  produce  of  his 
 poems,  be  withdrew  to  the-  country,  mar- 
 ried the  object  of  his  affection,  took  a 
 farm,  and  also  obtained  the  office  of  an 
 exciseman.  <  »f  all  the  offices  which  could 
 have  l>een  given  to  him,  this  was  the  most 
 unpoetical  and  the  most  unsuitable.  It  is 
 marvellous  that  none  of  his  professing  and 
 powerful  friends  saw  the  disgrace  and 
 ridicule  of  suffering  their  favourite  bard  to 
 be  thus  degraded.  Among  the  numerous 
 place-,  either  sinecures  or  <>f  little  labour, 
 which  are  so  lavishly  distributed,  one 
 might  surely  have  been  conferred  on  him 
 whom  the  Scotch  delighted  to  honour! 
 .No  effort,  however,  appears  to  have  been 
 made  in  his  behalf.  For  three  years  and 
 a  half  he  strove  to  derive  a  subsistence 
 from  his  farm.  But  his  confirmed  habits 
 of  intemperate  conviviality,  and  other  cir- 
 cumstances, forbad  success;  and  he  was 
 at  length  compelled  to  give  up  his  lease, 
 remove  to  Dumfries,  and  depend  upon  his 
 profession  of  an  exciseman.  While  he 
 CCUpied  in  watching  stills  and  hunt- 
 ing smugglers,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
 labouring  under  disease  and  dejection,  he 
 his  admirable  songs,  (■»'  Thompson's 
 Collection.  Worn  out  with  vexation,  and 
 the  consequences  of  his  lo\e  of  inebriating 
 liquors,  h<-  died  on  the  26th  of  July,  1796, 
 leaving  his  win  and  family  in  an  unpro- 
 vided state.  A  subscription  made  by  his 
 friends,  and  the  profits  arising  from  an 
 edition  of  his  works,  raised  his  family 
 above    want;     ami   a   splendid    monument 
 
 has,  within  th few   years,  been  erected 
 
 to  his  memory.  Humour,  pathos,  vivid 
 imagery,  energy,  and  no  small  share  of 
 elegance,  distinguish  the  poems  of  Burns. 
 Hi-  prose,  though  sometimes  overstrained, 
 is  flowing  and  full  of  spirit.  In  conver- 
 sation, too,  which  is  not  always  the  case 
 with  im  n  of  genius,  he  fully  sustained  the 
 character  which  he  had  acquired  by  his 
 writings. 
 
 BURRILL,  James,  an  eminent  lawyer 
 and  statesman,  was  born  in   Providence, 
 
 Rhode  island,    in  1772,    and    received   his 
 
 BUR 
 
 education  at  Brown  university,  where  ne 
 graduated  in  1788.  He  studied  the  pro 
 tession  of  law,  and  soon  acquired  high 
 reputation  in  its  practice.  In  1797  he 
 was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the  state, 
 and  continued  to  discharge  the  duties  of 
 this  office  for  over  sixteen  years,  with  un- 
 common ability.  In  1813  the  decline  of 
 his  health  induced  him  to  retire  from  the 
 bar.  He  was  immediately  elected  to  a 
 seat  in  the  state  legislature,  and  in  the 
 following  year  was  chosen  speaker  of  the 
 house  of  representatives.  In  1816  he 
 was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  supreme 
 court,  and  in  the  next  year  was  elected  to 
 a  seat  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States. 
 Of  this  body  he  continued  a  conspicuous 
 and  highly  esteemed  member  till  his  death 
 in  1820.  * 
 
 BURROUGHS,  George,  who  suffered 
 death  for  the  alleged  crime  of  witchcraft, 
 during  the  mournful  delusion  on  that  sub- 
 ject, was  a  graduate  of  Harvard  college, 
 and  settled  in  the  ministry  at  Salem  in 
 1681.  In  1692  he  was  arraigned  at  Salem 
 for  having,  by  the  arts  of  witchcraft,  "  tor- 
 tured, afflicted,  pined,  consumed,  wasted, 
 and  tormented"  one  Mary  Wolcott,  and 
 also  for  having  performed  several  feats 
 which  required  wonderful  strength.  He 
 was  convicted  upon  these  accusations,  and 
 executed  on  the  nineteenth  of  August. 
 
 BURROW,  Sir  James,  a  Lawyer,  mas- 
 ter of  the  crown  office,  was  appointed  pro 
 tempore,  president  of  the  Royal  Society, 
 in  1772,  on  the  death  of  Mr.  West.  He 
 died  in  1782.  His  works  consist  of  four 
 volumes  of  Reports;  a  volume  of  King's 
 Bench  Decisions;  an  Essay  on  Punctua- 
 tion ;  and  Anecdotes  of  Cromwell  and  his 
 Family. 
 
 BURROW,  Reuben,  a  mathemati- 
 cian, born  at  Hoberly,  in  Yorkshire,  was 
 originally  a  clerk  to  a  merchant,  then  an 
 usher,  and  next  a  schoolmaster.  He  was 
 employed  by  Dr.  Maskelyne  in  the  obser- 
 vations on  Schchallien,  and  was  made 
 drawing  master  at  the  Tower;  after  wiiieh 
 he  went  to  Bengal,  where  he  died,  in 
 1791,  while  engaged  in  a  trigonometrical 
 Burvey.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Asiatic 
 Society.  While  in  England,  he  edited  the 
 Gentleman's  and  Lady's  Diaries.  His 
 chief  work  is  a  Restitution  of  Apollonius 
 on  Inclinations. 
 
 BCRTO\,  Robert,  an  original  and 
 learned  writer,  was  born  at  Lindley,  in 
 Leicestershire,  in  1576,  and  received  his 
 education  at  Rrazenose  and  Christ  Church 
 Colleges,  Oxford  ;  after  which  he  obtained 
 t!i"  living  of  St.  Thomas,  Oxford,  and, 
 subsequently,  that  of  .Segrave,  in  Leices- 
 tershire. He  died  in  1639-40.  Burton 
 was  subject  to  fits  of  hypochondria,  and  is 
 -aid  to  have  written  his  celebrated  Anatomy 
 of  Melancholy  with  the  view  of  diverting 
 
BUS 
 
 his  mind  from  his  besetting  malady.  His 
 work  has  great  and  diversified  merit;  and 
 later  writers,  especially  Sterne,  have  been 
 indebtsd  to  it  for  much  that  has  been  ad- 
 mired in  their  volumes. 
 
 BURTON,  Henry,  born  at  Birdsall, 
 in  Yorkshire,  about  1579,  was  educated  at 
 Oxford ;  was  clerk  of  the  closet  to  Prince 
 Henry;  and,  afterwards,  rector  of  Saint 
 Matthew's,  Friday  Street.  Two  sermons, 
 in  a  coarse  and  puritanical  style,  reflecting 
 cm  the  bishops,  which,  in  1636,  he  preached 
 to  his  parishioners,  drew  on  him  the  ven- 
 geance of  the  detestable  star  chamber. 
 Every  principle  of  justice  was  violated  in 
 the  course  of  the  proceedings  against  him; 
 and  he  was  condemned  to  pay  a  fine  of 
 five  thousand  pounds,  to  be  degraded  from 
 the  ministry  and  from  his  degrees,  to  have 
 his  ears  cut  oft"  in  the  pillory,  and  to  be 
 perpetually  imprisoned,  without  the  use 
 of  pen,  ink,  and  paper,  and  without  seeing 
 any  one  but  his  keeper.  The  mutilation 
 of  his  ears,  which  was  executed  with  ex- 
 traordinary cruelty,  he  bore  with  the  ut- 
 most fortitude.  In  1640  he  was  liberated 
 bv  the  parliament,  and  he  died  in  1648. 
 He  wrote  many  theological  tracts,  which 
 have  sunk  into  oblivion. 
 
 BUSBECQ,  or  BUSBEQUIUS,  Au- 
 gier  Ghislen,  a  natural  son  of  the  lord 
 of  Busbecq,  was  born  at  Commines,  in 
 Flanders,  in  1522 ;  received  letters  of  legit- 
 imation on  account  of  his  genius;  and 
 was  employed  on  various  embassies,  par- 
 ticularly on  a  mission  to  the  Emperor 
 Soliman  II.,  during  which  he  remained  sev- 
 eral vears  at  Constantinople.  Maximilian 
 II.  entrusted  to  him  the  education  of  his 
 sons.  Busbecq  died  in  France,  in  1592. 
 Among  other  works,  he  wrote  an  Account 
 of  his  Travels  in  the  East. 
 
 BUSBY,  Dr.  Richard,  was  born 
 at  Lutton,  in  Leicestershire,  in  1606,  and 
 educated  at  Westminster  and  Christ 
 Church,  Oxford.  In  1640,  he  was  ap- 
 pointed master  of  Westminster  school ; 
 which  situation  he  retained  more  than 
 fifty-five  years,  till  his  decease  in  1695. 
 He  also  held  various  church  preferments. 
 Busby  was  an  excellent  classical  teacher, 
 but  a  severe  disciplinarian.  None  of  his 
 pupils  were  spoiled  by  a  sparing  use  of  the 
 rod. 
 
 BUSCH,  John  George,  a  native  of 
 Luneburg,  who  was  born  in  1728,  and  died 
 in  1800,  was  director  of  the  Commercial 
 Ajcademy  at  Hamburgh,  and  is  the  author 
 of  several  standard  works  on  commerce 
 and  political  economy.  Among  them  may 
 be  mentioned,  the  Theory  of  Commerce; 
 Essavs  on  Commerce ;  on  Banks;  and  on 
 the  Circulation  of  Money.  Busche  under- 
 stood all  the  European  languages ;  was 
 versed  in  the  mathematics;  and  was  a 
 truly  patriotic  citizen.     His  Encyclopaedia 
 
 BUT 
 
 185 
 
 of  Mathematics  proves  his  scientific  knowl- 
 edge. 
 
 BUSCHING,  Anthony  Frederic, 
 one  of  the  creators  of  statistics  and  mod- 
 ern geography,  was  born,  in  1724,  at 
 Stadthagen,  in  Westphalia,  and  studied  at 
 Halle.  After  having  been  tutor  to  the  son 
 of  Count  Lynar,  he  settled  for  a  while  at 
 Copenhagen,  where  he  commenced  his 
 geographical  labours.  In  1754,  he  was 
 chosen  extraordinary  professor  of  philoso- 
 phy at  Gottingen;  and,  in  1761,  he  was 
 invited  to  Petersburgh,  to  be  pastor  of  the 
 German  Lutheran  church.  At  Petersburgh 
 he  established  a  public  school,  which  soon 
 became  one  of  the  most  flourishing  in  the 
 north ;  but  the  persecution  which  he  expe- 
 rienced from  Marshal  Munich,-  to  whom  he 
 would  not  implicitly  submit,  compelled 
 him  to  quit  Russia.  He  finally  settled  at 
 Berlin,  where  he  was  patronised  and  highly 
 esteemed  by  the  king  and  the  royal  family, 
 and  where  he  died  in  1793.  His  works, 
 philosophical  and  geographical,  extend  to 
 more  than  a  hundred  volumes.  Two  of 
 the  principal  are,  a  System  of  Geography, 
 6  vols.  4to. ;  and  an  Historical  and  Geo- 
 graphical Magazine  of  modern  Times,  22 
 vols.  4to. 
 
 BUSSY-RABUTIN,  Roger,  Count 
 de,  a  French  writer  and  courtier,  was 
 born  in  1618,  and  served  with  reputation 
 in  the  army  for  some  years.  He  shone  as  a 
 courtier  till  his  scandalous  chronicle,  called 
 the  Amorous  History  of  the  Gauls,  and  his 
 lampoons  on  the  king's  connection  with 
 Mademoiselle  de  la  Valiere,  occasioned  him 
 to  be  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile  for  twelve 
 months,  and  banished  from  court  for  fifteen 
 years.  By  dint  of  mean  solicitations  he 
 was  recalled ;  but  was  so  coldly  treated  by 
 the  monarch,  that  he  again  withdrew  to 
 his  estate,  where  he  died  in  1693.  He 
 had  wit,  courage,  and  personal  accom- 
 plishments ;  but  was  inordinately  vain, 
 splenetic,  and  malignant.  Besides  the 
 work  already  mentioned,  he  is  the  author 
 of  Letters ;  "Memoirs ;  and  an  Abridged 
 Historv  of  Louis  the  Great. 
 
 BUTE,  John  STUART,  Earl  of,  of 
 an  ancient  Scotch  family,  Avas  born  early 
 in  the  eighteenth  century,  and,  in  1738, 
 was  appointed  one  of  the  lords  of  the  bed- 
 chamber to  Frederic,  prince  of  Wales,  the 
 father  of  George  III.  He  possessed  the 
 entire  confidence  of  the  princess  of  Wales, 
 and  is  said  to  have  exercised  a  prejudicial 
 influence  in  the  political  education  of  the 
 future  sovereign,  of  whom,  however,  he 
 became  a  favourite.  On  his  accession, 
 George  III.  made  him  groom  of  the  stole, 
 and  one  of  the  privy  council,  and,  in  1761, 
 appointed  him  one  of  the  secretaries  of 
 j  state,  in  the  room  of  Lord  Holderness. 
 !  In  the  following  year  Bute  became  first 
 lord  of  the  treasury.     Under  his  auspices, 
 
136 
 
 BUT 
 
 a  treaty,  which  disappointed  the  hopes  of 
 the  DatlM,  was  concluded  with  France 
 and  Spain.  He,  soon  after,  apparently 
 retired  from  public  business;  but  he  is 
 believed  to  bare  long  influenced  the  meas- 
 ures of  ihe  monarch.  He  died  in  1792. 
 In  his  private  life,  Bute  was  an  amiable 
 ;ind  worthy  man,  and  a  lover  of  science. 
 To  botany  be  was  particularly  partial, and 
 
 had  an  extensive  knowledge  of  it. 
 
 HITLER,  Charlks,  an  English  di- 
 vine, horn  in  1680,  at  High  Wycombe, 
 Backs,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and,  about 
 1600,  became  vicar  of  Lawrence  Wotton, 
 Hants,  where  be  died  in  1647.  Of  his 
 works,  the  chief  are,  the  Feminine  Mon- 
 archy, or  a  Treatise  on  Bees,  a  curious 
 and  clc\er  production;  and  the  Principles 
 of  Music,  which  has  been  highly  praised 
 by  Dr.  Barney,  a  judge  whose  competence 
 to  decide  on  such  a  subject  admits  of  no 
 appeal. 
 
 BUTLER,  Samuel,  the  wittiest  of 
 English  poets,  was  born  in  1612,  and  was 
 the  son  of  a  farmer  at  Strensham,  in  Wor- 
 cestershire. The  first  part  of  his  educa- 
 tion be  obtained  at  Worcester  school;  but 
 whether  he  completed  it  at  Oxford  or 
 Cambridge  is  a  point  in  dispute,  though 
 the  weight  of  evidence  and  opinion  is  in 
 favour  of  the  latter  university.  After  he 
 left  college,  he  was  successively  clerk  to 
 a  justice  of  peace  named  Jeffreys,  and  an 
 inmate  in  the  families  of  the  countess  of 
 Kent,  and  of  Sir  Samuel  Luke,  a  Bed- 
 fordshire gentleman,  w  bo  was  a  commander 
 under  Cromwell.  While  be  was  in  this 
 lasi  situation  he  is  believed  to  have  written 
 In-  rfudibras,  the   hero  of  which   is  Sir 
 
 Samuel  Luke    himself.      The    first    part  of 
 
 Hudibras  was  published  in  1663,  and  im- 
 mediately became  popular.    Lord  Dorset 
 
 Called  the  attention  01    the   court    to  it,  but 
 
 the  author  benefited  little  bj  this  circum- 
 stance. \  gratutt]  of  three  hundred  pounds 
 to  have  been  the  onl)  reward  which 
 w.i-  bestowed  on  him  bj  the  worthless 
 ■oven  ign.  Bj  the  earl  oi  Carbery  he  was 
 appointed  steward  of  Ludlow  Castle;  and 
 ho  married  Mrs.  Herbert,  a  woman  of 
 some  fortune;    which  fortune,  however,  is 
 
 BUT 
 
 affirmed  to  have  been  lost,  by  being  pat 
 out  upon  bad  security.  The  second  and 
 third  parts  of  Hudibras  appeared  in  1664 
 and  167S.  The  remainder  of  his  works 
 was  not  given  to  the  world  till  long  after 
 his  decease.  The  poet  died,  in  compara- 
 tive obscurity,  in  1680,  and  was  buried  in 
 the  churchyard  of  St.  Paul's,  Covent  Gar- 
 den. In  originality,  wit,  and  felicity  of 
 illustration  and  allusion,  Hudibras  remains 
 without  a  rival,  and  seems  likely  to  remain 
 so.  Even  the  change  of  customs  and  habits, 
 which  time  has  produced,  has  not  destroyed 
 its  attractions ;  and  no  poem  in  our  lan- 
 guage, perhaps,  affords  so  fertile  or  so 
 frequent  a  source  of  ludicrous  quotation. 
 
 BUTLER,  Joseph,  an  eminent  pre- 
 late and  theological  writer,  was  born,  in 
 1692,  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  and  was 
 originally  a  dissenter,  but  conformed  to 
 the  church,  and  studied  at  Oriel  College, 
 Oxford.  He  was  successively  preacher  at 
 the  Rolls  College,  rector  of  Houghton  and 
 of  Stanhope,  a  prebend  of  Rochester,  and 
 clerk  of  the  closet  to  Queen  Caroline.  In 
 1736  he  published  his  celebrated  Analogy 
 of  Religion ;  in  1738  he  was  made  bishop 
 of  Bristol ;  and  in  1750  bishop  of  Durham 
 He  died  in  1752.  Besides  the  Analogy, 
 he  printed  a  volume  of  Sermons,  and  a 
 Charge  to  his  Clergy,  on  the  subject  of 
 external  religion. 
 
 BUTLER,  Alb  an,  a  catholic  divine, 
 of  great  learning,  was  born  at  Appletree, 
 in  Northamptonshire,  in  1710;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Douay;  became  tutor  to  the  duke 
 of  Norfolk's  nephew;  and  died,  in  1773, 
 president  of  the  English  College  at  St. 
 Omers.  Of  his  works,  the  principal  is, 
 the.  Lives  of  the  Saints,  in  5  vols.  4to. 
 
 BUTLER.     See  Ormond. 
 
 BUTTNER,  Christian  William,  a 
 German  naturalist  and  philologist,  born  at 
 Wolfenbuttle,  in  1716,  was  originally  an 
 apothecary,  but  relinquished  that  profession 
 to  study  the  primitive  history  of  nations, 
 and  the  filiation  of  their  languages.  In 
 pursuit  of  this  object,  and  of  natural  history, 
 he  restricted  himself  to  what  was  barely 
 necessary  to  support  life,  making  only  one 
 frugal  meal  a  day,  and  expending  his 
 savings  upon  books.  For  a  quarter  of  a 
 century  he  was  professor  at  Gottingen, 
 and  contributed  greatly  to  spread  a  love  of 
 philological  studies.  He  died  in  1801. 
 His  published  works  are,  unfortunately, 
 few  in  number:  among  them  is,  Compara- 
 tive Tables  of  the  Alphabets  of  Ancient 
 and  Modern  Nations.  He  left  in  MS.  a 
 Prodromes  Linguarum. 
 
 BUTTON,  Sir  Thomas,  a  navigator, 
 who  was  in  the  service  of  Prince  Henry, 
 son  of  Janus  I.  In  1612,  he  sailed  with 
 two  vessels,  to  follow  up  the  discoveries 
 of  Henry  Hudson.  He  wintered  in  Nel- 
 fou's  river,  which  was  discovered  by  him; 
 
BYL 
 
 and  returned  to  England  in  the  autumn  of 
 1613.  Button  was  the  first  who,  on  the 
 western  side  of  Hudson's  Bav,  reached  the 
 eastern  coast  of  America.  In  this  expedi- 
 tion he  displayed  much  ability  and  sound 
 sense 
 
 BUXBAUM,  John  Christian,  a 
 German  botanist,  born  at  Merseburg,  in 
 1694,  was  one  of  the  foreigners  whom  the 
 Czar  Peter  invited  into  Russia.  He  formed 
 the  botanic  garden  at  IVtersburgh;  was 
 professor  of  the  imperial  college  in  that 
 citv;  and  was  sent  to  travel,  for  botanical 
 purposes,  in  Turkey,  in  Siberia,  and  on 
 the  Persian  frontier.  His  chief  work  is 
 one  on  the  plants  of  Turkey.  Linnaeus 
 gave  the  name  of  Buxbaumia  to  one  division 
 of  the  family  of  the  mosses. 
 
 BUXTON,  J ed adi ah,  an  extraordi- 
 nary calculator,  was  born  at  Elmton,  in 
 Derbyshire,  about  1704;  and,  though  the 
 son  of  a  schoolmaster,  he  received  no  edu- 
 cation whatever  He  possessed,  however, 
 uncommon  powers  of  calculation  and  ab- 
 straction— for,  in  the  midst  of  a  crowd,  he 
 could  solve  the  most  difficult  arithmetical 
 questions.  But  he  had  no  ideas  beyond  the 
 mental  use  of  figures.  In  1754,  he  walked 
 to  London,  and  was  presented  to  the  Royal 
 Society.  While  he  was  in  the  metropolis, 
 he  was  taken  to  the  theatre,  where  he  em- 
 ployed himself  solely  in  counting  the  steps 
 of  the  dancers,  and  the  words  which  Gar- 
 rick  uttered.  He  died  at  the  age  of  about 
 seventy. 
 
 BUXTORF,  John,  the  first  of  a  family, 
 the  members  of  which,  during  two  centu- 
 ries, were  famous  for  a  profound  knowledge 
 of  Hebrew  and  Chaldee,  was  born  at  Ca- 
 men,  in  Westphalia,  in  1564,  and  became 
 professor  at  Basil,  where  he  died  in  1629. 
 Among  his  works  are,  a  Chaldaic,  Talmu- 
 dic,  and  Rabbinic  Lexicon;  a  Hebrew 
 and  Chaldaic  Dictionary;  and  a  Hebrew- 
 Bible,  with  the  Rabbinical  and  Chaldaic 
 Paraphrases. 
 
 BUXTORF,  John,  a  son  of  die  pre- 
 ceding, was  born  at  Basil,  in  1599;  suc- 
 ceeded his  father,  as  professor,  in  1630 ; 
 and  died  in  1664.  He  compiled  a  Chaldaic 
 and  Syriac  Lexicon;  translated  Maimo- 
 nides  into  Latin;  and  produced  several 
 philological  and  other  works.  At  the  early 
 age  of  four  years,  he  is  said  to  have  been 
 able  to  read  German,  Latin,  and  Hebrew. 
 — John,  his  son,  and  John,  his  nephew, 
 were  also  consummate  Hebraists. 
 
 BYLES,  Mather,  a  congregational 
 minister,  was  born  in  Boston,  Massachu- 
 setts, in  1706.  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
 vard university,  and  after  completing  his 
 theological  studies,  was  ordained  the  first 
 pastor  of  the  church  in  Hollis  street,  Bos- 
 ton, in  1732.  Byles  contributed  many 
 essays  to  the  New  England  Weekly  Jour- 
 nal, and  wrote  several  occasional  poems, 
 
 BYR  137 
 
 which  were  afterwards  collected  in  a  vol- 
 ume. He  obtained  considerable  literary 
 reputation,  and  corresponded  with  Pope, 
 Lansdowne,  and  Watts.  Though  in  his 
 day  a  popular  preacher,  and  a  poet  of  some 
 merit,  he  is  now  chiefly  remembered  by  his 
 reputation  for  u  ready  and  powerful  wit. 
 In  1776  his  connection  with  his  congrega- 
 tion was  dissolved  on  account  of  his  tory- 
 ism,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  de- 
 nounced publicly  as  an  enemy  to  his  country, 
 and  afterwards  tried  before  a  special  court. 
 He  passed  the  last  twelve  years  of  his  life 
 in  retirement,  and  died  in  1788. 
 
 BYNG,  the  Hon.  John,  fourth  son  of 
 Viscount  Torrington,  was  born  in  1704; 
 and,  having  manifested  an  early  inclina- 
 tion to  the  sea  service,  he,  at  the  age  of 
 thirteen,  accompanied  his  father.  During 
 the  war  which  ended  in  1748,  he  acquired 
 the  reputation  of  a  good  officer,  and  rose 
 to  be  vice-admiral  of  the  red.  In  1756, 
 he  was  sent,  with  an  inadequate  force,  to 
 relieve  Minorca,  in  which  he  failed.  His 
 indecisive  engagement  with  the  French 
 excited  public  clamour,  and  a  despicable 
 ministry  resolved  to  save  themselves  by 
 making  him  the  victim.  He  was  sentenced 
 to  be  shot,  a  sentence  which,  in  utter  con- 
 tempt of  justice,  was  executed  on  the  14th 
 of  March,  1757.  He  met  death  with  a 
 firmness  which  amply  refuted  the  calum- 
 nies of  his  persecutors. 
 
 BYNG.     See  Torrington. 
 
 BYNKERSHOEK,  Cornelius  Van, 
 a  celebrated  publicist,  was  born  at  Middle- 
 burgh,  in  Zealand,  in  1673,  and  died,  at 
 the  Hague,  in  1743,  at  which  period  he 
 was  president  of  the  council  in  Holland. 
 In  1699  he  established  the  Hague  New 
 Mercury,  which  was  soon  suppressed  as 
 being  too  satirical.  His  observations  on 
 the  Roman  Laws,  and  other  works  of  the 
 game  kind,  are  of  high  authority. 
 
 BYRNE,  William,  was  born  at  Lon- 
 don, in  1742,  and  was  originally  an  en- 
 graver of  ciphers  and  arms;  but,  display- 
 ing superior  talents,  he  was  sent  to  Paris, 
 to  study  the  higher  branches  of  the  &rt, 
 under  Aliamet  and  Wille.  On  his  return 
 to  England  he  soon  acquired  reputation. 
 Among  his  principal  works  are,  the  Anti- 
 quities of  Britain,  and  Smith's  Italian 
 Scenery.     He  died  in  1805. 
 
 BYROM,  John,  a  poet,  and  the  in- 
 ventor of  an  excellent  system  of  stenog- 
 raphy, was  born,  in  1691,  at  Kersall,  near 
 Manchester,  and  educated  at  Merchant 
 Tailors'  School  and  Cambridge.  His  pas- 
 toral of  Colin  and  Phoebe,  and  Essays  on 
 Dreaming,  printed  in  the  Spectator,  gained 
 him  the  patronage  of  Dr.  Bentley,  through 
 whose  interest  he  obtained  a  fellowship. 
 This,  of  course,  he  forfeited  by  his  mar- 
 riage ;  and  he  then  taught  short  hand  for 
 a  subsistence,  till  he  came  into  possession 
 
13S 
 
 BYR 
 
 of  the  family  estate  by  the  decease  of  his 
 elder  brother.  Byrom  was  a  member  of 
 the  Royal  Society.  He  died  in  1763.  His 
 metrical  compositions  have  been  admitted 
 into  the  British  l'"ets. 
 
 BYRON,  the  Hen.  John,  grandfather 
 of  the  celebrated  peer,  was  DOTD  at  New- 
 stead  Abbey,  in  1723;  entered  the  navy  at 
 an  early  age;  and  was  wrecked,  on  a 
 desert  island  near  Chiloe,  in  the  Wager, 
 one  of  the  squadron  which  Anson  led  to 
 the  South  Seas.  After  suffering  in  the 
 most  dreadful  manner  by  famine,  the  re- 
 mains of  the  crew  surrendered  to  the  Span- 
 iards, and  were  captives  during  five  years. 
 ( )f  these  calamitous  adventures  Byron  after- 
 wards published  a  good  Narrative.  From 
 1764  to  1766,  he  was  employed,  with  the 
 rank  of  captain,  in  a  circumnavigatory 
 voyage  of  discovery.  He  rose  to  be  an 
 admiral,  and  commanded  ill  the  West  In- 
 dies, during  the  American  war.  His  de- 
 cease took  place  in  1786. 
 
 BYRON,  George  Gordon,  Lord 
 Byron,  the  son  of  Captain  Byron,  who  was 
 notorious  for  his  dissipated  conduct,  and 
 of  Hiss  Gordon,  was  born  at  Dover,  Janu- 
 ary the  23d,  17S8.  Deserted  by  her  hus- 
 band, who  had  squandered  het  fortune, 
 and  who  died  not  long  after  his  desertion 
 of  her,  Mrs.  Bvron  retired  with  her  son 
 to  Aberdeen,  where,  possessed  of  a  very 
 confined  income,  she  lived  in  perfect 
 seclusion.  The  youthful  Byron  was  of 
 delicate  health,  in  consequence  of  which 
 bis  -indies  were  often  interrupted,  and  he 
 was  treated  with  an  indulgence  that,  per- 
 haps, went  beyond  the  bounds  of  prudence. 
 By  the  death  of  his  great  uncle,  in  1798, 
 ne  succeeded  to  the  family  title  and  estates, 
 and  became  B  ward  of  his  relative,  the 
 earl  of  Cai  lisle,  by  whom  he  was  placed  at 
 Barrow  School.  At  the  ;iurc  of  sixteen  he 
 was  removed  to  Trinitv  College,  Cam- 
 bridge. At  neither  of  these  seminaries  did 
 he  particularly  distinguish  himself ;  and  his 
 
 contempt  of  academic,    rules  often  exposed 
 
 him  to  animadversion.  It  was  at  this  pe- 
 riod of  hii  life  that  be  contracted  an  ar- 
 dent attachment  to  Mi-s  (.'haworth.  and  a 
 Luting  wound  was  inflicted  on  his  heart  by 
 
 BYR 
 
 her  ultimate  preference  of  an  older  suitor. 
 In  bis   nineteenth  year  he  quitted  the  uni- 
 versity, and   took  up  his  residence  at  the 
 family  seat  of  Newstead.     It  was  during 
 his  residence  at  Newstead  that  he  publish- 
 ed his  first  work,  with   the  title  of  Hours 
 of  Idleness,     This  volume  gave  undoubted 
 indications  of  talent;    but  the  Edinburgh 
 Reviewers  pounced  upon    it  with  a  rabid 
 violence   that   was   thoroughly   disgusting. 
 They  soon  found,   however,  to  their  cost, 
 that   they  had  made  a  wrong  selection  of 
 their  victim.     His   lordship  retorted  upon 
 them    in  English  Bards  and   Scottish   Re- 
 viewers, one  of  the  most  pungent  satires  of 
 modern  time.*,  and  thus  rendered  them  ob- 
 jects of  public  laughter.     In    consequence 
 of  his  having  become  the  friend  of  several 
 of  the  individuals  satirised,  he  suppressed 
 this  satire  after  it  had  reached  a  fourth 
 edition.      On  his  coming  of  age,    Byron 
 took  his  seat  in  the  house  of  peers;  but  in 
 that  house  he  never  delivered  more  than 
 three  speeches.     He  was  now  engaged  in 
 a  career  of  dissipation  which  was  injurious 
 aJike    to    his    fortune  and    to   his    health. 
 Breaking,  however,    through  the  Circean 
 snares  that  beset  him,  he  proceeded  on  his 
 travels,  with  his  friend  Mr.  Hobhouse,and 
 visited   Spain,  Portugal,   and  Greece;    in 
 which  latter  country,  the  land  of  his  idola- 
 try, he  continued  for  a  considerable  time. 
 In  1811  he  returned  to  England,  and,  a  few 
 months  afterwards,  he  gave   to  the   world 
 the  first  two  cantos  of  Childe  Harold's  Pil- 
 grimage, which  at  once  placed  him  in  the 
 foremost  rank  of  British  poets.     This  work 
 was  rapidlv  succeeded  by  the  Giaour;  the 
 Bride  of  Abydos ;  the  Corsair ;  Lara ;  and 
 an   Ode  to   Napoleon   Bonaparte;    all  of 
 which,  with  the  exception  of  the  latter,  ac- 
 quired unbounded  popularity.     Byron  was, 
 in  fact,  the  poetical  idol  of  the   day.     On 
 the  2d  of  January,  1815,  he  married  Miss 
 Milbanke.     This  ill  starred  union  termin- 
 ated in   a  final  separation,  after  the  birth 
 of  a  daughter.     After  having  given  to  the 
 public  his  Hebrew  Melodies;  the  Siege  of 
 Corinth;   and   Parasina;    he  quitted  Eng- 
 land, to  which  country  he    was   destined 
 never  to  return.     For  a  while  he  lived  on 
 the  borders  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  whenco 
 he  removed  to  Italy,  where  he  fixed  him- 
 self, first  at  Venice,   and   subsequently   at 
 Pisa.     During  this  period  his  mind  was 
 incessantly  active;    and,  in   rapid  succes- 
 sion, he  produced   the  last  two   cantos  of 
 Childe  Harold ;  the  dramas  of  Manfred,  Ma- 
 rino Falieri,  Sardanapalus,  the  Two   Fos- 
 cari,  and  Cain;  the  poems  of  the  Prisoner 
 of  Chillon,  Monody  on   Sheridan,  the  La- 
 ment  of  Tasso,   the   Prophecy  of  Dante, 
 Mazeppa,  Beppo,  and  Don  Juan;  a  con- 
 troversy with   Mr.  Bowles,  respecting  the 
 merits  of  Pope;  and  a  large  portion   of  a 
 publication  which  bore  the  title  of  the  Lib- 
 
CAB 
 
 eral.  Greece  was  now  struggling  for  her 
 freedom,  and  her  struggles  could  not  be 
 viewed  by  Byron  with  indifference.  Re- 
 linquishing the  tranquillity  of  private  life, 
 he  resolved  to  devote  to  her  cause  his  for- 
 tune, his  pen,  and  his  sword.  According- 
 ly, in  the  autumn  of  1823,  he  joined  the 
 Greeks,  and  had  already  made  himself  ven- 
 erated by  his  personal  exertions  and  his 
 generous  pecuniary  aid,  when  he  was  at- 
 tacked by  a  fever,  which  terminated  fatal- 
 ly on  the* 20th  of  April,  1824.  He  expired 
 at  Missolonghi,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty- 
 seven,  leaving  behind  him  a  name  that  will 
 be  as  imperishable  as  language  itself.  His 
 loss  was  mourned  by  the  Greeks  as  that  of 
 a  public  benefactor,  and  almost  regal  hon- 
 ours were  ordered  by  the  provisional  gov- 
 ernment, to  be  paid  to  his  memory  and  his 
 remains.      Of  the  poetry  of  Byron  little 
 
 CAB 
 
 139 
 
 need  be  said:  it  is  of  the  highest  order. 
 Few  have  ever  called  from  the  lyre,  with 
 equal  skill,  such  varied  and  seemingly  in- 
 compatible tones.  He  is  by  turns  sublime, 
 pathetic,  tender,  satirical,*  and  sportive; 
 and  in  each  of  these  dissimilar  styles,  ha 
 displays  an  equal  degree  of  excellence. 
 
 BZOVIUS,  or  BZOVSKI,  Abraham, 
 a  Polish  doininican,  was  born  at  Prosc- 
 zovie,  in  1567,  and  settled  at  Rome,  where 
 he  died  in  1637.  He  wrote  various  works, 
 of  which  the  principal  is,  a  Continuation, 
 in  nine  volumes,  of  the  Annals  of  Baronius. 
 Bzovius  having,  in  this  production,  spoken 
 unfavourably  of  the  Emperor  Louis  IV.  of 
 Bavaria,  several  Bavarian  writers  drew 
 their  pens  against  him,  and  the  elector  in- 
 stituted a  suit,  the  result  of  which  was, 
 that  Bzovius  was  compelled  to  retract  his 
 assertions. 
 
 c 
 
 CABANIS,  Peter  John  George, a 
 French  physician  and  literary  character, 
 the  son  of  an  agriculturist  of  talent,  was 
 born  at  Conac,  in  1757,  and  in  early  life 
 visited  Poland,  where  the  political  ser- 
 vility and  corruption,  which  he  witnessed 
 on  a  great  occasion,  inspired  him,  as  he 
 tells  us,  with  a  precocious  contempt  of  man- 
 kind, and  a  disposition  to  melancholy. 
 This,  however,  did  not  prevent  him  from 
 manifesting  infinite  kindness  and  benevo- 
 lence in  his  subsequent  career.  On  his  re- 
 turn to  his  native  country,  he  chose  the 
 medical  profession,  and  attained  high  rep- 
 utation. In  politics  he  also  bore  a  part. 
 He  was  the  bosom  friend  of  Mirabeau,  and 
 sat  in  the  council  of  five  hundred,  and  in 
 the  senate  of  Napoleon.  He  died  in  1807. 
 His  collected  medical  and  other  works 
 have  been  published  in  seven  octavo  vol- 
 umes. 
 
 CABESTAN,or  CABESTAING, 
 William,  a  Provencal  troubadour  of  the 
 thirteenth  century,  is  celebrated  for  his  tal- 
 ents and  misfortunes.  A  lady,  of  whom 
 he  was  enamoured,  rendered  him  insane  by 
 a  love  potion;  and  after  he  recovered  his 
 senses  a  severer  fate  awaited  him.  Ca- 
 bestan  having  entered  into  the  service  of 
 the  wife  of  Raymond  de  Seillans,  Ray- 
 mond became  jealous  of  him,  put  him  to 
 death,  about  1213,  and  served  up  the  heart 
 of  the  poet,  dressed,  to  his  wife,  who  died 
 of  grief  on  hearing  what  she  had  eaten,  or, 
 as  some  say,  threw  herself  from  a  window. 
 Some  of  Cabestan's  poems  are  still  in  ex- 
 istence. 
 
 CABOT,  Sebastian,  a  celebrated  nav- 
 igator (the  son  of  John  Cabot  a  Venetian, 
 who  was  also  eminent  for  nautical  knowl- 
 
 edge), was  born  at  Bristol,  in  1477.  In 
 1497,  the  Cabot  family  being  then  in  the 
 service  of  Henry  VII.,  he  bore  a  part  in 
 the  voyages  in  which  his  father  discovered 
 Newfoundland  and  the  American  continent. 
 In  1517  Sebastian  made  a  fruitless  attempt 
 to  reach  the  East  Indies  by  a  new  track. 
 He  soon  after  entered  into  the  Spanish  ser- 
 vice, in  which  he  remained  for  some  years, 
 and  explored  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  part 
 of  the  coast  of  South  America.  Under  the 
 reign  of  Edward  VI.  however,  he  returned 
 to  this  country,  and  was  pensioned,  made 
 grand  pilot  of  England,  and  consulted  on 
 all  maritime  and  commercial  affairs.  He 
 died  in  1557.  Sebastian  Cabot  was  the 
 first  who  noticed  the  variation  of  the  com- 
 pass. He  published  an  account  of  his  Voy- 
 ages in  the  Northern  Regions. 
 
 CABOT,  George,  was  born  in  Salem, 
 Massachusetts,  in  the  year  1752,  and  spent 
 the  early  part  of  his  life  in  the  employment 
 of  a  shipmaster.  He  possessed  a  vigorous 
 and  inquisitive  mind,  and  took  advantage 
 of  every  opportunity  of  improvement  and 
 acquisition,  even  amid  the  restlessness  and 
 danger  of  a  seafaring  life.  Before  he  was 
 twenty-six  years  of  age,  he  was  elected  a 
 member  of  the  provincial  Congress  of  Mas- 
 sachusetts, which  met  with  the  visionary 
 project  of  establishing  a  maximum  in  the 
 prices  of  provision.  There  he  displayed 
 that  sound  sense,  and  that  acquaintance 
 with  the  true  principles  of  political  econo- 
 my, for  which  he  afterwards  became  so 
 much  distinguished.  Mr.  Cabot  was  a 
 member  of  the  State  Convention  assem- 
 bled to  deliberate  on  the  adoption  of  the 
 federal  constitution,  and  in  1790  was  elect- 
 ed to  a  seat  in  the  senate  of  the  United 
 
140 
 
 CAD 
 
 State*.  Of  this  body  he  became  one  of 
 the  most  distinguished  members,  and  en- 
 j.ivfl  the  unlimited  confidence  and  friend- 
 ship of  Hamilton  and  Washington.  In 
 1808  he  became  a  member  of  the  council 
 of  .Massachusetts,  and  in  1814  was  ap- 
 pointed a  delegate  to  the  convention  which 
 met  at  Hartford,  and  was  chosen  to  pre- 
 side over  its  deliberations.  He  died  at 
 Boston  in  1823,  at  the  age  of  72  years. 
 He  possessed  a  mind  of  great  energy  and 
 penetration,  and  in  private  life  was  much 
 loved  and  esteemed.  As  a  public  man  he 
 was  pure  and  disinterested,  on  high  sagaci- 
 tv  and  persuasive  eloquence.  His  favour- 
 ite; ttudies  were  political  economy  and  the 
 science  of  government. 
 
 CABRAL,  Pedro  Alvarez,  a  Por- 
 tuguese, commanded  a  fleet  which,  in  1500, 
 was  fitted  out  for  the  East  Indies,  by 
 Emanuel  of  Portugal.  To  avoid  the  calms 
 of  the  African  coast,  Cabral  steered  so  far 
 westward  that  he  reached  the  American 
 •liore,  where  he  discovered  Brazil:  so  that 
 the  new  world  would  have  been  revealed 
 even  had  Columbus  not  succeeded  in  his 
 attempt.  Cabral  afterwards  sailed  to  the 
 Bast;  reduced  the  Zamorin  of  Calicut  to 
 UK  I"1"  peace;  and,  in  1501,  returned  home 
 richly  laden.  He  died  in  Portugal.  His 
 Account  of  his  Voyage  was  translated  and 
 published  at  Venice. 
 
 CACAULT,  Francis,  a  French  diplo- 
 matist and  literary  character,  was  born  at 
 Hants,  in  1742,  and  became  mathematical 
 professor  of  the  military  school;  after  which 
 lie  travelled  in  Italy  for  six  years,  whence 
 he  returned  in  1775.  In  1785,  he  was  ap- 
 pointed secretary  of  embassy  at  Naples, 
 anil  he  subsequently  was  ambassador  at 
 Rome  and  Genoa.  He  signed  the  treaty  of 
 Tolentino,  and  opened  the  negotiation  for 
 the  Concordat.  In  France,  he  was  thrice 
 one  of  the  representatives  of  the  people. 
 He  died  a  senator  in  1805.  Cacault  trans- 
 lated the  Lyric  Poems  of  Ramler,  and  the 
 Dramatnrgia  of  Lessing. 
 
 CADALSO,  Josx,  one  of  the  late  wri- 
 ter.- of  Spain,  was  born  of  a  noble  family, 
 at  Cadiz,  in  1741.  He  was  educated  in 
 Paris,  where  he  obtained  an  acquaintance 
 with  the  principal  languages  of  modern 
 Europe,  and  afterwards  travelled  through 
 England,  France,  Portugal,  Germany  and 
 Italy.  At  the  age  of  20  he  returned  home 
 and  joined  the  army,  where  he  remained 
 till  hi*  death,  attentive  to  hu  military  du- 
 ties, though  devoted  to  literature.      lie  was 
 
 killed  at  the  siege  of  Gibraltar  in  1782. 
 
 He  is  the  author  of  Cartas  Marruecas,  a 
 series  of  letters  possessing  much  merit;  a 
 *atire  called  Eruditos  i  la  Yioleta;  a  tra- 
 gi- dv  ;  and  several  poetical  pieces  under  the 
 
 title  ofOcioa  de  mi  Juvcutud. 
 
 CADAMOSTA,  Louis  da,  a  Venetian 
 aaTi'gator,  who,  in  1454,  was  taken   into 
 
 CJEC 
 
 the  service  of  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal; 
 and,  in  the  following  year,  explored  the 
 African  coast  as  far  as  the  Gambia.  In 
 1456,  he  discovered  the  Cape  Verd  islands. 
 Cadamosta  returned  to  Venice  on  the  death 
 of  Prince  Henry,  and  drew  up  an  excellent 
 Narrative  of  his  Voyages,  which  was  pub- 
 lished at  Vicenza,  in  1507. 
 
 CADET  DE  VAUX,  Anthony  Alex- 
 is, the  son  of  a  chemist  and  apothecary 
 of  considerable  talent,  was  born,  in  1743, 
 at  Paris,  and  died  in  1828.  He  was  a 
 member  of  various  learned  societies;  es- 
 tablished the  Journal  de  Paris;  edited  and 
 contributed  to  some  other  journal ;  and 
 wrote  various  works  of  merit,  chiefly  on 
 agriculture,  among  which  are  Treatises  on 
 the  Cultivation  of  Potatoes  and  Tobacco, 
 and  the  Manufacture  of  Wine. 
 
 CADET  DE  GASSICOURT.Charles 
 Louis,  (brother  of  Cadet  de  Vaux), 
 was  born  at  Paris,  in  1769,  and,  after  the 
 death  of  his  father  in  1799,  quitted  the  bar 
 to  devote  himself  to  chemistry  and  philoso- 
 phy. He  died  in  1821.  His  works,  in 
 various  departments,  are  numerous  and 
 meritorious.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
 tioned his  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  in  4 
 vols. ;  Travels  in  Austria,  Moravia,  and 
 Bavaria ;  Letters  on  London  and  the  Eng- 
 lish Nation ;  Travels  in  Normandy,  and 
 the  Supper  of  Moliere.  He  likewise  was 
 a  liberal  contributor  to  all  the  scientific 
 journals. 
 
 CADOGAN,  William,  first  earl  of 
 Cadogan,  was  the  son  of  a  counsellor,  and 
 entered  the  army  early  in  life.  In  1703 
 he  was  made  a  brigadier-general,  and  next 
 year  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
 of  Blenheim.  He  was  the  friend  of  Marl- 
 borough, and  the  companion  of  that  great 
 general  in  all  his  victories;  and  was  also 
 employed  as  plenipotentiary  in  the  Low 
 Countries  and  at  the  Hague.  In  1716,  he 
 was  created  a  baron,  and  in  1718  an  earl, 
 and  he  succeeded  Marlborough  as  com- 
 mander in  chief  and  master  general  of  the 
 ordnance.     He  died  in  1727. 
 
 CADWALADER,  John,  was  born  in 
 Philadelphia,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  brig- 
 adier-general in  the  American  army  during 
 the  revolutionary  war.  He  was  a  man  of 
 inflexible  courage,  and  possessed  in  a  high 
 degree  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  Wash- 
 ington. In  1778,  he  was  appointed  by 
 Congress  general  of  cavalry,  an  appoint- 
 ment which  he  declined  on  the  score  of 
 being  more  useful  in  the  situation  he  then 
 occupied.  After  the  war  he  was  a  member 
 of  the  assembly  of  Maryland,  and  died  in 
 1786,  in  the  44th  year  of  his  age. 
 
 C.'ECILIUS  STATIUS,  a  native  of 
 Milan,  who  died  at  Rome,  B.  c.  168,  was 
 originally  a  slave,  but  was  emancipated  in 
 consequence  of  his  talent  as  a  dramatic 
 writer      I  le  wrote  forty  comedies,  of  which 
 
C^ES 
 
 only  a  few  fragments  remain  Caecilius 
 has  the  rare  merit  of  having  been  generous 
 to  a  rival.  When  Terence  was  young,  and 
 as  yet  unknown,  his  first  piece  was  liberally 
 praised,  and  recommended  to  public  notice, 
 by  Caecilius. 
 
 CiELIUS  AURELIANUS,  a  Latin 
 physician,  the  founder,  or  at  least  the  first 
 writer,  of  the  medical  sect  of  the  Metho- 
 dists, is  said  by  some  to  have  been  born  at 
 Aria  in  Asia,  and  by  others,  at  Sicca  in 
 Numidia.  Some  fix  his  existence  in  the 
 fifth  century ;  while  others  make  him  a 
 contemporary  of  Galen.  Two  of  his 
 works,  on  acute  and  chronic  disorders,  are 
 still  extant,  and  possess  considerable  merit. 
 The  system  of  the  Methodists  seems  to  have 
 given  rise  to  that  of  Brown. 
 
 (LESALPINUS,  Andrew,  an  Italian 
 physician  and  botanist,  was  born  at  Arezzo, 
 in  1519;  became  chief  physician  to  Pope 
 Clement  VIII. ;  and  died  at  Rome  in  1603. 
 Caesalpinus  appears  to  have  had  an  idea  of 
 the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  was  the 
 first  who    invented    a    regular   system  of 
 
 £lants.     He  is  the  author  of  an  excellent 
 iatin  Treatise  on  Plants,  and  of  various 
 medical  and  philosophical  works. 
 
 CjES 
 
 141 
 
 CiESAR,  Caius  Julius,  the  first  Ro- 
 man emperor,  the  son  of  Lucius  Caesar  and 
 Aurelia,  the  daughter  of  Cotta,  was  born 
 at  Rome,  B.  c.  100,  and  lost  his  father  at 
 the  age  of  sixteen.  Being  connected,  by 
 his  own  marriage  and  that  of  his  aunt, 
 with  the  faction  of  Marius,  his  destruction 
 was  resolved  upon  by  Sylla.  By  the  inter- 
 cession of  friends,  however,  the  dictator  was 
 induced  to  spare  him;  but  he  at  the  same 
 time  told  the  intercessors  that  they  would 
 repent  of  their  interference,  for  that  in  the 
 youth  who  was  the  object  of  their  solicitude 
 he  foresaw  many  Mariuses.  After  having 
 made  a  campaign  in  Asia  Minor,  and  at- 
 tended the  lectures  of  Apollonius  Molo  at 
 Rhodes,  Caesar  returned  to  Rome,  and  let 
 slip  no  opportunity  of  winning  the  affection 
 of  the  people.  He  filled  the  offices  of  chief 
 pontiff  and  praetor,  and  then  obtained  the 
 government  of  Spain,  in  which  he  acquired 
 money  sufficient  to  pay  his  debts,  though 
 they  amounted  to  the  enormous  sum  of  one 
 
 million  six  hundred  thousand  pounds.     It 
 was  while  he  was  passing  through  a  poor 
 village  in  the  Alps,  on  his  way  to  Spain, 
 that   he   uttered   the  speech    which    is   so 
 characteristic   of  his    towering  ambition: 
 "  I   had  rather   be   the  first  man    in  this 
 place,  than  the  second  at  Rome."     On  his 
 return  to  the  Roman  capital,  he  formed  the 
 first  triumvirate,  with  Pompey  and  Crassus, 
 and  became  consul,  b.  c.  59.     When  his 
 consulship  was    expired,  he  received  the 
 command  in  Gaul,  for  five  years,  with  four 
 legions;    and  his   commission  was  subse- 
 quently  extended   to   another   five    years. 
 While  he  was  in  Gaul,  he  reduced  that 
 country   to    complete  subjection,  defeated 
 the   German   tribes,    and    twice    invaded 
 Britain.     In  the  course  of  his  Gallic  wars, 
 there  fell  a  million  of  men ;   eight  hundred 
 cities  and  towns  were  taken  by  him,  and 
 three   hundred   tribes  subdued.     A  wider 
 sphere  of  action,  however,  and  more  un- 
 controlled power,  now  awaited  him.    Jeal- 
 ous of  Caesar's  influence,  or  envious  of  his 
 renown,  Pompey  was  become  his  enemy, 
 and  he  induced  the  senate  to  strip  him  of 
 his  command;  while  he  himself  was  allow- 
 ed to  retain  his  own.     Caesar  refused  to 
 obey,  passed  the  sacred  boundary  of  the 
 Rubicon   with  his  army,  put   Pompey  to 
 flight,  and  in  sixty  days  was  master  of  It- 
 aly.    Thence  he  hastened  into  Spain,  and 
 overthrew  the  partisans  of  Pompey.     Re- 
 visiting Rome,  he  was  declared  dictator, 
 and  then  consul;    after  which  he  led  his 
 forces  into   Greece,  and  gave  Pompey  a 
 decisive  defeat  at  Pharsalia,  B.  c.  48.    He 
 followed  the  defeated  leader  into  Egypt; 
 but  though,  before  his  arrival,  Pompey  was 
 no   more,   Caesar  had  a  perilous   struggle 
 with  the  Egyptians.     They  were,  however, 
 vanquished.     Pharnaces,  king  of  Pontus, 
 was  next  rapidly  subdued.     "  Veni,  vidi, 
 vici, — I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered,"  was 
 the  language  of  Caesar  to  a  friend,  with  re- 
 spect to  the  war  in  Pontus.     After  a  brief 
 stay   at   Rome,   he   proceeded  to  Africa, 
 where  he  overcame  the  partisans  of  Pom- 
 pey, who  were  headed  by  Scipio  and  Cato. 
 For  these  achievements  he  was  honoured 
 with  four  several  triumphs.     The  sons  of 
 Pompey,  meanwhile,  had  gathered  a  for- 
 midable army  in  Spain.     Caesar  pursued 
 them,  and  put  an  end  to  the  hopes  of  the 
 Pompeian  faction  by  the  battle  of  Munda; 
 in  which,  however,  his  fortune  seemed  for 
 a  moment  on  the  point  of  deserting  him. 
 The  world    was  now  his  own.     He  was 
 created  perpetual  dictator,  and  was  offer- 
 ed, but  declined  to  accept,  the  title  of  king. 
 The  power  which  he  had  gained  by  so  ma- 
 ny struggles  he  did  not  long  enjoy.     A  con- 
 spiracy was  formed  against  him  by  Brutus, 
 Cassius,  and  others,  and  he  fell  a  victim 
 to  it,  in  the  senate  house,  being  pierced 
 with  twenty-three  wounds,  on  the  15th  of 
 
142 
 
 CAI 
 
 CAL 
 
 March,  b.  c.  44.     Transcendent  as  were  [by  studying   theology;   but   soon    devoted 
 
 himself  to  astronomy.  Cassini  obtained 
 for  him  a  place  in  the  observatory;  and 
 he  assisted  the  younger  Cassini  in  verify- 
 ing the  meridian  throughout  France.  Being 
 appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  the 
 Mazarine  college,  he  delivered  there  a 
 series  of  highly  valuable  lectures.  In  1750 
 he  went  to  the  Cape,  to  examine  the  stars 
 of  the  southern  hemisphere;  and,  during 
 his  residence  there  of  two  years,  he  ascer- 
 tained the  position  of  nine  thousand  eight 
 hundred.  Astronomy  also  owes  to  him 
 many  other  important  services.  He  died 
 in  1762.  Besides  his  Elementary  Lessons, 
 the  substance  of  his  lectures,  he  published 
 Elements  of  Optics,  and  various  other 
 works. 
 
 CAILLET,  William,  a  French  peas- 
 ant, born  at  Mello,  in  the  Beauvaisis,  was 
 the  leader  of  the  famous  insurrection  called 
 the  Jacquerie,  which  broke  out  in  the  north 
 of  France,  in  1358,  extended  its  ravages 
 to  several  provinces,  and  caused  the 
 slaughter  of  many  noblemen  and  gentle- 
 men, and  the  burning  of  more  than  two 
 hundred  castles.  The  insurgents  were  at 
 length  subdued,  and  Caillet  was  beheaded 
 in  1359. 
 
 CA1LLY,  James  de,  a  French  poet, 
 better  known  under  the  name  of  d'Aceilly, 
 
 bii  militarv  talents,  Carsar  was  not  eminent 
 f,,r  military  talents  alone.  He  was  a  con-! 
 ■animate  oratorj  and  an  admirable  writer. 
 Unfortunately ,  of  hifl  compositions,  only  his 
 Commentaries  are  extant.  Science  is  also 
 indebted  to  him  for  the  reformation  of  the 
 calendar.  His  placability  and  clemency, 
 rare  virtues  as  they  are  in  an  ambitious 
 man  and  a  coBqneror,  are  entitled  to  no 
 ■canty  share  of  praise.  To  subvert  the 
 liberties  of  our  country  is,  indisputably,  a 
 crime  of  the  deepest  dye,  and  of  this  Caesar 
 i-  accused;  but  it  may,  perhaps,  admit  of  a 
 doubt,  whether,  at  the  period  in  which  he 
 lived,  liberty,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
 had  any  existence  at  Rome,  and  whether 
 the  intef  ests  of  the  human  race  would  have 
 been  benefited  by  the  triumph  of  Pompey 
 over  his  illustrious  antagonist. 
 
 CdESIUS  l?ASSUS,  a  Roman  lyric 
 port  and  grammarian,  of  the  reign  of  Nero, 
 was  Inn  ied  in  his  country  house  by  an  erup- 
 tion of  Vesuvius,  a.  d.  79.  Quintilian  and 
 Pliny  praise  his  lyric  poetry,  and  Persius 
 addressed  one  of  his  satires  to  him;  but, 
 with  the  exception  of  a  few  fragments,  his 
 works  have  perished. 
 
 CAGLIARI,  or  CALIARI,  Paul,  a 
 celebrated  painter,  generally  known  by  the 
 name  of  Paul  Veronese,  was  born  at 
 
 Vefona,   in   1532,   and  was   instructed   in |  was  born  at  Orleans,  in   1604;    and    died 
 
 in  1673,  one  of  the  king's  household.  He 
 is  the  author  of  a  great  number  of  epi- 
 grams, many  of  which  are  pointed  and 
 witty. 
 
 CAIUS,  or  KAYE,  John,  a  physician, 
 was  born  in  1510,  at  Norwich;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Gonvi  He  Hall,  Cambridge;  took 
 his  degree  at  Bologna;  and  became  suc- 
 cessively physician  to  Edward  VI.,  Mary, 
 and  Elizabeth.  He  endowed  Gonville 
 Mall  with  several  estates,  and  converted 
 it  into  a  college,  by  the  name  of  Caius 
 College,  of  which  he  was  the  first  master, 
 and  where  he  died  in  1573.  His  epitaph 
 is  truly  laconic.  "  Fui  Caius."  He  wrote 
 various  works  on  medicine  and  natural 
 philosophy;  and  a  History  of  Cambridge. 
 CAJETAN,  Cardinal,  so  denominated 
 from  Cajeta,  or  Gaeta,  where  he  was  born 
 in  1469,  but  whose  real  name  was  Thomas 
 de  Vio,  was  sent  by  Leo  X.  into  Ger- 
 main, to  incite  the  emperor  against  the 
 Turks,  am!  to  stop  the  progress  of  Luther's 
 By  his  haughtiness  to  the  re- 
 
 painting bv  his  uncle  Badile.  Having  ac 
 rompanied  an  embassy  to  Rome,  he  profit- 
 ed from  Studying  the  works  of  Michael 
 Angelo  and  Raphael.  His  pictures  are 
 numerous,  and  in  high  estimation.  The 
 Marriage  of  Cana  is  the  finest  of  them. 
 Cagliari  excels  in  colouring  and  composi- 
 tion; but  is  defective  in  drawing  and  cos- 
 tame.  He  died  at  Venice,  in  1588.  His 
 ■one,  Carletto  and  Gabriel,  and  his 
 brother  Bin  kdict,  were  all  painters 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO,  Count  Alexander, 
 an  adventurer,  whose  real  name  is  said  to 
 
 havebeen  Joseph  Balsamo,  was  born  at 
 Palermo,  in  1748.  t  ader  various  names, 
 ami  ostensibly  in  the  character  of  a  chemist 
 ami  physician,  but,  as  some  affirm, really  in 
 
 that  Of  a  swindler,  In-  wandered  through 
 G  _. pi.   Irabia,  Persia,  and  other 
 
 countries.  In  17s0.  he  visited  France, 
 Mrbert  he  lived  in  a  style  of  great  splen- 
 dour, and  was  much  admired  for  his  medi- 
 c  il     -kill,    and     his     liberality.        He    was, 
 
 however,  involved  with  the  cardinal  de 
 It  ban,    in    the 
 
 diamond  necklace,  ami  confined  in  the 
 Bastile;  hut  was  final))  pronounced  inno- 
 cent. Hi  was  tried  nt  (Lome,  in  1789,  as 
 guilty  of  freemasonry t  and  he  died, 
 in  17!>."),  a  prisoner  in  the  castle  of  Saint 
 Aageto. 
 
 UAILLE,  Nn  imns  Louis  de  la,  a 
 French  mathematician  and  astronomer, 
 was  born,  in  1718,  at  Rumiguy,  and  began 
 
 doctrines. 
 ysterious  affair  of  the  former,  however,  in  the  conferences  which 
 he  ln<. I  with  him,  he  only  augmented  the 
 evil.  He  died  in  1534.  Though  all  his 
 life  he  was  actively  engaged  in  public 
 affairs,  he  never  failed  to  devote  soma 
 hours  daily  to  study.  He  wrote  various 
 works,  of  which  the  chief  are,  Commen- 
 taries on  the  Bible;  and  a  Treatise  on  the 
 Papal  Authority. 
 CALABER,   Quintus,  or    Quiktus 
 
CAL 
 
 SMYRNiEUS,  a  Greek  poet,  is  supposed 
 to  have  been  a  native  of  Smyrna,  in  the 
 third  century.  He  wrote  a  supplement  to 
 the  Iliad,  which,  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
 was  discovered  in  a  Calabrian  monastery, 
 by  Cardinal  Bessarion.  This  supplement 
 is  in  fourteen  books,  and  possesses  much 
 poetical  merit.  The  best  edition  is  that 
 of  Tychsen,  published  in  1807. 
 
 CALAJMY,  Edmund,  a  celebrated  non- 
 conformist divine,  was  born  at  London,  in 
 1600,  and  studied  at  Cambridge.  Having 
 embraced  presbyterianism,  he  took  an  ac- 
 tive part  in  the  religious  disputes  of  the 
 age,  and  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the 
 treatise  which  bore  the  title  of  Smectym- 
 nus,  and  was  directed  against  episcopacy. 
 He  was  a  member  of  the  assembly  of  di- 
 vines at  Westminster ;  but  he  strenuously 
 opposed  the  trial  of  the  king,  and  the 
 usurpation  of  Cromwell,  and  had  a  share 
 in  effecting  the  restoration  of  Charles  the 
 Second.  The  restored  monarch  offered 
 him  the  bishopric  of  Litchfield,  but  he  re- 
 fused it,  and  he  was  subsequently  expelled 
 from  his  living  by  the  act  of  uniformity. 
 Such  was  his  grief  in  consequence  of  the 
 fire  of  London,  that  he  is  said  to  have 
 died  of  it,  in  1666.  He  produced  many 
 sermons  and  controversial  writings. 
 
 CALAMY,  Edmund,  grandson  of  the 
 preceding,  was  born  in  1671,  succeeded 
 Mr.  Alsop,  in  Westminster,  as  presbyte- 
 rian  preacher,  and  died  in  1732.  He 
 abridged  Baxter's  Life  and  Times ;  pub- 
 lished some  tracts  and  sermons ;  and  wrote 
 An  Historical  Account  of  my  own  Life, 
 with  some  reflections  on  the  Times  I  have 
 lived  in,  which  has  recently  been  printed. 
 
 CALANUS,  an  Indian  philosopher,  of 
 the  sect  of  gymnosophists,  accompanied 
 Alexander  in  his  Indian  expedition.  He 
 was  then  in  his  eighty-third  year;  and 
 being  taken  sick,  he  voluntarily  burned 
 himself  to  death  on  a  pile,  B.  c.  325,  in 
 presence  of  the  whole  Greek  army. 
 
 CALAS,  John,  an  unfortunate  merchant 
 of  Toulouse,  of  the  protestant  religion. 
 When  his  son,  Marc  Antoine,  who  had 
 embraced  the  tenets  of  the  catholics,  had 
 strangled  himself  in  a  fit  of  melancholy, 
 the  father  was  seized  by  the  suspicious 
 government,  as  guilty  of  the  murder.  No 
 proof  could  be  offered  against  him,  and 
 self-evident  as  it  was  that  a  weak  old  man 
 could  not  execute  such  a  deed  of  violence 
 on  a  youth  full  of  strength,  in  a  house 
 where  the  family  was  then  resident,  even 
 if  the  feelings  of  a  parent  were  put  out  of 
 the  question,  yet  he  was  condemned  and 
 broken  upon  the  wheel  in  1762,  in  the 
 sixty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  The  family  of 
 the  unhappy  man  retired  to  Geneva,  and 
 Voltaire  subsequently  undertook  to  defend 
 his  memory.  He  succeeded  in  drawing 
 public  attention  towards  the  circumstances 
 
 CAL 
 
 143 
 
 of  the  case,  and  a  revision  of  the  tria.  was 
 granted.  Fifty  judges  once  more  examined 
 the  facts,  and  declared  Calas  altogether 
 innocent. 
 
 CALASIO,  Marius,  a  Franciscan  fri- 
 ar, was  born  at  Calasio,  near  Aquila,  in 
 the  Neapolitan  territory,  about  1550.  He 
 died  in  1620,  just  as  he  was  on  the  point 
 of  publishing  his  Concordance  of  the 
 Bible,  in  four  folio  volumes;  an  excellent 
 work,  which  forms  a  complete  Hebrew 
 Lexicon,  and  on  which  he  had  spent  forty 
 years  of  incessant  labour.  Hebrew  was 
 as  familiar  to  Calasio  as  his  native  lan- 
 guage. His  Concordance  appeared  in  1621, 
 and  was  republished  by  Romaine,  in  1747. 
 
 CALDARA,  Polidore,  a  celebrated 
 painter,  called  also  Caravaggio,  from 
 his  native  place,  in  the  Milanese,  was  born 
 in  1495,  and  went  to  Rome  as  a  common 
 labourer.  From  observing  Giovanni  da 
 Udina  and  other  painters,  while  they  were 
 employed  on  their  productions,  he  acquired, 
 however,  such  a  knowledge  of  painting, 
 that  Raphael  gave  him  lessons,  and  en- 
 trusted him  to  paint  the  friezes  for  his 
 works  in  the  Vatican.  Caldara  resided 
 for  many  years  in  Naples  and  in  Sicily, 
 where  his  works  were  much  esteemed. 
 Most  of  his  compositions  were  in  fresco ; 
 and,  unfortunately,  many  of  them  have 
 perished.  He  was  murdered  in  his  bed, 
 by  his  servant,  in  1543. 
 
 CALDERON  DE  LA  BARCA,  Don 
 Pedro,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the 
 Spanish  dramatists,  was  born  in  1600,  and 
 produced  his  first  piece  at  the  age  of  four- 
 teen. Like  Cervantes,  he  became  a  sol- 
 dier, and  he  served  several  campaigns  in 
 Italy  and  the  Netherlands.  Philip  IV., 
 however,  who  Avas  fond  of  the  theatre,  in- 
 vited him  to  Madrid,  knighted,  and  patron- 
 ised him.  In  1652  Calderon  took  orders, 
 and  became  a  canon  of  Toledo.  He  died 
 in  1687.  His  printed  plays  form  ten 
 quarto  volumes ;  but  he  is  said  to  have 
 produced  the  astonishing  number  of  more 
 than  fifteen  hundred  pieces.  It  may  easily 
 be  imagined  that,  though  displaying  bril- 
 liant talent,  his  dramas  are  often  disfigured 
 by  absurdity  and  extravagance. 
 
 CALDERWOOD,    David,   a   Scotch 
 
 presbyterian    divine,  was   born   in    1575, 
 
 and  strenuously  opposed  the  plan  of  James 
 
 VI.  to  establish    conformity    between  the 
 
 English  and  Scotch  churches;   for  which 
 
 opposition  he  was  banished.     Retiring  to 
 
 Holland,  he  published,  in  1625,  his  work 
 
 {entitled    Altare    Damascenum;     a    severe 
 
 ]  attack    on    episcopacy.      He    returned  to 
 
 i  Scotland ;   contributed  greatly  to  the  estab 
 
 I  Iishment  of  presbyterianism;   and  died  in 
 
 [1651.     Calderwood  left  a  voluminous  His- 
 
 [  tory  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,   of  which 
 
 lonlv  a  portion  has  been  printed. 
 
 CALEPINO,  or  DA  CALEFIO,  Am- 
 
CAL 
 
 brose,  an  Augustine  friar,  was  born  at 
 Calepio,  near  Heriramo,  in  Italy,  in  1435, 
 and  died  blind  in  1511.  He  is  the  compi- 
 ler of  a  Lexicon  in  eleven  languages, 
 which  lias  been  repeatedly  enlarged  and 
 reprinted. 
 
 ('  LLIDASA,  an  Indian  dramatic  poet, 
 il  supposed  by  Sir  William  Jones  to  have 
 flourished  a  century  b.  c;  but  Bentley 
 fixes  the  period  of  his  existence  as  late  as 
 the  tenth  century.  He  is  considered  to  be 
 the  principal  of  the  nine  poets  who  bear 
 the  title  of  the  Nine  Pearls.  His  drama 
 of  Sacontala  has  been  translated  by  Sir 
 William  Jones.  Other  works  of  his  are 
 •xtant. 
 
 CALIGULA,  Caius  Cjesar,so  called 
 from  his  wearing  the  caliga,  was  a  Roman 
 emperor,  the  son  of  Germanicus  and  Agrip- 
 pina;  succeeded  Tiberius,  a.  D.  37;  and 
 for  some  months  rei<jifed  worthily.  He 
 soon,  however,  gave  way  to  all  kinds  of 
 debauchery,  cruelty,  and  tyranny;  acted 
 on  many  occasions  as  if  insane;  arid  was 
 at  last  assassinated,  after  a  rcigr.  of  three 
 years  and  ten  months. 
 
 CALIPPUS,  a  Greek  astronomer  and 
 mathematician,  a  native  of  Cyzicus,  who 
 flourished  about  330  years  R.  c,  is  the  in- 
 ventor of  a  new  cycle  of  seventy-six  years, 
 railed  the  Calippic.  period,  formed  to  rem- 
 edy  the  incorrectness  of  the  cycle  invented 
 ov  Meton. 
 "CALIXTUS,  George,  a  Lutheran 
 theologian,  was  bom,  in  1586,  at  Medel- 
 bni,  in  Ilolstein;  became  professor  of 
 divinity  at  llelmstadt;  and  bore  a  promi- 
 nent part  in  the  conference  at  Thorn,  which 
 was  convoked  in  1645.  Calixtus  strove, 
 with  all  his  eloquence  and  zeal,  to  bring 
 about  a  union  between  the  Lutherans  and 
 the  other  protestant  sects;  but  his  well 
 intended  efforts  were  repaid  only  by  re- 
 proach and  calumny  from  all  parties.  The 
 few  uhn  rsponsi  <1  his  opinions  were  called 
 Syncret'iMs  and  Calixtins;  and.  as  well  as 
 their  leader,  were  considered  as  little  if  at 
 nil  better  than  heretics.  Bossuet,  how- 
 ever, denominates  him  "  the  most  able 
 Lutheran  of  our  times,  and  the  one  who 
 lias  written  the  most  learnedly  against  us." 
 Calixtus  died  in  1656.  His  theological 
 works  are  numerous. 
 
 CALLCOTT,  JOHH  Wail,  Doctor  of 
 Magic,  was  born  at  Kensington,  in  1766. 
 He  was  intended  for  the  medical  profes- 
 sion; but,  bavins  been  disgusted  by  wit- 
 lag  an  operation,  be  turned  his  attention 
 to  music  At  the  same  time  lie  acquired  j 
 atiderable  knowledge  of  classical  and 
 oriental  literature.  He  assisted  Dr.  Arnold 
 in  forming  the  Glee  Club;  in  which  club, 
 and    in  the   Nobleman's    Catch    Club,  of 
 
 which    he    was    an    honorary     mem!  '  r.    lie 
 obtained    numerous    prises.       lie    died    ia  ! 
 1826,  after  having  lone  been  in  a  melancholy  ! 
 
 CAL 
 
 siate  ol  intellect.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
 Musical  Grammar.  The  most  celebrated 
 of  his  admirable  catches,  glees,  and  canons 
 have  been  published,  in  two  volumes,  by 
 his  son  in  law  Mr.  Horslev. 
 
 CALLICRATES,  a  Greek  architect, 
 who  lived  at  Athens  in  the  eighty-fourth 
 Olympiad,  was,  in  conjunction  with  Icti- 
 nus,  the  artist  who  constructed  the  famous 
 Parthenon,  of  which  the  sculptures  and 
 decorations  w  ere  the  work  of  Phidias. 
 
 CALLIMACHUS,  a  native  of  Corinth, 
 flourished  about  the  year  b.  c.  540,  and 
 was  celebrated  as  an  architect,  sculptor, 
 and  painter.  To  him  is  ascribed  the  in- 
 vention of  the  Corinthian  order;  the  idea 
 of  which  is  said  to  have  been  suggested  to 
 him  by  seeing  the  foliage  of  an  acanthus 
 encircling  a  basket,  on  the  top  of  which 
 was  a  tile. 
 
 CALLIMACHUS,  a  Greek  poet,  a  na- 
 tive of  Cyrene,  flourished  at  Alexandria, 
 in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  He 
 wrote  many  works,  but  only  his  Hymns, 
 which  have  twice  been  translated  into 
 English,  are  extant.  Apollonius  Rhodius 
 was  his  pupil,  and  having  acted  ungrate- 
 fully towards  him,  Callimachus  avenged 
 himself  by  a  satirical  poem,  which  was 
 entitled  Ibis. 
 
 CALLINICUS,  an  architect,  was  born 
 at  Heliopolis,  in  Egypt,  in  the  seventh 
 century,  and  discovered  the  Greek  fire, 
 which  was  so  long  one  of  the  most  effective 
 defences  of  the  eastern  empire.  With  this 
 powerful  means  of  attack,  he  destroyed 
 the  whole  of  the  Saracen  fleet  off  Cy- 
 zicus. 
 
 CALLINUS,  or  CALLINOUS,a  Greek 
 poet  and  orator,  a  native  of  Ephesue, 
 flourished  in  the  eighth  century  B.  c.  The 
 invention  of  elegiac  poetry  is  attributed  to 
 him.  A  few  fragments,  preserved  in 
 Brunck's  Analecta,  are  all  that  time  has 
 spared  of  his  works. 
 
 CALLISTHENES,  a  Greek  philoso- 
 pher and  historian,  who,  recommended  by 
 his  friend  and  master  Aristotle,  accompa- 
 nied Alexander  on  his  expedition.  Too 
 honest  to  flatter,  he  refused  to  pay  divine 
 honours  to  the  monarch.  For  this,  he  was 
 accused  of  conspiracy,  mutilated,  and  sus- 
 pended in  an  iron  cage,  till  Lysimachus, 
 in  pity,  gave  him  poison  to  end  his  tor- 
 ments, b.  c.  328.  None  of  his  works  are 
 extant. 
 
 C  ALLOT,  James,  an  eminent  engraver, 
 born  at  Nancy,  in  Lorraine,  in  1593,  was 
 taught  drawing  at  Rome  by  Parigi,  and 
 engraving  bv  Thomassin.  On  the  artist's 
 return  to  Lorraine,  the  duke  became  his 
 patron,  and  gave  him  a  pension.  In  this 
 happy  situation,  Callot  worked  with  inde- 
 fatigable  ardour,  and  executed  no  less  than 
 one  thousand  six  hundred  plates.  When 
 Louis  XIII.  conquered  Lorraine,  he  wished 
 
CAL 
 
 to  employ  Callot  to  perpetuate  his  triumph ; 
 out  the  artist  nobly  replied,  "  I  will  sooner 
 cut  off  my  thumb  than  do  any  thing  derog- 
 atory to  the  honour  of  my  prince  and  my 
 country."  He  died  in  1635.  The  en- 
 gravings of  Callot  are  remarkable  for  spirit, 
 and  his  drawings  are  even  more  so. 
 
 CALMET,  Augustine,  an  erudite 
 divine  and  critic,  and  a  monk  of  the  Bene- 
 dictine order,  was  born  near  Commercy, 
 in  Lorraine,  in  1672;  became  abbot  of 
 St.  Leopold  near  Nancy,  and,  afterwards, 
 of  Senones;  and  died  in  1757.  Calmet  is 
 a  voluminous  author,  and  his  works  abound 
 in  information,  but  they  are  exceedingly 
 prolix,'  and  written  in  an  ungraceful  style. 
 The  most  popular  of  his  numerous  pro- 
 ductions is,  a  Commentary  on  the  Bible, 
 in  twenty-six  volumes  quarto,  which,  in  a 
 compressed  form,  has  been  naturalized  in 
 the  English  and  other  languages. 
 
 CALOGERA,  Angelo,  a  learned  na- 
 tive of  Padua,  and  a  Camaldulian  monk, 
 was  born  in  1699,  and  commenced,  in  1729, 
 an  Italian  scientific  and  philological  peri- 
 odical, which  he  continued  to  the  extent 
 of  nearly  sixty  volumes.  He  also  published 
 eighteen  volumes  of  a  kind  of  review;  con- 
 tributed to  the  Minerva;  and  translated 
 Telemachus  into  Italian.    He  died  in  1768. 
 
 CALONNE,  Charles  Alexander 
 DE,  a  French  minister  of  state,  was  born 
 at  Douay,  in  1734;  was  brought  up  to  the 
 bar,  and,  after  having  filled  several  im- 
 portant offices,  was  raised,  in  1783,  to  be 
 comptroller  general  of  the  finances.  The 
 finances,  however,  were  in  such  a  shattered 
 state,  that  it  was  impossible  to  restore 
 them.  In  order  to  obtain  the  means  of 
 filling  up  the  deficiency,  Calonne  advised 
 the  king  to  convoke  the  notables;  and  to 
 that  body  he  proposed  measures  which 
 would  have  obliged  the  privileged  orders 
 to  bear  a  part  of  the  public  burthens. 
 These  orders  were  immediately  in  arms 
 against  him,  and,  in  1787,  they  succeeded 
 in  having  him  exiled  to  Lorraine.  He 
 emigrated  in  1791;  and  for  four  years  his 
 fortune  and  all  his  faculties  were  devoted 
 to  the  supporting  of  the  royal  cause.  In 
 1796,  however,  he  retired  from  public  life, 
 and  he  resided  in  England  till  1802,  when 
 he  returned  to  France,  where  he  died,  in 
 the  October  of  the  same  year.  Calonne 
 was  an  elegant  and  animated  writer,  and 
 produced  several  works,  the  most  remark- 
 able of  which  is  an  octavo  volume,  on  the 
 Present  and  Future  State  of  France.  His 
 taste  in  the  fine  arts  was  also  conspicuous. 
 
 CALPRENEDE,  Gautier  ije  COS- 
 TES,  Sieur  de  la,  one  of  the  gentlemen  of 
 the  king  of  France's  bedchamber,  was  born 
 at  Toulgon,  in  Perigord,  in  1612,  and  ob- 
 tained high  favour  at  court  for  his  plea- 
 santry and  talent.  He  was  killed,  in  1663, 
 by  a  kick  from  a  horse.  Calprenede  wrote 
 7 
 
 CAL 
 
 145 
 
 tragedies  and  romances,  the  latter  of  which, 
 though  prolix  beyond  measure,  and  full  of 
 bad  taste,  were  in  that  age  universally 
 read  and  admired.  His  Cleopatra  occu- 
 pies twenty-three  octavo  volumes,  and  his 
 Cassandra  ten.  The  whole  of  his  works 
 are  now  completely  forgotten. 
 
 CALPURNTUS,  or  CALPHURNIUS, 
 Titus  Julius,  a  pastoral  poet,  a  native 
 of  Sicily,  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  in 
 the  reign  of  Diocletian.  He  was  a  con- 
 temporary of  Nemesianus,  to  whom  he 
 dedicated  his  eleven  Eclogues,  seven  of 
 which  are  extant. 
 
 CALVERT,  George,  descended  from  a 
 noble  family,  was  born  at  Kipling,  in  York- 
 shire, 1585.  He  wras  educated  at  Oxford, 
 and  after  his  return  from  the  tour  of  Eu- 
 rope, he  became  secretary  to  Robert  Cecil. 
 In  1605  he  attended  James  I.  on  his  visit 
 to  the  university  of  Oxford,  and  was  there 
 made  M.  A.,  and  afterwards  he  was  made 
 clerk  to  the  privy  council,  was  knighted 
 by  the  king  in  1617,  in  1619  made  secre- 
 tary of  state,  and  the  next  year  honoured 
 with  a  pension  of  £.1,000  out  of  the  cus- 
 toms. He  was  created  Lord  Baltimore 
 in  1625.  He  twice  visited  Newfoundland, 
 where  the  king  had  granted  him  a  large 
 tract  of  land,  but  abandoned  his  property 
 in  this  part  for  the  neighbourhood  of  Vir- 
 ginia, when  Charles  I.  granted  him  a 
 patent  for  Maryland.  He  died  at  London 
 in  1632.  His  son,  who  inherited  his  en- 
 terprising spirit,  planted  in  Maryland  a 
 colony  of  about  two  hundred  families, 
 which  bore  the  name  of  Baltimore. 
 
 CALVERT,  Frederic,  Baron  of 
 Baltimore,  and  proprietor  of  Maryland, 
 succeeded  Charles,  lord  Baltimore,  in  1751. 
 He  corresponded  with  Linnaeus,  was  a  man 
 of  learning  and  talent,  and  a  fellow  of  the 
 Royal  Society.  He  published  a  Tour  in 
 the  East,  and  a  volume  of  prose  and  poet- 
 ical works,  entitled  Gaudia  Poetica,  La- 
 tina,  Anglica,  et  Gallica  lingua  Composita 
 He  died  at  Naples  in  1771. 
 
 CALVIN,  John,  one  of  the  apostles  of 
 the  reformation,  and  the  founder  of  the 
 sect  of  the  Calvinists,  was  born  at  Noyon, 
 in  Picardy,  in    1509.     His   family    name 
 
146 
 
 CAM 
 
 was  Cauvin,  which  he  latinized  into  Cal- 
 v  inu.s.  He  was  first  intended  for  the  church, 
 and,  subsequently,  for  the  profession  of 
 civil  law.  Having  embraced  the  princi- 
 ple* of  protestantism,  he  was  under  the 
 necessity  of  quitting  France;  and  he  settled 
 at  Basil,  where  he  published  his  celebrated 
 Institutions  of  the  Christian  Religion.  After 
 having  \isited  Italy,  he  was  returning  by 
 the  way  of  Geneva,  in  1536,  when  Farel 
 and  other  reformers  induced  him  to  take 
 ii|)  his  abode  in  that  city.  He  was  chosen 
 one  of  the  ministers  of  the  gospel,  and  pro- 
 fessor of  divinity.  A  dispute  with  the 
 city  authorities  soon  compelled  him  to 
 leave  Geneva,  and  he  withdrew  to  Stras- 
 burg;  whence  he  was  recalled  in  1541. 
 From  the  time  of  liis  recall,  he  possessed 
 almost  absolute  power  at  Geneva;  and  he 
 exerted  himself  vigorously  in  establishing 
 the  presbyteriaa  form  of  church  govern- 
 ment. He  died  in  1564.  The  most  re- 
 markable of  his  tenets  is,  that  of  predes- 
 tination to  eternal  happiness  or  misery  bv 
 the  absolute  decree  of  God!  Calvin  was  a 
 learned  and  pious  man,  of  eminent  talents, 
 but  of  an  arrogant  and  persecuting  spirit; 
 and  his  conduct  to  Servetus,  whom  he 
 brought  to  the  stake,  has  fixed  an  indelible 
 stain  upon  his  character.  The  theological 
 and  controversial  works  of  Calvin  form 
 nine  volumes  folio. 
 
 CALVO,  John  Sauveur  de,  known 
 b\  the  name  of  the  brave  Calvo,  was  born 
 at  Barcelona,  in  1625;  entered  the  service 
 of  Louis  XIV. ;  and  was  made  governor 
 of  Mastrecht,  which  he  successfully  de- 
 fended against  the  prince  of  Orange.  When 
 pressed  by  his  engineers  to  capitulate,  on 
 the  ground  of  the  place  being  no  longer 
 tenable,  he  replied,  "  Gentlemen,  I  know 
 nothing  of  the  regular  mode  of  defending  a 
 fortress;  all  I  know  is,  that  I  will  not  sur- 
 render.*' He  was  made  a  lieutenant 
 general;  distinguished  himself  in  Catalo- 
 nia in  1688  and  16S9;    and  died  in  1690. 
 
 CA  M  BACERE8,  John  J  am  ks  Regis, 
 one  of  those  individuals  whom  the  French 
 revolution  raised  to  high  station,  was  born 
 at  Montpellier,  in  1753,  and  brought  up  to 
 the  Ian  ;  and,  in  1791,  was  appointed 
 preside  nt  of  the  criminal  tribunal  of  the 
 department  of  the  Herault.  As  a  member 
 of  the  convention,  he  gave  a  modified  vote 
 for  the  death  of  the  king;  bore  a  promi- 
 nent part  in  all  judicial  questions  in  the 
 Committeee;     and,    after    the    downfall    of 
 
 Robespierre,  bad  for  awhile  themanaee? 
 meal   of  foreign  affairs,     lie  was  also  a 
 
 member   of    the    council    of    five    hundred. 
 
 Subsequently  he  was  minister  of  justice; 
 
 and  was  next  chosen  In  Bonaparte  to  be 
 Becond  consul.  When  Napoleon  became 
 emperor,  he  created  him  arch-chancellor, 
 grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  a 
 prjnce,  and  duke  of  Parma,  and   confided 
 
 CAM 
 
 to  him  the  organization  of  the  judicial 
 system.  He  joined  Napoleon  after  his 
 return  from  Elba;  was  banished  by  Louis, 
 but  soon  recalled;   and  died  in  1824. 
 
 CAMBIASO,  Lucas,  sometimes  incor- 
 rectly called  Cangiangi,  an  eminent  painter, 
 was  born  at  Genoa,  in  1527;  was  em- 
 ployed by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  and  by 
 Philip  II.  of  Spain;  and  died  in  1585. 
 He  painted  with  great  rapidity,  and  equal- 
 ly well  with  both  hands. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE,  Richard  Owen,  the 
 son  of  an  opulent  Turkey  merchant  was  born 
 at  London,  in  1717,  and  was  educated  at 
 Eton  and  St.  John's  College,  Oxford.  He 
 studied  the  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn;  but  his 
 fortune  placed  him  above  the  necessity  of 
 practising  it.  He  died  in  1802.  Cambridge 
 is  the  author  of  the  Scribleriad,  a  poem  of 
 great  merit;  a  History  of  the  War  on  the 
 Coromandel  Coast ;  and  twenty-one  papers 
 in  the  World.  "  You  look  very  serious, 
 my  dear,"  said  his  wife  to  him  one  day. 
 "  Well  I  may,"  replied  he,  "  for  I  am 
 thinking  upon  the  next  icorld." 
 
 CAMDEN,  William, an  eminent  anti- 
 quary and  historian,  was  born  in  London, 
 in  1551,  and  educated  at  Christ's  Hospi- 
 tal, St.  Paul's  School,  and  Oxford.  In 
 1575,  he  was  appointed  second  master  of 
 Westminster  School;  in  1593,  head  mas- 
 ter; and,  in  1597,  Clarencieux  king  at 
 arms.  The  first  edition  of  his  Britannia, 
 an  octavo  volume,  appeared  in  15S6.  It 
 w*as  subsequently  enlarged  to  a  quarto, 
 from  information  which  he  had  obtained  by 
 travelling  in  Wales  and  the  west  of  Eng- 
 land. He  died,  November  the  9th,  1623. 
 Among  his  other  works,  the  most  celebra- 
 ted is,  the  Annals  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
 Camden  founded  a  professorship  of  history 
 at  Oxford. 
 
 CAMDEN.     See  Pratt. 
 
 CAMERARIUS,  Rodolvh  James,  a 
 physician  and  botanist,  was  born  at  Tu- 
 bingen, in  Germany,  in  1665,  and  became 
 professor  of  botany  and  medicine  in  his  na- 
 tive place,  where  he  died  in  1721.  He 
 was  one  of  the  earliest  assertors  of  the  ex- 
 istence of  sexes  in  plants. — His  son,  Al- 
 kxander,  who  was  born  in  1695,  and 
 died  in  1736,  was  also  an  eminent  botanist. 
 
 CAMILLUS,  Marcus  Furius,  a  dis- 
 tinguished Roman,  of  the  Furii  family, 
 who  flourished  in  the  fourth  century  of 
 Koine.  He  was  five  times  dictator,  and 
 enjoyed  four  triumphs.  He  overcame  the 
 llernici,  Volsei,  Latini,  Etruscans,  and 
 other  tribes,  and  compelled  Veii  to  surren- 
 der. His  ungrateful  countrymen,  however, 
 banished  him,  on  an  accusation  of  having 
 embezzled  some  of  the  spoils  of  Veii;  but 
 they  were  compelled  to  recall  him  to  make 
 head  against  Brennus.  He  died,  aged 
 eighty,  b.  c.  365. 
 
 CAMOENS,  Louis,  the  most  celebrated 
 
CAM 
 
 of  tne  Portuguese  poets,  a  man  who  may 
 be  considered  as  at  once  "  the  glory  and 
 the  shame"  of  Portugal,  was  of  a  noble 
 family,  and  was  born  at  Lisbon.  By  some, 
 the  time  of  his  birth  is  fixed  in  1517;  by 
 others,  about  1524.  His  education  he  re- 
 ceived at  Coimbra.  By  his  poetical  tal- 
 ent and  his  gallantries  he  soon  made  him- 
 self conspicuous  at  court ;  and  the  latter 
 occasioned  his  exile  to  Santarem.  Weary 
 of  inactivity,  he  served  as  a  volunteer  in 
 the  fleet  which  was  sent  to  succour  Ceuta, 
 and  in  this  service  he  lost  an  eye  by  a  mus- 
 ket shot.  On  his  return  to  court,  he  found 
 that  neither  his  courage  nor  his  genius 
 could  procure  his  advancement;  and,  in 
 disgust,  he  left  his  country,  in  1553,  and 
 sailed  to  India.  In  the  East,  his  life  was 
 chequered  by  numerous  adventures.  He 
 bore  a  part  in  an  expedition  to  Cochin ; 
 made  a  voyage  to  the  Red  Sea ;  and  was 
 banished  from  Goa  to  Macao,  in  conse- 
 quence of  his  having  written  a  satire  on 
 the  viceroy's  maladministration.  At  Macao 
 he  resided  for  five  years,  and  there  he  fin- 
 ished the  Lusiad.  At  length,  he  was  re- 
 called to  Goa;  but,  on  his  way  thither,  he 
 was  shipwrecked  off  the  mouth  of  the  Me- 
 con.  The  Lusiad  alone  he  saved, by  hold- 
 ing it  above  the  waves  as  he  swam  ashore. 
 New  persecutions  assailed  him  at  Goa. 
 He  was  charged  with  malversation  at  Ma- 
 cao, and  when  cleared  of  that  charge,  was 
 arrested  for  debt.  As  soon  as  he  was  lib- 
 erated, he  accompanied  Pedro  de  Barreto 
 as  a  volunteer  to  Sofala.  But  he  now  be- 
 gan to  languish  for  his  native  land;  and, 
 accordingly,  in  1569,  he  returned  to  Lis- 
 bon. The  Lusiad  came  forth  in  1572,  and 
 was  universally  applauded.  The  laurel  of 
 Camoens  was,  however,  a  barren  one. 
 King  Sebastian  accepted  the  dedication, 
 but  rewarded  the  poet  with  such  a  contemp- 
 tible pension  that  it  was  utterly  inadequate 
 to  furnish  him  with  the  means  of  subsist- 
 ence. Even  this  despicable  pittance  was 
 withdrawn  by  the  inglorious  Henry,  who 
 succeeded  Sebastian;  and  Camoens  was 
 reduced  to  exist  on  the  alms  which  were 
 nightly  begged  for  him  in  the  streets,  by  a 
 faithful  slave  whom  he  had  brought  from 
 India.  Worn  out  by  poverty  and  sorrow, 
 he  expired  in  an  almshouse,  in  1579;  for- 
 tunate, at  least,  in  not  living  to  see  the  sub- 
 jugation of  his  country,  which  so  speedily 
 followed  his  death.  A  splendid  monument 
 was  erected  to  him  fifteen  years  after  his 
 decease.  The  minor  poems  of  Camoens  are 
 animated  and  harmonious.  It  is,  however, 
 on  the  Lusiad  that  his  fame  principally  rests. 
 In  spite  of  some  incongruities,  this  epic  will 
 always  delight  the  lover  of  true  poetry. 
 The  truth  and  spirit  of  its  descriptions, 
 the  grandeur  of  some  of  its  personifications, 
 and  the  melody  of  its  verse,  must  command 
 admiration.     With  respect  to  his  English 
 
 CAM 
 
 147 
 
 translator?,  the  fate  of  Camoens  is  some- 
 what curious.  The  version  by  Fanshaw 
 hardly  reaches  mediocrity.  INI  ickle  has 
 given  a  paraphrase — beautiful,  indeed,  but 
 still  a  paraphrase — of  the  Lusiad  ;  and  sev- 
 eral of  the  smaller  poems  of  the  Portuguese 
 bard  have  undergone  a  similar  transforma- 
 tion under  the  hands  of  Lord  Strangford. 
 
 CAMPANELLA,  Thomas,  a  Domini- 
 can  monk,  born  at  Stillo,  in  Calabria,  in 
 1568,  is  celebrated  for  his  talents  and  mis- 
 fortunes. Having,  in  his  Philosophia  Sen- 
 sibus  demonstrata,  published  at  Naples  in 
 1591,  attacked  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle, 
 he  became  an  object  of  inveterate  hatred  to 
 all  the  Aristotelians.  An  old  professor, 
 whom  he  had  overcome  in  a  dispute,  ac- 
 cused him  of  magic,  and  he  was  compelled 
 to  fly.  Returning,  however,  to  his  native 
 country,  he  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of  in- 
 tending to  make  himself  king  of  Calabria. 
 He  was  seven  times  put  to  the  torture,  and 
 was  imprisoned  for  twenty-seven  years. 
 Pope  Urban  VIII.  at  length  obtained  his  re- 
 lease, and  he  retired  into  France,  where  he 
 was  pensioned  by  Louis  XIII.  He  died  at 
 Paris,  in  1639.  His  works  are  numerous. 
 Campanella  is  said  to  have  possessed  the 
 extraordinary  power  of  abstracting  his  at- 
 sention  from  bodily  suffering,  and  that  to 
 such  a  degree,  as  to  be  able  to  endure  the 
 rack  without  feeling  much  pain. 
 
 CAMPBELL,  Colin,  an  eminent  ar- 
 chitect, who  flourished  early  in  the  last  cen- 
 tury, built  various  edifices,  among  which 
 was  Wanstead  House,  which  was  pulled 
 down  a  few  years  since.  He  also  publish- 
 ed, in  three  folio  volumes,  in  1715,  1717, 
 and  1725,  Vitruvius  Britannicus,  a  collec- 
 tion of  architectural  designs,  which  has 
 since  been  completed  by  Gandon  and 
 Wolfe. 
 
 CAMPBELL,  the  Hon.  Archibald, 
 of  theArgyle  family,  a  nonjuror,  was  elec- 
 ted bishop  of  Aberdeen,  in  1721;  resigned 
 that  office  three  years  afterwards;  and  died 
 in  1744.  He  is  the  author  of  a  learned  and 
 curious  work,  called  the  Doctrine  of  the 
 Middle  State  between  Death  and  the  Res- 
 urrection. 
 
 CAMPBELL,     George,    a    learned 
 Scotch  divine,  was  born   at  Aberdeen  in 
 1709;  he  studied  at  Marischal  College;  and 
 was  articled  to  an  attorney,  but  relinquish- 
 ed law  for  divinity.     He  became  one  of  the 
 ministers  of  his  native  city.      In  1759,  he 
 was  appointed  principal  of  Marischal  Col- 
 lege; and,  in  1771,  professor  of  divinity. 
 The  professorship,   however,  he   resigned 
 some  years  before  his  death,  and  received  a 
 pension  from  the  king.     He  died  in  1796. 
 His  Dissertation  on  Miracles;  Philosophy 
 '  of  Rhetoric ;  Translation  of  the  Gospels ; 
 |  and  other   works,  are  deservedly  held    in 
 I  high  estimation. 
 
 CAMPBELL,  John,  D.  D.,  a  multifa- 
 
148  CAxM 
 
 rioiis  writer,  was  a  native  of  Edinburgh, 
 bora  in  1709,  and  came  to  England  at  the 
 ageofii\c  yean,  fie  was  brought  up  t<> 
 the  law,  tnit  relinquished  it  fur  literature. 
 Hi-  first  work  «a<  the  Military  Historyof 
 Prince  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Marlbor- 
 ough, in  two  folio  volumes;  and  it  was  bo 
 --fnl,  that  lit-  was  thenceforth  con- 
 stantly  employed  bj  the  booksellers.  Among 
 his  numerous  works  are,  a  considerable 
 pan  of  tin-  Universal  History,  four  vol- 
 umea  of  the  first  edition  of  the  Biographia 
 Britannica;  tli<:  Lives  of  tin-  Admirals; 
 rlermippui  Redh  ivusj  and  a  Political  Sur- 
 re]  of  Great  Britain.  A  pamphlet  which 
 he  wrote,  in  defence  of  the  peace  of  Paris, 
 was  rewarded  by  Lord  Bute  with  the  agen- 
 cy  of  the  colony  of  Georgia.  Campbell 
 was  a  worthy  and  amiable  character;  he 
 was  industrious,  extensively  informed,  and 
 Bsed  of  respectable  talent;  but  his 
 judgment  is  sometimes  questionable,  and 
 ::i-  Btyle  is  never  elegant. 
 
 I  LMLPER,  Petkr,  an  eminent  natur- 
 alist and  physician,  born  at  Leyden,  in 
 1722.  was  a  pupil  of  Boerhaave,  and  suc- 
 cessively tilled  professorships  of  the  medi- 
 cal  BCienoes  at  Franeker,  Amsterdam, 
 and  Groningen.  Being  appointed  a  mem- 
 ber  of  the  council  of  state,  he  removed  to 
 the  Hague,  where  he  died  in  1789.  His 
 principal  works  are,  Demonstrationum  An- 
 atomico-pathologicarum,  two  volumes  fo- 
 lio; a  Treatise  on  the  Difference  of  Human 
 Feature-;  and  a  Dissertation  on  the  Vari- 
 eties of  the  Human  Race.  His  writings 
 have  been  collected  in  eight  octavo  vol- 
 umes. 
 
 CAMPISTRON,  John  Gualbert 
 i'i  .  a  French  dramatist,  and  member  of 
 tin-  Academy,  was  born  at  Toulouse,  in 
 L666,  of  a  good  family,  and  was  so  fortu- 
 nate a-  t',  enjoy  the  friendship  and  dramatic 
 instruction  of  Racine,  who  also  introduced 
 him  to  the  duke  of  Vendume.  Vendome 
 inatlc  hi, n  his  secretary,  obtained  for  him  an 
 Italian  marquisate,  and  was  accompanied 
 by  him  in  all  his  campaigns.  Campistron 
 it,  and  especially  detested  letter 
 writing.  '*  lb-  is  answering  his  correspon- 
 d  ilf  duke,  who,  one  day,  saw 
 
 him    throw    into    the   lire   several   unopened 
 
 epistles,  lie  died,  of  apoplexy,  in  1723. 
 Hi-  ch  una-,  principally  tragic,  form  three 
 volume-.  The  ino-t  popular  of  his  tragedies 
 were,  Virginia,  Andronicus,  Alcibiades, 
 and  Tiridates. 
 
 <  A  ilPOM  kNES,  Pn. no  Rodri- 
 •i   i  /.  Count  d<\  a  learned  and  enlightened 
 
 Spanish  state  man,  was  born  in  the  Astu- 
 
 I7HI  ;  entered  the  council  oft  !astile 
 iii  176.5;  and.  in   17vs;,  became  minister  of 
 
 His  administration  was  beneficial 
 to  hi-  Country,  but  it  was  short ;  fir  In-  was 
 deprive, |  of  all  his  offices  when  Florida 
 Blanca  became  prime  minister.   He  retired, 
 
 CAN 
 
 without  repining,  into  private  life,  and  died 
 early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  His  works 
 on  political  economy,  history,  antiquities, 
 and  other  subjects  are  numerous.  He  also 
 wrote  a  Complete  History  of  the  Spanish 
 Marine,  which  remains  unpublished. 
 
 CAMUS,  John  Peter,  a  French  pre- 
 late, was  born  at  Paris,  in  1582,  and  was 
 made  bishop  of  Belley  by  Henry  IV.  After 
 having  held  his  see  for  twenty  years,  he 
 resigned  it  to  live  in  retirement;  but  his 
 virtues  and  piety  soon  occasioned  him  to  be 
 drawn  from  his  retreat.  He  was  appointed 
 vicar-general  to  the  archbishop  of  Rouen ; 
 and,  subsequently,  bishop  of  Arras.  He 
 died  in  his  seventieth  year,  when  on  the 
 point  of  going  to  his  new  diocese.  His 
 works,  which  are  said  to  amount  to  more 
 than  two  hundred  volumes,  have  fallen  into 
 oblivion.  Of  the  mendicant  monks  he  was 
 a  determined  and  persevering  enemy,  and 
 he  incessantly  attacked  them  with  the 
 keenest  raillery  and  satire. 
 
 CAMUS,  Cardinal  Stephen  LE,  born 
 at  Paris,  in  1632,  was  in  his  youth  one  of 
 the  most  dissipated  personages  of  the  Court; 
 but,  at  length,  he  gave  up  the  pursuit  of 
 pleasure,  and,  in  1671,  was  appointed 
 bishop  of  Grenoble.  In  his  new  character 
 he  distinguished  himself  by  his  unaffected 
 piety,  charity,  and  self  denial.  He  was, 
 in  truth,  the  father  of  his  flock,  and  his 
 memory  is  still  venerated  in  the  diocese. 
 He  died,  at  Grenoble,  in  1707;  bequeath- 
 ing his  property  to  the  poor.  He  is  the 
 author  of  some  theological  works. 
 
 CAMUS,  Armand  Gaston,  born  at 
 Paris,  in  1740,  was  brought  up  to  the  law. 
 He  was  one  of  the  deputies  from  Paris  to 
 the  States  General  in  17S9;  bore  a  promi- 
 nent part  in  the  labours  of  the  constituent 
 assembly ;  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
 convention,  in  which  capacity  he  voted  for 
 the  death  v(  the  king.  Camus  was  one  of 
 the  conventional  commissioners,  whom  Du- 
 meurier  put  into  the  hands  of  the  Austrians, 
 when  they  came  to  arrest  him.  After  his 
 liberation,  he  became  a  member  of  the 
 council  of  five  hundred,  and  he  opposed  the 
 establishment  of  the  consular  government. 
 He  was,  nevertheless,  confirmed  by  Bona- 
 parte, in  his  othce  of  archivist,  which  he  had 
 held  for  some  years*  He  died  in  1804.  Ca- 
 mus produced  many  works.  Among  them 
 are,  the  Matrimonial  Code;  Travels  in  the 
 recently  united  Departments;  and  transla- 
 tions of  Aristotle's  Animals  and  the  Manual 
 of  Epictetus. 
 
 CANALETTO,  CANALETTI,  or  CA- 
 \  A  LI,  Anthony,  a  Venetian  painter,  was 
 born  at  Venice,  in  1697.  His  father  was  a 
 scene  painter,  and  brought  him  up  to  that 
 branch  of  the  arts.  After  having  studied  at 
 Rmie,  however,  Canaletto  dedicated  him- 
 self to  landscape,  in  which  he  attained  a 
 high  degree  of  excellence!     His  views  in 
 
CAN 
 
 Venice  are  admirable  works.  In  1746,  he 
 visited  England,  and,  during  a  residence 
 of  two  years,  produced  many  fine  pictures. 
 Canaletto  was  the  first  who  made  the  ca- 
 mera obscura  useful  in  painting.  He  died 
 in  1768. 
 
 CANAN1,  or  CANNANI,  John  Bap- 
 tist, an  Italian  anatomist,  of  the  sixteenth 
 century,  was  born  at  Ferrara,  in  the  uni- 
 versity of  which  city  he  became  professor 
 of  medicine  and  anatomy.  He  died  in 
 1578.  The  discovery  of  the  valves  in  the 
 veins  is  attributed  to  him.  He  is  the 
 author  of  a  scarce  book,  with  plates,  the 
 Description  of  the  Muscles. 
 
 CANDIAC,  John  Louis  de  Mont- 
 calm, a  child  of  wonderfully  precocious  tal- 
 ents, was  a  brother  of  the  Marquis  de  Mont- 
 calm, who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Que- 
 bec. He  was  born  in  1719,  and  died  of 
 hydrocephalus,  in  1726;  but  in  the  brief 
 space  of  seven  years  he  learned  French, 
 Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  arithmetic,  herald- 
 ry, geography,  and  much  of  fabulous,  and 
 sacred  and  profane  history.  At  three  years 
 old  he  read  French  and  Latin  fluently.  His 
 extraordinary  acquirements  were  d  theme 
 of  panegyric  to  many  literary  characters  of 
 the  age. 
 
 CANGE,  Charles  DUFRESNE, 
 Sieur  Du,  a  justly  celebrated  glossarist  and 
 historian,  was  born  at  Amiens,  in  1610. 
 After  having  been  at  the  bar  for  some  years, 
 he  retired  from  it,  to  devote  himself  to  his 
 historical  studies.  He  died  in  1688.  Du 
 Cange  was  one  of  the  most  indefatigable 
 of  writers.  Rocquefort  observes,  that  in 
 the  productions  of  Du  Cange  are  combined 
 the  qualities  of  a  consummate  historian,  an 
 accurate  geographer,  a  profound  civilian, 
 an  enlightened  genealogist,  and  a  learned 
 antiquary,  thoroughly  versed  in  the  knowl- 
 edge of  medals  and  inscriptions.  Among 
 his  many  works  may  be  noticed,  a  History 
 of  the  Empire  of  Constantinople,  folio;  a 
 Glossary  of  lower  Latinity,  3  vols,  folio; 
 and  a  Glossary  of  the  Greek  Language  of 
 the  Middle  Age,  2  vols,  folio.  He  also  left 
 many  valuable  manuscripts. 
 
 CAN 
 
 149 
 
 CANNING,  the  Right  Hon.  George, 
 oorn  in  London,  April  11,  1770,  was  the 
 
 son  of  an  Irish  barrister,  who  was  a  man 
 of  talent  and  a  poet,  but  who  died  in  such 
 embarrassed  circumstances  that  he  left  his 
 family  wholly  unprovided  for.      The  future 
 prime  minister  was  placed  at  Eton  by  his 
 lather's   relations,   at   which   seminary  he 
 distinguished  himself  as  a  classical  scholar, 
 and  one  of  the  principal  authors  of  the  Mi- 
 crocosm.   From  Eton  he  removed  to  Christ 
 Church,  Oxford,  where  he  gained  several 
 prizes;   after  which,  he  entered  himself  a 
 member  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  intending  to  make 
 the  law  his  profession.     The  exhortations 
 of  his  friend  Sheridan,  however,  induced 
 him  to  relinquish  that  intention,  and  to  en- 
 ter on  the  career  of  politics.  In  1793,  there- 
 fore, he  obtained  a  seat  in  the  house  of 
 commons,  as  member  for  Newport,  in  the 
 Isle  of  Wight,  and  in  1796  he  was  appoint- 
 ed under  secretary  of  state,  and  returned 
 for  the  treasury  borough  of  Wendover.    In 
 1798  he  contributed  some  brilliant  satirical 
 pieces,  among  which  are   New   Morality, 
 and  parodies  on  Darwin  and  Southey,  to 
 the  Anti-Jacobin  weekly  paper.     In  1799, 
 he  married  Miss   Scott,  the  sister  of  the 
 duchess  of  Portland,  and  this  marriage  put 
 him    in    possession  of   an   ample  fortune. 
 He   resigned    with    Mr.    Pitt;     proved    a 
 severe  scourge  to  the  Addington  adminis- 
 tration;  returned  again  to  office  with  Mr. 
 Pitt,  as  treasurer  of  the  navy;   and  held 
 that  situation  till  the  death  of  the  premier. 
 After  having  been  once  more  in  opposition 
 for  a  short  time,  he  again  formed  a  part  of 
 the  ministry,  as  secretary  of  state  for  foreign 
 affairs.     But,  in  1809,  the  Walcheren  ex- 
 pedition produced  a  quarrel  between  him 
 and  Lord  Castlereagh.     The  result  was  a 
 duel,  in  which  he  was  severely  wounded  in 
 the  thigh,  and  his  resignation  of  the  secre- 
 taryship.    In  1812,  he  was  elected  one  of 
 the  members  for  Liverpool,  and  was  subse- 
 quently thrice  returned,  though  never  with- 
 out a  strenuous  contest.     In  1816,  he  was 
 sent  ambassador  to  Lisbon,  and  on  his  re- 
 turn, in  1S18,  he  became  president  of  the 
 board  of  controul ;  but  he  relinquished  that 
 place,  and  went  abroad,  in  order  to  avoid 
 taking  part  in  the  proceedings  against  the 
 queen.     He  was  appointed  governor  gen- 
 eral of  India,  in  1822,  and  was  on  the  point 
 of  embarking,  when  the  death  of  Lord  Lon- 
 donderry opened  to  him  the  post  of  secre- 
 tary for  foreign  affairs.     This  he  held  till 
 the  sudden  illness  of  the  earl  of  Liverpool 
 broke  up  the  cabinet,  when  he  was  raised 
 to  the  dignity  of  prime  minister.     He  did 
 not,   however,   long    retain    this    splendid 
 prize  of  his  talents    and    exertions;    for, 
 worn   out   by  mental   and   bodily   toil,   he 
 died   on  the  Sth  of  August,  1827,  to  the 
 deep  regret  of  the  majority  of  his  country- 
 men, who  had  hailed  with  gratitude  and 
 delight  the  energy  and  liberal  spirit  which 
 he  displayed  in  his  system  of  government 
 
150 
 
 CAN 
 
 As  an  orator,  Canning  has  never  been  ex- 
 celled for  finished  elegance,  classical  taste 
 and  allusions,  and  the  powers  of  wit,  sar- 
 casm, and  satire-  His  writings  are  char- 
 acterised by  the  same  qualities.  As  a 
 statesman,  especially  in  the  latter  period 
 of  his  existence,  he  ranks  among  the  most 
 distinguished  which  his  country  has  pro- 
 duced. 
 
 CANO,  James,  a  Portuguese  navigator, 
 was  dispatched  to  the  East  Indies,  in  14S4, 
 by  King  John  of  Portugal;  discovered,  on 
 his  passage,  the  kingdom  of  Congo;  and 
 returned  to  give  an  account  of  his  dis- 
 covery. He  was  sent  back,  on  an  embassy 
 to  the  chiefs  of  the  newly  found  country, 
 and  he  explored  the  coast  for  two  hundred 
 leagues  beyond  the  Zaire.  He  died  about 
 the  close  of  the  fifteenth  centurv. 
 
 CANO,  John  Sebastian  del,  a  na- 
 tive of  Biscay,  born  at  Guetaria,  late  in 
 the  fifteenth  century,  is  commemorated 
 as  the  first  circumnavigator  of  the  globe. 
 He  sailed  with  Magellan,  and,  after  the 
 death  of  that  officer,  he  conducted  the  ex- 
 pedition to  a  successful  end.  His  ship, 
 the  Victory,  was  long  preserved  with  care 
 by  the  Spaniards.  He  died  in  1526,  while 
 on  a  voyage  to  the  South  Sea. 
 
 CANO,  Alonzo,  a  painter,  considered 
 as  the   Michael    Angelo    of    Spain,  from 
 his  excelling   in   painting,  sculpture,  and 
 architecture,    was    born    at    Grenada,    in 
 1600.     Architecture  he    learned  from  his 
 father,   painting   from    Pacheco   and  Juan 
 del  Castillo,    and    sculpture    he    acquired 
 without  a  master.     Removing   to   Madrid, 
 he  was  patronised  by  the  duke  of  Olivarez, 
 and   appointed  king's   painter   and  archi- 
 tect.   His  good  fortune  was,  however,  soon 
 clouded.     Being  suspected  of  having  mur- 
 dered his  wife,  he  was  put  to  the   torture; 
 his  right  arm  being  exempted,  in  consider-! 
 ation  of  his  talent.     As  no  confession  could  j 
 be  extorted  from  him,  he  obtained  his  re- 1 
 lease.     He   now  entered  into  orders,  and  j 
 was  admitted  one  of  the  chapter   of  Gre- 
 nada ;    but  he  still  continued  in  the  sedulous  ' 
 practice   of   his  art.      He    died    in   1676. 
 Many  <>f  his  pictures  are  in   the  churches 
 of  Grenada   and   Malaga;    and  one  of  the 
 finest  of  them,  a  weeping  Magdalen,  adorns 
 a  church  at  Madrid. 
 
 CANOVA,  Antonio,  one  of  the  great-! 
 est  of  modern  sculptors,  was  born,  in  1757,; 
 at    Passagno,    a   village    in   the   Venetian! 
 states.     The  first   indication   of  his   talent; 
 he   is   said   to    have    given    when    he   was 
 twelve  years  old,  by   modelling  a  lion   in 
 butter,  to  be  sent  up  to  the  table  of  Fallen, 
 the  seigneur  of  the   village.     Struck  with 
 the  genius  that  >\as  thus  displayed,  Falieri 
 took  him   under    his   protection,  and  com- 
 mitted  him  to  the  tuition  of  Torretti.     At 
 the    age   of    seventeen,    he    produced    his 
 statue    of    Eurydice.       On   the    death    of 
 
 CAN 
 
 Torretti,  Canova  commenced   sculptor  on 
 his  own  account  at  Venice.     In  1779,  ha 
 
 was  invited  to  Rome,  by  the  Venetian 
 ambassador  to  the  pope,  and  there  Sir 
 William  Hamilton  introduced  him  to  all 
 his  friends.  The  pontiff  and  the  nobility 
 also  vied  in  finding  occupation  for  him. 
 Pius  VII.  knighted  him,  and  appointed 
 him  inspector  general  of  the  fine  arts.  In 
 1802,  at  the  desire  of  the  first  consul,  he 
 visited  Paris,  was  received  with  respect, 
 and  chosen  a  foreign  associate  of  the  In- 
 stitute. When,  however,  he  next  went  to 
 Paris,  in  1815,  his  presence  excited  only 
 feelings  of  anger  and  hatred.  He  then 
 appeared  as  ambassador  from  the  pope,  to 
 superintend  the  sending  back  to  Italy  its 
 plundered  works  of  art.  Sarcasms  and 
 witticisms  were  lavished  on  him;  and  it 
 was  said  that  he  ought  to  be  called  the 
 pope's  packer  instead  of  his  ambassador 
 For  this,  however,  he  was  amplv  indemni- 
 fied by  his  reception  in  England,  where  he 
 was  treated  as  a  brother  bv  all  lovers  of 
 art,  and  was  presented  with  a  brilliant 
 snuff  box  by  the  prince  regent.  On  his 
 return  to  Rome,  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke 
 went  in  a  body  to  meet  him;  and  the  pope 
 ga\e  him  a  pension  of  three  thousand 
 crowns,  created  him  Marquis  of  Ischia, 
 and  inscribed  his  name  in  the  Book  of  the 
 Capitol.  The  pension  Canova  dedicated 
 entirely  to  the  benefit  of  the  arts  and  art- 
 ists. Nor  was  he  a  scanty  dispenser  of 
 his  private  fortune.  He  established  prizes, 
 endowed  academies,  and  relieved  the  aged 
 and  unfortunate.  He  died  at  Venice, 
 October  22,  1822.  Exquisite  grace  is  one 
 of  the  most  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
 Canova's  sculpture.  Among  his  principal 
 works  are,  several  sepulchral  monuments; 
 and  statues  and  groups  of  Psyche,  Cupid 
 and  I'vsche,  Venus  and  Adonis,  a  repent- 
 ant Magdalen,  Perseus,  Hebe,  the  Graces, 
 several  Venuses,  and  a  crowned  Religion 
 of  colossal  size.  The  last  of  these  statues 
 is  erected  in  a  church  built  by  Canova  at 
 his  birthplace. 
 
 CANTACUZENUS,  John,  an  empe- 
 ror of  the  east  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
 He  originally  held  one  of  the  highest  offices 
 
CAN 
 
 CAP 
 
 151 
 
 of  the  court,  and  distinguished  himself  as 
 a  statesman  and  a  warrior.  Andronicus 
 III.  left  him  regent,  during  the  minority  of 
 John  Paleologus ;  but  he  was  persecuted 
 by  the  empress  queen  and  her  party,  and 
 was  ultimately  compelled,  by  the  nobles 
 and  the  army,  to  assume  the  purple  in  self 
 defence.  He  reigned  eight  years  in  con- 
 junction with  John  Paleologus;  and  then, 
 to  prevent  a  civil  war,  voluntarily  abdica- 
 ted, and  retired  into  a  monastery,  where 
 he  died  in  1410,  at  the  age  of  more  than 
 a  hundred.  In  his  retreat,  he  wrote  vari- 
 ous works,  among  which  are  a  Byzantine 
 History,  from  1320  to  1357 ;  Four  Apolo- 
 gies for  the  Christian  Religion ;  and  Four 
 Discourses  against  Mahometanism.  Can- 
 tacuzenus  was  one  of  the  most  eminent 
 characters  that  lived  during  the  decline  of 
 the  eastern  empire. 
 
 CANTEMIR,  Demetrius,  son  of  the 
 vaiwode  of  Moldavia,  was  born  at  Jassy, 
 in  1673;  and,  after  having  in  the  first  in- 
 stance been  disappointed  by  a  rival,  was 
 raised  to  the  government  of  the  princi- 
 pality. With  the  hope  of  transmitting 
 Moldavia  in  sovereignty  to  his  descend- 
 ants, he  revolted  to  the  czar  Peter,  in 
 1710;  and  was  consequently  obliged  to 
 take  refuge  in  Russia,  where  he  was  crea- 
 ted a  prince.  He  died  in  1723.  Cantemir 
 was  a  man  of  learning,  understood  eleven 
 languages,  and  wrote  several  works.  His 
 principal  production  is,  a  History  of  the 
 Growth  and  Decay  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
 pire. 
 
 CANTEMIR,  Constantine  Deme- 
 trius (or,  according  to  some  biographers, 
 Antiochus),  the  youngest  son  of  Deme- 
 trius, was  born  at  Constantinople,  in  1707; 
 was  Russian  ambassador  at  the  courts  of 
 England  and  France ;  and  died  at  Paris, 
 in  1744.  Like  his  father,  he  was  highly 
 informed  and  accomplished,  and  attached 
 to  literary  pursuits.  He  produced  the 
 Petreid,  a  poem,  Satires,  Odes,  Fables, 
 and  other  poems,  in  Russian ;  and  trans- 
 lations from  Anacreon,  Horace,  Montes- 
 quieu, Fontenelle,  and  Algarotti. 
 
 CANTON,  John,  a  native  of  Stroud, 
 in  Gloucestershire,  born  in  1718,  was  the 
 son  of  a  cloth  weaver;  devoted  his  leisure 
 moments  to  mathematics;  and  first  mani- 
 fested hie  talent,  and  obtained  patronage, 
 by  cutting  out  a  sundial  upon  stone  with 
 a  common  knife.  He  was  sent  to  London, 
 and  articled  to  the  master  of  an  academy 
 in  Spital  Square,  of  whom  he  became  the 
 partner,  and  ultimately  the  successor.  His 
 experiments  on  the  Leyden  phial  made 
 him  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
 obtained  for  him  their  gold  medal.  His 
 communications  to  the  Transactions  were 
 many  and  important.  Among  them  is  a 
 valuable  paper  on  the  making  of  artificial 
 magnets.     He  died  in  1772. 
 
 CAPEL,  Arthur,  Lord,  the  son  of 
 Sir  Henry  Capel,  was  elected  knight  of 
 the  shire  for  Hertford,  in  1640,  and  at  first 
 voted  with  the  reforming  party ;  but,  find- 
 ing that  they  were  going  farther  than  he 
 deemed  proper,  he  espoused  the  cause  of 
 the  king,  and  was  created  Lord  Capel. 
 During  the  civil  war, he  fought  for  Charles ; 
 and,  in  1649,  conjointly  with  Lucas  and 
 Lisle,  he  gallantly  defended  Colchester 
 against  Fairfax.  He  was  beheaded  the 
 same  year.  He  is  the  author  of  Daily 
 Observations,  or  Meditations ;  and  of  some 
 beautiful  verses,  written  while  he  was  in 
 the  Tower. 
 
 CAPELL,  Edward,  a  dramatic  critic, 
 was  born  in  1713,  at  Troston,  near  Bury, 
 in  Suffolk;  obtained  the  office  of  deputy 
 licenser  of  plays;  and  died  in  1781.  He 
 published  an  edition  of  Shakspeare,  in  ten 
 volumes;  the  notes  and  various  readings 
 to  which,  were  given  to  the  world  after  his 
 decease.  He  also  edited  a  volume  of  an- 
 cient poetry,  under  the  title  of  Prolusions; 
 and  adapted  Antony  and  Cleopatra  to  the 
 stage. 
 
 CAPELLO,  Bianca,  a  Venetian  lady, 
 who,  after  marrying  a  person  of  inferior 
 rank,  retired  to  Florence,  where  she  be- 
 came the  mistress  of  Francis,  son  of  the 
 grand  duke  Cosmo.  After  the  death  of  her 
 husband,  she  artfully  prevailed  upon  her 
 lover  to  marry  her,  and  she  was  formally 
 recognized,  in  consequence  of  an  embassy 
 to  the  Venetian  states,  as  a  true  daughter 
 of  Venice.  Though  possessed  of  a  pow- 
 erful mind,  and  much  energy  of  character, 
 she  showed  herself  odious  and  tyrannical 
 at  Florence,  so  that  her  memory  is  still 
 held  there  in  abhorrence.  The  sudden 
 death  of  her  husband  and  of  herself,  within 
 a  few  days  of  each  other,  in  October, 
 1587,  was  attributed  to  poison  administer- 
 ed, it  is  said,  by  cardinal  Ferdinand,  their 
 brother. 
 
 CAPMANY,  Don  Antonio,  a  cele- 
 brated Spanish  writer,  was  born  in  Cata- 
 lonia, in  1754,  and  died  in  Andalusia,  in 
 1810.  He  is  the  author  of  several  esteemed 
 works,  among  which  are,  the  Philosophy 
 of  Eloquence,  8vo.;  History  of  the  Ma- 
 rine, Commerce,  and  Arts  of  Barcelona, 
 4  vols.  4to. ;  and  Historical  and  Critical 
 Theatre  of  Spanish  Eloquence,  5  vols.  4to. 
 CAPO  DTSTRIA,  John,  Count  of, 
 president  of  Greece,  the  son  of  a  physician 
 of  Corfu,  was  born  in  1780,  and  studied 
 medicine  at  Venice.  He  entered  into  the 
 service  of  the  Russian  government,  and 
 was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna.  In 
 1812  he  conducted  the  diplomatic  affairs 
 of  the  army  of  the  Danube,  and  subse- 
 quently of  the  whole  Russian  army,  under 
 the  immediate  direction  of  the  emperor, 
 who  admitted  him  to  his  entire  confidence. 
 Soon  afterwards,  he  was  engaged  in  public 
 
152  CAR 
 
 negotiations  of  the  highest  importance, 
 was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for  the 
 department  of  foreign  affairs,  and  received 
 several  orders  of  nobility.  In  1813,  he 
 was  Russian  ambassador  to  Switzerland, 
 and  in  the  ensuing  year  he  was  present 
 as  Russian  plenipotentiary  at  the  congress 
 of  Vienna.  The  downfall  of  Napoleon 
 recalled  him  to  the  head-quarters  of 
 the  allies  at  Paris,  where  he  subscribed 
 the  treaty  of  November  20,  1815,  and 
 returned  with  his  monarch  to  St.  Peters- 
 burg. Here  he  for  some  years  took  an 
 active  part  in  the  affair*  of  the  council  of 
 state;  and  in  1819  visited  his  native  isl- 
 and and  formed  a  connection  with  the  He- 
 taria.  In  1822,  when  the  Russian  minister 
 returned  from  Constantinople,  Count  D'ls- 
 tria  left  the  Russian  service  and  retired  as 
 a  private  man  to  Germany  and  Switzer- 
 land, where  he  resided  tilfl827,  when  he 
 was  appointed  to  the  presidency  of  the 
 Greek  republic.  In  this  station,  he  re- 
 mained till  his  assassination  in  October, 
 1831. 
 
 CAPRARA,  Albkrt,  a  Count  of  the 
 Roman  empire,  and  nephew  of  the  cele- 
 brated Piccolomini,  was  born  at  Bologna, 
 in  1631,  and  died  in  1707.  He  served 
 with  distinction  in  forty-four  campaigns; 
 was  one  of  the  negociators  at  the  congress 
 of  Nimeguen;  and  was  twice  Austrian 
 ambassador  to  the  Porte.  Even  amidst 
 the  din  of  arms,  he  found  time  for  literary 
 pursuits.  He  translated  various  works 
 from  the  Latin,  Spanish,  and  French ;  and 
 wrote  some  miscellaneous  pieces. 
 
 CARACALLA,  Marcus  Aurelius 
 Antoninus,  a  Roman  emperor,  the  son 
 of  Septimus  Severus,  was  born  at  Lyons, 
 A.  D.  188;  and,  in  conjunction  with  his 
 brother  Geta,  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
 year  211.  He  was  a  monster  of  cruelty — 
 stabbed  his  brother  in  their  mother's  arms; 
 slaughtered  thousands  of  the  Alexandrians 
 for  having  offended  him  by  a  jest;  and 
 committed  various  other  enormities;  but 
 was  at  length  assassinated,  A.  D.  217. 
 
 CARACCI,  Louis,  the  founder  of  the 
 school  of  the  Caracci,  was  born  at  Bologna 
 in  1555,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Fontana  and 
 Tintoretto.  On  his  first  initiation  into  the 
 art  of  painting,  he  made  so  little  progress 
 that  his  teachers  despaired  of  him,  and  his 
 fellow  students  nicknamed  him  the  Ox. 
 He  soon,  however,  displayed  talents  of  the 
 first  order,  and  though  envy  and  ignorance 
 carped  at  his  novel  style,  his  productions 
 were  widely  sought  for  and  admired.  He 
 died,  at  his  native  place,  in  1619.  Louis 
 Caracci  was  no  less  amiable  as  a  man  than 
 eminent  as  an  artist,  and  was  entirely  free 
 from  that  jealous  spirit  with  which  the 
 character  of  men  of  genius  has  too  often 
 been  blemished. 
 
 CARACCI,   Augustin,   a    cousin  of 
 
 CAR 
 
 Louis,  was  born  at  Bologna,  in  1558,eand 
 was  intended  to  be  a  goldsmith,  but  became 
 a  pupil  of  Louis  and  of  Fontana,  and  speed- 
 ily proved  himself  an  admirable  painter. 
 He  also  excelled  in  engraving,  his  principal 
 master  in  which,  was  Cornelius  Cort.  Au- 
 gustin assisted  Annibal  in  the  Farnese 
 Gallery,  but  the  jealousy  which  the  latter 
 felt  of  his  brother's  talents  soon  produced 
 a  separation.     He  died  in  1602. 
 
 CARACCI,  Annibal,  a  brother  of  Au- 
 gustin, was  bom  at  Bologna,  in  1560.  In 
 early  life  he  worked  with  his  father,  who 
 was  a  tailor ;  but  he  was  taken  as  a  pupil 
 by  his  cousin  Louis,  and  made  a  rapid 
 progress.  His  reputation  induced  Cardinal 
 Farnese  to  invite  him  to  Rome  to  paint  the 
 gallery  of  the  Farnese  palace.  This  admi- 
 rable work  cost  Annibal  the  labour  of  eight 
 vears,  and  his  mean  employer  rewarded 
 him  with  the  beggarly  sum  of  five  hundred 
 golden  crowns.  Vexation  at  being  thus 
 treated,  threw  him  into  a  desponding  state, 
 which,  aided  by  an  irregular  course  of  life, 
 brought  him  to  the  grave,  in  1609.  He 
 was  buried  by  the  side  of  Raphael.  Of  all 
 the  Caracci,  Annibal  was  the  most  largely 
 endowed  with  genius.  In  his  private  char- 
 acter he  was  the  least  amiable  of  them. 
 His  pupil  Anthony,  a  natural  son  of  Au- 
 gustin, born  at  Venice,  in  1583,  was  strong- 
 ly attached  to  his  master,  and  was  a  painter 
 of  high  talent.  One  of  his  most  celebrated 
 productions  is  a  picture  of  the  Deluge.  He 
 died  at  Rome,  in  1618. 
 
 CARACCIOLI,  Louis  Anthony,  a 
 native  of  Paris,  was  born  in  1721,  and 
 died  in  the  French  capital,  in  1803.  Of 
 his  many  works,  the  best  known  is,  Let- 
 ters of  Clement  XIV.,  which  were  long 
 believed  to  be  really  the  composition  of  that 
 pontiff. 
 
 CARACTACUS,  whose  real  name  was 
 Caradog,  was  a  British  prince  of  the 
 Silures,  who  for  a  while  resisted  the  Roman 
 power,  but  was  at  length  defeated  by  Os- 
 torius,  A.  D.  75.  Cartismundua,  queen  of 
 the  Brigantes,  with  whom  he  had  sought  an 
 asylum,  treacherously  gave  him  up,  and  he 
 was  sent  a  prisoner  to  Rome.  His  firm  and 
 dignified  behaviour,  however,  produced 
 such  an  effect  on  Claudius,  that  he  set  him 
 at  liberty.  Mason  has  made  Caractacus 
 the  subject  of  a  drama. 
 
 CARAMUEL  DE  LOBKOWITZ, 
 John,  a  Spanish  theologian,  was  born  at 
 Madrid,  in  1606,  and  studied  at  Salamanca 
 and  Alcala.  He  was  successively  abbot  of 
 Melrose  and  of  Disemburg,  and  bishop  of 
 Missy,  Koningsgratz,  Campana,  and  Vige- 
 vano.  The  sword,  however,  seems  to  have 
 had  in  his  eves  at  least  equal  claims  with 
 the  crosier;  for  he  fought  in  the  Nether- 
 lands, and  assisted  in  defending  Prague 
 against  the  Swedes.  He  died  in  1682 
 Caratnuel    wrote    nearly    three    hundred 
 
CAR 
 
 works  ou  a  variety  of  subjects.  It  was 
 said  of  him,  that  he  had  eight  parts  of 
 genius,  five  of  eloquence,  and  only  two  of 
 judgment. 
 
 CARAUSIUS,  Marcus  Aurelius 
 Valerius,  a  native  of  Belgic  Gaul,  born 
 in  the  third  century,  was  entrusted  by 
 Maximian  with  a  fleet  for  the  defence  of 
 the  Armorican  and  British  coasts.  The 
 emperor,  however,  became  jealous  of  his 
 wealth,  and  meditated  his  death;  upon 
 which  Carausius  landed  in  Britain,  and, 
 in  A.  D.  287,  assumed  the  imperial  title. 
 The  Romans  were  obliged  to  acknowledge 
 his  independence,  and  he  reigned  till  A.  D. 
 293,  when  he  was  assassinated  by  Allectus, 
 one  of  his  domestics. 
 
 CARAVAGGIO,  Michael  Angelo 
 Am  e  rig  I  de,  a  native  of  Caravaggio,  in 
 the  Milanese,  the  son  of  a  mason,  was  born 
 in  1569;  acquired  the  art  of  painting  with- 
 out a  master;  and  rose  to  high  excellence. 
 He  died  in  1609.  In  his  private  character 
 Caravaggio  deserved  little  praise.  He  was 
 quarrelsome,  envious,  and  unjust.  His 
 paintings  are  true  to  nature,  and  striking 
 in  effect,  but  are  deficient  in  grace  and 
 dignity. 
 
 CARDAN,  Jerom,  a  philosopher, 
 mathematician,  and  physician,  born  at  Pa- 
 via,  in  1501,  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  a 
 physician  and  civilian  of  Milan,  and  his 
 mother  endeavoured  to  destroy  him  before 
 his  entrance  into  the  world.  He  was  care- 
 fully educated  by  his  father  at  Milan,  and 
 completed  his  studies  at  Pavia.  His  medical 
 skill  was  in  such  high  repute,  that  he  was 
 invited  to  Scotland,  to  restore  to  health 
 the  archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's.  He  visited 
 London,  on  his  way  homeward,  and  was 
 introduced  to  Edward  VI.  Cardan  pre- 
 dicted length  of  days  to  the  young  sove- 
 reign, who,  however,  died  in  the  following 
 year.  This  was  not  the  only  occasion  on 
 which  the  predictions  of  Cardan  were  falsi- 
 fied ;  yet  he  obstinately  persisted  in  main- 
 taining the  truth  of  astrology.  He  died,  in 
 1576,  at  Rome,  where  he  was  a  member  of 
 the  college  of  physicians,  and  had  a  pension 
 from  the  pope.  It  is  said  by  some,  that  he 
 starved  himself,  in  order  that  he  might  not 
 belie  his  astrological  calculation  relative  to 
 the  period  of  his  own  death.  Cardan  was 
 unfortunate  in  his  offspring;  both  of  his 
 sons  having  proved  thoroughly  worthless, 
 and  one  of  them  being  a  murderer.  He 
 was  himself,  even  from  his  own  showing, 
 in  his  autobiographv,  an  unamiable  and 
 unprincipled  character.  He  has  absurdly- 
 been  accused  of  atheism,  but  he  was,  in 
 truth,  weakly  superstitious.  His  talents 
 and  erudition  were  of  a  high  order.  In 
 algebra  he  made  some  discoveries,  which 
 have  indissolubly  connected  his  name  with 
 that  science.  His  works  form  ten  folio 
 volumes. 
 
 7* 
 
 CAR 
 
 153 
 
 CARDON,  Anthony,  an  engraver, 
 was  born  at  Brussels,  in  1772;  came  over 
 to  England,  in  1792;  and  died,  in  London, 
 in  1813.  Cardon  was  an  artist  of  much 
 taste  and  talent.  His  Woman  taken  in 
 Adultery,  after  Rubens,  and  his  Marriage 
 of  Catherine  of  France  with  Henry  V.  are 
 among  his  most  prominent  works. 
 
 CARDONNE,  Dennis  Dominic,  an 
 eminent  orientalist,  was  born  at  Paris,  in 
 1720,  and  at  nine  years  of  age  went  to 
 Constantinople,  where  he  remained  twenty 
 years,  and  acquired  a  thorough  knowledge 
 of  oriental  languages,  customs,  and  man- 
 ners. After  his  return  home,  he  became 
 interpreting  secretary  lo  the  king,  royal 
 censor  and  librarian,  and  professor  of  the 
 Persian  and  Turkish  languages  at  the  Royal 
 College.  He  died  in  1783.  Cardonne 
 published,  a  History  of  Africa  and  Spain 
 under  the  Arabian  dominion;  and  Miscel- 
 lanies of  Oriental  Literature;  and  contin- 
 ued the  translation,  which  Galland  began, 
 of  Ancient  Tales  and  Fables,  from  Bidpay. 
 
 CAREW,  Richard,  an  antiquary,  was 
 born  at  Anthony,  in  Cornwall,  in  1555, 
 and  educated  at  Oxford  and  the  Temple. 
 After  having  travelled,  he  settled  in  Corn- 
 wall, and  was  high  sheriff  in  1596.  He 
 died  in  1620.  He  translated  Tasso's  Jeru- 
 salem and  Huarte's  Examination  of  Men's 
 Wits;  but  is  principally  known  by  his 
 Survey  of  Cornwall. 
 
 CAREW,  Thomas,  a  poet,  supposed 
 to  have  been  born  in  1589,  was  educated 
 at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford;  and, 
 after  returning  from  his  travels,  was  ap- 
 pointed a  gentleman  of  the  bedchamber, 
 and  sewer  in  ordinary  to  Charles  I.  His 
 early  life  was  dissipated;  but  he  became 
 thoroughly  reformed  before  his  death  in 
 1639.  As  a  poet,  he  has  all  the  elegance 
 of  Waller,  with  less  affectation,  and  pow- 
 ers of  a  higher  order.  His  Masque,  inti- 
 tled  Ccelum  Bntannicum,  contains  many 
 fine  passages;  and  his  epitaph  on  Lady 
 Mary  Villiers,  has  a  degree  of  simplicity 
 and  pathos  which  is  almost  unrivalled  in 
 English  Epitaphs. 
 
 CAREY,  Henry,  Earl  of  Monmouth, 
 was  born  in  1596;  educated  at  Exeter 
 College,  Oxford;  and  died  in  1661.  In 
 the  number  of  his  translations  he  rivalled 
 the  untirable  Philemon  Holland.  He  trans- 
 lated Bentivoglio's  United  Provinces ;  Boc- 
 calini's  Parnassus;  Paruta's  Venice;  Bi- 
 ondi's  Civil  Wars  of  England ;  and  several 
 other  works;  and  died  while  engaged  upon 
 a  version  of  Pi  iorato's  History  of  France. 
 
 CAREY,  Henry,  a  composer  and  poet, 
 the  period  of  whose  birth  is  unknown, 
 was  an  illegitimate  son  of  the  marquis  of 
 Halifax.  His  poems  were  printed  by 
 subscription  in  1737,  and  his  dramatic 
 works  in  1743.  In  the  latter  year  he  put 
 an  end  to  his  own  existence.     Of  his  dra- 
 
154 
 
 CAR 
 
 CAR 
 
 mas,  Cftrononhotonthologos,  the  Contrivan-I  to  Constantinople;  visited  many  parts  of 
 ces,  Thomas  and  Sally,  and  the  Dragon  of  the  Levant;  and,  at  his  return,  obtained 
 VVantley,  are  best  known.  Of  his  musical '  the  rectory  of  Newcastle  upon  Tyne.  He 
 compositions,  Sally  in  our  Alley,  the  words  !  died  in  1804.  His  productions  are,  Spe- 
 of  which  are  also  his  own,  deservedly  con- !  cimens  of  Arabian  Poetry;  Poems  sug- 
 tinues  popular.  Carey  was  an  amiable  i  gested  by  scenes  in  Asia  Minor,  &c. ;  and 
 man,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  projector ,  a  Latin  translation  of  Jemaleddin's  Egyp- 
 of  the  Musical  Fund. — His  son,  Gkorgk   tian  Annals. 
 
 Savile,  gained  a  livelihood  by  his  lee- j  CARMATH,  Hamdan,  was,  in  the 
 tares  on  heads, and  similar  entertainments;  -ninth  century,  the  founder  of  an  Arabian 
 wrote  some  farces;   and  died  in  1807.  sect,  which  was  hostile  to  Mahometanism  ; 
 
 CAREY,  Fklix,  son  of  Dr.  William  j  and,  indeed,  to  the  existence  of  society 
 Carey,  the  missionary,  was  born  in  1786;  itself.  He  taught  a  community  of  property 
 assisted  his  father  in  his  pious  labours  in  and  of  women;  rejected  revelation,  prayer, 
 Bengal;  and  died  at  Serampore,  in  1822. 1  fasting,  and  alms;  and  allowed  free  scope 
 Among  his  works  are,  a  Grammar  and  j  to  the  exercise  of  the  worst  passions.  The 
 Dictionary  of  the  "Burman  Language;  a  j  time  and  mode  of  his  death  are  unknown; 
 Pall    Grammar;     and    other    philological  but  the  former  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 
 production.* 
 
 CARLNUS,  Marcus  Aurelius,  a 
 Roman  emperor,  succeeded  his  father  Ca- 
 ms, \.  D.  283,  conjointly  with  Numerian, 
 his  brother.     Effeminate,  cruel,  and  coarse 
 
 about  A.  D.  900. 
 
 CARMONTELLE,  M.,  a  French  wri- 
 ter, born  at  Paris,  in  1717,  where  he  died 
 in  1806,  is  the  author  of  various  works, 
 but  is  celebrated  for  his  Dramatic  Proverbs, 
 
 minded,  before  his  accession,  he  displayed  short  pieces,  which  have  great  comic  merit. 
 his  vices  still  more  prominently  on  the  ]  Carmontelle  also  painted  with  the  same 
 throne.  While  engaged  in  a  contest  for !  facility  that  he  wrote ;  and  had  a  particu- 
 empire  with  Diocletian,  he  was  assassinated  I  lar  talent  for  drawing  transparencies,  which 
 A  D.  285,  by  a  tribune,  whose  wife  he  had  contained  a  series  of  scenes,  and  were 
 seduced.  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  sixty 
 
 CARISSIMI,  James,  a  celebrated  I  feet  in  length. 
 Italian  composer,  considered  as  the  re-  CARNEADES,  a  celebrated  Greek 
 former  of  music  in  Italy,  was  born  at  philosopher,  a  native  of  Cyrene,  supposed 
 Venice,  in  1600.  He  was  chapel  master  to  have  been  born  about  b.  c.  218,  was 
 to  the  pope,  and  to  the  German  college  at  the  founder  of  the  third  or  new  Academy. 
 Rome;  and  was  living  in  1672,  but  the  His  doctrine  was  a  mitigated  pyrrhonism. 
 year  of  his  death  is  unknown.  His  Motets  I  The  Athenians  sent  him  to  Rome,  with 
 and  Cantatas  are  much  esteemed;  par-  Diogenes  and  Critolaus,  to  obtain  the  re- 
 ticularly  the  cantatas  of  Jeptha's  Sacrifice,!  mission  of  a  fine;  during  which  embassy 
 and  the  Judgment  of  Solomon.  I  Carneades   displayed    such    eloquence    in 
 
 C  VRLETON,  Sir  Guy,  Earl  of  Dor-  maintaining  both  "sides  of  a  question,  that 
 
 Chester,  was  born,  in  1724,  at  Strabane, 
 in  Ireland;  distinguished  himself  at  the 
 of  Quebec  and  the  Havannah;  was 
 made  governor  of  Quebec  in  1772;  success- 
 tally  defended  Canada  against  the  Ameri- 
 cans; succeeded  Clinton,  in  1781,  as  com- 
 mander in  chief;  was,  in  1786,  created  a 
 peer,  and  appointed  governor  of  Nova  Sco- 
 tia, New  Brunswick,  and  Canada;  and 
 died  in  1803. 
 
 C  \ItLI,  John  Rinaldo,  Count  de,  an 
 Italian  writer  on  political  economy  and 
 antiquities,  was  born  at  Capo  d'Istria,  in 
 1720;  became  president  of  the  council  of 
 commerce  and  finance  at  Milan;  and  died 
 in  1795.  His  excellent  Treatise  on  Italian 
 C  linage  and  money  extends  to  six  volumes; 
 and  his  American  Letters,  in  which  he 
 refutes  Pauw,  form  three  volumes.  His 
 Italian  Antiquities  are  in  five  volumes 
 quarto,  and  are  highly  esteemed. 
 
 CARLYLE,  Joseph  Dacre,  a  divine 
 and  poet,  was  born  at  Carlisle,  in  1759, 
 and  educated  at  Cambridge,  at  which  uni- 
 versity he  became  Arabic  professor  in  1794. 
 He  accompanied  Lord  Elgin  on  his  embassy 
 
 he  captivated  the  people,  and  Cato  the 
 censor  induced  the  senate  to  send  back  the 
 philosophers,  to  prevent  the  morals  of  the 
 Roman  youth  from  being  injured.  He 
 died  at  the  age  of  ninety;  yet  had  inces- 
 santly complained  of  the  brevity  of  life. 
 
 CARNOT,  Lazarus  Nicholas,  one 
 of  the  most  prominent  actors  in  the  French 
 revolution,  was  born  in  Burgundy,  in  1753; 
 entered  the  engineer  corps  at  the  age  of 
 eighteen;   and  became  bo  distinguished  for 
 
CAR 
 
 talent  that  Prince  Henry  invited  him,  but 
 in  vain,  into  the  Prussian  service.  In 
 1791,  the  department  of  the  Pas  de  Calais 
 chose  him  one  of  its  representatives  to  the 
 legislative  assembly;  by  which  assembly 
 he  was  nominated  a  member  of  the  military 
 committee.  In  both  capacities  he  was 
 active,  and  his  principles  were  decidedly 
 republican.  He  was  reelected  to  the  con- 
 vention, and  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis 
 XVI.  Of  the  too  celebrated  committee  of 
 public  safety  he  was  a  member.  The  mili- 
 tary operations  of  the  French  armies  were 
 under  his  superintendence,  and,  though 
 Napoleon  depreciates  his  abilities,  there 
 can  be  little  doubt  that  the  plans  of  Carnot 
 contributed  largely  to  the  triumph  of 
 France.  When  the  directorial  govern- 
 ment was  established,  he   was   chosen  one 
 
 CAR 
 
 155 
 
 Nova,  in  the  March  of  Ancona.  After 
 having  been  secretary  to  Prince  Pico  Louis 
 Farnese,  and  to  cardinals  Ranuccio  and 
 Alexander  Farnese,  by  whom  he  was  liber- 
 ally rewarded,  he  died  in  1566.  Of  his 
 works,  several  of  which  are  translations, 
 the  principal  are  a  version  of  the  Eneid, 
 in  blank  verse ;  a  volume  of  Poems ;  and  a 
 comedy. 
 
 CARPI,  Hugh  di,  a  designer  and  en- 
 graver on  wood,  born  at  Rome,  about  1486, 
 was  one  of  the  first  who  introduced  into 
 Italy  the  use  of  three  plates  to  produce  one 
 print;  one  for  the  outline,  another  for  the 
 half-tints,  and  the  third  for  the  shadows 
 The  invention  itself  is  of  German  origin. 
 
 CARPOCRATES,  a  heresiarch  of  the 
 second  century,  was  a  native  of  Alexan- 
 dria, and  lived  under  the  reign  of  Adrian 
 of  the  five  directors ;  but,  in  September,  j  He  believed  Jesus  Christ  to  have  been 
 1797,  he  was  proscribed  with  his  colleague  merely  the  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  but 
 Barthelemy,  and  nearly  seventy  members  more  richly  endowed  by  the  Creator  than 
 of  the  councils,  as  a  royalist,  and  he  took  other  men.  He  is  also  accused  of  having 
 refuge  in   Germany,  to   avoid  transporta-  denied    the    resurrection,    and    of    having 
 
 tion.     When  Bonaparte  became  first  con- 
 sul, he  recalled  him,   and   made  him  war 
 minister ;   an  office,  however,  which  Carnot 
 retained  only  for  a  few  months.   Thoroughly 
 republican  in  his  feelings,  he  saw  with  in- 
 finite displeasure   the  strides  which  Bona- 
 parte   was   making    towards    the    throne; 
 and,    as    a    member    of  the    tribunate,  he 
 entered  his   protest  against  the  establish- 
 ment   of    the    imperial    government.     He 
 lived  in  retirement,  and  in  somewhat  nar- 
 row circumstances,  for  several  years  after 
 the  accession  of  Napoleon,  but  at  length  a 
 pension  was  given  to  him.     In  1813,  when 
 the  star  of  the  French  emperor  was  on  the 
 wane,  Carnot  came  forward   to  offer  his 
 services  ;   he  was  entrusted  with  the  defence 
 of  Antwerp;   and    he    amply   justified    the 
 confidence    which   was    reposed    in    him. 
 Disgusted  with  the   impolitic  conduct  of 
 the  Bourbons,  he  drew  up,  early  in  1815, 
 a  Memorial    to   the    King,  which  became 
 public,    and    produced    an    extraordinary 
 effect.     When    Napoleon     returned     from 
 Elba,  he    appointed  him   minister    of  the 
 home  department,  and  gave   him   the  title 
 of  count;   and,  after  the    downfall  of  the 
 emperor,  Carnot    was    chosen   one   of  the 
 temporary  government,  in  which  character 
 he  laboured  strenuously  to   prevent  a  sove- 
 reign from  being  forced  upon  his  country 
 by  the    allies.     He    was   exiled    in    1816, 
 and  died  at  Magdeburgh  in  August,  1823. 
 Notwithstanding  he  had  held  so  many  high 
 offices,  he  lived  and  died  poor;   for  he  was 
 rigidly  disinterested  and  incorrupt.     He  is 
 the    author    of  various    mathematical  and 
 military  works,  among  which  are  the  Geo- 
 metry  of  Position;   and   a  volume  on  the 
 Defence  of  Fortresses. 
 
 CARO,  Annibal,  a  distinguished  lite- 
 
 taught    various    doctrines    subversive    of 
 morality. 
 
 CARR,  John,  was  born  at  Muggles- 
 wick,  in  the  county  of  Durham,  in  1732; 
 was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  School;  be- 
 came usher  and  subsequently  master  of 
 Hertford  School ;  received  the  degree  of 
 doctor  of  laws  from  Marischal  College ; 
 and  died  in  1807.  He  translated  Lucian, 
 in  5  vols.  8vo. ;   and  wrote  some  poems. 
 
 CARR,  Sir  John,  a  native  of  Devon 
 shire,  was  brought  up  to  the  law;  but 
 seems  to  have  abandoned  his  profession,  to 
 become  a  tourist.  His  first  work  was  the 
 Stranger  in  France,  published  in  1803. 
 It  was  succeeded  by  a  Tour  round  the 
 Baltic ;  and  that  was  followed  by  others 
 in  Holland,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Spain. 
 His  Stranger  in  Ireland  procured  for  him 
 the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  drew  down 
 upon  him  the  ridicule  of  an  unmerciful 
 satirist,  for  whose  attack  the  knight  ab- 
 surdly and  vainly  sought  redress  in  a  court 
 of  justice.  He  died  about  1822.  Sir  John 
 Carr  is  a  lively  but  superficial  writer. 
 Besides  his  tours,  he  produced  some  very 
 indifferent ,  poems. 
 
 CARRE,  Louis,  a  French  geometri- 
 cian, and  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
 ences, was  the  son  of  a  husbandman  in  the 
 province  of  Brie.  He  was  born  in  1663, 
 and  died  in  1711.  From  Mallebranche, 
 to  whom  he  was  an  amanuensis,  he  learned 
 mathematics.  He  wrote  a  Treatise  on 
 Music;  another,  on  the  Application  of  the 
 Integral  Calculus;  and  various  papers  in 
 the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
 and  in  the  Journal  des  Savants. 
 
 CARRIER,  John  Baptist,  one  of  the 
 most  infamous  of  the  French  revolutionists, 
 was  born  near  Aurillac,  in  1756,  and  was 
 
 rary  Italian,  was  born,  in   1507,  at  Cittaj  an    obscure    lawyer    when   the  revolution 
 
156  CAR 
 
 commenced.  Being  elected  a  member  of 
 the  convention,  he  was  one  of  the  foremost 
 in  all  sanguinary  measures.  He  declared 
 that  one  third  of  the  inhabitants  of  France 
 ought  to  be  got  rid  of.  He  was  sent  on 
 a  mission  into  Vendee;  and,  acting  up  to 
 his  infernal  system,  he  there  committed 
 the  most  horrible  cruelties.  Thousands  of 
 victims,  among  whom  were  great  numbers 
 of  women  and  children,  were  drowned, 
 shot,  or  beheaded.  After  the  fall  of  Ro- 
 bespierre, justice  overtook  Carrier,  and  he 
 perished  on  the  scaffold  in  1795. 
 
 CARRION,  Emamel  Ramirez  de, 
 a  learned  Spaniard,  who  lived  towards  the 
 latter  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was 
 one  of  the  first  persons  who  undertook  to 
 teach  the  deaf  and  dumb.  He  had  great 
 success.  Among  bis  pupils  wore  the  .Mar- 
 quis de  Priego  and  Don  Louis  de  Velasco. 
 He  is  the  author  of  a  work  called  the 
 Wonders  of  Nature. 
 
 CARROLL,  John,  first  Catholic  bishop 
 of  the  United  Slates,  was  born  in  Mary- 
 land, in  the  year  1734.  He  was  sent  at 
 the  age  of  thirteen  to  the  College  of  St. 
 Outer's,  in  Flanders,  where  he  remained 
 for  six  years,  when  he  was  transferred  to 
 the  colleges  of  Liege  and  Bruges.  In 
 1769  he  was  ordained  a  priest;  and  soon 
 after  became  a  Jesuit.  He  returned  to 
 America  in  1775.  and  when  the  Roman 
 Catholic  clergy  in  the  United  States  re- 
 quested from  the  pope  the  establishment  of 
 a  hierarchy,  Mr.  Carroll  was  appointed 
 vicar-general,  and  fixed  his  residence  at 
 Baltimore.  In  1789  he  was  named  bishop, 
 and  in  the  ensuing  year  was  consecrated 
 in  England.  In  the  same  year  he  returned 
 to  his  nati\e  country,  and,  from  the  seat  of 
 his  episcopal  see,  assumed  the  title  of 
 Bishop  of  Baltimore.  A  few  years  before 
 his  death  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
 arch-bishop.  He  died  in  1815,  much  es- 
 teemed and  regretted. 
 
 CARSTARES,  William,  a  native  of 
 Scotland,  eminent  as  a  divine  and  a  politi- 
 cian, was  born,  in  1649,  at  Cathcart,  near 
 Glasgow,  and  completed  his  studies  at  the 
 universities  of  London  and  Utrecht.  \\  bale 
 in  Holland,  he  was  introduced  to  the  prince 
 of  Orange,  who  honoured  him  with  his 
 confidence.  After  his  return  to  England, 
 he  became  connected  with  the  party  which 
 strove  to  exclude  James  from  the  throne, 
 and,  on  suspicion  of  being  one  of  the  Rye- 
 house  conspirators,  he  was  put  to  the  tor- 
 ture, which  he  bore  with  unshrinking 
 firmness.  On  his  liberation,  he  went  back 
 to  Holland,  and  beQMM  one  of  the  prince 
 of  Orange's  chaplains.  He  accompanied 
 William  to  England  in  1688;  was  appoint- 
 ed king's  chaplain  for  Scotland ;  and,  till  the 
 death  of  the  monarch,  was  consulted  with 
 on  all  Scotch  affairs.  Queen  Anne  made 
 him  principal  of  the  university  of  Edin- 
 
 CAR 
 
 burgh.  In  favour  of  the  union,  and  of  the 
 establishment  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  he 
 took  an  active  part.  He  died  in  1715. 
 ( hrstares  was  an  honest,  enlightened,  and 
 patriotic  man,  and  of  such  benevolent 
 feelings,  that  he  delighted  in  succouring 
 even  those  who  professed  principles  dia- 
 metricallv  opposite  to  his  own.  Nor  was 
 his  charity  the  child  of  ostentation ;  for 
 much  of  the  good  which  he  did  was  done 
 bv  stealth. 
 *  CARSTENS,  Asmus  Jacob,  a  Danish 
 painter,  was  born  at  Schleswick,  in  175-1, 
 and  was  the  son  of  a  miller.  At  the  age 
 of  nine  years,  he  manifested  a  love  of 
 drawing,  and  was  taught  the  rudiments  by 
 his  mother.  In  1783,  he  made  a  vain  at- 
 tempt to  reach  the  papal  capital,  in  order 
 to  study,  but  poverty  obliged  him  to  desist 
 after  having  proceeded  to  Milan.  In  1792, 
 however,  he  took  up  his  residence  at 
 Rome,  and  he  died  there  in  1798.  Among 
 his  best  works  are  his  Fall  of  the  Angels ; 
 Megapontum;  CEdipus;  and  Visit  of  the 
 Argonauts  to  Chiron. 
 
 CARTE,  Thomas,  an  historian,  was 
 born  at  Dunsmoor,  in  Warwickshire,  in 
 1686,  and  educated  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 
 bridge; and,  after  making  the  tour  of 
 Europe  as  a  tutor,  he  took  orders;  but  he 
 subsequently  assumed  the  lay  habit,  in  con- 
 sequence of  his  Jacobite  principles  not 
 allowing  him  to  swear  allegiance  to  the 
 house  of  Hanover.  He  was  secretary  to 
 Bishop  Atterbury,  and  being  more  than 
 once  suspected  of  taking  part  in  the  plots 
 against  the  government,  he  was  compelled 
 to  fly  to  France,  where  he  resided  for  sev- 
 eral years.  On  his  return  to  his  native 
 country,  he  engaged  in  literary  pursuits. 
 His  History  of  England  was,  at  the  outset, 
 extensively  patronised  ;  but,  on  the  publi- 
 cation of  the  first  volume,  many  of  the 
 subscribers,  particularly  the  corporation  of 
 London,  withdrew  their  support;  he  hav- 
 ing disgusted  them  by  inserting  a  silly 
 story  of  a  man  being  cured  of  the  king's 
 evil  by  the  touch  of  the  pretender.  De- 
 tective in  style  and  many  historical  cjuali- 
 ties,  and  disfigured  by  tory  prejudices,  his 
 work  is,  nevertheless,  valuable  for  the 
 industrious  research  which  it  displays. 
 He  died  in  1754.  Besides  his  History, 
 which  comes  down  to  1654,  he  wrote  a 
 Life  of  James  Duke  of  Ormond,  and  other 
 works. 
 
 CARTER,  Elizabeth,  a  female  of 
 extensive  learning,  was  the  daughter  of  a 
 clergyman,  and  was  born  at  Deal,  in  Kent, 
 December  16,  1717.  She  was  educated 
 bv  her  father,  and  acquit od  the  Hebrew, 
 Arabic,  Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  Portuguese, 
 Spanish,  French,  and  German  languages 
 Before  she  was  seventeen,  many  of  her 
 poetical  attempts  appeared  in  the  Gentle- 
 man's Magazine,  and  were  highly  appiaucU 
 
CAR 
 
 ea  In  lier  twenty-second  year,  she  trans- 
 lated Crouzas's  Remarks  on  the  Essay  on 
 Man,  and  Algarotti's  Explanation  of  New- 
 ton's Philosophy  for  the  Ladies.  Her 
 translation  of  Epictetns  appeared  in  1758  ; 
 and  a  volume  of  her  poems  in  1762.  Mrs. 
 Carter  was  in  habits  of  friendship  with 
 Johnson,  Dr.  Seeker,  the  earl  of  Bath, 
 Mrs.  Montague,  and  nearly  all  the  eminent 
 literary  characters  of  the  age ;  and  had 
 interviews  with  the  queen  and  other  mem- 
 bers of  the  royal  family.  She  died  Febru- 
 ary 19,  1806.  As  an  erudite  female  she 
 has  seldom  been  equalled ;  as  a  poetess  she 
 takes  no  lofty  flights,  but  is  pleasing  and 
 elegant. 
 
 CARTER,  Nathaniel  H.,  was 
 born  in  Concord,  New  Hampshire,  and 
 graduated  at  Dartmouth  college  in  1811. 
 In  1816  he  was  chosen  professor  of  lan- 
 guages at  the  college  where  he  was  educa- 
 ted, and  was  subsequently  editor  of  the 
 New  York  Statesman.  He  is  the  author 
 of  a  few  occasional  poems,  and  of  Travels 
 in  Europe,  in  two  vols.  8vo.  He  died  in 
 Marseilles,  where  he  had  gone  on  account 
 of  his  health,  in  January,  18S0. 
 
 CARTER,  John,  an  architect,  anti- 
 quary, and  draughtsman,  was  born  in  Pic- 
 cadilly, in  1747,  and  was  brought  up  as  a 
 builder.  The  Sessions  House,  on  Clerk- 
 enwell  Green,  was  designed  by  him.  He 
 died,  September  8,  1817.  Carter  was  an 
 enthusiastic  admirer  of  Gothic  architec- 
 ture, and  was  thoroughly  versed  in  all  its 
 details.  Any  modern  artists  who  deviated 
 from  its  true  principles  were  sure  to  en- 
 counter his  severest  censure.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Specimens  of  Ancient  Sculpture 
 and  Painting  in  England,  2  vols,  folio; 
 Ancient  Architecture  of  England,  folio; 
 "Views  in  England,  7  vols.  12mo. ;  and 
 Letters,  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine, 
 under  the  signature  of  an  Architect. 
 
 CARTERET.     See  Granville. 
 
 CARTIER,  James,  a  French  naviga- 
 tor of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  native! 
 of  St.  Maloes.     His   offer   to  explore  the  | 
 coast  of  northern    America  was  accepted  i 
 by  Francis  L,  who  entrusted  him  with  the  I 
 command    of  two    small  vessels,  each  of  | 
 about   sixty    tons    burthen.       With    these 
 Cartier  sailed  in  April,  1584.     In  his  first 
 voyage  he  coasted  a  part  of  Labrador,  and 
 discovered  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Laurence ; 
 in  his  second,  in   1585,  he  penetrated  up 
 the  river  as  far  as  where  Montreal  now 
 stands      He  was  dispatched  to  Canada  a 
 third  time,  in  1640     The  date  of  his  death 
 is  uncertain. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT,  Thomas,  an  emi- 
 nent divine,  was  born  in  Hertfordshire, 
 about  1535,  and  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
 and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  He  was 
 greatly  admired  as  a  preacher;  but,  being 
 of  puritan  principles,  he   was    repeatedly 
 
 CAR 
 
 157 
 
 persecuted  by  Whitgift,  Gnndall,  and  Ayl- 
 mer,  was  more  than  once  imprisoned,  and 
 was  compelled  to  reside  abroad  for  two 
 years.  He  died  in  1603.  Besides  con- 
 troversial tracts,  he  wrote  a  Latin  Harmony 
 of  the  Gospels;  a  Commentary  on  the 
 Proverbs;  a  Confutation  of  the  Rhemish 
 Testament;   and  other  works. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT,  William,  a  divine 
 and  poet,  was  born,  in  1611,  near  Tewks- 
 bury,  in  Gloucestershire,  and  educated  at 
 Westminster  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
 As  a  preacher  he  was  highly  popular;  and 
 as  a  man  of  talents  and  a  poet,  he  won 
 the  lavish  praise  of  many  of  his  emin- 
 ent contemporaries.  Posterity,  however, 
 though  not  denying  considerable  merit  to 
 him,  has  not  ratified  the  lofty  panegyrics 
 bestowed  on  him  by  his  friends.  He  died 
 at  Oxford,  in  1643,  and  Charles  I.,  who 
 was  then  at  that  city,  wore  black  on  the 
 day  of  his  funeral.  He  is  the  author  of 
 poems;   four  dramas;   and  a  sermon. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT,  Major  John,  a  na- 
 tive of  Nottinghamshire,  distinguished  as 
 a  steady  partizan  of  parliamentary  reform, 
 was  born  in  1710,  served  in  the  army  and 
 navy  in  early  life,  and  was  present  at  the 
 taking  of  Cherbourg,  and  the  battle  be- 
 tween Hawke  and  Conflans.  He  left  the 
 sea  service  previously  to  1774,  and  became 
 a  warm  advocate  for  the  American  colo- 
 nists. About  this  time  he  obtained  a  ma- 
 jor's commission  in  the  Notts  militia,  and 
 he  held  it  for  seventeen  years  till  he  was 
 superseded.  In  1780  he  joined  with  Dr. 
 Jebb  and  Granville  Sharpe  in  establishing 
 the  Society  for  Constitutional  Information. 
 For  nearly  half  a  century  he  incessantly 
 continued  his  exertions,  both  personally 
 and  with  his  pen,  to  effect  a  reform  in  the 
 house  of  commons.  In  1821,  he  was  tried 
 with  others,  for  a  conspiracy,  in  conse- 
 quence of  his  having  attended  a  public 
 meeting  at  Birmingham,  on  the  subject  of 
 the  Manchester  massacre.  He  was  sen- 
 tenced to  pay  a  fine  of  one  hundred  pounds. 
 He  died  September  the  23d,  1824.  His 
 integrity  and  patriotic  intentions  were 
 acknowledged  by  all  parties.  He  is  the 
 author  of  the  iEgis  of  Britain;  the  Com- 
 monwealth in  Danger;  and  \anous  other 
 works;  the  style  of  which  is  not  such  as 
 can  be  honestlv  praised  bv  a  reader  of  taste. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT,  EmvARH,  a  younger 
 brother  of  Major  Cartwright,  was  educated 
 for  the  church,  and  obtained  preferment. 
 His  reputation,  however,  is  derived  from 
 his  poetical  and  mechanical  talent.  As  a 
 poet,  he  is  honourably  known  by  his 
 Armyne  and  Elvira,  and  other  poems;  as 
 a  mechanician,  by  his  weaving  machine, 
 by  his  methods  of  combing  wool,  and  ma- 
 king ropes,  and  by  various  agricultural 
 improvements.  He  also  contributed  to 
 the  Monthly  Review,    He  died  in  1824, 
 
158 
 
 CAR 
 
 CARUS,  Marcus  Aurelius,  a  Ro- 
 man emperor,  the  successor  of  Probus, 
 was  born  at  Narbonne,  about  A.  D.  230. 
 After  having  defeated  the  Sarmatians,  he 
 marched  against  the  Persians,  and  had 
 made  himself  master  of  the  cities  of  Seleu- 
 cia  and  Ctesiphon,  when  he  was  killed  by 
 lightning,  in  the  hatter  city,  a.  d.  283. 
 
 CARVER,  Jonathan,  a  North  Amer- 
 ican, born  in  Connecticut,  in  1732,  was  a 
 grandson  of  the  governor  of  that  province. 
 He  was  educated  for  the  medical  profes- 
 sion, but  embraced    a  military    life,    and 
 served   with   reputation   till   the   peace  of  j 
 1763.     The  years  1766,  1767,  and  1768,  | 
 he  spent  in  exploring  the  interior  of  North  , 
 America,    and   he    added  considerably  to 
 our  knowledge  of  that  country.     He  visited  | 
 England,  in  1769,  hoping  for  the  patronage  j 
 of  government,   but  he  was  disappointed,  j 
 In  1778,  he  published  his  Travels,  while  in 
 the    situation    of   clerk    of   a    lottery,    in 
 Boston;  and,  subsequently,  a   Treatise  on 
 the  Cultivation  of  Tobacco.     After  having 
 long  contended  with  poverty,  he  died,  In 
 1780,  of  disease  which  is  believed  to  have 
 been  produced  by  want. 
 
 CARVER,  John,  the  first  governor  of 
 the  colony  of  Plymouth,  New-England, 
 was  a  native  of  England,  and  belonged  to 
 the  church  of  Mr.  Robinson,  which  emigra- 
 ted to  Leyden.  Having  obtained  a  patent 
 from  the  Virginia  Company,  he  sailed 
 from  Plymouth,  in  1620,  with  one  hundred 
 emigrants,  and  striking  the  coast  of  Amer- 
 ica in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Cod,  he  landed 
 and  commenced  the  settlement  of  New- 
 England.  The  place  selected  for  this  pur- 
 pose was  called  Plymouth,  and  Mr.  Carver 
 was  chosen  first  governor  of  the  new  col- 
 ony. He  died  in  the  April  of  the  next 
 year. 
 
 CARY.     See  Falkland. 
 
 CARYL,  Joseph,  a  nonconformist 
 divine,  born  at  London,  in  1602,  and  educa- 
 ted at  Oxford,  was  an  active  minister,  and 
 bore  some  part  in  political  affairs,  under 
 the  commonwealth.  Being  ejected  from 
 his  living  in  1662,  he  collected  a  congrega- 
 tion, to  which  he  preached  till  his  decease, 
 in  1673.  He  wrote  a  Commentary  on  Job, 
 which  forms  twelve  quarto  or  two  large 
 folio  volumes.  The  subject  and  the  enor- 
 mous magnitude  of  it  have  afforded  to  the 
 wits  an  abundant  source  of  ludicrous 
 allusion. 
 
 CARYSFORT,  John  Joshua  PRO- 
 BY,  Earl  of,  the  son  of  the  first  baron  j 
 Carysfort,  was  born  in  August,  1761;  was 
 educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge;  obtained  an  Irish  earldom  in 
 1789,  and  an  English  peerage  in  1801 ; 
 held  various  state  employments,  among 
 which  were  those  of  envoy  to  Berlin,  and 
 ambassador  to  St.  Petersburgh ;  and  died 
 on  the  7th  of  April,  1828.     His  lordship 
 
 CAS 
 
 was  a  man  of  taste,  talent,  and  learning; 
 great  amenity  of  manners;  and  a  truly 
 benevolent  heart.  His  Poems  and  Dramas, 
 2  vols.  8vo.,  contain  many  fine  passages. 
 He  was  also  the  author  of  two  political 
 pamphlets. 
 
 CASA,  John  della,  an  eminent  ora- 
 tor, poet,  and  prelate,  was  born  at  Mugello, 
 near  Florence,  in  1503,  and  is  believed  to 
 have  studied  at  Bologna  and  Padua.  Being 
 patronised  by  the  Cardinals  Farnese,  one 
 of  whom  became  Pope  Paul  I'll.,  he  filled 
 various  important  offices,  and  was  made 
 archbishop  of  Benevento.  He  died  in 
 1556.  His  best  works  are,  his  Galateo, 
 or  Art  of  Living  in  the  World;  and  his 
 Lyrical  Poems. 
 
 CASAS,  Bartholomew  de  las,  a 
 Spanish  prelate,  of  a  noble  family,  was 
 born  at  Seville,  in  1474,  and,  at  the  age  of 
 nineteen,  visited  the  new  world  with  his 
 father.  On  his  return  to  Spain  he  em- 
 braced the  ecclesiastical  profession,  that 
 he  might  act  as  a  missionary  in  the  western 
 hemisphere.  Having  settled  in  St.  Domin- 
 go, "  lie  spent  his  days  there  in  preaching 
 the  gospel  to  the  Indians,  and  humanity 
 to  their  oppressors."  In  truth,  his  whole 
 existence,  for  half  a  century,  was  devoted 
 to  struggling  with  the  Spanish  tyrants,  and 
 consoling  the  persecuted  natives.  Twelve 
 times  he  crossed  the  ocean,  to  plead  at  the 
 foot  of  the  Spanish  throne  the  cause  of  the 
 wretched  Indians.  Las  Casas  was  bishop 
 of  Chiapa,  but  he  resigned  his  see  in 
 3551,  and  returned  to  his  native  country, 
 where  he  died,  at  Madrid,  in  1566.  It 
 has  been  asserted  that  he  gave  rise  to  the 
 horrible  traffic  in  African  slaves,  in  order 
 to  save  the  American  Indians  from  slavery  ; 
 but  this  calumny  is  refuted  by  Gregoire, 
 and  by  passages  in  his  own  writings.  Of 
 his  works,  which  form  five  quarto  parts, 
 the  most  celebrated  is  his  Short  Narrative 
 of  the  Destruction  of  the  Indies. 
 
 CASAUBON,  Isaac,  a  celebrated  critic 
 and  calvinist  theologian,  was  born  at  Ge- 
 neva, in  1559,  and  made  an  early  and 
 extraordinary  progress  in  his  classical 
 studies.  After  having  held  the  chair  of 
 (J  reck  professor  at  Geneva  for  fourteen 
 years,  he  removed  to  Montpellier,  and 
 thence  to  Paris,  where  Henry  IV.  appointed 
 him  royal  librarian.  On  the  death  of 
 llenrv,  Casaubon  settled  in  England,  where 
 .1  ames  I.  made  him  a  prebend  of  West- 
 minster and  Canterbury,  and  gave  him  a 
 pension,  lie  died  in  1614,  and  was  buried 
 in  Westminster  Abbey.  His  liberality  of 
 feeling  induced  many  to  accuse  him  wrong- 
 fully of  leaning  towards  popery.  lie  pub- 
 lished editions  of  Strabo,  Polyaenus,  Aris- 
 totle, Theophrastus,  PolybiuS,  and  several 
 other  ancient  authors;  and  produced  some 
 original  works,  among  which  are  nearly 
 one  thousand  two  hundred  letters. 
 
CAS 
 
 CASAUBON,  Meric,  the  son  of  Isaac, 
 was  born  at  Geneva,  in  1599;  he  studied 
 at  Sedan,  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford; 
 obtained  a  prebend  of  Canterbury,  and 
 two  livings,  from  which  he  was  ejected 
 during  the  civil  war ;  refused  a  liberal  gift, 
 offered  by  Cromwell;  was  restored  to  his 
 livings  on  the  return  of  Charles  II.;  and 
 died  in  1671.  Meric  was  a  man  of  piety 
 and  erudition.  He  produced  several  works, 
 the  best  of  which  is,  a  Treatise  on  En- 
 thusiasm. 
 
 CASLON,  William,  a  celebrated  type 
 founder,  was  born,  in  1692,  at  Hales  Owen, 
 in  Shropshire,  and  served  his  apprentice- 
 chip  to  an  engraver  of  ornaments  on  gun 
 barrels.  He  also  made  tools  for  book- 
 binders; and  Bovvyer,  the  printer,  was  so 
 much  pleased  with  the  elegance  of  his  tools 
 for  lettering,  that  he,  and  two  other  prin- 
 ters, encouraged  him  to  attempt  type  foun- 
 ding. Caslon  succeeded  so  admirably  in 
 this  art,  that  his  types  became  famous  all 
 over  Europe,  and  he  acquired  a  handsome 
 fortune.  He  died  in  1766.  The  business 
 is  still  carried  on  by  his  descendants. 
 
 CASSAS,  Louis  Francis,  a  French 
 painter  and  architect,  born  in  1756,  at 
 Azay  le  Feron,  a  pupil  of  Vien  and  the 
 younger  Lagrenee,  was  inspector  general 
 and  professor  of  drawing  at  the  Gobelin 
 manufactory.  He  explored  Istria,  Dal- 
 matia,  Syria,  and  Palestine ;  and  published 
 the  result  of  his  observations  in  two  splen- 
 did works,  folio,  with  numerous  plates, 
 under  the  titles  of  Picturesque  Travels  in 
 Istria  and  Dalmatia,  and  Picturesque  Tra- 
 vels in  Phenicia  and  Palestine.  He  died 
 in  1S27 
 
 CASSERIO,  or  CASSERIUS,  Julius, 
 an  eminent  anatomist,  was  born,  in  1545, 
 of  humble  parents,  at  Placentia,  in  Italy. 
 From  being  servant  to  Fabricius,  he  be- 
 came his  pupil  and  assistant,  and  eventu- 
 ally, in  1609,  his  coadjutor.  He  died  in 
 1616.  Casserio  made  the  most  generous 
 exertions  to  advance  the  science  of  anat- 
 omy. Almost  all  that  he  gained  by- 
 teaching,  he  expended  in  purchasing  sub- 
 jects for  dissection,  and  in  paying  artists 
 and  engravers  to  make  and  engrave  de- 
 signs. He  is  the  author  of  De  Vocis 
 Auditusque  Organis ;  and  of  other  valuable 
 works. 
 
 CASSINI,  John  Dominic,  a  native  of 
 Nice,  was  born  in  1625.  His  attention 
 was  first  turned  to  the  study  of  the  heavenly 
 bodies  by  the  chance  perusal  of  a  work  on 
 astrology,  and  he  soon  became  so  consum- 
 mate an  astronomer  that,  at  the  age  of 
 twenty-five,  he  was  chosen  to  fill  the  astro- 
 nomical chair  in  the  university  of  Bologna. 
 He  held  this  office  for  many  years,  and, 
 while  at  Bologna,  traced  a  new  meridian 
 line,  in  the  church  of  St.  Petronius.  The 
 pope  also  employed  him   as   inspector  of 
 
 CAS 
 
 159 
 
 the  fortifications  of  fort  Urbino,  and  the 
 senate  of  Bologna  placed  under  his  super - 
 intendance  the  navigation  of  the  Po.  In 
 1669  Colbert  invited  him  to  France,  where 
 he  intended  to  remain  only  six  years,  but 
 he  was  ultimately  prevailed  upon  to  take 
 up  his  permanent  residence  there.  lie  died 
 in  1712,  having  been  blind  for  some  years. 
 Cassini  stands  high  as  an  astronomer. 
 Among  other  things,  he  solved  a  problem 
 by  which  Kepler  had  been  foiled ;  ascer- 
 tained the  true  nature  of  comets ;  continued 
 the  French  meridian  line ;  made  valuable 
 observations  on  the  sun,  Mars,  Venus,  and 
 Jupiter;  and  discovered  the  zodiacal  light 
 and  four  of  the  satellites  of  Saturn. 
 
 CASSINI,  James,  born  at  Paris,  in 
 1667,  succeeded  his  father  as  royal  astron- 
 omer, and  proved  himself  the  worthy  heir 
 of  his  parent's  situation  and  abilities.  He 
 made  various  important  discoveries,  and 
 proceeded  with  the  meridian  line  which  his 
 father  had  continued.  He  died  in  1756. 
 In  his  work  On  the  Magnitude  and  Figure 
 of  the  Earth,  he  erroneously  maintained,  in 
 opposition  to  Newton,  that  the  form  of  the 
 globe  is  an  oblate  spheroid.  This  gave 
 rise  to  the  scientific  expeditions  for  mea- 
 suring a  degree  in  the  polar  circle  and  at 
 the  equator.  Among  his  other  productions 
 is,  Elements  of  Astronomy. 
 
 CASSINI  DE  THURY ,  Cjesar  Fran- 
 cis, a  son  of  James,  was  born,  in  1714,  at 
 Paris,  and  died,  of  small  pox,  in  1784.  He 
 was  director  of  the  French  Observatory, 
 and  a  member  of  various  scientific  societies. 
 In  talent  he  proved  himself  no  degenerate 
 scion  of  his  race.  Even  when  he  was  only 
 ten  years  old,  he  possessed  extensive  astro- 
 nomical knowledge.  His  great  labour  is 
 his  Map  of  France,  in  182  sheets,  which 
 has  served  as  a  model  for  all  subsequent 
 works  of  the  same  kind.  He  is  also  the 
 author  of  various  productions  on  astronom- 
 ical subjects,  or  connected  with  them. 
 
 CASSIODORUS,  Marcus  Aureli- 
 us,  a  statesman  and  historian  of  the  fifth 
 and  sixth  centuries,  was  born  at  Squillace, 
 in  Italy,  about  A.  u.  470,  was  minister  to 
 Theodoric,  king  of  the  Goths,  and  preto- 
 rian  prefect  under  three  subsequent  sove- 
 reigns. Some  years  before  his  death,  he 
 retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he  died 
 about  A.  D.  516.  Several  of  the  most 
 valuable  of  his  works  are  lost,  among 
 which  is  a  history  of  the  Goths.  Such  of 
 his  theological  and  other  works  as  have 
 escaped  the  ravages  of  time  form  two  folio 
 volumes 
 
 CASSIUS  LONGINUS,  Caius,  one 
 of  the  murderers  of  Caesar,  originally  dis- 
 tinguished himself  in  the  Parthian  war, 
 when  he  was  qurestor  to  Crassus.  In  the 
 struggle  between  Csrsar  and  Pompey,  he 
 espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter;  but  sub- 
 mitted to  Csesar  after  the   battle  of  Phar- 
 
160 
 
 CAS 
 
 aalia,  and  was  kindly  received.  He,  how- 
 ever, was  the  prime  mover  of  the  conspi- 
 racy in  which  Caesar  perished.  He  slew 
 himself  at  Philippi,  p..  c.  42,  in  consequence 
 of  believing  the  battle  to  be  irrecoverably 
 lost. 
 
 CASTALION,  Sebastian,  whose 
 family  name  was  Chateillon,  was  born  in 
 Dauphine,  in  1515.  In  1550  he  went  to 
 Geneva,  where,  through  the  friendship  of 
 Calvin,  he  obtained  the  professorship  of 
 languages  in  the  college.  Castalion,  how- 
 ever, was  of  a  tolerant  spirit,  and,  besides, 
 demurred  to  some  of  the  doctrines  of  his 
 friend.  The  ire  of  Calvin  was  roused  by 
 this,  and  he  not  only  procured  his  expul- 
 sion from  the  city,  but,  in  conjunction  with 
 Beza,  heaped  upon  him  the  most  calumni- 
 ous accusations.  Castalion  retired  to  Basil, 
 where  he  died  poor,  in  1563.  He  is  best 
 known  by  his  translations  of  the  Bible. 
 The  Latin  version  is  not  always  accurate, 
 and  violates  the  dignified  simplicity  of  the 
 original  by  an  affectation  of  fastidious 
 elegance.  The  French  version,  on  the 
 contrary,  has  the  opposite  defect  of  coarse- 
 ness ;  so  that  Henry  Stephens  described  it 
 as  being  composed  in  the  jargon  of  beggars. 
 CASTANHEUA,  Fernando  Lopez, 
 a  Portuguese  historian,  was  born  early  in 
 the  sixteenth  century;  went,  when  young, 
 to  India  with  his  father,  who  was  a  judge; 
 and,  on  his  return  to  Portugal,  devoted 
 the  remainder  of  his  life  to  composing  a 
 History  of  the  Discovery  and  Conquest  of 
 India  bv  the  Portuguese.  Though  prolix 
 and  faulty  in  style,  his  work  is  valuable 
 for  his  faithful  adherence  to  fact. 
 
 CASTEL,  Louis  BERTRAND,a  Jesuit, 
 eminent  as  a  mathematician  and  philoso- 
 pher, was  born  at  Montpellier,  in  1668, 
 and  settled  at  Paris,  in  1720,  where  he 
 published  several  scientific  works.  Of 
 these  the  principal  are,  A  Treatise  on 
 Universal  Gravity ;  and  another  on  Uni- 
 versal Mathematics.  Castel  was  the  in- 
 ventor of  an  instrument  called  the  Ocular 
 Harpsichord ;  intended  to  affect  the  eye 
 by  colours  in  the  same  manner  that  the  ear 
 is  affected  by  sounds.     He  died  in  1757. 
 
 CASTELL,  Edmund,  a  divine  and 
 lexicographer,  was  born  at  Hatley,  in 
 Cambridgeshire,  in  1606,  and  was  edu- 
 cated at  Emanuel  and  St.  John's  Colleges. 
 While  at  the  university,  he  compiled  his 
 Dictionary  of  Seven  Languages,  on  which 
 he  bestowed  the  labour  of  seventeen  vears. 
 The  publication  of  it  ruined  him.  He  was, 
 however,  rescued  from  poverty,  by  being 
 appointed  king's  chaplain  and  Arabic  pro- 
 fessor at  Cambridge,  to  which  was  after- 
 wards added  a  prebend  of  Canterbury  and 
 some  livings.  He  died  in  1685,  rector  of 
 Higham  Gobion,  in  Bedfordshire.  Dr. 
 Walton  was  assisted  by  him  in  the  Polyglot 
 Bible.  '  ^ 
 
 CAS 
 
 CASTI,  John  Baptist,  an  Italian  poet, 
 born  in  1721,  at  Montefiascone,  in  the 
 Papal  territory.  After  having  been  pro- 
 fessor of  Greek  and  Latin  at  his  native 
 place,  he  obtained  a  canonry  in  the  cathe- 
 dral of  Montefiascone.  Being  fond  of  trav- 
 elling, he  visited  several  foreign  countries. 
 At  the  death  of  Mctastasio,  Casti  was  ap- 
 pointed imperial  poet  laureat;  but  he  re- 
 signed this  office  on  the  decease  of  Joseph 
 II.  In  1798  he  settled  at  Paris,  and  he 
 died  there  in  February,  1803.  To  the 
 latest  period  of  life  he  retained  all  the  viva- 
 city of  youth.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous 
 Tales  and  minor  poems ;  a  Satire  upon  the 
 Russian  Court ;  and  three  burlesque  operas ; 
 but  his  great  work  is,  The  Speaking  Ani- 
 mals, a  satirical  poem  in  26  cantos ;  a  part 
 of  which  has  been  imitated  by  Mr.  Stewart 
 Rose.  Though  not  always  decorous,  his 
 poetry  is  full  of  wit,  gaietv,  and  elegauce. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE,  Balthasar,  an 
 Italian  statesman  and  writer,  was  born  of 
 a  noble  family,  in  1468,  at  Casatico,  near 
 Mantua.  In  early  youth  he  served  the 
 duke  of  Milan,  and  subsequently  was  em- 
 ployed on  important  embassies  by  the  duke 
 of  Urbino,  Leo  X.,  and  Clement  VII. 
 Charles  V.  nominated  him  bishop  of  Avila, 
 but  he  did  not  long  enjoy  this  dignity.  He 
 died  at  Toledo  in  1529.  Of  his  works, 
 The  Courtier,  which  the  Italians  call  "  the 
 golden  book,"  is  the  principal;  it  has 
 been  often  reprinted,  as  have  also  his 
 Poems. 
 
 CASTILLO,  Bernae  Diaz  del,  a 
 native  of  Medina  del  Campo,  born  towards 
 the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  one 
 of  the  adventurers  who  accompanied  Cor- 
 tes to  Mexico.  After  the  conquest,  he 
 settled  in  that  country,  where  he  died 
 about  1560.  His  History  of  the  Expedi- 
 tion of  Cortes  is  written  m  an  unpolished 
 style,  but  is  highly  interesting,  from  the 
 minute  and  vivid  pictures  which  it  pre- 
 sents of  the  difficulties  and  the  daring 
 spirit  of  the  Spanish  invaders.  It  has 
 been  translated  into  English   bv  Keating. 
 
 CASTILLO  Y  SAAVEDRA,  Antho- 
 ny, an  eminent  Spanish  painter,  the  son 
 of  a  painter,  was  born  at  Cordova,  in  1603; 
 in  the  cathedral  and  churches  of  which  are 
 many  of  his  best  pieces.  He  studied  under 
 his  father  and  Zurbaran.  The  cause  of  his 
 death  is  singular.  In  1666,  he  returned  to 
 Seville,  where  he  had  been  educated. 
 Some  pictures  by  Murillo  were  there  shown 
 him.  It  was  the  first  time  he  had  beheld 
 the  works  of  that  great  painter.  He  looked 
 at  them  with  astonishment:  at  length,  he 
 exclaimed,  with  a  sigh,  "  Castillo  is  no 
 more!"  He  died  of  grief  in  less  than  a 
 year.  It  was  not  envy  that  thus  consumed 
 bin — for  he  was  a  liberal  and  amiable 
 I  man — but  an  overpowering  feeling  of  hu- 
 Imiliation  at  his  inferiority,  and  of  regret 
 
CAT 
 
 that,  at  his  age,  he  could  not  hope  to  attain 
 perfection  in  his  art. 
 
 CASTRO,  John  dk,  a  celebrated  Por- 
 tuguese general,  was  born  at  Lisbon,  in 
 1500,  and  was  of  an  ancient  family.  After 
 having  attended  Charles  V.  in  the  expedi- 
 tion against  Tunis,  and  served  in  the  Red 
 Sea,  he  was  appointed  governor  of  India 
 in  1545,  and  was  subsequently  named  vice- 
 roy. He  died  at  Goa,  in  1548;  having, 
 in  the  course  of  his  three  years'  adminis- 
 tration, gained  immortal  honour  by  his 
 numerous  victories.  Castro  was  intrepid, 
 disinterested,  affable,  and  well  versed  in 
 languages  and  mathematics.  Such  was  his 
 contempt  of  riches,  that,  after  his  death, 
 onlv  three  rials  were  found  in  his  coffers! 
 
 CASTLEREAGH.  See  Londonder- 
 ry. 
 
 CASTRO,  Guilhen  de,  a  Spanish 
 poet,  a  contemporary  of  Lopez  de  Vega, 
 by  whom  he  is  highly  praised.  His  Dra- 
 matic Works  form  two  volumes  4to.  Among 
 them  is  a  tragi-comedy  on  the  subject  of 
 the  Cid;  from  which,  and  from  Diamante 's 
 play  on  the  same  theme,  Cornei lie  borrowed 
 manv  ideas. 
 
 CASTRUCCI-CASTRACANI,  a  na- 
 tive of  Lucca,  born  in  1281,  early  embraced 
 a  military  life;  served  in  England,  France, 
 and  various  parts  of  Italy;  and,  after 
 many  vicissitudes,  became  duke  of  Lucca. 
 He  held  his  dignity  for  fifteen  years,  de- 
 feated the  Florentines  and  Pisans  in  many 
 engagements,  and  displayed  great  military 
 abilities.  He  died  in  1328.  Castrucci 
 was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  leaders  of 
 the  Ghibelline  party. 
 
 CATESBY,  Mark,  an  English  natural- 
 ist, was  born  in  1680:  went  to  Virginia  in 
 1712;  and  remained  there  for  seven  years. 
 On  his  return,  he  was  encouraged,  bv  Sir 
 Hans  Sloane  and  others,  to  revisit  Ameri- 
 ca, for  the  purpose  of  describing  and  de- 
 lineating the  natural  productions  of  that 
 country.  The  result  was,  The  Natural 
 History  of  Carolina,  Florida,  and  the  Ba- 
 hama Islands,  2  volumes  folio,  the  numerous 
 plates  of  which  were  etched  by  himself. 
 The  Roval  Society  elected  him  a  fellow. 
 He  died  in  1749. 
 
 CATHELINEAU,  James,  a  French 
 royalist  chief,  almost  the  first  who  roused 
 the  Vendeans  to  insurrection,  was  born  in 
 1758,  and  was  a  weaver  at  Pin-en-Mauge, 
 in  the  department  of  the  Maine  and  Loire. 
 In  1793,  he  incited  the  young  men  of  the 
 canton  of  St.  Florent  to  resist  by  force  the 
 conscription;  gained  several  victories  over 
 the  republicans;  was  made  generalissimo 
 of  the  royalists;  but  was  at  last  mortally 
 wounded  in  attacking  Nantz,  and  died  on 
 the  10th  of  July.  Cathelineau  was  brave 
 and  disinterested,  and  had  such  a  reputa- 
 tion for  piety  that  he  was  called  the  Saint 
 of  Anjou. 
 
 CAT 
 
 101 
 
 CATHERINE  IT.   empress  of  Russia, 
 born  in  1729,  was  a  daughter  of  the  Prince 
 
 of  Anhalt  Zerbst,  and  was  originally  named 
 Sophia  Augusta,  but  changed  her  name  in 
 1745,  on  being  married  to  Peter,  the  grand 
 duke  of  Russia.  After  her  husband's  ac- 
 cession to  the  throne,  in  1761,  he  is  said 
 to  have  intended  to  divorce  her.  To  pre- 
 vent him  from  carrying  his  intentions  into 
 effect,  he  was  first  dethroned,  and  then 
 murdered.  Catherine  was  crowned  at 
 Moscow  in  1762.  In  1768  she  engaged  in 
 a  war  with  Turkey,  which  terminated  suc- 
 cessfully in  1774.  While  this  was  pro- 
 ceeding, she  concluded,  in  1772,  with  the 
 king  of  Prussia  and  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
 many, the  infamous  partition  treaty,  by 
 which  the  first  blow  was  given  to  the  exist- 
 ence of  Poland.  Still  pursuing  her  scheme 
 of  expelling  the  Turks  from  Europe,  and 
 reigning  at  Constantinople,  she,  in  1783, 
 seized  on  the  Crimea,  and  a  part  of  the 
 Kuban,  and  annexed  them  to  her  empire. 
 In  1787,  the  Porte  declared  war  against 
 her,  and  hostilities  were  continued  till  1792, 
 when  the  dread  of  a  coalition  against  her 
 compelled  her  to  consent  to  a  peace.  For 
 her  disappointment  on  the  side  of  Turkey, 
 however,  she  indemnified  herself  by  dis- 
 membering Poland,  in  the  years  1793  and 
 1795,  in  which  latter  year  that  unfortunate 
 kingdom  was  annihilated.  She  was  on  the 
 point  of  turning  her  arms  against  republi- 
 can France,  when  she  died,  of  apoplexy, 
 on  the  9th  of  November,  1796.  In  some 
 respects  the  character  of  Catherine  is  open 
 to  severe  censure ;  in  others  it  is  worthy 
 |  of  admiration.  Her  animal  passions  she 
 indulged  in  a  manner  which  may  be  called 
 shameless;  and  her  grasping  ambition  was 
 restrained  by  no  feelings  of  justice  or  com- 
 punction. But,  on  the  other  hand,  she  was 
 a  mild  and  beneficent  ruler  of  her  subjects. 
 She  herself  drew  up  a  code  of  laws ;  ame- 
 liorated the  various  branches  of  the  admin- 
 istration; introduced  many  valuable  im- 
 provements among  the  people ;  patronised 
 literature,  arts,  and  sciences;  and  encour- 
 aged education  and  the  diffusion  of  knowl- 
 edge. She  corresponded  with  learned  men 
 in  all  countries ;  and  enrolled  herself  in  the 
 
162 
 
 CAT 
 
 list  of  authors,  by  producing  several  Dra- 
 matic Pieces,  Tales,  and  other  works. 
 
 CATILINE,  Lucius  Sergius,  a  Ro- 
 man noble,  descended  from  one  of  the  first 
 patrician  families,  was  of  the  party  of 
 Sylla,  and  through  his  influence  obtained 
 some  high  offices.  Endowed  with  eminent 
 talents,  he  was  also  eminently  vicious  and 
 profligate.  In  conjunction  with  others  of 
 his  own  stamp,  he  formed  a  conspiracy  to 
 destroy  the  consuls  and  senators,  and  as- 
 sume the  government;  but  it  was  frustrated 
 by  the  vigilance  of  Cicero.  Catiline  then 
 broke  out  into  open  rebellion,  and  was  at 
 length  slain,  fighting  with  desperate  bra- 
 very, in  a  battle  in  Tuscany,  B.  c.  62. 
 
 CATINAT,  .Nicholas,"  one  of  the  most 
 celebrated  of  the  French  generals,  was  born 
 at  Paris,  in  1637.  He  was  brought  up  to 
 the  bar,  but  relinquished  the  gown,  in  con- 
 sequence of  his  losing  a  just  cause.  En- 
 tering the  army,  he  distinguished  himself 
 on  innumerable  occasions,  and  was  raised 
 to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  general  in  1688. 
 The  victories  of  StafTarda  and  Marsaglia 
 OTer  the  duke  of  Savoy  gained  for  him 
 the  dignity  of  marshal;  and  that  well 
 earned  dignity  excited  the  envy  and  hatred 
 of  many  of  his  unworthy  rivals.  In  1701, 
 from  causes  over  which  he  had  no  control, 
 he  was  unsuccessful  against  Prince  Eugene 
 in  Italy.  He  died  in  1712.  Catinat  was 
 as  remarkable  for  his  virtues  as  for  his 
 military  talents.  He  was  disinterested, 
 modest,  sincere,  and  pious. 
 
 CATO,  Marcus  Portius,  called  the 
 Oensor,  was  a  native  of  Tusculum,  born 
 B.  c.  232.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
 served  in  the  army,  and  displayed  great 
 valour.  Through  the  influence  of  Valerius 
 Flaccus,  he  was  made  a  military  tribune  in 
 Sicily,  and  he  successively  filled  the  stations 
 of  quaestor  under  Scipio,  aedile,  and  praetor 
 in  Sardinia.  He  was  elected  one  of  the 
 consuls  E.  c.  195;  and  ten  years  subse- 
 quently he  was  chosen  censor.  The  latter 
 office  he  exercised  with  unsparing  severity. 
 He  died  b.  c.  147.  Carthage  was  the  ob- 
 ject of  his  bitter  hatred,  and  all  his  speech- 
 es were  closed  with  "  Carthage  must  be 
 destroyed."  Scipio  was  scarcely  less  an 
 object  of  his  hatred.  Cato  has  been  praised 
 at  least  as  much  as  he  deserves.  He  had, 
 undoubtedly,  great  qualities  and  talents; 
 but  he  was  vainglorious,  by  no  means  free 
 from  absurd  prejudices,  sometimes  incon- 
 sistent, and  not  quite  so  immaculate  in  his 
 own  conduct  as  a  man  ought  to  have  been 
 who  was  so  rigid  a  judge  of  the  conduct  of 
 others.  Of  his  works,  only  a  Treatise  on 
 Husbandry  is  extant. 
 
 CATO,  Marcus  Portius,  known  as 
 Cato  of  Utica,  was  the  great-grandson  of 
 the  Censor,  and  was  born  B.C.  95.  At  the 
 early  age  of  fourteen,  he  manifested  his 
 hatred  of  tyrants,  by  desiring  his  tutor  to 
 
 CAU 
 
 give  him  a  sword,  that  he  might  slay 
 Sylla,  and  deliver  his  country  from  op- 
 pression. From  Antipater  of  Tyre  he  im- 
 bibed the  stoical  philosophy.  He  served 
 with  distinction  against  Spartacus;  was 
 tribune  in  Macedonia;  filled  the  office  of 
 quaestor  with  general  applause;  and  was 
 afterwards  tribune  and  praetor.  He  vigor- 
 ously seconded  Cicero,  in  defeating  the 
 conspiracy  of  Catiline.  In  the  civil  war, 
 he  gave  his  support  to  Poinpey ;  and,  after 
 the  death  of  that  general,  he  fortified  him- 
 self in  Utica.  Hopeless,  however,  of  re- 
 sistance, he  stabbed  himself  on  the  approach 
 of  Caesar,  B.  c.  46.  Before  he  struck  the 
 fatal  blow,  which  deprived  liberty  of  one 
 of  its  most  ardent  friends,  he  is  said  to 
 have  twice  read  Plato's  Treatise  on  the 
 Immortality  of  the  Soul. 
 
 CATROU,  Fra.vcis,  a  Jesuit,  critic, 
 and  historian,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  1659, 
 and  died  in  1737.  He  contributed  largely 
 to  the  Trevoux  Journal ;  translated  Virgil ; 
 and  wrote  a  History  of  the  Mogul  Empire, 
 and  a  History  of  the  Fanaticism  of  the 
 Protestant  Religions.  But  his  great  work, 
 which  was  translated  into  English  by 
 Bundy,  is  a  History  of  Rome,  20  volumes 
 quarto,  with  annotations  by  Rouille. 
 
 CATS,  James, a  Dutch  poet  and  states- 
 man of  a  distinguished  family,  was  born, 
 in  1577.  at  Brouwershaven,  in  Zealand. 
 After  having  acquired  great  reputation  as 
 an  advocate,  he  held  various  eminent  offi- 
 ces. He  was  twice  sent  ambassador  to 
 England,  and,  for  fifteen  years,  filled  the 
 high  station  of  Pensionary  of  Holland. 
 His  last  years  were  spent  in  the  retirement 
 which  he  loved.  He  died  in  1660.  Cats 
 holds  a  considerable  rank  among  the  poets 
 of  his  country,  and  has  been  called  the  La 
 Fontaine  of  Holland. 
 
 CATULLUS,  Caius  Valerius,  a 
 Latin  poet,  was  born  at  Verona,  or,  accord- 
 ing to  others,  at  Sirmium,  B.  c.  86;  was 
 of  a  family  distinguished  for  rank  and  for- 
 tune; and  was  intimate  with  the  most 
 eminent  of  his  contemporaries.  He  is  said 
 to  have  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty ; 
 though  some  affirm  that  he  lived  ten  or  fif- 
 teen years  longer.  His  verses  breathe  the 
 verv  soul  of  poetry ;  and  would  be  nearly 
 faultless,  were  they  not  often  stained  by 
 gross  indecencv. 
 
 CAULAINCOURT,  Arnand  Augus- 
 tin  Louis  de,  duke  of  Vicenza,  was  of 
 an  ancient  family,  and  was  born  at  Caulain- 
 court,  in  Picardy,  in  1773.  At  the  age  of 
 fifteen  he  entered  the  army,  and  served  for 
 several  campaigns.  He  was  aid-de-camp 
 to  the  first  consul,  who,  when  he  became 
 emperor,  made  him  grand  equerry,  a  supe- 
 rior officer  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and 
 duke  of  Vicenza.  Caulaincourt  followed 
 Napoleon  in  nearly  all  his  campaigns;  but 
 was,  nevertheless,  better  known  an  a  diplo* 
 
CAV 
 
 matist  than  as  a  warrior.  After  having 
 been  intrusted  with  minor  missions,  he 
 resided  for  four  years  as  ambassador  at 
 St.  Petersburgh.  He  was  subsequently 
 employed  as  a  negotiator  at  Pleswitz, 
 Prague,  Frankfort,  and  Chatillon,  and  in 
 the  treaty  which  led  to  the  abdication  of 
 the  emperor;  and  he  was  minister  for  the 
 home  department  during  Napoleon's  second 
 reign.  The  accusation  that  he  participa- 
 ted in  the  seizure  of  the  duke  of  Enghein 
 appears  to  be  groundless.  He  died  at  Paris, 
 in  1828. 
 
 CAUSSIN,  Nicholas,  a  Jesuit,  born 
 at  Troves,  in  1583,  was  for  a  while  confes- 
 sor to  Louis  XIII.;  but  was  displaced  in 
 consequence  of  having  intrigued  against 
 Cardinal  Richelieu.  He  died  at  Paris  in 
 1651.  A  number  of  devotional  works  were 
 written  by  him,  of  which  the  principal  is 
 The  Holy  Court.  It  has  been  translated 
 into  several  languages.  Its  popularity  in- 
 duced the  wits  to  say,  that  Caussin  had 
 managed  matters  better  at  The  Holy  Court 
 than  at  the  French  court. 
 
 CAVALCANTI,  Guy,  a  Florentine 
 poet  and  philosopher,  the  friend  of  Dante, 
 was  an  active  Gbibelline,  and  was,  in  con- 
 sequence, banished  by  the  Guelfs;  but  was 
 permitted  to  return  to  Florence,  where  he 
 died  in  1300.  Cavalcanti  was  one  of  the 
 first  Italian  poets  who  paid  attention  to 
 elegance  of  style.  His  Canzone  on  the 
 nature  of  love  is  one  of  the  best  of  his 
 productions. 
 
 CAVALIER,  John,  the  son  of  a  French 
 peasant,  and  himself  originally  only  a  jour- 
 neyman baker,  was  born  in  a  village  of  the 
 Cevennes,  in  1679,  and  acquired  lasting 
 fame  as  the  leader  of  the  Camisards,  or 
 protestants  of  Languedoc,  when  an  attempt 
 was  made  to  exterminate  them  by  Louis 
 XIV.  By  his  courage  and  talents,  Cava- 
 lier foiled  all  the  efforts  of  Marshal  Mon- 
 trevel;  and  the  successor  of  Montrevel, 
 Marshal  Villars,  deemed  it  more  eligible 
 to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  Calvinist 
 chief  than  to  continue  the  contest.  Cava- 
 lier entered  "into  the  English  service  ; 
 commanded  a  French  refugee  corps,  at  the 
 battle  of  Almanza ;  was  appointed  gover- 
 nor of  Jersev;  and  died,  at  Chelsea,  in 
 1740. 
 
 CAVALIERI, Bon aventure,  an  Ital- 
 ian friar,  eminent  as  a  mathematician,  was 
 born  at  Milan,  in  1598;  was  a  pupil  of 
 Galileo;  and  became  professor  of  mathe- 
 matics at  Bologna;  where  he  died  in  1647. 
 He  was  the  inventor  of  the  Geometry  of 
 Indivisibles,  which  approaches  nearly  to 
 the  Infinitesimal  Calculus.  He  wrote  a 
 work  on  this  subject,  and  others  on  Conic 
 Sections  and  Trigonometry. 
 
 CAVALLO,  Tiberius",  a  native  of  Na- 
 ples, the  son  of  a  physician,  was  born  in 
 1749,  and  came  over  "to  England,  in  1771, 
 
 CAV 
 
 163 
 
 to  be  initiated  in  commerce.  Science, 
 however,  had  more  charms  for  him;  and 
 to  that  he  wholly  and  successfully  devoted 
 himself.  The  Royal  Society  admitted  him 
 one  of  its  members,  and  he  contributed 
 largely  to  its  Transactions.  He  is  the 
 author  of  various  Treatises  on  Electricity, 
 Magnetism,  Gases,  and  Aerostation. 
 
 CAVANILLES,  Anthony  JosF.PH,a 
 Spanish  botanist,  was  born,  at  Valencia, 
 in  1743;  took  orders;  and  was  appointed 
 preceptor  to  the  duke  of  Infantado's  chil- 
 dren, whom  he  accompanied  into  France. 
 He  resided  at  Paris  twelve  years,  and  was 
 an  intimate  friend  of  Bernard  de  Jussieu. 
 He  died,  hi  1801,  at  Madrid,  where  he  was 
 director  of  the  royal  garden.  Of  his  works 
 the  principal  are,  a  Description  of  Nathe 
 and  Foreign  Plants,  six  volumes  folio,  with 
 601  plates,  designed  and  engraved  by  him 
 self;  and  Observations  on  the  Natural  His 
 tory,  Agriculture,  &c.  of  Valencia,  two 
 volumes  folio. 
 
 CAVE,  William,  a  divine  and  ecclesi- 
 astical historian,  the  son  of  a  clergyman, 
 was  born  at  Pickwell,  in  Leicestershire,  in 
 1637;  was  educated  at  St.  John's  College, 
 Cambridge;  and  died  in  1713,  canon  of 
 Windsor,  and  vicar  of  Isleworth.  His  prin- 
 cipal works  are,  Scriptorum  Ecclesiastico- 
 rum,  two  volumes  folio;  Primitive  Christi- 
 anity ;  Antiquitates  Apostolici ;  Apostolici ; 
 and  Ecclesiastici.  Dr.  Cave  paid  such  a 
 blind  deference  to  the  authority  of  the  early 
 Christian  fathers  and  writers,  that  Jortin 
 denominates  him  "  the  whitewasher  of  the 
 ancients." 
 
 CAVE,  Edward,  a  native  of  War- 
 wickshire, was  born  at  Newton,  in  1691, 
 and  educated  at  Rugby  Schoo\.  After  hav- 
 ing been  a  clerk  to  a  collector  of  the  excise, 
 he  learned  the  trade  of  a  printer,  and  oc- 
 casionally wrote  for  the  newspapers.  He 
 obtainedthe  situation  of  clerk  of  the  franks 
 to  the  post  office,  but  was  dismissed  in  con  • 
 sequence  of  his  having  too  rigidly  performed 
 his  duty.  In  1731,  he  established  the  Gen- 
 tleman's Magazine,  the  parent  of  modern 
 periodicals,  and  had  the  happiness  to  suc- 
 ceed to  the  fullest  extent  of  his  wishes.  He 
 died  in  1754. 
 
 CAVEDONE,  James,  an  Italian  paint- 
 er, was  born  at  Sassuolo,  near  Modena,  in 
 1577,  and  died  in  1660.  The  Caracci  and 
 Guido  were  his  masters.  In  fresco  he  par- 
 ticularly excelled.  In  his  latter  days,  a 
 fall  from  a  scaffold,  grief  for  the  loss  of  a 
 beloved  and  talented  son,  and  other  cir- 
 cumstances, almost  extinguished  his  intel- 
 lectual and  pictorial  pow  ers :  the  unfortu- 
 nate artist  became  a  beggar,  and  at  length 
 breathed  his  last  in  a  stable. 
 
 CAVENDISH,  Sir  William,  a  native 
 of  Suffolk,  was  born  about  1505,  and  be- 
 came usher  to  Cardinal  Wolsey,  to  whom, 
 unlike  some  dependents,  he  remained  at- 
 
164 
 
 CAX 
 
 tached  after  his  fall.  Henry  VIII.  knighted 
 him,  made  him  a  privy  counsellor,  and 
 conferred  various  offices  upon  him.  He 
 was  also  in  favour  with  Edward  VI.  and 
 Mary.  He  died  in  1557.  Cavendish  wrote 
 a  Life  of  Cardinal  Wokey.  One  of  his  s^ns 
 was  the  first  earl  of  Devonshire. 
 
 CAVENDISH,  Thomas,  an  English 
 navigator,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  was 
 a  native  of  Suffolk,  and  inherited  an  estate 
 at  Trimley  St.  Martin,  which  he  injured  t>\ 
 living  at  court.  To  retrieve  his  fortune,  he 
 fitted  out  three  ships,  in  July,  1586,  with 
 which  he  laid  under  contribution  the  west- 
 ern coast  of  America,  and  took  a  rich 
 Spanish  vessel.  In  September,  15S8,  he 
 returned  to  England,  having  effected  a 
 shorter  circumnavigation  of  the  globe  than 
 any  previous  adventurer.  In  a  second  voy- 
 age he  was  unsuccessful :  he  was  baffled  by 
 tempests,  sickness,  and  other  circumstan- 
 ces, and  died,  in  1591,  on  the  coast  of 
 Brazil. 
 
 CAVENDISH,  Henry,  the  third  son 
 of  Lord  Charles  Cavendish,  was  born  at 
 Nice,  October  10,  1731,  and  educated  at 
 Cambridge,  where  he  entered  deeply  into 
 the  study  of  chemistry  and  natural  philoso- 
 phy. His  whole  life,  after  he  quitted  col- 
 lege, was  devoted  to  scientific  inquiries, 
 and  his  success  was  commensurate  to  his 
 assiduity.  In  his  temper  he  was  more  than 
 commonly  reserved,  and  he  took  no  part 
 whatever  in  public  affairs.  He  died  Feb. 
 14,  1810;  leaving  the  immense  fortune  of 
 £1,200,000.  Cavendish,  among  other 
 things,  explained  the  theory  of  animal  elec- 
 tricity; ascertained  the  levity  of  hydrogen 
 gas ;  discovered  the  composition  of  water, 
 and  of  nitrou%  acid;  improved  the  eudiom- 
 eter; and  invented  an  apparatus  for  deter- 
 mining the  density  of  the  earth. 
 
 CAVENDISH.  See  Devonshire 
 and  Newcastle. 
 
 CAWTHORN,  James,  a  poet,  was 
 born  at  Sheffield,  in  1719;  was  educated 
 at  Cambridge;  took  orders;  and  became 
 master  of  Tunbridge  School.  He  died,  by 
 a  fall  from  his  horse,  in  1761.  His  Po- 
 ems, which  have  been  admitted  into  the 
 collection  of  British  Poets,  are  above  me- 
 diocrity. 
 
 CAXTON,  William,  a  man  worthy  to 
 be  held  in  immortal  memory,  as  the  first 
 who  gave  to  England  the  means  for  the 
 diffusion  of  knowledge,  was  born  in  the 
 weald  of  Kent,  about  1410.  Having  been 
 brought  up  a  mercer,  he  was  employed  by 
 the  Mercers'  Company  as  their  agent  in  the 
 Netherlands;  a  situation  which  he  filled 
 during  twenty-three  years.  He  also  nego- 
 tiated a  commercial  treaty  between  Ed- 
 ward IV.  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  and 
 was  subsequently  in  the  service  of  Lady 
 Margaret,  the  duke's  wife.  He  had  learned 
 the  art  of  printing,  and,  at  the  request  of 
 
 CEB 
 
 the  duchess,  he  translated  The  Recuvell  of 
 the  Histones  of  Troye,  from  the  French, 
 and  printed  it,  in  1471,  at  Cologne.  Thia 
 is  the  earliest  typographical  production  in 
 English,  and  is  now  so  scarce  that,  at  the 
 Roxburgh  sale,  a  copy  of  it  sold  for  £1060. 
 He  returned  to  England,  but  in  what  vear 
 is  uncertain.  It  must,  however,  have  been 
 previous  to  1474,  as  he  then  had  a  press  in 
 Westminster  Abbey.  The  first  book  exe- 
 cuted in  this  country,  was  the  Game  and 
 Playe  of  the  Chesse.  Caxton  continued 
 his  labours  for  nearly  twenty  years,  and  is 
 supposed  to  have  died  about  1492. 
 
 CAYLUS,  Anne  Claude  Philip, 
 Count  de,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1720,  and 
 served  with  distinction  in  Catalonia  and 
 Germany,  after  which  he  travelled  through 
 Turkey,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor,  and, 
 lastly,  in  Germany,  Holland,  and  England 
 The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  the 
 study  of  antiquities,  and  in  the  cultivation 
 of  literature  and  the  arts.  His  talents 
 gained  admission  for  him  into  numerous 
 learned  bodies.  He  died,  at  Paris,  in 
 1765.  He  rediscovered  the  ancient  art  of 
 encaustic  painting,  and  published  several 
 works,  of  which  the  principal  are,  A  Col- 
 lection of  Egyptian,  Greek,  Roman,  and 
 Gaulish  Antiquities,  seven  volumes  4to; 
 and  twelve  volumes  of  his  Romances  and 
 miscellaneous  pieces. 
 
 CAZALES,  James  Anthony  Maria 
 de,  one  of  the  most  eloquent  of  modern 
 French  orators,  was  born,  in  1752,  at  Gre- 
 nade sur  la  Garonne ;  and  served  for  some 
 time  as  a  captain  of  cavalry.  In  the  States 
 Gei.eral,  and  in  the  National  Assembly,  he 
 was  one  of  the  most  active  and  most  highly 
 gifted  of  the  defenders  of  the  monarchy. 
 The  talent  of  extempore  speaking  he  pos- 
 sessed in  an  extraordinary  degree ;  and  in 
 eloquence  he  was  the  rival  of  Mirabeau. 
 After  having  twice  emigrated,  and  fought 
 in  the  campaign  of  1792,  he  returned  to 
 France  in  1801,  and  died  in  1805.  In 
 private  life  he  was  one  of  the  most  hon- 
 ourable and  amiable  of  men.  By  Burke 
 he  was  held  in  high  estimation. 
 
 CAZOTTE,  James,  a  French  literary 
 character,  was  born,  in  1720,  at  Dijon; 
 was  appointed  a  naval  commissioner  in 
 1747;  and  retired  in  1760.  The  hours  of 
 his  leisure  were  devoted  to  literature  and 
 society,  and  he  was  much  admired  for  his 
 wit,  gaiety,  and  conversational  powers. 
 During  the  horrible  massacres  of  Septem- 
 ber, 1792,  at  the  abbey  prison,  he  was 
 saved  by  the  heroism  of  his  daughter;  but 
 he  was  guillotined  soon  after.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Olivier,  a  poem  in  twelve  cantos, 
 and  of  several  volumes  of  tales  and  miscel- 
 laneous pieces,  of  considerable  merit. 
 
 CEBES,  a  philosopher  of  the  fourth 
 century,  B.C.,  was  a  native  of  Thebes,  and 
 a  disciple  of  Socrates,  at  whose  last  mo- 
 
CEL 
 
 ments  he  was  present.  Of  his  works,  only 
 that  known  by  the  name  of  the  Picture  of 
 Human  Life  has  descended  to  posterity. 
 It  is  a  production  which  does  honour  to  its 
 author.  Some  have  doubted  the  claim  of 
 Cebes  to  it ;  but  their  doubts  appear  to  be 
 unfounded. 
 
 CECIL,  William.     See  Salisbury. 
 
 CELLARIUS,  Christopher,  an  eru- 
 dite writer,  born,  in  1638,  at  Smalcalde,  in 
 Franconia,  was  chosen,  in  1668,  professor 
 of  ethics  and  oriental  languages  at  Weis- 
 senfels;  and  died,  in  1707,  professor  of 
 rhetoric  and  history  at  Halle.  He  publish- 
 ed editions  of  several  classics ;  and  various 
 works  on  history,  and  the  Latin,  Hebrew, 
 and  Syriac  languages.  The  production, 
 however,  by  which  he  is  remembered,  is 
 an  Ancient  Geography,  in  two  quarto  vol- 
 umes, with  maps,  which  has  been  more 
 than  once  reprinted. 
 
 CELLINI,  Benvenuto,  a  celebrated 
 sculptor,  engraver,  and  goldsmith,  was  born 
 at  Florence  in  1500,  and  was  apprenticed 
 to  a  goldsmith.  He  was  employed  by  Pope 
 Clement  VII.,  the  grand  duke  of  Florence, 
 and  Francis  I.  the  French  monarch;  and 
 executed  many  admirable  works.  He  djed 
 in  1570,  in  his  native  city.  Cellini  was  a 
 man  of  high  talent  and  acquirements;  but 
 vain,  singular  in  manner,  irascible,  and 
 quarrelsome.  He  wrote  two  Treatises  on 
 the  arts  in  which  he  excelled.  His  most 
 valuable  literary  production,  however,  is  a 
 Biography  of  himself.  If  Cellini  may  be 
 credited,  he  fired  the  shot  by  which  the 
 constable  de  Bourbon  was  slain. 
 
 CELSIUS,  Olaus,  a  Swedish  orien- 
 talist and  naturalist,  was  born  in  1670,  and 
 died  in  1756.  He  was  the  founder  of  natu- 
 ral history  in  Sweden,  and  has  the  merit 
 of  having  extended  the  most  liberal  patron- 
 age to  Limicrus,  when  that  distinguished 
 character  was  young  and  poor.  Celsius 
 twice  refused  the  archbishopric  of  Upsal. 
 Besides  various  theological  and  antiquarian 
 dissertations,  he  published,  with  the  title 
 of  Hierobotanicon,  a  learned  work  on  the 
 plants  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
 
 CELSUS,  Aurelius  Cornelius,  a 
 celebrated  Roman  physician  of  the  Corneli- 
 an family,  who  lived  under  the  reigns  of  Au- 
 gustus, Tiberius,  and  Caligula,  was  born 
 either  at  Rome  or  Verona.  He  wrote  va- 
 rious works,  but  his  Treatise  on  Medicine, 
 in  eight  books,  of  which  the  style  is  ex- 
 tremely elegant,  is  his  chief  production. 
 Celsus  has  been  denominated  the  Roman 
 Hippocrates. 
 
 CELSUS,  an  Epicurean  philosopher  of 
 the  second  century,  is  famous  for  having 
 been  one  of  the  most  inveterate  and  acute 
 assailants  of  the  Christian  religion.  His 
 woik,  called  A  True  Discourse,  is  lost; 
 but  some  fragments  which  remain  bear 
 wituess  to  the  talent  it  displayed.     It  was 
 
 CER 
 
 165 
 
 answered  by  Origen.  Celsus  was  a  friend 
 of  Lucian,  who  dedicated  to  him  his  Pseu- 
 domantis. 
 
 CENSORINUS,  a  critic  and  gramma- 
 rian, who  lived  in  the  third  century,  is  the 
 author  of  a  work,  written  about  A.  D.  238, 
 to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  De  Die 
 Natalio,  in  consequence  of  his  having  com- 
 posed it  on  occasion  of  the  birthday  of  a 
 friend.  It  treats  on  the  natural  history  of 
 man,  religious  rites,  music,  astronomy,  and 
 various  other  matters ;  and  has  been  of 
 great  use  in  enabling  chronologers  to  fix 
 the  date  cf  remarkable  events. 
 
 CENTLIVRE,  Susanna,  a  dramatic 
 writer,  was  born  about  1667,  in  Ireland, 
 where  her  father,  Mr.  Freeman,  a  Lincoln- 
 shire gentleman,  and  a  partisan  of  the 
 Commonwealth,  had  deemed  it  prudent  to 
 settle,  on  the  restoration  of  Charles  II. 
 At  the  age  of  twelve  years,  she  was  left  an 
 orphan,  by  the  death  of  her  mother.  Un- 
 kind treatment  from  those  who  had  the 
 care  of  her  induced  her  to  adopt  the  wild 
 resolution  of  proceeding  to  London.  While 
 travelling  hither  on  foot,  she  is  said  to 
 have  met  with  Anthony  Hammond,  father 
 to  the  author  of  the  Love  Elegies,  who 
 gained  her  affection,  and  induced  her  to 
 accompany  him  to  Cambridge,  and  live 
 with  him  for  some  months,  disguised  as  a 
 boy.  When  only  sixteen,  she  married  a 
 nephew  of  Sir  Stephen  Fox.  He  died  in 
 little  more  than  twelve  months,  and  she 
 became  the  wife  of  an  officer  named  Car- 
 rol, who,  at  the  end  of  eighteen  months, 
 was  killed  in  a  duel.  Distress  drove  her 
 to  write  for  the  stage,  and,  in  1700,  she 
 produced  a  tragedy,  called  the  Perjured 
 Husband.  This  play  she  followed  up  by 
 several  comedies,  many  of  which  were 
 successful.  Her  dramatic  pieces  are  nine- 
 teen in  number.  Some  of  them,  among 
 which  are,  The  Busy  Body,  The  Wonder, 
 and  A  Bold  Stroke  "for  a  Wife,  still  keep 
 possession  of  the  stage.  For  a  while  she 
 was  an  actress,  and,  in  this  capacity,  she 
 captivated  her  last  husband,  Mr.  Centlivre, 
 yeoman  of  the  mouth  to  Queen  Anne.  She 
 died  in  1723.  As  a  dramatist,  she  excels 
 in  plot,  incident,  and  character  }  her  dia- 
 logue, thuugh  by  no  means  contemptible,  is 
 of  an  inferior  order,  and  it  partakes  of  the 
 licentiousness  which  stained  the  theatrical 
 productions  of  that  period. 
 
 CERCEAU,  John  Anthony  du,  a 
 Jesuit,  dramatist,  and  poet,  was  born  at 
 Paris,  in  1676,  and  was  accidentally  shot, 
 in  1730,  by  the  prince  of  Conti,  to  whom 
 he  was  tutor.  He  produced  a  volume  of 
 Latin  poems,  and  another  of  French;  se- 
 veral comedies,  one  of  the  best  of  which 
 is  the  Inconveniences  of  Greatness;  and 
 various  prose  works. 
 
 CERDA,  Donna  Bernarda  Ferrei- 
 ra  de  la,  a  Portuguese  lady  of  uncom- 
 
166 
 
 CER 
 
 mon  talents,  was  born  at  Oporto,  in  the 
 beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
 died  about  1650.  She  produced  several 
 poems  and  comedies  of  great  merit;  was 
 the  best  musician  of  the  age ;  played  upon 
 all  kinds  of  instruments ;  spoke  several 
 languages;  and  was  versed  in  rhetoric, 
 mathematics,  and  philosophy.  Philip  III. 
 of  Spain  invited  her  to  his  court,  to  initi- 
 ate his  sons,  Charles  and  Ferdinand,  into 
 Latin  literature. 
 
 CERINI,  Joseph,  an  Italian  poet,  born 
 in  1738,  at  Solferino,  in  the  duchy  of  Man- 
 tua, was  brought  up  to  the  bar.  Having 
 married  a  portionless  female,  his  parents 
 discontinued  a  small  pension,  on  which  he 
 had  subsisted.  He  removed  to  Milan,  and, 
 after  suffering  much  misery,  he  died  in 
 1779,  at  a  period  when  fortune  was  begin- 
 ning to  smile  upon  him.  He  is  author  of 
 the  successful  comedies  of  Clary,  and  the 
 Bad  Mother- in-Law;  and  of  a  volume  of 
 elegant  Anacreontic  poems. 
 
 CERINTHUS,  an  heresiarch  of  the  first 
 century,  was  born  at  Antioch,  of  a  Jewish 
 family,  and  studied  at  Alexandria.  He  is 
 said  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Simon 
 Magus.  He  taught  various  heterodox  doc- 
 trines, among  which  was,  that  Jesus  was 
 a  mere  man,  on  whom  Christ,  the  Son  of 
 God,  descended  at  the  period  of  baptism, 
 and  that,  at  the  crucifixion,  Jesus  alone 
 suffered,  Christ  quitting  his  body,  and  re- 
 turning to  his  Father  in  heaven. 
 
 CERRETTI,  Louis,  a  native  of  Mo- 
 dena,  born  in  173S,  filled  the  offices  of 
 secretary,  and  afterwards  of  professor  of 
 history  and  eloquence,  at  the  university  of 
 Padua.  Having  been  employed  under  the 
 Cisalpine  republic,  he  was  compelled  to 
 fly  in  1799.  In  1801,  however,  he  return- 
 ed. He  died  in  1808.  His  Lyric  Poems 
 are  esteemed. 
 
 CERVANTES,  SaavedraMichaf.l, 
 ene  of  the  most  distinguished  literary  cha- 
 racters of  Spain,  was  born  at  Alcala  de 
 Henares,  in  1547,  of  a  good  but  not  rich 
 family,  and  was  well  educated.  At  an 
 early  age  he  began  to  sacrifice  to  the  Mu- 
 ses." In  1569  he  visited  Italy  ,  and  became 
 page  to  Cardinal  Aquaviva.     The  hope  of 
 
 CES 
 
 glory,  however,  and  perhaps  of  fortune, 
 led  him  to  serve  as  a  volunteer  under  Mark 
 Anthony  Colonna,  duke  of  Paliano,  who 
 commanded  the  pope's  galleys.  He  fought 
 bravely  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  and  re- 
 ceived a  wound  in  his  left  arm,  which 
 crippled  him  for  life.  Notwithstanding 
 his  lameness  he  continued  in  the  service 
 till  1575,  when,  as  he  was  returning  to 
 Spain,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  an  Alge- 
 rine  corsair.  At  Algiers  he  continued  a 
 captive  for  six  years,  during  which  period 
 he  distinguished  himself  by  his  indomitable 
 courage,  his  daring  plans  to  bring  about 
 an  insurrection,  and  his  magnanimitv  in 
 taking  on  himself  the  whole  responsibility 
 when  his  schemes  were  discovered.  Be- 
 ing at  length  ransomed,  he  returned  to 
 Spain  in  1581.  In  1584,  he  published  his 
 Galatea,  and  married  Donna  Catalina  Sa- 
 lazar.  Of  the  subsequent  life  of  Cervantes 
 the  memorials  are  but  scanty.  We  know 
 little  more  than  that  he  seems  to  have  reli- 
 ed upon  his  pen  for  subsistence;  that  he 
 obtained  the  patronage,  such  as  it  was, 
 of  the  Count  de  Lemos ;  that  he  suffered 
 much  from  poverty,  adversity,  and  the  ha- 
 tred of  rivals;  and  that  he  was  even  im- 
 prisoned for  debt.  Yet  it  would  appear 
 that  he  was  once  in  good  circumstances; 
 for,  in  the  Journey  to  Parnassus,  Apollo 
 upbraids  him  with  having  ruined  his  for- 
 tune bv  want  of  economy.  Cervantes  died 
 at  Madrid,  on  the  23d  of  April,  1617. 
 Among  his  works  are  about  thirty  dramas ; 
 twelve  Tales;  a  poem,  in  eight  cantos, 
 called  A  Journey  to  Parnassus ;  and  the 
 romance  of  Persiles  and  Sigismunda,  which 
 was  his  last  production,  and  published 
 posthumously.  But  these  are  all  eclipsed 
 by  that  masterpiece  of  Spanish  literature, 
 Don  Quixote.  The  first  part  of  this  was 
 given  to  the  world  in  1605.  The  conclu- 
 sion was  delayed  for  ten  years.  In  the 
 mean  while  a  writer,  under  the  name  of 
 Avellenada,  not  only  published  a  second 
 part,  but  also  heaped  abuse  upon  the  orig- 
 inal author.  Of  this  surreptitious  sequel, 
 though  it  is  not  utterly  contemptible,  we 
 may  say  what  a  critic  once  said  of  a  simi- 
 lar attempt  to  carry  on  the  Sentimental 
 Journey,  that  "  it  is  much  such  a  continua- 
 tion of  the  genuine  work  as  the  dead  wall 
 in  Pimlico  is  of  Buckingham  House." 
 Don  Quixote,  as  a  biographer  of  Cer- 
 vantes has  justlv  remarked,  had  no  model, 
 and  still  remains  without  a  rival;  and 
 though  manners  have  changed,  and  other 
 follies  have  succeeded  to  those  which  the 
 writer  wished  to  destroy,  the  hero  of  La 
 Mancha  still  interests  men  of  all  countries, 
 of  all  ranks,  and  of  all  ages. 
 
 CESAROTTI,  Melchior,  a  volumin- 
 ous and  eminent  Italian  author,  was  born 
 at  Padua  in  1730;   was  professor  of  rheto- 
 j  ric  tliere,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  and  sub- 
 
CHA 
 
 eequeotly  of  Greek  and  Hebrew;  wasl 
 admired  and  pensioned  by  Napoleon ,  and  i 
 died,  at  his  native  place,  in  1808.  His 
 works,  including  translations,  amount  to 
 forty-two  volumes ;  he  produced  versions  | 
 of  Homer,  Demosthenes,  Juvenal,  andOs-j 
 sian;  a  Course  of  Greek  Literature;  and] 
 various  original  compositions,  both  in  verse 
 and  prose. 
 
 CESSART,  Louis  Alexander  de, 
 a  civil  engineer,  was  born  at  Paris,  in 
 1719;  and  was  originally  an  officer  in  the 
 army.  Ill  health,  however,  obliged  him  to 
 quit  the  military  service,  and  he  then  studi- 
 ed civil  engineering,  and  at  length  became 
 inspector-general  of  roads  and  bridges. 
 Among  his  works  are  the  bridge  at  Sau- 
 mur,  and  the  quay  at  Rouen.  But  the  in- 
 vention of  the  cones  to  form  the  harbour  of 
 Cherbourg  is  considered  as  his  greatest 
 effort  of  talent.     He  died  in  1806. 
 
 CEZELLI,  Constance,  a  heroine  of 
 the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  native  of 
 Montpellier.  In  1590,  her  husband,  Barri 
 de  St.  Annez,  who  was  governor  of  Leu- 
 cate,  for  Henry  IV.,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
 the  Spaniards.  They  threatened  Constance 
 that  they  would  put  him  to  death,  if  she 
 did  not  surrender  the  fortress.  She  re- 
 fused, but  offered  all  her  property  to  ran- 
 som him.  After  having  been  foiled  in  two 
 assaults,  the  Spaniards  raised  the  siege, 
 but  barbarously  murdered  their  prisoner. 
 Constance  magnanimously  prevented  her 
 garrison  from  retaliating  upon  a  Spanish 
 officer  of  rank.  As  a  reward  for  her  pa- 
 triotism, Henry  IV.  allowed  her  to  retain 
 the  government  of  Leucate  till  her  son  came 
 of  age. 
 
 CHALMERS,  George,  a  native  of 
 Scotland,  was  born  in  1744;  was  educated 
 at  Aberdeen;  and  settled  in  America  as  a 
 barrister;  but  returned  to  England  when 
 the  colonies  assumed  independence.  He 
 was  for  many  years  Chief  Clerk  of  the 
 Board  of  Trade;  and  died  in  January, 
 1826.  His  productions,  in  antiquities, 
 criticism,  biography,  and  political  econo- 
 my, are  very  numerous.  Among  them  is 
 Caledonia,  or  a  Topographical  History  of 
 North  Britain,  3  vols.  4to.;  an  Estimate 
 of  the  Comparative  Strength  of  Great 
 Britain ;  and  an  Apology  for  the  Believers 
 in  the  Shakspeare  Papers.  His  works 
 display  considerable  research ;  but  his  style 
 is  heavy  and  monotonous. 
 
 CHALONER,  Sir  Thomas,  a  states- 
 man, soldier,  and  writer,  was  born  in  Lon- 
 don, about  1515;  was  in  the  expedition 
 of  Charles  V.  to  Algiers,  and  narrowly 
 escaped  drowning;  fought  at  the  battle  of 
 Musselburgh,  and  was  knighted;  was  sub- 
 sequently ambassador  to  Germany  and 
 Spain ;  and  died  in  1565.  His  principal 
 work  is,  On  the  right  ordering  of  the  Eng- 
 lish Commonwealth. 
 
 CHA 
 
 167 
 
 CHALONER,  Sir  Thomas,  a  son  of 
 the  above,  was  born  in  1559;  received  an 
 excellent  education;  and  improved  himself 
 by  travelling  in  foreign  countries.  In  1591 
 he  was  knighted.  He  discovered,  on  his 
 estate  near  Gisborough,the  first  aium  mine 
 that  was  worked  in  Great  Britian.  Under 
 pretence,  however,  that  it  was  a  mine 
 royal,  he  was  deprived  of  it  by  the  crown; 
 but  the  Long  Parliament  restored  it  to  his 
 sons.  He  died  in  1603.  He  is  the  author 
 of  a  tract  on  the  Virtue  of  Nitre. 
 
 CHAMBERLAYNE,  Edward,  was 
 born  at  Odington,  in  Gloucestershire,  in 
 1616;  educated  at  Oxford;  became  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Royal  Society,  and  tutor  to  the 
 duke  of  Grafton  and  Prince  George  of 
 Denmark ;  and  died  in  1703.  He  wrote 
 and  translated  various  works,  now  all  for- 
 gotten, of  which  The  Present  State  of 
 England  was  the  most  popular.  Yet,  such 
 an  overweening  opinion  had  he  of  his  own 
 literary  merits,  that  he  directed  some  of 
 his  publications  to  be  covered  with  wax, 
 and  buried  with  him  to  benefit  posterity! 
 
 CHAMBERLEN,  Hugh,  a  physician 
 and  man-midwife,  was  born  in  1664;  edu- 
 cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  and 
 died  in  1728.  He  translated  Mauriceau's 
 Treatise  on  Midwifery;  and  invented  an 
 improved  kind  of  forceps  for  assisting 
 delivery. 
 
 CHAMBERS,  Ephraim,  the  compiler 
 of  a  well  known  dictionary  of  arts  and 
 sciences,  was  born  at  Milton,  in  West- 
 moreland ;  educated  at  Keudal  School ; 
 and  afterwards  apprenticed  to  Senex,  the 
 mathematical  instrument  and  globe  maker. 
 While  he  was  in  the  service  of  Senex, 
 Chambers  projected  his  Dictionary,  and 
 some  of  the  articles  were  written  behind 
 the  counter.  It  came  forth  in  1728,  in 
 two  folio  volumes,  and  the  next  year  he 
 was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Societv. 
 Five  editions  of  his  work  appeared  in  the 
 course  of  eighteen  years.  He  translated 
 the  Jesuit's  Perspective  from  the  French ; 
 and  joined  with  Martyn  in  translating  and 
 abridging  the  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Acade- 
 my at  Paris.  He  died  in  1740.  It  is  not, 
 as  some  have  supposed,  to  Chambers  that 
 we  are  indebted  for  the  first  Cyclopaedia; 
 but  to  Dr.  John  Harris,  who  published  his 
 Lexicon  Technicum  in  1708. 
 
 CHAMBERS,  Sir  William,  an  archi- 
 tect, born  at  Stockholm,  but  descended 
 from  a  Scotch  family,  was  brought  to 
 England  when  two  years  old,  and  was  edu- 
 cated at  Rippon.  After  having  visited 
 China,  as  supercargo  of  a  Swedish  vessel, 
 he  settled  in  London,  as  a  draughtsman ; 
 became,  through  the  interest  of  Lord  Bute, 
 architectural  drawing  master  to  George 
 III. ;  and  was  subsequently  appointed  royal 
 architect  and  surveyor  general  of  the  board 
 of  works.     Lord   Besborough's    villa   at 
 
168 
 
 CHA 
 
 Roehampton  was  his  first  work  of  import- 
 ance. In  laying  out  the  royal  gardens  at 
 Kew,  his  introduction  of  the  Chinese  style 
 exposed  him  to  the  pungent  ridicule  of  the 
 author  of  the  celebrated  Heroic  Epistle  to 
 Sir  William  Chambers.  In  1775,  the 
 building  of  Somerset  House  was  intrusted 
 to  him;  and,  with  all  its  faults,  the  struc- 
 ture does  honour  to  his  talents.  He  died 
 in  1796.  Sir  William,  who  was  a  Swedish 
 knight,  and  a  member  of  the  Royal  and 
 Antiquarian  Societies,  is  the  author  of . 
 various  professional  works,  the  principal 
 of  which  is  A  Treatise  on  Civil  Archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 CHAMFORT,    Sebastian    Roche) 
 Nicholas,  a  French  writer,  the  natural 
 son  of  an  unknown   father,   was  born  in 
 1741,  near  Clermont,  in    Auvergne.     He  j 
 was  educated  at  Grassin's  College,  at  Paris, ! 
 where  he  gained  several  prizes.     He  ap-| 
 plied  to  literature  for  his  subsistence,  and 
 soon  acquired  considerable  reputation.     In 
 1781  Chamfort  was  admitted  a  member  of 
 the  French  Academy,  on  the  death  of  St. 
 Palaye.     His  principal  titles  to  this  honour! 
 were  his  Eulogy  on  La  Fontaine,  comedy  | 
 of  the  Young  Indian,  and  tragedy  of  Mas-] 
 tapha  and   Zeangir.     The   latter   also  ob- 
 tained for  him  the  place  of  secretary  to  the 
 Prince  of  Conde.     Chamfort  espoused  the 
 cause  of  the  revolution,  and  fell  a  victim 
 to  it.     After  having  been  once  imprisoned 
 and  released,  he    put  an  end   to   his  exist- 
 ence, in   April,   1794,  on  being  a  second 
 time  arrested.     His  works  have  been  col- 
 lected in  four  volumes  8vo. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE,  Philip  de,  a  painter 
 of  the  Flemish  school,  was  born  at  Brus- 
 sels, in  1602,  and,  after  having  acquired 
 the  rudiments  of  his  art,  completed  his 
 studies  at  Paris,  under  Poussin.  He  died 
 in  1674.  Champagne  was  indefatigably 
 active;  had  a  wonderful  readiness  of  exe- 
 cution; and  possessed  talents  of  a  high 
 order.  Among  his  best  pictures  are,  The 
 Nuns;  the  Vow  of  Louis  XIII. ;  a  Lord's 
 Supper;  and  a  Magdalen  at  the  Feet  of 
 Christ. 
 
 CHAMPE,  John,  a  soldier  in  the 
 American  revolution,  was  born  in  Loudon 
 countv,  Virginia.  In  the  year  1776  he 
 .was  appointed  a  sergeant-major  in  Lee's 
 regiment  of  cavalry,  and  after  the  discovery 
 of  Arnold's  treason  was  employed  by 
 Washington  in  a  service  of  much  danger 
 and  difficulty;  this  was.  to  visit  the  British 
 army  as  a  deserter,  in  order  to  ascertain 
 if  any  other  American  officers  were  en- 
 gaged in  that  conspiracy,  and  to  secure 
 if  possible  the  person  of  Arnold.  In  the 
 latter  object  of  his  enterprise  he  unfortu- 
 nately failed,  but  he  effected  his  own  es- 
 cape in  safety,  and  returned  to  his  com- 
 panions. Washington  treated  him  mtiniti- 
 centlv,  and  presented  him  with  his  discharge 
 
 CHA 
 
 from  further  service,  lest,  in  the  vicissitudes 
 of  war,  he  shoidd  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
 enemy,  and  perish  upon  a  gibbet.  He  died 
 in  Kentuckv  about  the  vear  1797. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN,  Samuel,  a  French 
 naval  officer,  was  born  in  the  sixteenth 
 century,  at  Brouage,  in  the  province  of 
 Saintonge.  He  pursued,  in  1603,  the  dis- 
 coveries of  Cartier  in  Canada,  and  was 
 governor  of  the  province  from  1608  to  1635, 
 in  which  latter  year  he  died.  To  his  ex- 
 ertions France  was  indebted  for  the  estab- 
 lishment of  the  colony.  Quebec  was 
 founded  by  him,  and  one  of  the  American 
 lakes  still  bears  his  name. 
 
 CHANCELLOR,  Richard,  an  Eng- 
 lish navigator,  accompanied  Sir  Hugh 
 Willoughby,  in  1553,  in  one  of  the  vessels 
 which  was  fitted  out  to  seek  a  north-east 
 passage  to  the  East  Indies.  Chancellor 
 was  separated  from  Willoughby  by  tem- 
 pests, and  discovered  the  White  Sea. 
 Hearing  of  his  arrival,  the  Russian  grand 
 duke  invited  him  to  Moscow,  and  there 
 Chancellor  succeeded  in  laying  the  founda- 
 tion of  the  commercial  intercourse  between 
 England  and  Russia.  After  having  made 
 two  subsequent  voyages  to  Archangel,  he 
 was  unfortunately  shipwrecked  in  a  third, 
 towards  the  end  of  the  year  1556. 
 
 CHANDLER,  Edward,  a  native  of 
 Dublin,  was  educated  at  Cambridge;  be- 
 came bishop  of  Litchfield  in  1717,  and  of 
 Durham  in  1730;  and  died  in  1750.  He 
 is  the  author  of  A  Defence  of  Chri;-tianity, 
 in  answer  to  Collins;  A  Vindication  of 
 the  Defence;  Eight  Sermons;  and  some 
 productions  of  minor  consequence. 
 
 CHANDLER,  Samuel,  a  dissenter,  of 
 great  talents,  was  born  at  Mahnesbui  v  in 
 1693,  and  completed  his  studies  at  Leyden. 
 After  having  been  minister  to  a  congrega- 
 tion at  Peckham,  during  which  period  he 
 was  also  a  bookseller,  he  was  chosen  lec- 
 turer at  the  Old  Jewry,  and,  about  1726, 
 pastor  at  the  latter  place:  this  last  office 
 he  held  during  forty  years.  In  1748,  the 
 universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow 
 cave  him  the  decree  of  D.  D.  He  died  in 
 1766.  Dr.  Chandler  is  the  author  of  nu 
 merous  works;  among  which  are,  Sermons 
 in  4  volumes;  A  Review  of  Annett's  His- 
 tory of  David;  A  Critical  History  of 
 David;  and  a  Vindication  of  the  Christian 
 Religion.  Dr.  Chandler  possessed  exten- 
 sive influence  among  the  dissenters,  and 
 was  highly  respected  by  the  clergy  of  the 
 established  church. 
 
 CHAIN DLER,  Richard,  a  divine  and 
 antiquary,  was  born  in  1738;  received  his 
 education  and  doctor's  degree  at  Oxford  J 
 travelled,  in  1764,  through  Asia  Minor 
 and  Greece,  at  the  excuse  of  the  Dille- 
 tanti  Sncictv,  and  died,  in  1810,  at  his 
 living  of  Tiiehurst,  in  Berkshire.  He  is 
 the  author,  among  other  works,  of  Mar- 
 
CHA 
 
 mora  Oxoniensia;  Ionian  Antiquities; 
 Travels  in  Asia  Minor ;  Travels  in  Greece ; 
 and  the  History  of  Ilium. 
 
 CHANDOS,  John,  an  English  warrior, 
 of  the  fourteenth  century,  distinguished 
 himself  greatly,  on  numerous  occasions,  in 
 France;  particularly  at  the  battle  of  Au- 
 ray,  in  1364,  in  which  he  took  prisoner 
 the  celebrated  Bertrand  du  Guesclin.  In 
 1366,  he  gained  equal  honour  at  the  battle 
 of  Najara,  against  Henry  of  Transtamare. 
 He  was  killed,  in  1369,  at  the  bridge  of 
 Leusac,  near  Poitiers.  Chandos  was  ad- 
 mired and  esteemed,  even  by  the  French, 
 for  his  generosity  and  moderation ;  and  as 
 a  general  he  was  second  in  fame  only  to 
 the  Black  Prince. 
 
 CHAPELAIN,  John,  a  French  poet, 
 was  born  at  Paris,  in  1595.  After  having 
 been  tutor  to  the  children  of  a  nobleman, 
 and  afterwards  his  steward,  he  obtained 
 the  patronage  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  His 
 undoubted  learning,  the  influence  which  he 
 possessed,  and  some  minor  poems,  rendered 
 him  for  a  while  "  the  oracle  of  all  writers, 
 and  especially  of  all  poets."  He  was,  in- 
 deed, considered  as  at  the  head  of  French 
 literature.  The  publication  of  his  Pucelle, 
 a  poem  on  the  subject  of  the  Maid  of 
 Orleans,  the  composition  of  which  had 
 occupied  thirty  years  of  his  life,  at  once 
 destroyed  his  reputation.  It  was  covered 
 with  ridicule  by  Boileau,  and  the  other 
 satirical  wits  of  the  age.  Chapelain  died 
 in  1674.  Though  avaricious  in  the  high- 
 est degree,  he  was  a  kind,  disinterested, 
 and  honourable  man. 
 
 CHAPELLE,  Claude  Emanuel  Lu- 
 illier,  was  born  in  1626,  at  La  Chapelle, 
 near  Paris,  and  numbered  Gassendi  among 
 his  preceptors.  He  was  intimate  with  all 
 the  eminent  literary  characters  of  the 
 period,  and  was  much  admired  for  his 
 convivial  qualities,  his  wit,  and  his  verses. 
 He  died  in  1686.  Besides  his  poems,  he 
 wrote,  in  conjunction  with  Bachaumont, 
 the  sprightly  Journey  to  Montpelier,  which 
 Voltaire  justly  describes  as  a  masterpiece 
 of  its  kind. 
 
 CHAPMAN,  George,  one  of  the  ear- 
 liest poetical  translators,  was  born  in  Kent, 
 in  1557;  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
 Oxford ;  and  died  in  1634.  He  was  inti- 
 mate with  Shakspeare,  Ben  Jonson,  Mars- 
 ton,  Spencer,  and  others  of  his  celebrated 
 contemporaries.  He  is  the  author  of  several 
 dramatic  pieces.  The  first  seven  books  of 
 his  version  of  the  Iliad  appeared  in  1596; 
 the  remainder  was  completed  four  or  five 
 years  afterwards;  and  the  Odyssey  was 
 published  in  1614.  He  also  translated  the 
 Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice;  and  the 
 works  of  Hesiod  and  Musseus. 
 
 CHAPONE,  Hester,  was  the  daugh- 
 ter of  a  Mr.  Mulso,  of  Twywell,  in  North- 
 amptonshire, and  was  born  at  that  place, 
 8 
 
 CHA 
 
 169 
 
 in  1727.  When  only  nine  years  old,  she 
 is  said  to  have  written  a  romance.  Her 
 mother,  however,  who  seems  to  have  been 
 actuated  by  jealousy  of  her  daughter's 
 talents,  endeavoured  to  obstruct  her  stud- 
 ies. Hester  Mulso,  nevertheless,  succeeded 
 in  making  herself  mistress  of  Italian  and 
 French.  The  story  of  Fidelia,  in  the 
 Adventurer,  an  Ode  to  Peace,  and  some 
 verses  prefixed  to  her  friend  Miss  Carter's 
 Epictetus,  were  among  her  earliest  printed 
 efforts.  In  1760  she  married  Mr.  Chapone, 
 but  he  was  snatched  from  her  by  death  in 
 less  than  ten  months.  In  1770  she  accom- 
 panied Mrs.  Montague  on  a  tour  in  Scot- 
 land; in  1773  she  published  her  Letters 
 on  the  Improvement  of  the  Mind;  and 
 in  1775,  her  Miscellanies  in  Prose  and 
 Verse.  After  having  lived  happily  for 
 many  years  in  the  society  of  those  who 
 loved  her,  her  latter  days  were  heavily 
 overclouded  by  the  loss  of  friends  and  rela- 
 tions, by  impaired  intellect,  and  by  bodily 
 debility.  She  died  at  Hadley,  near  Bar- 
 net,  December  25,  1801.  Her  verses  are 
 elegant,  and  her  prose  writings  are  pure 
 in  style  and  fraught  with  good  sense  and 
 sound  morality. 
 
 CHAPPE  D'AUTEROCHE,  John,  a 
 French  astronomer  and  mathematician, 
 was  born  at  Mauriac,  in  Auvergne,  in 
 1722,  of  a  noble  family,  and  was  brought 
 up  to  the  church.  Mathematics,  astro- 
 nomy, and  designing,  were  early  and  suc- 
 cessful objects  of  his  study.  In  1759  he 
 succeeded  Lalande  as  assistant  astronomer, 
 and  in  the  following  year  the  Royal  Acad- 
 emy, of  which  he  was  a  member,  sent  him 
 to  Tobolsk,  in  Siberia,  to  observe  the 
 transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun's  disk.  On 
 his  return,  he  published  his  Travels  ir» 
 Siberia,  in  two  vols.  4to.  His  account  of 
 the  Russians  was  so  unfavourable,  that  the 
 Empress  Catherine  was  provoked  to  write 
 a  refutation  of  it.  Chappe  d'Auteroche 
 died  in  Calefornia,  in  1761,  which  country 
 he  had  visited  to  observe  another  transit 
 of  Venus.  His  Voyage  was  published 
 after  his  death. 
 
 CHAPPE,  Claude,  a  nephew  of  the 
 astronomer,  born  in  1763,  at  Brulon,  in 
 Maine,  was  the  person  who  first  brought 
 the  telegraph  to  perfection  in  France.  He 
 drowned  himself,  in  1805,  in  a  fit  of  in- 
 sanity, brought  on  by  the  perpetual  attempts 
 which  his  rivals  were  making  to  depreciate 
 his  merit  as  an  inventor. 
 
 CHARDIN,  Sir  John,  a  celebrated 
 traveller,  was  the  son  of  a  jeweller,  and 
 was  born  at  Paris,  in  1643.  He  journeyed 
 twice  into  Persia  and  the  East  Indies,  and 
 each  time  spent  several  years  there.  In 
 1681  he  settled  in  England,  where  he  was 
 knighted,  married,  and  published  his  Trav- 
 els. He  died  at  Chiswick,  in  1713.  His 
 Travels,  the  best  edition  of  which  is  that 
 
170  CHA  CHA 
 
 FIELD,  carl  of,  was  born  in  Dublin,  in 
 1728.  After  having  travelled,  for  some 
 years,  in  Prance,  Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia 
 Minor,  he  returned  to  his  native  country, 
 and,  in  1763,  was  created  earl  of  Charle- 
 mont.  From  that  period  till  his  decease 
 be  took,  an  active  and  enlightened  part  in 
 politics,  and  was  acquainted  with,  and  es- 
 teemed by,  Burke,  Flood,  and  manv  other 
 eminent  characters.  He  commanded  the 
 Irish  volunteers;  and  this  delicate  task  he 
 performed  with  no  common  share  of  pru- 
 dence and  dignity.  Lord  Charlcmont  was 
 fond  of  and  successfully  cultivated  litera- 
 ture; and  to  him  Ireland  is  mainly  indebt- 
 ed for  the  establishment  of  the  Roval  Irish 
 Academy.  Of  that  institution  he  was 
 annually  chosen  president.  He  died  in 
 1799. 
 
 CHARLES  MARTEL,    a  natural  son 
 of  Pepin  d'Heristal,  succeeded   in  obtain- 
 ing the    dukedom    of  Austrasia,  after  the 
 death  of  his   father.     Under  the    title    of 
 mayor  of  the  palace,  he  was,  in  fact,  sove- 
 reign of  France  for  more  than   twenty-live 
 years,   during   the    nominal    reigns  of  the 
 last  of  the  Merovingians.     He    repeatedly 
 vanquished  the  Suevians,    Frisons,    Alle- 
 mans,  and  Saxons.     But  his  most  splendid 
 and  possessed   of  considerable  talents;    but  j  exploit  was  his  overthrow  of  the  Saracens 
 he  was  sanguinary,  and  his  inordinate  am- 1 at  the  terrible  battle  of  Poitiers,  by  which 
 bition  was  exceedingly 
 
 by  Langles,  in  ten  vols.  8vo.  are  of  high 
 value.  Chardin  also  wrote  an  Account  of 
 the  Coronation  of  Soliman  II.  of  Persia; 
 Observations  on  Passages  of  the  Scripture 
 explained  by  Eastern  Customs  (the  MS. 
 of  which  was  lost  for  many  years)  ;  and 
 contributed  to  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
 tions. 
 
 CHARES,  a  Greek  statuary,  born  at 
 Lindus,  was  a  pupil  of  Lysippus,  and 
 nourished  about  the  121st  Olympiad.  He 
 i^  said  to  have  made  the  famous  Colossus 
 of  Rhodes.  Pliny  also  ascribes  to  him  a 
 fine  colossal  head,  which  was  placed  in  the 
 Capitol  by  the  consul  P.  Lentulus. 
 
 CHARETTE  DE  LA  CONTRIE, 
 Francis  Athanasius,  one  of  the  most 
 celebrated  of  the  French  royalist  chiefs, 
 was  born  in  1763,  near  Ancenis,  in  Bri- 
 tanny,  and  was  brought  up  to  the  naval 
 service.  In  March,  1793,  the  insurgent 
 peasants  of  Lower  Britanny  chose  him  as 
 their  leader,  and  he  justified  their  choice 
 by  his  gallantry  in  numberless  combats 
 against  the  republicans.  In  1795,  he  con- 
 cluded a  treaty;  which,  however,  he  broke 
 before  the  close  of  the  year.  He  was 
 taken  prisoner,  and  shot,  in  March,  1796. 
 Charette  was  brave,   enterprising,  active, 
 
 prejudicial  to  the 
 royal  cause  by  inducing  him  to  intrigue  for 
 th°  supreme  command,  and  to  refuse  to  co- 
 operate with  the  other  Vendean  chiefs  on 
 main   important  occasions. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE,  or  CHARLES  I. 
 emperor  of  the  west,  and  king  of  France, 
 was  born,  in  742,  at  the    castle  of  Saltz 
 
 he  probably  saved  Europe  from  the  infidel 
 yoke.  The  surname  of  Martel,  or  the 
 Hammer,  lie  acquired  by  this  victory.  He 
 die;!  in  741,  ;it   Quercy  sur  Oise. 
 
 CHARLES  XII.  king  of  Sweden,  was 
 born  at  Stockholm,  June  26,  1682,  and 
 succeeded  his  father  in  1697.  In  his  earli- 
 est years  he  save  indications  of  that  indo- 
 
 bnrg,  in  Upper  Bavaria,  and  was  the  son'mitable  spirit  which  became  the  terror  of 
 of  Pepin  the  Short,  and  the  grandson  of  [his  foes.  Availing  themselves  of  the  oppor- 
 Charles  Martel.  In  conjunction  with  his  tunitv  which  they  supposed  to  be  afforded 
 brother  Carloman,  he  succeeded  to  the I by  his  youth,  the  czar,  and  the  kings  of 
 crown  in  76S,  and  became  sole  monarch,  j  Denmark  and  Sweden,  formed  an  alliance 
 by  the  death  of  his  brother,  in  771.  He  against  him.  Charles,  however,  attacked 
 was  crowned  emperor  in  800.     He  over-   Denmark  with   the   rapidity  of  lightning, 
 
 threw  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards;  re- 
 duced the  Saxons  to  obedience,  after  a 
 gallant  struggle  on  their  part;  and  made 
 an  irruption  into  Spain,  which  was  at  first 
 successful,   but  at   the   close  of   which    his 
 
 and  compelled  her  sovereign  to  sue  for 
 peace.  Russia  next  felt  the  force  of  his 
 arms.  He  landed  in  Livonia,  and  (Nov.  SO, 
 1700),  with  about  eight  thousand  Swedes, 
 utterly    routed    eijjhtv    thousand    Russians 
 
 rear-gnard  was  routed  by  the  Gascons,  at] who  were  intrenched  under  the  walls  of 
 the   famous   battle   of    RoncesvalleS.     He  (Narva.     In  the  two  following  campaigns 
 
 died  at  Aix  la  Chapelle,  his  capital,  in 'he  expelled  Augustus  king  of  Poland,  ami 
 814.  Charlemagne  was  brave;  endowed  I  raised  Stanislaus  to  the  throne.  The  de- 
 with  great  talents  for  war  and  for  govern-' posed  monarch  he  pursued  into  Saxony, 
 ment;  encouraged  commerce;  and  patron-  and  forced  to  sign  a  treaty,  lb-  now  re- 
 ised  literature  and  the  arts;  hut  his  virtues  j  solved  to  achieve  the  conquest  of  Russia, 
 were  deeply  shaded  by  faults,  especially  by  and  for  that  purpose  directed  his  march 
 the  shameful  barbarity  which  he  exercised  !  upon  Moscow.     But,  after  having  obtained 
 
 upon  the  vanquished  Saxons.  His  Capitu- 
 laries, or  Laws,  were  chiefly  issued  in 
 805  and  806;  and  were  collected,  in  822, 
 by  Ansegise,  abbot  of  St  Wandrille,  and 
 Benedict,  deacon  of  Mentz. 
 
 CHARLEMONT,      James       CAUL- 
 
 some  successes,  he  was  entirely  defeated  at 
 the  battle  of  Pultowa,  on  the  27th  of  July, 
 1709.  Charles  sought  refuge  in  Turkey, 
 where  he  was  at  first  honourably  received. 
 Peace  between  Turkey  and  Russia,  how- 
 ever, rendered  his  presence  embarrassing 
 
CHA 
 
 in  the  Turkish  dominions,  and  he  was  re- 
 quested to  leave  them.  As  he  refused  to 
 comply,  orders  were  given  to  expel  him  by 
 force.  Charles  defended  himself  with  des- 
 perate bravery,  in  his  house  at  Bender,  till 
 the  building  was  set  on  fire.  He  then  sallied 
 forth,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  assailants, 
 and  was  kept  prisoner  for  some  time.  At 
 length  he  departed,  and  after  encountering 
 many  difficulties  and  dangers  reached  Stral- 
 sund,  which  was  soon  besieged  by  his  ene- 
 mies. During  the  siege  he  displayed  his 
 accustomed  talent  and  valour,  but  he  was 
 finally  compelled  to  abandon  the  city,  and 
 sail  to  Sweden.  His  death  took  place  on 
 the  30th  of  November,  1718,  from  a  shot, 
 while  he  was  besieging  Fredericshall,  in 
 Norway ;  and  there  seems  reason  to  suspect 
 that  he  fell  by  the  hand  of  a  Swedish  assas- 
 sin, and  not  by  that  of  an  honourable  ene- 
 my. Charles  had  many  virtues,  but  they 
 were  partly  neutralized  by  his  faults;  his 
 firmness  too  often  degenerated  into  obsti- 
 nacy, and  his  courage  into  rashness.  Yet 
 there  are  circumstances  which  authorize  a 
 belief  that,  had  he  lived,  he  would  have 
 reformed  his  errors,  and,  perhaps,  ulti- 
 mately have  contributed  as  much  to  the 
 happiness  of  Sweden,  as  he  had  already  to 
 its  glory. 
 
 CHARLEVAL,  Charles  Faucon  de 
 RIS,  lord  of,  was  born  in  Normandy,  in 
 1612  or  1613,  and  though  originally  sup- 
 posed to  be  too  weakly  to  live,  he  reached 
 the  age  of  eighty  by  dint  of  regimen.  Scar- 
 ron  said  of  him,  that  "the  Muses  fed  him 
 on  nothing  but  chicken  broth  and  blanc- 
 mange." He  died  in  1693.  Charleval  was 
 an  elegant  writer  both  in  prose  and  verse, 
 and  was  a  liberal  friend  to  literary  men 
 who  were  in  narrow  circumstances. 
 
 CHARLEVOIX,  Peter  Francis 
 Xavter  de,  a  Jesuit,  born  at  St.  Quen- 
 tin,  in  1682,  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
 North  America  in  1720,  and  remained 
 there  for  two  years ;  conducted  the  Tre- 
 voux  Journal  for  twenty  years  after  his 
 return;  and  died  in  1761.  He  is  the  au- 
 thor of  various  works,  of  which  the  prin- 
 cipal are,  A  History  and  Description  of  I 
 Japan,  two  vols.  4to.;  A  General  History 
 of  New  France,  three  vols.  4to. ;  and  A  | 
 General  History  of  Paraguav,  six  vols,  j 
 12mo. 
 
 CHARNOCK,  John,  was  born  in  1756;  : 
 was  educated  at  Winchester,  and  Merton ! 
 College,  Oxford;  served  as  a  volunteer  in 
 the  navy  ;  subsequently  became  an  author  ; 
 and  at  length  died  in  the  King's  Bench,  in 
 1807.  His  chief  works  are,  A  History  of ' 
 Naval  Architecture,  three  vols.  4to.;  Bio- 
 graphia  Navalis,  six  vols.  8vo. ;  and  The 
 Life  of  Nelson,  8vo. 
 
 CHARONDAS,  a  Greek  legislator  and, 
 philosopher,  was  born  at  Catania,  in  Sicily, ! 
 and   is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about 
 
 CHA 
 
 171 
 
 the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.  c.  He 
 gave  laws  to  the  Catanians  and  other  Eu- 
 bcean  colonies.  To  one  of  those  laws  he  is 
 said  to  have  fallen  an  honourable  victim. 
 He  had  enacted  that  no  one  should  enter 
 the  public  assemblies  armed,  under  pain  of 
 death.  On  his  return  from  an  expedition, 
 he  inadvertently  hurried  to  a  meeting  of  the 
 people  without  taking  off  his  sword.  "  You 
 break  the  law,"  exclaimed  a  spectator, 
 "No,"  replied  he,  instantly  plunging  the 
 weapon  into  his  own  body,  "  on  the  con- 
 trary, I  confirm  it." 
 
 CHARRON,  Peter,  a  French  moral- 
 ist and  divine,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  1541, 
 and  died  there,  suddenly,  in  1603.  As  a 
 preacher  he  enjoyed  great  celebrity.  He 
 was  the  friend  of  Montague,  who  esteemed 
 him  so  much  that  he  bequeathed  to  him 
 permission  to  assume  his  family  arms. 
 His  first  work,  which  bore  the  title  of  the 
 Three  Truths,  was  published  in  1594;  his 
 Christian  Discourses,  in  1600;  and  his 
 Treatise  on  Wisdom,  in  1601 .  The  last  of 
 these  was  violently  attacked  by  Chanet, 
 Garasse,  and  others,  as  the  dangerous  pro- 
 duction of  one  who  was  an  enemy  to  relig- 
 ion. The  Treatise  on  Wisdom  survives; 
 the  attacks  upon  it  have  sunk  into  oblivion. 
 
 CHARTIER,  Alan,  a  French  poet  and 
 writer,  of  great  reputation  in  the  fifteenth 
 century,  was  born  at  Bayeux,  in  Norman 
 dy,  in  1386,  and  is  supposed  to  have  died 
 about  1457  or  1458.  His  works  are  nou 
 sunk  into  oblivion.  Yet,  in  such  esteem 
 was  he  held,  that  Pasquier  tells  us,  the  wife 
 of  the  Dauphin  once  kissed  the  lips  of  Char- 
 tier  when  she  found  him  asleep ;  and,  on  her 
 attendants  seeming  astonished,  she  declared 
 that  it  was  not  the  man  she  kissed,  but  the 
 mouth  whence  so  much  eloquence  had  flow- 
 ed. 
 
 CHARTIER,  Renatus,  a  native  cf 
 Vendome,  born  in  1572,  was  eminent  as  a 
 physician,  and  published  ten  folio  volumes 
 of  an  edition  of  the  works  of  Hippocrates 
 and  Galen ;  the  remaining  three  were  print- 
 ed after  his  death.  By  this  work  he  bene- 
 fited medical  science,  but  ruined  his  for- 
 tune. He  also  wrote  some  Latin  tragedies 
 and  poems.     He  died  in  1654. 
 
 CHASE,  Samuel,  one  of  the  signers  of 
 the  declaration  of  independence,  was  born 
 in  Somerset  county,  Maryland,  id  1741. 
 He  was  educated  bv  his  father,  a  learned 
 clergyman;  and  after  studying  for  two 
 years  the  profession  of  law,  he  was  admit- 
 ted to  the  bar,  at  Annapolis,  at  the  age  of 
 twenty.  In  1774,  he  was  sent  to  the  con- 
 gress of  Philadelphia  as  a  delegate  from 
 Maryland,  and  he  continued  an  active,  bold, 
 eloquent,  and  efficient  member  of  this  body 
 throughout  the  war,  when  he  returned  to 
 the  practice  of  his  profession.  In  1791, 
 he  accepted  the  appointment  of  chief  jus- 
 tice of  the  general  court  of  Maryland;  and 
 
172 
 
 CHA 
 
 in  1796  president  Washington  made  him 
 an  associate  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
 the  United  States.  He  remained  upon  the 
 bench  for  fifteen  years,  and  appeared  with 
 ability  and  dignity.  It  was  hie  ill  fortune, 
 li  iwever,  to  have  his  latter  days  embittered 
 by  an  impeachment  by  the  house  of  repre- 
 sentatives at  Washington.  This  impeach- 
 ment originated  in  political  animosities, 
 from  the  offence  which  his  conduct  in  the 
 circuit  court  had  given  to  the  democratic 
 party.  The  trial  of  the  judge  before  the 
 senate  is  memorable  on  account  of  the  ex- 
 citement which  it  occasioned,  the  ability 
 of  the  defence,  and  the  nature  of  the  ac- 
 quittal. Judge  Chase  continued  to  exercise 
 his  judicial  functions  till  1811,  when  his 
 health  failed  him,  and  he  expired  on  the 
 nineteenth  of  June,  in  that  year.  He  was 
 a  sincere  patriot,  and  a  man  of  high  intel- 
 lect ami  undaunted  courage. 
 
 CHASTELET,  Gabrielle  Emilia 
 le  TO.NNELIER  DE  BRETEUIL,  mar- 
 chioness of,  one  of  the  most  learned  and 
 accomplished  of  modern  females,  was  born 
 at  Paris,  in  1706,  and  died  at  Luneville,  in 
 1749.  She  was  a  proficient  in  Latin,  Ital- 
 ian, and  English;  and  possessed  considera- 
 ble knowledge  of  geometry,  astronomy,  and 
 natural  philosophy.  She  published  Insti- 
 tutes of  Physics,  with  an  Analysis  of  Leib- 
 nitz's Philosophy,  and  translated  Newton's 
 Principia.  Though  Madame  du  Chastelet 
 was  married,  chastity  does  not  appear  to 
 have  been  one  of  her  virtues.  Among  her 
 ardent  admirers  was  Voltaire. 
 
 CHATHAM,  William  PITT,  earl 
 of,  one  of  the  most  able  and  successful  min- 
 isters that  England  ever  possessed,  was  born 
 November  1~>.  1703,  and  was  the  son  of 
 Robert  Pitt,  Esq.  <>f  Boconnock,  in  Corn- 
 wall. His  education  he  received  at  Eton, 
 and  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford.  His  en- 
 trance into  public  life  was  as  a  comet  of 
 horse;  and  in  1735,  through  the  influence 
 of  the  duchess  dowager  of  Marlborough,  he 
 was  returned  to  parliament  as  member  for 
 Old  Sarum.  He  subsequently  sat  for  Sea- 
 ford,  Aldborough,  and  Bath.  As  a  senator 
 he  soon  rendered  himself  so  obnoxious  to 
 Walpole,  that  the  minister,  with  equal  in- 
 
 CHA 
 
 justice  and  impolicy,  deprived  him  of  his 
 commission.  This  unconstitutional  act  on- 
 ly enhanced  his  popularity  and  sharpened 
 his  resentment.  After  having  been  ten 
 years  in  opposition,  he  was,  early  in  1746, 
 appointed  joint  vice-treasurer  of  Ireland, 
 and,  in  the  same  year,  treasurer  and  pay- 
 master general  of  the  army,  and  a  privy 
 counsellor.  During  his  treasurership,  he 
 invariably  refused  to  benefit  by  the  large 
 balances  of  money  which  necessarily  re- 
 mained in  his  hands.  In  1755,  he  was  dis- 
 missed; in  1756,  he  obtained  a  brief  rein- 
 statement in  power  as  secretary  of  state, 
 and  was  again  dismissed  ;  but,  in  1757,  de- 
 feat and  disgrace  having  fallen  on  the  coun- 
 try, the  unanimous  voice  of  the  people  com- 
 pelled the  sovereign  to  place  him  at  the 
 head  of  the  administration.  Under  his 
 auspices  Britain  was,  during  four  years, 
 triumphant  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 
 Thwarted  in  his  measures,  after  the  acces- 
 sion of  George  III.,  he  resigned,  in  Octo- 
 ber, 1761,  an  office  which  he  could  no 
 longer  hold  with  honour  to  himself  or 
 advantage  to  the  nation.  A  pension  was 
 granted  to  him,  and  his  wife  was  created 
 a  baroness.  On  the  downfall  of  the  Rock- 
 ingham administration,  Pitt  was  appointed 
 lord  privy  seal,  and  was  raised  to  the  peer- 
 age with  the  title  of  earl  of  Chatham.  He 
 acquired  no  glory  as  one  of  the  new  and 
 ill  assorted  ministry,  and  he  withdrew 
 from  it  in  November,  1768.  Though  suf- 
 fering severely  from  gout,  he  continued  to 
 speak  in  parliament  upon  all  important 
 questions.  The  American  war,  in  particu- 
 lar, he  opposed  with  all  his  wonted  vigour 
 and  talent.  On  the  8th  of  April,  1778, 
 while  rising  to  speak  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
 he  fell  into  a  convulsive  tit,  and  he  expired 
 on  the  11th  of  the  following  May.  He 
 was  interred,  and  a  monument  raised  to 
 him,  in  Westminster  Abbey,  at  the  public 
 expense ;  and  a  perpetual  annuity  of  «£  .4000 
 was  granted  to  his  heirs.  Some  short 
 poems,  and  a  volume  of  letters  to'  his 
 nephew,  have  appeared  in  print.  The 
 character  of  Lord  Chatham  is  thus  ably 
 summed  up  by  Grattan: — "There  was  in 
 this  man  something  that  could  create,  sub- 
 vert, or  reform;  an  understanding, a  spirit, 
 and  an  eloquence,  to  summon  mankind  to 
 society,  or  to  break  the  bonds  of  slavery 
 asunder,  and  to  rule  the  wilderness  of  free 
 minds  with  unbounded  authority ;  some- 
 thing that  could  establish  or  overwhelm 
 empire,  and  strike  a  blow  in  the  world 
 that  should  resound  through  the  universe." 
 CHATTERTON,  Thomas,  the  most 
 remarkable  instance  that  perhaps  ever 
 appeared  of  precocious  talent,  was  the 
 posthumous  son  of  the  master  of  the  Free 
 School  in  Pyle  Street,  Bristol,  and  was 
 born  November  20,  1752.  The  rudiments 
 of  education  he  received  at  Colston's  Char- 
 
CHA 
 
 ity  School,  in  his  native  city;  and,  about 
 hi«  tenth  year,  he  acquired  a  taste  for 
 reading.  In  his  general  disposition  he  was 
 grave  and  pensive,  though  at  times  exceed- 
 ingly cheerful.  In  1767,  he  was  bound 
 apprentice  to  an  attorney,  with  whom  he 
 remained  nearly  three  years.  It  was  dur- 
 ing this  period  that  he  seems  to  have  pro- 
 duced many  of  his  acknowledged  works, 
 and  also  those  which  he  attributed  to  Row- 
 lev.  He  sought  the  patronage  of  Horace 
 Walpole,  but  was  treated  with  neglect. 
 Encouraged  by  promises  from  booksellers, 
 he  visited  London  in  April,  1770,  and  for 
 a  while  was  a  frequent  writer  in  the  Town 
 and  Country  Magazine,  and  several  other 
 publications.  Distress,  however,  soon 
 overtook  him,  and  on  the  24th  of  August, 
 1770,  the  unhappy  youth  terminated  his 
 existence  by  swallowing  arsenic.  The 
 number  and  variety  of  his  compositions 
 are  astonishing;  the  genius  which  they 
 display  is  still  more  so.  Imagination, 
 pathos,  caustic  satire,  vivid  description, 
 and  sublime  imagery,  are  all  to  be  found 
 in  the  productions  of  this  highly  gifted 
 stripling.  The  poems  ascribed  to  Rowley 
 gave  rise  to  a  vehement  controversy  among 
 antiquaries,  but  they  are  now  generally 
 admitted  to  belong  to  Chatterton. 
 
 CHA 
 
 173 
 
 CHAUCER,  Geoffrey,  who  has  been 
 called  the  day-star  and  the  father  of  English 
 poetry,  is  believed  to  have  been  born  in 
 London,  in  1328,  to  have  been  educated 
 both  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  to  have 
 studied  law  in  the  Temple.  He  was  pat- 
 ronised by  John  of  Gaunt,  the  sister  of 
 whose  mistress  he  married.  He  was  ap- 
 pointed to  various  lucrative  offices,  and 
 more  than  once  was  sent  upon  missions  to 
 foreign  countries.  Having,  however,  im- 
 bibed the  doctrines  of  Wickliffe,  he  was 
 compelled  to  fly  to  Zealand,  whence  want 
 of  resources  soon  obliged  him  to  return. 
 Imprisonment  awaited  him  at  home,  and 
 he  regained  his  liberty  only  by  disclosures 
 which  drew  down  upon  him  the  indigna- 
 tion of  his  party.  At  length,  he  recovered 
 the  pensions  of  which  he  had  been  deprived, 
 and  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
 retirement,  first  at  Woodstock,   and  next 
 
 at  Donnington  Castle.  He  died,  in  1400, 
 in  London,  to  which  city  he  had  journeyed 
 upon  business.  Considered  merely  with 
 reference  to  his  own  merits,  Chaucer  ranks 
 high  among  poets;  compared  with  his  pre- 
 decessors, his  contemporaries,  and  many 
 of  his  successors,  he  is  absolutely  unrivalled. 
 His  great  work,  The  Canterbury  Tales, 
 was  not  begun  till  he  was  far  advanced  in 
 years,  but  it  displays  all  the  freshness, 
 vigour,  and  variety  of  youth. 
 
 CHAUDET,  Anthony  Dennis,  an 
 eminent  French  sculptor,  was  born  at 
 Paris,  in  1763,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Stonf. 
 At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  gained  the  high- 
 est prize  of  the  Academy,  for  a  basso 
 relievo  of  Joseph  sold  by  his  Brethren.  He 
 died  in  1S10,  professor  of  the  schools  of 
 sculpture  and  painting.  His  statues  and 
 groups  are  numerous,  and  he  excelled  with 
 the  pencil  no  less  than  with  the  chisel. 
 
 CHAUDON,  Louis  Mayeul,  an  au- 
 thor, was  born,  in  1737,  at  Valensoles,  in 
 Provence,  and  died  in  1817.  He  was  a 
 Benedictine  monk  of  the  order  of  Cluny. 
 Of  his  numerous  original  works  and  com- 
 pilations, the  best  known  is  The  New 
 Historical  Dictionary,  which  was  first 
 published  in  only  four  volumes,  in  1768. 
 It  was  enlarged,  in  successive  editions,  till 
 it  reached  thirty  volumes ;  but  the  eighth 
 edition,  in  thirteen  volumes,  was  the  last 
 which  Chaudon  superintended. 
 
 CHAUFFEPIE,  James  George  de, 
 the  author  of  several  works,  among  which 
 is  a  continuation  of  Bayle,  in  four  folio 
 volumes,  was  born  at  Leuwarden,  in  Fries- 
 land,  in  1702,  and  was  the  son  of  a  French 
 protestant  refugee.  Like  his  father,  he 
 was  an  ecclesiastic,  and  was  successively 
 pastor  at  Flushing,  Delft,  and  Rotterdam, 
 at  which  latter  city  he  died  in  1786.  His 
 supplement  to  Bayle,  more  than  one  half 
 of  which  is  translated  from  the  English,  is 
 far  inferior  to  the  learned  and  acute  pro- 
 duction of  his  great  predecessor. 
 
 CHAULIEU,  William  Amfrye  de, 
 a  French  poet,  was  born,  in  1639,  at  Fon- 
 tenai,  and  died  in  1720.  Being  a  man  of 
 considerable  fortune,  fond  of  good  cheer, 
 and  devoid  of  ambition,  his  whole  life  was 
 spent  in  enjoying  the  pleasures  of  society. 
 He  resided  at  the  Temple  in  Paris,  of 
 which  he  was  called  the  Anacreon.  His 
 poems,  though  often  incorrect,  are  distin- 
 guished by  gaiety,  voluptuousness,  and  un- 
 studied elegance.  They  have  gone  through 
 many  editions,  and  are  still  popular. 
 
 CHAUNCY,  Charles,  second  presi- 
 dent of  Harvard  College,  was  born  in 
 England  in  1589.  He  received  his  gram- 
 mar education  at  Westminster,  and  took 
 the  degree  of  M.D.  at  the  university  of 
 Cambridge.  He  emigrated  to  New  Eng. 
 land  in  1638,  and  after  serving  for  a  num- 
 ber of  years  in  the  ministry  at  Scituate, 
 
174  CHE 
 
 was  appointed  in  1654,  president  of  Har- 
 vard College.  In  this  office  he  remained 
 till  his  death  in  1671,  performing  all  its 
 duties  with  industrious  fidelity.  He  was 
 eminent  as  a  physician,  and  was  of  opinion 
 that  there  ought  to  be  no  distinction  be- 
 tween physic  and  divinity. 
 
 CHAUXCEY,  SirHKNRV,  was  born 
 in  Hertfordshire,  in  1632;  studied  at  Caius 
 College,  Cambridge,  and  the  Middle  Tem- 
 ple; was  knighted  in  1681,  and  made  a 
 Welsh  judge  in  16SS;  and  died  in  1700. 
 He  is  the  author  of  Historical  Antiquities 
 of  Hertfordshire,  in  folio;  a  work  of  con- 
 siderable merit. 
 
 CHAl  SSARD,  Pkteb,  a  poet  and 
 miscellaneous  author,  was  born  at  Paris, 
 in  1766.  He  was  one  of  the  partisans  of 
 the  French  revolution,  and  filled  some  sub- 
 ordinate offices  during  the  early  part  of  it. 
 He  died  in  1823.  Of  his  numerous  works 
 the  chief  are,  a  Translation  of  Arrian; 
 The  Festivals  and  Courtisans  of  Greece; 
 Helioijabalus;   and  some  Poems. 
 
 CHAUSSEE,  Peter  Claude  XI- 
 VELLE  de  la,  a  dramatist,  the  father  of 
 sentimental  comedy  in  France,  was  born 
 at  Paris,  in  1692,  and  died  in  1754.  He 
 was  past  the  age  of  forty  when  he  began  to 
 write  for  the  stage.  The  species  of  drama 
 which  he  introduced  has  been  severely 
 criticised,  and  as  enthusiastically  praised. 
 Fashionable  Prejudice,  Melanide,  The 
 School  for  Mothers,  Love  for  Love,  and 
 the  Governess  are  among  his  most  popular 
 pieces.     His  works  form  five  volumes. 
 
 CHAUSS1ER,  Francis,  a  French 
 physician,  was  born  at  Dijon,  in  1746, 
 and  died  at  Paris,  in  1828.  He  was 
 equally  celebrated  as  a  practitioner  and  a 
 lecturer;  was  looked  up  to  as  the  head  of 
 his  profession  in  the  capital;  and  contri- 
 buted much  to  the  progress  of  physiological 
 science.  He  is  the  author  of  various  medi- 
 cal tracts  and  dissertations. 
 
 CHAZELLES,  John  Matthew,  a 
 French  astronomer  and  hydrographer,  was 
 born  at  Lyons  in  1657,  and  was  a  pupil  of 
 Cassini,  whom  he  assisted  in  forming  his 
 great  planisphere  at  the  Observatory,  and 
 drawing  the  meridian  line.  He  was  ap- 
 pointed hydrographical  professor  at  Mar- 
 seilles, in  1685.  Chazelles  visited  Greece, 
 Turkey,  and  Egypt,  in  the  latter  of  which 
 countries  he  measured  the  pyramids. 
 During  the  last  nine  \ cars  of  his  life,  he 
 was  employed  in  collecting  materials  for  a 
 description  of  the  Mediterranean  coasts. 
 He  died  in  1710.  Several  of  his  charts 
 are  in  the  French  Neptune. 
 
 CHEKE,  Sir  John,  a  statesman  and 
 classical  scholar,  was  born  at  Cambridge, 
 in  1514,  and  educated  at  St.  John's  Col- 
 lege. After  baving  travelled  on  the  con- 
 tinent, he  was  made  regius  professor  of 
 Greek  at  Cambridge.     In  this  capacity  he 
 
 CHE 
 
 introduced  some  changes  in  the  pronuncia- 
 tion  of  the  language,  which  produced  dis- 
 putes with  the  chancellor,  Bishop  Gardiner. 
 In  1544,  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the 
 young  prince,  afterwards  Edward  VI., 
 who,  on  becoming  king,  loaded  him  with 
 favours,  among  which  were  the  honour  of 
 knighthood,  and  the  posts  of  secretary  of 
 state  and  privy  counsellor.  Having  es- 
 poused the  cause  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  Cheke 
 was  imprisoned  by  Queen  Mary,  but  was 
 liberated  in  a  few  months,  and  allowed  to 
 travel.  While  he  was  absent  his  property 
 was  confiscated,  and  he  was  at  length  sent 
 home  a  captive.  To  save  his  life,  though 
 with  infinite  reluctance,  he  abjured  the 
 protestant  faith ;  inconsequence  of  which 
 lie  is  said  to  have  died  of  grief,  in  1557. 
 He  is  the  author  of  various  works,  some  of 
 which  have  been  printed.  Among  these 
 are,  The  Hurt  of  Sedition;  and  a  transla- 
 tion of  six  of  St.  Chrvsostom's  Homilies. 
 
 CHEMXITZER,  Ivan  Ivanovitch, 
 a  Russian  fabulist,  of  a  German  family,  was 
 born  at  Petersburg,  in  1744;  commenced 
 his  career  in  the  army;  and  was  subse- 
 quently consul  general  at  Smyrna,  where 
 he  died  in  1784.  Chemnitzer  is  considered 
 as  the  Russian  La  Fontaine ;  and  in  his 
 character,  as  well  as  in  his  writings,  he 
 resembled  the  French  writer.  Like  La 
 Fontaine  he  was  subject  to  fits  of  absence, 
 which  sometimes  produced  ludicrous  scenes. 
 CHEXIER,  Mary  Andrew  de,  a 
 French  poet,  born,  in  1762,  at  Constanti- 
 nople, where  his  father  was  consul  general, 
 distinguished  himself  early  by  his  love  of 
 learning  and  his  poetical  talents.  He  es- 
 poused the  principles  of  the  revolution; 
 but,  being  a  friend  of  »  oderate  measures, 
 he  was  arrested  in  1793,  and  was  brought 
 to  the  scaffold  in  July,  1794.  His  poems, 
 which  are  few  in  number,  possess  consider- 
 able merit. 
 
 CHEMER,  Mary  Joseph,  a  French 
 poet  and  dramatist,  was  born  at  Constan- 
 tinople in  1754,  studied  at  Paris,  and  en- 
 tered the  army  in  1781,  but  quitted  it  in 
 1783,  to  devote  himself  to  literature.  In 
 17S6,  he  produced,  unsuccessfally,  his  tra- 
 gedy of  Azemire.  In  1789,  however,  partly 
 in  consequence  of  its  political  tendency, 
 his  Charles  IX.  was  more  fortunate.  It 
 was  succeeded  by  Henry  VIII. ,  John  Ca- 
 las,  Cuius  Gracchus,  Fenelon,  and  Timo- 
 leon.  Besides  his  dramas,  he  wrote  many 
 works  of  merit  in  verse  and  prose.  His 
 collected  works,  to  which  are  added  his 
 brother's,  form  nine  volumes.  He  was  a 
 member  of  all  the  legislative  bodies  be- 
 tween 1792  and  1802;  voted  for  the  death 
 of  Louis  XVI.;  and,  from  his  numerous 
 patriotic  hymns  and  songs,  may  be  consid- 
 ered as  the  poet  laureat  of  republicanism. 
 Chenier  died  in  1811. 
 CHERSIPHRON,  CTESIPHON, 
 
CHE 
 
 ARCHIPHRON,  or  CRESIPHON  (for 
 he  is  thus  variously  denominated  by  differ- 
 ent writers,)  was  born  at  Gnossus,  in  the 
 island  of  Crete.  It  was  he  who,  about  684 
 E.  c,  drew  the  plan  and  commenced  the 
 building  of  the  famous  temple  of  Diana  at 
 Ephesus.  In  concert  with  Metagenes,  his 
 son,  who  continued  the  construction  of  the 
 temple,  he  also  determined  the  proportions 
 of  the  Ionic  order. 
 
 CHESELDEN,  William,  an  eminent 
 anatomist  and  surgeon,  was  born,  in  1688, 
 at  Burrow  on  the  Hill,  in  Leicestershire. 
 Anatomy  he  studied  under  Cowper,  and 
 surgery  at  St.  Thomas's  Hospital.  In  1713 
 appeared  his  first  work,  The  Anatomy  of 
 the  Human  Body.  He  subsequently  pub- 
 lished a  Treatise  on  the  high  operation  for 
 the  stone;  Osteography;  a  translation  of 
 Le  Dran's  Surgery;  and  various  papers  in 
 the  Philosophical  Transactions.  Of  these 
 the  first  two  involved  him  in  a  controversy 
 with  Dr.  Douglas.  He  was  surgeon  to  St. 
 Thomas's,  St.  George's,  and  Chelsea  Hos- 
 pitals, and  to  the  Westminster  Infirmary. 
 He  died  in  1752.  Cheselden  had  consid- 
 erable architectural  knowledge:  Surgeon's 
 Hall,  in  the  Old  Bailey,  was  designed  by 
 him. 
 
 CHI 
 
 176 
 
 CHESTERFIELD,  Philip  Dormer 
 STANHOPE,  earl  of,  was  born  in  London, 
 in  1694,  and  was  educated  at  Cambridge. 
 Before  he  was  of  age,  he  sat  in  parliament 
 as  member  for  Lostwithiel,  and  spoke  with 
 so  much  violence  as  to  provoke  from  his 
 antagonists  a  hint,  that  his  minority  might 
 possibly  be  taken  advantage  of  to  move 
 for  his  exclusion.  In  1726,  he  succeeded 
 to  the  earldom  of  Chesterfield.  The  ac- 
 cession of  George  II.  opened  to  Stanhope 
 the  road  to  political  honours.  He  was 
 sworn  a  privy  counsellor ;  was  appointed, 
 in  1728,  ambassador  extraordinary  to  Hol- 
 land; received  the  Garter  in  1730;  and 
 was  nominated  steward  of  the  household. 
 The  latter  office  he  resigned  in  1733;  and 
 for  many  years  he  continued  in  strenuous 
 opposition  to  the  measures  of  Sir  Robert 
 Walpole.  Among  the  anti-ministerial  peers 
 he  stood  conspicuous  for  activity  and  elo- 
 quence.    At  the  same  time  his  pen  was 
 
 frequently  employed,  with  powerful  effect, 
 in  the  Craftsman  and  other  papers.  It 
 was  not  till  January,  1745,  that  the  govern- 
 ment once  more  availed  itself  of  his  tal- 
 ents. In  that  month  he  was  sent  to  Hol- 
 land, as  ambassador  extraordinary;  and  on 
 his  return,  in  May,  he  went  over  to  Ireland 
 as  lord  lieutenant.  The  viceregal  power 
 he  held  rather  less  than  twelve  months, 
 but  the  equity  and  beneficence  of  his  sway 
 |  is  still  remembered  with  gratitude.  In 
 October,  1746,  he  was  nominated  secretary 
 of  state,  and  this  office  he  held  till  the 
 beginning  of  1748,  when  the  state  of  his 
 health  induced  him  to  resign  it.  In  the 
 senate  he  continued  to  speak  till  increasing 
 deafness  incapacitated  him  for  oratorical 
 exertions.  But  his  pen  did  not  remain 
 idle.  He  contributed  largely  to  The  World  ; 
 among  his  contributions  were  the  two  pa- 
 pers which  drew  forth  the  celebrated  letter 
 addressed  to  him  by  Dr.  Johnson.  He 
 died  March  24,  1773.  Chesterfield  was  a 
 man  of  highly  polished  manners,  extensive 
 acquirements,  and  versatile  talents.  He 
 held  no  mean  place  among  diplomatists, 
 statesmen,  wits,  writers,  and  orators;  in 
 the  latter  capacity  he  has  been  called  the 
 British  Cicero.  His  works  consist  of  his 
 Letters  to  his  Son,  in  four  volumes,  and 
 Miscellaneous  Pieces,  in  four  volumes.  He 
 has  been  severely  and  justly  censured  foi 
 the  lax  morality  of  several  passages  in  his 
 Letters  to  his  Son. 
 
 CHEYNE,  George,  an  eminent  phy- 
 sician and  mathematician,  born  in  1671, 
 was  a  native  of  Scotland,  and  was  origi- 
 nally intended  for  the  church,  but  subse- 
 quently studied  medicine  under  Pitcairne, 
 and  settled  in  London.  He  died  at  Baih, 
 in  1743.  Having  rendered  himself  corpu- 
 lent and  exceedingly  asthmatic  by  free 
 living,  he  recovered  his  health  and  activity 
 by  a  milk  and  vegetable  diet.  He  is  the 
 author  of  a  Treatise  on  the  Gout ;  an  Es- 
 say on  Health ;  a  New  Theory  of  Fevers ; 
 The  English  Malady ;  The  Natural  Method 
 of  curing  Diseases;  Philosophical  Princi- 
 ples of  Religion;  and  Fluxionum  Metho- 
 dus  Inversa. 
 
 CHIABRERA,  Gabriel,  who  bears 
 the  lofty  title  of  the  Italian  Pindar,  was 
 born  at  Savona,  in  1552,  and  did  not 
 manifest  his  poetical  talent  till  he  was  of 
 a  mature  age.  As  soon,  however,  as  his 
 productions  became  known,  his  fame  spread 
 widely  and  rapidly.  It  is  not  alone  in  the 
 style  of  the  Tlieban  bard  that  he  excels ; 
 for  he  often  proves  himself  the  worthy  rival 
 of  Anacreon  and  Horace.  Besides  his 
 Odes,  he  is  the  author  of  several  dramas, 
 and  of  four  epic  poems.  He  died  in 
 1637. 
 
 CHIARI,  Peter,  an  Italian  dramatist 
 and  novelist  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
 was  born  at  Brescia,  where  he  also  died, 
 
176 
 
 CHO 
 
 in  1787  or  1788,  at  an  advanced  age.  He 
 is  the  author  of  more  than  sixty  comedies, 
 four  tragedies,  and  several  romances.  Chi- 
 ari  was  the  rival  of  Goldoni,  and  had 
 considerable  theatrical  success;  but  he  is 
 inferior  to  the  writer  whom  he  strove  to 
 outvie. 
 
 CHlCHLEY,orCHICHELE,  Henry, 
 eminent  for  learning  and  munificence,  was  I 
 born  at  Higham  Ferrers,  in  Northampton- 
 shire, in  1S62,  and  was  educated  at  Oxford. 
 After  having  held  various  high  ecclesiasti- 
 cal dignities,  he  rose,  in  1414,  to  the  arch- 
 bishopric of  Canterbury,  which  elevated 
 station  he  filled  with  becoming  dignity  for 
 nearly  thirty  years.  He  died  in  1443. 
 He  founded  and  endowed  All  Souls  Col- 
 lege, Oxford,  and  a  college  and  hospital  at 
 bis  native  place;  built  the  west  tower  of 
 Canterbury  cathedral ;  and  improved  the 
 archiepiscopal  palace  at  Lambeth. 
 
 CHILLL\(J\VORTH,  William, a  di- 
 vine and  controversial  theologian,  was  born 
 at  Oxford,  in  1622,  and  educated  at  Trin- 
 ity College,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow 
 in  1628;  was  for  a  while  a  convert  to  the 
 catholic  church,  but  returned  to  protestant- 
 ism; obtained  the  chancellorship  of  Salis- 
 bury, the  prebend  of  Brixworth,  and  the 
 mastership  of  Wigston's  Hospital;  espous- 
 ed the  royal  cause,  and  acted  as  engineer 
 at  the  siege  of  Gloucester;  was  taken 
 prisoner  at  Arundel;  and  died,  a  captive, 
 in  1644.  His  principal  production  is,  The 
 Religion  of  Protestants  a  safe  Way  to 
 Salvation.  His  works,  including  his  Ser- 
 mons, form  a  folio  volume. 
 
 CHILO,  one  of  the  Seven  wise  men  of 
 Greece,  was  an  ephorus  of  Sparta,  about 
 600  b.  c.  One  of  his  most  celebrated 
 maxims  is,  Know  thyself.  He  died  of  joy, 
 B.  c.  597,  while  embracing  his  son,  who 
 had  been  a  victor  in  the  Olympic  games. 
 Chilo  was  remarkable  for  his  upright  con- 
 duct as  a  magistrate. 
 
 CHISHULL,  Edmund,  a  divine  and 
 antiquary,  was  born  at  Ey worth,  in  Bed- 
 fordshire, and  educated  at  Corpus  Christ! 
 College,  Oxford.  After  having  been  chap- 
 lain at  Smyrna,  he  obtained  the  livings  of 
 Walthamstow  and  South  Church,  in  Essex, 
 and  was  made  chaplain  to  the  queen.  He 
 died  in  1733.  His  principal  works  are, 
 Travels  in  Turkey;  and  Antiquitates  Asi- 
 atic* Christianam  seram  antecedentes. 
 
 CHOISEUL, Stephen  Francis  de, 
 duke  of  Cholseul  and  Amboise,  was  born 
 in  1714,  and,  after  having  been  ambassa- 
 dor at  Rome  and  Vienna,  was  raised  to  be, 
 in  fact,  prime  minister  of  France,  through 
 the  influence  of  Madam  de  Pompadour. 
 In  1770,  he  was  dismissed  from  office,  and 
 exiled  to  one  of  his  estates.  He  died  in 
 1785.  Choiseul  brought  about  the  Family 
 Compact,  made  many  reforms  in  the  army, 
 increased  the  naval  force,  contributed  to  the 
 
 CHR 
 
 downfall  of  the  Jesuits,  and  added  Corsica 
 to  France. 
 
 CHOISEUL  GOUFFIER,  Count  Ma- 
 ry Gabriel  Augustus  Laurence,  a 
 ineml>er  of  the  French  Academy,  was  born 
 in  1752,  and  visited  Greece  in  1776.  Sub- 
 sequently to  his  return,  he  published,  in 
 1779,  the  first  volume  of  his  Journey  in 
 Greece.  He  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
 Constantinople,  which  station  he  held  till 
 a  republic  was  established  in  France,  when 
 he  settled  in  Russia.  In  1S02  he  revisited 
 his  native  country  ;  and  he  died,  at  Aix 
 la  Chapelle,  in  1817.  Besides  his  splendid 
 Journey  in  Greece,  in  three  volumes  folio, 
 he  is  the  author  of  several  learned  disser- 
 tations in  the  Transactions  of  the  French 
 Academy. 
 
 CHRISTIAN,  Charles,  whose  real 
 name  was  Charles  Christian  Riesen,  was 
 the  son  of  a  Dane,  and  was  born  in  the 
 British  metropolis  towards  the  close  of  the 
 seventeenth  century.  He  is  one  of  the 
 most  celebrated  modern  gem  engravers. 
 One  of  his  best  works  is  a  portrait  of 
 Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  He  died,  in 
 London,  in  1725. 
 
 CHRISTIAN,  Edward,  chief  justice 
 of  the  Isle  of  Ely,  and  law  professor  of 
 Downing  College,  Cambridge,  was  educa- 
 ted at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He 
 died,  at  Downing  College,  in  1823.  He  is 
 the  author  of  various  works,  among  which 
 are,  Treatises  on  the  Bankrupt  Laws,  and 
 on  the  Game  Laws.  He  also  edited  an 
 edition  of  Blackstone,  to  which  he  added 
 numerous  notes.  To  him  belongs  the  de- 
 merit of  having  been  the  originator  of  the 
 iniquitous  law  which  extorts  from  every 
 author  eleven  copies  of  any  work  that  he 
 may  publish. 
 
 CHRISTINA  DI  PIS  INI,  an  accom- 
 plished female  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
 was  born  at  Venice,  in  1363,  and  was 
 taken  to  France  at  the  age  of  five  years 
 by  her  father,  whom  Charles  V.  had  ap- 
 pointed his  astronomer,  or  rather  astrolo- 
 ger. She  became  celebrated  for  her  beauty 
 and  talents,  and  was  pensioned  by  Charles 
 VI.  The  period  of  her  death  is  unknown. 
 Her  poems  anil  prose  works  are  numerous ; 
 many  of  them  are  still  in  manuscript. 
 
 CHRISTINA,  queen  of  Sweden,  the 
 only  child  of  the  great  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
 was  born  in  1626,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
 at  the  age  of  five  years,  and  assumed  the 
 reins  of  government  at  eighteen.  She 
 seems  to  have  been  naturally  of  a  mas- 
 culine character,  and  that  character  was 
 strengthened  by  the  manner  in  which  she 
 was  educated.  For  some  years  she  govern- 
 ed in  a  manner  which  did  honour  to  her. 
 She  likewise  invited  eminent  men  to  her 
 court,  and  corresponded  with  others  in  va- 
 rious parts  of  Europe.  During  the  latter 
 portion  of  her  reign  there  was  a  change  in 
 
CHU 
 
 her  conduct.  At  length,  in  1654,  ghe  ab- 
 dicated the  crown  in  favour  of  Prince 
 Charles  Gustavus,  and  quitted  Sweden. 
 Her  next  step  was  to  adopt  the  Catholic 
 religion.  For  a  while  she  resided  in 
 France,  where  she  drew  on  herself  the 
 hatred  of  mankind  by  her  murder  of  3Io- 
 naldeschi,  her  master  of  the  horse.  She 
 died  at  Rome,  in  1689.  Christina  no 
 doubt  possessed  talents,  and  some  of  the 
 elements  of  greatness,  but  they  were  de- 
 graded by  meanness,  caprice,  and  vindic- 
 tive passions. 
 
 CHRISTOPHE,  Henry,  king  of 
 Hayti,  was  a  black  slave,  born  iu  1767, 
 in  Grenada.  He  served  during  the  war  in 
 America,  and  was  subsequently  taken  to 
 St.  Domingo.  His  activity  against  the 
 whites  gained  for  him,  from  Toussaint 
 Louverture,  the  rank  of  brigadier-general, 
 and  his  subsequent  conduct  raised  him,  on 
 the  death  of  Dessalines,  to  the  dignity  of 
 president  and  generalissimo  of  Hayti.  In 
 1811  he  was  crowned  king  of  Hayti,  and 
 he  reigned  till  October,  1820,  when,  in 
 consequence  of  a  general  insurrection 
 against  him,  he  put  an  end  to  his  own 
 existence. 
 
 CHRYSIPPUS,  an  eminent  Stoic  phi- 
 losopher, was  born  at  Solis,  in  Cilicia, 
 about  280  or  290  b.  c.  and  died  207  b.  c. 
 He  was  a  subtle  logician,  but  fond  of  deal- 
 ing in  paradoxes.  Of  several  hundred 
 treatises  which  he  wrote,  only  a  few  frag- 
 ments remain. 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM,  St.  John,  was  born 
 at  Antioch,  about  a.  d.  344.  He  was  of  a 
 noble  family,  and  his  father,  whose  name 
 was  Secundus,  was  a  general  of  cavalry. 
 The  name  of  Chrysostom,  which  signifies 
 golden  mouth,  he  acquired  by  his  elo- 
 quence. He  has  also  been  called  the 
 Homer  of  orators,  and  compared  to  the 
 sun.  Successful  at  the  bar,  for  which  he 
 was  educated,  he  quitted  it,  to  become, 
 for  six  years,  an  ascetic.  When  he 
 emerged  from  his  retirement,  he  became 
 a  preacher,  and  gained  such  high  repu- 
 tation for  his  piety  and  oratorical  talents, 
 that  he  was  raised  to  be  patriarch  of  Con- 
 stantinople, A.  d.  398.  At  length  he  in- 
 curred the  hatred  of  the  Empress  Eudoxia, 
 and  was  sent  into  exile,  in  which  he  died, 
 A.  D.  407.  There  are  three  editions  of  his 
 works  in  eight,  ten,  and  thirteen  folio 
 volumes. 
 
 CHUBB,  Thomas,  a  controversial  de- 
 ist, was  born,  in  1679,  at  East  Harnham, 
 near  Salisbury,  was  successively  a  glover, 
 a  tallow-chandler,  and  a  sort  of  humble 
 companion  or  dependent  in  the  family  of 
 Sir  Joseph  Jekyll.  He  died  in  1747.  His 
 first  work,  which  appeared  in  1715,  was 
 intitled,  The  Supremacy  of  the  Father 
 asserted,  and  this  was  followed  by  several 
 others.  His  posthumous  pieces  were  pub- 
 Si 
 
 CHU  177 
 
 lished  in  two  volumes  in  1748.  However 
 erroneous  his  opinions  may  be,  Chubb  was 
 a  well  meaning  and  modest  man,  with  a 
 respectable  share  of  talent  and  information. 
 
 CHURCH,  B  k.n  j  am  in,  a  physician  of 
 some  eminence,  and  an  able  writer,  wa3 
 graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1754,  and, 
 after  going  through  the  preparatory  stud- 
 ies, established  himself  in  the  practice  "f 
 medicine  in  Boston.  For  several  years 
 before  the  Revolution,  he  was  a  leading 
 character  among  the  whigs  and  patriots; 
 and  on  the  commencement  of  the  war  he 
 was  appointed  physician  general  to  the 
 army.  While  in  the  performance  of  the 
 duties  assigned  him  in  this  capacity,  he 
 was  suspected  of  a  treacherous  correspond- 
 ence with  the  enemy,  and  immediately  ar- 
 rested and  imprisoned.  After  remaining 
 some  time  in  prison,  he  obtained  permission 
 to  depart  for  the  West  Indies.  The  vessel 
 in  which  he  sailed  was  never  heard  from 
 afterwards.  He  is  the  author  of  a  number 
 of  occasional  poems,  serious,  pathetic,  and 
 satirical,  which  possess  considerable  merit ; 
 and  an  oration,  delivered  on  the  fifth  of 
 March,  1773. 
 
 CHURCHILL,  Sir  Winston,  was  born 
 in  1620,  at  Wootton  Glanville,  in  Dorset- 
 shire, and  educated  at  St.  John's  College, 
 Oxford ;  fought  in  the  cause  of  Charles  I. 
 and  was  consequently  deprived  of  his 
 estate;  was  restored  to  his  property  and 
 knighted  by  Charles  II.;  published,  in 
 1675,  under  the  title  of  Divi  Britannici. 
 Remarks  on  the  Lives  of  the  British  Mon- 
 archs;  and  died  in  1688.  The  great  duke 
 of  Marlborough  was  his  son. 
 
 CHURCHILL.    See  Marlborough. 
 
 CHURCHILL,  Charles,  who  has 
 sometimes  been  called  the  British  Juvenal, 
 was  born  in  Westminster,  in  1731,  and 
 educated  at  Westminster  School,  where  he 
 neglected  his  studies  so  much  that,  on  the 
 ground  of  his  insufficiency,  he  was  refused 
 admission  at  Oxford.  In  1756  he  entered 
 into  orders,  and  became  a  curate,  but  he 
 soon  ceased  to  consider  the  clerical  pro- 
 fession as  his  sphere  of  action.  He  be 
 gan  his  poetical  career,  in  1761,  by  The 
 Rosciad,  which  at  once  brought  him  into 
 public  notice.  It  was  rapidly  succeeded 
 by  The  Apology,  Night,  The  Ghost,  The 
 Prophecy  of  Famine,  and  many  other  po- 
 ems, most  of  them  political,  and  all,  though 
 often  careless,  abounding  with  keen  satire 
 and  splendid  passages.  Of  Wilkes  he 
 was  the  bosom  friend  and  ardent  partisan. 
 While  he  was  thus  acquiring  popularity  as 
 a  writer,  he  was  injuring  his  health  and 
 his  character  by  dissipation.  His  friends, 
 however,  could  not  but  love  him  for  his 
 generous  feelings,  and  the  warmth  of  his 
 attachment  to  them.  He  died  November 
 4,  1764.  Though  time  has  rendered  the 
 productions  of  Churchill   less   interesting 
 
178 
 
 CTC 
 
 than  they  originally  were,  they  are  too 
 thoroughly  imbued  with  the  true  spirit  of 
 poetry  to  be  ever  consigned  to  oblivion. 
 
 CIBBER,  Caius  Gabriel,  a  sculptor, 
 was  a  native  of  Hoistein,  bun  at  Flens- 
 burg,  and  settled  i'i  London  a  short  time 
 before  toe  restoration  of  the  Stewarts.  He 
 died  in  England,  in  1700.  The  two  figures, 
 representing  melancholy  and  raving  mad- 
 ness, which  were  formerly  over  the  gate  of 
 Bedlam  in  Bfooffields,  and  are  now  pre- 
 served in  the  new  hospital,  boar  testimony 
 to  his  talents.  The  basso  relievo  on  the 
 pedestal  of  the  Monument  is  also  his  work. 
 
 CIBBER,  COLLET,  a  son  of  the  pre- 
 ceding, was  born  in  London,  in  1671.  He 
 was  educated  at  Grantham  school,  and  was 
 fur  a  short  time  in  the  army,  which,  how- 
 ever, he  quitted  for  the  Dairy  Lane  stage 
 before  he  was  eighteen.  For  some  years 
 he  acted  subordinate  parts,  till,  at  length, 
 his  personation  of  the  character  of  Fondle- 
 v.ifc  brought  him  forward,  and  his  reputa- 
 tion as  a  comic  actor  continued  thenceforth 
 to  increase.  In  tragedy  also  he  had  con- 
 si  lerable  merit.  His  first  dramatic  effort, 
 Love's  Last  Shift,  appeared  in  1695,  and 
 it  was  followed  by  Woman's  Wit,  The 
 Careless  Husband,  The  Nonjuror,  and 
 other  comedies  and  tragedies,  to  the  num- 
 ber of  twenty-live,  some  of  which  remain 
 stock  pieces.  In  1711  he  became  one  of 
 the  joint  patentees  of  Drury  Lane;  in 
 1730  he  was  appointed  Poet  Laureat,  an 
 office  which  he  rendered  ridiculous,  for  he 
 was  not  a  poet;  and  in  1757  he  died. 
 Besides  his  Plays,  five  volumes,  he  is  the 
 author  of  a  most  amusing  Apology  for  my 
 own  Life;  and  an  Essay  on  the  Conduct 
 and  Character  of  Cicero.  Having  given 
 some  offence  to  Pope,  the  irritable  poet 
 substituted  him,  in  the  place  of  Theobald, 
 as  the  hero  of  The  Dunciad;  an  act  of 
 vengeance  by  which  the  poem  was  injured, 
 \\  ithout  the  desired  effect  being  produced 
 of  inflicting  injury  on  Cibber. 
 
 CIBBER,  Susanna  Maria,  one  of 
 the  most  celebrated  of  our  tragic  actresses, 
 was  a  sister  of  Dr.  Ame,  and  was  born 
 about  1716.  Before  she.  was  twenty  she 
 was  bo  unfortunate  as  to  be  married  to 
 the  dissipated  Theophilus  Cibber,  the  son 
 of  Colley  Cibber.  He  was  accessary  to 
 tdulterous  intercourse  with  a  gcntle- 
 i,i  in,  and  then  sued  him  for  heavy  damages, 
 1  ut  was  rlefeated.  After  her  separation 
 from  him  her  conduct  was  decorous.  She 
 died  in  1766.  St.  Foix's  drama  of  The 
 Oracle  was  translated  by  her. 
 
 CICCI,  .Maria  Louisa, an  accomplish- 
 <  rJ  Italian  lady,  was  bom  at  Pisa,  in  1760. 
 VI  Den  .-lie  was  ^\en  years  old  her  father 
 placed  her  in  a  convent,  ordered  her  to  be 
 instructed  merely  in  domestic  duties,  and 
 forbade  her  even  to  be  taught  to  write.  By 
 stealth,  however,  she  read  some  of  the  best 
 
 CIC 
 
 [poets,  acquired  the  rudiments  of  writing, 
 I  and  supplied  the  want  of  pen  and  ink  by 
 I  grape  juice  and  bits  of  wood.     With  these 
 i  rude  materials  her  first  verses  were  written 
 in  her  tenth  year.      At  a  more  mature  age, 
 sh'-  made  herself  mistress  of  natural  philos- 
 ophy, and  of  the  English  and  French  lan- 
 guages, and  studied  the  works  of  Locke  and 
 ,  Newton..      Her    Anacreontic    verses  were 
 1  distinguished   by   their   graceful  ease  and 
 their  spirit.     In  private  life  she  was  virtu- 
 ous and  amiable.     She  died  in  1794. 
 
 CICERO,  Marcus  Tullius,  one  of 
 the  greatest  orators  of  antiquity,  was  of  an 
 ancient  family,  and  was  born  at  Arpinum, 
 B.  c.  105.  His  talents  were  manifested  at 
 an  early  age,  and  they  were  cultivated  by 
 I  the  most  eminent  masters.  His  first  ap- 
 pearance at  the  bar  as  an  advocate  was  in 
 his  twenty-sixth  year,  and  his  success 
 against  a  freed  man  of  Sylla  rendered  it 
 prudent  for  him  to  quit  Rome  for  a  while. 
 He,  therefore,  retired  to  Athens,  and  pur- 
 sued his  studies.  On  his  return  to  Rome 
 he  rapidly  rose  to  distinction  as  a  pleader. 
 After  having  served  the  offices  ot  quaestor 
 in  Sicily,  and  of  aedile  and  praetor  in  the 
 Roman  capital,  he  attained  the  dignity  of 
 consul.  While  he  held  this  high  station 
 he  gained  the  glorious  title  of  father  of  his 
 country,  and  second  founder  of  the  republic, 
 by  frustrating  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline. 
 It  was  not  long,  however,  before  he  was 
 driven  into  exile  by  the  intrigues  of  his 
 enemy  Clodius,  and  he  took  refuge  at  Thes- 
 sakmica.  But  he  was  soon  unanimously 
 recalled  by  the  senate  and  people,  in  a  man- 
 ner which  was  highly  honourable  to  him. 
 In  his  fifty-sixth  year  he  was  proconsul  in 
 Cilicia,  and  made  a  successful  campaign 
 against  the  Parthians.  He  espoused  the 
 cause  of  Pompey  against  Caesar,  but  was 
 reconciled  to  the  latter  after  the  battle  of 
 Pharsalia.  He  at  length  fell  a  victim  to 
 the  resentment  of  Antony,  to  whom  he  was 
 ungratefully  sacrificed  by  Octavius,  and  his 
 head  and  hands  were  placed  upon  the  ros- 
 trum of  Rome,  B.  c.  43.  As  an  orator, 
 Cicero  has  but  one  rival;  as  a  writer  he 
 possesses  transcendent  merits.  In  private 
 life,  with  some  few  exceptions,  such  as  di- 
 
CIN 
 
 vorcmg  his  wife  for  gain,  his  conduct  was 
 entitled  to  praise;  but  he  was  deficient  in 
 political  courage;  and  even  his  wondrous 
 powers  are  inadequate  to  afford  a  palliation 
 for  his  inordinate  vanity. 
 
 CIMABUE,  John,  who  bears  the  hon- 
 ourable title  of  the  Father  of  Modern  Paint- 
 ers, was  born  at  Florence,  in  1240;  dis- 
 played an  early  fondness  for  drawing;  and, 
 with  no  other  masters  than  some  indifferent 
 Greek  artists,  soon  became  the  first  painter 
 of  his  age.  His  works  were  regarded  with 
 enthusiasm  by  his  fellow  citizens,  and  sov- 
 ereigns visited  him  in  his  painting  room. 
 He  died  in  1300. 
 
 CIMAROSA,  Dominic,  was  born  at 
 Naples,  in  1754,  and  studied  under  Aprile 
 and  Fenaroli.  He  soon  acquired  fame  as 
 a  dramatic  composer,  and  was  invited  to 
 Petersburg!!  by  the  Empress  Catherine. 
 He  was  subsequently  conductor  of  the 
 Italian  opera  at  Vienna;  alter  which  he 
 returned  to  his  native  country.  Being  a 
 partisan  of  reform  in  Italy,  he  very  nar- 
 rowly escaped  from  being  punished  with 
 death,  on  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
 from  Naples  in  1799.  He  died  at  Vienna, 
 in  1801.  More  than  a  hundred  excellent 
 operas  were  composed  by  him,  of  which 
 one  of  the  most  popular  is  II  Matrimonio 
 Segreto.  His  modesty  was  equal  to  his 
 talent. 
 
 CIMON,  an  Athenian  general,  was  dis- 
 sipated in  his  youth;  but  became  virtuous 
 as  he  attained  riper  years.  At  the  battle 
 of  Salamis  he  greatly  distinguished  him- 
 self; and,  as  admiral  of  the  Grecian  fleet, 
 he  subsequently  obtained  many  splendid 
 victories  over  the  Persians.  Among  his 
 exploits  was  the  recovery  of  the  Chersone- 
 sus.  He  was,  however,  banished  through 
 the  influence  of  his  enemies;  but  was  soon 
 recalled,  and  began  a  new  career  of  glory. 
 He  died  B.  c.  449,  aged  fifty -one,  while 
 besieging  Citium,  in  Cyprus. 
 
 CINCHON,  The  Countess  of.  This  lady, 
 the  wife  of  the  viceroy  of  Peru,  was  the 
 first  person  who  brought  the  Peruvian  bark 
 to  Europe,  and  made  known  its  virtues. 
 This  took  place  in  1632.  In  honour  of 
 her,  Linnaeus  gave  the  name  of  Cinchona 
 to  the  genus  of  plants  by  which  the  bark  is 
 produced. 
 
 CINCINNATUS, Lucius  Quinctius, 
 one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  the  Romans, 
 flourished  in  the  fifth  century  B.  c.  The 
 payment  of  a  heavy  fine  for  his  son  reduced 
 him  to  cultivate  a  small  farm  with  his  own 
 hands.  From  this  situation,  however,  he 
 was  thrice  called  by  his  countrymen,  once 
 as  consul,  and  twice  as  dictator,  when  they 
 were  in  circumstances  of  danger,  and  he 
 overcame  the  Volscii,  Equii,  and  Prenes- 
 tines.  He  lived  to  the  age  of  between 
 eighty  and  ninety. 
 
 CINNA, Lucius  Cornelius, a  Roman 
 
 CLA 
 
 179 
 
 general,  of  the  Cornelian  family,  was  one  of 
 the  most  active  and  sanguinary  partisans  of 
 Marius.  By  his  means  Marius  was  restor- 
 ed to  power.  Cinna  was  four  times  consul 
 He  was,  at  length,  slain  in  a  mutiny  by  a 
 centurion,  A.  u.  c.  6'b'S. 
 
 CINO  UA  PISTOIA,  an  Italian  civil- 
 ian and  poet,  was  born  at  Pistoia,  in  1270; 
 was  successively  professor  of  law  at  Trevi 
 so,  Perugia,  and  Florence;  and  died  in 
 1337.  His  Commentary  on  the  Code  was 
 highly  esteemed,  and  his  poems  are,  per- 
 haps, among  the  best  of  the  age  in  which 
 lie  lived.     Dante  was  his  friend. 
 
 CIPRIANI,  John  Baptist,  a  painter, 
 was  born  at  Pistoia,  in  Tuscany,  in  1727; 
 came  to  England  in  1755,  with  Sir  W. 
 Chambers  and  Mr.  Wilton ;  was  one  of 
 the  original  members  of  the  Royal  Acade- 
 my; and  died,  at  Chelsea,  in  1785,  leaving 
 behind  him  a  high  character  for  probity, 
 simplicity,  and  benevolence.  His  draw- 
 ings, many  of  which  were  engraved  by 
 Bartolozzi,  were  admired  for  grace,  cor- 
 rectness, and  fertility  of  invention. 
 
 CIRILLO,  Dominic,  an  eminent  bo- 
 tanist and  physician,  was  born,  in  1734,  at 
 Grugno,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and 
 displayed  an  early  fondness  for  the  study 
 of  botany  and  medicine.  During  his  trav- 
 els, he  attended  the  lectures  of  William 
 Hunter,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
 Royal  Society.  On  his  return  to  his  own 
 country,  he  became  deservedly  popular  for 
 his  talents  and  benevolence.  He  was  put 
 to  death  in  1799,  for  having  taken  a  part 
 in  the  establishment  of  the  Neapolitan  re- 
 public. Among  his  productions  are,  The 
 Philosophy  of  Botany;  a  Flora  of  rare 
 Neapolitan  Plants;  a  work  on  Prisons  and 
 Hospitals ;  and  another  on  Neapolitan  En- 
 tomology. 
 
 CLAIRAUT,  Alexis  Claude,  an 
 eminent  geometrician,  was  born  at  Paris, 
 in  1713,  and  acquired  such  an  early  profi- 
 ciency in  geometry,  that  when  little  more 
 than  twelve  years  old  he  presented  to  the 
 Academy  of  Sciences  a  scientific  paper  on 
 four  remarkable  kinds  of  curves.  At 
 eighteen  he  became  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
 emy. He  was  one  of  the  mathematicians 
 sent  to  Lapland,  to  measure  a  degree  of  the 
 meridian.  He  died  in  1765.  Among  his 
 works,  all  of  which  are  valuable,  are,  Ele- 
 ments of  Geometry ;  Elements  of  Algebra ; 
 a  Theory  of  the  Moon ;  and  a  Theory  of 
 the  Nature  of  Comets. 
 
 CLAIRON,  Clara,  Josepha  de  la 
 Tude,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  actresses 
 of  France,  was  born,  in  1723,  near  Conde, 
 and  went  upon  the  stage  when  only  twelve 
 ypars  old.  Phedra  was  the  character  in 
 which  she  first  displayed  all  her  theatrical 
 talents.  In  1765  she  quitted  the  stage, 
 after  which  she  was  for  many  years  the 
 mistress  of  the  margrave  of  Anspach.    She 
 
ISO  CLA 
 
 died  in  1803.  Clairon  was  insufferably 
 arrogant,  and  her  private  life  was  licen- 
 tious.    She  wrote  her  own  Memoirs. 
 
 CLAPPERTON,  Hugh,  was  burn  at 
 Annan,  in  Scotland,  in  1788,  and  was 
 apprenticed  to  the  sea-service.  Having 
 inadvertently  violated  the  excise  laws, by 
 conveying  ashore  a  few  pounds  of  ruck  Bah, 
 fie  was  sent  on  board  of  a  man  of  war, 
 where  he  was  speedily  promoted  to  the 
 rank  of  midshipman.  His  zeal  and  activ- 
 ity, his  useful  and  amusing  talents,  made 
 him  a  general  favourite;  and,  in  1S14,  he 
 was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant,  and 
 appointed  to  tlie  command  of  the  Confiance 
 schooner,  on  Lake  Erie.  In  1817,  he  re- 
 turned to  England,  and  remained  on  half- 
 pay  till  1822,  when  he  was  chosen  to 
 accompany  Dr.  Oudney  and  Lieutenant 
 Denham,  on  an  expedition  to  penetrate 
 into  the  heart  of  Africa.  In  this  expedi- 
 tion Oudney  died,  but  Clapperton  and  his 
 companion  greatly  extended  our  knowledge 
 of  African  geography.  After  having  been 
 at  home  less  than  six  months,  he  was  a 
 second  time  dispatched  to  Africa,  in  No- 
 vember, 1825.  He  succeeded  in  again 
 reaching  Sackatoo,  but  there  his  career 
 was  closed  by  disease,  April  13,  1827. 
 
 CLARENDON,  Edward  HYDE, earl 
 f>f,  was  born,  in  1608,  at  Dinton,  in  Wilt- 
 shire; studied  ;it  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford, 
 and  the  Middle  Temple;  and  was  called 
 to  the  bar  His  hist  appearance  in  llie 
 Commons  was  in  1640,  aa  member  for 
 Wbottda  Bassett,  and  he  sat  for  Saltash  in 
 the  Long  Parliament.  At  the  outset  he 
 was  desirous  to  see  a  redress  of  grievances, 
 but  he  soon  became  convinced  that  the  pre- 
 vailing party  designed  to  overthrow  the 
 kingly  and  ecclesiastical  establishment, 
 and  he  consequently  threw  his  weight  into 
 the  scale  of  the  king.  He  joined  Charles 
 I.  at  York,  who  knighted  him,  and  ap- 
 pointed him  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
 and  a  privy  counsellor.  In  1644  he  was 
 one  of  the  royal  commissioners  at  Ux- 
 bridge.  When  the  king's  cause  was  ru- 
 ined, Hyde  retired  to  Jersey,  where  he 
 resided  for  nearly  three  years,  and  wrote 
 a  considerable  part  of  his  History  of  the 
 Rebellion.  From  164S  till  the  Restora- 
 tion he  was  employed  by  Charles  II.  on  the 
 continent,  at  Paris,  Antwerp,  Madrid,  and 
 other  places,  and  suffered  severely  from  in- 
 digence. With  the  Restoration,  brighter 
 prospects  dawned  on  him.  He  had,  in 
 1657,  obtained  the  then  barren  honour  of 
 being  made  lord  chancellor;  he  was  now 
 elected  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Ox- 
 ford, created  Lord  Hyde,  and  soon  after, 
 earl  of  Clarendon,  and  received  some  grants 
 from  the  crown.  In  his  judicial  capacity 
 his  conduct  was  irreproachable;  but  tome 
 of  his  political  measures  it  is  impossible 
 not  to  condemn.      It  was   not  long  before 
 
 CLA 
 
 he  became  unpopular,  and  the  kindness  of 
 his  master  began  to  cool.     At  last,  in  Au- 
 gust. 1667,  he  was  removed  from   all  his 
 employments.     Not  satisfied  with  this,  the 
 <  'ominous  proceeded  to  impeach  him,  and 
 Clarendon  found  it  prudent  to  go  into  vol- 
 untary exile.     After  having  resided  seven 
 years    in   France,  whence    he    more  than 
 once  vainly  solicited   to  be    recalled,   he 
 died  at   Rouen,  December  7,  1674.     Be- 
 |  sides  his  History  of  the  Civil  War,  which, 
 J  in  spite  of  some  defects  in  the  style,  and 
 I  some  erroneous  principles,  is  an  admirable 
 I  work,  he  is  the  author  of  an  Account  of 
 I  his  own  Life;   and  of  a  folio  volume  of 
 Miscellaneous  Pieces.  His  daughter,  Anne, 
 married  James,  duke  of  York,  afterwards 
 James  II. 
 
 CLARENDON,  Henry,  earl  of,  the 
 son  of  the  chancellor,  was  born  in  1638; 
 opposed  the  Exclusion  bill  with  great  ve- 
 hemence; was  appointed  lord  lieutenant 
 of  Ireland  by  James  II.,  but  soon  recalled  ; 
 was  for  a  while  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
 at  the  revolution;  and  died  in  retirement, 
 in  1709.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the  Irish 
 Rebellion ;  and  his  Diary  and  State  Let- 
 ters were  published  in  1763. 
 
 CLARKE,  Abraham,  a  signer  of  the 
 declaration  of  independence,  was  born  in 
 New  Jersey  in  1726.  He  was  a  delegate 
 to  the  continental  congress,  a  member  of 
 the  general  convention  which  framed  the 
 constitution,  and  a  representative  in  the 
 second  Congress  of  the  United  States.  He 
 died  in  1794.  He  was  a  man  of  exempla- 
 ry piety  and  unsullied  integrity. 
 
 CLARKE,  George  Rogers,  colonel 
 in  the  service  of  Virginia  against  the  In- 
 dians in  the  revolutionary  war,  distin- 
 guished himself  greatly  in  that  post,  and 
 rendered  efficient  service  to  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  frontiers.  In  1779  he  descended 
 the  Ohio  and  built  fort  Jefferson  on  the 
 eastern  bank  of  the  Mississippi;  in  1781 
 he  received  a  general's  commission.  He 
 died  in  1817  at  his  seat  near  Louisville, 
 Kentucky. 
 
 CLARKE,  Samuel,  a  native  of  Brack- 
 ley,  in  Northamptonshire,  was  bom  in 
 1623,  educated  at  Merton  College,  Oxford, 
 and  died,  in  1669,  superior  beadle  of  lav/ 
 and  architypographus  to  the  university. 
 He  is  the  author  of  Septimum  Bibliorum 
 Polyglottum,  Vaiise  Lectiones;  and  ^ci- 
 entia  Metrica  et  Rythmica;  and  he  gave 
 assistance  to  Walton's  Polyglott. 
 
 CLARKE,  Dr.  Samuel,  eminent  as 
 a  theologian  and  a  philosopher,  was  the 
 son  of  an  alderman  of  Norwich,  at  which 
 city  he  was  born,  in  1675.  At  Cains  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge,  he  was  conspicuous  for 
 talent,  published  a  new  translation  of  Ro- 
 hault,  and  contributed  greatly  to  diffuse 
 the  philosophical  principles  of  Newton. 
 Clarke  having  taken  orders,  Moore,  bish- 
 
CLA 
 
 op  of  Norwich,  appointed  him  his  domes- 
 tic chaplain,  and  gave  him  the  rectory  of 
 Drayton,  and  a  parish  in  Norwich.  At  a 
 later  period,  he  introduced  him  to  Queen 
 Anne,  who  m;ide  him  one  of  her  chaplains, 
 and  presented  him  to  the  rectory  of  St. 
 James's,  on  which  occasion  he  took  his 
 doctor's  degree  at  Cambridge,  and  sup- 
 ported a  thesis  with  universal  applause. 
 By  this  time  he  had  acquired  extensive 
 reputation  both  as  a  learned  man  and  a 
 preacher.  He  had  twice  preached  the 
 Boyle  lecture,  entered  into  controversy  with 
 Toland  and  Dodwell,  translated  Newton's 
 Optics  into  Latin,  and  published  a  Para- 
 phrase of  St.  Matthew,  and  other  works. 
 Between  1712  and  1729,  he  gave  to  the 
 world  an  edition  of  Caesar's  Commentaries, 
 a  Latin  version  of  Homer's  Iliad,  a  Con- 
 troversy with  Leibnitz,  Remarks  on  Col- 
 lins's  Inquiry,  a  volume  of  Sermons,  and 
 the  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity ;  of 
 which  the  last  drew  upon  him  the  censure 
 of  the  Convocation.  The  mastership  of 
 the  Mint  was  offered  to  him  on  the  death 
 of  Newton,  but  he  declined  it;  the  master- 
 ship of  Wigston's  Hospital,  at  Leicester, 
 he  accepted.  Dr.  Clarke  died  of  pleurisy, 
 May  11,  1729.  Ten  volumes  of  his  Ser- 
 mons, and  an  Exposition  of  the  Catechism, 
 were  published  after  his  death.  Clarke 
 was  a  man  of  profound  learning,  an  acute 
 reasoner,  amiable  in  his  disposition,  and 
 unimpeachable  in  his  conduct. 
 
 CLARKE,  Edward  Daniel,  a  son 
 of  the  author  of  Letters  on  the  Spanish 
 Nation,  was  born  in  1767,  and  educated 
 at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge.  In  1794,  he 
 accompanied  Lord  Berwick  to  Italy,  and, 
 in  1799,  he  set  out,  with  Mr.  Cripps,  on 
 a  tour  which  extended  over  the  whole  of 
 Scandinavia,  and  through  Russia,  Circas- 
 sia,  Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Pales- 
 tine, Egypt,  and  Greece,  and  was  not  ter- 
 minated till  1802.  By  his  exertions  the 
 library  of  Cambridge  was  enriched  with 
 nearly  a  hundred  volumes  of  manuscripts, 
 and  the  colossal  statue  of  the  Eleusinian 
 Ceres.  He  was  rewarded  with  the  degree 
 of  LL.  D.  by  the  University.  He  also  ob- 
 tained for  this  country  the  sarcophagus  of 
 Alexander,  on  which  he  published  a  Dis- 
 sertation. His  Travels  form  five  volumes, 
 4to.  Shortly  after  his  return  he  was  in- 
 stituted to  the  rectory  of  Harlton,  in  Cam- 
 bridgeshire. In  1806  he  began,  at  the 
 university,  a  series  of  mineralogical  lec- 
 tures, and,  in  1808,  a  professorship  of 
 mineralogy  being  founded,  he  was  ap- 
 pointed to  the  chair.  The  lectures  which 
 he  delivered  in  that  capacity  were  highly 
 popular,  and  his  experiments  with  the  oxy- 
 hydrogen  blowpipe  were  productive  of  im- 
 portant scientific  results.  Dr.  Clarke  died 
 in  Pall  Mall,  March  9,  1821. 
 
 CLAUDE   LORRAINE,    whose   real 
 
 CLA 
 
 181 
 
 name  was  Claude  GELEE,  was  born,  in 
 1600,  in  the  diocese  of  Toul.  His  parents 
 were  pour,  and  he  was  apprenticed  to  a 
 pastry-cook.  Escaping  from  this  unpoeti- 
 cal  occupation,  he  obtained  some  instruc- 
 tions in  drawing,  and  made  his  way  to 
 Rome,  where  lie  learned  the  rudiments  of 
 painting  from  Tassi.  By  the  time  that  he 
 was  thirty  he  had  acquired  a  high  reputa- 
 tion. His  fame  continued  to  spread  more 
 widely  till  his  decease,  which  took  place 
 at  Rome,  in  1682.  Nature  was  the  con- 
 stant object  of  his  study,  and  the  result  of 
 his  observations  he  transferred  to  the  can- 
 vass with  unrivalled  felicity. 
 
 CLAUDE,  John,  a  ceiebrated  French 
 Calvinist  minister,  was  born  at  Sauvetat, 
 in  1619,  studied  at  Montauban,  and  was 
 ordained  in  1645.  He  was  considered  as 
 the  most  able  and  eloquent  protestant  the- 
 ologian of  the  age,  and  distinguished  as  a 
 preacher,  and  in  controversy  against  Bos- 
 suet,  Nicole,  and  Arnauld,  all  of  them  for- 
 midable antagonists.  The  revocation  of 
 the  edict  of  Nantz  expelled  him  from  his 
 country,  and  he  died  at  the  Hague,  in 
 1687.  His  polemical  and  other  works  are 
 numerous. 
 
 CLAUDIANUS,  Claudius,  was  a  na- 
 tive of  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  and  flourish- 
 ed under  the  reigns  of  Theodosius,  Arca- 
 dius.  and  Honorius.  He  was  patronised 
 by  Stilicho,  and,  after  the  fall  of  his  pro- 
 tector, Claudian  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
 in  retirement.  The  time  of  his  death  is 
 not  known.  Among  the  secondary  Roman 
 poets  he  is  entitled  to  a  distinguished 
 place. 
 
 CLAUDIUS,  Tiberius  Drusus,  em- 
 peror of  Rome,  uncle  of  Caligula,  was 
 born  B.  c.  9.  at  Lyons,  and  was  originally 
 called  Germanicus.  After  having  passed 
 fifty  years  of  physical  and  moral  weakness, 
 he  was  raised  to  the  throne  on  the  death 
 of  Caligula.  At  first  he  performed  some 
 praiseworthy  acts,  but  he  soon  became 
 contemptible,  and  was  finally  poisoned  by 
 his  wife  Agrippina,  A.  I).  54. 
 
 CLAUDIUS  II.,  Marcus  Aurelius 
 Flavius,  sur named  Gothicus,  emperor 
 of  Rome,  was  a  native  of  Illyria,  born  A. 
 D  214,  and  served  with  distinction  under 
 Decius,  Valerius,  and  Galliehus.  On  the 
 assassination  of  the  latter,  Claudius  was 
 placed  on  the  throne;  and,  by  his  virtues 
 and  his  victories,  he  proved  himself  worthy 
 of  empire.  He  defeated  Aureolus,  who 
 had  assumed  the  purple,  and  he  then 
 marched  against  the  Goths.  At  Naissa, 
 (now  Nissa,  in  Servia),  he  overthrew  them 
 in  a  sanguinary  battle;  and  he  followed 
 up  his  success  with  such  vigour  that  he  ex- 
 terminated the  invading  army  of  more  than 
 300,000  men.  He  died  shortly  after,  at 
 Sirmium,  a.  d.  270. 
 
 CLAVIGERO,  Francis  Xavier,  a 
 
182 
 
 CLE 
 
 native  of  Vera  Cruz,  in  Mexico,  born  about 
 1720,  was  a  Jesuit,  and  resided  in  that 
 country  for  thirty-six  years.  On  the  ex- 
 pulsion of  his  order  from  America,  he 
 settled  at  Cesena,  in  Italy,  and  employed 
 his  leisure  in  writing  a  History  of  Mexico, 
 which  was  published,  in  1780  and  1781, 
 in  four  volumes,  8vo. ;  and  which,  though 
 defective  in  some  points,  contains  much 
 valuable  information. 
 
 CLA  YTON,  Rob  f.rt,  a  son  of  the  dean 
 of  Killala,  was  born  at  Dublin,  in  1695; 
 was  educated  at  Westminster   School  and 
 Trinity  College,  Dublin;   and  rose  succes- 
 sively to  the   bishoprics  (if  Killala,  Cork, 
 and  Clogher.     Having  rendered  his  ortho- 
 doxy doubtful,  he  was  on  the  eve  of  being 
 deprived  of  his  bishopric,  when  he  died, 
 of  a  nervous   disorder,  in   1758.     Among j 
 his    works    are,    An    Introduction    to    the 
 History   of  the  Jews;    A  Dissertation  on  I 
 Prophecy;    An    Essay  on   Spirit;   and   Aj 
 Vindication  of  the  Old  and   l\ew   Testa- j 
 ment. 
 
 CLEANTHES,    a    stoic    philosopher,] 
 born  at  Assus,  in  Lydia,  was  originally  a  j 
 wrestler,  but  went  to  Athens,  and  studied  j 
 philosophy,  first  under  Crates,  and  lastly! 
 under   Zeno;    maintaining  himself,  mean- 1 
 while,  by  performing  the   most  laborious 
 offices.     When  Zeno  died,  Cleanthes  was 
 deemed    worthy    of   supplying   his    place. 
 He    starved    himself   to    death   at  a    very 
 advanced  age.     Cleanthes  flourished  about 
 260  b.  c. 
 
 CLEAVER,  William,  a  critic  and  di-i 
 vine,  was  born  at  Twyford,  Berks,  in  1742; 
 was  educated  at  Oxford;  became  principal 
 of  Brazenose  College,  in  1785;  successively 
 filled  the  bishoprics  of  Chester,   Bangor,  '< 
 and   St.    Asaph;   and  died   in    1815.     He 
 wrote  Sermons;    Observations  on   Herbert, 
 Marsh's    Dissertation;   and   Directions  to 
 the  Clergy  on  the  Choice  of  Books;   and! 
 edited  the  Grenville  Homer. 
 
 CLEGHORX,  Georgk,  a  physician, 
 was  born   near  Edinburgh,  in   1716;   was 
 educated  in  that  city;   became  a  pupil  of 
 Dr.    Alex.    Munro;    and    was   one    of   the 
 founders  of  the   Royal   Medical   Society  ofj 
 the  Scottish  Metropolis.     After  having  re-! 
 sided    for    thirteen    years   at   Minorca,   as  I 
 armv  surgeon,  he  settled  at   Dublin,  where 
 he  acquired  a  well  merited  reputation.     He 
 died  rn  1789.     Hi.--  Treatise  on  the  Dis- 
 eases of  Minorca  is  honourable  to  his  skill' 
 and  talent.     Cleghorn  is  considered  as  one 
 of  the  first  who  employed   vegetable  acids 
 in  putrid  and  intermittent  fevers. 
 
 CLEMENS,  Titos  Flavius,  known 
 as  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  or  Clemen!  of 
 Alexandria,  one  of  the  fathers  ol  the  church, 
 and  distinguished  for  learning  and  elo- 
 quence, was  born  about  v.  D.  217;  was 
 converted  to  Christianity;  and  succeeded 
 Pantamus    in    the    catechetical    school    of 
 
 CLE 
 
 Alexandria.  The  time  and  place  of  his 
 death  are  unknown.  The  best  edition  of 
 his  theological  works  is  that  by  Potter,  in 
 two  folio  volumes. 
 
 CLEMENT  XIV.  Pope,  whose  name 
 was  Lalrknce  Ganganelli,  was  born 
 at  St.  Arcangelo,  near  Rimini,  in  1705; 
 obtained  the  cardinal's  hat  in  1759;  was 
 raised  to  the  pontificate  in  1764;  and  died 
 in  1775.  The  Jesuits  were  suppressed  by 
 him  in  1773.  Clement  was  one  of  the 
 most  enlightened,  benevolent,  and  disin- 
 terested men  that  ever  wore  the  tiara.  He 
 founded  the  Museum  which  is  now  called 
 the  Pio-CIementine.  The  Letters  attribut- 
 ed to  him  are  spurious. 
 
 CLEMENT,  John  Mary  Bernard, 
 a  critic,  to  whom  Voltaire  gave  the  name 
 of  Inclement,  was  born  at  Dijon,  in  1742, 
 and  died  at  Paris,  in  1812.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Medea,  a  tragedy;  Satires, 
 translations  from  Achilles  Tatius,  Cicero, 
 and  Tasso ;  and  various  severe  criticisms 
 on  Voltaire,  Laharpe,  and  other  eminent 
 writers. 
 
 CLEOBULUS,  one  of  the  seven  wise 
 men  of  Greece,  was  the.  son  of  Evagoras, 
 of  Lindus,  in  the  isle  of  Rhodes;  though 
 some  declare  him  to  have  been  born  in 
 Caria.  He  died,  B.  c.  564,  at  the  age  of 
 seventy.  His  daughter,  Cleobuhna,  was 
 celebrated  for  her  talents. 
 
 CLEOMENES,  an  Athenian  sculptor, 
 is  said  to  have  lived  about  180,  B.  c.  To 
 him  is  attributed  the  inimitable  statue  of 
 the  Medicean  Venus.  He  also,  a?  Pliny 
 tells  us,  produced  an  admirable  group, 
 representing  The  Muses,  which  was  called 
 The  Thespiades. 
 
 CLEOPATRA,  queen  of  Egypt,  was 
 the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Auletes.  She 
 was  successively  the  mistress  of  Julius 
 Caesar  and  of  Anthony,  by  the  former  of 
 whom  she  had  a  son.  She  put  an  end  to 
 her  existence  by  means  of  an  asp,  B.  c.  30, 
 to  avoid  being  exhibited  in  the  triumph  of 
 Augustus  at  Rome.  With  her  ended  the 
 kingdom  of  Egypt. 
 
 CLERFAYT,  Francis  Sebastian 
 Charlks  Joseph  ue  CROIX,  Count 
 de,  an  able  officer,  was  born,  in  1733,  at 
 Binch,  in  Ilaiiiault,  and  served  with  so 
 much  distinction  in  the  seven  years'  war, 
 that  he  was  one  of  the  first  who  received 
 the  cross  of  Maria  Theresa.  From  the 
 conclusion  of  that  war  till  1788  Clerfayt 
 lived  in  the  bosom  of  his  family,  cultivat- 
 ing his  estate,  and  gaining  universal  es- 
 teem. During  that  year  and  the  following 
 he  took  an  active  part  in  the  contest  with 
 the  Turks.  In  1792,  he  commanded  the 
 Austrian  corps  in  Champagne;  and  in  the 
 campaigns  of  1793  and  1794  he  sustained 
 bis  reputation,  though  in  the  latter  he  was 
 overborne  by  a  superior  force.  In  1795  he 
 was  made  field- marshal,   and  commander- 
 
CLI 
 
 in-chief  on  the  Rhine,  and  he  then  closed 
 his  military  career  by  completely  foiling  the 
 republicans.  He  died  at  Vienna,  in  1798, 
 and  that  city  erected  a  splendid  monument 
 to  his  memory. 
 
 CLEVELAND,  or  CLIEVELAND, 
 John,  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  was  born  at 
 Loughborough,  in  Leicestershire,  in  1613, 
 and  was  educated  at  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge. Previously  to  and  during  the  war 
 between  Charles  I.  and  his  parliament,  he 
 was  an  active  satirist  of  the  republicans, 
 and  his  productions  enjoyed  great  popular- 
 ity among  his  own  party.  The  Rebel  Scot 
 was  his  first  satire.  He  was  taken  prison- 
 er at  Newark,  but  Cromwell  released  him. 
 He  died  in  1659.  His  poems  went  through 
 many  editions,  but  are  now  seldom  read. 
 
 CLIFTON,  William,  was  the  son  of 
 a  wealthy  quaker  in  Philadelphia,  and  was 
 born  in  1772.  He  is  said  to  have  mani- 
 fested an  eager  love  of  literature  at  a  very 
 early  age,  and  as  his  health  was  very  feeble, 
 he  was  not  educated  with  a  view  to  any 
 particular  profession.  His  earliest  per- 
 formances were  various  satirical  effusions 
 in  prose  and  verse  upon  the  most  prominent 
 
 Eolitical  topics  of  the  day.  The  best  of 
 is  productions  is  the  Epistle  to  Mr.  Gif- 
 ford,  published  anonymously  in  the  first 
 American  edition  of  Mr.  Gift'ord's  poems. 
 He  died  in  December  1799. 
 
 CLIFFORD.  See  Cumberland. 
 CLINTON,  Sir  Henry,  an  English 
 general,  served  in  the  Hanoverian  war,  and 
 was  sent  to  America  in  1775,  with  the  rank 
 of  major-general.  He  distinguished  him- 
 self at  the  battle  of  Blinker  hill,  evacuated 
 Philadelphia  in  1778,  and  took  Charleston 
 in  1780;  for  this  last  service  he  was  thank- 
 ed bv  the  house  of  commons.     He  returned 
 
 CLI 
 
 183 
 
 estates.  He  was,  however,  frequently  call- 
 ed from  retirement  by  the  unsolicited  voice 
 of  his  fellow  citizens;  and  was  a  member 
 of  the  convention  for  the  adoption  of  tha 
 present  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
 He  died  in  1812. 
 
 CLINTON,  George,  vice-president 
 of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  the 
 county  of  Ulster,  New  York,  in  1739,  and 
 was  educated  to  the  profession  of  the  law. 
 In  1768  he  was  chosen  to  a  seat  in  the 
 colonial  assembly,  and  was  elected  a  dele- 
 gate to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775. 
 In  1776,  he  was  appointed  brigadier  gen- 
 eral of  the  militia  of  Ulster  County,  and 
 some  time  after  a  brigadier  in  the  army  of 
 the  United  States,  and  continued  during 
 the  progress  of  the  war  to  render  impor- 
 tant services  to  the  military  department. 
 In  April  1777,  he  was  elected  both  govern- 
 or, and  lieutenant  governor  of  New  York, 
 and  was  continued  in  the  former  office  for 
 eighteen  years.  He  was  unanimously  cho- 
 sen president  of  the  convention  which 
 assembled  at  Poughkeepsie,  in  1788,  to  de- 
 liberate on  the  new  federal  constitution. 
 In  1801  he  again  accepted  the  office  of 
 governor,  and  after  continuing  in  that 
 capacity  for  three  years,  he  was  elevated 
 to  the  vice-presidency  of  the  United  States; 
 a  dignity  which  lie  retained  till  his  death 
 at  Washington  in  1812.  In  private  he 
 was  kind  and  amiable,  and  as  a  public  man 
 he  is  entitled  to  respectful  remembrance. 
 
 CLINTON,  De  Witt,  was  born  in 
 1769,  at  Little  Britain,  in  Orange  county, 
 New  York.  He  was  educated  at  Colum- 
 bia college,  commenced  the  study  of  the 
 law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but 
 was  never  much  engaged  in  professional 
 practice.  He  early  imbibed  a  predilection 
 to  England  in  1782,  and  soon  after  published  I  for   political  life,  and   was  appointed  the 
 
 an  account  of  the  campaign  in  1781 — 83, 
 which  lord  Cornwallis  answered,  and  to 
 which  sir  Henry  made  a  reply.  He  was 
 governor  of  Gibraltar  in  1795,  and  also 
 member  for  Newark,  and  died  soon  after. 
 He  was  the  author  of  Observations  on 
 Stedman's  History  of  the  American  War. 
 CLINTON,  James,  was  born,  in  1736, 
 at  the  residence  of  his  father  in  Ulster 
 county,  New  York.  He  displayed  an  early 
 inclination  for  a  military  life,  and  held  suc- 
 cessively several  offices  in  the  militia  and 
 provincial  troops.  During  the  French  war 
 lie  exhibited  many  proofs  of  courage,  and 
 received  the  appointment  of  captain-com- 
 mandant  of  the  four  regiments  levied   for 
 
 private  secretary  of  his  uncle,  George 
 Clinton,  then  governor  of  the  state.  In 
 1797,  he  was  sent  to  the  legislature  from 
 the  city  of  New  York;  and  two  years 
 after  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  State 
 Senate.  In  1801  he  was  appointed  a 
 senator  of  the  United  States,  and  contin- 
 ued in  that  capacity  for  two  sessions.  He 
 retired  from  the  Senate  in  1S03,  in  conse- 
 quence of  his  election  to  the  mayoralty  of 
 New  York;  an  office  to  which  he  was 
 annually  reelected  with  the  intermission 
 of  but  two  years,  till  1S15,  when  he  was 
 obliged  to  retire  by  the  violence  of  party 
 politics.  In  1817,  he  was  elected,  almost 
 unanimously,   governor  of   the  state,   was 
 
 the   protection  of  the  western  frontiers  of  i  again  chosen  in  1820,  but  in  1822  declined 
 
 the  counties  Ulster  and  Orange.  In  1775 
 he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  third  regi- 
 ment of  New  York  forces,  and  in  the  same 
 year  marched  with  Montgomery  to  Quebec. 
 During  the  war  he  rendered  eminent  servi- 
 ces to  his  country,  and  on  the  conclusion  of 
 it    retired    to  enjoy   repose  on   his  ample 
 
 being  a  candidate  for  reelection.  In  1810, 
 Mr.  Clinton  had  been  appointed,  by  the 
 senate  of  his  state,  one  of  the  board  of 
 canal  commissioners,  but  the  displeasure  of 
 his  political  opponents,  having  been  txcil- 
 ed,  lie  was  removed  from  this  office  in  1823, 
 by  a  vote  of  both  branches  of  the  legisla 
 
184  CLI  COB 
 
 accomplish  his  purposes  were  always  in 
 accordance  with  steict  morality. 
 
 CLOUET,  M.  a  French  chemist  and 
 mathematician,  was  born  near  Mezieres, 
 in  1751.  France  is  indebted  to  him  for 
 having  perfected  the  manufacture  of  cast 
 steel,  and  for  an  imitation  of  the  Damas- 
 cus scymitar  blades.  He  died  at  Cayenne, 
 in  1801.  Clouet  was  no  less  remarkable  for 
 eccentricity  than  for  talent.  He  slept  but 
 little,  and  upon  straw,  made  his  own 
 clothes,  and  cooked  his  own  victuals, 
 which  were  of  the  coarsest  kind. 
 
 CLYMER,  George,  one  of  the  sign- 
 ers of  the  declaration  of  independence, 
 was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1739.  He 
 was  left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  seven 
 years,  and  after  the  completion  of  his 
 studies,  he  entered  the  counting  house  of 
 his  uncle.  When  the  difficulties  commen- 
 ced between  Great  Britain  and  the  colo- 
 nies, Mr.  Clymer  was  among  the  first  to 
 raise  his  voice  in  opposition  to  the  arbitrary 
 acts  of  the  mother  country,  and  was  chosen 
 a  member  of  the  council  of  safety.  In 
 1775  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  first 
 continental  treasurers,  but  resigned  this 
 office  soon  after  his  first  election  to  Con- 
 gress in  the  ensuing  year.  In  1780  he  was 
 again  elected  to  congress,  and  strongly 
 advocated  there  the  establishment  of  a 
 sent  as  a  writer  to  Madras.  In  1747,  how-  [  national  bank.  In  1796,  he  was  appointed 
 ever,  he  passed  from  the  civil  to  the  j  together  with  Colonel  Hawkins  and  Colo- 
 nel Pickins  to  negociate  a  treaty  with  the 
 
 ture.  This  insult  created  a  strong  reaction 
 in  popular  feeling,  and  Mr.  Clinton  was 
 immediately  nominated  for  governor,  and 
 elected  by  an  unprecedented  majority.  In 
 1826  he  was  again  elected,  but  he  died 
 before  the  completion  of  his  term.  He 
 expired  very  suddenlv,  whilst  sitting  in  his 
 library  after  dinner,  Feb.  11,  1828.  Mr. 
 Clinton  was  not  only  eminent  as  a  states- 
 man, but  he  occupied  a  conspicuous  rank 
 as  a  man  of  learning.  He  was  a  member 
 of  a  large  part  of  the  benevolent,  literary 
 and  scientific  societies  of  the  United 
 States,  and  an  honorary  member  of  several 
 foreign  societies.  His  productions  are 
 numerous,  consisting  of  his  speeches  and 
 messages  to  the  state  legislature ;  his  dis- 
 courses before  various  institutions;  his 
 speeches  in  the  senate  of  the  Union;  his 
 addresses  to  the  army  during  the  late  war; 
 his  communications  concerning  the  canal; 
 his  judicial  opinions;  and  various  fugitive 
 pieces.  His  national  services  were  of  the 
 highest  importance ;  and  the  Erie  Canal, 
 especially,  though  the  honour  of  projecting 
 it  may  belong  to  another,  will  remain  a 
 perpetual  monument  of  the  patriotism  and 
 perseverance  of  Clinton. 
 
 CLIVE,  Robert,  lord,  was  born  at 
 Styche,  in  Shropshire,  of  a  good  family, 
 in   1725,  and   in  his  nineteenth  year  was 
 
 military  service,  and  soon  displayed  those 
 talents  which  induced  Lord  Chatham  to 
 call  him  "a  heaven-bom  general."  The 
 first  occasion  on  which  he  distinguished 
 himself  was  at  the  storming  of  Devicottah. 
 In  1751  he  put  the  seal  to  his  reputation 
 
 Cherokee  and  Creek  Indians,  in  Georgia. 
 He  was  subsequently  president  of  the  Phi- 
 ladelphia bank,  and  the  Academy  of  Fine 
 Arts.     He  died  in  1S13. 
 
 CLUVIER,  or  CLUVERIUS,  Philip, 
 
 by  his  capture  and  subsequent  defence  of]  a  geographer,  was  born  at  Dantzic,  in 
 Arcot.  Having  visited  England,  in  1753,  1580,  and  was  originally  intended  for  the 
 he  was  gratefully  received  by  the  East!  legal  profession.  After  having  served  for 
 India  Companv,  and  he  returned  to  India  two  years  in  the  imperial  army,  and  tra- 
 with  the  rank   of  lieutenant-colonel,    and  veiled    into    England,    France,   Germany, 
 
 the    governorship    of    Fort    St.    David's 
 After  having  reduced  the   pirate  Angria, 
 
 and  Spain,   he  died   at  Leyden,  in  1623. 
 Cluvier  spoke  fluently  the  Greek  and  Latin, 
 
 he  sailed  to  Bengal,  where  he  recovered  and  seven  modern  languages.  He  is  the 
 Calcutta,  defeated  Surajah  Doulah,  at  the  i  author  of  De  Tribus  Rheni;  Germania 
 battle  of  Plassey,  dethroned  him,  and  es-j  Antiqua;  Sicilia  Antiqua ;  Italia  Antiqua; 
 tablished  Meer  Jattier  in  his  place.  He;  and  an  Introduction  to  Ancient  and  Mod- 
 also  destro\i(l  a  considerable  Dutch  force. :  ern  Geography. 
 
 By  these  exploits  he  gained  the  title  of  an|  COBB,  James,  a  dramatic  writer,  was 
 omrah  of  the  Mogul  empire,  an  Irish  peer-  born  in  1756,  and  became  secretary  to  the 
 age,  and  enormous  wealth.  In  1764  he  East  India  Company,  which  office  he  held 
 was  made  governor  of  Bengal,  whence,  in  till  his  death,  in  1818.  He  is  the  author 
 1767,  he  finally  returned  to  England.  A  of  The  Haunted  Tower;  The  Siege  of 
 severe  attack  was  made  upon  him,  in  1773,  Belgrade;  Love  in  the  East;  and  several 
 in  the  House  of  Commons,  respecting  his  other  comic  operas. 
 
 political  conduct  in  India;  but  the  motion '.  COBOURG,  Frederic  Josiah, 
 was  rejected,  and  a  vote  was  passed  de-  Prince  of  SAXE,  an  Austrian  general, 
 claratory  of  his  services.  His  death  took  commanded  in  1789  the  imperial  army  on 
 place,  by  his  own  hand,  in  the  November  the  Danube,  and  fought  with  varied  success 
 of  the  following  year.  Clive  must  be  con-  against  the  Turks.  In  1793  he  gained  the 
 sidered  as  the  founder  of  the  British  empire  battle  of  Nerwinde,  expelled  the  French 
 in  Hindostan;  but  it  is  more  than  doubtful  from  the  Netherlands, and  invaded  France; 
 whether  the  measures  which  he  adopted  to  but  in  the  following  year  he  was  defeated, 
 
COH 
 
 and  compelled  to  abandon  the  Low  Coun- 
 tries, and  he  then  resigned  his  command. 
 He  died  in  1815. 
 
 COCCEIUS,  John,  a  native  of  Bre- 
 men, born  in  1603,  was  appointed  theolo- 
 gical professor  at  Leyden,  in  1649,  and 
 held  that  office  till  his  death,  in  1669. 
 His  biblical  commentaries  and  writings  on 
 divinity  fill  no  less  than  twelve  folio 
 volumes.  He  was  a  believer  in  the  Mil- 
 lenium, and  also  held  that  the  words  and 
 phrases  of  scripture  ought  to  be  understood 
 in  every  sense  of  which  they  were  suscep- 
 tible; that,  in  fact,  they  did  mean  all  that 
 t  was  possible  for  them  to  mean.  He  gave 
 rise  to  a  sect  denominated  Cocceians. 
 
 COCKBURN,  Catherine,  whose 
 naiden  name  was  Trotter,  was  born  in 
 London,  in  1679,  and  died  in  1749.  She 
 was  a  woman  of  learning  and  talent.  At 
 ihe  age  of  seventeen,  she  wrote  her  tragedy 
 of  Agnes  de  Castro,  and  she  subsequently 
 produced  three  other  tragedies  and  a  com- 
 edy. In  her  twenty-second  year  she 
 printed  a  Defence  of  Locke's  Essay  on  the 
 Human  Understanding,  and,  at  a  much 
 later  period,  she  twice  resumed  the  pen  on 
 the  same  subject.  Her  last  work  was  Re- 
 marks on  Dr.  Rutherford's  Essay  on  Virtue. 
 Her  Miscellanies  were  collected  in  two 
 volumes,  8vo. 
 
 CODRINGTON,  Christopher,  a 
 native  of  Barbadoes,  born  in  1668,  was 
 educated  at  Oxford,  entered  the  army,  and 
 became  captain-general  of  the  Leeward 
 Islands.  He  died  in  1710.  A  few  of  his 
 Latin  and  English  verses  are  extant.  He 
 left  £.10,000  and  his  books  to  All  Soul's 
 College,  and  his  West  Indian  estates  to 
 the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
 Gospel. 
 
 COELLO,  Alonzo  Sanchez,  a  native 
 of  Portugal,  to  whom  Philip  II.  gave  the 
 name  of  the  Portuguese  Titian,  was  born 
 in  1515,  and  died  in  1590.  He  was  a  pupil 
 of  Moro.  Coello  was  in  high  favour  with 
 several  of  his  contemporary  sovereigns. 
 Many  of  his  works  are  in  the  Escurial ; 
 but  his  best  piece,  a  St.  Sebastian,  is  in 
 the  church  of  San  Geronimo  at  Madrid. 
 
 COGAN,  Thomas,  a  physician,  was 
 born,  in  1736,  at  Kibworth,  in  Leicester- 
 shire, and  was  educated  under  Dr.  Aikin. 
 In  conjunction  with  Dr.  Hawes  he  founded 
 the  Humane  Society.  A  considerable  part 
 of  his  life  was  spent  in  Holland.  He  died 
 in  1818.  He  translated  the  works  of 
 Camper,  and  published  some  original 
 works;  among  which  are,  The  Rhine,  or 
 A  Journey  from  Utrecht  to  Frankfort;  4 
 Philosophical  Treatise  on  the  Passions ; 
 Ethical  Questions;  and  Theological  Dis- 
 quisitions. 
 
 COHORN,  Baron  Menno,  who  is  called 
 the  Dutch  Vauban,  was  born  near  Leeu- 
 warden,  in  Friesland,  in  1641,  entered  t'-*e 
 
 COK 
 
 185 
 
 army  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and,  after 
 greatly  distinguishing  himself  in  numerous 
 battles  and  sieges,  rose  to  the  rank  of 
 lieutenant-general  and  chief  engineer.  He 
 died  in  1704.  Bergen  op  Zoom  is  his  mas- 
 terpiece in  fortification.  He  is  the  author 
 of  A  New  Method  of  fortifying  Places. 
 
 COKE,  Sir  Edward,  a  celebrated 
 judge,  was  born  at  Mileham,  in  Norfolk, 
 in  1549.  His  studies  were  pursued  at 
 Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  the  Inner 
 Temple.  In  1578  he  pleaded  his  first 
 cause,  and  was  appointed  reader  of  Lyons 
 Inn,  where  he  acquired  great  reputation 
 by  his  lectures.  The  fortune  which  he 
 gained  by  an  extensive  practice  he  increased 
 by  two  advantageous  marriages,  the  last  of 
 which  being  with  the  sister  of  Burleigh 
 gave  him  also  political  influence.  In  1592 
 and  1593  he  was  made  solicitor  and  attor- 
 ney general,  and  in  the  latter  office  dis- 
 graced himself  by  the  manner  in  which  he 
 conducted  the  prosecution  of  the  earl  of 
 Essex.  This  fault  he  repeated  in  his 
 prosecution  of  Raleigh.  In  1603  he  was 
 knighted ;  in  1606  appointed  chief  justice 
 of  the  Common  Pleas;  and  in  1615  was 
 raised  to  be  chief  justice  of  the  King's 
 Bench,  and  a  privy  counsellor.  As  a  judge 
 his  conduct  was  honourable  to  him.  In 
 1616,  however,  falling  into  disfavour  with 
 James  I.  he  was  dismissed  from  his  high 
 oftice,  and  from  the  council,  in  a  manner 
 which  was  more  disgraceful  to  the  monarch 
 than  to  the  judge.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
 that  Coke  endeavoured,  though  vainly,  to 
 recover  his  places  by  mean  concession  to 
 the  minion  Buckingham.  To  the  council 
 he  was,  indeed,  at  length  restored,  but  was 
 soon  expelled  again,  and  committed  to  the 
 Tower  for  his  spirited  and  patriotic  beha- 
 viour in  parliament.  The  hatred  which 
 he  had  thus  excited  he  continued  to  merit 
 during  the  remainder  of  his  senatorial 
 career,  from  1623  to  1628,  and  he  had  a 
 principal  share  in  framing  the  celebrated 
 Petition  of  Right.  He  died  at  Stoke 
 Pogies,  in  Buckinghamshire,  in  1634.  Pre- 
 eminent in  legal  knowledge,  acute,  and  of 
 a  solid  judgment,  Coke  had  none  of  those 
 fine    intellectual   qualities   which    shed  a 
 
186 
 
 COL 
 
 lustre  round  their  possessor.  It  is  only  as 
 a  judge  and  as  a  senator  that  he  can  be  re- 
 garded with  satisfaction.  His  works  may 
 he  considered  as  law  classics.  Amon<j  the 
 most  celebrated  of  them  are  his  Reports; 
 Book,  of  Entries;  and  Institutes  of  the 
 Laws  of  England. 
 
 COKE,  Dr.  Thomas,  an  active  mis- 
 sionary, was  born  at  Brecon,  in  South 
 Wales,  in  1747;  was  educated  at  Oxford; 
 and,  about  1775,  became  acquainted  with 
 Wesley,  whose  opinions  he  imbibed.  In 
 1784,  he  sailed  on  a  mission  to  America, 
 to  which  country  he  made  eight  subsequent 
 voyages,  and  his  efforts  were  crowned  with 
 much  success.  He  died  in  1814.  Dr. 
 Coke  is  the  author  of  A  Commentary  on 
 the  Bible;  A  History  of  the  West  Indies; 
 and  other  works. 
 
 COLARDEAU,  Charles  Peter,  a 
 French  poet,  was  born  at  Janville,  in 
 Beauce,  in  1732,  and  commenced  his  lite- 
 rary career  by  a  spirited  imitation  of  Pope's 
 Eloisa.  He  subsequently  produced  the 
 tragedies  of  Astarbe  and  Calista,  a  comedv, 
 and  several  poems.  These  procured  his 
 election  to  the  French  Academy,  but  he 
 died,  in  1776,  the  day  before  he  was  to 
 take  his  seat.  The  great  charm  of  his 
 works  is  the  beauty  of  the  versification. 
 Colardeau  was  modest,  friendly,  and  ab- 
 horred the  idea  of  giving  pain. 
 
 COLBERT,  John  Baptist,  a  French 
 minister  of  state,  was  born  at  Reims,  in 
 1619,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of 
 a  woollen  and  wine  merchant  of  that  city. 
 He  himself,  however,  claimed  descent  from 
 a  noble  Scotch  family,  a  younger  branch 
 of  which  settled  in  France  about  1281. 
 But,  if  not  illustrious  by  birth,  he  was  in- 
 disputably illustrious  by  talent.  Mazarin, 
 whom  he  had  served  with  equal  ability  and 
 zeal,  as  his  confidential  agent,  recom- 
 mended him  to  Louis  XIV.  as  worthy  of 
 being  implicitly  trusted;  and,  after  the 
 fal'  of  Fouquet,  the  sole  management,  of 
 tDfi  finances  was  committed  to  Colbert, 
 with  the  title  of  controller-general.  This 
 office  he  held  till  1683,  when  he  died,  worn 
 out  with  incessant  toil,  and  the  incessant 
 anxiety  and  vexation  arising  from  the  in- 
 trigues of  his  enemies.  During  his  ad- 
 ministration France  made  a  rapid  progress 
 in  power,  internal  prosperity,  and  the  cul- 
 tivation of  manufactures,  literature,  the 
 eciences,  and  the  arts.  It  has  been  just  I  v 
 remarked,  that  if  Louis  XIV.  gained  the 
 name  of  The  Great,  it  is  to  Colbert  that  he 
 is  indebted  for  that  glorious  appellation. 
 
 COLBERT,  John  Baptist,  Marquis 
 de  Torcv ,  a  nephew  of  the  minister,  was 
 born  in  1665  at  Paris,  and,  after  having 
 been  employed  as  a  negotiator  in  Portugal, 
 Denmark,  and  England,  filled  successively 
 the  posts  of  secretary  and  high  treasurer 
 of  state,  minister   for  foreign  affairs,  and 
 
 COL 
 
 superintendent  general  of  posts.  It  was 
 he  who,  in  the  privy  council,  led  the  way 
 in  advising  that  the  will  of  the  king  of 
 Spain  should  be  accepted;  and  he  contri- 
 buted, by  his  negotiations,  to  put  an  end  to 
 the  war  which  was  caused  by  that  accept- 
 ance. Torcy  was  deprived  of  his  offices 
 by  the  regent,  duke  of  Orleans.  He  died 
 in  1746.  His  Diplomatic  Memoirs  have 
 been  published  in  three  volumes. 
 
 COLDEN,  Cadwallader,  was  born 
 in  Dunse, Scotland,  in  1688.  After  study- 
 ing at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  he 
 turned  his  attention  to  medicine  and  mathe- 
 matical science  until  the  year  1708,  when 
 he  emigrated  to  Pennsylvania,  and  prac- 
 tised physic  with  much  reputation  till  1715. 
 He  then  returned  to  England,  and  attracted 
 some  attention  by  a  paper  on  Animal  Se- 
 cretion, which  was  read  by  Dr.  Halley 
 before  the  Royal  Society.  Again  repair- 
 ing to  America,  he  settled,  in  171S,  in  the 
 city  of  New  York,  and  relinquishing  the 
 practice  of  physic,  turned  his  attention  to 
 public  affairs,  and  became  successively 
 surveyor  general  of  the  province,  master  in 
 chancery,  member  of  the  council,  and  lieu- 
 tenant-governor. His  political  character 
 was  rendered  very  conspicuous  by  the  firm- 
 ness of  his  conduct  during  the  violent  com- 
 motions which  preceded  the  revolution. 
 In  1775  he  retired  to  a  seat  on  Long  Island, 
 where  he  died  in  September  of  the  follow- 
 ing year,  a  few  hours  before  nearly  one 
 fourth  part  of  the  city  of  New  York  was 
 reduced  to  ashes.  His  productions  were 
 numerous,  consisting  of  botanical  and 
 medical  essays.  Among  them  were  trea- 
 tises on  the  Cure  of  Cancer,  and  on  the 
 Virtues  of  the  Great  Water  Dock.  His 
 descriptions  of  between  three  and  four 
 hundred  American  plants  were  printed  in 
 the  Acta  Upsaliensia.  He  also  published 
 the  History  of  the  Five  Indian  Nations, 
 and  a  work  on  the  Cause  of  Gravitation, 
 afterwards  republished  by  Dodsley  under 
 the  title  of  The  Principles  of  Action  in 
 Matter.  He  left  many  valuable  manuscripts 
 on  a  variety  of  subjects. 
 
 COLET,  Dr.  John,  was  born  in  Lon- 
 don, in  1466;  was  educated  at  Oxford; 
 travelled  on  the  continent  for  seven  years ; 
 and  obtained  church  preferment  when  very 
 young.  In  1502,  he  was  made  dean  of 
 St.  Paul's;  in  which  capacity  his  endea- 
 vours to  restore  discipline  brought  on  him, 
 though  happily  without  effect,  a  charge  of 
 heresy.  In  1512,  he  founded  and  endowed 
 the  noble  institution  of  St.  Paul's  School, 
 for  153  scholars.     He  died  in  1519. 
 
 COLIGNT,  Gaspar  de,  admiral  of 
 France,  son  of  marshal  de  Coligni,  was 
 born  at  Chatillon  sur  Loing,  in  1517. 
 Entering  in  early  youth  on  the  career  of 
 arms,  he  distinguished  himself  at  Cerisoles, 
 Carignan,  Renti,  St.  Quentin,  and  on  many 
 
COL 
 
 other  occasions.  Placed  at  the  head  of 
 the  protestant  party,  he  fought  gallantly  at 
 Dreux,  Jarnac,  and  Montcontour,  and  suc- 
 ceeded in  obtaining  an  advantageous  peace. 
 After  having  so  often  braved  death  in  the 
 field,  he  perished  by  the  daggers  of  assas- 
 sins, in  the  horrible  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
 tholomew, August  24,  1572. 
 
 COLLE,  Charles,  secretary  and 
 reader  to  the  duke  of  Orleans,  was  born  at 
 Paris,  in  1709,  and  died  there,  in  1783. 
 His  comic  pieces  are  lively  and  witty.  The 
 Hunting  Party  of  Henry  IV.  is  one  of  the 
 most  popular  of  them.  As  a  song  writer 
 he  was  in  such  high  repute  as  to  be  called 
 the  Anacreon  of  the  age.  He  is  also  the 
 author  of  an  Historical  Journal,  published 
 twenty  years  after  his  death,  which  con- 
 tains much  bitter  criticism  on  many  au- 
 thors his  contemporaries. 
 
 COLLIER,  Jeremy,  an  eminent  non- 
 juring  divine,  was  born,  in  1630,  at  Stow 
 Qui,  in  Cambridgeshire.  He  took  his 
 degree  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  in 
 1676,  and  obtained  a  living,  which  he 
 resigned  for  the  lectureship  of  Gray's  Inn. 
 At  the  Revolution,  he  not  only  refused 
 the  oaths,  but  was  active  in  behalf  of  the 
 dethroned  monarch.  For  nearly  ten  years 
 he  continued  inveterately  hostile  to  the 
 government,  during  which  period  he  pub- 
 lished several  bitter  pamphlets,  was  twice 
 imprisoned,  and  at  length  outlawed.  His 
 most  indecorous  act  was,  in  concert  with 
 two  others,  his  attending  Friend  and  Per- 
 kins on  the  scaffold,  and  giving  them 
 public  absolution.  At  last  he  turned  his 
 talents  to  better  ends,  and  made  war  on 
 the  licentiousness  of  the  theatre.  His  first 
 work  on  this  subject  was  A  Short  View  of 
 the  Immorality  and  Profaneness  of  the 
 Stage.  The  wits  in  vain  opposed  him,  for 
 virtue  was  on  his  side;  and,  after  a  ten 
 years  struggle,  he  accomplished  his  object. 
 The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  various 
 literary  labours,  among  which  were  Essays; 
 a  translation  of  Moreri ;  an  Ecclesiastical 
 History  of  England  ;  and  Discourses  on 
 Practical  Subjects.  He  died  in  1726. 
 Collier  was  a  man  of  talents;  and,  how- 
 ever we  may  be  inclined  to  censure  his 
 political  principles,  it  would  be  unjust  to 
 deny  him  the  praise  of  having  been  an 
 honest  and  disinterested  man. 
 
 COLLIN,  Henry  de,  a  German  poet, 
 one  of  the  aulic  counsellors  belonging  to 
 the  financial  department,  was  born,  about 
 1772,  at  Vienna,  where  he  died  in  1811. 
 Among  the  German  tragic  dramatists  he 
 holds  a  distinguished  place.  His  War 
 Songs  are  full  of  animation.  Collin  left 
 unfinished  an  epic,  called  The  Rodolphiad. 
 COLLIN  D'HARLEVILLE,  John 
 Francis,  a  French  dramatist  and  poet, 
 was  born,  in  1755,  at  Maintenon,  in  the 
 department  of  the  Eure   and   Loire,  and 
 
 COL 
 
 187 
 
 died  at  Paris  in  1806.  The  Inconstant, 
 a  comedy,  acted  in  1786,  was  his  first 
 piece,  and  it  was  followed  by  the  Optimist, 
 Castles  in  the  Air,  and  twelve  or  thirteen 
 others,  some  of  which  retain  possession  of 
 the  stage.  His  works  have  been  collected 
 ID  four  volumes  8vo. 
 
 COLLINGWOOD,  Cuthbert,  lord, 
 was  born  at  Newcastle  in  1748,  and  en- 
 tered the  naval  service  in  his  thirteenth 
 year.  In  the  action  of  the  1st  of  June, 
 1794,  he  commanded  the  Prince,  admiral 
 Bowyer's  flag-ship;  and  in  the  action  off 
 Cape  St.  Vincent,  in  1797,  he  gallantly 
 seconed  his  friend  Nelson,  as  captain  of 
 the  Excellent.  In  1799,  1801,  and  1804, 
 he  rose  to  be  rear-admiral  of  the  white, 
 of  the  red,  and  of  the  blue ;  and  he  bore 
 a  part  in  the  fatiguing  blockade  of  Brest. 
 At  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  he  was  second 
 in  command,  and  he  carried  his  ship  into 
 action  in  such  a  manner  as  to  call  forth 
 from  Nelson  an  exclamation  of  delight. 
 His  services  were  rewarded  with  a  peer- 
 age, the  rank  of  vice-admiral,  and  the 
 command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet.  He 
 died,  off  Minorca,  March  7,  1810.  Com- 
 bining bravery  with  prudence,  indefatiga- 
 ble in  his  duty,  full  of  resources,  strictly 
 preserving  discipline,  yet  winning  the  love 
 of  his  men  by  justice  and  kindness,  Col- 
 lingwood  may  be  safely  held  up  as  a  model 
 to  every  officer  who  aspires  to  be  honour- 
 ably remembered  in  the  annals  of  his 
 country.  His  Correspondence,  which  has 
 been  published  since  his  death,  places  in  a 
 striking  light  his  virtues  and  his  talents. 
 
 COLLINS,  Anthony,  a  controversial 
 deist,  of  no  mean  talents,  was  born  at 
 Heston,  near  Hounslow,  in  1676;  was 
 educated  at  Eton,  and  King's  College, 
 Cambridge ;  and,  being  a  man  of  property, 
 spent  his  life  in  literary  pursuits,  and  in 
 performing  the  duties  of  a  magistrate. 
 He  died  in  1729.  His  religious  principles 
 brought  him  into  violent  collision  with 
 Bentley,  Chandler,  and  many  others. 
 Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned, 
 Priestcraft  in  Perfection;  A  Discourse  on 
 Freethinking;  A  Philosophical  Inquiry 
 concerning  Human  Liberty;   and  A  Dis- 
 
188 
 
 COL 
 
 course  on  the  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the 
 Christian  Religion. 
 
 COLLINS,  Arthur,  a  genealogist, 
 was  born  at  Exeter  in  1682,  and  died  at 
 Battersea  in  1760.  His  principal  works 
 are,  a  Peerage,  in  four  volumes;  a  Baron- 
 etage, in  five  volumes;  and  Lives  of  Lord 
 Burleigh  and  Edward  the  Black  Prince. 
 
 COLLINS,  William,  the  son  of  a  hat- 
 ter at  Chichester,  was  born  in  1720  or  1721, 
 and  received  his  education  at  Winchester, 
 and  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  While 
 at  Oxford,  he  published  his  Oriental 
 Eclogues.  In  1744  he  quitted  the  uni- 
 versity, and  took  up  his  abode  in  London 
 as  an  author.  His  projects  were  numer- 
 ous, but  want  of  patronage  or  want  of 
 diligence,  or  both,  prevented  them  from 
 being  executed.  He  published,  however, 
 his  Odes,  which,  to  the  disgrace  of  the 
 age,  were  utterly  neglected.  From  the 
 pecuniary  distress  which  he  suffered,  he 
 was  at  "length  relieved  by  a  legacy  of 
 .£2000,  but  fortune  came  too  late;  he 
 sank  into  a  state  of  nervous  imbecility, 
 and  died  at  Chichester,  in  1756.  His  Odes,  j 
 those  pearls  which  he  cast  before  swine, 
 have  given  him  a  place  among  the  greatest 
 lyrical  writers  of  his  country.  They  re- 
 main unsurpassed  in  vivid  imagination,  and 
 high  poetical  feeling  and  diction. 
 
 COLLIN  SON,  Peter,  F.  R.  S.  was 
 born  near  Kendal,  in  Westmoreland,  in 
 1694,  and  died  in  1768.  Many  valuable 
 trees  and  shrubs  in  our  gardens  were  in- 
 troduced by  Collinson,  who  carried  on  a 
 correspondence  in  every  part  of  the  world. 
 Linna?us,  with  whom  he  was  intimate,  gave 
 the  name  of  Collinsonia  to  a  genus  of  plants. 
 He  was  the  first  also  to  whom  Franklin 
 communicated  his  discoveries  in  electricity. 
 
 COLLOT  D'HERBOIS,  John  Mary, 
 one  of  the  most  sanguinary  characters  of 
 the  French  revolution,  was  born  at  Main- 
 tenon,  near  Chartres.  Originally  he  was 
 a  provincial  actor,  and  a  dramatist;  and, 
 though  he  gained  little  praise  in  those  ca- 
 pacities, he  was  esteemed  for  the  correct- 
 ness of  his  conduct.  In  that  conduct,  how- 
 ever, a  woeful  change  took  place,  partly 
 produced,  it  would  seem,  by  falling  into 
 habits  of  drunkenness.  He  became  one 
 of  the  most  violently  Jacobinical  members 
 of  the  Convention,  and  being  sent  on  a 
 mission  to  Lyons,  after  the  surrender  of 
 that  city,  he  committed  the  most  horrible 
 atrocities.  He,  however,  contributed  to 
 the  fall  of  Robespierre.  In  1795  he  was 
 transported  to  Cayenne,  and  he  died  there 
 in  1796. 
 
 COLLYER,  Joseph,  the  son  of  parents 
 both  of  whom  displayed  literary  talents, 
 was  born  in  London,  in  1745,  and  died 
 there  in  1827.  He  was  instructed  in  en- 
 graving by  Anthony  and  William  Walker, 
 attained   to   eminence,   and   was    elected 
 
 COL 
 
 Associate  Engraver  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
 Among  his  best  works  are,  The  Flemish 
 Wake  of  Teniers,  The  Venus  of  Sir  Joshua 
 Reynolds,  and  portraits  of  George  IV., 
 Queen  Charlotte,  and  Sir  William  Young. 
 
 COLMAN,  George,  born  at  Florence, 
 in  1733,  was  a  son  of  the  British  resident 
 to  the  Tuscan  court,  and  of  a  sister  of  the 
 countess  of  Bath.  His  education  he  re- 
 ceived at  Westminster  School,  and  at 
 Christ  Church,  Oxford;  and,  while  he 
 was  at  college,  he  published  The  Connois- 
 seur, conjointly  with  Bonnel  Thornton. 
 Law  he  studied  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  but 
 never  practised.  In  1760  he  made  his 
 first  attempt  as  a  dramatist,  by  bringing 
 out  at  Drury  Lane  his  lively  farce  of  Polly 
 Honeycombe,  which  met  with  great  suc- 
 cess. The  Jealous  Wife,  in  the  following 
 year,  established  his  character  as  a  comic 
 writer.  In  the  whole,  he  produced  thirty- 
 five  pieces,  a  few  of  which  continue  to  be 
 acted.  His  fortune  being  increased  by 
 legacies  from  Lord  Bath  and  General 
 Pulteney,  he  purchased  a  share  in  Covent 
 Garden  Theatre;  but  ultimately  sold  it, 
 and  became  the  proprietor  of  the  Hay- 
 market  Theatre.  In  1780,  a  derangement 
 of  his  intellects  took  place,  which  gradually 
 increased,  and  he  died,  in  1784,  in  a  luna- 
 tic asylum.  Colman  wrote  The  Genius, 
 and  many  other  pieces,  in  the  St.  James's 
 Chronicle,  which  was  his  property;  and 
 translated  Terence  and  Horace's  Art  of 
 Poetry,  to  the  latter  of  which  he  added  a 
 valuable  commentary. 
 
 COLOMA,  Don  Carlos,  marquis  of 
 Espina,  was  born  at  Alicant,  in  Spain,  in 
 1573;  served  with  distinction  in  the  Low 
 Countries;  was  governor  at  Cambray  and 
 in  the  Milanese,  and  ambassador  in  Ger- 
 many and  England ;  held  some  of  the 
 highest  offices  at  court;  and  died  in  1637. 
 He  wrote  the  Wars  of  the  Netherlands ; 
 and  translated  Tacitus. 
 
 COLONNA,  Victoria,  wife  of  Don 
 Ferdinand  Francis  d'Avalos,  marquis  of 
 Pescara,  was  born  in  1490.  She  was  one 
 of  the  most  accomplished  females  of  Italy ; 
 equally  remarkable  for  virtue  and  talents. 
 After  the  death  of  her  husband,  she  refused 
 the  hand  of  several  princes.  She  died  in 
 1547.  Her  poems  rank  among  the  most 
 happv  imitations  of  Petrarch. 
 
 COLQUHOUN,  Patrick,  a  native  of 
 Dumbarton,  in  Scotland,  born  in  1745, 
 was  brought  up  to  commerce,  and,  after 
 a  residence  of  five  years  in  America,  set- 
 tled as  a  merchant  at  Glasgow.  In  1789, 
 he  took  up  his  abode  in  London,  and  in 
 1792  was  appointed  a  police  magistrate. 
 He  resigned  in  1818,  and  died  in  1820. 
 His  best  known  works  are  treatises  On 
 the  Police  of  the  Metropolis,  and  On  the 
 Police  of  the  River  Thames.  He  is  also 
 the  author   of  various   tracts,   and   of  a 
 
COL 
 
 New  System  of  Education  for  the  Poor;  a 
 Treatise  on  Indigence;  and  a  Treatise  on 
 the  Population,  &c,  of  the  British  Empire. 
 COLSTON,  Edward,  a  munificent  and 
 philanthropic  merchant,  was  born  at  Bris- 
 tol in  1636,  and  acquired  a  splendid  fortune 
 in  the  Spanish  trade.  He  died  in  1721. 
 The  whole  life  of  Colston  seems  to  have 
 been  devoted  to  doing  good.  In  private 
 and  public  charities,  while  he  lived,  he  is 
 Bupposed  to  have  spent  more  than  £150,000. 
 He  founded  and  endowed  St.  Augustine's 
 School,  for  a  hundred  boys,  at  Bristol; 
 and  various  almshouses  and  benevolent 
 institutions  in  other  place?. 
 
 COM 
 
 189 
 
 COLUMBUS,  Christopher,  the  dis- 
 coverer of  the  new  world,  whose  real  name 
 was   Colombo,  was  born   in   the  Genoese 
 territory  in    1441,  but  whether  at  Genoa, 
 Savona,   Nervi,  or  Cogoreo,  was  long  a 
 matter  in  dispute.     That  it  was  at  Genoa 
 is  no  longer  a  matter  of  doubt.     It    has 
 been  asserted  that  his  origin  was  humble. 
 This  is  of  the  least  possible  consequence, 
 or    it    would   not  be    difficult    to   produce 
 evidence  that  he  was  wrell  descended.     He 
 studied  a  while  at  Pavia,  but  quitted  the  uni- 
 versity at  an  early  period  to  follow  a  mari- 
 time life.     Between  thirty  and  forty  years 
 were  spent  by  him  in  voyages  to  various 
 parts  of  the  world,  during  which  geometry, 
 astronomy,    and    cosmography,    occupied 
 much  of  his  attention.     At  length  he  settled 
 at  Lisbon,  where  he  married  the  orphan 
 daughter  of  Palestrello,  an  Italian  naviga- 
 tor.    His  geographical  investigations,  sup- 
 ported by  the  evidence  of  pieces  of  carved 
 wood,  trunks  of  trees,  and  canes,  drifted 
 across  the  Atlantic,  induced  him  to  believe 
 that,  by  stretching  across  the  ocean  in  a 
 westerly  direction,  the  shores  of  Eastern 
 Asia  might  be  reached,  and  he  resolved  to 
 obtain  from  some  sovereign  the  means  of 
 making  the  attempt.     Years  of  solicitation 
 were  spent  in  vain ;   his  proposals  were  not 
 listened  to  at  Genoa,  Lisbon,  or  London. 
 At  length  they  were  tardily  accepted  by 
 Ferdinand  and.  Isabella  of  Spain.     On  the 
 2nd  of  August,  1492,  Columbus  with  three 
 small  vessels  sailed  on  his  daring  ad\*enture 
 
 Canaries,  whence  he  departed  on  the  6th 
 of  September,   and  continued  his  onward 
 course  for  thirty-five  days,  seeing  nothing 
 around  him  but  the  billows  and   the  sky. 
 Already  daunted  by  the  terrors  of  unknown 
 seas,  the  variation  of  the  compass,  which 
 was  now  first  observed,  overpowered  the 
 courage  of  the  sailors,  and  they  were  more 
 than  once  on  the  point  of  breaking    into 
 open  mutiny,  and  steering  back  to  Spain. 
 The  long  sought  land  at  last  appeared,  on 
 the  night  of  the  11th  of  October,  1492.     It 
 was  Guanahani,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  to 
 which  he  gave  the  name  of  San  Salvador. 
 After  having  built  a    fort,   and  left  in  it 
 thirty-eight  men,  he  returned  to  Europe, 
 and    anchored    at    Palos    on    the   15th  of 
 March,  1493.     The  people  received  him 
 with  enthusiasm,  the  court  heaped  honours 
 upon    him      Columbus   made    three    more 
 voyages  to  the  western  world ;   one  in  the 
 autumn  of  1493,  another  in  1498,  and  the 
 last   in   1504;    and  considerably  enlarged 
 the  sphere  of  his  discoveries.     His  latter 
 years  were  imbittered  by  insult  and  injury'. 
 Complaints  of  his  conduct  at  Hispaniola, 
 in  1499,  having  been  made  to  the  court, 
 Bovadilla  was  dispatched  to  the  island  to 
 investigate  the  charges,   and    that    brutal 
 commissioner  sent  Columbus  to  Europe  in 
 irons.     For  this  shameful  indignity  he  re- 
 ceived but  an  imperfect  reparation.     He 
 died  May  20, 1506. 
 
 COLUMELLA,  Lucius  Junius  Mod- 
 eratus,  a  Latin  wrriter,  one  of  the  best 
 agriculturists  of  antiquity,  was  a  native  of 
 Gades,  in  Spain,  and  resided  at  Rome  in 
 the  reign  of  Claudius.  He  is  the  author 
 of  a  Treatise  on  Agriculture,  in  twelve 
 books,  which  is  still  extant. 
 
 COLUTHUS,a  Greek  poet,  who  flour- 
 ished   in    the    reign    of  Anastasius    about 
 D.  491,  was  a  native  of  Lycopolis,  in 
 
 Egypt.  He  wrote  the  Calydonics,  and 
 the  Persies;  but  they  are  lost.  His  only 
 extant  poem  is  the  Rape  of  Helen,  the 
 manuscript  of  which  was  found,  by  Cardi- 
 nal Bessarion,  in  the  monastery  of  Casoli, 
 near  Otranto. 
 
 COMINES,  Philip  de,  lord  of  Argen- 
 ton,  was  born,  in  1445,  at  Comines,  in 
 Flanders.  The  early  part  of  his  life  was 
 passed  at  the  court  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
 duke  of  Burgundy,  from  whose  service  he 
 passed  into  that  "of  Louis  XL  of  France, 
 who  employed  him  in  various  negotiations. 
 Comines,  having  taken  a  part  in  the  in- 
 trigues of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  was  impris- 
 oned for  some  months  in  1485,  but  was  at 
 length  pardoned,  and  again  trusted  as  a 
 negotiator.  He  died  in  1509.  His  Me- 
 moirs, which  are  written  in  a  pleasing 
 style,  abound  with  valuable  information 
 and  judicious  reflections. 
 
 COMMELIN,  John,  a  botanist,  waa 
 
 from  the  port  of  Palos.     He  stopped  at  the  I  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1629,  and  died  in 
 
190  CON  CON 
 
 1692.  He  had  the  direction  of  the  botanic  |  Franche  Comte,  in  1665?;  the  passage  of 
 garden  of  his  native  city,  and  he  spared  j  the  Rhine,  in  1672;  and  the  battle  of  Se- 
 neither  labour  nor  expense  to  improve  it.  Ineff,  in  1674.  He  died,  in  1686,  at  Fon- 
 He  published  The  Hesperides  of  the  Low  jtainebleau.  Conde  was  active,  daring, 
 Countries,  and  other  works.  His  nephew,  full  of  resources,  and  inflexibly  persever- 
 Gasfar,  is  the  author  of  Flora  Malaba-iing  in  spite  of  obstacles;  but  it  is  impos- 
 rica,  and  various  botanical  productions.  'sible  to  deny  that  he  was  culpably  lavish 
 COMMERSON,  Philibert, a  French  jof  the  blood  of  his  soldiers;  a  fault  which 
 physician  and  botanist,  was  born,  in  1727,  some  have  vainly  attempted  to  palliate  by 
 at  Chatillon  les  Dombes,  and  died,  in  1773,  [urging  that  he  was  equally  lavish  of  his  own. 
 at  the  Isle  of  France,  whither  he  had  ac-  |  CONDILLAC, Stephen  Bonnot  de, 
 conipanied  Bougainville,  in  his  voyage  j  a  brother  of  the  Abbe  de  Mablv,  was  born, 
 round  the  world.  Before  he  set  out  on  in  1715,  at  Grenoble,  and  died,  on  his 
 his  vovage,  he  composed  a  Martyrology  estate  near  Beaugenci,  in  1780.  For  the 
 of  Botany,  which  is  a  history  of  botanists,  use  of  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Parma,  to 
 who  have  fallen  victims  to  their  botanical  whom  he  was  tutor,  he  drew  up  a  Course 
 labours.  The  name  of  Commersonia  was!  of  Study,  in  thirteen  volumes.  The  whole 
 given  by  Forster  to  a  genus  of  Polynesian  of  his  works  form  twenty-three  volumes  in 
 plants.  |8vo.     Among  them  are,  An  Essay  on  Hu- 
 
 COMMODUS,  Lucius  Aurelius  'man  Knowledge  (his  first  production)  ;  and 
 Antoninus,  emperor  of  Rome,  the  son  of  a  Treatise  on  Sensations.  As  a  metaphy- 
 Bfarcua  Aurelius,  was  born  A.  D.  161,  and  sician  Condillac  has  a  high  reputation, 
 succeeded  his  father  A.  D.  180.  Cruel  though  some  have  endeavoured  to  tarnish 
 and  licentious  in  the  extreme,  without  a  j  it,  by  accusing  him  of  borrowing  from 
 single  virtue,  he  disgraced  the  throne  and  Locke,  and  of  advancing  principles  which 
 scourged  the  people  for  twelve  years.     He  tend  to  materialism. 
 
 was  at  length  poisoned  by  his  concubine  j  CONDORCET,  John  Anthony 
 Martia,  and,  the  poison  acting  too  slowly, '  Nicholas  Caritat,  marquis  of,  was 
 his  death  was  completed  by  strangulation,  jborn  at  Ribemont,  in  Picardy,  in  1763. 
 CONDAMINE,  Charles  Mary  la,  Mathematics  and  natural  philosophy,  for 
 a  mathematician  and  philosopher,  who  which  he  displayed  an  early  fondness,  he 
 joined  ardour  and  perseverance  with  an  studied  at  the  college  of  Navarre,  and  ac- 
 insatiable  thirst  of  knowledge,  and  who  quired  such  a  mastery  of  them  that,  at  the 
 was  also  a  man  of  wit  and  a  writer  of  j  age  of  twenty-two,  he  published  his  work 
 verses,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1701,  and  On  Integral  Calculus;  which,  in  the  course 
 died  in  1774.  He  travelled  much  in  his! of  three  years,  was  followed  by  his  Solu- 
 vouth,  and,  in  1736,  was  one  of  those  tion  of  the  Problem  of  the  Three  Bodies, 
 who  were  sent  to  Peru  to  measure  a  de-'and  the  first  part  of  the  Essay  on  Analysis, 
 gree  of  the  meridian.  Condamine  was  ,  He  was  secretary  of  the  French  Academy, 
 remarkable  for  boundless  curiosity,  some  I  and  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences;  and  in 
 ludicrous  instances  of  which  are  recorded.  I  this  capacity  composed  his  celebrated  Eu- 
 His  principal  works  are,  A  Journal  of  a  logies  of  the  deceased  members.  In  1786 
 Voyage  to  the  Equator;  and  Observations  in  and  1787  he  gave  to  the  world  Lives  of 
 a  Vovage  ,  on  the  River  Amazons.  i  Turgot  and  of  Voltaire.     Condorcet  was 
 
 CONDE,  Louis  II.  of  Bourbon,  closely  connected  with  Voltaire,  D'Alem- 
 prince  of,  surnamed  the  Great,  was  born  bert,  and  the  rest  of  his  contemporary 
 at  Paris  in  1621.  When  only  twenty-two,  philosophers,  and  he  lent  the  aid  of  his  pen 
 he  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  an  and  his  voice  to  forward  the  French  revo- 
 armv  against  the  Spaniards,  and  he  utterly  lution.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Legisla- 
 (Icteattil  them  at  Rocroi.  In  1645,  1646,  tive  Assembly  and  of  the  Convention.  In 
 and  1648,  he  gained  the  victories  of  Fri-  the  latter  body  he  was  one  of  the  Girondist 
 bourg,  Nordlingen,  and  Lens,  and  reduced  | party,  and  this  circumstance  sealed  his 
 Dunkirk;  but  hes\as  foiled  in  the  siege  doom.  Proscribed  by  Robespierre,  he  long 
 of  Lerida.  During  the  war  of  the  Fronde, '  remained  in  concealment,  but  was  at  length 
 he  at  first  joined  the  court,  but  afterwards  taken,  upon  which  he  put  an  end  to  his 
 broke  with  it,  and  was  punished  by  an  existence  by  poison  in  March,  1794.  Con- 
 imprisonment  of  thirteen  month*.  Burn-  dorcet  was  a  man  of  multifarious  talents, 
 ing  with  a  thirst  for  revenge,  he  took  up  and  possessed  many  good  qualities ;  but  he 
 arms  against  the  government  ;  had  a  des-  was  a  confirmed  sceptic,  and  utterly  unfit 
 perate  engagement  with  the  royal  troops  for  a  politician.  He  left  some  posthumous 
 in  the  suburb  of  St.  Antoine;  and  at  length  works,  among  which  is  a  Sketch  for  an 
 fled  from  France,  and  entered  the  service  Historical  Picture  of  the  Progress  of  the 
 of  Spain,  in  which  be  fought  with  alternate  Human  Mind.  It  was  written  while  he 
 good  and  bad  fortune.  In  1659  he  was  was  hiding  from  his  enemies,  and  asserts 
 permitted  to  return  to  his  country.  His  his  favourite  doctrine  of  the  infinite  per- 
 last  military  acts   were,  the  conquest  of  ifectibility  of  the  human  race. 
 
CON 
 
 CONFUCIUS,   or    KON-FU-TSE,  a 
 
 Chinese  philosopher,  was  born  550  b.  c. 
 in  the  kingdom  of  Lu,  which  is  now  the 
 province  of  Shangtung,  and  died  in  his 
 seventy-third  year.  He  was  the  most 
 learned  and  virtuous  man  of  li is  age,  and 
 laboured  strenuously  in  reforming  the  man- 
 ners of  his  countrymen.  His  memory  and 
 the  moral  works  which  he  wrote  are  held 
 in  the  highest  veneration  by  the  Chi- 
 nese. 
 
 CONGREVE,  William,  one  of  the 
 wittiest  of  British  dramatists,  was  born  at 
 Bardsey  Grange,  near  Leeds,  in  1670; 
 was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin; 
 and  studied  at  the  Middle  Temple.  At 
 seventeen,  he  wrote  the  romance  of  Incog- 
 nita, or  Love  and  Duty  reconciled.  His 
 comedy  of  The  Old  Bachelor  was  acted 
 in  1693,  and  raised  him  at  once  to  fame 
 and  affluence.  Three  lucrative  offices  were 
 given  to  him  by  Lord  Halifax.  Between 
 1694  and  1697  he  produced,  and  with  suc- 
 cess, Love  for  Love,  The  Double  Dealer, 
 and  The  Mourning  Bride.  Collier  cen- 
 sured his  indecency  and  profaneness,  and 
 the  dramatist  replied,  but  was  unable  to 
 refute  the  charge.  In  1700,  his  Way  of 
 the  World  was  so  coldly  received  that,  in 
 disgust,  he  resolved  to  write  no  more  for 
 the  stage.  He,  however,  continued  to 
 write  verses;  but  they  have  long  ceased  to 
 find  readers.  On  the  accession  of  George 
 I.  the  gift  of  another  sinecure  office  in- 
 creased the  income  of  Congreve  to  £1200 
 per  annum.  His  latter  days  were,  never- 
 theless, heavily  overckmded.  He  was 
 afflicted  by  total  blindness  and  by  the  gout; 
 and  at  length  the  latter,  and  an  internal 
 injury  from  being  overturned,  terminated 
 his  existence  on  the  19th  of  Januarv, 
 1728-9. 
 
 CONGREVE,  Sir  William,  F.R.S. 
 the  son  of  a  lieutenant-general,  entered  the 
 military  service  early,  and  rose  to  the  rank 
 of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  sat  in  parliament 
 for  Gatton,  and  afterwards  for  Plymouth. 
 Having  unfortunately  taken  a  censurable 
 part  in  one  of  the  bubble  speculations  of 
 1825,  he  quitted  his  country;  and  he  died 
 at  Toulouse  in  1828.  For  inventive  talents 
 he  has  seldom  been  surpassed.  Among  his 
 numerous  inventions  may  be  mentioned  his 
 formidable  rockets,  a  hydro-pneumatic  ca- 
 nal lock,  and  a  new  mode  of  manufacturing 
 gunpowder. 
 
 CON  ON,  an  Athenian  general,  the  son 
 of  Timotheus,  was  defeated  by  Lysander, ! 
 at  the  naval  battle  of  /Egospotamos,  and  I 
 for  a  while  withdrew  into  voluntary  ban-j 
 ishment.  Having  obtained  aid  from  Ar-  J 
 taxerxes,  he  returned,  and  routed  and  > 
 killed  the  Spartan  admiral,  l'isander,  near 
 Cnidos.  Conon  then  restored  the  fortifica- ! 
 tions  of  Athens.  Artaxerxes  is  said  to  j 
 have  put  him  to  death  on  a  false  accusation ; 
 
 CON 
 
 191 
 
 but  some  contend  that  he  died  in  Cyprus 
 b.  c.  390. 
 
 CONSTANS  I.,  Flavius  Julius, 
 born  a.  D.  320,  succeeded,  on  the  death  of 
 his  father  Constantino  the  Great,  to  the 
 sovereignty  of  Africa,  Italy,  and  western 
 Illyricum.  His  brother  Constantine  en- 
 deavoured to  wrest  it  from  him,  but  waa 
 defeated  and  slain;  and  his  dominions  fell 
 into  the  power  of  Constans.  The  victor, 
 however,  governed  so  disgracefully,  that 
 popular  discontent  encouraged  Magnentius 
 to  hoist  the  standard  of  revolt,  and  Con- 
 stans was  put  to  death  while  trying  to 
 escape,  A.  D.  350. 
 
 CONSTANTINE,  Caius  Flavius 
 Valerius  Aurelius  Claudius,  sur- 
 named  the  Great,  emperor  of  Rome,  the 
 son  of  Constantius  Chlorus  and  Helena,  is 
 believed  to  have  been  born  at  Naissus,  in 
 Mcesia,  about  A.  D.  274.  After  the  death 
 of  his  father,  he  had  a  severe  struggle  for 
 empire  with  Maxentius,  who  was  at  length 
 routed,  and  drowned  in  the  Tiber,  near 
 the  Mivian  bridge.  It  was  before  this  ac- 
 tion that  Constantine  is  pretended  to  have 
 seen  a  blazing  cross  in  the  heavens,  with 
 an  inscription  importing,  "  By  this  thou 
 shalt  conquer.''  His  next  contest  waa 
 with  Licinius,  whom  also  he  vanquished. 
 He  subsequently  chastised  the  Goths.  But 
 the  two  great  events  of  his  reign  were  his 
 embracing  the  Christian  religion  and  ren- 
 dering it  the  dominant  faith,  and  his  remo- 
 ving the  seat  of  empire  from  Rome  to 
 Byzantium,  which  was  thenceforth  called 
 Constantinople.  He  died  at  Nicomedia, 
 a.  D.  337.  That  Constantine  had  a  large 
 share  of  talent,  and  some  virtues,  is  unde- 
 niable, but  when  we  consider  his  many 
 faults,  among  which  was  a  cruelty  that  did 
 not  spare  even  his  own  children,  his  claim 
 to  the  title  of  great  becomes  somewhat 
 more  than  dubious. 
 
 CONSTANTINE  II.,  Claudius  Fla- 
 vius Julius,  the  eldest  son  of  Constan- 
 tine the  Great,  was  born  in  316,  and,  on 
 the  death  of  his  father  became  sovereign 
 of  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain.  Coveting 
 the  dominions  of  his  brother  Constans,  he 
 attacked  him,  but  was  slain  in  an  ambush, 
 a.  D.  340. 
 
 CONSTANTINE  VII.,  Porphyro- 
 genitus,  a  Greek  emperor,  was  born  at 
 Constantinople  in  905,  and  died  in  959. 
 He  was  an  accomplished  and  well  meaning 
 but  weak  prince.  His  virtues,  however, 
 caused  him  to  be  regretted  by  his  subjects. 
 Constantine  wrote  a  Description  of  the 
 Provinces  of  the  Empire;  a  Life  of  the 
 Emperor  Basil,  the  Macedonian;  a  Trea- 
 tise on  the  Government  of  the  Empire; 
 and  another  on  the  Ceremonies  of  the  By- 
 zantine Court. 
 
 CONSTANTINE,  Dracoses  or  Pa- 
 LjEologus,  the  la^t  of  the  Greek  emp^- 
 
192 
 
 COO 
 
 rors,  was  born  in  1403,  and  succeeded  his 
 brother,  John  Paheologus,  in  1449.  Threat- 
 ened by  the  Sultan  Mahommed  II.,  lie 
 vainly  endeavoured  to  obtain  aid  from 
 Christian  Europe.  In  1453,  Mahomet  be- 
 sieged Constantinople  with  300,000  men. 
 A  gallant  defence  was  made  for  fifty-three 
 days,  but  the  city  was  taken  by  storm  on 
 the  29th  of  May,  and  Constantine  fell, 
 after  having  displayed  a  degree  of  heroic 
 valour  which  demands  admiration. 
 
 CONSTANTIUS,  Flavius  Julius, 
 who  from  his  paleness  was  called  Chlo- 
 rus,  was  the  son  of  Eutropius;  was  born 
 about  A.  I).  250;  and  was  appointed  gov- 
 ernor of  Dalmatia,  A.  D.  282.  Ten  years 
 afterwards,  he  was  made  Caesar,  and  asso- 
 ciated with  Diocletian  and  Maxiniian. 
 having  under  him  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Brit- 
 ain, the  last  of  which  provinces  he  recovered 
 from  Allectus.  He  became  sole  emperor 
 in  305;  fifteen  months  subsequently  to 
 which  event  he  died  at  York. 
 
 CONSTANTIUS  II.,  Flavius  Ju- 
 lius, second  son  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
 was  born  A.  D.  317,  and  was  declared 
 Caesar  at  an  early  age.  On  the  death  of 
 his  father,  he  is  said,  in  violation  of  a  sol- 
 emn oath,  to  have  murdered  nine  of  his 
 relatives.  After  a  long  and  doubtful  contest 
 with  Magnentius,  he  became  sole  master 
 of  the  empire,  a.  d.  353.  His  subsequent 
 sway  was  marked  by  weakness  and  vio- 
 lence. He  died  A.  D.  361,  while  march- 
 ing against  Julian,  who  had  assumed  the 
 purple. 
 
 CONWAY,  Henry  Seymour,  sec- 
 ond son  of  Lord  Conway,  was  born  in 
 1720;  and,  after  having  served  with  ap- 
 plause in  the  seven  years'  war,  was  a 
 member  of  the  English  and  Irish  House 
 of  Commons,  and,  from  1765  to  1768, 
 joint  secretary  of  state.  In  1782,  he 
 was  appointed  commander-in-chief,  and 
 in  1795  he  died,  being  then  the  senior 
 British  field-marshal.  He  wrote  some  po- 
 ems, political  pamphlets,  and  the  comedy 
 of  False  Appearances. 
 
 CONYBEARE,  John,  a  native  of  De- 
 vonshire, born  at  Pinhoe,  in  1692,  was 
 educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  of 
 which  he  afterwards  became  the  head.  In 
 1732  he  published  a  Defence  of  Revealed 
 Religion,  in  answer  to  Christianity  as  old 
 as  the  Creation,  for  which  he  was  made 
 dean  of  Christ  Church.  In  1750  he  was 
 consecrated  Bishop  of  Bristol,  in  which 
 see  he  died  in  1757.  Two  volumes  of  his 
 Sermons  were  published  after  his  death. 
 
 COOK,  James,  an  eminent  circumnavi- 
 gator, was  born  at  Marton,  in  ^  orksllire, 
 in  1728,  of  humble  parents,  and  received 
 only  the  commonest  rudiments  of  edocat  ion. 
 After  having  served  for  some  years  in  the 
 mercantile  marine,  he  entered  into  the  na\\ 
 rn   1755,  and   displayed  so  much  conduct 
 
 COO 
 
 and  capacity  that  he  was  appointed  master. 
 While  thus  employed,  he  made  a  chart  of 
 
 the  St.  Lawrence,  and  surveys  of  the  har- 
 bour of  Placentia,  and  of  the  islands  of  St. 
 Pierre  and  Miquelon.  He  was  now  pro- 
 moted to  be  marine  surveyor,  in  which  ca- 
 pacity he  twice  resided  for  a  considerable 
 period  at  Newfoundland.  It  was  wlyle 
 resident  there  that  he  communicated  to 
 the  Royal  Society  an  observation  on  a 
 solar  eclipse;  which,  with  his  well  known 
 nautical  skill,  induced  the  government  to 
 give  him  the  command  of  the  Endeavour, 
 with  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  That  ship 
 was  intended  to  convey  to  Otaheite  the 
 astronomers  who  were  to  observe  the  transit 
 of  Venus  over  the  sun's  disk.  Cook  sailed 
 in  1768,  and  returned  in  1771 ;  having  par- 
 ticularly explored  the  coasts  of  New  Zea- 
 land and  New  Holland.  He  was  made 
 master  and  commander,  and,  in  1772,  he 
 again  sailed,  in  company  with  Captain 
 P'urneaux,  to  solve  the  problem  of  the  ex- 
 istence of  a  southern  cirrumpolar  continent. 
 They  were  stopped  by  the  ice,  in  the  latitude 
 of  seventy-one.  In  this  voyage,  which  was 
 not  terminated  till  1775,  Captain  Cook 
 took  such  excellent  precautions,  that  only 
 one  man  died  of  scurvy  on  board  of  his 
 ship.  For  this  he  was  chosen  F.  R.  S.  and 
 received  the  Copleyan  gold  medal;  and 
 was  appointed  a  post-captain,  and  captain 
 of  Greenwich  Hospital.  In  1776  he  de- 
 parted, with  two  ships,  the  Resolution  and 
 the  Discovery,  to  search  for  an  arctic  pas- 
 sage between  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic. 
 In  this  voyage  he  perished.  On  the  14th 
 of  February  he  was  slain  by  the  natives  of 
 Owhybee,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
 Foreign  countries  no  less  than  England 
 lamented  his  loss,  and  vied  with  each  other 
 in  doing  honour  to  his  memory. 
 
 COOKE,  Thomas,  a  miscellaneous 
 writer,  was  born  in  1702,  at  Braintree,  in 
 Essex,  and  died  in  1756.  He  wrote  some 
 forgotten  poems  and  dramas;  published 
 editions  of  Marv ell's  works,  and  of  Virgil; 
 and  translated  Terence,  Hesiod,and  Cicero 
 de  Nature  Deorem.  His  Hesiod,  long  the 
 only  English  version,  is  now  superseded  by 
 the  more  poetical  work  of  Elton.     Pope, 
 
coo 
 
 whom  he  had  attacked  in  the  Battle  of  the 
 PoetSj  gave  him  a  niche  in  the  Dunciad. 
 
 COOKE,  William,  a  poet  and  biog- 
 rapher, was  born  at  Cork,  in  Ireland  He 
 came  to  England  about  1766,  and  applied 
 himself  at  first  to  the  law;  but,  after  a 
 brief  trial  of  it,  he  purchased  shares  in  two 
 newspapers,  and  gave  himself  up  wholly  to 
 literature.  He  died  April  3,  1824.  He  is 
 the  author  of  The  Art  of  Living  in  London, 
 a  poem;  Conversation,  a  didactic  poem; 
 biographies  of  Macklin  and  Foote;  The 
 Elements  of  Dramatic  Criticism;  and  a 
 pamphlet  on  parliamentary  reform. 
 
 COOKE,  George  Frederic,  an  em- 
 inent actor,  was  born  in  Westminster,  in 
 1756.  Printing  and  the  navy,  both  of  which 
 he  tried  in  early  life,  he  abandoned  for  the 
 stage,  on  which  he  at  length  acquired  so 
 much  reputation,  that  he  appeared  at  Co- 
 vent  Garden,  in  1S00,  as  Richard  III. 
 Thenceforth  he  stood  high  among  perform- 
 ers. Sir  Giles  Overreach,  Shy  lock,  Sir 
 Pertinax  M' Sycophant,  and  many  other 
 characters,  he  personated  with  consummate 
 skill.  But  habits  of  intemperance  often 
 drew  on  him  the  public  anger,  and  eventu- 
 allv  shortened  his  davs.  He  died  in  Ame- 
 rica, in  1812. 
 
 COOKE,  ELisHA,aphysician  of  Boston, 
 Massachusetts,  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
 College,  in  1657.  He  distinguished  him- 
 self by  his  vigorous  efforts  in  advocating 
 popular  rights,  during  the  contentions  be- 
 tween the  legislature  of  the  colony  and  the 
 royal  governors.  In  1689  he  went  to  Eng- 
 land as  agent  of  Massachusetts,  to  procure 
 the  restoration  of  the  charter.  He  was 
 bold  and  patriotic,  and  possessed  much 
 strength  of  intellect.  After  holding  vari- 
 ous important  offices  in  the  province,  he 
 died  in  1715.  Elisha,  son  of  the  preced- 
 ing, and  also  distinguished  in  the  early 
 political  contentions  of  the  province,  was 
 graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1697, 
 held  several  public  offices,  and  died  in 
 1737. 
 
 COOMBE,  William,  a  writer,  of  ver- 
 satile talent,  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of 
 a  London  tradesman,  who  left  him  a  good 
 fortune,  which,  however,  he  dissipated  in 
 the  circles  of  fashion.  He  was  educated 
 at  Eton  and  Oxford.  Driven  to  literature 
 for  a  subsistence,  his  first  production  was 
 a  satire,  called  The  Diaboliad,  which  had 
 an  extensive  but  transient  popularity.  His 
 novel  of  The  Devil  on  Two  Sticks  in  Eng- 
 land had  the  same  fate.  His  numerous 
 political  pamphlets  are  forgotten.  Late  in 
 life,  however,  he  gained  a  large  share  of 
 public  attention  by  his  amusing  Tours  of 
 Dr.  Syntax,  and  other  poems  of  a  similar 
 kind.  Among  his  last  works,  is  a  History 
 of  Westminster  Abbey.     He  died  in  1823. 
 
 COOPER,  Samuel,  a  painter,  who  so 
 much  excelled  in   miniature  that  he  was 
 9 
 
 COP 
 
 193 
 
 |  called  the  Vandyke  of  that  branch  of  his 
 I  art,  was  born  in  London  in  1689,  and 
 was  a  pupil  of  Hoskins,  his  uncle.  His 
 eminence,  however,  was  attained  by  study- 
 ing the  works  of  Vandyke.  He  died  in 
 1676.  His  brother,  Alexander,  was  a~ 
 portrait  painter. 
 
 COOPER,  Samuel,  a  congregational 
 minister,  was  born  in  Boston,  Massachu- 
 setts, in  1725.  He  was  graduated  at 
 Harvard  College  in  1743,  and,  devoting 
 himself  to  the  church,  acquired  great  repu- 
 tation as  a  preacher,  at  a  very  early  age. 
 After  an  useful  and  popular  ministry  of 
 thirty-seven  years,  he  died  in  1783.  He 
 was  a  sincere  and  liberal  christian,  and  in 
 his  profession  perhaps  the  most  distinguish- 
 ed man  of  his  day,  in  the  United  States. 
 He  w^s  an  ardent  friend  of  the  cause  of 
 liberty,  and  did  much  to  promote  it.  With 
 the  exception  of  political  essays  in  the  jour- 
 nals of  the  day,  his  productions  were  exclu- 
 sively sermons. 
 
 COOPER,  John  Gilbert,  a  miscel- 
 laneous writer,  a  native  of  Nottingham- 
 shire, received  his  education  at  Westmin- 
 ster School,  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
 bridge. Literature  was  only  his  amuse- 
 ment, for  he  was  a  man  of  property.  He 
 died  in  1769.  His  poems,  containing  a 
 translation  of  Ver  Vert,  Epistles  from  Aris- 
 tippus,  and  other  pieces,  have  been  admit- 
 ted into  the  collected  works  of  the  British 
 Poets.  They  are  lively  and  elegant.  He 
 also  wrote  a  Life  of  Socrates;  and  Letters 
 on  Taste;  and  contributed  to  The  World. 
 COOPER.  See  Shaftesbury. 
 COOTE,  Sir  Eyre,  a  native  of  Ireland, 
 was  born  in  1726.  In  1745,  he  fought 
 against  the  Scotch  rebels.  In  1754,  he 
 went  to  the  East,  where  he  distinguished 
 himself  at  the  siege    of  Pondicherry;    in 
 
 1769,  he  was  for  a  while  commander-in- 
 chief  of  the    Company's    forces;    and  in 
 
 1770,  he  revisited  England,  whence,  in 
 1780,  he  was  again  dispatched  to  India, 
 with  his  former  rank.  Hyder  was  then 
 ravaging  the  Carnatic  with  fire  and  sword. 
 Coote  arrested  his  progress,  and,  with  an 
 army  not  equal  to  one-tenth  of  his  antago- 
 nists, he  defeated  him  in  several  encoun- 
 ters.    He  died  at  Madras,  in  1783. 
 
 COPERNICUS,  Nicholas,  a  native 
 of  Prussia,  was  born,  in  1473,  at  Thorn. 
 Medicine  and  philosophy  were  the  first  ob- 
 jects of  his  study;  but  he  quitted  them  for 
 mathematics  and  astronomy.  Travelling 
 into  Italy,  he  became  acquainted  with  Re- 
 giomontanus,  and  was  made  mathematical 
 professor  at  Rome.  On  his  return  home, 
 he  was  made  canon  of  Frawenberg,  and 
 archdeacon  of  St.  John's  Church  in  Thorn. 
 As  early  as  1507  he  had  begun  to  meditate 
 a  reform  of  the  Ptolemaic  system,  but  it 
 was  not  till  1530  that  he  completed  hie 
 labours;   and  such  was  his  dread  of  oppo- 
 
194  COR 
 
 ■ition  that  he  did  not  venture  to  publish 
 thera  till  1543.     His  death  took  place  on 
 
 nw 
 
 the  23d  of  May  in  that  year,  and  the 
 printed  copy  of  his  book  was  put  into  his 
 hand  almost  at  the  moment  when  his  eyes 
 were  about  to  close  for  ever. 
 
 COPLEY,  John  Singlkton,  a  dis- 
 tinguished painter,  was  born  in  Boston, 
 Massachusetts,  in  1738.  He  began  to 
 paint  without  any  instruction  at  a  very 
 early  age,  and  executed  pieces  unsurpassed 
 by  his  later  productions.  He  visited  Italy 
 in  1774,  and  in  1776  went  to  England, 
 where  he  determined  to  remain,  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  convulsed  state  of  his  native 
 country.  He  therefore  devoted  himself  to 
 portrait  painting  in  London,  and  was  cho- 
 sen a  member  of  the  royal  academy.  His 
 celebrated  picture,  styled  The  Death  of 
 Lord  Chatham,  at  once  established  his 
 fame,  and  he  was  enabled  to  pursue  his 
 profession  with  success  and  unabated  ar- 
 dour, till  his  sudden  death  in  1815. 
 Among  his  most  celebrated  productions 
 are,  Major  Pierson's  Death  on  the  Island 
 of  Jersey;  Charles  I.  in  the  house  of  com- 
 mons, demanding  of  the  Speaker  Lenthall, 
 tlit-  five  impeached  members ;  the  Surren- 
 der of  Admiral  De  Winter  to  Lord  Dun- 
 can ;  Samuel  and  Eli ;  and  a  number  of 
 portraits  of  several  members  of  the  royal 
 family. 
 
 CO  RAM, Thomas,  a  man  distinguished 
 for  liis  philanthropy,  is  believed  to  have 
 been  born  about  1668,  and  was  brought  up 
 to  the  sea,  in  the  mercantile  service.  The 
 greatest  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  endea- 
 vours to  benefit  mankind.  Among  his  be- 
 nevolent plans  was  the  establishment  of  the 
 Foundling  Hospital,  for  which  institution, 
 after  seventeen  years'  exertion,. and  great 
 sacrifices,  he  obtained  a  charter.  His  char- 
 ity having  injured  his  fortune,  a  subscrip- 
 tion was  raised  for  him  in  his  old  age.  He 
 died  in  1751. 
 
 CORBET,  Richakd,  a  divine  and  poet, 
 born,  in  1582,  at  Ewell  in  Surrey,  was  edu- 
 cated at  Westminster,  and  Christ  Chinch, 
 Oxford.  James  I.,  who  admired  his  wit, 
 made  him  one  of  his  chaplains,  and  at 
 length  gave  him  the  bishopric  of  Oxford, 
 
 COR 
 
 whence  he  was  translated  to  that  of  Nor 
 wich.  He  died  in  1635.  His  poems,  first 
 published  in  1647,  were  republished  by  Mr. 
 Gilchrist,  in  1807.  They  possess  consider- 
 able merit.  Corbet  was  "  a  fellow  of  infi- 
 nite jest,"  and  sometimes  forgot  his  episco- 
 pal dignity  in  his  love  of  jocularity  and 
 mirth. 
 
 CORELLI,  Arcangelo,  an  Italian 
 musician,  was  born  at  Fusignano  in  1653, 
 studied  under  Simonelli  and  Giovanni  Bas- 
 sani,  and  acquired  great  celebrity  as  a 
 composer  and  violinist.  His  Solos  are 
 among  the  most  admired  of  his  works.  He 
 died  in  1713.  Geminiani,  his  pupil,  consi- 
 ders a  nice  ear  and  a  highly  delicate  taste 
 to  have  been  among  the  principal  merits  of 
 Corelli. 
 
 CORINNA,  a  poetess,  to  whom  the 
 Greeks  gave  the  appellation  of  the  Lyric 
 Muse,  was  a  native  of  Tanagra,  in  Boeotia. 
 She  flourished  in  the  fifth  century  B.  c, 
 and  was  a  contemporary  of  Pindar,  from 
 whom  she  five  times  won  the  prize  in 
 poetical  contests.  Her  fellow  citizens  hon- 
 oured her  memory  by  erecting  a  tomb  to 
 her  in  the  most  frequented  part  of  their 
 city.  Only  a  few  fragments  of  her  works 
 are  extant. 
 
 CORIOLANUS,  Caius  Marcius,  so 
 called  from  his  valour  having  mainly  con- 
 tributed to  the  capture  of  Corioli,  was  of 
 the  patrician  family  of  the  Marcii.  In  the 
 contests  between  tne  patricians  and  plebi- 
 ans,  he  took  an  active  part,  and  treated 
 the  latter  with  the  most  insolent  contempt. 
 Being  in  consequence  banished,  he  joined 
 the  Volscians,  and  made  war  upon  the  Ro- 
 mans, whom  he  reduced  to  great  distress. 
 Yielding  at  last  to  the  entreaties  of  his 
 mother  and  wife,  he  withdrew  his  forces; 
 in  revenge  for  which  he  was  murdered  by 
 the  Yolscians,  B.  c.  488.  The  murder, 
 however,  is  denied  by  some  historians. 
 
 CORK  and  ORRERY,  John  BOYLE, 
 earl  of,  was  born  in  1707;  and,  after  hav- 
 ing been  under  the  tuition  of  Fenton  the 
 poet,  completed  his  education  at  West- 
 minster School,  and  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
 ford. In  parliament  he  was  an  opponent 
 of  Walpoie.  Literature,  however,  had 
 more  charms  for  him  than  politics.  Be- 
 sides giving  to  the  press  the  Plays  and 
 State  Letters  of  his  great  grandfather,  and 
 the  Memoirs  of  the  Earl  of  Monmouth,  he 
 translated  Pliny's  Letters;  and  wrote  Re- 
 marks on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Swift; 
 Letters  from  Italy  ;  and  some  papers  in  The 
 World  and  the  Connoisseur.  He  died  in 
 1762. 
 
 CORMONTAIGNE,  M.  a  French  en- 
 gineer, whom  some  consider  as  ranking 
 next  to  Vauban,  was  horn  towards  the 
 close  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  entered^ 
 the  engineer  corps  in  1713;  served  in  al- 
 most   all   the    sieges  between   that  period 
 
COR 
 
 ami  1748;  and  died  a  major-general  in 
 1752.  His  works  have  been  published, 
 since  his  death,  in  three  volumes  8vo. 
 Cormontaigne  was  the  constructor  of  the 
 additional  fortifications  of  Metz  and  Thi- 
 onvilie. 
 
 CORNARO,  Lewis,  a  Venetian  noble, 
 born  in  1467,  is  remarkable  only  for  his 
 well  known  book  on  Temperate  Living, 
 which  first  appeared  at  Padua  in  1558, 
 and  has  been  translated  into  many  lan- 
 guages. Having  in  youth  injured  his  health 
 by  dissipation,  he  restored  it,  and  lived  to 
 the  age  of  ninety-eight,  by  means  of  a 
 strict  regimen  in  diet.  Cornaro  also 
 wrote  a  treatise,  which  he  valued  highly, 
 on  the  best  mode  of  preserving  in  a  navi- 
 gable state  the  lagunes  that  surround  Ven- 
 ice. 
 
 CORNEILLE,  Peter,  one  of  the  most 
 celebrated  French  dramatic  writers,  was 
 born  at  Rouen,  in  1606,  and  for  some  time 
 practised  as  a  barrister  in  his  native  city. 
 The  success  of  his  first  piece,  a  comedy 
 mtitled  Melite,  induced  him  to  persevere 
 in  writing  for  the  stage.  His  fame  was 
 stamped  by  the  tragedy  of  The  Cid,  and 
 he  sustained  it  nobly  by  producing  The 
 Horatii,  Cinna,  Polyeuctes,  and  numerous 
 other  pieces,  of  which  the  French  theatre 
 is  justly  proud,  and  which  have  earned  for 
 him  the  epithet  of  the  Great.  In  1647,  he 
 was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
 emy.    Corneille  died  October  1,  1684. 
 
 CORNEILLE,  Thomas,  the  brother 
 of  Peter,  was  born  at  Rouen,  in  1625,  and 
 died  at  Andely,  in  1709.  Like  his  great 
 relative,  he  was  a  fertile  and  successful 
 dramatist;  and,  at  that  period,  was  second 
 only  to  him  in  merit.  He  is  the  author  of 
 forty-two  pieces.  He  likewise  produced  a 
 Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  two  vol- 
 umes folio;  a  Universal  Geographical  and 
 Historical  Dictionary;  and  other  works. 
 
 CORNHERT,  or  COORNHERT,  Die- 
 deric,  born  at  Amsterdam,  in  1522,  was 
 originally  an  eminent  engraver,  but  relin- 
 quished the  burin  for  literature  and  poli- 
 tics. To  Comhert  was  intrusted  the  com- 
 posing of  the  first  manifesto  issued  by  Wil- 
 liam of  Nassau  against  Spain ;  and  that, 
 and  the  active  part  which  he  subsequently 
 took  in  behalf  of  Dutch  liberty,  rendered 
 him  an  object  of  incessant  persecution  to 
 the  Spaniards.  He  died  at  Gouda,  in 
 1590.  His  miscellaneous  works  have  been 
 collected  in  three  folio  volumes. 
 
 CORNWALLIS,  Charles,  marquis, 
 son  of  the  first  Earl  Cornwallis,  was  born 
 in  1738,  and  entered  the  army,  after  hav- 
 ing received  his  education  at  Westminster, 
 and  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  In 
 1761,  he  succeeded  to  the  title.  During 
 the  American  war  he  acted  a  conspicuous 
 part.  He  signalized  himself  at  the  battle 
 of  Brandy  wine,  and  the  siege  of  Charles- 
 
 COR 
 
 195 
 
 ton,   and  obtained  advantages  at  Camden 
 and  Guildford;   but,  having  invaded  Vir- 
 
 ginia, he  was  surrounded  at  York  Town, 
 and  compelled  to  capitulate.  From  1786 
 to  1792,  he  was  governor-general  and  com- 
 mander-in-chief in  India;  and  during  that 
 period  he  vanquished  Tippoo  Sultaun,  and 
 obliged  him  to  accept  a  humiliating  peace. 
 For  this  service  he  was  created  a  marquis, 
 and  appointed  master-general  of  the  ord- 
 nance. In  1798  he  was  sent  over  to  Ire- 
 land as  lord-lieutenant,  and  remained  till 
 1801  ;  and,  by  a  system  of  blended  firm- 
 ness and  conciliation,  he  succeeded  in  re- 
 storing peace  to  that  distracted  country. 
 The  treaty  of  Amiens,  in  1802,  was  signed 
 by  him.  In  1804  he  was  again  made  gov- 
 erner-general  of  India,  but  he  died,  in  the 
 October  of  the  ensuing  year,  at  Ghazepore, 
 in  the  province  of  Benares.  Sound  prac- 
 tical sense,  not  splendid  talent,  was  the 
 characteristic  of  Cornwallis. 
 
 CORONELLI,  Mark  Vincent;  a  na- 
 tive of  Venice,  professor  of  geography,  and 
 cosmographer  to  the  Venetian  republic, 
 died  in  1718.  A  geographical  society  was 
 founded  by  him  at  Venice.  In  the  con- 
 struction of  globes  he  was  particularly 
 skilful.  He  published  more  than  four  hun- 
 dred maps,  and  is  the  author  of  manv 
 works,  among  which  are,  A  History  of 
 Rhodes;  a  Description  of  the  Morea;  and 
 a  History  of  Venice. 
 
 CORREA  DA  SERRA,  Joseph 
 Francis,  a  botanist,  born  at  Serra,  in 
 Portugal,  in  1750,  was  the  founder  of  the 
 Academy  of  Sciences  at  Lisbon.  The  In- 
 quisition twice  compelled  him  to  fly  from 
 his  country.  From  1816  to  1819  he  was 
 Portuguese  envoy  to  the  United  States ;  in 
 the  latter  year  he  was  recalled,  to  be  a 
 member  of  the  council  of  finance ;  and  in 
 1823  he  died,  shortly  after  having  been 
 elected  to  the  Cortes.  He  is  the  author  of 
 many  papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
 tions, and  in  other  works  of  the  same 
 kind. 
 
 CORREGIO,  Anthony,  whose  real 
 name  was  Aeeegri,  was  born  at  Corre- 
 gio,  in  the  Modenese,  in  1490  or  1494. 
 Who  wae  his  master  is  not  known.     Hi* 
 
196 
 
 talent 
 
 COR 
 
 ,  however,  were  transcendent,  and1 
 he  is  the  founder  of  the  Lombard  School. 
 "His  colour  and  mode  of  finishing,"  Bays 
 Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  "approach  nearer  to 
 perfection  than  those  of  any  other  painter; 
 tlie  gliding  motion  of  his  outline,  and  the 
 sweetness  with  which  it  melts  into  the 
 ground;  the  clearness  and  transparency 
 of  his  colouring,  which  stops  at  that  exact 
 medium  in  which  the  purity  and  perfection 
 of  ta.-te  lies,  leaves  nothing  to  be  wished 
 for."  Yet,  notwithstanding  his  genius  and 
 industry,  "poorly,  poor  man,  he  lived; 
 poorly,"  poor  man,  he  died!"  His  death 
 took  place  in  1534. 
 
 CORTEREAL,  Gaspar,  a  Portuguese 
 navigator,  was  born  at  Lisbon,  ofa  noble 
 family.  Eager  to  rival  de  Gama  and  Co- 
 lumbus, he  resolved  to  attempt  a  north- 
 west passage  to  the  East  Indies.  In  1500 
 he  explored  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Laurence 
 and  the  coast  of  Labrador,  as  far  as  Cape 
 Chidley.  He  made  a  second  voyage,  but 
 his  vessel  never  returned.  His  brother, 
 Miguel,  sailed  in  search  of  him,  and 
 shared  the  same  fate.  A  third  brother, 
 Vasco,  was  preparing  to  sail,  in  the  hope 
 of  recovering  his  beloved  relatives,  when 
 he  was  prohibited  by  the  king,  who  de- 
 clared that,  having  iost  two  of  his  most 
 faithful  servants  and  valuable  friends,  he 
 was  resolved  to  preserve  the  third. — For 
 their  father,  Jomr  Vaz  Costa  Corte- 
 rkal,  the  honour  of  having  discovered 
 Newfoundland  is  claimed  by  Portuguese 
 writer.-. 
 
 CORTEZ,  Ff.  ruin  and,  a  descendant 
 of  a  noble  but  poor  family,  was  born  at 
 Medellin,  in  Estremadura,  in  1485.  The 
 law,  to  which  he  was  bred  at  Salamanca, 
 he  quitted  for  a  military  life.  In  1504,  he 
 went  to  St.  Domingo,  and,  in  1511,  ac- 
 companied Velasquez  to  Cuba,  and  re- 
 ceived from  him  a  grant  of  land,  as  a  re- 
 ward for  his  services.  The  conquest  of 
 Mexico  being  resolved  upon,  Velasquez 
 intrusted  him  with  the  command  of  the 
 enterprise.  The  expedition,  which  con- 
 sisted of  ten  small  vessels,  and  only  seven 
 hundred  men,  sailed  on  the  18th  of  No- 
 vember, 1518;   and,  on  his  arrival  at  Ta- 
 
 COR 
 
 basco,  Cortez  set  fire  to  his  ships,  that  his 
 soldiers  might  have  no  other  resource  than 
 their  own  valour.  The  Tlascalans  he 
 conquered  and  converted  into  allies,  and 
 then  advanced  towards  Mexico,  where  he 
 was  amicably  received.  Jealous  of  his 
 success,  Velasquez  now  sent  Narvaez  to 
 supersede  him,  but  Cortez  inarched  against 
 the  latter,  took  him  prisoner,  and  gain- 
 ed over  the  new  come  troops.  The  con- 
 duct of  Cortez  to  the  natives  soon  pro- 
 duced hostilities,  and  he  was  driven  from 
 Mexico.  By  the  decisive  victory  of 
 Otumba,  however,  he  resumed  the  ascen- 
 dency, and,  after  a  long  siege,  in  which 
 perished  100,000  Mexicans,  he  regained 
 possession  of  the  capital,  and  finally  sub- 
 jugated the  whole  of  the  kingdom.  In 
 1536,  he  commanded  in  person  a  fleet 
 which  discovered  California.  Charles  V., 
 while  under  the  impulse  of  gratitude,  cre- 
 ated him  governor  and  captain  general  of 
 Mexico,  and  marquis  of  Guaxaca;  but.  he 
 subsequently  removed  him  from  the  gover- 
 norship. In  order  to  obtain  justice,  Cor- 
 tez, in  1540,  returned,  for  the  second  time, 
 to  Spain ;  and  he  accompanied  the  empe- 
 ror to  Algiers,  where  he  highly  distin- 
 guished himself.  Yet  he  was  unable  to 
 procure  even  an  audience.  "Who  are 
 you'?"  exclaimed  Charles,  when  Cortez 
 had,  on  one  occasion,  forced  his  way  to 
 the  step  of  the  emperor's  carriage.  "  I 
 am  one,"  replied  the  undaunted  warrior, 
 "  who  has  given  you  more  provinces  than 
 your  ancestors  left  you  towns."  Cortez 
 died  at  Seville,  in  comparative  obscurity, 
 on  the  2d  of  December,  1554.  Were  not 
 the  character  of  Cortez  stained  by  numer- 
 ous acts  of  horrible  barbarity,  his  valour, 
 talents,  and  perseverance,  would  give  him 
 a  legitimate  claim  to  the  epithet  of  great. 
 
 CORTONA,  Pietro  da,  so  called 
 from  being  born  at  Cortona,  in  Tuscany, 
 was  named  Peter  Berettini,  was  born  in 
 1596,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Ciarpi.  Though 
 his  progress  in  painting  was  so  slow  at  the 
 outset  that  his  fellow  students  nicknamed 
 him  ass's  head,  yet  he  ultimately  rose  to 
 a  high  degree  of  eminence  in  the  profes- 
 sion. He  was  employed  in  adorning  the 
 walls  of  the  Vatican,  the  Barberini  palace, 
 and  many  other  edifices.  His  finest  works 
 are  in  fresco  ;  but  many  of  his  oil  paintings, 
 among  which  is  a  Nativity  of  the  Virgin, 
 are  much  admired. 
 
 CORVINUS,  Matthias,  the  son  of 
 John  llumiades,  was  elected  king  of  Hun- 
 gary, in  1458,  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and 
 died  in  1490.  He  was  illustrious  as  a 
 warrior,  a  legislator,  and  a  patron  of  learn- 
 ing. Though  perpetually  engaged  in  war 
 to  protect  his  country  from  its  surrounding 
 foes,  he  enacted  good  laws,  gave  the  Hun- 
 garians a  charter,  introduced  printing, 
 founded  a  university  and   library  at  Buda, 
 
COS 
 
 and  invited  learned  men  into  his  domin- 
 ions. 
 
 CORVISART,  John  Nicholas,  a 
 physician  of  high  reputation,  was  born  in 
 Champagne,  in  1755,  and  died  at  Paris, 
 in  1821.  The  French  attribute  to  him,  in 
 great  part,  the  progress  which  was  made 
 in  France,  of  late  years,  in  experimental 
 medicine  and  pathological  anatomy.  Na- 
 poleon, whose  physician  he  was,  created 
 him  a  baron,  and  an  officer  of  the  legion 
 of  honour.  He  wrote  an  Essay  on  Dis- 
 eases of  the  Heart;  and  translated  some 
 medical  works. 
 
 CORYATE,  or  CORIATE,  Thomas, 
 a  traveller  and  writer,  was  the  son  of  the 
 rector  of  Odcombe,  in  Somersetshire,  at 
 which  place  he  was  born,  in  1577.  He 
 died  at  Surat,  in  1617.  Coryate's  life  was 
 spent  in  pedestrian  tours  through  Europe, 
 Turkey,  Persia,  and  the  East  Indies.  Dur- 
 ing one  of  them  he  is  said  to  have  lived  on 
 two  pence  a  dav.  He  had  received  a  good 
 education  at  Westminster  and  Oxford, 
 and  possessed  a  great  facility  of  learning 
 languages.  His  first  tour  was  published 
 with  the  ludicrous  title  of  Crudities  hastily 
 gobbled  up  in  Five  Months'  Tour,  &c. 
 He  is  the  author  of  other  eccentric  works, 
 and  has  the  merit  of  having  introduced  the 
 use  of  table  forks  into  England. 
 
 COSMAS,  surnamed  Indicopleustes,  or 
 the  Voyager  in  India,  was  a  merchant  of 
 Alexandria,  living  in  the  sixth  century, 
 who,  after  having  visited  Hindostan,  quit- 
 ted commerce  and  became  a  monk.  He  is 
 the  author  of  Christian  Topography,  which, 
 though  abounding  with  absurdities,  contains 
 some  valuable  information.  His  other 
 works,  among  which  was  a  Universal  Cos- 
 mography, are  lost. 
 
 COSTANZO,  A.vgelo  di,  a  Neapoli- 
 tan noble,  was  born  at  Naples,  in  1507, 
 and  was  a  friend  of  Sannazaro,  who  pre- 
 vailed on  him  to  undertake  the  history  of 
 his  native  country.  On  this  work  Costanzo 
 was  forty  years  employed.  It  includes  the 
 period  from  1230  to  1439-  He  was  also 
 one  of  the  first  poets  of  his  age-  He  died 
 about  1591.    • 
 
 COSTER,  John  Laurence,  a  native 
 of  Haarlem,  was  born  about  1370.  The 
 Dutch  claim  for  him  the  invention  of  print- 
 ing. The  claim  seems,  however,  to  be  en- 
 tirely without  foundation.  A  sufficient 
 proof,  perhaps,  that  it  is  so,  is  the  circum- 
 stance of  his  grandsons  and  heirs  having 
 made  no  attempt  to  support  it,  in  opposi- 
 tion to  Guttenberg. 
 
 COSTER,  Samuel,  a  Dutch  dramat- 
 ist, was  born  towards  the  end  of  the  six- 
 teenth century,  and  is  considered  as  the 
 creator  of  the  Dutch  theatre.  He  built  a 
 playhouse  at  Amsterdam  in  1617.  The 
 time  of  his  death  is  unknown.  He  wrote 
 five  comedies  and  six  tragedies. 
 
 COT 
 
 197 
 
 COS  WAY,  Richard,  one  of  the  oldest 
 members  of  the  Royal  Academy,  died  in 
 1821,  at  more  than  ninety  years  of  age. 
 In  miniature  he  was  without  a  rival,  and 
 his  oil  paintings  and  drawings  have  great 
 merit.  In  his  private  character  he  dis- 
 played many  harmless  eccentricities.  His 
 wife,   Maria,  was   also  an  artist  of  tal- 
 
 ;ent. 
 
 COTES,  Roger,  a  mathematician, 
 born,  in  1682,  at  Burbage,  in  Leicester- 
 shire, was   educated  at  Leicester  and  St. 
 
 '■  Paul's    Schools,  and    at    Trinity  College, 
 
 'Cambridge;  and,  in  1706,  was  appointed 
 first  Plumian  professor  of  astronomy  and 
 experimental  philosophy.  He  died  in  1716. 
 Newton,  of  whose  Principia  Cotes  gave  a 
 new  edition,  has,  in  one  short  sentence, 
 borne  decisive  testimony  to  his  talents. 
 -*'.'  Had  Cotes  lived,"  said  he,  "  we  should 
 have  known  something."  The  Harmonia 
 Mensurarum  of  Cotes,  and  his  Hydrosta- 
 tical  and  Pneumatical  Lectures,  were  pub- 
 lished after  his  death. 
 
 COTTIN,  Sophia,  whose  maiden  name 
 was  Restaud,  was  born  at  Tonneins,  on 
 the  Garonne,  in  1773;  was  married  to  a 
 Parisian  banker  at  seventeen ;    and  became 
 
 I  a  widow  at  twenty,  which  she  continued  to 
 be    till    her    decease,    in  1807.     Her  first 
 
 I  work,  Clara  d'Albe,  was  begun  merely  for 
 
 1  amusement,  and    was   sold   to  afford  to  a 
 
 !  proscribed  man  the  means  of  flying  from 
 the   guillotine.     Of  all   her    writings    the 
 
 ;  produce  was  devoted  to  benevolent  pur- 
 poses.    Of  her  subsequent  noveloj  Malvina, 
 
 |  Amelia  Mansfield,  Matilda,  and  Elizaceiif, 
 the  last  is  the  most  popular. 
 
 COTTON,  Sir  Robert  Bruce,  an 
 antiquary,  was  a  native  of  Huntingdon- 
 shire, born  at  Denton,  in  1570,  and  was 
 educated  at  Westminster  School,  and  at 
 Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  devoted 
 his  time  and  fortune  to  antiquarian  pur- 
 suits, and  collected  numerous  deeds,  char- 
 
 !  ters,  &c.  relative  to  the  history  of  Britain. 
 These  form  the  Cottonian  library,  which 
 is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  To  Cam- 
 den, Speed,  and  others,  he  was  a  liberal 
 friend.  He  died  in  1631.  He  wrote  The 
 Antiquity  and  Dignity  of  Parliaments; 
 and  other  works. 
 
 COTTON,  Charles,  a  poet,  born  at 
 Beresford,  in  Staffordshire,  in  1630,  was 
 educated  at  Cambridge,  travelled  on  the 
 continent,  and  then  settled  on  his  paternal 
 estate,  which  his  father  had  so  heavily  en- 
 cumbered, that  Cotton,  himself  no  econo- 
 mist, encountered  many  pecuniary  diffi- 
 culties, and  even  imprisonment  for  debt. 
 He  died  in  1687.  Cotton  was  no  mean 
 poet,  especially  on  ludicrous  subjects ;  but 
 he  is,  perhaps,"  best  known  as  the  friend  of 
 Tzaak  Walton,  to  whose  treatise  on  angling 
 he  added  a  supplement.  He  wrote  a  vol- 
 ume  of  Poems;     Scarronides,   or   Virgil 
 
198  COU 
 
 Travestic ;   and  translated  Montaigne's  Es- 
 says. 
 
 COTTON,  John,  a  congregational  min- 
 ister of  Massachusetts,  was  born  in  Boston, 
 in  1638,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
 College  in  1657.  He  was  accurately  ac- 
 quainted with  the  language  of  the  Indians 
 of  Martha's  Vineyard,  ami  superintended 
 ihe  printing  of  Elliot's  Bible,  in  that  lan- 
 guage. He  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
 where  he  had  formed  a  church,  in  1699. 
 
 COTTON,  .Nathaniel,  poet  and  phy- 
 sician, born  in  1707,  was  a  pupil  of  Boer- 
 haave,  and  practised  first  at  Dunstable, 
 and  next  at  St.  Albans.  At  the  latter 
 place  he  kept  an  asylum  for  lunatics,  of 
 which  Cowper,  who  always  retained  an 
 affection  for  him,  was  at  one  time  an  in- 
 mate. He  died  in  1788.  His  Visions  in 
 Verse,  which  are  elegant,  animated,  and 
 fraught  with  pure  morality,  are  deservedly 
 popular. 
 
 COULOMB,  Charles  Augustin 
 de  ,  an  eminent  French  philosopher,  lieu- 
 tenant-colonel of  engineers,  and  a  member 
 of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  of  the 
 Institute,  was  born  at  Angouleme,  in  1736, 
 and  died  in  1806.  He  was  generally  versed 
 in  the  sciences,  but  particularly  cultivated 
 those  of  electricity  and  magnetism,  in  which 
 he  made  many  valuable  discoveries.  "  He 
 may  fairly,"  it  is  said,  "  be  ranked  in  the 
 same  class  with  Franklin,  iEpinus,  and 
 Cavendish." 
 
 COURAYER,  Peter  Francis,  ana- 
 tive  of  Normandy,  born  at  Vernon  in  1681, 
 was  a  canon  and  librarian  of  St.  Gene- 
 vieve, and  a  professor  of  theology  and  phi- 
 losophy. Having  written  a  Defence  of  the 
 Validity  of  English  Ordinations,  he  was 
 so  persecuted  that  he  took  refuge  in  Eng- 
 land, in  172S,  where  he  died  in  1776.  He 
 translated  into  French  Father  Paul's  His- 
 tory of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  Sleidan's 
 History  of  the  Reformation ;  and  wrote 
 be\eral  tracts. 
 
 COURIER,  Paul  Louis,  one  of  the 
 wittiest  writers  and  most  profound  hel- 
 lenists  of  France,  was  born  near  An- 
 gouleme, in  1774.  He  was  for  several 
 years  in  the  corps  of  artillery,  in  which 
 he  rose  to  be  a  major;  but  at  length  he 
 resigned  in  disgust.  Every  moment  of 
 leisure  while  in  the  army  was  devoted 
 by  him  to  the  study  of  Greek  authors. 
 He  was  assassinated  in  1825.  Courier- 
 published  various  translations  from  the 
 Greek;  but  his  chief  fame  is  derived  from 
 his  political  pamphlets,  which  are  remark- 
 able for  wit,  irony,  and  pungencv  of  style. 
 
 COURT  DE  GEBELIN,  Anthony, 
 a  French  antiquary  and  philosopher,  one 
 of  the  most  learned  men  of  the  eighteenth 
 century,  was  born  at  Nimes  in  1725,  the 
 son  ot  a  calvinist  minister,  and  died  at 
 Faris  in   1784.     His  great  work  is,  The 
 
 cov 
 
 Primitive  World  analysed  and  compared 
 with  the  Modern  World.  It  consists  of 
 nine  4to  volumes,  and,  though  deformed  by 
 some  baseless  speculations  and  hypotheses, 
 is  richly  fraught  with  erudition.  Among 
 his  other  works  is  A  History  of  the  War 
 of  the  Cevennes,  in  three  volumes. 
 
 COURTOIS,  James,  a  painter,  known 
 by  the  names  of  Cortese  and  II  Borgog- 
 Done,  was  born  at  St.  Hyppolite,  in 
 Franche  Comte,  in  1621.  He  was  a  pupil 
 of  Guido  and  Albano,  and,  as  some  say, 
 of  Jerome.  In  battle  pieces  he  stands 
 almost  unrivalled.  Being  accused  of  hav- 
 ing poisoned  his  wife,  he  entered  into  the 
 order  of  the  Jesuits,  and  died  iiv  their  con- 
 vent at  Rome,  in  1676.  His  brother, 
 William,  bjrn  1618,  died  1679,  was  a 
 pupil  of  Pietro  da  Coitona,  and  was  an 
 eminent  historical  painter. 
 
 COUSIN,  Louis,  a  native  of  Paris,  v\ ho 
 was  born  in  1627,  and  died  in  1707,  was 
 president  of  the  mint,  and  a  member  of 
 the  French  Academy.  Among  his  works 
 are,  a  History  of  Constantinople,  eight 
 volumes  4to. ;  A  History  of  the  Church, 
 four  volumes  4to.;  and  A  Roman  History, 
 two  volumes  12mo. ;  which  consist  of 
 translations  of  the  Byzantine  sacred  and 
 profane  historians.  He  also  conducted  the 
 Journal  des  Savants  from  1687  to  1701. 
 As  a  critic,  a  translator,  and  a  man,  Cousin 
 is  deserving  of  praise. 
 
 COUSTOU,  Nicholas,  a  French 
 sculptor,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1658,  and 
 died  in  1733.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Coyse- 
 vox,  his  uncle,  and  formed  his  style  on  the 
 works  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Algardi. 
 Among  his  best  productions  are,  a  Hercu- 
 les Commodus,  a  group  of  tritons,  and  a 
 group  of  the  Seine  and  the  Maine. — His 
 brother,  William,  also  a  pupil  of  Coyse- 
 vox,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1678,  and  died 
 in  1746.  He  was  superior  to  Nicholas. 
 Daphne  and  Hippomenes,  the  Ocean  and 
 the  Mediterranean,  and  a  figure  of  tlie 
 Rhone,  are  among  his  masterpieces.  His 
 son  William,  also,  born  in  1716,  died  in 
 1777,  was  a  celebrated  sculptor. 
 
 COVENTRY,  Francis,  a  native  of 
 Cambridgeshire,  educated  at  Magdalen 
 College,  Cambridge,  was  perpetual  curate 
 of  Edgeware  when  he  died,  in  1759.  He 
 wrote  the  novel  of  Pompey  the  Little ; 
 a  paper  in  The  World,  on  the  absurdity 
 of  modern  gardening;  and  some  poems, 
 one  of  which,  Penshurst,  is  printed  in 
 Dodsley's  collection. —His  cousin,  Henry, 
 a  fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  who  died 
 in  1752,  contributed  to  the  Athenian  Let- 
 ters, and  wrote  The  Letters  of  Philemon 
 to  Hvdaspes. 
 
 COVERDALE,  Miles,  one  of  the  ear- 
 liest English  reformers,  was  born  in  York- 
 shire in  1487,  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
 and  went  abroad  on  becoming  a  protestant. 
 
cow 
 
 He  assisted  Tyndale  in  his  version  of  the 
 Bible,  and  in  1535  published  a  complete 
 translation.  In  1551,  after  having  been 
 almoner  to  Queen  Catherine  Parr,  he  was 
 promoted  to  the  see  of  Exeter.  In  the 
 reign  of  Mary  he  retired  to  the  continent, 
 but  returned  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth. 
 He  died  in  1568,  or,  according  to  some- 
 accounts,  in  1580. 
 
 CO VI LH AM,  Pedro  de, a  Portuguese 
 gentleman,  who  served  with  distinction 
 in  the  wars  of  Castile,  and  afterwards 
 traded  to  Africa.  He  was  sent,  along 
 with  Alphonso  de  Payva,  in  search  of 
 Prester  John,  and  also  to  inquire  whether 
 a  passage  to  India  could  be  accomplished 
 round  the  Cape.  On  this  mission,  while 
 Payva  proceeded  to  Abyssinia,  Covilham 
 visited  India  and  Sofala,  obtained  the  first 
 distinct  account  of  Madagascar,  and  ascer- 
 tained that  the  voyage  round  the  Cape 
 might  be  performed.  He  then,  Payva  hav- 
 ing died,  journeyed  to  Abyssinia,  where 
 the  monarch  heaped  upon  him  die  highest 
 honours  of  the  state,  and  induced  him  to 
 spend  there  the  remainder  of  his  days. 
 
 COWELL,  John,  a  lawyer  and  anti- 
 quary, born  about  1554,  at  Ernesborough, 
 in  Yorkshire",  was  educated  at  Eton,  and 
 at  King's  College,  Cambridge;  and  became 
 master  of  Trinity  Hall.  He  died  in  1611. 
 He  is  the  author  of  Institutes  of  the  Laws 
 of  England;  and  of  The  Interpreter,  or 
 Explanation  of  Law  Terms;  the  last  of 
 which  works  the  Commons  ordered  to  be 
 burnt  for  its  unconstitutional  doctrines. 
 With  his  wonted  coarseness  of  wit,  Coke, 
 who  hated  him,  used  to  call  him  Dr.  Cow- 
 heel. 
 
 COWLEY,  Abraham,  the  posthumous 
 son  of  a  grocer,  was  born  in  London,  in 
 1618.  From  Westminster  School  he  went 
 to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  whence  he 
 was  ejected,  in  1643,  by  the  puritanical 
 visiters,  upon  which  he  settled  at  St.  John's 
 College,  Oxford,  and  avenged  himself  by 
 a  satire,  called  the  Puritan  and  the  Papist. 
 He  had  already  produced  Poetical  Blos- 
 soms, Love's  Riddle,  a  pastoral  corned}-, 
 and  a  Latin  comedy,  intitled  Naufragium 
 Joculare:  the  first  two  were  written  while 
 he  was  at  Westminster.  He  now  entered 
 into  the  king's  service,  and  attended  him 
 in  several  journeys  and  expeditions.  When 
 the  queen  left  England,  he  accompanied 
 her,  obtained  a  settlement  in  the  family  of 
 the  earl  of  St.  Albans,  and  was  employed 
 on  various  missions  relative  to  the  royal 
 cause.  During  Ids  absence  appeared  The 
 Mistress,  and  the  comedy  of  The  Guardian. 
 In  1656  he  returned  to  England,  and,  soon 
 after  his  arrival,  he  was  imprisoned,  but 
 was  bailed  by  Dr.  Scarborough.  It  was 
 at  this  period  that  he  gave  to  the  world  a 
 complete  edition  of  his  poems.  On  the 
 death     of    Cromwell,    Cowley     revisited 
 
 COW  109 
 
 France;  and  he  was  one  of  those  who 
 came  back  in  the  train  of  the  restored 
 sovereign.  The  triumph  of  his  party  was 
 for  a  while  of  no  benefit  to  him,  but,  at 
 length,  he  obtained  a  small  independence, 
 and  withdrew  into  retirement.  He  died 
 ■*  .tlie  Porcl!  IIuuse'  Chertsey,  in  July, 
 1667.  Cowley,  as  Johnson  observes,  is 
 "  undoubtedly  the  best"  of  the  metaphysi- 
 cal poets;  for,  though  his  ideas  are  often 
 far-fetched,  and  sometimes  absurd  or  ludi- 
 crous, his  faults  are  redeemed  by  great 
 beauties.  His  prose  merits  almost  unal- 
 loyed praise;  it  is  pregnant  with  thought, 
 and  the  style  is  natural  and  elegant. 
 
 COWLEY,  Hannah,  a  dramatic  wri- 
 ter, whose  maiden  name  was  Parkhouse, 
 was  born  at  Tiverton,  in  Devonshire,  in 
 1743,  and  died  at  that  place  in  1809.  She 
 is  the  author  of  nine  comedies,  among 
 which  are,  The  Runaway,  The  Belle's 
 Stratagem,  and  More  Ways  than  One; 
 the  tragedies  of  Albina,  and  The  Fate  of 
 Sparta;  two  farces;  and  the  poems  of 
 The  Siege  of  Acre,  The  Maid  of  Arragon, 
 and  The  Scottish  Village.  Her  poems  are 
 of  that  description  which  Horace  depre- 
 cates; but  her  comedies  have  considerable 
 merit. 
 
 COWPER,  William,  a  poet,  was  bom 
 at  Berkhamstead,  in  Hertfordshire,  Nov. 
 26,  1731,  and  was  the  son  of  the  rector  of 
 that  place.  His  constitution  was  highly 
 delicate,  and  his  feelings  nervously  sus- 
 ceptible. It  is  no  wonder,  therefore,  that 
 he  endured  so  much  from  the  tyranny  of 
 his  seniors  at  Westminster  School,  as  to 
 inspire  him  with  a  disgust  of  all  such 
 public  establishments;  a  disgust  which  he 
 afterwards  forcibly  expressed  in  his  poem 
 of  Tirocinium.  He  was  articled  for  three 
 years  to  an  attorney,  and  subsequently 
 studied  at  the  Temple,  but  seems  to  have 
 acquired  no  great  share  of  legal  knowledge. 
 So  extreme  was  his  dread  of  being  placed 
 in  any  conspicuous  situation,  that  being 
 unexpectedly  called  on  to  attend  at  the 
 bar  of  the  House  of  Lords,  as  clerk  of  the 
 journals,  his  agitation  of  mind  not  only 
 compelled  him  to  resign  his  post,  but  ter- 
 minated  in  insanity.     That   disorder  wae 
 
200 
 
 COX 
 
 heigntened  by  the  gloomy  ideas  he  bad 
 imbibed  on  the  .subject  of  religion,  which 
 led  him  to  suppose  himself  condemned  to 
 eternal  reprobation.  After  having  been 
 for  a  considerable  time  under  the  care  of 
 Dr.  Cotton,  he  recovered,  and  took  up  his 
 residence,  in  1765,  as  an  inmate  with  the 
 Rev.  Mr.  Unwiti  of  Huntingdon.  That 
 gentleman  died  in  1767,  bnt  Cow  per  con- 
 tinued to  reside  with  his  widow,  at  Olncv 
 in  Buckinghamshire,  and  Weston  in  North- 
 amptonshire, till  her  death,  in  1796.  From 
 1773  to  1778,  and  from  1794  till  his  decease, 
 which  took  place  at  Dereham  in  Norfolk, 
 April  25,  1800,  he  suffered  again  under  the 
 scourge  of  insanity.  In  the  mean  while, 
 however,  he  gained  imperishable  fame  by 
 his  writings.  His  first  appearance  as  an 
 author,  excepting  a  few  papers  to  the 
 Connoisseur,  and  some  hymns  to  the  Olney 
 collection,  was  in  1782,  when  he  published 
 the  first  volume  of  his  Poems.  The  second, 
 containing  The  Task,  appeared  in  1784. 
 Of  his  subsequent  works,  the  principal  is, 
 a  blank  verse  Translation  of  Homer,  which 
 has  not  become  popular.  It  is  a  curious 
 fact,  that  his  humorous  ballad  of  John 
 Gilpin  was  written  while  he  was  a  prey 
 to  the  deepest  melancholy.  His  Letters, 
 which  are  models  of  that  kind  of  compo- 
 sition, have  been  given  to  the  world  since 
 his  death.  Cowper  is  a  poet  of  varied 
 powers;  he  is  by  turns  playful  and  pa- 
 thetic, tender  and  sarcastic;  in  some 
 instances,  he  rises  to  sublimity;  and  in 
 picturesque  delineation  he  has  no  rival 
 but  Thomson,  and  he  generally  surpasses 
 turn  in  elegance. 
 
 COXE,  William,  was  born  in  London 
 in  1747,  and  educated  at  Eton,  and  King's 
 College,  Cambridge.  He  took  orders  in 
 1771 ;  was  for  two  years  tutor  to  the  mar- 
 quis of  Blandford ;  and,  in  1775,  accom- 
 panied Lord  Herbert,  afterwards  earl  of 
 Pembroke,  to  the  continent.  He  succes- 
 sively obtained  the  livings  of  Kingston  on 
 Thames,  Bemerton,  Stourton,and  Fovant; 
 and  was  appointed  a  canon  residentiary  of 
 Salisbury,  and  archdeacon  of  Wilts.  About 
 ten  years  before  his  decease  he  suffered  the 
 privation  of  sight,  but  he  persisted,  with 
 unabated  ardour,  in  his  literary  labours. 
 He  died  at  Bemerton,  in  June,  1828.  Of 
 his  numerous  works,  the  .principal  are, 
 Travels  in  Switzerland;  Travels  into  Po- 
 land, Russia,  &c. ;  Russian  Discoveries; 
 Historical  Tour  in  Monmouthshire;  His- 
 tory of  the  House  of  Austria;  Historical 
 Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain;  of  the 
 House  of  Bourbon  ;  Memoirs  of  Sir  Robert 
 Walpole;  of Horatio  Lord  Walpole ;  of  the 
 Administration  of  the  Hon.  Mr.  I'elham; 
 and  of  John  Duke  of  Marlborough;  and 
 Private  and  Original  Correspondence  of 
 the  Duke  of  Shrewsbury.  The  historical 
 works  of  Coxe  are  distinguished  bv  a  ful- 
 
 CRA 
 
 ness  of  research  and  an  adherence  to  truth 
 which  render  them  highly  valuable. 
 
 CRABBE,  George,  one  of  the  most 
 popular  of  modern  British  poets,  was  born 
 in  1754,  at  Aldborough,  in  Suffolk,  where 
 his  father  held  some  appointment  in  the 
 customs.  It  is  said  that  he  was  originally 
 intended  for  the  medical  profession,  and 
 that  he  served  an  apprenticeship  to  a  pro- 
 vincial apothecary.  He  displayed  a  taste 
 for  poetry  at  an  early  age,  and  was  finally 
 induced  to  give  up  the  study  of  medicine 
 and  devote  himself  to  belles  lettres.  He 
 went  to  London  at  the  age  of  twenty-four, 
 and  gained  the  friendship  of  Edmund 
 Burke,  at  whose  recommendation  he  pub- 
 lished, in  1781,  his  poem  of  The  Library. 
 This  was  quickly  followed  by  The  Village, 
 which  gained  for  him  the  high  approbation 
 of  Dr.  Johnson.  In  the  mean  time  Crabbe 
 had  entered  himself  at  Cambridge,  had 
 taken  orders,  and  now  accompanied  the 
 Duke  of  Rutland,  as  chaplain,  upon  his 
 appointment  to  the  vice-regal  government 
 of  Ireland.  Through  the  same  patronage 
 he  afterwards  obtained  some  small  church 
 preferment.  The  study  of  theology  for  a 
 long  time  withdrew  Mr.  Crabbe  almost 
 entirely  from  his  poetic  labours.  After  an 
 interruption  of  nearly  twenty  years,  he 
 published  a  collection  of  poems,  which  was 
 very  successful.  This  was  followed  by  The 
 Borough,  in  1810;  Tales,  in  1815;  and 
 Tales  of  the  Hall,  in  1819.  He  died  in 
 1832.  His  works  have  been  exceedingly 
 popular,  and  have  gone  through  many  edi- 
 tions. Everything  about  him  is  simple, 
 and  characteristic:  and  he  has  been  de- 
 scribed with  much  felicity  as  the  anatomist 
 of  the  human  soul. 
 
 CRVFTS,  William,  a  lawyer  and 
 miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  in  Charles- 
 ton, S.  C.  in  1787.  He  received  his  edu- 
 cation at  Harvard  college,  and  studied  law 
 in  his  native  city,  where  he  acquired  some 
 reputation  for  talent  and  eloquence.  He 
 was  a  member  of  the  South  Carolina  legis- 
 lature, and  for  some  time  editor  of  the 
 Charleston  Courier.  He  died  at  Lebanon 
 Springs,  N.  Y.  in  1826.  A  collection  of 
 his  works,  comprising  poems,  essays  in 
 prose,  and  orations,  with  a  biographical 
 memoir,  was  published  in  Charleston  in 
 1828. 
 
 CRAIK,  James,  was  born  in  Scotland, 
 where  he  received  his  education  for  the 
 medical  service  of  the  British  army.  He 
 came  to  the  colony  of  Virginia  in  early  life, 
 and  accompanied  Washington  in  his  expe- 
 ditions against  the  French  and  Indians  in 
 1754;  and  in  the  following  year  attended 
 Braddock  in  his  march  through  the  wilder- 
 ness, and  assisted  in  dressing  his  wounds. 
 At  the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  bv 
 the  aid  of  his  early  and  fast  friend,  General 
 Washington,  he    was    transferred    to    the 
 
CRA 
 
 medical  department  in  the  continental  ar- 
 my, and  rose  to  the  first  rank  and  distinc- 
 tion. He  continued  in  the  army  to  the  end 
 of  the  war,  and  was  present  at  the  sur- 
 render of  Cornwallis,  on  the  memorable 
 19th  of  October,  1781.  After  the  cessation 
 of  hostilities,  he  removed  to  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  Mount  Vernon,  and  in  1798  was 
 once  more  appointed  by  Washington  to  his 
 former  station  in  the  medical  staff.  He 
 was  present  with  his  illustrious  friend  in 
 his  last  moments,  and  died  in  1814,  in  the 
 84th  year  of  his  age.  He  was  a  skilful  and 
 successful  physician,  and  Washington  men- 
 tioned him  as  "  my  compatriot  in  arms, 
 my  old  and  intimate  friend." 
 
 CRAMER,  Gabriel,  an  eminent  geo- 
 metrician, was  born  in  1704,  and  died  in 
 1752.  He  edited  the  works  of  Wolf  and 
 the  Bernouillis;  and  wrote,  among  other 
 things,  an  Introduction  to  the  Analysis  of 
 Algebraical  Curve  Lines. 
 
 CRAMER,  John  Andrew,  a  German 
 mineralogist,  was  born  at  Quedlinburg,  in 
 1710,  and  died  in  1777.  He  was  the  first 
 who  reduced  to  settled  principles  the  art 
 of  assaying,  and  to  him  Germany  is  in- 
 debted for  her  superior  progress  in  metal- 
 lurgy. Cramer  had  many  singularities, 
 among  which  was  a  complete  inattention 
 to  his  personal  appearance;  so  that  he' was 
 compared  to  Diogenes.  He  is  the  author 
 o(  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  Docimastic  art; 
 another,  on  the  Management  of  Forests ; 
 and  Principles  of  Metallurgy;  the  last  of 
 which  he  did  not  complete. 
 
 CRAMER,  John  Andrew,  a  German 
 writer,  was  born  at  Josephstadt,  in  Saxony, 
 in  1723;  and,  with  the  exception  of  three 
 years,  resided  in  Denmark  from  1754  to 
 1788,  in  which  latter  year  he  died.  He 
 was  invited  to  Denmark  by  the  sovereign, 
 and,  at  the  time  of  his  decease,  was  chan- 
 cellor of  the  university  of  Kiel.  He  trans- 
 lated Bossuet's  Universal  History,  the 
 Homilies  of  St.  Chrvsostom,  and  the 
 Psalms  of  David  in  verse;  and  wrote  The 
 Northern  Spectator,  three  vols. ;  Sermons, 
 twenty-two  vols. ;  and  Poems,  three  vols. 
 Eminent  in  many  ways,  it  is  as  a  votary 
 of  the  Muses  that  he  is  most  famous;  Ger- 
 many ranks  him  among  her  best  lyric  poets. 
 
 CRANMER,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  re- 
 former, the  son  of  a  country  gentleman, 
 was  born  at  Aslacton,  in  Nottinghamshire, 
 in  1489,  and  was  educated  at  Jesus  College, 
 Cambridge,  where,  in  1523,  he  became 
 reader  of  the  divinity  lecture.  For  his 
 rise  he  was  indebted  to  an  opinion  which 
 he  chanced  to  give  to  Gardiner  and  Fox, 
 that  the  best  way  to  settle  the  question 
 relative  to  the  king's  divorce  would  be  to 
 refer  it  to  the  universities  instead  of  to 
 the  pope.  Henry  instantly  made  him  his 
 chaplain,  ordered  him  to  write  on  the 
 subject,  and    subsequently    employed    him 
 
 CRA 
 
 201 
 
 in   negotiations   at    Rome,   and   in   other 
 parts  of  the  continent.     On  Cranmer's  re- 
 
 turn, the  monarch  raised  him,  in  1533,  to 
 die  archbishopric  of  Canterbury.  Thus 
 elevated,  and  invested  with  powerful  in- 
 fluence, the  archbishop  pursued  with  vig- 
 our the  work  of  religious  reformation.  His 
 enemies  laboured  as  strenuously  to  ruin 
 him,  but  he  was  always  upheld  by  Henry. 
 Being  a  member  of  the  council  of  regency, 
 during  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. ,  he  was 
 enabled  to  push  forward  an  ecclesiastical 
 reform  with  still  more  decisive  effect.  But, 
 unfortunately,  he  now  displayed  a  perse- 
 cuting spirit  which  has  stained  his  character 
 with  a  deep  and  bloody  spot.  Besides  be- 
 ing guilty  of  minor  acts  of  tyranny,  he 
 consigned  to  the  flames,  as  heretics,  two 
 unhappy  beings,  one  of  them  a  woman  ! 
 This  wras  Joan  Bocher,  the  warrant  for 
 whose  execution  was  in  a  manner  extorted 
 from  the  youthful  monarch,  who  signed  it 
 in  tears,  and  threw  on  Cranmer  the  moral 
 responsibility  of  the  barbarous  deed.  Hav- 
 ing consented  to  the  measures  for  placing 
 Lady  Jane  Grey  on  the  throne,  he  became 
 one  of  the  victims  after  the  accession  of 
 Mary.  Lured  by  the  promise  not  only  of 
 pardon  but  of  royal  favour,  he  was  induced 
 to  sign  six  papers,  by  which  he  recanted 
 his  principles,  and  avowed  his  sorrow  for 
 having  entertained  them.  In  spite,  how- 
 ever, of  the  promises  made  to  him,  he  was 
 brought  to  the  stake,  March  21,  1556.  He 
 had  by  this  time  recovered  his  firnanes9, 
 and  he  died  with  the  utmost  fortitude, 
 holding  in  the  flames  till  it  was  consum-  i 
 the  hand  which  had  signed  the  recantation, 
 and  exclaiming,  "  This  unworthy  ban.'  ! 
 this  unworthy  hand  !"  His  forgiving  dis- 
 position, which  led  him  never  to  revenge 
 an  injury,  his  extensive  liberality,  his  ser- 
 vices to  the  cause  of  ecclesiastical  reform', 
 and  his  courage  at  the  hour  of  death,  have: 
 shed  a  lustre  round  the  memory  of  Cran- 
 mer; but  it  must,  however  reluctantly,  be 
 owned,  that  he  displayed  an  indefensible 
 flexibility  of  principle,  and  that  he  was, 
 in  fact,  not  less  a  bigot  than  were  the  men 
 by  whose  bigotry,  blended  with  personal 
 enmity,  he  was  at  length  sacrificed 
 
202  CRE  CRT 
 
 CRANZ,  or  KRANZ,  David,  a  Mora-  with  all  his  faults  of  composition,  it  is  im- 
 vian  preacher,  was  born  in  Pomerania  in  possible  to  deny  his  claim  to  a  place  among 
 1723,  and  resided  for  some  years  as  a  mis-  the  higher  class  of  his  country's  tragic 
 sionary  in  Greenland,  where  he  was  much  dramatist?. 
 
 respected  for  his  virtues.  He  died,  in  CREBILLON,  Claude  Prosper 
 1777,  minister  of  Guadenfroy,  in  Silesia.  Jolyot  de,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born 
 He  is  the  author  of  a  valuable  History  of  at  Paris  in  1707,  and  died  there  in  1777. 
 Greenland;  and  of  a  History  of  the  Mo-  He  acquired  the  name  of  the  French  Pe- 
 ravians.  I  tronius  by  his  novels.     They  manifest  ta- 
 
 CRASHAW,  Richard,  a  poet,  the  lent, but  much  more  licentiousness.  Among 
 son  of  a  clergyman,  was  born  at  London, 'them  are,  The  Sopha;  Tanzai  and  iVea- 
 and  educated  at  the  Charter  House,  and  at  darne ;  and  Les  Egaremens  du  Coeur  et 
 Cambridge.  From  Cambridge  he  was  de  l'Esprit;  to  the  last  of  which  works 
 ejected  in  1644,  and  then  went  to  France,  Sterne  alludes  in  his  Sentimental  Journey, 
 where  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic.  He]  CREECH,  Thomas,  a  native  of  Dor- 
 died,  a  canon  of  Loretto,  in  1650.  His'setshire,  was  born  at  Blandford,  in  1659; 
 poems  are  frequently  melodious  and  ani-jwas  educated  at  Sherborne  School,  and 
 mated.  Milton  anil  Pope  did  not  disdain  '  Wadham  College,  Oxibrd ;  and  became  a 
 to  borrow  some  of  his  ideas.  fellow  of  All    Souls.     In   1700  he   put  an 
 
 CRASSUS,  Marcus  Licinius,  whose  'end  to  his  existence.  He  translated  Lu- 
 opulence  obtained  him  the  appellation  of  cretius,  and  parte  of  Horace,  Theocritus, 
 the  Rich,  defeated  Spartacus,  and  put  an  and  other  authors.  Creech  was  a  good 
 end  to  the  Servile  war.  He  was  subse-  scholar,  but  an  ungraceful  translator, 
 quently  consul,  and  then  censor;  formed  I  CRESCIMBIIST,  John  Marius,  a 
 one  of  the  first  triumvirate  with  Pompey  celebrated  Italian  poet  and  miscellaneous 
 and  Caesar;  and  was  defeated  and  slain  writer,  was  born  at  Macerata,  in  the  Papal 
 by  the  Parthians,  B.  c.  53.  territory,  in  1663;  received  his  education 
 
 CRATItVUS,  an  Athenian  poet,  to  whom  in  the  Jesuit's  College  there;  and  wrote 
 is  attributed  the  invention  of  satirical  co-ja  tragedy  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  He  was 
 medy.  The  boldness  and  virulence  of  his  J  brought  up  to  the  law,  but  ultimately  em- 
 sarcasms  is  said  to  have  been  unequalled,  braced  the  ecclesiastical  profession.  I)i 
 He  gained  the  dramatic  prize  nine  times,  1690,  he  founded  the  Academy  known  by 
 but  of  his  numerous  pieces  only  a  few  the  name  of  the  Arcadian,  which  soon  be- 
 verses  remain.  He  died  B.  c.  431,  having  j  came  one  of  the  most  popular  literary 
 attained  the  age  of  ninety-seven,  notwith-  assemblies  in  Italy.  He  died  in  172S. 
 standing  he  was  a  determined  wine-bibber.  His  works   are  numerous.     The  principal 
 
 CRAWFORD,  Adam,  a  physician  and  j  of  them  are,  Poems;  A  History  of  Italian 
 natural    philosopher,    was    born    in    1749,  j  Poetry ;  and  Commentaries  on  the  History. 
 
 and  died  at  Lymington,  in  1795.  He  was 
 physician  to  St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  pro- 
 fessor of  chemistry  at  Woolwich,  and 
 F.  R.  S.  He  is  the  author  of  Experiments 
 and  Observations  on  Animal  Heat,  a  valu- 
 
 CREYTER,  John  Baptist  Lewis,  a 
 French  historian,  born  at  Paris  in  1693, 
 was  a  pupil  of  Rollin ;  became  professor 
 at  the  college  of  Beauvais;  and  died  in 
 1765.      His   principal  works  are,   A  Con- 
 
 able  work;  and  also  of  an  Inquiry  into  the  !  tinuation  of  Rollin '"s  Roman  History,  eight 
 Effect  of  Tonics.     Crawford  was*  the   first  j  vols,  quarto ;   and  a  History  of  the  "Roman 
 who  prescribed    muriate  of  barytes  as   a  Emperors,  eight  vols,  quarto, 
 remedy  for  scrofula.  CRICHTON,    James,   known    by   the 
 
 CREBILLON,  Prosper  Jolyot  de,  name  of  the  admirable  Crichton,  was  born 
 a  French  tragic  poet,  was  born  at  Dijon,  in  1561,  and  was  a  son  of  the  lord  advo- 
 »n  1674;  and,  being  intended  for  the  bar,  cate  of  Scotland.  He  was  educated  at 
 ■was  placed  with  a  solicitor,  to  acquire  the  St.  Andrew's,  and  was  such  an  early 
 preliminary  mechanical  knowledge.  Cre-  proficient  in  learning  as  to  have  obtained 
 billon  however  manifested  a  decided  taste'  the  degree  of  M.  A.  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
 for  the  drama,  and  die  solicitor  encouraged  He  is  said  to  have  excelled  in  eloquence, 
 h»m  to  follow  his  inclination  for  dramatic  I  to  have  overcome  every  opponent  in  logi- 
 wnting.  His  first  successful  tragedy,  Ido- leal  and  scientific  disputation,  to  have 
 96.     It    was  fob  |  known   ten   languages,   and   to   have  been 
 
 iminate    in    all    military    and 
 He  was  murdered,  in 
 more    than   twenty  years,  and  during  that)  1582  or  1583,  by  his  pupil,  the  son  of  the 
 period   he   lived   in    a  state   bordering   on  |  duke  of  Mantua. 
 
 poverty.  His  last  labours  were  the  trage-  CRILLON,  Louis  de  Balbe,  or 
 dies  of  Catiline  and  The  Triumvirate.  He|BALBis  de  Berton  de,  one  of  the  moBt 
 Aedin  1762.  Crebillon  is  denominated  |  gallant  French  warriors  of  the  sixteenth 
 U»e  French  /Eschylus,  and  not  without  century,  was  born,  in  1541,  in  Provence, 
 »«eson.     In    the    terrible  he   excels,  and, 'entered    the   army  at   an   early   age,  and 
 
 ■■«""i  ■  "■■■.!  «ui  in  iiuu.  ii  was  ioi-  Known  ten  langu 
 lowed  by  Atreus,  Rhadamistus,  Electra, '  equally  consuminj 
 and    others;    after   which    he    paused    for  j  athletic  exercises. 
 
CRO 
 
 signalized  his  valour  under  five  French 
 sovereigns.  Nor  was  his  courage  mani- 
 fested only  at  home.  He  served  as  a  vol- 
 unteer at  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  and  was 
 one  of  the  most  conspicuous  on  that  glorious 
 occasion.  He  died  in  1615.  His  courage 
 was  carried  to  an  almost  romantic  height. 
 The  soldiery  called  him  "  the  man  without 
 fear,"  and  Henry  IV.,  who  highly  esteem- 
 ed him,  denominated  him  "  the  bravest  of 
 the  brave." 
 
 CRISP,  Tobias,  a  divine,  born  at  Lon- 
 don in  1600,  was  educated  at  Eton,  Cam- 
 bridge, and  Baliol  College,  Oxford ;  and 
 died,  rector  of  Brink  worth,  in  1642-3.  He 
 was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  champions 
 of  Antinoinianism.  Yet,  though  he  taught 
 a  doctrine  which  holds  up  faith  to  the  ex- 
 clusion of  works,  Crisp  was  remarkable 
 for  works  of  charity,  as  well  as  for  piety, 
 purity,  and  humility.  His  Sermons,  in 
 three  volumes,  were  published  after  his 
 death. 
 
 CROFT,  Sir  Herbert,  was  born  in 
 London,  in  1751;  was  educated  at  Uni- 
 versity College,  Oxford;  and  studied  at 
 Lincoln's  Inn ;  but  relinquished  the  bar 
 and  took  orders,  though  without  obtaining 
 ecclesiastical  preferment.  He  died  at  Paris 
 in  1816.  He  was  a  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
 who  inserted  Croft's  Life  of  Young  among 
 his  own  lives  of  the  poets.  But  he  is  best 
 known  by  his  story  of  Love  and  Madness. 
 He  planned,  but  never  executed,  an  im- 
 proved edition  of  Johnson's  Dictionary. 
 
 CROMWELL,  Thomas,  earl  of  Essex, 
 a  native  of  Surrey,  born  about  1490,  was 
 the  son  of  a  blacksmith  at  Putney.  After 
 having  been  a  clerk  to  the  English  factory 
 at  Antwerp,  he  returned  home,  and  became 
 confidential  servant  to  Cardinal  Wolsey. 
 On  the  disgrace  of  the  cardinal,  Cromwell 
 defended  him  in  the  House  of  Commons 
 with  spirit  and  effect.  He  was  taken  into 
 the  service  of  Henry  VIII.  and  rose  till, 
 in  1539,  he  was  made  earl  of  Essex,  and 
 lord  chamberlain.  He  had  previously  taken 
 an  active  and  not  always  just  part,  as  visiter 
 general,  in  the  suppression  of  the  monas- 
 teries. His  parliamentary  conduct,  too, 
 was  often  highly  criminal.  To  the  Refor- 
 mation, however,  he  was  a  warm  friend, 
 and  he  was  charitable  and  grateful.  Crom- 
 well having  been  one  of  the  promoters  of 
 the  marriage  of  Henry  with  Anne  of 
 Cleves,  the  capricious  tyrant  brought  him 
 to  the  block,  in  1540. 
 
 CROMWELL,  Oliver,  one  of  the 
 most  astonishing  characters  in  English  his- 
 tory, was  the  grandson  of  Sir  Henry  Crom- 
 well, and  was  born  at  Huntingdon,  April 
 25,  1599.  His  father  was  a  brewer.  He 
 was  educated  at  Huntingdon  School,  Sid- 
 ney Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  and  Lin- 
 coln's Inn ;  and  is  said  not  to  have  made 
 any  great  progress  in  his  studies.     For  a 
 
 CRO  203 
 
 while  he  seems  to  have  been  entangled  in 
 the    snares    of    dissipation,    but    he    soon 
 
 escaped  from  them,  for,  at  the  age  of 
 twenty-one,  he  married  and  settled  in  his 
 native  town,  and,  not  long  after,  became  a 
 zealous  puritan.  His  first  appearance  in 
 parliament  was  in  1625,  as  member  for 
 Huntingdon.  Three  years  before  the  meet- 
 ing of  the  Long  Parliament,  in  which 
 memorable  assembly  he  sat  for  Cambridge, 
 he  meditated  emigrating  to  America,  in 
 company  with  Hampden  and  other  gentle- 
 men of  the  same  principles  as  himself,  but 
 he  was  prevented  by  a  proclamation  of  the 
 government.  That  proclamation  the  mis- 
 guided monarch  had  abundant  reason  to 
 repent.  Cromwell  was  active  against  him 
 in  the  House;  and,  when  the  Commons 
 resolved  on  resistance,  he  raised  a  troop 
 of  horse,  which  he  disciplined  in  an  admi- 
 rable manner.  This  force  he  soon  enlarged 
 to  a  regiment  of  a  thousand  men,  at  the 
 head  of  which  he  became  the  most  con- 
 spicuous of  the  parliamentary  leaders. 
 Between  1642  and  1646,  he  signalized 
 himself  on  a  great  variety  of  occasions, 
 particularly  at  Marston  Moor,  Newbury, 
 Naseby,  and  Torrington.  In  the  negotia- 
 tions which  ensued  between  the  king  and 
 the  victorious  parliament,  Cromwell  was 
 at  first  disposed  to  consent  to  restoring 
 Charles  under  certain  conditions,  but,  find- 
 ing that  the  royal  captive  was  not  to  be 
 trusted,  he  resolved  to  join  in  bringing  hira 
 to  the  block.  He  was  one  of  the  forty 
 persons  who,  after  the  death  of  Charles, 
 formed  the  Council  of  State.  Ireland  vet 
 remained  to  be  subdued.  Cromwell  wasj 
 therefore,  appointed  lord  governor  of  that 
 island  for  three  years,  and  in  August,  1649, 
 he  sailed  to  assume  the  command.  Storm- 
 ing Drogheda  and  Wexford  with  horrible 
 slaughter  of  the  garrisons,  he  so  terrified 
 the  enemy,  that  in  nine  months  peace  was 
 restored.  In  1650,  he  defeated  the  Scots 
 at  Dunbar;  and,  in  the  following  year,  he 
 obtained  what  he  called  his  "  crowning 
 victory"  over  Charles,  at  Worcester.  One 
 step  more  sufficed  to  place  him  at  the 
 summit  of  power.  Having  by  force  dis- 
 solved  the  Long   Parliament,  he  assumed 
 
204  CliO 
 
 the  supreme  authority,  in  1653,  under  the 
 title  of  lord  protector.  The  title  of  king 
 he  was  more  than  once  desirous  to  obtain, 
 but  was  deterred  from  assuming  it  by  the 
 dread  of  alienating  his  partisans.  For 
 five  years  he  maintained  himself  in  the 
 perilous  6tation  to  which  he  had  reached, 
 but  his  sway  was  disturbed  by  incessant 
 plots,  cabals,  and  other  circumstances  of 
 formidable  annoyance.  The  glory  of  his 
 country,  however,  he  nobly  sustained,  and 
 England  was  never  more  respected,  and 
 even  feared,  by  foreign  states,  than  it  was 
 under  his  government.  At  length,  his 
 constitution  sank  under  anxiety  and  toil, 
 and  he  expired  on  the  3d  of  September, 
 1658. 
 
 CROMWELL,  Richard,  son  of  Oliver 
 Cromwell,  was  born  at  Huntingdon,  in 
 1626,  and  succeeded  his  father,  as  lord 
 protector,  in  1658.  Finding  himself  una- 
 ble to  contend  with  the  factions  hostile  to 
 him,  he  resigned  in  the  following  year,  and 
 he  went  to  France  on  the  restoration  of 
 Charles  II.  He  returned  to  England  in 
 1680,  assumed  the  name  of  Clarke,  and 
 died  at  Cheshunt  in  1712. 
 
 CRONEGK,  or  KRONEGK,  John 
 Frederic,  baron  de,  a  German  poet,  was 
 horn  at  Anspach,  in  1731,  and  died  in 
 1758.  He  is  the  author  of  several  trage- 
 dies and  comedies,  which,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  the  tragedy  of  Codrus,  are  less 
 enteemed  than  his  poems.  In  his  poetic 
 effusions  he  displays  a  brilliant  imagina- 
 tion, and  his  diction  is  energetic.  He  is 
 called  the  German  Young. 
 
 CROUSAZ,  John  Peter  de,  a  phi- 
 losopher and  mathematician,  was  born  at 
 Lausanne,  in  1663,  and  at  various  periods 
 filled  the  professor's  chair  of  Greek  and 
 philosophy,  and  mathematics  and  philoso- 
 phy, at  Groningen  and  Lausanne.  He 
 was  also  tutor  to  Prince  Frederic  of  Hesse 
 Caseel.  He  died  in  1750.  Among  his 
 numerous  works  arc,  a  Treatise  on  the 
 Beautiful;  The  Geometry  of  Rectilinear 
 and  Curvilinear  Lines  and  Surfaces;  and 
 an  Examination  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
 Pyrrhonism;  but  he  is  best  known  by  his 
 Criticism  on  Pope's  Essay  on  Man,  which 
 called  forth  Warburton  as  a  defender  of 
 the  poet. 
 
 CROWNE,  John,  a  dramatist,  the  son 
 of  a  Nova  Scotian  independent  minister, 
 came  to  England  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
 II.  and  was  patronised,  in  opposition  to 
 Dry  den,  by  Rochester.  The  king  took 
 him  into  favour,  and  furnished  him  with 
 the  plot  of  the  comedy  of  Sir  Courtly 
 Nice;  but  died  ju^t  as  ths;  poet  was  ex- 
 pecting from  hin\  a  post  for  life.  He  was 
 living  in  1703;  the  date  of  his  decease  is 
 not  recorded.  Crowne  wrote  seventeen 
 comedies  and  tragedies,  a  romance,  and 
 a  burlesque  poem.     Though  far    inferior 
 
 CUJ 
 
 in  genius   to  Dryden,  he  was  not  without 
 merit. 
 
 CROXALL,  Samuel,  a  divine  and 
 poet,  was  born  at  Walton  upon  Thames, 
 and  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge.  It 
 was  as  a  whig  writer  that  he  began  his  lite- 
 rary career.  He  obtained  two  livings  in  the 
 metropolis,  various  preferments  in  Here- 
 ford Cathedral,  and  the  archdeaconry  of 
 Salop,  and  was  one  of  the  king's  chaplains. 
 He  died  in  1751.  He  wrote  The  Fair 
 Circassians,  an  imitation  of  Solomon's 
 Song;  several  Poems;  Scripture  Politics; 
 published  an  edition  of  ^Esop ;  and  trans- 
 lated a  part  of  Ovid's  Metamorphoses. 
 
 CRUDEN,  Alexander,  a  native  of 
 Aberdeen,  born  in  1701,  removed  to  Lon- 
 don in  1722,  where  he  was,  in  succession, 
 a  private  tutor,  a  bookseller,  and  a  cor- 
 rector of  the  press.  Early  symptoms  of 
 insanity  were  aggravated  by  disappointment 
 in  love,  and  throughout  life  he  manifested, 
 more  or  less,  a  deranged  intellect.  Among 
 other  aberrations,  he  set  up  for  a  general 
 reformer,  and  assumed  the  title  of  Alex- 
 ander the  Corrector.  Cruden  was,  never- 
 theless, an  acute  and  benevolent  man.  One 
 laborious  and  valuable  work  preserves  his 
 name  from  oblivion — The  Concordance  to 
 the  Bible. 
 
 CRUIKSHANK,  Willi  am,  celebrated 
 as  an  anatomist,  was  born,  in  1745,  at  Ed- 
 inburgh ;  acquired  a  knowledge  of  anatomy 
 and  medicine  at  Glasgow;  became  libra- 
 rian, and  afterwards  assistant  and  successor 
 to  Dr.  Win.  Hunter;  was  elected  F.  R.  S. 
 in  1797;  and  died  in  1809.  His  principal 
 work  is,  The  Anatomy  of  the  Absorbent 
 Vessels. 
 
 CTESIBIUS,a  mathematician  of  Alex- 
 andria, who  flourished  about  125  B.  c, 
 was  the  son  of  a  barber,  and  a  barber  him- 
 self. He  is  said  to  have  invented  an  hy- 
 draulic organ,  the  water  clock,  a  kind  of 
 air-gun,  and  the  forcing  pump.  A  work 
 on  measuring,  called  Geodesia,  is  also 
 attributed  to  him. 
 
 CUDWORTH,  Ralph,  was  the  son 
 of  the  rector  of  Aller,  in  Somersetshire, 
 where  he  was  born  in  1617.  He  com- 
 menced his  studies,  at  the  early  age  of 
 thirteen,  at  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge. 
 After  having  held  the  livings  of  IN'orth 
 Cadbnry  and  Asbton,  the  regius  professor- 
 ship of  Hebrew,  the  masterships  of  Clare 
 Hall  and  Christ's  College,  and  a  prebend 
 of  Gloucester,  he  died  at  Cambridge  in 
 16SS.  His  great  work,  which  is  tinctured 
 with  Alexandrian  l'lalonism,  but  replete 
 with  learning,  is,  The  True  Intellectual 
 System  of  the  Universe. 
 
 CUJAS,  or  CUJAC1US,  James,  one 
 of  the  most  eminent  of  jurists,  was  born  at 
 Toulouse,  in  1520.  His  real  name  was 
 Cujaus.  A  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin 
 he  aquired  by  his  own   exertions.     Civil 
 
CUM 
 
 law  he  studied  under  Ferrier,  and  he  be- 
 came an  unrivalled  master  of  it.  Cujas 
 was,  at  various  times,  professor  at  several 
 celebrated  universities;  among  them  were 
 those  of  Toulouse  and  Bourges.  He  died 
 in  the  latter  city  in  1590.  His  works  form 
 ten  folio  volumes.  To  his  pupils  he  was 
 a  father,  and  he  lost  considerable  sums  by 
 occasionally  supplying  their  wants. 
 
 CULLEN,  William,  a  native  of  Scot- 
 land, born  at  Lanark  in  1712,  was  origin- 
 ally apprentice  to  a  surgeon  and  apothecary 
 at  Glasgow;  made  several  voyages  as  sur- 
 geon to  the  West  Indies ;  and  completed 
 his  medical  education  at  Edinburgh.  In 
 1746  he  took  his  doctor's  degree,  and  was 
 chosen  chemical  teacher  at  Glasgow,  where, 
 in  1751,  he  became  professor  of  medicine. 
 In  1756,  he  obtained  the  chemical  chair  at 
 Edinburgh;  in  1765,  was  appointed  lec- 
 turer on  the  Materia  Medica;  and,  in 
 1766,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Gregory, 
 was    made    lecturer    on    the    Theory    and 
 
 CUM 
 
 205 
 
 troops  in  Flanders,  he  lost,  but  was  very 
 near  gaining,  the  battle  of  Fontenoy;  in 
 the  same  year  he  was  recalled  to  oppose 
 Prince  Charles  Edward;  and,  in  1746,  ne 
 extinguished  the  Scotch  rebellion,  by  the 
 victory  of  Culloden,  but  stained  his  repu- 
 tation by  his  subsequent  cruelty.  Returning 
 to  the  Netherlands,  he  was  defeated  at 
 Laufeldt.  In  1756,  lie  was  placed  at  the 
 head  of  the  Hanoverian  army,  was  beaten 
 at  Hastembeck,  and  capitulated  at  Closter 
 Seven.     He  died   in  1765. 
 
 CUMBERLAND,  Richard,  a  multi- 
 farious and  able  writer,  was  a  great-grand- 
 son of  Bishop  Cumberland,  and  a  grand- 
 son of  Dr.  Bentley.  It  was  in  the  master's 
 lodge,  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  that 
 he  was  born,  Feb.  19, 1732.  He  was  edu- 
 cated at  the  schools  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds 
 and  Westminster,  and  at  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge.  His  entrance  into  public  life 
 was  as  private  secretary  to  Lord  Halifax, 
 with  whom  he  went  to  Ireland,  on  that  no- 
 Practice  of  Medicine.  His  Lectures  were!  bleman  being  appointed  viceroy.  Through 
 exceedingly  popular.  He  died  in  February,  the  interest  of  his  lordship  he  obtained  the 
 1790.     Besides  his  Lectures,  Cullen  is  the  clerkship  of  the  board  of  trade,  and  he  was 
 
 author   of  Synopsis  Nosologic   Practicae; 
 and  of  Institutions  of  Medicine. 
 
 CUMBERLAND,  George  CLIF- 
 FORD, earl  of,  was  born  in  Westmore- 
 land in  1558,  and  was  under  the  tuition  of 
 Whitgift,  at  Peter  House,  Cambridge.  In 
 1586,  he  headed  an  expedition  to  South 
 America,  and  he  subsequently  engaged  in 
 eight  more  enterprises  of  the  same  kind; 
 in  which,  however,  he  gained  more  honour 
 than  protit.  He  also  fought  against  the 
 Spanish  Armada.  His  chivalrous  char- 
 acter made  him  a  favourite  of  Elizabeth. 
 He  died  in  1605. — His  daughter  and  heir- 
 ess, Anne,  was  remarkable  for  her  high 
 spirit. 
 
 CUMBERLAND,  Richard,  a  learned 
 divine  and  archaeologist,  was  born  in  Lon- 
 don, in  1632,  and  educated  at  Cambridge. 
 After  having  filled  two  subordinate  livings, 
 and  taken  his  degree  of  D.  D.,  he  was,  in 
 1691,  raised  to  the  see  of  Peterborough, 
 without  any  solicitation  on  his  part.  He 
 was  previously  known  by  his  Treatise  De 
 Legibus  Naturae,  in  answer  to  Hobbes, 
 and  by  his  Essay  on  Jewish  Weights  and 
 Measures.  He  was  indefatigable  in  per- 
 forming his  episcopal  duties  till  his  decease 
 in  1718.  Being  advised,  on  account  of  his 
 age  and  infirm  state,  to  relax  a  little,  he 
 replied,  "  It  is  better  to  wear  out  than 
 rust  out."  After  his  death  appeared  his 
 Origines  Gentium ;  and  his  Translation  of 
 Sanchoniathon's  Phoenician  History. 
 
 CUMBERLAND,  William  Augus- 
 tus, duke  of,  third  son  of  George  II.,  was 
 born  in  1721.  In  1743,  he  was  wounded 
 at  the  battle  of  Dettingen;  in  1745,  being 
 then   commander-in-chief  of    the    British 
 
 afterwards  advanced  to  the  secretaryship. 
 His  first  literary  efforts,  An  Elegy  written 
 on  St.  Mark's  Eve,  and  The  Banishment 
 of  Cicero,  a  drama,  obtained  for  him  but 
 little  fame.  He  was  more  fortunate  in  his 
 comedy  of  The  Brothers,  which  he  brought 
 out  in  1769;  but  it  was  The  West  Indian, 
 produced  in  1771,  that  established  his  re- 
 putation. Henceforth,  till  the  time  of  his 
 decease,  he  continued  to  be  one  of  our  most 
 fertile  dramatic  writers ;  he  having  been 
 the  author  of  between  fifty  and  sixty  pieces. 
 In  1780  he  was  employed  by  the  ministry 
 to  conduct  a  secret  negotiation  with  the 
 courts  of  Madrid  and  Lisbon.  To  the 
 eternal  disgrace  of  his  employers,  he  was 
 refused  th^  reimbursement  of  his  expenses, 
 which  amounted  to  £5000.  This  circum- 
 stance, and  the  suppression  of  the  board 
 of  trade,  compelled  him  to  sell  his  heredi- 
 tary property.  With  a  small  pension  he 
 retired  to  Tunbridge  Wells,  and  gave  him- 
 self up  wholly  to  literary  pursuits.  In 
 those  pursuits  few  men  have  displayed  more 
 versatility  and  industry.  Subsequently  to 
 his  retirement,  besides  some  minor  pro- 
 ductions, and  most  of  his  dramas,  he  pub- 
 lished The  Observer ;  the  novels  of  A  rundel , 
 Henry,  and  John  de  Lancaster ;  Anecdotes 
 of  Spanish  Painters;  Calvary,  a  poem; 
 the  Exodiad,  a  poem,  in  conjunction  with 
 Sir  James  Bland  Bulges;  and  Memoirs  of 
 his  own  Life.  He  died  May  7,  1811.  Of 
 the  numerous  productions  of  Cumberland 
 many  are  forgotten,  but  some  of  them  ha?e 
 a  principle  of  vitality  which  secures  them 
 from  oblivion.  As  a  dramatist,  a  novelist, 
 an  essayist,  and  an  autobiographer,  he 
 undoubtedly  displays    talents  considerably 
 
206  CUR 
 
 above  mediocrity.  As  a  poet,  he  is  less 
 successful ;  yet  there  are  in  the  Calvary 
 many  passages  which  deserve  praise  for 
 beauty  of  diction,  and  energy  of  thought. 
 
 CUNHA,  Tristan  da,  a  Portuguese 
 navigator,  accompanied  Alfonso  de  Albu- 
 querque in  his  voyage  to  India,  in  1506; 
 and  was  driven  so  far  to  the  south  by  a 
 tempest  that  he  discovered  the  islands 
 which  bear  his  name.  He  distinguished 
 himself  iu  the  E;ist ;  returned  to  Portugal 
 in  1515;  was  sent  by  King  Emanuel  with 
 rich  presents  to  the  pope;  and  died  about 
 the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
 
 CV  N  N I N  G 1 1 A  M ,  A  i .  f  x  \  >  de  r  ,  the 
 son  of  a  presbyterian  minister,  was  born, 
 in  1654,  at  Ettrick,  in  Scotland,  and  was 
 educated  in  Holland,  whence  he  came  over 
 with  the  Prince  of  Orange.  After  having 
 l>een  a  travelling  tutor,  he  was  for  five 
 years  British  envoy  at  Venice.  He  died 
 in  1737.  He  wrote  a  Latin  History  of 
 Great  Britain,  from  the  Revolution  to  the 
 accession  of  George  I. ;  which  was  trans- 
 lated by  Dr.  Thompson. — A  person  of  the 
 same  name,  an  editor  of  Horace,  died  at 
 the  Hague  in  1730. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM,  John,  a  poet,  born 
 at  Dublin  in  1729.  At  the  age  of  seven- 
 teen he  wrote  a  farce  called  Love  in  a 
 Mist.  This  introduced  him  among  actors; 
 and  the  consequence  was,  that  he  himself 
 became  a  strolling  player.  He  continued 
 so  till  his  decease,  which  was  occasioned 
 by  a  nervous  fever,  in  1773.  Several  of 
 his  poetical  pieces  were  published  sepa- 
 rately as  pamphlets.  The  whole  of  them 
 have  been  admitted  into  the  collections  of 
 the  British  Poets.  They  possess  consid- 
 erable sweetness,  elegance,  and  descriptive 
 power. 
 
 CURRAN,  John  Philpot,  a  cele- 
 brated Irish  barrister,  was  born,  in  1750,  of 
 humble  parents,  at  Newcastle,  near  Cork; 
 was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin; 
 and  studied  the  law  at  the  Temple.  For 
 a  while  he  had  to  struggle  with  want  of 
 practice,  and  consequent  penury;  but  at 
 length  he  rose  to  splendid  forensic  emi- 
 nence, and,  in  1784,  became  a  member  of 
 
 CUS 
 
 the  Irish  House  of  Commons.  As  a  sena- 
 tor, he  was  a  determined  and  formidable 
 enemy  of  the  government.  In  1806,  when 
 the  whigs  came  into  power,  he  was  made 
 master  of  the  rolls  in  Ireland.  That  office 
 he  resigned  in  1814;  and  he  died  Novem- 
 ber 13,  1817.  Curran  was  somewhat 
 mean  in  face  and  in  person,  but  when  his 
 fine  dark  eye  was  lighted  up,  in  conversa- 
 tion or  in  controversy,  his  countenance 
 was  striking  and  intelligent.  Though  oc- 
 casionally not  regulated  by  good  taste,  his 
 eloquence  was  copious,  fervid,  and  expres- 
 sive; sometimes  fraught  with  bitter  sar- 
 casm and  overwhelming  invective,  some- 
 times deeply  pathetic,  and  at  other  times 
 sparkling  with  wit,  humour,  and  the  most 
 pungent  ridicule. 
 
 CURRIE,  James,  an  eminent  physi- 
 cian, a  native  of  Scotland,  was  born  at 
 Kirkpatrick  Fleming  in  1756,  studied 
 physic  at  Edinburgh,  and  took  his  degree 
 at  Glasgow,  after  which  he  settled  at  Liv- 
 erpool, where  he  soon  acquired  popularity 
 and  fortune.  He  died  in  August,  1785. 
 By  his  Medical  Reports  on  the  Effects  of 
 Water  in  febrile  disorders,  Currie  mainly 
 contributed  to  introduce  the  practice  of  af- 
 fusion in  cases  of  fever.  He  is  the  author, 
 under  the  name  of  Jasper  Wilson,  of  a 
 Letter,  Commercial  and  Political,  to  Mr. 
 Pitt;  and  he  published  an  edition  of  the 
 works  of  Burns,  to  which  he  prefixed  an 
 excellent  Memoir  of  the  deceased  poet, 
 and  a  criticism  on  his  works. 
 
 CURTIS,  William,  a  botanist,  born 
 in  1746,  at  Alton,  in  Hampshire,  was 
 brought  up  as  an  apothecary,  but  devoted 
 himself  to  botany,  on  which  science  he  de- 
 livered lectures.  He  established  an  ex- 
 tensive garden,  first  at  Bermondsey,  next 
 at  Lambeth,  and  lastly  at  Brompton.  He 
 died  in  1799.  Of  his  works  the  most  cel- 
 ebrated are,  his  Flora  Londinensis;  Bo- 
 tanical Magazine ;  and  Botanical  Lectures. 
 
 CURTILS  RUFUS,  Quintus,  a  Lat- 
 in historian,  the.  date  of  whose  existence  is 
 fixed  at  widely  different  periods  (from  the 
 reign  of  Augustus  to  that  of  Gordian),  by 
 different  writers,  while  some  even  deem 
 the  name  to  be  fictitious.  He  is  the  au- 
 thor of  a  History  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
 which  is  more  praiseworthy  for  its  style 
 than  for  its  correctness.  The  first  two 
 books  of  it  are  lost. 
 
 CUSHING,  Thomas,  was  born  at 
 Boston  in  1725,  educated  at  Cambridge 
 College,  where  he  was  graduated  in  1744. 
 He  engaged  early  in  public  life,  and  in 
 1763,  was  chosen  speaker  of  the  general 
 court  of  Massachusetts;  and  continued  in 
 the  office  for  several  consecutive  years. 
 Though  patriotic  in  his  principles,  he  was 
 by  no  means  violent,  and  by  his  interven- 
 tion much  good  was  effected  between  the 
 
DAC 
 
 contending  parties.  He  was  a  member  of 
 the  two  first  continental  congresses,  and, 
 on  his  return  to  his  state,  was  chosen  a 
 member  of  the  council.  He  was  also  ap- 
 pointed judge  of  the  courts  of  common 
 pleas  and  of  probate ;  and  on  the  adop- 
 tion of  the  present  constitution  he  was 
 elected  lieutenant-governor  of  the  state, 
 and  continued  so  until  his  death  in  1788. 
 
 CUSS  AY,  M.  This  honourable  man, 
 who  died  in  1579,  was  governor  of  Angers 
 at  the  time  when  the  infamous  Charles  IX. 
 carried  into  effect  the  massacre  of  St. Bar- 
 tholomew. Like  the  governors  of  other 
 towns,  he  received  orders  to  slaughter  the 
 protestants ;  but,  unlike  nearly  all  those  to 
 whom  the  sanguinary  orders  were  given, 
 he  refused  to  obey  them.  To  the  duke  of 
 Guise  he  replied,  "  I  will  not  stain  fifty 
 years  of  a  spotless  life  by  the  most  coward- 
 ly of  assassinations." 
 
 CUSTINE,  Adam  Philip,  count  de, 
 was  born  at  Metz,  in  1740.  He  entered 
 the  army  when  a  mere  child,  and  displayed 
 so  much  ability,  during  the  seven  years' 
 war,  as  to  gain  the  notice  of  Frederic  of 
 Prussia.  In  the  American  war,  he  served 
 in  one  of  the  regiments  which  France  sent 
 to  the  succour  of  the  insurgents;  and,  on 
 his  return  home,  was  made  major-general 
 and  governor  of  Toulon.  Having  become 
 a  republican,  he  was  placed,  in  1792,  at 
 the  head  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and 
 made  himself  master  of  Mentz,  but  was 
 soon  compelled  to  retreat.  He  was  then 
 intrusted  with  the  army  of  the  North ;  bat 
 he  had  scarcely  assumed  the  command  be- 
 fore he  was  summoned  to  Paris,  where  he 
 was  guillotined,  in  August,  1793.  Custine 
 was  a  general  of  very  slender  talents,  and 
 was  addicted  to  intemperance. 
 
 CUVELIER  DE  TRIE,  John  Wil- 
 liam Augustus,  a  French  dramatist, 
 was  born  in  1766,  at  Boulogne.  After 
 having  been  a  barrister  and  a  military  offi- 
 cer, he  began  writing  for  the  stage,  and 
 he  produced  no  less  than  a  hundred  and 
 ten    comedies,  dramas,    pantomimes,   and 
 
 DAC 
 
 207 
 
 ballets,  for  the  minor  theatres.  Of  these 
 some  were  written  in  conjunction  with 
 other  persons.  He  was  denominated  the 
 Corneille  of  the  Boulevards.  Cuvelier  died 
 in  1824. 
 
 CYPRIAN,  Thascius  C^cilius,  one 
 of  the  most  eminent  of  the  fathers  of  the 
 church,  is  believed  to  have  been  born  at 
 Carthage;  was  converted  to  Christianity 
 about  a.  D.  246;  succeeded  Donatus,  as 
 bishop  of  Carthage,  in  248;  and,  after 
 having  escaped  during  the  persecution  of 
 Decius,  was  at  length  put  to  death,  a.  d. 
 258.  His  theological  works  have  been 
 translated  into  English  by  Marshall. 
 
 CYRIL,  St.  the  apostle  of  the  Slavi,  in 
 the  ninth  century,  was  originally  named 
 Constantine,  and  was  called  the  Philoso- 
 pher. He  converted  the  Chazares,  preach- 
 ed the  gospel  in  Bulgaria,  Moravia,  and 
 Bohemia,  and  invented  the  Sclavonic  al- 
 phabet. He  died  at  Rome,  in  822.  Some 
 Moral  Fables,  and  works  on  the  Sclavonic 
 language,  are  attributed  to  him. — There 
 were  two  others  of  the  same  name;  the 
 one  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  the  other  of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 C  Z  E  R  N  I-G  E  O  R  G  E,  or  George  the 
 Black,  so  called  from  the  darkness  of  his 
 complexion,  was  born  of  an  humble  family, 
 in  the  neighbourhood  of  Belgrade,  and  his 
 real  name  was  George  Petrovitsch.  Whol- 
 ly uneducated,  he  was  possessed  of  natural 
 talents  and  undaunted  courage.  At  an 
 early  age  he  manifested  a  deadly  hatred  of 
 the  Turks.  Having,  at  the  head  of  a  small 
 troop,  defeated  them  in  many  encounters, 
 he  formed  the  plan  of  liberating  Servia, 
 his  country,  from  the  Ottoman  yoke.  In 
 1800,  he  made  himself  master  of  Belgrade; 
 and  in  1806,  after  a  severe  struggle,  he 
 was  acknowledged  as  Prince  of  Servia. 
 He  was,  however,  at  length  expelled,  and 
 he  retired  to  Russia,  where  he  was  made 
 a  prince  and  general.  In  1817,  having 
 again  entered  Servia,  he  was  taken  pris- 
 oner and  beheaded  by  the  pacha  of  Bel- 
 grade. 
 
 D 
 
 DACIER,  Andrew,  a  critic  of  emi- 
 nence, was  born  at  Castres,  in  Upper  Lan- 
 guedoc,  in  1651 ;  was  made  perpetual  sec- 
 retary of  the  Academy  in  1713;  and  died 
 in  1722.  Dacier  was  originally  a  catholic, 
 but,  with  his  wife,  became  protestant,  in 
 1685.  He  translated  Horace,  Plutarch, 
 Epictetus,  and  other  ancient  authors;  and 
 was  an  indefatigable  and  valuable  commen- 
 tator on  the  literary  remains  of  antiquity. 
 
 DACIER,  Anne,  a  celebrated  classical 
 scholar,  the  daughter  of  Tanaquil  le  Fevre, 
 was  born  at  Saumur,  in  1651.     Her  love 
 
 of  ancient  lore  was  early  manifested,  and 
 her  talents  were  assiduously  cultivated  by 
 her  father,  who  was  professor  at  the  uni- 
 versity of  Saumur.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
 two  she  produced  an  edition  of  Callima- 
 chus,  which  was  so  highly  esteemed  that 
 she  was  intrusted  with  the  editing  of  sev- 
 eral of  the  Delphin  classics.  In  1683,  she 
 married  M.  Dacier,  who  had  been  educat- 
 ed by  her  father.  The  rest  of  her  life  was 
 spent  in  constant  literary  labour;  often  in 
 conjunction  with  her  husband.  She  died 
 August  17,  1720.     Among  her  numerous 
 
208 
 
 DAL 
 
 productions,  translations  of  Homer,  Ana- 
 creon,  Sappho,  and  Terence,  are  the  most 
 prominent.  Madame  Dacier  was  an  en- 
 thusiastic admirer  of  the  ;uicient  writers, 
 in  whom  she  could  see  nothing  like  a  fault. 
 Though  deeply  learned,  she  carefully  avoid- 
 ed in  society  the  display  of  learning;  and 
 in  all  the  relations  of  private  life  her  con- 
 duct was  exemplary. 
 
 DALECHAMPS,  Jamks,  a  botanist 
 and  physician,  was  horn  at  Caen,  in  1513; 
 studied  at  If ontpellier  5  ;md  practised  at 
 Lyons  till  his  decease  in  1586.  He  trans- 
 lated A  theme  us,  Galen,  Ca  Ins  Aureiianus, 
 and  other  authors;  bat  the  work  by  which 
 he  is  best  known  is  one  which  cost  hiin  the 
 labour  of  many  years — it  is  a  History  of 
 Plants,  in  eighteen  hooks.  Plunder  has 
 given  the  name  of  Dalechampia  to  a  genus 
 of  the  Euphorbia  family. 
 
 DALE,  Richard,  an  American  naval 
 commander,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1756. 
 At  twelve  years  of  age  he  was  sent  to  sea, 
 and  in  1776  he  entered  as  a  midshipman 
 on  board  of  the  American  brig  of  war 
 Lexington.  In  the  following  year  he  was 
 taken  prisoner  by  a  British  cruiser,  and 
 after  a  twelve  month  confinement  he  es- 
 caped from  Mill  prison,  and  succeeded  in 
 reaching  Fiance.  Here  he  joined,  in  the 
 character  of  master's  mate,  the  celebrated 
 Paul  Jones,  then  Commanding  the  Ameri- 
 can ship  Bon  Homme  Richard.  He  was 
 soon  raised  to  the  rank  of  first  lieutenant, 
 and  signalized  himself  in  the  sanguinary 
 engagement  between  the  Bon  Homme 
 Richard  and  the  English  frigate  Serapis. 
 In  1794,  the  United  States  made  him  a 
 captain  in  the  navy,  and  in  1801  he  took 
 command  of  the  American  squadron  which 
 sailed  in  that  year  from  Hampton  roads  to 
 the  Mediterranean.  From  the  year  1802, 
 he  passed  his  life  in  Philadelphia  in  the 
 enjoyment  of  a  competent  estate,  and  much 
 esteemed  by  his  fellow  citizens.  He  died 
 in  1826,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a  brave 
 and  intelligent  seaman. 
 
 DALIN,  Olaus  Von,  a  Swede,  was 
 born  at  Winberga,  in  Halland,  in  1708, 
 and  died  in  1763.  He  is  cal led  the  Father 
 of  Swedish  poetry.  He  is  the  author  of 
 The  Argus,  on  the  plan  of  the  Spectator; 
 A  General  History  of  .Sweden;  The  Lib- 
 erty of  Sweden,  a  poem;  the  tragedy  of 
 Brunhilda;  and  many  minor  poetical  pie- 
 ces. Queen  Louisa  Ulrica  erected  a  mau- 
 soleum to  his  memorv. 
 
 DALLAS,  Alkx\nhkr  James,  was 
 born  in  the  island  of  Jamaica  in  1759; 
 and  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  West- 
 minster. In  1783  he  left  Jamaica  for  the 
 United  States,  and  settled  in  Philadelphia; 
 taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  state 
 of  Pennsylvania.  In  1785  he  was  admit- 
 ted to  practise  in  the  supreme  court  of  the 
 state, and  in  four  or  five  years  in  the  courts 
 
 DAL 
 
 of  the  Union.  During  this  time  he  pre- 
 pared his  Reports,  and  was  engaged  in 
 various  literary  pursuits,  writing  much  in 
 the  periodical  journals.  He  occupied  suc- 
 cessively the  offices  of  secretary  of  Penn- 
 sylvania; district  attorney  of  the  United 
 States;  secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  sec- 
 retary of  war.  On  the  restoration  of  peace 
 in  1816,  Mr.  Dallas  resigned  his  political 
 situation,  and  resumed  the  successful  prac- 
 tice of  his  profession.  His  services  as  an 
 advoeate  were  called  for  in  almost  every 
 part  of  the  onion,  but  in  the  midst  of  very 
 flattering  expectations  he  died  at  Trenton 
 in  1817. 
 
 DALLAS,  Robert  Chari.es,'  was 
 born  at  Kingston,  in  Jamaica,  and  studied  at 
 the  Inner  Temple,  but  never  embraced  the 
 legal  profession.  He  died,  in  1824,  at 
 Havre.  He  translated  many  works  from 
 the  French ;  and  is  the  author,  among 
 other  things,  of  the  novels  of  Perceval, 
 Aubrey,  The  Morlands,and  The  Knights; 
 Miscellaneous  Works  and  Novels;  Miscel- 
 laneous Writings ;  Not  at  Home,  a  comedy  ; 
 and  Recollections  of  Lord  Bvron. 
 
 DALRYMPLE,  Sir  DaVid,  a  lawyer 
 and  antiquary,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in 
 1726;  educated  at  Eton  and  Utrecht; 
 called  to  the  Scotch  bar  in  1748;  became 
 a  judge  of  the  court  of  session  in  1766,  on 
 which  occasion  he  took  the  title  of  Lord 
 Hailes;  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  jus- 
 ticiary in  1776;  and  died  in  1792.  His 
 knowledge  of  law  and  of  antiquities  was 
 extensive,  and  he  was  in  habits  of  friend- 
 ship with  the  most  eminent  men  of  the  age 
 His  principal  works  are,  Annals  of  Scot- 
 land, two  vols.  4to. ;  and  Memorials,  &c. 
 relating  to  the  History  of  Great  Britain. 
 
 DALRYMPLE,  Sir  John,  a  Scotch 
 baronet,  was  for  many  years  a  baron  of 
 exchequer  in  Scotland.  He  died  in  1810, 
 at  the  age  of  eighty-four.  He  wrote  vari- 
 ous occasional  pamphlets;  but  his  princi- 
 pal work  is,  Memoirs  of  Great  Britain  and 
 Ireland,  in  three  vols.  4to.;  the  first  of 
 which  was  published  in  1771.  It  is  a  pro- 
 duction of  considerable  merit ;  but  it  caused 
 no  small  outcry  against  the  author,  in  con- 
 sequence of  his  having  accused  Sidney  and 
 Russel  of  having  received  bribes  from  the 
 French  ambassador. 
 
 DALRYMPLE,  Alexander,  a  cele- 
 brated hvdrographer,  the  son  of  Sir  James 
 Dalrvmple,  was  bom  at  New  Hailes,  near 
 Edinburgh,  in  1737;  went  to  India,  as  a 
 writer,  in  1752,  and  remained  there  till 
 1763;  resided  there  again  from  1775  to 
 1780;  was  made  hvdrographer  to  the  Ad- 
 miralty and  the  India  Company  in  1795; 
 and  died  in  1808.  He  is  the  author  of 
 many  works,  among  which  are  three  Col- 
 lections of  Voyages;  The  Oriental  Reper- 
 tory ;  and  a  Memoir  of  a  Map  of  the  Land 
 round  the  North  Pole. 
 
DAN 
 
 DALTON,  John,  a  divine  and  poet, 
 was  born,  in  1709,  at  Dean,  in  Cumber- 
 land; was  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
 Oxford ;  obtained  a  prebend  in  Worcester 
 Cathedral,  and  the  living  of  St.  Mary  Hill, 
 London ;  and  died  in  1763.  He  wrote  a 
 volume  of  Sermons ;  Remarks  on  Raphael's 
 Cartoons;  several  poems  (in  Pearch's  col- 
 lection); and  adapted  Milton's  Comus  to 
 the  stage. 
 
 DAMER,  Anne  Seymour,  only  child 
 of  Field-marshal  Conway, was  born  in  1748. 
 Almost  in  childhood  she  imbibed  a  love  of 
 literature,  and  became  highly  accomplished. 
 An  accidental  conversation  with  Hume, 
 respecting  some  plaster  casts,  turned  her 
 attention  to  sculpture,  and  she  took  lessons 
 from  Ceracchi  and  Bacon,  and  studied  in 
 Italy-  She  was  also  fond  of  dramatic 
 amusements,  and  was  an  excellent  amateur 
 actress.  She  died  May  28,  1808.  The 
 productions  of  her  chisel  are  numerous,  and 
 do  honour  to  her  talent.  Among  them  is  a 
 bust  of  Nelson,  in  Guildhall,  and  two  co- 
 lossal heads  on  Henley  bridge. 
 
 DAMM,  Christian  Tobias,  a  pro- 
 testant  theologian,  and  an  excellent  hellen- 
 ist,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1699,  and  died 
 in  1778.  He  edited  and  translated  various 
 classical  authors,  and  produced  a  New 
 Greek  Etymological  Lexicon. 
 
 DAMPTER,  William,  an  eminent  nav- 
 igator, was  born,  in  1652,  at  East  Coker 
 in  Somersetshire,  and  became  a  mariner 
 at  an  early  age.  He  fought,  under  Sir 
 Edward  Spragge,  in  1673,  against  the 
 Dutch ;  was  next  a  logwood  cutter,  in  the 
 bay  of  Campeachy;  and,  in  1683,  joined 
 a  buccaneering  expedition  to  the  South 
 Seas.  After  having  spent  several  years  in 
 privateer  and  trading  vessels,  he  became 
 gunner  to  the  factory  at  Bencoolen.  In 
 1691,  he  returned  to  England.  He  subse- 
 quently commanded  a  king's  sloop  of  twelve 
 guns,  but  she  foundered;  after  which  he 
 twice  visited  the  South  Seas,  once  as  pilot 
 to  Captain  Woodes  Rogers.  His  death 
 took  place  later  than  1711,  but  the  exact 
 period  of  it  is  not  known.  His  Voyages 
 round  the  World,  in  four  volumes,  are  the 
 production  of  no  ordinary  mind;  he  dis- 
 plays a  strong  talent  for  observation,  and 
 his  descriptions  are  natural,  faithful,  and 
 striking. 
 
 DANCOURT,  Florence  Carton,  a 
 dramatist  and  comedian,  was  born  at  Fon 
 tainbleau  in  1661,  and  was  originally  a 
 barrister,  but  quitted  the  bar  for  the  stage 
 As  a  play  writer  and  actor  he  was  equally 
 successful.  In  a  period  of  thirty-three 
 years  he  brought  out  no  less  than  sixty 
 comic  pieces,  many  of  which  still  retain 
 possession  of  the  boards.  In  1718  he  re- 
 tired to  his  estate  in  Berry,  and  till  his 
 death,  in  1726,  his  days  were  spent  in  the 
 practice  of  devotion.    His  works  form  nine 
 
 DAN 
 
 209 
 
 vols.  12mo. — His    wife,    Theresa,  was 
 
 for  forty-five  years  an  admired  actress. 
 
 DANET,  Peter,  an  erudite  ecclesi- 
 astic, was  bom,  about  the  middle  of  the 
 seventeenth  century,  at  Paris,  and  died  in 
 1709,  by  being  suffocated  in  a  slough,  into 
 which  his  carriage  was  overturned.  He 
 edited  the  Delphin  edition  of  Phaedrus; 
 and  compiled  a  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
 Roman  Antiquities;  a  Dictionary  of  Latin 
 Roots;  and  a  Latin  and  French  and 
 French  and  Latin  Dictionary. 
 
 DANGEAU,  Philip  dje  COURCIL- 
 LON,  marquis  of,  was  born  in  1638,  and 
 died  in  1720.  Dangeau  was  a  man  of 
 talent,  and  a  patron  of  literature.  Boileau 
 dedicated  to  him  one  of  his  Satires.  He 
 left,  in  manuscript,  a  Journal  of  the  Court 
 of  Louis  XIV.,  which  extends  to  nearly 
 twenty  folio  volumes.  Extracts  from  it 
 have  been  published. 
 
 DANIEL,  Samuel,  a  poet  and  histo- 
 rian, was  born  near  Taunton,  in  1562,  and 
 was  educated  at  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford. 
 After  leaving  the  university,  he  was  patron- 
 ised by  the  earl  of  Pembroke ;  subsequently 
 became  tutor  to  Lady  Anne  Clifford;  was 
 appointed  poet  laureat  on  the  death  of 
 Spenser;  and,  at  a  later  period,  one  of  the 
 grooms  of  the  bedchamber  to  the  queen  of 
 James  the  First.  Towards  the  close  of 
 life  he  retired  to  an  estate  in  Somerset- 
 shire, where  he  died  in  1619.  Daniel  is 
 much  above  mediocrity  as  a  poet,  and  has 
 considerable  merit  as  an  historian. 
 
 DANIEL,  Gabriel,  a  French  author, 
 was  born  at  Rouen  in  1649,  and  entered, 
 early  in  life,  into  the  society  of  the  Jesuits. 
 He  died,  at  Paris,  in  1728.  Of  his  mis- 
 cellaneous works  one  of  the  best  is,  A 
 Voyage  to  the  World  of  Descartes ;  an  in- 
 genious satire  on  the  system  of  the  philoso- 
 pher. It  is  to  his  History  of  France, 
 however,  that  he  is  principally  indebted 
 for  his  reputation.  The  best  edition  of  it 
 is  that  published  by  Griffet,  in  seventeen 
 volumes  4to. 
 
 DANTE  ALIGHIERI,  the  sublimest 
 of  the  Italian  poets,  was  born  at  Florence, 
 in  1265.  The  family  name  was  Caccia- 
 guida,  and  that  of  his  mother  was  Alighieri. 
 The  name  by  which  he  has  descended  to 
 posterity  is  a  contraction  of  Durante^ his 
 christian  name.  Brunetto  Latini  was  his 
 teacher,  and  Dante  rapidly  profited  by 
 his  instructions.  Nor  were  his  feelings 
 less  precocious  than  his  talents,  if  it  be 
 true  that  at  the  age  of  ten  years  he  fell  in 
 love  with  the  lady  whom  he  has  immor- 
 talized under  the  name  of  Beatrice.  He 
 was  destined,  however,  in  his  twenty-sixth 
 year,  to  marry  Gemma,  one  of  the  Donati 
 family,  from  whom,  after  having  lived  un- 
 happily witli  her,  he  was  separated.  Be- 
 fore his  marriage,  he  served  his  country 
 with  distinction  in  the  wars  against  Arezzo 
 
210  DAR 
 
 and  Pisa,  and  also  as  an  envoy,  in  which 
 capacity  he  was  fourteen  times  employed. 
 In  1300,  he  was  raised  to  be  one  of  the 
 eight  chief  magistrates  of  the  republic. 
 Here  ended  his  good  fortune.  He  belonged 
 to  the  party  called  the  Bianchi, or  Whites; 
 and  their  opponents,  the  Neri,  or  Blacks. 
 
 DAR 
 
 the  greatest  part  of  Italy.  Settling  at 
 length  in  Paris,  he  turned  his  practice 
 chiefly  to  diseases  of  the  bladder,  for  the 
 cure  of  which  he  became  justly  celebrated. 
 The  bougie  which  bears  his  name  was  in- 
 vented by  him.  He  acquired  a  princely 
 fortune,  but  lost   it  by  unsuccessful  specu- 
 
 having  gained  the  asceudrnrv,  ho  was  first  tlations;    and    he   died,   in  narrow  circum- 
 
 banished  from  Florence,  and  afterwards 
 condemned  to  be  burnt  alive,  in  case  of  his 
 falling  into  their  hands.  Nearly  all  the 
 remainder  of  Dante's  life  was  spent  in 
 wanderings,  and  in  fruitless  struggles.  At 
 length,  he  found  an  asylum  with  Guido 
 Novella,  lord  of  Ravenna;  and  at  Raven- 
 na he  died  September  14,  1321.  Dante 
 wrote  Various  works,  but  his  fame  rests  on 
 the  Divina  Commedia,  which  consists  of 
 three  parts,  Hell,  Purgatory,  and  Heaven. 
 In  this  astonishing  production  Dante  does, 
 indeed,  "  on  Horror's  head  horrors  accu- 
 mulate." For  boundless  and  wild  imagi- 
 nation, for  gloomy  grandeur,  for  terrific 
 energy,  it  has  no  superior;  while,  on  the 
 other  hand,  it  often  charms  by  exquisite 
 sweetness,  simplicity,  and  grace.  The 
 1  est  English  translation  (and  it  is  not  likely 
 to  be  surpassed)  is  that  by  Cary. 
 
 DANTOX,  George  James,  one  of  the 
 most    active    demagogues    of    the    French 
 revolution,  was  born   at  Arc  is  sur  Aube, 
 in  1759,  and  was  a  barrister  by  profession. 
 From  the  year  1789  till  the  subversion  of 
 the    monarchy    he    was   one    of   the    most 
 violent    and    popular    haranguers    of    the 
 Parisan    multitude ;    a   task   for  which   he 
 was  well  qualified  by  his  colossal  stature, 
 thundering  voice,  daring  spirit,  and  extra- 
 vagant vet   impressive  style   of  speaking. 
 To   the  downfal  of  the  throne  he  power- 
 fully contributed.     After  that  downfal  he 
 became  one  of  the  Executive  Council,  and 
 had  the  merit  of  preventing  his   terrified 
 colleagues  from  removing  the  seat  of  gov- 
 ernment   to  the  other   side  of  the    Loire, 
 when  the  duke  of  Brunswick  was  advanc- 
 ing.    He  was  a  member  of  the  Convention, 
 and  of  the   Committee   of  Public   Safety, 
 and   shared   largely   in  all  the  sanguinary 
 measures  of  that  terrible  period.     It  was 
 Danton    who    procured    the    establishment 
 of  the  revolutionary  tribunal.     A   struggle 
 for   supremacy    soon    took    place    between 
 him    and   Robespierre,    in    which    he   was 
 vanquished.     He  perished  by  the  guillotine 
 in  April,  1794.     Criminal  as  Danton  svas 
 in  his  public  capacity,  he  was  a  good  hu 
 
 tances,  in  1784,  respected  for  his  talents 
 and  his  benevolent  and  disinterested  spirit. 
 DARCET,  John,  a  French  chemist  and 
 physician,  was  born,  in  1725,  at  Douazit, 
 in  Guienne,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1801. 
 He  made  considerable  improvements  in 
 the  manufacturing  of  porcelain,  demon- 
 strated the  diamond  to  be  combustible, 
 and  contributed  in  other  respects  to  the 
 progress  of  chemical  science.  He  wrote 
 several  papers  on  chemistry  as  connected 
 with  the  arts. 
 
 DARCY,  Count  Patrick,  a  native  of 
 Galway,  in  Ireland,  was  born  in  1725, 
 and  was  sent  by  his  parents,  who  were 
 partisans  of  the  Stewart  family,  to  be 
 educated  at  Paris.  Under  the  tuition  of 
 Clairault,  he  became  an  excellent  mathe- 
 matician. Darcy  obtained  a  commission 
 in  the  French  army,  served  honourably 
 for  several  campaigns,  and  rose  to  the 
 rank  of  major-general.  He  died  in  1779. 
 Darcy  is  the  author  of  an  Essay  on  Artil- 
 lery ;  a  Memoir  on  Hydraulic  Machines ; 
 a  Memoir  on  the  Duration  of  the  Sensa- 
 tion of  Sight;  and  various  able  mathemat- 
 ical papers. 
 
 DARU,  Peter  Anthony  Bruno, 
 Count,  a  member  of  the  French  Academy 
 and  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  was  born  at 
 Montpellier,  in  1767;  and  when  the  revo- 
 lution broke  out,  he  was  a  lieutenant  and 
 commissary  at  war.  Imprisoned  in  1793, 
 he  was  liberated  after  the  fall  of  Robes- 
 pierre, and  filled  several  military  offices 
 under  the  Directory.  Bonaparte,  while 
 consul  and  emperor,  gave  him  his  entire 
 confidence,  and  raised  him  to  the  highest 
 offices.  Louis  XVIII.  made  him  a  peer 
 in  1819.  Darn  died  September  11,  1829. 
 As  an  historian,  Daru  is  known  by  his 
 valuable  Histories  of  Venice  and  Bri- 
 tanny  ;  as  a  poet,  by  his  Cleopedia,  or 
 Theory  of  Reputations  in  Literature,  by  a 
 translation  of  Horace,  and  by  various 
 minor  poems 
 
 DARWIN,  Erasmus,  a  poet  and  phy- 
 sician, was  born,  in  1721,  at  Elton,  near 
 Newark,  in  Nottinghamshire,  and  received 
 
 band  and  a  good  father,  and  sometimes ;  his  education  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
 proved  himself  capable  of  humane  and  bridge.  After  having  taken  his  doctor's 
 generous  actions.  degree  at  Edinburgh,  he  settled  at  Litch- 
 
 DARAN,  James,  an  eminent  surgeon,  field,   whence,    in   1781,   he   removed   to 
 
 was  born,  in  1701,  at  St.  Frajon,  in  Gas- 
 cony,  and  at  a  very  eafly  period  gained 
 a  consummate  knowledge  of  his  art.  He 
 >ierved,  for  a  considerable  time,  as  surgeon 
 major  in  the  Imperial   army,   and  visited 
 
 Derby.  He  died  suddenly,  April  18, 1802. 
 Darwin  was  a  man  of  high  talent,  but 
 was  fond  of  paradoxes,  and  of  singular 
 not  to  say  absurd  hypotheses.  Ample 
 proof,  both  of  his  abilities  and  of  his  love 
 
DAU 
 
 of  eccentric  doctrines,  may  be  found  in 
 his  Botanic  Garden,  and  in  his  Zoonomia, 
 or  Laws  of  Organic  Life,  especially  in  the 
 latter  work.  As  a  poet  he  is  happy  in 
 description,  and  sometimes  attains  sub- 
 limity, and  his  versification  is  exquisitely 
 polished;  but  he  never  readies  the  heart, 
 his  personifications  are  frequently  strained, 
 and  even  ludicrous,  and  the  .mechanism  of 
 his  verse,  which  has  little  variety,  soon 
 becomes  obvious,  and  tiresome  to  the  ear. 
 DASSIER,  John,  a  medal  engraver, 
 was  born  in  1677,  and  died  in  1763.  He 
 engraved  on  steel  a  great  number  of 
 medals  of  eminent  men  of  the  age  of 
 Louis  XIV. — His  son,  Jacob  Anthony, 
 born  in  1715,  was  for  some  time  employed 
 in  the  English  mint,  but  resigned  his  oftice, 
 and  went  to  St.  Petersburg.  He  died  at 
 Copenhagen,  in  1759,  while  returning  to 
 London.  His  medals  of  illustrious  men 
 are  remarkable  not  only  for  the  beauty  of 
 the  workmanship,  but  also  for  the  correct- 
 ness of  the  likeness. 
 
 DAUBENTON,  Louis  John  Mary,  a 
 French  naturalist  and  anatomist,  a  native 
 of  Burgundy,  was  born  at  Montbar  in 
 1716,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1S00.  At  the 
 time  of  his  death  he  was  a  member  of  the 
 Senate  and  of  the  Institute.  He  was  the 
 friend  and  coadjutor  of  Buffon,  and  con- 
 tributed all  the  anatomical  details  to  the 
 Natural  History  of  that  eloquent  writer. 
 He  is  the  author  of  Instructions  to  Shep- 
 herds ;  A  Methodical  View  of  Minerals ; 
 and  various  other  works.  France  is  in- 
 debted to  him  for  the  naturalization  of 
 Merino  sheep. 
 
 DAUBENY,  Charles,  born  in  1744, 
 was  educated  at  New  College,  Oxford; 
 obtained  a  prebend  in  Salisbury  Cathedral, 
 in  1784;  was  appointed  archdeacon  of 
 Sarum  in  1804;  and  died  in  1827.  Be- 
 sides numerous  Sermons  and  Charges,  he 
 is  the  author  of  A  Guide  to  the  Church, 
 two  vols.;  Vindiciae  Ecclesiae  Anglicana?; 
 Remarks  on  the  Unitarian  Method  of  in- 
 terpreting the  Scriptures;  and  of  other 
 works:  and  he  contributed  many  theologi- 
 cal articles  to  the  Anti-Jacobin  Review. 
 At  North  Bradley,  of  which  he  was  vicar, 
 he  built  almshouses  for  twelve  poor  per- 
 sons, an  asylum  for  four  aged  and  blind 
 individuals,  and  a  school-room ;  and  the 
 church  at  Rode  was  erected  partly  at  his 
 expense. 
 
 DAUN,  Leopold  Joseph  Mary, 
 Count  de,  an  Austrian  field-marshal,  was 
 born  at  Vienna,  in  1705.  He  served  with 
 applause  against  the  Turks,  and  in  the 
 wars  of  Charles  VI.;  but  it  was  his  con- 
 duct when  opposed  to  Frederic  of  Prussia 
 that  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  a  great  gen- 
 eral. As  Imperial  commander-in-chief  he 
 triumphed  over  the  Prussian  monarch  at 
 Kollin,  Hochkirchen,  and  other  places,  and 
 
 DAV 
 
 211 
 
 compelled  him  to  raise  the  sieges  of 
 Prague,  Dresden,  and  Olmutz;  not,  how- 
 ever, without  himself  sustaining  severe 
 defeats  at  Leuthen  and  Torsrau.  He  died 
 in  1766. 
 
 DAVENANT,  Sir  William,  the  son 
 of  an  innkeeper  at  Oxford,  where  he  was 
 born  in  1605,  was  educated  at  Lincoln 
 College;  and,  after  having  been  in  the 
 service  of  the  Duchess  of  Richmond  and 
 Lord  Brooke,  began  to  write  for  the 
 stage,  and  was  employed  in  getting  up 
 masks  to  entertain  the  court.  He  was 
 appointed  poet  laureat,  and  governor  of 
 the  Drury  Lane  company.  He  fought  for 
 Charles  during  the  civil  wars,  and  was 
 knighted  and  made  a  lieutenant-general. 
 Retiring  afterwards  into  France,  he  became 
 a  Roman  catholic.  Being  taken  by  a  par- 
 liament vessel,  while  he  was  proceeding 
 to  Virginia,  he  was  imprisoned,  and  would, 
 it  is  said,  have  fallen  a  victim  had  he  not 
 been  saved  by  Milton;  an  act  of  kindness 
 which  he  returned  at  a  later  period.  On 
 the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  Davenant 
 obtained  a  patent  for  a  theatre  in  Lincoln's 
 Inn  Fields.  He  died  in  1668.  His  heroic 
 poem  of  Gondibert,  which  he  left  unfinish- 
 ed, contains  much  genuine  poetry,  but  is 
 deficient  in  sustained  interest,  and  is  writ- 
 ten in  an  ill-chosen  form  of  stanza.  Talent 
 is  displayed  in  all  his  other  poetical  pieces, 
 and  in  his  dramatic  works. 
 
 DAVENANT,  Charles,  eldest  son  of 
 the  foregoing,  was  born  in  1656;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Baliol  College,  Oxford ;  and  was 
 successively  joint  inspector  of  plays,  com- 
 missioner of  excise,  and  inspector  general 
 of  exports  and  imports.  Besides  his 
 works  on  political  economy,  which  have 
 been  collected  in  five  volumes  8vo.,  and 
 contain  much  valuable  information,  he  is 
 the  author  of  a  tragedy  called  Circe,  writ- 
 ten when  he  was  only  nineteen,  and  acted 
 with  applause. 
 
 DAVID,  James  Louis,  a  celebrated 
 French  painter,  was  born  at  Paris,  in 
 1750,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Vien.  Before 
 the  revolution  he  had  already  acquired 
 fame  as  an  artist.  The  course  of  that  event 
 threw  disgrace  upon  him  as  a  man.  He 
 not  only,  as  a  member  of  the  Convention, 
 voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  but  also 
 became  one  of  the  blindest  and  wildest 
 idolaters  of  Robespierre  and  Marat.  Nor 
 did  his  Jacobinical  feelings  cool  for  some 
 years  after  the  fall  of  his  detestable  idols. 
 In  1800,  however,  Bonaparte  appointed 
 him  painter  to  the  government,  and  David 
 seems  to  have  thenceforth  manifested  no 
 repugnance  to  seeing  supreme  power  in 
 the  hands  of  a  single  individual.  He  was 
 banished  from  France  in  1816,  and  died 
 at  Brussels  in  December,  1825.  His  works 
 are  numerous,  and  they  attest  his  splendid 
 talents.     Among   them   are  The  Rape  of 
 
212  DAV 
 
 the  Sabines,  The  Death  of  Socrates,  The  I 
 Coronation   of    Napoleon,  and   Mars   dis- 
 armed by  Venus  and  the  Graces. 
 
 DAVID,  George,  an  impostor,  whose 
 real  name  was  John  De  Coman,  was  born  I 
 at  Delft,  in  Holland,  in  1501,  and  was  a 
 painter  of  some  eminence  on  glass.  Alter 
 having  rendered  himself  notorious  among 
 the  anabaptists,  he  set  up  a  sect  of  his 
 own,  and  pretended  to  be  the  Messiah. 
 Absurd  as  were  his  pretensions,  he  had 
 many  followers,  Being  driven  from  Hol- 
 land, he  retired  to  Basil,  where  be  died  in 
 1556.  His  Book  of  Wonders  and  Book 
 of  Perfection  have  been  characterized  as 
 "  the  melancholy  monuments  of  the  most 
 absurd  fanaticism." 
 
 DAVIDSON,  Lucretia  Maria,  re- 
 markable for  an  early  display  of  great 
 genius,  was  born  at  Pittsburgh,  on  Lake 
 Champlain,  in  1S08.  When  only  four 
 years  of  age,  a  number  of  her  little  books 
 were  found  filled  with  rude  sketches,  and 
 poetical  illustrations  of  them,  in  the  char- 
 acters of  the  printed  alphabet.  She  pos- 
 .-essed  an  eager  thirst  for  information,  and 
 her  frame  was  rapidly  wasted  by  her  con- 
 tinued intellectual  application.  She  was 
 of  a  singularly  lovely  person,  with  a  pre- 
 vailing expression  of  melancholy  that  was 
 deeplv  interesting.  She  died  before  com- 
 pleting her  seventeenth  year,  in  August, 
 1825.  A  volume  of  her  poems,  prefaced 
 by  a  biographical  sketch,  was  published  in 
 New  York  in  1829. 
 
 DAVIE,  Willi  am  Richardson,  gov- 
 ernor of  North  Carolina,  was  born  in 
 England  in  1756.  He  was  brought  to 
 America  at  the  age  of  six  years,  and 
 received  his  education  at  Princeton,  New 
 Jersev,  where  he  was  graduated  in  1776. 
 After  pursuing  for  a  short  time  die  study 
 of  the  law,  he  entered  the  army  as  a  lieu- 
 tenant in  the  legion  of  Pulaski,  and  dis- 
 tinguished himself  by  his  efficiency  and 
 courage  as  an  officer.  On  the  termination 
 of  the  war,  he  devoted  himself  with  emi- 
 nent success  to  the  practice  of  the  law. 
 In  17^7,  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  from 
 South  Carolina,  to  represent  that  state  in 
 the  Convention  which  framed  the  Consti- 
 tution of  the  United  States.  Unavoidable 
 absence  prevented  him  from  affixing  his 
 name  to  that  instrument.  In  1790,  he  was 
 elected  Governor  of  North  Carolina,  and 
 in  1799  was  appointed  one  of  the  commis- 
 sioners for  negotiating  a  treaty  with  France. 
 He  died  at  Camden  in  1820.  lie  was  a 
 man  of  a  dignified  and  noble  person,  cour- 
 age as  a  soldier,  and  ability  as  a  lawyer. 
 
 DA  VIES,  Samtkl,  founder  of  the 
 first  presbytery  in  Virginia,  was  born  in 
 Delaware,  in  1724.  He  entered  the  min- 
 istry at  an  early  age,  and  soon  distinguished 
 himself  by  his  talents  and  eloquence.  In 
 1759  he  was  chosen  president  of  Nassau 
 
 DAV 
 
 Hall,  but  died  after  holding  the  oflice  but 
 a  few  months,  in  1762.  His  sermons,  in 
 three  volumes,  8vo.  have  been  often  repub- 
 lished both  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
 States. 
 
 DA  VIES,  Sir  John,  a  lawyer  and  poet, 
 a  native  of  Wiltshire,  was  born  in  1570, 
 at  Tisbury,  and  studied  at  Queen's  Col- 
 lege, Oxford,  and  the  ^middle  Temple. 
 From  the  latter  his  unruly  temper  occa- 
 sioned his  expulsion,  but  he  was  subsequent- 
 ly restored.  While  he  was  excluded  from 
 the  Temple  he  produced  most  of  his  poems, 
 and  they  met  with  deserved  applause.  On 
 the  accession  of  James  I.  Davies  was  em- 
 ployed in  Ireland,  and  filled  the  offices  of 
 attorney  general  and  speaker  of  the  Com- 
 mons' House.  In  1620  he  sat  in  the  Eng- 
 lish parliament,  and  was  just  raised  to  the 
 dignity  of  chief  justice  of  England  when 
 he  died,  in  1626.  His  poems,  particularly 
 his  Nosce  teipsum,  entitle  him  to  hold  a 
 respectable  station  among  the  poets  of  his 
 age;  his  prose  work,  on  the  situation  of 
 Ireland,  proves  him  to  have  been  a  sound 
 politician  and  an  upright  man. 
 
 DAVIES,  Dr.  Sneyd,  a  poet  and  di- 
 vine, a  native  of  Shrewsbury,  was  educated 
 at  Eton,  and  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
 and  became  a  canon  at  Litchfield,  master 
 of  St.  John's  Hospital  in  that  city,  arch- 
 deacon of  Derby,  and  rector  of  Kingslow 
 in  Herefordshire.  Dr.  Davies  is  the  au- 
 thor of  Vacuna,  and  other  poems  of  merit, 
 in  the  collections  of  Dodsley  and  Nicholls. 
 
 DAVIES,  Thomas,  a  miscellaneous 
 writer,  born  about  1712,  and  educated  at 
 Edinburgh,  was  twice  an  actor  and  twice 
 a  bookseller,  in  which  latter  capacity  Dr. 
 Campbell  characterized  him  as  "  a  gentle- 
 man who  dealt  in  books."  Though  much 
 respected  by  his  numerous  friends,  he  was 
 not  fortunate  in  trade.  He  died  in  1785. 
 He  is  the  author  of  various  works,  of 
 which  the  principal  are,  The  Life  of  David 
 Garrick;   and  Dramatic  Miscellanies. 
 
 DAVILA,  Henry  Catherine,  an 
 historian,  was  born,  in  1576,  at  Pieve  del 
 Sacco,  in  the  Paduan  territory,  and  was 
 of  an  illustrious  family.  At  the  age  of 
 seven  he  was  taken  to  France  by  his  father, 
 and  was  brought  up  diere.  After  having 
 been  page  to  the  queen  mother,  and  served 
 with  reputation  in  the  army,  he  returned 
 to  his  native  country,  and  held  several 
 high  offices  under  the  Venetian  government. 
 He  was  assassinated  at  Crema  in  1631. 
 His  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  in  France 
 is  one  of  the  classical  productions  of  the 
 Italian  language. 
 
 DAVIS,  John,  an  eminent  navigator,  a 
 native  of  Devonshire,  was  born  in  the 
 parish  of  Stoke  Gabriel,  near  Dartmouth. 
 He  made  three  voyages  to  find  out  the 
 north-west  passage,  in  the  first  of  which, 
 in  1535,  he  discovered  the  Straits  which 
 
DAV 
 
 still  bear  his  name.  He  subsequently  went 
 with  Cavendish  to  the  South  Sea,  and 
 afterwards  made  several  voyages  to  the 
 East  Indies,  in  the  last  of  which  he  was 
 Killed,  in  1605,  oif  the  coast  of  Malacca. 
 He  is  the  author  of  The  World's  Hydro- 
 graphical  Description;  and  he  invented  a 
 quadrant,  which  was  superseded  by  that 
 of  Hadley. 
 
 DAVOUST,  Louis  Nicholas,  duke 
 •:>\  Auerstadt,  and  prince  of  Eckmuhl,  was 
 born  of  a  noble  family,  at  Annoux  in  Bur- 
 gundy, in  1770;  studied  at  Brienne  at  the 
 same  time  with  Bonaparte;  and  entered 
 the  army  in  1785.  Having  previously 
 distinguished  himself  on  various  occasions, 
 he  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egypt.  He 
 did  not,  however,  rise  to  his  highest  pitch 
 of  reputation  till  the  campaigns  of  1806 
 and  1S09,  in  which  hs  won  the  titles  of 
 marshal,  duke,  and  prince.  His  conduct 
 as  governor  of  Hamburgh,  in  1813  and 
 1814,  excited  a  general  hatred  of  him. 
 In  1815,  he  was  made  minister  of  war  by 
 Napoleon;  and  he  commanded  the  army 
 which  capitulated  under  the  walls  of  Paris. 
 He  died  in  June,  1823. 
 
 DAW 
 
 213 
 
 DAVY,  Sir  Humphry,  the  most  emi- 
 nent of  chemists,  was  the  son  of  a  man 
 who  possessed  a  small  landed  property, 
 and  also  followed  the  profession  of  a  carver 
 in  wood.  He  was  born  at  Penzance,  in 
 Cornwall,  December  17,  1778.  The  first 
 tendency  of  his  genius  seems  to  have  been 
 towards  poetry,  for  he  began  to  write  verses 
 when  only  nine  years  old ;  and,  at  a  later 
 period,  he  composed  various  pieces,  among 
 which  was  a  spirited  poem  on  the  Land's 
 End.  Being,  however,  intended  for  the 
 medical  profession,  he  was  placed  with 
 an  apothecary  to  obtain  the  needful  initia- 
 tory knowledge.  But  he  had  now  given 
 himself  up  to  the  study  of  chemistry,  and 
 was  generally  experimenting  in  the  garret 
 iu3tead  of  mixing  juleps,  and  on  one  oc- 
 casion he  produced  an  explosion,  which 
 so  terrified  his  master  that  a  separation 
 took  place.  In  his  fifteenth  year  he  be- 
 came a  pupil  of  Mr.  Barlase  of  Penzance, 
 to  prepare  for  graduating  as  a  physician 
 at  Edinburgh.     By  the  time  that  he  was 
 
 eighteen,  he  acquired  the  rudiments  of 
 botany,  anatomy,  and  physiology:  the 
 minor  branches  of  mathematics,  metaphys- 
 ics, natural  philosophy,  and  chemistry: 
 but  it  was  to  chemistry  that  his  powers 
 were  principally  directed.  He  now  became 
 acquainted  with  Mr.  Davies  Gilbert  and 
 Mr.  Gregory  Watt,  and  was  by  them  in- 
 troduced to  Dr.  Beddoes,  who  prevailed 
 on  him  to  suspend  his  design  of  going  to 
 Edinburgh,  and  to  accept  the  superinten- 
 dence of  the  Pneumatic  Institution  at 
 Bristol.  It  was  while  he  was  at  Bristol 
 that  he  made  his  experiments  on  Nitrous 
 Oxide,  which  he  published  under  the  title 
 of  Researches  Chemical  and  Philosophical. 
 The  fame  which  he  thus  acquired  led  to 
 his  being  elected,  in  1800,  professor  of 
 chemistry  at  the  Royal  Institution.  As  a 
 lecturer,  his  popularity  was  unbounded. 
 In  1S02,  he  was  chosen  to  fill  the  profes- 
 sorship to  the  Board  of  Agriculture;  and 
 the  lectures  which  he  delivered  in  this 
 capacity  were  subsequently  embodied  ir» 
 his  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry. 
 Having  at  his  command  all  the  "  appliances 
 and  means"  furnished  by  the  powerful 
 apparatus  of  the  Royal  Institution,  Daw- 
 began  and  pursued  that  course  of  scientific 
 investigation  which  has  immortalized  his 
 name.  The  discovery  of  the  metallic  bat- es 
 of  the  alkalies  and  earths,  the  creation  of 
 the  science  of  electro-chemistry,  the  inven- 
 tion of  the  safety  lamp,  and  of  the  mode 
 of  preserving  the  copper  sheathing  of  ships, 
 form  only  a  part  of  his  labours.  In  1818 
 he  was  created  a  baronet,  and  in  1820  was 
 elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society. 
 The  presidency  he  resigned  in  1827,  in 
 consequence  of  the  declining  state  of  his 
 health  obliging  him  to  travel.  Unfortu- 
 nately his  constitution  was  too  far  broken 
 to  be  restored  by  a  milder  climate,  and 
 he  died  at  Geneva,  May  30, 1S29.  Besides 
 the  works  already  mentioned,  Davy  is  the 
 author  of  numerous  papers  in  the  Philo- 
 sophical Transactions;  and  of  Sahnonia. 
 or  Days  of  Fly-fishing ;  and  Consolations 
 in  Travel.     They  were  his  last  productions. 
 
 DAVY,  John,  a  composer,  was  born  at 
 Upton  Helion,  in  Devonshire,  in  1765; 
 and  died  in  February,  1824.  He*  was  a 
 pupil  of  Jackson,  and  his  musical  genius 
 was  manifested  when  he  was  yet  little 
 more  than  an  infant.  He  composed  the 
 opera  of  What  a  Blunder,  and  parts  of 
 those  of  Perouse  and  the  Brazen  Mask, 
 besides  many  songs. 
 
 DAWES,"  Richard,  a  critic,  born  in 
 Leicestershire  in  1708,  received  his  edu- 
 cation at  Market  Bosworth  School,  and 
 Emanuel  Hall,  Cambridge ;  became  master 
 of  Newcastle  upon  Tyne  grammar  school, 
 and  of  St.  Mary's  Hospital;  and  died  in 
 1766.  His  Miscellanea  Critica  is  a  work 
 of  great  erudition. 
 
DAY,  Thomas,  aman  of  a  philanthrop- 
 ic but  most  eccentric  character,  was  born  at 
 London,  in  1748;  was  educated  at  the 
 Charter  House  and  at  Corpus  Christi  Col- 
 lege, Oxford;   and   was   killed    by  a   kirk 
 
 234  DEC  DEF 
 
 squadron  to  the  Mediterranean,  in  order  to 
 compel  the  Algerines  to  desist  from  their 
 depredations  on  American  commerce.  He 
 arrived  at  Algiers  on  the  twenty-eighth  of 
 June,  and  in  less  than  forty-eight  hours 
 from  a  horse,  in  September,  1789.  The  I  terrified  the  regency  into  an  entire  acces- 
 Devoted  Legions;  The  Desolation  of  '  sion  to  all  his  terms.  Thence  he  went  to 
 America;  and  The  Dying  Negro  (the  last  Tripoli,  where  he  met  with  like  success. 
 of  which  was  written  in  conjunction  with  On  returning  to  the  United  States,  he  was 
 his  friend  Bicknell),  stamp  him  a  poet.  |  appointed  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Com- 
 Of  his  prose  works,  Sandford  and  Merton,  missionere  for  the  navy,  and  held  that 
 and  The  History  of  Little  Jack,  have  be-  office  till  March,  1820,  when  he  was  shot 
 come  popular.    "  in  a  duel   with  Commodore  Barron.     He 
 
 DEAiNE,  SlLAS,  minister  of  the  United  I  was  a  man  of  an  active  and  powerful  frame, 
 States  to  the  court  of  France,  was  born  in  and  possessed  a  high  degree  of  energy, 
 < ' onnecticut,  and  educated  at  Yale  College.  I sagacity,  and  courage. 
 He  wis  elected  member  of  congress  in  DECIUS,  Cnf.ius  Mkssius  Quintus 
 1774,  and  sent  two  years  after  as  agent  tolTRAJANUS,  a  Roman  emperor,  was  a 
 France,  but  was  superseded,  in  1777,  and,  native  of  Pannonia,  born  at  Buhalia.  The 
 returned.  Involved  in  suspicions  from  Emperor  Philip  gave  him  the  government 
 which  he  could   not  extricate  himself,  he  of  Mcesia,  to  put   down   a  sedition  in  the 
 
 1  ..-this  reputation,  and  returning  to  Europe, 
 died  in  poverty  in  England  in  1789. 
 DEBURE,   William    Francis,  a 
 
 legions  there;,  but,  either  willingly  or  on 
 compulsion,  lie  joined  the  vevolters,  and 
 dethroned  his    sovereign,  A.  D.  249.     His 
 
 b  okseller  and  bibliographer,  was  born  at  first  act  of  authority  was  a  severe  perse- 
 Paris,  in  1781,  and  died  in  1782.  He  isjeution  of  the  Christians.  He  was  slain  in 
 the  author  of  a  well  known  and  useful  j  battle  against  the  Goths,  A.  D.  251,  aged 
 work,  in   seven  volumes  octavo,  called  In- 1  fifty. 
 
 stroctive  Bibliography, or  a  Treatise  on  DECKER,  or  DEKKER,  Thomas,  a 
 the  Knowledge  of  scarce  and  singular  dramatist  of  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and 
 B     k-.  James  I.,  of  whom  nothing   is  known  but 
 
 !  >ECATUR,Stf.phv.n,  a  distinguish  d  that  he  was  a  prolific  writer,  and  that  he 
 office*  in  the  navy  of  the  United  States,,  and  Ben  Jonson  were  enemies.  Jonson 
 was    born  in  Maryland   in    1779,  and  re- j  satirized  him  in  his  Poetaster,  but  Decker 
 
 cened  his  education  in  Philadelphia.  He 
 entered  the  navy  in  1798,  and  first  dis- 
 tinguished   himself   when   in    the  rank    of 
 
 lieutenant,  by  the  destruction  of  the  Auier 
 
 fully  avenged  himself  by  introducing  his 
 antagonist  into  the  comedy  of  Satiro- 
 Mastix.  Decker  was,  in  truth,  not  an 
 object  of  contempt,     lie  sometimes  wrote 
 
 ican  frigate  Philadelphia,  which  had  run  in  conjunction  with  Middleton  and  Web- 
 npon  a  rock  in  the  harbour  of  Tripoli,  and  J  ster;  but  he  is  the  sole  author  of  about 
 fdleo  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  For :  twenty  plays,  among  which  are  Old  For- 
 tius exploit,  the  American  congress  gave]  tunatus,  and  The  Honest  Whore.  The 
 him  a  vote  of  thanks  and  a  sword,  and  the]  Gall's  Horn  Book,  and  other  tracts,  are 
 president  immediately  sent  him  a  captaincy,  also  from  his  pen. 
 
 At  the  bombardment  of  Tripoli  the  next 
 year,  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  cap- 
 lure  of  two  of  the  enemy's  boats,  which 
 Were  moored  along  the  mouth  of  the  har- 
 bour, and  immediately  under  the  batteries. 
 When  peace  was  concluded  with  Tripoli, 
 Decatur  returned  home  in  the  Congress, 
 and  afterward  succeeded  commodore  Bar- 
 ron  in  the  command  of  the  Chesapeake. 
 Iii  the  late  war  between  Great  Britain  and 
 the  United  States,  his  chief  exploit  was 
 the  capture  of  the  British  frigate  Macedo- 
 nian, commanded  by  captain  Carder*  In 
 January,  1815,  he  attempted  to  sail  from 
 .\cw-York,  which  was  then  blockaded  by 
 four  British  ships;  but  the  frigate  under 
 bis  command  was   injured    in    passing  the 
 
 DEE,  John,  a  mathematician  and  as- 
 trologer, was  born  in  London,  in  1527, 
 studied  at  Cambridge,  and  took  the  de- 
 gree of  doctor  of  civil  law  at  Louvain.  On 
 his  return  to  England,  he  obtained  church 
 preferment.  Queen  Elizabeth  used  to  visit 
 him,  and  not  only  resorted  to  his  astrolo- 
 gical powers,  but  also  employed  him  as  a 
 political  agent.  By  the  multitude  he  was 
 hated  and  persecuted  as  a  sorcerer.  That, 
 in  conjunction  with  a  man  named  Kelly, 
 he  professed  to  evoke  spirits,  is  certain; 
 he  was  likewise  an  alchemist.  For  nearly 
 ten  years  subsequently  to  1583,  he  resided 
 on  the  continent;  and,  on  his  coming  back 
 to  England  he  was  again  patronised  by 
 Elizabeth.     He  died  in  1608.     Dee  wrote 
 
 bar,  and  was  captured  by.  the  whole  squad- 1  Several   mathematical  works,   and  was  un- 
 ion, after  a  running   fight  of  two  or  three  doubtedly  a  man  of  talents  and  learning, 
 hours.     He   was   restored    to  his  country       DEFFAND,  Maria  de  Vichy  Cham- 
 after  the  conclusion  of  peace.      In  thesum-  ilturn,    Marchioness   du,   a    French   lady, 
 mer  of  the  same  year,  he  was  sent  with  a!  eminent  for  talent,  especially   in  conversa- 
 
DEF 
 
 tion,  and  for  her  intimacy  with  the  literati 
 of  the  age,  was  of  a  noble  family,  and  was 
 born  in  1697.  In  her  twentieth  year  she 
 married  the  Marquis  du  Defland,  from 
 whom,  however,  she  was  soon  separated. 
 Her  moral  conduct,  till  she  was  chilled  by 
 age  and  blindness,  was,  in  fact,  highly 
 reprehensible.  Her  selfishness)  too,  was 
 extreme.  Yet  her  house  was  the  rendez- 
 vous of  all  the  wit  and  genius  of  the  period 
 in  which  she  lived.  At  fifty  she  lost  her 
 sight.  She  died  in  1780.  Her  Corres- 
 pondence with  D'Alembert,  Walpole,  and 
 oihers,  has  been  published. 
 
 DEFOE,  Daniel,  whose  family  name 
 was  Foe,  was  the  son  of  a  butcher,  and 
 was  born  in  London,  in  1661.  He  was 
 brought  up  for  the  dissenting  ministry,  but 
 did  not  complete  his  clerical  education. 
 In  16S5  he  joined  in  Monmouth's  rebellion, 
 vet  was  fortunate  enough  to  escape  the 
 fatal  consequences.  Pre\  iously  to  that 
 event  he  had  preluded  as  an  author  by  pub- 
 lishing a  satirical  pamphlet,  called  Specu- 
 lum Crapegownoruin,  and  a  Treatise  against 
 the  Turks.  Having  secured  his  head,  he 
 entered  into  business,  as  a  hosier,  and 
 also  as  a  tile  manufacturer,  but  he  was  not 
 successful.  His  pen  still  continued  to  be 
 active.  To  enumerate  here  even  a  hun- 
 dredth part  of  his  literary  labours  would 
 be  impracticable,  as  a  mere  catalogue  of 
 them  occupies  sixteen  pages.  Among  the 
 most  prominent  of  his  verse  efforts  may  be 
 placed  his  Trueborn  Englishman,  a  satire, 
 published  in  1701.  In  rugged  metre,  but 
 often  with  forcible  thoughts  and  language, 
 it  reprehends  the  ingratitude  which  was 
 manifested  towards  his  political  idol, 
 William  III.  Ih  1702,  when  the  high 
 church  tory  party  was  displaying  its  per- 
 secuting spirit,  Defoe  brought  out  his  ad- 
 mirable ironical  pamphlet,  The  Shortest 
 Way  with  the  Dissenters.  The  house  of 
 commons  voted  it  a  seditious  libel,  and  a 
 court  of  justice,  or  rather  of  injustice,  sen- 
 tenced him  to  be  fined,  imprisoned,  and 
 pilloried.  To  the  last  of  these  inflictions 
 Pope  has  alluded  in  a  line  which  disgraces 
 only  its  author.  Defoe,  feeling  that  it  is 
 crime  and  not  the  scaffold  that  makes 
 shame,  poured  forth  his  feelings  in  a  high 
 spirited  Hymn  to  the  Pillory.  While  he 
 was  in  confinement,  he  commenced  The 
 Review,  a  periodical  which  probably  gave 
 rise  to  the  Tatler.  At  the  end  of  two 
 years  he  was  released  by  Harley,  and  was 
 employed  on  several  confidential  missions, 
 particularly  in  contributing  to  effect  the 
 union  with  Scotland.  Of  the  Union  he 
 afterwards  published  an  excellent  history. 
 Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Anne  he 
 was  again  imprisoned  for  a  work  similar 
 to  The  Shortest  Way,  and  was  again  ex- 
 tricated by  Harley.  On  the  accession  of 
 George  I."  Defoe   was    in  a  manner  pro- 
 
 DEL 
 
 215 
 
 scribed  by  that  very  whig  party  of  winch 
 he  had  been  one  of  the  most  strenuous  and 
 able  supporters.  Disgusted  with  politics, 
 he  turned  his  genius  to  other  subjects. 
 The  first  result  of  his  labour  was  the  Fam- 
 ily Instructor.  In  1719  he  produced  the 
 inimitable  Robinson  Crusoe,  which  speedily 
 became  popular,  and  must  ever  remain  so. 
 It  was  succeeded  by  a  crowd  of  other  per- 
 formances, among  which  stand  prominent 
 The  Adventures  of  a  Cavalier,  A  Journal 
 of  the  Plague  in  1665,  The  Political  His- 
 tory of  the  Devil,  and  a  System  of  Magic. 
 It  is  a  melancholy  circumstance  that,  in 
 spite  of  his  talents  and  industry,  the  latter 
 days  of  Defoe  were  darkened  not  only  by 
 the  misconduct  of  a  son,  but  by  the  evils 
 attendant  on  penury.  He  died,  insolvent, 
 in  the  parish  of  Cripplegate,  in  April, 
 1731.  He  has  been  correctly  described  as 
 "  a  man  of  the  strongest  natural  powers,  a 
 lively  imagination,  and  solid  judgment, 
 joined  with  an  unshaken  probity  in  his 
 moral  conduct,  and  an  invincible  integrity 
 in  his  political  sphere." 
 
 DELAMBR.E,  John  Baptist  Joseph, 
 an  eminent  French  astronomer,  a  member 
 of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  of  the 
 Institute,  was  born  in  1749,  at  Amiens, 
 and  did  not  begin  the  study  of  astronomy 
 till  his  thirty-sixth  year,  when  he  became 
 a  pupil  of  Lalande.  He,  however,  rapidly 
 acquired  fame,  and,  in  1807,  he  succeeded 
 his  master  at  the  college  of  France.  He 
 died  August  18,  1822.  Of  his  numerous 
 and  valuable  works  the  most  prominent 
 are,  A  Complete  Treatise  of  Theoretical 
 and  Practical  Astronomy,  three  vols.  4to. ; 
 and  a  History  of  Astronomy,  five  vols.4to. 
 
 DELANY,  Patrick,  D.  D.,  a  divine, 
 was  born  in  Ireland,  in  16S6,  and  died  at 
 Bath,  in  1768.  He  was  educated  at  Trin- 
 ity College,  Dublin,  and  obtained,  from 
 Lord  Carteret,  the  chancellorship  of  Christ 
 Church,  and  a  prebend  in  Saint  Patrick's 
 Cathedral.  In  1744  he  was  promoted  to 
 be  dean  of  Down.  With  Swift  he  was 
 intimately  acquainted.  Among  his  works 
 are,  Sermons;  a  Life  of  David;  Revela- 
 tion examined  with  Candour;  Reflections 
 on  Polygamy;  and  Remarks  on  Orrery's 
 Life  of  Swift. 
 
 DELANY,  Mary,  the  daughter  of 
 Lord  Landsdovvn,  and  the  widow  of  Mr. 
 Pendarves,  was  the  second  wife  of  Dr. 
 Delany,  whom  she  married  in  1743.  She 
 died  in  1788.  Mrs.  Delany  was  a  favour- 
 ite of  Queen  Charlotte,  and  enjoyed  a 
 pension  of  three  hundred  pounds  from  the 
 king.  She  possessed  the  talent  of  cutting 
 out  flowers  from  coloured  paper  with  such 
 exquisite  art  as  almost  to  rival  nature.  ,  In 
 this  way  she  formed  a  Flora  of  nearly  a 
 thousand  subjects. 
 
 DEL1LLE,  James,  the  most  celebrated 
 of    modern    French    poets,    was   born    at 
 
216  DEL 
 
 4igue  Perse,  in  1738,  and  was  ihe  natural 
 son  of  a  barrister,  who  left  him  oCy  a 
 trifling  annuity.  At  his  outset  in  life, 
 Delille,  though  he  had  distinguished  him- 
 self at  the  college  of  Lisieux,  was  com- 
 pelled to  earn  his  subsistence  by  teaching 
 children  the  rudiments  of  grammar  ;it 
 Beauvais  College.  His  talents,  boweverj 
 soon  bettered  his  condition.  IK  liis  trans- 
 lation of  the  Georgics,  in  1769,  his  fame 
 was  established,  and  his  admission  was] 
 gained  to  the  French  Academy.  His  poem 
 of  The  Gardens,  in  17^2.  was  equally  suc- 
 cessful.  Delille  accompanied  Count  Choi- 
 seul  Gcbnffier  to  Greece  and  to  Constanti- 
 nople ;  and,  on  his  return,  became  professor 
 of  Latin  poetry  at  the  college  of  France, 
 nnd  of  ladles  lett.es  at  the  university  of 
 Paris.  In  1794  he  emigrated,  but  went 
 hack  in  l£01,  and  was  chosen  a  member  of 
 th.-  institute.  In  his  latter  years  he  was 
 blind.  He  died  in  1813.  Among  his  nu- 
 merous works  are,  the  poems  of  the  Three 
 Reigns  ■  f  Nature;;  Imagination j  Misfor- 
 tune and  Pity;  and  translations  of  the 
 Eneid,  and  of  Paradise  Lost.  Delille  was 
 a  man  of  talent,  and  possessed  exquisite 
 metrical  skill,  but  he  had  no  large  share 
 of  creative  genius:  "It  nmst  he  owned, " 
 says  a  French  critic.  "  that  Delille,  the 
 greatest  of  our  versifiers,  was  deficient  in 
 that  enthusiasm,  that  n!n;s  divina,  which 
 alone  constitutes  the  poet." 
 
 DELISLE,  William,  an  eminent  geo- 
 grapher, vvas  born  at  Paris,  in  1675,  and 
 died  in  1726.  In  1711,  his  works  obtain- 
 ed for  Inni  admission  into  the  Academy  of 
 Science-  ;  and,  in  1718,  a  pension  and  the 
 office  of  chief  historiographer  to  the  king. 
 In  the  latter  capacity  he  give  lessons  to, 
 and  constructed  various  maps  for,  Louis 
 the  Fifteenth.  Besides  his  numerous  maps, 
 he  produced  several  Memoirs,  and  a  Trea- 
 tise on  the  Course  of  all  Rivers. 
 
 DELISLE,  Joseph  Nicholas,  a 
 I. (other  of  William,  vvas  horn  at  Paris,  in 
 16^8,  and  died  there  in  1768.  lie  vvas 
 eminent  as  a  mathematician  and  astrono- 
 mer. In  1724  he  visited  England,  and 
 met  with  a  friendly  reception  from  ISew- 
 t  r:  and  Halley.  In  1727  he  was  invited 
 f  >  Russia,  as  royal  astronomer.  There  he 
 resided  for  twenty-one  years,  and,  while 
 there,  he  established  a  noble  observatory, 
 and  made  many  valuable  observations.  On 
 his  return  to  Paris  he  was  appointed  pro- 
 fessor in  the  Royal  College.  Lalande  and 
 Messier  were  among  his  pupils.  Besides 
 various  Papers  in  Transactions,  be  is  the 
 author  of  Memoirs  towards  a  History  of 
 Astronomy,  two  vols.  4tO.  and  .Memoirs  on 
 the  new  Discoveries  in  the  North  Pacific, 
 4to. — His  brother  Louis,  also  an  astrono- 
 mer, who  died  at  Karnstchalka,  in  1741,  is 
 author  of  an  Inquiry  into  the  proper  Mo- 
 tion of  the  Fixed  Stars. 
 
 DEM 
 
 DELOLME,  John  Louis,  a  native  of 
 Geneva,  was  born  in  1745.  For  many 
 years  he  resided  in  England,  in  which 
 country  all  his  works  weie  published.  He, 
 however,  returned  to  Switzerland,  and  died 
 there  in  1807.  His  principal  productions 
 are,  A  History  of  the  Flagellants;  and  The 
 Constitution  of  England.  The  last  of  these 
 acquired  considerable  popularity,  and, 
 though  by  no  means  free  from  error,  is 
 not  undeserving  of  its  reputation. 
 
 DELRIO,  Martin  Anthony,  a  jo- 
 suit,  was  born  at  Antwerp,  in  1551,  and 
 died  in  1608  Before  he  became  a  Jesuit, 
 he  filied  several  considerable  offices  in  the 
 Low  Countries,  and  he  subsequently  taught 
 philosophy,  the  languages,  and  theology. 
 He  had  a  knowledge  of  ten  languages. 
 The  most  remarkable  of  his  works  is  tliat 
 on  Magic,  which  is  curious,  though  strong- 
 ly indicative  of  its  author's  gross  credulity. 
 Duchesne's  abridged  translation  is  pre- 
 ferred to  the  original. 
 
 DELUC,  John  Andrew,  a  natural 
 philosopher,  was  born  at  Geneva,  in  1726, 
 and  came  to  England  at  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  reign  of  George  III.  Queen 
 Charlotte  gave  him  a  pension,  and  ap- 
 pointed him  her  reader.  He  died  in  1817. 
 lie  is  the  author  of  several  works,  among 
 which  are,  Letters  on  the  Origin  and  For- 
 mation of  the  Earth  ;  Elements  of  Geology ; 
 and  Geological  Travels  in  the  North  of 
 Europe,  &c. 
 
 DEMOCRITUS,  a  celebrated  philoso- 
 pher, was  the  son  of  a  rich  citizen  of  Ab 
 dei a,  and  was  born  about  460  B.  c.  Leu- 
 cippus  was  his  master  in  philosophy;  and 
 in  the  course  of  his  travels  in  Egypt,  Chal- 
 dea  and  Persia,  and,  perhaps,  in  Ethiopia 
 and  India,  he  greatly  enlarged  his  stores 
 of  knowledge.  Having  spent,  by  travel- 
 ling, all  the  fortune  left  him  by  his  father, 
 he  returned  to  Abdera,  poor  in  purse,  but 
 rich  in  wisdom.  Though  at  first  slighted 
 by  liis  countrymen,  he  ultimately  acquired 
 their  affection  and  reverence.  He  died  in 
 his  hundred  and  sixth  year.  All  his  nu- 
 merous works  are  lost.  The  atomic  sys- 
 tem originated  with  Deniocritus.  He  was 
 also  an  experimental  philosopher,  and  first 
 taught  that  the  light  of  the  galaxy  arises 
 from  a  multitude  of  stars.  Many  absurd 
 stories  are  told  of  him,  among  which  may 
 be  reckoned  that  of  his  perpetual  laughte* 
 at  human  follies. 
 
 DEMOIVRE,  Abraham,  was  bom  in 
 1677,  at  Vitri,  in  Champagne,  and,  on  the 
 revocation  of  the  edict  of  N'antz,  he  settled 
 in  England,  where  he  subsisted  bv  teach- 
 ing the  mathematics.  As  a  calculator  he 
 vvas  so  skilful  that  his  name  has  become 
 almost  proverbial.  He  died  in  1754.  The 
 Doctrine  of  Chances  is  his  best  known 
 production  ;  but  he  wrote  also  a  work  on 
 Annuities;     Miscellanea    Analytica;     and 
 
DEM 
 
 tome  papers  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
 actions. 
 
 DEN 
 
 2H 
 
 DEMOSTHENES,  whom  his  great  Ro- 
 man rival  calls  "  the  must  perfect  of  ora- 
 tors," was  the  son  of  a  sword  blade  man- 
 ufacturer at  Athens,  and  was  born  about 
 381  B.  c.  Left  an  orphan  at  seven  years 
 of  age,  he  was  neglected  and  cheated  by 
 his  unworthy  guardians.  He,  however, 
 obtained  the  lessons  of  Plato  and  Euclid 
 of  Megara;  and,  having  witnessed  the  ap- 
 plause bestowed  on  Callistratus,  he  became 
 eager  to  win  the  palm  of  eloquence.  With 
 incessant  care  he  laboured  to  rid  himself 
 of  an  impediment  in  his  speech,  and  other 
 personal  defects,  and  to  acquire  self-confi- 
 dence and  grace  of  action.  Isseus  was  his 
 preceptor  in  the  rhetorical  art.  His  first 
 trial  of  his  powers  was  in  an  action  against 
 his  guardians,  for  their  misconduct,  and 
 he  was  completely  successful.  A  nobler 
 field  was  soon  opened  to  him.  During  the 
 Phocian  and  Olynthian  wars  he  opposed 
 with  admirable  talent  and  vigour  the  de- 
 signs of  Philip  of  Macedon.  But  in  the 
 field  he  was  seen  to  less  advantage  than  in 
 the  popular  assembly.  At  the  battle  of 
 Cheronaea  he  displayed  a  woeful  deficiency 
 of  personal  courage.  Still  he  retained  his 
 influence  at  Athens,  and  foiled  his  accuser 
 iEschines,  till,  at  length,  being  found  guil- 
 ty of  accepting  bribes,  he  fled  to  Egina. 
 A  new  Greek  confederacy  against  Mace- 
 don being,  however,  projected,  he  was  re- 
 called and  triumphantly  received  at  Athens. 
 But  the  victory  of  Antipater  soon  destroyed 
 the  new  born  hope  of  freedom,  and  De- 
 mosthenes became  the  victim.  He  sought 
 an  asylum  in  the  temple  of  Neptune,  at 
 Calauria,  and,  finding  it  was  intended  to 
 force  him  away,  he  took  poison,  and  died 
 at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  B.  c.  322. 
 
 DEMOUSTIER,  Charles  Albert, 
 a  French  writer,  was  born  at  Villers  Cote- 
 ret,  in  1760,  and  died  there  io  1801.  By 
 the  father's  side  he  was  descended  from 
 Racine,  and  by  the  mother's  from  La  Fon- 
 taine. He  was  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
 Demoustier  wrote  several  comedies,  and 
 Letters  to  Emily  on  Mythology.  His 
 works  manifest  talent,  but  are  deformed 
 10 
 
 by  affectation  and  a  perpetual  effort  to  be 
 brilliant.  In  his  private  character  he  was 
 truly  amiable. 
 
 D'EMPSTER,  Thomas,  a  learned 
 Scotch  writer,  was  born  in  1579;  was  ed- 
 ucated at  Aberdeen  and  Cambridge;  and 
 died  at  Bologna  in  1625,  at  which  place 
 he  was  professor.  Dempster  was  indefat- 
 igably  studious,  and  possessed  of  a  won- 
 derful memory ;  but  he  was  of  a  singularly 
 quarrelsome  disposition.  He  is  the  author 
 of  Antiquitatum  Roinanarum  Corpus;  a 
 Commentary  on  Justinian's  Institutes; 
 Menologium  Sanctorum  Scotorum;  and 
 other  works. 
 
 DENHAM,  Sir  John,  a  poet,  the  son 
 of  the  chief  baron  of  the  Irish  exchequer, 
 was  born  in  1615,  at  Dublin;  was  educat- 
 ed at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  and 
 studied  the  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  Gaining, 
 however,  to  which  he  was  early  addicted, 
 impeded  his  studies,  and  impaired  his  for- 
 tune. In  1641  he  published  the  Sophy,  a 
 tragedy,  and  in  1643  Cooper's  Hill.  He 
 espoused  the  cause  of  Charles  I.  and  lost 
 his  estate  in  consequence.  At  the  Resto- 
 ration he  was  knighted,  and  made  survey- 
 or of  the  royal  buildings.  He  died  irs 
 168S.  Among  the  minor  poets  Denham 
 holds  a  respectable  place.  His  poems  are 
 frequently  elegant,  spirited,  and  marked 
 by  much  felicity  of  expression. 
 
 DENHAM,  Lieut.  Col.  Dixo<S,an  en- 
 terprising traveller,  and  gallant  officer, 
 was  born  in  London,  in  1786,  and  was 
 originally  intended  for  the  law,  but  went 
 to  Spain,  as  a  volunteer,  in  1811,  obtained 
 a  lieutenancy,  and  served  with  honour  in- 
 the  peninsula  and  at  Waterloo.  In  1821, 
 he  was  chosen  to  proceed  on  a  journey  of 
 discovery  into  the  interior  of  Africa;  and, 
 in  conjunction  with  Clapperton  and  Oud- 
 ney,  he  penetrated  into  Bournou,  and  add- 
 ed greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  African 
 geography.  He  returned  to  England,  in 
 1824,  and  published  a  Narrative  of  his. 
 travels.  In  1826  he  was  appointed  gover- 
 nor of  Sierra  Leone,  and  in  that  pestilen- 
 tial colony  he  died  on  the  9th  of  June,  1828. 
 
 DENINA,  Charles  John  Maria, 
 an  Italian  historian,  was  born,  in  1731,  at 
 Revel,  in  Piedmont,  and  died  at  Paris,  in 
 1813.  For  many  years  he  was  professor 
 of  rhetoric  at  Turin,  but  was  deprived  of 
 his  office,  in  consequence  of  having  offend- 
 ed the  government.  In  1804,  Napoleon 
 appointed  him  his  librarian.  Denina  is 
 the  author  of  many  excellent  works,  the 
 principal  of  which  are,  A  History  of  the 
 Revolutions  of  Italy;  A  History  of  Pied- 
 mont; The  Political  and  Literary  History 
 of  Greece;  The  Revolutions  of  Germany; 
 and  a  History  of  Western  Italy. 
 
 DENMAN,  Dr  Thomas,  an  eminent 
 physician,  a  native  of  Derbyshire,  was 
 born  at  Bakewell,  in  1735,  and  settled  in 
 
218 
 
 DEN 
 
 London,  after  having  served  as  surgeon 
 in  the  navy.  It  was  to  the  obstetrical 
 branch  of  the  medical  art  that  he  princi- 
 pally turned  his  attention,  and  he  rose  in 
 it  to  the  highest  reputation.  He  died  No- 
 vember 26,  1815.  Dr.  Denniau  is  the 
 author  of  An  Essay  on  Puerperal  Fever; 
 Aphorisms;  The  Introduction  to  the  Prac- 
 tice of  Midwifery;   and  other  able  works. 
 
 DENNER,  Baithasar,  a  painter, 
 born  at  Hamburgh,  in  1685,  and  died  at  Ros- 
 tock, in  1747,  was  remarkable  for  his  pa- 
 tient and  minute  imitation  of  nature  in  his 
 portraits;  of  which  curious  proofs  are 
 extant  in  two  pictures  of  an  old  man  and 
 woman,  and  in  the  likenesses  of  himself 
 and  his  family.  The  grain  of  the  skin, 
 the  hairs,  the  down,  the  glassy  humour  of 
 die  eves,  are  all  delineated  with  the  utmost 
 exactness. 
 
 DENNIE,  Joseph,  born  in  Boston,  in 
 1768,  displayed  an  early  fondness  for  po- 
 lite literature,  and  entered  Harvard  College 
 in  1787.  In  1790  he  left  this  institution, 
 and  commenced  the  study  of  the  law ;  but 
 made  little  progress  in  the  practice  of  his 
 profession,  in  consequence  of  a  strong  at- 
 tachment to  literary  pursuits.  In  the  spring 
 of  1795  he  established  a  weekly  paper  «n 
 Boston  under  the  title  of  The  Tablet,  but 
 it  died  from  want  of  patronage.  Soon  after, 
 he  went  to  Walpole  to  edit  the  Farmer's 
 Museum,  a  journal  in  which  he  published 
 a  series  of  papers  with  the  signature  of 
 the  Lay  Preacher.  In  1799  he  removed  to 
 Philadelphia,  where  he  had  received  an 
 appointment  in  the  office  of  the  secretary 
 of  state.  He  subsequently  established  the 
 Port  Folio,  a  journal  which  acquired  repu- 
 tation and  patronage.  He  died  in  1812. 
 Mr.  Dennic  was  a  man  of  genius,  and  a 
 beautiful  writer,  but  wanted  the  industry 
 and  judgment,  which  might  have  secured 
 hiin  a  competent  subsistence  and  a  perma- 
 nent reputation. 
 
 DENNIS,  John,  a  dramatist  and  critic, 
 Was  born,  in  London,  in  1657;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Harrow  School,  Caius  College, 
 and  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge;  and  died 
 in  1733-4.  Having  dissipated  a  fortune, 
 and  outlived  an  annuity  which  he  had  re- 
 served on  selling  his  place  of  landwaiter, 
 his  latter  da\s  were  spent  in  poverty,  ag- 
 gravated by  blindness.  Almo.-t  throughout 
 his  life  he  was  in  a  state  of  hostility  with 
 some  one  or  other  of  the  wits  of  the  age. 
 Pope,  whom  he  attacked  with  vulgar  ma- 
 lignity, chronicled  him  in  the  Dunciad.  As 
 a  poet  and  dramatic  writer  he  is  below 
 mediocrity;  as  a  critic  he  is  far  from  being 
 contemptible. 
 
 DENON,  Baron  Dominic  Vivant, 
 was  born  at  Chalons  sur  Saonc,  in  Bur- 
 gundy, in  1747.  After  having  been  page 
 of  the  chamber  and  gentleman  in  ordinary 
 {o  Louis  XV.  he  resided  for  several  years 
 
 DER 
 
 in  Italy,  as  secretary  of  embassy,  during 
 which  period  he  applied  himself  sedulously 
 to  the  study  of  the  arts.  He  was  one  of 
 those  whom  Bonaparte  selected  to  accom- 
 pany him  to  Egypt.  While  there,  he  alter- 
 nately wielded  the  pencil  and  the  sword, 
 and  both  with  equal  dexterity.  His  work 
 on  the  Egyptian  expedition,  the  numerous 
 and  fine  drawings  for  which  were  made  bv 
 himself,  would  alone  be  sufficient  to  immor- 
 talize his  name.  Napoleon  was  warmly 
 attached  to  hiin,  gave  him  the  superintend- 
 ence of  the  museums  and  the  medallic  mint, 
 and  consulted  hiin  on  all  affairs  that  were 
 connected  with  the  arts.  The  column  in 
 the  place  Vendome  was  constructed  under 
 his  direction.  He  died  at  Paris,  April 
 25,  1825,  universally  beloved  for  his  good 
 qualities,  and  admired  for  his  talents  and 
 the  purity  of  his  taste. 
 
 D'EON.     See  Eon  de  Beaumont. 
 
 DERHAM,  William,  a  celebrated 
 di\  fne,  born  at  Stoughton,  near  Worcester, 
 in  1657,  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
 Oxford;  obtained  the  livings  of  Wargrave 
 and  Upminster;  and,  upon  the  accession 
 of  George  I.  was  made  king's  chaplain, 
 and  a  canon  of  Windsor.  In  1702  he  was 
 elected  F.  R.  S.,  and  in  1730  received  the 
 degree  of  D.  D.  He  died  in  1735.  His 
 three  principal  works  are,  Physico-Theoi- 
 ogy;  Astro-Theology;  and  Christo-Theol- 
 <gy ;  of  these,  the  first  demonstrates  "  the 
 being  and  attributes  of  God  from  his 
 works  of  creation;"  the  second,  "  from  a 
 survey  of  the  heavens."  The  Physico- 
 Theology  was  originally  delivered  as  ser- 
 mons at  Boyle's  Lecture.  Derham's  ear- 
 liest production  was  The  Artificial  Clock 
 Maker. 
 
 DERMODY,  Thomas,  a  poet,  the  son 
 of  a  schoolmaster,  was  born  at  Ennis,  in 
 the  south  of  Ireland,  in  1775,  and  made 
 such  an  early  progress  in  learning  that, 
 when  be  whs  only  nine  years  old,  he  assist- 
 ed his  father  in  teaching  Greek  and  L;itin. 
 But  at  the  same  time  he  acquired  habits 
 of  low  company  and  intoxication,  which 
 proved  his  bane.  He  was  patronised  by 
 the  countess  of  Moira,  the  marquis  of 
 Hastings,  Sir  James  Bland  Binges,  and 
 others,  and  at  one  period  held  a  commis- 
 sion in  the  army,  but  patronage  was  ren- 
 dered unavailing  by  his  besetting  faults. 
 He  died,  in  1802,  at  Sydenham,  in  Kent. 
 His  poems,  most  of  which  were  written 
 hastily,  and  under  the  pressure  of  neces- 
 sitv,  contain  many  passages  of  great  fancy, 
 animation  and  elegance. 
 
 DERZH4VINE,  Gabriel  Romano- 
 vitsch,  a  Russian  poet  and  statesman, 
 was  born  at  Casan,  in  1743,  and  died  in 
 1816.  After  having  been  in  the  army  for 
 fourteen  years,  he  entered  the  civil  service, 
 and  rose  to  elevated  stations.  The  empe- 
 ror Alexander  made  him  minister  of  jus- 
 
DES 
 
 tice ;  but  Derzhavine  withdrew  from  office 
 in  1803.  Among  the  bards  of  his  country 
 he  holds  the  highest  place;  his  works  glow 
 with  poetical  fire,  and  his  versification  is 
 worthy  of  the  sentiments  which  are  con- 
 veyed in  it. 
 
 DESAGULIERS,  John  Theophilus, 
 a  divine  and  experimental  philosopher, 
 was  born  at  Rochelle,  in  France,  in  1683, 
 and  brought  over  to  England  when  only 
 two  years  old.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
 ford. In  1712  he  settled  in  London,  and 
 began  to  deliver  lectures  on  the  sciences, 
 a  practice  which  he  continued  till  his  death, 
 in  1749.  Notwithstanding  that  he  was 
 an  indefatigable  man,  and  possessed  some 
 church  preferment,  he  died  poor.  Desa- 
 guliers  translated  Gravesande's  Mathemat- 
 ical Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy; 
 published  his  own  lectures,  as  A  Course 
 of  Experimental  Philosophy;  and  wrote 
 many  papers  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
 actions. 
 
 DESAIX  DE  VOIGOUX,  Louis 
 Charles  Anthony,  a  celebrated  French 
 general,  of  noble  descent,  was  born  in 
 1768,  in  Auvergne,  and  entered  the  army, 
 as  second  lieutenant,  when  he  was  only 
 fifteen.  In  1796,  he  commanded  a  division 
 of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  gallantly 
 defended  fort  Kehl;  in  1798,  he  accompa- 
 nied Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  where  he  gained 
 several  victories,  and  received  from  the 
 natives  the  honourable  appellation  of  the 
 Just  Sultan ;  and,  on  the  14th  of  June, 
 1800,  he  fell  at  the  battle  of  Marengo,  at 
 the  very  moment  when  he  had  contributed 
 to  turn  the  scale  of  victory  by  an  impetu- 
 ous charge  on  the  Austrian  line. 
 
 DESAULT,  Peter  Joseph,  an  emi- 
 nent surgeon,  was  born  at  Magny  Vernais, 
 in   Franche  Comte,  in   1744,   and    was  a 
 pupil  of  Anthony  Petit,  Louis,  and  Saba-j 
 thier.    He  acquired  a  great  and  well  earned 
 reputation  at  Paris,  and   was  surgeon  in  I 
 chief  to  the  Hotel  Dieu.    He  died,  in  1795,  | 
 while  in  attendance  on  the  Dauphin,  and 
 was    suspected    to    have    been    poisoned. 
 Desault  published  a  Treatise  on  Surgical 
 Diseases;   and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  i 
 The  Surgical  Journal.     He  invented  vari-, 
 ous  instruments,  and  by  his  skill  contributed 
 to  decrease  the  number  of  amputations. 
 
 DESCARTES,  Rene,  orRENATus,aj 
 philosopher,  eminent  in  various  ways,  was! 
 a  native  of  Touraine,  born  at  La  Have, 
 in  1596 ;   was  descended   from  an  ancient 
 family;   and  was  educated  at  the  Jesuits 
 college  at  La  Flcche.     His  progress  was; 
 rapid,  particularly  in  mathematics.    From 
 1616  to   1621   he  served,  as  a  volunteer, 
 under  the  Prince  of  Orange,  the  Duke  of 
 Bavaria,  and  Count  Bucquoi,  in  Holland, 
 Bavaria,  and  Hungary.     After  having  tra- 
 velled   widely,    he    sold    his    estate,    and 
 settled  in  Holland,  in  1629,  to  pursue  his 
 
 DES 
 
 219 
 
 studies  undisturbed.     For  twenty  years  he 
 assiduously  continued  his   labours  in  meta- 
 physics,  chemistry,   anatomy,   astronomy, 
 and  geometry,  and  during  that  period  he 
 produced   the  works   which   have   immor- 
 talized his  name.     At  length,  some   of  his 
 metaphysical    opinions    having    excited    a 
 persecution  against  him,  he    accepted  an 
 invitation  from  Christina   of  Sweden,  to 
 reside  at  her  court.      He,  however,  died 
 at  Stockholm,  February  11,  1650,  shortly 
 | after   his    arrival   in    that    capital.       His 
 I  works,   among  which   are  The  Principles 
 ,of  Philosophy,  Metaphysical  Meditations, 
 a  Treatise  on  the  Passions,  a  Treatise  on 
 iMan,  and  a  Discourse  on  the  Method  of 
 I  seeking    Truth    in    the    Sciences,    occupy 
 i  nine  volumes  in  quarto.     While  he  lived", 
 it    was    chiefly   as    a    metaphysician    that 
 Descartes  was  celebrated,  but    his    meta- 
 physics,   though    strongly  manifesting   his 
 genius,    are    now    almost    forgotten;    his 
 system  of  vortices,  too,  which   once  had 
 partisans,  is  completely  discarded;    and  it 
 is  to  his  geometrical  and   algebraical  dis- 
 coveries, which    he    himself  undervalued, 
 that  he  is  indebted  for  the  most  solid  part 
 of  his  fame. 
 
 DESEZE,  Count  Raymond,  or  Ro- 
 main,  a  French  advocate,  was  born  at 
 Bourdeaux,  in  1750,  and  gained  considera- 
 ble reputation  at  the  Parisian  bar  previously 
 to  1792;  but  it  was  in  that  year  he  estab- 
 lished his  character  as  a  man  of  courage, 
 by  undertaking  the  defence  of  Louis  XVI. 
 after  Target  had  declined  the  dangerous 
 task.  His  speech  on  that  occasion  had 
 merit,  but  did  not  display  any  of  the  higher 
 powers  of  eloquence.  Though  imprisoned 
 during  the  reign  of  the  Jacobins,  ho 
 escaped  the  scaffold,  and  he  held  no  public- 
 office  till  the  return  of  the  Bourbons,  when 
 honours  and  rewards  were  heaped  upon 
 him.     He  died  in  1828. 
 
 DESFORGES,  Peter  John  Baptist 
 Choudard,  an  actor  and  author,  was 
 born  at  Paris,  in  1746.  At  the  age  of  nine 
 years  he  attempted  to  write  two  tragedies. 
 After  he  left  college,  he  studied  medicine, 
 then  drawing,  and  ended,  in  1769,  by 
 going  on  the  stage,  and  at  the  same  time 
 writing  for  it.  He  quitted  it,  however,  in 
 1782,  to  be  solely  an  author.  He  died  in 
 1806.  Desforges  is  the  author  of  twenty- 
 four  comedies,  and  of  several  romances. 
 Of  his  comedies,  Tom  Jones  in  London, 
 and  the  Jealous  Wife,  are  still  acted.  His 
 romances,  one  of  which  contains  his  own 
 history,  are  marked  by  shameless  immo- 
 rality. 
 
 DESHOULIERES,  Antoinetta  dv 
 Ligier  be  la  Garde,  was  born  at  Paris, 
 about  1633  or  1634,  and  in  her  youth  was 
 much  admired  at  the  French  court.  She 
 was  handsome,  witty,  accomplished,  and 
 of  dignified  and    prepossessing    mannersv 
 
220 
 
 DES 
 
 Her  husband  was  a  Poitevin  gentleman. 
 She  was  in  '"d'its  of  friendship  with  most 
 of  the  eminent  men  of  her  time;  but  it  is 
 singular  that,  like  Madam  de  Sevigne, 
 she  was  "  high  gravel  blind"  to  the  merit 
 of  Racine.  She  died,  in  1694,  of  cancer 
 in  the  breast,  after  twelve  vears  of  Buffer- 
 Lag.  Her  tragedies,  comedies,  and  operas, 
 are  failures,  and  many  of  her  poems  are 
 not  above  mediocrity;  but  her  Idyls,  and 
 some  of  her  Eclogues,  Elegies,  and  Moral 
 Reflections,  will  preserve  her  name  from 
 oblivion. 
 
 1>  E  S  H  O  U  L  I E  RE  S,  Antoinetta 
 Theresa,  a  daughter  of  the  preceding, 
 was  born  at  Paris,  in  1682,  and  died  un- 
 married, in  1718,  after  having  for  twenty 
 years  been,  like  her  mother,  the  victim  of 
 cancel .  Though  not  equal  in  talent  to  her 
 mother,  with  whose  works  her  own  are 
 generallv  printed,  she  possessed  a  consider- 
 able portion  of  poetical  merit. 
 
 DESLAURIERS,  M.,  a  comedian,  of 
 whom  little  more  is  known  than  that  he 
 went  to  Paris,  about  1606,  was  an  actor 
 in  the  company  of  the  hotel  of  Burgundy, 
 and  was  living  in  1634.  He  took  the 
 name  of  Bruscambille,  under  which  he 
 published  some  ludicrous  and  often  ob- 
 scene pieces,  which  were  collected  into 
 fme  volume  in  1 619.  His  works  are  alluded 
 to  by  Sterne,  ami,  worthless  as  they  are, 
 the  rarity  of  copies  renders  them  an  object 
 of  bibliomaniac  research. 
 
 DESMAHIS,  Joseph  Francis  Ed- 
 ward de  Corsemblue,  a  French  dra- 
 matist, was  born  at  Sully  snr  Loire,  in 
 1722,  and  died  in  1761.  Besides  many 
 fugitive  poems,  which  were  much  admired, 
 two  unfinished  plays,  and  two  which  were 
 never  acted,  he  wrote  The  Lost  Letter,  or 
 the  Impertinent,  a  comedy.  Desmahis 
 was  a  man  of  an  excellent  heart.  "  When 
 my  friend  laughs,"  said  he,"  it  is  his  busi- 
 ness to  tell  me  the  cause  of  his  joy;  when 
 he  weeps,  it  is  my  business  to  find  out  the 
 cause  of  liis  sorrow." 
 
 DESSALINES,  John  James,  one  of 
 those  extraordinary  characters  who  were 
 thrust  forward  to  greatness  by  the  French 
 revolution,  was  a  native  of  the  Gold 
 Coast,  in  Africa,  and  was  originally  a 
 slave  to  a  free  black  in  St.  Domingo. 
 When  the  disturbances  first  began  in  lliat 
 colony  he  took  an  active  part.  He  became 
 second  in  command  to  Toussaint  l'Ouver- 
 ture,  and,  after  the  imprisonment  of  that 
 chief,  he  displayed  so  much  talent  and 
 courage  that,  on  the  6th  of  October,  1804, 
 he  was  chosen  to  be  emperor  of  Hayti, 
 under  the  title  of  James  I.  lie  did  not 
 long  hold  his  new  dignity;  for  he  fell  the 
 victim  of  a  conspiracy,  in  October,    1806. 
 
 DESTOUCHES,Phjlik;\kuicu  i.t. 
 a  French  dramatic  writer,  m  born  at 
 Tours,  in  1680,  and  died  at  Paris,  in  1754. 
 
 DEW 
 
 He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy.  At  his 
 outset  in  life  he  was  a  strolling  player,  but 
 chance  introduced  him  to  M.  de  Puysieux, 
 who  withdrew  him  from  the  stage,  and 
 formed  him  for  a  diplomatist.  Destouches 
 was  intrusted  with  several  important  di- 
 plomatic missions;  but  he  abandoned  that 
 career,  and  became  a  writer  for  the  stage. 
 His  comedies  form  six  volumes  8vo.  The 
 best  of  them  are  Le  Glorieux  and  Le  Phi- 
 losophe  Marip. 
 
 DEURHOFF,  William,  a  native  ot 
 Amsterdam,  born  in  1650,  and  by  trade  a 
 boxmaker,  was  the  founder  of  a  sect, 
 which  is  not  yet  quite  extinct,  under  the 
 title  of  Deurhoflaans.  He  represented  the 
 Divine  Nature  under  the  idea  of  a  power 
 or  energy  diffused  through  the  whole  uni- 
 verse, and  acting  upon  every  part  of  the 
 vast  machine.  His  works  are,  The  The- 
 ology of  Deurhoff,  two  volumes  quarto, 
 and  a  first  volume  of  The  Metaphysics  of 
 Deurhoff.  The  latter  was  published  in 
 1717,  in  which  year  he  died. 
 
 DEVEREUX.     See  Essex. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE,  Georgiana  CAV- 
 ENDISH, Duchess  of,  a  female  who  was 
 remarkable  for  talents  as  well  as  beauty, 
 was  the  eldest  daughter  of  Earl  Spencer, 
 and  was  born  in  1757.  In  her  seventeenth 
 year  she  married  the  Duke  of  Devonshire. 
 She  died  March  30,  1S06.  Of  her  poeti- 
 cal compositions  only  a  few  have  seen  the 
 light,  among  which  are  Zephyr  and  the 
 Storm,  and  Verses  on  the  Passage  of  the 
 St.  Gothard.  They  are  elegant  and  ani- 
 mated. 
 
 DEWES,  Sir  Simonds,  an  antiquary, 
 born  at  Coxden,  in  Dorsetshire,  in  1692, 
 was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Ox- 
 ford; and  was  created  a  baronet  by  James 
 the  First,  but  in  the  Long  Parliament  he 
 espoused  the  popular  cause.  He  died  in 
 1650.  His  principal  production  is,  The 
 Journals  of  the  Parliaments  during  the 
 reign  of  Elizabeth. 
 
 DE  WITT,  John,  an  eminent  and  en- 
 lightened Dutch  statesman,  the  son  of  a 
 burgomaster  of  Dort,  was  born  in  1625. 
 He  was  educated  at  his  native  place,  and, 
 in  his  twenty-third  vear,  published  an  ex- 
 cellent mathematical  work,  the  Elements 
 of  Curve  Lines.  After  having  been  pen- 
 sionary of  his  native  city,  he  was  chosen 
 pensionary  of  Holland.  In  the  latter 
 capacity  he  concluded  a  peace  with  Crom- 
 well, by  one  article  of  which  the  family 
 of  Orange  was  excluded  from  the  stadt- 
 holdership.  This  article  was  afterwards 
 converted  into  a  law  under  the  title  of  the 
 Perpetual  Edict.  His  death  was  eventually 
 the  result  of  this  measure.  For  some 
 years  he  filled  his  high  office  with  appro- 
 bation, but,  in  1672,  when  Holland  was 
 invaded  by  the  French,  he  and  his  brother 
 Cornelius  were  murdered  by  the  populace 
 
 \ 
 
DIB 
 
 in  consequence  of  their  having  opposed 
 the  placing  of  the  supreme  authority  in 
 the  hands  of  the  prince  of  Orange. 
 
 DEXTER,  Samuf.l,  an  eminent  Amer- 
 ican lawyer  and  statesman,  was  born  in 
 Boston  in  1761.  He  received  his  educa- 
 tion at  Harvard  College,  where  he  was 
 graduated  with  honour  in  1781.  Engaging 
 in  the  study  of  the  law,  he  soon  succeeded 
 in  obtaining  an  extensive  practice.  He 
 enjoyed  successively  a  seat  in  the  state 
 legislature,  and  in  the  house  of  represen- 
 tative* and  senate  of  the  United  States; 
 and  in  each  of  these  stations  he  secured  a 
 commanding  influence.  During  the  ad- 
 ministration of  Mr.  Adams,  he  was  appoint- 
 ed secretary  of  war,  and  of  the  treasury ; 
 but  on  the  accession  of  Mr.  Jefferson  to 
 the  presidency,  he  resigned  his  public 
 employments,  and  returned  to  the  practice 
 of  his  profession.  For  many  years  he  was 
 extensively  employed  in  the  courts  of  Mas- 
 sachusetts, and  in  the  supreme  court  of  the 
 United  States,  where  he  was  almost  with- 
 out a  rival.  He  died  suddenly  at  Athens, 
 New-York,  in  1816.  Mr.  Dexter  was  tall, 
 muscular  and  well  formed.  His  eloquence 
 was  clear,  simple  and  cogent:  and  his 
 powers  were  such  as  would  have  made  him 
 eminent  in  any  age  or  nation. 
 
 DIAZ,  Bartholomew,  a  Portuguese 
 navigator,  one  of  the  household  of  John  II. 
 of  Portugal,  was  intrusted  with  the  com- 
 mand of  two  small  vessels,  in  1486.  With 
 these  he  succeeded  in  pushing  far  beyond 
 his  predecessors,  and  discovering  the  Cape 
 of  Good  Hope,  which  he  named  the  Cape 
 of  Tempests.  The  king,  however,  gave  it 
 the  more  auspicious  name  which  it  still 
 bears.  Diaz  perished  in  a  storm,  off  the 
 Cape,  in  1500. 
 
 DIBDIN,  Charles,  born  about  1748, 
 at  Southampton,  was  the  son  of  a  silver- 
 smith, and  was  educated  at  Winchester 
 school,  with  a  view  of  providing  for  him 
 in  the  church.  The  love  of  music,  how- 
 ever, seduced  him  from  clerical  pursuits, 
 and,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  after  having 
 failed  in  obtaining  a  situation  as  a  village 
 organist,  he  took  up  his  abode  in  London. 
 For  some  years  he  was  at  once  a  com- 
 poser for  the  stage  and  an  actor,  and  in 
 both  capacities  was  applauded.  His  first 
 effort  was  a  comic  opera,  called  the  Shep- 
 herd's Artifice,  written  and  set  by  himself, 
 which  was  brought  out  at  Covent  Garden, 
 in  1765.  In  the  course  of  thirty  years,  he 
 produced  about  fifty  pieces  of  a  similar 
 kind.  For  two  seasons  he  was  manager 
 of  the  Circus.  He  then  established  an 
 entertainment,  in  which  he  was  the  sole 
 performer ;  singing  his  own  songs,  accom- 
 panying himself  on  the  piano,  and  con- 
 necting the  songs  by  prose.  Under  various 
 names  this  entertainment  was  popular  for 
 a  long  period.     Dibdin  also,  for  a  while, 
 
 DIC 
 
 221 
 
 enjoyed  from  government  a  pension  of 
 two  hundred  pounds,  but  lost  it  on  a 
 change  of  administration.  In  the  closing 
 years  of  his  life  he  would  have  suffered 
 all  the  ills  of  poverty,  had  not  a  subscrip- 
 tion been  raised  to  purchase  for  him  an 
 annuity.  He  died  in  1814.  Besides  his 
 dramatic  pieces,  he  produced  many  works, 
 among  which  are  thief  novels;  a  History 
 of  the  Stage;  his  Professional  Life;  and 
 A  Musical  Tour.  His  songs,  <>!'  which  he 
 wrote  thirteen  or  fourteen  hundred,  form 
 his  best  title  to  fame.  Of  such  a  number 
 many  are  of  course  below  mediocrity,  but 
 very  many  are  of  a  superior  order.  His 
 sea  songs,  in  particular,  are  unrivalled, 
 and  give  him  a  fair  claim  to  be  considered 
 as  the  British  naval  lyrist. 
 
 DICKINSON,  John,  a  celebrated  po- 
 litical writer,  was  born  in  Maryland  in 
 1732,  and  educated  in  Delaware.  He  pur- 
 sued the  study  of  law,  and  practised  with 
 success  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  soon 
 elected  to  the  state  legislature,  and  distin- 
 guished himself  as  an  early  and  efficient 
 advocate  of  colonial  rights.  In  1705  he 
 was  appointed  by  Pennsylvania  a  delegate 
 to  the  first  congress,  held  at  New  York, 
 and  prepared  the  draft  of  the  bold  resolu- 
 tions of  that  body.  His  celebrated  Farm- 
 er's Letters  to  the  Inhabitants  of  the  Bri- 
 tish Colonies  were  issued  in  Philadelphia 
 in  1767;  they  were  reprinted  in  London 
 with  a  preface  by  Dr.  Franklin,  and  a 
 French  translation  of  them  was  published 
 at  Paris.  While  in  congress,  he  wrote  a 
 large  number  of  the  most  able  and  eloquent 
 state  papers  of  the  time,  and  as  an  orator 
 he  had  few  superiors  in  that  assembly.  He 
 conscientiously  opposed  the  declaration  of 
 independence,  and  his  opinions  upon  this 
 subject  rendered  him  for  a  time  unpopular, 
 but  they  did  not  permanently  affect  his  re- 
 putation and  influence.  He  was  afterwards 
 a  member  of  congress  and  president  of 
 Pennsylvania  and  Delaware,  successively. 
 He  died  at  Wilmington  in  1808.  Mr. 
 Dickinson  was  a  man  of  a  strong  mind, 
 great  knowledge  and  eloquence,  and  much 
 elegance  of  taste  and  manners. 
 
 DICKSON,  Adam,  a  Scotch  divine 
 and  agriculturist,  was  a  native  of  East  Lo- 
 thian, and  was  for  twe?ity  years  minister 
 of  Dunse,  in  Berwickshire,  whence  he  re- 
 moved into  his  native  county.  He  died  of 
 a  fall  from  his  horse  in  1776.  He  is  tiie 
 author  of  a  Treatise  on  the  Agriculture  of 
 the  Ancients — one  of  the  best  works  on 
 the  subject;  and  also  of  a  Treatise  on 
 Agriculture,  in  two  volumes. 
 
 DICKSON,  James,  a  botanist,  a  native 
 of  Scotland,  died  in  London,  in  1822.  He 
 was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Linnaean 
 Society,  and  a  vice-president  of  the  Horti- 
 cultural Society.  Dickson  commenced  life 
 a3  a  working  gardener,  and  rose  by  his 
 
222 
 
 DID 
 
 own  exertions.  Besides  several  papers  in  I 
 Transactions,  he  is  the  author  of  Fasci- 
 culi Quatuor  Plantarum  Cryptogamicarum| 
 Britannia?. 
 
 DICQCEMARE,  James  Francis,  al 
 naturalist,    was    born    at    Havre,  in  1733, 
 and  died  in  1789.     He  was  a    man  of  di- 
 versified  talent.      Besides    having    thrown 
 BO  much  li^ht  on  the  history  of  marine  in- 
 vertebral  animals,    as  to  gain    the    title  of: 
 "  the  Confidant  of  Nature*"  be  had  con-; 
 side, able    merit    as    a    painter,     furnished 
 some  charts  to  the  Oriental   Neptune,  and 
 possessed  a  knowledge  of  astronomical  and 
 nautical  science. 
 
 DIDEROT,  Dknis,  born  in  1713,  at 
 Langres,  in  Champagne,  was  the  son  of  a 
 cutler.  He  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits, 
 and  was  designed  for  the  church,  and,  sub- 
 sequently, for  the  law.  Both,  however, 
 were  rejected  by  him,  and  he  entered  on 
 the  career  of  literature  at  Paris.  Trans- 
 lating was  his  earliest  resource,  and  Stan- 
 \;m"s  History  of  Greece  was  the  work  with 
 which  he  began.  His  Essay  on  Merit  and 
 Virtue  was  his  first  original  production. 
 It  was  succeeded,  in  1746,  by  his  Philosoph- 
 ical Thoughts-,  which  the  parliament  of 
 Paris  condemned  to  the  flames,  and,  by  so 
 doing,  insured  its  popularity  and  that  of 
 the  author.  They  were  reprinted,  under 
 the  title  of  A  New  Year's  Gift  for  Free- 
 thinkers. Long  afterwards,  he  added  a 
 second  part,  in  which  his  atheistieal  prin- 
 ciples were  less  carefully  concealed.  The 
 same  principles  in  his  Letter  on  the  Blind 
 caused  him  to  be  imprisoned  for  nearly 
 four  months  at  Vincennes.  Diderot  now 
 formed  the  plan  of  that  extensive  under- 
 taking The  Kncyclopaedia.  On  this  Die- 1 
 tionary,  the  first  two  volumes  of  which  I 
 appeared  in  1751,  he  was  engaged  for 
 many  years.  The  department  of  arts  and  | 
 trades,  the  history  of  ancient  philosophy, I 
 and  numerous  other  articles,  were  contri-| 
 tinted  by  him.  While  he  edited  this  com-l 
 pilation,  his  pen  was  also  busily  employed 
 on  various  original  compositions,  some  of  j 
 which  are  repugnant  to  decency.  Poverty 
 would,  nevertheless,  have  embittered  his 
 latter  days  had  not  Catherine  of  Russia 
 extended  to  him  an  efficient  patronage. 
 Diderot  visited  Saint  Petersburg!]  in  1773, 
 and  remained  there  for  some  months.  He 
 died  July  30,  1784.  His  works  form  15 
 Vols.  8\o.  Diderot  was  a  man  of  great 
 ^talent,  and  extensive  knowledge;  but  his 
 Btj  le,  though  sometimes  eloquent,  has  many 
 defects,  and  his  sentiments  are  too  often 
 deserving  of  the  severesl  reprobation. 
 
 DIDIUS  JULIAN!  S  BEVERUS,  an 
 ephemera]  emperor  of  Rome,  born  A.  n. 
 133,  was  a  man  of  rank,  and  of  some  tal- 
 ent, having  been  consul  general  of  an 
 army,  and  vanquisher  of  the  Catti.  After 
 the    murder   of  Pertinax,    the    Praetorian 
 
 DIG 
 
 bands  put  up  the  empire  to  auction,  and  it 
 was  purchased  by  Didius.  He,  however, 
 enjoyed  his  new  dignity  but  two  months 
 and  five  days,  for  he  was  slain  by  the  sol- 
 diery, in  order  to  make  their  peace  with 
 Severus. 
 
 DIDOT,  Francis  Ambrose,  one  of 
 the  most  celebrated  of  modern  printers,  was 
 born  at  Paris,  in  1730,  and  died  there  in 
 1804.  He  raised  the  typographical  art  in 
 France  to  the  highest  point  of  perfection ; 
 established  a  foundry,  in  which  he  cast 
 types  of  great  beauty;  invented  various 
 instruments  to  give  correctness  to  the 
 letters;  improved  printing  presses  and 
 stereotype;  and  spared  no  pains  to  render 
 wholly  free  from  errors  the  editions  which 
 he  published. 
 
 DIDYMUS,  a  native  of  Alexandria,  the 
 son  of  a  salt  fish  seller,  was  sumamed  the 
 Grammarian,  and  also,  from  his  unremit- 
 ting studies,  Chalcentres,  or  the  Brazen 
 Bowelled.  He  lived  under  the  reign  of 
 Augustus,  and  was  certainly  the  most  fer- 
 tile, probably  the  weakest,  of  writers,  for 
 the  number  of  his  works  is  variously  esti- 
 mated at  from  three  thousand  to  six  thou- 
 sand.    They  have  all  perished. 
 
 D1EMEN,  Anthony  Van,  a  son  of  the 
 burgomaster  of  Cuylenberg,  in  Holland, 
 was  born  in  1593.  Having  failed  in  trade, 
 he  went  to  India  as  a  cadet.  There,  the 
 beauty  of  his  handwriting  procured  him 
 admission  into  a  government  office,  and, 
 fn  the  course  of  a  few  years,  he  rose  to  be 
 governor-general.  That  high  office  he 
 filled  with  honour  to  himself  and  advan- 
 tage to  his  country.  He  died  in  1645. 
 Tasman,  the  navigator,  whom  he  sent  on  a 
 voyage  of  discovery,  in  1642,  gave  the 
 name  of  his  employer  to  a  part  of  New 
 Holland. 
 
 DIEZ,  John  Martin,  commonly  known 
 by  the  name  of  the  Empecinado,  was  born 
 in  1775,  in  the  province  of  Valladolid,  in 
 Spain,  was  the  son  of  a  peasant,  and 
 served  in  the  Spanish  army  during  the 
 war  against  France  from  1792  till  1795. 
 In  1808,  he  was  one  of  the  very  first,  if 
 not  the  first,  who  set  on  foot  the  guerrilla 
 warfare  against  the  armies  of  Napoleon. 
 He  was  successful  in  numberless  engage- 
 ments, and  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
 general.  This  gallant  and  patriotic  officer 
 was  desirous  to  secure  the  freedom  as  well 
 as  the  independence  of  his  country,  and 
 was,  in  consequence,  put  to  an  ignominious 
 death  by  his  ungrateful  sovereign,  August 
 18,  1825. 
 
 DIGBY,  Sir  Kenklm,  the  eldest  son 
 of  Sir  Everard,  who  suffered  for  partici- 
 pating in  the  gunpowder  plot,  was  born, 
 in  1603,  at  Gothurst,  in  Buckinghamshire, 
 and  was  educated  at  Gloucester  Hall,  Ox- 
 ford. On  his  return  from  his  travels  he 
 was  knighted  by  James  I.     By  Charles  I. 
 
DIN 
 
 he  was  appointed  to  several  offices.  In 
 1628,  some  disputes  having  arisen  with  the 
 Venetians,  he  sailed  with  a  small  squadron 
 to  the  Levant,  defeated  their  fleet  at  Scan- 
 deroon,  and  rescued  many  prisoners  from 
 the  Algennes.  At  the  commencement  of 
 the  civil  war  he  was  imprisoned  by  the 
 parliament,  but  was  released  in  1643.  Be- 
 tween that  period  and  the  Restoration  his 
 time  was  spent  partly  in  France,  and  partly 
 in  England,  and  much  of  it  was  devoted  to 
 study.  When  the  Royal  Society  was  es- 
 tablished, he  was  appointed  one  of  its 
 council.  He  died  in  1665.  Digby  was 
 originally  a  protestant,  but  became  acatho- 
 ic  in  1636.  He  was  brave,  learned,  and 
 eloquent,  but  somewhat  of  a  visionary, 
 and  was  a  believer  in  occult  qualities.  His 
 principal  works  are,  A  Treatise  of  the 
 Nature  of  Bodies;  a  Treatise  declaring 
 the  Operations  and  Nature  of  Man's  Soul; 
 and  Peripatetic  Institutions.  The  corpus- 
 cular philosophy  was  that  which  he  adopted. 
 
 DILLENIUS,  John  James,  an  emi- 
 nent botanist,  born  at  Darmstadt,  in  1687, 
 .was  educated  at  Giessen  as  a  physician. 
 His  first  botanical  work  was  A  Catalogue 
 of  the  Plants  of  Giessen,  with  plates.  Wil- 
 liam Sherard  brought  him  to  England,  in 
 1721,  where  Dillenius  published  an  en- 
 larged edition  of  Ray's  Synopsis;  the 
 Hortus  Elthamensis ;  and  Historia  Musco- 
 rum;  all  illustrated  with  plates  admirably 
 drawn  and  engraved  by  himself.  He  died 
 in  1747.  Dillenius  is  considered  as  the 
 father  of  cryptogamic  botany. 
 
 DILLON.     See  Roscommon. 
 
 DIMSDALE,  Baron  Thomas,  the  son 
 of  an  apothecary  at  Theydon  Gernon,  In 
 Essex,  was  born  in  1712,  and  settled  at 
 Hertford  as  a  medical  practitioner,  and 
 took  his  degree  in  1761.  Such  was  his 
 superiority  as  an  inoculator,  that  the  Em- 
 press Catherine  invited  him  to  Russia, 
 paid  him  magnificently  for  his  services, 
 and  gave  him  the  title  of  baron.  On  his 
 return  to  England  he  opened  a  banking 
 house,  and  also  became  a  member  of  par- 
 liament. He  died  in  1800.  He  published 
 a  Treatise,  and  Tracts,  on  Inoculation. 
 
 DINEZ  DA  CRUZ,  Anthony,  the 
 most  eminent  of  modern  Portuguese  lyric 
 poets,  was  born  at  Castelho  de  Vide,  in 
 T730,  and  died  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  about 
 the  end  of  the  last  century.  Pindar  was 
 his  model.  Besides  his  Odes,  Dinez  wrote 
 an  heroic  poem,  and  a  great  number  of 
 erotic  pieces,  epistles,  sonnets,  and  idylls. 
 
 DINOCRATES,  or  DINOCHARES, 
 a  Macedonian  architect,  who  proposed  to 
 Alexander  to  cut  Mount  Athos  into  a 
 statue  of  that  monarch.  Alexander  em- 
 ployed him  more  usefully  in  building  Alex- 
 andria. Dinocrates  also  rebuilt  the  temple 
 of  Ephesus.  He  died  in  Egypt,  under  the 
 reign  of  Ptolemy. 
 
 DIO 
 
 223 
 
 DIO,  or  DION  CASSIUS,  whose  real 
 name  appears  to  have  been  Cassius  Dion 
 Cocceianus,  was  born  at  Nicaea,  in  Bithy- 
 nia,  about  the  end  of  the  second  century. 
 He  was  twice  consul,  and  governed  various 
 provinces.  Retiring  to  his  native  country, 
 he  died  at  the  age  of  seventy.  He  wrote, 
 in  eight  books,  a  Roman  History,  of  which 
 more  than  half  is  unfortunately  lost. 
 
 DIO  CHRYSOSTOM,  a  Greek  rheto- 
 rician and  philosopher,  was  born,  in  the 
 first  eentury,  at  Prusa,  in  Bithynia,  and 
 resided  at  Rome  for  many  years.  He  was, 
 however,  obliged  to  fly  to  Thrace,  to 
 avoid  being  put  to  death  by  Domitian ; 
 but,  after  the  death  of  the  tyrant,  he  re- 
 turned to  Bithynia.  He  died  at  an  advanced 
 age.  His  eighty  orations,  which  are  extant, 
 are  remarkable  for  purity  and  simplicity 
 of  style. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN,  Caius  Valerius 
 Aurelius,  Emperor  of  Rome,  was  born 
 at  Dioclea,  or  Doclea,  in  Illyria,  of  hum- 
 ble parents.  After  having  served  with 
 applause  under  Aurelian,  Probus,  and  Ca- 
 ms, and  been  consul,  he  was  raised  to  the 
 throne  by  the  soldiery,  A.  D.  284,  on  the 
 death  of  Numerian.  He  reigned  gloriously 
 for  eighteen  years,  excepting  his  persecu- 
 tion of  the  Christians;  and  then,  tired  of 
 pomp,  he  abdicated,  and  retired  toSalona, 
 where  he  built  a  palace.  He  died,  a.  d. 
 313. 
 
 DIODORUS  SICULUS,  a  Greek  his- 
 torian, who  flourished  in  the  fourth  century, 
 was  born  at  Agyrium,  in  Sicily,  and  tra- 
 velled into  most  of  the  provinces  of  Europe 
 and  Asia,  and  also  into  Egypt.  He  after- 
 wards settled  at  Rome.  The  result  of  his 
 studies  and  researches  was,  An  Universal 
 History,  in  forty  books,  of  which  only 
 fifteen  are  extant.  Erroneous  in  its  chro- 
 nology, and  often  fabulous  or  trivial  in  its 
 details,  we  must,  nevertheless,  regret  that 
 so  much  of  it  is  lost. 
 
 DIOGENES,  surnamed  the  Cynic,  a 
 Greek  philosopher,  was  born  B.C.  413,  at 
 Sinope,  in  Pontus.  He  accompanied  his 
 father  to  Athens,  and  became  a  pupil  of 
 Antisthenes,  and  appears  to  have  carried 
 to  its  highest  pitch  the  cynical  doctrine 
 of  his  teacher.  Even  the  conveniences  of 
 life  he  held  in  utter  contempt.  Some  of 
 the  stories,  however,  which  are  told  of 
 him,  such  as  his  living  in  a  tub,  and  his 
 open  indecency,  are  of  very  doubtful  au- 
 thority. That  many  of  his  sayings  and 
 replies  were  full  of  point  and  spirit  is 
 certain.  At  an  advanced  period  of  his 
 life  he  was  taken  by  pirates,  and  sold  to 
 Xeniades,  a  Corinthian,  who  intrusted  him 
 with  the  education  of  his  son.  This  task 
 he  executed  admirably — a  circumstance 
 which  affords  a  presumptive  proof  of  the 
 falsehood  of  many  things  that  are  laid  to 
 his  charge.     It  was  during  his  residence 
 
224  DTT 
 
 at  Corinth  that  occurred  his  famous  inter- 
 vie  »v  with  Alexander  the  Great.  He  died 
 in  that  city,  in  his  ninetieth  year.  None 
 of  his  writings  have  been  spared  by  time. 
 
 DIOGENES,  Laertids, so  called  from 
 hisbirthplace,Laerta  or  Laertes,  in  Cilicia, 
 is  believed  to  have  lived  under  the  reigns 
 of  Septimius  Severus  and  Caracalla.  Wo- 
 rking of  bis  history  is  known.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Lives  of  the  Philosophers,  in  ten 
 books. 
 
 DIONYSIUS  of  Halicarnassus,  an 
 ancient  critic  and  historian,  was  born  at 
 Halicarnassus^  in  Caria.  Of  his  life  no- 
 thing is  known,  bat  that  he  went  to  Rome, 
 a.  D.  30,  and  spent  twenty-two  years  in 
 that  city.  He  is  the  author  of  Roman  An- 
 tiquities, of  which  only  a  part  is  extant; 
 and  of  a  Treatise  on  the  Arrangement  of 
 Words;  on  the  Eloquence  of  Demosthe- 
 nes; and  on  other  subjects. 
 
 DIONYSIUS,  an  ancient  geographer, 
 was  called  Periegetes,  from  his  poem  in 
 Greek  verse,  intitled  Periegeses,  or  Sur- 
 vey of  the  World,  was  a  native  of  Alex- 
 andria, in  Susiana,  and  is  believed  to  have 
 Jived  about  A.  D.  140.  His  work  was 
 ■commented  upon  by  Eustathius  ;  and 
 translated  into  Latin  by  Priscianas  and 
 others. 
 
 DIOPHANTUS,  a  native  of  Alexan- 
 dria, the  period  of  whose  existence  is 
 doubtful,  some  placing  it  before  and  others 
 after  the  Christian  era,  was  a  famous  ma- 
 th tnatician,  whom  the  ancients  classed 
 with  Pythagoras  and  Euclid.  If  not  the 
 in  venter  of  algebra,  he  is  at  least  the  au- 
 thor of  the  oldest  extant  treatise  on  it.  He 
 is  said  to  have  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty- 
 four. 
 
 DIOSCORIDES,  Pedanius,  an  an- 
 cient physician  and  botanist,  was  born  at 
 Anazarba,  in  Cilicia.  Some  suppose  him 
 to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Nero;  others, 
 in  that  of  Adrian.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
 work,  in  Greek,  on  the  Materia  Medica, 
 in  twenty-four  books,  of  which  only  five 
 have  been  preserved. 
 
 DIPPEL,  John  Conrad,  a  German 
 chemist  and  physician,  who  in  some  of  his 
 writings  took  the  name  of  Christianus 
 Deinocritus,  was  born,  in  1672,  at  Frank- 
 enstein, in  Hes>e,  and  was  the  son  of  a 
 Lutheran  minister.  Renouncing  the  pro- 
 testant  religion,  he  published  against  it 
 two  abusive  works.  For  many  years  he 
 led  a  wandering  life,  was  more  than  once 
 imprisoned,  and  was  expelled  from  various 
 countries.  In  pursuing  his  alchemical  re- 
 searches, he  discovered  Prussian  blue,  and 
 the  animal  oil  which  bears  his  name. 
 Though  he  had  prophesied  that  he  would 
 not  die  till  1808,  he  took  leave  of  the 
 world  in  1734.  His  works  form  three 
 volumes  quarto. 
 
 DITTON,  Humphry,  a  geometrician, 
 
 DOD 
 
 born  in  1675,  at  Salisbury,  was  originally 
 a  dissenting  minister;  but,  on  the  recom- 
 mendation of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  became 
 mathematical  master  at  Christ's  Hospital, 
 wlw'ch  situation  he  held  till  his  decease,  in 
 1715.  In  conjunction  with  Whiston,  he 
 formed  a  scheme  for  discovering  the  longi- 
 tude, and  thus  brought  on  himself  a  filthy 
 and  foolish  lampoon  from  Swift;  which, 
 poor  as  it  was,  is  said  to  have  preyed  on 
 ids  mind  and  caused  his  death.  He  pub- 
 lished The  Institution  of  Fluxions,  and 
 other  works. 
 
 DODD,  Dr.  William,  a  native  of  Lin- 
 colnshire, was  born  at  Bourne,  in  1729, 
 and  was  educated  at  Clare  Hall,  Cam- 
 bridge. While  at  college,  he  produced 
 his  version  of  Callimachus.  Having  taken 
 orders,  he  settled  in  London,  became  a 
 popular  preacher,  and  obtained  valuable 
 church  preferment.  But  Dodd  was  vain, 
 extravagant,  and  not  nice  in  his  expedi- 
 ents to  accomplish  his  purposes.  He  en- 
 deavoured to  procure  by  bribery  the  living 
 of  St.  George's  Hanover  Square,  and  for 
 this  criminal  attempt  he  was  struck  oft*  the 
 list  of  king's  chaplains.  Pressed  by  his 
 necessities,  he  next  ventured  on  a  more 
 dangerous  step,  which  proved  fatal.  He 
 forged  a  bond  on  his  former  pupil,  the 
 earl  of  Chesterfield,  and  for  this  crime  he 
 suffered  in  1777,  notwithstanding  the  stren- 
 uous efforts  which  were  made  to  save  him. 
 Among  his  numerous  works  may  be  men- 
 tioned, Sermons,  4  vols. ;  Thoughts  in 
 Prison;  Sermons  to  Young  Men,  3  vols.; 
 A  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  3  vols,  folio; 
 Reflections  on  Death;  and  The  Sisters,  a 
 novel. 
 
 DODD,  Ralph,  a  civil  engineer  of  great 
 talents,  a  native  of  Northumberland,  was 
 the  projector  of  the  Vauxhall  Bridge,  the 
 South  Lambeth  Waterworks,  the  Graves- 
 end  Tunnel,  the  Surrey  Canal,  and  many 
 other  public  works.  He  also  wrote  an 
 Account  of  the  Principal  Canals;  Reports 
 on  the  Gravesend  Tunnel;  Letters  on  the 
 Improvement  of  the  Port  of  London;  and 
 Observations  on  Water.  He  died,  in  a 
 state  of  penury,  at  Cheltenham,  in  1822, 
 in  his  sixty-second  year. 
 
 DODD,  George,  a  civil  engineer,  the 
 son  of  the  foregoing,  inherited  his  father's 
 talents,  and,  like  his  father,  was  unfortu- 
 nate. He  died  in  1827,  at  die  age  of 
 forty-four.  He  was  the  planner,  and  for 
 a  while  the  resident  engineer,  of  the  Strand 
 Bridge;  and  was  likewise  the  projector 
 of  the  steam  passage  boats  from  the  metro- 
 polis to  Margate  and  Richmond. 
 
 DODDRIDGE,  Sir  John,  an  English 
 judge  and  writer,  was  born,  in  1555,  at 
 Barnstaple,  in  Devonshire;  was  educated 
 at  Exeter  College,  Oxford  ;  became  one 
 of  the  judges  of  the  King's  Bench  in  1613; 
 and  died  in  1628.     Among  other  works, 
 
DOD 
 
 he  wrote  A  History  of  the  Principality  of 
 Wales,  Duchy  of  Cornwall,  and  Earldom 
 of  Chester  ;  the  Lawyer's  Light  ;  The 
 English  Lawyer;  and  The  Law  of  Nobil- 
 ity and  Peerage. 
 
 DOL 
 
 225 
 
 DODDRIDGE,  Philip,  born  in  the 
 metropolis,  in  1702,  was  the  son  of  a  trades- 
 man, who  was  of  the  same  family  as  the 
 judge.  He  was  educated  for  the  dissenting 
 ministry,  by  Mr.  John  Jennings  of  Kib- 
 worth.  In  1722,  he  became  minister  at 
 Kibworth,  whence,  in  1725,  he  removed 
 to  Market  Harborough.  At  the  latter 
 place,  in  1729,  he  opened  an  academy, 
 but  transferred  it,  in  the  same  year,  to 
 Northampton,  on  being  appointed  pastor 
 of  a  congregation  at  that  town.  He  died 
 at  Lisbon,  of  a  pulmonary  complaint,  in 
 1756.  Doddridge  was  a  pious  and  bene- 
 volent man,  of  an  elegant  and  highly  gifted 
 mind.  His  works  are  numerous;  the 
 principal  of  them  are,  Sermons ;  A  Life  of 
 Colonel  Gardiner;  The  Family  Exposi- 
 tor, 6  vols.  4to. ;  and  his  Correspondence ; 
 the.  last  of  which  has  been  recently  pub- 
 lished. 
 
 DODINGTON,  George  Bubb,  a 
 statesman,  is  said  by  some  to  have  been  the 
 son  of  an  apothecary,  and  by  others,  of  a 
 gentleman  of  fortune.  He  was  born,  in 
 1691,  in  Dorsetshire;  was  educated  at  New 
 College,  Oxford ;  and  succeeded  to  a  large 
 estate  on  the  death  of  a  maternal  uncle, 
 whose  name  he  assumed.  Being  at  his 
 outset  a  supporter  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole 
 in  parliament,  he  was  appointed  a  lord  of 
 the  treasury,  and  clerk  of  the  pells  in  Ire- 
 land. He,  however,  deserted  the  minis- 
 ter, and  then  deserted  his  new  friends,  to 
 become  a  partisan  of  the  prince  of  Wales. 
 In  1761,  he  was  created  Lord  Melcombe, 
 and  he  died  in  the  following  year.  Dod- 
 ington  was  generous,  witty,  prepossessing 
 in  private  life,  and  gifted  with  no  mean 
 talents;  but,  as  a  politician,  he  is  "  damn- 
 ed to  everlasting  fame,"  by  his  profligate 
 dereliction  of  all  honourable  principles. 
 Irrefragable  proof  for  his  conviction  is 
 furnished  by  his  Diary. 
 
 DODOENS,  or  DODON^EUS,  Rem- 
 BEBT,  a  botanist  and  physician,  was  born 
 
 iot 
 
 at  Mechlin,  in  the  Netherlands,  in  1517; 
 studied  at  Louvain  ;  became  physician  to 
 Maximilian  TI.  and  Rodolph  II,;  and  died 
 professor  of  physic  at  Leyden,  in  1585; 
 His  principal  work  is  a  General  History 
 of  Plants,  in  thirty  books,  with  the  title 
 of  Pemptades. 
 
 DODSLEY,  Robert,  was  born,  of 
 humble  parents,  at  Mansfield,  in  Notting- 
 hamshire, in  1703,  and,  after  having  been 
 a  stocking  weaver,  became  footman  to  the 
 Hon.  Mrs.  Lowther.  The  profits  arising 
 from  a  volume  of  his  poems,  published  by 
 subscription,  under  the  title  of  The  Muse 
 in  Livery,  and  from  the  success  of  a  dra- 
 matic piece,  called  The  Toy  Shop,  which 
 Pope  patronised,  enabled  Dodsley  to  com- 
 mence business  as  a  bookseller  in  Pall 
 Mall.  By  trade  he  rose  to  eminence  and 
 fortune;  still,  however,  continuing  his  lit- 
 erary pursuits.  He  died  in  1764.  Dods- 
 ley is  the  author  of  Cleone,  a  tragedy; 
 four  dramatic  entertainments ;  many  po- 
 ems ;  and  the  Economy  of  Human  Life. 
 
 DODWELL,  Henry,  a  critic  and  the- 
 ologian, born  at  Dublin  in  1641,  and  edu- 
 cated at  Trinity  College,  was  chosen  Cam- 
 den professor  of  history  at  Oxford,  in 
 1688;  but,  being  a  nonjuror,  he  lost  his 
 office  at  the  Revolution.  He  died  in  1711. 
 Dodwell  was  a  learned  and  a  virtuous 
 man,  but  addicted  to  paradoxes,  and  such 
 a  perfect  ascetic  that,  during  three  days  in 
 the  week,  he  refrained  almost  wholly  from 
 food.  Of  his  many  works  the  most  curi- 
 ous is,  An  Epistolary  Discourse,  in  which 
 he  labours  to  prove,  from  the  Scriptures, 
 "  that  the  soul  is  a  principle  naturally 
 mortal,  but  immortalized  actually  by  the 
 pleasure  of  God." 
 
 DOLCI,  Carlo,  a  painter,  born  at 
 Florence,  in  1616,  was  a  pupil  of  Vignale, 
 and  when  only  eleven  years  old  he  pro- 
 duced an  excellent  whole  length  of  St. 
 John.  He  died  in  16S6.  Dolci  delighted 
 in  sacred  subjects,  and  his  pictures  are  re- 
 markable for  grace,  delicacy,  and  high 
 finishing.  His  daughter,  Agnese,  was 
 an  artist  of  merit,  but  succeeded  best  in 
 copying  her  father's  productions. 
 
 DOLGORUCKI,  Prince  John  Mi- 
 chaelovitsch,  a  Russian  noble,  was 
 born  at  Moscow,  in  1764,  and  died  in 
 1824.  In  early  life  he  served,  with  hon- 
 our, several  campaigns  against  the  Turks 
 and  Swedes ;  and  at  a  later  period  he  filled 
 several  important  offices.  He  was  learned 
 and  accomplished.  As  a  poet,  he  excelled 
 in  satires  and  epistles.  The  best  edition 
 of  his  works  appeared  at  Moscow  in  1819, 
 with  the  title  of  The  State  of  my  Mind. 
 
 DOLLONI),  John, born  atSpita  fields, 
 in  1706,  was  for  some  years  a  silkweaver; 
 but,  alter  having  studied  mathematics  and 
 astronomy,  he  began  business  as  an  opti- 
 cian, along  with  his  eldest  son  Peter.      He 
 
226  DOM 
 
 died  in  1761.  Dollond  invented  the  achro- 
 matic object  glass  for  telescopes,  and  the 
 application  of  the  micrometer  to  reflecting 
 telescopes,  and  furnished  various  papers  to 
 the  Philosophical  Transactions. —  PETZR, 
 born  1730,  died  1820,  was  an  improver  of 
 the  telescope  and  of  lladlcv's  quadrant, 
 and  inventor  of  an  equatorial  instrument 
 for  correcting  errors  from  refraction. 
 
 DOLOM1EU,  Deodatus  Guy  Svl- 
 vanus  Tanckkd  Gratf.t  pf,  a  French 
 geologist  and  mineralogist,  the  son  of  a 
 noble,  was  born  in  Dauphine  in  1750,  and 
 entered  into  the  order  of  Malta.  After 
 having  travelled,  for  scientific  purposes,  in 
 various  parts  of  Europe,  he  accompanied 
 Bonaparte  to  Egypt.  On  his  return  he 
 fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Neapolitan  sove- 
 reign, by  whom  he  was  imprisoned  for 
 twenty-one  months,  and  treated  in  the 
 most  brutal  manner.  Sir  Joseph  Banks 
 obtained  (he  release  of  Dolomieu  in  1801, 
 But  the  captive's  health  was  ruined,  and 
 he  died  in  the  same  year.  Among  his 
 works  are,  Mineralogical  Philosophy;  a 
 Voyage  to  the  Lipari  Islands;  a  Memoir 
 on  the  Earthquake  in  Calabria;  and  a 
 Voyage  to  the  Ponza  Islands. 
 
 DO  MAT,  or  DA  U  MET,  John,  an 
 eminent  French  lawyer,  was  born,  in  1625, 
 at  Clermont,  in  Auvergne;  in  the  court  of 
 which  city  he  became  king's  advocate.  He 
 died  at  Paris,  in  1695,  in  humble  circum- 
 stances; his  modesty,  simplicity,  and  dis- 
 interestedness, having  prevented  him  from 
 pushing  himself  forward  in  the  world.  His 
 great  work,  The  Civil  Laws  in  their  Nat- 
 ural Order,  consist  of  live  quarto  volumes. 
 
 DOMENICHIXO,  a  painter,  whose 
 real  name  was  Dominic  Zampieri,  was 
 born,  in  1581,  at  Bologna,  and  was  a  pu- 
 pil of  Denis  Calvart  and  of  the  Caracci. 
 Though  his  progress  at  first  was  so  slow 
 that  his  fellow  pupils  ridiculed  his  dul- 
 ness,  yet  he  rose  to  a  high  rank  among  the 
 first  class  of  artists.  For  expression,  Pous- 
 sin  declared  him  to  have  no  superior.  By 
 Gregory  XV.  he  was  made  chief  architect 
 of  the  apostolical  palace.  He  died  in 
 1641.  Among  his  finest  works  are,  The 
 Communion  of  St.  Jerome,  The  Death  of 
 St.  Agnes,  and  The  Cure  of  the  Demoniac 
 Boy. 
 
 DOMINIC  DE  GUSMAN,  a  Roman 
 Catholic  saint,  was  born,  in  1170,  at  Cal- 
 ahorra,  in  Old  Castile,  and  studied  at  the 
 university  of  Palcncia.  After  having  vain- 
 ly endeavoured  to  convert  the  AJbigenses, 
 he  prompted  and  took  an  active  part  in  a 
 sanguinary  crusade  against  them.  He  died 
 in  1221,  and  was  canonized  in  1234. 
 Dominic  established  the  order  of  Domini- 
 can monks,  and  invented  the  devotion  of 
 the  rosary. 
 
 DOMITIAN,  Titus  Flavius,  a  Ro- 
 man emperor,  the  second  son  of  Vespasian, 
 
 DOR 
 
 was  born  at  Rome,  A.  D.  51,  and  succeed- 
 ed nis  brother  Titus,  a.  D.  81.  In  the 
 early  part  of  his  reign  he  governed  well, 
 and  his  arms  obtained  some  success.  He 
 soon,  however,  threw  off'  the  mask  of  vir- 
 tue, and  became  one  of  the  most  cruel  and 
 abandoned  of  the  imperial  tyrants.  He 
 was  at  length  assassinated,  in  the  forty- 
 fifth  year  of  his  age. 
 
 DONATELLO,  whose  real  name  was 
 DONATO,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1383, 
 and  died  in  1466.  He  was  the  best  sculp- 
 tor of  his  age.  His  principal  statues  and 
 basso  relievos  are  at  Florence,  Genoa,  and 
 Padua.  Among  them  are  statues  of  St. 
 George,  of  Judith,  and  of  St.  Mark. 
 While  looking  at  the  last  of  these  works, 
 Michael  Angelo  exclaimed,  "  Mark,  why 
 dost  thon  not  speak  tomel"  Donatellowas 
 one  of  the  most  liberal  of  men.  His  money 
 he  put  into  a  basket,  which  hung  in  his 
 room,  and  from  this  all  his  workmen  and 
 friends  were  allowed  to  supply  their  wants. 
 
 DONNE,  Dr.  John,  a  divine  and  poet, 
 the  son  of  a  Roman  Catholic  merchant  of 
 London,  was  born  in  1573;  studied  at 
 Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Lincoln's  Inn; 
 became  a  protestant,  and  was  made  secre- 
 tary to  lord  chancellor  Ellesmere;  but  lost 
 his  situation,  and  was  imprisoned,  for 
 marrying  the  chancellor's  niece.  After 
 having  long  been  in  confined  circumstances, 
 and  unable  to  obtain  promotion,  he  took 
 orders  by  the  advice  of  James  I.,  who  im- 
 mediately appointed  him  one  of  his  chap- 
 lains. Donne  now  prospered ;  for  he  was 
 chosen  preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  had 
 two  benefices  given  to  him,  and  the  deane- 
 ry of  St.  Paul's.  He  died  in  1623.  By 
 Donne  was  commenced  that  school  of  poe- 
 trv  which  Johnson  denominates  the  meta- 
 physical. His  poems,  though  they  abound 
 with  ideas,  which  are  often  beautiful,  and 
 often  forcible,  are  so  ruggedly  versified  as 
 at  times  to  preserve  scarcely  the  semblance 
 of  metre.  In  prose,  Donne  is  the  author 
 of  Sermons;  The  Pseudo-Martyr;  Biatha- 
 natos;  and  other  works. 
 
 DORAT,  or  DAURAT,  John,  a 
 French  poet,  was  born,  in  1507,  in  the 
 Limousin,  and  died  in  1588.  He  was  pro- 
 fessor of  Greek  at  the  Royal  College,  and 
 has  the  merit  of  having  done  much  to  re- 
 vive Greek  literature  in  France.  Of  Greek 
 and  Latin  verses  he  is  said  to  have  written 
 above  fifty  thousand;  and  his  French  po- 
 ems procured  him  a  place  in  what  was 
 called  the  Pleiad,  consisting  of  the  seven 
 most  celebrated  living  poets.  His  verses, 
 however,  are  but  indifferent.  Charles  IX. 
 made  him  poet  laureat. 
 
 DORAT,  Claude  Josfph,  a  poet, 
 was  born  at  Paris  in  1734,  and  died  in 
 1780.  His  works,  consisting  of  tragedies, 
 comedies,  and  every  species  of  poetry,  to- 
 gether with   romances,  occupy  twenty  vol 
 
DOR 
 
 »mes  The}  were  at  one  time  exceeding- 
 ly popular ;  they  are  now  almost  as  much 
 neglected.  Some  of  them,  however,  are 
 much  above  mediocrity,  particularly  a  part 
 of  his  fables,  epistles,  and  fugitive  pieces; 
 his  tale  of  Alphonso;  and  his  poem  on 
 Declamation. 
 
 DORIA,  Andrew,  a  Genoese  noble 
 and  warrior,  was  born  at  Oneglia,  in  14(58. 
 After  having  distinguished  himself  in  the 
 service  of  various  Italian  princes,  and  of 
 his  own  country,  he  entered  into  that  of 
 Francis  I.  of  France.  In  the  hope  of 
 ameliorating  the  situation  of  his  native 
 land,  Doria  aided  the  French  to  become 
 masters  of  Genoa;  but,  finding  that  lie 
 had  failed  in  his  object,  he  joined  with 
 the  Imperialists  to  expel  them.  When  his 
 purpose  was  effected,  he  refused  to  accept 
 the  sovereignty,  and  his  grateful  fellow  cit- 
 izens honoured  him  with  the  title  of  "the 
 Father  and  Defender  of  his  Country."  Af- 
 ter having  performed  many  other  exploits, 
 he  died  in  1560. 
 
 D'OR,LEANS, Peter  JosEPH,a  French 
 historian,  a  member  of  the  society  of  Je- 
 suits, was  born  at  Bourgee  in  1644,  and 
 died  in  1698.  He  was  for  some  years  a 
 professor  of  literature  in  various  colleges, 
 and  subsequently  a  preacher.  His  princi- 
 pal works  ate,  A  History  of  the  Revolutions 
 of  England,  three  vols.  4to. ;  and  a  His- 
 tory of  the  Revolutions  of  Spain,  three 
 vols.  4to. 
 
 DORSET,Thomas  SACKVILLE,earl 
 of,  a  son  of  Sir  Richard  Sackville,  was 
 born  at  Withyam,  in  Sussex,  in  1527;  was 
 educated  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  the 
 Temple;  and  was  created  Lord  Buekhurst 
 after  his  return  from  his  travels.  He  was, 
 successively,  ambassador  to  Holland,  chan- 
 cellor of  Oxford,  and  lord  treasurer;  and 
 received  the  title  of  Dorset  and  the  order 
 of  the  garter.  He  died  in  1608.  He  wrote 
 the  highly  poetical  Induction  tc  the  Mirrour 
 for  Magistrates,  and  the  Complaint  of  Hen- 
 ry Duke  of  Buckingham;  and,  in  conjunc- 
 tion with  Norton,  the  tragedy  of  Ferrex 
 and  Porrex,  or  Gorboduc. 
 
 DORSET,  Charles  SACKVILLE, 
 earl  of,  a  descendant  of  the  foregoing,  was 
 born  in  1637.  He  was  a  favourite  of  Charles 
 II.  and  was  dissipated  in  his  youth.  His 
 courage  having  led  him  to  act  as  a  volun- 
 teer, under  the  duke  of  York,  in  the  Dutch 
 war,  he  is  said  to  have  composed  his  song, 
 "To  all  you  ladies  now  on  land,"  upon  the 
 eve  of  a  battle.  He  concurred  in  the  Rev- 
 olution, and  was  made  lord  chamberlain  of 
 the  household,  and  received  the  gaiter.  He 
 died  in  1705-6.  Dorset  was  celebrated  for 
 his  wit,  elegance,  and  good  nature.  Some 
 of  his  verses  are  livelv  and  pointed. 
 
 DORSE Y,  John  SYNG,  professor  of 
 anatomy  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
 was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1783,  and  re- 
 
 DOU 
 
 227 
 
 ceived  an  excellent  elementary  education  at 
 a  school  of  the  society  of  Friends.  At  the 
 age  of  fifteen  he  commenced  txne  study  of 
 medicine,  and  pursued  it  with  unusual  ar- 
 dour and  success.  In  the  spring  of  1802, 
 he  was  graduated  doctor  in  physic,  having 
 previously  defended  with  ability  an  inaugu- 
 ral dissertation  On  the  Powers  of  the  Gas- 
 tric Liquor  as  a  Solvent  of  the  Urinary  cal- 
 culi. Soon  after  he  received  his  degree,  the 
 yellow  fever  reappeared  in  the  city,  and  a 
 hospital  was  open  for  the  exclusive  accom- 
 modation of  those  sick  with  this  disease,  to 
 which  he  was  appointed  resident  physician. 
 At  the  close  of  the  same  season  he  visited 
 Europe.  On  his  return  in  1804,  he  imme- 
 diately entered  on  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
 fession, and  soon  acquired  by  his  popular 
 manners,  attention  and  talent,  a  large  share 
 of  business.  In  1807  he  was  elected  ad- 
 junct professor  of  surgery,  and  remained 
 in  this  office  till  he  was  raised  to  the  chair 
 of  anatomy  by  the  death  of  the  lamented 
 Wistar.  He  opened  the  session  by  one  of 
 the  finest  exhibitions  of  eloquence  ever  heard 
 within  the  walls  of  the  university ;  but  on 
 the  evening  of  the  same  day,  he  was  attack- 
 ed by  a  fever,  which  in  one  week  closed  his- 
 existence.  He  died  in  1818.  His  Ele- 
 ments of  Surgery,  in  two  volumes  8vo.,  is 
 considered  the  best  work  on  the  subject. 
 It  is  used  as  a  text  book  in  the  university 
 of  Edinburgh,  and  was  the  first  American 
 work  on  medicine  reprinted  in  Europe. 
 
 DOUGLAS,  Ga  win,  a  Scotch  poet,  son 
 of  the  earl  of  Douglas,  was  born  at  Brechin, 
 in  1474;  studied  at  Paris;  and  was,  suc- 
 cessively, provost  of  St.  Giles,  abbot  of 
 Aberbrothock,  and  bishop  of  Dunkeld.  He 
 was  made  archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's,  but 
 the  pope  refused  to  confirm  the  appointment. 
 The  disturbed  state  of  his  country  induced 
 him  to  retire  to  England,  where  he  was  pen- 
 sioned by  Henry  VIII.  He  died  at  Lon- 
 don, in  1521.  His  translation  of  the  iEneid 
 is  executed  with  great  animation  and  ele- 
 gance. He  also  translated  Ovid's  Remedy 
 of  Love,  and  wrote  some  original  poems. 
 
 DOUGLAS,  James,  an  anatomist,  was 
 born  in  Scotland,  in  1675;  settled  in  Lon- 
 don, as  an  anatomical  teacher,  and  practi- 
 tioner of  midwifery ;  and  died  there  in  1745. 
 He  is  the  author  of  A  Description  of  the 
 Muscles;  and  of  other  works ;  and  trans- 
 lator of  Winslow's  Anatomy. — His  brother, 
 John,  was  surgeon  to  the  Westminster  In- 
 firmary, and  wrote  An  Account  of  Mortifi- 
 cation ;   and  various  medical  essays. 
 
 DOUGLAS,  John,  an  eminent  divine 
 and  critic,  was  born  in  1721,  at  Pitten- 
 weem,  in  Fife ;  was  educated  at  Baliol  Col- 
 lege, Oxford;  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
 Fontenoy,  as  chaplain  of  the  third  regiment 
 of  foot  guards;  and,  after  having  been 
 travelling  tutor  to  Lord  Pulteney,  was  re- 
 warded by  the  earl  of  Bath  with  coasider-. 
 
228 
 
 DOW 
 
 able  church  preferment.  Having  for  some 
 years  held  the  minor  dignities  of  can^n  *nd 
 dean  of  Windsor,  he  was  made  bishop  of 
 Carlisle  in  1787,  and,  in  1792,  was  transfer- 
 red to  Salisbury.  He  died  May  IS,  Jh»7. 
 Dr.  Douglas  was  intimate  with  Dr.  John- 
 son, and  all  the  must  celebrated  of  hie  con- 
 temporaries. As  a  literary  character,  he 
 distinguished  himrelf  by  castigating  Laivlcr 
 (br  his  attack  on  Milton  ;  exposing  Alexan- 
 der Bower;  and  entering  the  lists  against 
 Hume,  by  publishing  The  Criterion,  or  a 
 Discourse  on  Miracles.  He  also  edited 
 Cook's  Second  Voyage. 
 
 DOUGLAS.     See  Gleshervie. 
 
 DOUSA,  or  VANDER  DOES,  John, 
 a  Dutchman,  who  wielded  with  equal  spir- 
 it the  sword  and  the  pen,  was  Lord  of 
 Psoordwick,  at  which  place  he  was  born,  in 
 J545.  After  having  been  sent  as  ambassa- 
 dor to  Queen  Elizabeth,  he  was  appointed, 
 in  1575,  governor  of  Leyden,  and  he  de- 
 fended his  charge  with  heroic  courage  when 
 besieged  by  the  Spaniards.  Dousa  was 
 wade  the  first  curator  of  the  university  es- 
 tablished at  that  city,  and  also  keeper  of  the 
 archives  of  Holland.  He  died  in  1604.  Of 
 his  works,  the  greatest  is  the  Annals  of  his 
 country,  in  Latin  verse.  His  other  produc- 
 tions, in  criticism  and  Latin  poetry,  are 
 numerous. — His  sons,  JOHN,  George, 
 Francis,  and  Theodoek,  were  eminent 
 classical  scholars.  John  assisted  his  father 
 in  the  Annals. 
 
 DOUW,  Gerard,  a  Dutch  painter,  a 
 pupil  of  Rembrandt,  was  born  at  Leyden  in 
 1613,  and  was  the  son  of  a  master  glazier. 
 He  died  in  his  native  city  in  1674.  The 
 pictures  of  Douw  are  distinguished  by  ex- 
 quisitely high  finishing  and  splendid  colour- 
 ing, combined  with  some  of  the  pictorial 
 merits  of  his  master's  compositions.  They 
 are  justly  admired,  and  fetch  high  prices. 
 Among  them  is  a  Dropsical  Woman,  which 
 is  considered  as  a  masterpiece,  the  Young I 
 Housewife,  the  Village  Grocer,  and  the 
 Goldweigher. 
 
 DOW,  Alexander,  a  native  of  Scot-| 
 land,  was  born  at  Creel",  and  bred  a  mer- 
 chant, but  entered  the  East  India  Compa- 
 ny's service,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieu- 
 tenant colonel.  To  the  measures  of  Lord 
 Clive  he  was  a  determined  opponent.  He 
 died  in  1779.  Dow  translated  various 
 works  from  the  Persian,  among  which  are 
 apart  of  Ferishta's  Historj  of  the  Deccan, 
 and  of  the  Bahar  Danush,  ami  wrote  the  un- 
 successful tragedies  of  Sethona  and  Zingis. 
 
 DOWN  MAN,  Hugh,  a  physician  and 
 poet,  was  born  in  1740;  studied  at  Baliol 
 College,  Oxford;  and,  after  having  been 
 ordained  for  the  church,  adopted  the  medi- 
 cal profession.  He  settled,  and  became 
 popular,  in  his  native  city,  where  he  died 
 in  1809.  He  is  the  author  of  Infancy,  a  po- 
 em; the  Land  of  the  Muses;  Poems;  Edi- 
 
 DRA 
 
 tha,  a  tragedy;  and  various  articles  in  Es- 
 says by  a  Society  of  Gentlemen  at  Exeter 
 DRACO,  an  Athenian  legislator.  Dur- 
 ing the  period  of  his  archouship,  B.  c.  623, 
 he  enacted  a  code  of  laws  of  such  sangui- 
 nary severity  that  it  was  said  to  be  written 
 in  blood.  It  was  abolished  by  Solon.  He 
 died  in  the  island  of  Egina,  and  is  believed 
 to  have  been  smothered. 
 
 DRAKE,  Sir  Francis,  an  eminent  nav- 
 igator, was  born,  of  obscure  parentage,  in 
 1545,  at  Tavistock,  in  Devonshire,  and  first 
 served  at  sea  under  Sir  John  Hawkins,  his 
 relative.  From  1570  to  1572,  he  made 
 three  expeditions,  as  commander,  to  the 
 West  Indies  and  the  Spanish  main,  in  the 
 last  of  which  he  gained  a  large  booty.  He 
 next  fought  with  such  bravery  in  Ireland, 
 under  Essex,  that  Sir  Christopher  Hatton 
 introduced  him  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  With 
 five  small  vessels  he  sailed,  in  1577,  to  at- 
 tack the  Spaniards  in  the  South  Seas.  In 
 this  expedition  he  ravaged  the  Spanish  set- 
 tlements, coasted  the  North  American  shore 
 as  far  as  the  latitude  of  forty-eight  degrees 
 north,  and  took  possession  of  the  country 
 under  the  name  of  New  Albion,  and  then 
 returned  home,  by  the  Moluccas  and  the 
 Cape,  after  a  circumnavigation  of  nearly 
 three  years.  Elizabeth  dined  on  board  ot 
 his  ship  at  Deptford,  and  knighted  him.  In 
 1585,  he  successfully  attacked  the  Span- 
 iards in  the  West  Indies;  in  15S7  he  de- 
 stroyed many  ships  at  Cadis ;  and  in  1588, 
 as  vice-admiral,  he  participated  in  the  de- 
 struction of  the  Armada.  He  died  at  N om- 
 bre de  Dios,  January  28,  1596.  Plymouth, 
 which  he  represented  in  parliament,  is  in- 
 debted to  him  for  having  caused  to  be 
 brought  to  the  town  a  supply  of  water,  from 
 a  distance  of  several  miles. 
 
 DRAPER,  Sir  William,  a  native  of 
 Bristol,  born  in  1721,  was  educated  at 
 Eton,  and  King's  College,  Cambridge. 
 Entering  the  army,  he  distinguished  him- 
 self in  the  East  Indies,  became  a  colonel 
 in  1760,  and  acted  as  brigadier  at  the 
 capture  of  Pellisle,  in  1761.  In  1763,  he 
 commanded  the  land  forces  at  the  capture 
 of  Manilla.  But  the  circumstance  which 
 has  given  him  most  celebrity  is  his  having 
 
DRE 
 
 ventured,  as  the  champion  of  Lord  Granby, 
 to  contend  against  Junius.  In  1779,  he 
 was  appointed  lieutenant  governor  of  Mi- 
 norca, and,  after  the  surrender,  he  preferred 
 charges  against  governor  Murray,  which 
 he  failed  to  substantiate.  He  died  in  Jan- 
 uary-, 1807. 
 
 DRAYTON,  Michael,  a  poet,  born 
 at  Atherstone,  in  Warwickshire,  in  1563, 
 was  educated  at  Oxford ;  and  was  patron- 
 ised by  Sir  Henry  Goodere,  Sir  Walter 
 Aston,  the  countess  of  Bedford,  and  the  earl 
 of  Dorset.  To  the  first  of  these  person- 
 ages he  owns  himself  indebted  for  a  great 
 pirt  of  his  education  ;  in  the  family  of  the 
 last  he  lived  for  a  considerable  period.  He 
 died  in  1631.  Drayton  is  the  author  of  the 
 Shepherd's  Garland,  Baron's  Wars,  Eng- 
 land's Heroical  Epistles,  Polyolbion,  Nym- 
 phidia,  and  many  other  poems.  Of  his 
 works  the  most  fanciful  and  elegant  is  the 
 Nymphidia.  Headley  justly  observes  of 
 him,  that  ':  he  wanted  neither  fire  nor  im- 
 agination, and  possessed  great  command  of 
 his  abilities." 
 
 DRAYTON,  William  Henry,  a 
 statesman  of  the  American  revolution,  was 
 born  in  South  Carolina  in  1742.  He  re- 
 ceived his  education  in  England,  and  on  its 
 completion  returned  to  his  native  state. 
 Taking  an  early  and  active  part  in  the  de- 
 fence of  colonial  rights,  he  wrote  and  pub- 
 lished a  pamphlet  under  the  signature  of 
 Freeman,  in  which  he  submitted  a  "bill  of 
 American  Rights"  to  the  Continental  Con- 
 gress. On  the  commencement  of  the  rev- 
 olution he  became  an  efficient  leader;  in 
 1775  was  chosen  president  of  the  provin- 
 cial congress;  and  in  March  of  the  next 
 year,  was  elected  chief  justice  of  the  col- 
 ony. In  1777  Mr.  Drayton  was  appointed 
 president  of  South  Carolina,  and  in  1778 
 was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  continental 
 congress,  where  he  took  a  prominent  part, 
 and  distinguished  himself  by  his  activity 
 and  eloquence.  He  continued  in  congress 
 until  September,  1779,  when  he  died  sud- 
 denly at  Philadelphia.  He  left  a  body  of 
 valuable  materials  for  history,  which  his 
 only  son,  John  Drayton,  revised  and  pub- 
 lished at  Charleston,  in  1821,  in  two  vol- 
 umes 8vo.  under  the  title  of  Memoirs  of  the 
 American  Revolution. 
 
 DRE13BEL,  or  DREBEL,  Cornelius 
 Van,  a  Dutch  chemist  and  alchemist,  was 
 born  at  Alkmaar  in  1572,  and  died  at 
 London  in  1634.  He  was  a  man  of  talent, 
 with  a  large  portion  of  charlatanism  in  his 
 composition.  Drebbel  pretended  to  have 
 discovered  the  perpetual  motion,  and  vari- 
 ous other  undiscoverable  things;  but  he 
 has  legitimate  claims  to  the  invention  of 
 the  thermometer,  and  the  manner  of  dye- 
 ing scarlet,  and  to  the  improvement  of 
 telescopes  and  microscopes.  He  is  also  j 
 •Bserted  to  have  constructed  a  vessel  for  I 
 
 DRY 
 
 229 
 
 submarine  navigation,  in  which  the  purity 
 of  the  air  was  restored  by  a  liquid, 
 
 DROZ,  1'ktkr  Ja^uet,  a  mechani- 
 cian, was  born,  in  1721,  at  La  Chaux  de 
 Fond,  in  Switzerland,  and  died  at  Bienne, 
 in  1790.  Among  his  inventions  was  a 
 writing  automaton,  so  admirably  contrived 
 that  every  motion  of  the  articulations  of  the 
 hand  and  fingers  was  obvious  to  the  eye, 
 and  perfectly  similar  to  those  of  nature. 
 
 DROZ,  Henry  Louis  Jaq,uet,  a  son 
 and  pupil  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  at  La 
 Chaux  de  Fond,  in  1752,  and  surpassed 
 even  his  father.  His  close  attention  to  his 
 favourite  art  brought  him  to  the  grave,  in 
 1791.  Among  his  inventions  were,  a 
 drawing  figure,  and  the  figure  of  a  female 
 playing  on  the  piano.  The  player  followed 
 the  notes  with  the  head  and  eyes,  got  up 
 when  it  had  finished  playing,  and  made  an 
 obeisance  to  the  company. 
 
 DRUMMOND,  William,  a  Scotch 
 poet,  son  of  Sir  John  Drummond,  was 
 born  atHawthornden,  in  1585;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Edinburgh;  and  studied  civil  law 
 at  Bourges.  On  coming  into  possession  of 
 the  family  estate,  he  abandoned  the  law, 
 and  engaged  in  the  more  attractive  pursuits 
 of  literature.  The  loss  of  an  amiable  and 
 beautiful  lady,  to  whom  he  was  about  to  be 
 united,  drove  him  to  the  continent,  where 
 he  remained  for  eight  years.  Returning  at 
 length  to  Hawthornden,  he  married,  a:id 
 had  several  children.  He  died  in  1649, 
 and  his  days  are  said  to  have  been  short- 
 ened by  grief  for  the  death  of  Charles  I. 
 A«  a  prose  writer,  Drummond  produced  a 
 History  of  the  five  Kings  of  Scotland,  of 
 the  name  of  James;  a  work  slavish  in 
 principle,  and  faulty  in  composition.  But 
 as  a  poet  Drummond  stands  very  high  for 
 the  tenderness,  elegance,  and  fancy  of  his 
 ideas,  and  the  melody  of  his  verse.  His 
 poems  have  been  admitted  into  various 
 collections  of  the  British  bards. 
 
 DRYANDER,  Jonas,  a  native  of  Swe- 
 den, came  to  England  with  Dr.  Solander, 
 and  obtained  the  patronage  of  Sir  Joseph 
 Banks.  He  was  librarian  to  the  Royal 
 Society,  and  vice-president  of  the  Linnaean 
 Society.  He  died  in  1810,  in  his  sixty- 
 second  year.  His  knowledge  of  natural 
 history  was  extensive,  and  he  possessed  an 
 extraordinary  memory.  He  contributed  to 
 the  Transactions  of  the  Linnaean  Society, 
 and  drew  up  a  classified  and  analytical 
 catalogue  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks's  library. 
 
 DKYDEN,  John,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
 brated of  our  poets,  was  born,  in  1631,  at 
 A  Id  winkle,  in  Northamptonshire,  and  was 
 educated  at  Westminster  school,  and  Trin- 
 ity College,  Cambridge.  In  1654,  after 
 having  come  in  possession  of  his  patrimo- 
 nial property,  he  removed  to  London,  and 
 is  believed  to  have  acted  as  secretary  to  Sir 
 Gilbert  Pickering,  his  relation,  a  member 
 
280  DRY 
 
 of  Oliver's  council.      On  Cromwell's  de- 
 cease,   Dryden    paid  to    his   memory  the 
 
 tribute  of  some  spirited  and  highly  lauda- 
 tory Heroic  Stanzas.  When,  however, 
 Charles  II.  was  restored,  the  poet  hastened 
 to  pour  forth  his  gratulating  strains,  in  the 
 Astrea  Redux,  and  Panegyric  on  the  Coro- 
 nation ;  and  he  thenceforth  continued  true 
 to  royalty,  in  the  person  of  the  Stuarts. 
 The  first  play  which  he  wrote  was  The 
 Duke  of  Guise,  but  his  first  acted  piere 
 was  The  Wild  Gallant,  which  appeared  in 
 1662-3.  Ills  subsequent  pieces,  the  last 
 of  which,  Love  Triumphant,  came  out.  in 
 1694,  are  twenty-six  in  number.  The 
 licentiousness  of  gome  of  them  was  repro- 
 bated by  Collier;  the  violation  of  good 
 taste  in  others  was  ridiculed  by  Bucking- 
 ham. In  1667,  his  Annus  Mirabilis  was 
 published;  and,  soon  after  this,  he  was 
 appointed  poet  laureat  and  historiographer 
 royal.  In  1681,  he  commenced  his  career 
 of  political  satire,  by  writing,  at  the  desire 
 of  Charles  II.,  his  Absalom  and  Achito- 
 phel,  which  he  followed  up  by  The  Medal. 
 He  also  hung  up  Shadwell  to  derision,  in 
 the  poem  of  Mack  Flecknoe.  When  James 
 II.  ascended  the  throne,  Dryden  conformed 
 to  the  religion  of  the  sovereign,  and  was 
 rewarded  by  an  addition  to  his  pension. 
 With  the  warmth  of  a  new  convert,  he 
 now  stepped  forth  as  the  defender  of  cath- 
 olic doctrines,  and  produced  The  Hind 
 and  Panther,  a  poem,  supremely  absurd  in 
 plan,  but,  in  parts,  beautifully  executed. 
 The  downfal  of  James  deprived  Dryden 
 of  all  his  official  emoluments;  and  be,  who 
 already  laboured  under  embarrassments, 
 was  now  left,  at  an  advanced  age,  with  no 
 resource  but  his  talents.  1 1  is  powers  seemed 
 to  rise  with  the  depression  of  his  fortune. 
 Between  1688  and  1700,  in  which  latter 
 year  he  died,  besides  several  other  works 
 of  considerable  magnitude,  he  published 
 his  Virgil:  that  inspired  ode,  Alexander's 
 Feast;  and  his  admirable  I'aliles.  His 
 death  was  occasioned  by  a  mortification  in 
 one  of  his  feet.  He  left  three  sons,  by  hi* 
 wife  Lady  Elizabeth,  a  daugitter  of  the 
 earl  of  Berkshire.  The  senilis  ol  Dryden 
 was   not   dramatic,  but   his   plays   contain 
 
 DUC 
 
 scenes  of  striking  beauty.  In  satire  he 
 transcended  all  his  predecessors  and  con- 
 temporaries. Of  pathos  he  had  none.  The 
 spirit,  freedom,  grace,  and  melody  of  his 
 versification  remain  almost,  if  not  wholly, 
 without  a  rival.  As  a  prose  writer  he 
 excels  in  criticism,  and  has  a  style  which 
 possesses  more  than  common  merit. 
 
 DUBOIS,  William,  a  French  cardinal 
 and  statesman,  who  has  acquired  a  sinister 
 fame  by  his  vices,  was  born,  in  1656,  at 
 Brive  la  Gaillard,  in  the  Limousin,  and 
 was  the  son  of  an  apothecary.  Having 
 obtained  the  situation  of  preceptor  to  the 
 duke  of  Chartres,  afterwards  the  regent 
 duke  of  Orleans,  he  at  once  cultivated  the 
 intellect  and  depraved  the  morals  of  his 
 pupil ;  he  acted  both  as  tutor  and  pander. 
 He,  however,  secured  the  attachment  of  the 
 duke,  who,  on  becoming  regent,  admitted 
 him  into  the  council  of  state.  Having 
 succeeded  in  negotiating  the  triple  alliance, 
 Dubois  was  made  minister  of  the  foreign 
 department.  He  was  subseqently  raised 
 to  be  archbishop  of  Cambray,  prime  min- 
 ister, and  a  cardinal.     He  died  in  1722. 
 
 DUCAREL,  Andrew  Coltee,  an 
 antiquary,  born  at  Caen,  in  Normandy,  in 
 1715,  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  St.  John's 
 College,  Oxford ;  was  a  fellow  of  the 
 Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies,  commis- 
 sary of  the  diocese  of  Canterbury,  and  one 
 of  the  commissioners  for  methodizing  the 
 records  in  the  State  Paper  Office;  ahd 
 died  in  1785.  His  principal  works  are, 
 Anglo-Norman  Antiquities;  and  Histories 
 of  Lambeth  Palace,  and  of  St.  Catherine's 
 Church. 
 
 DUCHESNE,  Andrew,  a  learned  and 
 prolific  French  writer,  was  born,  in  1584, 
 at  l'isle  Bouchard,  in  Touraine,  and  died 
 at  Paris  in  1640.  He  was  geographer 
 and  historiographer  to  the  king.  He  left 
 more  than  a  hundred  folio  volumes  of  docu- 
 ments, copied  by  his  own  hand;  and,  be- 
 tween 1602  and  1640,  he  published  twenty- 
 two  works,  among  which  are,  Histories  of 
 England,  of  the  Popes,  and  of  the  Dukes 
 of  Burgundy ;  and  a  Collection  of  French 
 Historians. 
 
 DUCTS,  John  Francis,  one  of  the 
 most  eminent  of  modern  French  tragic 
 dramatists,  was  born  at  Versailles  in  1733, 
 and  did  not  begin  to  write  for  the  stage  till 
 he  was  in  bis  thirty-third  year.  He  died 
 in  1S17.  The  majority  of  his  plays  are 
 free  imitations  from  Shakspeare,  and  are 
 honourable  to  his  talents;  but  it  would  not 
 ,  be  easy  to  prove  what  his  countrymen  as- 
 sert, that  he  has  embellished  the  production! 
 l  of  the  bard  of  Avon.  His  works  form 
 '  three  vols.  8vo. 
 
 DUCKWORTH,    Admiral    Sir   John 
 
 THOMAS,    was  born    at    Leatherhead,   in 
 
 Surrey,  in  1748;   entered  the  navy  in  1769; 
 
 land  died  in  1817.     He  distinguished  him 
 
DUG 
 
 self  on  many  occasions,  particularly  in  the 
 action  of  the  1st  of  June,  1794;  the  com- 
 plete defeat  of  the  French  squadron  off 
 St.  Domingo  in  February,  1806;  and  the 
 dangerous  passage  of  the  Dardanelles  in 
 1807.  From  1810  to  1813  he  was  governor 
 of  Newfoundland. 
 
 DUCLOS,  Charles  Pineau,  a 
 French  historian  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
 was  born  at  Dinan,  in  Britanny,  in  1704; 
 became  historiographer  of  France,  member 
 of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  per- 
 petual secretary  of  the  French  Academy; 
 and  died  at  Paris  in  1772.  Rousseau 
 characterized  him  as  "  un  hornme  droit  et 
 adroit."  His  conversation  was  lively, 
 witty,  and  satirical,  yet  devoid  of  offence. 
 Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned,  A 
 History  of  Louis  XI. ;  Secret  Memoirs  of 
 the  Reigns  of  Louis  XIV.  and  XV. ;  and 
 Considerations  on  the  Manners  of  the  Age. 
 
 DUDLEY.     See  Leicester. 
 
 DUDLEY,  Sir  Henry  Bate,  whose 
 original  name  was  Bate,  was  born,  in  1745, 
 at  Fenny  Compton ;  was  educated  for  the 
 church;  and  took  orders.  Much  of  his 
 early  life,  however,  was  spent  in  politics, 
 and  in  witty  and  convivial  society,  and 
 he  was  engaged  in  several  duels.  He  es- 
 tablished the  Morning  Herald,  the  Morn- 
 ing Post,  and  other  papers;  and  wrote 
 various  dramatic  pieces,  among  which 
 are,  The  Flitch  of  Bacon,  The  Woodman, 
 The  Rival  Candidates,  and  The  Travellers 
 in  Switzerland.  Late  in  life  he  obtained 
 considerable  clerical  preferment,  and  a 
 baronetcy,  and  was  a  magistrate  for  no 
 less  than  eleven  English  and  Irish  counties. 
 He  died  in  1824. 
 
 DUFRESNOY,  Charles  Alphon- 
 so,  a  French  painter,  a  pupil  of  Perrier 
 and  Vouet,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1611, 
 and  died  in  1665.  At  Rome,  where  they 
 studied,  he  and  Mignard  were  known  by 
 the  name  of  the  Inseparables.  Two  of  his 
 best  pieces  are  in  the  Museum  at  Paris. 
 His  pictorial  works,  though  meritorious, 
 have  contributed  less  to  his  fame  than  his 
 Latin  poem  on  the  Art  of  Painting,  which 
 has  been  translated  by  Dryden,  and  also  by 
 Mason. 
 
 DUFRESNY,  Charles  Riviere,  a 
 poet  and  comic  writer,  was  born  at  Paris 
 in  1648,  and  died  there  in  1724.  He  is 
 said  to  have  been  a  great-grandson  of 
 Henry  IV.  by  a  female  of  Anet,  who  was 
 known  as  '  the  handsome  gardener.'  Du- 
 fresny  was  valet  de  chambre  to  Louis  XIV., 
 who  heaped  favours  upon  him,  but  without 
 being  able  to  enrich  him.  All  was  lavished 
 upon  women,  gaming,  and  good  cheer. 
 He  was  a.- man  of  versatile  talent,  but  is 
 now  chiefly  remembered  as  a  witty  and 
 spirited  dramatist.  His  works  form  six 
 volumes. 
 
 DUGDALE,   Sir   William,   a   cele- 
 
 DUH 
 
 231 
 
 |brated  antiquary  and  herald,  was  born,  in 
 
 1 1605,  at  Shustoke,  in  Warwickshire;  wis 
 
 I  educated  at  St.  John's   College,  Oxford; 
 
 [was  appointed  Chester  Herald    in  1644; 
 
 published    many   valuable    works  between 
 
 that    period    and    the    Restoration ;     was 
 
 knighted,  and  made  garter   principal  king 
 
 at   arms,    in    1677;     and    died    in    1686. 
 
 Among    his    most    prominent    works    are, 
 
 Monasticon   Anglicanum;    Antiquities    of 
 
 Warwickshire ;  The  Baronage  of  England ; 
 
 History  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral ;   Origines 
 
 Juridicales ;  and  The  History  of  Imbanking 
 
 and  Draining. 
 
 DUGUAY-TROUIN,  Rene,  one  of 
 the  most  famous  of  the  French  naval  offi- 
 cers, was  born  at  St.  Malo  in  1673,  and 
 died  in  1736.  He  was  intended  for  the 
 church,  but  was  allowed  to  indulge  his  in- 
 vincible liking  for  a  maritime  life.  At 
 the  age  of  eighteen  he  commanded  a  pri- 
 vateer mounting  fourteen  guns;  and  in  his 
 twenty-first  year  he  defended  a  forty-gun 
 ship  for  four  hours  against  six  English 
 vessels,  but  was  at  length  taken.  In  1697, 
 he  entered  the  king's  service,  and  he  sig- 
 nalized his  talents  and  intrepidity  in  nu- 
 merous actions.  One  of  his  greatest  ex- 
 ploits was  the  reduction  of  Rio  Janeiro  in 
 1711,  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  not- 
 withstanding the  place  was  deemed  im- 
 pregnable. 
 
 DUGUESCLIN,Bertrand,  constable 
 of  France,  and  one  of  her  greatest  heroes, 
 was  of  an  ancient  Breton  family,  and  was 
 born,  about  1314,  at  the  castle  of  La  Motte 
 Broone,  near  Rennes.  He  died  in  1380. 
 Deformed  and  disagreeable  in  person,  he 
 was  in  youth  of  an  untractable  and  quar- 
 relsome spirit;  but  he  corrected  his  men- 
 tal defects,  and  became  a  model  of  pru- 
 dence, valour,  and  honourable  principle. 
 "  I  am  very  ugly,"  said  he;  "  I  shall  never 
 be  welcome  to  the  ladies;  but  I  will  make 
 myself  feared  by  the  enemies  of  my  king." 
 In  the  wars  between  John  of  Montfort  and 
 Charles  of  Blois;  in  the  contest  between 
 Pedro  the  Cruel  and  Henry  of  Transta- 
 mare;  and  in  the  recovery  of  Normandy, 
 Guienne,  and  Poitou,  from  the  English; 
 he  acted  the  most  conspicuous  part.  He 
 was  besieging  Randam  at  the  time  of  his 
 decease;  and  the  governor  insisted  upon 
 placing  the  keys  of  the  fortress  on  the  coffin 
 of  the  hero,  saying  that  to  no  other  would 
 he  yield  them  up. 
 
 DUHALDE,  John  Baptist,  a  Jesuit, 
 was  born  at  Paris  in  1674,  and  died  there 
 in  1743.  He  edited  the  Edifying  and 
 Curious  Letters,  from  the  ninth  to  the  six- 
 teenth volume ;  but  the  work  by  which  he 
 is  generally  known  is,  A  Geographical  and 
 Historical  Description  of  the  Empire  of 
 China,  and  of  Chinese  Tartary,  in  four 
 folio  volumes. 
 
 DUHAMEL  DE  MONCEAU,  Henry 
 
232 
 
 DUM 
 
 DUM 
 
 Loins,  a  French  agricultural  writer,  was  |  Boston,  was    graduated    at  Harvard    Col- 
 
 born  at  Paris,  in  1"*09,  and  died  in  1780. 
 To  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  which  lie 
 was  a  member,  lie  furnished  above  sixty 
 memoirs  on  agriculture,  commerce,  and 
 shipping.  Besides  which,  he  published 
 numerous  works,  among  which  arc,  A 
 General  Treatise  on  Fisheries;  A  Treatise 
 on  the  Culture  of  the  Soil;  and  A  Treatise 
 on  Trees  and  Shrubs. 
 
 DUIGENAN,  Patrick,  a  native  of 
 Ireland,  born  in  1735,  was  of  the  humblest 
 parentage,  and  obtained  his  education,  as 
 a  sizer,  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  By 
 dint,  however,  of  some  talent,  and  more 
 industry,  he  obtained  the  degree  of  LL.  1). 
 He  practised  with  success  as  a  barrister; 
 was  appointed  king's  advocate  general  in 
 1795;  and,  subsequently,  a  judge  in  the 
 prerogative  court,  and  a  member  of  the 
 Irish  privy  council.  He  sat  in  the  Irish 
 and  English  parliaments,  and,  in  both,  was 
 one  of  the  most  virulent  and  illiberal  op- 
 ponents of  catholic  emancipation.  He  died 
 in  April,  1816.  He  is  the  author  of  Lach- 
 rymal Academics,  and  of  some  political 
 pamphlets. 
 
 DUMANIANT,  John  Andrew,  whose 
 real  name  was  Bourlein,  an  actor  and 
 comic  writer,  was  born,  in  1754,  at  Cler- 
 mont, in  Auvergne,  and  died  in  1828. 
 During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was 
 the  manager  of  several  provincial  theatres. 
 He  is  the  author  of  more  than  fifty  pieces ; 
 among  which  are,  The  French  in  Huronia; 
 Open  War,  or  Stratagem  against  Strata- 
 gem; The  Night  of  Adventures;  and  The 
 Intriguers.     He  also  wrote  three  novels. 
 
 DOMARSAIS,  C^sar  Chesni.au, 
 an  eminent  grammarian,  was  born  at  Mar- 
 seilles in  1676.  He  was  successively  a 
 preacher,  a  barrister,  a  tutor,  and  a  writer 
 for  the  Encyclopaedia;  and  spent  the  great- 
 est part  of  his  life  in  a  state  bordering  upon 
 penury.  Dumarsais  was  not  less  modest 
 than  he  was  learned,  and  he  disdained  to 
 resort  to  intrigues  to  better  his  condition. 
 He  died  in  1756.  Among  his  works, 
 which  form  seven  volumes,  are,  an  excel- 
 lent Treatise  on  Tropes ;  a  Treatise  on 
 Logic;    and  a  Method  of  learning  Latin. 
 
 DUMESNIL,  Maria  Frances,  a 
 celebrated  tragic  actress,  was  born  at  Paris 
 in  1713;  went  upon  the  stage  in  1737; 
 and  was  popular  till  the  moment  of  her  re- 
 tirement in  1775.  She  died  in  1S03; 
 having  preserved  to  the  last  all  her  intel- 
 lectual faculties.  It  was  in  queens  ami 
 lofty  characters,  particularly  in  the  parts 
 of  Merope,  Clytemnestra,  Athaliah,  and 
 Agrippina,  that  she  most  strikingly  dis- 
 played her  talents.  When  she  exerted  her 
 full  powers,  she  surpassed  all  her  theatrical 
 contemporaries  in  exciting  the  emotions  of 
 pity  and  of  terror. 
 
 DUMMER,  Jerfmiah,   a  native  of 
 
 lege  in  16.99,  and  afterwards  studied  at  the 
 university  of  Levden,  with  the  intention  of 
 devoting  himself  to  the  ministry.  This 
 intention  he  afterwards  abandoned,  and 
 turned  his  attention  to  politics.  In  1710 
 he  was  appointed  agent  of  the  province  of 
 Massachusetts  in  England ;  and  wrote  an 
 admirable  defence  of  the  New  England 
 charters  when  they  were  threatened  in  1721. 
 In  the  same  year  he  was  dismissed  by  bis 
 constituents  on  account  of  his  general  licen- 
 tious deportment,  and  his  political  and  per- 
 sonal connections  with  the  irreligious  Bo- 
 lingbroke.  He  died  in  retirement,  in 
 1739. 
 
 DUMONT,  John,  a  publicist,  a  native 
 of  France,  born  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
 settled  in  Austria,  where  he  was  appointed 
 historiographer  to  the  emperor,  and  cre- 
 ated baron  of  Carlscroon.  He  died  at 
 Vienna,  in  1726.  He  is  principally  known 
 by  his  voluminous  collection  of  Treaties, 
 in  eight  folio  volumes,  under  the  title  of 
 A  Universal  Diplomatic  Code  of  the  Law 
 of  Nations;  and  by  his  Voyages  in  France, 
 Italy,  Germany,  Malta,  and  Turkey,  in 
 four  volumes. 
 
 DUMONT,   Stephen,    was   born   at 
 Geneva  in    1759,    was    educated    and  or- 
 dained to  the  ministry,  was  pastor  of  the 
 French    reformed    church    at    St.   Peters- 
 burgh,  and  afterwards  tutor  to  the  son  of 
 Lord    Lansdowne.     At  the  house    of  this 
 statesman  he  formed  an   intimate  connec- 
 tion with  some  of  the  most  eminent  poli- 
 ticians   of  Great    Britain.      The    French 
 revolution  brought  him   to  Paris  in  1789, 
 and  he  was  there  associated  with  the  lead- 
 ing men  of  the  cause,  but  became  disgusted 
 with  the  display  of  violence  and  cruelty, 
 and  returned    to  England    in    1791.     His 
 intimacy   with   Jeremy  Bentham   led  to  a 
 very  singular    arrangement   in   respect   to 
 the  publication  of  the  works  of  this  extra- 
 ordinary man.     Bentham  wrote  his  valuable 
 treatises  in  an  obscure  and  grotesque  style; 
 and  they  were  entirely  remodelled  by  Du- 
 mont,  and  made    intelligible,    before   they 
 were  given  to  the  world.     The  works  thus 
 produced  were  published    in   the  following 
 order,  Treatise  on  Civil  and  Penal  Legis- 
 lation, in    1802;   Theory  of  Rewards  and 
 Punishments,  in   1811;   Tactics  of  Legis- 
 lative Assemblies,   followed   by  a  Treatise 
 on  Political  Sophisms,  in    1816;   a  Trea- 
 tise on  Judicial    Proofs,   in   1823;    Of  the 
 Organization  of  the  Judiciary  and  Codifi- 
 cation, in  1828.     When  Geneva  recovered 
 her  independence,  m  1814,  Dnmont  hast- 
 ened back   to   his  country,  and  succeeded 
 in  effecting  some   important  improvements 
 in  her  constitution,     lie  died  at  Milan  in 
 September,  1829. 
 
 DUMOUR1EZ,   Charles   Francis 
 Dupekikr,  a  French  general,   was   the 
 
DUN 
 
 ■on  of  a  military  man  of  talent,  who  trans- 
 lated the  Ricciardetto,  and  wrote  some 
 dramatic  pieces,  and  other  works.  He 
 was  born  at  Cambray  in  1739,  and  was 
 carefully  educated  by  his  father.  At  the 
 age  of  nineteen  he  made  his  first  campaign 
 as  a  cornet,  and  before  the  close  of  the 
 seven  years'  war  had  received  twenty-two 
 wounds.  After  the  peace  of  1763,  he  trav- 
 elled in  Italy  and  Portugal.  The  result 
 of  his  observations  on  the  latter  country  he 
 gave  to  the  world,  in  a  work,  intitled  The 
 Present  State,  fee.  In  1768  and  1769,  he 
 served  with  distinction  in  Corsica.  He 
 was  afterwards  employed  as  a  secret  di- 
 plomatist in  Poland  and  in  Sweden.  The 
 last  of  these  missions  was  undertaken  by 
 desire  of  Louis  XV.  without  the  knowledge 
 of  the  minister  of  foreign  alfairs,  and  it 
 consequently  brought  on  Dumouriez  a  per- 
 secution from  that  minister.  He  was  even 
 imprisoned  for  several  months;  but  he  re- 
 covered his  liberty,  and  obtained  satisfac- 
 tion, on  the  accession  of  Louis  XVI.  In 
 1778,  he  was  appointed  commandant  of 
 Cherbourg;  in  1791,  was  intrusted  with 
 the  command  of  the  country  between  Nantz 
 and  Bourdeaux;  and,  in  1792,  was  pro- 
 moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general, 
 and  made  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  from 
 which  office  he  was  shortly  afterwards 
 removed  to  the  war  department.  That 
 department,  however,  he  held  only  for 
 three  days,  at  the  end  of  which  he  resigned. 
 He  was  now  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
 army  destined  to  oppose  the  Prussian  in- 
 vading army  under  the  duke  of  Brunswick. 
 By  a  masterly  disposition  of  his  troops,  in 
 the  defiles  of  Champagne,  he  completely 
 foiled  the  enemy,  and  compelled  them  to 
 retreat.  He  then  broke  into  the  Nether- 
 lands, gained  the  battle  of  Jemappe,  revo- 
 lutionized the  whole  country,  and  carried 
 the  French  arms  into  Holland.  Quitting 
 his  army  for  a  while,  he  visited  Paris,  for 
 the  purpose  of  endeavouring  to  save  the 
 king;  but  in  that  he  failed,  and  rendered 
 himself  an  object  of  suspicion.  The  tide 
 of  military  success,  too,  at  length  began  to 
 turn  against  him.  He  lost  the  battle  of 
 Neerwinden,  and  was  forced  to  abandon 
 the  Low  Countries.  Commissioners  were 
 now  sent  by  the  Convention  to  arrest  him; 
 and,  after  having  vainly  endeavoured  to 
 rally  his  army  on  his  side,  he  was  com- 
 pelled to  seek  for  safety  in  flight.  He 
 subsequently  resided  in  Switzerland,  at 
 Hamburgh,  and  in  Holstein,  and  finally 
 settled  in  England,  where  he  was  often 
 consulted  by  the  ministers.  In  the  resto- 
 ration of  the  Bourbons  he  took  no  part; 
 nor  did  he  approve  of  their  conduct.  He 
 died  March  14,  1823.  Besides  The  Pre- 
 sent State  of  Portugal,  and  some  other 
 works,  Dumouriez  wrote  his  own  Memoirs 
 in  three  volumes. 
 
 DUN 
 
 233 
 
 DUNBAR,  William,  a  Scotch  poet, 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  1465, 
 to  have  been  a  native  of  Lothian,  and 
 been  educated  at  Oxford.  In  his  youth 
 he  seems  to  have  been  a  travelling  novi- 
 ciate of  the  order  of  St.  Francis,  and  to 
 have  returned  from  the  continent  before 
 1503.  Church  preferment  his  works  prove 
 him  to  have  eagerly  sought,  but  not  to 
 have  obtained.  He  died  about  1535. 
 Dunbar  was  a  poet  of  no  inconsiderable 
 powers.  Ellis  pronounces  his  style,  "  whe- 
 ther grave  or  humorous,  whether  simple 
 or  ornamental,  to  be  always  energetic;" 
 and  Warton  declares  his  imagination  to 
 be  "  not  less  suited  to  satirical  than  to 
 sublime  allegory."  Among  his  best  works 
 are,  the  Thistle  and  the  Rose;  The  Golden 
 Terge ;    and  The  Freirs  of  Berwick. 
 
 DUNCAN,  William,  was  born  at 
 Aberdeen  in  1717,  and  was  educated  at 
 Marischal  College,  where,  in  1752,  he  be- 
 came professor  of  philosophy.  He  died  in 
 1760.  Duncan  is  the  author  of  The  Ele- 
 ments of  Logic,  an  excellent  work,  origin- 
 ally written  for  Dodsley's  Preceptor.  He 
 likewise  translated  Caesar's  Commentaries, 
 and  some  of  Cicero's  Orations. 
 
 DUNCAN,  Adam,  viscount,  a  com- 
 mander who  contributed  largely  to  the 
 naval  glory  of  his  country,  was  the  son  of 
 a  Scotch  gentleman,  and  was  born,  in 
 1731,  at  Lundie,  in  Angusshire.  At  an 
 early  period  he  entered  the  sea  service; 
 and  obtained  a  lieutenancy  in  1755.  From 
 that  time  he  gradually  rose,  till,  in  1794, 
 he  became  vice-admiral  of  the  white.  His 
 promotion  was  earned  at  the  siege  of  the 
 Havannah,  Rodney's  victory  over  the 
 Spaniards,  and  the  relieving  of  Gibraltar. 
 In  1795,  he  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
 mand of  the  North  Sea  fleet.  For  two 
 years  he  performed  the  toilsome  duty  of 
 watching  the  Dutch  squadron ;  but  was  at 
 length  forced  to  quit  the  coast  by  mutiny 
 among  his  sailors.  During  that  mutiny 
 he  displayed  undaunted  resolution.  In  his 
 absence  the  enemy  put  to  sea.  Duncan, 
 however,  came  up  with  them  oft'  Camper- 
 down,  totally  defeated  them,  and  captured 
 eight  sail  of  the  line.  For  this  he  was 
 pensioned,  and  created  a  viscount.  He 
 died  in  1804. 
 
 DUNCOMBE,  William,  born  in  Lon- 
 don in  1690,  held  a  situation  in  the  navy 
 office,  which  he  relinquished  in  1725,  that 
 he  might  give  himself  up  to  literature. 
 He  died  in  1769.  He  wrote  Lucius  Junius 
 Brutus,  a  tragedy;  some  fugitive  poems 
 and  prose  pieces ;   and  translated  Horace 
 
 DUNCOMBE,  John,  son  of  the  fore- 
 going, was  born  in  1730 ;  was  educated  at 
 Benet  College,  Oxford ;  and  obtained  con- 
 siderable church  preferment.  He  died  in 
 1786.  He  wrote  The  Femerreid,  and  some 
 other  poems ;  three  Sermons ;  some  Anti- 
 
234 
 
 DUN 
 
 quarian  essays ;  and  assisted  his  father  in 
 translating  Horace. 
 
 DUNDAS,  General  David,  a  native  of 
 Scotland,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1737, 
 and  entered  the  military  service  in  1758.  j 
 He  served  in  Germany,  at  the  Savannah, 
 at  Toulon,  and  in  Corsica,  Flanders,  and 
 Holland.  On  the  resignation  of  the  duke 
 of  York,  Dundas  was  for  a  while  coin- j 
 mander-in-chief.  He  died  in  1820.  As  a 
 tactician,  he  possessed  a  high  reputation, 
 and  he  contributed  much  to  introduce  into 
 the  British  army  the  study  of  tactics.  His 
 Principles  of  Military  Movements  is  a 
 work  of  considerable  merit. 
 DUNDAS.  See  Melville. 
 DUNNING,  John,  Lord  Asheurton, 
 the  son  of  a  lawyer  of  Ashburton,  in  De- 
 vonshire, was  born  in  1731,  served  his 
 apprenticeship  to  his  father,  and  studied 
 at  the  Temple.  The  circumstance  which 
 brought  him  into  practice  was  his  drawing 
 up,  for  the  East  India  Company,  a  memo- 
 rial against  the  claims  of  the  Dutch;  and 
 his  conduct,  as  counsel  for  Wilkes,  and  on 
 other  constitutional  occasions,  established 
 his  reputation.  In  1767,  he  became  attor- 
 ney-general, but  resigned  in  1770.  Of  the 
 American  war  he  was  a  decided  opponent 
 in  parliament.  In  1782,  he  was  raised  to 
 the  peerage,  and  appointed  chancellor  of 
 the  duchy  of  Lancaster.  He  died  in 
 August,  1783. 
 
 DUNOIS,  John,  Count  of  Orleans  and 
 Longueville,  born  in  1402,  known  as  the 
 Bastard  of  Orleans,  was  an  illegitimate  son 
 of  the  duke  of  Orleans.  He  was  one  of 
 the  most  celebrated  generals  of  the  age, 
 and  received  from  Charles  VII.  the  title  of 
 the  Restorer  of  the  Country.  He  defeated 
 the  English  at  Montargis,  gallantly  defend- 
 ed Orleans,  and  bore  the  most  prominent 
 part  in  the  subsequent  expulsion  of  the 
 English  from  their  French  conquests.  He 
 died  in  1468. 
 
 DUNS,  John,  usually  known  as  Duns 
 Scotus,  and  whose  acuteness  in  disputa- 
 tion gained  him  the  appellation  of  the 
 Subtle  Doctor,  was  born  at  Dunstance,  in 
 Northumberland,  late  in  the  thirteenth 
 century;  studied  at  Merton  College,  Ox- 
 ford; and  became  head  of  the  schools  at 
 the  university  at  Paris.  He  died,  at  Co- 
 logne, about  the  year  1309.  His  works, 
 proofs  of  perverted  talent,  form  twelve 
 folio  volumes.  He  differed  from  Aquinas 
 on  the  efficacy  of  divine  grace,  and  his 
 followers  were  called  Scotists.  To  him 
 is  also  attributed  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy 
 Virgin's  immaculate  conception. 
 
 DUNTON,  John,  a  native  of  Hunting- 
 donshire, born  at  Graff  ham,  in  1659,  was 
 a  bookseller,  in  London,  but  failed  in 
 business.  He  died  in  1733.  Dunton  pro- 
 jected, and  with  assistance  carried  on  for 
 some  years,  the  Athenian  Mercury,  a  selec- 
 
 DUP 
 
 tion  from  which  was  printed,  in  fom 
 volumes,  under  the  title  of  The  Athenian 
 Oracle.  He  was  also  the  author  of  Athe- 
 nian ism  ;  and  of  Dunton 's  Life  and  Er- 
 rors. 
 
 DUPERRON,  Cardinal  James  Daw, 
 was  born  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  in  1556, 
 and,  after  having  abjured  the  protestant 
 faith,  was  patronised  by  Henry  III.  of 
 France,  and,  subsequently,  by  the  cardinal 
 of  Bourbon.  He,  however,  deserted  the 
 interests  of  the  latter,  and  was  rewarded 
 with  the  bishopric  of  Evreux,  by  Henry  IV. 
 At  a  later  period,  he  was  emploved  in 
 controversy  with  the  Calvinists,  and  on  a 
 mission  to  Rome,  and  he  obtained  a  car- 
 dinal's hat  and  the  archbishopric  of  Sens. 
 He  died  in  1618.  His  works,  literary, 
 diplomatic,  and  controversial,  form  three 
 volumes  folio. 
 
 DUPIN,  Louis  Ellies,  an  ecclesias- 
 tical historian,  was  born,  in  Normandy,  in 
 1637;  studied  at  Harcourt  College  and  the 
 Sorbonne;  and  became  professor  of  divin- 
 ity in  the  Royal  College.  The  professor- 
 ship, however,  he  lost,  in  consequence  of 
 his  religious  moderation;  and  his  papers 
 were  seized,  because  he  had  corresponded 
 with  Wake,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
 relative  to  a  project  for  uniting  the  English 
 and  Gallican  churches.  He  was  also  per- 
 secuted by  Bossuet  and  De  Harlay,  for  the 
 candour  which  he  displayed  in  his  great 
 work,  The  Universal  Library  of  Ecclesi- 
 astical Authors,  in  fifty-eight  vols.  Besides 
 that  work,  Dupin  wrote  many  others,  and 
 contributed  to  the  Journal  des  Savans. 
 He  died  in  1719. 
 
 DUPLEIX,  Joseph,  the  son  of  one  of 
 the  French  farmers  general,  who  was  also 
 an  East  India  director,  was  born  towards 
 the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and, 
 in  1720,  was  sent  by  the  company  to 
 Pondicherry,  as  one  of  the  superior  officers 
 of  that  establishment.  He  was  subse- 
 quently placed  at  the  head  of  the  factory 
 of  Chandernagore,  which  he  raised  to  such 
 a  pitch  of  prosperity,  that,  in  1742,  he 
 was  rewarded  by  being  appointed  gover- 
 nor of  Pondicherry,  and  director-general 
 of  the  French  factories  in  India.  This 
 high  office  Dupleix  held  for  twelve  years, 
 during  which  he  displayed  high  talents, 
 both  civil  and  military.  He  formed  alli- 
 ances, made  and  unmade  sovereigns,  was 
 himself  invested  with  the  title  of  nabob, 
 and  was  surrounded  by  all  the  splendour  of 
 an  oriental  court.  In  1754,  however,  his 
 enemies  procured  his  recall,  and  all  his 
 prosperity  vanished.  He  who  had  exer- 
 cised unlimited  authority  in  India,  now 
 languished  in  poverty  at  Paris  for  nine 
 years,  vainly  soliciting  justice  and  the  re- 
 payment of  the  sums  which  he  had  ad- 
 vanced, and  died,  at  length,  in  1763,  tho 
 victim  of  anxiety  and  neglect 
 
DUR 
 
 DUPONT  DE  NEMOURS,  Peter 
 Samuel,  a  French  political  economist, 
 was  born  at  Paris,  in  1739,  and  died  in 
 America,  in  1817.  During  the  revolution 
 he  filled  several  important  situations, 
 among  which  were  those  of  president  of 
 the  constituent  assembly,  president  of  the 
 chamber  of  commerce,  and  secretary,  in 
 1814,  to  the  provisional  government.  He 
 was  also  a  member  of  the  Institute.  Du- 
 pont  was  moderate  in  his  politics,  and 
 philanthropic  in  his  views.  Among  his  nu- 
 merous productions  are,  several  works  on 
 various  branches  of  political  economy ;  The 
 Philosophy  of  the  Universe;  a  variety  of 
 Memoirs  on  natural  history  and  natural  phi- 
 losophy ;  and  a  translation  of  part  of  Ariosto. 
 
 DUPUIS,  Charles  Francis,  a 
 French  philosopher,  was  born  at  Trye, 
 near  Gisors,  in  1742;  was  educated  at 
 Harcourt  College ;  and  was  successively 
 professor  of  eloquence  at  the  college  of  Li- 
 sieux,  and  of  Latin  eloquence  at  the  col- 
 lege of  France,  a  member  of  the  conven- 
 tion, of  the  council  of  five  hundred,  and  of 
 the  legislative  body.  Of  the  latter  he  be- 
 came president.  He  was  also  a  member 
 of  the  Institute,  and  of  the  legion  of  hon- 
 our. He  died  in  1809.  His  principal 
 work  is  The  Origin  of  all  Modes  of  Re- 
 ligious Worship,  or  Universal  Religion, 
 three  vols.  4to.,  with  an  atlas. 
 
 DUQUESNE,  Abraham,  one  of  the 
 bravest  and  ablest  seamen  of  France,  was 
 born  at  Dieppe,  in  1610,  and  died  at  Par- 
 is, in  1688.  From  the  age  of  seventeen 
 till  within  ten  years  of  his  death,  he  con- 
 tinued to  give  proofs  of  his  talents  and  in- 
 tnepidity.  Among  his  exploits  are  the  de- 
 feat of  the  Danish  fleet  off  Gottenburgh,  of 
 the  Dutch  off  Messina,  and  the  bombard- 
 ments of  Tripoli,  Algiers,  and  Genoa. 
 
 DURAND,  David,  a  protestant  min- 
 ister, was  born,  in  1681,  at  Pargoire,  in 
 Lower  Languedoc.  As  chaplain  of  a  reg- 
 iment of  refugees,  he  was  present  at  the 
 battle  of  Almanza.  Being  taken  prisoner 
 by  the  peasants',  after  the  rout  of  the  allies, 
 he  narrowly  escaped  death;  and  he  was, 
 eubsequently,  in  equal  danger  from  the  In- 
 quisition. He  escaped,  however,  and  be- 
 came a  minister  in  Holland,  whence  he 
 was  invited  to  be  preacher  to  the  Savoy,  in 
 London.  He  died  in  1763.  Among  his 
 works  are,  Sermons ;  a  Life  of  Vanini ;  a 
 History  of  the  Sixteenth  Century;  and  a 
 Continuation  of  Rapin. 
 
 DUREAU  DE  LAMALLE,  John 
 Baptist  Joseph  Renatus,  an  eminent 
 translator,  was  born  in  St.  Domingo,  in 
 1782,  and  died,  in  France,  in  1807.  He 
 was  a  member  of  the  legislative  body,  and 
 of  the  Institute.  He  published  excellent 
 versions  of  Tacitus  and  Sallust,  and  of  a 
 part  of  Seneca;  and  left  an  unfinished 
 translation  of  Livy. 
 
 DUS 
 
 235 
 
 DURER,  Albert,  an  artist  of  high 
 talent,  the  son  of  a  goldsmith,  at  Nurem- 
 berg, was  born  in  1471,  and  was  a  pupil 
 of  Martin  Hapse  and  Michael  Wolgemuth. 
 He  excelled  at  once  as  a  painter,  engraver, 
 sculptor,  and  an  architect,  and  wrote  sever- 
 al works  on  geometry,  perspective,  and  civil 
 and  military  architecture.  He  was  pat- 
 ronised by  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  and 
 other  monarchs.  He  died  at  Nuremberg, 
 in  1528. 
 
 DURFEY,  Thomas,  a  comic  writer 
 and  poet,  the  son  of  a  French  refugee,  was 
 born  at  Exeter,  about  1630,  and  quitted 
 the  law  to  become  a  writer  for  the  stage. 
 He  died  in  1723.  Durfey  was  at  one  time 
 popular,  and  was  admitted  to  intercourse 
 with  the  great;  Charles  the  Second  was 
 seen  leaning  on  his  shoulder,  and  he  di- 
 verted Queen  Anne  with  catches  and  songs 
 of  humour;  yet  in  his  old  age  he  was  in 
 straitened  circumstances.  His  plays,  thir- 
 ty-one in  number,  are  stained  by  the  licen- 
 tiousness of  the  age  in  which  they  were 
 written,  and  are  now  forgotten.  His  songs 
 and  ballads  were  collected,  in  six  volumes, 
 with  the  title  of  Wit  and  Mirth,  or  Pills 
 to  purge  Melancholy. 
 
 DUROC,  Michael,  Duke  of  Friuli, 
 and  marshal  of  France,  was  born  at  Pont 
 a  ftlousson,  in  1772,  and  entered  the  mili- 
 tary service,  in  1792,  as  a  lieutenant  of  ar- 
 tillery. In  1796  he  was  appointed  aid-de- 
 camp to  Bonaparte.  He  distinguished 
 himself  in  Italy,  Egypt,  and  Syria.  On 
 the  formation  of  the  imperial  court,  in 
 1805,  he  was  cieated  grand  marshal  of 
 the  palace.  He  was  subsequently  charged 
 with  diplomatic  missions  to  Prussia,  Rus- 
 sia, Sweden,  and  Denmark.  Resuming 
 his  military  capacity,  he  fought  with  dis- 
 tinction at  Austerlitz,  Wagram,  and  Ess- 
 ling,  and,  finally,  was  slain  by  a  cannon 
 bullet,  at  the  battle  of  Wurtzen,  May  23, 
 1813.  Napoleon  was  warmly  attached  to 
 Duroc,  placed  a  boundless  confidence  in 
 him,  and  deeply  regretted  his  loss. 
 
 DUSSAULT,-John  Joseph,  a  jour- 
 nalist and  critic,  was  born  at  Paris,  in 
 1769,  and  died  in  1824.  He  contributed 
 largely  to  the  Orator  of  the  People,  the 
 Truth-teller,  and  the  Journal  of  Debates. 
 The  critical  articles  which  he  had  insert- 
 ed in  the  last  of  those  papers  he  afterwards 
 published  in  five  volumes,  with  the  title  of 
 Literary  Annals.  He  also  wrote  various 
 pamphlets  and  essays,  and  several  articles 
 in  the  Universal  Biography. 
 
 DUSSEK,  John  Louis,  an  eminent 
 composer,  born,  in  1762,  at  Czaslau,  in 
 Bohemia,  was  a  pupil  of  Emanuel  Bach. 
 After  having  resided  for  some  years  at  the 
 court  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  trav- 
 elled in  the  north  of  Europe,  he  went  to 
 Paris;  thence,  however,  he  was  driven  by 
 the  revolution ;   and  from  1796  to  1799  he 
 
236  EAC 
 
 lived  in  London.  He  died  at  Paris,  in 
 1812,  in  the  service  of  the  prince  of  Bene- 
 vento.  His  compositions,  more  than  sixty 
 in  number,  are  honourable  to  his  tal- 
 ents. 
 
 DUTENS,  Louis,  a  miscellaneous  wri- 
 ter, was  born  at  Tours,  in  1730,  and  died 
 at  London,  in  1812.  In  1758  he  became 
 secretary  and  chaplain  to  the  British  min- 
 ister at  Turin,  who,  on  his  return  to  Eng- 
 land, left  him  as  charge  d'affaires.  He 
 afterwards  obtained  the  living  of  Elsdon, 
 in  Northumberland,  travelled  with  Lord 
 Algernon  Percy,  and  accompanied  Lord 
 Mountstuart  to  Turin,  when  his  lordship 
 was  appointed  envoy  extraordinary.  He 
 is  the  author  of  various  works,  of  which 
 the  principal  are,  An  Inquiry  into  the  Ori- 
 gin of  Discoveries,  and  his  own  memoirs, 
 under  the  title  of  Memoirs  of  a  Traveller 
 in  Retirement.  He  also  published  an  edi- 
 tion of  Leibnitz,  in  six  vols,  quarto. 
 
 DUVAL,  Valentine  Jaimerai,  the 
 son  of  a  poor  peasant  at  Artonay,  in 
 Champagne,  was  born  in  1765.  Left  an 
 orphan  at  ten  years  of  age,  he  gained  a 
 living  by  watching  sheep,  and  suffered  in- 
 numerable hardships.  A  hermit  taught 
 him  to  read,  and  young  Duval  thenceforth 
 displayed  an  ardent  longing  for  knowledge. 
 Fortunately,  the  duke  of  Lorraine  found  him 
 in  a  forest,  stretched  out  upon  and  poring 
 over  some  maps,  and  took  him  under  his 
 protection.  Duval  received  a  good  educa- 
 tion, and  ultimately  became  keeper  of  the 
 books  and  medals  of  the  imperial  cabinet 
 at  Vienna.  He  died,  in  1765,  beloved  and 
 respected  by  every  one,  for  his  modesty, 
 gratitude,  and  talents.  Besides  his  mis- 
 cellaneous works,  in  two  volumes,  he  pub- 
 lished four  folio  volumes  on  the  coins  and 
 medals  in  the  imperial  collection. 
 
 DWIGHT,  Timothy,  an  eminent  di- 
 vine and  writer,  was  born  at  Northampton, 
 Massachusetts,  in  1752.  At  the  age  of 
 thirteen  he  entered  Yale  College ;  and  af- 
 ter having  graduated,  took  charge  of  a 
 grammar  school  at  New  Haven,  where  he 
 taught  for  two  years.  In  1771  he  became 
 a  tutor  in  Yale  College,  where  he  remain- 
 ed for  six  years.  In  1783  he  was  ordained 
 minister  of  Greenfield,  a  parish  in  the 
 town  of  Fairfield  in  Connecticut;  where 
 he  soon  opened  an  academy  that  acquired 
 
 EAR 
 
 great  reputation.  In  1795  Dr.  Dwight 
 was  elected  president  of  Yale  Colloge,  and 
 his  character  and  name  soon  brought  a 
 great  accession  of  students.  During  his 
 presidency  he  also  filled  the  office  of  the 
 professor  of  theology.  He  continued  to 
 discharge  the  duties  of  his  station,  both  as 
 minister,  and  president  of  the  college,  to 
 the  age  of  sixty-five;  when,  after  a  long 
 and  painful  illness,  he  died,  in  January, 
 1817.  He  was  endowed  by  nature  with 
 uncommon  talents;  and  these,  enriched  by 
 industrv  and  research,  and  united  to  amia- 
 bility, and  consistency  in  his  private  life, 
 entitled  Dr.  Dwight  to  rank  among  the 
 first  men  of  his  age.  As  a  preacher,  he 
 was  distinguished  by  his  originality,  sim- 
 plicity and  dignity ;  he  was  well  read  in 
 the  most  eminent  fathers  and  theologians, 
 ancient  and  modern ;  he  was  a  good  bibli- 
 cal critic ;  and  his  sermons  should  be  pos- 
 sessed by  every  student  of  divinity.  He 
 wrote  Travels  in  New  England  and  New 
 York;  Greenfield  Hill,  a  poem;  The  Con- 
 quest of  Canaan,  a  poem;  a  collection  of 
 theological  lectures;  and  a  pamphlet  on 
 The  Dangers  of  the  Infidel  Philosophy. 
 
 DYER,  Sir  James,  an  English  judge, 
 was  born,  in  1512,  at  Roundshill,  in  Som- 
 ersetshire ;  studied  at  Oxford  and  the 
 Middle  Temple;  and,  after  having  been 
 speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  rose  to 
 be  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas,  a  sit- 
 uation which  he  held  for  nearly  a  quarter 
 of  a  century.  He  died  in  1582.  His 
 Book  of  Reports  is  much  valued  by  the 
 members  of  the  legal  profession. 
 
 DYER,  John,  a  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1700,  at  Aberglasney,  in  Caermarthenshire, 
 and  was  the  son  of  a  solicitor.  He  was 
 educated  at  Westminster  School.  Origin- 
 ally intended  for  the  law,  he  resolved  to  be 
 a  painter,  and  accordingly  put  himself  un- 
 der the  tuition  of  Richardson  :  but  he 
 seems  to  have  failed  in  reaching  excel- 
 lence as  an  artist.  He  afterwards  took 
 orders,  and  obtained  respectable  church 
 preferment.  He  died  in  1758.  Dyer  pro- 
 duced the  poems  of  Grongar  Hill;  The 
 Ruins  of  Rome;  and  The  Fleece.  Of 
 these  the  first  is  the  most  popular,  and  not 
 unjustly,  but  they  are  all  worthy  of  the 
 place  which  they  hold  in  the  collective 
 works  of  the  British  poets. 
 
 E 
 
 EACHARD,  John,  a  divine,  a  native 
 of  Suffolk,  born  in  1636,  was  educated  at 
 Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge,  of  which,  in 
 1675,  he  was  chosen  master.  He  died  in 
 1697.  Eachard  is  the  author  of  The 
 Grounds  and  Occasions  of  the  Contempt 
 
 of  the  Clergy ;  and  of  two  Dialogues,  in 
 which  he  attacks  the  system  of  Hobbes. 
 In  these  works  he  displays  a  large  portion 
 of  wit  and  humour. 
 
 EARLE,  John,  a  prelate  and  writer, 
 born  at  York,  in  1601,  was  made  subtutor 
 
EBE 
 
 to  Prince  Charles,  after  having  taken  his 
 degree  at  Merton  College,  Oxford.  In 
 1662  he  was  made  bishop  of  Winchester, 
 and,  next  year,  was  translated  to  Salis- 
 bury. He  died  in  1665.  He  translated 
 into  Latin  the  Eikon  Basilike,  but  his 
 principal  work,  and  it  is  worthy  of  peru- 
 sal, is,  Microcosmography,  or  a  Piece  of 
 the  World,  discovered  in  Essays  and 
 Characters.  It  has  gone  through  several 
 editions. 
 
 EARLOM,    Richard,    an    engraver, 
 born    in  1740,  was   the  son   of  the  vestry 
 clerk  of  St.  Sepulchre's,  London.  His  at- 
 tention was  first  attracted  to  the  arts  by 
 the  paintings  on   the  lord   mayor's  coach, 
 and  his  father  was  induced  to  place  him 
 under    Cipriani.      He    was    employed    by 
 Boydell,    to    make     drawings    from    the 
 Houghton  collection,   and  those  drawings 
 he  afterwards  engraved  in  mezzotinto;   an 
 art  in  which   he  was   his  own   instructor. 
 He  died   in   1822.     His  flower  pieces,  en- 
 graved from  Van  Huysum,  are  highly  val- 
 ued.    Among  the  other  admired  produc- 
 tions from  his  burin  are,  Agrippina,  from 
 West;    a    tiger    hunt,    and    other    pieces, 
 from  Zoffany ;    and    the    first  and  second 
 parts  of  the  Liber  Veritatis,  from  Claude. 
 EATON,  William,  general  in  the  ser- 
 vice  of  the    United   States,  was   born   in 
 Woodstock,  Connecticut,  in  1764,  and  was 
 graduated   at   Dartmouth  college  in  1790. 
 In  1792  he  received  a  captain's  commission 
 in  the  army,  and  served  for  some  time  un- 
 der general  Wayne,  on  the  Mississippi  and 
 in  Georgia.     In    1797  he  was  appointed 
 consul  to  the  kingdom  of  Tunis,  and  con- 
 tinued there  engaged  in  a  variety  of  adven- 
 tures, and  negociations  till  1803,  when  he 
 returned  to   the  United  States.     In  1804 
 he  was  appointed  navy  agent  for  the  Bar- 
 bary  powers,  for  the  purpose  of  cooperating 
 with    Hamet   bashaw  in  the  war  against 
 Tripoli;   but  was  disappointed  by  the  con- 
 clusion of  a  premature  peace  between  the 
 American  consul  and  the    Tripolitan   ba- 
 shaw.    On  his  return  to  the  United  States, 
 he  failed  in  obtaining  from  the  government 
 any  compensation  for  his  pecuniary  losses, 
 or  any  employment  corresponding  with  his 
 merit  and  services.     Under  the  influence 
 of  his  disappointments,  he  fell  into  habits 
 of  inebriety,  and  died  in  1811.     His  Life, 
 published  by  one  of  his  friends  in  Massa- 
 chusetts, is  full  of  interesting  adventure. 
 
 EBELING,  Christopher  Daniel, 
 was  born  in  1741,  at  Garmissen,  in  Ger- 
 many. He  studied  theology  at  Gottingen, 
 but  afterwards  devoted  himself  more  par- 
 ticularly to  geographical  pursuits.  His 
 great  work  is  entitled  Geography  and  His- 
 tory of  North  America,  published  at  Ham- 
 burg, in  five  volumes,  1793-9.  He  was 
 afterwards  professor  of  history  and  the 
 Greek  language  in   the  Hamburg  gyinna- 
 
 EDG 
 
 237 
 
 sium,  and  superintendent  of  the  Hamburg 
 library.  He  died  in  1817.  His  collection 
 of  books  relating  to  America,  amounted  to 
 more  than  3900  volumes,  which  were  pur- 
 chased in  1818,  by  Israel  Thorndike,  of 
 Boston,  and  presented  by  him  to  the  library 
 of  Harvard  College. 
 
 EBION,  a  disciple  of  Cerinthus,  was 
 the  head  of  the  sect  of  the  Ebionites,  which 
 arose  in  the  first  age  of  the  church,  and 
 denied  the  divinity  of  Christ.  He  is  said 
 to  have  disseminated  his  heterodox  notions 
 in  Asia  and  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  and  at 
 Rome.  Some,  however,  deny  that  such  a 
 person  ever  existed. 
 
 ECHARD,  Laurence,  a  native  of 
 Suffolk,  born  at  Cassam,  about  1671,  was 
 educated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge ; 
 became  archdeacon  of  Stow,  and  obtained 
 three  livings  in  Suffolk ;  and  died  suddenly, 
 in  1730.  He  is  a  voluminous  writer. 
 Among  his  works  are,  A  General  Ecclesi- 
 astical History;  a  History  of  England;  a 
 Roman  History;   and  a  Gazetteer. 
 
 ECKHARD,  John  George,  an  anti- 
 quary and  historian,  was  born  in  the  duchy 
 of  Brunswick,  in  1674.  After  having  been 
 professor  of  history  at  Helmstadt  and  at 
 Hanover,  he  abjured  the  protestant  faith, 
 and  was  made  historiographer  and  archi- 
 vist at  Wurzburgh,  where  he  died  in  1730. 
 Among  his  principal  works  are,  A  Body 
 of  History  of  the  Middle  Ages,  two  vols, 
 folio ;  the  Laws  of  the  Franks  and  Ripua- 
 rians,  folio ;  and  The  Origin  of  the  Fami- 
 lies of  Hapsburgh  and  Guelph. 
 
 ECKHEL,  Joseph  Hilary,  an  emi- 
 nent antiquary  and  numismatist,  was  born 
 in  Upper  Austria,  in  1736,  and  died  in 
 1798,  director  of  the  medallic  cabinet  at 
 Vienna.  Few  men  have  had  so  extensive 
 a  knowledge  of  medals  as  Eckhel.  Among 
 his  valuable  works  on  this  subject  are 
 Nummi  Veteres  Anecdoti,  two  vols,  folio; 
 and  Doctrina  Veterum  Nummorum,  in  eight 
 vols. 
 
 EDEN,  Sir  Frederic  Morton,  a 
 diplomatist  and  writer  on  political  econ-. 
 omy,  was  employed  as  ambassador,  from 
 1792  to  1796,  at  the  courts  of  Berlin, 
 Madrid,  and  Vienna.  He  died  in  1809. 
 Of  his  statistical  works  the  most  import- 
 ant is,  The  State  of  the  Poor;  or,  A 
 History  of  the  Labouring  Classes  in  Eng- 
 land, from  the  Conquest,  three  vols,  quarto. 
 The  Globe  Insurance  Company  was  estab- 
 lished by  him. 
 
 EDGEWORTH,  Richard  Lovell, 
 an  elegant  writer,  and  an  ingenious  mecha- 
 nician, was  born  at  Bath,  in  1744,  and 
 studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
 Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford.  Being  a 
 man  of  fortune,  he  was  not  constrained  to 
 adopt  a  profession,  but  he  amused  himself 
 with  mechanical  inventions,  and  among 
 other  things  invented,  in  1767,  a  telegraph. 
 
238 
 
 EDW 
 
 EDW 
 
 improvements.  He  wrote  his  own  Me- 
 moirs; an  Essay  on  Roads  and  Carriages; 
 and,  in  conjunction  with  his  highly  gifted 
 daughter,  several  works  to  ameliorate  the 
 existing  system  of  education.  He  died  in 
 June,   1817. 
 
 EDMONDSON,  Joseph,  originally  a 
 barber,  became  an  heraldic  painter;  and, 
 in  1764,  was  appointed  Mowbray  herald 
 extraordinary.     He    died    in    1786.     His 
 
 After  having  travelled  on  the  continent,  he  [captive  monarch.  He  was  placed  by  his 
 settled  on  his  estate  in  Ireland,  where  he  father  at  the  head  of  a  large  part  of  the 
 made  many  agricultural  and  manufacturing!  Anglo-Gallic  dominions,  with  the  title  of 
 
 Prince  of  Aquitaine,  and  he  took  up  his 
 residence  at  Bordeaux.  One  of  his  last 
 exploits  was  the  restoration  of  Pedro  the 
 Cruel  to  the  throne  of  Castile.  He  died, 
 in  England,  in  1376. 
 
 EDWARDS,  George,  a  natural  histo- 
 rian, was  born  about  1695,  at  Westham, 
 in  Essex,  and  was  intended  for  trade,  but, 
 after  having  travelled  for  some  years,  he 
 applied  himself  to  natural  history,  and 
 principal  works  are,  a  Body  of  Heraldry,  subsisted  by  colouring  and  drawing  birds 
 two  vols,  folio;  and  Baronagium  Geneal-|from  nature.  From  1733  to  1769,  he  was 
 ogicum;   or,  the  Pedigrees  of  the  English  |  librarian    of    the    College    of  Physicians. 
 
 During  that  period  he  published  his  valu- 
 able Natural  History  of  Birds,  and  his 
 Gleanings  of  Natural  History,  with  several 
 hundred  coloured  plates.  The  last  volume 
 of  the  History  is  dedicated  to  the  Deity. 
 He  died  in  1773. 
 
 EDWARDS,  Thomas,  a  poet  and 
 critic,  was  born  in  London  in  1699.  He 
 studied  the  law,  but,  being  blessed  with  a 
 competent  fortune,  he  never  practised.  His 
 leisure  hours  were  given  to  literary  pur- 
 suits. He  died  in  1757.  Dissatisfied  with 
 Warburton's  edition  of  Shakspeare,  Ed- 
 wards published  some  keen  remarks  upon 
 it,  which  were  coarsely  noticed  by  the 
 haughty  and  petulant  editor.  This  gave 
 rise  to  the  Canons  of  Criticism,  by  Ed- 
 wards, a  work  of  great  wit  and  acuteness, 
 in  which  Warburton  is  severely  handled. 
 Among  the  productions  of  Edwards  are 
 fifty  Sonnets,  which  display  much  elegance 
 and  poetical  feeling. 
 
 EDWARDS,  Jonathan,  was  born  at 
 Windsor,  in  the  province  of  Connecticut 
 in  1703.  At  the  age  of  twelve  years  he 
 was  admitted  into  Yale  College,  and  at  the 
 age  of  seventeen  received  the  degree  of 
 Bachelor  of  Arts.  He  remained  nearly 
 two  years  longer  at  Yale,  preparing  for 
 the  ministry ;  and  in  1722  went  to  New 
 York,  and  preached  there  with  great  dis- 
 tinction. In  September,  1723,  he  was 
 elected  a  tutor  in  Yale  college,  and  re- 
 mained there  till  1726,  when  he  resigned 
 his  office  in  order  to  become  the  minister 
 of  the  people  of  Northampton,  where  he 
 was  ordained  in  February  1727.  After 
 more  than  twenty-three  years  of  service  in 
 this  place,  a  rupture  took  place  between 
 him  and  his  congregation,  and  he  was  dis- 
 missed by  an  ecclesiastical  council  in  1750. 
 In  the  following  year  he  accepted  a  call  to 
 serve  as  missionary  among  the  Indians  at 
 Stockbridge,  Massachusetts.  In  1757  he 
 was  chosen  president  of  the  college  at 
 Princeton,  New  Jersey,  and  accepted  the 
 invitation.  In  January,  1758,  he  repaired 
 to  Princeton,  where  he  died  of  the  small- 
 pox in  the  March  following.  His  chief 
 works  are  a  Treatise  on  Religious  Affec- 
 
 Peers,  six  vols,  folio 
 
 EDRIDGE,  Henry,  R.  A.,  an  artist, 
 was  born  at  Paddington,  in  1768;  studied 
 under  Pether;  and,  in  1786,  obtained  a 
 medal  from  the  Royal  Academy.  Minia- 
 tures in  ivory  were  his  first  productions; 
 he  next  drew  his  heads  on  paper  in  pencil 
 and  Indian  ink ;  and,  lastly,  he  adopted 
 water  colours.  In  all  these  varieties  his 
 works  were  excellent.  In  his  latter  days, 
 he  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  painting 
 landscapes,  which  equalled  his  portraits. 
 He  died  in  1821. 
 
 EDRISI,  Abu  Abdallah  Moham- 
 med ben  Mohammed,  Scherif  al,  a 
 descendant  of  the  African  princes  of  the 
 race  of  Edris,  was  born  at  Ceuta,  in  1099, 
 and  studied  at  Cordova.  He  settled  at  the 
 court  of  Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  for  whom, 
 about  1153,  he  framed  an  immense  terres- 
 trial globe  of  silver,  and  wrote  in  Arabic 
 a  geographical  work  to  explain  the  globe. 
 Various  parts  of  this  work  have  been  trans- 
 lated.    Nothing  more  is  known  of  Edrisi. 
 
 EDWARD,  Prince  of  Wales,  surnamed 
 the  Black  Prince,  son  of  Edward  III.  was 
 born  in  1330.  In  1345,  he  attended  his 
 father  to  France,  and,  in  the  ensuing  year, 
 he  took  a  leading  part  in  gaining  the  glo- 
 rious victory  of  Crc-y.  Being  invested 
 with  the  duchy  of  Guienne,  he  ravaged  the 
 French  dominions  in  1355  and  1356.  It 
 was  in  the  latter  year  that  he  won  the 
 great  battle  of  Poictiers,  and  distinguished 
 himself  by  his  chivalrous  conduct  to  the 
 
EGE 
 
 tions,  an  Inquiry  into  the  Notion  of 
 Freedom  of  Will,  which  is  considered  the 
 best  vindication  of  the  doctrine  of  philo- 
 sophical necessity;  a  Treatise  on  Original 
 Sin;  and  numerous  tracts  and  sermons. 
 Various  narratives  of  his  life,  and  editions 
 of  his  works  have  been  printed  both  in 
 Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  The 
 latest  is  in  ten  octavo  volumes,  published 
 in  New  York,  in  1S30,  and  edited  by 
 Sereno  E.  Dwight. 
 
 EDW4RDS,  WILLIAM,  an  architect, 
 was  born,  in  1719,  in  Glamorganshire,  and 
 died  in  1789.  Originally  a  mason,  and 
 with  little  education,  Edwards  rose  in  the 
 world  by  the  force  of  his  own  genius.  The 
 first  work  which  brought  him  into  notice 
 was  a  single  stone  arch,  of  unusual  span 
 and  great  elegance,  over  the  river  Taafe. 
 His  skill  and  success  in  that  instance 
 caused  him  to  be  extensively  employed, 
 particularly  in  building  bridges. 
 
 EDWARDS,  Edward,  born  in  Lon- 
 don, in  1738,  was  originally  a  chair  maker 
 and  carver,  but  devoted  himself  with  such 
 success  to  drawing  that,  in  1773,  he  be- 
 came an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
 and,  in  1778,  academical  teacher  of  per- 
 spective. He  died  in  1806.  He  is  the 
 author  of  a  Treatise  on  Perspective;  and 
 Anecdotes  of  Painters. 
 
 EDWARDS,  Bryan,  an  historian,  was 
 a  native  of  Wilts,  born  at  Westbury,  in 
 1743;  received  an  imperfect  education  at 
 a  dissenting  seminary;  and,  after  the  death 
 of  his  father,  was  taken  under  the  care  of 
 a  maternal  uncle  in  Jamaica.  While  he 
 was  in  the  West  Indies,  he  acquired  some 
 classical  knowledge,  inherited  two  for- 
 tunes, and  became  an  eminent  merchant. 
 In  1796  he  was  elected  member  of  parlia- 
 ment for  Grampound,  and  he  took  a  part  in 
 the  measures  for  mitigating  the  horrors  of 
 the  slave  trade.  He  died  in  1800.  His  prin- 
 cipal work  is,  A  History  of  the  British  Col- 
 onies in  the  West  Indies,  two  vols.  4to. ;  to 
 which  he  subsequently  added,  A  History 
 of  St.  Domingo.  The  last  edition  is  in 
 five  vols.  8vo.,  of  which  the  last  two  con- 
 tain a  Continuation  of  the  History,  by 
 Davenport.  Edwards  is  also  the  author 
 of  a  few  elegant  and  spirited  poems. 
 
 EGEDE,  Hans,  a  Danish  divine,  born 
 in  1686,  who  died  in  175S,  was  the  founder 
 of  the  religious  missions  to  Greenland,  in 
 which  country  he  resided  from  1721  to 
 1736,  displaying  a  piety,  zeal,  and  benevo- 
 lence, which  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
 natives.  He  wrote  a  Description  of  Green- 
 land.— His  son,  Paul,  who  succeeded  him, 
 and  emulated  his  virtues,  was  born  in  1708, 
 and  died  in  1789.  He  wrote  an  Account 
 of  Greenland;  composed  a  Dictionary  and 
 Grammar  of  the  language ;  and  translated 
 into  that  language  a  part  of  the  Bible,  and 
 eome  other  works. 
 
 ELB 
 
 239 
 
 EGIL,  or  EIGIL,  an  Iceland  warrior 
 and  scald,  or  poet,  of  the  tenth  century. 
 His  valour  was  signally  displayed  during 
 incursions  into  Northumberland  and  Scot- 
 land. The  son  of  Eric  Blodyexe,  king  of 
 Norway,  was  slain  by  him  in  combat;  but 
 Egil  soon  afterwards  fell  into  the  father's 
 hands.  Eric  sentenced  him  to  death.  The 
 bard,  however,  averted  his  doom  by  re- 
 citing an  extempore  poem  in  praise  of 
 Erie.  Of  this  poem,  called  The  Ransom 
 of  the  Head,  a  Latin  version  has  been  pub- 
 lished. Some  fragments  of  Egil's  other 
 compositions  are  extant. 
 
 EGINHARD,  a  celebrated  historian,  a 
 native  of  Germany,  was  a  pupil  of  Alcuin, 
 who  recommended  him  to  the  notice  of 
 Charlemagne.  The  monarch  made  him 
 his  secretary,  and  afterwards  superintend- 
 ant  of  his  buildings.  He  died,  in  839, 
 abbot  of  Seligenstadt.  The  stories  rela- 
 tive to  his  marrying  a  daughter  of  Charle- 
 magne appear  to  be  fables.  Eginhard  is 
 the  author  of  A  Life  of  Charlemagne ;  An- 
 nals of  France,  from  741  to  829;  and 
 sixty-two  Epistles. 
 
 EGINTON,  Francis,  the  restorer  of 
 the  art  of  painting  on  glass,  was  born  in 
 1737,  and  died  at  Handsworth,  in  Shrop- 
 shire, in  1805.  Among  his  numerous 
 works,  all  of  which  are  remarkable  for 
 brilliancy  of  colouring  and  delicacy  of 
 execution,  are,  the  Banquet  given  to  the 
 Queen  of  Sheba,  a  copy  from  Hamilton; 
 two  Resurrections,  from  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
 nolds ;  Christ  bearing  the  Cross,  from 
 Morales;  and  the  Soul  of  a  Child  in  the 
 presence  of  the  Deity,  from  Peters. 
 
 EHRET,  George  Denis,  a  celebrated 
 botanical  painter,  the  son  of  a  gardener, 
 was  born  at  Durlach,  in  Germany,  in  1710, 
 and  died  at  London,  in  1770.  His  great- 
 est works  are,  The  Hortus  Cliffortianus ; 
 and  a  Collection  of  Flowers  and  Butterflies. 
 He  was  a  friend  of  Linnaeus,  and  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Royal  Society. 
 
 ELBEE,Gigot  d',  general  of  the  Ven- 
 dean  royalists,  was  born,  at  Dresden,  in 
 1752,  of  a  French  family,  and  entered  the 
 French  service  as  a  cavalry  officer.  In 
 1783  he  resigned  his  commission,  and  for 
 several  years  lived  upon  his  estate  in  An- 
 jou.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  insurrec- 
 tion in  Vendue,  a  body  of  the  royalists 
 chose  him  their  leader,  and  he  was  subse- 
 quently appointed  generalissimo  of  the 
 whole  army.  He  had  little  military  talent, 
 but  much  bravery,  and  was  beloved  by  his 
 men.  "  My  lads!"  he  used  to  exclaim 
 when  going  into  action,  "  Providence  will 
 give  you  the  victory," — for  this  reason  the 
 peasants  called  him  General  Providence. 
 After  having  fought  many  battles,  and 
 gained  several  victories,  he  was  taken 
 prisoner,  in  1794,  at  Noirmoutier,  and  put 
 to  death  by  the  republicans. 
 
240 
 
 ELI 
 
 ELIAS  LEVITA,  a  celebrated  Jewish 
 rabbi,  a  native  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
 Neustadt,  in  Brandenburg,  in  1472,  and 
 died  at  Venice,  in  1549.  For  many  yours 
 he  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Venice 
 and  Padua.  Among  his  works,  which  arc 
 highly  valuable,  are,  A  Chaldaic,  Tal- 
 mudic,  and  Rabbinic  Lexicon;  A  Hebrew 
 Glossary  ;  and  a  Commentary  on  tlie  Gram- 
 mar of  Moses  Kimchi. 
 
 ELIOT,  John,  usually  styled  apostle  tu 
 the  Indians,  was  born  in  England  in  1604, 
 and  educated  at  the  university  of  Cam- 
 bridge. In  1631  he  emigrated  to  Massa- 
 setts,  and  in  the  following  year  was  settled 
 in  the  ministry  at  Roxbury,  where  he  re- 
 mained till  his  death.  In  1646  he  zeal- 
 ously commenced  preaching  to  the  Indians; 
 having  previously  made  himself  acquainted 
 with  their  language,  in  which  he  published 
 a  grammar  and  a  translation  of  the  Bible. 
 His  printed  works  are  numerous.  He  died 
 in  1690. 
 
 ELIOT,  George  Augustus,  Lord 
 HEATHFiEED,theson  of  a  Roxburghshire 
 baronet,  was  born  about  1717,  and  re- 
 ceived his  education  at  Leyden.  He  first 
 bore  arms  in  the  Prussian  service;  but  re- 
 turned to  Scotland  in  1735,  and,  in  the 
 following  year,  entered  the  engineer  corps, 
 from  which  he  removed  into  the  horse  gre- 
 nadiers. He  distinguished  himself  at  Det- 
 tingen,  and  during  the  seven  years'  war  in 
 Germany.  His  laurels,  however,  were 
 chiefly  gained  at  Gibraltar,  of  which  for- 
 tress he  was  appointed  governor  in  1775, 
 and  which  he  defended  with  consummate 
 constancy  and  talent.  The  title  of  Lord 
 Heathfield  and  the  order  of  the  Bath  were 
 bestowed  on  him  as  a  reward.  He  died 
 in  1790. 
 
 ELIZABETH,  Queen  of  England,  the 
 dau?hte.-  of  Henry  VIII.  by  Anne  Boleyn, 
 was"  born  in  1533;  was  educated  as  a 
 protestant;  and  was  also  initiated  into 
 classical  literature.  After  having  been  ex- 
 posed to  considerable  danger  during  the 
 reign  of  Mary,  she  ascended  the  throne  in 
 1558.  Her  reign  was  bag  and  glorious; 
 the  nation  was  raised  to  a  nigh  degree  "|" 
 prosperity,  and    its   enemies    v\crc    baffled 
 
 ELL 
 
 and  disgraced.  Among  the  greatest  events 
 of  her  reign  was  the  defeat  of  die  Spanish 
 armada,  in  1588.  She  died  March  24, 
 1603.  Elizabedi  was  never  married,  and 
 she  was  proud  of  the  title  of  the  Virgin 
 Queen,  though  it  must  be  owned  that,  in 
 many  instances,  her  conduct  was  such  as 
 to  render  doubtful  her  right  to  the  title. 
 With  many  of  the  qualities  of  a  great  sov- 
 ereign, she  had  many  weaknesses  which  der- 
 ogated heavily  from  her  character.  As  a 
 scholar  she  has  claims  to  attention.  With 
 Greek  and  La? in  she  was  familiar;  from 
 the  former  she  translated  a  play  of  Euri- 
 pides, a  dialogue  of  Xenophon,  and  two 
 orations  of  Isocrates;  from  the  latter,  Sal- 
 lust's  Jugurthine  War;  part  of  Horace's 
 Art  of  Poetry;  and  Boethius's  Consolations 
 of  Philosophy.  She  also  wrote  a  Comment 
 on  Plato,  a  few  verses,  and  various  prayers, 
 meditations,  and  speeches. 
 
 ELLERY,  William,  a  signer  of  the  dec- 
 laration of  independence,  was  born  in  New- 
 port, in  1727.  He  was  graduated  at  Har- 
 vard College,  and  entered  upon  the  prac- 
 tice of  law  in  his  native  town.  In  1776, 
 he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  continent- 
 al Congress,  and  was  an  active  and  influ- 
 ential member  of  that  body.  He  was  suc- 
 cessively a  member  of  Congress,  a  commis- 
 sioner of  the  continental  loan  office,  a  chief 
 justice  of  the  superior  court  of  Rhode  Is- 
 land, and  collector  of  the  customs  of  the 
 town  of  Newport.  He  died  suddenly  in 
 1820,  while  engaged  in  reading  Cicero  de 
 Officiis. 
 
 ELLIOTT,  Stephen,  a  botanist  and 
 man  of  letters,  was  born  at  Beaufort, 
 South  Carolina,  in  1771,  and  received  his 
 education  at  Yale  College.  On  his  return 
 home  he  applied  himself  to  the  improve- 
 ment of  his  paternal  estate,  devoting  his 
 leisure  hours  to  history  and  poetry.  At  the 
 age  of  22  he  was  chosen  to  the  legislature 
 of  his  native  state,  where  he  obtained  con- 
 siderable influence,  by  his  knowledge,  at- 
 tention, and  power  of  argument.  He  was 
 chosen  president  of  the  state  bank,  establish- 
 ed in  1812,  and  continued  to  discharge  the 
 duties  of  this  office  with  ability  to  the  time 
 of  his  death.  His  two  volumes  of  the  bot- 
 anv  of  South  Carolina  are  held  in  high  es- 
 timation, and  his  lectures  before  several  lit- 
 erary and  learned  societies  obtained  great 
 applause.  His  acquisitions  in  literature 
 and  science  v\ere  extensive,  and  he  left  a 
 valuable  collection  in  the  several  branches 
 of  natural  history  scientifically  arranged. 
 He  was  the  chief  editor  of  the  Southern 
 Review,  and  the  author  of  some  of  its  best 
 articles.  He  died  in  1830.  Most  of  his 
 productions  remain  in  manuscript. 
 
 ELLIS,  John,  a  native  of  London,  born 
 in  KiHS,  was  by  profession  a  money  scriv- 
 ener, and  died  in  1792,  having  possessed 
 his  (acuities  to  the  last.     Johnson,  who  waa 
 
ELL 
 
 his  frequent  guest,  said,  "  The  most  litera- 
 ry conversation  I  ever  enjoyed  was  at  the 
 table  of  Jack  Ellis."  Ellis  wrote  some  fu- 
 gitive poems;  translated  the  Surprise,  or 
 Gentleman  Apothecary;  and  burlesqued 
 Maph;eus's  additional  book  to  the  vEneid. 
 He  also  made  a  version,  which  was  never 
 published,  of  Ovid's  Epistles. 
 
 ELLIS,  William,  an  agriculturist, 
 was  born  towards  the  close  of  the  seven- 
 teenth century,  and  died  after  the  middle 
 of  the  eighteenth.  He  was  a  farmer  at 
 Great  Gaddesden,  Herts,  and  enjoyed  con- 
 siderable reputation  in  his  time  as  an  ag- 
 ricultural writer,  and  an  inventor  and  maker 
 of  farming  instruments.  His  principal  work 
 is,  The  Modern  Husbandman,  in  eight  vol- 
 umes. 
 
 ELLIS,  John,  a  naturalist,  was  born  in 
 London  in  1710,  and  died  in  1776.  He 
 held  the  office  of  agent  for  Florida  and  Do- 
 minica, and  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
 Society,  to  the  Transactions  of  which  body 
 he  communicated  many  papers.  He  is  the 
 author  of  various  works,  the  chief  of  which 
 are,  An  Essay  towards  a  Natural  History 
 of  British  Corallines ;  and  a  Natural  History 
 of  uncommon  Zoophytes.  Ellis  was  one  of 
 the  first  writers  who  established  the  ani- 
 mal nature  of  corallines. 
 
 ELLIS,  George,  an  elegant  miscella- 
 neous writer,  was  a  native  of  London,  and 
 received  his  education  at  Westminster 
 School,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
 Early  in  life  he  was  connected  with  the 
 whigs,  and  took  a  share  in  producing  the 
 pungent  satire  called  the  Rolliad.  He, 
 however,  was  converted  to  the  party  of  Mr. 
 Pitt,  held  an  office,  and  was  secretary  to 
 Lord  Malmesbury,  on  the  embassy  to  Lisle. 
 He  died,  at  the  age  of  seventy,  in  1815. 
 His  Specimens  of  early  English  Poets,  and 
 Specimens  of  early  English  Metrical  Ro- 
 mances, bear  witness  to  his  taste  and  re- 
 search. He  also  added  a  preface,  notes, 
 and  appendix  to  Way's  Fabliaux;  and  con- 
 tributed to  the  Anti-Jacobin  paper. 
 
 ELLSWORTH,  Oliver,  an  American 
 judge  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Windsor, 
 Connecticut,  in  1745,  and  was  graduated 
 at  the  college  of  Nassau  Hall,  at  Princeton, 
 in  1766.  Devoting  himself  to  the  practice 
 of  the  law,  he  soon  rose  to  distinction  by 
 the  energy  of  his  mind  and  his  eloquence. 
 From  the  earliest  period  of  discontent,  he 
 joined  the  cause  of  the  colonies,  and  in  1777 
 was  elected  a  member  of  tlie  Continental 
 Congress.  In  this  body  he  remained  tor 
 three  years,  and  in  17S4  he  was  appointed 
 a  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  the  state. 
 He  was  a  delegate  to  the  convention  for 
 framing  the  federal  constitution,  and  was  a 
 senator  in  the  first  congress.  In  1796  he 
 was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme 
 Court  of  the  United  States,  and  in  1799 
 was  sent  envoy  extraordinary  to  Fiance. 
 11 
 
 ELS  241 
 
 The  decline  of  his  health  induced  him  to 
 resign  his  seat  on  the  bench,  and  he  retired 
 to  his  family  residence  at  Windsor,  where 
 he  died  in  1807. 
 
 ELLWOOD,  Thomas,  a  quaker,  was 
 born,  in  1639,  at  Crowell,  in  Oxfordshire. 
 He  was  an  active  controversialist,  and  en- 
 dured considerable  persecution.  At  one 
 time  he  was  amanuensis  to  Milton,  and  to 
 this  circumstance  we  are  indebted  for  the 
 Paradise  Regained.  "Thou  hast  said 
 much  of  Paradise  Lost,"  exclaimed  Ell- 
 wood,  "  but  what  hast  thou  to  say  of  Para- 
 dise found  1"  The  hint  was  taken  by  the 
 immortal  bard.  Ellwood,  who  died  in 
 1714,  wrote  his  own  Life;  Davideis,  a  po- 
 em ;  Sacred  History ;  and  the  Foundation 
 of  Tithes  shaken ;  besides  numerous  minor 
 productions. 
 
 ELMACINUS,  orELMAKIN, 
 George,  an  oriental  historian,  who  is  be- 
 lieved to  have  been  a  christian,  was  born 
 in  1223,  and  succeeded  his  father  as  one  of 
 the  secretaries  to  the  sultan  of  Egypt.  He 
 died  in  1273.  Elmacinus  is  the  author  of 
 an  Arabic  chronicle,  from  the  creation 
 down  to  1118,  which  Erpenius  translated 
 into  Latin. 
 
 ELPHINSTON,  James,  a  native  of 
 Edinburgh,  born  in  1721,  and  educated  at 
 the  university  of  his  native  city,  was  for 
 many  years  the  master  of  a  boarding  school 
 in  the  vicinity  of  London.  He  died  at 
 Hammersmith  in  1809.  The  translations 
 of  the  mottos  in  the  Edinburgh  edition  of 
 the  Rambler,  in  1750,  were  made  by  him. 
 For  a  considerable  part  of  his  life  he  was 
 engaged  in  a  chimerical  attempt  to  remodel 
 English  orthography;  and  on  this  subject 
 he  published  several  works,  among  which 
 is  a  Selection  of  his  Correspondence  with 
 eminent  persons.  He  also  produced  a  bad 
 translation  of  Martial,  and  an  English 
 Grammar. 
 
 ELSTOB,  William,  a  divine  and  a 
 Saxon  scholar,  was  born,  in  1673,  at  New- 
 castle upon  Tyne;  and  was  educated  at 
 Eton,  Cambridge,  and  Oxford,  in  which 
 latter  university  he  was  chosen  a  fellow  of 
 University  College.  He  obtained  the  rec- 
 tory of  St.  Swithin,  London,  in  which  he 
 died,  in  1714.  In  the  Saxon  language  he 
 was  well  versed,  and  translated  from  it  the 
 Homily  of  Lupus.  Unfortunately,  he  did 
 not  carry  into  effect  his  design  of  publish- 
 ing a  collection  of  the  Saxon  Laws. 
 
 ELSTOB,  Elizabeth,  sister  of  the 
 foregoing,  was  born  at  Newcastle  in  1683, 
 and  was  as  good  a  Saxon  scholar  as  her 
 brother.  She  translated  the  Homily  of 
 St.  Gregory,  and  published  a  Saxon 
 Grammar.  From  Queen  Caroline  she  had 
 a  trifling  pension,  which  ceased  upon  her 
 majesty's  death ;  but  she  was  snatched  from 
 poverty,  by  being  taken  into  the  family  of 
 the  Duchess  of  Portland.    She  died  in  1756 
 
242  EMM 
 
 ELZEVIR.  The  name  of  a  celebrated 
 family  of  printers,  who  resided  at  Amster- 
 dam and  Leyden.  Louis,  the  first  of  them, 
 exercised  his  profession  from  1592  to  1617, 
 
 ENG 
 
 fortune  much  impaired  in  the  course  of  his 
 political  career.  After  some  deliberation 
 between  the  two  professions,  for  which  he 
 was  equally  well  qualified,  he  determined 
 
 and  took  for  his  device  an  eagle  holding  in  favour  of  the  bar.  Contrary  to  the  usual 
 seven  arrows,  with  the  motto,  Concordia  |  rules,  he  was  at  once  admitted  to  the  bar, 
 res  parvae  crescuat.  This  he  afterwards' and  in  a  few  years  rivalled  in  extent  of 
 exchanged  for  that  of  a  man  standing,  with  ]  practice  and  reputation  the  most  eminent 
 
 the  motto,  Won  solus;  and  this  was  adopt- 
 ed by  his  successors.  His  descendants  con- 
 tinued in  the  profession  till  the  end  of  the 
 seventeenth  century-  Their  editions  are 
 numerous,  and  highly  valued. 
 
 EMERSON,  William,  a  celebrated 
 mathematician,  was  born,  in  1701,  atllur- 
 worth,  pear  Darlington,  and  died  there  in 
 17S2.  His  father  was  a  schoolmaster,  and 
 his  son  succeeded  him,  but  retired  from  that 
 occupation,  and  lived  on  a  small  property. 
 In  his  manners  he  was  eccentric  and  boor- 
 ish ;  but  his  scientific  merit  is  great.  Among 
 his  works  are,  The  Doctrine  of  Fluxions; 
 Elements  of  Optics;  Elements  of  Trigo- 
 nometry ;  The  Arithmetic,  of  Infinites; 
 and  Treatises  on  Algebra,  Mechanics,  Nav- 
 igation, and  other  subjects. 
 
 EMILIANUS,  Marcus  Julius,  a  na- 
 tive of  Mauritania,  of  an  obscure  family, 
 had  risen  by  his  courage  to  be  governor  of 
 Moesia,  when,  A.  D.  253,  his  soldiers  pro- 
 claimed him  emperor.  He  defeated  Gal- 
 ins,  who  was  assassinated  by  his  own  troops, 
 but  he  enjoyed  the  throne  only  four  monfhs, 
 he,  too,  being  murdered,  near  Spoleto,  by 
 those  whom  he  commanded.  "Obscurissi- 
 mi  natus,  obscurius  imperavit,"  says  Eu- 
 tropius,  in  speaking  of  him. 
 
 EMMET,  Thomas   Addis,  was  born 
 
 American  lawyers.  In  1812  he  was  ap- 
 pointed attorney  general  of  the  state  of 
 New  York.  His  death  took  place  very 
 suddenly,  in  1827.  He  was  a  learned  and 
 laborious  lawyer,  and  an  energetic  and  el- 
 oquent advocate. 
 
 EMLYN,  Thomas,  a  native  of  Lin- 
 colnshire, born  at  Stamford  in  1663,  was 
 brought  up  as  a  dissenting  minister,  and, 
 in  1691,  settled  at  Dublin,  as  assistant  to 
 the  Reverend  Joseph  Boyce;  but  was  soon 
 interdicted  from  his  pastoral  duties,  on 
 suspicion  of  Arianism.  His  humble  inqui- 
 ry into  the  Scripture  Account  of  Jesus 
 Christ  brought  on  him  a  prosecution  for 
 blasphemy,  and  he  was  heavily  fined  and 
 imprisoned.  On  his  release,  he  removed  to 
 London,  where  he  died,  in  1743.  Emlyn's 
 character  was  amiable  and  unimpeachable, 
 and  he  was  in  habits  of  friendship  with 
 Dr.  Clarke,  Whiston,  and  other  eminent 
 men.  His  works  have  been  collected  in- 
 to two  volumes  8vo. 
 
 EMPEDOCLES,  a  Pythagorean  philos- 
 opher, was  a  native  of  Agrigentum,  in  Si- 
 cily, where  he  flourished  about  B.  c.  444. 
 He  refused  the  sovereignty,  which  was  of- 
 fered to  him  by  his  fellow  citizens,  and  es- 
 tablished a  popular  government.  He  was 
 skilled   in   philosophy  and   medicine,   and 
 
 in  the  city  of  Cork,  Ireland,  in  1764.  He  (had  a  talent  for  poetry.  Some  ascribe-  to 
 was  originally  intended  for  the  medical! him  the  Golden  Verses,  which  others  at- 
 profession,  and  after  completing  his  classi-  tribute  to  Pythagoras.  The  story  that  he 
 cal  studies  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  com- 1  died  by  throwing  himself  into  mount  Etna 
 menced  his  preparatory  professional  studies  j  is,  probably,  as  fabulous  as  another  story, 
 at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  where  he!  that  he  was  carried  away  by  a  cloud. 
 was  graduated  in  1784.  The  death  of  his  ENFIELD,  William,  a  dissenting  mi- 
 elder  brother,  a  member  of  the  Irish  bar,  nister  and  general  writer,  was  born  at 
 induced  him  to  relinquish  the  study  of  mod-  j  Sudbury  in  1741,  and,  after  having  been 
 icine  and  commence  that  of  the  law.  Two  pastor  to  a  congregation  at  Liverpool,  be- 
 years  having  been  spent  at  London  in  at-  came  resident  tutor  and  lecturer  on  belles 
 tending  terms  in  the  Temple,  and  the  courts  lettres  at  Warrington  Academy;  a  situa- 
 at  Westminster,  he  returned  to   his   native  tion  which   he  retained  till  the   dissolution 
 
 land,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  IB  1791,  and 
 commenced  the  practice  of  the  law  in  Dub- 
 lin. He  soon  rose  to  distinction  and  ob- 
 tained an  extensive  business.  In  1798  he 
 was  arrested  and  committed  to  prison  on 
 account  of  his  connection  with  the  associa-iand  various  other  works:  and  was  one  of 
 
 of  that  establishment.  He  died  at  Nor- 
 wich, in  1797.  He  published  an  abridged 
 translation  of  Brucker's  History  of  Philos- 
 ophy; The  Speaker;  Exercises  on  Elocu- 
 Institutions  of  Natural  Philosophy; 
 
 tion 
 
 tipn  of  United  Irishmen,  and  remained  in 
 the  custody  of  the  government  till  1802. 
 The  winter  of  that  year  he  spent  with  his 
 wife  and  family  in  Brussels,  and  that  of 
 18Q3  at  Paris.  In  October  1804  they  sail- 
 ed from  Bordeaux  for  the  United  States, 
 and  arrived  in  New  York  on  the  11th  of 
 the  next  month.     He  was  then  about   forty 
 
 the  principal  contributors  to  Aikin's  Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary. 
 
 EN  GEL,  John  James,  a  German  wri- 
 ter, a  native  of  Mecklenburgh,  was  born 
 at  Parchau  in  1741,  and  died  there  in  1802, 
 From  1776  to  1787,  he  was  professor  of 
 morals  and  literature  at  Berlin,  and  had, 
 subsequently!  along  with  Ramler,  the  man-* 
 
 years  of  age,  with  a  large  family,   aud  hislagement,  till  1794,  of  the  Berlin  theatre 
 
EON 
 
 His  works,  which  are  remarkable  for  per- 
 spicuity and  correct  taste,  form  twelve  vol- 
 umes. Among  them  are,  Ideas  on  the  Dra- 
 matic Art;  Lorenz  Stark,  a  romance;  and 
 two  excellent  comedies. 
 
 ENGELBRECHT,  John,  a  celebrated 
 German  visionary,  born  in  1599  at  Bruns- 
 wick, was  the  son  of  a  tailor  Bad  health, 
 misery,  and  religious  fanaticism, combined 
 to  overthrow  his  reason.  He  fasted  at 
 times  for  a  fortnight  together,  and  remain- 
 ed without  sleep  for  a  much  longer  period, 
 and  occasionally  fell  into  trances,  during 
 which  he  believed  that  he  was  transported 
 to  hell  and  to  paradise,  and  that  he  receiv- 
 ed the  mission  of  exhorting  mankind  to  re- 
 pentance. He  wandered  for  several  years 
 through  Germany,  published  his  imaginary 
 revelations,  and  was  not  without  prose- 
 lytes. At  length,  completely  worn  out,  he 
 died  in  1642. 
 
 ENGLEFIELD,  Sir  Henry  Charles, 
 was  born  in  1752,  and  died  in  1822.  He 
 was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  and  Antiquarian 
 Societies,  and  contributed  largely  to  their 
 transactions.  His  scientific  knowledge  was 
 extensive,  and  he  was  an  excellent  classical 
 scholar.  Among  his  separate  works  are, 
 Tables  of  the  apparent  place  of  the  Comet 
 of  16S1 ;  On  the  Determination  of  the  Or- 
 bits of  Comets ;  A  Walk  through  South- 
 ampton ;  and  a  Description  of  the  Pictur- 
 esque Beauties  and  Geological  Phenomena 
 of  the  Isle  of  Wight. 
 
 ENNIUS,  Quintus,  an  early  Latin  po- 
 et, born  B.  c.  237,  was  a  native  of  Cala- 
 bria, and  served  in  Sardinia,  whence  he 
 was  brought  to  Rome  by  Cato  the  Censor. 
 He  was  patronised  by  that  eminent  man,  to 
 whom  he  taught  Greek,  by  Scipio  Africa- 
 nus,  and  by  other  eminent  characters.  He 
 died  B.  c.  169.  Of  his  Roman  annals  in 
 verse,  poems,  tragedies,  and  other  compo- 
 sitions, nothing  is  extant  but  a  few  frag- 
 ments. Virgil  sometimes  imitated  him, 
 which  he  called  picking  pearls  from  the 
 dunghill  of  Ennius. 
 
 EON  DE  BEAUMONT,  Chevalier 
 Charles  Genevieve  d',  a  character 
 over  whom  hung  for  many  years  much  mys- 
 tery, was  born  in  1728  at  Tonnerre,  in  Bur- 
 gundy, was  originally  at  the  bar,  but  left  it 
 to  become  a  diplomatist,  and  was  employed 
 on  a  mission  in  Russia.  During  the  seven 
 years'  war,  he  served,  with  applause,  as  an 
 officer  of  dragoons,  under  Marshal  Broglio. 
 He  was  subsequently  minister  plenipoten- 
 tiary to  the  British  court,  but  was  superse- 
 ded bv  the  count  de  Guiche.  A  quarrel 
 arose  between  them  which  rendered  it  im- 
 prudent for  him  to  return  to  France.  For 
 about  fifteen  years  he  resided  in  England, 
 during  the  latter  part  of  which  period 
 doubts  arose  respecting  his  sex.  On  his 
 return  to  France,  in  1777,  he  assumed  the 
 
 EPi 
 
 243 
 
 garb  of  a  female,  which  he  continued  to 
 wear  till  his  decease.  The  revolution  de- 
 prived him  of  a  pension,  and  compelled  him 
 to  take  refuge  in  England,  where  he  died  in 
 1810.  He  was  then  ascertained  to  be  of 
 the  masculine  gender;  but  the  cause  of  his 
 appearing  as  a  female  has  never  been  as- 
 certained. D'Eon  was  a  man  of  talent; 
 his  works  have  been  collected  in  thirteen 
 volumes,  under  the  title  of  Loisirs. 
 
 EPAMINONDAS,  one  of  the  most  il- 
 lustrious of  the  Thebans,  brave,  patriotic, 
 and  incorruptible,  was  the  son  of  Polyninis. 
 He  saved  the  life  of  Pelopidas,  in  a  battle 
 against  the  Arcadians;  incited  hiin  to  lib- 
 erate Thebes  from  the  Lacedemonian  yoke; 
 defeated  Cleombrotus,  and  gained  the  bat- 
 tle of  Leuctra ;  overcame  Alexander,  ty- 
 rant of  Pheraea;  and,  at  last,  fell  at  Man- 
 tinea,  b.  c.  363,  in  the  moment  of  gaining 
 a  victory  over  the  Spartans.  Cicero  con- 
 sidered him  as  the  greatest  man  that  Greece 
 ever  produced. 
 
 EPEE,  Charles  Michael  de  l',  a 
 French  abbe,  the  son  of  an  architect,  was 
 born  at  Versailles  in  1712,  and  died  in 
 1789.  The  greatest  part  of  his  life  was 
 spent  in  the  philanthropic  occupation  of 
 teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb.  His  estab- 
 lishment, which  was  the  first  of  the  kind, 
 was  instituted  by  his  own  unaided  exer- 
 tions. He  possessed  a  yearly  income  of 
 somewhat  less  than  three  hundred  pounds, 
 almost  the  whole  of  which  he  expended  in 
 feeding  and  clothing  his  unfortunate  pupils ; 
 restricting  himself  to  the  plainest  food  and 
 the  coarsest  apparel,  in  order  to  provide 
 for  their  wants. 
 
 EPICHARMUS,  an  ancient  poet  and 
 philosopher,  who  flourished  about  B.  c. 
 440,  and  is  said  to  have  reached  his  nine- 
 ty-seventh year,  was  born  in  the  island  of 
 Cos,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Pythagoras.  He 
 wrote  fifty-two  comedies,  all  of  which 
 are  lost,  and  he  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 one  of  the  first  who  gave  regularity  to  that 
 species  of  composition.  He  also  wrote 
 upon  medical  and  philosophical  subjects. 
 
 EPICTETUS,  a  celebrated  Stoic  philos- 
 opher, who  flourished  in  the  first  century, 
 was  born  at  IJierapolis,  in  Phrygia,  and 
 was  originally  a  slave  to  Epaphroditus,  one 
 of  Nero's  freedmen.  Having  obtained  his 
 freedom,  he  retired  to  an  humble  hut,  and 
 gave  himself  up  wholly  to  the  study  of  phi- 
 losophy. His  lessons  were  greatly  admir- 
 ed, and  his  life  afforded  an  example  of  un- 
 blemished virtue.  Being  banished  from 
 Rome,  with  the  other  philosophers,  by  Do- 
 mitian,  he  settled  at  Nicopolis,  in  Epirus. 
 Whether  he  ever  returned  to  the  Roman 
 capital  is  uncertain ;  nor  do  we  know  the 
 period  at  which  he  died.  His  memory  was 
 so  much  venerated  that  the  earthern  lamp.' 
 which  gave  him  light  was  sold  for  more 
 
244  ERA 
 
 than  ninety  pounds.  His  admirable  En- 
 chiridion, a  manual  of  morality,  was  trans- 
 lated into  English  by  3Ire.  Carter 
 
 EPICURUS,  the  founder  of  the  Epicu- 
 rean sect,  was  born  B.C.  342,  at  Gorget- 
 tus,  in  the  vicinity  of  Athens.  After  having 
 studied  at  Athens,  he  resided  successively 
 at  Colophon,  Mitylene,  and  Lainpsacus. 
 At  the  age  of  thirty-six  he  returned  to  the 
 Athenian  capital,  and  purchased  a  garden, 
 in  which  he  expounded  his  system  of  phi- 
 losophy; whence  bis  followers  were  de- 
 nominated the  philosophers  of  the  garden. 
 His  doctrines  became  popular,  and  his 
 disciples  were  remarkable  for  their  mutu- 
 al affection.  He  died  b.  c.  271.  Of- his 
 works  only  a  few  fragments  remain.  His 
 system  is  elegantly  unfolded  in  the  poem 
 of  Lucretius.  That  its  main  principles  are 
 fundamentally  erroneous,  and  lead  to  dan- 
 gerous consequences,  cannot  be  denied; 
 but  it  is  a  gross  mistake  to  suppose  that 
 Epicurus  was  a  vicious  man,  or  that  he 
 recommended  vicious  practices.  On  the 
 contrary,  his  conduct  was  virtuous,  and 
 the  pleasure  which  he  taught  his  pupils  to 
 pursue  was  that  pleasure  which  is  attaina- 
 ble by  virtue  alone. 
 
 EPONINA,  a  Roman  female,  who  has 
 not  unaptly  been  denominated  the  heroine 
 of  conjugal  affection.  Julius  Sabinus,  her 
 husband,  having  been  defeated  in  his  revolt 
 against  Vespasian,  he  spread  a  report  of 
 his  own  death,  and  took  shelter  in  a  sub- 
 terranean vault,  where  he  lived  concealed 
 with  Eponina  during  nine  years.  At  last 
 the  secret  was  discovered,  and  Sabinus 
 was  led  before  the  emperor.  Not  being 
 successful  in  imploring  the  clemency  of 
 Vespasian  for  her  husband,  the  noble- 
 minded  Eponina  refused  to  survive,  and 
 she  perished  with  him,  a.  d.  78. 
 
 ERASISTRATUS,  a  celebrated  ancient 
 physician,  a  pupil  of  Chrysippus  of  Cnidus, 
 was  born  in  the  island  of  Ceos,  and  lived 
 at  the  court  of  Seleucus  Nicanor,  king  of 
 Syria,  where  he  acquired  great  reputation, 
 by  his  talents,  and  by  his  skilful  discovery 
 of  the  concealed  love  of  Antiochus  for 
 Strat. mice.  He  was  one  of  the  first  who 
 dissected  human  bodies,  and  accurately- 
 described  the  brain.  Blood-letting  he  strove 
 to  banish  wholly  from  practice,  and  he 
 disapproved  of  tapping  for  the  dropsy; 
 but  in  tumours  of  the  liver  he  did  not 
 scruple  to  cut  open  the  abdomen  in  order 
 to  apply  remedies  in  contact  with  the  dis- 
 eased organ.  In  extreme  old  age,  the 
 pain  of  an  ulcer  in  his  foot  is  said  to  have 
 induced  him  to  put  an  end  to  his  own 
 existence. 
 
 ERASMUS,  Desiderius,  one  of  the 
 greatest  scholars  of  modern  times,  was 
 born  at  Rotterdam  in  1467.  He  was  the 
 natural  son  of  a  person  named  Gerard. 
 That  name  signifies  amiable  in  German, 
 
 ERA 
 
 and,  after  his  fadier's  decease,  he  trans- 
 leatd    it    into  the  equivalent  Greek   and 
 
 Latin  words,  and  assumed  them  as  his 
 appellation.  He  was  educated  at  Deventer. 
 Having  embezzled  his  property,  his  guar- 
 dians took  him  from  school,  and,  by  ill 
 usage,  drove  him  to  enter  into  a  convent. 
 In  1492  he  took  priest's  orders.  Having 
 completed  his  studies  at  Montaign  College, 
 Paris,  he  subsisted  by  giving  lessons  to 
 persons  of  quality.  Among  his  pupils  was 
 Lord  Mountjoy,  on  whose  invitation,  in 
 1497,  he  visited  England,  where  he  be- 
 came intimate  with  More,  Colet,  and  other 
 eminent  men.  From  1497  till  1510  he 
 spent  in  France,  the  Netherlands,  and 
 Italy,  during  which  period  he  published 
 various  works,  and  acquired  high  reputa- 
 tion. In  1510  he  again  came  to  England; 
 wrote  his  Praise  of  Folly,  while  residing 
 with  Sir  Thomas  More ;  and  was  appointed 
 Margaret  professor  of  divinity,  and  Greek 
 lecturer,  at  Cambridge.  Returning  to  the 
 continent  in  1514,  he  vigorously  continued 
 his  literary  labours.  Basil  was  chiefly  the 
 place  of  his  residence.  Among  the  numer- 
 ous works  which  he  now  produced,  may 
 be  mentioned  an  edition  of  the  works  of 
 St.  Jerome;  an  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment, with  a  Latin  translation  ;  his  dialogue 
 intitled  Ciceronianus;  and  his  celebrated 
 Colloquies,  which,  attacking  superstition 
 and  church  abuses,  gave  such  offence  to 
 bigoted  catholics,  that  he  was  branded  by 
 them  as  having  laid  the  egg  which  Luther 
 hatched.  With  Luther,  however,  whom 
 he  had  provoked  by  his  treatise  on  Free 
 Will,  he  was  in  open  hostility.  Erasmus 
 died  July  12,  1536.  A  complete  edition 
 of  his  works,  in  ten  volumes  folio,  was 
 published  by  Le  Clerc. 
 
 ERASTUS,  Thomas,  a  native  of  Ba- 
 den Durlach,  was  born  at  Auggenen,  in 
 1523;  studied  at  Basil  and  Bologna;  and 
 became  physician  to  the  Elector  Palatine, 
 who  made  him  professor  of  medicine  at 
 Heidelberg.  His  family  name  was  Lieber, 
 or  Beloved,  which  he  Grecized  into  Eras- 
 mus. He  died  professor  at  Basil,  in  1583. 
 Besides  several  medical  works,  he  wrote 
 a  treatise  on  Ecclesiastical  Excommunica- 
 
ERI 
 
 tion,  which  was  not  published  till  after  his 
 decease.  It  denies  the  authority  of  the 
 church  to  censure  or  to  absolve;  and,  of 
 course,  it  was  bitterly  inveighed  against 
 both  by  catholics  and  protestants.  It, 
 however,  made  numerous  proselytes,  who 
 were  called  Erastians. 
 
 ERATOSTHENES,  a  native  of  Gy- 
 rene, born  B.  c.  276,  was  keeper  of  the 
 Alexandrian  library  during  the  reigns  of 
 Ptolemy  the  third  and  fifth.  At  the  age  of 
 eighty,  he  is  said  to  have  .starved  himself  to 
 death  in  consequence  of  his  loss  of  sight. 
 He  was  at  once  a  geometrician,  astrono- 
 mer, geographer,  philosopher,  grammarian, 
 and  poet.  Delambre  considers  him  as  the 
 first  founder  of  genuine  astronomy.  Of 
 his  works  only  fragments  remain.  The 
 method  of  measuring  the  circumference  of 
 the  globe  was  discovered  bv  Eratosthenes. 
 
 ERCILLA  Y  ZUNIGA,  Don  Alonzo, 
 a  Spanish  poet  and  soldier,  was  born, 
 about  1525,  at  Bermeo,  in  Biscay;  was 
 brought  up  at  the  court  of  Charles  V.,  and 
 was  page  to  Philip  II.;  and  afterwards 
 fought  against  the  Araucaniana  in  Chili. 
 It  was  while  he  was  serving  in  Chili  that 
 he  wrote  the  first  part  of  his  Araucana; 
 sometimes  on  scraps  of  paper,  and  some- 
 times on  bits  of  leather.  The  first  two 
 parts  appeared  in  1577;  the  whole  in 
 1590.  He  died  about  1595.  In  point  of 
 merit  the  Araucana  ranks  with,  or  near 
 to,  the  Lusiad.  Specimens  of  it  have 
 been  translated  into  English  by  Hayley, 
 and  also  by  Boyd.  The  version  by  Boyd 
 was  printed  in  the  Poetical  Register,  Vol. 
 
 IV. 
 
 ERICEIRA,  Ferdinand  MENEZES, 
 count  of,  a  Portuguese  statesman  and  au- 
 thor, born  at  Lisbon  in  1614,  died  in  1699, 
 was  governor  of  Peniche  and  Tangier,  and 
 filled  several  important  offices  in  the  state. 
 He  is  the  author  of  A  History  of  Tangier; 
 A  History  of  Portugal  from  1640  to  1657; 
 A  Life  of  John  I.  of  Portugal;  and  various 
 poems  and  miscellaneous  productions. — 
 His  brother,  Louis,  born  at  Lisbon  in 
 1632,  died  1690,  was  a  warrior,  a  states- 
 man, and  a  writer.  He  produced  A  Life 
 of  Scanderbeg;  and  A  History  of  the 
 Restoration  of  Portugal. — Francis  Xa- 
 vier,  a  son  of  Louis,  who  was  born  at 
 Lisbon  in  1673,  and  died  in  1743,  was  a 
 worthy  rival  of  his  father  and  uncle.  He 
 wrote  an  epic,  called  the  Henriqueada; 
 many  smaller  poems ;  and  numerous  papers 
 in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Academy 
 of  Lisbon. 
 
 ERIGENA,  John  Scotus,  a  learned 
 man  of  the  ninth  century.  The  place  of 
 his  birth  is  doubtful.  Herefordshire, Wales, 
 Ireland,  and  Ayrshire,  have  all  been  men- 
 tioned, but  thelatter  is  the  most  probable. 
 He  studied  at  Athens.  For  many  years 
 he  lived  at  the  court  of  Charles  the  Bald, 
 
 ERS  245 
 
 and  was  the  director  of  the  university  of 
 Paris.  He  was  subsequently  patronised  by 
 Alfred,  who  appointed  him  professor  of 
 mathematics  and  astronomy  at  Oxford. 
 He  afterwards  established  a  school  at 
 Malmesbury  Abbey,  where  his  scholars  are 
 said  to  have  murdered  him,  on  account 
 of  his  severity.  Others  state  that  he  died 
 in  France.  His  Treatise  on  the  Nature 
 of  Things  was  published  by  Gale  in 
 1631. 
 
 ERNESTI,  John  Augustus,  an  emi- 
 nent German  critic,  was  born,  in  1707,  at 
 Tennstadt,  in  Thuringia,  and  studied  at 
 Leipsic,  where  he  ultimately  became  pro- 
 fessor of  ancient  literature,  rhetoric,  and 
 theolosry.  He  died  in  1781.  Among  his 
 numerous  publications  are  editions  of  Ho- 
 mer, Callimachus,  Polybius,  Xenophon, 
 Cicero,  Suetonius,  and  Tacitus;  and  a 
 Theological  Library,  ten  volumes  8vo. — 
 His  nephew,  Augustus  William,  who 
 was  born  in  1753,  and  died  in  1801,  pub- 
 lished Opuscula;  and  editions  of  Livy, 
 Quintilian,  Ammianus,  and  Pomponius 
 Mela. 
 
 ERPENIUS,  or  VAN  ERPEN,  a  na- 
 tive of  Holland,  born  at  Gorcum  in  1584, 
 was  educated  at  Ley  den,  at  which  place, 
 after  having  extensively  travelled  to  im- 
 prove himself,  he  was  chosen  professor  of 
 Arabic  and  Hebrew.  He  died  in  1624. 
 Erpenius  had  a  consummate  knowledge  of 
 oriental  languages;  published  Grammars 
 and  many  other  works,  to  facilitate  the 
 study  of  Arabic  and  Hebrew;  and  trans- 
 lated Ehnacinus's  History  of  the  Saracens. 
 
 ERSCH,  John  Samuel,  an  eminent 
 bibliographer,  a  native  of  Silesia,  was 
 born  at  Gross  Glogau  in  1766,  and  died, 
 in  1828,  principal  librarian,  and  professor 
 of  geography  and  statistics,  at  the  univer- 
 sity of  Halle.  Among  his  works  are, 
 Literary  France,  five  vols.;  A  Catalogue 
 of  Anonymous  and  Pseudonymous  German 
 Works ;  and  A  Manual  of  German  Litera- 
 ture, two  vols.  He  also  edited  the  Jena 
 Literary  Gazette,  and,  subsequently,  the 
 Hamburgh  Political  Journal. 
 
 ERSKINE,  Thomas,  lord,  the  moat 
 celebrated  of  modern  forensie  orators,  wai 
 
246 
 
 ER3 
 
 the  third  son  of  the  earl  of  Buchan,  and! 
 was  born  in  Scotland  in  1750.  After 
 having  received  a  good  education  at  Edin- 
 burgh high  school  and  St.  Andrew's  uni-  j 
 versity,  ho  went  to  sea  as  a  midshipman, 
 tinder  Sir  John  Lindaey.  His  early  fond-l 
 nessfor  the  sea,  however,  soon  evaporated, 
 and,  in  176S,  he  entered  the  army,  as  an 
 ensign  of  the  first  regiment  of  foot.  With  I 
 th.it  regiment,  after  having  married,  he ; 
 went  to  .Minorca,  where  he  resided  for 
 three  years.  The  scanty  pittance  of  the 
 rank  which  he  held  being  but  ill  calculated 
 to  support  a  family,  he  was  persuaded  by 
 his  mother  to  turn  his  talents  to  the  law; 
 and  accordingly,  in  his  twenty-sixth  year, 
 he  commenced  bis  legal  studies.  Buller 
 and  Wood,  both  of  whom  became  judges, 
 were  his  instructors.  In  1778,  he  was 
 called  to  the  bar,  and  he  was  instantly 
 successful.  The  splendid  powers  which 
 he  displayed,  in  the  memorable  case  of 
 Captain  Baillie,  placed  him  at  once  in 
 the  first  rank  of  his  profession.  His  sub- 
 sequent efforts  more  than  sustained  his 
 fame.  Among  the  most  prominent  of 
 them  may  be  mentioned,  his  speeches  for 
 Caiman,  Admiral  Keppel,  Lord  George 
 Gordon,  Dean  Shipley,  Stockdale,  Paine, 
 and  the  persons  who  were  tried  for  high 
 treason  in  1794.  In  17S3  he  was  returned 
 to  the  Commons'  House  as  a  member  for 
 Portsmouth,  and  he  continued  to  sit  in 
 that  house  till  he  was  removed  to  the 
 other.  In  principle  he  was  a  whig,  and 
 he  was  a  strenuous  opposer  of  the  war 
 against  the  French  republic.  On  the 
 Causes  and  Consequences  of  that  war  he 
 published  a  pamphlet,  which  went  through 
 nearly  fifty  editions.  In  1806  he  came 
 into  office  with  his  friends,  as  lord  chan- 
 cellor, with  the  title  of  baron;  and  when,! 
 in  the  following  year,  his  party  was  de- 
 prived of  the  reins  of  governmen  ,  he 
 retired  with  the  usual  pension.  During 
 the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  laboured 
 under  considerable  pecuniary  embarrass- 
 ment, and  displayed  some  of  those  "  follies 
 of  the  wise"  which  have  been  too  often 
 witnessed  in  the  decline  of  eminent  men. 
 He  died  November  17,  1823.  Besides  his 
 tract  on  the  French  war,  be  wrote  a  polit- 
 ical romance,  called  Armata,  and  some 
 pamphlets  in  favour  of  the  Greeks.  But 
 as  a  writer  he  has  little  claim  to  praise. 
 The  pen  seems  to  act  on  him  like  a  tor- 
 pedo; his  style  is  lax  and  spiritless.  Nor 
 did  he  stand  higb  as  a  parliamentary 
 orator.  It  was  at  the  bar  that  he  was 
 truly  in  his  element.  There,  his  voice, 
 his  manner,  his  rhetorical  skill,  his  copious- 
 ness of  language,  and  his  mastery  over 
 the  feelings  and  prejudices  of  his  hearers, 
 bore  away  the  palm  from  all  his  rivals, 
 and,  on  most  occasions,  insured  to  him  a 
 complete  triumph. 
 
 ESS 
 
 ESCOBAR  Y  MENDOZA,  Anthoht, 
 
 a  celebrated  Spanish  casuist,  born  at  Vai- 
 ladolid,  in  1589;  entered  the  society  of 
 the  Jesuits  at  the  age  of  fifteen ;  was  for 
 many  yearn  a  popular  preacher;  and  died 
 in  1669.  He  is  the  author  of  several  works, 
 extending  to  forty  volumes  (most  of  them 
 folio),  the  principal  of  which  are,  his 
 Moral  Theology,  and  his  Cases  of  Con- 
 science; the  last  of  these,  in  particular, 
 Pascal  has  rendered  uotorious  by  the 
 severity  with  which  he  has  treated  it  in 
 the  Provincial  Letters. 
 
 ESMENARD,  Joseph  Alphonso,  a 
 French  poet,  a  member  of  the  Institute, 
 was  born,  in  1770,  at  Pelissane,  in  Prov- 
 ence; was  connected  with  several  literary 
 and  political  journals  during  the  revolu- 
 tion ;  travelled  in  various  parts  of  Europe, 
 and  accompanied  General  Leclerc  to  St. 
 Domingo;  and  was  killed,  in  1811,  by  his 
 horse  throwing  him  down  a  precipice. 
 He  is  the  author  of  Navigation,  a  poem; 
 the  operas  of  Trajan  and  Ferdinand  Cor- 
 tez;  and  some  articles  in  the  Universal 
 Biography. 
 
 ESPER,  John  Frederic,  a  German 
 naturalist  and  astronomer,  was  born  at 
 Drossenfeld,  in  Bayreuth,  in  1732,  and 
 died  in  1781.  He  was  the  first  who  ex- 
 amined and  described  the  curious  fossil 
 remains  in  the  subterranean  caverns  of 
 Bayreuth.  On  this  subject  he  published 
 An  Accurate  Description  of  the  Zoolites 
 of  unknown  Animals,  with  plates.  He  is 
 also  the  author  of  A  3Iethod  of  determining 
 the  Orbits  of  Comets,  &c.  without  instru- 
 ments or  mathematical  calculation. 
 
 ESSEX,  Robert  DEVEREUX,  earl 
 of,  the  son  of  Walter  earl  of  Essex  (a 
 man  of  courage  and  talent),  was  born,  in 
 1567,  at  Netherwood,  in  Herefordshire; 
 was  left  by  his  father  under  the  guardian- 
 ship of  Lord  Burleigh;  and  was  educated 
 by  Whitgift  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge. 
 After  having,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  been 
 introduced,  and  received  with  favour,  at 
 court,  he  sought  to  acquire  fame  in  arms. 
 Between  1586  and  1597,  he  distinguished 
 himself  at  the  battle  of  Zutphen;  was  ap- 
 pointed to  command  the  cavalry  at  Tilbury; 
 led  four  thousand  men  to  the  assistance  of 
 Henry  IV.  at  the  siege  of  Rouen;  and 
 conducted  a  successful  expedition  against 
 Cadiz.  In  1597,  he  was  created  earl 
 marshal  of  England;  and  he  now  held 
 the  same  place  that  Leicester  had  formerly 
 held  in  the  favour  of  Elizabeth.  In  1599, 
 he  was  chosen  to  put  down  the  rebellion 
 of  Tyrone  in  Ireland;  and,  on  this  occa- 
 sion, the  queen,  who  had  already  shown 
 some  signs  of  alienation  from  him,  ex- 
 pressed great  dissatisfaction  at  his  conduct 
 Returning  unexpectedly,  he  threw  himself 
 at  her  feet,  and  was  apparently  forgiven; 
 but  her  rigour,  and  his  own  high  spirit,  at 
 
EST 
 
 length  drove  him  to  resist  her  authority 
 by  violence;  and  he  was  in  consequence 
 beheaded  in  1601.  Essex  was  much  and 
 deservedly  beloved;  for  he  was  liberal 
 handed  and  warm  hearted,  intrepid  in 
 the  field,  and  a  patron  of  literary  talent. 
 
 ESSEX,  Robert  DEVEREUX,  earl 
 of,  son  of  the  foregoing,  born  in  1592, 
 was  educated  at  Merton  College,  and,  in 
 1603,  was  restored  to  his  hereditary  hon- 
 ours by  James  I.  Twice  he  was  unfor- 
 tunate in  marriage;  the  first  time  with 
 Lady  Frances  Howard,  the  second  time 
 with  the  daughter  of  Sir  William  Paulet. 
 A  divorce  took  place  in  both  instances. 
 Essex  served  in  the  Palatinate  and  the 
 Netherlands;  was  vice-admiral  in  two 
 maritime  expeditions;  and  lieutenant-gen- 
 eral of  the  army  against  the  Scotch,  in 
 1639.  In  1642  he  espoused  the  cause  of 
 the  parliament,  and  was  placed  at  the  head 
 of  the  army.  At  Edgehill,  Reading,  Glou- 
 cester, and  Newbury,  ha  was  successful; 
 but,  in  1644,  he  was  overcome  in  the  west 
 of  England.     He  died  in  1646. 
 
 ESTAING,  Charles  Henry,  Count 
 d',  a  French  admiral,  born  in  Auvergne. 
 He  was  under  Lally  in  the  East  Indies, 
 and  escaped  from  an  English  prison  by 
 breaking  his  parole.  He  was  commander 
 of  the  French  squadrons  in  the  American 
 war,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  cap- 
 ture of  the  island  of  Grenada.  At  the 
 revolution  he  became  a  member  of  the  as- 
 sembly of  notables,  and  was  guillotined  as 
 a  counter-revolutionist,  in  1793. 
 
 ESTIENNE,  or  STEPHEN,  the  name 
 of  a  French  family  which  produced  many 
 eminent  printers.  Robert,  one  of  the 
 most  celebrated  of  them,  was  born  at 
 Paris  in  1503,  and  died  at  Geneva  in 
 1559.  He  had  a  perfect  knowledge  of 
 ancient  languages  and  the  belles  lettres. 
 Besides  his  editions  of  the  Bible,  and 
 other  works,  he  gave  to  the  world  a  The- 
 saurus of  the  Latin  Language ;  and  the 
 first  Latin  and  French  Dictionary  which 
 appeared  in  France.  His  son,  Henry, 
 the  second  of  that  christian  name,  was 
 born  at  Paris  in  1528,  and  died  in  1598, 
 at  Lyons,  to  which  city  he  had  removed 
 from  Geneva,  where  he  had  been  compelled 
 to  take  refuge,  in  consequence  of  his  hav- 
 ing published  a  satire  against  the  monks. 
 Independent  of  his  other  publications  and 
 works,  among  the  latter  of  which  is  a 
 Latin  version  of  Anacreon,  literature  is 
 indebted  to  him  for  the  valuable  Thesaurus 
 of  the  Greek  language,  in  four  folio  vol- 
 umes. Notwithstanding  his  talents,  learn- 
 ing, and  industry,  he  expired  in  a  hos- 
 pital. 
 
 ESTRADES,  Godfrey,  count  d',  a 
 French  warrior  and  diplomatist,  was  born 
 at  Agen,  in  1607;  served  in  the  Nether- 
 ands,  under  Prince   Maurice;    and    was 
 
 EUB 
 
 247 
 
 afterwards  employed  as  a  negotiator  by 
 his  own  sovereign.  He  concluded  the 
 treaty  with  Charles  II.  for  the  purchase 
 of  Dunkirk ;  the  treaty  of  Breda,  in  1667 ; 
 and  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen,  in  1678.  For 
 these  services  he  was  created  marshal  of 
 France.  He  died  in  1686.  Some  details 
 of  his  Negotiations,  extracted  from  a 
 manuscript  in  twenty-two  folio  volumes, 
 have  been  published  in  nine  volumes, 
 12mo. 
 
 ETHEREGE,  Sir  George,  one  of  the 
 wits  and  gallants  of  the  court  of  Charles 
 II.,  and  who  was  also  one  of"  the  mob  of 
 gentlemen  who  wrote  with  ease,"  was  of 
 a  good  family  in  Oxfordshire,  and  was 
 born  about  1636.  He  is  believed  to  ha\e 
 been  educated  at  Cambridge.  Alter  his 
 return  from  his  travels,  he  studied  law, 
 but  soon  abandoned  it  to  join  the  dissipa- 
 ted throng  of  fashion  and  libertinism. 
 Occasionally,  however,  he  gave  his  mo- 
 ments to  poetry  and  to  the  drama.  Besides 
 some  lively  poems,  tinctured  with  licen- 
 tiousness, he  wrote  the  comedies  of  She 
 Wou'dif  sheCou'd  ;  The  Comical  Revenge; 
 and  The  Man  of  Mode;  which  are  not 
 without  merit,  though  liable  to  the  same 
 censure  as  his  poems.  He  died  about  the 
 period  of  the  revolution;  but  it  is  not 
 certain  whether,  when  intoxicated,  ho 
 broke  his  neck  down  stairs  at  Rattisbon, 
 where  he  was  envoy,  or  whether  he  fol- 
 lowed James  II.  to  France,  and  ceased  to 
 exist  there. 
 
 ETMULLER,  Michael,  a  physician 
 of  great  eminence,  was  born  at  Leipsic,  in 
 1644 ;  was  educated  in  his  native  city ; 
 travelled  over  a  considerable  part  of  Eu- 
 rope, to  acquire  knowledge;  became  pro- 
 fessor of  botany,  and  extraordinary  pro- 
 fessor of  surgery  and  anatomy,  at  the  uni- 
 versity of  Leipsic,  in  1676 ;  and  died  in 
 1683.  He  wrote  many  medical  works,  a 
 complete  edition  of  wjiich  was  published 
 by  his  son,  Michael  Ernest. 
 
 ETOILE,  Peter  de  l',  a  native  of 
 Paris,  in  the  chancery  of  which  city  he 
 held  an  important  office,  was  born  in 
 1540,  and  died  in  1611.  For  many  years 
 he  kept  a  diary  of  events,  and  even  of  pop- 
 ular reports.  From  this  collection,  which 
 filled  five  folio  volumes,  was  subsequently 
 extracted  The  Journal  of  Henry  III.  in 
 five  volumes,  and  The  Journal  of  the 
 Reign  of  Henry  IV.  in  four  volumes.  Of 
 these,  the  first  is  known  to  have  been 
 edited  by  Lenglet  Dufresnoy,  and  the  sec- 
 ond is  supposed  to  have  been. 
 
 EUBULUS,  an  Athenian  comic  poet, 
 flourished  about  the  101st  Olympiad.  Of 
 his  pieces,  of  which  only  fragments  re- 
 main, the  number  is  variously  estimated, 
 from  twenty-four  to  sixty-one.  He  was 
 fond  of  enigmatical  expressions  and  p.aj- 
 ing  upon  words. 
 
248 
 
 EUG 
 
 EUCLID,  a  Grecian  philosopher,  a 
 disciple  of  Socrates,  was  a  native  of  Me- 
 gara,  and  flourished  about  four  centuries 
 before  the  christian  era.  He  was  the 
 founder  of  the  Megaric  sect,  which  took 
 its  name  from  his  birthplace. 
 
 EUCLID,  an  eminent  geometrician,  is 
 said  by  Pappus  and  Proclus  to  have  been 
 a  native  of  Alexandria,  in  which  city, 
 during  the  reign  of  Ptolerav  Lagus,  about 
 B.C.  300,  l>e  taught  mathematics.  It  was 
 he  who  first  establislied  a  mathematical 
 school  there.  He  wrote  on  Music,  Optics, 
 Catoptrics,  and  otlier  subjects  ;  but  the 
 work  which  has  immortalized  his  name  is 
 The  Elements  of  Geometry.  Of  the  fifteen 
 books  which  compose  those  elements,  how- 
 ever, the  last  two  are  supposed  to  be  the 
 production  of  Hypsicles. 
 
 EUGENE,  Francis,  prince,  a  grarwl- 
 #on  of  the  duke  of  Savoy,  and  son  of  the 
 ccunt  of  Soissons,  was  born  at  Paris  in 
 1663.  He  was  intended  for  the  church, 
 and  was  known  in  his  youth  by  the  famil- 
 iar appellation  of  the  little  Abbe.  Eugene, 
 however,  had  no  foudness  for  theology,  but 
 much  for  military  glory.  He  requested  a 
 regiment;  was  refused;  and  immediately 
 entered  the  service  of  the  emperor,  as  a 
 volunteer  against  the  Turks.  So  greatly 
 did  he  distinguish  himself,  that  Leopold 
 gave  him  a  regiment  of  dragoons.  Louvois, 
 the  minister,  now  endeavoured  to  bring 
 back  Eugene  and  the  other  French  volun- 
 teers, by  a  menace  of  perpetual  exile  in 
 case  of  disobedience.  But  the  prince  laugh- 
 ed at  his  threats,  and  exclaimed,  "  I  will 
 enter  France  again  in  spite  of  him."  Sa- 
 voy was  the  next  theatre  of  his  exploits, 
 whence  he  was  recalled  on  the  duke  join- 
 ing the  French,  and  was  placed  at  the 
 head  of  the  army  of  Hungary.  Louis 
 XIV.  who  had  at  length  discovered  his 
 merit,  offered  him  a  marshal's  staff,  a 
 pension,  and  the  government  of  Champagne, 
 out  they  were  disdainfully  rejected.  In 
 1697,  he  gained,  in  contempt  of  orders  not 
 to  fight,  the  decisive  battle  of  Zenta,  in 
 which  the  Turks  lost  thirty  thousand  men. 
 The  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  raised 
 his  reputation  to  the  highest  pitch.     He 
 
 EUL 
 
 participated  largely  in  the  victories  of 
 Blenheim,  Oudenarde,  and  Malplaquet ; 
 defeated  La  Feuillade,  saved  Turin,  ex- 
 pelled the  French  from  Italy,  and  invaded 
 Provence ;  reduced  Lisle ;  and  performed 
 many  other  splendid  actions.  In  1716,  he 
 routed  the  Turks  at  Peterwaradin,  and,  in 
 the  follow  ing  year,  he  compelled  Belgrade 
 to  surrender,  after  having  inflicted  on  them 
 another  ruinous  defeat.  At  the  expiration 
 of  sixteen  years  of  peace,  which  he  had 
 spent  in  cultivating  and  patronising  the 
 arts  and  literature,  he  was  again,  in  1733, 
 called  into  the  field,  as  commander  on  the 
 Rhine:  but  no  important  events  occurred. 
 He  died,  unmarried,  April  21,  1736.  Ac- 
 tivity, daringness,  and  promptitude  in  re- 
 pairing his  own  faults  and  profiting  by 
 those  of  his  adversaries,  were  the  distin- 
 guishing military  qualities  of  Prince  Eu- 
 gene. 
 
 EULER,  Leonard,  one  of  the  most 
 illustrious  and  fertile  mathematicians  of 
 the  eighteenth  century,  was  born  at  Basil 
 in  1707,  and  was  a  pupil  of  John  Bernouil- 
 li.  He  was  one  of  the  learned  men  whom 
 Catherine  the  First  invited  to  St.  Peters- 
 burgh,  and  in  that  capital  he  resided,  as 
 professor,  from  1727  to  1741.  In  1741, 
 he  removed  to  Berlin,  at  the  request  of  the 
 king  of  Prussia,  and  he  remained  there 
 till  1766,  when  he  returned  to  the  Russian 
 capital.  He  died,  of  apoplexy,  at  St.  Pe- 
 tersburgh,  in  1783.  For  many  years  pre- 
 vious to  his  decease  he  had  been  blind,  but 
 the  privation  of  sight  did  not  put  a  stop 
 to  his  labours.  Among  the  works  pro- 
 duced while  he  was  in  a  state  of  darkness 
 were  The  Elements  of  Algebra,  and  The 
 Theory  of  the  Moon.  His  writings  are  so 
 numerous,  that  a  mere  catalogue  of  them 
 fills  fifty  pages.  Many  of  thern  are  to  be 
 found  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academies  of 
 Saint  Peteisburgh,  Berlin,  and  Paris,  es- 
 pecially in  the  first  two. 
 
 EULER,  John  Albert,  a  son  of  th 
 foregoing,  was  born  at  St.  Petersburgh  in 
 1734,  and  died  there,  in  1800.  Though 
 inferior  to  his  father,  he  was  an  able 
 mathematician.  He  was  secretary  of  the 
 Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  inspector 
 of  the  Military  Academy,  and  counsellor 
 of  state.  Several  of  his  papers,  on  astron- 
 omy, mechanics,  optics,  &c.  were  pub- 
 lished in  the  Transactions  of  various  learn- 
 ed bodies. 
 
 EULER,  Charles,  the  second  son  of 
 Leonard,  was  born,  in  1740,  at  St.  Pe- 
 tersburgh, and  died  there,  in  1766,  phy- 
 sician to  the  court,  and  a  member  of  the 
 Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  pro- 
 duced a  paper  On  the  Motions  of  the 
 Planets,  which  some,  from  its  excellence, 
 have  been  disposed  to  attribute  to  his 
 father. 
 
 EULER,  Christopher,  the  youngest 
 
EVE 
 
 249 
 
 EUS 
 
 aon  of  Leonard,  was  born  at  Berlin,  in 
 1743;  manifested  early  a  genius  for  math- 
 ematics; was  first  in  the  Prussian  artillery 
 service,  and  afterwards  in  that  of  the  em- 
 press of  Russia,  who  placed  him  at  the 
 head  of  a  manufactory  of  arms,  near  die 
 Gulf  of  Finland.  He  was  an  excellent  as- 
 tronomer also,  and  was  one  of  the  persons 
 
 selected  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  injon  the  Death  of  Mr.  Burke;  and,  at  the 
 1769.     The  year  of  his    decease    is    not !  time  of  his  death,  had  made  considerable 
 
 young  men  of  rank;  and  died  at  Naples, 
 in  1815.  Besides  a  Political  Catechism; 
 the  Proofs  of  Christianity ;  an  Answer  to 
 the  Bishop  of  Lincoln's  Charge;  and  a 
 Letter  from  Paris ;  he  is  the  author  of  an 
 excellent  Tour  through  Italy,  in  two  vol- 
 umes 4to.  Eustace  was  also  a  man  ot 
 poetical   talents.     He  published  an  Elegy 
 
 known. 
 
 EUMENES,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
 of  Alexander's  generals,  was  a  native  of 
 Candiopolis,  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese. 
 After  the  death  of  his  sovereign,  the  gov- 
 ernment of  Cappadocia  and  Paphlagonia 
 was  assigned  to  him.  Severe  contests  en- 
 sued between  him  and  the  other  generals, 
 which,  after  he  had  displayed  splendid 
 talents  and  gained  many  victories,  ended 
 by  his  falling  into  the  hands  of  Antigonus, 
 who  put  him  to  death,  B.  c.  315. 
 
 EURIPIDES,  one  of  the  three  great 
 tragic  bards  of  Greece,  was  the  son  of 
 Mnesarchus,  and  was  born  in  t-he  isle  of 
 Salamis,  about  B.  c.  480.  Socrates,  Pro- 
 dicus,  and  Anaxagoras  were  his  instruc- 
 tors in  ethics,  eloquence,  and  philosophy. 
 Dramatic  composition  he  began  to  attempt 
 in  his  eighteenth  year.  Some  of  his  finest 
 works  are  said  to  have  been  composed  in 
 a  solitary  cave  near  Salamis.  He  wrote 
 seventy-five,  or,  as  others  say,  ninety-two 
 tragedies,  of  which  only  nineteen  are  ex- 
 tant. In  two  marriages  Euripides  was 
 unhappy,  and  this  circumstance  is  supposed 
 to  have  rendered  him  hostile  to  the  female 
 sex.  He  is  said  to  have  been  torn  to  pie- 
 ces by  the  king's  hounds,  in  his  seventy- 
 fifth  year,  at  the  court  of  Archelaus,  king 
 of  Macedon ;  but  some  attribute  his  death 
 to  natural  decay.  In  pathos  and  in  moral 
 sentiment  Euripides  far  excels  both  of  his 
 illustrious  rivals. 
 
 EUSEBIUS,  surnamed  Pamphilus, 
 from  his  friendship  with  the  martyr  of 
 that  name,  is  supposed  to  have  been  born 
 A.  d.  267,  at  Cesaraea,  of  which  city  he 
 became  bishop  in  315.  He  died  in  339 
 or  340.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
 and  eloquent  men  of  the  Christian  church. 
 As,  however,  he  was  hostile  to  Athanasius, 
 his  character  has  not  been  spared  by  the 
 partisans  of  that  personage.  St.  Jerome 
 calls  him  the  prince  of  the  Arians.  His 
 works  were  numerous,  but  many  of  them 
 are  lost.  His  Ecclesiastical  History,  which 
 is  extant,  has  gained  for  him  the  title  of 
 the  Father  of  Ecclesiastical  History;  and 
 his  Evangelical  Demonstration  induced 
 Scaliger  to  apply  to  him  the  epithet  of 
 Divine. 
 
 EUSTACE,  John  Chetwode,  a  ca- 
 tholic clergyman,  of  an  ancient  Lancashire 
 family,  was  educated  at  Stoneyhurst;  tra- 
 velled on  the  continent,  as  a  tutor  to  some 
 11* 
 
 progress  in  a  didactic  poem  on  the  Culture 
 of  the  Youthful  Mind. 
 
 EUSTACHI,  or  EUSTACHIUS, Bar- 
 tholomew, a  celebrated  anatomist  of  the 
 sixteenth  century,  was  born  at  San  Seve- 
 rino,  in  the  Papal  territory ;  studied  at 
 Rome;  was  physician  to  Cardinals  Borro- 
 meo  and  Julius  de  la  Rovere,  and  professor 
 of  the  Sapienza  College;  and  died  in  1574. 
 He  first  described  the  renal  capsules  and 
 the  thoraic  duct,  and  he  made  several 
 important  discoveries,  among  which  is  the 
 passage,  that  now  bears  his  name,  from 
 the  throat  to  the  internal  ear.  Some  of 
 his  works  are  unfortunately  lost,  but  others, 
 under  the  title  of  Opuscula,  are  extant. 
 
 EUSTATHIUS,  an  eminent  critic  of  the 
 twelfth  century,  a  native  of  Constantino- 
 ple, was  archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  in 
 which  high  station  he  distinguished  him- 
 self by  his  piety  and  benevolence.  He  died 
 about  1200.  His  principal  work  is  a  Com- 
 mentary on  Homer,  which  is  partly  a 
 compilation  from  preceding  commentators 
 and  scholiasts.  Many  of  his  manuscripts 
 are  still  existing  in  libraries. 
 
 EUTROPIUS,  Flavius,  a  Roman  his- 
 torian, who  flourished  in  the  fourth  century. 
 Of  his  life  little  is  known ;  but  it  is  certain 
 that  he  bore  arms  under  Julian,  in  the 
 Persian  expedition.  He  is  also  supposed 
 to  have  been  a  senator.  He  is  the  author 
 of  a  Compendium  of  Roman  History,  in 
 ten  books.  The  oldest  edition  of  it  is  the 
 folio,  published  at  Rome,  in  1471. 
 
 EUTYCHES,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  fifth 
 century,  who  gave  rise  to  the  sect  of 
 Eutychians,  was  abbot  of  a  monastery 
 near  Constantinople,  and  was  a  strictly 
 pious  and  moral  man.  In  combating  the 
 doctrines  of  Nestorius  he  fell  into  the  op- 
 posite extreme,  and  denied  the  human 
 nature  of  Christ.  Violeut  disputes  in  the 
 church,  and  his  own  excommunication, 
 were  the  consequences  of  his  heterodoxy. 
 He  died  soon  after,  but  his  sect  existed  ibr 
 a  long  period. 
 
 EVELYN,  John,  a  native  of  Surrey, 
 was  born  at  Wotton,  in  1620;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Baliol  College,  Oxford;  studied 
 for  a  while  at  the  Middle  Temple  ;  and 
 then  sought  refuge  on  the  continent  from 
 the  storms  of  civil  war,  and  resided  in 
 France  and  Italy  till  1651.  After  his 
 return  to  England,  he  gave  his  time  to 
 literary   pursuits.       The    Restoration,   to 
 
250 
 
 'AB 
 
 wHch  he  had  lent  the  aid  of  bis  pen,  in- 
 troduced him  into  public  life.  He  was 
 appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  for 
 sick  a.id  wounded  seamen,  and  for  rebuild- 
 ing St.  Paul's  (.'lunch,  and  also  a  member 
 *f  the  board  of  trade.  When  the  Royal 
 Society  was  established  he  w:is  one  of  the 
 first  who  was  nominated  a  fellow.     James 
 
 II.  made  him  one  of  the  commissioners  for 
 the  office  of  lord   privy  seal,  and  William 
 
 III.  gave  aim  the  situation  of  treasurer  of 
 Greenwich  Hospital.  His  devotion  to 
 literature,  however,  continued  nndimiui.-h- 
 ed,  and  he  produced  many  valuable  works. 
 Among  them  are,  Sylva,  or  a  Discourse  on 
 Forest  Trees;  Terra,  a  Philosophical  Dis- 
 course of  Earth;  Numismata, ora  Discourse 
 of  Medals;  Sculptura,  or  the  History  and 
 Art  of  Chalcography;  and  Acetaria,  a 
 Discourse  of  Sallets.  He  died  in  1706. 
 His  Diary,  Correspondence,  and  Miscel- 
 laneous Works,  have  been  recently  pub- 
 lished. 
 
 "v.  ELYN,  Sir  George  Augustus 
 William  Shuckburgh,  whose  original 
 name  was  Shuckburgh,  was  M.  P.  for  the 
 county  of  Warwick,  and  a  member  of  the 
 R»y  il  and  Antiquarian  Societies.  He  died 
 in  1804,  in  bis  fifty-fourth  year.  He  was 
 an  excellent  mathematician.  To  the  Trans- 
 actions of  the  Royal  Society  he  contributed 
 various  papers,  among  which  are,  Obser- 
 vatiens  made  in  Savoy,  to  ascertain  the 
 Height  of  Mountains  by  the  Barometer; 
 on  the  Temperature  of  Boiling  Water; 
 and  an  Account  of  the  Endeavours  to 
 ascertain  a  Standard  Weight  and  Mea- 
 sures. In  the  endeavours  recorded  by  the 
 last  of  these  papers  he  took  a  very  active 
 part. 
 
 ^  EVERTS,  or  EVERARD,  Joannes 
 Secundus,  best  known  by  his  Christian 
 name,  was  the  son  of  an  eminent  lawyer, 
 who  was  president  of  the  council  of  Hol- 
 land; was  born  at  the  Hague,  in  1511; 
 Studied  civil  law  under  Aliciat;  became 
 Latin  secretary  to  Charles  V.,  under  whom 
 he  li  i  served  at  the  siege  of  Tunis:  and 
 died  in  1536.  He  is  the  author  of  The 
 Basia,  a  collection  of  amatory  poems; 
 legant  in  their  Latinlty,  but  licentious  in 
 
 inciple. 
 
 EVV  A  LI),  John,  one  of  the  most  emi- 
 
 of  the    Danish    poets,   was   born,    in 
 
 2  r48,  in  the  duchy  of  Sleswick.     In  his 
 
 eai  ly   youth   he   was   of  a   most    romantic 
 
 disposition.     Disliking  a  clerical    life,  to 
 
 FAB 
 
 which  he  was  destined,  he  fled  from  home, 
 and  served  with  great  bravery  in  the  Prus- 
 sian and  Austrian  armies.  After  his  re- 
 turn to  his  country,  a  disappointment  in 
 love  threw  him  for  a  while  into  alternate 
 melancholy  and  dissipation.  It  was  not 
 till  his  twenty-third  year  that  his  poetical 
 talent  was  displayed.  He  died  in  1781 ; 
 having  long  been  the  victim  of  a  gouty 
 disorder.  Ewald  excelled  in  the  drama, 
 and  in  lyric  and  elegiac  poetrv. 
 
 EWING,  John,  an  eminent  American 
 divine  and  matnematic:an,  was  born  in 
 Maryland  in  1732.  He  was  graduated  at 
 the  college  in  Princeton  in  1755,  and  after- 
 wards served  as  a  tutor  in  that  seminary. 
 In  1759  he  undertook  the  pastoral  charge 
 of  the  first  Presbyterian  church  of  Phila- 
 delphia, which  he  continued  to  exercise 
 until  1773.  In  1779  he  accepted  the  sta- 
 tion of  prevost  of  the  university  of  Phila- 
 delphia, which  he  filled  until  his  death.  He 
 was  elected  vice-president  of  the  American 
 Philosophical  Society,  and  contributed 
 several  valuable  memoirs  to  their  Transac- 
 tions. His  favourite  study  from  an  early 
 age  was  mathematics,  and  his  Lectures  on 
 x\atural  History  have  obtained  considerable 
 reputation.     He  died  in  1802. 
 
 FXPILLY,  John  Joseph,  a  native  of 
 France,  v  as  born  at  St.  Remi,  in  Pro- 
 vence, in  1719,  and  died  in  1793.  He  was 
 an  abbe,  and  obtained  clerical  preferment, 
 after  having  been  secretary  of  embassy  to 
 the  Sicilian  monarch.  He  travelled  much, 
 and  was  an  acute  observer.  His  works 
 are  numerous,  and  he  acquired  the  reputa- 
 tion of  being  the  most  correct,  industrious, 
 and  useful  geographer  of  his  time.  Among 
 his  publications  are,  A  Cosmography,  in 
 five  parts;  A  Polychrography,  in  six  parts; 
 an  excellent  Treatise  on  the  Population  of 
 France;  and  A  Geographical,  Historical, 
 and  Political  Dictionary  of  the  Gauls  and 
 of  France,  six  volumes  folio.  The  last  of 
 these  works  reaches  only  to  the  letter  S. 
 
 EYCK,  John  Van,  an  artist,  was  born 
 at  Maaseyk,  in  Holland,  in  1370,  and  died 
 in  1441.  The  intention  of  painting  in  oil 
 has  been  ascribed  to  him,  but  it  appears 
 certain  that  it  was  known  before  his  time. 
 He,  however,  was  undoubtedly  the  first 
 who  improved  it  and  brought  it  into  gene- 
 ral use.  His  brother  Hubert,  who  was 
 born  in  1366,  and  died  in  1426,  is  regarded 
 as  the  founder  of  the  Flemish  school.  They 
 were  both  eminent  in  their  art. 
 
 FABERT,  Abraham,  a  French  mar- 
 shal,was  born  at  Metz,  in  1599,  and  early 
 adopted  the  military  profession.      He  dis- 
 
 F 
 
 tinguished  himself  greatly  in  the  retreat 
 from  Mentz  in  1635,  the  battle  of  Marie, 
 and  a  variety  of  actions  and  sieges.     He 
 
FAB 
 
 died  in  1662.  Fabertwas  a  man  of  highly 
 honourable  principles.  "  If  Fabert  can  be 
 Buspected,"  said  Mazarine,  "  there  is  no 
 man  living  in  whom  we  can  place  confi- 
 dence." Louis  XTV.  offered  him  the  blue 
 ribbon,  but  he  refused  it,  because  he  Could 
 not  produce  the  necessary  proofs  of  noble 
 descent.  He  was  told  to  furnish  whatever 
 proofs  he  thought  proper,  and  they  should 
 not  be  scrutinized.  "  I  will  not,"  replied 
 he,  "  have  my  mantle  decorated  by  a  cross, 
 and  my  name  dishonoured  by  an  imposture." 
 FABIUS,  Qcintus  Maximus  Ver- 
 rucosus, a  Roman  warrior,  was  consul 
 for  the  first  time  a  u.  c.  517,  and  had  the 
 honour  of  a  triumph  for  defeating  the 
 Ligurians.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the 
 embassy  which  was  sent  to  denounce  war 
 against  Carthage.  After  the  battle  of 
 Thrasimene  he  was  appointed  dictator, 
 and  bv  his  prudence  he  held  the  victorious 
 Annibal  at  bay;  as  he  likewise  did  subse- 
 quently to  the  disastrous  battle  of  Cannae. 
 He  thus  acquired  the  surname  of  Cunrta- 
 tor,  or   Delayer.      Fabins  died  B.  c.  204. 
 
 FABRE  D'EGLANTINE,  Philip 
 Francis  Nazaire,  a  French  dramatic 
 poet,  was  born  in  1755,  at  Carcassone, 
 and  in  early  life  was  a  strolling  player. 
 He  had  little  success  on  the  stage,  but  he 
 gained  friends  by  his  varied  talents;  for 
 he  wrote  verses,  drew,  engraved,  and  was 
 a  tolerable  musician  and  composer.  Hav- 
 ing obtained  the  prize  of  the  eglantine,  at 
 the  floral  games  of  Toulouse  (whence  the 
 addition  to  his  name),  he  went  to  Paris, 
 to  bring  out  several  theatrical  pieces.  In 
 the  revolution  he  took  a  violent  part;  was 
 elected  a  member  of  the  Convention  ; 
 voted  for  the  death  of  Louis;  and,  finally, 
 was  executed  with  Dan  ton,  in  1794.  His 
 Comedies  and  Poems  form  two  volumes; 
 of  the  former,  the  best  are,  Moliere's  Phi- 
 linte;  the  Epistolary  Intrigue;  and  The 
 Tutors. 
 
 FABRICIUS,  or  FABRIZIO,  an  Ital- 
 ian physician  and  anatomist,  was  born  at 
 Acquapendente,  in  1537.  He  was  a  pupil 
 of  Fallopius,  at  Padua,  and  succeeded  him 
 in  the  surgical  and  anatomical  chair  of 
 that  university.  Fabricius  was  of  a  noble 
 and  disinterested  nature,  and  was  held  in 
 high  esteem  bv  the  Paduans  and  the  Vene- 
 tian government.  He  died  in  1612.  The 
 valves  of  the  veins  were  first  accurately 
 described  by  him.  His  anatomical  works 
 form  one  volume  in  folio,  and  his  surgical 
 works  another. 
 
 FABRICIUS  of  Hilden,  William, 
 a  celebrated  surgeon,  was  born  at  Hilden, 
 near  Cologne,  in  1560;  practised  at  Berne 
 and  Lausanne;  and  died  in  1634.  Among 
 his  numerous  works,  forming  a  folio  vol- 
 ume, are  Treatises  on  Gangrene  and  on 
 Dysentery,  and  a  New  Manuel  of  Military 
 Medicine  and  Surgery. 
 
 FAB 
 
 251 
 
 FABRICIUS,  David,  a  German  cler- 
 gyman and  astronomer,  who  died  at  Osterla, 
 in  East  Friesland,  in  1579,  discovered  the 
 changeable  star  in  the  constellation  of  the 
 Whale,  and  made  an  attempt  to  reconcile 
 the  Ptolemaic  system  with  the  observations 
 of  Kepler.  He  is  also  the  author  of  a 
 Chronicle  of  East  Friesland. 
 
 FABRICIUS,  John,  an  astronomer, 
 son  of  the  foregoing,  was  the  first  who,  by 
 means  of  refracting  telescopes,  discovered 
 the  spots  on  the  sun's  disk;  or  at  the 
 least,  made  the  discovery  contemporaneous- 
 ly with  Galileo.  He  was  born  at  Osterla, 
 and  died  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 FABRICIUS,  John  Albert,  a  Ger- 
 man critic  and  bibliographer,  whom  one 
 of  his  contemporaries  called  the  Librarian 
 of  the  Republic  of  Literature,  was  born  at 
 Leipsic,  in  1668,  and  died,  in  1736,  at 
 Hamburgh,  in  which  city  he  was  professor 
 of  rhetoric.  He  is  said  to  have  produced 
 a  hundred  and  twenty-eight  works;  among 
 which  are,  Bibliotheca  Grosca,  fourteen 
 vols.  4to;  Bibliotheca  Latina,  three  vols. 
 8vo.;  Bibliotheca  Ecclesiastica  ;  Bibli- 
 otheca Latina  Media?  et  Infimas  Latinatis; 
 and  Bibliotheca  Antiquaria. 
 
 FABRICIUS,  John  Christian,  the 
 greatest  of  modern  entomologists,  was  born, 
 in  1742,  at  Tundern,  in  Sleswick.  He 
 was  the  pupil  and  friend  of  Linnaeus. 
 Medicine  was  the  profession  which  he 
 adopted;  but  his  principal  attention  was 
 turned  to  entomology,  and,  for  the  purpose 
 of  improving  that  science,  he  visited  all  the 
 museums  of  northern  and  central  Europe. 
 He  died  at  Copenhagen,  in  1807.  The 
 calamities  to  which  his  country  was  then 
 exposed  are  said  to  have  been  mainly 
 instrumental  in  causing  his  death.  Fabri- 
 cius was  counsellor  to  the  Danish  monarch, 
 and  professor  of  rural  and  political  econ- 
 omy. He  is  the  author  of  Systema  En- 
 tomologite  ;  Philosophia  Entomologia  ; 
 Entomologia  Systematica;  Systema  Eleu- 
 theratorum;  and  other  works,  both  on  his 
 favourite  science  and  on  political  economy. 
 It  is  from  the  organs  of  the  mouth  that 
 Fabricius  classifies  the  insect  tribes. 
 
 FABRIS,  Nicholas,  an  Italian  mecha- 
 nician, was  born  at  Chioggia,  in  1731,  and 
 died  there  in  1801.  He  was  of  the  clerical 
 profession.  Among  his  numerous  and  ingen- 
 ious inventions  were,  a  pianoforte  which, 
 while  it  played,  noted  down  the  music; 
 a  barrel  which  excluded  air  by  contracting 
 in  the  interior  as  the  liquor  was  rfc-o^g 
 off";  a  wooden  hand  to  beat  th-f  ,  ■•  ~-r$k  t 
 which  marked  at  once  the  x-  »•«•*  _..v.  Ital- 
 ian hours,  minutes  and  _conds,  with  the 
 equinoxes  and  solstices ;  and  a  species  of 
 clock,  of  which  a  magnet  was  the  motive 
 power. 
 
 F ABRONI,  Angelo,  a  learned  Italia*, 
 
252 
 
 FAI 
 
 was  born,  in  1732,  at  Marradi,  in  the 
 Tuscan  territory;  was  prior  of  the  church 
 of  St.  Lorenzo,  at  Florence;  and  was 
 patronised  by  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany, 
 Popes  Benedict  XIV.  and  Clement  XIV., 
 and  other  illustrious  characters.  He  trav- 
 elled to  examine  the  libraries  of  England, 
 France,  and  German v,  and  corresponded 
 with  the  most  eminent  of  his  contempora- 
 ries. He  died  in  1803.  His  greatest  work 
 is,  Lives  of  the  principal  Italian  Scholars 
 of  die  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Cen- 
 turies, in  twenty  volumes.  But  he  pub- 
 lished many  others;  among  which  are, 
 Lives  of  Lorenzo  and  Cosmo  de  Medici, 
 and  of  Leo  X. ;  and  Eulogies  of  illustrious 
 Italians.  He  likewise  edited  a  Literary 
 Journal,  which  extended  to  a  hundred  and 
 Jten  volumes. 
 
 FAGEL,  Gaspar,  an  eminent  Dutch 
 statesman,  was  born  at  Haerlem,  in  1629, 
 and  died  in  1688.  He  was  grand  pen- 
 sionary of  Holland,  and  distinguished  him- 
 rselfon  various'  occasions;  particularly  by 
 his  firmness  when  Louis  XIV.  invaded  the 
 (Couinrv,  and  by  the  activity  and  spirit  with 
 which  he  seconded  the  plans  of  the  prince 
 of  Orange,  for  the  expulsion  of  James  II. 
 from  England. 
 
 FAG1UOLI,  John  Baptist, an  Italian 
 .comic  and  burlesque  poet,  a  member  of 
 ■the  Apatisti  Academy,  was  born  at  Flor- 
 ence, in  WHO,  and  -died  in  1742.  Early 
 in  life  he  was  celebrated  for  his  wit, 
 pleasantry,  swd  facetiousness,  and  he  con- 
 tinued to  !be  so  till  the  end  of  his  days. 
 But,  though  Wa  company  was  consequently 
 sougnt  by  the  grand  duke,  and  by  other 
 «levated  characters,  he  obtained  but  scanty 
 patronage.  He  is  the  author  of  two  vol- 
 umes of  Burles^ae  Poetry  ;  seven  volumes 
 of  Comedies;  and  a  volume  of  Miscella- 
 nies in  prose. 
 
 FAHRENHEIT,  Gabriel  Daniel, 
 ;an  experimental  philosopher,  a  native  of 
 Dantzick,  was  born  in  168*S,  and  died  in 
 1736.  He  improved  the  thermometer,  by 
 adopting  mercury  instead,  of  spirit  of  wine, 
 sind  formed  that  scalp  which  is  used  in 
 England.  At  the  time  of  his  decease  he 
 was  engaged  in  conetructin§!  a  machine  for 
 draining  til?  Dutch  nilifflinn  He  wrote  a 
 Dissertation  <>n  ThermoiBtte  is;  and  some 
 papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions, 
 sand  in  the  Leipsic  Acta  Erudi  to<rum. 
 
 FAIRFAX,  Ed  ward,  a  pot  -t,  the  son  of 
 ^ir  Thomas  Fairfax,  of  UeMo.'i,  i»  X°^~ 
 ehire,  was  a  country  gentleinni  ',  residing 
 at  Newhill,  in  Knaresborough  F  orest,  and 
 died  about  1632.  He  wrote  Eclogues, 
 only  one  of  which  is  extant,  so  me  other 
 lost  poems,  and  a  Treatise  on  Denn  mology  ; 
 but  the  work  which  ensures  hh  lasting 
 tame  is  a  translation  of  Tasso's  Got  ltrey  of 
 Bulloigne,  which  first  appeared  ii.  <  1600. 
 Fairfax    has   executed    his    task    -1  with    a 
 
 FA~ 
 
 'felicity  which,  on  the  whole,  has  not  yet 
 I  oeeu  surpassed :  and,  though  he  sometimes 
 i  deviates  from  his  author,  he  often  adds  new 
 beauties  to  him. 
 
 FAIRFAX,  Thomas,  Lord,  one  of  the 
 principal  generals  in  the  civil  wars,  was 
 !  the  eldest  son  of  Lord  Fairfax,  and  was 
 born,  in  1611,  at  Denton,  in  Yorkshire. 
 I  The  love  of  a  military  life  induced  him 
 to  quit  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  to 
 serve  as  a  volunteer,  in  die  Netherlands, 
 under  Vere.  When  the  war  broke  out 
 between  Charles  I.  and  the  Parliament, 
 Fairfax  espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter. 
 In  some  of  his  earliest  actions  he  was 
 unsuccessful;  but  he  distinguished  himself 
 at  Marston  Moor,  and  he  was  appointed 
 general  in  chief  when  Essex  resigned. 
 After  having  been  victorious  at  Naseby, 
 he  reduced  the  West  to  obedience,  and 
 compelled  Colchester  to  surrender.  To 
 the  execution  of  the  dethroned  monarch 
 he  was  hostile.  At  length,  he  withdrew 
 from  all  public  employments,  and  he  ulti- 
 mately contributed  to  the  restoration  of 
 Charles  II.  He  died  in  1671.  Fairfax 
 wrote  his  own  Memoirs,  and  a  few  poems. 
 
 FALCONER,  William,  a  poet,  born 
 about  1730,  was  the  son  of  a  barber  at 
 Edinburgh ;  entered  the  merchant  service 
 when  young ;  rose  to  be  second  mate ;  and 
 was  cast  away  in  the  Levant.  He  was, 
 afterwards,  a  midshipman  in  the  Rcyal 
 George,  and,  next,  purser  of  the  Glory. 
 In  1769,  he  was  appointed  purser  of  the 
 Aurora,  in  which  ship  he  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  lost,  on  her  voyage  to  India. 
 He  is  the  author  of  The  Shipwreck,  a 
 poem ;  some  minor  poetical  productions  ; 
 and  a  Marine  Dictionary.  His  lesser 
 poems,  with  the  exception  of  The  Storm, 
 a  sung,  have  little  to  recommend  them ; 
 but  his  Shipwreck  is  a  work  which  entitles 
 him  to  hold  an  honourable  place  among 
 British  poets. 
 
 FALCONER,  William,  a  physician, 
 was  born  in  1743,  and  died  in  1824,  at 
 Bath,  where  he  was  highly  popular  in  his 
 medical  capacity.  To  him  belongs  the  dis- 
 covery of  the  properties  of  carbonic  acid 
 gas,  which  has  been  erroneously  attributed 
 to  Dr.  Priestley.  He  wrote  many  works 
 on  medical  subjects;  among  which  are, 
 On  the  Influence  of  Climate;  on  the  Bath 
 Waters ;  On  the  Poison  of  Copper ;  and 
 On  the  Influence  of  the  Passions.  He 
 also  translated  Arriaivs  Voyage  round  the 
 Euxine  Sea. 
 
 FALCONET,  Stephen  Maurice,  a 
 French  sculptor,  was  born  at  Paris,  in 
 1716,  and  died  in  1791.  His  parents  were 
 in  humble  circumstances,  he  received  little 
 education,  and  was  apprenticed  to  a  cutter 
 of  barber's  blocks;  but  he  spent  every 
 leisure  moment  in  modelling;  obtained  Uie 
 patronage  of  Lemoine, the  sculptor;   rose 
 
FAN 
 
 to  eminence  as  an  aitist;  and,  by  dint  of 
 study,  became  an  excellent  scholar.  In 
 1766  he  was  invited  to  Russia,  to  execute 
 the  statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  he  re- 
 sided there  for  twelve  years.  Among  his 
 best  works  are,  Milo  of  Cotrona;  Pygma- 
 lion; a  threatening  Cupid;  Moses;  David; 
 and  St.  Ambrose.  His  writings,  on  the  fine 
 arts,  form  six  volumes  8vo. 
 
 FALIERO,  Marino,  a  Venetian  noble, 
 after  having  held  several  important  offices, 
 succeeded  Andrew  Dandolo,  as  doge  of 
 Venice,  in  1354.  He  was  then  seventy-six 
 years  of  age,  and  had  a  young  and  beau- 
 tiful wife.  Jealous  of  Michael  Steno,  he 
 quarrelled  with  and  was  insulted  by  him  at 
 a  masquerade.  For  the  insult  Steno  was 
 condemned  to  a  month's  imprisonment;  a 
 punishment  which  Faliero  deemed  so  in- 
 adequate, that,  burning  with  revenge,  he 
 entered  into  a  plot  with  the  plebeians,  to 
 overturn  the  government,  and  massacre  the 
 "patricians.  The  conspiracy  was  discov- 
 ered on  the  night  before  it  was  to  be  carried 
 into  effect,  and  Faliero  was  decapitated, 
 April  17,  1355.  This  story  forms  the 
 subject  of  a  tragedy  by  Lord  Bvron. 
 
 FALKLAND,  Lucius  CARY,  vis- 
 count, one  of  the  most  virtuous  of  all  who 
 bore  a  part  in  the  civil  war  of  1641,  was 
 born  about  1610 ;  was  educated  at  Trinity 
 College,  Dublin,  and  St.  John's  College, 
 Cambridge;  and,  after  having  travelled, 
 and  married,  gave  himself  up,  for  some 
 years,  to  the  cultivation  of  literature  in 
 elegant  retirement.  In  1640,  he  was  cho- 
 sen a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
 and,  at  the  outset,  he  espoused  the  cause  of 
 the  parliament.  At  length,  believing  that 
 the  subversion  of  the  monarchy  was  in- 
 tended, he  joined  the  king's  party,  and  was 
 made  secretary  of  state.  The  restoration 
 of  peace  was  the  constant  object  of  his 
 prayers.  He  fell,  acting  as  a  volunteer,  at 
 the  battle  of  Newbury,  in  1643.  Some  of 
 his  Speeches  and  Controversial  Tracts  are 
 extant. 
 
 FALLOPIO,  or  FALLOPIUS,  Ga- 
 briel, an  eminent  anatomist  and  physi- 
 cian, was  born  at  Modena,  in  1523  (but 
 some  erroneously  date  his  birth  in  1490) ; 
 studied  at  Ferrara  and  Padua;  was  ana- 
 tomical professor  for  three  years  at  Pisa; 
 was  chosen,  in  1551,  by  the  Venetian  se- 
 nate, to  fill  the  chair  of  anatomy  and  sur- 
 gery at  Padua;  and  died  in  1562.  Of  his 
 works  the  chief  bears  the  title  of  Anatom- 
 ical Observations.  Anatomy  is  indebted 
 to  him  for  many  important  discoveries  in 
 various  parts  of  the  body,  and  for  the  first 
 correct  description  of  the  bones  and  vessels 
 of  the  foetus.  The  Fallopian  tubes  in  fe- 
 males are  named  from  him. 
 
 FANSHAW,  Sir  Richard,  a  diplo- 
 matist and  poet,  was  bom,  in  1607,  at 
 Ware  Park,  Herts;  studied  at  Jesus  Col- 
 
 FAR 
 
 253 
 
 lege,  Cambridge,  and  the  Inner  Temple; 
 was  appointed  resident  at  Madrid,  in 
 1635;  took  an  active  part  on  the  royal 
 side  throughout  the  civil  war;  and  was 
 imprisoned  after  the  battle  of  Worcester. 
 Charles  II.  knighted  him;  made  him  mas- 
 ter of  requests,  and  Latin  secretary;  and 
 thrice  employed  him  as  ambassador  to 
 Portugal  arid  Spain.  Fanshaw  died  at 
 Madrid,  in  1666.  He  translated  the  Lu- 
 siad,  the  Pastor  Fido,  some  Odes  of 
 Horace,  and  the  first  book  of  the  JBneid; 
 and  wrote  a  few  original  pieces,  which, 
 though  careless,  manifest  poetical  talent. 
 The  Memoirs  written  by  his  amiable  and 
 affectionate  wife  have  been  recently  pub- 
 lished. 
 
 FANTIN-DESODOARDS,  Anthony 
 Stefhen  Nicholas,  a  political  writer 
 and  historian,  was  born,  in  1738,  at  Point 
 de  Beauvoisin,  in  Dauphine,  and  died  in 
 1820.  He  was  originally  an  ecclesiastic, 
 but  adopted  revolutionary  principles,  and 
 was  connected  with  Danton,  Robespierre, 
 and  other  demagogues.  Among  his  works 
 are,  Continuations  of  Henault's  and  of 
 Velley's  Histories  of  France;  a  Philosoph- 
 ical History  of  the  French  Revolution; 
 and  a  History  of  the  Revolutions  of  Europe 
 subsequent  to  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Re- 
 public. 
 
 FARE,  Charles  Augustus,  mar- 
 quis de  la,  a  French  poet,  was  born  in 
 1644,  at  Valgorge,  in  the  Vivarais ;  served 
 as  a  volunteer  in  Hungary,  and  afterwards 
 in  France;  was  appointed,  in  1680,  cap- 
 tain in  the  body  guards  of  the  duke  of 
 Orleans ;  and  died  in  1712.  La  Fare  did 
 not  begin  to  write  poetry  till  he  was  sixty. 
 His  compositions,  however,  are  remarka- 
 ble for  sweetness  and  elegance.  He  is  also 
 the  author  of  Penthea,  an  opera;  and  of 
 Memoirs  of  the  principal  Events  in  the 
 Reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
 
 FARIA  Y  SOUZA,  Manuel,  a  Por- 
 tuguese historian  and  poet,  was  born,  about 
 1588,  at  Souto,  in  Portugal.  After  having 
 been  in  the  family  of  the  Bishop  of  Oporto, 
 he  became  secretary  to  the  marquis  of 
 Castel  Rodrigo,  ambassador  at  Rome, 
 whom,  however,  he  suddenly  left,  in  con- 
 sequence of  a  quarrel.  For  this  he  was 
 arrested  at  Barcelona,  and  for  a  while 
 imprisoned,  through  the  influence  of  the 
 marquis.  He  died  at  Madrid,  in  1647. 
 He  wrote  seven  volumes  of  poems ;  Com- 
 mentaries on  the  Lusiad;  an  Epitome  of 
 the  Portuguese  History;  and  four  histori- 
 cal works  on  the  Portuguese  dominions  in 
 the  four  quarters  of  the  globe. 
 
 FARMER,  Richard,  an  acute  and 
 elegant  scholar,  a  native  of  Leicester, 
 born  in  1735,  was  educated  at  Emanuel 
 College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became 
 master  in  1775.  In  1776  he  was  vice- 
 chancellor,  and  in  1778  was  elected  libra- 
 
254 
 
 FAU 
 
 rian  of  the  university.  He  obtained  pre- 
 bends at  Litchfield  and  Canterbury,  the 
 latter  of  which  lie  exchanged  for  a  canonrv 
 of  St.  Paul's.  He  died  in  1797.  His 
 Essay  on  the  learning  of  Shakspeare,  is  a 
 critical  work  of  great  merit.  For  the 
 history  of  his  native  town  he  collected  ma- 
 terials, which  he  gave  to  Mr.  Nichols. 
 
 FARNABY,  or  FARNABIE,  Thomas, 
 a  grammarian,  was  born  in  London,  in 
 1575;  was  educated  at  Merton  College, 
 Oxford ;  served  under  Drake  and  Haw- 
 kins, and  in  the  Netherlands;  and  subse- 
 quently acquired  much  reputation  as  a 
 schoolmaster.  He  died  in  1646.  He 
 wrote  various  school  books;  and  Commen- 
 taries on  Juvenal,  Persius,  and  other  clas- 
 sical writers. 
 
 FARQUHAR,  George,  a  dramatist, 
 the  son  of  a  clergyman,  was  born,  in  1678, 
 at  Londonderry,  in  Ireland.  From  Trinity 
 College,  Dublin,  when  he  had  been  there 
 only  a  year,  he  either  eloped  or  was  ex- 
 pelled. He  then  went  on  the  Dublin 
 stage,  but  soon  quitted  it  in  consequence 
 of  his  having  dangerously  wounded  a  bro- 
 ther actor  with  a  sword,  which  he  had 
 used  bv  mistake  instead  of  a  foil.  In  his 
 eighteenth  year  he  visited  the  British 
 metropolis.  His  manners  and  talents 
 caused  him  to  be  much  noticed,  and  in- 
 duced Lord  Orrery  to  give  him  a  lieute- 
 nant's commission.  At  the  persuasion  of 
 his  friend  Wilks,  Farquhar  tried  his  skill 
 in  the  drama,  and  produced,  in  1690,  the 
 corned v  of  Love  and  a  Bottle.  The  suc- 
 cess which  it  obtained  he  followed  up,  be- 
 tween 169S  and  1707,  by  supplying  to  the 
 theatre  The  Constant  Couple,  Sir  Harry 
 Wildair,  The  Inconstant,  The  Twin  Ri- 
 vals, The  Stage  Coach,  The  Recruiting 
 Officer,  and  The  Beaux's  Stratagem. 
 Some  of  these  still  retain  possession  of 
 the  stage.  He  also  published  a  volume  of 
 Miscellanies.  In  spite  of  his  exertions, 
 Farquhar  was  poor,  and  his  difficulties 
 were  increased  by  his  marriage  with  a 
 portionless  lady,  who,  being  passionately 
 attached  to  him,  had  caused  herself  to  be 
 represented  as  the  possessor  of  a  large 
 fortune.  To  his  honour  be  it  recorded, 
 that  he  never  even  reproached  her  for  the 
 deception.  He  died  in  1707.  In  the 
 dramas  of  Farquhar  there  is  much  wit  and 
 sprightliness,  unfortunately  tinctured  with 
 the  licentiousness  which  was  the  besetting 
 sin  of  the  drama  in  those  days. 
 
 FAUJAS  DE  ST.  FOND,  Barthol- 
 omew, an  eminent  French  geologist,  was 
 born,  in  1750,  at  Montelimart,  and  died, 
 at  Paris,  in  1819,  professor  at  the  Museum 
 of  Natural  History.  He  wmte  various 
 works,  among  which  are,  Inquiries  res- 
 pecting the  extinguished  Volcanos  of  the 
 Vivarais  and  Velay ;  the  Mineralogy  of 
 of  Volcanos;    A    Natural    History    of  the 
 
 FEA 
 
 Mountain  of  Maestricht;  A  Natural  His- 
 tory of  Dauphine ;  and  a  Journey  in  Eng- 
 land, Scotland,  and  the  Hebrides. 
 
 FAVART,  Charles  Simon,  a  dra- 
 matist, was  born  at  Paris,  in  1710,  and 
 died  in  1792.  He  is  the  author  of  more 
 than  sixty  comic  pieces,  most  of  which 
 were  successful,  and  deserved  to  be  so,  for 
 their  wit,  ingenuity,  and  sprightlinesi.. 
 They  have  been  published  in  eight  vol- 
 umes. Among  them  may  be  mentioned, 
 Annette  and  Lubin,  Ninette  at  Court,  and 
 the  Three  Sultans. — His  son,  Charles 
 Nicholas  Joseph  Justin,  born  in 
 1749,  and  died  in  1806,  was  an  actor,  and 
 I  also  wrote  several  dramas  and  poems. — 
 The  elder  Favart's  wife,  Maria  Justi- 
 na,  was  a  celebrated  actress. 
 
 FAVRAT,  Francis  Andrew,  a  na- 
 tive of  Prussia,  was  a  Prussian  general, 
 and  governor  of  Glatz.  He  wrote  Me- 
 moirs for  the  History  of  the  War  of  the 
 Polish  Revolution  from  1794  to  1796. 
 Favrat  was  remarkable  for  his  strength. 
 He  is  said  to  have  once  lifted  up  a  horse 
 and  its  rider,  and  to  have  often  carried  a 
 cannon  on  his  shoulder,  seemingly  with  as 
 much  ease  as  a  soldier  bears  his  firelock. 
 
 FAWKES,  Francis,  a  poet,  was  born 
 about  1721,  in  Yorkshire;  was  educated 
 at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge;  and,  after 
 having  been  curate  of  Bramham  and  Croy- 
 don, and  vicar  of  Orpington  and  St.  Mary 
 Cray,  died  in  1777,  vicar  of  Hayes,  in 
 Kent.  He  wrote  many  miscellaneous  po- 
 ems; translated  Anacreon,  Sappho,  Bion, 
 Mnschus,  Theocritus,  Musaeus,  and  Apol- 
 lonius  Rhodius;  and  edited  the  Poetical 
 Calendar,  in  conjunction  with  Woty. 
 Though  not  bearing  the  stamp  of  superior 
 talent,  his  poetry  is  pleasing  and  elegant 
 
 FAYETTE,  Mary  Magdalen, 
 Countess  of,  whose  maiden  name  was  De 
 la  Vergne,  was  born  in  1632,  and  received 
 an  excellent  education.  Latin  was  taught 
 her  by  Menage  and  father  Rapin,  and  in 
 three  months  she  acquired  an  astonishing 
 knowledge  of  it.  In  1655,  she  married 
 Count  de  la  Fayette.  She  was  in  habits 
 of  friendship  with  many  men  of  talent,  and 
 was  generally  beloved.  After  suffering 
 much  from  infirmity,  she  died  in  1693. 
 She  is  the  author  of  The  Princess  of 
 Cleves  ;  Zaida  ;  and  other  romances  ; 
 which  continue  to  be  admired;  and  of  Me- 
 moirs of  the  Court  of  France  in  1688  and 
 1689. 
 
 FEARNE,  Charles,  a  writer  on  law 
 and  metaphysics,  was  born  in  London,  in 
 1749,  and  educated  at  Westminster  School. 
 Though  he  studied  the  law  in  the  Inner 
 Temple,  he  did  not  make  it  his  profession 
 till  the  losses  which  he  sustained  by  vari- 
 ous projects  compelled  him  to  do  so.  He 
 then  became  eminent  as  a  chamber  counsel 
 and  conveyancer.     He  died  in  1794.     Hii 
 
FEN 
 
 principal  works  are,  An  Essay  on  Contin- 
 gent Remainders;  and  An  Essay  on  Con- 
 sciousness. 
 
 FEITH,  Rhynvis,  an  eminent  Dutch 
 poet,  was  born  at  Zwoll,  in  Overyssel,  in 
 1753,  and  died  in  1324.  He  wrote  five 
 volumes  of  Odes  and  Miscellaneous  Po- 
 ems; four  tragedies;  Letters  on  various 
 literary  subjects ;  and  other  works  in  prose. 
 
 FELIBIEN,  Andrew,  a  native  of 
 France,  born  at  Chartres,  in  1619,  was 
 secretary  to  the  French  embassy  at  Rome, 
 in  which  city  he  became  intimate  with 
 Poussin,  and  his  intercourse  with  that  em- 
 inent painter  doubtless  heightened  and 
 matured  Felibien's  natural  taste  for  the 
 fine  arts.  On  his  return  tc  France,  he  was 
 appointed  superintendaiit  of  the  royal 
 buildings,  and  of  arts  and  manufactures. 
 He  was  also  one  of  the  first  eight  members 
 of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Med- 
 als. He  died  in  1695.  The  most  consid- 
 erable of  his  works  are,  Dialogues  on  the 
 Life  and  Works  of  Painters;  and  The 
 Principles  of  Architecture,  Painting,  and 
 Sculpture. — His  eldest  son,  John  Fran- 
 cis, who  died  in  1733,  wrote,  among  oth- 
 er things,  An  Historical  Collection  of  the 
 Lives  and  Works  of  celebrated  Architects. 
 
 FELTHAM,  Owen,  a  writer,  of  whom 
 nothing  is  known  but  that  he  was  a  native 
 of  Suffolk,  lived  many  years  in  the  earl  of 
 Thomond's  family,  and  died  about  1678. 
 His  only  work  is,  Resolves,  Divine,  Polit- 
 ical, and  Moral.  It  has  passed  through 
 thirteen  editions,  and  its  merit  justifies  our 
 lamenting  that  Feltham  wrote  no  more. 
 
 FENELON,  Francis  de  Salignac 
 de  la  Motte,  one  of  the  most  able  of 
 French  writers  and  virtuous  of  men,  was 
 born,  in  1651,  at  the  Castle  of  Fenelon,  in 
 Perigord;  studied  at  Cahors  and  Paris; 
 and  entered  into  holy  orders  at  the  age  of 
 twenty-four.  The  archbishop  of  Paris  ap- 
 pointed him  superior  of  the  newly  con- 
 verted female  catholics,  and  his  success  in 
 this  office,  and  the  merit  of  his  treatises 
 on  Female  Education  and  on  the  Ministry 
 of  Pastors,  induced  Louis  XIV.  to  send 
 aim  on  a  mission  to  Poitou  to  convert  the 
 Protestants.     This  post  Fenelon  accepted 
 
 FER 
 
 only  on  the  express  condition  that  forc« 
 should  not  be  employed  in  aid  of  his  efforts. 
 In  1689  he  was  selected  by  M.  de  Beau- 
 villiers  to  be  tutor  to  the  duke  of  Burgun- 
 dy and  his  younger  brothers.  It  was  for 
 the  use  of  his  royal  pupil  that  he  composed 
 his  Telemachus.  In  1694  he  was  raised 
 to  the  archbishopric  of  Cambray.  He  did 
 not,  however,  long  enjoy  in  peace  his  well 
 merited  preferment.  Having  espoused  the 
 cause  of  Madam  Guyon,  and  published  a 
 work,  The  Maxims  of  the  Saints,  which 
 was  considered  as  teaching  her  doctrine 
 of  quietism,  he  was  bitterly  attacked  by 
 Bossuet,  and  his  book  was  ultimately  cen- 
 sured by  the  Pope.  Fenelon  himself  read 
 his  recantation  in  his  own  cathedral.  The 
 anger  of  Louis  XIV.  was  still  more  roused 
 against  him  by  the  appearance  of  Telema- 
 chus, which  was  surreptitiously  published 
 by  a  servant,  to  whom  it  had  been  intrust- 
 ed for  transcription.  It  was  looked  upon 
 by  the  haughty  and  ambitious  monarch  as 
 a  covert  satire  upon  his  own  misgovern- 
 ment  and  criminal  love  of  war.  Fenelon 
 was,  in  consequence,  kept  at  a  distance 
 from  the  court.  But,  though  discounte- 
 nanced by  his  own  sovereign,  a  just  tribute 
 was  paid  to  his  merit  by  foreigners.  The 
 lands  of  his  diocese  were  exempted  from 
 pillage,  and  his  person  was  treated  with 
 the  utmost  respect  by  the  duke  of  Marl- 
 borough, and  the  other  generals  of  the  al- 
 lies. He  died  in  1715;  leaving  behind 
 him  an  imperishable  reputation,  as  an  elo- 
 quent writer,  a  conscientious  prelate,  and 
 an  amiable,  enlightened,  and  virtuous  man. 
 His  productions  form  nine  volumes  in  quar- 
 to. The  principal  of  them,  besides  those 
 already  mentioned,  are,  Dialogues  on  Elo- 
 quence; Dialogues  of  the  Dead;  Demon- 
 stration of  the  Existence  of  a  God;  and 
 Spiritual  Works. 
 
 FENN,  Sir  John,  an  antiquary,  was 
 born  at  Norwich,  in  1739;  was  educated 
 at  Cains  College,  Cambridge;  and  died 
 in  1794.  He  edited  an  interesting  Collec- 
 tion of  Letters,  in  four  volumes,  written 
 by  the  Paston  family,  and  others,  in  the 
 reigns  of  Henry  VI.,  Edward  IV.,  Richard 
 III.,  and  Henry  VII. 
 
 FENTON,  Elijah,  a  poet  and  divine, 
 was  born,  in  1683,  at  Shelton,  in  Stafford- 
 shire; was  educated  at  Jesus  College, 
 Cambridge ;  was  at  one  period  pr i  vate  sec- 
 retary to  the  earl  of  Orrery ;  assisted  Pope 
 in  translating  the  Odyssey;  and  died  tutor 
 to  the  son  of  Lady  Trumbull,  in  1730.  Fen- 
 ton  was  an  amiable  and  worthy  man,  and 
 an  elegant  writer  of  verse.  Besides  his 
 poems  and  his  share  in  the  Odyssey,  he  pro- 
 duced Mariamne,  a  tragedy  ;  and  the  Lives 
 of  Milton  and  Waller. 
 
 FERAUD,  John  Francis,  a  French 
 grammarian,  who  was  born  in  1725,  was  a 
 Jesuit,  and  professor  of  rhetoric  and  philos- 
 
256  FER 
 
 ophy  at  Besancon.     He  died  in  1807. 
 
 He 
 
 produced  two  valuable  works,  A  Grammat-' 
 ical  Dictionary  of  the  French  Language, 
 two  vols.  8vo. ;  and  A  Critical  Dictionary  , 
 of  the  French  Language,  three  vols.  4to. 
 
 FERBER,  John   James,  an  eminent 
 mineralogist,  was  born  at   Carlscrona,   in 
 Sweden,  in  1743;   travelled  over  a  consid- j 
 erable  part  of  Europe,  to  inspect  the  mines ; 
 and  died  in  1790,  while  on  a  tour  in  Swit- 
 zerland.    Among  his   principal  works  are, 
 Letters  from  Italy ;    A   Mineralogical  His- , 
 tory    of  Bohemia;    A    Description    of  the 
 Quicksilver  Mines  of  Idria;   and  Inquiries 
 on  the  Mountains  and   Mines  of  Hunga- 
 FERDUSI, Abul   Caskm  Mansur,! 
 one  of  the  most  celebrated  poets  of  Persia,! 
 was  born,  in  916,  at  Rizvan,  in  Khorasan. 
 Sultan  Mahmoud  of  Ghazna  gave  him  a 
 distinguished  reception  at   his  court,   andj 
 engaged  him  to  compose  the  Shah  Nameh,! 
 or  History  of  the  Persian  Sovereigns.     In! 
 executing  this   task,   Ferdusi  spent  thirty: 
 years  in  retirement,  and,  during  that  time, 
 his  enemies  succeeded  in  prejudicing  Mah- 
 moud against  him.     Instead  of  being   re- 
 warded for  his  work,  according  to  promise, 
 with  sixty  thousand  pieces  of  gold,  merely 
 the  same  number  of  pieces  of  silver  were 
 sent  to  him.     Indignant  at  this  conduct,  he 
 distributed  the  paltry  boon  among  the  ser- 
 vants and  porters,  wrote  a  bitter  satire  on 
 the  sultan,  and  fled  to  Bagdad.     Mahmoud, 
 however,  recalled  him,  but  the  poet  died, 
 in  1020,  soon  after  his  return. 
 
 FERGUSON,  James,  an  astronomer, 
 mechanist,  and  experimental  philosopher, 
 is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  instances  on 
 record  of  a  self-educated  man.  He  was 
 born  in  1710,  and  was  the  son  of  a  labourer 
 in  Banffshire.  He  learned  to  read  in  in- 
 fancy by  hearing  one  of  his  brothers  taught. 
 At  only  eight  years  of  age,  an  accident  led 
 his  attention  to  mechanics,  and,  without  as- 
 sistance, he  discovered  the  fundamental 
 principles  of  the  lever  and  the  wheel  and 
 axle.  While  serving  as  a  shepherd  he  made 
 himself  master  of  astronomy,  and  construct- 
 ed models  of  mills,  spinning  wheels,  and,  at 
 length,  framed  a  pair  of  globes  and  a  watch. 
 He  now  began  to  be  patronized,  and,  hav- 
 ing acquired  a  knowledge  of  drawing,  he 
 became  a  miniature  painter,  by  which  pro- 
 fession he  supported  himself  for  several 
 years.  In  1743  he  removed  to  London,  and 
 thenceforth  gained  yearly  accessions  of  repu- 
 tation and  fortune.  He  was  chosen  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Royal  Society,  and  received  a 
 small  pension  from  George  III.  who  had 
 attended  his  lectures  on  experimental  phi- 
 losophy. His  works,  too,  were  numerous 
 and  successful.  Among  them  are,  Astron- 
 omy explained  ;  Introduction  to  Astronomy ; 
 Lectures  on  Mechanics,  Hydrostatics,  &c. ; 
 The  Art  of  Drawing  in  Perspective;   and 
 
 FER 
 
 an  Introduction  to  Electricity.     He  died 
 in  1776. 
 
 FERGUSON,  Adam,  an  historian  and 
 moral  philosopher,  was  born,  in  1724,  at 
 Logierait,  in  Perthshire,  of  which  parish 
 his  father  was  a  minister ;  was  educated  at 
 Perth,  St.  Andrew's,  and  Edinburgh;  was 
 chaplain  to  the  forty-second  regiment,  iu 
 Flanders,  till  the  peace  of  Aix  la  Chapelle ; 
 and  in  1759,  was  chosen  professor  of  natu- 
 ral philosophy,  which  office  he  subsequent- 
 ly resigned  for  the  professorship  of  moral 
 philosophy,  at  Edinburgh.  In  1773,  he 
 accompanied  the  earl  of  Chesterfield  on  his 
 travels  ;  and,  in  1778,  as  a  reward  for  hav- 
 ing answered  Dr.  Price's  Observations  on 
 Civil  Liberty,  he  was  appointed  secretary 
 to  the  reconciliatory  mission  which  was 
 sent  to  America.  On  his  return  he  resum- 
 ed his  professorial  duties  and  literary  avo- 
 cations. He  died  in  1816.  Ferguson  is 
 the  author  of  An  Essay  on  Civil  Society; 
 A  History  of  the  Roman  Republic;  A 
 Treatise  on  Moral  and  Political  Science; 
 and  Institutes  of  Moral  Philosophy;  and 
 may  justly  be  ranked  among  the  standard 
 writers  in  the  English  language. 
 
 FERGUSSON,  Robert,  a  poet,  was 
 born  in  1751,  at  Edinburgh;  was  educated 
 at  Edinburgh,  Dundee,  and  St.  Andrew's; 
 was  intended  for  the  church,  but  was  oblig- 
 ed to  seek  other  means  of  subsistence,  and 
 obtained  an  humble  situation  in  the  sher 
 iffs'  clerk's  office;  and  died  in  1774,  in  a 
 lunatic  asylum.  His  English  poems  are 
 below  mediocrity,  but  his  compositions  in 
 the  Scottish  dialect  manifest  talent  from 
 which  much  might  have  been  expected  had 
 his  davs  been  lengthened. 
 
 FERISHTA,  Mohammed  Casem,  an 
 Indian  historian,  who  flourished  at  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  seventeenth  century,  was 
 born  at  Ahmednagur,  in  the  Deccan.  Be- 
 ing neglected  by  Jehanguire,  he  accepted 
 the  invitation  of  the  sovereign  of  Visia- 
 pour,  who  patronised  him  in  the  most  lib- 
 eral manner,  and  raised  him  to  important 
 offices.  In  1609,  he  published  his  History 
 of  India  under  the  Mussulmans;  a  work 
 which  bears  a  high  character  for  veracity 
 and  impartiality.  Parts  of  it.  have  been 
 translated  by  Dow,  Scott,  Stewart,  and 
 Anderson.  The  time  of  his  decease  is  not 
 known. 
 
 FERMAT,  Peter,  an  eminent  French 
 mathematician  and  civilian,  was  born  at 
 Toulouse,  in  1590;  was  counsellor  of  the 
 parliament  of  that  city;  and  died  in  1664. 
 He  was  thoroughly  versed  in  the  classics, 
 wrote  Latin,  French,  and  Spanish  verses; 
 was  the  friend  of  most  of  his  philosophical 
 contemporaries ;  and  was  a  profound  geo- 
 metrician. He  seems  to  have  approached 
 very  near  to  the  invention  of  the  differen- 
 tial calculus.  His  mathematical  works 
 were  published  after  his  death. 
 
FER 
 
 FERNANDEZ,  Ju  an,  or  John,  a  Spa- 
 nish pilot,  who,  in  1572,  discovered  the  isl- 
 and which  bears  his  name;  in  1574,  the 
 islands  of  St.  Felix  and  St.  Ambrose ;  and, 
 in  1576,  an  extensive  tract  of  land,  sup- 
 posed to  be  a  part  of  New  Zealand. 
 
 FERNANDEZ  XIMENES  DE  NA- 
 VARETTE,  John,  a  celebrated  Spanish 
 artist,  surnamed  El  Mudo,  because  he  was 
 deaf  and  dumb,  was  born,  in  1526,  at  Lo- 
 grono;  was  a  pupil  of  Titian;  and,  after 
 his  return  from  Italy,  was  appointed  painter 
 to  Philip  II.  He  died  in  1579.  Most  of 
 his  great  works  are  in  the  Escurial.  Among 
 them  are,  Abraham  with  the  three  Angels  ; 
 and  the  Four  Evangelists. 
 
 FERRARI,  Louis,  an  Italian  mathe- 
 matician, born  at  Bologna,  in  1522,  was  a 
 pupil  of  Cardan.  He  became  professor  of 
 mathematics  in  his  native  city;  and  died 
 there  in  1562.  He  is  the  discoverer  of  the 
 method  of  resolving  biquadratic  equations. 
 Cardan,  while  he  gives  high  praise  to  his 
 talents, .represents  him  as  debauched,  im- 
 pious, and  insufferably  violent. 
 
 FERRARIS,  Joseph,  count  de,  an 
 Austrian  general,  was  born,  in  1726,  at 
 Luneville;  entered  the  army  in  1741;  and 
 in  1767  was  appointed  director  general  of 
 artillery  for  the  Austrian  Low  Countries. 
 It  was  while  he  held  this  situation  that  he 
 undertook  the  map  of  the  Netherlands,  in 
 twenty-five  sheets,  which  bears  his  name. 
 In  the  campaign  of  1793  he  distinguished 
 himself  on  various  occasions;  and  at  the 
 end  of  it  was  called  to  Vienna,  to  fill  the 
 place  of  vice  president  of  the  aulic  council 
 of  war.  He  was  made  a  field-marshal  in 
 1808,  and  died  in  1814. 
 
 FERREIRA,  Anthony,  a  poet,  whom 
 the  Portuguese  place  among  their  classics, 
 was  born  at  Lisbon,  in  1528,  and  died  in 
 1560.  Ferreira  brought  to  perfection  in 
 his  native  language  the  composition  of  el- 
 egies and  epistles,  and  introduced  into  it 
 the  epithalamium,  the  epigram,  the  ode, 
 and  tragedy.  His  tragedy  of  Inez  de  Cas- 
 tro is  considered  by  the  Portuguese  to  be 
 one  of  the  noblest  works  in  their  literature. 
 
 FERRERAS,  John  de,  a  celebrated 
 Spanish  historian,  was  born,  in  1652,  of 
 noble  parents,  at  Labaneza,  in  the  diocese 
 of  Astorga,  and  completed  his  studies  at 
 Salamanca.  After  having  filled  various 
 country  livings,  he  was  called  to  Madrid 
 by  Cardinal  Portocarrero,  who  gave  him 
 the  rectory  of  St.  Peter,  and  appointed 
 him  his  confessor.  Ferreras  also  held 
 office  under  the  Inquisition,  and  was  ad- 
 mitted into  the  state  juntos.  Twice  he 
 refused  a  bishopric.  He  died  in  1735. 
 He  contributed  to  the  great  Spanish  Dic- 
 tionary, and  produced  several  works,  of 
 which  the  most  important  is,  A  History  of 
 Spain,  in  sixteen  volumes  4to.  In  elegance 
 and  spirit  he  's  inferior  to  Mariana,  but  he 
 
 FIC 
 
 257 
 
 transcends  him  in  the  other  qualities  of  an 
 historian. 
 
 FERRIAR,  John,  a  physician  and 
 writer  on  elegant  literature,  was  born,  in 
 1764,  at  Chester;  studied  medicine,  and 
 took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh;  and  settled 
 at  Manchester,  where  he  acquired  an  ex- 
 tensive practice,  and  was  chosen  physician 
 to  the  Infirmary  and  the  Lunatic  Asylum. 
 Of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society 
 he  was  an  active  and  eflicient  member. 
 He  died  in  1815.  Ferriar  is  the  author  of 
 Medical  Histories  and  Reflections;  Illu»- 
 trations  of  Sterne,  in  which  he  proves  the 
 literary  larcenies  committed  by  that  writer; 
 The  Bibliomania,  a  poetical  epistle;  An 
 Essay  on  the  Theory  of  Apparitions;  and 
 some  smaller  pieces  in  prose  and  verse. 
 
 FEYJOO  Y  MONTENEGRO,  Bene- 
 dict Jerome,  an  able  Spanish  writer, 
 was  born  at  Compostella,  in  1701;  studied 
 at  the  university  of  Oviedo;  and,  in  1714, 
 entered  the  convent  of  St.  Benedict,  in 
 that  city.  He  became  professor  of  theol- 
 ogy, and  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Saint 
 Vincent.  Feyjoo  was  one  of  the  most 
 indefatigable  of  human  beings.  Besides 
 performing  his  official  duties,  and  preach- 
 ing frequently,  he  acquired  a  knowledge 
 of  several  of  the  sciences,  and  of  the  best 
 Greek,  Latin,  Spanish,  English,  Italian, 
 and  French  authors,  and  wrote  an  astonisn- 
 ing  number  of  volumes.  He  allowed 
 scarcely  four  hours  to  sleep,  and  seldom 
 mixed  with  society.  His  talents  were 
 devoted  to  rooting  out  prejudices,  and 
 promoting  the  welfare  of  his  country.  Of 
 his  works  the  principal  are,  The  Universal 
 Critical  Theatre,  sixteen  vols. ;  and  Curious 
 and  Instructive  Letters,  eight  vols.  He 
 died  in  1764.  In  1780,  a  complete  edition 
 of  Feyjoo's  productions  was  published,  in 
 thirty-three  volumes,  by  Campomanes. 
 
 FI'CHTE,  John  Theophilus,  one  of 
 the  most  celebrated  German  philosophers 
 of  the  modern  school,  was  born,  in  1762, 
 at  Rammenau,  in  Lusacia;  studied  at  Wit- 
 temberg  and  Leipsic  ;  was  successively 
 professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena  and  Erlan- 
 gen,  and  rector  of  the  university  of  Berlin  ; 
 and  died  in  1814.  He  is  the  author  of 
 more  than  twenty  works,  in  most  of  which 
 he  unfolds  the  doctrines  of  transcendental 
 idealism.  Schelling  was  his  most  formid- 
 able opponent. 
 
 FICINO,  or  FICINUS,  Marsilius,  a 
 Platonic  philosopher,  born  a-t  Florence,  in 
 1433,  was  son  to  the  physician  of  Cosmo 
 de  Medicis,  and  was  himself  patronised 
 by  Cosmo,  Peter,  and  Lorenzo.  At  the 
 age  of  forty-two  he  entered  into  the  church, 
 and  was  made  a  canon  in  1484.  He  waa 
 an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Plato's  writings, 
 which  he  descanted  upon  in  an  academy, 
 founded  by  Cosmo  for  that  purpose, 
 preached  even  from  the  pulpit,  and  al?0 
 
258 
 
 FIE 
 
 translated  into  Latin,  but  in  some  parts 
 carelessly  nnd  erroneously.  His  original 
 works  form  two  folio  volumes.  He  died 
 in  1499. 
 
 FIELDING,  Henry,  the  eldest  son  of 
 Lieutenant-general  Fielding,  was  born,  in 
 1707,  at  SharphamPark,  in  Somersetshire. 
 He  received  his  education  at  Eton  and 
 Leyden,  which  latter  seminary  the  scanti- 
 ness of  his  remittances  from  his  father 
 compelled  him  to  leave  at  the  end  of  two 
 years.  On  his  return  home  his  difficulties 
 were  increased  by  dissipated  habits.  As 
 a  resource,  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage. 
 His  first  piece,  which  came  out  in  1727, 
 was  Love  in  several  Masques,  and  its  suc- 
 cess induced  him  to  persevere.  Between 
 1728  and  1743,  he  wrote  twenty-eight 
 dramas.  Some  of  them,  however,  were 
 failures ;  one  of  these  luckless  productions 
 he  printed  "as  it  was  damned  at  the 
 Theatre  Royal  in  Drury  Lane."  Neither 
 wit,  humour,  nor  sprightliness  is  wanting 
 in  his  plays;  but  though  each  has  merit  in 
 parts,  it  is  defective  as  a  whole.  At  the 
 age  of  twenty -seven,  he  married  Miss 
 Cradock,  who  had  a  fortune  of  £.1500; 
 and  at  the  same  time,  by  his  mother's 
 death,  he  became  possessed  of  a  small 
 estate,  of  two  hundred  pounds  a  year,  in 
 Dorsetshire.  Unfortunately,  instead  of 
 husbanding  these  means,  he  squandered 
 them  in  less  than  three  years,  by  main- 
 taining a  large  establishment,  and  keeping 
 open  house.  He  now  turned  to  the  bar 
 for  permanent  subsistence,  and  to  his  fer- 
 tile pen  for  the  supply  of  his  immediate 
 wants.  In  the  law  he  would,  perhaps, 
 have  succeeded,  had  not  his  exertions  been 
 shackled  by  violent  attacks  of  the  gout. 
 Disease,  however,  did  not  stop  the  labours 
 of  his  pen.  In  rapid  succession  he  brought 
 forth  four  periodical  papers,  called  The 
 Champion,  The  True  Patriot,  The  Jacobite 
 Journal,  and  The  Covent  Garden  Journal; 
 Essays  on  Conversation,  and  on  the  Knowl- 
 edge and  Characters  of  Men ;  A  Journey 
 from  this  World  to  the  next;  and  the  nov- 
 els of  Jonathan  Wild,  Joseph  Andrews, 
 Tom  Jones,  and  Amelia;  besides  some  less 
 important  works.     During  the  rebellion  of 
 
 FIL 
 
 1745,  he  lent  the  assistance  of  his  literary 
 talents  to  the  government ;  and  for  this  he 
 was  rewarded,  if  reward  it  may  be  called, 
 by  being  appointed  a  Middlesex  justice! 
 Ill  health  at  length  obliged  him  to  try  the 
 milder  air  of  Lisbon,  and  a  Narrative  of 
 his  Voyage  to  that  place  was  the  last  of 
 his  works.  He  died  in  the  Portuguese 
 capital,  in  October,  1754.  More  than  three 
 fourths  of  a  century  have  elapsed  since  his 
 decease,  yet,  notwithstanding  change  of 
 manners,  and  modern  rivalry,  the  novels  of 
 Fielding  are  still  perused  with  undimin- 
 ished pleasure. 
 
 FIELDING,  Sarah,  the  third  sister  of 
 Henry  Fielding,  was  born  in  1714,  and 
 died,  unmarried,  at  Bath,  in  1768.  She 
 was  a  woman  of  learning  and  talent.  From 
 the  Greek  she  translated  Xenophon's  Me- 
 moirs of  Socrates;  and  among  her  original 
 compositions  are  the  novels  of  David  Sim- 
 ple; The  History  of  the  Countess  of  Del- 
 wyn ;  and  The  History  of  Ophelia. 
 
 FIESCO,  John  Louis,  Count  of  La- 
 vagna,  a  Genoese  of  an  ilhistrious  family, 
 was  the  head  of  the  conspiracy  which,  in 
 1547,  was  formed  against  Andrew  Doria 
 and  his  nephew.  Fiesco  had  succeeded  in 
 lulling  his  intended  victims  into  a  false 
 security,  collecting  together  his  partisans 
 without  opposition,  and  seizing  various 
 posts,  when  a  sudden  end  was  put  to  his 
 plot  and  his  existence.  In  passing  a  plank, 
 from  one  galley  to  another,  it  slipped,  and 
 plunged  him  into  the  water,  whence,  being 
 kept  down  by  the  weight  of  his  armour,  he 
 rose  no  more.  He  was  only  in  his  twenty- 
 second  year. 
 
 FIGUEROA, Bartholomew  Caras- 
 cosa  de,  a  Spanish  poet,  was  born,  about 
 1510,  at  Logrono,  and  studied  at  the  uni- 
 versity of  Salamanca.  He  died  about 
 1570.  Figueroa  introduced  into  the  poetry 
 of  Spain  the  species  of  verse  called  esa- 
 bruxelos  J  in  which  the  line  generally 
 consists  of  seven  or  eleven  syllables,  with 
 die  accent  on  the  antipenultimate. 
 
 FILANGIERI,Gaetano,  a  celebrated 
 Italian  publicist,  of  an  ancient  family,  was 
 born  at  Naples,  in  1752.  He  was  placed 
 in  the  army  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  but 
 soon  quitted  it  that  he  might  gne  himself 
 up  to  study.  He  subsequently,  however, 
 held  an  honorary  office  at  court,  and  com- 
 mission in  the  marines,  and,  in  1787,  was 
 made  a  member  of  the  supreme  council  of 
 finance.  He  died  in  1788.  His  great 
 work,  the  Science  of  Legislation,  gives 
 him  a  conspicuous  place  among  the  writers 
 upon  that  invportant  subject. 
 
 FILICAJA,  Vincent  de,  one  of  the 
 most  eminent  of  the  Italian  lyric  poets, 
 was  born  at  Florence,  in  1642,  and  died 
 in  1707.  He  was  living  in  retirement 
 when  he  produced  his  six  noble  Odes  on 
 the  deliverance  of  Vienna  by  John  Sobi- 
 
FLA 
 
 eski,  which  at  once  raised  him  to  a  high 
 pitch  of  fame.  Nor  were  his  laurels  barren. 
 The  duke  made  him  a  senator,  governor  of 
 Volterra,  and,  afterwards,  of  Pisa,  and, 
 lastly,  placed  him  in  a  highly  confidential 
 office  at  court.  The  best  edition  of  his 
 poems  is  that  of  Venice,  1752,  in  two 
 volumes. 
 
 FINLAY,  John,  a  native  of  Glasgow, 
 wa6  born  in  1782,  and  was  educated  at  the 
 university  of  his  native  city,  at  which  he 
 distinguished  himself  by  his  talents,  and 
 was  much  beloved  for  the  sweetness  of  his 
 disposition.  His  poem  of  Wallace  of  El- 
 lerslie  was  given  to  the  world  when  he  was 
 only  nineteen.  He  died  at  Moffat,  in  1810. 
 Besides  his  Wallace,  he  published  A  Col- 
 lection of  Historical  and  Romantic  Bal- 
 lads, 2  vols. ;  wrote  A  Life  of  Cervantes ; 
 and  edited  editions  of  Blair's  Grave,  and 
 Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations.  His  poetry 
 is  characterized  by  no  trifling  portion  of 
 elegance  and  animation. 
 
 FITZHERBERT,  Sir  Anthony,  an 
 able  judge,  was  born  at  Norbury,  in  Der- 
 byshire, and  studied  at  Oxford  and  one  of 
 the  inns  of  court.  He  rose,  in  1523,  to 
 be  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas ; 
 and  he  died  in  1538.  Among  his  legal 
 works  are,  The  Grand  Abridgment;  The 
 New  Natura  Brevium;  and  The  Office 
 and  Authority  of  Justices  of  Peace.  The 
 Book  of  Husbandry,  and  a  treatise  Of  the 
 Surveying  of  Lands,  are  also  generally  at- 
 tributed to  him;  but  some  suppose  them  to 
 have  been  written  by  his  brother  John. 
 
 FITZPATRICK,  Richard,  a  whig 
 politician  and  wit,  was  born  in  1748,  and 
 was  educated  at  Eton.  At  the  age  of 
 eighteen  he  entered  the  army,  and  he  rose 
 to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  general.  From 
 1774  till  the  period  of  his  decease,  in 
 1813,  he  was  a  member  of  the  House  of 
 Commons.  During  the  coalition  in  1783, 
 and  the  whig  administration  in  1806,  he 
 was  secretary  at  war.  He  contributed  to 
 the  Rolliad  and  the  Probationary  Odes, 
 and  wrote  various  small  poems.  Of  his 
 senatorial  eloquence  the  best  specimen  is 
 his  speech,  delivered  in  1796,  on  a  motion 
 to  effect  the  liberation  of  M.  de  la  Fay- 
 ette. 
 
 FIXLMILLNER,  Placidus,  an  Aus- 
 trian astronomer  and  maihematician,  was 
 born,  in  1721,  near  Lintz,  and  died  in 
 1791.  He  was  a  monk  of  the  monastery 
 of  Kremsmunster,  and  held  several  mo- 
 nastic offices,  besides  being  professor  of 
 canon  law,  and  apostolical  notary  of  the 
 Roman  court.  He  is  the  author  of  Decen- 
 nium  Astronomicum;  Reipublicae  Sacrae 
 Origines  Divinae;  and  other  works.  Fixl- 
 millner  was  one  of  the  first  who  calculated 
 the  orbit  of  the  Georgium  Sidus. 
 
 FLACCUS,  Caius  Valerius,  a  Ro- 
 man poet,  was  a   native   of  Padua.     He 
 
 FLA 
 
 259 
 
 flourished  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  and 
 was  a  friend  of  Martial.  Flaccus  died 
 early,  leaving  his  poem  of  the  Argonautics 
 unfinished.  Some  have  considered  him 
 as  second  only  to  Virgil,  while  others,  not 
 less  erroneously,  have  spoken  slightingly 
 of  his  talents. 
 
 FLAMSTEED,  John,  a  celebrated  as- 
 tronomer, was  born,  in  1646,  at  Denby,  in 
 Derbyshire,  and  was  educated  at  Derby 
 free  school;  but  his  weak  state  of  health 
 did  not  then  allow  him  to  proceed  to  the 
 university.  Some  years  afterwards,  how- 
 ever, he  entered  himself  of  Jesus  College, 
 Cambridge.  To  astronomy  his  attention 
 is  said  to  have  been  directed  by  perusing 
 Sacrobosco's  work  De  Sphaera;  and  he 
 cultivated  the  science  with  such  assiduity 
 as  to  become  one  of  the  most  eminent  as- 
 tronomers of  his  time.  He  was  appointed 
 astronomer  royal,  and  the  observatory  at 
 Greenwich  was  erected  for  him.  Flam- 
 steed  was  also  in  orders,  and  held  the  liv- 
 ing of  Burstow,  in  Surrey.  He  died  in 
 1719.  His  greatest  work  is,  Historia  Coe- 
 lestis  Britannica,  three  vols,  folio. 
 
 FLAXMAN,  John,  a  distinguished 
 modern  sculptor,  the  son  of  a  sculptor  who 
 worked  for  Roubilliac  and  Scheemaker, 
 was  born,  in  1755,  at  York;  and,  in  1770, 
 was  admitted  a  student  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
 emy. Modelling  in  wax  and  clay  was 
 one  of  his  first  occupations ;  and  he  also 
 painted  in  oil  colours.  In  1787  he  went 
 to  Italy.  During  his  seven  years  studies 
 there,  he  executed  several  important 
 works,  and  made  his  drawings  to  illustrate 
 Homer,  vEschylus,  and  Dante.  To  these 
 he  subsequently  added  illustrations  of  He- 
 siod.  The  engravings  from  these  designs 
 spread  his  fame  throughout  Europe  as  an 
 artist  of  truly  classical  taste.  In  1794  he 
 returned  to  England ;  and  his  first  work 
 after  his  return,  Lord  Mansfield's  monu- 
 ment in  Westminster  Abbey,  placed  him 
 in  the  first  rank  of  modern  sculptors. 
 Thenceforth  he  was  constantly  employed, 
 and  his  productions  are  consequently  nu- 
 merous. Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
 the  monuments  of  Collins,  the  poet;  Miss 
 Cromwell;  Earl  Howe;  Lord  Nelson;  Sir 
 Joshua  Reynolds  ;  Countess  Spencer ;  and 
 the  Baring  family.  In  1818  he  completed 
 drawings  and  a  model  for  the  shield  of 
 Achilles,  as  described  in  the  Iliad;  from 
 which  four  casts  in  silver  have  since  been 
 made.  He  died  December  9,  1826.  "  To 
 the  aid  of  his  art,"  says  a  celebrated  re- 
 viewer, "  he  brought  a  loftier  and  more 
 poetical  mind  than  any  of  our  preceding 
 sculptors;  and  learning  unites  with  good 
 sense  and  natural  genius  in  all  the  works 
 which  come  from  his  hand."  Flaxman 
 was  professor  of  sculpture  at  the  Royal 
 Academy.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Charac- 
 ter of  Romney  the  painter;  some  articles 
 
260 
 
 FLE 
 
 in  Rees's  Cyclopaedia;  and  a  Letter  rela- 
 tive to  the  projected  National  Monument 
 —  which  monument  he  proposed  should  be 
 a  statue  of  Britannia,  two  hundred  feet 
 high,  p'aced  on  Greenwich  Hill. 
 
 FLECHIER,  Esprit,  a  celebrated 
 French  prelate  and  preacher,  was  born,  in 
 1632,  at  Pernes,  near  Avignon.  He  first 
 became  known  in  the  capital  of  France  by 
 a  Latin  poem,  on  the  famous  Carousal, 
 given  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1662.  His  Ser- 
 mons and  Funeral  Orations  soon  raised 
 him  to  such  a  pitch  of  reputation  that 
 the  duke  of  Montausier  recommended  him 
 to  fill  the  office  of  reader  to  the  dau- 
 phin. It  was  not  till  1685  that  he  ob- 
 tained the  bishopric  of  Lavaur.  When  the 
 monarch  gave  it  to  him,  he  said,  "  Do  not 
 be  surprised  that  I  have  been  so  tardy  in 
 rewarding  your  merit;  I  was  loath  to  be 
 deprived  of  the  pleasure  of  hearing  you 
 preach."  In  1687,  he  was  removed  to  the 
 bishopric  of  IVimes.  In  his  episcopal 
 character  he  gained  the  love  of  even  the 
 protectants  of  his  diocese,  by  his  uniform 
 piety,  charity,  and  mildness.  He  died  in 
 1710.  Flechier  has  been  called  the  French 
 Isocrates;  his  eloquence  partakes,  indeed, 
 of  the  beauties  and  defects  of  that  of  the 
 Grecian  orator.  His  principal  works  are, 
 A  History  of  Theodosius  the  Great;  A 
 Life  of  Cardinal  Ximenes;  Funeral  Ora- 
 tions ;   and  Sermons. 
 
 FLEETWOOD,  Charles,  the  son  of 
 Sir  William  Fleetwood,  entered  the  mili- 
 tary service  early  in  life  ;  espoused  the 
 cause  of  the  parliament  against  Charles  I. ; 
 rose  to  tlie-rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and 
 contributed  to  the  victory  of  Worcester  ; 
 married  the  daughter  of  Cromwell  ;  was 
 appointed  lord  deputy  of  Ireland ;  joined 
 in  deposing  Richard  Cromwell;  and  died 
 soon  after  the  restoration. 
 
 FLEETWOOD,  William,  an  eminent 
 prelate,  was  born  in  1656,  in  the  Tower 
 of  London,  where  his  father  resided;  was 
 educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College, 
 Cambridge;  and,  after  having  held  several 
 valuable  but  minor  preferments,  was  made 
 bishop  of  St.  Asaph  in  1706.  From  St. 
 Asaph  he  was  translated  to  Ely,  in  1714. 
 He  died  in  1723.  His  principal  works 
 are,  An  Essay  on  Miracles;  Inscriptionum 
 Antiquarum  Sylloge  ;  Chronicon  Pretio- 
 sum,  or  an  Account  of  English  Money; 
 and  Practical  Discourses. 
 
 FLETCHER,  John,  a  dramatist,  the 
 son  of  Bishop  Fletcher,  was  born  in  North- 
 amptonshire, in  1576;  received  his  educa- 
 tion at  Bene't  College,  Cambridge;  and 
 died  of  the  plague  in  1625.  Fletcher  was 
 the  coadjutor  of  Beaumont  in  the  compo- 
 sition of  those  admirable  dramas  which 
 bear  their  jiint  name,  and  which  have 
 ranked  them  among  the  most  eminent  of 
 ,^ur  ancient  theatrical  writers       Fletcher 
 
 FLE 
 
 is  said  to  have  been  eminent  for  fancy; 
 Beaumont  for  judgment.  That  Fletcher 
 possessed  the  quality  attributed  to  him  is 
 rendered  certain  by  that  beautiful  dramatic 
 pastoral,  The  Faithful  Shepherdess,  the  only 
 piece  of  his  sole  composition. 
 
 FLETCHER,  Giles,  a  son  of  Dr.  Giles 
 Fletcher,  who  wrote  a  curious  Account  of 
 the  Russe  Commonwealth,  was  born  in 
 1588;  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge;  and  died  in  1623,  at  his  living 
 of  Alderton,  in  Suffolk.  Wood  describes 
 him  as  "  equally  beloved  by  the  muses  and 
 graces."  That  the  muses  smiled  on  him 
 is  sufficiently  proved  by  his  fine  poem  of 
 Christ's  Victory  and  Triumph,  in  which 
 some  defects  are  amply  redeemed  by  nu- 
 merous passages  of  great  originality  and 
 beauty. 
 
 FLETCHER,  Phineas,  a  brother  of 
 the  foregoing,  and,  like  him,  a  poet,  was 
 educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge, to  which  latter  seminary  he  went 
 in  1600.  In  1621  he  obtained  the  living 
 of  Hilgay,  in  Suffolk,  and  he  is  believed 
 to  have  died  there  about  1650.  He  is  the 
 author  of  The  Purple  Island,  in  twelve 
 cantos;  Piscatory  Eclogues;  Poetical  Mis- 
 cellanies ;  and  a  drama  intitled  Sicelides. 
 Notwithstanding  his  conceits  and  other 
 faults,  which,  however,  are  the  faults  of 
 the  age,  his  works,  as  Headley  rightly 
 observes,  give  him  a  claim  "  to  a  very  high 
 rank  among  our  old  English  classics." 
 
 FLETCHER,  Andrew,  a  Scotch  polit- 
 ical writer,  the  son  of  Sir  Robert  Fletcher, 
 of  Salton,  was  born  in  1653,  and  was  edu- 
 cated by  Dr.  Gilbert  Burnet.  His  spirited 
 opposition  to  the  tyranny  of  the  govern- 
 ment having  rendered  it  prudent  for  him  to 
 withdraw  to  Holland,  he  was  outlawed. 
 In  1685,  he  bore  a  part  in  the  enterprise 
 of  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  but,  in  conse- 
 quence of  Fletcher  having  shot  a  gentleman 
 who  refused  him  a  horse,  the  duke  dis- 
 missed him.  He  next  served  in  Hungary, 
 as  a  volunteer,  against  the  Turks.  The 
 revolution  of  1688  restored  him  to  his 
 country,  and,  till  the  union,  which  he 
 strenuously  opposed,  he  continued  to  be  one 
 of  the  most  active  members  of  the  Scottish 
 parliament.  He  died  in  1716.  His  tracts 
 and  speeches  have  been  collected  in  an 
 octavo  volume.  Of  liberty,  according  to 
 his  idea  of  it,  he  was  a  warm  friend;  but 
 his  plan  to  provide  for  the  poor,  by  means 
 of  domestic  slavery,  may  authorise  us  to 
 entertain  some  doubts  as  to  the  correctness 
 of  his  notions  of  liberty. 
 
 FLEURY,  Claude,  a  divine  and  his- 
 torian, born  at  Paris,  in  1640,  was  an 
 advocate,  but  subsequently  took  orders, 
 became  preceptor  to  the  princes  of  Conti, 
 and  the  count  de  Vermandois,  and  sub-pre- 
 ceptor to  the  duke  of  Burgundy  and  his 
 roval  brothers.      He  obtained  the  abbey 
 
FLO 
 
 of  Loc  Dieu,  and  the  priary  of  Argenteuil, 
 and  was  for  six  years  confessor  to  the 
 youthful  Louis  XV.  He  died  in  1722. 
 His  most  important  works  are,  Ecclesias- 
 tical History,  thirteen  vols.  4to. ;  Manners 
 of  the  Israelites ;  Manners  of  the  Chris- 
 tians ;   and  a  Treatise  on  Public  Law. 
 
 FLEURY,  Andrew  Hercules  de, 
 a  cardinal  and  statesman,  was  born,  in 
 1653,  at  Lodeve,  in  Languedoc ;  was  edu- 
 cated at  the  Jesuits'  College,  in  Paris ; 
 was  made  bishop  of  Frejns  in  1698;  was 
 left  by  the  will  of  Louis  XIV.  preceptor  to 
 his  successor;  and  became  prime  minister 
 of  France,  in  1726.  Fleury  held  the  reins 
 of  power  during  seventeen  years,  and  his 
 talents  were  unremittingly  exerted  to  in- 
 crease the  prosperity  of  France,  and,  as 
 one  means  of  doing  so,  to  preserve  her  at 
 peace  with  her  neighbours.  He  died  in 
 1743;  leaving  behind  him  a  very  trilling 
 fortune. 
 
 FLINDERS,  Matthew,  an  eminent 
 modern  navigator,  was  born  at  Donington, 
 in  Lincolnshire,  and  entered  early  into 
 the  merchant  service,  from  which  he  re- 
 moved into  the  king's,  and  went  with 
 Captain  Hunter  to  New  South  Wales. 
 After  having,  in  a  small  boat,  in  conjunc- 
 tion with  Mr.  Bass,  discovered  the  straits 
 which  now  bear  the  name  of  his  compan- 
 ion, he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
 the  Investigator,  in  which  he  explored  a 
 considerable  part  of  the  coast  of  New  Hol- 
 land. His  vessel  was  at  length  wrecked 
 on  a  coral  reef.  On  his  passage  home- 
 ward to  England,  in  1803,  he  touched  at 
 the  isle  of  France.  There  he  was  detained 
 for  more  than  six  years  a  captive,  and  was 
 deprived  of  his  journal  and  papers.  He 
 died  in  1814.  His  Voyage  was  published, 
 in  two  quarto  volumes,  shortly  after  his 
 decease. 
 
 FLOOD,  Henry,  a  celebrated  Irish 
 orator,  the  son  of  the  chief  justice  of  the 
 king's  bench  in  Ireland,  was  born  in  1732; 
 was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
 and  at  Oxford ;  became  a  member  of  the 
 Irish  House  of  Commons,  in  1759,  and  dis- 
 tinguished himself  by  his  eloquence  and  his 
 patriotic  exertions;  was  elected,  in  1783, 
 member  for  Seaford,  in  the  British  parlia- 
 ment; and  died  in  1791.  From  1775  to  1781 
 he  held  an  office  under  government,  but 
 during  the  rest  of  his  career  he  was  in  the 
 ranks  of  the  opposition.  One  of  the  most 
 remarkable  events  of  his  senatorial  life 
 was  the  violent  interchange  of  invective 
 which,  in  1783,  took  place  between  him 
 and  Grattan. 
 
 FLORIAN,  John  Peter  Claris  de, 
 a  French  writer,  was  born,  in  1755,  at  the 
 castle  of  Florian,  in  the  Lower  Cevennes. 
 Voltaire,  to  whom  he  was  related  by 
 marriage,  and  who  had  a  warm  affection 
 for  him,  recommended  him  to  the  duke  of 
 
 FOL 
 
 261 
 
 Penthievre  as  a  page.  The  duke  soon 
 contracted  an  equal  regard  for  him.  He 
 gave  him  a  company  in  his  own  regiment, 
 and,  afterwards,  employed  him  about  his 
 person,  treated  him  as  a  confidential  friend, 
 and  afforded  him  the  means  of  pursuing  the 
 career  of  literature.  Thenceforth,  Florian 
 became  a  fertile  and  a  popular  writer. 
 Among  his  earliest  works  were,  Galatea; 
 Estelle  ;  Numa  Pompilius  ;  Comedies  ; 
 Tales ;  and  Gonsalvo  of  Cordova.  His 
 Fables,  which  rank  him  second  among 
 French  fabulists,  appeared  in  1792.  In 
 1794,  he  was  for  a  while  imprisoned,  and 
 he  died  on  the  13th  of  September,  shortly 
 after  his  liberation.  Besides  the  works 
 already  mentioned,  he  produced  several 
 others,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
 Eliezar  and  Naphtali ;  William  Tell ;  Ruth ; 
 a  translation  of  Don  Quixote ;  and  his  own 
 memoirs,  under  the  title  of  Memoirs  of  a 
 young  Spaniard.  Elegance,  simplicity, 
 and  benevolent  feeling,  are  the  distinguish- 
 ing qualities  of  Florian's  writings. 
 
 FLORTO,  John,  descended  from  an 
 Italian  family,  was  born  in  London  ; 
 taught  the  French  and  Italian  languages  at 
 Magdalen  College,  Oxford  ;  was  subse- 
 quently appointed  tutor  to  Prince  Henry 
 by  James  I.,  and  clerk  of  the  closet  to  the 
 queen;  and  died  in  1625.  His  chief  works 
 are,  First  Fruits;  Second  Fruits;  Garden 
 of  Recreation ;  and  an  Italian  and  English 
 Dictionary. 
 
 FLORUS,  Lucius  Ann^us  Julius, 
 a  Latin  historian,  is  believed  to  have  been 
 a  Spaniard,  and  of  the  same  family  as 
 Seneca,  and  to  have  lived  under  the  reigns 
 of  Trajan  and  Adrian.  He  is  the  author 
 of  an  Epitome  of  Roman  History.  The 
 Pervigilium  Veneris  and  other  poems  have 
 also  been  attributed  to  him. 
 
 FLOYD,  William,  a  delegate  from 
 New-York  to  the  Continental  Congress, 
 and  signer  of  the  declaration  of  indepen- 
 dence, was  born  on  Long  Island  in  1734, 
 and  was  left  in  his  youth  heir  to  a  large 
 estate.  He  was  a  zealous  and  faithful 
 public  servant  for  more  than  fifty  years. 
 He  died  in  1821. 
 
 FOLARD,  John  Charles,  a  native 
 of  Avignon,  born  in  1669,  was  inspired 
 with  a  love  of  arms  by  reading  Ca?sar's  Com- 
 mentaries. He  served  with  distinguished 
 reputation  under  Vendome,  in  Italy,  during 
 the  war  of  succession,  and  under  the  duke 
 of  Burgundy  and  Marshal  Villars,  in  Flan- 
 ders. After  the  peace  of  Utrecht  he  volun- 
 teered his  services  to  the  order  of  Malta, 
 and  to  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  and  he 
 was  with  the  Swedish  monarch  at  the  siege 
 of  Fredericshall.  He  died  in  1752.  A 
 deepened  order  of  battle  in  the  defensive, 
 and  the  use  of  heavy  columns  in  the  offen- 
 sive, form  the  basis  of  what  is  denominated 
 the  system  of  Folard.     He  is  the  author  of 
 
262 
 
 FON 
 
 FON 
 
 Commentaries  on  Polybius;  New  Discov-|  invited  him  to  Florence,  and  confided  to 
 eries  in  War;  and  some  less  important  him  the  formation  of  the  fine  cabinet  of 
 works.  natural    history   which  is   now   one  of  the 
 
 FOLENGO,  Thkophilus,  an  Italian 'boasts  of  the  Florentine  capital.  He  is  the 
 burlesque  poet,  better  known  under  his  aa-j  author  of  various  physiological  and  chemi- 
 sumed  name  of  Merlin  Coccaie,  was  born , cal  works,  one  of  the  best  known  of  which 
 near  Mantua,  in  1491 ;  was  a  monk  of  the  is  a  Treatise  on  Poisons. 
 Benedictine  order  of  Mont  Cassin;  and  FONTANA,  Gregory,  a  brother  of 
 died  in  1554.  He  is  the  inventor  of  the 'the  foregoing,  a  mathematician,  was  born, 
 species  of  poetry  called  Macaronic,  which!  in  1735,  in  the  Tyrol;  became  a  monk  at 
 consists  in  mingling  the  vernacular  language  an  early  age;  succeeded  Boscovich  as 
 with  the  Latin.     He  is  the  author  of  xMac-  mathematical  professor  at  Pisa;   filled  that 
 
 aronics,  in  eighteen  books;  Orlandino; 
 Chaos  del  Triperuno;  and  some  works  of 
 le<s  extent. 
 
 FONSECA,  Eeeonora,  marchioness 
 of,  a  lady  of  great  beauty  and  uncommon 
 talents,  was  born  at  Naples,  in  1768.  She 
 cultivated  botany,  and  other  branches  of 
 natural  history,  and  assisted  Spallanzani  in 
 his  philosophical  investigations.  During 
 the  short-lived  existence  of  the  Partheno- 
 pean  republic,  in  1799.  she  warmly  espous- 
 ed the  popular  cause,  and  edited  a  journal 
 called  The  Neapolitan  Monitor;  and  for 
 this  she  was  executed,  on  the  20th  of  July, 
 by  the  restored  government. 
 '  FONTAINE  DES  BERTINS,  Alex- 
 is^ celebrated  French  geometrician,  was 
 born,  in  1725,  at  Claveison,  in  Dauphine, 
 and  died  in  1771.  He  was  the  first  who 
 applied  himself  to  the  general  theory  and 
 the  applications  of  the  integral  calculus. 
 His  mathematical  papers,  on  that  and  other 
 important  subjects,  form  a  quarto  volume. 
 FONT  A  N  A ,  U  o  M  i  x  i  c ,  an  Italian  archi- 
 tect of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  born,  in 
 1543,  at  Mili,  near  the  Lake  of  Como ;  was 
 employed  by  Popes  Sixtus  V.  and  Clement 
 VIII., and  by  the  Neapolitan  monarch; 
 and  died  at  Naples,  in  1607.     He  raised 
 
 office  with  distinguished  reputation  for 
 more  than  thirty  years ;  was  elected  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  legislative  assemblies  of  the  Cis- 
 alpine and  Italian  republics;  and  died  in 
 1805.  He  wrote  a  great  number  of  math- 
 ematical papers  in  the  transactions  of  vari- 
 ous learned  bodies ;  and  translated  several 
 scientific  works  from  the  English,  French, 
 and  German. 
 
 FONTANES,  Louis  de,  an  eminent 
 French  writer,  was  born  at  Niort,  in  1761. 
 He  first  became  known  to  the  public  by  hig 
 poems,  among  which  were  The  Orchard, 
 and  a  translation  of  Pope's  Essay  on  Man. 
 During  the  revolution  he  edited,  first,  the 
 journal  called  The  Moderator,  and,  after- 
 wards, with  La  Harpe,  The  Memorial. 
 For  the  latter,  he  was  proscribed  in  1797, 
 and  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  England.  Af- 
 ter the  establishment  of  the  consulship  he 
 took  a  share  in  the  management  of  The 
 Mercury.  He  was  one  of  the  original  mem- 
 bers of  the  Institute,  and  was  successively 
 a  member  and  president  of  the  legislative 
 body,  grand  master  of  the  university,  and 
 a  senator.  Louis  XVIII. ,  whose  recall  he 
 was  one  of  the  first  to  propose,  made  him 
 a  peer,  and  a  privy  counsellor.  He  died 
 in  1821.     His  last  work  was  an  Ode  on  the 
 
 the  Egyptian  obelisk  in  front  of  St.  Peter's,  j  Violation  of  the  Tombs  of  St.  Denis.  By 
 and  constructed  many  magnificent  edifices 
 at  Rome  and  Naples. — His  brother,  John, 
 born  in  1540,  died  in  1614,  was  celebra- 
 ted as  an  hydraulic  architect.  He  restor- 
 ed the  aqueduct  of  Augustus  from  the  Lake 
 of  Bracciano,  and  formed  the  dikes  to  pro- 
 tect Ravenna  and  Ferrara  from  the  inun- 
 dations of  the  Po. 
 
 FONT  AN  A,  Chari.es,  an  Italian  ar- 
 chitect, was  born,  in  1634,  at  Bruciato, 
 and  died  in  1714.     He  was  patronised  by 
 
 his  countrymen  he  is  considered  as  stand- 
 ing among  the  highest  of  their  poets  of  the 
 second  class,  and  in  the  ranks  of  their  first 
 rate  orators. 
 
 FONTENELLE,  Bernard  le  Bo- 
 vi er  de,  a  French  author  of  learning  and 
 of  varied  talents,  a  nephew  of  Corneille, 
 born  at  Rouen,  in  1667,  was  the  son  of  an 
 advocate;  studied  at  the  Jesuits'  college, 
 in  his  native  city,  and  displayed  early  tal- 
 ent;  pleaded  one  cause,  which  be  lost;  and 
 
 Popes  Innocent  XL  and  Clement  XL,  and  |  then  devoted  himself  to  literature.  At  the 
 executed  many  important  works,  among!  outset  of  his  literary  career  he  was  not  for- 
 which  are  several  fountains,  the  mausoleum  tunate.  Some  of  his  verses,  indeed,  were 
 of  Queen  Christina,  and  the  Grimani,  Bo-  praised,  but  his  tragedy  of  Aspar  was 
 locnietti,  and  Mount   Citorio  palaces.     He  \  damned;    and    Boileau,    Racine,  and   La 
 
 Bruyere  were  his  enemies.     His  Dialogues 
 of  the  Dead,  however,  published  in  1683, 
 established  his  reputation,  and  it  was  fully 
 sustained  by  the  Conversations  on  the  Plu- 
 rality of  Worlds,  and  the  History  of  Ora- 
 omarolo,  in  the  Tyrol,  in  1730,  and  diedjcles.     The  last  of  these,  which  was  avow- 
 at  Florence,  in  1805.     From  Pisa,  where  edly  borrowed  from  the  work  of  Van  Daale, 
 he  was  professor  of  philosophy,  Leopold  IL  |  exposed  Fontenelle    to  a  charge  of  being 
 
 wrote  various  architectural  treatises, among 
 which  are  descriptions  of  the  Vatican  and 
 the  Flavian  amphitheatre. 
 
 FONTANA,  Felix,  an  eminent  Italian 
 philosopher  and  naturalist,  was  born  at 
 P 
 
FOO 
 
 heterodox.  In  1691,  after  having  been  four 
 times  rejected,  he  was  received  into  the 
 French  Academy,  of  which,  nine  years  la- 
 ter, he  was  chosen  the  secretary.  One  of 
 his  best  productions  is  the  History  of  that 
 Academy,  which  had  so  long  repulsed  him. 
 It  seems  to  have  been  rather  as  performing 
 the  duty  of  an  academician,  than  as  a  la- 
 bour of  love,  that  he  wrote  The  Elements 
 of  the  Geometry  of  Infinites.  "Sir,"  said 
 he  to  the  regent,  when  he  presented  it  to 
 him,  "here  is  a  book  which  not  more  than 
 eight  men  in  Europe  can  understand,  and 
 the  author  is  not  one  of  the  eight."  The 
 life  and  the  popularity  of  Fontenelle  were 
 protracted  far  beyond  what  is  the  usual  pe- 
 riod. Till  nearly  his  hundredth  year,  he 
 continued  to  be  admired  in  the  literary  and 
 the  social  circle.  He  died  in  1757,  with- 
 out pain.  "I  do  not  suffer,"  said  he  to  his 
 physician,  "but  I  feel  a  difficulty  of  exist- 
 ing." There  are  numerous  editions  of  his 
 works ;  the  best  is  that  of  1800,  with  the 
 notes  of  Lalande. 
 
 FOOTE,  Samuel,  a  comic  writer  and 
 actor,  was  born,  about  1721,  of  a  good 
 family,  at  Truro,  in  Cornwall ;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Worcester  College,  Oxford;  and 
 studied,  or  rather  did  not  study,  at  the  Tem- 
 ple, with  a  view  to  the  bar.  Dissipation 
 melted  away  his  small  fortune,  and  he  turned 
 his  attention  to  the  stage  as  a  resource. 
 His  first  appearance  was  in  Othello;  but 
 he  soon  relinquished  the  buskin,  for  which 
 nature  had  certainly  not  qualified  him. 
 Fortunately  for  himself,  and  for  the  public 
 amusement,  he  hit  upon  a  new  kind  of  en- 
 tertainment, in  which,  for  his  sole  benefit, 
 he  was  at  once  author  and  actor.  In  1747 
 he  opened  the  Hay  market  Theatre,  with  a 
 dramatic  piece,  called  The  Diversions  of 
 the  Morning,  in  which  well  known  charac- 
 ters were  mimicked  and  satirized.  The  ti- 
 tle of  this  was  soon  altered  to  Mr.  Foote 
 giving  Tea  to  his  Friends.  In  the  ensuing 
 season  he  presented  The  Auction  of  Pic- 
 tures. This  course  he  pursued  at  the  dif- 
 ferent theatres  for  some  years.  In  1760  he 
 began  to  occupy  the  Haymarket  Theatre 
 yearly,  with  a  regular  company,  when  the 
 other  theatres  were  shut  up;  and,  in  1766, 
 he  obtained  a  regular  patent.  The  loss  of 
 Foote's  leg,  by  an  accident,  is  said  to  have 
 induced  the  duke  of  York  to  obtain  the  pa- 
 tent, to  console  the  author  in  some  measure 
 for  the  misfortune.  Foote  continued  to  act, 
 to  write,  and  to  satirize,  with  unabated 
 vigour,  till  1777,  when  a  discarded  man 
 servant  brought  against  him  a  charge  of  an 
 unnameable  nature.  Foote  was  tried  and 
 honourably  acquitted,  but  the  disgrace'sunk 
 deep  into  his  mind,  and  he  died  in  the  au- 
 tumn of  the  same  year.  He  wrote  twenty- 
 eix  dramatic  pieces,  which,  though  slight  in 
 their  construction,  abound  with  wit,  hu- 
 mour, ridicule,  and  satire.     It  must,  how- 
 
 FOR 
 
 263 
 
 ever,  be  owned  that  he  does  not  always  ap- 
 ply the  lash  with  a  strict  regard  to  delica- 
 cy or  justice.  In  conversation,  he  possess- 
 ed such  varied  powers  of  pleasing,  that  even 
 Johnson,  who  disliked  him,  confessed  him 
 to  be  irresistible. 
 
 FORBES,  Duncan,  a  Scottish  Judge, 
 was  born  at  Culloden,  in  1685;  studied 
 at  Paris,  Utrecht,  and  Edinburgh;  was, 
 successively  solicitor-general,  lord  advo- 
 cate, and  president  of  session,  in  Scotland ; 
 and  died  in  1747.  Forbes  was  learned, 
 pious,  and  a  true  lover  of  his  country.  It 
 was  mainly  by  his  influence  and  exertions 
 that  the  rebellion  of  1745  was  prevented 
 from  spreading  more  widely  among  the 
 clans.  He  was,  however,  treated  with  the 
 grossest  ingratitude,  being  unable  to  obtain 
 repayment  of  the  sums  which  he  had  lib- 
 erally advanced  to  uphold  the  cause  of  the 
 government.  He  wrote  Thoughts  on  Re- 
 ligion ;  and  other  works.  The  papers 
 relative  to  his  transactions  in  1745-6  have 
 been  published  in  two  volumes  4to. 
 
 FORBES,  Sir  William,  a  native  of 
 Scotland,  born  in  1739,  at  Pitsligo,  was 
 one  of  the  first  who,  with  Sir  James  Hun- 
 ter Blair,  founded  a  banking  establishment 
 at  Edinburgh.  As  a  commercial  character 
 he  was  distinguished  by  liberality  of  con- 
 duct. His  intellectual  powers  were  of  a 
 superior  order ;  and  he  was  early  a  member 
 of  the  Literary  Club,  in  London,  to  which 
 Johnson  and  other  eminent  men  belonged. 
 He  died  in  1807.  His  only  work  is,  Me- 
 moirs of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Dr.  Beat- 
 tie. 
 
 FORBES,  James,  a  native  of  London, 
 born  in  1749,  was  sent  out  to  India,  as  a 
 writer,  in  his  youth,  and  returned  from 
 thence,  with  a  fortune,  in  17S4.  During 
 his  residence  in  India,  he  travelled  over  a 
 considerable  part  of  it,  and  made  notes  and 
 drawings,  which  afterwards  formed  the  ba- 
 sis of  Oriental  Memoirs,  four  volumes  4to. 
 He  is  also  the  author  of  Letters  from 
 France;  and  of  Reflections  on  the  Charac- 
 ter of  the  Hindoos.      Forbes  died  in  1819. 
 
 FORBIN,  Claude,  count  de,  an  emi- 
 nent French  naval  officer,  was  born,  in 
 1656,  near  Aix,  in  Provence,  and  entered 
 very  early  into  the  naval  service.  In  1685, 
 he  accompanied  the  French  ambassador  to 
 Siam,  and  the  Siamese  monarch  thought 
 so  highly  of  his  talents  that  he  retained  him 
 for  two  years,  as  high  admiral,  general, 
 and  governor  of  Bancock.  Forbin  returned 
 to  Fiance  in  1688,  and  continued  his  mar- 
 itime career,  signalizing  himself  on  num- 
 berless occasions,  till  1710,  when  his  infir- 
 mities compelled  him  to  retire.  He  died 
 in  1733. 
 
 FORCELLIIVI,  Giles,  a  lexicogra- 
 pher, was  born,  in  1688,  near  Feltre,  in 
 the  Venetian  territory.  His  great  work, 
 The  Complete  Lexicon  of  the  Latin  I*ui- 
 
264 
 
 FOR 
 
 guage,  in  four  volumes  folio,  was  the  labour 
 of  the  largest  part  of  his  life.  He  also  as- 
 sisted Facciolato  in  a  new  edition  of  Cale- 
 pino's  Dictionary. 
 
 FORD,  John,  one  of  our  early  drama- 
 tists, was  born,  in  15S6,  at  Ilsington,  in 
 Devonshire;  became  a  member  of  the  Mid- 
 dle Temple  in  1602;  and  died  about  1639. 
 He  joined  with  Dekker  and  Rowley  in  sev- 
 eral plays,  and  was  the  sole  author  of  elev- 
 en pieces,  of  which  the  principal  are,  The 
 Lover's  Melancholv;  Love's  Sacrifice; 
 'Tis  Pity  She's  a  Whore;  Perkin  War- 
 beck;  and  The  Broken  Heart.  "Ford 
 (says  Charles  Lamb)  was  of  the  first  order 
 of  poets.  He  sought  for  sublimity,  not  by 
 parcels  in  metaphors  or  visible  images,  but 
 directly  where  she  has  her  full  residence  in 
 the  heart  of  man;  in  the  actions  and  suffer- 
 ings of  the  greatest  minds." 
 
 FORDUN,  John  dk,  a  Scotch  histori- 
 an, of  whose  life  nothing  certain  is  known. 
 The  dedication  of  his  Scotichronicon  to  the 
 bishop  of  Glasgow,  bears  the  date  of  1377, 
 at  which  period  he  is  supposed  to  have  held 
 the  benefice  of  Fordun.  Though  it  con- 
 tains much  that  is  fabulous  or  absurd,  his 
 History  is  a  valuable  document. 
 
 FORDYCE,  James,  a  Scotch  divine, 
 was  born,  in  1720,  at  Aberdeen;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Marischal  College;  and  was,  suc- 
 cessively, minister  at  Brechin,  Alloa,  and 
 Monk  well  Street,  London.  In  1782,  he 
 relinquished  the  pastoral  office,  and  retired 
 first  to  Hampshire,  and  afterwards  to  Bath. 
 He  died  at  Bath,  in  1796.  He  wrote  Ser- 
 mons to  Young  Women ;  Addresses  to 
 Young  Men;  Addresses  to  the  Deity;  and 
 some  single  Sermons. — His  brother,  Da- 
 vid, born  in  1711,  and  died  in  1750,  was 
 also  in  orders;  and  wrote  dialogues  con- 
 cerning Education;  Theodorus,  a  Dialogue 
 on  the  Art  of  Preaching;  and  the  Treatise 
 on  Moral  Philosophy,  in  Dodsley's  Precep- 
 tor. 
 
 FORDYCE,  Gkorgk,  an  eminent  phy- 
 sician, was  born  at  Aberdeen,  in  1736;  was 
 educated  at  Marischal  College,  and  studied 
 medicine  at  Edinburgh  and  Leyden;  set- 
 tled in  London  in  1757,  and  acquired  much 
 reputation  as  a  lecturer  on  chemistry,  the 
 materia  medica,  and  the  therapeutic  art; 
 rose  into  considerable  practice ;  became  a 
 fellow  of  the  college;  physician  of  St. 
 Thomas's  Hospital ;  and  a  member  of  the 
 Royal  Society,  and  of  the  Literary  Club; 
 and  died  in  1802.  He  wrote  Elements  of 
 the  Practice  of  Physic;  A  Treatise  on  Di- 
 gestion ;  Elements  of  Agriculture  and  Veg- 
 etation; and  other  works. 
 
 FORMEY,  John  Henry  Samuel,  a 
 multifarious  and  able  writer,  was  born  at 
 Berlin  in  1711,  and  died  there  in  1797. 
 He  was,  at  his  outset  in  life,  pastor  of  the 
 French  church  at  Berlin,  but  relinquished 
 the  ministry  in  1739,  on  being  appointed 
 
 FOR 
 
 professor  of  philosophy  at  the  French  col 
 lege.  In  1748,  he  was  made  perpetual  se- 
 cretary of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  his 
 native  city.  Formey  conducted,  in  whole 
 or  in  part,  three  eminent  literary  journals, 
 and  produced  nearly  thirty  biographical, 
 theological,  and  philosophical  works. 
 
 FORSTER,  John  Reinhold,  a  nat- 
 uralist ami  traveller,  was  born,  in  1729,  at 
 Derschau,  in  Prussian  Poland,  and  was  ed- 
 ucated at  Berlin  and  Halle.  After  having 
 been  a  minister  of  the  gospel  in  Prussia,  he 
 was  invited  to  Russia,  to  superintend  some 
 newr  colonies  at  Saratoff.  From  Russia  he 
 soon  removed  to  England,  and  became  a 
 teacher  in  the  dissenting  academy  at  War- 
 rington. In  1772,  he  was  engaged,  with 
 his  son,  to  accompany  Captain  Cook,  as 
 naturalist.  Subsequently  to  his  return,  his 
 conduct  gave,  on  more  than  one  account, 
 so  much  offence  to  the  British  government, 
 that  he  thought  it  advisable  to  leave  Eng- 
 land. For  some  time  he  was  much  dis- 
 tressed; but  in  1780  he  was  fortunate 
 enough  to  be  appointed  professor  of  natur- 
 al history,  and  inspector  of  the  botanical 
 garden,  at  Halle,  in  Saxony.  He  died  in 
 1798.  Among  his  works  are,  Observa- 
 tions made  on  his  Voyage ;  and  a  History 
 of  Vovages  and  Discoveries  in  the  North. 
 FORSTER,  John  George  Adam, 
 the  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  near 
 Dantzic,  in  1754;  accompanied  his  father 
 in  the  voyage  round  the  world;  and  was 
 successively  professor  of  natural  history  at 
 Cassel  and  Wilna,  and  principal  librarian 
 to  the  elector  of  Mentz.  Having  adopted 
 republican  principles,  Forster  was  sent  to 
 Paris,  by  the  revolutionists  of  Mentz,  to 
 desire  that  their  city  might  be  united  to 
 France.  This  step  was  his  ruin,  and  he 
 was  compelled  to  find  an  asy'um  in  the 
 French  capital;  where  he  died,  in  1794, 
 while  preparing  for  a  voyage  to  Hindostan 
 and  Thibet.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Voyage 
 round  the  World ;  a  Journey  along  the 
 Banks  of  the  Rhine;  and  several  other 
 works:  and  he  assisted  his  father  in  the 
 Characteres  Generum  Plantarum. 
 
 FORSYTH,  William,  a  horticultur- 
 ist, born  in  1757  at  Old  Meldrum,  in  Ab- 
 berdeeoshire,  was  a  pupil  of  Philip  Miller, 
 and  succeeded  him  at  the  Chelsea  physic 
 garden.  In  1784,  he  became  superintend- 
 ent of  St.  James's  and  Kensington  Gar- 
 dens. He  died  in  1804.  Forsyth  invented 
 a  composition  to  cure  the  wounds  and  dis- 
 eases of  trees ;  and  wrote  Observations  on 
 the  Diseases,  &c.  of  Fruit  and  Forest 
 Trees ;  and  a  Treatise  on  the  Culture,  &c. 
 of  Fruit  Trees. 
 
 FORTESCUE,  Sir  John,  an  eminent 
 judge,  and  writer  on  the  law,  is  believed  to 
 have  been  born  in  Dorsetshire,  and  to  have 
 studied  at  Oxford  and  Lincoln's  Inn.  In 
 1442,  he  was  made  chief  justice  of  the  court 
 
FOS 
 
 of  king's  bench.  His  loyalty  to  Henry  VI. 
 caused  him  to  be  attainted  by  the  parlia- 
 ment under  Edward  IV.;  and  he  escaped 
 his  fate  only  by  flying  to  Flanders.  While 
 he  was  in  exile  he  composed  his  well  known 
 treatise  De  Laud ibus  Legum  Anglhfi.  He 
 returned  to  join  in  the  struggle  for  the  res- 
 toration of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  and  was 
 one  of  the  prisoners  taken  after  the  battle 
 of  Tewkesbury.  He  was,  however,  suffer- 
 ed to  retire  to  his  seat  in  Gloucestershire, 
 where  he  died  at  the  age  of  ninety.  Be- 
 sides the  treatise  De  Laudibus,  he  wrote  a 
 tract  on  The  Difference  between  an  Abso- 
 lute and  a  Limited  Monarch  v. 
 
 FORTIGUERRA,  or  FORTEGUER- 
 RI,  Nicholas,  an  Italian  prelate  and  po- 
 et, surnamed  the  younger,  to  distinguish 
 him  from  the  cardinal  of  the  same  name, 
 was  born  at  Pistoia  in  1674,  and  died 
 in  1735.  He  translated  into  verse  the 
 comedies  of  Terence;  but  the  work  on 
 which  his  reputation  is  founded  is  the  poem 
 of  Ricciardetto,  in  twenty  cantos;  a  lively 
 and  elegant  production,  in  which  he  adopts 
 by  turns  the  manner  of  Pulci,  Berni,  and 
 Ariosto. 
 
 FOSCOLO,  Ugo,  a  distinguished  Ital- 
 ian writer,  was  born  at  sea,  in  1776,  near 
 Zante,  of  which  island  his  father  was  the 
 Venetian  governor.  He  was  educated  at 
 Padua,  and  produced  his  tragedy  of  Thy- 
 estes  before  he  was  twenty.  After  the 
 Venetian  territory  was  placed  under  the 
 Austrian  yoke,  he  returned  to  Lombardy, 
 where  he  produced  his  celebrated  Letters 
 ofOrtis,  a  romance  which  established  his 
 fame.  Having  entered  into  the  first  Italian 
 legion,  he  formed  a  part  of  the  garrison 
 of  Genoa  when  that  city  was  besieged  by 
 the  Austrians  in  1S0O,  and  two  of  his  finest 
 odes  were  composed  while  he  resided  in 
 the  Genoese  capital.  He  retired  from  the 
 army  in  1805.  In  1807  he  published  The 
 Tombs,  a  poem;  and,  in  the  following 
 year,  an  edition  of  the  works  of  Montecu- 
 culi.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  lite- 
 rature at  Pavia,  in  1809 ;  but  the  bold  lan- 
 guage of  his  introductory  lecture,  On  the 
 Origin  and  Office  of  Literature,  is  said  to 
 have  induced  Napoleon  to  suppress  the 
 professorship  immediately.  In  1812,  Fos- 
 colo  gave  still  farther  offence  by  his  trage- 
 dy of  Ajax,  which  was  supposed  to  be  a 
 satire  on  the  emperor,  and  a  panegyric  on 
 Moreau.  He  was  consequently  obliged  to 
 withdraw  from  the  kingdom  of  Italy  to 
 Florence.  In  1814,  he  was  compelled  to 
 fly  to  Switzerland,  inconsequence  of  hav- 
 ing joined  in  a  plan  to  expel  the  Austrian 
 oppressors  from  Italy;  and  in  the  follow- 
 ing year  he  settled  in  England.  Here  he 
 published  his  tragedy  of  Ricciarda;  Es- 
 says on  Petrarch;  Dissertation  and  Notes 
 on  Dante;  and  contributed  to  the  Edin- 
 burgh, Quarterly,  Westminster,  and  Retro- 
 12 
 
 FOU 
 
 265 
 
 spective  Reviews,  and  other  periodicals. 
 He  died,  of  dropsy,  September  10,  1827; 
 having  for  a  considerable  period  suffered 
 much  from  disease  and  penury. 
 
 FOSTER,  Sir  Michael,  an  eminent 
 lawyer,  was  born,  in  1689,  at  Marlbor- 
 ough, in  Wiltshire;  studied  at  Exeter 
 College,  Oxford,  and  the  Middle  Temple ;. 
 was  chosen  recorder  of  Bristol,  in  1735; 
 was  appointed  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
 court  of  king's  bench,  and  knighted,  in 
 1745;  and  died  in  1763.  Blackstone  de- 
 clares him  to  be  "a  very  great  master  of 
 the  crown  law."  Independence,  and  a  re- 
 gard for  the  liberty  of  the  subject,  marked 
 his  conduct  as  a  judge.  He  wrote  a  refu- 
 tation of  the  doctrines  contained  in  Bishop 
 Gibson's  Codex,  and  A  Report  of  the  Trial 
 of  the  Rebels  in  1746,  to  which  are  added 
 Discourses  upon  a  few  Branches  of  the 
 Crown  Law. 
 
 FOSTER,  James,  an  eloquent  dissent- 
 ing minister,  was  born,  in  1697,  at  Exe- 
 ter. He  quitted  the  Independent  sect  to 
 become  a  Baptist.  He  succeeded  Dr.  Gale 
 as  preacher  at  Barbican,  and  was  after- 
 wards minister  at  Pinner's  Hall,  and  lec- 
 turer at  the  Old  Jewry.  Such  were  his 
 talents  as  a  pulpit  orator,  that  crowds 
 flocked  to  hear  him,  and  even  Pope  sang 
 his  praise.  He  died  in  1752.  He  wrote 
 An  Essay  on  Fundamentals;  Tracts  on 
 Heresy;  Discourses  on  Natural  and  Social 
 Virtue;  and  other  works. 
 
 FOTHERGILL,  George, an  eminent 
 physician,  was  born,  in  1712,  at  Carr-end, 
 in  Yorkshire;  and  studied  at  Edinburgh 
 and  London.  After  having  travelled  in 
 many  parts  of  the  continent,  he  settled  in 
 the  British  metropolis,  where  he  obtained 
 an  extensive  practice.  He  died  in  1780. 
 Fothergill,  who  was  a  quaker,  was  distin- 
 guished for  philanthropy ;  he  was  indefati- 
 gable in  finding  or  making  occasions  to  do 
 good.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
 Society,  and  was  well  versed  in  botany 
 and  other  branches  of  natural  history.  His 
 medical  and  other  works  were  collected  by 
 Dr.  Lettsom,,  and  published  in  three  vols. 
 
 FOUCHE,  Joseph,  duke  of  Otranto, 
 one  of  the  most  celebrated,  and  perhaps 
 one  of  the  most  calculatingly  wicked,  of 
 the  French  revolutionists,  was  born  at 
 Nantes,  in  1763.  Capacity,  steadiness, 
 and  a  love  of  learning,  he  early  displayed, 
 and  he  gained  applause,  as  a  professor, 
 among  the  fathers  of  the  Oratory.  At  the 
 bar,  however,  which  he  chose  as  his  pro- 
 fession, he  was  little  known:  it  was  the 
 revolution  that  raised  him  into  notice. 
 Having  established  a  popular  club  at 
 Nantes,  and  shone  as  one  of  its  most  vio- 
 lent orators,  he  was  chosen,  in  1792,  as  a 
 deputy  to  the  National  Convention.  He 
 voted  for  the  death  of  the  king.  In  1793 
 he  was  sent  to  Lyons  with  Collot  d'Her- 
 
266 
 
 FOU 
 
 bois,  and  the  cold-bloo  Jed  cruelty  which 
 he  there  exercised  stands  recorded  against 
 him  in  the  damning  evidence  of  his  own 
 letters.  To  the  downfalof  Robespierre  he 
 assented,  not  because  he  hated  the  crimes 
 of  that  individual,  but  because  he  feared  to 
 be  a  victim.  His  desertion  of  his  jacobin 
 friends  did  not  prevent  a  decree  from  being 
 passed  to  arrest  him  for  his  participation 
 in  their  enormities;  but  he  contrived  to 
 conceal  himself  till  the  amnesty  restored 
 him  to  safety,  and  he  soon  reappeared  in 
 public  life.  After  having  been  intrusted 
 with  a  mission  on  the  Spanish  frontier,  he 
 was  appointed  ambassador  to  the  Cisal- 
 pine republic.  He  was  recalled  to  Paris 
 for  disobedience  of  instructions,  and  re- 
 mained unemployed  till  a  change  in  the  di- 
 rectory raised  him  to  the  office  of  minister 
 of  the  police.  Bonaparte  retained  him  in 
 it  till  after  the  peace  of  Amiens,  when  he 
 suppressed  the  office.  It  was,  however, 
 speedily  revived,  with  Fouche  again  at  its 
 head,  who,  in  1805,  was  created  duke  of 
 Otranto.  In  1809,  during  the  campaign 
 in  Austria,  he  was  also  minister  of  the 
 home  department,  and  was,  in  fact,  at  the 
 head  of  the  government.  But  some  cir- 
 cumstances in  his  conduct  displeased  Na- 
 poleon, and  he  was  dismissed,  and  doomed 
 to  a  kind  of  exile,  though  the  disgrace  was 
 gilded  by  the  nominal  rank  of  governor  of 
 Rome.  In  1813  he  was  once  more  called 
 forth  on  the  political  stage,  and  employed 
 by  the  emperor  on  various  occasions.  He 
 was  consulted,  but  his  advice  was  not  fol- 
 lowed, by  Louis  XVIII.;  and  when  Na- 
 poleon returned,  Fouche  again  became 
 minister  of  police.  It  is  past  a  doubt, 
 however,  that  he  acted  the  part  of  a  trai- 
 tor to  the  restored  emperor,  and  contribu- 
 ted to  the  second  return  of  the  Bourbons. 
 For  a  while  Louis  XVIII.  retained  him  in 
 the  ministry,  but  the  earliest  opportunity 
 was  taken  to  discard  him,  and  at  length 
 he  was  included  among  the  regicides  who 
 were  banished  from  France.  lie  died  at 
 Trieste,  in  1820,  regretted  by  no  party ; 
 for  all  parties  had,  by  turns,  been  oppress- 
 ed, insulted,  and  betrayed  by  him. 
 
 FOULIS,  Robert  and  ANDREW, two 
 eminent  printers  of  Glasgow.  Robert  is 
 eaid  to  have  been  originally  a  barber,  but 
 became  a  printer,  and  greatly  distinguish- 
 ed himself  by  the  correctness  and  beauty 
 of  his  editions  of  the  classics.  He  took  his 
 brother,  Andrew,  into  partnership,  and 
 for  thirty  vears  they  continued  to  be  pros- 
 perous. Their  public  spirit  was  at  length 
 their  ruin.  They  endeavoured  to  establish 
 an  Academy  for  the  instruction  of  youth  in 
 painting  and  sculpture — an  undertaking 
 which,  unsupported  as  they  were,  was  too 
 much  for  their  resources.  Andrew  died  in 
 J774,  and  Robert  in  1776. 
 
 FOUQUIER-TALNVJLLE,   Antho, 
 
 FOX 
 
 NY  Quentin,  a  monster  consecrated  to 
 eternal  infamy,  was  born  near  St.  Quentin, 
 in  France,  in  1747,  and  was  brought  up  to 
 the  law.  When  the  revolutionary  tribu- 
 nal was  established,  in  1793,  he  was  ap- 
 pointed one  of  the  jurors ;  and  the  circum- 
 stance of  his  uniformly  voting  for  death 
 soon  recommended  him  to  the  office  of 
 public  accuser.  In  that  "  bad  eminence" 
 he  acted  with  the  most  brutal  cruelty  and 
 shameless  contempt  of  justice.  He  was 
 guillotined,  in  1795,  with  twelve  of  the 
 revolutionary  judges,  his  accomplices. 
 
 FOURCROY,  Anthony  Francis,  an 
 eminent  French  chemist,  was  born  at  Par- 
 is in  1755,  and  studied  at  Harcourt  Col- 
 lege. In  1784,  he  was  appointed  profes- 
 sor of  chemistry  at  the  Royal  Garden,  in 
 which  office  he  soon  became  celebrated,  by 
 his  scientific  knowledge,  and  by  his  flu- 
 ent, elegant,  and  impressive  manner  of 
 speaking.  He  was,  successively,  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Convention,  the  Committee  of 
 Public  Safety,  the  Council  of  Elders,  and 
 the  Council  of  State.  As  Counsellor  of 
 State,  he  was  intrusted  with  the  manage- 
 ment of  all  affairs  connected  with  public 
 instruction ;  and  he  established  three  med- 
 ical schools,  twelve  law  schools,  and  more 
 than  three  hundred  seminaries  for  educa- 
 tion. His  chemical  labours,  too,  were  in- 
 cessant, and  his  discoveries  important. 
 He  died  in  1809.  Among  his  principal 
 works  are,  A  System  of  Chemical  Knowl- 
 edge ;  Chemical  Philosophy  ;  Medicine 
 enlightened  by  the  Physical  Sciences;  and 
 Synoptical  Tables  of  Chemistry. 
 
 "FOURNIER,  Peter  Simon,  an  emi- 
 nent letter-founder,  was  born,  in  1712,  at 
 Paris,  and  began  life  as  a  wood-engraver, 
 but  quitted  that  occupation  to  become  a 
 type-founder.  In  his  new  pursuit  he  ac- 
 quired high  reputation  for  the  beauty  of 
 his  characters,  lie  died  in  1768.  Four- 
 nier  wrote  several  works  relative  to  his  art, 
 of  which  the  principal  are,  A  Typograph- 
 ical Manual,  in  two  vols.;  Historical  and 
 Critical  Treatises  on  the  Origin  of  Print- 
 ing; and  a  Dissertation  on  the  Origin  and 
 Progress  of  Wood  Engraving. 
 
 FOX,  Richard,  a  prelate  and  states- 
 man, was  born,  about  1466,  at  Ropesley, 
 near  Grantham;  was  educated  at  Magda- 
 len College,  Oxford,  and  Pembroke  J  lull, 
 Cambridge;  and  went  to  Paris,  where 
 Morton,  bishop  of  Ely,  recommended  him 
 to  the  earl  of  Richmond,  at  the  time  when 
 that  nobleman  was  planning  his  descent  on 
 England.  After  his  accession,  Henry  VII. 
 employed  Fox  on  various  missions;  and 
 successively  made  him  bishop  of  Exeter, 
 Bath  and  Wells,  Diaham,  and  Winches- 
 ter. Fox  died  in  1528.  He  founded  Cor- 
 pus Christi  College,  Oxford,  and  the  free 
 schools  of  Taunton  and  Grantham. 
 
 FOX,  John,  a  divine,  bovn,  in  1517, 
 
FOX 
 
 at  Boston,  in  Lincolnshire,  was  educated 
 at  Brazen-nose  College,  Oxford,  and  was 
 elected  a  fellow  of  Magdalen  College 
 From  his  fellowship  he  was  expelled  in 
 1545,  for  having  espoused  the  doctrines  of 
 the  Reformation,  and,  till  he  was  restored 
 to  it  by  Edward  VI.,  he  subsisted  by  acting 
 as  a  tutor,  first  to  the  family  of  Sir  Thomas 
 Lucy,  and  afterwards  to  the  children  of 
 the  imprisoned  earl  of  Surrey.  During 
 the  reign  of  Mary,  he  sought  an  asylum 
 at  Basil.  Returning,  on  the  accession  of 
 Elizabeth,  he  was  taken  into  the  house  of 
 the  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  Cecil  obtained 
 for  him  a  prebend  in  the  cathedral  of 
 Salisbury.  His  conscientious  scruples  as 
 to  church  ceremonies  prevented  his  farther 
 promotion.  He  died  in  1587.  His  great 
 work  is  the  Acts  and  Monuments  of  the 
 Church,  usually  known  by  the  name  of 
 Fox's  Book  of  Martyrs;  the  merits  and 
 demerits  of  which  have  been  a  source  of 
 violent  dispute  between  protestant  and 
 catholic  writers.  To  the  credit  of  Fox  it 
 must  be  recorded,  that  he  strenuously, 
 though  vainly,  endeavoured  to  prevail  upon 
 Elizabeth  not  to  disgrace  herself  by  carry- 
 ing into  effect  the  sentence  which  condemn- 
 ed two  anabaptists  to  the  flames  as  heretics. 
 FOX,  George,  the  founder  of  the  so- 
 ciety of  friends,  or  quakers,  was  born,  in 
 1624,  at  Drayton,  in  Leicestershire;  and 
 was  the  son  of  a  weaver,  a  pious  and  vir- 
 tuous man,  who  gave  him  a  religious  edu- 
 cation. Being  apprenticed  to  a  grazier, 
 he  was  employed  in  keeping  sheep;  an 
 occupation  the  silence  and  solitude  of  which 
 were  well  calculated  to  nurse  his  naturally 
 enthusiastic  feelings.  When  he  was  about 
 nineteen,  he  believed  himself  to  have  re- 
 ceived a  divine  command  to  forsake  all, 
 renounce  society,  and  dedicate  his  exis- 
 tence to  the  service  of  religion.  For  five 
 years  he  accordingly  led  a  wandering  life, 
 fasting,  praying,  and  living  secluded;  but 
 it  was  not  till  about  1648  that  he  began  to 
 preach  his  doctrines.  Manchester  was  the 
 place  where  he  first  promulgated  them. 
 Thenceforth  he  pursued  his  career  with 
 untirable  zeal  and  activity,  in  spite  of  fre- 
 quent imprisonment  and  brutal  usage.  It 
 was  at  Derby  that  his  followers  were  first 
 denominated  quakers,  either  from  their 
 tremulous  mode  of  speaking,  or  from  their 
 calling  on  their  hearers  to  "  tremble  at  the 
 name  of  the  Lord."  The  labours  of  Fox 
 were  crowned  with  considerable  success ; 
 and,  in  1669,  he  extended  the  sphere  of 
 them  to  America,  where  he  spent  two 
 years.  He  also  twice  visited  the  continent. 
 He  died  in  1690.  His  writings  were  col- 
 lected in  three  vols,  folio.  Whatever  may 
 be  thought  of  the  tenets  of  Fox,  there  can 
 be  no  doubt  that  he  was  sincere  in  them, 
 and  that  he  was  a  man  of  strict  temper- 
 ance, humility,  moderation,  and  piety 
 
 FOX  267 
 
 FOX,  Charles   James,  one  of  the 
 
 most  distinguished  of  statesmen  and  ora- 
 
 tors, was  the  second  son  of  Lord  Holland, 
 and  was  born  January  13,  1748.  West- 
 minster and  Eton  schools,  and  Hertford 
 College,  Oxford,  were  the  seminaries  at 
 which  he  received  his  education.  In 
 classical  learning  his  proficiency  was  great, 
 and  he  always  retained  a  fondness  for  it. 
 Having  completed  his  studies,  he  set  out 
 on  his  travels,  and  an  intellect  like  his 
 could  not  fail  to  profit  by  such  an  enlarged 
 field  of  observation.  Unfortunately,  how- 
 ever, his  powerful  mind  did  not  preserve 
 him  from  dissipated  habits,  and  from  a 
 propensity  to  gaming,  which  long  continued 
 to  be  the  bane  of  his  existence.  In  the 
 hope  of  weaning  him  from  these  follies,  he 
 was,  when  only  nineteen,  elected  member 
 for  Midhurst,  through  the  influence  of  his 
 father.  Prudence,  perhaps,  kept  him  silent 
 in  the  House  till  he  was  of  an  age  legally 
 to  hold  a  seat  in  it.  His  lips  were  unlocked 
 in  1770,  and  for  four  years  he  continued  to 
 be  the  advocate  of  the  ministry.  His  aid 
 was  rewarded  by  his  being  appointed  a 
 lord  of  the  admiralty,  which  situation  he 
 soon  resigned  to  be  a  lord  of  the  treasury. 
 In  1774,  however,  in  consequence  of  some 
 disagreement  with  Lord  North,  he  was 
 abruptly  dismissed,  and  his  dismission  was 
 announced  to  him  in  a  manner  which  added 
 insult  to  injury  The  ranks  of  opposition 
 gladly  received  so  promising  an  ally ;  and, 
 during  the  whole  of  the  American  war,  he 
 was  one  of  the  most  persevering,  eloquent, 
 and  formidable  of  the  minister's  opponents. 
 Additional  spirit  and  effect  were  given  to 
 his  exertions  by  his  being  elected  foi 
 Westminster,  in  1780,  in  spite  of  the  whole 
 weight  of  the  government  interest  having 
 been  thrown  into  the  scale  against  him. 
 On  the  downfal  of  the  North  administra- 
 tion, Fox  came  into  office,  as  secretary  of 
 state  for  foreign  affairs.  But  the  death 
 of  the  marquis  of  Rockingham,  and  dis- 
 gust at  the  conduct  of  Lord  Shelburne,  soon 
 induced  Fox  and  some  of  his  party  to  re- 
 tire. In  an  evil  hour  for  their  popularity 
 they  formed  *he  celebrated  coalition  with 
 Lord  North.     The  measure  enabled  them 
 
268 
 
 FOY 
 
 to  carry  the  cabinet  by  storm,  but  it  shook 
 their  influence  with  the  people,  and  their 
 short-lived  triumph  was  closed  by  their 
 expulsion  from  power,  on  the  question  of 
 I'  n'fl  [ndia  Bill.  A  new  election  in  1784 
 diminished  their  parliamentary  numbers, 
 and  gave  Mr.  Pitt  a  secure  majority.  I'm" 
 more  than  twentv  years  the  mighty  talents 
 of  lex  were  exerted  in  almost  constant 
 but  fruitless  opposition  to  his  great  rival. 
 His  espousing  the  cause  of  the  French 
 revolution  lost  him  the  friendship  of  Burke. 
 To  the  war  against  France  he  was  de- 
 cidedly hostile.  Vt  length,  in  1S06,  he 
 resumed  his  situation  of  Becretarj  of  state. 
 But  his  constitution  was  now    broken,  and 
 
 FRA 
 
 he  continued  to  be  one  of  the  most  active 
 and  eloquent  defenders  of  the  liberties  of 
 his  country  till  his  decease,  Nov.  28,1825 
 He  was  attended  to  his  grave  by  thousands 
 of  hi<  countrymen,  and  a  subscription  was 
 made  to  provide  for  his  children,  and  erect 
 a  monument  to  his  memory.  He  had  be- 
 gun a  History  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsula. 
 The  part  which  he  completed  was  published 
 !>v  his  wife. 
 *  FRACASTORIO,  or  FRACASTO- 
 RIUS,  Jk.romk,  a  physician  and  Latin 
 poet,  was  born  at  Verona  in  1483.  He 
 came  into  the  world  with  his  lips  so  united 
 that  a  surgical  operation  was  necessary  to 
 open  them;    and    while  he  was  an  infant  in 
 
 he  expired  on  the  Kith  of  September  in  the  his  mother's  arms,  she  was  killed  by  light- 
 same  year.  Before  his  death,  however,  he  ning,  without  his  being  injured.  Hismed- 
 bad  the  happiness  of  patting  an  end  to  the  j  ical  reputation  obtained  for  him  the  office 
 
 trade;  an  object  which  had  for  many 
 years  been  aresl  to  his  heart.  Thewis- 
 dom   "i'    Fox's    political    conduct    has,  on 
 
 points,  been  violently  impeached,  but 
 no  one   has   vet   denied  the   goodness  and 
 
 of  chief  physician  to  Pope  Paul  III.  and 
 he  acted  in  the  same  capacity  to  the  council 
 of  Trent.  He  died  in  1553.  Of  modern 
 Latin  poets  he  confessedly  stands  among 
 the  most  elegant.     His  poem  denominated 
 
 sweetness  of  his   disposition;     so  amiable  i  Syphilis   is   a  singular  instance  of  a  dis- 
 
 was  his  temper,  that  to  know  him  was  to 
 love  hmi.  Of  his  eloquence  one  of  his 
 lyrists  justly  observes  that,  "plain, 
 nervous,  energetic,  vehement,  it  simplified 
 what  was  complicate,  it  unravelled  what 
 was  entangled,  it  cast  light  upon  what  was 
 re,  and  through  the  understanding  it 
 
 gusting  subject  being  treated  in  such  a 
 manner  as  to  render  it  attractive.  Fra- 
 castorio  wrote  some  other  poems,  and  va- 
 rious tracts  in  prose. 
 
 FRA  DIAVOLO,  whose  real  name  w  as 
 Michael  Pozzo,  was  a  native  of  Calabria, 
 iind  was  originally  a  stocking  weaver,  but 
 
 forced  its  way  to  the  heart.  It  came  home  quitted  hie  occupation  to  join  a  band  of 
 to  the  sense  and  feelings  of  the  hearer;  I  robbers,  of  which  he  subsequently  became 
 and,  bv  a  secret,  irresistible  charm,  it  ex- 1 the  chief.  So  formidable  was  he  in  the 
 torted  the  assent  of  those  who  were  most  ICalabrias,  that  the  government  offered  a 
 unwilling  to  be  convinced."  His  literary  j  reward  for  his  head.  In  1799,  however, 
 rompositions  consist  of  some  excellent I when  Cardinal  Ruffo  was  labouring  to  ex- 
 Greek,  Latin,  and  English  verses;  a  few  j  pel  the  French  from  Naples,  he  gave  Fra 
 |  apers  in  The  Englishman;  A  Letter  to  i  Diavolo  the  command  of  a  large  body  of 
 I  le  Electors  of  Westminster ;  and  A  His-  the  insurgents,  and  the  bandit  behaved 
 M>ry   of   the   early  Part  of   the  Reign  of  I  with  equal  bravery  and  ferocity.     In  1806 
 
 James  the  Second. 
 
 Fra    Diavolo   took    the    field   against    the 
 
 FOY,  Maximilian"  Sebastian,  cele-  troops  of  Joseph  Bonaparte;  but,  after 
 brated  both  in  the  field  and  the  senate,  was  having  displayed  much  talent,  and  gained 
 born,  in  1775,  at  Hamm,  in  Picardy ;  j  some  advantages,  he  was  taken,  and  sen- 
 studied  at  the  military  school  of  La  Fere;    tenced  to  be  hanged. 
 
 and  made  his  first  campaign,  in  1792,  under  j  FRANCIS  OF  PAULO,  St.  a  Romish 
 Dumourier.  In  the  war  which  was  ter-  saint,  was  born  at  Paulo,  in  Calabria,  in 
 miaated  by  the  peace  of  Amiens  he  acted ;  1416;  was  brought  up  in  a  Franciscan 
 with  conspicuous  talent  and  bravery,  par-  convent;  and,  at  length,  retired  to  a  cell 
 ticularly  at  the  assault  of  the  bridge  head  in  a  solitary  spot,  where  he  was  soon  sur- 
 of  Huninguen,  the   passages  of  the  Lech,  rounded  by  so  many  disciples  that  it  be- 
 
 the  Rhine,  and  the  Limmat,  and  the  action 
 of  Peri,  in  the  Tyrol.  In  1805  he  bore  a 
 part  in  the  Austrian  campaign;  in  1807 
 he  was  sent  to  Turkey,  with  a  corps  of 
 French  artillerymen,  and  assisted  in  de- 
 fending the  Dardanelles;  from  1807  to 
 i\e.  he   fought   with  great  gal- 
 
 came  necessarv  to  build  a  monastery  and  a 
 church  for  them.  These  new  monks  were 
 at  first  called  the  Hermits  of  St.  Francis, 
 but  Pope  Axexander  VI.  changed  their 
 name  to  that  of  Minims.  Their  founder 
 died  in  1507. 
 
 FRANCIS    PE   SALES,   St.  a  pious 
 
 lantry  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  on  the  catholic  prelate,  was  born,  in  1657,  at  the 
 Pyrenean  frontier;  and  he  closed  his  mili-  castle  of  Sales,  near  Geneva.  He  was  so 
 tary  career  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  The  successful  in  converting  the  protestants, 
 rank  of  general  he  attained  in  1S09.  In  that  he  was  appointed  coadjutor  to  the 
 1819  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  bishop  of  Geneva,  and  eventually  bishop, 
 chamber  of  deputies,  and  in   this  capacity   In  the  performance   of  works  of  charity, 
 
FRA 
 
 and  of  his  episcopal  duties,  he  deserves 
 the  highest  eulogium.  He  died  in  1622, 
 and  was  canonized  in  1624.  The  last 
 edition  of  his  theological  productions  is  in 
 sixteen  vols.  8vo. 
 
 FRANCIS  XAVIER, St.  SeeXAViKR. 
 
 FRANCIS,  Philip,  son  of  the  dean  of 
 Lismore,  was  educated  at  Dublin;  and, 
 after  having  taken  orders,  he  settled  at 
 Esher,  in  Surrey,  where  he  established  an 
 academy.  He  obtained,  through  Lord 
 Holland's  influence,  the  rectory  or  Barrow 
 in  Suffolk,  and  the  chaplainship  of  Chelsea 
 Hospital.  He  died  in  1773.  Francis  wrote 
 the  tragedies  of  Eugenia  and  Constantia, 
 and  some  political  articles  in  defence  of 
 government ;  and  translated  the  poems  of 
 Horace,  and  the  orations  of  Demosthenes 
 and  Eschines. 
 
 FRANCIS,  Sir  Philip,  a  son  of  the 
 foregoing, 'was  born  at  Dublin  in  1740, 
 and  was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  School. 
 After  having  been  a  clerk  in  the  secretary 
 of  state's  office,  secretary  of  the  embassy 
 to  Portugal,  and  a  clerk  in  the  war  office, 
 he  was  raised  to  a  situation  of  much  higher 
 importance.  In  1773  he  was  appointed 
 one  of  the  members  of  the  council  of 
 Bengal.  In  India  he  remained  from  1774 
 to  17S0,  during  which  period  he  was  active 
 in  opposition  to  the  measures  of  Mr.  Hast- 
 ings. Such  was  their  mutual  animosity 
 that  a  duel  ensued,  in  which  he  was  shot 
 through  the  body.  In  1784  he  obtained 
 a  seat  in  parliament,  and  he  continued  to 
 sit  there  for  the  greatest  part  of  his  life. 
 H^  voted  with  the  whigs,  and  took  a  prom- 
 inent part  on  many  questions,  particularly 
 those  of  the  impeachment  of  Hastings,  In- 
 dia affairs,  the  slave  trade,  reform,  and  the 
 war  with  France.  When  his  friends  came 
 into  power,  he  received  the  order  of  the 
 Bath,  and  they  at  one  time  intended  to 
 send  him  to  Hindostan  as  governor  general. 
 He  died  in  1818.  Francis  published 
 nearly  thirty  speeches  and  political  pam- 
 phlets ;  the  style  of  which  has  a  very  large 
 portion  of  point  and  spirit.  The  Letters 
 of  Junius  have  been  attributed  to  him;  and 
 it  must  be  owned  that  to  no  one  have 
 they  been  assigned  with  more  probability. 
 He,  however,  always  disclaimed  them 
 
 FRANCKLIN,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  a  son 
 of  the  printer  of  The  Craftsman,  was  born 
 in  London,  in  1721;  was  educated  at 
 Westminster  School,  and  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge;  became  Greek  professor  at 
 Cambridge;  obtained,  successively,  the 
 king's  chaplainship,  and  the  livings  of 
 Ware,  Thundridge,  and  Brasted  ;  and  died 
 in  1784.  Dr.  Francklin  translated  Lucian, 
 Sophocles,  Phalaris's  Epistles,  and  Cicero 
 on  the  Nature  of  the  Gods ;  wrote  Ser- 
 mons, some  miscellaneous  pieces,  the  Earl 
 of  Warwick,  and  four  other  tragedies ; 
 contributed  to   the  Critical  Review;   and 
 
 FRA 
 
 269 
 
 joined    in    the    translation    of    Voltaire's 
 works. 
 
 FRANCO-BARRETO,  a  poet,  wa- 
 born  at  Lisbon  in  1606,  and  died  in  1664. 
 In  1646  he  fought  gallantly  against  the 
 Dutch  in  Brazil.  On  his  return  borne,  he 
 took  his  doctor's  degree;  was  appointed 
 secretary  of  embassy  in  France;  ultimately 
 entered  the  church;  and  became  vicar  of 
 Barreiro  in  1648.  He  wrote  many  poems, 
 and  translated  the  /Encid,  and  the  Ji.ittle 
 of  the  Frogs  and  Mice.  His  style  is  ad- 
 mired for  its  spirit,  elegance,  and  purity. 
 
 FRANKLIN,  Benjamin,  aphilosopher 
 and  statesman,  the  son  of  a  soap-boiler  and 
 tallow  chandler,  was  born,  in  1706,  at  Bos- 
 ton, in  America.  He  was  apprenticed  as  a 
 printer,  to  his  brother,  at  Boston.  It  was 
 while  he  was  with  his  brother  that  he  began 
 to  try  his  powers  of  literary  composition. 
 Street  ballads  and  articles  in  a  newspaper 
 were  his  first  efforts.  Dissatisfied  with  the 
 maimer  in  which  he  was  treated  by  his 
 relative,  he,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  pri- 
 vately quitted  him,  and  went  to  Phila- 
 delphia, where  he  obtained  employment. 
 Deluded  by  a  promise  of  patronage  from 
 the  governor,  Sir  William  Keith,  he  visited 
 England  to  procure  the  necessary  materials 
 for  establishing  a  printing  office  in  Phila- 
 delphia; but,  on  his  arrival  at  London,  he 
 found  that  he  had  been  deceived,  and  he 
 was  obliged  to  work  as  a  journeyman  for 
 eighteen  months.  While  he  was  in  the 
 British  metropolis,  he  wrote  a  Dissertation 
 on  Liberty  and  Necessity,  Pleasure  and 
 Pain.  In  1726  he  returned  to  Philadelphia ; 
 not  long  after  which  he  entered  into  busi- 
 ness as  a  printer  and  stationer,  and,  in 
 1728,  established  a  newspaper.  His  pru- 
 dence soon  placed  him  among  the  most 
 prosperous  of  the  citizens,  and  the  influ- 
 ence which  prosperity  naturally  gave  was 
 enhanced  by  his  activity  and  talent.  Chiefly 
 by  his  exertions,  a  public  library,  a  fire- 
 preventing  company,  an  insurance  com- 
 pany, and  a  voluntary  association  for  de- 
 fence, were  established  at  Philadelphia. 
 In  1732,  he  began  Poor  Richard's  Almanac. 
 His  first  public  employment  was  that  of 
 clerk  to  the  general  assembly  of  Pennsyl- 
 
270 
 
 FRE 
 
 vania;  his  next  that  of  postmaster;  and 
 he  was  subsequently  chosen  as  a  represen- 
 tative. Philosophy,  also,  now  attracted 
 his  attention,  and  he  began  those  inquiries 
 into  the  nature  of  electricity,  the  results 
 of  which  have  ranked  him  high  among 
 men  of  science.  In  1753, he  was  appointed 
 deputy  postmaster  general  of  British  Amer- 
 ica; and  from  1757  to  1762,  he  resided 
 n  London,  as  agent  for  Pennsylvania  and 
 other  colonies.  The  last  of  these  offices 
 was  entrusted  to  him  again  in  1764,  and 
 ne  held  it  till  the  breaking  out  of  the 
 contest  in  1775.  Alter  his  return  to 
 America,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
 cause  of  liberty,  and,  in  1778,  he  was 
 dispatched,  by  the  congress,  as  ambassador 
 to  France.  The  treaty  of  alliance  with 
 the  Flench  government,  and  the  treaties 
 of  peace,  in  1782  and  1783,  as  well  as 
 treaties  with  Sweden  and  Prussia,  were 
 signed  by  him.  On  his  reaching  Phila- 
 delphia, in  September,  1785,  his  arrival 
 was  hailed  by  applauding  thousands  of 
 his  countrymen,  who  conducted  him  in 
 triumph  to  his  residence.  He  died  April 
 17,  1790.  His  Memoirs,  written  by  him- 
 self, but  left  unfinished,  and  his  Philosoph- 
 ical, Political,  and  Miscellaneous  Works, 
 have  been  published  by  his  grandson,  in  j 
 six  volumes  octavo. 
 
 FRANKLIN,  Eleanor  Ann,  a  poet,  j 
 the  daughter  of  Mr.  Porden,  an  eminent 
 architect,    was  born  in  1795.     She   early 
 manifested  great  talent  and  a  strong  mem- 
 ory, and   acquired   a  considerable  knowl- 1 
 of  Greek  and  other  languages.     Her) 
 fi  St   poem,  The  Veils,  was   written   when 
 was   seventeen.     Her   next  was  The 
 Arctic  Expedition,  which  led,  in   1S23,  to 
 her  m  irriage  with  Captain  Franklin.     Her ! 
 principal    work    is  the  epic    of  Coeur  de 
 1.   m,  which  appeared  in  1825.     Her  poems 
 display    much  elegance,  spirit,  and    rich- , 
 f  imt  gination. 
 
 FREDERIC  IT.  King  of  Prussia,  sur- 
 named  the  Great,  was  born  January  24,1 
 1712.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  was 
 exposed  to  severe  trials.  He  had  a  taste 
 for  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  which  was 
 considered  as  a  heinous  crime  by  his  father, 
 a  stern,  taiintellectual  despot,  who  held 
 strict  obedience  to  be  the  highest  of  virtues, 
 and  military  pursuits  the  most  noble  that 
 can  occupy  mankind.  Frederic  attempted 
 to  escape  from  paternal  tyranny,  but  his 
 intention  was  discovered,  his  confidential 
 friend,  Katt,  was  sent  to  the  scaffold,  and 
 he  himself  narrowly  escaped  a  similar  fate. 
 In  1740,  he  ascended  the  throne,  and  his 
 6rst  measure  was  to  demand  the  cession  of 
 Silesia  from  Maria  Theresa.  A  war  en- 
 sued, by  which,  in  1745,  after  ha\  ing  won 
 several  victories,  he  succeeded  in  obtaining 
 hi-  object.  Ten  succeeding  years  of  peace 
 were  spent  by  him  in  strengthening  his  ar- 
 
 FRE 
 
 my,  and  increasing  the  resources  of  his 
 kingdom.  Commencing  in  1755,  the  sev- 
 en years'  war  ensued,  in  which,  with  no 
 other  aid  than  a  subsidy  from  England,  he 
 made  head  against  the  combined  attacks  of 
 the  Austrian,  Russian,  Swedish,  and  Sax- 
 on forces,  and  gained  the  brilliant  victories 
 of  Prague,  Leutben,  Rossbach,  Zorndorfi", 
 Torgau,  and  many  less  important  successes. 
 Though  he  was  several  times  severely  de- 
 feated, yet  he  still  kept  the  field,  and  baf- 
 fled his  enemies.  By  the  peace  of  Huberts- 
 burgh,  in  1763,  peace  was  restored  to  Prus- 
 sia; and  Frederic  thenceforth,  with  the 
 sole  exception  of  the  brief  war  in  1777, 
 was  employed  in  making  his  dominions 
 flourish,  by  encouraging  commerce,  agri- 
 culture, manufacture,  and  the  arts.  In 
 1772  he  obtained  a  disgraceful  enlargement 
 of  his  states,  by  the  partition  of  Poland. 
 He  died  August  17, 1786.  Literature  was 
 the  solace  and  the  delight  of  Frederic's 
 whole  existence.  His  works,  among  which 
 are  Histories  of  his  own  Times,  or  the  Sev- 
 en Years'  War,  and  of  the  House  of  Bran- 
 denburgh,  extend  to  twenty-five  octavo  vol- 
 umes, and  entitle  him  to  an  honourable 
 rank  among  authors.  As  a  military  com- 
 mander his  name  stands  enrolled  among 
 the  Condes,  the  Turennes,  the  Marlbor- 
 oughs,  the  Napoleons,  and  the  Welling- 
 tons. 
 
 FREIND,  John,  an  eminent  physician 
 and  writer,  was  a  son  of  the  rector  of  Gro- 
 ton,  in  Northamptonshire,  at  which  place 
 he  was  born,  in  1675.  He  was  educated 
 at  Westminster  School,  and  at  Christ's 
 College,  Oxford,  and,  while  at  college, 
 gave  proofs  of  high  classical  acquirements. 
 After  having  been  physician  to  the  army 
 under  the  earl  of  Peterborough,  and  to  the 
 duke  of  Ormond,  in  Flanders,  he  settled  in 
 London,  and  obtained  extensive  practice. 
 In  1722,  he  was  elected  member  for  Laun- 
 ceston,  and,  shortly  after,  was  committed 
 to  the  Tower,  on  suspicion  of  treasonable 
 practices.  He  was,  however,  soon  libera 
 ted.  He  died  in  1728.  Of  his  works  the 
 most  important  is,  The  History  of  Physic. 
 
 FRENICLE  UE  BESSY,  a  mathema- 
 tician, brother  of  Nicholas  Frenicle,  a 
 French  poet,  was  celebrated  for  his  skill  in 
 solving  mathematical  questions  by  mere 
 arithmetical  means.  His  method,  which 
 is  called  the  method  of  exclusion,  he  rigid- 
 ly kept  secret  during  his  life,  but  a  de- 
 scription of  it  was  found  in  his  papers, 
 lie  wrote  a  Treatise  of  Right-angled  Tri- 
 angles in  numbers,  and  a  very  curious 
 Treatise  on  Magic  Squares.  Only  sixteen 
 modes  of  arranging  the  squares  were  pre- 
 viously  known,  but  he  discovered  no  less 
 than  eight  hundred  and  eighty.  He  died 
 in  1675. 
 
 FRERET,  Nicholas,  a  French  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1688,  at  Paris.     He  wasdes- 
 
FRT 
 
 tined  for  the  bar  by  his  father,  who  was 
 an  advocate,  but  he  had  an  insurmountable 
 aversion  to  the  profession,  and  was  at 
 length  permitted  to  relinquish  it.  His  sub- 
 sequent life  was  entirely  given  to  litera- 
 ture. His  first  work,  On  the  Origin  of 
 the  French,  wounded  the  national  vanity 
 60  deeply  that  it  occasioned  his  imprison- 
 ment in  the  Bastile.  In  captivity  he  amus- 
 ed himself  by  reading  the  works  of  Bayle, 
 and  is  said  to  have  become,  in  consequence, 
 a  determined  sceptic.  He  died  in  1749. 
 Freret  had  an  extensive  knowledge  ol  an- 
 cient and  modern  languages,  and  of  chro- 
 nology, history,  geography,  mythology,  and 
 philology.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Acad- 
 emy of  Inscriptions ;  and  a  great  number 
 of  his  Dissertations  are  to  be  found  in  the 
 Memoirs  of  that  body.  Among  his  sepa- 
 rate pieces  are,  Letters  from  Thrasybulus 
 to  Leucippus ;  and  an  Examination  of  the 
 Apologies  for  Christianity.  An  edition  of 
 his  works  has  been  recently  published,  in 
 eight  vols. 
 
 FRESNEL,  Augustine  John,  an  ex- 
 perimental French  philosopher,  was  born, 
 in  178S,  at  Broglie,  and  died  in  1S27.  By 
 profession  he  was  a  civil  engineer.  Fres- 
 nel  particularly  distinguished  himself  by 
 his  masterly  experiments  on  the  diffraction, 
 inflection,  and  polarisation  of  light.  His 
 scientific  merit  occasioned  him  to  be  ad- 
 mitted as  a  member  of  the  French  Acade- 
 my of  Sciences,  and  of  the  British  Royal 
 Society. 
 
 FRISCH,  John  Leonard,  a  German 
 naturalist  and  philologist,  was  born,  in 
 1666,  at  Sulzbach.  From  1690  to  1693  he 
 spent  in  wanderitig  over  Europe.  He  set- 
 tled at  length  at  Berlin,  became  a  member 
 of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  rector  of  the 
 Grey  Convent  Gymnasium,  and  a  profes- 
 sor. He  died  in  1743.  Among  his  numer- 
 ous works  are,  A  German  and  Latin  Dic- 
 tionary ;  A  Description  of  all  the  German 
 Insects ;  and  Descriptions  and  Figures  of 
 German  Birds.  The  last  of  these  was 
 completed  by  his  son.  Frisch  was  the  first 
 who  cultivated  the  mulberry  in  Branden- 
 burgh,  and  introduced  the  silk  manufac- 
 ture. 
 
 FR1SI,  Paul,  a  mathematician  and 
 philosopher,  was  born,  in  1728,  at  Milan, 
 and  died  there  in  1784.  Mathematics  he 
 learned  without  assistance,  and  so  rapidly 
 and  perfectly,  that,  before  he  was  twenty- 
 two,  he  composed  his  celebrated  Disser- 
 tation on  the  Figure  of  the  Earth.  Hej 
 was  a  member  of  many  learned  bodies, 
 and  professor  of  mathematics  at  his  native 
 city.  Frisi  introduced  into  the  Milanese 
 the  use  of  conductors  to  secure  buildings 
 from  lightning,  and  he  contributed  greatly 
 to  root  out  the  superstitious  notions  of  the 
 people  respecting  magic  and  sorcerers. 
 His  works,  on  hydraulics,  astronomy,  and 
 
 FRU 
 
 271 
 
 many  other   sciences,    are  numerous   and 
 valuable. 
 
 FROBISHER,  Sir  Martin,  a  celebra- 
 ted navigator,  born  near  Doncaster,  in 
 Yorkshire,  was  brought  up  to  the  sea.  He 
 was  the  first  who  adventured  to  discover  a 
 northwest  passage  to  China.  With  this 
 view  he  made  three  voyages,  in  1576, 
 1577,  and  1578,  and,  though  he  failed  in 
 his  object,  he  explored  various  parts  of  the 
 Arctic  coast,  among  which  were  the  straits 
 that  bear  his  name.  In  1585,  he  fought 
 under  Drake,  in  the  West  Indies;  in  1588, 
 he  was  knighted  for  his  bravery  against 
 the  armada;  in  1590  and  1592,  he  com- 
 manded squadrons  successfully  against  the 
 Spaniards;  and,  in  1594,  being  sent  with 
 some  ships  to  the  succour  of  Henry  the 
 Fourth  of  France,  he  was  killed  in  attack- 
 ing fort  Croyzan,  near  Brest. 
 
 FROISSART,  John,  a  French  chroni- 
 cler and  poet,  supposed  to  have  been  the 
 son  of  a  heraldic  painter  (though  one  man- 
 uscript of  his  works  implies  him  to  have 
 been  of  knightly  origin),  was  born  at 
 Valenciennes,  about  1333,  and  was  origi- 
 nally designed  for  the  church;  but,  having 
 much  more  taste  for  dances,  minstrels, 
 and  festivals,  than  for  anthems,  homilies, 
 and  fasting,  he  entered  the  service  of  Sir 
 Robert  de  Namur,  lord  of  Beaufort.  At 
 the  desire  of  his  master  he  is  said  to  have 
 begun,  before  he  was  twenty,  to  write  the 
 history  of  the  wars  of  his  time.  A  dis- 
 appointment in  love,  and  a  desire  to  learn 
 from  their  own  mouths  the  achievements 
 of  his  contemporary  warriors,  induced  him 
 to  travel  extensively.  He  first  visited 
 England,  and  was  for  a  considerable  time 
 secretary  to  Philippa,  the  queen  of  Edward 
 III.  Subsequently  he  was  patronised  by 
 Edward  the  Black  Prince,  the  duke  of 
 Brabant,  the  earl  of  Blois,  and  other  illus- 
 trious characters.  He  settled  at  length  in 
 his  own  country,  and  was  made  canon  and 
 treasurer  of  the  collegiate  church  of  Chi- 
 may.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  soon 
 after  1400.  His  delightful  Chronicle  of 
 France,  England,  &c.  has  been  twice  trans- 
 lated into  English,  by  Lord  Berners  and 
 by  Mr.  Johnes.  Froissart  is  also  the 
 author  of  a  romance  called  Meliador,  the 
 Knight  of  the  Sun,  and  of  some  poems, 
 which  have  never  been  printed. 
 
 FRUGONI,  Charles  Innocent,  one 
 of  the  most  celebrated  Italian  poets  of  the 
 eighteenth  century,  was  born  at  Genoa,  in 
 1692.  He  was  originally  enrolled  in  one 
 of  the  monastic  orders;  but  disliking  his 
 situation,  he  was  released  from  his  vows 
 by  Clement  XII.  After  having  been  pro- 
 fessor of  rhetoric  at  Brescia,  Rome,  Genoa, 
 and  Bologna,  he  was  introduced  to  the 
 sovereign  of  Parma,  by  Cardinal  Benti- 
 voglio,  and  became  court  poet.  He  died 
 in  1768.     Frugoni  was  a  fertile  and  ele- 
 
272 
 
 FUL 
 
 gant  writer.  His  works,  which  compre- 
 hend almost  every  species  of  poetry,  form 
 nine  volumes. 
 
 FUCA,  John  de,  whose  real  name  was 
 Apostolos  Valerianos,  was  a  native  of 
 Cephalonia,  born  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
 and  died  at  Zante,  in  1632.  For  more 
 than  fortv  years  he  acted  as  a  pilot  in  the 
 Spanish  American  possessions.  In  the  year 
 1592,  he  discovered  the  strait  that  leads 
 into  the  extensive  archipelago,  on  the  coast 
 of  the  North  Pacific,  subsequently  explored 
 bv  Vancouver;  but  he  mistakenly  supposed 
 it  to  communicate  with  the  Atlantic  ocean. 
 FUCHS,  or  FUCHSIUS,  Leonard, 
 a  physician  and  botanist,  was  born,  in 
 1501,  at  Wembdingen,  in  Bavaria,  and 
 took  his  degree  at  Ingolstadt.  Charles  V. 
 ennobled  him.  He  died,  in  1561,  at  Tubin- 
 gen, at  which  university  he  had,  for  five 
 and  thirtv  years,  been  professor  of  medi- 
 cine. He  "wrote  several  medical  works, 
 which  attest  his  superior  skill;  but  he  is 
 principally  remembered  by  his  History  of 
 Plants.  His  name  was  given  by  Plumier 
 to  an  American  genus,  remarkable  for  the 
 beaoty  of  its  leaves  and  flowers. 
 
 FULLER,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  his- 
 torian, a  son  of  the  minister  of  Aldwinkle, 
 in   Northamptonshire,  at  which  place  he 
 was  born,  in  1608,  was  educated  at  Queen's 
 <  loHege,  Cambridge;  was  appointed  minis- 
 ter of  St.   Bennet's  parish,    Cambridge; 
 and  acquired  great  popularity  as  a  pulpit 
 orator.     He  received  further  preferment  in 
 the   church,   of  which,   however,  he  was 
 deprived   during   the   civil  war,  in  conse- 
 quence of  his  activity  on  the  side  of  the 
 monarch.       Between    1640  and  1656,    he 
 published   nearly  the  whole   of  his  works. 
 In  1648  he  obtained  the  living  of  Waltham, 
 in  Essex,  which,   in   1658,  he  quitted  for 
 that  of  Cranford,   in   Middlesex.     At  the 
 restoration    he    recovered  the  prebend  of 
 Salisbury,   was  made   D.    D.    and  king's 
 chaplain',  and   was  looking  forward  to  a 
 mitre,  when   his  prospects  were  closed  by 
 death,  in  1661.  Fuller  possessed  a  remark- 
 ably tenacious  memory.       He  had  also  a 
 considerable    portion    of   wit    and    quaint 
 humour,   which  he  sometimes   allowed  to 
 run  riot  in  his  writings.     Among  his  chief 
 works  are,  A  History  of  the   Holy  War; 
 The  Church  History  "of  Britain;  The  His- 
 tory of  the  University  of  Cambridge;  and 
 The  History  of  the  Worthies  of  England. 
 FULLER,  Andrew,  a  minister,  emi- 
 nent among  the  Baptists,  was  born,  in  1754, 
 at  Wicken,   in   Cambridgeshire,  and   was 
 engaged  in  the  labours  of  husbandry  till  he 
 was    twenty    years    of   age.     By    diligent 
 study  he  acquired  a  considerable  degree  of 
 learning;  and  he  became  a  preacher  of  the 
 gospel,  first  at  Soham,  and  next  at  Ketter- 
 ing.     He   died,   at   Kettering,    in   1815. 
 Fuller  was  secretary  to  the  Baptist  Mis- 
 
 FUR 
 
 sionary  Society,  and  in  that  capacity  was 
 very  active.  He  was  also  an  acute  contro- 
 versialist against  the  Socinians.  He  wrote 
 The  Calvinistic  and  Socinian  Systems 
 examined  and  compared  ;  Socinianism 
 Indefensible;  Discourses  on  the  Book  of 
 Genesis;   Sermons;   and  other  works. 
 
 FULTON,  Robert,  an  American  en- 
 gineer and  projector,  was  born,  in  1765, 
 at  Little  Britain,  in  Pennsylvania.  Aban- 
 doning the  trade  of  a  jeweller,  he  studied 
 for  some  vears  under  West,  with  the  inten- 
 tion of  being  a  painter ;  but,  having  become 
 acquainted  with  a  fellow  countryman  named 
 Rumsey,  who  was  skilled  in  mechanics, 
 he  became  fond  of  that  science,  and  ulti- 
 mately adopted  the  profession  of  a  civil 
 engineer.  Before  he  left  England,  he 
 published,  in  1796,  a  treatise  On  Inland 
 Navigation,  in  which  he  proposed  to  super- 
 sede locks  by  inclined  planes.  In  1800, 
 he  introduced",  with  much  profit  to  himself, 
 the  panorama  into  the  French  capital.  For 
 some  years  he  was  engaged  in  experiments 
 to  perfect  a  machine  called  a  torpedo, 
 intended  to  destroy  ships  of  war  by  explo- 
 sion. After  his  return  to  America,  he 
 gave  to  the  world  an  account  of  several 
 inventions,  among  which  are  a  machine 
 for  sawing  and  polishing  marble,  another 
 for  rope  making,  and  a  boat  to  be  navigated 
 under  water.  He  obtained  a  patent  for 
 his  inventions  in  navigation  by  steam  in 
 1809,  and  another  for  some  improvements 
 in  1811.  In  1814  he  contrived  an  armed 
 steam  ship  for  the  defence  of  the  harbour 
 of  New-York,  and  a  submarine  vessel  large 
 enough  to  carry  one  hundred  men;  the 
 plans  of  which  being  approved  by  govern- 
 ment, he  was  authorized  to  construct  them 
 at  the  public  expense.  But  before  com- 
 pleting either  of  those  works,  he  died 
 suddenly  in  1815.  Though  not  the  inven- 
 tor of  it,  he  was  the  first  who  successfully 
 employed  the  steam  engine   in  navigation. 
 
 FURETIERE,  Anthony,  a  French 
 philologist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was 
 born  at  Paris,  in  1620;  took  orders,  and 
 was  made  abbot  of  Chalivoy;  and  died 
 in  1683.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French 
 Academy,  but  was  expelled  from  it,  on  a 
 charge  of  having  pillaged  the  unpublished 
 lexicographical  labours  of  his  colleagues, 
 to  enrich  a  Dictionary  of  his  own.  His 
 work,  which  was  in  two  volumes  folio, 
 forms  the  foundation  of  the  Dictionary  of 
 Trevoux.  His  expulsion  gave  rise  to  a 
 virulent  paper  war  between  Furetiere  and 
 his  late  brethren.  He  is  the  author  of 
 several  works,  among  which  are  Roman 
 Bourgeois;  Fables;  Poems;  and  Mercu- 
 ry "s  Journey.  The  Fureteriana,  which  was 
 published  after  his  death,  by  Merais,  is  a 
 badly  executed  collection  of  Furetiere's 
 remarks  and  bons-mots. 
 
 FURST,  Walter,  a  Swiss,  by  whom, 
 
GAIR 
 
 in  conjunction  with  William  Tell,  his  rela- 
 tive, and  Arnold  of  Melchthal,  the  liberty 
 of  Switzerland  was  founded,  in  1307.  He 
 was  born  at  Altorf,  in  the  canton  of  Uri, 
 and  died  subsequently  to  1317. 
 
 G.ER 
 
 273 
 
 FUSELI,  or  FUESSLI,  Henry,  an 
 eminent  painter,  was  born,  about  1739,  at 
 Zurich,  in  Switzerland.  Though  in  his 
 boyhood  he  manifested  a  talent  for  draw- 
 ing, his  father,  an  artist,  was  desirous  to 
 see  him  in  the  church,  and  he  was  edu- 
 cated accordingly.  At  Berlin,  where-  he 
 studted  under  Sultzer,  Sir  Robert  Smith, 
 the  British  ambassador,  induced  him  to 
 visit  England.  Fuseli's  entrance  into 
 active  life  was  as  tutor  to  a  nobleman's 
 son.  With  the  English  language  Fuseli 
 was  thoroughly  acquainted,  and,  in  1765, 
 he  published  Reflections  on  the  Painting 
 and  Sculpture  of  the  Greeks.  This  he 
 followed  up  by  a  Defence  of  Rousseau 
 against  Voltaire.  Still  the  longing  after 
 pictorial  fame  was  uppermost  in  his  mind. 
 In  order  to  decide  whether  he  should 
 follow  the  bent  of  his  genius,  lie  showed 
 some  of  his  drawings  to  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
 nolds, and  requested  his  candid  opinion  of 
 them.  "  Young  man,"  said  Sir  Joshua, 
 "  were   I  the  author  of  these  drawings, 
 
 and  offered  ten  thousand  a  year  not  to 
 practice  as  an  artist,  I  would  reject  it 
 with  contempt."  Fuseli  hesitated  no 
 longer.  In  1770  lie  visited  Italy,  and  he 
 studied  diligently  there  for  eight  years. 
 On  his  return  he  painted  several  pictures 
 for  the  Shakspeare  Gallery,  and,  in  1790, 
 became  a  Royal  Academician.  The  open- 
 ing of  his  Milton  Gallery,  in  179S,  first 
 made  known  to  the  public  the  full  extent 
 of  his  genius.  In  1799  he  was  appointed 
 professor  of  painting,  and,  in  1804,  keeper 
 of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  died  in  April, 
 1825,  and,  notwithstanding  his  advanced 
 age,  the  vigour  of  his  faculties  was  unim- 
 paired. In  his  domestic  character  Fuseli 
 was  truly  estimable.  He  was,  too,  an 
 excellent  scholar,  and  enjoyed  the  friend- 
 ship of  his  most  eminent  literary  contem- 
 poraries. The  works  of  art  which  he , 
 produced  are  numerous.  His  imagination 
 was  lofty  and  exuberant;  but,  in  aspiring 
 to  the  sublime,  which  he  often  reaches,  he 
 occasionally  falls  into  extravagance  and 
 distortion.  Still,  his  extravagance  is  that 
 of  a  man  of  genius.  His  anatomical  knowl- 
 edge was  extensive.  It  must,  however, 
 be  owned  that,  in  some  instances,  he  dis- 
 played it  too  ostentatious.^,  so  as  to  give  to 
 his  figures  rather  the  forms  seen  in  the 
 dissecting  room  than  those  which  charac- 
 terize the  living  subject. 
 
 FUST,  or  FAUST,  John,  a  goldsmith 
 of  Mentz,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  He 
 shares  with  Guttemberg  and  Schoeffer  in 
 the  honour  of  having  invented  printing 
 To  Guttemberg,  his  partner,  however,  is 
 generally  supposed  to  belong  the  merit  of 
 the  invention,  which  was  perfected  by 
 Schoeffer,  another  partner,  while  Fust  con- 
 tributed little  more  than  the  capital  neces- 
 sary to  carry  on  the  business.  The  first 
 work  which  they  produced  appears  to  be  a 
 Latin  Bible  printed  between  1450  and  1455 
 
 G 
 
 GADSDEN,  Christopher,  a  patriot 
 of  the  American  revolution,  was  born  in 
 South  Carolina,  in  the  year  1724.  In  1765 
 he  was  a  member  of  the  Congress  which 
 was  convened  at  New  York,  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  petitioning  against  the  stamp  act, 
 and  again  of  that  which  assembled  in  1774. 
 He  remained  in  Charleston  during  the 
 siege  in  1780.  In  1782  he  was  elected 
 governor  of  his  native  state,  but  declined 
 the  office  on  account  of  the  infirmities  of 
 age.     He  died  in  1805. 
 
 GARTNER,  Charles  Christian, a 
 
 native  of  Saxony,  born  at   Freyberg,  in 
 
 1712,  was  professor  of  morals  and  rhetoric 
 
 at  the   Caroline  College,  Brunswick,  and 
 
 12t 
 
 died  in  1791.  He  was  one  of  those  who 
 contributed  to  reform  the  literary  taste  of 
 Germany,  in  the  eighteenth  century.  In 
 conjunction  with  Gellert  and  Ramler,  he 
 translated  Bayle's  Dictionary,  and  Roll  in 's 
 History;  with  Klopstock,  Schlegel,  and 
 others,  he  published  a  literary  journal  of 
 great  celebrity,  called  New  Materials,  &c. ; 
 and  he  also  wrote  two  comedies,  and  a 
 volume  of  Discourses. 
 
 G^ERTNER,  Joseph,  an  eminent  bota- 
 nist, a  native  of  Wirtemberg,  born  at 
 Calu,  in  1732,  was  educated  at  Gottingen; 
 travelled  over  various  parts  of  Europe; 
 was  made  botanical  professor,  and  keeper 
 of  the  botanical  garden,  in  1768,,  at  Saint 
 
274 
 
 GAI 
 
 Pctersburgh;     returned    to    Germany    in] 
 1771 ;   and  died  in  1791.     De  Fractious  et 
 Seminibus  Plantarum,  in  two  vols.  4to.  is 
 his  principal  work. 
 (iA(iE,  Thomas,  die  last  governor  of 
 
 sachusetts  appointed  by  the  king,  firsl 
 name  to  America  as  a  lieutenant  whh| 
 Braddbck,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  in 
 which  that  officer  received  his  mortal 
 tvound.  He  was  appointed  governor  of 
 ;     tn  H  in  17C0,  and  in  1763,  succeeded 
 
 ral  Amherst  as  commander-in-chief  of 
 the  British  forces  in  North  America.  In 
 i  I't  i  he  succeeded  Hutchinson  as  governor 
 of  Massachusetts,  when  he  soon  began  the 
 course  of  illegal  and  oppressive  acts  that 
 brought  on  the  war  of  the  revolution.  In 
 177-"«  the  provincial  Congress  of  Massachu- 
 setts declared  hiin  an  enemy  to  the  colony, 
 a  in  i  I  g  after  he  returned  to  England, 
 where  he  died  in  17S7. 
 
 GAGNIER,  Johh,  an  orientalist,  was 
 born,  in  1670,  at  Paris,  and  educated  at 
 the  c  >llege  of  .Navarre.  He  took  orders, 
 bat  subsequently  changed  his  religion, 
 came  over  to  England,  and  settled  at 
 <  btford.  At  fust  he  subsisted  by  teaching 
 Hebrew,  but,  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Wallis, 
 he  su  :c  '  (1  him  as  Arabic  lecturer.  He 
 died  in  17-.0.  Gagnier  wrote,  in  French. 
 A  111'.-  of  Mahomet ;  and  published,  be- 
 sides some  other  works,  an  edition  of  Ben 
 Gorion's  History  of  the  Jews,  with  ■  Latin 
 translation  and  notes. 
 
 GAIL,  John  Baptist,  a  Cv,__^,rated 
 Hellenist,  was  born  at  Paris,  in  17-55,  and 
 died  in  the  same  city,  in  1828,  professor 
 of  Greek  literature  at  the  College  of  France. 
 He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  In- 
 scriptions and  Belles  Lettres,  and  a  knight 
 of  the   legion   of  honour.     He  contributed 
 
 ,ilv  to  render  the  study  of  Greek  pop- 
 ular in  Fiance.  Among  his  productions 
 are,  A  Greek  Grammar ;  and  Translations 
 of  XenOpb  ik  Thucydides,  Theocritus, 
 Bion,  iVIoschus,  and  Lucian's  Dialogues  of 
 the  1  ' 
 
 GAIL,  Sophia,  the  wife  of  the  fore- 
 going, was  born  about  1779,  and  died,  at 
 Paris,  in  1819.  For  the  arts,  and  par- 
 ticularly  for  music,  she  manifested  an 
 early  taste,  anil  she  began  to  compose 
 when  she  was  not  more  than  twelve  years 
 of  a  -<•.  Among  her  principal  compositions 
 ;n<-  the  operas  of  The  Jealous  Pair,  Madc- 
 
 i  elle    <ie    Launay    in   the    Ba.~tile,  and 
 The  Serenade. 
 GAILLARD,    Gabriil    Henry,    a 
 
 French  miscellaneous  writer  and  historian, 
 was  born,  in  1728,  atOstel,  near  Soissons; 
 abandoned  the  bar  to  become  wholly  an 
 author;  was  a  member  of  the  Academy 
 of  Inscriptions,  the  French  Academy,  and 
 ♦he  Institute;  and  died  in  1806.  His  most 
 important  works  aie,  Miscellanies,  in  four 
 volumes;    his   Histories    of  Marv  of  Bur- 
 
 GAL 
 
 gundy,  ot  rrancis  I.,  of  Charlemagne,  of 
 the  Rivalship  of  England  and  France,  of 
 the  Rivalship  of  France  and  Spain;  the 
 Historical  Dictionary  of  the  Methodical 
 Encyclopaedia ;  and  Observations  on  Vel- 
 Iv's  Histon  of  Trance. 
 "  GAINSBOROUGH,  Thomas,  a  cele- 
 brated artist,  the  son  of  a  clothier,  at 
 Sudbury,  in  Suffolk,  was  born  in  1727. 
 Nature,  which  he  studied  in  the  woods  and 
 fields,  was  his  fust  teacher.  On  leaving 
 Sudbury,  he  went  to  London,  and  received 
 instructions  from  Gravelot  and  Hayman. 
 After  having  painted  at  Ipswich  and  Bath, 
 he  settled  in  the  metropolis,  in  1774,  and 
 speedily  rose  to  eminence  in  his  profession. 
 He  died  of  cancer  in  the  neck,  in  1788. 
 His  portraits,  though  slight,  are  striking 
 likenesses,  and  his  landscapes  have  a  pecul- 
 iar charm,  "  a  portrait-like  representation 
 of  nature  (says  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds),  such 
 as  we  see  in  the  works  of  Rubens,  Ruys- 
 dael,  or  others  of  those  schools."  Gains- 
 borough had  a  considerable  talent  for  music, 
 but  was  singularly  capricious  in  abandon- 
 ing one  instrument  for  another.  His  man- 
 ners were  somewhat  eccentric,  but  he  was 
 kind  hearted  and  generous. 
 
 GALBA,  Servius  Sulpicius,  a  Ro- 
 man emperor,  born  four  years  B.  c,  was 
 consul  under  Tiberius,  A.  D.  33;  command- 
 ed with  honour  in  Upper  Germany ;  was, 
 successively,  proconsul  in  Africa,  and  in 
 Spain;  and  was  raised  to  the  throne,  A. 
 v.  68.  He  held  his  dignity  but  seven 
 months,  at  the  expiration  of  which  period 
 he  was  murdered  by  the  soldiery.  By  his 
 conduct  as  emperor  he  lost  much  of  the 
 reputation  which  he  had  gained  in  less  ele- 
 vated stations. 
 
 GALE,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  antiqua- 
 ry, was  born,  in  1636,  at  Scruton,  in  York- 
 shire ;  was  educated  at  Westminster  School, 
 and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  and  was, 
 in  succession,  Regius  professor  of  Greek, 
 at  Cambridge,  head  master  of  St.  Paul's 
 School,  prebend  of  St.  Paul's,  and  dean 
 of  York.  He  was  also  secretary  of  the 
 Royal  Society.  He  died  in  1702.  Gale 
 was  reckoned  one  of  the  best  Greek  schol- 
 ars of  his  age,  and  corresponded  with 
 some  of  the  most  eminent  of  his  contem- 
 poraries. He  published  edit  ions  of  various 
 learned  work.-,  and  of  the  ancient  English 
 historians.  He  left  Sermons,  and  an  anno- 
 tated copy  of  Antoninus's  British  Itinerary, 
 which  were  edited  by  his  son. 
 
 GALEN",  Claudius,  one  of  the  most 
 celebrated  physicians  of  ancient  times,  was 
 born  a.  d,  131,  at  Pergamus,  and  has  some- 
 timee  been  denominated  the  Hippocrates 
 of  Pergamus.  A  dream  is  said  to  have 
 directed  his  genius  to  the  study  of  medi- 
 cince.  After  having  received  an  excellent 
 education,  he  travelled  extensively,  to  ac- 
 quire   medical,    anatomical,    and   surgical 
 
GAL 
 
 information.  Alexandria  was  one  of  the 
 cities  at  which  he  most  increased  his  stock 
 of  knowledge.  In  his  thirty-second  year, 
 he  made  an  effort  to  settle  at  Rome,  but 
 the  intrigues  of  his  jealous  rivals  induced 
 him  at  length  to  return  to  Pergamus. 
 From  his  native  city,  however,  he  was 
 summoned  by  Marcus  Aurelius,  who  com- 
 mitted to  him  the  cure  of  Coinmodus  and 
 Sextus,  his  sons.  The  place  and  time  of 
 his  death  are  uncertain;  but  he  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  died  at  Rome,  in  about  the 
 seventieth  year  of  his  age.  Of  the  seven 
 hundred  and  fifty  works,  which  he  is  said 
 to  have  written,  only  a  part  has  been  pre- 
 served, but  even  that  part  forms  five  folio 
 volumes,  and  affords  an  irrefragable  proof 
 that  fame  has  not  exaggerated  his  learning 
 and  skill. 
 
 GALERIUS,  Caius  Valerius  Maxi- 
 mianus,  a  Roman  emperor, wasa  native 
 of  Dacia,  and  kept  flocks  when  a  boy, 
 whence  he  acquired  the  surname  of  Armen- 
 tarius.  Entering  into  the  army,  he  raised 
 himself  to  the  highest  ranks  by  his  courage, 
 and  was  adopted  by  Diocletian,  who  gave 
 him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  Among  his 
 subsequent  exploits  was  the  defeat  of  the 
 Persians.  He  ascended  the  imperial  throne 
 A.  D.  305,  and  died  in  311.  Galerius  was 
 of  a  cruel  disposition,  and  a  violent  per- 
 secutor of  the  Christians. 
 
 GALHEGOS,  Manuel  de,  a  Portu- 
 guese poet,  was  born,  in  1597,  at  Lisbon ; 
 was  patronised  by  the  duke  of  Olivares,  and 
 loaded  with  honours  at  the  court  of  Philip 
 IV. ;  and  died  in  1665.  He  was  the 
 friend  of  Lopez  de  Vega,  by  whom  he  was 
 highly  praised  in  the  Laurel  of  Apollo. 
 Galhegos  is  the  author  of  Gigantomachia, 
 a  poem ;  The  Temple  of  Memory,  a  poem ; 
 a  volume  of  poems;  and  a  great  number 
 of  dramatic  pieces. 
 
 GALIANI,  Ferdinand,  an  eminent 
 writer  on  various  subjects,  was  born  at 
 Chieti,  in  the  Neapolitan  province  of 
 Abruzzo,  in  1728;  made  so  rapid  a  pro- 
 gress in  his  studies  that,  at  the  age  of 
 sixteen,  he  composed  a  Dissertation  on  the 
 Money  in  use  at  the  Period  of  the  Trojan 
 War ;  was  sent  as  secretary  of  embassy  to 
 Paris ;  held  several  important  offices  after 
 his  return  to  Naples;  and  died  in  1787. 
 Galiani  was  a  man  of  wit  as  well  as  of 
 solid  talent.  Among  his  works  are,flk 
 Treatise  on  Coin ;  Dialogues  on  the  Com- 
 merce in  Grain  ;  On  the  Reciprocal  Duties 
 of  Neutral  and  Belligerent  Princes;  On 
 the  Neapolitan  Dialect ;  and  a  Commentary 
 on  Horace.  Many  of  his  writings  are  still 
 unpublished. 
 
 GALILEI,  Galileo,  an  illustrious 
 philosopher,  the  son  of  Vincent  Galilei,  a 
 Florentine  nobleman  of  talent,  was  born, 
 in  1564,  at  Florence.  His  dislike  to  the 
 medical  profession,  for   which  he  was  de- 
 
 GAL 
 
 27* 
 
 signed,  was  so  great,  that  his  father  al- 
 lowed him  to  desist  from  preparing  for  it, 
 and  to  study  the  mathematics.  So  rapidlj. 
 did  he  attain  a  proficiency  in  his  favourite 
 science  that,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  he 
 was  appointed  mathematical  professor  at 
 Pisa.  His  dislike  of  the  Aristotelian  phi- 
 losophy, however,  raised  him  up  so  many 
 enemies,  that,  in  1592,  he  resigned  the 
 chair  at  Pisa,  and  accepted  the  professor- 
 ship at  Padua,  in  which  he  continued  for 
 eighteen  years.  Cosmo  III.  at  last  invited 
 him  back  to  Pisa,  and,  soon  after,  called 
 him  to  Florence,  with  the  title  of  principal 
 mathematician  and  philosopher  to  the  grand 
 duke.  In  1609,  Galileo  was  informed  of 
 the  invention  of  the  telescope,  and  he  im- 
 mediately constructed  one  for  himself,  with 
 which  he  proceeded  to  explore  the  heavens. 
 With  this  instrument  he  discovered  four 
 satellites  of  Jupiter,  the  phases  of  Venus, 
 the  starry  nature  of  the  milky  way,  the 
 hills  and  valleys  of  the  moon,  and  the  spots 
 on  the  solar  disk,  from  the  motion  of  which 
 he  inferred  the  rotation  of  the  sun.  The 
 result  of  his  discoveries  was,  to  convince 
 him  of  the  truth  of  the  Copernican  system, 
 and  the  consequence  of  this  conviction 
 was,  that  he  was  twice  persecuted  by  the 
 Inquisition,  in  1615  and  1633,  on  a  charge 
 of  heresy.  On  both  occasions  he  was  com- 
 pelled to  abjure  the  system  of  Copernicus; 
 in  the  last  instance,  after  having  repeated 
 the  abjuration,  he  is  said  to  have  stamped 
 his  foot  on  the  earth,  and  said,  in  a  low 
 tone,  "  it  moves,  nevertheless."  Galileo 
 was  blind  for  about  three  years  before  his 
 death.  He  died  January  8,  1642.  Be- 
 sides what  has  been  already  mentioned, 
 Galileo  discovered  the  gravity  of  the  air,  in- 
 vented the  cycloid  and  the  simple  pendulum, 
 and  was  the  first  who  clearly  explained  the 
 doctrine  of  motion.  His  works  form  two 
 volumes  quarto. 
 
 GALL,  John  Joseph,  a  celebrated 
 physiologist,  the  founder  of  the  science 
 now  called  phrenology,  was  born,  in  1758, 
 at  a  village  in  the  duchy  of  Baden  ;  studied 
 at  Baden,  Bruchsal,  and  Strasburgh;  was 
 for  a  considerable  period  a  physician  at 
 Vienna;  but,  in  consequence  of  the  Aus- 
 trian government  having  prevented  the 
 exposition  of  his  new  doctrines  there,  he 
 travelled  through  the  north  of  Germany, 
 Sweden,  and  Denmark,  delivering  lectures ; 
 and  settled  at  Paris,  in  1807,  where  he 
 died  August  22,  1828.  The  system  of 
 Gall,  which  has  since  been  developed  by 
 Spurzheim,  assumes  that  each  faculty  of 
 the  mind  has  a  separate  organ  in  the  brain, 
 and  that  those  organs  are  marked  exter- 
 nally by  elevations  on  the  cranium. 
 
 GALLAND,  Anthony,  an  orientalist 
 and  numismatist,  was  born,  in  1646,  near 
 Montdidier,  in  Picardy;  accompanied  the 
 French     ambassador    to    Constantinople; 
 
276 
 
 GAL 
 
 made  two  subsequent  voyages  to  the  Le- 
 vant ;  was  Arabic  professor  to  the  college 
 of  France,  antiquary  to  the  king,  and  ;i 
 member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions ; 
 and  died  in  1715.  He  wrote  several  nu- 
 mismatic and  antiquarian  essays;  but  the 
 work  which  secures  his  name  from  ever 
 perishing  is  his  translation  of  The  Thou- 
 sand and  One  Nights,  which  is  known  to 
 English  readers  as  The  Arabian  Nights' 
 Entertainments. 
 
 GALLIENUS,  Publius  Licinius,  a 
 Roman  emperor,  the  son  of  Valerian, 
 reigned  in  conjunction  with  his  father  for 
 seven  years;  became  sole  sovereign  a.  D. 
 260;  belied  on  the  throne  the  promise  of 
 his  youth,  and  indulged  in  indolence  and 
 voluptuousness;  and  was  at  length  assassi- 
 nated at  Milan,  in  268. 
 
 GALLUS,  Caius  SuLPicius,an  emi- 
 nent Roman,  who  was,  successively,  ques- 
 tor,  edile,  pretor,  and  consul.  The  last 
 dignity  he  attained  in  conjunction  with  M. 
 Claudius  Marcellus,  in  the  year  of  Rome 
 587.  During  his  consulship  he  overcame 
 the  Ligurians.  The  introduction  of  dra- 
 matic spectacles  at  the  consular  festivals  is 
 attributed  to  him,  and  he  was  even  believed 
 to  have  assisted  Terence  in  the  composition 
 of  the  Andria.  He  was  likewise  celebrated 
 for  his  astronomical  knowledge. 
 
 GALLUS,  Cornelius,  a  Roman  poet, 
 was  born, about  B.  c.69,  either  at  Frejus, 
 in  Gaul,  or  the  Friuli,  in  Italy,  but  most 
 probably  at  the  former.  He  governed,  or 
 rather  tyrannized  over,  Egypt,  for  Augus- 
 tus. On  his  being  recalled,  he  was  con- 
 demned to  a  heavy  fine,  and  to  be  exiled, 
 upon  which  he  put  an  end  to  his  existence, 
 in  the  forty-third  year  of  his  age.  His 
 four  books  of  Elegies  are  lost.  He  was  a] 
 friend  of  Virgil,  who  addressed  to  him  his 
 tenth  eclogue. 
 
 GALLUS,  Caius  Vibius  Trebonia-J 
 nus,  emperor  of  Rome,  was  born  in  the 
 island  of  Meninx,  now  Gerbi,  on  the  Afri- 
 can coast.  He  held  a  command  in  Mosia, 
 under  Decius,  at  the  time  when  that  mon- 
 arch was  slain  in  action  against  the  Goths,  I 
 and  he  was  raised  to  the  purple  by  the 
 legions,  in  251.  On  the  throne  he  disgraced 
 himself  by  his  indolence  and  negligence, | 
 and  his  troops  at  length  assassinated  him, 
 in  253,  and  gave  the  diadem  to  Emilianus. 
 GALVANI,  Louis,  a  physician  and 
 experimental  philosopher,  was  born,  in 
 1737,  at  Bologna,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
 fessor of  anatomy  in  the  university  of  his 
 native  city.  He  died  December  4,  1798. 
 The  name  of  Galvani  is  immortalized  by 
 his  discovery  of  galvanic  electricity,  a  dis- 
 covery which  was  brought  to  perfection  by 
 Volta  and  others.  A  very  trivial  circum- 
 stance gave  rise  to  the  science.  Some 
 skinned  frogs  were  lying  in  the  laboratory, 
 near  an  electrical  machine,  and»  by  chance, ' 
 
 GAR 
 
 |  an  assistant  touched  the  crural  nerve  of 
 i  one   of  them   with   a   scalpel,  upon   which 
 convulsive    movements  ensued  in  the  limb. 
 Madame  Galvani,  who   was  present,  com- 
 municated this  circumstance  to  her  husband, 
 !  who  lost  no  time  in  investigating  the  cause 
 I  of  the  phenomenon.     The  important  result 
 of  his  labours  is  well  known  to  the  scien- 
 tific world.     Galvani  is   the  author  of  l)e 
 Viribus   Elcctricitatis   in  Motu  Musculari 
 Commentarius,  and  of  some  other  papers 
 in   the   Memoirs    of  the  Bolognese    Insti- 
 tute. 
 
 GALVEZ  DE  MONTALVO,  Louis, 
 a  celebrated  Spanish  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1549,  at  Gaudalaxara,  and  took  his  degree 
 of  doctor  of  laws  and  theology-  in  the 
 university  of  Alcala.  Though  praised  by 
 Lopez  de  Vega,  Cervantes,  and  other  emi- 
 nent contemporaries,  he  languished  unpat- 
 ronised,  and  at  length  entered  into  the 
 order  of  St.  Jerome.  He  died  in  1610. 
 His  principal  work  is  the  Pastor  de  Filide. 
 He  also  translated  Tasso's  Jerusalem,  and 
 Tansillo's  Tears  of  Saint  Peter. 
 
 GAMA,  Vasco  de,  a  celebrated  Portu- 
 guese navigator,  was  born  at  Sines,  in  the 
 province  of  Alemtejo.  In  1497  he  Mas 
 appointed  to  command  a  squadron  intended 
 for  India,  and,  after  having  been  long 
 baffled  by  contrary  winds,  he  succeeded  in 
 doubling  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
 reaching  Calicut.  In  1502,  he  sailed  again, 
 with  a  large  fleet,  and  the  title  of  admiral 
 of  the  Indian,  Persian,  and  Arabian  seas. 
 He  reached  his  destination  in  safety,  and 
 defeated  a  squadron  which  the  Zamorm 
 had  fitted  out  to  oppose  him.  In  1524,  ho 
 was  again  sent  to  India,  as  viceroy  of  the 
 Portuguese  possessions,  and  he  died  at 
 Cochin,  in  1525. — His  two  sons,  Stephen 
 and  CHRISTOPHER,  distinguished  them- 
 selves in  India.  The  first  voyage  of  Vasco 
 forme  the  subject  of  The  Lusiad. 
 
 GANDON,  JAMES,  an  eminent  archi- 
 tect, a  native  of  England,  was  a  pupil  of 
 Sir  William  Chambers,  and  was  the  first 
 who  received  the  architectural  gold  medal 
 of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  went  to  lie- 
 land,  and  resided  there  for  many  years, 
 till  his  decease,  in  1824,  at  the  age  of 
 eighty-two.  Gandon  designed  the  Court 
 houses  of  Nottingham  and  Walerford  ;  the 
 Custom  House,  the  Four  Courts,  and  the 
 pti'iico  of  the  House  of  Lords,  at  Dublin; 
 and  many  other  elegant  structures.  The 
 concluding  part  of  the  Vitruvius  Britauni- 
 cus  was  edited  by  him. 
 
 GARAMOND,  Chareks,  a  celebrated 
 French  letter  founder  and  type  engraver, 
 was  born  at  Paris,  towards  the  dose  of 
 the  fifteenth  century,  and  died  in  1561. 
 Among  his  works  were  three  fonts  of  ex- 
 tremely  beautiful  Greek  types,  produced 
 in  1538;  the  punches  of  which  were  again 
 called  into  use,  in  1796,  for  an  edition  of 
 
GAR 
 
 Xenophon.     He  also  brought  to  perfection 
 the  Roman  character. 
 
 GARAT,  Peter  John,  an  eminent 
 French  composer,  was  born,  about  1768, 
 at  Bordeaux,  and  died  at  Paris,  in  1823. 
 Like  some  other  celebrated  musicians,  he 
 displayed  the  natural  bent  of  his  genius 
 even  in  infancy;  as,  before  he  was  able 
 to  speak,  lie  repeated  the  tunes  which 
 were  sung  by  his  nurse.  He  was  music 
 master  to  the  queen  of  France.  The 
 melodies  of  several  of  Ids  songs  are  much 
 admired. 
 
 GARAY,  John  de,  a  Spaniard,  was 
 born,  in  1541,  at  Badnjoz ;  and  went  to 
 America,  as  secretary  to  the  governor  of 
 Paraguay,  in  which  capacity  be  displayed 
 so  much  bravery  and  talent  that  he  was 
 appointed  a  captain,  and  sent  into  the 
 interior  with  a  small  force  to  make  discov- 
 eries. He  ascended  the  Parana,  explored 
 a  wide  extent  of  country,  and  founded 
 Santa  Fe.  Being  raised  to  the  rank  of 
 lieutenant-general  and  governor  of  Assump- 
 tion, he  rebuilt  and  fortified  Buenos  Ayres, 
 and,  unlike  most  of  his  countrymen,  en- 
 deavoured to  civilize  the  Indians  by  per- 
 suasion and  acts  of  kindness.  He  was, 
 unfortunately,  killed  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Parana,  about  1592. 
 
 GARCIA     DE    MASCARENHAS, 
 Blaise,  a  Portuguese  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1596,   at  Avo,  in   the  province  of  Beira, 
 and,  in  1614,  went,  in  the  military  service, 
 to  Brazil,  where  he  remained  for  twenty- 
 six  years.     In  1640,  he  returned  to  Lisbon, 
 and  was  appointed  governor  of  Alfayates. 
 Though   he  had  bravely  defended  the  for- 
 tress against   the  Spaniards,   his  enemies 
 threw    him    into    prison,  on    a  charge  of 
 treason.     He  composed   a  letter  in  verse 
 to   the   king,  but  being  denied    materials 
 for  writing,  he  procured  a  book,  cut  out' 
 the   words,    and    pasted  them  on  a  blank 
 leaf.     This  he  threw  from   his  window  to, 
 a  friend,   and    it   obtained    his  liberation.! 
 He  died  in  1656.     Garcia  is  the  author  of  i 
 Viriatus,  a  poem,  in  twenty  cantos,  and  of  i 
 some  shorter  compositions. 
 
 GARCIAS  LASSO,  or  GARCILASSO; 
 DE  la  vega,  who  was  called  the  Spanish 
 Petrarch,  and  the  Prince  of  Spanish  Poe- 
 try, was  born  in  1503,  at  Toledo.  He 
 entered  earlv  into  the  service  of  Charles 
 V.  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
 of  Pavla.  His  valour  was  afterwards  tried 
 against  the  Turks  in  Hungary,  and  in  the 
 expedition  to  Tunis.  At  length,  in  1536, 
 he  fell  in  attacking  a  tower,  the  fire  from 
 which  harassed  the  Imperial  army  in  its| 
 retreat  from  Marseilles.  Garcilasso,  with 
 his  friend  Boscan,  reformed  the  bad  taste 
 which  had  been  introduced  into  Spanish 
 poetry.  His  works,  chiefly  pastorals  and 
 sonnets,  form  but  a  small  volume.  He 
 excels  in  the  tender  and  the  pathetic.  I 
 
 GAR 
 
 277 
 
 GARCIAS  LASSO,  or  GARCILASSO 
 
 de  la  Vega,  an  historian,  surnamed  the 
 Iiiea,  because,  by  his  mother's  side,  he 
 descended  from  the  Peruvian  royal  family, 
 was  born,  in  1530,  at  Cuzco,  in  Peru. 
 Philip  II.,  who  dreaded  the  influence  of 
 Garcilasso  among  the  natives,  summoned 
 him  to  Spain,  and  the  exile  died  at  Valla- 
 dolid,  in  1568.  From  the  numerous  docu- 
 ments whicji  he  had  collected  in  Peru,  he 
 composed  a  General  History  of  that  country, 
 and  also  a  History  of  Florida.  His  style 
 is  occasionally  faulty,  but  he  is  faithful, 
 and  his  narrative  is  interesting. 
 
 GARDEN,  Alexander,  a  physician 
 and  naturalist,  was  born  in  Scotland  in 
 1728,  and  educated  at.  the  university  of 
 Edinburgh.  He  went  to  America,  and 
 settled  as  a  physician  at  Charleston,  in 
 South  Carolina,  about  the  year  1750.  His 
 attention,  in  the  intervals  of  professional 
 employment,  was  chiefly  directed  to  the 
 study  of  natural  history,  and  he  opened  a 
 correspondence  in  1756  with  the  celebrated 
 Linnaeus.  This  eminent  naturalist  gave 
 the  name  Gardenia,  to  a  most  beautiful 
 flowering  shrub,  and  often  mentioned  his 
 name  with  applause.  After  a  residence  of 
 twenty  years  in  America,  Dr.  Garden 
 returned  to  England,  and  about  the  year 
 1772  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
 Society  of  London.  He  died  in  London 
 in  179*2. 
 
 GARDINER,  Stephen,  a  catholic 
 prelate,  of  undesirable  celebrity,  was  an 
 illegitimate  son  of  Lionel  Woodville,  bishop 
 of  Salisbury;  was  born,  in  1483,  at  Bury; 
 and  was  educated  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cam- 
 bridge, of  which  he  became  master.  By 
 Wolsey  he  was  employed  to  negotiate  at 
 Rome  the  king's  divorce,  and  his  services 
 were  rewarded  by  the  bishopric  of  Win- 
 chester. He  was  employed  on  other  em- 
 bassies by  Henry  VIIL,  but  at  length  he 
 fell  into  disgrace  with  the  monarch.  Ed- 
 ward VI.  committed  him  to  the  Tower, 
 but  Mary  raised  him  to  be  lord  chancellor, 
 and  he  avenged  himself  for  his  recent 
 imprisonment  by  the  most  unrelenting 
 persecution  of  the  protectants.  Before  his 
 decease,  however,  which  took  place  ill 
 1555,  he  is  said  to  have  expressed  com- 
 punction for  his  cruelty.  Gardiner,  great 
 as  were  his  faults,  had  the  merit  of  being 
 a  natron  of  learning,  and  of  a  grateful 
 disposition.  Among  his  works  are,  The 
 Necessary  Doctrine  of  a  Christian  Man; 
 and  a  treatise  in  defence  of  Henry  the 
 Eighth's  religious  supremacy. 
 
 GARNE'RIN,  James"  Andrew,  a 
 French  aeronaut,  who  led  the  way  in  the 
 perilous  experiment  of  descending  from  a 
 balloon  by  means  of  a  parachute.  His 
 first  attempt  was  made  at  St.  Petersburgh, 
 in  1800 ;  and  he  successfully  repeated  it 
 in  England  and  France.     He  died  in  1823. 
 
GAS 
 
 October,  1741,  at  the  Goodman's  Fields 
 Theatre,  in  the  character  of  Richard  III. 
 He  introduced  an  entirely  new  style  of 
 acting,  more  true  to  nature  than  the  old, 
 and  his  success  was  instant  and  unprece- 
 dented. The  regular  theatres  were  desert- 
 ed, and  rank  and  fashion  nightly  hurried 
 to  view  the  theatrical  phenomenon.  At  the 
 same  time  he  gained  the  honours  of  a  dra- 
 matist, by  his  comic  piece  of  The  Lying 
 Valet.  In  1742  he  was  engaged  at  Drury 
 Lane  Theatre,  of  which,  in  1747,  he  be- 
 came joint  proprietor.  For  thirty-four 
 years,  he  continued,  with  undiminished 
 popularity,  to  act  an  infinite  number  of 
 characters,  seemingly  requiring  the  most 
 incompatible  talents,  yet  all  personated 
 with  matchless  skill,  both  in  tragedy  and 
 comedy.  During  that  period  he  a'so  pro- 
 duced nearly  forty  pieces;  some  of  which, 
 however,  were  merely  adaptations.  Tn 
 1769  he  projected  and  carried  into  effect 
 the  celebrated  Shakspeare  jubilee,  at 
 Stratford  upon  Avon.  At  length,  in  1776, 
 he  retired  from  the  stage;  and  he  died  on 
 the  twentieth  of  January,  1779.  Besides 
 his  dramas,  Garrick  wrote  many  prologues, 
 epilogues,  epigrams,  and  light  pieces  of 
 poetry. 
 
 GARTH,  Sir  Samuel,  a  poet  and 
 physician,  was  born  in  Yorkshire;  was 
 educated  at  Peter  House,  Cambridge;  took 
 his  degree  in  1691;  was  admitted  a  fellow 
 of  the  college  in  the  following  year;  was 
 knighted,  on  the  accession  of  George  I., 
 and  appointed  king's  physician  in  ordi- 
 nary, and  physician  general  to  the  army; 
 and  died  in  June,  171S.  Of  his  poems 
 the  principal  is,  The  Dispensary,  which 
 conveys  much  lively  and  pointed  satire, 
 clothed  in  polished  versification.  He  also 
 wrote  a  Latin  Harveian  Oration;  and  con- 
 tributed a  Preface  to  a  translation  of 
 Ovid's  Metamorphoses. 
 
 GASCOIGNE,  Sir  William, a  native 
 of  Yorkshire,  born   at  Gawthorp,  in  1350, 
 w;is  appointed  one  of  the  justices  of  com- 
 n\\]I  \\\  ^nW  ft\t    \lC-\         raon  lM,'as  °"  tne  accession  of  Henry  IV., 
 ^^  '    *  «  '         ''  "     *^  !  and,  in  1401,  was   raised   to   be  chief  jus- 
 
 GARRICK,  David,  the  son  of  a  captain  tice  of  the  king's  bench.  In  the  latter 
 in  the  army,  was  born,  tn  1716,  at  Here- J  office  he  honourably  distinguished  himself 
 ford.  His" education  he  received  partly  at;  by  committing  Prince  Henry,  afterwards 
 Litchfield  School,  partly  from  Dr.  John-  Henry  V.,  to  prison  for  striking  him  while 
 son,  and  partly,  at  a  later  period,  from  in  the  execution  of  his  judicial  duties.  He 
 Mr.  Colson,  a  mathematician,  at  Rochester,   died  in  1413. 
 
 When  Johnson  gave  lip  his  academy,1  GASCOIGNE,  Gkorge,  a  poet  of 
 Garrick  accompanied  him  to  the  metro-' Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  the  son  of  Sir 
 polis.  For  a  while  he  contemplated  study-  George  Gnscoigne,  was  born  at  Waltham- 
 ing  the  law;  he  next  became  a  wine  stow,  in  Essex,  and  was  disinherited  by 
 merchant,  in  partnership  with  his  brother;  his  father.  After  having  studied  at  Cam- 
 and,  lastly,  yielded  to  that  love  of  the  bridge,  and  Gray's  Inn,  he  served  in  the 
 stage  which  had  induced  him  to  act  Ser-j  Dutch  army.  On  returning  to  England, 
 ieant  Kite,  at  school,  when  be  was  only  he  became  a  courtier,  and  wrote  masques 
 eleven  years  old.  After  having  played  for  the  entertainment  of  the  queen.  He 
 at  Ipswich,  under  the  name  of  Lyddal,  he  died  in  1577.  Besides  his  original  and 
 came  out,  in  London,  on   the  nineteenth  of   translated  dramas,  and  some  prose  tracts, 
 
 278  GAR 
 
 GARNET,  Thomas,  a  physician,  was 
 Dorn,  in  1766,  at  Casterton,  in  Westmore- 
 land; took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh;  and, 
 after  having  practised  in  various  parts  of 
 the  country,  was  about  to  depart  to  Ame- 
 rica, when  the  success  of  a  course  ol 
 lectures  at  Liverpool  induced  him  to  re- 
 main in  England.  He  l)ecame  professor 
 of  chemistry  of  the  Royal  Institution;  but 
 died  in  1S02.  He  wrote  A  Tour  through 
 the  Highlands;  Outlines  of  Chemistry; 
 and  Zoonomia;  and  edited  the  Annals  of 
 Science. 
 
 GARNIER,  John  Jamf.s,  historiogra- 
 pher of  France,  and  member  of  the  Aca- 
 demy of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres, 
 was  born,  in  1729,  at  Goron,  in  the  pro- 
 vince of  Maine,  and  died  in  1805.  Among 
 other  works,  he  produced  The  Man  of 
 Letters,  two  vols. ;  On  the  Origin  of  the 
 French  Government;  a  Treatise  on  Civil 
 Education ;  and  a  Continuation  of  Velly's 
 History  of  France. 
 
 GARNIER,  Count  Gkrmain,  a  French 
 statesman,  was  born,  in  1721,  at  Auxerre; 
 became  prefect  of  the  department  of  the 
 Seine  and  Oise,  and  president  of  the  sen- 
 ate; and  died  in  1S21.  He  translated 
 various  productions  from  the  English, 
 among  which  was  Smith's  Wealth  of  Na- 
 tions; and  wrote  A  History  of  Coinage, 
 in  two  volumes;  An  Abridgment  of  the 
 Elementary  Principles  of  Political  Econo- 
 my ;  and  other  works. 
 
GAT 
 
 he  wrote  The  Steel  Glass,  a  satire,  and 
 other  poems.  "  He  is,"  says  Headley, 
 *'  smooth,  sentimental,  and  harmonious." 
 
 GASCOIGNE,  William,  a  natural 
 philosopher,  born  in  1621,  was  a  native  of 
 Lancashire,  and  was  slain,  fighting  for 
 Charles  I.,  at  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor, 
 in  1643.  He  divides  with  Auzout  the 
 merit  of  having  invented  the  micrometer. 
 (See  Auzout.)  He  also  wrote  a  Trea- 
 tise on  Optics,  which  is  lost. 
 
 GASSENDI,  Peter,  a  justly  cele- 
 brated French  philosopher,  was  born,  in 
 1592,  at  Chantersier,  in  Provence.  So 
 rapidly  did  he  acquire  knowledge,  that  at 
 the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  capable  of  filling 
 the  professorship  of  rhetoric  at  Digne,  and 
 at  twenty-one  was  chosen  to  fill  the  theo- 
 logical and  philosophical  chairs  at  the 
 university  of  Aix.  He  resigned  the  latter 
 in  1623,  to  give  himself  up  wholly  to  his 
 scientific  pursuits.  He  travelled  in  France, 
 Germany,  and  the  Netherlands,  to  confer 
 with  men  of  science,  and  he  carried  on  an 
 extensive  correspondence  with  the  most 
 learned  and  eminent  of  his  contempora- 
 ries. In  1645  he  was  appointed  regius 
 professor  of  mathematics  at  Paris,  and  his 
 lectures  were  exceedingly  popular.  He 
 died  in  1655.  Gassendi  was  at  once  a 
 theologian,  metaphysician,  philosopher,  as- 
 tronomer, naturalist,  and  mathematician ; 
 great  in  some  of  these  sciences,  and  above 
 mediocrity  in  all.  His  attacks  on  the  phi- 
 losophy of  Aristotle  gave  it  a  severe  shock, 
 but  raised  up  against  him  a  host  of  bitter 
 enemies.  His  works  were  collected,  in 
 six  folio  volumes,  by  Sorbiere. 
 
 GATES,  Horatio,  was  born  in  Eng- 
 land in  1728,  and  entering  the  British 
 service  in  early  life,  rose  by  his  merits  to 
 the  rank  of  major.  In  1755  he  was  with 
 Braddock  when  that  unfortunate  comman- 
 der was  defeated,  and  received  in  that  bat- 
 tle a  severe  wound,  which  for  some  time 
 debarred  him  from  active  service.  On  the 
 conclusion  of  peace,  he  settled  in  Virginia, 
 where  he  resided  till  the  commencement 
 of  the  revolution  in  1775.  He  was  then 
 appointed  adjutant  general  by  Congress, 
 with  the  rank  of  brigadier,  and  in  1776 
 received  the  command  of  the  army  in 
 Canada.  General  Schuyler  succeeded  him 
 for  a  few  months  in  1777,  but  he  resumed 
 his  situation  in  August,  and  soon  revived 
 the  hopes  of  his  country  by  the  capture  of 
 the  army  under  Burgoyne.  In  1780  he 
 was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of 
 the  southern  districts,  but  he  was  after- 
 wards superseded  by  general  Greene,  and 
 his  couduct  was  subjected  to  the  investiga- 
 tion of  a  special  court.  He  was  restored 
 to  his  command  in  1782.  On  the  termin- 
 ation of  war  he  resided  on  his  farm  in 
 Virginia  till  1790,  when  einoved  to 
 
 GAU  279 
 
 New  York,  where  he  lived  much  esteemed 
 and  respected  till  his  decease  in  1806. 
 
 GAUBIL,  Anthony,  a  learned  Jesuit 
 missionary,  was  born,  in  16S9,  at  Gaillac, 
 in  Languedoc.  In  1723,  he  was  sent  to 
 China;  and  he  remained  there  till  his  de- 
 cease, in  1759.  Having  made  himself 
 perfectly  master  of  the  Chinese  and  Mant- 
 chew  languages,  he  was  appointed  inter- 
 preter to  the  imperial  court;  and  he  ac- 
 quired the  entire  confidence  of  the  empe- 
 ror. His  works  are,  A  History  of  Genghis 
 Khan,  and  of  the  Mongol  Dynasty;  and  an 
 Historical  and  Critical  Treatise  on  Chi- 
 nese Astronomy. 
 
 GAUDEN,  John,  a  divine,  was  born, 
 in  1605,  at  Mayland,  in  Essex;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  and  St.  John's 
 College,  Cambridge;  and  became  a  mem- 
 ber of  Wadham  College,  Oxford.  In  1635 
 he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  earl  of 
 Warwick,  who  was  hostile  to  the  court. 
 For  some  years  he  continued  true  to  the 
 principles  of  the  political  reformers,  and 
 was  even  presented  to  the  deanery  of 
 Bocking  by  the  parliament;  but  he  changed 
 sides  as  soon  as  the  monarch  was  endan- 
 gered, and  strenuously  protested  against 
 his  trial.  In  1648  he  published  the  fa- 
 mous Icon  Basilike,  the  composition  of 
 which  he  afterwards  claimed  as  his  own  ; 
 a  claim  which  has  given  rise  to  much  con- 
 troversy as  to  the  real  author.  At  the 
 Restoration  he  was  made  bishop  of  Exe- 
 ter, and,  in  1662,  he  was  translated  to 
 Worcester.  But  Winchester  was  the  ob- 
 ject of  his  ambition  and  avarice,  and  the 
 loss  of  it  was  a  grievous  disappointment 
 to  him.  He  died  in  the  year  of  his  trans- 
 lation. Gauden  was  a  bad  specimen  of  a 
 prelate.  Changeful,  grasping,  selfish,  he 
 was  one  of  those  of  whom  Milton  says, 
 "  of  other  care  they  little  reckoning  make 
 than  how  to  scramble  at  the  shearer's 
 feast,  and  shove  away  the  worthy  bidden 
 guest." 
 
 GAULTIER,  Abbe  Louis,  was  born  in 
 Italy,  about  1745,  of  French  parents,  and 
 went  to  France  in  his  childhood.  Devot- 
 ing himself  to  the  task  of  education,  he 
 formed  the  plan  of  rendering  the  acquisi- 
 tion of  learning  less  repulsive  to  children, 
 by  the  invention  of  a  number  of  games,  at 
 once  amusing  and  instructive.  The  revo- 
 lution drove  him  from  France,  but  he  re- 
 turned in  1S02,  and  resumed  his  labours. 
 Of  the  systems  of  Bell  ami  Lancaster  he  was 
 an  active  supporter.  He  died  in  1818. 
 Among  his  numerous  and  often  printed 
 works  are,  A  Method  of  making  Abridg- 
 ments; Lessons  of  Chronology  and  Histo- 
 ry; Progressive  Lessons  for  Children;  and 
 Notions  of  Practical  Geometry. 
 
 GAUTHEY,  Emilian  Mary,  was 
 born,  in  1732,  at  Chalons  sur  Saone;  filled 
 
280  GAY 
 
 several  important  posts  as  a  civil  engi- 
 neer; and  died,  inspector  general  of  roads 
 and  bridges,  in  1806.  He  executed  the 
 canal  of  the  centre,  and  the  junction  canals 
 of  the  Saone,  Yonne,  and  Doubs;  built  the 
 bridge  of  Navilly,  and  the  quays  of  Cha- 
 lons; and  performed  some  other  public 
 works.  His  principal  publication  is  A 
 Complete  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of 
 Bridges  and  Canals. 
 
 GAVARD,  Hyacinth,  one  of  the  most 
 eminent  anatomists  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
 tury, was  born,  in  1753,  at  Montmelian, 
 and  was  a  pupil  of  Desaidt.  He  wrote 
 excellent  Treatises  on  Osteology,  Myolo- 
 gy, and  Splanchnology;  and  invented  a 
 method  of  teaching  reading  and  writing 
 together  to  children.  He  died  poor,  at 
 Paris,  in  1802. 
 
 GAY,  John,  an  eminent  poet,  a  native 
 of  Devonshire,  was  born,  in  1688,  at 
 Barnstaple,  and  was  apprenticed  to  a  silk- 
 mercer  in  London.  Disliking  trade,  how- 
 ever, he  soon  abandoned  it,  and  relied 
 upon  literature  and  the  patronage  of  the 
 great  for  a  subsistence.  For  a  while  he 
 held  the  situation  of  secretary  to  the  duch- 
 ess of  Monmouth.  Rural  Sports,  his  first 
 work,  he  dedicated,  in  1711,  to  Pope,  and 
 it  prodwced  a  warm  and  lasting  friendship 
 between  the  two  poets.  Thenceforth  he 
 continued  frequently  to  offer  his  composi- 
 tions to  public  notice;  not  without  advan- 
 tage to  his  reputation.  Of  his  early  poems 
 The  Shepherd's  Week  was  the  most  suc- 
 cessful. Court  favour  Gay  more  than  once 
 had  hopes  of  obtaining,  but  his  hopes  were 
 blighted.  His  appointment  as  secretary  to 
 the  earl  of  Clarendon,  on  the  embassy  to 
 Hanover,  would  probably  have  led  to  high- 
 er promotion,  had  not  the  queen  unex- 
 pectedly died.  A  second  time  the  door  of 
 preferment  seemed  to  be  opened  by  his 
 Fables,  written  for  the  instruction  of  the 
 duke  of  Cumberland,  but  all  the  reward 
 that  was  offered  was  the  petty  place  of 
 gentleman  usher  to  the  young  princess 
 Louisa,  which  he  indignantly  rejected. 
 The  exertions  of  his  private  friends  were 
 more  beneficial.     A   thousand  pounds  was 
 
 GED 
 
 raised  by  a  subscription  to  a  volume  of  his 
 poems;  and  Craggs  gave  him  some  South 
 Sea  stock:  all,  however,  was  lost,  on  the 
 bursting  of  the  bubble.  In  1727  he  brought 
 out  his  Beggar's  Opera,  which  was  acted 
 sixty-three  days  in  succession  on  the  Lon- 
 don stage,  and  nearly  as  often  on  most  of 
 the  provincial  boards.  A  second  part  of 
 it,  under  the  name  of  Polly,  the  lord  cham- 
 berlain refused  to  license;  but  a  subscrip- 
 tion of  twelve  hundred  pounds  amply  in- 
 demnified the  author  for  this  refusal.  The 
 last  years  of  Gay's  life  were  spent  under 
 the  hospitable  roof  of  the  duke  and  duchess 
 of  Queensberry,  who  were  warmly  attached 
 to  him.  He  died  in  1732.  Possessed  of 
 all  the  softer  virtues,  Gay  had,  unfortunate- 
 ly, a  nerveless  mind,  which  the  slightest 
 breath  of  disappointment  could  shake  to 
 the  centre.  His  poetry  is  of  that  kind 
 which,  though  Johnson  denies  to  it  "  the 
 dignity  of  genius,"  will  always  afford  plea- 
 sure by  its  elegance,  sprightliness,  and  oc- 
 casional felicity  of  description. 
 
 GAY  VERNON,  Simon  Francis, 
 baron,  was  born,  in  1760,  at  St.  Leonard, 
 in  the  Limousin;  obtained  a  captaincy  in 
 the  army  in  1790;  distinguished  himself 
 greatly,  in  1793,  on  the  Rhine  and  in  Flan- 
 ders ;  was  for  seventeen  years  sub-director 
 of  the  polytechnic  school;  defended  the 
 fortress  of  Trogau,  in  1814,  with  the  ut- 
 most gallantry;  and  died  in  1822.  He 
 wrote,  in  two  volumes  quarto,  An  Elemen- 
 tary Treatise  on  the  Military  Art,  and  on 
 Fortification. 
 
 GAZA, orGAZIS, Theodore, a  lear- 
 ned Greek,  was  born,  in  139S,  at  Thessa- 
 lonica.  When  his  country  was  desolated 
 by  the  Turks,  he  sought  an  asylum  in  Ita- 
 ly; was  patronised  by  Pope  Nicholas  the 
 Fifth,  and  other  eminent  men;  and  contri- 
 buted greatly  to  diffuse  a  knowledge  of  the 
 ancient  literature  of  his  native  land.  He 
 died  in  1478.  He  translated  various  works 
 from  the  Greek,  and  wrote  a  Greek  Gram- 
 mar, and  a  Treatise  on  the  Grecian  Months. 
 
 GEBER,  or  GEABER,  an  Arabian  al- 
 chemist and  astronomer,  whose  real  name 
 was  Abou  Moussah  Giaffar  al  Sofi,  is  sup- 
 posed by  some  to  have  been  a  native  of 
 Seville;  but  he  is  more  generally  believed 
 to  have  been  born  at  Hauran,  in  Mesopo- 
 tamia, in  the  eighth  century.  His  alche- 
 mical researches  led  him  to  the  discovery 
 of  corrosive  sublimate,  red  precipitate, 
 aquafortis,  and  nitrate  of  quicksilver. 
 There  have  been  several  editions  of  his 
 works. 
 
 GED,  Wieeiam,  a  goldsmith  of  Edin- 
 burgh, invented  stereotype  printing  in  1725, 
 and,  in  1729,  entered  into  partnership 
 with  Fenner,  a  stationer  of  London  111 
 treated  by  his  partner,  and  thwarted  by 
 printers,  he   sustained   considerable   loss. 
 
GEL 
 
 In  1733  he  returned  to  Scotland,  where 
 he  printed  an  edition  of  Sallust.  His  de- 
 cease took  place  in  1749. 
 
 GEDDES,  Alexander,  alearned  Ro- 
 man catholic  divine,  was  born,  in  1737,  at 
 Ruthven,  in  Banffshire;  was  educated  at 
 the  Scotch  college  at  Paris;  and  officiated 
 at  various  chapels  till  1782,  when  he  de- 
 sisted entirely  from  the  exercise  of  his 
 clerical  functions.  For  many  years  he  was 
 engaged  on  a  new  Translation  of  the  Old 
 and  New  Testament,  of  which  he  publish- 
 ed only  two  volumes.  This  work  raised  a 
 tempest  of  indignation  against  him  from 
 both  protestants  and  catholics.  He  died 
 in  1802.  Besides  the  version  of  the  Bible, 
 he  published  a  translation  of  Horace's  Sat- 
 ires ;  Critical  Remarks  on  the  Hebrew 
 Scriptures  ;  and  other  works  of  less  impor- 
 tance. 
 
 GEER,  Charles  DE,an  eminent  nat- 
 uralist, who  has  been  called  the  Swedish 
 Reaumur,  was  born  in  Sweden,  in  1720; 
 studied  at  Utrecht  and  Upsal;  was  ap- 
 pointed marshal  of  the  Swedish  court,  in 
 1761;  and  died  in  1778.  His  great  work 
 is  Memoirs  towards  the  History  of  Insects, 
 in  seven  quarto  volumes,  with  plates.  It 
 describes  more  than  fifteen  hundred  species. 
 GELLERT,  Christlieb  Ehregott, 
 a  celebrated  metallurgist,  was  born  in  1713, 
 at  Haynichen,  near  Freyburg,  in  Saxony, 
 and  died  in  1795;  professor  of  metallurgy, 
 and  effective  counsellor,  of  the  Saxon 
 mines.  Gellert  introduced  very  important 
 improvements  into  the  method  of  parting 
 metals  by  amalgamation.  He  is  the  au- 
 thor of  Elements  of  Metallurgical  Chemis- 
 try;  and  Elements  of  Docimastics. 
 
 GELLERT,  Christian  Furchte- 
 gott,  a  German  poet  and  writer  on  mor- 
 als and  elegant  literature,  the  brother  of 
 the  metallurgist,  was  born  at  Haynichen, 
 in  1715,  and  studied  theology  at  Leipsic. 
 In  1751,  he  was  chosen  extraordinary  pro- 
 fessor of  moral  philosophy  at  Leipsic.  Af- 
 ter having  gained  applause  by  his  share  in 
 two  periodical  publications,  he  brought 
 out,  in  1746,  his  first  collection  of  Fables, 
 and  the  romance  of  The  Swedish  Countess. 
 They  were  soon  followed  by  a  second 
 part  of  the  Fables,  and  several  Comedies. 
 Among  his  still  later  productions  may  be 
 mentioned  Moral  Didactic  Poetry;  Canti- 
 cles; Dissertations  on  Literature  and  Mor- 
 als ;  and  Miscellaneous  Works.  Of  all  his 
 writings  his  Fables  were  the  most  popular. 
 Their  success  was,  indeed,  complete;  for 
 all,  from  the  peasant  to  the  prince,  were 
 delighted  with  them.  After  suffering  se- 
 verely all  his  life  from  hypochondriacal  af- 
 fections, Gellert  died  in  1769.  For  the 
 improvement  of  its  literary  taste,  and  the 
 diffusion  of  good  principles,  Germany  owes 
 much  to  Gellert.  Nor  has  it  been  ungrate- 
 ful; for  his  .memory  is  still  cherished  as 
 
 GEM  281 
 
 that  of  a  man  who  was  a  benefactor  and  an 
 honour  to  his  native  land. 
 
 GELLI,  John  Baptist,  an  Italian 
 writer,  born,  in  1498,  at  Florence,  was 
 brought  up  as  a  tailor,  which  calling  he 
 continued  to  follow  even  amidst  his  litera- 
 ry avocations.  It  was  not  till  he  was  twen- 
 ty-five that  he  began  to  study,  but  his  pro- 
 gress was  rapid.  He  was  one  of  the  foun- 
 ders of  the  Florentine  Academy;  and,  in 
 1553,  was  ordered  by  Cosmo  I.  to  give 
 public  lectures  on  theDivina  Commediaof 
 Dante.  He  died  in  1563.  Gelli  wrote 
 two  Comedies;  Dialogues;  Circe;  and 
 some  minor  pieces. 
 
 GELLIBRAND,  Henry,  a  mathema- 
 tician, was  born  in  London,  in  1597; 
 studied  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford;  was 
 made  professor  of  astronomy  at  Gresham 
 College;  and  died  in  1636.  He  comple- 
 ted and  published  Briggs's  Trigonometria 
 Britannica;  and  wrote  A  Discourse  on  the 
 Longitude  ;  and  other  works  connected 
 with  navigation.  It  is  not  to  the  credit  of 
 his  judgment,  that  he  was  an  opponent  of 
 the  Copernican  system. 
 
 GEMELLI-CARRERI,  John  Fran- 
 cis, a  celebrated  Italian  traveller,  was 
 born,  in  1651,  at  Naples,  and  was  admit- 
 ted a  doctor  of  laws.  The  love  of  travel- 
 ling, however,  lured  him  from  his  profes- 
 sion. After  having  seen  the  whole  of  Eu- 
 rope, and  served  as  a  volunteer  in  Hunga- 
 ry, he  embarked  for  Egypt  in  1693.  Be- 
 tween that  year  and  1698,  he  traversed 
 Upper  Egypt,  Syria,  Palestine,  parts  of 
 European  and  Asiatic  Turkey,  Persia, 
 Hindostan,  China,  Mexico, and  Cuba.  He 
 closed  his  peregrinations  by  again  visiting 
 Spain,  France,  and  a  portion  of  Italy. 
 The  year  of  bia  death  is  unknown.  His 
 Journey  round  the  World  forms  six  vol- 
 umes, and  contains  much  curious  informa- 
 tion. It  has  been  denied,  but  most  unjust- 
 ly, that  Gemelli  ever  saw  the  countries 
 which  he  describes. 
 
 GEMINIANI,  Francis,  an  eminent 
 composer,  born,  in  1666,  at  Lucca,  was  a 
 pupil  of  Lonati,  Scarlatti,  and  Corelli. 
 In  1714  he  came  to  England,  and,  with 
 one  interval,  continued  to  reside  in  the 
 British  dominions  till  his  decease,  in  1762. 
 He  is  the  author  of  solos,  concertos,  and 
 various  other  compositions;  and  of  The 
 Harmonic  Guide ;  The  Art  of  Playing  on 
 the  Violin;  and  a  Treatise  on  Good  Taste, 
 and  Rules  for  playing  with  Good  Taste. 
 
 GEMISTUS,GEORGE,surnamed  Ple- 
 tho,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  was  born,  in 
 1390,  at  Constantinople;  and  from  the 
 Peloponnesus,  where  he  usually  resided, 
 was  sent  to  the  council  of  Florence,  to  dis- 
 cuss the  subject  of  an  union  between  the 
 Greek  and  Latin  churches.  He  was  the 
 reviver  of  Platonism  in  Italy,  and  made 
 many   converts   to    it,  among  whom   was 
 
282  GEN 
 
 Cosmo  de  Medici.  He  died  in  Greece,  at 
 the  age  of  nearly  a  hundred.  His  works 
 are  numerous ;  several  of  them  relate  to  the 
 Platonic  philosophy;  the  remainder  are 
 theological,  rhetorical,  and  historical. 
 
 GENGHIS  KHAN,JINGHIS  KHAN, 
 or  THEM UGIN,  one  of  those  pests  known 
 by  the  appellation  of  great  conquerors,  was 
 born,   in    1164,   in  Tartary,  and    died  in 
 1227.      He  was  the  son  of  a  petty  Mongo- 
 lian prince;  but,  by  dint  of  successive  vic- 
 tories, he   became  monarch  of  a  territory 
 extending  fifteen  hundred  leagues.     North- 
 ern China,  Eastern   Persia,  and  the  whole 
 of  Tartary,  he  reduced  under  his  yoke;  but 
 his  triumphs  cost  the  destruction  of  number- 
 less cities,  and  of  millions  of  human  beings. 
 GEN  LIS,   Stephania    Felicity, 
 countess  de,  whose  maiden  name  was  Du- 
 crest  de  St.  Aubin,  was  born,  in  1746,  near 
 Autun,    in  Burgundy.       Though  of  a  good 
 family,  she  had  no  fortune;   but  her  beau- 
 ty, her  accomplishments,   and  particularly 
 her  skill  on  the  harp,  introduced  h2r   into 
 high  circles,  from  which   she   derived  pe- 
 cuniary resources.     Many   offers  of  mar- 
 riage were  made  to  her,  but  she  accepted 
 the    hand  of  the    Count  de   Genlis,    who 
 had    become  enamoured  of  her   in   conse- 
 quence of  reading  one  of  her  letters.     The 
 union   was  unproductive  of  happiness,  and 
 the   tongue  of  scandal    did    not  spare  her 
 character.     By  that  union,  however,  she 
 became  allied  to  Madame  Montesson,  who 
 was  privately  married  to  the  duke  of  Or- 
 leans;  and  this  led   to  her  being  chosen 
 by  the  duke  of  Chartres  as  the   governess 
 of  his   children.     She    now    appeared    as 
 an  author,  and  produced   in  rapid   succes- 
 sion  Adela  and  Theodore,   The  Evenings 
 of  the   Castle,  The  Theatre  of  Education, 
 and  Annals  of  Virtue;   all   of  which   were 
 highly  popular.     Though  she  was  a  warm 
 friend    to    the    revolution,    her    connexion 
 with    the    duke  of  Orleans  rendered    her 
 obnoxious    to    the  prevailing  faction,  and, 
 in     1793,    she     was     compelled    to    quit 
 France.     After  having  resided  in  Switz- 
 erland,   at     Altona,     at     Hamburgh,    and 
 in  Holstein,  she  was  allowed  by  the  first 
 consul  to    return    to    her    native    country. 
 During  her  absence  from  France  she  wrote, 
 besides  some  minor  pieces,  The  Knights  of 
 the  Swan,  The  Little  Emigrants,  The  Ri- 
 val Mothers,  and  Rash   Vows.     Napoleon 
 gave  her  a  pension,  and  apartments  in  the 
 Arsenal,  and  carried  on  a  correspondence 
 with  her;   but,  on  the  return  of  the   Bour- 
 bons, she  forgot  the  favours  he  had  confer- 
 red, and  the  incense  she  had  offered  to  him, 
 and  joined  the  band  of  his  detractors.     For 
 the  last  thirty  years  her  inexhaustible  pen 
 continued  to  pour  forth  a  variety  of  works, 
 of  which  space  is  here  wanting  to  enume- 
 rate even  the  names.     The  whole  of  her  lit- 
 erary progeny  falls  little  short  of  a  hundred 
 
 GEO 
 
 volumes.  She  died,  at  Paris,  December 
 31,  1830.  Her  productions  are  character- 
 ized by  fertility  of  imagination,  and  purity 
 of  style. 
 
 GENOVESI,  Anthony,  a  metaphysi- 
 cian and  philosopher,  was  born  near  Saler- 
 no, in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1712,  and 
 took  orders  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  He 
 was  professor  of  metaphysics,  moral  philo- 
 sophy, and  political  economy,  in  the  Nea- 
 politan capital,  and  contributed  greatly  to 
 the  extension  of  enlightened  principles.  He 
 died  in  1769.  Among  his  works  are,  Ele- 
 ments of  Metaphysics ;  a  Treatise  on  Com- 
 merce; Philosophical  Meditations;  and  El- 
 ements of  Logic. 
 
 GENTILIS,  Alberic,  a  celebrated 
 Italian  civilian,  was  born,  in  1551,  in  the 
 march  of  Ancona ;  studied  at  Perugia ;  and 
 was  a  doctor  of  laws  in  his  twenty-first 
 year.  Having  adopted  the  protestant  faith, 
 he  took  refuge  in  England,  was  patronised 
 by  the  earl  of  Leicester,  and  obtained  the 
 civil  law  professorship  at  Oxford.  He  died 
 in  1611.  Several  works  on  jurisprudence 
 were  produced  by  him. — His  brother,  Scip- 
 10,  who  was  born  in  1563,  and  died  in 
 1611,  was  also  an  eminent  jurist. 
 
 GEOFFREY  of  MONMOUTH,  or 
 GEOFFREY  AP  ARTHUR,  a  British 
 historian  of  the  twelfth  century,  was  a  na- 
 tive of  Monmouth;  and  was  raised  to  the 
 see  of  St.  Asaph;  which,  however,  in  con- 
 sequence of  the  disturbed  state  of  North 
 Wales,  he  deserted,  and  took  up  his  abode 
 at  the  court  of  Henry  II.  He  is  the  au- 
 thor, or,  perhaps,  rather  the  translator  of 
 a  Chronicle  or  History  of  the  Britons, 
 abounding  with  fables;  a  poem  on  Merlin; 
 and  some  other  productions  of  less  conse- 
 quence. 
 
 GEOFFROY,  Stephen  Francis,  a 
 physician,  was  born,  at  Paris,  in  1672; 
 acquired  extensive  and  deserved  populari- 
 ty ;  was  a  member  of  several  learned  bod- 
 ies; and  died  in  1731.  He  wrote  a  Trea- 
 tise on  the  Materia  Medica,  in  three  vol- 
 umes; and  various  papers  in  the  Transac- 
 tions of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  In 
 honour  of  him,  Jacquin  gave  the  name  of 
 Geoffrsea  to  a  genus  of  leguminous  plants. 
 — His  brother,  Claude  Joseph,  was  a 
 botanist  of  eminence. 
 
 GEOFFROY,  Stephen  Louis,  son 
 of  the  foregoing,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1725; 
 became  one  of  the  most  eminent  physicians 
 and  naturalists  of  the  capital;  retired  from 
 practice  when  the  revolution  broke  out; 
 and  died  in  1810.  He  wrote  a  Manual  of 
 Practical  Medicine  for  Surgeons;  an  A- 
 bridged  History  of  Insects  found  in  the 
 Neighbourhood  of  Paris;  a  Treatise  on 
 Shells  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Paris;  a 
 Dissertation  on  the  Organ  of  Hearing; 
 and  a  Latin  poem  on  the  Preservation  of 
 Health. 
 
GER 
 
 GEOFFROY,  Julian  Louis,  a  French 
 critic  of  considerable  celebrity,  was  born, 
 in  1743,  at  Rennes,  and  died,  at  Paris,  in 
 1814.  He  was  remarkable  for  the  severity 
 of  his  criticism,  especially  on  theatrical 
 subjects.  He  conducted  the  Literary  An- 
 nals, after  the  death  of  Freron;  and,  from 
 1800,  was  the  dramatic  censor  of  the  Jour- 
 nal of  Debates.  His  contributions  to  the 
 last  of  these  periodicals  were  collected  in 
 five  volumes,  with  the  title  of  A  Course  of 
 Dramatic  Literature.  He  wrote  a  Com- 
 mentary on  Racine,  in  seven  volumes,  and 
 translated  Theocritus. 
 
 GEORGE  CADOUDAL,  a  celebrated 
 royalist  chief  (whose  surname  was  Cadou- 
 dal,  but  who  is  little  known  except  by  his 
 christian  name),  was  the  son  of  a  miller, 
 and  was  born,  in  1769,  at  Brech,  in  Bri- 
 tanny.  In  1793,  he  raised  a  small  troop  of 
 Breton  peasants,  joined  the  Vendeans,  and 
 was  made  a  captain  at  the  siege  of  Gran- 
 ville. In  1794  and  1795  he  served  under 
 M.  dePuisaye;  and,  after  the  retirement 
 of  that  general,  was  the  principal  leader 
 in  the  Morbihan.  Till  the  beginning  of 
 1800,  he  was  almost  constantly  in  arms, 
 but  was  then  forced  to  consent  to  a  treaty. 
 Bonaparte,  however,  in  vain  endeavoured 
 to  win  him  over  from  the  royal  cause.  Hav- 
 ing been  appointed  lieutenant  general  by 
 Count  d'Artois,  George  renewed  his  efforts 
 to  restore  the  Bourbons,  and  he  at  length 
 fell  into  the  power  of  the  French  govern- 
 ment, and  was  executed  in  June,  1804. 
 On  his  trial,  and  at  his  execution,  he  dis- 
 played the  same  courage  that  had  always 
 distinguished  him  in  the  field. 
 
 GERARD,  THOM,  or  TENQUE,  was 
 born,  about  1040,  on  the  island  of  Mar- 
 tigue,  on  the  coast  of  Provence.  He  vis- 
 ited Jerusalem  on  commercial  affairs;  but 
 devoted  himself  there  to  religious  exercises, 
 and  to  aiding  pilgrims.  In  1100  he  found- 
 ed the  order  of  knights  hospitallers  of  St. 
 John,  which  afterwards  acquired  such  splen- 
 did fame.  He  was  the  first  grand  master 
 of  the  order.     He  died  about  1121. 
 
 GERARD,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  di- 
 vine and  writer,  born,  in  1728,  at  Garioch, 
 in  Aberdeenshire,  was  educated  at  Maris- 
 chal  College,  at  which,  in  1752,  he  succeed- 
 ed Fordyce,  as  professor  of  moral  philoso- 
 phy, and,  in  1760,  was  appointed  divinity 
 professor.  In  1771,  he  obtained  the  theo- 
 logical professorship  at  King's  College,  Ab- 
 erdeen He  died  in  1795.  He  wrote  An 
 Essay  on  Taste ;  An  Essay  on  Genius ; 
 Sermons;  and  Dissertations  on  the  Genius 
 and  Evidences  of  Christianity. 
 
 GERARDE,  John,  a  surgeon  and  bot- 
 anist, was  born,  in  1545,  at  Nantwich,  in 
 Cheshire.  He  practised  in  London,  be- 
 came master  of  the  apothecaries'  company, 
 superintended  Lord  Burleigh's  botanical 
 garden,  and  had  one  of  his  own,  containing 
 
 GER 
 
 283 
 
 many  curious  exotics,  and,  in  the  whole, 
 one  thousand  and  thirty-three  species,  for- 
 eign and  indigenous.  He  published  A  Her- 
 bal, or  General  History  of  Plants,  which 
 contributed  to  diffuse  a  taste  for  botany. 
 In  memory  of  him,  Plumier  gave  the  name 
 of  Gerardia  to  a  genus  of  flowers. 
 
 GERMANICUS,  Tiberius  Drusus 
 CiESAR,  a  nephew  of  the  Emperor  Tiberi- 
 us, was  at  the  head  of  the  Roman  army  in 
 Germany  when  Augustus  died.  His  legions 
 insisted  on  raising  him  to  the  throne;  but 
 he  frustrated  their  design  at  the  risk  of  his 
 life.  Having  defeated  Arminius,  and  re- 
 covered the  eagles  lost  by  Varus,  he  was 
 sent  into  the  Eastern  provinces,  where  his 
 career  was  cut  short  by  death,  at  Antioch, 
 A.  D.  19,  in  his  thirty-fourth  year,  not  with- 
 out a  suspicion  of  his  having  been  poisoned 
 by  order  of  Tiberius.  He  wrote  some 
 Greek  Comedies,  now  lost;  and  translated 
 the  Phenomena  of  Aratus. 
 
 GERRY,  Elbridge,  one  of  the  sign- 
 ers of  the  declaration  of  independence,  and 
 vice  president  of  the  United  States,  was 
 born  at  Marblehead,  Massachusetts,  in 
 1744,  and  received  his  education  at  Har- 
 vard College.  He  was  graduated  at  this 
 institution  in  1762,  and  afterwards  engag- 
 ing in  mercantile  pursuits,  amassed  a  con- 
 siderable fortune.  He  took  an  early  part 
 in  the  controversy  between  the  colonies  and 
 Great  Britain,  and  in  1772  was  elected  a 
 representative  from  his  native  town,  in  the 
 legislature  of  Massachusetts.  In  1776  he 
 was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  continental 
 congress,  where  for  several  years  he  exhib- 
 ited the  utmost  zeal  and  fidelity  in  the  dis- 
 charge of  numerous  and  severe  official  la- 
 bours. In  1784,  Mr.  Gerry  was  re-elected 
 a  member  of  congress,  and  in  17S7  was 
 chosen  a  delegate  to  the  convention  which 
 assembled  at  Philadelphia,  to  revise  the  ar- 
 ticles of  confederation.  In  1789  he  wasa- 
 gain  elected  to  congress,  and  remained  in 
 that  body  for  four  years,  when  he  retired 
 into  private  life,  till  the  year  1797,  when 
 he  was  appointed  to  accompany  general 
 Pinckney  and  Mr.  Marshall  on  a  special 
 mission  to  France.  In  October,  1798,  Mr. 
 Gerry  returned  home,  and  having  been  e- 
 lected  governor  of  his  native  state,  and  in 
 1812  vice  president  of  the  United  States, 
 he  died  suddenly  at  Washington  in  Novem- 
 ber, 1814. 
 
 GERSON,  John  CHARLIER  de,  a 
 French  ecclesiastic,  born,  in  1363,  at  Ger- 
 son,  in  Champagne,  was  made  chancellor 
 of  the  university  of  Paris,  and  canon  of 
 Notre  Dame ;  distinguished  himself  by  his 
 piety,  his  theological  writings,  and  his  con- 
 duct at  the  council  of  Constance ;  was  driv- 
 en into  exile  by  the  Burgundian  faction; 
 and  died,  in  1429,  in  a  convent  at  Lyons 
 His  virtues  gained  for  him  the  appellations 
 of  the  evangelical  doctor,  and   the   most 
 
284  GES 
 
 christian  doctor.  The  works  of  Gerson 
 form  five  folio  volumes.  It  seems  to  be 
 now  certain  that  he  is  the  author  of  the  fa- 
 mous Imitation  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  bears 
 the  name  of  Thomas  a  Kempis. 
 
 GESNER,  Conrad,  a  man  eminent  in 
 many  branches  of  knowledge,  but  particu- 
 larly so  in  botany,  was  born,  in  1516,  at 
 Zurich;  was  left  by  his  father  in  indigent 
 circumstances,  but  acquired  extensive  learn- 
 ing, and  celebrity,  by  dint  of  incessant  ex- 
 ertion ;  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Zu- 
 rich for  twenty-four  years,  and  practised 
 there  as  a  physician  ;  and  died  of  the  plague, 
 in  1565.  Gesner  was  no  less  estimable  as 
 a  man  than  as  a  philosopher:  he  was  pi- 
 ous, benevolent,  an  ardent  friend,  and  a 
 general  peacemaker.  In  his  botanical  re- 
 searches he  was  indefatigable,  and  spared 
 no  expense.  Botany,  indeed,  has  been  said 
 to  owe  to  him  its  very  existence  as  a  sci- 
 ence. Among  his  productions  are,  A  His- 
 tory of  Animals,  five  vols,  folio;  Botani- 
 cal Essavs,  two  vols,  folio;  a  Treatise  on 
 Fossils;"  and  a  translation  of  Eliau. 
 
 GESNER,  John  Matthias,  a  Ger- 
 man philologist,  was  born  at  Roth,  near 
 Anspach,  in  1691 ;  studied  at  Anspach  and 
 Jena;  and,  after  having  held  situations  at 
 Weimar  and  Leipsic,  was  made  professor 
 of  rhetoric  at  Gottingen,  and,  subsequently, 
 inspector  of  all  the  schools  of  that  city, 
 counsellor  of  state,  and  perpetual  director. 
 He  died  in  1761.  Gesner  was  a  man  of 
 almost  universal  erudition :  with  the  dead 
 and  the  oriental  languages,  philosophy, 
 mathematics,  natural  history,  and  law,  he 
 was  thoroughly  acquainted.  One  of  his 
 greatest  labours  is,  The  New  Thesaurus  of 
 the  Latin  Language,  four  volumes  folio,  in 
 which  he  was  assisted  by  his  learned  broth- 
 er, Andrew  Samuel.  Various  works 
 were  translated  by  him  from  the  Greek  and 
 Latin.  His  Miscellaneous  pieces  have 
 been  collected,  in  eight  volumes  octavo. 
 
 GESNER,  or  GESSNER,  Solomon, 
 a  poet,  painter,  and  engraver,  who  has  been 
 called  the  Helvetian  Virgil,  was  born,  in 
 1750,  at  Zurich.  Though  he  was  of  a 
 literary  family,  he  was  so  apparently  dull 
 in  his  boyhood,  that  Bodmer,  his  tutor,  de- 
 
 GHI 
 
 clared  he  would  never  get  beyond  reading 
 and  writing.  Another  instructor,  however, 
 succeeded  in  eliciting  the  latent  sparks  of 
 genius.  But  it  was  to  poetry  that  the 
 youth  first  paid  his  devotion;  and  his 
 father,  who  had  no  respect  for  the  "  idle 
 trade"  of  verse-making,  and  was  desirous 
 that,  like  himself,  he  should  be  a  book- 
 seller, sent  him  to  learn  his  intended  occu- 
 pation at  Berlin.  Speedily  disgusted  with 
 Ids  new  master,  Gesner  quitted  him,  hired 
 an  humble  apartment,  and  began  to  write 
 poems  and  paint  pictures.  After  a  while 
 he  desisted  from  painting,  but  continued  to 
 cultivate  his  literary  talents,  and  was  aided 
 by  the  advice  of  Lessing,  Gleim,  and  Ram- 
 ler.  Forgiven,  at  length,  by  his  father, 
 and  allowed  to  persist  in  sacrificing  to  the 
 Pluses,  he  went  back  to  Zurich.  Night, 
 his  first  poem,  had  little  success;  but  his 
 pastoral  of  Daphnis  was  applauded;  his 
 Idylls  enhanced  his  reputation;  and  his 
 fame  was  sealed,  in  1758,  by  The  Death 
 of  Abel,  which  was  translated  into  every 
 language  in  Europe.  Among  his  subse- 
 quent works  were  the  poems  of  the  First 
 Navigator,  and  A  Picture  of  the  Deluge; 
 Moral  Tales;  Dramas;  and  Letters  on 
 Landscape.  He  had  now  succeeded  to  his 
 father  as  a  bookseller,  but  the  business  was 
 chiefly  managed  by  a  most  affectionate  wife, 
 and  he  had  leisure  not  only  to  compose, 
 but  to  resume  some  of  his  early  pursuits. 
 He  made  himself  master  of  landscape 
 painting,  and  of  engraving,  and  in  both 
 arts  produced  many  works  of  great  merit. 
 He  also  found  time  to  act  as  a  member  of 
 the  council  of  Zurich,  and  as  bailiff"  of 
 Ellibach.  Gesner  died  of  palsy  in  17S8, 
 and  his  fellow  citizens  erected  a  monument 
 to  his  memory  on  a  beautiful  spot,  at  the 
 confluence  of  the  Linth  and  the  Limmat. 
 In  spite  of  some  faults,  among  which  is  the 
 dwelling  occasionally  too  long  upon  his 
 subject,  the  writings  of  Gesner  will  always 
 find  admirers  while  grace,  simplicity, 
 sweetness,  and  natural  description,  retain 
 their  influence  over  the  human  mind. 
 
 GETA,  Septimus,  the  second  sen  of 
 the  emperor  Severus,  was  born,  in  189,  at 
 Milan;  and  his  early  years  gave  promise 
 that  he  would  not  disgrace  the  throne.  On 
 the  death  of  his  father,  Geta  became  joint 
 sovereign  with  his  brother,  the  infamous 
 Caracalla.  After  having  made  a  fruitless 
 attempt  to  poison  him,  Caracalla  murdered 
 Geta  in  the  arms  of  their  mother,  who  was 
 wounded  in  attempting  to  save  her  son. 
 Geta  was  killed  in  his  twentv-third  year. 
 
 GHIBERTI,  Laurenck,  a  celebrated 
 sculptor,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1S78, 
 and  is  believed  to  have  died  about  1456 
 His  greatest  work  is  the  bronze  gate  of 
 the  baptistery  of  St.  John's  church,  in  his 
 native  city,  which  Michael  Angelo  declared 
 to  be  worthy  of  being  the  gate  of  paradise 
 
GIB 
 
 It  contains  twenty-four  panels,  representing 
 various  subjects  from  the  New  Testament. 
 
 GIANNI,  Francis,  an  Italian  poet, 
 born  at  Rome  about  1760,  was  originally  a 
 stay-maker.  His  poetical  talent  was 
 awakened  bv  reading  Ariosto,  and  he  quit- 
 ted his  trade  to  exhibit  as  an  improvisatore 
 in  the  cities  of  Italy.  Napoleon  nominated 
 him  the  imperial  poet,  and  Gianni  sang 
 the  victories  of  his  master  in  strains  not 
 unworthy  of  the  subject.  Towards  the 
 close  of  his  life,  he  became  a  rigid  devotee, 
 and  his  intellects  were  seriously  affected. 
 He  died  in  1823.  A  part  of  his  works  has 
 been  published  in  six  volumes. 
 
 GIANNONE,  Peter,  an  intrepid  and 
 valuable  historian,  was  born,  in  1676,  at 
 Ischitella,  in  the  Neapolitan  province  of 
 Capitanata,  and  finished  his  studies  at 
 Naples,  where  he  became  an  advocate. 
 He  spent  twenty  years  on  his  Civil  History 
 of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  in  four  quarto 
 volumes.  When  it  came  from  the  press, 
 his  friend  Argento  said  to  him,  "  You  have 
 placed  on  your  brows  a  crown  of  most 
 pungent  thorns."  Such,  indeed,  it  proved ; 
 for  its  dauntless  exposure  of  papal  usurpa- 
 tion roused  the  vengeance  of  the  court  of 
 Rome,  and  exposed  him  to  an  unrelenting 
 persecution.  His  book  was  prohibited;  he 
 was  himself  excommunicated;  and  after 
 having  been  driven  from  Vienna,  Venice. 
 and  other  places,  he  died  a  prisoner  at 
 Turin,  in  1758.  His  posthumous  works, 
 in  a  quarto  volume,  were  published  in 
 1760 
 
 GIB 
 
 285 
 
 GIBBON,  Edward,  one  of  the  three 
 greatest  of  English  historians,  was  born, 
 m  1737,  at  Putney;  was  imperfectly  edu- 
 cated at  Westminster  School,  and  Magda- 
 len College,  Oxford;  and  finished  his 
 studies  at  Lausanne,  under  M.  Pavillard, 
 a  Calvinistic  minister.  It  was,  however, 
 his  having  embraced  popery  that  occasioned 
 his  being  sent  to  Lausanne.  Pavillard  re- 
 claimed him  from  popery ;  but,  after  hav- 
 ing vibrated  between  Catholicism  and  pro- 
 testantism, Gibbon  settled  into  a  confirmed 
 sceptic.  In  175S  he  returned  to  England, 
 and  entered  upon  the  duties  of  active  life. 
 Till  the  peace  of  Paris,  he  was  much  en- 
 
 gaged as  an  officer  of  the  militia;  but, 
 during  that  time,  he  read  extensively,  and 
 published,  in  French,  An  Essay  on  the 
 Study  of  Literature.  More  than  two  years 
 were  next  spent  in  visiting  France,  Swit- 
 zerland, and  Italy;  and  it  was  while  he 
 sat  musing  among  the  ruins  of  the  Capitol, 
 and  the  barefooted  friars  were  singing  ves- 
 pers in  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  that  the  idea 
 of  writing  a  history  of  the  decline  and  fall 
 of  the  Roman  empire  first  arose  in  his  mind. 
 Several  other  historical  schemes  had  previ- 
 ously occupied  his  attention.  Of  this  great 
 work  the  first  volume  appeared  in  1776, 
 the  second  and  third  in  1781,  and  the  con- 
 cluding three  volumes  in  1788.  It  raised 
 him  at  once  to  the  summit  of  literary  fame ; 
 but  its  artful  attacks  on  Christianity  ex- 
 cited great  disgust  and  indignation,  and 
 called  forth  several  antagonists,  who  un- 
 fortunately possessed  more  of  zeal  than  of 
 discretion.  One  of  them  impeached  his 
 fidelity  as  an  historian,  and  thus  provoned 
 a  reply,  which  gave  the  assailant  ample 
 cause  to  repent  his  rashness.  Gibbon  had 
 already  displayed  his  controversial  powers 
 in  his  Critical  Observations,  which  de- 
 molished Warburton's  theory  respecting 
 the  descent  of  vEneas.  In  1774  he  became 
 a  member  of  parliament,  and,  throughout 
 the  American  war,  he  gave  a  silent  sup- 
 port to  the  measures  of  Lord  North: 
 Liskeard  and  Lymington  were  the  places 
 which  he  represented.  A  Justificatory 
 Memorial  against  France,  which  he  wrote, 
 in  French,  for  the  ministers,  gained  him 
 the  place  of  a  lord  of  trade;  which,  how- 
 ever, he  lost  when  the  board  was  sup- 
 pressed by  Mr.  Burke's  bill.  In  1783  he 
 retired  to  Lausanne,  whence  he  twice  re- 
 turned to  his  native  country.  He  died, 
 January  16,  1794,  during  his  last  visit  to 
 England.  His  posthumous  works  were 
 published,  in  two  quarto  volumes,  by  his 
 friend  Lord  Sheffield. 
 
 GIBBONS,  Grinling,  an  eminent 
 sculptor,  particularly  in  wood,  was  born  in 
 London  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
 century,  and  died  in  1721.  His  flowers 
 and  foliage  in  wood  have  almost  the  light- 
 ness of  nature.  Among  his  works  are 
 St.  Paul's  and  Windsor  choirs,  the  archi- 
 episcopal  throne  in  Canterbury  Cathedral, 
 the  ornaments  at  Petworth  House,  and  the 
 statue  of  James  the  Second,  in  Privy  Gar- 
 dens. 
 
 GIBBS,  James,  an  architect,  born  in 
 1674  at  Aberdeen,  was  educated  at  Maris- 
 chal  College,  and  obtained  the  patronage 
 of  the  earl  of  Mar,  through  whose  influence 
 he  was  employed  to  erect  several  edifices 
 in  the  British  metropolis.  He  died  in  1754. 
 Among  his  works  are,  the  churches  of  St 
 Martin's  in  the  Fields,  and  St.  Mary  lo 
 Strand,  London ;  the  new  buildings  of 
 Kind's  College,  and  the  Senate  House,  at 
 
286  GIF 
 
 Cambridge;  and  the  Radcliff  Library,  at 
 Oxford. 
 
 GIBSON,  Richard,  an  English  pain- 
 ter, born  in  1615,  was  of  dwarfish  stature, 
 being  onlv  three  feet  ten  inches  in  height. 
 He  studied  under  De  Cleym,  imitated  Lely, 
 and  was  much  favoured  by  Charles  I., 
 Cromwell,  and  Charles  II.  He  married 
 Ann  Shepherd,  a  dwarf,  of  exactly  the 
 same  altitude  as  himself.  Charles  I.  gave 
 away  the  bride,  and  Waller  composed  the 
 epithalamium.     Gibson  died  in  1690. 
 
 GIFFORD,  William,  a  critic  and 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1757,  at  Ashburton,  in 
 Devonshire.  Left,  at  the  age  of  thirteen, 
 an  orphan,  in  poverty,  and  with  the  scanti- 
 est education,  he  was  exposed  to  many  se- 
 vere hardships  till  he  reached  his  twentieth 
 year.  From  being  a  shipboy  in  a  coaster, 
 he  was  taken  to  lie  apprenticed  to  a  shoe- 
 maker; and  as,  to  use  his  own  words,  he 
 "  hated  his  new  profession  with  a  perfect 
 hatred,  and  made  no  progress  in  it,  he 
 sunk  bv  degrees  into  the  common  drudge." 
 Still,  his  mind  thirsted  after  knowledge. 
 Having  acquired  arithmetic,  he  began  to 
 study  a  treatise  on  algebra,  and,  as  paper 
 was  out  of  his  reach,  he  worked  his  prob- 
 lems with  a  blunted  awl  upon  fragments  of 
 leather.  He  also  began  to  compose  verses, 
 by  repeating  which  he  sometimes  obtained 
 small  sums;  and  with  the  money  he  pur- 
 chased books.  In  this  state  he  languished 
 on  till  he  was  twenty,  when  a  helping  hand 
 was  extended  to  him  by  Mr.  Cookesley,  a 
 surgeon  of  Ashburton.  That  benevolent 
 man  raised  a  subscription  to  prepare  Gif- 
 ford  for  the  university,  and  in  17S0  the 
 rescued  youth  was  sent  to  Exeter  College, 
 Oxford."  His  progress  there  was  rapid. 
 While  he  was  pursuing  his  studies,  acci- 
 dent brought  hi  in  to  the  notice  of  Lord 
 Grosvenor,  who  took  him  into  his  family, 
 and  subsequently  gave  him  the  situation  of 
 travelling  tutor  to  his  heir  Lord  Belgrave. 
 On  his  return  to  England  Giffbrd  com- 
 menced his  literary  career,  and  thencefor- 
 ward his  existence  was  cheered  by  the 
 smiles  of  fortune  and  fame.  In  1791,  he 
 published  The  Baviad;  in  1794,  The 
 Mseviad;  in  1798,  he  superintended  the 
 Anti-Jacobin  Newspaper,  which  involved 
 him  in  a  quarrel  with  Peter  Pindar,  to 
 whom  he  addressed  a  bitter  poetical 
 Epistle;  in  1802  appeared  his  version  of 
 Juvenal  (a  work  which  he  had  begun  in 
 youth),  to  which  he  afterwards  added  a 
 translation  of  Persius;  and,  in  1809,  he 
 became  editor  of  The  Quarterly  Review, 
 which  work  he  conducted  till  declining 
 health  compelled  him  to  relinquish  it  in 
 1824.  He  also  produced  excellent  editions 
 of  Massinger,  Ben  Jonson,  Ford,  and  Shir- 
 ley. He  died  December  31,  1826.  The 
 satire  of  Giffbrd  is  caustic  in  the  extreme; 
 but  two  or  three  of  his  poems  prove  that 
 
 GIL 
 
 be  could  also  excel  in  the  pathetic.  His 
 prose  style  is  correct  and  vigorous,  and, 
 where  politics  do  not  bias  him,  his  criti- 
 cism is  dictated  by  a  sound  judgment  and 
 a  pure  taste. 
 
 GIFFORD,  John,  an  historical  and  po- 
 litical writer,  whose  real  name  was  John 
 Richard  Green,  was  born  in  1758;  was 
 educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford ; 
 and  was  intended  for  the  law,  but  having 
 dissipated  his  fortune,  he  retired  to  the 
 continent,  under  the  name  of  Giffbrd. 
 Returning  to  England,  in  1788,  he  became 
 a  fertile  writer  on  politics;  vehemently 
 opposed  the  principles  of  the  French  revo- 
 lution; and,  at  length,  was  pensioned  and 
 made  a  police  magistrate.  He  died  in  1818. 
 Besides  his  pamphlets,  he  wrote  a  Life  of 
 Pitt,  in  three  vols,  quarto;  a  History  of 
 France,  in  five  vols,  quarto;  and  other 
 works ;  established  the  Anti-Jacobin  Re- 
 view, and  contributed  to  the  British  Critic. 
 Though  violent  as  a  political  partisan, 
 Giffbrd  was  a  worthy  and  amiable  man, 
 possessed  of  respectable  talents. 
 
 GILBERT,  Sir  Humphry,  an  intre- 
 pid soldier  and  navigator,  was  born,  about 
 1539,  in  Devonshire;  studied  at  Eton  and 
 Oxford;  served  in  the  expedition  against 
 Havre;  in  Ireland,  where  he  was  knight- 
 ed ;  and  in  the  Netherlands,  and  made  two 
 voyages  of  discovery  to  North  America, 
 in  the  last  of  which,  after  having  taken 
 possession  of  Newfoundland,  he  was  lost, 
 in  1583,  during  a  storm.  He  wrote  a  Dis- 
 course, to  prove  the  feasibility  of  a  north- 
 west passage. 
 
 GILBERT,  or  GILBERD,  William, 
 an  experimental  philosopher  and  physician, 
 born  in  1540  at  Colchester,  in  Essex,  was 
 educated  at  Cambridge;  took  his  degree 
 at  a  foreign  university;  practised  with 
 success,  and  was  a  member  of  the  college, 
 in  London  ;  and  died  in  1603.  In  his  prin- 
 cipal work,  On  Magnetism,  Gilbert  has 
 the  merit  not  only  of  having  first  given  a 
 complete  system  on  the  subject,  but  also  of 
 having  been  the  first  to  make  experiment 
 the  basis  of  theory. 
 
 GILBERT,  Sir  Jeffery,  a  judge  and 
 law  writer,  was  born,  in  1674,  in  Devon- 
 shire; was  appointed  an  Irish  judge  (n 
 1715,  an  English  baron  of  the  exchequer 
 in  1722,  and  chief  baron  in  1725;  and 
 died  in  1726.  Among  his  works  are,  The 
 Law  of  Devises ;  of  Uses ;  of  Ejectments ; 
 of  Replevins;  of  Executions;  and  of  the 
 Law  of  Evidence:  Treatises,  of  the  Court 
 of  Exchequer ;  of  Tenures;  and  of  Rents: 
 Cases  in  Law  and  Equity;  and  The  His- 
 tory and  Practice  of  Chancery. 
 
 GILCHRIST,  Octavius,'  was  born,  in 
 1779,  at  Twickenham;  was  educated  at 
 Magdalen  College,  Oxford ;  and  died,  in 
 1823,  at  Stamford,  in  Lincolnshire,  where 
 he  was  a  practitioner  of  medicine.  Besides 
 
GIL 
 
 many  scattered  papers  on  our  old  drama- 
 tists and  poets,  he  published  an  Examina- 
 tion of  the  Assertions  of  Ben  Jonson's 
 Enmity  to  Shakspeare;  a  Letter  to  W. 
 Giftbrd,  Esq.  on  Weber's  edition  of  Ford  ; 
 and  an  edition  of  Corbet's  Poems,  with 
 notes  and  a  life. 
 
 GILPIN,  Bernard,  a  protestant  re- 
 former, was  born,  in  1517,  at  Kentmire, 
 in  Westmoreland;  and  was  educated  at 
 Queen's  College,  Oxford.  His  catholic 
 principles  were  first  shaken  by  Peter 
 Martyr,  against  whom  he  had  been  brought 
 forward  as  the  champion  of  the  Romish 
 church.  After  having  embraced  the  prot- 
 estant faith,  he  became  rector  of  Houghton 
 le  Spring,  in  the  diocese  of  Durham.  In 
 the  reign  of  Mary,  the  sanguinary  Bonner 
 marked  him  out  for  one  of  his  victims, 
 but  the  queen's  death  took  place  before 
 Gilpin  could  be  brought  to  London.  In 
 the  next  reign  he  refused  the  highest 
 offers  of  preferment,  and  he  died  deeply 
 lamented  by  his  parishioners,  in  1583. 
 His  pietv,  benevolence  to  the  poor,  and 
 unwearied  endeavours  to  spread  religion, 
 gained  him  the  honourable  appellation  of 
 the  Northern  Apostle. 
 
 GILPIN,  William,  a  divine  and  ele- 
 gant writer,  was  born,  in  1724,  at  Carlisle; 
 received  his  education  at  Queen's  College, 
 Oxford ;  for  many  years  kept  a  celebrated 
 academy  at  Cheam ;  and  died,  in  1807, 
 vicar  of  Boldre,  and  prebendary  of  Salis- 
 bury. He  wrote  Lives  of  Bernard  Gilpin 
 and  Wicliff ;  Sermons ;  and  various  theo- 
 logical works ;  Remarks  on  Forest  Scene- 
 ry ;  a  Tour  to  the  Lakes ;  and  several 
 volumes  of  Observations  on  the  Picturesque 
 Beauties  of  many  Parts  of  England. 
 
 GILPIN,  S  awre  Y,  an  artist,  the  brother 
 of  the  foregoing,  was  born  in  1733  at  Car- 
 lisle, and  was  apprenticed  to  a  ship  painter. 
 His  talent  gained  him  the  patronage  of 
 the  duke  of  Cumberland,  for  whom  he 
 executed  many  compositions.  It  was  prin- 
 ci  pally  as  an  animal  painter  that  he  acquired 
 his  reputation,  but  his  merit  in  historical 
 subjects  was  not  inconsiderable.  He  also 
 etched  the  cattle  in  the  prints  of  his  broth- 
 er's picturesque  works.  He  died,  at 
 Brompton,  in  1807. 
 
 GIL  POLO,  Gaspar,  a  Spanish  poet, 
 born  at  Valencia  in  1516,  exercised  the 
 profession  of  an  advocate  in  that  city,  and 
 died  there  in  1572.  He  is  the  author  of 
 Diana  Enamorada,  or  Diana  in  love,  on 
 which  Cervantes  has  bestowed  the  highest 
 praise.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  purity  of 
 its  style,  and  the  elegance  and  melody  of 
 its  versification. 
 
 GIL  VICENTE,  a  Portuguese  dramat- 
 ist, who  is  called  the  Plautits  of  his  country, 
 was  born,  at  Barcellos,  about  1485,  and 
 produced  his  first  piece  in  1504.  He  soon 
 became  popular,  and  even  King  John  the 
 
 GIO 
 
 287 
 
 Third  often  played  a  part  in  his  comedies 
 He  died,  at  Evora,  in  1557.  Gil  Vicente 
 was  one  of  the  earliest  European  dramatic 
 writers.  In  his  plays,  which  are  nearly 
 fifty  in  number,  he  redeems  the  unavoida- 
 ble faults  of  his  time  by  a  rich  invention, 
 natural  dialogue,  and  much  spirit  and  ele 
 gance  of  style. 
 
 GILRAY,  James,  an  artist,  who  was 
 for  many  years  celebrated  for  his  carica- 
 tures, which  were  drawn  and  etched  by 
 himself.  For  broad  humour,  keen  satire, 
 and  fertility  of  invention,  he  was  unrivalled 
 in  his  branch  of  the  art.  He  died  in 
 1815. 
 
 GINGUENE,  Peter  Louis,  a  French 
 writer,  was  born  in  1748  at  Rennes,  and 
 began  his  literary  career  by  publishing  The 
 Confessions  of  Zulna,  a  poem.  Early  in 
 the  revolution  he  edited,  in  concert  with 
 Cerutti,  a  paper  intended  to  diffuse  the 
 principles  of  liberty  among  the  lower 
 classes,  and  particularly  among  the  country 
 people.  He,  however,  narrowly  escaped 
 the  scaffold  during  the  reign  of  the  jaco- 
 bins. The  Directory  appointed  him  am- 
 bassador at  Turin ;  and  Bonaparte  gave 
 him  a  seat  in  the  tribunate.  His  removal 
 from  the  latter  closed  his  political  life,  and 
 he  was  thenceforth  wholly  occupied  by 
 literature.  He  died  in  1816.  Of  his 
 many  works,  the  principal  is  The  Literary 
 History  of  Italy,  in  nine  volumes,  of  which 
 the  last  three  were  completed  by  M.  Salfi. 
 
 GIOCONDO,  or  JOCUNDUS,  John, 
 an  Italian  dominican  friar,  who  was  at 
 once  an  architect,  antiquary,  and  literary 
 character,  was  born  about  1435,  at  Verona, 
 and  died  at  Rome,  at  a  very  advanced  age. 
 He  constructed  the  bridge  of  Notre  Dame, 
 at  Paris,  and  other  edifices  in  France  and 
 Italy;  fortified  the  city  of  Treviso;  and 
 was  summoned  to  Rome  by  Leo  the  Tenth, 
 after  the  death  of  Bramante,  to  assist  in 
 the  building  of  St.  Peter's.  As  an  anti- 
 quary he  measured  many  ancient  ruins,  and 
 collected  two  thousand  inscriptions ;  and, 
 as  a  man  of  letters,  he  published  editions 
 of  Csesar,  Vitruvius,  and  the  Roman  agri- 
 cultural writers. 
 
 GIORDA NO,  Lu  k  E ,  a  celebrated  paint- 
 er, was  born  at  Naples  in  1629,  or  1632, 
 and  was  a  pupil  of  Spagnoletto  and  Pietro 
 da  Cortona,  after  which  he  studied  the 
 works  of  Titian  and  Paul  Veronese.  Phi- 
 lip V.  of  Spain  patronised  and  knighted 
 him.     He  died  at  Naples  in  1704. 
 
 GIORGIONE,  an  eminent  painter  of 
 the  Venetian  school,  whose  real  name  was 
 George  BARBARELLI,  was  born,  in 
 1477,  at  Castelfranco,  in  the  Friuli,  was  a 
 pupil  of  Rellini,  and  improved  his  style  by 
 studying  the  designs  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 
 He  died  of  the  plague,  in  1511.  Giorgi- 
 one  excelled  in  fresco  painting,  in  portrait, 
 and  in  landscape ;  and  was  one  of  the  first 
 
288 
 
 GIR 
 
 who   practised    the   opposition   of  strong 
 lights  to  strong  shadows. 
 
 GIOTTO,  or  ANGIOLOTTO  (diminu- 
 tive from  Angiolo  or  Angelo),  whose  name 
 was  Di  Bondone,  and  who  is  sometimes 
 called  Da  Vespignano,  from  the  place  of 
 his  birth,  near  Florence,  was  born  in  1276. 
 He  was  a  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect, 
 the  pupil  of  Cimabue,  who  found  him 
 drawing  a  sheep  on  a  stone,  while  keeping 
 a  flock.  Giotto  far  surpassed  his  master 
 in  style,  design,  and  colouring,  and  was 
 one  of  the  restorers  of  art  in  Italy.  He 
 constructed  the  Campanile  at  Florence, 
 fortified  the  city,  and  executed  many  bas- 
 reliefs  and  statues.     He  died  in  1336. 
 
 G1RALDI,  or  GVRALDUS,  Lilio 
 Gregorio,  a  learned  Italian  writer  and 
 Latin  poet,  was  born,  in  1479,  at  Ferrara. 
 At  the  sacking  of  Rome,  he  lost  all  his 
 property,  and  for  some  years  his  poverty 
 was  such,  and  so  imbittered  by  ill  health, 
 that  he  was  accustomed  to  say,  that  he  had 
 always  three  powerful  enemies  to  contend 
 with,  nature,  fortune,  and  the  injustice  of 
 mankind.  Before  his  decease,  however, 
 which  took  place  in  1552,  he  had  so  com- 
 pletely triumphed  over  fortune  as  to  have 
 accumulated  ten  thousand  crowns.  Of  his 
 works,  which  form  two  folio  volumes,  one 
 of  the  principal  is  an  excellent  History  of 
 the  Heathen  Deities. 
 
 GIRALDI-CLXTIO,  John  Baptist, 
 a  relation  of  the  foregoing,  was  born,  in 
 1504,  at  Ferrara  ;  was  for  many  years 
 professor  of  philosophy  and  medicine  in 
 the  university  of  that  city,  and  secretary 
 to  the  duke;  and,  after  having  resided  for 
 a  while  at  Turin  and  Pavia,  died  in  his 
 native  city  in  1573.  He  wrote  nine  trage- 
 dies, and  other  works  :  but  he  is  best 
 known  by  his  Hecatomiti,  which  consists 
 of  a  hundred  tales,  in  the  manner  of  Boc- 
 cacio. 
 
 GTRARD,  Stephen,  a  celebrated 
 banker,  was  born  in  France  about  the  year 
 1746.  At  the  age  of  twelve  years,  in  the 
 capacity  of  cabin  boy,  he  left  France  for 
 the  West-Indies,  where  he  resided  some 
 time,  and  whence  he  made  many  voyages 
 to  the  United  States.  About  1775  he 
 arrived  in  this  country,  and  for  a  while 
 kept  a  small  shop  in  New  Jersey.  In  1780 
 he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  and  by  grad- 
 ual but  sure  acquisition  accuninlated  a  large 
 fortune.  He  became  distinguished  \<r  his 
 active  philanthropic  exertions,  during  the 
 ravages  of  the  yellow  fever  in  that  city  in 
 1793.  In  1811",  when  Congress  refused  to 
 recharter  the  old  bank  of  the  United 
 States,  Mr.  Girard  purchased  the  banking 
 house  of  that  institution,  and  became  a 
 banker.  The  capital  which  lie  first  uni- 
 ted in  his  bank  was  one  million  eight 
 hundred  thousand  dollars,  and  he  subse- 
 queutly    augmented     it    to    five    millions. 
 
 GIR 
 
 During  our  late  war  with  Great  Britain, 
 the  government  found  difficulty  in  raising 
 the  necessary  funds,  and  public  credit  had 
 sunk  so  low,  that  seven  per  cent,  stock  was 
 offered  at  thirty  per  cent,  discount.  Of 
 this  stock  Mr.  Girard  took  five  millions. 
 At*  the  time  of  his  death  in  1832,  he  was 
 estimated  to  be  worth  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
 million  of  dollars,  and  he  was  the  most 
 wealthy  man  in  the  new  world.  He  was 
 buried  with  public  honours.  By  his  will, 
 he  distributed  his  immense  riches  in  the 
 most  judicious  and  liberal  manner,  among 
 several  charitable  institutions,  and  for  the 
 purposes  of  public  improvements.  One 
 bequest  was  of  §'2,000,000,  for  the  erec- 
 tion of  a  permanent  college  in  Penn  Town- 
 ship, for  the  accommodation  of  at  least 
 three  hundred  poor  white  male  Orphans, 
 above  the  age  of  six  years.  In  regulation 
 of  this  bequest,  it  is  enjoined,  that  "no 
 ecclesiastic,  missionary  or  minister,  of  any 
 sect  whatever,  shall  ever  hold  or  exercise 
 any  station  or  duty  whatever  in  said  col- 
 lege ;  nor  shall  any  such  person  ever  be 
 admitted  for  any  purpose,  or  as  a  visiter, 
 within  the  premises  appropriated  to  the 
 purposes  of  the  said  college." 
 
 GIRARDON,  Francis,  a  celebrated 
 French  sculptor,  was  born  at  Troyes,  in 
 1630  (or,  as  some  say,  in  1627),  and  went 
 to  Paris,  where  he  gained  the  patronage 
 of  Seguier,  and  subsequently  of  Louis  XIV. 
 who  sent  him  to  study  at  Rome.  He  was 
 much  employed  after  his  return,  and  was 
 made  inspector  general  of  sculpture  in 
 France.  Many  of  his  works  are  in  the 
 gardens  of  Versailles.  His  masterpieces 
 are,  a  monument  for  Cardinal  Richelieu; 
 an  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XIV. ;  The 
 Rape  of  Proserpine;  and  the  group  of  the 
 Baths  of  Apollo.  He  died  in  1715.— His 
 wife,  Catherine,  born  in  1629,  died  in 
 1698,  excelled  as  a  fruit  and  flower  painter. 
 G1RODET-TRIOSON,  Anne  Louis, 
 one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modern  French 
 painters,  was  born,  in  1767, at  Montargis; 
 studied  under  David,  and  at  Rome;  and 
 died  in  1S24.  His  genius  was  so  early 
 manifested,  that  when  he  was  only  thirteen 
 he  painted  his  father's  portrait.  Among 
 his  principal  works  are,  Endymion  sleep- 
 ing; Hippocrates  refusing  the  Presents  of 
 Artaxerxes;  The  Deluge  (which  gained 
 the  prize  from  David's  Sabines)  ;  The 
 Burial  of  Atala  ;  The  Revolt  of  Cairo  ; 
 and  Pygmalion  and  Galatea. 
 
 GIRTIN,  Thomas,  an  artist,  was  born, 
 in  1773,  in  London  ;  was  a  pupil  of  Dayes; 
 studied  the  works  of  Canaletti  and  Ru- 
 bens; and  died  in  1802.  His  works  are 
 full  of  spirit  and  efi'ect.  It  was  he  who 
 introduced  the  practice  of  drawing  upon 
 carl  ridge  paper,  by  which  means  he  avoided 
 the  spottiness  and  glaringuess  incident  to 
 drawings   upon    white    paper.       He   also 
 
GLA 
 
 painted  excellently  in  oil  colours.  Among 
 his  best  productions  are,  Views  in  Paris ; 
 a  View  in  Wales;  and  a  Panoramic  View 
 of  London. 
 
 GISCALA,  John  of,  a  celebrated  char- 
 acter in  the  Jewish  history,  was  originally 
 the  leader  of  a  band  of  robbers,  but  quitted 
 his  predatory  course  of  life,  and  was  em- 
 ployed by  Josephus  to  fortify  Giscala. 
 After  having  endeavoured  to  ruin  Josephus, 
 and  for  some  time  held  possession  of  Gis- 
 cala, he  went  to  Jerusalem,  where  he 
 headed  one  of  the  factions,  and  committed 
 enormous  crimes.  He,  however,  displayed 
 great  bravery  in  defence  of  the  city.  He 
 at  length  surrendered  to  Titus,  and  was 
 imprisoned  for  the  remainder   of  his  davs. 
 
 GIUSTINIANI,  Pompey,  an  eminent 
 general,  was  born,  in  1569,  in  Corsica. 
 He  entered  the  Spanish  service  early;  and 
 lost  an  arm  at  the  siege  of  Ostend.  The 
 deficient  member  he  replaced  by  one  of 
 iron,  from  which  he  obtained  the  surname 
 of  Iron-arm.  He  was  killed,  in  1616, 
 while  reconnoitring  at  Candia,  of  which  he 
 was  governor  for  the  Venetians ;  and  the 
 senate  erected  an  equestrian  statue  to  his 
 memory.  He  wrote,  in  six  bouks,  a  His- 
 tory of  the  Wars  of  Flanders. 
 
 GLANVIL  Ranulph  de,  a  warrior 
 and  lawyer  of  the  twelfth  century,  was 
 justiciary  of  England  under  Henry  II.  ; 
 distinguished  himself  in  defeating  the  in- 
 vasion by  William  I.  of  Scotland;  had 
 the  sum  of  fifteen  thousand  pounds  extorted 
 from  him  by  Richard  I.  towards  the  ex- 
 pense of  the  crusade  ;  accompanied  that 
 monarch  to  Palestine;  and  died,  in  1190, 
 at  the  siege  of  Acre.  A  Treatise  on  the 
 Laws  and  Customs  of  England  is  attributed 
 to  him. 
 
 GLANVIL,  Joseph,  a  theologist  and 
 philosopher,  was  born,  in  1636,  at  Ply- 
 mouth; was  educated  at  Exeter  and  Lin- 
 coln Colleges,  Oxford ;  was  one  of  the 
 earliest  and  most  active  members  of  the 
 Royal  Society;  and  died,  in  1680,  rector 
 of  the  abbey  church  at  Bath.  He  was  a 
 strenuous  opponent  of  the  Aristotelian  phi- 
 losophy. It  is  less  to  his  credit  that  he 
 was  a  firm  believer  in  witchcraft.  Among 
 his  works  are,  Scepsis  Scientifica;  Lux 
 Orientalis;  Essay  concerning  Preaching; 
 Plus  Ultra;  and  Some  Philosophical  Con- 
 siderations touching  the  Being  of  Witches 
 and  Witchcraft. 
 
 GLAUBER,  John  RoDOLPH,a  chem- 
 ist and  alchemist  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
 was  a  native  of  Germany,  and  settled  at 
 Amsterdam.  At  what  period  he  died  is 
 not  recorded,  but  it  must  have  been  subse- 
 quently to  1668.  Glauber  was  a  laborious 
 experimenter,  but  vain,  and  full  of  charla- 
 tanism. In  his  incessant  attempts,  how- 
 ever, to  find  out  the  philosopher's  stone, 
 he  made  some  chemical  discoveries,  among 
 13 
 
 GLE  289 
 
 which  is  the  salt  that  bears  his  name.  His 
 treatises,  thirty-two  in  number,  contain 
 some  valuable  information  blended  with 
 much  that  is  worthless. 
 
 GLEICHEN,  Frederick  William 
 Von,  a  German  naturalist,  was  born,  in 
 1717,  at  Bayreuth,  and  served  for  several 
 years  as  an  officer  in  the  army;  after 
 which  he  retired,  and  gave  up  his  time 
 wholly  to  microscopical  observations  and 
 chemical  experiments.  He  died  in  1783. 
 Gleichen  invented  many  things,  among 
 which  were  an  universal  microscope  and 
 a  water  proof  cloth.  He  wrote  various 
 works  on  botany,  entomology,  and  ani- 
 malcules. 
 
 GLEIM,  John  William  Louis,  a 
 celebrated  German  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1719,  at  Ennsleben,  in  Halberstadt,  and 
 studied  at  the  university  of  Halle.  After 
 having  been  secretary  to  Prince  William 
 of  Brandenburg  (whose  death  he  witnessed 
 on  the  field  of  battle),  and  to  Prince  Leop- 
 old of  Dessau,  he  was  appointed  secretary 
 of  the  grand  chapter  of  Halberstadt,  and 
 !  canon  of  that  of  Walbeck.  He  died  in 
 1803.  Gleim  has  obtained  the  appellation 
 of  the  German  Anacreon ;  but  it  is  to  his 
 highly  animated  War  Songs  that  he  owes 
 the  largest  portion  of  his  fame.  His  po- 
 ems form  seven  octavo  volumes,  and  con- 
 tain successful  attempts  in  almost  every 
 species  of  poetrv. 
 
 GLENBERVIE,  Silvester  DOUG- 
 LAS, lord,  was  born,  in  1743,  at  Techil, 
 in  Aberdeenshire;  and  was  educated  at 
 Marischal  College,  Aberdeen.  He  was  in- 
 tended for  the  medical  profession,  but  pre- 
 ferred the  law.  His  marriage  with  a 
 daughter  of  lord  North  opened  to  him  the 
 way  to  promotion,  and  he  successively  held 
 various  important  offices,  among  which 
 were  those  of  chief  secretary  in  Ireland, 
 joint  paymaster  of  the  army,  and  vice-pres- 
 ident of  the  board  of  trade.  He  was  cre- 
 ated a  peer  in  1819,  and  died  in  1823. 
 He  published  Cases  of  Controverted  Elec- 
 tions, four  vols. ;  Reports  of  Cases  in  the 
 Court  of  King's  Bench ;  a  translation  of 
 the  first  canto  of  the  Ricciardetto;  and  an 
 edition  of  Major  Mercer's  Poems. 
 
 GLENIE,  James,  an  eminent  mathe- 
 matician, was  born  in  the  south  of  Ireland, 
 and  educated  at  St.  Andrew's.  During 
 the  American  war  he  distinguished  himself 
 as  an  officer  of  artillery,  and  was  subse- 
 quently removed  to  the  engineer  corps 
 From  that  corps,  however,  he  was  com- 
 pelled to  retire,  in  consequence  of  his  hav- 
 ing, by  a  seasonable  pamphlet,  defeated 
 and  covered  with  ridicule  the  duke  of 
 Richmond's  plan  of  fortification.  After 
 having  experienced  many  vicissitudes,  m 
 America  and  England,  he  died,  in  embar- 
 rassed circumstances,  Nov.  24,  1817,  in 
 the  vicinity  of  Pimlico.     He  was  a   rnein- 
 
2**) 
 
 GLU 
 
 ber  of  the  Royal  Society.  Among  his 
 wonts  are,  A  History  of  Gunnery ;  The 
 Antecedential  Calculus;  Observations  on 
 Construction;  and  The  Doctrine  of  Uni- 
 versal Comparison  and  General  Propor- 
 tion. 
 
 GLISSON,  Francis,  an  anatomist 
 and  physician,  was  born,  in  1597,  at 
 Rampisham,  in  Dorsetshire;  was  educated 
 at  Cains  College,  Cambridge;  rose  into 
 great  practice,  and  became  president  of  the 
 college  of  physicians;  and  died  in  1677. 
 It  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  his  merit,  that  he 
 has  been  warmly  praised  by  Boerhaave  and 
 Haller.  Among  his  works  are  Treatises 
 on  the  Rickets;  on  the  Anatomy  of  the 
 Liver;  on  tiie  Intestines;  and  a  meta- 
 physical treatise,  of  great  extent  and  pro- 
 fundity. 
 
 GLOYTER,  Richard,  a  poet  and  dra- 
 matist, the  son  of  a  merchant,  was  born  in 
 London  in  1712,  and  educated  at  Cheam 
 school.  In  his  sixteenth  year  he  wrote  a 
 poem  in  memory  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  His 
 greatest  work,  the  epic  of  Leonidas,  ap- 
 peared in  1737,  and  excited  considerable 
 attention,  the  more  especially  as  it  was 
 warmly  patronised  by  the  party  which 
 was  hostile  to  Sir  Robert  Walpole.  It 
 was  followed  by  The  Progress  of  Com- 
 merce, and  the  ballad  of  Hosier's  Ghost. 
 In  1742  he  gained  reputation  as  an  orator, 
 by  a  speech  which,  on  behalf  of  the  mer- 
 chants of  London,  he  delivered  at  the  bar 
 of  the  House,  on  the  neglect  of  trade. 
 Commercial  losses  having  impaired  his 
 fortune,  he  retired  for  a  while  from  public 
 life;  but,  economy  and  activity  having 
 improved  his  circumstances,  he  again  came 
 forward,  and  was  elected  member  of  par- 
 liament for  Weymouth.  He  died  in  17S5 
 Besides  his  Leonidas,  and  the  poems  al- 
 ready mentioned,  he  wrote  The  Athenaid, 
 a  sequel  to  Leonidas;  the  tragedies  of  Bo- 
 adicea,  Medea,  and  Jason;  and  a  diary, 
 which  was  published  under  the  title  of 
 Memoirs  of  a  distinguished  literary  and 
 political  Character.  The  Letters  of  Ju- 
 nius have  also  been  ascribed  to  him.  Le- 
 onidas, though  containing  much  genuine 
 poetry,  is  now  but  little  read;  the  Athe- 
 naid may  he  said  to  have  dropped  dead 
 born  from  the  press;  but  the  ballad  of  Ho- 
 sier's Ghost  still  ranks  among  one  of  the 
 Lest  compositions  of  the  kind  in  the  Eng- 
 lish language. 
 
 GLUCK,  Christopher,  an  eminent 
 modern  composer,  who  has  been  called  the 
 Micnael  Angelo  of  music,  was  born,  in 
 1712,  in  a  village  of  the  Upper  Palatinate, 
 on  the  Bohemian  frontier.  San  Martini 
 of  Milan  was  one  of  his  first  masters.  Af- 
 ter having  visited  Italy  and  England,  and 
 produced  several  operas,  he  went  to  Paris. 
 In  the  French  capital  he  was  opposed  by 
 Piccinu  and  the   Parisians  were  divided 
 
 GOD 
 
 into  two  violent  parties,  as  to  the  merit  ol 
 the  rival  composers.  He  died  in  1787 
 His  finest  operas  are,  Armida,  Alcestis, 
 Orpheus,  Iphigenia  in  Aulis,  and  Iphige- 
 nia  in  Tauris. 
 
 GMELL\,  John  George,  a  German 
 physician  and  botanist,  was  born,  in  1709, 
 at  Tubingen ;  settled  in  Russia  in  early 
 life,  and  ' -ecame  member  of  the  Academy 
 of  Sciences,  and  professor  of  chemistry 
 and  natural  history;  was  employed  on  an 
 exploratory  mission  in  Siberia;  returned 
 to  his  own  country  in  1747,  and  obtained 
 the  chemical  and  botanical  professorships; 
 and  died  in  1755.  He  is  the  author  of 
 The  Siberian  Flora;  Travels  in  Siberia; 
 and  a  Life  of  Steller. 
 
 GMELIN,  Samuel  Theophilus,  a 
 nephew  of  the  foregoing,  was  born,  in 
 1745,  at  Tubingen ;  became,  in  1766,  pro- 
 fessor of  botany  at  St.  Petersburgh ;  was 
 employed  on  a  mission  of  discovery  in  the 
 provinces  bordering  on  the  Caspian  ;  and 
 died,  in  1774,  a  prisoner  to  a  Tartar  chief. 
 He  is  the  author  of  Travels  in  Russia, 
 four  volumes;  and  a  History  of  the  Fuci, 
 with  plates. 
 
 GMELIN,  John  Frederic,  a  physi- 
 cian and  chemist,  was  born,  in  1748,  at 
 Tubingen;  became  professor  of  natural 
 history  and  chemistry  at  Gottingen ;  and 
 died  in  1805.  The  works  of  Gmelin  are 
 very  numerous :  among  them  are,  a  Com- 
 plete Dictionary  of  Botany,  in  nine  vol- 
 umes ;  A  General  History  of  Poisons, 
 three  volumes ;  Elements  of  General  Chem- 
 istry, two  volumes;  Elements  of  Mineral- 
 ogy; Elements  of  Pharmacy;  and  a  His- 
 tory of  the  Natural  Sciences.  The  thir- 
 teenth edition  of  Linnaeus  was  edited  by 
 Gmelin.  Several  valuable  dyes  were  dis- 
 covered by  him. 
 
 GOBELIN,  Giles,  a  French  dyer  of 
 the  sixteenth  century,  who  resided  at  Par- 
 is. He  is  celebrated  for  dyeing  wool,  and 
 is  said  to  have  invented  the  process  of 
 dyeing  scarlet.  His  establishment  was 
 afterwards  converted  into  the  royal  manu- 
 factory of  tapestry,  but  it  still  retains  his 
 name. 
 
 GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON,  the  hero 
 ofTasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered,  was  born, 
 in  the  eleventh  century,  at  Be/.y,  near  Ni- 
 velle,  and  was  the  son  of  Eustace  H.  count 
 of  Boulogne.  After  having  served  in  the 
 armies  of  Henry  IV.  of  Germany,  who 
 created  him  duke  of  Lorraine,  he  took  the 
 cross  in  1096,  and  was  placed  at  the  head 
 of  the  crusading  army.  By  his  valour  and 
 wisdom  he  justified  the  choice  of  the  cru- 
 saders. On  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  ho 
 was  appointed  sovereign,  and,  shortly  af- 
 ter, he  routed  the  sultan  of  Egypt  at  As- 
 calon.     He  died  in  1100. 
 
 GODMAN,  John  D.,  an  eminent 
 American    naturalist   and   physician,  was 
 
GOD 
 
 born  at  Annapolis,  ia  Maryland,  and  hav- 
 ing lost  his  parents  at  an  early  age,  was 
 bound  apprentice  to  a  printer.  He  after- 
 wards entered  the  navy  as  a  sailor  boy, 
 and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  commenced  the 
 study  of  medicine.  On  completing  his 
 studies,  he  settled  in  Philadelphia  as  a 
 physician  and  private  teacher  of  anatomy, 
 and  for  some  time  was  an  assistant  editor 
 of  the  Medical  Journal.  It  was  at  this 
 period  that  he  published  his  Natural  His- 
 tory of  American  Quadrupeds,  in  three 
 volumes,  8vo.  Having  been  elected  to  the 
 professorship  of  anatomy  in  Rutgers'  Med- 
 ical College,  he  removed  to  New  York, 
 where  he  soon  acquired  extensive  practice 
 as  a  surgeon.  Ill  health,  however,  obliged 
 him  to  relinquish  his  pursuits,  and  he  re- 
 turned in  1829  to  Philadelphia,  where  he 
 died  in  1S30,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of 
 his  age.  He  possessed  much  and  varied 
 information  in  his  profession,  in  natural 
 history  and  in  general  literature.  Besides 
 the  work  above  referred  to,  he  is  the  au- 
 thor of  Rambles  of  a  Naturalist,  and  seve- 
 ral articles  on  natural  history  in  the  Ency- 
 clopaedia Americana. 
 
 GODFREY,  Thomas,  the  real  inventor 
 of  the  quadrant  commonly  called  Hadley,s, 
 was  burn  in  Philadelphia  and  pursued  the 
 trade  of  a  glazier.  He  was  a  great  stu- 
 dent of  mathematics,  and  acquired  by  him- 
 self a  tolerable  knowledge  of  Latin,  in  or- 
 der to  be  able  to  read  mathematical  works 
 in  that  language.  In  1730  he  communi- 
 cated the  improvement  he  had  made  in 
 Davis's  quadrant  to  Mr.  Logan,  secretary 
 of  the  commonwealth;  and  in  the  following 
 year  a  full  description  of  a  similar  instru- 
 ment was  read  before  the  Royal  Society 
 of  London,  by  Mr.  Hadley.  It  was  de- 
 cided that  both  claimants  were  entitled  to 
 the  honour  of  the  invention,  and  the  society 
 presented  Godfrey  with  household  furni- 
 ture to  the  value  of  £200.  He  was  in- 
 temperate in  his  habits,  and  died  in  1749. 
 
 GODFREY,  Thomas,  son  of  the  pre- 
 ceding, and  a  poet  of  some  merit,  was  born 
 in  Philadelphia  in  the  year  1736.  He  was 
 at  first  apprenticed  to  a  watch-maker,  but 
 disliking  the  drudgery  of  this  occupation, 
 he  obtained  a  lieutenant's  commission  in 
 the  Pennsylvania  forces,  which  were  rais- 
 ed in  1758  for  the  expedition  against  fort 
 Du  Quesne.  Subsequently  he  established 
 himself  as  a  factor  in  North  Carolina, 
 where  he  died  in  1763.  His  chief  works 
 are  The  Court  of  Fancy,  a  poem;  and 
 The  Prince  of  Parthia,  which  was  the  first 
 American  tragedy. 
 
 GODWIN,  Mary,  who  acquired  her 
 celebrity  under  her  maiden  name  of 
 Wolstonecraft,  was  born,  in  1759,  in  the 
 vicinity  of  London.  After  having  kept  a 
 female  academy,  and  been  governess  to 
 the  daughter  of  an  Irish  peer,  she  turned 
 
 GOL 
 
 291 
 
 to  literary  labour  for  a  subsistence,  and 
 became  a  fertile  writer.  Of  talent  she 
 undoubtedly  possessed  no  trifling  portion. 
 Her  political  principles  were  those  of  the 
 French  revolution.  With  respect  to  the 
 licence  allowable  to  the  Bofter  Bex,  her 
 ideas  were  at  utter  variance  with  all  the 
 received  laws  of  delicacy.  Accordingly, 
 she  first  indulged  a  passion  for  Mr.  Puseli, 
 who  was  a  married  man;  next,  lived  i';>r 
 a  considerable  period  with  Mr.  Iinlav,  an 
 American,  whose  desertion  of  her  induced 
 her  to  attempt  suicide;  and, lastly,  en 
 into  an  intercourse  with  Mr.  Godwin, 
 whom  she  did  not  marry  till  it  was  thought 
 prudent  to  legitimate  the  coming  fruit  of 
 their  union.  She  died,  in  childbed,  in 
 1797.  With  all  her  failings,  however,  she 
 was  a  woman  of  a  warm  heart  and  disin- 
 terested feelings.  Among  her  works  are, 
 A  Vindication  of  the  Rights  of  Women; 
 an  Answer  tjp  Burke's  Reflections;  A 
 Moral  and  Historical  View  of  the  French 
 Revolution  ;   and  Letters  from  Norway. 
 
 GOETZE,  John  Augustus  Ephratm, 
 a  German  naturalist,  was  born,  in- 1731, 
 at  Ascherleben ;  became  preacher  at  Qued- 
 linburgh,  in  1751 ;  and  died  in  1793.  His 
 researches  with  the  microscope  were  ex- 
 tensive, and  led  to  valuable  results.  Be- 
 sides many  books  for  the  instruction  of 
 youth,  he  wrote  Entomological  Memoirs, 
 in  four  volumes;  and  an  Essay  towards  a 
 History  of  Intestinal  Worms. 
 
 GOFFE,  Willi  am,  one  of  the  regicides 
 in  the  time  of  the  English  revolution,  and 
 a  major-general  under  Cromwell,  left  Lon- 
 don with  general  Whalley  before  the  res- 
 toration, and  arrived  in  New  England  in 
 1660.  They  were  kindly  received  by  gov- 
 ernor Endicott;  but  not  being  included  in 
 the  act  of  indemnity,  they  removed  to  Had- 
 ley in  Massachusetts,  and  remained  con- 
 cealed 15  or  16  years  in  the  house  of  the 
 reverend  Mr.  Russel.  He  died  at  Hadley, 
 it  is  supposed,  about  the  year  1679. 
 
 GOLDONI,  Charles,  whom,  not 
 without  some  reason,  his  countrymen  call 
 the  Italian  Moliere,  and  whom  Voltaire 
 styles  "  the  painter  of  nature,"  was  born  in 
 1707  at  Venice,  and  had  such  an  early  ten- 
 dency to  the  drama,  that  he  sketched  the 
 plan  of  a  comedy  before  he  was  eight  years 
 of  age.  He  studied  at  Perugia  and  Rimini. 
 For  a  short  time  he  practised  at  the  bar, 
 and  was  subsequently  secretary  to  the  Ve- 
 netian resident  at  Milan;  but  he  abandon- 
 ed all  other  occupations  to  write  for  the 
 stage.  His  success,  as  a  dramatist  and 
 theatrical  reformer,  was  commensurate  with 
 his  stren.ious  efforts.  To  Paris  he  was 
 invited  by  the  manager  of  the  Italian 
 theatre  in  that  city,  and,  while  there,  he 
 was  appointed  Italian  teacher  to  the  French 
 princesses.  For  thirty  years  he  resided  in 
 the  French  capital,  happy  and   respected, 
 
292 
 
 GOL 
 
 enjoying  a  pension  from  the  court.  The 
 subversion  of  the  throne  deprived  him  of 
 the  principal  part  of  his  resources;  he 
 sank  into  distress  and  deep  melancholy, 
 and  died  Jan.  8,  1793.  The  best  edition 
 of  his  works  is  that  printed,  in  1S09,  at 
 Lucca,  in  twenty-six  volumes. 
 
 GOLDSMITH,  Oliver,  a  celebrated 
 poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  the 
 son  of  a  clergyman;  was  born,  in  1731, 
 at  Pallas,  in  the  county  of  Longford,  in 
 Ireland ;  and  was  educated  at  the  univer- 
 sities of  Dublin,  Edinburgh,  and  Leyden, 
 wiih  a  view  to  his  adopting  the  medical 
 pi-  ifession.  Leyden,  however,  he  quitted 
 abruptly,  with  no  money  and  a  single 
 shirt  in  his  pocket,  and  wandered  over  a 
 considerable  part  of  Europe.  During  his 
 peregrinations  he  was  sometimes  indebted 
 to  his  German  flute  for  procuring  him  a 
 meal  or  a  lodging  from  the  peasants. 
 Returning  pennyless  to  England  in  1758, 
 he  was,  for  a  short  time,  usher  to  a  school 
 at  Peckham,  but  soon  gave  up  that  occu- 
 pation to  become  an  author.  In  1759 
 appeared  his  first  work,  an  Essay  on  the 
 Present  State  of  Polite  Literature.  His 
 subsequent  labours  were  multifarious;  for 
 Ik  sni, n  (rained  an  honourable  popularity, 
 and  seems  never  to  have  been  unemployed, 
 but  Ids  want  of  economy  kept  him  always 
 embarrassed.  Among  his  friends  he  nuni- 
 bered  Johnson,  Burke,  Garrick,  and  main 
 other  eminent  characters.  Between  1759 
 and  1774,  he  produced  The  Traveller,  The 
 Deserted  Village,  and  Retaliation;  the 
 comedies  of  The  Good-natured  Man,  and 
 She  stoops  to  conquer;  The  Vicar  of 
 Wakefield  ;  Histories  of  England,  Greece, 
 Rome,  and  Animated  Nature;  The  Citizen 
 of  the  World,  and  The  !'»•  •:  and  several 
 pieces  of  less  consequence,  lie  died  in 
 1774.  In  his  maimers  Goldsmith  was  ec- 
 centric, and  in  conversation  In-  displayed 
 such  a  lack  of  talent,  that/he  was  satirically 
 said  to  have  "talked  like  poor  Toll." 
 Though  benevolent  in  his  disposition,  he 
 was  exceedingly  jealous,  not  to  say  en- 
 vious of  competitors.  As  an  author  he 
 stands  high.  His  poetry,  natural,  melodi- 
 ous, affecting,  and  beautifully  descriptive, 
 
 GOO 
 
 finds  an  echo  in  every  bosom;  and  his 
 prose,  often  enlivened  with  humour,  and 
 always  adorned  with  the  graces  of  a  pure 
 style,  is  among  the  best  in  our  language. 
 
 GOLIUS,  JAMES,  an  eminent  oriental- 
 ist, was  born,  in  1596,  at  the  Hague;  was 
 interpreter  to  the  Dutch  embassy  to  Mo- 
 rocco; succeeded  Erpenius  as  Arabic  pro- 
 fessor at  Leyden;  was  subsequently  profes 
 6or  of  mathematics;  and  died  in  1667. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Arabic  and  Persian 
 Lexicons;  a  Life  of  Tamerlane ;  and  a 
 translation  of  Elmacin's  History  of  the 
 Saracens. — His  brother,  Peter,  was  also 
 an  oriental  scholar. 
 
 GOMARA,  Francis  Lopez  de,  a 
 Spanish  historian,  was  born  in  1510  at 
 Seville,  and  was  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
 Alcala.  He  took  a  voyage  to  America, 
 and  remained  four  years  in  that  country, 
 collecting  materials  for  his  General  Histo- 
 tory  of  the  Indies.  His  style  is  good,  but 
 the  facts  of  his  work  are  not  to  be  relied 
 upon.  He  wrote  also  a  History  of  Barba- 
 rossa,  and  Annals  of  Charles  V. ;  but  they 
 remain  in  manuscript.  The  period  of  his 
 death  is  uncertain. 
 
 GONGORA  Y  ARGOTE,  Louis,  * 
 Spanish  poet,  of  a  noble  but  poor  family, 
 was  born,  in  1561,  at  Cordova;  studied  at 
 Salamanca ;  became  a  prebendary  of  Cor- 
 dova, and  almoner  to  the  king;  and  died 
 in  1627.  Though  some  of  his  countrymen 
 have  called  him  the  prince  of  lyric  poets, 
 and  he  undoubtedly  was  a  man  of  talent, 
 Gongora  inflicted  serious  injury  on  the 
 literature  of  Spain,  by  introducing,  in  his 
 poems,  a  style  distinguished  for  its  bad 
 taste  and  affectation.  His  works  form  one 
 volume  quarto. 
 
 GON SALVO  OF  CORDOVA,  Her- 
 nandez yAGUiLAR,a  celebrated  Span- 
 ish warrior,  whose  exploits  gained  for  him 
 the  appellation  of  the  Great  Captain,  was 
 born,  in  1443,  at  Montilla,  near  Cordova. 
 He  began  the  profession  of  arms  at  the 
 age  of  fifteen  ;  distinguished  himself  against 
 the  Moors,  Portuguese,  Turks,  and  French  ; 
 was  appointed  viceroy  of  Naples,  which 
 kingdom  he  had  conquered;  and  died,  in 
 1515,  at  Grenada. 
 
 GOOD,  John  Mason,  a  physician, 
 poet,  and  philologist,  the  son  of  a  dissenting 
 minister,  was  born,  in  1764,  at  Epping, 
 in  Essex;  practiced  for  some  years  as  a 
 surgeon  and  apothecary  at  Coggeshal,  and 
 in  the  metropolis;  took  his  degree,  and 
 began  to  practice  as  a  physician,  in  1820; 
 and  died  January  2,  1827.  Good  was  a 
 man  of  diversified  knowledge;  was  inti- 
 mately acquainted  with  many  of  the  ori- 
 ental languages;  and  was  no  contemptible 
 poet.  He  published  translations  of  Solo- 
 mon's Song,  Job,  and  Lucretius;  Memoirs 
 of  Alexander  Geddes;  Medical  Techno- 
 logy;  A    Physiological    System  of  Noso- 
 
GOR 
 
 logy;  and  The  Study  of  Medicine,  four 
 volumes  8vo. 
 
 GOOKIN,  Daniel,  a  major  general  of 
 Massachusetts,  was  born  in  England,  and 
 in  1621  emigrated  to  Virginia.  In  1644 
 he  removed  to  New  England,  and  was  ap- 
 pointed superintendant  of  all  the  Indians 
 who  had  submitted  to  the  government  of 
 Massachusetts.  In  1681  he  received  the 
 appointment  of  major  general  of  the  pro- 
 vince. He  died  in  1687,  at  the  age  of  75. 
 He  left  in  manuscript  historical  collections 
 of  New-England  Indians,  which  were 
 published  in  the  first  volume  of  the  Massa- 
 chusetts Historical  Society.  He  also  left 
 in  manuscript  a  history  of  New  England. 
 
 GORDIAN,  Marcus  Anton  jus,  the 
 elder,  a  Roman  eni'peror,  surnamed  Afri- 
 canns,  born  at  Rome,  A.  D.  157,  was 
 descended  from  the  Gracchi  and  the 
 family  of  Trajan.  The  early  part  of  his 
 life  was  spent  in  study,  and  he  composed 
 various  works,  among  which  was  a  poem, 
 in  thirty  books,  on  Antoninus  Pius  and 
 Marcus  Aurelius.  After  having  been  edile, 
 twice  consul,  and  proconsul  of  Africa,  he 
 was  raised  to  the  throne,  in  his  eightieth 
 year,  in  conjunction  with  his  son.  His 
 reign  lasted  but  six  weeks;  for  he  killed 
 himself,  in  237,  in  consequence  of  his  son 
 being  slain  in  battle. 
 
 GORDIAN,  Marcus  Antonius,  a 
 Roman  emperor,  grandson  of  the  elder 
 Gordian,  was  created  Caesar,  in  237,  at 
 the  age  of  twelve  years,  and  in  the  follow- 
 ing year  became  sole  emperor.  He  ruled 
 worthily,  and,  in  242,  defeated  the  barba- 
 rians in  Thrace  and  Mcesia,  drove  the 
 Persian  monarch,  Sapor,  beyond  the  Eu- 
 phrates, and  compelled  him  to  abandon  all 
 his  conquests.  He  died,  near  Circesium, 
 in  244;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  came 
 to  his  end  by  a  natural  death  or  by  assas- 
 sination. 
 
 GORDON, Thomas,  apolitical  writer, 
 was  born,  towards  the  close  of  the  seven- 
 teenth century,  at  Kircudbright,  in  Scot- 
 land, and  settled  in  London  as  a  classical 
 teacher,  but  soon  turned  his  attention  al- 
 most wholly  to  politics.  In  conjunction 
 with  Trenchard,  he  published  Cato's  Let- 
 ters and  the  Independent  Whig.  Walpole 
 employed  his  pen,  and  rewarded  him  with 
 a  place,  which  he  held  till  his  decease,  in 
 1750.  Some  of  his  pieces  were  published 
 after  his  death.  Gordon  also  translated 
 Sallust  and  Tacitus,  with  fidelity,  but  in  a 
 harsh  unidiomatic  style. 
 
 GORDON,  the  Hon.  George,  usually 
 called  Lord  George  Gordon,  was  born  in 
 1750,  and  was  a  son  of  the  duke  of  Gor- 
 don. After  having  served  in  the  navy,  he 
 eat  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  was  an 
 opponent  of  Lord  North's  administration. 
 la  1780,  he  gained  a  sinister  fame,  by 
 Having,  for  the  purpose  of  opposing  relief 
 
 GOR 
 
 293 
 
 |  to  the  catholics,  taken  a  leading  part    n 
 the  protestant   association,  and   given   rise 
 I  to  that  mob  which  threatened  the  metro- 
 polis with   destruction.     He  subsequently 
 apostatized  to  the  .Jewish    faith,  and,  in 
 i  1793,  he  died    in    Newgate,   where  he  was 
 imprisoned  for  libelling  the  queen  ofFrance. 
 GORE,    Christopher,  governor   of 
 Massachusetts,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1758, 
 and   received  his   early  instruction    in   the 
 public    schools    of   that    town.       He    was 
 graduated    at    Harvard   College    in    1776, 
 (  and  soon  after  commenced  the  study  id*  the 
 law.      When  he  entered  on  the  practice  of 
 his  profession,  he    rose  rapidly  in   public 
 esteem  as   a  lawyer,  a   politician,  and  an 
 [honest  man.     At   the  age  of  thirty  he  was 
 J  sent  by  his  fellow  citizens,  with  Hancock 
 and  Samuel  Adams,  to  the  state  convention 
 which  considered  the  adoption  of  the  na- 
 tional constitution.     In    1789  he   was   ap- 
 I  pointed  by  Washington,   the  first  United 
 States'  attorney  for  the  district  of  Massa- 
 chusetts;  and  in  1796  one  of  the  commis- 
 sioners under  the  fourth  article  of  Jay's 
 ■  treaty  to  settle  our  claims   for  spoliations. 
 He  remained  abroad  in  the  public  service 
 for  about  eight  years,  and  on   his  return 
 was    welcomed    home    with   the    strongest 
 marks  of  public  favour.     Having  held  seats 
 in  the  state  senate  and  the  house  of  repre- 
 sentatives, he  was  chosen  in  1S09  governor 
 of  Massachusetts,  but  retained  this  dignity 
 only  one  year.     In  1814  he  was  appointed 
 senator  to  congress,  and  served   in  this  ca- 
 pacity about  three  years,  when  he  withdrew 
 into    final    retirement.     He  died  in    1827. 
 Mr.  Gore  was  aii  useful  member  of  several 
 importaut   literary    associations.     To    the 
 American  Academy,  and  the  Massachusetts 
 Historical  Society  he  left  valuable  bequests ; 
 and  he  made  Harvard  College,  of  which 
 institution  he  had  been  some  years  a  fellow, 
 his  residuary  legatee.     He  was  a  man  of  a 
 clear,  acute,  and  discriminating  mind. 
 
 GORDON,  William,  an  historian  of 
 the  American  revolution,  was  born  in 
 England,  and  settled  at  an  early  age  pas- 
 tor of  an  independent  church  at  Ipswich. 
 In  1770  he  came  to  America,  and  soon 
 after  settled  in  Roxbury.  In  1776  he  be- 
 gan the  collection  of  materials  for  the  his- 
 tory of  the  revolution,  and  at  the  close  of 
 the  war  he  repaired  to  England  and  pub- 
 lished them.  He  died  at  Ipswich  in  1807. 
 GORGIAS,  a  celebrated  orator  and 
 sophist,  was  born  at  Leontium,  in  Sicily, 
 whence  he  was  surnamed  Leontinus.  He 
 flourished  in  the  fifth  century  b.  c.  and  is 
 said  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Ernpedocles 
 Such  was  his  eloquence  that  a  statue  of 
 him  in  the  temple  of  Delphi  was  voted  by 
 the  Greeks,  at  the  Pythian  games.  He 
 lived  to  the  age  of  a  hundred  and  five. 
 
 GORHAM,  Nathaniel,  was  born  in 
 Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  in  1738,  and 
 
294  GOW 
 
 after  receiving  a  good  school  education, 
 engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  lie  took 
 an  active  part  in  political  affairs,  and  was 
 successively  representative  to  the  state 
 legislature;  a  delegate  to  the  convention 
 which  formed  the  constitution  of  M  ssa- 
 chusetts;  judge  of  the  court  of  common 
 pleas;  member  of  congress,  and  president 
 of  (hat  body.     Me  died  in  1796. 
 
 GOSSEC,  Francis  Joseph,  an  emi- 
 nent composer,  was  horn,  in  1733,  at  Verg- 
 nies,  in  Hainault;  settled,  in  1751,  at 
 Paris,  where  he  acquired  great  reputation  ; 
 and  died  in  1829.  Among  his  best  com- 
 positions are,  a  .Motet  for  three  voices; 
 the  choruses  in  Athaliah;  some  quartets 
 and  symphonies;  and  the  Mass  of  the 
 Dead.* 
 
 GOTTSCHED,  John  Christopher, 
 a  German  writer,  who  is  considered  irs  one 
 of  the  reformers  of  his  native  literature, 
 was  born,  in  1700,  near  Kcenigsltrg,  in 
 Prussia ;  was  successively  professor  of  the 
 belles  lettres,  philosophy,  and  poetry,  at 
 the  university  of  Leipsic;  and  died  in  1766. 
 Gottsched  survived  his  popularity.  His 
 mistaken  fondness  for  the  French  school  of 
 literature,  and  his  dictatorial  tone,  drew 
 upon  him  an  abundance  of  bitter  satire. 
 He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  in  poetry, 
 the  drama,  and  philology.  As  a  poet  and 
 dramatist  he  is  below  mediocrity. — His 
 wife,  Louisa  Aldegonda  Victoria, 
 who  was  born  at  Dantzick  in  1709,  and 
 died  in  1762,  assisted  him  in  his  labours, 
 and  was  more  than  his  equal  in  learning 
 and  talent. 
 
 GOLMON,  John,  a  sculptor,  who  has 
 been  styled  the  French  Phidias,  and  the 
 Correggio  of  sculpture,  was  born  at  Paris 
 in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  was  shot 
 during  the  massacre  of  St.  Barth  ilomew, 
 while  he  was  working  on  a  scaffold  at  the 
 old  Louvre.  Among  his  most  celebrated 
 works  are,  the  Fountain  of  the  Innocents; 
 the  Tribune  of  the  Hall  of  the  hundred 
 Swiss;  a  bas-relief  of  Christ  in  the  Tomb; 
 and  two  groups  of  Diana  hunting. 
 
 GOWER,  John,,  a  poet  of  the  four- 
 teenth century,  whom  Chaucer  calls  "  the 
 moral  Gower,"  was  born,  Caxton  says,  in 
 Wales,  but  Leland,  more  probably,  derives 
 him  from  a  family  settled  at  Sitenham,  in 
 Yorkshire.  He  studied  the  law  at  the 
 Middle  Temple,  and  is  imagined  by  some 
 to  have  filled  the  office  of  chief  justice  of 
 the  common  pleas,  lie  \va>  patronised  by 
 Richard  II.,  vet  he  could  afterwards  adu- 
 late Henry  IV.  and  reflect  on  his  deposed 
 patron.  He  died  blind,  at  an  advanced 
 air",  in  1402;  and  was  buried  in  St.  Mary 
 Overv's  church,  to  the  building  of  which 
 no  had  largely  contributed.  He  wrote  the 
 Speculum  Amantis;  Vox  Clamantis;  and 
 Confessio  Amantis.  He  versifies  smoothly, 
 and  deserves  the  epithet   which  Chaucer 
 
 GRA 
 
 applies  to  him,  bu    there  is   little  of  the 
 spirit  of  poetry  in  his  works. 
 
 GOZZI,  Count  Gasfar,  an  eminent 
 Italian  writer,  was  born  at  Venice  in  1713, 
 and  died  in  1786.  He  is  the  author  of 
 various  works,  among  which  are,  Dramatic 
 Pieces;  Poems"  Familiar  Letters;  and  the 
 Venetian  Observer,  on  the  model  of  the 
 I  Spectator. 
 
 GRACCHUS,  TiberiOs  Semproni- 
 08,  a  celebrated  Roman,  was  educated 
 with  the  utmost  care  by  his  mother,  Cor- 
 nelia, and  distinguished  himself  at  the 
 taking  of  Carthage.  He  was  chosen  tri- 
 bune of  the  people,  B.  c.  133,  and  was, 
 soon  after,  murdered  by  the  patricians,  in 
 consequence  of  his  having  carried  an  agra- 
 rian law,  and  also  another  law  for  dividing 
 among  the  poorer  citizens  the  bequeathed 
 treasures  of  Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus. 
 
 GRACCHUS,  Caius  Sempronius, 
 I  the  brother  of  the  foregoing,  but  nine  years 
 'younger,  possessed  the  same  advantages  of 
 education,  the  same  talents,  and  the  same 
 principles.  He  was  twice  tribune,  and 
 obtained  the  passing  of  various  laws  ob- 
 noxious to  the  patricians;  but  was  at 
 i  length  slain,  or,  according  to  some  ac- 
 counts, ordered  his  own  slave  to  despatch 
 him,  after  having  been  defeated  by  his 
 enemies,  E.  c.  121. 
 
 GR.EFE,  or  GRiEVIUS,  John 
 George,  an  erudite  German  writer,  was 
 born,  in  1632,  at  Naumburg,  in  Saxony; 
 studied  at  Leipsic  and  De venter;  was,  in 
 succession,  professor  at  Duisburg,  Deven- 
 | ter,  and  Utrecht ;  and  died  in  1703.  To 
 Gnefe,  who  was  a  modest  and  worthy  as 
 well  as  a  learned  man,  the  literary  world 
 is  indebted  for  editions  of  several  classics; 
 the  Thesaurus  (if  Roman  Antiquities,  in 
 twelve  folio  volumes;  and  the  Thesaurus 
 of  Italian  Antiquities,  in  six  folios. 
 
 GRAHAME,  James,  a  Scottish  poet, 
 was  born  in  1765  at  Glasgow,  and  was 
 educated  at  the  university  of  that  city. 
 His  first  occupation  was  that  of  an  attorney 
 (which  was  his  father's);  in  1795  he  was 
 called  to  the  bar;  and,  in  1809,  he  relin- 
 quished the  bar  for  the  church,  and  obtained 
 the  curacy  of  Shepton  Mayne,  whence  he 
 removed  in  May,  1811,  to  that  of  Sedge- 
 field,  in  Durham.  He  died  in  little  more 
 than  four  months  after  he  removed  to 
 iSedgefield.  Grahame's  chief  works  are, 
 The  Sabbath;  The  Birds  of  Scotland; 
 land  The  British  Georgics,  and  he  excels 
 in  description,  and  in  the  expression  of 
 tender,  affecting,  and  devotional  feelings. 
 
 GRAINGER,  JAMES,  a  poet  and  phy- 
 sician, was  born,  in  1724,  at  Dunse,  in 
 Berwickshire;  studied  medicine  at  Edin- 
 burgh ;  served  as  a  regimental  surgeon  with 
 the  British  forces  in  Germany;  practised, 
 first  in  London,  and  next  at  St.  Christo- 
 pher's, in  the  West  Indies;  and  died  in 
 
GRA 
 
 1767,  at  Basseterre.  Of  his  poems  the 
 best  is  the  Ode  on  Solitude,  which  was 
 praised  by  Johnson.  His  didactic  poem  of 
 The  Sugar  Cane  has  good  passages,  but  is 
 unfortunate  in  its  subject,  nor  is  the  sub- 
 ject always  happily  treated.  His  transla- 
 tion of  Tibullus  is,  on  the  whole,  above 
 mediocrity.  It  was,  however,  virulently 
 attacked  by  Smollet,  and  a  violent  paper 
 war  was  the  consequence  of  the  aggression. 
 GRANVILLE,  John  CARTERET, 
 earl,  a  British  statesman,  the  son  of  Lord 
 Carteret,  was  born  in  1690,  and  was  ed- 
 ucated at  Westminster  School,  and  at  Christ 
 Church,  Oxford,  where  his  acquirements 
 gave  an  earnest  of  his  future  eminence. 
 His  attachment  to  the  house  of  Hanover 
 was  rewarded  by  office  and  honours.  In 
 1719  he  was  ambassador  to  Sweden;  inj 
 1721  he  succeeded  Craggs  as  secretary  of  ■ 
 state;  and,  between  1723  and  1730,  he: 
 twice  filled,  and  with  public  approval,  the, 
 high  station  of  lord   lieutenant   of  Ireland.; 
 
 GRA 
 
 295 
 
 ered  as  a  standard  authority.  Its  errors 
 and  imperfections  have  been  exposed  by 
 later  writers. 
 
 GRATTAN,  Henry,  a  distinguished 
 orator  and  statesman,  was  born,  about  1750, 
 at  Dublin,  of  which  city  his  father  was  re- 
 corder; studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
 and  at  the  Middle  Temple;  was  called 
 On  his  last  return  to  England,  he   became! to  the  Irish  bar  in  1772;   and,  in  1775, 
 
 a  strenuous  opponent  of  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
 pole,  and,  on  the  expulsion  of  that  minis- 
 ter, was  appointed  secretary  of  state.  He 
 however,  resigned  in  1744.  In  all  the  sub 
 sequent  political  contests  of  the  second 
 George's  reign,  Earl  Granville  bore  a  part, 
 and  he  died  president  of  the  council  in 
 1763.  Granville  was  a  lover  and  patron 
 of  learning,  but  wished  to  confine  it  within 
 a  narrow  circle,  for  he  deemed  it  proper  to 
 retain  the  humbler  classes  of  society  in  pro- 
 found ignorance.  "  He  was,"  says  Hor 
 ace  Walpole,  "  an  extensive  scholar,  mas- 
 ter of  classic  criticism,  and  of  all  modern 
 politics.  He  was  precipitate  in  his  man- 
 ner and  rash  in  his  projects;  but  though 
 there  was  nothing  he  would  not  attempt, 
 he  scarcely  ever  took  any  measures  neces- 
 sary to  the  accomplishment.  He  would 
 profess  amply,  provoke  indiscriminately, 
 oblige  seldom.  It  is  difficult  to  say  whether 
 he  was  oftener  intoxicated  by  wine  or  am- 
 bition;  in  fits  of  the  former  he  showed  con- 
 tempt for  every  body ;  in  rants  of  the  lat- 
 ter, for  truth.  His  genius  was  magnificent 
 and  lofty,  his  heart  without  gall  or  friend- 
 ship; for  he  never  tried  to  be  avenged  on 
 his  enemies,  or  to  serve  his  friends." 
 
 GRANVILLE.     See  Lansdowne. 
 
 GRATIAN,  Flavius,  a  Roman  empe- 
 ror, was  born,  in  359,  at  Sirmium;  defeat- 
 ed the  Germans,  in  378;  became  unpopular 
 by  neglecting  the  labours  of  government, 
 and  by  displaying  a  bigoted  spirit;  and 
 was  assassinated  at  Lyons,  in  383. 
 
 GRATIAN,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  the 
 twelfth  century,  was  born  at  Chiusi,  in 
 Tuscany,  and  embraced  the  monastic  pro- 
 fession at  Bologna.  He  spent  twenty  years 
 in  compiling  that  abridgment  of  canon 
 law  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  Gra- 
 tian's  Decretal,  and  which  was  long  consid- 
 
 obtained  a  seat  in  the  parliament  of  his 
 native  country,  through  the  influence  of 
 Lord  Charlemont.  His  senatorial  career 
 was  truly  splendid.  In  the  ranks  of  the 
 opposition  he  stood  "  proudly  eminent," 
 and  his  example  and  his  eloquence  aroused 
 a  corresponding  spirit  in  the  people.  It 
 was  mainly  through  his  exertions  that  the 
 army  of  Irish  volunteers  was  called  into 
 existence,  and  that  the  statute  of  the  sixth 
 of  George  L,  which  had  long  shackled 
 Ireland,  was  repealed.  For  those  exertions 
 his  liberated  country  rewarded  him  with 
 a  vote  of  £50,000.  For  many  years  he 
 continued  to  be  the  leader  of  the  Irish 
 whigs,  and  a  most  active  member,  espe- 
 cially in  endeavouring  to  obtain  redress 
 for  the  catholics.  A  short  time  before  the 
 rebellion,  however,  having  vainly  recom- 
 mended conciliation  instead  of  coercion, 
 he  retired  in  disgust  from  the  parliament ; 
 nor  did  he  again  enter  it  till  he  reappeared 
 for  the  purpose  of  opposing  the  union.  In 
 1805  he  was  elected  for  New  Malton,  and 
 he  displayed  all  his  wonted  activity  and 
 talent  till  his  decease,  which  took  place 
 May  14,  1820.  His  Speeches  have  been 
 published  in  four  volumes;  his  Miscella- 
 neous compositions  in  one.  "  The  style 
 of  his  speaking,"  says  his  son,  "  was 
 strikingly  remarkable, — bold,  figurative, 
 and  empassioned;  always  adapted  to  the 
 time  and  circumstance,  and  peculiarly 
 well  suited  to  the  taste  and  temper  of  the 
 audience  that  he  had  to  address.  In  the 
 latter  part  of  his  career,  his  arguments 
 were  more  closely  arranged ;  there  was 
 less  ornament,  but  more  fact  and  reason- 
 ing; less  to  dazzle  the  sight,  and  more  to 
 convince  the  understanding." 
 
 GRAVESANDE,  William  Jacobs, 
 a  Dutch  geometrician  and  philosopher,  waa 
 
GRE 
 
 born,  in  1688,  at  Bois  le  Due;  quitted  the 
 law  for  mathematics ;  introduced  the  New- 
 tonian system  at  Leyden,  in  the  university 
 of  which  he  was  professor  of  mathematics 
 and  natural  philosophy;  and  died  in  1742. 
 His  numerous  works  are  said  to  have  been 
 entirely  composed  in  his  head  before  he 
 committed  them  to  paper;  and  he  could 
 proceed  with  the  most  intricate  calcula- 
 tions, even  while  engaged  in  conversing. 
 His  mathematical  works  have  been  collec- 
 ted in  two  quarto  volumes,  with  the  ex- 
 ception of  his  Introduction  to  t lie  Newto- 
 nian Philosophy,  which  forms  two  more. 
 
 G  R  A  V  IN  A,  Job  n  Vihc  E  n  t  ,  a  celebra- 
 ted jurist  and  literary  character,  was  born, 
 in  1664,  at  Roggiano,  in  Calabria;  was 
 professor  of  civil  and  canon  law  at  Rome; 
 founded  the  Arcadian  Academy;  was  the 
 early  protector  of  Metastasio;  and  died 
 in  1718.  His  works,  among  which  are 
 five  tragedies,  and  a  treatise  on  poetry, 
 have  been  collected  in  three  quarto  vols. 
 
 GRAY,  Thomas,  one  of  the  most  emi- 
 nent of  British  poets,  was  born,  in  1716, 
 in  London;  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
 Peter  House,  Cambridge ;  accompanied 
 Horace  Walpole,  on  a  continental  tour, 
 but  parted  from  him  at  Reggio,  and  re- 
 turned to  England  in  1741 ;  spent  the 
 «nsuing  years  in  literary  retirement,  in 
 sacrificing  to  the  Muses,  and  in  visiting 
 the  lakes  and  Scotland;  refused,  on  the 
 death  of  Cibber,  the  post  of  poet  laureat, 
 but,  in  1768,  accepted  that  of  professor  of 
 modern  history  at  Cambridge;  and  died, 
 in  1771,  of  the  gout  in  his  stomach.  The 
 poems  of  Gray  are  few,  but  they  are  gems 
 of  the  first  water.  As  a  lyrist  he  is 
 rivalled  by  Collins  alone,  and  his  celebra- 
 ted Elegy  has  extorted  the  reluctant  praise 
 of  his  hypercritic  Johnson.  His  corres- 
 pondence places  him  among  our  best  letter 
 writers;  his  Latin  poetry  equals  that  of 
 any  modern;  and  some  of  his  posthumous 
 pieces  afford  proof  of  his  profound  erudi- 
 tion. The  best  edition  of  his  works  is 
 that  by  Mr.  Mathias. 
 
 GRAZZINI,  Anthony  Francis,  an 
 Italian  poet,  was  born,  in  1503,  at  Flo- 
 rence, and  died  there  in  1583.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Tales,  the  style  of  which  rivals 
 that  of  Boccacio  in  purity;  and  of  various 
 Poems,  the  most  popular  of  which  are  his 
 Carnival  Songs.  Grazzini  was  the  origi- 
 nator of  the  Delia  Crusca  Academy. 
 
 GREAVES,  Richard,  an  orientalist 
 and  mathematician,  was  born,  in  1602,  at 
 Colmore,  in  Hants,  was  educated  at  Baliol 
 College,  Oxford;  was  chosen,  in  1630, ge- 
 ometrical professor  at  Oxford  ;  travelled  in 
 the  Levant  and  Egypt,  in  which  latter  coun- 
 try he  measured  the  principal  pyramids; 
 was  appointed  Savilian  professor  of  As- 
 tronomy on  his  return;  was  expelled  from 
 his  professorship,  in  1648,  by  the  republi- 
 
 GRE 
 
 cans;   and  died  in   1652.     Of  his  works 
 
 the  principal  are,  Pyramidographia;  and  a 
 Treatise  on  the  Roman  Foot  and  Denarius. 
 — His  brothers,  Thomas  and  Edward, 
 were  also  men  of  learning. 
 
 GREEN,  Matthew,  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  born,  about  1696,  in  London. 
 It  is  only  known  of  him,  that  his  parents 
 were  dissenters ;  that  he  held  a  situation  in 
 the  Custom  House;  that  he  was  a  worthy  and 
 much  respected  man;  and  that  he  died  in 
 1737.  Of  his  poems,  The  Spleen  is  the  prin- 
 cipal. It  displays  much  wit  andorignality. 
 GREENE,  S  amuf.l,  was  the  first  prin- 
 ter in  North  America.  The  first  thing 
 printed  was  the  Freeman's  Oath,  in  1639, 
 the  next  an  almanac,  and  the  third  the  New 
 England  version  of  the  Psalms  in  1640. 
 The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown. 
 
 GREENE,  Nathaniel,  major  gener- 
 al in  the  army  of  the  United  States,  was 
 born  in  Warwick,  Rhode  Island,  in  1742. 
 Though  enjoying  very  few  advantages  of 
 education,  he  displayed  an  early  fondness 
 for  knowledge,  and  devoted  his  leisure  time 
 assiduously  to  study.  In  1770  he  was  elect- 
 ed a  member  of  the  state  legislature,  and 
 in  1774  enrolled  himself  as  a  private  in  a 
 company  called  the  Kentish  Guards.  From 
 this  situation  he  was  elevated  to  the  head 
 of  three  regiments,  with  the  title  of  major- 
 general.  In  1776  he  accepted  from  Con- 
 gress a  commission  of  brigadier  gener- 
 al, and  soon  after,  at  the  battles  of  Tren- 
 ton and  Princeton,  distinguished  him- 
 self by  his  skill  and  bravery.  In  1778  he 
 was  appointed  quarter-master  general,  and 
 in  that  office  rendered  efficient  service  to  the 
 country  by  his  unwearied  zeal  and  great 
 tal  its  for  business.  He  presided  at  the 
 court  martial  which  tried  Major  Andre  in 
 1780,  and  was  appointed  to  succeed  Arnold 
 in  the  command  at  West  Point;  but  he 
 held  this  post  only  a  few  days.  In  Decem- 
 ber of  the  same  year  he  assumed  the  com- 
 mand of  the  southern  army,  and  in  this  sit- 
 uation displayed  a  prudence,  intrepidity  and 
 firmness  which  raise  him  to  an  elevated 
 rank  among  our  revolutionary  generals.  In 
 September,  1781,  he  obtained  the  famous 
 victory  at  Eutaw  Springs,  for  which  he  re- 
 ceived from  Congress  a  British  standard 
 and  a  gold  medal,  as  a  testimony  of  their 
 value  of  his  conduct  and  services.  On  the 
 termination  of  hostilities,  he  returned  to 
 Rhode  Island,  and  in  1785  removed  with 
 his  family  to  Georgia,  where  he  died  sud- 
 denly in  June  of  the  following  year.  He 
 was  a  man  of  high  energy,  courage  and  abil- 
 ity, and  possessed  the  entire  confidence  of 
 Washington. 
 
 GREEN,  Valentin k,  an  engraver  in 
 mezzotinto,  was  born  in  Warwickshire; 
 kft  the  law  to  learn  engraving  from  an  in- 
 different artist  at  Worcester;  settled  in 
 London,  in  1765,  and  soon  attained  repu- 
 
GRE 
 
 tation;  was  keeper  of  the  [Royal  Institu- 
 tion, and  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy ; 
 and  died  in  1813.  Among  his  works  are 
 twenty  two  engravings  from  the  Dusseldorf 
 gallery,  and  many  from  Reynolds  and  West. 
 He  wrote  a  History  of  Worcester ;  and 
 other  works. 
 
 GREENE,  Robkrt,  a  wit  and  poet  of 
 Elizabeth's  reign,  was  horn,  about  1560,  at 
 Norwich,  and  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
 College  and  Clare  Hall,  Oxford.  After  hay- 
 ing spent  a  life  of  libertinism,  he  died,  in 
 1592,  of  a  surfeit,  brought  on  by  eating  too 
 many  pickled  herrings,  and  drinking  Rhen- 
 ish wine.  Some  of  his  poems  have  consider- 
 able elegance.  He  wrote  five  plays,  and 
 many  prose  tracts,  of  which  his  Groat's 
 Worth  of  Wit  bought  with  a  Million  of 
 Repentance,  has  been  recently  reprinted. 
 
 GREENE,  Dr.  Maurice,  a  musical 
 composer,  was  born,  in  London,  towards 
 the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century;  suc- 
 ceeded his  master,  Blind,  in  1718,  as  or- 
 ganist of  St.  Paul's;  was  appointed  organist 
 of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  1726;  and  died  in 
 1775.  His  Anthems  are  his  principal  com- 
 positions ;  but  he  produced  also  some  ex- 
 cellent catches,  canons,  and  two  part  songs. 
 
 GREGORY  NAZIANZEN,  St.,  the 
 son  of  the  bishop  of  Nazianzum,  in  Cappa- 
 docia,  was  born  a.  d.  328,  and  studied  at 
 Ciesarea,  Alexandria,  and  Athens.  After 
 having  displayed  great  theological  and  oth- 
 er talents,  he  was  raised  by  Theodosius,  in 
 380,  to  the  archiepiscopal  throne  of  Con- 
 stantinople. He,  however,  soon  resigned 
 his  high  office,  and  retired  to  Nazianzum, 
 where  he  died  in  389.  His  works,  which 
 form  two  folio  volumes,  consist  of  sermons, 
 poems,  and  letters,  and  are  pure  in  their 
 stvle  and  highly  eloquent. 
 
 "GREGORY  of  Nyssa,  St.,  the  younger 
 brother  of  St.  Basil,  was  born  at  Sebaste, 
 about  331,  and  was  ordained  bishop  of 
 Nyssa,  in  Cappadocia,  in  372.  The  zeal 
 of  Gregory  against  the  Arians  induced  Va- 
 lens  to  expel  him  from  his  see,  but  he  was 
 restored  by  Gratian.  The  drawing  up  of 
 the  Nicene  creed  was  intrusted  to  him  by 
 the  council  of  Constantinople.  He  died 
 about  396.  His  sermons,  funeral  orations, 
 scriptural  commentaries,  lives,  and  other 
 works,  form  two  folio  volumes. 
 
 GREGORY,  George  Florence^., 
 generally  known  as  Gregory  of  Tours,  was 
 born,  in  544,  in  Auvergne;  was  chosen 
 bishop  of  Tours,  in  573;  and  died,  in  593. 
 He  wrote  some  Lives  of  Saints  and  Mar- 
 tyrs; and,  in  sixteen  books,  the  History 
 of  the  Franks,  from  their  Establishment  in 
 Gaul  till  the  year  591 ;  a  work  valuable  for 
 its  facts,  but  contemptible  in  point  of  style. 
 
 GREGORY   I.,    Pope,    who  bears  "the 
 surname  of  Great,  and  obtained  the  honours 
 of  saintship,  was  born,  about  544,  at  Rome ; 
 was  raised  to  the  papal  throne  in  590;  and  | 
 13* 
 
 GRE 
 
 297 
 
 died  in  604.  It  was  by  him  that  Augustin 
 was  commissioned  to  convert  the  Anglo- 
 Saxons.  Gregory  was  pious,  charitable, 
 and  a  reformer  of  the  clerical  discipline; 
 but  he  had  lofty  notions  of  papal  authority; 
 could,  fur  political  pin  pose-,  flatter  the  vi- 
 cious great;  and  was  an  inveterate  enemy 
 of  classical  literature.  His  works  occupy 
 four  folio  volumes. 
 
 GREGORY  VII.,  Pope,  whose  real 
 name  was  Hildebrand,  is  said  to  have 
 been  the  son  of  a  carpenter,  at.  Soano,  in 
 Tuscany.  After  having  held  various  cler- 
 ical preferments,  he  was  invested  with  the 
 tiara,  in  1073.  His  persecution  of  Henry 
 IV.  of  Germany  is  one  of  the  most  promi- 
 nent events  of  his  pontificate.  No  pope 
 ever  exceeded,  and  very  few  equalled  him, 
 in  ambition,  daringness,  perseverance,  and 
 want  of  principle.  The  power  of  deposing 
 sovereigns,  releasing  subjects  from  their 
 allegiance,  and  acting  as  lord  paramount 
 of  kingdoms,  he  was  the  first  pope  who 
 claimed.  He  died  in  1085.  He  r  the 
 author  of  Letters,  in  eleven  books;  A 
 Commentary  upon  the  Seven  Penitential 
 Psalms,  which  work  has  been  often  ascrib- 
 ed to  Gregory  I,;  and  A  Commentary  up- 
 on the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew. 
 
 GREGORY  XIII.,  Pope,  whose  name 
 was  Hugh  Buoncompagno,  was  born,  in 
 1502,  at  Bologna;  acquired  a  consummate 
 knowledge  of  the  civil  and  canon  law;  suc- 
 ceeded Pius  V.  as  pope,  in  1572;  and 
 died  in  1585.  The  reformation  of  the  cal- 
 endar, which  took  place  under  his  auspices, 
 in  1582,  is  the  most  remarkable  event  of 
 his  pontificate. 
 
 GREGORY,  James,  an  eminent  phi- 
 losopher and  mathematician,  was  born,  in 
 1648,  at  Aberdeen ;  was  educated  at  Ma- 
 rischal  College,  in  that  city;  resided  for 
 some  years  in  Italy;  was  appointed  pro- 
 fessor of  mathematics  at  St.  Andrews,  about 
 1668;  and  of  mathematics  at  Edinburgh, 
 in  1674;  and  died  in  1685,  a  few  days  after 
 having  been  struck  with  total  blindness 
 while  observing  the  satellites  of  Jupiter. 
 He  wrote  works  on  the  Quadrature  of  the 
 Circle  and  Hyperbola;  on  the  Transmuta- 
 tion of  Curves;  and  on  Optics.  He  in- 
 vented the  refracting  telescope,  and  his 
 mathematical  discoveries  are  so  numerous 
 and  important  as  to  place  him  in  the  first 
 rank  of  philosophers. 
 
 GREGORY,  David,  the  nephew  of  the 
 foregoing,  and,  like  his  uncle,  eminent  as  a 
 mathematician,  was  born,  in  1661,  at  Ab- 
 erdeen, and  was  educated  there  and  at 
 Edinburgh.  Till  1691  he  was  mathemati- 
 cal professor  in  the  Scotch  capital,  and  he 
 was  the  first  who  taught  there  the  Newtoni- 
 an philosophy.  In  that  year  he  became  a 
 competitor  for  the  Savilian  professorship 
 at  Oxford,  and  he  carried  his  election 
 against  Halley — a  sufficient  proof  of  his 
 
296 
 
 GRE 
 
 merit.  With  that  philosopher,  and  with 
 Newton  and  Flamsteed,  he  was  in  habits 
 of  friendship.     1 1  is  famous  Demonstration 
 
 of  the  Catenation  Curve  was  given  in  lti97. 
 At  the  time  of  his  decease,  in  1710. be  was 
 preparing,  in  conjunction  with  Halley,  a 
 new  edition  of  the  Conies  of  Apollonius. 
 One  of  his  principal  works  is.  The  Ele- 
 ments of  Physical  and  Geometrical  As- 
 tronomy . 
 
 EGORY,  .John,  a  miscellaneous 
 writer  and  physh  ian,  was  horn,  in  1724,  at 
 Aberdeen;  studied  there,  at  Edinburgh, 
 and  at  Leyden;  was  successively  professor 
 of  medicine,  at  King's  College,  in  his  native 
 place,  and  professor  of  the  practice  of  physic 
 at  Edinburgh;  was  appointed  first  physi- 
 cian to  his  majesty  for  Scotland;  and  died 
 in  177:3.  He  wrote  A  Comparative  View 
 of  the  State  and  Faculties  of  Man  with 
 of  the  Animal  World;  Elements  of 
 the  Practice  of  Physic;  a  Treatise  on  the 
 Duties  and  Offices  of  a  Physician;  and  a 
 Fathi  i  ?s  Legacy  to  his  Daughter. 
 
 GREGORY,  James,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S., 
 a  native  of  Aberdeen,  was  born  in  1753, 
 and  died  in  1821.  Among  his  works  are. 
 Philosophical  and  Literary  Essays,  in  two 
 vols.;  Gulden's  First  Lines  of  the  Practice 
 of  Physic,  with  notes,  in  two  vols.,  which 
 went  through  several  editions;  and  Con- 
 spectus Medicinae  Theorelica,  two  vols. 
 
 GREGORY,  Gkorgk,  D.  D.,  a  divine 
 and  miscellaneous  writer,  the  son  of  the 
 prebendary  of  Ferns,  in  Ireland,  was  born 
 in  1754,  and  completed  his  education  at 
 Edinburgh.  In  1778  he  took  orders,  and 
 became  a  curate  at  Liverpool,;  whence,  in 
 17*i2.  he  re,, loved  to  London,  where  he  ob- 
 tained the  curacy  of  Cripplegate,  and  was 
 chosen  evening  preacher  of  the  Foundling. 
 As  a  reward  for  having  written  in  defence 
 of  the  Aldington  administration.  Lord  Sid- 
 mouth,  in  1804,  procured  for  him  the  living 
 '',  VVestham,  in  Essex,  which  Dr.Gregor) 
 held  till  bis  decease,  in  1808.  Among  his 
 works  are,  Essays,  historical  and  moral; 
 a  Life  of  Chatterton;  a  Church  History; 
 The  Economy  of  Nature;  Sermons;  Let- 
 ters on  Literature;  and  a  Translation  of 
 Low  ill's  Lectures  on  Hebrew  Poetry. 
 
 GREPPI,  CHARLES, an  Italian  drama- 
 tist, was  born,  in  1751,  at  Bologna;  quitted 
 the  profession  of  an  advocate  to  he  a  writer 
 for  the  stage;  was  employed  by  Cardinal 
 Zelada,  the  Roman  secretary  of  state, 
 l>ut  was  dismissed  for  making  love  to  a 
 princesi ;  threw  himself  into  a  cloister  in 
 consequence  of  his  being  jilted  by  the  wo- 
 man WOom  he  was  about  to  marry,  hut  en- 
 tered the  world  again  in  twelve  months; 
 adopted  with  enthusiasm  the  principles  of 
 liberty,  and  held  considerable  offices  under 
 the  Cisalpine  republic;  and  died  at  Milan, 
 in  1811.  Asa  tragic  and  comic  writer  he 
 was  equally    successful.     He  wrote  eight 
 
 GRE 
 
 comedies,  four  tragedies,  and  several  po- 
 ems. 
 
 GRESHAM,  Sir  Thomas,  the  son  of 
 Sir  Richard  Gresham,  a  merchant,  was 
 born  in  1519,  and  was  educated  at  Gon- 
 vile  Hall,  Cambridge;  but,  being  designed 
 for  commerce,  he  was  bound  apprentice  to 
 his  uncle,  Sir  John  Gresham.  In  1552, 
 the  King's  money  agent  at  Antwerp  haying 
 wofully  mismanaged  affairs,  Gresham  was 
 sent  over  to  retrieve  them,  and  he  fully- 
 succeeded.  Elizabeth,  on  her  accession, 
 removed  him  from  his  office,  but  soon 
 restored  it  to  him,  and  he  ever  after  pos- 
 sessed her  favour  and  confidence.  In  1566, 
 be  planned  and  began  to  execute  an  Ex- 
 change for  the  merchants,  which,  in  1570, 
 was  opened  by  the  queen  in  person,  who 
 gave  it  the  epithet  of  Royal.  The  interests 
 of  trade  and  manufactures  Gresham  was 
 indefatigable  in  promoting  ;  nor  was  he 
 neglectful  of  those  of  science,  for  he  founded 
 the  cidlege  hearing  his  name,  the  professor- 
 ships of  which,  however,  have  since  been 
 shainelesslv  perverted  into  sinecures.  Such 
 was  his  liberality  that  he  was  called  the 
 Royal  Merchant.  He  died  of  apoplexy, 
 in  1579. 
 
 GRESSET,  John  Baptist  Louis,  a 
 French  poet  and  dramatist,  was  born  in 
 1709;  was  educated  by.  and  became  one 
 of,  the  Jesuits;  but  withdrew  from  the 
 society  at  the  age  of  twenty-six.  He 
 acquired  a  brilliant  reputation,  both  in 
 poetry  and  the  drama;  became  a  member 
 of  the  French  Academy,  and  was  for  many 
 years  admired  in  the  Parisian  circles.  At 
 length  he  renounced  all  his  favourite  pur- 
 suits, and  turned  almost  a  devotee,  to  the 
 great  annoyance  of  Voltaire  and  many  of 
 his  early  friends.  He  died  in  1777.  His 
 Ver  Vert,  one  of  the  most  sportive  and 
 elegant  of  French  poems,  was  called  a 
 literary  phenomenon  by  John  Baptist 
 Rousseau.  Several  of  his  other  pieces  are 
 little  inferior  in  merit.  Of  his  dramas, 
 the  most  perfect  is  the  comedy  of  Le 
 Mediant. 
 
 <;rLTRY,Andrf.yvErnkst  Modks- 
 tus,  a  celebrated  musical  composer,  was 
 born,    in    1744,    at  Liege;    cultivated  bil 
 
GRE 
 
 early  genius  under  Moreau  and  Casali  ; 
 settled  at  Paris,  in  1768;  first  rose  into 
 notice  by  setting  Marmontel's  Huron;  and 
 thence  forward,  till  his  decease,  in  1813, 
 was  exceedingly  popular.  Between  1769 
 and  1800,  he  brought  out  no  less  than  forty- 
 four  operas,  of  which  twenty  retain  pos- 
 session of  the  stage.  Two  of  them,  Richard 
 Coeur  de  Lion,  and  Zemira  and  A/.or,  have 
 been  introduced  to  the  English  theatre. 
 Gretry  has  been  denominated  the  Moliere 
 of  his  art.  He  wrote  an  Essay  on  Music; 
 and  some  other  works. 
 
 GREVILLE,  Fulk,  Lord  Brooke,  was 
 born,  in  1554,  at  Beauchamp's  Court,  in 
 Warwickshire,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity 
 College,  Cambridge,  and  at  Oxford.  He 
 was  much  in  favour  with  Elizabeth  and 
 James  I.;  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Sir 
 Philip  Sidney;  and  was  acquainted  with 
 Camden,  Shakspeare,  Joason,  and  many 
 other  of  his  eminent  contemporaries.  He 
 was  himself  learned,  and  was  a  patron  of 
 learning.  At  Cambridge  he  founded  a 
 professorship  of  history.  He  is  the  author 
 of  a  Life  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney;  Poems; 
 •ind  other  works. 
 
 GREY,  Lady  Jane,  a  female,  whose 
 accomplishments  and  whose  fate  have  ren- 
 dered her  an  object  of  universal  admiration 
 and  pity,  was  the  daughter  of  the  marquis 
 of  Dorset,  and  was  born,  about  1537,  at 
 Bradgate  Hall,  in  Leicestershire.  Her 
 talents,  which  were  of  a  superior  order, 
 were  early  developed,  and  by  the  time  that 
 she  was  fourteen  she  had  mastered  Greek, 
 Latin,  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Arabic,  and 
 French  and  Italian.  Aylmer,  who  was 
 afterwards  bishop  of  London,  was  her 
 tutor.  In  1553,  she  was  united  to  Lord 
 Guildford  Dudley;  and, shortly  afterwards, 
 reluctantly  accepted  the  diadem  which  the 
 intrigues  of  her  father  and  her  father-in- 
 law  had  induced  Edward  VI.  to  settle  upon 
 her.  Her  brief  reign  of  nine  days  ended 
 by  her  being  committed  to  the  Tower  with 
 her  husband,  and,  in  February  1554,  they 
 were  brought  to  the  scaffold  by  the  relent- 
 less Mary.  She  refused  to  apostatize  from 
 the  protestant  faith,  and  died  with  the 
 utmost  firmness.  Her  Remains  were  pub- 
 lished after  her  death,  and  some  of  her 
 letters  and  devotional  pieces  are  preserved 
 in  Fox's  Martyrologv, 
 
 GREY,  Richard,  a  divine,  was  born, 
 in  1694,  at  Newcastle  upon  Tyne ;  took 
 his  degree  of  A.  M.  in  1719,  at  Lincoln 
 College,  Oxford;  was  rector  of  Hinton,  in 
 Northamptonshire,  and  Kimcote,  in  Lei- 
 cestershire, a  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's, 
 and  commissary  of  the  archdeaconry  of 
 Leicester;  and  died  in  1771.  He  is  the 
 author  of  various  works,  among  which  are, 
 A  System  of  Ecclesiastical  Law,  abridged 
 from  Gibson's  Codex ;  a  Method  of  learn- 
 ing   Hebrew    without    Points  ;    and,  best 
 
 GRI 
 
 299 
 
 known  of  all  his  productions,  Memoria 
 Technica,  or  a  new  Method  of  Artificial 
 Memory,  which  has  been  often   reprinted 
 
 GRIDLEY,  Jkkkmiah,  an  eminent 
 lawyer  of  Massachusetts,  was  born  about 
 the  year  1705,  and  was  graduated  at  Har- 
 vard College  in  1725.  He  was  a  warm 
 advocate  for  the  colonial  rights,  but,  not 
 withstanding,  was  appointed  attorney  gen 
 eral  of  the  province,  and  in  that  capacity 
 defended  the  obnoxious  writs  of  assistance. 
 He  was  a  man  of  an  ardent  and  generous 
 character,  and  possessed  extensive  legal 
 information.     He  died  in  1767. 
 
 GRIESBACH,  John  James,  an  emi- 
 nent German  theologian,  was  born,  in 
 1745,  at  But/bach,  in  the  duchy  of  Hesse 
 Darmstadt;  was  educated  at  Frankfort, 
 Tubingen,  Halle,  and  Leipsic;  and  was 
 successively  professor  of  theology  at  Halle 
 and  at  Jena,  rector  of  the  university  of 
 Jena,  and  ecclesiastical  privy  counsellor  to 
 the  duke  of  Saxe  Weimar.  He  died  in 
 1812.  Of  his  numerous  and  erudite  pub- 
 lications one  of  the  most  celebrated  is  an 
 edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  with 
 various  readings. 
 
 GRI  J  ALVA,  John  de,  a  Spanish  ad- 
 venturer, was  born  at  Cuellar,  in  Old 
 Castile,  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
 century.  In  1518  he  was  made  commander 
 of  a  flotilla  by  Velasquez,  the  governor  of 
 Cuba,  with  which  he  discovered  the  Mexi- 
 can coast.  On  his  return  to  Cuba,  he 
 hoped  to  be  placed  at  the  head  of  a  new 
 expedition,  but  the  command  was  intrusted 
 to  Cortes. 
 
 GRIMM,  Frederick  Melchior, 
 baron  de,  the  son  of  poor  parents,  was 
 born,  in  1723,  at  Ratisbon,  and  received  a 
 good  education.  The  first  step  of  his 
 literary  career  was  not  a  fortunate  one. 
 He  produced,  in  Germany,  a  tragedy, 
 which  was  hissed  on  the  stage,  and  con- 
 demned by  the  critics.  Obtaining  the 
 situation  of  tutor  to  the  children  of  the 
 count  de  Schomberg,  he  went  with  them 
 to  Paris,  where  he  subsequently  became 
 principal  secretary  to  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
 and  intimate  with  all  the  men  of  letters  of 
 that  period.  His  wit,  manners,  and  tal- 
 ents, procured  for  him  admission  among 
 the  highest  class  of  society.  In  conjunc- 
 tion with  Diderot,  he  was  employed  by  the 
 duke  of  Saxe  Gotha,  to  give  him  an 
 analysis  of  all  that  occurred  within  the 
 sphere  of  French  literature.  To  this 
 voluminous  and  amusing  Correspondence, 
 which,  after  a  lapse  of  thirty  years,  was 
 published  in  sixteen  volumes,  Grimm  is 
 indebted  for  his  fame.  In  1776  the  duke 
 appointed  him  his  envoy  at  Paris,  and 
 gave  him  the  title  of  baron.  The  French 
 revolution  frightened  him  from  Paris,  and, 
 after  having  acted  as  Russian  plenipoten- 
 tiary to  the   circle  of  Lower   Saxony,  he 
 
800 
 
 GRO 
 
 died,  in  1807,  at  Gotha.  His  fugitive 
 pieces  have  been  printed,  as  a  supplement 
 to  his  Correspondence. 
 
 GIITMOARD,  Count  Philip  de,  a 
 French  general  and  military  author,  of 
 an  ancient  Avignonese  family,  was  em- 
 ployed by  Louis  XVI.  in  Ids  private 
 cabinet,  and  in  negotiations  in  Holland, 
 and  drew  up  the  plan  of  operations  for 
 the  campaign  of  1792.  He  died  in  1815. 
 Besides  editing  various  military  works,  be 
 produced  several  original,  among  which 
 are,  A  Theoretical  and  Practical  Essay- 
 on  Battles;  A  Treatise  on  Light  Troops; 
 A  Picture  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of 
 Frederic  the  Great;  A  Treatise  on  the 
 Staff  Service  ;  and  (with  Servan)  An 
 Historical  Picture  of  the  Wars  of  the 
 French  Revolution. 
 
 GRONOV,  or  GRONOVIUS,  John 
 Frederic,  an  erudite  critic,  was  born  at 
 Hamburgh,  in  1611;  succeeded,  in  1658, 
 to  Daniel  Heinsius,  as  professor  of  belles 
 letters,  at  Leyden  ;  and  died  in  1671.  He 
 published  editions  of  various  classics,  and 
 wrote  several  learned  dissertations  on  sub- 
 jects connected  with  ancient  times.  Gro- 
 novius  was  of  a  mild  and  modest  disposi- 
 tion, and  so  hated  controversial  asperity, 
 that  having,  in  a  solitary  instance,  replied 
 sharply  to  an  adversary,  he  called  in  the 
 copies  of  his  work,  and  burnt  them. 
 
 GROXOV,  or  GRONOVIUS,  James, 
 a  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born,  in  1645, 
 at  Deventer.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life 
 lie  visited  England,  France,  Germany,  and 
 Laly;  and  for  two  years  was  professor  at 
 Pisa.  The  university  of  Leyden,  however, 
 ill  1679,  lured  him  back  by  the  appointment 
 of  professor  of  Greek  and  history,  and  re- 
 warded him  so  liberally  that  he  refused  all 
 subsequent  offers  from  other  quarters.  He 
 died  in  1716.  He  edited  several  classics, 
 but  his  great  work  is  the  Thesaurus  of 
 Grecian  Antiquities,  thirteen  vols,  folio. 
 With  even  more  learning  than  his  father, 
 he  was  his  very  antipodes  as  to  contro- 
 versy .  He  seemed  to  delight  in  provoking 
 hostility  by  arrogance  and  insult,  and  was 
 grossly  unjust.  Yet  so  tender  were  his 
 domestic  feelings,  that  his  death  was  has- 
 tened by  grief  for  the  loss  of  his  youngest 
 daughter. 
 
 GROSE,  Francis,  an  antiquary,  the i 
 son  of  a  jeweller,  was  born,  about  1731, 
 at  Richmond,  in  Surrey.  Having  dissi- 
 pated his  fortune,  he  obtained  a  captaincy 
 in  the  militia,  and  also  turned  to  account*, 
 as  a  means  of  subsistence,  his  natural  taste 
 for  drawing.  His  first  work  was  The  An- 
 tiquities of  England  and  Wales;  those  of 
 Scotland  succeeded;  but  those  of  Ireland 
 death  prevented  him  from  completing.  He 
 died  in  1791.  Besides  the  Antiquities,  he 
 published  a  Treatise  on  Ancient  Armour 
 and  Weapons;  Military  Antiquities  ;    and 
 
 GRO 
 
 other    works.      Grose  was  a  man  ot  re- 
 markable wit,  humour,  and  good  nature. 
 
 GROTIUS,  or  DE  GROOT,  Hugh, 
 an  eminent  scholar,  was  born,  in    1583,  at 
 Delft,  in  Holland,  of  which  place  his  father 
 was  burgomaster.     From  his  childhood  he 
 manifested  talents   and  a  love  of  learning, 
 which  were  carefully  fostered.    At  Leyden, 
 Francis  Junius  was  his  tutor,  and  Scaliger 
 also  assisted  to  direct  his   studies.     In  his 
 fifteenth  year  he   accompanied  Barnevelt, 
 the  Dutch  ambassador,  to  Paris;  was  pre- 
 sented by  Henry  TV.  with  his  picture  and 
 a  go  d  chain ;  and  received  the  most   flat- 
 tering  attentions   from    men  of  rank  and 
 learning.      On  his  return   home,  he  began 
 to  practise  as  an  advocate.     His  legal  avo- 
 cations,   however,    did    not    prevent    him 
 from  making  an  indefatigable  and  effective 
 use  of  his  pen.     The  honours  conferred  on 
 him  kept  pace  with  the  reputation  which 
 he    acquired.      He    was    successively    ap- 
 pointed historiographer,  advocate  general 
 of  Holland    and    Zealand,    pensionary    of 
 Rotterdam,  a  member  of  the  States  Gene- 
 ral, and  envoy  to  England,  to   adjust  some 
 disputes  between  the  two  countries.      But, 
 in  1618,   his  fortune  changed,  and,  along 
 with   Barnevelt,   he   was   involved    in   the 
 hateful  proscription  of  the  Armenian  party 
 by  Prince  Maurice.     He  narrowly  escaped 
 the  fate  of  Barnevelt,  but  Avas  sentenced 
 to  perpetual  imprisonment  in  the  castle  of 
 Louvestein.     At  the  expiration  of  eighteen 
 months,  however,  which  he  had  employed 
 in  writing  his  Treatise  on  the  Truth  of  the 
 Christian   Religion,  he  was  delivered  by 
 the  contrivance  of  his  wife,  who  sent  him 
 out  of  the  castle  concealed  in  a  large  chest. 
 Grotius  sought  an  asylum  in  France,  and 
 it  was  during  his  residence   there   that  he 
 composed  his  great  work,  De  Jure  Belli  et 
 Pacis.     After  an  absence  of  twelve  yean 
 he    returned   to   Holland,   but    persecution 
 still  awaited  him,  and  he  quitted  his  native 
 land  for  ever.     In  1635  Christina  of  Swe- 
 den appointed  him  her  ambassador  at  Paris, 
 and  this  office  he  held  nearly  eleven  years. 
 He  died  at  linstock,  on   his   way  to   Swe- 
 den, in  August,  1645.     Among   his  works 
 may  be   mentioned,    Mare   Liberum;   De 
 
GUE 
 
 Antiquitate  Reipublicre  Bataviie;  Institu- 
 tions of  the  Laws  of  Holland;  A  History 
 of  the  Goths  ,  Annals  of  Belgium  ;  and 
 three  Latin  tragedies. 
 
 GRYNiEUS,  Simon,  an  eminent  pro- 
 testant  theologian,  was  born,  in  1493,  at 
 Veringen,  in  Swabia;  was  professor  of 
 Greek  at  Heidelberg,  and  theology  at  Basil ; 
 was  the  friend  of  Luther,  Mclancthon,  and 
 Erasmus;  and  died  in  1541.  The  last 
 five  books  which  we  possess  of  Livy  were 
 discovered  by  Grymeus,  in  a  monastery  at 
 L orach. 
 
 GRYPH,  Andrew,  a  celebrated  Ger- 
 man dramatist,  was  born,  in  1616,  at  Gross 
 Glogau;  and  died  there  in  1664.  Such 
 was  his  dramatic  merit  that,  in  some 
 points,  J.  E.  Schlegel  does  not  hesitate  to 
 compare  him  with  Shakspeare.  Of  his 
 tragedies,  in  which  chiefly  he  excelled,  the 
 best  are,  Leo  the  Armenian,  and  Charles 
 Stuart.  Gryph  also  produced  poems,  and 
 some  pointed  epigrams. 
 
 GUARINI,  John  Bapttst,  a  cele- 
 brated Italian  poet,  was  born,  in  1537,  at 
 Ferrara;  was  successively  in  the  service 
 of  the  dukes  of  Ferrara,  .Savoy,  Mantua, 
 and  Florence,  by  neither  of  whom  was  he 
 treated  as  his  merits  deserved;  suffered 
 severely  from  domestic  misfortunes;  and 
 died  at  Venice  in  1612.  Of  all  his  com- 
 positions the  best  is  his  pastoral  drama, 
 II  Pastor  Fido,  which  in  poetical  merit, 
 though  not  in  decency,  rivals  the  Aminta 
 of  Tasso. 
 
 GUARNERIUS,  Joseph  and  Peter, 
 celebrated  musical  instrument  makers,  of 
 whom  the  former  was  a  pupil  of  Stradiva- 
 rius,  and  the  latter  of  Jerome  Amati, 
 fiourished  at  Cremona,  in  the  first  half  of 
 the  eighteenth  century.  The  shape  of  their 
 violins  differs  considerably  from  that  of 
 other  manufacturers.  Their  instruments 
 bear  a  high  price  among  amateurs. 
 
 GUERCLNO  (so  called  from  his  being 
 one-eyed,  but  whose  real  name  was  John 
 Francis  Barbieri),  one  of  the  most  eminent 
 of  the  Italian  painters,  was  born,  in  1590, 
 at  Cento,  in  the  Ferrarese;  was  a  pupil 
 of  Cremonini  and  Gennari,  but,  in  his 
 best  style,  blended  somewhat  of  Caravaggio 
 with  the  Roman,  Venetian,  and  Bolognese 
 schools;  acquired  great  riches,  which  he 
 liberally  dispensed  in  acts  of  munificence; 
 and  died  in  1666.  He  painted  a  hundred 
 and  six  altar  pieces,  and  a  hundred  and 
 forty-four  easel  pictures. 
 
 GUERICKE,  Otto,  an  experimental 
 philosopher,  was  born,  in  1602,  at  Magde- 
 burg!); and  died,  in  1686,  at  Hamburgh, 
 while  visiting  that  city.  He  was  burgo- 
 master of  his  native  place,  and  counsellor 
 of  the  elector  of  Brandenburgh.  To  Otto 
 Guericke  science  is  indebted,  among  other 
 things,  for  the  invention  of  the  air-pump, 
 and  of  the  copper  hemispheres,  by  which 
 
 GUI 
 
 301 
 
 he  illustrated  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
 phere. His  electrical  and  astronomical 
 knowledge  was  also  considerable. 
 
 GUEVARA,  Louis  Velez  de  las 
 Duknas  Y,  a  Spanish  dramatist  and  ro- 
 mance writer,  was  born,  in  1574,  at  Ecija, 
 and  died,  in  1646,  at  Madrid.  He  is  call- 
 ed the  Spanish  Scarron.  Guevara  was  an 
 advocate,  and  is  said  to  have  often  called 
 forth  roars  of  laughter  from  the  judges,  and 
 even  from  those  against  whom  he  pleaded. 
 He  is  the  author  of  Comedies;  Miscella- 
 neous Poems;  and  Romances.  Le  Sage 
 is  indebted  to  Guevara's  Diablo  Cojuelo 
 for  the  idea  of  his  Diable  Boiteux. 
 
 GUIBERT,  James  Anthony  Hippo- 
 lytus,  count  de,  a  celebrated  French  tac- 
 tician, the  son  of  a  distinguished  officer, 
 was  born,  in  1743,  at  Montauban.  After 
 having  distinguished  himself  by  arms,  dur- 
 ing six  campaigns  of  the  seven  years'  war, 
 and  in  Corsica,  he  aspired,  and  with  suc- 
 cess, to  the  attainment  of  literary  laurels, 
 by  works  on  tactics,  by  tragedies,  and  by 
 eulogies  of  great  men.  He  held  a  place  in 
 the  war  department,  under  the  count  de 
 St.  Germain,  and  in  1787  was  appointed  a 
 member  of,  and  reporter  to,  the  council  of 
 that  department.  The  last  of  these  offices 
 brought  on  him  a  host  of  foes;  all  that  was 
 offensive  in  the  operations  of  the  council 
 being  unjustly  attributed  to  him  alone.  He 
 died,  partly  of  vexation,  in  1790.  His 
 General  Essay  on  Tactics,  in  which  he  en- 
 forces a  system  the  very  opposite  of  Fo- 
 lard's,  excited  a  vehement  controversy. 
 Among  his  works  are  the  tragedies  of  The 
 Constable  of  Bourbon,  The  Death  of  the 
 Gracchi,  and  Anne  Boleyn;  a  Defence  of 
 his  System;  Historical  Eulogies  on  De 
 PHopital,  Catinat,  the  King  of  Prussia, 
 and  others;  Travels  in  Germany;  and 
 Travels  in  Switzerland. 
 
 GUICCIARDINI,  Francis,  a  celebra- 
 ted historian,  was  born,  in  1482,  at  Flor- 
 ence, of  a  noble  family.  At  the  age  of 
 twenty-three  he  was  professor  of  jurispru- 
 dence in  his  native  city.  Politics,  howev- 
 er, occupied  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  was, 
 at  various  periods,  an  ambassador,  gover- 
 nor of  Reggio  and  Modena,  of  Romagna, 
 and  Bologna,  and  lieutenant-general  of  the 
 papal  forces.  As  a  governor  he  distin- 
 guished himself  by  his  equity,  and  his  ex- 
 ertions to  benefit  the  people,  and  by  his  de- 
 fence of  Parma  against  the  French.  He 
 died  in  1540.  The  History  of  Italy,  from 
 1490  to  1534,  is  his  great  work.  Though 
 occasionally  diffuse,  it  stands  in  high  esti- 
 mation for  its  impartiality  and  eloquence. 
 
 GUIDI,  Charles  Alexander,  an 
 Italian  poet,  was  bom,  in  1560,  at  Pavia, 
 and  was  patronised  by  the  duke  of  Parma, 
 and  by  the  abdicated  Christina  of  Sweden, 
 the  latter  of  whom  gave  him  apartments  in 
 her  palace.     He  died  in  1712.     His  pi  in- 
 
302  GUI 
 
 cipal  works  are,  Lyric  Poems ;  the  pasto- 
 ral of  Endymion;  and  the  tragedy  of  Am- 
 alasontha.  Giiidi  is  considered  as  the  re- 
 former of  Italian  lyrical  poetry.  In  bis 
 disposition  ho  was  prudent,  affable,  and 
 singularly  disinterested. 
 
 GUID'O  REM,  who  is  justly  ranked 
 among  the  most  eminent  Italian  painters, 
 was  burn,  in  1574,  at  Bologna, and  studied 
 at  first  under  Denis  Calvart,  and  next  in 
 the  school  of  the  Caracci.  His  splendid 
 talents  soon  made  his  pictures  eagerly 
 sought  for;  and  he  was  employed,  honour- 
 ed, and  caressed,  by  nobles,  cardinals, 
 princes,  and  popes.  An  unfortunate  love 
 of  gaming,  however,  rendered  unavailing 
 the  gifts  of  nature  and  fortune;  and,  in 
 1642,  he  died  in  a  state  of  poverty  and  de- 
 jection. Guido  is  preeminently  the  pain- 
 ter of  beautv,  expression,  and  »raee.  Among 
 his  masterpieces  are,  a  Christ  crowned 
 with  Thorns;  and  the  Penitence  of  St. 
 Peter. 
 
 GUIGNES,  Joskph  dk,  a  French  ori- 
 entalist, was  born,  in  1721,  at  Pontoise; 
 studied  the  eastern  languages  under  Four- 
 mont;  was  appointed  king's  interpreter, 
 in  1745;  was  admitted  into  the  Academy 
 of  Inscriptions,  in  1753;  anddied  inlSOO. 
 His  principal  work  is  a  learned  and  excel- 
 lent History  of  the  Huns,  Turks,  Mongols, 
 and  other  Western  Tartars,  in  five  vol- 
 umes quarto. 
 
 GUlLLOTIN,  Joskph  Ignatius,  a 
 French  physician,  born  atSaintes,  in  1738, 
 was  a  member  of  the  National  Assembly. 
 His  political  principles  were  marked  by 
 prudence  and  moderation.     In  the  benevo- 
 
 GU1 
 
 France,  was  born  in  1519;  and  was  as- 
 sassinated, by  Poltrot,  in  1563.  He  dis- 
 tinguished himself  by  his  bravery  at  the 
 siege  of  Boulogne,  his  defence  of  Metz 
 against  Charles  V.,  his  masterly  conduct 
 after  the  defeat  of  St.  Quentin,  his  con- 
 quest of  Calais  and  Thionville,  and  his 
 victories  at  Renti  and  Dreux.  Bigotry 
 and  boundless  ambition  were  the  faults  of 
 Guise;  and,  indeed,  of  all  of  the  individu- 
 als of  his  family. 
 
 GUISE,  Charles  of,  better  known  as 
 the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  was  born,  in 
 1525,  at  Joinville.  He  was  the  minister 
 of  Francis  II.  and  Charles  IX. ;  and  his 
 bigotry,  ambition,  and  violence,  rendered 
 him  the  scourge  of  his  country.  By  his 
 furious  persecution  of  the  protestants,  he 
 lighted  up  the  flames  of  civil  war;  but  it 
 is  not  true  that  he  personally  bore  a  part 
 in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  he 
 being  then  at  Rome.     He  died  in  1574. 
 
 GUISE,  Henry  of  Lorraine,  duke 
 of,  the  son  of  him  who  was  slain  by  Polt- 
 rot, was  born  in  1550,  and  was  liberally 
 endowed  with  all  the  gifts  of  nature.  His 
 person,  manners,  and  intellect,  were  of  a 
 superior  order,  and  his  bravery  nothing 
 could  shake.  But  his  insane  lust  of  power 
 made  him  the  bane  of  France.  After  hav- 
 ing signalized  his  valour  in  Hungary 
 against  the  Turks,  he  turned  it  against  the 
 French  protestants,  whom  he  hated  with  a 
 deadly  hate.  He  bore  a  part  in  the  battles 
 of  Massignac,  Jarnac,  Montcontour,  and 
 Dormans.  In  the  last  of  these  he  received 
 a  wound  on  the  face,  from  the  scar  of 
 which  he  gained  the  appellation  of  Balafre. 
 
 lent  hope  of  rendering  capital  punishment I  At  length,  he  aspired  to  the  crown,  and 
 less  painful,  he  proposed  that  criminals  became  the  head  of  the  celebrated  League, 
 should  be  decapitated.  The  proposition  His  career  was,  however,  cut  short  in 
 was  adopted;  but,  to  the  severe  and  per- 1  1588,  he  being  assassinated,  by  order  of 
 manenl  annoyance  of  his  feelings, his  name  I  Henry  III.,  as  he  was  entering  the  council 
 
 was  gi\en  to  the  instrument  of  death.     He 
 died,  much  regretted,  in  1814. 
 
 GUISCHARDT,  Chari.ks  Theoph- 
 ii. i (S,  a  writer  on  tactics,  was  born,  in 
 1721,  at  HagdeburKh;  and,  after  having 
 acquired  considerable  reputation  as  a  Lu- 
 theran preacher,  he  adopted  the  military 
 profession,  and  served  as  an  ensign  in  the 
 
 chamber. 
 
 GUISE,  Henry  II.  of  Lorraine, 
 duke  of,  a  grandson  of  the  foregoing,  was 
 born  in  1614.  Intended  originally  for  the 
 church,  for  which  his  gallantries,  his  prod 
 igality,  and  his  martial  propensities,  ren- 
 dered him  an  unfit  subject,  his  accession  tc 
 the  title,  by  the  death  of  his  elder  brother, 
 butch  troops.     His   Military   Memoirs  on   enabled  him  to  follow  the  bent  of  his  incli- 
 
 the  Greeks  ami  Romans  attracted  the  no 
 tice  of  Frederic  of  Prussia,  who,  in  17.">7, 
 made  him  his  ai.l-de-  camp,  and  gave  him 
 the  name  of  Quintus  Icilius,  who  was  one 
 of  Caesar's  best  officers.  Guischardt  dis- 
 tinguished himself  in  the  Prussian  Bervice, 
 but  is  said  to  have  increased  his  fortune 
 bv   exactions   and    pillage.      In    1771    be 
 
 nations.  After  having  joined  in  the  rebel- 
 lion of  the  count  de  Soissons,  and  been 
 pardoned,  he  went  to  Rome,  in  1647,  and, 
 while  there,  was  invited  by  the  revolted 
 Neapolitans,  to  put  himself  at  their  head. 
 In  their  cause  be  displayed  great  gallantry, 
 but  he  at  length  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
 Spaniards.     In    1654  he   made   an  unsuc- 
 
 published  his  Historical  and  Critical  Me-  cessfiil  attempt  to  recover  the  lost  diadem 
 
 moirs  on  several   Points  of  •  Military  Anti-  of  Naples.     He  died  in  16*64. 
 
 quity;  and,  in  the  following  year,  he  died  (JllZOT,  Elizabeth   Charlotte 
 
 at  Berlin.  P  tTJUWA.,  a  native  of  Paris,  was   born  in 
 
 GUISE,  Fb.  AH  CIS  of  Lorraihk,  doke  1773.      Two    novels,   her   first   attempts, 
 
 of,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  warriors  of  were  written  for  the  pioas  purpose  of  pro 
 
GUT 
 
 viding  for  the  wants  of  a  mother  and  sis- 
 ter. In  1812  she  married  M.  Guizot,  an 
 eminent  literary  man,  and  she  subsequent- 
 ly acquired  considerable  reputation.  Her 
 Rodolph  and  Victor,  and  her  Domestic  Ed- 
 ucation, gained  the  prize  of  the  French 
 Academy,  as  works  beneficial  to  morals. 
 
 GUNTER,  Edmund,  a  mathematician, 
 was  born,  in  1581,  in  Herefordshire,  was 
 educated  at  Westminster  School,  and  at 
 Christ  Church  College,  Oxford;  and  died 
 in  1619,  after  having  been  for  six  years 
 professor  of  astronomy  at  Gresham  Col- 
 lege. Gunter  invented  a  portable  quadrant, 
 and  the  scale  which  bears  his  name ;  im- 
 proved the  sector,  and  various  instruments ; 
 introduced  the  measuring  chain,  which  is 
 now  in  use;  discovered  the  rate  of  the 
 magnetic  variation;  and  published  the 
 Canon  Triangulorum,  and  other  mathe- 
 matical treatises. 
 
 GUY 
 
 303 
 
 GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS,  king  of 
 Sweden,  the  grandson  of  Gustavus  Vasa, 
 was  born  in  1594,  and  succeeded  to  the 
 crown  at  the  age  of  seventeen.  The  first 
 eighteen  years  of  his  reign  were  employed 
 in  ameliorating  the  situation  of  his  sub- 
 iects,  and  in  bringing  to  a  glorious  con- 
 clusion a  war  in  which  his  country  was 
 involved  with  Denmark,  Russia,  and  Po- 
 land. In  1630  he  entered  upon  a  still 
 more  heroic  career.  For  the  noble  purpose 
 of  rescuing  the  protestants  of  Germany 
 from  the  tyranny  of  the  house  of  Austria, 
 he  led  into  the  empire  an  army  of  sixty 
 thousand  men.  In  1631  and  1632  he  de- 
 feated Tillv,  near  Leipsic,  and  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Lech;  but,  in  1633,  on  the  16th  of 
 November,  he  fell,  in  the  moment  of  vic- 
 tory, at  the  battle  of  Lutzen.  To  the  vir- 
 tues of  a  man  Gustavus  joined  the  talents 
 of  a  consummate  general.  The  military 
 spirit  which  he  had  inspired  long  survived 
 him  in  his  army.  He  was  a  lover  of  learn- 
 ing, humane,  equitable,  generous,  and 
 pious;  and  even  the  most  splendid  suc- 
 cesses never  prompted  hirn  to  deviate  from 
 his  wonted  simplicity  of  manners,  and 
 moderation  of  conduct. 
 
 GUTHRIE,  Wilmam,  an  indefatiga- 
 ble  Scotch  writer,  was  born,  in  1708,  at 
 
 Brechin;  was  educated  at  King's  College, 
 Aberdeen;  settled  in  London  as  an  author, 
 and  was  pensioned  by  the  government; 
 and  died  in  1770.  Among  his  works  are, 
 A  History  of  England,  in  three  folio  vol- 
 umes ;  A  History  of  Scotland,  ten  volumes  ; 
 An  Universal  History,  thirteen  volumes. 
 Of  the  last,  however,  he  is  known  to  have 
 written  only  a  part;  and  the  Geographical 
 Grammar,  which  bears  his  name,  is  be- 
 lieved to  have  been  compiled  by  Knox  the 
 bookseller.  Guthrie  also  translated  Quin- 
 tillian,  and  Cicero's  Offices  and  Epis- 
 tles. 
 
 GUTTEMBERG,  John,  the  inventor 
 of  printing,  was  born  at  Mentz,  in  1400; 
 went  to  Strasburgh  in  1424 ;  and  appears 
 to  have  resided  there  till  1444.  About 
 1436  he  first  practised  the  typographical 
 art.  Wood  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
 material  of  his  original  types.  In  1444 
 he  removed  to  Mentz,  where,  in  1450,  he 
 entered  into  partnership  with  Faust.  He 
 died  in  1468. 
 
 GUYON,  Jane  Bouvier  de  la 
 Motte,  a  French  lady,  who  became  cele- 
 brated through  her  religious  enthusiasm, 
 was  born,  in  1648,  at  Angers,  and  was 
 left  a  widow  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight. 
 Her  mind  had  naturally  a  strong  devotional 
 tendency.  It  was  now  heated  by  medita- 
 tion ;  and,  misled  by  thjs  bishop  of  Geneva 
 and  two  monks,  she  was  taught  to  believe 
 that  Heaven  destined  her  for  an  extraor- 
 dinary mission.  For  five  years  she  wan- 
 dered about,  preaching  her  doctrines. 
 During  that  period  she  published  her  Short 
 and  easy  Method  of  Praying;  and  The 
 Song  of  Songs  interpreted  according  to  its 
 mystical  Sense.  The  system  of  quietism 
 which  she  taught,  and  which  was  first  ima- 
 gined in  Spain  by  Michael  Molinos,  ex- 
 cited the  attention  of  the  French  clergy, 
 and  drew  upon  her  a  long  persecution,  in 
 which  Bossuet  was  a  principal  actor. 
 Fenelon  in  vain  espoused  her  cause.  After 
 having  been  confined  in  the  Bastile  and 
 various  prisons,  she  was  liberated  in  1702, 
 and  she  died  at  Blois,  in  1719.  Her  works 
 occupy  thirty-nine  volumes,  and  are  now 
 almost  forgotten.  Some  of  her  poems  have 
 been  translated  by  Cowper. 
 
 GUYTON  DE  MORVEAU,  Louis 
 Bernard,  an  eminent  French  chemist, 
 was  born,  in  1737,  at  Dijon;  studied  the 
 law;  and,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  was  ad- 
 vocate general  to  the  parliament  of  his 
 native  city.  The  bar,  however,  he  relin- 
 quished for  the  sciences,  and  in  1774  he 
 was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at 
 Dijon.  He  was  successively  a  member  of 
 the  Legislative  Assembly,  the  Convention, 
 the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  and  the 
 Council  of  Five  Hundred;  voted  the  death 
 of  the  king;  and  was  violently  revolution- 
 ary in  his  principles.     Napoleon  gave  hin> 
 
304 
 
 HAG 
 
 the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honour,  and  the 
 title  of  baron.  He  died  in  1816.  Guyton 
 de  Morveau  made  several  discoveries  in 
 chemistry.  Among  his  works  are,  The 
 Chemical  Dictionary  of  the  Methodical 
 Encyclopedia;  and  Elements  of  Theoreti- 
 cal and  Practical  Chemistry  He  was  one 
 of  the  principal  editors  of  the  Annals  of 
 Chemistry. 
 
 GWLWET,  Button,  was  born  in 
 England,  in  1732,  and,  after  engaging  in 
 commercial  pursuits,  emigrated  to  America 
 in  1770,  and  resided  for  about  two  years 
 
 HAL 
 
 at  Charleston,  S.  C.  He  then  removed  to 
 Georgia,  and  having  purchased  a  planta- 
 tion turned  his  attention  to  agriculture. 
 On  the  commencement  of  the  revolution, 
 he  took  an  active  part  in  the  affairs  of  this 
 state ;  was  elected  a  representative  in  the 
 general  congress  of  1775,  1776,  and  1777, 
 and  signed  the  declaration  of  independence. 
 In  May,  1777,  he  was  a  candidate  for  the 
 chair  of  governor  of  the  state,  but  failed ; 
 and  on  the  27th  of  the  same  month  was 
 shot  in  a  duel  with  a  political  rival,  general 
 M'lutosh. 
 
 H 
 
 HADLEY,  John,  an  English  philoso- 
 pher, who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
 eighteenth  century,  was  vice-president  of 
 the  Royal  Society ;  and  wrote  several  pa- 
 pers in  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
 between  1723  and  1736.  He  invented,  or 
 rather,  perhaps,  brought  into  use,  the 
 quadrant  which  bears  his  name,  and  also 
 a  reflecting  telescope. 
 
 HAFIZ,  or  HAFEZ,  Mohammed 
 Sii  EMSEDDIN,  a  celebrated  poet,  the 
 Anacreon  of  Persia,  was  born  at  Shiraz, 
 in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century) 
 and  died  there  in  1389.  The  monument 
 erected  to  him  by  his  countrymen  was 
 destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1825.  Love, 
 wine,  and  luxurious  indolence  were  the 
 delights  of  Hafiz's  life.  Some  of  his  Odes 
 have  been  translated  by  Sir  W.  Jones, 
 Richardson,  Nott,  and  Hindley. 
 
 HAGEDORN,  Frederic,  a  celebrated 
 German  poet,  was  born,  in  1708,  at  Ham- 
 burgh ;  was  educated  in  the  college  of  his 
 native  place;  was  private  secretary  to  the 
 Danish  ambassador  at  London,  from  1729 
 till  '1731;  and,  in  1733,  was  appointed 
 secretary  to  the  British  factory  at  Ham- 
 burgh ;  which  office  he  held  till  his  decease 
 in  1754.  Hagedorn  has  been  called  the 
 German  Horace  and  Prior.  He  funned 
 himself  chiefly  on  the  English  school  of 
 poetry,  and,  consequently,  was  in  a  state 
 of  hostility  with  Gottsched.  His  style  is 
 pure  and  flowing.  His  fables,  Moral 
 Poems,  Songs,  and  Tales,  are  his  princi- 
 pal works. 
 
 HAGER,  Joseph,  an  eminent  Chinese 
 scholar,  was  born,  about  1750,  at  Milan; 
 studied  at  Vienna;  passed  some  time  at 
 London,  where  he  published  various  works 
 on  the  Chinese  language,  and  a  Prospectus 
 of  a  Dictionary;  was  subsequently  pro- 
 fessor of  the  oriental  languages  at  ravia, 
 and  librarian  at  Milan;  and  died  in  the 
 latter  city  in  1820.  Among  his  works  are, 
 Elements  of  the  Chinese  Language;  The 
 Chinese  Pantheon;   and  a  Dissertation  on 
 
 the  Babylonian  Inscriptions.  It  was  Hager 
 who  detected  the  historical  forgery  com- 
 mitted by  Vella,  in  1789. 
 
 HAKLUYT,  Richard,  was  born,  in 
 1553,  at  Eyton,  in  Herefordshire;  was 
 educated  at  Westminster  School,  and  at 
 Christ  Church,  Oxford;  gave  a  course  of 
 lectures  on  cosmography  at  the  university; 
 was  chaplain  to  the  English  ambassador  at 
 Paris,  from  1584  to  1589;  and  died,  in 
 1616,  prebendary  of  Westminster,  and 
 rector  of  Wetheringset.  His  principal 
 work  is  the  valuable  collection,  in  three 
 folio  volumes,  of  the  Voyages  and  Discov- 
 eries of  the  English  Nation.  Purchas,  iu 
 his  Pilgrimage,  availed  himself  of  Hak- 
 luyt's  manuscripts. 
 
 *:£** 
 
 HALE,  Sir  Matthew,  an  eminent 
 and  incorruptible  judge,  born,  in  1609,  at 
 Alderley,  in  Gloucestershire,  was  the  son 
 of  a  retired  barrister;  studied  diligently 
 at  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  and  Lincoln's 
 Inn ;  and  was  called  to  the  bar  not  long 
 before  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war. 
 Though  he  acted  as  counsel  for  Strafford, 
 Laud,  Hamilton,  and  many  others  of  the 
 king's  party,  and  even  for  Charles  himself, 
 he  conformed  to  the  republican  govern- 
 ment, and  became  a  lay  member  of  the 
 Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines.  By 
 dint  of  importunity,  Cromwell  prevailed 
 upon  him,  in  1654,  to  become  one  of  the 
 
HAL 
 
 Justices  of  the  Common  Bench,  out  he 
 soon  offended  the  Protector  by  refusing 
 to  warp  the  laws,  and  the  resuh  was,  that 
 he  thenceforth  refused  to  try  criminal 
 causes.  Having  promoted  the  Restora- 
 tion, he  was,  in  1660,  appointed  chief 
 baron  of  the  exchequer,  and,  in  1671, 
 chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench.  He  died 
 in  1676.  The  seat  of  judgment  was  never 
 more  purelv  filled  than  by  Sir  Matthew 
 Hale.  No  influence,  no  power,  could  turn 
 him  aside  from  the  path  of  rectitude.  His 
 private  character  was  equally  estimable. 
 The  knowledge  of  Hale  was  not  confined 
 to  the  law,  but  extended  to  divinity,  math- 
 ematics, and  history,  upon  all  of  which 
 subjects  works  of  his  are  extant.  His 
 principal  religious  production  is  Contem- 
 plations, Moral  and  Divine.  Among  his 
 legal  labours  are,  A  History  of  the  Pleas 
 of  the  Crown;  and  A  History  of  the  Com- 
 mon Law  of  England. 
 
 HALE,  Nathan,  a  soldier  of  the 
 American  revolution,  was  born  in  Coven- 
 try, Connecticut,  and  was  graduated  at  Yale 
 College,  in  1773.  Devoting  himself  to  the 
 cause  of  the  colonies,  in  the  contest  with 
 Great  Britain,  he  received  a  captain's 
 commission  in  the  regiment  of  Colonel 
 Knowlton.  After  the  retreat  of  general 
 Washington  from  Long  Island,  Captain 
 Hale  was  induced,  by  the  hope  of  render- 
 ing important  service  to  his  country,  to 
 visit  in  disguise  the  camp  of  the  enemy, 
 and  obtain  information  of  their  resources 
 and  future  plans.  Having  effected  his 
 purposes,  he  was  arrested  in  attempting  to 
 return,  and  executed  on  the  following 
 morning.  His  sentence  was  carried  into 
 effect  in  the  most  unfeeling  manner;  he 
 was  refused  the  attendance  of  a  clergyman, 
 and  the  letters  which  he  wrote  to  his 
 mother  a  short  time  before  his  death  were 
 destroyed. 
 
 HALIFAX,  George  SAVILE,  mar- 
 quis of,  a  statesman,  was  born  in  1630; 
 contributed  to  the  restoration  of  Charles  II. 
 and  was  rewarded  with  a  coronet;  was 
 appointed,  in  1672,  one  of  the  negotiators 
 to  treat  for  a  general  peace ;  opposed  the 
 exclusion  bill,  by  which  conduct  he  excited 
 the  indignation  of  the  Commons;  assisted 
 in  bringing  about  the  revolution,  and  was 
 made  privy  seal,  but  soon  resigned,  and 
 went  into  opposition;  and  died  in  1695. 
 He  wrote  Advice  to  a  Daughter;  and 
 various  political  tracts. 
 
 HALIFAX,  Charles  MONTAGUE, 
 earl  of,  a  statesman  and  poet,  grandson 
 of  the  earl  of  Manchester,  was  born,  in 
 1661,  at  Horton,  in  Northamptonshire; 
 was  educated  at  Westminster  School,  and 
 at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  became 
 chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1694,  first 
 lord  of  the  treasury  in  1699,  and  a  peer 
 in  1700;  was  twice  vainly  impeached  by 
 
 HAL 
 
 305 
 
 the  Tories  in  the  reign  of  Anne;  was 
 raised  to  an  earldom  by  George  I. ;  and 
 died  in  1715.  The  funding  system  had 
 its  birth  under  his  administration.  His 
 Poems,  once  the  object  of  venal  or  mis- 
 taken praise,  are  forgotten.  Pope  has 
 satirised  him,  under  the  name  of  Bufo. 
 
 HALL,  Joseph,  a  divine  and  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1574,  at  Ashby  de  la  Zouch,  in 
 Leicestershire,  and  was  educated  at  Ema- 
 nuel College,  Cambridge.  After  having 
 held  the  livings  of  Halsted  and  Waltham, 
 and  the  deanery  of  Worcester,  and  been 
 chosen  as  one  of  the  English  divines  de- 
 puted to  the  synod  of  Dort,  he  was  raised, 
 in  1627,  to  the  see  of  Exeter,  whence,  in 
 1641,  he  was  translated  to  Norwich. 
 Though  he  had  refused  to  persecute  the 
 puritans,  yet,  having  joined  the  other 
 bishops  in  the  celebrated  protest  against 
 laws  made  during  their  absence  from  the 
 upper  house,  he  was  committed  to  the 
 Tower,  and  his  estate  was  subsequently 
 sequestrated.  He  died  in  1656.  His  the- 
 ological works  gained  for  him  the  title  of 
 the  English  Seneca.  His  Satires,  which 
 appeared  in  1597  and  1599,  under  the 
 title  of  Virgidemiarium,  are  spirited  in 
 their  sentiment  and  language,  and  often 
 very  musically  versified. 
 
 I4ALL,  Lyman,  a  signer  of  the  declar- 
 ation of  independence,  was  born  in  Con- 
 necticut about  the  year  1731,  and  after 
 receiving  a  collegiate  education,  and  ac- 
 quiring a  competent  knowledge  of  medicine, 
 removed  to  Georgia  in  1752.  On  the 
 commencement  of  the  struggle  with  Great 
 Britain,  he  entered  warmly  into  the  cause 
 of  the  colonies,  and  in  1775  was  appointed 
 delegate  to  Congress,  first  only  from  the 
 parish  of  St.  John,  and  afterwards  in  the 
 same  year  from  the  colony  of  Georgia 
 To  this  station  he  was  annually  re-elected 
 until  1780,  when  he  finally  retired  from  the 
 national  legislature.  In  17S3,  he  was 
 elected  governor  of  Georgia,  and  after 
 enjoying  this  office  for  a  time  went  into 
 retirement,  and  died  at  his  residence  in 
 Burke  County,  about  the  sixtieth  year  of 
 his  age. 
 
 HALLER,  Albert  Von,  a  native  of 
 Switzerland,  who  has  many  claims  to 
 fame,  was  born,  in  1708,  at  Berne,  and 
 displayed  even  in  childhood,  the  most 
 extraordinary  talents.  Having  chosen  the 
 medical  profession,  he  studied  at  Tubingen 
 and  Leyden,  after  which  he  visited  Eng- 
 land and  France,  and  then  proceeded  to 
 Basil,  to  make  himself  master  of  mathe- 
 matics under  James  Bernouilli.  Botany 
 also  became  one  of  his  favourite  pursuits, 
 and  he  began  to  display  those  poetical 
 powers  which  eventually  ranked  him 
 among  the  standard  German  poets.  For 
 nineteen  years  he  was  professor  of  anat- 
 omy, surgery,  and  botany,  at  Gottingen, 
 
306 
 
 HAM 
 
 at  the  expiration  of  which  period  he  re- 
 turned to  his  native  country.  There  he 
 resided,  honoured  by  his  fellow  citizens, 
 for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century ;  con- 
 tinued to  benefit  science  by  his  literary 
 labours;  and  filled  several  important 
 offices  in  the  state.  He  died  in  1777. 
 Among  his  numerous  productions  are, 
 Poems  ;  Romances  ;  the  collection  of 
 Bibliothecae,  in  ten  quarto  volumes;  Pre- 
 lections; Elements  of  Physiology ;  Out- 
 lines of  Physiology;  and  various  works  on 
 botany. 
 
 HALLEY,  Edmund,  one  of  the  most 
 eminent  of  British  astronomers  and  mathe- 
 maticians, was  born,  in  1656,  at  Hagger- 
 ston,  near  London;    was  educated  at  St. 
 Paul's   School,   and    at   Queen's    College, 
 Oxford;   and  displayed  such  a  precocity  of 
 talent  that,  at  the  age  of  only  nineteen,  he 
 gave  to  the  world  A  Direct  and  Geometri- 
 cal Method  of  finding  the  Aphelia  and  Ex- 
 centricity  of  Planets.     In  1676  he  visited 
 St.  Helena,  where  he  remained  for  twelve 
 months,   observing   and   classing  the  stars 
 of  the   southern    hemisphere,   of  which  he 
 subsequently    published    a    Catalogue;     in  I 
 1680  he  made  a  continental  tour  with  Mr. 
 Nelson ;    in    1686  he   was    intrusted    with  i 
 the  publication  of  the.  Principia  by  New- 
 ton, to  which   he  prefixed  a  copy  of  Latin 
 verses;    and  in   1696  he  was  made  comp- 1 
 trollcr  of  the   mint    at    Chester;    in  1698' 
 and  1699  he  made  two  extensive  voyages  I 
 to  ascertain  the  variations  of  the  compass, 
 the    result   of    which    he    published    in    A I 
 General  Chart;    in  1703  he  was  employed' 
 by    the    emperor    to    survey    the  coast    of 
 Dalmatia;    in   the  same  year  he  was  ap- 
 pointed Savilian  professor   at  Oxford;    in 
 1705  he  made  public  his  valuable  researches  > 
 on  the  orbits  of  comets;    in   1713   he  be- 1 
 came  secretary  to  the  Royal  Society;   and,i 
 in  1719,  he  succeeded  Flamsteed  as  astron- 
 omer   royal.     The    remainder    of  his    life 
 was  chieflv  spent  in  sedulously  performing 
 the  duties  of  the   last-mentioned   office,  es- 
 pecially   in   completing   the   theory   of  the 
 motion  of  the  moon.     He  died  in  his  chair, 
 without  a  groan,  in  1741.     Besides  numer- 
 ous papers  in  the   Philosophical  Transac- 
 tions, he  published  A  Theory  of  the  Vari- 
 ation   of   the    Compass;     A    History    and 
 Physical  Cause  of  the  Trade  Winds;    and 
 Miscellanea    Curiosa:    translated    Apollo- 
 nius  de  Sectione  Ration  is  into  Latin;    and 
 assisted  in  bringing  out  Gregory's  edition 
 of  the  Conies  of  Apollonius.     His  Astro- 
 nomical Tables  were  printed  in  1752. 
 
 HAMILTON,  Count  A  n  i  iiony,  a  witty 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1646,  in  Ireland; 
 was  taken  to  France  when  a  child  by  his 
 parents;  returned  at  the  period  of  the 
 Restoration;  fought  for  James  II.  in  Ire- 
 land; finally  settled  in  France;  and  died 
 in   1720.     He   is   the  author  of  Memoirs 
 
 HAM 
 
 of  Count  Grammont;  Fairy  Tales;  and 
 Poems;  which  display  great  wit,  spright- 
 liness,  and  elegance. 
 
 HAMILTON,  Alexander,  was  born 
 in  the  island  of  Nevis  in  1757.  At  the 
 age  of  sixteen,  he  accompanied  his  mother 
 to  New  York,  and  was  placed  at  Columbia 
 College,  where  he  soon  gave  proof  of  ex- 
 traordinary talent,  by  the  publication  of 
 some  political  essays,  of  such  strength  and 
 sagacity  that  they  were  generally  attributed 
 to  Mr.  Jay.  Ai.  the  age  of  nineteen  he 
 entered  the  American  army,  and  in  1777 
 was  appointed  aid-de-camp  of  Washington, 
 with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  colonel.  In 
 this  capacity  he  served  during  the  remain- 
 der of  the  war,  and  at  the  siege  of  York- 
 town,  led  in  person  the  detachment  that 
 carried  by  assault  one  of  the  enemy's  out- 
 works. After  the  war  he  commenced  the 
 study  of  the  law,  entered  into  its  practice 
 in  New  York  and  soon  rose  to  distinction. 
 In  1782  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  con- 
 gress from  the  state  of  New  York  ;  in  1787 
 a  member  of  the  convention  which  formed 
 tlie  constitution  of  the  United  States,  and 
 in  1787  and  1788  wrote  in  connection  with 
 Mr.  Jay  and  Mr.  Madison,  the  essays 
 published  under  the  title  of  The  Federal- 
 ist. In  1789  he  was  placed  by  Washing- 
 ton at  the  head  of  the  treasury  department, 
 and  while  in  this  situation  rendered  the 
 most  efficient  service  to  the  country,  by  the 
 establishment  of  an  admirable  system  of 
 finance,  which  raised  public  credit  from 
 the  lowest  depression  to  an  unprecedented 
 height.  In  1795  he  retired  from  office,  in 
 order  to  secure  by  his  professional  labours 
 a  more  ample  provision  for  his  numerous 
 family.  In  1798  his  public  services  were 
 again  required,  to  take  the  second  com- 
 mand in  the  army  that  was  raised  on  ac- 
 count of  the  apprehended  invasion  of  the 
 French.  On  the  disbanding  of  the  army, 
 he  resumed  the  practice  of  the  law  in  New 
 York,  and  continued  to  acquire  new  suc- 
 cess and  reputation.  In  1S04  he  fell  in  a 
 duel  with  Colonel  Burr,  vice  president  of 
 the  United  States,  and  died  universally  la- 
 mented and  beloved.  Besides  his  share  in 
 the  Federalist,  General  Hamilton  was  the 
 author  of  numerous  congressional  reports, 
 the  essays  of  Pacificus,  and  the  essays  of 
 Phocion.  A  collection  of  his  works  in 
 three  vols.  8vo.  was  issued  at  New  York 
 some  time  after  his  death.  He  was  a  man 
 of  transcendant  abilities,  and  unsullied  in- 
 tegrity, and  no  one  laboured  more  efficient- 
 ly in  the  organization  of  the  present  fede- 
 ral government. 
 
 HAMILTON,  William  Gerard, 
 was  born,  ii.  1729,  in  Lincoln's  Inn;  re- 
 ceived his  education  at  Westminster 
 School,  and  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford; 
 sat  both  in  the  English  and  Irish  parlia- 
 ments ;  was  for  several  years  chancellor  of 
 
HAM 
 
 the  exchequer  in  Ireland ;  and  died  in  1796. 
 He  obtained  the  appellation  of  Single 
 Speech  Hamilton,  from  his  having  deliv- 
 ered only  a  single,  but  excellent,  speech 
 in  the  British  House  of  Commons:  in  the 
 Irish  House  he  was  a  frequent  speaker. 
 His  Parliamentary  Logic,  and  his  Speech- 
 es, appeared  after  his  decease.  The  Let- 
 ters of  Junius  have  idly  been  imputed  to 
 him. 
 
 HAMILTON,  Gavin,  an  artist,  was 
 born  at  Lanark,  in  Scotland,  and  went  in 
 his  youth  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  under 
 Agostino  Masucchi.  He  settled  in  that 
 city,  and  died  there  in  1797.  His  paint- 
 ings from  the  Iliad  are  among  his  principal 
 works.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was 
 employed,  with  much  success,  in  making 
 excavations  to  recover  buried  antique 
 monuments.  He  published  a  work  inti- 
 tled  Schola  Italica  Picture. 
 
 HAMILTON,  William,  an  artist,  was 
 born,  in  1750,  at  Chelsea,  and  studied  un- 
 der Zucchi  at  Rome,  and  also  at  the  Royal 
 Academy.  He  became  a  royal  academi- 
 cian, in  1789,  and  died  in  1801.  Many  of 
 Hamilton's  pictures  were  painted  for  the 
 Shakspeare  Gallery,  Macklin's  Bible  and 
 Poets,  and  Tomkin's  edition  of  the  Sea- 
 sons. 
 
 HAMILTON,  Elizabeth,  a  female 
 of  great  talents  and  acquirements,  was 
 born,  in  1758,  at  Belfast;  was  brought  up 
 by  an  uncle  who  resided  near  Stirling,  in 
 Scotland ;  acquired  reputation  by  her  pro- 
 ductions, and  affection  and  respect  by  her 
 disposition  and  character;  and  died,  un- 
 married, at  Harrogate,  July  28,  1816. 
 Among  her  works  are,  Letters  of  a  Hin- 
 doo Rajah ;  Memoirs  of  Modern  Philoso- 
 phers (a  satire  on  modern  philosophism)  ; 
 The  Life  of  Agrippina ;  The  Cottagers  of 
 Glenburnie;  Popular  Essays;  Letters  on 
 the  Elementary  Principles  of  Education; 
 and  Letters  on  the  Formation  of  the  R,e- 
 ligious  and  Moral  Principle. 
 
 HAMPDEN,  John,  a  man  immortal- 
 ized by  his  opposition  to  the  encroach- 
 ments of  kingly  authority,  was  born,  in 
 1594,  in  London,  and  was  educated  at 
 Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  In  1621  he 
 was  first  elected  a  member  of  the  House 
 of  Commons,  and  was  returned  in  each  of 
 the  succeeding  parliaments.  Though  a 
 consistent  enemy  of  the  court  measures, 
 and  though  his  dislike  of  those  measures 
 induced  him  to  form  a  design  of  emigra- 
 ting, which  the  government  frustrated,  he 
 did  not  act  any  prominent  part  in  the 
 country  till  1636,  when  he  boldly  resisted 
 in  a  court  of  law  the  illegal  imposition  of 
 ship  money  by  the  king.  He  was  defeat- 
 ed, but  his  conduct  gained  the  warm  ap- 
 plause of  every  friend  of  liberty.  In  1642 
 he  was  one  of  the  five  members  whom  the 
 misjudging  monarch  attempted  to  seize  on 
 
 HAN 
 
 307 
 
 a  charge  of  treason.  On  the  breaking  out 
 of  the  war  he  accepted  the  command  of  a 
 regiment;  and,  in  1643,  he  was  mortally 
 wounded  in  a  skirmish,  at  Chalgrove-field, 
 in  Oxfordshire.  His  talents  were  of  a 
 high  order,  and  he  was  equally  estimable 
 in  public  and  in  private  life. 
 
 HANCARVILLE,  Peter  Francis 
 Hugh  d',  an  eminent  antiquary,  was 
 born,  in  1729,  at  Nanci ;  was  a  member 
 of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  and  of  other 
 learned  bodies ;  and  died  at  Rome,  in  1800. 
 His  chief  works  are,  Etruscan,  Greek, 
 and  Roman  Antiquities;  and  Inquiries  in- 
 to the  History,  Origin,  Spirit,  and  Pro- 
 gress of  the  Arts  of  Greece. 
 
 HANCOCK,  John,  an  American  pa- 
 triot and  statesman,  was  born  in  Quincy, 
 Massachusetts,  in  1737,  and  under  the  pat- 
 ronage of  a  wealthy  uncle,  received  a  lib- 
 eral education  and  was  graduated  at  Har- 
 vard College  in  1754.  On  leaving  college, 
 he  entered  the  counting  house  of  his  uncle, 
 by  whose  sudden  death  in  1764  he  suc- 
 ceeded to  great  riches  and  the  management 
 of  an  extensive  business.  In  1766  he  was 
 chosen  a  member  of  the  assembly,  and 
 soon  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  in 
 the  cause  of  the  colonies.  In  1774  he 
 was  elected  president  of  the  provincial 
 congress  of  Massachusetts,  and  in  the 
 following  year  president  of  the  continental 
 congress,  in  which  capacity  he  was  the 
 firet  to  affix  his  signature  to  the  declara- 
 tion of  independence.  In  this  station  he 
 continued  till  October  1777,  when  ill 
 health  induced  him  to  resign.  In  1780  he 
 was  elected  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
 and  held  that  office  for  four  successive 
 years,  and  again  from  1787  till  his  death 
 in  1793.  Governor  Hancock  was  hospita- 
 ble and  munificent,  a  man  of  excellent  tal- 
 ents for  business,  and  a  true  lover  of  his 
 country. 
 
 HANDEL  or  HAENDEL,  George 
 Frederic,  the  son  of  an  eminent  phy- 
 sician, was  born,  in  1684,  at  Halle,  in 
 Saxony,  His  father  intended  him  for  the 
 law,  but  as  nothing  could  overcome  the 
 musical  bent  of  the  youthful  Handel's 
 mind,  he  reluctantly  consented  to  his  being 
 
808  HAN 
 
 nstructed  in  music.     His  first  master  was  I 
 Zachau,  an  organist,  and  he  began  to  com- J 
 pose  in  the  ninth  year  of  his  age.     After 
 having  struggled  through  considerable  dif- 
 ficulties, but  still  kept  rising  in  reputation, 
 he  visited  Italy  in  1708;    remained  there, 
 much  admired,  during  two  years;  and  then 
 returned  to  Germany,  and  entered  into  the 
 service  of  the  elector  of  Hanover,  who  was 
 afterwards   George   I.     The  accession  of  | 
 that    prince    to    the    British   throne   fixed; 
 Handel    in    England.      In    1720    he    was 
 placed  at  the  head  of  the  Italian   opera; 
 but  this  event,  which   seemed  to  promise  i 
 fame  and  riches,  ended  in  surh  severe  lossi 
 that  his  liberty  was  often  endangered  by  I 
 angry  creditors.     After    twenty   \ears   of! 
 vexation  and  unavailing  efforts,  he  bade  a. 
 finaL  adieu   to   the  opera.     His  Oratorios, 
 however,  saved  him  from  ruin,  and  he  ul- 
 timately accumulated  a  second  fortune,  of 
 no    despicable    magnitude.      Eight    years 
 previous  to  his    death,  he  was  wholly  de- 
 prived of  sight;    and   it  was  an   affecting 
 circumstance  to  see  him  led  to  the   organ, 
 and  hear  him    perform  his  own  pathetic, 
 composition  of  "Total    eclipse,    without; 
 all  hope  of  day,"  from  the  Samson  Agon^ 
 istes  of  that  immortal  bard  who  maybe 
 considered  as  the  Handel  of  poets.     This] 
 in  manv  respects  matchless  composer  died 
 April  13,  1758. 
 
 HANMER,  Sir  Thomas,  was  born  in1 
 1676;  was  educated  at  Westminster  School, 
 and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  :  became 
 speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  in 
 1713;  held  that  high  station  more  than 
 thirty  vears ;  and  died  in  1746.  He  is  the 
 editor"  of  an  elegant  edition  of  Shaks- 
 peare. 
 
 HANNO,  a  Carthaginian  voyager,  the 
 period  of  whose  birth  is  variously  stated 
 at  from  three  hundred  to  a  thousand  years 
 B.  C.J  though  the  latter  seems  to  be  the 
 most  probable  opinion.  He  is  asserted  to 
 have  circumnavigated  Africa;  but  others 
 limit  his  discoveries  to  the  coast  between 
 the  straits  of  Gibraltar  and  Cape  Bojador. 
 The  Greek  narrative  of  his  voyage  has 
 been  translated  by  Falconer. 
 
 HANS  SACHS,  an  ancient  German 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1494,  at  Nuremberg; 
 and  died  in  1576.  He  was  a  shoemaker, 
 and  worked  all  his  life  at  that  trade. 
 "  With  the  exception  of  Lope  de  Vega," 
 says  Loeve-Veimars,  "  never  did  any  mor- 
 tal present  himself  at  the  temple  of  memo- 
 ry loaded  with  such  a  ponderous  poetic 
 baggage;"  and  we  must  admit  the  truth  of 
 the  remark,  when  we  are  told  that  honest 
 Hans  wrote  no  less  than  ten  thousand  eight 
 hundred  and  forty  compositions  in  verse, 
 among  which  are  two  hundred  and  eigh- 
 teen comedies  and  tragedies!  The  immense 
 mass  is,  however,  illumined  by  some  sparks 
 of  genuine  poetry. 
 
 HAR 
 
 HANWAY,  Jonas,  a  philanthropist, 
 was  bom,  in  1712, at  Portsmouth;  was  en- 
 gaged in  mercantile  pursuits  as  a  Russian 
 merchant,  in  the  course  of  which  he  visit- 
 ed Persia;  and  died  in  1786.  Hanway 
 was  a  man  of  great  active  humanity.  He 
 was  the  chief  founder  of  the  Marine  So- 
 ciety and  the  Magdalen  Hospital;  and  con- 
 tributed to  the  establishment  of  Sunday 
 Schools,  and  to  the  improvement  of  the 
 condition  of  climbing  boys.  Besides  his 
 Travels  in  Persia,  he  published  many  oth- 
 er works,  faulty  in  style,  but  benevolent  in 
 purpose. 
 
 HARDWICKE,  Philip  YORKE,earl 
 of,  the  son  of  an  attorney  at  Dover,  was 
 born  in  1690;  studied  at  the  Middle  Tem- 
 ple ;  became  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's 
 bench  in  1733,  after  having  been  attorney 
 and  solicitor  general;  was  appointed  lord 
 chancellor  in  1737;  obtained  the  dignity 
 of  earl  in  1754;  and  died  in  1764.  As 
 the  head  of  the  chancery  court  he  was 
 distinguished  for  ability  and  integrity. 
 He  wrote  The  Legal  Judicature  in  Chancery 
 stated;  and  a  paper  in  the  Spectator. — 
 His  son,  Philip,  who  succeeded  him  in 
 the  title,  was  born  in  1720;  received  his 
 education  at  Bene't  College,  Cambridge; 
 and  died  in  1790.  In  conjunction  with 
 his  brother  Charles,  he  published  Athenian 
 Letters ;  and  he  edited  a  Collection  of 
 State  Papers,  and  Sir  Dudley  Carleton's 
 Letters. 
 
 HARDY,  Alexander,  one  of  the 
 elder  French  dramatists,  flourished  under 
 Henry  IV.  and  Louis  XIII.;  and  died 
 about  1630.  He  was  one  of  the  most  fer- 
 tile of  theatrical  writers ;  his  plays  amount- 
 ing to  more  than  six  hundred  in  number. 
 Though  he  bore  the  title  of  poet  laureat, 
 and  though  his  muse  was  so  prolific,  he 
 lived  and  died  in  indigence. 
 
 HARGRAVE,  Francis,  an  eminent 
 lawyer,  the  son  of  an  attorney,  was  born 
 about  1741,  and  studied  at  the  Charter 
 House,  Oxford,  and  Lincoln's  Inn.  As  a 
 barrister  he  first  attracted  notice  by  his 
 excellent  argument,  which  he  afterwards 
 published,  in  the  case  of  Somerset  the 
 negro.  His  subsequent  practice,  however, 
 was  chiefly  as  a  chamber  counsel.  He 
 died  in  1821.  Among  his  principal  works 
 are,  State  Trials,  eleven  vols,  folio;  Juri- 
 dical Arguments  and  Collections,  two  vols, 
 quarto ;  Collection  of  Tracts  relative  to  the 
 English  Laws,  never  before  published ;  and 
 an  Argument  in  Defence  of  Literary  Pro- 
 perty. 
 
 HARINGTON,  Sir  John,  an  English 
 poet,  the  godson  and  favourite  of  Queen 
 Elizabeth,  was  born,  in  1561,  at  Kelston, 
 near  Bath  ;  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
 Cambridge;  was  one  of  the  wittiest  cour- 
 tiersof  that  period;  was  knighted  by  Essex 
 in  Ireland,  and  made  a  knight  of  the  Bath 
 
HAR 
 
 by  James  I. ;  and  died  in  1612.  He  trans- 
 lated the  Orlando  of  Ariosto  ;  and  wrote 
 four  books  of  Epigrams;  and  two  Tracts, 
 A   Discourse    on   the    Metamorphosis   of 
 
 Ajax,  and  An  Apologic  for  Ajax,  which 
 are  more  deserving  of  praise  for  humour 
 than  for  delicacv. 
 
 HARLEY,  Robert,  earl  of  Oxford  and 
 Mortimer,  a  celebrated  statesman,  the  son 
 of  Sir  Robert  Harley,  was  born,  in  1(561, 
 in  London.  His  first  entrance  into  public 
 life  was  at  the  period  of  the  Revolution, 
 and  for  some  years  he  acted  with  the  whig 
 party.  At  the  accession  of  Anne,  how- 
 ever, he  enrolled  himself  among  the  tories. 
 In  1702  he  was  chosen  speaker  of  the 
 House  of  Commons  ;  and  in  1704  was 
 appointed  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state. 
 The  secretaryship  he  resigned  in  1708  ; 
 but  in  1710  he  again  came  into  office,  as  a 
 commissioner  of  the  treasury  and  chancel- 
 lor of  the  exchequer.  In  1711  he  narrowly 
 escaped  being  assassinated  at  the  conned 
 board  by  the  marquis  of  Guiscard.  He 
 was  shortly  after  raised  to  the  peerage, 
 and  made  lord  high  treasurer.  The  invet- 
 erate hostility  which  at  length  broke  out 
 between  him  and  Bolingbroke  induced  him 
 to  resign  in  1714.  On  the  accession  of 
 George  I.  he  was  impeached,  and  com- 
 mitted to  the  Tower,  and  he  remained  in 
 confinement  till  1717,  when  he  was  ac- 
 quitted. After  his  liberation,  he  retired 
 wholly  from  public  business,  and  employed 
 himself  in  adding  to  his  magnificent  libra- 
 ry. He  died  in  1724.  Harley  was  fond 
 of  literature,  and  a  friend  to  literary  men. 
 He  wrote  some  political  pamphlets,  and  a 
 Letter  to  Swift  on  correcting  and  improv- 
 ing the  English  Language. 
 
 HARLOW,  George  Henry,  an  ar- 
 tist, was  born,  in  17S7,  in  Westminster; 
 studied  under  DeCort,  Drummond,  and  Sir 
 Thomas  Lawrence ;  visited  Italy  in  1818, 
 where  he  made  a  copy  of  Raphael's  Trans- 
 figuration, and  executed  a  large  original 
 composition;  and  died,  in  1819,  shortly 
 after  his  return  to  his  native  country. 
 Among  his  best  works  are,  a  scene  from 
 Shakspeare's  Henry  the  Eighth,  containing 
 portraits  of  the  Kemble  family;  Hubert 
 and  Prince  Arthur ;  and  portraits  of  Mr. 
 West  and  Mr.  Northcote. 
 
 HAR  309 
 
 tudes.     At   the   age   of  twenty  he   found 
 himself  in   Charleston,   S.  C.  with  but  a 
 dollar  or  two  in  his  pockets,  and  with    the 
 intention  of  studying  the  profession  of  the 
 law.       Having  obtained  introduction  to   a 
 lawyer,    he    prepared    himself  under   his 
 instruction    for   the    bar,  and,   in  about  a 
 twelve-month,  undertook  the  management 
 of  causes  on  his  own  account.      He  then 
 removed   from  Charleston  to    an    interior 
 district,  where  he  first  distinguished  him- 
 self, politically,  by  the  publication    of  a 
 series  of  newspaper  essays  on  a  proposed 
 change    in    the    constitution    of  the   state. 
 He  was  immediately  elected  to   the  state 
 legislature,   and  soon  afterwards   to    Con- 
 gress, where  he  was  an  efficient  member  of 
 the  federal  party,  a  powerful  advocate  of 
 the  policy  of  Washington,  and  the  personal 
 friend  of  the  most  distinguished    federal 
 statesmen  of  the  day.      Many  years  after- 
 wards he  collected   in  an   octavo  volume, 
 a   number  of  his  circulars   and   addresses 
 to    his    constituents,    and    several    of  his 
 speeches   in   Congress.     In   1797  he  pub- 
 lished a  pamphlet  entitled  Observations  on 
 the  Dispute  between  the  United  States  and 
 France,   which  passed  through  numerous 
 editions,  and  acquired  great  celebrity  both 
 at  home  and    in   Europe.      The    speeches 
 which   he  delivered  in   managing  the  im- 
 peachment of  Blount,  and  the  defence  of 
 Judge  Chase,  are  admirable  specimens  of 
 argument  and  eloquence.      On  the  down- 
 fal  of  the  federal  party  Mr.  Harper  resumed 
 the    practice    of    the    law    in    Baltimore, 
 where    he    married    the    daughter    of    the 
 distinguished  Charles  Carroll.  He  attended 
 almost  every  session  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
 from  the  time  of  its  removal  to  Washing- 
 ton to  that  of  his  death,   and  was    always 
 heard   with  respect   and  attention  by  the 
 court  and  juries.      The  federal  party  hav- 
 ing regained  the  ascendant  in   Maryland, 
 Mr.    Harper   was    immediately  elected   a 
 senator  in  Congress,  but  the  demands  of  his 
 profession  soon  obliged  him  to   resign  his 
 seat.     In    the    years    1819-20    he    visited 
 Europe  with  a  portion  of  his  family  and 
 was    absent    about    two  years.     He    died 
 suddenlv  in  Baltimore,  in   1825.     He  was 
 an  active  leader   in   the  federal  party,  an 
 able  and  learned  lawyer,  well  versed   in 
 
 HAROUN,  or  AARON  ALRASCHID,  general  literature,  and  political  economy, 
 caliph  of  the  Saracens,  ascended  the  throne  .  and  lived  with  elegant  hospitality 
 
 in  780;  obtained  many  splendid  successes  I 
 against  the  Greek  emperors;  and  died   in, 
 
 HARRINGTON,  James,  an  eminent 
 political    writer,   was    born,    in   1611,   at 
 
 808.  His  bravery,  magnificence,  and  love;  Upton,  in  Northamptonshire  ;  and  studied 
 of  letters,  have  shed  a  lustre  over  his  char-  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  widi  Chilling- 
 acter,  but  his  perfidy  and  cruelty  form  a  Worth  for  his  tutor.  Being  republican  in 
 heavy  drawback  upon  his  shining  qualities,  principle,  he  was  chosen,  in  1647,  by  the 
 HARPER,  Robert  Goodloe,  was  a  parliamentary  commissioners,  to  attend  the 
 native  of  Virginia,  but  when  very  young  captive  Charles  I.  as  one  of  the  grooms  of 
 removed  with  his  parents  to  North  Caro-  the  bedchamber,  and  he  filled  this  office 
 lina.  His  parents  were  poor,  and  in  early  with  much  propriety  and  delicacy.  Under 
 life  he  passed  through  a  number  of  vicissi-|  Cromwell  he  passed  his  time  in  retirement, 
 
310 
 
 HAR 
 
 and,  in  1656,  published  his  celebrated 
 Oceana.  In  1661  he  was  arrested  on  a 
 groundless  charge  of  treason,  and  suffered 
 so  much  hardship  during  his  imprisonment 
 that  his  health  was  permanently  impaired. 
 He  died  in  1677.  Harrington  was  a  man 
 <>f  talent,  and  a  sincere  republican.  Burke 
 describes  him  as  "  the  learned  and  ingen- 
 ious speculator  who  (in  his  works)  has 
 tossed  about  society  into  all  forms." 
 
 HARRIOT,  Thomas,  an  astronomer 
 and  mathematician,  was  horn,  in  1560,  at 
 Oxford;  was  educated  at  St.  Mary's  Hall; 
 visited  Virginia  in  1585,  and  published  an 
 account  of  it  on  his  return;  and  died  in 
 1621.  The  present  improved  method  of 
 algebraical  calculation  was  invented  by 
 Harriot,  and  Descartes  appropriated  many 
 of  his  ideas.  He  was  also  the  first  who 
 observed  the  spots  in  the  sun. 
 
 HARRIS,  JAMES,  a  metaphysician  and 
 philologist, was  born,  in  1709,  at  Salisbury; 
 received  his  education  at  Wadham  College, 
 Oxford  ;  sat  in  parliament  for  Christehurch  ; 
 was,  successively,  one  of  the  lords  of  the 
 admiralty  and  of  the  treasury;  and  secre- 
 tary and  comptroller  to  the  queen  ;  and 
 died  in  1780.  He  wrote  Treatises  on  Art, 
 on  .Music,  Painting,  and  Poetry,  and  on 
 Happiness;  Hermes,  or  a  Philosophical 
 Inquiry  concerning  Universal  Grammar; 
 Philosophical  Arrangements  ;  and  Philo- 
 logical Inquiries.  His  knowledge  of  the 
 Greek  language  was  profound,  and  his 
 powers  of  reasoning  were  remarkably 
 acute. 
 
 HARRIS,  William,  an  historian,  was 
 born,  about  1720,  at  Salisbury;  was  a  dis- 
 senting preacher  ;  was  patronised  in  his 
 historical  labours  by  Mr.  Hollis  ;  and  died, 
 at  Honiton,  in  1770.  Between  1751  and 
 1766  he  published  Lives  of  Hugh  Peters; 
 James  I.;  Charles  I.;  Oliver  Cromwell; 
 and  Charles  II.  They  are  written  in  the 
 manner  of  Bayle;  the  text  being,  in  fact, 
 subordinate  to  the  critical  notes.  Harris 
 was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  liberty,  and 
 an  honest  and  kind-hearted  man. 
 
 HARRIS.      See  M  Al.vt  KSnURY. 
 
 HARRISON,  John, an  eminent  mecha- 
 nician, was  born,  in  1683,  at  Foulby,  in 
 Yorkshire,  and  was  the  son  of  a  carpenter,! 
 who,  occasionally,  repaired  clocks  and, 
 watches.  Self-instructed,  he  at  length  at- 
 tained such  a  mastery  in  the  construction 
 of  chronometers  that  he  received  the  par- 
 liamentary reward  of  twenty  thousand 
 pounds  for  his  famous  time-keeper,  to 
 determine  the  longitude  at  sea.  Hi;  died 
 in  1776. 
 
 HARRISON,  Thomas,  an  architect, 
 
 was  born,  in  1714,  at  Richmond,  in  York- 
 shire; studied  at  Rome  lor  several  years; 
 practised  with  great  reputation  after  his 
 return  to  England;  and  died  March  2!>, 
 1829.     Amoug  his  woiks  are,  the  bridge 
 
 HAR 
 
 I  at  Lancaster ;  the  bridge,  gaol,  and  county 
 I  courts  at  Chester ;  the  column  at  Shrews- 
 bury, in  honour  of  Lord  Hill;  Count  Wo- 
 ronzow's  palace  in  the  Ukraine;  and  a 
 lighthouse  on  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea 
 He  was  the  first  projector  of  a  grand  quay 
 from  Westminster  Bridge  to  Blackfriars. 
 
 HARRISON,  Benjamin,  a  signer  of 
 the  declaration  of  independence,  was  a  na- 
 tive of  Virginia.  He  was  three  times 
 chief  magistrate  of  that  state,  and  after- 
 wards member  of  the  state  convention  that 
 assembled  to  consider  the  new  constitution 
 of  the  United  States.     He  died  in  1791. 
 
 HART,  John,  a  signer  of  the  declara- 
 tion of  independence,  was  born  in  New 
 Jersey,  and  was  one  of  the  first  delegates 
 from  that  province  to  the  general  congress 
 of  Philadelphia.  While  this  province  was 
 the  seat  of  war,  Mr.  Hart  suffered  much 
 in  his  property,  and  was  obliged  to  submit 
 to  such  personal  privations  that  his  consti- 
 tution received  a  shock  from  which  he 
 never  recovered.     He  died  in  1780. 
 
 HARTLEY,  David,  a  physician  and 
 metaphysical  writer,  was  born,  in  1705,  at 
 Armley,  in  Yorkshire;  and  studied  at  Je- 
 sus College,  Cambridge,  with  the  intention 
 of  taking  orders ;  but  some  doubts  with 
 respect  to  the  thirty-nine  articles  induced 
 him  to  relinquish  his  design  and  adopt 
 the  medical  profession.  He  practised  at 
 Newark,  Bury,  London,  and  Bath;  and 
 died  at  the  latter  place  in  1757.  Observa- 
 tions on  Man,  his  Frame,  his  Duty,  and 
 his  Expectations,  is  his  great  work;  and, 
 although  its  hypothesis  of  nervous  vibra- 
 tions has  been  ridiculed,  and  indeed  over- 
 thrown, it  contains  much  that  is  valuable, 
 and  places  in  a  very  favourable  light  the 
 talents  of  the  author. 
 
 HARTLEY,  David,  a  son  of  the  fore- 
 going, was  born  in  1730,  and  was  educated 
 at  Merton  College,  Oxford.  He  was  M. 
 P.  for  Hull;  distinguished  himself  by  a 
 strenuous  opposition  to  the  American  war; 
 and  was  appointed  one  of  the  negotiators 
 to  treat  with  Dr.  Franklin.  To  him  also 
 belongs  the  merit  of  having  been  one  of 
 the  first  to  attack  in  parliament  the  abom- 
 ination of  the  slave  trade.  Among  several 
 of  his  inventions,  one  of  the  principal  is  a 
 mode  of  securing  buildings  from  fire.  He 
 died  in  1813. 
 
 HARTSOEKER,  Nicholas,  a  Dutch 
 metaphysician,  geometrician,  and  natural 
 philosopher,  was  born,  in  1656,  at  Gouda, 
 and  died  at  Utrecht,  in  1725.  When  he 
 was  a  boy,  he  was  desirous  to  become  an 
 astronomer,  and  being  told  that  a  knowl- 
 edge of  mathematics  was  necessary,  he 
 contrived  to  pay  a  teacher  by  saving  his 
 pocket  money.  In  the  course  of  his  philo- 
 sophical inquiries  he  discovered  the  sper- 
 matic animalcules,  and  thus  afforded  ground 
 for  a  new  theory  of  generation.     The  con- 
 
HAS 
 
 itruction  of  telescopes,  in  which  he  was 
 very  successful,  was  one  of  his  next  occu- 
 pations. Hartsoeker  had  some  highly  ec- 
 centric metaphysical  and  philosophical 
 notions,  and  was  of  a  singularly  disputa- 
 tious temper.  Among  his  principal  works 
 are,  Essay  on  Dioptrics;  Principles  of 
 Natural  Philosophy;  A  Course  of  Natural 
 Philosophy;   and  Physical  Conjectures. 
 
 HARVEY,  William,  a  physician  and 
 philosopher,  was  born,  in  1578,  at  Folk- 
 stone,  in  Kent;  studied  at  Cains  College, 
 Cambridge,  and  at  Padua  ;  settled  in  Lon- 
 don as  a  physician;  and,  in  1607,  was 
 admitted  a  fellow  of  the  college.  In  1604 
 and  1615  he  was  appointed  physician  to 
 >St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  and  lecturer, 
 at  the  college,  on  surgery  and  anatomy. 
 Many  years  were  spent  by  Harvey,  in 
 verifying  his  immortal  discovery  of  the 
 Circa  avion  of  the  blood,  which,  though  he 
 seems  to  have  made  it  partially  known  as 
 early  as  1616,  he  did  not  publish  to  the 
 world  till  1628.  Envy  was  soon  at  work 
 to  deny  or  diminish  his  merit;  but  he  had 
 the  satisfaction  of  obtaining  a  complete 
 triumph.  Harvey  was  physician  to  James 
 I.  and  Charles  I.;  was  present  with  the 
 latter  at  the  battle  of  Edgehill;  was  cre- 
 ated by  him  warden  of  Merton  College; 
 and  suftered  heavy  losses  during  the  civil 
 war.  In  1651  appeared  his  learned  work 
 on  Generation.  He  died  in  1658.  To  the 
 College  of  Physicians  he  was  a  liberal 
 benefactor,  and  he  founded  the  Harveian 
 oration,  which  is  now  annually  delivered. 
 
 HASSE,  John  Adolphus,  an  eminent 
 German  musician,  was  born,  in  1699,  at 
 Bergedorf,  near  Hamburgh ;  studied  under 
 Keiser,  Porpora,  and  Scarlatti;  and,  after 
 having  acquired  high  reputation  in  England 
 and  Germany,  died  at  Venice  in  1784. 
 His  wife,  Faustina  Bordoni,  was  a  cele- 
 brated singer.  Dr.  Burney  describes  him 
 as  "  the  most  natural,  elegant,  and  judicious 
 composer  of  vocal  music,  as  well  as  the 
 most  voluminous  composer,  of  his  time." 
 
 HASSELQUIST,  Frf.dkric,  a  Swe- 
 dish naturalist,  one  of  Linmeus's  favourite 
 pupils,  was  born  at  Toernvalla,  in  East 
 Gothland,  in  1722;  studied  at  Upsal; 
 visited  the  Levant,  in  1749,  to  investigate 
 its  natural  history;  and  died,  at  Smyrna, 
 in  1752.  From  his  papers,  the  Iter  Pa- 
 Lestinum,  or  Journey  to  the  Holy  Land, 
 was  drawn  up  by  Linnaeus.  Hasselquist 
 wrote  various  dissertations  in  the  Upsal 
 and  Stockholm  Transactions ;  and  a  thesis 
 intitled  Vires  Plantarum. 
 
 HASTINGS,  Warrf.n,  was  born,  in 
 1733,  at  Churchill,  in  Oxfordshire,  of  which 
 his  father  was  the  clergyman,  and  was  edu- 
 cated at  Westminster  School.  At  the  age 
 of  seventeen  he  went  out  to  India  as  a 
 writer  in  the  company's  service,  from 
 whence,  in  1765,  he  returned  with  a  mode- 
 
 HAS  311 
 
 rate  fortune.     In  1769  he  again  went  out, 
 as  second  in  council  at  Madras;   in  1772 
 
 lie  was  appointed  president  of  the  supreme 
 council  in  Bengal;  and,  in  1773,  he  was 
 raised  to  be  governor-general.  The  period 
 of  his  administration  was  one  of  the  most 
 trying  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  history 
 of  British  Hindostan.  He  had  to  contend 
 with  the  opposition  and  enmity  of  his  col- 
 leagues, the  revolt  of  the  native  subjects, 
 the  defection  of  allies,  and  a  confederacy 
 of  the  native  powers,  headed  by  Hyder 
 Ali,  and  formidably  aided  by  the  land  and 
 sea  forces  of  France.  Through  these  diffi- 
 culties he  passed  triumphantly,  but  it  must 
 be  owned  that  in  achieving  his  triumph  he 
 sometimes  resorted  to  means  which,  at 
 best,  admit  only  of  palliation.  He  re- 
 turned to  England  in  1786,  and  his  conduct 
 was  soon  the  subject  of  an  impeachment, 
 which,  in  contempt  of  all  the  principles  of 
 justice,  lasted  nine  years.  He' was  ac- 
 quitted in  1795,  and  thus  ended  his  public 
 career.  He  died  in  1818.  Hastings  was 
 a  man  of  a  highly  cultivated  mind,  and  of 
 seductive  manners.  He  wrote  A  Narra- 
 tive of  the  Insurrection  of  Benares;  Me 
 moirs  relative  to  the  State  of  India;  A 
 Treatise  on  guarding  Houses,  by  their 
 Construction,  against  Fire;  and  some  ele- 
 gant fugitive  poetry. 
 
 HASTINGS,  marquis  of,  Francis 
 Rawlon  HASTINGS,  son  of  the  earl  of 
 Moira,  was  born  in  1754;  was  educated  at 
 Oxford;  entered  into  the  army  in  1771  ;  and, 
 during  the  American  war,  distinguished 
 himself  at  Bunker's  Hill,  Fort  Clinton,Cam- 
 den,  and  many  other  places;  and  rose  to  the 
 rank  of  brigadier-general.  On  his  return 
 home  he  was  created  Lord  Rawdon,  and 
 in  1793  he  succeeded  to  his  father's  title. 
 He  was  now  on  terms  of  confidential  inti- 
 macy with  the  heir  apparent,  and  took  an 
 active  part  in  the  debates  of  the  English 
 and  Irish  peers.  In  1794  he  led  a  con- 
 siderable force  to  the  succour  of  the  duke 
 of  York  in  Flanders,  and  succeeded  in 
 joining  hiin  after  a  masterly  march.  For 
 many  vears  subsequently  to  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  war  with  France,  Lord  Moira 
 was  a  prominent  member  of  the  opposition, 
 
312  HAU 
 
 but  in  1806  he  shared  in  the  short-lived 
 triumph  of  the  whig;?,  and  Mas  made  mas- 
 ter-general of  the  ordnance.  In  1812  he 
 was  appointed  governor-general  of  India, 
 an  office  which  he  held  till  1822.  Dining 
 the  ten  years  of  his  sway  he  overcame  the 
 Nepaulcse,  the  Pindarees,  and  other  native 
 powers,  and  rendered  the  British  authority 
 supreme  in  India.  While  absent,  he  was 
 created  marquis  of  Hastings.  In  1824  he 
 was  made  governor  of  Malta,  and  he  died 
 November  28,  1825.  The  marquis  of 
 Hastings  was  an  excellent  officer,  an  acute 
 statesman,  and  a  man  of  unbounded  gener- 
 ositv. 
 
 HATSELL,  John,  was  born  about 
 1733;  studied  at  Queen's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge, and  the  Middle  Temple;  became 
 chief  clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons  in 
 176S;  retired  in  1797;  and  died  in  1820. 
 He  published  Precedents  of  Proceedings  in 
 the  House  of  Commons;  Rules  and  Stand- 
 ing Orders  of  the  House ;  and  a  Collection 
 of  Cases  of  Privilege  of  Parliament. 
 
 H ATT ON,  Sir  Christopher,  a 
 statesman  and  lawyer,  was  born  at  Hol- 
 denbv,  in  Northamptonshire;  studied  at 
 St.  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford,  and  at  the  Inner 
 Temple;  and,  at  a  masque,  so  much 
 charmed  Queen  Elizabeth  by  his  graceful 
 dancing  that  she  raised  him,  by  successive 
 steps  of  promotion,  till,  in  1587,  he  became 
 lord  chancellor.  Inexperienced  as  he  was, 
 he  performed  satisfactorily  the  duties  of 
 bis  high  office.  He  died  in  1591;  and,  it 
 18  said,  of  a  broken  heart,  in  consequence 
 of  Elizabeth  imperiously  demanding  the 
 payment  of  an  old  debt.  Hatton  was  tole- 
 rant, and  a  friend  of  learning.  A  Treatise 
 on  Statutes,  and  a  fourth  act  of  Tancred 
 and  Sigismunda,  a  tragedy,  are  attributed 
 to  him. 
 
 HAUTEFEUILLE,  John,  a  French 
 mechanician,  was  born  in  1617,  and  died 
 in  1724.  He  invented  the  spiral  spring 
 which  moderates  the  vibration  of  the  bal- 
 ance-wheel in  watches,  and  which  was 
 afterwards  perfected  by  Huygens.  He 
 wrote  various  works,  among  which  are, 
 A  New  System  of  tin;  Flux  and  Reflux  of 
 the  Sea;  The  Art  of  Breathing  under 
 Water;  The  Perpetual  Pendulum;  and 
 Horological  Problems. 
 
 HATJY,  II  k.n  LTUSJOSTUS,  a  celebrated 
 mineralogist,  was  born,  in  1742,  at  St.  .lust, 
 in  Picardy,  and  was  originally  professor 
 of  the  dead  languages  in  Cardinal  Leino- 
 ine's  college.  Botanyand  mineralogy, how- 
 ever, became  his  favourite  studies,  particu- 
 larly the  latter.  As  early  as  1783  he  was 
 admitted  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
 ences;  he  was  one  of  the  fust  forty  mem- 
 bers of  the  Institute;  and  was  appointed 
 by  Napoleon  professor  of  mineralogy  at  the 
 Botanic  Garden,  and  to  the  faculty  of  sci- 
 ences at  Paris.    He  died  in  1*22.     Science 
 
 HAW 
 
 is  indebted  to  him  for  an  admirable  tneory 
 of  crystallization.  Among  his  works  are, 
 A  Treatise  on  Mineralogy,  four  vols. ;  A 
 Treatise  on  Crystallography,  two  vols. ;  An 
 !  Elementary  Treatise  on  Natural  Philoso- 
 phy ;  and  An  Essay  on  the  Theory  and 
 Structure  of  Crystals. 
 
 HAWKE,  Edward,  lord,  a  brave  and 
 
 I successful  admiral,  born   in   1713,  was  the 
 
 'son  of  a  barrister;   went  to  sea  at  the  age 
 
 j of  twelve  years;    distinguished  himself,  in 
 
 1 1744,  under  Matthews  and  Lestock;   was 
 
 jmade  rear-admiral   of  the  white   in  1747, 
 
 :  and,   in   the   same   year,   captured    seven 
 
 French  men  of  war,  for  which  he  received 
 
 I  the  order  of  the  Bath,  and  the  rank  of 
 
 vice-admiral  of  the  blue.     In  1759,  he,  in 
 
 spite   of    tempestuous    weather,    and    the 
 
 proximity  of  a  lee   and   dangerous  shore, 
 
 attacked   the    French   admiral    Conrlans, 
 
 j  whom  he  utterly   defeated.     In    1770   he 
 
 was  made  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  in 
 
 ■  1776  was  created  a  peer.      He   died   in 
 
 1781. 
 
 HAWKESWORTH,  Dr.  John,  was 
 bom,  in  1715,  at  Bromley,  in  Kent,  and 
 was  the  son  of  a  watchmaker.  After  hav- 
 ing tried  his  father's  trade,  and  also  been 
 clerk  to  a  writing  stationer,  he  became  an 
 author;  contributed  to  the  Gentleman's 
 Magazine ;  and  succeeded  Johnson  in  com- 
 piling the  debates  for  it.  In  1752  he  began 
 The  Adventurer,  which  established  his 
 literary  character,  and  induced  Archbishop 
 Herring  to  give  him  the  degree  of  doctor 
 of  laws.  He  subsequently  produced  Almo- 
 ran  and  Hamet;  some  dramatic  enter- 
 tainments; a  translation  of  Telemachus; 
 and  an  edition  of  Swift's  works.  His 
 most  lucrative  engagement,  however,  was 
 the  compiling,  in  1772,  a  narrative  of  the 
 Voyages  of  Discovery  accomplished  under 
 the  auspices  of  George  III.  By  this  he 
 gained  six  thousand  pounds;  but  the  se- 
 verity with  which  some  parts  of  it  were 
 censured  is  said  to  have  hastened  his  de- 
 cease, which  took  place  in  1773. 
 
 HAWKINS,  Sir  John,  a  brave  and 
 able  naval  officer,  was  born,  in  1520,  at 
 Plymouth;  distinguished  himself  greatly 
 on  various  occasions  against  the  Spaniards, 
 particularly  in  the  action  with  the  Spanish 
 Armada;  was  knighted  and  much  esteemed 
 by  Queen  Elizabeth;  and  died  in  1595. 
 Hawkins  bears  on  his  character  the  foul 
 stain  of  having  been  the  person  with  whom 
 originated  the  infamous  slave  trade.  He 
 made  three  kidnapping  expeditions  to  the 
 (oast  of  Africa,  the  first  in  1562;  and  so 
 perverted  was  the  moral  feeling  of  that 
 period  that  a  crest,  consisting  of  a  Moor 
 bound  with  a  cord,  was  granted  to  him  to 
 commemorate  an  action   which  ought  to 
 
 have  been  expiated  on  the  scaffold. 
 
 HAWK  INS,  Sir  John,  was  born,  in 
 1719,  in   London,  and  was  brought  up  to 
 
1IAY  HAZ  313 
 
 ..he  law;   but,   on   coming   into  possession  I  of  the  choristers  at  the  cathedral  of  Vienna, 
 of  a  fortune,  he  retired  from   his  practice,  |  under  Reiiter,  where  lie  remained  till  hia 
 
 voice  broke,  and  he  was  dismij 
 
 and  was  appointed  a  Middlesex  magistrate 
 He  was   chosen   chairman    of  the  quartet 
 
 sessions  in  1785 ;    was  knighted    in    1772; 
 
 ed.     For 
 
 some  years  he  could  acarcelj  obtain  a  bare 
 subsistence,  by  teaching  and  by  hia  com- 
 
 and   died    in   1789i     He    wrote   .\    Gen-  position:   but  at  length   he   obtained 
 
 oral  History  of  Music;  and  a  Life  <>f"  his 
 friend  Dr.  Johnson;  and  edited  an  edition 
 of  Walton's  Angler,  and  of  Johnson's 
 Works.  As  a  writer,  Hawkins  is  utterly 
 destitute  of  taste,  and  his  style  is  of  the 
 most  awkward  and  slovenly  kind. 
 
 HAWLEY,  Joseph,  a  patriot  of  the 
 American  revolution ,  was  born  at  North- 
 ampton, Massachusetts,  in  1724,  and  after 
 graduating  at  Yale  College  in  1742  pur- 
 sued the  profession  of  the  law  in  his  native 
 town.  He  soon  rose  to  distinction  and 
 extensive  practice,  but.  by  the  efforts  of  the 
 friends  of  the  British  administration,  be 
 was  afterwards  for  a  short  time  excluded 
 from  the  bar.  He  was  one  of  the  first  who 
 proposed  to   resist   British   encroachments 
 
 .  the 
 situation  oi  director  of  music  iii  the  estab 
 lishment  qf  Count  Marzin.  in  17(il  he 
 passed  into  tin-  service  of  Prince  Anthony 
 Esterha/.y,  and  on  the  establishment  of 
 that  prince,  and  of  his  successor  Prince 
 Nicholas,  who  loved  and  honoured  him,  he 
 remained  till  his  decease  in  1S09.  He 
 twice  visited  England,  the  first  time  in 
 1791,  and  for  a  longer  period  in  1794,  and 
 received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  music 
 from  the  university  of  Oxford.  His  com- 
 positions amount  to  twelve  or  thirteen  hun- 
 dred, among  which  are  nineteen  operas  and 
 five  oratorios.  His  genius  was  equal  to  his 
 fertility,  and  he  blended  elegance  with  sci- 
 ence in  a  manner  which  had  never  been 
 witnessed   before.     "His   grand   and    sub- 
 
 .   1™ 
 sioner  of  the  victualling  office,  and  keeper 
 
 of  the  records  at   the  Tower;   and  died  in 
 
 1755.     He  translated  a   part  of  Martial's 
 
 Epigrams;    and   wrote    various    works    in 
 
 prose  and  verse,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
 
 of  which  is  An  Essay  on  Deformity.     Hay 
 
 was  himself  deformed,  and  in  this  essay  ne 
 
 descants  upon  the  circumstance  in  a  truly 
 
 philosophical  spirit. 
 
 by  force,  and  he  continued  through  his  life  Ume  oratorio  of  the  Creation,"  Bays  a  mod- 
 to  be  an  active  and  efficient  advocate  of  ern  musician  of  eminence,  "and  his  pictur- 
 the  rights  of  his  country.  He  died  in  1788.  esque  and  descriptive  Seasons,  if  music 
 HAY,  William",  a  miscellaneous  I  were  a  language  as  intelligible  and  durable 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1695,  at  Glynbourn,  as  the.  Greek,  would  live  and  be  admired 
 in  Sussex;  was  educated  at  Oxford;  sat  as  long  as  the  llliad  and  Odyssey  of 
 in  parliament  for  Seaford;   was  a  commis-  Homer." 
 
 HAYLEY,  William,  a  poet  and  mis- 
 cellaneous writer,  was  born  in  1745,  at  (  !ii- 
 chester;  studied  at  Eton,  and  Trinity  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge;  and,  as  he  was  a  man  of 
 fortune,  devoted  his  leisure  hoars  to  litera- 
 ture. He  died  November  12,  1820.  Ua\- 
 ley  undoubtedly  possessed  considerable  tal- 
 ent and  learning,  and  at  one  period  some 
 of  his  productions  were  popular;  but,  as  a 
 bolder  and  more  original  race  of  writers 
 arose,  his  fame  declined.  Among  his  best 
 works  are,  in  verse,  A  Poetical  Epistle  to 
 an  eminent  Painter;  Essay  on  History, 
 Essay  on  Epic  Poetry;  and  the  Triumphs 
 of  Temper:  in  prose,  An  Essay  on  Old 
 Maids ;  The  Lives  of  Milton,  Cowper,  and 
 Romney;   and  his  own  Memoirs. 
 
 HAYNE,  Isaac,  a  patriot  of  the  revo- 
 lution, was  born  in  South  Carolina,  and  at 
 the   commencement  of   hostilities  between 
 Great  Britain  and  the  colonies,  was  living 
 as  a  planter  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  consid- 
 erable fortune.     In  the  year  1781,  in  viola- 
 tion of  all  honour  and  justice,  he  was  taken 
 prisoner  and  executed  by  the   royal  forces 
 under  Lord  Rawdon,  on  the  pretence  that 
 he  had  been  found  in  arms  against  the  Bl  ii- 
 isli  government  after   he   had  accepted  its 
 knowdedge  of  music,  u*al   to   accompany,  protection  and  become  a  subject  to  it. 
 on.  a  rude  kind  of  harp,  the   songs  of  bis       HAZLfTT  Willi  a  m,  the  son  of  a  dis- 
 yvife.     The  schoolmaster  of  the  neighbour- j  senting  minister,  was  brought  up  a.-  an  art 
 
 ist,  and  his  early  works  gave  promise  of  fu- 
 ture excellence;  but  dissatisfied,  it  is  said, 
 with  his  own  labours,  he  abandoned  the 
 pencil,  and  took  up  the  pen.  As  an  author 
 he  displayed  greai  fertility,  and  acute  pow- 
 
 HAYDA,  Joseph, one  of  the  most  cele- 
 brated of  modern  composers,  was  born,  in 
 1732,  at  Rohrau,  in  Austria,  and  was  the 
 son  of  a  poor  cartw  right,  who,  without  any 
 
 ing  town  of  Haimburg,  seeing  the  delight 
 of  voniig  Haydn,  and  the  correctness  with 
 which  he  beat  time  to  his  father's  notes, 
 gave  him  some  musical  instruction.  At 
 the  age  of  eight,  he  was  admitted  as  one 
 14 
 
S14 
 
 HEB 
 
 ersofmind;  and  his  style,  though  some- 
 times aiming  too  much  at  effect,  is  spark- 
 ling and  elegant.  He  died  September  18, 
 1830.  Among  bis  works  are,  The  Round 
 Table  C in  conjunction  with  Leigh  Hunt); 
 Characters  of  Shakspeare's  Plaj  a  ;  A  View 
 of  the  English  Stage;  Lectures  on  the 
 English  Poets;  Lectures  on  the  English 
 Com ie  Writers;  Political  Essays  on  Pub- 
 lic Characters;  Table  Talk;  and  a  Life 
 of  Napoleon.  He  also  contributed  to  the 
 Supplement  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Britanni- 
 ca;  The  Edinburgh  Review;  and  a  variety 
 of  periodica',-. 
 
 HEARNE,  Thomas,  an  antiquary,  was 
 born,  in  1690,  at  White  Waltliam,  in  Berk- 
 shire; was  educated  at  Edmund  Hall,  Ox- 
 ford ;  obtained  various  college  offices,  w  liich 
 however  he  resigned,  because  he  would  not 
 take  the  oaths  to  George  I.;  edited  nearly 
 forty  works,  some  of  them  classics,  but 
 principally  relative  to  ancient  English  his- 
 tory and  antiquities;  and  died  in  1735. 
 Hearne  possessed  a  far  larger  share  of 
 patient  research  than  of  taste  and  judgment. 
 
 HEARNE,  S'AMOEt,  a  traveller,  was 
 born  in  London,  1742,  and,  after  having 
 been  for  a  short  time  a  midshipman,  he  en- 
 tered into  the  service  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
 Company.  From  1769  to  1772  he  was  em- 
 ployed bv  the  company  to  explore  the  north- 
 west coast  of  America;  and  he  was  the 
 first  European  who  succeeded  in  reaching 
 the  Arctic  Ocean.  He  died  in  1792,  but 
 the  interesting  narrative  of  his  Journey 
 was  not  published  till  1795. 
 
 HEATH,  William,  an  officer  in  the 
 armv  of  the  revolution,  was  born  in  Rox- 
 bury  in  1737,  and  was  bred  a  farmer.  He 
 was  particularly  attentive  to  the  study  of 
 military  tactics,  and  in  1775  he  was  com- 
 missioned as  a  brigadier  general  by  the 
 provincial  congress.  In  1776  he  was  pro- 
 moted to  the  rank  of  major  general  in  the 
 continental  armv,  and  in  the  campaign  of 
 that  year  commanded  a  division  near  the 
 enemy's  lines,  at  King's-bridge  and  Morri- 
 sania.  During  the  year  1777,  and  till  No- 
 vember, 1778,  he  was  the  commanding  of- 
 ficer of  the  eastern  department,  and  his 
 head  quarters  were  at  Boston.  In  1779  he 
 returned  to  the  main  arm\  ,  ami  was  invest- 
 ed witli  the  chief  command  of  the  troops 
 on  the  east  side  of  the  Hudson.  After 
 the  close  of  the  war,  he  served  in  several 
 public  offices',  till  the  time  of  his  death  in 
 1814. 
 
 EiEBER,  REGINALD,  a  poet  and  di- 
 vine, was  born,  in  1783,  at  Malpas,  in 
 Shropshire;  received  bis  education  at  Bra- 
 xennose  College,  Oxford,  where  he  distin- 
 gaished  himself  by  his  poetical  and  other 
 talents;  travelled  in  Germany,  Russia,  and 
 the  Crimea;  was  for  souk-  years  rector  of 
 Hodnet,  in  Shropshire;  was  appointed 
 bishop  of  Calcutta  in   1823;   and  had  i.l- 
 
 HEG 
 
 ready  accomplished  much  in  his  high  oi- 
 fice,  and  projected  the  accomplishment  of 
 more,  when  his  career  was  suddenly  closed 
 liv  apoplexy,  at  Trichinopoly,  April  1, 
 1826.  He  is  the  author  of  Poems,  full  of 
 spirit  and  elegance  (one  of  the  best  of  which, 
 his  Palestine, gained  the  prize  at  Oxford); 
 Hymns;  Hampton  Lectures,  for  1815;  A 
 Life  of  Bishop  Taylor;  and  A  Narrative 
 of  a  Journey  in  Upper  India.  The  last 
 was  a  posthumous  work. 
 
 HEBERDEN,  William,  an  eminent 
 physician,  was  born,  in  1710,  in  London; 
 was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge; practised  for  ten  years  at  Cam- 
 bridge, and  subsequently  in  the  metropolis; 
 became  a  fellow  of  the  College  and  of  the 
 Royal  Society;  and  died  in  1801.  He 
 projected  the  Medical  Transactions;  and 
 wrote  Medical  Commentaries  on  the  His- 
 torv  and  < 'lire  of  Diseases. 
 
 1IECKEWELDER,  John,  many  years 
 cmploved  by  the  Moravian  brethren  as  i* 
 missionary  to  the  Delaware  Indians,  Mas 
 a  native  of  England.  In  1S19  he  publish- 
 ed at  Philadelphia  a  history  of  the  manners 
 and  customs  of  the  Indian  nations  who  once 
 inhabited  Pennsylvania;  and  in  1820  a 
 narrative  of  the  Moravian  mission  among 
 the  Delaware  Indians,  &c.  from  1740  to 
 1S0S.  He  died  at  Bethlehem,  in  1823,  in 
 the  79th  year  of  his  age. 
 
 HEDERICH,  or  HEDERIC,  Bevja 
 BUN,  a  German  lexicographer,  was  bom, 
 in  1675,  at  Geithen,  in  Misnia;  studied  at 
 Leipsic  and  Wittemberg;  and  died,  in 
 1748,  rector  of  the  school  of  Grossenhayn. 
 He  compiled  various  lexicons,  anions'-  which 
 area  mythological  and  an  archaeological; 
 but  his  best  known  work  is  the  Greek  Lex- 
 icon which  bears  his  name,  and  which  has 
 been  repeatedly  reprinted. 
 
 HEDWIG,  John,  a  German  botanist 
 and  physician,  was  born,  in  1730,  at  Cron- 
 stadt,  in  Transylvania,  and  was  of  a  ^ax- 
 on family.  He  pursued  his  studies  at  Pres- 
 burg,  Zittan,  and  Leipsic;  practised  as  a 
 physician,  first  at  Chemnitz,  ami  next  at 
 Leipsic;  was  appointed  professor  of  physic 
 and  botany,  and  superintendent  of  the  pub- 
 lic garden  at  the  latter  place;  and  died  in 
 1799.  The  branch  of  botany  to  which 
 Hedwig  especially  directed  his  attention 
 was  the  mosses;  and  on  this  subject  he 
 made  many  important  discoveries,  and  pub- 
 lished some  excellent  work 8,  the  principal 
 of  which,  in  four  volumes  folio,  is  general- 
 ly called  his  Crv  ptogamia. 
 
 HEGESIAS,  a  philosopher  of  the  Cy- 
 renaic  school,  who  flourished  in  the  third 
 century  h.  c,  was  the  founder  of  a  new 
 Bed  called  the  Hegesiac.  He  taught  that 
 it  is  better  to  die  than  to  live;  and  is  said 
 to  have  enforced  this  gloom]  doctrine  with 
 so  much  eloquence,  that  some  of  his  hearers 
 committed    suicide;   upon  which    Ptolemy 
 
IIEL 
 
 si; 
 
 IIEI 
 
 ordered  his  school  to  be  closed.  Hegesias, 
 however,  does  not  appear  to  have  acted 
 upon  his  own  system. 
 
 HEINECCIUS,  or  HEINECKE,  J  ohn 
 Theophilus,  an  eminent  German  jurist, 
 was  born,  in  1681,  at  Eisenberg;  and  died, 
 in  1741,  professor  of  law  at  Halle.  His 
 works  on  civil  law  are  numerous,  add  justly 
 esteemed  for  their  erudition  and  their  Btyle. 
 
 HEINECKEiV,  Charles  Hknky, was  jp'llation  of  the  Swan  of 'Holland.  Heed 
 born,  in  1706,  at  Lubeck,  and  began  his  po-  ited  editions,  with  notes,  of  Virgil,  Ovid, 
 litical  career  as  confidential  secretary  to  i  OlaUdian,  and  Valerius  Flaccus. 
 count  de  Bruhl,  the  elector  of  Saxony;  HEINSIUS,  Anthony,  an  eminent 
 and  his  talents  and  probity  soon  induced  Dutch  statesman,  was  borft  about  1641, 
 the  elector  to  ennoble  him,  and  appoint  him  and  died  at  the  Hague  in  1720.  For  forty 
 privy  counsellor  of  Saxony  and  Poland,  years  he  filled  the  high  station  of  grand 
 He  died  in  1792.     Heinecken  was  a  (over  I  pensionary  of  Holland,  and    distinguished 
 
 was  invited  to  Stockholm  by  Christina  of 
 Sweden,  and  was  subsequently  twice  ap- 
 pointed resident  there  by  the  States  of 
 Holland;  wis  made  secretary  to  the  city 
 of  Amsterdam  in  1656,  but  resigned  in 
 16."3S;  w;is  scut  a-  envoy  extraord inary  to 
 Russia  in  1667;  and  died  in  1681.  His 
 Latin  poetry,  which  is  remarkable  for  its 
 elegance  and  purity,  gained  for  him  the  ap- 
 
 and  patron  of  the  arts.  The  splendid  col- 
 lection of  engravings  from  pictures  in  the 
 Dresden  Gallery  was  executed  at  his  ex- 
 pense ;  and  he  wrote  various  works,  among 
 which  are,  A  General  Idea  of  a  complete 
 Collection  of  Prints;  and  A  Dictionary  of 
 Artists  of  whom  we  have  Prints. 
 
 HEINECKEN,  Christian  Henry,  a 
 brother  of  the  foregoing,  was  born,  in  1721, 
 at  Lubeck;  and  died,  in  1725,  at  the  age 
 of  four  years  and  four  months.  So  aston- 
 ishing is  the  story  told  of  this  mental  phe- 
 nomenon that,  were  it  not  supported  by 
 powerful  evidence,  it  might  well  be  treated 
 as  a  romance.  He  could  talk  at  ten  months 
 old,  at  twelve  could  recite  the  leading  facts 
 in  the  Pentateuch,  and  at  thirteen  had  ac- 
 quired the  rudiments  of  ancient  history, 
 geography,  anatomy,  and  the  use  of  maps; 
 and  knew  eight  thousand  Latin  words.  At 
 two  years  and  a  half  he  could  answer  any 
 question  in  geography  and  history,  and  be- 
 fore his  decease  he  had  added  to  his  acqui- 
 sitions divinity,  ecclesiastical  history,  and 
 many  other  branches  of  knowledge;  and 
 spoke  German,  Latin,  French  and  Low 
 Dutch.  In  his  fourth  year  he  harrangued 
 the  king  of  Denmark,  to  whom  he  was  pre- 
 sented. On  his  deathbed  he  displayed  the 
 utmost  firmness,  and  endeavoured  to  console 
 his  afflicted  parents. 
 
 HEINSIUS,  Daniel,  a  poet  and  clas 
 
 himself  by  his  prudence, firmness,  probity, 
 and  disinterestedness.  He  possessed  the 
 entire  confidence  of  William  III.,  Marl- 
 borough, and  Eugene;  and  was  one  of  the 
 most  enlightened  and  strenuous  supporters 
 of  that  system  by  which  the  pride  of  Lou- 
 is XIV.  was  at  length  humbled. 
 
 HEISTER,  Laurence,  an  eminent 
 anatomist,  surgeon,  and  physician,  was 
 born,  in  1683,  at  Frankfort  on  the  Maine; 
 studied  anatomy  under  Ruysch ;  acquired 
 much  experience  as  surgeon  and  physician 
 general  to  the  Dutch  forces;  and  died,  in 
 175S,  professor  of  medicine,  surgery,  and 
 botany,  in  the  university  of  Helmstadt. 
 His  Compendium  of  Anatomy,  and  Insti- 
 tutes of  Surgery,  were  exceedingly  popu- 
 lar. Heister  was  no  contemptible  bota- 
 nist, and  was  one  of  the  most  strenuous 
 opponents  of  the  Linnsean  system. 
 
 HELIODORUS,  a  native  of  Emessa, 
 in  Phienicia,  who  flourished  in  the  fourth 
 century,  is  the  author  of  a  romance  called 
 The  JEthiopies,  or  the  Loves  of  Thea- 
 genes  and  Chariclea;  the  first  work  of  the 
 kind.  He  was  afterwards  bishop  ofTric- 
 ca,  in  Thessaly.  An  apocryphal  story  is 
 on  record,  that  a  synod  having  given  him 
 the  alternative  of  burning  his  juvenile 
 work,  or  resigning  his  bishopric,  he  pre- 
 ferred doing  the  latter. 
 
 HELIOGABALUS,  a  Roman  emperor, 
 
 sical  critic,  was  born,  in  1580,  at  Ghent,  (derived  his  name  from  his  having  been 
 and  studied  at  Franeker,  whence  he  re-  priest  of  the  sun  at  Emessa.  He  was  the 
 moved  to  Leyden,  where    Joseph  Scaliger  son  of  Varius  Marcellus.       The    soldiery 
 
 was  his  tutor.  At  the  latter  university  he 
 was  subsequently  chosen  professor  of  his- 
 tory, secretary,  and  librarian.  The  Swedish 
 monarch  and  the  Venetian  republic  con- 
 ferred on  him  honorary  titles,  and  Urban 
 the  Eighth  made  liberal  offers,  but  in  vain, 
 to  induce  him  to  settle  at  Rome.  Heinsius 
 commented  on  and  edited  various  classical 
 authors,  and  wrote  poems  in  Greek,  Latin, 
 and  Dutch. 
 
 HEINSIUS,  Nicholas,  son  of  the 
 foregoing,  and  his  rival  in  every  branch  of 
 learning,  was  born,  in  1620,  at  Leyden; 
 travelled  in  England,  France,   and   Italy ; 
 
 raised  him  to  the  throne,  in  218,  when  he 
 was  at  most  seventeen  years  of  age,  and 
 he  began  his  reign  with  the  most,  hypo- 
 critical profession  of  moderation  and  vir- 
 tue. He  soon,  however,  revelled  in  all 
 those  follies  and  vices  which  most  disgrace 
 human  nature.  After  he  had  reigned  near 
 ly  four  years,  he  was  put  to  death  by  thr 
 Praetorian  guards,  his  body  was  dragged 
 through  the  streets  and  thrown  into  the 
 Tyber,  and  his  memory  was  declared  in 
 famous. 
 
 HELMONT,  John   Baptist  Van,  a 
 celebrated  chemist,  was   born,  in  1577,  at 
 
316 
 
 HEL 
 
 Brussels,  and  was  of  a  nobte  family.  He 
 studied  at  Louvain.  made,  an  exceeding)]/ 
 rapid  progress,  and  engaged  in  an  exten- 
 sive course  of  reading.  Having  taken  liis 
 medical  degree,  he  travelled  for  ten  years, 
 and  daring  his  travels  obtained  some 
 kn  iwledge  of  practical  chemistry.  In 
 1609  he  married  a  woman  of  fortune,  and 
 settled  at  Vilvorden,  where  he  practised 
 medicine  gratuitously,  and  for  thirty  years 
 carried  on  his  chemical  experiments  with 
 indefatigable  spirit.  He  died  in  1644. 
 In  the  works  of  Van  Hehnont  there  is  un- 
 doubtedly much  crude  and  visionary  spec- 
 ulation, but  there  is  also  much  that  is  wor- 
 thy of  notice.  lie  pointed  out  many  of 
 the  absurdities  of  the  Galenical  system, 
 and  contributed  largely  to  its  overthrow; 
 and  he  made  several  chemical  discoveries. 
 The  word  gas  was  first  used,  by  Van  Hel- 
 mont. 
 
 HELOISE,  whom  her  unfortunate  pas- 
 sion for  Abelard  has  rendered  famous, 
 was  born  about  1101  or  1102,  and  was  the 
 niece  of  Fulbert,  canon  of  Paris.  In  her 
 earliest  youth  she  manifested  an  ardent 
 love  of  learning;  and  she  soon  acquired  a 
 knowledge  of  philosophy,  and  of  the  Latin, 
 Greek,  and  Hebrew  languages.  After  her 
 separation  from  her  husband  (see  Abe- 
 lard),  she  took  the  veil,  became  prioress 
 of  the  convent  of  Argenteuil,  and,  eventu- 
 ally, abbess  of  the  Paraclete.  She  died 
 in  1164. 
 
 HELVETIUS,  Adrian,  a  physician, 
 was  horn,  about  1661,  in  Holland,  and 
 settled  at  Paris.  There  he  discovered  the 
 medical  virtues  of  ipecacuanha  in  dysen- 
 teric, cases,  and  having  cured  the  dauphin 
 with  it,  he  received  a  reward  of  a  thou- 
 sand louis,  and  various  appointments.  He 
 died  in  1727.  His  son,  John  Claude 
 Adrian,  was  a  physician  of  great  skill 
 and  learning. 
 
 HELVETIUS,  Claude  Adrian,  son 
 of  John  Claude  A  Irian,  was  born,  in 
 1715,  at  Paris;  was  educated  at  the  col- 
 lege of  Louis  the  Great;  manifested  early 
 talents;  and  soon  became  intimate  with 
 lit-.-;  of  the  literary  characters  of  the  age. 
 Lor  some  years  he  was  one  of  the  farmers 
 general,  and  he  made  a  noble  use  of  the 
 immense  income  which  he  drew  from  this 
 source.  He  resigned  this  advantageous 
 pursuit,  however,  and  retired  to  his  es- 
 tate, in  order  to  devote  himself  to  litera- 
 ture. In  1758  lie  gave  to  the  world  his 
 work  On  the  .Mind.  It  was  immediately 
 assailed  by  the  clergy,  the  Sorbonne,  and 
 the  parliament;  it  was  condemned  to  the 
 flames;  and  the  author  was  obliged  to 
 sign  a  recantation,  and  give  up  a  place 
 which  he  held  at  court.  That,  in  a 
 moral  point  of  view,  many  of  his  doc- 
 trines lead  to  dangerous  consequences, 
 must  uot  be  denied;  but  there  is,  perhaps. 
 
 HEN 
 
 no  want  of  charity  in  believing  that  his  dis- 
 like of  despotism,  and  not  his  defective 
 morality,  was  his  inexpiable  crime  in  the 
 eyes  of  his  enemies.  In  1764  and  1765  he 
 visited  England  and  Prussia,  and  was  flat- 
 teringly received.  The  rest  of  his  life  was 
 spent  on  his  estate,  in  literary  occupation, 
 and  in  the  practice  of  benevolence.  He 
 died  1771.  He  left  a  posthumous  work, 
 On  Man,  his  Intellectual  Faculties,  and  his 
 Education.  He  is  also  the  author  of  Hap- 
 piness, a  poem,  in  six  cantos. 
 
 HELVICUS,  Christopher,  a  chro- 
 nologist,  was  born,  in  1581,  near  Frank- 
 fort; studied  at  Marpurg;  was  made  pro- 
 fessor of  theology  at  Giessen;  and  died  in 
 1617.  Anion?  his  works  are,  A  New  Sys- 
 tem of  Chronology;  a  Synopsis  of  Univer- 
 sal History  ;  and  a  Chronological  Disserta- 
 tion on  the  Seventy  Weeks  of  Daniel. 
 
 HENAULT,  Charles  John  Fran- 
 cis, generally  known  as  President  Hen- 
 ault,  from  his  having  been  president  of  the 
 Parliament  of  Paris,  was  born  in  the  French 
 capital,  in  1685;  studied  under  the  fathers 
 of  the  Oratory ;  and  had  the  advantage  of 
 receiving  the  lessons  and  the  advice  of  Ma- 
 sillon.  He  was  appointed  superintendent 
 of  the  queen's  household,  and,  with  a  noble 
 spirit,  he  made  over  one  half  of  the  salary 
 to  the  widow  of  his  predecessor.  Henault 
 was  a  favourite  at  court,  and  was  in  habits 
 of  friendship  with  many  of  the  most  cele- 
 brated writers  of  that  period.  He  died  in 
 1770.  He  wrote  an  excellent  Chronologi- 
 cal Abridgement  of  the  History  of  France; 
 seven  plays;  and  many  elegant  verses.  A 
 Critical  History  of  the  Establishment  of  the 
 Franks  in  Gaul  is  attributed  to  him,  but 
 on  doubtful  authority. 
 
 HENLEY,  John,  familiarly  known  as 
 Orator  Henley,  was  born,  in  1692,  at  Mel- 
 ton Mowbray,  in  Leicestershire;  was  edu- 
 cated at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge; 
 and.  after  having  been  a  master  of  a  free 
 school,  a  curate,  and  a  preacher  at  a  chapel 
 he  opened  an  anomalous  kind  of  place 
 which  he  called  an  oratory,  first  in  .New- 
 port Market,  and  next  in  Clare  Market, 
 where  he  delivered  theological  and  miscel- 
 laneous lectures,  and  made  himself  a  mark 
 for  the  shafts  of  satire  by  his  eccentric  con- 
 duct. He  died  in  1756.  Among  his  works 
 are,  the  Hyp  Doctor;  and  a  translation  of 
 Pliny's  Epistles.  Henley  was  a  man  of 
 parts,  but  he  wofullv  misused  his  talents. 
 
 HENRION  DE  PANSEY,  Peter 
 Paul  Nicholas,  an  eminent  French  ma- 
 gistrate and  legal  writer,  was  born,  in  1742, 
 at  Treveraye,  in  Lorraine,  and  died,  first 
 president  of  the  council  of  cassation,  in 
 1829.  Among  bis  works  are,  Feudal  Dis- 
 sertations; Dumoulin's  Treatise  on  Fiefs 
 analysed  and  compared  with  other  Feu- 
 dists; a  treatise  On  the  Judicial  Authority 
 in  France;  and  a  treatise  On  the  Nationa 
 
HEN 
 
 Assemblies  of  France  since  the  Establish- 
 ment of  the  monarchy 
 
 HENRY  IV.,  King  of  France,  Burnamed 
 the  Great,  son  of  Antony  of  Bourbon,  king 
 of  Navarre,  was  born,  in  1553,  at  Pau, 
 the  capital  of  Beam,  am!  was  early  tem- 
 pered to  encounter  difficulties,  by  being 
 brought  up  in  a  simple  and  hardy  manner. 
 After  having  been  initiated  in  the  profession 
 of  arms  under  Conde  and  Coligni,  and 
 been  present  at  the  battles  of  Jaraac  and 
 Moncontour,  he  went  to  the  court  ot' 
 France,  and,  in  1572,  was  married  to  Mar- 
 garet of  Valois,  the  sister  of  Charles  IX. 
 From  the  execrable  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
 tholomew he  escaped  onlv.bv  a  temporary 
 renunciation  of  theprotestant  faith.  Escap- 
 ing from  Paris,  he  put  himself  at  the  bead 
 of  the  Huguenot  party,  and  supported  its 
 cause  with  equal  talent  and  bravery.  In 
 1589  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  France  ; 
 but  for  four  years  he  had  to  contend  for 
 his  crown  against  the  furious  efforts  of  the 
 League  and  Spain;  nor  did  he  secure  the 
 possession  of  it  till,  in  1593,  he  consented 
 to  embrace  the  catholic  religion.  In  1595 
 he  issued  the  celebrated  edict  of  Nantz. 
 After  a  glorious  reign  of  twenty-one  years, 
 he  was  assassinated,  May  14,  1610,  by  a 
 fanatic,  named  Ravaillac.  Henry  was 
 brave,  frank,  liberal,  and  sincerely  desirous 
 to  promote  the  happiness  of  his  people; 
 but  his  virtues  were  shaded  by  some  weak- 
 nesses, among  which  must  be  numbered 
 prodigality,  a  propensity  to  gaming,  and  a 
 persevering  indulgence  in  illicit  amours. 
 
 HENRY  THE  MINSTREL,  or  Blind 
 Harry  (so  called  because  he  was  blind 
 from  his  birth),  a  Scottish  poet,  of  the 
 fifteenth  century,  was  a  wandering  min- 
 strel, and  is  supposed  to  have  belonged  to 
 some  monastic  order.  His  Actis  and  Deidis 
 of  ye  Illuster  and  Vailzeand  Campion  Syr 
 William  Wallace,  is  believed  to  have  been 
 composed  about  1440,  and  possesses  con- 
 siderable merit.  He  was  the  first  Scottish 
 poet  who  employed  the  heroic  couplet. 
 
 HENRY,  MATTHEW,  an  eminent  non- 
 conformist divine,  was  born,  in  1663,  at 
 Broad  Oak,  in  Flintshire,  and  was  educated 
 by  his  father,  a  highly  estimable  divine. 
 In  16S6,  he  became  pastor  of  a  congrega- 
 tion at  Chester,  with  which  he  remained 
 till  1702,  when  he  removed  to  Haekn<-\  . 
 His  assiduity  in^erforming  the  duties  of 
 his  function  impaired  his  constitution,  and 
 he  died,  much  regretted,  in  1714.  He 
 wrote  several  religious  pieces;  but  his 
 great  work  is  an  Exposition  of  the  Bible, 
 in  five  volumes  folio;  which  retains,  and 
 deserves,  all  its  pristine  popularity. 
 
 HENRY,  Robert,  an  historian,  was 
 born,  in  1718,  at  St.  Ninian's,  near  Stir- 
 ling; was  educated  at  Edinburgh;  and, 
 after  having  filled  some  less  important 
 preferments,  became  minister  of  the  new 
 
 HER 
 
 317 
 
 Gray  Friars  Church,  in  the  Scotch  capital, 
 whence  he  exchanged  to  the  old  church, 
 and,  in  1774,  wis  chosen  moderator  of  the 
 general  assembly,  lie  died  in  1790.  \)\\ 
 Henry  was  thirty  years  employed  on  his 
 History  of  England,  a  valuable  work, 
 which,  though  its  Buccess  was  retarded  by 
 the  malignant  efforts  of  his  enemies*  rose 
 at  length  into  public  favour,  added  more 
 than  .£.3000  to  his  fortune,  and  obtained 
 for  him,  from  the  crown,  a  pension  of 
 £.100  per  annitm. 
 
 HENRY,  PATRICK,  an  American  ora- 
 tor and  statesman,  was  born  in  Virginia  in 
 1736,  and  after  receiving  a  common  school 
 education,  and  spending  some  time  in  trade 
 and  agriculture,  commenced  the  practice 
 of  the  law,  after  only  six  weeks  of  prepar- 
 atory study.  After  several  years  of  pov- 
 erty, with  the  incumbrance  of  a  family,  he 
 first  rose  to  distinction  in  managing  the 
 popular  cause  in  the  controversy  between 
 the  legislature  and  the  clergy,  touching  the 
 stipend  which  was  claimed  by  the  latter. 
 In  1765  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
 house  of  burgesses,  with  express  reference 
 to  an  opposition  to  the  British  stamp  act. 
 In  this  assembly  he  obtained  the  honour  of 
 being  the  first  to  commence  the  opposition 
 to  the  measures  of  the  British  government, 
 which  terminated  in  the  revolution.  He 
 was  one  of  the  delegates  sent  by  Virginia 
 to  the  first  general  congress  of  the  colonies, 
 in  1774,  and  in  that  body  distinguished 
 himself  by  his  boldness  and  eloquence.  In 
 1776  he  was  appointed  the  first  governor 
 of  the  commonwealth,  and  to  this  office 
 was  repeatedly  reelected.  In  1786  he  was 
 appointed  by  the  legislature  one  of  the 
 deputies  to  the  convention  held  at  Philadel- 
 phia, for  the  purpose  of  revising  the  federal 
 constitution.  In  1788  he  was  a  member 
 of  the  convention,  which  met  in  Virginia 
 to  consider  the  constitution  of  the  United 
 States,  and  exerted  himself  strenuously 
 against  its  adoption.  In  1794  he  retired 
 from  the  bar,  and  died  in  1799.  Without 
 extensive  information  upon  legal  or  politi- 
 cal topics,  he  was  a  natural  orator  of  the 
 highest  order,  possessing  great  powers  of 
 imagination,  sarcasm  and  humour,  united 
 with  great  force  and  energy  of  manner, 
 and  a  deep  knowledge  of  human  nature. 
 
 HERACLITUS,  a  philosopher,  born  at 
 Ephesus,  flourished  about  504  B.C.,  and 
 was  taught  the  Pythagorean  system  by 
 Hippasus  anil  Xenophanes.  Refusing  the 
 supreme  magistracy,  which  was  ottered  to 
 him  by  his  fellow  citizens,  he  retired  to  a 
 mountainous  retreat,  where  he  lived  upon 
 the  spontaneous  produce  of  the  earth.  He 
 died  of  dropsy,  at  the  age  of  sixty .  His 
 melancholy  disposition  probably  gave  rise 
 to  the  tale  that  he  continually  wept  the 
 follies  of  mankind,  whence  he  was  called 
 the  Crying  Philosopher.     He  was  also  de- 
 
818 
 
 HER 
 
 nominated  the  Obscure  Philosopher,  from 
 his  having  written  on  his  doctrines  a  trea- 
 tise in  an  enigmatical  style,  that  it  might 
 not  be  re:id  by  the  vulgar. 
 
 HERBELOT,  Bartholomew  d',  a 
 learned  orientalist,  was  born,  in  1625.  at 
 Paris  ;  travelled  twice  into  Italy,  in  search 
 of  eastern  manuscripts,  and  to  converse  \\  iili 
 
 persons  from  the  East;  was  appointed 
 regius  professor  of  Syriac  in  the  French 
 capital;  and  died  in  1695,  as  much  regret- 
 ted for  his  virtues  as  admired  for  his  learn- 
 ing. His  Oriental  Library  merits  the 
 praise  bestowed  on  it  by  Gibbon,  of  being 
 "an  agreeable  miscellany,  which  must 
 gratify  every  taste." 
 
 HERBERT,  of  Cherbury, Edward, 
 lord,  was  born,  in  1581,  at  Montgomery 
 Castle;  was  sent  at  the  early  age  of  twelve 
 years  to  University  College,  Oxford  ;  was 
 made  a  knight  of  the  Bath  soon  after  the 
 accession  of  James  I.;  travelled  on  the 
 continent  in  1608,  and  attracted  much 
 attention  by  his  manners  and  accomplish- 
 ments; served  in  the  Netherlands  in  1610 
 and  1614,  and  displayed  consummate 
 bravery;  was  twice  sent  ambassador  to 
 France,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
 by  resenting  the  insolence  of  the  worthless 
 favourite  de  Luynes;  was  made  an  Irish 
 peer,  in  1625,  and,  soon  after,  an  English 
 baron ;  espoused  the  parliamentary  cause 
 during  the  civil  wars;  and  died  in  164S. 
 Herbert  was  one  of  the  most  chivalrous 
 characters  of  his  time,  with  considerable 
 talents,  and  some  vanity.  He  was  a  deist, 
 and  was  one  of  the  first  who  reduced 
 deism  into  a  system.  His  principles  are 
 expounded  in  his  works  De  Veritate,  and 
 De  Religione  Laici.  Lord  Herbert  also 
 wrote  his  own  Memoirs;  a  Life  of  Henry 
 VIII.;  and  a  treatise  on  the  Religion  of 
 the  Heathens. 
 
 HERBERT,  George,  a  brother  of  the 
 foregoing,  was  born,  in  1593,  at  Mont- 
 gomery Castle;  was  educated  at  Westmin- 
 ster School,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
 bridge; was  for  eight  years  orator  of  the 
 universitv;  and,  in  1630,  became  rector  of 
 Bemerton,  in  Wiltshire,  where  he  died  in 
 1632.  Herbert  was  a  man  of  such  exem- 
 plary piety  and  benevolence  that  his 
 brother  says,  "where  he  lived  beneficed, 
 he  was  little  less  than  sainted."  He  wrote 
 The  Priest  to  the  Temple — a  manual  of 
 clerical  duties;  and  a  volume  of  sacred 
 poems,  with  tin-  title  of  The  Temple. 
 
 HERBERT,  Sir  Thomas,  the  son  of 
 an  alderman,  was  born  at  York;  and, 
 after  having  Ik  en  educated  at  Jesus  Col- 
 lege, Oxford,  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
 bridge, he  travelled  for  four  years  in  .Asia 
 and  Africa.  In  1634,  he  published  A 
 Relation  of  his  Travels.  During  the  civil 
 war  he  took  the  side  of  the  parliament; 
 but,     being     appointed     to    attend    upon 
 
 HER 
 
 Charles  in  his  captivity,  he  became  warm.y 
 attached  to  him.  Herbert  was  made  a 
 baronet  at  the  Restoration,  and  he  died  in 
 1682.  Besides  his  travels  he  wrote  Thre- 
 ■odia  Carolina;  and  assisted  Dugdale  in 
 the  third  volume  of  the  Monasticon. 
 
 1 1  E RDE II,  John  God y r  k y  ,  a  German 
 philosopher  and  writer,  was  born,  in  1744, 
 of  poor  parents,  at  Mohrungcn,  in  Prussia; 
 was  educated  for  the  church,  became  court 
 preacher,  eeclesiastical  counsellor,  and  vice 
 president  of  the  consistory  to  the  duke  of 
 Saxe  Weimar;  and  died,  beloved  and 
 venerated  by  all  who  knew  him,  in  1803. 
 At  the  moment  when  he  expired  he  was 
 writing  a  hymn,  to  the  Deity,  and  the  pen 
 was  found  on  the  unfinished  line.  "  In 
 many  respects,"  says  Deyerando, "  Herder 
 is  tlie  Fenelon  of  Germany,  and  of  the 
 reformed  religion."  His  works,  philolog- 
 ical, philosophical,  and  poetical,  form 
 twenty-eight  volumes  octavo. 
 
 HERMELIN,  Samuel  Gustavus, 
 baron,  a  Swedish  mineralogist,  was  born, 
 in  1744,  at  Stockholm.  After  having  trav- 
 elled extensively,  and  paid  particular 
 attention  to  the  statistics  and  geology  of 
 the  countries  which  he  visited,  he  settled 
 in  his  native  land,  and  for  more  than  fifty 
 years  held  the  most  eminent  situations  in 
 the  management  of  the  Swedish  mines 
 He  died  in  1820.  Hermelin  wrote  various 
 works  relative  to  the  mineralogy,  metal- 
 lurgy, and  resources  of  Sweden;  and  it 
 was  he  who  projected  the  Swedish  Atlas, 
 and  at  whose  expense  a  considerable  part 
 of  it  was  executed. 
 
 HERMOGEIVES,  a  rhetorician,  born 
 at  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  flourished  about  the 
 year  180,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  meteoric 
 brilliancy  and  rapid  extinction  of  his 
 talents.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  was 
 famous  for  his  power  of  extempore  speak- 
 ing; at  seventeen  he  published  his  rhetoric; 
 and,  soon  after,  various  treatises  on  oratory, 
 which  ranked  him  high  among  writers 
 upon  that  subject ;  but  in  his  twenty-fifth 
 year  he  wholly  lost  his  memory,  and  sank 
 into  stupidity;  nor,  though  he  lived  to  a 
 great  age,  did  he  ever  recover  his  intellec- 
 tual faculties. 
 
 HERO,  the  Elder,  a  celebrated  mecha- 
 nician, was  born,  about  120  B.  c,  at  Al- 
 exandria; was  a  pupil  a£  Ctesibius;  and 
 possessed  an  extensive  Rowledge  of  me- 
 (hanks  and  geometry.  He  invented 
 water-clocks,  automatons,  and  other  curi- 
 ous machines.  Some  fragments  of  his 
 writings  on  mechanics  are  extant. 
 
 HERODIAN,  a  Greek  historian,  be- 
 lieved to  have  been  a  native  of  Alexandria, 
 held  various  honourable  ollices  at  Rome, 
 and  tlourished  in  the  second  and  third 
 centuries  after  Christ.  Me  wrote  a  History 
 of  Rome,  in  eight  books,  from  the  death 
 of  M areas    Aurelius   to    the    accession  of 
 
HER 
 
 Gordian  III.  Isaac  Cassaubon,  La  Mothe- 
 Vayer,  Gibbon,  and  others  have  borne 
 testimony  to  its  general  merit. 
 
 HERODOTUS,  the  oldest  of  the  Greek 
 historians  whose  works  are  extant,  and 
 whom  Cicero  called  the  Father  of  History, 
 was  born  484  B.  c,  at  Halicarnassus,  in 
 Caria.  When  his  country  was  tvranized 
 over  by  Lygdamis,  Herodotus  abandoned 
 it,  and  travelled  over  Greece,  Egypt,  and 
 Italy.  Returning  to  his  native  place,  he 
 assisted  in  overthrowing  the  tyranny  ; 
 but,  instead  of  gratifying  the  people  by 
 this  conduct,  he  is  said  to  have  incurred 
 their  resentment.  In  his  thirty-ninth  year 
 he  recited  his  History,  with  universal 
 applause,  at  the  Olympic  games.  He  is 
 believed  to  have  died  at  Tlmrium,  in  Italv, 
 at  an  advanced  age.  A  Life  of  Homer  is 
 erroneously  ascribed  to  him. 
 
 HERON,  Robert,  a  miscellaneous 
 writer,  born  in  Scotland,  and  educated 
 lor  the  church,  was  for  some  time  assistant 
 preacher  to  Dr.  Blair,  at  Edinburgh.  Lured 
 to  London  by  promises  of  patronage  from 
 the  booksellers,  he  was  indefatigable  with 
 his  peti.  He  contributed  to  many  peri- 
 odicals; was,  for  a  time,  editor  of  the 
 British  Press,  the  Globe,  the  British  Nep- 
 tune, and  other  papers;  translated  many 
 foreign  productions ;  wrote  several  original 
 works;  and  closed  his  career  by  dying, 
 pennyless,  in  the  Fever  Institution  at 
 Pancras,  April  13,  1807.  Among  his 
 labours  are,  A  Tour  in  Scotland,  two  vols. ; 
 A  History  of  Scotland,  six  vols.;  A  Sys- 
 tem of  Chemistry;  and  the  Comforts  of 
 Human  Life. 
 
 HEROPHILUS,  a  celebrated  physi- 
 cian, a  native  of  Chalcedon,  was  a  disciple 
 of  Praxagoras,  and  lived  under  Ptolemy 
 Soter.  He  was  one  of  the  first  who  dis- 
 sected human  bodies.  Herophilus  also 
 marked  the  distinction  between  the  nerves 
 and  the  tendons  and  ligaments;  discrimi- 
 nated the  variations  in  the  state  of  the 
 pulse ;  and  partly  discovered  the  lacteal 
 absorbents. 
 
 HERRERA,  Ferdinand,  a  Spanish 
 poet,  was  born  at  Seville,  about  1516,  and 
 died  about  1595.  He  was  the  first  of  the 
 four  poets  of  his  country  to  whom  the 
 epithet  divine  was  applied.  Besides  his 
 Poems,  in  one  volume,  consisting  of  son- 
 nets, songs,  elegies,  &c.  he  wrote  a  Rela- 
 tion of  the  War  of  Cyprus ;  and  a  General 
 History  of  Spain  ;  the  last  of  which  is 
 unfortunately  lost. 
 
 HERRERA,  Anthony,  a  celebrated 
 Spanish  historian,  whose  real  name  was 
 TORDESILLAS,  but  who  took  that  of 
 his  mother,  was  born  in  1559 ;  was  appoint- 
 ed chief  historiographer,  and,  subsequently, 
 secretary  of  state,  by  Philip  II. ;  and  died 
 in  1625.  He  wrote  several  histories;  but 
 his  great  work  is,  The  General  History  of 
 
 HER  319 
 
 the  Deeds  of  the  Castilians  in  the  Isles 
 and  on  the  Continent  of  the  Ocean  Sea, 
 four  volumes  folio.  Herrera  is  prolix,  and 
 fond  of  the  marvellous,  hut  is  candid,  im- 
 partial, and  full  of  research. 
 HERRICK,  Robert,  a  poet,  was  born, 
 
 in  1591,  in  London,  was  educated  at  St. 
 John's  College  and  Trinity  Hall,  Cam- 
 bridge; was  expelled  from  his  living  of 
 Dean  Prior,  in  Devonshire,  during  the  civil 
 wars,  but  recovered  it  at  the  restoration; 
 and  died  soon  after  that  event.  His  lles- 
 perides  (which  were  reprinted  a  few  years 
 since),  contain  many  poems  of  exquisite 
 beauty.  "  He  has  passages  (as  Campbell 
 no  less  elegantly  than  truly  remarks)  where 
 the  thoughts  seem  to  dance  into  numbers 
 from  his  very  heart,  and  where  he  frolics 
 like  a  being  made  up  of  melody  and  pleas- 
 ure." 
 
 HERRING,  Thomas,  an  eminent  pre- 
 late, was  born,  in  1693,  at  Walsoken,  in 
 Norfolk,  of  which  his  father  was  rector; 
 studied  at  Jesus  and  Bennet  Colleges, 
 Cambridge  ;  and,  after  having  possessed 
 various  livings,  was  raised,  in  1737,  to  the 
 see  of  Bangor,  whence,  in  1743,  he  was 
 translated  to  York.  After  jhe  defeat  of 
 the  king's  troops  at  Preston  Pans,  in  1745, 
 the  archbishop  exerted  himself  in  his  dio- 
 cese with  so  much  patriotism  and  zeal  that 
 he  repressed  the  disaffected,  inspirited  the 
 desponding,  and  procured,  at  a  county 
 meeting,  a  subscription  of  £.40,000,  to- 
 wards the  defence  of  the  country.  In  1747 
 he  was  removed  to  the  see  of  Canterbury ; 
 and  he  died  at  Croydon,  in  1756.  Her- 
 ring was  a  man  of  learning,  piety,  and 
 tolerant  principles.  His  Sermons  and 
 Letters  were  published  after  his  death. 
 
 HERSCHEL,  Sir  William,  one  of 
 
 the  greatest  astronomers  of  modern  times, 
 was  born  in  1738.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
 musician,  who  brought  him  up  to  his  own 
 profession;  and  young  Herschel  was  suc- 
 cessively a  player  in  the  band  of  a  Hano- 
 verian regiment,  and  of  the  Durham  militia, 
 and  organist  at  Halifax,  and  at  the  Octa- 
 gon chapel  at  Bath.  The  study  of  astronomy 
 was  one  of  the  occupations  of  his  leisure 
 hours,  and  finding  the  purchase  of  a  pow- 
 
320 
 
 HES 
 
 erf'ul  telescope  too  expensive,  he  tried  to 
 construct  one  for  himself,  and  was  suc- 
 cessful. He  subsequently  made  others  of 
 enormous  magnitude.  Relinquishing  the 
 profession  of  music,  he  gave  himself  up  to 
 astronomical  inquiries,  anil,  on  the  13th of 
 March,  1781 ,  was  so  fortunate  as  to  discover 
 anew  planet,  which  he  named  the  Georgians 
 Sidas.  Thenceforth,  patronised  by  George 
 the  Third,  and  assisted  In  his  sister  Caro- 
 line, he  continued  his  labours  assiduously. 
 In  1816  he  received  the  Guelphic  order  of 
 knighthood;  and  lie  died  August  23,  1822. 
 Among  the  discoveries  made  by  Herschel 
 are  the  lunar  volcanos,  the  sixth  ami 
 seventh  satellites  of  Saturn,  the  six  satel- 
 lites of  the  Georgian  planet,  and  the  nature 
 of  the  various  nebulae.  Herschel  wrote 
 many  papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
 tions; and  drew  up  a  Catalogue  of  Stars, 
 taken  from  Flamsteed's  Observations;  and 
 a  Catalogue  of  Five  Thousand  new  Ne- 
 bula;. 
 
 HERTZBERG,  Ewald  Frederic, 
 count,  a  Prussian  statesman  and  political 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1725,  at  Lottin,  in 
 Pomerania;  was  gradually  advanced  by 
 the  great  Frederic  till  he  became  prime 
 minister;  was  for  a  while  in  favour  with 
 Frederic  William  II.,  but  lost  that  sove- 
 reign's countenance  by  his  honourable 
 frankness;  and  died  in  1795.  Hertzberg 
 was  an  honest  and  an  enlightened  states- 
 man. Besides  his  Political  Works,  which 
 form  three  volumes,  he  wrote  several  Dis- 
 sertations which  were  read  to  the  Academy 
 of  Berlin. 
 
 HERVEY,  John,  lord,  was  born,  in 
 1696;  received  his  education  at  Clare  Hall, 
 Cambridge  ;  filled  various  state  offices, 
 among  which  was  that  of  lord  privy  seal; 
 and  died  in  1743.  Pope  has  unjustly 
 satirized  him  under  the  names  of  Lord 
 Fanny  and  Sporus;  for  Ilervey  was,  in 
 fact,  a  man  of  courage  and  talent;  of  the 
 latter  quality  his  lordship  gave  sufficient 
 proof  by  a  severe  retaliatory  Epistle.  He 
 wrote  some  fugitive  poems  and  political 
 pieces. 
 
 HERVEY,  James,  a  pious  and  amiable 
 divine,  was  bom,  in  1713-14,  at  Harding- 
 stone,  near  Northampton  ;  was  educated  at 
 Northampton  Grammar  School,  and  Lin- 
 coln College,  Oxford;  and,  after  having 
 officiated  at  Dunmoor  and  Biddeford,  he 
 succeeded  his  father,  as  rector  of  Weston 
 Favell  and  Collingtree.  He  died,  in  1758, 
 universally  regretted  for  his  virtues  and 
 the  sweetness  of  his  disposition.  Of  his 
 works,  which  form  six  volumes  octavo, 
 the  most  popular  are  his  Meditations  among 
 the  Tombs,  and  Reflections  in  a  Flower 
 Garden.  The  morality  is  excellent,  some 
 passages  are  striking,  but  the  style  is 
 meretriciously  florid. 
 
 HESIOD,  a  Greek  poet,  of  whom  little 
 
 HEY 
 
 that  is  certain  is  known.  It  is  doubtfu 
 whether  he  was  born  at  Cuma,  in  iEtolia, 
 or  Ascra,  in  Boeotia;  and  whether  he  was 
 a  contemporary  or  predecessor  of  Homer. 
 From  himself  we  learn  that  he  had  kept 
 sheep  on  Mount  Helicon,  and  that  he  had 
 been  defrauded  by  his  brodier.  He  is 
 said  to  have  been  drowned  on  a  false 
 accusation  of  having  aided  in  a  rape.  He 
 is  the  author  of  Works  and  Days;  Theo- 
 gouy;  and  the  Shield  of  Hercules;  but 
 his  title  to  the  last  two  has  been  ques- 
 tioned. 
 
 HESYCHIUS,  a  lexicographer,  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  a  native  of  Alexandria; 
 but  whether  he  existed  in  the  fourth  or  the 
 sixth  century  is  doubtful.  He  compiled  a 
 Lexicon,  which  is  considered  as  one  of 
 the  most  valuable  treasures  of  the  Greek 
 language. 
 
 HEVELIUS,  John, an  eminent  astron- 
 omer, wras  born,  in  1611,  at  Dantzic; 
 and  died  in  1688.  He  was  a  most  perse- 
 vering and  accurate  observer  of  the  starry 
 bodies.  The  libration  of  the  moon  was 
 first  noticed  by  him;  he  discovered  several 
 fixed  stars,  and  formed  some  new  constella- 
 tions. Among  his  works  are  Selenogra- 
 phia;  Cometographia;  Machina  Ccelestis; 
 and  Prodroinus  Astronomise. 
 
 HE  WES,  Joseph,  a  signer  of  the 
 declaration  of  independence,  was  born  in 
 New-Jersey  in  the  year  1730.  At  the  age 
 of  thirty  he  removed  to  North  Carolina, 
 and  was  a  delegate  from  this  province  to 
 the  Continental  Congress.  He  died  in 
 November,  1779.  He  was  a  man  of  integ- 
 rity, firmness  and  ardent  patriotism. 
 
 HEWSON,  William,  a  celebrated 
 anatomist,  was  born,  in  1739,  at  Hexham, 
 in  Northumberland ;  was  pupil  and  sub- 
 sequently assistant  to  John  and  William 
 Hunter;  began  a  course  of  lectures,  on  his 
 own  account,  in  1772;  and  died  in  1774, 
 of  a  wound  received  in  dissecting.  Hew- 
 son  discovered  the  lymphatic  system  in 
 birds  and  fishes,  for  which  discovery  he 
 received  the  Copleyan  medal.  He  wrote 
 Experimental  Inquiries  into  the  Properties 
 of  the  Blood :  and  a  Treatise  on  the  Lym- 
 phatic System. 
 
 HEYLIN,  Peter,  a  divine,  was  born, 
 in  1600,  at  Burford,  in  Oxfordshire;  was 
 educated  at  Hart  Hall  and  Magdalen  Col- 
 lege. Oxford;  obtained  various  livings  and 
 clerical  offices  through  the  patronage  of 
 Laud,  from  which  he  was  expelled  by  the 
 republicans;  was  the  editor  of  the  Mer- 
 curius  Aulicus,  the  royalist  paper ;  recov- 
 ered his  preferments  at  the  restoration; 
 and  died  in  1662.  Among  his  works  are, 
 Lives  of  Laud,  and  of  Charles  I. ;  Histories 
 of  the  Presbyterians,  and  of  the  Reforma- 
 tion of  the  Church  of  England;  and  A 
 Help  to  English  History. 
 
 HEYNE,  Christian  Gottlob,    a 
 
HID 
 
 learned  German,  was  born,  in  1729,  at 
 Chemnitz,  of  poor  parents;  and,  in  spite 
 of  almost  insurmountable  obstacles,  be- 
 came, by  dint  of  astonishing  exertions, 
 one  of  the  most  eminent  scholars  of  the 
 age.  In  1763,  he  was  appointed  professor 
 of  rhetoric  at  Gottingen,  in  which  univer- 
 sity he  remained  till  his  decease,  in  July, 
 1812.  Among  his  works  arc  editions  of 
 Homer,  Pindar,  Epictetus,  Diodorus  Sicn- 
 lus,  Virgil,  and  Tibullus;  and  a  variety  on 
 pieces,  which  have  been  collected  in  six 
 volumes  octavo,  with  the  title  of  Opuscula 
 Academica. 
 
 HEYWOOD,  John,  an  early  English 
 poet,  was  born  at  North  Minis,  in  Hert- 
 fordshire; was  educated  at  Oxford;  was 
 in  great  favour  with  Henry  VIII.  and 
 Mary;  and  died,  in  1565,  at  Mechlin,  in 
 Brabant.  His  companionable  qualities, 
 and  his  musical  skill,  rendered  his  society 
 much  in  request.  Among  his  works  are, 
 six  plays;  several  hundred  epigrams;  and 
 The  Spider  and  Fly,  a  parable. 
 
 HEYWOOD,  Thomas,  an  actor  and 
 writer,  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth, 
 James  I.,  and  Charles  I.,  and  is  supposed 
 to  have,  been  a  native  of  Lincolnshire.  His 
 fertility  was  astonishing;  for  he  tells  us 
 that  he  "  had  either  an  entire  hand,  or  at 
 least  a  main  finger,"  in  two  hundred  and 
 twenty  plays,  of  which  only  twenty-three 
 are  extant.  Writing  so  much,  it  is  won- 
 derful that  he  wrote  so  well.  "  He  is," 
 says  Charles  Lamb,  "a  sort  of  prose 
 Shakspeare;  his  scenes  are  to  the  full  as 
 natural  and  affecting."  Heywood  did  not 
 confine  himself  to  the  drama;  he  wrote  va- 
 rious works,  among  which  are,  The  Hier- 
 archy of  Angels ;  A  Life  of  Queen  Eliza- 
 beth ;  and  a  General  History  of  Women. 
 
 HICKES,  George,  a  theologian  and 
 philologist,  was  born,  in  1642,  at  News- 
 ham,  in  Yorkshire;  was  educated  at  St. 
 John's  College,  Oxford  ;  rose  in  the  church 
 till  he  obtained,  in  1683,  the  deanery  of 
 Worcester;  was  disappointed  of  the  bish- 
 opric of  Bristol  by  the  death  of  Charles  II. ; 
 refused  to  take  the  oaths  to  William  III. ; 
 and  was  an  active  enemy  of  the  govern- 
 ment; and  died  in  1715.  His  theological 
 and  controversial  works  are  numerous,  but 
 are  forgotten,  and  his  name  is  preserved 
 by  the  proofs  which  he  has  given  of  his 
 Saxon  scholarship,  in  his  valuable  Antiquas 
 Literaturae  Septentrionalis  Thesaurus,  two 
 volumes  folio;  and  his  Institutiones  Gram- 
 matical Anglo  Saxonica?. 
 
 HIDALGO  Y  COSTILLA,  Don  Mi- 
 chael, one  of  the  first  assertors  of  Mexi- 
 can liberty,  was  rector  of  Dolores,  in  the 
 province  of  Guanaxuato,  and  was  a  man 
 of  education  and  talents,  who  possessed 
 great  influence  with  the  natives.  Tn  con- 
 junction with  several  others,  he  formed  a 
 plan  for  throwing  off  the  Spanish  yoke.  It 
 
 14; 
 
 HIL 
 
 321 
 
 was  betrayed  to  the  viceroy,  and  Hidalgo 
 was  driven  to  the  necessity  of  taking  the 
 field  prematurely.  The  insurrection  began 
 on  the  night  of  the  tenth  of  September, 
 1810.  At  first  he  obtained  great  success; 
 but  at  length,  the  abrchbiahop  of  Mexico 
 having  excommunicated  him  and  his  fol- 
 lowers, superstition  thinned  his  ranks,  and 
 he  sustained  three  severe  defeats.  He  ul- 
 timately fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards, 
 and  was  executed  in  July,  1811. 
 
 HIGHMORE,  Nathaniel,  an  anato- 
 mist and  physician,  was  born,  in  1613,  at 
 Fordingbridge,  in  Hampshire;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Oxford;  practised  at  Sherborne, 
 in  Dorsetshire;  and  died  in  1684.  He 
 wrote  a  History  of  Generation;  a  Treatise 
 on  Hysteria  and  Hypochondriasis;  and 
 The  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body.  The 
 cavity  called  the  antrum  Highmorianum,  in 
 the  superior  maxilla,  takes  its  name  from 
 him. 
 
 HILL,  Aaron,  was  born,  in  1685,  in 
 Westminster,  and  was  educated  at  the 
 school  of  that  city.  In  his  fifteenth  year, 
 being  left  fatherless,  he  boldly  travelled  to 
 Constantinople  to  visit  Lord  Paget,  the 
 British  ambassador,  who  was  a  relation 
 By  his  lordship  he  was  sent  to  travel  in  the 
 Levant.  His  subsequent  life  was  an  active 
 one.  At  one  period  he  was  manager  of 
 Drury  Lane  Theatre.  Literary  pursuits 
 occupied  much  of  his  time.  But  a  consid- 
 erable portion  of  his  existence  was  spent  in 
 trying  to  carry  into  effect  various  schemes, 
 among  which  were  the  extracting  of  oil 
 from  beech  mast,  the  formation  of  a  colony 
 in  Georgia,  and  procuring  timber  from  the 
 Highlands.  Hedied  in  1750.  Hill  was  a 
 noble  spirited  and  benevolent  man,  and  his 
 poetical  talents  were  far  above  contempt. 
 His  dramatic  works  form  two  volumes,  and 
 his  poems  and  miscellaneous  pieces,  not  in- 
 cluding his  epic  of  Gideon,  have  been  col- 
 lected in  four  volumes. 
 
 HILL,  Sir  John,  a  multifarious  writer, 
 the  son  of  a  clergyman,  was  born,  about 
 1716,  at  Peterborough;  was  brought  upas 
 an  apothecary ;  tried  the  stage ;  then  be- 
 came an  author;  next  practised  as  a  phy- 
 sician, and  invented  several  quack  medi- 
 cines, which  proved  very  lucrative;  and 
 died  in  1775.  Hill  was,  undoubtedly,  a 
 man  of  talent,  but  was  so  marvellously  rapid 
 a  writer,  that  his  productions  were  neces- 
 sarily superficial  and  incorrect.  With  the 
 wits  of  the  age  he  was  continually  at  war. 
 His  numerous  works  have  passed  into  ob- 
 livion, with  the  exception  of  those  on  scien- 
 tific subjects,  among  which  are  Essays  on 
 Natural  History  and  Philosophy;  and  his 
 System  of  Botany,  in  twenty-six  folio  vol- 
 umes. 
 
 HILLEL,  the  Elder,  surnamed  Hassa- 
 ken,  a  descendant  of  the  house  of  David, 
 was  born,  112  b.  c,  at  Babylon;  became 
 
322  HOA 
 
 president  of  the  Sanhedrim,  at  Jerusalem; 
 and  died  at  the  age  of  a  hundred  and  twenty. 
 Tlie  Jewish  writers  unanimously  consider 
 him  as  the  most  learned  in  their  laws  and 
 traditions  of  all  the  ancient  doctors,  lie 
 was  one  of  the  compilers  of  the  Talmud. 
 
 HIPPARCHUS,  the  greatest  of  ancient 
 astronomers,  was  a  native  of  Nicaea,  in 
 Bithynia,  and  settled  at  Rhodes.  No  par- 
 ticulars of  his  life  arc  known,  but  he  ap- 
 pears to  have  flourished  about  a  century 
 and  a  half  before  the  christian  era.  He 
 was  the  first  who  numbered  and  catalogued 
 the  stars;  he  discovered  the  precession  of 
 the  equinoxes;  determined  the  revolutions 
 and  mean  motions  of  the  planets;  invented 
 the  stereographical  mode  of  projection,  and 
 various  new  instruments,  and  conferred 
 other  benefits  on  astronomical  science.  His 
 Commentary  on  the  Phenomena  of  Aratus 
 is  extant. 
 
 HIPPOCRATES,  the  most  eminent  of 
 ancient  physicians,  who  is  considered  as 
 the  father  of  medical  science,  was  born, 
 about  400  B.  c.  in  the  island  of  Cos;  is 
 said  to  have  been  the  eighteenth  lineal  de- 
 scendant of  /Esculapins;  and  studied  med- 
 icine under  Herodicus,  and  philosophy  and 
 eloquence  under  Gorgias.  Little  certain  is 
 I  d  iwn  of  his  life,  except  that  he  spent 
 much  of  it  in  travelling.  He  is  believed  to 
 bavedied  at  Larissa,  in  Thessaly,  at  a  very 
 advanced  age.  Of  his  works  several  are 
 extant. 
 
 HIPPOCRATES  of  Chios,  a  celebra- 
 ted geometrician,  lived  in  the  fifth  century 
 e.  c.  He  is  principally  known  by  his  dis- 
 covery of  the  quadrature  of  the  lunula, 
 which  bears  his  name,  and  which  led  him 
 to  expect  that  he  should  accomplish  the 
 squaring  of  the  circle. 
 
 HOADLEY,  Bin.tamin,  an  eminent 
 prelate,  was  born,  in  1676,  at  Westerham, 
 i  i  Kent;  was  educated  partly  by  his  father, 
 and  partly  at  Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge; 
 was  for  some  years  lecturer  of  St.  Mild- 
 red's; and,  in  1T04,  was  made  rector  of 
 St.  Peter  le  Poor,  Broad  Street.  He  soon 
 distinguished  himself  as  a  champion  of 
 freedom,  in  his  controversy  with  Calamy 
 and  Atterbury;  and  the  commons  addres- 
 sed the  queen  to  promote  him,  but,  as  may 
 be  supposed,  do  favour  was  dispensed  to 
 him  bv  a  Tory  government.  The  acces- 
 sii  :i  of  George  I.,  however,  brightened  his 
 prospects.  In  1715  he  was  raised  to  the 
 see  of  Bangor;  whence  he  was  translated 
 to  Hereford,  Salisbury,  and  Winchester, 
 in  1720, 1723,  and  17:34.  He  died  in  1761. 
 It  was  in  1717  that  he  preached  the  cele- 
 brated sermon  which  drove  the  high  church 
 party  almost  to  madness,  and  gave  rise  to 
 the  Bangorian  controversy.  His  works 
 form  three  folio  volumes. 
 
 HOADLEY,  Bkn.iamin,  eldest  son  of 
 the  foregoing,  was  born  in  1706;   was  edu- 
 
 HOB 
 
 cated  at  Bene't  College,  Cambridge;  set- 
 tled in  London  as  a  physician ;  acquired 
 extensive  practice,  and  became  physician 
 to  the  king  and  the  prince  of  Wales;  and 
 died  in  1757.  Besides  various  medical 
 productions,  Dr.  Hoadley  wrote  the  lively 
 comedy  of  The  Suspicious  Husband,  which 
 still  retains  its  place  on  the  stage.  He  also 
 gave  Hogarth  some  assistance  in  the  Anal- 
 ysis of  Beauty. 
 
 HOB  ART",  John  Henry,  was  born  in 
 Philadelphia  on  the  fourteenth  of  Septem- 
 ber 1775.  He  was  educated  at  the  Col- 
 lege in  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  and  was 
 noted  in  early  life  for  his  industry  and  pro- 
 ficiency in  his  studies.  On  leaving  this  in- 
 stitution he  was  engaged  a  short  time  in 
 mercantile  pursuits,  was  subsequently  a  tu- 
 tor at  Nasssau  Hall,  and  after  two  years 
 service  in  this  capacity  he  determined  upon 
 the  study  of  theology.  In  1798  he  was  ad- 
 mitted into  orders,  and  was  first  settled  in 
 the  two  churches  at  Perkiomen,  near 
 Philadelphia,  but  soon  after  accepted  a  call 
 to  Christ  Church,  New  Brunswick.  In 
 about  a  year  he  removed  from  this  place  to 
 become  an  assistant  minister  of  the  largest 
 spiritual  cure  in  the  country,  comprising 
 three  associated  congregations  in  the  city 
 of  New  York.  In  1811  he  was  elected  as- 
 sistant Bishop,  and  in  1816  became  dioce- 
 san of  New  York,  and  in  performing  the 
 severe  duties  of  the  office,  his  labours  were 
 indefatigable.  From  1818  to  1823  he  was 
 employed  in  editing  the  American  edition 
 of  Man  t  and  D'Ogly's  Bible,  with  notes.  In 
 September,  1823,  the  state  of  his  health  re- 
 quired a  visit  to  Europe,  where  he  remained 
 abou<  two  years.  He  died  in  1830.  He  was 
 incessantly  active  in  performing  his  relig- 
 ious offices,  and  made  several  valuable 
 compilations  for  the  use  of  the  church. 
 
 HOBBES,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  phi- 
 losopher, was  born,  in  1588,  at  Malmes- 
 bury,  in  Wiltshire,  and  was  educated  at 
 Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford.  In  1608  he  be- 
 came tutor  to  Lord  Hardwick,  who  was 
 subsequently  earl  of  Devonshire;  and,  after 
 their  return  from  travelling,  he  resided  in 
 the  family  tor  many  years,  during  which  pe- 
 riod he  translated  Thucydides,  and  made  a 
 Latin  version  ofsome  of  lord  Bacon's  works. 
 In  1640  he  retired  to  Paris,  to  avoid  being 
 involved  in  the  contest  which  was  about 
 to  take  place  in  his  country.  It  was 
 during  this  voluntary  exile  that  he  pro- 
 duced his  celebrated  works,  De  Cive; 
 (Human  Nature;  De  Corpore  Politico; 
 and  the  still  more  famous  and  obnoxious 
 Leviathan.  About  1652  he  returned  to 
 England,  and  tfl  1654  published  A  Letter 
 on  Liberty  and  Necessity,  which  led  to  a 
 controversy  with  Bishop  Bramhall.  He 
 now  again  resided  in  the  Devonshire  family, 
 and  continued  to  do  so  for  the  remainder 
 of  his  days      Charles  II.  gave  him  a  pen- 
 
HOF 
 
 sion  of  £.100  a  year.  Among  his  later 
 works  are,  Decameron  Physiologicum ;  A 
 Dialogue  between  a  Philosopher  and  a 
 Student  of  the  Common  Law  ;  Behemoth, 
 or  a  History  of  the  Civil  Wars;  and  trans- 
 lations of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  lie  died 
 in  1679.  The  charge  of  atheism,  which 
 has  been  urged  against  him,  is  undoubtedly 
 groundless;  but  it  seems  to  require  no 
 small  share  of  hardihood  to  maintain,  that 
 his  doctrines,  religious  and  political,  do  not 
 lead  to  consequences  of  the  most  pernicious 
 nature. 
 
 HOCHE,  Lazarus,  an  eminent  French 
 general,  was  born,  in  1768,  at  Montreuil, 
 near  Versailles,  and  began  life  in  the  hum- 
 ble capacity  of  a  stable  boy.  In  1785  he 
 entered  the  army ;  and,  having  passed  with 
 applause  through  the  intermediate  grada- 
 tions of  rank,  he  was  raised,  in  1793,  to 
 the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Moselle, 
 and,  shortly  after,  to  that  of  the  Rhine.  In 
 1795  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  re- 
 publican army  in  Vendee.  In  this  im- 
 portant and  difficult  station,  which  required 
 civil  as  well  as  military  talents,  he  acquit- 
 ted himself  admirably;  and  succeeded  in 
 defeating  the  emigrants  at  Quiberon,  and 
 in  inducing  the  royalists  to  yield  obedience 
 to  the  government.  After  having  been 
 sent,  in  the  winter  of  1796,  on  an  abortive 
 expedition  to  Ireland,  he  was  appointed  to 
 the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Sambre 
 and  Meuse,  and  had  already  gained  con- 
 siderable advantages  when  his  career  was 
 stopped  by  the  armistice  between  Prince 
 Charles  and  Bonaparte.  He  died  Septem- 
 ber 15,  1797. 
 
 HOFER,  Andrew,  a  Tyrolian,  cele- 
 brated for  his  patriotism,  was  born,  in 
 1765,  at  Passeyer,  in  the  Tyrol,  and  was 
 a  rich  innkeeper  and  corn  merchant  in 
 that  town.  In  1809,  he  was  placed  at  their 
 head  by  the  Tyrolese,  who  had  thrown  oft" 
 the  yoke  of  Bavaria,  and  he  justified  their 
 choice.  After  making  a  glorious  struggle, 
 however,  and  obtaining  many  splendid  vic- 
 tories, the  Tyrolese  were  subjugated,  and 
 Hofer  was  tried  and  shot,  at  Mantua,  in 
 February,  1810. 
 
 HOFFMANN,  Maurice,  an  anatomist, 
 botanist,  and  physician,  was  born,  in  1621, 
 at  Furstenwalde,  in  Brandenburg;  studied 
 at  Cologne,  Altorf,  and  Padua;  settled  at 
 Altorf,  and  held  the  anatomical,  botanical, 
 and  physical  professorships;  and  died  in 
 1698.  His  principal  works  are  botanical. 
 The  pancreatic  duct  was  discovered  by 
 Hoffman  while  dissecting  a  turkey. 
 
 HOFFMANN,  Frederic,  an  eminent 
 physician,  was  born,  in  1660,  at  Halle,  in 
 Saxony;  studied  there,  and  at  Jena;  be- 
 came widely  celebrated  for  his  medical 
 skill;  and  physician  to  several  German 
 princes,  among  whom  was  the  king  of 
 Prussia;   was  a  member  of  many  scientific 
 
 HOG  323 
 
 bodies;  published  numerous  professional 
 works;  and  died  in  1742.  Among  his 
 principal  productions  are,  his  Medieina 
 Rationalis    Systematica;     and    Medicina 
 
 Consul  tutor  ia. 
 
 HOFFMANN,  Christopher  Lewis, 
 
 a  physician,  was  born,  in  1721,  at  llhe.la, 
 in  Westphalia;  was  successively  physician 
 to  the  bishop  of  Minister,  and  the  electors 
 of  Cologne  and  Menu ;  and  died  in  18(W. 
 He  endeavoured  to  found  a  new  school  of 
 medicine,  by  combining  the  humoral  and 
 nervous  pathology:  assuming  the  sensibility 
 and  irritability  of  the  solids  as  the  basis  uj" 
 his  system,  and  the  corruption  of  the  hu- 
 mours as  the  principle  of  irritation,  lie 
 published  A  Treatise  on  the  Small  Pox; 
 The  Magnetiser;   and  other  works. 
 
 HOFFMAN,  Henry,  a  French  dra- 
 matic writer  and  critic,  was  born,  in  1760, 
 at  Nancy,  and  settled  at  Paris  in  1785,  in 
 which  year  he  published  a  volume  of  poems. 
 He  subsequently  wrote  various  operas  and 
 dramatic  pieces,  among  which  are,  Eu- 
 phrosine  anil  Coradin  ;  the  Castle  of  Mon- 
 tenero;  the  Secret;  the  Fruitless  Strata- 
 gem; and  the  Romance  of  an  Hour.  For 
 the  last  thirty  years  of  his  life  he  was  dis- 
 tinguished as  an  acute  and  impartial  critic. 
 He  died  in  April,  1828. 
 
 HOFFMANN,  Ernest  Theodore 
 William,  a  German  author,  was  a  man 
 of  varied  talents;  being  at  once  a  poet, 
 romance  writer,  artist,  and  musician.  He 
 was  bred  to  the  law,  and  at  different  times 
 held  subordinate  employments  in  the  ma- 
 gistracy ;  but  was  generally  obliged  to  de- 
 pend upon  his  pen  or  his  pencil  for  sub- 
 sistence. His  life  was  often  rendered  mis- 
 erable by  hypochondriacal  affections,  and 
 he  died  of  tabes  dorsalis,  at  Berlin,  in 
 June,  1822.  His  works,  among  which 
 are  The  Devil's  Elixir;  The  Entail;  The 
 Adversary;  and  Night  Pieces,  after  the 
 manner  of  Callot,  display  a  singularly  wild 
 and  powerful  imagination.  Hoffmann  wrote 
 his  own  Memoirs. 
 
 HOGARTH,  William,  one  of  the 
 most  original  of  painters,  was  born,  in 
 1697,  in  London,  and  from  his  childhood 
 was  fond  of  drawing.     He  served  his  ap- 
 
Js24 
 
 HOL 
 
 prenticeship  to  a  silver  plate  engraver, 
 and,  when  out  of  his  time,  began  to  work 
 as  a  copper  plate  engraver  for  the  book- 
 sellers. He  soon  aspired  to  become  a 
 painter,  and  one  of  his  first  efforts  in  the 
 art  appears  to  have  been  a  series  of  pic- 
 tures, iVi mi  which  he  engraved  plates  for 
 Hudibras.  It  was  to  portraits,  however, 
 that,  at  the  outset,  he  looked  for  the  means 
 of  subsistence,  and  he  was  not  unsuccessful. 
 In  1730,  he  married,  without  her  father's 
 consent,  the  daughter  of  Sir  James  Thorn- 
 hill;  and  it  was  not  till  1733,  when  Ho- 
 garth produced  The  Harlot's  Progress, 
 that  Sir  James  was  reconciled  to  the  match. 
 The  artist  at  once  became  popular,  and  he 
 sustained  his  popularity  by  a  fertile  suc- 
 cession of  admirable  pictures  in  the  same 
 spirit,  and  engravings  from  them,  which 
 are  so  well  known  as  to  render  it  unneces- 
 sary to  enumerate  them.  He  also  tried  his 
 powers  in  what  is  considered  as  a  nobler 
 branch  of  art,  but  he  was  not  fortunate. 
 His  Paul  before  Felix,  Danae,  The  Pool 
 of  Bethesda,  and  Sigismunda  weeping  over 
 the  Heart  of  Guiscardo,  are  failures.  In 
 1753,  with  some  assistance  from  Dr.  Hoad- 
 lev,  he  produced  his  ingenious  work  The 
 Analysis  of  Beauty ;  and,  in  1757,  he  be- 
 came serjeant  painter  to  the  king.  His 
 last  davs  were  embittered  by  a  virulent 
 contest  with  Wilkes  and  Churchill,  in 
 which  their  pens  proved  an  overmatch 
 even  for  the  pencil  of  Hogarth.-  He  died 
 in  1764. 
 
 HOLBACH,  Paul  Thierry,  baron 
 de,  a  German  writer,  was  born,  in  1723, 
 at  Heidesheim,  in  the  Palatinate,  and  was 
 educated  at  Paris,  where  he  spent  the 
 greatest  part  of  his  life.  He  was  a  man  of 
 great  and  varied  talents,  generous,  and 
 kind  hearted.  With  mineralogy  he  was 
 particularly  conversant.  It  was  at  his 
 sappers  that  the  philosophers  of  that  period 
 met,  for  the  purpose,  as  some  have  asserted, 
 of  concerting  measures  to  undermine  relig- 
 ion, and  subvert  all  established  govern- 
 ment. He  died  in  1789.  His  works, 
 original  and  translated,  but  chiefly  the 
 latter,  are  numerous,  and  were  all  pub- 
 lished anonymously. 
 
 HOLBEIN,  Hans,  or  John,  a  cele- 
 brated painter,  was  born,  in  1498,  at  Basil, 
 and  was  instructed  in  painting  by  his  father, 
 whom  he  soon  surpassed.  At  the  request 
 of  Erasmus,  he  visited  London,  where  he 
 was  liberally  patronised  by,  and  in  high 
 favour  with,  Henry  VIII.  He  died  of  the 
 plague,  at  London,  in  1554.  He  excelled 
 both  in  portrait  and  historical  painting, 
 lie  also  engraved  in  wood.  Among  his 
 most  celebrated  works  are,  The  Dance  of 
 Death;  The  Sacrifice  of  Abraham;  The 
 Village  Dance;  Riches;  and  Poverty. 
 Holbein  is  said  to  have  painted  with  his 
 left  hand. 
 
 HOL 
 
 HOLBERG,  Ludwig,  or  Louis,  baron 
 de,  a  Danish  writer,  was  born,  in  1685, 
 of  parents  in  humble  life,  at  Bergen,  in 
 Norway;  had  to  struggle  with  great  diffi- 
 culties in  acquiring  learning;  travelled  in 
 England,  Holland,  France,  and  Italy ;  and, 
 after  his  return  to  his  native  country, 
 raised  himself  to  fame,  fortune,  and  rank, 
 by  his  literary  talents.  Holberg  was,  in 
 fact,  the  founder  of  the  drama,  and,  in  a 
 great  measure,  of  literature  itself,  in  Den- 
 mark. He  died  in  1754.  Among  his 
 works  are,  comedies;  Peter  Pors,  an  epi- 
 comic  poem;  Poems;  The  Subterraneous 
 Travels  of  Nicholas  Klimin  ;  A  History  of 
 Denmark;  an  Universal  History;  and 
 Parallel  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men;  and  of 
 Illustrious  Women. 
 
 HOLCROFT,  Thomas,  a  fertile  wri- 
 ter in  various  departments  of  literature, 
 was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  and  was  born, 
 in  1744,  in  Orange  Court,  Leicester  Fields. 
 He  was,  successively,  a  jockey,  a  shoe- 
 maker, and  an  actor,  and  finally  directed 
 his  talents  to  literary  pursuits.  It  was  as 
 a  dramatist  that  he  first  essayed  his  pow- 
 ers; and,  between  1778  and  1806  he  pro- 
 duced more  than  thirty  pieces,  several  of 
 which  were  successful,  and  some  still  re- 
 tain possession  of  the  stage,  among  which 
 is  The  Road  to  Ruin.  Holcroft  was  the 
 dramatist  who  introduced  melo  dramas  on 
 the  English  stage.  Having  rendered  him- 
 self obnoxious  as  a  strenuous  reformer, 
 Holcroft  was  accused  of  high  treason  in 
 1794.  He  surrendered  himself,  but  was 
 not  brought  to  trial.  He  died  in  1809. 
 Among  his  productions  are  A  Tour  in 
 Germany  and  France;  the  novels  of  Al- 
 wyn ;  Anna  St.  Ives;  Hugh  Trevor;  and 
 Bryan  Perdue;  and  numerous  translations 
 from  the  German  and  French. 
 
 HOLINSHED,  or  HOLINGSHED. 
 RALPH,  an  English  chronicler,  descended 
 from  a  respectable  Cheshire  family,  is  said 
 to  have  been  steward  to  Mr.  Burdett,  of 
 Bromcote,  in  Warwickshire,  and  to  have 
 died  about  1582.  His  Chronicle  first  ap- 
 peared in  1577;  a  second  edition  was  pub- 
 lished ten  years  later.  Though  it  bears 
 only  the  name  of  Holinshed,  several  per- 
 sons contributed  to  it.  In  the  second 
 and  third  editions  the  privy  council  sup- 
 pressed  mam  passages  which  were  disa- 
 greeable to  Elizabeth  and  her  ministers. 
 
 HOLLAND,  Philkmon,  who  gained 
 the  appellation  of  Translator  General  of 
 the  age,  was  born,  about  1561,  at  Chelms- 
 ford, in  Essex;  was  educated  at  Trinity 
 College,  Cambridge;  became  head  master 
 of  the  Free  School  at  Coventry;  and,  late 
 in  life,  practised  physic  at  Cambridge.  He 
 died,  in  1636,  with  his  sight  and  faculties 
 unimpaired.  Among  Ids  labours  are, 
 translations  of  Camden's  Britannia;  Plu- 
 tarch's Morals ;   Ammianus;   the  Cyropue 
 
HOL 
 
 dia;  Pliny's  Natural  History;  Livy;  and 
 Suetonius;  the  last  of  which  gave  occa- 
 sion to  a  well  known  quibbling  epigram. 
 
 HOLLAR, Wenceslaus,  an  engraver, 
 was  born,  in  1607,  at  Prague,  in  Bohemia. 
 He  was  brought  to  England,  in  1636,  by 
 the  earl  of  Arundel,  on  his  return  from  the 
 embassy  to  Vienna;  and,  in  1640,  he  was 
 appointed  drawing  master  to  the  prince 
 of  Wales  and  the  duke  of  York.  The 
 prospects  of  Hollar,  however,  wore  utter- 
 ly destroyed  by  the  civil  war,  and  he  was 
 imprisoned;  but  he  contrived  to  escape  to 
 Antwerp.  In  1652,  he  returned  to  Eng- 
 land, and  remained  there  till  his  decease, 
 in  1677.  Though  he  was  so  much  em- 
 ployed that  he  is  said  to  have  executed 
 two  thousand  four  hundred  plates,  he  died 
 so  poor  that  an  execution  for  debt  was  in 
 his  how;  at  the  moment  of  his  death. 
 
 HOLLEY,  Horace,  a  celebrated  pul- 
 pit orator,  was  born  in  Connecticut  in 
 1781,  and  was  graduated  at  Yale  College 
 in  1799.  On  leaving  this  institution  he 
 began  the  study  of  the  law,  which  he  soon 
 relinquished  for  divinity,  and  in  1S05  Avas 
 ordained  to  the  pastoral  charge  of.  Green- 
 field Hill,  Conn.  In  1809  he  was  installed 
 over  the  society  in  Hollis  street,  Boston, 
 where  he  remained  for  ten  years,  when  he 
 accepted  an  invitation  to  become  president 
 of  Transylvania  university  in  Kentucky. 
 In  this  situation  he  continued  till  1827, 
 when  he  died  on  his  passage  from  New 
 Orleans  to  New  York.  His  sermons  were 
 generally  extemporaneous,  and  were  dis- 
 tinguished for  power  and  eloquence. 
 
 HOLLIS,  Thomas,  a  munificent  ben- 
 efactor of  Harvard  College,  Massachu- 
 setts, was  born  in  England  in  1659,  and 
 died  in  1731.  He  founded  the  professor- 
 ship of  theology  and  mathematics  in  that 
 institution,  and  presented  it  with  many 
 books,  and  a  philosophical  apparatus. 
 
 HOLLIS,  Thomas,  an  English  gen- 
 tleman, born  in  London  in  1720,  was  in 
 his  principles  a  dissenter  and  a  Avarm  ad- 
 vocate for  the  liberty  of  the  subject.  To 
 spread  his  principles  more  widelv  he  pub- 
 lished at  his  own  expense  new  editions  of 
 Toland's  Life  of  Milton,  and  of  Algernon 
 Sydney's  discourses  on  government.  He 
 was  a  man  of  large  fortune,  and  devoted 
 above  half  of  it  to  charitable  purposes. 
 He  presented  to  the  library  of  Harvard 
 College,  works  to  the  value  of  1400  pounds 
 sterling.     He  died  in  1774. 
 
 HOLT,  Sir  John,  an  eminent  lawyer 
 and  judge,  was  born,  in  1642,  at  Thame, 
 in  Oxfordshire;  studied  at  Oriel  College, 
 Oxford,  and  Gray's  Inn;  was  dismissed 
 from  the  recordcrship  of  the  city  for  op- 
 posing the  tyrannical  measures  of  James  i 
 II. ;  sat  in  the  convention  parliament,  and 
 was  one  of  the  managers  of  the  confer- 
 ences for  the  commons;  was  appointed,  in  j 
 
 HOM  325 
 
 1689,  lord  chief  justice  of  the  King's 
 Bench ;  refused  the  chancellorship  on  the 
 decease  of  Lord  Somen;  and  died  in  1709. 
 Holt  exercised  his  high  judicial  authority 
 in  a  manner  which  has  rendered  his  mem- 
 ory an  object  of  respect.  His  firmness 
 and  integrity  were  immovable,  and  he  was 
 vigilant  in  checking  every  attempted  en- 
 croachment upon  the  liberties  of  the  people. 
 
 HOLTY,  Louis  Henry  Christo- 
 pher, a  German  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1748,  at  Mariensee,  in  the  electorate  of 
 Hanover;  and  died,  at  Gottingen,  of  con- 
 sumption, in  1776.  Holty  was  of  an  ami- 
 able but  pensive  disposition.  His  poems 
 possess  meat  beauty,  and  many  of  them 
 have  become  popular.  He  translated  from 
 the  English,  The  Connoisseur,  Hurd's  Dia- 
 logues, and  a  part  of  Lord  Shaftesbury's 
 works. 
 
 HOLYOKE,  Edward  Augustus, 
 was  born  in  1728  in  the  County  of  Essex, 
 Massachusetts,  and  was  graduated  at  Har- 
 vard College  in  1746.  He  pursued  the 
 sludv  of  medicine  and  in  1749  began  to 
 practice  his  profession  in  Salem.  He  was 
 the  first  president  of  the  medical  society 
 of  Massachusetts,  and  was  always  consid- 
 ered a  learned  physician  and  skilful  sur- 
 geon. He  lived  to  be  over  one  hundred 
 years  of  age,  and  died  in  1829.  He  pub- 
 lished various  scientific  disquisitions. 
 
 HOMBERG,  William,  a  physician 
 and  chemist,  the  son  of  a  Saxon  gentle- 
 man, was  born,  in  1652,  at  Batavia,  in 
 Java;  studied  the  law  at  Jena,  Leipsic, 
 and  Magdeburg,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
 bar,  but  ultimately  adopted  the  medical 
 profession;  practised  successfully  as  a 
 physician  at  Rome  and  Paris';  and  died  in 
 the  latter  city  in  1715.  Homberg  was 
 well  versed  in  natural  philosophy,  chemis- 
 try, history,  and  languages.  Among  hjs 
 inventions  and  discoveries  are  a  new  air 
 pump,  the  pyrophorus  which  bears  his 
 name,  and  the  method  of  rendering  lumin- 
 ous the  Bolognian  stone. 
 
 HOME,  John',  a  Scotch  divine,  drama- 
 tist, and  historian,  was  born,  in  1724,  near 
 Ancram,  in  Roxburghshire,  and  was  edu- 
 cated for  the  church.  In  1745,  however, 
 he  served  as  a  volunteer  against  the  in- 
 surgents, and  was  taken  prisoner  at  the 
 battle  of  Falkirk.  He  afterwards  obtained 
 the  living  of  Uhelstaneford,  but,  in  conse- 
 quence of  his  having  written  the  tragedy 
 of  Douglas,  such  a  cry  was  raised  against 
 him  by  his  fanatical  brethren,  that,  in 
 1757,  he  resigned  the  clerical  character. 
 Through  the  interest  of  Lord  Bute,  he  was 
 indemnified  by  a  pension,  and  by  employ- 
 ments under  government.  He  died  Sep- 
 tember 4,  1808.  Besides  Douglas,  he 
 wrote  the  tragedies  of  Agis,  The  Siege 
 of  Aquileia,  The  Fatal  Discovery,  A  on- 
 zo,  and  Alfred,   none  of  which  were  sue- 
 
326 
 
 HOO 
 
 cessful;  and  a  History  of  the  Rebellion  in 
 1745 
 
 HOMER.  Respecting  the  life  of  this 
 greatest  of  poets  we  must  be  content  to 
 remain  in  ignorance,  no  memorials  of  it 
 having  been  preserved;  for  the  biography 
 of  him,  which  is  ascribed  to  Herodotus,  is 
 undoubtedly  fabulous.  Some,  rather  too 
 sceptically,  have  been  disposed  to  deny 
 even  his  existence.  The  time  in  which  he 
 flourished  has  been  variously  stated,  but  is 
 generally  supposed  to  have  been  between 
 880  and  950  b  c  Smyrna,  Rhodes, 
 Colophon,  Salamis,  Chios,  Argos,  and 
 Athens,  contended  for  the  honour  of  his 
 birth:  the  probability  is,  that  he  was  an 
 Asiatic  (Ireek. 
 
 HONOIUUS,  Flavius,  emperor  of 
 the  West,  the  son  of  Theodosius,  was  born, 
 at  Constantinople,  in  384;  succeeded  to 
 the  western  empire  in  395;  fixed  his  resi- 
 dence at  Ravenna,  and  died  there,  of  a 
 dropsv,  in  his  thirty-ninth  year,  after  a 
 disturbed  and  inglorious  reign. 
 
 HOOD,  Samuel,  viscount,  son  of  the 
 vicar  of  Thorncombe,  in  Devonshire,  was 
 bom  at  that  place  in  1724,  and  went  into 
 the  naval  service  at  the  age  of  sixteen. 
 By  his  bravery  in  the  capture  of  a  fifty 
 gun  ship,  in  1759,  he  acquired  the  rank  of 
 post  captain.  In  1780  he  was  made  rear- 
 admiral,  and  foiled  the  French  in  their  at- 
 tempt upon  St.  Kitts,  and,  in  1782,  he 
 bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  victory  of 
 the  twelfth  of  April,  over  (!o  Grnsse.  An 
 Irish  peerage  was  the  reward  of  his  exer- 
 tions. He  sat  in  parliament  for  \\  est- 
 minster,  but  vacated  his  seat,  in  1788,  on 
 becoming  a  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In 
 1793  he  was  sent  to  the  Mediterranean, 
 as  commander-in-chief,  and  remained  there 
 till  1796,  (luring  which  period  he  took  pos- 
 session of  Toulon,  and  reduced  Corsica. 
 On  his  return  home,  he  received  the  title 
 of  viscount,  and  the  governorship  of 
 Greenwich  Hospital.  He  died  January 
 27  1816. 
 
 HOOKE,  Robkrt,  an  eminent  mathe- 
 matician, scm  of  the  minister  of  Freshwater, 
 in  the.  Isle  of  Wight,  was  horn  at  thai 
 place,  in  1635,  and  was  educated  atYVest- 
 
 HOO 
 
 minster  School,  and  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
 ford.  Almost  in  his  childhood  he  displayed 
 an  extraordinary  talent  for  mechanics  and 
 for  drawing.  He  was,  successively,  assist- 
 ant to  Boyle,  curator  of  experiments  for 
 the  Royal  Society,  professor  of  mechanics 
 to  that  body,  and  Gresham  professor  of 
 geometry.  In  1666,  he  offered  to  the 
 mayor  and  aldermen  a  plan  for  rebuilding 
 the  city.  It  was  not  adopted,  but  it  caused 
 him  to  obtain  the  lucrative  appointment 
 of  one  of  the  city  surveyors.  He  died  in 
 1702.  He  is  the  author  of  Micrographia; 
 A  Theory  of  the  Variation  of  the  Com- 
 pass; A  Description  of  Helioscopes;  and 
 many  other  works;  and  his  scientific  and 
 mechanical  inventions  and  discoveries  were 
 numerous  and  valuable.  Hooke  was  en- 
 gaged in  frequent  disputes  with  his  fellow 
 philosophers;  and  made  a  fruitless  attempt 
 to  snatch  from  Newton  the  honour  of  hav- 
 ing been  the  first  to  make  known  the  force 
 and  action  of  gravity. 
 
 HOOKE,  Nathaniel,  an  historian,  of 
 whom  little  is  known.  He  was  a  Roman 
 Catholic;  attended  Pope  on  his  deathbed; 
 and  received  £.5000  from  the  duchess  of 
 Marlborough  for  assisting  her  in  the  Me- 
 moirs of  her  Life.  He  died  in  1763.  He 
 wrote  a  Roman  History,  in  four  volumes 
 quarto;  and  Observations  on  the  Roman 
 Senate;  and  translated  Ramsay's  Travels 
 of  Cyrus. 
 
 HOOKER,  Richard,  an  eminent 
 divine,  was  born,  in  1553,  at  Heavitree, 
 near  Exeter;  and,  under  the  patronage  of 
 Bishop  Jewel,  was  educated  at  Corpus 
 Christ!  College,  Oxford,  where  he  was 
 distinguished  for  his  piety  and  exemplary 
 conduct.  An  unhappy  marriage,  which  he 
 contracted  before  he  was  thirty,  with  a 
 scold  who  had  neither  beauty,  money,  nor 
 manners,  lost  him  his  college  fellowship, 
 and  was  a  fertile  source  of  annoyance  to 
 him.  In  15S5,  he  was  made  master  of  the 
 Temple;  but,  weary  of  disputes  with  the 
 afternoon  lecturer,  a  violent  presbyterian, 
 and  longing  for  rural  retirement,  he  relin- 
 quished this  preferment,  and  obtained  the 
 rectory  of  Bishop's  Bourne,  in  Kent,  at 
 which  h°  resided  till  his  decease,  in  1600. 
 His  great  work  is  the  treatise  on  Ecclesi- 
 astical Polity;  of  which  Pope  Clement 
 VIII.  said,  '"there  are  in  it  such  seeds  of 
 eternity  as  will  continue  till  the  last  fire 
 shall  devour  all  learning.'' 
 
 HOOLE,  JOHN,  a  poet,  the  son  of  a 
 watchmaker,  was  born,  in  1717,  in  Moor 
 Fields;  held,  for  forty-four  years,  a  situa- 
 tion in  the  India  House;  and  died  in  1803. 
 lie  wrote  the  tragedies  of  Cyrus,  Timan- 
 thies,  and  Cleonice;  and  translated  Arios- 
 to's  Orlando  ;  Tasso's  Jerusalem  and 
 Rinaldo  ;  and  eighteen  of  Metastasio's 
 dramas,  lie  also  ventured  to  cut  down 
 The  Orlando  into   twenty-four  books,  and 
 
HOP 
 
 rearrange  the  parts.  His  translations  nave 
 .est  the  popularity  which  they  once  pos- 
 sessed. 
 
 HOOPER,  John,  a  native  of  Somer- 
 setshire, born  in  1495 ;  was  educated  at 
 Merton  College,  Oxford;  and,  having  em- 
 braced the  reformed  faith,  was  made  bishop 
 of  Gloucester  and  Worcester  by  Edward 
 VI.  In  the  reign  of  the  sanguinary  Mary 
 he  was  brought  to  the  stake.  He  firmly 
 refused  the  offered  pardon,  and  though,  the 
 wood  being  green,  he  suffered  for  nearly  an 
 hour  the  severest  torments,  his  lower  parts 
 being  consumed,  and  one  of  his  hands 
 dropping  off  before  he  expired,  he  mani- 
 fested unshaken  fortitude.  He  died  in 
 1555.  Hooper  wrote  some  sermons  and 
 controversial  pieces. 
 
 HOOPER,  William,  a  signer  of  the 
 declaration  of  independence,  was  born,  in 
 Boston  in  1742,  and  was  graduated  at 
 Harvard  College  in  1760.  He  engaged  in 
 the  study  of  the  law,  and  removing  to 
 North  Carolina  commenced  the  practice 
 of  his  profession  in  that  province.  In 
 1774  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the 
 general  Congress  which  met  at  Philadel- 
 phia. In  1776  he  was  a  third  time  dele- 
 gate to  Congress,  but  in  the  following  year 
 was  obliged  to   resign  his   seat  in  conse- 
 
 HOP 
 
 327 
 
 the  district  court  and  died  suddenly  in  the 
 midst  of  his  usefulness  in  1791.  Mr. 
 Hopkinson  possessed  talents  of  a  quick 
 and  versatile  character,  excelling  in  music 
 and  poetry,  and  having  some  knowledge 
 of  painting.  In  humorous  poetry  and 
 satire  he  was  quite  successful,  and  his  well 
 known  ballad  of  the  Battle  of  the  Kegs 
 obtained  great  popularity.  A  collection 
 of  his  miscellaneous  works  in  three  volumes 
 8vo.  was  published  in  1792. 
 
 HOPKINS,  Lemuel,  a  physician  and 
 author,  was  born  in  Connecticut,  in  1750, 
 and  was  educated  to  the  profession  of 
 medicine.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
 of  the  medical  society  of  his  native  state. 
 As  a  literary  man,  he  was  associated  with 
 Dwight,  Barlow,  Humphreys,  and  Trum- 
 bull, and  was  concerned  in  the  production 
 of  The  Echo,  Political  Green  House,  the 
 Anarchiad,  and  other  popular  satires  of 
 the  day.  Of  the  poetry  exclusively  writ 
 ten  by  Dr.  Hopkins,  the  best  pieces  are 
 the  Hypocrite's  Hope,  and  an  Elegy  on 
 tho  Victim  of  a  Cancer  Quack. 
 
 HOPKINS,  Samuel,  a  divine  and 
 founder  of  the  sect  called  Hopkinsians, 
 was  born  in  Connecticut  in  1721,  and 
 educated  at  Yale  College  In  1743  he  was 
 settled  at  a   place   now  called   Great  Bar- 
 
 quence  of  the  embarrassment  of  his  private  I  rington,  in   Massachusetts,  and  continued 
 
 affairs.     He  died  in  1790 
 
 HOPE,  Thomas,  a  man  of  fortune  and 
 talent,  was  a  nephew  of  the  rich  Amster- 
 dam merchant  of  the  same  name.  His 
 first  works,  Household  Furniture  and  In- 
 ternal Decorations ;  the  Costumes  of  the 
 Ancients;  and  Designs  of  Modern  Cos- 
 tumes; though  they  fully  established  his 
 character  as  a  man  of  taste,  had  no  claim 
 to  be  considered  as  the  offspring  of  genius. 
 But,  in  1819,  his  Anastasius,  or  Memoirs  of 
 a  Modern  Greek,  at  once  gave  him  a  high 
 rank  among  modern  writers.  It  was  pub- 
 lished anonymously,  and  was  generally 
 ascribed  to  Lord  Byron.  Hope  was  a 
 liberal  promoter  of  the  arts,  and  is  said  to 
 have  been  an  early  and  efficient  patron  of 
 Thorwaldsen,  the  sculptor.  He  died  in 
 January,  1831. 
 
 HOPKINSON,  Francis,  an  American 
 author,  and  signer   of  the    declaration   of 
 independence,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  He   died    in    1785. 
 1737.     He  was  graduated  at  the  college  in  (education    was    very 
 
 there  till  1769,  when  he  removed  to  New- 
 port, Rhode  Island.  He  died  in  1803. 
 He  published  numerous  Sermons,  a  Trea- 
 tise on  the  Millenium,  and  a  sketch  of  his 
 own  life.  His  theological  learning  was 
 extensive,  and  he  was  a  profound  meta- 
 physician. 
 
 HOPKINS,  Stephen,  a  signer  of  the 
 declaration  of  independence,  was  born  in 
 Providence,  in  1707,  and  after  receiving  a 
 school  education  turned  his  attention  to 
 agriculture.  In  1751  he  was  appointed 
 chief  justice  of  the  superior  court  of  Rhode 
 Island,  and  in  1756  was  elected  governor 
 of  that  state.  In  1774  he  was  chosen  a 
 delegate  to  the  general  congress  at  Phila- 
 delphia and  was  reelected  to  that  body  in 
 1775  and  1776.  In  1776  he  was  a  delegate 
 to  Congress  for  the  last  time,  though  for 
 several  subsequent  years  Ik*  was  a  member 
 of  the  general  assembly  of  his  native  state. 
 Although  his  early 
 limited,  Mr.    Hop- 
 
 ing native  town,  and  pursued  the  profession  kins  acquired  by  his  own  efforts  extensive 
 of  the  law.  In  1766  he  visited  England]  information.  He  wrote  a  pamphlet  <>n  the 
 where  he  resided  more  than  two  years,  Rights  of  the  Colonies,  was  a  member' of 
 and  on  his  return  married  and  settled  in  the  American  philosophical  society,  and  for 
 the  state  of  New-Jersey.  He  entered  with  many  years  chancellor  of  the  College  of 
 much  zeal  into  the  public  measures  of  the  Rhode  Island. 
 patriotic   party,   and  in  1776  was  elected {      HOPPNER,  John,  an   English  artist, 
 
 a  delegate  to  Congress.  In  1779  he  was 
 appointed  judge  of  the  admiralty  court  of 
 Pennsylvania  and  for  ten  years  continued 
 to  discharge  with  fidelity  the  duties  of  this 
 
 of  German  descent,  was  barn  in  1759,  and 
 died  in  1810.  He  excelled  as  a  portrait 
 painter,  especially  in  females  and  children; 
 but,  though  he  confined  himself  to  the  more 
 
 office.     In  1790  he  passed  to  the  bench  of  I  lucrative   branch  of  his  art,   he  had  aL?o 
 
328  HOR 
 
 considerable  talents  for  landscape.  Hopp- 
 ner  could  wield  the  pen  as  well  as  the 
 pencil.  He  published  a  volume  of  Orien- 
 tal Tales,  which  are  versified  with  spirit 
 and  elegance. 
 
 HORACE,  or  HORATIUS,  Quintus 
 Flaccus,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
 Roman  poets,  was  born,  G5  B.  c,  at  Venu- 
 siiim;  received  a  good  education;  fought 
 under  Brutus  at  Philippi,  on  which  occa- 
 sion he  threw  away  his  shield  and  fled ; 
 and  was  reduced  to  indigence  by  the  con- 
 fiscation of  his  estate.  Mecasnas,  how- 
 ever, to  whom  he  was  introduced  by  Virgil, 
 obtained  for  him  the  restoration  of  his 
 property,  and  brought  him  into  favour  with 
 Augustus.     Horace  died  8  years  E.  c. 
 
 HORNE,  George,  a  pious  and  learned 
 prelate,  was  born,  in  1730,  at  Otham,  in 
 Kent,  and  was  educated  at  Maidstone 
 Grammar  School,  anil  at  University  Col- 
 lege,  Oxford.  He  took  orders  in  1753, 
 and  his  graceful  elocution  and  excellent 
 style  rendered  him  a  popular  preacher. 
 He  was  successively  president  of  Magdalen 
 College,  chaplain  to  the  king,  vice-chancel- 
 lor of  the  university,  and  dean  of  Canter- 
 bury. In  1790  lie  was  raised  to  the  see  of 
 Norwich,  which,  however,  he  held  less 
 than  two  years  :  he  dying  in  January, 
 1792.  In  early  life  he  was  a  Btrenuous 
 Hutchinsonian,  and  attacked  the  system  of 
 Newton  with  a  violence  which  he  subse- 
 quently regretted.  Of  his  numerous  works 
 the   principal   is,    A    Commentary   on  the 
 
 HOR 
 
 Book  of  Psalms,  on  the  composition  of 
 which  he  bestowed  nearly  twenty  years. 
 
 HORNEMANN,  Frederic  Conrad, 
 a  German  traveller,  was  born,  in  1772,  at 
 Hildesheim,  and  was  originally  a  clergy- 
 man in  Hanover.  In  1797  he  was  employed 
 by  the  African  Association,  in  London,  to 
 explore  the  interior  of  Africa.  After  hav- 
 ing visited  the  Oasis  of  the  temple  of 
 Ammon,  he  penetrated  to  Morzouk,  and 
 thence  proceeded  to  Tripoli.  In  1800  he 
 set  out  with  the  intention  of  penetrating 
 into  central  Africa,  and  is  supposed  to 
 have  perished  in  that  inhospitable  region. 
 The  Journal  of  his  Travels  has  been  pub- 
 lished. 
 
 HORROX,  Jeremiah,  an  astronomer, 
 was  born,  about  1619,  at  Toxteth,  near 
 Liverpool ;  was  educated  at  Emanuel  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge;  and  died  prematurely, 
 to  the  great  loss  of  science,  in  1640-1. 
 Horrox  was  the  first  who  observed  the 
 transit  of  Venus  over  the  solar  disk ;  and 
 he  formed  a  theory  of  lunar  motion,  which 
 Newton  did  not  disdain  to  adopt.  He  is 
 the  author  of  Venus  in  Sole  visu ;  and  of 
 astronomical  papers,  which  were  published 
 by  Dr.  Wallis,  under  the  title  of  Opera 
 Posthuma. 
 
 HORSLEY,  John,  an  antiquary,  a  na- 
 tive of  Northumberland,  took  his  degree 
 of  31.  A.  in  Scotland;  became  a  dissenting 
 minister  at  Morpeth;  and  died  in  1731. 
 He  is  the  author  of  a  valuable  work,  inti- 
 tled  Britannia  Romana. 
 
 HORSLEY,  Samuel, a  celebrated  pre- 
 late and  mathematician,  was  born  in  1733; 
 was  educated  at  Westminster,  and  Trinity 
 College,  Cambridge ;  and  became  curate 
 to  his  father.  After  having  held  the  livings 
 of  Albury,  New  ington,  Thorley,  and  South 
 Weald,  the  archdeaconry  of  St.  Albans, 
 and  prebends  of  St.  Paul's  and  of  Glouces- 
 ter, he  was  raised,  in  1788,  to  the  see  of 
 St.  David's,  whence,  in  1793,  he  was  re- 
 moved to  Rochester,  and,  in  1802,  to 
 St.  Asaph.  For  a  part  of  this  preferment 
 he  was  indebted  to  his  controversy  with 
 Dr.  Priestlev,  on  the  subject  of  the  divinity 
 of  Christ;  his  tracts  relating  to  which  he 
 collected  and  published  in  an  8vo  volume. 
 While  he  was  thus  rising  in  the  church, 
 he  was  not  neglectful  of  science.  In  1769 
 he  printed  an  edition  of  Apollonius,  and 
 in  1775  an  edition  of  Newton's  works,  in 
 five  4to  volumes.  From  1773  till  the  elec- 
 tion of  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  he  was  secreta- 
 rv  of  the  Royal  Society;  when,  deeming 
 the  dignity  <»f  the  society  lessened  by  the 
 choice  of  a  man  who  was  ignorant  of  the 
 higher  sciences  he  resigned  his  office. 
 Bishop  Horsley  died  at  Brighton  in  1806. 
 lie  was  eloquent,  profoundly  learned,  and 
 performed  all  his  episcopal  duties  in  an 
 admirable  manner.  Besides  the  works 
 already    mentioned,    he    produced    many 
 
HOW 
 
 others,  biblical,  theological,  classical,  and 
 scientific. 
 
 HOUBRAKEN,  Jacob,  an  eminent 
 engraver,  the  son  of  Arnold  Houbraken,  a 
 painter  and  engraver,  was  born,  in  1698, 
 at  Dort,  in  Holland;  and  died,  in  17.90, 
 at  Amsterdam.  He  executed  more  than 
 six  hundred  portraits;  many  of  which 
 were  for  Birch's  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men. 
 He  also  engraved  a  few  historical  pieces. 
 
 HOUDOiN',  an  eminent  French  sculp- 
 tor, was  born  at  Versailles  in  1746 ;  studied 
 at  Rome,  where  he  produced  excellent 
 statues  of  St.  John  and  St.  Bruno ;  became 
 celebrated  on  his  return  to  France,  espe- 
 cially for  his  female  figures;  was  chosen  by 
 the  American  government  to  execute  the 
 statue  of  Franklin,  and  died,  in  1828,  a 
 member  of  the  Institute,  and  a  knight  of 
 the  Legion  of  Honour. 
 
 HOUEL,  John,  a  French  painter  and 
 engraver,  was  born,  at  Rouen,  in  1735; 
 studied  painting  under  Descamps  and 
 Casanova,  and  engraving  under  Le  More; 
 and  died  in  1813.  lie  is  the  author,  as 
 well  as  artist,  of  Picturescpie  Travels  in 
 Sicily,  Malta,  and  Lipari,  four  folio  vol- 
 umes, with  264  plates;  and  also  of  a  Nat- 
 ural History,  with  18  plates,  of  the  two 
 elephants  in  the  Paris  Museum. 
 
 HOUGH,  John,  a  native  of  Middlesex, 
 was  born  in  1651;  was  educated  at  Mag- 
 dalen College,  Oxford ;  and  obtained  a 
 prebend  of  Worcester,  and  the  rectory  of 
 Ternsford,  in  Bedfordshire.  In  1687  he 
 immortalized  himself  by  the  noble  stand 
 which,  on  being  elected  president  of  Mag- 
 dalen College,  he  made  against  James  II. 
 who  wished  to  intrude  upon  the  college  a 
 popish  president.  After  the  Revolution 
 he  was  made  bishop  of  Oxford,  whence 
 he  was  translated  to  Litchfield,  and  thence 
 to  Worcester.  The  archbishopric  of  Can- 
 terbury he  declined.  He  died  in  1743, 
 honoured  for  his  patriotism,  piety,  munif- 
 icence, and  hospitality. 
 
 HOW 
 
 329 
 
 HOWARD,  John,  was  born,  in  1726, 
 at  Hackney,  and  was  bound  apprentice 
 to  a  grocer  by  his  guardians;  but,  being 
 possessed  of  a  fortune,  he  purchased  his 
 indentures,   and   made   two  tours  on  the 
 
 continent;  one  of  them  for  the  purpose  of 
 viewing  the  ruins  of  Lisbon.  Having  lost 
 his  first  wife,  who  was  much  older  than 
 himself,  and  whom  he  married  out  of  grat- 
 itude for  her  attention  during  sicklies.-, 
 he  made  a  second  choice  in  1758.  For 
 several  years  he  resided  on  his  estate  at 
 Cardington,  near  Bedford,  occupied  in 
 educating  his  son,  and  in  executing  plans 
 to  render  comfortable  the  situation  jf  his 
 tenants  and  labourers.  He  had  already 
 obtained  experimentally  some  knowledge 
 of  a  prison,  having  been  captured  on  his 
 return  to  Lisbon,  and  confined  in  France; 
 but  his  appointment,  in  1773,  to  the  office 
 of  high  sheriff  of  Bedford,  induced  him  to 
 look  more  narrowly  into  the  subject,  with 
 the  hope  of  ameliorating  the  condition  of 
 the  captive.  Here,  then,  commenced  that 
 philanthropical  career  which  closed  but 
 witli  his  life.  Not  only  were  all  the  pris- 
 ons of  his  own  country  repeatedly  visited, 
 but,  in  several  journeys,  he  examined  mi- 
 nutely those  of  the  continent, "  to  remember 
 (as  Mr.  Burke  beautifully  expresses  it)  the 
 forgotten,  to  attend  to  the  neglected,  to  visit 
 the  forsaken,  and  to  compare  and  collate 
 the  distresses  of  all  men  in  all  countries." 
 His  glorious  course  was  terminated,  by 
 fever,  at  Cherson,  in  Russia,  January  20, 
 1790.  He  wrote  The  State  of  the  Prisons 
 in  England  and  Wales ;  and  an  Account 
 of  the  principal  Lazarettos  in  Europe. 
 
 HOWARD,  John  Eager,  an  officer 
 of  the  army  of  the  American  revolution, 
 was  born  in  Baltimore  in  1752.  After 
 serving  in  the  rank  of  captain,  in  1779, 
 he  was  appointed  lieutenant  colonel,  and 
 distinguished  himself  by  his  valour  and 
 activity  during  the  war.  At  the  battle  of 
 Cowpens,  Col.  Howard,  at  one  time,  had 
 in  his  hands  the  swords-  of  seven  officers 
 who  had  surrendered  to  him  personally. 
 He  was  also  present  at  the  battles  of  Ger- 
 mantown,  White  Plains,  Monmouth,  Cam- 
 den and  Hobbicks  hill.  On  the  disband- 
 ing of  the  army  he  retired  to  his  patrimo- 
 nial estates,  near  Baltimore,  and  was 
 subsequently  governor  of  Maryland,  and 
 member  of  the  senate  of  the  United  States. 
 He  died  in  1827.  General  Greene  said  of 
 him,  that  as  a  patriot  and  soldier,  he  de- 
 served a  statue  of  gold  no  less  than  Roman 
 and  Grecian  heroes. 
 
 HOWE,  Richard,  earl,  a  distinguish- 
 ed admiral,  the  second  son  of  Viscount 
 Howe,  was  born  in  1725,  and  was  educa- 
 ted at  Eton  till  he  was  fourteen,  when  he 
 was  placed  in  the  naval  service.  In  1745 
 he  was  made  a  post  captain  for  gallantly 
 defeating  two  French  ships  bearing  suc- 
 cours to  the  Pretender.  During  the  seven 
 years'  war,  he  captured  the  Alcide,  de- 
 stroyed the  ships  and  magazines  at  St. 
 Malo,  took  Cherbourg,  and  ruined  the 
 bason  there,  and  had  a  considerable  part 
 
330 
 
 HUM 
 
 in  the  victory  over  Conflans.  Between  the 
 close  of  that  war  and  the  beginning  of  the 
 contest  with  America,  he  held  the  offices 
 of  a  lord  of  the  admiralty  arid  treasurer  of 
 *he  navy,  and  rose  to  be  vice-admiral  of 
 the  blue.  The  relieving  of  Gibraltar  was 
 the  most  striking  of  his  services  during  the 
 American  war.  In  178S  he  was  created  an 
 English  earl.  In  1793  he  was  appointed 
 to  the  command  of  the  channel  fleet,  and 
 on  the  1st  of  June,  1794,  he  crowned  \\'i3 
 exploits  by  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
 French  fleet.  His  death  took  place  in 
 1799 
 
 HUDSON,  Henry,  an  adventurous 
 navigator,  of  whose  early  history  nothing 
 is  known.  In  1607,  8,  9,  and  10,  he 
 made  four  voyages  to  find,  by  north-east 
 or  north-west,  a  passage  to  China.  In  the 
 second  voyage  he  discovered  the  river, 
 and  in  the  fourth  the  bay,  which  bears 
 his  name.  The  last  voyage  was  fatal  to 
 him.  His  crew  mutinied,  and  turned  him 
 and  eight  others  adrift  in  a  small  boat,  in 
 which  they  are  supposed  to  have  perished. 
 
 HUERTA,  Vincent  Garcia  de  la. 
 a  Spanish  poet,  was  born,  in  1729,  at 
 Zafra,  in  Estremadura,  and  died  in  1747. 
 Huerta  was  the  head  of  the  Antigallican 
 literary  party,  and  contributed  greatly  to 
 turn  public  attention  to  ancient  native  wri- 
 ters. He  published  Poems;  and  edited 
 The  Spanish  Theatre;  the  fifteenth  vol- 
 ume of  which  contains  his  own  tragedies. 
 
 HUET,  Peter  Daniel,  a  French  pre- 
 late, of  profound  erudition,  was  born,  in 
 1630,  at  Caen,  and  studied  in  the  Jesuits' 
 College  of  that  city.  He  accompanied 
 Bochart  to  Sweden,  and  was  vainly  solic- 
 ited to  settle  there  by  Queen  Christina. 
 In  1670  he  was  appointed  sub-preceptor 
 to  the  dauphin;  and,  soon  after,  became 
 a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  In 
 1689  he  was  made  bishop  of  Avranches, 
 but  he  resigned  the  see  in  1699,  and  spent 
 the  rest  of  his  days  in  retirement  and  study. 
 He  died  in  1721.  His  works  are  numer- 
 ous: among  them  are,  Demonstratio  Evan- 
 gelica  ;  De  Interpretatione ;  History  of  the 
 Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the  Ancients  ; 
 and  On  the  Origin  of  Romances. 
 
 HUGHES,  John,  a  poet  and  dramatist, 
 wasbor-,  in  1677,  at  Marlborough;  was 
 privately  educated  in  London;  obtained  a 
 place  in  the  ordnance  office;  and  died,  in 
 1719-20,  much  respected  and  beloved  for 
 his  integrity  and  his  amiable  disposition. 
 He  wrote  various  poems,  of  much  merit, 
 and  The  Siege  of  Damascus,  a  tragedy; 
 contributed  to  the  Tatler,  Spectator,  and 
 Guardian;  and  edited  an  edition  of  Spen- 
 ser.— Mis  younger  brother,  JABEZ,  was 
 also  a  man  of  poetical  talent. 
 
 HUME,  David,  an  historian  and  phi- 
 losopher, was  born,  in  1711,  at  Edinburgh. 
 After    having    made    a    brief    attempt    to 
 
 HUM 
 
 reconcile  himself  to  mercantile  labour,  he 
 relinquished  it,  and,  determining  to  give 
 
 himself  up  to  literary  pursuits,  he  went  to 
 France,  to  study  in  retirement.  In  1737 
 lie  came  to  London,  and  published,  in  the 
 following  year,  without  success,  his  Trea- 
 tise on  Human  Nature;  which  he  after- 
 wards recast,  with  the  title  of  An  Inquiry 
 concerning  Human  Understanding.  In 
 1742  and  1752  appeared  his  Essays;  Poli- 
 tical Discourses;  and  Inquiry  concerning 
 the  Principals  of  Morals.  In  the  interval 
 between  the  publication  of  these  works, 
 he  accompanied,  in  1747,  General  Sinclair 
 on  an  embassy  to  Vienna  and  Turin,  and 
 in  1752  was  appointed  librarian  to  the 
 Faculty  of  Advocates  in  Edinburgh.  In 
 1754  he  brought  out  the  first  volume  of  his 
 History  of  England,  which  was  so  coldly 
 received  that  all  his  equanimity  was  re- 
 quired to  support  his  disappointment.  He 
 persisted,  however,  and  his  work  gradually 
 gained  ground.  It  was  completed  in  1761. 
 The  sum  which  he  was  paid  for  the  copy- 
 right, together  with  a  pension  from  govern- 
 ment, made  him  completely  independent. 
 After  having  attended  the  British  ambas- 
 sador to  Paris,  and  been  left  charge  d'af- 
 faires in  that  capital,  and  after  having, 
 from  1767  to  1769,  been  under  secretary 
 of  state,  Hume  settled  at  Edinburgh,  where 
 he  died  in  1776.  His  Correspondence 
 with  Madame  de  BoufhVrs  was  published 
 a  few  years  ago.  On  the  metaphysics  of 
 Hume  it  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge.  Innu- 
 merable pens  have  been  drawn  in  the  hope 
 of  showing  the  fallaciousness  and  the  dan- 
 ger of  them.  His  History,  which  has  long 
 been  popular,  charms  by  the  ease  and  spirit 
 of  its  Style,  asd  its  philosophical  tone;  but 
 it  is  often  exceedingly  unfaithful,  and  be- 
 trays somewhat  more  than  a  leaning  towards 
 principles  which  are  abhorrent  to  every 
 friend  of  freedom. 
 
 HUMPHREYS,  David,  minister  of 
 the  United  States  to  the  court  o\  Spain, 
 was  born  in  Connecticut  in  1753,  and  re- 
 ceived his  education  at  Yale  College.  Soon 
 after  the  commencement  of  the  revolution- 
 ary war,  he  entered  the  army,  and  was 
 successively   an  aid   to  Parsons,  Putnam, 
 
HUN 
 
 Greene,  and  Washington.  He  left  the 
 army  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  In  1784 
 he  was  appointed  secretary  of  legation  to 
 Paris,  and  was  subsequently  ambassador 
 to  the  court  of  Lisbon,  and  in  1797  minis- 
 ter plenipotentiary  to  the  court  of  Madrid. 
 While  in  the  military  service,  he  published 
 a  poem  addressed  to  the  American  armies, 
 and  after  the  war  another  on  the  Happi- 
 ness and  Glory  of  America.  In  17S9  he 
 published  a  life  of  General  Putnam,  and 
 while  in  Europe  a  number  of  miscellaneous 
 poems.     He  died  in  1818. 
 
 HUNIADES,  John  Corvinus,  a  cele- 
 brated general,  was  bom  in  the  beginning 
 of  the  fifteenth  century.  His  father  was 
 a  Wallachian,  and  his  mother  a  Greek,  of 
 imperial  descent.  After  having  tried  his 
 valour  in  the  Italian  wars,  he  distinguished 
 himself  in  the  Hungarian  service,  and  was 
 made  vaivode  of  Transylvania.  On  the 
 fall  of  Ladislas,  at  Varna,  Huniades  was 
 appointed  regent;  and  for  sixteen  years 
 he  rendered  himself  so  formidable  to  the 
 Ottomans,  that  they  surnamed  him  the 
 Devil.  His  last  exploit  was  the  successful 
 defence  of  Belgrade,  in  1456;  shortly  after 
 which  he  died. 
 
 HUNTER,  William,  an  anatomist 
 and  physician,  was  born,  in  1718,  in 
 Lanarkshire;  studied  at  Glasgow;  and, 
 after  having  resided  for  some  time  with 
 Dr.  Cullen,  went  to  London  in  1741,  and 
 became  dissecting  assistant  to  Dr.  James 
 Douglas,  and  tutor  to  his  son.  In  1746 
 he  commenced  a  series  of  lectures  on  anat- 
 omy and  surgery.  He  soon  rose  into  ex- 
 tensive practice  in  surgery  and  midwifery; 
 but  eventually  he  confined  himself  to  the 
 latter  branch  of  his  profession.  In  1764 
 he  was  appointed  physician  extraordinary 
 to  the  queen.  Dr.  Hunter  was  a  fellow  of 
 the  Royal  Society,  the  College  of  Physi- 
 cians, the  Medical  Society,  and  other 
 learned  bodies ;  and  contributed  various 
 papers  to  the  Philosophical  Transactions. 
 He  died  in  1783.  The  valuable  museum 
 which  he  formed  is  now  in  the  university 
 of  Glasgow.  His  great  work  is,  The  Anat- 
 omy of  the  Gravid  Uterus. 
 
 HUNTER,  John,  younger  brother  of 
 the  foregoing,  was  born  at  Long  Calder- 
 wood,  in  Scotland,  in  1728,  and  was  at 
 first  placed  with  a  brother-in-law,  who  was 
 a  carpenter  and  cabinet-maker.  At  the 
 age  of  twenty,  however,  he  joined  his 
 brother  in  London,  and,  in  a  few  months, 
 attained  such  a  knowledge  of  anatomy  as 
 
 HUR 
 
 331 
 
 After  his  return  he  rose  into  high  surgica 
 reputation,  and  was   appointed  surgeon  to 
 
 to  be  capable  of  demonstrating  to  the  pu- 
 pils in  the  dissecting  room.  In  1753  his 
 brother  admitted  him  to  partnership  in  his 
 lectures,  and  in  1756  he  was  appointed 
 house  surgeon  to  St.  George's  Hospital. 
 His  health  being  impaired  by  intense  study, 
 he  went  abroad,  in  1760,  as  staff  surgeon, 
 and  served  at  Belleisle  and   in   Portugal. 
 
 St.  George's  Hospital,  surgeon  extraordi- 
 nary to  the  king,  inspector  general  of  hos- 
 pitals, and  surgeon  general.  He  died,  of 
 angina  pectoris,  in  1793.  He  was  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Royal  Society,  in  the  Transac- 
 tions of  which  body  many  of  his  valuable 
 physiological  and  other  discoveries  are  re- 
 corded. He  v#ofe  a  Treatise  on  the  Nat- 
 ural History  of  the  Teeth;  Observations 
 on  certain  Parts  of  the  Animal  Economy; 
 a  Treatise  on  the  Blood  ;  and  other  works. 
 His  anatomical  museum  was  purchased  for 
 the  use  of  the  public,  and  given  to  the  Col- 
 lege of  Surgeons. 
 
 HUNTER,  Annk,  the  wife  of  John 
 Hunter,  was  a  sister  of  Sir  Everard  Home. 
 She  was  born  in  1742,  and  died  in  1821. 
 She  is  the  author  of  Poems;  and  of  Sports 
 of  the  Genii.  Many  of  her  lyrical  poems 
 possess  great  beauty,  and  some  of  them 
 were  set  to  music  by  Haydn.  Her  virtues 
 were  equal  to  her  talents. 
 
 HUNTINGTON,  Samuel,  a  signer 
 of  the  declaration  of  independence,  was 
 born  in  1732,  in  Connecticut,  settled  in 
 early  life  at  Norwich  as  a  lawyer,  and  soon 
 rose  to  popularity  and  eminence.  In  1775 
 he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  congress,  and 
 in  1779  was  chosen  president  of  that  ven- 
 erable body.  In  17S4  he  was  appointed 
 lieutenant  governor  of  his  native  state  and 
 advanced  to  the  seat  of  chief  judge.  He 
 was  chosen  chief  magistrate  in  1786,  and 
 in  1796  he  died. 
 
 HURD,  Richard,  an  eminent  prelate 
 and  writer,  the  son  of  a  farmer,  was  born, 
 in  1720,  at  Congreve,  in  Staffordshire; 
 was  educated  at  Emanuel  College,  Cam- 
 bridge ;  and,  after  having  been  rector  <>f 
 Hurcaston,  preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  and 
 archdeacon  of  Gloucester,  was  raised,  in 
 1767,  to  the  bishopric  of  Litchfield  and 
 Coventry,  and,  soon  after,  was  appointed 
 preceptor  to  the  prince  of  Wales  and  duke 
 of  Vork.  In  1781  he  was  translated  to 
 Worcester,  and  in  1783  he  declined  the 
 see  of  Canterbury.  He  died  in  1808. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Sermons;  Com- 
 mentaries  on   Horace's   Art   of    Poetry; 
 
332  HUS 
 
 Dialogues;  and  Letters  on  Chivalry  and 
 Romance.  He  was  the  bosom  friend  of 
 Warburton;  and  his  friendship  for  that 
 eminent  man  (which  has  been  censured  as 
 of  somewhat  too  subservient  a  nature)  led 
 him  to  attack  Dr.  Jortin  in  a  pamphlet. 
 He  also  wrote  a  biographical  sketch  of 
 Warburton,  edited  an  edition  of  Ids  wri- 
 tings, and  published  a  volume  of  his  Cor- 
 respondence. 
 
 HURDIS,  James,  a  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1763,  at  Bishopstone,  in  Sussex,  of  which 
 parish  he  subsequently  became  the  minis- 
 ter; was  educated  at  St.  Mary  Hall  and 
 Magdalen  College,  Oxford;  was  appointed 
 poetry  professor  in  1793;  and  died  in  1801. 
 He  wrote  The  Village  Curate;  Adriano; 
 The  Favourite  Village;  and  other  poems; 
 Sir  Thomas  More,  a  tragedy;  Disserta- 
 tions on  Psalm  and  Prophecy;  and  some 
 works  of  minor  importance.  Hindis  is  of 
 the  school  of  Cowper,  and  is  no  unworthy 
 disciple  of  his  great  master. 
 
 HUSKISSON,  Right  Hon.  William, 
 a  statesman,  was  burn  about  1769.  His 
 mother  was  a  sister  of  the  physician  to  the 
 British  embassy  at  Paris,  and  he  is  said  to 
 have  been  apprenticed  to  a  surgeon  in  the 
 French  capital.  He  was  recommended  by 
 Lord  Gower  to  Mr.  Pitt  and  Mr.  Dundas, 
 and  became  private  .secretary  to  the  latter, 
 lie  Bat  in  parliament,  successively,  for 
 Morpeth,  Liskeard,  Chicester  ami  Liver- 
 pool. After  having  held  various  subordi- 
 nate offices,  he  was  made  secretary  to  the 
 treasury,  on  Mr.  Pitt's  return  to  power. 
 He  was  afterwards  president  of  the  board 
 of  trade,  ami,  under  the  ministry  of  his 
 friend,  Mr.  Canning,  was  ap|>ointcd  secre- 
 tary of  state  for  the  colonial  department. 
 He  was,  however,  dismissed  by  the  duke 
 .f  Wellington.  He  died,  September  15, 
 1830,  in  consequence  of  one  of  his  legs 
 being  crushed  by  the  wheels  of  a  locomo- 
 tive steam  engine,  at  the  opening  of  the 
 Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway.  He 
 was  a  fluent  speaker,  and  a  man  of  great 
 financial  and  political  knowledge.  He 
 wrote  The  Question  concerning  the  Depreci- 
 ation of  our  Currency  stated  and  examined. 
 HUSS',   John,   a  reformer,   was   born, 
 
 HUT 
 
 about  1376,  at  Hussienitz,  in  Bohemia; 
 was  educated  at  the  university  of  Prague, 
 of  which  he  became  rector;  adopted  the 
 principles  of  WicklifTe,  and  propagated 
 them  with  great  zeal  and  eloquence;  and, 
 in  violation  of  the  emperor's  safe  conduct, 
 and  in  contempt  of  humanity,  was  burnt 
 by  the  council  of  Constance  in  1416.  His 
 Bohemian  disciples,  who  bore  the  name  of 
 Hussites,  avenged  his  death  by  a  long  and 
 bloody  war  against  the  emperor  Sigis- 
 mund. 
 
 HUTCIIESON,  Francis,  a  philoso- 
 pher and  writer,  was  born,  in  1694,  in  the 
 north  of  Ireland;  studied  at  the  university 
 of  Glasgow;  and,  after  having  for  many 
 years  kept  an  academy  at  Dublin,  was 
 invited,  in  172.9,  to  Glasgow,  to  fill  the 
 chair  of  professor  of  philosophy;  a  situa- 
 tion which  he  held  till  his  decease  in  1747. 
 He.  is  the  author  of  An  Inquiry  into  the 
 Ideas  of  Beauty  and  Virtue;  A  Treatise 
 on  the  Passions ;  and  A  System  of  Moral 
 Philosophy.  Hutcheson  is  an  elegant 
 writer;  his  metaphysics  are  of  the  school 
 of  Shaftesbury. 
 
 HUTCHINS,  Thomas,  was  born  in 
 New  Jersey,  and  entered  the  army  in  the 
 western  states  as  an  ensign.  In  1779  he 
 was  in  England  and  was  imprisoned  some 
 time  on  suspicion  of  holding  a  correspon- 
 dence with  Franklin  in  France.  He  was 
 nominated  geographer-general  to  the  Unit- 
 ed States,  and  died  at  Pittsburg  in  1789. 
 He  published  an  Historical  Sketch  of  the 
 Expedition  of  Bouquet  against  the  Indians 
 of  Ohio,  in  1764;  a  Topographical  De- 
 scription of  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
 land and  Carolina,  with  maps  (London, 
 1778);  a  Historical  Account  of  Louisiana, 
 &c.  1784. 
 
 HUTCHINSON,  John,  was  bom,  in 
 1674,  at  Spcnnythorn,  in  Lincolnshire; 
 was  for  many  years  steward  to  the  duke 
 of  Somerset,  and  afterwards  his  riding 
 purveyor ;  and  died  in  1737.  Hutchinson 
 was  a  violent  opponent  of  Newton's  theory 
 of  gravitation,  and  laboured  to  establish  a 
 system  of  philosophy  of  his  own,  which 
 he  expounded  in  his  Moses's  Principia, 
 and  several  other  works,  to  the  extent  of 
 twelve  volumes.  His  svstem  blends  con- 
 siderable ingenuity  and  learning  with  a 
 much  larger  portion  of  absurdity. 
 
 HUTCHINSON,  Thomas,  a  governor 
 of  the  colon v  of  Massachusetts,  was  born 
 in  Boston  in  1711,  and  was  graduated  at 
 Harvard  College.  He  was  for  a  while 
 occupied  with  commercial  pursuits,  but 
 soon  engaged  in  the  study  of  law  and 
 politics  and  was  sent  agent  to  Great  Brit- 
 ain. On  his  return  he  was  elected  a 
 representative,  and  after  a  few  years  was 
 chosen  speaker  of  the  house,  and  in  1752 
 judge  of  probate.  After  being  a  member 
 of   the   council,    lieutenant   governor   and 
 
HUT 
 
 chief  justice,  in  1771  he  received  his  com- 
 mission as  governor  of  Massachusetts. 
 In  1774  he  was  removed  from  his  office 
 and  was  succeeded  by  general  Gage.  He 
 then  repaired  to  England,  fell  into  disgrace, 
 and  died  in  retirement  in  1780.  He  is 
 the  author  of  a  valuable  History  of  Mas- 
 sachusetts, some  occasional  essays,  and  a 
 pamphlet  on  Colonial  Claims.  It  is  said 
 that  no  man  contributed  more  effectually  to 
 bring  about  the  separation  between  the  col- 
 onies and  Great  Britain  than  Hutchinson. 
 HUTCHINSON,  Ann,  a  religious 
 enthusiast,  who  occasioned  dissensions  in 
 the  churches  of  New-England,  came  from 
 Lincolnshire  to  Boston  in  1636.  She  was 
 banished  from  the  colony,  and  removed  to 
 a  Dutch  settlement  in  New-York,  where 
 in  1643  she  was  killed  by  the  Indians. 
 
 HUTTEN,  Ulric  dk,  a  German  re- 
 former, was  born,  in  1488,  at  Steckenberg, 
 in  Franconia;  studied  at  Frankfort  on  the 
 Oder;  distinguished  himself  as  a  soldier 
 in  Italy  and  Germany;  espoused  the  doc- 
 trines of  Luther,  and  published  many  pieces 
 in  favour  of  the  Reformation  ;  and  died  in 
 the  island  of  Uffnau,  in  the  iake  of  Zurich, 
 in  1523.  Hutten  was  a  brave  and  learned 
 man,  but  exceedingly  violent.  He  wrote 
 several  Latin  works,  in  verse  and  prose. 
 
 HUTTON,  James,  a  celebrated  geolo- 
 gist and  philosopher,  was  born,  in  1726,  at 
 Edinburgh.  Originally  destined  to  be  a 
 lawyer,  he  prevailed  on  his  friends  to  ex- 
 change his  profession  for  that  of  a  physi- 
 cian ;  and  lie,  in  consequence,  studied 
 medicine  at  Edinburgh,  Paris,  and  Leyden, 
 at  the  last  of  which  universities  he  took  his 
 degree  in  1749.  Instead,  however,  of  be- 
 ginning to  practise,  he  went  into  Norfolk, 
 to  make  himself  conversant  with  agricul- 
 ture, and,  in  1754,  settled  upon  a  farm  of 
 his  own  in  Berwickshire.  In  1768,  he 
 went  to  reside  at  Edinburgh,  and  his  time 
 thenceforth,  till  his  decease  in  1797,  was 
 devoted  to  scientific  pursuits.  His  principal 
 works  are,  A  Theory  of  the  Earth;  and 
 An  Investigation  of  the  Principles  of 
 Knowledge.  Mutton  is  the  founder  of  the 
 Plutonian  system  of  geology,  so  called 
 because  it  considers  subterraneous  fire  as 
 the  agent  by  which  the  upper  strata  of 
 the  globe  were  arranged  in  their  present 
 state. 
 
 HUTTON,  Charles,  an  eminent  ma- 
 thematician, was  born,  in  1737,  at  New- 
 castle upon  Tyne,  and  began  life  as  a 
 teacher  of  mathematics.  His  earliest 
 scientific  productions  were  communicated 
 to  the  Ladies'  and  Gentlemen's  Diaries, 
 and  to  Martin's  Magazine.  In  1773  lie 
 was  elected  professor  of  mathematics  at  the 
 Royal  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich, 
 and  this  appointment  he  held  till  1807, 
 when  ill  health  induced  him  to  resign  it. 
 A  pension  of  five  hundred  pounds  rewarded 
 
 HYD  833 
 
 his  services.  Dr.  Hutton  was  foreign  sec- 
 retary to  the  Royal  Society  from  1779  till 
 1783,  in  which  latter  year  lie  retired  from 
 the  Society  in  disgust,  along  with  several 
 other  eminent  men.  He  died  January  23, 
 1S23.  Among  his  works  are,  A  Mathe- 
 matical and  Philosophical  Dictionary,  two 
 vols,  quarto  ;  Elements  of  <  'onic  Sections  ; 
 and  A  Course  of  Mathematics.  He  also 
 joined  with  Drs.  Pearson  and  Shaw  in 
 abridging  the   Philosophical  Transactions. 
 
 HUYGENS,  Christian,  son  of  the 
 lord  of  Zuylichen,  was  born,  in  1629,  at 
 the  Hague;  received  his  scientific  educa- 
 tion from  his  father;  and  studied  the  law 
 at  Leyden.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  was 
 no  contemptible  mathematician.  In  the 
 course  of  a  few  years  he  distinguished 
 himself  by  several  learned  works,  and  by 
 inventing  a  pendulum,  improving  the  air- 
 pump,  ascertaining  the  laws  of  the  collision 
 of  elastic  bodies,  and  discovering  the  ring 
 and  one  of  the  satellites  of  Saturn.  Hav- 
 ing been  invited  to  France  by  Colbert,  and 
 pensioned  by  the  French  monarch,  he  re- 
 sided at  Paris  from  1666  to  1681 ;  but,  in 
 the  latter  year,  disgusted  at  the  revocation 
 of  the  edict  of  Nantz,  he  returned  to  Hol- 
 land. He  died  in  1695.  His  works  were 
 collected  and  edited  by  S'Gravesande. 
 
 HUYSUM,  John  Van,  a  celebrated 
 painter,  a  pupil  of  Justus,  his  father,  was 
 born,  in  1682,  at  Amsterdam;  and  died  in 
 1749.  In  flower  and  fruit  painting  he 
 excelled  every  other  artist,  and  so  greatly 
 in  request  were  his  pictures  that  he  ob- 
 tained enormous  prices  for  them:  for  one 
 flower  piece  he  was  paid  one  thousand 
 four  hundred  and  fifty  guilders,  and  for  a 
 fruit  piece,  one  thousand  and  five.  Van 
 Huysum  also  painted  landscapes  with  great 
 spirit. - 
 
 HYDE,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  an  eminent 
 orientalist,  was  born,  in  1636,  at  Billings- 
 lev,  in  Shropshire,  and  studied  at  King's 
 College,  Oxford.  Before  he  was'  eighteen 
 he  assisted  Walton  in  the  Polyglott  Bible. 
 He  was  successively  Hebrew  reader,  keeper 
 of  the  Bodleian  Library,  prebendary  of 
 Salisbury,  archdeacon  of  Gloucester,  and 
 Arabic  and  Hebrew  professor.  He  died 
 in  1703.  Of  his  numerous  learned  works 
 the  principal  is,  A  History  of  the  Religion 
 of  the  Ancient  Persians. 
 
 HYDE.     See  Clarendon. 
 
 HYDER  ALT,  a  celebrated  Indian 
 sovereign,  was  the  son  of  a  Mysorean  gov- 
 ernor of  a  small  fortress.  About  1763  he 
 dethroned  the  monarch  of  Mysore,  and 
 assumed  the  sceptre  with  the  title  of  re- 
 gent. He  made  important  conquests  from 
 the  Mahrattas,  and  twice  invaded  the  East 
 India  Company's  territories,  and  shook  the 
 British  power  to  its  foundations.  He  died 
 in  1782.  Ifvder  was  a  man  of  superior 
 talents,  both  military  and  civil. 
 
S34 
 
 TGN 
 
 IRE 
 
 IBRAHIM  MANSOUR  EFFENDI.an 
 
 adventurer,  whose  real  name  was  Cerf  be  re, 
 was  born  at  Strasburgh,  of  a  Jewish  family. 
 After  having  served  in  the  republican  hus- 
 sars, he  became  so  violent  a  royalist  that 
 he  was  imprisoned.  In  1802  he  went  to 
 Constantinople,  turned  Mahometan,  and 
 was  employed  to  discipline  the  Turkish 
 troops.  He  subsequently  wandered  through 
 Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  ;  held, 
 under  the  name  of  Medelsheim,  a  govern- 
 ment office  in  Westphalia;  fought  against 
 the  Servians;  was  for  three  years  engineer 
 to  Ali  Pacha  ;  recommenced  his  wander- 
 ings, and  extended  them  to  various  parts 
 of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America;  and  at  last, 
 being  in  a  starving  state,  shot  himself  at 
 Paris,  in  1826.  He  wrote  a  Memoir  of 
 Greece  and  Albania  during  the  Govern- 
 ment of  Ali  Pacha. 
 
 IBYCUS,a  Greek  lyric  poet,  a  native 
 of  Rhegium,  was  born  in  the  sixth  century 
 B.  c.  He  wrote  seven  books  of  Odes,  of 
 which  only  a  few  fragments  are  extant. 
 He  was  killed  in  a  solitary  spot  by  rob- 
 bers, whose  crime  is  said  to  have  been 
 discovered  in  a  singular  manner.  While 
 dying,  he  saw  a  flight  of  cranes  passing, 
 and  called  upon  them  to  avenge  him.  As 
 the  murderers  were  walking  in  Rhegium, 
 one  of  them  saw  some  cranes  overhead, 
 and  said  to  his  companions,  "  Here  are 
 the  avengers  of  Ibycus."  This  speech  ex- 
 cited suspicion,  and  the  truth  was  wrung 
 from  the  criminals  by  torture. 
 
 IFFLAND,  Augustus  William,  a 
 popular  actor  and  dramatist,  was  born  at 
 Hanover  in  1759,  and  from  his  childhood 
 had  a  propensity  to  the  stage,  which  his 
 father  vainly  endeavoured  to  repress.  In 
 1770  he  absconded  from  his  home,  and 
 made  his  appearance  at  the  Gotha  theatre. 
 He  soon  rose  to  the  first  rank  among  Ger- 
 man actors.  As  a  writer  he  was  almost 
 equally  successful.  He  died,  in  1814,  at 
 Berlin,  where  he  was  the  Court  theatrical 
 manager.  In  1798  he  published  an  edition 
 of  his  works,  which  contained  forty-seven 
 --comedies  and  tragedies  ;  and  he  subse- 
 quently w  rote  many  others. 
 
 IGNATIUS  DE  LOYOLA,  the  founder 
 of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  was  born,  in 
 1491,  of  a  noble  family,  in  the  Spanish 
 province  of  Guipuscoa.  In  1521  he  was 
 severely  wounded  at  the  Biege  of  Painpe- 
 luna.  The  result  of  his  meditations  on  a 
 bed  of  pain  was,  sorrow  for  his  past  de- 
 bauched life,  and  a  determination  to  devote 
 himself  to  works  of  piety,  lie  began  by 
 a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem;  after  which  he 
 studied  at  Alcala,  Salamanca,  and  Paris  ; 
 and  began  to  preach  and  to  make  disciples. 
 
 At  first  he  waa  opposed,  and  even  impris 
 oned;  but  at  length  the  pope,  in  1540, 
 gave  his  sanction  to  the  new  order  which 
 Loyola  had  established,  and  appointed  him 
 its  first  general.  He  died  in  1556,  and  was 
 canonized  in  1622. 
 
 IHRE,  John,  an  erudite  Swede,  was 
 born,  at  Upsal,  in  1707;  was  educated  at 
 the  university  there;  became  professor  of 
 poetry,  rhetoric,  and  politics;  was  enno- 
 bled, and  made  a  knight  of  the  Polar  star; 
 and  died  in  1780.  He  is  the  author  of 
 Lexicon  Dialectorum;  Glossarium  Sueco- 
 Gothicum;  A  Dissertation  on  Runic  Anti- 
 quities; and  other  works. 
 
 INCHBALD,  Elizabeth,  a  dramatist 
 and  novelist,  whose  maiden  name  was 
 Simpson,  was  born,  in  1756,  at  Stanning- 
 field,  near  Bury,  in  Suffolk.  At  the  age 
 of  sixteen  she  secretly  quitted  her  family, 
 being  prompted  by  an  irrepressible  desire 
 of  visiting  the  metropolis.  After  escaping 
 many  dangers  in  her  rash  adventure,  she 
 married  Mr.  lnchbald,  of  Drury  Lane 
 Theatre,  and  was  for  several  years  upon 
 the  stage.  In  1789,  however,  she  quitted 
 it,  and  thenceforth  depended  upon  her 
 literary  labours.  She  died  in  1821.  She 
 wrote  nineteen  dramas,  some  of  which 
 were  deservedly  successful ;  and  two  novels, 
 The  Simple  Story,  and  Nature  and  Art, 
 which  rank  among  the  standard  works  in 
 that  class  of  literature  ;  and  she  edited 
 The  British  Theatre,  The  Modern  Theatre, 
 and  a  Collection  of  Farces. 
 
 INGENHOUSZ,  John,  a  physician 
 and  experimental  philosopher,  was  born,  in 
 1730,  at  Breda,  in  Holland;  settled  in 
 London,  where  he  was  chosen  a  member 
 of  the  Royal  Society ;  was  recommended 
 li\  Sir  John  Pringle  to  inoculate  the  family 
 of  the  empress  Maria  Theresa;  resided  for 
 many  years  at  Vienna,  in  the  enjoyment  of 
 honours  and  fortune  ;  and  at  length  returned 
 to  England,  where  he  died  in  1799.  He 
 is  the  author  of  Experiments  on  Vegeta- 
 bles; Experiments  in  and  Observations  on 
 Natural  Philosophy;  and  other  works  of 
 great   merit. 
 
 IRELAND,  John,  was  born  at  Trench 
 farm,  near  Wem,  in  Shropshire  ;  was 
 brought  up  as  a  watchmaker;  became  a 
 dealer  in  paintings  and  prints;  and  died, 
 near  Birmingham,  in  1789.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Illustrations  of  Hogarth ;  and  the 
 Life  and  Letters  of  John  Henderson. 
 
 IRELAND,  SAMUEL,  was  originally  a 
 manufacturer  in  Spitalfields  ;  but  having 
 a  taste  for  the  arts,  and  some  knowledge 
 of  drawing  and  engraving,  he  became  a 
 speculator  in  books,  prints,  and  works  of 
 art,  and  a  writer  of  embellished  tours.    In 
 
JAC 
 
 1796  his  character  sustained  a  deep  injury 
 by  his  giving  to  the  world,  in  an  expensive 
 volume,  his  son's  impudent  forgery  of  what 
 were  called  The  Shakspeare  Papers.  He 
 died  in  1800.  lie  published  Graphic 
 Illustrations  of  Hogarth  ;  A  Picturesque 
 Tour  through  Holland,  Brabant,  and 
 France;  Picturesque  Views  on  the  Thames 
 — on  the  Med  way — and  on  the  Severn  and 
 Avon ;   and  A  History  of  the  Inns  of  Court. 
 
 IRETON,  HENRY,  was  born,  in  1610, 
 at  Attenton,  in  Nottinghamshire;  studied 
 at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and  the  Middle 
 Temple;  espoused  the  cause  of  the  parlia- 
 ment, and  commanded  the  left  wing  of  its 
 army  at  the  battle  of  Naseby;  married  a 
 daughter  of  Cromwell  ;  sat  in  judgment 
 upon  Charles  I. ;  was  appointed  commander- 
 in-chief  inlrelaud;  and  died  there  in  1651. 
 
 ISiEUS,  a  Greek  orator,  was  born  about 
 418  B.  c.  at  Chalcis,  in  Syria,  and  was  a 
 disciple  of  Lysias  and  Isocrates.  He  estab- 
 lished a  school  of  eloquence  at  Athens, 
 and  Demosthenes  was  one  of  his  pupils. 
 Of  liis  many  orations  only  eleven  are  now 
 extant;  ten  of  which  have  been  translated 
 by  Sir  William  Jones.  He  is  said  to  have 
 been  the  first  who  gave  names  to  the  figures 
 of  rhetoric. 
 
 ISLA,  John,  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  was 
 bom,  in  1714,  at  Segovia  After  the  ex- 
 pulsion of  his  order  from  Spain,  he  settled 
 at  Bologna,  in  Italy,  where  he  died  in 
 1783.  His  principal  work  is  The  Life  of 
 Friar  Gerund,  a  pleasant  satire  upon 
 monkish  ignorance,  and  upon  the  prevailing 
 faults  of  pulpit  eloquence.  He  also  wrote 
 A  Compendium  of  Spanish  History,  from 
 Duchesne;  Familiar  Letters;  The  Great 
 Day  of  Navarre;  and  Gil  Bias  restored  to 
 .    b  Country. 
 
 JAC  335 
 
 ISOCRATES,  one  of  the  ten  grea 
 Attic  orators,  was  born  B.  c.  436  at  Athens, 
 
 and  was  the  son  of  a  musical  instrument 
 maker.  Prodicus,  Gorgias,  and  Thera- 
 menes  were  his  preceptors  in  eloquence. 
 His  timidity,  ami  the  weakness  of  his 
 voice,  prevented  him  from  taking  a  part 
 in  public  business  ;  but  he  composed 
 pleadings  for  others,  and  opened  a  school 
 of  oratory,  in  which  he  formed  many  illus- 
 trious speakers  and  statesmen.  Warmly 
 attached  to  the  liberties  of  his  country,  he 
 starved  himself  to  death  in  consequence  of 
 the  fatal  issue  of  the  battle  of  Cheron&'a. 
 Twenty-one  of  his  harangues  are  extant. 
 
 ITL7RB1DE,  Augustin,  emperor  of 
 Mexico,  was  born,  in  1784,  at  Valladolid, 
 in  New  Spain,  of  a  distinguished  family, 
 and  entered  the  military  service  at  the  age 
 of  seventeen.  During  the  first  Mexican 
 revolution,  Iturbide  fought  against  the 
 insurgents ;  but  in  1820  he  took  up  arms 
 on  the  side  of  liberty.  His  splendid  suc- 
 cesses were  successively  rewarded  by  the 
 rank  of  generalissimo,  president  of  the 
 congress,  and  finally,  in  May,  1822,  of 
 emperor,  with  the  title  of  Augustin  the 
 First.  In  1823,  however,  he  was  deposed 
 and  banished.  He  returned  in  1824,  but 
 was  immediately  arrested  and  was  shot  on 
 the  19th  of  July. 
 
 IVANOF,  Feodor  Feodorovitsch, 
 a  Russian  dramatist,  was  born  in  1777; 
 served  in  the  army,  from  which  he  was 
 removed  to  the  commissariat  department ; 
 and  died  at  Moscow  in  1816.  He  wrote 
 the  tragedy  of  Martha,  or  the  Conquest  of 
 Novogorod  ;  and  the  comedies  of  Virtue 
 Rewarded,  The  Old  Family,  The  New- 
 married  Couple,  and  All  is  not  Gold  that 
 glistens. 
 
 JACKSON,  James,  an  officer  in  the 
 army  of  the  American  revolution,  was 
 born  in  England  in  1757.  In  1772  he 
 emigrated  to  America  and  settled  in  Geor- 
 gia. He  served  with  distinction  during 
 the  war  and  displayed  much  intrepidity. 
 On  the  disbanding  of  the  army,  he  com- 
 menced the  practice  of  the  law,  to  which 
 he  had  been  educated,  in  Georgia,  and 
 soon  obtained  a  lucrative  amount  of  busi- 
 ness. After  having  been  a  member  of  the 
 state  legislature,  and  successively  colonel, 
 brigadier  general,  and  major  general  in 
 the  militia,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of 
 Congress,  and  died  in  Washington  in  1806. 
 
 J  4.CKSQN,  William,  a  composer  and 
 author,  who  had  also  some  talent  for  paint- 
 ing, was  born,  in  1730,  at  Exeter;  studied 
 music  under  Travers ;  was  elected  organist 
 
 of  Exeter  Cathedral  in  1777;  and  died  in 
 1803,  in  his  native  city.  "Jackson's 
 peculiar  forte,"  says  an  eminent  musical 
 critic,  "existed  in  giving  an  elegant  and 
 plaintive  melody  to  elegiac  poetry.  In 
 constituting  harmony,  without  rendering 
 the  middle  part  or  parts  destitute  of  mel- 
 ody, Jackson  stands  unrivalled."  As  an 
 author  he  is  above  mediocrity.  He  wrote 
 Thirty  Letters  on  various  subjects;  The 
 Four  Ages;  and  a  Treatise  on  the  present 
 State  of  Music. 
 
 JACOBI,  John  George,  a  German 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1740,  at  Dusseldorf; 
 studied  at  Gottingen;  obtained,  through 
 the  influence  of  his  friend  Gleim,  a  pre- 
 bend in  the  chapter  of  St.  Boniface  at 
 Halberstadt  ;  was  professor  of  philoso- 
 phy and  eloquence  at  Halle,  and,  subse- 
 
336  JAM 
 
 qucntly,  of  the  belles  lettres  at  Friburg, 
 in  the  Brisgau;  and  died,  in  the  latter 
 city,  in  1814.  The  styie  of  Jacob]  in 
 verse  was  formed  on  that  of  the  lighter 
 French  poets,  and  possesses  much  gaiety 
 and  ease.  His  Summer  Journey  and 
 Winter  Journey  are  a  mixture  of  prose 
 and  verse,  like  the  Journey  by  Baucha- 
 inont  and  I. a  Cliapelle.  Besides  nia  |)oems, 
 he  wrote  Comedies,  Romances,  Fables,  and 
 Sermons. 
 
 JACQUIN,  Nicholas  Joseph,  a  cel- 
 ebrated botanist,  was  born,  in  1727,  at 
 Ley  den,  and  acquired  reputation  as  a  phv- 
 sician.  He  died  in  1817.  His  botanical 
 ■works,  which  are  numerous, are  splendidly 
 embellished.  Among  them  are,  The  Aus- 
 trian Flora;  The  Vienna  Botanical  Gar- 
 den ;  The  Sckoenbrunn  Garden;  Botani- 
 cal Fragments;  and  Select  American 
 Plants;  all  in  folio.  Of  the  last  of  these 
 only  twelve  copies  were  produced,  its  264 
 plates  being  all  drawings. 
 
 J  AGO,  Richard,  a  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1715,  at  Beaudesert,  in  Warwickshire; 
 was  educated  at  University  College,  Ox- 
 ford ;  successively  obtained  the  livings  of 
 Harbury,  Chesterton,  S'mittersfield,  and 
 Kiie.cote;  and  died  in  1781.  Jago  was  a 
 friend  t<>  Shenstone.  His  principal  poem 
 is  Edge  Hill;  but  it  is  excelled  by  some  of 
 his  smaller  pieces. 
 
 JAHN,  JOHN,  an  em  incut  oriental  schol- 
 ar, who  died  in  1817,  was  canon  of  Saint 
 Stephen's  Church  at  Vienna,  and  held  the 
 professorship  of  biblical  archaeology,  the- 
 ology, and  the  eastern  languages,  till  1806, 
 when  he  was  removed  from  it,  on  the  charge 
 of  heterodoxy.  Among  his  works  are,  Ara- 
 bic, Chaldean,  Hebrew,  and  Aramic  Gram- 
 mars; Biblical  Archaeology;  and  an  In- 
 troduction to  die  Study  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 JAMBLICHUS,  a  philosopher,  who 
 flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
 century,  and  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
 333,  was  a  native  of  Chalsis  in  Ccelo  Syria, 
 He  was  a  pupil  oi'  Anatolius,  and  after- 
 wards of  Porphyry;  and  himself  establish- 
 ed a  school,  to  which,  by  his  knowledge, 
 and  still  more  by  his  pretension  to  an  in- 
 tercourse with  the  invisible  beings,  he  at- 
 tracted numerous  disciples.  Several  of  his 
 writings  are  extant. 
 
 JAMES,  Robert,  a  physician,  was 
 born,  in  1703,  at  Kinverstone,  in  Stafford- 
 shire; was  educated  at  St.  John's  College, 
 Oxford;  and  settled  in  London,  after  hav- 
 ing practised  in  several  country  towns,  lie 
 died  in  1776.  He  i<  the  author  of  a  Med- 
 ical Dictionary;  the  Practice  of  Physic; 
 and  other  works,  lie  was  in  habits  of 
 friendship  with  Johnson,  Cumberland,  and 
 many  other  eminent  men. 
 
 .I.\  M  I,  A  b  ii  A  i.  ka  H  HAN,  i  Persian  po- 
 st, was  bom,  in  1414,  in  Khorasan;   lived 
 
 JAY 
 
 in  high  favour  at  the  court  of  sultan  Abu- 
 said  and  his  successor;  and  died  in  1492 
 Among  his  works,  which  are  nearly  forty 
 in  number,  are  the  tales  of  Yuseph  and 
 Zuleika,  and  Mejnoun  and  Leila. 
 
 JANSEN,  or  JANSENIUS,  Cornel- 
 its,  famous  for  ha\  ing,  unconsciously,  been 
 the  founder  of  a  sect,  and  the  causer  of  a 
 schism  in  the  catholic  church,  was  born,  in 
 1585,  at  Akay,  near  Leerdam,  in  Holland. 
 He  was  educated  at  Louvain;  and,  after 
 having  resided  for  twelve  years  in  France, 
 and  been  principal  of  the  college  of  St. 
 Pulcheria,  at  Louvain,  he  was  raised  to  the 
 see  of  Ypres,  by  the  king  of  Spain,  for 
 writing  a  severe  attack  upon  France  and 
 the  Dutch.  He  died,  in  1638,  shortly  after 
 be  had  taken  possession  of  his  bishopric. 
 He  left  behind  him  a  work,  intitled  Au- 
 gustinus  (published  in  1640),  which  he  was 
 led  to  write  by  the  controversy  then  exist- 
 ing between  the  Jesuits  and  Doininicians, 
 respecting  the  nature  and  necessity  of  divine 
 grace.  In  this  work  the  authority  of  St. 
 Augustine  was  brought  to  bear  against  the 
 Jesuits.  Its  doctrines  were  condemned  by 
 a  papal  bull,  but  they  were,  nevertheless, 
 espoused  by  great  numbers;  and  almost 
 interminable  and  furious  quarrels  ensued 
 between  the  Jansenists  and  their  opponents. 
 
 JARCHT,  Solomon  Ben  Isaac,  a 
 celebrated  rabbi,  was  born,  in  1104,  at 
 Troyes,  in  France;  travelled  over  a  con- 
 siderable part  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  in- 
 to Egypt ;  and  died,  at  his  native  place,  in 
 1180.  He  wrote  Commentaries  on  various 
 parts  of  the  Bible,  and  also  on  the  Talmud ; 
 which  are  so  highly  esteemed  that  he  has 
 been  called  the  Prince  of  Commentators. 
 
 JAUCOURT,  Louis  dk,  was  born,  in 
 1704,  at  Paris;  studied  at  Geneva  and 
 Cambridge;  was  a  medical  pupil  of  Boer- 
 haave;  returned  to  his  native  city  in  1736; 
 and  engaged  in  literary  pursuits;  contri- 
 buted an  immense  number  of  articles  to  the 
 Encyclopaedia;  and  died  in  1779.  He 
 wrote  a  Life  of  Leibnitz. ;  Inquiries  into 
 the  Origin  of  Fountains  ;  and  other  works; 
 and  bore  a  part  in  the  Museum  Sebaenum 
 
 JAUREGUI  V  AG  HILAR,  John,  a 
 Spanish  poet  and  painter,  was  born  at  To- 
 ledo, in  ]")()(),  and  died  in  16-30.  As  a  poet 
 he  was  of  the  school  of  Garcilaso  and  Bos- 
 can,  ami  laboured  strenuously  to  reform  the 
 taste  of  his  countrymen,  which  had  been 
 vitiated  by  Gongora.  He  wrote  Orpheus, 
 in  five  cantos;  Miscellaneous  Poems;  and 
 an  Apologv  for  Painting;  and  translated 
 the  Pharsalia,  and  theAminta.  As  a  pain- 
 ter he  was  distinguished  by  his  management 
 of  lighl  and  shade,  expression,  colouring, 
 and  the  tone  of  the  flesh. 
 
 JAY,  John,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New 
 York  in  1745.  He  was  graduated  at  Co- 
 lumbia College  in  1764,  and  in  1768  was 
 admitted  to  the  bar.     He  soon  rose  to  emi- 
 
JEF 
 
 nencc  as  a  lawyer  and  began  to  take  an  ac- 
 tive part  in  politics.  In  1774  he  was  elect- 
 ed a  delegate  to  the  first  congress.  In  May 
 1776  he  was  recalled  from  congress  by  the 
 provincial  convention,  to  aid  in  forming  the 
 government  for  the  province,  and  to  this  it 
 is  owing  that  his  name  does  not  appear 
 among  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of  in- 
 dependence. Upon  the  organization  of  the 
 State  government  in  1777  .Mr.  Jay  was  ap- 
 pointed chief  justice,  and  held  this  office 
 till  1779.  In  November  1778,  he  was 
 again  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  continental 
 congress,  and  three  days  after  taking  his 
 seat  was  elected  president  of  that  venera- 
 ble body.  In  September  1779,  he  was  ap- 
 pointed minister  plenipotentiary  to  the 
 court  of  Spain,  and  he  arrived  at  Cadiz  in 
 January  of  the  following  year.  Having  re- 
 signed his  commission  as  minister  in  1783, 
 in  1784  he  returned  to  the  United  States, 
 and  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  depart- 
 ment for  foreign  affairs.  In  this  post  he 
 remained  till  the  adoption  of  the  present 
 constitution  when  he  was  appointed  chief 
 justice  of  the  United  States.  In  1794  he- 
 was  sent  as  envoy  extraordinary  to  Great 
 Britain,  and  before  his  return  in  1795  he 
 had  been  elected  governor  of  his  native 
 state.  In  1798  he  was  re-elected  to  this 
 office,  and  in  1801  went  into  voluntary  re- 
 tirement. The  remainder  of  his  life  was 
 passed  in  the  faithful  discharge  of  the  char- 
 itable duties,  and  he  was  publicly  known 
 only  by  the  occasional  appearance  of  his 
 name,  or  the  employment  of  his  pen,  in  the 
 service  of  philanthropy  and  piety.  lie  died 
 in  1829.  Beside  a  variety  of  state  papers 
 and  political  essays,  Mr.  Jay  was  the  au- 
 thor of  the  2d,  3d,  4th,  5th  and  64th  num- 
 bers of  the  Federalist. 
 
 JEBB,  John,  a  divine  and  physician, 
 was  born,  in  1736,  in  London;  studied  at 
 Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  St.  Peter's 
 College,  Cambridge;  obtained  considera- 
 ble preferment  in  the  church,  which,  how- 
 ever, he  conscienciously  resigned  in  1775, 
 because  he  disapproved  of  some  of  the  es- 
 tablished doctrines;  studied  physic,  and 
 commenced  practice  as  a  physician,  in 
 1778;  and  died  in  1786.  Jebb  was  a  stren- 
 uous advocate  of  civil  and  religious  liberty, 
 and  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  many  meas- 
 ures designed  to  promote  it.  His  theolog- 
 ical, political,  and  medical  works  form  three 
 octavo  volumes. 
 
 JEFFERSON,  Thomas,  was  born  in 
 Albermarle  county,  Virginia,  in  1743,  am! 
 was  entered  a  student  in  the  college  of 
 William  and  Wary.  On  leaving  tin's  semi- 
 nary, he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
 law,  under  the  tuition  of  the  celebrated 
 George  Wythe,  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
 in  1766.  He  soon  occupied  a  high  stand 
 in  his  profession,  and  at  tie  early  age  of 
 twenty-five  entered  the  house  of  burgesses 
 15 
 
 JEF 
 
 337 
 
 of  his  native  state.  In  1774  he  published 
 a  Summary  View  of  the  Rights  of  British 
 America,  a  bold  but  respectfo]  pamphlet 
 addressed  to  the  king.  In  1775  he  was 
 elected  a  member  of  the  continental  con- 
 gress, and  in  the  following  year  draughted 
 the  declaration  of  independence.  Between 
 1777  and  1779  he  was  employed  together 
 with  George  Wythe  and  Edmund  Pendle- 
 ton on  a  commission  for  revising  the  laws 
 of  Virginia.  In  1779  he  was  elected  gov- 
 ernor, of  Virginia,  and  continued  in  office 
 until  June  1781.  In  the  latter  year  he  com- 
 posed his  celebrated  Notes  on  Virginia,  and 
 in  1787  published  it  under  his  own  signa- 
 ture. In  November  1783  he  again  took  his 
 seat  in  the  continental  congress,  and  in 
 May  following  was  appointed  minister  plen- 
 ipotentiary, to  act  abroad  with  Adams  and 
 Franklin  in  the  negociation  of  commercial 
 treaties.  In  1785  he  was  appointed  to  suc- 
 ceed Dr.  Franklin  as  minister  to  the  court 
 of  Versailles,  and  performed  the  duties  of 
 this  office  till  1789,  when  he  returned  to  his 
 native  country  and  was  placed  by  president 
 Washington  at  the  head  of  the  department 
 of  state.  In  1797  he  became  vice-presi- 
 dent, and  in  1801  president  of  the  United 
 States.  At  the  expiration  of  eight  years 
 he  again  retired  to  private  life,  and  took 
 up  his  residence  at  Monticello.  He  still 
 continued  anxious  to  promote  the  interest 
 of  science  and  literature,  and  devoted  the 
 attention  of  several  years  to  the  establish- 
 ment of  an  university  in  Virginia.  He  died 
 on  the  fourth  of  July  1826,  the  fiftieth  an- 
 niversary of  the  declaration  of  independ- 
 ence. In  stature  Mr.  Jefferson  was  six  feet 
 and  two  inches  high.  His  person  was  eiect 
 and  well  formed,  though  spare.  In  his  man- 
 ners he  was  simple  and  unaffected,  simple 
 in  his  habits,  and  incessantly  occupied  with 
 the  pursuits  of  business  or  study.  Four  vol- 
 umes of  his  Correspondence  have  been  pub- 
 lished since  his  decease. 
 
 JEFFREYS,  Georgk,  Baron  Wem, 
 was  born,  about  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
 teenth century,  at  Acton,  in  Denbighshire; 
 studied  at  Westminster  and  the  Inner  Tem- 
 ple ;  and  rose,  through  the  gradations  of  re- 
 corder of  London,  a  Welsh  judge,  and  chief 
 justice  of  Chester,  till,  in  1683,  he  attained 
 the  dignity  of  chief  justice  of  the  King's 
 Bench,  to  which  James  II.  added  the  title  of 
 baron.  He  earned  his  court  honours  by  being 
 base,  slavish,  sanguinary,  and  brutal,  in  an 
 extreme  degree,  whenever  politics  were 
 in  question.  On  the  downfal  of  James  II. 
 Jeffreys  attempted  to  escape,  but  was  de- 
 tected and  sent  to  the  Tower,  where  he 
 died  in  1689. 
 
 JEFFRIES,  John,  an  eminent  pfaysi 
 cian,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1714,  was  grad 
 nated  at  Harvard  college,  and  immediately 
 after  entered  upon  his  medical  studies.     In 
 order  to  acquire  a  more  perfect  knowledge 
 
S38 
 
 JEN 
 
 of  his  profession,  he  visited  Europe  and  at- 
 tended to  the  instructions  of  the  most  dis- 
 tinguished lecturers.  In  1769  he  returned 
 to  Boston  and  recommenced  the  practice 
 of  physic,  and  was  employed  during  the  war 
 as  surgeon  in  the  British  army.  In  17^0 
 he  went  again  to  London  and  practised  with 
 great  success.  In  the  course  of  his  philo- 
 sophical experiments,  he  was  induced  to 
 undertake  two  serial  voyages;  the  second 
 of  which  was  from  the  cl ill's  of  Dover  across 
 the  British  channel  into  the  forest  of  Guines 
 in  France.  In  1789  he  returned  to  Boston, 
 and  after  a  successful  practice  of  53  vears 
 died  in  1819. 
 
 JEHAN  GHIR,  or  JEHANGUIRE, 
 Aeul  Muzaffer  Noureddin  Moham- 
 med, emperor  of  Hindostan,  the  son  of  Ak- 
 bar,  was  originally  named  Selim.  He  suc- 
 ceeded to  the  throne  of  Delhi  in  1605,  and 
 died  in  1627.  Jehanguire  was  liberal,  affa- 
 ble, and  accessible  to  his  subjects,  and  a  pa- 
 tron of  literature  and  arts.  He  wrote  Me- 
 moirs of  the  first  Seventeen  Years  of  his 
 Reign;  and  added  to  the  historical  commen- 
 taries of  Sultan  Baber. 
 
 JENKINSON.     See  Liverpool. 
 
 JENNER,  Edward,  the  celebrated  in- 
 troducer of  vaccine  inoculation,  was  born, 
 May  17,  1749,  in  Gloucestershire,  was 
 apprenticed  to  a  surgeon;  and  subsequent- 
 ly settled  at  Berkeley,  as  a  general  medi- 
 cal practitioner.  About  1776  his  attention 
 was  turned  to  the  cow  pox.,  by  the  circum- 
 stance of  his  finding  that  those  who  had 
 been  affected  by  it  had  become  incapable 
 of  receiving  the  variolous  infection.  Vac- 
 cination was  introduced  into  the  British 
 capital,  in  1796,  by  Mr.  Cline,  and  a 
 violent  controversy  was  long  maintained 
 with  respect  to  its  merits.  Its  ultimate 
 triumph  was  complete.  It  was  extended 
 to  every  part  of  the  globe;  and  plaudits 
 and  honours  were  showered  upon  the  dis- 
 coverer from  all  quarters.  (  hcford  presented 
 him  with  a  diploma,  the  Royal  Society 
 admitted  him  as  a  member,  and  parliament 
 voted  him  jC.20,000.  He  died  January 
 26,  1823.  Besides  two  works  on  the  Cow 
 Pox,  and  scattered  papers  and  letters  on 
 
 JOA 
 
 the  same  subject,  he  wrote  Observations 
 on  the  Natural  History  of  the  Cuckoo. 
 
 JE.XYNS,  Soame,  a  poet  and  miscel- 
 laneous writer,  was  born,  in  1704,  in 
 London;  was  educated  at  St.  John's  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge;  sat  in  parliament  for 
 Cambridgeshire,  and  subsequently  for  Dun- 
 wich;  and  for  his  attachment  to  ministers, 
 was  rewarded  by  being  made  a  commis- 
 sioner of  the  board  of  trade,  which  office 
 he  held  during  five  and  twenty  years.  He 
 died  in  1787.  His  prose  works,  besides 
 some  papers  in  the  World,  and  some  pam- 
 phlets, consist  of,  An  Inquiry  into  the 
 Nature  and  Origin  of  Evil — which  was 
 roughly  handled  by  Johnson;  View  of  the 
 Internal  Evidences  of  the  Christian  Relig- 
 ion— which,  though  popular,  was  unsatis- 
 factory to  all  parties  ;  Disquisitions  on 
 various  Subjects — which  brought  down  on 
 him  the  satirical  lash  of  Mason. 
 
 JEROxME,  or  HIERONYMUS,  St., 
 one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church,  was  born, 
 between  329  and  343,  at  Stridon,  on  the 
 Pannonian  and  Dacian  frontier,  and  studi- 
 ed at  Rome,  under  Donatus  the  grammarian 
 and  other  preceptors.  He  was  ordained 
 presbyter  in  378  ;  became  secretary  to 
 Pope  Damasus;  and  died,  in  420,  super  - 
 intendant  of  a  monastery  at  Bethlehem. 
 The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  in  h\e 
 volumes  folio. 
 
 JEROME  of  Prague,  a  native  of  the 
 Bohemian  capital,  studied  in  the  universi- 
 ties of  Oxford,  Paris,  Prague,  Heidelberg, 
 and  Cologn ;  joined  zealously  with  Huss 
 in  spreading  the  doctrines  of  Wicklirle; 
 followed  him  to  Constance;  was  terrified 
 into  a  momentary  recantation  of  his  prin- 
 ciples; but  resumed  his  courage,  defended 
 himself  eloquently,  and  met  his  death  at 
 the  stake,  May  30,  1416,  with  heroical 
 fortitude. 
 
 JERVIS.     See  St.  Vincent. 
 
 JEUFFROY,  R.  V.,  a  gem  and  medal 
 engraver,  was  born,  in  1739,  at  Rouen,  in 
 a  very  humble  condition.  When  he  was 
 young,  he,  without  any  assistance,  suc- 
 ceeded in  imitating  an  engraved  precious- 
 stone  which  had  come  into  his  hands.  He 
 went  to  Italy  to  study,  and  for  some  years 
 resided  at  Rome,  and  worked  for  Pichler, 
 who  sold  his  productions  as  antiques.  On 
 his  return  to  France,  he  was  placed  at  the 
 head  of  the  school  of  gem  engraving.  He 
 died  in  1786. 
 
 JOAN  OF  ARC,  generally  called  The 
 Maid  of  Orleans,  the  greatest  of  heroines, 
 was  born,  in  1410,  at  Domremi,  in  Lor- 
 raine. Her  parents  were  poor,  and  her 
 occupations  were  the  tending  of  sheep  and 
 taking  care  of  horses  at  a  country  inn. 
 But  her  mind  was  far  superior  to  her 
 Btation.  and  she  brooded  over  the  sufferings 
 of  her  country,  and  the  means  of  relieving 
 them,  till  she  believed  that  she  heard  voices 
 
JOH 
 
 from  heaven  commanding  her  to  become  the 
 deliverer  of  France.     She  was  presented  to 
 
 JOH 
 
 839 
 
 and  it  was  resolved  that  her 
 services  should  be  accepted.  The  idea 
 that  an  agent  endowed  with  supernatural 
 powers  had  taken  the  field  produced  its 
 natural  effect  in  a  superstitious  age;  it 
 inspirited  the  French,  it  depressed  the  Eng- 
 lish. The  first  exploit  of  Joan  was  the 
 relieving  of  Orleans,  in  May,  1428,  after 
 having  defeated  the  besiegers.  The  tide 
 of  her  success  was  rapid.  City  after  city 
 was  reduced,  the  English  were  worsted  at 
 Patay,  and,  in  July,  1429,  the  maid  led 
 her  sovereign  to  be  crowned  in  the  cathe- 
 dral of  Rheims.  Her  mission,  she  declar- 
 ed, was  now  accomplished,  and  she  wished 
 to  retire  into  obscurity.  But  her  aid  was 
 too  valuable  to  be  easily  relinquished,  and 
 the  king  at  length  prevailed  on  her  to 
 remain  with  the  army.  Joan  continued  to 
 display  her  wonted  valour  till,  on  the  25th 
 of  May,  1431,  she  was  taken  prisoner  by 
 the  Burgundians,  while  she  was  heading  a 
 sally  from  Compiegne.  Her  captors  sold 
 her  to  the  English,  who  lastingly  disgraced 
 themselves  by  burning  her  at  Rouen,  May 
 31,  1431,  on  a  charge  of  sorcery. 
 
 JODELLE,  Stephen,  a  French  poet, 
 was  born  at  Paris,  in  1532,  and  died  in 
 indigence  in  1573.  Jodelle  formed  one  of 
 the  Pleiad,  as  it  was  called,  of  Gallic  poets. 
 He  was  the  first  in  France  who  composed 
 tragedies  with  chorusses  on  the  Greek 
 model. 
 
 JOHNES,  Thomas,  was  born,  in  174S, 
 at  Ludlow,  in  Shropshire;  studied  at  Eton, 
 and  Jesus  College,  Oxford;  sat  in  parlia- 
 ment for  Cardigan,  and  subsequently  for 
 Radnorshire;  and  died  in  1S16.  He  trans- 
 lated Froissart,  Monstrelet,  Joinville,  Ber- 
 trand  de  la  Brocquiere,  and  St.  Palaye's 
 Life  of  Froissart. 
 
 JOHNSON,  Samuel,  a  divine,  emi- 
 nent for  his  fortitude,  and  for  his  numerous 
 writings  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  was  born, 
 in  1649,  in  Staffordshire;  was  educated  at 
 St.  Paul's  School,  and  at  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge;  and  became  minister  of  Cor- 
 ringham,  in  Essex,  and  chaplain  to  Lord 
 William  Russeb     For  nig  Julian  the  Apos- 
 
 tate, published  in  1682,  he  was  fined  five 
 hundred  marks.  In  1685  he  was  treated 
 still  more  severely;  being  sentenced  to  pay 
 five  hundred  marks,  \ta  thrice  pilloried, 
 and  hi-  whipped  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn, 
 for  having  written  an  Address  to  the  Army. 
 He  died  in  1703.  His  works  form  a  folio 
 volume. 
 
 JOHNSON,  Samuel,  one  of  the  great- 
 est literary  characters  of  the  eighteenth 
 century,  was  the  son  of  a  bookseller;  'was 
 born,  in  1709,  at  Litchfield  ;  and  completed 
 his  education  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford. 
 After  having  been  usher  at  Market  Bos- 
 worth  school,  and  having  married  Mrs. 
 Porter,  the  widow  of  a  mercer,  and  vainly 
 endeavoured  to  establish  an  academy  at 
 Edial,  he  settled  in  the  metropolis,  in  1737. 
 In  the  following  year  he  published  his 
 London,  a  satire,  which  established  his 
 poetical  reputation,  and  was  praised  by 
 Pope.  For  some  years  his  subsistence- 
 was  chiefly  derived  from  supplying  biogra- 
 phical and  miscellaneous  articles,  including 
 the  debates  in  parliament,  to  the  Gentle- 
 man's Magazine.  His  Life  of  Savage 
 appeared  in  1744.  From  1747  to  1755  he 
 was  engaged  on  his  English  Dictionary. 
 In  the  interval,  however,  he  gave  to  the 
 world  The  Vanity  of  Human  Wishes  ;  The 
 Rambler ;  and  the  tragedy  of  Irene.  These 
 labours,  however,  were  more  productive 
 of  fame  than  of  profit.  He  was  still 
 obliged  to  toil  to  provide  for  the  passing 
 day,  and  thus  necessity  called  into  exist- 
 ence the  Idler,  Rasselas,  and  various  pro- 
 ductions of  less  consequence.  At  length, 
 in  1762,  a  pension  of  £.300  was  granted 
 to  him  by  the  crown;  and,  in  1765,  a 
 large  increase  was  made  to  his  comforts 
 by  his  becoming  intimate  with  the  family 
 of  Mr.  Thrale.  In  the  course  of  the  last 
 twenty  years  of  his  life  he  produced  his 
 political  pamphlets;  an  edition  of  Sliaks- 
 peare;  a  Journey  to  the  Western  Islands 
 of  Scotland;  and  the  Lives  of  the  Poets. 
 He  died  December  13, 1784. 
 
 JOHNSON,  Sir  William,  a  military 
 officer,  who  served  with  distinction  in 
 North  Carolina,  was  born  in  Ireland  about 
 the  year  1714.     Early  in  life  he  came  tc> 
 
340  JON 
 
 America,  and  settled  on  the  Mohawk  and 
 carried  on  an  extensive  traffic  with  the  In- 
 dians. In  1755  lie  commanded  the  provin- 
 cial troops  of  New  York  in  the  expedition 
 against  Crown  Point,  and  for  bis  services 
 received  from  the  House  of  Commons  the 
 gift  of  £.5000,  .hhI  from  the  king  the  title 
 of  baronet.  He  died  in  1774.  He  was 
 shrewd,  brave  and  successful. 
 
 JOHNSON,  Samuel,  president  of 
 King's  College,  New  York,  was  a  native 
 ot'  Connecticut,  and  was  graduated  at  Yale 
 College.  He  studied  divinity,  became  an 
 Episcopalian,  and  in  1722  went  to  England 
 to  obtain  ordination.  In  1754  he  was 
 chosen  president  «f  the  college  just  estab- 
 lished at  New  York,  and  tilled  the  office 
 with  much  credit  until  1763,  when  he  re- 
 signed and  returned  to  Stratford  to  resume 
 h  -  pastoral  duties.  He  died  in  1772,  in 
 the  76th  year  of  his  age.  He  was  the 
 author  of  some  controversial  works,  and 
 of  a  Hebrew  and  an  English  Grammar. 
 
 JOHNSON,  or  JOHNSTON, 
 Charles,  a  novel  writer,  was  born  in 
 Ireland,  in  the  first  ha  f  of  the  eighteenth 
 century,  and  was  called  to  the  bar,  but  his 
 deafness  confined  him  to  chamber  practice. 
 In  1782  he  went  to  Calcutta,  where  he 
 became  joint  proprietor  of  a  newspaper, 
 and  died  about  1800.  His  no\els,  the 
 principal  of  which  are,  Chrysal,  or  the 
 Adventures  of  a  Guinea,  and  its  continua- 
 tion, The  Reverie,  are  spirited,  and  lull 
 of  pungent  satire,  and  the  characters  are 
 mostly  copied,  and  often  caricatured,  from 
 real  life. 
 
 JOIN  VILLE,  John,  Sire  de,  seneschal 
 of  Champagne,  was  born  about  1223.  He 
 attended  Louis  IX.,  in  1249,  on  the  Egyp- 
 tian expedition,  rendered  great  services 
 i  )  that  monarch,  and  was  ever  after  con- 
 sidered by  him  as  one  of  his  dearest 
 friends.  In  the  king's  second  crusade, 
 however,  he  declined  taking  a  part.  Join- 
 ville  died  about  1307.  His  Life  of  Saint 
 Louis  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  of  an- 
 cient chronicles. 
 
 JOMELLI,  Nicholas,  a  celebrated 
 composer,  was  born,  in  1714,  at  A  versa,  in 
 the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  was  a  pupil 
 of  Leo  and  Durante.  After  having  resided 
 for  some  years  in  Germany,  in  the  service 
 of  the  duke  of  Wirtemberg,  he  returned 
 to  his  native  country,  and  died  at  Naples, 
 in  1774.  He  composed  more  than  forty 
 operas;  oratorios;  and  several  excellent 
 pieces  of  church  music;  besides  smaller 
 works. 
 
 JONES,  Lmgo,  an  eminent  architect, 
 the  son  of  a  cloth  worker,  was  burn  about 
 1572,  at  London.  Christian  IV.  of  Den- 
 mark, made  him  his  chief  architect,  and 
 brought  him  to  England  when  he  visited 
 James  I.  Jones  nov  tran  ferred  his  servi- 
 ces  to   his   natural    sovereign.     He    was 
 
 JON 
 
 made  surveyor  of  the  board  of  works; 
 and  was  also  much  employed  by  the  nobil 
 ity  and  gentry.  Being  a  catholic,  and 
 favourable  to  the  subverted  government, 
 Jones  suffered  considerably  during  the  civil 
 war.  He  died  in  1652.  Of  his  abilities 
 the  finest  specimens  are,  the  Banqueting 
 House,  at  Whitehall;  St.  Paul's  Covent 
 Garden;  and  Wilton  House  in  Wiltshire. 
 He  sometimes  sinned  against  good  taste 
 by  blending  the  Grecian  and  the  Gothic 
 styles. 
 
 JONES, William,  a  divine,  who  was 
 a  strenuous  champion  of  the  Hutchinsonian 
 philosophy,  was  born,  in  1726,  at  Lowiek, 
 in  Northamptonshire;  was  educated  at  the 
 Charter  House,  and  at  University  College, 
 Oxford ;  and  died  in  1800,  perpetual  curate 
 of  Nayland,  and  rector  of  Paston  and 
 Hollingbourne.  His  theological  and  philo- 
 sophical works  form  twelve  octavo  vol* 
 times.  Among  them  are,  The  Catholic 
 Doctrine  of  the  Trinity ;  Physiological 
 Disquisitions;  and  Lectures  on  the  Figur- 
 ative Language  of  the  Scriptures. 
 
 JONES,  Sir  Willi  am,  an  eminent  poet, 
 scholar,  and  lawyer,  the  son  of  an  excellent 
 mathematician,  was  born,  in  1746,  in 
 London;  was  educated,  and  greatly  dis- 
 tinguished himself,  at  Harrow-,  and  at 
 University  College,  Oxford;  and,  in  1765, 
 became  tutor  to  Lord  Althorpe,  now  Earl 
 Spencer,  with  whom  he  travelled  on  the 
 continent.  In  1770,  he  was  admitted  of 
 the  Inner  Temple;  in  1776  he  was  made 
 a  commissioner  of  bankrupt;  in  1783  he 
 was  knighted,  and  appointed  judge  of  the 
 supreme  court  of  judicature  in  Bengal. 
 One  of  his  early  acts  in  India  was  ihe 
 establishment,  at  Calcutta,  of  an  institution 
 on  the  plan  of  the  Royal  Society,  of  which 
 he  was  chosen  the  first  president.  Another 
 was,  to  take  vigorous  measures  for  pro- 
 curing a  digest  of  the  Hindoo  and  Mahom- 
 etan laws.  lie  died,  at  Calcutta,  in  1794. 
 His  poems,  translations,  philological  es- 
 says, and  other  works,  form  twelve  vol- 
 umes. In  his  command  of  languages  he 
 had  few  rivals;  he  being  more  or  less  ac- 
 quainted with  no  fewer  than  twenty-eight. 
 His  poems  are  always  elegant,  often  ani- 
 mated, and  their  versification  is  melliflu- 
 ous-:. Ilis  Learning  was  extensive;  his  le- 
 gal knowledge  was  profound;   and  he  was 
 
 an   enlightened  and  zealous   champion  of 
 
 •    °-       i       •      •   i 
 consi itut  lonal  principles. 
 
 JONES,  John  Paul,  a  native  of  Scot- 
 land, was  born,  in  1747,  at  Selkirk,  and 
 settled  in  America  when  young.  He  dis- 
 tinguished himself  by  his  bravery  in  the 
 American  service,  during  die  contest  with 
 the  mother  country,  particularly  in  a  des- 
 perate action  with  the  Serapis  frigate, 
 which  he  captured,  lie  died  in  Paris  in 
 1792,  and  was  buried  at  the  expense  of 
 the  national  convention.      Jones  was    not 
 
JOR 
 
 only  a  man  of  signal  courage,  but  also  of 
 great  talent,  and  keen  sagacity,  wrote  poe- 
 try, and  in  France  aspired  to  be  a  man  of 
 fashion.  His  memorials  and  correspond- 
 ence are  quite  voluminous. 
 
 JONES,  John,  an  American  physi- 
 cian, was  born  on  Long  Island  in  1729. 
 After  receiving  a  school  education,  he 
 commenced  the  study  of  medicine  and  \is- 
 ited  Europe  to  improve  his  professional 
 knowledge.  Returning  to  America  he 
 settled  in  New  York,  and  in  1775  pub- 
 lished his  Plain  Remarks  upon  Wounds 
 and  Fractures.  He  was  the  intimate  friend 
 of  Franklin,  and  attended  him  in  his  last 
 illness;  he  was  also  for  some  time  the 
 family  physician  of  president  Washington. 
 He  died  in  1791. 
 
 JOV 
 
 341 
 
 JONSON,  Benjamin,  a  celebrated 
 poet  and  dramatist,  the  posthumous  son  of 
 a  clergyman,  was  born,  in  1574,  in  West- 
 minster. His  mother  having  entered  again 
 into  the  marriage  state  with  a  bricklayer, 
 she  took  the  youth  from  Westminster 
 School,  to  follow  his  stepfather's  trade; 
 but  he  emancipated  himself  by  entering 
 the  arinv,  as  a  private  soldier,  and,  during 
 a  campaign  in  Holland,  was  applauded  by 
 liis  officers  foi  his  courage.  On  his  return 
 he  studied  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge, but  the  scantiness  of  his  means 
 soon  obliged  him  to  quit  the  university. 
 Removing  to  London,  he  embraced  the  two- 
 fold profession  of  author  and  actor.  As  an 
 actor  Jonson  acquired  no  fame;  as  an  au- 
 thor he  was  more  fortunate.  His  first 
 play,  Every  Man  in  his  Humour,  was 
 brought  out  in  159S,  and  it  was  followed, 
 in  rapid  succession,  by  numerous  others, 
 and  by  his  poems.  In  1617,  he  was  ap- 
 pointed poet  laureate.  He  died  August 
 16,  1637.  Of  Jouson's  poetry  much  is  be- 
 low mediocritv,  but  there  are  a  few  of  his 
 pieces  which  are  polished  into  perfect 
 gems.  Besides  his  poems  and  dramas  lie 
 wrote  some  prose  works.  The  story  of 
 his  regarding  Shakspeare  with  an  envious 
 eye  appears  to  be  a  calumny. 
 
 JORTIN,  Dr.  John,  an  eminent  theo- 
 logian and  scholar,  was  born,  ^n  1698,  in 
 London  ;    was   educated    at   the    Charter 
 
 House,  and  Jesus  College,  Oxford;  and 
 held,  successively,  the  livings  of  Swavese) , 
 Si.  Dunstan's  in  the  East,  and  Kensing- 
 ton. He  was  also  a  prebendary  of  St. 
 Paul's,  and  archdeacon  of  London.  H.6 
 died,  at  Kensington,  in  1770,  as  much  be- 
 loved for  his  private  virtues  as  admired  for 
 his  piety,  learning,  abilities,  liberality  of 
 mind,  and  contempt  of  subserviency. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Lusus  Poetici;  A 
 Life  of  Erasmus;  Remarks  o  i  Ecclesiast- 
 ical History;  sermons;  and  Six  Disserta- 
 tions on  different  subjects.  As  the  last 
 work  happened  to  impugn  one  of  Wat- 
 burton's  theories,  an  illiberal  attack  was 
 made  upon  it  by  Ilurd,  in  a  Seventh  Dis- 
 sertation on  the  Delicacy  of  Friendship. 
 
 JOSEPHINE,  Empress  of  the  French. 
 The  maiden  name  of  this  celebrated  wo- 
 man, who  was  born,  iu  1761,  at  Martinico, 
 was  Mary  Francis  Josephine  Tascher  de 
 la  Pagerie.  She  was  early  taken  to  Paris 
 by  her  father,  and  united  to  viscount  de 
 Beauharnois.  In  1794,  her  husband  per- 
 ished on  the  scaffold,  and  she  herself  was 
 imprisoned,  but  was  saved  by  Tallien.  In 
 1796.  she  married  General  Bonaparte,  and 
 they  lived  together  in  perfect,  union,  till 
 1809,  when  the  desire  of  having  an  heir 
 to  his  throne  induced  him  to  divorce  her, 
 and  take  an  Austrian  princess  as  his  wife. 
 She  died  at  Malmaison,  May  29,  1814. 
 In  her  youth  Josephine  was  beautiful,  and 
 to  the  last  she  continued  to  possess  many 
 charms,  uncommon  gracefulness,  and  win- 
 ning manners.  For  these  she  was  admired, 
 but  for  her  amenity  and  benevolence  she 
 was  universally  beloved. 
 
 JOSEPHUS,  Flavius,  a  Jewish  his- 
 torian, descended,  by  his  mother's  side, 
 from  the  Maccabean  race,  was  born  at  Je- 
 rusalem, A.  D.  37,  and  was  early  instruct- 
 ed in  Hebrew  learning.  He  is  supposed 
 to  have  died  about  the  year  95.  He  wrote 
 the  History  of  the  Jewish  War;  Jewish 
 Antiquities;  and  other  works;  which  have 
 been  translated  into  English  by  L'Estrange 
 and  by  Whiston. 
 
 JOVELLANOS,  Gaspar  Melchior 
 dk,  was  born,  in  1749,  at  Gijon,  in  the 
 Astunas,  and  was  early  distinguished  for 
 his  learning.  Charles  III.  made  him  a 
 counsellor  of  state,  but  he  was  exiled  in 
 1794,  for  proposing  to  tax  the  clergy.  In 
 1799  he  was  recalled,  to  be  minister  of 
 justice;  but  in  <  ight  months  he  w  ;ts  again 
 banished.  Being  suspected  of  favouring 
 the  French,  he  was  put  to  death,  in  1812, 
 by  the  populace,  lie  wrote  Lyric  Poems; 
 Pelayo,  a  tragedy;  The  Honourable  De- 
 linquent, a  comedy;  and  several  Memoirs 
 on  subjects  connected  with  political  econ- 
 omy,    lie  also  translated   Paradise  Lost. 
 
 JOVIAN,  Flavius  Claudius,  a  Ro- 
 man emperor,  was  born,  about  330,  at 
 Sindunum,   in    Pannonia.      When    Julian 
 
342 
 
 JUL 
 
 fell,  in  the  expedition  against  the  Persians, 
 Jovian,  who  was  then  an  officer,  was 
 raised  to  the  throne  by  the  troops.  To 
 save  the  remains  of  the  Roman  armv,  lie 
 was  compelled  to  consent  to  a: dishonoura- 
 ble peace,  with  the  Persians.  His  swaj 
 v.  u  short,  fur  he  died,  in  364,  in  the 
 eighth  month  of  bis  reign;  but  whether  by 
 sufibcation  from  the  vapour  of  charcoal,  bj 
 apoplexy,  or  by  poison,  remains  undecided. 
 
 JOYCE,  Jerkmiah,  a  dissenting  min- 
 ister, and  an  industrious  author,  was  born 
 in  1764,  and  died  in  1816.  In  1794,  he 
 was  one  of  the  persons  accused  of  high 
 i,  but  was  not  brought  to  trial,  lie 
 w;ls  tlie  principal  compiler  of  Gregory's 
 and  .Nicholson's  Encyclopaedias;  and  pub- 
 lished, among  other  works,  Elements  of 
 Arithmetic  ;  Scientific  Dialogues  ;  Dia- 
 logues on  Chemistry;  and  Letters  on  Nat- 
 ural Philosophy. 
 
 JUAN  VSA.\TICILIA,DonGKORGK, 
 an  eminent  Spanish  mathematician  and 
 naval  officer,  was  born,  in  1712,  at  Ori- 
 huela.  A  considerable  part  of  his  life  was 
 spent  in  successful  exertions  to  improve 
 and  increase  the  Spanish  naval  force.  He 
 died  in  1771.  Among  his  works  are,  Ob- 
 servations on  Astronomy  and  Natural  Phi- 
 losophy, made  in  Peru;  and  a  Treatise  on 
 Mechanics  applied  to  the  construction  of 
 Vessels. 
 
 JUDAH  HAKKADOSH,  a  famous 
 rabbi,  the  founder  of  the  school  of  Tibe- 
 rias, was  born  at  Sephora,  in  120,  and 
 died  in  194.  He  is  the  author  of  the 
 Mischna,  or  first  part  of  the  Talmud,  and 
 is  said  to  have  been  occupied  upon  it  for 
 thirty  years. 
 
 JUDAH  MUG,  or  CHIUG,  a  learned 
 rabbi,  was  a  native  of  Fez,  and  exercised 
 the  profession  of  a  physician  at  that  place, 
 about  1040.  The  date  of  his  death  is  un- 
 known. 
 
 JUEL,  Nicholas,  a  celebrated  Danish 
 admiral,  was  born  in  1629,  and  learned 
 his  profession  under  Tromp  and  Ruyter,  in 
 the  Dutch  service;  after  which  he  returned 
 to  Denmark,  to  serve  his  country.  In  1659, 
 he  distinguished  himself  during  the  siege 
 of  Copenhagen;  for  which  he  was  one  of 
 the  first  who  received  the  order  of  Dane- 
 brog.  In  1676  and  1677,  he  made  himself 
 master  of  Gothland,  and  defeated  the 
 Swedes  in  several  desperate  engagements. 
 MediecUin  ln97.  Joel  was  no  less  modest 
 than  brave. 
 
 JULIAN,  Ft.wius  Claudius,  surna- 
 rneil  the  Apostate,  a  nephew  of  Coastan- 
 tine  the  Great,  was  born  in  331,  and  was 
 brought  up  a  Christian,  but  apostatized  to 
 paganiff."*.  In  335,  he  was  declared  (  ;csar, 
 and  was  sent  to  govern  Gaul,  where  he  ob- 
 •ained  several  victories  over  the  Germans. 
 In  361,  the  troops  in  Gaul  revolted  from 
 Constantii'.s,    and    placed    Julian    on    the 
 
 JUR 
 
 throne.     He  was  killed,  in  363,  in  his  ex* 
 
 pedition  against  the  Persians.     His  works 
 form  two  volumes  folio. 
 
 JULIO  ROMANO,  a  celebrated  painter 
 and  architect,  whose  real  name  was  Pippi, 
 was  born,  in  1492,  at  Rome,  and  studied 
 under  Raphael;  but,  after  the  decease  of 
 his  great  master,  he  adopted  a  style  which 
 approximated  to  that  of  Michael  Angelo. 
 He  died  in  1546. 
 
 JUNGE,  or  JUNGIUS,  Joachim,  a 
 German  philosopher,  whom  Leibnitz  cha- 
 racterises as  being  inferior  only  to  Des- 
 cartes, and  equal  to  Copernicus,  Galileo, 
 and  Kepler,  was  born,  in  1587,  at  Lubeck; 
 and  died,  in  1657,  rector  of  St.  John's 
 School,  at  Hamburgh.  He  was  a  formid- 
 able antagonist  of  the  Aristotelian  philoso- 
 phy. Among  his  works  are,  Geometria 
 Empirica;  Doxoscopia^  Physicae  Minores; 
 and  Isagoge  Phytoscopia;  from  the  last  of 
 which  hints  appear  to  have  been  borrowed 
 by  Ray  and  Linn, ens. 
 
 JUNIUS,  Adrian,  a  native  of  Hol- 
 land, a  physician,  and  one  of  the  most 
 fertile  literary  characters  of  his  age,  was 
 born  at  Uoorn,  in  1512;  practised  with 
 great  success  in  England  and  his  native 
 country;  and  died  in  1575.  His  works, 
 including  translations  from  the  ancient  lan- 
 guages, and  remarks  on  ancient  authors, 
 are  very  numerous. 
 
 JUNIUS,  Francis,  a  philologist,  was 
 born,  in  1589,  at  Heidelberg;  settled  in 
 England  in  1620;  was  thirty  years  libra- 
 rian to  the  earl  of  Arundel;  and  died,  in 
 1678,  at  Windsor.  His  principal  works 
 are,  De  Pictura  Veterum;  Glossarium 
 Gothicus;  and  Etymologicum  Anglicanum; 
 the  last  of  which  was  published  by  Lye. 
 His  extensive  Glossary  of  the  Five  North- 
 ern Languages  remains  unprinted. 
 
 JUNOT,  Andoche,  duke  of  Abrantes, 
 a  French  general,  was  born,  in  1771,  at 
 Russy  le  Grand ;  entered  the  army  in  1791, 
 as  a  volunteer ;  attracted  by  his  coolness 
 and  courage  the  attention  of  Bonaparte  at 
 the  siege  of  Toulon;  and  was  promoted 
 by  that  general,  and  distinguished  himself 
 under  him  throughout  the  Italian  and  Egyp- 
 tian campaigns.  In  1807,  he  was  placed 
 at  the  head  of  the  army  which  occupied 
 Portugal;  but,  being  defeated  at  Vimeira 
 bv  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  he  was  compelled 
 to  capitulate.  He  subsequently  served  in 
 Spain  ami  in  Russia;  and  was  governor 
 of  the  lllyrian  provinces;  and  died  in  1813. 
 
 JUR1EU,  Peter,  a  French  protestant 
 divine  and  theologian,  was  born,  in  1637, 
 at  Mer,  near  Blois;  was  partly  educated 
 in  England;  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
 Sedan,  and,  subsecpiently,  of  divinity  at 
 Rotterdam;  and  died  at  the  latter  place, 
 in  1713.  Of  his  works,  the  principal  are, 
 The  History  of  Calvinism  and  Popery; 
 History    of   the  Opinions   and    Religious 
 
KJEM 
 
 Ceremonies  of  the  Jews;  A  Treatise  on 
 the  Unity  of  the  Church;  and  Sermons. 
 Jurieii  was  a  visionary,  and  dabhled,  with 
 wofully  bad  success,  in  prophecy. 
 
 JUSSIEU,  Bernard  de,  an  eminent 
 botanist,  was  born,  in  16.99,  at  Lyons,  and 
 died  in  1777,  botanical  demonstrator  at 
 the  king's  garden.  In  1758  he  was  em- 
 ployed to  arrange  the  plants  in  the  royal 
 garden  of  Trianon,  and  the  arrangement 
 which  he  adopted  forms  the  basis  of  what 
 is  called  The  Natural  System  of  Plants, 
 which  was  first  brought  forward  by  his 
 nephew  Anthony  Laurence,  and  has  been 
 perfected  by  Ventenat,  Brown,  Mirbel, 
 Richard,  and  De  Candolle. — His  brother, 
 Anthony,  was  also  a  celebrated  botanist. 
 JUSTIN,  M.  Junianus,  a  Latin  histo- 
 rian, is  believed  to  have  flourished  under 
 Antoninus  Pius,  in  the  second  century. 
 His  history  is  only  an  epitome  of  a  larger 
 work,  written  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  by 
 Trogus  Pompeius. 
 
 JUSTIN,  surnamed  the  Martyr,  one 
 of  the  fathers  of  the  church,  was  born  at 
 Neapolis,  anciently  Sichem,  in  Palestine; 
 and  was  a  philosopher  of  the  Platonic 
 school.  He  is  believed  to  have  preached 
 the  gospel  in  Italy,  Asia  Minor,  and  Egypt. 
 He  was  beheaded  at  Rome,  in  165.  Of 
 his  works  the  principal  are,  Two  Apologies 
 for  the  Christians. 
 
 JUSTINIAN  I.,  emperor  of  the  East, 
 was  born,  in  483,  of  an  obscure  family,  at 
 Tauresium,  in  Dardania,  on  the  Illyrian 
 and  Thracian  frontier;  was  associated  in 
 the  government  of  the  empire  by  his  uncle 
 Justin ;  and,  on  the  death  of  that  monarch, 
 succeeded  to  the  sole  authority.  Person- 
 ally, Justinian  was  a  bigot,  and  a  man  of 
 a  weak  mind;  yet,  in  some  points  of  view, 
 his  reign  was  a  glorious  one.  He  died  in 
 565. 
 
 KAL 
 
 343 
 
 JUVENAL,  Decius  Junius,  the  most 
 vehement  of  satirists,   is  believed  to  hare 
 
 been  born  about  the  commencement  of  the 
 reign  of  Claudius.  He  studied  under 
 Fronto  and  Quintilian;  and  acquired  repu- 
 tation and  fortune  at  the  bar.  His  satire 
 on  the  actor  Paris,  who  was  the  favourite 
 of  Domitian,  is  said  to  have  been  the  cause 
 of  Juvenal  being  sent,  nominally  as  com- 
 mander of  a  cohort,  but  really  as  an  exile, 
 to  Pentapolis,  on  the  Egyptian  frontier. 
 He  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  died, 
 about  128,  at  Rome;  while  others  assert 
 him  to  have  died  of  grief  in  banishment. 
 His  satires  have  been  spiritedly  translated 
 by  Dryden,  Gifford,  Hodgson,  and  Bad- 
 ham. 
 
 JUXON,  William,  a  learned  prelate, 
 was  born,  in  1582,  at  Chichester;  was 
 educated  at  Merchant  Tailors'  School,  and 
 St.  John's  College,  Oxford;  was  warmly 
 patronised  by  Laud,  and,  through  his  in- 
 fluence, rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Hereford  in 
 1633,  and  of  London  in  the  same  year. 
 He  attended  Charles  I.  in  the  Isle  of 
 Wight,  and  on  the  scaffold;  was  elevated 
 to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury,  at  the 
 Restoration;   and  died  in  1663. 
 
 K 
 
 KAAB,  a  celebrated  Arabian  poet,  au- 
 thor of  one  of  the  seven  poems  which  were 
 suspended  in  the  temple  of  Mecca,  was 
 originally  a  strenuous  opponent  of  Mahom- 
 et, whose  doctrines  and  person  he  satirised. 
 He,  however,  recanted,  by  writing  a  poem 
 in  honour  of  the  prophet.  As  a  reward,  the 
 prophet  gave  him  his  green  mantle,  which 
 one  of  the  descendants  of  Kaab  sold  for  ten 
 thousand  pieces  of  silver.    He  died  in  662. 
 
 KJEMPFER,  Englebert,  a  celebra- 
 ted physician,  naturalist,  and  traveller,  was 
 born,  in  1651,  at  Lemgow,  in  Westphalia; 
 studied  at  Dantzic,  Thorn,  Cracow,  and 
 Upsal;  accompanied  the  Swedish  embassy 
 to  Persia,  whence  he  proceeded  to  Java, 
 and  thence  to  Japan ;  returned  to  his  native 
 
 country,  and  entered  upon  the  medical  prac- 
 tice; and  died  in  1716.  Besides  his  His- 
 tory of  Japan,  he  published  Amcenitates 
 Exotica?  ;   and  other  valuable  works. 
 
 KAESTNER,  Abraham  Gotthelf, 
 an  eminent  mathematician  and  astronomer, 
 was  born,  in  1719,  at  Leipsic,  and  died,  in 
 1799,  professor  of  mathematics  at  Gottin- 
 gen ;  an  office  which  he  held  with  high  rep- 
 utation for  more  than  forty  years.  He  was 
 a  man  of  wit  and  satire,  and  a  poet,  as 
 well  as  a  votary  of  science.  His  works 
 are  more  than  two  hundred  in  number.  One 
 of  the  most  important  of  them  is  a  History 
 of  Mathematics. 
 
 KALKBRENNER,  Christian,  rraa 
 born,  in  1755,  at  Munden,  in  Prussia,  wag 
 
344 
 
 KAR 
 
 KEI 
 
 a  pupil  of  Emanuel  Bach;  and,  after  bav-lthe  imperial  guards;  and,  after  his  return 
 ingbeen  in  the  service  of  Prince  Henry  of  jfrom  travelling,  devoted  himself  to  litera- 
 Prussia,  he  settled  at  Paris,  where  he  died  ture.  He  died,  at  Moscow,  June  3,  1826. 
 in  1806.  He  composed  several  operas,  He  is  the  author  of  a  History  of  Russia,  in 
 among  which  are  the  Widow  of  Malabar,  eleven  volumes;  Letters  of  a  Russian  Trav- 
 Olympia,  Don  Juan,  and  CEnone;  and  eller;  Tales;  and  various  other  works. 
 wrote  two  musical  treatises,  on  Accompa- 
 niments, Fugues,  and  Counterpoint;  and 
 part  of  a  History  of  Music. 
 
 RALM,  I'kter,  a  Swedish  natural  phi- 
 losopher and  traveller,  was  born,  in  1715, 
 in  Ostro  Bothnia;  travelled  from  1748  to 
 1751  in  North  America,  and,  at  a  later  pe- 
 riod, in  Ru.-sia;  became  professor  of  bota- 
 ny at  the  university  of  Abo;  and  died  in 
 1779.  Besides  his  American  travels,  which 
 have  been  translated  into  English,  he  wrote 
 more  than  eighty  Dissertations  on  subjects 
 connected  with  the  commerce,  agriculture, 
 and  manufactures  of  Sweden. 
 
 KAMES,  Henry  HOME, lord, a  Scotch 
 ju.lire,  and  fertile  writer,  was  born,  in  1696, 
 at  Karnes,  in  Berwickshire;  and,  after 
 having  been  successful  at  the  bar,  was  ap- 
 pointed, in  1752,  a  judge  of  session,  on 
 which  occasion  he  took  the  title  by  which 
 he  is  generally  known.  In  1763  he  was 
 raised  to  be  one  of  the  lords  of  justiciary. 
 He  died  in  1782.     Many  of  his  works  are 
 
 on  Scotch  law.  Of  those  which  are  wholly 
 literary  the  principal  are,  Elements  of 
 Criticism;  Sketches  of  the  History  of 
 Man ;  Essays  on  the  Principles  of  Morality 
 and  Natural  Religion;  and  Essays  upon 
 several  Subjects  connected  with  British  An- 
 tiquities. 
 
 KANT,  Immanuel,  a  celebrated  meta- 
 physician, and  founder  of  a  new  sect,  was 
 b>rn,  in  1724,  at  Kcenigsberg,  in  Prussia, 
 and  was  the  son  of  a  saddler.  He  was  edu- 
 cated at  the  Frederician  College,  on  leav- 
 ing which  he  became  a  private  tutor.  At 
 a  later  period  he  gave  lectures  on  mathemat- 
 ics. He  commenced  as  an  author  in  his 
 twenty-third  year;  but  it  was  not  till  1781 
 that  lie  began  to  publish  the  works  which 
 have  excited  so  much  admiration  and  con- 
 troversy, especially  in  Germany.  In  that 
 year  he  published  his  Critique  of  pure  Rea- 
 son, which  contains  his  system  of  philoso- 
 phy, commonly  called  the  Critical  Philos- 
 ophy. A  second  part  of  it,  published  in 
 1783,  bore  the  title  of  Prolegomena  for  fu- 
 ture Metaphysics  The  principles  contain- 
 ed in  thrni  he  hail,  however,  long  been  pro- 
 mulgating from  the  chair  of  logic  and 
 metaphysics  at  Ka>nigsber!_r,  to  which  he 
 was  appointed  in  1770.  In  1786  and  1788, 
 he  was  chosen  rector  of  the  university.  He 
 died  in  1S04,  having  for  some  years  been 
 in  a  state  of  gradual  decay. 
 
 KARAMSIN,  Nicholas  Michaelo- 
 vitsch,  a  Russian  historian  and  miscella- 
 neous writer,  historiographer  of  the  Russian 
 empire,  was  born,  in  1765,  in  the  govern- 
 ment of  Simbirsk;    served   for  a  while  in 
 
 KAUFFMAN,  Maria  Anna  Angel- 
 ica Catherine,  an  eminent  artist,  was 
 born,  in  1741,  at  Coire,  in  the  Orisons; 
 was  instructed  by  her  father ;  and  was  no 
 mean  portrait  painter  at  eleven  years  of  age. 
 In  1766  she  came  to  England,  and  resided 
 here  for  seventeen  years.  In  1781  she 
 married  Zucchi,  a  Venetian  painter.  She 
 died  at  Rome,  in  1807.  Angelica  particu- 
 larly excelled  in  poetical  subjects;  her 
 drawing  was  good,  and  her  colouring  at- 
 tractive. Too  much  sameness  in  the  forms 
 of  her  figures  was  her  defect.  She  etched 
 with  great  spirit;  and  she  was  also  a  per- 
 fect mistress  of  music,  which  she  is  said  to 
 have  been  at  one  time  inclined  to  adopt  as 
 her  profession. 
 
 KEATS,  John,  a  poet,  was  born,  in 
 Moorfields,  in  1796;  was  apprenticed  to  a 
 surgeon,  but  devoted  himself  to  literature; 
 and  died,  of  consumption,  at  Rome,  De- 
 cember 27,  1820.  He  published  a  volume 
 of  poems;  Endymion,  a  poetic  romance; 
 and  Lamia,  Isabella,  and  other  poems. 
 There  is  much  negligence  and  bad  taste  in 
 his  poetry;  but  there  is  also  much  that  is 
 of  a  redeeming  quality;  much  that  indi- 
 cates a  genius  which  required  only  time 
 and  study  to  ripen  it  into  excellence. 
 
 KEILL,  John,  an  able  mathematician 
 and  natural  philosopher,  was  born,  in  1671, 
 at  Edinburgh;  and  studied  at  Edinburgh, 
 and  Baliol  College,  Oxford,  under  David 
 Gregory.  At  the  latter  university  he  ac- 
 quired a  great  reputation  by  his  lectures  on 
 Newton's  Principia,  and  on  natural  philo- 
 sophy. He  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
 Society,  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy, 
 and  decipherer  to  the  queen,  and  took  his 
 degree  as  doctor  in  physic,   lie  died  in  1721. 
 
 KEITH,  James,  an  eminent  general, 
 son  of  the  earl  marshal  of  Scotland,  was 
 born  in  1696;  was  expatriated  in  conse- 
 quence of  his  having  engaged  in  the  rebell- 
 ion of  1715.     Entering  the  Russian  service, 
 
KEL 
 
 he  distinguished  himself  greatly  against  the 
 Turks  and  Swedes;  rose  to  be  field  mar- 
 shal; and  contributed  to  the  revolution 
 which  raised  Elizabeth  to  the  throne.  He 
 next  offered  his  sword  to  Frederic  of  Prus- 
 sia, who  appointed  him  a  field  marshal  and 
 governor  of  Berlin,  and  reposed  unbounded 
 confidence  in  him.  Keith  bore  a  conspic- 
 uous part  in  the  battles  of  Koln,  Kosbach, 
 and  Leuthen,  and  the  siege  of  Ohnutz ;  and 
 was  killed  at  Hoclikirchen,  in  175S. — His 
 elder  brother,  George,  was  also  eminent 
 as  a  warrior  and  statesman,  and  died,  in 
 1778,  in  the  Prussian  service. 
 
 KEITH,  Viscount,  George  Keith  EL- 
 PHINSTONE,  son  of  Lord  Elphinstone, 
 was  born  in  1747;  entered  the  naval  ser- 
 vice at  an  early  period;  distinguished 
 himself,  as  captain,  in  the  American  war, 
 at  the  attack  of  Mud  Island  and  Charles- 
 town,  and  by  the  capture  of  L'Aigle 
 frigate;  served  at  Toulon,  in  1793;  assisted 
 in  reducing  the  Cape  of  Hope,  in  1795,  and 
 captured  a  squadron  which  was  sent  to  its 
 relief,  for  which  he  was  created  a  baron ; 
 commanded  subsequently  the  lleets  in  the 
 Mediterranean,  the  Downs,  and  the  Chan- 
 nel ;  was  created  an  English  Viscount  in 
 1814;    and  died  in  1823. 
 
 KELLERMAN,  Francis  Christo- 
 pher, duke  of  Valmy,  a  French  marshal, 
 was  born,  in  1735,  at  Strasburgh;  entered 
 the  army  as  a  hussar  when  he  was  only 
 seventeen ;  was  made  an  officer  for  his  con- 
 duct in  the  seven  years'  war;  rose  to  the 
 rank  of  major  general  in  1788;  was  ap- 
 pointed commander  in  chief  of  the  army 
 of  the  Moselle  in  1792,  and  contributed 
 greatly  to  save  France  from  her  invaders 
 by  his  gallant  repulse  of  the  Prussians  at 
 Valmy ;  was,  nevertheless,  imprisoned  dur- 
 ing the  reign  of  terror ;  held,  subsequently, 
 the  command  of  the  armies  of  the  Alps  and 
 of  Italy,  and  the  posts  of  inspector  general 
 of  cavalry,  and  president  of  the  senate; 
 was  loaded  with  honours  by  Napoleon, 
 vet  voted  for  his  deposition;  and  died  in 
 1820.     • 
 
 KELLY,  Hugh,  a  dramatist  and  mis- 
 cellaneous writer,  was  born,  in  1739,  near 
 the  Lake  of  Killarney;  was  brought  up 
 as  a  staymaker;  was  afterwards  in  an 
 attorney's  office;  and  finally  restoied  to 
 literature  for  a  subsist. mce.  His  success 
 as  an  author  enabled  him  to  study  in  the 
 Temple,  and  he  was  culled  to  the  bar  in 
 1774  Hfe  died  in  1777.  He  wrote  the 
 comedies  of  False  Delicacy;  A  Word  to 
 the  Wise;  The  School  for  Wives;  The 
 Romance  of  an  Hour  ;  Clementina,  a 
 tragedy;  Thespis,  and  other  poems;  Louisa 
 Mildmay;   and  The  Babbler. 
 
 KELLY,   Michael,  a   composer  and 
 
 dinger,    was    born,    in    1762,    at  Dublin; 
 
 received  lessons  from  Rauzzini ;   and  was 
 
 afterwards  sent  to  Naples,  where  he  stud- 
 
 15* 
 
 KEM 
 
 345 
 
 ied  under  Finaroli  and  Aprili.  He  was 
 well  received  as  a  dinger  in  the  Italian 
 theatres;  was  for  Bomfe  time  in  the  service. 
 of  the  emperor  Joseph;  and  at  length 
 returned  to  London,  where  he  made  his 
 first  appearance,  in  17S7,  at  Drury  Lane 
 theatre,  in  Lionel  and  Clarissa.  A-  a 
 composer  he  set  between  Bixtj  and  seventy 
 pieces;  among  which  are,  The  Castle 
 Spectre,  and  Blue  Beard.  He  died  in 
 1826.    He  published  his  Reminiscences. 
 
 KEMBLE,  John  Philip,  one  of  the 
 most  perfect  of  modern  tragedians,  was 
 born,  in  1757,  at  Prescot,  in  Lancashire; 
 and  studied  at  the  Roman  catholic  semi- 
 nary of  Sedgeley  Park,  and  at  the  college 
 of  Douay.  He  was  destined  for  one  of 
 the  learned  professions,  but,  on  his  return 
 to  England,  he  immediately  became  an 
 actor.  After  having  undergone  a  proba- 
 tion at  various  provincial  theatres,  he  made 
 his  appearance,  on  the  30th  of  September, 
 17S3,  at  Drury  Lane,  in  the  character  of 
 Hamlet.  He  soon  rose  to  the  highest 
 histrionic  eminence,  and  retained  it  to  the 
 last.  For  some  years  he  was  manager  of 
 the  Drury  Lane  establisl  lent.  In  1802, 
 he  purchased  a  sixth  part  of  Covent  Gar- 
 den theatre,  at  which  house  also  hi 
 the  management.  His  fortune,  however, 
 was  seriously  injured  by  the  conflagration 
 of  the  house,  and  by  the  ensuing  riots.  I  n 
 1817  he  retired  from  the  stage,  and  he 
 died,  at  Lausanne,  February  26, 1823.  In 
 characters  which  require  dignity  of  action 
 and  of  person  Kemble  was  unrivalled; 
 he  was  also  a  man  of  learning,  accom- 
 plishments, and  tasie.  Early  in  his  i 
 he  produced  a  volume  of  poem-,  with  the 
 title  of  Fugitive  Pieces,  which  he  sup- 
 pressed the  day  after  it  was  published. 
 He  also  altered  several  plays,  and  wrote 
 the  musical  entertainment  of  Lodoiska. 
 
 KEMPELEN,  Wolfgang,  baron,  a 
 celebrated  mechanician,  was  born,  in  17:!!. 
 at  Presbarg,  in  Hungary;  and  died  in  1804. 
 Anion?  his  inventions  were  an  automaton 
 chess  player,  the  secret  of  which  was  i  ev<  i 
 discovered;  a  speaking  figure,  which  lie 
 himself  described  in  a  work  called  the 
 Mechanism    of    Speech;    and    a    printing 
 
346  KEP 
 
 press  for  the  use  of  the  blind.  He  was 
 also  an  author,  and  wrote  Perseus  and 
 Andromeda,  a  drama;  The  Unknown 
 Benefactor,  a  comedy;  and  Borne  poems. 
 Kempelen  held  various'  important  posts 
 in  the  imperial  court. 
 
 KEMPIS,  Thomas  a,  whose  real  name 
 was  Hammerlein,  was  born,  in  1380,  at 
 Kempen,  in  the  diocese  of  Cologn,  and 
 died,  in  1471,  sub-prior  of  the  monastery 
 of  Mount  Agnes,  at  Zwoll.  Much  of  his 
 time  was  spent  in  transcribing  the  Bible, 
 and  other  works,  which  he  performed  in 
 a  very  beautiful  manner.  The  treatise  on 
 tlie  Imitation  of  Christ  was  found  in  one 
 of  his  manuscripts,  and  was  therefore 
 attributed  to  him;  but  there  seems  to  be 
 little  doubt  that  it  was  written  by  Gerson 
 KEN,  Thomas,  a  prelate,  was  bom,  in 
 L637,  at  Berkhamstead ;  was  educated  at 
 Winchester,  and  at  New  College,  Oxford; 
 was  made  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  by 
 Charles  II.  ;  was  one  of  the  seven  bishops 
 who  were  tried  for  petitioning  James  II.; 
 declined  taking  the  oaths  to  William  III., 
 for  which  he  was  deprived  of  his  see; 
 was  pensioned  by  Queen  Anne;  and  died 
 in  1711.  His  Sermons,  Poems,  and  other 
 works,  were  published  in  four  volumes 
 Svo.  Ken  was  a  truly  honest  man,  im- 
 movable in  what  he  deemed  to  be  right, 
 but  of  a  pacific  temper,  and  generally  be- 
 loved. 
 
 KENRICK,  William,  a  miscellaneous 
 writer,  was  a  native  of  Hertfordshire,  born 
 at  Watford,  and  was  brought  up  a  rule 
 muker,  but  quitted  his  trade,  obtained  a 
 doctor's  degree  at  Leyden,  and  became  a 
 multifarious  and  not  contemptible  author. 
 He  died  in  1779.  Kenrick  had  talent,  but 
 was  acrimonius,  vindictive,  and  sorae- 
 .vhat  charlatanic.  He  established  The 
 London  Review ;  compiled  a  Dictionary 
 of  the  English  Language;  and  wrote  va- 
 rious works,  among  which  are  the  come- 
 dies of  Faistaff's  Wedding,  The  Widowed 
 Wife,  and  the  Duellist;  Epistles,  Philo- 
 sophical and  Moral;  and  several  occasion- 
 id  poems. 
 
 KEPLER,  John,  an  eminent  astrono- 
 mer and  mathematician,  was  born,  in  1571, 
 at  Wiel,  in  Wirtemberg,  and  was  a  math- 
 ematical pupil  of  Mastlins.  The  pulpit, 
 after  having  acquired  some  reputation  in 
 it,  he  relinquished  to  fill  the  chair  of 
 mathematics,   at    Gratz,  in    Styria.      In 
 
 KIL 
 
 bodies.  Among  his  works  are,  Cosmo 
 graphical  Mystery  ;  New  Astronomy  ; 
 Copernican  Astronomy;  and  Harmony  of 
 the  World. 
 
 KEPPEL,  Augustus,  viscount,  a  Brit- 
 ish admiral,  the  second  son  of  the  earl  of 
 Albemarle,  was  born  in  1725;  sailed  with 
 Anson  round  the  globe;  and  received  the 
 command  of  the  Channel  fleet  in  1778. 
 The  action  which  he  fought  oft"  Ushant,and 
 which  was  rendered  undecisive  by  the 
 conduct  of  one  of  his  officers,  excited  great 
 national  dissatisfaction.  He  was  tried, 
 and  honourably  acquitted,  and  his  accuser 
 was  disgraced.  Keppel  was  twice  ap- 
 pointed first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  He 
 died  in  1786.  Burke  calls  him  "  one  of 
 the  greatest  and  best  men  of  his  age." 
 
 KERGUELEN  TREMAREC,  Yves 
 Joseph  de,  a  French  navigator,  was 
 born,  in  1745,  at  Brest.  In  1771  he  was 
 sent  on  an  exploratory  voyage  to  the  South 
 Sea,  where  he  discovered  the  land  which 
 now  bears  his  name.  He  sailed  on  a 
 similar  expedition  in  1772.  After  his  re- 
 turn, he  was  cashiered  and  imprisoned, 
 on  a  charge  of  having  abandoned  a  boat's 
 crew  on  a  desert  shore ;  but  he  was  at 
 length  liberated.  He  died  in  1797.  He 
 wrote  a  Relation  of  a  Voyage  to  the 
 North  Sea;  a  Relation  of  two  Voyages  to 
 the  South  Seas;  and  a  Relation  of  the 
 Maritime  Campaign  of  1778. 
 
 KERR,  Robert,  a  surgeon  at  Edin- 
 burgh, and  a  member  of  the  Royal  and 
 Antiquarian  Societies  of  that  city,  is  the 
 author  of  A  History  of  Scotland  during 
 the  reign  of  Robert  Bruce;  The  Memoirs 
 of  William  Smellie;  and  The  Berwick- 
 shire Agricultural  Report;  edited  a  Gene- 
 ral Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels,  in 
 eighteen  volumes;  and  translated  Lavoi- 
 sier's Elements  of  Chemistry;  Lacepede's 
 History  of  Quadrupeds  and  Serpents  ; 
 Berthollet's  Essay  on  Bleaching;  Cuvier's 
 Theory  of  the  Earth;  and  Linmeus's  Zoo- 
 logy.    He  died  in  1814. 
 
 KETT,  Henry,  a  divine  and  scholar, 
 was  born,  in  1761,  at  Norwich;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Trinity  College,  Oxford;  became 
 perpetual  curate  of  Hykeham,  in  Lincoln- 
 shire; and  was  drowned,  in  1825,  while 
 bathing.  He  wrote  Juvenile  Poems;  His- 
 tory  the  Interpreter  of  Prophecy;  A  Tour 
 to  the  Lakes;  Emily,  a  moral  tale;  and 
 Logic  n>ade  easy ;    edited   The  Flowers  of 
 
 1600   he    was  invited  by  Tycho  Brahe  to  (Wit,  and  Headley'fl   Beauties;    and  con- 
 
 join  him  in  Bohemia;  and  when  Tycho 
 died,  the  emperor  retained  Kepler,  to 
 complete  the  Kodolphine  Tables.  He 
 died,  in  1630,  at  Katubon.  Kepler  ranks 
 among  the  first  ckus  of  astronomers,  and 
 has  justly  been  termed  the  precursor  of 
 Newton.  It  was  he  who  disco\ered  the 
 ellipticity  of  the  planets,  and  also  the  laws 
 which    regulate    the    movements    of   those 
 
 tributed  to  the  Olla  Podrida. 
 
 KILLIGREW,  Thomas,  a  wit  and 
 dramaist,  was  bom  at  Efanworth,  in  1611; 
 was  page  to  Charles  L,  and  groom  of  the 
 bedchamber  to  Charles  II.;  and  died  in 
 1682,  With  the  second  Charles,  whom  he 
 had  attended  in  exile,  he  was  so  great  a 
 favourite  for  his  facetiousness,  that  he  has 
 acquired  the  not  very  dignified  appellation 
 
KIN 
 
 of  that  monarch's  jester.  He  wrote  nine 
 plays. — His  brothers,WiLLiAM  and  Hen- 
 ry, were  both  dramatic  writers. 
 
 KIM  CHI,  David, a  learned  rabbi,  was 
 born,  at  Narbonne,  about  the  end  of  the 
 twelfth  century;  and  died,  in  Provence,  in 
 1240.  His  contemporaries  regarded  him 
 with  almost  superstitious  reverence.  He 
 is  the  author  of  a  Hebrew  Grammar;  a 
 Treatise  on  Hebrew  Roots ;  Dictionurium 
 Talmudicum ;  and  Commentaries  on  the 
 Psalms  and  several  other  books  of  the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 KING,  William, a  poet  and  miscella- 
 neous writer,  was  born,  in  1663,  in  Lon- 
 don; was  educated  at  Westminster,  and  at 
 Christ  Church,  Oxford;  was  admitted  an 
 advocate  at  Doctors'  Commons;  obtained 
 various  preferments  in  Ireland,  among 
 which  was  the  office  of  judge  of  the  ad- 
 miralty, but  lost  the  benefits  of  them 
 through  indolence ;  was  subsequently  gazet- 
 teer in  England;  and  died  in  1712.  His 
 Original  Works,  in  Prose  and  Verse,  form 
 three  volumes,  and  are  seasoned  with  much 
 pleasantry  and  wit. 
 
 KING,  Rufus,  an  eminent  American 
 statesman,  was  born  in  Scarborough,  in 
 the  state  of  Maine,  in  the  year  1755.  He 
 was  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
 1777,  immediately  entered  as  a  student  at 
 law  in  the  office  of  the  celebrated  Theophi- 
 lus  Parsons,  at  Newburyport,  and  was  ad- 
 mitted to  the  bar  in  1780.  In  1784  he 
 was  chosen  to  represent  Newburyport  in 
 the  state  legislature,  and  in  the  same  year 
 was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  old  congress. 
 In  1787  he  was  appointed  a  delegate  to  the 
 general  convention  assembled  at  Philadel- 
 phia, and  in  1788  removed  from  Massachu- 
 setts to  the  city  of  New  York.  In  1796 
 he  was  appointed  minister  plenipotentiary 
 to  the  Court  of  Great  Britain,  and  re- 
 mained there  for  seven  years  with  equal 
 honour  to  his  country  and  himself.  In 
 1813,  he  was  chosen  by  the  legislature  of 
 New  York  a  senator  of  the  United  States, 
 and  being  re-elected  in  1820  he  continued 
 till  the  expiration  of  the  term  in  1825. 
 Upon  his  retirement  from  the  senate,  he 
 accepted  from  president  Adams  an  invita- 
 tion again  to  represent  the  United  States 
 at  the  Court  of  Great  Britain.  During 
 the  voyage  to  England  his  health  was  se-" 
 riously  impaired,  and  his  illness  induced 
 him  to  return  in  about  a  twelve  month  to 
 his  native  land.     He  died  in  April,  1827. 
 
 KING,  William,  a  miscellaneous  wri- 
 .-er,  was  born,  in  1685,  at  Stepney;  was 
 educated  at  Baliol  College,  Oxford;  be- 
 came principal  of  St.  Mary  Hall,  and 
 oublic  orator;  and  died  in  1763.  King 
 edited  South's  posthumous  Sermons ;  and 
 wi»te  various  Latin  tracts,  mostly  on  tem- 
 porary subjects;  but  the  work  by  which  he 
 will  be  remembered  is,  Political  and  Lite- 
 
 KIR 
 
 347 
 
 rary  Anecdotes  of  his  own  times.  He  was 
 a  high  tory,  and  corresponded  with  the 
 expatriated  Stuart  family. 
 
 KIPPIS,  Anuukw,  a  dissenting  di- 
 vine, biographer,  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
 the  son  of  a  silk  mercer,  was  born,  in 
 1725,  at  Nottingham;  was  educated  by 
 Dr.  Doddridge;  and,  after  having  been 
 minister  at  Boston  and  at  Dorking,  was 
 appointed,  in  1753,  pastor  to  a  congrega- 
 tion in  Princes  Street,  Westminster.  In 
 1763  he  was  chosen  classical  and  philolog- 
 ical tutor  to  the  academy  founded  by  Mr. 
 Coward;  and  this  office  he  held  for  more 
 than  a  quarter  of  a  century.  He  was  sub- 
 sequently connected  with  the  Hackney  in- 
 stitution. Dr.  Kippis  was  a  member  of 
 the  Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies.  He 
 died  in  1795.  Kippis  contributed  to  the 
 Monthly  Review,  and  other  periodicals; 
 projected  and  wrote  in  the  New  Annual 
 Register;  and  produced,  besides  various 
 occasional  pamphlets,  Lives  of  Cook, 
 Pringle,  Doddridge,  and  Lardner;  but  his 
 great  work  was  the  new  edition  of  the 
 Biographia  Britannica,  of  which  only  five 
 volumes  were  published. 
 
 KIRKPATRICK,  William,  was  born, 
 in  1753,  and  went  early  to  India,  where 
 he  spent  the  greatest  part  of  his  life,  held 
 high  and  confidential  situations,  and  rose 
 to  the  rank  of  major  general.  He  died  ira 
 1812.  He  gave  to  the  press,  Biography 
 of  Persian  Poets,  translated  from  Dowlut 
 Shah;  A  Description  of  Nepaul;  and  a 
 Selection  of  the  Letters  of  Tippoo  Sail). 
 By  his  exertions  an  institution  was  estab- 
 lished in  Bengal,  to  provide  for  the  orphan 
 half-cast  children  of  officers  and  soldiers. 
 
 KIRWAN,  RiCHAKD,a  celebrated  ge- 
 ologist, mineralogist,  and  chemist,  was 
 born  in  the  county  of  Galway,  in  Ireland, 
 about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  centu- 
 ry. St.  Oiners  is  stated  by  some,  and 
 Dublin  by  others,  to  have  been  the  place 
 where  he  was  educated.  He  acquired  a 
 high  scientific  reputation,  and  became  a 
 fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  of  many 
 other  learned  bodies,  and  president  of  the 
 Royal  Irish  Academy.  He  died  in  1812. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Elements  of  Mine- 
 ralogy ;  Geological  Essays ;  Essay  on  the 
 Analysis  of  Mineral  Waters ;  Logic;  and 
 Metaphysical  Essays. 
 
 KIRWAN,  Walter  Blake, an  Irish 
 divine,  born  about  1754,  at  Galway;  was 
 educated  at  St.  Omer's  and  Louvain  ;  took 
 orders  as  a  catholic  priest;  and,  in  1TZ8, 
 was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  Neapolitan 
 ambassador.  In  1787  he  conformed  to  the 
 established  church,  and,  after  having  held 
 the  living  of  St.  Nicholas,  in  Dublin,  was 
 promoted  to  the  deanery  of  Killala.  He 
 died  in  1805.  As  a  pulpit  orator,  Kirwan 
 had  no  rival  among  his  contemporaries; 
 and  his   powers  were  often   exerted  with 
 
348 
 
 KLE 
 
 astonishing  success  in  favour  of  charitable 
 
 KNO 
 KLOPSTOCK,  Frederic  Theophi- 
 
 institutions.      A   volume    of  his    Sermons  LUS,   one   of  the  most  eminent  poets   of 
 
 was  published  after  his  decease. 
 
 Germany,  was  born,  in  1724,  at  Quedlin- 
 
 KITCHENER,  William,  a  physician,  burg,  and  was  educated  at  the  college  of 
 but  more  celebrated  as  a  gastronomist  and  that  place,  at  Jena,  and  at  Leipsic.  The 
 author,  was  horn,  between  1770  and  1780,  first  three  cantos  of  his  Messiah  were  pub- 
 in  Beaufort  Buildings,  and  was  the  son  of  lished,  in  1748,  in  a  Bremen  periodical 
 a  coalmerchant,  who  left   him   a  large  for- [work;  in  1751  the  first  five  appeared,  and, 
 
 tune.  His  education  he  received  at  Eton 
 He  died  February  26,  8127.  Kitchener 
 was  not  a  little  eccentric,  but  was  amiable 
 and  kind-hearted.  Of  his  works  The 
 Cook's  Oracle  is  the  most  popular.  Among 
 his  other  productions  are,  The  Art  of  In- 
 vigorating and  Prolonging  Life ;  The  Tra- 
 veller's Oracle;  The  Theory  of  the  Eyes; 
 Observations  on  Vocal  Music;  and  The 
 Loyal  and  National  Songs  of  England. 
 
 KLAPROTH,  Martin  Henry,  an 
 eminent  chemist  and  mineralogist,  was 
 born,  in  1743,  at  Berlin;  was  chemical 
 professor  at  that  place,  and  member  of 
 many  learned  bodies;  and  died  in  1817. 
 He  excelled  in  analysis.  Among  his  dis- 
 coveries are,  uranium,  zircon,  and  the  mel- 
 litic  acid.  He  wrote  A  Mineralogical 
 System;  Chemical  Essays;  and,  in  con- 
 junction with  Wolf,  A  Dictionary  of  Che- 
 inistrv. 
 
 KLEBER,  John  Baptist,  one  of  the 
 most   celebrated  of  the   French  generals, 
 
 in  1755,  the  first  ten  ;  the  concluding  ten 
 did  not  appear  till  1769.  In  1750  the  king 
 of  Denmark  invited  him  to  Copenhagen, 
 and  gave  him  a  pension.  Klopstock  con- 
 tinued to  reside  in  the  Danish  capital  till 
 1771,  when  he  removed  to  Hamburgh,  to 
 fili  the  ofiices  of  Danish  legate,  and  coun- 
 sellor from  the  court  of  Baden.  He  died 
 March  14,  1803.  The  Messiah  is  a  work 
 of  great  sublimity  and  beauty;  but  Klop- 
 stock has  certainly  failed  to  accomplish 
 that  which  some  of  his  countrymen  san- 
 guinely  hoped  from  him;  namely,  to  eclipse 
 the  Paradise  Lost.  His  Odes  glow  with 
 poetic  fire,  and  his  Tragedies,  though  not 
 calculated  for  the  stage,  are  worthy  of  their 
 author. — His  first  wife,  Margaret, 
 whom  he  married  in  1754,  and  who  died 
 in  175S,  was  a  woman  of  genius.  Among 
 her  works  are,  Letters  from  the  Dead  to 
 the  Living;  and  The  Death  of  Abel,  a 
 tragedy. 
 
 KNELLER,  Sir  Godfrey,  a  painter, 
 
 was  born,  in  1754,  at  Strasburgli,  and  was 'born  about  1648,  at  Lubeck,  was  intended 
 intended  for  an  architect,  but  preferred  the  [  for  the  military  profession,  but  his  inelina- 
 militurv  profession,  and  served  seven  years 
 as  a  second  lieutenant  in  an  Austrian  regi- 
 ment; at  the  expiration  of  which  period 
 he  returned  to  his  country,  and  became 
 kispector  of  public  buildings  at  Befort. 
 When  the  French  revolutionary  war  broke 
 out,  he  entered  as  a  grenadier  into  a  volun- 
 teer regiment  of  his  native  department, 
 and  rose  rapidly  to  command.  He  sig- 
 nalized himself  at  the  siege  of  Meats,  in 
 Vendee,  at  Fleams,  and  in  the  campaigns 
 of  17.95  and  1796  on  the  Rhine.  In  1798 
 Bonapartetook  him  to  Egypt  as  one  of  his 
 generals  of  division.  Kleher  amply  sus- 
 i. lined  his  former  fame,  and  was  left  at  the 
 bead  of  the  French  army  when  Bonaparte 
 sailed  for  France.  He  defeated  the  Otto- 
 man forces  at  the  battle  of  Heliopolis,  re- 
 covered Cairo,  and  was  taking  measures 
 to  perpetuate  French  dominion  on  the 
 banks  of  the  Nile,  when  he  was  assassi- 
 nated by  a  Turk,  June  14,  1800. 
 
 KLElST,  Christian  EwALD  VOK, 
 a  German  poet,  was  born,  in  1715.  at  Zoeb- 
 lin,  in  Pomerania;  rose  to  the  rank  of 
 major  in  the  Prussian  service;  and  was 
 mortally  wounded,  in  175*),  at  the  battle 
 of  Kunuersdorf,  where  he  displayed  almost 
 romantic  bravery.  Among  bis  works  are, 
 Spring,  a  poem;  Odes;  Songs;  Idylls; 
 Epistles;  and  Cissides,  a  metrical  romance. 
 His  Spring  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
 poems  of  the  descriptive  class 
 
 tion  leading  him  to  painting,  he  was 
 allowed  to  study  it  under  Bol  and  Rem- 
 brandt. After  having  visited  Italy,  he 
 came,  in  1674,  to  England,  where  he  soon 
 acquired  popularity  and  a  large  fortune. 
 He  died  in  1723. 
 
 KNIGHT,  Richard  Payne,  a  man 
 of  fortune,  talent,  and  taste,  was  born  in 
 1748;  represented  Ludlow  in  parliament 
 during  several  sessions;  and  died  in  1824. 
 He  left  his  Collection  of  bronzes,  medals, 
 pictures,  and  drawings,  worth  £.50 ,000, 
 to  the  British  Museum.  Among  his  works 
 are,  An  Account  of  the  Remains  of  dte 
 Worship  of  Priapus;  Analytical  Essay  on 
 the  Greek  Alphabet;  Analytical  Inquiry 
 into  the  Principles  of  Taste;  The  Land- 
 scape, a  didactic  poem;  and  The  Progress 
 of  Civil  Society,  a  poem;  the  last  of  which 
 was  ridiculed  in  the  Anti-Jacobin. 
 
 KNOX,  Henry, an  American  general, 
 was  born  in  Boston  in  1750,  and,  after 
 receiving  a  common  school  education,  com- 
 menced business  as  a  bookseller  in  his  na- 
 tive town.  He  took  an  early  part  in  the 
 affairs  of  the  revolution,  and  was  present 
 as  a  volunteer  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  hill. 
 For  his  services  in  procuring  some  pieces 
 of  ordnance  from  the  Canadian  frontiers, 
 he  was  entrusted  by  Congress  with  the 
 command  of  the  artillery  department,  with 
 the  rank  of  brigadier  general.  He  was 
 present    and    displayed    great    skill    and 
 
KNO 
 
 courage  at  the  battles  of  Trenton,  Prince- 
 ton, German  town,  and  Monmouth,  and 
 contributed  greatly  to  the  capture  of  Corn- 
 wallis.  Immediately  after  this  event  he 
 received  from  Congress  the  commission  of 
 major-general.  In  1785  lie  succeeded 
 general  Lincoln  in  the  office  of  secretary 
 of  war,  and  having  filled  this  department 
 for  eleven  years,  he  obtained  a  reluctant 
 permission  to  retire  into  private  life.  In 
 1798,  when  our  relations  with  France  were 
 assuming  a  cloudy  aspect,  he  was  called 
 upon  to  rake  a  command  in  the  army,  but 
 the  peaceful  arrangement  of  affairs  soon 
 permitted  him  to  return  into  his  retire- 
 ment. He  died  at  Thomaston,  Maine,  in 
 1806.  In  private  life  he  was  amiable,  in 
 his  public  character  persevering  and  of 
 unsurpassed  courage. 
 
 KNOX,  John,  the  great  champion  of 
 the  Scottish  reformation,  was  born,  in 
 1505,  at  Gifford,  in  Cast  Lothian,  and 
 was  educated  at  Haddington  and  St.  An- 
 drew's. He  was  converted  from  the  Romish 
 faith  by  Wishart,  and  became  a  zealous 
 preacher  of  the  new  doctrines.  Having 
 been  compelled  to  take  shelter  in  the  castle 
 ot  St.  Andrew's,  he  fell  into  the  hands  of 
 the  French  in  July,  1547,  and  was  carried 
 with  the  garrison  to  France,  where  he  re- 
 mained a  captive  on  board  of  the  galleys 
 'i.i  l-"-i9.  Subsequent  to  his  liberation  he 
 was  for  a  sao't  time  chaplain  to  Edward 
 VI.,  after  whici.  ne  visited  Geneva  and 
 Frankfort,  and,  in  1555,  returned  to  his 
 native  country.  After  having  for  twelve 
 months  laboured  actively  and  successfully 
 to  strengthen  the  protectant  cause  in  Scot- 
 land, he  revisited  Geneva,  where  he  re- 
 mained till  1559.  During  his  residence  in 
 Geneva  he  published  his  First  Blast  of  the 
 1 -limpet  againa:  the  monstrous  Regiment 
 of  Women;  a  treatise  which  was  levelled 
 against  Mary  of  England,  but  which  gave 
 serious offc.ee  to  Elizabeth.  From  \>):il, 
 1559,  when  he  once  more  and  finally  set 
 foot  on  Scottish  earth,  till  his  decease, 
 which  took  place  November  24,  1572,  the 
 reformed  church  was  triumphant,  and  he 
 was  one  of  its  most  prominent,  admired, 
 ami  honoured  leaders,     Of  hL=   works  the 
 
 KOS  349 
 
 principal  is  A  History  of  the  Reformation 
 in  Scotland:  the  fourth  edition  of  it  in- 
 cludes all  his  other  writings. 
 
 KNOX,  Dr.  VlCESIMCS,  a  divine  and 
 miscellaneous  writer,  was  bom  in  1752; 
 was  educated  at  .Merchant  Tailors  School, 
 and  at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford  j  suc- 
 ceeded his  lather  as  head  master  of  Tun- 
 bridge  School  ;  held  that  situation  for 
 thirty-three  years;  obtained  the  livings  of 
 Run  well  and  Ramsden  ("rays,  in  Essex, 
 and  the  chapelrv  of  Shipbourne,  in  Ken1  ; 
 and  died  December  6,  1821.  Among  his 
 original  works  are,  Essays,  Moral  and 
 Literary  ;  Liberal  Education  ;  Winter 
 Evenings  ;  Personal  Nobility  ;  Christian 
 Philosophy;  and  The  Spirit  of  Despotism. 
 He  was  the  compiler  of  the  Elegant  Ex- 
 tracts and  Epistles. 
 
 KOCH,  Christopher  William,  a 
 publicist  and  historian,  was  born,  in  1737, 
 at  Bouxweiller,  in  Alsace;  was  educated  at 
 Strasburgh,  under  Schoepflin;   succeeded 
 him  as  professor  of  public  law;   and  died, 
 in  1813,  rector  of  the  university  of  Stras- 
 burgh.    Among  his  numerous  and  learned 
 works  are,  A  View  of  the   Revolutions  c 
 Europe;   An  Abridged  History  of  Treat'  • 
 of  Peace;   and  Genealogical  Tables  of  t; 
 Sovereign  Families  of  Europe. 
 
 KOERNER,  Theodore,  a  Germa 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1788,  at'Dresden ;  *  wo. 
 educated  at  Leipsic;  became  a  dramatist, 
 and  secretary  to  the  management  of  the 
 court  theatre  at  Vienna;  entered  as  a  vol- 
 unteer into  the  Prussian  army,  in  1812; 
 signalized  himself  equally  by  his  bravery 
 and  his  martial  songs;  obtained  a  lieuten- 
 ancy as  his  reward;  and  fell  gloriously  at 
 the  battle  of  Leipsic,  in  1813.  His  works 
 were  published,  after  his  death,  with  the 
 title  of  The  Lyre  and  the  Sword. 
 
 KOSCIUSZKO,  THAmiEus.a  Poh'sh 
 general  and  patriot,  was  born,  in  1746,  in 
 Lithuania,  and  was  partly  educated  at  the 
 Warsaw  military  school,  where  he  excelled 
 in  mathematics  and  drawing.  He  cora- 
 his  studies  in  France.  When  the 
 American  colonies  tVrew  off  the  yoke  of 
 the  mother  country.  Kosciuszko  entered 
 into  their  service,  and  was  made  a  colonel 
 
360 
 
 KOT 
 
 of  engineers  and  aid-de-camp  to  Washing- 
 ton. Returning  to  his  own  country,  he 
 lived  in  retirement  till  1789,  wncn  the  diet 
 appointed  him  a  major-general.  In  the 
 brief  struggle  of  1792  he  behaved  with 
 distinguished  valour;  b-tt  as  soon  as  the 
 Lte  of  Po'-.nd  was  sealed,  he  retired  into 
 voluntary  exile.  He  kept  up,  however,  a 
 correspondence  with  the  friends  of  liberty 
 in  his  native  land;  and  when,  in  1794,  the 
 Poles  resolved  to  make  one  more  effort  to 
 break  their  chains,  they  placed  Kosciuszko 
 at  their  head.  He  began  his  career  by 
 defeating  the  Russian  general  Penisoff  at 
 Raslavice.  But  the  enemy  poured  in  on 
 a!i  si.les,  ?nd  at  length,  after  having  for  six 
 months  delayed  the  fall  of  Poland,  he  was 
 wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  on  the  4th  of 
 October,  at  the  battle  of  Maceiowice.  He 
 was  sent  to  St.  Petersburgh,  and  incarce- 
 rated till  the  accession  of  th2  emperor 
 Paul,  who  liberated  him.  The  remaining 
 part  of  his  existence  was  spent  in  America, 
 France,  and  Switzerland,  but  chiefly  in 
 France.  He  died,  at  Soleure,  October  16, 
 1817. 
 
 XOTZEBUE,  Augustus  Frederic 
 .''vrijinand  Von,  a  German  writer,  was 
 born,  in  1761,  at  Weimar,  and    was  edu- 
 cated   at   Jena    and    Duisbourg.      In    his 
 twentieth  year  he  was  invited  to  St.  Pe- 
 tersbtirgh  by  the  Prussian  ambassador,  and 
 was  patronised  by  Catherine,  who  raised 
 him  from  post  to  "post,  till  he  became  pre- 
 sident of  the  civil  government  at  Revel ;   a 
 .-  ..ition  which  he  held  for  ten  years.    From 
 1/95  till  1800  he  resided,  variously  occu- 
 pied, it.  Germany.      In  the   latter   year  he 
 returned  to  Russia,  but   had  no  sooner  set 
 foot  on  its  territory,  than  he   was  seized 
 and  banished  to   Siberia.     The   capricious 
 tyrant  Paul  soon,  however,   recalled  him, 
 and  took  him   into   favour.     In    1801   he 
 again  quitted  the  land  of  the  knout  and  of 
 autocracy.     Some    subsequent  years  were 
 spent  in  travelling,  and  the   remainder  of 
 his   life   in  pouring  forth  his   innumerable 
 literary  productions,  and  taking  a  part   in 
 uCtitic?.      He  w  said  to  have  written  many 
 of  the  Russian  state  papers  and   proclama- 
 tions.     The    emperor    -Alexander    subse- 
 quently  employed    him   in    various  posts, 
 and    in   1817  appointed    him    his  literary 
 correspondent   in   Germany.     This   invidi- 
 ous office  Kotzehue  is  said  t<>  have  tilled  in 
 a  manner  hostile  to  the  freedom  of  his  na- 
 tive country!   and  for  this  supposed   crime 
 he  was  assassinated,  on  the  23d  of  .March, 
 1819,  bv  a  youthful  fanatic  named   Soul. 
 Kotzehue  undoubtedly  displayed  genius  in 
 his   writings;     but   thev    are    vitiated    l>\ 
 much    frivolity,   much    bad  taste,    and,    in 
 many  instances,  a  more  than   doubtful   mo- 
 rality.    His  dramas  amount  to  nearly  three 
 hundred.     Among  his  other  works  are,  A 
 History  of  the  German  Empire;    A  History 
 
 KYR 
 
 of  Ancient  Prussia;    and  various  Narra- 
 tives and  Recollections  of  his  travels. 
 
 KRAY,  baron,  an  Austrian  general, 
 embraced  the  military  service  at  an  early 
 period.  He  distinguished  himself  first 
 against  the  Turks,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
 major-general.  In  the  campaigns  in  the 
 .Netherlands,  and  on  the  Rhine,  from  1793 
 to  1797,  he  was  one  of  the  most  active  of 
 the  Imperial  commanders.  In  1799  he 
 opened  the  campaign  in  Italy,  as  com- 
 mander-in-chief, by  decisive  successes 
 against  the  French;  and  in  1800  he  re- 
 placed the  archduke  Charles,  as  leader  of 
 the  army  of  the  Rhine.     He  died  in  1801. 
 
 KRUDENER,  baroness  Valeria,  a 
 religious  enthusiast,  daughter  of  Count 
 Wittenkoff,  was  born,  in  1766,  at  Riga; 
 married  baron  Krudener  when  she  was 
 only  fourteen;  and  was  for  a  considerable 
 period  one  of  the  gayest  of  the  gay  in  the 
 Parisian  circles.  At  length  she  became  a 
 fanatical  devotee,  announced  herself  as  an 
 envoy  from  Heaven,  and  wandered  from 
 state  to  state  preaching,  and  surrounded 
 by  thousands  of  people.  In  many  places 
 she  was  driven  out  by  the  magistrates. 
 She  died,  in  the  Crimea,  in  1824.  Alex- 
 ander of  Russia  was  among  those  who 
 listened  to  her  doctrines.  She  wrote  Va- 
 leria, a  novel,  which  is  believed  to  depict 
 some  of  her  early  adventures. 
 
 KUNCKEL,  John,  a  chemist,  was 
 born,  in  1632,  at  Huysum,  in  Sleswick; 
 was  employed  by  the  electors  of  Saxony 
 and  Brandenburgh,  and  by  the  king  of 
 Sweden,  the  latter  of  whom  ennobled  him, 
 and  made  him  counsellor  of  mines;  was 
 a  member  of  the  Swedish  Academy ;  and 
 died,  in  1703,  at  Stockholm.  The  extrac- 
 tion of  phosphorus  from  urine  is  one  of  his 
 discoveries.  He  wrote  Chemical  Obser- 
 vations ;  and  The  Art  of  Glass-making. 
 KUTUSOFF-SMOLENSKOI,      Mi- 
 
 CHAKL       L.4VRIONOVITCH         GOLEKIT- 
 
 chk.ff,  a  Russian  field-marshal,  was 
 born  in  1745,  and  was  sent  to  France  to 
 complete  his  education  at  Strasburgh.  He 
 entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  sixteen. 
 Between  1764  and  1790  he  distinguished 
 himself  in  several  campaigns  against  the 
 Turks,  particularly  at  Ockzakoff  and 
 IsmailofT,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
 ant-general. In  1S05  he  commanded  the 
 Russian  army  at  Austerlitz,  but  protested 
 against  the  measures  which  were  adopted. 
 In  1S10  and  1811  he  obtained  several  ad- 
 vantages over  the  Turks,  and  in  1812  was 
 placed  at  the  head  of  the  army  destined  to 
 oppose  Napoleon.  He  was,  however,  de- 
 Ifeited  at  Borodino,  in  spite  of  his  skill 
 I  and  the  bravery  of  his  troops.  He  died  in 
 1813. 
 
 K  YR1.E,  John,  a  man  remarkable  for 
 his  active  benevolence,  was  ucrn,  in  1640 
 i  at    Whitehouse,    in    Gloucestershire,    and 
 
LAC 
 
 died  at  Ross,  in  Herefordshire,  in  1824. 
 Pope,  in  his  Moral  Essays,  has  commem- 
 orated the  good  deeds  of  this  estimable 
 character.  With  his  small  fortune,  how- 
 ever, Kyrle  could  not  solely  have  accom- 
 
 LAF 
 
 851 
 
 pi i shed  all  that  is  attributed  to  him;  but 
 his  example  prompted  some,  and  his  so- 
 licitations induced  others,  to  associate  with 
 him  in  the  work  of  charity  and  public 
 utility. 
 
 LABAT,  John  Baptist,  a  French  mis- 
 sionary and  traveller,  was  born,  in  1663, 
 at  Paris ;  visited  tne  West  Indian  isles  and 
 some  parts  of  Europe  in  his  clerical  capac- 
 ity; and  died  in  1738.  He  wrote  A  New 
 Vovage  to  the  American  Islands ;  and  A 
 Journey  in  Spain  and  Italy;  and  assisted 
 in  compiling  and  editing  various  works  of 
 a  similar  kind. 
 
 LACEPEDE,  Bernard  Germain 
 Stephen  de  la  Ville,  count  de,  a  cel- 
 ebrated naturalist,  son  of  count  de  la  Ville, 
 was  born,  in  1756,  at  Agen,  and  in  his 
 youth  studied  natural  history  and  music 
 with  equal  enthusiasm.  Buft'on,  his  friend, 
 obtained  for  him  the  post  of  keeper  of  the 
 cabinets  in  the  king's  garden,  at  Paris; 
 a  post  which  greatly  facilitated  his  scien- 
 tific studies.  He  was  returned  to  the  legis- 
 lative assembly  as  one  of  the  members  for 
 the  capital,  and  was  raised  to  the  office  of 
 president.  During  the  reign  of  terror  he 
 was  unmolested,  and  in  1796  he  became  a 
 member  of  the  Institute.  Under  the  sway 
 of  Napoleon  honours  were  heaped  upon 
 him-  He  was  successively  made  a  member 
 and  president  of  the  conservative  senate, 
 grand  chancellor  of. the  legion  of  honour, 
 and  senator  of  Paris,  and  decorated  with 
 the  grand  eagle  of  the  legion.  He  died 
 in  1825.  Lacepede  holds  a  high  station 
 among  modern  naturalists.  He  wrote  a 
 Natural  History  of  Oviparous  Quadrupeds 
 and  Serpents— of  Reptiles— of  Fish— and 
 of  Cetaceous  Animals;  A  General  Physi- 
 cal and  Civil  History  of  Europe  from  the 
 last  years  of  the  fifth  century  to  the  middle 
 of  the  eighteenth;  two  Romances;  and 
 manv  other  works. 
 
 LACRETELLE,  Peter  Louis,  the 
 elder,  was  born,  in  1751,  at  Met/;  distin- 
 guished himself  greatly  at  the  bar;  sat  in 
 the  legislative  assemblies  of  1791  and  1801; 
 defended  the  principles  of  liberty  against 
 the  ministers  of  Louis  XVIIT. ;  and  died 
 in  1824.  Among  his  works  are,  Judicial 
 Eloquence  and  Legislative  Philosophy; 
 Portraits  and  Pictures;  Theatrical  Ro- 
 mance; Studies  on  the  Revolution;  and 
 Mv  Evenings  at  Malesherbes 
 
 LACTANTIUS,  Lucius  Cet.ius,  a 
 father  of  the  church,  the  purity  of  whose 
 Latinity  has  gained  for  him  the  title  of  the 
 Christian  Cicero,  was  bom  in  the  third 
 century,  but  whether  in  Africa,  or  at  Per- 
 
 nio, in  Italy,  is  undecided.  He  stndied 
 under  Arnobius;  became  celebrated  for 
 his  eloquence;  and  was  appointed  tutor  to 
 Crispus,  the  son  of  Constantine.  He  is 
 supposed  to  have  died  at  Treves,  about 
 325.  His  principal  works  are,  De  Opificio 
 Dei;   and  Divinarum  Institutionum. 
 
 LAFONTAINE,  John,  an  inimitable 
 French  fabulist,  was  born,  in  1621,  at 
 Chateau  Thierry,  where  his  father  was 
 overseer  of  woods  and  forests.  He  is  said 
 to  have  been  partly  educated  at  Rheims, 
 and  to  have  been  for  eighteen  months 
 under  the  fathers  of  the  Oratory.  His 
 noetical  genius  was  first  aroused  by  hear- 
 ing an  officer  of  the  garrison  read  one  of 
 Malherbe'fl  Odes;  and  his  taste  was  im- 
 proved by  the  study  of  the  ancients,  which 
 was  recommended  to  him  by  a  relation 
 named  Pintrel.  His  father  prevailed  on 
 him  to  marry,  and  gave  up  to  him  his 
 post;  but  Lafontaine,  who  was  the  very 
 personification  of  indolence  and  careless- 
 ness, was  equally  neglectful  of  his  post  and 
 of  his  wife.  He  was  soon,  however,  re- 
 lieved from  both  by  the  duchess  of  Bouil- 
 lon, who  was  then  in  exile  at  Chateau 
 Thierry,  and  who  took  him  with  her  to 
 the  French  capital.  In  Paris  Lafontaine 
 spent  the  last  thirty-five  years  of  his  life; 
 residing  successively  with  the  duchesses 
 of  Bouillon  and  Orleans,  Madame  de  la 
 Sabliere,  and  Madame  d'Hervart,  and  in 
 habits  of  intimacy  with  all  the  celebrated 
 characters  of  that  age.  It  was  in  the 
 house  of  Madame  de  la  Sabliere  that  he 
 composed  the  greatest  part  of  his  works. 
 He  died  in  April,  1695.  Lafontauie's 
 Fables,  Tales,  and  other  poetical  produc 
 lions,  form  four  volumes  folio.     As  a  wi»- 
 
352  LAH 
 
 ter  of  Fables  lie  sets  all  competition  at 
 defiance. 
 
 LAGRANGE,  Joseph  Louis,  one  of 
 the  most  consummate  mathematicians  of 
 modem  times,  was  born,  in  1736,  :it  Turin, 
 and  at  the  ajje  of  nineteen  became  teacher 
 of  mathematics  at  the  royal  artillery  school 
 of  that  city.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
 Academy  of  Sciences  in  the  Sardinian 
 capital.  In  1766  he  removed  to  Berlin, 
 and  thence,  in  17S7,  to  Paris.  In  the 
 French  metropolis  he  was  received  with 
 merited  respect;  a  pension  was  granted 
 to  him;  he  was  at  a  later  period  made 
 professor  of  the  normal  and  polytechnic 
 schools;  and,  lastly,  Napoleon  created  him 
 a  count  and  a  senator,  and  invested  him 
 with  other  honours  and  dignities.  He  died 
 in  1813.  Of  his  well  known  works  the 
 Mecanique  Analytiqne  is  one  of  the  most 
 celebrated. 
 
 LA  HARl'E,  John  Francis  de,  a 
 Fiench  dramatist,  poet,  critic,  and  miscel- 
 laneous writer,  was  born,  in  1739,  at  Paris, 
 and  is  said  to  have  been  the.  son  of  a 
 Swiss  officer  who  died  in  poverty.  He 
 was  left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  nine 
 years,  and  was  for  souk;  time  supported  by 
 the  Sisters  of  Charily  of  the  parish  to 
 which  he  belonged.  They  also  recommen- 
 ded him  to  Al .  Asselin,  of  Harcourt  Col- 
 ,  1  -,  whom  he  was  gratuitously  educa- 
 ted, lie  began  his  literary  career,  in  1763, 
 by  the  tragedy  of  Warwick,  which  was 
 g  iccessful.  It  was  followed  by  Pharamond, 
 Glistavna,  and  several  others,  some  of 
 which  were  failures.  In  1776  he  became 
 a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  La 
 Flarpe  was  a  warm  partisan  of  the  revolu- 
 tion; but  in  1793  he  was  incarcerated  by 
 the  Jacobins.  While  he  was  imprisoned 
 he  was  converted  to  Christianity,  and  he 
 was  ever  after  an  ardent  enemy  of  republi- 
 canism, and  a  friend  of  the  catholic  faith.' 
 Among  his  numerous  works  are,  The  Ly- 
 ceum, or  a  Course  of  Literature,  b\  which 
 lie  lias  gained  the  appellation  of  the  French 
 Quintilmn;  Eulogies;  Private  Correspon- 
 dence with  the  Czar  Paul  I.;  Poems;  A 
 Commentary  on  Racine;  and  Translations 
 of  Suetonius  and  <  \uuoens. 
 
 LA  HIRE,  Pnit.it>  DE,  an  eminent 
 French  mathematician,  was  born,  in  1660, 
 
 at  Parts,  and  was  intended  to  be  a  painter, 
 
 but  was  drawn  from  the  aits  by  Ids  love  of 
 the  sciences.  Louvois  and  Colbert  em- 
 ployed him  in  various  public  works.  At 
 once  an  astronomer,  mechanician,  geome- 
 ter, and  hydrographer,  he  was,  said  Fonte- 
 nelle,  "a  whole  scientific  academy  in  a 
 single  individual."  lie  died  in  1719. 
 professor  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  at 
 the  college  of  France.  Among  his  numer- 
 ous works  air.  Astronomical  Table-;  The 
 Surveyor's  Guide  ;  anil  a  Treatise  on 
 Mechanics. 
 
 LAM 
 
 LAIRESSE,  Gerard,  a  painter  and 
 engraver,  was  born,  in  1640,  at  Liege; 
 and  died  at  Amsterdam,  in  1711.  So  rapid 
 was  his  pencil,  that  in  one  day  he  painted 
 Apollo  and  the  Muses,  of  the  natural  size, 
 and  also  the  portrait  of  the  person  who  had 
 wagered  against  his  achieving  the  task. 
 For  some  years  previous  to  his  decease  he 
 was  blind;  in  which  situation  he  dictated 
 to  his  sons  The  Principles  of  Design,  and 
 Lessons  in  Painting.  His  engravings 
 exceed  two  hundred  in  number. 
 
 LAKE,  Gerard,  viscount,  was  born 
 in  1744;  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of 
 fourteen;  served  in  Germany  during  the 
 seven  years''  war  ;  in  America,  under 
 Cornwall  is ;  in  the  Netherlands,  at  the  head 
 of  the  first  brigade  of  guards,  in  1793  and 
 1794;  and  against  the  Irish  insurgents  in 
 1798.  In  1800  he  was  appointed  com- 
 mander-in-chief in  India.  He  defeated 
 the  Mahrattas  at  the  battle  of  Delhi,  in 
 1803;  and  in  1805  and  1806  he  subjugated 
 Scindia  and  Holkar.  Returning  to  Eng- 
 land in  1807  he  was  created  a  viscount, 
 and  he  died  in  1808. 
 
 LALANDE,  Joseph  Jerome  le 
 Francais  de,  a  celebrated  French  as- 
 tronomer, was  born,  in  1732,  at  Bourg  en 
 Bresse;  was  intended  for  the  law,  but 
 deserted  the  study  of  it  for  that  of  mathe 
 matics  under  Lemonnier;  and  made  such 
 a  rapid  progress  in  the  science  that,  wnen 
 only  eighteen,  he  was  chosen  to  make 
 observations  at  Berlin,  to  determine  the 
 parallax  of  the  moon.  In  1762  he  suc- 
 ceeded Delisle  as  astronomical  professor  at 
 the  college  of  France,  which  post  he  held, 
 with  distinguished  success,  during  forty- 
 six  years.  He  died  in  1807.  Among  his 
 ^vorks  are,  A  Treatise  on  Astronomy  ; 
 Astronomical  Bibliography;  A  History  of 
 Mathematics  ;  and  A  Journey  in  Italy. 
 Lalande  edited  thirty-two  volumes  of  the 
 Connoissance  des  Temps. 
 
 LAMB,  Sir  James  Bland  Buht.es, 
 better  known  by  his  original  name  of  Bar- 
 ges, was  born,  in  1752,  at  Gibraltar  ; 
 studied  at  Westminster,  University  Col- 
 lege, Oxford,  and  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was 
 called  to  the  bar;  held  various  offices  under 
 government,  and  was  a  member  of  parlia- 
 ment; and  died,  in  1825,  knight  marshal 
 of  the  royal  household.  Besides  various 
 pamphlets,  he  wrote  The  Birth  and  Tri- 
 umph of  Love,  a  poem;  Richard  the  First, 
 a  poem;  part  of  the  Exodiad  ;  The  Dragon 
 Knight,  a  romance;  and  Reasons  for  a 
 new  Translation  of  the  Bible  ;  altered 
 Massinger's  City  Madam;  and  established 
 Tin'  Sun  newspaper. 
 
 LAMB,  Lady  Caroline,  the  daughter 
 
 of  the  earl  of  Besborough,  was  born  in 
 1785,  and,  before  she  was  twenty,  was 
 married  to  the  Hon.  \V.  Lamb.  Her  do- 
 mestic felicity,  however,  was  destroyed  b* 
 
LAN 
 
 a  iatal  attachment  to  the  late  Lord  Byron ; 
 and,  after  his  death,  her  intellects  are  said 
 to  have  been  affected.  She  died  January 
 25,  1828.  She  was  highly  accomplished, 
 and  possessed  no  common  talents.  Lady 
 Caroline  wrote  three  novels — (ilenarvon, 
 Graham  Hamilton,  and  Ada  Reis. 
 
 LAMBERT,  John,  an  eminent  general 
 in  the  service  of  the  Parliament,  was 
 originally  designed  for  the  law,  which  he 
 was  studying  when  the  civil  war  broke 
 out.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Marston 
 Moor,  Naseby,  and  other  places;  aided 
 Cromwell  in  obtaining  the  protectorate, 
 but  thwarted  him  in  his  project  of  being 
 king;  joined  in  restoring  the  parliament 
 after  Oliver's  death;  was  arrested  by 
 Monk;  and  at  the  Restoration  was  sen- 
 tenced to  death,  but  was  only  banished  to 
 Guernsey,  where  he  lived  more  than  thirty 
 years. 
 
 LAMBERT,  John  Henry,  a  mathe- 
 matician and  astronomer,  was  born,  in 
 1728,  at  Muhlhausen,  in  Alsace;  and  died, 
 in  1777,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
 Berlin  academicians.  Lambert,  who  was 
 the  son  of  a  poor  tailor,  was  one  of  the 
 most  extensively  learned  men  of  his  time, 
 and  was  indebted  to  his  own  unaided  ex- 
 ertions for  his  knowledge.  Among  his 
 works,  besides  innumerable  memoirs  and 
 dissertations,  are,  The  System  of  the 
 World  ;  Photometry ;  Pyrometry ;  and  A 
 New  Key  to  the  Sciences. 
 
 LANCASTER,  James,  a  navigator  of 
 the  sixteenth  century.  After  having  voy- 
 aged to  America  and  to  the  East  Indies, 
 he,  in  1594,  made  himself  master  of  Per- 
 nambuco,  in  Brazil,  and  gained  a  rich 
 booty.  In  1600,  he  again  visited  the  east, 
 entered  into  a  commercial  treaty  with  the 
 king  of  Achem,  and  opened  an  intercourse 
 with  the  monarch  of  Bantam.  He  died 
 in  1620.  Baffin  gave  the  name  of  Lancas- 
 ter to  the  sound  through  which  Captain 
 Parry  has  since  penetrated  into  the  Polar  \ 
 Ocean. 
 
 LANDON,  C.  P.,  a  French  artist,  who; 
 died   in   1826,   was  keeper  of  the  French 
 Museum.     He   painted  several  pictures  of  ; 
 merit;  but  he   is  more  extensively  known \ 
 as  the  projector  and  editor  of  several  works  i 
 connected     with    his    profession;     among 
 winch  are,  The  Annals  of  the  Museum,  and  j 
 of  the   Modern    School   of  the   Fine  Arts, 
 tHirty-thfree  vols.  8vo. ;    Lives  and  Works 
 of  the  most  celebrated    Painters,  twenty- ; 
 two  vols.  4to. ;    and  Historical  Gallery  of  I 
 the  most  celebrated  Characters,   thirteen ! 
 vols.  12mo. 
 
 LANFRANC,  a  pious  and  learned  pre- 
 ate,  was  born,  in  1005,  at  Pavia;  became 
 prior  of  Bee,  in  Normandy,  in  1044;  and' 
 was  made  abbot  of  St.  Stephen,  at  Caen, 
 in  1062.  When  William  the  Conqueror 
 ascended   the  English   throne,   he    raised 
 
 LAN 
 
 353 
 
 1  Lanfrane  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
 jbury,  who  held  the  see  till  his  decease  in 
 |10S9.  Lanfrane  rebnilt  the  cathedral  of 
 j  Canterbury,  and  founded  the  hospitals  of 
 St.  John  and  Harbledown.  He  wrote,  in 
 good  Latin,  various  theological  works.  His 
 conduct,  political  and  clerical,  was  highly 
 honourable  to  him. 
 
 LANGDON;  John,  a  distinguished 
 American  pal  riot,  was  horn  at  Portsmouth, 
 N.  H.  in  1739.  He  engaged  in  commerce, 
 and  took  an  early  and  efficient  interest  in 
 the  cause  of  the  colonies.  He  was  suc- 
 cessively a  delegate  to  the  general  congress, 
 navy  agent,  speaker  of  the  assembly  of  bis 
 native  state,  president  of  his  native  stale, 
 a  delegate  to  the  convention  that  framed 
 the  federal  constitution,  and  a  member  of 
 the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  In  1806 
 he  was  chosen  governor  of  his  state  and 
 again  in  1810.     He  died  in  1819. 
 
 LANGLAND,  or  LONGLAND,  Ro- 
 bert, a  poet  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
 was  a  secular  priest,  and  a  fellow  of  Oriel 
 College,  Oxford,  and  is  believed  to  have 
 been  a  disciple  of  Wickliff.  To  his  pen  are 
 attributed  the  curious  poems  which  bear 
 the  titles  of  the  Vision  of  Piers  Plough- 
 man, and  Piers  Ploughman's  Creed.  The 
 date  of  his  decease  is  unknown. 
 
 LANGLES,  Louis  Matthew,  one  of 
 the  most  eminent  of  modern  oriental  schol- 
 ars, was  born,  in  1763,  at  Peronne,  in  Pi- 
 cardy.  He  studied  Arabic  and  Persian 
 under  Caussin  de  Perceval,  Ruffin,  and  Sil- 
 vestre  de  Lacy ;  and  made  himself  master 
 of  several  other  eastern  languages.  He  died 
 January  24,  1824,  after  having  long  been 
 professor  of  Persian  and  Malay  at  the  spe- 
 cial school,  and  keeper  of  the  oriental 
 MSS.  in  the  royal  library.  Among  his 
 works  are,  A  Mantchu  and  French  Diction- 
 ary; Translations  of  Indian  Tales  and 
 Faltles,  and  of  Timur's  Institutes;  many 
 lives  in  the  Universal  Biography;  and  nu- 
 merous articles  in  the  Encyclopedic  Review, 
 and  in  other  periodicals. 
 
 LANJUINAIS,  Count  John  Denis,  a 
 French  statesman  and  literary  character, 
 was  born,  in  1753,  atRennes,  in  Britanny; 
 became  an  advocate  and  professor  of  law 
 at  his  native  place;  and  had  a  seat  in  all 
 the  various  legislative  bodies  from  the  com- 
 mencement of  the  revolution  down  to  the 
 period  of  his  decease,  January  13,  1827. 
 Of  all  the  representatives  of  the  French 
 people,  Lanjuinais  was  one  of  the  most  en- 
 lightened, intreoid,  and  honourable.  He 
 wrote  several  works,  nearly  all  of  which 
 relate  to  politics  or  law. 
 
 LANNES,  John,  Duke  of  Montebello, 
 a  French  marshal,  was  born,  in  1769,  at 
 Lectoure,  in  Guienne,  of  a  poor  family; 
 was  originally  a  dyer ;  and  entered  the  ar 
 my,  as  a  volunteer,  in  1792.  He  signalized 
 himself  on   he  Spanish  frontier,  in  1794; 
 
354 
 
 LAP 
 
 in  Italy,  in  1796  and  1797;  and  in  Egypt, 
 in  1799;  rose  to  the  rank  of  general  of 
 division;  was  one  of  the  officers  who  ac- 
 companied Bonaparte  to  France;  and  waa 
 placed  by  him  at  the  head  of  the  consular 
 guard.  He  bore  a  conspicuous  part  at  the 
 battles  of  Marengo,  Montebello,  and  Aus- 
 terlitz,  and  in  the  campaigns  of  1806  and 
 1807;  reduced  Saragossa  in  1809;  and 
 was  mortally  wounded,  May  22,  in  the  same 
 vear,  at  the  battle  of  Essling. 
 "  LANSDOWN,  Georgk  GRAN- 
 VILLE, Viscount,  was  born  in  1667;  was 
 educated  at  Westminster,  and  at  Trinity 
 College,  Cambridge;  sat  in  the  Commons, 
 as  member  for  Fowey ;  was  appointed  sec- 
 retary of  war  in  1710;  was  raised  to  the 
 peerage  in  1711 ;  was  arrested  and  sent  to 
 the  Tower  in  1715,  on  suspicion  of  being 
 disaffected  to  the  house  of  Hanover,  and 
 remained  twelve  months  a  captive :  and  died 
 in  1735.  His  poetical  and  prose  works 
 form  two  quarto  volumes. 
 
 LANSDOWN,  William  PETTY, 
 marquis  of,  was  born  in  1737;  and  succeed- 
 ed to  the  title  of  earl  of  Shelburne  in  1761. 
 After  lias ing  twice  held  a  post  under  gov- 
 ernment, in  1763  and  1766,  lie  was  dis- 
 placed in  1768,  and  remained  in  opposition 
 till  1782,  when  he  was  appointed  secretary 
 of  state  for  the  foreign  department.  On 
 the  death  of  the  marquis  of  Rockingham, 
 he  succeeded  him  as  premier,  but  was  soon 
 ousted  by  the  coalesced  influence  of  Fox 
 and  North.  In  1784  he  was  created  a 
 marquis.  He  died  in  1805.  The  marquis 
 of  Lansdown  is  one  of  the  many  persons 
 to  whom  the  Letters  of  Junius  have  been 
 ascribed. 
 
 LANTIER,  E.  F.  de,  a  poet  and  mis- 
 cellaneous writer,  who,  from  his  age,  was 
 denominated  the  Nestor  of  literary  France, 
 was  born,  in  1736,  at  Marseilles ;  and  died 
 there  in  1826.  His  chief  works  are,  The 
 Travels  of  Antenor  in  Greece  (which  has 
 been  called  the  Anacharsis  of  the  boudoirs)  ; 
 A  Journey  in  Spain;  Tales;  Comedies; 
 Poems;  and  Geoffrey  Rudel,  or  the  Trou- 
 badour, in  eight  cantos. 
 
 LANZI,  Louis,  a  learned  Italian  Jesuit, 
 was  bom  in  1732,  at  Monte  di  Olmo,  and 
 died,  in  1810,  at  Florence,  of  the  gallery 
 of  which  city  he  was  sub-director.  He 
 was  considered  as  one  of  the.  most  able  of 
 Italian  philologists  and  archaeologists.  Two 
 of  his  best  works  are,  An  Essay  on  the 
 Tuscan  Language ;  and  a  History  of  Paint- 
 ing in  Italy. 
 
 LAPLACE,  Marquis  PKTER  Simon,  a 
 celebrated  French  astronomer  and  geome- 
 trician, was  born,  in  1749,  at  Beaumonten 
 Au^e.  After  having  been  professor  of 
 mathematics  at  his  native  place,  he  went  to 
 Paris,  where  he  succeeded  Bezout,  as  ex- 
 aminer of  the  royal  artillery  corps.  His 
 scientific  reputation  was  soon    widely  ex- 
 
 LAU 
 
 tended  by  his  valuable  productions.  After 
 the  establishment  of  the  consulship,  he  waa 
 for  a  short  time  minister  of  the  home  de- 
 partment. In  1799  he  was  placed  in  the 
 senate,  and  in  1803  became  vice-president 
 of  that  body.  Napoleon  made  him  a  count ; 
 Louis  XVIII.  raised  him  to  the  rank  ot 
 marquis.  He  died  March  6,  1827.  Hi? 
 two  greatest  works,  which  alone  would  suf 
 fice  to  immortalize  his  name,  are,  An  Ex- 
 position of  the  System  of  the  World,  two 
 vols.  8vo. ;  and  a  Treatise  on  Celestia 
 Mechanism,  five  vols.  4to. 
 
 LARDNER,  Nathaniel,  a  learned 
 dissenting  divine,  was  born,  in  1684,  at 
 Hawkhurst,  in  Kent;  studied  at  Utrecht 
 and  Leyden;  became  a  minister  in  his 
 twenty-fifth  year;  and,  after  having  been 
 chaplain  and  tutor  in  the  family  of  Lady 
 Treby,  acquired  equal  reputation  as  a 
 preacher  and  a  writer.  He  died,  at  his  na- 
 tive place,  in  1768.  The  collected  edition 
 of  his  works  forms  eleven  vols.  8vo.  Of 
 these  the  chief  is,  The  Credibility  of  the 
 Gospel  History,  a  production  which  is  de- 
 serving of  the  highest  praise. 
 
 LATIMER,  Hugh,  a  prelate,  one  of  the 
 victims  of  the  sanguinary  Mary,  was  the 
 son  of  a  yeoman,  and  was  born,  about  1470, 
 at  Thurcaston,  in  Leicestershire.  He  was 
 educated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge. 
 In  early  life  he  was  a  zealous  papist,  but, 
 being  converted,  he  became  an  equally  zeal- 
 ous champion  of  the  Reformation.  After 
 having  encountered  many  perils,  he  was 
 made  bishop  of  Worcester,  in  1535,  by 
 Henry  VIII.  The  bishopric,  however,  he 
 resigned,  on  the  passing  of  the  act  of  the 
 six  articles;  and  was  punished  by  being 
 imprisoned  during  the  remainder  of  Henry's 
 reign.  The  accession  of  Edward  VI.  set 
 Latimer  at  liberty,  and  he  resumed  his 
 preaching,  but  refused  to  resume  the  mitre. 
 On  Mary  ascending  the  throne,  he  was 
 again  incarcerated;  and,  in  1555,  was 
 brought  to  the  stake,  where  he  suffered 
 with  unshaken  courage.  Ridley  was  his 
 fellow  martyr. 
 
 LAUD,  William,  a  prelate,  the  son  of 
 a  clothier,  was  born,  in  1573,  at  Reading, 
 in  Berkshire;  was  educated  at  the  free 
 school  of  his  native  place,  and  at  St.  John's 
 College,  Oxford ;  was  ordained  in  1601; 
 became  president  of  his  College  in  1611 ; 
 and,  after  having  held  various  livings,  was 
 at  length  patronised  by  James  I.  who  had 
 long  looked  upon  him  with  coldness.  His 
 first  preferment  from  the  sovereign  was  the 
 deanery  of  Gloucester,  which  he  obtained 
 in  1616.  In  1620  he  was  nominated  to  the 
 see  of  St.  David's,  whence  he  was  succes- 
 sively translated,  in  1626,  1628,  and  1633, 
 to  Bath  and  Wells,  London,  and  Canter- 
 bury. From  the  moment  of  his  attaining 
 power  he  acted  the  part  of  a  furious  perse- 
 cutor of  those  who  diffeied  from  him  on  re- 
 
LAU 
 
 ligious  points,  and  an  enemy  to  public  lib- 
 erty. His  ingratitude,  too,  was  equal  to 
 his  violence.  The  meeting  of  the  long  Par- 
 liament was  the  signal  of  his  downfal.  He 
 was  impeached,  and  confined  during  three 
 years  in  the  Tower.  On  his  being  brought 
 to  trial  he  defended  himself  with  great 
 courage  and  acuteness.  A  bill  of  attainder 
 was  at  length  passed  against  him  by  the 
 Commons,  and  he  was  executed  January  10, 
 1644-5.  Laud  was  intolerant,  tyrannical, 
 and  superstitious ;  but  it  would  be  unjust 
 to  conceal  that  he  was  a  patron  of  learning. 
 The  most  interesting  of  his  works  is  his 
 Diary. 
 
 LAUDOHN,  Gideon  Ernest,  a  dis- 
 tinguished general,  was  born,  in  1716,  at 
 Totzen,  in  Livonia.  After  having  served, 
 and  been  neglected,  in  the  Russian  army, 
 he  obtained  a  commission  from  Maria 
 Theresa,  rose  to  the  highest  rank,  and 
 contributed  greatly  to  the  glory  of  the 
 Austrian  arms.  In  the  seven  years'  war, 
 he  was  the  most  formidable  antagonist  of 
 Frederic,  as  that  monarch  found  to  his 
 cost  at  Hochkirchen,  Kunnersdorf,  Land- 
 shut,  Glatz,  and  Schweidnitz.  In  1789  he 
 took  Belgrade  from  the  Turks ;  and  he 
 died  in  the  following  year. 
 
 LAV 
 
 355 
 
 LAURENCE,  Sir  Thomas,  a  celebra- 
 ted artist,  was  born,  in  1769,  at  Bristol. 
 Before  he  was  five  years  old,  he  was  re- 
 markable for  drawing  likenesses  and  reci- 
 ting poetry.  Of  education  he  received  very 
 ittle,  but  he  acquired  a  large  portion  of 
 knowledge  by  reading.  He  was  not  more 
 than  ten  years  old  when  his  talents  became 
 the  sole  resource  of  his  father  and  the  rest 
 of  the  family.  For  eight  years  he  contin- 
 ued to  draw  portraits  at  Oxford  and 
 Bath ;  but  in  1787  he  took  up  his  residence 
 jn  the  metropolis,  and  soon  became  a  pop- 
 ular painter.  In  1791  he  was  admitted 
 an  associate,  and,  soon  after,  an  acade- 
 mician, of  the  Royal  Academy.  Every 
 \ear  now  added  to  his  fame  and  fortune. 
 In  1814  the  Prince  Regent  employed  him 
 lo  take  portraits  of  the  sovereigns  and 
 warriors  who  visited  England;  in  1815  he 
 was  knighted;  in  1818  he  was  sent  to  Aix 
 ta  Chapelle,  to  paint  the  members  of  the 
 
 congress;  in  1819  he  visiteo  Italy;  and, 
 in  the  following  year,  he  was  elected  pres- 
 ident of  the  Academy.  He  died  January 
 7,  1830. 
 
 LAURENS,  Henry,  an  American 
 patriot  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Charles 
 ton,  S.  C.  in  1724.  After  receiving  a 
 good  school  education,  he  engaged  in  com- 
 merce, and  soon  amassed  an  ample  fortune. 
 At  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  he 
 was  in  London,  but  he  immediately  return- 
 ed to  his  native  country,  and  in  1776  was 
 elected  a  delegate  to  the  general  congress. 
 He  was  soon  chosen  president  of  this  body, 
 and  remained  so  till  the  close  of  the  year 
 1778.  In  1779  he  received  the  appoint- 
 ment of  minister  plenipotentiary  to  Hol- 
 land, but  on  his  way  thither  was  captured 
 by  the  British,  and  committed  to  the 
 Tower,  where  he  was  in  confinement  four- 
 teen months.  He  was  one  of  the  commis- 
 sioners for  negotiating  a  peace  with  Great 
 Britain,  and  in  1782  he  signed  with  Juy 
 and  Franklin  the  preliminaries  of  the 
 treaty.  His  health,  however,  was  much 
 impaired,  and  he  soon  returned  home  and 
 passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  agricul- 
 tural pursuits.     He  died  in  1792. 
 
 LAURENS,  John,  lieutenant-colonel, 
 son  of  the  preceding,  was  liberally  educa- 
 ted in  England,  and  having  returned  to  his 
 native  country  joined  the  American  army 
 in  1777.  He  displayed  prodigies  of  valour 
 at  Brandywine,  Germantown,  Monmouth, 
 Savannah  and  Charleston,  and  was  killed 
 at  the  very  close  of  the  war  by  carelessly 
 exposing  himself  in  a  trifling  skirmish.  In 
 17S0  he  was  sent  as  a  special  minister  to 
 France,  to  negotiate  a  loan,  and  after  being 
 subjected  to  a  vexatious  delay,  he  deter- 
 mined to  present  a  memorial  to  the  king  in 
 person  at  the  levee.  This  purpose  he  car- 
 ried into  effect,  the  memorial  was  graciously 
 received,  and  the  object  of  negociution  sat- 
 isfactorily arranged. 
 
 LAVATER,  John  Caspar, anative  of 
 Zurich,  in  Switzerland,  was  born  in  1741 ; 
 became  pastor  to  the  Orphan's  Church,  in 
 his  birthplace,  and  afterwards  to  that  of 
 St.  Peter ;  and  received  a  wound  from  a 
 French  soldier  in  1799,  of  which  he  died 
 
356 
 
 LAW 
 
 in  1801.  He  is  the  author  of  Swiss  Lays; 
 Spiritual  Canticles;  The  Journal  of  a 
 Secret  Observer;  and  other  productions; 
 but  the  work  which  has  made  him  uni- 
 versally known  is  lis  Fragments  on  Phys- 
 iognomy. These  Fragments  have  been 
 translated  into  several  languages ;  but  their 
 popularity  has  been  long  on  the  wane. 
 Lavater  was  an  enthusiastic  and  credulous, 
 but  a  worthy  and  benevolent  man. 
 
 LAVOISIER,  Anthony  Laurence, 
 a  celebrated  chemist,  way  born,  in  1743,  at 
 Paris;  was  educated  at  Mazarin  College; 
 and.  after  he  quitted  it,  devoted  himself 
 wholly  to  the  sciences,  particularly  botany, 
 astronomy,  and  chemistry.  Before  he  was 
 twenty  he  obtained  the  prize  which  was 
 offered  by  the  Academy  for  a  better  mode 
 of  lighting  the  streets.  In  his  twenty-fifth 
 year  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the 
 Academy.  He  now  began,  aud  for  many 
 years  assiduously  continued,  that  course  of 
 chemical  investigation,  which  effected  a 
 complete  change  in  the  science  of  chemis- 
 try, and  immortalized  his  name.  His 
 Bystein  was  developed  to  the  world  in  an 
 Elementary  Treatise  on  Chemistry;  and 
 A  Method  of  Chemical  Nomenclature. 
 Having  been  one  of  the  farmers  general,  he 
 became  one  of  the  victims  of  the  jacobins, 
 and  was  guillotined  on  the  8th  of  May, 
 1794. 
 
 LAW,  John,  a  projector,  the  son  of  a 
 goldsmith,  was  born,  in  1681,  at  Edin- 
 burgh; quitted  his  country  in  consequence 
 of  having  killed  his  antagonist  in  a  duel; 
 proposed  his  financial  projects  to  various 
 governments,  and  at  length  succeeded  in 
 having  them  adopted  by  the  French  regent, 
 who  made  him  comptroller  general  of  the 
 finances;  established  a  bank,  and  the  Mis- 
 sissippi company,  which  eventually  spread 
 ruin  through  France;  was  obliged  to  save 
 himself  by  flight;  and  died,  in  1729,  at 
 Venice. 
 
 LAW,  William,  a  nonjuring  divine, 
 was  born,  in  1686,  at  King's  Cliffe,  in 
 Northamptonshire;  was  educated  at  Ema- 
 nuel College,  Cambridge;  and  died  in  1761. 
 Law  was  a  man  of  piety,  acuteness,  and 
 talent;  but  a  firm  believer  in  the  absurdi- 
 ties of  Behmcn.  Of  his  works  the  most 
 popular  are,  The  Serious  Call  to  a  devout 
 and  holy  Life ;  and  a  Practical  Treatise 
 on  Christian  l'erfection. 
 
 LAW,  Edmund,  a  learned  prelate,  was 
 born,  in  1703,  near  <  !ai  tinel,  in  Lancashire; 
 was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge; and  after  having  held  some  lesser 
 preferments,  among  which  were  the  living 
 of  Greystock,  the  archdeaconry  of  ( Carlisle, 
 and  the  mastership  of  Pcterhouse,  Cam- 
 bridge, he  was  raised,  in  1769,  to  the 
 bishopric  of  Carlisle.  He  died  in  1787. 
 He  wrote  Considerations  on  the  Theory 
 of  Religion;    Inquiry    into   the   Ideas  of 
 
 LEB 
 
 Space,  Time,  &c. ;  and  various  tracts; 
 and  published  an  edition  of  Locke's  works 
 Bishop  Law  was  the  father  of  the  late 
 Lord  Ellenborough. 
 
 LAWRENCE,  James,  an  officer  of  the 
 American  Navy,  was  born  in  New  Jersey, 
 in  1781,  and  became  a  midshipman  in 
 1798.  In  1803  he  was  sent  to  the  Medi- 
 terranean, as  first  lieutenant  to  the  schoo- 
 ner Enterprise,  and  while  there  distin- 
 guished himself  by  his  activity  and  valour. 
 He  remained  on  this  station  for  three 
 years,  and  then  returned  to  the  United 
 States,  having  been  transferred  to  the  frig- 
 ate John  Adams.  In  February,  1813,  lie 
 was  in  command  of  the  Hornet,  and  took 
 the  fine  British  brig  Peacock,  after  an  ac- 
 tion of  fifteen  minutes.  On  his  return  to 
 the  United  States  he  was  transferred  to 
 the  frigate  Chesapeake,  and  in  June  of  the 
 same  year,  while  engaged  in  battle  with 
 the  frigate  Shannon,  he  received  a  mortal 
 wound.  His  last  exclamation,  as  they 
 were  carrying  him  below,  was — Don't  give 
 up  the  ship.  He  lingered  in  great  pain 
 for  four  days,  when  he  died.  His  remains 
 were  buried  at  Halifax. 
 
 LEAKE,  Sir  John,  a  naval  officer,  was 
 born,  in  1656,  at  Rotherhithe;  fought  at 
 the  battle  of  La  Hogue;  was  knighted  in 
 1723;  assisted  in  defending  Gibraltar,  and 
 reducing  Barcelona;  took  Carthagena  and 
 Minorca;  was  appointed  to  command  the 
 Mediterranean  fleet  in  1707,  in  which  situ- 
 ation he,  among  other  important  services, 
 contributed  to  the  conquest  of  Sardinia  and 
 Minorca;  was  superseded  on  the  accession 
 of  George  I.;   and  died  in  1720. 
 
 LEARCHUS,of  Rhegium,w1io  is  be- 
 lieved to  have  lived  before  the  fortieth 
 Olympiad,  was  one  of  the  most  ancient 
 sculptors  of  Greece.  He  made  the  bronze 
 statue  of  Jupiter  at  Sparta,  which  is  con- 
 sidered to  have  been  the  oldest  work  of 
 that  kind.  It  was,  however,  not  cast  en- 
 tire, but  in  separate  parts. 
 
 LEBRUN,  Charles,  a  celebrated 
 painter,  was  born,  in  1619,  at  Paris; 
 studied  under  Vouet  and  Poussin ;  and, 
 after  his  return  from  Rome,  was  liberally 
 patronised  by  Fouquet.  He  was  next  in- 
 troduced to  Louis  XIV.  who  appointed 
 him  his  principal  painter,  ennobled  him, 
 and  consulted  him  on  all  subjects  connec- 
 ted with  the  arts.  Lebrun  availed  himself 
 of  his  influence  to  obtain  from  the  monarch 
 the  founding  of  a  school  at  Rome,  for  stu- 
 dents of  painting.  He  died  in  1690.  He 
 wrote  a  Treatise  on  the  Passions;  and 
 another  on  Bhvsiognomy. 
 
 LEBRUN,  Pontius  Denis  Ecouch- 
 ard,  a  French  poet,  whose  lyrical  compo- 
 sitions obtained  for  him  the  appellation  of 
 the  French  Pindar,  was  born,  in  1729,  at 
 Paris,  in  which  city  he  died  in  1807.  He 
 was  brought  up  by  the  prince   of  Conti, 
 
LEE 
 
 to  whom  he  became  secretary-  It  was 
 even  suspected  that  they  were  very  nearly 
 related.  Before  he  was  twenty-six  lie  had 
 established  his  fame  as  a  lyric  poet.  Of 
 the  revolution  he  was  a  violent  panegyrist; 
 in  his  latter  days  he  was  a  pensioner  of 
 Napoleon.  Lebrun  was  not  an  amiable 
 man;  he  delighted  in  scattering  about  his 
 satires  and^pigrains,  without  paying  much 
 regard  to  truth  or  decency. 
 
 LEBRUN,  Charles  Francis,  duke  of 
 Placentia,  was  born,  in  1739,  near  Cou- 
 tances,  in  Normandy;  studied  the  law; 
 was  secretary  to  the  chancellor  Maupeon, 
 and  shared  the  odium  which  that  minister 
 incurred ;  sat  in  the  states  general  and  the 
 council  of  five  hundred ;  was  chosen  by 
 Bonaparte  as  third  consul;  and  was  suc- 
 cessively governor  of  Liguria  and  admin- 
 istrator general  of  Holland,  He  died  in 
 1824.  Lebrun  translated  the  Iliad  and 
 Odvssev,  and  Tasso's  Jerusalem. 
 
 LECLERC,  John,  an  eminent  critic, 
 was  born,  in  1657,  at  Geneva;  and  died, 
 in  1736,  in  a  state  of  childishness,  at  Am- 
 sterdam, where  he  was  a  clergyman,  and 
 professsor  of  philosophy,  belles  lettres,and 
 Hebrew.  Leclerc  was  impatient  of  con- 
 tradiction, acrimonious  and  satirical  in  de- 
 bate, irascible,  and  fond  of  singularity. 
 He  has  been  called  the  self  constituted 
 inquisitor  of  the  republic  of  literature. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Ars  Critica ;  Har- 
 monia  Evangelica;  and  the  three  Biblio- 
 theques,  or  Libraries  in  twenty-five,  twenty- 
 eight,  and  twenty-nine  volumes. 
 
 LEDYARD,  John,  an  adventurous 
 traveller,  was  born  at  Groton,  in  Connecti- 
 cut, and  was  educated  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
 lege, in  New  Hampshire.  After  having 
 lived  for  some  time  among  the  Indians,  he 
 came  to  England,  and  sailed  with  Cook, 
 on  his  second  voyage,  as  a  marine.  On 
 his  return,  he  resolved  to  penetrate  on  foot 
 across  Northern  Asia,  and  proceed  to  the 
 opposite  coast  of  America.  He  was,  how- 
 ever, seized  at  Yakutz,  and  sent  out  of 
 the  Russian  dominions.  He  was  next 
 employed  by  the  African  association  to 
 explore  the  interior  of  Africa;  but  he  died 
 at  Cairo,  in  1788. 
 
 LEE,  Arthur,  an   eminent  American 
 patriot,  was  born,  in   Virginia,   in  1740, 
 and  received   his   education    in   England,! 
 taking  his  degree   of  M.  D.  at  the  univer- 
 sity of  Edinburgh.     He  then   returned  to 
 his  native  state,  and  for  some  years  prac-| 
 tised  physic  at  Williamsburg,  but  political  j 
 affairs   were  then  assuming  so  interesting} 
 an  aspect,  that  he  again  went  to  England 
 and    entered  on    the   study  of  law   in  the, 
 Temple.       In    1770    he    visited    London,! 
 and    became    a    member    of    the    famous 
 society    of  the    supporters    of  the    bill  of 
 rights.     His  political  publications   at  this 
 period,    under    the    signature    of    Junius 
 
 LEE 
 
 357 
 
 Americanus,  were  numerous,  and  procured 
 for  him  the  acquaintance  of  the  leaders  of 
 the  popular  party.  In  1776  he  was  ap- 
 pointed minister  to  France,  in  conjunction 
 
 with  Dr.  Franklin  and  .Mr.  Diane,  and 
 assisted  in  negotiating  the  treaty  with  that 
 nation.  In  1779,  in  consequence  of  the 
 false  accusations  of  Mr.  Dane,  com- 
 plaints of  his  political  conduct  woe 
 freely  circulated  at  home,  and  in  the  fol- 
 lowing year  he  resigned  his  appointments 
 and  returned.  In  1781  he  was  elected  to 
 the  assembly  of  Virginia,  and  by  this  body 
 returned  to  Congress,  where  he  continued 
 to  represent  the  state  till  1785.  In  1784 
 he  was  employed  to  arrange  a  treaty  u  ith 
 the  six  Indian  nations.  He  was  next 
 called  to  the  board  of  treasury,  where  he 
 continued  till  1789,  when  he  went  into 
 retirement.     He  died  in  1792. 
 
 LEE,  Charlks,  a  major-general  in 
 the  army  of  the  American  revolution,  was 
 born  in  North  Wales,  and  became  an  offi- 
 cer at  the  age  of  11  years.  He  served  at 
 an  early  age  in  America,  and  afterwards 
 distinguished  himself  under  general  Bur- 
 goyne,  in  Portugal.  He  subsequently  en- 
 tered the  Polish  service,  wandered  all  over 
 Europe,  killed  an  Italian  officer  in  a  duel, 
 and  in  1773  sailed  for  New  York.  Es- 
 pousing the  cause  of  the  colonies,  he  re- 
 ceived a  commission  from  Congress  iu 
 1775,  with  the  rank  of  major  general.  In 
 1776  he  was  invested  with  the  command 
 at  New  York,  and  afterwards  with  the 
 chief  command  in  the  southern  depart- 
 ment. In  December,  1776,  he  was  made 
 prisoner  by  the  English,  as  he  lay  carelessly 
 guarded  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
 main  body  of  the  army  in  New  Jersey. 
 He  was  kept  prisoner  till  the  surrender  of 
 Burgoyne,  in  1777,  and  treated  in  a  man- 
 ner unworthy  of  a  generons  enemy.  In 
 1778,  he  was  arraigned  before  a  court 
 martial,  in  consequence  of  his  misconduct 
 at  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  and  was  sus- 
 pended from  any  commission  in  the  army 
 of  the  United  States  for  one  year.  He 
 retired  to  a  hovel  in  Virginia,  living  in 
 entire  seclusion,  surrounded  by  his  books 
 and  his  dogs.  In  1782,  he  went  to  reside 
 at  Philadelphia,  where  he  died  in  obscurity 
 in  October  of  the  same  year.  He  was  a 
 man  of  much  energy  and  courage,  with 
 considerable  literary  attainments,  but  mo- 
 rose and  avaricious.  He  published  essays 
 on  military,  literary  and  political  subjects, 
 which  with  his  extensive  correspondence 
 were  collected  in  a  volume  in  1792.  The 
 authorship  of  the  Letters  of  Junius  has 
 been  ascribed  to  him. 
 
 LEE,  Henry,  a  distinguished  officer 
 in  the  American  revolutionary  army,  was 
 born  in  Virginia  in  17o6,  and  was  gradu- 
 ated at  the  college  iu  Princeton.  In  1776 
 he  was  a  captain  of  one  of  the  six  compa- 
 
358  LEE 
 
 Dies  of  cavalry,  raised  by  Virginia,  and 
 afterwards!  incorporated  into  one  regiment, 
 and  in  1777  added  to  the  main  body  of  the 
 
 1<rovincials.  At  the  battle  of  Germantown, 
 ,ee  was  selected  with  his  company  to  at- 
 tend Washington  as  his  body-guard.  In 
 1780,  being  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
 ant-colonel, he  was  sent  with  his  legion  to 
 the  army  of  the  south,  under  general 
 Greene,  and  continued  with  it  till  the  end 
 of  the  war.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
 the  battle  of  Eutaw  springs,  and  in  the  en- 
 suing October  was  sent  on  a  special  commis- 
 sion to  the  commander  in  chief,  then  em- 
 ployed in  the  siege  of  Yorktown ;  in  17S6 
 he  was  appointed  a  delegate  to  Congress, 
 from  the  state  of  Virginia,  and  remained 
 in  that  body  till  the  adoption  of  the  present 
 constitution.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
 state  convention  which  ratified  that  instru- 
 ment, and  in  1792  he  was  raised  to  the 
 chair  of  governor  of  Virginia.  In  1799 
 he  was  again  a  member  of  Congress,  and 
 while  there  selected  to  pronounce  a  funeral 
 oration  on  the  death  of  Washington.  The 
 latter  years  of  his  life  were  embarrassed 
 bv  want,  and  it  was  while  confined  for 
 debt  in  the  limits  of  Spottsylvania  county, 
 that  be  prepared  for  publication  his  excel- 
 lent Memoirs  of  the  Southern  Campaign. 
 He  was  severely  wounded  during  the  riot 
 in  Baltimore,  in  1814,  and  his  health  rap- 
 idly declined.  He  died  on  Cumberland 
 island,  Georgia,  in  1818. 
 
 LEE,  Francis  Lightfoot,  a  signer 
 of  the  declaration  of  independence,  was 
 born  in  Virginia  in  1734.  He  inherited  a 
 large  fortune,  and  in  1765,  became  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  house  of  burgesses  of  his  native 
 state,  and  continued  in  that  body  till  1775, 
 when  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  con- 
 tinental congress.  He  remained  in  this 
 assembly  till  1779,  when  he  entered  the 
 legislature  of  his  native  state.  He  died  in 
 1797. 
 
 LEE,  Richard  Henry,  an  eminent 
 American  patriot,  and  signer  of  the  dec- 
 laration of  independence,  was  born  in 
 Virginia  in  1732,  and  received  his  educa- 
 tion in  England.  He  returned  to  his  na- 
 tive country  when  in  his  nineteenth  year, 
 and  devoted  himself  to  the  general  study 
 of  history,  politics,  law,  and  polite  litera- 
 ture, without  engaging  in  any  particular 
 profession.  In  his  twenty-fifth  year,  he 
 was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  house  of  bur- 
 gesses, where  he  soon  distinguished  him- 
 self by  his  powers  in  debate.  In  1764,  he 
 was  appointed  to  draught  an  address  to  the 
 king,  and  a  memorial  to  the  house  of  lords, 
 which  are  among  the  best  state  papers  of 
 the  period.  His  elforts  in  resisting  the 
 various  encroachments  of  the  British  gov- 
 ernment  were  indefatigable,  and  in  1774 
 he  attended  the  first  general  congress  at 
 Philadelphia,  as  .1  delegate  from  Virginia. 
 
 LEF 
 
 He  was  a  member  of  most  of  the  important 
 committees  of  this  body,  and  laboured  with 
 unceasing  vigilance  and  energy.  The  me- 
 morial of  Congress  to  the  people  of  British 
 America,  and  the  second  address  of  Con- 
 gress to  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  were 
 both  from  his  pen.  In  June,  1776,  lie  in- 
 troduced the  measure  that  declared  the 
 colonies  free  and  independent  #states,  and 
 supported  it  by  a  speech  of  the  most  bril- 
 liant eloquence.  He  continued  to  hold  a 
 seat  in  congress  till  June,  1777,  when  he 
 solicited  leave  of  absence,  on  account  of 
 the  delicate  state  of  his  health.  In  August 
 of  the  next  year,  he  was  again  elected  to 
 congress,  and  continued  in  that  body  till 
 1780,  when  he  declined  a  reelection  till 
 1784.  In  that  year  he  was  chosen  presi- 
 dent of  congress,  but  retired  at  the  close 
 of  it.  and  in  1786  was  again  chosen  a 
 member  of  the  Virginia  assembly.  He 
 was  a  member  of  the  convention  which 
 adopted  the  present  constitution  of  the 
 United  States,  and  one  of  the  first  senators 
 under  it.  In  1792  he  again  retired  from 
 public  life,  and  died  in  1794. 
 
 LEE,  Nathaniel,  a  dramatist,  was 
 born  at  Hatfield,  in  Hertfordshire;  was 
 educated  at  Westminster  School,  and  at 
 Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  tried  his  for- 
 tune as  an  actor  and  a  writer  for  the  stage; 
 became  insane,  and  was  confined  in  Bedlam 
 for  two  years;  and  died,  in  poverty,  in 
 1692,  of  injuries  received  during  a  drunken 
 frolic.  He  wrote  eleven  tragedies,  of  which 
 The  Rival  Queens,  and  Theodosius,  are 
 the  best;  and  he  assisted  Dryden  in  writ- 
 ing (Edipus  and  The  Duke  of  Guise. 
 Lee  possessed  genius,  but  was  deficient  in 
 judgment  ;  and  his  style  is  often  bom- 
 bastic. 
 
 LEE,  Sophia,  the  daughter  of  an  able 
 actor,  was  born  in  London,  in  1750.  Her 
 first  literary  attempt,  which,  however,  was 
 not  published  till  many  years  after  it 
 was  written,  was  The  Life  of  a  Lover. 
 In  1780  her  comedy  of  the  Chapter  of  Ac- 
 cidents was  so  successful  that  the  profits 
 of  it  enabled  her  to  establish,  at  Bath,  an 
 academy  for  young  ladies,  which  was  con- 
 ducted by  herself  and  her  sisters.  Her 
 novel  of  The  Recess  established  her  fame. 
 Tn  1803  she  retired  from  her  toils  of  tui- 
 tion; and  she  died  March  13,  1824.  She 
 wrote,  besides  the  above  works,  Ahneyda, 
 a  tragedy;  The  Assignation,  a  comedy » 
 A  Hermit's  Tale,  a  poem ;  and  two  of  the 
 stories  in  her  sister's  Canterbury  Tales. 
 
 LEFEBVRE,  Joseph  Francis,  duke 
 of  Dantzic,  a  French  marshal,  was  born, 
 in  1755,  at  Rufack,  in  Alsace;  and  died 
 in  1820.  He  entered  early  into  the  army. 
 In  1794  he  attained  the  rank  of  general. 
 From  that  year  till  1799,  he  distinguished 
 himself  greatly  in  all  the  campaigns  ir» 
 Flanders  and  on  the  Rhjn^     When  Bona- 
 
LEI 
 
 Earte  subverted  the  directorial  government, 
 .efebvre  seconded  him  efficaciously,  and 
 his  services  were  rewarded  with  multiplied 
 honours.  Between  1805  and  1815,  he  bore 
 a  conspicuous  part  at  Jena,  Kylau,  Wa- 
 gram,  and  many  other  battles;  and  his 
 conquest  of  Dantzic  won  for  him  the  ducal 
 title.  Lefebvre  was  modest,  disinterested, 
 and  of  unaffected  manners. 
 
 LEGOUVE.  Gabrikl  Mary  John 
 Baptist,  a  French  dramatist  and  poet, 
 was  born,  in  1764,  at  Paris;  was  admitted 
 a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1798;  held, 
 as  substitute  for  Delille,  the  professorship 
 of  Latin  poetry  at  the  college  of  France ; 
 and  died  insane  in  1813.  Legouve  was  an 
 exceedingly  elegant  writer,  but  was  defi- 
 cient in  imagination  and  poetical  fire.  He 
 wrote  six  tragedies,  and  several  poems. 
 Among  the  latter  are,  The  Recollections; 
 Melancholy;    and  The  Merit  of  Women. 
 
 LEIBNITZ,     Godfrey     William, 
 baron,  a  man   of  almost  universal  genius, 
 was  born,  in  1646,  at  Leipsic;  and  studied 
 at  the  universities  of    that  place  and    of  I 
 Jena.     He  was  first   in  the  service  of  the  I 
 elector  of  Mentz,  as  counsellor  of  revision  I 
 in  the  chancery;   and,  after  the  death  of  | 
 that  prince,  was  patronised  by  the  house  of  j 
 Hanover.     He  also  received  pensions  and  I 
 flattering  distinctions  from  Peter  the  Great, ! 
 the  king  of  Prussia,  and  the  emperor  of 
 Germany;   and  was  a  member   of  various 
 learned  bodies.     France    he  visited  once, 
 and  England  twice,  and  was  received  with 
 the  respect   which  was  due  to  his  merits. 
 He  died  at  Hanover  in  1716.     The  major 
 part  of  the  numerous   works  of  Leibnitz 
 has  been   collected  in   six  quarto  volumes 
 by  Dutens.     Some  of  the  rest  were  pub- 
 lished bv   Raspe,  with   the   title   of  Philo-I 
 sophic  Works.     "  Leibnitz,  who  was  thus  ' 
 occupied  with  the  most  abstruse  metaphys- 1 
 ical  inquiries  (says  a  modern  writer),  was 
 also  in  his  day  the  rival  of  Newton  himself  I 
 in  physical  science;   possessed  unequalled  I 
 erudition,  classical    and    scholastic;     was 
 distinguished  by  his   knowledge  of  Roman 
 jurisprudence  and  German  antiquities;  and  \ 
 was  a  profound  and  masterly  controversial  j 
 theologian."     Gibbon  also  has  drawn  his 
 character    at    full  length,  and  in  glowing ! 
 colours. 
 
 LEICESTER,    Robert    DUDLEY, 
 earl  of,  born  in    1532,  was  the  son  of  the 
 duke  of  Northumberland,   who  was   exe- 
 cuted in  the  reign  of  Mary.     He  was  taken  i 
 into  the  favour  of  Elizabeth  soon  after  her  | 
 accession,  and  continued  to  enjoy  it  to  the; 
 last      Honours  and  giants  of  immense  es-  j 
 tates  were  lavished  on  him  by  the  virgin  j 
 queen.     In    1561,  she  created   him  baron 
 of  Denbigh  and  earl  of  Leicester  ;  in  1S65, 
 she  procured  his  appointment  as   governor 
 of  the  Netherlands;    and   in    1588,  at  the 
 moment  of  impending  invasion,   she  ga\ei 
 
 LEM 
 
 869 
 
 him  the  command    of  the   English  army 
 He  died  in  September,    1588.     Of   three 
 wives,  Dudley    is   believed   to  have   mur 
 dered  the  first;    the  second,  to  whom  he 
 was  privately  wedded,  he  basely  disowned. 
 
 LEIGHTON,  Robert,  a  Scotch  pre- 
 late, was  born,  in  1613.  in  London;  was 
 educated  at  Edinburgh;  quitted  the  pre* 
 byterian  church  for  the  episcopal;  was 
 successively  principal  of  Edinburgh  uni- 
 versity, bishop  of  Dumblaoe,  and  arch- 
 bishop of  Glasgow;  and  died  in  1684. 
 His  works,  which  are  still  deservedly  in 
 repute,  form  six  octavo  volumes.  Leighton 
 was  a  man  of  great  eloquence,  mildness, 
 disinterestedness,  and  piety. 
 
 LELAND,  John,  an  antiquary,  was 
 born,  in  London,  about  the  end  of  lienr« 
 the  Seventh's  reign;  was  educated  at  St 
 Paul's  School,  and  at  Christ's  College, 
 Cambridge,  and  All  Souls,  Oxford;  be- 
 came chaplain  and  librarian  to  Henry  the 
 Eighth;  and  obtained  church  preferment; 
 spent  six  years  in  travelling  to  examine 
 English  antiquities;  and  died  insane  in 
 1552.  His  Itinerary,  and  some  of  his  oth- 
 er works,  were  published  by  Hearne  and 
 Hall. 
 
 LELAND,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  mis- 
 cellaneous writer,  was  born,  in  1772,  at 
 Dublin,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
 lege, where,  in  1763,  he  became  professor 
 of  oratory.  In  1768  the  lord  lieutenant 
 appointed  him  his  chaplain,  and  subse- 
 quently gave  him  the  vicarage  of  Bray, 
 and  a  prebend  in  St.  Patrick's  cathedral. 
 Dr.  Leland  died  in  1785.  He  wrote  Ser- 
 mons; The  History  of  Ireland;  The  Life 
 of  Philip  of  Macedon ;  and  a  Dissertation 
 on  the  Principles  of  Human  Eloquence 
 (which  was  anonymously  attacked  by 
 Hurd) ;  and  translated  the  Orations  of 
 Demosthenes  and  vF.schine.s. 
 
 LELY,  Sir  Peter,  an  eminent  painter, 
 whose  real  name  was  Vander  Faes,  was 
 born,  in  1618,  at  Soest,  in  Westphalia,  and 
 was  a  pupil  of  Grebber  of  Haerlem.  In 
 1641  he  came  to  England,  and  from  that 
 period  he  gradually  rose  in  reputation,  for 
 his  portraits,  till  his  decease,  in  1680. 
 Charles  II.  knighted  him,  and  appointed 
 him  his  principal  painter.  Lely  was  so 
 much  employed  in  taking  likenesses  that 
 he  produced  feu-  historical  pictures.  His 
 style  is  elegant,  and  his  colouring  beauti- 
 ful, but  there  is  little  variety  in  his  ex- 
 pression. 
 
 LEMIERRE,  Anthony  Morin,  a 
 French  poet  and  dramatist,  was  born,  in 
 1733,  or,  according  to  some,  in  1721,  at 
 Paris.  He  was  successively  a  writer  of 
 MS.  sermons,  under  master  of  rhetoric,  at 
 Harcourt  College,  and  secretary  to  Dupin, 
 one  of  the  farmers  general,  who  had  the 
 liberality  to  give  him  a  pension,  to  enable 
 him  to  give  himself  up  to  literature.    In 
 
360 
 
 LEN 
 
 1781  be  became  a  member  of  the  French] 
 Academy.  He  died  in  1793.    lie  produced 
 several  poems,  and  nine  tragedies;    of  the 
 latter,    William  Tell,    1 ! ypennnestra,  and 
 die  Widow  of  .Malabar,  arc  still  acted. 
 
 LEMONNIER,  Peter  Charles,  an 
 eminent  astronomer,  was  born,  in  1715,  at 
 Paris;  began  his  astronomical  observations 
 on  Saturn  before  he  was  sixteen;  was  ad- 
 mitted a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
 ences in  1736,  and  was  sent,  in  tlie  same 
 year,  with  Mau per tu is  and  Clairault,  to 
 measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian  under  the 
 polar  circle;  was  for  many  years  professor 
 at  the  college  of  France;  and  died  in  1799. 
 Lalande  was  one  of  his  pupils.  Among  his 
 works  are,  Celestial  History;  a  Theory  of 
 Comets;  Nautical  Astronomy;  and  The 
 Laws  of  Magnetism. 
 
 LEMPRIERE,  John,  a  native  of  Jer- 
 sey, was  educated  at  Winchester,  and  at 
 Pembroke  College,  Oxford ;  was  head 
 master  of  Abingdon  grammar  school,  and 
 afterwards  of  the  school  at  Exeter;  and, 
 oil  resigning  the  latter,  was  presented  to 
 the  livings  of  Meeth  and  Newton  Petrock, 
 in  Devonshire,  which  he  held  till  his  de- 
 cease, in  1824.  He  compiled  the  Bibiio- 
 theca  Classica;  and  Universal  Biography  ; 
 and  printed  the  first  volume  of  a  transla- 
 tion of  Herodotus. 
 
 LENCLOS,  Anne,  or  familiarly  Ni- 
 non de,  a  celebrated  female  voluptuary, 
 was  born,  in  1616,  at  Paris,  and  died  in 
 1706.  She  was  beautiful;  and  so  highly 
 accomplished,  and  of  such  elegant  man- 
 ners, that  her  society  was  courted  by  all 
 the  distinguished  characters  of  that  age; 
 but  she  held  chastity  in  utter  contempt, 
 and  for  constancy  she  had  as  little  respect. 
 Her  charms  she  is  generally  said  to  have 
 retained  in  extreme  old  age;  but  this  is 
 denied  bv  Voltaire. 
 
 LENGLET  DUFRESNOY,  Nicho- 
 las, a  French  literary  character,  was 
 born,  in  1674,  at  Beauvais,  and  was 
 brought  up  as  an  ecclesiastic,  but  became 
 Latin  and  French  secretary  to  the  elector 
 of  Cologne;  and,  subsequently  to  the  peace 
 of  Utrecht,  he  settled  at  Paris  as  an  au- 
 thor. He  was,  on  sonic  occasions,  em- 
 ployed as  a  spy  by  the  ministry;  and,  on 
 Others,  was  imprisoned  by  them  for  his 
 writings.  lie  was  five  times  a  captive  in 
 the  Bastile,  once  at  Vincennes,  and  once 
 at  Strasburgh.  He  was  burnt  to  death  in 
 1755.  His  works  are  numerous,  but  all 
 of  them  are  full  of  errors.  The  best 
 known  of  them  are.  The  Method  of  study- 
 ing History  ;  and  Chronologii  al  Tablets  of 
 Universal  1  [istqry. 
 
 LENNOX,  Charlotte,  a  literary  fe- 
 male of  considerable  talents,  who  was  the 
 friend  of  Johnson  urn!  Richardson,  was 
 born,  in  1720,  at  New  York,  of  which  her 
 father,    Colonel    Ramsay,  was   lieulenant- 
 
 LES 
 
 governor.  She  was  sent  to  England  to  be 
 educated;  married,  and  was  left  a  widow 
 with  one  child  ;  and  resorted  to  her  pen  foi 
 subsistence.  Her  latter  days  were  cloud- 
 ed by  poverty  and  sickness.  She  died  in 
 ]S04.  Among  her  works  are,  the  novels 
 of  The  Female  Quixote,  Henrietta,  So- 
 phia, and  Euphemia;  Shakspeare  Illus- 
 trated; two  plays;  and  \arious  transla- 
 tions. 
 
 LENOTRE,  Andrew,  an  architect 
 and  designer  of  gardens,  was  born,  in 
 1613,  at  Paiis,  and  studied  painting  under 
 Vouet.  For  Louis  XIV.  he  laid  out  the 
 gardens  of  Versailles,  the  Tuilleries,  Clag- 
 ny,  Chautilly,  St.  Cloud,  3Ieudon,  Sceaux, 
 St.  Germain,  and  Fontainebleau;  and  that 
 haughty  monarch  treated  hiin  rather  as  a 
 familiar  friend  than  as  a  subject  and  ser- 
 vant.    He  died  in  1700. 
 
 LEO  X.,  Pope,  John  de  MEDICI, 
 the  son  of  the  illustrious  Lorenzo,  was 
 born,  in  1475,  at  Florence,  and  was  nomi- 
 nated a  cardinal  in  his  thirteenth  year. 
 In  1505  he  was  made  governor  of  Perugia; 
 was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  the 
 papal  army  in  1511  ;  and  was  made  pris- 
 oner, in  the  following  year,  at  the  battle 
 of  Ravenna.  He  attained  the  papal  crown 
 in  1513,  on  the  death  of  Julius  II.  He 
 died  in  1521.  Leo  was  one  of  the  most 
 munificent  patrons  of  learning  and  of  the 
 arts;  but  he  was  prodigal,  and  on  some 
 occasions  grossly  violated  the  principles  of 
 justice.  To  bis  shameless  sale  of  in- 
 dulgences the  world  is  indebted  for  the 
 reformation  of  the  church. 
 
 LEON  IDAS  I.,  kins  of  Sparta,  famous 
 for  his  heroic  patriotism,  succeeded  his 
 half  brother  Cleomenes,  B.  c.  491.  When 
 Xerxes  invaded  Greece,  Leonidas,  at  the 
 head  of  four  thousand  men,  defended  the 
 pass  of  Thermopylae.  Threats  and  prom- 
 ises were  tried  in  vain,  to  induce  the  val- 
 iant Spartan  to  retire  from  his  post.  In 
 an  attack,  which  lasted  two  days,  the 
 Persians  were  not  more  succcessful;  they 
 were  defeated  with  the  slaughter  of  twen- 
 ty thousand  men.  Xerxes  was  on  the 
 point  of  abandoning  his  enterprise,  when 
 Ephialtes,a  traitorous  Greek,  made  known 
 to  him  a  path  by  which  the  Persians  were 
 enabled  to  penetrate  to  the  Grecian  rear. 
 Leonidas  was  now  surrounded,  and,  after 
 a  severe  contest,  he  perished  with  his  brave 
 companions.  , 
 
 LESAGE,  Alain  Rene,  eminent  as 
 a  novelist  and  a  dramatist,  was  born,  in 
 166  8,  at  Sar/.eau,  in  Britanny;  and  stud- 
 ied at  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Vannes.  Af- 
 ter having,  it  is  believed,  for  some  years 
 held  a  situation  under  the  farmers  general 
 in  his  native  province,  he  went  to  Paris  in 
 1o'.'f:>,  tried  the  bar  for  a  short  time,  and 
 then  adopted  the  profession  of  an  author. 
 His   scanty    means    were   enlarged   by   the 
 
LES 
 
 generosity  of  the  abbe  de  Lyonne,  his 
 friend,  who  allowed  him  a  pension  of  six 
 hundred  livres,  and  made  him  many  valua- 
 ble presents.  De  Lyonne  did  him  another 
 essential  service,  by  directing  his  attention 
 to  Spanish  literature,  and  teaching  him  the 
 language.  For  some  years  lie  continued 
 to  be  little  known  as  a  writer;  but,  in 
 1707,  he  rose  at  once  into  popularity  by  his 
 comedy  of  Crispin  the  Rival  of  his  .Mas- 
 ter, and  his  romance  of  Le  Diable  LJoiteux. 
 The  comedy  ot'Turcaret,  in  1709,  added  to 
 his  fame,  and  that  fame  was,  in  the  course 
 of  a  few  years,  rendered  imperishable  by 
 his  admirable  Gil  Bias,  which  placed  him 
 in  the  first  rank  of  novelists.  hosage 
 was  endowed  with  great  literary  fertility. 
 Among  his  novels  are,  The  Adventures  of 
 Gusaian  d'Alfarache;  The  Adventures  of 
 the  Chevalier  Beaucbesne;  The  History 
 of  Estevanille  Gonzales  ;  and  The  Bachelor 
 of  Salamanca.  Of  dramatic  pities  lie 
 compose,!  twenty-four,  and  had  a  share  in 
 the  composition  of  seventy-six  others. 
 Several  miscellaneous  works  and  transla- 
 tions also  dropped  from  his  pen.  He  died, 
 in  retirement,  at  Boulogne,  November  17, 
 1747. 
 
 LESAGE,  George  Lewis, a  philoso- 
 pher, was  born,  in  1724,  at  Geneva;  and 
 died  there  in  1803.  He  was  educated  for 
 the  medical  profession,  but  never  practised 
 it.  Lesage  is  principally  known  by  his 
 inquiries  into  the  phenomena  of  gravita- 
 tion. Most  of  his  works  remain  unpub- 
 lished. Among  those  which  have  been 
 printed  are,  Fragments  on  Final  Causes; 
 and  a  Treatise  on  Mechanical  Physics. 
 
 LESLEY,  John,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
 born  in  1527,  and  was  educated  at  Aber- 
 deen and  Paris.  The  unfortunate  Mary 
 of  Scotland  gave  him  the  bishopric  of  Ross, 
 and  he  accompanied  her  from  France  to 
 her  native  country.  After  her  dethrone- 
 ment, he  served  her  with  an  honourable 
 fidelity  and  zeal,  defending  her  warmly  in  I 
 the  conferences  at  York  and  Westminster. 
 Elizabeth  imprisoned  him,  and  afterwards 
 sent  him  out  of  the  kingdom.  On  the  con- 
 tinent, he  renewed  his  fruitless  exertions 
 on  behalf  of  his  captive  sovereign.  In' 
 1593  he  was  made  bisnop  of  Constance.] 
 He  died  in  1596.  Among  his  works  are, 
 A  Defence  of  Queen  Mary;  and  A  De- 
 scription of  Scotland. 
 
 LESSING,  Gotthold   Ephraim,  a, 
 celebrated  German    writer,   was    born,  in 
 1729,  at  Kamenz,  in  Pomeraaia;    and  wasj 
 educated  at  Meissen  and  Lcipsic.     A  part 
 of  his  youth  was  spent  in  a  desultory  man-| 
 ner;   but  the  rest  of  his    life   was  given  to 
 literary  toil,  and  to  performing   the   duties! 
 of  various  employments.    His  first  attempts 
 were  dramatic,  and,  though  imperfect,  they 
 were  well  received.     They    were  followed 
 by  his   Fables,  aid  several  oilier  produc-l 
 1(3 
 
 LEU 
 
 S61 
 
 tions,  which  widely  extended  his  reputa- 
 tion. In  1770  the  hereditary  prince  of 
 Brunswick  appointed  him  librarian  at 
 Wolfenbuttel,  and  when  the  sovereignty 
 devolved  upon  that  prince,  Leasing  was 
 still  more  efficiently  patronised  by  him. 
 He  died  in  1781.  Lessing  is  regarded  as 
 one  of  those  authors  who  contributed  to 
 refine  German  literature.  Anion.;  his  dra- 
 mas art;,  Miss  Sarah  Samson;  Emilia 
 Galotti;  Philotas;  Nathan  the  Wise; 
 Bfinna  de  Barnhelm ;  the  Jews;  the  Mis- 
 ogynist;  and  The  Free  Thinker.  Of  his 
 other  works  the  principal  are,  Laocooo  ; 
 The  Hamburgh  Dramaturgy;  and  The 
 Fragments  of  an  Unknown. 
 
 L'ESTRANGE,  Sir  Roger,  a  political 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1616,  in  Norfolk; 
 espoused  the  cause  of  Charles  I.  and  was 
 four  years  imprisoned  by  the  Parliament 
 for  .attempting  to  surprise  Lynn  ;  was  made 
 licenser  of  the  press,  and  a  justice  of  the 
 peace,  after  the  Restoration;  established 
 the  Public  Intelligencer,  and  subsequently 
 the  Intelligencer,  two  furious  tory  papers; 
 and  died  in  1703.  He  published  many 
 abusive  political  tracts,  and  translated  Jo- 
 sephus;  yEsop's  Fables;  Seneca's  Mor- 
 als;   and  other  works. 
 
 LESUEUR,  Eustace,  an  eminent 
 painter,  who  is  called  the  French  Raphael, 
 was  born,  in  1617,  at  Paris,  and  was  a 
 pupil  of  Vouet,  but  derived  his  excellence 
 from  the  study  of  the  antique.  In  many 
 important  points  he  was  far  superior  to  his 
 rival  Lebrun.  Lesueur  was  of  a  modest 
 and  retired  disposition.  He  died  in  1655. 
 Landon  has  engraved  a  hundred  and  ten 
 of  his  works,  among  which  are,  St.  Paul 
 healing  the  Sick;  St.  Paul  preaching  at 
 Ephesus;  the  Life  of  St.  Bruno,  in  twenty- 
 two  paintings ;  and  the  Martyrdom  of  St. 
 Laurence. 
 
 LETI,  Gregory, an  Italian  historian, 
 was  born,  in  1630,  at  Milan;  studied  at 
 Cosenza  and  Rome;  abjured  the  catholic 
 religion  at  Geneva;  visited  England  in 
 1680,  and  was  pensioned  by  Charles  II., 
 .but  soon  displeased  the  court  by  the  free- 
 dom of  his  pen,  in  the  Britannic  Theatre, 
 and  was  ordered  to  quit  the  kingdom ;  and 
 died,  in  1701,  at  Amsterdam,  historiogra- 
 pher of  that  city.  Among  his  works  are, 
 Lives  of  Sixtus  V.;  Charles  V.;  Philip 
 II.;  Queen  Elizabeth;  and  Oliver  Crom- 
 well. Leti  is  so  incorrect  a  writer  as  to 
 have  acquired  the  appellation  of  the  Italian 
 Varillas. 
 
 LEUWENHOECK,  or  LEEUWEN- 
 HOECK,  Anthony  Y\.\,  an  eminent 
 Dutch  experimental  philosopher,  was  horn, 
 in  1632,  at  Delft.  Having  brought  to  great 
 perfection  the  art  of  making  lenses,  he 
 engaged  in  microscopicaj  ovservatiotts 
 principally  anatomical,  which  he  continued 
 throughout  his  life  with  equal  perseverance 
 
362  LEW 
 
 and  success.  His  discoveries  were  com- 
 municated to  the  world  through  the  medium 
 of  the  Philosophical  Transactions.  He 
 died  in  1723. 
 
 LEVAILLANT,  Francis,  a  traveller, 
 was  bom  at  Paramaribo,  in  Guiana,  and 
 died,  in  1824,  at  Sezanne,  in  France. 
 Besides  his  two  narratives  of  his  Travels 
 into  the  interior  of  Southern  Africa,  lie 
 published  a  .Natural  History  of  African 
 Birds — of  a  part  of  the  new  and  rare 
 P»irds  of  America  and  the  West  Indies — 
 of  Parrots — and  of  Birds  of  Paradise.  The 
 travels  of  Levaillant  are  amusing,  and 
 afford  considerable  information;  but  the 
 veracity  of  some  parts  of  them  has  been 
 doubted. 
 
 LEVIZAC,  John  Pons  Victor  Le- 
 coutz  de,  a  grammarian,  was  born  at 
 Albv,  in  Languedoc;  emigrated  at  the  com- 
 mencement of  the  revolution;  and  died,  in 
 1813,  in  London.  His  chief  works  are,  A 
 Philosophical  and  Literary  French  Gram- 
 mar; an  Abridgment  of  it;  a  French 
 and  English  Dictionary;  a  Dictionary  of 
 Svnonvmes;  and  A  Portable  Library  of 
 French  Writers.  In  his  youth  he  gained 
 some  applause  as  a  poet. 
 
 LEWIS,  Francis,  a  signer  of  the  de- 
 claration of  American   independence,    was  I 
 born  in  1715,  in  South  Wales,  and  after  i 
 receiving  a  good  school  education,  engaged 
 in  commerce.     In  1736  he  came  to  Amer- 
 ica, and  after  a  short   residence   at  Phila- 
 delphia, he  removed   to  New  York    city. 
 In  1773  he  was  elected  to  the  continental 
 congress,   and    was   an  efficient  and  useful 
 member  of  that  body.     He  was  taken  pris-i 
 oner  by  the    British   during  the  war,  audi 
 suffered  much  both  in  person  and   in  prop- 
 erty.    He  died  in  1803. 
 
 LEWIS,  Meriwether,  a  celebrated' 
 explorer,  was  born  in  Virginia,  in    1774,' 
 and,  after  receiving  a  good   school  educa- 
 tion, engaged  in  agriculture.     When  Gen- 
 eral   Washington    called    out    a    body    of 
 militia    in   consequence  of  the  discontent 
 produced  by  tin1  excise  taxes,  young  Lewis 
 entered  as  a  volunteer,  and  from  that  situ- 
 ation was  removed  to  the  regular  service. 
 In  1803  he  was  sent  by  President  Jefferson 
 on  an  exploring  expedition  to  the  north- 
 western part  of  our  continent;   and  of  this  I 
 expedition,  which  was   completed  in  about i 
 three  vears,  and  in  which   he   was    accom-l 
 punied  by  Mr.  Clarke,  an   highly   interest- 
 ing  account   was    afterwards    published. 
 Lewis  was  subsequently  appointed  governor 
 
 (  r  the  Louisiana  territory.  He  put  an  end 
 to  his  own  life  in  1809.  He  was  a  man 
 of  energy,  perseverance,  and  of  a  sound 
 understanding. 
 
 LEWIS,  WILLIAM,  a  physician,  who 
 practised  at  Kingston,  in  Surrey,  where 
 he  died  in  1781,  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
 Society,  and  of  Stockholm  Royal  Academy, 
 
 L'HO 
 
 and  read  a  course  of  chemical  lectures  to 
 George  III.  when  he  was  prince  of  Wales. 
 He  wrote  An  Experimental  History  of  the 
 .Materia  Medica;  The  Philosophical  Com- 
 merce of  the  Arts ;  and  A  Course  of  Prac- 
 tical Chemistry;  and  abridged  Frederic 
 Hoffman's  medical  works. 
 
 LEWIS,  Matthew  Gregory, a  mis- 
 cellaneous writer,  was  born,  in  1773,  in 
 London;  was  a  son  of  the  under  secretary 
 at  war;  and  was  educated  at  Westmin- 
 ster. His  first  production  was  The  Monk, 
 a  novel,  which  was  equally  admired  for 
 the  talent  it  displayed,  and  censured  for 
 its  licentiousness.  He  had  a  seat  in  the 
 House  of  Commons,  but  never  came  for- 
 ward as  an  orator.  He  died  in  1818,  at 
 sea,  on  his  return  from  his  West  Indian 
 estate.  He  is  the  author  of  fifteen  dramas, 
 of  which  the  most  popular  is  The  Castle 
 Spectre;  Poems;  Feudal  Tyrants,  a  ro- 
 mance; Romantic  Tales;  and  some  lesser 
 productions  in  prose  and  verse. 
 
 LEYDEN,  Lucas  Dammesz,  called 
 Lucas  of,  a  celebrated  painter  and  engra- 
 ver, was  born  in  that  city,  in  1494;  was  a 
 pupil  of  his  father,  and  of  Cornelius  Enge- 
 brechtsen  ;  practised  every  kind  of  painting 
 at  the  age  of  nine  years;  was  at  the  head 
 of  the  Flemish  artists  when  he  was  eigh- 
 teen ;  and  died  in  1533.  He  excelled  even 
 more  as  an  engraver  than  as  a  painter. 
 He  executed  a  hundred  and  seventy-two 
 plates,  among  which  were,  The  Magi 
 worshipping;  an  Ecce  Homo;  and  The 
 Return  of  the  Prodigal  Son.  The  proof 
 prints  from  his  graver  are  in  high  esti- 
 mation. 
 
 LEYDEN,  John,  a  poet,  orientalist, 
 and  physician,  was  born,  in  1775,  at  Den- 
 holm,  in  Roxburghshire,  and  was  the  son 
 of  a  shepherd.  After  having  picked  up  a 
 little  learning  at  his  native  place,  he  studied 
 at  Edinburgh.  The  church  was  his  desti- 
 nation, but  he  relinquished  it  for  surgery, 
 obtained  a  doctor's  degree,  and  was  ap- 
 pointed assistant  surgeon  on  the  Madias 
 establishment.  In  India,  his  profound 
 knowledge  of  the  native  dialects  occasion- 
 ed his  being  made  professor  of  them  in  the 
 Bengal  College;  from  which  situation, 
 however,  he  was  soon  removed,  to  be 
 judge  of  the  twenty-four  Pergunnahs  of 
 Calcutta.  In  1811  he  accompanied  Lord 
 Minto  to  Batavia,  where  he  fell  a  victim 
 to  the  climate,  on  the  27th  of  August. 
 Leyden  had  a  wonderful  power  of  acquir- 
 ing languages.  As  a  linguist  he  exceeded 
 even  Sir  William  Jones.  His  poems,  in- 
 cluding the  Scenes  of  Infamy,  have  been 
 collected  in  two  volumes.  lie  wrote  A 
 History  of  Discoveries  in  Africa;  and  edi- 
 ted The  Compfeynt  of  Scotland,  and  Scot- 
 tish Descriptive  poems. 
 
 L'HOPITAL,  Michael  de,  one  of  the 
 most  illustrious  of  French  statesmen,  Wivs 
 
LIG 
 
 born,  in  1505,  at  Aigueperse,  in  Auvergne; 
 studied  the  law  at  Toulouse  and  Padua; 
 practised  at  the  French  bar ;  was  sent  as 
 ambassador  to  the  council  of  Trent;  and, 
 after  his  return,  was  made  superintendent 
 of  finances.  His  upright  and  able  conduct 
 in  that  post  caused  him  to  be  raised  to 
 the  dignity  of  chancellor.  All  his  efforts, 
 as  chancellor,  were  directed  to  make  the 
 laws  revered,  restore  prosperity  to  France, 
 and  avert  a  civil  war  by  extending  tolera- 
 tion to  the  protestants.  He  was  baffled, 
 however,  by  the  baseness  and  violence  of 
 the  court;  and,  in  1568,  he  retired  from 
 public  affairs.     He  died  in  1573. 
 
 L'HOPITAL,  William  Francis  An- 
 thony, marquis  of  St.  Mesme,  one  of  the 
 most  eminent  of  the  French  mathemati- 
 cians, was  born,  in  1661,  at  Paris.  So 
 precocious  was  his  scientific  knowledge, 
 that  when  he  was  only  fifteen  he  solved  a 
 problem  relative  to  the  cycloid,  which 
 had  been  proposed  by  Pascal.  At  a  later 
 period  he  gave  solutions  of  several  of  the 
 most  difficult  geometrical  problems,  He 
 died  in  1704.  L'Hopital  is  the  author  of 
 two  valuable  works:  The  Analysis  of  In- 
 finitesimals; and  an  Analytical  Treatise 
 on  Conic  Sections. 
 
 LICHTENBERG,  George  Christo- 
 pher, a  German  philosopher  and  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1742,  at  Ober  Ramstaedt, 
 near  Darmstadt,  and  was  educated  at 
 Darmstadt  and  Gottingeu ;  at  which  latter 
 place  he  became  professor  of  mathematics, 
 and,  subsequently,  of  experimental  philos- 
 ophy. He  died  in  1799.  His  scientific 
 and  miscellaneous  works  have  been  pub- 
 lished in  nine  volumes.  Among  the  con- J 
 tents  of  the  second  class  are,  An  Expla- 
 nation of  Hogarth's  Prints;  some  severe! 
 Satires  on  Lavater's  System  of  Physiog-j 
 nomv;  and  an  Autobiographical  Journal.) 
 Lichtenberg,  says  Stapfer,  "  is  sportive,  I 
 and  never  grotesque ;  novel,  without  effort ;  j 
 gay,  without  the  slightest  levity;  various 
 and  profound,  without  ceasing  to  be  solid  i 
 and  clear.'* 
 
 LICIMUS,  Flavius  Valerius   Li,-; 
 cinianus,  a  Roman  emperor,   was  born,! 
 about  263,  in  a  Dacian  village.     His  mili- 
 tary talents,  especially  in  the  war  against 
 Narses,    the    Persian     monarch,    induced) 
 Galerii-.s  in  307  to  make  him  an  associate! 
 in   the   government,  and    place   Pannoniaj 
 and  Rhsetia  under  his  authority.     After  the 
 death  of  Galerius,  Licinius  also  obtained 
 the    province    of    Illyricum.      He   joined 
 Constantine  against  Maxentius,  and  mar- 
 ried his  sister  Constantia ;  but  in  the  course  i 
 of  a  few  years  the  two  emperors  became  j 
 enemies,  and  Licinius  was  dethroned,  and  j 
 ultimately  put  to  death,  in  324,  by  Con- 
 stantine. 
 
 LIGNE,  Charles  Joseph,  prince  de, 
 was  bom,  in  1735,  at  Brussels;   entered 
 
 LTL 
 
 363 
 
 the  Austrian  army  at  the  age  of  seventeen; 
 and  acquired  reputation  in  the  seven  years' 
 war,  and  the  short  war  of  1778.  Being 
 sent  on  a  mission  into  Russia,  his  wit  and 
 talent,  and  his  personal  accomplishments, 
 rendered  him  a  favourite  of  Catherine, 
 who  made  him  a  field  marshal*  and  gave 
 him  an  estate  in  the  Crimea,  lit  assisted 
 Potemkin  in  the  reduction  of  Ockzakoff, 
 and  Laudohn  in  that  of  Belgrade.  Subsej 
 quently  he  was  not  employed  in  the  Aus- 
 trian army<  He  died  in  1814.  His  works, 
 military  and  miscellaneous,  form  nearly 
 forty  volumes.  The  pretended  Autobiogra- 
 phy of  Prince  Eugene  was  written  by  the 
 prince  de  Ligne. 
 
 LILBURNE,  John,  a  republican  of 
 i  an  unconquerable  spirit,  was  born,  in  161S, 
 in  the  county  of  Durham.  In  1638  the 
 infamous  star-chamber  sentenced  him  to 
 be  pilloried,  and  to  receive  five  hundred 
 ,  lashes.  Even  while  this  punishment  was 
 I  being  severely  executed,  he  braved  his  per- 
 secutors. The  Long  Parliament  voted 
 him  reparation;  and  he  fought  against 
 Charles  at  Edgehill,  Marston  Moor,  and 
 other  places ;  and  attained  the  rank  of 
 lieutenant-colonel.  Disapproving,  howev- 
 er, of  the  conduct  of  Cromwell,  LiBburne 
 opposed  him  with  great  boldness,  and  was 
 in  consequence  imprisoned,  fined  by  the 
 parliament,  and  twice  tried  by  a  jury, 
 before  which  he  made  so  able  a  defence 
 tha*  he  was  acquitted.  Not  long  previous 
 to  his  decease,  which  took  place  in  1657, 
 he  adopted  the  tenets  of  the  quakers. 
 
 LILLO,  George,  a  dramatist,  was 
 born,  in  1693,  in  London;  was  a  jeweller 
 by  trade,  and  a  dissenter  in  religion ;  and 
 died  in  1739.  Fielding,  who  was  his 
 friend,  speaks  of  him  as  being  a  truly  es- 
 timable character.  He  wrote  eight  plays, 
 of  which  the  principal  are,  the  tragedies 
 of  George  Barnwell;  The  Fatal  Curiositj  ; 
 Elmerick ;   and  Arden  of  Feversham. 
 
 LILLY,  or  LYLIE,  John,  a  dramatist 
 and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  about 
 1533,  in  the  weald  of  Kent;  was  educated 
 at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford;  was  long 
 an  unsuccessful  suitor  for  court  favour; 
 and  died,  in  poverty,  towards  the  close  of 
 Elizabeth's  reign.  He  wrote  nine  plays, 
 which  are  not  without  merit.  He  is  most 
 remarkable,  however,  for  two  works,  inti- 
 tled  Euphues  and  his  England,  and  Eu- 
 phues,  the  Anatomy  of  Wit,  written  with 
 a  view  to  reform  "the  English  language ; 
 "  the  strange  and  barbarous  jargon"  of 
 which,  as  Ellis  justly  calls  it,  was  actually 
 popular  among  the  courtiers.  Sir  Walter 
 Scott  has  put  this  Babylonish  dialect  into 
 the  mouth  of  Sir  Piercie  Suafton  in  The 
 Monastery. 
 
 LILLY,  William,  an  astrologer,  was 
 born,  in  1602,  at  Diseworth,  in  Leicester- 
 shire; and,  after  having  been  servant  to> 
 
364 
 
 LIN 
 
 a  mantua-maker,  and  book-keeper  to  a 
 tradesman,  lie  became  a  professor  of  astrol- 
 ogy. Lillv,  who  had  a  tolerable  spice  of 
 the  knave  in  his  composition,  soon  acquired 
 both  fame  and  money  in  his  new  vocation. 
 During  the  civil  wars  he  was  consulted  by 
 both  parties  as  to  events;  but  it  was  the 
 cruise  of  tin*  parliament  that  he  finally 
 espoused.  He  died  in  1681.  Among  his 
 works  are.  Observations  on  the  Life  and 
 Death  of  Charges  I.;   and  his  own  Life. 
 
 LILY,  or  LILVE,  William,  a  gram- 
 marian, was  born,  about  1468,  at  Odiham, 
 in  Hampshire;  took  his  bachelor's  degree 
 at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford;  visited  Je- 
 n  sal  in.  and  studied  the  Greek  language 
 at  Rhodes  for  live  years;  and  died,  in 
 1523,  head  master  of  St.  Paul's  School. 
 He  wrote  some  Latin  poems,  and  the 
 Latin  Grammar  which  bears  his  name. 
 
 LIN  LCRE,  Thomas,  a  physician  and 
 philologist,  was  bom,  about  1460,  at  Can- 
 terbury; and  was  educated  at  All  Souls 
 College,  Oxford.  After  having  visited 
 !  ..  he  read  lectures  on  Greek  and 
 physic  at  Oxford.  Henry  VII.  appointed 
 him  his  physician,  and  tutor  to  Prince 
 Arthur.  Prom  Henry  VIII. m  obtained, 
 in  1518,  letters  patent  for  the  establish- 
 ment of  the  royal  college  of  physicians,  of 
 which  body  he  was  the  first  president.  In 
 the  decline  of  life  he  entered  into  orders. 
 He  died  in  1524.  Besides  translating  Prp- 
 clus  on  the  Sphere,  and  some  of  Galen's 
 treatises,  he  drew  up  The  Rudiments  of 
 Latin  Grammar,  and  wrote  De  Emendata 
 Structura  Latini  Sermonis. 
 
 LINCOLN,  Lknjamin,  a  major  gen- 
 eral in  the  American  army,  was  born  in 
 Hingh&m,  .Massachusetts,  in  1733,  and  until 
 the  age  of  forty  years  was  en  imaged  in  the 
 pursuits  of  agriculture.  At  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  revolution  he  was  elected  a 
 member  of  the  provincial  Congress,  in 
 1776  received  the  commission  of  major- 
 general,  and  employed  himself  vigorously 
 to  improve  the  discipline  of  the  militia. 
 He  was  second  in  command  in  the  army 
 which  compelled  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne. 
 On  the  day  after  the  battle  of  Stillwater, 
 he  receivt  d  a  dangerous  wound  in  his  leg, 
 and  wa>  confined  for  several  months  by  its 
 effects.  In  the  following  year,  he  was 
 appointed  to  the  command  of  the  southern 
 department,  and  while  in  this  post  he  at- 
 tempted   the  defence   of   Charleston,   but 
 
 Was  compelled  to  capitulate  in  May,  17SQ. 
 He  was  exchanged  in  November,  and  in 
 the  Bpring  following  joined  the  army  on 
 the  North  river.  At  the  siege  of  York- 
 town  he  commanded  a  central  division,  and 
 shared  largely  in  the  dangers  and  honours 
 of  the  day.  In  1781  he  was  appointed 
 secretary  of  the  war  department,  and  after- 
 wards on  several  occasions  commissioner 
 to  treat  with  the  Indians.      On  the  estab- 
 
 LIN 
 
 lishment  of  peace,  he  returned  to  his  native 
 state,  and  in  1787  was  appointed  to  com- 
 mand the  troops,  employed  in  the  suppres- 
 sion of  the  insurgents  in  Massachusetts. 
 In  1788  he  was  chosen  lieutenant  governor, 
 and  in  the  following  year  he  was  a  member 
 of  the  convention  which  ratified  the  con- 
 stitution of  the  United  States.  He  died  in 
 1810.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
 published  letters  and  essays;  a  member  of 
 the  American  Academy  of  the  Arts  and 
 Sciences;  and  president  of  the  Society  of 
 Cincinnati  of  Massachusetts. 
 
 LINDSAY,  or  LYNDSAY,  Sir  David, 
 a  Scotch  poet,  was  born,  in  1490,  at  Gar- 
 mylton,  in  Haddingtonshire;  was  educated 
 at  St.  Andrew's;  and  was,  successively, 
 page  of  honour  to  James  V.,  and,  in  1530, 
 Lyon  king  at  arms;  and  is  supposed  by 
 some  to  have  died  about  1557,  but  it  seems 
 more  probable  that  he  lived  till  1567. 
 
 LINDSEY,  Theophilus,  a  unitarian 
 divine,  was  born,  in  1723,  at  Middlewich, 
 in  Cheshire,  and  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
 College,  Cambridge.  He  resigned  the 
 living  of  Catterick  in  1773,  in  consequence 
 of  his  having  embraced  the  principles  of 
 unitarianism.  From  1774  till  1793  he  was 
 minister  of  a  congregation  in  Essex  Street, 
 in  the  Strand.  He  died  in  1803.  He 
 wrote,  among  other  works,  An  Apology  for 
 himself;  A  Sequel  to  the  Apology;  Con- 
 siderations on  the  Divine  Government;  An 
 Historical  View  of  the  Unitarian  Doctrine 
 and  Worship;  and  Sermons. 
 
 LINGUET,  Simon  Nicholas  Hen- 
 ry, a  political  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1736,  at  Rheims ;  w  as  brought 
 up  as  a  barrister,  but  was  expelled  from 
 the  bar;  took  a  violent  part  in  the  politics 
 of  the  day,  and  was  confined  for  two  years 
 in  the  Bastile;  was  favourably  received  at 
 Vienna  by  Joseph  II.;  but  was  at  length 
 sent  out  of  the  Austrian  states ;  and  closed 
 his  career  by  the  guillotine,  at  Paris,  in 
 1794.  Besides  his  Political  Annals,  and 
 various  other  works,  he  wrote  Histories  of 
 the  Age  of  Alexander — of  the  Revolutions 
 of  the  Roman  Empire — and  of  the  Jesuits; 
 Memoirs  of  the  Bastile ;  and  a  Theory  of 
 Civil  Laws. 
 
 LINN,  John  Blair,  an  American 
 divine  and  poet,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania, 
 in  1777.  and  after  graduating  at  Columbia 
 College,  entered  on  the  study  of  law,  in  the 
 office  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  in  New- 
 York.  Finding  but  little  agreeable  to  him 
 in  this  pursuit,  he  determined  to  embrace 
 the  ministry,  and  after  completing  a  course 
 of  theological  study,  he  was  settled  as  a 
 preacher  in  Philadelphia  in  1799.  He 
 died  of  consumption  in  1S05.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Valerian,  a  poem  of  inconsider- 
 able merit,  published  since  his  decease; 
 and  of  the  Powers  of  Genius,  a  poem  pos- 
 sessing much  beauty,  and   which  has  gono 
 
LIP 
 
 through  several  editions  both  in  England 
 and  the  United  States. 
 
 L1NNE\  or  LINNjEUS,  Chaut.es 
 Von,  the  most  celebrated  of  modem  natu- 
 ralists, was  born,  in  1707,  at  Rashult,  in 
 Sweden.  Even  from  his  infancy  lie  mani- 
 fested his  fondness  for  the  study  of  plants, 
 and  he  almost  lived  in  his  father's  garden. 
 Linne  studied  at  the  universities  of  Lund 
 and  of  Upsal,  but  laboured  under  great 
 disadvantages  from  his  exceedingly  indigent 
 state.  The  patronage  of  Celsius,  the 
 theological  professor,  who  was  also  a  natu- 
 ralist, at  length  bettered  his  condition.  It 
 was  at  this  period  that  he  first  formed  the 
 idea  of  that  botanical  system  which  has 
 immortalized  him.  Between  1731  and 
 1738,  he  explored  Lapland,  where  he 
 obtained  the  materials  for  his  Flora  Lap- 
 ponica;  resided  for  three  years  in  Holland, 
 as  superintendent  of  Clifford's  celebrated 
 garden ;  took  his  medical  degree  at  Harder- 
 wyck ;  and  visited  England  and  France. 
 After  his  return  to  Sweden,  in  1738,  he 
 settled  as  a  physician  at  Stockholm.  The 
 subsequent  career  of  Linne  was  uniformly 
 prosperous.  His  fame  spread  through 
 every  part  of  the  civilized  world,  scientific 
 bodies  eagerly  enrolled  him  among  their 
 members,  he  was  ennobled  by  his  sovereign, 
 and  acquired  sufficient  wealth  to  purchase 
 an  estate,  on  which  he  resided  for  the  last 
 fifteen  years  of  his  life.  He  died  January 
 11,  1778.  Among  his  works  are,  Systems? 
 Naturae;  Fundamenta  Botanica;  Hortus 
 Cliffortianus ;  Flora  Suecica;  Fauna  Sue- 
 cica;  and  Species  Plantarum. 
 
 LIPSIUS,  Justus,  an  eminent  scholar 
 and  critic,  was  horn,  in  1547,  at  Isch,  in 
 Brabant,  and  studied  at  Aeth,  Cologne, 
 and  Lou  vain.  After  having  resided  for 
 some  time  in  Italy,  he  was  appointed  pro- 
 fessor of  eloquence  at  Jena.  He  soon, 
 however,  relinquished  his  post  ;  and,  in 
 1577,  he  removed  to  Leyden,  where  he 
 remained  for  thirteen  years.  At  the  expi- 
 ration of  that  period  he  settled  at  Lou  vain, 
 where  he  died  in  1606.  Though  he  changed 
 his  religion  no  less  than  four  times,  Lipsius 
 was  the  advocate  of  intolerance  !  Among 
 his  works,  which   form  six  folios,  are,  A 
 
 LIV  365 
 
 Commentary  on  Tacitus;  Varise  Lectio- 
 nes;  De  Militia  Romana;  and  Treatises 
 on  Amphitheatres  ami  Libraries. 
 
 LISTER,  Martin,  a  physician,  was 
 horn,  about  1658,  at  Radclifl'e,  in  Buck- 
 inghamshire; was  educated  at  St.  John's 
 College,  Cambridge,  but  took  his  degree 
 at  Oxford;  became  a  fellow  of  the  college, 
 and  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  physician 
 inordinary  to  Queen  Anne;  and  died  in 
 1718.  He  wrote  several  medical  works; 
 A  Journey  to  Paris  (which  was  burlesqued 
 by  Dr.  king);  A  History  of  English  Ani- 
 mals; and  other  works  on  natural  history; 
 and  contributed  many  papers  to  the  Philo- 
 sophical Transactions. 
 
 LITTLETON,  Thomas,  an  eminent 
 lawyer,  was  born,  about  the  beginning  of 
 the  fifteenth  century,  at  Frankley,  in  Wor- 
 cestershire: studied  at  the  Temple;  was 
 appointed  king's  sergeant  and  judge  of 
 assize  in  1455 ;  became  one  of  the  justices 
 of  the  common  pleas  in  1466;  and  died  in 
 1481.  His  celebrated  treatise  on  Tenures, 
 which  may  be  considered  as  a  law  classic, 
 has  passed  through  numerous  editions;  and 
 has  been  commented  upon  by  Coke,  Sir 
 M.  Hale,  and  other  distinguished  legal 
 characters. 
 
 LIVERPOOL,  Charles  JENKIN- 
 SON,  earl  of,  the  eldest  son  of  Colonel 
 jJenkinson,  was  born  in  1727,  and  was 
 |  educated  at  the  Charter  House,  and  at 
 j  University  College,  Oxford.  In  1761  he 
 I  became  a  member  of  parliament,  and  under 
 [secretary  of  state;  in  1766,  a  lord  of  the 
 admiralty;  in  1772,  vice-treasurer  of  Ire- 
 land; in  1778,  secretary  at  war;  in  1784, 
 president  of  the  board  of  trade;  in  17S6, 
 he  was  created  Baron  Hawkesburv;  in 
 1 1796,  earl  of  Liverpool;  and  he  died  in 
 j  1808.  The  earl  of  Liverpool  was  often 
 accused  of  being  one  of  the  secret  and 
 irresponsible,  and  therefore  unconstitution- 
 al, advisers  of  George  III.  He  wrote  a 
 I Treatise  on  the  Coins  of  the  Realm;  and 
 some  other  works;  and  made  a  Collection 
 I  of  Treaties. 
 
 LIVERPOOL,  Robert  Banks  JEN- 
 KINSON,  earl  of,  the  son  of  the  forego- 
 ing, was  born   in    1770,  and  was  educated 
 !  at  the  same  seminaries  as  his  father.     In 
 1791  he  took  his  seat  as   member  for  Rye. 
 A  speech  against  abolishing  the  slave  trade 
 J  was   one   of  his   earliest  efforts   in  parlia- 
 Iment.     In  1793  he  was  appointed  one  of 
 j  the  commissioners  of  the  India  Board  ;  in 
 1801,  he  was  introduced    into  the  cabinet, 
 ;as  secretary  of  state  for  the  foreign  depart- 
 ment;   he    was    placed    in    the   home  de- 
 partment,  on  the   return   of  Mr.    Pitt    to 
 power;  he  returned  to  that  ottice  after  the 
 \  dismission  of  the  whig  administration  ;  and 
 was  removed  to  the  war  department  under 
 ;  Mr.  Perceval.     By  the  death  of  Mr.  Por- 
 Iceval,  in  1812,  Lord  Liverpool  was  raised 
 
366 
 
 LLO 
 
 to  the  premiership,  and  he  held  that  ele- 
 vated station  till  February,  1827,  when  an 
 apoplectic  and  paralytic  stroke  rendered 
 tiim  incapable  of  taking  any  further  part 
 in  public  allairs.  He  died  December  4, 
 1828. 
 
 LIVINGSTON,  Philip,  a  signer  of 
 the  declaration  of  American  independence, 
 was  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.  in  1716,  was 
 graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  became  a 
 merchant  in  New-York.  In  1774  he  was 
 returned  to  the  general  Congress,  and 
 remained  in  that  body  till  1777.  He 
 died  in  1778. 
 
 LIVINGSTON,  Robert  R.  a  cele- 
 brated American  statesman  and  lawyer, 
 was  born  in  New- York, and  was  educated  at 
 King's  College.  He  engaged  in  the  pro- 
 fession of  the  law,  anil  was  elected  to  the 
 first  general  Congress  of  the  colonies, 
 where  he  was  one  of  the  committee  ap- 
 pointed to  prepare  the  declaration  of  inde- 
 pendence. In  1780  he  was  appointed 
 secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  and  at  the 
 adoption  of  the  constitution  of  New-York, 
 chancellor  of  that  slate.  This  last  office 
 he  held  till  1801,  when  he  was  sent  minis- 
 ter plenipotentiary  to  France.  It  was  in 
 Paris  that  be  firmed  a  personal  friendship 
 with  Robert  Fulton,  whom  he  materially 
 assisted.  In  1805  he  returned  to  the 
 United  States,  and  devoted  tiie  remainder 
 of  his  life  to  the  promotion  of  agriculture 
 and  the  arts.     He  died  in  1813. 
 
 LIVIUS,  or  LIVY,Trns,a  celebrated 
 Roman  historian,  was  born  either  in  the 
 city  or  the  territory  of  Patavium,  now 
 Padua.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus  he  went 
 to  Rome,  and  was  held  in  great  esteem  by 
 the  emperor,  and  many  illustrious  charac- 
 ters. He  returned  to  Padua  after  the 
 death  of  Augustus,  and  died  a.  d.  17,  at 
 the  age  of  seventy-six.  His  History  is  one 
 of  the  valuable  relics  of  antiquity.  It 
 originally  consisted  of  a  hundred  and  thirty- 
 two  book.-;  of  which,  unfortunately,  only 
 thirty-five  have  been  preserved. 
 
 LLORENTE,  Jo  a  Anthony,  a 
 Spanish  ecclesiastic,  was  born,  in  1756, at 
 RlBCon  del  Soto,  and  obtained  various 
 preferments,  among  which  was  that  of 
 secretary  general  to  the  Inquisition.  Hav- 
 ing accepted  a  considerable  post  under 
 Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  written  in  his  fa- 
 vour, he  was  compelled  to  quit  Spain  on 
 the  return  of  Ferdinand,  lie  died  in  1823. 
 He  is  the  author  of  a  History  of  the  In- 
 quisition; Memoirs  relative  to  the  History 
 of  the  Spanish  Revolution ;  Political  Por- 
 traits of  tin;  Popes;  and  other  works. 
 
 LLOYD,  David,  a  biographer,  was 
 born,  in  1625,  in  Merionethshire  ;  was 
 educated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford;  and 
 died,  in  1691,  a  prebend  of  St.  Asaph. 
 and  vicar  of  Northop,  in  Flintshire.       His 
 
 thief  works  are,  Memoirs ol  the  Statesmen 
 
 LOC 
 
 and  Favourites  of  England;  Memoirs  of 
 I'ii sons  who  suffered  for  their  Loyalty; 
 A  Life  of  General  Mordt;  and  A  Flistorv 
 of  Plots  and  Conspiracies. 
 
 LLOYD,  Henry,  an  eminent  military 
 officer  and  writer  on  tactics,  was  born  in 
 Wales,  in  1729.  He  served  with  great 
 reputation  in  the  French,  Austrian,  Prus- 
 sian, and  Russian  armies,  and  rose  to  the 
 rank  of  general.  He  died,  in  the  Nether- 
 lands, in  1783.  Lloyd  wrote  A  Political 
 and  .Military  Rhapsody  on  the  Invasion 
 and  Defence  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland; 
 A  History  of  the  War  in  Germany;  and 
 a  work  on  the  composition  of  various  an- 
 cient and  modern  armies. 
 
 LLOYD,  Robert,  a  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1733,  and  was  the  son  of  the  second  mas- 
 ter of  Westminster  School.  After  having 
 been  educated  by  his  father,  and  at  Trinity 
 College,  Cambridge,  he  became  an  usher 
 at  Westminster  School.  Disliking  the  re- 
 straint, and  becoming  acquainted  with 
 Wilkes,  Churchill,  Bonnel  Thornton,  and 
 other  wits,  he  resigned  the  ushership,  and 
 became  an  author  by  profession.  His  gen- 
 ius, however,  could  not  shield  him  from 
 poverty,  and  he  died  a  prisoner  in  the 
 Fleet, 'in  1764. 
 
 LLOYD,  James,  was  born  in  Boston 
 in  1769,  and,  after  graduating  at  Harvard 
 College,  entered  into  commercial  pursuits, 
 and  spent  some  time  in  Europe.  In  1808 
 he  was  elected  by  the  legislature  of  Mas- 
 sachusetts a  senator  in  congress,  and  for 
 five  sears  conducted  himself  with  great 
 prudence  and  firmness  during  a  period  of 
 great  political  excitement.  In  1822  he 
 was  again  appointed  to  the  national  sen- 
 ate, and  was  distinguished  for  his  applica- 
 tion to  business.  In  1826  he  published  at 
 Boston  a  pamphlet  on  the  Report  of  the 
 Committee  of  Commerce  of  the  Senate  of 
 the  U.  S  on  the  British  Colonial  Inter- 
 course.   He  died  at  New  York  in  1831. 
 
 LOBEIKA,  Vasco,  the  author  of  the 
 far  famed  romance  of  Amadis  de  Gaul, 
 was  a  Portuguese,  born  at  Porto,  in  the 
 fifteenth  century.  Joam  I.  knighted  hiiu 
 on  the  field  of  battle  at  Aljubarotta.  He 
 died,  at  Elvns,  in  1403.  Southey  has 
 translated  Lobeira's  work,  and  has  satis- 
 factorily proved  him,  and  not  a  native  of 
 Prance,  to  be  the  real  author  of  it. 
 
 LOBO,  Jerome,  a  Portuguese  mis- 
 sionary, was  born,  in  1593,  at  Lisbon,  and 
 went  to  India  in  1021.  He  spent  three 
 years  in  Abyssinia,  of  which  country  he 
 afterwards  published  an  interesting  ac- 
 count, with  the  title  of  a  History  of  Ethio- 
 pia. An  abridgment  of  a  French  version 
 of  this  work  was  Dr.  Johnson's  first  lite- 
 rals effort.     He  died  in  1678. 
 
 LOCKE,  John,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
 British  philosophers  and  metaphysicians, 
 was   born,  in  1632,  at  Wrington,  in  Som- 
 
LOG 
 
 ersetshire;  was  educated  at  Westminster 
 School,  and  at   Christ  Church,  Oxford; 
 
 went  to  the  continent,  in  1664,  as  secre- 
 tary to  the  envoy  sent  to  Berlin  ;  resumed 
 his  medical  studies  after  his  return  ;  and 
 graduated  as  a  bachelor  of  physic,  in  1674, 
 though  he  never  entered  upon  general  prac- 
 tice. Locke  was  introduced,  in  1666,  to 
 Lord  Ashley,  afterwards  earl  of  Shaftes- 
 bury, who  esteemed  him  highly,  confided 
 to  him  the  superintendence  of  his  son's 
 education,  and  the  forming  of  a  constitu- 
 tion for  the  colony  of  Carolina,  and,  when 
 he  himself  became  chancellor,  appointed 
 him  secretary  of  presentations,  and,  at  a 
 later  period,  secretary  to  the  board  of 
 trade.  When  Shaftesbury  withdrew  to 
 Holland,  Locke  accompanied  him,  and  he 
 remained  on  the  continent  for  some  years. 
 So  obnoxious  was  he  to  James's  govern- 
 ment, that  the  British  envoy  demanded 
 that  he  should  be  delivered  up.  It  was 
 while  he  resided  in  Holland  that  he  com- 
 pleted his  Essay  on  the  Human  Under- 
 standing, and  wrote  his  first  Letter  on  J 
 Toleration.     Having  returned  to  England 
 
 LON  367 
 
 edy  of  Runnamede;  Sermons;  a  Disserta- 
 tion on  the  Maimers  and  Spirit  of  Asia; 
 and  A  Review  of  the  Charges  against  Mr. 
 Hastings.  For  the  hist,  which  appeared 
 anonymously,  Stockdale,  the  publisher, 
 was  prosecuted ;  hut  was  successfully  de- 
 fended by  Erskine, 
 
 LOGAN,  James,  was  born  in  Ireland 
 in  1674,  and  was  nut  apprentice  to  a  linen 
 draper;  lint  was  able  by  self-instruction  to 
 obtain  a  competent  knowledge  of  Latin, 
 Greek,  Hebrew,  Italian  and  Spanish,  and 
 of  the  mathematics.  In  1699  he  accompa- 
 nied William  I'cmi  to  Philadel)  hia,  as  his 
 secretary,  and  subsequently  tilled  the  offices 
 of  provincial  secretary,  commissioner  of 
 property,  and  governor  of  the  province. 
 He  was  the  author  of  several  learned 
 works,  and  his  Experiments  Meleteraata 
 de  Plantai  um  Generatione,  is  a  treatise  of 
 much  reputation.  He  died  at  Stenton, 
 near  Philadelphia,  in  1751. 
 
 LOMBARD,  Peter,  was  born,  in  the 
 twelfth  century,  at  a  village  near  No  vara, 
 in  Lombardy;  was  educated  at  Bologna 
 and  Kheims;  and  died,  in  1164,  bishop  of 
 Paris. 
 
 LOMONOSOFF,  Michael  Vassil- 
 
 ievitch,  a  Russian  writer,  was  born,  in 
 1711,  at  Dennisofka,  on  the  White  Sea, 
 
 and  was  the  son  of  a  dealer  in  fish  at 
 Khohnogori.  After  having  studied  a 
 Moscow  and  St.  Petersburgh,  he  was  sent 
 into  Germany,  at  the  expense  of  the  gov- 
 ernment,  and  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
 chemistry,  metallurgy,  and  mineralogy 
 After  his  return,  he  was  made  director  of 
 the  university,  and,  in  1764,  a  counsellor 
 of  state.  He  died  in  1765.  Lomonosdff 
 was  the  creator  of  Russian  lyric  poetry. 
 He  wrote  Poems  ;    two  tragedies  ;    AUis- 
 
 at  the  Revolution,  he   published  his  Essay !  tory  of  Russia;   and  some  productions  of 
 
 in  1690.  It  was  virulently  but  vainly  as- 
 sailed, and  rapidly  spread  his  fame  in  all 
 quarters.  That  fame  he  enhanced  by  his 
 additional  Letters  on  Toleration;  his  two 
 Treatises  on  Government,  which  annihi- 
 lated Filmer  and  the  whole  tribe  of  nonre- 
 sistance  teachers;  his  Thoughts  on  Educa- 
 tion ;  and  other  pieces.  His  merit  was 
 rewarded  by  his  being  made  a  commis- 
 sioner of  appeals,  and,  subsequently,  of 
 trade  and  plantations.  He  died  in  1704. 
 His  collected  works  form  four  quarto  vol- 
 umes. Great  as  are  his  merits  in  other 
 respects,  it  is  principally  as  the  champion 
 of  civil  and  religious  liberty  that  Locke 
 is  entitled  to  the  reverence  and  gratitude 
 of  mankind. 
 
 LOGAN,  John,  a  divine  and  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1748,  at  Fala,  in   Scotland;    was 
 
 less  importance. 
 
 LONDONDERRY,  Robkrt  STEW- 
 ART, marquis  of,  long  known  as  Lord 
 Castlereagh,    was    born,     in     Ireland,    in 
 
 educated  at  Edinburgh;  and,  after  having  1769,  and  completed  his  education  at  St. 
 been  minister  at  South  Leith,  he  removed i  John's  College,  Cambridge.  In  his  twejr* 
 to  London,  in  1786,  and  became  a  writer  ty-first  year  he  was  returned  to  the  Irish 
 in  the  English  Review.  He  died  in  1788.  |  parliament  as  member  for  the  count]  of 
 Logan  wrote  a  volume  of  poems;  the  trag-   Down.     He  commenced  his    political   ca- 
 
S68 
 
 LON 
 
 reer  as  a  parliamentary  reformer,  but  no 
 lone  period  elapsed  before  he  joined  the 
 ranks  of  the  opposite  party.  In  1797  he 
 ■was  appointed  chief  secretary  to  the  vice- 
 roy of  Ireland,  and  he  took  a  very  active 
 part  in  accomplishing  the  Union.  In  1805 
 he  was  appointed  minister  of  war;  and 
 this  office  he  resumed  in  1807,  after  the 
 dismissal  of  the  whigs;  but  his  disagree- 
 ment with  Mr.  Canning,  which  produced 
 a  duel  between  them,  led  to  his  resignation 
 in  1809.  In  1811  he  was  placed  at  the 
 head  of  the  foreign  department,  and  he 
 continued  in  it  till  his  decease.  In  1814, 
 he  was  plenipotentiary  extraordinary  to 
 the  allied  powers,  and,  towards  the  close 
 of  the  same  year,  to  the  congress  of  Vi- 
 enna. He  succeeded  to  the  title  of  Lon- 
 donderry on  the  decease  of  his  father,  in 
 1821,  but  he  did  not  long  enjoy  it,  for  in  a 
 fit  of  insanity,  brought  on  by  excessive 
 mental  and  personal  exertion,  he  put  an 
 end  to  his  existence  on  the  12th  of  August, 
 1822. 
 
 LONG,  Edward,  was  born,  in  1734, 
 at  St.  Blaize,  in  Cornwall ;  was  brought 
 up  to  the  law,  and  became  judge  of  the 
 vice-admiralty  court  in  Jamaica ;  and  died 
 in  1813.  He  wrote  a  History  of  Jamaica, 
 in  three  quarto  volumes ;  The  Prater,  a 
 collection  of  Essays;  The  Antigallican,  a 
 novel ;  Letters  on  the  Colonies ;  and  seve- 
 ral smaller  miscellaneous  pieces. 
 
 LONGINUS,  Dtonysius  Cassius,  an 
 eminent  Greek  critic  and  philosopher,  who 
 was  "  blessed  with  a  poet's  fire,"  was  born 
 in  the  third  century ;  but  whether  at  Athens 
 or  in  Syria  is  undecided.  He  was  a  dis- 
 ciple of  Ammonias  Saccas,  and  a  friend 
 of  Plotinus.  After  having  travelled,  he 
 settled  at  Athens,  taught  philosophy  there, 
 and  published  his  noble  Treatise  on  the 
 Sublime.  His  knowledge  was  so  exten- 
 sive that  he  was  called  the  living  library. 
 Zenobia  invited  him  to  her  court,  intrusted 
 to  him  the  education  of  her  sons,  and  made 
 him  her  principal  minister  after  the  death 
 of  Odenatus.  Aurelian  basely  put  him  to 
 death,  after  the  surrender  of  Palmyra,  in 
 revenge  for  Longinus  having  dictated  the 
 dignified  letter  which  was  addressed  by  Ze- 
 nobia to  the  Roman  monarch. 
 
 LONGOMONTANUS,  Christian, an 
 astronomer,  was  born,  in  1562,  at  Langs- 
 berg,  in  Jutland,  and  was  left  an  orphan  in 
 his  eighth  year.  In  1577  he  went  to  Wy- 
 borg,  where  he  remained  eleven  years.  By 
 dint  of  attending  lectures  in  the  day,  and 
 working  for  his  subsistence  during  a  part 
 of  the  night,  he  acquired  a  perfect  knowl- 
 edge of  the  mathematics.  For  nearly  ten 
 vears  he  assisted  Tycho  Brahe  in  his  la- 
 bours. He  died,  in  1647,  professor  of 
 mathematics  of  Copenhagen;  an  office 
 which  he  had  held  for  forty  years.  His 
 principal  work  is  his  Astronomica  Danica. 
 
 LOV 
 
 LOPE  DE  VEGA  CARPIO,  FiLil.a 
 
 celebrated  Spanish  poet  and  dramatist,  wai 
 born,  in  1562,  at  Madrid,  and  began  to 
 compose  plays  when  he  was  only  fourteen 
 His  first  successful  poem,  the  Arcadia,  was 
 composed  while  he  was  in  the  service  of 
 the  duke  of  Alba.  From  Madrid,  howev- 
 er, he  was  obliged  to  fly,  in  consequence  of 
 a  duel,  and  he  resided  for  some  years  at 
 Valencia.  After  having  served  in  the  Ar- 
 mada, during  which  period  he  wrote  his 
 Hermosura  de  Angelica,  he  returned  to 
 Madrid,  and  became  the  most  popular  of 
 the  Spanish  writers.  He  entered  into  the 
 order  of  St.  Francis,  but  still  continued  to 
 pour  forth  his  unpremeditated  verse,  and  to 
 write  for  the  stage.  Almost  idolatrous  hon- 
 ours were  paid  to  his  genius,  and  he  ac- 
 quired wealth,  yet  he  incessantly  complain- 
 ed of  the  malice  of  fortune  and  of  his  ene- 
 mies. He  died  in  1635.  His  fertility  was 
 wonderful.  Besides  innumerable  poems, 
 he  is  said  to  have  composed  eighteen  hun- 
 dred theatrical  pieces  in  verse.  Only  a 
 fourth  of  his  productions  has  been  printed; 
 but  that  portion  occupies  forty-six  quarto 
 volumes. 
 
 LORRIS,  William  de,  a  French  po- 
 et, was  born  at  Lorris  on  the  Loire,  near 
 Montargis,  and  is  believed  to  have  died 
 young,  about  1240.  He  wrote  the  Romance 
 of  the  Rose,  which  is  known  to  English 
 readers  bv  the  version  of  Chaucer. 
 
 LOUTHERBOURG,  Philip  James, 
 a  painter,  was  born,  in  1740,  at  Strasburgh, 
 and  was  a  pupil  of  Tischbein,  Casa  Nova, 
 and  Carlo  Vanloo.  He  came  to  England 
 in  1771,  and  was  first  employed  by  Garrick 
 as  a  scene  painter.  In  1782  he  produced  a 
 pictorial  exhibition,  called  the  Eidophusi- 
 kon,  or  representation  of  nature.  He  sub- 
 sequently acquired  great  reputation,  espe 
 cially  in  landscape,  and  became  one  of  the 
 council  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  died 
 in  1812. 
 
 LOUVOIS,  Francis  Michael  LE 
 TELLIER,  marquis  of,  a  French  states- 
 man, was  born,  in  1641,  at  Paris,  and  in 
 1666  became  war  minister  to  Louis  XIV. ; 
 the  reversion  of  which  office  had  been  grant- 
 ed to  him  several  years  before.  He  died  in 
 1691.  Louvois  was  a  great  minister,  but 
 not  a  good  man.  He  was  indefatigable  in 
 performing  the  duties  of  his  office,  and  his 
 plans  were  characterized  by  genius ;  but  he 
 was  imperious  and  envious,  and  his  cruel- 
 ties to  the  protestants,  and  the  atrocious  de- 
 vastation of  the  Palatinate  twice  executed 
 under  his  positive  orders,  have  branded  his 
 name  with  infamy. 
 
 LOVELACE,  Richard,  a  son  of  Sir 
 William  Lovelace,  was  born,  in  1618,  at 
 Woolwich,  in  Kent;  was  educated  at  the 
 Charter  House,  and  at  Gloucester  Hall, 
 Oxford;  expended  his  whole  property  for 
 Charles  I. ;  was  imprisoned  by  the  Parlm- 
 
LOW 
 
 rt-ent;  and  died  in  indigence  in  1658.  He 
 is  the  author  of  poems,  with  the  title  of 
 Lucasta,  many  of  which  are  exceedingly 
 elegant;  The  Soldier,  a  tragedy;  anil 
 The  Scholar,  a  comedy. 
 
 LOWELL,  John,  an  eminent  American 
 lawyer,  was  born  at  Newbury  in  1744,  and 
 was  educated  at  Harvard  College.  He 
 studied  law,  and  rising  to  reputation,  in 
 1761,  he  removed  to  Boston,  and  soon  dis- 
 tinguished himself  by  his  political  knowl- 
 edge and  eloquence.  In  1781  he  was  elect- 
 ed a  member  of  Congress,  and  on  the  es- 
 tablishment of  the  federal  government  was 
 appointed  a  judge  of  the  circuit  court  of 
 the  United  States.  In  these  situations  he 
 was  much  respected  for  his  legal  knowledge 
 and  dignity.     He  died  in  1802. 
 
 LOWRY,  Wilson,  a  celebrated  engra- 
 ver, was  born,  in  1762,  at  Whitehaven,  and 
 died  June  23,  1824,  a  member  of  the  Roy- 
 al Society.  He  was  employed  on  many  sci- 
 entific works,  particularly  Rees's  Cyclop2e- 
 dia,  and  the  Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana. 
 He  invented  two  machines  for  drawing 
 lines,  introduced  the  use  of  diamond  points 
 in  etching,  and  was  the  first  who  succeeded 
 in  "biting  in"  well  upon  steel.  With  anat- 
 omy, geology,  and  other  sciences  he  was 
 well  acquainted. 
 
 LOWTH,  Robert,  the  eminent  son  of 
 a  divine  of  talent,  was  born,  in  1710,  at 
 Buriton,  in  Hampshire;  was  educated  at 
 Winchester  School,  and  at  New  College, 
 Oxford ;  and  was  elected  professor  of  po- 
 etry at  Oxford,  in  1743.  He  accompanied 
 Mr.  Legge  on  an  embassy  to  Berlin,  and 
 was  subsequently  travelling  tutor  to  the  sons 
 of  the  duke  of  Devonshire.  In  1753  he 
 published  his  Lectures  on  Hebrew  poetry; 
 in  1758  the  Life  of  William  of  Wykeham; 
 and,  in  1765,  he  chastised  the  arrogance  of 
 Warburton,  in  an  admirable  and  unanswer- 
 able Letter.  After  having  enjoyed  several 
 valuable  preferments,  he  was  raised  to  the 
 see  of  St.  David's,  in  1766;  was  transla- 
 ted to  Oxford,  in  the  same  year;,  and,  in 
 1777,  was  removed  to  London.  The  arch- 
 bishopric of  Canterbury  he  declined.  In 
 1778  he  gave  to  the  world  his  translation 
 16* 
 
 LUC  369 
 
 of  Isaiah.  He  died  in  1787.  Besides  his 
 great  works,  he  wrote  some  sermons  and 
 poems. 
 LOYOLA.  See  Ignatius. 
 L  U C A  N ,  M  a  k  c  u  s  A  s  n  a,  u  s  ,  a  celebra- 
 ted Latin  poet,  was  born,  a.  D.  37,  at  Cor- 
 duba,  in  Spain,  and  was  a  nephew  of  Sen- 
 eca. He  was  early  taken  to  Rome,  and 
 studied  there  under  (he  best  masters.  Be- 
 fore he  was  of  the  legal  age,  he  was  made 
 qnestor;  and  he  was  also  admitted  into  the 
 college  of  Augurs.  He  was  put  to  death 
 by  Nero,  a.  d.  65,*  for  having  taken  a 
 part  in  the  conspiracy  of  Piso.  EJe  wrote 
 several  poems,  but  the  Pharsalia  alone  is 
 extant. 
 
 LUCIAN,  a  celebrated  Greek  writer,  a 
 native  of  Samosata,  the  capital  of  Coma- 
 gene,  is  believed  to  have  been  born  between 
 the  years  118  and  124.  He  abandoned  the 
 profession  of  a  sculptor  to  become  a  plead- 
 er, and  then  quitted  the  bar  to  profess  phi- 
 losophy and  rhetoric.  After  having  travel- 
 led in  Ionia,  Greece,  Caul,  and  Italy,  he 
 settled  at  Athens.  Marcus  Aurelius  ap- 
 pointed him  procurator  of  Egypt.  Lucian 
 is  supposed  to  have  lived  to  the  age  of 
 ninety.  In  humour  and  the  power  of  ridi- 
 cule, he  stands  unrivalled  among  the  an- 
 cients, and  his  style  is  excellent.  His  works 
 have  been  translated  into  English,  by  Carr, 
 Franklin,  and  Tooke. 
 
 LUCILIUS,  Caius,  the  oldest  Roman 
 satirist  of  whom  we  have  any  remains,  was 
 born,  b.  c.  148,  at  Suessa;  served  in  the 
 Numantine  war;  was  a  friend  of  Scipio 
 andLselius;  and  died,  at  Naples,  B.  c. 
 191.  Of  the  thirty  books  of  his  works  time 
 has  spared  only  a  few  fragments. 
 
 LUCRETIUS  CARUS,  Titus,  one  of 
 the  greatest  of  the  Latin  poets,  was  born, 
 B.  c.  95,  at  Rome;  studied  at  Athens, 
 under  Zeno;  and  is  said  to  have  put  an 
 end  to  his  own  existence,  at  the  age  of 
 forty-four.  He  was  the  friend  of  Atticus, 
 Catullus,  and  Cicero.  The  story  that  he 
 was  rendered  insane  by  an  amatory  philtre 
 being  administered  to  him,  and  that  he 
 wrote  his  magnificent  work,  On  the  Nature 
 of  Things,  in  his  lucid  intervals,  is  proba- 
 bly a  fable.  In  energy  and  sublimit}  Lu- 
 cretius is  hardly  equalled  even  by  Virgil 
 himself.  Creech,  Good,  and  Busby  have 
 translated  his  poem  into  English. 
 
 LUCULLUS, Lucius  Licinius,  a  Ro- 
 man, celebrated  at  once  for  his  military 
 talents  and  his  magnificence,  was  burn  B.  c 
 115.  As  a  warrior,  he  distinguished  him- 
 self first  in  the  social  war.  He  next  dc 
 feated'  Amilcar,  in  two  naval  battles.  But 
 these  successes  were  eclipsed  by  those 
 which,  when  consul,  he  obtained  o\er 
 Mithridates  and  Tigranes.  The  satisfac- 
 tion of  consummating  his  triumph  in  Asia 
 was  snatched  from  him  by  the  appointment 
 of  Pompey  to  the  command ;   and  Lucullus 
 
370 
 
 LUT 
 
 spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  luxurious 
 retirement.     He  died  B.  c.  49. 
 
 LUDLOW,  Ed.mcnd,  an  eminent  re- 
 publican leader,  the  son  of  Sir  Henry  Lud- 
 low, was  born,  in  1620,  at  Maiden  Bradley, 
 in  Wilts;  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Ox- 
 ford, and  the  Temple ;  tntcred  the  parlia- 
 mentary sen  ire ;  fought  at  Edgehill,  New- 
 bury, and  other  places;  sat  in  judgment 
 upon  Charles  L;  opposed  Cromwell's 
 plans,  and  was  sent  by  him  to  Ireland,  as 
 general  of  horse:  assisted  in  restoring  the 
 lonsr  parliaments  and,  after  the  restora- 
 tion, withdrew  to  Switzerland,  where  he 
 died,  in  1693,  at  Vevay.  lie  wrote  his 
 own  Memoirs.  Ludlow  was  a  sincere, 
 disinterested  republican,  of  unimpeachable 
 moral  character. 
 
 LULLI,  or  LULLY,  John  Baptist, 
 a  musical  composer,  was  born,  in  1633,  at 
 Florence,  and  was  sent  to  Paris  in  his 
 twelfth  or  thirteenth  year,  to  be  page  to  a 
 lady.  She,  however,  was  so  dissatisfied 
 with  his  appearance,  that  she  made  him 
 an  under  scullion.  His  musical  talent  was 
 at  length  discovered,  and  was  cultivated, 
 and  he  rose  to  be  superintendent  of  the 
 king's  music,  and  joint  director  of  the 
 opera.  He  died  in  1687.  Lulli  composed 
 nineteen  operas,  and  was  much  admired 
 by  his  contemporaries,  but  his  fame  is  now 
 nearly  extinct. 
 
 LULLY,  Raymond,  a  philosopher  of 
 the  thirteenth  century,  was  born,  about 
 1235,  at  Pahna,  in  the  island  of  Majorca. 
 His  philosophy,  which  was  known  under 
 the  name  of  the  Lullyan  doctrine,  was 
 popular  in  that  age.  Lully  twice  visited 
 Tunis,  with  the  view  of  converting  the 
 Mahometans.  The  first  time  he  received 
 no  injury:  but  in  his  second  expedition  he 
 was  so  roughly  treated  that  he  died,  in 
 1285,  as  he  was  returning  home.  He  wrote 
 Aid  <  ieneralis  ;  Arbor  Sciential ;  Ars  Bre- 
 vis;  and  many  other  now  forgotten  works  ; 
 v/hich  fill  ten  folio  volumes. 
 
 LUTHER,  Martin,  the  parent  of  the 
 jjrotestant  reformation,  was  born,  in  14S4, 
 at  Eisleben,  in  Saxony;  and  was  the  son 
 of  a  miner.  Ho  studied  at  Eisenach  and 
 Erfurt,  and  was  intended   for  the  law,  but 
 
 LYC 
 
 the  circumstance  of  a  friend  being  killed 
 at  his  side  by  lightning  induced  him  to 
 become  a  monk.  He  entered  the  Augus- 
 tine order,  and,  in  1507,  was  ordained  a 
 priest.  In  the  early  part  of  his  career  he 
 was  one  of  the  most  intolerant  champions 
 of  the  papal  authority.  The  abuses  which 
 he  witnessed  while  he  was  on  a  mission  at 
 Rome,  and  the  perusal  of  the  works  of 
 Huss,  are  said  to  have  been  the  causes 
 which  produced  a  change  in  his  opinions 
 on  this  subject;  and,  in  his  capacity  of 
 professor  of  divinity  at  Wittenberg,  he 
 began  to  disseminate  his  newly  adopted 
 principles.  His  opposition,  how  ever,  might 
 have  died  away,  had  it  not,  in  1527,  been 
 roused  into  violent  action  by  an  insult  of- 
 fered to  his  order.  The  sale  of  the  papal 
 indulgences,  which  had  hitherto  been  in- 
 trusted to  the  Augustine  friars,  was  now 
 given  to  the  Dominicans;  a  circumstance 
 which  induced  Luther  to  publish  a  denial 
 of  the  papal  right  to  grant  those  indul- 
 gences. This  gave  rise  to  a  vehement 
 controversy,  the  result  of  which  was  the 
 excommunication  of  Luther  by  the  pope, 
 while  Luther  on  his  part  assailed  other 
 Romish  tenets,  and  at  length  quitted  the 
 monastic  habit,  and  married  a  nun.  His 
 reforming  principles  spread  rapidly  through 
 Germany ;  he  was  protected  by  the  elector 
 of  Saxony  and  other  princes;  and  long 
 before  his  decease,  which  took  place  in 
 1546,  he  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  that 
 his  doctrines  had  taken  such  deep  root  that 
 no  earthly  power  could  eradicate  them. 
 His  works  form  seven  folio  volumes. 
 
 LUXEMBOURG,  Francis  Hkxry 
 de  MO.\TMORE.\CI-BOUTE\TLLE, 
 duke  of,  a  celebrated  French  general,  was 
 born  in  1628,  and  died  in  1695.  He  dis- 
 tinguished himself  on  numerous  occasions, 
 particularlv  at  the  battles  of  Senef,  Saint 
 Denis,  Fleurus,  Steinkirk,and  Neerwinde. 
 
 LVCOPHROX,  a  Greek  poet,  was  born 
 at  Colchis,  in  Eubcea,  and  was  patronised 
 by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt. 
 He  was  one  of  the  seven  poets  who  re- 
 ceived the  appellation  of  the  Pleiads.  He 
 wrote  forty-six  tragedies,  a  satirical  drama, 
 and  other  works. 
 
 LYCURGUS,  the  Spartan  legislator, 
 the  son  of  Eunomus,  king  of  Spnrta,  was 
 of  the  royal  race  of  the  Ueraclides,  and 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  B.  c. 
 898.  His  brother's  widow  being  left 
 pregnant,  Lycurgus  refused  to  assume  the 
 sovereignty,  ami  the  issue  proving  to  be  a 
 boy,  he  faithfully  fulfilled  the  office  of 
 guardian  to  it.  After  having  travelled, 
 and  minutely  investigated  the  institutions 
 of  other  lands,  he  returned  to  his  own 
 country,  and  established  those  laws  by 
 which  Sparta  was  so  long  governed.  Hav- 
 ing bound  the  people  by  a  solemn  oath  to 
 observe   them   till  he  came  back,  he   de- 
 
MAB 
 
 parted  from  Sparta,  and  saw  it  no  more. 
 The  manner  and  time  of  his  death  are  va- 
 riously stated. 
 
 LYMAN,  Phinehas,  major  general, 
 was  born  at  Durham  in  1716,  and  after 
 receiving  his  education  at  Yale  College, 
 commenced  the  study  of  the  law,  and  be- 
 came eminent  in  its  practice.  In  1755  he 
 was  appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the 
 Connecticut  forces,  and  held  this  post  with 
 much  distinction  till  the  conclusion  of  the 
 Canadian  war.  In  1762  he  commanded 
 the  American  forces  in  the  expedition  to 
 Havana,  and  afterwards  went  to  England 
 as  agent  to  obtain  from  government  a  tract 
 of  land  on  the  Mississippi  and  Yazoo,  where 
 he  proposed  to  establish  a  colony.  Failing 
 in  this  enterprise,  he  was  ashamed  to  return 
 to  his  native  country,  and  passed  eleven 
 years  in  England  almost  in  a  state  of  im- 
 becility, lie  was  then  induced  to  return, 
 and  embarked  with  his  family  for  the  Mis- 
 sissippi, and  died  in  West  Florida  in  1778. 
 At  one  period  of  his  life  he  enjoyed  a  very 
 high  and  extensive  reputation. 
 
 LYNCH,  Thomas,  a  signer  of  the  de- 
 claration of  independence,  was  born  in 
 South  Carolina  in  1749,  was  educated  in 
 England,  and  commenced  the  study  of  iaw 
 at  the  Temple.  In  1772  he  returned  to 
 his  native  state,  and  when  but  twenty-seven 
 years  of  age  took  his  seat  in  the  continental 
 congress  of  1776.  The  decline  of  his 
 health  soon  rendered  a  change  of  climate 
 necessary,  and  he  embarked  about  the  close 
 of  the  year  1779  for  St.  Eustatia.  The 
 ship  in  which  he  sailed  was  never  after- 
 wards heard  from. 
 
 LYONS,  Israel,  a  mathematician  and 
 botanist,  was  born,  in  1739,  and  was  the 
 son  of  a  Polish  Jew  of  the  same  name,  at 
 Cambridge,  who  taught  Hebrew,  and  pub- 
 lished a  Grammar  of  that  language,  and 
 Observations  on  various  Parts  of  Scripture 
 History.  He  was  Sir  Joseph  Bankes's 
 instructor  in  botany,  and  accompanied 
 Captain    Phipps,    as    astronomer,    in    his 
 
 MAC  37? 
 
 polar  voyage.  He  died  in  1775.  Miss 
 Edgeworth  has  paid  a  tribute  to  his  talents, 
 in  her  novel  of  Harrington.  He  wrote  a, 
 Treatise  on  Fluxions;  a  work  on  the 
 plants  in  tin-  neighbourhood  ofCambridsre  ; 
 and  was  one  of  the  calculators  of  The  .Nau- 
 tical Almanack. 
 
 LYSANDER,  a  famous  Lacedemonian 
 general,  who  put  an  end  to  the  Pelopon- 
 nesian  war,  and  destroyed  the  ascendency 
 of  Athens,  by  defeating  the  Athenians, 
 b.  c.  405,  in  the  decisive  naval  action  of 
 iEgospotamos.  He  intrigued  to  obtain  the 
 sovereign  authority  at  Sparta;  but  he 
 failed  in  the  attempt,  and  narrowly  es- 
 caped being  brought  to  trial.  He  was  slain 
 in  the  war  against  the  Thebans,  b.  c.  375. 
 The  political  morality  of  Lysander  was  of 
 that  accommodating  kind  which  never 
 stands  in  the  way  of  a  gainful  act  of  in- 
 justice. 
 
 LYSIAS,  a  Greek  orator,  was  born  at 
 Athens,  or,  as  some  say,  at  Syracuse, 
 about  b.  c.  459,  and  acquired  fame  as  a 
 teacher  of  rhetoric.  He  died  at  the  age 
 of  eighty-one.  Out  of  between  three  and 
 four  hundred  of  his  orations  only  thirty- 
 four  are  extant.  Quintillian  characterizes 
 the  eloquence  of  Lysias  as  resembling 
 rather  a  pure  and  clear  stream  than  a  ma- 
 jestic river. 
 
 LYTTELTON,  George,  lord,  a  poet 
 and  historian,  was  born,  in  1709,  at  Hag- 
 ley,  in  Worcestershire ;  was  educated  at 
 Eton,  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  took  a 
 vigorous  part  in  the  parliamentary  oppo- 
 sition to  Sir  Robert  Walpole;  and,  after 
 the  fall  of  that  minister,  was  appointed 
 one  of  the  lords  of  the  treasury.  He  was 
 subsequently  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
 but  resigned  in  1757,  and  was  raised  to 
 the  peerage,  after  which  he  withdrew  from 
 public  affairs.  He  died  in  1773.  Lord 
 Lyttelton  is  the  author  of  Poems;  Dia- 
 logues of  the  Dead;  A  Dissertation  on 
 St.  Paul's  Conversion;  and  a  History  of 
 Henry  II. 
 
 M 
 
 MABLY,  Gabriel  Bonnot  de,  abbe, 
 a  French  historical  and  political  writer, 
 the  brother  of  Condillac,  was  born,  in 
 1709,  at  Grenoble;  and,  being  patronised 
 by  his  relation,  Cardinal  Tencin,  might, 
 if  he  pleased,  have  risen  to  eminence  in 
 the  state.  Nothing,  however,  could  pre- 
 vail on  him  to  sacrifice  his  independence, 
 and  he  lived  contented  on  a  small  income. 
 A  pension  was  given  to  him.  but  he  applied 
 it  wholly  to  the  relief  of  indigent  persons. 
 He  died  in  1785.  His  works  form  fifteen 
 volumes        Among    them    are,   Discourses 
 
 on  History;  The  Conversations  of  Pho- 
 cion;  The  Public  Law  of  Europe;  and 
 Observations  on  the  History  of  France. 
 
 MACAULAY,  and,  by  a  second  mar- 
 riage, GRAHAM,  Catherine,  a  daugh- 
 ter of  Mr.  Sawbridge,  was  born,  in  1733, 
 at  Ollantigh,  in  Kent;  and  died  in  1791. 
 Her  principal  work  is  a  History  of  Eng- 
 land, in  eight  volumes.  It  has  considera- 
 ble merit  both  in  matter  and  style ;  but 
 the  narrative  is  tinged  by  her  republican 
 principles.  Of  her  other  productions, 
 among  which   are   various   political   pam- 
 
372 
 
 M'KE 
 
 phlets,  the  most  prominent  are,  Remarks  on 
 Hobbes;  a  Treatise  on  the  Immutability 
 of  Moral  Truth  ;  and  Letters  on  Education. 
 MACDIARMID,  John,  a  writer  of 
 promising  talents,  was  born,  in  1779.  at 
 Weem,  in  Perthshire;  studied  at  Edin- 
 burgh and  St.  Andrew's;  settled  in  Lon- 
 don, and  became  editor  of  the  St.  James's 
 Chronicle;  and  died  in  1807.  He  wrote 
 an  Inquiry  into  the  System  of  Military 
 Defence  of  Great  Britain;  an  Inquiry 
 into  the  Nature  of  Civil  and  Military 
 Subordination;  and  lastly,  and  best,  The 
 Lives  of  British  Statesmen. 
 
 MACHIAVEL,  Nicholas,  a  celebra- 
 ted Italian  writer,  was  born,  in  1469,  at 
 Florence,  of  a  patrician  family.  At  the 
 age  of  twenty-nine  he  was  appointed  chan- 
 cellor of  the  second  chancery,  and,  shortly 
 after,  secretary  of  the  Florentine  republic. 
 This  latter  office  he  held  nearly  fifteen 
 years,  during  which  period  he  was  also 
 employed  on  twenty-throe  diplomatic  mis- 
 sions, some  of  them  highly  important.  On 
 the  return  of  the  Medici  to  Florence,  he 
 was  deprived  of  his  post;  and,  being  sus- 
 pected of  having  participated  in  the  con- 
 spiracy of  Capponi  and  Boscoli  against 
 Cardinal  de  Medicis,  he  was  imprisoned 
 and  put  to  the  torture.  Subsequently,  how- 
 ever, Leo  the  Tenth  availed  himself  of  his 
 talents.  Machiavel  died  poor  in  1527. 
 His  chief  works  are,  The  History  of  Flo- 
 rence; Discourses  on  Living;  A  Treatise 
 on  the  Art  Military;  and  the  Prince. 
 The  last  of  these  works  has  stamped  op- 
 probrium upon  his  name;  yet  there  is 
 reason  to  doubt  whether  it  is  not  rather  a 
 covert  satire  upon  tyranny,  than  a  manuel 
 for  a   tyrant. 
 
 M'KEANj  Thomas,  an  eminent  Amer- 
 ican judge,  and  a  signer  of  the  declaration 
 of  independence,  was  born  in  Pennsylva- 
 nia, in  1734,  and,  after  a  course  of  acad- 
 emic and  professional  studies,  was  admit- 
 ted to  the  bar  at  the  age  of  21  years.  J  lis 
 political  career  commenced  in  1762,  when 
 he  was  returned  a  member  of  the  assembly 
 from  the  county  of  Newcastle.  He  was  a 
 member  of  the  congress  which  assembled 
 in  New  York,  in  1765,  to  obtain  relief  of 
 the  British  government  for  the  grievances 
 under  which  the  colonies  were  goffering. 
 In  this  body  he  behaved  with  much  decis- 
 i<  n  and  energy.  In  1774  he  was  appoint- 
 ed to  the  general  congress,  a  delegate 
 from  the  lower  counties  in  Delaware,  and 
 was  the  only  man  who,  without  intermis- 
 sion, was  a  member  during  the  whole 
 period.  Of  this  body  he  was  president  in 
 1781.  In  1777  he  was  appointed  chief- 
 justice  of  Pennsylvania,  and  discharged 
 the  duties  of  this  office  with  impartiality 
 and  dignity  for  22  years.  In  ITJlft  he  was 
 elected  a  governor  of  the  state  of  Pennsyl- 
 vania, and  his  administration  continued  for 
 
 MAC 
 
 nine  years.  In  1808  he  retired  from  pub- 
 lic life,  and  died,  much  respected  and  hon- 
 oured, in  is i T. 
 
 MACKENZIE,  Henry,  an  elegant 
 miscellaneous  writer,  who  has  been  called 
 the  Addison  of  the  .North,  was  born,  in 
 1745  or  1746,  in  Scotland;  received  a 
 liberal  education;  and,  in  1766,  became 
 an  attorney  in  the  Scottish  Court  of  Ex- 
 chequer. He  was,  subsequently,  made 
 comptroller  general  of  taxes  for  Scotland. 
 Mackenzie's  first  production  was  The  Man 
 of  Feeling,  which  was  published  in  1771, 
 and  soon  acquired  unbounded  popularity. 
 It  was  succeeded  by  The  Man  of  the  World, 
 and  Julia  de  Roubigne.  In  dramatic  wri- 
 ting he  was  less  happy.  His  tragedies  of 
 The  Prince  of  Tunis,  and  The  Shipwreck, 
 and  hi?  comedies  of  The  Force  of  Fashion, 
 and  Toe  White  Hypocrite,  though  contain- 
 ing many  beauties,  were  only  brought  upon 
 the  stage  to  die.  To  the  Mirror,  the  Loun- 
 ger, and  the  Transactions  of  the  Edinburgh 
 Royal  Society,  he  contributrd  several  valu- 
 able papers.  He  died,  at  Edinburgh,  Jan- 
 uary 14,  1831.  The  style  of  Mackenzie 
 is  polished  and  melodious,  and  his  power  of 
 I  exciting  the  feelings,  by  scenes  of  pathos, 
 is  of  the  verv  highest  order. 
 
 MACKLIN,  Charles,  an  eminent 
 actor  and  dramatist,  whose  real  name  was 
 M'Laughlin,  was  born,  in  1690,  in  Ireland ; 
 joined  a  company  of  strolling  players  in 
 his  twenty-first  year;  made  his  first  ap- 
 pearance in  London  in  1716;  acquired 
 reputation,  particularly  in  the  character 
 ofShylock;  and  died  in  1797.  He  wrote 
 eight  dramatic  pieces,  of  which  the  come- 
 dies of  The  Man  of  the  World,  and  Love 
 A-la-Mode,  retain  possession  of  the  stage, 
 and  attest  the  talent  of  the  author. 
 
 MACKNIGHT,  James,  a  Scotch  di- 
 vine, was  born,  in  1721,  at  Irvine,  in  Ar- 
 gyleshire;  studied  at  Glasgow  and  Leyden  ; 
 and,  after  having  held  the  livings  of  May- 
 hole   and   Jedburgh,  was,  for   thirty   years, 
 one    of  the    ministers  of   Edinburgh.     He 
 '  died  in  1800.'    He  published   A   Harmony 
 i  of  the   Four   Gospels;  The    Truth   of   the 
 !  Gospel  History  (lor  which  he  received  the 
 i  degree  of  D.  D.);  and  a  Translation,  with 
 i  Commentaries  and  Notes,  of  all  the  Apos- 
 I  tolical  Epistles. 
 
 MACLAURIN,    Colin,    an     eminent 
 mathematician,  was  born,  in  1698,  at  Kil- 
 '  ntodan.   near  Inverary,    in    Scotland,   and 
 Btudied  at  Glasgow.       After  having   been 
 professor    of    mathematics    at     Marischal 
 College,  and  travelling  tutor  to  the  son  of 
 Lord  Polworth,  he  was  chosen,  in  1725,  to 
 !  fill  the  mathematical  chair  in  the  university 
 of    Edinburgh.      He   died,    in    1746,    of 
 dropsy,  brought  on  by  intense  application, 
 and  by  his  exertions  against  the   rebels  in 
 I  the  preceding  year.      He  wrote  a  Trea- 
 tise on  Fluxions  (which  was  called  forth 
 
MJEC 
 
 by  Berkeley's  Analyst);  A  Treatise  on 
 A  gebra;  An  Account  of  Sir  Isaac  New- 
 ton's Discoveries;  Geometrica  Ofganica; 
 and  various  papers  in  the  Philosophical 
 Transactions. 
 
 MACPHERSON,  James,  a  Scotch 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1738,  at  Kingussie, 
 iii  lnvernesshire,  and  studied  at  Aberdeen 
 and  Edinburgh.  In  1760  lie  published 
 Fragments  of  Ancient  Poetry,  collected  in 
 the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  Public;  curi- 
 osity was  excited  by  them  ;  a  subscription 
 was  entered  into  to  enable  him  to  collect 
 more;  and  the  result  was,  that  he  gave  to 
 the  world  Fingal,  Temora,  and  the  other 
 poems  which  are  attributed  to  Ossian. 
 Much  ink  has  been  spilt  on  the  question 
 of  their  authenticity;  nor  is  the  point  yet 
 decided.  In  1764  he  accompanied  Governor 
 Johnstone  to  Florida,  as  secretary.  After 
 his  return  he  translated  the  Iliad  into  Ossi- 
 anic  prose;  wrote  an  Introduction  to  the 
 History  of  Great  Britain,  and  A  History 
 of  Great  Britain  from  the  Restoration  to 
 the  Accession  of  the  House  of  Hanover; 
 and  employed  his  pen  in  vindication  of  the 
 measures  of  the  government  against  the 
 Americans.  His  zeal  was  rewarded  by 
 the  appointment  of  agent  to  the  nabob  of 
 Arcot,  and  by  a  seat  in  parliament.  He 
 died  in  1796. 
 
 MACQUER,  Peter  Joseph,  a  chem- 
 ist and  physician,  was  born,  in  1718,  at 
 Paris;  was  professor  of  pharmacy  there; 
 and  died  in  1784.  He  wrote  A  Dictionary 
 of  Chemistry;  The  Elements  of  Theoretical 
 Chemistry  ;  The  Elements  of  Practical 
 Chemistry;  and  various  dissertations.  Mac- 
 quer  made  some  important  discoveries,  and 
 has  been  asserted  to  be  the  first  who  wit- 
 nessed the  combustibility  of  the  diamond. 
 MA  DAN,  Martin,  a  divine,  was  born 
 in  1726,  and  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but 
 took  orders,  and  became  a  popular  preacher 
 at  the  Lock  Chapel.  In  1781  he  drew 
 upon  himself  a  host  of  assailants  by  pub- 
 lishing his  Thelvphthora,  in  which  he 
 maintained  the  lawfulness,  and  even  neces- 
 sity, of  polygamy  in  certain  cases.  He 
 died  in  1790.  Besides  Thelyphthora,  he 
 wrote  A  Treatise  on  the  Christian  Faith ; 
 and  some  sermons  and  short  works:  and 
 published  an  edition  of  Juvenal  and  Per- 
 sius,  with  a  literal  translation. 
 
 MADOX,  Thomas,  an  antiquary,  was 
 historiographer  to  the  king,  and  died  in 
 January,  1727.  Of  his  life  no  farther 
 particulars  are  known.  He  is  the  author 
 of  A  History  of  the  Exchequer;  A  Col- 
 lection of  Charters  ;  and  An  Historical 
 Essay  concerning  the  Cities,  Towns,  and 
 Boroughs  of  England;  works  valuable  for 
 their  research.  His  extensive  collection 
 of  MSS.  was  presented  to  the  British 
 Museum  by  his  widow. 
 
 MAECENAS,    Caius    Cilnius,    the 
 
 MAH  373 
 
 minister  and  favourite  of  Augustus,  wan 
 descended  from  the  ancient  kings  of  Etro- 
 ria.  He  fought  for  that  monarch  at  Phi- 
 lippi,  Actium,  and  other  battles  ;  and 
 suppressed  at  Rome  the  conspiracy  of  the 
 younger  Lepidus.  To  Horace  and  Virgil 
 he  was  a  warm  friend,  and  to  men  of  «_jf-n in- 
 in  general  was  so  liberal  that  his  name  has 
 become  the  synonyine  of  a  generous  patron. 
 
 He  died   B.   C.  9.  " 
 
 MAFFEI,  Francis  Scipio,  marquis, 
 
 an  eminent  Italian  writer,  was  born,  in 
 1675,  at  Verona;  was  educated  at  the 
 college  of  nobles  at  Parma;  served  as  a 
 volunteer  in  the  Bavarian  service,  in  1704, 
 and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
 Donawert;  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life 
 in  the  cultivation  of  literature;  and  died, 
 at  his  native  place,  in  1755.  Among  his 
 works  are,  the  tragedy  of  Merope  ;  Latin 
 Poems;  A  Treatise  against  Duelling;  A 
 History  of  Diplomacy ;  Verona  Illustrated ; 
 and  The  Veronese  Museum. 
 
 MAGALHAENS,  or  MAGELLAN, 
 Ferdinand,  a  celebrated  Portuguese  nav- 
 igator, the  place  and  time  of  whose  birth 
 are  unknown.  He  fought  under  Albuquer- 
 que in  India,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
 the  siege  of  Malacca;  but,  his  services 
 not  being  rewarded  by  his  own  country,  he 
 offered  his  talents  to  Charles  V.  In  1519 
 the  Spanish  monarch  intrusted  him  with  a 
 fleet  destined  to  attempt  a  westward  pas- 
 sage to  the  Moluccas.  In  this  voyage 
 Magellan  was  so  fortunate  as  to  discover 
 the  straits  which  now  bear  his  name.  He 
 passed  through  them  into  the  Pacific,  and 
 reached  the  Philippines;  but  was  unfortu- 
 nately slain,  in  1521,  in  a  skirmish  with 
 the  natives  of  one  of  those  islands. 
 
 MAGLIABECCHI,  Anthony,  a  man 
 of  extraordinary  memory  and  learning, 
 was  born,  in  1633,  at  Florence,  of  poor 
 parents ;  became  librarian  to  the  grand 
 duke;  and  died  in  1714.  So  strong  was 
 his  memory,  that  having  only  for  a  single 
 time  perused  a  manuscript  of  considerable 
 length,  he  could  repeat  it  without  the 
 slightest  omission. 
 
 MAHOMET,  or  MOHAMMED,  the 
 
 founder   of  the   religion  which   bears  his 
 
374 
 
 MAI 
 
 name,  was  born,  in  569,  at  Mecca,  and] 
 was  left  an  orphan  at  two  years  of  age.  It 
 was  not  till  he  was  in  his  fortieth  year, 
 and  had  acquired  a  considerable  property, 
 partly  by  his  marriage  with  Khadijah,  a 
 rich  w  iilow ,  and  partly  as  a  merchant, 
 that  tie  began  to  assume  the  character  of 
 a  delegate  of  Heaven.  For  several  years, 
 however,  his  proselytes  were  few  in  num- 
 ber. In  the  twelfth  year  of  Ids  assumed 
 mission,  his  life  being  in  danger  at  Mecca, 
 he  was  compelled  to  fly  to  Medina,  the 
 inhabitants  of  which  place  bad  embraced 
 his  doctrines.  It  is  from  this  event,  called 
 the  Begira,  or  (bight,  that  the  Mussulmans 
 compute  their  tune.  From  this  period  the 
 career  of  Mahomet  was  a  series  of  tri- 
 umphs, and,  before  his  decease,  the  whole 
 of  Arabia  had  submitted  to  his  authority. 
 He  died  in  632.  His  Koran,  the  bible  of 
 the  Mahometans,  was  originally  produced 
 by  him  in  separate  chapters,  according  as 
 circumstances  required. 
 
 MAHOMET  II.,  the  seventh  Turkish 
 sultan,  was  born  at  Adrianople,  in  1430; 
 took  Constantinople  by  storm,  and  put  an 
 end  to  the  eastern  empire,  in  1453  ;  made 
 numerous  other  conquests  in  Europe  and 
 Asia  ;  and  died  in  1481,  when  he  was 
 meditating  the  invasion  of  Persia. 
 
 MAIMBOURG,  Louis,  an  historian, 
 was  born,  in  1610,  at  Nanci;  entered  the 
 society  of  the  Jesuits,  but  was  expelled 
 lioin  it  for  defending  the  liberties  of  the 
 Gallican  church  ;  was  consoled  by  a  pen- 
 sion from  Louis  XIV.  ;  and  died  in  1686. 
 He    wrote    Histories    of    Arianism — the 
 
 Iconoclasts the     Crusades the     (J  reek 
 
 Schism — the  Great  Schism  of  the  West — 
 the  Decline  of  the  Empire — Calvinism — 
 Lutheran  ism — and  the  League.  Wnere 
 his  catholic  prejudices  do  not  warp  his 
 judgment,  Maimbourg  is  a  meritorious 
 writer; 
 
 MAIMONTDES,  or  BEN  MAIMON, 
 MOSES,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
 Jewish  rabbis,  who  is  called  the  eagle  of 
 the  doctors,  and  the  lamp  of  Israel,  was 
 born,  in  1131,  at  Cordova  ;  was  profoundly 
 versed  in  languages, and  in  all  the  learning 
 of  the  age;  became  chief  physician  to  the 
 sultan  of  Egypt;  and  died  in  1204.  Among 
 his  works  are,  A  Commentary  on  the 
 Mischna;  An  Abridgment  of  the  Talmud; 
 and  The  Book  of  Precepts. 
 
 MAINTENON,  Frances    d'   AU- 
 
 BIGNE,  marchioness  of,  who  rose  to  share 
 the  throne  of  France,  was  born,  in  1635, 
 in  a  prison  at  Niort,  in  which  her  father 
 was  confined  for  some  political  cause. 
 Being  left  an  orphan,  and  in  poverty,  she 
 married  the  celebrated  Scarron.  After 
 the  decease  of  her  husband,  she  for 
 time  enjoyed  a  pension,  but  she  l<  >t  it  on 
 the  death  of  the  queen  dowager,  and  was 
 ibout  to  sink  again  into   indigence,  when 
 
 MAL 
 
 she  was  saved  from  it  by  Madame  de 
 Montespan,  the  king's  mistress,  intrusting 
 her  with  the  care  of  her  children.  At 
 first,  she  was  disliked  by  Louis  XIV.,  but 
 she  gradually  gained  his  affection,  and  he. 
 concluded  by  privately  marrying  her.  She 
 died,  in  1719,  at  the  establishment  of  St. 
 Cyr,  of  which  she  was  the  foundress.  By 
 meddling  in  state  affairs,  and  by  encoura- 
 ging  the  bigotry  of  Louis  XIV.,  Madame 
 de  Mainteaon  inflicted  much  serious  injury 
 upon  France. 
 
 MA1TTAIRE,  Michael,  a  biblio- 
 grapher and  classical  editor,  was  born, 
 in  1668,  in  London,  and  was  educated  at 
 Westminster  School,  and  Christ  Church 
 College,  Oxford ;  of  the  former  of  which 
 he  became  for  some  time  second  master. 
 He  died  in  1747.  His  editions  of  Greek 
 and  Latin  classics  are  numerous,  and  valu- 
 able for  their  accuracy  ;  but  his  chief  work 
 is,  Annals  of  Typography,  in  five  quarto 
 volumes. 
 
 MALCOLM,  James  Peller,  an  artist 
 and  antiquary,  was  a  native  of  America; 
 settled  in  England  to  study  painting,  but 
 became  an  engraver;  and  died  in  1815. 
 He  wrote  Londinium  Redivivum;  Anec- 
 dotes of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of 
 London;  First  Impressions;  and  other 
 works. 
 
 MALEBRAN  CHE,  Nicholas,  a 
 French  philosopher,  was  born,  in  1638,  at 
 Paris ;  became  a  member  of  the  congrega- 
 tion of  the  Oratory;  and  died  in  1715. 
 He  was  no  less  beloved  for  his  manners 
 than  admired  for  his  talents.  To  meta- 
 physics his  attention  was  first  directed  by 
 perusing  Descartes'  Treatise  on  Man,  and 
 lie  immediately  became  a  devoted  partisan 
 of  the  Cartesian  philosophy.  His  celebra- 
 ted treatise,  The  Search  after  Truth,  was 
 the  result  of  ten  years'  meditation  upon  that 
 philosophy.  Besides  that  work  he  pub- 
 lished several  others,  among  which  are, 
 A  Treatise  on  Nature  and  Grace ;  Christian 
 Conversations;  and  Dialogues  on  Meta- 
 physics and  Religion. 
 
 MALESHERBES,  Christian  Wil- 
 liam LAMOIGNON  de,  a  French  states- 
 man,   of   a    family     distinguished     in    the 
 magistracy,  was  born,  in  1721,  at  Paris; 
 succeeded    his  father   as   president  of  the 
 court  of  aids;    was  appointed  superinten- 
 dent of  the  press ;    was  twice  minister  of 
 state,  in  1775  and   17S6,  to  Louis  XVI.; 
 volunteered     to    perform     the     dangerous 
 office  of  counsel  for  that  monarch  on  his 
 I trial;    and  fell,  with  nearly  all  his  family, 
 ;a  victim  to  the  jacobins,  in  1794.      Males- 
 !  herbes  was  a  man  of  high  honour  and  of 
 an  enlightened  mind.     Among  his  works 
 are.    Observations    on    Bnflbn's    Natural 
 [History;   and  some  pamphlets  ou  agricul 
 ture  and  land. 
 
 MALHERBE,  Francis  de,  an  emi- 
 
MAL 
 
 nent  French  poet,  was  born,  about  1555, 
 at  Caen;  bore  arms  in  the  troops  of  the 
 League;  was  pensioned  by  Henry  IV.; 
 and  died  in  1628.  Malherbe  was  one  of 
 the  first  who  gave  polish  and  regularity 
 to  French  poetry.  He  was  a  man  of  in- 
 finite wit,  but  of  a  quarrelsome  and  misan- 
 thropical disposition.  While  he  was  talking 
 once  against  mankind,  he  referred  to  the 
 murder  of  Abel,  "  Was  not  this  a  pretty 
 beginning  V  said  he.  "  There  were  but 
 thr«?e  or  four  of  them  in  the  world,  and  one 
 of  them  kills  his  brother  !" 
 
 MALLET,  David,  whose  real  name 
 was  Malloch,  a  poet  and  miscellaneous 
 writer,  was  born,  about  1700,  at  Crief,  in 
 Perthshire;  was  travelling  tutor  to  the 
 sons  of  the  duke  of  Montrose;  settled  in 
 London,  where  he  acquired  literary  repu- 
 tation; was  made  under  secretary  to  the 
 prince  of  Wales;  gained  a  dishonourable 
 pension  from  government  for  contributing 
 to  write  down  the  unfortunate  Byng;  and 
 died  in  1765.  Bolingbroke,  in  whose  scep- 
 ticism Mallet  participated,  left  him  his 
 works  as  a  legacy.  Besides  his  poems, 
 which  have  considerable  merit,  he  wrote 
 the  tragedies  of  Mustapha,  Eurydice,  and 
 Elvira;  a  Life  of  Bacon  ;  and  some  minor 
 productions. 
 
 MALLET,  Paul  Henry,  an  historian 
 and  antiquary,  was  born,  in  1750,  at  Ge- 
 neva; was  successively  professor  of  belles 
 lettres  at  Copenhagen  and  at  his  native 
 place,  and  resident  from  Hesse  Cassel  at 
 Geneva  and  Berne;  and  died  in  1S07. 
 Mallet  was  a  man  of  learning  and  talent. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Histories  of  Hesse 
 — Denmark — the  Swiss — the  Hanseatic 
 League — and  the  House  of  Brunswick ; 
 and  an  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
 Denmark,  which  Dr.  Percy  translated, 
 with  the  title  of  Northern  Antiquities. 
 
 MALMESBURY,  William  of,  an 
 English  historian,  was  a  native  of  Somer- 
 setshire; flourished  in  the  twelfth  century ; 
 was  educated  at  Oxford ;  became  a  monk 
 and  librarian  of  Malmesbury  Abbey;  and 
 died  in  1143.  Besides  his  History  of 
 England,  from  the  landing  of  the  Saxons 
 to  1126,  he  wrote  a  History  of  his  own 
 Times;  a  Church  History;  The  Antiqui- 
 ties of  Glastonbury ;  and  a  Life  of  St. 
 Aldhehn. 
 
 MALONE,  Edmund,  a  dramatic  com- 
 mentator and  miscellaneous  writer,  the 
 son  of  an  Irish  judge,  was  born,  in  1741, 
 at  Dublin;  studied  at  Trinity  College,! 
 Dublin,  and  the  Inner  Temple;  spent  his 
 life  in  literary  pursuits;  and  died  in  1812. 
 Among  his  works  are,  an  edition  of  Shaks- 
 peare;  A  Life  of  Dryden,  and  edition  of 
 his  Prose  Works;  A  Life  of  Sir  Joshua 
 Reynolds,  prefixed  to  his  writings;  and 
 an  Inquiry  into  the  Papers  attributed  to 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 MAN 
 
 375 
 
 MALPIGHI,  Marcellus,  an  Italian 
 naturalist  and  anatomist,  was  born,  in 
 1628,  at  Crevalcuore,  near  Bologna;  \v;w 
 appointed  physician  to  Pope  Innocent 
 XII.  after  having  been  professor  of  medi- 
 cine at  Bologna,  Pisa,  and  Messina;  and 
 died  in  1694.  His  physiological,  botani- 
 cal, and  anatomical  works  form  two  vol- 
 umes folio. 
 
 MALTE-BRUN,  Conrad,  a  poet,  po- 
 litical and  philosophical  writer,  and  geo- 
 grapher, was  born,  in  1775,  at  Thye,  in 
 Jutland,  and  was  obliged  to  quit  his  na- 
 tive country  in  1796,  in  consequence  of 
 the  persecution  he  sustained  for  having 
 written  in  favour  of  the  liberty  of  the 
 press,  and  the  enfranchisement  of  the  peas- 
 ants. After  having  resided  for  some  time 
 at  Stockholm,  he  settled  at  Paris,  and, 
 from  1S06  till  his  decease,  December  16, 
 1826,  edited  the  foreign  political  depart- 
 ment of  the  Journal  of  Debates.  He  also, 
 in  conjunction  with  31.  Eyries,  edited  the 
 Annals  of  Voyages.  Among  his  works 
 are,  his  excellent  System  of  Geography; 
 A  Picture  of  Poland;  Poems;  and  Miscel- 
 lanies. 
 
 MALUS,  Stephen  Louis,  a  mathe- 
 matician and  experimental  philosopher, 
 was  born,  in  1775,  at  Paris;  served  as  an 
 officer  of  engineers,  on  the  Rhine,  in  1797, 
 and  in  Egypt;  entered  on  a  course  of  ex- 
 periments on  the  phenomena  of  optics; 
 and  immortalized  his  name  by  the  discov- 
 ery of  the  polarisation  of  light.  At  the 
 time  of  his  decease,  in  1812,  he  was  direc- 
 tor of  the  polytechnic  school,  and  superin- 
 tendent of  fortifications. 
 
 MANCO  CAPAC,  the  founder  of  the 
 Peruvian  empire,  and  the  first  of  its  In- 
 cas,  is  said  to  have  lived  about  four  hun- 
 dred years  before  the  invasion  of  the  coun- 
 try by  the  Spaniards;  to  have  first  appear- 
 ed, with  his  sister  and  wife  Mama  Oella, 
 in  an  island  of  the  lake  Titicaca ;  to  have 
 declared  that  be  and  his  partner  were  chil- 
 dren of  the  sun,  sent  to  civilize  the  natives ; 
 to  have  founded  Cusco;  and  to  have  reign- 
 ed long  and  prosperously  over  a  grateful 
 people. 
 
 MANDEVILLE,  Sir  John,  a  celebra- 
 ted abuser  of  the  traveller's  privilege  of 
 exaggerating,  was  born  at  St.  Albans;  left 
 his  native  country  in  1332,  to  proceed  on 
 his  peregrinations;  and  was  absent  upon 
 them  for  thirty-four  years,  during  which 
 period  he  pretends  that  he  visited  all  the 
 countries  of  the  east,  and  served  in  the  ar- 
 mies of  the  sultan  of  Egypt  and  the  khan 
 of  Cathay.  He  died  at  Liege,  in  1372. 
 His  Travels  contain  such  enormous  fables 
 that  they  have  rendered  his  name  a  syno- 
 nynie  for  a  liar. 
 'MANDEVILLE,  Bernard,  a  phy- 
 sician and  writer,  was  born,  about  1670, 
 at  Dort,  in  Holland;  settled  in  England  a» 
 
S76 
 
 MAN 
 
 (he  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century ; 
 and  died  in  1733.  He  is  the  author  of 
 several  productions,  among  which  are,  An 
 Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  Honour;  Free 
 Thoughts  on  Religion;  and  The  Virgin 
 Unmasked;  but  his  principal  work  is  The 
 Fable  of  the  Bees,  or  Private  Vices  made 
 Public  Benefits.  This  last  wal  attacked 
 by  Berkeley,  to  whom  Mandeville  replied, 
 and  was  presented,  as  flagrantly  immoral, 
 by  the  grand  jury  of  .Middlesex. 
 
 MANES,  .MAM.  or  MANICHiEUS, 
 the  founder  of  the  Manicha-an  sect,  a  na- 
 tive  of  Persia,  was  burn  about  239,  and  is 
 said  to  have  been  the  first  slave,  and  after- 
 wards the  adopted  son,  of  a  rich  widow, 
 who  left  him  her  possessions.  He  began 
 to  promulgate  his  doctrines  in  267.  After 
 having  been  patronised  by  some  of  the 
 Persian  mouarchs,  and  persecuted  by/  oth- 
 ers, he  was  put  to  death,  in  274,  by  Bert- 
 ram I.  He  rejected  the  Old  Testament ; 
 and  taught  that  there  are  two  creative 
 principles,  Ormudz,  the  author  of  good, 
 and  Ahriman,  the  author  of  evil;  that 
 Christ  had  come  to  save  mankind;  and 
 that  he  himself  was  the  paraclete  an- 
 nounced in  the  New  Testament. 
 
 MANSART,  Julius  Hardouin,  an 
 eminent  architect,  a  nephew  of  Francis 
 Mansart,  who  was  also  a  man  of  great 
 architectural  talent,  was  born,  in  1645,  at 
 Paris;  and  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV. 
 for  whom  he  built  the  palaces  of  Ver- 
 sailles, Marly,  and  the  Great  Trianon; 
 the  Hospital  of  the  Invalids;  and  many- 
 other  magnificent  public  edifices.  He  died 
 in  170S. 
 
 MANSFIELD,  William  MURRAY, 
 earl  of,  fourth  son  of  Lord  Stormont,  was 
 born,  in  1705,  at  Perth;  studied  at  West- 
 minster School,  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
 and  Lincoln's  Inn;  became  solicitor  gen- 
 eral in  17-12,  attorney  general  in  175  Land 
 chief  justice  of  the  kin^'V  bench,  in  1756; 
 shortly  after  which  he  was  created  Lord 
 Mansfield.  In  1757  he  held,  for  a  few 
 months,  the  office  of  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
 chequer,  during  which  period  he  accom- 
 plished a  coalition  of  parties.  In  1770  his 
 judicial  conduct  was  severely  arraigned  in 
 
 MAR 
 
 both  houses  of  parliament,  and  by  a  host 
 of  writers,  foremost  of  whom  in  talent  and 
 in  vehemence  was  the  terrific  Junius.  The 
 rank  of  earl  was  conferred  on  him  in 
 1776.  In  the  disgraceful  no-popery  riots 
 of  1780,  his  town  mansion  and  all  his 
 valuable  books  and  manuscripts  were  burnt 
 by  the  mob.  He  resigned  his  office  of 
 chief  justice  in  178S,  and  died  March  20, 
 1793.  Lord  Mansfield  Avas  a  man  of  fine 
 taste,  fluent  eloquence,  strong  argumenta- 
 tive powers,  and  great  legal  knowledge;  a 
 partisan  of  high  principles  of  government, 
 but  an  enemy  of  religious  persecution. 
 
 MANUZIO,  or  MANUTIUS,  Al- 
 dus, a  celebrated  printeV  and  author,  was 
 born,  in  1447,  at  Bassiano,  in  the  papal 
 states;  established  a  printing  office  at 
 Venice  in  148S;  and  died  in  1515.  He 
 printed  numerous  valuable  editions  of 
 Greek  and  Latin  classics ;  compiled  a 
 Greek  and  Latin  Dictionary,  and  a  Latin 
 Grammar;  and  wrote  a  Treatise  on  the 
 Horatian  Metres.  He  was  rivalled  in 
 learning  and  typographical  fame  by  his 
 son  Paul,  and  his  grandson  Aldus;  the 
 former  of  whom  was  born  in  1512,  and 
 died  in  1574;  the  latter  was  born  in  1547, 
 and  died  in  1597. 
 
 MARAT,  John  Paul,  the  most  infa- 
 mous and  sanguinary  of  demagogues,  was 
 born,  in  1744,  at  Boudry,  in  the  princi- 
 pality of  Neuchatel,  and  was  physician  to 
 the  body  guards  of  the  count  d'Artoiswhen 
 the  French  revolution  commenced.  He  im- 
 mediately became  the  most  violent  of  the 
 violent  revolutionists,  and  established  a 
 journal  called  The  Friend  of  the  People, 
 in  which  he  never  ceased  to  preach  pillage, 
 proscription,  and  murder,  on  the  largest 
 scale.  In  the  Convention  he  maintained 
 the  same  doctrines ;  and  he  triumphed  over 
 his  antagonists,  the  Girondists,  who  had 
 succeeded  in  sending  him  to  trial.  He 
 was  assassinated,  in  1793,  by  Charlotte 
 Corday.  Marat  was  a  man  of  considera- 
 ble scientific  knowledge,  and  published 
 various  works  on  fire,  light,  electricity 
 and  other  subjects. 
 
 MARATTI,  Carlo,  an  eminent  pain- 
 ter, was  born,  in  1625,  at  Camerino,  in 
 the  papal  territory ;  was  a  pupil  of  Andrew 
 Sacchi ;  was  painter  to  several  popes,  and 
 was  knighted;  sustained  the  reputation  of 
 the  Roman  school  while  that  of  others  was 
 declining;  and  died  in  1713.  Maratti  alsc 
 displayed  talent  as  an  architect  and  en- 
 graver.— His  daughter,  Maria,  who  mar- 
 ried J.  B.  Zappi,  was  an  artist  and  a 
 poetess. 
 
 MARCEAU,FrancisSevkrin  Des- 
 
 (iKAViERS,  an  eminent  French  general, 
 
 was  born,  in  1769,  at  Chartres;    distin- 
 
 iguished    himself  in    Vendee,    at    Fleurus, 
 
 iand  on  the  Rhine,  in  1795   and  1796;  and 
 
 !  was  killed  at  Hochsteinbach,  in  the  lattei 
 
MAR 
 
 year  1  o  great  military  talents  Marceau 
 united  great  virtues.  So  much  was  he  re- 
 spected, that  when  he  was  buried  in  the 
 intrenched  cainp  of  Coblentz,  the  Austrian 
 and  French  armies  joined  in  honouring 
 the  ceremony  by  volleys  of  artillery.  Lord 
 Byron  has  paid  a  lasting  tribute  to  his 
 worth  'n  the  third  canto  of  Childe  Har- 
 old. 
 
 3IARCHETTI,  Alexander,  a  poet 
 and  mathematician,  was  born,  in  1633,  at 
 Puntormo,  in  Tuscany;  studied  at  Pisa  un- 
 der Borelli,  whom  he  succeeded  as  profes- 
 sor of  mathematics;  and  died  in  1714.  He 
 translated  Lucretius,  Anacreoii,  and  part  of 
 the  Eneid;  and  wrote  a  volume  of  Poems, 
 and  various  mathematical  works,  of  which 
 latter  the  principal  is  a  Treatise  de  Resis- 
 tentia  Solidorum.  His  Lucretius  is  in  blank 
 verse,  and  is  executed  in  a  masterly  manner. 
 
 MARIANA,  John,  a  celebrated  Span- 
 ish historian,  was  born,  in  1537,  at  Tala- 
 vera;  was  educated  at  Alcala;  entered 
 into  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  and  was  suc- 
 cessively professor  of  theology  in  their  col- 
 leges at  Rome  and  at  Paris;  and  died  at 
 Toledo  in  1624.  His  principal  work  is  the 
 History  of  Spain,  which  entitles  him  to  an 
 honourable  place  among  historical  writers. 
 His  treatise  De  Rege,  in  which  he  main- 
 tains the  justice  of  killing  a  tyrant,  excited 
 great  clamour,  and  was  burned  by  order  of 
 the  parliament  of  Paris. 
 
 MARINI,  John  Baptist,  an  Italian 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1659,  at  Naples,  and 
 was  intended  for  the  law,  but  devoted  him- 
 self to  literature,  in  consequence  of  which 
 he  was  turned  out  of  doors  by  his  father. 
 He  found  protectors,  however,  in  Italy,  and 
 afterwards  in  France,  where  Mary  of  Me- 
 dicis  gave  him  a  pension.  He  returned  to 
 his  own  country  in  1622,  and  died  in  1625. 
 His  principal  poem  is  The  Adonis,  in  twen- 
 ty cantos. 
 
 MARINO,  St.  a  native  of  Dalmatia, 
 was  one  of  the  workmen  employed  in  re- 
 building the  bridge  of  Rimini.  The  bishop 
 of  Brescia,  who  had  noticed  him  for  his  pi- 
 ety, ordained  him  a  deacon,  and  he  retired 
 to  a  hermitage  on  Mount  Titano,  where  he 
 died  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century. 
 The  miracles  said  to  be  wrought  at  his 
 tomb  brought  a  crowd  of  pilgrims  to  the 
 spot;  houses  were  built  to  receive  them; 
 and  thus  rose  into  existence  the  miniature 
 republic  of  San  Marino. 
 
 MARION,  Francis,  a  distinguished 
 officer  in  the  American  army,  was  born  in 
 South  Carolina  in  1732,  and  first  served  in 
 1761  as  a  lieutenant  against  the  Cherokees. 
 Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  revo- 
 lution, he  received  a  major's  commission, 
 and  in  1780  he  obtained  thai  of  brigadier 
 general.  He  continually  surprised  and  cap- 
 tured parties  of  the  British  and  the  royal- 
 ists  by    the   secrecy   and  rapidity  of  his 
 
 MAR  377 
 
 movements.  On  the  evacuation  of  Charles- 
 ton lie  retired  to  his  plantation,  where  he 
 died  in  1795.     He  was  bold,  generous,  and 
 
 severe  in  his   discipline. 
 
 MARIOTTE,  Edmund,  a  French  math- 
 ematician and  experimental  philosopher, 
 was  bom  at  Dijon;  was  prior  of  St.  Mar- 
 tin, and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
 ence; and  died  in  1684.  Mariotte  waa 
 one  of  the  lirst  of  the  French  philosophers 
 who  applied  to  experimental  researches. 
 Among  his  works  are,  An  Essay  on  Phys- 
 ics; and  Treatises  on  the  Collision  of 
 Bodies;  the  Pressure  and  Motion  of  Fluids  ; 
 and  the  Motion  of  Pendulums. 
 
 MAUD'S,  Caius,  a  famous  Roman 
 general  and  demagogue,  was  bom  about 
 ]?.  c.  153,  at  Cerratiuum,  of  an  obscure 
 family.  It  was  at  the  siege  of  Numantia 
 that  lu>  laid  the  groundwork  of  his  reputa- 
 tion. After  having  been  tribune  of  the 
 people,  and  praetor,  he  was  chosen  consul. 
 He  subdued  Jugurtha,  and  defeated  with 
 tremendous  slaughter  the  Cimbri,  Teutones, 
 and  Ambrones,  who  had  poured  their  myr- 
 iads into  Italy.  His  rivalry  with  Sylla 
 produced  a  sanguinary  domestic  contest, 
 in  which  the  best  blood  of  the  republic  was 
 spilt,  and  he  was  more  than  once  on  the 
 verge  of  ruin.  He  died  at  Rome  B.  c.  86, 
 in  his  seventh  consulship. 
 
 MARIVAUX,  Peter  Carlet  de 
 Chamelain  de,  a  French  dramudst  and 
 novelist,  was  born,  in  1688,  at  Paris.  His 
 father  was  director  of  the  mint  at  Riom, 
 and  gave  him  an  excellent  education,  but 
 left  him  no  fortune.  The  talents  and  social 
 merits  of  Marivaux,  however,  gained  him 
 many  ardent  friends.  He  died  in  1763. 
 "Marivaux,"  says  one  of  his  biographers, 
 "was  good,  charitable,  indulgent  in  his  phi- 
 losophy, full  of  respect  for  religion,  but 
 exceedingly  hostile  to  fanaticism  and  hy- 
 pocrisy." His  principal  novels  are,  Mari- 
 anne, and  The  Paysan  Parvenu.  Of  his 
 comedies,  which  form  five  volumes,  some 
 are  still  acted.  Of  his  miscellaneous  works 
 The  French  Spectator  is  one  of  the  best. 
 
 MARLBOROUGH,  John  CHURCH- 
 ILL,  duke  of,  was  born,  in  1650,  at  Ashe, 
 in  Devonshire,  and,  at  the  age  of  twelve 
 
378 
 
 MAR 
 
 years,  was  taken  from  school  to  be  a  page 
 of  the  duke  of  York,  who  gave  him  a  pair 
 of  colours  in  1666.  It  was  at  the  siege  of 
 Tangier  that  he  was  first  engaged  in  active 
 service.  In  1672  he  distinguished  himself 
 in  the  Netherlands,  under  the  duke  of  Mon- 
 mouth.  For  several  years  he  was  the  fa- 
 vourite of  the  duke  of  York,  who  obtained 
 for  him  the  barony  of  Eyemouth;  and,  on 
 ascending  the  throne,  sent  him  ambassa- 
 dor to  France,  and  created  him  Lord 
 Churchill.  The  attachment  of  his  lordship 
 to  the  protestant  cause  induced  him,  how- 
 ever, to  join  the  prince  of  Orange.  For 
 this  he  received  from  William  the  earldom 
 of  Marlborough,  and  the  command  of  the 
 English  army  in  the  Netherlands.  In  1690 
 he  commanded  in  Ireland,  and  reduced 
 Cork,  Kinsale,  and  other  places.  But  in 
 1692  he  was  dismissed  from  all  his  offices, 
 and  committed  to  the  Tower,  on  suspicion, 
 not  wholly  groundless,  of  plotting  to  restore 
 the  exiled  monarch ;  nor,  though  he  was 
 soon  liberated,  was  he  again  employed  till 
 after  the  death  of  Queen  Mary.  His  splen- 
 did course  of  glory  began  with  the  acces- 
 sion of  Queen  Anne,  when  he  was  created 
 captain  general  of  the  forces,  and  wis  sent 
 as  plenipotentiary  to  the  Hague.  The 
 campaign  of  1T02  earned  for  him  the  title 
 of  Duke.  From  that  period  till  1711  he 
 ran  a  career  of  victory  which  has  placed 
 his  name  among  those  of  the  most  illustrious 
 generals.  He  rescued  the  Low  Countries 
 and  Germany,  broke  through  the  iron  fron- 
 tier of  France,  humiliated  her  haughty 
 monarch,  and  placed  her  on  the  verge  of 
 ruin.  His  principal  victories  were  those 
 of  Blenheim,  in  1704;  Ramillies,  in  1706; 
 Oudenarde,  in  1708;  and  Malplaquet,  in 
 1709.  Party  intrigues  at  home  at  length 
 deprived  him  of  the  command,  and  even 
 compelled  him  to  retire  to  the  continent. 
 On  the  accession  of  George  I.  however, 
 Marlborough  resumed  his  employments ;  but 
 age  and  toil  had  impaired  his  faculties,  and 
 he  subsequently  took  very  little  part  in  pub- 
 lic affairs.  He  died  June  16,  1722.  His 
 imperious  duchess,  whom  Pope  has  satiris- 
 ed under  the  name  of  Atossa,  survived  him 
 more  than  twenty  vears. 
 
 MARLOE,  or'MARLOW,  Christo- 
 ph  KR,  a  dramatist  and  poet,  was  born  about 
 1562;  was  educated  at  Bene't  College, 
 Cambridge;  became  an  author  and  actor; 
 and  was  killed  by  a  servant,  about  1593. 
 He  wrote  six  tragedies;  some  poems;  and 
 translated  The  Rape  of  Helen  by  Coluthns, 
 and  parts  of  Ovid  and  Lucan.  His  pow- 
 ers as  a  tragic  writer  were  of  ahigh  order, 
 and  some  parts  of  his  poems  display  great 
 excellence. 
 
 MARMONTEL,  John  Francis,  a 
 celebrated  French  writer,  was  born,  in 
 1723,  at  Bort,  in  the  Limousin,  and  was 
 educated  in  the  Jesuits' College  at  Mauri- 
 
 MAR 
 
 ae.     Being  persuaded  by  Voltaire  to  try 
 his  fortune  at  Paris,  he  settled  there  in  1745, 
 
 and  by  his  tragedies  of  Dionysius,  and 
 Aristoinenes,  and  other  successful  works, 
 he  soon  gained  reputation,  fortune,  and 
 court  favour.  Madame  de  Pompadour 
 obtained  for  him  the  appointment  of  sec- 
 retary to  the  royal  buildings,  and,  subse- 
 quently, the  management  of  the  French 
 Mercury.  At  a  later  period  he  became 
 historiographer  of  France,  and  secretary 
 of  the  Royal  Academy.  For  some  years 
 he  led  a  licentious  ife;  but  at  length  he 
 married,  and  graced  his  talents  by  the 
 domestic  virtues.  He  survived  the  horrors 
 of  the  revolution,  and  was  elected  to  the 
 Council  of  Ancients;  but  his  election  was 
 annulled,  and  he  again  withdrew  into  re- 
 tirement. He  died  December  31,  1799. 
 Of  his  works  the  principal  are,  Moral 
 Tales;  his  own  Memoirs;  thelncas;  Be- 
 lisarius;  and  Elements  of  Literature. 
 "  Though  not  superior  in  any  kind  of  com- 
 position," says  one  of  his  countrymen,  "  he 
 was  an  agreeable,  pure,  and  elegant  writer." 
 Perhaps  this  faint  praise  hardly  does  justice 
 to  the  merit  of  Marmontel. 
 
 MAROT,  Clement,  an  eminent  French 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1495,  at  Cahors;  was 
 wounded  and  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle 
 of  Pavia;  was  persecuted  for  his  attach- 
 ment to  the  protestant  religion ;  and  died 
 in  1544,  at  Turin.  As  a  poet  he  far  out- 
 shone not  only  all  his  predecessors  and 
 contemporaries,  but  all  who  succeeded  him 
 till  the  time  of  Malherbe. 
 
 MARSTON,  John,  a  dramatist,  who 
 flourished  in  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and 
 James  the  First,  studied  at  Corpus  Christi 
 College,  Oxford,  and  the  Middle  Temple; 
 was  at  one  time  the  friend  of  Ben  Jonson; 
 and  died  subsequently  to  1633.  He  wrote 
 three  books  of  Satires,  called  The  Scourge 
 ofVillany;  and  eight  plays,  which  contain 
 many  fine  scenes  and  passages. 
 
 MARTENS,  William  Frederic, 
 an  eminent  German  diplomatic  writer,  was 
 professor  of  public  law  at  Gottingen,  and 
 was  employed  at  the  congress  of  Vienna  to 
 draw  up  the  reports  of  the  conferences. 
 He  died,  in  1821,  at  Frankfort,  where  he 
 
MAS 
 
 was  acting  as  deputy  from  Hanover  to  the 
 diet.  Among  his  works  are,  A  Treatise 
 on  the  Law  of  Nations ;  and  A  Collection 
 of  Treaties  of  Peace. 
 
 MARTIALIS,  or  MARTIAL,  Marcus 
 Valerius,  a  celebrated  Latin  epigram- 
 matist, was  born  at  Bilbilis,  in  Spain, 
 about  a.  D.  40;  studied  the  law  in  the 
 Roman  capital;  was  patronised  bv  Domi- 
 tian,  after  whose  death  he  returned  to  his 
 native  country;  and  is  believed  to  have 
 died  about  A.  D.  100. 
 
 MARTYN,  John,  a  botanist  and  learned 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1699,  at  London;  was 
 a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  nearly 
 thirty  years  professor  of  botany  at  Cam- 
 bridge; and  died  in  1768.  He  wrote 
 various  botanical  works;  The  Grub  Street 
 Journal ;  and  A  Dissertation  on  the  JEneid  ; 
 assisted  in  the  abridgment  of  the  Philo- 
 sophical Transactions;  published  Virgil's 
 Georgics,  with  a  version  and  notes;  and 
 translated  Tournefort's  History  of  Plants. 
 
 MARTYR,  Peter,  a  celebrated  re- 
 former and  theologian,  whose  real  name 
 was  Vermigli,  was  born,  in  1500,  at  Flo- 
 rence. He  was  originally  an  Augustin 
 monk,  and  became  an  eminent  preacher, 
 and  prior  of  St.  Fridian'a  at  Lucca.  Hav- 
 ing, however,  embraced  the  protestant 
 doctrines,  he  found  it  necessary  to  quit  his 
 native  country.  After  having  been  for 
 some  time  professor  of  divinity  at  Stras- 
 bourgh,  he  was  invited  to  England,  and 
 appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Oxford. 
 He  left  England  on  the  accession  of  Mary, 
 and  died  in  1561,  theological  professor  at 
 Zurich.  He  wrote  several  works,  among 
 which  are  Commentaries  upon  Parts  of 
 the  Scriptures. 
 
 MARVELL,  Andrew,  eminent  as  a 
 writer  and  a  patriot,  was  born,  in  1620,  at 
 Kingston  upon  Hull;  was  educated  at 
 Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  and,  after 
 having  been  secretary  to  the  English  lega- 
 tion at  Constantinople,  and  assistant  to 
 Milton,  as  Latin  secretary,  he  was  chosen, 
 in  1660.  member  of  parliament  for  his  na- 
 tive place,  which  he  continued  to  represent 
 till  the  end  of  his  life.  He  is  said  to  have 
 been  the  last  member  who  received  pay 
 from  his  constituents.  In  parliament,  and 
 with  his  pen,  he  was  active  in  the  cause 
 of  liberty,  and  no  consideration  could  turn 
 him  aside  from  the  path  of  duty.  He  re- 
 fused a  present  of  a  thousand  pounds  from 
 Charles  II.,  though  at  that  very  moment 
 he  was  obliged  to  borrow  a  guinea  from  a 
 friend.  Marvell  died  in  1678.  His  works, 
 in  prose  and  verse,  form  three  quarto 
 volumes. 
 
 MASCAGNI,  Paul,  a  celebrated  Italian 
 anatomist,  was  born,  in  1752,  in  Tuscany; 
 and  died,  in  1815,  professor  of  anatomy, 
 physiology,  and  chemistry,  at  Florence. 
 He  was  the  first  who  demonstrated  the  real 
 
 MAS 
 
 379 
 
 structure  of  the  corpus  spongiosum  of  the 
 urethra.  Among  his  works  are,  A  Treatise 
 on  the  Lymphatic  Vessels;  and  Anatomy 
 for  the  Use  of  Students  in  Sculpture  and 
 Painting. 
 MASCARON,  Julius,  a  distinguished 
 
 French  prelate  and  pulpit,  orator,  was  born 
 in  1634;  entered  among  the  priests  of  the 
 Oratory;  and  soon  became  so  popular  a 
 preacher  that  multitudes  thronged  from  all 
 quarters  to  hear  him.  In  1666  he  was 
 called  to  the  court,  to  preach  before  Louis 
 XIV.;  and  in  1671,  lie  was  raised  to  the 
 see  of  Tulle,  whence,  in  1679,  he  was 
 translated  to  that  of  Agen.  He  died  in 
 1703.  Of  his  Funeral  Orations  the  most 
 admired  are  those  on  Henrietta  of  England, 
 the  Duke  of  Beaufort,  and  Marshal  Tu- 
 renne. 
 
 MASERES,  Francis,  a  lawyer  and 
 mathematician,  was  born  in  1731;  studied 
 at  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  the  Temple ; 
 was  appointed  attorney  general  of  Quebec; 
 was  made  cursitor  baron  of  the  exchequer 
 on  his  return  from  Canada;  and  died  in 
 May,  1824.  He  published  a  collection  of 
 the  Scriptores  Logarithmici,  in  six  quarto 
 volumes;  A  Treatise  on  Life  Annuities; 
 The  Canadian  Freeholder;  Elements  of 
 Plane  Trigonometry;  Tracts  on  Algebraic 
 Equations;   and  other  works. 
 
 MASON,  John,  a  dissenting  theologian, 
 was  born,  in  1706,  at  Dunmow;  was  pastor 
 of  a  congregation  at  Dorking,  and  subse- 
 quently at  Cheshunt;  and  died  in  1763 
 He  wrote  several  able  works,  one  of  which, 
 A  Treatise  on  Self-Knowledge,  has  been 
 very  often  reprinted. 
 
 MASON,  John  Mitchell,  a  divine 
 and  pulpit  orator,  was  born  in  the  city  of 
 New-York  in  1770,  and  after  graduating 
 at  Columbia  College,  prepared  himself  for 
 the  sacred  ministry.  His  theological 
 studies  were  completed  in  Europe.  In 
 1792  he  returned  to  New-York  and  was 
 established  in  the  ministry  at  that  place  till 
 1811,  when  he  accepted  the  appointment 
 of  provost  in  Columbia  College.  This 
 situation  his  ill  health  obliged  him  to 
 resign,  and  he  visited  Europe  to  repair  his 
 constitution.  On  his  return  in  1817  he 
 again  resumed  his  labours  in  preaching, 
 and  in  1821  undertook  the  charge  of  Dick- 
 inson College  in  Pennsylvania.  In  1824 
 he  returned  to  New-York,  and  died  in 
 1829.  lie  was  the  author  of  Letters  on 
 Frequent  Communion;  A  Plea  for  Sacra- 
 mental Communion  on  Catholic  Principles ; 
 and  a  number  of  essays  reviews,  orations, 
 and  sermons  published  at  different  times. 
 
 MASON,  William,  a  divine  and  poet, 
 was  born,  in  1725,  at  Trinity  Hall,  in 
 Yorkshire,  and  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
 College,  Cambridge.  It  was  while  he  was 
 at  the  university  that  he  began  his  poetical 
 career,    by   the    poem  of  Isis,  an  attack 
 
880 
 
 MAS 
 
 upon  Oxford,  to  -which  Thomas  Warton 
 replied  by  the  Triumph  of  Isis.  His  next 
 work  was  the  tragedy  of  Elfrida,  on  the 
 Greek  model.  It  was  succeeded,  at  long 
 intervals*  by  his  Odes,  and  the  drama  of 
 Caractacus.  His  first  church  preferments 
 were  the  living  of  Aston,  in  Yorkshire, 
 and  a  royal  chaplainship;  the  last  of  these 
 he  lost  by  his  zeal  in  behalf  of  liberty.  In 
 1762  he  was  made  precentor  and  canon  of 
 York.  He  died  in  1797.  Besides  his 
 poems,  Mason  published*  the  works  of  Gray 
 and  Whitehead,  with  Lives,  and  an  Essay 
 on  Church  Music.  It  seems  to  be  certain 
 that  he  was  also  the  author  of  the  witty 
 satires  given  to  the  world  under  the  signa- 
 ture of  Malcolm  Macgregor. 
 
 MASSENAj  Andrew,  prince  of  Ess- 
 ling,  and  duke  of  Rivoli,  one  of  the  most 
 celebrated  of  Napoleon's  marshals,  was 
 born,  in  1758,  at  IV ice;  entered  the  army 
 in  1775;  and  retired  from  it  after  having 
 served  for  fourteen  years.  The  revolution, 
 however,  again  roused  his  military  ardour. 
 His  rise  was  rapid,  for  he  attained  the 
 rank  of  general  of  division  in  1794.  In 
 the  Italian  campaigns  from  1794  to  1798 
 he  on  every  occasion  so  distinguished  him- 
 self that  he  was  called  the  darling  child  of 
 victory,  and  in  1799  he  saved  France  from 
 invasion  by  routing  the  Austrians  and 
 Russians  in  Switzerland.  His  memorable 
 defence  of  Genoa  in  1800  gave  time  to 
 Bonaparte  to  cross  the  Alps,  and  crush  the 
 Austrian  armv  at  Marengo.  In  the  cam- 
 paigns of  1805,  1807,  and  1809,  in  Italy, 
 Poland,  and  Germany,  he  was  among  the 
 most  conspicuously  successful  of  the  French 
 leaders.  His  conduct  in  the  last  of  these 
 campaigns  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of 
 prince  of  Essling.  In  1810  he  was  ap- 
 pointed to  command  the  army  which  invad- 
 ed Portugal,  but  he  was  foiled  by  the 
 genius  of  Wellington,  and  was  compelled 
 to  abandon  the  Portuguese  territory.  Af- 
 ter this  period  Massena  did  not  again 
 appear  in  the  field ;  and  he  died  April  4, 
 1817. 
 
 MASSILLON,  John  Baptist,  one  of 
 the  most  eloquent  of  French  pulpit  orators, 
 was  born,  in  1663,  at  Hieres;  entered  at 
 the  age  of  eighteen  into  the  congregation 
 of  the  Oratory;  and  became  so  celebrated 
 as  a  preacher  that  he  was  summoned  to 
 court  to  display  bis  powers.  His  success 
 there  was  complete.  Louis  XIV.  however 
 complimented  hiin  in  the  strongest  terms, 
 but  neglected  to  promote  him.  It  was  left 
 to  the  regent,  duke  of  Orleans,  to  reward 
 his  merit;  and,  in  1717,  he  gave  him  the 
 bishopric  of  Clermont.  Massillon  held 
 this  see  til!  his  decease  in  1742,  and  his 
 many  virtues  rendered  him  universally  be- 
 loved. His  Sermons  and  theological  works 
 form  fifteen  volumes. 
 
 MASSINGER,  Philip,   one  of  our 
 
 MAT 
 
 elder  dramatic  writers,  was  born,  in  1584, 
 at  Salisbury;  was  educated  at  Alban  Hall, 
 Oxford;  became  a  writer  for  the  stage; 
 suffered  frequently  from  poverty;  and  died 
 in  1639.  Of  thirty-two  plays  which  he 
 wrote,  fourteen  are  unfortunately  lost.  As 
 a  dramatist,  Massinger  claims  an  honoura- 
 ble place  among  those  who  are  second 
 only  to  Shakspeare.  His  works  were 
 excellently  edited  by  the  late  William 
 Gi  fiord. 
 
 MATHER,  Increase,  a  learned 
 American  divine,  was  born  at  Dorchester 
 in  1639,  was  educated  to  the  ministry,  and 
 was  settled  in  the  North  Church,  Boston, 
 in  1664.  He  continued  therefor  sixty-two 
 years,  discharging  the  duties  of  his  sacred 
 office  with  zeal  and  ability.  In  1685  he 
 was  appointed  to  the  presidency  of  Harvard 
 College,  which  he  resigned  in  1701.  He 
 died  in  1723.  He  was  an  indefatigable 
 student,  and  published  a  variety  of  works 
 on  religion,  politics,  history,  and  philoso- 
 phy- 
 
 MATHER,  CoTTON,a  celebrated  divine, 
 son  of  the  preceeding,  was  born,  in  Feb- 
 ruary 1663,  and  was  educated  for  the 
 profession  of  theology.  In  1684  he  was 
 ordained  minister  of  the  North  Church  in 
 Boston,  as  colleague  with  his  father.  He 
 died  in  1728.  His  learning  was  marvel- 
 lous, but  his  taste  was  eccentric,  and  he 
 was  very  pedantic  and  credulous.  His 
 publications  are  382  in  number;  the  most 
 celebrated  of  which  is  Magnalia  Christi 
 Americani< 
 
 MATSYS,  Quintin,  an  eminent  paint- 
 er, was  born,  in  1460,  at  Antwerp,  and 
 died  in  1529.  He  was  originally  a  black- 
 smith, and  his  love  for  the  daughter  of  an 
 artist  is  said  to  have  been  his  inducement 
 to  study  painting.  Some  of  his  heads  in  a 
 Descent  from  the  Cross,  at  Antwerp,  are 
 declared  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  to  be 
 equal  to  any  of  Raphael's.  His  Two  Mi- 
 sers, in  the  Windsor  Gallery,  is  also  much 
 admired. 
 
 MATTHIOLI,  or  MATTIOLI,  Peter 
 Andrew,  a  botanist  and  physician,  was 
 born,  in  1 500,  at  Sienna ;  studied  at  Padua ; 
 and,  after  having  practised  at  Rome,  Gratz, 
 and  other  places,  was  appointed  physician 
 to  Maximilian  II.  He  died  in  1577^  The 
 work  by  which  he  is  best  known  is  his 
 Commentaries  on  Dioscorides,  which  con- 
 tains nearly  all  the  botanico-medic/d  knowl- 
 edge of  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 
 
 MATURIN,  Charles  Robert,  a 
 divine,  dramatist,  and  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1782,  in  Ireland,  and  was  educated  at 
 Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Though  he  was 
 popular  for  his  eloquence  as  a  preacher, 
 his  only  church  preferment  was  the  curacy 
 of  St.  Peter's,  in  the  Irish  metropolis. 
 His  pen  was  fertile,  but  the  remuneration 
 which  he  received  could  not  save  him  from 
 
MAX 
 
 frequent  embarrassments.  His  first  three 
 novels — The  Fatal  Revenge,  The  Wild 
 Irish  Boy,  and  The  Milesian  Chief — were 
 published  under  the  assumed  name  of  Den- 
 nis Jasper  Murphy.  He  died  in  1825. 
 Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  he 
 wrote  Sermons;  The  Universe,  a  poem; 
 the  novels  of  Melmoth,  and  Woman  ;  and 
 the  tragedies  of  Bertram,  Manuel,  and 
 Fredolpho.  The  genius  of  Maturin  was 
 great,  but  it  was  not  always  under  the 
 control  of  a  pure  taste. 
 
 MAUPERTUIS,  Pkter  Louis  Mo- 
 re au  DE,  an  eminent  French  geometrician 
 and  astronomer,  was  born,  in  1698,  at  St. 
 Malo;  studied  at  the  college  of  La  Marche, 
 at  Paris;  and,  after  having  served  for  four 
 years  in  the  army,  he  devoted  himself  to 
 science  and  literature.  Maupertuis  has 
 the  merit  of  having  been  one  of  the  first  in 
 France  to  prefer  Newton  to  Descartes. 
 He  was  one  of  the  persons  who  were  sent, 
 in  1736,  to  measure  a  degree  of  the  me- 
 ridian at  the  polar  circle.  In  1745,  invited 
 by  Frederic  the  Great,  he  settled  at  Berlin, 
 and  was  made  president  of  the  Royal 
 Academy  there.  The  latter  part  of  his 
 life  was  imbittered  by  his  quarrel  with 
 Voltaire,  wrho  showered  down  sarcasm  and 
 satire  upon  him.  He  died  in  1759.  His 
 works  form  four  volumes. 
 
 MAURY,  John  Siffrein,  a  French 
 cardinal  and  statesman,  was  born,  in  1746. 
 at  Vaureas,  in  the  comtat  Venaissin,  and 
 acquired  great  reputation  by  his  eloquence 
 as  a  preacher.  He  was  one  of  the  deputies  j 
 of  the  clergy  to  the  states  general,  and  was  j 
 conspicuous  for  his  opposition  to  revolu- ' 
 tionary  measures.  In  1791  he  quitted  j 
 France,  and  the  pope  made  him  a  cardinal.  ' 
 Napoleon,  in  1810,  gave  him  the  arch-  j 
 bishopric  of  Paris.  Maury  died  in  1817.  I 
 He  wrote  on  Essay  on  Eloquence ;  and  j 
 other  works.  He  was  a  man  of  wit  and  j 
 presence  of  mind  as  well  as  of  great  ora- 1 
 torical  powers.  On  one  occasion,  when  a' 
 furious  mob  was  following  him  with  cries  j 
 of"  Hang  him  on  a  lamp  post  !"  he  turned 
 round,  and  coolly  said,  "  Do  you  think  you 
 should  see  clearer  if  I  were  there  1"  The  ; 
 ready  joke  saved  his  life. 
 
 MAXIMIANUS,  Marcus  Aureliusj 
 Valerius  Herculius,  a  Roman  empe- 1 
 ror,    the    son   of  a    poor   labourer  in    the 
 environs  of  Sirmium,  was   chosen   as   his  j 
 associate  in  the  government  by  Diocletian, 
 in  286;   abdicated  with   that  monarch   in 
 305 ;  resumed  the  purple ;   and  was  put  to 
 death,  in   310,  by  order  of  Constantine. 
 He  was  one  of  the  most  violent  persecutors 
 of  the  Christians. 
 
 MAXIMINUS,  Caius  Julius  Virus,  \ 
 a  Roman  emperor,  the   son   of  a  Thracian 
 peasant,  was  born   in   173;     gained   great 
 reputation  in  the  Roman  armies ;   and  was 
 raised    to    the    throne    on  the    murder    of  I 
 
 MAZ  381 
 
 Alexander  Severn*.  After  a  short  and 
 cruel  reign,  he  was  assassinated  by  his 
 troops,  near  Aquileia,  in  238.  He  was  of 
 giant  strength  and  stature;  and  is  said  to 
 have  eaten  and  drank  forty  pounds  of  meat 
 and  eighteen  bottles  of  wine  daily. 
 
 MAXLMUS,  Marcus  Clodius  Pu- 
 pienus,  a  Roman  emperor,  was  of  humble 
 birth,  but  rose  by  his  merits  to  the  most 
 eminent  posts  in  the  state,  and  was  at 
 length,  in  conjunction  with  Balbinus,  raised 
 to  the  imperial  dignity  by  the  senate,  on 
 the  death  of  the  Gordians.  He  was  mur- 
 dered by  the  soldiery,  after  a  reign  of 
 fifteen  months,  during  which  he  had  made 
 good  laws,  and  laboured  to  reform  abuses 
 
 MAY,  Thomas,  an  historian  and  poet, 
 was  born,  in  1594,  at  Mayheld,  in  Sussex; 
 studied  at  Sidney  Sussex  College,  an  1 
 Gray's  Inn;  was  in  some  favour  at  court, 
 but  espoused  the  cause  of  the  people;  was 
 appointed  secretary  and  historiographer  to 
 the  parliament;  and  died  in  1650.  He 
 wrote  A  History  of  the  Parliament  of 
 England;  several  dramas  and  poems;  and 
 translated  and  continued  Lucan's  Phar- 
 salia. 
 
 MAYER,  Toeias,  an  eminent  astrono- 
 mer, was  born,  in  1723,  at  Marbach,  in 
 the  duchy  of  Wirtemberg;  became  pro- 
 fessor of  mathematics  at  the  university  of 
 Gottingen;  and  died,  exhausted  by  intense 
 labour,  in  1763.  He  made  several  import- 
 ant astronomical  discoveries,  and  invented 
 various  instruments.  For  his  Tables  of  the 
 Moon's  Motion,  his  widow  received  three 
 thousand  pounds  from  the  Board  of  Lon- 
 gitude. Among  his  works  are,  A  Treatise 
 on  Curves;   and  A  Mathematical  Atlas. 
 
 MAYHEW,  Jonathan,  a  divine,  and 
 missionary  among  the  Indians,  was  born  in 
 Martha's  Vineyard,  in  1720,  and  educated 
 at  Harvard  College.  In  1747  he  was  or- 
 dained pastor  of  the  West  Church,  in 
 Boston,  and  continued  in  this  station  the 
 remainder  of  his  life.  He  possessed  a 
 mind  of  great  acuteness  and  energy,  and  in 
 his  principles  was  a  determined  republican. 
 His  sermons  and  controversial  tracts  ob- 
 tained for  him  a  high  reputation,  and  many 
 of  them  were  republished  several  times  in 
 England.     Pie  died  in  1766. 
 
 MAYOW,  John,  a  physician  and  phi- 
 losopher, was  born,  in  1645,  in  Cornwall; 
 studied  at  Wadham  College,  and  at  All 
 Soul's  College,  Oxford;  and  died  in  1679. 
 To  Mavow  belong  some  chemical  discov- 
 eries which  have  been  attributed  to  later 
 writers:  oxygen  is  among  the  number. 
 They  are  to  be  found  in  his  Five  Medico- 
 Philosophical  Treatises,  printed  in  1674. 
 
 MAZARIN,  Cardinal  Julius,  a  cele- 
 brated statesman,  was  born,  in  1602,  at 
 Piscina,  in  the  Neapolitan  territory,  and 
 at  the  age  of  seventeen  went  to  Spain t 
 where  he  studied  jurisprudence  for    three 
 
SS2  MEA 
 
 vears  at  the  universities  of  Alcala  and 
 Salamanca.  After  his  return  to  Italy,  he 
 was  employed  by  the  papal  ministers  on 
 various  diplomatic  missions,  in  one  of 
 which  Cardinal  de  Richelieu  conceived  so 
 high  an  opinion  of  the  negotiator's  talents, 
 that  he  procured  him  to  be  sent  as  nuncio 
 extraordinary  to  Paris,  and  on  bis  death- 
 bed he  recommended  him  warmly  to  the 
 king.  Mazarin  succeeded  him  as  minister ; 
 and  though,  during  the  civil  wars  of  the 
 minority,  he  was  twice  compelled  to  fly, 
 and  a  price  was  set  upon  his  head,  he  re- 
 turned in  triumph,  and  held  the  reins  of 
 power  till  his  decease,  in  1661.  As  a  poli- 
 tician he  displayed  great  talents;  as  a  man 
 he  possessed  few  virtues.  His  most  praise- 
 worthy act,  and  that  was  done  on  his  death- 
 bed, was  the  endowing  of  the  college  which 
 bears  his  name,  and  is  also  called  the  Col- 
 lege of  the  Four*  Nations. 
 
 MAZEPPA,  John,  betman  or  prince  of 
 the  Cossacks,  was  born,  about  the  middle 
 of  the  seventeenth  century,  in  the  palati- 
 nate of  Podolia,  and  in  his  youth  was  page 
 to  John  Casimir,  king  of  Poland.  Being 
 detected  in  an  intrigue  with  a  married 
 lady,  the  husband  ordered  him  to  be  tied 
 naked  to  the  back  of  a  wild  horse,  which 
 was  then  let  loose.  The  animal  had  been 
 bred  in  the  Ukraine,  and  thither  it  carried 
 him.  Nearly  expiring  with  fatigue,  Ma- 
 zeppa  was  found  by  some  peasants,  who 
 took  care  of  him  till  his  recovery.  He 
 remained  in  the  Ukraine,  and  finally  rose 
 to  be  hetman.  But,  though  a  prince,  he 
 was  a  vassal  of  Russia ;  and  the  hope  of 
 becoming  independent,  induced  him  to  form 
 an  alliance  with  Charles  XII.  After  the 
 fatal  battle  of  Pultowa,  which  was  fought 
 bv  his  advice,  he  sought  refuge  at  Bender, 
 and  he  died  there  in  1709. 
 
 MAZZUOLI,  Francis,  a  celebrated 
 painter,  known  by  the  name  of  Parme- 
 giano,  was  born,"  in  1503,  at  Parma,  and 
 was  instructed  in  painting  by  his  uncles, 
 but  owed  his  eminence  to  his  studying  the 
 works  of  Raphael.  His  reputation  was 
 soon  widely  spread,  and  he  might  have 
 acquired  a  princely  fortune  had  he  not 
 wasted  his  time,  and  exhausted  his  resour- 
 ces, in  the  delusive  labours  of  alchemy. 
 His  disappointment  threw  him  into  a  deep 
 melancholy,  and  undermined  his  health, 
 and  he  died  in  1540.  Ma/.zuoli  is  gener- 
 ally supposed  to  be  the  inventor  of  etching. 
 
 MEAD,  Rkharu,  an  eminent  physi- 
 cian, wds  barn,  in  1673,  at  Stepney; 
 studied  at  Utrecht  and  Leyden;  took  his 
 degree  at  Padua;  and  began  to  practise  in 
 1696.  In  a  few  years  he  acquired  the 
 highest  degree  of  professional  reputation, 
 and,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  a  splendid 
 fortune.  He  became  vice-president  of  the. 
 Royal  Society,  censor  of  the  college  of 
 physicians,  and   physician   to    (ienrge  II. 
 
 MEH 
 
 The  presidency  of  the  college  his  numerous 
 avocations  compelled  him  to  decline  ac- 
 cepting. The  riches  which  he  gained  by 
 his  skill  he  used  nobly,  in  forming  a  mag- 
 nificent library  and  museum,  and  in  assist- 
 ing men  of  talent.  He  died  in  1754.  His 
 works  form  a  quarto  volume. 
 
 MECHAIN,  Peter  Francis  An- 
 drew, a  French  astronomer  and  geometri- 
 cian, was  born,  in  1744,  at  Laon.  Lalande 
 procured  for  him  an  appointment  in  the 
 national  depository  of  marine  charts.  Me- 
 chain  particularly  applied  himself  to  dis- 
 cover comets,  and  to  calculate  their  ele- 
 ments, and  he  observed  eleven  in  the  course 
 of  eighteen  years.  He  was  also  employed, 
 with  Delambre,  in  measuring  a  degree  of 
 the  meridian  between  Perpignan  and  Bar- 
 celona; and  he  edited  the  Connoisance 
 des  Temps  from  1786  to  1794.  He  died 
 in  1805. 
 
 MEDICI,  Lorenzo  di,  surnamed  the 
 Magnificent,  was  born  in  1448;  Mas  edu- 
 cated with  the  utmost  care;  and,  in  1469, 
 succeeded  his  father,  Peter,  in  the  govern- 
 ment of  Florence.  In  1478  he  was  near 
 becoming  the  victim  of  a  conspiracy  formed 
 by  the  Pazzi,  between  whom  and  his 
 family  there  existed  an  hereditary  and 
 deadly  enmity.  His  brother  Julio  was 
 killed,  but  Lorenzo  saved  himself  by  his 
 courage  and  presence  of  mind.  With 
 equal  good  fortune  he  succeeded  in  break- 
 ing up  a  confederacy  which  was  formed 
 against  him  by  his  inveterate  enemy,  Pope 
 Sixtus  IV.  His  latter  years  were  spent  in 
 tranquillity,  and  in  the  munificent  encour- 
 agement of  learning  and  the  arts.  He 
 died  in  1492.  Many  editions  of  his  poems 
 have  been  published. 
 
 MEHUL,  Stephen  Henry,  an  emi- 
 nent French  composer,  was  born,  in  1763, 
 at  Gtvet;  was  an  admirable  organist  when 
 onlv  ten  years  old;  settled  at  Paris  in 
 1779,  and  was  so  fortunate  as  to  obtain 
 the  friendship  and  advice  of  Gluck;  be- 
 came inspector  at  the  Conservatory  of 
 Music,  professor  of  Composition  at  the 
 Royal  School,  a  member  of  the  Institute, 
 and  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  a  knight 
 of  the  legion  of  honour;  and  died  m  1817 
 
MEL 
 
 Of  lug  operas  the  principal  are,  Euphro- 
 syneand  Coradin  ;  Stratonice;  and  Joseph. 
 
 MEISSNER,  Augustus  Theophi- 
 lus,  a  German  romance  writer  and  dram- 
 atist, was  born,  in  1757,  at  Bautzen,  in 
 Lusatia;  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Wittem- 
 berg; and  was,  successively,  keeper  of 
 the  archives  at  Dresden,  professor  of  belles 
 lettres  at  Prague,  and  director  of  the  supe- 
 rior schools  at  Fuhla.  He  died  in  1S'07. 
 His  principal  works  are,  Sketches;  Alci- 
 biades;  Bianco  Capello;  The  History  of 
 the  Frink  Family  ;  and  Fragments  towards 
 the  Life  of  Chapel-Master  Naumaon. 
 
 MELA,  Pomponius,  a  Latin  geogra- 
 pher, was  born  in  Spain,  in  the  first  centu- 
 ry, and  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
 related  to  Seneca  and  Lucan.  He  is  the 
 author  of  a  work,  in  three  books,  on  the 
 Geography  of  the  World  as  far  as  it  was 
 then  known. 
 
 MELANCTHON,  Philip,  a  celebrated 
 protestant  reformer,  was  born,  in  1497,  at 
 Bretten,  in  the  Palatinate.  His  real  name 
 was  Schwartzerde,  or  Black  Earth,  of 
 which  Melancthon  is  a  translation.  He 
 studied  at  Wittemberg  and  Tubingen  ; 
 and,  in  1518,  was  appointed  Greek  pro- 
 fessor at  Wittemberg,  where  he  became 
 the  friend  of  Luther,  and  a  convert  to  his 
 doctrines.  He  died  at  Wittemberg  in  1560. 
 His  works  form  four  folio  volumes. 
 
 MELENDEZ  VALDEZ,  John  An- 
 thony, an  eminent  Spanish  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1754,  at  Ribera;  and,  after  hav- 
 ing filled  various  important  offices  in  the 
 law  department,  was  obliged  to  quit  his 
 country  in  consequence  of  his  having  ac- 
 cepted a  place  under  Joseph  Bonaparte.  He 
 died  in  1807.  His  poems,  which  form 
 three  volumes,  possess  merit  of  a  superior 
 order,  especially  his  epistles. 
 
 MELMOTH,  William,  a  barrister, 
 was  born  in  1666,  and  died  in  1743.  He 
 wrote  a  popular  and  excellent  work,  The 
 Great  Importance  of  a  Religious  Life; 
 and,  in  conjunction  with  Peere  Williams, 
 published  Vernon's  Reports. 
 
 MELMOTH ,  W illi  A M ,  son  of  the  fore- 
 going, was  born  in  1710;  was  brought  up 
 to  the  law,  and  became  a  commissioner  of 
 bankrupts;  and  died  in  1799.  He  wrote 
 Memoirs  of  his  father;  and  Fitzosborne's 
 Letters;  translated  the  Letters  of  Pliny 
 and  of  Cicero ;  and  Cicero's  Treatises  de 
 Amicitia  et  de  Senectute. 
 
 MELVILLE,  Henry  DUNDAS,  vis- 
 count, the  son  of  Lord  Arnistone,  a  Scotch 
 judge,  was  born  in  1740;  was  educated  at 
 the  university  of  Edinburgh;  was  called 
 to  the  bar;  and,  in  1773,  1775,  and  1777, 
 became  solicitor  general,  lord  advocate, 
 and  joint  keeper  of  the  signet  for  Scot- 
 land. His  political  existence  commenced 
 in  1782,  when  he  was  made  a  privy  coun- 
 sellor   and    treasurer   of   the    navy.     The 
 
 MEN 
 
 383 
 
 triumph  of  the  coalition  displaced  him; 
 but  he  returned  to  office  with  Mr.  Pitt, 
 and  was  ever  after  a  firm  and  useful  coad- 
 jutor of  that  minister.  When  the  board 
 of  control  was  established,  lie  was  appoint- 
 ed its  president.  In  1791  he  was  made 
 secretary  for  the  home  department,  and,  in 
 1794,  secretary  of  war.  The  latter  post  he 
 held  till  he  retired  with  Mr.  Pitt,  when  he 
 was  created  a  viscount.  When  Mr.  Pitt 
 again  became  premier,  Dundas  was  made 
 first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  But  in  1805 
 he  was  impeached  by  the  Commons,  and 
 though  he  was  acquitted  of  the  alleged 
 malversations,  and  only  proved  to  have 
 been  negligent  of  his  duty  with  respect 
 to  his  agents,  he  ceased  to  take  a  part 
 in  public  affairs.  He  died  May  the  27th, 
 1811. 
 
 MENANDER,  a  Greek  comic  poet, 
 was  born  B.  c.  342,  at  Athens;  studied 
 philosophy  under  Theophrastus;  composed 
 one  hundred  and  eight  comedies;  and  was 
 drowned,  B.  c.  290,  in  the  harbour  of  the 
 Piraeus.  Of  the  numerous  works  of  this 
 principal  author  of  the  new  school  of  com- 
 edy nothing  remains  but  a  few  fragments. 
 Terence  is  believed  to  have  copied  the 
 whole  of  his  pieces  from  Menander,  ex- 
 cept the  Phormio  and  Hecvra. 
 
 MENDELSSOHN,  Moses,  a  learned 
 Jewish  writer,  was  born,  in  1729,  at  Des- 
 sau, in  the  principality  of  Anhalt.  Though 
 in  his  youth  he  was  extremely  indigent, 
 yet,  by  incessant  study,  he  acquired  an  ex- 
 tensive knowledge  of  philosophy  and  lan- 
 guages, and  became  a  celebrated  author. 
 He  died  at  Berlin  in  1786.  Among  his 
 productions  are,  Phtedon,  a  Dialogue  on 
 the  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  which  gained 
 him  the  title  of  the  Jewish  Socrates;  Phi- 
 losophical Works ;  Morning  Hours ;  and  a 
 Letter  to  Lavater. 
 
 MENGS,  Anthony  Raphael,  an  em- 
 inent painter,  who  has  been  called  the 
 Raphael  of  Germany,  was  born,  in  1729, 
 at  Aussig,  in  Bohemia;  studied  at  Rome; 
 and  died  there  in  1779,  after  having  spent 
 a  considerable  part  of  his  life  at  the  Saxon 
 and  Spanish  courts,  as  painter  to  the  sover- 
 eigns of  Saxony  and  Spain.  His  works 
 are  held  in  high  estimation. 
 
 MENINSKI,  Francis  Mesgnien,  a 
 learned  orientalist,  was  bom,  in  1623,  in 
 Lorraine;  studied  at  Rome;  accompanied 
 the  Polish  ambassador  to  Constantinople, 
 u  1652,  and  acquired  the  Turkish  lan- 
 guage; and  died  in  1698,  principal  inter- 
 preter to  the  emperor  of  Germany.  His 
 chief  work  is  A  Persian,  Arabic,  and 
 Turkish  Dictionary,  in  four  folio  vols. 
 
 MENZINI,  Benedict,  an  eminent 
 Italian  poet,  was  born,  in  1646,  at  Flo- 
 rence. He  was  patronised,  at  Rome,  by 
 Christina  of  Sweden,  after  whose  death  he 
 was  in  indigent  circumstances  till  he  found 
 
384 
 
 MET 
 
 another  protector  in  Cardinal  Albani,  who 
 raised  him  above  the  fear  of  want.  He 
 died  in  1704. 
 
 MERCATOR,  Gerard,  a  geographer, 
 was  born,  in  1512,  at  Rupelmonde,  in  the 
 Netherlands;  and  died  in  1594.  So  as- 
 siduous a  student  was  he  that  lie  scarcely 
 allowed  himself  time  to  eat  or  sleep.  He 
 was  cosmographer  to  the  duke   of  Juliet's,  I sio   also  entered  into   the  minor  order  of 
 
 MID 
 
 real  name  was  TRAPASSI,  was  born,  in 
 169S,  at  Rome.  When  he  was  only  ten 
 years  of  age,  his  talent  of  extemporizing 
 in  verse  attracted  the  notice  of  Gravina, 
 who  took  him  under  his  patronage,  and 
 I'o.-t crcd  his  poetical  powers,  while,  at  the 
 same  time,  he  initiated  him  in  the  profes- 
 sion  of  the   law.      The   youthful    Metasta- 
 
 and  was  much  esteemed  by  Charles  V 
 Mercator  published  many  maps,  and  some 
 works  on  chronology,  geography,  and  di- 
 vinity. The  mode  of  projection  in  marine 
 charts,  to  which  his  name  is  attached,  is 
 said  to  belong  to  Edward  Wright 
 Englishman. 
 
 MERIAX,  Maria  9YBiLLA,a  painter 
 and  naturalist,  was  born,  in  1647,  at 
 Frankfort;  studied  painting  under  Mig- 
 non ;  married  Graft',  a  painter  and  archi- 
 tect; went  to  Surinam,  in  1698,  to  draw 
 the  reptiles  and  insects  of  that  country; 
 and  died  in  1717.    Her  pictures  in  needle- 
 
 priesthood.  His  tragedy  of  Giustino  was 
 produced  when  he  was  only  fourteen.  In 
 1718  his  patroil  died,  and  left  him  the 
 whole  of  his  property.  Metastasio  ulti- 
 mately devoted  himself  to  dramatic  com- 
 an  position.  In  1730  he  was  invited  to  the 
 court  of  Vienna,  where  he  became  imperi- 
 al laureat;  a  post  which  he  continued  to 
 hold  for  more  than  half  a  century.  He 
 died  in  17S2.  Metastasio  wrote  sixty- 
 three  lyrical  tragedies  and  operas,  besides 
 innumerable  poems. 
 
 MICHAELIS,  John  David,  a  learned 
 orientalist  and  biblical  critic,  was  born,  in 
 
 work  almost  ecptalled  the  labours  of  her  1 1717,  at  Halle,  in  Saxony,  at  the  univer- 
 pencil.  Her  principal  work  is  A  History  Isity  of  which  place  he  was  educated.  After 
 of  the  Insects  of  Surinam,  in  folio,  with  |  having  visited  England,  and  been  preacher 
 sixty  plates.  Her  daughters,  Jane  Hel-  at  the  German  Chapel,  St.  James's  Pal 
 en  a  and  Dorothea  Maria  Henriet- 
 ta, inherited  her  pictorial  talent,  and  the 
 
 latter  was  an  excellent  Hebrew  scholar. 
 
 ace,  he  became  librarian  and  professor  of 
 theology  and  eastern  literature  at  Gottin- 
 gen.     He  died  in  1791.     Of  the  numerous 
 
 MERRICK,  James,  a  poet  and  divine,i  works  of  Michaelis  the  Introductions  to 
 was  born,  in  1720,  at  Reading;  was  edu-  the  New  and  to  the  Old  Testament,  and 
 cated  at  the  school  of  that  place,  and  at  j  the  Interpretation  of  the  Laws  of  Moses, 
 Trinity    College,    Oxford;      and    died    in   are  the  principal. 
 
 1769.  Bishop  Lowth  speaks  of  him  as 
 being  one  of  the  best  of  men  and  most 
 eminent  of  scholars.  Among  his  works 
 are,  Poems  on  Sacred  Subjects;  Annota- 
 tions on  the  Psalms,  and  on  the  Gospel  of 
 St.  John;  a  translation  of  Tryphiodorus ; 
 and  a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms. 
 MESMER,   Frederic   Anthony,  a 
 
 MICHAUX,  Andrew,  a  French  trav- 
 eller and  botanist,  was  born,  in  1746,  at 
 Satory,  near  Versailles;  spent  many  years 
 in  journeying  through  the  United  States; 
 and  died,  in  1802,  at  Madagascar.  He 
 published  a  History  of  North  American 
 Oaks;  and  a  North  American  Flora. 
 
 MICKLE,  William  Julius,  a  poet, 
 
 German  physician,  the  founder  of  animal  j  was  born,  in  1734,  at  Langholm,  in  Dum- 
 magnetism,  which  is  also  called  Mesmer-j  friesshire.  After  having  failed  as  a  brewer 
 ism,  was  born,  in  1734,  at  Merseburg,  in;  in  his  native  country,  he  went  to  London, 
 Swabia, and  first  made  his  doctrines  known  with  the  view  of  turning  to  account  his 
 to  the  world,  in  1766,  by  a  thesis  on  Plan- 1  literary  talents;  and,  in  1765,  he  became 
 etary    influence,    in    which    he    contended  corrector  of  the  Clarendon  Press,  at   Ox 
 
 that  the  heavenly  bodies  diffuse  through 
 the  universe  a  subtle  fluid,  which  acts  on 
 the  nervous  svstem  of  animated  beings. 
 He  died  in  1815.  Of  late  years  his  theo- 
 ry has  again  excited  great  attention  on  the 
 continent. 
 
 MESSIER,  CHARLES,  a  French  as- 
 tronomer, was  born,  in  1  ?:>(),  at  Badon- 
 viller,  in  Lorraine;  was  for  a  considerable 
 period  an  assistant  to  Delisle;  beeame  as- 
 tronomer to  the  navy,  and  a  member  of 
 many  learned  bodies;  and  died  in  1817. 
 Messier  particular^  directed  his  attention 
 to  the  discovering  of  comets,  and  his  dis- 
 coveries were  numerous.  Louis  XV.  called 
 him  the  ferret  of  COmel 
 
 ford.  In  1778  he  accompanied  his  friend 
 Commodore  Johnstone  on  a  mission  to 
 Lisbon,  as  secretary.  He  died  in  178S 
 The  poems  of  Mickle,  the  principal  of 
 which  is  Sir  Maityn,  originally  called  The 
 Concubine,  are  elegant  and  animated.  His 
 version  of  the  Lusiad  does  honour  to  his 
 genius,  but  it  is  unfaithful  to  Camoens; 
 not,  however,  by  suppressing  beauties,  but 
 by  adding  them.  •  Mickle  edited  the  col- 
 lection of  poems  called  Pearch's;  and 
 wrote  many  of  the  finest  pieces  in  Evans's 
 Old  Ballads. 
 
 MIDDLETON,  Conyers,  a  learned 
 divine  and  elegant  writer,  was  born,  in 
 L683,  at  York,  and  was  educated  at  Trin- 
 
 METASTASIO,    I'Kttil    Ronavkn-   ity  College,  Cambridge,  of   which   he   be- 
 itRK,  a  celebrated   Italian   poet,   whose  \  came  a  fellow.     In  the  contest  between  the 
 
MIL  MIL  385 
 
 memoers  of   that  college  and  Dr.  Rontley  I  the  following  year  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
 he   took   a  prominent   part.     In  1724  he  [seven.       A.  volume    of   bis    Poems    and 
 
 visited  Italy.  He  was,  subsequently,  Wbod- 
 
 wardian  professor  of  mineralogy^  and  li- 
 brarian, at   Cambridge.     His  only  church 
 
 preferment   was    the    living   of    Eiascomb, 
 
 in   Surrey,   for    his   free   spirit   of    inquiry 
 
 was    not   calculated    to   conciliate  clerical 
 
 patronage.  He  had,  however,  a  suffi- 
 cient   fortune  to   render  him  indifferent  to 
 
 the    emoluments    of    his    profession.       He 
 
 died  in    1750.       His  chief   works  are,    A 
 
 Life   of  Cicero,   which    ranks   among    the 
 
 classical    productions    of   our     literature; 
 
 and  a  Free   Inquiry  into  the    Miraculous 
 
 Powers    of  the    Church,     which    excited 
 
 against  him  a  host  of  vehement  opponents. 
 
 His  Miscellaneous  Pieces  form  five  octavo 
 
 volumes. 
 
 MIDDLETON,  Arthur,   a  signer  of 
 
 the  declaration  of  American  independence, 
 
 was  born  in  South  Carolina   in  1743,  and 
 
 received  his   education    in  Europe.     Soon 
 
 after  his  return  home,  he  be^an  to  take  an 
 
 active  part  in  the  revolutionary  movements, 
 
 and  in  1776  was  chosen  one  of  the  dele- 
 gates from  his  native  state  to  the  American 
 
 Congress.     At  the  close  of  the  year  1777 
 
 he    resigned    his    seat,    leaving    behind    a 
 
 character    for    the    purest   patriotism   and 
 
 unwavering  resolution.     In  the  year  1779 
 
 many    of    the    southern    plantations    were 
 
 ravaged,  and  that  of  Mr.    Middleton  did 
 
 not  escape.  On  the  surrender  of  Charles- 
 ton he  was  taken  prisoner  and  kept  in 
 confinement  for  nearly  a  year.     In  1731  he 
 
 was  appointed  a  representative  to  Con- 
 gress, and  again    in  1782.       In  the  latter 
 
 vear  he  went  into  retirement,  and  died,  in 
 
 1787. 
 
 MILLER,  Philip,  an  eminent  gardener 
 and  botanist,  was  born,  in  1691,  in  Scot- 
 land, and  is  said  to  have  succeeded  his 
 father,  in  1722,  as  gardener  to  the  Apoth- 
 ecaries' Company.  It  is,  however,  doubt- 
 ful whether  his  father  ever  held  the  situation. 
 Miller  was  a  correspondent  of  Linnaeus, 
 and  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society. 
 Foreigners  denominated  him  the  Prince  of 
 Gardening.  He  died  in  1771.  Resides 
 his  great  production,  The  Gardener's  Dic- 
 tionary, he  wrote  The  Gardener's  Calen- 
 dar; The  Gardener's  and  Florist's  Dic- 
 tionary ;    and  some  other  works. 
 
 MILLER,  James  William,  an  Amer- 
 ican poet,  and  miscellaneous  writer,  passed 
 his  early  life  in  a  variety  of  different 
 pursuits,  without  being  able  to  fix  himself 
 permanently  in  any  occupation.  He  pur- 
 sued for  a  while  the  study  of  law,  and 
 subsequently  engaged  in  literary  pursuits 
 in  Roston,  where  he  met  with  disappoint- 
 ments and  was  worn  by  disquietude.  He 
 left  his  native  country  for  the  West  Indies 
 
 Sketches  was  collected  and  published  at 
 Boston  in  1S30. 
 
 MILLER,  Edward,  an  eminent  phy- 
 sician,  was  bom    in    Delaware,   in    1760, 
 
 and  in  1796  removed  to  New-York  for  the 
 practice  of  his   profession,      lie   became 
 
 known  by  an  able  treatise  on  the  Origin  of 
 the  Yellow  Fever,  and  in  conjunction  with 
 Dr.  M itchill  and  Dr.  Smith  established  the 
 
 Medical  Repository.  In  1807  he  was 
 elected  professor  of  the  practice  of  physic 
 in  the  university  of  New-York,  and  in 
 1809  clinical  lecturer  in  the  New-York 
 hospital.  He  died  in  1812.  His  medical 
 treatises  have  been  collected  and  published 
 in  one  volume. 
 
 MILLEVOYE,  Charles  Hubert^ 
 French  poet,  was  born,  in  1782,  at  Abbe- 
 ville; studied  at  Mazarin  College,  Paris; 
 displayed  poetical  talents  at  the  age  of 
 thirteen ;  and  died  in  1816.  His  works 
 form  four  octavo  volumes.  Millevove 
 excels  in  elegiac  composition.  3Ianv  of 
 his  pieces  are  characterized  by  great  feel- 
 ing, elegance,  and  animation. 
 
 MILLIN,   Aubin   Louis,  an   eminent 
 archaeologist  and  naturalist,  was  born,  in 
 1759,  at  Paris,  and  entered  the  ecclesiasti- 
 cal   profession,  but  soon  abandoned  it  far 
 literature;  and,  being  a  man  of  fortune,  he 
 was  not  compelled  to  endure  the  misery  of 
 writing  for  bread.      In  1794  he  succeeded 
 Rarthelemi    as    keeper  of  the    cabinet    of 
 medals.       Part  of  his  time  was  spent  in 
 travelling  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  France, 
 and  he   published   accTunts   of   his    tours. 
 Millin   was    one  of   the   founders    of   the 
 Linnajan   Society  at   Paris.      Among    his 
 numerous   works   may  be  mentioned,  Ele- 
 ments of  Natural  History;  National  Anti- 
 quities ;    Ancient    inedited     Monuments  ; 
 Dictionary  of  the    Fine    Arts  ;    Etruscan 
 Vases  and  Paintings;  and   Introduction  to 
 Archaeology.      Millin   also    conducted    the 
 Encyclopedic  Magazine  from  1792  to  1816. 
 MILLOT,  Claude  Francis  Xavikr, 
 a  French  historian,  was  born,  in  1726,  at 
 Ornans,  in  Franche  Comte ;  studied  at  the 
 Jesuits'    College,    and    entered     into    the 
 order,    but    quitted   it    in  consequence   of 
 being  illiberally  treated;  was   successively 
 professor   of  history  at  Parma,   and   tutor 
 to  the  duke  of  Enghein ;  and  died  in  1785 
 Among    his   works  are,   Elements    of  the 
 History  of   England — of  France — and   of 
 Ancient  and  Modern  History;  anil  a  Lite- 
 rary  History  of  the  Troubadours. 
 
 MILLS,  Charles,  an  historian,  was 
 born,  in  1788,  at  Croom's  Hill,  Green- 
 wich, and  was  educated  at  a  private  school. 
 On  the  foundation  which  he  had  thus  laid, 
 he,  by  solitary  and  persevering  study,  raised 
 
 in  1828,  where  he  obtained  a  grant  of  land  I  the   fabric  of   extensive  knowledge.      He 
 from  the  Spanish  government,  and  died  in  I  served  his  time  a»  clerk  to  a  solicitor,  anc 
 17 
 
386 
 
 MIL 
 
 became  thoroughly  \ersed  in  the  law;  but 
 he  at  length  relinquished  his  legal  pursuits 
 for  others  which  were  more  congenial.  In 
 1817  he  published  his  History  of  Muham- 
 
 medenism.  It  was  succeeded  by  the  Hi-- 
 toryofthe  Crusades;  the  Travels  of  Theo- 
 dore Ducas;  and  ihe  Bistory  of  Chivalr) : 
 and  he  was  fast  rising  into  fame,  when  his 
 career  was  cut  short  by  a  led  ions  and 
 painful  disorder,  which  terminated  his 
 existence  on  the  9th  of  October ,  1826. 
 
 MILNER,  John,  an  eminent  catholic 
 theologian  and  antiquary,  whose  real  name 
 was  .Miller,  was  horn,  in  1752,  in  London; 
 was  educated  ut  the  schools  of  Sedgely 
 Park  and  Edgltastoii,  and  at  Douay;  and, 
 after  having  been  a  priest  at  Winchester, 
 was  appointed,  in  1803,  vicar  apostolic  in 
 the  midland  district,  with  the  title  of  bishop 
 of  Catalba.  In  1814  he  visited  Rome. 
 He  remained  there  for  twelve  months,  and 
 had  frequent  audiences  with  Pope  Pius 
 VII.  He  died  April  19,  1826.  Of  all 
 the  advocates  of  the  catholic  church,  no 
 one  has  displayed  more  learning  and  acute- 
 nets  than  Milner.  Proofs  of  this  will  he 
 seen  in  his  Letters  to  a  Prebendary;  The 
 End  of  Religious  Controversy  ;  and  his 
 otner  controversial  treatises.  As  an  anti- 
 quary he  fully  established  Ids  character  by 
 the  History  of  Winchester;  Dissertation 
 on  the  modern  Style  of  altering  Cathedrals  ; 
 and  Treatise  on  the  Ecclesiastical  Archi- 
 tecture of  England  during  the  Middle 
 Ages.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Antiqua- 
 i  tan  Society, and  contributed  many  learned 
 papers  to  the  Arclueologia. 
 
 M1LTIADES,  an  illustrious  Athenian 
 general,  nephew  of  the  king  of  Thrace, 
 nourished  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  Among 
 his  first  exploits  were  the  reduction  of  the 
 Chersonesus,  and  of  Lenmos,  and  the  Cy- 
 r.lades.  When  the  Persians  invaded  Greece, 
 Miltiades  was  at  the  head  of  the  army 
 which  gained,  b.  c.  490,  the  glorious  vic- 
 tory of  Marathon.  But,  shortly  after, 
 having  failed  in  an  attempt  upon  Par os, 
 
 his  grateful  countrymen  accused  him  of 
 treason;  a  heavy  line  was  imposed  upon 
 him;  and  the  hero  died  in  prison,  B.  c. 
 489,  of  the  wounds  which  he  had  received 
 in  fighting  for  Grecian  independence. 
 
 MILTON,  John, the  Homer  of  Britain, 
 was  born,  Dec  9,  1608,  in  Bread  Street, 
 in  London,  and  was  educated  at  St.  Paul's 
 School,  and  Christ's  College,  Cambridge. 
 After  he  quitted  the  university  he  passed 
 five  years  of  studious  retirement  at  his 
 father's  house  at  Horton,  in  Buckingham- 
 shire; during  which  period  he  produced 
 Comas,  Lycidas,  and  some  of  his  other 
 poems.  In  1638  he  went  to  Prance, 
 whence  he  proceeded  to  Italy.  On  his 
 return,  after  an  absence  of  fifteen  months, 
 he  opened  an  academy  at  Aldersgate  Street, 
 and  began  also  to  take  a  part  in   the  coq- 
 
 MIN 
 
 trovcr-ies  of  the    time.      He  married    in 
 1643,  but  so  scanty  was  his  nuptial  felicity, 
 
 his  wife  leaving  him  to  return  to  her  par- 
 ents in  the  course  of  a  month,  that  he 
 was  stimulated  to  write  his  treatise  on 
 Divorce,  and  to  take  measures  for  pro- 
 curing another  helpmate.  On  her  becoming 
 penitent,  however,  he  not  only  received 
 her  again,  but  gave  her  royalist  father  and 
 brothers  an  asylum  in  his  house.  He  en- 
 tered twice  more  'into  the  marriage  state. 
 The  zeal  with  which,  in  his  Tenure  of 
 Kings  and  Magistrates,  he  vindicated  the 
 execution  of  Charles  I.  induced  the  Council 
 of  State  to  appoint  him  Latin  secretary, 
 and  he  thus  became,  in  a  manner,  the 
 literary  champion  of  the  popular  cause. 
 In  behalf  of  that  cause  he  published  ids 
 Iconoclastes,  in  answer  to  the  Icon  Basi- 
 like,  and  his  two  Defences  of  the  People 
 of  England  against  the  libels  of  Salmasios 
 and  Du  Moulin.  In  the  execution  of  this 
 "  noble  task,"  as  he  calls  it,  he  lost  his 
 sight;  his  previous  weakness  of  the  eyes 
 terminating  in  gutta  serena.  At  the  Re- 
 storation he  remained  concealed  for  a  while, 
 but  the  interest  of  his  friends,  particularly 
 of  Marvell  and  Davenant,  soon  enabled  him 
 to  reappear  in  safety.  The  rest  of  his  life 
 was  spent  in  retirement,  employed  partly 
 in  the  composition  of  that  noble  work 
 which  he  had  long  meditated,  arid  by  which 
 he  at  once  immortalized  his  name,  ami  shed 
 a  lustre  over  his  country.  The  Paradise 
 Lost  appeared  iu  1667.  The  fifecenas  of 
 a  bookseller  paid  him  five  pounds  for  the 
 first  edition  of  thirteen  hundred  copies, and 
 liberally  agreed  to  pay  ten  more,  upon  the 
 sale  of  two  subsequent  editions  of  ecjuul 
 magnitude!  The  Paradise  Regained, 
 Samson  \gonistes,  and  The  History  of 
 Britain,  were  among  his  latest  productions. 
 He  died  November  8,  1674. 
 
 M  I\D,  God.frki  ,  a  painter,  the  pupp 
 of  Freudenberger,  was  born,  in  1768,  at 
 Berne;  where,  also,  he  died  in  1814.  His 
 fondness  for  the  feline  race  was  unbounded. 
 From  the  accuracy  and  spirit  with  which 
 he  delineated  every  attitude  and  peculiarity 
 of  this  race  of  animals,  he  was  called  the 
 Raphael  of  cats. 
 
MIR 
 
 MINOT,  George  Richards,  an 
 American  historian,  was  born  in  1758,  was 
 educated  at  Harvard  College,  and  pursued 
 the  profession  of  the  law.  His  chief  pro- 
 duction is  a  Continuation  of  Hutchinson's 
 History  of  Massachusetts  in  two  volumes. 
 He  died  in  1802. 
 
 MIRABEAU,  Victor  RIQUETTI, 
 marquis  de,  a  prolific  French  writer  of  the 
 sect  of  the  political  economists,  was  horn, 
 in  1719,  at  Perthuis,  and  died  in  1790. 
 As  a  private  character  he  was  deserving 
 of  reprobation  for  his  vices;  as  an  author 
 he  was  equally  so,  for  his  obscurity,  affecta- 
 tion, and  vanity.  Of  his  works  the  prin- 
 cipal are,  The  Friend  of  Men  ;  The  Theory 
 of  Taxation;    and  Rural  Philosophy. 
 
 MIRABEAU,  Honorius  Gabriel 
 RIQUETTI,  count  de,  one  of  the  most 
 celebrated  characters  of  the  French  revolu- 
 tion, was  the  son  of  the  foregoing,  and  was 
 born,  in  1749,  at  Bignon,  near  Nemours. 
 Of  his  early  life  much  was  spent  in  ex- 
 cesses, in  prison,  or  in  obscure,  and  some- 
 times licentious,  labours  of  the  pen.  Seven- 
 teen lettres  de  cachet  were  obtained  against 
 him  by  his  father,  who  seems  to  have  de- 
 lighted in  persecuting  him.  In  1784  he 
 visited  London,  and  he  was  afte'iwards 
 sent  to  Berlin,  by  Calonne,  on  a  secret 
 mission.  The  revolution  opened  for  him 
 the  path  to  fame,  and,  as  he  had  reason  to 
 hope,  to  fortune  and  power  also.  Rejected 
 by  the  nobles,  he  was  chosen  as  a  deputy 
 to  the  states-general  by  the  commons  of 
 Aix.  In  this  new  capacity,  his  extraor- 
 dinary eloquence,  his  talent,  and  his  bold- 
 ness, soon  gave  him  irresistible  weight  in 
 the  assembly,  and  rendered  him  the  idol 
 of  the  people.  At  length,  apprehensive 
 that  the  existence  of  monarchy  itself  was 
 becoming  endangered,  he  entered  into  a 
 treaty  with  the  court,  to  use  his  influence 
 in  stopping  the  progress  of  the  republican 
 designs.  Before,  however,  he  could  carry 
 his  intentions  into  effect,  a  sudden  illness 
 terminated  his  existence,  April  2,  1791. 
 His  remains  were  honoured  with  a  public 
 funeral,  and  deposited  in  the  Pantheon; 
 whence,  only  two  years  later,  they  were 
 dragged  by  the  mob,  and  scattered  to  the 
 winds!  Among  his  works  are,  a  Treatise 
 on  Lettres  de  Cachet;  On  the  Prussian 
 Monarchy  under  Frederic  the  Great;  Secret 
 History  of  the  Court  of  Berlin;  and  Let- 
 ters to  his  Constituents. 
 
 MIRANDA,  Francis,  a  general,  was 
 born,    about    1750,    in   Peru;   quitted   his 
 country  on  the   discovery  of  a   plan  which 
 he  had  concerted   to    liberate   it  from  the  i 
 Spanish  yoke;   fought  under  the  banners; 
 of  republican   Fiance,  in   1792  and  1793;  j 
 succeeded  in  bringing   about   a  revolution! 
 in  Venezuela,  in  1811,  but  finally  fell  into 
 the  hands   of  the   Spaniards;   and  died  a 
 prisoner  at  Cadiz,  in  1816.     Miranda  was 
 
 MOL  887 
 
 a  persevering,  brave,  and  well  informed 
 man. 
 
 MITCHILL,  Samuel  L.,  a  celebrated 
 
 physician,  was  born  in  the  year  1763,  and 
 was  for  a  great  number  of  years  professor 
 of  various  branches  in  the  College  of  {Mu- 
 sicians and  Surgeons  of  New  York,  lie 
 was  elected  to  the  assembly  of  .New  York 
 soon  after  the  revolution,  and  was  after- 
 wards a  senator  in  Congress  and  colleague 
 of  De  Witt  Clinton.  He  was  a  in.  n  ol 
 immense  acquisitions,  and  his  labours  a:e 
 dispersed  through  many  volumes.  He  was 
 a  member  of  most  of  the  philosophical  so- 
 cieties of  apy  note  in  Europe  and  his  native 
 country.     He  died  in  1831. 
 
 MITFORD,  William,  an  historian 
 and  philologist,  was  born,  in  1734,  in  Lon- 
 don ;  studied  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
 and  the  Middle  Temple ;  became  colonel 
 of  the  Hampshire  militia,  and  M.  P.  for 
 Newport,  in  Cornwall,  Beeralston,  and 
 New  Romney;  and  died  in  1827.  His 
 principal  works  are,The  History  of  Greece ; 
 and  An  Essay  on  the  Harmony  of  Lan- 
 guage. 
 
 MITHRIDATES,  king  of  Pontus,  sur- 
 named  the  Great,  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
 B.  c.  123,  in  his  eleventh  year.  His  life 
 was  one  long  struggle  against  the  tyranni- 
 cal ascendancy  of  Rome.  He  indicted 
 frequent  defeats  on  the  Romans,  but  was 
 at  length  expelled  from  his  kingdom  by 
 Pompey,  and  put  an  end  to  his  own  exist- 
 ence, b.  c.  64. 
 
 MOESER,  Justus,  an  eminent  German 
 author,  was  born,  in  1720,  at  Osnaburgh ; 
 was  educated  at  Jena  and  Gottingen ;  be- 
 came a  popular  advocate,  and  counsellor 
 of  justice;  and  died  in  1794.  Moeser  was 
 called  the  German  Franklin.  Among  his 
 numerous  works  are,  Patriotic  Ideas,  in 
 four  volumes;  Arminius,  a  tragedy;  a 
 Historv  «>f  Osnaburgh;    and  Miscellanies. 
 
 MOHAMMED  BEN  ABD  AL  WA- 
 HAB,  She ik,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of 
 the  Wahabites,  was  born  in  Arabia,  about 
 the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  in 
 the  tribe  of  Temim,  and  claimed  des  tut 
 from  Mahomet.  Having  studied  the  in.is- 
 suhnan  theology  and  jurisprudence  at  Me- 
 dina, and  being  a  man  of  talent  and  elo- 
 quence, he  set  up  for  a  reformer  of  islamism. 
 His  progress  at  first  was  slow,  but  he 
 ultimately  succeeded  in  spreading  his  doc- 
 trines widely,  and  establishing  his  power. 
 He  died  at  an  advanced  age. 
 
 MOLE',  MATTHEW,  a  French  magis- 
 trate, remarkable  f>r  his  probity  and  c, air- 
 age,  was  born,  in  1584,  in  the  capital  of 
 France;  became  president  of  the  parlia- 
 ment of  Paris,  and  keeper  of  the  seals; 
 displayed  great  strength  of  mind  and  per- 
 sonal bravery  amidst  the  perils  to  which 
 he  was  exposed  in  a  civil  war;  and  died 
 in  1656.     ''If  it  were  not  a  sort  of  bias- 
 
888 
 
 MON 
 
 phemy  (says  Cardinal  de  Retz)  to  affirm 
 that  there  has  been  in  our  time  a  man  more 
 intrepid  than  the  great  Gustavus  or  the 
 prince  of  Conde,  I  shonld  declare  that  man 
 to  be  M.  MoIp." 
 
 MOLIERE,  John  Baptist,  a  cele- 
 brate 1  French  comic  writer,  whose  real 
 name  waa  POQUELIN,  was  born,  in  1622, 
 at  Paris;  was.  the  son  of  an  upholsterer  and 
 vain  de  en  imbrc  to  the  king;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Clement  College  by  the  jesqits; 
 studied  the  law  at  Orleans,  and  was  in- 
 tended for  a  barrister,  but  was  diverted 
 from  the  bar  by  his  loudness  for  the  stage. 
 That  fondness  he  first  indulged  in  private 
 theatres;  then,  changing  his  name,  he  be- 
 came a  provincial  actor,  and  began  also  to 
 display  his  dramatic  powers  as  an  author. 
 In  1653  he  established  his  theatrical  com- 
 pany at  Paris,  and  in  1665  he  was  taken 
 into  the  service  of  Louis  XIV.  and  pen- 
 sioned. He  now  brought  forward  all  his 
 best  pieces,  and  his  fame  as  a  writer  of 
 comedy  was  spread  throughout  Europe. 
 But  though  he  was  in  possession  of  afflu- 
 ence and  reputation,  though  he  was  patron- 
 ised and  esteemed  by  his  sovereign,  and 
 lived  in  habits  of  friendship  with  men  of 
 genius  and  rank,  Moliere  was  far  from 
 being  happy  ;  his  health  was  in  a  languish- 
 nig  state,  and  his  domestic  circumstances 
 were  fraught  with  discomfort.  He  died  in 
 1673.     His  works  form  eight  volumes. 
 
 MOXBODDO,  Jamks  BURNETT, 
 lord,  a  learned  but  eccentric  writer,  was 
 born,  in  1714,  at  Monboddo,  in  Scotland, 
 and  was  educated  at  Aberdeen  and  (iron- 
 in  gen.  In  1738  he  was  admitted  an  advo- 
 cate, and,  in  1767,  was  raised  to  the  bench. 
 He  died  May  26,  179.9.  Lord  Monboddo 
 was  an  excellent  Greek  scholar  and  meta- 
 physician, but  his  whimsies  threw  a  shade 
 over  his  merits.  He  held  modern  learning 
 in  utter  contempt,  and  believed  in  satyrs, 
 mermaids,  and  the  relationship  of  the  hu- 
 man and  monkey  races.  He  wrote  Ancient 
 Metaphysics;  and  An  Essay  on  the  Origin 
 and  Progress  of  Language. 
 
 MONGE,  Gaspar,  an  eminent  French 
 geometrician, was  born,  in  1746,  at  Beauue; 
 displayed  profound  mathematical  talents 
 at  an  early  age;  taught  physics  ami  mathe- 
 matics at  the  military  school  of  Mezieres; 
 and,  in  1780,  became  a  member  of  the 
 Academy  of  Sciences.  In  1793  he  was 
 for  a  short  time  minister  of  the  marine, 
 and  acted  as  substitute  for  the  war  minis- 
 ter. In  1796  he  was  employed  in  Italy; 
 and,  in  1798,  accompanied  Bonaparte  to 
 Egvpt,  where  he  was  chosen  president  of 
 the  Institute  of  Cairo.  Under  the  imperial 
 government,  he  was  made  a  senator  and 
 count  of  Pelusium.  Napoleon  also  gave 
 him  an  estate  in  Westphalia,  and  a  present 
 of  two  hundred  thousand  francs.  On  the 
 return  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  deprived  of 
 
 MON 
 
 all  his  employments,  and,  in  1816,  was 
 excluded  from  the  Institute.  Grief  and 
 age  combined  to  weaken  his  faculties,  and 
 he  died,  almost  in  a  state  of  imbecility,  in 
 1818.  Of  his  works  the  principal  are, 
 Descriptive  Geometry;  the  Application  of 
 Analysis  to  the  Geometry  of  Surfaces; 
 and  an  Elementary  Treatise  on  Statics. 
 Monge  was  the  creator  of  descriptive  ge- 
 ometry. 
 
 MONK,  George,  duke  of  Albemarle, 
 the  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Monk,  was  born, 
 in  1608,  at  Potheridge,  in  Devonshire;  en- 
 tered the  army  early,  and,  after  having 
 served  in  various  quarters,  espoused  the 
 cause  of  Charles  I.  and  was  made  governor 
 of  Dublin.  He  was  taken  by  the  Parlia- 
 ment troops  at  Nantwich,  and  committed 
 to  the  Tower,  where  he  wrote  his  Obser- 
 vations on  Military  and  Political  Affairs. 
 After  having  been  confined  for  three  years, 
 he  accepted  a  commission  from  the  parlia- 
 ment, and  was  employed  in  Ireland  and  in 
 Scotland.  In  1653  he  was  transferred  to 
 the  naval  service,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
 Blake  and  Dean,  he  twice  defeated  the 
 Dutch  fleet.  On  peace  being  restored,  he 
 returned  to  the  chief  command  in  Scotland. 
 By  means  of  the  army  which  was  under 
 his  orders  he  succeeded  in  restoring  Charles 
 II.;  for  which  he  was  rewarded  with  the 
 order  of  the  garter,  and  the  dukedom  of 
 Albemarle.  His  last  exploit  was  his  three 
 davs  desperate  engagement  with  the  Dutch 
 fleet  in  1666.     He  died  in  1670. 
 
 MONROE,  Jamks,  president  of  the 
 United  States,  was  born,  in  Virginia,  in 
 1759,  and  was  educated  in  William  and 
 Mary  college.  He  entered  the  revolution- 
 ary war  in  1776  as  a  cadet,  was  at  the 
 battles  of  Haerlem  Heights  and  White 
 Plains,  and  in  the  attack  on  Trenton,  and 
 rose  through  the  rank  of  lieutenant  to  that 
 of  captain.  He  was  present  at  the  battles 
 of  Brandywine,  Germantown,  and  Mon- 
 mouth,  as  aid  to  Lord  Sterling.  Resuming 
 the  study  of  the  law,  he  entered  the  office 
 of  Mr.  Jefferson,  and  after  being  a  member 
 of  the  assembly  of  Virginia  and  the  coun- 
 cil, he  was  elected  in  1783,  a  member  of 
 the  old  Congress.  In  1790  he  was  elected 
 a  member  of  the  senate  of  the  United 
 States,  in  1794  went  as  minister  plenipo- 
 tentiary to  France,  and  in  1799  was  ap- 
 pointed governor  of  Virginia.  In  1803 
 he  was  appointed  minister  extraordinary 
 to  France,  in  the  same  year  minister  to 
 London,  and  in  the  next  minister  to  Spain. 
 In  1806  he  was  again  appointed  in  con- 
 junction with  Mr.  William  Pinkney,  min- 
 ister to  London.  He  was  subsequently 
 governor  of  Virginia;  in  1811  was  ap- 
 pointed secretary  of  state,  and  continued 
 to  exercise  the  duties  of  this  department, 
 and  for  some  time  those  of  the  department 
 of  war,   till    1817.     In  that  year  ne  was 
 
MON 
 
 chosen  president  of  the  Union,  and  in  1821 
 was  re-elected  by  a  vote,  unanimous,  with 
 the  single  exception  of  one  vote  in  New 
 Hampshire.  He  died  in  New  York,  on 
 the  fourth  of  July,   1831. 
 
 MONRO,  Alexander,  professor  of 
 anatomy,  was  born  in  1732,  ami  died  in 
 1817.  Among  his  works  are,  Observations 
 on  the  Nervous  System;  Outlines  of  the 
 Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body;  The 
 Structure  of  Physiology  of  Fishes;  and  a 
 Description  of  the  Bursa'  Mucosa'. — His 
 brother,  Donald,  a  physician,  wrote  a 
 Treatise  on  Medical  and  Pharmaceutical 
 Chemistry;  Memoirs  of  his  Father;  ami 
 Observations  on  the  Means  of  preserving 
 the  Health  of  Soldiers. 
 
 MON  389 
 
 came  a  chimney  sweep,  a  fishmonger'? 
 boy,  a  cabin  boy,  and  a  mule  driver;  and 
 in  his  latter  days  he  married  a  washer- 
 woman, wandered  through    the    East,  and, 
 
 after  hai  ing  been  a  Roman  catholic,  ended 
 by  apostatizing  to  Mahometanism.  He 
 wrote  Reflections  .m  the  Rise  and  Fad  of 
 die  Ancient  Republics;  and  some  papers 
 in  the  Philosophical  Transactions. 
 
 M  ONT  LGU.     See    Halifax     and 
 Sandwich. 
 
 MONTAGU,  Lady  Mary  Wortley, 
 a  beauty,  a  wit,  and  an  elegant  writer,  was 
 born,  about  1690,  at  Thoresby,  in  Notting- 
 hamshire, and  was  the  eldest  daughter  of 
 the  duke  of  Kingston.  She  was  carefully 
 educated,  and  manifested  precocious  tal- 
 ents. In  1712  she  married  Mr.  Wortley 
 Montagu,  and  in  1716  she  accompanied  him 
 on  his  embassy  to  Constantinople.  To  this 
 journey  we  are  indebted  for  her  admirable 
 Letters,  and  for  the  introduction  of  inocu- 
 lation into  England,  the  ei'ricacy  and  safety 
 of  which  she  first  tried  upon  her  own  son. 
 After  her  return.,  in  1718,  she  shone  con- 
 spicuously in  the  circles  of  talent  and 
 fashion.  Pope  was  among  her  friends,  or 
 rather  he  was  her  lover,  but  he  at  length 
 quarrelled  with  and  libelled  her.  In  1739. 
 her  declining  health  induced  her  to  settle 
 on  the  continent;  whence,  however,  she 
 returned  in  1761.  She  died  in  the  follow- 
 ing year.  Her  collected  works  have  been 
 published  in  six  volumes.  Her  poems  are 
 light  and  spirited,  but  often  incorrect :  her 
 Letters  place  her  at  the  head  of  female 
 epistolary  writers  in  Great  Britain,  and 
 leave  her  few  rivals  in  other  countries. 
 
 MONTAGU,  Edward  Wortlky,  the 
 son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born,  in  1713; 
 was  elected  a  member  of  parliament  in 
 1747;  and  died  in  1776.  His  character 
 was  full  of  eccentricity.  He  ran  away 
 thrice  from  Westminster  School,  and  be- 
 
 MONTAIGNE,  Michael  de,  a  cele- 
 brated French  essayist,  was  born,  in  1533, 
 at  the  castle  of  Montaigne,  in  Perigord. 
 The  utmost  care  was  taken  in  his  education. 
 Latin  and  Greek  he  acquired  by  their 
 being  constantly  spoken  to  him  in  his 
 childhood.  He  finished  his  studies  at 
 Guienne  College  in  Bordeaux.  About  1554 
 he  became  one  of  the  counsellors  of  the 
 parliament  of  Bordeaux.  He  was  twice 
 mayor  of  Bordeaux;  took  a  part  in  the 
 assembly  of  the  States  of  Blois;  and  re- 
 ceived the  order  of  Saint  Michael  from 
 Charles  IX.  In  15S0  and  1581,  he  visited 
 Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  His 
 Essays  were  begun  about  1572.  and  the 
 first  edition  was  published  in  15S0.  He 
 died  in  1592.  His  Essays,  of  which  in- 
 numerable editions  have  appeared,  and 
 which  must  always  retain  their  popularity, 
 have  been  twice  translated  into  English. 
 
 310NTALEMBERT,  Mark  Rf.ne, 
 marquis  de,a  French  general,  was  born,  in 
 1714,  at  Angouleme;  entered  the  army 
 early  in  life,  and  made  several  campaigns; 
 was  attached  to  the  Russian  and  Swedish 
 staff,  during  the  seven  years'  war,  as  the 
 military  agent  of  the  French  government; 
 assisted  Carnot  with  his  advice  during  the 
 first  part  of  the  revolutionary  war;  and 
 died  in  1800.  Montalembert  is  the  in- 
 ventor of  a  new  system  of  fortification, 
 which  has  given  rise  to  much  controversy. 
 Its  principles  are  explained  in  his  Per- 
 pendicular Fortification,  or  the  Defensive 
 Art  superior  to  the  Offensive,  in  eleven  vol- 
 umes quarto. 
 
 MONTECUCULI,  Raymond,  one  of 
 the  greatest  generals  of  the  seventeenth 
 century,   was    bom,    in    1609,   of  a   noble 
 
390  MON 
 
 family  in  the  Modenese.  It  was  in  the 
 thirty  years'  war,  and  in  the  Imperial  ser- 
 vice, that  he  first  held  a  command,  and 
 displayed  his  superior  talents.  In  1657 
 he  was  sent,  with  an  auxiliary  force,  to 
 the  assistance  of  the  king  of  Poland,  and, 
 soon  after,  to  that  of  the  king  of  Denmark. 
 In  16G4  he  gained  a  splendid  victory  at 
 St.  Gothard,  over  the  Turkish  army.  In 
 1675  and  1676,  he  commanded  on  the 
 Rhine,  and  foiled  all  the  efforts  ofTurenne 
 and  the  prince  of  Conde  by  his  masterly 
 manoeuvres.  He  died  in  1681.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Memoirs  on  Military  Affairs 5 
 and  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Reigning. 
 
 MONTESQUIEU,  Charles  de  SE- 
 COXDAT,  baron  de,  an  illustrious  French 
 writer  and  magistrate,  was  born,  in  1689, 
 at  the  castle  of  Brede,  near"  Bordeaux; 
 oecanie  counsellor  of  the  parliament  of 
 Bordeaux  in  1714,  and  in  1716  succeeded 
 his  ii!)cle  as  president  a  inortier.  His  first 
 pit!  lished  work  was  his  Persian  Letters, 
 which  appeared  in  1721.  In  1726  he  relin- 
 quished his  office,  in  order  to  devote  him- 
 self to  literature.  He  then  travelled  over 
 a  considerable  part  of  the  continent,  and 
 visited  England,  where  he  resided  for  two 
 jears.  On  his  return  he  retired  to  the 
 castle  of  Brede.  His  two  principal  works. 
 On  the  Greatness  and  Decline  of  the  Ro- 
 mans ;  and  The  Spirit  of  Laws ;  the  former 
 given  to  the  world  in  1734,  and  the  latter 
 in  1748,  were  the  result  of  his  long  studies 
 and  meditations.  He  died  in  1755.  Burke 
 characterizes  hinh  as  "  a  genius  not  born 
 in  every  country,  or  every  time;  a  man 
 gifted  by  nature  with  a  penetrating  aqui- 
 line eye;  with  :i  judgment  prepared  with 
 the  most  extensive  erudition;  with  a  Her- 
 culean robustness  of  mind,  and  nerves  not 
 to  be  broken  with  labour." 
 
 MONTGOMERY,  Richard,  a  major 
 general  in  the  army  of  the  American  revo- 
 lution, was  born  in  Ireland  in  1737.  He 
 entered  the  British  army,  and  fought  with 
 Woiie  at  the  siege  of  Quebec  in  1759.  He 
 subsequently  left  the  army  and  settled  in 
 New  York.  Joining  the  cause  of  the  col- 
 onies, he  was  appointed  a  general  in  the 
 northern  armv,  and  fell  at   the   assault  on 
 
 MOO 
 
 Quebec   in  1775.     He   was  an  officer  of 
 much  energy  and  valour. 
 
 MONTI,  Vincent,  one  of  the  most  cel- 
 ebrated poets  of  modern  Italy,  and  one  of 
 the  most  versatile  of  men  in  his  political 
 j  principles,  was  born,  about  1753,  at  Fusig- 
 nana,  in  the  duchy  of  Ferrara.  He  began 
 by  being  a  violent  partisan  of  the  papa1 
 government,  and  enemy  of  the  French ; 
 became  a  republican,  and  next  a  panegyr- 
 ist of  Napoleon  ;  and  ended  by  offering 
 his  incense  to  the  emperor  of  Austria.  He 
 died  in  1828.  In  his  Basvilliana  he  proves 
 himself  no  unworthy  disciple  of  Dante. 
 Among  his  other  works  are,  The  Bard  of 
 the  Black  Forest;  and  the  tragedies  of 
 Galeotto  Manfredo,  Aristodemus,  and  Cains 
 Gracchus.  One  of  his  last  labours  was  of 
 an  unpoetical  kind:  it  consisted  in  re- 
 moulding the  Delia  Crusca  Dictionary. 
 
 MONT3IORENCI,  Anne  dk, constable 
 and  marshal  of  France,  was  born,  in  1493, 
 at  Chantilli,  and  was  mortally  wounded 
 at  the  battle  of  St.  Denis,  in  1567.  From 
 his  early  youth  he  was  remarkable  for  his 
 valour,  and  he  acquired  renown  on  nu- 
 merous occasions;  but  his  most  splendid 
 achievement  was  his  saving  France,  in 
 1536,  when  Charles  V.  invaded  Provence 
 with  a  formidable  army.  By  his  prudence 
 and  skill  at  that  period  he  gained  the  title 
 of  the  French  Fabius. 
 
 MONTROSE,  Jam es  GRAHAM,  mar- 
 quis of,  a  royalist  general,  a  descendant 
 from  the  royal  family  of  Scotland,  served 
 in  the  Scotch  guards,  in  France,  and 
 joined  the  covenanters  after  his  return 
 home.  He  soon,  however,  changed  sides, 
 acted  with  great  zeal  for  Charles  I.,  and 
 gained  the  battles  of  Perth,  Aberdeen,  and 
 Inverlochy.  Being  defeated  by  Lesley,  in 
 1645,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  the  king- 
 dom. In  1650  he  made  another  attempt 
 to  raise  the  standard  of  royality,  but  was 
 speedily  taken  prisoner,  and  was  executed 
 on  the  21st  of  May  in  that  year. 
 
 MOODY,  Paul,  a  celebrated  mechanic, 
 was  born  in  Essex  county,  Massachusetts, 
 about  the  year  1780,  and  was  for  some  time 
 in  the  employment  of  Jacob  Perkins,  of 
 Newburyport.  He  was  the  head  mechanic 
 of  the  manufacturing  establishments  at 
 Waltham,  and  subsequently  of  the  great 
 manufactories  at  Lowell,  where  he  died 
 suddenly,  in  July,  1S31. 
 
 M(  )()RE,  Edward,  a  poet,  and  miscel- 
 laneous writer,  was  born,  in  1712,  at 
 Abingdon,  in  Berkshire,  and  quitted  the 
 business  of  a  linen  draper  in  London,  to 
 assume  the  literary  character.  He  died 
 in  1757.  Moore  conducted  The  World,  to 
 which  many  men  of  talent  and  fashion 
 were  contributors.  His  poems,  the  prin- 
 cipal of  which  are  Fables  for  the  Female 
 Sex,  have  considerable  elegance.  His 
 comedies  of  Gil  Bias  and  the  Foundling 
 
MOR 
 
 were  unsuccessful;  but  his  tragedy  of 
 The  Gamester  is  still  represented  with  ap- 
 plause. 
 
 MOORE,  John,  a'miscellaneous  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1730,  at  Stilling;  studied 
 medicine  and  surgery,  at  Glasgow;  and 
 was  successively  a  surgeon's  mate  in  the 
 Netherlands,  and  surgeon  to  the  English 
 ambassador  at  Paris.  In  3772  he  took 
 his  degree  as  a  physician;  after  which  he 
 spent  five  years  in  travelling  upon  the 
 continent  with  the  duke  of  Hamilton.  On 
 his  return  he  settled  in  London,  and  he 
 died  in  1802.  As  an  author  he  enjoyed 
 considerable  popularity.  He  wrote  three 
 novels,  Zeluco,  Edward,  and  Mordaunt, 
 the  first  of  which  is  superior  to  the  others; 
 A  View  of  Society,  &c.  in  France,  Swit- 
 zerland, and  Germany;  in  Italy;  and  of 
 the  French  Revolution. 
 
 MOORE,  Sir  John,  a  general,  the 
 eldest  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born,  in 
 1761,  at  Glasgow;  entered  the  army  at 
 the  age  of  fifteen  as  an  ensign ;  and  dis- 
 tinguished himself  at  the  siege  of  Calvi, 
 the  capture  of  St.  Lucia,  and  on  various 
 occasions  in  Ireland,  Holland, and  Egypt; 
 in  the  course  of  which  services  be  received 
 several  wounds.  On  his  return  from  Egypt 
 he  was  made  a  knight  of  the  Bath.  In 
 1808  he  commanded  the  forces  sent  to 
 assist  the  king  of  Sweden ;  towards  the 
 close  of  the  same  year  he  was  placed  at 
 the  head  of  the  army  in  Spain;  and  he  fell 
 gloriously,  on  the  16th  of  January,  1809, 
 at  the  battle  of  Corunna. 
 
 MORATIN,  Nicholas  Ferdinand, 
 a  Spanish  poet  and  dramatist,  who  was  a 
 barrister,  and  died  in  1780,  endeavoured 
 to  assimilate  the  Spanish  comic  theatre  to 
 the  strict  rules  of  the  French.  He  wrote 
 three  tragedies;  a  comedy;  Diana,  or  the 
 Art  of  Hunting;   and  other  poems. 
 
 MORATIN,  Leander  Ferdinand,! 
 son  of  the  foregoing,  a  Spanish  dramatist, 
 who  is  called  the  Moliere  of  Spain,  was! 
 born,  about  1760,  at  Madrid  ;  was  obliged 
 to  quit  his  native  country  in  consequence ] 
 of  having  been  a  partisan  of  Joseph  Bona-  J 
 parte;  and  died  at  Paris,  in  182S.  Hej 
 wrote  several  comedies  ;  and,  as  a  theatri- 
 cal writer,  is  superior  to  his  father. 
 
 MORDAUNT.     See  Peterborouh.  \ 
 
 MORE,    Sir   Thomas,    chancellor    of, 
 England,  the  son  of  a  judge,  was  born,  in] 
 1480,   in   Milk   Street,  London,   and   was! 
 educated  in  the  family  of  Cardinal  Morton, 
 who  used  to   predict  More's   future  emi- 
 nence.    He  completed  his  studies  at  Christ! 
 Church,  then  Canterbury  College,  Oxford, 
 and  at  Lincoln's  Inn.     He  early  obtained 
 a  seat  in   parliament,   and  on   more  than 
 one    occasion    displayed    an    independent 
 spirit.     In  1523  he  was  chosen   speaker. 
 He  was  much  in  favour  with  Henry  VIII. 
 who,  after  having    given    him    some    im- 
 
 MOR 
 
 portant    offices,   raised    him 
 chancellorship,  in  1530, 
 
 391 
 
 to    the    lord 
 D  the  place  of 
 
 Wolsey.  This  high  office  he  filled  for 
 three  years  with  the  utmost  talent  and 
 integrity.  He  resigned  tlie  seals,  because 
 he  could  not  conscientiously  lend  his  sup- 
 port to  the  measures  of  Henry  with  respect 
 to  religion  and  the  divorce  of  Catherine 
 of  Arragon.  For  this,  the  implacable 
 tyrant  devoted  him  to  death,  and  he  was 
 beheaded  in  1535.  His  humour  and  pleas- 
 antry did  not  desert  him  even  in  his  last 
 moments.  The  virtue  of  tolerance  was 
 alone  wanting  to  render  More  an  almost 
 perfect  character.  Of  his  works  the  most 
 celebrated  is  the  Utopia,  a  political  ro- 
 mance. 
 
 MORE,  Henry,  a  divine  and  platonic 
 philosopher,  was  born,  in  1614,  at  Grant- 
 bam;  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  Christ's 
 College,  Cambridge;  refused  the  highest 
 preferments  ;  and  died,  universally  be- 
 loved, in  1687.  His  works,  in  which  are 
 many  fine  passages,  form  two  folio  volumes 
 As  a  poet,  he  is  known  by  his  PyschoKoia, 
 or  Song  of  the  Soul,  in  which,  though  it. 
 is  often  obscure  and  prosaic,  there  is  much 
 poetical  imagery. 
 
 MOREAU,  John  Victor,  one  of  the 
 most  celebrated  of  modern  French  gener- 
 als, was  born,  in  1763,  at  Morlaix,  and 
 was  brought  up  to  the  bar.  The  army, 
 however,  was  the  profession  of  his  choice, 
 and  he  entered  a  regiment  before  he  was 
 eighteen,  but  was  taken  from  it  by  his 
 father.  The  revolution  enabled  him  to 
 gratify  his  wishes,  and  he  made  his  first 
 campaign  under  Dumourier,  in  1792.  He 
 gained   the   rank    of  brigadier    general   in 
 
 1793,  and   that   of  general   of  division    in 
 
 1794.  In  the  latter  year  he  commanded 
 the  right  wing  of  Pichegru's  army,  and 
 obtained  great  successes  in  the  Nether- 
 lands. In  1796  he  was  placed  at  the  head 
 of  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  In  that  year 
 he  distinguished  himself  by  penetrating 
 into  Bavaria,  ami  by  his  masterly  retreat 
 before  a  superior  force;  in  1797,  by  his 
 passage  of  the  Rhine;  and  in  1800,  by  his 
 campaign  in  Germany,  crowned  by  the 
 decisive  victory  of  Hohenlinden.     Havinsj 
 
S92 
 
 MOR 
 
 engaged  with  Pichegru,  Georges,  and  other 
 royalists,  in  a  plot  against  the  consular 
 government,  he  was  brought  to  trial,  in 
 1804,  and  sentenced  to  two  years  imprison- 
 ment, but  was  allowed  to  retire  to  North 
 America.  There  he  remained  till  1813, 
 when  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  join  the 
 allied  sovereigns,  and  appear  in  arms 
 against  his  country.  He  was,  however, 
 mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Dresden, 
 and  died  on  the  1st  of  September,  1813. 
 
 MORERI,  Lb  wis,  the  first  author  of 
 the  Dictionary  which  bears  his  name,  was 
 born,  in  1643,  at  Bargemont,  in  Provence ; 
 was  educated  at  Draguignan,  Aix,  and 
 Lyons;  took  orders,  and  became  almoner 
 to  the  bishop  of  Apt;  and  died  in  1680, 
 from  a  disease  brought  on  by  excessive  lit- 
 erary  exertion.  The  Dictionary  to  which 
 be  owes  his  reputation  was  published  in 
 1673,  in  one  volume  folio;  it  has  since 
 been  extended  to  ten  volumes. 
 
 MORETO  Y  CABANA,  Augustin, 
 a  Spanish  dramatic  poet  of  the  seventeenth 
 century,  a  contemporary  of  Calderon,  was 
 patronised  by  Philip  IV.  and  entered  into 
 the  ecclesiastical  state  on  ceasing  to  write 
 for  the  stage.  He  wrote  six  and  thirty 
 comedies;  from  two  of  which  Moliere  bor- 
 rowed hints  for  his  Princess  of  Elis  and 
 School  for  Husbands. 
 
 MORGAGNI,  John  Baptist,  an  emi- 
 nent Italian  anatomist  ami  physician,  was 
 born,  in  1682,  at  Forli ;  studied  at  Bolog- 
 na; became  successively  professor  of  theo- 
 retical medicine  and  of  anatomy  at  Padua; 
 was  honoured  by  the  king  of  Sardinia  and 
 several  popes;  was  a  member  of  various 
 learned  bodies;  and  died  in  1771.  His 
 works,  which  are  much  valued,  form  five 
 volumes  folio. 
 
 MORGAN,  Daniel,  a  distinguished 
 officer  in  the  army  of  the  American  revo- 
 lution, was  born  in  New  Jersey,  and  re-^ 
 moved  to  Virginia  in  1755.  He  enlisted 
 in  Braddock's  expedition  as  a  private  sol- 
 dier, and  on  the  defeat  of  that  general 
 returned  to  his  occupation  as  a  farmer.  At 
 the  commencement  of  the  revolution  he  was 
 appointed  to  the  command  of  a  troop  of  j 
 horse,  and  joined  the  armv  under  Wash- 
 ington, then  in  the  neighbourhood  of  V«><- 
 tohr.  He  distinguished  himself  very  much 
 in  the  expedition  against  Quebec,  where 
 befell  into  the  hands  of  tin;  enemy.  On, 
 the  exchange  of  prisoners,  he  rejoined  the 
 American  army,  was  appointed  to  the 
 command  of  a  select  rifle  corps,  ami  de- 
 tached to  assist  general  dates  on  the  north- 
 ern frontier,  where  lie  contributed  materi- 
 ally to  the  capture  of  general  Burgoyne. 
 After  a  short  retirement  from  service,  on 
 account  of  ill  health,  he  was  appointed 
 brigadier  general  by  brevet,  and  command- 
 ed at  the  force  by  which  colonel  Tarleton 
 •was  routed  at  the  battle  of  Cow  pens,     lie 
 
 MOR 
 
 soon  after  resigned  his  commission.  In 
 1794  he  commanded  the  militia  of  Virginia 
 called  out  to  suppress  the  insurrection  in 
 Pennsylvania,  and  continued  in  the  service 
 till  1795.  He  afterwards  was  elected  to  a 
 seat  in  Congress.     He  died  in  1799. 
 
 MORGAN,  John,  an  eminent  Ameri- 
 can physician,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
 in  1735,  and  was  educated  at  the  college 
 in  that  city.  He  completed  his  medical 
 studies  in  Europe,  and  on  his  return  in 
 1765  was  elected  professor  of  the  theory 
 and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  medical 
 college  in  Philadelphia.  In  October  1775, 
 he  was  appointed  chief  physician  to  the 
 general  hospitals  of  the  American  army, 
 but  in  1775  was  removed  on  account  of 
 certain  accusations  which  he  afterward 
 proved  to  be  entirely  groundless.  He  died 
 in  1789.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
 medical  treatises. 
 
 MORISON,  Robert,  an  eminent  bot- 
 anist, was  born,  in  1620,  at  Aberdeen; 
 studied  at  the  university  there,  and  at  Paris 
 and  Angers;  settled  in  England,  in  1660; 
 and  became  king's  physician,  a  fellow  of 
 the  college,  and  regius  professor  of  bota- 
 ny; and  died  in  1683,  professor  of  botany 
 at  Oxford.  His  principal  work  is,  Plan- 
 tarum  Historia  Universalis  Oxoniensis; 
 the  second  volume  of  which  was  published 
 by  Bobart. 
 
 MORITZ,  Charles  Philip,  a  Ger- 
 man writer,  was  born  at  Hameln,  in  1757; 
 studied  at  Hanover,  Erfurt,  and  Wittem- 
 berg;  travelled  in  England,  Switzerland, 
 and  Italy;  and  died  in  1793.  Moritz  was 
 a  most  eccentric  character.  In  his  novels 
 of  Anthony  Reiser  and  Andrew  Hartknopf 
 he  has  drawn  a  portrait  of  some  of  his 
 own  singularities  and  adventures.  Among 
 his  other  works  are,  his  Travels  in  Eng- 
 land and  Italy;  The  Antiquities  of  Rome; 
 and  various  grammatical  and  philological 
 productions. 
 
 MORLAND,  George,  a  painter  of 
 considerable  talent,  but  irregular  and  de- 
 basing habits,  was  born,  about  the  year 
 1764,  in  London,  and  was  instructed  by 
 his  father.  His  works  were  exceedingly 
 popular,  and  he  might  have  gained  an  am- 
 ple fortune,  had  not  his  inveterate  propen- 
 sity to  intemperance  and  to  low  company 
 kept  him  always  poor,  and  more  than  once 
 deprived  him  of  his  liberty.  He  died  in 
 1804. 
 
 MORRIS,  Gouverneur,  an  eminent 
 statesman  and  orator,  was  born  at  Morris- 
 ania,  near  the  city  of  New  York,  in  1752, 
 was  graduated  at  King's  College  in  1768, 
 and  licensed  to  practice  law  in  1771.  In 
 1775  he  was  a  member  of  the  provincial 
 congress  of  New  York,  and  was  one  of 
 the  committee  which  drafted  a  constitu- 
 tion for  the  state  of  New  York.  In  1777 
 he  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the  continen 
 
MOR 
 
 MOT 
 
 393 
 
 ttu  congress,  and    in   the   following   yearleral  Dictionary  of  Commerce;    The  Ele- 
 
 wrote  the  celebrated  Observations  on  the 
 American  Revolution.  In  17S1  he  ac- 
 cepted the  post  of  assistant  superintendent 
 of  finance,  as  colleague  of  Robert  Morris; 
 and  in  17S7  was  a  member  of  the  conven- 
 tion which  framed  the  constitution  of  the 
 
 ments    of  Commerce;    and  a  History  of 
 England. 
 
 MORTIMER,    John     Hamilton,   a 
 painter,  was  born,  in  1741,  at  Eastbourne, 
 
 in    Sussex;    was    a    pupil    of   Hudson,   to 
 whom  he  was  superior  in  talent;  and  died 
 
 United  States.  In  1792  he  was  appointed  |  in  1779.  Among  his  beat  historical] 
 minister  plenipotentiary  to  France,  and  tares  are,  The  Battle  of  Agincourt ;  Vorti- 
 held  this  station  till  his  recall  by  the  re- 1 gem  and  Rowena ;  the  signing  of  Magna 
 quest  of  the  French  government  "in  1794.  j  Charta;  and  St.  Paul  converting  ihe  Bri- 
 In  1800  he  was  elected  a  senator  in  Con-- tons.  Mortimer  excelled  in  sketches  of 
 gress,  from  the  state  of  New  York,  and  in  I  banditti  and  terrific  subjects. 
 
 this  body  was  very  conspicuous  for  his 
 political  information  and  his  brilliant  elo- 
 quence. Many  of  his  speeches  id  congress 
 and  orations  have  been  published;  and  a 
 selection  from  his  correspondence  and  oth- 
 er valuable  papers,  with  a  biographical 
 sketch,  by  Mr.  Jared  Sparks,  was  issued  in 
 1832. 
 
 MORRIS,  Lewis,  a  signer  of  the  dec 
 
 MORTON,    NATHAMIJEL,    one  of  the 
 
 first  settlers  of  Plymouth,  New  England, 
 and  a  magistrate  of  the  colony,  was  the 
 author  of  a  history  of  the  church  at  Ply- 
 mouth, and  of  a  volume  called  New  Erg- 
 land's  Memorial.  This  work  was  origin- 
 ally published  in  1669,  and  a  new  edition 
 of  it  has  been  recently  issued. 
 
 MORTON,  John,"  a  signer  of  the  dec- 
 
 laration of  independence,  was  born  at  the  laration  of  American  independence,  was 
 manor  of  Morrisania,  near  the  city  of  New  born  in  the  county  of  Chester,  Pennsvlva- 
 
 York,  in  1726.  He  was  educated  at  Yale 
 College,  and  took  an  early  part  in  the 
 cause  of  the  colonies.  In  1775  he  was 
 elected  a  delegate  to  the  continental  con- 
 gress, and  while  in  this  body  served  on 
 several  of  the  most  important  committees. 
 His  rich  estates  were  laid  waste  by  the 
 British  army  in  1776.  He  left  congress  in 
 1777,  and  died  in  1798.  Three  of  his  sons 
 served  with  distinction  in  the  revolutiona- 
 ry army. 
 
 MORRIS,  Robert,  a  celebrated  finan- 
 cier, was  a  native  of  England,  removed 
 with  his  father  to  America,  at  an  early 
 age,  and  subsequently  established  himself 
 as  a  merchant   in  Philadelphia.     In  1775 
 
 nia,  was  a  member  of  the  provincial  as- 
 sembly of  his  native  state,  and  in  1774  ap- 
 pointed a  delegate  to  the  continental  con- 
 gress.    He  died  in  1777. 
 
 MOSCHUS,  a  Greek  bucolic  poet,  a 
 native  of  Syracuse,  is  believed  to  have 
 been  a  friend  of  Bion;  though  some  imag- 
 ine  him  to  have  lived  under  the  reign  of 
 Ptolemy  Philometer.  His  Idyls  are  among 
 the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  ancient 
 pastoral  poetry. 
 
 MOSHEIM,  John  Laurence,  a  Ger- 
 man protestant  theologian,  was  born,  in 
 1695,  at  Lubeck,  and,  after  having  filled 
 professorships  in  Denmark  and  Brunswick, 
 died   in   1755,  professor  of  theology  and 
 
 he  was  appointed  a  delegate  to  congress, ;  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Gottingen. 
 and  signed  the  declaration  of  independencei  His  sermons  were  much  admired  for  their 
 in  the  following  year.  In  1781  he  was  ap-' pure,  elegant,  and  mellifluous  style.  In 
 pointed  superintendent  of  finance,  and  ren-  his  private  character  he  is  said  to  have  re- 
 dered  incalculable  service  by  his  wealth' sembled  Fenelon.  He  wrote  above  a  hun- 
 and  credit  during  the  exhausted  state  of  j  dred  and  sixty  works,  among  which  may 
 our  public  funds.  It  has  been  said,  and  I  be  mentioned,  The  Morality  of  the  Holy 
 with  much  truth,  that  "the  Americans  Scriptures;  and  an  Ecclesiastical  History, 
 owed,  and  still  owe,  as  much  acknowledg-  the  latter  of  which  was  translated  by  Mac- 
 ment  to  the  financial  operations  of  Robert   laine. 
 
 Morris,  as  to  the  negociations  of  Benjamin  I  MOTflE  LE  VAYER,  Francis  de 
 Franklin,  or  even  to  the  arms  of  George  la,  a  French  philosopher  and  writer,  was 
 Washington."  He  was  a  member  of  the  born,  in  1588,  at  Paris;  quitted  the  law 
 convention  which  framed  the  constitution  for  literature;  was  appointed  preceptor  to 
 of  the   United   States    in  1787,  and  after-  the  duke  of  Orleans,   and  afterwards   of 
 
 wards  a  senator  in  congress.  In  his  old 
 age  he  lost  his  ample  fortune,  by  unfortu- 
 nate land  speculations,  and  passed  the  last 
 vears  of  his  life  confined  in  prison  for 
 debt.     He  died  in  1806. 
 
 MORTIMER,  Thomas,  a  miscellane- 
 
 Louis  XIV.;  and  died,  in  1672,  historio- 
 grapher of  France,  and  a  member  of  the 
 R-oyal  Academy.  His  works,  in  which 
 there  is  much  acuteness  and  learning  con- 
 veyed in  a  faulty  style,  form  fourteen  vol- 
 umes.     It  was  not  till  he  was  fifty  that  he 
 
 ous  writer,  was  born,  in  1730,  in  London;    began  to  publish  them. 
 
 was  for  some  time  vice  consul  in  the  Neth- 
 erlands; and  died  in  1809.  Among  his 
 works  are,  The  British  Plutarch;  A  Dic- 
 tionary of  Trade  and  Commerce ;  A  Gen- 
 17} 
 
 MOTTE,  Anthony  HOUDAPv,  de 
 la,  an  eminent  French  writer,  was  born, 
 in  1672,  at  Paris.  He  was  educated  at 
 the  Jesuits'  seminary,  and   was    intended 
 
894 
 
 MOZ 
 
 for  the  law,  but  chose  to  become  a  dramat- 
 ist. The  failure  of  his  first  piece,  The 
 Originals,  so  discouraged  him  that  lie 
 would  have  become  a  monk  of  La  Trappe 
 had  not  the  abbe  de  Ranee  dissuaded  him. 
 His  subsequent  pieces  were  more  success- 
 ful. In  1710,  he  was  admitted  a  member 
 of  the  Academy.  He  was  a  fertile  writer. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Odes,  Eclogues, 
 Fables,  and  an  abridged  translation  of  the 
 Iliad,  which  he  made  without  understand- 
 ing a  word  of  Greek.  His  prose,  howev- 
 er, was  much  superior  to  his  verse.  Dur- 
 ing the  last  twenty  vears  of  his  life  he  was 
 blind.     La  Motte  died  in  1731. 
 
 MOTTEUX,  Pktkr  Anthony,  a 
 miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  in  1669; 
 settled  i.i  England  after  the  revocation  of 
 the  edict  of  Nfautz;  obtained  a  situation  in 
 tin-  post  .;!i';ce;  and  was  found  dead  in  a 
 house  of  ill  fame,  in  1718.  Motteux  was 
 a  |  erfect  master  of  the  English  language. 
 He  wrote  nearly  twenty  dramatic  pieces, 
 and  translated  Don  Quixote  and  Rabelais; 
 th-  last  «>f  which  works  Tyller  considers 
 as  i  model  of  translation. 
 MOURAVIOF,MlCHAELNlKITITSCK, 
 
 a  Russian  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1757,  at  Smolensk;  was  pre- 
 ceptor to  the  sons  of  Catherine  II. ;  was 
 appointed  by  Alexander  a  senator,  privy 
 c  unseilor,  and  assistant  to  the  minister  for 
 the  department  of  public  instruction;  and 
 died  in  1807.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
 works  was  published  in  1820. 
 
 MOULTRIE,  William,  a  major  gen- 
 eral in  the  armv  of  the  American  revolution, 
 was  b  rn  in  England,  but  emigrated  to  South 
 Carolina  at  an  early  age.  He  served  with 
 distinction  in  the  Cherokee  war  in  1760, 
 and  in  its  last  campaign  commanded  acom- 
 pany.  At  the  commencement  of  the  revo- 
 lution, he  was  a  member  of  the  provincial 
 congress,  and  a  colonel  of  the  second  regi- 
 ment  of  South  Carolina.  For  his  brave 
 defence  of  Sullivan's  Island  in  1776,  he 
 received  the  thanks  of  Congress,  and  the 
 fort  was  afterwards  called  by  his  name. 
 In  1779  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  Bri- 
 tish at  Beaufort.  He  afterwards  received 
 the  commission  of  major  general,  and  was 
 secon  I  in  command  to  general  Lincoln  at 
 the  siege  of  Charleston.  After  the  close 
 of  the  war  he  was  repeatedly  elected  gov- 
 ernor of  South  Carolina.  He  published 
 Mem  »irs  of  the  Revolution  in  the  Carolines 
 ■eorgia,  consisting  chiefly  of  official 
 letters.     He  died  at  Charleston,  in  1805. 
 
 MOZART,  John  Chrysostom  Wolf- 
 gang Theophilus,  one  of  the  greatest 
 of  modern  composers,  was  born,  in  1756, 
 at  Saltzburgh,  and  was  the  son  of  an  able 
 musician,  lie  began  to  display  his  musical 
 talents  when  he  was  only  three  years  old; 
 and  by  the  time  he  was  twice  that  age  he 
 wa6   listened   to   as   a   prodigy   in   various 
 
 MUR 
 
 !  parts  of  Germany.    He  next  visited  France 
 England,  and  Italy,  and  was  every  where 
 
 received  with  enthusiasm.  In  his  tenth 
 year  he  applied  himself  strenuously  to  the 
 study  of  composition  ;  forming  his  taste  on 
 the  works  of  the  most  celebrated  masters. 
 His  first  serious  opera,  Mithridates,  which 
 ran  for  twenty  nights,  was  produced  in  his 
 fifteenth  year.  After  having  made  a  second 
 journey  to  Paris,  he  entered  into  the  ser- 
 vice of  the  emperor  of  Germany,  in  which 
 he  remained  till  his  decease,  on  the  5th  of 
 December,  1792.  His  last  production  was 
 his  celebrated  Requiem.  Of  his  operas, 
 of  which  he  composed  twelve,  the  princi- 
 pal are,  Idomeneus,  The  Clemency  of 
 Titus;  Don  Giovanni ;  The  Marriage  of 
 Figaro  ;  and  The  Enchanted  Flute. 
 
 MUDGE,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  watch- 
 maker, was  born,  in  1715,  at  Exeter;  was 
 apprenticed  to  Graham,  whom  he  after- 
 wards surpassed  ;  received  a  parliamentary 
 reward  for  his  improvements  in  chronome- 
 ters;  and  died  in  1794. 
 
 MULLER,  John  Von,  a  celebrated 
 Swiss  historian,  was  born,  in  1752,  at 
 Schatfhausen,  and  studied  at  Gottingen. 
 He  was,  successively,  professor  of  Greek 
 at  his  native  place,  and  of  history  at  Cas- 
 sel,  secretary  of  state  to  the  elector  of 
 Metz,  counsellor  of  the  Imperial  chancery, 
 and  secretary  of  state,  and  director  general 
 of  public  instruction  of  the  kingdom  of 
 Westphalia.  Midler,  who  has  been  called 
 the  Helvetian  Thucydides,  died  in  1809. 
 His  principal  works  are,  A  History  of  the 
 Swiss  Confederacy;  and  A  Course  of 
 Universal  History. 
 
 MULLNER,  Adolphus,  an    eminent 
 
 Gernnn    dramatic  writer,    was    born,   in 
 
 [1774,    at   Langendorf,    near  Weissenfels; 
 
 was  brought  up  to  the  law  ;   acquired  great 
 
 !  reputation  as  a  dramatist  and  critic  ;   and 
 
 died  June  11,  1829.     Mullner  was  a  man 
 
 I  of  genius,  but  the  bitterest  of  censors,  and 
 
 I  the  most  quarrelsome  of  authors.     Among 
 
 his  plays  are  the  tragedies  of  Guilt;   King 
 
 Ingurd;   and  The  Albanaserin. 
 
 MURAT,  Joachim,  ex-king  of  Naples, 
 one  of  the  most  intrepid  of  the  French 
 I  marshals,  was  born  in  1771;   was  the  son 
 
MUR 
 
 of  an  inkeeper  at  Bastide,  near  Cahors ; 
 and   was   intended  for    the  church.     The 
 
 army,  however,  was  his   choice ;    and   in 
 1796  Bonaparte  made  him  his  aid-de-camp. ; 
 In  Italy,  in  1796  and   1797,  and  in  Egypt! 
 and  Syria,  in   1798  and   1799,  Marat  dis-i 
 played   great    valour   and   military   talent. 
 He   returned    with   Bonaparte   to   France, 
 assisted  him  in  overthrowing  the  Directory,  i 
 and  was  rewarded  with  the   hand  of  Caro-j 
 line,    the    sister    of   the    first   consul.     At 
 Marengo  and  Austerlitz  he  was  one  of  the 
 most  distinguished  of  the   French  leaders. 
 In  1S06  Napoleon  created  him  grand  duke 
 of  Berg;   and  in  1S0S  he  raised  him  to  the 
 throne  of  Naples.     Murat  took,  a  conspicu- 
 ous part   in   the  campaigns  of  1806,  1807, 
 ISO*,  1812,  and  1813;   but,  in  1814,  find- 
 ing that  the  throne  of  his  patron  began  to 
 totter,  he  joined  the  allies.     In  the  follow- 
 ing  year,  howrever,  he   was  expelled   from 
 his  kingdom;   and,  having  made  a  despe- 
 rate attempt  to   recover   it,  lie  was   taken 
 prisoner,  and  shot,  at  Pizzo,  Oct.  13,  1815. 
 
 M  URILLO  ,  Bartholomew  Ste- 
 phen, one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Spanish 
 painters,  was  born,  in  1618,  at  Seville; 
 acquired  the  rudiments  of  art  from  his 
 uncle  Juan  del  Castillo  ;  was  generously  be- 
 friended by  Velasquez,  who  brought  him 
 forward  at  Madrid  ;  acquired  fame  and  an 
 independent  fortune;  and  died,  in  1682, 
 in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  the  scaffold, 
 ivhile  painting  his  picture  of  St.  Catherine. 
 
 MURPHY,  Arthur,  a  dramatist  and 
 miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  in  1727, 
 at  Clooniquin,  in  Ireland;  was  educated 
 at  St.  Omer's;  and,  after  having  been  for 
 a  short  time  in  mercantile  situations,  be- 
 came an  author  by  profession.  The  Gray's 
 Inn  Journal  was  his  first  literary  attempt. 
 His  first  dramatic  pieces  were  the  farces 
 of  The  Apprentice  and  the  Upholsterer. 
 These  he  followed  up  by  a  long  series  of 
 tragedies,  comedies,  and  minor  dramas, 
 many  of  which  were  received  with  ap- 
 plause, and  continue  to  be  acted.  Of  this 
 number  are,  The  Grecian  Daughter,,  All 
 in  the  Wrong,  The  Citizen,  and  Three 
 Weeks  after  Marriage.  In  1762  he  was 
 called  to  the  bar,  but  his    practice  appears 
 
 MUR  39a 
 
 never  to  have  been  considerable.  He  tried 
 his  powers  as  a  political  writer,  by  de- 
 fending Lord  Bute,  in  the  Test  and  the 
 Auditor;  but  here  he  failed;  and  BOOM 
 ludicrous  mistakes,  into  which  he  was  in- 
 sidiously led  by  his  antagonists,  exposed 
 
 him  to  ridicule.  In  his  latter  days  lie  was 
 made  a  commissioner  of  bankrupts,  ami 
 obtained  a  pension.  lie  died  in  1805. 
 Among  his  other  winks  are,  Lives  of  Gar- 
 rick,  Johnson,  and  Fielding;  and  ti  anima- 
 tions of  Tacitus  and  Sallust. 
 
 MURPHY,  James  Cavanagh,  an 
 architect  and  antiquary,  was  a  native  of 
 Ireland,  and  died  in  1816.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Travels  in  Portugal,  in  1789  and 
 1790;  Antiquities  of  the  Arabians  in  Spain; 
 and  Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and  Views 
 of  the  Church  of  Batalha. 
 
 MURRAY,  Alexander,  a  distin- 
 guished naval  officer  in  the  American  ser- 
 vice, was  born  in  Maryland  in  1755.  He 
 went  earlv  to  sea,  and  being  appointed  a 
 lieutenant  in  the  navy,  obtained  a  corres- 
 pondent rank  in  the  army, and  distinguished 
 himself  at  the  battles  of  Whiteplains,  Flat- 
 bush,  and  New  York.  Being  promoted  to 
 a  captaincy  he  served  with  gallantry  to 
 the  close  of  the  campaign  of  1777.  During 
 the  war  he  was  engaged  in  thirteen  battles 
 bv  sea  and  land,  and  was  once  taken  pris- 
 oner. On  the  organization  of  the  new 
 government,  he  was  one  of  the  first  officers 
 recalled  into  service,  and  was  engaged  for 
 a  while  to  defend  the  American  trade  in 
 the  Mediterranean.  His  last  appointment 
 was  that  of  commander  of  the  navy-yard  in 
 Philadelphia,  a  post  which  he  held  till  the 
 time  of  his  death  in  1821.  He  was  a  brave 
 officer  and  much  respected. 
 
 MURRAY,  William  Vans,  an  Ameri- 
 can statesman,  was  born  in  Maryland  in 
 1761,  and  received  his  legal  education  in 
 London.  On  returning  to  his  native  state, 
 he  engaged  in  the  practice  of  law,  and  in 
 1791  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  congress 
 where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
 ability  and  eloquence.  He  was  appointed 
 by  Washington  minister  to  the  republic  of 
 Batavia,  and  discharged  the  duties  of  the 
 office  with  much  ability.  He  was  subse- 
 quently envoy  extraordinary  to  the  French 
 republic,  and  assisted  in  making  the  con- 
 vention which  was  signed  at  Paris  in  180), 
 between  France  and  the  United  States 
 Returning  to  his  station  at  the  Hague,  he 
 embarked  in  1801  for  his  native  country, 
 where  he  died  in  1803. 
 
 MURRAY,  Lindley,  a  grammarian, 
 was  born,  in  1745,  at  Smetara,  near  Lan 
 caster,  in  Pennsylvania;  was  originally 
 an  American  barrister,  but  quitted  the  bar 
 to  become  a  merchant;  acquired  a  compe- 
 tency bv  his  mercantile  pursuits;  settled  in 
 England,  and  became  known  by  his  school 
 books;  and  died  January  10, 1826.    Among 
 
396 
 
 NAN 
 
 nis  works  are,  English  Grammar;  Exer- 
 cises; Key;  Spelling  Book  ;  and  Reader; 
 two  French  Selections;  The  Power  of 
 Religion  on  the  Mind;  and  The  Duty  and 
 Benefit  of  Reading  the  Scripture.*. 
 
 ML  RRAY,  John,  an  eminent  physi- 
 cian, chemist,  and  lecturer  in  Datura] 
 philosophy,  chemistry,  materia  medica,  and 
 pharmacy,  was  a  native  of  Sent  land,  and 
 died  at  Edinburgh,  July  22,  1820.  He 
 wrote  Elements  of  Chemistry;  A  System 
 of  Chemistry;  a  Supplement  to  that  Sys- 
 tem ;  Elements  of  Materia  Medica  and 
 Pharmacy;  and  a  System  of  Materia  Med- 
 ica and  Pharmacy. 
 
 MLSJEUS,  an  Athenian  poet,  said  to 
 have  been  the  son,  or  the  pupil,  of  Orpheus, 
 Nourished  fourteen  centuries  B.  c,  and 
 presided  over  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries. — 
 Another  poet,  of  the  same  name,  who  wrote 
 The  Loves  of  Hero  and  Leander,  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  lived  between  the  second  and 
 the  fourth  centuries. 
 
 MUSiEUS,  John  Charles  Augus- 
 tus, an  eminent  German  writer,  was  born, 
 in  1735,  at  Jena,  and  studied  at  that 
 university.  He  was  appointed  minister  at 
 Eisenach,  but  the  peasants  refused  to  re- 
 ceive him  as  their  pastor,  because  they  had 
 seen  him  dance  !  He  died  in  178S.  Among 
 his  principal  works  are,  Physiognomical 
 Travels;  Popular  Tales  of  the  Germans; 
 and  The  German  Grandison  ;  of  which  the 
 first  two  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 NAP 
 
 MUSSCHENBROEK,  Peter   Va*, 
 
 a  celebrated  Dutch  natural  philosopher  and 
 mathematician,  was  born,  in  1692,  atLey- 
 den,  where  he  died,  in  1761,  professor  of 
 astronomy,  after  having  held  professorships 
 at  various  places.  He  was  a  member  of 
 the  Royal  Society,  and  the  French  Acade- 
 my of  Sciences.  Musscenbroek  contributed 
 largely  to  introduce  experimental  philoso- 
 phy and  the  Newtonian  system  into  Hol- 
 land. Among  his  works  are,  Elementa 
 Physics;  and  Compendium  Physicse  Ex- 
 perimentalis. 
 
 MUTIS,  Joseph  Cf.lestino,  a  cele- 
 brated naturalist,  was  born,  in  1732,  at 
 Cadiz,  and  died,  in  1808,  royal  botanical 
 director  and  astronomer  at  Santa  Fe  de 
 Bogota.  Mutis  resided  during  nearly  half 
 a  century  in  South  America,  and  contribut- 
 ed greatly  to  the  spreading  of  science  and 
 the  arts  of  civilization  in  that  country. 
 He  was  the  first  botanist  who  distinguished 
 the  various  species  of  cinchona,  and  the 
 true  characters  of  that  genus. 
 
 MYLNE,  Robert,  an  architect,  was 
 born,  in  1734,  at  Edinburgh.  His  father 
 was  of  the  same  profession.  While  he 
 was  studying  at  Rome,  he  gained  the  chief 
 architectural  prize  at  the  academy  of  St. 
 Luke.  Of  that  academy,  and  of  the  acad- 
 emies of  Florence  and  Bologna,  he  was 
 chosen  a  member.  Blackfriars  Bridge, 
 which  was  begun  in  1760,  and  completed 
 in  ten  years,  is  his  great  work.  He  died, 
 I  in  1811,  surveyor  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
 
 N 
 
 NADIR  SHAH,  or  THAMAS  KOULI 
 KHAN,  a  Persian  warrior  and  usurper, 
 was  born,  in  1688,  at  a  village  near 
 Meshed,  in  the  province  of  Khorasan : 
 •^experienced  many  vicissitudes  in  his  youth; 
 and  was  taken  into  the  service  of  Shah 
 ' /'llamas,  in  1726,  for  whom  he  gained 
 several  victories  over  the  Afganstmd  Turks. 
 In  1732,  however,  he  deposed  him,  and 
 placed  Abbas  III.  on  the  throne.  On  the 
 decease  of  Abbas,  in  1736.  Nadir  assumed 
 the  sovereignty,  and  retained  it  till  he  was 
 Assassinated  ii;  1747.  During  bis  reign  he 
 vanquished  the  uiogul,  and  made  himself 
 master  of  Delhi,  and  defeated  the  Usbecks 
 and  the  Turks. 
 
 NiEVIUS,  a  Latin  dramatist  and  poet, 
 was  born  in  Campania,  and  died  at  Utica, 
 b.  c.  203.  He  vrote  several  tragedies 
 :\ni\  comedies,  and  a  metrical  history  of  the 
 first  Punic  war. 
 
 NANEK,  or  NANM/K.  a  native  of 
 Hindostan,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the 
 Seiks,  which  has  now  Brown  into  a  power- 
 ful nation,  was  born,  jy  J469,  at  Talwendy, 
 
 a  small  village  of  Lahore,  and  died  at 
 Kartipour,  in  1539.  The  unity,  omnisci- 
 ence, and  omnipotence  of  God  was  one  of 
 the  principal  tenets  taught  by  Nanek. 
 
 NAPIER,  or  NEPER,  John,  baron  of 
 MerchistOD,  in  Scotland,  a  celebrated 
 mathematician,  was  born,  in  1550;  was 
 educated  at  St.  Andrew's;  and,  after  hav- 
 ing travelled  in  France,  Italy,  and  Ger 
 many,  declined  all  state  employments,  in 
 order  that  he  might  devote  himself  to  the 
 study  of  mathematics  and  theology.  He 
 died  in  1617.  Napier  immortalized  himself 
 by  the  discovery  of  logarithms,  an  account 
 of  which  he  published  in  1614.  The  rods 
 or  bones,  for  multiplying  and  dividing, 
 which  bear  his  name,  were  also  invented 
 bv  him.  Besides  the  work  already  men- 
 tioned, he  wrote  Rabdology ;  and  A  Plain 
 Discovery  of  the    Revelation  of  St.   John. 
 
 NAPOLEON  I.    (Napoleon  BONA 
 PARTE),  emperor  of  the  French,  kin<j  of 
 Italy,  &c.  £a-.     This  extraordinary   man 
 was  born,  August  15,  1769,  at  Ajaccio,  in 
 Corsica,  of  a   uoble   family,  was  educated 
 
NAP 
 
 at   the  military   school   of  Brienne;   and 
 entered  the  artillery  service,  as  a  second 
 
 NAP 
 
 S97 
 
 lieutenant,  in  1785.  He  served  at  the 
 sieges  of  Lyons  and  Toulon,  to  the  reduc- 
 tion of  which  latter  city  ho  greatly  con- 
 tributed; and  he  subsequently  displayed 
 high  talents  in  the  French  army  which 
 assailed  Piedmont  on  the  Genoese  frontier. 
 Tn  October,  1793,  he  commanded  the  force 
 which  victoriously  defended  the  convention 
 against  the  revolt  of  the  Parisians.  He 
 now  married  Josephine  Beauharnois,  the 
 widow  of  viscount  de  Beauharnois.  Early 
 in  1796.  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
 
 conspiracies.  In  1804,  he  was  raised  to 
 the  dignity  of  emperor,  and  was  crowned  by 
 the  pope;  and,  in  the  following  year,  he 
 was  proclaimed  king  of  Italy.  While  he 
 eras  preparing,  at  Boulogne,  reran  invasion 
 of  England,  a  league  was  formed  against 
 
 him  by  Austria  and  Russia,  and  lie  hasten- 
 ed to  meet  those  powers  in  the  field.  The 
 battle  of  Austerlitz,  on  the  2nd  of  Decem- 
 ber, 1S05,  dissolved  the  coalition,  and 
 obliged  Austria  to  accept  a  humiliating 
 peace.  In  1806,  Napoleon  created  several 
 kings,  and  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
 Confederation  of  the  Rhine.  Prussia  de- 
 clared war  against  him  in  the  same  vear; 
 but  her  army  was  utterly  routed  at  the  bat- 
 tle of  Jena;  and  though,  with  the  aid  of 
 Russia,  she  maintained  the  contest  awhile 
 longer,  she  and  her  ally  were  under  the  ne- 
 cessity of  making  peace  in  July,  1807 
 Spain  was  unwisely  and  unjustly  attacked 
 by  Napoleon  in  1808,  and  this  contest, 
 which  continued  till  1814,  was  one  of  the 
 causes  of  his  downfal.  In  1809,  while  he 
 was  thus  occupied,  Austria  once  more  took 
 up  arms  against  him.  The  struggle  was 
 an  obstinate  one;  but  the  decisive  victory 
 of  Wagram,  on  the  5th  and  6th  of  July, 
 again   compelled  her  to  submit  to  the   vic- 
 
 French  army  in  Italy,  and  here  began  his   tor.     Desirous  of  an  heir  to  the  crown  of 
 
 career  of  glory.  In  the  campaigns  of 
 1796  and  1797,  he  overran  the  whole  of 
 Italy,  repeatedly  defeated  with  inferior 
 numbers  the  Piedmontese  and  Austrians, 
 reduced  all  tne  Italian  powers  to  submis- 
 sion, and  at  length  compelled  the  emperor 
 to  sign  a  peace.  On  the  19th  of  May, 
 179S,  Bonaparte,  with  a  formidable  arma- 
 ment, sailed  to  conquer  Egypt;  and,  in  his 
 way  thither,  he  took  possession  of  Malta. 
 Having  subjugated  Egypt,  he  invaded 
 Syria;  but  his  progress  was  stopped  at  St. 
 John  of  Acre,  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  and 
 he  returned  to  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  There 
 he  learned  the  reverses  which  his  country- 
 men had  sustained  in  Europe;  and,  in 
 consequence,   leaving  Kleber  to  command 
 
 France,  Napoleon,  in  1810,  divorced  the 
 Empress  Josephine,  and  married  Maria 
 Louisa,  a  daughter  of  the  Austrian  empe- 
 ror. A  son,  born  in  March,  1811,  was  the 
 fruit  of  this  union.  Disputes  now  arose 
 between  France  and  Russia,  which  ended 
 in  war.  Napoleon,  in  June,  1812,  invaded 
 the  Russian  territory  with  a  mighty  force, 
 gained  several  battles,  and  made  himself 
 master  of  Moscow ;  but  he  was  at  length 
 under  the  necessity  of  retreating,  and  nearly 
 the  whole  of  his  army  was  destroyed,  by 
 the  inclemency  of  the  winter  and  the  sword 
 of  the  enemy.  Prussia  now  joined  the 
 victorious  monarch  of  Russia.  Yet,  in  the 
 following  campaign,  Napoleon  defeated 
 the  allies  atLutzen,  Bautzen,  and  Wurtzen, 
 
 the  troops,  he  embarked   for  France,   and  j  and  would,  perhaps,  have  conquered  them, 
 landed    in    safety    at    Frejus,   October    9,  i  had   not  Austria  united  with  them.      The 
 
 1799.  On  the  9th  and  10th  of  November, 
 he  overthrew  the  directorial  authority,  and 
 was  raised  to  the  supreme  power,  under 
 the  title  of  First  Consul.  His  first  care 
 was  to  restore  internal  tranquillity  by  a 
 system  of  moderation  and  order;  his  next 
 was,  to  restore  the  military  preponderance 
 of  his  country.  Having  collected  an  army 
 on  the  frontier  of  Switzerland,  he, by  almost 
 miraculous  exertions,  led  it.  over  the  Alps, 
 
 battle  of  Leipsic  drove  back  Napoleon 
 within  the  limits  of  France  ;  and,  in  1814, 
 France  was  invaded  on  all  sides.  With  a 
 comparatively  insignificant  force,  Napoleon 
 nevertheless  gained  several  victories  over 
 the  invaders;  but  partly  the  overwhelming 
 numbers  of  his  enemies,  and  partly  the 
 treason  of  some  of  his  generals,  at  length 
 compelled  him  to  abdicate*  and  to  accept 
 the  sovereignty  of  Elba.     At  Elba.  Imw- 
 
 and  by  the  battle  of  Marengo,  fought  on  j  ever,  he  did  not  long  remain.  At  the  head 
 the  14th  of  June,  1800,  he  recovered  the  of  only  one  thousand  two  hundred  men,  he 
 whole  of  Italy.  A  peace  ensued  with  the  j  landed  at  Frejus,  on  the  1st  ot  March,  1815, 
 emperor,  and,  next,  with  England.  The  i  and  expelled  Louis  the  Eighteenth  from  his 
 latter,  however,  was  broken  at  the  expira-  kingdom.  But  nearly  all  Europe  once 
 tion  of  little  more  than  a  year.  I  lis  life  J  more  confederated  against  him;  he  was 
 was,  in  the  mean  while,  endangered  by  two. '  vanquished  at  Waterloo ;  and  was  a  second 
 
NEE 
 
 time  forced  to  abdicate.  In  this  emergency 
 lie  threw  himself  on  the  generosity  of  the 
 British  government.  That  government 
 exiled  him  to  St.  Helena,  where  he  ex- 
 pired, on  the  5th  of  May,  1821,  of  cancer 
 in  the  stomach;  n  disease  the  progress  of 
 which  was  probably  accelerated  by  the  cli- 
 mate, and  by  the  vexations  to  which  he 
 was  sedulously  and  perpetually  subjected. 
 Not  merely  one  of  the  most  consummate 
 generals  whom  the  world  ever  saw,  but  pos- 
 sessed, too,  of  splendid  and  varied  talents, 
 And  of  some  virtues,  Napoleon  might  have 
 held  a  throne  till  the  last  moment  of  exist- 
 ence, had  not  his  fatal  ambition,  and  his 
 repugnance  to  the  principles  of  liberty,  led 
 him  astray  from  the  path  of  true  glory,  and 
 rendered  him  at  once  an  object  of  dislike 
 to  the  friends  of  freedom,  and  of  terror  to 
 the  surrounding  nations. 
 
 NEALj  DANIEL,  a  dissenting  minister, 
 was  born,  in  1678,  in  London;  was  educa- 
 ted at  Merchant  Tailors'  School,  and  at 
 Utrecht;  became  minister  to  a  congrega- 
 tion in  Jewin  Street;  and  died  in  1743. 
 He  wrote  A  History  of  the  Puritans;  and 
 A  History  of  New  England. 
 
 NECKER,  J  AMES,  an  eminent  financier 
 and  statesman,  was  born,  in  1732,  at  Ge- 
 neva, and  for  many  years  carried  on  the 
 DUsinese  of  a  banker  at  Paris.  His  Eulogy 
 on  Colbert,  his  Treatise  on  the  Corn  Laws 
 and  Trade,  and  some  Essays  on  the  Re- 
 sources of  France,  inspired  such  an  idea  of 
 bis  talents  for  finance,  that,  in  1776,  he 
 was  appointed  director  of  the  treasury, 
 and,  shortly  after,  comptroller  general. 
 Before  his  resignation,  in  1781,  he  pub- 
 lished a  statement  of  bis  operations,  ad- 
 dressed to  the  king ;  and,  while  in  retire- 
 ment, he  produced  a  work  on  the  adminis- 
 tration of  the  Finances,  and  another  on  the 
 importance  of  Religious  Opinions,  He 
 was  reinstated  in  the  Comptrollership  in 
 1788,  and  advised  the  convocation  of  the 
 states  general;  was  abruptly  dismissed, 
 and  ordered  to  quit  the  kingdom,  in  July, 
 1789;  but  was  almost  instantly  recalled,  in 
 consequence  of  the  ferment  which  bis  de- 
 parture excited  in  the  public  mind,  deck- 
 er, however,  soon  became  as  much  an  ob- 
 ject of  antipathy  to  the  people  as  he  had 
 been  of  their  idolatry,  and  in  1790  he  left 
 France  for  ever,  lie  died,  at  Copfet,  in 
 Switzerland,  in   1804.     The  whole  of  his 
 
 works   form    fifteen    volumes. His    wile, 
 
 Susanna,  whose  maiden  name  wasCuR- 
 CHOD,  was  a  woman  of  talent,  and  wrote 
 Reflexions  oo  Divorce:  and  Miscellanies. 
 She  was  the  object  of  Gibbon's  early  at- 
 tachment. 
 
 NEEDHAM,  John  Ti;rb  ervillk,  a 
 natural  philosopher,  was  born,  in  1713.  at 
 Loudon  ;  was  educated  at  Dotiuy  ;  and  died, 
 in  1781,  director  of  the  Imperial  Academy 
 at  Brussels.      Among  hie  works  are,  Inqui- 
 
 NEL 
 
 ries  on  Microscopical  Discoveries;  New 
 Microscopical  Discoveries;  Inquiries  con- 
 cerning Nature  and  Religion  ;  and  an  Essay 
 on    the   Origin  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 
 
 NEELE,  Henry,  a  poet  and  miscella- 
 neous writer,  was  born  in  1798;  followed 
 the  profession  of  an  attorney;  and  put  an 
 end  to  his  existence  in  a  tit  of  insanity, 
 February  7,  1828.  He  is  the  audror  of 
 Poems;  Dramatic  and  Miscellaneous  Po- 
 etry; The  Romance  of  English  History; 
 and  Literary  Remains. 
 
 NELSON,  Horatio,  viscount,  was 
 born,  September  29,  1758,  at  Burnham 
 Thorpe,  in  Norfolk,  of  which  parish  his 
 father  was  the  rector.  At  the  age  of 
 twelve  he  went  to  sea,  as  a  midshipman, 
 with  his  uncle,  Captain  Suckling.  He 
 reached  the  rank  of  post  captain  in  1779, 
 and  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
 Hinchinbroke  frigate.  During  the  Amer- 
 ican war  and  the  succeeding  peace  he 
 gained  the  character  of  a  good  officer;  the 
 j  war  of  the  revolution  gave  him  that  of  a 
 great  one.  In  1793  he  was  appointed  to 
 the' Agameinnbn,  forming  a  part  of  Lord 
 (Hood's  squadron  in  the  Mediterranean 
 {There,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the 
 'sieges  of  Bastia  and  Calvi,  at  the  last  of 
 which  he  lost  an  eye;  harassed  the  enemv 
 with  incessant  activity;  and  contributed 
 so  largely  to  the  victory  of  Cape  St.  Vin- 
 cent, that  he  was  made  a  rear-admiral,  and 
 received  the  order  of  the  Bath.  In  an  at- 
 tack upon  Santa  Cruz  he  failed,  and  lost 
 bis  right  arm.  In  179S,  he  destroyed  the 
 I  French  fleet,  on  the  first  of  August,  in  the 
 Bay  of  Aboukir;  and  he  subsequently 
 I took  an  active  part  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
 French  from  the  Neapolitan  and  Roman 
 territories.  For  this  he  was  created  a 
 baron.  In  1801  he  defeated  the  Danes  at 
 the  battle  of  Copenhagen,  and  was  made  a 
 viscount;  and  in  1805,  on  the  21st  of  Oc- 
 tober, he  crowned  his  achievements  by  the 
 glorious  victory  of  Trafalgar,  over  the 
 united  French  and  Spanish  squadrons. 
 This  triumph,  however,  was  dearly  earned 
 to  the  country  by  the  loss  of  the  hero  wiio 
 gained  it.      lie  was   mortally   wounded  Of 
 
NEW 
 
 a  rifle  shot,  and  lived  only  just  long  enough 
 to  learn  that  the  success  was  complete. 
 
 NELSON,  Thomas,  was  born  at  New 
 York  in  1738.  He  received  his  education 
 in  England,  and  about  the  close  of  the  year 
 1761,  returned  to  his  native  country,  and 
 took  up  his  residence  at  York.  Iii  1774 
 he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  house  of 
 Durgesses,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
 appointed  a  delegate  to  the  continental  con- 
 gress. He  held  a  seat  in  this  assembly  lot- 
 two  successive  years,  and  again  in  1779. 
 In  1781  he  succeeded  Mr.  Jefferson  as 
 governor  of  Virginia.  His  death  took 
 place   in  1789. 
 
 NEPOS,  Cornelius,  a  Latin  histori- 
 an, is  said  to  have  been  born  at  Verona, 
 or  in  its  vicinity.  He  flourished  under 
 Julius  and  Augustus  Caesar,  and  was  a  fa- 
 vourite of  the  latter.  He  wrote  the  Lives 
 of  celebrated  Greek  and  Roman  characters. 
 
 NERO,  Lucius  Domitius  Claudius, 
 a  Roman  emperor,  was  born  a.  d.  37,  and 
 succeeded  Claudius,  by  whom  he  had  been 
 adopted.  At  the  commencement  of  his 
 reign  his  conduct  excited  great  hopes  in 
 the  Romans;  but  he  soon  degenerated  into 
 one  of  the  basest  of  tyrants.  Some  crimes, 
 however,  among  which  is  the  burning  of 
 Rome,  appear  to  have  been  falsely  attribu- 
 ted to  him.  He  put  an  end  to  his  existence, 
 in  68,  in  consequence  of  the  successful  re- 
 bellion of  Galba. 
 
 NEWCOME,  William,  a  learned  pre- 
 late, was  born,  in  1729,  at  Barton  le  Clay, 
 in  Bedfordshire ;  was  educated  at  Abing- 
 don School,  and  at  Pembroke  College, 
 Oxford;  was  successively  bishop  of  Dro- 
 more,  Ossory,  and  Waterford ;  was  raised 
 to  the  archbishopric  of  Armagh  by  Earl 
 Fitzwilliam;  and  died  in  1800.  Of  his 
 works  the  principal  are,  A  Harmony  of 
 the  Gospels;  An  Historical  View  of  the 
 English  Biblical  Translations;  and  At- 
 tempts towards  an  improved  Version  of 
 Ezekiel  and  the  Minor  Prophets. 
 
 NEWCOMEN.  Thomas,  a  blacksmith 
 of  Dartmouth,  in  Devonshire,  lived  at  the 
 latter  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
 the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth.  To  him 
 belongs  the  merit  of  the  first  great  im- 
 provements in  steam  engines,  by  forming  a 
 vacuum  under  the  piston,  and  thus  bringing 
 into  action  the  atmospheric  pressure. 
 
 NEWTON,  Sir  Isaac,  the  greatest  of 
 philosophers,  was  born,  December  25, 1642, 
 at  Colsterworth,  in  Lincolnshire,  and  early 
 displayed  a  talent  for  mechanics  and  draw- 
 ing. He  was  educated  at  Grantham  School, 
 and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
 studied  mathematics  with  the  utmost  assi- 
 duity. In  1667  he  obtained  a  fellowship; 
 in  1669  the  mathematical  professorship; 
 and  in  1671  he  became  a  member  of  the 
 Royal  Society.  It  was  during  his  abode 
 at  Cambridge  that  he  made  his  three  great 
 
 NEY 
 
 discoveries,  of  fluxions,  the  nature  of  light 
 and  colours,  and  the  laws  of  gravitation 
 
 To  the  latter  of  these  his  attention  was 
 first  turned  by  his  seeing  an  apple  fall  from 
 a  tree.  The  Principia,  which  unfolded  to 
 the  world  the  theory  of  the  universe,  was 
 not  published  till  1687.  In  that  year  also 
 Newton  was  chosen  one  of  the  delegates, 
 to  defend  the  privileges  of  the  university 
 against  James  II.;  and  in  1688  and  1701 
 he  was  elected  one  of  the  members  of  the 
 university.  He  was  appointed  warden  of 
 the  Mint  in  1696;  was  made  master  of  it 
 in  1699;  was  chosen  president  of  the 
 Royal  Society  in  1703;  and  was  knighted 
 in  1705.  He  died  March  20, 1727.  Among 
 his  works  are,  Arithmetica  Universalis;  a 
 New  Method  of  Infinite  Series  and  Flux- 
 ions; Optics;  The  Chronology  of  Ancient 
 Kingdoms  amended;  and  Observations  on 
 the  Prophecies  of  Daniel  and  the  Apoca- 
 lypse. 
 
 NEWTON,  Thomas,  a  learned  pre- 
 late, was  born,  in  1704,  at  Litchfield;  was 
 educated  there,  at  Westminster,  and  at 
 Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  and,  after 
 having  filled  various  minor  preferments, 
 was  made  bishop  of  Bristol,  in  1761.  He 
 died  in  1782.  His  principal  work  is, 
 Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies.  He  also 
 published  editions,  with  notes,  of  Paradise 
 Lost,  and  Paradise  Regained. 
 
 m3        '  ■  - ,.:    Jia 
 
 NEY,  Michael,  a  French  marshal, 
 prince  of  the  Moskwa,  duke  of  Elchingen, 
 denominated  "  the  bravest  of  the  brave" 
 by  his  countrymen,  was  the  son  of  an  arti- 
 
400  NIC 
 
 san, and  was  born,  in  1769,  at  Sarre  Louis. 
 He  entered  the  army  in  17S7;  exerted  him- 
 self so  much  in  the  early  campaigns  of  the 
 revolution  that  he  was  called  the  Indefati- 
 gable; and  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier 
 general  in  1796.  He  bore  a  part  in  all  the 
 achievements  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine, 
 particularly  the  battle  of  Hohen linden.  In 
 all  the  campaigns  from  1805  to  1814,  Ney 
 held  high  commands,  and  constantly  sig- 
 nalized himself  by  his  military  skill  and 
 his  daring  valour.  He  was  made  a  peer 
 by  Louis  XVIIL,  and  was  placed  at  the 
 head  of  an  army  to  stop  the  progress  of 
 Napoleon  in  181 5.  Ney,  however,  went 
 over,  with  his  army,  to  his  former  sove- 
 reign, and  fought  for  him  at  Quatre  Bras 
 and  Waterloo.  On  the  second  restoration 
 of  the  Bourbons,  he  was  condemned  to 
 death,  and  was  shot  on  the  7th  of  Decem- 
 ber, 1815. 
 
 NICHOLS,  John,  an  antiquary  and 
 miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  in  1744, 
 at  Islington;  was  apprenticed  to  Bowyer 
 the  printer,  and  became  his  partner;  con- 
 ducted The  Gentleman's  Magazine  for 
 nearly  half  a  century;  and  died  November 
 26,  1826.  Among  his  works  are,  The 
 History  and  Antiquities  of  Leicestershire ; 
 Anecdotes  of  Bowyer;  Literary  Anec- 
 dotes of  the  Eighteenth  Century;  and  Il- 
 lustrations of  the  Literature  of  the  Eigh- 
 teenth Century. 
 
 NICHOLSON,  James,  an  officer  in 
 the  American  navy,  was  born  in  Chester- 
 town,  Maryland,  in  1737.  He  followed 
 the  life  of  a  sailor  till  the  year  1763,  when 
 he  married  and  settled  in  the  city  of  New- 
 York.  Here  he  remained  until  1771, 
 when  he  returned  to  his  native  province. 
 At  the  commencement  of  the  revolution, 
 the  government  of  Maryland  built  and 
 equipped  a  ship  of  war,  called  the  Defence, 
 and  the  command  of  her  was  entrusted  to 
 Nicholson.  He  performed  various  exploits 
 during  the  war,  and  before  the  close  of  it 
 was  taken  prisoner  and  carried  into  New 
 York.     He  died  in  1806. 
 
 NICHOLSON,  William,  an  able  wri- 
 ter on  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry, 
 was  horn,  in  1753,  in  London;  was,  suc- 
 cessively, in  the  maritime  service,  agent 
 on  the  continent  for  Mr.  Wedgwood,  a 
 mathematical  teacher,  and  engineer  to  the 
 Portsea  water  works;  and  died  in  indi- 
 gence, in  1815.  His  chief  works  are,  An 
 Introduction  to  Natural  Philosophy;  A 
 Dictionary  of  Chemistry;  and  The  Navi- 
 gator's Assistant.  In  1797  he  established 
 the  scientific  Journal  which  hears  his 
 name,  and  which  he  conducted  till  his  de- 
 cease. 
 
 NICOLAI,  Christophkr  Freder- 
 ic, a  German  author,  who  was  also  a 
 bookseller,  was  born  at  Berlin,  in  1733, 
 and   died  there  in  1811.     Among  his  uu- 
 
 NOL 
 
 merous  works  are,  The  Life  and  Opinions 
 of  Sebaldus  Nothanker;  A  Tour  in  Ger- 
 many and  Switzerland;  and  Character- 
 istic Anecdotes  of  Frederic  IT.  He  also 
 edited  The  Library  of  Belles  Lettres;  Let- 
 ters on  Modern  Literature;  The  German 
 General  Library;  and  The  New  German 
 General  Library;  the  whole  forming  near- 
 lv  two  hundred  volumes. 
 
 NICOLSON,  William,  a  learned  pre- 
 late, was  born,  in  1655,  at  Orton,  in  Cum- 
 berland ;  was  educated  at  Queen's  Col- 
 lege, Oxford;  was,  successivelv,  in  1702, 
 1718,  and  1727,  bishop  of  Carlkle,  and  of 
 Derry,  and  archbishop  of  Cashel;  and  died 
 a  few  days  after  he  was  raised  to  the 
 archiepiscopal  dignity.  The  English, 
 Scotch,  and  Irish  Historical  Library;  and 
 the  Leges  Marchiarum,  or  Border  Laws, 
 are  his  principal  productions. 
 
 NIEBUHR,  Carsten,  a  celebrated 
 traveller,  was  born,  in  1733,  at  Ludings- 
 worth,  in  the  dutchy  of  Lauenberg;  was 
 sent,  in  company  with  four  other  learned 
 men,  by  the  Danish  government,  in  1761, 
 to  explore  Arabia;  was  employed  for  six 
 years  on  that  mission,  and  was  the  only 
 one  who  returned ;  was  liberally  rewarded 
 by  the  Danish  monarch;  and  died  in  1S15 
 Among  his  works  are,  A  Description  of 
 Arabia;  and  Travels  in  Arabia  and  the 
 neighbouring  Countries. 
 
 NIEBUHR,  G.  B.,  a  son  of  the  forego- 
 ing, was,  successively,  professor  at  the 
 university  of  Berlin,  counsellor  of  state, 
 and  Prussian  ambassador  to  the  pope. 
 While  he  was  at  Rome,  he  discovered 
 some  valuable  fragments  of  two  of  Cicero's 
 orations.  He  died  in  1830.  His  great 
 work  is  The  History  of  Rome,  which  is 
 far  superior  to  most  of  its  rivals. 
 
 NTEWLAND,  Peter,  a  Dutch  math 
 ematician,  was  born,  in  1764,  at  Dimmer- 
 meer,  near  Amsterdam,  and  died  in  1794, 
 professor  of  natural  philosophy,  mathemat- 
 ics, and  astronomy,  at  Leyden.  Niewland 
 was  an  instance  of  precocious  talent.  At 
 seven  years  of  age  he  wrote  a  poem  to  the 
 Deitv,  and  at  eight  he  solved  difficult  geo- 
 metrical problems  with  uncommon  facility. 
 He  is  the  author  of  various  scientific 
 works,  and  of  a  volume  of  poetry. 
 
 MVERXOIS,  Louis  Jklius  BAR- 
 BON  MANOINI  MAZARINI,  duke  de, 
 was  born,  in  1716,  at  Paris;  served  as 
 colonel  in  the  army,  but  was  obliged  by  ill 
 health  to  resign  his  commission;  was, suc- 
 cessively, ambassador  at  Rome,  Berlin, 
 and  London,  in  which  latter  city  he  nego- 
 tiated the  peace  of  1762;  was  imprisoned 
 by  the  republicans  in  1793;  and  died  in 
 1798.  Among  his  works  are,  Fables  in 
 verse;  Dialogues  of  the  Dead;  Dramas; 
 and  translations  from  the  Latin,  English, 
 and  Italian. 
 
 NOLLEKINS,   Joseph,   an    eminent 
 
NOR 
 
 sculptor,  the  son  of  a  painter,  was  born,  in 
 1737,  in  London;  studied  under  Schee- 
 maker,  and  subsequently  at  Rome  iinder 
 Cavaceppi;  remained  nine  years  in  Italy, 
 during  which  period  he  gained  great  rep- 
 utation as  an  artist,  and  also  improved  his 
 fortupe  by  dealing  in  antiques;  returned  to 
 England  in  1770;  became  a  royal  acade- 
 mician in  1772;  and  was  so  extensive]) 
 employed,  particularly  on  busts,  that  he 
 accumulated  £.200,000.  He  died  April 
 23,  1823.  In  his  character  Nollekins  had 
 more  than  the  usual  share  of  that  singular- 
 ity which  is  supposed  to  be  attendant  upon 
 genius. 
 
 NOLLET,  John  Anthony,  a  French 
 natural  philosopher,  Mas  born,  in  1700,  at 
 Pimpre;  acquired  considerable  scientific 
 reputation,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
 Royal  Society,  and  of  several  learned 
 bodies;  and  died  in  1770.  Besides  vari- 
 ous works  on  electricity,  and  other  sub- 
 jects, he  wrote  Lectures  on  Experimental 
 Philosophy,  in  six  volumes. 
 
 NORDEN,  Frederic  Louis,  an  em- 
 inent traveller,  a  captain  in  the  Danish 
 navy,  was  born,  in  1708,  at  Gluckstadt,  in 
 Holstein.  He  was  sent  by  his  sovereign 
 to  France  and  Holland,  to  collect  naval 
 information,  and  afterwards  to  Egvpt  to 
 describe  and  design  the  ancient  monuments 
 of  that  country.  He  died  in  1742.  He  is 
 the  author  of  rpravels  in  Egypt  and  Nubia; 
 and  of  a  Memoir  on  the  Ruins  and  Colos- 
 sal Statues  of  Thebes. 
 
 NORTH,  Roger,  a  lawyer  and  mis- 
 cellaneous writer,  the  youngest  son  of  Dud- 
 ley Lord  North,  was  attorney  general  un- 
 der James  II. ,  and  died  in  1733.  He 
 wrote  the  Lives  of  his  three  brothers, 
 Lord  Keeper  North,  Sir  Dudley  North, 
 and  Dr.  John  North,  all  of  whom  were 
 eminent  men;  Examen,  or  Inquiry  into  the 
 Credit  and  Veracity  of  Rennet's  History; 
 A  History  of  Esculent  Fish;  and  other 
 works. 
 
 NORTH,  Frederic,  earl  of  Guild- 
 ford, better  known  as  Lord  North,  was 
 born,  in  1732;  was  educated  at  Eton,  and 
 at  Trinity  College,  Oxford.  After  having 
 held  several  less  important  offices,  he  was, 
 in  1767,  appointed  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
 chequer, and,  in  1770,  first  lord  of  the 
 treasury.  His  administration  continued 
 through  the  whole  of  the  American  war, 
 during  which  he  was  incessantly  assailed 
 by  the  opposition,  and  was  often  threatened 
 with  impeachment.  In  1782  he  resigned ; 
 but  in  1783  he  was  for  a  few  months  a 
 member  of  the  coalition  ministry.  He 
 was  blind  for  some  years  previous  to  his 
 decease,  which  took  place  in  1792. 
 
 NORTON,  John,  a  clergyman  of  Bos- 
 ton, was  born  in  Hertfordshire,  England, 
 in  1606.  After  receiving  a  theological 
 education,  he  adopted  the  creed  and  prac- 
 
 NOY  401 
 
 tice  of  the  Puritans,  and  in  1635  emigrated 
 to  New  England.  He  was  first  settled  in 
 the  ministry  at  Ipswich,  but  was  afterwards 
 prevailed  on  to  remove  to  Boston.  In  1662 
 he  was  appointed  one  of  the  two  agents  of 
 the  colony  to  address  king  Charles  on  his 
 restoration,  but  they  did  not  fully  BUCCeed 
 in  the  objects  of  their  mission.  "  He  died 
 in  1663.  His  theological  works  were  nu- 
 merous, and  he  published  several  political 
 tracts. 
 
 NORWOOD,  Richard,  an  English 
 geometrician,  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
 was  the  first  who  measured  a  degree  of 
 the  meridian  in  England.  The  operation 
 was  performed  in  1635,  and  was  carried 
 on  between  London  and  York.  No  par- 
 ticulars of  his  life  are  recorded.  He  w  rote 
 treatises  on  Trigonometry,  on  Navigation, 
 and  on  Fortification. 
 
 NOSTREDAME,  or  NOSTRADA- 
 MUS, Michael,  a  famous  astrologer  and 
 empiric,  was  born,  in  1503,  at  St.  Remi, 
 in  Provence.  After  having  practised  phy- 
 sic for  some  years,  he  assumed  the  char- 
 acter of  a  prophet,  and,  in  1555,  published 
 seven  centuries  of  Predictions,  each  of 
 which  was  comprised  in  a  stanza  of  four 
 lines.  They  became  popular,  and  he  re- 
 ceived valuable  presents  from  Charles  IX., 
 Catherine  of  Medicis,  the  duke  of  Savoy, 
 and  other  eminent  persons.  He  died  in 
 1566. 
 
 NOTT,  John,  a  physician,  poet,  and 
 translator,  was  born,  in  1751,at  Worcester ; 
 settled  at  the  Hot  Wells,  Bristol,  in  1793, 
 as  a  physician;  and  died  there  in  1826. 
 Among  his  works  are,  various  poems; 
 translations  from  Hafiz,  Propertius,  Ca- 
 tullus, Horace,  Lucretius,  Johannes  Se- 
 cundus,  Bonefonius,  and  Petrarch  ;  A 
 Nosological  Companion;  and  Select  Poems 
 from  Herrick's  Hesperides. 
 
 NOUE,  Francis  de  la,  a  French 
 Cab  inist  warrior,  surnamed  Iron-arm,  from 
 the  loss  of  his  left  arm  being  supplied  by 
 an  artificial  limb  of  iron,  was  born,  in 
 1531,  in  Britanny,  and  distinguished  him- 
 self in  the  wars  in  Italy,  the  Netherlands, 
 and  France.  He  was  killed  in  1591,  at 
 the  siege  of  Lamballe.  La  None  was  no 
 less  admired  for  his  virtues  than  for  his 
 military  talent.  He  is  the  author  of  Polit- 
 ical and  Military  Discourses;  and  Remarks 
 on  Guicciardini's  History. 
 
 NOVES,  Laura  de,  the  female  whom 
 Petrarch  has  immortalized  in  his  poems, 
 was  born,  near  Avignon,  in  1307  or  130S; 
 married  Hugh  de  Sade  in  1325;  and  died 
 in  1348. 
 
 NOY,  William,  a  celebrated  lawyer, 
 who  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  main 
 authors  of  the  civil  war  between  Charles 
 I.  and  his  people,  was  born,  in  1577,  at 
 St.  Burian,  in  Cornwall,  and  studied  at 
 Exeter    College,    Oxford,    and    Lincoln's 
 
402  OGI 
 
 • 
 
 Inn.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.  Nov  sat  in 
 parliament  for  Helston,  and  subsequently 
 for  St.  Ives,  and  was  a  stern  opponent  of 
 tlie  court.  But  in  1631  Charles  converted 
 him  by  appointing  him  to  the  office  of 
 attorney  general ;  and  Nov  was  thenceforth 
 an  inveterate  enemy  of  liberty.  Among 
 other  pernicious  measures  be  is  said  to 
 have  originated  the  claim  of  ship  money. 
 He  died  in  1634.  Among  his  works  are, 
 A  Treatise  on  the  Grounds  and  Maxims  of 
 the  Law  of  England;  The  Perfect  Convey- 
 ancer; and  The  Complete  Lawyer. 
 
 NUMA  POMPILIIS,  the  second  king 
 
 OLD 
 
 of  Rome,  was  oorn  at  Cures,  a  Sabine 
 village,  and  married  Tatia,  the  daughter 
 of  the  king  of  the  Sabines.  He  was  chosen 
 by  the  Romans  as  their  sovereign  after  the 
 death  of  Romulus;  introduced  many  refor- 
 mations among  them  during  a  reign  of 
 forty-th^ee  years;  and  died  B.  c.  672. 
 
 A  CM  Fill  AN,  Marcus  Aurelius,  a 
 Roman  emperor,  the  son  of  Cams,  suc- 
 ceeded to  the  throne  A.  D.  282,  and,  after 
 a  reign  of  eight  months,  was  murdered 
 by  Arrius  Aper,  his  father-in-law.  Nume- 
 rian  was  a  good  writer,  and  an  eloquent 
 speaker. 
 
 o 
 
 OATES,  Titus,  one  of  the  most  infa- 
 mous characters  that  ever  disgraced  human- 
 ity, was  born  about  1619;  was  educated  at 
 Merchant  Tailors'  School,  and  at  Cam- 
 bridge; became  a  Roman  Catholic  and  a 
 Jesuit  in  1677;  but,  shortly  after,  declared 
 himself  a  protestant,  and  gave  information 
 of  a  pretended  popish  plot,  by  which  means 
 he  excited  a  popular  ferment,  and  brought 
 many  innocent  individuals  to  the  scaffold. 
 In  the  reign  of  James  II.  Oates  was  tried 
 for  perjury,  and  a  dreadfully  severe  sen- 
 tence was  passed  upon  him.  After  the 
 Revolution  he  was  pensioned.  He  died  in 
 1705. 
 
 OCCAM,  or  OCKHAM,  William,  a 
 divine  and  philosopher,  called  the  Invinci- 
 ble Doctor,  was  born  at  Ockham,  in  Sur- 
 rey, in  the  fourteenth  century  ;  was  educated 
 at  Merton  College,  Oxford,  under  Duns 
 Scotus;  became  a  Franciscan  friar,  and 
 archdeacon  of  Stow,  but  resigned  his  pre- 
 ferment;  wrote  boldly  against  the  pope, 
 for  which  he  was  excommunicated  ;  and 
 died  at  Munich  in  1347.  He  is  the  founder 
 of  the  scholastic  sect  of  the  nominalists. 
 
 OCKLEY,  Simon,  a  celebrated  orien- 
 talist, was  born,  in  1678,  at  Exeter;  was 
 educated  at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge; 
 obtained  the  vicarage  of  Swanesey,  in 
 Cambridgeshire ;  and  died  in  indigence  in 
 1720.  He  is  the  author  of  a  valuable 
 History  of  the  Saracens;  The  Life  of  Hai 
 Ebn  Yokdan,  from  the  Arabic;  an  Intro- 
 duction to  the  Oriental  Languages;  and 
 other  works. 
 
 OECOLAMPADIUS,  John,  an  emi- 
 nent German  reformer,  was  born,  in  1482, 
 at  Weinsberg,  in  Franconia.  He  was  con- 
 verted to  the  protestant  faith  by  reading 
 the  works  of  Luther;  became  professor  of 
 theology  at  Basil;  embraced  the  opinions 
 of  Zuinglius  respecting  the  sacrament  ; 
 contributed  much  to  the  progress  of  eccle- 
 siastical reform;  and  died  in  1531. 
 
 OGILBY,  John,  a  multifarious  writer, 
 
 was  born,  in  1600,  at  Edinburgh,  and  was" 
 originally  a  dancing  master.  Being  com- 
 pelled by  an  accident  to  relinquish  that 
 occupation,  he  became  an  author.  He  was 
 also  appointed  king's  cosmographer,  and 
 master  of  the  revels  in  Ireland,  where  he 
 built  a  theatre.  He  died  in  1676.  Among 
 his  works  are,  translations  of  the  Iliad, 
 Odyssey,  and  Eneid;  and  many  geographi- 
 cal productions. 
 
 OGILVTE,  John,  a  Scotch  divine  and 
 poet,  was  born  in  1733;  was  educated  at 
 the  university  of  Aberdeen,  from  which  he 
 obtained  a  doctor's  degree;  was  for  more 
 than  half  a  century  minister  of  Midmar, 
 in  Aberdeenshire;  and  died  in  1S14,  re- 
 spected for  his  piety  and  talents.  His 
 poetical  powers  were  by  no  means  incon- 
 siderable. His  chief  works  are,  Sermons ; 
 Poems;  Britannia,  an  epic  poem;  Philoso- 
 phical and  Critical  Observations  on  Com- 
 positions ;  and  Examination  of  the  Evidence 
 of  Prophecy. 
 
 OGLETHORPE,  James  Edward,  an 
 English  officer,  was  born  in  London,  in 
 1698,  and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
 was  aid-de-camp  to  prince  Eugene.  In 
 1732  he  settled  the  colony  in  Georgia,  and 
 laid  the  foundations  of  the  town  of  Savan- 
 nah. In  1745  he  was  made  major-general, 
 and  was  employed  to  follow  the  rebels  under 
 the  Pretender.     He  died  in  1785. 
 
 OLDHAM,  John,  a  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1653,  at  Shipton,  in  Gloucestershire;  was 
 educated  at  Tetbury  Free  School,  and 
 Edmund  Hall,  Oxford;  became  usher  of 
 Croydon  Free  School,  and  afterwards  tutor 
 in  the  families  of  Sir  Edward  Thurlard, 
 and  Sir  William  Hickes;  was  patronised 
 by  the  earl  of  Kingston;  and  died  in  1683. 
 His  satires  are  rugged,  but  full  of  energy. 
 Drydcn,  in  a  beautiful  tribute  to  his  memo- 
 ry, calls  him  "  the  young,  but  ah  too  short, 
 Marcellus  of  our  tongue  !" 
 
 OLDYS,  William,  an  antiquary  and 
 miscellaneous  writer,  the  natural  son  of  a 
 
OPI 
 
 civilian,  was  born  in  1696;  became  libra-] 
 rian  to  Lord  Oxford  in  1726;  was  appoint- 
 ed Norroy  king  at  arms;  and  died  in  1761. 
 Among  other  works  he  wrote  The  British 
 Librarian;  The  Universal  Spectator  ;  a 
 Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  ;  and  several 
 lives  in  the  Biographia  Britannica.  He 
 also  assisted  in  selecting  The  Harleian 
 Miscellany. 
 
 OLEARTUS,  or  OELSCHL.EGER, 
 Adam,  a  learned  German  traveller,  was 
 born,  in  1599,  at  Ascherleben,  in  Anhalt ; 
 was  educated  at  Leipsic;  entered  into  the 
 service  of  the  duke  of  Holstein  Gottorp, 
 and  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  embassy 
 which  that  prince  sent  to  Russia  and  Per- 
 sia; was,  on  his  return,  made  counsellor, 
 librarian,  and  mathematician,  to  the  dnke; 
 and  died  in  1671.  He  wrote  an  account 
 of  his  Travels;  a  Chronicle  of  Holstein; 
 and  other  works. 
 
 OLIVET,  Joseph  Thoulikr  d',  a 
 French  grammarian  and  critic,  was  born, 
 in  1682,  at  Salins.  He  was  originally  a 
 Jesuit,  but  quitted  the  order,  to  give  him- 
 self up  to  literature.  In  1723  he  became 
 a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  the 
 dictionary  of  which  body  he  assisted  in 
 revising.  He  died  in  1762.  His  principal 
 works  are,  a  valuable  edition  of  Cicero; 
 translations  from  Demosthenes  and  Cicero ; 
 a  History  of  the  French  Academy;  and  a 
 Treatise  on  Prosody. 
 
 OLIVER,  Andrew,  was  graduated  at 
 Harvard  College  in  1724,  and  was  early 
 engaged  in  public  employments,  succeeded 
 Hutchinson  as  lieutenant  governor  of  Mas- 
 sachusetts, in  1771,  and  retained  that  of- 
 fice till  his  death  in  1774.  He  rendered 
 himself  very  unpopular  by  accepting  from 
 the  British  government  the  office  of  stamp 
 distributor  of  the  province. 
 
 OLIVIER,  William  Anthony,  an 
 eminent  French  naturalist  and  traveller, 
 was  born,  in  1756,  at  Frejus;  was  sent  on 
 a  scientific  mission  to  Persia  by  the  French 
 government  in  1792;  returned  with  a  val- 
 uable collection  after  an  absence  of  six 
 years;  and  died  in  1814.  His  chief  works 
 are,  Travels  in  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
 Egypt,  and  Persia;  A  Natural  History  of 
 Coleopterous  Insects ;  and  a  portion  of  the 
 Dictionary  of  the  Natural  History  of  In- 
 sects, in  the  Methodical  Encyclopaedia. 
 
 OPIE,  John,  a  celebrated  painter,  was 
 born,  in  1761,  at  St.  Agnes,  near  Truro, 
 in  Cornwall,  and  was  the  son  of  a  carpen- 
 ter, who  destined  him  to  follow  that  busi- 
 ness. Young  Opie  displayed  early  talents. 
 At  ten  years  of  age  he  could  solve  many 
 difficult  problems  in  Euclid,  and  at  twelve 
 he  taught  writing  and  arithmetic  at  an 
 evening  school  in  his  native  village.  But 
 drawing  soon  became  his  principal  object, 
 and  he  made  several  sketches  and  copies, 
 which  were  much  talked  of  in  the  neigh- 
 
 ORE  403 
 
 bourhood.  He  was  first  drawn  from  ob- 
 scurity by  Dr.  Wolcot,  and,  about  1777, 
 was  patronised  by  Lord  Bateman.  After 
 having  practised  for  a  few  years  in  the 
 provincial  towns  of  the  west,  he  settled  in 
 London  in  17^0,  where  In-  acquired  both 
 fame  and  fortune.  He  became  a  royal 
 academician,  and  professor  of  painting  to 
 the  Academy.  Opie  died  in  1807.  He 
 wrote  Lectures;  a  Life  of  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
 nolds; and  a  Letter  on  the  Formation  of  a 
 National  Gallery. 
 
 OPITZ,  Martin,  whom  the  Germans 
 call  the  father  and  restorer  of  their  poetry, 
 was  born,  in  1597,  at  Bunt/Inn,  in  Silesia; 
 was  educated  at  Breslau  and  Frankfort  on 
 the  Oder;  spent  several  years  in  travelling 
 in  various  parts  of  Europe;  was  ennobled, 
 and  sent  on  a  mission  to  Paris;  and  died 
 in  1639. 
 
 OPPIAN,  a  Greek  poet,  a  native  of 
 Corycus,  in  Cilicia,  flourished  in  the  second 
 century,  and  was  liberally  rewarded  for 
 his  works  by  Caracalla.  He  wrote  two 
 poems;  the  one  in  five  books,  called  Ha- 
 leutics,  on  fishing;  the  other  in  four,  with 
 the  title  of  Cynogeticon,  on  hunting.  Some 
 critics  have  doubted  whether  he  is  really 
 the  author  of  the  latter. 
 
 ORANGE,  William  of  NASSAU, 
 prince  of,  the  founder  of  the  Dutch  repub- 
 lic, was  born,  in  1533,  at  the  castle  of 
 Dillemburgh.  He  was  brought  up  in  the 
 court  of  Charles  V.,  who,  in  1554,  gave 
 him  the  command  of  the  army  in  the  Ne- 
 therlands. When  the  monarch  abdicated, 
 he  bestowed  many  marks  of  esteem  on  him, 
 and  recommended  him  to  his  son.  Philip 
 II.,  however,  treated  him  with  coldness; 
 and  the  conduct  of  the  prince,  in  joining 
 with  the  Flemish  nobles  to  protect  the 
 liberties  of  the  Netherlands,  converted  that 
 coldness  into  hatred.  William  was  forced 
 to  fiy,  and,  in  his  absence,  was  condemned 
 to  death.  He  then  took  up  arms,  and  after 
 several  reverses,  succeeded  in  wresting  a 
 part  of  the  Netherlands  from  the  dominion 
 of  the  Spanish  tyrant.  But  he  did  not 
 witness  the  consummation  of  his  labours; 
 he  being  assassinated,  in  1584,  at  Delft, 
 by  Balthasar  Gerard. 
 
 ORANGE,  Frederic  Henry  of 
 NASSAU,  prince  of,  stadtholder  of  Hol- 
 land, was  born,  in  1584,  at  Delft,  and  was 
 brought  up  by  his  brother  Maurice,  whom 
 he  succeeded  in  1625.  He  governed  with 
 wisdom  and  equity,  and  secured  the  inde- 
 pendence of  his  country  by  numerous  vic- 
 tories and  conquests.  He  died  in  1647. 
 See  Nassau. 
 
 ORELLANA,  Francis,  one  of  the 
 Spanish  adventurers  to  the  new  world,  was 
 born,  at  Truxillo,  early  in  the  sixteenth 
 century,  and  accompanied  the  PisaiTM  to 
 Peru.  Passing  the  Andes,  he  embarked 
 on  the  Amazons,  and  followed    iis  courso 
 
404 
 
 ORR 
 
 to  the  ocean.  He  was  the  first  European 
 that  navigated  that  mighty  stream,  and  it 
 still  bears  his  name.     He  died  in  1549. 
 
 ORFYREUS,  John  Ernest  Elias, 
 a  German  mechanician,  whose  real  name 
 was  BESSLER,  was  born,  in  1680,  near 
 Zittau,  in  Lusatia;  led  a  wandering,  dis- 
 turbed, and  varied  life;  and  died  in  1745. 
 His  most  remarkable  mechanical  attempt 
 was  a  machine  which  he  asserted  to  pos- 
 sess the  power  of  perpetual  motion ;  and 
 which  S'Gravesande  declared  to  be  un- 
 doubtedly "  something  wonderful,  even  if 
 it  were  a  deception." 
 
 ORIGEN,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the 
 church,  was  born,  in  185,  at  Alexandria, 
 and  studied  philosophy  under  Ammonias, 
 and  theology  under  Clemens  Alexandrinus. 
 Being  persecuted  by  his  diocesan  Deme- 
 trius, he  went  to  Ca?sarea,  and  afterwards 
 to  Athens.  During  the  persecution  of 
 Decius,  he  was  imprisoned  and  tortured. 
 He  died  in  253.  His  great  works  are, 
 The  Hexapla;  Commentaries  on  the  Scrip- 
 tures;  and  a  treatise  against  Celsus. 
 
 ORME,  Robert,  an  historian,  the  son 
 of  a  physician  in  the  East  India  Companv's 
 service,  was  born,  in  172S,  at  Anjengo,  in 
 Hindostan;  was  educated  at  Harrow;  be- 
 came a  member  of  the  council  at  Fort  St. 
 George,  and  commissary  and  accountant 
 general;  and  died  in  1801,  historiographer 
 to  the  company.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
 History  of  the  Military  Transactions  of 
 the  British  Nation  in  Hindostan  ;  and  His- 
 torical Fragments  of  the  Mogul  Empire. 
 As  an  historian  Orme  is  entitled  to  a  place 
 anion?  our  most  eminent  writers. 
 
 OROSIUS,  Paul,  a  Spanish  ecclesias- 
 tic of  the  fifth  century,  was  born  at  Tarra- 
 gona, and  was  a  disciple  of  St.  Augustin. 
 The  place  and  time  of  his  decease  are 
 unknown.  His  chief  work  is  a  History 
 of  Human  Calamities,  in  seven  books, 
 which  was  written  at  the  request  of  St. 
 Augustine,  and  has  had  the  honour  of  being 
 translated  by  Alfred  the  Great. 
 
 ORPHEUS,  a  Greek  poet,  musician, 
 and  founder  of  some  religious  ceremonies, 
 is  supposed  by  some  to  be  an  imagiuarv 
 person,  but  is  probably  a  real  one,  though 
 his  history  is  involved  in  fable.  He  seems 
 to  have  been  a  native  of  Thrace,  son  of 
 one  of  the  princes  of  that  country,  and  to 
 have  been  born  about  a  century  before  the 
 Trojan  war.  He  is  said  to  have  been  one 
 of  the  Argonauts,  to  have  subsequently  tra- 
 velled in  Egypt,  and  to  have  introduced 
 Egyptian  science  and  customs  into  Greece. 
 The  works  attributed  to  him  are  of  a  much 
 later  period. 
 
 ORRERY,  Charles  BOYLE,  earl  of, 
 was  born,  in  1676,  at  Chelsea,  and  was 
 educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  under 
 the  tuition  of  Dr.  Atterbury.  He  pub- 
 lished while  at  college  an  edition  of  Pha- 
 
 OTI 
 
 lal  \-.  Bentley  questioned  the  authenticitj 
 of  the  epistles;  Boyle  replied ;  and  this  led 
 in  a  warm  controversy,  in  which  Bentley 
 was  fruitlessly  opposed  by  a  confederacy 
 of  wits.  Boyle  succeeded  to  the  earldom 
 on  the  death  of  his  brother;  was  promoted 
 in  the  army,  employed  as  an  ambassador, 
 and  made  an  English  peer,  by  Queen 
 Anne;  but  was  in  disfavour  during  the 
 reign  of  George  I.,  and  was  even  impri- 
 soned for  six  months.  He  died  in  1731. 
 He  wrote  As  You  Like  It,  a  comedy;  and 
 some  verses.  The  astronomical  instrument 
 which  bears  his  name  was  so  called  in 
 compliment  to  him  by  Graham,  its  inventor. 
 
 ORTE,  Viscount  d',  a  man  of  true 
 honour,  whose  name  deserves  to  be  recorded. 
 He  was  governor  of  Bayonne  at  the  time 
 of  the  infamous  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
 mew. Having  received  an  order  from 
 Charles  IX.  to  put  to  death  all  the  pro- 
 testants  in  his  government,  he  replied  in 
 the  following  words,  "  Sire,  I  have  com- 
 municated your  majesty's  letter  to  the  gar- 
 rison and  inhabitants  of  this  city.  I  have 
 found  only  brave  soldiers  and  good  citizens, 
 and  not  a  single  executioner." 
 
 ORTELL,  OERTEL,or  ORTELILS, 
 Abraham,  a  learned  geographer,  who 
 was  called  the  Ptolemy  of  his  age,  was 
 born,  in  1527,  at  Antwerp.  He  travelled 
 on  the  continent,  and  in  Great  Britain, 
 and  formed  a  valuable  collection  of  anti- 
 quities. On  his  return  he  published  an 
 Atlas,  which  gained  for  him  the  appoint- 
 ment of  geographer  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain. 
 He  died  in  159S.  His  principal  works 
 are,  Thesaurus  Geographicus ;  aud  Theatri 
 Orbis  Terrain m. 
 
 OTHO,  Marcos  Salvus,  a  Roman 
 emperor,  was  born  A.  D.  32.  In  his  early 
 youth  he  was  prodigal  and  licentious,  and 
 was  a  favourite  of  Nero;  but,  during  his 
 ten  years'  questorship  of  Lusitania,  he 
 distinguished  himself  by  his  upright  and 
 dignified  conduct.  He  espoused  the  cause 
 of  Galba;  but,  disappointed  in  his  hopes 
 of  being  adopted  by  him,  he  formed  a  con- 
 spiracy against  him,  and  was  raised  to  the 
 throne.  Otho,  however,  retained  the 
 imperial  authority  little  more  than  three 
 months.  Having  been  defeated  by  the 
 forces  of  Vitellius,  he  put  an  end  to  his 
 own  existence,  A.  D.  69.  In  his  last  hours 
 he  displayed  a  calm  heroism  which  is 
 worthy  of  admiration. 
 
 OTIS,  James,  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
 can statesman,  was  born  at  West  Barnsta- 
 ble, Massachusetts,  in  1725,  and  was 
 graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1743. 
 He  pursued  the  profession  of  the  law,  and 
 establishing  himself  in  Boston  soon  rose  to 
 eminence.  His  public  career  may  be  said 
 to  have  opened  with  his  celebrated  speech 
 against  writs  of  assistance.  At  the  next 
 election  he  was  chosen  a  representative  to 
 
PAC 
 
 the  legislature,  and  soon  became  the  leader 
 of  the  popular  party.  In  1765  he  was  a 
 member  of  the  Congress  which  assembled 
 at  New-York.  In  1769  he  was  severely 
 wounded  in  an  assault  committed  upon  him 
 by  some  British  officers ;  from  one  of  whom 
 he  recovered  large  damages,  which  he  re- 
 mitted on  receiving  a  written  apology.  In 
 1772  he  retired  from  public  life,  and  in 
 May  of  the  following  year  was  killed  by  a 
 stroke  of  lightning.  He  was  a  good 
 scholar,  a  learned  and  able  lawyer,  a  bold 
 and  commanding  orator,  and  possessed 
 infinite  powers  of  humour  and  wit. 
 
 OTWAY,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  dra- 
 matic writer,  a  native  of  Sussex,  was  born, 
 in  1651,  at  Trottin  ;  was  educated  at  Win- 
 chester School,  and  Christ  Church  College, 
 Oxford;  and,  after  having  made  a  vain 
 attempt  to  be  an  actor,  he  became  a  writer 
 for  the  stage.  The  earl  of  Plymouth  ob- 
 tained for  hiin  a  cornet's  commission,  but 
 at  the  end  of  one  campaign  in  Flanders, 
 Otway  quitted  the  military  service.  The 
 tragedy  of  Alcibiades,  his  first  piece,  ap- 
 peared in  1675.  His  finest  tragedies,  The 
 Orphan,  and  Venice  Preserved,  were  acted 
 in  16S0  and  1682.  Otway  lived  and  died 
 poor.  It  has  been  said  that  he  was  choked 
 by  a  piece  of  roll,  which  he  ate  too  eagerly 
 after  having  long  fasted ;  but  there  is  rea- 
 son to  believe  that  his  death  proceeded 
 from  fever,  brought  on  by  his  violent  ex- 
 ertions in  pursuit  of  the  murderer  of  one 
 of  his  friends.  His  decease  took  place  in 
 1685.  He  wrote  ten  dramas,  and  some 
 poems. 
 
 OVID,  Eurlius  Naso,  a  celebrated 
 Roman  poet,  was  born,  B.  c.  43,  at  Sulmo, 
 and  was  of  the  equestrian  order.  He 
 studied  the  law  under  Messala,  but  soon 
 abandoned  the  bar  for  poetry  and  a  life  of 
 pleasure.  Virgil,  Horace,  Tibullus,  and 
 Propertius  were  his  friends,  and  Augustus 
 was  a  liberal  patron  to  him.  At  length, 
 however,  for  some  cause  which  has  never 
 been  discovered,  the  emperor  banished  him 
 to  Tomos,  in  Scythia;  nor  could  all  the 
 prayers  and  lamentations  of  the  despairing 
 Ovid  procure  a  remission  of  his  sentence.  J 
 He  died,  in  his  place  of  exile,  A.  v.  17. 
 
 PAC 
 
 405 
 
 OWEN,  John,  a  divine,  was  born, 
 about  1765,  in  London,  and  was  educated 
 at  St.  Paul's  School  and  Cambridge. 
 Having  taken  orders,  he  became  a  popular 
 preacher,  and  obtained  from  Bishop  I'or- 
 teus  the  living  of  Pagglesham,  in  Essex, 
 and  the  curacy  of  Fulham.  On  the  insti- 
 tution of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
 Society,  he  became  one  of  the  secretaries 
 and  for  eighteen  years  was  the  most  active 
 of  its  members.  He  died  September  26, 
 1822.  Among  his  works  are,  Travels  in 
 different  Parts  of  Europe;  The  Christian 
 Monitor  ;  The  Fashionable  World  dis- 
 played; and  a  Vindication  of  the  Bible 
 Society. 
 
 OXENSTIERNA,  Count  Axel,  a  cel- 
 ebrated Swedish  statesman,  was  born,  in 
 1583,  in  the  province  of  Upland,  and 
 studied  at  various  German  universities, 
 where  he  became  versed  in  history,  poli- 
 tics, and  the  learned  languages.  Charles 
 IX.  employed  him  in  important  negotia- 
 tions; and  Gustavus  Adolphus  made  him 
 prime  minister,  and  reposed  in  him  an 
 unlimited  confidence.  After  the  death  of 
 Gustavus,  Oxenstierna  for  several  years 
 conducted  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  with 
 vigour  and  success.     He  died  in  1654. 
 
 OZANAM,  James,  an  able  French  ma- 
 thematician, was  born,  in  1640,  at  Bou- 
 ligneux,  in  the  principality  of  Dombes. 
 He  was  brought  up  for  the  church,  but 
 relinquished  the  clerical  profession  on  the 
 deatli  of  his  father.  For  many  years  he 
 was  in  high  repute  as  a  mathematical 
 teacher.  He  died  in  1717.  Among  his 
 works  are,  A  Course  of  Mathematics;  a 
 Treatise  on  Gnomonics;  New  Elements  of 
 Algebra;  and  Mathematical  and  Philosoph- 
 ical Recreations. 
 
 OZEROFF,Vladislas  Alexandko- 
 vitsch,  a  celebrated  Russian  tragic  au- 
 thor, was  born,  in  1770,  near  Twer,  and 
 entered  into  the  civil  service,  after  ha\ing 
 attained  the  rank  of  major  general  in  the 
 army.  He  died  in  1816.  Ozeroff  pro- 
 duced, between  1798  and  1809,  the  trage- 
 dies of  The  Death  of  Oleg;  CEdipus  at 
 Athens  ;  Fingal  ;  Dmitri  Donskoi  ;  and 
 Polixena.    He  also  wrote  some  lyric  poerns 
 
 PACA,  William,  a  signer  of  the 
 declaration  of  American  independence, 
 was  educated  at  the  College  in  Philadel- 
 phia, and  pursued  the  profession  of  medi- 
 cine. He  was  a  delegate  to  Congress  from 
 Maryland,  and  afterwards  governor  of  that 
 state.  In  1788  he  was  a  member  of  the 
 Maryland  Convention  which  ratified  the 
 federal  constitution,  and  in   1789  was  ap- 
 
 pointed district  judge  for  Marvland.     He 
 died  in  1799. 
 
 PACUVIUS,  Mahcus,  a  Latin  dra- 
 matist, a  nephew  of  Kimiiis,  was  born,  B. 
 c.  218,  at  Brindisium,  and  died  at  Taren- 
 lum,  at  the  age  of  ninety.  He  possessed 
 the  talent  of  painting  as  well  as  of  poetry. 
 Only  a  few  fragments  of  his  dramas  are 
 extant. 
 
406 
 
 PAI 
 
 PADILLA,  Don  John  de,  a  Spanish 
 patriot,  of  a  noble  family,  was  the  son  of 
 the  commander  of  Castile ;  espoused  the 
 cause  of  the  people  ;  and  supported  it 
 bravely  during  the  struggle  of  the  Span- 
 iards for  liberty,  from  1420  to  1422.  Being 
 defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  at  the  battle 
 of  Yillalar,  he  was  put  to  death  on  the 
 following  day,  and  met  his  fate  with  heroic 
 firmness. — His  wife,  Donna  MARIA  PA- 
 CHECO,  was  worthy  of  such  a  husband. 
 During  his  life  slie  participated  in  all  his 
 labours,  and  after  his  death  she  defended 
 Toledo  for  several  months,  gained  several 
 advantages  at  the  head  of  her  troops,  and 
 did  not  quit  the  place  till  she  was  deserted 
 by  the  citizens.     She  died  in  Portugal. 
 
 E?^5 
 
 PAINE,  THOMAS,  a  political  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1736,  at  Thetford,  in  Norfolk. 
 He  was  brought  up  as  a  staymaker,  but 
 became  an  exciseman.  Being,  however, 
 dismissed  for  misconduct,  he  went  over  to 
 America,  and  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
 colonists,  who  were  then  in  arms  against 
 the  mother  country.  His  first  literary 
 production,  a  pamphlet,  with  the  title  of 
 Common  Sense,  had  a  powerful  effect,  and 
 he  was  rewarded  by  a  grant  of  land,  and 
 another  of  £.500.  He  was  also  employed 
 b\  the  congress.  In  1790  he  visited  Eng- 
 land, and,  in  the  following  year,  he  pro- 
 duced his  celebrated  Rights  of  Man,  in 
 answer  to  Burke's  Reflections;  for  the 
 second  part  of  which  a  prosecution  was 
 instituted  against  him.  He  was,  however, 
 beyond  the  reach  of  the  English  law;  he 
 having  taken  his  seat  as  a  member  of  the 
 .National  Convention.  As  a  French  legis- 
 lator he  displayed  a  degree  of  moderation 
 which  brought  upop  bim  the  hatred  of  the 
 jacobins.  He  was  imprisoned,  and  was 
 near  becoming  a  victim  to  the  guillotine. 
 He  at  length  returned  to  America,  and 
 died  there  in  1809.  Besides  the  works 
 already  mentioned,  he  wrote  The  Age  of 
 Reason,  and  some  political  tract-. 
 
 PAINE,  Robert  Treat,  an  eminent 
 lawyer,  and  a  signer  of  the  declaration  of 
 American  independence,  was  born  at  Bos- 
 ton in  1731,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
 
 PAJ 
 
 College  in  1749.  After  a  visit  to  Europe 
 of  some  years,  he  commenced  the  study  of 
 the  law,  and  about  1759  settled  in  its  prac- 
 tice in  Taunton.  He  took  an  early  and 
 active  interest  in  public  affairs,  and  in 
 1774  was  appointed  a  delegate  from  Mas- 
 sachusetts to  the  general  Congress.  He 
 was  a  member  of  the  committee  of  the 
 convention  that  drafted  the  constitution  of 
 his  native  state.  Under  the  government 
 that  was  organized  he  was  appointed  attor- 
 ney general,  and  held  this  office  till  1790, 
 when  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the 
 Supreme  Court.  He  remained  on  the 
 bench  till  1804.  He  died  at  Boston  in 
 1814.  His  legal  attainments  and  his  gen- 
 eral acquirements  were  extensive,  and  he 
 was  a  man  of  much  brilliancy  of  wit. 
 
 PAINE,  Robert  Treat,  a  poet,  son 
 of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Taunton  in 
 1773,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
 1792.  On  leaving  college  he  was  placed 
 in  a  counting  house,  but  soon  turned  his 
 attention  to  literature  and  theatricals,  and 
 published  several  orations  and  poems. 
 His  poems  were  very  popular  and  profita- 
 ble, and  bv  the  sale  of  the  song  of  Adams 
 and  Liberty,  he  received  the  sum  of  seven 
 hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  In  1800  he 
 began  the  practice  of  law,  but  failed  of 
 success  from  the  want  of  industry,  and 
 passed  the  close  of  his  life  in  poverty.  He 
 died  in  1811.  His  works  have  been  col- 
 lected and  published  in  one  volume  8vo. 
 prefaced  by  a  biographical  sketch. 
 
 PAISIELLO,  John,  a  celebrated  com- 
 poser, a  pupil  of  Durante,  was  born,  in 
 1741,  at  Tarento,  in  the  kingdom  of  Na- 
 ples. He  began  his  public  career  in  1763 
 by  two  operas,  which  raised  him  at  once 
 into  popularity  throughout  Italy.  His 
 subsequent  works  extended  his  reputation 
 over  the  whole  of  the  continent.  Several 
 sovereigns  invited  him  into  their  service. 
 He  accepted  the  offer  of  the  Empress 
 Catherine,  and  resided  in  Russia  for  nine 
 years.  He  next  settled  at  Naples.  In 
 1801  he  went  to  Paris  at 'the  request  of 
 Bonaparte;  but,  after  having  lived  nearly 
 three  years  in  France,  he  returned  to  Na- 
 ples, and  died  there  in  1816.  His  operas 
 and  other  works  are  numerous,  and  are  in 
 high  repute. 
 
 PAJOU,  Augustin,  an  eminent  French 
 sculptor,  was  born,  in  1730,  at  Paris; 
 gained  the  prize  of  the  Academy  at  the 
 age  of  eighteen,  and  was  sent  to  study  at 
 Rome,  where  he  remained  for  twelve 
 years;  and  died,  in  1809,  professor  of  the 
 Acadenn  of  Painting  and  Sculpture,  and 
 a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  of  the 
 legion  of  honour.  His  countrymen  have 
 called  him  the  restorer  of  the  art.  Among 
 his  numerous  works,  some  of  the  principal 
 are,  Pluto  holding  Cerebus  chained,  Psyche 
 abandoned   by    Love,   and  statues  of   De- 
 
PAL 
 
 mosthenes,  Descartes,  Bossuet,  Pascal,  and 
 Turenne. 
 
 PALEY,  W'LLIAM,  an  eminent  divine, 
 the  son  of  a  clergyman,  was  born,  in  1745, 
 at  Peterborough,  and  was  educated,  as  a 
 sizar,  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  of 
 which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1766.  For 
 ten  subsequent  years  he  resided  at  the 
 university;  but  in  1776  he  obtained  the 
 vicarages  of  Dalston,  in  Cumberland,  and 
 Appleby,  iu  Westmoreland.  Within  the 
 next  nine  years  he  became  a  prebendary, 
 archdeacon,  and  chancellor  of  Carlisle.  In 
 1785,  he  at  once  attained  high  reputation 
 by  his  Elements  of  Moral  and  Political 
 Philosophy.  At  various  intervals  in  the 
 course  of  a  few  years,  this  work  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  Horse  Paulina?;  A  View  of  the 
 Evidences  of  Christianity;  and  Natural 
 Theology;  besides  some  smaller  pieces. 
 His  Sermons  were  a  posthumous  publica- 
 tion. Preferment  awaited  him  as  well  as 
 competence  and  fame.  He  was  succes- 
 sively made  vicar  of  Stanwix,  a  preben- 
 dary of  St.  Pancras,  subdean  of  Lincoln, 
 a  doctor  of  divinity,  and  rector  of  Bishop's 
 Wearmouth.  Dr.  Palev  died  Mav  25, 1S05. 
 
 PAL1SSET  DE  MONTENOY, 
 Charlks,  a  French  satirist  and  miscella- 
 neous writer,  was  born,  in  1730,  at  Nanci; 
 was  throughout  his  life  in  a  state  of  vio- 
 lent hostility  with  the  French  literary 
 characters  of  the  philosophical  sect;  and 
 died  in  1814.  His  works  form  six  octavo 
 volumes.  Among  them  are  The  Dunciad ; 
 some  comedies;  Little  Letters  against  great 
 Philosophers;  Memoirs  for  a  History  of 
 French  Literature,  and  a  History  of  the 
 early  Ages  of  Rome. 
 
 PALLADIO,  Andrew,  a  celebrated 
 Italian  architect,  was  born,  in  1518,  at 
 Vicenza;  acquired  in  his  own  country  a 
 reputation  which  has  recened  the  sanction 
 of  other  nations  and  of  posterity  ;  and  died 
 in  1580.  His  Treatise  on  Architecture  is 
 one  of  the  classics  of  the  art. 
 
 PALLAS,  Peter  Simon,  an  eminent 
 traveller  and  naturalist,  was  burn,  in  1741, 
 at  Berlin;  studied  at  Halle,  Gottiugen, 
 and  Leyden ;  and  acquired  so  much  repu- 
 tation by  his  Elenchus   Zooplntovum  and 
 
 PAN  4fft 
 
 Miscellanea  Zoologica,  that  Catherine  of 
 Russia  invited  him  to  St.  Petersburgh, 
 made  him  a  member  of  the  Academy, 
 and  for  six  yean  employed  him,  as  a 
 naturalist,  in  exploring  various  parts  of 
 her  vast  empire.  During  his  tour  he  suf- 
 fered such  hardships  that  his  hair  turned 
 white,  and  his  constitution  was  severely 
 injured.  In  1794,  the  empress  gave  liim 
 an  estate  in  the  Crimea.  There  lie  resided 
 for  fifteen  years;  but  at  length  he  quitted 
 Russsia,  and  settled  at  Berlin,  where  he 
 died,  September  8,  1811.  Among  his 
 numerous  works  are  his  Travels,  which 
 Saussure  denominated  "  an  inexhaustible 
 mine  for  the  naturalist  and  statesman;" 
 Historical  Documents  on  the  Mongols; 
 and  a  Physical  and  Topographical  Descrip- 
 tion of  the  Taurida. 
 
 PALLAVICINO,  Sforza,  was  born, 
 in  1647,  at  Rome;  was  employed  by  Pope 
 Innocent  X.  in  various  important  affairs; 
 obtained  a  cardinal's  hat  in  1657;  and 
 died  in  1667.  His  chief  work  is  A  His- 
 tory of  the  Council  of  Trent,  in  two  vol- 
 umes folio. 
 
 PALOMINO  DE  CASTRO  Y  VE- 
 LASCO,  Aciscles  Anthony,  an  emi- 
 nent Spanish  painter,  was  born,  in  1653, 
 at  Bujalance,  in  Valencia;  was  a  pupil  of 
 Valdes;  became  king's  painter;  entered 
 into  the  clerical  profession  in  his  latter 
 days  ;  and  died  in  1726.  Among  his  most 
 remarkable  works  are,  a  Confession  of 
 St.  Peter,  at  Valencia,  and  five  pictures 
 in  the  choir  of  the  cathedral  at  Cordova. 
 Palomino  wrote  The  Pictorial  Museum, 
 three  volumes  folio ;  of  which  the  third 
 volume  contains  the  lives  of  Spanish 
 artists. 
 
 PANARD,  Charles  Francis,  a 
 French  dramatist,  whom  Marmontel  sur- 
 named  the  Lafontaine  of  the  Vaudeville, 
 was  born,  in  1694,  near  Chartres;  and 
 died  in  1765.  He  wrote  eighty  pieces, 
 among  which  are  five  comedies,  and  thir- 
 teen comic  operas.  The  songs  of  Panard 
 are  remarkable  for  their  easy  style  and 
 their  piquancy. 
 
 PANCIROLI,  or  PANCIROLUS, 
 Guy,  a  civilian,  was  born,  in  1523,  at 
 Reggio;  was  professor  of  law  at  Padua, 
 and  afterwards  at  Turin ;  and  died  in 
 1599.  He  is  the  author  of  various  works; 
 but  the  one  by  which  he  is  remembered  is  a 
 curious  treatise  on  the  ancient  inventions 
 wbicfa  are  lost,  and  on  those  inventions 
 which  belong  to  the  moderns. 
 
 1'ANCOUCKE,  Charles  Joseph, 
 one  of  the  most  eminent  booksellers  in 
 France,  and  also  a  man  of  literary  talent, 
 was  born  at  Lisle,  in  1736.  He  settled  at 
 Paris;  became  connected  with  most  of  the 
 distinguished  authors  of  his  time;  and 
 published  many  magnificent  works.  The 
 Moniteur  was  established  bv  him;  and  he 
 
408 
 
 PAR 
 
 also  projected  the  Methodical  Encyclopae- 
 dia. He  died  in  1798.  Among  his  own 
 productions  are,  a  free  translation  of  Lu- 
 cretius; On  Man,  and  the  reproduction  of 
 different  Individuals;  and  Philosophical 
 Discourses  on  the  Beautiful. — His  father, 
 Andrkvv  Joseph,  was  a  bookseller  and 
 author. 
 
 PAOLI,  Pascal,  a  patriot  and  general 
 (the  son  of  Hyacinth  Paoli,  who  was  also 
 an  intrepid  assertor  of  his  country's  liberty), 
 was  born,  in  1726,  at  Stretta,  in  Corsica; 
 followed  his  father  into  exile;  and  was 
 educated  at  the  Jesuits'  college,  at  Naples. 
 Tn  1755  his  countrymen  having  elected  him 
 their  generalissimo,  he  returned  to  Corsica, 
 and  acted  with  such  vigour  against  the 
 Genoese  that  he  confined  their  dominion 
 within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  fortified 
 seaports.  To  enact  wise  laws,  introduce 
 reforms,  and  encourage  agriculture  was  his 
 next  care.  But  all  his  noble  labours  were 
 rendered  abortive.  The  Genoese  sold  the 
 island  to  France,  and,  after  a  severe  snug- 
 gle against  the  invading  army,  Paoli  was 
 once  more  compelled  to  become  an  exile. 
 For  twenty  years  he  resided  in  England, 
 subsisting  on  a  pension  from  the  govern- 
 ment. In  1789  he  was  recalled  by  the 
 constituent  assembly;  but  in  1793  he  was 
 proscribed  by  the  jacobins,  and  he  subse- 
 quently placed  Corsica  under  the  protection 
 of  Great  Britain.  He  died  in  Loudon,  in 
 1807. 
 
 PAPINIAN,  .Emtlius,  the  greatest 
 civil  lawyer  of  antiquity,  was  born  about 
 a.  D.  145;  was  pre  tori  an  prefect  under  the 
 Emperor  Severus ;  and  was  put  to  death  by 
 Caracalla,  in  212,  for  refusing  to  justify 
 the  murder  of  Geta.  3Iost  of  his  works 
 are  lost. 
 
 PARACELSUS,  Ai  rf.olus  Philip 
 Theophrastus  Bombast  de  Hohen- 
 heim,  a  celebrated  Swiss  empiric  and 
 alchemist,  was  born,  in  1493,  at  Einsie- 
 delm,  in  the  canton  of  Schwitz.  lie  lived 
 a  wandering  life  for  several  vears;  but, 
 baring  performed  some  extraordinary  cures, 
 
 he  was  invited,  in  1526,  to  iill  the  i lica) 
 
 and  surgical  chair  at  the  unversity  of  Ba- 
 sil. This  post,  however,  he  held  for  little 
 more  than  a  year,  when  lie  recommenced 
 his  peregrinations.  He  died  at  Salzburgh, 
 in  1541.  Paracelsus  was  an  impudent  and 
 supremely  vain  charlatan,  but  he  has  the 
 merit  of  having  introduced  into  practice 
 several  powerful  medicines.  His  works 
 form  three  volumes  folio,  and  swarm  with 
 absurdities. 
 
 PARE,  Ambbose,  who  is  called  the 
 father  of  French  Burgery,  was  born,  at 
 Laval,  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
 century  ;  was  successively  rargeon  to  Henry 
 II.,  Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry 
 III.;  ami  died  in  1590.  His  works  are 
 in  one  volume  folio. 
 
 PAR 
 
 PARENT,  Joseph,  an  Italian  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1729,  at  Basizio,  in  the  Milanese. 
 He  was  patronised  by  Count  Firmian, 
 governor  of  Lombardy,  and,  afterwards, 
 by  Princess  Maria  Beatrix  of  Este,  and 
 was  professor  of  belles  lettres,  eloquence, 
 and  the  fine  arts  at  Milan.  He  died  in 
 1799.  Parini  was  one  of  the  most  emi- 
 nent lyric  poets  of  Italy,  and  excelled  also 
 in  satire.  His  works  form  six  volumes 
 octavo. 
 
 FARIS,  Matthew,  an  English  histo- 
 rian, was  a  Benedictine  monk  at  St.  Al- 
 bans, into  which  order  he  entered  in  1217. 
 He  died  in  1259.  Matthew  Paris  was  an 
 universal  scholar,  and  a  man  of  great  pro- 
 bity.    His  History  is  a  valuable  work. 
 
 PARK,  Mungo,  a  celebrated  traveller, 
 the  son  of  a  farmer,  was  born,  in  1771,  at 
 FowL-hiels,  near  Selkirk,  in  Scotland,  and 
 was  brought  up  to  the  medical  profession. 
 After  having  made  a  voyage  to  Bencoolen, 
 he  was  engaged,  in  1795,  by  the  African 
 Society,  to  penetrate  into  the  interior  of 
 Africa,  and  explore  the  course  of  the  Ni- 
 ger. He  arrived  in  the  Gambia  in  June, 
 and,  on  the  second  of  December,  proceeded 
 from  Pisania,  on  his  adventurous  journey. 
 On  the  twentieth  of  July,  he  came  in  sight 
 of  the  long  sought  river."  After  having 
 traced  it  to  a  considerable  distance,  he  was 
 under  the  necessity  of  desisting  from  his 
 enterprise.  On  his  return  to  Scotland, 
 Park  married,  and  entered  upon  the  prac- 
 tice of  his  profession.  In  1S04,  however, 
 he  undertook  a  second  expedition  for  the 
 same  purposes  as  the  first.  He  again  reach- 
 ed the  IS  iiier,  and  embarked  upon  it  at 
 Bammakau,  but  was  attacked  by  the  na- 
 tives, and  drowned,  in  his  voyage  to 
 Houssa.  His  Travels  have  been  published 
 in  two  volumes. 
 
 BARKER,  Matthew,  a  learned  pre- 
 late, was  born,  in  1504,  at  Norwich;  was 
 educated  at  Cambridge;  and  was  succes- 
 sively chaplain  to  Anne  Boleyn,  dean  of 
 'Stoke  Clare,  master  of  Bene't  College, 
 I  and  dean  of  Lincoln.  In  the  reign  of 
 Mary  he  was  in  great  danger  of  being 
 brought  to  the  stake.  Elizabeth  raised 
 him  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  which  he 
 tilled  with  honour  to  himself.  He  died  in 
 1575.  Parker  took  a  share  in  the  re- 
 formed Liturgy,  and  the  Bishop's  Bible; 
 published  editions  of  some  of  the  old  En- 
 glish historians;  and  wrote  De  Antiquitata 
 Britannic*  Ecclesia:,  and  some  works  of 
 less  importance. 
 
 PARKER,  ISAAC,  an  eminent  lawyer, 
 was  born  in  Boston. and  graduated  at  Har- 
 vard College  in  L786.  lie  studied  law  in 
 the  office  of  Judge  Tudor,  and  commenced 
 practice  at  Castioe,  in  Maine,  then  an 
 integral  part  of  Massachusetts.  Removing 
 to  Portland,  he  was  sent  for  one  term  to 
 I  Congress  as  a  representative  from  Cumber- 
 
PAR 
 
 land  County.  He  also  held  for  a  short 
 time  the  office  of  United  States  marshal 
 for  that  district.  In  1S06  he  was  appointed 
 by  governor  Strong  associate  Judge  of  the 
 supreme  court  of  Massachusetts,  and  soon 
 after  took  up  his  residence  at  Boston.  In 
 1814  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the 
 supreme  court,  and  held  that  office  till  his 
 sudden  death  in  July,  1830,  at  the  age  of 
 sixty-three  years.  He  was  distinguished 
 for  urbanity,  and  his  legal  opinions  are 
 very  highly  respected. 
 
 PARKES,  Samuel',  a  chemist,  was 
 born,  in  1759,  at  Stourbridge,  in  Worces- 
 tershire; was  educated  under  Dr.  Adding- 
 ton,  at  Market  Harborough;  and  died 
 December  23,  1825.  He  was  a  great 
 manufacturing  chemist,  and  a  member  of 
 the  Geological  and  other  Societies.  He  is 
 the  author  of  a  Chemical  Catechism,  which 
 has  passed  through  numerous  editions; 
 Rudiments  of  Chemistry;  An  Essav  on 
 the  Utility  of  Chemistry;  and  Chemical 
 Essays. 
 
 PARKHURST,  John,  a  divine,  was 
 born,  in  1723,  at  Catesby,  in  Northamp- 
 tonshire; was  educated  at  Rugby  School, 
 and  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge;  and  died  in 
 1797.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Hebrew 
 Lexicon;  A  Greek  Lexicon;  An  Address 
 to  Wesley  ;  and  the  Divinity  and  Preexist- 
 ence  of  Christ  demonstrated. 
 
 PARKINSON,  John,  a  botanist,  was 
 born  in  1567;  was  appointed  apothecary 
 to  Charles  I. ;  was  nominated  Botanicns 
 Regius  Primarius  by  Charles  L;  and  died 
 about  1640.  He  is  the  author  of  Paradisus 
 Terrestris;  or,  a  Garden  of  all  Sorts  of 
 pleasant  Flowers;  and  of  Theatruin  Bota- 
 nicuni ;   or,  Theatre  of  Plants. 
 
 PARMA,  Alexander  FARNESE, 
 duke  of,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  gene- 
 rals of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  first 
 distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Le- 
 panto.  Being  appointed  to  the  govern- 
 ment of  the  Netherlands  by  Philip  II.  he 
 gained  several  victories,  and  restored  the 
 greatest  part  of  the  provinces  to  the  author- 
 ity of  his  sovereign.  In  1590  he  com- 
 pelled Henry  IV.  to  raise  the  siege  of 
 Paris;  and,  in  1592,  the  siege  of  Rouen. 
 In  the  last  of  these  expeditions  he  received 
 a  wound  in  the  arm,  which  he  neglected, 
 and  which  caused  his  death,  at  Arras,  on 
 the  second  of  December,  in  the  forty- 
 seventh  year  of  his  age. 
 
 PARMENTIER,  Anthony  Augus- 
 TiN,an  eminent  French  agricultural  impro- 
 ver, was  born,  in  1737,  at  Montdidier,  und 
 was  successively  apothecary  to  the  army, 
 in  Hanover,  and  to  the  Hotel  i\e.^  Invalids 
 at  Paris.  He  died  in  1813.  To  Parmen- 
 tier  France  is  indebted  for  rendering  the 
 cultivation  of  the  potatoe  general,  and  for 
 improving  and  introducing  various  other 
 a.imentary  articles.  His  whole  attention 
 18 
 
 PAR 
 
 409 
 
 was  paid  to  these  subjects,  and  all  his  works 
 relate  to  them. 
 
 PARNELL,  Thomas,  a  divine  and 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1679,  at  Dublin;  was 
 educated  at  Trinity  College,  in  that  city; 
 obtained,  in  1705,  1713,  and  1716,  the 
 archdeaconry  of  Clogher,  a  prebend  in 
 Dublin  Cathedral,  and  the  vicarage  of 
 Finglass;  and  died  at  Chester  in  1717. 
 He  was  the  friend  of  Swift  and  Pope,  the 
 latter  of  whom  gave  the  works  of  Parnel) 
 to  the  press.  . 
 
 PARNY,  Evariste  Dksire  DE8- 
 FORGES,  viscount  de,  whom  his  country- 
 men denominates  the  French  Tibullus,  was 
 born,  in  1753,  at  the  Isle  of  Bourbon;  was 
 sent  to  France,  at  the  age  of  nine  years; 
 was  educated  at  the  college  of  Rennes ; 
 and  entered  into  the  military  service.  His 
 Elegies,  inspired  by  an  unfortunate  pas- 
 sion, appeared  in  1775,  and  at  once  gave 
 him  a  conspicuous  place;  among  poets. 
 Subsequent  works  sustained  his  reputation. 
 It  is,  however,  to  be  regretted  that,  in  his 
 latter  years,  he  sullied  his  fame  by  several 
 impious  and  licentious  productions.  He 
 died  in  1814. 
 
 PARR,  Samuel,  one  of  the  most  pro- 
 found of  Greek  scholars,  was  born,  in 
 1746,  at  Harrow  on  the  Hill,  and  was  edu- 
 cated at  the  grammar  school  of  that  place, 
 and  at  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge.  Hav- 
 ing, in  consequence  of  his  youth,  been  dis- 
 appointed of  becoming  head  master  at  Har- 
 row, he  established  a  seminary  at  Stan- 
 more;  which,  however,  he  ultimately  f*ari 
 up,  and  was  successively  master  of  Col- 
 chester and  Norwich  grammar  schools. 
 His  first  church  preferment  was  the  rec- 
 tory of  Asterby,  which  be  obtained  in  1780. 
 He  subsequently  received  the  perpetual  cu- 
 racy of  Hatton,  the  living  of  GrafThain,  in 
 Huntingdonshire,  and  a  prebend  of  St. 
 Paul's  Cathedral.  He  died  March  6, 1825. 
 Among  his  works  are,  various  Sermons; 
 the  Preface  to  Bellendeuus;  and  a  Letter 
 from  Irenopolis. 
 
 PARRHASIUS,  an  ancient  painter,  the 
 contemporary  and  rival  of  Zeuxis,  was 
 born  about  B.  c.  420,  at  Fphesus.  His 
 vanity    was  equal  to   his   talents,  great  as 
 
410  PAT 
 
 they  were.  Among  his  most  celebrated 
 vorks  were,  an  allegorical  picture  of  the 
 Athenian  People,  Meleager,  Hercules  and 
 Perseus,  and  a  high  priest  of  Cvbele. 
 
 PARSONS,  Theophilus,"  a  distin- 
 guished lawyer,  was  born  at  Byefield,  Mas- 
 sachusetts, in  1750,  and  graduated  at  Har- 
 vard College  in  1769.  He  studied,  and 
 pursued  the  practice  of  the  law,  for  some 
 years,  in  Falmouth,  now  Portland,  but 
 when  that  town  was  destroyed  by  the  Brit- 
 ish, he  retired  to  the  house  of  his  father  in 
 Newbury.  About  a  year  afterwards  he 
 opened  an  office  in  Newburyport.  He  soon 
 rose  to  the  highest  rank  in  his  profession, 
 and  made  immense  acquisitions  in  legal 
 knowledge.  His  professional  services 
 were  sought  for  in  all  directions,  and  after 
 thirty-five  years  of  extensive  practice  he 
 was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  supreme 
 court  of  Massachusetts.  In  1780  he  was  a 
 member  of  the  convention  which  formed  the 
 constitution  of  the  State,  and  of  the  con- 
 vention which  accepted  the  federal  consti- 
 tution. He  was  a  powerful  speaker,  with- 
 out a  rival  in  knowledge  of  law,  and  sur- 
 passed by  few  in  his  acquaintance  with  sci- 
 ence and  classical  literature.  He  continued 
 in  the  seat  of  chief  justice  till  his  death  in 
 1813. 
 
 PASCAL,  Blaize,  equally  eminent  as 
 a  geometrician  and  a  writer,  was  born,  in 
 1623,  at  Clermont,  in  Auvergne.  Though 
 himself  a  mathematician,  his  father  would 
 not  allow  him  to  be  taught  mathematics; 
 but  such  was  his  propensity  to  that  science 
 that,  unassisted  and  by  stealth,  he  mastered 
 a  part  of  Euclid  before  he  was  twelve  years 
 of  age.  He  was  then  suffered  to  indulge 
 his  genius.  At  sixteen  he  published  a  Trea- 
 tise on  Conic  Sections;  and  at  nineteen  he 
 invented  an  arithmetical  machine.  Unlike 
 many  early  prodigies,  he  more  than  sus- 
 tained in  manhood  the  fame  acquired  in 
 vouth.  But  his  incessant  mental  exertions 
 injured  his  health,  and  in  some  degree  af- 
 fected his  intellect,  without,  however,  de- 
 Iuiving  him  of  the  free  use  of  his  talents. 
 n  1655  and  1656,  he  published,  under  the 
 name  of  Louis  de  Montalte,  his  admirable 
 Provincial  Letters.  His  latter  days  were 
 spent  in  the  practice  of  austere  devotion. 
 He  died  in  1662.  His  works  form  five 
 volumes  octavo. 
 
 PASQUIER,  Stephen,  an  eminent 
 French  civilian  and  writer,  was  born,  in 
 1529,atl\iris  ;  was  a  pupil  ofCujasjand  first 
 rose  into  reputation  as  an  advocate  by  plead- 
 ing against  the  Jesuits  before  the  parliament. 
 In  his  writings  he  was  also  a  formidable 
 adversarv  of  that  encroaching  and  danger- 
 ous order.  He  died  in  1615.  One  of  his 
 principal  works  is,  Inquiries  respecting 
 France.  The  whole  occupy  two  folio  vol- 
 umes. 
 PATERCULUS,  Caius  Velleius,  a 
 
 PEL 
 
 Roman  historian,  of  an  equestrian  family, 
 flourished  in  the  reigns  of  Augustus  and 
 Tiberius.  He  filled  the  offices  of  tribune  of 
 the  soldiers,  questor,  tribune  of  the  people, 
 and  prretor,  and  commanded  the  cavalry 
 under  Tiberius.  He  is  supposed  by  some 
 to  have  been  involved  in  the  ruins  of  Seja- 
 nus.  Only  a  part  of  his  valuable  epitome 
 of  Greek  and  Roman  history  is  extant. 
 
 PATRICK,  Samuel,  a  learned  pre- 
 late, was  born,  in  1626,  at  Gainsborough; 
 was  educated  at  Queen's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge; and,  after  having  filled  with  hon- 
 our several  secondary  preferments,  was 
 raised,  in  1689,  to  the  see  of  Chichester, 
 for  his  exertions  against  popery.  In  1691 
 he  was  translated  to  Ely ;  and  he  died  in 
 1707.  His  chief  work  is,  Paraphrases  and 
 Commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament. 
 
 PAUSANIUS,  a  Greek  orator  and  his- 
 torian, settled  at  Rome,  a.  d.  170,  and  died 
 there  at  a  very  advanced  age.  He  is  the 
 author  of  a  valuable  Historical  Description 
 of  Greece,  in  ten  books. 
 
 PAUW,  Cornelius  de,  a  learned 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1739,  at  Amsterdam; 
 was  educated  at  Liege  by  a  relation ;  re- 
 fused the  most  tempting  offers  from  Fred- 
 eric the  Great,  to  settle  at  Berlin  ;  became 
 canon  of  Xanten ;  and  died  in  1799.  He 
 is  the  author  of  Philosophical  Inquiries  re- 
 specting the  Americans — the  Egyptians  and 
 Chinese — and  the  Greeks.  All  his  works 
 are  ingenious,  but  abound  with  paradoxes 
 and  bold  theories. 
 
 PEALE,  Charles  Wilson,  was  born 
 in  Maryland  in  1741,  and  was  successively 
 a  saddler,  harness  maker,  silver  smith, 
 watch  maker,  carver,  portrait  painter,  nat- 
 uralist, machinist,  and  dentist.  He  found- 
 ed the  extensive  museum  at  Philadelphia 
 which  bears  his  name.  He  died  in  1827. 
 PEARCE,  Zachary,  a  learned  pre- 
 late, was  born,  in  1690,  in  London;  was 
 educated  at  Westminster  School,  and  at 
 Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  was  succes- 
 sively rector  of  Stapleford  Abbots,  and  of 
 St.  Bartholomew,  near  the  Bank,  vicar  of 
 St.  Martin  in  the  Fields,  dean  of  Win- 
 chester; and  bishop  of  Bangor  and  Roch- 
 ester; and  died  in  1774.  He  wrote  Ser- 
 mons; some  papers  in  the  Spectator  and 
 Guardian;  A  Commentary  on  the  Evangel- 
 ists and  Acts;  and  other  works;  and  pub- 
 lished editions  of  Longinus,  and  Cicero  de 
 Officiis. 
 
 PELISSON-FONTANIER,  Paul,  a 
 French  author,  was  born,  in  1624,  at  Be- 
 ziers.  He  was  bred  to  the  law,  but  was 
 (breed  to  retire  from  the  bar  by  ill  health. 
 He  held  an  office  under  Fouquet,  and  when 
 that  minister  was  overthrown,  Pelisson  was 
 involved  in  his  ruin,  and  was  committed  to 
 the  Bastile,  where  he  remained  during  five 
 years.  He  had,  nevertheless,  the  courage 
 "to  write  three  eloquent  and  powerful   Me- 
 
PEN 
 
 moirs  in  behalf  of  his  fallen  patron.  Louis 
 XIV.  at  length  released  Pelisson,  and 
 loaded  him  with  favours.  He  died  in  1693. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Histories  of  the 
 French  Academy,  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  of 
 the  Conquest  of  Franche  Comte. 
 
 PELLOUTIER,  Simon,  a  German  his- 
 torian, of  a  French  family,  was  born,  in 
 1694,  at  Leipsic;  became  minister  of  the 
 French  church  at  Berlin,  and  librarian  of 
 the  Academy;  and  died  in  1757,  a  victim 
 to  intense  study.  His  principal  work  is  a 
 valuable  History  of  the  Celts,  particularly 
 of  the  Gauls  and  Germans. 
 
 PELOPIDAS,  an  illustrious  Theban, 
 the  son  of  Hippoclus,  was  the  friend  of 
 Epaminondas;  in  conjunction  with  whom 
 he  rescued  Thebes  from  the  combined 
 tyranny  of  the  nobles  and  the  Lacede- 
 monians. After  having  been  repeatedly 
 reelected  to  the  government  of  Bceotia, 
 and  distinguished  himself  at  Tegyra  and 
 Leuctra,  he  was  slain,  B.  c.  364,  in  a  bat- 
 tle against  Alexander  of  Pheraea. 
 
 PELTIER,  John  Gabriel,  a  French 
 political  writer,  a  native  of  Nantz,  born 
 about  1770,  began  his  career  in  1789,  by 
 the  publication  of  a  royalist  journal  called 
 The  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  After  the  tenth 
 of  August,  he  took  refuge  at  London,  and 
 for  many  years  published  a  monthly  work, 
 with  the  title  of  Paris  pendant  l'Annee. 
 He  afterwards  established  the  Ambigu,  for 
 a  libel  in  which,  upon  the  first  consul,  he 
 was  prosecuted  by  the  attorney-general. 
 He  also  wrote  several  pamphlets.  His  de- 
 cease took  place  at  Paris,  in  1825. 
 
 PEP 
 
 411 
 
 PENN,  William,  the  founder  and  leg- 
 islator of  Pennsylvania,  whom  Montesquieu 
 Jenominates  the  modern  Lycurgus,  was  the 
 son  of  Admiral  Penn;  was  born,  in  1644, 
 in  London;  and  was  educated  at  Christ 
 church,  Oxford.  At  college  he  imbibed 
 the  principles  of  quakerism,  which,  a  few 
 years  afterwards,  he  publicly  professed. 
 He  was,  in  consequence,  twice  turned  out 
 of  doors  by  his  father.  In  1668  he  began 
 to  preach  in  public,  and  to  write  in  de- 
 fence of  the  doctrines  which  he  had  em- 
 braced. For  this  he  was  thrice  imprisoned, 
 and  once  brought  to  trial,     It  was  during 
 
 his  first  imprisonment  that  he  wrote  No 
 Cross,  No  Crown.  In  1677  he  visited 
 Holland  and  Germany,  to  propagate  qua- 
 kerism. In  March,  1680-81,  he  obtained 
 fioni  Charles  II.  a  grant  of  that  territory 
 which  now  bears  the  name  of  Pennsylva- 
 nia; in  1682  he  embarked  (■■>!•  his  new  col- 
 ony; and  in  the  following  year  he  founded 
 Philadelphia.  He  returned  to  England  in 
 1684.  So  much  was  he  in  favour  with 
 James  II.,  that,  after  the  Revolution,  he 
 was  more  than  once  arrested  on  suspicion 
 of  plotting  to  restore  the  exiled  monarch; 
 but  he  at  length  succeeded  in  establishing 
 his  innocence.  The  rest  of  his  life  was 
 passed  in  tranquillity.  He  died  July  30, 
 1718.  His  works  have  been  collected  in 
 two  folio  volumes. 
 
 PENN,  John,  a  signer  of  the  declara- 
 tion of  American  independence,  was  born 
 in  Virginia  in  1719,  received  a  common 
 school  education,  and  after  studying  the 
 profession,  was  licensed  as  a  practitioner 
 of  law.  He  removed  to  North  Carolina, 
 and  was  a  delegate  to  congress  from  that 
 state.     He- died  in  1788. 
 
 PENNANT,  Thomas,  an  antiquary 
 and  naturalist,  was  born,  in  1726,  at  the 
 family  seat  of  Downing,  in  Flintshire  ;  was 
 educated  at  Queen's  and  Oriel  Colleges, 
 Oxford ;  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
 ciety, and  of  various  other  learned  bodies; 
 travelled  in  Great  Britain  and  on  various 
 parts  of  the  continent;  and  died  December 
 16,  1798.  Among  his  numerous  works 
 may  be  mentioned  his  Literary  Life;  Brit- 
 ish Zoology;  A  Tour  in  Scotland;  Arctic 
 Zoology;  A  View  of  Hindostan;  Outlines 
 of  the  Globe;  An  Account  of  London;  and 
 various  Tours. 
 
 PEPPERELL,  Sir  William,  lieuten- 
 ant general  in  the  British  service,  was  born 
 in  Maine,  and  engaged  in  commercial  pur- 
 suits. He  was  early  appointed  an  officer 
 in  the  militia,  and  for  his  services  in  com- 
 manding the  successful  expedition  against 
 Louisburg,  was  rewarded  by  the  king  with 
 the  dignity  of  baronet.  His  courage  and 
 activity  were  much  admired  by  the  colo- 
 nies.    He  died  in  1759. 
 
 PEPYS,  Samuel,  was  born  atBramp- 
 ton,  in  Huntingdonshire;  was  educated  at 
 St.  Paul's  School,  and  at  Magdalen  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge;  was  patronised  by  his 
 relative,  Montague,  afterwards  earl  of 
 Sandwich;  and  accompanied  him,  as  sec- 
 retary, in  the  fleet  that  was  sent  to  bring 
 back  Charles  II.  During  the  whole  of  the 
 reigns  of  Charles  II.  and  Janes  II.,  with 
 but  one  short  interval,  he  was  secretary  of 
 the  admiralty,  in  which  capacity  he  intro- 
 duced many  important  improvements  intc 
 the  navv.  He  resigned  after  the  Revolu- 
 tion, and  died  in  1793.  For  ten  years  he 
 was  president  of  the  Royal  Society.  H© 
 wrote  Memoirs  of  the  Navv;  but  his  most 
 
412 
 
 PER 
 
 interesting  work  is  his  own  Diary,  which 
 has  recently  been  published. 
 
 PERCIVAL,  Thomas,  a  physician 
 and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  horn,  IB 
 1740.  at  Warrington,  in  Lancashire;  stud- 
 ied at  Edinburgh  and  Leyden;  settled  at 
 Manchester,  where  he  founded  a  scientific 
 society;  and  died  in  1804.  Among  his 
 works  are,  Medical  Ethics;  Moral  and 
 Literary  Dissertations;  and  A  Father's 
 Instructions  to  his  Children. 
 
 PERCY,  Thomas,  an  eminent  prelate, 
 ii!  •  I  to  tlie  Northumberland  family,  was 
 bora,  in  1723,  at  Bridgenorth,  in  Shrop- 
 shire; was  educated  at  Christ  Church, 
 Oxford;  became  chaplain  to  the  king  in 
 1769,  dean  of  Carlisle  in  1778,  and  bishop 
 of  Dromore  in  1782.  He  died  in  1811. 
 Of  his  works  tbe  principal  are,  The  Her- 
 mit of  Wark worth,  a  poem;  a  new  Trans- 
 lation of  Solomon's  Song;  and  the  Rel- 
 nf  English  Poetry* 
 
 PERCY,  Baron  Peter  Francis,  a 
 celebrated  French  military  surgeyn,  was 
 born,  in  1754,  at  Montagney;  was  head 
 surgeon  to  several  of  the  French  armies; 
 introduced  many  improvements  into  sur- 
 gical practice;  received  from  Napoleon 
 the  title  of  baron  and  commander  of  the 
 legion  of  honour  ;  and  died  in  1825. 
 Among  his  works  are,  The  Army  Sur- 
 geon's Manual;  and  Practical  Surgical 
 Pvrotechnv. 
 
 PEREFIXE,  Hardouin  de  BEAU- 
 MONT de,  a  French  historian  and  di- 
 vine, was  born,  in  1605,  at  Paris;  studied 
 at  Poitiers  and  his  native  city;  and,  after 
 hiving  acquired  great  popularity  as  a 
 preacher,  was  appointed  preceptor  to  Lou- 
 is X1Y.  in  1644.  In  164S  he  was  raised 
 lo  tlie  see  of  Rhodez,  and,  in  1662,  was 
 made  .archbishop  of  Paris.  He  died,  gen- 
 erally  regretted,  in  1670.  His  principal 
 work  is  the  Life  of  Henry  IV7.,  which  is 
 the  best  history  of  that  monarch,  and  has 
 been  translated  into  every  foreign  lan- 
 g  tage. 
 
 PERGOLESE,  John  Baptist,  an 
 eminent  musical  composer,  was  born,  in 
 1704,  at  Casoria,  in  the  Neapolitan  terri- 
 tory. He  was  a  pupil  of  Gaetano  Greco, 
 and  was  afterwards  improved  by  the  les- 
 sons of  Vinci  and  Hasse.  For  a  consider 
 a1  le  part  of  his  short  life  his  compositions 
 were  not  popular;  but  he  at  length  ac- 
 quired, and  still  retain-,  a  high  reputation. 
 He  died  in  1737.  Among  his  principal 
 works  are,  the  justly  celebrated  Stabat 
 Mater;  a  Mass  and  Vespers,  written  for 
 the  duke  of  Matelon;  Olimpiade,  an  ope- 
 ra; and  the  Salva  Regina,  which  was  his 
 last  production. 
 
 PERICLES,  an  illustrious  Athenian 
 orator,  warrior,  and  statesman,  was  born 
 between  490  and  500  B.  c,  and  received 
 the  leseons  of  Zeno,  Damon,  aud    Anaxa- 
 
 PER 
 
 goras.  In  opposition  to  Ciraon,  he  es- 
 poused the  popular  cause,  and  he  acquired 
 a  wonderful  ascendancy  over  the  minds  of 
 his  countrymen.  For  forty  years  he  was 
 at  the  head  of  affairs  in  Athens,  during 
 which  period  he  increased  the  military 
 glory  of  the  state,  and  embellished  the 
 capital  with  main  magnificent  edifices.  He 
 died  B.  c.  429. 
 
 PERIER,  James  Constantine,  an 
 able  French  mechanist,  was  born,  in  1742, 
 at  Paris,  and  died  August  17,  1818,  a 
 member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He 
 and  his  brother,  who  was  a  partner  with 
 him,  were  the  greatest  manufacturers  in 
 France  of  machinery,  particularly  of  steam 
 engines,  and  at  one  period  had  no  less 
 than  ninety-three  establishments.  He  wrote 
 an  Essay  on  Steam  Engines;  and  some  Es- 
 says in  the  Transactions  of  the  Academy. 
 
 PEROX,  Francis,  a  French  natural- 
 ist and  voyager,  was  born  in  1775,  at 
 Cerilly,  in  the  department  of  the  Allier; 
 entered  the  army  in  1792,  and  served  till 
 1795,  during  which  period  he  was  made 
 prisoner  and  lost  an  eye;  studied  medicine 
 and  natural  history  after  his  discharge; 
 was  appointed,  in  1800,  zoologist  to  the 
 expedition  which  was  sent  to  the  Austra- 
 lian ocean;  and  died  in  1810.  He  is  the 
 author  of  a  Narrative  of  his  Voyage,  two 
 volumes  quarto ;  and  of  Observations  on 
 Anthropology. 
 
 PEROUSE,  John  Francis  GALAUP 
 DE  la,  a  French  navigator,  was  born,  in 
 1741,  at  Albi,  and  entered  into  the  naval 
 service  at  an  early  age.  In  1782  he  com- 
 manded an  expedition  against  the  British 
 settlements  in  Hudson's  Bay.  He  was 
 dispatched,  in  1785,  with  two  vessels,  on 
 a  voyage  of  discovery;  and  in  March, 
 1788,  he  sent  home  an  account  of  his  pro- 
 gress. From  that  period,  however,  noth- 
 ing more  was  heard  of  him,  though  vain 
 attempts  were  made  to  ascertain  his  fate. 
 Chance  has,  at  length,  recently  brought  to 
 light  that  both  his  vessels  were  lost  on  dif- 
 ferent islands  of  the  New  Hebrides. 
 
 PERRAULT,  Claudius,  a  celebrated 
 French  architect,  was  bom,  in  1613,  at 
 Paris,  and  was  originally  brought  up  to 
 the  medical  profession,  which,  however, 
 he  abandoned  for  architecture.  He  died 
 in  1688,  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
 Sciences.  The  attacks  which  Boileau 
 made  upon  him  disgraced  only  the  satirist. 
 Perrault  was  a  man  of  great  genius,  and 
 his  front  of  the  Louvre  is  one  of  the  no- 
 blest architectural  productions  of  modern 
 times.  He  translated  Vitruvius;  and  wrote 
 various  works. 
 
 PERRAULT,  Charles,  brother  of  the 
 foregoing,  wns  born,  in  1628,  at  Paris. 
 He  practised  for  some  time  at  the  bar, 
 but  quitted  it  for  an  office  under  his  brother 
 Peter,  who  was   receiver  general    of  rae 
 
PER                                                               PET  413 
 
 finances  of  Paris.  Subsequently  he  rose  to  |  important  offices,  among  which  were  those 
 be  comptroller  general  of  the  royal  build-  of  consul  and  proconsufin  Africa  he  was 
 mgs.  He  contributed  to  the  founding  of  raised  to  the  tbron the  death  of  G  ra- 
 the Academies  of  Inscriptions,  of  the  modus.  He  began  his  reign  bi  restoring 
 Sciences,  and  of  Fainting,  Sculpture,  and  discipline  and  reforming  abuses-  bui  be 
 Architecture.  He  died  in  1703.  His  prin-  was  murdered,  in  I'M.  by  the  pretorian 
 cipal  works  are,  Eulogies  of  Illustrious  guards,  after  having  held  the  imperial  die- 
 Men;  ami  a  Parallel  between  the  Ancients  nitj  only  eighty-seven  days. 
 and  the  Moderns;  the  last  of  which  drew  PERUGINO,  I'i  1  ,  a.aaeminenl  pain- 
 upon  him  the  satire  of  Boileau.  The  well  ter,  whose  real  name  was  VANUCC1  wis 
 known  Fairy  Tales  were  also  written  by  hum,  in  1446,  at  Citta  delta  Pieve,  in  the 
 Perrault.  j  Papal  territory.  He  was  the  master  of 
 PERROXET,John  Rouolph,;.  cefe-  Raphael,  who  has  introduced  bin  into  his 
 brated  French  civil  engineer,  was  born,  picture  of  the  School  of  Athene.  Peril- 
 in  1708,  at  Surene;  and  died  in  1794,  a  gino  was  suspicious  and  avaricious,  and 
 member  of  many  learned  societies.  Among  Vasari  charges  him  with  an  utter  want  of 
 his  works  are,  the  canal  of  Burgundy,  and  religion.  As  a  painter  be  has  bigh  merit. 
 thirteen  bridges.     Of  his  bridges  the  6 nest   He  died  in  1524. 
 
 are  those  of  NeuiUi,  Nemours,  Pont  Saint  PESCENNIUS  MGER,  Caius,  a 
 Maxence,  and  Louis  XVI.  at  Paris.  That  Roman  emperor,  a  native  of  Aquino,  of  a 
 of  Neuilli  was  the  first  example  of  an  considerable  family,  was  appointed  gover- 
 horizontal  bridge.  „or  of  Syria,  and  commander  of  the  legions 
 
 PERRY,  James,  an  able  whig  political  in  Asia, 'by  Commodus.  On  the  death  of 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1756,  at  Aberdeen ;  1  Pert  inapt,  the  troops  of  Pescemiius  pro- 
 was  educated  at  the  high  school  and  univer-  claimed  him  emperor,  in  193,  but  he  was 
 sity  of  his  native  place;  settled  in  London,  opposed  by  Severus.  After  having  been 
 in  1777,  and  was  engaged  as  a  writer  in  |  defeated  at  Issus,  in  195,  he  was  killed  by 
 The  General  Advertiser  and  London  Eve- [some  soldiers,  while  he  was  on  his  (light 
 ning    Post.     In    17S2   he  established  The  to    the    Parthian    dominions.     His  virtues 
 
 European   Magazine,  the  management  of  (rendered  him  worthy  of  a  happier  fate. 
 which  he  quitted  at  the  end  of  a  year,  to  |      PESTALOZZI,  or  PESTALUZ, 
 
 become  editor  of  The  Gazetteer.  He  after- 1  Hknry,  celebrated  for  having  introduced 
 wards  purchased  The  Morning  Chronicle,  I  a  new  method  of  education,  was  born,  in 
 of  which  he  continued  to  be  the  sole  pro- j  1745,  at  Zurich,  in  Switzerland.  After 
 prietor  till  his  decease;  and  he  raised  it  to  [having  studied  theology  and  jurisprudence, 
 eminence  among  the  public  journals.  Heine  relinquished  his  views  with  respect  to 
 died  December  4,  1821.  the  church  and  the  bar,  to  cultivate  his  own 
 
 PERRY,  Oliver  Hazard,  an  Amer- 
 ican naval  officer,  was  born  in  Rhode 
 Island  in  17S5.  Entering  the  navy  in 
 1798,  he  served   in  the   Mediterranean  in 
 
 small  property.  Witnessing  the  wretch- 
 edness of  the  peasantry,  he  became  anxious 
 to  ameliorate  their  situation  by  cultivating 
 their  mental  faculties.     In  the  pursuit  ol 
 
 the  expedition  against  Tripoli,  and  distin-  his  benevolent  purpose  he  published  severa. 
 guished  himself  in  the  late  war  with  Great  works,  and  considerably  injured  his  for- 
 Britain  by  obtaining  a  splendid  victory  J  tune.  It  was  not  till  1798,  however,  that 
 over  a  superior  force  on  Lake  Erie.     For  |  his  plans  were  patronised  by  the  Helvetic 
 
 this  exploit  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
 Captain.  He  commanded  the  Java  in  the 
 expedition  to  the  Mediterranean  under 
 commodore  Decatur.  He  died  in  the 
 West  Indies  in  1820. 
 
 PERSIUS  FLACCUS,  Aulus,  a  Ro- 
 man satirist,  was  born,  a.  d.  34,  at  Vol- 
 terra,  in  Etritria;  studied  at  Rome,  and 
 imbibed  the  Stoic  philosophy  from  Cor- 
 nutus;  was  intimate  with  Lucan,  Seneca, 
 and  other  eminent  men;  and  died  in  his 
 eight  and  twentieth  year.  His  six  Satires, 
 animated  and  often  beautiful,  but  also  often 
 obscure,  have  been  translated  into  English 
 by  Dryden,  Brewster,  Drummond,  Howes, 
 and  Gi fiord. 
 
 PERTINAX,  Publics  Helvius,  a 
 Roman  emperor,  was  born,  in  126,  at 
 Villa  Martis,  in  Liguria.  After  having 
 signalised  himself  in  arms,  particularly 
 against   the    Germans,  and   filled    various 
 
 government.  Under  that  patronage  he  for 
 several  years  conducted  an  institution, 
 which  acquired  extensive  celebrity.  He 
 died  February  27,  1827. 
 
 PETER  THE  HERMIT,  memorable 
 as  having  been  the  author  of  the  Crusades, 
 was  born  at  Amiens,  about  the  middle  of 
 the  eleventh  century.  He  quitted  the  pro- 
 fession of  arms  to  become  a  hermit,  in 
 which  capacity  he  made,  about  1093,  a 
 pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land.  Indignant 
 at  ihe  insults  to  which  the  Christians  were 
 subjected,  he  originated  the  plan  of  expel- 
 ling the  infidels  from  Palestine.  History 
 has  recorded  the  success  with  which  he 
 preached  it  after  his  return  to  Europe. 
 He  led  the  first  irregular  band  of  crusaders, 
 but  he  displayed  little  talent,  and  most  of 
 his  followers  were  destroyed.  He  died, 
 in  1115,  abbot  of  New  Houtier,  in  the 
 territory  of  Liege. 
 
414 
 
 PET 
 
 PETER  I,  Alextevitsch,  sumamed 
 The  Great,  czar  of  Russia,  was  born,  in 
 
 1672.  In  1682  he  succeeded  to  a  share  in 
 the  crown,  and  in  1696  obtained  the  sole 
 authority  on  the  death  of  his  brother  Ivan. 
 At  an  early  period  he  began  to  form  pro- 
 jects for  the  civilization  and  aggrandise- 
 ment of  his  empire.  Military  and  naval 
 improvements  were  the  first  objects  of  his 
 efforts,  and  lie  was  ably  seconded  by  his 
 confidant  and  counsellor,  Lefort,  a  native 
 of  Geneva.  He  twice  travelled,  in  1697 
 and  1716,  to  acquire  knowledge,  and,  in 
 the  course  of  his  first  journey,  he  worked 
 as  a  shipwright  in  the  dockyard  at  Saar- 
 ciam.  From  all  quarters  he  likewise  in- 
 vite! men  of  talent  and  mechanical  skill  to 
 settle  in  Russia.  In  1700  he  entered 
 upon  a  war  with  Sweden,  which  lasted  till 
 1721.  A  i  the  commencement  of  it  he  was 
 repeatedly  defeated,  at  Narva  and  other 
 places,  but  he  at  length  acquired  the  ascen- 
 dency, gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Pullova, 
 in  1709,  arid  wresied  several  provinces 
 from  the  Swedes.  On  part  of  the  territory 
 thus  conquered  he  founded  St.  Petersburgh. 
 In  1711,  however,  he  was  less  fortunate 
 against  the  Turks,  by  whom  he  was  sur- 
 rounded on  the  banks  of  the  Pruth,  and 
 compelled  to  sign  an  ignominious  peace. 
 Against  Persia  he  was  successful,  in 
 1723,  and  obliged  that  power  to  make 
 extensive  ces*ions  to  him.  But  amidst 
 all  his  glory  his  latter  years  were  clouded 
 by  domestic  infelicity:  his  wife,  Catherine, 
 was  more  than  suspected  of  being  unfaith- 
 ful to  him;  and  his  son,  Alexis,  was  diso- 
 bedient. The  former  he  spared  ;  the  latter 
 he  brought  to  trial,  and  is  believed  to  have 
 put  to  death  in  prison.  He  died,  January 
 2S,  1725.  The  narrow  limits  of  this  arti- 
 cle preclude  an  inquiry  into  his  right  to 
 the  appellation  of  Great,  which  his  ad- 
 mirers have  assigned  to  him. 
 
 PETERBOROUGH,  Charles  MOR- 
 DAUNT,  earl  of,  the  son  of  Lord  Mor- 
 daunt,  was  born  in  1658;  distinguished 
 himself  against  the  Moors  at  Tangier,  in 
 1C80;  contributed  to  the  Revolution,  and 
 was  created  earl  of  Monmouth;  succeeded 
 to  the  title  of  Peterborough  in  1697;    was 
 
 PET 
 
 appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the  Eng- 
 lish forces  in  Spain,  in  1705,  at  the  head 
 of  which  he  reduced  Barcelona,  and  ob- 
 tained other  splendid  successes,  for  which 
 he  was  appointed  generalissimo  of  the 
 imperial  forces;  was  made  general  of  the 
 marines,  and  a  knight  of  the  garter  by 
 George  I.;  and  died  in  1785.  Mordaunt 
 was  a  ntan  of  varied  talents,  and  he  was  in 
 habits  of  friendship  with  Pope,  Swift,  and 
 other  illustrious  contemporaries. 
 
 PETERS,  Hugh,  a  celebrated  fanatic, 
 was  the  son  of  a  Cornish  merchant;  was 
 educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge; 
 and,  after  having  been  on  the  stage,  in 
 the  church,  and  a  resident  in  America, 
 took  a  very  active  part  against  Charles  I. 
 for  which  he  was  executed  in  1660.  He 
 wrote  Discourses ;  and  a  Last  Legacy  to 
 his  Daughter. 
 
 PETERS,  Richard,  an  eminent  judge, 
 was  born  in  June  1744,  and  received  his 
 education  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  He 
 adopted  the  profession  of  the  law,  and 
 soon  obtained  an  extensive  practice.  At 
 the  commencement  of  hostilities  with  the 
 mother  country,  Mr.  Peters  joined  the  side 
 of  the  colonies,  and  in  1776  was  appointed 
 by  congress  secretary  of  the  Board  of  War. 
 His  exertions  in  this  department  were 
 highly  meritorious  and  useful,  and  on  re- 
 signing the  post,  in  1781,  he  was  elected  a 
 member  of  congress,  and  assisted  in  closing 
 the  business  of  the  war.  On  the  organi- 
 zation of  the  new  government,  Mr.  Peters 
 was  appointed  judge  of  fhe  District  Court 
 of  Pennsylvania,  and  performed  the  duties 
 of  this  office  for  thirty-six  years.  During 
 this  time  he  was  engaged  in  several  objects 
 of  public,  improvement,  and  issued  several 
 valuable  publications  in  relation  to  agri- 
 culture. Asa  judge  he  possessed  powers  of 
 a  high  order,  and  his  decisions  on  admiralty 
 law  form  the  ground  work  of  this  branch 
 of  our  jurisprudence.  Their  principles 
 were  not  only  sanctioned  by  our  own  courts, 
 but  were  simultaneously  adopted  by  Lord 
 Stowell,  the  distinguished  maritime  judge 
 of  Great  Britain.  Judge  Peters  died  in 
 August  1828. 
 
 PETION,  Alexander,  a  mulatto, 
 whose  real  name  was  SABES,  was  the  son 
 of  a  St.  Domingo  planter;  was  born  at 
 Port  au  Prince,  in  i770;  and  received  a 
 liberal  education.  From  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  struggle  between  the  blacks 
 and  the  whites  in  his  native  island,  he  bore 
 arms,  and  distinguished  himself  on  various 
 occasions.  In  1S07  he  was  elected  presi- 
 dent of  the  republic  of  Haiti,  comprehen- 
 ding the  southern  and  western  part  of  St. 
 Domingo,  and  this  office  he  filled  so  wor- 
 th ilv  that  he  was  called  The  Father  of  his 
 Country.     He  died  in  1818. 
 
 PETIS  DE  LA  CROIX,  Francis,  a 
 celebrated  orientalist,  was  born,  in  1653, 
 
PET 
 
 at  Paris;  was  employed  in  negotiations 
 with  the  Barbary  powers,  and  was  Arabic 
 professor  at  the  Royal  College;  and  died 
 in  1713  Among  his  works  are,  A  I  i  istory 
 of  Tamerlane ;  Persian  Tales ;  and  Turk- 
 ish Tales. 
 
 PETIT,  John  Lewis,  an  eminent  sur- 
 geon, was  born,  in  1674,  at  Paris;  studied 
 anatomy  under  Littre,  and  surgery  under 
 Castel ;  was  for  some  years  an  army  and 
 hospital  surgeon;  settled  at  Paris,  gave 
 lectures,  and  acquired  a  well  merited  rep- 
 utation; and  died,  in  1750,  director  general 
 of  the  surgical  school.  He  invented  a 
 tourniquet,  and  a  method  of  extracting 
 foreign  bodies  from  the  oesophagus;  and 
 wrote  a  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Bones ; 
 and  a  Treatise  on  Surgical  Diseases. 
 
 PETITOT,  John,  an  admirable  painter 
 in  enamel,  who  so  much  improved  that 
 branch  of  the  art  that  he  may  almost  be 
 said  to  be  the  inventor  of  it,  was  born,  in 
 1607,  at  Geneva,  and  died  at  Vevav,  in 
 1691.  He  was  patronised  by  Charles  I. 
 of  England,  and,  afterwards,  by  Louis  XIV. 
 Petitot  worked  in  conjunction  witli  his 
 brother  in  law  Bourdier,  and  it  is  honour- 
 able to  the  character  of  both,  that  they 
 lived  together  for  half  a  century  without 
 the  slightest  disagreement. 
 
 PHI 
 
 415 
 
 PETRARCH,  Francis,  one  of  the  four 
 
 greatest  of  the  Italian  poets,  was  born,  in 
 1304,  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany.  The  dissen- 
 sions which  distracted  that  country  induced 
 his  father  to  remove  to  Avignon;  and  the 
 first  rudiments  of  education  were  received 
 by  Petrarch,  at  Carpentras,  from  Conven- 
 nole.  Being  intended  for  the  law,  he 
 studied  it  at  Montpellier  and  Bologna. 
 His  whole  soul,  however,  was  devoted  to 
 literature;  but  it  was  not  till  he  was  in  his 
 twentieth  year  that  the  death  of  his  father 
 allowed  him  to  indulge  his  inclination. 
 Having  settled  at  Avignon,  he  first  saw, 
 on  the  6th  of  April,  1327,  the  beautiful 
 Laura  de  Noves.  Her  charms  inspired 
 him  with  a  lasting  passion,  the  effusions 
 of  which  he  poured  forth  in  those  sonnets 
 and  odes  which  have  rendered  his  name 
 immortal,  but  which  failed  to  gain  the 
 object   of  his    affections.       After    having 
 
 vainly  travelled  to  forget  or  moderate  his 
 love,  he  settled  at  Vaucluse,  a  romantic 
 spot,  where  he  wrote  some  of  his  finest 
 works.  His  literary  reputation  attracted 
 the  regard  of  princes;  be  was  invited  to 
 Maples,  to  Paris,  and  to  Rome ;  and  re- 
 ceived the  laureat  crown  in  the  Capitol  of 
 the  latter  city.  Among  his  wannest  friends 
 and  patrons  was  the  Colonna  family.  In 
 1348  his  feelings  were  deeply  wounded  bv 
 the  death  of  Laura.  He  survived  her, 
 however,  nearly  thirty  years;  during  all 
 which  period  he  was  admired  and  honoured 
 by  his  own  countrymen,  and  by  foreign 
 princes.  He  died  July  18,  1374".  Of  all 
 his  numerous  works,  in  prose  and  verse, 
 his  Italian  poems  alone  preserve  their 
 reputation  undiminished  ;  but  they  are 
 identified  with  literature  itself,  and  till 
 that  is  annihilated  their  fame  is  secure. 
 
 PHiEDRUS,  Julius,  an  elegant  Latin 
 fabulist,  was  born  on  the  frontier  of  Thrace 
 and  .Macedonia;  was  a  slave  of  Augustus, 
 by  whom  he  was  manumitted;  and  was 
 persecuted  by  Sejanus,  during  the  reign  of 
 Tiberius.  The  time  of  his  death  is  not 
 recorded.  After  having  lain  in  oblivion 
 for  many  centuries,  his  Fables  were  dis- 
 covered by  Francis  Pithou,  and  given  to 
 the  press  by  Peter,  his  brother. 
 
 PHIDIAS,  one  of  the  greatest  of  sculp- 
 tors, an  Athenian,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 born  about  497  or  498  B.  c.  and  to  have 
 died  b.  c.  431.  Little,  however,  is  known 
 respecting  his  life.  Hippias  is  stated  by 
 some  to  have  been  his  master,  and  Elada.s 
 bv  others.  He  executed  several  statues  of 
 Minerva,  particularly  that  in  the  Parthenon 
 (the  works  of  which  temple  he  superin- 
 tended); a  statue  of  Jupiter  Olympius  ; 
 and  various  other  admirable  productions. 
 
 PHILIDOR,  Francis  Andrew,  a 
 composer,  was  born,  in  1726,  at  Dreux; 
 composed  a  great  number  of  operas,  and 
 set  Alexander's  Feast,  and  the  Carmen 
 Seculare,  to  music;  and  died,  in  1795,  in 
 London.  Philidor  had  respectable  musical 
 talents,  but  he  owes  his  fame  to  his  con- 
 summate skill  as  a  chess  player,  in  which 
 he  has  seldom  been  equalled.  He  wrote 
 The  Analysis  of  Chess,  which  has  passed 
 through  many  editions,  and  may  be  called 
 one  of  the  classical  works  upon  the  game. 
 
 PHILIP  II.  king  of  Macedon,  son  of 
 Amyntas  II.  and  father  of  Alexander  the 
 Great,  was  born  B.  c.  383.  The  art  of 
 war  he  learned  under  Epaminondas,  On 
 the  death  of  his  brother  Perdiccas,  he 
 usurped  the  throne,  at  first  under  the  guise 
 of  guardian  to  his  infant  nephew.  After 
 having  repeatedly  defeated  the  bordering 
 powers,  and  enlarged  his  dominions  by 
 successive  encroachments,  he  extinguished 
 the  liberties  of  Greece  by  the  victory  of 
 Cheronaea.  He  was  next  appointed  gene- 
 ral of  the  Greeks  against  the  Persians,  and 
 
416 
 
 PIA 
 
 PIC 
 
 was  preparing  to   invade  Asia,  when  he  omer,  was  born,  in  1746,  at  Ponte,  in  the 
 
 was  assassinated  by  Pausanias,  B.C.  336 
 
 PHILIP,  Marcus  Julius,  a  Roman 
 
 pmperor,    sur named    the    Arab,   from    liis 
 
 being  born  at  Bosra,  in  Arabia,  rose  from 
 
 Valteline;  entered  into  the  order  of  the 
 theatins,  and,  after  having  been  a  professor 
 at  Genoa,  Malta,  and  Ravenna;  was  in- 
 vited to  Palermo,  in  1780,  to  fdl  the  pro- 
 
 being  a  common  soldier  to  the  highest  rank  fessorship  of  the  higher  branches  of  math 
 
 in   the  army.     He   gained  the  throne,  in  ematics.      At    Palermo    he    obtained    the 
 
 244,  by  the  assassination  of  Gordian,  and  establishment  of  an  observatory,   and  en- 
 
 for    a    while    his  liberality   rendered   him  tered  into  a  correspondence  with  the  most 
 
 popular.     He   was   at   length   defeated   by  eminent  European  astronomers.     He  made 
 
 Decius,  and  was  slain  by  his  own  troops  in  a  new  catalogue  of  stars,  containing  seven 
 
 24.9. 
 
 thousand  six  hundred  and  forty-six,  and, 
 
 PHILIPS,  John,  a  poet,  was  born,  in  on  the  1st  of  January,  1801,  discovered  an 
 1676,  at  Bampton,  in  Oxfordshire  ;  was  eighth  planet,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
 educated  at  Winchester  School  and  Christ! of  Ceres  Ferdinandea.  Piazzi  died  July 
 Church,  Oxford;  and  died  in  1708.  While  \ 22,  1826.  He  is  the  author  of  Astronom- 
 at  college,  he  wrote  The  Splendid  Shilling,  |  ical  Lessons,  and  of  various  other  scientific 
 the    most    popular  of  his   works,  and  the  works. 
 
 poem    of   Blenheim.     He    is    the   author,  I     PICARD,  John,  an   able   French  as- 
 1  ike  wise,  of  Cyder,  a  poem,  io   imitation  tronomer  and  mathematician,  was  born,  in 
 
 of  Virgil. 
 
 1620,    at    La   Fliche,   in   Anjou;   became 
 
 PHILIPS,  Ambrose,  a  poet  and  dram- [astronomer  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
 atist,  was  born  in  Leicestershire,  in  the  Paris;  made  a  voyage  to  Uraniburg  to 
 latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  ascertain  the  exact  longitude  and  latitude 
 received  his  education,  and  obtained  a :  of  that  observatory ;  and  died  in  1683  or 
 fcllowship,  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 1 1684.  He  was  the  first  who  observed  the 
 bridge;  and  died,  in  1749,  registrar  of  the 'phosphoric  light  in  the  barometric  vacuum, 
 Irish  prerogative  court.  He  wrote  Poems ;  |  and  applied  the  telescope  to  quadrants, 
 the  tragedies  of  The  Briton,  Humphry  |  He  edited  the  Connoissance  des  Temps 
 Duke  of  Gloucester,  and  The  Distressed  from  1679  to  1683;  and  wrote  a  Narrative 
 Mother;  and  a  Life  of  Archbishop  Wil-j  of  his  Voyage;  and  other  works, 
 liams;  and  contributed  to  the  periodical'  PICARD,  Louis  Benedict,  a  celebra- 
 paper  called  the  Freethinker.  His  paste- 1  ted  French  dramatist  and  romance  writer, 
 rals  involved  him  in  a  quarrel  with  Pope, '  was  born,  in  1769,  at  Paris;  and  died 
 by  whom  they  were  insidiously  attacked  in  i  there  in  1824.  For  many  years  he  was 
 The  Guardian.  also  a  popular  actor.     He  wrote  nearly  a 
 
 PHJLOPCEMEX,  a  celebrated  general,  I  hundred  dramatic  pieces,  most  of  which 
 who  has  been  called  the  last  of  the  Greeks,  |  were  crowned  with  success.  The  collec- 
 was  born  B.  c.  223,  at  Megalopolis,  in'tion  of  them  forms  ten  octavo  volumes. 
 Arcadia;  became  generalissimo  of  the  His  romances,  among  which  maybe  men- 
 Achrean  league;  reduced  the  Spartans  to;tioned  The  History  of  Gabriel  Desodry, 
 a  tributary  state,  dismantled   Sparta,  audi  The  Gil  Bias  of  the  Revolution,  and  The 
 
 abolished  the  laws  of  Lycurgus;  but  was 
 at  length  taken  prisoner  in  a  battle  with 
 the  Messenians,  and  was  put  to  death  by 
 poison,  b.  c.  183. 
 
 PHOCION,  an  Athenian,  illustrious  for 
 his  virtues  no  less  than  for  his  talents,  was 
 born  about  e.  c.  400,  of  an  obscure  family 
 
 Confessions  of  Laurence  Giflard,  are  infe- 
 rior to  his  comedies. 
 
 PICART,  Bernard,  an  engraver,  the 
 son  of  Stephen,  who  was  of  the  same 
 profession,  was  born,  in  1663,  at  Paris; 
 acquired  an  early  reputation  for  designing 
 as  well  as  engraving;  settled   in  Holland 
 
 Plato  and  Xenocrates  were  his  masters  in  ,  with  his  father ;  and  died,  at  Amsterdam, 
 Philosophy.  Forty-live  times  he  was  placed  i  in  1733.  Among  his  best  works  are,  The 
 at  the  head  of  the  Athenian  armies,  and  J  Massacre  of  the  Innocents;  Time  discov- 
 on  all  occasions  displayed  bravery  and  ering  Truth  ;  and  The  Arcadian  Shepherds. 
 skill.  He  was,  however,  a  lover  of  peace,  I  He  also  executed  the  plates  for  the  Reli- 
 and  he  discouraged  hostile  proceedings  I  gious  Ceremonies  of  alt  Nations. 
 against  the  Macedonians,  because  he  was! 
 convinced  that  circumstances  were  such 
 as  to  render  success  hopeless.  In  probity 
 and   disinterestedness,  he  was  never  sur- 
 
 P1CCIM,  Nicholas,  an  eminent  com- 
 poser, was  born,  in   1721,  at  Bari,  in  the 
 kingdom    of    Naples,    and    studied    under 
 Leo  and  Durante^of  the  hitter   of  which 
 passed.     He  was,  nevertheless,  condemned  masters  he  was   the  favourite  pupil.     He 
 
 to  die  by  poison,  b.  c.  318,  and  was  even 
 denied  a  grave  in  his  own  country.  When 
 the  madness  of  popular  passion  had  sub- 
 sided, the  Athenians  raised  a  statue  to 
 his  memory,  and  put  his  accuser  to  death. 
 
 began  his  career  in  1754,  and  soon  ac- 
 quired an  extensive  reputation  by  his 
 compositions,  particularly  by  La  Buona 
 Figluola,  and  Orympia.  After  a  residence 
 of  nearly  twenty   years  at  Rome,  he  was 
 
 PIAZZI,  Joseph,  a  celebrated  astron-  I  invited  to  Paris.     His  subsequent  life  was 
 
PIC 
 
 chequered  with  much  vexation  and  ill  for- 
 tune.    He  died  in  1800. 
 
 PICCOLOMINI,  Octavius,  a  leader 
 
 of  the  imperial  armies,  one  of  the  most 
 distinguished  generals  of  the  thirty  years' 
 war,  was  born,  in  Italy,  in  1599,  and 
 made  his  first  military  essays  in  that 
 country,  in  the  Spanish  army.  He  passed 
 into  the  service  of  the  emperor,  and  ren- 
 dered himself  conspicuous  for  bravery  and 
 talent,  at  Lutzen,  Nordlingen,  and  many 
 other  battles.  Returning  to  the  .Spanish 
 colours,  he  was  appointed  commander  in 
 chief  in  the  Netherlands,  but  was  soon 
 recalled  by  the  emperor,  and  was  made 
 field-marshal.  His  subsequent  exploits 
 gained  for  him  the  title  of  prince.  He 
 died  in  1656. 
 
 PICHEGRU,  Charles,  one  of  the 
 most  celebrated  generals  produced  by  the 
 wars  of  the  French  revolution,  was  born, 
 of  poor  parents,  in  1761,  at  Arbois,  in 
 Franche  Comte ;  was  edacated  by  the 
 monks  of  that  town ;  and  was  a  tutor  to 
 the  mathematical  and  philosophical  classes 
 at  the  college  of  Brienne,  when  Bonaparte 
 was  a  student  there.  He  entered  into  the 
 artillery  as  a  private  soldier,  and  rose  to 
 be  adjutant  before  1789.  Subsequent  to 
 the  revolution  he  rapidly  attained  the  rank 
 of  general  of  division.  After  having  com- 
 manded the  army  of  the  Rhine,  he  was 
 placed,  in  February,  1794,  at  the  head  of 
 the  army  of  the  North.  He  defeated  the 
 allies  in  the  several  actions,  and  achieved  the 
 conquest  of  the  Netherlands  and  of  Hol- 
 land. But,  in  1795,  while  general  of  the 
 army  of  the  Rhine,  he  sullied  his  fame  by 
 entering  into  negotiations  with  the  exiled 
 Bourbons.  In  1797  he  was  elected  a 
 member  of  the  council  of  five  hundred, 
 and  was  chosen  president  of  that  body. 
 He  was  one  of  those  who  were  transported 
 to  Cayenne  by  the  Directory,  after  its 
 triumph  in  September;  but  he  contrived 
 to  make  his  escape  to  England.  In  1804, 
 in  conjunction  with  Georges  and  others,  he 
 visited  Paris,  for  the  purpose  of  attempting 
 the  overthrow  of  the  consular  government. 
 He  was  arrested,  and  committed  to  the 
 Temple;  and  was  found  dead  in  his  bed, 
 by  strangulation,  on  the  6th  of  April. 
 
 "  PICKERING,  Timothy,  an  American 
 statesman,  was  born  in  Salem  in  1746,  and 
 was  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
 1763.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
 popular  cause,  and,  in  organizing  the  pro- 
 visional government  of  Massachusetts  in 
 1775,  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  Court 
 of  Common  Pleas  for  Essex,  and  sole 
 judge  of  the  Maritime  Court  for  the  mid- 
 dle district.  During  the  war  he  was  ap- 
 pointed adjutant  general,  and  subsequently 
 a  member  of  the  board  of  war.  From 
 1790  to  1798,  at  different  intervals,  he  was 
 employed  on  various  negotiations,  with  the 
 
 w 
 
 PIN  417 
 
 Indians.  He  was  successively  post  master 
 general,-  secretary  of  war,  and  secretary 
 of  state.  From  the  last  office  he  was  re- 
 moved by  president  Adams  in  1800.  1'inm 
 1803  to  1811  he  was  a  senator  in  congress 
 from  his  native  state,  ami  from  isf4  to 
 1817  a  representative  in  that  body.  In 
 public  life  he  was  distinguished  for  firm- 
 ness, energy,  activity  and  disinterested- 
 ness.   He  died  in  Salem  in  1829. 
 
 PICTET  DE  RICHEMONT, 
 Charles,  was  born,  in  1755,  at  Geneva  ; 
 spent  several  years  in  the  military  service; 
 retired  to  his  estate,  where  lie  devoted  him- 
 self to  farming  and  literature ;  was  employ- 
 ed in  1815  as  negotiator  for  Switzerland  at 
 Paris,  Vienna,  and  Berlin;  and  died  in 
 1824.  He  conducted  (in  conjunction  with 
 his  brother  and  M.  Maurice)  The  Britannic 
 Library;  translated  various  works  from 
 the  English ;  and  published  A  Course  of 
 Agriculture,  and  other  productions  on  the 
 same  subject. 
 
 PIGAFETTA,  Anthony,  a  voyager 
 of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  one  of  the 
 eighteen  companions  of  Magellan,  who 
 survived  the  voyage,  and  returned  to  Se- 
 ville, in  1522.  In  1524  he  was  made  a 
 knight  of  Rhodes.  The  time  of  his  death 
 is  unknown.  He  wrote  a  Narrative  of  the 
 voyage,  the  MS.  of  which  was  supposed 
 to  be  lost,  but  was  discovered,  some  years 
 ago,  in  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan. 
 
 PIGALLE,  John  Baptist,  an  emi- 
 nent sculptor,  was  born,  in  1714,  at  Par- 
 is; studied  at  Rome;  became  a  sculptor  to 
 the  French  monarch,  and  a  knight  of  the 
 order  of  St.  Michael;  and  died  in  1785. 
 Among  his  best  works  are,  the  monument 
 of  Marshal  Saxe;  Love  and  Friendship; 
 and  statues  of  Silence,  Mercury,  and  Venus. 
 
 PIKLER,  or  PICHLER;  John,  the 
 most  able  gem  engraver  of  the  age,  was 
 born,  in  1734,  at  Naples,  and  was  the  son 
 of  John  Anthony,  who  was  aJso  cele- 
 brated for  his  skill  in  the  same  art.  He 
 was  knighted  by  Joseph  II.  His  works 
 are  numerous,  and  highly  valued.  He  died 
 in  1791. 
 
 PINDAR,  the  greatest  of  lyric  poets, 
 was  born,  about  R.  G.  522,  near  Thebes,  in 
 
418  PIN 
 
 Bceotia,  and  is  believed  to  have  died  about 
 B  c.  442.  He  was  patronised  by  Theron 
 of  Agngentum,  and  Hiero  of  Syracuse,  at 
 the  court  of  which  hitter  prince  ho  is  said 
 to  have  resided  during  the  closing  years 
 of  his  existence.  Little,  however,  is  known 
 of  his  real  history.  Of  his  works  which 
 were  numerous,  and  in  various  kinds  of 
 composition,  time  has  spared  only  four 
 books  of  Odes;  but  what  it  has  spared  is 
 amply  sufficient  to  vindicate  his  claim  to 
 be  ranked  among  the  most  illustrious  of 
 ancient  bards. 
 
 PIXEL,  Philip,  an  eminent  French 
 physician,  was  bom,  in  1742,  at  St.  Paid, 
 in  the  department  of  the  Tarn;  practised 
 with  distinguished  success  at  Paris,  par- 
 ticularly in  cases  of  insanity;  introduced 
 the  most  important  improvements  into  the 
 mode  of  treating  insane  patients;  acquired 
 great  popularity  by  hi*  lectures;  and  died 
 in  1S26.  Among  his  works  are,  A  Medico- 
 philosophical  Treatise  on  Mental  Aliena- 
 tion ;  Philosophical  Nosography  ;  and 
 Clinical  Medicine* 
 
 PINGRE,  Alexander  Guy,  an  able 
 astronomer,  was  born,  in  1711,  at   Paris; 
 was   originally  an   ecclesiastic,  and  began 
 the  study  of  astronomy  at  a  late   period ; 
 made   a   voyage,    in  1760,  to   isle  Rodri- 
 guez, to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  and  | 
 three  subsequent  voyages,  to   try  the  chro- 
 nometers of  Berthoud  and   Le   Roy;    and  j 
 died  in  1796.     The  most  important  of  his  I 
 works  is  his  Cqmetography,  or  Historical, 
 and  Theoretical  Treatise  on  Comets. 
 
 PINKERTON,  John,  a  fertile  but  ec- 
 centric author,  was  born,  in  1758,  in  Edin-. 
 burgh.  He  was  educated  at  Lanark  Gram- 
 mar School,  and  served  five  years  as  clerk 
 to  an  attorney;  after  which  he  settled  in 
 London,  and  give  himself  up  to  literature. 
 He  began  his  career  by  poetical  produc- 
 tions, among  which  were,  Rhymes,  Odes, 
 and  Tales,  but  he  did  not  rise  above  medi- 
 ocrity. In  emulation  of  Chatterton  he  also 
 produced  two  volumes  of  pretended  Ancient 
 Scottish  Poems.  One  of  his  earliest  works 
 was  Letters  on  Literature,  under  the  as- 
 sumed name  of  Robert  Heron,  in  which  he 
 displayed  a  degree  of  vanity  and  impu- 
 dence which  has  seldom  been  equalled.  In 
 his  latter  years  he  took  up  his  abode  in 
 France;  and  he  died  at  Paris,  March  10, 
 1826.  One  of  the  singularities  of  Pinker- 
 ton  was  his  utter  aversion  of  every  thing 
 Celtic.  Among  the  works  of  this  inde- 
 fatigable writer  are,  an  excellent  Essay  on 
 Medals;  The  Treasury  of  Wit;  A  Disser- 
 tation on  the  Origin  of  the  Scythians  and 
 Goths;  A  History  of  Scotland;  Icono- 
 graphia  Scotica ;  Modern  Geography;  A 
 Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels;  Recol- 
 ections  of  Paris  ;  and  Tetralogy,  or  a 
 Treatise  on  Rocks. 
 
 PI1NCKNEY,    Charles    Cotes- 
 
 PIN 
 
 worth,  a  distinguished  officer  of  the 
 revolutionary  army,  was  born  in  South 
 Carolina,  received  his  education  in  Eng- 
 land, and  studied  law  in  the  Temple.  On 
 returning  to  his  native  province  in  1769, 
 he  devoted  himself  to  the  successful  prac- 
 tice of  his  profession.  On  the  commence- 
 ment of  hostilities  he  renounced  law  for 
 the  study  of  military  tactics,  and  was  soon 
 promoted  to  the  command  of  the  first  regi- 
 ment of  Carolina  infantry.  He  was  sub- 
 sequently aid-de-camp  to  Washington,  and 
 In  this  capacity  at  the  battles  of  Brandy- 
 wine  and  Germantown.  On  the  surrender 
 of  Charleston  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
 remained  so  till  all  opportunity  of  gaining 
 fresh  reputation  in  the  field,  had  passed. 
 He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which 
 formed  the  federal  constitution,  and  in 
 1796  was  appointed  minister  to  France. 
 When  preparations  were  making  for  war 
 on  account  of  the  expected  French  inva- 
 sion, Mr.  Pinckney  was  nominated  a 
 major  general,  but  he  soon  had  an  oppor- 
 tunity of  retiring  to  the  quiet  of  private 
 life.  He  was  afterwards  president,  of  the 
 Cincinnati  Society  of  the  United  States. 
 He  died  in  1825. 
 
 PINKNEY,  William,  an  eloquent 
 lawyer  and  statesman,  was  born  in  Mary- 
 land in  1765,  and  prepared  himself  for  the 
 bar  under  the  instruction  of  judge  Chase. 
 He  was  admitted  to  practice  in  1786,  and 
 soon  gave  indications  of  possessing  superi- 
 or powers.  He  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
 vention of  Maryland  which  ratified  the 
 federal  constitution.  In  1776  he  was  ap- 
 pointed one  of  the  commissfcmers  under 
 the  British  treaty.  The  state  of  Maryland 
 also  employed  him  to  procure  a  settlement 
 of  its  claims  on  the  Bank  of  England,  and 
 he  recovered  for  it  the  sum  of  800,000  dol- 
 lars. This  detained  him  in  England  till 
 the  year  1S04,  when  he  returned  and  re- 
 sumed his  professional  labours.  In  1806 
 he  was  sent  as  envoy  extraordinary  to 
 London,  and  in  1808  received  the  authori- 
 ty of  minister  plenipotentiary.  He  re- 
 turned to  the  United  States  in  1811,  ana 
 soon  after  was  appointed  attorney  gener 
 al.  This  office  he  held  till  1814.  During 
 the  incursion  of  the  British  into  Mary- 
 land, he  commanded  a  battalion,  and  was 
 wounded  in  the  battle  of  Bladensburgh  in 
 August  1814.  He  was  afterwards  repre- 
 sentative  in  congress,  minister  plenipoten- 
 tiary to  Russia,  envoy  to  Naples,  and  in 
 1819  senator  in  congress.  In  the  last 
 office  he  continued  till  his  death  in  1S22. 
 
 PINKNEY,  Edward  Coate,  son  ot 
 the  foregoing,  was  born  in  London,  in 
 1802,  passed  his  infancy  in  England,  and 
 was  placed  as  a  student  in  Baltimore  Col- 
 lege at  the  age  of  ten  or  eleven.  He  en- 
 i  •  i  i  • 
 
 tered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  and  con- 
 
 ;  tinued  in  the  service  for  several  years    On 
 
PIR 
 
 the  death  of  his  father  he  quitted  the  navy 
 and  devoted  himself  to  the  practice  of  the 
 law.  He  published,  in  1825,  a  volume  of 
 poems,  which  possess  much  beauty.  He 
 died  in  1828. 
 
 PINTO,  Ferdinand  3Iendez,  a  cel- 
 ebrated Portuguese  traveller,  was  born,  in 
 1510,  at  Montomor  o  Velho,  and  became 
 a  mariner  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  In  the 
 course  of  his  peregrinations  he  visited 
 Abyssinia,  India,  China,  Siam,  and  many 
 other  oriental  countries,  and  was  several 
 times  reduced  to  a  state  of  slavery.  In 
 1558  he  returned  to  Portugal,  and  pub- 
 lished a  narrative  of  his  travels.  The  date 
 of  his  death  is  unknown.  Some  of  his  sto- 
 ries are  so  extraordinary  that  they  caused 
 his  authority  to  be  discredited,  and  Pinto 
 was  long  a  synonyme  for  an  enormous  liar  ; 
 but  there  is  now  reason  to  believe  that  he 
 has  been  treated  with  injustice. 
 
 PINZOX,  Vincent  Yanez,  a  Span- 
 ish navigator,  accompanied  Columbus  on 
 his  memorable  voyage ;  was  the  first  Eu- 
 ropean who  crossed  the  line;  discovered 
 Brazil,  and  the  river  Amazons;  was  ap- 
 pointed one  of  the  royal  pilots;  and  died 
 in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
 
 PIOZZI,  Hester  Lynch,  a  miscel- 
 laneous writer,  whose  maiden  name  was 
 Salisbury,  was  born,  in  1739,  at  Bodvel, 
 in  Carnarvonshire;  and  was  united,  in 
 1763,  to  Mr.  Thrale,  an  opulent  brewer. 
 For  many  years  Dv.  Johnson  was  the  in- 
 timate friend  of  her  and  her  husband. 
 After  the  death  of  Mr.  Thrale  she  accepted 
 the  addresses  of  Signor  Piozzi ;  an  act 
 which  occasioned  a  dissolution  o{  her 
 friendship  with  Johnson.  For  a  consid- 
 erable period,  she  resided  at  Florence  with 
 her  second  husband,  and  while  there  she 
 contributed  to  the  Florence  Miscellany. 
 She  died  at  Clifton,  in  1821.  Among  her 
 works  are,  Anecdotes  of  Dr.  Johnson; 
 Observations  in  a  Journey  through  France, 
 Italy,  and  Germany;  British  Synonymy ; 
 and  Retrospection. 
 
 PIRANESl,  John  Baptist,  an  emi- 
 nent engraver  and  antiquary,  was  born,  in 
 1707,  at  Rome;  in  which  city  he  died,  in 
 1778.  Piranesi  was  one  of  the  most  inde- 
 fatigable of  artists,  and  his  talents  were 
 equal  to  his  industry.  His  works  form 
 sixteen  atlas  folio  volumes. 
 
 PIRANESI,  Francis,  a  son  of  the 
 foregoing,  and  the  inheritor  of  his  genius, 
 was  born,  in  1748,  at  Rome.  The  mag- 
 nificent works  begun  by  his  father  he  con- 
 tinued with  such  a  kindred  spirit  that  the 
 labours  of  the  parent  and  son  cannot  be 
 distinguished  from  each  other;  and  he  ex- 
 ecuted many  others  of  equal  magnitude. 
 He  died,  at  Paris,  in  1810. 
 
 PIRON,  Alexis,  a  French  poet,  dra- 
 matist, and  wit,  was  born,  in  1689,  at  Di- 
 jon, and  was  about  to  become  a  barrister,  I 
 
 PIT  41& 
 
 when  family  misfortunes  compelled  him, 
 not  very  reluctantly,  to  relinquish  the  bar. 
 He  went  to  Paris,  and  for  a  while  earned 
 a  scanty  subsistence  as  a  copyist.  To 
 write  for  the  stage  was  his  next  resource. 
 He  began  by  composing  pieces  for  the  the- 
 atre of  the  Comic  Opera,  and  Harlequin 
 Deucalion  was  his  first  ell'ort.  In  1728  he 
 tried  the  regular  drama,  and  produced  the 
 comedy  of  The  Ungrateful  Son.  It  was 
 not,  however,  till  1738,  that  he  gained  a 
 place  among  the  highest  class  of  drama- 
 tists, by  his  admirable  comedy  of  Metro- 
 mania,  which  is  justly  considered  as  a 
 masterpiece.  He  died  in  1773.  His  works 
 form  seven  octavo  volumes. 
 
 PISISTRATFS,  an  Athenian,  win. 
 flourished  in  the  fifth  century  before  the 
 Christian  era,  and  was  distinguished  for 
 eloquence  and  valour.  He  thrice  obtained 
 the  sovereign  authority  at  Athens.  Twice 
 he  was  expelled,  and  in  the  last  instance 
 he  remained  eleven  years  in  exile,  before 
 he  could  again  seize  the  reins  of  power. 
 He  died  about  B.  c.  527.  Though  bearing 
 the  name  of  a  tyrant,  Pisistratus  was  just 
 and  liberal.  He  established  a  public  library 
 at  Athens,  and  collected  the  poems  of  Ho- 
 mer in  their  present  form. 
 
 PITT,  Christopher,  an  elegant  poet, 
 was  born,  in  1699,  at  Blandford,  in  Dor- 
 setshire; was  educated  at  Winchester  and 
 at  New  College,  Oxford;  and  obtained,  in 
 1722,  the  living  of  Pimperne,  which  ne 
 held  till  his  decease,  in  1748.  His  Poems 
 have  considerable  merit;  and  his  transla- 
 tions of  the  j^Eneid  and  of  Vida's  art  of 
 Poetry  are  of  a  superior  kind. 
 
 PITT,  William,  a  celebrated  states- 
 man, the  second  son  of  the  great  earl  of 
 Chatham,  was  born,  May  28,  1759,  at 
 Haves,  in  Kent.  The  earlier  part  of  his 
 education  he  received  at  home,  under  the 
 watchful  superintendence  of  his  father,  who 
 spared  no  pains  to  cultivate  his  talents, 
 and  especiallyto  give  him  habits  of  self- 
 possession  and  of  public  speaking.  At  the 
 age  of  fourteen  he  went  to  Pembroke  Hall, 
 Cambridge,  where  his  tutor  was  Dr.  Pret- 
 tyman.  In  1780,  after  having  studied  at 
 Lincoln's  Inn,  he   was  called   to   the   bar, 
 
420  PIZ 
 
 but  he  only  once  or  twice  went  to  the  west- 
 ern circuit.     He  was  destined  to   move  in 
 a  higher  sphere.     Early  in  1781   he  was 
 returned  to  parliament  for  the  borough  of 
 Appleby,  and   immediately  became  one  of 
 the  most  distinguished  members  of  the  op- 
 position.    He  began  political    life  as  the 
 friend    of  parliamentary    reform.      Whilf 
 the  earl  of  Shelburne   was  in  office,  Pitt 
 was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.     The  tri- 
 umph of  the  coalition  displaced  him  for  a 
 while;   but,  on   the  downfal  of  their  ad- 
 ministration,  he     returned    to    power   as 
 prime    minister.     Tn    vain    the    House  of 
 Commons  endeavoured  to  effect  his  expul- 
 sion;   the  parliament  was  dissolved;   and 
 a  general  election  gave  him  an  overwhelm- 
 ing majority.     From    1786    till    1S01,  he 
 continued  to  hold  the  reins  of  government, 
 during  one  of  the  most  stormy  periods  of 
 our  history;    and  his  admirers  have  con- 
 ferred on  him   the  title  of  "  the  pilot  that 
 weathered   the   storm.'"     He    resigned    in 
 1801 ;   but  resumed  his  post  in   1804,  and 
 held  it  till   his   decease,  which  took  place 
 on  the  23d  of  January,  1806.     His  disso- 
 lution is  believed  to  have  been  hastened  by 
 the  disastrous  result  of  the  continental  co- 
 alition in  1805.    With  respect  to  pecuniary 
 considerations  no  man  was  ever  more  dis- 
 interested and  incorrupt,  and  he  died  poor. 
 In  eloquence  he  rivalled  some  of  the  most 
 illustrious   of  the   ancient  orators.     As  a 
 finance  minister  he  possessed   great  abili- 
 ties,   though    the    policy    of  some    of  his 
 measures  is  more  than  doubtful;   but  in  the 
 conduct  of  a  war  he  did  not  shine,  for  his 
 plans  were  neither  grandly  conceived   ner 
 vigorously  executed. 
 
 PITT."  See  Chatham. 
 PITTACUS,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of 
 Greece,  who  was  a  warrior  as  well  as  a 
 philosopher,  was  born,  about  B.  c.  650,  at 
 Mitylene,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos  ;  expelled 
 the  tyrant  Melanchrus  from  Lesbos;  go\- 
 erned  wisely  for  ten  vears;  and  died  B.  c. 
 570. 
 
 PLA 
 
 teach  him  to  read,  but  employed  him  to 
 keep  the  hogs  at  his  country  house.  Hav- 
 ing lost  one  of  them,  Pizarro  took  flight,, 
 and  embarked  for  Spanish  America. 
 There  he  first  distinguished  himself,  in 
 1513,  under  Nunez  de  Balboa.  In  1524, 
 in  conjunction  with  Almagro,  he  discovered 
 Peru.  Charles  the  Fifth  gave  him  the 
 government  of  the  new-found  country.  By 
 force  and  fraud  he  achieved  the  conquest 
 of  Peru,  in  1532.  In  1537  a  contest  arose 
 between  Pizarro  and  Almagro,  which  ter- 
 minated in  the  defeat  and  execution  of  the 
 latter.  The  son  of  Almagro,  however, 
 avenged  his  father,  for,  in  15^1,  he  and 
 some  of  his  friends  assassinated  Pizarro, 
 in  his  palace  at  Lima. 
 
 PIZARRO,  Francis,  the  conqueror 
 of  Peru,  was  born,  in  1475,  at  Truxillo, 
 in  Estremadura,  and  was  the  natural  son 
 of  a  gentleman.     His  fatlvjr  did  not  evq:i 
 
 PLATO,  an  illustrious  Grecian  philoso- 
 pher, the  founder  of  the  academic  sect, 
 was  styled  the  Divine  by  the  ancients; 
 was  born,  B.  c.  430,  in  the  island  of  zEgina ; 
 was  educated  with  the  utmost  care;  and, 
 at  the  age  of  twenty,  became  the  disciple 
 of  Socrates.  After  the  death  of  Socrates, 
 Plato  visited  Magna  Gracia  and  Egypt, 
 in  search  of  knowledge.  On  his  return  to 
 Athens,  he  opened  a  philosophical  school, 
 and  soon  numbered  among  his  pupils  many 
 distinguished  characters.  Plato  thrice 
 visited  the  court  of  Sicily;  once  invited 
 by  the  elder  Dionysius,  and  twice  by  the 
 younger.  The  former  he  so  much  offended, 
 (hat  the  tyrant  caused  him  to  be  seized  on 
 his  passage  home  and  sold  for  a  slave;  and 
 the  philosopher  was  indebted  for  his  libe- 
 ration to  Anicerts  of  Gyrene.  He  died 
 b.  c.  347.  His  memory  was  honoured  by 
 statues  and  altars,  and  his  birthday  was 
 long  held  as  a  festival.  Most  of  his  works 
 are  extant. 
 
 PLAUTUS,  so  called,  it  is  supposed, 
 from  his  feet  being  deformed,  but  whose 
 real  name  was  MARCUS  AcciUS,  was  one 
 of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Roman  comic 
 writers;  was  born,  b.  c.  227,  at  Sarsina, 
 in  Umbria;  and  is  believed  to  have  been 
 the  son  of  a  slave.  The  fortune  which  he 
 gained  by  his  dramatic  talents,  he  is  said 
 to  have  lost  in  commerce,  and  to  have  been 
 reduced  to  work  at  a  milt.     He  died  B.  c. 
 
PLO 
 
 184      Of  his  numerous  plays  only  twenty 
 are  extant. 
 
 FLA YF AIR,  John,  an  eminent  mathe- 
 matician and  natural  philosopher,  was  Mrn, 
 in  1749,  at  Dundee ;  was  educated  at  St. 
 Andrew's;  resigned  a  living,  and  became 
 mathematical  professor  at  Edinburgh  ;  and 
 died  July  20,  1819.  Playfair  was  cele- 
 brated as  a  geologist  and  a  strenuous  de- 
 fender of  the  Huttonian  system.  Among 
 his  works  are,  Elements  of  Geometry; 
 Outlines  of  Philosophy;  Illustrations  of 
 the  Huttonian  Theory;  and  a  System  of 
 Geography. 
 
 PLAYFAIR,  William,  an  ingenious 
 projector  and  author,  a  brother  of  the  fore- 
 going, was  born,  in  1759,  at  Dundee;  was 
 originally  apprenticed  to  a  millwright; 
 was  for  some  time  a  draughtsman  at  the 
 Soho  manufactory ;  obtained  patents  for 
 various  inventions,  and  engaged  in  many 
 speculations;  became  a  fertile  writer  upon 
 politics  and  other  subjects;  and  died  Feb- 
 ruary 3,  1823.  Among  his  works  are, 
 Statistical  Tables;  The  Statistical  Bre- 
 viary; The  Commercial  and  Political  At- 
 las; History  of  Jacobinism;  British  Fa- 
 mily Antiquity;  Political  Portraits;  and 
 Franre  as  it  is. 
 
 PLINY,  the  Elder,  or  Caius  Plinius 
 Secundus,  a  celebrated  Roman  writer, 
 was  born,  A.  D.  23,  at  Verona,  or,  as  some 
 sav,  at  Como;  served  in  the  army  in  Ger- 
 many, and  afterwards  became  an  advocate ; 
 was  a  member  of  the  college  of  augurs, 
 and  procurator  in  Spain  and  Africa;  and 
 was  suffocated  A.  D.  79,  while  in  command 
 of  the  fleet  at  Misenum,  in  consequence  of 
 his  having  approached  too  near  to  Vesu- 
 vius, in  order  to  observe  the  phenomena  of 
 the  eruption.  Of  his  numerous  works  his 
 Natural  History  is  the  only  one  which  is 
 extant. 
 
 PLINY,   the    Younger,    or     Caius 
 Cjecilius   Plinius   Secundus,  the  ne- 
 phew  and   adopted   son  of  the  foregoing, 
 was   born,   in   61  or  62,  at   Como;  was  a 
 pupil  of  Cluintilian  ;  and  pleaded  success- 
 fully as  an  advocate  in  his  nineteenth  year. 
 He  was,  successively,  tribune  of  the   peo- 1 
 pie,  prefect  of  the   treasury,  consul,   pro- 
 consul in  Pontic  and  Bithynia,  and  augur  ;  ! 
 and  died,   universally  esteemed,   in    115. 
 His  Letters  and  his    Panegyric  on  Trajan, 
 are  the  only  parts  of  his  writings  that  remain. 
 
 PLOTINUS,  a   Platonic    philosopher,  J 
 was  born,  in  203,  at  Lycopolis,  in  Egypt;  : 
 was   a   disciple  of  Ammonias  Saccas;  en- 
 countered great  danger   in   accompanying 
 the   emperor    Gordian    on    his  expedition  i 
 against  the  Parthians,  which  he  did  with  a 
 view  to  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  Persian  | 
 and  Indian  philosophy;  and  died,   in   270. 
 after  having  resided  at  Rome  during  many 
 years.     His  works    were    translated    into 
 lLalin,  in  1492,  by  Ficino.. 
 
 POC 
 
 421 
 
 PLOWDEN,  Francis,  an  historian 
 and  miscellaneous  writer,  a  native  of  Ire- 
 land and  a  Roman  ( Catholic,  eras  a  barrister 
 and  conveyancer.  \  verdict  of  £.5000 
 obtained  agailMt  him  in  an  Irish  court,  in 
 1813,  for  an  alleged  libel  in  his  History  of 
 Ireland,  compelled  him  to  retire  Jo  France, 
 where  he  remained  till  his  decease,  at  an 
 advanced  age,  in  1829.  Among  his  works 
 are,  The  History  of  Ireland;  Jura  Anglo- 
 rum;  Church  and  State;  The  Case  stated ; 
 and  a  Treatise  upon  the  Law  of  Usury  and 
 Annuities. 
 
 PLUTARCH,  a  celebrated  Greek  biog- 
 rapher and  philosopher,  was  born,  about 
 A.  D.  50,  at  Cheronsna,  in  Bceotia,  and 
 studied  at  Athens  under  Ammonius,  after 
 which  he  travelled  in  Greece  and  Egypt, 
 sedulously  acquiring  knowledge.  For  some 
 years  subsequently  he  resided  at  Rome, 
 where  his  lectures  on  philosophy  attracted 
 many  illustrious  auditors.  Trajan  was  one 
 of  his  hearers,  and,  after  he  became  empe- 
 ror, is  said  to  have  conferred  on  him  the 
 consular  dignity;  but  this  story  is  apocry- 
 phal. Plutarch  at  length  retired  to  Chero- 
 na?a,  where  he  filled  the  office  of  archon. 
 He  was  also  a  priest  of  the  Delphic  Apollo. 
 He  is  believed  to  have  died  about  A.  v. 
 120.  His  extant  works  are  his  Morals, 
 and  his  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men;  the  last 
 of  which,  though  often  erroneous  in  point 
 of  fact,  must  ever  be  read  with  delight. 
 
 POCAHONTAS,  daughter  of  an  Indian 
 Chief,  and  much  celebrated  in  the  early 
 history  of  Virginia,  was  born  about  the 
 year  1595.  She  became  warmly  attached 
 to  the  English,  and  rendered  them  impor- 
 tant services  on  various  occasions.  She 
 married  an  Englishman,  and  in  1616  ac- 
 companied her  husband  to  his  native  coun- 
 try, where  she  was  presented  at  Court. 
 She  soon  after  died  at  Gravesend,  when 
 about  to  return  to  Virginia.  She  left  one 
 son. 
 
 POCOCK,  Edward,  an  eminent  ori- 
 entalist,  was  born,  in  1604,  at  Oxford; 
 was  educated  at  Thame  School,  and  at 
 Magdalea  Hall  and  Corpus  Christi  College, 
 Oxford;  twice  visited  the  Levant,' on  one 
 of  which,  occasions   he  was  chaplain  to  th« 
 
422 
 
 POL 
 
 British  factory  at  Aleppo;  was  Hebrew 
 professor  at  Oxford,  rector  of  Childrey, 
 and  canon  of  Christchurch ;  and  died  in 
 1691.  Among  his  works  are,  Specimen 
 Historia?  Arabum ;  Abulfaragius  Historia 
 Dynastiarum ;  and  Commentaries  on  the 
 Minor  Propnets. 
 
 POGGIO  BRACCIOLTM,  an  Italian 
 writer  of  the  fifteenth  century,  who  con- 
 tributed powerfully  to  the  revival  of  clas- 
 sical studies,  was  born,  in  1380,  at  Terra- 
 nova,  in  Tuscany ;  was  educated  at  Flor- 
 ence; was  appointed  apostolical  secretary 
 by  Boniface  the  Ninth,  and  held  that  office 
 under  seven  other  popes;  discovered  many 
 ancient  manuscripts  in  monasteries ;  was 
 appointed  chancellor  of  the  Florentine 
 republic;  and  died  in  1459.  Poggio  was 
 a  man  of  eminent  talent,  but  of  licentious 
 morals,  and  a  satirical  and  quarrelsome 
 disposition.  His  principal  works  are,  a 
 History  of  Florence;  Dialogues  on  Nobil- 
 ity; and  Funeral  Orations. 
 
 POLE,  Cardinal  Reginald,  a  states- 
 man and  ecclesiastic,  descended  from  the 
 royal  family  of  England,  was  born,  in 
 1500,  at  Stourton  Castle,  in  Staffordshire; 
 was  educated  at  Sheen  Monastery,  and 
 Magdalen  College,  Oxford ;  opposed  the 
 divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  from  Catherine  of 
 Arragon ;  was  papal  legate  to  England, 
 archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  chancellor 
 of  both  universities,  dining  the  reign  of 
 Mary ;  and  died  in  1558,  shortly  after  that 
 queen.  He  wrote  various  controversial 
 and  theological  works. 
 
 POLIZIANO,  or  POLITIAN,  Ange- 
 lus,  an  eminent  Italian  scholar,  whose 
 family  name  was  CINIS,  was  born,  in 
 1454,  at  Monte  Pulciano,  in  Tuscany  ;  was 
 professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Florence, 
 and  tutor  to  the  children  of  Lorenzo  the 
 Magnificent,  who  gave  him  a  eanonry  in 
 the  cathedral  of  the  Florentine  capital. 
 He  died  in  1494.  Among  his  works  arc. 
 The  History  of  the  Conspiracy  of  the 
 Paz/.i ;  Poems  ;  the  drama  of  Orpheus ; 
 and  a  translation  of  Herodian. 
 
 POLO,  Mark  or  Marco,  a  celebrated 
 Venetian  traveller,  was  born,  about  1250, 
 and  accompanied  his  father  and  uncle,  in 
 1471,  into  Tartary,  where  they  resided  for 
 twenty-four  years,  and  acquired  great 
 riches.  Marco  was  in  high  favour  with 
 the  Grand  Khan;  was  employed  by  him  in 
 missions  to  the  most  distant  p:n  ts  of  the 
 empire;  and  was  for  three  years  governor 
 of  Yang-cheu-feu.  After  his  return  to 
 Venice,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command 
 of  a  galley,  but  had  the  misfortune  to  be 
 captured  by  the  Genoese,  who  kept  him 
 four  years  a  captive.  To  beguile  the 
 tedium  of  captivity,  as  well  as  to  satisfy 
 the  cariosity  of  numerous  inquirers,  he 
 wrote  the  narrative  of  his  travels.  He 
 died  about  1523.     An  excellent  translation 
 
 POP 
 
 of  his  Travels,  with  notes,  was  published, 
 in  1818,  bv  Mr.  Marsden. 
 
 POLYBIUS,  a  celebrated  Greek  histo- 
 rian, son  of  Lycortas,  general  of  the 
 Achaans,  was  born,  about  E.  c.  205,  at 
 Megalopolis.  He  was  formed  for  public 
 business  by  the  precepts  and  example  of 
 Philopcemen,  the  friend  of  his  father,  and 
 at  the  funeral  of  that  general  he  bore  the 
 urn  which  contained  his  ashes.  He  was 
 one  of  the  thousand  persons  whom  the 
 Romans  demanded  from  the  Achaeans  as 
 hostages,  and  he  lived  at  Rome  many  years. 
 There  he  became  the  friend  of  the  Scipios, 
 one  of  whom  he  accompanied  to  the  siege 
 of  Carthage.  He  died  in  his  own  country, 
 at  the  age  of  eighty-two.  Of  his  works 
 only  a  part  of  his  excellent  Universal  His- 
 tory has  been  preserved. 
 
 POMPEY,  Cneus,  surnamed  the  Great, 
 a  Roman  statesman  and  warrior,  was  born 
 B.C.  106,  and  learned  the  art  of  war  from 
 his  father.  In  his  twenty-third  year  he 
 joined  with  three  legions  the  party  of  Sylla, 
 recovered  Sicily  and  Africa,  and  obtained 
 the  honours  of  a  triumph.  He  obtained  a 
 second  triumph  for  putting  an  end  to  the 
 war  in  Spain,  and  a  third  for  his  splendid 
 successes  in  Asia,  where  he  considerably 
 extended  the  dominion  of  his  countrymen. 
 About  B.  c.  60  he  formed  the  first  triumvi- 
 rate with  Crassus  and  Caesar,  and  married 
 the  daughter  of  the  latter.  In  the  course 
 of  a  few  years,  however,  dissensions  broke 
 out  between  Caesar  and  Pompey;  a  civil 
 war  ensued;  and  Pompey  sustained  a  de- 
 cisive defeat  at  Pharsalia.  He  fled  to 
 Egypt,  and  was  assassinated  there,  B.  c. 
 48. 
 
 POMATOWSKI,  Prince  Joseph,  an 
 illustrious  Polish  general,  who  was  called 
 the  Polish  Bayard,  was  born,  in  1763,  at 
 Warsaw;  distinguished  himself  in  the 
 cause  of  his  country  during  the  fruitless 
 struggles  of  1792  and  1794;  entered  the 
 French  service,  and  displayed  conspicuous 
 bravery  and  talent  in  the  campaigns  of 
 1806,  1809,  1SI2,  1813,  and  1814;  was 
 appointed  a  marshal  on  the  field  of  battle 
 at  Leipsic;  and  was  drowned  in  attempt- 
 ing to  cross  the  Elster,  on  the  19th  of 
 October. 
 
 POPE,  Sir  Thomas,  a  statesman,  was 
 born,  about  1508,  at  Dedington,  in  Oxford- 
 shire; studied  at  Eton  and  Gray's  Inn, 
 and  was  called  to  the  bar;  held  various 
 important  offices  under  Henry  VIII.  and 
 Mary;  and  died  in  1559.  Trinity  College, 
 Oxford,  was  founded  by  him. 
 
 VOV E ,  A  L  E  XA.NDER,  a  celebrated  poet, 
 was  born,  May  22,1688,  in  Lombard  Street, 
 London.  His  father,  a  linen  draper,  in 
 which  trade  he  amassed  a  considerable  for- 
 tune, retired  from  business,  and  settled  at 
 Binfield,  in  Berkshire,  soon  after  the  birth 
 of    his    son        Both  parents  were  Roman 
 
POR 
 
 Catholics,  and,  as  Pope  tells  us,  were  of 
 gentle  blood.     He   himself  was   born   de- 
 
 formed, small  in  size,  and  delicate  in  con- 
 stitution. The  groundwork  of  learning  he 
 acquired  at  two  private  schools,  and  from 
 two  priests,  who  were  employed  as  his 
 tutors;  for  the  rest  he  was  indebted  to  his 
 own  persevering  studies.  Before  he  was 
 twelve  years  old  he  formed  a  play  from 
 Ogilby's  Homer,  which  was  acted  by  his 
 schoolfellows.  Poetry  he  began  early  to 
 compose,  or,  to  use  his  own  words,  he 
 "  lisped  in  numbers."  His  Pastorals  were 
 written  when  he  was  sixteen,  and  they 
 obtained  him  the  friendship  of  many  emi- 
 nent characters.  They  were  succeeded  by 
 The  Essay  on  Criticism,  The  Messiah,  The 
 Rape  of  the  Lock,  The  Temple  of  Fame, 
 Windsor  Forest,  and  The  Epistle  from 
 Eloisa;  and  his  reputation  as  a  poet  was 
 thus  firmly  established.  The  translation 
 of  the  Iliad,  by  which  he  gained  above  five 
 thousand  pounds,  was  completed  in  1720. 
 With  the  aid  of  Broome  and  Fenton  he 
 afterwards  added  a  version  of  The  Odys- 
 sey. In  1721  he  undertook  an  edition  of 
 Shakspeare;  a  task  in  which  he  failed. 
 With  the  exception  of  the  Essay  on  Man, 
 which  was  first  published  in  1733,  and 
 completed  in  the  following  year,  his  pen 
 was  chiefly  devoted  to  satire  during  the 
 remainder  of  his  literary  career.  The 
 first  three  books  of  The  Dunciad  appeared 
 in  1723;  the  fourth,  suggested  by  War- 
 burton,  was  not  written  till  1742,  and  he 
 injured  the  poem  by  substituting  Cibber  as 
 the  hero  in  place  of  Theobald.  He  died 
 May  30,  1744. 
 
 PORPHYRY,  or  PORPHYRIAS,  a 
 philosopher,  whose  original  name  was 
 Malchus,  was  born,  A.  u.  233,  at  Tyre; 
 studied  under  Origen  and  Longintis;  be- 
 came a  disciple  of  Plotinus;  and  died,  in 
 304,  at  Rome.  His  works  against  the 
 Christians,  to  the  number  of  fifteen,  are 
 lost.  Among  his  extant  productions  are, 
 A  Life  of  Pythagoras;  A  Treatise  on  Ab- 
 stinence from  Animal  Food ;  and  Questions 
 on  Homer. 
 
 PORSON,  Richard,  an  eminent  hel- 
 lenist   and   critic,  was    born,  in  1759,  at 
 
 POT  423 
 
 East  Ruston,  in  Norfolk;  was  educated  at 
 Eton,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge; 
 was  elected  Greek  professor  in  1793;  be- 
 came librarian  of  the  London  Institution; 
 and  died  .September  19, 1808.  In  profound 
 knowledge  of  Creek,  critical  power.-,  and 
 Muteness,  Portion  had  (cw  equals.  Among 
 his  works  are,  Letters  to  Archdeacon  Tra- 
 vis; editions  of  iEschylus,  and  some  of 
 the  plays  of  Euripides;  and  Tracts  and 
 Miscellaneous  Criticisms. 
 
 PORTEUS,  Beilby,  an  eminent  pre- 
 late, was  born,  in  1731,  at  York,  and 
 entered  as  a  sizer  at  Christ's  College, 
 Cambridge,  where  he  obtained  a  fellow- 
 ship. After  having  been  chaplain  to 
 Archbishop  Seeker,  he  was,  successively, 
 rector  of  Hunton,  prebendary  of  Peterbo- 
 rough, rector  of  Lambeth,  king's  chaplain, 
 and  master  of  St.  Cross  Hospital,  near 
 Winchester.  In  1776,  through  the  queen's 
 influence,  he  obtained  the  bishopric  of 
 Chester,  whence,  in  1787,  he  was  trans- 
 lated to  that  of  London.  He  died  in  1808. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Sermons;  a  Life  of 
 Seeker;  and  a  Seatonian  prize  poem  on 
 Death. 
 
 POSTHUMUS,  Marcus  Cassianus 
 Latinius,  a  Roman  emperor,  one  of  the 
 thirty  tyrants,  was  of  obscure  birth,  but 
 rose  rapidly  in  the  army  till  he  obtained 
 the  command  in  Gaul.  He  assumed  the 
 imperial  title  in  257;  ruled  Gaul  and  a 
 part  of  Spain,  and  obtained  various  suc- 
 cesses against  the  Germans;  and  was  mur- 
 dered by  hi*  soldiers  in  267. 
 
 POTEMKIN,    Gregory    Alexan- 
 
 DP.ovitsch,  a  Russian  prince  and  field- 
 marshal,  the  minion  of  Catherine  II.,  was 
 born,  in  1736,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
 Smolensk,  of  a  noble  though  poor  family, 
 and  was  intended  for  the  chinch,  but  ob- 
 tained a  cometcy  in  the  horse  guards. 
 Over  the  empress,  after  the  death  of  her 
 husband,  lie  acquired  an  unbounded  influ- 
 ence, and  he  retained  it  till  nearly  the  end 
 of  his  life.  He  distinguished  himself 
 against  the  Turks,  particularly  in  the  war 
 of  1787,  when  he  commanded  in  chief. 
 He  died  in  1791. 
 
 POTHIER,  Robert  Joseph,  one  at 
 
424  POU 
 
 the  most  eminent  of  the  French  juriscon 
 suit 
 
 PRA 
 
 and  Fouquieres,  who  envied  and  dreaded 
 
 He  therefore 
 
 was  born,  in  1669,  at  Orleans;   was]  him  for  his  superior  genius, 
 professor  of  law   in  his   native  city;   and !  returned  to  Rome  in   1642,  and  remained 
 died,  in  1772,  as  much  beloved  for  his  vir-  there  till  his  decease  in  1665.    His  pictures 
 
 tues  as  admired  for  his  extensive  learning 
 His  great  work  is  his  Digest  of  the  Pan- 
 dects of  Justinian,  in  three  folio  volumes. 
 His  treatises  on  various  legal  questions 
 form  seventeen  volumes  octavo. 
 
 POTOCKI,  Count  Stanislaus,  a  Po- 
 lish  writer    and    statesman,    of    a    family 
 
 are    numerous    and    highly    esteemed;     in 
 landscape  he  particularly  excelled. 
 
 POUSSTN,  Gaspar,  an  eminent  pain- 
 ter, was  born,  in  1613,  at  Rome.  His 
 name  was  DUGHET,  but  he  took  the  sur- 
 name of  his  pictorial  preceptor,  Nicholas, 
 who  was  his  brother-in-law.     He   died  in 
 
 which  has  produced  several  eminent  char-  j  1675.  In  landscape  he  acquired  a  high 
 acters,  was  born,  in  1757,  at  Warsaw;  [reputation.  Such  was  the  rapidity  with 
 was   one  of   those   who   contributed   most j  which  he  worked  that  he  often  completed 
 
 actively  to  establish  the  constitution  of 
 1791;  was  appointed  a  palatine  senator 
 and  one  of  the  ministers  of  the  grand 
 dutchy  of  Warsaw;  was  president  of  the 
 senate  in  1818;    and  died  in  1821.  Among 
 
 a  picture  in  the  course  of  a  day. 
 
 PRATT,  CHARLES,Earl  CAMDEN, a 
 celebrated  lawyer,  the  son  of  Chief  Justice 
 Pratt,  was  born  in  1713;  studied  at  Eton, 
 King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  Lincoln's 
 
 his  works  are,  a  Treatise  on    Eloquence  j  Jnn ;    was  chosen  member  for  Downton  in- 
 and  Style;    and   The   Journey  to  Ciemno- 1 1754;   was,  successively,  recorder  of  Bath, 
 
 grod,  a  satirical  romance. 
 
 attorney  general,  chief  justice  of  the  com- 
 
 POTTER,  Paul,  a  celebrated  Dutch  mon  pleas,  lord  chancellor,  and  president 
 painter,  the  son  of  an  artist,  was  born,  in  i  of  the  council.     The  title  of  baron  he  ob 
 
 1625,  at  Enkhuvsen;  acquired  a  peifect 
 knowledge  of  his  profession  by  the  time 
 that  he  was  fifteen;  and  died  in  1654. 
 His  pictures  are  held  in  high  estimation 
 for  their  fidelity  to  nature,  and  the  beauty 
 of  their  execution.  In  representing  ani- 
 mals he  was  almost  unequalled 
 
 tained  in  1765,  and  that  of  earl  in  1786. 
 He  died  in  1794.  Lord  Camden  was  pop- 
 ular for  his  opposition  to  the  unconstitu- 
 tional measures  of  the  court,  with  respect 
 to  Wilkes  and  American  taxation. 
 
 PRATT,  Samuel  Jackson,  a  once 
 popular  novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
 
 POTTER,  John,  a  learned  prelate,  j  was  born,  in  1749,  at  St.  Ives,  in  Hunting- 
 was  born,  about  1672,  at  Wakefield;  was  donshire,  and,  after  having  been  an  actor, 
 educated  at  the  free  school  there,  and  at :  an  itinerant  lecturer,  and  a  bookseller,  he 
 University  College,  Oxford;  was  made  j  became  an  author  by  profession.  He  died 
 bishop  of  Oxford  in  1715,  and  archbishop  i  in  1814.  Of  his  numerous  works  the  prin- 
 of  Canterbury  in  1737;  and  died  in  1747. 1  cipal  are,  the  poems  of  Sympathy  and 
 He  wrote  Archaeologia  Grseca;  and  vari-  Landscapes  in  Verse;  the  tragedy  of  The 
 ous  theological  works;  and  edited  Clemens  Fair  Circassian;  the  novels  of  Liberal 
 Alexandrinus,  and  Lycophron's  Alexandra.   Opinions,    Emma    Corbet,   The   Pupil   of 
 
 POTTER,  Robert,  a  divine  and  poet,  Pleasure,  Shenstone  Green,  and  Family 
 was  born  in  1721 ;  was  educated  at  Eman-|  Secrets;  Gleanings  through  Wales,  Hol- 
 uel    College,     Cambridge;    and    was    for  j  Tand,  and  Westphalia;   Gleanings  in  Eng- 
 
 soine  years  vicar  of  Seaming,  after  which 
 he  obtained  the  livings  of  Lowestoft*"  and 
 Kessingland,  and  a  prebend  in  the  cathe- 
 dral of  Norwich.  He  died  in  1804.  His 
 original  poetry  consists  of  a  volume  of 
 Poems,  and  two  Odes  from  Isaiah,  and  is 
 much    above   mediocrity.     But  he  is  best 
 
 land;   and  Harvest  Home. 
 
 PRATT,  Benjamin,  ehief  justice  of 
 New  York,  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in 
 1710,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
 lege. He  studied  law,  and  entering  on  its 
 practice  in  Boston  soon  became  eminent. 
 Turning  his  attention  to  public  affairs,  he 
 
 known  by  his  spirited  versions  of  iEschy-  soon   rose  to  political   distinction,  and  by 
 
 Ins,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides 
 
 POUSS1N,  Nicholas,  one  of  the 
 greatest  of  the  French  painters,  was  born, 
 in  1594,  at  Andelvs,  in  Normandy,  and  re- 
 ceived instructions  from  Varin,  File,  and 
 Lallemant,  but  was  more  indebted  to  na- 
 ture and  his  own  assiduity  than  to  their 
 lessons.  In  1624  he  went  to  Koine,  where 
 he  improved  himself  by  studying  the  works 
 of  Titian,  Dc>menic.hino,and  Raphael,  and 
 of  the  ancient  sculptors.  Louis  XIII  in- 
 vited him  to  France  in  1639,  and  gave 
 him  a  pension,  and  apartments  in  the 
 Louvre;  but  Poussin  was  soon  disgusted 
 by    the    intrigues  of  Vouet,   Le    Meccier, 
 
 the  influence  of  governor  Pownell  was  ap- 
 pointed chief  justice  of  New  York.  He 
 died  in  January  1763.  He  had  made  col- 
 lections for  a  history  of  New  England, 
 and  possessed  considerable  talent  for  poet- 
 rv. 
 
 PRAXITELES,  a  famous  Grecian 
 sculptor,  is  believed  to  have  been  a  native 
 of  Athens,  to  have  flourished  early  in  the 
 fourth  century  B.C.,  and  to  have  died  at 
 the  ape  of  eighty.  He  was  long  attached 
 to  the  celebrated  Phryne,  of  whom  he  exe- 
 cuted two  statues,  one  of  which  was  placed 
 in  the  temple  of  Delphi,  the  other  in  the 
 temple  of  Love  at   Thespia.     Hia  Yenu» 
 
PRI 
 
 at  Cnidus  was  considered  as  one  of  the 
 most  finished  productions  of  Greece. 
 
 PREBLE,  Edward,  a  distinguished 
 naval  officer  in  the  American  service,  was 
 born  at  Falmouth  in  Maine,  in  1761,  and 
 entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1779. 
 He  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant, 
 and  during  the  revolutionary  war  distin- 
 guished himself  by  capturing  a  British 
 vessel  at  Penobscot.  In  1798  he  was  ap- 
 pointed to  the  command  of  the  brig  Pick- 
 ering, and  soon  after  to  the  Essex.  He 
 commanded,  in  1803,  a  fleet  sent  against  the 
 Barbary  powers,  and  repeatedly  attacked 
 Tripoli  with  considerable  success.  In 
 1804  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and 
 died  in  1807. 
 
 PREVOST  D'EXILES,  Anthony 
 Francis,  one  of  the  most  fertile  of  French 
 writers,  was  born,  in  1697,  at  Hesdin. 
 His  early  life  was  restless  and  changeful. 
 He  hesitated  between  a  monastic  and  a 
 military  life,  twice  made  a  trial  of  both, 
 became  at  last  a  Benedictine,  and  ended 
 by  Hying  from  the  convent,  taking  shelter 
 in  Holland,  and  adopting  the  profession  of 
 an  author.  His  end  was  equally  singular. 
 In  1763  he  was  struck  by  an  apoplectic  fit 
 in  the  forest  of  Chantilly,  and  was  found 
 apparently  lifeless.  As  soon  as  the  sur- 
 geon proceeded  to  use  the  knife  on  his  body, 
 Prevost  screamed  and  opened  his  eyes,  but 
 the  incision  was  mortal,  and  he  almost 
 immediately  expired.  His  works  amount 
 to  one  hundred  and  seventy  volumes.  Of 
 his  novels,  the  best  are,  Memoirs  of  a  Man 
 of  Quality;  the  Dean  of  Coleraine ;  Cleve- 
 land; and  Manon  L'Escaut.  Among  his 
 other  productions  are,  4  History  of  Voy- 
 ages and  Travels;  and  The  Pro  and  Con, 
 a  periodical  paper. 
 
 PRIDEAUX,  Humphry,  a  learned  I 
 divine,  was  born,  in  1648,  at  Padstow,  in 
 Cornwall;  was  educated  at  Westminster  i 
 School,  and  at  Christ  Church  College,' 
 Oxford;  and  died  in  1724,  dean  of  Nor- I 
 wich.  His  great  work  is  The  Connexion 
 of  the  History  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa-  j 
 ment.  Among  his  other  productions  are, ' 
 A  Life  of  Mahomet;  and  The  Original, 
 Right  of  Tithes. 
 
 PRIESTLEY,  Joseph,  an  eminent  dis-! 
 senting  divine  and  experimental  philoso- 
 pher, was  born,  in  1733,  at  Fieldhead,   in; 
 Yorkshire;    was    educated    at    Daventry; 
 and,  after  having  been   tutor  at  Warring- 
 ton, and  pastor  to   various  congregations, 
 and  having  acquired  considerable  reputa- 
 tion as  an  experimentalist  and  author,  he; 
 became  companion  to  the  earl  of  Shelbnrne. 
 At   the    end  of  a  seven  years'    residence 
 with  that  nobleman,  he  received  a  pension, 
 and  settled,  in  1780,  at  Birmingham.  There ' 
 he  proceeded  actively  with  his  philosophi-i 
 cal  and  theological  researches,  and   was 
 also  appointed  pastor  to  a  dissenting  con- 1 
 
 PRI 
 
 425 
 
 gregation.     In   1791,  however,  the  scene 
 changed.     His  religious  principles,  and  his 
 
 avowed  partiality  to  the  French  revolution, 
 excited  the  hatred  of  the  high  church  and 
 tory  party,  and  in  the  riots  which  took 
 place  in  July,  his  house,  library,  manu- 
 scripts, and  apparatus  were,  committed  to 
 the  flames  by  the  infuriated  mob,  and  he 
 was  exposed  to  great  personal  danger. 
 Quitting  Birmingham,  he  succeeded  Dr. 
 Price  at  Hackney ;  but,  in  1794,  conceiving 
 himself  to  be  not  secure  from  popular  rage, 
 he  embarked  for  North  America.  He  took 
 up  his  abode  at  Northumberland,  in  Penn- 
 sylvania, at  which  place  he  died  May  6, 
 1804.  As  a  philosopher  his  fame  princi- 
 pally rests  upon  his  pneumatic  inquiries. 
 His  works  extend  to  between  seventy  and 
 eighty  volumes.  Among  them  are  Lectures 
 on  General  History — on  the  Theory  and 
 History  of  Language — and  on  the  Princi- 
 ples of  Oratory  and  Criticism ;  Charts  of 
 Biography  and  History;  Disquisitions  re- 
 lating to  Matter  and  Spirit;  Hartleian 
 Theory  of  the  Human  Mind;  History  of 
 the  Corruptions  of  Christianity  ;  Letters 
 to  a  Philosophical  Unbeliever;  Institutes 
 of  Natural  and  Revealed  Religion;  His- 
 tory of  Electricity;  History  of  Vision, 
 Light,  and  Colours;  and  Experiments  and 
 Observations  on  different  Kinds  of  Air. 
 
 PRIOR,  MATTHEW,  a  celebrated  poet 
 and  statesman,  was  born  in  1664  ;  but 
 whether  in  Middlesex  or  Dorsetshire  is 
 uncertain.  Being  left  fatherless,  he  was 
 sent  by  his  uncle,  a  vintner,  to  Westmin- 
 ster School;  and,  after  he  emitted  that 
 seminary,  was  fortunate  enough  to  attract 
 the  notice  of  the  earl  of  Dorset,  who 
 placed  him  at  St.  John's  College,  Caitt- 
 bridge.  While  he  was  at  the  university 
 he  wrote,  in  conjunction  with  Montague, 
 The  City  Mouse  and  Country  Mouse,  in 
 ridicule  of  Dryden's  Hind  and  Panther. 
 The  work  was  advantageous  to  both.  In 
 1691  Prior  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
 embassy  which  was  sent  to  the  Congress 
 at  the  Hague.  After  having  been  gentle- 
 man of  the  bedchamber,  and  again,  in 
 1697,  secretary  of  embassy,  he  was,  in 
 1700,  made  under  secretary  of  state,  and 
 
426 
 
 PRY 
 
 shortly  after,  commissioner  of  trade.  Dur- 
 ing the  greatest  part  of  the  reign  of  Anne 
 he  was  chiefly  engaged  in  literary  pursuits; 
 but,  when  the  whigs  were  displaced,  he 
 was  employed  to  negotiate  the  treaty  of 
 Utrecht,  and  was  subsequently  nominated 
 ambassador  at  the  French  court.  For  his 
 share  in  the  treaty  he  was  committed  to 
 prison  after  the  accession  of  George  I., 
 and  was  threatened  with  impeachment; 
 but  was  at  length  discharged.  He  died  in 
 1721.  His  poems,  which  have  long  been 
 received  into  the  collected  works  of  the 
 British  Poets,  are  often  spirited,  and  are 
 very  seldom  deficient  in  melody  or  in  ele- 
 gance. 
 
 PRISCIAN,  or  PRISCIANUS, a  cele- 
 brated grammarian,  was  born  at  Cassarea, 
 and  was  the  master  of  a  famous  school  at 
 Constantinople,  about  A.  D.  525.  His 
 principal  work  is  a  treatise  on  Grammar. 
 His  rigid  attention  to  correctness  gave 
 rise  to  the  saying  of  "  breaking  Priscian's 
 head,"  which  is  applied  to  the  violators  of 
 grammatical  rules. 
 
 PROTAGORAS,  a  Grecian sophist,was 
 born  at  Abdera,  about  b.  c.  4S8;  exer- 
 cised in  his  youth  the  calling  of  a  porter; 
 opened  at  Athens  a  school  of  philosophy, 
 and  acquired  great  reputation  and  riches ; 
 was  banished  on  a  charge  of  atheism;  and 
 perished  by  shipwreck  at  the  age  of  seven- 
 ty.    Prodicus  was  one  of  his  disciples. 
 
 PROTOGENES,  an  eminent  Grecian 
 painter,  a  native  of  Caunus,  in  Caria, 
 flourished  about  B.  c.  336.  A  considerable 
 part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  obscurity,  but 
 he  was  at  length  brought  into  notice  by 
 Apelles  giving  a  large  price  for  one  of  his 
 pictures.  His  masterpiece  was  a  picture 
 of  Ialysus,  the  founder  of  Rhodes,  on 
 which  he  was  employed  for  seven  years. 
 
 PRYNNE,  William,  a  lawyer  and 
 political  writer,  was  born,  in  1600,  at 
 Swanswick,  in  Somersetshire;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Bath  Grammar  School,  and  Oriel 
 College,  Oxford;  studied  the  law  at  Lin- 
 coln's Inn  ;  and  was  successively  made 
 barrister,  bencher,  and  reader.  His  His- 
 trio-Mastix,  a  violent  attack  on  the  stage, 
 and  his  News  from  Ipswich,  twice  brought 
 on  him,  in  1633  and  1637,  the  vengeance 
 of  the  infamous  star-chamber.  He  was 
 branded,  deprived  of  his  ears,  pilloried, 
 fined  ten  thousand  pounds,  and  doomed  to 
 perpetual  imprisonment.  He  obtained  his 
 liberty  in  1640,  was  elected  member  for 
 Newport,  and  bore  a  prominent  part  in  the 
 trial  of  Laud,  his  persecutor.  After  the 
 overthrow  of  Charles,  however,  Prynne 
 endeavoured  to  effect  an  accommodation 
 between  him  and  his  subjects ;  and  he  op- 
 posed Cromwell  with  such  boldness  that 
 the  protector  imprisoned  him.  He  joined 
 in  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.;  was 
 appointed   keeper   of  the    records  in   the 
 
 PUI 
 
 Tower;  and  died  in  1669.  Prynne  was  a 
 voluminous  writer.  His  works  amount  to 
 forty  volumes.  Among  them  are,  Records, 
 in  three  folio  volumes;  and  Parliamentary 
 Writs. 
 
 PSALMANAZAR,  Georgb,  the  as- 
 sumed name  of  a  singular  character,  who 
 began  his  career  in  life  by  acting  the  part 
 of  an  impostor.  He  was  born,  in  1679,  in 
 the  south  of  France,  and  received  an  ex- 
 cellent education.  Among  the  many  dis- 
 guises which  he  assumed  was  that  of  a 
 native  of  Formosa,  and  to  keep  up  the  de- 
 lusion he  invented  an  alphabet,  grammar, 
 and  history  of  the  island,  which  were 
 considered  as  authentic  by  many  eminent 
 men.  The  cheat  was  not  discovered  till 
 after  he  had  been  sent  to  Oxford.  He 
 subsequently  gained  a  subsistence  by  writ- 
 ing for  the  booksellers,  and  became  re- 
 markable for  his  sincere  and  unaffected 
 piety.  He  died  in  1763.  A  large  por- 
 tion of  the  ancient  part  of  the  Universal 
 History  was  written  by  him;  and  he  left 
 behind  him  his  own  memoirs. 
 
 PTOLEMY,  Claudius,  an  ancient  as- 
 tronomer and  geographer,  was  born,  about 
 A.  D.  70,  in  Egypt,  but  whether  at  Pelusi- 
 um,  as  some  say,  is  doubtful.  Alexandria 
 was  the  place  where  he  resided.  The  time 
 of  his  death  is  not  known.  He  wrote  va- 
 rious astronomical  and  geographical  works. 
 The  system  which  makes  the  earth  the  cen- 
 tre of  the  solar  and  planetary  motions  takes 
 its  name  from  him. 
 
 PUFFENDORF,  Samuel, an  eminent 
 German  publicist  and  historian,  was  born, 
 in  1632,  near  Chemnitz,  in  Saxony;  was 
 educated  at  Leipsic  and  Jena  ;  was, 
 successively,  in  the  service  of  the  elector 
 palatine,  Charles  XL  of  Sweden,  and  the 
 elector  of  Brandenburg;  and  died  in  1694. 
 Of  his  works  the  chief  are,  The  Law  of 
 Nature  and  Nations;  The  Elements  of  Ju- 
 risprudence; The  State  of  the  German 
 Empire;  and  an  Introduction  to  the  His- 
 tory of  Europe;  Commentaries  on  Swedish 
 Affairs;  and  Lives  of  Scanderbeg,  Charles 
 Gustavus  of  Sweden,  and  Frederic  III.  of 
 Brandenburg. 
 
 PUISAYE,  Count  Joseph,  one  of  the 
 most  able  of  the  French  royalist  chiefs, 
 was  born,  about  1754,  at  Montagne,  and 
 was  descended  from  an  ancient  and  noble 
 family.  He  was  intended  for  the  church, 
 but  preferred  the  military  profession.  In 
 1789  the  nobility  of  Perche  deputed  him  as 
 their  representative  to  the  states  general. 
 He  sat  in  the  constituent  assembly,  and 
 was  an  enlightened  friend  of  reform.  In 
 1793  he  held  a  command  in  the  departmen- 
 tal army,  under  Wimpfen,  and  was  conse- 
 quently "proscribed  by  the  Convention.  He 
 took  refuge  in  Britanny,  where,  by  dint  of 
 eloquence,  talent,  and  activity,  he  organ- 
 ized a  formidable  force,  under  the  name  of 
 
PUT 
 
 Chouans.  He  visited  England  in  1794, 
 obtained  a  powerful  succour,  and  returned 
 with  it  to  France  in  1795;  but  his*  hopes 
 were  blasted  by  envious  intrigues  of  his 
 own  party,  who  occasioned  the  disas- 
 ter at  Quiberon.  After  having  continued 
 his  efforts  for  two  years  longer,  he  resigned 
 his  commission,  disgusted  by  the  conduct 
 of  the  Bourbons,  and  fixed  his  abode  in 
 Canada,  whence  he  afterwards  removed  to 
 England.  He  died  December  13,  1827. 
 He  published  his  own  Memoirs. 
 
 PULASKI,  Csunt,  a  celebrated  soldier, 
 was  a  native  of  Poland,  and  made  brave 
 though  unsuccessful  efforts  to  restore  his 
 country  to  independence.  He  came  to  the 
 United  States  during  the  revolutionary  war, 
 was  appointed  a  brigadier  general  in  the 
 American  awny.  He  was  mortally  wounded 
 in  the  attack  on  Savannah  in  1779.  Con- 
 gress voted  to  erect  a  monument  to  his 
 memory. 
 
 PULCI,  Louis,  an  Italian  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1432,  at  Florence;  was  the  friend 
 of  Lorenzo  di  Medici,  Politian,  and  other 
 eminent  men ;  was  the  inventor  of  that 
 species  of  heroi-comic  poetry  which  bears- 
 the  name  of  Berni ;  and  died  about  1487. 
 His  great  work  is  the  Morgante  Maggiore, 
 a  truly  poetical  production,  an  idea  of 
 which  may  be  formed  from  specimens  trans- 
 lated by  Lord  Byron,  and  by  a  writer  in 
 the  Monthly  Magazine. 
 
 PURCELL,  Henry,  a  celebrated  Eng- 
 lish composer,  was  born,  in  1658;  was 
 organist  of  Westminster  Abbey  at  the  age 
 of  eighteen,  and  was  afterwards  appointed 
 organist  of  the  chapel  royal;  and  died  in 
 1695.  Among  his  works  are,  Anthems; 
 Sonatas;  Orpheus  Britannicus;  and  the 
 opera  of  Diocletian.  "This  musician 
 (says  Dr.  Busby)  shone  not  more  by  the 
 greatness  than  the  diversity,  by  the  diver- 
 sity than  the  originality  of  his  imagination  ; 
 nor  did  the  force  of  his  fancy  transcend  the 
 solidity  of  bis  judgment." 
 
 PURCHAS,  Samuel,  a  divine,  was 
 born,  in  1577,  at  Thaxted,  in  Essex;  was 
 educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford; 
 and  died  in  1628,  rector  of  St.  Martin's, 
 Ludgate.  His  principal  work  is  the  well 
 known  collection  of  voyages,  in  five  vols, 
 folio,  which  bears  the  title  of  Purchas,  his 
 Pilgrimages,  or  Relations  of  the  World. 
 
 PUTNAM,  Israel,  an  officer  in  the 
 army  of  the  American  revolution,  was 
 born  in  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1718. 
 He  received  but  a  meagre  education,  and 
 removing  to  Connecticut,  engaged  in  agri- 
 culture. In  the  French  war  he  command- 
 ed a  company,  and  was  engaged  in  several 
 contests  with  the  enemy.  In  1756  he  fell 
 into  an  ambuscade  of  savages,  and  was  ex- 
 posed to  the  most  cruel  tortures.  He  ob- 
 tained his  release  in  1759,  and  returned  to 
 
 PYT  427 
 
 his  farm.  Soon  after  the  battle  at  Lex- 
 ington he  joined  the  army  at  Cambridge, 
 was  appointed  major  general,  and  distin- 
 guished himself  at  Ekmfter'a  Hill.  In  1776 
 he  was  sent  to  complete  the  fortifications 
 at  New  York,  and  afterwards,  to  fortify 
 Philadelphia.  In  the  winter  of  1777,  lit; 
 was  stationed  with  a  small  body  at  Prince- 
 ton, and  in  the  spring  appointed  to  a  com- 
 mand in  the  Highlands,  where  he  remained 
 most  of  the  time  till  the  close  of  1779,  when 
 he  was  disabled  by  an  attack  of  paralysis. 
 He  died  in  1790.  He  was  brave,  ener- 
 getic, and  one  of  the  most  efficient  officers 
 of  the  revolution. 
 
 PYE,  Henry  James,  a  poet  of  an  an- 
 cient Berkshire  family,  was  born,  in  1745, 
 in  London;  was  educated  at  Magdalen 
 College,  Oxford;  ruined  his  fortune  by  be- 
 coming a  candidate  for  Berks ;  was  ap- 
 pointed poet  laureat  and  a  police  magis- 
 trate, in  1790  and  1792;  and  died  in  1813. 
 His  principal  works  are,  Alfred,  an  epic; 
 translations  of  the  poetics  of  Aristotle,  six 
 Odes  of  Pindar,  and  Homer's  Hymns;  The 
 Democrat;  The  Aristocrat;  and  Com- 
 ments on  the  Commentators  upon  Shaks- 
 peare. 
 
 PYM,  John,  a  lawyer,  was  born,  in 
 1584,  in  Somersetshire.  After  having 
 finished  his  education  at  Broadgate  Hall, 
 Oxford,  he  studied  law  at  one  of  the  inns 
 of  court,  and  was  called  to  the  bar.  Dur- 
 ing the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 
 he  had  a  seat  in  parliament,  and  was  a 
 strict  puritan,  and  a  strenuous  opponent  of 
 the  arbitrary  measures  of  the  crown.  He 
 was  one  of  the  five  members  whom  the  in- 
 fatuated Charles  demanded  to  be  given  up 
 to  him  bv  the  House  of  Commons.  Pym 
 died  in  1643,  not  long  after  having  been  ap- 
 pointed lieutenant  of  the  ordnance. 
 
 PYRRHO,  a  Greek  philosopher,  who 
 flourished  about  E.  c.  340,  was  born  at 
 Elea,  in  the  Peloponne-ais,  and  was  origi- 
 nally a  painter,  but  became  a  disciple  of 
 Anaxarchus,  whom  he  accompanied  in  the 
 expedition  of  Alexander.  On  his  return 
 his  fellow  citizens  made  him  their  high 
 priest,  and  the  Athenians  gave  him  the 
 rights  of  citizenship.  He  lived  to  the  age 
 of  ninety.  Pyrrho  founded  the  sect  of  the 
 Sceptics  or  Pvrrhonists. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS,  a  celebrated  philoso- 
 pher, the  founder  of  that  school  which  is 
 called  the  Italic,  was  born,  about  B.  c.  586, 
 at  Samos,  or,  according  to  some,  atSidon, 
 and  began  to  travel  at  the  age  of  eighteen. 
 He  visited  Phenicia  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
 even,  it  is  said,  Persia  and  India,  and  re- 
 sided for  twenty-five  years  in  Egypt.  On 
 his  return  he  taught  geometry  at  Samos; 
 after  which  he  settled  at  Crotona,  in  Magna 
 Graecia,  and  established  a  school  of  philos- 
 phy,   which  became  famous.      Persecution 
 
428  QUI 
 
 at  length  drove  him  thence,  and  he  took 
 refuge  in  the  temple  of  the  Muses  at  Met- 
 upontum,  where  he  is  said,  but  the  truth  of 
 the  story  is  doubtful,  to  have  been  starved 
 
 QUI 
 
 to  death,  about  B.  c.  497.  Besides  oeing 
 an  illustrious  metaphysical  philosopher, 
 Pythagoras  was  a  great  geometrician  and 
 astronomer. 
 
 Q 
 
 QUARLES,  Francis,  a  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1592,  near  Romford,  in  Essex; 
 studied  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge, 
 and  at  Lincoln's  Inn;  was  successively 
 cupbearer  to  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James 
 I.,  and  secretary  to  Archbishop  Usher  in 
 Ireland;  suffered  greatlv  for  Lis  attachment 
 to  the  cause  of  Charles  I.;  and  died  in 
 1644.  His  principal  works  are,  Emblems; 
 Argalus  and  Parthenia;  Divine  Fancies ; 
 and  Enchiridion.  Quarles  has  been  made 
 an  object  of  satire;  but,  with  all  its  faults, 
 his  poetry  is  above  contempt. 
 
 QUESNAY,  Francis,  a  physician, 
 and  the  founder  in  France  of  the  sect  of 
 the  Economists,  was  born,  in  1694,  at 
 Merci,  near  Montfort  1'Amauri.  He  was 
 exceedingly  fond  of  farming  in  his  youth, 
 but  was  brought  up  to  the  profession  of 
 medicine,  and  became  physician  to  Louis 
 XV.,  who  loved  to  converse  with  him, 
 called  him  the  Thinker,  and  ennobled  him. 
 Qnmnay  died  in  1774.  Besides  his  medi- 
 cal productions,  which  are  numerous,  he 
 wrote  Pbysiocracy,  and  various  articles  in 
 the  Encyclopedia,  and  in  periodicals,  to 
 promulgate  his  doctrines  on  political  econ- 
 omy. 
 
 QUEVEDO  DE  VILLEGAS,  Fran- 
 cis, a  Spanish  poet  and  miscellaneous 
 writer,  was  born,  in  15S0,  at  Madrid; 
 studied  at  Alcala;  was  obliged  to  quit 
 Spain  for  haying  killed  a  brutal  noble  in  a 
 duel;  held  important  offices  under  the  duke 
 of  Ossuna,  viceroy  of  Sicily;  was  exiled 
 to  bis  estate  on  the  disgrace  of  the  duke, 
 but  was  again  received  into  favour  at 
 court;  lived  for  several  years  in  retire- 
 ment, devoted  to  literary  pursuits;  was 
 thrown  into  a  dungeon,  in  1641,  where  he 
 remained  twenty-two  months,  on  an  un- 
 founded charge  of  having  libelled  Count 
 d'Olivares;  and  died  in  1645.  Quevedo 
 stands  high  among  Spanish  authors,  par- 
 ticularly as  a  satirist.  His  Visions  of 
 Hell,  and  Comic  Tales,  liave  been  trans- 
 lated into  English. 
 
 QUIN,  James,  almost  equally  cele- 
 brated as  an  actor  and  an  epicure,  was 
 Dorn,  in  1693,    in  Covent  Garden.     His 
 
 father,  who  was  a  barrister,  died,  in  1710, 
 at  Dublin,  where  Quin  was  educated. 
 Being  left  resourceless,  he  went  upon  the 
 stage,  and  for  a  considerable  period  was 
 confined  to  inferior  parts.  At  length,  he 
 rose  into  high  reputation,  and  was  without 
 a  rival  till  the  appearar.ee  of  Garrick.  He 
 retired  from  the  stage  in  1751,  and  died 
 in  1766.  George  III.  was  instructed  by 
 him  in  recitation.  Thomson,  with  whom 
 Quin  was  in  habits  of  close  friendship,  has 
 paid,  in  The  Castle  of  Indolence,  an  ele- 
 gant tribute  to  his  talents. 
 
 QULXAULT,  Philip,  a  celebrated 
 French  lyrical  dramatist,  was  born,  in 
 1635,  at  Paris ;  began  to  write  for  the 
 theatre  at  the  age  of  eighteen;  became 
 highly  popular;  was  attacked  by  Boileau, 
 with  much  more  inveteracy  than  wit  or 
 justice;  and  died  in  1668.  His  works 
 form  five  volumes.  In  the  species  of  drama 
 to  which  Quinault  devoted  his  talents  he 
 stands  without  a  rival.  It  has  been  said 
 of  his  verses  that  they  were  already  music 
 when  they  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
 composer. 
 
 QUINCY,  Josiah,  a  distinguished 
 lawyer  and  patriot,  was  born  in  Boston  in 
 1743,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
 lege. He  soon  became  eminent  in  the 
 practice  of  law,  and  distinguished  by  his 
 active  exertions  in  the  popular  canse.  His 
 powers  of  eloquence  were  of  a  very  high 
 order.  In  1774  he  took  a  voyage  to  Eu- 
 rope for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  and  to 
 advance  the  interests  of  the  colonies.  He 
 died  on  his  return,  on  the  25th  of  April, 
 1775,  the  day  the  vessel  reached  the  har- 
 bour of  Cape  Ann. 
 
 QUINTILIAN,  Marcus  Fabius,  a 
 celebrated  rhetorician,  was  born,  in  42,  at 
 Rome;  followed  Galba  into  Spain,  and 
 taught  rhetoric  there ;  returned  to  his  na- 
 tive city,  in  6S,  and  was  long  a  professor 
 of  rhetoric ;  and  died  in  his  eightieth  year. 
 His  Institutes  of  the  Orator  have  been 
 translated  into  English.  Declamations, 
 and  A  Dialogue  on  Oratory,  are  also  at- 
 tributed to  him ;  but  the  latter  is  sometimes 
 ascribed  to  Tacitus. 
 
RAC 
 
 RAF 
 
 K 
 
 RABELAIS,  Francis,  a  celebrated 
 French  wit,  was  born,  about  14S3,  at  Chi- 
 non.  He  took  the  monkish  habit,  as  a 
 cordelier,  but,  in  consequence  of  having 
 been  punished  for  some  indecorous  pranks, 
 he  threw  it  off,  studied  medicine  at  Mont- 
 pellier,  and  obtained  a  doctor's  degree. 
 He  accompanied  Cardinal  du  Bellay,  in 
 his  embassy  to  Rome,  and  was  absolved  by 
 the  pope  for  his  abandonment  of  the  clois- 
 ter. After  his  return,  he  obtained,  through 
 the  influence  of  the  cardinal,  a  prebend, 
 and  the  rectory  of  Meudon.  He  died  about 
 1553.  Of  his  works  the  only  one  which  is 
 read  is  his  famous  Lives,  Heroic  Deeds, 
 and  Sayings  of  Gargantua  and  Pantagruel, 
 in  which  he  blends  admirable  wit,  humour, 
 and  satire,  with  the  grossest  absurdity, 
 tilth  iness,  and  obscenity. 
 
 RACINE,  John,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
 French  dramatists,  was  born,  in  1639,  at 
 La  Ferte  Milon,  and  completed  his  edu- 
 cation at  the  seminary  of  Port  Royal.  He 
 commenced  his  poetical  career  by  an  Ode 
 on  the  king's  marriage,  for  which  he  was 
 magnificently  rewarded.  A  second  Ode 
 obtained  for  him  a  fresh  recompense,  and 
 the  friendship  of  Boileau.  His  first  dra- 
 matic efforts,  The  Thebaid  and  Alexan- 
 der the  Great,  gave  but  faint  indications 
 of  superior  talent,  but  his  tragedy  of  An- 
 dromache placed  him  far  above  all  his 
 contemporaries  except  Corneille.  He  in- 
 creased his  fame  by  the  production  of 
 Britannicus,  Berenice,  Iphigenin,  and  other 
 tragedies,  and  by  his  comedy  of  The 
 Pleaders;  but  a  base  cabal  which  was 
 formed  against  his  Phaedra  induced  him 
 to  desist  from  writing  for  ih"  stage.  After 
 a  lapse  of  twelve  years,  he  wrote,  by  desire 
 of  Madame  de  Maintenon  and  Louis  XIV., 
 the  dramas  of  Esther  and  Athaliah,  to  be 
 performed  at  the  seminary  of  St.  Cyr. 
 The  last  of  these  pieces  was  cried  down 
 by  his  enemies,  and  Racine  relinquished 
 his  pen  in  disgust.  He  died  in  1699.  A 
 commentator  upon   Racine,  says  Voltaire, 
 
 "  has  only  to  write  at  the  bottom  of  every 
 page,  beautiful,  pathetic,  harmonious,  ad- 
 mirable, sublime!" 
 
 RADCLIFFE,  Anne,  a  celebrated  ro- 
 mance writer,  whose  maiden  name  was 
 Ward,  was  born,  in  1764,  in  London.  In 
 her  twenty-third  year  she  married  Mr 
 Radcliffe,  who  was  brought  up  for  the  bar, 
 but  was  never  called  to  it,  and  became 
 proprietor  and  editor  of  the  English  Chron- 
 icle. Her  first  production  was  The  Cas- 
 tles of  Athlin  and  Dunbayne,  and  it  did 
 not  indicate  that  high  talent  which  she 
 subsequently  displayed.  It  was  succeed- 
 ed by  the  Sicilian  Romance,  The  Romance 
 of  the  Forest,  the  Mysteries  of  Udolpho, 
 and  the  Italians;  works  which  placed  her 
 fame  upon  an  imperishable  basis.  "  She 
 seems  (says  Mrs.  Barbauld)  to  scorn  to 
 move  those  passions  which  form  the  in- 
 terest of  common  novels:  she  alarms  the 
 soul  with  terror;  agitates  it  with  suspense, 
 prolonged  and  wrought  up  to  the  most  in- 
 tense feeling  by  mysterious  hints  and  obscure 
 intimations  of  unseen  danger."  She  died 
 February  7,  1823.  Besides  the  above 
 works  she  wrote  A  Journey  through  Hol- 
 land, and  the  romance  of  Gaston  de  Blon- 
 deville ;  of  which  the  last  was  a  posthu- 
 mous publication. 
 
 RAFFENEL,  Claudius  Denis,  a 
 French  author,  was  born,  about  1797,  in 
 the  department  of  the  Jura;  travelled  in 
 the  Levant  and  Africa;  and  gave  promise 
 of  future  eminence  in  literature,  but  was 
 killed  by  a  cannon  bullet  at  Athens,  in 
 1827,  while  serving  as  a  volunteer  in  the 
 Greek  service.  He  wrote  A  Complete  His- 
 tory of  the  Events  in  Greece;  A  History 
 of  the  Modern  Greeks;  and  Summaries  of 
 the  History  of  Persia,  and  of  the  Lower 
 Empire. 
 
 RAFFLES,  Sir  Thomas  Stamford, 
 an  eminent  statesman,  was  born  at  sea,  in 
 1781,  off  Jamaica,  and  entered  the  East 
 India  Company's  service,  at  an  early  a?e, 
 a  clerk  in  the  home  secretary's  office.  In 
 1S05,  he  was  appointed  assistant  secretary 
 at  Prince  of  Wales's  Island;  in  1810  he 
 was  made  agent  of  the  governor  general 
 with  the  Malay  states;  and.  in  1811,  weg 
 raised  to  be  lieutenant  governor  of  .lava. 
 During  his  government,  which  lasted  till 
 1S16,  he  acted  upon  the  most  enlightened 
 principles,  and  gained  the  warm  affect  ion 
 of  the  Javanese.  In  1818  he  was  placed 
 at  the  head  of  the  factory  at  Bencoolen, 
 and  he  introduced  many  important  reforms 
 there.  But  the  master  stroke  of  his  policy 
 was  the  establishing  of  the  settlement  and 
 free  port  of  Sincapore  in  1819.  In  1824 
 he  left  Bencoolen,  but,  at  a  short  distance 
 
430 
 
 RAL 
 
 from  the  land,  the  vessel  took  fire,  and  all 
 his  valuable  collections  and  manuscripts 
 became  a  prey  to  the  flames.  He  died, 
 of  apoplexy,  at  High  wood  Hill,  in  Middle- 
 sex, July  5,  1826.  His  chief  work  is, 
 The  History  of  Java,  two  volumes  quarto. 
 
 RALEGH,  or  RALEIGH,  Sir  Wal- 
 ter, a  man  illustrious  id  arms  and  in  lit- 
 erature, was  born,  in  1552,  at  Budleigh, 
 in  Devonshire,  and  was  educated  at  Oriel 
 College,  Oxford.  Between  1569  and  1581 
 he  served  with  distinction  in  the  army  of 
 the  French  protestants,  in  the  Netherlands, 
 and  in  Ireland,  and  accompanied  his  half- 
 brother,  Sir  Humphry  Gilbert,  in  a  voy- 
 age to  America.  In  1582  lie  attracted  the 
 notice  of  Elizabeth,  by  a  piece  of  gallant- 
 ry, in  throwing  his  cloak  on  a  wet  spot 
 for  her  to  pass  over;  and  he  thenceforth 
 stood  high  in  her  favour,  was  actively  em- 
 ploved,  and  liberally  rewarded.  During 
 her  reipn  he  settled  in  Virginia,  shared  in 
 the  defeat  of  the  Armada,  and  the  enter- 
 prise against  Cadiz,  and  commanded  ex- 
 peditions against  Panama  and  Guiana. 
 But  the  sun  of  Ralegh  set  when  Elizabeth 
 died.  Her  successor  was  prejudiced  against 
 him,  and  a  pretext  was  soon  found,  or 
 made,  for  his  ruin.  In  1603  he  was 
 brought  to  trial,  on  a  charge  of  treason, 
 and  was  condemned  to  death.  He  was, 
 however,  not  executed,  but  was  confined 
 for  twelve  years  in  the  Tower,  during 
 which  period  he  wrote  his  History  of  the 
 World.  In  1616  he  was  not  only  released, 
 but  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  an 
 expedition  to  Guiana.  It  failed,  however, 
 and  on  his  return  he  was  arrested, and  was 
 iniquitouslv  brought  to  the  block,  on  his 
 former  sentence.  He  died  October  29, 
 1618.  Besides  his  History,  he  wrote  sev- 
 eral poems,  which  have  considerable  merit ; 
 and  a  variety  of  tracts  on  military,  naval, 
 and  other  subjects. 
 
 RALPH,  Jambs,  a  miscellaneous  wri- 
 ter, was  bom  at  Philadelphia;  came  to 
 England  in  1726  ;  became  a  political 
 writer;  obtained  a  pension;  and  died  in 
 1762.  Among  his  works  are,  A  History 
 of  England ;  The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Par- 
 liaments ;  The  Case  of  Authors  by  Profes- 
 
 RAP 
 
 sion;  and  Night,  a  poem;  to  the  last  of 
 which  productions  Pope  has  given  two 
 pungent  lines  in  The  Dunciad. 
 
 RAMLER,  Charles  William,  a 
 German  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1725,  at  Colberg,  of  poor 
 parents;  became  professor  of  logic  and 
 belles  lettres  at  the  Berlin  royal  cadet 
 school ;  and  died  in  1798.  He  was  cilled 
 the  German  Horace.  Among  his  works 
 are,  Odes;  Poems;  and  a  complete  trans- 
 lation of  the  Odes  of  Horace. 
 
 RAMSAY,  Allan,  a  Scotch  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1685,  atLeadhills;  was  originally 
 a  wig-maker,  but  became  a  bookseller; 
 acquired  fame  by  his  talents,  and  fortune 
 by  his  trade;  and  died  in  1758.  His  Po- 
 ems contain  much  that  is  worthy  of  praise; 
 but  his  fame  rests  on  his  delightful  pas- 
 toral comedy  of  The  Gentle  Shepherd, 
 which  is  one  of  the  classics  of  Scottish  lit- 
 erature.— His  son,  Allan,  who  was  born 
 in  1709,  and  died  in  1784,  was  an  eminent 
 portrait  painter;  and  wrote  The  Investiga- 
 tor, and  The  Present  State  of  the  Arts. 
 
 RAMSAY,  Andrew  Michael,  usu- 
 ally called  Chevalier  Ramsay,  was  born, 
 in  1686,  at  Ayr,  in  Scotland;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Edinburgh  and  Leyden  ;  was  tutor 
 in  several  families  of  rink,  among  which 
 were  those  of  the  Pretender,  and  the  duke 
 of  Argyle;  and  died  in  1743.  His  princi- 
 pal works  are,  The  Travels  of  Cyrus ; 
 Lives  of  Turenne  and  Fenelon;  and  a  Dis- 
 course on  Epic  Poetry. 
 
 RAMSAY,  David,  an  American  his- 
 torian, was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1749, 
 was  educated  at  Princeton  College,  and 
 commenced  the  study  of  medicine.  After 
 practising  a  short  time  in  Maryland,  he 
 removed  to  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in 
 1773,  and  soon  rose  to  an  extensive  prac- 
 tice. He  took  an  active  and  early  part  in 
 the  cause  of  the  colonies,  and  was  for  some 
 time  a  surgeon  in  the  revolutionary  army. 
 In  1782  he  was  chosen  to  a  seat  in  congress. 
 He  wrote  a  History  of  the  Revolution  in 
 South  Carolina;  a  History  of  the  Ameri- 
 can Revolution;  a  Life  of  Washington;  a 
 j  History  of  South  Carolina ;  and  a  History 
 of  the  "United  States.     He  died  in  1815. 
 
 RAPHAEL,  RAFFAELLE,  or  RAF- 
 FAELLO,  whose  real  name  was  SAN- 
 ZIO,  was  born,  in  1483,  at  Urbino,  and 
 was  the  son  of  a  painter,  who  placed  him 
 under  the  tuition  of  Perugino.  The  prin- 
 ciples  of  colouring  and  chiaro  oscuro  he 
 obtained  from  Fra  Bartolomeo,  and  he 
 improved  his  original  style  by  studying  the 
 works  of  da  Vinci  and  Michael  Angelo. 
 When  he  was  only  twenty-five,  he  was 
 invited  to  Rome  by  Julius  II.  to  embellish 
 the  Vatican.  The  three  apartments  of  thai 
 edifice,  which  he  adorned  by  his  pencil,, 
 occupied  hirn  during  nine  years,  and  con- 
 tain some  of  his   finest  productions:    the 
 
RAY 
 
 School  of  Athens  is  among   the  number. 
 The   Cartoons,   and  the   Transfiguration, 
 
 REE 
 
 431 
 
 were  among  the  last  of  his  labours.  Ra- 
 phael was  also  an  architect;  succeeded 
 his  uncle  Bramante  as  superintendent  of 
 the  works  of  St.  Peter's ;  and  designed 
 several  splendid  edifices.  Sculpture  and 
 poetry  likewise  shared  in  his  attention. 
 He  died  April  7,  1520.  "  General  opin- 
 ion," says  Mr.  Fuseli,  "  has  placed  Raffa- 
 elle  at  the  head  of  his  art;  not  because  he 
 possessed  a  decided  superiority  over  every 
 other  painter  in  every  branch,  but  because 
 no  other  artist  ever  united  with  his  own 
 peculiar  excellence  all  the  other  parts  of 
 the  art  in  an  equal  degree  with  him." 
 
 RAPIN,  Nicholas,  a  French  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1540,  at  Fontenai-le-Cointe; 
 obtained  an  office  in  the  parliament  at 
 Paris;  fought  for  Henry  IV.  at  the  battle 
 of  Ivry;  and  died  in  1C08.  He  wrote 
 Poems;  Latin  Epigrams;  and  other  works: 
 and  had  a  large  share  in  the  composition 
 of  the  celebrated  Menippean  Satire. 
 
 RAPIN,  Rf.natus,  a  French  Jesuit, 
 was  born,  in  1621,  at  Tours,  and  died  at 
 Paris  in  1687.  He  wrote  several  works, 
 of  which  the  principal  are,  a  Latin  poem 
 on  Gardens;  Reflections  on  Eloquence 
 and  Poetry ;  and  a  Comparison  of  Homer 
 and  Virgil,  Demosthenes  and  Cicero. 
 
 RAPIN-THOYRAS,  Paul  df,  a 
 French  historian,  was  born,  in  1661,  at 
 Castres;  quitted  France  on  the  revocation 
 of  the  edict  of  Nantz;  served  as  an  officer 
 in  the  Dutch  army,  accompanied  William 
 of  Nassau  to  England,  and  was  present  at 
 the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  and  the  siege  of 
 Limerick  ;  became  tutor  to  the  son  of  the 
 earl  of  Portland;  and  died,  in  1725,  at 
 Wesel.  His  great  work  is  The  History  of 
 England,  which  was  long  in  repute,  -<\nd 
 was  the  only  complete  narrative  of  English 
 events. 
 
 RAY,  John,  a  celebrated  naturalist,  the 
 son  of  a  blacksmith,  was  born,  in  1628,  at 
 Black  Notley,  in  Essex;  was  educated  at 
 Braintree  School,  and  at  Catherine  Hall 
 and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  lost  his 
 fellowship  in  the  latter  college,  by  refusing 
 jo  comply   with    the  Act  of  Uniformity; 
 
 travelled  on  the  continent  for  three  years 
 with  Mr.  Willoughby  and  other  friends; 
 became  a  F.  R.  S. ;  and  died  in  1705.  His 
 works  are  numerous  and  valuable.  Among 
 them  are,  rlistoria  Plantanun;  his  Trav- 
 els; The  Wisdom  of  God  manifested  in 
 the  Works  of  the  Creation;  Phvsico-The- 
 ological  Discourses;  and  a  Collection  of 
 English  Proverbs. 
 
 RAYNAL,  William  Thomas  Fran- 
 cis, an  eminent  French  historian  and  phi- 
 losopher, was  born,  in  1713,  at  St.  Genies. 
 Educated  by  the  Jesuits,  he  became  one  of 
 their  order,  and  acquired  some  reputation 
 as  a  preacher,  but  his  irregularities  deprived 
 him  of  the  hope  of  church  preferment,  and 
 he  turned  to  literature  for  a  subsistence. 
 He  joined  the  French  philosophical  party, 
 as  it  was  called,  adopted  their  principles 
 to  the  fullest  extent,  and  was  one  of  the 
 writers  in  the  Encyclopaedia.  Of  his  works 
 The  Philosophical  History  of  the  European 
 Establishments  and  Commerce  in  the  two 
 Indies,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  Diderot 
 and  others,  is  the  most  celebrated.  The 
 second  edition  was  prosecuted,  and  he  was 
 under  the  necessity  of  quitting  France. 
 After  having  travelled  for  some  years,  he 
 was  allowed  to  return  in  1787.  He  died 
 in  1796. 
 
 REAUMUR,  Rf.natus  Anthony 
 FERCHAULT  df,  a  celebrated  French 
 naturalist  and  philosopher,  was  born,  in 
 1683,  at  Rochelle ;  was  admitted  into  the 
 Academy  of  Sciences  in  1708;  and  was 
 for  nearly  fifty  years  one  of  its  most  active 
 and  efficient  members.  He  died  in  1757. 
 Among  his  works  are,  A  History  of  In- 
 sects ;  and  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  making 
 Steel.  Reaumur  contributed  largely  to 
 the  improvement  of  various  manufactures; 
 among  which  were  those  of  porcelain,  tin 
 plates,  and  artificial  pearls.  He  also  in- 
 vented the  manner,  which  still  bears  his 
 name,  of  graduating  the  thermometer. 
 
 READ,  Gf.org f,  a  signer  of  the  dec- 
 laration of  American  independence,  was 
 born  in  Maryland,  in  1734,  and  was  edu- 
 cated to  the  profession  of  the  law.  In 
 1775  he  was  appointed  a  delegate  to  Con- 
 gress, and  after  the  adoption  of  the  federal 
 constitution,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of 
 the  senate  of  the  United  States  from  Dela- 
 ware. He  was  afterwards  chief  justice 
 of  the  supreme  court  of  that  state.  He 
 died  in  1798. 
 
 REED,  Isaac,  a  critic  and  miscellane- 
 ous writer,  was  born,  in  1742,  in  London; 
 was  brought  up  a  conveyancer,  but  relin- 
 quished the  profession;  and  died  in  1807. 
 He  published  editions  of  Shakspeare  ;  Lady 
 W.  M.  Montagu's  Poems;  the  Seatonian 
 Poems;  Dodsl.y's  Old  Plays;  and  The 
 Biographia  Dramatica:  compiled  The  Re- 
 pository; and  was,  for  many  years,  the 
 editor  of  the  European  Magazine, 
 
432  REE 
 
 REED,  Joseph,  a  patriot  of  the 
 American  revolution,  was  graduated  at  the 
 college  in  New  Jersey,  in  1757.  While  a 
 member  of  Congress,  in  1778,  the  British 
 commissioner  endeavoured  to  procure  his 
 influence  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation 
 between  the  colonies  and  the  mother  coun- 
 try: he  rejected  their  otters  with  the  reply 
 — "That  he  was  not  worth  purchasing ;  i 
 but  such  as  he  was,  the  king  of  Great 
 Britain  was  not  rich  enough  to  buy  him." 
 In  1778  he  was  chosen  president  of  Penn- 
 sylvania, and  retained  that  office  till  his 
 death,  in  1781. 
 
 REES,  Dr.  Abraham,  an  author  and 
 dissenting  divine,  was  born,  in  1743,  in 
 North  Wales;  was  educated  at  the  dis- 
 senting establishment,  lloxton,  of  which 
 he  became  the  mathematical  tutor;  was 
 appointed  theological  professor  at  Hackney  | 
 College;  otticiated  more  than  forty  years 
 as  minister  of  the  congregation  in  the  Old 
 Jewry  ;  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
 and  of  Other  institutions;  and  died  June 
 9,1825.  He  wrote  Sermons;  and  con- 
 tributed to  the  Monthly  Review;  but  is 
 best  known  as  the  editor  of  the  enlarged 
 edition  of  Chambers's  Cyclopaedia-;  and  of; 
 the  still  more  extensive  Cyclopaedia,  in 
 foitv-four  volumes. 
 
 REEVE,  Clara,  a  novelist,  was  born, 
 in  1723,  at  Ipswich,  and  was  the  daughter 
 of  a  clergyman,  who  gave  her  a  good  edu- 
 cation. Her  earliest  work  was  a  translation, 
 published  in  1772,  of  Barclay's  Argents. 
 Among  her  subsequent  productions  are,  The 
 Old  English  Baron;  The  Two  Mentors; 
 The  Progress  of  Romance;  The  Exile; 
 and  Memoirs  of  Sir  Roger  de  Clarendon; 
 of  which  only  the  first  is  now  read.  She 
 died  in   1803- 
 
 REEVE, Tapping,  an  eminent  lawyer, 
 was  born  at  Brook-Haven,  in  1744,  and 
 was  graduated  at  Princeton  College.  He 
 established  himself  as  a  lawyer  in  hitch- 
 field,  Connecticut,  where  he  founded  the 
 law  school,  of  which,  for  nearly  thirty 
 \ears  he  was  the  principal  instructor.  He 
 was  for  many  years  judge  of  the  supreme 
 COWl  of  that  State,  and  some  time  chief 
 justice.  His  legal  attainments  were  of  a 
 high  order,  and  as  a  man  be  possessed  the 
 esteem  and  respect  of  the  community. 
 
 REEVES,  JOHN,  was  born  in  1752; 
 was  educated  at  Eton  and  Merton  Col- 
 lege, Oxford;  studied  the  law  in  the  .Mid- 
 dle Temple;  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
 
 1780.      DisgUSt,    however,    at    being   called 
 
 upon  to  defend  alike  the  righl  and  the 
 wrong,  soon  induced  him  to  discontinue 
 the  active  practice  of  his  profession.  After 
 having  been  law  clerk  to  the  board  of 
 trade,  he  was,  in  1791,  appointed  chief 
 justice  of  Newfoundland.  In  1792,  on  his 
 second  return  from  the  colony,  his  alarm 
 on    witnessing  the    prevalence    of    rcvoln- 
 
 REI 
 
 tionary  principles  induced  him  to  form 
 the  celebrated  Association  for  protecting 
 liberty  and  property  against  republicans 
 and  levellers.  In  1795  he  was  prosecuted, 
 by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons,  for  an 
 alleged  libellous  passage  in  his  Thoughts 
 on  the  English  Government;  but  was  ac- 
 quitted, lie  was  appointed  one  of  the 
 king's  printers  in  1799;  and  from  1803  to 
 1814  he  held  the  superintendence  of  the 
 alien  oflice.  He  died  August  7,  1829. 
 His  learning  was  extensive,  his  judgment 
 was  acute,  and  no  man  ever  possessed  a 
 more  kind  and  benevolent  heart.  Among 
 his  principal  works  are,  A  History  of  the 
 English  Law;  History  of  the  Law  of  Ship- 
 ping and  Navigation ;  and  A  Collection  of 
 the  Hebrew  and  Greek  Texts  of  the 
 Psalms. 
 
 REGNARD,  John  Francis, aFrench 
 comic  writer,  who  stands  next  to  Moliere, 
 was  born,  in  1647,  at  Paris;  travelled 
 over  various  parts  of  Europe;  was  taken 
 by  the  Algerines,  and  held  in  slavery  for  a 
 considerable  time;  settled  in  the  French 
 capital,  bought  an  office  at  court,  and 
 became   a   popular  dramatist;  and  died  in 
 
 1709.  His  works  form  six  volumes  oc- 
 tavo. 
 
 REGMER,  Mathurin,  a  French  sat- 
 irist, was  born,  in  1573,  at  Chartres,  and 
 died  in  1613.  Unfit  as  his  continual  de- 
 baucheries rendered  him  for  the  chinch, 
 he  obtained  considerable  preferment  in  it. 
 His  talents,  however,  were  indisputable, 
 and  his  Satires  still  retain  a  place  in  the 
 standard  literature  of  his  country. 
 
 REI1),  Thomas,  a  celebrated  Scotch 
 divine  and   metaphysician,   was  born,  in 
 
 1710,  at  Strachan,  in  Kincardineshire; 
 was  educated  at  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
 deen;  became  minister  of  New  Machar; 
 was  appointed  one  of  the  professors  of 
 philosophy  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
 in  1751  ;  succeeded  Adam  Smith,  in  1764, 
 as  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Glas- 
 gow; and  died  in  1796.  Dr.  Reid  was 
 the  first  writer  in  Scotland  who  attacked 
 the  sceptical  conclusions  of  Hume's  philos- 
 ophy, and  laboured  to  refute  the  Ideal 
 Theory,  which  was  then  prevalent.  His 
 principal  woks  are,  An  Inquiry  into  the 
 Human  Mind;  Essays  on  the  Intellectual 
 Powers  of  Man;  and  Essays  on  the  Active 
 Powers  ('{'  Man. 
 
 REISKE,  John  Jamks,  a  learned 
 German  philologist  and  orientalist,  was 
 born,  in  1716,  at  Zorbijj,  in  Saxony; 
 studied  at  Halle  ami  Leipsic,  at  the  last 
 of  which  places  he  became  Arabic  pro- 
 fessor;  was  appointed  rector  of  the  college 
 ofSt.  .Nicholas;  and  died  in  1774.  Among 
 his  numerous  works  are,  editions  of  the 
 Greek  Orators,  and  of  many  classics;  and 
 translations  from  the  oriental  languages, 
 lie  was  assisted  by  his  wife,  ERNE8T1NA 
 
REN 
 
 Christina,  who  learned  Greekand  Latin 
 that  she  might  be  able  to  lighten  his  labour 
 
 REY 
 
 4J3 
 
 REMBRANDT,  Paul,  called  Van 
 Ryn,  from  his  living  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Rhine,  but  whose  real  name  was  GER- 
 RETZ,  was  born,  in  1606,  in  a  village 
 near  Leyden,  and  studied  painting  under 
 Van  Swanenburg,  Lostman,  and  Pinas. 
 He  settled  at  Amsterdam,  and  soon  be- 
 came so  highly  celebrated  that  he  acquired 
 a  large  fortune.  His  habits,  however, 
 were  low,  and  his  avarice  was  insatiable; 
 so  that  he  lived  like  a  beggar,  and  descen- 
 ded to  the  meanest  tricks  to  increase  his 
 hoard.  He  died  in  1647.  He  excelled 
 with  the  graver  no  less  than  with  the  pen- 
 cil. Rembrandt  has  been  called,  but  not 
 with  much  discrimination,  the  Shakspeare 
 of  painting. 
 
 RENNEL,  John,  an  eminent  English 
 geographer,  was  born,  in  1742,  at  Chud- 
 leigh,  in  Devonshire  ;  and  entered  the 
 naval  service  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He 
 quitted  the  sea,  however,  in  his  twenty- 
 fourth  year,  went  to  India  as  an  officer  of 
 engineers,  resided  there  for  some  years, 
 and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major,  and  survey- 
 or general  of  Bengal.  On  his  return  home 
 he  became  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society. 
 He  died  May  29,  1830.  Among  his  chief 
 works  are,  The  Bengal  Atlas;  a  Map  of 
 Hindostan;  Memoirs  on  the  Geography  of 
 Asia;  and  The  Geographical  System  of 
 Herodotus  explained. 
 
 RENNIE,  John,  our.  of  the  most  cele- 
 brated civil  engineers  and  mechanists, 
 19 
 
 was  born,  in  1761,  at  Phantassie,  in  East 
 Lothian,  and  first  became  known  by  the 
 
 talent  which  he  displayed  in  the  mill  work 
 of  the  Albion  Mills.  He  soon,  however, 
 became  eminent  in  labours  of  a  superior 
 kind.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  the 
 Crinan,  Lancaster,  Kennet  and  Avon,  and 
 many  other  canals ;  the  Southwark,  Wa- 
 terloo, and  New  London  Bridges  ;  the 
 Breakwater  at  Plymouth  ;  and  several 
 docks  and  harbours,  among  which  are 
 those  of  London,  Hull,  and  Sheerness.  He 
 died  Oct.  4, 1821. 
 
 RESTIF  DE  LA  BRETONNE,  Ni- 
 cholas Edmund,  a  French  author, 
 equally  remarkable  for  his  fertility  as  a 
 writer,  and  for  his  cynicism  and  vanity  as 
 a  man,  was  born,  in  1734,  at  Sacy,  in 
 Burgundy,  and  died  at  Paris,  in  1806.  He 
 wrote  more  than  two  hundred  volumes  of 
 novels,  and  other  productions,  of  which 
 the  best  is  Le  Paysan  Perverti.  At  one 
 period  h?,  was  a  printer,  and  some  of  his 
 compositions  were  transferred  from  his 
 head  to  the  press  without  being  previously 
 committed  to  paper. 
 
 RETZ,  John  Francis  Paul  de 
 GONDI,  cardinal  de,  remarkable  for  his 
 daring  and  intriguing  spirit,  was  born,  in 
 1614,  at  Montmirail;  became  coadjutor  to 
 the  archbishop  of  Paris,  archbishop  of 
 Corinth,  and  a  cardinal;  took  a  prominent 
 part  in  the  troubles  of  France,  and  in 
 onooe.rg  ISazarin,  during  the  minority  of 
 Louis  the  fourteenth ;  was  impnso.ied,  but 
 escaped,  and  remained  in  exile  nh  1661; 
 practised  in  his  declining  years  those  vir- 
 tues which  he  had  trampled  under  foot  in 
 his  youth  ;  and  died  in  1679.  His  Memoirs 
 are  highly  interesting. 
 
 REYNOLDS,  Sir  Joshua,  a  celebrated 
 artist,  was  born,  in  1723,  at  Plympton,  in 
 Devonshire;    of  the    grammar    school    of 
 
 Inch  place  his  father,  a  clergyman,  was 
 the  master.  As  he  early  manifested  a  tacfte 
 for  drawing,  he  was  placed  under  Hudson. 
 He  afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he 
 studied  for  three  years.  In  1752  he  settled 
 in  the  British  metropolis,  where  he  rapidly 
 rose  to  eminence,  and  numbered  Burke, 
 Johnson,  and  othei  illustrious  characters 
 
434 
 
 RIC 
 
 among  his  friends.     When  the  Roval  Aca- 
 demy  was    instituted,    in    1768,   he    was 
 
 unanimously    chosen    president,    and    was 
 knighted.     In  1783  he  was  appointed  prin- 
 cipal painter  to  the  king.     He  died  Feb. 
 23,  1792.     His  literary  works,  the  princi- 
 pal of  which  are  the  masterly  Discourses 
 delivered  to  the  Academy,  form  three  vol- 
 umes.    In  the  British  school  of  art,  espec- 
 ially as  a  portrait  painter,  he  stands  very 
 high;   as  a  writer  he  displays  much  ele- 1 
 gance  and  sound  sense ;    and  as  a  man  he  j 
 was  deservedly  beloved.     "He  had  (says 
 Burke)  too  much  merit  not  to  excite  some  [ 
 jealousy;   too  much  innocence  to  provoke 
 any  enmitv." 
 
 iUCARDO,  David,  an  able  political 
 economist,  was  born,  in  1772,  in  London, 
 and  entered  upon  a  mercantile  life,  after 
 having  received  a  common  school  education. 
 He  gained  a  large  fortune  by  commerce; 
 obtained,  in  18i9,  a  seat  in  parliament 
 for  Portarlington;  and  acquired  reputation 
 as  a  senator  and  as  a  writer.  He  died 
 September  11,  1823.'  He  wrote  Princi- 
 ples of  Political  Economy  and  Taxation; 
 On  the  Depreciation  of  the  Currency ;  an 
 Essay  on  Rent;  and  other  works  of  a 
 similar  nature. 
 
 RICAUT,  or  RYCAUT,  Sir  Paul,  a 
 traveller  and  historian,  was  born  in  Lon- 
 don, and  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge.  In  1661  he  was  secretary  to 
 the  embassy  at  Constantinople;  after  which 
 he  was,  successively,  consul  at  Smyrna, 
 secretary  to  the  viceroy  of  Ireland,  judge 
 of  the  admiralty  there,  and  resident  in  the 
 Hans  Towns.  He  died  in  1700.  Ricaut 
 wrote  The  State  of  the  Ottoman  Empire; 
 The  Present  State  of  the  Creek  and  Ar- 
 menian Churches;  and  a  Continuation  of 
 Knolie.-'s  Histor\  ;  and  translated  Platina's 
 Lives,  and  (iarcilasso's  Commentaries  of 
 Pern. 
 
 RICCI,  SciPio,an  Italian  prelate,  was 
 born,  in  1741,  at  Florence,  and  was  raised 
 to  the  bishopric  of  Pistoia  and  Prato,  in 
 1786.  He  distinguished  himself  by  stren- 
 uously seconding  the  grand  duke  Leopold 
 in  the  attempt  to  introduce  a  reform  into 
 ibe  ecclesiastical  discipline  of  tin  dutch) . 
 
 RIC 
 
 His  efforts  drew  upon  him  the  hatred  of 
 the  clergy,  the  displeasure  of  the  pope,  and 
 much  consequent  persecution.  He  died  in 
 1810.  His  Life,  by  De  Potter,  contains  a 
 variety  of  curious  information. 
 
 RICCOBOiNT,  Anthony  Francis, 
 was  born,  in  1707,  at  .Mantua,  and  was  an 
 actor  and  author.  He  was,  however,  far 
 more  successful  in  the  latter  capacity  than 
 in  the  former;  his  comedies  having  attract- 
 ed crowded  audiences.  What  he  gained 
 by  the  stage  he  dissipated  in  foolish  at- 
 tempts to  discover  the  philosopher's  stone. 
 He  died  in  1772.  Among  his  works  are 
 Comedies,  Farces,  and  The  Art  of  the 
 Theatre. 
 
 RICCOBONI,  Mary  Jane  Laboras 
 de  Mezieres,  the  wife  of  Anthony  Fran- 
 cis, was  born,  in  1714,  at  Paris;  became 
 an  actress  from  necessity,  in  1734;  and 
 remained  on  the  stage  till  1761,  when  she 
 quitted  it,  and  became  eminent  as  a  ro- 
 mance writer.  She  died  in  1792.  Among 
 her  best  productions  are,  Letters  of  Julia 
 Catesoy ;  History  of  the  Marquis  de  Cressy ; 
 Ernestina;  and  Letters  from  Lord  Rivers 
 to  Sir  Charles  Cardigan. 
 
 RICH,  Claudius  John,  a  learned 
 writer,  was  born  in  1776,  and  at  the  age 
 of  seventeen  became  resident  of  the  East 
 India  Company  at  Bagdad;  for  which 
 situation  he  was  indebted  solely  to  his 
 merit  and  literary  attainments.  His  re- 
 searches into  the  antiquities  of  the  East 
 were  extensive.  He  wrote  Memoirs  of 
 Ancient  Babvlon.  He  died  at  Shiraz,  in 
 1821. 
 
 RICHARDSON,  Jonathan,  an  Eng- 
 lish painter,  born  about  1665,  was  a  pupil 
 of  Rilev,  and  married  his  niece.  As  a  por- 
 trait painter,  he  was  not  without  merit. 
 Assisted  by  his  son,  he  wrote  an  Essay  on 
 the  Art  of  Criticism,  as  it  relates  to  Paint- 
 ing; an  Argument  in  behalf  of'the  Science 
 of  a  Connoisseur;  an  Account  of  some 
 Statues,  Bas  Reliefs,  &c.  in  Italy;  and 
 Explanatory  Notes  on  Milton.  He  died 
 in  1745. 
 
 RICHARDSON,  Samuel,  is  said  to 
 have  been  the  son  of  a  joiner,  and  was 
 bym,  in  16S9,  in  Derbyshire.     His  educa* 
 
RIC 
 
 tion  was  scanty,  and  he  was  acquainted 
 with  no  language  but  his  own.  He  seems 
 at  an  early  period  to  have  been  fond  of 
 framing  stories,  to  relate  to  his  school  fel- 
 lows, and  of  writing  letters.  In  1706,  he 
 was  bound  apprentice  to  a  printer,  and  in 
 1719  he  commenced  business  in  Salisbury 
 Court,  Fleet  Street.  By  dint  of  industry, 
 his  establishment  became  highly  flourish- 
 ing. Onslow,  the  speaker  of  the  commons, 
 was  one  of  his  patrons.  Though  he  had 
 compiled  indexes,  and  written  prefaces 
 and  dedications,  it  was  not  till  1741  that 
 he  came  prominently  forward  in  a  literary 
 character.  In  that  year  he  published  Pa- 
 mela, and  at  once  rose  into  popularity. 
 In  1748  Clarissa  came  forth,  and  in  1753 
 Sir  Charles  Grandison.  The  general  cho- 
 rus of  praise,  and  almost  of  adulation, 
 that  rose  around  him,  it  would  be  difficult. 
 to  describe.  His  pecuniary  concerns  were 
 also  in  the  most  prosperous  condition. 
 But  the  best  gift  of  Heaven  was  wanting. 
 In  his  latter  years  he  suffered  much  from 
 ill  health,  and  he  died  of  apoplexy,  July 
 the  4th,  1761. 
 
 RICHARDSON,  William,  a  Scotch 
 poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  a  son  of 
 the  minister  of  Aberfoyle,  became  a  stu- 
 dent at  Glasgow,  in  175S;  accompanied 
 Lord  Cathcart,  who  had  been  his  pupil,  to 
 Russia ;  was  for  more  than  forty  years  pro- 
 fessor of  humanity  at  Glasgow;  and  died 
 in  1814.  Among  his  works,  all  of  which 
 are  marked  by  elegance  and  learning,  are 
 Anecdotes  of  the  Russian  Empire ;  Essays 
 on  Shakspeare's  Dramatic  Characters; 
 Poems;   and  Dramas. 
 
 RICHELIEU,  Arm  and  John  du 
 PLESSIS,  cardinal  and  duke,  a  French 
 statesman,  was  born,  in  1585,  at  Paris. 
 He  was  at  first  intended  for  the  army,  but 
 the  bishopric  of  Lucon  being  opened  to 
 him  by  the  resignation  of  his  brother,  he 
 studied  theology  with  such  industry  that 
 he  obtained  a  doctor's  degree  in  his  twen- 
 tieth year,  and  the  mirre  before  he  was 
 twenty-two.  His  ambitious  views  first 
 began  to  be  manifest  on  his  being  ap- 
 pointed, in  1614,  a  deputy  to  the  states 
 general.     Attaching  himself  to  the  queen 
 
 RIC  435 
 
 mother,  he  became  her  almoner,  and, 
 through  her,  was  appointed  one  of  the 
 secretaries  of  slate.  When  she  lost  her 
 influence,  he  resigned  his  employment  to 
 retain  her  favour,  but  took  care  to  act  in 
 such  a  manner  as  not  to  irritate  her  ene- 
 mies. When  a  reconciliation  at  length, 
 through  his  intervention,  took  place,  he 
 was  rewarded  by  the  dignity  of  cardinal, 
 Aware  of  Richelieu's  aspiring  character," 
 Louis  XITI.  long  refused  to  admit  him 
 into  the  administration.  At  length  he 
 yielded,  and  thenceforth,  for  a  period  of 
 eighteen  years,  he  was  little  more  than 
 the  phantom  of  a  monarch;  the  sceptre 
 being,  in  fact,  wielded  by  the  cardinal 
 "  He  made  (says  Montesquieu)  his  sov- 
 ereign play  the  second  part  in  the  mon- 
 archy, and  the  first  in  Europe;  he  de- 
 graded the  king,  but  he  rendered  the  reign 
 illustrious."  Richelieu  was,  indeed,  a 
 great  minister,  as  far  as  greatness  can  be 
 attained  by  success  bought  at  the  expense 
 of  every  virtue,  but  as  a  man  he  merits  ex- 
 ecration.    He  died  December  4,  1642. 
 
 RICHELIEU,  Louis  Francis  Ar- 
 mand  du  PLESSIS,  duke  of,  a  French 
 marshal,  descended  from  the  brother  of  the 
 cardinal,  was  born  in  1696,  and  died  in 
 1788.  He  was  an  odd  compound  of  scoun- 
 drel and  hero ;  in  which  admirable  mix- 
 ture the  first  ingredient  bore  a  large  pro- 
 portion. He  distinguished  himself  under 
 Villars,  and  afterwards  at  Kehl,  Philips- 
 burgh,  Dettingen,  and  Fontenoy;  and  re- 
 duced Minorca.  He  compelled  the  duke  of 
 Cumberland  to  capitulate  at  Closter  Seven, 
 after  which  he  pillaged  the  electorate  of 
 Hanover  in  the  most  infamous  manner. 
 On  more  than  one  occasion  he  proved  him- 
 self an  able  ambassador.  The  rest  of  his 
 life  was  spent  in  open  defiance  of  all  the 
 laws  of  morality. 
 
 RICHELIEU,  Armand  Emanuel  du 
 PLESSIS,  duke  of,  a  French  statesman, 
 grandson  of  the  foregoing,  was  born,  in 
 1766,  at  Paris.  He  emigrated  at  the  com- 
 mencement of  the  revolution ;  entered  the 
 Russian  service;  and  distinguished  himself 
 at  the  siege  of  Ismael.  After  having  fought 
 for  a  while  under  the  banners  of  the  prince 
 of  Conde,  he  went  back  to  Russia,  and 
 was  appointed  governor  of  Odessa.  By 
 his  prudnet  measures  he  raised  that  city 
 from  insignificance  to  the  height  of  pros- 
 perity. The  restoration  of  the  Bourbons 
 enabled  him  to  return  to  France,  and  in 
 1815  and  1820  he  held  the  office  of  prime 
 minister.  He  died  in  1822,  respected  for  his 
 disinterestedness  and  his  good  intentions. 
 
 RICHTER,  John  Paul  Frederic, 
 an  eminent  German  novelist  and  miscella- 
 neous writer,  was  born,  in  1763,  at  Wun- 
 siedel,  in  Franconia;  studied  at  Leipsic; 
 was  patronised  by  various  princes;  and 
 died  Nov.    14,  1825.     Among  his  works 
 
436 
 
 RIT 
 
 are,  A  Selection  from  the  Devil's  Papers ; 
 Hesperus;  Quintus  Fixlein;  Introduction 
 to  ^Esthetics;  and  Levana,  or  Lessons  of 
 Education.  They  manifest  great  talent, 
 bat  their  style  is  marked  by  much  singu- 
 larity. 
 
 RIDLEY,  Gloster,  a  divine,  was 
 horn  at  sea,  in  1702;  was  educated  at 
 Winchester  School,  and  at  New  College, 
 Oxford  ;  obtained  respectable  preferment  in 
 the  church;  and  died  in  1774.  His  princi- 
 pal works  are,  A  Life  of  Bishop  Ridley;  A 
 Re\  iew  of  PhilipsJs  Life  of  Cardinal  Pole ; 
 Melampus,  a  poem;  and  some  smaller  po- 
 ems in  Dudslev's  Collection. 
 
 RTEGO  Y  NUNEZ,  Raphael  del, 
 a  Spanish  patriot,  was  born,  in  1783,  at 
 Tuna,  in  the  Asturias.  As  an  officer  of  the 
 Asturian  regiment,  he  bore  arms  against 
 Napoleon,  and  was  taken  prisoner.  On  his 
 return,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
 colonel.  In  1819  he  formed,  with  Quiroga 
 and  others,  a  plan  for  freeing  his  country 
 from  the  yoke  of  despotism;  and  in  1820 
 he  powerfully  cooperated  to  execute  it. 
 When,  however,  the  worthless  Ferdinand, 
 by  the  aid  of  the  French  army,  recovered 
 the  power  of  tyrannizing,  Riego  was  brought 
 to  trial,  and  was  executed  with  every  cir- 
 cumstance of  insult  and  indignity,  Nov.  5, 
 1825. 
 
 RIENZI,  Nicholas  GABRINO  de, 
 an  Italian  reformer,  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
 tury, was  the  son  of  an  innkeeper,  but  re- 
 ceived an  excellent  education,  and  was  en- 
 dowed with  great  genius  and  eloquence. 
 In  1347  he  succeeded  in  overthrowing  the 
 tyranny  of  the  nobles  at  Rome,  and  obtain- 
 ing the  supreme  authority,  with  the  title 
 of  tribune  and  liberator.  He  was,  how- 
 ever, soon  expelled,  and  was  imprisoned 
 for  three  years  by  Clement  VI.  He  was 
 released  by  Innocent  VI.,  who  sent  him  to 
 the  Roman  capital  as  senator  and  tribune, 
 but  he  was  murdered  by  the  people  in  1354. 
 RING,  John,  an  eminent  surgeon,  and 
 a  miscellaneous  writer,  was  a  pupil  of  Pott. 
 He  died  in  1821.  Ring  was  a  strenuous 
 advocate  of  vaccination.  Among  his  works 
 are,  a  Treatise,  and  various  pamphlets, 
 on  Cow  Pox;  a  Treatise  on  Gout;  parts 
 of  a  translation  of  Virgil;  and  some  poems. 
 RIQUET,  1'ktkr'Paul,  a  celebrated 
 French  civil  engineer,  was  born,  in  1604, 
 at  Beziers,  and  died,  in  1680,  at  Toulouse. 
 Riquet  projected,  and  nearly  Completed  the 
 execution  of,  the  magnificent  canal  of  Lan- 
 guedoc,  which  forms  a  communication  be- 
 tween the  Mediterranean  and  the  Ocean 
 
 RITSON,  Joseph,  a  critic  and  anti- 
 quary, was  born,  in  1752,  at  Stockton,  in 
 the  county  of  Durham;  was  a  conveyancer 
 by  profession:  and  held  the  office  of  high 
 baififfof  the  Savoy.  He  died  in  1803.  Hit- 
 s', n  was  an  acute  and  well  informed  man, but 
 of  a  most  unfortunate  temper.     One  of  his 
 
 ROB 
 
 singularities  was  the  holding  of  animal  food 
 in  abhorrence;  and  on  this  subject  he  wrote 
 a  volume.  Among  his  works  are,  Biog- 
 raphia  Poetica;  The  English  Anthology; 
 English  Songs;  and  Ancient  Metrical  Ro- 
 mances. 
 
 1UTTENHOUSE,  David,  a  celebra- 
 ted mathematician,  was  born  in  Pennsyl- 
 vania, in  1732.  During  his  early  life  he 
 was  employed  in  agriculture,  but  as  his  con- 
 stitution was  feeble  he  became  a  clock  and 
 mathematical  instrument  maker.  In  1770 
 he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  and  practised 
 his  trade.  He  was  elected  a  member,  and 
 for  some  time  presidentof  the  philosophic- 
 al society;  and  one  of  the  commissioners 
 employed  to  determine  the  boundary  line 
 between  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  and 
 between  New  York  and  Massachusetts. 
 He  was  treasurer  of  Pennsylvania  from  1777 
 to  1789,  and  from  1792  to  1795  director  of 
 the  United  States  mint.  His  death  took 
 place  in  1796.  His  mathematical  talents 
 were  of  the  highest  order. 
 
 RIVTNUS,  Augustus  Quirinus,  an 
 eminent  botanist  and  physician,  whose  real 
 name  was  Bachmann,  was  born,  in  1652, 
 at  Leipsic;  practised  medicine,  and  was 
 professor  of  physiology  and  botany,  in  his 
 native  city;  and  died  in  1723.  His  princi- 
 pal work  is  a  Systema  Plantarum.  Rivi- 
 nus's  system  of  classification  is  founded  on 
 the  form  of  the  corolla. 
 
 ROBERT  DE  VAUGONDY,  Giles, 
 a  French  geographer,  was  born,  in  1688, 
 at  Paris,  and  died  there  in  1766.  Among 
 his  works  are,  The  Great  Universal  Atlas, 
 in  108  sheets;  and  a  Complete  Atlas  of  the 
 Revolutions  of  the  Globe,  in  66  sheets. — 
 His  son,  who  was  born  in  1723,  and  died 
 in  1786,  was  also  an  able  geographer. 
 
 ROBERTSON ,  William,  a  divine  and 
 
 a  celebrated  historian,  was  born,  in  1721, 
 at  Borthwick,  in  Mid  Lothian,  of  which 
 parish  his  father  was  the  minister.  After 
 having  been  educated  at  Dalkeith,  and  at 
 Edinburgh  university,  he  was  presented,  in 
 1743,  to  the  living  of  Gludsmuir.  During 
 the  rebellion  he  bene  arms  as  a  volunteer 
 His  first  work  was  a  Sermon,  published  in 
 1755,  which  passed  through  numerous  edi- 
 
ROB 
 
 tions.  It  was  not,  however,  till  1759,  that, 
 by  his  History  of  Scotland,  he  acquired  a 
 place  among  British  classical  writers.  Fame 
 was  accompanied  by  preferment.  He  was 
 transferred  from  Gladsmuir  to  Edinburgh: 
 and,  in  1759,  1761,  1762,  and  1764,  be- 
 came chaplain  of  Stirling  Castle,  one  of 
 the  king's  chaplains,  principal  of  the  uni- 
 versity of  Edinburgh,  and  royal  historiog- 
 rapher for  Scotland.  Advancement  in  the 
 English  church  was  offered  to  him,  but  was 
 refused.  In  1769  he  brought  out  the  His- 
 tory of  Charles  V. ;  in  1775  the  History  of 
 America;  and  in  1790  an  Historical  Dis- 
 quisition concerning  Ancient  India.  He 
 died  June  11,  1793. 
 
 ROBERVAL,  Giles  PERSONS  de, 
 a  French  geometrician,  was  born,  in  1602, 
 at  Roberval;  became  professor  of  mathe- 
 matics in  the  Royal  College  at  Paris;  and 
 died  in  1675.  Roberval  invented  the  curve 
 lines  to  which  Torricelli  gave  the  name  of 
 Robervallian ;  and  also  a  geometrical 
 method  of  resolving  the  most  difficult  pro- 
 blems. His  miscellaneous  works  were  col- 
 lected bv  his  friend  Gallois. 
 
 ROBESPIERRE,  Francis  Maximil- 
 ian Joseph  Isidore,  one  of  the  most 
 celebrated  and  most  violent  demagogues  of 
 the  French  revolution,  was  born,  in  1759, 
 at  Arras,  where  his  father  was  a  lawyer. 
 He  was  left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  nine 
 years,  but  was  protected  by  the  bishop  of 
 Arras,  who  placed  him  at  the  college  of 
 Louis  XVI.  at  Paris.  Returning  to  his 
 native  place,  he  became  an  advocate  in 
 respectable  practice.  His  political  career 
 began,  in  1789,  when  he  was  sent  a  depu- 
 ty from  the  bailiwick  of  Arras  to  the  states 
 general.  He  held  a  seat  in  all  the  subse- 
 quent legislative  bodies,  and  gradually  ac- 
 quired influence  in  them,  and  unbounded 
 popularity  among  the  people,  from  whom 
 he  obtained  the  title  of  "  the  incorruptible." 
 It  was  in  the  Convention,  however,  that 
 he  rose  to  his  greatest  eminence.  He  was 
 the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Jacobins, 
 and,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Girondists  and 
 Dantonists,  was,  in  a  manner,  the  ruler  of 
 France.  He  would,  perhaps,  have  esta- 
 blished his  authority  had  not  some  of  his 
 accomplices  discovered  that  he  had  devoted 
 them  to  the  scaffold.  A  struggle  ensued, 
 in  which  he  was  defeated,  and,  with  many 
 of  his  partisans,  he  was  guillotined,  July  9, 
 1794. 
 
 ROBINSON,  John,  minister  of  the 
 church  in  Holland,  to  which  the  first  settlers 
 of  New  England  belonged,  was  born  in 
 Great  Britain  in  1575,  and  educated  at 
 Cambridge.  In  1602  he  became  pastor  of 
 a  dissenting  congregation  in  the  north  of 
 England,  and  removed  with  them  to  Hol- 
 land in  1608.  It  was  his  intention  to 
 follow  his  congregation  to  the  new  world, 
 out  his  sudden  death  in  1625  prevented. 
 
 ROC 
 
 437 
 
 ROBINSON,  Mary,  a  poetess  and 
 miscellaneous  writer,  whose  maiden  name 
 was  Darby,  was  bom,  in  1758,  at  Bristol. 
 She  was  married  early  to  a  worthless 
 character,  and  was  obliged  to  resort  to  the 
 stage  for  a  subsistence.  In  this  situation, 
 her  beauty  attracted  the  Prince  of  Wales 
 (afterwards  George  IV.),  and  she  became 
 his  mistress.  The  connexion,  however, 
 was  but  of  short  duration.  In  her  latter 
 years  she  lost  the  use  of  her  limbs,  and  was 
 partly  dependent  upon  her  pen  for  the 
 means  of  living.  She  died  in  1800.  Among 
 her  works  are  Poems ;  Lyrical  Tales ; 
 Memoirs    of  her    own    Life;   and    several 
 
 novel.-'. 
 
 ROCHEFOUCAULD,  Francis,  duke 
 dk   la,   prince   of  Marsillac,   a   French 
 
 writer,  was  born  in  1613,  and  died  in 
 16S0.  He  was  a  man  of  wit  and  courage, 
 and  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  war 
 of  the  Fronde.  He  wrote  the  well  known 
 Maxims,  which  do  more  credit  to  his  head 
 than  his  heart;  and  Memoirs  of  the  Re- 
 gency of  Anne  of  Austria. 
 
 ROCHEFOUCAULD  LIANCOURT, 
 Francis  Alexander  Frederic, duke 
 de  la,  was  born  in  1747,  and  was  grand 
 master  of  the  wardrobe  to  Louis  XV.  and 
 XVI.  During  the  i  evolution,  he  was  the 
 friend  of  liberty,  but  the  enemy  of  licen- 
 tiousness. The  downfal  of  the  throne 
 compelled  him  to  quit  France,  and,  after 
 having  resided  for  some  time  in  England, 
 he  visited  America.  In  1799  he  was  al- 
 lowed to  return  to  his  native  country,  and 
 he  died  in  March,  1827,  generally  respected 
 for  his  liberal  principles  and  his  active 
 benevolence.  It  was  chiefly  by  his  exer- 
 tions that  vaccination  was  introduced  into 
 France.  His  principal  work  is,  Travels 
 in  the  United  States. 
 
 ROCHEJAQUELEIN, Henry  de  la, 
 one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Vendean 
 royalist  leaders,  was  born,  in  1773,  near 
 Chatillon  sur  Sevre,  and  was  a  son  of  the 
 marquis  de  la  Rochejaquelein.  First  as 
 one  of  the  chiefs,  and  afterwards  as  gene- 
 ralissimo, of  the  royalists,  he  displayed 
 great  talent,  and  the  most  daring  valour. 
 On  first  taking  the  command  he  addressed 
 his  men  in  the  following  pithy  harangue: 
 "  I  am  young,  and  inexperienced,  but  I 
 have  an  ardent  desire  to  render  myself 
 worthy  of  heading  you.  Let  us  march  to 
 meet  the  enemy ;  if  I  give  way,  kill  me; 
 if  I  advance,  follow  me;  if  I  fall,  avenge 
 me."     He  was  killed  in  March,  1794. 
 
 ROCHESTER,  John  WILMOT,  eari 
 of,  was  born  in  1647;  was  educated  at 
 Burford  grammar  school,  and  at  Wadham 
 College,  Oxford;  and  subsequently  trav- 
 elled on  the  continent.  In  1665  he  dis- 
 tinguished himself  in  the  fleet  under  the 
 earl  of  Sandwich.  The  remainder  of  his 
 life    was    spent    at   court,   where  he  was 
 
438 
 
 ROL 
 
 equally  remarkable  for  his  licentiousness 
 and  his  wit.  He  died,  penitent,  in  1680. 
 His  Poemfl  manifest  talent,  but  many  of 
 them  are  grossly  indecent. 
 
 RODNEY.  George  BRYDGES,  lord, 
 an  able  British  admiral,  the  son  of  a  naval 
 officer,  was  born  in  1717;  entered  early 
 into  the  navy;  was  appointed  governor  of 
 Newfoundland  in  1749;  was  made  admiral 
 of  the  blue  in  1739;  and  was  so  active  in 
 the  seven  years'  war,  that  at  the  conclusion 
 of  it  he  was  created  a  baronet.  In  176S 
 he  was  chosen  member  for  Northampton; 
 and  in  1771  was  sent  to  Jamaica,  as  com- 
 mander in  chief.  Having  ruined  his  for- 
 tune by  his  election  contest,  he  was  under 
 the  necessity  of  retiring  to  France.  In 
 1779,  however,  he  was  called  into  active 
 service;  in  the  following  year  he  defeated 
 the  Spanish  admiral  Langara;  and  on  the 
 12th  of  April,  1782,  be  obtained  a  splendid 
 victory  over  count  de  Grasse,  and  was 
 rewarded  by  a  peerage.     He  died  in  1792. 
 
 RODNEY,  Cesar,  a  signer  of  the 
 declaration  of  American  independence,  was 
 born  at  Dover,  Maryland,  in  1730.  He 
 was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  congress  of 
 1774,  and  remained  in  that  body  till  the 
 autumn  of  1776.  He  was  afterwards  pres- 
 ident of  bis  na'.ve  state  for  about  four 
 years.     His  de  ^h  took  place  in  1783. 
 
 ROEMER,  Oi.aus,  an  eminent  astron- 
 omer, was  born,  in  1644,  at  Copenhagen ; 
 was  invited  into  France,  in  1672,  to  be 
 mathematical  teacher  to  the  dauphin ;  re- 
 turned to  his  native  place  in  1681;  and 
 held  several  considerable  offices  previously 
 to  his  decease,  which  took  place  in  1710. 
 Roemer,  by  means  of  the  eclipses  of  the 
 satellites  of  Jupiter,  was  the  first  who 
 ascertained  the  velocity  of  light. 
 
 ROHAN,  Henry,  duke  of,  prince  of 
 Leon,  a  celebrated  general,  was  born,  in 
 1579,  at  the  castle  of  Blain,  in  Britanny. 
 He  first  distinguished  his  valour  and  talents, 
 as  head  of  the  Calvinists,  in  the  civil  wars 
 during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.;  and  he 
 subsequently  enhanced  his  fame  by  his  ad- 
 mirable military  conduct  in  the  Valteline. 
 He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
 Rhinfield,  in  1638.  Among  his  works  are, 
 Memoirs  on  French  Affairs;  Political  Dis- 
 courses on  State  Affairs;  and  The  Perfect 
 Captain. 
 
 ROLAND,  Philip  Laurence,  an 
 eminent  French  sculptor,  was  born,  in 
 1746,  near  Lisle;  was  a  pupil  of  Pajou, 
 ■jud  afterwards  studied  at  Rome;  acquired 
 great  reputation  on  bis  return  to  France; 
 Ulld  died  in  1816.      H«    masterpiece    is    a 
 
 statue  of  Homer  singing  to  bis  lyre,  which 
 is  in  the  gallery  of  the  Louvre. 
 
 ROLAND  DE  LA  PLATRIERE, 
 JoHH  Marv,  a  French  writer,  was  bum. 
 in  1732,  at  Lyons,  and  held  the  office  of 
 inspector  general  of  manufactures  at  Lyons, 
 
 ROL 
 
 when  the  revolution  broke  out.  Roland 
 espoused  the  popular  cause.  Removing  to 
 Paris,  he  became  closely  connected  with 
 the  Girondist  party,  and,  through  the  in- 
 fluence of  that  party,  was  made  minister 
 of  the  home  department,  in  1792.  After 
 the  10th  of  August,  he  was  a  member  of 
 the  executive  council.  The  downfal  of 
 his  party,  in  1793,  exposed  him  to  pro- 
 scription, but  he  found  a  secret  asylum  at 
 Rouen.  Hearing,  however,  of  the  execu- 
 tion of  his  wife,  he  rpiitted  iiis  retreat,  and 
 stabbed  himself  on  the  high  road  to  Paris. 
 He  wrote  The  Dictionary  of  Manufactures, 
 for  the  Methodical  Encyclopaedia;  various 
 works  of  a  similar  kind;  and  Letters  from 
 Switzerland,  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Malta. 
 
 ROLAND,  Mary  Jane,  a  woman  of 
 great  talents,  whose  maiden  name  was 
 PHL1PON,  was  the  daughter  of  an  en- 
 graver, and  was  born,  in  1754,  at  Paris. 
 At  an  early  period  she  manifested  a  strong- 
 ly marked  character,  and  a  love  of  read- 
 ing. After  her  marriage  with  M.  Roland, 
 she  assisted  him  in  his  literary  and  other 
 avocations.  Her  principles  were  decidedly 
 republican,  and  she  was  a  warm  and  elo- 
 quent defender  of  the  government  which 
 was  established  on  the  ruins  of  the  throne. 
 But  to  the  jacobins  she  was  as  ardently 
 hostile,  and,  when  they  succeeded  in  over- 
 throwing the  Girondists,  she  became  one 
 of  the  victims.  She  was  guillotined,  No- 
 vember 8,  1793.  She  wrote  An  Appeal  to 
 impartial  Posterity  ;  and  Miscellaneous 
 Works,  in  three  volumes. 
 
 ROLLIN,  Charles,  an  eminent  histo- 
 rian, was  born,  in  1661,  at  Paris.  He 
 was  the  son  of  a  cutler,  who  designed  him 
 to  follow  his  own  trade;  but  a  Benedictine 
 monk  obtained  his  admission  in  the  college 
 of  Du  Plessis.  After  having  acquired  there 
 a  knowledge  of  languages  and  philosophy, 
 he  studied  theology  for  three  years  at  the 
 Sorbonne.  Between  1683  and  1693,  he 
 tilled  the  chairs  of  professor  of  rhetoric 
 and  of  eloquence  at  the  college  of  Du 
 Plessis  and  the  Royal  College.  In  1694, 
 he  was  appointed  rector  of  the  university, 
 and,  in  1696,  coadjutor  of  the  college  of 
 Beaavaift.    The  last  post  he  held  for  fif- 
 
ROM 
 
 teen  years,  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the 
 students;  but  he  was  at  length  driven  from 
 it  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Jesuits.  Thence- 
 forth he  gave  his  time  wholly  to  literature. 
 He  died  in  1741.  His  principal  works 
 are,  Ancient  History  ;  Roman  History  ; 
 and  a  Treatise  on  the  Mode  of  Studying. 
 
 ROMANA,  Don  Petkr  CARO  Y  SU- 
 REDA,  marquis  de  la,  a  Spanish  gene- 
 ral, was  born,  in  1761,  at  Palma,  in  Ma- 
 jorca; was  educated  at  Lyons,  Salamanca, 
 and  Madrid;  served  as  aid-decamp  to 
 Moreno,  at  the  siege  of  Gibraltar;  and 
 distinguished  himself  in  the  campaigns 
 against  the  French,  on  the  Pyrenean  fron- 
 tier, from  1793  to  1795.  *La  Romana 
 commanded,  in  1S07,  the  auxiliary  Span- 
 ish corps  of  fourteen  thousand  men,  which 
 was  sent  to  the  north  of  Germany  by  Na- 
 poleon. When  Spain  rose  against  her  op- 
 pressor, La  Romana,  aided  by  an  English 
 squadron,  succeeded  in  embarking  his 
 troops  from  the  island  of  Funen,  and 
 leading  them  home  in  safety.  He  dis- 
 played great  talents,  both  in  the  field  and 
 the  council,  in  1809  and  1S10;  but  his  ca- 
 reer was  unfortunately  cut  short  by  death, 
 January  23,  1811. 
 
 ROMAN ZOFF,  Peter  Alexandro- 
 vitsch,  count  de,  a  Russian  general,  was 
 born,  about  1730,  and  entered  the  army  at 
 a  very  early  period.  After  having  acquired 
 reputation  in  subordinate  ranks,  he  was, 
 in  1769,  appointed  to  command  the  army 
 against  the  Turks.  In  four  campaigns  he 
 obtained  several  victories,  and  conquered 
 several  fortresses;  and  he  crowned  his  la- 
 bours by  compelling  the  grand  vizier  to 
 sign,  in  1774,  the  treaty  of  Kainardgi.  In 
 1788  he  was  again  placed  at  the  head  of 
 an  army  against  the  Ottomans ;  but  he  was 
 thwarted  by  Potemkin,  and  resigned  in 
 disgust.  |  He  died  in  1796. 
 
 ROME  DE  L'ISLE,  John  Baptist 
 Louis,  a  Frencn  mineralogist  and  natural 
 philosopher,  was  born,  in  1736,  at  Grai; 
 visited  India,  and  was  made  prisoner  at 
 Pondicherry;  studied  natural  history  after 
 his  return  to  France,  and  gave  lectures  on 
 mineralogy;  and  died  in  1790.  His  prin- 
 cipal works  are,  Crystallography  ;  Me- 
 trology ;  and  a  Letter  on  Soft  Water 
 Polypuses. 
 
 ROMILLY,  Sir  Samuel,  an  eminent 
 advocate  and  senator,  was  born,  in  1757, 
 in  Westminster,  and  was  the  sou  of  a  jew- 
 eller. He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  17S3, 
 and  gradually  rose  to  high  reputation  in 
 the  court  of  chancery.  When  the  whig 
 party  came  into  power,  in  1806,  he  was 
 appointed  solicitor  general,  was  knighted, 
 and  sat  in  parliament  for  Queenborough. 
 He  was  one  of  the  managers  of  the  inv 
 peachment  of  Lord  Melville.  As  a  senator 
 he  distinguished  himself  on  many  occa- 
 sions! ;  but  most  conspicuously  in  his  at- 
 
 ROS 
 
 439 
 
 tempts  to  introduce  a  reform  of  the  crimi- 
 nal law.  In  1818  he  was  elected  one  of 
 the  representatives  for  Westminster.  He, 
 however,  never  took  his  seat.  In  a  fit  of 
 temporary  insanity,  occasioned  by  the  death 
 of  his  wife,  to  whom  he  was  tenderly  at- 
 tached, he  put  an  end  to  his  own  existence, 
 Nov.  2,  1818. 
 
 ROMNEY,  George,  a  painter,  was 
 born,  in  1734,  at  Dalton,  in  Lancashire; 
 and  was  the  son  of  a  builder,  who  design- 
 ed him  for  his  own  profession,  but  he  be- 
 came an  itinerant  portrait  painter,  by  which 
 he  acquired  sufficient  money  to  enable  him 
 to  settle  in  London.  He  afterwards  visit- 
 ed Italy,  where  he  spent  two  years.  On 
 his  return  he  became  a  formidable  rival  to 
 Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  also  enjoyed 
 considerable  reputation  as  a  historical 
 painter.     He  died  in  1802. 
 
 ROMULUS,  the  founder  of  Rome.  Of 
 his  real  history  little  or  nothin  r  is  known. 
 There  exist,  however,  an  abundance  of  fa- 
 bles respecting  him,  among  which  are,  that 
 he  was  the  son  of  Mars,  and  was  suckled 
 by  a  wolf.  He  is  said  to  have  founded 
 Rome,  b.  c.  753.  Its  first  citizens  were 
 robbers!  He  is  believed  to  have  been  as- 
 sassinated after  a  reign  of  thirty-seven 
 years. 
 
 RONSARD,  Peter  de,  a  French 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1524,  in  the  Vendo- 
 mois;  was  page  to  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
 who  transferred  him  to  James  of  Scotland, 
 and  afterwards  received  him  again  into 
 his  own  service  ;  gained  unbounded  popu- 
 larity by  his  poems,  but  has  since  been  as 
 much  undervalued  ;  was  a  favourite  of 
 Charles  IX. ;  who  gave  him  several  rich 
 benefices;  and  died  in  1585.  His  poems 
 form  ten  volumes.  Ronsard  undoubtedly 
 possessed  talent,  but  was  deficient  in  taste 
 and  judgment. 
 
 ROOKE,  Sir  George,  an  admiral, 
 was  born,  in  1650,  in  Kent;  gained  at  an 
 early  period  a  high  reputation  for  skill  and 
 bravery;  defeated  the  French  and  Span- 
 iards at  Vigo,  in  1702,  and  captured  sever- 
 al men  of  war  and  galleons ;  bore  a  part- 
 in  the  reduction  of  Gibraltar,  in  1704; 
 and  died  in  January,  1708-9.  He  was  not 
 less   disinterested   than  able  and  intrepid. 
 
 ROSA,  Salvator,  a  celebrated  Ital- 
 ian painter,  was  born,  in  1614,  at  Naples. 
 Francanzano  and  Ribera  were  his  in- 
 structors in  the  pictorial  art.  He  rose  to 
 great  eminence,  and  was  patronised  at  Na- 
 ples, Rome,  and  Florence,  at  the  last  of 
 which  cities  he  resided  for  nine  years.  In 
 landscape,  in  scenes  of  gloom,  and  in  the 
 representation  of  banditti,  he  has  not  been 
 surpassed.  Nor  were  his  talents  confined 
 to  painting.  He  composed  music,  en- 
 graved several  of  his  own  pictures,  and 
 wrote  plays  and  poetry.  His  Satires  have 
 been  often  reprinted.     He  died  in  1673. 
 
440  ROS 
 
 ROSCIUS,  Quintus,  a  Roman  actor, 
 of  such  talent  that  his  name  has  since  been 
 given  to  every  performer  of  transcendent 
 merit,  is  believed  to  have  been  born  m  the 
 territory  of  Lanuvium.  He  died,  at  an 
 advanced  age,  B.  c.  61.  Cicero,  to  whom 
 he  had  given  lessons  in  the  art  of  declaim- 
 ing, wrote  one  of  his  orations  to  defend 
 him  against  Clierea. 
 
 ROSCOE,  William, a  biographer  and 
 miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  aboutl751, 
 at  Liverpool.  His  parentage  was  humble; 
 his  education  imperfect;  and  he  began  his 
 career  in  life  as  articled  clerk  to  an  attor- 
 ney. In  the  few  hour?,  however,  which 
 he"  could  snatch  from  the  law,  he  made 
 himself  master  of  the  Latin,  Italian,  and 
 French  languages;  and  he  subsequently  ac- 
 quired a  considerable  knowledge  of  (ireek. 
 His  first  literary  attempt,  a  poem  called 
 Mount  Pleasant",  was  written  in  his  six- 
 teenth vea  .  On  the  expiration  of  his 
 clerkship,  he  entered  into  partnership  with 
 Mr.  Aspinwall,  an  attorney  of  Liverpool. 
 After  having  followed  the  profession  for 
 several  years,  he  entered  himself  at  Gray's 
 Inn,  with  the  purpose  of  becoming  a  bar- 
 rister; and  he  subsequently  became  a  part- 
 ner in  a  banking  house.  As  a  banker  he 
 unfortunately  failed.  In  1806  he  was 
 elected  one  of  the  members  for  Liverpool; 
 but  he  declined  a  contest  at  the  next  elec- 
 tion. His  two  great  works,  The  Lives  of 
 Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  and  of  Leo  X. 
 were  published  in  1796  and  1805,  and 
 gave  him  an  enduring  reputation.  He 
 died  June  30,  1831.  Among  his  other 
 works  are,  Poems;  a  translation  of  Tan- 
 sillo's  Nurse;  and  various  pamphlets  on 
 politics,  and  against  the  slave  trade. 
 
 ROSCOMMON,  Went  worth  DIL- 
 LON, earl  of,  was  born,  about  1633,  in 
 Ireland  ;  received  his  education  partly 
 under  Dr.  Hall,  and  partly  at  Caen,  under 
 Bochart ;  spent  his  youth  in  dissipation, 
 but  became  reformed  in  his  maturer years; 
 and  died  in  1684.  His  Poems,  though 
 admitted  into  collections  of  British  poetry, 
 and  once  highly  praised,  have  now  few 
 readers,  and  fewer  admirers. 
 
 ROSE,  George,  a  statesman  and 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1744,  at  Brechin,  in 
 Angusshire,  and  was  the  son  of  a  clergy- 
 man; was  originally  a  purser,  but,  through 
 the  influence  of  Lord  Marchmont,  was 
 made  keeper  of  the  records  in  the  exche- 
 quer; displayed  talents  for  business,  by 
 which  he  obtained  the  confidence  and 
 friendship  of  Mr.  Pitt ;  rose  to  be  presi- 
 dent of  the  board  of  trade,  and  treasurer 
 of  the  navy;  and  died  January  13,  1818. 
 Among  his  works  are,  A  Report  on  the 
 Records;  Observations  on  Mr.  Fox's  His- 
 tory ;  and  an  Examination  into  the  Increase 
 ■of  British  Revenues,  Commerce,  and  Nav- 
 gation. 
 
 ROU 
 
 ROSENMULLER,  John  Christian, 
 a  celebrated  German  anatomist,  was  born, 
 in  1771,  Hl  Hessberg;  was  professor  of 
 anatomy  and  surgery  at  the  university  of 
 Leipsic;  and  died  in  1820.  His  principal 
 work  is  an  Anatomico-Chirurgical  Atlas, 
 of  which  the  plates  were  designed  by  him- 
 self. 
 
 ROSS,  George,  a  signer  of  the  decla- 
 ration of  American  independence,  was 
 born  in  New  Castle,  Delaware,  in  1730. 
 He  pursued  the  profession  of  law,  and 
 settled  in  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania. 
 In  1774  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the 
 Congress  which  met  at  Philadelphia,  and 
 continued  in  this  body  till  January  1777 
 In  April  1779  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of 
 the  state  court  of  admiralty.  He  died  in 
 the  July  following. 
 
 ROTGANS,  Luke,  a  Dutch  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1645,  at  Amsterdam;  served  in 
 the  army  from  1672  to  1674, as  an  ensign; 
 and  died  in  1710.  He  wrote  a  poem,  in 
 eisjht  books,  the  hero  of  which  is  William 
 III.;  two  tragedies;  the  Dutch  Fair,  a 
 descriptive  poem;  and  some  miscellaneous 
 poetry. 
 
 ROTROU,  John,  a  dramatic  poet,  one 
 of  the  creators  of  the  French  theatre,  was 
 born,  in  1609,  atDreux,and  became  early 
 a  writer  for  the  stage.  He  held  the  office 
 of  civil  and  criminal  lieutenant  at  his 
 native  place.  Being  at  Paris  when  a  pes- 
 tilential disorder  broke  out  at  Dreux,  he 
 hastened  to  afford  relief  to  his  fellow  citi- 
 zens; but,  three  days  after  his  arrival,  in 
 1650,  he  died,  the  victim  of  his  courageous 
 benevolence.  Incapable  of  mean  jealousy, 
 Rotrou  bore  public  testimony  to  the  supe- 
 rior merit  of  his  rival  Corneille.  Of  his 
 thirty-seven  plays,  the  best  are  the  trage- 
 dies of  Cosroes  and  Wenceslaus. 
 
 ROUBILLIAC,  Louis  Francis,  a 
 sculptor,  was  born,  at  Lyons,  about  the 
 latter  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He 
 settled  in  England  in  the  reign  of  George 
 I.;  was  much  esteemed  both  as  an  artist 
 and  as  a  man;  and  died  in  1762.  Among 
 his  works  are,  the  monument  of  the  duke 
 of  Argyle,  in  Westminster  Abbey;  statues 
 of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Handel,  George  I. 
 and  II.;  and  the  duke  of  Somerset;  and 
 a  figure  of  Religion,  at  Gopsall,  in  Leices- 
 ter-hire. 
 
 ROUSSEAU,  John  Baptist,  a  cele- 
 brated French  poet,  the  son  of  a  shoe- 
 maker, was  born,  in  1670,  at  Paris,  and 
 received  an  excellent  education.  At  his 
 outset  in  life,  he  was  page  to  the  French 
 ambassador  in  Denmark ;  after  which  he 
 was  secretary  to  Marshal  Tallard,  in  his 
 embassy  to  England.  The  liberality  of 
 i\l.  Rouille,  director  of  the  finances,  at 
 length  enabled  him  to  devote  himself  to 
 literature,  and  he  attained  high  reputation, 
 particularly  as  a  lyric  poet      He  was  on 
 
ROU 
 
 the  point  of  succeeding  Boileau  as  a  mem- 
 Der  of  the  French  Academy,  and  of  obtain- 
 ing a  pension,  when  an  event  occurred 
 which  annihilated  all  his  prospects.  On  a 
 charge  of  having  written  some  infamously 
 libellous  verses,  and  then  having  suborned 
 a  witness  to  attribute  them  to  Saurin,  he 
 was,  in  1712,  condemned  to  perpetual 
 banishment.  Dining  the  remainder  of  his 
 life,  however,  and  in  his  last  moments,  he 
 solemnly  denied  that  he  was  guilty.  He 
 died  at  Brussels,  in  1741.  His  works  form 
 five  volumes  12mo.  His  Odes,  Psalms, 
 and  Epigrams  are  excellent ;  but  many  of 
 the  latter  are  grossly  obscene. 
 
 •155% 
 
 ROZ 
 
 441 
 
 ROUSSEAU,  John  James,  one  of  the 
 most  eloquent,  paradoxical,  and  singular 
 of  French  writers,  was  the  son  of  a  watch- 
 maker, and  was  born,  in  1712,  at  Geneva. 
 His  education  was  neglected ;  and  romances 
 formed  the  chief  part  of  his  early  reading. 
 After  having  been  dismissed,  as  incapable, 
 from  an  attorney's  office,  he  was  appren- 
 ticed to  an  engraver,  from  whom  he  re- 
 ceived such  ill  treatment  that  he  ran  away 
 before  he  was  sixteen.  He  found  a  friend 
 in  Madam  de  Warens,  who  ended  bv  be- 
 coming his  mistress.  With  her  he  lived 
 for  some  years  at  intervals;  and,  when 
 not  with  her,  he  spent  a  wandering  life,  in 
 various  characters,  some  of  them  of  the 
 humblest  kind.  It  was  not  till  1750  that 
 he  manifested  his  splendid  literary  talents. 
 In  that  year  lie  gained  the  prize  given  by 
 the  Academy  of  Dijon,  for  his  celebrated 
 Essay,  in  answer  to  the  question  "Whether 
 the  progress  of  the  sciences  and  arts  has 
 contributed  to  corrupt  or  purify  manners." 
 He  maintained  that  the  effect  had  been 
 injurious.  From  this  period  his  pen  be- 
 came fertile  and  popular.  He  produced, 
 in  succession,  the  words  and  music  of  The 
 Village  Conjurer;  A  Letter  on  French 
 Music;  The  Origin  of  the  Inequality  of 
 Ranks;  The  Social  Contract;  The  New 
 Eloisa;  and  Emilius.  The  last  of  these, 
 which  appeared  in  1762,  was  condemned 
 by  the  parliament,  and  he  was  compelled 
 to  fly  from  France.  Thenceforth  his  exist- 
 ence was  passed  in  frequent  changes  of 
 place,  to  escape  real  or  fancied  persecution, 
 19* 
 
 and  in  suspecting  all  his  friends  of  insult- 
 ing and  conspiring  against  him.  To  dis- 
 ease of  body  and  mind  must,  no  doubt,  be 
 attributed  much  of  his  strange  conduct. 
 He  died  July  3,  1778.  Of  his  latest  works 
 his  Confessions  are  the  most  remarkable. 
 
 ROUSSET  DE  MISSY, John,  apolit- 
 ical and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born, 
 in  1686,  at  Laon,  in  Picardy ;  quitted  his 
 country  in  consequence  of  being  persecuted 
 for  his  religion;  resided  for  many  years  in 
 Holland;  and  died  in  1762.  lie  was  the 
 proprietor  and  editor  of  The  Historical 
 and  Political  Mercury  ;  and  wrote  and 
 compiled  many  works,  one  of  the  princi- 
 pal of  which  is,  A  History  of  Prince 
 Eugene,  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  and 
 the  Prince  of  Orange. 
 
 ROVVE,  Nicholas,  a  poet  and  dramat- 
 ist, the  son  of  a  Serjeant  at  law,  was  born, 
 in  1673,  at  Little  Berkford,  In  Bedford- 
 shire; studied  at  Westminster  School,  and 
 the  Middle  Temple,  but  was  never  called 
 to  the  bar ;  began  to  write  for  the  theatre 
 at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  and  had  consid- 
 erable success;  and  died  in  1718.  His 
 tragedies  of  Tamerlane,  Jane  Shore,  and 
 The  Fair  Penitent,  still  retain  possession 
 of  the  stage.  His  translation  of  Lucan  is 
 declared  by  Johnson  to  be  "  one  of  the 
 greatest,  productions  of  English  poetry." 
 
 ROWE,  Elizabeth,  whose  maiden 
 name  was  Singer,  a  lady  remarkable  for 
 the  graces  of  her  person  and  mind,  waa 
 born,  in  1674,  at  Ilchester,  in  Somerset- 
 shire ;  and  died  in  1737.  Among  her 
 works  are,  Poems;  Friendship  in  Death; 
 The  History  of  Joseph,  a  poem;  and  De' 
 vout  Exercises  of  the  Heart. 
 
 ROWLANDSON,  Thomas,  an  artist, 
 who  excelled  in  caricature  and  ludicrous 
 subjects,  was  born  in  1756,  in  London ; 
 studied  drawing  at  Paris,  and  the  British 
 Royal  Academy  ;  dissipated,  chiefly  by 
 gambling,  a  considerable  fortune;  and  died 
 in  1827.  Among  his  works  are  the  plates 
 to  Dr.  Syntax's  Tours;  The  Dance  of  Life; 
 and  The  Dance  of  Death. 
 
 ROXBURGH,  William,  a  physician 
 and  botanist,  was  born,  in  1759,  at  Craigie, 
 in  Ayrshire;  was  educated  at  Edinburgh; 
 settled  at  Madras,  whence  he  removed  to 
 Calcutta,  where  he  became  keeper  of  the 
 botanical  garden,  and  a  member  of  the 
 Asiatic  Society;  and  died,  in  1815,  at 
 Edinburgh.  His  principal  work  is,  The 
 Plants  of  the  Coast  of  Coromandel.  He 
 contributed  many  papers  to  the  Asiatic 
 Researches. 
 
 ROZIER,  John,  a  botanist  and  agri- 
 cultural writer,  was  born,  in  1734,  at 
 Lyons  ;  and  was  killed,  by  a  bomb,  during 
 the  siege  of  that  city,  in  1793.  His  chief 
 works  are,  A  Complete  Course  of  Agri- 
 culture ;  Elementary  Demonstrations  of 
 Botany ;    and    Observations    on    Natural 
 
442 
 
 ROD 
 
 Philosophy,  Natural  History,  and  the 
 Arts. 
 
 RUBENS,  Petkr  Paul,  a  celebrated 
 painter,  was  born  in  1577,  but  whether  at 
 Antwerp  or  at  Cologne  is  a  disputed  point. 
 He  received  an  excellent  education.  The 
 principles  of  painting  he  acquired  from 
 Vestraecht,  Van  Out,  and  Van  Veen,  and 
 he  completed  his  knowledge  by  studying  in 
 Italy  the  works  of  the  greatest  musters. 
 In  the  classic  land  of  the  arts  lie  was 
 employed  by  the  duke  of  Mantua,  not 
 only  as  an  artist,  but  also  on  an  embassy 
 to  Madrid.  Being  invited  back  to  the 
 Netherlands  by  the  Archduke  Albert  and 
 the  Infanta  Isabella,  who  conferred  on  him 
 the  office  of  chamberlain,  and  gave  him  a 
 pcusi  >ii,  he  settled  at  Antwerp,  where  he 
 rapidly  rose  to  the  highest  eminence  in 
 his  profession.  In  1620,  he  went  to  Paris, 
 at  th"  request  of  Mary  <d"  Qfedicis,  to  em- 
 bellish the  Luxemburgh  gallery  with  a 
 series  of  pictures;  a  task  which  occupied 
 hi  n  for  three  years.  In  1628  Isabella 
 dispatched  him  to  Madrid,  on  a  political 
 mission.  While  residing  there,  he  executed 
 several  fine  works,  for  which  he  was  re- 
 warded with  knighthood,  and  the  appoint- 
 ment of  gentleman  of  the  royal  bedchamber. 
 In  the  following  year  he  was  sent  on  an 
 embassv  to  England;  painted,  at  White- 
 hall, the  apothesis  of  James  I.  and  other 
 pieces;  and  received  a  gold  chain,  anil  the 
 title  of  knight  from  Charles  I.  He  died  at 
 Antwerp,  in  1040. 
 
 RUCELLAI,  John,  the  son  of  Ber- 
 nard, who  was  an  eminent  writer  and 
 statesman,  was  born,  in  1475,  at  Florence; 
 was  papal  nuncio  in  Fiance,  and  after- 
 wards apostolical  prothonotary  and  gover- 
 nor of  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo;  and  died 
 in  152.").  Among  his  works  are,  The  Bees, 
 a  didactic  poem;  and  the  tragedies  of 
 Rosmonda  and  Orestes.  Rosmonda  was 
 one  of  the  earliest  specimens  of  modern 
 tragedy. 
 
 R!  i)BECK,  Olaus,  a  learned  Swedish 
 physician,  was  born,  in  1630,  at  Vesteras, 
 of  wl  ich  his  father  was  bishop;  established 
 the  botanic  garden  at  Upsal ;  was  botan- 
 ical, medical,  and  anatomical  professor, 
 and  chancellor  of  the  university  of  that 
 city  ;  and  died  in  1702.  He  discovered 
 die  lymphatics  of  the  liver.  He  wrote 
 several  works,  the  most  curious  of  which 
 is  the  Atlantica,  in  which  he  maintains 
 that  Sweden  is  the  primitive  Eden,  and 
 the  Atlantis  of  Plato. 
 
 RUDDI MAX, Thomas,  a  grammarian, 
 was  born,  in  1674,  at  Boyndie,  in  Banff- 
 shire; was  educated  at  King's  College, 
 Aberdeen  ;  became  assistant  keeper  of  the 
 advocates'  library  at  Edinburgh,  and  a 
 printer;  and  'lied  in  1757.  He  establish- 
 ed The  Caledonian  Mercury;  wrote  The 
 Rudiments  of  the  Latin  Tongue,  and  other 
 
 RUP 
 
 grammatical  productions;  and  edited  vari- 
 ous works. 
 
 RUHNKEN,orRUHNKENIUS,  Da- 
 J  vi D,  an  eminent  German  philologist  and 
 critic,  was  born,  in  1723,  at  Stolpen,  in 
 Pomerania;  studied  at  Wittemberg  and 
 Leyden;  and  died,  in  1798,  professor  of 
 eloquence  and  history,  and  librarian,  at 
 Leyden.  He  edited  and  added  notes  to 
 several  classics;  and  published  a  collection 
 of  his  oratorical,  critical,  and  philological 
 tracts. 
 
 RULHIERE,  Claudius  Carloman 
 de,  a  French  historian,  was  born,  in  1735, 
 at  Bondi,  near  Paris.  After  having  been 
 in  the  army,  he  accompanied  the  ambassa- 
 dor, baron  de  Bretuil,  to  Petersburgh,  as 
 secretary  and  confidential  friend.  In  1771 
 he  received  a  pension;  in  1787  he  became 
 a  member  of  the  Academy;  and  he  died  in 
 1791.  Among  his  works  are  Poems;  An- 
 ecdotes on  the  Russian  Revolution  of  1762; 
 and  A  History  of  the  Anarchy  of  Poland, 
 and  of  the  Partition  of  that  Republic. 
 
 RUM  FORD,  Benjamin  THOMP- 
 SON, count,  was  born,  in  1753,  at  Rum- 
 ford,  in  New  Hampshire,  and  was  educated 
 at  Harvard  College.  During  the  Ameri- 
 can war  he  espoused  the  royal  cause,  ob- 
 tained the  rank  of  colonel,  and  was  knight- 
 ed. At  the  close  of  the  contest  he  entered 
 the  Bavarian  service,  as  lieutenant-general, 
 and  was  created  a  count,  and  received  the 
 order  of  the  white  eagle,  for  the  reforms 
 which  he  introduced  into  the  army  and 
 the  police.  In  179S  he  visited  England, 
 where  he  remained  for  four  years,  and 
 took  a  prominent  part  in  founding  the 
 Royal  Institution.  On  his  return  to  the 
 continent  he  married  the  widow  of  Lavoi- 
 sier. He  settled  near  Paris,  and  died 
 there  August  21,  1814.  His  experiments 
 and  discoveries  are  recorded  in  his  Essays, 
 and  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions. 
 
 RUPERT,  Prince,  third  son  of  the 
 elector  palatine,  king  of  Bohemia,  and  of 
 the  Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James 
 the  First,  was  born  in  1619.  He  com- 
 manded the  cavalry  of  Charles  the  Fir6t 
 during  the  civil  war,  and  on  various  occa- 
 sions manifested  the  most  daring  valour; 
 
RUS 
 
 but  his  impetuosity  and  want  of  prudence 
 more  than  counterbalanced  the  effects  of 
 his  bravery.  In  1665  and  1666  he  distin- 
 guished himself  in  various  naval  actions 
 against  the  Dutch.  He  died  in  1682. 
 Rupert  was  a  lover  of  the  sciences,  partic- 
 ularly of  chemistry  and  experimental  phi- 
 losophy. He  invented  prince's  metal,  and 
 the  art  of  mezzotinto  engraving 
 
 RUSH,  Benjamin,  an  eminent  Amer- 
 ican physician,  was  born,  in  1745,  at 
 Bristol,  in  Pennsylvania;  was  educated  at 
 Princeton  College,  and  took  his  degree  at 
 Edinburgh;  was  chosen,  in  1776,  a  mem- 
 ber of  congress;  and  signed  the  declara- 
 tion of  independence;  was  professor  of 
 medicine  and  clinical  practice  at  the  Penn- 
 sylvanian  university;  and  died  in  1813. 
 He  was  one  of  the  greatest  and  best  men 
 who  have  adorned  his  country.  Among 
 his  works  are,  Essays,  literary,  moral,  and 
 philosophical;  Medical  Inrptiries  and  Ob- 
 servations; and  A  History  of  the  Yellow 
 Fever. 
 
 RUSSEL,  Lord  William,  one  of  the 
 martyrs  of  liberty,  was  born  about  1641, 
 and  was  the  third  son  of  the  duke  of  Bed- 
 ford. In  the  house  of  commons  he  was  a 
 warm  supporter  of  the  bill  for  excluding 
 the  duke  of  York  from  the  throne.  The 
 court  did  not  fail  to  take  a  sanguinary  ven- 
 geance for  this  offence.  He  was  accused 
 of  having  participated  in  the  Rye  House 
 Plot,  and  on  this  charge  he  was  brought 
 to  trial,  July  13,  1683.  By  the  aid  of 
 perjured  and  infamous  witnesses,  and  a 
 packed  jury,  a  verdict  was  obtained  against 
 him,  and  notwithstanding  powerful  interest 
 was  exerted  to  save  his  life,  the  sentence 
 of  judicial  murder  was  carried  into  execu- 
 tion on  the  21st  of  July.  After  the  Revo- 
 lution the  proceedings  against  him  were 
 annulled. 
 
 RUT 
 
 443 
 
 RUSSEL,  Lady  Rachel,  the  wife  of 
 the  foregoing,  was  the  second  daughter  of 
 the  earl  of  Southampton,  and  widow  of 
 Lord  Vaughan.  In  1667,  she  was  united 
 to  Lord  William  Russel,  and  for  sixteen 
 years  they  enjoyed  uninterrupted  felicity. 
 On  his  trial  she  assisted  him  in  taking 
 notes.     She  survived  him  forty  years,  bu',  | 
 
 constantly  refused  to  enter  again  into  tlie 
 marriage  state.  She  died,  at  the  age  of 
 eighty-seven,  in  1723.  Lady  Russel  was 
 a  woman  of  unaffected  piety  and  an  excel- 
 lent understated  ing.  Her  Letters  have 
 been  often  reprinted. 
 
 RUSSEL,  Edward,  earl  of  Oxford,  a 
 British  admiral,  was  born  in  1651 ;  was 
 one  of  the  promoters  of  the  Revolution ; 
 gained  the  celebrated  battle  of  La  Hogue, 
 in  1692;  commanded  subsequently  in  the 
 Mediterranean;  was,  at  two  periods,  first 
 lord  of  the  admiralty;  was  one  of  the 
 regents  on  the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  till 
 the  arrival  of  her  successor;  and  died  in 
 1727. 
 
 RUSSEL,  Alexander,  a  physician, 
 was  born  and  educated  at  Edinburgh;  was 
 appointed,  in  1740,  physician  to  theEnglish 
 factory  at  Aleppo,  and  resided  there  several 
 years;  became  physician  to  St.  Thomas's 
 Hospital;  and  died  in  1770.  He  wrote 
 The  Natural  History  of  Aleppo. — His 
 orother  Patrick,  who  succeeded  him  at 
 Aleppo,  and  died  in  1805,  wrote  a  Trea- 
 tise on  the  Plague;  and  Description  of 
 Fishes  on  the  Coromandel  Coast. 
 
 RUSSEL,  William,  a  miscellaneous 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1746,  in  Mid  Lothian, 
 and  began  life  as  a  bookseller  ;  but  at 
 length  became  an  author.  He  died  in 
 1794.  His  principal  work  is  The  Histo- 
 ry of  Modern  Europe.  He  began  The 
 History  of  Ancient  Europe,  but  left  it  in- 
 complete. 
 
 RUTHERFORD,  Daniel,  a  natural 
 philosopher  and  physician,  was  born,  in 
 1749,  at  Edinburgh,  at  the  university  of 
 which  city  he  studied.  In  1786  he  "was 
 appointed  professor  of  botany,  and  keeper 
 of  the  botanic  garden.  He  "died  in  1819. 
 Dr.  Rutherford  was  the  discoverer  of  ni- 
 trogen, and  was  one  of  the  first,  if  not  the 
 first,  who  observed  the  acidifying  power 
 of  oxygen. 
 
 RUTHERFORTH,  Thomas,  a  di- 
 vine, was  born,  in  1712,  at  Papworth 
 Everard,  in  Cambridgeshire  ;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge; 
 became  professor  of  divinity  in  1745  ; 
 and  died,  in  1771,  rector  of*  Barley,  in 
 Hertfordshire,  and  archdeacon  of  Essex. 
 Of  his  works,  the  most  important  are,  A 
 System  of  Natural  Philosophy;  Institutes 
 of  Natural  Law;  A  Discourse  on  Mira- 
 cles; and  Sermons. 
 
 RUTLEDGE,  Edward,  an  eminent 
 lawyer,  and  a  signer  of  the  declaration  of 
 American  Independence,  was  born  in 
 Charleston,  S.  C.  in  1749.  His  legal  ed- 
 ucation was  completed  in  England,  and  in 
 1773  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  and 
 entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  profession. 
 In  1774,  he  was  appointed  a  delegate  to 
 ihe  congress  at  Philadelphia,  and  took  an 
 active  part  in  the  discussions  of  the  day. 
 
444 
 
 SAC 
 
 After  a  sucsessful  practice  of  his  profes- 
 sion for  seventeen  years,  in  1798  he  relin- 
 quished his  station  at  the  bar,  and  was 
 elected  chief  magistrate  of  South  Caroli- 
 na.    He  died  in  1800. 
 
 RUYSCH,  Frederic,  a  celebrated 
 anatomist,  was  born,  in  1683,  at  the 
 Hague,  and  graduated  at  Franeker,  after 
 having  studied  at  Leyden.  In  1665,  his 
 Treatise  on  the  Lymphatics  gained  for 
 him  the  anatomical  chair  at  Amsterdam. 
 Peter  of  Russia  gave  him  thirty  thousand 
 florins  for  his  specimens  and  preparations. 
 Ruysch  d;ed  in  1731.  He  excelled  all 
 other  anatomists  in  injecting  the  vessels 
 with  coloured  wax;  but,  unfortunately,  his 
 secret  died  with  him.  His  works  form 
 five  quarto  volumes. — His  son,  Henry, 
 who  died  in  1717,  was  the  author  of  The- 
 atrum  Animalium. 
 
 RUYSDAEL,  Jacob,  a  celebrated 
 Dutch  painter,  was  born,  in  1636,  at 
 Haarlem,  and  died  there  in  16S1.  By 
 whom  he  was  instructed  is  not  known; 
 but  his  talents  were  great.  In  landscape 
 he  stands  among  the  highest  masters  of 
 his  profession. — His  brother  Solomon, 
 who  was  also  a  painter,  but  far  inferior  in 
 merit,  was  born  in  1616,  and  died  in 
 1670. 
 
 RUYTER,  Michael  Adrian,  a 
 Dutch  admiral,  was  born,  in  1607,  at 
 Middleburgh,  or  at  Flushing.  He  entered 
 the  naval  service  when  he  was  only  elev- 
 en years  of  age,  and,  by  dint  of  bravery 
 andskill,  rose  to   the  summit  of  his  pro- 
 
 SAD 
 
 fession.  After  having  distinguished  him- 
 self on  numerous  occasions,  particularly  in 
 the  wars  of  1652  and  1666,  against  the  En- 
 glish, in  the  last  of  which  he  penetrated 
 up  the  Medway,  and  destroyed  some  ships  ; 
 he  was  mortally  wounded  in  1676,  in  an 
 engagement  with  the  French  admiral  Du- 
 quesne. 
 
 RYMER,  Thomas,  an  antiquary  and 
 critic,  a  native  of  Yorkshire,  was  edu- 
 cated at  Northallerton  School,  and  at  Sid- 
 ney College,  Cambridge.  In  1692  he  was 
 appointed  royal  historiographer.  He  died 
 in  1713.  As  a  critic  he  deserves  little 
 praise.  He  wrote  a  tragedy  and  some 
 poems,  which  are  equally  worthless  with 
 his  View  of  the  Tragedies  of  the  last  Age. 
 His  great  work,  The  Foedera,  though 
 faulty,  entitles  hiin  to  somewhat  more  re- 
 spect as  an  antiquary. 
 
 RYSBRACH,  John  Michael,  an 
 eminent  sculptor,  the  son  of  a  painter,  was 
 born  in  1694;  settled  early  in  life  in  Eng- 
 land, where  his  works  were  much  ad- 
 mired; and  died  in  1770.  Westminster 
 Abbev  contains  several  of  his  productions. 
 
 RZEWIESKY,  Wenceslaus,  a  Po- 
 lish nobleman,  was  born  in  1705;  filled 
 various  high  olfices,  among  which  was  that 
 of  grand  general  of  the  crown ;  was  six 
 years  a  prisoner  in  Russia,  for  his  opposi- 
 tion to  the  election  of  Stanislaus  Potowski ; 
 and  died  in  1779.  He  is  the  author  of 
 two  tragedies;  two  comedies;  poems;  A 
 Course  of  Rhetoric;  several  other  works; 
 and  a  translation  of  Horace's  Odes. 
 
 SAA  DO  MIRANDA,  an  eminent  Por- 
 tuguese poet,  was  born,  in  1495,  at  Coim- 
 bra;  abandoned  the  law  professorship  in 
 that  city  to  give  himself  up  to  literature 
 and  travelling;  and  died  in  155S.  He 
 wrote  two  comedies,  and  many  pastorals, 
 epistles,  and  sonnets. 
 
 SAAVEDRA-FAX  YRDO,  Diego  de, 
 a  Spanish  writer,  whom  his  countrymen 
 named  the  Spanish  Tacitus,  was  burn,  in 
 1584,  at  Algez-ares,  in  Murcia;  was  em- 
 ployed during  thirty-four  years  as  a  diplo- 
 matist; and  died  in  164S.  Among  his 
 principal  works  are,  The  Gothic  and  Cas- 
 tilian  Crown,  which,  however,  he  com- 
 pleted only  as  far  as  the  death  of  Roderic; 
 and  The  Literary  Republic. 
 
 SACCHETTI,  Francis,  an  Italian 
 novelist  and  poet,  was  born,  about  1335, 
 at  Florence ;  filled  some  of  the  most  im- 
 portant offices  in  the  Florentine  republic; 
 and  died  about  1410.  As  a  writer  of  tales 
 he  stands  next  to  Boccaccio. 
 SACCHINI,  Anthony  Mary  Gas- 
 
 par,  a  celebrated  Italian  composer,  was 
 born,  in  1735,  at  Naples;  studied  under 
 Durante ;  obtained  an  early  reputation  for 
 talent;  and  died  at  Paris,  in  1784,  after 
 having  resided  successively  for  considera- 
 ble periods  at  Rome,  Venice,  and  London. 
 Among  his  finest  operas  are,  CEdipus,  Ta- 
 merlane, Montezuma,  and  The  Cid. 
 SACKVILLE.  See  Dorset. 
 8ADI,  or  SAADI,  one  of  the  most  cel- 
 ebrated of  the  Persian  poets,  was  a  native 
 ofShiraz,  and  studied  at  Bagdad.     He  is 
 
 I  said  to  have  visited  Mecca   forty  times  on 
 
 j  foot,  and  he  fought  against  the  Crusaders, 
 by  whom  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  Syria. 
 
 !  Sadi  lived  to  the  age  of  one  hundred  and 
 two, and  died  in  1296.  His  principal  works 
 
 i  are,  The  Gulistan,  or  Rose  Garden;    The 
 
 1  Bostan,  or  Fruit  Garden. 
 
 SADOC,  a   Jewish    doctor,   flourished 
 
 !  about  B.  c.  248,  and  was  a  disciple  of 
 Antigonus  Sochanus,  who  succeeded  Simon 
 the  Just  as  president  of  the  Sanhedrim. 
 He,  in  conjunction  with   his  fellow  pup'J 
 
SAI 
 
 Baithosus,  wag  the  founder  of  the  sect  of 
 Sadducees. 
 
 1  S.EMUND  SIGFUSSON,  a  celebra- 
 ted Icelander,  is  believed  to  have  been 
 born  about  1045,  and  to  have  died  in  1135. 
 He  compiled  The  Edda;  assisted  in  fram- 
 ing the  Icelandic  ecclesiastical  ordinances; 
 and  wrote  a  History  of  Norway. 
 
 SAGE,  Balthasar  George,  an 
 eminent  natural  philosopher  and  mineralo- 
 gist, was  born,  in  1740,  at  Paris,  and 
 after  having  been  professor  of  experimen- 
 tal mineralogy,  was  appointed  superintend- 
 ent of  the  school  of  mines.  At  the  begin- 
 ning of  his  career  Sage  contributed  much 
 to  the  progress  of  mineralogy  in  France, 
 but  he  subsequently  set  his  face  against  the 
 modern  discoveries  in  that  science  and  in 
 chemistry.  He  died  in  1824,  a  member 
 of  the  Institute.  Among  his  works  are, 
 Elements  of  Dociinastic  Mineralogy :  and 
 a  Theory  on  the  Origin  ot  Mountains. 
 
 SAINT  CLAIR,  Arthur,  a  general 
 in  the  American  army,  was  boru  at  Edin- 
 burgh, was  a  lieutenant  under  general 
 Wolfe,  and  afterwards  settled  in  Pennsyl- 
 vania, and  became  a  naturalized  citizen. 
 On  the  commencement  of  the  revolution, 
 he  embraced  the  cause  of  the  American 
 army,  and  in  February  1777  was  appoint- 
 ed major  general.  He  served  with  dis- 
 tinction, and  in  1783  was  elected  presi- 
 dent of  the  Cincinnati  Society  of  his  adopt- 
 ed state.  In  1785  he  was  elected  a  dele- 
 gate to  Congress,  and  in  1787  was  chosen 
 president  of  that  body.  He  was  afterwards 
 governor  of  the  North  West  Territory,  and 
 in  1790  commanded  an  army  against  the 
 Miami  Indians.  He  resigned  his  commis- 
 sion of  major  general  in  1792.  His  latter 
 years  were  passed  in  poverty.  He  died 
 in  1818. 
 
 SAINTE  CROIX,  William  Emman- 
 uel Joseph  GUILHEM  de  CLER- 
 MONT LODEVE,  baron  de,  a  learned 
 French  writer,  was  born,  in  1746,  at 
 Mormoiron ;  studied  at  the  Jesuits'  Col- 
 lege, Grenoble;  quitted  the  army  for  lite- 
 rary pursuits;  and  died,  in  1809,  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Institute.  His  chief  works  are, 
 A  Critical  Examination  of  the  Historians 
 of  Alexander  the  Great;  and  Memoirs  for 
 a  History  of  the  secret  Religion  of  Ancient 
 Nations. 
 
 SAINT  EVREMOND,  Charles 
 MARGUETEL  de  SAINT  DENIS, 
 seigneur  de,  a  French  wit  and  author, 
 was  born,  in  1613,  of  a  noble  family,  near 
 Coutances,  was  educated  at  Paris  and 
 Caen;  served  with  reputation  in  the  army; 
 was  subsequently  a  courtier,  and  was  much 
 admired  for  his  brilliant  and  sarcastic 
 conversational  talents  ;  took  refuge  in 
 England,  in  1662,  to  avoid  the  Bastile; 
 was  in  favour  with  Charles  II.  and  Wil- 
 liam. III.;    and  died  in   London,  in  1703. 
 
 SAI  445 
 
 His  works  have  been  collected  in  seven 
 volumes  12mo. 
 
 SAINTE  FOIX,  Germain  Francis 
 POULLAIN  de,  a  French  dramatist  and 
 miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  in  1698, 
 at  Rennes.  He  served  in  the  army,  and 
 acquired  reputation,  but  quitted  the  mili- 
 tary profession  for  literature.  He  did  not, 
 however,  relinquish  all  his  military  pro- 
 pensities, for  he  was  frequently  engaged  in 
 quarrels  and  duels.  He  died  in  1776 
 Of  his  numerous  dramatic  pieces,  only 
 The  Oracle  retains  possession  of  the  stage. 
 Of  his  miscellaneous  productions,  Histor- 
 ical Essays  on  Paris  is  the  principal. 
 
 SAINT  HYACINTHE,  Hyacinth 
 CORDONNIER,  generally  known  as 
 Themiseul  de  St.  Hyacinthe,  a  French 
 author,  was  born,  in  1684,  at  Orleans. 
 After  having  served  in  the  army,  as  a 
 cavalry  officer,  he  resigned  the  sword  to 
 take  up  the  pen.  He  died  in  1746.  Of 
 his  works  the  most  important  is,  The  Mas- 
 terpiece of  an  Unknown,  which  met  with 
 extraordinary  success,  and  indicted  a  se- 
 vere wound  upon  pedantry.  The  Literary 
 Journal  was  established  by  him,  in  conjunc- 
 tion with  s'Gravesande  and  other  writers. 
 
 SAINT  JOHN.     See  Bolingbroke. 
 
 SAINT  LAMBERT,  Charles  Fran- 
 cis, marquis  de,  a  French  poet,  was  born, 
 in  1717,  at  Vezelize,  in  Lorraine.  At  the 
 peace  of  Aix  la  Chapelle  he  quitted  the 
 army,  and  obtained  an  office  in  the  court 
 of  Stanislaus,  where  he  became  admired  for 
 his  wit,  and  intimate  with  the  marchioness 
 de  Chatelet.  After  the  death  of  Stanislaus, 
 Saint  Lambert  again  entered  the  military 
 profession,  and  served  in  the  campaigns  of 
 1756  and  1757.  Settling  at  Paris,  he  was 
 admitted  a  member  of  the  Academy,  and 
 was  one  of  the  contributors  to  the  Encyclo- 
 paedia. He  died  in  1803.  He  wrote  The 
 Seasons;  Fugitive  Poems;  Tales,  &c. ; 
 and  Philosophical  Works. 
 
 SAINT  MARC,  Charles  Hugh  Le- 
 febvre  de,  a  French  writer,  was  born, 
 in  1698,  at  Paris;  Avas,  successively,  a  mil- 
 itary officer,  an  ecclesiastic,  a  private  tutor, 
 and  an  author;  and  died  in  1769.  Besides 
 editions  of  several  established  productions, 
 he  published  various  original  works,  one  of 
 the  most  important  of  which  is,  A  Chrono- 
 logical  Abridgment  of  the  History  of  Italy, 
 from  the  downfall  of  the  Western  Empire. 
 
 SAINTE  PALAYE,  John  Baptist 
 de  la  CURNE  de,  a  French  writer,  was 
 born,  in  1697,  at  Auxerre;  studied  with 
 particular  attention  the  manners  and  cus- 
 toms of  ancient  France  and  of  the  times  of 
 chivalry;  became  a  member  of  the  Academy 
 of  Inscriptions,  and  of  various  other  learn- 
 ed bodies;  and  died  in  1781,  of  grief  for 
 the  death  of  his  twin  brother.  He  wrote 
 Memoirs  on  Chivalry;  and  supplied  the 
 materials  from  which  Millot  derived  Th« 
 
446  SAI 
 
 History  of  the  Troubadours.     His  MS.  col- 
 lections formed  one  hundred  volumes  folio. 
 
 SAINT  PIERRE,  Charles  Irk.n/eus 
 CASTEL,abbe  de,  a  French  publicist  and 
 miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  in  165S,  at 
 Saint  Pierre  Eglise,  in  Normandy,  and 
 studied  at  the  college  of  Caen,  His  life 
 was  spent  in  acts  of  benevolence,  in  framing 
 projects  for  the  benefit  of  mankind,  and  in 
 making  those  projects  public.  Among  his 
 schemes  was  one  for  bringing  about  a  per- 
 petual peace  ;  which  Cardinal  Dubois  called 
 "  the  dream  of  a  good  man."  Having,  in 
 his  Polysynodia,  denied  Louis  the  Four- 
 teenth's right  to  the  surname  of  Great,  the 
 Academy  expelled  him;  and,  when,  on  the 
 decease  of  St.  Pierre,  it  filled  up  the  vacant 
 place,  it  forbid  his  successor,  Maupertuis, 
 to  pronounce,  as  was  usual,  his  eulogy! 
 His  works  form  eighteen  volumes  l2mo. 
 
 SAINT  PIERRE.     See  Bkrnarihn. 
 
 SAINT  REAL,  Caesar  VICHARD, 
 abbe  de,  a  Savoyard  historian,  was  born, 
 in  1G39,  at  Chamberi ;  accompanied  the 
 duchess  of  Mazarine  to  England  in  1675; 
 resided  subsequently  for  some  years  at 
 Paris;  and  died,  at  his  native  place,  in 
 1693.  His  works,  among  which  are  Don 
 Carlos,  and  The  Conspiracy  of  the  Span- 
 iards against  Venice,  form  eight  volumes 
 12mo.  His  histories  are  elegant,  but  are 
 deteriorated  by  an  infusion  of  romance. 
 
 SAINT  SIMON,  Louis  de  ROUVROI, 
 duke  of,  a  French  writer  and  statesman,  was 
 born  in  1675,  and  was  a  godson  of  Louis 
 XIV.  After  having  served  in  the  army,  he 
 spent  the  rest  of  his  life  at  court.'  He  was 
 appointed  one  of  the  council  of  regency  by 
 the  duke  of  Orleans;  and,  in  1721,  was  sent 
 to  Madrid  to  negotiate  the  marriage  of  Lou- 
 is XV.  with  an  Infanta.  He  died  in  1755. 
 Saint  Simon  wrote  valuable  Memoirs  of  the 
 Court  of  France  and  of  the  Regency,  of 
 which  no  complete  edition  has  yet  been 
 published. 
 
 SAINT  SIMON,  Claudius  Henry, 
 count  de,  of  the  same  family  as  the  forego- 
 ing, was  born,  in  1760,  at  Paris,  and  died 
 in  that  city  in  1S25.  He  is  the  founder  of 
 the  politico-philosophical  school  of  the  In- 
 dustrials; the  leading  dogma  of  which 
 shool  is,  that  industry  is  the  definitive  pur- 
 pose of  human  society,  and  that  those  en- 
 gaged in  it  constitute  the  superior  class  of 
 society.  Saint  Simon  published  an  Intro- 
 duction to  the  Scientific  Labours  of  the 
 Nineteenth  Century;  Political,  Moral,  and 
 Philosophical  Discussions;  and  other 
 works,  to  disseminate  his  doctrines. 
 
 SAINT  VINCENT,  John  JERVIS, 
 earl  of,  an  eminent  British  naval  officer, 
 oungest  son  of  the  auditor  of  Greenwich 
 pital,  was  born,  in  1734,  at  Heafurd 
 1  /'all ;  entered  the  naw,  as  a  midshipman, 
 at  the  ige  of  fourteen  ;  served  in  the  expe- 
 dition against  Quebec;   obtained   the  rank 
 
 von 
 
 Mo 
 
 SAL 
 
 of  post  captain  in  1760;  commanded  the 
 Foudroyant  in  the  action  between  Keppel 
 and  d'Orvilliers ;  and  in  1782  was  reward- 
 ed with  the  red  ribbon  for  his  gallant  con- 
 duct in  the  capture  of  the  Pegase.  In  1794, 
 as  admiral  of  the  squadron  in  the  West  In- 
 dies, he  contributed  to  the  reduction  of  the 
 French  islands;  and,  on  the  14th  of  Febru- 
 ary, 1797,  being  then  at  the  head  of  the 
 Mediterranean  fleet,  he  gained  the  splendid 
 victory  off  Cape  Saint  Vincent.  For  this 
 success,  to  which  Nelson  mainly  contribut- 
 ed, Sir  John  Jervis  was  made  an  English 
 peer,  and  received  a  pension.  In  1801  he 
 became  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  which 
 post  he  held  till  1804;  in  1S14  he  was  ap- 
 pointed general  of  marines;  and  in  1821 
 admiral  of  the  fleet.  He  died  March  the 
 15th,  1823. 
 
 SALAU-EDDYN,  or  SALADIN,  Ma- 
 lek  Nasser  Yhssuf,  sultan  of  Egypt 
 and  Syria,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  cham- 
 pions of  islamisin  during  the  crusades,  was 
 born,  in  1137,  at  Tekrit,  on  the  Tigris; 
 raised  himself  from  the  station  of  an  officer 
 to  that  of  a  sovereign ;  obtained  various 
 successes  over  the  Christians,  but  was  de- 
 feated by  Richard  Cu_ur  de  Lion  ;  and  died, 
 deeply  regretted  by  his  subjects,  in  1193. 
 
 SALE,  George,  an  author  and  oriental 
 scholar,  was  born  about  16S0,  and  died  in 
 1736.  He  wrote  a  part  of  the  Ancient  Uni- 
 \ersal  History,  and  translated  the  Koran. 
 He  w  as  one  of  the  founders  of  a  Society  for 
 the  Encouragement  of  Learning. 
 
 SALISBURY,  Robert  CECIL,  earl 
 of,  an  eminent  statesman,  the  son  of  Lord 
 Burleigh,  was  born  about  1550;  was  edu- 
 cated at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge; 
 sat  in  parliament  for  Westminster,  and 
 subsequently  for  the  county  of  Hertford; 
 became  a  privy  counsellor  in  1591,  and 
 secretary  of  state  in  1596;  and  was  sent 
 ambassador  to  France  in  the  following 
 year.  By  James  I.,  with  whom  he  had 
 kept  up  a  secret  correspondence,  he  was, 
 in  1605,  created  earl  of  Salisbury,  and  in 
 1608  he  was  appointed  lord  high  treasurer. 
 He  died  in  1612. 
 
 SALLO,  Denis  de,  a  French  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1626,  at  Paris;  was  a  coun- 
 sellor of  the  parliament  in  that  city;  and 
 died  in  1669.  He  was  the  first  person  who 
 established  a  literary  journal.  It  was  in 
 1665  that  he  began  the  journal  des  Savans; 
 a  work  that  was  long  continued  by  other 
 authors,  and  maintained  a  high  reputation. 
 
 SALLUST,  or  SALLUSTIUS,  Caius 
 ('i;isiMS,a  Roman  historian,  of  equal  tal- 
 ents and  profligacy,  was  born,  B.  C  86,  at 
 Amiternum,and  was  so  remarkable  in  early 
 life  for  shameless  licentiousness,  that  he  was 
 degraded  from  the  senatorial  rank  by  the 
 c.  nsorg.  Cesar  restored  him  to  his  seat, 
 and  successively  made  him  quaestor  and 
 pra-tor,  and  governor  of  Numidia.     In  the 
 
SAN 
 
 last  of  these  offices  he  amassed  an  enormous 
 fortune  by  acts  of  rapine.  He  died  B.  c.  35. 
 His  History  of  the  Roman  Republic  is  lost, 
 with  the  exception  of  some  fragments ;  but 
 his  masterly  Histories  of  the  Jugurthine 
 War,  and  of  the  Conspiracy  of  Catiline, 
 are  extant,  and  bear  ample  testimony  to  his 
 genius. 
 
 SALMASI US,  or  SAUMAISE,  Clau- 
 dius, an  eminent  French  scholar,  was  born, 
 in  1588,  at  Semur.  He  was  educated  by 
 his  father,  and  at  Paris  and  Heidelberg ; 
 and  translated  Pindar,  and  composed  Latin 
 and  Greek  verses,  when  he  was  only  ten 
 years  old.  His  knowledge  of  languages 
 was  extensive,  and  such  was  his  memory 
 that  he  retained  whatever  he  once  heard 
 read.  In  1632  he  succeeded  Scaliger  at 
 the  university  of  Leyden.  He  twice  visited 
 Christina  of  Sweden  at  Stockholm,  and  was 
 received  in  the  most  distinguished  manner. 
 In  1649  he  wrote  a  defence  of  Charles  I., 
 to  which  Milton  bitterly  and  victoriously 
 replied.  Salmasius  died  in  1653.  His 
 printed  works  amount  in  number  to  eighty, 
 and  he  left  sixty  in  manuscript,  and  as  many 
 unfinished. 
 
 SALUCES  DE  MENUSIGLIO,  Jo- 
 seph Angelus,  count  di,  an  Italian  phi- 
 losopher, was  born,  in  1734,  at  Saluzzo; 
 made  several  important  discoveries  in 
 chemistry,  dyeing,  and  mechanics;  and 
 died  in  1810.  He  wrote  various  essays  on 
 chemical  and  other  subjects. 
 
 SAMANIEGO,  Felix  Maria,  a  Span- 
 ish poet,  who  is  called  the  La  Fontaine  of 
 Spain,  was  born,  in  1742,  at  Bilbao,  and 
 died,  in  1806,  at  Madrid,  a  member  of  the 
 Royal  Academy.  His  Fables  are  in  two 
 volumes  octavo. 
 
 SANCHO,  Ignatius,  a  negro  of  talent, 
 was  born,  in  1729,  on  board  a  slave  ship, 
 and  was  carried  to  Carthagena.  While 
 he  was  young,  he  was  brought  to  England, 
 and  given  to  three  sisters,  who  called  him 
 Sancho.  The  duke  of  Montague  took  him 
 into  his  service,  and  encouraged  him  in  his 
 love  of  learning,  and  the  duchess  left  him 
 an  annuity  at  her  death.  Having  married 
 a  woman  of  small  property,  he  began  busi- 
 ness as  a  grocer,  and  continued  in  it  till 
 his  decease  in  1780.  Sterne,  Garrick,  and 
 other  literary  characters,  were  among  his 
 friends.  He  wrote  Letters ;  some  poems; 
 and  a  tract  on  music. 
 
 SANCROFT,  William,  an  English 
 prelate,  was  born,  in  1616,  at  Fresingfield, 
 in  Suffolk;  and  was  educated  at  St.  Ed- 
 mundsbury  School,  and  at  Emanuel  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge,  of  which  latter  seminary 
 he  became  master  in  1662.  After  having 
 been  dean  of  York,  and  of  St.  Paul's,  he 
 was  raised  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
 bury in  1677.  Sancroft  was  one  of  the 
 seven  prelates  who  were  tried  fur  resisting 
 ihe  tyranny  of  James  II. ;   but  he  refused 
 
 SAN 
 
 447 
 
 to  take  the  oaths  to  William  HI.,  and  was 
 in  consequence  deprived  of  his  see.  He 
 died  in  1693.  He  wrote  Fur  Predestina- 
 tus;  Modern  Politics;  Sermons;  and 
 Letters. 
 
 SANCTORIUS,  or  SANTORIO,  a 
 celebrated  Italian  physician,  was  born,  in 
 1631,  at  Capo  d'Istria;  studied  at  Padua, 
 and  was  professor  of  the  theory  of  medi- 
 cine at  that  university  for  many  years  ;  and 
 died  at  Venice,  in  1636.  Of  his  works 
 the  most  important  is,  Ars  de  statica  Me- 
 dicina,  which  contains  many  valuable  ex- 
 periments on  insensible  perspiration,  and 
 lias  been  repeatedly  reprinted  and  trans- 
 lated. He  invented  a  pulse-measurer,  and 
 several  surgical  instruments. 
 
 SANDExMAN,  Robert,  founder  of  the 
 sect  called  Sandemanians,  was  born,  in 
 1723,  at  Perth;  was  at  one  period  of  his 
 life  a  linendraper;  became  a  preacher  in 
 America;  and  died  there  in  1771.  His 
 principal  work,  Letters  on  Theron  and 
 Aspasio,  was  written  to  controvert  Her- 
 vev's  doctrine  respecting  justifying  faith. 
 
 SANDWICH,  Edward  MON- 
 TAGUE, earl  of,  a  son  of  Sir  Sidney 
 Montague,  was  born  in  1623;  entered  the 
 parliament  service  at  the  age  of  eighteen; 
 and  commanded  both  by  land  and  sea.  At 
 the  Restoration,  he  conveyed  Charles  II. 
 to  England,  and  was  created  by  him  earl 
 of  Sandwich.  He  fought,  under  the  duke 
 of  York,  against  the  Dutch,  in  1664,  1665, 
 and  1672,  and  was  drowned  in  the  last  of 
 those  years,  by  jumping  overboard  on  his 
 ship  taking  fire. 
 
 SANDYS,  George,  the  second  son  of 
 the  archbishop  of  York,  was  born,  in  1577, 
 at  Bishop's  Thorpe,  and  was  educated  at 
 St.  Mary  Hall,  Oxford.  In  1610  he  began 
 his  travels  through  the  Levant  and  Italy,  of 
 which,  in  1615,  he  published  an  account. 
 The  rest  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  literary 
 pursuits  at  home.  He  died  in  1643. 
 Among  his  works  are,  a  Translation  of 
 Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  and  of  Grotius's 
 Christ's  Passion;  and  Paraphrases  of  the 
 Psalms,  Job,  and  other  parts  of  Scripture. 
 Sandys  has  been  praised  by  Dryden  and 
 Pope;  a  sufficient  proof  that  he  deserves 
 the  name  of  poet. 
 
 SANMICHELI,  Michael,  an  eminent 
 Italian  architect  and  engineer,  was  born, 
 in  1484,  at  Verona;  erected  many  superb 
 edifices,  and  fortified  many  of  the  Venetian 
 cities;  and  died  in  1559.  He  was  the  in- 
 ventor of  angular  bastions,  the  first  exam- 
 ple of  which  he  gave  at  Verona. 
 
 SANNAZARO,  or  SANNAZARIUS, 
 James,  a  celebrated  Italian  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1458,  at  Naples.  The  poems  and 
 canzonets  which  failed  to  win  the  heart  of 
 his  mistress  procured  for  him  the  patronage 
 of  Prince  Frederic  of  Naples;  and  that 
 patronage  was  still  more  liberally  bestowed 
 
448 
 
 SAP 
 
 when  the  prince  ascended  the  throne.  San- 
 uazaro  testified  his  gratitude  by  remaining 
 unalterably  attached  to  hitu  in  his  subse- 
 quent misfortunes.  He  died  in  1530.  His 
 principal  works  are,  Arcadia;  Piscatory 
 Eclogues;  and  a  Latin  poem,  de  Partu 
 Virginis,  on  which  he  bestowed  the  labour 
 of  twenty  years. 
 
 SANSEVERO,  Raymond  di  SAN- 
 GRO,  prince  of,  a  man  of  multifarious  tal- 
 ents, was  born,  in  1710,  at  Naples;  made 
 many  discoveries  in  mechanics,  hydraulics, 
 fortification,  painting,  and  other  sciences 
 and  arts;  and  died  in  1771.  Among  his 
 mechanical  inventions  was  a  four-wheeled 
 vehicle  to  pass  over  the  surface  of  the 
 water,  which  he  exhibited  on  the  bay  of 
 Naples. 
 
 SANSON,  Nicholas,  a  French  geo- 
 grapher and  engineer,  who  is  considered 
 as  the  creator  of  geography  in  France,  was 
 born,  in  1600,  at  Abbeville;  constructed, 
 when  he  was  only  sixteen,  a  map  of  ancient 
 Gaul;  was  appointed  engineer  in  Picardy 
 by  Louis  XIII.;  published  above  three 
 hundred  maps,  and  several  volumes,  in 
 illustration  of  them;  and  died  in  1667. 
 His  three  sons,  Nicholas,  William, 
 and  Adrian,  were  all  eminent  geogra- 
 phers. 
 
 SANTA  CRUZ  DE  MARZENADO, 
 Don  Alvar  de  Navia  Osorio,  marquis 
 of,  an  able  Spanish  officer  and  diplomatist, 
 was  born,  about  1687,  in  the  Asturias ; 
 distinguished  himself,  in  the  service  of 
 Philip  V.,  during  the  war  of  the  succes- 
 sion ;  acquired  equal  reputation  subse- 
 quently as  a  negotiator  at  Turin,  the  con- 
 gress of  Soissons,  and  Paris;  and  was 
 killed,  in  1732,  in  a  sally  from  Oran,  of 
 which  city  he  was  governor.  He  is  the 
 author  of  Military  Reflections,  eleven  vol- 
 umes quarto. 
 
 SANTEUL,  John  de,  an  eminent 
 modern  Latin  poet,  was  born,  in  1630,  at 
 Paris;  studied  under  the  Jesuits,  at  the 
 colleges  of  St.  Barbe,  and  Louis  the  Great; 
 distinguished  himself  early  by  his  talent 
 for  composing  Latin  verse;  entered  among 
 the  canons  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Victor ;  was 
 patronised  by  Louis  XIV.  and  several 
 illustrious  personages ;  and  died  in  1697. 
 Santeul  was  a  man  of  much  wit  and  hu- 
 mour, and  of  eccentric  habits.  His  \vorks 
 form  three  volumes.  His  Inscriptions  for 
 Public  Buildings,  and  his  Hymns,  are  his 
 best  productions. 
 
 SAIM'HO,  a  Greek  poetess,  born  about 
 B.  c.  600,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  was  the 
 wife  of  Cercolas,  by  whom  she  had  a 
 daughter.  After  the  death  of  her  husband 
 she  became  enamoured  of  l'haon,  and  is 
 said  to  have  thrown  herself  into  the  sea 
 from  the  promontory  of  Leucate,  in  conse- 
 quence of  his  neglect  of  her;  but  this  story, 
 Ike  many  others  injurious  to  her        »-»cter, 
 
 SAU 
 
 is  of  doubtful  authority.  Sappho  invented 
 the  metre  which  bears  her  name.  Few  of 
 her  works  are  extant,  but  those  few  breathe 
 the  very  soul  of  poetry. 
 
 SARBIEWSKI,  or  SARBIEVIUS, 
 Matthias  Casimir,  aPolish  poet,  better 
 known  by  his  christian  name  ef  Casimir, 
 was  born,  in  1595,  in  the  palatinate  of 
 Mazovia;  was  a  professor  in  the  Jesuits' 
 College  at  Wilna;  was  highly  esteemed 
 by  Ladislaus  IV.;  and  died  in  1640.  His 
 Latin  poems  have  great  merit.  He  left 
 unfinished  an  epic  poem,  the  subject  of 
 which  was  drawn  from  the  history  of  his 
 native  country. 
 
 SARGENT,  Winthrop,  governor  of 
 Mississippi,  was  a  native  of  Massachusetts, 
 and  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1771 
 He  entered  the  revolutionary  army  in  1775, 
 and  served  in  various  capacities  with  repu- 
 tation to  the  close  of  the  war.  In  1786 
 he  was  appointed  by  congress  surveyor  of 
 the  northwestern  territory,  and  in  1787 
 secretary  of  the  government  established 
 there.  He  attended  general  St.  Clair  as 
 adjutant  general  in  his  unfortunate  expedi- 
 tion against  the  Indians,  and  was  also  ad 
 jutant-general  and  inspector  under  general 
 Wayne.     He  died  in  1820. 
 
 SARPI,  Peter,  better  known  under 
 the  name  of  Father  Paul,  or  Fra  Paolo, 
 was  born,  in  1552,  at  Venice.  So  preco- 
 cious were  his  talents,  that,  at  the  age  of 
 seventeen,  he  publicly  maintained  theolog- 
 ical and  philosophical  theses,  consisting  of 
 three  hundred  and  nine  articles.  His 
 eloquence  was  equal  to  his  learning.  He 
 did  not  confine  his  studies  to  theology ;  for 
 anatomy  and  astronomy  also  engaged  much 
 of  his  attention.  He  was  of  the  order  of 
 the  Servites,  and  became  provincial  of  the 
 order.  The  Venetian  government  appoint- 
 ed him  its  consulting  theologian,  and  repos- 
 ed unbounded  confidence  in  him;  which 
 he  justified  and  repaid,  by  defending 
 the  ecclesiastical  liberties  of  his  country 
 against  the  encroachments  of  the  Roman 
 pontiff.  His  patriotism  roused  the  venge- 
 ance of  Rome  against  him,  and  in  1607, 
 five  ruffians  made  an  attempt  to  assassinate 
 him.  They  failed,  however,  in  their  pur- 
 pose, though  they  gave  him  fifteen  wounds. 
 He  died  in  1628.  His  greatest  work  is, 
 A  Historv  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
 
 SARRASIN,  John  Francis,  aFrench 
 wit  and  poet,  was  born,  in  1603,  at  Her- 
 manville,  near  Caen;  and  became  secre- 
 tary to  the  prince  of  Conti.  That  prince, 
 however,  having  struck  him,  Sarrasin  was 
 so  deeply  affected  by  the  indignity,  that  it 
 brought  him  to  the  grave  in  1654.  He 
 wrote  various  Poems;  A  History  of  the 
 Siege  of  Dunkirk  ;  and  other  works.  Se- 
 veral of  his  productions  have  been  often 
 reprinted. 
 
 SAUNDERS,  William,  a  physician, 
 
SAU 
 
 was  born  in  1743;  became  senior  physi- 
 cian to  Guy's  Hospital;  and  died  in  1817. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Treatises  on  Mer- 
 cury— on  the  Devonshire  Colic-r-on  Dis- 
 eases of  the  Liver — on  Indian  Hepatitis — 
 on  Red  Bark — and  on  Mineral  Waters. 
 
 SAURIN,  James,  a  protestant  divine, 
 was  born,  in  1677,  at  Nismes;  quitted  his 
 country,  in  childhood,  with  his  father,  in 
 consequence  of  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
 of  Nantz ;  completed  his  studies  at  Geneva  ; 
 and,  after  having  been  in  a  regiment  of 
 refugees,  and  pastor  to  the  Walloon  church 
 in  London,  he  settled  at  the  Hague,  and 
 for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  en- 
 joyed the  highest  reputation  as  an  eloquent 
 preacher.  He  died  in  1730.  He  wrote 
 twelve  volumes  of  Sermons;  and  Histori- 
 cal, Theological,  and  Moral  Discourses  on 
 the  Events  of  the  Scriptures. 
 
 SAURIN,  Joseph,  brother  of  the  fore- 
 going, was  born,  in  1659,  at  Courtaison, 
 in  the  principality  of  Orange,  and  was  for 
 some  vears  a  protestant  preacher.  In  1690, 
 however,  he  embraced  the  catholic  religion, 
 and  was  pensioned  by  Louis  XIV.  He 
 rendered  himself  celebrated  as  a  geome- 
 trician ;  became  a  member  of  the  Academy 
 of  Sciences ;  contributed  for  some  years  to 
 the  Journal  des  Savans;   and  died  in  1730. 
 
 SAURIN,  Bernard  Joseph,  son  of 
 Joseph,  was  born,  in  1706,  at  Paris;  quit- 
 ted the  bar  to  become  a  dramatic  writer; 
 was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy ; 
 and  died  in  1781.  Among  his  best  pro- 
 ductions are  the  tragedies  of  Spartacus 
 and  Beverley;  and  the  comedies  of  The 
 Three  Rivals,  and  The  Manners  of  the 
 Times. 
 
 SAUSSURE, Horace  Benedict  de, 
 an  eminent  naturalist,  was  born,  in  1740, 
 at  Geneva.  He  was  taught  botany  by  Bon- 
 net; was  the  friend  and  companion  of 
 Haller;  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  was  a 
 proficient  in  the  mathematical  and  physical 
 sciences.  For  several  years  he  was  pro- 
 fessor of  philosophy  at  Geneva.  By  the 
 instruments  which  he  invented,  and  by  the 
 valuable  observations  which  he  made  in 
 his  travels,  particularly  during  those  in  the 
 Alps,  he  contributed  much  to  the  advance- 
 ment of  geology  and  meteorology.  He  died 
 in  1799.  Saussure  is  the  author  of  Tra- 
 vels, four  volumes ;  Essays  on  Hygrometry ; 
 and  various  papers  in  the  Transactions. 
 
 SAUVAGES  DE  LA  CROIX,  Fran- 
 cis BOISSIER  de,  a  celebrated  French 
 Dotanist  and  physician,  was  born,  in  1706, 
 at  Alais ;  studied  at  Montpellier,  at  which 
 university  he  was  subsequently  professor 
 of  medicine  and  botany;  was  a  member 
 of  all  the  learned  societies  in  Europe;  was 
 as  much  admired  for  his  zeal  and  humanity 
 as  for  his  knowledge;  and  died  in  1767. 
 His  great  work  is  his  Nosology,  five  vols. 
 octavo. 
 
 SAX 
 
 449 
 
 SAVAGE,  Richard,  a  poet,  sprung 
 from  the  illicit  intercourse  of  Earl  Rivera 
 with  the  countess  of  Macclesfield,  was  born, 
 in  1698,  in  London.  His  mother  not  only 
 renounced  him  at  his  birth,  and  condemned 
 him  to  be  brought  up  in  a  low  situation, 
 but  was,  through  life,  his  bitterest  perse- 
 cutor. It  was  by  chance  that  he  obtained 
 the  knowledge  of  his  parentage.  Having 
 accidentally  killed  a  man  in  a  drunken 
 brawl,  he  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  his 
 unnatural  mother  endeavoured  to  intercept 
 the  royal  mercy.  He  was,  however,  par- 
 doned, and  Queen  Caroline  allowed  him  a 
 small  pension.  For  a  while  he  was  patron- 
 ised by  Lord  Tyrconnel,  but  the  bard  and 
 the  peer  soon  quarrelled.  After  having 
 suffered  great  misery,  partly  brought  on  by 
 his  own  misconduct,  he  died  a  debtor  in 
 prison  at  Bristol,  in  1743.  Savage  was 
 intimate  with  Johnson,  who  wrote  an  ad- 
 mirable life  of  him.  His  poems,  the  prin- 
 cipal of  which  are,  The  Wanderer,  and  The 
 Bastard,  have  considerable  merit. 
 
 SAVARY,  Nicholas,  a  French  tra- 
 veller and  writer,  was  born,  in  1750,  at 
 Vitre,  in  Britanny;  visited  Egypt,  the 
 Archipelago, and  Crete;  and  died  in  1788. 
 He  translated  the  Koran,  to  which  he  added 
 a  Life  of  Mahomet,  and  Notes;  and  wrote 
 Letters  on  Egypt;  Letters  on  Greece;  and 
 an  Arabic  Grammar. 
 
 SAVERIEN,  Alexander,  a  French 
 mathematician  and  writer,  was  born,  about 
 1720,  at  Aries;  spent  his  life  in  mathe- 
 matical and  literary  pursuits;  and  died, 
 unpatronised  and  in  obscurity,  in  1805. 
 It  was  upon  his  suggestion  that  the  naval 
 academy  was  established  at  Brest.  Among 
 his  works  are  various  treatises  on  mari- 
 time tactics  and  shipbuilding;  Dictionaries 
 of  mathematics  and  of  naval  affairs;  His- 
 tories of  ancient  and  modern  philosophers ; 
 and  a  History  of  the  Progress  of  the  Hu- 
 man Mind  in  the  Sciences. 
 
 SAVONAROLA ,  J  e  ro m  e  ,  a  celebrated 
 Italian  monk,  was  born,  in  1452,  at  Fer- 
 rara.  In  1488  he  settled  at  Florence, 
 where  he  became  popular  for  his  eloquence 
 as  a  preacher,  and  his  exertions  in  the 
 cause  of  liberty.  Having,  however,  at- 
 tacked the  papal  court,  he  was  brought  to 
 trial  in  1498,  and  was  condemned  to  the 
 flames.  His  works  have  been  printed  in 
 six  volumes. 
 
 SAXE,  Maurice,  count  de,  a  cele- 
 brated general,  the  son  of  the  king  of  Po- 
 land and  the  countess  of  Konigsmarck,  was 
 born,  in  1696,  at  Dresden.  His  military 
 career  began  at  the  siege  of  Lisle,  when  he 
 was  only  twelve  years  old,  and  he  next 
 was  present  at  the  siege  of  Tournay,  and 
 the  battle  of  Malplaquet.  He  afterwards 
 fought,  at  the  head  of  his  regiment  of  cav- 
 alry, in  Sweden  and  Hungary.  In  1720 
 he   entered    into  the  French  service.     In 
 
460 
 
 SCA 
 
 SCH 
 
 1726  he  was  elected  duke  of  Courland,  but  I  most  valuable  is  a  treatise  De  Emendatione 
 the  hostility  of  Russia  compelled    him  to  Temporum. 
 
 relinquish  the  dukedom,  and  he  returned  to  SCAMOZZI,  Vincent,  an  eminent 
 France.  He  distinguished  himself  greatk  in  |  Italian  architect,  was  born,  in  1550,  at 
 the  campaigns ofl733, 1734,1735 and  1741, IVicenza;  settled  at  Venice  in  15S3;  and 
 and  ruse  to  the  rank  of  marshal.  In  1744 'died  in  1616.  He  was  the  rival  of  Palla- 
 he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  dio,  and  after  the  death  of  that  artist  had 
 Fiench  armies  in  Flanders;  and,  between  no  competitor.  Venice,  Florence,  and 
 that  period  and  the  close  of  the  war,  he  Genoa  contain  some  of  his  linust  edifices, 
 gained  the  victories  of  Fontenoy,  Roucoux,  I  He  wrote  A  Treatise  on  Architecture,  and 
 and  Lafeldt.  Hedied  in  1750.  lie  wrote,  I A  Treatise  on  the  Antiquities  of  Rome, 
 on  the  art  of  war,  a  treatise  intitled  Mj  SCAPULA,  John,  a  lexicographer ,was 
 Reveries.  born,  in  Germany,  about  the  middle  of  the 
 
 SAXE-WEIMAR,  Bernard,  duke  sixteenth  century,  and  died  at  the  begin- 
 of,  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  the  seven-  ning  of  the  seventeenth.  He  was  employed 
 teeuth  century,  was  born,  in  1600,  at  Wei-  as  a  corrector  by  Henry  Stephens,  while 
 mar,  and  first  served  under  his  brother  in  that  eminent  man  was  printing  the  Greek 
 the  contest  between  Frederic  V.  of  Bone- 1 Thesaurus ;  and  he  basely  availed  himself 
 inia  and  the  Austrian*.  From  1623  till  of  the  opportunity  to  pillage  it,  and  form  a 
 1639,  when  be  died,  he  was  constantly  en-  Lexicon,  by  the  publication  of  which  he 
 gaged    in    Germany,   performed    numerous  ruined  his  master. 
 
 splendid  actions,  and  was  looked  up  to  as;  SCARLATTI,  Alexander,  a  cele- 
 one  of  the  firmest  and  most  valuable  cham-  brated  Italian  composer,  was  born,  in 
 pions  of  the  protestant  cause.  It  was  he  1650,  at  Naples,  and  died  there  in  1725. 
 who  assumed  the  command  after  the  fall  of  He  produced  nearly  a  hundred  operas,  and 
 Gustavus  Adolpbus, and  secured  the  victory  I  two  hundred  masses,  besides  many  other 
 of  Lutzen.  •  j  compositions,   and  contributed    greatly   to 
 
 SAXO,  Grammaticus,  an  historian  restore  a  pure  musical  taste  in  his  native 
 and  antiquary,  born  in  the  twelfth  century,1  country. — His  son  Dominic  and  his  grand- 
 was  a  priest  in  the  cathedral  of  Rothschild, ;  son  Joseph  were  both  composers  of 
 and   is  believed   to   have    been  a   Dane  bv;  merit. 
 
 birth.  He  died  in  120S.  His  History  of  SCARPA,  Anthony,  an  eminent  Ital- 
 Denmark  is  the  source  whence  Shakspeare;  ian  anatomist  and  surgeon,  was  born  about 
 derived  the  story  of  the  tragedy  of  Ham-  j  1746,  and  died  in  1826  at  Pavia,  at  the 
 ,et.  university  of  which  city  he  was  professor. 
 
 SCALIGER,  Julius  Cssar,  usually  He  enjoyed  an  extensive  reputation  both  as 
 known  as  the  elder  Scaliger,  a  learned  a  practitioner  and  an  observer,  and  con- 
 critic,  was  born,  in  1484,  of  a  noble  family,  tributed  greatly  to  the  improvement  of 
 at  Ripa,  in  the  territory  of  Verona,  and  at  j  surgery.  Among  his  works  are,  An  Ana- 
 twelve  years  of  age  was  appointed  one  ofjtomical  Description  of  the  Auditory  and 
 the  pages  of  the  emperor  Maximilian.  His  Olfactory  Organs;  Observations  on  Aneu- 
 noble  birth,  however,  is  denied  by  some  rism;  and  A  Treatise  on  the  Principal 
 writers.     Till  he  was  nearly  forty  he  led  a  Diseases  of  the  Eye. 
 
 mil  tary  life;  but  he  then  quitted  "the  army,!  SCARRON,  Paul,  a  French  poet  and 
 and  began  to  study  medicine  and  the  dead!  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  in  1610, 
 languages.  In  1526  he  settled  as  a  physi-  at  Paris,  and  was  intended  for  the  church, 
 cian  at  Agen.  Before  his  decease,  which 'but  never  took  orders;  for  which,  indeed, 
 took  place  in  1558,  he  acquired  high  his  habits  rendered  him  unfit.  In  his 
 reputation  as  an  erudite  writer.  His  van-!  seven  and  twentieth  year,  one  of  his  wild 
 ity  and  insolence  were  at  least  equal  to  his!  pranks  having  obliged  him  to  hide  himself 
 talents.  Among  his  works  are,  Poems;  I  in  a  marsh,  he  lost  the  use  of  all  his  limbs, 
 and  a  treatise  De  Causis  I  inguae  Latinae.   For  some  time  he  subsisted  by  the  compo- 
 
 SCALIGER,  Joseph  Justus,  son  of ;  sition  of  burlesque  comedies,  which  were 
 the  foregoing,  and  his  rival  in  learning  and,  exceedingly  popular.  Anne  of  Austria 
 arrogance,  was  born,  in  1540,  at  Agen, ;  afterwards  gave  him  a  pension;  which, 
 and  was  educated  at  the  college  of  Bor- 1  however,  he  subsequently  lost  by  writing  a 
 deaux,  and,  finally,  by  his  father  and  j  satire  on  Mazarin.  In  1652  he  married 
 Turnebus.  Languages  he  acquired  with  Mile  d'Aubigne,  who,  at  a  later  period, 
 wonderful  ease,  and  is  said  to  have  been  acquired  such  celebrity  as  Madame  de 
 master  of  no  less  than  thirteen.  His  friends'  Maintenon.  At  his  house  all  the  Parisian 
 denominated  him  "  an  ocean  of  science,"!  wits  were  accustomed  to  assemble.  He 
 and  "the  masterpiece  of  nature."  He!  died  in  1660.  Of  his  works  The  Comic 
 died  in  1609,  professor  of  the  belles  lettres  I  Romance  is  the  only  one  which  is  still 
 at  Leyden.     His  works,  most  of  which  are,  read. 
 
 commentaries  on  the  classics,  are  numer-!  SCHADOW,  Zono  RiDOLFO,a  sculp- 
 ous.     Of  his  other  productions,  one  of  the  tor,  the  son  of  Godfrey  Schadow,  who  was 
 
SCH 
 
 also  a  sculptor,  was  born,  in  1786,  at 
 Rome;  was  taken  by  his  father  to  Berlin 
 in  1788 ;  returned  to  Rome  to  study  at  the 
 age  of  eighteen ;  and  was  instructed  by 
 Canova  and  Thorwuldsen.  He  died  in 
 1822.  Among  his  works  are,  Paris  delib- 
 erating on  his  judgment;  a  girl  putting  on 
 her  sandals;  and  a  colossal  group  of  Achil- 
 les defending  the  body  of  Penthesilea. 
 
 SCHALKEN,  Godfrey,  a  Dutch 
 painter,  a  pupil  of  Van  Hoogstraeten  and 
 of  Gerard  Dow,  was  born,  in  1643,  at 
 Dort,  and  died  at  the  Hague,  in  1706.  He 
 particularly  excelled  in  candlelight  scenes. 
 His  portraits  are  true  to  nature,  but  are 
 deficient  in  grace. 
 
 SCHANK,  John,  a  nival  officer,  was 
 born,  about  1740,  in  Fifeshire;  entered  the 
 naval  profession  early  in  life;  distinguish- 
 ed himself  as  an  engineer  and  seaman,  on 
 the  Canadian  lakes,  during  the  American 
 war;  was  actively  employed  in  the  defence 
 of  the  coast,  and  in  the  transport  service 
 during  the  war  with  France;  and  rose  to 
 the  rank  of  admiral  of  the  blue  in  1821. 
 He  died  in  1823.  Schank  was  the  inven- 
 tor of  sliding  keels,  guns  with  moveable 
 elides,  and  other  important  improvements. 
 
 SCHIAVONETTI,  Louis,  an  engrav- 
 er, was  born,  in  1765,  at  Bassano,  in  the 
 state  of  Venice.  He  was  taught  painting 
 by  Golini,  and  engraving  by  Bartolozzi 
 and  Valpato.  Settling  in  England,  he  de- 
 servedly obtained  a  high  reputation  as  an 
 artist,  and  esteem  as  a  man.  He  died  in 
 1810. 
 
 SCHILL,  Ferdinand  Von,  an  intre- 
 pid and  patriotic  Prussian  officer,  was 
 born,  in  1773,  at  Sotthoff,  in  Silesia;  and 
 entered  the  Prussian  army  as  a  cadet  in 
 1789.  He  was  severely  wounded  at  the 
 battle  of  Jena;  but  took  the  field  again, 
 and  distinguished  himself,  at  the  head  of  a 
 free  corps,  before  the  end  of  the  war,  for 
 which  he  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of 
 colonel.  In  1809,  with  the  hope  of  con- 
 tributing to  free  his  country  from  the 
 French  yoke,  he  collected  a  small  body  of 
 troops,  and  commenced  operations  on  the 
 Elbe  against  the  forces  of  Napoleon ;  but, 
 after  having  obtained  several  successes,  and 
 displayed  equal  ability  and  bravery,  he  was 
 overpowered  and  slain,  at  Stralsund,  on 
 the  31st  of  May. 
 
 SCHILLER,  John  Frederic  Chris- 
 topher, one  of  the  most  illustrious  of 
 modern  German  writers,  was  born,  in  1759, 
 at  Marbach,  in  Wurtemburgh.  Tn  his 
 youth  he  was  desirous  to  be  of  the  clerical 
 profession,  but  at  length  he  studied  medi- 
 cine, and  became  a  surgeon  to  a  regiment. 
 In  his  twenty-second  year  he  published  his 
 drama  of  The  Robbers,  which,  notwith- 
 standing its  sins  against  good  taste,  estab- ! 
 lished  his  reputation  as  a  man  of  genius. ' 
 His  auocess  induced  him  to  devote  himself 
 
 BCH 
 
 451 
 
 to  literary  pursuits.     The  tragedies  of  Fi- 
 esco  and  Cabal  and  Love  were  hi»  next 
 
 productions.  In  1787  he  removed  to  Wei- 
 mar; acquired  the  friendship  of  Wieland, 
 Herder,  and  Gdthe;  and  was  nominated 
 aulic  counsellor  and  professor  of  history 
 and  philosophy  at  Jena,  by  the  duke. 
 Thenceforth  he  continued  to  increase  his 
 fame  by  various  excellent  compositions. 
 He  died  May  9,  1805.  Among  his  princi- 
 pal works  are,  The  History  of  the  Thirty 
 Years' War;  The  History  of  the  Revoft 
 in  the  Netherlands;  and  the  tragedies  of 
 Don  Carlos,  Wallenstein,  Mary  Stuart, 
 Joan  of  Arc,  The  Bride  of  Messina,  and 
 William  Tell. 
 
 SCHLOETZER,  Augustus  Louis,  a 
 German  historian,  was  born,  in  1737,  at 
 Jagstadt;  was  educated  at  Wittenberg  and 
 Gottingen;  \vas  invited  to  Russia,  and  re- 
 sided there  for  some  years;  became  pro- 
 fessor of  philosophy  and  politics  at  Gottin- 
 gen; and  died  in  1809.  Among  his  works 
 are,  A  History  of  Lithuania;  and  various 
 publications  on  the  history  of  Russia. 
 
 SCHMIDT,  Michael  Ignatius,   a 
 
 German  historian,  was  born,  in  1736,  at 
 
 Arnstem,  in  the  bishopric  of  Wurtzburgh; 
 
 was  brought  up  to  the   church;   and  died 
 
 at  Vienna,  in   1794,  aulic   counsellor   and 
 
 keeper  of  the  archieves.     His   History  of 
 
 the  Germans,  of  which  he  published  only 
 
 .eleven    volumes,    is    much    esteemed.      ft 
 
 i  was  continued  by  Milbiller,  from  the  pa- 
 
 Ipers  of  Schmidt. 
 
 SCHOEFFER,  Peter,  one  of  the  in- 
 ;  ventors  of  printing,  was  born  at  Gcrn- 
 [Sheim,  in  the  territory  of  Darmstadt,  and 
 |  was  originally  a  copyist  at  Paris.  He 
 entered  into  partnership  with  Guttenberg 
 and  Fust,  the  latter  of  whom  gave  him  his 
 daughter  in  marriage,  and,  on  his  decease 
 in  1466,  left  him  sole  possessor  of  the 
 printing  establishment.  Schoefter  died 
 about  1502.  He  invented  the  steel  punches 
 used  in  letter-founding. 
 
 SCHREVELIUS,  Cornelius,  a  lexi- 
 cographer, was  born,  about  1615,  at  Haar- 
 lem; succeeded  his  father  as  rector  of  the 
 grammar  school  at  Leyden;  and  died 
 either  in  1664  or  1667.     He  edited  varioui 
 
452 
 
 SCH 
 
 classics,  but  is  only  remembered  by  his 
 Greek  and  Latin  Lexicon,  the  first  edition 
 of  which  was  published  in  1645. 
 
 SCHULEMBOURG,  John  Matthi- 
 as, count  de,  one  of  the  most  eminent  gen- 
 erals of  the  .seventeenth  century,  was  born, 
 in  1661,  at  Cendan,  near  Magdeburgh. 
 After  having  been  in  the  Danish  service, 
 he  entered  into  that  of  Poland,  and  distin- 
 guished himself  greatly  in  the  campaigns 
 under  Sobieski,  and  in  those  against 
 Charles  XII.  In  1708  he  led  eight  thous- 
 and Saxons  to  join  the  allies  in  the  Neth- 
 erlands. There  he  increased  his  fame, 
 particularly  by  his  conduct  at  the  battle 
 of  Malplaquct.  In  1715  he  was  appointed 
 generalissimo  of  the  Venetian  forces,  and 
 in  the  following  year  he  gained  immortal 
 honour  by  his  defence  of  Corfu  against  the 
 Turkish  arm  v.     He  died  in  1747. 
 
 SCHULTENS,  Albert,  who  has  been 
 called  the  restorer  of  oriental  literature  in 
 the  eighteenth  century,  was  born,  in  1686, 
 near  Croningen ;  became  professor  of  the 
 eastern  languages  at  Franeker,  and  after- 
 wards at  Leyden ;  .and  died  in  1750. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Origines  Hebreae; 
 and  A  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job. 
 — John  James,  his  son,  and  Henry  Al- 
 bert, his  grandson,  were  also  eminent 
 orientalists. 
 
 SCHURMANN,  Anna  Maria,  a  fe- 
 male of  varied  talents,  was  born,  in  1607, 
 at  Cologne;  became,  in  1653,  one  of  the 
 disciples  of  the  fanatic  Labadie,  to  whom 
 she  was  even  said  to  be  privately  married ; 
 and  died  in  1678.  She  was  mistress  of 
 painting,  engraving,  sculpture,  and  music, 
 and  of  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  Chaldee, 
 Ethiopic,  and  several  modern  languages. 
 She  wrote  various  works,  which  were 
 collected  under  the  title  of  Opuscula  He- 
 braea,  Groeca,  Latina,  Gallica,  Prosaica, 
 et  Metrica. 
 
 SCHUYLER,  Philip,  an  officer  in 
 the  American  army,  was  appointed  major 
 general  in  1775,  and  was  dispatched  to  the 
 fortifications  in  the  north  of  New  York,  to 
 prepare  for  the  invasion  of  Canada.  He 
 afterwards  fell  under  some  suspicion,  and 
 was  superseded  in  the  chief  command  by 
 general  Gates.  He  was  a  member  of  con- 
 gress before  the  adoption  of  the  present 
 constitution,  and  afterwards  twice  a  sena- 
 tor. He  died  in  1S04,  in  the  seventy  third 
 year  of  his  age. 
 
 SCHWARTZ,  Be rthold,  to  whom  is 
 attributed  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  is 
 said  to  have  been  born  at  Friburg,  in  the 
 Brisgau,  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourteenth 
 century,  and  to  have  been  a  benedictine 
 or  cordelier  monk.  It  is  certain,  however, 
 that  gunpowder  was  known  to  Roger 
 Bacon  as  early  aj  1292. 
 
 SCHWEDIAUER,  Francis  Xavier, 
 a  physician,  was  bom,  in  1748,  at  Steit,  in 
 
 SCO 
 
 Lower  Austria;  was  educated  at  Vienna; 
 practised  with  great  success  for  some  years 
 in  England  and  Scotland;  settled  and  was 
 naturalized  at  Paris,  in  1789;  and  died 
 there  August  27,  i824.  He  wrote  a  Trea- 
 tise on  Syphilitic  Maladies;  Pharmacolo- 
 gia;  a  New  System  of  Medicine;  and 
 other  works. 
 
 SCIPIO,  Publius  Cornelius,  sur- 
 name d  Aehicanus,  a  celebrated  Roman 
 general.  At  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  dis- 
 tinguished himself  by  saving  his  father's 
 life  at  the  battle  of  the  Ticinus.  Being 
 sent  with  an  army  into  Spain,  he,  in  the 
 course  of  four  years,  wrested  the  whole  of 
 that  country  from  the  Carthaginians.  He 
 next  proposed  the  bold  measure  of  attack- 
 ing Carthage  on  her  own  territory,  which 
 was  adopted.  After  having  defeated  As- 
 drubal  and  Syphax,  he  crowned  his  glory 
 by  vanquishing  Annibal,  at  the  battle  of 
 Zama,  B.C.  202,  and  compelling  Carthage 
 to  submit  to  humiliating  terms  of  peace. 
 His  laurels,  however,  did  not  protect  him 
 from  the  intrigues  of  his  enemies  in  Rome. 
 Various  charges  were  brought  against  him, 
 and  he  at  length  retired  in  disgust  to  his 
 country  seat  at  Liternum,  where  he  died, 
 
 B      C     1  Sl> 
 
 SCIPIO  iEMILIANUS,  Pdblius, 
 known  as  Africanus  the  Younger,  was 
 the  son  of  Paulus  iEmilius,  and  was 
 adopted  by  the  son  of  Scipio  Africanus. 
 He  first  distinguished  himself  in  Spain, 
 where  he  killed  a  gigantic  Spaniard,  and 
 obtained  a  mural  crown  at  the  siege  of 
 Intercatia.  The  destruction  of  Carthage, 
 B.  c.  147,  was  his  next  exploit.  His  last 
 was  the  subjugation  of  Numantia,  B.  c. 
 133.  He  was  found  dead  in  his  bed,  in 
 his  fifty-sixth  year,  B.  c.  128,  and  is  be- 
 lieved to  have  been  strangled.  Scipio  was 
 a  patron  of  literature. 
 
 SCOP  AS,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
 artists  of  antiquity,  was  born,  at  Paros, 
 about  B.  c.  460.  Among  his  most  admired 
 works  were  a  statue  of  Venus,  and  the 
 mausoleum  which  was  erected  by  Arte- 
 misia, queen  of  Caria,  to  the  memory  of 
 her  husband. 
 
 SCOPOLI,John  Anthony,  an  Italian 
 naturalist  and  physician,  was  born,  in  1723, 
 at  Cavalese,  in  the  Tyrol ;  became  succes- 
 sively first  physician  to  the  mines  at  Idria, 
 professor  of  mineralogy  at  Chemnitz,  and 
 professor  of  chemistry  and  botany  at  Pavia; 
 and  died  in  1787.  Among  his  works  are 
 a  Carniolan  Flora  and  Entomology;  and 
 Delicia?  Florae  et  Faunae  Insubricae. 
 
 SCOTT,  Michael,  a  Scottish  philoso- 
 pher, was  born,  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
 at  Balwirie,  in  Fife;  travelled  in  France, 
 Germany,  and  England,  and  was  highly 
 honoured  by  the  monarchs  of  those  coun- 
 tries; was  knighted  and  employed  by  his 
 own  sovereign,  Alexander  the  Third;  and 
 
SEC 
 
 died,  at  a  great  age,  in  1291.  He  wrote 
 various  works;  and  was  looked  upon  as  a 
 magician. 
 
 SCOTT,  Thomas,  a  divine,  was  born, 
 in  1747,  at  Braytoft,  in  Lincolnshire;  was 
 intended  for  the  medical  profession,  but 
 entered  into  the  church ;  became  chaplain 
 of  the  Lock  Hospital  in  1785,  and  rector 
 of  Aston  Sandford  in  1801;  and  died  in 
 1821.  He  wrote  The  Force  of  Truth; 
 Sermons;  A  Defence  of  Calvinism;  and 
 A  Commentary  on  the  Bible. 
 
 SCUDERI,  George,  a  French  writer, 
 whom  Boileau  has  devoted  to  ridicule  as 
 having  "  monthly  given  birth  to  a  volume," 
 was  born,  in  1601,  at  Havre.  After  having 
 served  in  the  army,  he  became  a  writer  for 
 the  theatre,  and  produced  sixteen  pieces. 
 Among  his  other  works  are,  Alaric,  or 
 Rome  Vanquished,  an  heroic  poem;  and 
 an  atack  upon  The  Cid  of  Corneille.  He 
 died  in  1667. 
 
 SCUDERI,  Magdalen,  sister  of  the 
 foregoing,  a  woman  of  more  wit  and  talent 
 than  taste,  was  born  in  1607;  was  long  a 
 popular  writer  of  romances;  was  intimate 
 with  many  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
 her  literary  contemporaries;  and  died  in 
 1701.  Her  principal  works  are,  the  ro- 
 mances of  Almahide,  Artamenes,  Clelia, 
 and  Ibrahim;  Conversations;  Fables;  and 
 some  fugitive  poetry. 
 
 SEBA,  Albert,  a  naturalist,  was  born, 
 in  1665,  at  Eetzel,  in  East  Friesland;  was 
 brought  up  as  an  apothecary;  and  settled 
 in  that  capacity  at  Amsterdam,  after  hav- 
 ing made  several  voyages  to  the  East  and 
 West  Indies,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
 formed  a  valuable  collection  of  natural 
 history.  He  died  in  1736.  He  left  a 
 description  of  his  collection  in  four  folio 
 volumes,  with  plates. 
 
 SECKER,  Thomas,  an- eminent  and 
 pious  prelate,  was  bom,  in  1693,  at  Sib- 
 thorpe,  in  Nottinghamshire,  and  was  edu- 
 cated, at  various  seminaries,  with  the  view 
 of  becoming  a  preacher  among  the  dissent- 
 ers. In  1716,  however,  he  went  to  Leyden, 
 studied  physic,  and  took  his  degree.  In 
 1721  he  entered  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford. 
 Having  conformed  to   the  church,  he  took 
 
 SEL  453 
 
 orders,  and  obtained  preferment.  After 
 having  filled  various  minor  ministries,  he 
 was  consecrated  bishop  of  Bristol  in  1734. 
 He  was  translated  to  Oxford  in  1737;  and, 
 in  1758,  he  was  raised  to  the  archiepisco- 
 pal  see  of  Canterbury.  He  died  in  1768. 
 His  Sermons,  Charges,  and  other  works, 
 form  twelve  volumes  octavo. 
 
 SEDGWICK,  Theodore,  was  born 
 at  Hartford,  in  1746,  was  educated  at  Yale 
 College,  and  removing  to  Massachusetts, 
 pursued  the  study  of  the  law.  He  embark- 
 ed with  spirit  in  the  cause  of  the  popular 
 party  before  the  revolution,  held  a  seat 
 several  years  in  the  state  legislature,  and 
 was  a  member  of  congress  under  the  old 
 confederation.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
 Massachusetts  convention  to  decide  on  the 
 adoption  of  the  federal  constitution,  was  a 
 representative  and  senator  to  congress,  and 
 in  1S02  was  appointed  judge  of  the  su- 
 preme judicial  court  of  Massachusetts.  In 
 this  office  he  remained  till  his  death  in 
 1813. 
 
 SEDLEY,  Sir  Charles,  a  poet,  dra- 
 matist, and  wit,  of  the  court  of  Charles  II. ; 
 was  born,  in  1639,  at  Aylesford,  near 
 Maidstone,  in  Kent,  and  was  educated  at 
 Wadham  College,  Oxford.  In  the  licen- 
 tious circle  which  surrounded  the  restored 
 Charles,  he  was  a  conspicuous  figure.  One 
 of  his  frolics  was  haranguing  a  mob  naked 
 from  a  balcony,  for  which  he  was  fined 
 five  hundred  pounds.  Irritated  by  James 
 the  Second  having  seduced  his  daughter, 
 Sedley  took  an  active  part  in  promoting 
 the  Revolution.  He  died  in  1701.  His 
 six  plays,  and  miscellaneous  poems,  form 
 two  volumes. 
 
 SEGUR,  Count  Louis  de,  a  French 
 diplomatist  and  writer,  the  eldest  son  of 
 Marshal  de  Segur,  was  born,  in  1753,  at 
 Paris;  and,  after  having  served  in  Amer- 
 ica, was  successively  ambassador  to  St. 
 Petersburgh  and  Berlin.  He  was  ruined 
 by  the  revolution,  and  for  a  considerable 
 period  supported  his  father  and  his  family 
 by  the  productions  of  his  pen.  Napoleon, 
 however,  placed  him  in  the  council  of  state, 
 and  nominated  him  grand  master  of  the 
 ceremonies,  and  a  senator.  Count  Segur 
 died  at  Paris,  August  27,  18S0.  His  prin- 
 cipal works  are,  A  History  of  the  Reign 
 of  Frederic  William  II.;  Moral  and  Po- 
 litical Gallery;  and  Ancient  and  Modern 
 History. 
 
 SELDEN,  John,  an  eminent  lawyer 
 and  writer,  was  born,  in  15S4,  at  Salvia- 
 ton,  in  Sussex ;  was  educated  at  Chiches- 
 ter, and  at  Hart  Hall,  Oxford;  and  studied 
 the  law  at  Clifford's  Inn  and  the  Inner 
 Temple.  After  having  been  called  to  the 
 bar,  he  practised  chiefly  as  a  chamber 
 counsel,  and  much  of  his  time  was  devoted 
 to  studying  the  history  and  antiquities  of 
 his  native  land.     Between  1607  and  1640, 
 
454  SER 
 
 he  produced  several  works,  of  which  the 
 chief  are,  Titles  of  Honour  ;  A  Treatise  on 
 the  Syrian  Deities;  The  History  of  Tithes; 
 and  Mare  Clausula.  In  1640  he  was  cho- 
 sen M.  P.  for  Oxford.  Though  Seidell 
 had  more  than  once  been  persecuted  and 
 imprisoned  by  the  court  for  bis  love  of 
 liberty,  yet  he  acted  witli  great  moderation 
 at  the  commencement  of  the  disputes  be- 
 tween Charles  and  the  parliament.  The 
 house  of  commons  appointed  him  keeper 
 of  the  records  in  the  Tower,  and,  subse- 
 quently, one  of  the  commissioners  of  the 
 admiralty,  and  voted  him  five  thousand 
 pounds.  He  died  in  1654.  His  Table 
 Talk  was  published,  after  his  death,  by 
 his  amanuensis. 
 
 SEiXECA,  Lucius  Annjeus,  a  cele- 
 brated Roman  philosopher,  statesman,  and 
 moralist,  the  son  of  Marcus  Aniueus,  an 
 eminent  orator,  was  born  at  Cordiba,  in 
 Spain,  about  B.  c.  2.  His  education, 
 which  he  received  at  Rome,  was  of  the 
 most  liberal  kind.  The  stoical  philosophy 
 was  that  which  he  adopted.  Messalina 
 having  accused  him  of  adultery  with  Julia,  J 
 the  daughter  of  Germanicus,  he  was  ban- 
 ished to  Corsica,  where  he  remained  eight 
 years.  Agrippina  recalled  him,  and  in- 
 trusted to  him  the  tuition  of  Nero.  After 
 his  accession  to  the  throne,  his  imperial 
 pupil  for  'a  while  loaded  him  with  favours; 
 but  at  length,  resolved  to-  rid  himself  of 
 him.  Seneca  was  charged  with  being 
 concerned  in  the  conspiracy  of  Piso,  and 
 the  emperor  sent  him  an  order  to  terminate 
 his  existence,  which  he  obeyed  by  opening 
 his  veins,  A.  D.  65.  He  was  a  man  of 
 genius,  but  by  no  means  a  praiseworthy 
 character.  Several  of  his  works  have  been 
 translated  into  English,  by  Lodge,  L'Es- 
 trange,  and  Morell. 
 
 SEPULVEDA,  John  GINEZ  de,  an 
 historian,  who  has  been  called  the  Spanish 
 Livy,  was  born,  in  1490,  near  Cordova; 
 resided  for  many  years  in  Italy;  became 
 historiographer  to  Charles  V.;  and  died, 
 in  1572,  at  Salamanca.  Sepulveda  wrote 
 A  History  of  Charles  V. ;  A  History  of 
 the  War  of  the  Indies;  and  a  treatise 
 highly  disgraceful  to  him,  vindicating  the 
 cruelties  of  the  Spaniards  in  America. 
 
 SER  ASS  I,  Peter  Anthony,  an  Ital- 
 ian biographer,  was  born,  in  1721,  at 
 Bergamo,  and  died  in  17.91,  at  Rome, 
 where  he  was  secretary  to  several  of  the 
 cardinals.  He  wrote  iives  of  Tasso,  Dante, 
 Bembo,  Poliziaoo,  and  other  eminent  Ital- 
 ians ;  published  eel  it  ions  ot  various  authors; 
 and  collected  materials  for  a  literary  his- 
 tory of  his  native  Country. 
 
 SERGEL,  John  Tobias,  an  eminent 
 Swedish  sculptor,  was  born,  in  1740,  at 
 Stockholm;  was  a  pupil  of  Larcheveque, 
 and  subsequently  completed  his  studies  at 
 Rome;    rose   to   great  eminence,  and  was 
 
 SEV 
 
 ennobled  after  his  return  to  Sweden ;  and 
 died  in  1814.  Among  his  most  admired 
 productions  are,  Othryades;  a  recumbent 
 Faun  ;  a  Venus  Callipyges  ;  Diomedes 
 bearing  away  the  Palladium;  Venus  and 
 Mars;  and  Cupid  and  Psyche. 
 
 SERRES,  Oliver  de,  a  celebrated 
 agriculturist,  to  whom  his  countrymen  have 
 given  the  title  of  "  the  father  of  French 
 agriculture,"  was  born,  in  1539,  at  Ville- 
 neuve  de  Berg,  in  the  Vivarais.  He  died 
 in  1619.  France  is  indebted  to  him  for 
 the  introduction  of  the  manufacture  of  raw 
 silk.  His  Theatre  of  Agriculture  has 
 passed  through  twenty  editions,  and  is  still 
 popular. 
 
 SERTORIUS,  Quintus,  a  Roman 
 general,  was  born  at  iNursia,  in  the  Sabine 
 territory,  and  made  his  first  campaign 
 under  Marius,  in  the  Cimbrian  war.  Being 
 proscribed  by  Sylla,  he  sought  an  asylum 
 in  the  Iberian  peninsula,  where,  by  dint 
 of  consummate  talent  and  bravery  he  long 
 maintained  his  ground  against  the  Roman 
 generals,  foiled  even  Pompey,  and  was  at 
 last  assassinated  B.  c.  73. 
 
 SERVETUS,  Michael,  a  celebrated 
 antitrinitarian,  was  born,  in  1509,  at  Vil- 
 lanueva,  in  Arragon  ;  was  educated  at  Tou- 
 louse; and  took  his  doctor's  degree  in 
 medicine  at  Paris.  He  published  several 
 works  against  the  doctrine  of  the  trinity, 
 which  excited  against  him  the  violent 
 hatred  of  both  catholics  and  protestants. 
 From  the  persecutions  of  the  former  he 
 was  fortunate  enough  to  escape;  but  he 
 could  not  escape  the  vengeance  of  the  lat- 
 ter. He  was  seized  as  he  was  passing 
 through  Geneva,  and,  being  persecuted  by 
 Calvin  with  a  baseness  and  malignity 
 which  have  covered  the  reformer  with  infa- 
 my, he  was  condemned  to  the  ilames  in 
 1553.  Serve'tus  appears  to  have  approach- 
 ed to  the  discovery  of  the  circulation  of 
 the  blood. 
 
 SEVERUS,  Lucius  Septimius,  a 
 Roman  emperor,  was  born,  A.  D.  146,  at 
 Leptis,  in  Africa,  and  after  having  filled  all 
 the  principal  ollices  of  the  state,  was  rais- 
 ed to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Didius  Ju- 
 lianas. Pescennhis  Niger  proved  for  a 
 while  a  formidable  rival,  but  was  at  length 
 overthrown  at  the  battle  of  Issus.  Albinus 
 shared  the  same  fate  in  Gaul;  and  Severus 
 reigned  without  a  competitor.  The  mon- 
 arch was  victorious  over  the  Parthians, 
 and  other  enemies,  but  stained  his  char- 
 in  iter  by  his  cruelty  at  home.  He  died  at 
 York  in  211. 
 
 SEVERUS  II.  Flavius  Valerius, a 
 Roman  emperor,  was  a  native  of  Illyrium, 
 of  an  obscure  family.  Diocletian  created 
 him  Caesar,  and  Galerius  made  him  his 
 associate  in  empire.  He  was  overthrown 
 by  Maxentius,  and  was  put  to  death,  in 
 307,  by  Maximinianus. 
 
SHA 
 
 SUA 
 
 455 
 
 SEVIGNE,  Mart  de  RABUTIN- 
 CHANTAL,  marchioness  of,  daughter  of 
 the  baron  de  Chantal,  was  born,  in  1627, 
 at  Bourbilly,  in  Burgundy,  and  was  left 
 an  orphan  at  an  early  age.  Her  maternal 
 uncle  brought  her  up,  and  her  mind  was 
 cultivated  by  Menage  and  Chapelain.  At 
 the  age  of  eighteen  she  married  the  mar- 
 quis de  Sevignp,  who  was  killed  in  a  duel 
 seven  years  afterwards.  Left  with  a  son 
 and  daughter,  she  devoted  herself  entirely 
 to  their  education.  To  her  daughter,  who, 
 in  1669,  was  united  to  the  count  de  Grignan, 
 she  was  particularly  attached,  and  to  her 
 were  addressed  the  major  part  of  the  well 
 known  letters  which  have  placed  the 
 marchioness  in  the  first  rank  of  epistolary 
 writers.  She  died  in  1696.  The  best  edi- 
 tion of  her  Letters  is  in  eleven  volumes 
 octavo. 
 
 SEWALL,  Samuel,  chief  justice  of 
 Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Boston  in 
 1757,  and,  after  graduating  at  Harvard 
 College,  entered  on  the  profession  of  the 
 law.  He  soon  became  eminent;  in  1797 
 was  elected  a  member  of  congress,  and  in 
 1800  was  placed  on  the  bench  of  the  su- 
 preme judicial  court.  In  1813  he  was 
 appointed  chief  justice,  but  died  suddenly 
 in  the  following  year.  He  was  a  lawyer 
 of  ability  and  learning,  and  highly  popular. 
 
 SEWARD,  Anna,  daughter  of  the 
 Rev.  Thomas  Seward,  was  born,  in  1747, 
 at  Eyam,  in  Derbyshire.  Very  early  in  life 
 she  manifested  a  talent  for  poetry,  which 
 her  father  vainly  endeavoured  to  discour- 
 age. Her  first  productions  were  contri- 
 butions to  Lady  Millar's  Vase  at  Bath 
 Easton;  her  first  separate  work,  An  Elegy 
 on  Captain  Cook,  appeared  in  1780. 
 From  that  period  she  came  frequently  be- 
 fore the  public  as  a  poet,  and  acquired 
 considerable  reputation.  She  died  in  1809. 
 Her  poems  have  been  collected  in  three 
 volumes.  She  also  wrote  A  Life  of  Dr. 
 Darwin;   and  Letters. 
 
 SHAFTESBURY,  Anthony  Ashley 
 COOPER,  earl  of,  a  celebrated  statesman, 
 was  born,  in  1621,  at  Winborne,  in  Dor- 
 setshire; was  educated  at  Exeter  College, 
 Oxford;   and  studied  the  Law  at  Lincoln's 
 
 I  Inn.  In  his  nineteenth  year  he  was  chosen 
 representative  for  Tewkesbury.  At  first 
 he  leaned  to  the  king's  party,  but  ulti- 
 I  mately  espoused  that  of  the  people.  He 
 was  hostile,  however,  to  Cromwell's  usur- 
 pation, and  he  took  an  active  part  in 
 restoring  Charles  II.  For  his  services  to 
 i  the  royal  cause,  he  was  made  chancellor 
 I  of  the  exchequer,  and  a  lord  of  the  treasu- 
 ry, and  created  Lord  Ashley.  He  formed 
 a  part  of  the  Cabal  administration;  but  it 
 j  is  doubtful  whether  he  participated  in  some 
 :of  its  worst  measures.  In  1672  he  was 
 made  earl  of  Shaftesbury,  and  appointed 
 lord  chancellor.  At  the  end  of  a  twelve- 
 month, however,  he  resigned  the  seals, 
 which  even  his  bitterest  enemies  confessed 
 that  he  had  held  with  honour  to  himself. 
 He  was  but  once  more  in  office,  and  that 
 only  for  four  months,  in  1679;  but  during 
 that  brief  period  he  conferred  on  his  coun- 
 try the  benefit  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act. 
 The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  opposition 
 to  the  unconstitutional  measures  of  Charles 
 II.  For  this  conduct  he  was  libelled  by 
 Dryden,  and  a  swarm  of  inferior  writers: 
 was  twice  committed  to  the  Tower;  and 
 was  accused  of  treason,  but  the  grand  jury 
 threw  out  the  bill.  He  at  length  withdrew, 
 in  16S2,  to  Holland ;  and  died  there  Janu- 
 ary 22,  1683. 
 
 SHAFTESBURY,  Anthony  Ashley 
 COOPER,  earl  of,  a  celebrated  writer, 
 the  grandson  of  the  foregoing,  was  born, 
 in  1671,  in  London.  His  education  was 
 partly  private,  and  partly  received  at 
 Winchester.  After  having  travelled,  he 
 became,  in  1693,  M.  P.  for  Pool,  and,  as 
 a  senator,  he  acted  on  enlightened  and 
 liberal  principles.  Subsequently,  however, 
 his  delicate  health  deterred  him  from 
 taking  an  active  part  in  public  affairs; 
 and  he  devoted  his  leisure  to  literature. 
 He  died,  in  1713,  at  Naples.  His  works, 
 the  style  of  which  is  polished  with  too 
 laborious  care,  were  collected  in  three 
 volumes,  under  the  title  of  Characteristics 
 of  Men,  Manners,  Opinions,  and  Times. 
 
 SHAKSPEARE,  Will  am,  the  glory 
 of  the  British  drama,  was  born,  April  23, 
 1564,  at  Stratford  upon   Avon,  and  was 
 
456  SHA 
 
 the  son  of  a  dealer  in  wool.  All  the  learn- 
 ing which  he  possessed  he  acquired  at  the 
 free  school  of  his  native  place.  In  his 
 eighteenth  year  he  married  Ann  Hatha- 
 way, a  yeoman's  daughter,  who  was  con- 
 siderably older  than  himself.  He  was, 
 however,  compelled  to  quit  the  country, 
 about  15S6,  in  consequence  of  having  form- 
 ed one  of  a  party  in  **  conveying"  away 
 some  of  Sir  Thomas  Lucy's  deer,  and  after- 
 wards written  a  lampoon  on  the  knight; 
 for  which  he  was  prosecuted.  On  his  first 
 reaching  London  he  is  said  to  have  been 
 employed  as  prompter's  call  boy  at  the 
 theatre.  Other  accounts  represent  him  as 
 holding  horses  for  gentlemen  at  the  door 
 of  the  playhouse.  He  was  next  an  actor, 
 but  does  not  appear  to  have  risen  high 
 in  the  profession.  His  earliest  dramatic 
 attempt,  the  First  Part  of  Henry  VI.,  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  made  in  1589.  He 
 was  patronised  by  the  earl  of  Southampton ; 
 enjoyed  the  friendship  of  his  most  eminent 
 literary  contemporaries;  and  was  favoured 
 by  Elizabeth  and  Jamea  I.  Having  be- 
 come proprietor  and  manager  of  the  Globe 
 Theatre,  he  realized  a  handsome  fortune, 
 with  which  he  retired  to  Stratford,  where 
 he  purchased  an  estate,  and  resided  for 
 several  years.  He  died  in  1616,  on  his 
 birthday. 
 
 SHARP,  Granville,  a  philanthropist 
 and  writer,  was  born,  in  1734,  at  Durham, 
 and  was  brought  up  to  trade,  but  soon 
 abandoned  it.  A  place  in  the  ordinance 
 oflice  he  resigned,  because  he  disapproved 
 of  the  American  war.  The  rest  of  his  long 
 life  was  spent  in  exertions  of  active  benev- 
 olence. He,  with  infinite  difficulty  and 
 expense,  established  the  right  of  Africans 
 to  freedom  in  England;  instituted  the  So- 
 ciety for  the  Abolition  of  the  Skive  Trade; 
 promoted  the  distribution  of  the  Bible; 
 and  exerted  himself  in  the  cause  of  par- 
 liamentary reform.  He  died  July  6,  1813. 
 Among  his  works  are  various  pamphlets 
 on  Slavery;  Tracts  on  the  Hebrew  Lan- 
 guage; and  Remarks  on  the  Definitive 
 Article  in  the  Greek  Testament. 
 
 SHARP,  William,  an  eminent  en- 
 graver, was  burn,  in  1740,  in  Haydon 
 Yard,  in  the  Minorics;  was  apprenticed 
 to  Mr.  Longmate,  a  writing  engraver; 
 rose  to  excellence  in  the  highest  branch  of 
 the  graphic  art  by  dint  of  his  own  unas- 
 sisted exertions;  and  died  July  25,  1824. 
 His  works  are  numerous,  and  are  held  in 
 high  estimation.  His  talent  was  all  con- 
 fined to  his  art.  He  was,  in  other  respects, 
 a  common  place  being;  and  was,  in  suc- 
 cession, the  dupe  ofMesmer,  Swedenborg, 
 Brothers,  and  Joanna  Southcott. 
 
 SH A VV,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  traveller, 
 was  born,  about  1692,  at  Kendal,  in  West- 
 moreland; was  educated  at  Queen's  Col- 
 lege,  Oxford  ;     became    chaplain    to    the 
 
 SHE 
 
 factory  at  Algiers;  and  died,  in  1751, 
 principal  of  St.  Edmund's  Hall,  Greek 
 professor,  and  vicar  of  Bramley.  He  wrote 
 Travels  in  Barbary  and  the  Levant. 
 
 SHAW,  Geokok,  a  naturalist,  was 
 born,  in  1751,  at  Bierton,  in  Buckingham- 
 shire. He  was  educated  at  Magdalen  Col- 
 lege, Oxford;  studied  medicine  at  Edin- 
 burgh; and  took  his  degree  at  Oxford.  He 
 was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society;  vice 
 president  of  the  Linnaan  Society;  and  li- 
 brarian and  assistant  keeper  of  natural  his- 
 tory at  the  British  Museum.  He  died  in 
 1813.  His  principal  works  are,  General 
 Zoology ;  Zoological  Lectures ;  and  the 
 Zoology  of  New  Holland.  He  also  con 
 ducted  the  Naturalist's  Miscellany;  and 
 was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  abridged  Phi- 
 losophical Transactions. 
 
 SHEFFIELD,  John  Baker  HOL- 
 ROYD,  earl  of,  a  statesman,  was  born, 
 about  1735,  at  Penn,in  Buckinghamshire; 
 sat  in  the  house  of  commons  for  Coventry 
 and  Bristol;  obtained  an  Irish  peerage; 
 and  died  in  1821.  He  possessed  consider- 
 able knowledge  upon  mercantile  subjects; 
 and  wrote  several  pamphlets  on  Irish  and 
 American  commerce,  and  on  the  corn  and 
 wool  trade.  Holroyd  was  one  of  the  most 
 intimate  friends  of  Gibbon,  whose  miscel- 
 laneous works  he  edited. 
 
 SHEFFIELD.  See  Buckingham- 
 shire. 
 
 SHELLEY,  Percy  Bysshe,  an  emi- 
 nent poet,  the  son  of  Sir  Timothy  Shelley, 
 was  bom,  in  1792,  at  Field  Place,  in  Sus- 
 sex ;  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Oxford; 
 and  was  drowned,  in  the  Mediterranean, 
 July  8,  1822.  Shelley  was  a  man  of  splen- 
 did talent,  and  a  highly  poetical  mind; 
 but,  unfortunately  for  his  reputation  and 
 happiness,  had  adopted  the  blighting  prin- 
 ciples of  atheism.  His  Revolt  of  Islam; 
 Prometheus  Unbound  ;  Cenci;  and,  indeed, 
 the  whole  of  his  poems,  bear  the  stamp  of 
 genius. 
 
 SIIENSTONE,  William, a  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1714,  at  Hales  Owen,  in  Shrop- 
 shire, and  was  educated  at  the  grammar 
 school  of  that  place,  and  at  Pembroke  Col- 
 lege, Oxford.  From  his  father  he  inherit- 
 ed an  estate  of  no  great  magnitude,  called 
 The  Leasowes.  He  rendered  it  an  object 
 of  much  picturesque  beauty;  but  the  praise 
 which  it  attracted  from  its  numerous  visit- 
 ors was  dearly  bought  by  him,  for  the  im- 
 provement of  it  involved  him  in  embarrass- 
 ments which  imbittered  his  latter  years, 
 lie  died  in  1763.  His  works,  in  verse  and 
 prose,  form  three  volumes. 
 
 S 1 1  E  R 1 1 )  A  N ,  T  ii  o  M  .a  s ,  son  of  the  well 
 known  friend  of  Dean  Swift,  and  father  of 
 Ii.  B.  Sheridan,  was  born,  in  1721,  at 
 Quilca,  in  Ireland,  and  was  educated  at 
 Westminster  School,  and  at  Trinity  Col- 
 lege, Dublin.     In  1742,  he  went  upon  the 
 
SHE 
 
 stage,  and  gained  applause  as  a  tragedian. 
 He  next  became  manager  of  the  Dublin 
 Theatre,  but  was  ruined  by  riots  and  an 
 opposition  establishment.  He  subsequently 
 gave  lectures  on  elocution,  and  for  a  short 
 period  was  manager  of  Drury  Lane  The- 
 atre. A  pension  was  granted  to  him  by 
 Lord  Bute.  He  died  in  1788.  His  chief 
 works  are,  an  Orthoepical  Dictionary  of 
 the  English  Language;  and  A  Life  of  Swift. 
 SHERIDAN,  Frances,  wife  of  the 
 foregoing,  whose  maiden  name  was  Cham- 
 BERI.aine,  was  born,  about  1724,  at 
 Dublin,  and  died  in  1767.  She  wrote  Sid- 
 ney Biddulph,  a  novel;  Nourjahad,  an 
 eastern  romance;  and  the  comedies  of  The 
 Discovery,  and  The  Dupe. 
 
 SHT 
 
 457 
 
 SHERIDAN,  Richard   Brisslkt, 
 
 was  born,  October  31,  1751,  at  Dublin; 
 was  educated  at  Harrow,  and  studied  the 
 law  at  Lincoln's  Inn;  but  was  not  called  to 
 the  bar.  He  married  early  in  life,  and, 
 having  exhausted  his  pecuniary  resources, 
 he  looked  to  literature  for  his  immediate 
 subsistence.  His  first  dramatic  attempt  was 
 The  Rivals,  which  was  but  imperfectly  suc- 
 cessful. The  Duenna,  however,  and  The 
 School  for  Scandal,  placed  him  foremost 
 among  living  dramatists;  and  he  sustained 
 his  reputation  by  The  Critic.  In  1776  he 
 became  one  of  the  proprietors  of  Drury  Lane 
 Theatre;  and  in  17S0  he  was  elected  mem- 
 ber for  Stafford.  For  two  and  thirty  years 
 he  pursued  a  splendid  parliamentary  career, 
 during  which  he  was  unrivalled  in  wit,  and 
 had  few  equals  in  eloquence.  One  of  his 
 greatest  efforts  of  oratory  was  his  speech, 
 as  manager,  upon  the  impeachment  of 
 Hastings.  He  was  thrice  in  office,  for 
 short  periods,  uuder  the  Rockingham  coa- 
 lition, and  whig  administrations.  In  his 
 latter  years  he  drank  deeply  of  the  cup  of 
 bitterness.  His  profuse  habits  involved 
 him  deeply  in  debt;  the  destruction  of  Drury 
 Lane  Theatre  by  fire  contributed  to  his 
 ruin;  his  failure  to  obtain  a  seat  in  parlia- 
 ment deprived  him  of  protection  from  ar- 
 rest; his  person  was  more  than  once  seized 
 by  the  harpies  of  the  law;  and,  amidst 
 difficulties,  fears,  and  sorrows,  this  highly 
 gifted  man  sunk  to  the  grave  mi  the  7th  of 
 20 
 
 July,  1816.  His  poems  and  plays  were 
 collected,  in  two  volumes,  by  Moore,  who 
 also  wrote  a  Life  of  him. 
 
 SHERLOCK,  William,  a  divine,  was 
 born,  about  1641,  in  Southwark;  was  ed- 
 ucated at  Eton,  and  at  Peterhouse,  Cam- 
 bridge; obtained  the  mastership  of  the 
 Temple,  and  other  preferment;  was  sus- 
 pended for  refusing  to  take  the  oaths  to 
 William  III.,  but  subsequently  complied, 
 and  was  made  dean  of  St.  Paul's;  and  died 
 in  1707.  His  Discourses  on  Death  and 
 Judgment  are  his  only  works  which  remain 
 popular. 
 
 SHERLOCK,  Thomas,  a  prelate,  son 
 of  the  foregoing,  was  born,  in  1678,  in 
 London ;  and  was  educated  at  Eton,  and 
 at  Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge,  of  which 
 last  he  became  master.  He  also  succeeded 
 his  father  in  the  mastership  of  the  Temple, 
 and  was,  successively,  dean  of  Chichester, 
 and  bishop  of  Bangor,  Salisbury,  and  Lon- 
 don. He  died  in  1761.  Sherlock  was  an 
 antagonist  of  Hoadley  in  the  Bangor  ian  con- 
 troversy, and  likewise  undertook  the  refu- 
 tation of  Anthony  Collins.  He  is  the  author 
 of  Sermons;  and  of  The  Trial  of  the  Wit- 
 nesses. 
 
 SHERMAN,  Roger,  a  signer  of  the 
 declaration  of  American  independence,  was 
 born  at  Newton,  Massachusetts,  in  1721, 
 and  with  only  a  common  school  education, 
 rose  to  distinction  as  a  lawyer  and  states- 
 man. His  early  life  was  passed  in  the  oc- 
 cupation of  a  shoe  maker.  Removing  to 
 Connecticut  in  1743,  he  was  admitted  to 
 the  bar  in  1754,  and  soon  became  distin- 
 guished as  a  counsellor.  In  1761  he  re- 
 moved to  New  Haven,  four  years  after  was 
 appointed  a  judge  of  the  county  court,  and 
 in  1776  advanced  to  the  bench  of  the  su- 
 perior court.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
 celebrated  congress  of  1774,  and  was  a 
 member  of  that  body  for  the  space  of  nine- 
 teen years.  He  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
 vention that  formed  the  constitution  of  the 
 United  States.     He  died  in  1793. 
 
 SHERWIN,  John  Keyse,  an  emi- 
 nent engraver,  was  a  native  of  Sussex,  in 
 which  county,  till  he  was  nineteen,  he  was 
 a  wood  cutter.  His  talent  for  drawing 
 having  by  mere  chance  been  discovered,  he 
 was  patronised,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Bir- 
 tolozzi,  after  which  he  rose  high  in  his  pro- 
 fession. He  died  in  1790.  The  Finding 
 of  Moses,  Christ  and  Mary  Magdalen  in 
 the  Garden,  and  Christ  bearing  the  Cross, 
 are  among  his  principal  works. 
 
 SHIELD,  William,  a  celebrated  com- 
 poser, was  born,  about  1749,  at  Swall- 
 well,  in  the  county  of  Durham,  and  was  the 
 son  of  a  singing  master,  who,  in  his  ninth 
 year,  left  him  fatherless.  He  was  appren- 
 ticed to  a  boat  builder,  but  quitted  that 
 business  as  soon  as  his  indentures  expired, 
 for   he  had   never  ceased  to  cultivate  the 
 
458 
 
 SIC 
 
 SID 
 
 knowledge  of  the  violin,  which  he  had  early  I  tage  to  his  pupils.  He  died  May  10,  1822. 
 acquired.     After  having  acquired   reputa-    He  wrote  Elements  of  General  Grammar, 
 
 tion  in  the  country,  he  became  first  violin 
 player  at  the  Opera  House;  and,  in  1778, 
 lie  came  forward  as  a  dramatic  composer, 
 in  the  music  to  the  Flitch  of  Bacon.  The 
 merit  of  this  piece  procured  for  him  the  sit-  i 
 uation  of  composer  to  Covent  Garden  The- 
 atre, which  he  held  for  several  years.  In 
 1791  he  visited  France  and  Italy.  Till  his 
 decease,  which  took  place  January  25, 
 1829,  he  continued  to  enjoy  a  high  degree 
 of  popularity.  He  wrote  An  Introduction 
 to  Harmony,  and  Rudiments  of  Thorough 
 Bass;  and  composed  between  thirty  and 
 forty  musical  dramas;  besides  numerous 
 songs  and  other  works. 
 
 SHIPPEN,  William,  an  eminent  phy- 
 sician, was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  and  was 
 graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1754. 
 His  medical  studies  were  completed  at  Ed- 
 inburgh, and  on  his  return  in  1764  he  began 
 at  Philadelphia  the  first  course  of  lectures 
 on  anatomy  ever  delivered  in  the  country. 
 He  assisted  in  establishing  the  medical 
 school  of  that  city,  and  was  appointed  one 
 of  its  professors.  In  1777  he  was  appointed 
 director  general  of  the  medical  department 
 in  the  armv.     He  died  in  1808. 
 
 SHIRLEY,  James,  the  last  of  the  Eliz- 
 abethan race  of  dramatic  writers,  was 
 born,  about  1594,  in  London  ;  was  educated 
 at  Merchant  Tailors'  School,  and  at  St. 
 John's  College,  Oxford;  and  took  his  de- 
 gree at  Cambridge.  He  obtained  a  curacy, 
 but  resigned  it  on  becoming  a  catholic. 
 Having  failed  to  establish  a  scnool,  he 
 wrote  with  success  for  the  stage,  and  was 
 taken  into  the  service  of  Henrietta  Maria. 
 During  the  civil  war,  he  again  adopted  the 
 profession  of  a  schoolmaster.  He  lost  all 
 his  property  by  the  fire  of  London,  and  he 
 and  his  wife  died  of  grief  within  twenty- 
 four  hours  of  each  other,  in  the  following 
 October.  An  edition  of  Shirlev's  works 
 was  one  of  the  last  labours  of  William  Gil- 
 ford . 
 
 SIBTHORP,  Johx,  a  botanist,  was 
 born,  in  1753,  at  Oxford;  was  educated 
 at  Lincoln  College;  studied  medicine  at 
 Edinburgh;  visited  France,  Switzerland, 
 and  Greece;  became  botanical  professor  at 
 Oxford;  and  died  in  1796.  He  wrote 
 Flora  Oxoniensis;  and  left  an  estate  to 
 the  university,  to  defray  the  expense  of 
 publishing,  from  his  observations,  a  Flora 
 Graeca. 
 
 SICARD,  Roch  Ambrose  CUCUR- 
 RON,  an  eminent  teacher  of  the  deaf  and 
 dumb,  was  born,  ia  1742,  at  Fousseret, 
 near  Toulouse,  and  was  brought  up  to 
 the  chinch.  In  1789  he  was  chosen  to 
 succeed  the  Abbe  de  l'Epce,  in  the  Paris- 
 ian institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb; 
 and  he  held  this  situation  for  ma.iy  years, 
 jyjth  honour  to   himself  and   great  advan- 
 
 everal  valuable  works  on  the  tuition  of 
 the  deaf  and  dumb;  was  editor  of  the 
 Catholic  Annals;  and  assisted  in  the  En- 
 cyclopedic Magazine. 
 
 SIDDOINS,  Sarah,  the  most  consum- 
 mate of  English  tragic  actresses,  was  born, 
 in  1755,  at  Brecknock,  and  was  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Roger  Kemble,  the  manager  of  a 
 company  of  itinerant  players.  In  early 
 life  she  experienced  those  privations  and 
 vicissitudes  to  which  wandering  actors  are 
 necessarily  exposed.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
 she  became  attached  to  Mr.  Siddons,  and 
 her  parents  refusing  their  consent  to  her 
 marriage,  she  went  over  to  reside  with 
 Mrs.  Greatliead,  of  Guy's  Cliff",  as  a  hum- 
 ble companion.  In  her  eighteenth  year  she 
 was  united  to  the  object  of  her  choice,  and 
 she  returned  to  the  stage.  In  1775  she 
 tried  her  powers  on  the  London  boards, 
 but  was  unsuccessful.  Time,  however,  ma- 
 tured her  powers,  and,  after  an  absence  of 
 seven  years,  partly  spent  at  Bath,  where 
 she  was  much  admired,  she  reappeared  at 
 Drury  Lane,  on  the  10th  of  October,  1782, 
 in  the  character  of  Isabella.  Thenceforth 
 her  course  was  a  perpetual  triumph.  In 
 1812,  having  acquired  an  ample  fortune, 
 she  withdrew  into  private  life.  She  died 
 June  the  9th,  1831.  31  rs.  Siddons  pos- 
 sessed considerable  talent  as  a  sculptor;  a 
 medallion  of  herself,  and  a  bust  of  John 
 Kemble,  are  among  her  works. 
 
 Xf  \     - 
 
 SIDNEY,  Sir  Philip,  one  ofthe  most 
 accomplished  men  of  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
 beth, was  the  son  of  Sir  Henry  Sidney; 
 was  born,  in  1554,  at  Penshurst,  in  Kent; 
 was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  School, Christ 
 Church,  Oxford,  and  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge  ;  and  subsequently  travelled  in 
 France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  On  his  re- 
 turn he  became  a  favourite  of  the  queen, 
 and  was  sent  by  her,  in  1576,  on  an  em- 
 bassy to  the  Emperor  Rodolph.  lie  was 
 knighted  in  1583.  When  his  maternal 
 uncle,  the  earl  of  Leicester,  was  appointed 
 to  the  command  of  the  auxiliary  forces  in 
 the  Netherlands,  Sidney  was  nominated 
 general    of  cavalry,      He    was,    however, 
 
SIM 
 
 mortally  wounded,  in  September,  in  a  vic- 
 torious action  near  Zutphen,  and  died  on 
 the  17th  of  October,  1586.  Sidney  was 
 universally  beloved  and  admired.  So  high 
 did  his  character  stand  that,  in  1585,  he 
 was  named  as  a  candidate  for  the  crown 
 of  Poland.  He  wrote  The  Arcadia;  The 
 Defence  of  Poetry;   and  various  poems. 
 
 SIDNEY,  Algernon,  the  second  son 
 of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  was  born  about 
 1620,  and  received  an  excellent  education 
 under  the  eye  of  his  father.  In  1643  he 
 returned  from  Ireland,  where  he  had  serv- 
 ed during  the  rebellion.  He  joined  the 
 standard  of  the  parliament,  and  was  ap- 
 pointed a  colonel,  and  subsequently  lieu- 
 tenant general,  of  horse.  He  was  nomi- 
 nated a  member  of  the  court  instituted  to 
 try  Charles  I.  but  he  took  no  part  in  the 
 proceedings,  though  he  did  not  disapprove 
 of  them.  To  the  usurpation  of  Cromwell 
 he  was  decidedly  hostile.  At  the  Restora- 
 tion he  became  a  voluntary  exile,  and  he 
 continued  abroad  for  seventeen  years,  till 
 his  father  obtained  for  him  a  special  par- 
 don. Sidney,  however,  was  too  firm  a 
 friend  of  liberty  to  be  tolerated  by  the 
 minions  of  despotism.  He  was  involved 
 in  the  Rye  House  Plot,  and  was  brought 
 to  trial  after  Lord  William  Russel.  The 
 most  infamous  perversion  of  justice  was 
 resorted  to,  in  order  to  convict  him;  and 
 he  met  death  with  heroic  fortitude,  Decem- 
 ber 7,  1683.  Sidney  is  the  author  of 
 Discourses  on  Government. 
 
 SILIUS  ITALICUS,  CAius,a  Roman 
 poet,  was  born  a.  D.  15;  rose  to  the  dig- 
 nities of  consul,  and  proconsul  in  Asia; 
 and  died  at  his  villa  of  Tusculum,  in  his 
 seventy-fifth  year.  He  wrote  a  poem,  in 
 sixteen  books,  an  the  second   Punic  war. 
 
 SIMEON  STYLITE,  Saint,  a  crack- 
 brained  fanatic,  was  born,  about  390,  at 
 Sisan,  on  the  Syrian  and  Cilician  fron- 
 tier, and  was  the  son  of  a  shepherd.  After 
 having  inflicted  upon  himself  many  ascet- 
 ic severities,  he  took  up  his  abode  on  the 
 summit  of  a  pillar.  In  this  singular  situ- 
 ation he  existed,  or  rather  vegetated,, 
 nearly  forty  years.     He  died  about  459. 
 
 SIMON,  Richard,  a  learned  French 
 hebraist  and  theologian,  was  born,  in 
 1638,  at  Dieppe;  was  professor  of  philos- 
 ophy for  several  years  at  the  college  of 
 Juilly;  and  died  in  1712.  His  Critical 
 History  of  the  Old  Testament  was  sup- 
 pressed, because  it  denied  Moses  to  be  the 
 author  of  the  Pentateuch.  He  wrote  va- 
 rious other  theological  and  critical  works. 
 
 SIMONIDES,  a  Grecian  philosopher 
 and  poet,  was  born,  B.C.  558,  in  the  island 
 of  Ceos,  and  died  in  his  eighty-ninth  year, 
 at  the  court  of  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse. 
 He  excelled  in  lyric  poetry  and  elegy. 
 Only  a  few  fragments  of  his  works  are 
 extant. 
 
 SLE  459 
 
 SIMPSON,  Thomas,  an  eminent  math- 
 ematician, was  born,  in  1710,  at  Market 
 Bosworth,  in  Leicestershire,  and  was  the 
 son  of  a  weaver,  who  brought  him  up  to 
 his  own  trade,  and  prohibited  his  reading. 
 Simpson  separated  from  his  father,  and, 
 after  many  vicissitudes,  one  of  which  was 
 his  becoming  a  fortune  teller,  he  acquired 
 a  perfect  knowledge  of  mathematics,  lie 
 ultimately  rose  to  be  mathematical  profes- 
 sor at  the  Royal  Academy,  Woolwich,  and 
 a  member  of  the  Royal  Soeietv.  His  de- 
 cease took  place  in  1761.  He  wrote  Trea- 
 tises on  Fluxions,  Annuities,  and  Algebra; 
 Elements  of  Geometry;  and  other  scien- 
 tific works. 
 
 SIMSON,  Roeert,  an  eminent  mathe- 
 matician, was  born,  in  1687,  at  Kirton 
 Hall,  in  Ayrshire  ;  studied  medicine  at 
 Glasgow,  and  took  his  degree,  but  did  not 
 practise;  was  professor  of  mathematics  at 
 Glasgow  during  a  period  of  nearly  half  a 
 century;  and  died  in  1768.  Among  his 
 works  are,  A  Treatise  on  Conic  Sections; 
 The  Loci  Plani  of  Apollonius  restored; 
 and  a  translation  of  Euclid's  Elements. 
 
 SIX,  John,  a  Dutch  dramatic  poet, 
 was  born,  in  1618,  and  died  in  1700.  The 
 works  of  Six  are  remarkable  for  purity  of 
 style.  He  wrote  several  traged.es,  of 
 which  Medea  is  considered  as  the  best. 
 He  was  the  friend  and  patron  of  Rem- 
 brandt, and  his  portrait  was  engraved  by 
 that  artist. 
 
 SIXTHS  V.  pope,  Felix  PERETTI, 
 the  son  of  a  gardener,  was  born,  in  1521, 
 at  Montalto,  in  the  marquisate  of  Ancona, 
 and,  in  his  early  youth,  was  employed  in 
 keeping  swine.  Having  become  a  corde- 
 lier, he  acquired  popularity  by  his  preach- 
 ing, and  rose,  successively,  to  be  commis- 
 sary general  at  Bologna,  inquisitor  at  Ven- 
 ice, general  of  his  order,  bishop  of  St. 
 Agatha,  and  a  cardinal.  By  artfully 
 feigning  to  be  bowed  down  with  age  and 
 infirmities,  he  induced  the  conclave  to 
 elect  him  pope,  in  1585;  but  the  moment 
 his  election  was  secured,  he  threw  oft"  the 
 mask.  He  held  the  papal  chair  only  five 
 years;  during  which  period  he  governed 
 with  great  firmness  and  talent. 
 
 SKELTON,  John,  a  poet,  was  born, 
 towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
 in  Cumberland  ;  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
 where  he  was  made  poet  laureat,  obtained 
 the  curacy  of  Trompington,  and  the  living 
 of  Diss;  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the 
 sanctuary  of  Westminster,  in  consequence 
 of  his  satires  on  Wolsey  and  the  mendi- 
 cant friars;  and  died  there  in  1529. 
 
 SLEIDAN,  John  Philipson,  an  his- 
 torian, whom  protestant  Germany  considers 
 as  its  Livy,  was  born,  in  1506,  at  Schleide, 
 in  the  electorate  of  Cologne,  and  completed 
 his  studies  at  the  universities  of  Paris  ai>4 
 Oi  leans.      For  many  years  he  was  conS* 
 
460 
 
 8ME 
 
 dential  secretary  to  Cardinal  du  Bellay. 
 Having,  however,  espoused  the  doctrines  of 
 the  reformation,  he  settled  at  Strasburgh ; 
 was  employed  in  various  negotiations  ;  and 
 died  in  1556.  Of  his  works  the  most  im- 
 portant are,  A  History  of  the  Reforma- 
 tion; and  A  History  of  the  Four  Ancient 
 Monarchies. 
 
 SLOANE,  Sir  Hans,  an  eminent  phy- 
 sician and  naturalist,  was  born,  in  1660, 
 at  Killileagh,  in  Ireland;  took  his  degree 
 at  BAontpelHer;  settled  in  London,  in  1684; 
 and  became  a  fellow  of  the  college,  and  a 
 member  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1687 
 he  went  to  Jamaica,  as  physician  to  the 
 duke  of  Albemarle;  and,  during  the  fifteen 
 months  that  he  remained  there,  he  made 
 a  valuable  collection  of  objects  of  natural 
 hist  >ry.  After  his  return  to  London,  he 
 acquired  great  reputation,  and  an  ample 
 fortune.  He  was  secretary,  and,  on  the 
 decease  of  Newton,  president  of  the  Royal 
 Society;  president  of  the  College  of  Phy- 
 si;-ia;is;  physician  general  to  the  army; 
 physician  to  George  II.;  and  was  created 
 a  baronet.  He  died  in  1752.  Sloane 
 bequeathed  the  whcle  of  his  immense  col- 
 lection of  natural  curiosities,  medals,  and 
 books  to  the  public,  on  payment  of  a  com- 
 paratively trilling  sum,  and  it  constitutes 
 the  basis  of  the  British  3Iuseum.  His 
 chief  work  is  A  Natural  History  of  Ja- 
 maica. 
 
 SMART,  Christopher,  a  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1722,  at  Shipbourne,  in  Kent, 
 and  was  educated  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cam- 
 bridge. After  having  encountered  numer- 
 ous vicissitudes  and  sufferings,  and  having 
 for  a  while  laboured  under  insanity,  he  died, 
 in  1770,  within  the  rules  of  the  King's 
 Bench  prison.  Smart  was  a  man  of  gen- 
 ius; and  his  poems,  many  of  which  are  of 
 a  superior  order,  deserve  the  place  which 
 thev  have  obtained  among  the  collected  pro- 
 ductions of  the  British  Poets.  Among 
 hio  other  works  are  prose  and  metrical 
 versions  of  Horace,  and  a  translation  of 
 Ph  edras. 
 
 S\l  EATON,  John,  an  eminent  civil 
 engineer,  was  bom,  in  1724,  at  Aostborpe, 
 in  Yoikshire,  and,  at  an  early  period  dis- 
 played a  genius  for  mechanics.  He  began 
 life  as  a  mathematical  instrument  maker; 
 bill  bi  b. •equontly  became  an  engineer,  and 
 soon  rose  to  the  summit  of  his  profession, 
 liis  great  work,  the  Eddystone  Light- 
 house, was  completed  in  1759.  Among 
 his  other  work"  are  the  navigation  of  the 
 Calder,  the  great  canal  in  Scotland,  and 
 the  improvements  at  Ramsgate  Harbour. 
 He  died  in  1792.  He  wrote  An  Account 
 of  the  Eddystone  Lighthouse;  An  Experi- 
 mental Inquiry  into  the  Powers  of  Wind 
 and  Water  to  turn  Mills;  Reports;  and 
 some  papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
 tions. 
 
 SMI 
 
 SMELLIE,  William,  an  able  practi- 
 tioner of  midwifery,  and  lecturer  on  that 
 branch  of  the  medical  art,  was  a  native  of 
 Scotland  ;  followed  his  profession  for  many 
 years  in  London  ;  and  died,  at  an  advanced 
 age,  in  1763.  Dr.  W.  Hunter  was  one  of 
 his  pupils.  He  published  a  Treatise  on 
 Midwifery;  and  illustrated  it  subsequently 
 by  Anatomical  Tables. 
 
 SMELLIE,  William,  a  naturalist,  was 
 born,  in  1740,  at  Edinburgh,  and  followed 
 the  profession  of  a  printer.  He  died  in 
 17JJ5.  He  wrote  The  Philosophy  of  Nat- 
 ural History;  A  Dissertation  on  the  Sexes 
 of  Plants;  and  some  articles  in  the  first 
 edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica; 
 translated  Buffon;  and,  in  conjunction  with 
 Gilbert  Stuart,  carried  on  the  Edinburgh 
 Review  and  Magazine. 
 
 SMITH,  John,  one  of  the  early  settlers 
 of  Virginia,  was  born  in  Lincolnshire  in 
 1579.  After  passing  through  a  variety  of 
 wonderful  adventures,  he  resolved  to  visit 
 North  America,  and  having  with  a  number 
 of  other  persons  procured  a  charter  of 
 South  Virginia,  he  came  over  thither  in 
 1607.  Being  taken  prisoner  by  the  In- 
 dians, and  condemned  to  death,  his  life 
 was  saved  by  the  daughter  of  the  savage 
 chief,  the  celebrated  Pocahontas.  He  pub- 
 lished an  account  of  several  of  his  voyages 
 to  Virginia,  a  history  of  that  colony,  and 
 an  account  of  his  own  life.  He  died  at 
 London  in  1631. 
 
 SMITH,  Elihu   H.,  a  physician,  was 
 born  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut,   in  1771, 
 !  and  was  graduated  at  Yale  College.     He 
 studied  medicine,  and  engaged  in  its  prac- 
 tice at  New  York,  where  he  soon  obtained 
 ;  an    extensive     business.       In     conjunction 
 I  with  Dr.  Miller  and  Dr.  Mitchill,  he  com- 
 menced   the    publication    of    the    Medical 
 I  Repositorv,  and  communicated  to  it  a  num- 
 |  ber  of  valuable  treatises.  He  died  in  1798. 
 His  medical  learning  was  very  uncommon. 
 SMITH,  James,  a  signer  of  the  dec- 
 laration of  American    independence,    was 
 a  native  of  Ireland,  removed  with  his  father 
 to  this  country  at  an  early  age,  and  estab- 
 lished   himself  in    the    practice  of  law  at 
 York,   in    Pennsylvania.     He   was  a  dele- 
 gate from  York  county  to   the  continental 
 congress.     His  death  took  place  in  1S06. 
 
 SMITH,  William,  a  divine,  was  born, 
 in  1711,  at  Worcester;  was  educated  at 
 the  grammar  school  of  that  city,  and  at 
 New  College,  Oxford;  and  died,  dean  of 
 Chester,  and  rector  of  Trinity  Church, 
 Chester,  in  17S7.  He  produced  transla- 
 tions of  Thucydides,  Longinus,  and  Xeno- 
 phon's  History  of  Greece;  Sermons  on  the 
 Beatitudes;   and  Poems. 
 
 SMITH,  Adam,  a  celebrated  writer  on 
 morals  and  political  economy,  was  born, 
 June  5,  1723,  at  Kirkaldy,  in  Scotland. 
 His  education  he  received  at  the  grammar 
 
SMI 
 
 ■chool  of  his  native  town,  the  university 
 of  Glasgow,  and  Baliol  College   Oxford. 
 
 On  leaving  the  latter  seminary,  in  1748, 
 he  delivered  lectures  on  rhetoric  and  polite 
 literature  at  Edinburgh;  in  1757,  he  was 
 chosen  professor  of  logic  at  Glasgow;  and, 
 in  the  following  year,  he  was  removed  to 
 the  chair  of  mural  philosophy.  His  The- 
 ory of  Moral  Sentiments,  which  appeared 
 in  1759,  established  his  reputation,  and  led 
 to  his  being  engaged,  in  1763,  to  accom- 
 pany the  duke  of  Bticcleugh  in  his  travels. 
 On  his  return,  after  an  absence  of  three 
 years,  he  lived  in  retirement  during  ten 
 years,  which  period  was  occupied  in  the 
 composition  of  his  admirable  inquiry  into 
 the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of 
 Nations.  It  was  published  in  1776.  He 
 died  in  1790,  one  of  the  commissioners  of 
 Scotch  customs. 
 
 SMITH,  Charlotte,  a  poetess  and 
 novelist,  whose  maiden  name  was  Turner, 
 was  born,  in  1749,  in  Sussex,  where  her 
 father  possessed  considerable  property. 
 When  she  was  only  sixteen,  she  married 
 a  West  India  merchant,  who  was  subse- 
 quently ruined,  partly  by  imprudence,  and 
 partly  by  legal  chicanery.  Her  pen,  which 
 had  been  her  amusement,  now  became  the 
 support  of  her  husband  and  family,  and  she 
 long  enjoyed  great  popularity  as  a  writer 
 both  of  verse  and  prose.  Her  volume  of 
 Elegiac  Sonnets,  published  in  1784,  and 
 which  passed  through  several  editions,  was 
 the  first  work  which  she  gave  to  the  press. 
 She  died  in  1806.  Among  her  works  are, 
 Poems,  Minor  Morals,  and  other  produc- 
 tions for  youth ;  and  the  novels  of  Emme- 
 line,  Desmond,  Marchmont,  Ethelinda, 
 Celestine,  and  The  Old  Manor  House. 
 
 SMITH,  Sir  James  Edward,  an  emi- 
 nent naturalist  and  physician,  was  born,  in 
 1759,  at  Norwich ;  studied  medicine  at 
 Edinburgh,  and  took  his  degree  at  Lev- 
 den;  was  one  of  the  founders  and  president 
 of  the  Linnsean  Society ;  and  practised  as 
 a  physician  at  his  native  place,  where  he 
 died,  March  17,  1828.  His  chief  works 
 are,  A  Sketch  of  a  Tour  on  the  Continent ; 
 Natural  History  of  the  Lepidopterous 
 T  *«cts of  Georgia;  English  Botany;  Eng- 
 
 SMY  461 
 
 lish  Flora;   and  An  Introduction  to  Bota- 
 ny. 
 
 SMITH,  Eliza beth,  an  accomplished 
 female,  was  born,  in  1776,  at  the  f  .m.lv 
 seat  of  Burnhall,  in  the  county  ef  Durham; 
 and  died  in  1806.  She  had  "a  knowledge 
 of  mathematics  and  drawing,  possessed 
 much  poetical  talent,  and  understood  the 
 Hebrew,  Syriuc,  Arabic,  Persian,  Greek, 
 Latin,  Italian,  Spanish,  German,  and 
 French  languages.  Her  Fragments,  Trans- 
 lation of  Job,  and  Translation  of  the  Life 
 of  Klopstock,  have  been  published. 
 
 SMOLLET,  Dr.  Tobias,  a  writer  of 
 varied  talents,  was  born,  in  1721,  at  Dal- 
 quhurn,  in  Dumbartonshire;  was  educated 
 at  Dumbarton  Grammar  School;  and  stu- 
 died medicine  at  Glasgow,  where  he  was 
 apprenticed  to  a  surgeon.  He  served  as 
 surgeon's  mate  in  the  expedition  against 
 Cartliagena,  and,  after  a  short  residence 
 in  Jamaica,  he  returned  to  England,  set- 
 tled in  the  metropolis,  and  adopted  the 
 profession  of  an  author.  The  tragedy  of 
 The  Regicide,  the  spirited  poem  called 
 The  Tears  of  Scotland,  and  Advice  and 
 Reproof,  two  satires,  were  his  first  pro- 
 ductions. In  1748  he  gave  to  the  press  the 
 novel  of  Roderick  Random,  which  raised 
 him  into  popularity.  It  was  followed,  at 
 various  intervals,  by  Peregrine  Pickle, 
 Count  Fathom,  a  translation  of  Don  Quix- 
 ote, a  History  of  England,  Sir  Launcelot 
 Greaves,  The  Adventures  of  an  Atom,  Trav- 
 els, and  Humphrey  Clinker.  The  growling 
 tone  of  his  travels  drew  upon  him,  under 
 the  appellation  of  Smeltungus,  the  playful 
 satire  of  Sterne.  In  1756,  he  established 
 The  Critical  Review;  for  a  libel  in  which, 
 upon  Admiral  Knowles,  he  suffered  fine  and 
 imprisonment.  He  was  one  of  the  cham- 
 pions of  Lord  Bute,  in  support  of  whom  he 
 published  The  Briton,  a  weekly  paper, 
 which  was  speedily  silenced  by  the  North 
 Briton  of  Wilkes.  He  died,  near  Leghorn, 
 in  1771. 
 
 SMYTH,  James  Carmichael,  an 
 eminent  physician,  was  born,  in  1741,  in 
 Scotland;  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh 
 and  Leyden;  obtained  a  medical  appoint- 
 ment in   the  army  department;    ind  di«d 
 
462  SOC 
 
 June  18.  1821.  For  his  discovery  of  the 
 *noue  of  destroying  contagion  by  means  of 
 nitrons  vapour  (a  discovery  which  has  been 
 claimed  for  Guyton  Morvean  and  Dr.  John- 
 stone), he  was  remunerated  by  parliament. 
 Besides  several  pamphlets  on  that  subject,  he 
 wrote  A.  Treatise  on  Hydrocephalus;  and 
 published  an  edition  of  Dr.  Stark's  works. 
 i^NEYDERS,  or  SNYDERS,  Fran- 
 cis, a  painter,  was  horn,  in  157.9,  at  Ant- 
 werp; was  a  pupil  of  Henry  Van  Balen; 
 was  appointed  principal  painter  to  the 
 Archduke  Albert;  and  died,  at  his  native 
 
 (dace,  in  1657.  His  landscapes  are  excel- 
 ent;  and  his  animals  are  not  to  be  sur- 
 passed. 
 
 SNORRO-STURLESON,  an  historian 
 and  anti(|uary9  was  born,  in  1178,  at  Dale- 
 Syssel,  in  the  west  of  Iceland;  was  gover-l 
 nor  of  his  nathe  island;  and  was  assassi- 
 nated in  124J .  lie  compiled  the  Edda 
 which  bears  his  name;  and  collected  the 
 Sagas,  or  traditions,  relative  to  the  Nor- 
 wegian monarchs. 
 
 SOAVE,  Francis,  an  Italian  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1743,  at  Lugano.      Being  ap- 
 
 Eointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Milan, 
 e  introduced  important  reforms  into  the 
 method  of  teaching;  wrote  and  translated 
 many  works  on  education;  and  established 
 numerous  schools  in  Lombardy.  He  died 
 in  1S1 6, "professor  of  ideology  at  the  univer- 
 sity of  Pavia.  His  Moral  Tales  have  been 
 often  reprinted. 
 
 SOBIESKI,  Johx  III.  king  of  Poland, 
 sunmmed  the  Great,  was  born,  in  1629,  of 
 an  illustrious  family,  at  the  castle  of  Olesko, 
 in  Pt  land.  In  the  Polish  wars,  from  1648 
 to  1674,  he  distinguished  himself  on  numer- 
 ous occasions;  not  only  by  being  one  of  the 
 braxest  where  many  were  bra\e,  but  also 
 b\  superior  military  genius.  During  that 
 period  he  gained  several  battles,  in  spite  of 
 an  enormous  disparity  of  numbers  against 
 him.  In  1674  lie  was  raised  to  the  throne, 
 and  he  led  his  troops  to  fresh  victories.  He 
 repeatedly  defeated  the  Turks  and  Tartars, 
 and  overran  Moldavia  and  Wallachia;  but 
 the  greatest  of  his  exploits  was  the  raising 
 of  the  siege  of  Vienna,  in  1683,  by  which 
 he  saved  Europe  from  all  the  calamities 
 consequent  upon  an  irruption  of  the  Otto- 
 man forces.     He  died  in  1696. 
 
 SOCLNUS,  Faustus,  from  whom  the 
 Socinians  derive  their  name,  was  born,  in 
 1539,  at  Sienna,  and  was  for  a  considera- 
 ble period  in  the  sen  ice  of  the  grand  duke 
 of  Tuscany;  after  which  he  wont  to  study 
 theology  at  Basil.  The  result  of  his  studies 
 was  the  adoption  of  those  anti-trinitarian 
 doctrines,  which  his  uncle  Lelio  Socinus  is 
 believed  also  to  have  professed.  Faustus 
 settled  in  Poland;  gained  many  followers, 
 but  endured  much  persecution;  and  died  in 
 1694. 
 
 SOCRATES,  one  of  the  greatest  of  an- 
 
 SOM 
 
 cient  philosophers,  was  born,  B.C.  470,  at 
 Athens ,  was  the  son  of  a  sculptor ;    and 
 
 followed  the  profession  of  his  father  for 
 some  years  before  he  entered  on  the  study 
 of  philosophy.  He  also  distinguished  him- 
 self at  the  battles  of  Tanagra  and  Delium. 
 His  philosophical  lessons  were  highly  fa- 
 vorable to  virtue;  and  his  disciples  were 
 numerous  and  illustrious.  Against  the 
 shafts  of  satire  and  calumny,  however,  his 
 noble  character  afforded  no  shield.  Aristo- 
 phanes held  him  up  to  ridicule,  in  the  com- 
 edy of  the  clouds;  and  at  a  later  period, 
 and  with  more  deadly  effect,  the  infamous 
 Melitus  and  Anytus  accused  him  of  being  a 
 contemner  of  the  gods.  Insanely  giving 
 credit  to  the  charge,  the  Athenians  con- 
 demned him  to  death  by  poison,  and  he 
 met  his  fate  with  admirable  fortitude,  in  the 
 seventieth  year  of  his  age. 
 
 SOLIS,  Antonio  de,  an  eminent  Span- 
 ish historian  and  poet,  was  born,  in  1610, 
 at  Placentia;  was  secretary  to  Philip  IV. 
 and  historiographer  of  the  Indies;  was  in 
 orders  for  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life; 
 and  died  in  1686.  He  wrote  A  History  of 
 the  Conquest  of  Mexico ;  Poems ;  and  nine 
 dramas. 
 
 SOLON,  the  illustrious  legislator  of 
 Athens,  and  one  of  the  seven  sages  of 
 Greece,  was  born,  B.  c.  592,  at  Salamis, 
 of  an  ancient  family.  He  acquired  fortune 
 by  commerce,  and  knowledge  by  his  visits 
 to  foreign  parts.  He  then  directed  his 
 attention  to  state  affairs.  After  having 
 enhanced  the  glory  of  his  country  by  recov- 
 ering Salamis,  he  refused  the  sovereignty 
 of  Athens,  but  accepted  the  archonship. 
 As  irchon,  he  framed  a  new  code  of  laws, 
 and,  having  obtained  from  the  citizens  an 
 oath  that  they  would  observe  them  for  ten 
 veai  s,  he  departed  from  Greece,  and  visited 
 Egypt  and  Cyprus,  and,  perhaps,  Lydia. 
 On  his  return  he  found  the  tyranny  of 
 Pisistratus  established,  and  he  withdrew 
 to  Cyprus,  where  he  is  said  to  have  died  at 
 the  age  of  eighty. 
 
 SOMERS,  John,  lord,  a  celebrated 
 statesman  and  lawyer,  was  born,  in  1650, 
 at  Worcester,  at  the  school  of  which  place, 
 and    at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  he    was 
 
SOP 
 
 educated.  The  law  he  studied  at  the  Mid- 
 dle Temple,  and  he  soon  rose  to  eminence 
 as  a  counsel.  He  was  one  of  the  legal  de- 
 fenders of  the  seven  bishops.  In  the  con- 
 vention parliament,  where  he  sat  for  Wor- 
 cester, he  took  a  conspicuous  part,  and  was 
 one  of  the  managers  appointed  by  the  com- 
 mons. Under  William  III.  he  was  succes- 
 sively solicitor  and  attorney  general,  lord 
 keeper,  and  lord  chancellor,  and  was  raised 
 to  the  peerage.  For  his  share  in  the  Par- 
 tition treaty  he  was  impeached  in  1701,  but 
 was  acquitted  by  the  lords.  In  1706  he  was 
 one  of  the  commissioners  for  accomplishing 
 the  Union,  and  in  1703  he  was  made  pres- 
 ident of  the  council,  but  was  displaced  in 
 1710.  He  died  in  1716,  with  the  character 
 of  having  been  one  of  the  greatest  and  best 
 men  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  The 
 Somers  Tracts  were  selected  from  a  collec- 
 tion made  bv  him. 
 
 SOMERVILE,  William,  a  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1692, at  Edston,  in  Warwickshire; 
 was  educated  at  Winchester,  and  at  New 
 College,  Oxford ;  resided  on  his  patrimo- 
 nial estate,  performing  the  duties  of  a  mag- 
 istrate; and  died  in  1742.  Of  his  poems, 
 most  of  which  have  considerable  merit,  The 
 Chase  is  the  principal. 
 
 SOMNER,  William,  an  antiquary  and 
 philologer,  was  born,  in  1598,  at.  Canter- 
 bury, at  the  grammar  school  of  which  city 
 he  was  educated.  He  became  Anglo-Saxon 
 lecturer  at  Cambridge,  and,  at  a  later  pe- 
 riod, master  of  St.  John's  Hospital,  and 
 auditor  of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury.  His 
 chief  works  are,  The  Antiquities  of  Canter- 
 bury; A  Saxon  Dictionary;  and  A  Treatise 
 on  Gavelkind. 
 
 SONNERAT,  Peter,  a  traveller  and 
 naturalist,  was  born,  about  1745,  at  Lyons ; 
 went  to  the  isle  of  France,  in  1768;  made 
 several  voyages  to  various  parts  of  the  In- 
 dian peninsulas  and  islands;  and  died  in 
 1814.  The  bread  fruit,  the  cacao,  the 
 mangoustan,  and  other  trees  and  fruits 
 were  introduced  by  him  into  the  isles  of 
 France  and  Bourbon.  He  wt  ite  A  Voyage 
 to  New  Guinea,  and  A  Voyagd  to  the  East 
 Indies  and  China. 
 
 SONNINI  DE  MANONCOURT, 
 Charles  Nicholas  Sigisbert,  a 
 traveller  and  natiualist,  was  born,  in  1751, 
 at  Luneville,  and  was  brought  up  to  the 
 bar,  but  quitted  it  to  become  an  officer  of 
 marine  engineers,  in  order  to  gratify  his 
 -ove  of  travelling.  He  spent  three  years  in 
 Guiana ;  after  which  he  visited  various  parts 
 of  the  European  and  African  continents. 
 He  died  in  1812.  Among  his  works  are, 
 Travels  in  Egypt;  Travels  in  Greece  and 
 Turkey;  and  an  edition  of  Buffon's  works. 
 
 SOPHOCLES,  an  illustrious  tragic  poet 
 of  Greece,  was  born,  about  b.  c.  495,  at 
 Athens,  and  is  said,  but  the  fact  is  doubt- 
 ful, to  have  received  lesions  in  the  dramatic 
 
 SOU 
 
 463 
 
 art  from  iEschylus.  He  is  also  asserted 
 to  have  contended  with  him  in  tragedy, 
 and  gained  the  prize.  He  continued  to 
 write  for  the  theatre  till  a  very  late  period 
 of  life.  The  number  of  dramas  which  he 
 produced  is  variously  stated  from  one  hun- 
 dred and  two  to  one  hundred  and  thirty. 
 Unfortunately,  only  seven  are  extant.  So- 
 phocles was  the  first  who  brought  three 
 characters  togetner  on  the  stage,  and  he 
 introduced  many  important  improvements 
 into  tragic  composition.  His  talent  was 
 highly  honoured  by  his  countrymen,  and  he 
 was  employed  both  in  a  civil  and  a  military 
 capacity.     He  died  in  his  ninety-first  year. 
 
 SORBONNE,  Robert,  the  founder  of 
 the  college  which  bears  his  name  at  Paris, 
 was  born,  in  1201,  at  Sorbonne,  in  the 
 diocese  of  Rheims;  was  chaplain  and  con- 
 fessor to  St.  Louis,  and  canon  of  Paris; 
 and  died  in  1274. 
 
 SOSIGENES,  an  Egyptian  mathemati- 
 cian and  astronomer,  was  one  of  the  scien- 
 tific characters  whom  Julius  Caesar  invited 
 to  Rome  to  assist  him  in  the  reformation 
 of  the  calendar.  No  further  particulars 
 respecting  him  are  known,  nor  are  any  of 
 his  works  extant. 
 
 SOUFFLOT,  James  Germain,  an 
 eminent  French  architect,  was  born,  in 
 1714,  at  Irancy,  near  Auxerre,  of  rich 
 parents,  and  was  educated  with  the  utmost 
 care.  As  he  displayed  an  early  taste  for 
 the  arts,  his  father  sent  him  to  travel  in 
 Italy  and  the  Levant,  to  examine  the  re- 
 mains of  antiquity.  After  his  return,  he 
 so  much  distinguished  his-  architectural 
 talent  by  several  splendid  edifices,  that  ho 
 was  invited  to  Paris,  where  he  became 
 superintendent  of  the  royal  buildings.  His 
 great  work  is  the  church  of  St.  Genevieve, 
 at  Paris;  of  which,  however,  it  is  feared 
 that  the  dome  will  give  way.  He  was  so 
 severely  attacked  upon  the  subject  that  his 
 health  and  spirits  were  destroyed,  and  he 
 died  in  1781. 
 
 SOUTH,  Robert,  an  eminent  divine, 
 was  born,  in  1638,  at  Hackney;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Westminster  School,  and  Christ- 
 church,  Oxford;  and,  between  1660  and 
 1678,  was,  successively,  public  orator  at 
 
464 
 
 SPA 
 
 Oxford,  chaplain  to  the  earl  of  Clarendon, 
 prebendary  of  Westminster,  chaplain  to 
 the  duke  of  York,  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
 chaplain  to  the  English  ambassador  in 
 Poland,  and  rector  of  Islip,  in  Oxford- 
 shire. In  1693  he  carried  on  a  controversy 
 with  Sherlock  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Trin- 
 ity. South  was  a  man  of  great  wit,  and 
 did  not  spare  to  display  it  even  on  serious 
 occasions.  He  is  the  author  of  Sermons, 
 Mud  Latin  and  English  Miscellaneous 
 Works. 
 
 SOUTHCOTT,  Joanna,  a  fanatic, 
 was  born,  in  April,  1750,  in  the  west  of 
 England.  Her  parents  were  poor,  and  she 
 herself  was,  for  many  years,  a  servant. 
 Early  in  life  she  indulged  in  visionary 
 feelings;  but,  whin  she  was  forty-two,  she 
 went  further,  and  claimed  tlie  character  of 
 a  prophetess.  From  that  period,  for  more 
 than  twenty  years,  she  continued  to  pour 
 forth  her  unintelligible  rhapsodies  ;  by 
 which,  however,  she  succeeded  in  making 
 numerous  dupes.  At  length,  mistaking 
 disease  for  pregnancy,  she  announced  to 
 the  world  th.it  she  was  destined  to  be  the 
 mother  of  the  promised  Shiloh;  and  splen- 
 did preparations  were  made  for  his  recep- 
 tion by  her  deluded  followers.  She, 
 however,  died  of  the  malady,  December 
 27,  1814.     Her  sect  is  not  even  yet  extinct. 
 
 SOUTHERN,  Thomas,  a  dramatic 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1660,  at  Dublin;  was 
 educated  at  Trinity  College  there;  studied 
 the  law  at  the  Middle  Temple,  but  became 
 an  author,  and  afterwards  an  officer  in  the 
 army;  and  died  in  1746.  Of  his  tragedies, 
 Isabella  and  Orouooko  are  still  acted. 
 
 SOWEItBY,  James,  a  naturalist,  was 
 born  in  1766,  and  was  originally  a  draw- 
 ing master  ;  but  acquired  considerable 
 reputation  as  a  botanist  and  mineralogist. 
 He  died  October  25,  1822.  Among  his 
 works  are, English  Botany  ;  English  Fungi ; 
 and  British  Mineralogy. 
 
 SPAENDO\CK,Gerardvan,  a  flow- 
 er and  miniature  painter,  was  born,  in 
 1716,  at  Tilburg,  in  Holland,  and  was  a 
 pupil  of  Herreyns  of  Antwerp.  He  set- 
 tled at  Paris;  became  miniature  painter  to 
 the  king,  and,  subsequently,  professor  of 
 iconography  at  the  botanical  garden;  and 
 <lied  in  Nay,  1822.  As  a  flower  painter 
 lie  stands  highest,  perhaps,  of  all  modern 
 artists. 
 
 SPALLANZANI,  Lazarus,  a  cele- 
 brated Italian  naturalist  and  physiologist, 
 was  born,  in  1729,  at  Scandiano;  studied  at 
 Reggio  and  Bologna;  and  was  intended 
 for  the  bar  by  his  parents,  but,  at  the  re- 
 quest of  Vallisnieri,  was  allowed  to  follow 
 the  natural  bent  of  his  genius  towards 
 science.  After  having  held  professorships 
 at  Reggio  and  Modena,  he  became  professor 
 of  natural  history,  and  direc'or  of  the 
 museum,  at  Pavia.     He  held  t\iis  office  till 
 
 SPE 
 
 [his  decease,  in  1799,  and  his  labours  were 
 interrupted  only  by  several  tours  in  various 
 parts.  His  works  are  numerous,  and  are 
 highly  valuable,  as  having  contributed 
 largely  to  the  progress  of  physiology  and 
 comparative  anatomv. 
 
 SPAN  HELM,  Ezkkiel,  the  son  of 
 Frederic  Spanheim,  a  learned  divine,  was 
 born,  in  1629,  at  Geneva  ;  and,  after  having 
 been  professor  of  eloquence  in  that  city, 
 was  employed,  in  a  diplomatic  capacity, 
 by  the  elector  palatine,  and,  subsequently, 
 by  the  elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  died, 
 Prussian  ambassador  at  London,  in  1710. 
 His  chief  work  is  A  Treatise  on  Medals, 
 two  volumes  folio. 
 
 SPARRMAN,  Andrew,  a  Swedish 
 naturalist  and  traveller,  was  born,  about 
 1747,  in  the  province  of  Upland,  studied 
 medicine  at  Upsal,  and  gained,  by  his  pro- 
 gress in  natural  history,  the  notice  of 
 Linnaeus.  He  visited  China  ind  the  Cape; 
 penetrated  a  considerable  distance  into  the 
 interior  of  southern  Africa;  and  accompa- 
 nied Captain  Cook  on  one  of  his  voyages. 
 He  died,  in  1820,  at  Stockholm.  His 
 principal  works  are  narratives  of  his 
 Travels. 
 
 SPARTACUS,  a  Thracian  hero,  who 
 was  torn  from  his  country  by  the  Romans, 
 and  made  a  gladiator  at  Capua.  Escaping 
 with  a  few  of  his  companions  from  his 
 tyrants,  he  at  length  rallied  round  his 
 standard  a  formidable  army,  repeatedly 
 defeated  the  Roman  generals,  and,  had  he 
 been  properly  seconded,  would,  perhaps, 
 have  shaken  the  power  of  Rome.  He  was 
 slain  B.  c.  71,  after  having  displayed  the 
 most  daring  valour. 
 
 SPEED,  John,  a  geographer  and  his- 
 torian, was  born,  about  1555,  at  Farring- 
 ton,  in  Cheshire,  and  was  a  tailor  by 
 trade,  but  was  enabled,  by  Sir  Fuike 
 Greville,  to  devote  his  time  to  study.  He 
 died  in  1629.  Speed  is  the  author  of  The 
 Theatre  of  the  Empire  of  Great  Britain ; 
 A  History  of  Great  Britain;  and  A  Cloud 
 of  Witnesses. 
 
 SPELM  .IN,  Sir  Henry,  an  eminent 
 antiquary,  was  born,  in  1562,  at  Congham, 
 in  Norfolk;  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge,  and  at  Lincoln's  Inn;  filled 
 the  offices  of  sheriff  of  Norfolk,  a  com- 
 missioner for  settling  .ithes  in  Ireland,  and 
 a  commissioner  to  inquire  into  fees  in  the 
 courts;  and  died  in  1641.  His  principa. 
 works  are,  Archseologus ;  A  History  of 
 English  Councils;  and  A  History  of  Ten- 
 ure by  Knight's  Service. 
 
 SPENCE,  Joseph,  a  divine  and  critic, 
 was  born  in  1698,  and  was  educated  at 
 Winchester  School,  and  at  New  College, 
 Oxford;  after  which  he  was  twice  on  the 
 continent,  as  a  travelling  tutor.  He  ob- 
 tained the  poetry  professorship  at  Oxford, 
 the  rectory  of  Great  Horwood,  and  a  pre- 
 
SPI 
 
 bend  in  Durham  Cathedral.  He  was 
 drowned  in  1768.  Spence  was  intimate 
 with  Pope,  whose  friendship  he  obtained 
 by  his  Essay  on  the  Translation  of  the 
 Odyssey.  Besides  that  work,  he  wrote 
 Polymetis ;  and  Observations,  &c.  collected 
 from  the  Conversations  of  Mr.  Pope  and 
 other  eminent  men. 
 
 SPENCER,  John,  an  erudite  divine, 
 was  born,  in  1630,  at  Bougliton,  in  Kent; 
 was  educated  at  Canterbury  School,  and 
 at    Corpus    Christi    College,    Cambridge; 
 
 STA 
 
 465 
 
 he  was  in  his  thirtieth  year,  when  he  raised 
 a  considerable  body  of  troops  for  Philip 
 III. ;  and  was  employed  in  the  Netherlands. 
 He  reduced  Oslend,  which  had  foiled  all 
 his  predecessors,  and,  in  the  five  succeed- 
 ing campaigns,  was  a  formidable  adversary 
 to  Maurice  of  Nassau.  On  the  expiration 
 of  the  truce  of  1621,  he  again  led  the  Spin 
 isfa  troops  in  the  Low  Countries,  and 
 there,  dining  six  years,  he  enhanced  his 
 reputation.  Being  sent  to  command  in 
 Italy,   he  was    neglected    by  the    Spanish 
 
 became  master  of  his  college,  archdeacon  I  ministry,  which  withheld  succours,  and  h 
 
 of  Sudbury,  and  dean  of  Ely;  and  died  in  died  of  grief,  in    1630,  exclaiming  in   bis 
 
 1695.     His   chief  works   are,  A  Treatise  I  last  moments  "they  have  robbed  me  of  my 
 
 on  the  Laws,  &c.  of  the  Jews;  and  A  Dis- 
 course concerning  Prodigies. 
 
 SPENCER,  Edmund,  one  of  the  great- 
 est of  English  poets,  was  born,  about 
 1553,  in  London,  and  was  admitted  a  sizer 
 of  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1569. 
 In  1576,  he  published  The  Shepherd's 
 Calendar,  which  he  dedicated  to  Sir  Philip 
 Sidney,  to  whom  he  had  been  introduced 
 in  the  preceding  year.  After  having,  from 
 1580  to  1582,  been  secretary  to  Lord  Grey, 
 the  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  he  obtained, 
 in  15S6,  a  grant  of  lands  in  the  county  of 
 Cork.  Residence  being  the  condition  on 
 which  he  held  the  property,  he  took  up  his 
 abode  at  Kilcolman  ;  and  it  was  there 
 that  he  wrote  The  Faerie  Queen.  The 
 first  three  books  were  published  in  1590, 
 and  inscribed  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  who 
 conferred  on  him  a  pension  of  fifty  pounds 
 per  annum.  He  was  subsequently  sheriff 
 of  Cork,  and  clerk  of  the  council  of  the 
 province  of  Munster;  in  which  latter  ca- 
 pacity he  drew  up  his  View  of  the  State 
 of  Ireland.  The  felicity  which  he  had  for 
 several  years  enjoyed  was,  however,  put 
 an  end  to  by  the  rebellion  of  Tyrone.  His 
 house  was  burnt,  with  one  of  his  children, 
 and  he  was  compelled  to  fly  to  England, 
 where  he  died,  broken-hearted,  but  not,  as 
 has  been  supposed,  in  want,  January  16, 
 1598-9. 
 
 SPINOLA,  Ambrose,  marquis  de,  one 
 
 of  the  greatest  generals  of  the  seventeenth 
 
 century,  was  born,  in  1571,  at  Genoa,  and 
 
 did  not  enter  into  the  military  service  till 
 
 20* 
 
 honour." 
 
 SPINOSA,  or  SPINOZA,  Benedict, 
 or  Baruch,  the  head  of  the  modern  pan- 
 theists, was  the  son*of  a  Portuguese  Jew, 
 and  was  born,  in  1632,  at  Amsterdam.  He 
 quitted  the  Hebrew  faith,  and,  after  having 
 been  an  Arminian  and  a  Mennonist,  be- 
 came an  atheist.  In  private  life,  however, 
 his  character  was  unexceptionable.  He 
 died  in  1677.  His  principal  work,  'liac- 
 tatus  Theologico  Politicus,  appeared  in 
 1670,  and  roused  a  host  of  adversaries. 
 11  is  system  is  still  further  unfolded  in  his 
 Posthumous  Pieces. 
 
 SPOTSWOOD,  or  SPOTISWOOD, 
 John,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  born  in  1565; 
 was  educated  at  Glasgow ;  was  made  arch- 
 bishop of  Glasgow  in  1603,  and  was  trans- 
 ferred to  St.  Andrew's  in  1615;  was  ap- 
 pointed chancellor  of  Scotland  in  1635; 
 and  died  in  1639.  His  History  of  the 
 Church  of  Scothind  was  published  in  1655. 
 SPRAT,  Thomas,  a  prelate  and  mis- 
 cellaneous writer,  was  born,  in  1636,  at 
 Tallaton,  in  Devonshire,  and  was  educated 
 at  Wadham  College,  Oxford.  After  having 
 been  the  panegyrist  of  Cromwell,  he  be- 
 came the  adulator  of  the  Stuarts.  His 
 subserviency  was  rewarded  by  the  succes- 
 sive preferments  of  king's  chaplain,  pre- 
 bendary of  Westminster,  rector  of  Saint 
 Margaret,  canon  of  Windsor,  and  bishop 
 of  Rochester,  to  the  last  of  which  he  at- 
 tained in  16S6.  He  favoured  the  arbitrary 
 schemes  of  James  II.;  but  retained  his 
 bishopric  under  William  III.  In  1692  he 
 narrowly  escaped  being  the  victim  of  a 
 conspiracy.  He  died  in  1713.  Sprat 
 wrote  Poems;  Sermons;  A  History  of  the 
 Royal  Society;  A  History  of  the  Rye 
 House  Plot;   and  some  minor  pieces. 
 
 STAAL,  Madame  de,  whose  maiden 
 name  was  De  Launai,  was  born,  in  1693, 
 at  Paris,  and  was  the  daughter  of  a  painter, 
 who  was  obliged  to  quit  the  kingdom  before 
 she  was  born.  She  received  an  excellent 
 education  in  the  convent  of  St.  Sauveur,  in 
 Normandy,  and  displayed  precocious  tal- 
 ents. For  several  years  she  was  waiting 
 woman  to  the  heartless  duchess  of  Maine. 
 Having  been  privy  to  some  of  the  political 
 
460  STA 
 
 intrigues  of  that  personage,  and  refusing  to 
 betray  them  to  the  government,  she  suffered 
 two  years  imprisonment  in  the  Bastile; 
 for  which  honourable  fidelity  she  was  but 
 ill  rewarded*  Her  marriage,  however, 
 with  the  b.ironde  Staal  placed  her  in  com- 
 fortable circumstances.  She  died  in  1750. 
 Her  woiks  consist  of  her  own  Memoirs; 
 Letters;   and  two  Comedies. 
 
 8TACKHOUSE,  Thomas,  a  divine, 
 was  bom  in  1680,  but  the  place  (This  birth 
 i-  i  it  known;  became,  in  1733,  after  man] 
 vicissitudes,  vicar  of  Benham,  in  Berk- 
 shire; and  died  there  in  17~>2.  He  wrote 
 several  works,  of  which  the  most  impor- 
 tant is,  A  History  of  the  Bible.  It  has 
 bev"i  often  reprinted. 
 
 STAEL-HOLSfEIN,  A.nxf.  Louisa 
 (J  RRMAIN  E,  baroness  (ie,  a  celebrated  fe- 
 male writer,  the  daughter  of  M.  Necker, 
 the  French  fin  incier,  was  born,  in  1706,  at 
 Paris,  Her  talents  were  so  early  displayed 
 that  she  was  said  never  to  have  been  a 
 chil  1.  and  t!:e  utmost  care  was  taken  to 
 cultivate  them.  In  her  twentieth  year  she 
 married  the  Baron  de  Stael,  the  Swedish 
 ambassador.  From  that  period  she  took 
 an  active  part  in  literature,  and  an  almost 
 equally  active  one  in  politics.  It  was 
 through  her  influence  with  Barras  that 
 Talleyrand  was  appointed  minister  of  the 
 foreign  department.  At  the  commence- 
 ment of  Bonaparte's  career  she  was  one  of 
 his  admirers,  but  she  afterwards  became 
 hostile  to  him;  and,  in  1S01,  in  conse- 
 quence of  her  attempting  to  thwart  his 
 government, she  was  ordered  to  quit  Paris. 
 After  having  visited  Germany,  Prussia, 
 and  Italy,  she  returned  to  France,  whence, 
 however,  she  was  again  expelled.  Her 
 peregrinations  were  next  extended  to  Mos- 
 cow ,  Stockholm,  and  London;  nor  did  she 
 again  behold  her  favourite  abode  of  Paris 
 till  after  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons. 
 In  1811  she  married  M.  de  Rocca,  but 
 their  union  was  kept  secret.  She  died 
 July  14.  1817.  Of  her  works,  which  form 
 seventeen  volumes,  the  principal  are,  the 
 romances  of  Delphine  and  Corinna;  Con- 
 siderations on  the  French  Revolution; 
 Dramatic  Essays;  Considerations  on  Lite- 
 rature; Germany;  and  Ten  Years  of  Exile. 
 
 STAHL,  GEOBOK  Ernkst,  an  emi- 
 nent German  physician  and  chemist,  was 
 born,  in  1660,  at  Anspach;  studied  at 
 Jena;  became  physician  to  the  king  of 
 Prussia;  and  died,  in  1734,  at  Berlin. 
 Stahl  invented  the  theory  of  phlogiston, 
 which  was  long  prevalent.  His  chemical 
 and  medical  works  are  numerous. 
 
 STAHREMBERG,  Guido  Baldi, 
 count  de,  a  celebrated  Austrian  field  mar- 
 shall,  was  born,  in  1657,  in  Austria;  dis- 
 tinguished himself  at  the  sieges  of  Vienna, 
 Buda,  and  Belgrade,  and  at  the  battles  of 
 Carpi,  Cbiari,  and   Luzzara,  under  Prince 
 
 STA 
 
 Eugene;  commanded  the  Imperial  army 
 in  Italy  from  1702  to  1704;  and  subse- 
 quently in  Hungary;  whence  he  was  re- 
 moved to  be  placed  at  the  head  of  the  army 
 in  Spain.  In  the  latter  country  he  ob- 
 tained several  important  mccesses,  but  lost 
 the  battle  of  Villa  Vicinsa.  He  died,  in 
 1737,  president  of  the  aulic  council  of  war. 
 
 STANDISH,  Milks,  the  first  captain 
 at  Plymouth,  New  England,  was  bom  at 
 Lancashire  in  1584,  and  accompanied  Mr. 
 Robinson's  congregation  to  Plymouth  in 
 1620.  His  services  in  the  wars  with  the 
 Indians  were  highly  useful,  and  many  of 
 his  exploits  were  daring  and  extraordinary. 
 He  died  in  1656. 
 
 STANHOPE,  Charles,  earl,  a  poli- 
 tician and  man  of  science,  was  born  in 
 1753;  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Geneva; 
 was  member  for  Wycombe  till  he  took  his 
 seat  in  the  house  of  peers,  in  1786,  on  the 
 death  of  his  father;  was  a  strenuous  repub- 
 lican, and  enemy  to  Mr.  Pitt's  adminis- 
 tration; and  died  December  16,  1816. 
 Among  his  many  inventions  are,  an  im- 
 proved printing  press,  a  monochord,  an 
 arithmetical  machine,  a  mode  of  secuirng 
 buildings  from  fire,  and  a  double  inclined 
 plane.  He  wrote  several  political  and  sci 
 entific  pamphlets  and  papers. 
 
 STANLEY,  Thomas,  a  poet  and  his- 
 torian, was  born,  in  1625,  at  Laytonstone, 
 in  Essex;  was  educated  at  Pembroke  Hall, 
 Cambridge;  settled  in  the  Temple  after 
 returning  from  his  travels;  and  died  in 
 1678.  He  wrote  a  valuable  History  of 
 Philosophy;  Poems  and  Translations;  and 
 edited  iEschylus. 
 
 STARK,  John,  a  general  in  the  army 
 of  the  American  revolution,  was  born  in 
 Londonderry,  New  Hampshire,  in  1728. 
 During  the  French  war,  he  was  captain  of 
 a  company  of  rangers  in  the  provincial 
 service,  in  1755,  and  was  with  Lord  Howe 
 when  that  general  was  killed,  in  storming 
 the  French  lines  at  Ticonderoga,  in  1758. 
 On  receiving  the  report  of  the  battle  of 
 Lexington,  he  was  engaged  at  work  in  his 
 saw-mill;  and,  fired  with  indignation, 
 seized  his  musket  and  immediately  pro- 
 ceeded to  Cambridge.  He  was  at  the 
 battles  of  Bunker's  Hill  and  of  Trenton, 
 and  achieved  a  glorious  victory  at  Benning- 
 ton. He  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier 
 general,  and  was  distinguished  throughout 
 the  war  for  enterprise  and  courage.  He 
 died  in  1822. 
 
 STATIL'S,  Publics  Papinivs,  a  Latin 
 poet,  was  born,  a.  D.  61,  at  Naples,  and 
 died  there  in  his  thirty-fifth  year.  He 
 wrote  The  Thebaid,  which  he  began  before 
 lie  was  twenty;  Sylva>;  and  two  cantos 
 of  The  Achilleid,  which  he  did  not  live  to 
 correct. 
 
 STAUNTON,  Sir  George  Leonard, 
 a  native  of  the  county  of  Galway,  in  Ire* 
 
STE 
 
 land,  was  educated  at  Montpellier,  where 
 he  took  his  medical  degree ;  practised  in 
 the  island  of  Grenada,  where  he  became 
 intimate  with  Lord  Macartney,  who  made 
 him  his  secretary,  und>  took  him  to  Madras. 
 He  accompanied  hie  lordship  to  China,  in 
 1795,  as  secretary  of  legation;  and  on  his 
 return  he  published  an  Account  of  the  Em- 
 bassy.    He  died  in  1801. 
 
 STE 
 
 467 
 
 and  additions,  were  afterwards  incorpo- 
 rated with  those  of  Johnson. 
 
 STEPHENS,  Alexander,  a  miscella- 
 neous writer,  was  horn,  in  1757,  at  Elgin; 
 studied  at  Aberdeen  ;  was  designed  for  the 
 law,  but  gave  himself  up  to  literature;  and 
 died  in  1821.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the 
 War  of  the  French  Revolution;  and  Me- 
 moirs of  John  Home  Tooke;  and  contrib- 
 uted to  the  Monthly  Magazine;  Public 
 Characters;   and  The  Annual  Obituary. 
 
 STEPHENS.     See  Etienne. 
 
 STEELE,  Sir  Richard,  son  of  the 
 secretary  to  the  duke  of  Ormond,  was  born 
 in  1671,  or,  according  to  some  account?, 
 in  1675,  at  Dublin;  was  educated  at  the 
 Charter  House,  and  at  Merton  College,  Ox- 
 ford; and  entered  the  military  service,  in 
 which  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain.  The 
 Christian  Hero,  which  was  printed  in  1701, 
 was  his  first  production.  It  was  followed 
 by  the  comedies  of  The  Funeral,  The 
 Tender  Husband,  and  the  Lying  Lover. 
 In  the  beginning  of  Queen  Anne's  reign, 
 he  obtained  the  office  of  gazetteer,  and,  in 
 1710,  he  was  made  a  commissioner  of 
 stamps.  The  Tatler  he  began  in  1709,  and 
 he  subsequently  was,  in  part  or  in  whole, 
 the  author  of  The  Spectator,  Guardian, 
 Englishman,  Spinster,  Lover,  Reader,  and 
 Theatre.  In  1713  he  was  elected  M.  P. 
 for  Stockbridge,  but  was  expelled  for  what 
 the  house  was  pleased  to  consider  as  libels. 
 He  afterwards  sat  for  Boroughbridge. 
 During  the  reign  of  George  I.  he  was 
 knighted,  made  surveyor  of  the  royal 
 stables,  manager  of  the  king's  company  of 
 comedians,  and  one  of  the  commissioners 
 of  forfeited  estates,  and  gained  a  large  sum 
 by  The  Conscious  Lovers;  but  his  benevo- 
 lence and  his  lavish  habits  kept  him  in  a 
 state  of  constant  embarrassment.  A  para- 
 lytic attack  at  length  rendered  him  incapa- 
 ble of  literary  exertion,  and  be  retired  to' 
 Llangunnor,  in  Caermarthenshire,  where! 
 he  died  in  1729. 
 
 STEVENS,  George,  a  commentator,  j 
 was  born,  in  1736,  at  Stepney;   was  edu- 1 
 cated  at  King's  College,  Cambridge;    and  J 
 died   in   1800.     He   was  a  man   of  talent 
 and  extensive  reading,  but  his  disposition 
 was   not  amiable.     His    first    work,   pub- 
 lished in   1766,  was  an  edition  of  twenty 
 of  Shakupeare's  plays ;   the  notes  to  which, 
 
 STERNE,  Laurence, a  miscellaneous 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1713,  at  Clonmel,  in 
 Ireland ;  and  was  educated  at  a  school 
 near  Halifax,  and  at  Jesus  College,  Cam- 
 bridge. He  successively  obtained  the  living 
 of  Sutton,  a  prebend  at  York,  the  rectory 
 of  Stillington,  and  the  curacy  of  Coxwold. 
 In  1760  he  published  the  first  two  volumes 
 of  Tristram  Shandy ;  the  remainder  ap- 
 peared in  1761,  1762,  1765,  and  1767. 
 Some  of  his  latter  years  were  spent  in 
 travelling  on  the  continent,  and  his  travels 
 gave  birth  to  The  Sentimental  Journey. 
 He  died  in  1768.  Besides  the  works 
 already  mentioned,  he  wrote  Sermons, 
 and  various  minor  pieces.  When  all  that 
 Sterne  borrowed  from  old  authors  is  de- 
 ducted, there  will  still  remain  enough  of 
 wit,  humour,  and  pathos,  to  entitle  him 
 to  a  distinguished  place  among  British 
 authors.  His  indecency,  however,  doubly 
 disgusting  in  a  clergyman,  deserves  severe 
 censure. 
 
 STEUBEN,  Frederick  William 
 Augustus,  Baron  de,  was  a  Prussian 
 officer,  aid-de-camp  to  Frederic  the  Great, 
 and  lieutenant  general  in  the  army  of  that 
 distinguished  commander.  He  arrived  in 
 America  in  1777,  and  immediately  offered 
 his  services  to  the  continental  congress. 
 In  1778  he  was  appointed  inspector  gen- 
 eral, with  the  rank  of  major  general,  and 
 rendered  the  most  efficient  services  in  the 
 establishment  of  a  regular  system  of  disci- 
 pline. During  the  war  he  was  exceedingly 
 active  and  useful,  and  after  the  peace  he 
 retired  to  a  farm  in  the  vicinity  of  New 
 York,  where  with  the  assistance  of  books 
 and  friends  he  passed  his  time  as  agreeably 
 
46S  STI 
 
 as  a  frequent  want  of  funds  would  permit. 
 The  State  of  New  York  afterwards  gave 
 him  a  tract  of  sixteen  thousand  acres  in 
 the  county  of  Oneida,  and  the  general  go\- 
 erninent  made  him  a  grant  of  two  thousand 
 five  hundred  dollars  per  annum.  He  died 
 in  1795,  and  at  his  own  request  was  wrap- 
 ped in  his  cloak,  placed  in  a  plain  coffin, 
 and  hid  in  the  earth,  without  a  stone  to 
 tell  where  he  was  laid. 
 
 STEVENS,  George  Alexander,  a 
 miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  in  Lon- 
 don, in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
 century;  was  for  some  year9  a  strolling 
 player;  suffered  severely  from  poverty  till 
 his  Lecture  on  Heads  brought  him  a  com- 
 
 1)etence;  and  died  in  1784,  after  having 
 >een  long  in  a  state  of  utter  imbecility. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Religion,  a  poem; 
 T.ie  History  of  Tom  Fool;  The  Dramatic 
 History  of  Master  Edward,  Mrs.  Ann,j 
 &c. ;    Songs;    aiwl  some  interludes. 
 
 STEWART  DEMIAM,  Sir  James,  a! 
 political  economist,  was  born,  in  1713,  at 
 Edinburgh  ;    was  educated  at  the  university  i 
 of  his  native  place;    and  became  an  advo- 
 cate.    Having  taken,  in  1745,  an   active ■ 
 part  in  favour  of  the  house  of  Stewart,  he 
 was  under  the  necessity   of  living  for  sev-' 
 eral   years   in  exile.     He    was,   however, 
 allowed   to  return  in    1767,  and  his  estate 
 was  restored  to  him.     He   died   in   1780.; 
 His    chief  work    is,  An    Inquiry   into   the 
 Principles  of  Political  Economy. 
 
 STEWART,  Dug  ALU,  an  eminent  phi-i 
 loswpher  and  writer,  was  born,  in  1753,  at 
 Edinburgh,  and  was  the  son  of  the  profes- 
 sor of  mathematics  ;    was  educated  at  the  • 
 high   school   and   university   of  his  native; 
 city ;   and  attended  the  lectures  of  Dr.  Reid  j 
 at  Glasgow.      From   Glasgow   he   was   re- 
 called, in  his  nineteenth  year,  to  assist  his 
 father;     on    whose    decease,   in    1785,   he! 
 succeeded  to  the  professorship.     He,  how- 
 ever, exchanged  it  for  the  chair  of  moral: 
 philosophy,   which   he  had    filled   in   1778,  | 
 daring    the    absence    of  Dr.    Ferguson    in 
 America.      In    1780   he   began    to   receive 
 pupils    into    his    house,   and   many  young 
 noblemen   and   gentlemen,  who  afterwards 
 became  celebrated,  imbibed    their    knowl- 
 edge under  bis  roof.     It  was  not  till  1792 
 that    he   came    forward    as   an   author;    he; 
 then    published    the    first    volume    of    the 
 Philosophy     of    the     Human    Mind.       He 
 died  June  11,  1828;    after  having  long  en- 
 joyed the   reputation    of  being  one  of  the 
 most  amiable  of  men,  and  one  of  the  ablest 
 of  modern  philosophical   writers.      Among 
 his  works  are,  Outlines   of  Moral  l'hiloso-' 
 phv  ;    Philosophical  Essays;   Memoirs  of  | 
 Adam    Smith,    and    Drs.    Robertson    and| 
 Reid;    and   Prefatory  Dissertations   in   the 
 Supplement    to    the    Encyclopaedia    Bri- 
 tannica. 
 
 STILLINGFLEET,  Edward,  a  pre- 
 
 STO 
 
 late,  was  born,  in  1635,  at  Cranbourne,  in 
 Dorsetshire;  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
 College,  Cambridge;  obtained  various  pre- 
 ferments, among  which  were,  in  1677  and 
 1678,  the  archdeaconry  of  London  and  the 
 deanery  of  St.  Paul's;  was  promoted  to 
 the  see  of  Worcester  at  the  Revolution; 
 and  died  in  1699.  His  works  form  six 
 volumes  folio;  among  them  are  Origiues 
 Sacra-,  and  Origines  Britannicaj.  Among 
 his  latest  literary  efforts  was  a  controversy 
 with  Locke,  on  some  points  in  the  Essay 
 on  Human  Understanding. 
 
 STOB/EUS,  a  Greek  compiler,  is  be- 
 lieved to  have  lived  in  the  fifth  century, 
 and  to  have  derived  his  name  from  the 
 city  of  Stobi,  in  Macedonia.  He  made  a 
 collection  of  extracts  from  various  Greek 
 authors,  which  time  has  rendered  highly 
 valuable  by  destroying  many  of  the  origi- 
 nal works. 
 
 STOCKTON,  Richard,  a  signer  of 
 the  declaration  of  American  Independence, 
 was  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in 
 174S,  and  entering  on  the  practice  of  the 
 law  soon  rose  to  eminence.  He  settled  in 
 New  Jersey,  was  appointed  to  the  office 
 of  judge,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the  con- 
 gress of  1776.     He  died  in  1781. 
 
 STOEFLET,  Nicholas,  a  French 
 royalist  chief,  was  boru,  in  1751,  at  Lune- 
 ville;  and,  after  having  served  during 
 fifteen  years  in  the  army,  became  a  game- 
 keeper in  the  province  of  Anjou.  In  1793 
 he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  division  of 
 Angevin  royalists,  and  he  distinguished 
 himself  in  no  less  than  a  hundred  and  fifty 
 actions  with  the  republicans.  He  was 
 taken  prisoner  and  shot  in  1796. 
 
 STOLBERG-STOLBERG,  Freder- 
 ic Leopold,  count,  a  German  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1750,  at  Bramstedt,  in  Hol- 
 stein;  was  educated  at  Halle  and  Gottin- 
 gen ;  was  employed  in  negotiations  by  the 
 duke  of  Oldenburg  and  the  prince  regent 
 of  Denmark ;  and  died  in  1819.  He 
 translated  the  Iliad  and  the  tragedies  of 
 ^Eschvlus;  and  wrote  A  History  of  the 
 Christian  Religion ;  Travels  in  Germany, 
 Switzerland,  and  Italy  ;  Poems  ;  and 
 Dramas. 
 
 STONE,  Edmund,  an  eminent  mathe- 
 matician, the  son  of  the  duke  of  Argyle's 
 nanlener,  was  born  in  Scotland,  towards 
 the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Be- 
 fore he  was  nineteen  he  taught  himself 
 arithmetic,  geometry,  Latin,  and  French, 
 without  any  assistance.  He  died  poor 
 about  1767.  He  wrote  a  Treatise  on 
 Fluxions;  and  a  Mathematical  Dictionary; 
 translated  liion  on  Mathematical  Instru- 
 ments ;  and  published  an  edition  of  Euclid, 
 with  a  Life. 
 
 STONE,  Thomas,  a  signer  of  the  dec- 
 laration of  American  independe  ce,  was 
 born  in  Charles  County,  Maryland,  in  1743, 
 
STR 
 
 and  was  educated  to  the  profession  of  the 
 law.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  continen- 
 tal congress  of  1776,  and  was  again  a 
 member  of  that  body  when  Washington 
 resigned  me  office  of  commander  in  chief. 
 He  died  in  1787. 
 
 STOTHARD,  Charles  Alfred,  a 
 painter  and  antiquary,  son  of  the  eminent 
 artist  of  the  same  name,  was  born  in 
 1787,  and  early  displayed  a  talent  for 
 drawing.  He  became  a  member  and  his- 
 torical draughtsman  of  the  Society  of  An- 
 tiquaries, and  was  deputed  by  that  body  to 
 take  drawings  from  the  famous  tapestry  at 
 Bavetix,  in  Normandy.  He  was  killed  by 
 a  fall  in  1821.  He  published  Monumental 
 Effigies  of  Great  Britain. 
 
 STOW,  John,  an  antiquary,  was  born, 
 about  1525,  in  Cornhill.  By  trade  he  was 
 a  tailor,  but  applied  himself  to  the  study 
 of  British  antiquities  under  the  patronage 
 of  Archbishop  Parker  and  the  earl  of 
 Leicester.  In  his  old  age  he  was  reduced 
 to  such  indigence  as  to  solicit  charity  by 
 means  of  a  brief.  He  died  in  1605.  He 
 wrote  A  Survey  of  London;  and  Annals 
 of  this  Kingdom. 
 
 STRABO,  a  Greek  geographer,  was 
 born,  about  half  a  century  B.  c,  at  Ama- 
 sia,  in  Cappadocia,  and  received  an  excel- 
 lent education,  under  several  philosophers. 
 He  travelled  extensively,  and  his  Geogra- 
 phy, the  result  of  his  observations  and 
 inquiries,  entitles  him  to  be  considered  as 
 standing  at  the  head  of  ancient  geogra- 
 phers. 
 
 STRADA,  FAMiNius,an  historian  and 
 modern  Latin  poet,  was  born,  in  1572,  at 
 Rome,  and  belonged  to  the  society  of 
 Jesuits.  For  fifteen  years  he  was  a  teacher 
 of  eloquence  at  the  Roman  College.  He 
 died  in  1649.  He  is  the  author  of  Poetical 
 Profusions;  and  of  a  History  of  the  Belgic 
 Wars. 
 
 STRAFFORD,  Thomas  WE\T- 
 WORTH,  earl  of,  an  eminent  statesman 
 and  minister,  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  William 
 Wentworth,  was  born,  in  1593,  in  London  ; 
 was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge; and,  after  having  travelled,  was 
 knighted,  and  made  custos  rotulorum  of 
 the  west  riding  of  Yorkshire.  In  1621 
 he  was  chosen  one  of  the  representatives 
 of  the  county  of  York.  For  a  few  years 
 he  was  one  of  the  most  active  friends  of 
 the  popular  cause;  stood  prominently  for- 
 ward as  an  advocate  for  the  petition  of 
 right;  and  was  even  imprisoned  for  re- 
 fusing to  contribute  to  a  forced  loan.  But 
 his  seeming  patriotism  sprang  rather  from 
 hatred  of  Buckingham  than  from  principle, 
 and  was  not  proof  against  corruption.  In 
 1628  he  was  gained  over  to  the  court.  His 
 apostacy  was  paid  for  by  the  titles  of  baron 
 and  viscount,  and  the  offices  of  privy  coun- 
 sellor and  president  of  the  North.     In  the 
 
 STL  4C9 
 
 latter  capacity  he  acted  with  the  most 
 arbitrary  rigour.  In  1632  he  was  sent  to 
 Ireland  as  lord  deputy.  His  conduct 
 there,  during  a  government  of  seven  years, 
 was  that  of  a  despot.  It  would,  however, 
 be  unjust  to  deny  that  Ireland  derived 
 some  benefits  from  his  administration.  In 
 1639,  on  visiting  England,  he  obtained  the 
 garter,  the  title  of  earl  of  Strafford,  and 
 the  dignity  of  lord  lieutenant.  He  demon- 
 strated his  gratitude  by  violent  counsels  to 
 the  infatuated  Charles.  But  his  downfal 
 was  at  hand.  In  1640  he  was  impeached 
 by  the  Commons,  and  was  brought  to  trial 
 March  22,  1641.  He  defended  himself 
 with  an  eloquence  and  dignity  worthy  of  a 
 better  cause.  No  moral  doubt  could  exist 
 of  his  crimes,  but  the  legal  proof  was  de- 
 fective. In  order  to  secure  their  victim, 
 the  Commons  themselves  lost  sight  of  jus- 
 tice, and  resorted  to  a  bill  of  attainder. 
 It  was  passed,  and  Strafford,  deserted  by 
 his  sovereign,  was  brought  to  the  block, 
 on  the  12th  of  May,  1641. 
 
 STRANGE,  Robert,  an  engraver,  was 
 born,  in  1721,  in  Pomona,  one  of  the  Ork- 
 neys; studied  under  Cooper  and  Lebas; 
 resided  for  several  years  in  Italy,  where 
 he  copied  some  of  the  finest  works  of  art; 
 was  knighted  by  George  III. ;  and  died  in 
 1792.  Among  his  best  productions  are, 
 Charles  I.  anil  his  Family,  from  Vandyke; 
 St.  Jerome,  from  Corregio;  and  Danae, 
 from  Titian. 
 
 STRONG,  Caleb,  governor  of  Mas- 
 sachusetts, was  born  at  Northampton  in 
 1744,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  College. 
 He  pursued  the  profession  of  the  law,  and 
 established  himself  in  his  native  town. 
 Taking  an  early  and  active  part  in  the 
 revolutionary  movements,  he  was  appoint- 
 ed in  1775  one  of  the  committee  of  safety, 
 and  in  the  following  year  a  member  of  the 
 state  legislature.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
 convention  which  formed  the  constitution 
 of  the  state,  and  of  that  which  formed  the 
 constitution  of  the  United  States.  Subse- 
 quently he  was  senator  to  Congress,  and 
 for  eleven  years  at  different  periods,  chief 
 magistrate  of  Massachusetts.  He  died  in 
 1820. 
 
 STRUTT,  Joseph,  an  engraver,  anti- 
 quary, and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born, 
 in  1749,  at  Springfield,  in  Sussex;  was  a 
 pupil  of  Ryland;  and  died  in  1802.  Strutt, 
 who  was  a  man  of  considerable  talent, 
 produced  A  Dictionary  of  Engravers  ; 
 Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the  People  of 
 England;  Dresses  and  Habits  of  the  Peo- 
 ple of  England ;  Regal  and  Ecclesiastical 
 Antiquities  of  England  ;  Chronicle  of  Eng- 
 land ;  Manners,  Customs,  itc.  of  the  In- 
 habitants of  England ;  Queen  Hoo  Hall; 
 Ancient  Time;  and  The  Test  of  Guilt. 
 
 STUART,  James,  an  architect,  wa§ 
 born,  in  1713j  in  London,  of  poor  parents 
 
470 
 
 SUA 
 
 and  originally  gained  his  livelihood  by 
 painting  fans.  Having  made  himself  mas- 
 ter of  Greek,  Latin,  and  mathematics,  he 
 travelled  to  Italy  on  foot,  and  at  Rome  he 
 learned  the  principles  of  architecture  from 
 Revett,  whom  he  subsequently  ■ccompa- 
 nied  to  Athens.  On  his  return  to  England 
 he  became  eminent  as  an  architect,  and, 
 was  appointed  surveyor  to  Greenwich 
 Hospital.  He  died  in  1788.  He  pub- 
 lished The  Antiquities  of  Athens. 
 
 STUART,  Gilbert,  an  historian  and! 
 miscellaneous  writer,  was  horn,   in  1742, 
 at  Edinburgh,  w  here  also  he  was  educated.  | 
 He  studied   jurisprudence,  but  became  an  i 
 author  by  profession;  sometimes  residing 
 in  London,   and  sometimes    in   his  native] 
 city.      Dropsy,  brought  on   by  intemper-! 
 ance,   terminated   his  existence    in    1786.  j 
 Stuart  was  a  man  of  genius,  but  of  a  most! 
 unainiable    disposition.       He    wrote    The] 
 History  of  Scotland;  History  of  the  Refor- 
 mation   in    Scotland  ;  and    other  works  ; 
 contributed  to   the  Monthly   Review;  and 
 was  editor  of  the  Edinburgh  Magazine  and 
 Review. 
 
 STUART,  Gilbert,  a  celebrated' 
 painter,  was  born  in  Newport,  Rhode  Isl- 
 and, in  1755.  Soon  after  becoming  of  age, | 
 he  went  to  England,  where  he  became  the 
 pupil  of  Mr.  West.  He  soon  rose  to  emi- 
 nence as  a  portrait  painter,  and  obtained 
 a  high  reputation  both  in  England  and 
 Ireland.  In  1794  he  returned  to  his  na- 
 tive country,  chiefly  residing  in  Philadel- 
 phia and  Washington,  in  the  practice  of  his 
 profession,  till  about  the  year  1801,  when 
 lie  removed  to  Boston.  Here  he  remained 
 till  his  death  in  1828.  Mr.  Stuart  was 
 not  only  one  of  the  first  painters  of  his 
 time,  but  was  also  a  very  extraordinary 
 man  out  of  his  profession. 
 
 STUBBS,  George,  an  artist,  was 
 born,  in  1724,  at  Liverpool;  studied  at 
 Rome;  settled  in  London,  and  became 
 celebrated  as  an  animal  painter;  was  ad- 
 mitted an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy; 
 and  died  in  1806.  He  wrote  The  Anato- 
 my of  the  Horse;  and  A  Comparative 
 Anatomical  Exposition  of  the  Human 
 Body  with  that  of  a  Tiger  and  Common 
 Fowl. 
 
 SUARD,  John  Baptist  Anthony,  a 
 French  writer  and  translator,  was  born,  in 
 1734,  at  Besancon;  acquired  considerable 
 reputation  as  a  contributor  to  and  editor 
 of  many  public  journals  ;  was  admitted 
 into  the  Academy,  and   subsequently  into 
 
 the  Institute ;    and  died    in   1X17.      Among 
 
 his  translations  is  Robertson's  Charles  V. 
 Many  of  his  pieces  are  contained  in  the 
 Literary  Varieties,  and  Literary  Miscella- 
 nies. Several  lives  in  the  Universal  Biog- 
 raphy are  also  from  his  pen. 
 
 SUAREZ,  Francis,  a  Jesuit  and  theo- 
 logian, was   born,   in    1548,   at  Granada; 
 
 SUE 
 
 and,  after  having  filled  the  theological 
 (hair  at  various  universities,  was  appointed 
 professor  at  Coimbra,  by  Philip  II.  He 
 died,  in  1617,  at  Lisbon.  His  works  oc- 
 cupy twenty-three  folio  volumes.  One  of 
 them,  his  Defensio  Catholicae,  was  burnt 
 by  the  hangman  at  London  and  Paris. 
 
 SUCHET,  Louis  Gabriel,  duke  of 
 Albufera,  a  celebrated  French  marshal, 
 was  born,  in  1772,  at  Lyons,  and  entered 
 the  army,  as  a  volunteer,  in  his  twentieth 
 year.  Between  that  period  and  1800  he 
 distinguished  himself  in  Italy,  Switzerland, 
 and  the  Grisons,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
 major  general.  He  subsequently  increased 
 his  fame  at  Marengo,  at  Austerlitz,  and  in 
 Poland.  In  1S0S  he  was  appointed  to  the 
 command  of  the  French  forces  in  the  south- 
 east of  Spain,  and  this  command  he  re- 
 tained till  the  termination  of  the  war. 
 He  gained  many  victories,  reduced  a  great 
 number  of  fortresses,  and  conquered  Valen- 
 cia; and  his  services  were  rewarded  with 
 the  rank  of  marshal,  and  the  title  of  duke. 
 When  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba,  he 
 intrusted  Suchet  with  the  defence  of  the 
 departments  bordering  on  the  frontier  of 
 Savoy.     He  died  January  7,  1826. 
 
 SUCKLING,  Sir  John,  a  poet  and 
 courtier,  was  born,  in  1609,  at  Whitton, 
 in  Middlesex;  served  in  Germany  under 
 Gustavus  Adolphus;  acquired  reputation 
 as  a  w  it  and  dramatist  after  his  return  to 
 England  ;  raised  a  regiment  to  serve 
 against  the  Scotch,  in  1639;  was  obliged 
 to  retire  to  France,  in  consequence  of  hav- 
 ing participated  in  a  project  to  liberate 
 the  earl  of  Strafford;  and  died  there,  in 
 1641.  His  Poems  have  obtained  a  place 
 in  the  standard  collections. 
 
 SUETONIUS  TRANQUILLUS,  Cai- 
 us,  a  Latin  historian,  was  born  in  the  first 
 century  of  the  Christian  era,  and  died  in 
 the  second,  but  the  precise  dates  of  his 
 birth  and  death  are  not  recorded.  Little 
 more  is  known  of  him  than  that  he  was 
 brought  up  to  the  bar,  was  made  tribune, 
 and  subsequently  became  secretary  to 
 Adrian,  but  lost  the  secretaryship  in  121, 
 and  that  he  was  intimate  with  Pliny.  All 
 his  winks  have  perished  except  The  Li\es 
 of  the  Twelve  Ceesars. 
 
 SUETONIUS  PAULINUS,  a  cele- 
 brated Roman  general  of  the  first  century, 
 the  place  and  time  of  whose  birth  and 
 death  are  unknown,  first  distinguished 
 himself  by  reducing,  A.  r>.  37,  the  revolted 
 Mauritanians  to  obedience.  In  59  he  was 
 appointed  to  the  government  of  Great 
 Britain,  which  province  he  brought  com- 
 pleielv  under  the  yoke;  defeating  Boadicea, 
 and  destroying  the  Druids  in  Mona.  In 
 his  latter  years  he  stained  his  reputation  by 
 the  means  to  which  he  resorted  for  obtain- 
 ing the  favour  of  Vitellius  after  having 
 fought  for  Otho. 
 
SUL 
 
 SUHM,  Peter  Frederic,  an  emi- 
 nent Danish  historian  and  miscellaneous 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1728,  at  Copenhagen; 
 held  various  important  offices  under  the 
 government,  and  was  appointed  royal  his- 
 toriographer ;  married  in  Norway,  and 
 resided  there  for  fourteen  years,  during 
 which  period  he  was  indefatigable  in  col- 
 lecting historical  materials  relative  to  the 
 northern  nations;  returned  to  Copenhagen 
 in  1765;  and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learn- 
 ing till  his  decease  in  1798.  His  Miscel- 
 lanies form  fifteen  volumes;  and  his  valua- 
 ble Histories  of  Denmark  occupy  sixteen 
 volumes  4to. 
 
 SUIDAS,  a  Greek  lexicographer.  When 
 and  where  he  was  born  and  died  are  un- 
 known, but  he  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in 
 the  latter  end  of  the  ninth  and  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  tenth  century.  His  Lexicon, 
 faulty  as  it  is  in  many  respects,  is  valuable 
 for  the  fragments  it  contains  of  lost  works, 
 and  the  information  which  it  affords  res- 
 pecting ancient  writers. 
 
 SULLIVAN,  John,  an  officer  in  the 
 army  of  the  American  revolution,  was  born 
 in  Maine,  and  established  himself  in  the 
 profession  of  law  in  New  Hampshire. 
 Turning  his  attention  to  military  affairs, 
 he  received,  in  1772,  the  commission  of 
 major,  and  in  1775  that  of  brigadier  gen- 
 eral. The  next  year  he  was  sent  to  Can- 
 ada, and  on  the  death  of  general  Thomas, 
 the  command  of  the  army  devolved  on  him. 
 In  this  year  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
 of  major  general,  and  was  soon  after 
 captured  by  the  British  in  the  battle  on 
 Long  Island.  He  commanded  a  division 
 of  the  army  at  the  battles  of  Trenton, 
 Brandywine  and  Germantovvn  ;  and  was 
 the  sole  commander  of  an  expedition  to 
 the  island  of  Newport,  which  failed  through 
 want  of  cooperation  from  the  French  fleet. 
 In  1779  he  commanded  an  expedition 
 against  the  Indians.  He  was  afterwards 
 a  member  of  Congress,  and  for  three  years 
 president  of  New  Hampshire.  In  1789  he 
 was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  district 
 court,  and  continued  in  that  office  till  his 
 death,  in  1795. 
 
 SULLIVAN,  James,  was  born  at  Ber- 
 wick, Maine,  in  1744,  and  after  passing 
 the  early  part  of  his  life  in  agricultural 
 pursuits,  adopted  the  profession  of  the  law. 
 He  took  an  early  part  in  the  revolutionary  j 
 struggle,  and  in  1775  was  chosen  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  provincial  Congress.  In  1776 
 he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  superior! 
 court.  He  was  subsequently  a  member  of  j 
 Congress,  a  member  of  the  executive 
 council,  judge  of  probate,  and  in  1790  was  ! 
 appointed  attorney  general.  In  1807  he1 
 was  elected  governor  of  Massachusetts, ' 
 and  again  in  the  following  year,  in  the ' 
 December  of  which  he  died.  He  was  the 
 author   of  a    History    of  Land    Titles,    a 
 
 SUR 
 
 471 
 
 History  of  the  District  of  Maine,  and  an 
 Essay  on  Banks.  His  rank  at  the  bar 
 was  in  the  very  first  class,  and  in  his  pri- 
 vate character  he  was  distinguished  for 
 pietv,  patriotism,  and  integrity. 
 
 SULLY, Maximilian  dk.BETHUNE, 
 duke  of,  a  French  warrior  and  statesman, 
 equally  brave  in  the  field  and  wise  in  the 
 council,  was  born,  in  1560,  at  the  castle 
 ofRosny.  At  an  early  age  he  was  placed 
 about  the  person  of  the  king  of  Navarre, 
 afterwards  Henry  IV.,  to  whom  he  ever 
 continued  to  be  strongly  attached.  He 
 narrowly  escaped  being  one  of  the  victims 
 of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  In 
 the  majority  of  the  battles  and  sieges  which 
 occurred  during  the  struggle  between  Henry 
 and  his  enemies,  Sully  bore  a  conspicuous 
 part;  he  commanded  the  artillery  at  the 
 battle  of  Coutras,  and  had  two  horses  killed 
 under  him,  and  was  dangerously  wounded 
 at  the  battle  of  Ivry.  Though  himself  a 
 zealous  Calvinist,  it  was  he  who  advised 
 the  king  to  secure  the  crown  by  conform- 
 ing to  the  catholic  religion.  In  1597  he 
 was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  finances, 
 which  was  then  in  the  most  dilapidated 
 state,  and  by  his  prudent  administration 
 he  at  once  increased  the  revenue  and 
 lightened  the  burthens  of  the  people.  Af- 
 ter the  death  of  Henry  IV.  Sully  retired 
 from  public  affairs,  and  he  died  in  1641. 
 His  Memoirs,  written  by  himself,  are  high- 
 ly interesting. 
 
 SULZER,  John  George,  a  Swiss 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1720,  at  Winterthur; 
 became  mathematical  professor,  and  subse- 
 quently professor  of  philosophy,  to  the  acad- 
 emy of  nobles  at  Berlin ;  and  died  in  1779 
 His  principal  work,  which  possesses  great 
 merit,  is  The  Universal  Theory  of  the  Fine 
 Arts. 
 
 SUMAROKOFF,  Alexander  Pe- 
 trovitsch,  a  Russian  poet  and  drama- 
 tist, the  son  of  a  general  officer,  was  born, 
 in  1718,  at  Moscow;  was  educated  at  the 
 Cadet  School;  displayed  an  early  talent 
 for  dramatic  writing;  and  died  in  1778, 
 a  counsellor  of  state,  and  director  of  the 
 court  theatre.  He  wrote  Tragedies,  Com- 
 edies, Miscellaneous  Poems;  Dialogues 
 of  the  Dead ;  an  Abridged  Chronicle  of 
 Moscow ;  and  some  works  of  less  conse- 
 quence. 
 
 SURREY,  Henry  HOWARD,  earl 
 of,  eldest  son  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  was 
 born  about  1515;  studied  at  Christ  Church, 
 Oxford;  travelled  in  France,  Germany, 
 and  Italy,  in  the  last  of  which  countries 
 he  fell  in  love  with  the  Gerald ine  whom 
 he  celebrates  in  his  verses;  was  captain 
 general  of  the  army  at  Boulogne  in  1546; 
 and  fell  a  victim,  on  the  scaffold,  to  the 
 tyranny  of  Henry  VIII.  in  1547.  "He 
 was  (says  Raleigh)  no  less  valiant  than 
 learned,    and    of  excellent    hopes;"    and 
 
472  SWE 
 
 Warton  considers  him  as  "  the  first  En- 
 glish classical  poet." 
 
 SUTTON,  Thomas,  was  born,  in 
 1532,  at  Knaith,  in  Lincolnshire;  studied 
 at  Eton,  Cambridge,  and  Lincoln's  Inn; 
 became  a  merchant,  after  having  been  mas- 
 ter general  of  the  ordnance  in  the  north ; 
 rose  to  be  the  richest  commoner  in  the 
 kingdom;  and  died  in  1611.  Sutton  was 
 the  founder  of  the  Charter  House,  of  which 
 he  intended  to  be  the  first  master,  but  he 
 died  in  the  same  year  that  the  work  was 
 began 
 
 SUVAROFF,  or  SOWAKROW, 
 Prince  Alexander,  a  celebrated  Rus- 
 sian field  marshal,  was  born,  in  1730,  at 
 Suskoi,  in  the  Ukraine,  and  was  educated 
 at  the  Cadet  School  of  St.  Petersburgh. 
 He  distinguished  himself  during  the  seven 
 years'  war;  in  Poland,  in  1768,  against 
 the  Confederates;  in  1773,  against  the 
 Turks;  and,  in  17S2,  against  the  Nogay 
 Tartars.  For  these  services  he  was  re- 
 warded with  the  rank  of  general  in  chief, 
 the  government  of  the  Crimea,  the  portrait 
 of  the  empress  set  in  diamonds,  and  several 
 Russian  orders.  In  the  war  against  the 
 Turks,  from  1787  to  1790,  he  gained  the 
 battle  of  Rymnik,  took  Ismail  by  storm, 
 ami  obtained  other  important  advantages. 
 In  1794  he  defeated  the  Poles  who  were 
 struggling  for  freedom,  and  carried  Praga 
 bv  assault.  When  Russia  joined  the  con- 
 tinental coalition,  in  1799,  he  was  placed 
 at  the  head  of  the  combined  army  in  Italy, 
 and,  after  several  sanguinary  battles,  he 
 succeeded  in  wresting  that  country  from 
 the  French.  He  was  less  successful  in 
 Switzerland,  whence  he  was  obliged  to 
 retreat.  He  died  of  vexation,  April  IS, 
 1800,  soon  after  his  return  to  St.  Peters- 
 burg!). 
 
 SWEDENBORG,  Emanuel,  the 
 founder  of  a  sect  called  The  New  Jerusa- 
 lem Church,  was  the  son  of  the  bishop  of 
 Skara,  and  was  born,  in  1689,  at  Stock- 
 holm. He  was  not  twenty  when  he  pub- 
 lished a  volume  of  Latin  poems.  On 
 returning  from  his  travels  he  was  appointed 
 assessor  extraordinary  to  the  College  of 
 Mines,  and,  in  1719,  was  ennobled.  Of 
 his  manv  works  on  mining  the  principal  is 
 his  Opera  Philosophica  et  Mineralogiea. 
 In  1743  he  imbibed  a  belief  that  he  was 
 admitted  to  an  intercourse  with  the  invisi- 
 ble world,  and  this  belief  he  retained  till 
 his  decease  in  1772.  On  this  subject  he 
 published  several  singular  works,  among 
 which  is  the  Arcana  Coelesl  is.  Swedenborg, 
 though  labouring  under  a  mental  delusion, 
 was  no  impostor,  but  a  learned  and  pious 
 man. 
 
 SWIFT,  Jonathan,  a  celebrated 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1667,  at  Dublin,  and 
 was  educated  at  Kilkenny  School,  Trinity 
 College,    Dublin,    and    Hertford    College, 
 
 SWI 
 
 Oxford.     For    some   years  he  lived  with 
 Sir  William  Temple  as  a  companion,  and 
 
 when  that  statesman  died  he  left  him  a 
 legacy  and  his  posthumous  works.  From 
 King  William  he  entertained  expectations 
 of  preferment,  which  were  disappointed. 
 Having  accompanied  Lord  Berkeley,  one 
 of  the  lords  justices  to  Ireland,  as  chaplain, 
 he  obtained  from  him  the  livings  of  Lara- 
 cor  and  Lathbeggan,  on  which  he  went  to 
 reside,  and  to  which  he  invited  the  lady 
 whom  he  has  celebrated  under  the  name 
 of  Stella.  He  eventually  married  her,  but 
 would  never  acknowledge  her  as  his  wife. 
 His  conduct  to  two  other  ladies,  Miss  Wa- 
 ring and  Miss  Vanhomrigh,  with  whom  he 
 coquetted,  was  equally  devoid  of  proper 
 feeling.  In  1701  he  took  his  doctor's  de- 
 gree, and  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne 
 he  visited  England.  In  the  course  of  the 
 nine  ensuing  years  he  published  several 
 works,  but  it  was  not  till  1710  that  he 
 became  active  as  a  political  writer.  Hav- 
 ing gone  over  to  the  lories,  and  become 
 intimate  with  Harley  and  Bolingbroke,  he 
 exerted  himself  strenuously  in  behalf  of  his 
 new  allies.  Among  his  labours  in  this 
 cause  were  The  Examiner,  and  The  Con- 
 duct of  the  Allies.  It  was  not,  however, 
 till  1713  that  he  obtained  preferment,  and 
 even  then  he  was  frustrated  in  his  hopes 
 of  an  English  mitre,  and  received  only  the 
 deanery  of  St.  Patriok.  When  he  returned 
 to  Ireland  he  was  exceedingly  unpopular; 
 but  he  lived  to  be  the  idol  of  the  Irish. 
 Of  the  writings  by  which  this  change  was 
 produced,  The  Drapier's  Letters,  published 
 in  1724,  stand  foremost.  In  1726  he  gave 
 Gulliver's  Travels  to  the  world.  As  he 
 advanced  in  years  he  suffered  from  deafness 
 and  fits  of  giddiness;  in  1739  his  intellect 
 gave  way;  and  he  expired  in  October,  1745. 
 SWIFT,  Zephaniah,  a  learned  law- 
 yer, was  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and 
 established  himself  in  the  legal  profession 
 in  Windham,  Connecticut.  He  was  for 
 eighteen  years  a  judge  of  the  superior 
 court  of  that  state.  He  published  a  Digest 
 of  the  laws  of  Connecticut,  in  two  vol- 
 umes, on  the  model  of  Blackstone.  His 
 death  took  place  in  1823. 
 
TAG 
 
 SWINTON,  John,  a  divine  and  anti- 
 
 ?uary,  was  born,  in  1703,  at  Bexton,  in 
 Cheshire;  was  educated  at  Wadliam  Col- 
 lege, Oxford;  was  chaplain  to  the  factory 
 at  Leghorn;  and  died  in  1777,  keeper  of 
 the  university  records  at  Oxford.  He  con- 
 tributed largely  to  the  Universal  History; 
 and  wrote  many  learned  dissertations  on 
 Phoenician  and  other  antiquities. 
 
 SYDENHAM,  Thomas,  an  eminent 
 physician,  was  born,  in  lb'24,  at  Winford 
 Eagle,  in  Dorsetshire;  was  educated  at 
 Wadham  College,  Oxford;  studied  medi- 
 cine at  Montpellier;  and  settled  in  West- 
 minster, where  he  deservedly  attained  a 
 high  reputation.  He  died  in  16S9.  Syden- 
 ham was  an  acute  observer  of  symptoms, 
 and  introduced  very  important  improve- 
 ments into  the  treatment  of  smallpox  and 
 other  diseases.  His  works  have  been  fre- 
 quently  reprinted. 
 
 SYDENHAM,  Floyer,  an  eminent 
 Greek  scholar,  was  born  in  1701,  and  was 
 educated  at  Wadham  College,  Oxford.  In 
 1759  he  began  a  translation  of  the  works 
 of  Plato,  a  part  of  which  he  published; 
 but  the  want  of  patronage  involved  him  in 
 embarrassments ;  he  was  thrown  into  prison 
 for  a  small  debt  which  he  had  contracted 
 for  his  frugal  meals ;  and  there  he  perished 
 
 TAL 
 
 473 
 
 in  178S.  His  fate  gave  rise  to  the  estab- 
 lishment of  the  Literary  Fund. 
 
 SYLLA,  Lucius  Cornelius,  a  cele- 
 brated Roman,  was  born,  B.  c.  137.  After 
 having  spent  a  part  of  his  youth  in  licen- 
 tious pleasures,  he  distinguished  himself  in 
 Africa,  under  Marius;  in  Pontus,  as  com- 
 mander in  chief;  and  on  various  other 
 occasions.  He  rose  to  the  consulship  in 
 the  forty-ninth  year  of  his  age.  He  sub- 
 sequently reduced  Greece,  and  vanquished 
 Mithridates;  and,  returning  to  Italy,  over- 
 came the  Marian  party,  and  assumed  the 
 dictatorship.  By  his  merciless  edicts  of 
 proscription  he  deluged  Rome  with  blood; 
 bit,  at  the  very  moment  when  no  one  dared 
 to  dispute  his  power,  he  retired  into  private 
 life.  He  died,  B.  c.  78,  of  the  morbus  pe- 
 diculosus,  the  consequence  of  his  debauche- 
 ries. 
 
 SZALKAI,  Anthony,  a  Hungarian 
 poet,  who  is  considered  as  the  founder  of 
 the  dramatic  literature  of  his  country. 
 He  held  an  office  in  the  household  of  the 
 archduke  palatine,  Alexander  Leopold,  and 
 died,  in  1S04,  at  Buda.  His  Pikko  Hert- 
 zog  was  the  first  regular  drama  composed 
 in  the  Hungarian  language.  He  also  wrote 
 a  travesty  on  the  Eneid. 
 
 T 
 
 TACITUS,  Caius  Cornelius,  a 
 Latin  historian,  was  born  about  A.  D.  56, 
 and  was  of  an  equestrian  family.  The 
 place  of  his  birth  is  not  known.  He  early 
 cultivated  poetry ;  he  became  an  advo- 
 cate ;  and  he  is  supposed  also  to  have 
 borne  arms.  He  was  successively  questor, 
 edile,  and  pretor,  and,  in  97,  attained  the 
 rank  of  consul.  Pliny  the  younger  was 
 his  bosom  friend,  and  Agricola  was  his 
 father-in-law.  He  is  believed  to  have 
 died  about  a.  d.  135.  Of  his  admirable 
 History  and  Annals  a  large  portion  is  un- 
 fortunately lost.  Tacitus  also  wrote  The 
 Life  of  Agricola;  The  Manners  of  the 
 Germans;  and  a  Dialogue  on  Eloquence: 
 the  last  of  these,  however,  is  by  some  at- 
 tributed to  Quintilian. 
 
 TACITUS,  Marcus  Claudius,  a 
 Roman  emperor,  who  claimed  descent 
 from  the  foregoing,  was  raised  to  the 
 throne  by  the  senate,  in  275,  at  the  age 
 of  seventy-five,  after  having  been  twice 
 consul.  He  reigned  only  six  months,  dur- 
 ing which  short  period  he  displayed  both 
 wisdom  and  vigour.  It  is  not  certain 
 whether  he  was  assassinated  or  died  of  a 
 violent  disease. 
 
 TAGLIACOZZI,  or  TALIACOTIUS, 
 Gaspar,  an  eminent  Italian  surgeon,  was 
 
 born,  in  1546,  at  Bologna;  was  for  many 
 years  anatomical  professor  there;  and  died 
 in  1599.  He  is  the  author  of  a  work  on 
 the  restoring  of  the  nose.  Butler,  in  his 
 Hudibras,  has  a  ludicrous  allusion  to 
 him. 
 
 TALBOT,  John,  lord,  a  famous  war- 
 rior, was  born,  in  1373,  at  Blechmore,  in 
 Shropshire;  obtained  various  successes 
 against  the  Irish;  distinguished  himself  in 
 France  by  his  skill  and  valour  during  the 
 reigns  of  Henry  V.  and  VI.,  for  which  he 
 was  rewarded  by  the  earldoms  of  Shrews- 
 bury, Wexford,  and  Waterford  ;  and  was 
 killed  at  the  battle  of  Castillon,   in   1453. 
 
 TALBOT,  Catherine,  the  only  child 
 of  the  bishop  of  Durham,  was  born  inl720, 
 and  died  in  1770  She  was  an  intimate 
 friend  of  Mrs.  Carter,  and  wrote  Essays, 
 Letters,  Dialogues,  and  Poems;  and  Re- 
 flections on  the  Seven  Days  of  the  Week. 
 
 TALLIEN,  John  Lambert,  one  of 
 the  most  prominent  characters  in  the 
 French  revolution,  was  the  son  of  a  no- 
 bleman's porter;  was  born,  in  1769,  at 
 Paris;  received  a  good  education;  and 
 early  in  life  was  successively  clerk  to  an 
 attorney,  and  in  a  public  office,  and  fore- 
 man to  a  printing  establishment.  On  the 
 breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  he  took  a 
 
474 
 
 TAN 
 
 violent  part  against  the  court,  and  he 
 gradually  acquired  considerable  influence. 
 As  a  member  of  the  Convention,  he  voted 
 for  the  death  of  the  king,  and  for  a  while 
 he  participated  in  all  the  enormities  of  the 
 jacobins.  At  length,  however,  lie  became 
 more  moderate,  and  it  was  mainly  to  his 
 courage  and  eloquence  that  France  was 
 indebted  for  the  downfall  of  Robespierre. 
 He  continued  to  be  an  active  member  of 
 the  legislature  till  1798,  when  he  accom- 
 panied Bonaparte  to  Egypt.  He  enjoyed 
 a  place  under  the  consular  and  imperial 
 governments ;  remained  unmolested  after 
 the  accession  of  Louis  XVIII.;  and  died 
 in  1820. 
 
 TALMA,  Francis  Joseph,  the  great- 
 est of  French  actors,  was  born,  in  1763, 
 at  Paris,  and  spent  his  childhood  in  Flan- 
 ders and  England,  where  his  father  was  a 
 dentist.  At  the  age  of  nine  years  he  was 
 sent  to  France  to  be  educated,  whence  he 
 returned  to  England.  The  stage  was  early 
 his  delight,  and  he  was  at  one  time  on  the 
 point  of  appearing  at  Drury  Lane.  On 
 his  settling  in  France,  he  for  eighteen 
 months  followed  the  profession  of  his  fa- 
 ther; but  in  1787  he  came  out  upon  the 
 French  theatre,  in  the  character  of  Seide. 
 For  some  time,  however,  he  was  kept  in 
 the  background;  but  at  length  he  attained 
 the  highest  rank  as  a  tragedian.  Talma 
 also  accomplished  in  France  a  complete 
 reformation  of  theatrical  costume.  He 
 died,  at  Paris,  Oct.  19,  1826.  Talma  was 
 highly  esteemed,  both  as  an  actor  and  a 
 man,  by  Napoleon. 
 
 TAMERLANE,  TIMUR  LENC,  or 
 TIMUR  BEG,  one  of  the  scourges  of 
 mankind,  was  born,  b.  c  1336,  in  the 
 province  of  Kersch,  the  ancient  Sog- 
 diana,  where  his  father  was  the  chief  of 
 a  tribe.  He  attained  the  sovereign  au- 
 thority at  Samarcand,  in  1730.  He  sub- 
 sequently conquered  Persia,  India,  Syria, 
 and  many  other  countries;  made  prisoner 
 Bajazet,  the  Turkish  sultan;  and  was  oh 
 the  point  of  invading  China,  when  he  died 
 in  1405. 
 
 TANSILLO,  Louis,  an  Italian  poet, 
 was    born,    about    1510,  at    Venosa,  and 
 
 TAS 
 
 died  in  1568,  judge  of  Gaeta.  Among 
 his  poems  are  The  Vintager,  and  The 
 Nurse,  the  latter  of  which  has  been  trans- 
 lated by  Roscoe. 
 
 TARTAGLIA,  Nicholas,  an  eminent 
 geometrician,  was  born,  in  the  beginning  of 
 the  sixteenth  century,  at  Venice.  Though, 
 at  the  age  of  six  years,  he  was  left  an  or- 
 phan, and  in  distress,  he  overcame  every 
 impediment  in  the  acquisition  of  learning, 
 and  rose  to  be  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
 mathematicians  of  his  time.  He  died  in 
 15,37.  Among  his  works  are,  A  Tieatise 
 on  Gunnery;  Various  Questions  and  In- 
 ventions; and   A  Commentary  on  Euclid. 
 
 "WRTINI,  Joseph,  an  eminent  vio- 
 linist and  composer,  was  born,  in  1692,  at 
 Pirano,  in  Istria;  was  educated  for  the 
 law,  but  devoted  himself  to  music;  ob- 
 tained celebrity  as  a  consummate  violin 
 player;  and  died  in  1770.  He  wrote  A 
 Treatise  on  Music,  and  other  works;  and 
 composed  many  pieces.  His  finest  compo- 
 sition is  The  Devil's  Sonata,  so  called, 
 because  he  dreamt  that  it  was  played  to 
 him  by  his  Satanic  majesty. 
 
 TASMAN,  Abel  Janssen,  a  great 
 navigator,  a  native  of  Holland,  was  born 
 at  Hoorn,  but  in  what  year  is  not  known. 
 In  1642  and  1644  he  was  employed  on 
 exploratory  voyages  by  Van  Diemen.  the 
 Dutch  governor  general  in  the  East,  and 
 he  made  many  important  disco\eries  in 
 Australia,  and  the  surrounding  islands. 
 The  time  of  his  death  is  not  recorded. 
 
 TASSIE,  James,  a  modeller,  was 
 born,  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
 century,  near  Glasgow,  and  was  originally 
 a  stone  mason,  but  acquired,  from  Dr. 
 Quiu,  the  art  of  imitating  gems  in  col- 
 oured pastes,  and  was  so  successful  that 
 he  gained  both  reputation  and  fortune.  He 
 likewise  modelled  in  wax.  Tassie  died  in 
 1799.  The  descriptive  catalogue  of  his 
 gems  forms  two  volumes  quarto. 
 
 TASSO,  Bernardo,  an  Italian  poet, 
 was  born,  in  1493,  at  Bergamo;  was  suc- 
 cessively in  the  service  of  the  prince  of 
 Salerno  and  the  dukes  of  Urbino  and 
 Mantua;  and  died  in  1569.  Of  his  poems 
 the  principal  is  Amadis  de  Gaul,  in  a 
 hundred  cantos. 
 
 TASSO,  Torquato,  one  of  the  great- 
 est of  the  Italian  poets,  was  the  son  of 
 Bernardo,  and  was  born,  in  1544,  at  Sor- 
 rento. He  may  almost  be  said  to  have 
 "  lisped  in  numbers ; "  and  at  twelve  years 
 of  age  he  had  acquired  extensive  know- 
 ledge. After  having  been  educated  at 
 Rome,  he  went  to  Padua,  to  study  law,  in 
 compliance  with  the  wishes  of  his  father. 
 It  was  while  he  was  there,  and  in  his 
 eighteenth  year,  that  he  published  the 
 poem  of  Rinaldo.  In  1565  Duke  Alphon- 
 so  of  Ferrara  invited  him  to  his  court, 
 and,  with  the  exception  of  the  time  occu- 
 
TAY 
 
 pied  by  a  journey  to  France,   Tasso  re- 
 sided there  till  1577.     During  this  period, 
 
 TEM 
 
 475 
 
 besides  many  minor  pieces,  he  produced 
 his  Aminta,  and  completed  the  Jerusalem 
 Delivered.  In  1577  he  secretly  quitted 
 Ferrara;  having,  it  has  been  supposed,  in- 
 curred the  anger  of  the  duke  by  his  pas- 
 sion for  the  Princess  Leonora  of  Este,  his 
 patron's  sister.  He  returned,  however, 
 but  his  intellects  being  now  in  some  de- 
 gree affected,  he  was  ungenerously  shut  up 
 in  a  madhouse  by  Alphonso,  where  for 
 seven  years  he  experienced  the  most  un- 
 worthy treatment.  The  remonstrances  of 
 several  Italian  princes  at  length  procured 
 his  release.  In  1592  he  settled  at  Naples, 
 and  began  to  write  a  new  poem  on  the 
 subject  of  his  Jerusalem.  This  poem  he 
 finished  to  his  own  satisfaction,  but  pos- 
 terity has  not  ratified  his  partiality  for  it. 
 He  died  April  25,  1595,  at  Rome,  while 
 preparations  were  making  to  confer  on 
 him  the  laureate  crown  in  the  capitol. 
 
 TASSONI,  Alexander,  an  Italian 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1565,  at  Modena;  was 
 successively  in  the  service  of  several  prin- 
 ces; and  died  in  1635,  counsellor  to  the 
 duke  of  Modena.  He  was  a  man  of  exten- 
 sive literary  and  scientific  knowledge,  and 
 wrote  various  works;  but  it  is  to  The 
 Rape  of  the  Bucket,  a  heroi-comic  poem, 
 that  he  owes  his  reputation. 
 
 TAVERMER,  John  Baptist,  a  trav- 
 eller, was  born  in  1605;  visited  Turkey, 
 Persia,  and  the  East  Indies,  several  times, 
 as  a  dealer  in  diamonds  and  precious 
 stones;  was  ennobled  by  Louis  XIV.; 
 and  died,  about  1686,  at  Moscow.  His 
 account  of  his  Travels  in  the  East,  which 
 has  often  been  reprinted,  forms  three  vol- 
 umes quarto. 
 
 TAYLOR,  Jeremy,  a  prelate  and  elo- 
 quent writer,  was  the  son  of  a  barber; 
 was  born,  in  1613,  at  Cambridge;  and 
 was  educated  at  the  grammar  school  of  his 
 native  place,  and  at  Caius  College.  He 
 became  chaplain  to  Archbishop  Laud,  and 
 subsequently  to  Charles  1.,  and  obtained 
 the  rectory  of  Uppingham.  During  the 
 civil  war  he  gained  a  subsistence  by  keep- 
 ing a  school,  till  he  was   interdicted  from 
 
 teaching.  Lord  Carbery  then  appointed 
 him  his  chaplain,  and  it  was  while  he  re- 
 sided with  that  nobleman  that  he  wrote 
 most  of  his  pieces.  He  was  twice  impris- 
 oned by  the  republican  government.  At 
 the  Restoration  he  was  made  bishop  of 
 Down  and  Connor;  along  with  which  see 
 he  held  that  of  Dromore,  and  the  vice- 
 chancellorship  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
 He  died  in  1667.  His  works,  which  stand 
 high  among  those  of  British  theologians, 
 have  been  repeatedly  reprinted. 
 
 TAYLOR,  Brook,  an  eminent  mathe- 
 matician, was  born,  in  1685,  at  Edmonton, 
 in  Middlesex;  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
 College,  Cambridge;  became  a  fellow  and 
 secretary  of  the  Royal  Society,  to  the 
 Transactions  of  which  body  he  largely 
 contributed;  and  died  in  1731.  Among 
 his  works  are,  Methodus  Incrementorum; 
 New  Principles  of  Linear  Perspective; 
 and  Contemplatio  Philosophica.  Taylor 
 invented  the  analytical  formula  which 
 bears  his  name,  and  which  Lagrange  has 
 made  the  basis  of  his  theory  of  analytical 
 functions. 
 
 TAYLOR,  George,  a  signer  of  the 
 declaration  of  American  independence,  was 
 born  in  Ireland  in  1716.  Emigrating  to 
 America,  he  became  the  proprietor  of  ex- 
 tensive iron  works  at  Durham  on  the  river 
 Delaware.  He  was  for  some  years  a  rep- 
 resentative for  Northampton  County  to  the 
 provincial  assembly,  and  in  1776  was  elect- 
 ed to  the  continental  congress.  He  died 
 in  1781. 
 
 TEKELI,  E  M  E  Ric,  Count,  a  Hungarian 
 nobleman,  was  born  in  165S,  and  headed 
 his  countrymen  in  their  struggle  against 
 Austrian  tyranny.  He  defeated  the  Im- 
 perialists in  several  battles,  and  even  pen- 
 etrated in  Moravia  ;  but,  after  many 
 vicissitudes,  he  was  at  length  obliged  to 
 seek  an  asylum  in  Turkey,  where  he  died 
 in  1705. 
 
 TELL,  William,  one  of  the  champions 
 of  Swiss  liberty,  was  born,  in  the  latter 
 part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  at  Burglen, 
 in  the  canton  of  Uri.  Some  doubt  exists 
 as  to  the  truth  of  the  story,  that  he  was 
 compelled  to  shoot  at  an  apple  on  the  head 
 of  his  child,  and  that  he  shot  the  Austrian 
 governor  Gessler;  but  there  is  no  doubt 
 that  he  contributed  to  emancipate  his  coun- 
 try, and  that  he  fought  at  the  battle  of 
 Morgarten.     He  died  in  1354. 
 
 TEMPLE,  Sir  William,  an  eminent 
 statesman  and  writer,  was  born,  in  1628, 
 in  London,  and  was  educated  at  Bishop 
 Stortford  Grammar  School,  and  at  Ema- 
 nuel College,  Cambridge ;  Cudworth  was 
 his  college  tutor.  In  his  nineteenth  year 
 he  began  his  travels,  in  the  course  of 
 which  he  resided  for  two  years  in  France, 
 and  visited  Flanders,  Holland,  and  Ger* 
 many.     On  his  return  he  obtained  a  seat 
 
476 
 
 TEN 
 
 in  the  Irish  parliament.     Charles  II.  em- 
 ployed  him   as   a   diplomatist,   in    which 
 
 capacity  Temple  displayed  ahilities  of  no 
 common  kind.  He  was  twice  dispatched 
 on  a  secret  mission  to  the  bishop  of  Mini- 
 ster; as  envoy  extraordinary  to  the  Hague 
 he  concluded  within  the  short  space  of  five 
 days  the  treaty  of  triple  alliance;  he  was 
 one  of  the  negotiators  at  the  congress  of 
 Aix  la  Chapelle;  he  signed  the  peace  of 
 1673;  was  appointed  ambassador  to  the 
 Hague  in  1674,  and  contributed  to  bring 
 about  the  marriage  of  the  prince  of  Orange 
 with  the  princess  Mary;  and,  lastly,  was 
 one  of  the  negotiators  at  Nimeguen.  In 
 1679  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  king's 
 new  council,  but  was  soon  displaced  for  his 
 freedom  of  speech.  After  this  he  retired 
 into  private  life,  and  never  again  took  part 
 in  public  affairs.  He  died  in  1698.  His 
 works  form  four  octavo  volumes. 
 
 TENCIN,  Claudine  Alexandria 
 Guerin  de,  a  French  writer,  was  born, 
 in  1681,  at  Grenoble,  and  died  in  1719. 
 She  was  early  bound  by  monastic  vows, 
 from  which  she  succeeded  in  obtaining 
 her  release,  and  she  subsequently  spent 
 many  years  in  political,  and  especially  in 
 love  intrigues;  in  the  course  of  which  she 
 was  imprisoned,  unjustly,  however,  on  a 
 charge  of  having  murdered  one  of  her 
 lovers.  D'Alembert  was  her  son.  At 
 length  she  adopted  a  more  regular  mode 
 of  living,  and  her  house  became  the  resort 
 of  wits  and  men  of  letters.  Of  her  novels 
 The  Count  de  Coininingcs  is  that  which  is 
 most  esteemed;  but  they  all  have  great  merit. 
 
 TENIERS,  David",  the  elder,  an  emi- 
 nent painter,  was  born,  in  1582,  at  An- 
 twerp; studied  under  Rubens,  and  at 
 Rome  under  Elsheiiucr;  and  died  in  1649. 
 His  pictures  of  rural  festivities,  conversa- 
 tions, fairs,  fortunetellers,  and  similar  sub- 
 jects, are  usually  of  a  small  size,  and  are 
 much  valued. 
 
 TENIERS,  David,  the  younger,  a  son 
 of  the  foregoing,  was  born,  in  1610,  at 
 Brussels,  and  was  instructed  in  painting 
 by  his  father,  and  by  Adam  Brouwer 
 and  Rubens.  In  his  youth  such  waa  his 
 facility  of  imitating  the   styles  of  various 
 
 TER 
 
 masters  that  he  was  called  the  Proteus 
 and  the  Ape  of  Painting.  He  soon,  how- 
 ever, had  the  good  sense  to  choose  nature 
 as  his  model,  and  he  rose  into  high  repu- 
 tation, lie  was  patronised  by  the  arch- 
 duke Leopold  William,  the  king  of  Spain, 
 Christina  of  Sweden,  and  other  distin- 
 guished personages.  Teniers  died  in  1694. 
 The  subjects  of  his  pictures  are  such  as 
 employed  his  father's  pencil,  and  likewise 
 landscapes.  His  works  are  numerous  and 
 of  great  price. 
 
 TENNANT,  Smithson,  an  eminent 
 chemist,  was  .born,  in  1761,  at  Selby,  in 
 Yorkshire ;  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh, 
 and  took  his  degree  at  Cambridge  in  1796, 
 but  never  practised ;  became  a  member  of 
 the  Royal  Society  in  his  twenty-fourth 
 year;  was  chosen  professor  of  chemistry 
 at  Cambridge  in  1813;  and  was  killed,  by 
 a  fall  from  his  horse,  at  Boulogne,  Feb. 
 22,  1815.  He  contributed  many  \aluable 
 papers  to  the  Philosophical  Transactions. 
 Among  his  discoveries  are,  the  mode  of 
 effecting  a  double  distillation  bv  the  same 
 heat ;  the  true  nature  of  carbonic  acid  gas, 
 and  of  the  diamond;  and  two  new  metals, 
 iridium  and  osmium. 
 
 TERENCE,  or  TERENTIUS,  Pub- 
 lius,  a  Latin  comic  writer,  is  believed  to 
 have  been  a  native  of  Carthage,  and  to 
 have  been  born  about  B.  c.  192.  Being 
 taken  a  captive  to  Rome,  he  was  sold  to 
 Terentius  Lucanus,  who  gave  him  a  good 
 education,  and  enfranchised  him.  He  was 
 in  his  twenty-fifth  year  when  he  brought 
 out  his  first  play.  His  talents  acquired  for 
 him  illustrious  friends,  among  whom  were 
 Scipio  and  La-lius.  He  quitted  Rome 
 when  he  was  thirty-five,  and  is  supposed 
 to  have  perished  at  sea  in  a  storm.  Of 
 his  admirable  comedies  only  six  are  ex- 
 tant. 
 
 TERRASSON,  John,  a  French  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1670,  at  Lyons;  was  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  French  Academy  and  the  Acad- 
 emy of  Sciences;  and  died  in  1750.  Of 
 his  works  the  principal  are,  the  philoso- 
 phical romance  of  Sethos,  some  parts  of 
 which  are  lauded  by  Voltaire;  and  a 
 translation  of  Diodorus. 
 
 TERTULLIAN,  Quintus  Septimus 
 Florens,  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
 the  primitive  church,  was  born,  about  160, 
 at  Carthage.  Originally  a  bitter  enemy 
 of  the  Christian  faith,  he  was  converted 
 by  witnessing  the  firmness  of  the  martyrs, 
 became  a  priest,  and  was  thenceforth  one 
 of  the  most  eloquent  defenders  of  the  doc- 
 trines which  he  had  despised.  Late  in 
 life  he  adopted  the  opinions  of  the  Mon- 
 tanists,  and  afterwards  formed  a  sect  of 
 his  own.  He  died  about  245.  Among  his 
 works  are,  An  Apology  for  the  Christians; 
 a  Treatise  against  the  Jews;  and  the  five 
 books  against  Marcion. 
 
THE 
 
 TESTl,  Fulvio,  a  celebrated  Italian 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1593,  at  Ferrara;  held 
 various  important  offices  under  the  dukes 
 Alphonso  and  Francis;  but  was  thrown 
 into  prison,  in  consequence  of  having  en- 
 tered into  a  correspondence  with  Cardinal 
 Mazarin;  and  is  believed  to  have  been 
 put  to  death  there,  in  1646.  His  lyric 
 pieces  rank  with  those  of  Chiabrera,  Guidi, 
 and  Filicaja. 
 
 THAARUP,  Thomas,  a  Danish  poet, 
 was  born,  in  1749,  at  Copenhagen;  was 
 professor  of  history,  geography,  and  belles 
 lettres  at  the  marine  cadet  academy,  and 
 one  of  the  managers  of  the  royal  theatre ; 
 and  died  in  1821.  His  works  consist  of 
 Dramas  and  Sacred  Songs. 
 
 Til  ALES,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of 
 Greece,  was  born,  B.  c.  639,  at  Miletus,  in 
 Ionia,  or,  as  same  affirm,  was  a  native  of 
 Phenicia;  he  travelled  in  Egypt  and  other 
 countries;  and  died  in  the  ninety-sixth 
 year  of  his  age.  Thales  was  the  founder 
 of  the  Ionian  school  of  philosophy,  and 
 was  an  admirable  astronomer  and  geome- 
 trician. He  was  the  first  who  accurately 
 calculated  a  solar  eclipse. 
 
 THEMISTOCLES,  an  illustrious  Athe- 
 nian, was  born,  b.  c.  535,  at  Phreas.  Li- 
 centious in  his  youth,  he  was  reclaimed 
 from  his  follies  by  the  love  of  glory.  He 
 bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battle  of 
 Marathon,  and  the  trophies  gained  there 
 by  Miltiades  were  a  stimulus  to  the  ambi- 
 tion of  Theraistocles.  When,  after  the 
 banishment  of  his  rival  Aristides,  he  ac- 
 quired the  management  of  the  Athenian 
 affairs,  he  displayed  splendid  talents.  It 
 was  by  his  persuasion  that  his  countrymen 
 were  induced  to  confide  their  safety  to 
 their  navy,  and  to  him  were  the  Greeks 
 indebted  for  the  glorious  victory  of  Salamis. 
 He  rebuilt  the  walls  of  Athens,  fortified 
 the  Pirams,  and  prevented  the  Spartans 
 from  gaining  an  ascendancy  in  the  Am- 
 phictyonic  council.  The  popular  favour, 
 however,  was  at  length  withdrawn  from 
 him,  and  he  was  banished  for  five  years. 
 Further  proceedings  being  meditated 
 against  him,  he  sought  an  asylum  at  the 
 court  of  Artaxerxes,  and  was  hospitably 
 received.  He  died  B.  c.  470.  Some  at- 
 tribute his  death  to  poison  taken  by  him- 
 self, rather  than  assist  the  Persian  monarch 
 against  Athens,  while  others  affirm  tint  he 
 died  a  natural  death. 
 
 THEOBALD,  LEWIS,  a  dramatist  and 
 commentator,  was  born  at  Sittingbourne, 
 in  Kent,  and  was  brought  up  to  his  father's 
 profession,  that  of  a  lawyer,  but  quitted  it 
 for  literature.  Having  olfended  Pope,  by 
 editing  a  rival  edition  of  Shakspeare,  that 
 poet  made  hiin  the  hero  of  the  Dunciad. 
 Yet,  in  spite  of  the  wit  of  the  satirist, 
 Theobald  is  not  despicable  as  a  commen- 
 tator on   the  bard   of  Avon.     He   died  in 
 
 THE 
 
 477 
 
 1744.  Among  his  works  are  twelve  plays, 
 four  of  which  are  translated  from  the 
 Greek;  some  poems;  and  The  Gentleman's 
 Library.  The  tragedy  of  The  Fatal  False- 
 hood he  brought  forward  as  a  composition 
 by  Shakspeare. 
 
 THEOCRITUS,  a  celebrated  Greek 
 pastoral  po.et,  was  born  at  Syracuse,  and 
 dourished  in  the  third  century  B.  c.  Ptol- 
 emy Philadelphia  invited  him  to  his  court, 
 and  treated  him  munificently.  It  is  said, 
 that  he  was  strangled  by  Hiero,  tyrant  of 
 Syracuse,  for  having  written  satires  upon 
 him;  but  there  is  little  or  rather  no  evi- 
 dence in  support  of  the  assertion. 
 
 TI1EODOR,  James,  a  physician  and 
 botanist,  generally  known  by  the  name 
 of  TABERNiEMONTANUS,  was  born 
 about  1520,  at  Bergzabern,  in  the  dutchy 
 of  Deux  Ponts,  and  died  in  1590.  He 
 published,  in  1588,  the  first  volume  of  a 
 New  Complete  Herbal,  which  was  the  re- 
 sult of  thirty-six  years'  labour,  but  death 
 prevented  the  completion  of  it. 
 
 THEODOSIUS,  Flavius,  surnamed 
 the  Great,  a  Roman  emperor,  was  born, 
 in  346,  in  Spain.  In  his  eighteenth  year 
 he  defeated  the  barbarians,  and  drove  them 
 across  the  Danube.  Gratian  rewarded  him 
 with  the  purple,  and  the  sway  over  the 
 eastern  provinces.  In  the  course  of  his 
 reign  Theodosius  triumphed  over  the  Goths, 
 and  various  other  enemies  of  the  empire. 
 He  vanquished  Arbogaste,  in  394,  and 
 added  the  western  provinces  to  his  domin- 
 ions; and  died  shortly  after,  at  Milan, 
 in  395. 
 
 THEODOSIUS  II.,  surnamed  the 
 Younger,  emperor  of  the  East,  grandson 
 of  the  great  Theodosius,  was  born  in  400, 
 and  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of 
 eight  years.  The  early  part  of  his  reign 
 was  marked  by  some  success  against  the 
 Persians;  the  remainder  of  it  was  not 
 fortunate.  The  code  which  bears  his  name 
 was  formed  by  his  order,  and  was  the  work 
 of  seven  lawvers.     He  died  in  450. 
 
 THEOPHRAST  US ,  a  celebrated  Greek 
 philosopher,  was  born,  b.  c.  371,atEresus, 
 in  Lesbos.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Plato 
 and  of  Aristotle,  the  latter  of  whom  he 
 succeeded,  and  with  splendid  success,  in 
 the  Lyceum.  Twice  he  was  persecuted  by 
 his  enemies,  but,  in  both  instances,  he 
 eventually  triumphed.  He  died  in  his 
 eighty-fifth  year.  Of  all  his  numerous 
 works  time  has  spared  only  a  Treatise  on 
 Stones;  parts  of  his  Characters,  and  of  a 
 History  of  Animals;  and  seme  fragments 
 quoted  by  other  authors. 
 
 THESPIS,aGreek  poet, born  at  Icaria, 
 in  Attica,  flourished  b.  c.  576.  He  is  con- 
 sidered as  the  inventor  of  tragedy,  from 
 his  having  introduced  actors  in  addition 
 to  the  chorus.  His  stage  is  said  to  have 
 been  a  cart,  and  the  facto  of  the  performers 
 
478  THO 
 
 were  smeared  with  wine  lees,  or,  accord- 
 ing to  Suidas,  with  white  lead  and  ver- 
 million! 
 
 THEVENOT,  John,  a  French  travel- 
 ler, was  horn,  in  1633,  at  Paris.  His  for- 
 tune enabling  him  to  gratify  hie  love  of 
 travelling,  he  visited  several  parts  of  Eu- 
 rope, and  afterwards  explored  many  coun- 
 tries of  the  east.  He  died  in  Persia,  in 
 1667,  as  he  was  returning  from  Hindostan. 
 His  Voyages  and  Travels  have  been  often 
 reprinted. 
 
 THOMAS,  Anthony  Leonard,  an 
 eminent  French  miscellaneous  writer  and 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1732,  at  Clermont  Fer- 
 rand.  He  was  brought  up  as  an  attorney, 
 but  he  quitted  the  law  to  become  a  teacher 
 in  one  of  the  colleges  at  Paris.  His  literary 
 productions  having  at  length  brought  him 
 into  reputation,  he  became  a  member  of 
 the  French  Academy,  and  obtained  a  place 
 under  government  which  raised  him  above 
 the  fear  of  want.  He  died  in  1785.  Among 
 his  best  works  are  his  Eulogies;  and  his 
 Essay  on  the  Character,  Manners,  and 
 Talents  of  Women. 
 
 THOMOX,  Thomas  John  THOMAS 
 he,  a  French  architect,  was  born,  in  1759, 
 at  Paris;  was  a  pupil  of  Leroi,  and  after- 
 wards studied  at  Rome;  emigrated  in  1791 ; 
 settled  in  Russia,  in  1798;  and  died  at 
 St.  Petersburgh,  in  1S13.  He  embellished 
 the  Russian  capital,  Odessa,  and  other 
 places,  by  the  erection  of  many  fine  edifices, 
 and  wrote  a  Treatise  on  Painting. 
 
 THOMPSON,  William,  a  poet  and 
 divine,  was  born  at  Brough,  in  Westmore- 
 land;  was  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
 Oxford;  and  died,  about  1766,  dean  of 
 Raphoe,  in  Ireland.  His  poems  have  been 
 deservedly  admitted  among  the  collected 
 works  of  the  British  Poets.  His  poem  on 
 Sickness  contains  many  fine  passages,  and 
 his  Hymn  to  May  breathes  more  of  the 
 spirit  of  Spenser  than  most  modern  imita- 
 tions of  him.  Thompson  also  wrote  Gon- 
 dibert  and  Bertha,  a  tragedy;  and  pub- 
 lished an  edition  of  Bishop  Hall's  Satires. 
 
 THOMSON,  James,  one  of  the  most 
 lopular  of  English  poets,  was  the  son  of  a 
 Scotch  clergyman ;   was  born,  in  17QQ,  at 
 
 THO 
 
 Ednam,  in  Roxburghshire;  and  was  edu- 
 cated at  Jedburgh  and  at  Edinburgh.  Relin- 
 quishing  his  views  in  the  church,  he  went 
 to  London,  where,  in  1726,  he  published 
 bis  Winter.  The  three  other  Seasons  ap- 
 peared in  172S,  1729,  and  1730.  During 
 the  same  period  he  also  produced  the  tra- 
 gedy of  Sophonisba,  the  poem  of  Britannia, 
 and  a  poem  on  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Among 
 the  friends  whom  he  gained  by  these  splen- 
 did proofs  of  his  genius  was  lord  chancellor 
 Talbot,  who  chose  him  as  a  proper  com- 
 panion to  accompany  his  son  on  the  grand 
 tour.  Thomson  was  thus  occupied  for 
 three  years,  in  the  course  of  which  he  visited 
 most  of  the  European  courts.  After  his 
 return  he  was  made  secretary  of  briefs  by 
 the  chancellor,  but  the  death  of  his  patron 
 soon  deprived  him  of  that  place.  For  this 
 loss,  however,  he  was  indemnified  by  the 
 office  of  surveyor  general  of  the  Leeward 
 Islands,  and  a  pension  from  the  prince  of 
 Wales.  His  pen,  meanwhile,  was  not  idle. 
 He  wrote  the  tragedies  of  Agamemnon, 
 Edward  and  Eleonora,  Tancred  and  Sigis- 
 munda,  and  Coriolanus ;  the  masque  of 
 Alfred,  in  conjunction  with  Mallet;  and 
 the  poems  of  Liberty,  and  The  Castle  of 
 Indolence.  He  died,  at  Richmond,  Au- 
 gust 27,  1748. 
 
 THOMSON,  William,  an  industrious 
 writer  and  compiler,  was  bom,  in  1746,  at 
 Burnside,  in  Perthshire;  was  educated  at 
 St.  Andrew's;  and  quitted  the  clerical 
 profession  in  Scotland,  to  become  an  author 
 and  master  of  an  academy  in  the  metropo- 
 lis. He  died  in  1817.  Thompson  was  not 
 without  abilities  and  learning,  but  he  was 
 a  hasty  and  slovenly  writer.  He  was  con 
 nected  with  various  newspapers  and  peri 
 odicals ;  prepared  for  the  press  many  works 
 of  other  authors ;  and  wrote,  among  othei 
 things,  Mammoth;  The  Man  in  the  Moon; 
 and  Memoirs  of  the  War  in  Asia. 
 
 THORNHILL,  Sir  James,  a  painter, 
 was  born,  in  1676,  in  Dorsetshire,  and, 
 after  his  return  from  his  travels  in  Hol- 
 land, Flanders,  and  France,  rose  into  con- 
 siderable reputation  as  an  artist.  He  was 
 employed  to  paint  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's, 
 the  refectory  and  saloon  at  Greenwich 
 Hospital,  and  some  of  the  apartments  at 
 Hampton  Court.  He  died  in  1734.  Thorn- 
 hill  was  also  occasionally  employed  as  an 
 architect. 
 
 THORNTON,  Bonnel,  a  witty  mis- 
 cellaneous writer  and  poet,  was  born,  in 
 1724,  in  London ;  was  educated  at  West- 
 minster School,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
 ford ;  took  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  medi- 
 cine, but  never  practised;  was  in  habits 
 of  friendship  with  many  of  the  wits  of  that 
 period ;  and  died  in  1768.  The  Connois- 
 seur was  the  joint  production  of  him  and 
 Colman.  He  translated  a  part  of  Plautus; 
 and  wrote  a  burlesque  Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's 
 
TIB 
 
 Day,  The  Battle  of  the  Wigs,  and  a  variety 
 of  humorous  pieces. 
 
 THORNTON,  Matthew,  was  born 
 in  Ireland  in  1714,  and  when  about  two  or 
 three  years  old  his  father  emigrated  to 
 America,  and  finally  settled  in  Worcester, 
 Massachusetts.  Young  Thornton  pursued 
 the  study  of  medicine,  and  commenced  the 
 practice  of  his  profession  in  Londonderry, 
 New  Hampshire.  In  1776  he  was  chosen 
 a  delegate  to  the  continental  congress,  and 
 affixed  his  name  to  the  declaration  of  in- 
 dependence. He  was  afterwards  chief 
 justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  and 
 judge  of  the  superior  court,  of  his  adopted 
 state.     He  died  in  1803. 
 
 THOU,  James  Augustus  dk,  emi- 
 nent as  a  magistrate  and  an  historian,  was 
 born,  in  1553,  at  Paris.  After  having 
 studied  the  law  at  Orleans  and  Valence, 
 and  travelled  in  Italy,  he  entered  into 
 public  life,  and  was  successively  clerk  of 
 the  parliament,  master  of  requests,  and 
 president  a  mortier.  Henry  IV*.  he  served 
 with  zeal,  and  was  much  esteemed  by  him. 
 He  died  in  1617.  His  History  of  his  own 
 Times,  in  Latin,  has  been  often  reprinted. 
 
 THUCYDIDES,  a  Greek  historian, 
 descended  from  the  kings  of  Thrace,  was 
 born,  B.C.  469,  at  Athens.  Having  failed 
 to  relieve  Amphipolis,  which  was  besieged 
 by  the  Lacedemonians,  he  was  banished  by 
 his  countrymen,  and  he  retired  into  Thrace, 
 where  he  had  large  possessions.  Nothing 
 certain  is  known  of  the  remainder  of  his 
 life;  but  he  is  supposed  to  have  died  about 
 B.  c.  400.  As  an  historian  he  ranks  high 
 among  the  writers  of  ancient  times. 
 
 THUNBERG,  Charles  Peter,  an 
 eminent  Swedish  naturalist  and  traveller, 
 was  born  in  1743,  and  was  the  pupil  of 
 Linnaeus,  and  his  successor  at  the  universi- 
 ty of  Upsal.  In  his  ardent  zeal  to  improve 
 the  science  of  botany,  he  visited  various 
 parts  of  the  globe.  He  died  in  1828.  Be- 
 sides his  Travels  in  Europe,  Africa,  and 
 Asia,  which  were  translated  into  English, 
 he  wrote  several  valuable  works  on  natural 
 history. 
 
 TIBERIUS,  Claudius  Drusus  Ne- 
 ro, a  Roman  emperor,  was  born,  b.  c.  34, 
 at  Rome.  During  the  reign  of  Augustus,  he 
 was  successful  at  the  head  of  the  armies  in 
 Spain,  Armenia,  Germany,  and  other  prov- 
 inces, but,  falling  into  disgrace,  he  resided 
 for  some  years,  as  an  exile,  at  Rhodes.  He 
 was,  however,  restored  to  favour,  and  he  was 
 again  victorious  as  the  leader  of  the  legions 
 in  Germany.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
 his  acts  gave  promise  of  a  beneficent  sover- 
 eign; but  he  soon  became  licentious  and 
 sanguinary,  and,  after  a  reign  of  nearly 
 twenty-three  years,  he  died,  universally 
 hated,  at  Misneum,  a.  D.  37. 
 
 TIBULLUS,  Aulus  Albius,  a  Latin 
 poet,  of  an  equestrian  family,  was  born  at 
 
 TIL 
 
 479 
 
 Rome.  He  was  the  friend  of  Hon.ce,  and 
 of  many  other  eminent  contemporaries,  and 
 is  bvdieved  to  have  died  shortly  after  Virgil 
 His  four  books  of  Elegies  have  placed  him 
 at  the  head  of  the  elegiac  poets. 
 
 TICKELL,  Thomas,  a  poet,  was  born, 
 in  16S6,  at  Bridekirk,  in  Cumberland  ;  was 
 educated  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford;  was 
 the  friend  of  Addison,  who  made  him  under 
 secretary  of  state;  was  appointed,  in  1724, 
 secretary  to  the  Lords  Justices  in  Inland; 
 and  held  that  office  till  his  death,  in  1740. 
 His  Poems,  which  have  much  sweetness  and 
 elegance,  form  a  part  of  the  collected  works 
 of  the  British  Poets.  His  translation  of  the 
 first  book  of  the  Iliad  occasioned  the  rup- 
 ture between  Pope  and  Addison. 
 
 TICKELL,  Richard,  a  grandson  of 
 the  foregoing,  was  born  at  Bath;  obtained 
 a  pension  and  a  place  in  the  stamp  office; 
 and  was  killed,  in  1793,  by  throwing  him- 
 self in  a  fit  of  phrenzy  from  the  window  of 
 his  apartments  in  Hampton  Court  Palace. 
 He  wrote  two  poems,  The  Project,  and  The 
 Wreath  of  Fashion  ;  Anticipation,  and  oth- 
 er political  pamphlets ;  and  the  Carnival  of 
 Venice,  a  comic  opera. 
 
 TILGHMAN,  William,  an  eminent 
 jurist,  was  born,  in  1756,  in  Talbot  county, 
 on  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland.  In  1772 
 he  began  the  study  of  law  in  Philadelphia, 
 but  was  not  admitted  to  the  practice  of  the 
 profession  till  1783.  In  1788,  and  for  some 
 successive  years,  he  was  elected  a  repre- 
 sentative to  the  legislature  of  Maryland. 
 In  1793  he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  and 
 pursued  the  practice  of  the  law  in  that  city 
 till  1S01,  when  he  was  appointed  chief 
 judge  of  the  circuit  court  of  the  United 
 States  for  the  third  circuit.  After  the  abo- 
 lition of  this  court,  he  resumed  his  profes- 
 sion, and  continued  it  till  1805,  when  he 
 was  appointed  president  of  the  courts  of 
 common  pleas  in  the  first  district  of  Penn- 
 sylvania. In  the  following  year  he  was 
 commissioned  as  chief  justice  of  the  su- 
 preme court  of  that  state.  He  died  in 
 1827. 
 
 TILLEMONT,  Sebastian  le  NA1N 
 dk,  a  French  ecclesiastical  writer,  was 
 born,  in  1637,  at  Paris;  was  educated  at 
 the  seminary  of  Port  Royal,  where  Nicole 
 was  his  preceptor  in  logic;  took  orders,  on 
 which  occasion  he  assumed  the  name  of 
 Tillemont,  his  family  name  being  Le  Nain ; 
 and  died,  generally  respected,  in  1698.  He 
 wrote  a  History  of  the  Emperors  ;  and  Me- 
 amirs  for  the  Ecclesiastical  History  for  the 
 first  six  centuries. 
 
 TILLI,  John  TZERCLAES,  count  de, 
 a  celebrated  German  general,  was  born  at 
 Brussels,  of  an  illustrious  family,  towards 
 the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Origin- 
 ally he  was  a  Jesuit,  but  he  quitted  that 
 order  to  take  arms.  He  first  signalized 
 himself    in    Hungary    against    the    Turks, 
 
480 
 
 TIL 
 
 Subsequently  he  rose  to  high  command  in 
 the  Bavarian  service,  and  next  in  the  Im- 
 perial, and  gained  several  victories  between 
 1620  and  1631 ;  in  which  last  year  he  eter- 
 nally disgraced  himself  In  his  cruelty  at  the 
 storming  of  Magdeburgh.  Gustavus  Adol- 
 phus  defeated  him  at  Lutzen  in  1631,  and  Iter,  was  born,  about  1657,  at  Beer  Ferrers, 
 
 TIS 
 
 decease  took  place  m  1694.  He  died  poor 
 the  copyright  of  his  Posthumous  Sermons, 
 which  sold  for  two  thousand  five  hundred 
 guineas,  being  all  that  his  family  inherited. 
 His  works  form  three  folio  volumes. 
 
 TINDAL,  Matthew,  a  dcistical  wri- 
 
 again  at  the  passing  of  the  Lech,  in  1632, 
 in  which  action  Tilli  was  mortally  wound- 
 ed. 
 
 TILLOCH,  Alexander,  was  born,  in 
 
 1757,  ai  Glasgow,  where  he  received  a 
 liberal  education.  While  resident  at  his 
 native  place  he  invented  stereotype  print- 
 ing; but,  after  having  joined  with  Mr. 
 Foulis~to  carry  it  on,  and  taken  out  a  pa- 
 tent, he  had  the  mortification  to  find  that 
 the  process  had  been  previously  discovered 
 by  Ged.  Settling  in  London,  he  became 
 editor  and  one  of  the  proprietors  of  the  Star 
 newspaper,  and,  in  1797,  he  established  the 
 Philosophical  Magazine.  He  died  Janua- 
 ry 26,  1825.  Tilloch  made  some  improve- 
 ments on  the  steam  engine. 
 
 TILLOTSON,  John,  an  eminent  pre- 
 
 iu  Devonshire;  was  educated  at  Lincoln 
 College,  Oxford,  and  obtained  a  fellowship 
 in  All  Souls;  and  died  in  1733.  Among 
 his  works  are,  The  rights  of  the  Christian 
 Church  asserted;  and  Christianity  as  old 
 as  the  Creation. 
 
 TINDAL,  Nicholas,  nephew  of  the 
 foregoing,  was  born,  in  16S7,  in  Devon- 
 shire; was  educated  at  Oxford;  obtained 
 various  livings,  and  the  chaplainship  of 
 Greenwich  Hospital;  and  died  in  1771. 
 He  wrote  a  continuation  oT  Rapha;  trans- 
 lated Calmet  and  Cantemir;  and  abridged 
 Spence's  Polvmetis. 
 
 TINTORETTO,  a  celebrated  painter, 
 whose  real  name  was  James  ROBUSTI, 
 was  the  son  of  a  dyer,  from  which  circum- 
 stance he  derived  his  pictorial  appellation. 
 He  was  born,  in  1512,  at  Venice,  aid  was 
 a  pupil  of  Titian,  who  became  jealous  of 
 his  talents,  and  dismissed  him  from  his 
 school.  He  rose  to  high  reputation,  and 
 was  employed  by  the  Venetian  government 
 to  paint  a  picture  of  the  victory  gained  over 
 the  Turks  in  1571.  Most  of  his  finest  com- 
 positions are  at  Venice,  where  he  died,  in 
 1594. 
 
 TIPPOO  SAHEB,  or  SAIB,  sultan  of 
 Mysore,  was  born  in  1749,  and  succeeded 
 to  the  throne  in  1782,  on  the  death  of  llv- 
 der  Ali,  his  father.  In  1784,  he  concluded 
 a  peace  with  the  East  India  Company  ;  but 
 he  never  for  a  moment  ceased  to  cherish  the 
 
 late,  was  born,  in  1630,  at  Sowerby,  in  :  hope  of  expelling  the  British  from  llindos- 
 Yorkshire,  and  was  educated  at  Clare  Hall,  |  tan.  His  attack,  in  1790,  upon  our  ally, 
 Cambridge.  He  was  of  a  puritan  family,  the  rajah  of  Travancore,  brought  on  a  war 
 and  was  brought  up  in  their  religious  prin- 1  with  the  Company,  in  the  third  campaign 
 cip'les,  but  he  conformed  to  the  church  in  of  which  he  was  invested  in  his  capital,  and 
 1662.  Between  that  period  and  1669  be I compelled  to  purchase  a  peace  at  the  price 
 was,  successively,  curate  of  Cheshunt,  rec-  of  one  half  of  his  dominions.  Still  impla- 
 tor  of  Keddington,  preacher  in  Lincoln's' cable,  he  continued  his  plots  against  the 
 Inn,  lecturer  at  St.  Lawrence  Jewry,  audi  English.  The  result  was  a  second  and 
 gained  reputation  both  as  a  preacher  and  a  final  war,  which  terminated  May  4,  1799, 
 controversialist  In  1670  he  was  made  a!  by  the  storming  of  Seringapatam,  the  death 
 prebendary,  and,  two  years  afterwards,  dean  ,  of  Tippoo,  who  fell  in  the  assault,  and  the 
 of  Canterbury.     In  1683  he  attended  Lord]  political  extinction  of  the  descendants  of 
 
 Rnssel  on  the  scaftold,  and  laboured,  but 
 of  course,  in  vain,  to  draw  from  him  a  dec- 
 laration in  favour  of  passive  obedience. 
 This  blot  in  his  character  is  to  be  regretted. 
 At  the  Revolution,  he  was  appointed  clerk 
 of  the  closet  to  bis  majesty,  and  in  the  fol 
 
 Hvder. 
 TIRABOSCHI,  Jerome,  an  Italian 
 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1731,  at  Bergamo,  and 
 died  in  1794, counsellor  and  librarian  to  the 
 duke  of  Modena.  His  works  are  numerous 
 and  valuable.      Among  them  are,  Memoirs 
 
 lowing  year  he  exchanged  his  deanery  for  of  Modenese  writers;  and  Notices  of  Paint- 
 that  of  St.  Paul's.  In  1691,  after  fruitless  ers,  Sculptors,  &c;  but  his  great  produc- 
 attempts  to  avoid  the  honour,  he  accepted,  tion  is  The  History  of  Italian  Literature, 
 with  unfeigned  reluctance,  the  see  of  Can-  sixteen  vols,  quarto. 
 
 terbury,  which  was  become  vacant  by  the  TISSOT,  Simon   Andrew,  an  cmi- 
 
 deprivation  of  Sancroft.     This  promotion,  nent  Swiss  physician,  was  born,  in  1728, 
 
 however,  he  did  not  long  survive,  as  bit  at  Grancy,  in  the  Pays  dc  Vaud ;   studied 
 
TOB 
 
 medicine  at  Montpellier;  settled  at  Lau- 
 sanne, where  he  became  celebrated,  partic- 
 ularly for  his  new  method  of  treating  the 
 smallpox;  was  for  three  years  medical  pro- 
 fessor at  Pavia;  and  died,  in  1797,  at  Lau- 
 sanne. His  works  were  collected  by  him- 
 self in  ten  volumes  l2mo. 
 
 TOO 
 
 481 
 
 TITIAN,  whose  name  was  Tiziano 
 VECELLI,  the  greatest  painter  of  the 
 Venetian  school,  was  born,  in  1477  or 
 1480,  at  Pieve  de  Cadore,  in  Friuli ;  was 
 a  pupil  of  Zuccati  and  Bellini;  and  im- 
 proved his  original  style  by  observing  the 
 works  of  Giorgione.  He  was  patronised 
 and  highly  honoured  by  Charles  V.,  Phil- 
 ip II.,  and  other  princes.  His  powers 
 continued  undiminished  till  almost  the 
 latest  period  of  his  existence,  and,  as  he 
 was  indefatigable  in  his  art,  and  lived  to 
 the  age  of  nearly  a  hundred,  his  works  are 
 numerous.  They  still  retain  their  rank 
 among  the  highest  efforts  of  pictorial  skill. 
 Titian  died  of  the  plague,  in  1576. 
 
 TITUS  SABINUS  VESPASIANUS, 
 Flavius,  a  Roman  emperor,  the  son  of 
 Vespasian,  was  born  A.  L>.  40.  After  hav- 
 ing distinguished  himself  in  arms,  particu- 
 larly at  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  he  ascended 
 the  throne  a.  d.  79.  His  early  licentious- 
 ness inspired  fears  as  to  his  future  conduct, 
 but  he  discarded  his  vices,  and  acted  in 
 such  a  manner  as  to  be  denominated  the 
 delight  of  the  human  race.  He  was  the 
 father  of  his  people.  On  one  occasion, 
 having  within  the  twenty-four  hours  per- 
 formed no  act  of  kindness,  he  exclaimed, 
 "My  friends,  I  have  lost  a  day!"  He 
 reigned  little  more  than  two  years 
 
 TOBIN,  John,  a  dramatic  writer,  was 
 born,  in  1770,  at  Salisbury;  was  educated 
 at  private  schools  at  Southampton  and 
 Bristol ;  and  was  brought  up  as  a  solicitor. 
 He  had  an  irresistible  propensity  to  dra- 
 matic composition,  and  at  the  age  of  twen- 
 ty-four had  written  several  plays ;  and  he 
 continued  his  labours  till  the  close  of  his 
 existence.  In  his  applications  to  theatri- 
 cal managers,  however,  he  was  uniformly 
 unsuccessful;  little  to  the  credit  of  their 
 judgment.  It  was  not  till  he  was  sinking 
 into  the  grave  from  consumption  that  his 
 21 
 
 Honey  Moon  was  accepted,  and  he  did  n  it 
 live  to  witness  its  success.  He  died  De- 
 cember 8,  1804.  The  Curfew,  and  Tne 
 School  for  Authors,  were  subsequently 
 represented. 
 
 TOFINO  DE  SAN  MIGUEL,  Vin- 
 cent, a  Spanish  astronomer  and  hydro- 
 grapher,  was  born,  in  1740,  at  Carthagena 
 or  Mexico;  entered  the  naval  service,  and 
 rose  to  be  brigadier  of  marines;  was  em- 
 ployed in  surveying  the  Spanish  coast; 
 and  died  in  1806.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
 Compendium  of  Geometry;  Astronomical 
 Observations;  and  an  excellent  Atlas  of 
 the  Coasts  of  Spain. 
 
 TOLAND,  John,  a  deistical  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1669,  near  Londonderry;  was 
 originally  a  Roman  Catholic,  but  became 
 a  dissenter,  and,  lastly,  a  sceptic  ;  was 
 educated  at  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and  Ley- 
 den  ;  was  employed  in  secret  missions  to 
 the  German  courts ;  and  died  in  1722 
 Among  his  works  are,  Christianity  not 
 mysterious  ;  Nazarenus  ;  Pantheisticon  ; 
 Tetradymus;  Amyntor  ;  and  a  Life  of 
 Milton. 
 
 TOMLINE,  George,  whose  family 
 name  was  PRETTYMAN,  a  prelate  and 
 writer,  was  born,  about  1750,  at  Bury  St. 
 Edmund's,  where  his  father  was  a  trades- 
 man. He  was  educated  at  Bury  School, 
 and  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  and 
 was  senior  wrangler  in  1772.  Mr.  Pitt, 
 to  whom  he  had  been  academical  tutor, 
 made  him  his  private  secretary,  gave  him 
 the  living  of  Sudbury,  and  a  prebend  of 
 Westminster,  and,  in  1787,  raised  him  to 
 the  see  of  Lincoln,  whence,  in  1820,  Dr. 
 Tomline  was  translated  to  that  of  Win- 
 chester. He  died  November  8, 1827.  His 
 principal  works  are,  Elements  of  Chris- 
 tian Theology;  Refutation  of  the  Charge 
 of  Calvinism  against  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land; and  a  Life  of  Mr.  Pitt. 
 
 TOOKE,  John  HORNE,  a  politician 
 and  philologist,  who  for  many  years  was 
 known  by  his  family  name  of  Home,  was 
 born,  in  1736,  in  Westminster;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Westminster  and  Eton  schools, 
 and  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge;  and 
 in  1760  was   inducted  to  the  chapelry  of 
 
482  TOR 
 
 New  Brentford.  The  clerical  profession, 
 however,  was  little  suited  to  his  habits 
 and  feelings,  and  he  took  an  active  part  in 
 politics.  The  cause  of  Wilkes  he  warmly 
 espoused  for  a  considerable  time,  but  at 
 length  they  became  enemies.  In  1771  be 
 was  attacked  by  Junius,  but  he  defended 
 himself  with  spirit  and  success  against 
 that  formidable  writer.  Resigning  his 
 living  at  Brentford,  he  studied  law  at  the 
 Temple,  but  his  ecclesiastical  character 
 proved  an  obstacle  to  his  being  admitted 
 to  the  bar.  In  1775  he  was  sentenced  to 
 imprisonment  on  a  charge  of  having  libel- 
 led the  king's  troops  in  America.  Out  of 
 this  circumstance  arose  his  Letter  to  Dun- 
 ning, which  formed  the  basis  of  his  subse- 
 quent philological  work,  The  Diversions 
 of  Purley,  published  in  1786.  In  1790, 
 and  1796,  he  stood,  ineffectually,  as  can- 
 didate for  Westminster;  and  in  1794  he 
 was  one  of  the  persons  who  were  tried  at 
 the  Old  Bailey,  and  acquitted,  on  a  charge 
 of  treason.  In  1S01  he  was  returned  to 
 parliament  for  Old  Sarum;  but  he  sat 
 only  during  that  session,  a  bill  being  pass- 
 ed to  prevent  individuals  in  orders  from 
 sitting  in  future.  He  died  March  19, 
 1S12. 
 
 TOOKE,  William,  a  miscellaneous 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1744,  at  Islington. 
 He  was  originally  a  printer,  but  took 
 orders  in  1771,  and  went  to  Russia,  where 
 he  became  chaplain  to  the  factory  at  St. 
 Petersburgh.  He  returned  to  England  in 
 1792,  anil  died  in  1820.  Among  his  works 
 are  translations  of  Lucian,  and  Zollikof- 
 fer's  Sermons  and  Prayers;  and  A  History 
 of  Russia;  A  View  of  the  Russian  Em- 
 pire; A  Life  of  Catherine  II.;  and  other 
 productions  relative  to  Russia. 
 
 TOPLADY,  Augustus  Montague, 
 an  eminent  Calvinistic  divine,  was  born, 
 in  1740,  at  Farnhain,  in  Surrey  ;  was 
 educated  at  Westminster  School,  and  at 
 Trinity  College,  Dublin;  and  died  in  1778, 
 vicar  of  Broad  Hembury,  in  Devonshire. 
 Toplady  was  a  strenuous  opponent  of 
 Wesley.  His  works  form  six  volumes 
 octavo. 
 
 TORDENSKIOLD,  Peter,  a  cele- 
 brated Danish  admiral,  was  born,  in  1691, 
 at  Drontheim,  in  Norway,  and  was  killed 
 in  a  duel,  in  1720.  His  family  name  was 
 WESSEL,  but,  for  bis  exploits  his  sover- 
 eign gave  him  the  name  of  Tordenskiold, 
 compounded  from  words  signifying  thun- 
 der and  shield.  Among  his  achievements 
 were  the  capturing  of  a  Swedish  squadron 
 in  the  port  of  Dynekiln,  and  the  taking  of 
 the  town  of  Marstraud  and  the  citadel  of 
 Carlstein. 
 
 TORQUEMADA,  Thomas  de,  the 
 first  inquisitor  general  of  Spain,  a  man 
 infamous  for  his  barbarity,  was  born  in 
 1420;   was  a  monk  of  the  order  of  St, 
 
 TCU 
 
 Dominic  ;  became  inquisitor  general  ill 
 1483;  and  died  in  1498.  In  the  course  of 
 sixteen  years  he  gave  to  the  flames  no  less 
 than  eight  thousand  eight  hundred  victims, 
 besides  executing  nearly  as  many  in  efligy, 
 condemning  ninety  thousand  to  perpetual 
 imprisonment  and  other  severe  punish- 
 ments, and  expelling  from  Spain  above 
 eight  hundred  thousand  Jews. 
 
 TORRICELLI,  Evangelista,  a  cel- 
 ebrated Italian  geometrician,  was  born,  in 
 160S,  at  Modi^liana,  or,  as  some  assert,  at 
 Piancaldoli  ;  began  his  education  under 
 the  Jesuits  at  Faenza,  and  completed  it  at 
 Rome;  was  invited  to  Florence  by  Gali- 
 leo; and  succeeded  that  eminent  man  as 
 professor  of  mathematics.  The  grand 
 duke  also  appointed  him  his  mathemati- 
 cian. Torricelli  died  in  1647.  His  geo- 
 metrical works  form  a  quarto  volume.  To 
 him  science  is  indebted  for  the  invention 
 of  the  barometer. 
 
 TORRINGTON,  George  BYNG, 
 viscount,  a  British  admiral,  was  born,  in 
 166S,  in  Kent;  became  a  rear  admiral  in 
 1703;  and,  during  the  reign  of  Queen 
 Anne,  distinguished  himself  at  the  taking 
 of  Gibraltar,  the  battle  of  Malaga,  and 
 the  relieving  of  Barcelona.  In  1718  he 
 defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  oft' Sicily;  in 
 1721  he  was  created  a  viscount;  and  was 
 afterwards  appointed  first  lord  of  the  admi- 
 ralty.    He  died  in  1733. 
 
 TORSTENSON,  Leonard,  count,  a 
 celebrated  Swedish  general,  was  born,  in 
 1595,  at  the  castle  of  Forstena;  commenc- 
 ed his  career  as  page  to  Gustavus  Adol- 
 phus  ;  was  rapidly  promoted  for  his  military 
 talent  by  that  monarch;  and  distinguished 
 himself  on  numerous  occasions  during  the 
 thirty  years'  war,  particularly  by  gaining 
 the  battles  of  Breitenfelt  and  Jaukovitz, 
 destroying  great  part  of  the  army  of  Gal- 
 las,  and  conquering  Holstein,  Sleswick, 
 and  Jutland.     He  died  in  1654. 
 
 TOTT,  Francis,  baron  de,  a  French 
 negotiator  and  officer,  the  son  of  a  Hun- 
 garian gentleman,  was  born,  in  1733,  at 
 Cbamigny,  near  la  Ferte-sous-Jouarre,  and, 
 after  having  served  in  the  army,  was  em- 
 ployed  in  the  French  embassy  at  Constan- 
 tinople. In  1767  he  was  appointed  consul 
 in  the  Crimea.  He  subsequently  went 
 back  to  Constantinople,  and  was  charged 
 by  the  grand  seiguor  to  carry  into  eflect 
 various  important  reforms  in  the  military 
 department.  He  was  promoted  on  his 
 return  to  France,  but  emigrated  in  1790, 
 and  died  in  Hungary,  in  1793.  He  wrote 
 .Memoirs  on  the  Turks  and  Tartars. 
 
 TOURNEFORT,  Joseph  PITTON 
 de,  an  eminent  botanist,  was  born,  in 
 1656,  at  Aix,  in  Provence;  manifested  at 
 a  very  early  age  a  love  of  botany;  studied 
 medicine  and  anatomy  at  Montpellier  ; 
 travelled  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and 
 
TRA 
 
 TRE 
 
 Asia;  and  died  in  1708,  professor  of  physic!  was  born,  A.  D.  52,  at  Italica,  in  Spain. 
 in  the  royal  college,  and  of  botany  in  the' After  having  distinguished  himself  at  the 
 king's  garden  at  Paris.  Tournefort  has  head  of  the  legions  in  Lower  Germany,  he 
 been  called  the  first  restorer  of  botanical  was,  at  the  age  of  forty-two,  adopted  by 
 science.  Among  his  works  are,  Voyages.  Nerva.  On  the  death  of  that  monarch, 
 in  the  Levant;  Elements  of  Botany;  and  a.  d.  98,  Trajan  was  invested  with  the 
 History   of  Plants  in   the  Environs  of  ■  imperial  purple.     The  adoption  of  Nerva, 
 
 Paris 
 
 and  the  choice  of  the  senate,  were  justified 
 
 TOUSSAINT  LOUVERTURE,  a  ne-  by  the  conduct  of  the  emperor.      In  his 
 
 gro  of  great  talents,  was  born,  in  1743,  in 
 St.  Domingo.  His  early  years  were  spent 
 in  slavery  on  the  estate  of  Count  Noe. 
 When  the  blacks  threw  off  the  yoke,  the 
 abilities  and  courage  of  Toussaint  soon 
 raised  him  to  the  highest  rank  among 
 them.     By  his  wise   measures  he  succeed- 
 
 civil  capacity  lve  ruled   for  the  Welfare  of 
 
 his  people ;  in  his  military  character,  he 
 sustained  the  glory  of  Rome,  by  defeating 
 the  Dacians,  Parthians,  Arabians,  Arme- 
 nians, and  Persians.  The  column  which 
 bears  his  name  was  raised  in  the  Roman 
 capital  to  commemorate  his  victories.    He 
 
 ed  in  expelling  the  English,  reducing  the' died  a.  d.  117. 
 
 Spanish  part  of  the  island,  and  restoring)  TRAPP,  Joseph,  a  divine  and  poet, 
 peace  and  order  in  the  colony;  for  which  was  born,  in  1679,  at  Cherrington,  in 
 the  central  assembly  of  St.  Domingo  voted  Gloucestershire;  was  educated  at  Wad- 
 him  the  dignity  of  governor  and  president  j  ham  College,  Oxford,  at  which  university 
 for  life.     Anxious  to  recover  so  valuable  aihe  was  professor   of  poetry;    and  died,  in 
 
 possession,  Bonaparte,  in  1801,  dispatched 
 General  Leclerc  with  a  large  armv.  A 
 desperate  contest  ensued,  in  which  Tous- 
 saint  was  overcome.  He  was  sent  a  pris- 
 oner to  France,  and  the  sable  hero  died  id 
 the  fort  of  Joux,  April  27,  1803. 
 
 TOWERS,  Joseph,  a  miscellaneous 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1737,  in  Southwark, 
 was   successively  a   printer,  a  bookseller. 
 
 1747,  rector  of  Harlington,  Middlesex. 
 His  principal  works  are,  A  Translation  of 
 Virgil;  Praelectiones  Poetice;  Sermons; 
 Poems;   and  Abramule,  a  tragedy. 
 
 TREMBLE Y,  Abraham,  a  natural- 
 ist, was  born,  in  1700,  at  Geneva.  After 
 having  been  tutor  to  the  families  of  Lord 
 Bentinck  and  the  duke  of  Richmond,  he 
 returned,  in  1757,  to  his  native  city,  where 
 
 and  a  preacher  among  the  unitarians;  re-j  he  became  one  of  the  members  of  the  great 
 ceived  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  from  i  council.  He  died  in  1784.  By  his  Me- 
 the  university  of  Edinburgh;  and  died  in  j  moirs  on  Fresh  Water  Polypes  he  ac- 
 1799.  Among  his  works  are,  British  Bi-|  quired  reputation,  and  admission  into  the 
 ography ; 
 Prussia  ; 
 
 tracts.  He  also  contributed  to  Dr.  Kip-  j  to  his  Children  on  Nature  and  Religion; 
 pis's  edition  of  the  Biographia  Britan-  ]  Instructions  on  Natural  and  Revealed  Re- 
 tt ica. 
 
 a    Life   of  Frederic,    King    of   Royal  Society  and   other   learned  bodies, 
 and    many  political    and   other !  He  also  wrote,  Instructions  from  a  Father 
 
 TOWNSEND,  Joseph,  a  divine  and 
 writer,  was  born  about  1740;  was  educat- 
 ed at  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge  ;  studied 
 physic   under  Dr.    Cullen,   at   Edinburgh, 
 
 ligion;  and  Inquiries  into  the  Principle  of 
 Virtue  and  Happiness. 
 
 TRENCHARD,  John,  a  political  wri- 
 ter of  the  whig  party,  was  born,  in  1669, 
 in  Somersetshire  ;    quitted    the    bar,  and 
 
 but  became  chaplain  to  Lady  Huntingdon,  j  was   appointed  commissioner  of  forfeited 
 and  was  satirised  by  Graves  in  The  Spir-  estates  in  Ireland;  and  died  in  1723v     He 
 
 wrote  various  pamphlets,  and,  in  conjunc- 
 tion with  Gordon,  The  Independent  Whig;, 
 and  Cato*s  Letters. 
 
 TRENCK,  Fred-eric,  baron  de,  a 
 Prussian  officer,  celebrated  for  his  adven- 
 tures, was  born,  in  1726,  at  Kcenigsberg, 
 and  made  such  rapid  progress  in  his  stud- 
 ies, that,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  was 
 presented  to  the  king,  as  the  most  remark- 
 able student  in  the  university.  Frederic 
 rapidly  advanced  him  in  the  army,  and 
 manifested  much  regard  for  him;  but  the 
 personal  and  mental  accomplishments  of 
 Trenck  having  won  the  heart  of  the  Prin- 
 cess Amelia,  the  monarch,  her  brother,  re- 
 solved to  punish  him.  Trenck  was  con- 
 fined at  Glatz,  but  contrived  to  escape. 
 He  then  visited  the  north  of  Europe,  Aus- 
 tria, and  Italy.  In  1758,  he  was  seized 
 at  Dantzick,  and  was  conveyed  to  Mag<te>» 
 
 itual  Quixote;  obtained  the  living  of  Pew 
 sey,  in  Wiltshire;  and  died  in  1816.  He 
 was  eminent  as  a  scholar,  mineralogist, 
 and  conchologist.  Of  his  works  the  chief 
 are,  Travels  in  Spain;  The  Physician's 
 Vade  Mecum;  Sermons;  and  The  Charac- 
 ter of  Moses  as  an  Historian  established. 
 TRADES  CANT,  John,  a  Dutch  natu- 
 ralist, who,  after  visiting  various  parts  of 
 Europe,  settled  in  England,  established  at 
 Lambeth  a  garden  of  exotics,  and  was  ap- 
 pointed gardener  to  Charles  I.  He  died 
 about  1652. — His  son,  John,  who  died  in 
 1662,  published,  with  the  title  of  Museum 
 Tradescantium,  a  description  of  his  father's 
 collection  of  curiosities.  The  fiower  called 
 Tradescantia  was  brought  from  Virginia 
 by  the  latter. 
 
 TRAJAN,  Marcos  Ulpius  Crinitos, 
 a  Roman  emperor,  surnamed  Optimus, 
 
484  TRO 
 
 burgh,  where,  loaded  with  irons,  he  was 
 incarcerated  for  nearly  ten  years  in  a  hor- 
 rible dungeon.  After  his  liberation  he 
 withdrew  ij  Vienna.  He  was  subsequent- 
 ly a  wine  merchant  at  Aix  la  Chapelle, 
 and  a  cultivator  of  his  estate  in  Hungary. 
 In  1791  he  settled  in  France,  and  in  1 7.9 4 
 he  closed  his  eventful  career  under  the  axe 
 of  the  guillotine.  He  wrote  his  own  Me- 
 moirs, and  some  other  works  of  considera- 
 ble merit. 
 
 TRESHAM,  Henry,  a  painter  and 
 poet,  was  born  in  Ireland,  and  imbibed 
 the  principles  of  art  from  West,  of  Dub- 
 lin. He  accompanied  Lord  Cawdor  to 
 Italy,  and  resided  for  fourteen  years  in 
 that  country.  On  his  return  to  England 
 he  became  a  royal  academician.  He  died 
 i  >  1*14.  Tresham  wrote  three  poems, 
 The  Seasick  Minstrel;  Rome  at  the  close 
 of  the  Eighteenth  century ;  and  Britanni- 
 cus  to  Bonaparte. 
 
 TRESSAN,  Louis  Elizabeth  de 
 la  VERGNE,  count  de,  a  distinguished 
 French  officer  and  writer,  was  born,  in 
 1705,  at  Mons;  signalized  his  valour  in 
 the  army  during  several  campaigns,  par- 
 ticularly at  the  battle  of  Fontenoy;  was 
 appointed  grand  marshal  of  the  court  of 
 Stanislaus  at  Lorraine  in  1750;  was  ad- 
 mitted into  the  French  Academy  in  1781; 
 and  died  in  17S3.  His  select  works  form 
 twelve  volumes,  and  contain  his  miscella- 
 neous pieces,  and  his  translations  of  Ama- 
 dis  de  Gaul,  The  Orlando  Furioso,  and 
 several  old  French  romances.  Tressan 
 did  not  confine  himself  to  subjects  of  mere 
 amusement;  as  early  as  1749  he  wrote  a 
 Treatise  on  Electricity,  which  was  not 
 published  till  more  than  thirty  years  af- 
 terward-:. 
 
 TREVETT,  Samuel  R.,  a  surgeon 
 in  the  army  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
 at  Uarblehead,  Massachusetts,  in  1783, 
 and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  College. 
 After  studying  the  profession  of  medicine, 
 he  commenced  practice  in  Boston,  but  be- 
 ing naturally  of  a  chivalrous  cast  of 
 character,  he  sought  and  obtained  an  ap- 
 pointment in  the  medical  department  of 
 the  navy.  He  was  in  the  Constitution 
 during  her  cruise  before  the  last  war,  on 
 b  ;ard  the  United  States  when  she  captured 
 the  Macedonian,  and  was  in  the  President 
 when  she  was  captured  by  the  British 
 fleet.  He  distinguished  himself  very  much 
 by  his  intrepid  conduct  when  a  passenger 
 in  the  steam  boat  Phoenix,  which  was 
 burned  on  Lake  Champlain,  in  September 
 1819.  After  the  war  he  had  been  ap- 
 pointed surgeon  of  the  Navy  Yard  at 
 Charlestown,  and  in  1822  he  was  stationed 
 as  surgeon  on  board  the  sloop  of  war  Pea- 
 cock, bound  on  a  summer  cruise  to  the 
 West  Indies.  He  was  seized  with  the 
 yellow  fever,  and  died  at  Norfolk  in  No- 
 
 TYL 
 
 vember  of  that  year.  For  some  time  be- 
 fore sailing  on  his  last  cruise  he  had  been 
 engaged  in  collecting  materials  for  the  bi- 
 ography of  American  physicians. 
 
 TRlBONIAN,  a  celebrated  jurisconsult, 
 was  born,  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
 century,  at  Sida,  in  Painphylia;  obtained 
 reputation  at  the  bar,  and  rose,  through  a 
 succession  of  state  offices,  to  those  of  pre- 
 torian  prefect  and  consul.  Justinian  in- 
 trusted to  him  the  superintendence  of  the 
 compiling  of  his  new  code  of  laws.  This 
 ta^k  was  begun  in  530  and  completed  in 
 534.  Tribonian,  whose  rapacity  and  ve- 
 nality were  at  least  equal  to  his  talents, 
 died  about  547. 
 
 TRIMMER,  Sarah,  an  active  and  in- 
 telligent female,  the  daughter  of  Kirby, 
 who  wrote  on  Perspective,  was  born,  in 
 1741,  at  Ipswich,  and  died  December  15, 
 1810.  She  wrote  several  useful  works  to 
 promote  the  diffusion  of  education. 
 
 TRISSINO,  John  George,  an  Ital- 
 ian poet,  was  born,  in  1478,  at  Vicenza; 
 was  educated  at  Rome  and  Milan,  and  had 
 Chalcondyles  for  one  of  his  tutors;  was 
 employed  by  Leo  X.  and  his  successor 
 Clement  on  various  diplomatic  missions; 
 and  died  in  1550.  Among  his  works  are, 
 The  Deliverance  of  Italy  from  the  Goths, 
 an  epic  poem ;  and  the  tragedy  of  Sopho- 
 nisba. 
 
 TROMP,  Martin  Herbertson,  a 
 celebrated  Dutch  admiral,  was  born,  in 
 1597,  at  Brill;  began  his  naval  career  at 
 an  early  age;  defeated  the  Spaniards  in 
 1637  and  1639;  fought  with  great  gallan- 
 try against  the  English,  during  the  war 
 which  began  in  1652;  and  was  killed  in 
 an  engagement  in  1653. — His  son,  Nich- 
 olas, who  was  born  in  1629,  and  died  in 
 1697,  emulated  the  fame  of  his  father, 
 particularly  in  the  four  days'  action  in  the 
 Downs,  in  1666. 
 
 TRONCHIN,  Theodore,  an  emi- 
 nent physician,  was  born,  in  1709,  at 
 Geneva;  was  educated  at  Cambridge;  and 
 studied  medicine  under  Boerhaave  at  Ley- 
 den.  He  first  settled  at  Amsterdam,  and 
 afterwards  at  his  native  city ;  but  subse- 
 quently removed  to  Paris  on  being  ap- 
 pointed physician  to  the  duke  of  Orleans. 
 He  died  in  1781.  Tronchin  was  a  man 
 of  consummate  skill  in  his  profession,  and 
 of  great  benevolence.  He  was  the  friend 
 of  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and  many  other 
 celebrated  characters. 
 
 TROWBRIDGE,  Edmund,  a  learned 
 jurist,  was  born  at  Newton,  in  1709,  and 
 was  graduated  at  Harvard  College.  He 
 pursued  the  profession  of  the  law,  rose  to 
 distinction,  in  1749  was  appointed  attor- 
 ney general,  and  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
 court  of  Massachusetts  in  1767.  In  1772 
 he  resigned  his  seat  on  the  bench,  and  died 
 in  retirement  in  1793. 
 
TSC 
 
 TRUMBULL,  John,  the  author  of 
 McFingal,  was  born  in  Connecticut  in 
 1750,  and  was  educated  at  Yale  College, 
 where  he  entered  at  a  very  early  age.  In 
 1772  he  published  the  first  part  of"  his  poem, 
 The  Progress  of  Dulness.  In  the  follow- 
 ing year,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
 Connecticut,  and, removing  to  Boston,  con- 
 tinued his  legal  studies  in  the  office  of  John 
 Adams.  He  returned  to  his  native  state 
 in  1774,  and  commenced  practice  at  New 
 Haven.  The  first  part  of  McFingal  was 
 published  at  Philadelphia,  in  1775:  the 
 poem  was  completed  and  published  in  1782 
 at  Hartford,  where  the  author  at  that  time 
 lived.  More  than  thirty  editions  of  this 
 work  have  been  printed.  In  1789  he  was 
 appointed  state  attorney  for  the  county  of 
 Hartford,    and  in   1801  was  appointed  a 
 
 iudge  of  the  superior  court  of  errors  and 
 leld  this  appointment  till  1819.  In  1820 
 a  collection  of  his  poems  was  published  in 
 two  vols.  8vo.  In  1825  he  removed  to 
 Detroit,  where  he  died,  in  Mav  1831. 
 
 TRUXTON,  Thomas,  an  officer  in  the 
 American  navy,  was  born  on  Long  Island 
 in  1755.  In  1775  he  commanded  a  vessel, 
 and  distinguished  himself  by  his  depreda- 
 tions on  British  commerce  during  the  rev- 
 olution. He  subsequently  engaged  in  com- 
 merce, till  the  year  1794,  when  he  was  ap- 
 pointed to  the  frigate  Constitution.  In 
 1799  he  captured  the  French  frigate  L'ln- 
 surgente;  and  in  the  following  year  he 
 obtained  a  victory  over  the  La  Vengeance. 
 On  the  close  of  the  French  war  he  retired 
 from  the  navy,  and  died  at  Philadelphia 
 in  1822. 
 
 TRYPHIODORUS,  a  Greek  poet  and 
 grammarian,  is  believed  to  have  been  an 
 Egyptian,  and  to  have  lived  in  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  sixth  century.  All  his  works 
 are  lost,  with  the  exception  of  nearly  sev- 
 en hundred  verses  on  the  destruction  of 
 Troy. 
 
 TSCHIRNER,HenryTheophilus, 
 an  eminent  German  theologian,  and  high- 
 ly esteemed  as  a  pulpit  orator,  was  born, 
 in  1778,  in  the  vicinity  of  Chemnitz;  was 
 professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg;  and 
 died  February  17,  1828.  He  wrote  The 
 Fall  of  Paganism;  Christian  Apolo- 
 getics; A  Treatise  on  Catholicism  and 
 Protestantism,  considered  in  a  political 
 point  of  view;  The  System  of  Reaction; 
 and  other  works. 
 
 TSCHIRNH  AUSE,Ehrenfred 
 WALTHER  de,  a  German  geometrician 
 and  experimental  philosopher,  was  born, 
 in  1651,  in  Lusatia,  and  was  lord  of  Kil- 
 lengswald  and  Stalzenberg  in  that  country. 
 He  studied  at  Leyden,  and,  after  having 
 served  in  the  army  and  travelled,  he  de- 
 voted himself  to  scientific  pursuits.  He 
 died  in  1708.  He  established  several  glass 
 Houses  to  improve  the  glass  used  for  optical 
 
 TUL  485 
 
 instruments;  constructed  an  enormous  burn- 
 ing mirror;  gave  rise  to  the  manufacture 
 of  Saxon  porcelain;  and  discovered  a  par- 
 ticular kind  of  curve,  which  now  bears  his 
 name.  He  wrote  De  Medicina  Mentis 
 et  Corporis;  and  some  philosophical  pa- 
 pers. 
 
 TUCKER,  Abraham,  a  metaphysical 
 writer,  born,  in  1705,  in  London,  was  the 
 son  of  a  merchant,  and  was  educated  at 
 Bishop  Stortford  School,  and  Merton  Col- 
 lege, Oxford.  He  studied  for  a  while  at 
 the  Inner  Temple,  but  was  not  called  to  the 
 bar.  He  died  in  1774.  His  great  work  is, 
 The  Light  of  Nature  pursued,  in  seven  vol- 
 umes octavo,  of  which  the  first  half  was 
 published  by  himself,  under  the  fictitious 
 name  of  Edward  Search. 
 
 TUCKER,  Josiah,  an  acute  writer  on 
 politics  and  political  economy,  was  born, 
 in  1712,  at  Langharn,  in  Caermarthen- 
 shire;  was  educated  at  St.  John's  College, 
 Oxford;  and  was,  successively,  curate  of 
 All  Saints,  Bristol,  rector  of  St.  Stephens, 
 in  the  same  city,  minor  canon  and  preben- 
 dary in  the  cathedral,  and  dean  of  Glou- 
 cester. During  the  American  war  he  pub- 
 lished many  pamphlets,  and  strenuously  re- 
 commended the  separation  of  the  colonies 
 from  the  mother  country.  In  his  Treatise 
 on  Civil  Government  he  controverts  the 
 doctrines  of  Locke.  He  died  in  1799 
 Among  his  works  are,  Sermons;  Elements 
 of  Commerce;  and  An  Apology  for  the 
 Church  of  England. 
 
 TUCKEY,  James  Hingston,  a  nau- 
 tical writer,  was  born,  in  1778,  at  Green- 
 hill,  in  the  county  of  Cork;  entered  the 
 navy  at  early  age,  and  went  to  India;  was 
 employed  in  surveying  the  coast  of  New 
 South  Wales;  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
 French  in  1805,  and  remained  in  captivity 
 till  1814;  and  died  in  September,  1816, 
 while  commanding  the  expedition  of  dis- 
 covery on  the  Congo  river.  He  wrote 
 Maritime  Geography. 
 
 TUDOR,  William,  a  man  of  letters, 
 was  born  in  the  state  of  Massachusetts,  and 
 was  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1796. 
 He  soon  after  visited  Europe  and  passed 
 several  years  there.  After  having  been 
 some  time  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  his 
 native  state,  he  was  appointed,  in  1823,  con- 
 sul at  Lima  and  for  the  ports  of  Peru.  In 
 1827  he  was  appointed  charge  d'affaires  of 
 the  United  States  at  the  court  of  Brazil. 
 He  died  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  1830.  Mr. 
 Tudor  was  the  founder,  and  for  two  years 
 the  sole  editor  of  the  North  American  Re- 
 view. He  was  the  author  of  Letters  on 
 the  Eastern  States,  and  a  Life  of  James 
 Otis,  and  left  a  number  of  volumes  in 
 manuscript,  nearly  prepared  for  the 
 press. 
 
 TULL,  Jethro,  an  agricultural  writer, 
 was  born  about  1680;  studied  at  one  of  the 
 
486  TUR 
 
 universities  and  the  Temple,   and   was  ad- 1 
 mitted  a  barrister;  but,  on  returning  from 
 his  travels,   he  settled  on  his  estate,  and  I 
 devoted  himself  to  agriculture.      He  died  ' 
 in  1740.     Tull  is  the  inventor  oftheborse- 
 boeing  system  of  husbandry,  on   which  he 
 wrote  an  Essay,  in  folio,  and  some  smaller: 
 tracts. 
 
 TURENNE,  Hewey  de  LA  TOUR; 
 D'AUYERGNE,  viscount  de,  a  consum- 
 mate general,  second  son  of  the  duke  of 
 Boil  Hon,  was  born,  in  1611,  at  Sedan;  j 
 had  from  his  childhood  an  irresistible  pro- 
 pe  isitj  to  a  military  life;  and  was  initia-  ; 
 ted  in  the  art  of  war  by  five  years'  hard 
 service  under  his  uncles,  Maurice  of  i\as-  ; 
 sau  and  Prince  Frederic  Henry.  On  his 
 returning  to  France,  a  regiment  was  given  j 
 td  him.  He  displayed  such  talent  in  Lor- I 
 raine,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Roussillou,  that, ; 
 anxious  to  fix  him  in  his  interests,  Maxarin] 
 gave  him  the  marshal's  staff  in  1644.  In 
 1645  he  was  defeated  at  Btariendabl,  but 
 was  Boon  amply  avenged  by  the  victory  of 
 Nordlingen.  Duringthe  war  of  the  Fronde, 
 he  at  first  espoused  the  cause  of  the  princes, 
 and  was  beaten  atllhetel;  but,  having  re- 
 joined the  royal  party,  he  was  more  suc- 
 cessful in  tiie  battles  of  Gien  and  the  su- 
 burb of  St.  Aotoiue.  Lithe  war  against 
 the  Spaniards,  from  1654  to  1659,  he 
 gained  the  battle  of  the  Downs,  and  a  va- 
 ■C  other  advantages.  He  now  en- 
 •  some  years  of  iepose,  during  which 
 ndoned  the  faith  of  his  fathers,  and 
 became  a  catholic.  In  the  campaign  of 
 1672  all  thft other  marshals  employed  were 
 p]  i^  id  under  his  orders.  Between  that 
 peri  d  and  1675  he  compelled  the  elector 
 of  Brandenburg  to  sign  a  peace,  gained 
 the  battle  of  Sintzheim,  and,  by  a  move- 
 ment of  the  most  masterly  kind,  expelled 
 the  Imperialists  from  Alsace,  and  drove 
 them  over  the  Rhine.  He  sullied  his  glory, 
 however,  by  his  barbarous  conduct  in  the 
 Palatinate,  which  country  he  utterly  devas- 
 tate I  by  fire  and  sword.  In  1675  he  was 
 opposed  to  Montecuculi,  and  the  game  of 
 war  was  never  played  with  greater  skill 
 than  by  the  two  generals.  Turennc  be- 
 lieved that  he  had  at  length  found  a  favour- 
 able opportunity  of  attacking  his  enemy, 
 when  he  was  killed,  July  27,  1675,  by  a 
 cannon  ball,  and  the  consequence  of  his 
 death  was  the  immediate  retreat  of  the 
 French. 
 
 TURGOT,  Anne  Robert  James,  a 
 French  statesman,  was  born,  in  1727,  at 
 Paris.  He  studied  at  the  Sorbonne,  and 
 v  intended  for  the  church,  but  relin- 
 quished the  clerical  profession,  and  was 
 made  master  of  requests.  In  1761  he  was 
 appointed  iutendant  of  Limoges,  which  of- 
 fi  e  he  held  for  twelve  years,  greatly  to  the 
 advantage  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Li- 
 mousin.     Iu  1774  he  was  made  comptroller 
 
 TYL 
 
 general  of  the  finances ;  but  his  benevolent 
 views  were  thwarted  by  intrigues,  and  he 
 was  removed  in  1776.  He  died  in  1781. 
 His  works  form  nine  volumes  octavo. 
 
 TUR.NER,  William,  an  English  nat- 
 uralist of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  born 
 Bt  .V.'nphet,  in  Northumberland;  wasedu 
 cated  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge;  and 
 died,  in  1568,  dean  of  Wells.  He  wrote, 
 among  other  things,  A  History  of  Plants, 
 which  is  the  earliest  English  herbal. 
 
 TUSSER,  Thomas,  one  of  our  earliest 
 agricultural  writers,  was  born,  about  1515, 
 at  Rivenhull,  in  Essex,  an*!,  after  having 
 been  a  singing  boy  at  St.  Paul's,  was  edu- 
 cated at  Eton,  and  at  King's  College,  Cam- 
 bridge. He  spent  ten  years  at  court,  under 
 the  patronage  of  Lord  Paget,  nnd  then  be- 
 came a  farmer  in  Suffolk.  Tusser,  who 
 died  about  15S0,  is  the  author,  in  homely 
 verse,  of  Five  Hundred  Points  of  Good 
 Husbandry. 
 
 TWEDDEL,  John,  a  highly  gifted 
 scholar,  was  born,  in  1769,  at  Threep- 
 wood,  near  Hexham;  was  educated  at 
 Ilarforth  School,  Yorkshire,  next  under 
 Dr.  Parr,  and  lastly  at  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge;  gained  several  prizes  at  the 
 university;  began  his  travels  in  1795;  and 
 died  suddenly,  at  Athens,  in  1799.  The 
 manuscripts  of  the  observations  which  he 
 made  in  his  journey  were  unfortunately  lost. 
 A  volume  of  his  Correspondence  was  pub- 
 lished in  1815.  His  Juvenile  Prolusions 
 appeared  in  1794. 
 
 TWISS,  Richard,  an  English  traveller, 
 was  born,  in  1747,  at  Rotterdam.  He  was 
 a  man  of  fortune,  and  spent  several  years 
 in  visiting  various  parts  of  the  continent. 
 He  died  in  1S21,  at  an  advanced  age. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Travels  through 
 Spain  and  Portugal;  A  Tour  in  Ireland; 
 A  Trip  to  Paris  in  1792;  Anecdotes  of 
 Chess;  and  Miscellanies.  His  illiberal 
 attack  on  the  natives  of  Ireland  drew  on 
 him  a  severe  literary  chastisement  from  the 
 Irish  poet  Preston. 
 
 TYCHSEN,  Olaus  Gerhard,  a  cel- 
 ebrated Danish  oriental  scholar,  was  born, 
 in  1734,  at  Tondern,  and  died,  December 
 30,  1815,  professor  of  oriental  languages 
 and  librarian  at  Rostock.  Among  his 
 works  are,  Introductio  in  rem  nummarium 
 Muhammedanorura  ;  Physiologus  Syrus  ; 
 Tentainen  de  variis  Codicurn  Hebraicorum ; 
 and  Arabic  and  Syriac  Grammars. 
 
 TYLER,  Royall,  a  lawyer  and  mis- 
 cellaneous writer,  was  born  in  Boston, 
 and  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1776. 
 In  1790  he  removed  his  residence  to  Ver- 
 mont, and  soon  distinguished  himself  in  his 
 profession  of  law.  For  six  years  he  was 
 an  associate  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
 that  state,  and  for  six  years  more  chief 
 justice.  He  was  the  author  of  several  dra- 
 matic pieces  of  considerable  merit ;  a  novel 
 
ULP 
 
 called  The  Algerine  Captive ;  and  numer- 
 ous pieces  in  prose  and  verse  published  in 
 the  Farmer's  Museum,  when  edited  by 
 Dennie.  In  addition  to  these  he  published 
 two  volumes  entitled  Vermont  Reports. 
 He  died  at  Brattleboro',  in  1825. 
 
 TYRREL,  James,  an  historian  and 
 political  writer,  was  born,  in  1642,  in 
 London;  was  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
 Oxford;  studied  in  the  Inner  Temple,  and 
 was  called  to  the  bar,  but,  being  possessed 
 of  an  independent  fortune,  did  not  prac- 
 tice. He  died  in  1718.  He  is  the  author 
 of  A  History  of  England;  A  Refutation  of 
 Filmer;  Political  Dialogues;  and  other 
 works. 
 
 TYRT^EUS,  a  Greek  poet,  who  flour- 
 ished about  B.  c.  684,  is  said  to  have  been 
 a  native  of  Miletus,  and  to  have  settled  at 
 Athens.  He  was  lame,  and  blind  of  one 
 eye.  Defeated  by  the  Messenians,  the 
 Spartans  applied  for  a  general  to  the  Athe- 
 nians, who,  in  derision,  sent  Tyrtaeus,  to 
 them.  The  bard,  however,  so  inspired  the 
 Spartans  by  his  warlike  songs  that  they 
 were  victorious.  Some  fragments  of  his 
 battle  strains  are  extant. 
 
 TYRWHITT,  Thomas,  a  judicious 
 critic,  was  born  in  1730,  and  was  educated 
 at  Eton,  and  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford. 
 In  1756  he  was  under  secretary  of  state ; 
 and,  in  1762,  clerk  to  the  house  of  com- 
 mons; but  he  resigned  his  situation  in 
 1768,  in  order  to   devote  himself  to  study. 
 
 UND 
 
 487 
 
 He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  and  Anti 
 quarian  Societies,  and  a  curator  of  the 
 British  Museum.  He  died  in  1786.  Among 
 his  works  are,  editions  of  Chaucer's  Can- 
 terbury Tales,  and  the  pseudo  Rowley's 
 poems,  the  latter  of  which  he  proves  to  be 
 the  composition  of  Chatterton;  Dissertatio 
 deBabrio;  notes  on  Euripides;  and  Con- 
 jectura;  in  Strabonem. 
 
 TYTLER,  William,  an  historical  and 
 miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  in  1711, 
 at  Edinburgh;  was  educated  at  the  gram- 
 mar school  and  university  of  his  native 
 city ;  followed  the  profession  of  a  solicitor ; 
 and  died  in  1792.  His  principal  work  is, 
 An  Historical  and  Critical  Inquiry  into  the 
 Evidence  produced  against  Mary  Queen  of 
 Scots. 
 
 TYTLER,  Alexander  Eraser,  son 
 of  the  foregoing,  was  born,  in  1747,  at  Ed- 
 inburgh, in  which  city  he  was  educated. 
 After  having  been  professor  of  universal 
 history,  at  the  university,  and  deputy  judge 
 advocate  for  Scotland,  he  was  appointed  a 
 senator  of  the  college  of  justice  in  1802, 
 on  which  occasion  he  took  the  title  of  Lord 
 Woodhouselee.  In  1811  he  was  appointed 
 a  commissioner  of  justiciary.  He  died  in 
 1813.  Among  his  works  are,  Decisions  of 
 the  Court  of  Sessions;  A  Treatise  on  Mil- 
 itary Law;  Elements  of  General  History ; 
 An  Essay  on  Translation;  An  Essay  on 
 the  Life  of  Petrarch ;  and  Memoirs  of  Lord 
 Karnes. 
 
 V 
 
 ULLOA,  Don  Anthony  de,  an  able 
 Spanish  naval  officer  and  mathematician, 
 was  born,  in  1716,  at  Seville;  entered  the 
 navy  in  1733;  and  at  the  age  of  only  nine- 
 teen was  chosen  as  one  of  the  scientific 
 characters  who  were  appointed  to  measure 
 a  degree  of  the  meridian  in  Peru.  He  was 
 ten  years  a  resident  in  South  America. 
 After  his  return  he  rose  to  high  rank  in 
 the  navy,  and  was  employed  in  various  im- 
 portant offices  by  the  government.  Spain 
 is  indebted  to  him  for  many  important 
 improvements.  He  died  in  1795.  He  pub- 
 lished his  Travels;  and  a  Physico-Histor- 
 ical  work  on  South  America. 
 
 ULPHILAS,  or  WULFILAS,  a 
 Gothic  bishop,  who  flourished  about  the 
 middle  of  the  fourth  century.  He  was 
 deputed  by  the  Goths,  in  377,  to  obtain 
 leave  from  the  Emperor  Valens  to  settle 
 in  one  of  the  Roman  provinces.  His  de- 
 cease is  supposed  to  have  taken  place  in 
 the  following  year.  He  translated  the 
 Gospels,  and  some  other  parts  of  the  Scrip- 
 tures, into  the  Gothic  language. 
 
 ULPIAN,  Domitius,  an  eminent  Ro- 
 
 man civilian,  was  tutor  to  the  Emperor 
 Alexander  Severus,  who  made  him  his 
 secretary,  and  afterwards  pretorian  pre- 
 fect. Having  disobliged  the  soldiery  by 
 his  reforms,  Ulpian  was  murdered  by  them 
 in  228.     Some  fragments  of  his  works  are 
 
 ULUGH  BEIGH,  or  OLEG  BEK,  a 
 
 Tartar  prince,  celebrated  for  his  astrono- 
 mical knowledge,  was  a  grandson  of  Tam- 
 erlane, and  was  born  in  1393.  His  real 
 name  was  Mohammed  Taragai.  He  formed 
 a  seminary,  and  constructed  an  observatory, 
 at  Samarcand,  and  was  a  patron  of  learn- 
 ing. He  was  slain,  in  1449,  by  one  of  his 
 sons  who  had  rebelled  against  him.  He 
 made  a  series  of  observations  on  the  fixed 
 stars.  His  works  have  been  published  by 
 Greaves, and  Dr.  Hyde. 
 
 UNDERHILL,  John,  one  of  the  ear- 
 liest settlers  of  Massachusetts,  was  sent  by 
 Sir  Henry  Vane  to  command  the  troops  at 
 Saybrook  in  1637.  He  was  engaged  in  the 
 expedition  against  the  Pequots,  and  dis- 
 played great  valour  and  enterprise.  In  1641 
 he  was  elected  governor  of  Exeter  Dover. 
 
488 
 
 VAI 
 
 Removing  to  New  York,  he  died  at  Med- 
 ford. 
 
 URFE,  Honorios  d',  a  French  writer, 
 was  born,  in  1557,  at  Marseilles;  distin- 
 guished himself  as  a  soldier  during  the 
 wars  of  the  league,  and  as  a  negotiator  at 
 Turin  and  Venice;  and  died  in  1625.  He 
 is  the  author  of  the  romance  of  Astrea, 
 which  was  once  exceedingly  popular  in 
 France,  but  is  now  completely  forgotten. 
 — His  brother,  the  count  de  Lyon,  wrote 
 a  volume  of  sonnets,  with  the  title  of 
 Diana. 
 
 USHER,  James,  a  divine  and  histori- 
 an, was  born,  in  1580,  at  Dublin,  and  was 
 educated  at  Trinity  College,  in  that  city. 
 In  1601  he  took  orders;  in  1620  he  was 
 made  bishop  of  Meath;  and,  in  1624,  was 
 raised   to   the   archbishopric   of  Armagh. 
 
 VAL 
 
 The  rebellion  in  Ireland  drove  him  from 
 his  see,  and  deprived  him  of  every  thing 
 but  his  library.  To  the  cause  of  Charles  I. 
 he  was  warmly  attached.  He  died,  in 
 1656,  at  Ryegate,  in  Surrey.  Usher  is  the 
 author  of  many  learned  works;  among 
 which  may  be  mentioned,  De  Ecclesiarum 
 Christianarum  Successione  et  Statu  ;  Bri- 
 tannicarum  Ecclesiarum  Antiquitates;  An- 
 nals of  the  Old  and  New  Testament;  and 
 Chronologia  Sacra. 
 
 USTARIZ,  Jerome,  the  first  Spanish 
 writer  who  distinguished  himself  by  a 
 knowledge  of  political  economy,  was  born, 
 in  Navarre,  towards  the  end  of  the  seven- 
 teenth century,  and  died  about  the  middle 
 of  the  eighteenth.  His  Theory  and  Prac- 
 tice of  Commerce  and  Navigation  has 
 been  translated  into  English  and  French 
 
 VADE,  John  Joseph,  a  French  wri- 
 ter of  broad  farces  and  songs,  was  born, 
 in  1720,  at  Ham,  in  Picardy.  His  career 
 was  cut  short,  in  1757,  by  the  consequen- 
 ces of  the  dissipation  in  which  he  had 
 fpent  his  early  youth.  He  was  the  first 
 who  introduced  on  the  stage  the  coarse  but 
 emphatic  slang  language  of  the  Parisian 
 mob.     His  works  form  six  volumes. 
 
 VAHL,  Martin,  a  Norwegian  natu- 
 ralist and  botanist,  was  born,  in  1749,  at 
 Bergen ;  studied  natural  history,  at  Copen- 
 hagen and  Upsal,  under  Stroem  and  Lin- 
 naeus; was  sent  to  travel,  at  the  king's 
 expense,  over  various  parts  of  Europe  and 
 the  African  coast ;  and  died,  in  1804,  pro- 
 fessor of  botany  and  inspector  of  the  botanic 
 garden  at  Copenhagen.  Among  his  works 
 are,  Symbol*  Botanicse;  Ecloga?  Ameri- 
 cana? ;  Enumeratio  Plantarum ;  and  a  part 
 of  the  Danish  Zoology. 
 
 VAILLANT,  John  Foi,  a  celebrated 
 French  numismatist,  was  born,  in  1632,  at 
 Beauvais,  and  was  brought  up  as  a  physi- 
 cian. To  the  study  of  medals  he  was  first 
 led  by  a  farmer  bringing  him  some  which 
 he  had  found ;  and  he  pursued  it  eagerly 
 and  successfully.  Employed  by  Colbert  to 
 collect  medals  for  the  king's  cabinet,  Vail- 
 lant  made  numerous  visits  to  Italy,  Sicily, 
 and  Greece.  In  one  of  his  voyages,  being 
 pursued  by  an  Algerine  pirate,  he  swal- 
 lowed twenty  scarce  gold  medals,  to  save 
 them  from  the  pursuers.  He  died  in  1706. 
 His  works  on  the  medallic  science  are 
 numerous. — His  son,  John  Francis  Foi, 
 trod  in  his  footsteps. 
 
 VAILLANT,  Sebastian,  an  eminent 
 botanist,  was  born,  in  1669,  at  Vigny,  near 
 Pontoise.  Under  his  father,  who  was  an 
 organist,  he  when  a  child  acquired  a  pro- 
 
 ficiency in  music;  but  he  quitted  music 
 for  the  study  of  surgery.  The  lectures  of 
 Tournefort,  at  Paris,  revived  Vaillant's 
 early  predilection  for  botany,  and  to  that 
 science  he  devoted  himself.  He  died,  in 
 1722,  director  and  professor  of  the  royal 
 garden.  His  great  work  is  the  Botanicon 
 Parisiense,  on  which  he  was  thirty-eight 
 years  occupied. 
 
 VALCKENAER,  Louis  Gaspar,  one 
 of  the  most  able  of  modern  philologists  and 
 critics,  was  born,  in  1715,  at  Leenwarden, 
 in  Friesland ;  and  studied  at  Franeker  and 
 Leyden,  at  which  latter  university  he  died, 
 in  1785,  professor  of  natural  history,  and 
 of  the  Greek  language  and  antiquities. 
 Among  his  works  are  editions  of  various 
 classical  productions.  His  Opuscula  were 
 published  in  1809,  in  two  volumes. 
 
 VALDO,  Peter,  the  founder  of  the 
 sect  called  the  Vaudois,  or  Waldenses,  was 
 born,  in  the  twelfth  century,  at  Vaux,  in 
 Dauphiny,  and  acquired  a  considerable 
 fortune  as  a  merchant  at  Lyons.  The 
 sudden  death  of  a  friend  produced  such  an 
 effect  upon  his  mind,  that  he  distributed 
 all  his  property  to  the  poor,  and  began  to 
 translate  the  Bible,  and  explain  it  to  them. 
 He  also  taught  that  the  laity  had  the  same 
 right  as  the  clergy  to  preach  and  adminis- 
 ter the  sacraments.  The  general  council 
 of  Lateran,  in  1179,  condemned  his  doc- 
 trines, and  he  and  his  followers  were 
 obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the  mountains 
 of  Dauphiny  and  Piedmont,  where,  for  a 
 long  period,  they  were  brutally  persecuted. 
 A  remnant  of  them  still  exists  in  Piedmont. 
 
 VALENS,  Flavius,  aRoman  emperor, 
 the  son  of  Gratian,  count  of  Africa,  was 
 born,  about  328,  in  Pannonia.  In  364  he 
 was  admitted  by  his  brother  Valentiniaa 
 
VAL 
 
 to  a  share  in  the  imperial  authority,  and 
 he  took  the  government  of  the  East.  After 
 having  defeated  the  Persians  and  Goths, 
 he  suffered  the  latter  to  settle  in  Lower 
 Mcesia.  They,  however,  revolted,  and 
 Valens  was  defeated  by  them,  in  378, 
 near  Adrianople.  A  house,  to  which  the 
 wounded  emperor  was  conveyed,  was  set 
 on  fire  by  the  victors,  and  he  perished  in 
 the  flames. 
 
 VALENTINE,  Basil,  an  alchemist 
 and  chemist,  of  whose  life  little  is  record- 
 ed, is  said  to  have  been  born,  in  1394,  at 
 Erfurth,  and  to  have  been  a  Benedictine 
 monk.  The  properties  of  anatomy  were 
 discovered  by  him.  His  Currus  Trium- 
 phalis  Antimonii  has  been  translated  into 
 English. 
 
 VALENTINIAN  I.,  Flavius,  a  Ro- 
 man emperor,  the  eldest  son  of  Count 
 Gratian,  was  born,  in  321,  in  Pannonia; 
 was  chosen  successor  to  Jovian,  in  364; 
 was  victorious  over  the  Alemani  and  the 
 Quadi ;   and  died  in  375. 
 
 VALENTINIAN  II.,  Flavius,  the  son 
 of  the  foregoing,  was  born  in  371 ;  suc- 
 ceeded to  the  empire,  in  375,  with  his 
 brother  Gratian,  and  had  Italy  for  his  por- 
 tion; was  dispossessed  by  Maximus,  but 
 was  restored  in  388 ;  and  was  found  dead 
 in  his  palace,  in  392,  supposed  to  have 
 been  strangled  by  some  of  his  domestics. 
 
 VALENTINIAN  III.,  Flavius  Pla- 
 cidius,  emperor  of  the  West,  was  born,  in 
 419,  at  Ravenna;  and  was  assassinated  in 
 455,  in  revenge  for  his  having  dishonoured 
 the  patrician  Maximus,  by  intriguing  with 
 his  wife. 
 
 VALERIAN,  Publius  Licinius,  a 
 Roman  emperor,  was  raised  to  the  imperial 
 dignity  in  254.  After  having  reigned 
 seven  years,  he  was  defeated  and  taken 
 prisoner,  near  Edessa,  by  Sapor,  king  of 
 Persia.  The  imperial  captive  is  said  to 
 have  been. treated  with  the  utmost  indignity 
 by  the  victor,  and  to  have  been  at  length 
 flayed  alive. 
 
 VALERIUS  MAXIMUS,  a  Roman 
 historian,  was  born  in  the  reign  of  Augus- 
 tus. After  having  served  in  Asia,  under 
 Sextus  Pompey,  he  settled  at  Rome,  and 
 withdrew  from  public  affairs  that  he  might 
 devote  himself  to  literature.  He  is  the 
 author  of  a  valuable  work,  De  Dictis 
 Factisque  Memorabilibus,  in  nine  books, 
 which  he  dedicated  to  Tiberius ;  and  which 
 was  one  of  the  first  books  that  was  pub- 
 lished after  the  invention  of  printing. 
 
 VALETTE,  John  PARISOT  de  la, 
 the  forty-seventh  grand  master  of  the  order 
 of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  was  born,  in 
 1494,  of  an  ancient  Toulousan  family,  and 
 succeeded  to  the  grand  mastership  in  1557. 
 His  activity  and  success  against  the  infi- 
 dels so  irritated  Soli  man,  the  Turkish  sul- 
 tan, that  he  resolved  to  make  himself  mas- 
 21* 
 
 VAL  489 
 
 ter  of  Malta.  The  city  was  attacked  by  a 
 formidable  force  in  1565;  but  after  a  des- 
 perate struggle  of  four  months,  the  valour 
 of  La  Valette  and  his  knights  compelled 
 the  besiegers  to  retire  with  a  loss  of  thirty 
 thousand  men.  He  died  in  1568.  La  Va- 
 lette founded  the  new  city,  which  bears  his 
 name. 
 
 VALLA,  Laurence,  one  of  the  most 
 eminent  philologists  of  the  fifteenth  cea 
 tury,  who  contributed  greatly  to  the  dill'u 
 sion  of  classical  literature,  was  bun,  in 
 1406,  at  Rome ;  was  a  celebrated  professor 
 at  several  Italian  universities;  was  liber- 
 ally patronised  by  Alphonso,  king  of  Arra- 
 gon  and  Naples;  and  died  in  1457.  Valla 
 was  of  a  contentious  disposition,  and  had 
 several  violent  literary  disputes  with  Poggio 
 and  others.  His  attack  on  the  pretensions 
 of  the  Holy  See  exposed  him  to  danger 
 from  the  Inquisition.  One  of  his  princi- 
 pal works  is  A  Treatise  on  the  Elegancies 
 of  the  Latin  Language. 
 
 VALLANCEY,  Charles,  an  anti- 
 quary, whose  real  name  was  Vallance,  was 
 born,  in  1721,  in  England;  entered  the 
 military  service  at  an  early  period;  rose 
 to  the  rank  of  general  of  engineers;  re- 
 sided in  Ireland  during  the  greatest  part 
 of  his  life;  and  died  in  1812.  Among  his 
 works  are,  The  Field  Engineer;  The  An- 
 cient History  of  Ireland;  and  several  pro- 
 ductions relative  to  Irish  antiquities. 
 
 VALLE,  Peter  della,  a  traveller, 
 was  born  in  15S6.  After  having  made  a 
 naval  campaign  in  the  Spanish  fleet,  disap- 
 pointed love  led  him  to  assume  a  pilgrim's 
 habit.  He  began  his  travels  in  1614,  in 
 the  course  of  which  he  visited  Asiatic 
 Turkey,  Persia,  and  India.  On  his  return, 
 in  1626,  he  obtained  an  office  in  the  pope's 
 household.  He  died  in  1652.  The  narra- 
 tive of  his  peregrinations  forms  three  quarto 
 volumes. 
 
 VALLI,  EusEBius,an  eminent  and  en- 
 terprising Italian  physician,  was  born,  jn 
 1762,  atPistoia,  and  studied  at  Pisa.  For 
 ten  years  he  was  a  military  physician. 
 He  visited  Smyrna  and  Constantinople  to 
 make  observations  on  the  plague;  and 
 Spain  and  the  Havannah  to  perform  the 
 same  task  with  respect  to  the  yellow  fever. 
 In  both  instances  he  voluntarily  subjected 
 himself  to  the  disease.  From  the  plague 
 he  escaped,  but  he  died  of  the  yellow  fever, 
 in  1816.  Among  his  works  are,  Treatises 
 on  the  Plague ;  on  Phthisis ;  and  on  Chro- 
 nic Diseases. 
 
 VALLISNIERI,  Anthony,  an  Italian 
 naturalist,  was  born,  in  1661,  at  Tresilico, 
 in  the  duchy  of  Modena;  was  appointed 
 professor  of  practical  medicine  at  Padua, 
 in  1700;  and  died  in  that  city  in  1730. 
 The  complete  edition  of  his  works  form3 
 three  folio  volumes.  Among  them  are,  A 
 History  of  Generation ;  and  many  treatises 
 
490 
 
 VAN 
 
 on  insects.  Vallisnieri  has  a  just  claim  to 
 rank  high  among  natural  philosophers  and 
 medical  practitioners. 
 
 VALMIKI,  die  oldest  and  most  cele- 
 brated of  the  epic  poets  of  India,  is  the 
 author  of  Raymayana,  which  narrates  the 
 exploits  of  Rama  against  the  giant  Ra- 
 vamia.  He  is  said  to  have  existed  at  a 
 very  remote  period,  and  the  stories  which 
 are  told  of  him  are  manifestly  fabulous. 
 Two  books  of  the  Sanscrit  text  of  the 
 Ramayana,  with  a  literal  version,  have 
 bee  1  published  by  Carey  and  Marshman. 
 
 VALMONT  DE  BOMARE,  James 
 Christopher,  an  eminent  naturalist, 
 was  born,  in  1731,  at  Rouen.  He  was  in- 
 tended fur  the  law,  but  chose  the  medical 
 profession.  The  French  government  ap- 
 pointed him  ils  travelling  naturalist,  and 
 I)  ■  made  an  extensive  tour  on  the  conti- 
 n  "it,  whence  he  returned,  in  1756,  with  a 
 rich  collection,  especially  of  minerals.  For 
 ma  iv  years  he  was  exceedingly  popular,  at 
 Paris,  as  a  lecturer  on  natural  history. 
 He  died  in  1S07.  His  principal  works 
 are,  A  Treatise  on  Mineralogy;  and  A 
 Dictionary  of  Natural  History. 
 
 VALPERGA  DI  CALUSO,  Thomas 
 DESCOMTES  Masino,  an  Italian  mathe- 
 matician and  author,  was  born,  in  1737, 
 at  Turin;  was  lor  a  while  in  the  Maltese 
 naval  service;  and  afterwards  entered  the 
 church.  Settling  at  Turin,  he  became  pro- 
 fessor uf  Greek  and  the  oriental  languages 
 II  the  university,  and  president  and  direc- 
 tor of  one  of  the  classes  of  the  Academy 
 of  Sciences  and  Literature.  He  died  in 
 1815.  Of  his  numerous  works,  the  mathe- 
 matical were  published  with  his  own  name; 
 the  poetical,  under  that  of  Euforbo  Mele- 
 sige.ieo  ;  and  those  on  the  eastern  languages 
 under  that  of  Didyinus  Taurinensis. 
 
 VALSALVA,  Anthony  Maria,  a 
 celebrated  Italian  anatomist,  was  born,  in 
 1666,  at  Imola;  was  professor  of  anatomy 
 in  the  university  of  Bologna,  and  surgeon 
 of  the  hospital  of  Insurables;  and  died  in 
 1723.  Among  the  services  which  he  ren- 
 dered to  surgery  are  the  simplifying  of 
 many  instruments,  and  the  abolition  of 
 the  practice  of  cauterising  the  arteries  of 
 an  amputated  limb,  lie  had  several  emi- 
 nent  pupils,  among  whom  was  Morgagni. 
 ilis  principal  work  is  the  Anatomy  of  the 
 Ear,  which  was  the  result  of  sixteen  \  ears' 
 biooiir. 
 
 VALVASONE,  Erasmus  di,  an  Ital- 
 ian poet,  was  born,  in  1523.  in  Friuli; 
 resided  upon  the  lordship  which  belonged 
 to  him  and  bore  his  name;  spent  his  time 
 in  literature  and  in  hunting;  and  died  in 
 1593.  His  principal  work  is  The  Chase, 
 a  poem  in  five  cantos,  which  is  considered 
 as  one  of  the  best  didactic  poems  in  the 
 language. 
 
 VANBRUGH,  Sir  John,  a  dramatist 
 
 VAN 
 
 and  architect,  of  whom  it  was  said  that, 
 though  he  wanted  grace,  he  never  wanted 
 wit,  was  born,  about  1672,  in  London. 
 He  was  early  in  the  army,  but  does  not 
 appeal-  to  have  remained  in  it  long.  His 
 first  comedy,  The  Relapse,  was  produced 
 in  1697.  It  was  followed  by  the  Pro- 
 voked Wife  and  ^Esop.  In  1707  he  joined 
 Betterton  and  Congreve  in  establishing  the 
 Hayinarket  Theatre,  on  which  occasion  he 
 brought  out  The  Confederacy.  In  1704 
 he  was  appointed  clarencieux  king  at  arms ; 
 in  1714  he  was  knighted;  and,  soon  after, 
 was  made  comptroller  of  the  board  of  works 
 and  surveyor  of  Greenwich  Hospital.  He 
 died  in  1726.  Though  his  licentiousness 
 as  a  dramatist  must  be  condemned,  his 
 talent  is  undeniable.  As  an  architect  much 
 ridicule  has  been  cast  on  him  by  ignorant 
 or  tasteless  critics,  but  against  such  puny 
 attacks  the  splendid  piles  of  Blenheim  and 
 Castle  Howard  are  alone  suflicient  to  de 
 fend  his  fame. 
 
 VANCOUVER,  George,  a  British 
 navigator,  was  born  about  1750;  entered 
 early  into  the  naval  service;  and  served,  as 
 midshipman,  under  Captain  Cook,  in  his 
 second  and  third  voyages.  In  1790,  he  was 
 appointed  to  command  an  expedition,  to 
 explore  the  western  coast  of  North  Amer- 
 ica, to  ascertain  whether  any  communica- 
 tion by  water  exists  between  the  Atlantic 
 and  the  Pacific.  On  this  service,  which 
 he  performed  skilfuhy,  he  was  five  years 
 employed.  He  died  in  1798,  when  he  had 
 nearly  completed  for  the  press  the  Account 
 of  his  Voyage. 
 
 VANDALE,  Anthony,  a  Dutch  phy- 
 sician and  author,  was  born,  in  1638,  at 
 Haerlem;  was  physician  to  the  hospital 
 of  that  city;  and  died  in  1708.  He  is  the 
 author  of  several  learned  hut  ill  written 
 works,  one  of  the  principal  of  which  is 
 Two  Dissertations  on  Oracles,  to  which 
 Fontenelle  is  much  indebted  for  his  History 
 of  the  same  subject. 
 
 VANDERVELDE,  William,  called 
 the  Old,  a  celebrated  painter,  was  born,  in 
 1610,  at  Leyden,and  was  bred  to  the  sea, 
 but  quitted  it  for  painting.  He  was  in- 
 vited to  England,  with  his  son,  by  Charles 
 the  Second;  lived  there  many  years;  and 
 died,  in  London,  in  1693.  lie  excelled  in 
 marine  subjects  and  battles;  and  was  so 
 anxious  to  be  correct  in  his  representations 
 that  he  would  sail,  in  a  light  vessel,  close 
 to  the  fleets  while  thev  were  hotlv  engaged. 
 
 VANDERVELDE,  William,  called 
 the  Voting,  the  son  of  the  foregoing,  was 
 born,  in  1633, at  Amsterdam;  accompanied 
 his  father  to  England,  where  his  works 
 became  exceedingly  popular;  and  died  in 
 1707.  He  surpassed  even  the  elder  Van- 
 derveldc  in  marine  painting.  Walpole 
 denominates  him  the  Raphael  of  this  branch 
 of  art. 
 
VAN 
 
 VANDERVELDE,  Adrian,  an  admi- 
 rable landscape  painter,  was  born,  in  1639, 
 at  Amsterdam;  was  a  pupil  of  Wynants; 
 and  died  in  1672.  Though  landscape  was 
 the  peculiar  department  of  Adrian,  yet  he 
 was  no  mean  historical  painter,  and  he 
 drew  figures  with  such  excellence  that  his 
 assistance  was  often  sought  for  by  liis  own 
 master,  and  by  Ruysdael,  Hobbema,  and 
 others. 
 
 VANDERWERF,  Adrian,  an  emi- 
 nent painter,  was  born,  in  1659,  at  Am- 
 bacht,  near  Rotterdam ;  was  a  pupil  of 
 Picolet  and  Vandenneer ;  was  patronised 
 by  the  Elector  Palatine,  for  whom  he  exe- 
 cuted many  of  his  best  works;  and  died  in 
 1718.  His  small  history  pieces  are  much 
 esteemed. — H<s  brother,  Peter,  who  was 
 born  at  Rotterdam  in  1665,  and  died  in 
 1718,  acquired  fame  as  a  painter  of  por- 
 traits and  conversation  pieces. 
 
 VAN 
 
 491 
 
 VANDYCK,  Sir  Anthony,  one  of  the 
 greatest  of  portrait  painters,  was  born, 
 March  22,  159S-9,  at  Antwerp,  and  was 
 the  son  of  a  merchant.  His  mother  dis- 
 tinguished herself  as  a  flower  painter. 
 Henry  Van  Balens  and  Rubens  were  his 
 tutors  in  the  pictorial  art;  the  latter,  with 
 whom  he  was  a  favourite,  cultivated  his 
 talents  with  great  care,  and  advised  hiin 
 to  visit  Italy.  After  having  resided  for 
 some  time  at  Rome,  and  other  Italian  cities, 
 Vandyck  returned  to  Antwerp,  whence  he 
 passed  over  to  England.  Charles  I.  was  a 
 liberal  patron  to  him.  He  knighted  and 
 pensioned  him,  and  obtained  for  him  in 
 marriage  the  daughter  of  Lord  Govvrie. 
 Vandyck  died  in  1641.  His  works  are 
 numerous,  and  are  deser\edly  held  in  the 
 highest  estimation. 
 
 VAN  DYK,  Harry  Stoe,  a  poetical 
 and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  in 
 1798,  in  London,  and  died  June  5,  1828. 
 He  is  the  author  of  Theatrical  Portraits; 
 The  Gondola;  Songs  of  the  Minstrels; 
 contributed  to  the  first  series  of  The  Lon- 
 don Magazine;  and  joined  with  Mr.  Bow- 
 ring  in  translating  the  Batavian  Anthology. 
 
 VANE,  Sir  Henry,  the  younger,  the 
 son  of  Sir  Henry  Vane,  was  born,  in  1612, 
 and  was  educated  at  Westminster  School 
 
 and  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford.  Having  im- 
 bibed the  principles  of  the  puritans,  he 
 emigated  to  America,  and  was  elected 
 governor  of  Massachusetts.  Returning  to 
 England,  he  was  chosen  member  for  Hull, 
 and,  during  the  struggle  between  the  king 
 and  the  parliament,  lie  took  an  active  part 
 on  the  side  of  the  latter.  He  had,  how- 
 ever, no  part  in  the  trial  or  death  of 
 Charles.  To  the  authority  of  Cromwell 
 he  was  steadily  hostile,  and,  after  the 
 death  of  the  protector,  he  laboured  strenu- 
 uously  to  establish  a  republican  govern- 
 ment. He  was  executed  for  high  treason, 
 in  June,  1662,  in  violation  of  justice,  and 
 of  the  king's  plighted  word.  Vane  was  a 
 man  of  talent,  and,  though  he  was  an 
 enthusiast  in  religion  and  politics,  there 
 seems  to  be  no  valid  reason  to  doubt  his 
 sincerity. 
 
 VAMERE,  James,  a  French  poet,  a 
 member  of  the  society  of  Jesuits,  was  born, 
 in  1664,  at  Causses,  in  Languedoc;  was 
 professor  of  languages  and  rhetoric  in 
 various  colleges;  and  died  in  1739.  His 
 principal  work  is  a  Latin  poem,  the  Prae- 
 dium  Rusticum,  in  sixteen  books,  describ- 
 ing, in  elegant  verse,  the  various  labours 
 of  a  farm. 
 
 VANINI,  Lucilius,  a  philosopher,  was 
 born,  in  1585,  at  Taurosano,  in  the  king- 
 dom of  Naples;  studied  philosophy  and 
 theology  at  Rome;  entered  into  the  eccle- 
 siastical state;  travelled  in  various  parts 
 of  Europe;  and  was  at  last  burnt,  in  1619, 
 at  Toulouse,  on  a  charge  of  atheism,  which 
 appears  to  have  been  unfounded.  He  is 
 the  author  of  AmphitheatrumiEteraae  Pro- 
 videntiae;  De  Admirandis  Naturae;  Dia- 
 logues ;  and  other  works. 
 
 VANNUCCHI,  a  celebrated  painter, 
 generally  known  under  the  namfe  of  An- 
 drea del  Sarto,  was  born,  in  1488,  at 
 Florence,  in  which  city  he  died  in  1530, 
 in  a  state  of  abject  poverty.  Among  his 
 finest  pieces  are,  The  Preaching  of  Saint 
 John;  a  Virgin  and  Child;  and  a  Flight 
 into  Egypt. 
 
 VAN'SWIETEN,  Gerard,  an  emU 
 neat  physician,  was  born,  in  1700,  at  Ley- 
 den ;  studied  at  the  university  of  that  city, 
 and  of  Louvain,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Boer- 
 haave ;  became  medical  professor  atLeyden, 
 but  lost' his  office  in  consequence  of  being 
 a  catholic;  and  was  invited  to  Vienna,  in 
 1745,  by  the  empress,  who  made  him  her 
 principal  physician,  director  general  of 
 medicine  in  Austria,  imperial  librarian,  a 
 professor,  and  a  baron.  He  died  in  1772. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Commentaries  on 
 the  Aphorisms  of  Boerhaave;  Aphorisms 
 !  of  Surgery  ;  and  Treatises  on  Epidemics, 
 'and  on  Diseases  of  the  Army. 
 
 VAN  VITELLI,  or  VAN  VITE,  Louis, 
 '  a  celebrated  architect,  the  son  of  a  painter, 
 !  was  born    in  1700    at  Naples  aod  dici  at 
 
492 
 
 VAR 
 
 VAU 
 
 Caserta,  in  1773.  Among  his  great  and  I  is  regarded  as  the  most  learned  of  the 
 numerous  works  are,  the  palace  of  Caserta, :  ancient  Romans,  was  born  B.  c.  116; 
 the  public  buildings  at  the  port  of  Ancona*  studied  philosophy  under  Stilo  and  Antio- 
 and  the  churches  of  St.  Francis  and  St.   chns  of  Ascalon  ;  filled  the  offices  of  trium- 
 
 Dorninic  at  Urbiuo. 
 
 VARCHI,  Benedict,  a  poet  and  his- 
 
 !  vir  and  tribune  of  the  people ;  espoused  the 
 |  cause  of  Pompey,  but  afterwards  became 
 
 torian,  was  born,  in  1502,  at  Florence,  and  the  friend  of  Caesar,  who  confided  to  him 
 
 studied  at  Parma  and  Pisa.  Having  taken 
 a  part  against  the  Medici  family,  he  was 
 banished,  but  his  literary  reputation  in- 
 duced Cosmo  I.  to  recal  and  pension  him, 
 and  to  confide  to  him  the  task  of  writing 
 the  History  of  the  Florentine  Republic. 
 In  his  latter  days  he  entered  into  the  cler- 
 ical state.  He  died  in  1565.  Among  his 
 works  are,  The  Florentine  History  ; 
 Poems ;  and  A  Dialogue  on  the  Tuscan 
 Language. 
 
 VAREN,  or  VARENIUS,  Bernard, 
 a  geographer,  was  born,  about  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  seventeenth  century,  at  Am- 
 sterdam ;  followed  the  profession  of  a 
 physician;  and  died  about  1680.  He  is 
 the  author  of  a  well  executed  System  of 
 Geography,  on  which  Newton  did  not  dis- 
 dain to  comment;  and  A  Description  of 
 Japan  and  Siam. 
 
 VARGAS  Y  PONCE,  Don  Joseph,  a 
 Spanish  geographer  and  navigator,  was  er,  was  born,  in  1710,  in  Sicily;  spent  the 
 born,  about  1755,  at  Cadiz  or  Seville;  [greatest  part  of  his  life  at  Rome,  and  wis 
 assisted  Tofino  in  forming  the  Atlas  of  the  J  patronised  by  Benedict  XIV.  and  by 
 Spanish  Coasts;  and  died,  in  1821,  at  I  Charles  III.  of  Naples;  and  died  in  1782. 
 Madrid,  a  member  of  the  Cortes.  He  j  His  two  great  works,  the  one  in  ten  folio 
 wrote,  among  other  works,  A  Description  volumes,  the  other  in  two,  represent  all 
 of  the  Pityusae  and  Balearic  Isles;  and  A   the  remarkable  objects   in  Rome  and  its 
 
 the  formation  of  a  public  library;  nar- 
 rowly escaped  proscription  by  the  triumvi- 
 rate; and  died  B.  c.  27.  He  is  said  to 
 have  written  between  four  and  five  hundred 
 volumes,  of  which  only  a  Treatise  on 
 Agriculture,  part  of  a  Treatise  on  the 
 Latin  Language,  and  some  fragments,  are 
 extant. 
 
 VASARI,  George,  a  Florentine  artist 
 and  author,  was  born,  in  1512,  at  Arezzo; 
 studied  under  Michael  Angelo  and  other 
 great  masters;  acquired  a  profound  know- 
 ledge of  architecture  as  well  as  of  paint- 
 ing; was  employed  by  Cosmo  I.  to  super- 
 intend the  public  buildings  which  he 
 erected;  and  died  in  1574.  As  a  painter 
 he  has  merit,  but  he  is  best  known  by  hi* 
 valuable  work,  The  Lives  of  the  most 
 excellent  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Archi- 
 tects. 
 
 VASI,  Joseph,  a  designer  and  engrav- 
 
 Relation  of  the  last  Voyage  in  the  Strait 
 of  Magellan. 
 
 VARIGNON,  Peter,  an  eminent  geo- 
 metrician, the  son  of  an  architect,  was 
 born,  in  1654,  at  Caen,  in  Normandy;  was 
 
 environs.     He  was  the  instructor  of  J.  B. 
 Piranesi. 
 
 VATER,  John  Severinus,  an  emi- 
 nent philologist,  was  born,  in  1771,  at 
 Altenburg,  in  Saxony;   and  died,  in  1826, 
 
 intended  for  the  church,  but  became  pro-  professor  of  the  oriental  languages  at  Halle, 
 fessor  of  mathematics  at  Mazarin  College, 'after  having  filled  the  theological  chair  at 
 and  afterwards  at  the  College  of  France;  j  Kcenigsberg.  He  is  the  author  of  various 
 and  died  of  apoplexy,  in  1722.  Varignon  j  works  on  the  eastern  tongues;  the  Con- 
 was  one  of  the  first  to  cultivate  the  science1  tinnation  of  Adelung's  Mithridates;    Syn- 
 
 of  infinitesimals.  Among  his  works  are, 
 New  Conjectures  on  Gravity;  New  Me- 
 chanics or  Statics ;  and  Elements  of  Math- 
 ematics. 
 
 VARILLAS,  Anthony,  a  French  his- 
 torian, was  born,  in  1624,  at  Gueret. 
 After  having  been  a  private  tutor  in  his 
 native  province,  he   went  to  Paris,  where 
 
 chronistic  Tables  of  Ecclesiastical  Histo- 
 rv;  and  a  Universal  and  Chronological 
 History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 
 VATTAL,  Emmerich,  a  celebrated 
 Swiss  publicist,  was  born,  in  1714,  at 
 Couret,  in  the  principality  of  Neufchatel; 
 became  envoy  from  Saxony  to  Berne,  and 
 afterwards    privy    counsellor   to    Augustus 
 
 he  was  made  historiographer  to  the  duke  j  III.  of  Saxony;  and  died  in  1767.  The 
 of  Orleans,  and  assistant  librarian  at  the  work  on  which  his  fame  rests  is,  The  Law 
 Royal  Library.     The  last  of  these  places,!  of  Nations,  or  Principles  of  Natural  Law 
 
 however,  he  lost,  in  consequence  of  the 
 careless  manner  in  which  he  collated  some 
 manuscripts.  His  historical  works  were 
 popular  for  a  time,  but,  after  his  gross 
 errors  in  The  History  of  Heresies  had  been 
 detected  by  Burnet  and  Larroque,  no  book- 
 seller would  purchase  his  productions.  He 
 died  in  1696.  His  principal  work  is  A 
 Historv  of  France. 
 
 VARRO,  Marcus  Terentius,  whu 
 
 applied  to  the  Conduct  and  Affairs  of 
 Nations  and  Sovereigns.  It  has  been 
 translated  into  various  languages,  and  has 
 partly  superseded  the  productions  of  Gro- 
 tius  and  PnlYendorf. 
 
 VAUBAN,  Sebastian  le  PRES- 
 TRE  de,  a  French  mirshal,  the  greatest 
 of  military  engineers,  was  born,  in  1633, 
 at  Saint  Leger  de  Foucheret,  in  Burgundy. 
 He  first  served  in  the  Spanish  army,  under 
 
VAU 
 
 Conde,  but,  being  taken  prisoner  by  the 
 French  troops,  Mazarin  gave  him  a  lieu- 
 tenancy. The  sieges  of  Yprcs,  Gravelines, 
 and  Oudenarde,  in  1658,  were  his  first 
 essays  in  the  science  of  attack.  From 
 that  period  till  the  peace  of  Ryswick  lie 
 was  incessantly  employed,  either  in  erect- 
 ing fortresses  for  the  defence  of  France,  or 
 in  reducing  those  which  belonged  to  her 
 enemies;  and  in  both  cases  his  matchless 
 skill  was  equally  displayed.  In  1703  he 
 reluctantly  accepted  the  marshal's  staff. 
 The  siege  of  Brisach  was  his  last  operation. 
 He  died  in  1707.  Vauban  left  a  MS.  col- 
 lection, in  twelve  folio  volumes,  containing 
 his  ideas  and  projects  on  various  branches 
 of  government.  He  also  wrote  various 
 other  works,  principally  on  fortification. 
 All  contemporary  writers  agree  in  giving 
 the  highest  praise  to  his  private  character. 
 
 VAUCANSON,  James  DE,an  eminent 
 mechanist,  was  born,  in  1709,  at  Grenoble, 
 and  died  in  1782.  Among  his  automatical 
 performances  were  a  flute  player,  and  a 
 pipe  and  tabor  player.  But  even  these 
 were  surpassed  by  two  ducks,  which  dab- 
 bled with  their  beaks,  ate  grain,  and  voided 
 it  after  it  had  undergone  a  sort  of  digestive 
 process. 
 
 VAUGELAS,  Claude  Favre  de,  a 
 celebrated  grammarian,  was  born,  about 
 1585,  at  Chambery,  and  died,  at  Paris,  in 
 1650.  His  critical  knowledge  of  the  French 
 language  caused  him  to  be  admitted  into 
 the  Academy,  and  to  be  chosen  to  superin- 
 tend the  execution  of  the  Dictionary.  He 
 wrote  Remarks  on  the  French  Language; 
 and  translated  Quintus  Curtius. 
 
 VAUVENARGUES,  Luke  de  CLA- 
 PIERS,  marquis  of,  an  eminent  French 
 writer  on  moral  philosophy,  was  born,  in 
 1715,  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  and  entered 
 the  army  at  the  age  of  seventeen.  The 
 fatigue  which  he  endured  in  the  retreat 
 from  Prague  undermined  his  constitution, 
 and  the  small  pox  completed  the  ruin  of 
 his  health.  To  soothe  his  continual  suffer- 
 ings he  resorted  to  meditation  and  com- 
 position. He  died  in  1747.  Voltaire  was 
 one  of  his  warmest  friends.  The  works  of 
 Vauvenargues  form  three  volumes,  and 
 consist  of  Thoughts,  Reflections,  and  Max- 
 ims, Dialogues,  Characters,  &c. 
 
 VAUVTLLIERS,  John  Francis,  an 
 eminent  hellenist,  was  born,  in  1737,  at 
 Paris ;  succeeded  his  father  as  Greek  pro- 
 fessor at  the  university  of  that  city;  and 
 died,  in  1801,  in  Russia,  in  which  country 
 he  had  taken  refuge,  after  being  condemned 
 to  transportation,  as  a  royalist,  in  1797. 
 Among  his  works  are,  An  Essay  on  Pin- 
 dar; An  Examination  of  the  Government 
 of  Sparta;  and  Summary  Ideas  on  Politi- 
 cal Societies.  The  last  of  these,  on  which 
 he  was  occupied  during  fifteen  years,  is 
 yel  unpublished. 
 
 YEN 
 
 493 
 
 VEGETIUS   RENATUS,    Flavius, 
 
 the  most  celebrated  Roman  writer  on  the 
 military  art,  flourished  about  the  end  of 
 the  fourth  century,  under  Valentinian  II. 
 ami  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  inhabitant 
 of  Constantinople,  and  of  a  noble  family. 
 His  work  on  Military  Affairs  consists  of 
 five  books,  and  has  been  commented  upon 
 by  Turpin  de  Crisse. 
 
 VELASQUEZ,  James  Roderick  de 
 SILVA  Y,  a  celebrated  Spanish  painter, 
 was  born,  in  1599,  at  Seville;  was  a  pupil 
 of  Herrera  the  Elder  and  Pacheco;  was 
 patronised  and  highly  esteemed  by  Philip 
 III.  and  IV.;  and  died  in  1660.  Among 
 his  greatest  works  are,  The  Expulsion  of 
 the  Moors;  The  Crucifixion;  Joseph's 
 Coat;   and  several  portraits. 
 
 VELDE,  Charles  Francis,  van 
 der,  a  romance  writer,  who  has  been  call- 
 ed the  German  Sir  Walter  Scott,  was 
 born  in  1799,  at  Breslau,  and  died  in  1824. 
 He  began  his  career,  in  1809,  by  writing 
 short  pieces  for  the  journals;  was  after- 
 wards a  dramatist,  in  which  he  was  not 
 successful;  and,  lastly,  became  a  popular 
 novelist.  His  works  form  eighteen  vol- 
 umes. Among  them  are,  Arwed  Gyilen- 
 stierna;  The  Patricians;  The  Anabaptists ; 
 The  Hussites;  Christina  and  her  Court; 
 and  Tales  and  Legends. 
 
 VELLY,  Paul  Francis,  a  French 
 historian,  was  born,  in  1711,  or  1709,  at 
 Crugny,  near  Rheims;  was  at  one  period 
 a  Jesuit,  but  quitted  the  order,  and  became 
 a  private  tutor;  and  died  in  1759.  He  is 
 the  author  of  a  History  of  France,  of  which 
 he  completed  eight  quarto  volumes,  and 
 which  was  continued  by  Villaret  and  Gar- 
 nier.  Velly  is  impartial,  and  accurate  as 
 far  as  his  knowledge  extends,  but  his  in- 
 formation is  not  drawn  from  the  fountain 
 head. 
 
 VENDOME,  Louis  Joseph,  duke  of, 
 a  great  general,  and  a  profligate  man,  the 
 grandson  of  Henry  IV.,  was  born  in  1654, 
 and  made  his  first  campaign  in  1672,  at 
 the  invasion  of  Holland.  After  having 
 distinguished  himself  in  Flanders  and  Italy, 
 he  was,  in  1695,  appointed  to  command 
 the  army  in  Catalonia,  where  he  reduced 
 Barcelona  with  extraordinary  celerity. 
 From  Italy,  where,  in  the  war  of  the  suc- 
 cession, he  was  opposed  to  Prince  Eugene, 
 he  was  recalled,  in  1708,  to  remedy  the 
 disasters  which  the  incapacity  of  Villeroi 
 had  occasioned  in  the  .Netherlands.  He 
 failed,  however,  to  accomplish  this,  and 
 was  defeated  at  Oudenarde.  In  1709  he 
 was  sent  into  Spain,  where  he  gained  the 
 decisive  victory  of  Villa  Viciosa,  and  es- 
 tablished Philip  on  the  throne.  He  died 
 suddenly  in  1712.  Vendome  possessed 
 abilities,  but  he  was  dirty  in  his  habits, 
 and  depraved  in  his  morals. 
 
 VENTENAT    Stephen  Peter,  an 
 
494 
 
 VER 
 
 eminent  French  botanist,  was  born,  in 
 1757,  at  Limoges;  was  a  regular  canon  of 
 Saint  Genevieve,  but  quitted  the  order 
 during  the  revolution,  and  married;  lec- 
 tured on  botany  at  the  Lyceum;  became 
 chief  librarian  of  the  Pantheon,  and  a 
 member  of  the  Institute;  and  died  in  1S08. 
 Besides  many  papers  in  scientific  Transac- 
 tions, he  published  The  Garden  of  Mal- 
 maison,  in  two  folio  volumes;  A  Selection 
 of  Plants ;  A  Dissertation  on  Mosses ;  and 
 other  works. 
 
 VENTURI,  John  Baptist,  an  Italian 
 natural  philosopher,  was  born,  in  1746,  at 
 Bibiano,  in  the  duchy  of  Reggio;  was 
 successively  professor  of  metaphysics  and 
 geometry  at  Reggio,  engineer  and  professor 
 of  philosophy  at  Modena,  member  of  the 
 legislative  body  of  the  Cisalpine  republic, 
 professor  of  physics  at  Pavia,  and  envoy 
 from  the  kingdom  of  Italy  to  Berne.  Na- 
 poleon  gave  him  the  cross  of  the  legion  of 
 honour  and  of  the  iron  crown.  Venturi 
 died  in  1S22.  Among  his  works  are, 
 Commentaries  on  the  History  and  Theory 
 of  Optics;  On  the  Origin  and  Progress  of 
 Artillery;  and  An  Essay  on  the  Physico- 
 Mathematical  Works  of  Leonardo  da 
 Vinci. 
 
 VERE,  Sir  Francis,  an  English  gen- 
 eral, the  grandson  of  the  earl  of  Oxford, 
 was  born,  in  1554,  and  served  with  dis- 
 tinction in  the  Netherlands,  under  the  earl 
 of  Leicester,  Lord  Willoughby,  and  Prince 
 Maurice,  and  also,  as  lord  marshal,  in  the 
 expedition  against  Cadiz.  Bergenopzoom, 
 Zutphen,  Deventer,  Nieuport,  and  Ostend 
 were  the  principal  scenes  of  his  exploits. 
 He  died  in  1608.  He  wrote  Commenta- 
 ries on  the  wars  in  which  he  had  been 
 engaged. — His  younger  brother,  Horace, 
 was  also  a  gallant  officer. 
 
 VERNET,  Claudius  Joseph,  an  em- 
 inent French  painter,  was  born,  in  1714, 
 at  Avignon,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
 visited  Rome,  where  he  studied  under 
 Fergioni.  His  voyage  to  Italy  turned  his 
 genius  to  marine  painting,  in  which  he  j 
 acquired  almost  unrivalled  reputation.  I 
 After  an  absence  of  twenty-two  years  he 
 returned  to  France.  On  his  homeward 
 passage  a  storm  arose,  during  which  he 
 ordered  himself  to  be  tied  to  the  mast, | 
 that  he  might  make  a  faithful  sketch  of 
 the  scene.  On  his  return  he  was  employed 
 by  Louis  XV.  to  delineate  the  principal 
 ports,  a  task  which  occupied  him  for  ten 
 years.     He  died  in  1789. 
 
 VERNIER,  Peter,  a  French  mathe- 
 matician, was  born,  about  15^0,  at  Oi  nans, 
 in  Burgundy,  and  died  in  1637.  He  in- 
 vented the  astronomical  instrument  which 
 bears  his  name,  but  which  has  sometimes 
 been  erroneously  attributed  to  Nonius. 
 
 VERNON,  Edward,  a  British  admiral, 
 lescended  from  a  Staffordshire  family,  was 
 
 VER 
 
 born,  in  1684,  at  Westminster,  and  chose 
 the  naval  profession,  in  opposition  to  the 
 wishes  of  his  father,  who  was  secretary  of 
 state  to  William  III.  After  having  served 
 under  Hopson,  Rooke,  and  other  com- 
 manders, he  rose,  in  1739,  to  the  rank  of 
 vice  admiral  of  the  blue.  In  that  year  he 
 took  the  town  of  Porto  Bello,  and  destroyed 
 the  fortifications.  He  was  less  fortunate  in 
 1741,  when,  in  conjunction  with  Went- 
 worth,  he  failed  at  Carthagena.  He  died 
 in  1759. 
 
 VERRI,  Peter,  an  Italian  statesman 
 and  author,  was  born,  in  1728,  at  Milan; 
 cpiitted  the  military  service  for  the  civil, 
 and  held  several  important  offices  under 
 the  Milanese  government;  and  died  in 
 1797.  His  advice  had  considerable  influ- 
 ence in  inducing  Beccaria  to  write  the 
 famous  treatise  on  crimes  and  punishments. 
 His  principal  work  is,  3Ieditatious  on  Po- 
 litical Economy. 
 
 VERRI,  Count  Alexander,  a  brother 
 of  the  foregoing,  was  born,  in  1741,  at 
 Milan;  was  brought  up  to  the  bar,  but 
 quitted  it  to  devote  himself  to  literature; 
 and  died  in  1816.  Among  his  works  are, 
 A  Lite  of  Erostratus;  the  romance  of  Sap- 
 pho; An  Essay  on  the  General  History  of 
 Italy;  Analyses  of  and  Criticisms  upon 
 the  principal  Grecian  Orators;  and  The 
 Roman  Nights;  the  last  of  which  has  been 
 translated  into  several  languages. 
 
 VERROCHIO,  Andrew,  a  sculptor, 
 was  born,  in  1422,  at  Florence,  and  died 
 in  148S.  In  bronze  works  he  surpassed 
 all  his  contemporaries.  Among  his  chief 
 productions  are,  a  Christ  and  St.  Thomas, 
 and  an  equestrian  statue  of  Bartholomew 
 Colleoni.  Verrochio  was  also  an  able  pain- 
 ter, and  one  of  the  best  musicians  of  his 
 period.  He  invented  the  method  of  taking 
 the  features  in  a  plaster  mould. 
 
 VERSTEGAN,  Richard,  an  antiqua- 
 ry, was  born  in  London,  and  was  educated 
 at  Oxford.  Being  a  catholic,  he  settled  at 
 Antwerp,  where,  in  1592,  he  published 
 his  Theatrum  Crudelitatum  Hareticorum, 
 which  gained  him  little  credit,  and  was  the 
 cause  of  his  being  imprisoned  when  he 
 subsequently  visited  Paris.  As  an  anti- 
 quary he  was  more  fortunate.  His  most 
 trainable  work  is  The  Restitution  of  de- 
 cayed Intelligence,  which  has  been  more 
 than  once  reprinted.     He  died  in  1635. 
 
 VERTOT,  Rene  Aubert,  abbe  de,a 
 French  historian,  was  born,  in  1655,  at 
 Benetot,  in  Normandy,  and  was,  succes- 
 sively, a  capuchin  friar,  a  Premonstraten- 
 sian,  a  secular  ecclesiastic,  prior  of  Joy- 
 enval,  and  a  parish  minister.  He  was  also 
 secretary  to  the  duchess  of  Orleans,  histo- 
 riographer of  Malta,  aud  an  associate  of 
 die  academy  of  belles  lettres.  He  died  in 
 1735.  The  principal  works  of  Vertot  are, 
 A  History  of  the   Conspiracy  of  Portugal 
 
VES 
 
 -—of  the  Revolutions  of  Sweden — of  the 
 Revolutions  of  the  Roman  Republic — and 
 of  Malta.  The  style  of  Vertot  is  pleasing, 
 but  he  is  deficient  in  research,  and  is  oc- 
 casionally guilty  of  the  serious  historical 
 fault  of  sacrificing  correctness  to  dramatic 
 effect. 
 
 VERTUE,  Gkorg  k,  an  able  engraver, 
 was  born,  in  1684,  in  Westminster;  was 
 apprenticed  to  a  plate  engraver,  and  after- 
 wards worked  for  seven  years  under  V.in- 
 dergucht.  In  1709  he  be^an  business  for 
 himself.  He  was  patronised  by  Sir  God- 
 frey Kneller,  the  earls  of  Oxford  and  Bur- 
 lington, and  the  prince  of  Wales.  He 
 died  in  1756.  Among  his  engravings, 
 which  amount  to  five  hundred,  are  the 
 heads  for  Rapin's  England,  twelve  heads 
 of  distinguished  poets,  and  portraits  of 
 Archbishop  Tillotson  and  George  I.  It 
 was  principally  from  the  materials  col- 
 lected by  Vertue  that  Horace  Walpole 
 drew  his  Anecdotes  of  Painting. 
 
 VERUS,  Lucius  AuRELius,a  Roman 
 emperor,  was  born  in  130,  and,  with  Mar- 
 cus Aurelius,  was  adopted  by  Antoninus 
 Pius.  He  filled  the  offices  of  questor  and 
 consul,  and,  after  the  death  of  Antoninus, 
 Marcus  Aurelius  associated  him  in  the 
 government.  Verus  obtained  a  triumph, 
 and  the  surname  of  Parthicus,  for  the  suc- 
 cesses of  his  generals  against  the  Partis- 
 ans. He  died  in  169.  His  manners  were 
 dissolute,  but  his  disposition  was  not 
 cruel. 
 
 VESALIUS,  Andrew,  an  eminent 
 anatomist,  was  born,  in  1514,  at  Brussels; 
 was  educated  at  Louvain  and  Paris;  was 
 professor  of  anatomy  at  various  Italian 
 universities;  and  afterwards  chief  physi- 
 cian to  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II. ;  and  died 
 of  hunger  and  fatigue,  in  1563,  in  Zante, 
 on  which  island  he  had  been  shipwrecked 
 as  he  was  returning  from  a  pilgrimage  to 
 Jerusalem.  Vesalius  displayed  an  extra- 
 ordinary predilection  for  the  science  of 
 anatomy  at  a  verv  early  period,  and  his 
 treatise  on  The  Formation  of  the  Human 
 Body  was  composed  when  he  was  only 
 eighteen. 
 
 VESPASIAN,  Titus  Flavjus,  a  Ro- 
 man emperor,  was  born,  at  Rieti,  towards 
 the  close  of  the  reign  of  Augustus;  and, 
 after  having  been  edile,  pretor,  commander 
 of  a  legion,  consul,  and  proconsul  of  Afri- 
 ca, and  having  distinguished  himself  in 
 Germany,  Britain,  and  Palestine,  was 
 raised  to  the  empire,  a.  d.  69.  He 
 reigned  ten  years,  and  died,  in  79,  gene- 
 rally regretted. 
 
 VESPUCCI,  or  VESPUCIUS,  Ame- 
 rigo, an  eminent  navigator,  was  born,  in] 
 1451,  at  Florence;  was  liberally  educated  ;  ! 
 and  was  brought  up  to  commerce.  In  1490  | 
 he  was  sent  by  his  father  to  conduct  his 
 aommercial  affairs  in  Spain.     Stimulated,' 
 
 VIE 
 
 495 
 
 however,  by  the  honour  which  Columbus 
 had  acquired,  Vespucci  quitted  traffic, 
 about  1499,  to  enter  on  the  career  of  dis- 
 covery. He  subsequently  made  several 
 voyages  in  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
 Bervices,  and  explored  a  considerable  ex- 
 tent of  the  South  American  coast.  He 
 died  in  1516.  By  an  act  of  flagrant  in- 
 justice to  Columbus,  the  name  of  one  who 
 was  only  his  imitator  was  given  to  the  new 
 world. 
 
 VICENTE,  Gil,  the  earliest  and  most 
 eminent  of  the  Portuguese  comic  poets, 
 was  born,  about  1480,  at  Guimaraens,  or 
 at  Barcellos;  studied  jurisprudence  at  the 
 university  of  Lisbon;  became  a  popular 
 dramatist,  and  brought  the  drama  of  his 
 country  to  a  much  more  perfect  state;  and 
 died  in  1557.  His  works  were  published 
 by  his  son ;  but  complete  copies  of  them 
 are  now  unattainable. 
 
 VICQ,  D'AZYR,  Felix,  an  able 
 French  anatomist  and  physician,  wan 
 born,  in  1748,  at  Valogne;  lectured  at 
 Paris  with  great  success*  upon  anatomy; 
 became  principal  physician  to  the  queen; 
 and  died  in  1794.  Among  his  works  are, 
 A  Treatise  on  Anatomy  and  Physiology; 
 An  Anatomical  System  of  Quadrupeds; 
 and  A  Treatise  on  the  Curing  of  Horned 
 Cattle.  The  whole  of  his  productions 
 have  been  collected  in  six  volumes. 
 
 VIDA,  Mark  Jerome,  one  of  the 
 most  eminent  of  modern  Latin  poets,  was 
 born,  in  1490,  at  Cremona;  studied  at 
 Padua,  Bologna,  and  Mantua;  was  raised 
 to  the  bishopric  of  Alba  by  Clement  VII. 
 as  a  reward  for  having  written  The 
 Christiad;  and  died  in  1566.  His  works 
 form  two  quarto  volumes.  Among  them 
 are,  The  Art  of  Poetry  ;  Chess  ;  The 
 Christiad;  The  Silkworm;  Hymns;  and 
 other  poems. 
 
 VTEL,  Charles  Francis,  an  archi- 
 tect, was  born,  in  1745,  at  Paris,  and 
 died  there  in  1817.  He  erected  several 
 splendid  edifices  in  the  French  capital; 
 and  wrote  a  Letter  on  Ancient  and  Mod- 
 ern Architecture;  Principles  of  the  Ar- 
 rangements and  Construction  of  Buildings; 
 and  other  works. 
 
 VIEN,  Joseph  Mary,  an  eminent 
 French  painter,  was  born,  in  1716,  at 
 Montpellier;  studied  at  Paris,  under  Na- 
 toire,  and  at  Rome ;  was  received  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Academy,  in  1745,  and  became 
 successively  professor,  rector,  and  direc- 
 tor; and  died  in  1809.  Among  his  best 
 works  are,  St.  Denis  preaching;  a  Sleep- 
 ing Hermit;  the  Parting  of  Hector  and 
 Andromache;  and  Hector  exhorting  Paris 
 to  arm  himself.  David  and  Vincent  were 
 pupils  of  Vien. — His  wife,  Maria,  who 
 died  in  1805,  aged  seventy-seven,  was  an 
 excellent  painter  of  birds,  shells,  and 
 flowers. 
 
496 
 
 VIL 
 
 VIETA,  Francis,  a  celebrated  French 
 mathematician,  wag  born,  in  1540,  at 
 Fontenai  le  Comte,  in  Lower  Poiton,  and 
 died  at  Paris,  in  1603.  He  is  considered 
 as  one  of  the  principal  founders  of  mathe- 
 matical analysis,  and  made  many  improve- 
 ments in  algebra,  among  which  is  the  use 
 of  letters  as  the  symbols  of  quantities. 
 Vieta  was  also  celebrated  as  a  decypherer. 
 His  works  were  edited,  in  a  folio  volume, 
 by  Schooten,  with  the  assistance  of  Golius 
 and  Mersenne. 
 
 VIGEE,  Louis  William  Bernard 
 Stephen,  a  French  poet  and  dramatist, 
 was  born,  in  1755,  at  Paris,  and  died  there 
 in  1820,  reader  to  Louis  XVIII.  He  is 
 the  author  of  many  poems;  a  Course  of 
 Literature,  delivered  at  the  Athenaeum; 
 three  comedies;  and  the  Pro  and  Con,  a 
 religious,  moral,  political,  and  literary 
 dialogue. 
 
 VIGNOLA,  James,  whose  real  name 
 was  BAROZZIO,  a  celebrated  architect, 
 was  born,  in  1507,  at  Vignola,  in  the  Mo- 
 denese  territory,  and  relinquished  paint- 
 ing for  architecture.  He  constructed  va- 
 rious magnificent  edifices  at  Bologna,  Par- 
 ma, Perugia,  and  Rome  ;  but  his  master- 
 piece is  the  Caprarola  palace,  and  he 
 was  intrusted  with  the  management  of  the 
 works  at  St.  Peter's  after  the  death  of 
 Michael  Angelo.  For  the  king  of  Spain 
 he  drew  the  designs  of  the  Escurial;  and 
 in  this  instance  his  plans  were  preferred  to 
 those  of  twenty-two  other  artists.  He  died 
 in  1573.  He  wrote  treatises  on  Perspec- 
 tive, and  on  the  Five  Orders. 
 
 VILLANI,  John,  a  celebrated  Italian 
 historian,  was  born,  before  the  close  of  the 
 thirteenth  century,  at  Florence;  travelled 
 on  various  parts  of  the  continent;  filled 
 several  important  offices  in  his  native 
 country;  and  died  of  the  plague  in  1348. 
 His  History  of  Florence  was  continued  by 
 his  brother  Matthew  and  his  nephew 
 Philip,  the  latter  of  whom  is  also  the  au- 
 thor of  Lives  of  Illustrious  Florentines. 
 
 VILLARET,  Claudius,  a  French  his- 
 torian, was  born,  about  1715,  at  Paris, 
 and  was  brought  up  to  the  bar,  but  quitted 
 it  for  literature,  and  then  went  upon  the 
 stage,  on  which  he  remained  till  1756. 
 He  subsequently  obtained  a  place  in  the 
 Chamber  of  Accounts,  and  was  intrusted 
 with  the  arrangement  of  the  archives  of 
 that  office — a  task  which  led  him  to  ex- 
 amine into  the  sources  of  French  history. 
 In  consequence  of  this,  he  was  employed 
 to  continue  the  work  of  Velly,  and  he  is 
 allowed  to  have  surpassed  his  predecessor. 
 His  portion  of  the  History  extends  from 
 1329  to  1469.  His  other  productions  are 
 forgotten.     He  did  in  1766. 
 
 VILLARS,  Louis  Hector,  marshal, 
 duke  of,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
 French   generals,  was  born,   in   1653,  at 
 
 VIL 
 
 Moulins.  He  served  his  apprenticeship 
 to  the  art  of  war  under  Turenne,  Conde, 
 Luxembourg,  and  Crequi.  Soon  after  the 
 peace  of  Nimeguen,  he  was  sent  ambassa- 
 dor to  Vienna.  In  the  war  which  was 
 terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  he 
 distinguished  himself,  and  particularly  at 
 the  combat  of  Leuze.  In  1699,  he  was 
 again  appointed  ambassador  at  Vienna, 
 and  in  this  situation  he  displayed  infinite 
 diplomatic  skill.  During  the  war  of  the 
 succession  he  was  commander  in  chief  in 
 various  quarters,  and  by  numerous  splendid 
 achievements  acquired  a  right  to  be  con- 
 sidered as  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of 
 the  age.  He  closed,  in  1732,  his  military 
 career,  by  the  conquest  of  the  Milanese 
 and  the  Mantuan.     He  died  in  1734. 
 
 VILLARS,  Montfaucon  de,  a  French 
 abbe,  was  born,  in  1635,  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  Toulouse ;  and  acquired  great 
 reputation  at  Paris  as  a  preacher,  but  was 
 prohibited  from  preaching  in  consequence 
 of  his  publishing  The  Count  de  Gabalis, 
 which  his  enemies  pretended  to  be  an 
 irreligious  work.  He  was  assassinated  in 
 1675.  The  idea  of  the  sylphid  machinery 
 of  the  Rape  of  the  Lock  is  borrowed  from 
 The  Count  de  Gabalis. 
 
 VILLARS,  Dominic,  a  French  botan- 
 ist, was  bom,  in  1745,  in  a  hamlet  of  the 
 Gapencois;  received  a  scanty  education, 
 but  improved  it  by  study ;  became  eminent 
 as  a  physician  and  botanical  lecturer;  and 
 died  in  1814.  Among  his  works  are,  A 
 Natural  History  of  the  Plants  of  Dauphiny; 
 and  Memoirs  on  Topography  and  Natural 
 History. 
 
 VILLEHARDOUIN,  GEOFFRTDE,a 
 French  chronicler,  was  born,  in  1167, 
 near  Arcis  sur  Aube;  held  the  office  of 
 marshal  of  Champagne;  took  a  part  in 
 the  crusade  of  1198,  and  was  present  at 
 the  capture  of  Constantinople;  was  ap- 
 pointed marshal  of  Romania;  and  died  in 
 Thessaly,  about  1213.  He  wrote  a  His- 
 tory of  the  Events  from  1198  to  1207. 
 
 VILLERS,  Charles  Francis  Do- 
 minic, a  French  writer,  was  born,  in  1767, 
 at  Boulay,  in  Lorraine;  served  as  a  cap- 
 tain of  artillery,  but  emigrated  in  1792, 
 and  joined  the  army  of  Conde ;  subse- 
 quently abandoned  military  for  literary 
 pursuits,  settled  in  Germany,  and  became 
 professor  of  French  literature  at  Gottingen ; 
 and  died  in  1815.  His  principal  work  is 
 An  Essay  on  the  Spirit  and  Influence  of 
 the  Reformation  brought  about  by  Luther. 
 
 VILLIERS.     See  Buckingham. 
 
 VILLIERS  DE  LTSLE  ADAM,  Phi* 
 lip  de,  the  forty-third  grand  master  of 
 the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  was  a 
 Frenchman,  born  in  1464.  He  was  re- 
 siding in  France,  as  ambassador  from  his 
 order,  when,  in  1521,  he  was  raised  to  the 
 grand-mastership,  and  he  instantly  hastened 
 
VIN 
 
 back  to  Rhodes,  which  he  knew  to  be 
 threatened  by  the  Turks.  In  the  follow- 
 ing year  he,  for  several  months,  defended 
 the  island  with  desperate  valour  against 
 the  numerous  forces  of  Soli  man  ;  but  was 
 at  length  obliged  to  accept  an  honourable 
 capitulation.  After  having  remained  for 
 some  time  with  his  knights  at  Viterbo,  he 
 took  possession  of  Maka,  which  was  ceded 
 to  the  order  by  Charles  V.  He  died  in 
 1534. 
 
 VILLOISON,  John  Baptist  d'Ansse 
 DE,  a  celebrated  French  hellenist,  was 
 Dorn,  in  1750,  at  Corbcil,  and  at  the  age 
 of  nineteen  had  read,  and  made  critical 
 notes  on,  all  the  Latin  authors  and  many 
 of  the  Greek,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Arabic, 
 he  learned  in  a  few  months  to  read.  Vil- 
 loison  travelled  in  Germany,  Holland,  Italy, 
 and  the  Levant,  in  search  of  manuscripts. 
 He  died,  in  1805,  professor  of  ancient  and 
 modern  Greek  at  the  college  of  France. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Anecdota  Grseca; 
 and  Epistola  Vimarienses. 
 
 VINCE,  Samuel,  an  eminent  mathe- 
 matician, was  born,  of  humble  parentage, 
 at  Fressingfield,  in  Suffolk;  was  educated 
 at  Cains  College,  Cambridge;  became  Plu- 
 miau  professor  of  astronomy  and  experi- 
 mental philosophy  at  Cambridge,  a  fellow 
 of  the  royal  society,  rector  of  Kirkby  Be- 
 don,  vicar  of  South  Creek,  and  archdeacon 
 of  Bedford;  and  died  in  1821.  His  prin- 
 cipal works  are,  A  Complete  System  of 
 Astronomy;  The  Principles  of  Fluxions; 
 The  Principles  of  Hydrostatics ;  Elements 
 of  Conic  Sections;  and  A  Treatise  on 
 Trigonometry. 
 
 VINCENT,  William,  an  able  critic 
 and  divine,  was  born,  in  1739,  in  London ; 
 was  educated  at  Westminster  School,  and 
 at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  was  suc- 
 cessively usher,  second  master,  and  head 
 master,  of  the  former  seminary,  and  pre- 
 bend and  dean  of  Westminster;  and  died 
 in  1815.  His  principal  works  are,  The 
 Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the  Ancients 
 in  the  Indian  Ocean ;  Sermons ;  The  Con- 
 jugation of  the  Greek  Verb ;  and  A  Defence 
 of  Public  Education. 
 
 VINCENT  DE  PAUL,  St.  a  French 
 divine  and  philanthropist,  was  born,  in 
 1576,  at  Ranquines,  and  closed  in  1660  a 
 life  which  had  been  devoted  to  acts  of  be- 
 nevolence. He  was  considered  as  "the 
 father  of  the  poor  and  the  steward  of  Pro- 
 vidence." France  is  indebted  to  him  for 
 the  institution  of  the  Daughters  of  Charity, 
 and  of  various  other  establishments  to 
 alleviate  the  sufferings  of  his  fellow  crea- 
 tures.    He  was  canonized  in  1737. 
 
 VINCI,  Leonardo  da,  a  celebrated 
 Italian  painter,  the  natural  son  of  a  notary, 
 was  born,  in  1452,  at  a  castle  near  Flo- 
 rence, whence  he  derived  his  name.  To 
 the  personal  gifts  which  he  received  from 
 
 VIS 
 
 497 
 
 nature  were  joined  the  advantages  of  an 
 excellent  education,  and  he  early  acquired 
 an  extensive  knowledge  of  mathematics 
 and  other  branches  of  science.  Verocchio 
 was  his  preceptor  in  painting,  and  da  Vinci 
 soon  surpassed  him.  In  1489  he  was  in- 
 vited to  Milan,  by  duke  Louis  Sforza,  and 
 he  resided  there  for  many  years,  acting  at 
 once  as  engineer,  mechanist,  sculptor,  ar- 
 chitect, and  painter.  During  the  period 
 of  his  abode  there  he  executed  his  great 
 work,  the  Last  Supper,  and  formed  the 
 canal  of  Martesana.  He  was  subsequently 
 employed  at  Florence  and  at  Rome.  In 
 1515  he  accepted  an  invitation  from  Fran- 
 cis I.  to  visit  France,  and  he  died  in  that 
 country  in  1519.  The  story  that  he  ex- 
 pired in  the  arms  of  Francis  appears  to  be 
 a  fiction.  Da  Vinci  is  the  author  of  a 
 Treatise  on  Painting,  and  of  some  unpub- 
 lished works. 
 
 VINER,  Charles,  an  English  law 
 writer,  was  born,  about  1680,  at  Aldershot, 
 in  Hampshire;  spent  a  considerable  part 
 of  his  life  in  compiling  the  well  known 
 General  Abridgment  of  Law  and  Equity; 
 endowed  several  fellowships  and  scholar- 
 ships, and  founded  the  law  professorship, 
 at  Oxford ;   and  died  in  1756. 
 
 VIRGIL,  or  Pcblius  VIRGILTUS 
 MARO,  the  greatest  of  the  Roman  poets, 
 was  born,  b.  c.  70,  at  Andes,  near  Man- 
 tua, and  studied  at  Cremona,  Milan,  and 
 Naples.  It  appears  to  have  been  in  his 
 thirtieth  year  that  he  first  visited  Rome. 
 His  object  was,  to  obtain  restitution  of  his 
 lands,  of  which  the  soldiers  of  Octavius 
 had  taken  possession  after  the  battle  of 
 Philippi.  Through  the  interest  of  Varus 
 and  Pollio  he  obtained  from  Augustus  the 
 desired  order;  but,  when  he  returned  with 
 it,  the  military  usurper  compelled  him  to 
 save  his  life  by  swimming  over  the  Mincio. 
 A  second  mandate,  however,  had  the  wished 
 for  effect.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  devoted 
 to  literature,  and  was  cheered  by  the  friend- 
 ship of  Augustus,  Maecenas,  and  all  the 
 other  eminent  men  of  the  age.  The  fame 
 which  he  acquired  by  his  Eclogues,  and 
 The  Georgics,  he  crowned  by  The  JEneid ; 
 to  which  last  work,  however,  he  did  not 
 live  to  put  the  finishing  touches.  On  hi6 
 return  from  meeting  Augustus,  at  Athens, 
 he  died  at  Brundusium,  B.  c.  19,  and  was 
 buried  at  Naples. 
 
 VIRIATHUS,  an  illustrious  Lusitanian 
 chief,  who  was  originally  a  shepherd,  ani- 
 mated his  countrymen  to  throw  off  the  yoke 
 of  Rome.  He  repeatedly  defeated  the  Ro- 
 man armies,  and  for  fourteen  years  suc- 
 cessfully defended  the  liberty  of  Lusitania 
 and  a  part  of  Spain.  He  was  at  last  mur- 
 dered by  his  servants  (b.  c.  40),  who  had 
 been  bribed  by  Coepio,  the  Roman  general. 
 
 VISCONTI,  John  Baptist  Antho- 
 ny, a  learned  Italian  antiquary,  was  born, 
 
498 
 
 VOE 
 
 in  1722,  at  Vernazza,  in  the  Genoese  terri-| 
 tory ;   was  educated  at  Rome ;   succeeded 
 Winckelman  as  commissary  of  antiquities  I 
 there;   had  a  large  share  in  tne  formation 
 of  the  Pio-Clementine  Museum;   and  died! 
 in   1784.     He  wrote   various  essays  upon 
 antiquarian  subjects. 
 
 VISCONTI,  Ennius  Quirinos,  the 
 eldest  son  of  the  foregoing,  and  more  than 
 his  equal  in  archaeological  knowledge,  was 
 horn,  in  1751,  at  Koine;  displayed  un- 
 common precocity  of  talent ;  was  appointed 
 conservator  of  the  museum  of  the  Capitol 
 bv  Pius  VI.;  was  minister  of  the  home 
 department,  and  subsequently  one  of  the 
 consuls,  of  the  shortlived  Roman  republic; 
 was  in  consequence  compelled  to  seek  an 
 asylum  in  France;  became  there  a  member 
 of  the  Institute,  professor  of  archaeology, 
 and  administrator  of  the  museum  ;  and 
 died  in  1818.  Among  his  numerous  Works 
 are,  The  Description  of  the  Pio-CIemen- 
 tine  Museum;  Grecian  Iconography;  and 
 Roman  Iconography. 
 
 VITELLIUS,  Aulus,  one  of  the  most 
 contemptible  of  the  Roman  emperors,  was 
 born,  a.  D.  15,  at  Rome;  rose  to  greatness 
 by  being  subservient  to  the  vices  of  his 
 imperial  masters ;  was  at  the  head  of  the 
 legions  in  Lower  Germany  when  Galba 
 died;  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  his  sol- 
 diers, and  obtained  full  possession  of  it  on 
 the  fall  of  Otho;  and  was  put  to  death, 
 a.  D.  69,  after  a  disgraceful  reign  of  only 
 eight  months.  His  inordinate  gluttony  was 
 his  least  vice. 
 
 VITRUVIUS  POLLIO,  Marcus,  a 
 celebrated  Roman  writer  on  architecture, 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  born  at  Formia, 
 in  Campania  ;  to  have  flourished  under 
 Julius  Caesar  and  Augustus;  and  to  have 
 lived  to  a  very  advanced  age.  He  wrote 
 an  able  work,  in  ten  books,  on  Architec- 
 ture. 
 
 VIVARES,  Francis,  an  eminent  en- 
 graver, was  born,  in  1709,  in  France,  at 
 St.  Jean  de  Breul,  a  village  of  Rouergue; 
 came  to  London  in  1729,  and  was  appren- 
 ticed to  his  uncle,  a  tailor;  but  left  the 
 shopboard,  was  instructed  in  engraving  by 
 Amiconi,  and  rose  to  eminence,  particu- 
 larly in  landscape.     He  died  in  1780. 
 
 VIVIAN  I,  Vincent,  a  celebrated  Ital- 
 ian mathematician,  was  born,  in  1622,  at 
 Florence;  was  the  last  pupil  of  Galileo, 
 and  was  also  instructed  by  Turricelli; 
 became  geometrician  and  chief  engineer  to 
 the  duke  of  Tuscany,  and  a  member  of 
 various  learned  bodies;  and  died  in  1703. 
 He  restored  a  part  of  the  lost  works  of 
 Aristeus  and  Apollonius;  and  wrote  some 
 valuable  mathematical  treatises. 
 
 VOET,  or  VOETIUS,  Gisbf.rt,  a 
 Dutch  theologian,  was  born,  in  1593,  at 
 Heusden ;  became  professor  of  theology 
 and  the  oriental  languages  at  Utrecht;  and 
 
 VOL 
 
 distinguished  himself  by  his  intolerance 
 against  the  Arminians,  and  his  hostility  to 
 Cocceius  and  Descartes,  the  latter  of  whom 
 he  accused  of  being  a  disguised  Jesuit  and 
 an  atheist.  His  partisans  were  called 
 Voetians,  in  opposition  to  the  Cocceians, 
 who  espoused  the  cause  of  Cocceius.  He 
 died  in  1677.  His  numerous  works  are 
 now  nearly  forgotten. 
 
 VOISENON,  Claudius  Henry  FU- 
 SEE de,  a  French  dramatist  and  miscella- 
 neous writer, was  born,  in  1708,near  Melun  ; 
 was  educated  for  the  church,  and  became 
 grand  vicar  to  the  bishop  of  Boulogne,  on 
 whose  decease  he  very  properly  refused 
 the  bishopric  because  he  deemed  himself 
 unfit  for  the  episcopal  office;  spent  his  life 
 in  literary  pursuits,  in  conviviality,  and  in 
 licentiousness;  and  died  in  1775.  Among 
 his  works  are,  Comedies;  and  Fugitive 
 Poetrv. 
 
 VOITURE,  Vincent,  a  French  wit 
 and  poet,  was  the  son  of  a  winemerchant, 
 and  was  born,  in  1598,  at  Amiens.  His 
 manners  and  talents  conciliated  to  him  the 
 kindness  of  the  great,  and  he  became  a 
 favourite  at  the  hotel  de  Rambouillet  and 
 at  court.  Gaston,  duke  of  Orleans,  was 
 much  attached  to  him,  and  made  him  his 
 master  of  the  ceremonies.  Under  the  ad- 
 ministration of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  Voiture 
 was  in  the  zenith  of  his  reputation,  and 
 enjoyed  large  pensions  ;  but  women  and 
 gambling  kept  him  poor.  In  private  life 
 his  character  was  amiable.  His  best  poem 
 is  an  Epistle  to  the  Prince  of  Conde.  His 
 Letters,  which  were  once  considered  as 
 inimitable,  are  now  almost  wholly  neg- 
 lected. 
 
 VOLNEY,  Constantine  Francis 
 CHASSEBCEUF,  count  de,  an  eminent 
 French  writer,  was  born,  in  1757,  at 
 Craon,  in  Britanny.  He  was  educated  at 
 Angers,  and  for  three  years  studied  medi- 
 cine at  Paris;  but  coming  into  possession 
 of  a  small  estate  he  was  enabled  to  indulge 
 his  ardent  desire  of  Travelling.  He  spent 
 three  years  in  Syria  and  Egypt;  and  on 
 his  return  published,  in  17S7,  his  Travels, 
 which  established  his  reputation.  He  was 
 elected  a  member  of  the  states  general; 
 was  confined  for  ten  months  during  the 
 reign  of  terror;  was  appointed  professor 
 of  history  at  the  Normal  school  in  1794; 
 and  in  1795  made  a  voyage  to  the  United 
 States,  whence  he  did  not  return  till  1798. 
 Napoleon  created  him  a  senator  and  a 
 count.  In  all  circumstances,  however, 
 Volney  was  a  friend  of  freedom.  He 
 died  April  25,  1820.  Among  his  principal 
 works  are,  The  Ruins;  Lectures  on  His- 
 tory; and  New  Researches  on  Ancient 
 History. 
 
 VOLPATO,  John,  an  eminent  Italian 
 engraver,  was  born,  in  1733,  at  Bassano. 
 Till  ho  was  twenty-one  he  followed  the 
 
VOL 
 
 trade  of  an  embroiderer,  but  lie  subse- 
 quently, by  his  own  unaided  efforts,  ac- 
 quired such  perfection  in  engraving  as 
 ranked  him  among  the  best  modern  artists. 
 He  died  in  1S02.  VoIpatO  is  the  author 
 of  The  Principles  of  Design.  Raphael 
 Morghen  was  his  pupil  and  son-in-law. 
 
 VOLTA,  Alexander,  a  celebrated 
 experimental  philosopher,  who  contributed 
 largely  to  the  progress  of  science,  was  of 
 a  noble  family,  and  was  born,  in  1745,  at 
 Como;  was  for  thirty  years  professor  of 
 natural  philosophy  at  Pavia;  was  made  an 
 Italian  count  and  senator  by  Napoleon ; 
 was  a  member  of  many  learned  bodies; 
 and  died  March  6,  1S26.  Electricity  was 
 the  first  object  to  which  Volta  turned  his 
 attention;  and  he  invented  the  perpetual 
 electrophorus  and  the  condenser.  But  the 
 great  invention  which  immortalizes  his 
 name  is  the  Voltaic  pile,  to  which  we  are 
 indebted  for  so  many  important  philosoph- 
 ical and  chemical  discoveries.  His  works 
 form  five  octavo  volumes. 
 
 VOLTAIRE,  Marie  Francis  AROU- 
 ET    de,    the    most    universal    of  French 
 
 vos 
 
 499 
 
 he  lived  for  short  periods  at  Geneva  and 
 other  places,  and  at  length  purchased  an 
 estate  at  Ferney,  in  the  Pays  de  Gex,  on 
 which  he  finally  settled.  There,  in  pos- 
 session of  a  large  fortune,  and  surrounded 
 by  friends,  he  gave  free  scope  to  his  inde- 
 fatigable pen.  In  April,  1778,  he  went 
 once  more  to  Paris,  after  an  absence  of 
 nearly  thirty  years.  He  was  received  with 
 enthusiasm,  his  bust  was  crowned  on  the 
 stage,  and  was  placed  by  the  Academi- 
 cians next  to  that  of  Corneille;  but  he  did 
 not  long  enjoy  these  honours,  for  he  expir- 
 ed on  the  30th  of  May,  and  his  death  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  hastened  by  an 
 overdose  of  laudanum,  which  he  took  to 
 calm  the  pain  occasioned  by  strangury; 
 and  to  procure  sleep,  of  which  he  had  long 
 been  deprived.  His  collected  works,  in 
 the  edition  of  Beaumarchais,  form  seventy 
 volumes.  "  He  was,"  says  a  French  au- 
 thor, '*  one  of  our  greatest  poets ;  the  most 
 brilliant,  the  most  elegant,  the  most  fertile, 
 of  our  prose  writers.  There  is  not,  in  the 
 literature  of  any  country,  either  in  verse 
 or  in  prose,  an  author  who  has  written  on 
 writers,  was  born,  February  20,  1694,  at 'so   many  opposite  kinds   of  subjects,   and 
 
 Chatenay,  near  Sceaux,  and  was  educated 
 with  great  care  at  the  Jesuits'  College  at 
 Paris.  One  of  his  tutors  predicted  that  he 
 would  be  the  Coryphaeus  of  deism  in  France ; 
 and  the  society  which  the  youthful  poet 
 frequented,  elegant,  but  licentious  and 
 irreligious,  did  not  tend  to  falsify  the  pre- 
 diction. His  father  destined  him  for  the 
 magistracy,  but  the  literary  propensity  of 
 the  son  was  unconquerable.  In  his  twen- 
 ty-second year  he  was  sent  to  the  Bastile, 
 by  the  regent,  on  an  unfounded  suspicion 
 of  his  being  the  author  of  a  libel,  and, 
 while  he  was  in  prison,  he  formed  the  plan 
 of  The  Henriade,  and  completed  the  trag- 
 edy of  CEdipus.  The  tragedy  was  repre- 
 sented in  1718  with  distinguished  success. 
 
 has  so  constantly  displayed  a  superiority 
 in  all  of  them." 
 
 VONDEL,  Justus  Vanden,  a  Dutch 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1587,  at  Cologne,  but 
 his  parents  settled  in  Holland  while  he  was 
 a  child.  He  was  by  trade  a  hosier,  but  he 
 left  business  almost  wholly  to  his  wife,  that 
 he  might  cultivate  poetry,  and  at  length  he 
 obtained  an  office  under  government.  He 
 died  in  1697.  He  wrote  thirty-two  trage- 
 dies, and  many  poems  ;  and  translated 
 Virgil,  Horace,  and  Ovid. 
 
 VON  VISIN,  Denis  Ivanovitsch,  a 
 Russian  dramatist  and  miscellaneous  wri- 
 ter, was  born,  in  1745,  at  Moscow;  and 
 died  in  1792,  counsellor  of  state,  and 
 member  of   the    Russian   Academy.       He 
 
 Two  others,  by  which  it  was  succeeded,  i  wrote  Comedies;  Poems;  Letters;  and 
 were  less  fortunate.  A  second  unjust  con-|  Callisthenes,  a  Greek  tale;  and  translated 
 finement  in  the  Bastile  induced  him  to  take  i  various  works  from  the  German  and 
 up    his    residence    in    England    for  three!  French. 
 
 years,  where  he  was  favourably  received  by|  VOSS,  John  Henry,  a  German  poet 
 many  illustrious  characters,  and  obtained  j  and  critic,  was  born,  in  1751,  at  Sommers- 
 a  large  subscription  for  The  Henriade.  In  doff,  and  was  educated  at  Gottingen.  In 
 1728  he  returned  to  France,  and  between  \  1775  he  began  to  edit  the  Almanac  of  the 
 that  year  and  1749  he  produced  his  trage-l  Muses,  and  he  conducted  it  till  1800.  He 
 dies  of  Zara,  Alzira,  Mahomet,  MeropeJ  was  appointed  rector  of  the  college  of  Ot- 
 and  many  other  works;  was  admitted  into' tendorf,  in  1778,  whence  he  was  removed 
 the  French  Academy;  and  was  appointed  j  to  fill  the  same  office  at  Eutin.  At  the 
 gentleman  of  the  king's  chamber  in  ordi-j  latter  place  he  remained  for  three  and 
 i»arv,  and  historiographer  of  France.  In !  twenty  years.  The  grand  duke  of  Baden 
 1750  he  accepted  the  invitation  of  the  king!  invited  him,  in  1S05,  to  Heidelburg,  and 
 of  Prussia  to  Berlin.  For  a  while  the  he  died  there  in  1826.  Voss  wrote  Louisa, 
 covereign  and  the  poet  were  on  the  most  a  poem;  Idylls;  Miscellaneous  Poems; 
 amicable  terms;  but  in  1753  their  friend-;  Letters  on  Mythology;  and  other  works; 
 ship  was  broken,  and  Voltaire  quitted  the  and  translated  Homer,  Hesiod,  Theocritus, 
 Prussian  dominions.  Paris,  in  conse-  Virgil,  Horace,  and  several  other  Greek 
 quence  of  the  intrigues  of  his  enemies,  and  Roman  poets. 
 Deing  no  longer  an  eligible  abode  for  him,  |     VOSSIUS,  Gerard  John,  an  eminent 
 
500 
 
 WAK 
 
 critic  and  philologist,  was  born,  in  1577, 
 near  Heidelberg;  studied  at  Dort  and 
 Leyden ;  was  removed  from  the  professor- 
 ship of  rhetoric  and  chronology  at  Leyden, 
 in  consequence  of  his  favouring  the  Re- 
 monstrants; obtained  a  prebend  in  Can- 
 terbury Cathedral,  through  the  influence  of 
 Laud,  with  a  dispensation  from  residence 
 in  England;  and  died,  in  1633,  professor 
 of  history  at  Amsterdam.  His  works  form 
 six  volumes  folio. 
 
 VOSSIUS,  Isaac,  son  of  the  foregoing, 
 was  born,  in  1618,  at  Leyden,  and  acquired 
 reputation  by  publishing,  at  the  age  of 
 twenty-one,  an  edition  of  the  Periplus  of 
 Scylax,  with  a  Latin  version  and  notes. 
 After  having  resided  for  some  time  at 
 Stockholm,  to  which  capital  he  was  in- 
 vited  by    Christina,  and    subsequently  in 
 
 WAK 
 
 his  own  country,  he  settled  in  England,  in 
 1670,  and  was  made  canon  of  Windsor. 
 He  died  in  1688.  His  works  are  numer- 
 ous, and  bear  ample  testimony  to  his 
 learning.  He  was  rude  in  his  manners, 
 sceptical  as  to  religion,  but  of  boundless 
 credulity  in  all  other  matters.  Charles  II. 
 said  of  him  that  he  believed  every  thing 
 but  the  Bible. 
 
 VOUET,  Simon,  a  French  painter,  was 
 born,  in  1582,  at  Paris;  learned  the  rudi- 
 ments of  art  from  his  father,  who  was  also 
 a  painter;  resided  for  several  years  in 
 Italy;  was  recalled  by  Louis  XIIL,  who 
 employed  him  in  the  Louvre  and  Luxem-" 
 burgh  palaces  ;  and  died  in  1649.  Lebrun, 
 Le  Sueur,  Mignard,  and  other  eminent 
 artists,  were  his  pupils. 
 
 w 
 
 WADHAM,  Nicholas,  the  founder  of 
 the  college  which  bears  his  name  at  Ox- 
 ford, was  born,  about  1536,  in  Somerset- 
 shire, and  was  educated  at  Christ  Church 
 College.  He  died  in  1610;  and  the  semi- 
 nary to  the  establishment  of  which  he 
 devoted  a  large  part  of  his  fortune  was 
 completed  in  1613. 
 
 WAILLY,  Noel  Francis  de,  a 
 French  lexicographer  and  grammarian, 
 was  born,  in  1724,  at  Amiens;  settled  at 
 Paris  as  a  teacher;  became  a  member  of 
 the  Institute;  and  died  in  1801.  He  pub- 
 lished an  Abridgment  of  the  Dictionary 
 of  the  Academy:  General  and  Particular 
 Principles  of  the  French  Language;  and 
 other  works ;  and  edited  various  classical 
 authors. 
 
 WAILLY,  Charles  de,  an  eminent 
 architect,  was  born,  in  1729,  at  Paris; 
 studied  his  art  under  Blondel,  Lejay,  and 
 Servandoni,  and  at  Rome;  was  a  member 
 of  the  Institute,  and  the  founder  of  the 
 society  of  the  Friends  of  the  Arts;  and 
 died  in  1798.  His  principal  works  are, 
 the  Spinola  palace  at  Genoa,  the  mansion 
 of  Ormes  in  Touraine,  and  the  hotel  of 
 Argenson,  and  the  Odeon  at  Paris.  The 
 Odeon  was  the  joint  production  of  Wailly 
 and  Peyre. 
 
 WAKE,  Willi  am,  a  learned  and  pious 
 prelate,  was  born,  in  1627,  at  Blandford, 
 in  Dorsetshire ;  and  was  educated  at  Christ 
 Church,  Oxford.  After  leaving  college, 
 lie  was  successively  chaplain  to  the  British 
 embassy  at  Paris,  preacher  at  Gray's  Inn, 
 king's  chaplain  to  William  III.,  and  dep- 
 uty clerk  of  the  closet,  rector  of  St  James's 
 Westminster,  and  dean  of  Exeter.  He  also 
 distinguished  himself  as  a  controversialist 
 against  the  Catholics,  particularly  in  reply 
 
 to  Bossuet,  and  had  the  rare  merit  of  con- 
 troverting without  acrimony.  In  1705  ha 
 was  raised  to  the  see  of  Lincoln,  whence, 
 in  1716,  he  was  translated  to  Canterbury. 
 He  died  in  1737.  Wake  endeavoured  to 
 promote  a  union  of  the  English  and  Gal- 
 lican  churches;  a  well-meant  measure,  for 
 which  he  was  grossly  calumniated.  Among 
 his  works  are,  Sermons;  an  Exposition  of 
 the  Catechism;  and  a  version  of  the  Epis- 
 tles of  the  Apostolical  Fathers. 
 
 WAKEFIELD,  Gilbert,  a  scholar 
 and  critic,  was  born,  in  1756,  at  Notting- 
 ham, and  was  educated  at  Jesus  College, 
 Oxford.  After  having  been  a  curate  at 
 Stockport,  and  also  near  Liverpool,  he 
 quitted  the  church,  and  became  classical 
 tutor  at  the  Warrington  Dissenting  Acad- 
 emy. In  1790  he  was  appointed  to  the 
 same  office  in  Hackney  College,  but  held 
 it  only  a  year.  Being  a  warm  friend  to 
 the  French  revolution,  and  as  warmly  hos- 
 tile to  the  war  against  the  republic,  he 
 took  a  decided  part  in  the  angry  politics 
 of  that  disturbed  period.  In  1798  he  was 
 prosecuted  for  a  Reply  to  the  Bishop  of 
 
WAL 
 
 LlandafPs  AddresB  to  the  People  of  Great 
 Britain,  and  was  sentenced  to  an  impris- 
 onment of  two  years  in  Dorchester  Gaol. 
 During  his  captivity  a  subscription  amount- 
 ing to  five  thousand  pounds  was  raised  for 
 him.  He  died  in  1801,  soon  after  his 
 liberation.  Among  his  works  are,  his  own 
 Memoirs ;  a  translation  of  the  New  Tes- 
 tament; Silva  Critica;  a  Reply  to  Paine's 
 Age  of  Reason ;  and  editions  of  various 
 classics,  and  of  Pope's  Homer. 
 
 WALES,  William,  a  mathematician 
 and  astronomer,  was  born  about  1734; 
 went  to  Hudson's  Bay  in  1769  to  observe 
 the  transit  of  Venus ;  accompanied  Captain 
 Cook  in  two  voyages  round  the  world; 
 and  died,  in  1798,  mathematical  master 
 at  Christ's  Hospital,  and  secretary  to  the 
 board  of  longitude.  Among  his  works  are, 
 Astronomical  Observations  in  the  Southern 
 Hemisphere;  a  treatise  on  the  Discovery 
 of  the  Longitude  by  means  of  Timepieces; 
 and  an  Inquiry  into  the  Population  of 
 England  and  Wales. 
 
 WALKER,  Clement,  apolitical  wri- 
 ter of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  born  at 
 Clifte,  in  Dorsetshire;  was  educated  at 
 Christ  Church,  Oxford ;  and  became  M.  P. 
 for  Wells.  Being  a  zealous  presbyterian, 
 he  was  violently  hostile  to  the  Indepen- 
 dents, against  whom  he  published,  in  1648, 
 A  History  of  Independency.  He  also  at- 
 tacked the  protector  in  a  treatise  called 
 Cromwell's  Slaughter  House.  He  was  com- 
 mitted to  the  Tower,  and  died  there  in  1651. 
 WALKER,  George,  an  Irish  divine, 
 was  born,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  in 
 the  county  of  Tyrone;  was  educated  at 
 the  university  of  Glasgow;  and  became 
 rector  of  Donoghmore.  When  James  II. 
 invaded  Ireland,  Walker  raised  a  regi- 
 ment, and  successfully  defended  London- 
 derry against  hiin,  after  the  governor  had 
 abandoned  his  post.  He  was  nominated 
 bishop  of  Derry,  but  was  killed  soon  after 
 at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  He  wrote  an 
 Account  of  the  Siege. 
 
 WALKER,  Adam,  an  astronomical 
 lecturer  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was 
 born,  in  1731,  in  Westmoreland,  and  very 
 early  displayed  a  turn  for  mechanics. 
 While  following  his  father's  business  of  a 
 woollen  manufacturer,  he  used  to  amuse 
 himself  with  making  models  of  mills.  He 
 was,  in  succession,  an  usher,  a  mathemati- 
 cal teacher,  a  tradesman,  and  the  master 
 of  an  academy;  and  at  last  became,  and 
 continued  through  life,  a  highly  popular 
 lecturer  on  astronomy.  He  died  February 
 11, 1821.  Among  his  works  are,  A  System 
 of  Familiar  Philosophy;  Lectures  on  Ex- 
 perimental Philosophy;  A  Treatise  on 
 Geography;    and  two  Tours. 
 
 WALKER,  John,  a  lexicographer,  was 
 born,  in  1732,  at  Friern  Barnet,  in  Hert 
 
 WAL  501 
 
 academy,  and,  subsequently,  a  lecturer  on 
 elocution  ;  and  died  in  1807.  His  princi- 
 pal works  are,  A  Pronouncing  Dictionary; 
 a  Rhyming  Dictionary;  Elements  of  Elo- 
 cution ;   and  a  Rhetorical  Grammar. 
 
 WALKER,  John,  a  physician  and  geo- 
 graphical writer,  was  born,  in  1759,  at 
 Cockermouth,  and  died  June  23,  1830. 
 This  singular  character  passed  through  the 
 various  occupations  of  engraver,  smith, 
 one  of  the  crew  of  a  privateer,  school- 
 master, and  medical  practitioner.  In  the 
 latter  capacity  he  contributed  greatly  to 
 diffuse  vaccination,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
 decease  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  Vaccine 
 Institution.  He  published  a  Gazetteer 
 and  Atlas. 
 
 WALL,  John,  a  physician,  was  born, 
 in  1708,  at  Powick,  in  Worcestershire; 
 was  educated  at  Worcester  Grammar 
 School,  and  at  Merton  College,  Oxford; 
 settled  at  Worcester  as  a  medical  practi- 
 tioner; and  died  in  1776.  Wall  first  made 
 known  the  virtues  of  the  Malvern  waters, 
 and  he  contributed  to  establish  the  porce- 
 lain manufactory  at  Worcester. 
 
 WALLACE,  Sir  William,  a  Scottish 
 patriot  and  hero,  the  younger  son  of  Sir 
 Malcolm  Wallace  of  Ellerslie,  in  Renfrew- 
 shire, was  born  in  1276.  Indignant  at 
 seeing  his  country  enslaved  by  Edward  I. 
 he  resolved  to  undertake  its  liberation. 
 His  success  at  the  head  of  a  small  band  of 
 followers  induced  many  of  the  barons  to 
 join  him,  and  he  gained  a  splendid  victory 
 over  Earl  Warenne,  at  Cambuskenneth. 
 He  was  appointed  regent,  but  his  elevation 
 having  excited  jealousy  among  the  nobles, 
 he  resigned  the  office.  The  defeat  of  the 
 Scots,  at  Falkirk,  compelled  Wallace  to 
 resort  to  his  original  system  of  predatory 
 warfare,  and  for  seven  years  he  continued 
 to  harass  the  invaders;  but,  in  1305,  he 
 was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  Edward  by 
 Sir  John  Monteith,  and  the  monarch  stained 
 his  character  by  executing  his  captive  as  a 
 traitor. 
 
 WALLENSTEIN,  WALSTEIN,  or 
 WALDSTEIN,  Albert  Venceslaus 
 Eusebius,  duke  of  Friedland,  a  celebra- 
 ted German  general,  was  born,  in  1583,  in 
 Bohemia,  and  began  life  as  page  to  the 
 margrave  of  Burgau,  son  of  the  archduke 
 Ferdinand.  After  having  travelled  over 
 nearly  the  whole  of  Europe,  he  married  a 
 widow  possessed  of  immense  riches,  who 
 left  him  a  widower  at  the  end  of  four  years. 
 At  the  head  of  a  formidable  army  raised  by 
 him  for  the  service  of  the  emperor,  and 
 paid  from  his  own  resources  and  from  un- 
 limited plunder,  he,  for  several  years,  dis- 
 tinguished himself  by  his  successes  in  Mor- 
 avia, Bohemia,  and  Northern  Germany, 
 and  was  rewarded  with  the  dukedoms  of 
 Mecklenbursh  and  Friedland.      His 
 
 fordshire  ;     was,   at   first,   master   of   an  I  mies  at  length  succeeded   in  procuring  his 
 
502 
 
 WAL 
 
 dismission,  and  he  retired  to  Prague,  where! 
 he  lived  with  all  the  state  of  a   sovereign. 
 The  progress  of  Gustavns   Adolphus  coin- 
 
 I jelled  the  emperor,  in  1632,  to  place  Wal- 
 enstein  again  in  command  of  his  forces, 
 with  allnost  regal  authority-  He  foiled 
 Gustavus  at  Nuremberg,  but  was  defeated 
 at  Leipsic.  At  length  he  was  accused  of  j 
 treason,  and  his  commission  was  revoked; 
 and,  while  he  was  meditating  projects  of  j 
 revenge,  he  was  assassinated,  in  1634,  by 
 some  of  his  own  officers. 
 
 WALLER,  Sir  William,  an  eminent  j 
 parliamentary  general,  was  born,  in  1 597, ; 
 in  Kent,  and  was   educated  at    Magdalen  I 
 College  and  Hart  Hall,  Oxford.      On   his 
 returning  from   serving  as  a  volunteer    in 
 Germany,    against    the  emperor,   he    was 
 elected   for   Andover  as  a   member  of  the] 
 Long  Parliament.     He  opposed   the  court,  | 
 and,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war,  was 
 made  second  in  command  under  the  earl  of  | 
 Essex.      He   fought  chiefly  in  the  west  of 
 England,  and  with   varied   fortune.      The  I 
 self-denying  ordinance  excluded  him  from 
 service,  and  he  became  so  much  an  object  ( 
 of  suspicion  to  the  republicans,  that  he  was 
 twice  imprisoned.     He  died  in  1668.     Hej 
 wrote  Divine  Meditations;  and  a  Vindica- 
 tion of  his  conduct. 
 
 WALLER,  Edmund,  an  elegant  poet,) 
 the  son  of  a  Buckinghamshire  gentleman 
 of  large  fortune,  was  born,  in  1603,  at 
 Coleshill,  in  Warwickshire,  and  was  edu- 
 cated at  Eton,  and  at  King's  College, 
 Cambridge.  In  his  sixteenth  or  seven- 
 teenth year  he  sat  in  parliament,  and  in  his 
 eighteenth  he  began  to  display  his  poetical 
 talents.  His  already  large  fortune  he  in- 
 creased by  a  marriage  with  a  rich  heiress, 
 who  soon  left  him  a  widower,  and  he  then 
 unsuccessfully  paid  court  to  Lady  Dorothea 
 Sidney,  the  Sacharissa  of  his  verses.  In 
 the  Long  Parliament  he  was  a  moderate 
 opponent  of  the  court,  and  he  was  one  of 
 the  commissioners  appointed  to  treat  with 
 the  king  at  Oxford.  He  was  either  already 
 a  secret  royalist,  or  was  converted  by  his 
 intercourse  with  the  monarch;  for,  soon 
 after  his  visit  to  Oxford,  he  entered  into  a 
 conspiracy  against  the  house  of  commons. 
 _t  was  discovered;  but  Waller  saved  his 
 life:  though  at  the  expense  of  such  cow- 
 ardice, treachery,  and  cunning,  as  tho- 
 roughly disgraced  him.  He  was  fined  ten 
 thousand  pounds,  and  banished.  Cromwell, 
 however,  permitted  him  to  return,  and 
 treated  him  with  favour;  and  the  gratitude 
 of  the  poet  was  displayed  by  a  splendid 
 panegyric,  and,  subsequently,  by  the  less 
 questionable  tribute  of  an  elegy  on  the 
 leath  of  the  protector.  During  the  reigns 
 of  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  he  was  highly 
 distinguished  at  court,  and  was  generally 
 admired  for  his  abilities  and  his  wit.  He 
 died  in  1687. 
 
 WAL 
 
 WALLERIUS,  John  Gottschalk, 
 a  Swedish  naturalist,  was  born,  in  1709, 
 in  the  district  of  Necke,  and  died,  in  1805, 
 professor  of  chemistry,  metallurgy,  and 
 pharmacy,  at  the  university  of  Upsal.  His 
 countrymen  consider  him  to  have  been  one 
 of  those  who,  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
 contributed  the  most  to  the  diffusion  of 
 science  and  literature  among  them.  He 
 wrote  several  works  on  mineralogy,  me- 
 tallurgy, chemistry,  and  agriculture. 
 
 WALLIS,  John,  an  eminent  mathema- 
 tician and  divine,  was  born,  in  1616,  at 
 Ashford,  in  Kent;  was  educated  at  Ema- 
 nuel College,  Cambridge;  obtained,  in 
 1643,  the  living  of  St.  Gabriel,  Fenchurch 
 Street;  was  chosen,  in  1649,  Savilian  pro- 
 fessor of  geometry  at  Oxford ;  was  made 
 keeper  of  the  archives  there,  in  1658 ;  re- 
 tained his  offices  at  the  Restoration,  and 
 was  appointed  one  of  the  royal  chaplains; 
 was  one  of  the  earliest  members  of  the 
 Royal  Society;  and  died  in  1703.  Wallis 
 had  consummate  skill  in  the  art  of  deci- 
 phering, and  his  talents  were  much  called 
 into  use  by  the  republican  and  succeeding 
 regal  governments.  He  was  also  one  of 
 the  first  who  gave  the  power  of  speech  to 
 the  deaf  and  dumb.  As  a  mathematician 
 his  fame  stands  high  both  in  England  and 
 on  the  continent.  His  mathematical  works 
 form  three  volumes,  and  his  theological  a 
 fourth. 
 
 WALN,  Robert,  a  miscellaneous  wri- 
 ter, was  born  in  Philadelphia,  and  was 
 liberally  educated,  but  adopted  no  profes- 
 sion. He  was  the  author  of  The  Hermit 
 in  Philadelphia,  a  satire;  The  American 
 Bards,  a  satire;  Sisyphi  Opus, or  Touches 
 at  the  Times;  a  History  of  China;  some 
 of  the  lives  in  the  Biography  of  the  Signers 
 of  the  Declaration  of  Independence;  a  Life 
 of  Lafayette ;  and  an  account  of  the  Quaker 
 Hospital  at  Frankford,  near  Philadelphia. 
 He  died  in  1824,  at  the  age  of  thirty-one. 
 
 WALPOLE,  Robert,  earl  of  Oxford, 
 a  statesman,  was  born,  in  1676,  at  Hough- 
 ton, his  father's  seat,  in  Norfolk,  and  was 
 educated  at  Eton,  and  at  King's  College, 
 Cambridge.  He  first  sat  in  parliament, 
 in  1701,  as  member  for  Castle  Rising;  but 
 in  the  following  year  he  was  elected  for 
 Lvnn,  which  he  tnenceforth  continued  to 
 represent.  As  a  senator  he  soon  distin- 
 guished himself  among  the  whigs.  In  1708 
 he  was  appointed  secretary  at  war;  in 
 1709,  treasurer  of  the  navy;  and  in  1710 
 one  of  the  managers  of  Sacheverell's  trial; 
 but,  on  the  triumph  of  the  tories,  he  lost 
 his  offices,  and  was  expelled  the  house,  and 
 committed  to  the  Tower,  on  an  unproved 
 charge  of  breach  of  trust  and  corruption. 
 The  accession  of  George  I.  restored  the 
 ascendancy  of  Walpole's  party,  and  he 
 was  made  paymaster  of  the  forces,  and, 
 subsequently,   prime   minister.      Disputes. 
 
WAL 
 
 with  his  colleagues,  however,  induced  him 
 to  resign,  in  1717,  and  he  remained  in  op- 
 position till  1720,  when  he  once  more 
 became  paymaster  of  the  forces.  On  the 
 retirement  of  Lord  Sunderland,  Walpole 
 was  again  raised  to  the  high  situation  of 
 premier,  and  that  situation  he  retained  for 
 two  and  twenty  years,  in  spite  of  incessant 
 attacks  from  political  enemies  of  splendid 
 talents.  To  maintain  peace  was  one  of  the 
 main  objects  of  his  administration.  In 
 1742  he  resigned,  and  was  created  earl  of 
 Orford.  He  died  in  1745.  "  The  pru- 
 dence, steadiness,  and  vigilance  of  that 
 man,  joined  to  the  greatest  lenity  in  his 
 character  and  politics  (says  Burke),  pre- 
 served the  crown  to  this  royal-family;  and 
 with  it,  their  laws  and  liberties  to  this 
 countrv." 
 
 WALPOLE,  Horatio,  lord,  brother 
 of  the  foregoing,  was  born  in  1678;  held 
 various  offices  under  the  government;  was 
 employed  as  ambassador  to  France  and 
 Holland;  was  created  a  peer  in  1756;  and 
 died  in  1757.  He  wrote  an  answer  to 
 Bolingbroke's  Letters  on  History;  and 
 some  political  pamphlets. 
 
 WALPOLE,  Horace,  earl  of  Orford, 
 the  youngest  son  of  Sir  Robert,  a  man  of 
 varied  and  brilliant  talents,  was  born  in 
 1718,  and  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at 
 King's  College,  Cambridge.  In  1741  he 
 entered  parliament  as  member  for  Calling- 
 ♦on,  and  he  afterwards  represented  Castle 
 Rising  and  Lynn.  He  was  a  steady  whig 
 and  an  independent  senator,  but  took  no 
 active  part  in  the  business  of  the  legisla- 
 ture; and  in  1768  retired  wholly  from  it. 
 Literature  and  virtu  were  the  great  occu- 
 pations of  his  life;  and  much  of  his  exist- 
 ence was  dedicated  to  embellishing  his 
 villa  at  Strawberry  Hill,  near  Twicken- 
 ham, and  forming  a  collection  there.  At 
 that  place  he  also  established  a  private 
 press,  and  printed  several  works.  In  1791 
 he  succeeded  to  the  earldom ;  an  accession 
 of  dignity  which  he  would  have  been  glad 
 to  have  avoided.  He  died  in  1797.  His 
 works  form  several  volumes  in  quarto, 
 independent  of  his  numerous  Letters. 
 
 WALSLNGHAM,  Sir  Francis,  an 
 eminent  statesman,  was  born,  in  1536,  at 
 Chiselhurst,  in  Kent;  was  educated  at 
 King's  College,  Cambridge;  and  acquired 
 a  knowledge  of  men  and  modern  languages 
 by  foreign  travel.  After  having  been  am- 
 bassador to  France,  he  was,  in  1573,  ap- 
 pointed one  of  the  secretaries  of  state,  and 
 was  knighted.  In  1581  he  was  a  second 
 time  sent  to  France,  and  in  1583  to  Scot- 
 land. As  a  minister  he  was  active  and 
 vigilant,  but  his  policy  was  of  the  Machi- 
 avelian  character,  which  cannot  honestly 
 be  praised.  In  the  final  proceedings  against 
 Mary  queen  of  Scots  he  acted  a  conspicu- 
 ous part      He  died  poor  in  159Q.     The 
 
 WAL 
 
 503 
 
 papers  relative  to  his  second  negotiations 
 in  France  were  published  by  Sir  Dudley 
 Digges,  in  1665,  with  the  title  of  The  Com- 
 plete Ambassador. 
 
 WALTER,  John  Theophilus,  a 
 celebrated  German  anatomist,  was  born,  in 
 1734,  at  Koenigsberg;  studied  at  Frankfort 
 on  the  Oder ;  became  professor  of  anatomy 
 and  midwifery  at  Berlin;  and  died  in 
 1818.  He  performed  more  than  eight 
 thousand  dissections,  and  formed  a  cabinet 
 consisting  of  nearly  three  thousand  highly 
 interesting  anatomical  subjects.  Among 
 his  works  are,  Anatomical  Observations; 
 and  Treatises  on  Myology,  Osteology,  and 
 Neurology. 
 
 WALTON,  Izaak,  was  born,  in  1593, 
 at  Stafford,  and  kept  a  linen  draper's  shop 
 in  London,  first  in  the  Royal  Exchange, 
 and  lastly  in  Fleet  Street,  at  the  corner  of 
 Chancery  Lane.  About  1643  he  quitted 
 the  metropolis,  and  he  died  at  Winchester 
 in  1683.  His  Complete  Angler  has  long 
 afforded  delight  not  only  to  those  who  are 
 fond  of  angling,  but  to  general  readers  of 
 taste,  and  has  passed  through  numerous 
 editions.  His  Lives  of  Hooker,  Sanderson, 
 Wotton,  Donne,  and  Herbert,  exhibit  him 
 in  a  highly  favourable  light  as  a  biogra- 
 pher.    Wordsworth  says  of  them, 
 
 The  feather  whence  the  pen 
 Was  shaped  that  traced  the  lives  of  these 
 
 good  men 
 Dropped  from  an  angel's  wing. 
 
 At  a  very  advanced  age  Walton  published, 
 under  the  name  of  Chalkhill,  Thealma  and 
 Clearchus,  a  Pastoral  History. 
 
 WALTON,  Brian,  a  divine  and  orien- 
 tal scholar,  was  born,  in  1600,  at  Seymour 
 in  Cleveland,  Yorkshire;  was  educated 
 at  Peter  House,  Cambridge  ;  obtained  con- 
 siderable ecclesiastical  preferment,  of  which 
 he  was  deprived  during  the  civil  wars; 
 published  in  1657  his  Polyglott  Bible;  and 
 was  made  bishop  of  Chester  at  the  Restor- 
 ation, but  died,  shortly  after,  in  1661. 
 He  wrote  Introductio  ad  Lectionem  Lin- 
 guarum  Orientalium;  a  Defence  of  the 
 Polvglott  Bible  j  and  a  pamphlet  on  tithes. 
 
504 
 
 WAR 
 
 WALTON,  George,  a  signer  of  the 
 declaration  of  American  independence, 
 was  born  in  Frederick  county,  Virginia, 
 about  the  year  1740.  He  was  early  ap- 
 prenticed to  a  carpenter,  but  at  the  expira- 
 tion of  his  apprenticeship  he  removed  to 
 Georgia  and  entered  the  office  of  an  attor- 
 ney at  law.  In  1776  he  was  elected  to  the 
 continental  congress.  At  the  siege  of 
 Savannah  he  was  wounded  and  taken  pris- 
 oner, but  was  exchanged  in  September, 
 1779.  In  the  following  month  he  was 
 appointed  governor  of  the  state,  and  in  the 
 succeeding  January  was  elected  a  member 
 of  congress  for  two  years. 
 
 W  A  RB  URTO  N ,  W  l  l  l  i  a  m  ,  an  emi  nent 
 prelate  and  writer,  was  born,  in  1698,  at 
 Newark.  After  having  been  educated  at 
 Okeham  and  Newark  schools,  he  served 
 his  clerkship  to  an  attorney,  and  was 
 admitted  to  practice.  Tiring,  however,  of 
 the  law,  he  turned  to  the  church,  and  took 
 deacon's  orders  in  1723.  In  1726  he  ob- 
 tained the  vicarage  of  Greasley,  and  in 
 1729  the  rectory  of  Brant  Broughton. 
 Between  1723  and  1729  he  published  Mis- 
 cellaneous Translations,  An  Inquiry  into 
 the  Causes  of  Prodigies  and  Miracles,  and 
 a  Treatise  on  the  Legal  Judicature  of 
 Chancery.  These  were  preludes  to  his 
 great  works,  The  Alliance  between  Church 
 and  vState,  which  appeared  in  1738,  and 
 the  first  volume  of  his  Divine  Legation, 
 which  was  given  to  the  world  in  1738. 
 His  Vindication  of  Pope's  Essay  on  Man 
 acquired  for  him  the  friendship  of  that 
 poet,  who  introduced  him  to  Mr.  Allen, 
 of  Batii,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of 
 his  fortune.  He  rose  successively  to  be 
 king's  chaplain,  prebend  of  Durham,  dean 
 of  Bristol,  and  bishop  of  Gloucester;  to 
 the  last  of  these  dignities  he  attained  in 
 1759.  He  died  in  1779.  His  original 
 works  were  collected  in  six  quarto  volumes 
 by  his  friend  Bishop  Hurd.  The  talents 
 of  Warburton  were  great;  his  erudition 
 was  still  greater;  and  his  vanity  and  arro- 
 gance were  in  full  proportion  to  his  abili- 
 ties and  learning. 
 
 WARD,  Seth,  a  prelate  and  mathoma- 
 tician,  was  born,  in  1618,  at  Buntingford; 
 was  educated  at  Sidney  College,  Cam- 
 bridge; became  Savilian  professor  of  as- 
 tronomv;  was  made  bishop  of  Exeter  in 
 1662,  whence,  in  1677,  he  was  translated 
 to  Salisbury;  and  died  in  16S9.  He  wrote 
 various  mathematical  works ;  Sermon.-;  a 
 Treatise  against  Hobbes;  and  a  Philoso- 
 phical Essay  on  the  Being  and  Attributes 
 of  God,  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  &c. 
 
 WARE,  Sir  James, an  Irish  antiquary, 
 was  born,  in  1604,  at  Dublin;  and  was 
 educated  at  Trinity  College,  in  that  city; 
 succeeded  his  father,  in  1632,  as  auditor 
 general,  and  secretary  to  the  lords  justices ; 
 was  elected   representative  for  his  native 
 
 WAR 
 
 place,  and  made  one  of  the  privy  council; 
 was  an  active  partisan  of  the  earl  pf 
 Strafford  and  of  Charles  I. ;  was  twice  a 
 captive  to  the  parliament;  resided  in 
 France  for  some  years  after  his  liberation; 
 accompanied  Charles  II.  to  England,  and 
 was  restored  to  his  posts;  and  died  in 
 1666.  Among  his  principal  works  are, 
 De  Scriptoribus  Hibernise;  De  Hibernia 
 et  ejus  Antiquitatibus  Disquisitiones;  Re- 
 rum  Hibernicarum  Annales;  and  De  Pnes- 
 ulibus  Hibernia?. 
 
 WARE,  James,  an  eminent  surgeon 
 and  oculist,  was  born,  about  1756,  at  Ports- 
 mouth, and  was  apprenticed  to  Mr.  Karr, 
 surgeon  of  the  king's  dockyard  at  that 
 place.  After  having  been  demonstrator 
 under  Dr.  Collignon,  professor  of  anatomy 
 at  Cambridge,  he  formed  a  partnership, 
 in  the  metropolis,  with  Mr.  Wathen,  which 
 continued  till  1791.  Subsequent  to  that 
 period  he  practised  on  his  own  account, 
 and  ranked  high  among  British  surgeons. 
 He  died  in  1815.  Among  his  works  are, 
 Observations  on  Opthalmy;  Remarks  on 
 Fistula  Lachrymalis ;  and  Chirurgical  Ob- 
 servations. 
 
 WARING,  Edward,  a  mathematician, 
 was  born,  in  1734,  at  Fitz,  in  Shropshire; 
 was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  free  school, 
 and  at  Magdalen  College,  Cambridge; 
 was  chosen  Lucasian  professor  at  the  age 
 of  twenty-five;  became  a  fellow  of  the 
 Royal  Society,  and  member  of  the  board 
 of  longitude ;  and  died  in  1798.  He  wrote 
 Miscellanea  Analytica;  Meditationes  An- 
 alytical; Meditationes  Algebraical ;  and 
 An  Essay  on  the  principles  of  Human 
 Knowledge. 
 
 WARREN,  Sir  John  Borlase,  an 
 eminent  naval  officer,  was  born,  in  1754, 
 in  Cornwall;  entered  the  naval  service  at 
 an  early  age  from  Winchester  school;  and 
 completed  his  education  subsequently  at 
 Emanuel  College,  Cambridge.  During  tbte 
 American  war  he  performed  several  gal- 
 lant actions,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  post 
 captain.  In  the  two  wars  of  the  French 
 revolution,  he  equally  distinguished  him- 
 self; particularly  in  capturing  the  Hoche 
 and  six  frigates;  and  he  attained  the  rank 
 of  admiral  in  1810.  After  the  peace  of 
 Amiens,  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
 Russia,  in  which  post  he  remained  till 
 1805.  He  sat  in  parliament  in  1774  and 
 1780  for  Great  Mar  low,  and  in  1796  and 
 1802  for  Nottingham.  He  died  February 
 27,  1822.  Sir  J.  B.  Warren  is  the  author 
 of  A  View  of  the  Naval  Force  of  Great 
 Britain. 
 
 WARREN,  Charles,  an  eminent  en- 
 graver, died  suddenlv,  of  an  enlargement 
 of  the  heart,  April  2i,  1823.  To  Warren 
 the  arts  are  indebted  for  having  brought 
 to  perfection  the  process  of  engraving  on 
 steel. 
 
WAR 
 
 WARREN,  Joseph,  a  patriot  of  the 
 American  revolution,  was  horn  in  Roxbury, 
 near  Boston,  in  1741,  and  was  graduated 
 at  Harvard  College  in  1759.  He  pursued 
 the  profession  of  medicine,  and  soon  after 
 commencing  the  practice,  distinguished 
 himself  by  his  successful  treatment  of  the 
 small  pox.  Early  engaging  in  politics, 
 he  obtained  great  influence,  and  rendered 
 efficient  service  by  his  writings  and  ad- 
 dresses. He  was  twice  elected  to  deliver 
 the  oration  in  commemoration  of  the  mas- 
 sacre on  the  fifth  of  March.  In  June  1775, 
 the  provincial  congress  of  Massachusetts, 
 of  which  he  was  at  this  time  president, 
 made  him  a  major-general  of  their  forces. 
 At  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  he  fought  as 
 a  volunteer,  and  was  slain  within  a  few 
 yards  of  the  breast  work  as  he  was  among 
 the  last  slowly  retiring  from  it.  He  was 
 a  man  of  the  most  generous  and  intrepid 
 spirit,  much  elegance  of  manners,  and  of 
 commanding  eloquence.  His  loss  was 
 deeply  felt  and  regretted.  In  1776  his 
 remains  were  removed  from  the  battle 
 ground,  and  interred  in  Boston. 
 
 WARREN,  James,  was  born  at  Plym- 
 outh in  1726,  and  was  graduated  at  Har- 
 vard College  in  1745.  He  took  an  early 
 and  active  part  in  the  cause  of  the  colonies 
 against  the  aggressions  of  the  mother 
 country,  was  a  member  of  the  general 
 court,  proposed  the  establishment  of  com- 
 mittees of  correspondence,  and  after  the 
 death  of  general  Warren,  was  appointed 
 president  of  the  provincial  congress.  He 
 was  afterwards  appointed  a  major  general 
 of  the  militia.  On  the  adoption  of  the 
 constitution  of  Massachusetts,  he  was  for 
 many  years  speaker  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
 resentatives.  He  died  at  Plymouth  in  1808. 
 
 WARREN,  Mercy,  the  wife  of  general 
 James  Warren,  was  the  author  of  a  valu- 
 able History  of  the  American  Revolution ; 
 The  Adulator,  and  the  Group,  two  political 
 pieces  before  the  revolution ;  and  a  volume 
 of  poems.  She  died  at  Plymouth,  in 
 1814. 
 
 WARREN,  John,  a  celebrated  phy- 
 sician, was  born,  in  1753,  at  Roxbury, 
 Massachusetts,  and  was  graduated  at  Har- 
 vard College.  He  delivered  the  first  course 
 of  lectures  on  anatomy,  ever  given  in  New- 
 England,  and  was  appointed  professor  on 
 the  foundation  of  Dr.  Hersey.  Through 
 life,  he  enjoyed  a  very  high  reputation,  as 
 a  physician  and  anatomist.  He  died  in 
 1815. 
 
 WARTON,  Joseph,  a  poet  and  critic, 
 was  born,  in  1722,  at  Dunsfold,  in  Surrey; 
 was  educated  at  Winchester  school,  and  at 
 Oriel  College,  Oxford  ;  took  his  degree  of 
 D.  D.  in  176S;  held,  at  various  periods, 
 the  livings  of  Winslade,  Tamworth,  Thor- 
 ley,  Easton,  and  Wickham,  and  prebends 
 of  St.  Paul's  and  Winchester,  and  was 
 22 
 
 WAS 
 
 506 
 
 head  master  of  Winchester  school  from 
 17C6  to  1793.  He  died  in  1800.  He  wrote 
 Poems ;  and  An  Essay  on  Pope ;  contrib- 
 uted to  the  Adventurer;  translated  the 
 Eclogups  and  Georgics ;  and  edited  the 
 works  of  Drvden  and  Pope. 
 
 WARTON,  Thomas,  a  poet,  critic,  and 
 miscellaneous  writer,  brother  of  the  fore- 
 going, was  born,  in  1728,  at  Bassingstoke  ; 
 and  was  educated  at  Winchester  school, 
 and  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford.  His  first 
 poetical  work  was  The  Triumph  of  Isis  ; 
 the  next,  The  Progress  of  Discontent.  As 
 a  poet  he  was  much  superior  to  his  brother. 
 In  1757  he  was  chosen  poetry  professor  att 
 Oxford;  m  1771  obtained  the  living  of 
 Kiddington  ;  in  1781  that  of  Hill  Farrance  ; 
 and  in  1785  was  appointed  Camden  pro- 
 fessor of  history  and  poet  laureat.  He 
 died  in  1790.  His  principal  works  are,. 
 Poems  ;  Observations  on  the  Faery  Queen  ; 
 and  The  History  of  English  Poetry.  Of 
 the  last  work  an  elegant  and  enlarged 
 edition  was  published  a  few  years  since  by 
 Mr.  Price. 
 
 WASHINGTON,  George,  the  illus- 
 trious founder  of  American  independence, 
 was  born,  in  1732,  in  the  county  of  Fair- 
 fax, in  Virginia,  where  his  father  was  pos- 
 sessed of  great  landed  property.  He  was 
 educated  under  the  care  of  a  private  tutor, 
 and  paid  much  attention  to  the  study  of 
 mathematics  and  engineering.  He  was 
 first  employed  officially  by  General  Din- 
 widdie,  in  1753,  in  remonstrating  to  the 
 French  commander  on  the  Ohio,  for  the 
 infraction  of  the  treaty  between  the  two 
 nations.  He  subsequently  negotiated  a 
 treaty  of  amity  with  the  Indians  on  the 
 back  settlements,  and  for  his  honourable 
 services  reeeived  the  thanks  of  the  British 
 government.  In  the  unfortunate  expedi- 
 tion of  general  Braddock  he  served  as  aid- 
 de-camp,  and  on  the  fall  of  that  brave  but 
 rash  commander,  he  conducted  the  retreat 
 to  the  corps  under  colonel  Dunbar  in  a 
 manner  that  displayed  great  military  talent. 
 He  retired  from  the  service  with  the  rank 
 of  colonel ;  but  while  engaged  in  agricul- 
 ture at  his  favourite  seat  of  Mount  Ver- 
 non, he  was  elected  senator  in  the  national 
 
506 
 
 WAS 
 
 council  for  Frederic  county,  and  afterwards 
 for  Fairfax.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
 revolutionary  war.  he  was  selected  as  the 
 most  proper  person  to  take  the  chief  com- 
 mand of  the  provincial  troops.  From  the 
 moment  of  taking  upon  himself  this  im- 
 portant office,  in  June,  1775,  he  employed 
 the  great  powers  of  his  mind  to  his  favour- 
 ite object,  and  by  his  prudence,  his  valour, 
 and  presence  of  mind  he  deserved  and 
 obtained  the  confidence  and  gratitude  of 
 his  country,  and  finally  triumphed  over  all 
 opposition.  The  record  of  his  services  is 
 the  history  of  the  whole  war.  He  joined 
 the  army  at  Cambridge  in  July,  1775.  On 
 the  evacuation  of  Boston  in  March,  1776, 
 he  proceeded  to  New- York.  The  battle 
 of  Long  Island  was  fought  on  the  27th  of 
 August,  and  the  battle  of  White-plains  on 
 the  28th  of  October.  On  the  25th  of 
 December  he  crossed  the  Delaware,  and 
 soon  gained  the  victories  at  Trenton  and 
 Princeton.  The  battle  of  Brandywine  was 
 fought  on  September  11th,  1777;  of  Ger- 
 mantown,  October  4th;  of  Monmouth, 
 February  28th,  1778.  In  1779  and  1780 
 he  continued  in  the  vicinity  of  New- York, 
 and  closed  the  important  military  opera- 
 tions of  the  war  by  the  capture  of  Corn- 
 wallis,  at  Yorktown,  in  1781.  When  the 
 independence  of  his  country  was  establish- 
 ed by  the  treaty  of  peace,  Washington 
 resigned  his  high  office  to  the  congress, 
 and,  followed  by  the  applause,  and  the 
 grateful  admiration  of  his  fellow  citizens, 
 retired  into  private  life.  His  high  charac- 
 ter and  services  naturally  entitled  him  to 
 the  highest  gifts  his  country  could  bestow, 
 and  on  the  organization  of  the  government 
 he  was  called  upon  to  be  the  first  president 
 of  the  states  which  he  had  preserved  and 
 established.  It  was  a  period  of  great 
 difficulty  and  danger.  The  unsubdued 
 spirit  of  liberty  had  been  roused  and  kind- 
 led by  the  revolution  of  France,  and  many 
 Americans  were  eager  that  the  freedom 
 atid  equality  which  they  themselves  enjoy- 
 ed  should  be  extended  to  the  subjects  of  the 
 French  monarch.  Washington  anticipated 
 the  plans  of  the  factious,  and  by  prudence 
 and  firmness  subdued  insurrection,  and 
 silenced  discontent,  till  the  parties  which 
 the  intrigues  of  Genet  the  French  envoy 
 had  roused  to  rebellion,  were  convinced  of 
 the  wildness  of  their  measures  and  of  the 
 wisdom  of  their  governor.  The  presi- 
 dent completed,  in  1796,  the  business  of  his 
 office  by  signing  a  commercial  treaty  with 
 Great  Britain,  and  then  voluntarily  re- 
 signed his  power  at  a  moment  when  all 
 hands  and  all  hearts  were  united,  again  to 
 confer  upon  him  the  sovereignty  of  the 
 country.  Restored  to  the  peaceful  retire- 
 ment of  Mount  Vernon,  he  devoted  himself 
 to  the  pursuits  of  agriculture ;  and  though 
 he  accepted  the  command  of  the  army  in 
 
 WAT 
 
 1798,  it  was  merely  to  unite  the  affec- 
 tions of  his  fellow  citizens  to  the  general 
 good,  and  was  one  more  sacrifice  to  his 
 high  sense  of  duty.  He  died  after  a  short 
 illness  on  the  14tli  of  December  1799.  He 
 was  buried  with  the  honours  due  to  the 
 noble  founder  of  a  happv  and  prosperous 
 republic.  History  furnishes  no  parallel  to 
 the  character  of  Washington.  He  stands 
 on  an  unapproached  eminence  ;  distinguish- 
 ed almost  beyond  humanity  for  self  com- 
 mand, intrepidity,  soundness  of  judgment, 
 rectitude  of  purpose,  and  deep  ever-active 
 piety. 
 
 WASHINGTON,  Bushrod,  an  emi- 
 nent judge,  was  born  in  Westmoreland 
 county,  Virginia,  and  was  educated  at 
 William  and  Mary's  College.  He  pursued 
 the  study  of  the  law  in  the  office  of  Mr. 
 Wilson  of  Philadelphia,  and  commenced 
 its  practice  with  great  success  in  his  native 
 county.  In  1781  he  was  a  member  of  the 
 house  of  delegates  of  Virginia.  He  after- 
 wards removed  to  Alexandria,  and  thence 
 to  Richmond,  where  he  published  two  vol- 
 umes of  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme 
 Court  of  Virginia.  In  1798  he  was  ap- 
 pointed an  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme 
 Court  of  the  United  States,  and  continued 
 to  hold  this  situation  till  his  death  in 
 November,  1829.  He  was  the  favourite 
 nephew  of  President  Washington,  and  was 
 the  devisee  of  Mount  Vernon. 
 
 WATELET,  Claudius  Henry,  a 
 French  writer,  was  born,  in  1718,  at 
 Paris ;  was  receiver  general  of  the  finan- 
 ces ;  patronised  and  understood  the  arts, 
 being  himself  a  proficient  in  painting, 
 engraving,  and  sculpture ;  was  a  member 
 of  the  French  Academv,  and  of  other 
 bodies  connected  with  literature  and  the 
 arts  ;  and  died  in  1786.  Among  his  works 
 are,  The  Art  of  Painting,  a  poem ;  Essay 
 on  Gardens;  and  A  Dictionary  of  Painting, 
 En2Tavinq\  and  Sculpture. 
 
 WATERLAND,  Daniel,  a  learned 
 divine  and  controversialist,  was  born,  in 
 1683,  at  Waselv,  in  Lincolnshire,  and  was 
 educated  at  Lincoln  free  school,  and  at 
 Magdalen  College,  Cambridge,  of  the  last 
 of  which  seminaries  he  became  master. 
 He  died,  in  1740,  chancellor  of  York, 
 archdeacon  of  Middlesex,  canon  of  Wind- 
 sor, and  vicar  of  Twickenham.  Among 
 his  works  are,  A  History  of  the  Athanasian 
 Creed;  Scripture  Vindicated;  A  Defence 
 of  Christ's  Divinity;  A  Review  of  the 
 Doctrine  of  the  Eucharist ;  and  Remarks 
 on  Dr.  Clarke'.*  Exposition  of  the  Church 
 Catechism. 
 
 WATSON,  FtOBERT,  an  historian,  was 
 born,  in  1730,  at  St.  Andrews;  was  edu- 
 cated at  that  university,  and  at  Glasgow 
 and  Edinburgh ;  became  professor  of  logic, 
 rhetoric,  and  belles  lettres  at  St.  Andrew's, 
 and  subsequently  principal;  and  died  in 
 
WAT 
 
 1780.  He  wrote  The  History  of  Philip  If. 
 of  Spain;  and  left  unfinished  A  History 
 of  Philip  III. ;  which  was  completed  by 
 Dr.  Thompson. 
 
 WATSON,  Henry,  a  celebrated  en- 
 gineer, the  son  of  a  grazier,  was  born, 
 about  1737,  at  Holbeach,  in  Lincolnshire; 
 was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  mathemat- 
 ical contributors  to  the  Lady's  Diary  at 
 the  age  of  sixteen  ;  completed  his  educa- 
 tion at  the  Royal  Academy  at  Woolwich  ; 
 and  obtained  a  commission  in  the  corps  of 
 engineers.  He  so  much  distinguished  him- 
 self at  the  sieges  of  Belleisle  and  the 
 Havannah,  that  Lord  Clive  took  him  to 
 Bengal,  as  chief  engineer.  Among  the 
 works  which  Watson  executed  are  the 
 fortifications  of  Fort  William,  and  those 
 at  Budge  Budge  and  Melancholy  Point. 
 He  died  in  1786,  soon  after  his  return  to 
 England. 
 
 WATSON,  Richard,  an  eminent  pre- 
 late and  writer,  was  born,  in  1737,  at 
 Haversham,  in  Westmoreland.  He  com- 
 menced his  education  under  his  father, 
 who  was  master  of  the  free  grammar 
 school  at  his  native  place,  and  he  com- 
 pleted it  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
 where  he  studied  with  unremitting  appli- 
 cation. In  1764  he  was  chosen  professor 
 of  chemistry,  and,  in  1771,  regius  profes- 
 sor of  divinity.  In  politics  he  was  of  the 
 liberal  school,  and  he  made  a  full  avowal 
 of  his  opinions  in  a  sermon,  called  The 
 Principles  of  the  Revolution  "vindicated, 
 which  he  preached  before  the  university  in 
 1776,  and  which  excited  much  comment. 
 In  the  same  year  he  published  his  Apology 
 for  Christianity,  in  answer  to  Gibbon.  In 
 1782  he  was  made  bishop  of  Llandaff ;  but 
 George  III.  having  imbibed  a  prejudice 
 against  him,  he  obtained  no  further  promo- 
 tion. He  died  July  4,  1816.  Among 
 his  other  works  are,  Chemical  Essays ; 
 Apology  for  the  Bible ;  and  his  own  Me- 
 moirs. 
 
 WAT 
 
 507 
 
 WATT,  James,  a  celebrated  natural 
 philosopher  and  engineer,  the  son  of  a 
 tradesman,  was  born,  in  1736,  at  Green- 
 ock, in  Scotland,  and  began  life  as  a 
 mathematical  instrument  maker.     In  that 
 
 rapacity  he  was  employed  by  the  univer- 
 sity of  his  native  place  from  1757  to  1763. 
 It  whs.  in  1764,  while  he  was  engaged  in 
 repairing  the  model  of  a  steam  engine, 
 that  the  idea  of  improving  the  construction 
 arose  in  his  mind.  His  first  discovery  was 
 that  of  the  mode  of  avoiding  the  enormous 
 loss  of  power  occasioned  by  cooling  the 
 cylinder  ;  his  next  was  the  substitution  of 
 the  expansive  power  of  steam  instead  of 
 the  atmospueric  pressure.  To  these  he 
 subsequently  added  many  others,  which 
 brought  the  steam  engine  to  its  present 
 state  of  perfection.  In  1774  he  entered 
 into  partnership  with  Mr.  Boulton,  of  Bir- 
 mingham. His  subsequent  life  was  cheer- 
 ed by  extensive  fame  and  ample  fortune. 
 He  died  August  25,  1819.  Among  his 
 other  inventions  are  a  micrometer,  a  copy- 
 ing machine,  and  a  machine  for  making 
 drawings  in  perspective.  Watt  possessed 
 an  extraordinary  memory,  a  more  than 
 superficial  acquaintance  with  many  sciences 
 and  arts,  and  a  knowledge  of  several 
 modern  languages.  Some  of  his  chemical 
 papers  are  printed  in  the  Philosophical 
 Transactions. 
 
 WATT,  Robert,  a  physician  and  bib- 
 liographer, was  born,  in  1774,  in  Ayrshire  ; 
 became  president  of  the  faculty  of  physi- 
 cians and  surgeons  at  Glasgow ;  and  died 
 in  that  city,  March  12,  1819.  He  compil- 
 ed the  Bibiiotheca  Britannica ;  and  wrote 
 a  Treatise  on  Chinc.ough  ;  and  some  medi- 
 
 no    tmcts 
 
 WATTEAU,  Anthony,  a  French  ar- 
 tist, was  born,  in  1684,  at  Valenciennes. 
 He  received  little  instruction,  and  began  by 
 being  a  scene  painter  at  Paris,  but  his 
 admirable  genius  soon  raised  him  above 
 that  humble  occupation.  He  gained  the 
 prize  of  the  Academy  for  a  picture,  and 
 thenceforth  continued  to  increase  in  fame. 
 He  died  in  1721.  The  engravings  from 
 his  compositions,  to  the  number  of  five 
 hundred  and  sixty-three,  form  three  vol- 
 umes. Comic  conversations,  movements 
 of  armies,  landscapes,  and  grotesques,  are 
 his  principal  subjects. 
 
 WATTS,  Dr.  Isaac,  a  pious  and  highly 
 gifted  nonconformist  divine,  was  born  in 
 1674,  at  Southampton,  and  was  educated 
 at  the  free  school  there,  and  also  at  a  dis- 
 senting academy  in  London.  In  his  twen- 
 ty-second year  he  became  tutor  to  the  son 
 of  Sir  John  Hartopp,  and  in  1702  he  suc- 
 ceeded Dr.  Chauncey  as  minister  of  a  con- 
 gregation in  the  metropolis.  Nearly  the 
 last  forty  years  of  his  blameless  life  were 
 spent  in  the  family  of  his  friend,  Sir 
 Thomas  Abney,  at  Stoke  Newington.  His 
 theological  and  miscellaneous  works  form 
 six  quarto  volumes,  and  many  of  them  are 
 still  popular.  His  poems  have  a  place 
 in  the  collections  of  the  standard  British 
 poets. 
 
(< 
 
 WEB 
 
 WATTS,  Jane,  an  accomplished  fe- 
 male, whose  maiden  name  was  Waldie, 
 was  born,  in  1792,  at  Hendersyde  Park, 
 in  Roxburgshire  ;  displayed  precocious  tal- 
 ents ;  acquired  music,  French,  Italian, 
 Spanish,  and  Latin,  without  assistance, 
 and  painting  with  very  little  ;  gave  proof 
 of  superior  literary  powers  in  her  Sketches 
 oi  Italy,  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Flanders, 
 and  many  smaller  pieces ;  and  died  July 
 6,  L826.  Several  of  her  pictures  were 
 exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  and  the 
 British  Gallery,  and  were  admired  even  by 
 the  most  fastidious  judges. 
 
 WAYNE.  Anthony,  major  general  in 
 the  army  of  the  United  States,  was  born, 
 in  1745,  in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania. 
 He  entered  the  army  as  colonel  in  1775, 
 served  under  Gates  at  Ticonderoga,  and 
 was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier 
 general.  He  was  engaged  in  the  battles 
 of  Braudywine,  Germantown,  and  Mon- 
 mouth, in  1779  captured  the  fortress  at 
 Stony  Point,  and  rendered  other  important 
 services  during  the  war.  In  1787  he  was 
 a  member  of  the  Pennsylvanian  convention 
 winch  ratified  the  constitution  of  the  Unit- 
 ed states.  In  1792  he  succeeded  St.  Clair 
 in  the  command  of  the  western  army,  and 
 sained  a  complete  victory  at  the  battle  of 
 the  Miamis  in  1794.  He  died  at  Presque 
 Isle  in  1796. 
 
 WAYNFLETE,  William  of,  a  muni- 
 ficent prelate  of  the  fifteenth  century,  whose 
 real  nam£  was  Patten,  derived  his  adopt- 
 ed name  from  the  place  of  his  birth  in 
 Lincolnshire ;  and  was  educated  at  Win- 
 chester school,  and  at  Oxford.  He  was 
 made  provost  of  Eton,  in  1442  ;  bishop  of 
 Winchester  in  1447  ;  and  lord  chancellor 
 in  1-556;  and  died  in  1486.  Magdalen 
 College  at  Oxford,  and  a  free  school  at 
 Wainfleet,  were  founded  by  him. 
 
 WEBBE,  Samuel,  an  eminent  musician, 
 particularly  celebrated  for  his  glees,  was 
 born  in  1 740.  His  mother  being  left  desti- 
 tute, lie  was  bound  apprentice  to  a  cabinet- 
 maker, but,  when  his  term  of  servitude 
 expired,  he  abandoned  his  trade,  and  gained 
 a  subsistence  by  copying  music.  By  dint 
 of  incessant  study  he  became  an  excellent 
 composer,  and  also  acquired  several  lan- 
 guages and  elegant  accomplishments.  He 
 died  in  1816.  His  glees  and  part  songs 
 for-n  three  volumes. 
 
 WEBBER,  Samuel,  president  of  Har- 
 var  i  College,  was  born  in  Byfield,  Massa- 
 chusetts, and  was  educated  at  the  college 
 f  which  he  afterwards  became  the  head. 
 i  Ms  displayed  an  early  fondness  for  mathe- 
 matics, and  in  1789  became  professor  of 
 mathematics  and  natural  historv.  In  1806 
 be  was  raised  to  the  presidency  of  Harvard 
 College,  and  discharged  the  duties  of  this 
 office  till  his  death  in  1810.  He  published, 
 in  1S01,  a  system  of  mathematics,  in  two 
 
 WEI 
 
 vols.  8vo.,  intended  as  a  text  book  for  the 
 university. 
 
 WEBER,  Henry  William,  an  ar- 
 chaeologist and  editor,  was  born,  in  1783, 
 at  Saint  Petersburgh,  of  German  parents  ; 
 studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh  and  at 
 Jena  ;  settled  in  Scotland,  and  devoted 
 himself  to  literary  pursuits;  and  died  in 
 1318,  after  having  for  some  time  been 
 disordered  in  his  intellect.  Among  his 
 publications  are,  Metrical  Romances  of 
 the  Thirteenth,  Fourteenth,  and  Fifteenth 
 Centuries  j  The  Battle  of  Flodden  Field, 
 a  poem  of  the  sixteenth  century  ;  and  edi- 
 tions of  Ford  and  Beaumont  and  Fletcher ; 
 of  which  the  last  two  subjected  him  to  se- 
 vere criticism. 
 
 WEBER,  Carl  Maria  von,  one  of 
 the  most  eminent  of  modern  composers, 
 was  born,  in  1786,  at  Euiin,  in  Holstein, 
 and  was  liberally  educated.  To  music  he 
 displayed  the  warmest  attachment  at  an 
 early  age.  His  instructors  in  the  science 
 were  Heuschel,  Michael  Haydn,  Valesi, 
 Kalcher,  and  the  Abbe  Vogler.  For  a 
 while,  however,  he  abandoned  his  favour- 
 ite art  to  practise  that  of  lithography,  but 
 he  soon  returned  to  it.  His  first  ope- 
 ras were  Das  WaMmunchen,  and  Peter 
 Schmoll,  the  first  of  which  was  produced 
 in  1800.  He  made  professional  tours 
 through  various  parts  of  Germany,  and 
 was,  successively,  chapel  master  at  Bres- 
 lau  and  at  Carlesruhe,  and  conductor  of 
 the  opera  of  Prague.  In  1816  he  was  in- 
 vited to  Dresden  by  the  elector  of  Saxosy, 
 to  form  a  national  opera,  and  was  appoint- 
 ed director  of  music  to  the  court.  His 
 Freischtitz  was  brought  out  in  1821,  at 
 Berlin,  and  rapidly  became  popular  through- 
 out Europe.  In  1826  he  visited  London, 
 and  brought  out  the  opera  of  Oberon  ;  but 
 his  health  was  now  completely  broken,  and 
 he  died  suddenly,  on  the  third  of  June. 
 Weber  left  a  prose  work  in  manuscript, 
 called  Lives  of  Artists,  which  possesses 
 considerable  merit. 
 
 WEDGEWOOD,  Josiah,  an  eminent 
 manufacturer  of  pottery,  was  born  in  1730. 
 He  succeeded  to  the  business  of  his  father, 
 and,  in  1760,  began  his  improvements  in 
 porcelain  and  earthenware,  which  have 
 changed  the  current  of  trade  in  those  arti- 
 cles, and  rendered  England  an  extensive 
 exporting  instead  of  an  importing  country. 
 He  invented  the  ware  which  bears  the 
 name  of  the  queen,  and  various  other 
 hinds.  Wedgewood  was  also  the  inventor 
 of  the  pyrometer,  and  the  projector  of  the 
 Grand  Trunk  Canal.     He  died  in  1795. 
 
 WEISSE,  Christian  Felix,  a  Ger- 
 man poet  and  dramatist,  was  born,  in 
 1726,  at  Annaberg,  in  Saxony ;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Altenberg  and  Leipsic ;  estab- 
 lished and  conducted  two  periodicals, 
 named  the  Library  of  elegant  Literature, 
 
WES 
 
 and  The  Children's  Friend,  from  which 
 latter  work  Berquin  borrowed  his  plan 
 and  part  of  his  materials  j  succeeded  in 
 1790  to  a  good  estate;  and  died  in  1604. 
 His  original  works  consist  of  tragedies, 
 comedies,  comic  operas,  and  lyrical  po- 
 ems ;  and  he  translated  no  less  than  one 
 hundred  and  forty  volumes  from  the  Eng- 
 lish and  French  languages. 
 
 WELLS,  Edward,  a  theologian  and 
 scholar,  was  born,  in  1663,  at  Corsham, 
 in  Wiltshire ;  was  educated  at  Winchester, 
 and  at  Christchurch,  Oxford ;  became 
 Greek  professor,  and  rector  of  Cotesbach, 
 in  Leicestershire ;  and  died  in  1727.  His 
 principal  works  are,  A  Paraphrase  with 
 Annotations  on  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
 ment ;  Historical  Geography  of  the  Old 
 and  New  Testament ;  and  The  Young 
 Gentleman's  Mathematics. 
 
 WELLS,  William  Charles,  a  phy- 
 sician, was  born,  in  1753,  at  Charleston, 
 in  South  Carolina.  His  parents  were 
 Scotch,  and  he  was  educated  at  Dumfries 
 and  Edinburgh,  after  which  he  returned 
 to  his  native  province.  Being  a  loyalist, 
 he  quitted  America  at  the  close  of  the  war, 
 and  settled  in  London,  where  he  died  in 
 1817.  He  is  the  author  of  an  Essay  on 
 single  Vision  with  two  Eyes,  and  of  some 
 valuable  papers  on  the  formation  of  dew, 
 for  which  he  received  the  gold  and  silver 
 medals  of  the  Royal  Society. 
 
 WERNER,  Abraham  Theophilus,  one 
 of  the  most  eminent  of  modern  mineralo- 
 gists, was  born,  in  1750,  at  Wehlau,  in 
 Upper  Lusatia.  He  studied  at  the  min- 
 eralogical  school  of  Freyberg,  in  Saxony, 
 and  at  Leipsic  ;  and,  in  his  twenty-fourth 
 year,  he  published  an  excellent  Treatise 
 on  the  Characters  of  Minerals.  In  1775 
 he  was  appointed  lecturer  on  mineralogy 
 at  Freyberg,  and  inspector  of  the  cabinet 
 of  mines.  His  lectures  soon  extended  his 
 reputation  throughout  Europe.  He  died 
 in  1817.  Among  nis  works  are,  A  New 
 Theory  of  Veins,  with  its  application  to 
 the  art  of  working  mines ;  Classification 
 and  distribution  of  Mountains  ;  and  a  trans- 
 lation of  Cronstadt's  Mineralogy.  His 
 system  is  now  very  generally  received. 
 
 "  WERNER,  Frederick  Louis  Zach- 
 ariah,  a  German  poet  and  dramatist, 
 was  born,  in  1768,  at  Kcenigsberg,  in  Prus- 
 sia; held  for  some  years  an  employment 
 under  the  Prussian  government ;  abjured 
 protestantism,  and  went  to  Vienna,  where 
 ne  became  a  popular  preacher ;  and  died 
 in  the  Austrian  capital  in  1823.  Among 
 his  works  are,  Confessions ;  Poems ;  and 
 Tragedies. 
 
 WESLEY,  Samuel,  a  divine  and  po- 
 et, was  born,  in  1662,  at  Whitchurch,  in 
 Dorsetshire  ;  was  educated  at  Exeter  Col- 
 lege, Oxford  ;  obtained  the  living  of  South 
 Ormesby,   and  subsequently  the  rectories 
 
 WES 
 
 509 
 
 of  Epworth  and  Wrobt;  and  died  in  1735. 
 He  wrote  a  volume  of  poems,  with  the  title 
 of  Maggots  ;  The  Life  of  Christ,  in  verse. ; 
 The  Histories  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
 ment, in  verse;  Elegies  on  Queen 
 and  Archbishop  Tillotson ;  and  Disserta- 
 tions on  the  Book  of  Job. 
 
 WESLEY,  John,  second  son  of  the 
 foregoing,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the 
 Methodists,  was  born,  June  17,  1703,  at 
 Epworth.  He  was  educated  at  the  Char- 
 terhouse, and  Christchurch,  Oxford,  and 
 was  ordained  in  1725.  Naturally  of  a  se- 
 rious disposition,  he  was  rendered  still 
 more  so  by  the  reading  of  devotional  trea- 
 tises ;  and,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother 
 Charles  and  some  friends,  he  formed  a  re- 
 ligious society;  to  the  members  of  which, 
 with  reference  to  a  sect  of  Roman  phy- 
 sicians, his  gay  fellow  collegians  gave  the 
 name  of  Methodists.  In  1 735,  with  C  harles 
 Wesley  and  other  missionaries,  he  went 
 to  Georgia  to  convert  the  Indians;  but, 
 after  a  residence  of  less  than  two  years 
 in  the  colony,  during  which  he  was  ex- 
 tremely unpopular,  he  returned  to  Eng- 
 land. In  1738  he  began  those  public  la- 
 bours which  ultimately  produced  such  a 
 mighty  effect,  and  in  1739  the  first  meet- 
 inghouse was  built  at  Bristol.  For  some 
 time  he  acted  in  conjunction  v/iih  White- 
 field,  but  the  radical  difference  in  their 
 tenets  at  length  produced  a  separation. 
 Over  the  sect  which  he  had  founded,  Wes- 
 ley obtained  an  unbounded  influence;  and 
 it  must  be  owned  that  he  earned  it  1  y  his 
 zeal  and  his  unwearied  and  astonishing  ex- 
 ertions. Two  sermons  he  usually  preached 
 every  day,  and  often  four  or  five.  In  the 
 course  of  his  peregrinations  he  is  said  to 
 have  preached  more  than  forty  thousand 
 sermons,  and  to  have  travelled  three  hun- 
 dred thousand  miles,  or  nearly  fifteen 
 times  the  circumference  of  the  globe  !  On 
 the  17th  of  February  1791,  he  took  cold, 
 after  preaching  at  Lambeth.  For  some 
 days  he  struggled  against  an  increasing 
 fever,  and  continued  to  preach  until  the 
 Wednesday  following,  when  he  delivered 
 his  last  sermon.  From  that  time  he  be- 
 came daily  weaker  and  more  lethargic. 
 He  died  on  the  second  of  March,  1791, 
 being  in  the  eighty-eighth  year  of  his  age, 
 and  the  sixty-fifth  of  his  ministry.  His 
 works  are  published  in  sixteen  volumes, 
 8vo.  He  also  published  the  "Christian 
 Library;  or,  Extracts  and  Abridgments, 
 &c,  from  various  Writers,"  fifty  vols. 
 12mo.;  "The  Arminian  Magazine,"  a 
 monthly  publication,  now  continued  under 
 the  title  of  "The  Methodist  Magazine;" 
 &c.  &c. — His  brother  and  fellow  labourer, 
 Charles,  was  born,  in  1708,  at  Epworth; 
 was  educated  at  Westminster  school  and 
 at  Christchurch;  and  died  in  1788.  He 
 wrote  Hymns  ;   Poems  ;  and  Sermons. 
 
510 
 
 WHA 
 
 WEST,  Gilbert,  a  poet  and  miscel- 
 laneous writer,  was  born  in  1706;  was 
 educated  at  Eton  and  at  Christchurch, 
 Oxford;  obtained,  through,  the  influence 
 of  his  friend  Mr.  Pitt,  the  offices  of  clerk 
 to  the  privy  council,  and  treasurer  of 
 Chelsea  College;  and  died  in  1756.  He 
 wrote  Poems ;  and  Observations  on  the 
 Resurrection ;  and  translated  Pindar. 
 
 WEST,  Benjamin,  an  eminent  pain- 
 ter, was  born,  in  1738,  at  Springfield,  near 
 Philadelphia,  of  quaker  parents.  At  the 
 a^re  of  seven  years  he  began  to  manifest 
 his  pictorial  talents  by  sketching  with  pen 
 and  ink  an  infant  sleeping  in  a  cradle. 
 From  some  Indians  he  obtained  red  and 
 yellow,  and  his  mother  gave  him  a  piece 
 of  indigo;  and  as  camel's  hair  pencils 
 were  wanting,  he  supplied  the  want  by 
 clipping  the  fur  of  the  cat.  Improving  as 
 he  advanced  in  years,  he  became  a  portrait 
 painter  of  considerable  repute,  and  pro- 
 duced some  meritorious  historical  pictures. 
 In  his  twenty-second  year  he  visited  Italy, 
 where  he  remained  for  some  time.  In 
 1703  he  settled  in  England,  where  he  soon 
 acquired  reputation.  Among  his  patrons 
 was  Archbishop  Drummond  of  York,  by 
 whose  means  he  was  introduced  to  George 
 the  Third)  who  immediately  gave  him  a 
 commission  to  paint  The  Death  of  Regulus, 
 and  continued  ever  afterwards  to  employ 
 him.  In  1791  he  was  chosen  president  of 
 the  Royal  Academy.     Among  his  last  and 
 
 ?erhaps  his  best  works  are,  Death  on  the 
 ale  Horse,  and  Christ  healing  the  Sick. 
 He  died  March  13,  1820. 
 
 WETSTEIN,  John  James,  a  learned 
 Swiss,  was  bora,  in  1693,  at  Basil;  was  a 
 pupil  of  the  younger  Bernouilli ;  entered 
 the  church,  but  was  compelled  by  persecu- 
 tion to  quit  his  country;  settled  id  Holland, 
 where  he  became  professor  of  theology  and 
 ecclesiastical  history  at  Amsterdam ;  and 
 died  there  in  1754.  Among  his  works  is 
 an  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  in  two 
 folio  volumes,  with  the  various  readings 
 which  he  collected  from  numerous  manu- 
 scripts. 
 
 WHARTON,  Philip,  duke  of,  whom 
 Pope  has  so  admirably  characterised  in 
 
 WHI 
 
 his  Epistle  on  the  Knowledge  and  Charac- 
 ters of  Men,  was  born  in  1669,  and  very 
 early  gave  signs  of  those  talents  which  he 
 afterwards  displayed  and  disgraced.  After 
 having,  during  his  travels,  accepted  the 
 title  of  duke  from  the  Pretender,  he  re- 
 turned to  England,  and  became  a  warm 
 champion  of  the  existing  government. 
 Having  dissipated  his  fortune,  he  changed 
 his  politics  again,  retired  to  the  continent, 
 intrigued  with  the  Stuarts,  entered  into 
 the  Spanish  service,  and  died,  in  indi- 
 gence, in  Spain,  in  1731.  His  poems  and 
 miscellaneous  works  form  two  octavo  vol- 
 umes. 
 
 WHEELOCK,  John,  was  born  at  Le- 
 banon, Connecticut,  in  1754.  During  the 
 revolution  he  held  the  commission  of  lieu- 
 tenant colonel,  and  obtained  some  military 
 reputation.  In  1779  he  became  president 
 of  Dartmouth  College,  New  Hampshire, 
 and  in  1782  visited  Europe  to  obtain  con- 
 tributions for  that  seminary.  He  remained 
 in  that  office  for  thirty-six  years.  His 
 death  took  place  in  1817. 
 
 WHELER,  Sir  George,  a  divine  and 
 traveller,  (sometimes  erroneously  called 
 Wheeler),  was  born,  in  1650,  at  Charing, 
 in  Kent;  was  educated  at  Lincoln  Hall, 
 Oxford  ;  travelled  into  Greece  and  Asia 
 Minor ;  became  a  prebendary  of  Durham, 
 vicar  of  Basingstoke,  and  rector  of  Hough- 
 ton le  Spring;  and  died  in  1723-4.  Besides 
 his  Travels,  he  wrote  the  Protestant  Mo- 
 nastery; and  An  Account  of  the  Churches 
 of  the  Primitive  Christians. 
 
 WHIPPLE.  William,  a  signer  of  the 
 declaration  of'  American  independence, 
 was  born  in  Maine  in  1730,  and  engaged 
 in  commercial  pursuits.  He  took  an  early 
 part  in  the  controversy  with  Great  Britain, 
 and  in  1776  was  sent  as  a  delegate  from 
 New  Hampshire  to  the  continental  con- 
 gress. He  was  afterwards  brigadier-gen- 
 eral of  the  troops  of  that  staie,  and  held 
 several  civil  offices  of  importance.  He  died 
 in  1785. 
 
 WHISTON,  William,  an  eminent 
 divine  and  mathematician,  was  born,  in 
 1667,  at  Norton,  in  Leicestershire,  and 
 was  educated  at  Tarn  worth  school,  and  at 
 Clare  Hall,  Cambridge.  In  1698  he  ob- 
 tained the  living  of  Lowestoffe,  in  Suffolk, 
 which  he  resigned,  in  1703,  when  he  suc- 
 ceeded Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  the  mathe- 
 matical professorship  at  Cambridge.  At 
 length  he  adopted  Arian  principles,  in 
 consequence  ol  which  he  was  expelled 
 from  the  university  in  1710,  lost  his  offices 
 of  professor  and  catametical  lecturer,  and 
 was  even  prosecuted  as  a  heretic.  Late 
 in  life  he  became  a  baptist.  He  died  in 
 1752.  Among  his  works  are,  A  Theory 
 of  the  Earth;  Sermons;  Primitive  Chris- 
 tianity revived ;  and  a  translation  of  Jo- 
 sephus. 
 
WHI 
 
 WHITAKER,  John,  a  divine,  critic, 
 antiquary,  and  historian,  was  born,  in  17-35, 
 at  Manchester;  was  educated  at  the  free 
 school  ot  that  place,  and  at  Corpus  Christi 
 College,  Oxford ;  and  died  in  1808,  rector 
 of  Ruan  Lanyhome,  in  Cornwall.  His 
 principal  works  are,  The  History  of  Man- 
 chester; A  Vindication  of  Mary,  Queen 
 of  Scots ;  The  Course  of  Hannibal  over 
 the  Alps  ;  Criticisms  on  Gibbon's  History  ; 
 The  Ancient  Cathedral  of  Cornwall ;  and 
 The  Origin  of  Government.  He  also  con- 
 tributed largely  to  The  British  Critic,  and 
 the  English  and  Antijacobin  Reviews. 
 
 WHITAKER,  Thomas  Dunham,  an 
 antiquary  and  historian,  was  born,  in  1759, 
 at  Rainham,  in  Norfolk ;  was  educated  at 
 St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. ;  obtained 
 the  vicarages  of  Whalley  and  Blackburne  ; 
 and  died  in  1821.  His  principal  works 
 are,  Histories  of  Yorkshire, — the  Deanery 
 of  Craven, — Richmondshire  and  Lunedale, 
 — the  Parish  of  Whalley, — and  the  Rebel- 
 lion in  1745. 
 
 WHITEBREAD,  Samuel,  an  able  sen- 
 ator, son  of  the  eminent  porter  brewer  in 
 C  his  well  Street,  was  born  there,  in  1758 ; 
 was  educated  at  Eton  and  St.  John's  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge ;  travelled  on  the  conti- 
 nent, accompanied  by  Mr.  Coxe  the  his- 
 torian ;  was  elected  member  for  Steyning 
 in  1790,  but  subsequently  represented  Bed- 
 ford ;  and  put  an  end  to  his  existence,  in 
 a  temporary  fit  of  insanity,  July  6,  1815. 
 He  was  one  of  the  most  active  and  intelli- 
 gent of  the  whig  party,  and  to  him  was  in- 
 trusted the  management  of  Lord  Melville's 
 impeachment. 
 
 WHITBY,  David,  a  learned  divine, 
 was  born,  in  1638,  at  Rushden,  in  North- 
 amptonshire, and  was  educated  at  Trinity 
 College,  Oxford.  His  controversial  zeal 
 against  the  catholics  gained  for  him  the 
 patronage  of  Bishop  Ward,  who  gave  him 
 a  prebend  of  Salisbury,  and  the  rectory  of 
 St.  Edmund  in  that  city,  with  the  precen- 
 torship.  In  his  latter  days  he  became  an 
 Arian.  He  died  in  1726.  His  greatest 
 work  is  a  Paraphrase  and  Commentary  on 
 the  New  Testament. 
 
 WHITE,  Sir  Thomas,  a  native  of 
 Reading,  was  born  in  1492  ;  acquired  a 
 fortune  by  trade  in  London,  and  served  the 
 office  of  lord  mayor ;  was  knighted  for  his 
 conduct  on  Wyatt's  Rebellion ;  and  died 
 in  1566.  He  is  the  founder  of  St.  John's 
 College,  Oxford,  the  patent  for  which  he 
 obtained  in  1557. 
 
 WHITE,  Thomas,  a  divine,  was  born, 
 in  the  sixteenth  century,  at  Bristol,  and 
 was  educated  at  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford; 
 obtained  considerable  church  preferment, 
 among  which  were  a  prebend  of  St.  Paul's, 
 and  canonries  of  Christchurch  and  Wind- 
 sor; and  died  in  1623.  He  founded  Sion 
 College,  in  the  metropolis,  and  a  hospital 
 
 WHI 
 
 511 
 
 at  Bristol,  and  was  a  benefactor  to  Magda- 
 len College,  Oxford. 
 
 WHITE,  Gilbert,  a  naturalist  and 
 antiquary,  was  born,  in  1720,  at  Selborne, 
 in  Hampshire ;  and  was  educated  at  Bas- 
 singstoke  school,  and  at  Oriel  College, 
 Oxford.  After  having  taken  a  master's 
 degree,  and  been  senior  proctor  of  the 
 university,  he  retired  to  reside  on  his 
 property  in  his  native  village ;  nor  could 
 he  he  tempted  to  quit  it  by  the  offer  of 
 valuable  church  preferment.  He  died  in 
 1793.  He  wrote  the  Natural  History  and 
 Antiquities  of  Selborne,  one  of  the  most 
 amusing  of  books;  The  Naturalist's  Cal- 
 endar ;  and  Miscellaneous  Observations. 
 
 WHITE,  Joseph,  an  eminent  divine  and 
 oriental  scholar,  the  son  of  a  weaver,  was 
 born,  in  1746,  at  Stroud,  in  Gloucestershire, 
 and  received  his  education  at  Gloucester 
 school  and  Wadham  College,  Oxford.  In 
 1755  he  was  appointed  Laudian  professor 
 of  Arabic,  and  in  1783  he  delivered  the 
 Bampton  lecture.  In  the  composition  of 
 the  lectures  he  was  assisted  by  Dr.  Parr 
 and  Mr.  Badcock.  He  obtained  a  prebend 
 of  Gloucester,  and  the  rectory  of  Melton, 
 in  Suffolk;  and  died  in  1814.  Among  his 
 works  are,  iEgyptiaca;  Diatessaron ;  and 
 editions  of  the  Philoxenic  Syrian  versions 
 of  the  four  Gospels,  and  ol  Griesbach's 
 Greek  Testament. 
 
 WHITE,  Henry  Kirke,  a  poet,  was- 
 born,  in  1785,  at  Nottingham,  and  was 
 the  son  of  a  butcher.  His  delicate  health 
 protected  him  from  being  brought  up  to 
 his  father's  trade,  and  he  was  placed  with 
 a  stocking  weaver,  but  was  subsequently 
 removed  to  an  attorney's  office.  He  pro- 
 duced several  prose  and  verse  compositions 
 at  an  early  age,  and  devoted  his  leisure 
 hours  to  reading,  and  to  the  study  of  Greek 
 and  Latin.  To  obtain  a  university  educa- 
 tion, for  the  purpose  of  entering  into  the 
 church,  was  the  main  object  of  his  wishes. 
 By  the  generosity  of  Mr.  Wilberforce  and 
 some  other  friends,  he  was  at  length  ena- 
 bled to  become  a  student  at  St.  John's 
 College,  Cambridge.  His  progress  was 
 rapid,  but  his  intense  application  destroyed 
 the  vital  powers,  and  he  died  October  19, 
 1806.  He  published  Clifton  Grove,  with 
 other  poems  ;  and  his  Remains  were  edited 
 bv  Southev. 
 
 "WHITEFIELD,  George,  a  celebrated 
 divine,  the  founder  of  the  Calvinistic 
 Methodists,  was  born,  in  1714,  at  Glou- 
 cester, where  his  father  kept  the  Bell  inn. 
 He  was  educated  at  the  Crypt  school  of 
 his  native  city,  and  at  Pembroke  College, 
 Oxford.  At  the  university  he  was  one  of 
 the  members  of  the  society  formed  by 
 Wesley,  and  inflicted  on  himself  many- 
 ascetic  privations.  He  was  ordained  a 
 deacon  m  1736,  and  his  pulpit  eloquence 
 soon  became  highly  popular.     In  1737  ha 
 
512 
 
 WHI 
 
 i 
 
 sailed  to  Georgia,  and  he  remained  in  the 
 colony  for  nearly  two  years.  He  returned 
 to  America  in  1739,  made  a  tour  through 
 several  of  the  provinces,  and  resided  in 
 Georgia  till  1741  ;  and  he  suhsequently 
 made  five  visits  to  that  quarter  of  the 
 globe.  The  foundation  of  the  orphan 
 house  was  one  of  the  benefits  which  Wnite- 
 field  conferred  on  Georgia.  In  England 
 he  first  introduced,  in  1739,  the  practice  of 
 preaching  in  the  open  air,  and  the  effect 
 of  his  oratory  was  astonishing.  The  Taber- 
 nacles in  Moorfields  and  Tottenham  Court 
 Road  were  erected  by  his  followers,  and 
 among  his  converts  was  the  countess  of 
 Huntingdon.      In    1741    the   breach   took 
 
 ace  between  him  and  Wesley.  He  died 
 eptember  30,  1770,  at  Newburyport,  in 
 New  England.  Under  the  name  of  Leu- 
 eonomus,  the  character  of  Whitefield  is 
 well  delineated  by  Cowper.  His  works 
 form  six  volumes. 
 
 WHITEHEAD,  George,  one  of  the 
 early  preachers  among  the  quakers,  was 
 born,  in  1636,  at  Orton,  in  Westmoreland, 
 and  was  educated  at  Blenclow  free  school, 
 in  Cumberland.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
 began  to  propagate  those  religious  doc- 
 trines which  he  had  embraced,  and  he  con- 
 tinued his  labours,  in  various  parts  of  Eng- 
 land, in  spite  of  the  severest  persecution. 
 After  the  Revolution,  his  exertions  pro- 
 cured from  the  legislature  the  admission  of 
 a  quaker's  affirmation  instead  of  an  path. 
 He  died,  generally  respected,  in  1722-3. 
 He  wrote  his  own  Memoirs ;  and  some 
 other  works. 
 
 WHITEHEAD,  Paul,  a  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1710,  in  Holborn;  was  apprenticed 
 to  a  mercer,  but  quitted  trade  to  study  law 
 in  the  Temple  ;  acquired  considerable  popu- 
 larity as  a  satirist ;  was  appointed  deputy 
 treasurer  of  the  exchequer ;  and  died  in  1774. 
 He  wrote  the  State  Dunces ;  Manners ; 
 Honour;  The  Gymnasiad  ;  and  other  poems. 
 
 WHITEHEAD,  William,  a  poet  and 
 dramatist,  was  born,  in  1715,  at  Cam- 
 bridge, and  was  the  son  of  a  baker.  He 
 was  educated  at  Winchester  school,  and  at 
 Clare  Hall,  Cambridge  ;  became  travelling 
 tutor  to  Lord  Nuneham  and  the  earl  of 
 Jersey's  son  ;  obtained  the  registrarship  to 
 the  order  of  the  Bath  ;  and,  on  the  death  of 
 Cibber,  was  appointed  poet  laureat.  He 
 died  in  1785.  Among  his  works  are  the 
 tragedies  of  the  Roman  Father  and  Creusa ; 
 The  School  of  Lovers,  a  comedy ;  Poems, 
 and  some  miscellaneous  pieces. 
 
 WHITEHEAD,  John,  a  physician  and 
 Wesleyan  minister,  was  originally  a  lay 
 preacher  among  the  methodists  ;  then  be- 
 came a  linendraper  at  Bristol ;  next  es- 
 poused the  tenets  of  the  quakers,  and 
 opened  a  school;  subsequently  studied  at 
 Leyden,  and  took  a  medical  degree ;  and 
 finally,  returned  to  the  methodists.  and  ac- 
 
 WIC 
 
 quired  popularity  among  them  as  a  pulpit 
 orator  and  physician.  Whitehead  attend- 
 ed John  Wesley  in  his  last  illness,  preached 
 his  funeral  sermon,  and  wrote  his  Life,  in 
 two  volumes.     He  died  in  1804. 
 
 WHITEHURST,  John,  an  eminent 
 engineer,  was  born,  in  1713,  at  Congle- 
 ton ;  was  brought  up  to  his  father's  busi- 
 ness of  a  watchmaker  ;  followed  that  busi- 
 ness at  Derby,  and  also  became  celebrated 
 for  constructing  philosophical  instruments 
 and  hydraulic  machines ;  was  appointed,  in 
 1775,  stamper  of  the  money  weights  in  the 
 Mint ;  and  died  in  1788.  He  wrote  an  In- 
 quiry into  the  Original  State  and  Forma- 
 tion of  the  Earth;  A  Treatise  on  Chim- 
 neys ;  An  Attempt  towards  obtaining  in 
 variable  Measures  of  Length,  Capacity 
 and  Weight,  from  the  Mensuration  ot  time, 
 and  some  papers  in  the  Philosophical 
 Transactions. 
 
 WHITELOCKE,  Bulstrode,  son  of  a 
 judge,  was  born,  in  1605,  in  London,  and 
 studied  at  Merchant  Taylors'  School,  St. 
 John's  College,  Oxford,  and  the  Middle 
 Temple.  He  was  a  member  of  the  long 
 parliament,  and  espoused  the  popular 
 cause,  but  was  moderate  in  his  conduct. 
 In  1 648  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  coun- 
 cil of  state,  and  in  1653  was  sent  on  an 
 embassy  to  Sweden.  He  died  in  1676. 
 He  wrote  Memorials  of  English  Affairs ; 
 Notes  on  the  King's  Writ ;  An  Account 
 of  his  Swedish  Embassy;  and  Labours 
 remembered  in  the  Annales  of  Life. 
 
 WHITGIFT,  John,  a  prelate,  was  bom, 
 in  1530,  at  Great  Grimsby,  in  Lincoln- 
 shire; was  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
 and  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge ;  was? 
 successively,  made  Margaret  professor  ol 
 divinity,  queen's  chaplain,  master  of  Pem- 
 broke Hall  and  of  Trinity  College,  and 
 dean  of  Lincoln.  In  1577  he  became 
 bishop  of  Wonesler,  and  vice-president  of 
 the  Welch  marches,  and,  in  1583,  was 
 translated  into  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
 bury. As  primate,  he  distinguished  him- 
 self by  persecuting  the  catholics  and  puri- 
 tans.    He  died  in  1603. 
 
 WHITWORTH,  Charles,  earl,  an 
 able  diplomatist,  was  born,  in  1754,  at 
 Seaburnegrange,  in  Kent,  and  was  educated 
 at  Tunbridge  grammar  school.  In  1786  he 
 was  appointed  ambassador  to  Poland  ;  and, 
 in  1788,  to  Russia,  at  the  last  of  which 
 courts  he  resided  for  twelve  years.  In  1801 
 he  negotiated  a  treaty  with  Denmark,  and 
 in  1802  was  sent  as  plenipotentiary  to 
 Paris.  In  1814  he  was  created  an  Eng- 
 lish baron,  and  was  made  viceroy  of  Ire- 
 land ;  and  he  was  subsequently  raised  to 
 the  rank  of  earl.     He  died  May  13,  1825. 
 
 WICKLIFFE,  WYCLIFFE,  or  WIC- 
 LEF,  John,  a  divine  and  ecclesiastical 
 reformer,  who  has  been  called  "  the  morn- 
 ing star  of  the  reformation,"  was  born,  in 
 
WIL 
 
 1324,  at  a  village  of  the  same  name  in  | 
 Yorkshire.  He  studied  at  Queen's  and 
 Merton  Colleges,  Oxford,  and  early  dis- 
 tinguished himself  by  opposing  the  mendi- 
 cant friars,  and  by  his  proficiency  in  school 
 divinity  and  the  works  of  Aristotle.  His 
 exertions  against  the  friars  were  rewarded 
 by  the  mastership  of  Baliol  College,  and 
 the  wardenship  of  Trinity.  Of  the  latter 
 he  was  deprived  by  Archbishop  Langham, 
 and  the  sentence  was  ratified  by  the  pope. 
 Having  gained  the  favour  of  John  of  Gaunt, 
 Wicklitfe  was  made  king's  chaplain,  and 
 rector  of  Lutterworth.  He  now  began  vig- 
 orously to  attack  papal  usurpation  and  the 
 abuses  of  the  church ;  nor  did  he  slacken 
 his  efforts  till  he  ceased  to  exist.  The 
 pope  insisted  on  his  being  brought  to  trial 
 as  a  heretic,  but  he  was  effectually  protect- 
 ed by  his  patron,  the  duke  of  Lancaster. 
 He  died  in  13S4.  His  works  are  very 
 numerous.  Among  them  are,  Trialogus ; 
 WicklifTs  Wicket;  and  a  version  ol  the 
 Old  and  New  Testament. 
 
 WICQUEFORT,  Abraham  de,  a  Dutch 
 diplomatist  and  writer,  was  born,  in  1593, 
 at  Amsterdam;  served  the  elector  of  Bran- 
 denburgh  and  the  duke  of  Brunswick  Lu- 
 nenberg  in  a  diplomatic  capacity ;  was  im- 
 prisoned in  France,  on  suspicion  of  having 
 conveyed  intelligence  to  Holland ;  and  in 
 Holland,  on  a  charge  of  corresponding  with 
 the  enemies  of  his  country ;  and  died  about 
 1682.  He  wrote  A  History  of  the  United 
 Provinces ;  The  Ambassador  and  his  Func- 
 tions ;  and  some  other  works. 
 
 WIELAND,  Christopher  Martin,  a 
 German  writer,  who  rivals  Voltaire  in 
 universality  of  talent  and  literary  fertility, 
 was  born,  in  1733,  at  Holtzheim,  near 
 Biberach,  in  Suabia.  He  was  educated 
 by  his  father,  a  clergyman,  and  completed 
 his  studies  at  Klosterbergen  and  Tubingen. 
 In  his  thirteenth  year  he  began  to  compose 
 Latin  and  German  verses.  His  first  pub- 
 lished work  was  The  Nature  of  Things,  in 
 six  cantos,  which  appeared  in  1751.  In 
 the  following  year  he  went  to  reside  in 
 Switzerland,  whence,  in  1760,  he  returned 
 to  Biberach,  where  he  was  appointed  to  a 
 municipal  office.  His  productions  in  prose 
 and  verse,  which  rapidly  succeeded  each 
 other,  raised  him  to  the  summit  of  literary 
 reputation.  The  elector  of  Mentz  nomi- 
 nated him  professor  of  philosophy  and 
 belles  lettres  at  Erfurt;  and,  in  1772,  the 
 duchess  Dowager  of  Saxe  Weimar  gave 
 him  the  tuition  of  her  two  sons.  He  died 
 January  20,  1813.  His  original  works 
 form  forty-two ■  volumes  quarto;  and  he 
 translated  Lucian,  Shakspeare,  Cicero's 
 Epistles,  and  Horace's  Satires. 
 
 WILFORD,  Francis,  an  eminent  ori- 
 entalist, was  born,  about  1760,  at  Hanover; 
 was  for  many  years  in  the  service  of  the 
 East  India  Company  in  Hindostan ;  and 
 22j 
 
 WIL 
 
 513 
 
 died  in   1822.     Many  of  his  papers  are 
 printed  in  the  Asiatic  Researches. 
 
 WILKES,  John,  a  celebrated  political 
 character,  was  born,  in  1717,  in  Clerken- 
 well,  and  was  the  son  of  a  rich  distiller. 
 His  studies,  which  he  commenced  under 
 private  tutors,  he  completed  at  Leyden. 
 He  began  his  public  career  as  member  for 
 Aylesbury,  and  lieutenant  colonel  of  the 
 Buckinghamshire  militia.  By  some  pam- 
 phlets which  he  wrote  against  the  Bute  ad- 
 ministration, in  1762,  he  gained  reputation  ; 
 but  it  was  to  his  periodical  paper,  T-fee 
 North  Briton,  and  especially  to  No  45  of 
 it,  that  he  was  indebted  lor  his  popul 
 That  number  the  government  determined 
 to  prosecute,  and,  accordingly,  a  ;  ■ 
 warrant  was  issued  against  the  author, 
 printer,  and  publisher.  Wilkes  contended 
 that  the  warrant  was  illegal ;  obtained  a 
 decision  to  that  effect  in  the  court  of  Com- 
 mon Pleas,  and  large  damages  from  the 
 secretary  of  state  and  his  subordinate  lav  r- 
 midons.  Still  bent  on  his  ruin,  the  min- 
 istry renewed  the  prosecution  in  a  regular 
 manner,  and  commenced  another  for  an  ob- 
 scene poem.  He  was  also  dangerously 
 wounded  in  a  duel  with  Mr.  Martin,  one 
 of  their  partisans.  Giving  way  to  the 
 storm,  he  retired  to  France ;  upon  which 
 he  was  outlawed,  and  expelled  from  his 
 seat.  In  17  68,  being  elected  for  Middle- 
 sex, he  returned,  and  was  condemned  to  a 
 fine  of  one  thousand  pounds,  and  twenty- 
 two  months  imprisonment,  and  was  subse- 
 quently expelled  a  second  time  for  a  libel. 
 Again  he  was  chosen,  but,  in  utter  con- 
 tempt of  all  right,  the  house  declared 
 him  ineligible  to  sit  in  that  parliament, 
 and  seated  Colonel  Lultrell,  who  had  but 
 a  small  number  of  votes.  This  infamous 
 vote  was  afterwards  expunged  from  the 
 Journals.  In  1770  he  was  chosen  an  alder- 
 man of  London,  in  which  capacity  he  set 
 at  defiance  the  mandates  of  the  House  ;  in 
 1772  he  was  sheriff;  in  1774,  lord  mayor; 
 and  in  1779  he  became  chamberlain  of  the 
 city.  In  1775  he  was  once  more  sent  to 
 parliament  by  Middlesex,  and  he  was  a 
 steady  opponent  of  the  American  war. 
 He  died  Dec.  26,  1797.  Two  collections 
 of  his  Correspondence  have  been  published 
 since  his  death.  The  purity  of  Wilkes's 
 political  motives  has  been  doubted ;  but 
 there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  beneficial 
 effect  produced  by  his  pcrseverin<?  strug- 
 gles against  the  encroachments  of  power. 
 
 WILKINS,  John,  a  prelate  and  mathe- 
 matician, was  born,  in  1614,  at  Fawsley, 
 in  Northamptonshire,  and  was  educated  at 
 New  Inn  Hall,  and  Magdalen  Hall,  Ox- 
 ford. Having  espoused  the  popular  cause, 
 and  being  married  to  Cromwell's  sister,  he 
 was  made  warden  of  Wadham  College ; 
 and,  by  Richard  Cromwell,  was  appointed 
 master  of  Trinity  College.     The  Restore- 
 
514 
 
 WlL, 
 
 tion  deprived  him  of  these  preferments, 
 hut  be  soon  obtained  others,  and,  in  L66d, 
 was  raised  to  the  bishopric  of  Chester. 
 He  died  in  1672.  He  was  the  founder  of 
 that  association  which  afterwards  became 
 the  Royal  Society.  Besides  his  mathe- 
 matical works,  reprinted  in  two  volumes, 
 he  wrote  an  Essay  towards  a  real  Charac- 
 ter and  Philosophical  Language  ;  and  vari- 
 ous theological  pieces. 
 
 WILKINSON,  Jemima,  a  bold  and  art- 
 ful religious  impostor,  was  born  in  Cumber- 
 land, Rhode  Island,  about  the  year  1753. 
 Recovering  suddenly  from  an  apparent  sus- 
 pension of  life  in  1773,  she  gave  out  that 
 she  had  been  raised  from  the  dead,  and 
 laid  claim  to  supernatural  power  and 
 authority.  Making  a  few  proselytes,  she 
 removed  with  them  to  the  neighbourhood 
 of  Crooked  Lake  in  New-York,  where  she 
 die)  in  1819. 
 
 WiLLAN,  Robert,  an  able  physician 
 and  medical  writer,  was  born,  in  1757,  at 
 J  lid,  in  Yorkshire;  studied  medicine  at 
 Edinburgh;  and  settled  as  a  physician  at 
 Darlington,  whence  he  removed  to  Lon- 
 don, where  he  was  appointed  physician  to 
 the  Carey  Street  Dispensary.  He  was 
 brought  up  a  quaker,  but  quitted  the  socie- 
 ty. He  died  in  18.12.  Among  his  works 
 art1,  A  Treatise  on  Cutaneous  Diseases; 
 A  Treatise  on  Vaccination ;  Reports  on 
 the  Diseases  of  London  ;  and  The  Life  of 
 Clirist. 
 
 WILLARD,  Samuel,  an  eminent  di- 
 vine, was  born  in  Massachusetts,  and  re- 
 ceived his  education  at  Harvard  College, 
 where  he  was  graduated  in  1650.  He  was 
 settled  over  the  old  south  church  in  Bos- 
 tou,  and  became  the  most  celebrated  among 
 his  contemporaries  in  the  ministry.  In 
 L70!  he  was  made  vice  president  oi  Har- 
 \  ■  ird  College,  and  continued  in  this  office 
 till  his  death  in  1707.  He  published  a 
 '  u  -,re  number  of  sermons,  and  a  folio  vol- 
 i  ■  of  divinity. 
 
 VTLLDENOW,    Charles    Louis,  an 
 li  lent   botanist,  was  born,   in   1765,   at 
 i  ■ ;  stu  lied  at  Halle  and  Langensalza; 
 i. ne   professor  of  natural   history  and 
 •  i  iy,  and  superintendent  of  the  botanic 
 .  itden,   at   his   native  city,  and  died   in 
 K12.     He  was  an  associate   of  four  and 
 twenty   scientific   bodies.      His   principal 
 works    are,   Elements  of   Botany;    Hist. 
 Ainaranthorum j    and  Species  Plantarum. 
 WILLIAMS,     John,     a     divine     and 
 statesman,  was  born;  in  1582,  at  Abercon- 
 wiy,  in  VVales,  and  was  educated  at  St. 
 John's  College,  Cambridge.     After  having 
 'ield  several  minor  but  valuable  preferments, 
 ie  wis  made  bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  keep- 
 er of   the   great   seal,   in    1621.      Of   the 
 office  of  lord  keeper  he  was  deprived  by 
 Charles  I.  on  his  accession.     He  was  sub- 
 secuentlv  orosecuted  in  the  star-chamber 
 
 WIL 
 
 and  sentenced  to  a  fine  of  ten  thousand 
 pounds  and  imprisonment  in  the  Tower. 
 The  proceedings  were,  however,  rescinded 
 in  1640,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was 
 translated  to  the  see  of  York.  During  the 
 civil  war  he  made  an  ineffectual  attempt 
 to  hold  out  Conway  Castle  against  the 
 parliament.  He  died  in  1650.  Williams 
 was  a  strenuous  opponent  to  Laud. 
 
 WILLIAMS,  Sir  Charles  Hanbu- 
 ry,  a  poet  and  diplomatist,  was  born  in 
 1709;  was  educated  at  Eton;  was  for  a 
 considerable  period  one  of  the  members 
 for  the  county  of  Monmouth  ;  held  the  pay- 
 mastership  of  the  marines  ;  was  employed 
 as  ambassador  to  Dresden  and  St.  Peters- 
 burgh  ;  and  died  insane  in  1759.  His 
 poems  are  spirited  and  witty,  but  licen- 
 tious. 
 
 WILLIAMS,  David,  a  miscellaneous 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1738,  in  Cardigan- 
 shire ;  was  educated  at  a  dissenting  acad- 
 emy ;  and  became  a  dissenting  minister. 
 Changing  to  a  deist,  he  opened  a  chapel  to 
 diffuse  his  newly  adopted  opinions,  and  for 
 some  time  his  hearers  were  numerous. 
 The  subsequent  part  of  his  life  was  dedi- 
 cated to  literary  pursuits  and  to  private 
 teaching.  The  Literary  Fund  was  founded 
 hy  him.  He  died  June  29,  18.16.  Among 
 his  chief  works  are,  Lectures  on  the  Prin- 
 ciples and  Duties  of  Religion  and  Morali- 
 ty; Lectures  on  Education;  Lectures  on 
 Political  Principles ;  and  a  History  of 
 Monmouthshire. 
 
 WILLIAMS,  Helen  Maria,  a  poet 
 and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  in 
 1762,  in  the  north  of  England,  and  was 
 ushered  into  public  notice,  when  she  was 
 eighteen,  by  Dr.  Kippis.  Between  1782 
 and  1788  she  published  Edwin  and  Eltru- 
 da,  a  poem;  Peru,  a  poem;  and  other 
 pieces,  which  were  afterwards  collected  in 
 two  volumes.  In  1790  she  settled  in  Paris. 
 There  she  became  intimate  with  the  most 
 eminent  of  the  Girondists,  and,  in  1794, 
 was  imprisoned,  and  nearly  shared  their 
 fate.  She  escaped,  and  took  refuge  in 
 Switzerland,  but  returned  to  the  French 
 capital  in  1796,  where  she  continued  to 
 reside  till  her  decease,  December  15,  1827. 
 Among  her  numerous  works  may  be  men- 
 tioned, Julia,  a  novel ;  Letters  from  France ; 
 Travels  in  Switzerland;  A  Narrative  of 
 Events  in  France ;  and  a  translation  of 
 Humboldt  and  Bonpland's  Personal  Narra- 
 tive. 
 
 WILLIAMS,  Roger,  one  of  the  found- 
 ers of  Rhode  Island,  was  born  in  Wales, 
 in  1599,  and  received  his  education  at 
 Oxford.  He  was  for  some  time  a  minister 
 of  the  established  church,  but  dissenting, 
 he  removed,  in  1631,  to  New  England,  ana 
 preached  till  1636  at  Salem  and  Ply- 
 mouth. Being  banished  from  the  colony 
 ,on   account  of  his   religious  opinions,   he 
 
WIL 
 
 removed  with  several  others  to  Rhode  Isl- 
 and, and  laid  the  foundation  of  Providence. 
 They  there  established  the  first,  society  in 
 which  was  enjoyed  perfect  liberty  of  con- 
 science. For  several  years  Williams  was 
 president  of  the  colony.  He  died  in 
 1683. 
 
 WILLIAMS,  Otho  Holland,  an  officer 
 in  the  American  army,  was  born  in  Mary- 
 land in  1743,  served  in  various  capacities 
 during  the  revolutionary  war,  and  fought 
 at  the  battles  of  Guilford,  Hobkirk's  Hill 
 and  the  Eutaws.  Before  the  disbanding 
 of  the  army  he  was  made  brigadier  general. 
 For  several  years  he  was  collector  at  Bal- 
 timore.    He  died  in  1794. 
 
 WILLIAMS,  William,  a  signer  of  the 
 declaration  of  American  independence,  was 
 born  at  Lebanon,  Connecticut,  in  1731, 
 and  was  educated  at  Harvard  College. 
 From  the  university  he  returned  home,  and 
 for  some  time  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
 of  theology.  At  an  early  period  of  the 
 revolution,  he  embarked  in  the  cause  of  his 
 country,  and  was  a  delegate  from  his  na- 
 tive state  to  the  continental  Congress.  He 
 died  in  1311. 
 
 WILLIS,  Browne,  an  eminent  anti- 
 quary, was  born,  in  1682,  at  Blandford, 
 in  Dorsetshire ;  studied  at  Westminster 
 School,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford; 
 was  elected  M.  P.  for  Buckinghamshire 
 in  170.3  ;  became  a  member  of  the  society 
 of  antiquaries  in  1717;  and  died  in  1760*. 
 Willis  was  a  man  of  an  eccentric  charac- 
 ter. Miss  Talbot,  who  gives  a  ludicrous 
 description  of  him,  declares,  that  "  with 
 one  of  the  honestest  hearts  in  the  world  he 
 has  one  of  the  oddest  heads  that  ever  drop- 
 ped out  of  the  moon."  His  principal 
 works  are,  Notitia  Parliamentaria ;  A 
 Survey  of  the  Cathedrals  of  England ; 
 History  of  the  Mitred  Parliamentary  Ab- 
 bies  ;  and  a  History  of  Buckingham. 
 
 WILLIS,  Francis,  a  physician,  cele- 
 brated for  his  skill  in  cases  of  insanity, 
 was  born,  about  1718,  in  Lincolnshire, 
 and  was  educated  at  Brazennose  College, 
 Oxford.  He  was  brought  up  to  the  church, 
 and  obtained  a  college  living  in  the  metro- 
 polis ;  but  subsequently  took  the  degree  of 
 M.  D.  and  practised  as  a  physician.  He 
 restored  George  III.  to  sanity,  and  was 
 amply  rewarded  by  a  parliamentary  grant. 
 He  died  in  1807. 
 
 WILLUGHBY,  Francis,  an  eminent 
 naturalist,  was  born,  in  1635,  in  Lincoln- 
 shire, and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
 Cambridge.  Ray  was  his  tutor,  and  was 
 subsequently  his  fellow  traveller  on  the 
 continent,  his  frequent  guest,  and  his  exe- 
 cutor. In  1662  he  became  a  member  of 
 the  Royal  Society.  He  died  in  1674.  He 
 wrote  a  Latin  treatise  on  Ornithology ; 
 another  on  Ichthyology ;  and  some  papers 
 in   the  Philosophical   Transactions.     The 
 
 WIL 
 
 515 
 
 treatises  were  edited,  after  Willughby's 
 death,  by  Ray. 
 
 WILMOT.     See  Rochester. 
 
 WILSON,  Alexander,  the  celebrated 
 ornithologist,  was  born  at  Paisley,  Scot- 
 land, and  came  to  Delaware  in  1794. 
 Removing  to  Philadelphia  he  became  ac- 
 quainted with  Mr.  Bartram,  the  naturalist, 
 and  devoted  himself  to  the  cultivation  of 
 natural  history.  His  great  work  is  the 
 American  Ornithology  m  seven  volumes, 
 quarto,  splendidly  executed,  and  very  ac- 
 curate and  comprehensive.  He  possessed 
 considerable  taste  for  literature,  and  pub- 
 lished several  small  poems  of  much  beauty. 
 He  died  in  1813. 
 
 WILSON,  James,  a  signer  of  the  de- 
 claration of  American  independence,  was 
 born  in  Scotland,  about  the  year  1742. 
 He  was  well  educated,  and  after  complet- 
 ing his  studies  emigrated  to  America. 
 Settling  at  Philadelphia,  he  received  an 
 offer  to  enter  the  office  of  Mr.  John  Dick- 
 inson and  pursue  the  study  of  the  law.  He 
 soon  distinguished  himself,  and  was  ap- 
 pointed a  delegate  to  the  continental  Con- 
 gress, where  he  continued  from  1775  to 
 1777.  He  was  a  member  of  the  conven- 
 tions which  framed  the  constitution  of 
 Pennsylvania  and  that  of  the  United  States, 
 and  in  1789  was  appointed  one  of  the 
 judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
 States.  In  1797  he  was  made  professor  of 
 law  in  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
 in  this  capacity  delivered  a  course  of  lec- 
 tures, afterwards  published  in  three  volumes 
 ivo.     He  died  in  1793. 
 
 WILSON,  Thomas,  a  prelate  eminent 
 for  piety,  was  born,  in  1663,  at  Barton,  in 
 Cheshire.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
 College,  Dublin.  The  earl  of  Derby,  to 
 whom  he  was  chaplain,  and  whose  son  he 
 accompanied  to  the  continent  as  tutor, 
 nominated  him,  in  1697,  bishop  of  the  isle 
 of  Man.  He  held  the  see  during  fifty-eight 
 years,  and  though  his  annual  income  was 
 only  three  hundred  pounds,  he  refused  to 
 accept  an  English  bishopric.  Scanty  as 
 were  his  means,  he  was  benevolent  to  the 
 poor,  built  a  new  chapel  at  Castleton, 
 founded  parochial  libraries,  and  introduc- 
 ed important  improvements  in  the  agricul- 
 ture of  the  island.  He  died  in  1755.  His 
 works  form  two  vols,  folio. 
 
 WILSON,  Richard,  a  celebrated  pain- 
 ter, was  born,  in  1714,  at  Penegos,  in 
 Montgomeryshire.  He  received  a  liberal 
 education,  and,  having  manifested  a  genius 
 for  painting,  he  was  placed  under  an  ob- 
 scure portrait  painter  named  Wright.  He 
 himself  began  his  career  in  the  same  branch 
 of  art.  On  his  visiting  Italy,  however,  he 
 was  advised  by  Zuccarelli  to  devote  him- 
 self to  landscape,  and,  fortunately,  he  fol- 
 lowed that  advice.  His  picture  of  Niobe 
 was  exhibited  in  1760.     He  attained  great 
 
516 
 
 WIN 
 
 reputation,  but,  nevertheless,  the  latter  part 
 of  his  life  was  clouded  by  poverty.  He 
 died  in  1782.  Fuseli  declares  that'  "  Wil- 
 son's taste  was  so  exquisite,  and  his  eye  so 
 chaste,  that  whatever  came  from  his  easel 
 bore  the  stamp  of  elegance  and  truth." 
 
 WINCHESTER,  Elhanan,  an  Amer- 
 ican divine,  who  visited  England  about 
 17S3,  attempted  to  found  a  Philadelphian 
 society,  and  disseminated  his  peculiar  te- 
 nets by  means  of  preaching,  and  of  a 
 Philadelphian  magazine.  He  succeeded  in 
 establishing  a  sect  called  Winchestarians, 
 or  Universaiists,  which  is  still  in  existence. 
 His  distinguishing  tenet  was  the  ultimate 
 redemption  of  all  mankind,  and  even  of 
 the  devils.  He  returned,  in  1792,  to  his 
 native  country,  and  died  there.  Among 
 his  works  are,  Lectures  on  the  Prophecies ; 
 The  Universal  Restoration ;  and  an  heroic 
 ooem  on  Christ. 
 
 WINCKELMAN,  John  Joachim,  a 
 celebrated  German  antiquary,  was  born,  in 
 1717,  at  Steindall,  in  Brandenburg.  After 
 having  been  professor  of  the  belles  lettres 
 at  Seehausen,  and  librarian  to  Count  Bu- 
 nau,  he  became  a  catholic,  and  went  to 
 Rome,  where  the  pope  appointed  him 
 president  of  antiquities,  and  librarian  of 
 the  Vatican.  He  was  murdered,  in  1768, 
 at  Trieste,  while  on  his  return  from  Ger- 
 many to  Italy.  His  principal  works  are, 
 A  History  of  Art  among  the  Ancients ; 
 Ancient  inedited  Monuments ;  Reflections 
 on  the  Imitation  of  the  Productions  of  the 
 Greeks  in  Painting  and  Sculpture ;  On 
 Allegorv  ;  and  Letters  on  Herculaneum. 
 
 WINDER,  William  H.  an  officer  in 
 the  American  army,  was  born  in  Mary- 
 land in  1775,  was  educated  for  the  bar, 
 and  pursued  his  profession  in  Baltimore 
 with  great  success.  In  1812  he  received  a 
 colonel's  commission,  w&s  promoted  to  the 
 rank  of  brigadier  general,  and  served  with 
 reputation  during  the  war  with  Great 
 Britain.  He  commanded  the  troops  at  the 
 battle  of  Bladcnsburg.  On  the  declara- 
 tion of  peace  he  resumed  the  practice  of 
 his  profession.     He  died  in  1824. 
 
 WINDHAM,  William,  a  statesman, 
 was  born,  in  1750,  at  Felbrig,  in  Norfolk, 
 and  was  educated  at  Eton,  Glasgow,  and 
 University  College,  Oxford.  In  1782  he 
 was  elected  M.  P.  for  Norwich,  and  for  a 
 short  time  secretary  to  the  viceroy  of 
 Ireland.  He  continued  to  act  with  the 
 whigs  till  1793,  when  he  adopted  the  sen- 
 timents of  Burke ;  and,  in  the  following 
 year,  he  was  appointed  secretary  at  war, 
 with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  In  1S01  he 
 resigned.  To  the  peace  of  Amiens  he  was 
 strenuously  hostile.  During  the  brief  pos- 
 session of  power  by  the  whigs  in  1806,  he 
 held  his  former  office.  He  died  in  1810. 
 His  speeches  have  been  published  in  three 
 ■volumes  octavo     Windham  was  a  man  of 
 
 WIN 
 
 extensive  reading,  and  no  mean  mathema- 
 tician. 
 
 WINGATE,  Edward,  a  lawyer  and 
 mathematician,  was  born,  in  1593,  in  York- 
 shire ;  studied  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
 and  at  Gray's  Inn  ;  was  sent  to  France  to 
 instruct  Henrietta  Maria  in  the  English 
 language ;  took  the  popular  side  in  the 
 civil  war ;  and  died  in  1656.  Among  his 
 works  are,  Natural  and  Artificial  Arith- 
 metic. ;  The  Exact  Surveyor ;  Ludus  Ma- 
 thematicus ;  Maxims  of  Reason  ;  and  an 
 Abridgment  of  the  Statutes. 
 
 WINSLOW,  Edward,  was  born  in 
 Worcestershire  in  1594.  He  was  among 
 the  first  settlers  of  New  England,  in  1620, 
 and  was  repeatedly  electee!  governor  of 
 the  colony  they  founded  at  Plymouth.  He 
 went  several  times  as  an  agent  to  Eng- 
 land, and  in  1655  was  appointed  a  com- 
 missioner to  superintend  the  expedition 
 against  the  Spaniards  in  the  West  Indies. 
 He  died  near  Jamaica  in  the  May  of  that 
 year. 
 
 WINSLOW,  James  Benignus,  a  cel- 
 ebrated Danish  anatomist,  was  born,  in 
 1669,  at  Odensee  ;  settled  in  France  ;  and, 
 in  1699,  became  a  catholic.  In  1743  he 
 succeeded  M.  Hunald  as  professor  of  ana- 
 tomy and  physiology  at  the  Royal  Botanic 
 Garden.  He  died  in  1760.  Winslow  was 
 a  member  of  several  learned  bodies.  His 
 principal  work,  which  still  preserves  its 
 reputation  undiminished,  is  An  Anatomical 
 Exposition  of  the  Structure  of  the  Human 
 Bodv. 
 
 WINTHROP,  John,  first  governor  of 
 Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Groton,  Eng- 
 land, in  15S7.  He  arrived  with  the  colo- 
 nists in  Salem  in  1630,  having  a  commis- 
 sion as  their  governor,  and  held  this  office, 
 with  the  exception  of  six  or  seven  years, 
 till  his  death  in  1649.  He  kept  a  minute 
 iournal  of  the  affairs  of  the  colony,  which 
 has  been  published,  and  possesses  much 
 value. 
 
 WINTHROP,  John,  son  of  the  fore- 
 jjoinsr,  Avas  born  in  England,  in  1605.  and 
 received  his  education  at  Cambridge.  He 
 came  to  Massachusetts  in  1633,  and  sub- 
 sequently visiting  England,  returned  and 
 established  a  colony,  at  Saybrook,  Con- 
 necticut. In  1657  he  was  chosen  governor 
 of  that  colony,  and  remained  so  till  his 
 death  in  1676.  He  was  distinguished  for 
 his  love  of  natural  philosophy,  and  was  one 
 of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society  ol 
 London. 
 
 WINTHROP,  James,  a  man  of  letters, 
 was  born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in 
 1752,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
 lege. He  was  for  twenty  years  librarian 
 of  that  institution.  His  acquirements  in 
 the  exact  sciences,  the  ancient  and  modern 
 languages,  and  in  hiblic;  I  ind  polite  litera- 
 ture were  extensive.     H  '  in  1821. 
 
WIT 
 
 WINWOOD,  Sir  Ralph,  a  statesman, 
 was  born,  about  1565,  at  Aynhoe,  in  North- 
 amptonshire ;  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
 and  Magdalen  Colleges,  Oxford  ;  was  twice 
 sent  as  envoy  to  Holland  ;  and  was  secre- 
 tary of  state  from  1614  till  his  decease  in 
 1617.  Memorials  of  Affairs  of  State,  three 
 volumes  folio,  were  published  from  his 
 papers  in  1725. 
 
 VVISHART,  George,  a  Scotch  pro- 
 testant  martyr,  was  born  at  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  sixteenth  century.  Little  is 
 known  of  his  early  life ;  but  he  is  said  to 
 have  embraced  the  protestant  faith  while 
 travelling  in  Germany ;  to  have  resided 
 for  some  years  at  Cambridge ;  and  to  have 
 taught  at  Bene't  College.  In  1544  he  re- 
 turned to  his  native  land,  and  exerted  him- 
 self zealously  in  preaching  the  doctrines  of 
 the  Reformation.  In  1546  he  was  seized 
 by  Cardinal  Beaton,  was  brought  to  trial, 
 and  was  mercilessly  condemned  to  the 
 flames. 
 
 WISTAR,  Caspar,  a  celebrated  physi- 
 cian, was  born  in  Philadelphia,  in  1761. 
 He  studied  medicine  under  Dr.  John  Red- 
 man, and  completed  his  professional  course 
 at  the  schools  in  London  and  Edinburgh. 
 Returning  in  1737  to  his  native  city,  he 
 soon  distinguished  himself  in  his  profes- 
 sion, and  in  1789  was  elected  professor  of 
 chemistry  in  the  college  of  Philadelphia. 
 In  1792  he  became  adjunct  professor  of 
 anatomy,  midwifery,  and  surgery,  with  Dr. 
 Shippen ;  and  on  the  decease  of  that  gen- 
 tleman, in  180S,  sole  professor.  His  ac- 
 quirements in  professional  knowledge  were 
 very  extensive,  and  he  obtained  much  pop- 
 ularity as  a  lecturer.  He  died  in  1818. 
 His  chief  work  is  a  valuable  System  of  An- 
 atomy, in  two  volumes. 
 
 WITHER,  George,  a  poet,  was  born, 
 in  1588,  at  Bentworth,  in  Hampshire,  and 
 was  educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Ox- 
 ford. He  studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn, 
 but  did  not  practise.  In  1613  he  was  com- 
 mitted to  prison  for  his  satires,  called 
 Abuses  Stript  and  Whipt.  Iu  the  civil 
 war  he  espoused  the  popular  cause,  and 
 rose  to  the  rank  of  major  general.  After 
 the  Restoration  he  was  again  incarcerated 
 for  his  writings,  and  remained  for  more 
 than  three  years  in  durance.  He  died  in 
 1667.  Of  his  numerous  works  many  are 
 hasty  and  incorrect,  but  in  his  Shepherds 
 Hunting,  and  some  of  his  other  pieces, 
 there  is  much  of  genuine  poetry. 
 
 WITHERING,  William,  a  physician, 
 was  born,  in  1741,  at  Wellington,  in  Shrop- 
 shire ;  studied  at  Edinburgh  ;  practised 
 successfully,  first  at  Stafford,  and  after- 
 wards at  Birmingham;  and  died  in  1799. 
 His  chief  work  is  a  Systematic  Arrange- 
 ment of  British  Plants.  The  native  car- 
 bonate of  barytes  was  discovered  and  first 
 described  by  him. 
 
 WOL 
 
 517 
 
 WITHERSPOON,  John,  a  signer  of 
 the  declaration  of  American  independence, 
 was  born  in  Scotland,  in  1722,  and  was 
 educated  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
 He  studied  divinity,  and  became  one  of  the 
 most  influential  and  distinguished  of  the 
 Scottish  clergy.  Being  induced  to  accept 
 the  presidency  of  the  college  at  Princeton, 
 he  removed  to  New  Jersey  with  his  family 
 in  1763.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  a  dele- 
 gate to  the  continental  congress,  and  re- 
 tained a  seat  there  during  the  war.  On 
 the  return  of  peace  he  resumed  his  duties 
 at  the  college.  He  died  in  1794.  His 
 works  have  been  collected,  in  four  volumes 
 octavo. 
 
 WOODHULL,  Michael,  a  poet,  was 
 born,  in  1740,  at  Thenford,  in  Northamp- 
 tonshire ;  was  educated  at  Winchester 
 School,  and  at  Brazennose  College,  Ox- 
 ford ;  lived  on  his  paternal  estate,  and 
 amused  his  leisure  hours  with  literature  ; 
 and  died  in  1816.  He  wrote  Poems,  which 
 have  a  considerable  portion  of  merit ;  and 
 translated  the  tragedies  of  Euripides. 
 
 WODROW,  Robert,  a  Scotch  histo- 
 rian, was  born,  in  1679,  at  Glasgow; 
 studied  at  the  university  of  that  city,  of 
 which  he  afterwards  became  librarian; 
 and  died  in  1734,  minister  of  the  parish  of 
 Eastwood.  He  wrote  a  valuable  but  prolix 
 History  of  the  Sufferings  of  the  Church  of 
 Scotland  ;  and  left  unfinished  a  Biography 
 of  the  principal  Persons  concerned  in  intro- 
 ducing the  Reformation  of  Religion  into 
 Scotland. 
 
 WOLCOTT,  John,  a  poet,  better 
 known  by  the  name  of  Peter  Pindar,  was 
 born,  in  1738,  at  Dodbrook,  in  Devonshire  : 
 was  educated  at  private  seminaries;  and 
 was  apprenticed  to  his  uncle,  an  apothe- 
 cary at  Truro,  who  ultimately  left  him  the 
 bulk  of  his  property.  Having  taken  a  de- 
 gree, he  accompanied  Sir  William  Tre- 
 lawney  to  the  government  of  Jamaica,  as 
 physician.  While  residing  in  that  island 
 he  took  orders,  and  was  presented  to  a  liv- 
 ing. On  his  return  to  England  he  settled 
 at  Truro,  whence  he  removed  to  Helstone. 
 It  was  while  he  was  living  in  Cornwall 
 that  he  drew  from  ohscurity  the  painter 
 
518 
 
 WOL 
 
 Opie;  and  in  1780  he  went  with  him  to 
 settle  in  London.  Wolcott's  lirst  publica- 
 tion, An  Epistle  to  the  Reviewers,  ap- 
 peared in  1778.  After  his  arrival  in  the 
 metropolis,  his  productions  rapidly  suc- 
 ceeden  each  other,  and  were  highly  popular. 
 Among  his  most  finished  works  are,  Lyric 
 Odes  to  the  Royal  Academicians ;  and  The 
 Lousiad.  In  the  decline  of  life  he  hecame 
 blind,  and  he  died  January  14,  1819.  His 
 works  form  five  octavo  volumes.  Wolcott 
 also  possessed  considerable  talents  in  draw- 
 ing and  music. 
 
 WOLCOTT,  Oliver,  governor  of  Con- 
 necticut, was  born  in  1727,  and  received 
 his  education  at  Yale  College.  He  served 
 as  captain  in  the  French  war,  and  studied 
 medicine  though  he  never  practised.  He 
 was  a  delegate  to  the  congress  of  1776, 
 signed  the  declaration  of  independence  and 
 the  articles  of  confederation,  and  remained 
 a  member  till  1785.  In  1785  he  was  elected 
 deputy  governor,  and  was  re-elected  till 
 1796,  when  he  was  made  governor.  He 
 died  in  1797. 
 
 WOLF,  Frederic  Augustus,  an  emi- 
 nent German  philologist,  was  born,  in  1759, 
 at  Haynrode,  in  Holstein;  was  educated 
 at  Gottingen  ;  was  appointed  professor,  in 
 1783,  at  the  university  of  Halle,  where  he 
 remained  for  twenty-three  years ;  had  a 
 considerable  share  in  founding  and  organ- 
 izing the  new  university  at  Berlin,  in  1808, 
 and  became  professor  of  it;  and  died  in 
 1824.  He  edited,  and  added  notes  and 
 dissertations  to,  many  Greek  and  Roman 
 classics ;  and  wrote  A  History  of  Roman 
 Literature  ;  and  other  works. 
 
 WOLFE,  JameSj  a  distinguished  gen- 
 eral, the  son  of  a  lieutenant  general,  was 
 born,  in  1726,  at  Westerham,  in  Kent, 
 and  distinguished  himself,  before  he  was 
 twenty,  at  the  battle,  of  LafFeldt.  He  in- 
 creased his  reputation  so  much  by  his  con- 
 duct at  Minden  und  Louisburgh,  that  Pitt 
 selected  him  to  command  the  expedition 
 against  Quebec.  Wolfe  overcame  all  ob- 
 stacles, scaled  the  heights  of  Abraham, 
 and  compelled  the  enemy  to  risk  the  pro- 
 vince on  the  issue  of  a  battle.  In  the  mo- 
 ment of  victory  he  fell,  mortally  wounded. 
 Cries  of  "  they  run !"  struck  his  ear. 
 Rousing  himself"  from  the  faintness  of  death, 
 he  inquired,  "who  run 7"  and  being  told 
 that  it  was  the  French,  he  exclaimed, 
 "  Thank  God,  then  I  die  contented!"  and 
 immediately  expired.  He  died  September 
 13,  1759. 
 
 WOLFE,  Charles,  an  Irish  divine 
 and  poet,  was  born,  in  1791,  at  Dublin; 
 was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  ; 
 obtained  the  curacy  of  Balryclbg.  which  he 
 exchanged  forthat  of  Castle  Canlfield  ;  and 
 died  of  consumption  in  February,  1823. 
 He  wrote  the  well  known  Ode  on  the  Death 
 of  Sir  John  Moore,  beginning  with  "  Not 
 
 WOL 
 
 a  drum  was  heard ;"  and  the  praise  which, 
 after  his  decease,  was  bestowed  upon  that 
 piece,  induced  his  friends  to  publish  a 
 volume  of  his  Remains. 
 
 WOLFF,  or  WOLFIUS,  John  Chris- 
 tian, a  celebrated  German  philosopher 
 and  mathematician,  was  born,  in  1679,  al 
 Breslaw,  in  Silesia ;  studied  at  Jena  and 
 Leipsic ;  and  gave  early  indications  of 
 talent.  By  the  advice  of  Leibnitz,  he  de- 
 clined becoming  a  preacher,  and  dedicated 
 himself  to  philosophy.  In  1707  he  was 
 appointed  professor  of  mathematics  and 
 natural  philosophy  at  Halle  ;  and  he  filled 
 this  office  with  high  reputation  for  several 
 years,  till,  in  1732,  his  enemies,  by  repre- 
 senting his  doctrines  as  dangerous,  suc- 
 ceeded in  prevailing  on  the  king  of  Prussia 
 to  order  Wolff  to  quit  his  territories  in 
 two  days,  on  pain  of  death.  He  was  sub- 
 sequently professor  at  Marpurg.  Frederic 
 the  Great  recalled  him  to  Halle,  made  him 
 professor  of  the  law  of  nature  and  nations 
 as  well  as  of  mathematics,  and  pensioned 
 him,  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria  created 
 him  a  baron.  He  died  in  1754,  chancellor 
 of  the  university.  It  was  Wolff  who  ac- 
 complished the  expulsion  of  the  Aristotelian 
 philosophv  from  the  German  schools.  His 
 philosophical,  metaphysical,  and  mathe- 
 matical works  are  numerous ;  the  Latin 
 philosophical  productions  alone  forming 
 twentv-three  volumes  quarto. 
 
 WOLLASTON,  William,  an  ethical 
 and  theological  writer,  was  born,  in  1659, 
 at  Cotton  Clanford,  in  Staffordshire  ;  was 
 educated  at  Sidney  College,  Cambridge ; 
 took  orders  ;  but  obtained  an  independence 
 which  turned  his  views  from  church  pre- 
 ferment; and  died  in  1724.  His  principal 
 work  is,  The  Religion  of  Nature  Deline- 
 ated. 
 
 WOLLASTON,  William  Hyde, a  phy- 
 sician and  experimental  philosopher,  the 
 great-grandson  of  the  foregoing,  was  born 
 in  17G6,  and  was  educated  at  Caius  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge.  Fortunately  for  the  in- 
 terests of  science,  his  want  of  patronage 
 as  a  physician,  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds  and 
 London,  induced  him  to  give  up  the  medi- 
 cal profession  in  disgust,  and  devote  him- 
 self to  scientific  pursuits.  The  result  was 
 that  he  became  one  of  the  most  eminent  « 
 chemists  and  experimentalists  of  modern 
 times.  Among  bis  discoveries  are  the 
 two  metals,  palladium  and  rhodium,  and 
 the  method  of  rendering  platina  malleable, 
 by  the  last  of  which  he  is  said  to  have 
 gained  thirty  thousand  pounds.  Among 
 his  inventions  are,  a  sliding  scale  of  chem- 
 ical equivalents,  a  goniometer,  and  the 
 camera  lucida.  His  papers  in  the  Philo- 
 sophical Transactions  are  numerous.  He 
 died  December  22,  1828. 
 
 WOLSEY,  Thomas,  cardinal,  an  em- 
 inent prelate  and  statesman,  the  son  of  a 
 
woo 
 
 butcher,  was  born,  in  1471,  at  Ipswich. 
 He   was  educated  at  Magdalen  College, 
 
 WOO 
 
 519 
 
 Oxford.  His  first  preferment  of  impor- 
 tance was  that  of  chaplain  to  Henry  VII., 
 who  gave  him  the  deanery  of  Lincoln,  as 
 a  reward  for  his  expeditious  execution  of 
 some  diplomatic  business.  Being  intro- 
 duced to  Henry  VIII.  by  Fox,  bishop  of 
 Winchester,  he  made  a  rapid  progress  in 
 the  royal  favour,  till  at  length  he  reached 
 the  highest  pitch  of  power  to  which  a 
 subject  can  aspire.  Between  1510  and 
 1515,  besides  several  other  valuable  but 
 less  important  offices  and  honours,  he  ob- 
 tained the  bishoprics  of  Tournay  and  Lin- 
 coln, the  archbishopric  of  York,  the  chan- 
 cellorship, the  legantine  authority,  and  the 
 dignity  of  cardinal.  He  lived  in  princely 
 state ;  and  his  train  consisted  of  eight 
 hundred  persons,  of  whom  many  were 
 knights  and  gentlemen.  Charles  V.  and 
 Francis  I.  were  suitors  for  his  influence 
 with  his  master,  and  bought  it  by  pensions 
 and  professions  of  respect.  His  great  am- 
 bition was,  to  fill  the  papal  chair,  but  in 
 this  he  was  disappointed.  At  length  his 
 capricious  sovereign  became  his  enemy. 
 The  conduct  of  Wolsey  relative  to  the 
 divorce  from  Catherine  of  Arragon  was 
 the  first  cause  of  offence.  In  1529  he  was 
 deprived  of  the  seals,  a  part  of  his  property 
 was  seized,  and  he  was  impeached.  A 
 full  pardon,  however,  was  granted  to  him, 
 and  in  1530  he  retired  to  Cawood  Castle. 
 There,  in  the  autumn  of  that  year,  he  was 
 again  arrested,  on  a  charge  of  nigh  treason, 
 and  he  died  at  Leicester,  on  his  way  to 
 London,  on  the  23th  of  November.  With 
 all  his  faults,  Wolsey  was  a  munificent 
 patron  of  learning.  He  founded  a  colle- 
 giate school  at  Ipswich,  and  the  college  of 
 Christ  Church,  and  several  lectureships, 
 at  Oxford. 
 
 WOOD,  Anthony,  a  bioerapher  and 
 antiquary,  was  born,  in  1632,  at  Oxford, 
 and  was  educated  at  Merton  College. 
 The  perusal  of  some  works  on  heraldry, 
 and  of  Dugdale's  Warwickshire,  inspired 
 in  him  a  taste  for  antiquarian  lore.  His 
 History  and  Antiquities  of  Oxford,  which 
 was  translated   into   Latin  by  Dr.   Fell, 
 
 appeared  in  1674,  and  his  Atheme  Oxo- 
 menses  was  published  in  1691.  An  attack 
 upon  Lord  Clarendon,  in  the  last  of  these 
 works,  subjected  him  to  a  sentence  of 
 expulsion,  and  his  jacobitical  prejudices 
 rendered  him  an  object  of  hatred  to  the 
 whig  party.     He  died  in  1695. 
 
 WOOD,  Robert,  a  scholar  and  a  man 
 of  taste,  was  born,  in  1716,  at  Riverstown, 
 in  the  Irish  county  of  Meath ;  made  the 
 tour  of  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Palestine,  in 
 1751 ;  was  appointed  under  secretary  of 
 state  in  1759  ;  and  died  in  1771.  He  wrote 
 a  Description  of  the  Ruins  of  Balbec ;  The 
 Ruins  of  Palmyra;  and  an  Essay  on  the 
 Life  and  Writings  of  Homer. 
 
 WOODDESON,  Richard,  an  eminent 
 civilian,  was  born,  in  1745,  at  Kings- 
 ton, in  Surrey ;  was  educated  at  Kingston 
 Grammar  School,  and  at  Pembroke  and 
 Magdalen  Colleges,  Oxford;  was  chosen 
 Vinerian  professor,  on  the  resignation  of 
 Sir  Robert  Chambers;  and  died  in  1822. 
 He  wrote  Elements  of  Jurisprudence ;  A 
 Systematic  View  of  the  Laws  of  England  ; 
 and  a  Brief  Vindication  of  the  Rights  of 
 the  British  Legislature,  in  reply  to  Mr. 
 Reeves. 
 
 WOODFALL,  William,  a  printer  and 
 parliamentary  reporter,  was  born  about 
 1745,  and  was  the  son  of  a  printer  who 
 was  proprietor  of  The  Daily  Advertiser. 
 He  was  brought  up  to  his  father's  occupa- 
 tion, but  was  so  fond  of  the  stage  that  for 
 a  short  time  he  was  an  actor,  and,  to  the 
 close  of  his  life,  never  missed  being  present 
 at  the  coming  out  of  a  new  piece.  He  was 
 successively  editor  of  The  London  Packet, 
 and  The  Morning  Chronicle,  and  editor 
 and  owner  of  the  Diary.  Woodfall  had  an 
 astonishingly  retentive  memory,  and  was 
 the  first  who  gave  a  full  and  immediate 
 detail  of  the  proceedings  of  the  legislature. 
 He  died  in  1803. 
 
 WOODHOUSE,  Robert,  an  eminent 
 mathematician,  was  educated  at  Cam- 
 bridge ;  was  a  fellow  of  Caius  College ; 
 took  his  degree  of  B.  A.,  and  was  senior 
 wrangler,  and  Smith's  first  prizeman,  in 
 1795;  was  elected  Lucasian  professor  in 
 1320,  Plumian  professor  in  1S22,  and 
 keeper  of  the  observatorv  in  1824;  and 
 died  December  28,  1827.  *  He  wrote  The 
 Principles  of  Analytical  Calculation  ;  A 
 Treatise  on  Trigonometry ;  A  Treatise  on 
 Isoperimetrical  Problems  ;  An  Elementary 
 Treatise  on  Plane  Astronomy ;  and  several 
 papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions. 
 
 WTOODVILLE,  William,  an  eminent 
 physician,  was  born,  in  1752,  at  Cocker- 
 mouth,  and,  after  having  been  apprentice 
 to  an  apothecary,  took  the  degree  of  M.  D. 
 at  Edinburgh  in  1775.  He  settled  in  Lon- 
 don, where  he  became  physician  to  the 
 Middlesex  Dispensary  and  the  Small  pox 
 Hospital,  and  died   in   1805.      He  wrote 
 
020 
 
 WOR 
 
 Medical  Botany;  and  The  History  of 
 Small  pox  Inoculation. 
 
 WOODWARD,  John,  a  physician  and 
 natural  philosopher,  was  horn,  in  1665, 
 in  Derbyshire,  and  received  a  classical 
 education,  but  was  apprenticed  to  a  linen- 
 draper.  Dr.  Barwick,  however,  took  him 
 into  his  house,  and  instructed  him  in  the 
 medical  art,  and  Woodward  became  pro- 
 fessor of  physic  at  Gresham  College,  and 
 a  fellow  of  the  college  and  the  Royal 
 .Society.  He  died  in  1728.  His  principal 
 works  are,  An  Essay  towards  the  Natural 
 History  of  the  Earth ;  a  Defence  of  it ; 
 and  Fossils  of  all  Kinds  digested  into  a 
 Method  suitable  to  their  Relation  and 
 Affinity. 
 
 WOOLLET,  Wikliam,  an  eminent 
 engraver,  was  born,  in  1735,  at  Maid- 
 stone ;  was  a  pupil  of  Tinney ;  rose  to  great 
 eminence  in  the  graphic  art ;  and  died  in 
 1785.  Among  his  finest  works  are,  The 
 Battle  of  the  Boyne ;  The  Death  of  Gen- 
 eral Wolfe ;  The  Fishery ;  Niobe  ;  Phae- 
 ton ;  Ceyx  and  Alcyone  ;  and  Celadon  and 
 Amelia. 
 
 WOOLSTON,  Thomas,  a  deistical 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1669,  at  Northamp- 
 ton, and  was  educated  at  Sidney  College, 
 Cambridge.  The  perusal  of  the  writings 
 of  Origen  gave  him  a  fondness  for  allego- 
 rizing, and  his  first  work,  The  Old  Apology 
 for  the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Religion 
 revived,  was  meant  to  prove  that  the  ac- 
 tions of  Moses  were  typical  of  Christ  and 
 the  church.  He  gradually  became  a  deist, 
 and  at  length  his  Six  Discourses  on  Mira- 
 cles, and  his  Defence  of  the  Discourses, 
 brought  upon  him  a  prosecution  for  blas- 
 phemy, and  he  was  fined  and  imprisoned. 
 He  died  within  the  rules  of  the  King's 
 Bench,  in  1732. 
 
 WORCESTER,  Edward  SOMERSET, 
 marquis  of,  a  man  of  highly  inventive  tal- 
 ents, was  born  about  1597;  was  employed 
 when  earl  of  Glamorgan  by  Charles  I.  to 
 negotiate  with  the  Irish  catholics  ;  and 
 died  in  1667.  In  1663  he  published  his 
 curious  pamphlet  called  The  Scantlings  of 
 One  Hundred  Inventions.  Among  those 
 inventions  is  the  Steam  Engine,  though 
 described,  like  all  the  rest  of  the  articles, 
 in  a  somewhat  enigmatical  manner.  He 
 afterwards  put  forth  a  tract,  which  he 
 called  An  exact  and  true  Definition  of  the 
 most  stupendous  water-commanding  En- 
 gine. Walpole,  who  was  ignorant  upon  the 
 subject,  calls  him  "  a  fantastic  mechanic," 
 and  some  later  writers  have  endeavoured 
 to  depreciate  his  merit ;  but  the  feasibility 
 of  many  of  his  projects  has  been  amply 
 proved. 
 
 WORLIDGE,  Thomas,  a  painter  and 
 engraver,  was  born,  in  1701,  at  Peter- 
 borough, and  died,  in  1766,  at  Hammer- 
 smith.    He  was  originally  a  painter  in 
 
 WOU 
 
 miniature,  and  afterwards  in  oil,  but  laid 
 down  the  pencil,  and  devoted  himself  to 
 engraving,  in  which  he  adopted,  and  with 
 great  success,  the  manner  of  Rembrandt ; 
 so  that  he  has  been  called  the  English 
 Rembrandt.  His  great  work  is  A  Select 
 Collection  of  Drawings  from  curious  An- 
 tique Gems. 
 
 WORMIUS,  Olaus,  an  able  Danish 
 physician  and  antiquary,  was  born,  in 
 1588,  at  Aarhusen,  in  Jutland;  studied  at 
 Marpurg,  Strasburgh,  and  Basil ;  was, 
 successively,  professor  of  belles  lettres, 
 Greek  literature,  and  physic,  at  Copenha- 
 gen ;  was  made  a  canon  of  the  cathedral 
 of  Lunden  by  Christiern  IV.  as  a  reward 
 for  his  medical  services ;  and  died  in  1654. 
 He  wrote  various  works  on  his  profession, 
 but  his  principal  productions  relate  to 
 Danish  and  Norwegian  history  and  anti- 
 quities. 
 
 WOTTON,  Sir  Henry,  a  diplomatist 
 and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born,  in 
 1568,  at  Boughton  Hall,  in  Kent;  and 
 was  educated  at  Winchester  School,  and 
 at  New  College  and  Queen's  College,  Ox- 
 ford. After  having  visited  France,  Ger- 
 many, and  Italy,  he  was  appointed  secre- 
 tary to  the  earl  of  Essex,  whom  he  ac- 
 companied on  his  expeditions  against  the 
 Spaniards,  and  into  Ireland.  On  the  fall 
 ot  that  nobleman,  Wotton  went  to  reside 
 at  Florence.  James  I.  employed  him  as 
 ambassador  at  Venice,  and  on  various 
 missions  to  Italian  and  German  princes. 
 He  was  made  provost  of  Eton  College  in 
 1624,  and  died  in  1639.  He  wrote^Ele- 
 ments  of  Architecture;  The  State  of 
 Christendom;  and  Reliquiae  Wottonianae. 
 Some  of  his  poems  are  spirited  and  ele- 
 gant. 
 
 WOULFE,  Peter,  an  eminent  chem- 
 ist, who  died  in  1805.  His  character  was 
 marked  by  great  eccentricity.  He  was  a 
 firm  believer  in  alchemy ;  his  apartments 
 were  so  filled  with  furnaces  and  the  arti- 
 cles of  a  laboratory  that  his  fireside  was 
 not  easily  reached  ;  he  breakfasted  at  four 
 in  the  morning ;  and  his  mode  of  curing  any 
 serinus  indisposition  was,  to  take  a  place 
 in  the  mail  to  Edinburgh,  and  immediate- 
 ly return  from  that  city.  He  invented  an 
 apparatus  for  experiments  on  gases ;  and 
 contributed  several  papers  to  the  Philo- 
 sophical Transactions. 
 
 WOUVERMANS,  Philip,  an  emi- 
 nent artist,  the  son  of  an  indifferent  his- 
 torical painter,  was  born,  in  1620,  at 
 Haarlem,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Wynants ; 
 but  much  improved  himself  by  an  indefati- 
 gable study  of  nature.  Great  as  was  his 
 merit,  he  was  so  poorly  patronised  as  to 
 be  always  in  narrow  circumstances ;  and, 
 before  his  death,  he  ordered  a  box  filled 
 with  his  designs  to  be  burned,  that  his  son 
 might  not  be  allured  to  embrace  "so  ua- 
 
WRE 
 
 certain  and  miserable  a  profession."    He 
 died  in  16  68. 
 
 WRAGG,  William,  was  born  in  South 
 Carolina,  in  1714,  and  was  educated  in 
 England,  where  he  studied  law  and  enter- 
 ed upon  its  practice.  Not  long  afterwards 
 he  returned  to  his  native  country,  in  1753 
 was  made  one  of  the  king's  council  for  the 
 province,  and  in  1769  was  offered  the  seat 
 of  chief  justice,  which  he  declined.  When 
 the  revolution  commenced  he  maintained  a 
 conscientious  opposition  to  the  measures 
 of  the  colonies,  and  determined  to  return 
 to  England.  He  embarked  for  that  coun- 
 try and  was  wrecked  in  a  violent  storm  on 
 the  coast  of  Holland,  in  September  1777. 
 A  monument  is  erected  to  his  memory  in 
 Westminster  Abbey. 
 
 wye 
 
 521 
 
 WREN,  Sir  Christopher,  a  celebrated 
 architect  and  mathematician,  son  of  the 
 dean  of  Windsor,  was  born,  in  1632,  at 
 East  Knoyle,  in  Wiltshire,  and  was  edu- 
 cated at  Wadham  College,  Oxford.  His 
 mathematical  talents  were  precociously 
 manifested ;  in  his  thirteenth  year  he  in- 
 vented an  astronomical  instrument  and  a 
 pneumatic  machine ;  and  at  fifteen  he 
 wrote  a  new  System  of  Spherical  Trigo- 
 nometry. He  was  one  of  the  earliest  mem- 
 bers oi  the  Philosophical  Society  at  Ox- 
 ford, which  afterwards  ripened  into  the 
 Royal  Society.  In  1657  he  was  chosen 
 Gresham  professor  of  astronomy,  and  in 
 1661  Savilian  professor  at  Oxford.  During 
 this  period  he  made  many  curious  discov- 
 eries in  astronomy,  natural  philosophy, 
 and  other  sciences.  It  was  in  1663  that 
 his  architectural  talents  were  first  called 
 into  action,  when  he  was  commissioned  to 
 prepare  designs  for  the  restoration  of  St. 
 Paul's  Cathedral.  The  fire  of  London, 
 however,  soon  opened  to  him  a  wider 
 sphere.  Between  1668  and  1718,  he  built 
 St.  Paul's  (which  was  begun  in  1675), 
 the  Monument,  the  hospitals  of  Chelsea 
 and  Greenwich,  various  edifices  at  Oxford 
 and  Cambridge,  Winchester  Castle,  the 
 new  part  of  Hampton  Court,  and  nearly 
 sixty  churches.  In  1680  he  was  chosen 
 president  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1718 
 political  intrigue  unworthily  deprived  him 
 
 of  the  surveyor  generalship  of  his  majesty's 
 works,  which  he  had  held  during  hull  a 
 century.     He  died  February  25,  1723. 
 
 WRIGHT,  Edward,  a  mathematician, 
 was  born  at  Garveston,  in  Norfolk,  in  the 
 latter  end  of  the  sixteenth  century;  was 
 educated  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge ; 
 accompanied  the  earl  of  Cumberland  in 
 his  voyages  ;  was  appointed  mathematical 
 lecturer  to  the  East  India  Company  ;  and 
 died  in  1615.  The  true  method  oi  divid- 
 ing the  meridian  line  was  first  discovered 
 by  him.  He  wrote  The  Correction  of 
 certain  Errors  in  Navigation ;  and  The 
 Haven  finding  Art. 
 
 WRIGHT,  Joseph,  an  eminent  pain- 
 ter, commonly  known  as  Wright  of  Derby, 
 was  born  in  that  town,  in  1734,  and  was 
 a  pupil  of  Hudson,  after  which  he  studied 
 in  Italy.  On  returning  to  England  he  re- 
 sided lor  two  years  at  Bath,  and  then  set- 
 tled at  Derby,  where  he  died  in  1797.  He 
 displayed  no  common  talents  in  portrait, 
 landscape,  and  historical  painting.  Among 
 his  principal  works  are,  the  eruption  of 
 Vesuvius,  the  head  of  Ulleswater  Lake,  the 
 Dead  Soldier,  the  destruction  of  the  Float- 
 ing Batteries  at  Gibraltar,  Belshazzar's 
 Feast,  Hero  and  Leander,  and  the  Lady  in 
 Com  us. 
 
 WYAT,  Sir  Thomas,  a  statesman  and 
 poet,  was  born,  in  1503,  at  Allington,  in 
 Kent ;  was  educated  at  St.  John's  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge,  and  at  Oxford;  was  a 
 favourite  of  Henry  VIII.;  was  employed  on 
 various  diplomatic  missions ;  and  died  in 
 1541.  His  poems  have  very  considerable 
 merit,  and  were  printed  with  those  of  his 
 friend,  the  accomplished  earl  of  Surrey. 
 
 WYATT,  James,  an  eminent  architect, 
 was  born,  about  1743,  at  Burton,  in  Staf- 
 fordshire ;  studied  architecture  and  paint- 
 ing at  Rome  ;  succeeded  Sir  William 
 Chambers  as  surveyor  of  the  board  of 
 works  ;  was  for  a  while  president  of  the 
 Royal  Academy ;  and  was  killed,  Septem- 
 ber 5,  1813,  by  the  overturning  of  a  car- 
 riage. Among  his  works  are,  the  Pan- 
 theon, KewPaiace,  Fonthill  Abbey,  various 
 improvements  at  Windsor,  Westminster, 
 and  Salisbury,  and  the  wings  to  the  duke 
 of  Devonshire's  villa  at  Chiswick. 
 
 WYCHERLEY,  William,  a  wit  and 
 dramatist,  was  born,  about  1640,  at  Cleve, 
 in  Shropshire.  He  studied  at  Queen's 
 College,  Oxford,  and  the  Middle  Temple, 
 but  paid  little  attention  to  law.  His  Love 
 in  a  Wood,  which  was  acted  in  1672,  gave 
 him  popularity,  and  he  became  a  favourite 
 of  Charles  II.  and  the  duke  of  Bucking- 
 ham. His  marriage  with  the  countess  of 
 Drogheda,  however,  deprived  him  of  the 
 smiles  of  the  sovereign,  and  her  jealousy 
 embittered  his  existence.  After  her  death, 
 the  succession  to  her  property  involved  him 
 in  lawsuits,  and  he  spent  several  years  m 
 
522 
 
 XEN 
 
 ?rison,  till  he  was  released  by  James  II. 
 le  died  in  1715.  He  wrote," besides  the 
 comedy  already  mentioned,  The  Gentle- 
 man Dancing  Master  ;  The  Country  Wife  ; 
 The  Plain  Dealer;  Poems;  and  some 
 pieces  which  were  published  after  his  de- 
 cease. 
 
 WYKEHAM,  William  of,  an  eminent 
 prelate,  derived  his  name  from  a  Hamp- 
 shire village,  in  which  he  was  born  in  1324. 
 His  parents,  though  respectable,  were  poor, 
 and  he  was  indebted  for  his  education  to 
 Nicholas  Uvedale,  lord  of  the  manor  of 
 Wykeham,  and  governor  of  Winchester 
 Castle.  Uvedale"  not  only  educated  him, 
 but  made  him  his  secretary,  and  eventually 
 recommended  him  to  Edward  III.  By  the 
 monarch  he  was  employed  to  superintend 
 the  building  of  Windsor  Castle.  After 
 having  held  some  minor  church  preferment. 
 he  was  raised,  in  1366,  to  the  see  of  Win- 
 chester, and  in  1367  was  made  chancellor 
 of  England.  In  1 371  the  party  of  the  duke 
 of  Lancaster  compelled  him  to  resign  the 
 seals,  and  he  was  persecuted  by  it  for  sev- 
 eral years.  Richard  II.,  however,  restored 
 him  to  his  dignities.  He  died  in  1404. 
 New  College,  Oxford,  and  Winchester 
 school,  were  founded  by  Wykeham. 
 
 WYTHE,  George,  a  signer  of  the  de- 
 claration of  American  independence,  was 
 born  in  Virginia  in  1726.    His  early  course 
 
 XIM 
 
 was  dissipated,  but  at  the  age  of  thirty  he 
 reformed,  turned  his  attention  to  literature, 
 studied  law  and  commenced  its  practice. 
 At  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  he 
 was  a  distinguished  leader  of  the  popular 
 party.  He  was  for  some  time  speaker  of 
 the  house  of  burgesses,  and  in  1775  was 
 elected  a  member  of  congress.  He  was 
 one  of  the  committee  to  revise  the  laws  of 
 Virginia  in  1776,  and  had  a  principal  share 
 in  preparing  the  code  adopted  in  1779. 
 Soon  after  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
 three  judges  of  the  high  court  of  chancery, 
 and  subsequently  sole  counsellor.  He  was 
 a  member  of  the  convention  of  Virginia  to 
 consider  the  constitution  of  the  United 
 States.  His  death,  which  was  attributed 
 to  poison,  took  place  in  1806. 
 
 WYTTENBACH,  Daniel,  a  learned 
 philologist,  was  born,  in  1746,  at  Berne ; 
 studied  at  Marburg,  and  at  Gottingen,  un- 
 der Heyne  ;  and  became  professor  of  phi- 
 losophy and  literature  at  the  Remonstrants 
 College  at  Amsterdam.  He  was  subse- 
 quently appointed  philosophical  professor 
 at  the  institution  called  the  Illustrious 
 Athenaeum,  in  the  same  city  ;  and,  in  1799, 
 he  succeeded  Ruhnken  at  Leyden.  He 
 died  in  1S20.  Among  his  productions  are, 
 an  edition  of  the  moral  works  of  Plutarch; 
 Precepta  Philosophise  Logicae ;  and  Epis- 
 tola  Critica. 
 
 XAVIER,  St.  Francis,  denominated 
 the  Apostle  of  the  Indies,  was  born,  in 
 1506,  at  the  castle  of  Xavier,  in  Navarre  ; 
 studied  at  Paris ;  became  one  of  the  first 
 and  most  zealous  disciples  of  Ignatius 
 Loyola  ;  was  sent  to  the  East  by  John  III. 
 of  Portugal,  to  propagate  the  gospel ;  per- 
 formed his  mission  in  Hindostan,  the  Mo- 
 luccas, and  Japan ;  and  was  on  the  point 
 of  landing  in  China,  when  he  died,  in 
 1552. 
 
 XENOCRATES,  a  Greek  philosopher, 
 was  born,  b.  c.  406,  at  Chalcedon ;  was  a 
 disciple  of  Plato ;  succeeded  Speusippus 
 in  the  Platonic  school;  and  died  about  b. 
 c.  314.  Such  was  his  command  over  his 
 passions,  that  the  beautiful  Phyrne  in  vain 
 endeavoured  to  rouse  them,  though  she  had 
 confidently  wagered  upon  her  success.  His 
 works  are  lost,  with  the  exception  of  a 
 Treatise  on  Death. 
 
 XENOPHANES,  a  Greek  philosopher, 
 was  born  in  the  seventh  century  b.  c.  at 
 Colophon,  in  Asia  Minor ;  settled  at  Elea 
 in  his  eightieth  year  ;  and  died  there  at  the 
 age  of  more  than  a  hundred.  He  founded 
 the  Eleatic  sect,  and  his  doctrines  were 
 delivered  in  verse. 
 
 XENOPHON,  a  celebrated  philosopher, 
 historian,  and  general,  a  native  of  Athens, 
 was  born  about  b.  c.  445,  and  was  a  dis- 
 ciple of  Socrates.  After  having  borne 
 arms  at  the  battle  of  Delium,  and  in  the 
 Peloponnesian  war,  he  became  one  of  the 
 body  of  Greek  auxiliaries,  who  fought  on 
 the  side  of  the  younger  Cyrus  against  Ar- 
 taxerxes.  When  the  Grecian  leaders  were 
 treacherously  slain,  after  the  battle  of  Cu- 
 naxa,  the  arduous  task  of  conducting  the 
 retreat  was  intrusted  to  Xenophon,  and  he 
 performed  it  with  consummate  skill.  Sub- 
 sequently he  served  under  the  banners  of 
 Thrace  and  of  Lacedaemon.  He  died  at 
 Corinth  b.  c.  360.  Of  his  works,  the 
 style  of  which  is  admirable  for  sweetness, 
 purity,  and  perspicuity,  the  principal  are, 
 the  Anabasis  ;  the  Cyropaedia  ;  and  Hel- 
 lenics, or  Grecian  Historv. 
 
 XIMENES  DE  CISNEROS,  Cardi. 
 nal  Francis,  an  eminent  Spanish  states- 
 man, was  born,  in  1437,  at  Torrelaguna, 
 in  Old  Castile,  and  was  educated  at  Alcala 
 and  Salamanca.  After  having  filled  vari- 
 ous benefices,  he  became  a  monk  of  the 
 Franciscan  order,  and  obtained  great  repu- 
 tation as  a  preacher.     In  his  fifty-sixth 
 
VOR 
 
 year,  Queen  Isabella  made  him  her  con- 
 lessor,  and,  two  years  afterwards,  he  was 
 raised  to  the  archbishopric  of  Toledo.  It 
 was  not,  however,  till  he  received  the  ex- 
 press injunction  of  the  pope  that  he  would 
 accept  the  archiepiscopal  dignity,  and  he 
 continued  to  preserve  the  austere  habits  of 
 a  Franciscan.  He  subsequently  became 
 prime  minister,  and  a  cardinal,  and  Ferdi- 
 nand, on  his  deathbed,  appointed  him  re- 
 gent till  the  arrival  of  Charles  V.  He 
 died  in  1517.  Few  ministers  have  gov- 
 erned with  as  much  ability  and  firmness  as 
 
 YOU 
 
 523 
 
 Ximenes.  He  was  also  the  patron  of 
 learning ;  founded  various  academical  and 
 other  establishments ;  and  employed  the 
 most  erudite  men  of  all  countries  to  edit 
 the  famous'Complutensian  Polyglott  Bible. 
 XYLANDER,  William,  a  learned  cri- 
 tic, whose  real  name  was  Holtzemann, 
 was  born,  in  1532,  at  Augsburgh;  display- 
 ed a  profound  knowledge  of  the  classics  at 
 an  early  age ;  was  chosen  Greek  professor 
 at  Heidelberg,  in  1558  ;  and  died  in  1576. 
 He  translated  and  edited  various  Greek 
 and  Latin  authors. 
 
 YALDEN,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  poet, 
 was  born,  in  1671,  at  Exeter;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford ;  ob- 
 tained, successively,  the  livings  of  Wil- 
 loughby,  Chalton,  and  Clanfield,  and  the 
 preachership  of  Bridewell  Hospital ;  was 
 implicated  with  Bishop  Atterbury,  but  was 
 soon  released;  and  died  in  1736.  His 
 poems  have  been  admitted  into  the  collect- 
 ed works  of  the  British  poets. 
 
 YEARSLEY,  Anne,  a  writer  of  poems, 
 novels,  and  dramas,  was  born,  about  1756, 
 at  Bristol,  and  was  originally  a  milk- 
 woman.  Some  of  her  verses  obtained  for 
 her  the  patronage  of  Miss  Hannah  More, 
 under  whose  auspices  a  volume  of  her  pro- 
 ductions was  published  by  subscription,  in 
 1785.  The  profits  enabled  her  to  open 
 a  circulating  library  at  the  Hot  Wells. 
 She  died  in  1806.  Among  her  works  are, 
 Poems ;  Earl  Godwyn,  a  tragedy ;  and 
 The  Royal  Captives,  a  Romance. 
 
 YERMAK,  a  Cossack  chief,  who  was 
 born  on  the  banks  of  the  Don,  in  the  last 
 half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  With  only 
 six  thousand  men  he  conquered  Siberia. 
 The  subjugated  territory  he  transferred  to 
 the  czar  of  Muscovy,  who  loaded  him  with 
 honours  and  presents.  He  was  drowned 
 in  1583. 
 
 YORK,  Frederick,  duke  of,  second 
 son  of  George  III.,  was  born,  in  1763,  at 
 Buckingham  House,  Westminster.  In  1784 
 he  received  the  title  which  he  bore  till  the 
 end  of  his  life,  and  in  1787  he  took  his  seat 
 in  the  upper  house.  He  narrowly  escaped 
 death,  in  1789,  in  a  duel  with  Colonel 
 Lenox.  In  1791  he  married  the  eldest 
 daughter  of  the  king  of  Prussia.  He  was 
 placed  at  the  head  of  the  British  army  in 
 Flanders  in  1793,  and,  after  alternate  suc- 
 cess, was  expelled  from  that  country  by 
 the  French.  Nor  was  he  more  fortunate, 
 in  1799,  when  he  was  employed  in  Hol- 
 land; he  being  under  the  necessity  of  sign- 
 ing a  disadvantageous  convention.  His 
 office  of  commander  in  chief,  to  which 
 
 he  was  appointed  in  1795,  he  resigned  in 
 1809,  in  consequence  of  the  charges  which 
 were  brought  against  him  by  Colonel 
 Wardle.  He  was,  however,  reinstated  by 
 the  prince  regent,  and  held  it  till  his  de- 
 cease, on  the  5th  of  January,  1827.  It  is 
 but  justice  to  say  that  he  administered  it 
 in  a  manner  which  was  highly  beneficial  to 
 the  armv. 
 YORKE.     See  Hardwicke. 
 
 YOUNG,  Edward,  a  poet  and  miscel- 
 laneous writer,  was  born,  in  1681,  or, 
 according  to  some,  in  1679,  at  Upham,  in 
 Hants,  and  was  educated  at  Winchester 
 school,  and  at  New  College,  Oxford.  He 
 was  designed  for  the  law,  and  took  his 
 degree  of  doctor,  but  he  at  length  chose 
 the  clerical  profession,  and,  in  1728,  was 
 ordained,  and  appointed  chaplain  to  the 
 king.  His  poetical  reputation  he  had 
 already  established  by  the  poems  of  The 
 Last  Day,  The  Force  of  Religion,  and  The 
 Love  of  Fame ;  and  the  tragedies  of  The 
 Revenge,  and  Busiris.  In  1730  he  ob- 
 tained the  living  of  Welwyn,  and  though 
 for  several  years  he  (to  use  his  own  words) 
 "  besieged  court  favour,"  he  received  no 
 further  church  promotion.  His  Night 
 Thoughts    are    supposed    to    have     been 
 
 Krompted  by  the  death  of  his  wife,  whom 
 e  lost  in  1741.     He  died  in  1765.     His 
 poetical  and  prose  works  form  four  vols. 
 
324 
 
 ZAC 
 
 YOUNG,  Arthur,  an  eminent  agri- 
 cultural writer,  was  born,  in  1741,  at  Brad- 
 field,  in  Suffolk.  He  was  apprenticed  to 
 a  wine  merchant,  at  Lynn,  in  Norfolk;  but 
 
 Juitted  that  business  to  engage  in  farming, 
 n  furtherance  of  his  wish  to  improve  the 
 husbandry  of  his  country,  he  not  only 
 made  innumerable  experiments  on  his  own 
 land,  but  also  travelled  over  the  greatest 
 part  of  the  British  islands,  and  in  France, 
 Spain,  and  Italy.  In  1770  he  published 
 his  Farmer's  Calendar,  which  became  a 
 popular  work ;  and  in  1774  he  established 
 The  Annals  of  Agriculture.  On  the  estab- 
 lishment of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  he 
 was  appointed  secretary,  an  office  which 
 he  held  till  his  decease  in  1820.  Among 
 his  principal  works,  besides  those  already 
 mentioned,  are  his  Tours  in  England,  Ire- 
 land, and  France. 
 
 YOUNG,  Matthew,  a  mathematician 
 and  divine,  was  born,  in  1750,  in  the  coun- 
 ty of  Roscommon ;  was  educated  at  Trini- 
 ty College,  Dublin,  at  which,  in  1786,  he 
 became  professor  of  philosophy  ;  was  rais- 
 ed to  the  see  of  Clonfert  by  Marquis 
 Cornwallis ;  and  died  in  1S00.  He  wrote 
 An  Essay  on  Sounds ;  An  Analysis  of  the 
 Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy;  and 
 The  Method  of  prime  and  ultimate  Ra- 
 tios. 
 
 YOUNG,  Sir  William,  a  miscellane- 
 ous writer,  was  horn,  in  1750,  at  Charlton 
 House,  near  Canterbury  ;  was  educated  at 
 Eton,  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  Uni- 
 versity College,  Oxford ;  was  M.  P.  for  St. 
 Mawes,  in  1783,  and  F.  R.  S.  in  1786; 
 and  died,  in  1815,  governor  of  Tobago. 
 His  principal  works  are,  The  History  of 
 Athens;  and  The  West  India  Common 
 Place  Book. 
 
 YOUNG,  Thomas,  an  eminent  philos- 
 opher and  physician,  a  nephew  of  Dr. 
 Brocklesby,  was  born  in  1774;  was  edu- 
 
 ZAC 
 
 cated  at  Gottingen  and  Edinburgh ;  was 
 physician  to  St.  George's  Hospital,  and 
 foreign  secretary  of  the  Royal  Society ; 
 and  died  May  10,  1829.  Besides  contri- 
 buting a  great  number  of  valuable  papers 
 to  the  Supplement  to  the  Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica,  and  to  many  scientific  periodi- 
 cals, he  wrote  several  works,  of  which  the 
 chief  are,  A  Course  of  Lectures  on  Natural 
 Philosophy ;  An  Introduction  to  Medical 
 Literature ;  A  Practical  and  Historical 
 Treatise  on  Consumptive  Disease ;  and 
 Elementary  Illustration  of  the  Celestial 
 Mechanics  of  La  Place.  To  Dr.  Young 
 belongs  the  merit,  which  has  been  claimed 
 for  M.  Champollion,  of  having  discovered 
 the  means  of  deciphering  the  Egyptian 
 hieroglyphics. 
 
 YPSILANTI,  Prince  Alexander,  son 
 of  Demetrius,  hospodar  of  Wallachia  in 
 1802,  accompanied  nis  father  when  he  took 
 refuge  in  Russia.  He  entered  into  the 
 Russian  army,  attained  the  rank  of  major- 
 general,  and  was  made  aid-de-camp  to 
 the  emperor.  When  the  Greek  revolution 
 broke  out  he  was  chosen  to  hoist  the  stand- 
 ard of  freedom  in  Wallachia  and  Moldavia. 
 He  was,  however,  routed  by  the  Turks, 
 and  was  forced  to  fly  into  Austria,  where 
 he  was  long  held  captive  in  the  fortress 
 of  Mongatz.  He  died  at  Vienna  in  1821. 
 Ypsilanti  possessed  courage  and  military 
 knowledge,  but  his  almost  insane  pride 
 wholly  unfitted  him  for  being  the  leader 
 of  an  insurrection. 
 
 YRIARTE,  Don  Thomas  de,  an  emi- 
 nent Spanish  poet,  wras  born,  about  1750, 
 at  Teneriffe  ;  studied  at  Madrid  ;  held  office 
 under  government,  and  was  made  editor 
 of  the  Madrid  Mercury;  and  died  in  1791. 
 Of  his  works,  which  form  eight  volumes,  the 
 
 Erincipal  are,  Comedies ;  Music,  a  poem ; 
 ■iterary  Fables ;  Moral  Epistles ;  and  Mis- 
 cellanies. 
 
 ZABAGLIA,  Nicholas,  an  architect, 
 was  born,  in  1674,  at  Rome,  and  died  there 
 in  1750.  His  first  occupation  was  that  of 
 a  carpenter  at  the  Vatican  ;  but  the  various 
 masterly  mechanical  engines  which  he  in- 
 vented, and  the  abilities  which  he  display- 
 ed, caused  him  to  be  appointed  architect 
 of  St.  Peter's.  Zabaglia  is  the  inventor 
 of  the  method  by  which  fresco  paintings 
 are  transferred  from  the  plaster  on  which 
 they  were  originally  executed. 
 
 ZACCARIA,  Francis  Anthony,  a 
 Jesuit,  was  born,  in  1714,  at  Venice  ;  suc- 
 ceeded Muratori  as  librarian  at  Modena; 
 retired  to  Rome  after  the  dissolution  of 
 his  order;  and  died  there,  in   1795,  pro- 
 
 fessor of  ecclesiastical  history  at  the  Sapi- 
 enza  College.  Of  his  one  hundred  and  six 
 printed  works,  the  most  important  are, 
 Literary  History  of  Italy,  sixteen  vols.; 
 Literary  Annals  of  Italy ;  Anecdotes  of  the 
 Middle  Age ;  and  Numismatic  Institutions. 
 ZACHARIA,  Justus  Frederic  Wil- 
 liam, a  German  poet,  was  born,  in  1726, 
 at  Frankenhausen,  in  Thuringia;  was  edu- 
 cated at  Leipsic  ;  was  appointed  professor 
 of  poetry  in  the  Caroline  College  at  Bruns- 
 wick ;  and  died  in  1777.  His  poems,  among 
 the  best  of  which  are,  Phaeton,  the  Four 
 Parts  of  the  Day,  and  Woman  in  the  Four 
 Stages  of  her  Life,  form  nine  volum« 
 octavo. 
 
ZEN 
 
 ZAIONCZEK,  Joseph,  a  Polish  gen- 
 eral, of  a  noble  but  poor  family,  was  born, 
 in  1752,  at  Kaminieck,  and  entered  the 
 military  service  at  an  early  period.  In 
 the  diets  from  1783  to  1792,  he  espoused 
 the  cause  of  freedom,  and  for  that  cause 
 he  fought  bravely  in  1792  and  1794.  It 
 was  he  who  commanded  at  Praga  when 
 that  unfortunate  suburb  of  Warsaw  was 
 carried  by  assault,  and  on  that  occasion 
 he  is  said  to  have  displayed  more  bravery 
 than  military  skill.  Severely  wounded,  he 
 sought  an  asylum  in  Moravia,  and  was 
 sent  prisoner  to  the  fortress  of  Josephstadt, 
 where  he  remained  till  after  the  death  of 
 Catherine  of  Russia.  On  his  being  libera- 
 ted he  entered  into  the  service  of  France, 
 and  fought  under  her  banners,  from  1797 
 till  1812,  in  Italy,  Egypt,  Prussia,  Poland, 
 and  Russia.  When  the  congress  of  Vienna 
 assigned  Poland  to  the  Russian  emperor, 
 that  monarch  conferred  on  the  Polish  gen- 
 eral the  title  of  prince  and  the  office  of 
 viceroy.  These  favours  were  fatal  to  the 
 glory  of  Zaionczelc.  He  forgot  all  his 
 patriotism,  became  the  devoted  slave  of 
 Russia,  and  died  universally  hated  by  his 
 fellow  citizens,  July  23,  1826. 
 
 ZARCO,  John  Gonzales,  a  Portuguese 
 navigator  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He 
 discovered,  in  1417  and  1419,  the  islands 
 of  Porto  Santo  and  Madeira.  In  1421  he 
 was  made  governor  of  a  part  of  the  latter 
 island,  and  founded  Funchal.  Zarco  is 
 said  to  have  introduced  the  use  of  artillery 
 in  ships. 
 
 ZENDRINI,  Bernard,  an  eminent 
 Italian  mathematician,  but  especially  cele- 
 brated for  his  skill  in  hydraulics,  was  born, 
 in  1679,  at  Saviore ;  studied  at  Padua; 
 and  settled  at  Venice  as  a  physician.     His 
 
 Krofound  knowledge  of  the  subject  caused 
 im  to  be  appointed  chief  hydraulic  engi- 
 neer at  Ferrara,  and  the  same  office,  with 
 the  superintendence  of  all  the  waters, 
 rivers,  and  ports,  was  afterwards  conferred 
 on  him  by  the  Venetian  republic.  He 
 was  also  employed  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
 ment and  the  republic  of  Lucca.  Many 
 works  of  great  importance  were  executed 
 by  him.     He  died  in  1747. 
 
 ZENO,  of  Elea,  a  philosopher,  was 
 born,  about  b.  c.  463,  at  Elea,  in  Magna 
 Grascia,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Parmenides. 
 The  invention  of  dialectics  is  ascribed  to 
 him.  His  native  city  having  fallen  under 
 the  dominion  of  a  despot,  he  endeavoured 
 to  deliver  it,  but  failed  ;  and,  being  put  to 
 the  torture,  he  is  said  to  have  bitten  off 
 his  tongue,  and  spit  ii  into  the  face  of  the 
 tyrant. 
 
 ZENO,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the 
 Stoics,  was  born  about  b.  c.  362,  at  Citium, 
 in  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  and  quitted  mercan- 
 tile pursuits  to  become  a  philosopher.  After 
 having   received    the   lessons  of   Crates, 
 
 ZIM 
 
 525 
 
 Stilpo,  Xenocrates,  and  Polemon,  he  him- 
 self opened  a  school  of  philosophy  in  the 
 Stoa,  or  painted  portico,  whence  his  fol- 
 lowers were  called  Stoics.  He  taught  for 
 nearly  fifty  years ;  was  highly  respected  by 
 the  Athenians ;  and  died  b.  c.  264. 
 
 ZENO,  Nicholas  and  Anthony,  two 
 brothers,  natives  of  Venice,  who,  about 
 1388,  are  believed  to  have  discovered  the 
 Feroe  islands,  Greenland,  and  Newfound- 
 land. Their  voyages  were  first  published, 
 in  1558,  by  Mercohni. 
 
 ZENO,  Apostolo,  an  eminent  Italian 
 writer,  was  born,  in  1668,  at  Venice.  In 
 1691  he  founded  the  academy  "  degli 
 Animosi,"  and  in  1710  he  began  The 
 Literary  Journal,  of  which  the  first  twenty 
 volumes  are  from  his  pen ;  the  remainder 
 being  the  composition  of  his  brother. 
 Having  obtained  reputation  by  his  dra- 
 matic compositions,  Charles  VI.,  in  1718, 
 invited  him  to  Vienna,  and  appointed  him 
 his  historiographer  and  laureat.  Zeno  re- 
 sided for  eleven  years  at  the  imperial 
 court,  and  produced  nearly  forty  pieces. 
 He  returned  to  his  own  country  in  1731, 
 and  died  in  1750.  His  theatrical  compo- 
 sitions form  ten  volumes;  and  his  Letters, 
 and  other  prose  compositions,  nearly 
 twenty. 
 
 ZENOBIA,  Septima,  queen  of  Pal- 
 myra. She  was  descended  from  the  Pto- 
 lemys,  and  her  mind  was  cultivated  by 
 the  lessons  of  Longinus.  After  the  death 
 of  Odenatus,  in  whose  labours  of  war  and 
 government  she  had  participated,  she  as 
 sumed  the  title  of  Q,ueen  of  the  Eas*. 
 pushed  her  conquests  in  various  directions 
 and  rendered  Palmyra  one  of  the  most 
 splendid  of  oriental  cities.  Aurelian  made 
 war  against  her,  and,  after  having  gained 
 two  battles,  laid  siege  to  Palmyra.  She 
 was  taken  while  attempting  to  escape ; 
 was  carried  to  Rome  to  grace  his  triumph ; 
 and  died  there,  in  private  life,  about  a.  d. 
 300. 
 
 ZEUXIS,  a  celebrated  painter  of  antiq- 
 uity, is  believed  to  have  been  born  about 
 b.  c.  497,  and  to  have  died  about  b.  c. 
 400.  He  was  a  native  of  Heraclea,  but 
 of  which  of  the  cities  bearing  that  name 
 is  not  known,  though  it  is  supposed  to 
 be  the  Heraclea  of  Magna  Gracia.  He 
 brought  to  perfection  the  management  of 
 light  and  shade.  Of  his  own  merit  he 
 had  a  sufficiently  lofty  idea ;  for,  having 
 become  rich,  he  gave  away  his  pictures, 
 on  the  ground  that  no  price  was  equal  to 
 their  worth. 
 
 ZIMMERMAN,  John  George,  a 
 physician  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was 
 born,  in  1723,  at  Brugg,  in  the  canton  of 
 Berne ;  studied  medicine  under  Haller  in 
 Gottingen ;  practised  for  some  years  at 
 his  native  place;  was  appointed,  in  1768, 
 chief  physician  to  the  king  of  England  at 
 
526 
 
 ZOE 
 
 Hanover  ;  attended  Frederic  of  Prussia  on 
 his  death  bed ;  was  a  violent  literary  op- 
 
 ponent of  the  Illuminati  and  the  French 
 revolutionists  ;  and  died,  in  1795,  a  victim 
 to  hypochondriac  disease.  Among  his 
 works  are,  A  Treatise  on  Solitude  (once 
 highly  popular) ;  An  Essay  on  National 
 Pride  ;  and  A  Treatise  on  the  Experience 
 of  Medicine. 
 
 ZINCKE,  Christian  Frederic,  a 
 German  painter,  was  born,  about  1684,  at 
 Dresden ;  studied  under  Boit ;  settled  in 
 England  in  his  twenty-second  year;  be- 
 came justly  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  his 
 enamel  portraits  ;  and  died  in  1767. 
 
 ZINZENDORF,  Nicholas  Louis, 
 Count,  the  restorer  of  the  Moravian  sect, 
 was  born,  in  1700,  at  Dresden;  was  a  son 
 of  the  elector  of  Saxony's  chamberlain ; 
 and  studied  at  Halle  and  Wittenberg.  He 
 early  manifested  an  enthusiastic  turn  of 
 mind  with  respect  to  religious  concerns. 
 In  1721,  having  given  an  asylum  on  his 
 estate  to  some  of  the  persecuted  Moravian 
 brethren,  he  espoused  their  doctrines,  and 
 became  the  head  of  their  church.  To 
 spread  those  doctrines,  and  procure  tole- 
 ration for  the  professors  of  them,  he  tra- 
 velled over  a  large  part  of  Europe,  visited 
 England,  and  even  made  two  voyages  to 
 America.  He  died  in  1760.  The  Mora- 
 vians, and  their  head,  were  long  the  subject 
 of  many  gross  calumnies,  from  which,  how- 
 ever, their  meritorious  conduct  has  amply 
 vindicated  them. 
 
 ZISCA,  John,  a  celebrated  Bohemian 
 warrior,  Avas  born  about  1380,  of  a  noble 
 family.  His  real  name  was  TROCH- 
 ZNOW,  but  he  received  the  appellation 
 of  Zisca,  or  one-eved,  after  having  lost  an 
 eye  in  battle.  When  the  Hussites  rose  in 
 arms,  to  oppose  the  succession  of  Sigis- 
 mund  to  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  they  placed 
 Zisca  at  their  head,  and  he  justified  their 
 choice  by  numerous  victories  over  the  ene- 
 my. Though  he  lost  his  other  eye  during 
 the  contest,  he  compelled  Sigismund  to 
 submit  to  humiliating  terms  of  peace.  He 
 died  in  1424. 
 
 ZOEGA,  George,  an  eminent  Danish 
 archaeologist,  was  horn,  in  1755,  at  Dahlerj 
 
 ZUR 
 
 in  Jutland ;  was  educated  at  Altona  and 
 Gottingen;  resided  for  many  years  at 
 Rome,  as  consul  for  Denmark,  and  was 
 much  esteemed  by  Pius  VI. ;  anJ  died  in 
 1809.  Among  his  works  are,  a  treatise 
 de  Origine  et  Usu  Obeliscorum ;  Numi 
 iEgyptii ;  and  the  Ancient  Basso  Relievos 
 of  Rome. 
 
 ZOLLIKOFFER,  George  Joachim,  a 
 Swiss  divine,  was  born,  in  1730,  at  Saint 
 Gall ;  was  educated  at  "Bremen  and  Utrecht ; 
 was,  successively,  a  minister  in  the  Pays 
 de  Vaud,  the  Grisons,  and  at  Leipsic ;  and 
 died  in  1798.  Of  his  Sermons,  which  form 
 fifteen  volumes,  a  part  have  been  translated 
 into  English. 
 
 ZOROASTER,  an  ancient  philosopher, 
 of  whose  history  little  or  nothing  that  is 
 authentic  is  known.  There  are  supposed 
 to  have  been  several  of  the  name.  The 
 most  celebrated,  however,  the  Zerdusht  of 
 the  Persians,  is  believed  to  have  been  the 
 reformer  of  the  Magian  system  of  religion, 
 and  the  author  of  the  Zendavesta,  which 
 contains  the  doctrines  that  he  taught.  Irre- 
 concileable  differences  exist  among  the 
 learned  as  to  the  time  in  which  he  flou- 
 rished. Volney  fixes  his  birth  b.  c.  1250. 
 ZOUCH,  Richard,  a  distinguished  ci- 
 vilian, was  born,  about  1590,  at  Anstey, 
 in  Wiltshire  ;  was  educated  at  Winchester 
 school,  and  at  New  College,  Oxford  ;  be- 
 came regius  professor  of  law  at  Oxford, 
 principal  of  St.  Alban's  Hall,  warden  of 
 the  cinque  ports,  and  judge  of  the  admi- 
 ralty; and  died  in  1660.  His  numerous 
 works  in  civil,  military,  and  maritime 
 jurisprudence,  all  of  them  in  Latin,  are 
 still  esteemed. 
 
 ZOUCH,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  bio- 
 grapher, was  born,  in  1737,  at  Sandal,  in 
 Yorkshire ;  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
 lege, Cambridge  ;  and  died  in  1806,  rector 
 of  Scrayingham,  and  prebendary  of  Dur- 
 ham. Late  in  life  the  bishopric  of  Carlisle 
 was  offered  to  him,  but  he  refused  it. 
 Among  his  works  are,  Memoirs  of  Sir  P. 
 Sidney, — of  Dean  Sudbury, — and  of  Sir 
 George  Wheler ;  An  Inquiry  into  the  pro- 
 phetic Character  of  the  Romans  ;  and  The 
 Crucifixion,  a  Seatonian  prize  poem. 
 
 ZUMBO,  Gaetano  Julius,  a  celebra- 
 ted modeller  in  wax,  was  born,  in  1656, 
 at  Syracuse,  in  Sicily ;  and  died  at  Paris 
 in  1701.  For  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany 
 he  executed,  in  coloured  wax,  several  admi- 
 rable works.  The  most  celebrated  of  these 
 bears  the  name  of  the  Putrefaction.  It 
 exhibits  five  figures — a  dying  person,  a 
 dead  body,  a  corpse  in  a  state  of  incipient 
 corruption,  one  half  corrupted,  and  another 
 in  the  last  stage  of  corruption  and  a  prey 
 to  worms.  His  masterpieces,  a  Nativity 
 and  a  Descent  from  the  Cross,  are  at  Genoa. 
 ZURITA,  Jerom,  a  Spanish  historian, 
 was  born  in  1512,  at  Saragossa,  and,  aftc* 
 
ZWI 
 
 having  been  employed  in  various  offices  at 
 home,  and  on  a  mission  to  Germany,  was 
 appointed  historiographer  of  Arragon.  He 
 died  in  15S1 .  His  greatest  work  is  Annals 
 of  the  Crown  of  Arragon,  in  seven  folio 
 volumes. 
 
 ZURLAUBEN,  Beat  Fidele  An- 
 thony John  Dominic,  Baron  de  LA 
 TOUR  CHATILLON  de,  a  Swiss  writer 
 and  officer,  was  born,  in  1720,  at  Zug;  stu- 
 died at  the  college  of  four  nations  at  Paris ; 
 distinguished  himself  in  various  sieges  and 
 battles ;  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
 general ;  spent  his  latter  years  in  literary 
 retirement ;  and  died  in  1795.  Among  his 
 works  are,  A  Military  History  of  the 
 Swiss  in  the  French  Service ;  A  History 
 of  the  Swiss  and  their  Allies ;  and  A 
 Picturesque  Tour  in  the  Thirteen  Can- 
 tons. 
 
 ZWINGLI,  or  ZUINGLIUS,  Ulric, 
 one  of  the  most  enlightened  and  tolerant 
 of  the  protestant  reformers,  was  born,  in 
 1484,  at  Wildhaus,  in  Switzerland,  and 
 was  educated  at  Basil,  Berne,  and  Vienna. 
 On  his  return  to  Basil,  he  was  appointed 
 
 ZWI 
 
 527 
 
 a  classical  teacher  when  he  was  only  eigh- 
 teen. In  1506  he  took  the  degree  of  M.  A., 
 and  was  chosen  minister  of  Claris.  In 
 1512  and  1515  he  accompanied  the  aux- 
 iliary Swiss  troops  to  Italy,  and  was  pre- 
 sent at  the  disastrous  battle  of  Marignan  ; 
 a  circumstance  which  inspired  or  increased 
 his  alihorrence  of  all  war  except  that  which 
 is  undertaken  for  the  defence  of  our  native 
 land.  In  1516  he  was  made  preacher  at 
 Einsidieln,  and  it  was  at  that  period  that 
 he  entered  upon  the  career  of  ecclesiastical 
 reformation.  In  1518  he  became  rectoi 
 of  Zurich.  Steadily  but  prudently  he  pur 
 sued  his  course  of  reform,  and,  "in  1524, 
 had  the  gratification  of  seeing  his  doctrines 
 adopted  by  the  great  council  of  Zurich. 
 His  influence  among  the  Swiss  protestant? 
 continued  to  be  powerful  during  the  re 
 mainderof  his  life.  In  1531,  war  having 
 broken  out  between  the  catholic  and  pro- 
 testant cantons,  Zuinglius  was  ordered  by 
 the  senate  to  accompany  the  troops,  and 
 was  unfortunately  slain  in  the  skirmish  at 
 Cappel.  His  theological  works  form  four 
 volumes  folio. 
 
 THE  END.